Revista Amfiteatru Economic Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti

Facultatea de Comer Anul X Iulie 2008 Nr. 24 Apari ie semestrial

Revista Amfiteatru Economic este clasificat i recunoscut de ctre Consiliul Na ional al Cercetrii tiin ifice din nv mntul Superior n categoria B+ Codul CNCSIS 283

Tematica viitoarelor dou numere: Revista nr. 25 Profesii i ocupa ii n domeniul comercial Revista nr. 26 Managementul calit ii n servicii

Revista este indexat n baze de date interna ionale Journal of Economic Literature (EconLit) http://www.econlit.org/journal_list.html International Bibliography of the Social Sciences (IBSS) http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/IBSS/about/alphabeticalJournals.htm Research Papers in Economics (RePEc) http://ideas.repec.org/s/aes/amfeco.html

ISSN 1582-9146

www.amfiteatrueconomic.ase.ro

Colegiul de redac ie
Redactor-ef: Vasile DINU Redactor-ef adjunct: Puiu NISTOREANU Secretar general de redac ie: Ion STANCIU Redactori: Rodica PAMFILIE, Gabriela STNCIULESCU, Adriana PIETRREANU, Lauren iu TCHICIU, Bogdan ONETE, Clin VLSAN, Dan-Lauren iu ANGHEL, Sorin-George TOMA, Alexandru NEDELEA, Cristinel VASILIU, Mdlina ALM.

Consiliul tiin ific

Prof. univ. dr. Ion Gh. Roca Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest Prof. univ. dr. Viorel Lefter Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest Prof. univ. dr. Ion Stancu Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest Professor Ph.D. Daniel A. Glaser-Segura Our Lady of the Lake University, San-Antonio, Texas Associate Director Ph.D. Kravtsiv, Vasyl Stepanovych Institute for Regional Research of the Schience Academy of Ukraine, Lviv Associate Professor Ph.D. Aaron Ahuvia University of Michigan-Dearborn Professor Ph.D. Abraham Pizam Rosen School of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida Assistant Professor Ph.D Daniel Stavarek Silesian University, School of Business Administration, Karvina Ph.D. Yankov (Nicolov) Nicola Tsenov Academy of Economics, Svishtov Professor Ph.D. Carlos Costa Universidade de Aveiro Associate Professor Ph.D. erovi Slobodan Faculty of Natural Sciences, Belgrad Suceava

Associate Professor Ph.D. Peev Gueorgui New Bulgarian University, Sofia Chief Assist Professor Ph.D. Vanya Banabakova National Military University, Veliko Turnovo Ph.D. Tatjana Petrovska Mircevska University St. Cyril and Methodius, Skopje Teaching Assistant Maja Djucik Faculty of Economics, Belgrad Prof. univ. dr. Aurel Burciu Universitytefan cel Mare, Suceava Lecturer Dr. George P. Babu University of Southern Mississippi, USA Lecturer Ph.D. Olga Blinkova Karazin Kharkiv National University, Kharkiv Professor Ph.D. Jonathan R. Edwards Bournemouth University, Poole Conf. univ. dr. Vasile Dinu Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest Conf. univ. dr. Puiu Nistoreanu Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest Prof. univ. dr. Traian Surcel Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest Prof. univ. dr. Rodica Milena Zaharia Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest Conf. univ. dr. Valentin Hapenciuc University tefan cel Mare,

Comisia de referen i interni

Ph.D. Renata TOMLJENOVIC, Institute for Tourism, Zagreb Ph.D. Cerovic SLOBODAN, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Novi Sad Ph.D. Nela POPESCU, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest Ph.D. Ion SCHILERU, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest Ph.D. George BABU, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry Ph.D. Dimitar EFTIMOVSKI, University St. Klimet Ohridski, Bitola Ph.D. Nicolae LUPU, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest Ph.D. Adriana CORFU, Instituto Politecnico de Viana do Castelo, Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestao, Aveiro

Editura
Editura ASE Pia a Roman, nr. 6, sector 1, Bucureti, Romnia cod 010374 Telefon: 021/211.26.50/146 E-mail: editura@net.ase.ro www.ase.ro

Revizie text i tehnoredactare

Liliana MATEI redactor ef, Editura ASE Violeta ROGOJAN Editura ASE

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CUPRINS
5 Logistica mrfurilor The logistics of merchandise Redactor-ef: Conf. univ. dr. Dinu Vasile

I. THE LOGISTICS OF MERCHANDISE 9 Distribution in Romania at the shelf supremacys moment of truth: competition and cooperation Prof. univ. dr. Theodor Valentin Purcrea, Conf. univ. dr. Anca Purcrea 26 The effects of the lack of coordination within the supply chain Prof. univ. dr. Carmen Blan Accumulations and development in commercial logistics Prof. univ. dr. Ion Schileru Analysis and competitiveness in logistics Prof. univ. dr. Eduard Dinu, Asist. univ. drd. Cristina Curea The logistics of information flow in managing the quality of food products Conf. univ. dr. Roxana Procopie, Lect. univ. dr. Magdalena Bobe The ERP capabilities for enhancing the logistic system integration Prof. univ. dr. Traian Surcel, Prof. univ. dr. Razvan Bologa Warehousing activity which contribute to supply chain performance Lect. univ. dr. Cristinel Vasiliu The role of inventory in the supply chain Lect. univ. dr. Mihai Felea Logistics and Supply Chain Management in Tourism Conf. univ. dr. Silvia Muhcin, Conf. univ. dr. Veronica Popovici Distribution- the synergetic process in establishing the value Conf. univ. dr. Monica Aureliana Petcu, Conf. univ. dr. Iulia David Sobolevschi An analysis of explanatory factors of logistics performance of a country Conf. univ. dr. Basarab Gogonea Actualities in logistics and transport Conf. univ. dr. Simona Dordea, Conf. univ. dr. Liliana Nicodim A LSCM approach to the romanian pharmaceuticals market Lect. dr. Mihaela Cornelia Prejmerean, Asist. drd. Simona Vasilache The particularities of logistics related to e-commerce Asist. univ. drd. Irina (Albstroiu) Mrun elu The importance of reverse logistics for retail activity Prep. univ. drd. Mihaela Moise The growth of freight transport role implications to logistical framework Prep. univ. drd. Tatiana-Roxana Nae The performance of the supply chain: Strategical harmonization Lect. univ. dr. Oana eitan

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236 Information system for the supply chain management Drd. Delia Adriana Mrinca

II. Economic Interferences 257 Reservation prices and pre-auction estimates: a study in abstract art Calin Valsan, Robert Sproule How does sector concentration evolve at country and region levels? The european case Lecturer Ph. D. CRIEF Cornel Oros, Lecturer Ph.D. ISEMEESCEM Researcher, CRIEF, Camelia Romocea Turcu Specifics of Chinese business negotiation practices Jitka Odehnalov, Master of Economics

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III. Amfiteatru Economic v recomand BUNE PRACTICI 299 Benefits of academic integrity and mentorship Lect. univ. dr. Nela Popescu NEVOIA DE PERSONALIT I 305 Omul care a format profesioniti, dar i caractere: prof. univ. dr. Nicolae Sut Prof. univ. dr. Dumitru Miron RECENZIE DE CARTE 311 Principles of Hotel Front Office Operations Conf. univ. dr. Nicolae Lupu, Prep. univ. Andreea Marin-Pantelescu

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The logistics of merchandise

I. THE LOGISTICS OF MERCHANDISE (Logistica mrfurilor)
Until recently, logistics was considered to be related especially to the distribution of finite products, as the last stage of the production, being confounded with down stream logistics. Such an approach ignored the role of up stream logistics (ensuring material resources necessary to the company) and the role of internal logistics (making resources available on the production flow). In reality, achieving the mission of logistics to ensure required goods and services at the right time and place, by minimizing the cost demand running a number of inter-correlated operations representing the logistic activities mix. The logistic mix includes two types of activities: core activities and support activities. The core activities (buying, transporting, stock management, order processing) are key activities done in almost any logistic channel, and the support activities (warehousing, handling of products, packaging, activities related to logistics information flows) are carried on in depending on specific companys conditions. Logistics is based on a system conception. Its goal is the rational management of materials and information flows in order to meet demand and to fulfill customers orders in due time. Logistics is the science about planning, organizing, managing, control and regulating materials and information flows from their source to the final consumer. Companys logistics involves, in the mean time, the management of materials (supply, stock management, production programming), and the physical distribution (products management, warehouse management, transportation management, delivery to the points of sale etc.). More than this, it involves the provision of services for the clients. In connection with these components, the external environment of the company is also of interest for logistics, in particular the infrastructures and the sociopolitical conditions that may facilitate or hamper the free movement of goods and persons. The logistic capacity of a company is defined by the way in which it organizes and manages people, equipments, locations and operations. The logistic activities fulfill several roles and responsibilities as follows: Customer service it concentrates on understanding what are the expectations of customers and on measuring the logistics performance against these expectations; The forecast of demand should be such as to assist proper planning, resources allocation and reaching a high level of customer service with minimum cost; Information management by collecting and processing in form of information useful to decision making data about customers, transporters and stocks; Materials handling bearing a significant cost, may

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Pn nu demult, logistica era asociat cu distribu ia produselor finite, adic ultima etap a produc iei, respectiv cu logistica n aval. Acest punct de vedere a ignorat rolul logisticii n amonte (asigurarea disponibilit ii resurselor materiale destinate activit ii firmei) i a logisticii interne (punerea la dispozi ia produc iei a resurselor necesare). n realitate, ndeplinirea misiunii logistice de asigurare a bunurilor sau serviciilor, solicitate la momentul i locul potrivit i n condi iile celor mai mici costuri pentru firm, presupune desfurarea unui ansamblu de opera iuni intercorelate, care constituie mixul activit ilor logistice. Mixul logistic include dou categorii de activit i: de baz i de sus inere. Activit ile de baz (cumprarea, transportul, gestiunea stocurilor, prelucrarea comenzilor) sunt opera iuni cheie care se desfoar n aproape orice canal logistic, iar activit ile de sus inere (depozitarea, manipularea produselor, ambalarea, activit ile legate de fluxurile informa ionale logistice) au loc n func ie de condi iile specifice ale firmelor. Concep ia principal a logisticii este conceptul sistemic, iar scopul gestiunea ra ional a fluxurilor materiale i informa ionale pentru satisfacerea cererii i expedierea la timp a comenzilor. Logistica este tiin a despre planificarea, organizarea, gestiunea, controlul i reglementarea circula iei fluxurilor materiale i informa ionale n timp i spa iu de la sursa lor primar pn la consumatorul final. Logistica firmei presupune att domeniul gestiunii materialelor (aprovizionare, gestiunea stocurilor de materiale, programarea produc iei), ct i domeniul distribu iei fizice (gestiunea produselor, a depozitelor i a transporturilor, livrrile la punctele de vnzare) dar i domeniul serviciilor pentru clien i. Alturi de aceste aspecte, mai apar ca argumente de interes logistic: mediul extern, adic infrastructurile i condi iile socio-politice care ar putea favoriza dar i mpiedica libera circula ie a mrfurilor i/sau a persoanelor. Capacitatea logistic a unei organiza ii este definit de modul n care aceasta organizeaz i gestioneaz oamenii, echipamentele, loca iile i politicile opera ionale. Exist o serie de roluri i responsabilit i ale activita ilor logistice, printre care: Customer service - se concentreaz asupra n elegerii a ceea ce doresc clien ii i msurarea performan elor logistice fa de cerin ele acestora; Previziunea cererii - trebuie dezvoltat astfel nct s ajute planificarea i alte activit i logistice, alocarea resurselor i atingerea unui nalt nivel de customer service la cel mai mic cost; Managementul informa iei - se refer la date despre clien i, transportatori i stocuri ce trebuie s se regseasc n informa iile utile pentru luarea deciziei; Manipularea materialelor - care cost i poate fi un factor de distrugere, motiv pentru care fabricile i depozitele trebuie s aib un design care s permit minimizarea micrilor pentru ndeplinirea

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sarcinilor curente; Procesarea comenzilor - ini iaz actul logistic, ele fiind din ce n ce mai mult transmise electronic, crescnd astfel viteza i acurate ea de onorare a comenzilor; Ambalarea - asigur protejarea produselor n procesul de distribu ie; Piese de schimb i service - trebuie s fie permanent disponibile ca suport pentru activitatea de vnzare; Loca ia - poate furniza o serie de facilit i care s duc la ob inerea unui bun nivel de customer service i costuri reduse: Retururi - produsele defecte sau comenzile incorecte trebuie s fie returnate n mod eficient; Managementul transportului - transportul este cea mai vizibil activitate logistic, el putnd fi: pe calea ferat, rutier, pe ap, prin aer, conducte i spa iu cibernetic; Managementul depozitelor/centrelor de distribu ie - cu rolul de a stoca produsele pn cnd acestea trebuie utilizate. Un concept logistic important este i Supply Chain Management. Dac logistica descrie totalitatea proceselor prin care resursele i produsele intr, traverseaz i ies din companie, Supply Chain Management nglobeaz un concept mai larg dect logistica, conectnd-o cu o ntreag re ea de comunica ii i cu personalul companiei. Practic un supply chain reprezint o re ea de infrastructur i op iuni de distribu ie ce ndeplinesc urmatoarele func ii: cumpararea i achizi ia de resurse, procesarea i transformarea resurselor n produse, precum i distribu ia fizic a produselor finite ctre clien i, intermediari sau finali. Diferen a esen ial dintre cele dou este dat de extinderea ciclului logistic de la nivelul organiza iei la nivelul furnizorilor i clien ilor, prin integrarea acestora. Practic n suplly chain-uri exist att firme de produc ie, ct i firme furnizoare de servicii. Logistica are un rol din ce n ce mai important n activitatea firmelor, aflndu-se ntr-o conexiune permanent cu produc ia, vnzarea, marketingul i servirea clien ilor. Prin organizarea unei activit i logistice eficiente, se asigur livrarea produselor potrivite la locul i timpul potrivit, i la pre ul potrivit, permi nd creterea eficien ei opera ionale, reducerea costurilor i creterea nivelului de servire a clien ilor. n acest fel logistica i aduce o contribu ie real la creterea rentabilit ii firmei, devenind o surs real de avantaj competitiv. Pe msur ce productorii se confrunt cu pie e din ce n ce mai complexe i concuren iale, logistica va juca un rol tot mai mare n servirea clien ilor. Acele firme care vor cultiva cel mai bine alian ele strategice cu furnizorii, transportatorii, distribuitorii i clien ii vor ob ine profituri mai mari dect firmele care nu iau n considerare astfel de alian e.

also generate damage, so factories and warehouses should be designed to minimize the handling in achieving current tasks; Order processing is initiating the logistic process; it benefits from electronic technologies that improve speed and accuracy in order fulfillment; Packaging ensures the protection of products during the distribution process; Spare parts and service should be permanently available in support of the sale activity; Location may facilitate achieving a high level of customer service and reducing cost; Returns ensuring that defective products or orders incorrectly fulfilled are taken back in an efficient way; Transportation management as the most visible component of logistics, transportation may be done by rail, road, water, air, pipes, or internet; Management of warehouses and distribution platforms having the role of keeping products in stock until their use. Supply Chain Management is also an important concept in logistics. This concept is more comprehensive than logistics because it involves a network of communications and connections between logistic activities and the companys personnel. A supply chain is an infrastructure network and distribution options that serve the following functions: buying and procurement of resources, processing and transforming resources in products as well as physical distribution of products to intermediate or final customers. The essential difference between logistics and Supply Chain Management is related to the expansion of logistic cycle from the organization to its suppliers and customers in an integrated way. Actually, a supply chain includes manufacturing and service providing companies as well. Logistics has an ever increasing role in the activity of the companies, being permanently connected to production, selling, marketing, customers serving. By organizing an efficient logistic activity, companies ensure the delivery of the right products at the right time, place, and price, with favorable effects in improving operations efficiency, reducing costs and increasing the level of customer service. In such a way, logistics really contributes to the companys rate of return, being a source of competitive advantage. As producers are confronted with markets increasingly complex and competitive, the role of logistics in satisfying customers requirements will raise. Companies that will be able to better develop strategic alliances with suppliers, transporters, distributors and customers will get higher rates of return compared with companies that do not consider such alliances.

Editor-in-chief, Prof. univ. dr. Dinu Vasile

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Logistica mrfurilor (The logistics of merchandise)
n Romnia la momentul adevrului suprema iei raftului: concuren i cooperare (Distribution in Romania at the shelf supremacys moment of truth: competition and cooperation)
Prof. univ. dr. Theodor Valentin Purcrea Conf. univ. dr. Anca Purcrea

Efectele lipsei de coordonare n lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare (The effects of the lack of coordination within the supply chain)
Prof. univ. dr. Carmen Blan

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Acumulri i dezvoltare n logistica comercial (Accumulations and development in commercial logistics)

Prof. univ. dr. Ion Schileru

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Analiz i competitivitate n logistic (Analysis and competitiveness in logistics)

Prof. univ. dr. Eduard Dinu Asist. univ. drd. Cristina Curea

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Fluxul informa ional privind calitatea n logistica mrfurilor alimentare (The logistics of information flow in managing the quality of food products)
Conf. univ. dr. Roxana Procopie Lector univ. dr. Magdalena Bobe

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Func ionalit i ERP utilizate n mbunt irea integrrii sistemelor logistice (The ERP capabilities for enhancing the logistic system integration)
Prof. univ. dr. Traian Surcel Prof. univ. dr. Razvan Bologa

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Depozitarea activitate ce contribuie la performan a lan ului logistic (Warehousing activity which contribute to supply chain performance)
Lector univ. dr. Cristinel Vasiliu

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Rolul stocrii n lan ul logistic (The role of inventory in the supply chain)
Lector univ. dr. Mihai Felea

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Logistica i managementul lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare n turism (Logistics and Supply Chain Management in Tourism)
Conf. univ. dr. Silvia Muhcin Conf. univ. dr. Veronica Popovici

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Distribu ia proces sinergetic n crearea valorii (Distribution the synergetic process in establishing the value)
Conf. univ. dr. Monica Aureliana Petcu Conf. univ. dr. Iulia David Sobolevschi

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O analiz a factorilor determinan i pentru performan a logistic a unei ri (An analysis of explanatory factors of logistics performance of a country)
Conf. univ. dr. Basarab Gogonea

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Actualit i n logistic i transport (Actualities in logistics and transport)

Conf. univ. dr. Simona Dordea Conf. univ. dr. Liliana Nicodim

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Particularit i ale pie ei romneti de produse farmaceutice din perspectiva logisticii i managementului lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare (A LSCM approach to the romanian pharmaceuticals market)
Lect. dr. Mihaela Cornelia Prejmerean Asist. drd. Simona Vasilache

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Particularit ile logisticii n comer ul electronic (The particularities of logistics related to e-commerce)
Asist. univ. drd Irina (Albstroiu) Mrun elu

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Importan a logisticii inverse pentru activitatea de comer (The importance of reverse logistics for retail activity)
Prep. univ. drd. Mihaela Moise

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Creterea rolului transporturilor de mrfuri - implica ii n cadrul logisticii (The growth of freight transport role implications to logistical framework)
Prep. univ. drd. Tatiana-Roxana Nae

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Performan a lan ului logistic: armonizarea strategic (The performance of the supply chain: Strategical harmonization)
Lector univ. dr. Oana eitan

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Sistem informatic pentru managementul lan ului logistic (Information system for the supply chain management)
Drd. Delia Adriana Mrinca

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The logistics of merchandise

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N ROMNIA LA MOMENTUL ADEVRULUI SUPREMA IEI RAFTULUI: CONCUREN I COOPERARE

(Distribution in Romania at the shelf supremacys moment of truth: competition and cooperation) Prof. univ. dr. Theodor Valentin Purcrea, Universitatea Romno-American, Bucureti, Romnia, theodor.purcarea@rau.ro Conf. univ. dr. Anca Purcrea, Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia, anca.purcarea@com.ase.ro

Rezumat Acest articol exploreaz dezvoltarea pie ei de retail din Romnia, evolu iile actuale pe aceast pia i impactul conflictului recent dintre retaileri i productorii romni, pornind de la ntrebri actuale nu numai n Romnia, dar i la nivel european. nceputul acestui conflict productori-retaileri a scos n eviden accentul pus pe comportamentul etic al retailerilor n contextul procesului de cumprare al produselor de la furnizori, respectiv numeroasele taxe impuse furnizorilor pentru ca produsele acestora s ajung pe rafturile marilor magazine, produsele deplasndu-se prin lan ul ofertei a crui eficacitate depinde de rela iile de colaborare dintre participan ii care se confrunt i cu o serie de constrngeri legale i etice, cele legale rezultnd, n general, din legisla ia concuren ial i cea privind protec ia consumatorilor. Romnia a confirmat pozi ionarea sa ca o pia important pentru marile lan uri de distribu ie. Promotorul dezvoltarii re elelor de retail a fost comportamentul consumatorului, n provocatorul context al rela iei dintre impactul marketingului asupra consumatorului i impactul consumatorului asupra strategiilor de marketing. Numeroase binecunoscute lan uri de distribu ie particip n prezent n mod activ pe pia a romneasc. A fost eviden iat necesitatea furirii unui ecosistem al conversa iei, bazat pe comunicare interpersonal, dnd natere unei experien e partajate, construind ncredere i ntrind rela iile ntre participan ii la lan ul ofertei. Aceasta implic evaluarea rela iei ntre productorii romni i marile lan uri de distribu ie i impactul acestei rela ii asupra bunstrii sociale. Cuvinte cheie: pia a de retail, parteneriat productor-distributor-consumator, mari lan uri de distribu ie, taxe de raft, bunstare a consumatorului. Clasificare JEL: D23, D43, K21, L41, L42, M38 Abstract This article explores the development of the Romanian retail market, the recent evolutions on this market and the impact of the recent conflict between the retailers and the Romanian producers, starting from current questions not only in Romania but also at European level. The beginning of this conflict producers-retailers emphasized the accent placed on the retailers ethical behaviour in the context of the buying process of products from suppliers, namely the numerous slotting fees imposed on the suppliers so that their products reach the stores shelves, covering the supply chains path whose efficacy depends on the collaboration relationships between participants, who also confront with a series of legal and ethical constraints, the legal ones resulting, in general, from the competition legislation and the one concerning consumers protection. Romania has confirmed its positioning as an important market for the large distribution chains. The promoter of the Nr. 24 Iunie 2008 9

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Logistica mrfurilor

development of retail networks has been the consumer behaviour, within the challenging framework of the relation between marketings impact on consumer and consumer impact on marketing strategies. At the moment, numerous well-known distribution chains are actively participating on the Romanian market. The necessity of building an ecosystem of conversation, based on interpersonal communication, is being emphasized, creating a shared experience, building trust and strengthening the relationships between the participants in the supply chain. This involves evaluating the relationship between Romanian producers and the large distribution chains and the impact of this relationship on the social welfare. Keywords: retail market, producer-distributor-consumer distribution chains, slotting fees, consumer welfare. JEL classification: D23, D43, K21, L41, L42, M38 Introducere Un studiu pe care l-am prezentat cu ocazia Conferin ei Interna ionale privind Comer ul, organizat n anul 2006 de Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti (Purcrea, 2006), ncepea de la legtura dintre proximitatea temporal a debutului proceselor de tranzi ie n Europa Central i de Est cu un accent pus - la nivelul Comunit ii Europene - pe nevoia de a examina specificul distribu iei (octombrie 1989) i accentul pus pe contribu ia posibil a sistemului distribu iei la integrarea i stimularea unei economii de consum prin formele dinamice de distribu ie (martie 1991). Este recunoscut faptul c modernizarea comer ului n Europa Central i de Est este important pentru integrarea economic a rilor, fiind necesar dezvoltarea structurilor logistice de distribu ie adaptate nevoilor locale (Purcrea, 1998). ncepnd cu 1990, numeroi lideri de ntreprinderi de distribu ie din vest se ntrebau ce atitudine comercial ar trebui s adopte n fa a nelinitilor politice, economice i sociale cu care se confrunt rile din Europa Central i de Est. ntrebarea de fond era dac este posibil s faci implanturi comerciale productive pe termen mediu n aceste ri care se deschid fa de consum dup decenii de priva iuni. partnership, large

Introduction A study presented by us on the occasion of the 2006 International Conference on Commerce organized by the Academy of Economic Studies in Bucharest (Purcarea, 2006), began from the ascertainment of a temporal proximity of the debut of the transition processes in Central and Eastern Europe with a focus at the European Community level on the need to examine the specifics of distribution (October 1989) and emphasis on the possible contribution of the distribution system to the integration and stimulation of a consumption economy through the dynamic forms of distribution (March 1991). It is acknowledged, in fact, that the modernization of trade in Central and Eastern Europe is important for the economic integration of the countries, the development of the distribution logistics structures adapted to local needs being required (Purcarea, 1998). Starting in 1990, numerous leaders of western distribution enterprises wondered what commercial attitude they should adopt in the face of the political, economic and social turmoil with which Central and Eastern European countries were being confronted. The basic question was whether it is possible to make commercial implants lucrative in the medium term in these countries which are opening up to consumption after decades of privation.

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Rspunsul la aceast ntrebare a fost considerat afirmativ att timp ct sunt luate n considerare realit ile specifice (Wegnez, 1998). De fapt, Congresul Interna ional al A.I.D.A. din 2003 (Floren a, Italia) a confirmat prin vocea lui Christophe Lafougere, Director GIRA, France (Cum va arta distribu ia n cele zece noi state membre ale Uniunii Europene): perioadele de schimbare rapid sunt momentul ideal pentru a penetra noi pie e; nu a fost nevoie s se treac prin fazele dezvoltrii retailului din Europa de Vest; pie ele se mic direct ctre capul cozii: hipermarketuri, centre de shopping, supermarketuri orientate spre discount de proximitate/soft. Care este situa ia pe pia a romneasc? Ce se ntampl la nivelul parteneriatului dintre productor i distribuitor i n ce msur beneficiaz consumatorul romn de evolu iile nregistrate n acest cadru? Acestea sunt ntrebri actuale nu numai n Romnia, dar i la nivel european. 1. Romnia, o pia important pentru marile lan uri de distribu ie Romnia a confirmat pozi ionarea sa ca pia important pentru marile lan uri de distribu ie, fapt dovedit att de investi iile efectuate n ultimii ani, ct i de proiectele n curs i de inten iile exprimate n ceea ce privete perioada care urmeaz. Romnia a recuperat, n anii care au trecut, o parte din golul nregistrat din punct de vedere al dezvoltrii pie ei de retail (chiar dac exist nc o semnificativ re ea intermediar de mici magazine i chiocuri). Promotorul dezvoltrii re elelor de retail a fost comportamentul consumatorului, n provocatorul context al rela iei dintre impactul marketingului asupra consumatorului i impactul consumatorului asupra strategiilor de marketing (Purcrea, 2007).

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The answer to this question was considered affirmative as long as the specific realities are taken into consideration (Wegnez, 1998). In fact, as the International A.I.D.A. Congress of 2003 (Florence, Italy) has confirmed by the voice of Christophe Lafougere, GIRA Director, France (What will distribution be like in the 10 new member states of the European Union): periods of fast change are the ideal moment to penetrate new markets; there was no need to pass through the phases of West European retail development; the markets are moving straight to the head of the queue: hypermarkets, shopping centres, proximity/soft discount oriented supermarkets. Which is the situation on the Romanian market? What is happenning at the level of the partnership between producer and distributor and to what extent does the Romanian consumer benefits from the evolutions recorded within this framework? These are current questions not only in Romania but also at European level. 1. Romania, an important market for the large distribution chains Romania has confirmed its positioning as an important market for the large distribution chains, a fact proven by the investments in the past years but also by the projects in course and by the intentions that have been declared for the following period. In the past years Romania has recovered some of the gap registered from the viewpoint of the development of the retail market (even if there was another significant intermediary network of small shops and kiosks). The promoter of the development of retail networks has been the consumer behaviour, within the challenging framework of the relation between marketings impact on consumer and consumer impact on marketing strategies (Purcarea, 2007).

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The new formats cash &carry (replacing wholesalers), supermarket (representing the main type of modern retail outlet; the biggest rhythm of growth being recorded at food sales, followed by the non-food sales), hypermarket (offering maximum product range and good discounting performance) and discount have remodelled the image of the domestic trade. At the moment, numerous wellknown distribution chains are actively participating on the Romanian market: Metro (beginning with cash&carry, following Praktiker and recently Real Hypermarket), Carrefour, Auchan, Louis Delhaize (Cora, Mega Image, Profi), Rewe (Selgros/cash & carry, Billa, XXL Mega Discount), Intermarche, BricoStore, Kaufland (it is to be noted the appearance in Bucharest, 3 rd District, of Kaufland Power Center) each having a network of shops developed in accordance with the target market and the specific features of the group. Their entering this market was determined by the continuously increasing potential and the possibilities offered. This evolution resulted in attracting new investments coming from existing companies on the market as well as other international companies. New competitors on the Romanian retail market, such as Auchan or Ikea and the increasing expansion intentions of those competitors already on the market have stimulated the increase of competition. In 2003, the Large Commercial Networks Association was set up, which included: Flanco, Artima (later acquired by Carrefour), Bricostore, Cora, Diverta, DoMo, La Fourmi, Mega Image, Mobexpert, Praktiker, Profi, Selgros, Universall (later acquired by Carrefour).

Noile formate - cash&carry (nlocuind angrositii), supermarket (reprezentnd principalul tip de unitate de retail; cel mai mare ritm de cretere fiind nregistrat la vnzrile de produse alimentare, urmate de vnzrile de produse nealimentare), hypermarket (oferind o gam maxim de produse i o bun performan n materie de discount) i discount - au remodelat imaginea comer ului intern. n prezent, numeroase lan uri de distribu ie cu renume activeaz pe pia a romneasc: Metro (ncepnd cu cash & carry, ulterior i Praktiker i de curnd i Real Hypermarket ), Carrefour, Auchan, Louis Delhaize (Cora, Mega Image, Profi), Rewe (Selgros/cash & carry, Billa, XXL Mega Discount), Intermarche, Bricostore, Kaufland (de remarcat apari ia n Bucureti, sectorul 3, a Power Centerului Kaufland) etc., fiecare avnd o re ea de magazine dezvoltat n concordan cu pia a int i trsturile specifice ale grupului. Intrarea lor pe aceast pia a fost determinat de poten ialul n continu cretere i de posibilit ile oferite. Aceast evolu ie a avut ca rezultat atragerea de noi investi ii, att ale companiilor existente pe pia , ct i ale altor companii interna ionale. Intrarea unor noi competitori pe pia a de retail din Romnia, precum Auchan sau Ikea i inten iile de extindere crescnde ale celor deja existen i pe pia au stimulat sporirea concuren ei. n anul 2003 s-a creat i Asocia ia Marilor Re ele Comerciale (AMRCR), din care faceau parte: Flanco, Artima (achizi ionat ulterior de Carrefour), Bricostore, Cora, Diverta, DoMo, La Fourmi, Mega Image, Mobexpert, Praktiker, Profi, Selgros, Universall (achizi ionat ulterior de Carrefour).

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Se cuvine a remarca totodat i dezvoltarea lan urilor de distribu ie specializate (produse farmaceutice, cr i, muzic, electronic, mobil, mod, auto etc.), cum ar fi: Sensiblue, Diverta, Flanco, Flamingo, Altex, Global Net, Mobexpert etc. Marii retaileri au acordat o aten ie deosebit capitalei Romniei, Bucureti, n ceea ce privete deschiderea de supermarketuri i hypermaketuri (a se vedea tabelul 1: Principalele lan uri de distribu ie din Romnia, Universitatea Romno-American, TOEMM, februarie 2008), fapt explicabil prin raportarea att la popula ia oraului (1,9 milioane de locuitori), ct i la importan a sa n calitate de centru economic, social i politic. Cum ns terenul disponibil pentru acest gen de dezvoltri s-a redus considerabil (iar problema echilibrului ntre marea distribu ie i come ul tradi ional rmne; comer ul tradi ional dominnd nc n materie de bunuri de consum cu micare rapid, dei formatele moderne sunt n expansiune), crete vertiginos orientarea spre provincie, un mai mare interes pentru dezvoltatori prezentnd nu numai oraele mari - cum sunt Constan a, Timioara, Cluj, Sibiu, Iai, Piteti, Gala i - ci i cele cu o popula ie mai mare de 70.000 de locuitori. Competi ia dintre marii retaileri, ca i ntre cei mici (care devin tot mai contienti de importan a valorificrii marketingului de rela ie n contextul constrngerilor bugetare) i cei mari devine tot mai acerb, acest lucru fiind reflectat i de tehnicile de marketing utilizate.

AE

It is worth mentioning the development of specialized distribution chains (pharmaceutical products, books, music, electronics, furniture, fashion, auto, etc.) such as: Sensiblue, Diverta, Flanco, Flamingo, Altex, Global Net, Mobexpert etc. The large retailers have given special attention to Bucharest, Romanias capital, in what concerns the opening of supermarkets and hypermarkets (see Table nr. 1: The Main Distribution Chains in Romania, Romanian-American University, TOEMM, February 2008), fact that can be explained by referring to both the population of the city (1,9 millions inhabitants) and its importance as an economic, social and political centre. As the land available for such developments has been considerably reduced (and there remains the problem of the equilibrium between the large distribution chains and traditional commerce; traditional commerce still dominates in terms of fast pace consumer goods, although modern formats are expanding), the orientation towards province is growing very rapidly, a higher interest for creators consisting of not only the large cities like Constan a, Timioara, Cluj, Sibiu, Iai, Piteti, Gala i but also those having a population of over 70.000 inhabitants. The competition between big retailers, as well as between the small retailers( which are becoming more and more aware of the importance of valuing relationship marketing in the context of budget constraints) and big retailers are becoming more and more bitter, which is also reflected by the marketing techniques that are used.

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Principalele lan uri de distribu ie din Romnia (The Main Distribution Chains in Romania) Tabelul 1
Nr. de magazine (No. of stores) Anul intrrii pe pia a romneasc (Year of entry into the Romanian market) 2001 2003 2006 2006 2004 1996 2000 2002 2002 2006 2006 1999 1994 1999 2001 1995 2005 2005 2001 2001 2001 1992 1994 1992 1998

Nr. (No.)

Nume (Name)

Grup (Group)

Format (Format)

Total (Total)

Bucureti (Bucharest) 5 2 1 1 0 4 3 4 2 0 0 3 15 3 0 0 3 2 1 1 0 11 11 11 9

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Carrefour Cora Real Auchan Pic Metro Selgros BricoStore Praktiker Spar Hypermarket Spar Supermarket Billa Mega Image GMarket Interex Profi Plus Kaufland Penny Market Penny Market XXL Artima (Carrefour) Altex Domo Flanco International Cosmo

Hyparlo Group Louis Delhaize Metro Group Auchan Group Grup Pic Metro Group Rewe Zentral AG BricoStore Metro Group Spar Spar Rewe Zentral AG Louis Delhaize GimRom Holding Intermarche Louis Delhaize Tengelmann Lidl & Schwarz Rewe Zentral AG Rewe Zentral AG Carrefour Grup Altex Domo Flanco International Cosmo

Hypermarket Hypermarket Hypermarket Hypermarket Hypermarket Cash&Carry Cash&Carry Do It Yourself Do It Yourself Hypermarket Supermarket Supermarket Supermarket Supermarket Supermarket Discounter Discounter Hypermarket Discounter Discounter Supermarket Specialised store Specialised store Specialised store Specialised store

10 3 13 3 4 23 17 9 14 1 13 25 18 5 9 44 50 31 40 5 21 125 110 110 78

Sursa: Universitatea Romno-American, TOEMM, februarie 2008 (Romanian-American University, TOEMM, February 2008)

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Un trend care confirm aceast stare de fapt este efortul marcant de diferen iere, fie prin creterea volumului exclusivit ilor puse n vnzare, fie prin combina ia dintre vnzrile offline i cele online. n acest ultim caz se ine pasul cu evolu ia comportamentului consumatorilor, tot mai mul i dintre acetia (tot mai exigen i din punct de vedere al considerrii raportului calitate-pre i a serviciilor conexe oferite) studiind deja ofertele online (volumul de publicitate online sporete; modelul de afacere este n plin schimbare tinznd catre cel vestic), chiar dac iau deciziile tot n supermarket sau hypermarket. Un alt trend din ce n ce mai vizibil n ultimii doi ani este dezvoltarea accelerat a brandurilor de distribuitor (produse alimentare, electrocasnice, mbrcminte), care ncep s ctige ncrederea consumatorilor, fidelizndu-i prin aceste branduri proprii, oferite de marile magazine (n cazul magazinelor de tip discount ponderea acestor branduri proprii n totalul produselor oferite este mult mai mare) i furnizate, n cea mai mare parte, de productori autohtoni (care respect standardele de calitate conform caietelor de sarcini). Principalul element de atrac ie pentru consumatori este pre ul mai sczut (produse alimentare, bunuri de consum de unic folosin , electrocasnice), comparativ cu al altor produse din gama respectiv, n condi iile garan iei privind calitatea. Pentru ca acest pre s fie sczut nu se recurge la o promovare agresiv (organizarea de prezentri de mostre n magazin, n diferite perioade; samplinguri efectuate n magazine i promovare prin pliante trimise clien ilor poten iali, cum sunt, de exemplu, cei din categoria HoReCa; ct privete ambalajul, acesta este, de regul, modest).

AE

A trend that confirms this state of facts is the important effort of differentiation, either through increasing the volume of products that are sold with a character of exclusivity, either by combining offline and online sales. In the last case, a special emphasis is placed on the evolution of consumer behaviour, an increasing number of consumers (more and more strict from the point of view of considering the quality-price ratio and the related services offered) already studying online offers (the volume of online publicity is growing; the business model is changing aiming at the Western version), even if they are still making decisions in the supermarket or hypermarket. Another apparent trend in the last two years is fast development of distribution brands (food products, laborsaving devices, clothes), which start to gain the trust of consumers, making them more loyal through these personal brands, offered by the large shops (for discount shops, the weight of these personal brands in the overall amount of products offered is much bigger) and largely supplied by local producers (which respect the quality standards according to the work instructions). The most important point for consumers is the lowest price (food products, one-use consumer goods, laborsaving devices) compared to that of other products from the same range of products, in the conditions of the guarantee concerning the quality. For that price to be low, the aggressive promotion is not applied (organizing sampling presentations in the shops, at different times; samplings carried out inside the shops and promotion through folders and magazines sent to potential clients, like, for example, those from the category HoReCa; in what concerns the packaging, this is, most times, modest).

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2. Recent evolutions on the Romanian retail market Only in the last year the large distribution chains have been enriched with 152 stores, on the first place being situated those in the area of discounts (the same tendency remained this year). This last category of stores added another 63 units (most of them -20 - Penny Market, followed by Profi with 19, Plus Discount with 16 and MiniMAX with 8), while in the case of supermarkets another 36, and hypermarkets another 29, plus another 3 units in the cash&carry segment (Selgros). The following should be also mentioned: the fact that by acquiring Artima (supermarket), Carrefour (going for a multi-format approach) represented the network with the greatest number of stores that were opened, added to the units with the format mentioned earlier are the four new hypermarket-type units (Bucureti, Cluj-Napoca, Iasi, Braila); Kaufland opened up 14 units, four more units than the initial number; Spar, the Dutch retailer, opened only 6 units out of the 20 announced; the hypermarket Real entered the Capitals market, Bucharest; Auchan increased the number of units with 4; the local hypermarkets chain Pic reached 4 units (opening in Braila and Oradea; for the current year they announced the opening of another 2); some local networks of stores consolidated (Ethos which already announced for the year 2008 green-field in; Fidelio; Spring; Oncos; Trident which intends to open in 2008, together with the supermarket-format stores, also a hypermarket as well as proximity stores; Wolf) etc. The year 2007 and the beginning of 2008 emphasized the impact on the extension of stores chains by the lack of available land/spaces, as well as finding new ways of differentiating in order to attract and retain clients: non-stop program

2. Evolu ii recente pe pia a romneasc de retail Numai n anul care a trecut marea distribu ie s-a mbog it cu 152 de magazine, pe primul loc aflndu-se cele din zona discounterilor (tendin a men inndu-se i n anul n curs). Astfel, la magazinele din acest ultim tip s-a mai adaugat un numr de 63 de unit i (cele mai multe - 20 - Penny Market, urmat de Profi cu 19, Plus Discount cu 16 i MiniMAX cu 8), n timp ce la supermarketuri nc 36, iar la hypermarketuri nc 29, plus nc 3 unitati n segmentul cash&carry (Selgros). Se impun i urmtoarele precizri: faptul c prin achizi ia Artima (supermarket), Carrefour (trecere la abordare multi-format) a fost re eaua cu cel mai mare numar de magazine adaugate, el dechiznd i patru noi unit i tip hypermarket (Bucureti, Cluj-Napoca, Iai, Brila); Kaufland a deschis 14 unit i, mai mult cu 4 fa de cifra anun at ini ial); retailerul olandez Spar a deschis doar 6 unit i din cele 20 anun ate; hypermarketul Real a intrat i pe pia a Capitalei, Bucureti; Auchan a mai crescut numrul unit ilor cu 4; lan ul de hypermarketuri autohton Pic a ajuns la 4 unit i (deschiznd la Brila i Oradea; pentru anul n curs a anun at deja deschiderea a nc 2); s-au consolidat i unele re ele de magazine locale (Ethos care a anun at deja pentru anul 2008 i investi ii green-field; Fidelio; Primvara; Oncos; Trident care inten ioneaz s deschid n 2008, n afar de magazine format supermarket i un hypermarket, precum i un lan de magazine de proximitate; Wolf) etc. Anul 2007 i nceputul anului 2008 a eviden iat att afectarea extinderii lan urilor de magazine de lipsa terenurilor/spa iilor disponibile, ct i recurgerea la noi modalit i de diferen iere n atragerea i men inerea clien ilor, exemple: program non-stop

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(Metro cash&carry la Bucureti) sau mai lung, prin deschidere mai devreme (Real, n ar); cafenele (Real la Timioara; Billa la Baia Mare); franciza (Spar, n perspectiva apropiat); merchandising mbunt it n raport cu diferite axe de inova ie, mbinarea dintre distribu ie i merchandising sugernd n final tocmai rspunsul la perpetua cautare de ctre consumator a acelui loc cu personalitate cu care acesta dorete s se identifice din nou i din nou, dezvoltnd chimia personalit ilor. 3. Recentul conflict ntre retaileri i productorii romni. Ce-i de fcut? Particularitatea distribu iei, avnd n vedere impactul local al fiecreia dintre manifestrile sale este de a materializa accesul la cerere printr-o multiplicare a punctelor de vnzare. Una dintre tendin ele pe care distribu ia le manifest, din acest punct de vedere, este cercetarea sinergiilor i a cooperrilor care pot conduce firmele de distribu ie de tipuri, forme i mrimi diferite la punerea n practic a unor politici comerciale comune. Din momentul n care, prin efectul cumulativ al acestor acorduri accesul pe pia al concuren ilor este mpiedicat, sunt aplicabile (n afara excep iilor pe categorii sau individuale) regulile de interdic ie prevzute de legisla ia n materie de concuren . Nu acelai lucru se ntmpl cnd aceste obstacole comport restric ii ntre aceiai parteneri. Aceasta este consecin a caracterului general al interdictiei restric iilor concuren ei chiar n interiorul re elei. O restric ie a concuren ei nu este legitim datorit faptului c poate avea ca efect ntrirea pozi iei concuren iale a re elei. Concuren a ntre productori este, n general, mai vizibil dect cea ntre distribuitorii aceluiai brand.

AE

(Metro cash & carry in Bucharest) or longer hours, through opening earlier (Real, in the country); cafs (Real in Timisoara; Billa in Baia Mare); franchise (Spar, in perspective); improved merchandising regarding different axis of innovation, the mix between distribution and merchandising (Purcarea, 2007), ultimately suggesting the answer to the customers perpetual quest for finding that place with personality which he wishes to identify with over and over again, developing the chemistry of personalities. 3. The recent conflict between retailers and Romanian producers. What must be done? The particularity of distribution, considering the local impact of each of its manifestations, is to materialise access to demand through a multiplication of the points of sale. One of the tendencies of distribution, from this point of view, is the research of the synergies and cooperation that can lead different types, forms and size distribution enterprises to put into practise certain common commercial policies. From the moment in which, through the cumulative effect of these agreements, the competitions access to the market is hindered, the interdiction regulations provided by the legislation in the field of competition are applicable (other than the exceptions by category or individual ones). The same thing does not take place when these obstacles entail restraints between the same partners. This is the consequence of the general character of the interdiction of competition restraint, even inside the network. A competition restriction is not legitimate due to the fact that it can have the effect of strengthening the competitive position of the network. Competition between producers is, generally, more visible than that between distributors of the same brand.

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The first week of March 2008 was marked in Romania by a conflict largely commented between retailers and Romanian producers (Purcarea, 2008), within the context that European Parliament has adopted in Strasbourg at the opening of the plenary session in February 18, 2008, a written declaration, on investigating and remedying the abuse of power by large supermarkets operating in the EU, calling upon the European Commission's DG Competition to investigate and propose adequate measures (REF.: 20080215IPR21454, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/). The beginning of this conflict producers-retailers emphasized the accent placed on the retailers ethical behaviour in the context of the buying process of products from suppliers, namely the numerous slotting fees imposed on the suppliers so that their products reach the stores shelves, covering the supply chains path whose efficacy depends on the collaboration relationships between participants, who also confront with a series of legal and ethical constraints, the legal ones resulting, in general, from the competition legislation and the one concerning consumers protection. Let us remember that in a letter sent by Bernd Hallier, Managing Director of EuroHandelsinstitut Germany (EHI), President of the EuroShop Advisory Board and Executive Member of the European Retail Academy (ERA, 2005), subsequent to his esteemed presence in Bucharest in May 1998 for the 24th A.I.D.A. International Congress (the Professor also being a member of A.I.D.A.s Council), it is specified that a market economy is neither sheltered from strikes nor can it fully succeed if a certain management base and middle social state is not grown.

Prima sptmn a lunii martie 2008 a fost marcat n Romnia de un conflict, comentat pe larg, ntre productorii romni i retaileri (Purcrea, 2008), n contextul n care Parlamentul European a adoptat, la Strasbourg, n deschiderea sesiunii plenare din data de 18 februarie 2008, o declara ie scris privind investigarea i remedierea abuzului de putere al marilor supermarketuri opernd n Uniunea European (UE), prin care se solicit Comisiei Europene s investigheze i s propun msuri potrivite (REF.: 20080215IPR21454;http://www.europarl. europa.eu/). nceputul acestui conflict productori-retaileri a scos n eviden accentul pus pe comportamentul etic al retailerilor n contextul procesului de cumprare al produselor de la furnizori, respectiv numeroasele taxe impuse furnizorilor pentru ca produsele acestora s ajung pe rafturile marilor magazine, produsele deplasndu-se prin lan ul ofertei a crui eficacitate depinde de rela iile de colaborare dintre participan ii care se confrunt i cu o serie de constrngeri legale i etice, cele legale rezultnd, n general, din legisla ia concuren ial i cea privind protec ia consumatorilor. S ne amintim c ntr-o scrisoare transmis n 1998, Bernd Hallier, Director Executiv al EuroHandelsinstitut din Germania (EHI), Preedinte al EuroShop i al European Retail Academy (ERA, 2005), ulterior prezen ei domniei sale la Bucureti n luna mai 1998 cu ocazia celui de-al 24-lea Congres Interna ional al A.I.D.A ( dnsul este i membru al Consiliului A.I.D.A. Bruxelles), se precizeaz c economia de pia nu este ferit de lovituri i nici nu reuete pe deplin dac nu este crescut o anumit baz de management i, stare social mijlocie.

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Dr. Hallier s-a aplecat asupra corela iei dintre aa-numitele schimbri politice n multe ri din Europa Central i de Est i necesitatea oamenilor de a tri, de a consuma ca n Vest, punnd fa n fa radicalizarea n Vest cu radicalizarea n Est, n contextul n care for ele pie ei nu cad din cer, ci trebuie s fie dezvoltate cu grij i pe termen lung (Purcrea, 1998). ntreprinderile care ac ioneaz n comer - arat Dr. Hallier se confrunt cu o serie ntreag de probleme: capacitatea managerial devine legat n mod deosebit de lupta operativ pentru supravie uire zilnic; asigurarea punctelor de desfacere pentru a se putea construi un poten ial de debueu suficient de mare; lipsa de know-how n domeniul tehnologiei i cercetrii comerciale; lipsa mijloacelor financiare pentru introducerea tehnologiei moderne. Dificultatea (observm c Dr. Hallier l-a anticipat cu mai bine de un an pe profesorul de la Harvard, Jeffrey Sachs, n.n) const n faptul c, n decursul unui deceniu i cu resurse de capital reduse, trebuie realizat ceea ce n Vest s-a ob inut ntr-o evolu ie de peste 50 de ani. Salturile cuantice ale ntreprinderilor vestice pentru Europa Central i de Est sunt, mai ales n competi ia cu marile grupuri interna ionale, greu de realizat. Ca urmare a puternicei dinamici a comer ului, sublinia Dr. Hallier, se preiau multe ntreprinderi din Europa Central i de Est (E.C.E.) de ctre strini. Rezult de aici o problem grea pentru E.C.E. Dac, comer ul originar din E.C.E. este supus competi iei interna ionale, atunci aceste ntreprinderi de comer pierd calitatea de solicitan i pentru furnizorii na ionali. Comercian ii vestici nu vor lista ns suplimentar furnizorilor na ionali din E.C.E. Doar logica rabatului E.C.R. este cea care vorbete pentru o legatur de comand i nu pentru un sortiment mprtiat.

AE

Dr. Hallier concerned himself with the correlation between the so-called political changes in many Central and Eastern Europe and the need for people to live and consume as in the West, placing face to face the radicalization in the West with the radicalization in the East, in the context in which market forces do not fall from the sky, but must be developed with care and in the long term (Purcarea, 1998). The enterprises that are active in trade shows Dr. Hallier are confronted with a whole series of problems: managerial ability becomes tied especially to an operative battle for day to day survival; ensuring points of sale to be able to build a sufficiently large outlet potential; the lack of technological and commercial research know-how; the lack of financial means to introduce modern technology. The difficulty lies in the fact that what was achieved in the West in a 50 year evolution must be accomplished within a decade and with low capital resources. The quantum leaps of the Western enterprises for Central and Eastern Europe are difficult to accomplish, especially in the competition with the big international groups. As a result of the strong dynamics of trade, underlined Dr. Hallier, many enterprises in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) are being taken over by foreigners. The result is a difficult problem for CEE. If the trade that originates in the CEE is subjected to international competition, then these trade enterprises lose the quality of petitioner for national suppliers. Western trade companies will not additionally list, though, the national suppliers from the CEE. Only the logic of the discount within ECR partnership is what speaks for an order connection and not a scattered assortment.

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The result is a big problem for each industrial supplier and with the latter also for work places in the production field in CEE. Obviously, the producer-retailer negotiation process depends on the economic power of the stores chain. OECDs unclassified document DAFFE /CLP (99) 21 (OECD, 1999) underlined that: large multi-product retailers (retailers) are increasingly becoming serious competitors of the served upstream suppliers and could enjoy substantial buyer power; where a sufficient number of consumers display one-stop shopping behaviour, the result will be significant buyer power for retailers ; protecting competitors is not equivalent to protect competition and it remains difficult to prove that an affected supplier actually lacks an equivalent alternative to dealing with an accused retailer. In the same year, in Romania, appeared the translation of a paper (Silbiger, 1999) in which there were some references made to: the signification of the space on the shelf; the exposure unit of the merchandise (stock keeping unit SKU); the fact that the retailer seeks to be paid for each SkU used; the fight for optimal exposure of merchandise; the payment of the sums of money established ad-hoc for the booking of the shelf space, appearing new barriers to entry on the market. Still in year 1999, two American proffessors (Aalberts and Jennings, 1999), have analysed this common practice of slotting fees by launching the question if it isbribery, facilitation marketing or just plain competition.

De aici rezult o mare problem pentru fiecare ofertant industrial i cu aceasta i pentru locurile de munc n domeniul produc iei n E.C.E. n mod evident, procesul de negociere productor-retailer depinde de puterea economic a lan ului de magazine. Un document OECD neclasificat DAFFE/CLP(99)21 (OECD, 1999) eviden ia faptul c: marii distribuitori cu amnuntul devin tot mai serioi concuren i ai furnizorilor din amonte i se pot bucura de o putere substan ial de cumprare; acolo unde un numr suficient de consumatori etaleaz un comportament de tipul one-stopshopping, rezultatul va fi puterea semnificativ de cumparare pentru retaileri; protec ia concuren ilor nu este echivalent cu protec ia concuren ei i rmne dificil de dovedit c un furnizor afectat actualmente este lipsit de alternativa echivalent pentru a negocia cu un retailer acuzat. n acelai an, n Romnia aprea traducerea unei lucrri (Silbiger, 1999) n care se fcea trimitere i la: semnifica ia spa iului de pe raft; unitatea de expunere a marfii (stock keeping unit - SKU); faptul c retailerul urmrete s fie pltit pentru fiecare SKU utilizat; lupta pentru expunerea optim a mrfurilor; plata sumelor de bani stabilite ad-hoc pentru rezervarea spa iului pe raft, aprnd noi bariere la intrarea pe pia . Tot n 1999, doi profesori americani (Aalberts i Jennings, 1999), referindu-se la aceast practic a taxelor de raft devenit comun, lansau chiar ntrebarea dac este vorba de mit, de marketing de facilitare sau doar de concuren obinuit.

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ntr-o alt lucrare de specialitate (Nestle, 2007) se subliniaz c: profitabilitatea magazinului nu mai este doar o problem de pre pltit pentru un produs n raport cu costurile sale, ci de colectarea venitului pentru nchirierea spa iului pe raft; plasamentul produsului depinde de un sistem de stimulente, care sunt mai mari n func ie de ct de bun este plasamentul; acest sistem dezgusttor pune magazinele alimentare de retail n control ferm al pie ei, mergnd dincolo de o simpl problem de cerere i ofert etc. Taxele de raft au fost analizate n timp din diferite perspective, ele aprnd: la confluen a instrument economic eficient (coala de gndire a eficien ei, accentund cum pot taxele s sporeasc eficien a n canalele de distribu ie) manifestri negative ale puterii de pia (coala de gndire a puterii de pia , argumentnd c taxele afecteaz concuren a i bunstarea consumatorului (Bloom i al ii, 1999); ca doar un instrument promo ional nou reprezentnd o parte a plcintei promo ionale din care productorii aleg atunci cnd aloc resursele de marketing (Bone i al ii, 2004). La nceputul lunii aprilie 1999 Office of Fair Trading - OFT (organizatie profesional independent avnd sediul n Londra, binecunoscut reprezentant al familiei interna ionale a concuren ei) a artat - dup o investiga ie antitrust care sa desfurat mai multe luni - c nivelul nalt al profiturilor supermarketului i al pre urilor necesit continuarea investiga iei. Conform unui comunicat de pres din 26 noiembrie 2004 al organiza iei Prietenii pmntului (www. foe.co.uk) OFT a fost solicitat de o serie de grupuri reprezentnd consumatori, fermieri, mici furnizori, mici magazine i interese de mediu nconjurtor s deschid o nou investiga ie privind puterea de pia a marilor retaileri britanici

AE

In another scientific approach (Nestle, 2007), it is emphasized that: store profitability is not simply a matter of the price charged for a product compared to its costs but also of collecting revenue by << renting >> real estate to the companies whose products they sell; this unsavory system puts retail food stores in firm control of the market place, and goes beyond a simple matter of supply and demand. The slotting fees have been analysed in time from different perspectives, appearing: at the junction between efficient economic tool (the efficiency school of thought, stressing how the fees can enhance efficiency in distribution channels) - negative manifestation of marketplace power (the market power school of thought, arguing that the fees damage competition and consumer welfare) (Bloom and others, 1999); simply a new strategic promotional tool, part of a promotional pie from which manufacturers choose when allocating marketing resources (Bone and others, 2004). At the beginning of April 1999 the Office of Fair Trading - OFT (an independent professional organisation based in London and a well-known representative of the international competition family) has pointed out - after an antitrust investigation that was carried out over several months - that the high level of supermarket profits and prices requires further investigation. According to a press release from November 26 2004 of Friends of the earth (www. foe.co.uk) the OFT has been asked by a range of groups representing, consumers, farmers, small suppliers, small shops and environmental interests to open a new investigation over the market power of the leading Britains retailers

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[saying, for instance, that in its 2000 study the Competition Commission - CC (CC conducts in-depth inquiries into mergers, markets and the regulation of the major regulated industries) found that below-cost selling by the big supermarkets was damaging to smaller competitors who were less able to cross subsidize losses on key food items; the CC pointed out that, by undermining the competitiveness of neighbourhood outlets, accessibility and choice to consumers would be reduced, and that this would particularly affect consumers on low incomes or those with limited mobility]. A year later, by the end of October 2005, OFT has reconsidered its previous ruling protecting the grocery sector (defending the position of the leading Britains supermarket chains after an enquiry that lasted almost two years) from investigation by the CC and, expressed serious concerns over the working methods of the main supermarket chains: Tesco, Asda, Sainsburys and Morrisons. In March 2007 we showed that (Purcarea, 2007) there is a real challenge for the competition authority: the significant growth of buying power (from suppliers) of the large distribution chains, also rememberig the followings: investigation opened in UK on may 9, 2006 by OFT; the report presented on January 15, 2007 by GfK, imputernicit/ empowered by the CC; the CC 2000 report on UK supermarkets (concluding that there was evidence that supermarkets were abusing their position of power and engaging in 27 identified practices that adversely affected the competitiveness of suppliers, some practices operating against the public interest; to address these practices

[spunnd,de exemplu, c n studiul su din anul 2000, Comisia Concurentei - CC (CC conduce anchete n profunzime n ceea ce privete fuziunile, pie ele i reglementarea principalelor industrii reglementate) a descoperit c vnzarea sub cost efectuat de marile supermarketuri a afectat micii concuren i care au fost mai pu in abili n subven ionarea ncruciat a pierderilor pe articolele alimentare cheie; CC a artat c, prin subminarea competitivit ii unit ilor nvecinate, s-ar reduce accesul i alegerea consumatorilor i c aceasta ar afecta n mod particular consumatorii cu venituri mici sau pe aceia cu mobilitate limitat]. Un an mai trziu, la sfritul lunii octombrie 2005, OFT i-a reconsiderat regulile anterioare protejnd sectorul de bcnie (aprnd pozi ia marilor lan uri de supermarket britanice dup o anchet care a durat aproape doi ani) din investiga ia efectuat de CC i a exprimat preocupri serioase n privin a metodelor de lucru ale principalelor lan uri de supermarket: Tesco, Asda, Sainsburys i Morrisons. n martie 2007 noi am aratat (Purcrea, 2007) c exist o real provocare pentru autoritatea de concuren : creterea semnificativ a puterii de cumprare (de la furnizori) a marii distribu ii, fcndu-se trimitere i la: investiga ia deschis pe data de 9 mai 2006 n Marea Britanie de ctre OFT; raportul prezentat pe 15 ianuarie 2007 de GfK, mputernicit de Comisia Concuren ei; raportul privind supermarketurile, din anul 2000, al Comisiei Concuren ei (raport care concluziona c s-a dovedit c supermarketurile au abuzat de pozi ia lor de putere i s-au angajat n practici - au fost identificate 27 - care au afectat defavorabil competitivitatea furnizorilor,

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unele practici opernd mpotriva interesului public; pentru a se putea adresa acestor efecte defavorabile s-a recomandat introducerea unui cod de practici (intrat n vigoare la 17 februarie 2002) care s guverneze rela iile supermarket-furnizor; n februarie 2004 OFT a publicat prima edi ie revzut a codului, teama de consecin ele plngerii fiind identificat ca ra iune cheie pentru lipsa de eficacitate a codului. De remarcat c, n context, Comisia Concuren ei a constatat c mul i furnizori au ezitat n a veni cu dovezi (Purcrea, 2007). n S.U.A., de exemplu, este binecunoscut faptul c furnizorii pltesc distribuitorilor taxe pentru plasarea produselor pe rafturile magazinelor (Food Marketing Institute, 2002). S-au reliefat astfel: schimbarea n materie de cheltuieli promo ionale, devenind mult mai greu s ajungi la consumatori prin intermediul mass media i mult mai uor n magazinele (ncepnd prin a avea produsele plasate pe raft) unde consumatorii cumpr actualmente; opinia exprimat de Comisia Federal de Comer (Federal Trade Commission - FTC) c taxele de raft necesit o abordare caz cu caz, existnd o ampl autoritate n tratarea oricror probleme care pot aprea n aceast privin . Concluzii Putem spune astfel c astzi exist o cert nevoie de a furi un ecosistem al conversa iei, bazat pe comunicare interpersonal, dnd natere unei experien e partajate, construind ncredere i ntrind rela iile ntre participan i (att la dezbaterea subiectului mediatizat, ct i la lan ul ofertei), ieind din rutina neconversa ional. Scopul comun al unui parteneriat responsabil productor distribuitor consumator este solu ia la problema real a afectrii att a consumatorului romn (care trebuie s fie n centrul preocuprii oricrei afaceri), ct i a productorului

AE

adverse effects it was recommended that a code of practice (entered in force on February 17, 2002) be introduced to govern supermarket supplier relationships; in February 2004 OFT has published the first revised edition of the code, the fear of complaint consequences being identified as the main reason for the lack of effectiveness of this code. It is worth to note that CC found that many suppliers did hesitate in bringing evidence (Purcarea, 2007). In USA, for instance, it is wellknown that the suppliers pay distributors slotting allowances for product placement on store shelves (Food Marketing Institute, 2002). It was underlined: the shift in promotional spending, becoming much harder to reach consumers through the mass media and much easier in the stores (starting by having products placed on the shelf) where consumers actually buy; the opinion expressed by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) that the slotting fees approach need to be considered on a caseby-case basis, FTC already having ample authority to deal with any problems that may arise. Conclusions We can therefore state that in the actual context there is a certain need to: build a conversation ecosystem, based on interpersonal communication, resulting in a shared experience, building trust and strengthening the relationships between participants (both at the level of the debate regarding the general topic and at the level of the participants in the supply chain), getting out of the nonconversational routine. The common goal of a mutually responsible partnership producerdistributor-consumer is the solution to the real problem of affecting both the Romanian consumer (which must be 23

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placed in the centre of each business) and the Romanian producer, in order to benefit from the advantages of the competitive market. Within the current confrontation with the failures of the market, a long-term rational policy, well-informed and well implemented, must also take into account the evaluation of the relationship between the Romanian producers and the large distribution chains and its impact on the social welfare. The welfare of the Romanian consumer - in the context of the evolution of his behaviour under the strong influence of the impetuous integrated marketing communication steps - depends more and more on: the commerce undertaken by the stores chains, context in which we have to consider the opportunity of adequate regulation; the services offered by Romanian producers facing resulting pressures coming from the concentration of market power at the level of large distribution chains; the ratio between using the vertical market power (following the extension of horizontal market power) and the efficiency effects and the impact on both the consumer , and small and medium competitors ( due to the increase in the noncompetitive behaviour on the horizontal as a result of the exploitation of vertically obtained advantages). We are all consumers and we respond to communication messages, consumption including, in addition to tangible objects, intangible experiences, ideas and services. Marketers are engaging in personalized marketing and mass customization. Knowledge is continually updated and there is an increasing sophistication of research techniques and methods, by mixing cognitive and emotional approaches in the development of the communication materials. Both, marketers and regulators struggle with ethical and social aspects of marketing.

romn, pentru a putea beneficia de avantajele pie ei concuren iale. n confruntarea curent cu eecurile pie ei, o politic ra ional pe termen lung, bine informat i bine implementat, trebuie s ia n considerare i evaluarea rela iei productori romni marea distribu ie i impactul acestei rela ii asupra bunstrii sociale. Bunstarea consumatorului romn - pe msura evolu iei comportamentului acestuia sub influen a puternic a impetuoaselor demersuri comunica ionale de marketing integrate - depinde din ce n ce mai mult de: comer ul desfurat de lan urile de magazine, context n care se impune a acorda aten ia cuvenit oportunit ii reglementrii adecvate; presta iile productorilor romni supui presiunii rezultate din concentrarea puterii de pia la marea distribu ie; raportul dintre utilizarea puterii de pia vertical (urmnd dezvoltrii mai nti a puterii de pia orizontal) i efectele de eficien i impactul att asupra consumatorului, ct i asupra concuren ilor mici i mijlocii (datorit sporirii comportamentului anticoncuren ial pe orizontal ca rezultat al exploatrii avantajelor ob inute pe vertical). Suntem to i consumatori i rspundem la mesaje de comunicare, consumul incluznd, suplimentar obiectelor tangibile, experiente intangibile, idei i servicii. Oamenii de marketing se angajeaz n marketing personalizat i personalizare de mas. Cunoaterea se actualizeaz n mod continuu i exist o sofisticare crescnd a tehnicilor i a metodelor prin combinarea abordrilor cognitive i emo ionale n dezvoltarea materialelor de comunicare. Att oamenii de marketing, ct i reglementatorii se lupt cu aspectele etice i sociale ale marketingului.

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References [1] Purcrea, Theodor, The distribution of fast moving consumer goods on the Romanian market: the challenge of the dynamic competitivity, Proceedings of the the 2006 International Conference on Commerce (ISBN-10 973-594-785-4 / ISBN-13 978-973594-785-9), Academy of Economic Studies in Bucharest, March 27 - March 29, 2006, Vol. [2] Purcrea, Theodor, Racordarea Romniei la circuitul manifestrilor de specialitate ale lumii distribu iei, n Marketing Management, nr.3/1998, pp. 6-7. [3] Wegnez, F. Leon, Reflexions des mots et des idees pour la gestion des entreprises de distribution, C.B.D. - A.I.D.A., 1998, pp. 96-97. [4] Purcrea, Theodor, Distribu ie i Merchandising, Editura Universitar Carol Davila, Bucureti, octombrie 2007. [5] Purcrea, Theodor, Rzboiul raftului n economia conversa iei sau dincolo de conversa ia cerere-ofert, Economistul, nr. 2588/24.03.1988 [6] Academia Europeana de Retail (European Retail Academy ERA) a fost fondat cu ocazia EuroShop 2005 - cel mai mare trg comercial de bunuri de capital pentru comer ul de detaliu - care a avut loc n perioada 19-23 februarie, la Dsseldorf ; ERA ac ioneaz ca o platform virtual i ca un in iator de ateliere/seminarii/conferin e pentru a aduce mai mult transparen asupra cercetrii n domeniul retailului i educa iei n materie de retail n cadrul universit ilor de tiinte aplicate; ERA promoveaz transferul interna ional de knowhow ntre mediul de afaceri i universit i; au calitatea de membru ERA att Academia de Studii Economice Bucureti, ct i Universitatea Romno-American. [7] Purcrea, Theodor, Distribuitori i productori n pragul mileniului trei, Marketing Management, nr.5/1998, pp. 2 - 5. [8] Buying power of multiproduct retailers, OECD (OLIS: 16-Jul-1999; Dist.: 21-Jul1999), pp. 7-9. [9] Silbiger, Steven, MBA n zece zile, Casa de Editur Andreco, Bucureti, 1999, pp. 4142. [10] Aalberts J., Robert and Jennings M., Marianne, The Ethics of Slotting: Is this Bribery, Facilitation Marketing or Just Plain Competition? in Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 20, 3 July [11] Nestle, Marion, What to eat, North Point Press, 1 edition, April 17, 2007, p. 20. [12] Bloom, N. Paul, Gundlach, T. Gregory, Cannon, P. Joseph, Slotting Allowances and Fees: Schools of Thought and the Views of Practicing Managers, Working Paper Series, 1999. [13] Bone, Paula Fitzgerald, Russo France, Karen, and Riley, Richard, A Multifirm Analysis of Slotting Fees, 2004, http://www.marketingpower.com/content30953.php [14] Purcrea, Theodor, Cel mai rapid impact al aderrii Romniei la Uniunea European. Realitatea i particularitatea distribu iei. Dosar. Pia a distribu iei, Competitions Review, Martie 2007, pp. 38-43, http://www.competitions.ro/revista/competitions_review_mar07.pdf [15] Purcrea, Theodor, Distribu ie i Merchandising, Editura Universitar Carol Davila, octombrie 2007, pp. 32-33. [16] Food Marketing Institute, Slotting Allowances in The Supermarket Industry, 2002; a se vedea i Purcrea, Theodor - Food Marketing Institute, o puternic organiza ie, Jurnalul Afacerilor, Institutul Na ional Virgil Madgearu, nr. 12 i nr. 13/1991.

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Logistica mrfurilor EFECTELE LIPSEI DE COORDONARE N LAN UL DE APROVIZIONARE-LIVRARE

(The effects of the lack of coordination within the supply chain) Prof. univ. dr. Carmen Blan Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti cbalan@ase.ro

Rezumat Prezentul articol se refer la efectul lovitur de bici(bullwhip effect),1 care influen eaz negativ performan a lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Acest efect este nregistrat n diferite sectoare economice, de la bunuri de larg consum la produse IT. Consecin ele pentru membrii lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare sunt urmtoarele: costuri sporite, profitabilitate diminuat, intervale de reaprovizionare mai mari i un grad mai sczut de disponibilitate a produselor. Principalii factori care genereaz acest efect sunt tipurile de stimulente acordate de furnizori clien ilor din aval, distorsionarea informa iei, practicile de formulare i onorare a comenzilor, politicile de pre care ncurajeaz cumprarea n avans i comportamentul specific al membrilor lan ului de aprovizionarelivrare axat pe optimizarea local. Singura modalitate prin care membrii lan ului pot nltura efectul lovitur de bici este stimularea coordonrii ntre stadiile succesive ale lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Printre strategiile ce pot fi considerate n acest sens, se nscriu alinierea scopurilor i obiectivelor, comunicarea informa iilor ntre membri, reaprovizionarea controlat de un singur stadiu al lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare, strategiile de mbunt ire a performan elor opera ionale, stabilizarea comenzilor cu ajutorul unor strategii de pre adecvate, crearea de parteneriate strategice i dezvoltarea ncrederii. Inciden a i amplitudinea efectului lovitur de bici pot fi diminuate prin strategii i decizii care sunt armonizate ntre diferitele niveluri ale lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. n efortul de reducere a efectului lovitur de bici, cuvintele cheie sunt cooperarea, coordonarea, comunicarea i ncrederea. Cuvinte cheie: efectul lovitur de bici" logistic, lan de aprovizionare-livrare, coordonare, distorsionarea informa iei Clasificarea JEL: M100, M31 Abstract The present article refers to the bullwhip effect that negatively influences the supply chain performance. This effect is experienced by various industries, from fast moving consumer goods to IT products. The consequences for the supply chain members are the following: increased costs, lower profitability, longer lead times and lower product availability. The main factors that generate this effect are the types of incentives provided by suppliers to the downstream customers, the information distortion, the order placing practices, the pricing policies encouraging the forward buying and the specific behavior of the supply chain members focused on local optimization. The only way in which supply chain members may eradicate the bullwhip effect is to enhance coordination among the subsequent stages. Some of the strategies to be considered are the alignment of goals and objectives, data sharing among members, single stage control of replenishment, strategies

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for the improvement of the operational performance, stabilizing orders with appropriate pricing strategies and building strategic partnerships and trust. The incidence and amplitude of the bullwhip effect may be reduced by strategies and decisions that are harmonized along the stages of the supply chain. The key words in the endeavor to diminish the bullwhip effect are cooperation, coordination, communication and trust. Keywords: bullwhip effect, logistics, supply chain, coordination, information distortion JEL classification: M100, M31 Introducere Scopul principal al acestui articol este explorarea con inutului i consecin elor efectului lovitur de bici (bullwhip effect). Totodat, articolul abordeaz aspecte privind inciden a efectului n diferite sectoare de activitate i cauzele care genereaz un astfel de efect. Sunt prezentate, de asemenea, strategiile majore care mbunt esc coordonarea n lan urile de aprovizionarelivrare, n vederea evitrii sau diminurii efectului lovitur de bici. 1. Efectul lovitur de bici Prezentul articol este axat pe efectul lovitur de bici (bullwhip effect) ce este cunoscut i sub denumirea efectul de tip din i de ferstru al traiectoriei biciului sau fichi de bici (Sterman, 1989). Acest efect se manifest la fiecare nivel al lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare, printr-o varia ie mai mare a comenzilor transmise furnizorilor comparativ cu varia ia cererii exprimate de cumprtori. n esen , efectul lovitur de bici const n amplificarea varia iei comenzilor pe msur ce se transmit la furnizorii din lan ul de aprovizionarelivrare, de la detailist la angrosist, la distribuitor, la productor, la furnizorul de materii prime etc. Conform acestui efect, varia ia cererii la nivelurile superioare ale lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare nu reflect ntr-un raport 1:1 varia ia cererii la nivelul final al lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Nr. 24 Iunie 2008 Introduction The main goal of the present article is to explore the content and consequences of the bullwhip effect. Simultaneously, the article discusses the incidence of the bullwhip effect in various sectors of activity and the causes that generate such an effect. The major strategies to increase coordination in supply chains in order to avoid or diminish the bullwhip effect are also presented. 1. The bullwhip effect The present article is focused on the bullwhip effect that is also known as the whipsaw effect or the whiplash effect (Sterman, 1989). This effect is reflected at each stage of the supply chain by a larger variance of the orders to the supplier than the variance of the demand expressed by the buyers. In essence, the bullwhip effect consists in the amplification of the variability of orders as they are placed to suppliers within the supply chain, from the retailer to wholesaler to distributor to manufacturer to the supplier of raw materials etc. According to this effect, the variability of the demand at the upper levels within the supply chain does not reflect under a 1:1 ratio the variability of the demand at the end level of the supply chain.

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The variability increases by a significant factor as orders are placed upwards in the chain. The bullwhip effect is the result of the lack of coordination in the supply chain. It affects the profits of all the organizations that are members of the network. The lack of coordination is generated by two main causes. On one side, a conflict may exist between the objectives of the companies acting at each stage of the chain. On the other side, the bullwhip effect is determined by the delays and distortions in the information flows between the subsequent stages of the supply chain. The impact of the bullwhip effect increases with the number of stages in the network and with the diversity of the product portfolios of the companies. An illustration of the bullwhip effect is presented in the figure 1. The relatively small variations of the consumer demand are amplified at each stage of the supply chain. The result consists in inventory lumps.
120 100 Demand 80 60 40 20 0

Se multiplic varia ia cu un factor semnificativ, pe msur ce comenzile sunt transmise n amonte, n lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare. Efectul lovitur de bici este rezultatul lipsei de coordonare n lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare. El afecteaz profiturile tuturor organiza iilor membre ale re elei. Lipsa de coordonare este generat de dou cauze principale. Pe de o parte, poate exista un conflict ntre obiectivele organiza iilor ce ac ioneaz la fiecare nivel al lan ului de aprovizionarelivrare. Pe de alt parte, efectul este determinat de ntrzierile i distorsionrile ce au loc n privin a fluxurilor informa ionale, ntre stadiile succesive ale lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Impactul efectului lovitur de bici se amplific odat cu creterea numrului de niveluri ale re elei i cu sporirea diversit ii portofoliului de produse ale organiza iilor. O ilustrare a efectului lovitur de bici este prezentat n figura 1. Varia iile relativ mici ale cererii consumatorilor sunt amplificate la fiecare nivel al lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Rezultatul const n acumulri de stocuri.
120 100 Cererea 80 60 40 20 0
M ai Ia n N ov Se p M ar Iu l

Consumator Detailist Angrosist Productor Furnizor de materii prime

Consumer Retailer Wholesaler Producer Raw material supplier

ar

ay

Ju l

Ja n

Se

Timpul

Time

Figura 1 Varia ia cererii n lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare (Demand variability in the supply chain)

Conceptul de efect lovitur de bici (bullwhip effect) a fost adus n aten ia exper ilor n domeniul logistic n anii '90. Lee, Padmanabhan i Whang, n articolul lor din anul 1997, precum i Lee, So i Tang, n articolul din anul 2000, au pus n circula ie acest concept.

The concept bullwhip effect has been brought to the attention of logistic experts by the end of the 90s. Lee, Padmanabhan and Whang in their article of 1997 as well as Lee, So and Tang in the article of 2000 have coined the concept.

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Totui, printre primele cercetri referitoare la rela ia dintre stocuri i comenzi la diferitele niveluri logistice, se nscriu cele realizate de Forrester n anii '60 (Forrester, 1961). Cu ajutorul metodei simulrii, Forrester a dovedit importan a integrrii fluxurilor de informa ii i fluxurilor materiale, formulnd totodat teoria dinamicii industriale. n acelai deceniu, Burbidge a subliniat importan a sincronizrii comenzilor, iar n anii '80 a sus inut legea dinamicii industriale, conform creia, n cazul n care cererea se transmite prin mai multe stadii ce aplic proceduri de comand bazate pe controlul stocurilor, varia ia cererii va spori cu fiecare transfer. 2. Un efect nregistrat n diferite sectoare de activitate Efectul lovitur de bici este prezent n diferite sectoare de activitate, de la bunuri de larg consum la produse IT. Diversitatea organiza iilor i sectoarelor afectate a fost reflectat de cercetrile efectuate de Buzzell, Quelch i Salmon (1990); Kelly (1995); Lee, Padmanabhan i Whang (1997); Holstrom (1997) i Metters (1997). Consecin ele directe sunt: discordan a dintre ofert i cerere, creterea stocurilor, disponibilitatea sczut a produselor, costurile sporite i profiturile mai mici. n continuare, sunt prezentate o serie de exemple ale lipsei de coordonare n lan ul de aprovizionarelivrare. Procter & Gamble s-a confruntat cu efectul lovitur de bici n lan ul su de aprovizionare-livrare pentru marca de scutece Pampers. Mrimea comenzilor de materii prime transmise furnizorilor de P&G varia semnificativ, n timp ce cererea exprimat de consumatori, la nivelul comer ului cu amnuntul, era relativ stabil. Fluctua iile comenzilor de materii prime erau mai mari dect cele ale cererii pie ei pentru produsul finit.

AE

However, among the first research studies relative to the relationship between inventory and orders at various logistic stages range those achieved by Forrester in the 60s (Forrester, 1961). Based on the simulation method, Forrester showed the importance of the integration of the information and material flows and formulated the industrial dynamics theory. During that decade, Burbidge underlined the importance of order synchronization and in the 80s he supported the law of industrial dynamics, according to which if demand is transmitted along a series of stages that apply stock control ordering, the demand variation will increase with each transfer. 2. An effect experienced by various sectors The bullwhip effect is present in various sectors of activity, from fast moving consumer goods to IT products. The variety of companies and industries has been reflected by the research of Buzzell, Quelch, and Salmon (1990); Kelly (1995); Lee, Padmanabhan, Whang (1997); Holstrom (1997) and Metters (1997). The direct consequences are the mismatch between the supply and demand, increased inventories, poor product availability, higher costs and decreasing profits. Several examples of supply chain lack of coordination are presented hereinafter. Procter & Gamble has experienced the bullwhip effect in the supply chain for its Pampers brand of diapers. The size of the orders of raw materials placed by P&G with the suppliers varied significantly while the demand expressed by the consumers at the retail level was relatively stable. The fluctuations of the orders for raw materials were larger than those of the market demand for the end product.

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The bullwhip effect was also observed by Barilla, the Italian manufacturer of pasta. The company realized that weekly orders placed by a local distribution center varied tremendously. During the year, the ratio between the smallest and largest weekly order placed by the center was 1:70. The analysis of the weekly sales of the distribution center based on the orders placed by the supermarkets showed a ratio of only 1:3. On the US grocery market, in the 90s, research studies showed that 80% of the volume of the transactions between manufacturers and distributors were bought in advance of requirements, usually due to the attractive prices (Kurt Salmon Associates, 1993). Experts have estimated that forward buying generated 75-100 billion dollars of inventory in the grocery industry (Sellers, 1992). Another case is Hewlett Packard. The company has identified that fluctuations in orders increased significantly as they moved upstream within the supply chain from the resellers to the printer division and further to the integrated circuit division. The variability of the orders placed with the circuit division was larger than the variability of the product demand. There are industries that experience the bullwhip effect over longer time intervals. An example is the production of memory chips for personal computers. Between 1985 and 1998, there were at least two cycles within which the prices of memory chips have fluctuated by a factor of three. The variations have been generated either by shortages or surpluses in capacity. The low availability of the products has generated a rapid increase in orders while the large inventories had as consequence the rapid decrease in demand.

Efectul lovitur de bici a fost observat i de productorul italian de paste finoase Barilla. Organiza ia a constatat c mrimea comenzilor sptmnale primite de la un centru de distribu ie nregistra varia ii foarte mari. De-a lungul unui an, raportul dintre cea mai mic i cea mai mare comand transmis de centrul de distribu ie a fost de 1:70. Analiza vnzrilor sptmnale ale centrului, pe baza comenzilor primite de la supermagazine, a indicat o varia ie de numai 1:3. n SUA, pe pia a a produselor de bcnie, n anii '90, cercetrile au artat c 80% din volumul tranzac iilor dintre productori i distribuitori reprezentau cumprri n avans n raport cu necesit ile, efectuate, de obicei, ca urmare a pre urilor atractive (Kurt Salmon Associates, 1993). Specialitii au estimat c rezultatul cumprrilor n avans s-a concretizat n stocuri de 75-100 miliarde USD, n sectorul produselor de bcnie (Sellers, 1992). Un alt caz este Hewlett Packard. Organiza ia a constatat c fluctua iile comenzilor sporeau semnificativ pe msur ce se transmiteau n amonte, n lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare, de la revnztori la divizia de imprimante i apoi la divizia de circuite integrate. Varia ia comenzilor primite de divizia de circuite era mai mare dect varia ia cererii pentru produsul finit. Exist sectoare de activitate care s-au confruntat cu efectul lovitur de bici de-a lungul unor intervale mari de timp. De exemplu, n perioada 19851998, au existat cel pu in dou cicluri n care au fluctuat pre urile memoriilor, ntr-un raport de 1:3. Varia iile au fost generate fie de deficite, fie de excedente de capacitate. Disponibilitatea sczut a produselor a generat o cretere rapid a comenzilor, n timp ce stocurile mari au avut drept consecin o scdere rapid a cererii.

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3. Impactul asupra performan ei Efectul lovitur de bici influen eaz n mod direct indicatorii de performan , la fiecare nivel al lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Impactul este generat de conflictul dintre obiectivele stadiilor succesive ale re elei i de distorsionarea informa iilor. Efectul este vizibil n varia ia costurilor, a intervalului de reaprovizionare, a disponibilit ii produselor i profitabilit ii. Categoriile majore de costuri afectate de efectul lovitur de bici sunt urmtoarele: a) Costurile de produc ie. Productorul i planific activitatea pe baza fluxului de comenzi primite de la nivelul imediat din aval (distribuitori/ angrositi / detailiti). Datorit efectului lovitur de bici, seriile de fabrica ie vor nregistra o varia ie mai mare comparativ cu varia ia cererii utilizatorului final. Un productor ce reac ioneaz rapid la schimbrile privind comenzile primite nu va beneficia de economii de scal sau de avantajele produc iei continue. Costurile de produc ie cresc fie datorit capacit ii excedentare, fie datorit surplusului de stocuri. b) Costul stocurilor i costurile de depozitare. Efectul lovitur de bici sporete costul stocurilor i costurile de depozitare. Pentru a satisface cererea variabil exprimat de nivelurile din avalul lan ului, furnizorii vor constitui stocuri mai mari. n consecin , vor avea nevoie de spa iu de depozitare suplimentar, care va implica o cretere a costurilor. c) Costurile de transport. Varia ia cererii exprimate de nivelurile lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare conduce la creterea cheltuielilor de transport. Furnizorii trebuie s investeasc resurse n capacit i de transport suplimentare, pentru a satisface creterile neateptate ale cererii. Capacitatea suplimentar, fie c este proprietatea organiza iei, fie c este nchiriat, va genera costuri.

AE

3. The impact on performance The bullwhip effect has a direct influence upon the performance indicators at each stage of the supply chain. The impact is generated by the conflict between the objectives of the subsequent stages and the information distortion. The effect is visible in the variation of costs, lead time, product availability and profitability. The major cost categories affected by the bullwhip effect are the following: a) Manufacturing costs. The producer plans its activity based on the stream of orders received from the immediate downstream stage (wholesalers/distributors/retailers). Due to the bullwhip effect, the production runs will witness a larger variability than that specific to the demand of the end-user. A manufacturer that is very responsive to the changes in the received orders does not enjoy economies of scale and the advantages of continuous production runs. The manufacturing costs increase due to either excess capacity or excess inventory. b) Inventory and warehousing costs. The bullwhip effect increases the inventory and warehousing costs. In order to meet the variable demand expressed by the downstream levels, suppliers may build higher inventories. Consequently they will need additional storage space that will incur a raise in costs. c) Transportation costs. The variation in the demand expressed by the supply chain stages implies increased transportation costs. Suppliers must invest resources in additional transportation capacity to meet the unexpected demand peaks. Either owned by the organization or rented for a specific high-demand period, the extra capacity will entail costs.

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d) Labor costs. The shipment and reception of goods are also affected by the bullwhip effect. To handle additional volumes of goods, each stage of the supply chain bears higher costs. This situation is experienced by companies irrespective of the method of ensuring the necessary human resources, either maintaining excess labor capacity or hiring temporarily in response to the demand variations. At the same time, the lead time is influenced by the bullwhip effect. A supplier needs time to adjust when it faces an unforeseeable upsurge in demand. To meet the requests of the distributors/wholesalers/retailers at the immediate downstream level, a manufacturer may need to start a new production run and eventually to place orders with suppliers of raw materials and components. A distributor will place additional orders with the current suppliers and/or contact new suppliers.

d) Costurile cu resursele umane. Livrarea i recep ia mrfurilor sunt afectate, la rndul lor, de efectul lovitur de bici. Pentru a manipula volume sporite de produse, fiecare nivel al lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare va suporta costuri mai mari. Organiza iile se confrunt cu aceast situa ie indiferent de metoda de asigurare a resurselor umane, ori prin men inerea unei volum excedentar ori prin angajarea temporar, ca rspuns la varia iile cererii. n acelai timp, intervalul de reaprovizionare este influen at de efectul lovitur de bici. Un furnizor are nevoie de timp pentru a ajusta oferta sa, atunci cnd se confrunt cu o cretere neateptat a cererii. Pentru a ndeplini solicitrile distribuitorilor/angrositilor/detailitilor de la nivelul imediat urmtor din avalul lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare, productorul poate avea nevoie s ini ieze o nou serie de fabrica ie i chiar s efectueze comenzi suplimentare la furnizorii actuali de materii prime i componente. Un distribuitor va transmite comenzi suplimentare furnizorilor actuali i/sau va contacta noi furnizori. n lan urile de aprovizionare-livrare afectate de efectul lovitur de bici, disponibilitatea produselor este un aspect critic. Varia ia neateptat a comenzilor clien ilor poate conduce la rupturi de stoc la nivelul furnizorului, atunci cnd cererea este mai mare dect stocurile existente. Astfel, membrii lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare vor nregistra pierderi de vnzri i de profit, pn cnd vor fi capabili s rspund la solicitrile cumprtorilor finali. Efectul lovitur de bici are un impact negativ asupra profitabilit ii. Afecteaz performan a fiecrui nivel al lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Amploarea acestui efect crete ca urmare a lipsei de coordonare dintre membrii lan ului.

In the supply chains affected by the bullwhip effect, product availability is a critical issue. The unexpected variability of customer orders may lead to stockouts at the supplier level when demand is higher than the existing inventory. Thus, the members of the supply chain will loose sales and profits until they are able to respond to the end-buyer requests.

The bullwhip effect has a negative influence on profitability. It affects the performance at each stage of the supply chain. The magnitude of this effect increases due to the lack of coordination between the chain members.

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4. Principalele cauze ale efectului lovitur de bici Efectul lovitur de bici este generat de o gam larg de factori. Este legat de politicile de optimizare axate pe fiecare nivel al lan ului de aprovizionarelivrare, fr considerarea unor obiective comune pentru ntreaga re ea. Printre cauzele majore care conduc la apari ia unui decalaj ntre varia ia cererii i varia ia comenzilor la furnizori, precum i la amplificarea decalajului respectiv, pe msur ce comenzile se transmit din aval spre amonte, se nscriu urmtoarele: a) Stimulentele oferite. La fiecare nivel al lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare, organiza iile utilizeaz stimulente pentru a recompensa comportamente ce conduc la o cretere a propriilor vnzri i profituri, indiferent de impactul asupra altor membri ai re elei. De exemplu, o organiza ie poate ncuraja un declin al costurilor de transport, fr a lua n considerare efectul asupra nivelului de servire a clientului i povara stocurilor suplimentare pentru ceilal i membri ai re elei. Un alt exemplu const n stimulentele pentru for a de vnzri, care sunt acordate n decursul unei perioade de promovare a vnzrilor, n func ie de cantitatea vndut nivelului imediat urmtor din aval, nu n func ie de cantitatea vndut clien ilor finali. Astfel de stimulente aplicate de productor vor spori vnzrile ctre distribuitori fr a avea n vedere cererea cumprtorului final i vor genera o mare varia ie a comenzilor nainte i dup campania promo ional. b) Distorsionarea informa iilor. Efectul lovitur de bici este nregistrat de organiza iile care realizeaz previziuni ce se bazeaz pe comenzile primite, nu pe cerere, i care nu schimb informa ii cu ceilal i membri ai lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare.

AE

4. The major causes of the bullwhip effect The bullwhip effect is generated by a wide array of factors. It is related to the focus of the optimization policies on each stage of the supply chain without considering common objectives for the entire network. Among the major causes that lead to a gap between the variability in demand and in orders to suppliers and to the amplification of this gap upwards in the network range the following: a) Incentives provided. At each stage of the supply chain, companies use incentives to reward behaviors that lead to the increase in own sales and profitability, irrespective of the impact on the other members of the network. For example, a company may encourage a decline in the transportation costs, disregarding the effect on the customer service level and the additional inventory burden for the other chain members. Another example consists in the sales force incentives granted during a promotion period according to the quantity sold to the next level of the supply chain (sell-in), not to the quantity sold to the final customers (sell-through). Such incentives applied by a manufacturer will increase the sales to distributors without any consideration of the end-buyer demand, generating large variability in the order pattern during and after the promotion period. b) Information distortion. The bullwhip effect is experienced by companies that make forecasts that are based on orders not on demand and that do not share information with the other members of the supply chain.

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Often, companies do not have upto-date, relevant and sufficient information about the demand expressed by end-users. The increase in the number of levels within the supply chain between the company and the end-buyers makes the situation even worse. Under such circumstances, the organization forecasts the future sales based on the most easily accessible data, more precisely the orders placed by the customers from the immediate downstream level. This approach is misleading because small changes in the final demand are magnified when orders move upstream in the supply chain. Information distortion is also generated by the lack of data sharing between the supply chain stages. For example, the sales increase due to a promotion organized by a hypermarket chain without the participation or knowledge of the producer will be interpreted by the latter as a permanent augmentation in demand. The consequence will be excess inventory built by the manufacturer that expects that higher demand materializes in the future. c) Order placing practices. The variability may increase due to factors such as ordering in large lots, large replenishment lead times, rationing and shortage gaming. Ordering in lots larger than actual demand will amplify the bullwhip effect. The reason for ordering quantities larger than the demand is the propensity towards cost reduction when placing, receiving or transporting an order. The longer the lead time, the stronger the bullwhip effect because the supplier incorporates the variability of a larger demand volume (for example an order for one month instead of an order for one week). The rationing schemes add variability in situation of scarce supply of product.

Adesea, organiza iile nu dispun de informa ii actuale, relevante i suficiente despre cererea exprimat de utilizatorii finali. Creterea numrului de niveluri din lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare, ntre organiza ie i cumprtorii finali, nrut ete situa ia. n astfel de condi ii, organiza iile previzioneaz vnzrile viitoare pe baza celor mai accesibile date, mai precis pe baza comenzilor primite de la clien i din nivelul imediat urmtor din avalul re elei. Aceast abordare induce n eroare, deoarece schimbrile mici ale cererii finale sunt amplificate atunci cnd comenzile sunt transmise n amonte, n lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare. De exemplu, creterea vnzrilor datorit unei campanii de promovare organizate de un lan de hipermagazine fr participarea sau informarea productorului va fi interpretat de acesta din urm ca o cretere permanent a cererii. Consecin a va fi un exces de stocuri creat de productorul care se ateapt ca sporul respectiv al vnzrilor s se materializeze i n viitor. c) Practicile privind formularea i onorarea comenzilor. Varia ia poate spori datorit unor factori cum sunt efectuarea de comenzi pentru loturi mari, intervalele de reaprovizionare mai mari, practicile de ra ionalizare i joc n caz de penurie. Efectuarea de comenzi pentru loturi mai mari dect cererea efectiv va amplifica efectul lovitur de bici. Motivul efecturii unor astfel de comenzi este nclina ia spre reducerea costurilor de efectuare a comenzii, de recep ie i transport. Cu ct este mai mare timpul de reaprovizionare, cu att este mai puternic efectul lovitur de bici, deoarece furnizorul ncorporeaz varia ia unui volum mai mare de comenzi (de exemplu, o comand pentru o lun, n loc de o comand pentru o sptmn). Schemele de ra ionalizare adaug variabilitate n situa iile de deficit de produse.

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Conform unei astfel de practici, furnizorul aloc fiecrui client solicitant, din volumul disponibil de produse, pe baza ponderii comenzii acestuia n volumul total al comenzilor primite. Totui, clien ii care cunosc faptul c furnizorul aplic o schem de ra ionalizare vor recurge la practici de joc ce vor consta n creterea comenzilor peste nevoia real, n speran a de a ob ine o cantitate mai mare din resursa deficitar. Astfel, furnizorul are o imagine deformat asupra cererii pie ei i poate percepe n mod incorect creterea comenzilor ca fiind o cretere a cererii. d) Politicile de pre . Reducerile de pre aplicate de furnizori n func ie de volumul comenzilor pot produce muta ii n cererea exprimat de nivelurile din avalul lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Un pre atractiv oferit n cadrul unei promovri de scurt durat i va stimula pe clien i s comande cantit i mai mari dect cererea efectiv. Perioada de vrf n privin a livrrilor realizate de furnizor va fi urmat de un interval cu mai pu ine comenzi i vnzri mai mici. e) Comportamentul membrilor lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Amploarea efectului lovitur de bici depinde totodat de problemele de nv are din cadrul organiza iilor membre ale lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Organiza iile respective nu nva din efectul lovitur de bici deoarece consecin ele ac iunilor ntreprinse la un anumit nivel se manifest n alte pr i ale lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Lipsa de ncredere n membrii lan ului de aprovizionare livrare ncurajeaz abordarea oportunist la fiecare nivel i concentrarea asupra optimizrii locale. Toate cauzele men ionate amplific efectul lovitur de bici i conduc la o sub-optimizare pe ansamblul lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare.

AE

According to such a practice, the supplier allocates the available product quantity to the customers based on the share of their orders in the overall volume of the orders received. However, the customers who know about the rationing scheme may apply gaming practices that inflate the orders hoping to get more of the scarce resource. Thus, the supplier has a distorted image about the market demand and may incorrectly perceive the increase in orders as a demand augmentation. d) Price policies. The quantity discounts applied by suppliers may shift the demand expressed by the next levels within the chain. An attractive price during a short-term promotion will stimulate customers to order quantities larger than the actual demand. The peak period in the shipments made by supplier is followed by an interval with fewer shipments and lower sales.

e) Behavior of the supply chain members. The magnitude of the bullwhip effect also depends on the learning problems within the organizations that participate to the supply chain. The companies do not learn from the bullwhip effect because the consequences of the actions taken at a particular stage occur in another part of the supply chain. The lack of trust between the members of the supply chain encourages the opportunistic approach of each stage and a focus on local optimization. All the above mentioned causes amplify the bullwhip effect and lead to an under-optimization of the entire chain.

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The companies acting on the symptoms that are visible at their stage not on the actual causes incur higher costs and lower profitability until the moment when they decide to act upon the real causes and adopt a supply chain perspective.

Organiza iile care ac ioneaz asupra simptomelor ce sunt vizibile la nivelul lor, n cadrul re elei, nu asupra cauzelor efective, vor suporta costuri mai mari i vor avea o profitabilitate mai mic, pn n momentul n care vor decide s ac ioneze asupra cauzelor reale i s adopte o perspectiv axat pe ntregul lan de aprovizionare-livrare. 5. mbunt irea coordonrii n lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare n prezent, filosofia managementului lan ului de aprovizionare - livrare subliniaz c obiectivul oricrui lan este maximizarea valorii totale generate de membri pentru companiile lor i clien i. Managementul lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare presupune gestiunea fluxurilor de informa ii i fluxurilor materiale astfel nct s fie maximizat profitabilitatea re elei n ansamblul ei (Blan, 2006). n esen , managementul lan ului de aprovizionarelivrare se bazeaz pe ideea cooperrii ntre nivelurile succesive i pe integrarea extern. Din aceast perspectiv, un grad mai nalt de coordonare i integrare va avea ca rezultat direct o scdere substan ial a efectului lovitur de bici. Pentru a stimula coordonarea n lan ul de aprovizionare - livrare, organiza iile pot s aplice urmtoarele strategii: a) Alinierea scopurilor i stimulentelor. Fiecare organiza ie poate alinia (corela) scopurile i stimulentele, pentru a maximiza efectele pozitive pe ansamblul lan ului de aprovizionarelivrare, nu doar la nivelul propriu din re ea. Pe de o parte, n interiorul organiza iei, obiectivele fiecrei func ii sunt aliniate cu obiectivele generale corporative. Pe de alt parte, fiecare membru poate aplica strategii care maximizeaz profiturile re elei, cum ar fi recumprarea produselor, mpr irea beneficiilor i contractele de flexibilitate n privin a cantit ilor.

5. Improved coordination in the supply chain At present, the philosophy of the supply chain management (SCM) underlines that the objective of every chain is to maximize the overall value generated by the members to their companies and customers. SCM implies managing the material and information flows in order to maximize the total supply chain profitability (Balan, 2006). In essence, SCM is based on the idea of cooperation among subsequent stages and on external integration. From such a perspective, a higher degree of coordination and integration will have as direct result a substantial decrease in the bullwhip effect. In order to increase coordination in the supply chain, companies may apply the following strategies: a) Alignment of goals and incentives. Each company may align its goals and incentives, in order to maximize the positive effects at the supply chain level, not at the local level of a specific chain stage. On one side, inside the company, the objectives of each function are aligned with the corporate objectives. On the other side, each member may apply strategies that will maximize the chain profits, such as buy-back, revenue sharing and quantity flexibility contracts.

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b) Comunicarea datelor ntre membri. n sectorul bunurilor de consum, comunicarea datelor despre vnzrile cu amnuntul, ob inute prin sistemul de scanare la casele de marcat, va spori capacitatea diferitelor niveluri ale lan ului de a face fa efectului lovitur de bici. Utilizarea unor solu ii IT adecvate asigur pentru fiecare nivel, informa ii mai precise, suficiente i actuale despre cererea pie ei. c) Reaprovizionarea controlat de un singur stadiu al lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Aceast strategie const n selectarea unui singur nivel care s adopte decizia de reaprovizionare pentru toate nivelurile din lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare. O variant posibil const n programele de reaprovizionare continu, conform crora angrosistul sau productorul are responsabilitatea de a completa periodic stocul detailistului, pe baza datelor de la punctele de vnzare, sau de a retrage mrfuri din depozitele detailistului. O alt strategie aplicabil este stocul gestionat de vnztor, potrivit creia deciziile de reaprovizionare sunt centralizate pentru to i detailitii, la nivelul unui distribuitor sau productor din amonte. Astfel, sunt evitate sau diminuate substan ial fluctua iile mari ale comenzilor. d) Strategiile de mbunt ire a performan elor opera ionale. Efectul lovitur de bici este diminuat de decizii cum sunt: reducerea intervalului de reaprovizionare; scderea dimensiunii loturilor comandate; ra ionalizarea pe baza vnzrilor anterioare, nu pe baza comenzilor; schimburile de informa ii pentru a limita jocul. e) Stabilizarea comenzilor cu ajutorul unor strategii de pre adecvate. n locul reducerilor de pre oferite clien ilor n func ie de volumul fiecrui lot comandat, furnizorii pot s considere reducerile bazate pe ntreaga

AE

b) Data sharing among members. In the consumer goods sector, sharing point of sales data will enhance the capability of the supply chain stages to cope with the bullwhip effect. The use of appropriate information technology solution will ensure for each level more accurate, sufficient and up-to-date information about the market demand.

c) Single stage control of replenishment. This strategy consists in selecting only one stage that makes the replenishment decision for the entire chain. A possible alternative are the continuous replenishment programs, according to which the wholesaler or the manufacturer has the responsibility to regularly replenish the retailer inventory based on point of sale data or withdrawals of merchandise from the retailer warehouses. Another potential alternative strategy is the vendor-managed inventory according to which the replenishment decisions for all retailers are centralized at the level of the upstream distributor or manufacturer. The large fluctuations in orders are thus avoided or substantially reduced. d) Strategies for the improvement of the operational performance. The bullwhip effect is diminished by decisions such as: reducing replenishment lead time, reducing lot sizes, rationing based on past sales not on share of orders, information sharing to limit gaming. e) Stabilizing orders with appropriate pricing strategies. Instead of discounts provided according to the quantity of each ordered lot, suppliers may consider the discounts based on the

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overall quantity ordered by the customer from the next downstream level during a specified period, such as a year. Thus, the supplier does not encourage a behavior that amplifies variability within the chain. Shifting from the lot size-based to volume-based quantity discounts suppliers positively impact the overall chain performance.

cantitate comandat de clientul de la nivelul imediat urmtor din aval, ntr-o anumit perioad, de exemplu un an. Astfel, furnizorul nu ncurajeaz un comportament ce amplific varia ia n lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare. Reorientarea de la reducerile de pre acordate n func ie de volumul comenzii, la reducerile n func ie de volumul total al comenzilor dintr-un anumit interval va avea un impact pozitiv asupra performan ei ntregului lan de aprovizionare-livrare. f) Crearea de parteneriate strategice i dezvoltarea ncrederii. n prezent, specialitii n marketing subliniaz importan a marketingului rela ional. Principalele obiective (Grnroos, 1994) ale organiza iilor care aplic strategiile de marketing rela ional sunt identificarea, stabilirea, men inerea, dezvoltarea i, atunci cnd este necesar, terminarea rela iilor cu clien ii i alte categorii de tip stakeholder, n mod profitabil, astfel nct scopurile tuturor pr ilor implicate s fie ndeplinite. Aceste lucruri sunt posibile prin schimb reciproc i ndeplinirea promisiunilor. Managementul lan ului de aprovizionarelivrare este strns legat de filosofia marketingului rela ional. Inciden a i amplitudinea efectului lovitur de bici pot fi diminuate cu ajutorul unor strategii i decizii armonizate ntre diferitele niveluri ale lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Cuvintele cheie sunt cooperare, coordonare, comunicare i ncredere. Concluzii Articolul a explorat principalele cauze care genereaz efectul lovitur de bici i impactul su asupra performan ei lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Totodat, au fost abordate aspecte referitoare la coordonare, n scopul diminurii efectului lovitur de bici.

f) Building strategic partnerships and trust. At present, marketers underline the importance of relationship marketing. The main objectives (Grnroos, 1994) followed by the organizations applying relationship marketing strategies are to identify and establish, maintain and enhance and, when necessary, terminate relationships with customers and other stakeholders, at a profit so that the goals of all parties involved are met. This is done by mutual exchange and fulfillment of promises. The supply chain management is closely related to the relationship marketing philosophy.

The incidence and amplitude of the bullwhip effect may be reduced by strategies and decisions that are harmonized along the stages of the supply chain. The key words are cooperation, coordination, communication and trust.

Conclusions The article has explored the major causes that generate the bullwhip effect and the impact upon the supply chain performance. At the same time, it has approached the coordination issue in order to diminish the bullwhip effect.

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Amploarea i influen a efectului pe pia a romneasc nu au fost studiate n mod aprofundat. Unele dintre aspectele principale ce pot constitui teme de cercetare pentru viitoare studii sunt enumerate n continuare: inciden a efectului lovitur de bici n diferite sectoare de activitate; impactul efectului lovitur de bici asupra performan ei fiecrei organiza ii din lan ul de aprovizionarelivrare i asupra profitului ntregii re ele; obstacolele concrete n calea coordonrii n lan ul de aprovizionarelivrare; metodele aplicate de operatorii pie ei pentru a diminua impactul efectului lovitur de bici; compararea cu cele mai bune practici din Romnia i de pe plan mondial, n domeniul coordonrii ntre nivelurile lan ului de aprovizionarelivrare; metode alternative de creare a parteneriatelor dintre membrii lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare; solu ii IT pentru comunicarea i utilizarea n comun a informa iilor etc. Rezultatele unor astfel de studii pot contribui la mai buna n elegere a fenomenului lovitur de bici, precum i la managementul profitabil al resurselor de-a lungul ntregului lan de aprovizionare-livrare. Pe plan mondial, un numr tot mai mare de specialiti consider beneficiile cooperrii i integrrii externe n lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare. Impactul negativ al efectului lovitur de bici scade treptat, pe msur ce organiza iile nva s aplice strategii de marketing rela ional i s pun bazele unor parteneriate reciproc avantajoase. Membrii lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare pot reduce distorsionarea informa iilor i mbunt i profitabilitatea numai prin politici armonizate i reunirea resurselor.

AE

The size and influence of the bullwhip effect on the Romanian market have not been studied thoroughly. Some of the main aspects that may represent research topics for future studies are presented below: incidence of the bullwhip effect in various industries; actual impact of the bullwhip effect on the performance of each company within a supply chain and on the profitability of the entire network; actual obstacles to coordination within the supply chain; methods applied by market players to diminish the impact of the bullwhip effect; benchmarking with the best practices of supply chain coordination in Romania and abroad; alternative methods for building partnerships among the members of the supply chain; IT solutions for information sharing etc. The results of such studies may contribute to the better understanding of the bullwhip phenomenon as well as to the profitable management of resources in the entire supply chain. Organizations will switch from competing alone in the market to competing with the network to which they belong against other supply chains. Worldwide, an ever greater number of specialists consider the benefits of cooperation and external integration in the supply chains. The negative impact of the bullwhip effect diminishes gradually as companies learn to apply relationship marketing strategies and build mutually beneficial partnerships. The supply chain members may reduce information distortion and improve profitability only by harmonized policies and joined resources.

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Nota de final 1 Termenul bullwhip este originar din limba englez. O traducere echivalent n limba romn ar putea fi lovitur de bici sau lovitur de crava. Aceti termeni pot fi utiliza i pentru capacitatea lor de a sugera varia ia mai mare a comenzilor transmise furnizorilor, comparativ cu varia ia cererii la nivelul final al lan ului de aprovizionare livrare. Sintagma lovitur de bici evoc traiectoria sinusoidal a biciului n momentul utilizrii sale i generarea unui efect semnificativ la captul biciului printr-un efort relativ mic de manevrare a mnerului acestuia.

References [1] Blan, C., Logistica: parte integrant a lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare, Editura Uranus, Bucureti, 2006, pp. 312-315. [2] Burbidge, J.L., The new approach to production, Production Engineer, Vol. 40, 1961, pp. 3-19. [3] Buzzell, R.D.; Quelch, J.A.; Salmon, W.J., The costly bargain of trade promotions, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 68, March-April 1990, pp. 141-148. [4] Forrester, J.W., Industrial Dynamics, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1961. [5] Grnroos, C., From marketing mix to relationship marketing: toward a paradigm shift in marketing, Management Decisions, Vol. 32, No. 2, 1994, pp. 4-20. [6] Holstrom, J., Product range management: A case study of supply chain operations in the European grocery industry, Supply Chain Management, Vol. 2, No. 3, 1997, pp. 107115. [7] Kelly, K., Burned by busy signals: Why Motorola ramped up production way past demand, Business Week, No. 6, 1995, p. 36. [8] Kurt Salmon Associates, Efficient Consumer Response: Enhancing Consumer Value in the Grocery Industry, 1993, Atlanta, GA. [9] Lee, H.L.; Padmanabhan, V.; Whang S., Information Distortion in a Supply Chain: The Bullwhip Effect, Management Science, Vol. 43, 1997, pp. 546-558. [10] Lee, H.L.; Padmanabhan, V.; Whang S., The Bullwhip Effect in Supply Chains, Sloan Management Review, Vol. 38, No.3, Spring 1997, pp. 93-102. [11] Lee, H.L.; So, K.C.; Tang C.S., The value of information sharing in a two-level supply chain, Management Science, Vol. 46, No. 5, 2000, pp. 626-643. [12] Metters, R., Quantifying the bullwhip effect in supply chains, Journal of Operations Management, Columbia, May 1997. [13] Sellers, P., The dumbest marketing ploy, Fortune, Vol. 126, 1992, pp. 88-93. [14] Sterman, J.D., Modeling managerial behavior: misperceptions of feedback in a dynamic decision-making experiment, Management Science, Vol. 35, No. 3, 1989, pp. 321329.

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AE

ACUMULRI I DEZVOLTARE N LOGISTICA COMERCIAL

(Accumulations and development in commercial logistics) Prof. univ. dr. Ion Schileru Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia schileru@yahoo.com Rezumat Lucrarea prezint un periplu conota ional i o evaluare a statutului unuia dintre cele mai dinamice domenii ale afacerilor logistica. Dei utilizat de foarte mult vreme n domeniul militar, logistica s-a afirmat relativ recent n domeniul afacerilor, unde a adus contribu ii revolu ionare i unde are un statut privilegiat. Sunt prezentate semnifica ii particulare ale logisticii din unele domenii de aplica ie: produc ie, distribu ie, studiul mrfurilor. De altfel, viziunea ntreag a lucrrii este desfurat apropiat de problematica mrfurilor, fapt explicat de apartenen a autorului la mediul academic de specialitate (cadru didactic la Catedra de Merceologie i Managementul calit ii, de la Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti). n evolu ia conceptual a termenului logistic sunt eviden iate conceptele i no iunile cheie ale definirii, care redau contextul complex tehnic, economic, organiza ional, social n care s-a afirmat i a circulat termenul: statutul de tiin i art, programarea/ planificarea ca metod de abordare, organizarea orientrii activit ilor pe fluxuri (materiale, financiare, de informa ii), afirmarea conceptului de lan logistic i trecerea de la logistica de distribu ie la Supply Chain Management SCM i, mai departe, la conceptul integrator actual. Problema logisticii inverse este prezentat ca derivnd din extensiile actuale i din imperativele socio-economice i normative ale perioadei pe care o traversm. Sunt prezentate considera ii legate de importan a logisticii pentru domeniul afacerilor i sunt oferite informa ii asupra tradi iei pregtirii studen ilor economiti n nv mntul superior din Romnia. Cuvinte cheie: logistica, logistica comercial, logistica mrfurilor, logistica invers, nv mnt economic. Clasificarea JEL: A23, D11, D21, F18, M14, M21, O24 Abstract The work presents a connotative periplus and an evaluation of one of the most dynamic business fields- logistics. Although used for a long time in the military department, logistics has affirmed itself relatively recent in business field, where it brought revolutionary contributions and where it has a privileged statute. There are presented particular significations of logistics from some of the application fields: production, distribution, merchandise study. In addition, the whole vision of the work is presented taking in consideration the merchandise matter, situation explained by the writers affiliation to the specialized academic environment (teaching staff of The Science of Commodities and Quality Management Chair, of the Academy of Economic Studies, from Bucharest.) In the conceptual evolution of the term logistics, there are emphasized the concepts and the keys of the definition, that express the whole context- technical, economic,

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organizational and social- where the term has distinguished itself: science and art statute, programming/planning as an approach method, organization of flow activities (material, financial, informational), affirmation of the logistical chain concept and passing from distribution logistics to the Supply Chain Management-SCM, and further, to the actual concept. The matter of inverse logistics is presented as a descendent of the actual extensions and of the socio- economic and normative imperatives of the period that we are crossing through. There are presented considerations regarding the importance of logistics in business field and there are given information about the tradition of preparing students in The Higher Education System, in Romania. Keywords: logistics, commercial logistics, merchandise logistics, inverse logistics, economic education. JEL Classification: A23, D11, D21, F18, M14, M21, O24 Introducere Problematica logisticii n general, i a logisticii de afaceri n particular, suscit un interes cu totul special n contextul mondializrii pie ei i al amplelor reconfigurri ale lumii. n lucrarea de fa se urmrete eviden ierea evolu iei conceptului logistic n variatele contexte i sublinierea elementelor dinamice ale fiecrui context n defini ia conceptului, cu comentarea situa iilor mai deosebite. Scopul lucrrii este centrat pe nevoia de adecvare a programelor de pregtire a studen ilor din facult ile de administrare a afacerilor i a specialitilor din practic la nivelul realit ii profesionale din acest domeniu foarte dinamic i de cert perspectiv. 1. Logistica - origine i areal de semnifica ii Termenul logistic are, conform surselor curente, origine european, provenind din limba greac sau din limba francez i ar fi fost folosit pn recent, cel mai frecvent, de mediile armate1. Dic ionarele limbilor moderne con in informa ii similare: Le Petit Larousse2, Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary3, BBC English Dictionary4. Introduction The matter of logistics, in general, and the matter of business logistics, in particular, arouses a very special interest in the context of globalization market and the vast reconfigurations of the world. The present work presents the evolution of logistics concept in many contexts and it underlines the dynamic elements of each context in the definition of the concept, with the remarks of those special situations. The purpose of the work is to prepare the students of the Business Administration Faculties and the practicing specialists to the level of the professional reality of this vast and perspective field.

1. Logistics - origins and area of significances The term logistics has, according to the current sources, European origin; proceeding from Greece or France and it has been used, until now, the most frequent, by the army1. The dictionaries of the modern languages have similar information: Le Petit Larousse2, Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary3, and BBC English Dictionary4.

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Neraportat la un domeniu de aplica ie, Logistica poate fi considerat tiin a i arta potrivirii5 unui context complex de cerin e: asigurarea existen ei unei materialit i (ce), n cantitatea dorit (ct), n condi iile dorite ori specificate (cum), la locul dorit (unde) i la momentul dorit (cnd). ntr-o formulare care se desfoar, de asemenea, deasupra particularizrilor, logistica este o activitate de servicii care are ca obiect controlul desfurrii fluxurilor de resurse ale unei organiza ii punnd la dispozi ie aceste resurse conform cerin elor, condi iilor economice i de calitate determinate, n condi ii de securitate i siguran satisfctoare. Orice particularizare a cerin elor exprimate mai sus relev defini ii specifice unui domeniu, o viziune, o teorie etc. Bunoar, obiectul logisticii dac nu mai este material, avem situa ia serviciilor, pentru care s-ar putea considera improprie o logistic, dei fondul problemei nu are nimic denaturat, celelalte cerin e fiind identic aplicabile. De altfel, n evolu ia sa, logistica a ajuns chiar la stadiul la care este un comer cu servicii de specialitate. Condi ia cerin elor dorite ori specificate poate face loc unui evantai de specificit i, care reflect tot attea contexte: cerin e de economicitate (costuri minime sau costuri exacte), cerin e de natur tehnic (un anume mijloc de transport, un anumit ambalaj etc.), cerin e de livrare (divizat, ntreg, ntr-o ordine prestabilit a elementelor din flux) .a.m.d. Aceste particularizri se reflect n defini iile regsite n sursele din diversele domenii. n viziunea economic/de afaceri (Business logistics), principiul central al logisticii este orientat spre realizarea tuturor elementelor lan ului de procese, de la materii prime, la procesele de produc ie i inventarele/eviden ele finale, cu cel mai mic cost posibil.

AE

Without regarding the application field, Logistics can be considered the science and the art of the suitability5 of a vast context of requirements: the assurance of a materiality (what), in a desired quantity (how much), in specified conditions (how), at a desired place (where) and at a desired moment (when). In a formulation that, also, takes places, above particularizations, logistics is an activity of services which has as an object, the control of flows resources deploy of an organization and it provides these resources according to requirements, to determined economic and quality conditions, in a satisfactory security and safety mode. Any particularization of the requirements presented above reveals definitions peculiar to a domain, a vision, a theory etc. For example, if the logistics object is not material, we have the situations of services and logistics can be considered improper, although the problem does not have anything distorted, the other requirements being identical. In addition, logistics has reached the stadium of a specialty commerce service. The condition of the desired requirements can give place to a specificities fan, which reflects so many contexts: economic requirements (minimal or exact costs), technical requirements (a certain mean of transportation, a certain package etc), delivery requirements (divided, undivided, in a certain order of the flow elements) and so on. These particularizations reflect in the definitions found in the sources of sundries domains. From business/economical point of view (Business Logistics), the central principle of logistics is oriented to the realization of all the elements of the process chain, from raw material to production processes and final inventories/evidences, with the lowest possible price.

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The affirmation of logistics in economy was generated by some notorious factors in the evolution of economy: the extinction of the railway (and, in consequence, the massive increase of the transported quantities from a place to another), the affirmation of the automobile as a facilitation formula of merchandise transportation, the modernization of technologies, the internationalization of the markets, the acceleration of innovation and diversification of the offer process. From military point of view (Military Logistics), for example, the time of resource relocation is important, reason why some dictionaries define the term logistics in this manner. ("The time related positioning of resources"). Oxford English Dictionary defines the term logistics as the division of military science which handles with acquirement, support and transportation of materials, staff and facilities. It is considered that military logistics was the source of developing civil, economic logistics, in a process which took place simultaneous: after the end of the military conflicts, the logistic problems have remained as acute as they were in the period of conflicts, only the object of the activities has, progressively, been changed with elements of civil life (assurance of populations food, assurance of sheltering conditions, assistance of medical support, organization of economic activity). From technical point of view (Production logistics), logistics is considered a branch of engineering which, rather, creates, human systems than machine systems, the logistics elements being pulled, especially, in the production field: the term logistics includes all the necessary steps for a fabrication process, from planning production to procurement, control, evidence, packaging and delivery.

Afirmarea logisticii n economie a fost generat i de c iva factori notorii n evolu ia economiei: extinderea cilor ferate (i, n consecin , creterea masiv a cantit ilor transportate dintr-un loc n altul), afirmarea automobilului ca formul de facilitare a transportului de mrfuri, modernizarea tehnologiilor, interna ionalizarea pie ei, accelerarea procesului de nnoire i diversificare a ofertei etc.

n viziune militar (Military logistics), de exemplu, timpul relocrii resurselor este esen ial, motiv pentru care unele dic ionare definesc logistica n aceast not ("The time related positioning of resources"). Dic ionarul Oxford English definete logistica drept bran a tiin ei militare care se ocup de procurarea, sus inerea i transportul materialelor, personalului i facilit ilor. Se consider c logistica militar a fost sursa dezvoltrii logisticii civile, economice, ntr-un proces care s-a desfurat n paralel: dup terminarea conflictelor militare, problemele specifice logisticii au rmas la fel de acute ca n perioada conflictelor, doar c obiectul activit ilor a fost treptat schimbat cu elemente ale vie ii civile (asigurarea hranei popula iei, asigurarea condi iilor de adpost, acordarea asisten ei medicale, organizarea activit ii economice etc.). n viziune tehnic (Production logistics), logistica este considerat o ramur a ingineriei care creeaz mai degrab sisteme umane dect sisteme main, elementele logisticii fiind cantonate ndeosebi n sfera produc iei: no iunea de logistic cuprinde to i paii unui proces de fabrica ie, de la planificarea produc iei, la aprovizionare, control, eviden , ambalare, livrare.

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n viziune comercial, logistica include etapele de cumprare a mrfurilor, transport, vmuire, control, recep ie, depozitare, resortimentare, pregtire pentru livrare - (re)ambalare, marcare, etichetare, formare comenzi, ntocmire documente livrare, livrare comenzi, returnare ambalaje i, dup caz, mrfuri refuzate/retrase etc. La acestea se mai adaug procese distincte cu component material minor, cum sunt circula ia documentelor, a informa iilor i a resurselor suport: mijloace materiale, resurse umane i resurse financiare implicate. Mai mult, imperative recente de natur normativ, civic i/sau deontologic reclam adugarea de etape suplimentare logisticii comerciale tradi ionale: recuperarea bunurilor materiale ieite din consum/exploatare, returnarea mrfurilor refuzate/retrase i a ambalajelor, care constituie aa-numita logistic invers. O viziune merceologic, tradi ional, asupra logisticii mrfurilor, cu denumire omonim sau apropiat (logistica mrfurilor/circuitul logistic al mrfurilor/circuitul tehnico-economic al mrfurilor) consider, pe lng elementele indicate la logistica comercial, i alte procese ori etape din via a fizic a mrfurilor, care ncep mult n amonte (de la materiile prime, continund cu aspecte din zona produc iei) i se ntind larg n aval, n etapa post-consum, cu probleme de natura reciclrii materiale (refolosire sau, dup caz, recuperare, reprelucrare i revalorificare) i energetice. Este o deosebire important ntre logistica merceologic i logistica mrfurilor. Prima cuprinde etapele corespondente problematicii Merceologiei ca tiin complex a mrfurilor, n care sunt urmrite toate aspectele legate direct sau indirect de conceptul marf, sub raport tehnic, economic, social etc.

AE

From commercial point of view, logistics includes stages as: buying merchandise, transportation, clearance, control, reception, warehousing, rearrangement and preparation for delivery(re)packaging, marking, labeling, ordering, elaborating delivery documents, delivering orders, returning packages and refused/returned merchandise. Besides all of these, it must be added the distinct processes with minor material component as: circulation of documents, information and support resources: material means, human and financial resources involved. Further more, recent normative, civic, and/or deontological imperatives claim the addition of supplementary stages to traditional commercial logistics: the recovery of material goods out of consumes/exploitation, the return of refused merchandise and packages that constitute the so called inverse logistics. A traditional vision of logistics of goods, with a homonymous, appropriate denomination (logistics of goods / logistic circuit of merchandise/ technicaleconomic circuit of goods) considers, besides the elements indicated by commercial logistics, some other processes or stages from the physical life of the merchandise, which start in the upstream side (from raw materials, going on with aspects from the production area) and which extend in the downstream side, in a post consume stage, with problems as material recycling (reusing or recovery, reprocessing and revaluation) and energetic problems. There is an important difference between commodities logistics and merchandise logistics. The first one includes problems stages of the science of commodities as a complex science of merchandise, which follows all the aspects, directly or indirectly, being concerned about the merchandise concept, under technical, economical and social aspect.

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The second one contains, rigorously, only the elements regarding the merchandise statute of goods, which exist, contextual, in selling-buying commerce, so, it presents those elements which are in the hypostasis of merchandise in its life. The literature of commodities emphasizes the fact that an ordinary good has the statute of merchandise when it represents the object of a sale-buying process and this hypostasis is, for many goods, repeated periodically: it is the case of cultural goods, immovable goods, intellectual goods etc. 2. Conceptual evolution in logistics After the Second World War, a maturation process of logistic principles took place in the civil environment, concomitantly with the explicit processing of military progresses in logistics. These progresses happened because of the experiences of the world war but also because of the many conflicts that fallowed it (Chorea, Vietnam, Middle Orient, Africa Wars), amplified by the experiences of some multi military campaigns determined by local conflicts, revolutions, droughts, hunger, earthquakes etc, that took place almost in all the regions of the world and that claimed new intervention formulas, representing additions to the arsenal of this domain. The process happened, especially, because the complexities of the problems regarding providing goods and their delivery in a delivery chain more and more complex, increased, and that required experts. Economic agents were determined, in the free economy area, at least, to improve, continuously, the methods peculiar to their activity areas, under the pressure of the competition. Gradually, the significances of logistics have included new elements, which reflect the intercession and the objectives peculiar to the fields they represent.

A doua con ine, la modul riguros, doar acele elemente care sunt legate de statutul de marf al bunurilor care se afl, contextual, n comer pentru vnzare cumprare, deci care sunt n ipostaze de marf n via a lor. Literatura merceologic relev faptul c un bun oarecare are statut de marf atunci cnd face obiectul vnzriicumprrii, iar aceast ipostaz este, pentru multe bunuri, repetat periodic: este cazul bunurilor culturale, bunurilor imobiliare, bunurilor intelectuale etc.

2. Evolu ie conceptual n logistic Dup al Doilea Rzboi Mondial s-a nregistrat un proces de maturizare a principiilor logisticii n mediul civil, concomitent cu preluarea explicit a progreselor logisticii militare. Aceste progrese s-au nregistrat n urma experien elor rzboiului mondial, dar i a marilor conflicte care au urmat (rzboaiele din Coreea, Vietnam, Orientul Mijlociu, Africa), la care s-au adugat experien ele unor campanii cvasimilitare determinate de conflicte locale, revolu ii, secet, foamete, cutremure etc., care au avut loc n mai toate regiunile lumii i care au reclamat formule noi de interven ie, constituind adausuri la arsenalul acestui domeniu. Procesul s-a datorat n principal creterii complexit ii problemelor de furnizare de bunuri i livrrii acestora ntr-un lan de furnizare tot mai globalizat, n care s-a sim it acut nevoia de exper i n domeniu. Agen ii economici, cel pu in n zona economiei libere, au fost determina i s perfec ioneze continuu metodele specifice ariilor lor de activitate, sub presiunea concuren ei. Treptat, semnifica iile logisticii au cuprins elemente noi, care reflect demersurile i obiectivele specifice domeniilor pe care le reprezint.

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O prim observa ie este legat de statutul acestui domeniu, numit din ce n ce mai frecvent o tiin i chiar o art, ceea ce ilustreaz atingerea unui stadiu de maturizare evident, n care se recunosc nu numai elemente de natura cunotin elor i a expertizei specialitilor din domeniu logisticieni , ci i manifestri ale talentului i intui iei creatoare, trsturi specifice artei. Principalele func ii ale unui manager de logistic include: managementul inventarului (Inventory Management), cumprarea, transportul, depozitarea, ca i ntrega planificare i organizare a acestor activit i. Managerii din logistic combin cunotin e generale despre fiecare dintre aceste func ii astfel nct s ob in o coordonare a resurselor din organiza ie. Evident specific spa iului economic este i conceptul de programare/ planificare (planificare, planificare integrat), care constituie o prim activitate definitorie a logisticii, eviden iat constant n defini iile autorilor economiti i ale celor din sectorul produc iei de bunuri. Prezen a constant a termenului fluxuri (de mrfuri, de produse, de resurse etc.) n defini iile logisticii denot caracterul cvasicontinuu al proceselor pe care le controleaz i dirijeaz, situa ie care este specific logisticii economice i vie ii civile i, mai mult, acest fapt arat o autonomizare a logisticii economice, o afirmare a ei ca domeniu distinct. Dac logistica militar este dezvoltat pe realit i incerte i perfec ionat astfel nct s rezolve situa ii n condi ii de incertitudine, surpriz i risc perpetuu, logistica economic ajunge s opereze n astfel de condi ii numai n faza acutizrii competi iei economice, care deja este evident n anumite domenii i pe anumite pie e. n logistica militar, exper ii dau solu ii pentru cnd i cum se mic resurse spre locul unde acestea sunt necesare.

AE

A prime observation is concerned about the statute of this field, called more and more frequently a science and, even, an art, situation that illustrates the achievement of a evident maturation stadium, which includes not only elements of knowledge and specialists expertise logiciansbut also manifestations of talent and creative intuition, features of art. The main attributions of a manager of logistics include: inventory management, buying, transportation, warehousing and, also, the whole planning and organizing of this activity. Managers of logistics combine the general knowledge for every function so that they could obtain a coordination of the organizations resources. Obviously, regarding the economic domain, it exists the concept of programming/planning (planning, integrate planning) which constitutes a prime divinatory activity of logistics, emphasized constantly by economic authors and by those who work in goods production field. The constants presence of the term flow (merchandise flow, products flow, resources flow) in the definitions of logistics reflects a multi continuous characteristic of the processes that it controls and manages, situations peculiar to the economic logistics and to the civil life, and more, this fact shows an automation of economic logistics, its affirmation as a distinct field. If military logistics is based on improbable realities that can improve it, so that it could solve new situations of incertitude, surprise and continuous risk conditions, economical logistics would operate in these conditions only in the phase of economical competition ingravescence, which is, already, obvious in certain field or markets. In military logistics, experts give solutions when and how the resources could move to the place where they are necessary.

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Maintaining in function the procurement lines, concomitantly with the interruption of the enemy lines is crucial, because the force of the army without food, fuel, and monition is out of defense and easily to defeat. In civil logistics, this fight takes place in non aggressive conditions, dictated by the principle of free competition, by a professional deontology and, especially, by standards which exist in national laws and in bi and multi lateral treaties. A feature of the definitions regarding business logistics is represented by emphasizing the optimal characteristic or, more plastically, of the proper characteristics, of proposed solutions (proper quantity, proper place and moment, proper quality). In this context, it must be underlined the fact that the target of activity in logistics is the maximum fructification of the normal courses of some natural processes (seasonal cycles, climate hypostasis) or economical (product life phases cycles, market evolutions) and so on. Other definitions indicate as a goal the minimization of costs, although it must be understood as a maximization of the profit. In business, as in some human activities, logistics objectives can be also independent from the economic aspects: it is the case of the medical emergency logistics or of the problems regarding transplants, which are oriented to the economical aspects, al least for a first approach. There are, also, situations in business, when the economic aspect is put on a secondary place, when an unexpectedly mobility or an imperative acquisition is needed. Initial commercial logistics has evolved continuously, from operation chain stadium regarding specific aspects (buying, transportation, clearance, reception, warehousing, delivery to endetail sales men) up to development formulas and it includes production

Men inerea n func iune a liniilor proprii de aprovizionare, concomitent cu ntreruperea liniilor inamicului este crucial, tiindu-se c o for armat fr alimente, combustibili i muni ie este lipsit de aprare i sortit condi iei de nvins. n logistica civil aceast lupt se d n condi ii nonagresive, impuse de principiul concuren ei libere, de o deontologie profesional i, mai ales, de norme con inute n legi na ionale i tratate bi- i multilateral. O trstur a defini iilor logisticii de afaceri o reprezint accentuarea caracterului optim sau, mai plastic, potrivit, al solu iilor propuse (cantitate potrivit, locul i momentul potrivite, calitatea potrivit etc.). n context, trebuie subliniat c inta activit ii de logistic o constituie fructificarea maxim a cursurilor normale ale unor procese naturale (cicluri sezoniere, ipostaze climatice) sau economice (cicluri de via ale produselor, evolu ii ale pie elor) .a. Alte defini ii indic drept int a ntregului proces minimizarea costurilor, dei trebuie n eles maximizarea profitului. Este cazul s observm c i n afaceri, ca i n unele domenii ale activit ii umane, activitatea de logistic poate avea i obiective independente de aspectele economice: este cazul logisticii medicale de urgen sau al mai recentelor probleme legate de transplanturi, care nu sunt orientate ctre aspectele economice, cel pu in n prim abordare. La fel, n afaceri, sunt situa ii cnd aspectul economic este trecut pe plan secundar, cnd este necesar o mobilitate subit sau o achizi ie imperativ. Logistica comercial ini ial a evoluat continuu, de la stadiul lan ului de opera ii viznd aspectele specifice (cumprarea, transportul, vmuirea, recep ia, depozitarea, livrarea la detailiti) spre formule dezvoltate, n care a nglobat i logistica de produc ie (centrat pe asigurarea fiecrui echipament de produc ie

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cu produse n cantitatea i calitatea programate, la timpul potrivit, astfel nct s se ob in scheme de micare a produselor caracterizate de ncrcarea optim a mijloacelor antrenate, fr timpi mor i i spa ii nguste). n etapa urmtoare s-au produs extensii n amonte, realiznd un lan logistic care cuprinde procese care se petrec la originea fluxului de resurse fizice i continu, n aval, pn la contactul cu clientul final; la fluxul de resurse fizice a fost nevoie s se organizeze fluxul informa iilor asociate (documente, mesaje etc.) i al resurselor financiare corespunztoare, transformnd, astfel, lan ul logistic ntr-un proces foarte complex de planificare, implementare i control a unui flux (flow) eficace i eficient de mrfuri (goods), servicii i informa ii specifice, de la punctul de origine la punctul de consum, astfel nct s se realizeze conformitatea cu cerin ele clientului.

AE

n aceast etap s-a consacrat conceptul de management al lan ului de livrare - supply chain management. Acum, aten ia trebuie s fie orientat asupra ntregului ciclu de via al produsului, adic de la extragerea materiei prime, la serviciile post-vnzare. Defini ia dat de National Council of Phisical Distribution Management este ilustrativ: logistica este transferul eficient de produse finite, ncepnd de la ieirea de pe linia de produc ie pn la consumatorul final i, cu siguran , include transferul materiei prime de la sursele de aprovizionare la linia de produc ie, apoi transportul, depozitarea, micarea materialelor, ambalarea de protec ie, gestiunea stocurilor, amplasamentul fabricatelor i al depozitelor, gestiunea comenzilor, previziunile de marketing i asisten a clien ilor.

logistics (centered on the assurance of each production equipment with products in a programmed quantity and quality, at a proper time, so that it could obtain movement schemes of the products characterized by an optimal charge of the trained means, without dead-times and short spaces).The next stage includes upstream production, which forms a logistical chain that includes processes which happen at the origin of the physical resources flow and which continue in the downstream side up to the contact with the final customer; for the physical resources flow, it is necessary to organize the associate information flow (documents, messages etc.) and the flow of the corresponding financial resources, transforming, hereby, the logistical chain in a very complex process of planning, implementation and control of a efficient flow of goods, services and specific information, from the origin point to the consume point so that the conformity with the customers requirements could be realized. This stage has consecrated the concept of delivery chain managementsupply chain management. Now, the attention must be oriented upon the whole life cycle of the product, starting with the raw material extraction and finishing with the post selling services. The definition given by The National Council of Physical Distribution Management is illustrative: Logistics represents the efficient transfer of final products, starting with the vent of the production line up to the final consumer and, for sure, it includes the transfer of raw materials from procurement sources to production line, then transportation, warehousing, material handling, protection packaging, stock control, location of products and warehouses, commands management, marketing anticipation and customers assistance.

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The logistic organization of the activities suffers a continuous evolution in relation with the market impulses and with the new general configurations of economic research. In the sixties, the significance of logistics was limited to the distribution of the final product (distribution logistics), then it evolved to the activity of the companies that were related with en-detail sales people. Serially, attention was oriented to internal aspects, for reducing inefficiency presented in firms internal relations (Intern Logistics or Planning production), so that, at the moment, the attention can be oriented to the whole life cycle of the product, from the extract of the raw materials, up to post selling services (Supply Chain Management -SCM). Posterior imperatives expanded this concept in the responsibility area for the effects produced by consume and the precursor processes on the natural environment (the elimination of waste and its recycling), claiming the aggregation, in this process, of some specific control techniques and of some organizations, increasing the dimensions of the logistical chain to an ensemble of organizations and control techniques, whose goal is to minimize costs in conditions of providing the maximum product availability, without stock interruptions (otherwise, now, in logistics, product warehousing, transportation and distribution are crucial). The actual market is characterized by a series of features: high competition, product short life cycle, higher complexity of products, erosion of profit reserve, the competition emphasis of production factors, forces polarization etc. There is, also, noticed a phenomenon of externalization services by those firms which consider that they have too high expenditures with some of the supplementary services, appealing for them to other companies, which are specialized on the offer of solutions, complete solutions, as well.

Organizarea logistic a activit ilor este n continu evolu ie n rela ie cu impulsurile pie ei i cu noile configura ii generate de cercetarea economic. n anii '60 semnifica ia logisticii era limitat la distribu ia produsului finit (logistica de distribu ie), apoi a evoluat spre activitatea firmelor de rela ionare cu vnztorii n detaliu. Succesiv, aten ia a fost orientat ctre aspectele interne, pentru reducerea ineficien ei prezente n rela iile intrafirm (Logistica intern sau Programarea produc iei), pentru ca acum aten ia s fie orientat asupra ntregului ciclu de via al produsului, adic de la extragerea materiei prime, la serviciile post-vnzare (Supply Chain Management -SCM). Imperative ulterioare au extins acest concept n zona responsabilit ii pentru efectele produse de consum i procesele premergtoare asupra mediului natural (eliminarea deeurilor i reciclarea lor), reclamnd agregarea n acest proces a unor tehnici de gestiune specifice i a unor organiza ii, sporind dimensiunile lan ului logistic la un ansamblu de organiza ii i tehnici de gestiune al crui scop central l reprezint minimizarea costurilor n condi ii de asigurare a maximei disponibilit i a produsului, fr ruperi de stocuri (de altfel, i acum, n logistic au rmas cruciale depozitarea, transportul i distribu ia produselor). Pia a actual este caracterizat de o serie de trsturi: concuren nalt, ciclu de via al produselor tot mai scurt, complexitate crescnd a produselor, erodarea marjei de profit, accentuarea competi iei factorilor pie ei, polarizarea for elor etc. Se remarc un fenomen de externalizare a unor servicii de ctre acele firme care consider c au cheltuieli prea mari cu unele servicii suplimentare, apelnd pentru acestea la alte firme, care s-au specializat pe oferirea de solu ii, inclusiv a unor solu ii complete.

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n aceast privin , se disting mai multe etape de evolu ie, ncepnd de la externalizarea unor activit i simple i terminnd cu contractarea ntregului pachet de opera iuni specifice. Dezvoltarea rapid a logisticii a condus la naterea conceptului Facility Management (pentru o mai bun gestiune a activit ii non-direct legate de afacerea unei firme) i e-Logistica (integrare i consolidare a serviciilor logistice cu ajutorul sistemelor informatice). n afaceri (Business logistics), logistica poate avea fie o orientare intern (internal focus), fie una extern (cu acoperire asupra fluxului de la primul furnizor la utilizatorul final - supply chain management). Se disting dou forme fundamentale de logistic: una optimizeaz riguros un flux de material ctre o re ea compus din noduri de transport i spa ii de depozitare, cealalt coordoneaz o secven de resurse pentru rezolvarea operativ a unor proiecte, cu grad mic de repetabilitate. Gestiunea lan ului logistic const n ameliorarea gestiunii fluxurilor care merg, n variate formule, de la furnizor la furnizor (business to business - B2B) pn la formula furnizor la client (client to client - B2C). ntre aceti parteneri, care compun lan ul logistic, circul trei categorii de fluxuri: fluxuri de mrfuri (fluxul fizic), cu sens dinspre amonte spre aval; flux financiar, cu sens invers, dispre aval spre amomte (cel mai frecvent este electronic); flux de informa ii, cu circula ie n ambele sensuri: din amonte spre aval (nso ind fluxurile fizice) i dinspre aval spre amonte (informa ia de la consumatori). Dintre ultimele extensii ale conceptului logistic, face parte i ceea ce s-a numit logistica invers.

AE

Heretofore, some evolution stages can be distinguished, starting with the externalization of some simple activities and finishing with the contraction of the whole package of specific operations. The rapid development of logistics led to the born of the Facility Management concept (for a better control of the non direct activity regarding a firm business) and of the e-Logistics concept (integration and consolidation of logistical services with the help of the informatics systems.) In Business Logistics, logistics can have either an internal orientation (internal focus) either an external one (with the cover on the flow from the first provider until the final consumer- supply chain management). Two fundamental logistics forms can be distinguished: one, rigorously, optimizes a material flow to a chain composed by transportation nodes and depositing spaces, the other one coordinates a resources sequence for an operative solving of some projects, with a lower grade of repeatability. Logistic chain management consists in control amelioration of flows that go, in many formulas, from provider to provider (business to business - B2B) to the business to customer formula (client to client B2C). Between these partners that compose the logistical chain, it exits three categories of flows: merchandise flows (physical flow), from upstream side to downstream side; financial flow, with an inverse direction, from downstream side to upstream side; informational flow, with a circulation in both directions: from upstream side to downstream side (following physical flows) and from downstream side to upstream side (information from consumers). From the last extensions of the concept of logistics, it takes part the so called inverse logistics.

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Logistica mrfurilor
3. Inverse logistics If logistics is a projection, implementation and control process of a flow of raw materials, inventory and processes, final products and relative information from the origin point to the consume point, in an efficient and as economical as possible form, with a goal of conformation with the requirements of the final customer, inverse logistics is a process of projection, implementation and control of the flow of raw materials, inventory, and processes, final products and relative information from the consume point to the origin point, in an efficient and, as economical as possible, form, with the goal of recovering value and equilibrating the human-environment report. In the actual phase of the evolution of inverse logistics, this is, obviously, a part of commercial logistics or, more actual, of business logistics and it refers to the control of merchandise return (excess assortment, customers loss, improper products and non selling assortments) and recycling of recipients, packaging and dangerous waste. Communitarian settlements oblige to recover and recycle many products: consume goods, recipients, packages, automobiles components, electric and electronic material etc, situation which will be reflected in major changes that will influence the future economic life. The evolution of the inverse logistics is stimulated by three main factors: economics reasons (costs and benefices of recovering the recycle materials), the legal demands and the social responsibility. The processes of the inverse logistics follow the next essential objectives that mark the primer process itself: 1.procurement of non aggressive resources, 2.reducing the use of valuable intermediate raw materials, 3.recycling,

3. Logistica invers Dac logistica este un proces de proiectare, implementatare i control asupra unui flux de materii prime, inventar i procese, produse finite i informa ii relative la acestea din punctul de origine pn la punctul de consum, ntr-o form eficient i ct mai economic posibil, cu scop de conformare cu cerin ele clientului final, logistica invers este un proces de proiectare, implementare i control asupra unui flux de materii prime, inventar i procese, produse finite i informa ii relative la acestea din punctul de consum pn la punctul de origine, ntr-o form eficient i ct mai economic posibil, cu scopul de a recupera valoare i de a echilibra raportul om-mediu. n faza actual de evolu ie a semnifica iei logisticii inverse, aceasta este evident parte a logisticii comerciale sau, mai actual, a logisticii de afaceri i se refer la gestionarea returului de mrfuri (sortiment n exces, pierdere de clien i, produse desuete i sortiment nevandabil), a reciclrii de recipiente, ambalaje, reziduuri periculoase. Reglementrile comunitare oblig la recuperarea i reciclarea multor produse: bunuri de consum, recipen i, ambalaje, componente de automobile, material electric i electronic etc., situa ie care va fi reflectat n schimbri majore ce se vor produce n via a economic din anii urmtori. Evolu ia logisticii inverse este stimuat de trei factori principali: considerente economice (costurile i beneficiile recuperrii de materiale reciclabile), cerin ele legale i responsabilitatea social. Procesele din logistica invers urmresc urmtoarele obiective esen iale, care marcheaz nsi procesul logistic primar: 1.achizi ionarea de resurse nonagresive, 2.reducerea utilizrii de materii prime intermediare valoroase, 3. reciclarea,

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4. substituirea de materiale, 5. gestiunea reziduurilor. Primul obiectiv vizeaz achizi ionarea de materii prime, componente, materiale de ambalare etc. neagresive pentru mediu. Pentru reducerea consumului de materii prime intermediare valoroase sunt considerate dou direc ii: a) activit i de ingineria produsului i b) re-educarea agen ilor economici i a consumatorilor n direc iile: valorizrii activit ilor de reutilizare a materialelor scumpe, crerii preferin elor pentru materiale de origine reciclat, educrii n spiritul culturii R-R-R (recuperare-reciclare-refolosire). Principiul reciclrii trebuie s domine anii urmtori pentru protejarea resurselor de materii prime virgine. Substituirea de materiale scumpe, energofage, grele, cu materiale mai ieftine, uoare i reciclabile; n domeniul auto trebuie s se produc o masiv nlocuire a metalului i sticlei cu materiale plastice, cerin deja aplicat pe scar larg. Gestiunea deeurilor trebuie s fie sus inut tehnic i economic de to i factorii implica i: proiectare-design, domeniul produc iei, comer ul, consumatorii, firmele de specialitate etc. 4. Logistica - raporturi interdisciplinare Logistica nglobeaz, ntr-un sistem integrat, problematici multiple: informa ie, transport, inventariere, depozitare, manipulare, ambalare etc. Aceste problematici stau la baza formrii profesionale n diverse domenii: proiectare, inginerie tehnologic, transporturi, comer etc. De departe ns, logistica este una din disciplinele de baz n Administrarea afacerilor, alturi de discipline ca: Fundamentele tiin ei mrfurilor, Economia comer ului, Tehnologii comerciale, Economia ntreprinderii, Marketing, Antreprenoriat, Informatic economic, Controlling, Finan e, Afaceri interna ionale, Management, Resurse umane, Economia produc iei, Servicii i utilit i publice .a. n planurile de nv mnt ale universit ilor economice din diverse zone ale lumii se ntlnesc discipline care con in problematica logisticii: Logistic, Logistic integral, Logistic interna ional, Logistic industrial, cursuri de Transport/ Nr. 24 Iunie 2008

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4. materials substitution, 5.waste control. The first objective regards the procurement of raw materials, components, package materials non aggressive for the environment. For reducing consume of valuable raw materials, there are two directions: a) activities of product engineering and b) reeducation of the economical agents and consumers regarding: valorization of the activities of reusing expensive materials, creation of preferences for recycled materials, cultural education R-R-R (recovery-recyclereusing). Recycle principle must dominate the next years for protecting the virgin raw material resources. The substitution of expensive, energy consumers and heavy materials with cheaper, easy and recycled materials; in automobile field, there must be produced a massive substitution of metal and glass with plastic materials, requirements, already, applied on a large scale. Waste control must be technically and economically sustained by all the factors involved: projective-design, production field, commerce, consumers, specialty firms etc. 4. Logistics- non disciplinary reports Logistics includes, in an integrated system, many aspects: information, transportation, inventorying, warehousing, manipulation, packaging etc. These aspects represent the base of the professional forming in diverse domains: projection, technological engineering, transportation, commerce etc. By far, logistics is one of the base subjects in Business Administration alongside: Science of Merchandise Basis, Commerce Economy, Commercial Technologies, Enterprise Economy, Marketing, Entrepreneurship, Economic Informatics. In the curricula of the economic universities in the world there are a range of subjects with logistic content: Integrated Logistics, International Logistics, Industrial Logistics, and Courses of Transportation/ Procurement/Reception/Inventory/Distribution
.

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In Romania, this kind of problems made the object of the traditional subject Commodities Science Basics (now Merchandise Science Fundamentals) which included chapters dedicated to the main activities of the stages of the life cycle of a product/merchandise: merchandise quality, quality assurance and guarantee, merchandise systematic, diversification and innovation assortments (studding the life cycle of the product/merchandise), packaging, marking and labeling, merchandise reception, elements of commodities logistics, environment and consumers protection. The respective subject has been taught continuous since the seventies to the students of the Faculty of Commerce, from The Academy of Economic Studies Bucharest, the only institution of Higher Education from the country that functioned before 1990; after 1990, this subject entered the educational plans of other economic faculties from all around the country. Starting with the year 2005 and using the Bologna Plan, The Faculty of Commerce, from Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, has in its educational plan, for the first cycle of license, the subject Logistics and Distribution of Merchandises, with a weekly fund of two hours course and two hours seminars and applications, in the fifth semester of studies. The particular issues of logistics have been investigated by the teachers of the Faculty of Commerce, using the older or newer research programs6 and they made the object of science communication and published studies7.

Aprovizionare/Recep ie/Inventar/ Distribu ie. n Romnia, astfel de probleme au fcut obiectul tradi ionalei discipline Bazele merceologiei (mai nou Fundamentele tiin ei mrfurilor), care cuprindea capitole dedicate principalelor activit i din etapele ciclului de via al produsului/mrfii: calitatea mrfurilor, asigurarea i garantarea calit ii, sistematica mrfurilor, Diversificarea i nnoirea sortimentelor (cu studiul ciclului de via al produsului/mrfii), ambalarea, arcarea i etichetarea, recep ia mrfurilor, elemente de logistic merceologic, protec ia consumatorilor i a mediului. Disciplina respectiv se pred nentrerupt din anii '70 studen ilor Facult ii de Comer de la Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, singura institu ie de nv mnt superior comercial din ar care a func ionat nainte de 1990; dup 1990, aceast disciplin a intrat n planurile de nv mnt i ale altor facult i de profil economic din toat ara. ncepnd cu anul 2005, respectiv cu trecerea la Planul Bologna, Facultatea de Comer din A.S.E. Bucureti are n planul de nv mnt pentru ciclul I licen , disciplina Logistic i distribu ia mrfurilor, cu un fond sptmnal de dou ore curs i dou ore seminar i aplica ii, n semestrul al V-lea de studii.

Probleme particulare ale logisticii au fost cercetate de cadrele didactice ale Facult ii de Comer n cadrul programelor de cercetare6 mai vechi sau mai noi i au fcut obiectul unor comunicri tiin ifice i studii publicate7.

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Numeroase aspecte de logistic au fost tratate n cadrul manualelor8, lucrrilor de diplom, diserta iilor de absolvire a studiilor postuniversitare (studii aprofundate, master) i tezelor de doctorat. Un aspect de importan aparte al logisticii l constituie expansiunea domeniului, deopotriv pe calea dezvoltrii unor aspecte ca urmare a evolu iei unor componente proprii, dar i ca urmare a aproprierii unor elemente din discipline i domenii de studiu tradi ionale. Ca i alte discipline noi marketingul, de exemplu - logistica a nglobat teme-surs, din care s-a dezvoltat ini ial, i n care a avut la nceput statut de instrument sau metod. Acest fenomen este prilejuit i sus inut de noi realit i economice, sociale i politice. Astfel, n economiile dominate de planificare, rosturile logisticii i marketingului erau mult limitate, respectiv orientate spre optimizri locale, evitarea de pierderi etc., n cadrul unui proces planificat n toate aspectele. Economia liber, func ionnd competitiv, are nevoie de aportul mult lrgit al celor dou domenii de aplica ie pomenite logistica i marketingul care tind s se autonomizeze i s devin chiar o marf complex, cu o pia specific. Concluzii Logistica reprezint un domeniu de aplica ie care doar n mediile militare a fost consacrat din vremuri vechi i care, afirmat relativ recent n rndul activit ilor civile (comer , produc ie) a adus o contribu ie major la configurarea economic actual. n domeniile particulare de consacrare a dezvoltat defini ii noi, ca urmare a adecvrii principiilor i tehnicilor la domeniile respective.

AE

Many aspects regarding logistics made the object of manuals8, dissertations works and post university courses (thoroughgoing studies, masters) and doctorate thesis. A very important aspect of logistics is represented by the expansion of the field, the development of some aspects, as a consequence of the evolution of its proper elements, but also the on coming of some elements from traditional subjects and domains. As other new subjects marketing, for examplelogistics involved source themes, which, at the begging developed it and had the statute of instrument or method. This phenomenon is caused and sustained by new economical, social and political realities. So, in those economies dominated by planning, the use of logistics and marketing were limited, oriented to local optimizations, avoiding loss etc., among a planned process, in all its aspects. A free competitive economy needs the help of those two domains mentioned before - logistics and marketing - that tend to be self sufficient and that could even become complex merchandise, with a specific market.

Conclusions Logistics represents an application field, which, only in Military Medias, has been consecrated from old times and which, known relatively recent inside the civil activities (commerce, production) brought a major contribution to the actual economic configuration. In the particular fields of consecration, it developed new definitions, as a result of the suitability of principles and techniques to the respective domains.

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In its evolution to the statute of Business Logistics, commercial logisticsthe main non military logisticsdeveloped, gradually, an arsenal of means and techniques that made, from this relatively short domain at its begging, a complex application area, a science and an art which became automated and which constituted itself in an important business object. The matter of inverse logistics is one in full development and it constitutes a future application area on both practical and scientifically research fields. The need of professional preparation in all the aspects regarding logistics is imperious for the future business specialists (commerce and associated fields), preoccupations on this line being a constant of the management of The Faculty of Commerce, from The Academy of Economic Studies Bucharest. Endnotes 1 the term of logistics derives from the Greek logos (= password, order) or logisteuo (= administration); in other etymological interpretation, the term logistics derives from the French word "loger", which signifies "location", "allocation". In Ancient Greece, there existed military leaders named logistikas who were responsible for providing material and financial means for military actions; the same situation was encountered in the army of some other countries. 2 logistique (gr. logistikos), ensemble of relative methods needed for the organization of an army service (material, commissariat, fuel, health etc.). 3 the branch of science and military operations which produce, provide and maintain the equipment, the moves, the evacuation and the hospitalizing of the staff, the supply of facilities, services, measures and specific problems.

n evolu ia sa ctre statutul de logistic a afacerilor (Business Logistics), logistica comercial principala logistic non-militar a dezvoltat treptat un arsenal de mijloace i tehnici care au fcut din acest domeniu relativ ngust la nceputurile sale o zon de aplica ii de mare complexitate, o tiin i o art care s-a autonomizat n bun msur i care s-a consituit ea nsi n obiect de afaceri de mare anvergur. Problematica logisticii inverse este una n plin dezvoltare i constituie o zon de aplica ii viitoare deopotriv pe terenul practicii, ct i al cercetrii tiin ifice. Nevoia de pregtire profesional n aspecte legate de logistic este imperioas pentru viitorii specialiti din afaceri (comer i domenii asociate), preocuprile pe aceast linie fiind o constant a managementului Facult ii de Comer de la Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti. Note de subsol 1 termenul logistica deriv din grecescul logos (= parola, ordine) ori logisteuo (= administrare); dup alt interpretare etimologic, logistica ar veni din termenul francez "loger" care semnific "locare", "allocare". n Grecia antic erau conductori militari cu titlul de logistikas care erau responsabili pentru furnizarea i distribuirea mijloacelor materiale i financiare pentru ac iunile militare; aceeai situa ie era ntlnit i n armatele altor popoare. 2 logistique (gr. logistikos), ansamblu de metode i de mijloce relative la organizarea unui serviciu al armatei (material, intenden , carburan i, sntate etc.). 3 bran a tiin ei i opera iunilor militare care se ocup cu procurarea, furnizarea i ntre inerea de echipament, cu micarea, evacuarea i spitalizarea personalului, cu aprovizionarea de facilit i i servicii i cu msurile i problemele specifice.

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ntr-o situa ie militar, logistica este organiza ia de transport, furnizare i ntre inere a trupelor i echipamentului. 5 ntre modelele de tip liter exist un aa-zis model al celor 6 P pentru dfinirea logisticii, centrat pe termenul potrivit: bunurile potrivite, cantitatea potrivit, la timpul potrivit, calitatea potrivit, la costurile potrivite, la locul potrivit; deseori apare i al 7-lea P (informa iile potrivite tuturor participan ilor). 6 autorul a colaborat, n calitate de membru executant, la o serie de contracte de cercetare care urmreau perfec ionarea activit ii comerciale, valorificarea superioar a resurselor materiale reciclabile etc., ntre care: Valorificarea superioar a materialelor refolosibile (Beneficiar: Uzina 23 August Bucureti, 1984-1986), Eficien a valorificrii materialelor plastice prin piroliz (Beneficiar: Institutul de Chimie Macromolecular P. Poni Iai, 1985), Locul i eficien a preambalrii n logistica produc iei i circula iei mrfurilor alimentare (Beneficiar: Ministerul Comer ului Interior Direc ia General Comercial pentru Mrfuri Alimentare i Alimenta ie Public Bucureti, 1986), Expertizarea complex a calit ii mrfurilor n rela ie cu protec ia consumatorilor, Consiliul Na ional pentru Cercetare tiin ific n nv mntul Superior, 2003-2004 7 vezi Ion Schileru, Mrfurile neconven ionale provocri viitoare, n Amfiteatru economic (editat de A.S.E. Bucureti), an VII, nr. 17, aprilie 2005, pp. 27-31 8 Ion Schileru, capitolul Logistica mrfurilor, n Bazele Merceologiei, curs predat studen ilor de la Facultatea de Comer i Facultatea de Rela ii Economice Interna ionale, ASE Bucureti, ms., an univ. 1991-1992.
4 4

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in a military situation, logistics is the organization that transports, provides and maintains the troupes and the equipment. 5 among the letter models there is the so called six P model for defining logistics and it is centered on the proper term: proper goods, proper quantity, at proper time, proper quality, at proper costs, at proper place; often, it appears the seventh P (proper information necessary for all the participants).
6

the author collaborated, as a performer member, to a series of research contracts whose purpose was to improve the commercial activity, to capitalize the material recyclable resources etc, as: Superior capitalization of reusable materials (Beneficiary: 23 August Bucharest, 1984-1986), The efficiency of the capitalization of plastic materials through pyrolysis (Beneficiary: The Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry P. Poni Iai, 1985), Place and efficiency of prepackaging of the plastic material and the circulation of the alimentary merchandise (Beneficiary: Ministry of Internal Commerce-General Commercial Direction for Public Food Bucharest, 1986), Complete expertise of merchandise quality in relation with consumer protection, National Council for Scientific Research in Higher Education System, 2003-2004.
7

see Ion Schileru, Unconventional merchandises future challenges, in Amfiteatru economic (edited by Academy of Economic Studies Bucharest), year VII, nr. 17, April 2005, pp. 27-31. 8 Ion Schileru, Chapter Merchandises Logistics, n Commodities Science Basisc, course presented to the students of the Commerce Faculty and International Economic Relations Faculty, Academy of Economic Studies Bucharest, manuscript, univ. year 1991-1992.

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References [1] Angulo Rivera, J.C., Logistica inversa, n www.monografias.com/trabajos15/logistica/logistica.shtml, acces feb. 2008 [2] Blan, Carmen, Logistica mrfurilor, Editura ASE, Bucureti, 2000 [3] Bruzzone, Agostino G, Logistics, DIP University of Genoa, n http://itim.unige.it/cs/logistics/log_orevcs/index.htm; [slide course], acces mai 2007 [4] Rogers, Dale S., Douglas M. Lambert, Keely L. Croxton, and Sebastian J. GarciaDastugue (2002), The Returns Management Process, in The International Journal of Logistics Management, Vol.13, No. 2, pp. 1-18 [5] Schileru, Ion; Netea, Viorel; Schileru, Doina, Mrfuri periculoase: logistic specific, lucrare prezentat la Simpozionul organizat de Catedra de Merceologie i Managementul calit ii, A.S.E. Bucureti, nov. 2004 [6] Schileru, Ion, Rolul tiin ei mrfurilor n formarea specialitilor pentru economia de tip concuren ial n Amfiteatru economic An II, Nr.4/ 2000

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(Analysis and competitiveness in logistics)

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Prof. univ. dr. Eduard Dinu Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia edinu@cig.ase.ro

Asist. univ. drd. Cristina Curea Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia sneagu@ase.ro

Rezumat Logistica reprezint o activitate de baz n cadrul lan ului de creare a valorii finale, recunoscut de ctre consumatorul final. Crearea avantajului competitiv n domeniul logisticii se poate realiza fie prin externalizarea opera iilor componente, fie prin internalizarea acestora. Alegerea formelor i a rutelor adecvate pentru transportul mrfurilor, proiectarea i exploatarea ra ional a spa iilor de depozitare, pozi ionarea ra ional a acestora la scara teritoriului deservit, utilizarea mijloacelor moderne de urmrire a mrfurilor pe fiecare stadiu constituie factorii-cheie de succes n domeniul logisticii mrfurilor. Cuvinte cheie: monitorizarea transportului, performan a opera iei de depozitare, marj brut opera ional Clasificarea JEL: L91, D57 Abstract In the strategic analysis based on value chain concept, logistics represents main activities. Competing on the global market increase the importance of specific operations like transport of merchandise, warehouse exploitation, i.e. Creating and sustaining competitive advantage in the field of logistic activities is achievable through outsourcing or by in-house strategy. Choosing optimal ways to transport the merchandises, efficient warehouses design and utilization, adequate positioning oh them on the territory, RFID monitoring systems are key success factors in logistics. Keywords: transport monitoring, warehouse operating performance, operating gross margin JEL Classification: L91, D57 Introducere Dup cum se cunoate, logistica desemneaz un ansamblu de activit i care asigur accesul produsului de la productor la consumator sau la utilizatorul final. Principalele componente incluse n termenul generic de logistic sunt: transportul mrfurilor, stocarea, depozitarea/manipularea i sortarea, precum i expedi ia i recep ia mrfurilor. Introduction As it is known, the logistics designates an ensemble of activities that insure the products access from the producer to the consumer or the final user. The main components included in the generic term of logistics are: the transport of the merchandise, stocking, storage/manipulation and sorting as well as the delivery and reception of goods.

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The merchandises physical transport holds the quasi-majority share within logistics total cost, approximately two thirds. The insurance of competitiveness on the level of the logistic activity is influenced, as a result, mainly by the competitiveness of the merchandises transport operations. This is why we consider necessary the presentation of the sector of merchandise transport on global level as well as on European level and respectively in Romania. 1. The sector of merchandise transport. The evolution of merchandise transport on global level The expeditions and maritime and fluvial transports of merchandise are situated on the first place, approximately 50% of the traffic on world scale being performed on seas, oceans and rivers. The main advantages of these forms of transport for merchandise lie in the fact that by using one mean of transport one can transport a considerable quantity of merchandise, the cost of the performance being lower compared to the other categories of transport. The maritime transport is regulated by the International Convention on lading lines, the Convention for protecting the sea life and the Convention of calculating the ships capacity. The global market for merchandise maritime and fluvial transport had known a volume increase of 11.2% in 2004, 11.1% in 2005 and respectively 9.1% in 2006, from 89 million Teu1 in 2003 to 99 million Teu in 2004 and respectively about 120 million Teu in 2006 (see the graphic 1).

Transportul fizic al mrfurilor de ine ponderea cvasimajoritar n cadrul costului total al logisticii, cca. dou treimi. Asigurarea competitivit ii la nivelul activit ii de logistic este influen at n consecin n principal de competitivitatea opera iilor de transport de mrfuri. De aceea, considerm necesar prezentarea sectorului transportului de mrfuri att la nivel global, ct i european i, respectiv, n Romnia.

1. Sectorul transporturilor de mrfuri. Evolu ia transporturilor de mrfuri la nivel mondial Expedi iile i transporturile maritime i fluviale de mrfuri se situeaz pe primul loc, cca. 50% din traficul la scar mondial realizndu-se pe mri, oceane i fluvii. Principalele avantaje ale acestor forme de transport a mrfurilor rezid n faptul c prin utilizarea unui singur mijloc de transport se poate transporta o cantitate considerabil de mrfuri, costul presta iei fiind mai sczut, n compara ie cu celelalte categorii de transport. Transportul maritim este reglementat de Conven ia Interna ional asupra liniilor de ncrcare, Conven ia pentru ocrotirea vie ii pe mare i Conven ia calculului capacit ii navelor. Pia a global de transporturi maritime i fluviale de mrfuri a cunoscut o cretere volumic de 11,2% n 2004, 11,1% n 2005 i, respectiv 9,1% n anul 2006, de la 89 milioane Teu1 n 2003 la 99 milioane Teu n 2004 i, respectiv, cca. 120 milioane Teu n anul 2006 (vezi graficul 1).

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160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

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Dinamica traficului maritim global de mrfuri -mil. teu

The dynamics of global maritime merchandise m

60 40 20 00 0 0 0 0

000 001 002 003

004 005 006 007

008 009 010

Graficul 1 Sursa: International Transport Journal, Global Freight Forwarding (estimri pentru 2007 2010)

Graphic 1 Source: International Transport Journal, Global Freight Forwarding (estimations for 2007 2010)

Creterea cererii i implicit a volumului de mrfuri transportate maritim n perioada 2005-2006 se datoreaz regiunii Asia-Pacific i n special Chinei. Transporturile de mrfuri pe cale aerian asigur derularea a cca. 2% din totalul expedi iilor de mrfuri. Din punct de vedere structural, traficul aerian de mrfuri nregistreaz creterea cea mai spectaculoas, indicatorul specific, numr tone-km, dublndu-se la fiecare 7-8 ani. n ceea ce privete costurile specifice, forma aerian se caracterizeaz prin niveluri mai ridicate, dar i dovedete rentabilitatea n cazul mrfurilor de valori mari i cu un volum redus. Principalele reglementri n domeniul transporturilor aeriene de mrfuri sunt: Conven ia pentru unificarea regulilor de transport aerian i Conven ia referitoare la avia ia civil interna ional. Creterea pie ei globale a transporturilor aeriene de mrfuri a fost de 4,1% n anul 2005 i, respectiv 4,6% n anul 2006 (vezi graficul 2).

The increase in request and implicitly in volume of the merchandise transported by sea in the period 2005 2006 is due to the region of Asia Pacific and especially China. The merchandise air transports insure the deployment of about 2% of the total merchandise expeditions. From the structural point of view, the merchandise air traffic registers the most spectacular increase, the specific indicator number tones-km doubling each 7-8 years. What concerns the specific costs, the air form is characterized by higher levels, but proves its profitableness in case of high value and low volume merchandise. The main regulations in the field of merchandise air transports are: the Convention for the unification of the air transports and the Convention regarding the international civil aviation. The increase of the global merchandise transports market has been of 4.1% in 2005 and respectively 4.6% in 2006 (see the graphic 2).

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25 20 15 10 5 0

Logistica mrfurilor
25 20 15 10 5 0

Dinamica traficului aerian global de mrfuri- mil. tone

The dynamics of global merchandise mil. tones air traffic

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Grafic 2 Sursa: International Transport Journal, Global Freight Forwarding (estimri pentru 20072010)

Graphic 2 Source: International Transport Journal, Global Freight Forwarding (estimations for 2007 2010)

Transporturile de mrfuri pe cale ferat de in o pondere important n interiorul continentelor (cca. 15% - 20% din traficul mondial), avantajul competitiv n acest caz constnd n posibilitatea transportrii unor cantit i apreciabile la tarife (costuri), mai competitive comparativ cu transporturile rutiere. n condi iile creterii preocuprilor pentru protec ia mediului, un aspect major l constituie i poluarea mai redus generat de transportul feroviar fa de cel rutier. Transporturile de mrfuri pe cale rutier au cunoscut, mai ales n Uniunea European, o dinamic ascendent apreciabil, ponderea lor tinznd spre 30% n cadrul transporturilor totale de mrfuri. Principalele atuuri ale acestei forme de transport sunt reprezentate de posibilitatea de livrare a mrfurilor doorto-door direct la sediul clientului precum i de viteza relativ ridicat de transport. Ca principale reglementri n domeniu se pot men iona: Conven ia vamal referitoare la transportul interna ional de mrfuri sub acoperirea carnetelor T.I.R., Admiterea temporar a mrfurilor sub carnet T.I.R. .a.

Railroad merchandise transports hold an important share within the continents (about 15% - 20% of the world traffic) the competitive advantage in this case being the possibility of transporting appreciable quantities at more competitive tariffs (costs) in comparison to road transports. Under the conditions of the increase of preoccupations for environment protection, a major aspect is the reduced pollution generated by railroad transport in comparison to the road transport. The road merchandise transports have known, especially in the European Union, an appreciable ascending dynamics, their share reaching 30% within total merchandise transports. The main advantages of this form of transport are represented by the possibility of delivering the merchandise directly doorto-door at the seat of the client as well as the relatively high transport speed. As main regulations in this field we can mention: the Customs Convention regarding the international merchandise transports under the cover of T.I.R. books, the Temporary Admission of Merchandise under T.I.R. book, and others.

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Ca form modern de transport a mrfurilor trebuie men ionat forma containerizat care se poate transporta fie unimodal (cu un singur mijloc de transport), fie multimodal (cu mai multe mijloace de transport). 2. Evolu ia transporturilor de mrfuri n Uniunea European Datele disponibile la nivelul Uniunii Europene [2] indic prevalen a transportului rutier i a celui maritim ca principale forme de transport utilizate n rile din Uniunea European (tabelul 1). La nivelul acesteia dimensiunea pie ei rutiere de expedi ii, transport de mrfuri i logistic este estimat conform Asocia iei Producrilor Europeni de Automobile la aprox. 250 miliarde euro, pia a specific a Romniei fiind evaluat la cca. 4-4,2 miliarde euro, adic 2% din pia a european.

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As a modern form of merchandise transports we must mentions the container form that may be transported singlemodal (by one mean of transport), or multi-modal (with several means of transport). 2. The evolution of merchandise transports in the European Union

The available data on the level of the European Union [2] indicate the prevalence of the road transport and the maritime transport as main forms of transports used in the countries of the European Union (table 1). On its level the dimension of the road market for expeditions, merchandise transports and logistics is estimated according to the Association of European Car Producers at approximately 250 billion Euro, Romanias specific market being evaluated at about 4-4.2 billion Euro, that is 2% of the European market.

Structura transportului de mrfuri n Uniunea European, pe forme de transport 2007 (The structure of merchandise transport in the European Union on forms of transport 2007) Tabelul 1 Pondere n transportul total de mrfuri (%)2 Form de transport (Share in the total merchandise transport (%)2) (Form of transport) Aerian (By air) 0,06 Maritim (By sea) 39,1 Rutier (By road) 44,2 Prin conducte (Through pipes) 3,4 Feroviar (By railroad) 10 Re ea fluvial intern 3,3 (Internal fluvial network) Total 100
Sursa: Eurostat: Panorama of Transport, 2007

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The dynamics of transported merchandise thousands of tones

500,000 400,000 300,000 200,000 100,000 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Graficul 3 sursa: I.N.S.S.E. date statistice

Graphic 3 source: I.N.S.S.E. statistical data

Principalul obiectiv al Uniunii Europene n domeniul transporturilor de mrfuri vizeaz crearea unei re ele unice, transeuropene, prin interconectarea celor 27 de re ele na ionale. Politica comunitar n domeniu, elaborat pn n anul 2015 prevede favorizarea, dezvoltrii transporturilor feroviare precum i a celor maritime i fluviale, n paralel cu limitarea impactului negativ, generat de creterea activit ilor de transport asupra mediului nconjurtor. Cile concrete urmate pentru atingerea obiectivelor men ionate mai sus sunt: integrarea costurilor ecologice i sociale n cadrul tarifelor de acces la infrastructur; posibilitatea finan rii ncruciate ntre cile ferate i cele rutiere; armonizarea taxelor aplicate carburan ilor .a.

The main objective of the European Union in the field of merchandise transports vises the creation of an unique, trans-European network, by interconnecting the 27 national networks. The community policy in the field, elaborated until 2015 foresees the favoring of railroad transports development as well as the maritime and fluvial transports development, parallel to the limitation of the negative impact generated by the increase in the transport activities over the environment. The concrete means of transport for reaching the above mentioned objectives are: the integration of ecological and social costs in the tariffs for infrastructure access; the possibility of cross financing between the railroad and road means; the harmonization of taxes applied to fuels, and others. 3. The evolution of merchandise transports in Romania

3. Evolu ia transporturilor de mrfuri n Romnia Dinamica transporturilor de mrfuri din Romnia este indisolubil legat de creterea economic anual nregistrat n perioada 2002 2006. Astfel, volumul de mrfuri transportate a cunoscut o majorare de cca. 20% n 2006 comparativ cu anul 2000, iar parcursul acestora s-a dublat practic n acelai interval de timp (vezi graficul 3).

The dynamics of merchandise transports in Romania is indissolubly related to the annual economic increase registered in the period 2002 2006. Thus, the volume of transported merchandise knew a growth of about 20% in 2006, compared to 2000, and their way practically doubled in the same time interval (see the graphic 3).

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n ceea ce privete structura transportului de mrfuri pe forme, n Romnia, la nivelul anului 2006, aceasta se prezenta astfel (tabel 2):

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Concerning the merchandise transports structure on forms in Romania, in 2006 it presented thus (table 2):

Structura transportului de mrfuri n Romnia, pe forme de transport anul 2006 (The structure of merchandise transport in Romania on forms of transport 2006) Tabelul 2 Pondere n transportul total de mrfuri (%)2 Form de transport (Share in the total merchandise transport (%)2) (Form of transport) Aerian (By air) 0 Maritim (By sea) 0,3 Rutier (By road) 71,3 Prin conducte (Through pipes) 2,5 Feroviar (By railroad) 19,7 Re ea fluvial intern 6,2 (Internal fluvial network) Total 100 Sursa: I.N.S.S.E.: date statistice, 2006 (I.N.S.S.E. - statistical data, 2006)
90,000 80,000 70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
through pipes by air by sea internal fluvial network by road by railroad

Graficul 4 Sursa: I.N.S.S.E. date statistice

Graphic 4 Source: I.N.S.S.E. statistical data

Se remarc ponderea cvasi-majoritar de inut de ctre transporturile rutiere n cadrul transportului total de mrfuri. 4. Indicatori utiliza i n aprecierea performan elor n activitatea de logistic Dei obiectivul strategic al firmelor al cror obiect de activitate l constituie logistica este principial acelai cu cel al celorlalte entit i microconomice, respectiv maximizarea valorii ac ionarilor, specificul activit ii desfurate determin individualizarea indicatorilor de apreciere a performan ei realizate. Nr. 24 Iunie 2008

We notice the quasimajority share held by the road transports within the total merchandise transports. 4. Indicators used in the appreciation of performances in logistic activity Although the strategic objective of the companies that have as object of activity logistics is in principle the same with the other microeconomic entities, respectively the maximization of the shareholders value, the specific of the activity developed determines the individualization of the appreciation indicators for realized performance. 65

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First of all, the classification of clients for whom the specific activities are being performed deposit (D), manipulation (M), labeling, packing, consolidation (E), distribution (DI) is imposed. The main parting criteria used for the hierarchy of clients is the one of constant deposit surface covered by each client (for example minimum 1,000 square meters). The less important clients are presented as a group, within the category other clients, a common quantification of the obtained operational and financial results being performed. The financial performances obtained on each important client (turnover, operational profit, etc) are centralized on monthly and respectively annual basis. The effective values are compared to the budgeted ones as well as to the values obtained in the precedent financial exercises. For the effective calculation of the performance indicators on the level of each deposit locations are built the following data sections: data with economic financial character: turnover, level of direct and indirect expenses; the volume of deposited and manipulated merchandise expressed in number of entering and respectively exited pallets; details about the consumed production: salary costs with permanent and temporary workers, administrative personnel as well as their centralized values, the volume of norm hours as well as the volume of performed additional hours, absence hours, etc; qualitative data: the number of orders performed with delay, the number of pallets with damages or partial lacks. Based on precedent inputs is determined the set of appreciation indicators for clients performance: a) hourly productivity obtained by reporting the turnover to the number of paid hours;

n primul rnd se impune clasificarea clien ilor pentru care se presteaz activit ile specifice depozitare (D), manipulare (M), etichetare, nfoliere, consolidare (E), distribu ie (DI). Principalul criteriu de partajare uzitat n vederea ierarhizrii clien ilor este cel al suprafe ei de depozitare constante ocupate de ctre fiecare client n parte (de exemplu minim 1.000 mp). Clien ii mai pu in importan i sunt prezenta i grupat, n cadrul categoriei al i clien i, realizndu-se o cuantificare comun a rezultatelor opera ionale i financiare ob inute. Performan ele financiare realizate pe fiecare client important (cifra de afaceri, profitul opera ional etc.) se centralizeaz pe baze lunare i respectiv anuale. Valorile efective sunt comparate att cu cele bugetate, ct i cu valorile ob inute n exerci iile financiare precedente. Pentru calcularea efectiv a indicatorilor de performan la nivelul fiecrei loca ii de depozitare se construiesc urmtoarele sec iuni de date: date cu caracter economicofinanciar: cifra de afaceri, nivelul cheltuielilor directe i indirecte; volumul de mrfuri depozitate i manipulate exprimat n numrul de pale i intra i i respectiv iei i; detalii despre manopera consumat: costuri salariale cu muncitorii permanen i i temporari, cu personalul administrativ, precum i valorile centralizate ale acestora, volumul de ore normate, precum i cel de ore suplimentare efectuate, orele de absen etc.; date calitative: numrul comenzilor realizate cu ntrziere, numrul pale ilor la care s-au constatat distrugeri sau lipsuri par iale Pe baza inputurilor precedente, se determin setul de indicatori de apreciere ai performan ei clien ilor: a) productivitatea orar, ob inut prin raportarea cifrei de afaceri la numrul de ore pltite;

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b) productivitatea fizic a muncii, exprimat ca raport ntre totalul orelor productive i numrul de pale i mnui i, indicatorul fiind exprimat n minute ceea ce implic nmul irea cu 60 a raportului precedent; c) costul salarial tarifar, determinat prin raportarea cheltuielilor cu salariile la numrul de ore pltite; d) ponderea activit ilor administrative n total, ob inut prin raportarea numrului de ore lucrate de ctre personalul administrativ la totalul orelor pltite, raport exprimat procentual; e) ponderea orelor suplimentare n total ore lucrate, exprimat ca raport procentual ntre numrul de ore suplimentare efectuate i totalul orelor productive; f) gradul de utilizare a capacit ii de depozitare, ob inut ca raport procentual ntre spa iul efectiv ocupat de mrfuri exprimat n metri ptra i i spa iul total de depozitare existent, g) procentul de reclama ii, indicator de calitate determinat ca raport procentual ntre numrul de comenzi cu plngeri primite din partea clien ilor i totalul comenzilor. Aprecierea performan elor pe baza contului de rezultate implic utilizarea i a datelor cu caracter statistic. Spre exemplificare, indicatorul marj brut opera ional n total cifr de afaceri variaz semnificativ n func ie de forma de transport utilizat: pentru transportul maritim valorile optimale ale indicatorului se situeaz n intervalul 7% - 15%; pentru transportul aerian valorile optimale sunt cuprinse ntre 15% - 25%; pentru transportul feroviar intervalul optimal este 1% - 3%; n cazul transportului rutier valoarea optim este cuprins ntre 7% - 12%;

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b)labors physical productivity expressed as a report between the total of productive hours and the number of handled pallets, the indicator being expressed in minutes, thing which implies the multiplication with 60 of the precedent report; c) the tariff salary cost determined by reporting the expenses with salaries to the number of paid hours; d)the total share of administrative activities obtained by reporting the number of hours worked by the administrative personnel to the total of paid hours, report expressed in percents; e) the share of additional hours in total worked hours expressed as a percentage report between the number of performed additional hours and the total of productive hours; f) the degree of using the depositing capacity obtained as a percentage report between the effective space occupied by merchandise expressed in square meters and the total space of depositing existing; g)the complaints percentage, quality indicator determined as a percentage report between the number of order with complaints received from clients and the total orders. The appreciation of performances based on the results account implies the use of statistic character data. For example, the indicator operational gross margin in total turnover varies significantly depending on the forms of transport used: for the maritime transport the optimal values of the indicator are situated in the interval 7% - 15%; for the air transport the optimal values are included between 15% - 25%; for the railroad transport the optimal interval is 1% - 3%; in the case of road transport the optimal value is comprised between 7% - 12%;

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for the distribution activities the reference level is 15% - 25%; for the manipulation and depositing activities the value of the indicator frequently exceeds 80%. 5. Means of increasing the competitiveness in merchandise logistics The increase of efficiency of specific logistics activities implies the adoption of specific measures of the operations types. Thus, on the level of merchandise transports we can mention: choosing and using the adequate transport forms as well as the most efficient routs from the costs point of view, as well as the transit time; the conclusion of calculation regarding the transport and expenses for transport accessories; the insurance of merchandise during the transport; the integrant monitoring of transport evolution; the accessibility by satellite for fast communication and independence. On the level of depositing operation the main aspects regard: the optimal dimensioning based on feasibility studies of the depositing space in order to avoid its underdimensioning as well as its overdimensioning towards the real depositing necessities; the identification of merchandise with the help of RFID system (the identification by radio of the merchandise in the depositing, customs and transport process). We must also mention the positioning strategy of deposits on territorial scale, different optimal configurations existing (of star type used by Metro group, circular, etc) which allow the reduction of the merchandise transport time, as well as the reduction of specific transport expenses.

pentru activit ile de distribu ie nivelul de referin este 15% - 25%; pentru activit ile de manipulare i depozitare valoarea indicatorului excede frecvent 80%. 5. Ci de cretere a competitivit ii n logistica mrfurilor Creterea eficien ei activit ilor specifice de logistic implic adoptarea unor msuri specifice pe tipuri de opera ii. Astfel, la nivelul transporturilor de mrfuri putem men iona: alegerea i utilizarea formelor adecvate de transport precum i a rutelor cele mai eficiente att din punct de vedere al costului, ct i a timpului de tranzit; ntocmirea calcula iei cu privire la transport i a cheltuielilor accesorii de transport; asigurarea mrfurilor pe durata transportului; monitorizarea integrat a evolu iei transportului; accesabilitatea prin satelit pentru comunicarea rapid i independent. La nivelul opera iei de depozitare, principalele aspecte vizeaz: dimensionarea optim, pe baza studiilor de fezabilitate, a spa iului de depozitare pentru a se evita att subdimensionarea ct i supradimensionarea acestuia fa de necesit ile reale de depozitare; identificarea mrfurilor cu ajutorul sistemului RFID (identificarea prin radio a mrfurilor n procesul de depozitare, vmuire i transport). Trebuie s men ionm i strategia de pozi ionare a depozitelor la scar teritorial, existnd diferite configura ii optimale (de tip stelar utilizat de ctre grupul Metro, circular etc.) care permit att scurtarea timpului de transport a mrfurilor, ct i a cheltuielilor specifice de transport.

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Concluzii Cele dou op iuni strategice majore pe baza crora se poate ob ine competitivitatea sunt reprezentate fie de externalizarea ntregii activit i de logistic, fie de internalizarea acesteia. n mod evident, alegerea strategiei optimale se fundamenteaz pe cuantificarea efectelor scontate pentru fiecare op iune n parte. Astfel, n cazul n care firma opteaz pentru externalizarea activit ilor de logistic, principalul avantaj competitiv este acela c i permite concentrarea pe activitatea de baz (core business), n cazul creia dispune de un nivel superior de experien . Atuul major n cazul neexternalizrii este legat de coordonarea procesual ridicat ntre diferitele faze ale proceselor productive, ceea ce asigur accelerarea ciclului de fabrica ie. Indiferent de op iunea strategic aleas opera ionalizarea unui set de msuri specifice fiecrei opera ii n parte este de natur s asigure crearea i consolidarea unui avantaj competitiv important n condi iile n care principala form de manifestare a rivalit ii o constituie rzboiul pre urilor. Note de sfirit 1 Teu unitate conven ional de msur egal cu un container standard de 20 2 determinat pe baza indicatorului tokm Conclusions

AE

The two main strategic options based on which one can obtain the competitiveness are represented either by the externalization of the entire logistics activity, or its internalization. Evidently, choosing the optimal strategy is based on the quantification of the expected effects for each option. Thus, in case the company opts for the externalization of the logistics activities, the main competitive advantage is that it allows it the concentration on the core business in which case it disposes of a superior level of experience. The main advantage in the case of externalization is related to the high process coordination between different phases of the productive processes, which insures the acceleration of the production cycle. Regardless of the chosen strategic option the operation of a set of measures specific to each operation is to ensure the creation and consolidation of an important competitive advantage under the conditions in which the main form of manifesting the rivalry is the prices war.

Endnotes 1 Teu conventional measurement unit equal to a standard container of 20 2 determined based on to-km indicator

References [1] Dinu E., Strategia firmei: teorie i practic, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 2000 [2] Eurostat, Panorama of transport, 2007 [3] Lazr M. C., Analiza-diagnostic a pozi iei financiare, performan elor i fluxurilor de trezorerie ale ntreprinderilor din domeniul expedi iilor de mrfuri tez de doctorat, A.S.E., 2007, conductor tiin ific: prof. dr. V. Robu [4] Schary B.P., Logistics decisions, The Dryder Press, New York, 1984 [5] www.freightworld.com [6]www.logisticsonline.com

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Logistica mrfurilor FLUXUL INFORMA IONAL PRIVIND CALITATEA N LOGISTICA MRFURILOR ALIMENTARE

(The logistics of information flow in managing the quality of food products) Conf. univ. dr. Roxana Procopie Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia, procopier@yahoo.com Lector univ. dr. Magdalena Bobe Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia, magdabobe@yahoo.com

Rezumat Introducerea unui demers n favoarea calit ii n cadrul firmelor de produc ie, distribu ie i comer permite ridicarea competitivit ii lor pe pia . Lipsa unui feedback informa ional privind calitatea ntre operatorii economici genereaz o serie de disfunc ionalit i ce pot duce la degradarea produselor, imobilizarea stocurilor, dereglri n aprovizionare, conflicte cu clien ii i chiar la ncetarea activit ii. Produsele alimentare ajung la consumatori prin intermediul lan urilor logistice care pot implica diferite tipuri de factori i pot trece mai multe frontiere. O verig slab poate afecta securitatea produselor alimentare care pot deveni periculoase pentru sntate, genernd riscuri pentru consumatori i costuri considerabile pentru furnizori. ntruct riscurile cu privire la siguran a alimentelor pot aprea n orice punct din lan , un control adecvat al ansamblului este esen ial. Calitatea i siguran a alimentelor constituie responsabilitatea comun a tuturor factorilor care intervin n procese i necesit mbinarea eforturilor lor. Ampla gam de produse alimentare oferite de pia , mpreun cu difuzarea corect a informa iei, ca factor primar al strategiei de promovare, permite consumatorului final adoptarea unei atitudini critice i a unei capacit i selective care pot privilegia formele de concuren bazate pe calitate, n detrimentul celor bazate pe costuri. Apare astfel, necesitatea regndirii conceptului de calitate, n ncercarea de a propune solu ii inovatoare ce pot furniza rspunsuri la semnalele pie ei, evalundu-se corect implica iile ce deriv din confruntarea cu colectivitatea i cu delicata rela ie instaurat ntre om i ambient. Cuvinte cheie: feed-back, informa ie, calitate, logistic, aliment Clasificarea JEL: D 30, L 66, L81 Abstract Attempting to introduce quality in production, distribution and trade companies, leads to a rise in their level of competitiveness on the market. The lack of informational feed-back on quality among economic operators causes a series of dissensions that may contribute to product degradation, stock blocking, supply irregularities, conflicts with customers, even activity stop. Food products get to the consumers by means of logistic chains which can involve different types of factors and can pass more frontiers. A weak link may affect the safety of the food products that may become dangerous to human health, producing risks for consumers and considerable costs for the suppliers. As the risks related to foods safety may appear in any part of the chain, it is essential to have an appropriate control of the whole chain. Food quality and safety are the common responsibilities of all the factors that intervene in the processes and it is necessary that they combine their efforts. 70 Amfiteatru Economic

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The wide range of food products on the market, together with the correct information broadcast, as a main factor of promotion strategy, allow the end user to adopt a critical attitude and develop the selective capacity that may favor some forms of competition based on quality, to the detriment of the ones based on costs. Thus, it is necessary to re-think the concept of quality, in the attempt to propose innovative solutions that can give answers to the markets signals, assessing correctly the implications that come from facing the collectivity and the delicate relationship between man and the environment. Keywords: feed-back, information, quality, logistics, food JEL Classification: D 30, L 66, L81 Introducere Alimentul reprezint legtura cea mai strns a omului cu ambientul natural, iar asigurarea calit ii acestuia presupune cunoaterea ct mai exact a impactului su cu pia a (metabolic i economic) i cu mediul natural i artificial. Acest proces ofer o nou dimensiune calit ii mrfurilor alimentare care se extinde la nivelul tuturor activit ilor decizionale de concepere, de produc ie, de distribu ie, comercializare, consum i post-consum. Ideal este asigurarea calit ii mrfurilor alimentare care s rspund n acelai timp ateptrilor i intereselor numrului crescnd al "actorilor" economici i sociali ce intervin de-a lungul lan urilor agro-alimentare: productori i consumatori, dar i intermediari, organisme de interven ie .a. Fa de aceast complexitate este necesar: identificarea i observarea diferi ilor operatori care sunt implica i ntr-un sistem agro-alimentar; n elegerea naturii rela iilor, a fluxurilor materiale, de bunuri i servicii, dar i financiare i informative dintre acetia; n elegerea impactului diferitelor tipuri de interven ii asupra ntregului sistem. Introduction Food represents the closest bond between man and natural environment, and ensuring foods quality entails very accurate knowledge of its impact on the market (metabolic and economic) and on the natural and artificial environment. This process gives a new dimension to the quality of food products that extends over all the decision-making activities of design, production, distribution, selling, consumption and post-consumption. It is ideal to ensure the quality of foods that should rise to the expectations and interests of the growing number of economic and social actors involved in the agricultural foods chains: producers and consumers, as well as intermediaries, intervention organisms, etc. As regards to this complexity it is necessary to: identify and watch the different operators involved in an agro-food system; understand the nature of financial and informative relations, of the flow of several goods and services and the relations among all of the above; understand the impact of different types of interventions on the whole system.

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The analysis of the existent interactions among the above mentioned activities explains the interdependence and integration phenomena typical to the succession: agricultural production transformation distribution consumption, as well as the power structure of these components. 1. The logistics of food productsinterdependence and integration phenomena Foods production and processing, that were done initially in agricultural exploitations and handicraft units have been gradually transferred to downstream agriculture. Nowadays products undergo a large number of technical and commercial operations before they reach the consumer; this number of operations is continually growing as food products become more modern. In a competition-based economy the choice of distribution chains for agrofoods does not have to resort to just one chain, as any chain is influenced by the markets impulses. We have to know the possibilities of organizing and distributing agricultural products and processed foods in order to understand and solve the problem of ensuring their quality. Most of the agricultural food production is meant to be processed in the food industry, except the fresh fruit and vegetables and the production sold by the farmers directly to the consumers. Urbanization and modernization of agriculture, the fast development of the distribution channels and food industry lead to a reduction in the direct sales to the consumers. However, after the 80s, in developed Community countries, there was o revival of this form of selling for the following reasons: agricultural crisis (price and agricultural quotations decrease), return of the young people and

Analiza schimburilor existente ntre activit ile semnalate traduce fenomenele de interdependen i de integrare caracteristice succesiunii produc ie agricol - transformare - distribu ie consum, ca i raporturile de for dintre aceste componente. 1. Logistica produselor alimentare fenomene de interdependen i integrare Produc ia i prelucrarea alimentelor, care se efectuau ini ial la nivelul exploatrilor agricole i a unit ilor artizanale au fost transferate progresiv n aval de agricultur. n zilele noastre, produsele sunt supuse unui numr mare de opera iuni tehnice i comerciale nainte de a ajunge la consumator, numr de opera iuni care este n continu cretere pe msura "modernizrii" bunurilor alimentare. n cazul economiei concuren iale, alegerea filierelor pentru produsele agroalimentare nu trebuie s se limiteze la cunoaterea unui singur circuit, deoarece orice circuit este influen at de impulsurile pie ei. n n elegerea i rezolvarea problemei asigurrii calit ii produselor agricole i a celor alimentare procesate trebuie cunoscute posibilit ile de organizare a distribu iei acestora. Mare parte a produc iei agricole alimentare este destinat prelucrrii n industria alimentar, exceptnd fructele i legumele comercializate n stare proaspt i produc ia comercializat n mod direct de ctre agricultori ctre consumatori. Urbanizarea i modernizarea agriculturii, dezvoltarea accelerat a formelor de distribu ie i a industriei alimentare au determinat o diminuare a ponderii vnzrii directe ctre consumatori. Dup anii '80, la nivelul rilor dezvoltate comunitare, se observ ns o revigorare a acestei forme de comercializare din motive legate de: criza agricol (scderea pre urilor i a cota iilor agricole), ntoarcerea n zona

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rural a citadinilor i a tinerilor, existen a unei cereri crescnde pentru produse alimentare i agro-alimentare "naturale" i "tradi ionale". Aceast revigorare a determinat apari ia unor forme noi de vnzare direct, individuale sau colective. Formele colective se refer la constituirea de ctre mai mul i productori agricoli a unor puncte de vnzare sezoniere sau permanente, aceasta fiind principala form spre care se tinde n prezent [1]. n cazul vnzrii directe, productorul agricol i asum responsabilitatea civil fa de inocuitatea produselor care trebuie s se diferen ieze prin calitate i originalitate. Activit ile suplimentare de industrializare i comercializare desfurate solicit din partea acestuia o competen ce nu poate fi improvizat. Canalele de distribu ie posibile aflate la dispozi ia agricultorilor n vederea valorificrii produc iei lor sunt reprezentate n mod simplificat n figura 1. Se apreciaz c aproximativ 80% din consumul alimentar tranziteaz industria agro-alimentar. Aprovizionarea acesteia se realizeaz pe mai multe ci: direct, prin contract de livrare (prin care agricultorul se angajeaz s livreze o anumit cantitate, conform condi iilor precizate n contract) sau prin contract de integrare (care leag agricultorul de firma integrant, con innd obliga ii reciproce); prin intermediul negociatorilor (negocierea comercial stabilete n afara pre ului, a modalit ilor de plat i de livrare, i caracteristicile de calitate ale produselor); prin intermediul grupurilor de productori asocia i sau a altor forme cooperatiste de comercializare care asigur o mare parte a bazei de materii prime agricole industriilor agroalimentare din sistemul cooperatist.

AE

city dwellers to the country, the increasing demand for natural and traditional foods and agricultural foods. This revival caused the occurrence of new forms of direct selling, individual or collective. The collective forms refer to the set up of some seasonal or permanent outlets by farmers, this being the main trend now [1]. In the case of direct selling, the farmer undertakes liability for the innocuousness of the products that have to be different in terms of quality and originality. The additional activities of industrialization and selling carried out by the producers request them authentic competence. The possible distribution channels that the farmers can use in order to make profit out of their production are represented in figure 1 in a simplified way It is approximated that almost 80% of the food consumption passes through the agro-food industry. Its supplying is done in different ways: directly, by delivery contract (by which the farmer commits to deliver a certain quantity, according to the terms stipulated in the contract) or by integration contract (that connects the farmer with the integrating company, with mutual obligations); by means of negotiators (beside the price, payment and delivery terms, commercial negotiation also establishes the quality features of the products); by means of associated groups of producers or other forms of cooperative trade that ensure most of the basic agricultural raw materials in agro-foods industries form the cooperative system.

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Productori agricoli (Farm producers)

Industria agro-alimentar (Food industry)

Grositi (Salesmen)

Centrale comerciale (Incorporated Trade)

Mici detailiti independen i (Free small retailers)

Forme moderne de distribu ie (Modern distribution ways)

Gospodrii familiale (Domestic consumption)

Restaurante i colectivit i (Restaurants and collectivities)

Circuit dominant (Preponderant circuit) Circuit n diminuare (Reduced circuit)

Figura 1 Posibilele canale de distribu ie ale produselor agricole i alimentare - dup Lagrange, L. (Possible distribution channels of agricultural and food products - after Lagrange, L)

Func iile ndeplinite n principal de ctre intermediari (grupri ale productorilor, cooperative de comercializare i negociatori priva i) sunt legate de: transportul produselor (colectare i livrare), triere, sortare i calibrare pe clase de calitate, depozitare, condi ionare, ambalare, formarea sortimentului i informarea productorilor. Intermediarii i asum i func ii economice legate de stabilirea pre urilor, ritmul livrrilor, stabilirea condi iilor de livrare-preluare, finan area stocurilor i a pierderilor etc., toate acestea prin utilizarea

The functions mainly held by the middlemen (producers associations, trade cooperatives and private negotiators) are connected with: products transportation (collecting and delivery), sorting out, dividing and adjusting according to quality classes, warehousing, conditioning, packing, range formation and producers information. The middlemen also take on economic functions related to price setting, delivery pace, establishing the delivery-receiving terms, financing stocks and losses etc.; all these are done by using

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diferitelor forme de negociere efectuate pe baza contractului dintre parteneri [3]. Industria alimentar asigur prelucrarea materiilor prime agricole, transformarea lor, stabilizarea produselor, adaptarea la regimurile alimentare, diversificarea. Aceasta se dezvolt pe msura creterii nivelului de trai i a cererii consumatorilor care evolueaz ctre produse din ce n ce mai sofisticate, cu grad ct mai nalt de prelucrare. Comercializarea produselor alimentare necesit cunoaterea nevoilor consumatorilor, a caracteristicilor agen ilor economici care particip la schimb, a tehnicilor comerciale i a mijloacelor utilizate de ctre acetia pentru a influen a pia a. Plasa i ntre productorii de alimente i comercian i detailiti, angrositii se constituie ntr-o verig important a distribu iei acestor produse. Avantajele existen ei comer ului en gros pentru comer ul cu amnuntul se refer la: reducerea numrului de furnizori, limitarea stocurilor i a imobilizrilor financiare, livrarea frecvent a mrfurilor i disponibilitatea permanent a acestora, informare comercial. Comer ul en-detail cu produse alimentare face legtura direct cu consumatorii, avnd ca principale func iuni formarea sortimentului (oferind o gam ct mai larg de produse cumprtorilor) i por ionarea (oferind produse n cantit i mici). Pentru consumatori, comer ul cu amnuntul presupune existen a unei structuri sortimentale adecvate de produse autentice, normale i sigure, ct i asigurarea unui nivel calitativ acceptat, la locul, n momentul i cantitatea cerut de pia . Interna ionalizarea societ ilor de distribu ie este un fenomen relativ recent, aprut dup 1980 i accelerat dup formarea pie ei unice europene n 1993. Formele de interna ionalizare sunt diverse: colaborare ntre distribuitori, implantare

AE

different forms of negotiation based on the contract between the partners [3]. Food industry ensures the processing of agricultural raw materials, their transformation, products stabilization, adjusting to diets, diversification. This is developed in accordance with the increase in the living standard and the demand of the consumers that evolves towards more and more sophisticated products, with the processing degree as high as possible. Food products selling implies knowing the consumers needs, the characteristics of the economic agents involved in the exchange, of the commercial techniques and the means used by them to influence the market. Placed between the food producers and the retailers, wholesalers are an important part in the distribution of these products. The advantages that retail sales have from wholesales refer to: the reduction of the number of suppliers, limiting the stocks and financial blockages, frequent delivery of goods and their permanent availability, getting commercial information. Retail trade with food products makes the direct connection with the consumers, its main functions being to form the product range (offering the consumers an as wide as possible range of products) and portioning (offering products in small quantities). For the consumers retail trade means the existence of an adequate range of authentic, common and safe products on the one hand, and the guarantee of an accepted quality level, at the place, the moment and the quality demanded by the market on the other. For the distribution societies operating internationally is a relatively recent phenomenon, which occurred after 1980 and accelerated after the unique European market was formed in 1993. Internationalization methods are diverse: collaboration relations among distributors, direct implantation,

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setting up common branches (jointventure), as well as (euro-central) agreements among the distribution societies. We can notice an upward evolution of the concentrated trade, both at the level of integrated trade and at the level of associated independent trade. Integrated trade distinguishes itself by integrating the functions of the wholesale trade with the ones of the retail trade, having their own purchasing centers, warehouses and outlets (Carrefour, Aldi). Isolated independent trade, being a trade form specialized in small firms, is more or less present in the European trade environment and only for some products (spices, fruit and vegetables, fish, meat, pastry). At the level of associated independent trade we speak about the concentration phenomenon for organizations like: Promodes or Spar in whose case there is an association of a wholesaler with a number of retailers. There are also methods of horizontal association of a number of retailers, the cooperative type: REWE and EDEKA in Germany. Beyond setting up the centers supplied directly from the industry with warehouses able to supply their own outlets exclusively, at European level there have been created the so-called euro centers, big groups of distribution of food products which associate distribution groups from different countries (EMD European Market Distribution, for example covers 11,5% of the European market)[4]. The structure of final delivery to the end-user is an important characteristic of the logistic chain and the food consumption models. The consumer recognizes the food products from three main sources: agriculture for fresh products consumption, industry for more or less processed products

direct, crearea unor filiale comune ("joint-venture"), ca i acorduri ntre societ ile de distribu ie (euro-centrale). Se constat o evolu ie ascendent a comer ului concentrat, att la nivelul comer ului integrat, ct i la nivelul comer ului independent asociat. Comer ul integrat se distinge prin aceea c integreaz func iile comer ului en-gros cu cele ale comer ului en-detail, de innd centrale de achizi ie proprii, depozite i puncte de vnzare (Carrefour, Aldi). Comer ul independent izolat, ca form de comer specializat prin intermediul unor firme de talie mic rezist mai mult sau mai pu in n peisajul comercial european i doar pentru anumite produse (condimente, fructe i legume, pete, carne, patiserie). La nivelul comer ului independent asociat se poate vorbi despre fenomenul de concentrare pentru societ i ca: Promods sau Spar, n cazul crora are loc o asociere a unui agent economic grosist cu un ansamblu de detailiti. De asemenea, exist i modalit i de asociere orizontal a unui numr de detailiti, sub form cooperatist: REWE i EDEKA n Germania. Dincolo de constituirea centralelor aprovizionate direct din industrie i de innd depozite pentru livrarea mrfurilor exclusiv propriilor puncte de vnzare, au fost create la nivel european aa-numitele "euro-centrale", mari grupuri de distribu ie a produselor alimentare care asociaz grupuri de distribu ie din diferite ri (EMD - European Marketing Distribution, de exemplu, acoper 11,5% din pia a european) [4]. Structura livrrilor finale ctre consumator este o caracteristic important a lan ului logistic i a modelelor de consum alimentar. Consumatorul recunoate produsele alimentare din trei surse principale: agricultura pentru produsele consumate n stare proaspt, industria pentru produsele

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mai mult sau mai pu in procesate i serviciile de alimenta ie pentru "alimentele-serviciu". Indiferent de forma de achizi ionare a alimentelor, satisfacerea cerin elor consumatorului fa de calitatea produselor trebuie s reprezinte scopul final al tuturor operatorilor din lan ul logistic. 2. Calitatea mrfurilor alimentare la interfa a dintre rela iile contractuale i pia Avnd n vedere principalele nivele de operare ale lan ului agro-alimentar luate n considerare (produc ie agricol, industrie alimentar, comercializare i consum) se poate contura modelul general integrator de asigurare a calit ii mrfurilor alimentare la interfa a dintre rela iile contractuale i pia a consumatorului de alimente (vezi figura 2).

AE

and the food services for service- foods. Irrespective of the way in which food products are bought, satisfying the customers needs in relation to the quality of the products must be the final goal of all the operators from the logistic chain.

2. The quality of the food products based on the interface between the contractual relations and the market Taking into account the considered main operational levels of the agro-food chain (agricultural production, food industry, selling and consumption) we can shape the general integrating model to ensure the quality of food products based on the interface between the contractual relations and the food consumers market (fig. no. 2).

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Logistica mrfurilor
Opera iuni comerciale (Commerce)

Produc ie agricol vegetal animal (Agricultural production vegetable animal )

Industrie alimentar prelucrare conservare ambalare (Food industry manufacturing conditioning packing)

Comercializare precomercializare depozitare transport pia 1. en-gros 2. en-detail servicii alimentare (Commercialization storage transport market 1. wholesale 2. retail trade alimentary services)

Consum autoconsum consum la domiciliu consum n afara domiciliului 1. servicii alimentare 2. colectivit i (Consumption Individual consumption domestic consumption catering 1. alimentary services 2. collectivities)

Rela ii contractuale (Delivery agreement) Protec ia consumatorului de alimente (Consumers protection)

Figura 2 Model general integrator de asigurare a calit ii mrfurilor alimentare la interfa a dintre rela iile contractuale i pia a consumatorului de alimente (General integrating model to ensure the quality of the food products based on the interface between contractual relations and the food consumers market)

Pe baza modelului general integrator de asigurare a calit ii mrfurilor alimentare se pot construi modele integratoare de asigurare a calit ii fiecrui tip de produse (de exemplu, carne, brnzeturi, produse cerealiere, condimente, vinuri etc.).

Relying on the general integrating model to ensure the quality of food products, we can build up integrating models to ensure the quality of each type of products (for example meat, cheese, cereal products, spices, wines etc).

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Necesitate i exigen a societ ii contemporane, asigurarea calit ii mrfurilor alimentare presupune existen a unui flux de informa ii ntre agen ii economici participan i, pe baza cruia acetia i pot pregti deciziile i i pot asuma responsabilit i. Totodat, desfurarea unei activit i eficiente din punct de vedere economic i social implic o ct mai exact cunoatere a mediului n care ac ioneaz firma i a produsului realizat prin [2]: informa ii asupra situa iei economice generale (venit na ional pe locuitor, popula ie activ n agricultur, participarea agriculturii la valoarea final a produsului alimentar, produs agricol brut mediu pe locuitor agricol, reparti ia produc iei agricole pe sectoare, posibilit i de comunica ie cu pia a, condi ii de ob inere a creditelor, dobnzi i impozite .a.); informa ii privind structura capacit ilor de produc ie (numr de productori total i pe grupe de importan , productori concuren i i poten ialul lor productiv, forme de organizare ale productorilor, pre urile principalilor factori de produc ie etc.); informa ii asupra ofertei i a distribu iei (produc ie intern, indicatori ai exportului i importului, sezonalizarea ofertei, distribu ia en gros i en detail a produselor, poten ialul i tehnicile privind activit ile de comercializare, metode de comercializare i circuite utilizate, forme de prezentare a produsului pe pia ); informa ii asupra consumului de produse alimentare (aspecte demografice i sociale ale consumului, atitudini i obiceiuri, stiluri de via ale consumatorilor, modele de consum alimentar, indicatori ai consumului total i pe grupe de produse .a.m.d.); informa ii asupra condi iilor de vnzare (modalit i de plat, clauzele

AE

Perceived as a necessity and exigency of the contemporary society, ensuring the quality of food products involves a flow of information among the participating economic agents, information which is used by them in order to prepare their decisions and to bear liability. At the same time, an efficient activity from an economic and social point of view involves a very accurate knowledge of the environment in which the firm operates and of the product itself. Knowledge is achieved by obtaining:[2] information about the general economic situation (national income per inhabitant, active population working in agriculture, agricultural contribution to the final value of the food product, division of agricultural production into sectors, communication opportunities with the market, credit terms, interests and taxes, etc); information about the structure of production capacity (total number of producers and according to their importance, competitor producers and their production capacity, organization forms of the producers, the prices of the main production factors, etc); information about the offer and distribution (domestic production, import and export indicators, the seasonal character of the offer, wholesale and retail distribution of the products, potential and techniques related to selling activities, selling methods and chains used, modalities of presenting the product on the market); information about the consumption of food products (social and demographic aspects of consumption, attitudes and customs, consumers life styles, models of food consumption, indicators of total consumption and of consumption on groups of products etc); information about the selling conditions (payment methods, penalizing

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clauses, sellers liability limits, quality guarantee conditions for the products, conditions of canceling or renegotiating contracts); information about prices (trade margins, packing expenses, transportation, warehousing, keeping the goods at disposal); information necessary to evaluate the food safety of the population (approximating the supply capacity of a country, indicators of the populations welfare, indicators of natural resources stewardship and of the level of environmental damage); information about the identification and evaluation of food products (recognition data of the product, product range, producer, information about product features, elements regarding the legal regulations with a view to identification, labeling , quality standardization and proof of the respective products); information about the use of the food product (storage conditions, use, preservation typical to each product group, the performances and advantages of the product for the consumers). The complexity and dynamism of the problems regarding the quality are tightly connected with the logistic chain of each type of food product, as well as with the legislative and regulatory framework at national and international level. Conclusions The key problem that the actors operating on the food products market are faced with is to integrate two attitudes correctly: to understand the quality of the food product in a systemic outlook on its logistic path at bulk level, as well as an entity, bearing substance, satisfaction, innovation and economic value;

penalizatoare, limitele responsabilit ilor vnztorului, condi ii de garantare a calit ii produselor, condi ii de reziliere sau refacere a contractelor); informa ii asupra pre urilor (marjele comerciale, cheltuielile privind ambalajul, transportul, stocarea, punerea la dispozi ie a mrfurilor); informa ii necesare evalurii securit ii alimentare a popula iei (aprecierea capacit ii de aprovizionare a unei ri, indicatori ai nivelului de bunstare a popula iei, indicatori de msurare a gestiunii resurselor naturale i a nivelului de degradare a mediului); informa ii privind identificarea i evaluarea produselor alimentare (date de recunoatere a produsului, a sortimentului, a productorului, informa ii privind caracteristicile produsului, elemente privind reglementrile legale cu privire la identificare i etichetare, la standardizarea i certificarea calit ii produselor respective); informa ii de utilizare a produsului alimentar (mod de pstrare, utilizare, conservare specific fiecrei grupe de alimente, performan ele i avantajele pe care le prezint produsul pentru consumatori). Complexitatea i dinamismul problemelor privind calitatea sunt strns legate de specificul lan ului logistic al fiecrui tip de produs alimentar, precum i de cadrul legislativ-normativ pe plan na ional i interna ional. Concluzii Punctul-cheie cu care se confrunt "actorii" care opereaz pe pia a mrfurilor alimentare este acela de a integra corect dou atitudini: n elegerea ntr-o viziune sistemic a calit ii produsului alimentar pe traseul logistic la nivel de lot, dar i ca entitate, ca purttor de substan , satisfac ie i informa ie, inova ie i valoare economic;

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necesitatea de a asigura calitatea produsului alimentar pe pia n vederea ob inerii unei maxime corelri a intereselor n cadrul rela iei productordistribuitor-comerciant-consumator. Observnd mrfurile alimentare contemporane, devine necesar cunoaterea activit ilor logistice prin prisma informa iilor legate de necesit i, de interese, de procese de schimb, de valoare, prin focalizarea aten iei, n mod particular, asupra realizrii i men inerii calit ii pe tot traseul distribu iei fizice. Se manifest astfel, necesitatea adoptrii unei "culturi a calit ii" care s induc noi modalit i de abordare a activit ilor. Aceasta presupune conexarea diferitelor opera iuni - proiectare, produc ie, distribu ie i comercializare - n ncercarea firmelor de a contura modele proprii de asigurare a calit ii la interfa a dintre rela iile contractuale i pia a consumatorului de alimente, pe baza unui flux informa ional, dar i a unui feedback informa ional adecvat. Fluxul informa ional al calit ii mrfurilor alimentare pe traseul logistic este sugestiv ilustrat n figura 3 [2]. n aceste condi ii, este necesar ca organiza iile din lan ul alimentar s-i dezvolte sisteme proprii de management al calit ii alimentelor prin care s se asigure i s demonstreze ter ilor c au capacitatea necesar de a controla pericolele pentru siguran a alimentelor, respectiv de a produce, distribui, comercializa i manipula alimente de calitate superioar.

AE

the necessity to ensure the quality of the food product on the market in order to obtain a maximum correlation of interests within the relationship producer distributor seller consumer. Noticing contemporary food products, it is necessary to know the logistic activities in relation to the information about needs, interests, exchange processes, value, by focussing attention especially on obtaining and maintaining quality along the whole physical distribution chain. Thus, it is necessary to adopt a culture of quality, which will induce new ways of approaching activities. This involves connecting different operations design, production, distribution and selling - in the companies attempt to create their own models to ensure quality on the interface between contractual relations and the food products consumers market, relying on a flow of information, as well as on an appropriate informational feed-back. The information flow of the quality of food products on the logistic path is suggestively illustrated in figure 3 [2]. Under these circumstances, it is essential that the organizations in the food chain develop their own systems of food quality management, which will ensure and demonstrate to third parties that they have the necessary capacity to control the dangers that threaten foods safety, respectively to produce, distribute, sell and handle superior quality foods.

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Figura 3 Fluxul informa ional al calit ii mrfurilor alimentare pe traseul logistic

Figura 3 Information flow of the quality of food products on the logistic path

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Aplicarea standardului EN ISO 22000: 2005 - Sisteme de management al siguran ei alimentelor, de ctre toate organiza iile din lan ul alimentar, constituie un pas important spre armonizarea intereselor consumatorilor, care urmresc achizi ionarea unor produse alimentare de bun calitate i sigure n consum, cu cele ale agen ilor economici pentru care maximizarea profitului este scopul principal [5]. Considerm c eforturile n aceast direc ie sunt menite s poten eze schimburile comerciale cu mrfuri alimentare i s determine ob inerea unor avantaje competitive sus inute n lupta concuren ial.

AE

Applying the EN ISO 22000:2005 standard - Food safety management system by all organizations in the food chain, represents an important step towards harmonizing consumers interests, that want to buy good quality and safe food products, with the ones of the economic agents for whom maximizing the profit is the main goal [5]. We consider that efforts in this direction are meant to strengthen commercial exchanges with food products and to lead to obtaining sustained competitive advantages in the market competition.

References [1] Constantin, M., Marketingul produc iei agro-alimentare, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1997 [2] Dima, D., Pamfilie, R., Procopie, R., Bobe, M. .a., Mrfuri alimentare i securitatea consumatorului, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 2006 [3] Lagrange, L., La commercialisation des produits agricoles et alimentaires, Tehnique & Documentation-Lavoisier, Paris, 1995 [4] www.emd-ag.com [5] www.standard-team.com

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FUNC IONALIT I ERP UTILIZATE N MBUNT IREA INTEGRRII SISTEMELOR LOGISTICE

(The ERP capabilities for enhancing the logistic system integration) Prof. univ. dr. Traian Surcel, Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia tsurcel@ase.ro Prof. univ. dr. Razvan Bologa, Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia, razvanbologa@ase.ro

Rezumat Creterea competitivit ii companiilor n contextul globalizrii economiei i a expansiunii rela iilor de afaceri n spa iul Internet, necesit o abordare ntr-o nou dimensiune a sistemelor logistice, bazat pe un model de integrare arborescent a proceselor logistice, pe paralelizarea fluxurilor i optimizare. Din cercetarea problematicii s-au identificat patru axe ale procesului de integrare, care permit ndeplinirea func iei de interfa a acestor sisteme ntre cerere demand side i ofert supply side, cele dou laturi ale activit ii economice. Suportul IT&C al integrrii logistice se contureaz a fi sistemele ERP Enterprise Resource Planning, care n prezent au evoluat spre integrarea interfe elor colaborative cu componentele SCM - Supply Chain Management, CRM Custom Relationship Management. Lucrarea face o analiz concis a structurii i func ionalit ii sistemelor ERP i a rela iei SCM ERP i CRM ERP, subliniind posibilit ile de mbunt ire a performan elor sistemelor logistice prin implementarea modulelor software disponibile n cadrul unor solu ii ERP care domin pia a IT, i anume sistemele SAP, Oracle i MS Dynamics Nav. Concluziile eviden iaz principalele avantaje, dar mai ales acele dezavantaje care trebuie re inute i analizate cu aten ie pentru a asigura succesul unei implementri ERP. Cuvinte cheie: sistem logistic, sistem IT&C, ERP, SCM, CRM, SAP Clasificare JEL: M15, L86 Abstract The increase of companies competitiveness as a consequence of globalization and the expansion of the business relations in the web environment requires an approach, in a new dimension, on logistic systems based on a model of arborescent integration of logistic processes, on parallelism of the flows and optimization. Four axes of the integration process had been identified in the research, axes which allow the achievement of these systems interface function between demand side and supply side the two sides of the economic activity. The IT&C support of logistics integration appears to be the ERP systems Enterprise Resource Planning, which currently have evolved towards the integration with the components of SCM Supply Chain Management, CRM - Customer Relationship Management. The paper makes a brief analysis of the structure and the functionality of the ERP systems and of the relations SCM ERP and CRM ERP, emphasizing the possibilities to improve the performance of logistics systems. This is realized by implementing software modules available as part of ERP solutions which dominate the IT market, namely the SAP, Oracle and MS Dynamic Nav systems. The conclusions emphasize the main advantages but also those disadvantages that must be considered and carefully analyzed to assure a successful ERP implementation.

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Keywords: logistic system, IT&C, ERP, SCM, CRM, SAP system JEL Classification: M15, L86 Introducere Dimensiunea european a economiei romneti ne oblig la o abordare a managementului ntreprinderii n conformitate cu noua sa calitate, de component a unui spa iu economic caracterizat de tendin a clar de integrare. Rela iile de business sunt din ce n ce mai complexe, operndu-se acum i n spa iul WEB, al afacerilor electronice. ntreprinderile, multe cu ac ionariat interna ional, colaboreaz cu furnizori, clien i, vnztori, firme de outsourcing integra i ntr-un lan de procese logistice. Logistica nu mai reprezint doar gestiunea aprovizionrii, depozitrii, manipulrii i transportului marfurilor. Lan ul proceselor logistice formeaz un sistem ce include ntregul parcurs de la achizi ia materialelor i pn la livrarea produselor ctre consumatorul final. Sistemele logistice au acum func ia de interfa ce armonizeaz cererea demand side, cu oferta supply side n cadrul proceselor economice. Logistica devine o problem de mare complexitate n condi iile mondializrii economiilor, caracteristic ce induce schimbri semnificative ale rela iilor de afaceri. Acestea se caracterizeaz n prezent printr-o mare dispersie i delocalizare a unit ilor i mijloacelor de produc ie i depozitare, a surselor de aprovizionare, prin structurarea geografic multipolar a schimburilor interna ionale. Toate acestea se reflect printr-o reorientare a companiilor de la spa iul economiei na ionale ctre spa iul multina ional al economiei mondiale.

AE

Introduction The European dimension of the Romanian economy obliges us to approach the business management in line with its new status, that of being part of an economic space characterized by a clear and ever growing tendency of integration.. The business relations are more and more complex, working now also in the web environment of the electronic business. Enterprises, many with international stockholders, collaborate with suppliers, clients, outsourcing firms integrated in a chain of logistic processes. Logistics dont represent only the administration supply, storage, manipulation and the transport of the merchandises. The logistic processes are linked into a logistic system which includes all steps from the material acquisition until the product delivery to the final consumer. The logistic systems have now the role of an interface that match together the demand side with the supply side in the economic processes. Logistics become a much more complex problem in the conditions of world-wide economies. This new characteristic of the economies lay down significant changes in business relations. Presently, the business networks are characterized by a large dispersion and delocalization of units and means of production and storage, sources of supply, by a multipolar geographic structure of international trade. All these are reflected in the companies reorientation to resizing their business network from national area to regional and global area.

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In order to improve the companies competitiveness scenarios in this context of the globalization, the analysis and prognosis of the demand, the production and supply planning, stock management, storage, sale, distribution and transport management need a newly tailored approach represented by tree-like integration of logistic services.

Men inerea competitivit ii firmelor n acest context al integrrii economice, al globalizrii, face ca analiza i prognoza cererii, planificarea produc iei, a aprovizionrii, managementul stocurilor, depozitarea, vnzarea i distribu ia, managementul transpoturilor, s necesite o abordare ntr-o nou dimensiune reprezentat de integrarea arborescent a serviciilor logistice. 1. Patru axe ale integrrii logistice Sistemul logistic aprovizionareproduc ie-desfacere nu mai poate fi obiectul unei abordri secven iale de opera ii fizice. Modelul logistic actual se bazeaz pe integrarea i paralelizarea fluxurilor i pe optimizare. Celor trei axe ale integrrii logistice men ionate n literatura de specialitate [2] [6]: axa marketing - prognoz i planificarea cerin elor i nevoilor; axa fluxurilor materiale; axa fluxurilor financiare, noi propunem s li se adauge o a patra ax: axa fluxurilor informa ionale. Adugarea acestei de-a patra axe, a fluxurilor informa ionale, considerm c se impune datorit generalizrii implementrii pe scar larg a sistemelor IT&C. Deci, vom vorbi despre cadrul modern al sistemelor logistice integrate bazate pe cele patru axe. Conform acestor direc ii, modelul integrrii logistice urmrete anticiparea pie ei, integrarea i pilotarea fluxurilor de aprovizionare, depozitare, manipulare, transport, vnzare i distribu ie, pn la livrarea direct la client. n Romania, firmele trebuie s fac pai hotr i pentru asimilarea i punerea n practic a unui astfel de model logistic, op iune strategic caracterizat prin: conceperea simultan a proceselor de produc ie i aprovizionare n care

1. Four axes of logistic integration The logistic system supply production sale cant be anymore the object of a sequential approach of physical operations. The current logistic model is based on the integration and parallelism of the flows and optimisation. To the already tree axes of the logistic integration, as they were mentioned in the scientific literature [2] [6], its about: the marketing axis forecast and plan the requirements and needs; the material flows axis; the financial flows axis; we propose to add a new axis, the fourth one: the informational flows axis. This informational flows axis is dictated by the large scale of the IT&C systems development through the companies. So we will discuss now about a modern frame of the logistic systems integration based on the four axes. According to these directions, the logistic integration model takes into account the problems starting with the anticipation of the market, next, the integration and piloting of supply, storage, manipulation, transport, sale and distribution flows, until to the direct delivery to the final customer. The Romanian companies must make firmly steps to assimilate and to put into the practice this logistic model, a strategic option characterized by: the simultaneous conception of production and supply processes, where

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lohnul joac un rol din ce n ce mai mare n delocalizarea activit ilor operative de produc ie; globalizarea infrastructurii de distribu ie pe secven a lan -canal-circuit de distribu ie n condi iile exploziei ecommerce, e-business i implicit expansiunea pie elor de la nivel local la cel na ional, regional i mondial; interna ionalizarea fluxurilor informa ionale.

AE

the lohn export techniques play a bigger role in delocalization of production operative activities; the distribution infrastructure globalization on the sequence chain channel circulation of distribution conditioned by the growing of ecommerce, e-business, and by default the markets expansion from local level to national, regional and world wide level; the internationalisation of the informational flows. 2. IT&C solutions The answer to the problems that seem to exceed us through the complexity, dynamics and the volume of data, processing and decisions, is the implementation of IT&C systems. The IT&C systems offer the quality of strategic resource to the electronic information, for an advantage position in the competitive competition of the market economy. The system IT&C term evolved quickly from the OLTPS systems Operational Transactions Processing Systems to MIS systems Management Information Systems and in the present to EIS Executive Information Systems, the last one on the list of intelligent systems that assist the decisions making. The OLTPS information systems have first solved the discipline problems of the sequential informational and organizational system, on phases and compartments of management, from the technical to the financial and statistical evidence. Only all this process is finalized, we could improve the operative and tactical management through MIS, especially by using of quantitative mathematic-economic models. The EIS systems represent systems for strategic management, which according to Scott Mortons definition emphasize the data and models utilization on purpose to solution the no

2. Solu ii IT&C La problemele ce par s ne depeasc prin complexitate, dinamic i volumul datelor, al prelucrrilor i deciziilor se rspunde prin implementarea sistemelor IT&C. Sistemele IT&C confer informa iei electronice calitatea de resurs strategic pentru ob inerea unei pozi ii avantajose n competi ia concuren ial din economia de pia . Termenul de sistem IT&C a evoluat rapid de la sisteme OLTPS Operational Tranzactions Proccessing Systems la sisteme MIS Management Information Systems i n prezent la EIS Executive Information Systems, ultimul n lista de sisteme inteligente de asistare a deciziilor SIAD. Sistemele informatice OLPS au rezolvat mai nti problemele de disciplinare a sistemului informa ional i organiza ional secven ial, pe faze i compartimente, ale managementului, de la eviden a tehnico-operativ, apoi la cea financiar-contabil i statistic. Numai dup aceasta s-a putut trece la mbunt irea managementului operativ i tactic prin MIS, n special prin includerea de modele cantitative economicomatematice. Clasa sistemelor EIS reprezint sisteme destinate conducerii strategice, care conform defini iei lui Scott Morton pun accentul pe utilizarea datelor i modelelor n scopul rezolvrii problemelor

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structured problems in no structured decisions, other than the routine decisions [3] 3. ERP logistic systems integration support The IT&C system core is the ERP system Enterprise Resource Planning, which includes the information applications regarding the planning and the administration of enterprises resources in a management integrated system. ERP systems have evolved and have registered a remarkable success under the condition they are integrated and interfaced with SCM systems Supply Chain Management, CRM systems Customer Relationship Management and BI systems Business Intelligence. In this configuration, the ERP systems are organized as a perimeter in order to emphasize and control the traceability of all material and financial transactions on the complex cycle of END-TO-END assistance of logistic process from receiving an order, until delivery to the customer. The ERR system software modules cover all the functional areas of an enterprise, structured on the following categories: production and working flows, material administration, storage and stocks, sales and distributions, , financialaccountancy, treasury, quality management, orders portal and contracts management, human resources, transports and auto-park, equipment ordinary and capital repairs, management reports and analysis. The implementation of an ERP system represents an equalization solution of a logistic chain for the enterprises that create and deliver the right product, at the right moment, to the right client.

nestructurate, luarea deciziilor nestructurate, altele dect deciziile de rutin. [3]. 3. ERP suport al integrrii sistemelor logistice Nucleul sistemelor IT&C este sistemul ERP Enterprise Resource Planning, care asambleaz aplica iile informatice privind planificarea i gestiunea resurselor ntreprinderii ntr-un sistem integrat de management. Sistemele ERP s-au dezvoltat i au nregistrat un remarcabil succes n condi iile n care se integreaz i interfa eaz cu sistemele de tip SCM Supply Chain Management, CRM Custommer Relationship Management i sistemele BI Business Inteligence. In aceast configura ie sistemele ERP se constituie ca perimetru pentru eviden ierea i controlul trasabilit ii tuturor tranzac iilor materiale i financiare pe ciclul complex de asistare END-TOEND al proceselor logistice de la primirea unei comenzi i pn la livrarea produselor ctre client. Un sistem ERP, prin modulele sale software acoper toate ariile func ionale ale ntreprinderii, structurate pe urmtoarele categorii: produc ie i fluxuri de lucru, gestiune materiale, depozitare i stocuri, vnzri i distribu ie, mijloace fixe, revizii i repara ii, financiarcontabilitate, trezorerie, managementul calit ii, portal comenzi i managementul contractelor, transporturi-parc auto, resurse umane, rapoarte i analize manageriale. Implementarea unui sistem ERP reprezint o solu ie de legare i de egalizare a unui lan logistic apar innd intreprinderilor care particip la crearea i deplasarea produsului potrivit, la momentul potrivit, la clientul potrivit.

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Considerm c sistemul logistic trebuie s se bazeze pe principiul de parteneriat informa ional asigurat printr-un sistem de coduri unitare, structuri de date, algoritmi, rapoarte, formulare, meniuri, interfe e omogene i compatibile. Bazele de date, la a cror actualizare contribuie actorii integra i ntr-un lan logistic, reprezint funda ia oricrui sistem ERP. Pe acest fundament informa ional, ERP-ul dezvolt modele pentru optimizarea lan urilor de aprovizionare, produc ie, distribu ie i vnzare prin: prognoz i planificare, simularea i configurarea variantelor de pre , prioritizarea i reducerea ciclului de via al comenzilor, n general prin optimizarea factorului timp i al consumului de resurse. 4. Rela ia CRM-ERP CRM - Custom Relationship Management, sistemul de management al rela iilor cu clien ii, este dedicat proceselor de afaceri pe care le desfoar ntreprinderea pentru a identifica, a alege, a re ine i a dezvolta rela iile cu clien ii si. Aceast component asigur accesul de oriunde i oricnd al clien ilor la informa iile i resursele vnztorului: date tehnice despre produs, pre uri, condi ii de plat i livrare, garan ii, urmrirea comenzilor, consiliere tehnic. CRM contribuie la derularea unui act de vnzare personalizat, ndividualiznd comunicarea cu clientul. CRM include trei procese importante: marketing, vnzri i servicii suport pentru clien i. Arhitectura CRM este structurat pe trei nivele: CRM opera ional, care se ocup de interfa a de contact cu clientul; CRM analitic, component de analiz a clien ilor i nbunt irea rela iilor cu clien ii; CRM colaborativ, component care faciliteaz interac iunea cu clientul pe toate canalele de comunicare.

AE

The logistic system is based on the informational partnership principle assured by a system of unitary codes, data structures, algorithms, reports, forms, homogenous and compatible interfaces. The databases and the data warehouse, which are updated by all the actors from a logistic chain, represent the foundation of any ERP system. Based on this informational fundament, the ERP develops models for optimization of supply, production, distribution and sale chains through: forecast and planning, price simulations and reduction of orders cycle life, generally through the optimization of time and resource consumption.

4. CRM ERP relation The Customer Relationship Management system is dedicated to the business processes that the company undertakes in order to identify, choose, maintain and develop its customer relations. This component is intended to assure anytime and anywhere access of the customers to the sellers information and resources: technical data on the product, price, payment and supply conditions, guarantees, order tracing, technical support. CRM contributes to the development of a customized selling act, making the communication with the client singular. The CRM system includes three main processes: marketing, sales and support services for the customers. The CRM architecture is structured on three levels: operational CRM, which manages the contract interface with the client; analytic CRM, the clients analyze and relation improvement component cooperate CRM, component that facilitates the client interaction on all communication channels.

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5. SCM ERP relation The Supply Chain Management system is the most important component of the logistic management framework. According to the CSCMP Association's definition, an SCM system deals with "planning and management of all the activities involved in supply, conversion and all activities aimed at managing the logistics. It also includes collaboration and coordination with the channels of the partners that may be suppliers, intermediary agents, external suppliers of services and customers". (CSCMP 2004). Having the main principle of the production and delivery of those requested goods, where and when they are needed, this management paradigm brings new possibilities of enterprises activity improvement, simultaneous with a better market serving. From the SCM models analysis, are impose the SCOR model suggested by the SCM Council and the GSCA model suggested by the Global Supply Chain Association. The systems general activities, underlined from this models, can be grouped in the following categories: strategic activities, whose object is the systems strategic optimization, including the establishing the number of warehouses, their volume and location, the distribution centres and the available facilities; the realization of strategic partnerships with providers, distributors and with the clients, establishing channels of communication for critical information; choosing the production and the products range location, coordinating the new products and package design for the products, to be easily integrated in the distribution chain; tactical activities, whose objects are the production decisions, including contracting and planning of supply and production processes, decisions regarding stocks, including proximity stocks,

5. Rela ia SCM-ERP SCM Supply Chain Management, sistemul de management al lan ului de aprovizionare, este componenta ce mai importanta n cadrul managementului logistic. Conform defini iei asocia iei CSCMP, un sistem SCM se ocup de planificarea i managementul tuturor activit ilor implicate n aprovizionare, conversie i toate activit ile de management ale logisticii. De asemenea, include colaborarea i coordonarea cu canalele partenerilor, care pot fi furnizori, intermediari, furnizori externi de servicii sau clien i. Avnd ca principiu cheie aducerea i producerea acelor bunuri de care este nevoie, acolo unde este nevoie i atunci cnd este nevoie, aceast nou paradigm a managementului aduce noi posibilit i de eficientizare a activit ii firmei concomitent cu o mai bun servire a pie ei. Din analiza modelelor SCM care s-au impus n ultima vreme, este vorba de modelul SCOR propus de SCM Council i modelul GSCA propus de Global Supply Chain Association, activit ile generale ale sistemului pot fi grupate n urmtoarele categorii: activit i strategice, care au ca obiectiv optimizarea re elei, incluznd numrul de depozite, mrimea i loca ia acestora, centrele de distribu ie i facilit ile disponibile; realizarea de parteneriate strategice cu furnizorii, distribuitorii i cu clien ii, stabilind canalele de comunicare a informa iilor critice; alegerea loca iei de produc ie i a sortimentelor de produs, coordonarea realizrii noilor produse, a ambalajelor, pentru ca produsele s poat fi integrate cu uurin n lan ul de distribu ie. activit ile tactice, care au ca obiectiv deciziile de produc ie, inclusiv contractarea i planificarea proceselor de produc ie i aprovizionare, deciziile privitoare la stocuri, inclusiv stocurile de

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proximitate, rute i frecven e de transport, analiza concuren ei i implementarea celor mai bune practici din domeniu; activit ile opera ionale care au n vedere ordonan area produc iei zilnice, programarea operativ a activit ilor n fiecare nod al re elei de aprovizionare, urmrirea fluxului de produse finite. Coordonarea cererilor clien ilor i partajarea acestora pe furnizorii din re eaua de afaceri a companiei, pn la urmrirea operativ a consumului de materiale, a costurilor n toat complexitatea lor. Fiind costisitor, ERP-ul nu este implementat ntotdeauna, preferndu-se implementarea separat numai a componentei SCM. n acest caz apare riscul introducerii de erori n date, i ngreunarea proceselor de actualizare, prin preluarea datelor din tabele Excel sau tabele ale unor baze de date rela ionale neintegrate. Concluzii mbunt irea performan elor sistemelor logistice prin implementarea unei solu ii ERP este condi ionat de implicarea grupurilor i inter-grupurilor de interese din companie, pentru asigurarea succesului proiectului ERP, este vorba despre: conducere executiv, care are nevoie de o reprezentare clar a obiectivelor proiectului; serviciile func ionale, cu care se negociaz atribu iile i se stabilesc priorit ile; departamentul IT, care este implicat n consultare colectiv i implementare; utilizatorii finali, pentru care se redefinesc sarcinile din fia postului i competen ele. Avantajele implementrii corecte a unui sistem ERP sunt evidente ncepnd cu capacitatea acestora de a transmite i

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transport routes and frequency, competition analysis and implementation of the best practices in the field; operational activities aimed at planning the daily production, operative planning of the activities in each supply network point, tracking the finite product flow, coordination of the customers demands and share out them according to the suppliers in the company's business network, operative tracking of the material consume and costs. Being expensive, ERP is not always implemented, prefering the implementation, separately, of the SCM component only. In this case, the introduction of the wrong dates could appear and also the difficulty of the ap-todate process through taking the dates from the Excel tables or from some tables of relational data bases unintegrated. Conclusions The enhancing of the logistic system integration by an ERP solution is directly linked with the involving of the groups and inter-groups of interests to support the ERP project success. These groups are: the executive management, who needs a clearly underlining of the objectives; the operational departments to negotiate the tasks, responsibilities and priorities; The IT department as a permanent consultant and directly responsible with the ERP Project implementing; The finally users to redefine the job duties and competences. The advantages of an ERP system correctly implemented are emphasized starting with their capacity to present and

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to exploit in real time brief and analytic information regarding the most representative aspects in production, warehousing, transport and distribution, but also inform the area of the prices and costs area followed by sharing information with those from commercial, financial-accountancy, human resources services, with all the actors integrated in the logistic system. Everyone follows the productivity improvement, the costs reduction and the turnover growth. The disadvantages are not to be ignored and must be known and analyzed in order to decrease them. First of all its a matter of the implementation costs, the hard integration and testing, the difficult data conversion from the old system to the new one. A continuous consulting is necessary in order to maintain it in actuality, because the ERP systems need permanent updates, develops and modifications, due to the dynamic changes in the real economic environment. These factors delay the appearance and the situation of benefits to the users expected levels. However these will be for a long time. From the practice, we noticed that one of the main problems seems to be the employees training, Often is the most underestimated aspect in making the project budget, but the risks rise up especially from the point of view of difficulties of developing an operational culture though the employees based on the ERP. Unfortunately, the companies that offer training cant help very much, because they are specialized in support on how the software product is working not how is done the business in a company. The responsibility of the ERP operative culture forming, of devoting specialists becomes for sure each companys management.

exploata n timp real informa ii sintetice i analitice privind cele mai reprezentative aspecte din produc ie, antrepozite, transport i distribu ie dar i din zona costuri, pre uri, pia , continund apoi cu partajarea informa iilor cu cei din serviciile comerciale, financiar contabilitate, resurse umane, cu to i actorii integra i n sistemul logistic. Toat lumea urmrete creterea productivit ii, reducerea costurilor i sintetic, creterea cifrei de afaceri. Dezavantajele nu sunt deloc de neglijat i trebuie cunoscute i analizate pentru a le diminua. Este vorba n primul rnd de costurile implementrii, integrarea i testarea anevoias, conversia dificil a datelor din vechiul n noul sistem. La acesta se adaug necesitatea unui consulting continuu pentru men inerea n actualitate, pentru c sistemele ERP, datorit dinamicii schimbrilor din mediul economic real, necesit permanente actualizri, dezvoltri, modificri. Aceti factori ntrzie apari ia i situarea beneficiilor la nivelurile ateptate de utilizatori. Dar ele exist, sigur, pe o durat lung de timp. Din practic, am desprins faptul c una dintre dificult ile majore o reprezint pregtirea angaja ilor pentru c adesea este cel mai subestimat aspect la construirea bugetului proiectului, dar mai ales datorit dificult ii construirii unei culturi opera ionale bazate pe utilizarea ERP ului. Din pcate companiile care ofer training nu pot ajuta foarte mult pentru c ele sunt specializate n oferirea de suport pentru modul cum func ioneaz produsul software nu pentru modul cum se desfoar afacerile n firm. Sarcina formrii acestei culturi opera ionale ERP, a fidelizrii specialitilor, trebuie s revin managementului fiecrei companii.

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References

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[1] Dinu, Vasile i Tchiciu, Lauren iu, Analiza nevoii de servicii SQAM din Romania, n Revista Amfiteatru Economic,. Nr. 22/2007 [2] Dornier, Ph. P., Fender, M., La Logistique globale enjoux-principles- examples, Editioan dOrganization, Paris, 2001 [3] Lungu, Ion i Bara, Adela, Sisteme informatice executive, Editura ASE 2007, ISBN 978-973-594-690-6 [4] Bologa, Rzvan, ERP as a support for the Knowleadge Age , The Proceedings of The Eighth Information Conference on Informatics in Economy, ASE, Bucharest 2007. ISBN 978-973-594-921-1 [5] Surcel, Traian i Orzan, Gheorghe, Intelligent Systems for Decision Support Features and Structures, n Revista Informatic Economic, vol 9-10, Noe. 2006 [6] Primer, Yves, Logistique techiques et mise en ouvre, Editura Dunod, Paris, 2001 [7] http://www.csmp.org [8] http://www.gsca.com

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Logistica mrfurilor DEPOZITAREA ACTIVITATE CE CONTRIBUIE LA PERFORMAN A LAN ULUI LOGISTIC

(Warehousing activity which contribute to supply chain performance) Lector univ. dr. Cristinel Vasiliu Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti Romnia e-mail: cristi_vasiliu@yahoo.com

Rezumat Economia de consum care caracterizeaz rile dezvoltate, dar i ri n curs de dezvoltare, presupune o abunden de produse disponibile pentru clien i. Pentru a asigura aceast disponibilitate firmele recurg la activit i logistice. Acestea au cunoscut evolu ii continue odat cu progresele economice, tehnice, tehnologice etc. care au determinat transformarea ei ntr-o veritabil arm competitiv. Acest lucru se ntmpl ntr-un context dominat de accentuarea climatului concuren ial, extinderea procesului de globalizare, recurgerea ntr-o mare msur la delocalizri, externalizri i subcontractri de activit i, dezvoltarea unor forme de produc ie fr stocuri sau cu stocuri foarte reduse, optimizarea fluxurilor pentru ob inerea celui mai mic cost posibil. Ca rspuns la astfel de tendin e, se accentueaz tendin a de dezvoltare a parteneriatelor n afaceri, care transform logistica dintr-un sector intern ntreprinderii, ntr-unul bazat pe cooperare cu entit i din exteriorul su sub forma lan urilor logistice. O verig de baz a oricrui lan logistic este reprezentat de activitatea de depozitare. n noul context de dezvoltare a lan urilor logistice activitatea de depozitare se schimb: din una pasiv, cu simplul rol de a asigura stocarea produselor, la una activ, n care se urmrete realizarea unui ansamblu de servicii destinate clien ilor. De asemenea, tot mai mult, depozitele sunt exploatate de ctre prestatori logistici care sunt implica i n diverse activit i logistice menite s reduc costul lor total, cu influen e favorabile asupra pre ului cu care se vnd produsele i, implicit asupra competitivit ii firmelor. Cuvinte cheie: depozit, logistic, lan logistic, flux, prestator logistic. Clasificare JEL: L80; L81. Abstract Consumption economy that characterizes the developed countries, but also the ones in course of development suppose available abundance of products for clients. To achieve this availability the firms make use of logistics activities. These have known continuous developments alongside economic, technical, technological etc. progress that determine transformation in a very competitive branch. This fact it is happening into a context of prevailing rivalry, the globalization process extant leading to a great e extent of dislocation, externalizations and subcontracting of activities, developing of some production modes without stocks or with reduced stocks, flows optimization for obtaining the minimum possible cost. In response to such tendencies, it is emphasized the tendency to develop business partnerships, which transform the logistics from an internal enterprise sector into a sector based on cooperation with external entities as supply chains forms. A basic link of any supply chain is represented by warehousing activity. In the new supply chains development context the warehousing activity is transforming from a passive one, with a simple objective of providing products stocking, into an active one, in which it pursues the achievement of an assembly of services for clients. 94 Amfiteatru Economic

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More and more warehouses are also exploited by logistics services providers that are involved in different logistics activities destined to reduce total logistics cost, with favorable influences on selling price and on firms competitiveness too. Keywords: warehouse, logistics, supply chain, flow, logistics services provider JEL classification: L80; L81. Introducere A aborda subiectul depozitrii reprezint un demers plasat adesea n universuri antagoniste. nc persist concep ia rului necesar atunci cnd se vorbete de depozitare, n general i de stocare, n special, ca activitate subsecvent acesteia. i totui a gndi c depozitarea poate fi un instrument de competitivitate ntr-un lan logistic poate prea uor hazardat. ns recentele evolu ii din domeniul logisticii, n general i cel al depozitrii, n particular, vin s confirme astfel de preri. Abordarea depozitrii se face ntr-un context de conexiuni de fluxuri att din amontele, ct i din avalul locului n care se desfoar aceast activitate. n plus, lucrurile au evoluat semnificativ n privin a modului n care depozitele sunt amplasate, proiectate, construite, organizate, amenajate i conduse. Dintr-o activitate predominant manual, ndreptat cu precdere spre politica de gestiune a stocurilor, care cel mai adesea nregistrau un numr redus de rota ii ntrun an, asistm n prezent la transformarea radical a acesteia. Opera iunile sunt cu precdere mecanizate, dar automatizarea are tendin a de extindere. Informatizarea este tot mai prezent att n activit ile desfurate n depozit, ct i n legtur cu produsele vehiculate prin acestea. Cresc suprafe ele depozitelor, dar scade durata de sta ionare a produselor sub form de stoc. Toate aceste schimbri se produc pe fondul evolu iei activit ilor logistice, desfurate din ce n ce mai mult prin integrare n lan uri logistice. Introduction To approach the subject of warehousing is a step often placed in antagonistic universes. There still persists the conception of necessary wrong when we talk about generally warehousing and especially about stocking as its subsequent activity. Nevertheless, to think that warehousing can be a competitive tool within a supply chain it could be a little bit risky. However, in general, the recent developments in logistics field, and especially those of warehousing come to confirm such statements. The approach of warehousing is done in a context of flows connections, both from upstream and downstream of the place in which this activity is carried out. In addition, things have evolved regarding the way in which the warehouses are located, designed, built, organized and generally managed. From a prevalent manufacture activity, especially oriented to stock management policy that often registered a small number of rotations during a year, in present, it takes part in its radical transformation. Operations are especially mechanized, but the automation is tending to extend. The information technology is more present both in unfolded activities and in connection with products that are spread through these. Warehouse surfaces are increasing, but the period that products are stationed in these as stock, is decreasing. All these changes take place in the context of development of logistics activities, unfolded more and more through the integration in supply chains.

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In such conditions, this paper starts from some premises among which we can mention: transforming the warehousing activity into an active one, with direct influence on enterprise competitiveness; extending the warehousing surfaces in condition of lowering the dimensions and the period of products stocks; change of operating way of warehouses both as concerns the owner and the range of provided services. 1. From logistics to supply chain The transition from the logistics approach as internal enterprise activity, most often with operational goals, to logistics approach as supply chain form has been determined by taking into account the fact that as good as the internal organization of an enterprise would be, its inherent decisions will interact with these of other external entities with which that firm interferes in its quality of opened structure (clients, suppliers, service providers etc.). Therefore, the problem is to synchronize the enterprise flows with those of entities with which it interacts. The flows are divided in three major categories: physical (materials), financial and information. Their circulation is both, upstream to downstream and vice-versa, any physical or financial flow being doubled by an informational one, which in fact draws up the supply chain. Supply chain existence is justified through some factors, such as: evolution of the reports between industry and commerce. Actual period is characterized by the fact that commerce dominates industry, especially through the big selling surfaces. These impose several conditions to producing enterprises concerning the ways in which the products are made, their packing, labeling, but especially concerning the prices and the payment modalities and terms.

n aceste condi ii, prezenta lucrare pleac de la o serie de premise printre care se pot men iona: transformarea activit ii de depozitare ntr-una activ, cu influen direct asupra competitivit ii ntreprinderilor; extinderea suprafe elor de depozitare n condi iile reducerii dimensiunilor i duratei stocurilor de produse; schimbarea modului de operare al depozitelor att n privin a de intorului, ct i al gamei de servicii prestate. 1. De la logistic la lan ul logistic Trecerea de la concep ia logisticii ca o activitate intern ntreprinderii, cel mai adesea cu scop opera ional, la concep ia logisticii sub forma lan ului logistic a fost determinat de contientizarea faptului c, orict de bun ar fi organizarea intern a managementului unei ntreprinderi, inerent deciziile acestuia vor intra n interac iune cu cele ale altor entit i externe cu care firma interac ioneaz n calitatea ei de structur deschis (clien i, furnizori, prestatori de servicii etc.). Ca atare, se pune problema sincronizrii fluxurilor ntreprinderii cu cele ale entit ilor cu care interac ioneaz. Fluxurile se mpart n trei categorii majore: fizice (materiale), financiare i informa ionale. Circula ia lor este att din amonte ctre aval, ct i din aval ctre amonte, orice flux fizic sau financiar fiind dublat de unul informa ional, ceea ce alctuiete de fapt lan ul logistic. Existen a lan ului logistic este justificat printr-o serie de factori, precum: evolu ia raporturilor dintre industrie i comer . Ne gsim ntr-o perioad n care comer ul domin industria, mai ales prin marile suprafe e de vnzare. Acestea impun numeroase condi ii ntreprinderilor productoare n privin a modalit ilor de realizare a produselor, de ambalare, etichetare, dar, mai ales n privin a pre urilor i a modalit ilor i termenelor de plat.

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Toate acestea las ntreprinderilor productoare o libertate decizional redus, cu impact asupra performan elor lor generale. dezvoltarea noilor tehnologii ale informa iei i de comunicare. Progresele din domeniul tehnologiilor informa iei i cel al mijloacelor de comunicare fac posibil apari ia a noi moduri de concepere a rela iilor ntre firme. Tot mai mult se utilizeaz sistemele de schimb electronic de date (EDI), care permit comunicarea n timp real a unor informa ii relevante pentru pr ile implicate. n acest mod, se pot elimina consecin ele negative ale efectului de bici i se mbunt ete competitivitatea prin pre a produselor, gra ie reducerii costurilor. intensificarea concuren ei prin oferta excedentar. Concuren a puternic de pe pie e, care n marea lor majoritate sunt ale consumatorului, pune problema gsirii unor noi forme prin care produsele s ajung la clien i. Apar formule parteneriale care leag pr ile implicate n noi formule asociative pentru perioade mai lungi de timp. Aceste parteneriate conduc la costuri totale mai mici ale produselor, cu ctiguri mai mari pentru firme dect dac ar fi ac ionat independent. ntre aceste formule de parteneriat un loc nsemnat revine i constituirii lan urilor logistice. dezvoltarea unor func ii de ordin strategic n ntreprinderi: urmrire, planificare, previziune etc. Managementul strategic adoptat de ntreprinderi nu mai poate fi limitat doar la interiorul acestora. Orict de bine ar fi realizat acest demers n interior, ntreprinderea nu este izolat n mediul economic i ca atare, interdependen ele care o leag de al i participan i la acesta o fac s sufere influen a lor. Ca atare, func iile specifice managementului strategic trebuie concepute ntr-o manier extins, excednd ntreprinderea, ceea ce conduce la o abordare prin intermediul

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All of these allow a reduced decisional liberty to producing enterprises, with impact on their general performances. development of new information and communication technologies. Progresses made in the fields of information technology and means of communication make possible the appearance of new conception modalities of firm relationships. More and more are used electronic data inter-change (EDI) systems, which permit in real time the communication of relevant information for involved parties. In this way, there can be eliminated the negative consequences of bullwhip effect and there can be improved the products competitiveness through price, because of costs cutting. competition intensification through exceeded supply. The strong competition on the markets, which in most cases belong to consumers, rise the problem of finding new forms through which the products are arriving at clients. There appear partnership patterns that link the involved parties in new associative forms for longer periods. These partnerships lead to lower total costs for products, with more gains for firms than if they would act in an independent manner. Among these partnership patterns, a significant place occurs to supply chains constitution. development of some strategic functions in enterprises: supervision, planning, forecasting etc. Strategic management adopted by enterprises cant any more be limited only to their interior. As well as this approach would be achieved in the interior, the enterprise isnt isolated in the economic environment and therefore, the interdependences that link it to other participants in economic environment determine their influence on it. As such, the specific functions of strategic management have to be draw up in an

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extended manner, excelling the enterprise, and that leads to an approach through supply chain to achieve the synchronization of your own activities with those of the firms which interact. In fact, this thing is much more necessary as the decisions are grounded on the base of a multi-criteria approach, which in many cases excel enterprise border. extending of globalization process. The more and more intense globalization makes the big firms, from developed economies, to dislocate due activities of different enterprise functions (especially production) in areas in which these can be achieved in a more competitive way. This dislocation rises, however, the problem of delivery of different components of a product toward assembly factories (often located at great distances), flows that have to be synchronized, which lead to supply chains constitution. referring more and more to externalization and subcontracting. Externalization and subcontracting are consequences of previous processes tightly correlated with those. Externalization of diverse activities of enterprise (including logistics) allow this: - to focus on theirs skills; - to obtain financial gains by transforming some fixed costs in variable costs; - to release itself of some financial immobilizations; - to transfer a part of risks associated with externalized activities; - to have more flexibility on logistics service and especially to control it. An interesting fact is that the externalized activities with incidence on logistics domain are very different namely: transport operations and auxiliary transport operations; warehousing, stocking, order preparing, warehouse hiring;

lan urilor logistice pentru a realiza sincronizarea activit ilor proprii cu cele ale firmelor cu care interac ioneaz. De fapt, acest lucru este cu att mai necesar cu ct deciziile se fundamenteaz pe baza unei abordri multicriteriale, care de multe ori depete grani a ntreprinderii. extinderea procesului de globalizare. Globalizarea din ce n ce mai intens face ca firmele mari, din economiile dezvoltate, s-i delocalizeze activit ile aferente diverselor func ii ale ntreprinderii (i n special cea de produc ie) n zone n care acestea pot fi efectuate mai competitiv. Aceast delocalizare pune ns problema livrrii diferitelor componente ale unui produs spre fabricile de asamblare (adesea situate la distan e mari), fluxuri care trebuie sincronizate, ceea ce conduce spre constituirea lan urilor logistice. recurgerea din ce n ce mai mult la externalizare i subcontractare. Externalizarea i subcontractarea sunt consecin e ale procesului anterior, strns corelate cu acesta. Externalizarea diverselor activit i ale ntreprinderii (inclusiv cea logistic) permite acesteia: - s se concentreze pe domeniul lor de competen ; - s realizeze ctiguri financiare prin transformarea unor cheltuieli fixe n cheltuieli variabile; - s se elibereze de o serie de imobilizri financiare; - s transfere o parte din riscurile proprii asociate activit ilor externalizate; - s aib mai mult flexibilitate asupra presta iei logistice i, mai ales, s o controleze. Interesant este faptul c activit ile externalizate cu inciden n domeniul logistic sunt dintre cele mai variabile i anume: opera iuni de transport i auxiliare transportului; depozitarea, stocarea, pregtirea comenzilor, nchirierea depozitelor;

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prelucrarea mrfurilor i opera iunile de finalizare a produc iei; opera iuni cu caracter comercial (mai ales aprovizionarea); opera iuni informatice; consultan logistic etc. Cu toate acestea func ia cea mai externalizat rmne transportul, care dup unele statistici ar atinge o pondere de 72 % din activit ile externalizate de ctre ntreprinderi (n sectorul distribu iei acest procent este chiar mai mare, trecnd de 90 %). Toate aceste elemente conduc spre necesitatea construirii i exploatrii lan urilor logistice, ca posibilitate de a realiza activit ile ntr-o manier eficient i eficace. 2. Coordonate actuale ale activit ii de depozitare Depozitarea reprezint o verig a oricrui lan logistic, fiind determinat de faptul c, n general, ciclurile de produc ie i cele de consum nu sunt sincronizate. Ca atare, depozitarea apare ca necesar pentru a atenua diferen ele ntre momentul producerii bunurilor i momentul solicitrii acestora de ctre clien i. n activitatea de depozitare se ntlnesc dou tipuri de infrastructuri, respectiv depozite, n care se asigur stocarea produselor i platforme, n care se realizeaz doar repartizarea acestora (mrfurile sta ioneaz foarte pu in). La rndul lui, depozitul poate avea diverse amplasri, n func ie de care ndeplinete roluri diferite: depozitul de uzin are ca func ie stocarea ieirilor din lan ul de fabrica ie ale unei unit i de produc ie; depozitul central concentreaz stocurilor care provin de la mai multe unit i de produc ie, fiind, n general, aprovizionat din depozitele de uzin; depozitul regional este o unitate de stocare localizat n apropierea locurilor de distribu ie, cu rolul de a apropia mrfurile de clien i.

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merchandise processing and operations of ending production; operations with commercial character (especially the provisioning); information technology operations; logistics consulting etc. Nevertheless, the most externalized function remains the transport, which according to some statistics would reach 72 % weigh from externalized activities by the enterprises (in distribution field this percentage is even bigger, excelling 90 %). All of these elements lead to the necessity to build and exploit the supply chains, as possibility to achieve theirs activities in an effective and efficient manner. 2. Present co-ordinates of warehousing activity Warehousing is a link of any supply chain, being determined by the fact that generally, production and consumption cycles arent synchronized. Therefore, warehousing appears as necessary to attenuate the differences between the moment in which goods are produced and those in which clients require them. In warehousing activity there meet two types of infrastructures, respective warehouses, in which it achieves products stocking and platforms, in which only their repartition is achieved (merchandises are stationed very little). In their turn the warehouse can have diverse locations, fact from which different goals are achieved: plant warehouse, which functions to stock outputs from fabrication chain of a production unit; central warehouse, which concentrates stocks that result from several production units, generally being supplied from plant warehouses; regional warehouse, is a unit of stocking located near distribution places, with goal to draw near the merchandises to clients.

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Preoccupation to optimize logistics cost leads to different variants of products circulation schemes, as such: direct delivery from producer plant to client; in this case there are not stocks, the products being manufacured to order; direct delivery from plant stocks to client; this case concerns especially small and medium enterprises, acquisition volumes are low and, accordingly dont justify other house holding activities beside those achieved by plants. Plants of an industrial group can be located near theirs clients. In this case, they can achieve the goal of regional warehouse; production plants regrouping in a central warehouse, which achieve the delivery management. Plants have stocks, they deliver to central warehouse by complete lots, aiming just transport optimization; regional warehouses provision from plants stocks for delivery toward clients; warehouses are located near areas in which there are clients. Each warehouse stocks the total amount of selected products that result from stocks of different plants. This organization is used in order to reduce the period of delivery term and/or for to achieve deliveries towards several clients, geographically spreading; warehouse dispatches products to spreading platforms, which deliver to client; platform regroups its sending to a certain geographical area through routes optimization and achievement of transport capacity covering. In these conditions, warehousing has to manage of a lot of contradictory situations. Thus, there can be mentioned product activities dislocation, which induces effects on number, location and size of warehouses. In this regard, there are preoccupations of some consulting firms, as A.T.Kearney, which achieve studies concerning the attractiveness of

Preocuparea de a optimiza costul logistic conduce la diferite variante de scheme ale circula iei produselor, precum: livrarea direct de la uzina productorului la client; n acest caz nu exist stocuri, produsele fiind fabricate la comand; livrarea direct din stocurile uzinei ctre client; acest caz privete, n particular, ntreprinderile mici i mijlocii, ale cror volume de achizi ii sunt reduse i ca atare, nu justific i alte depozitri n afara celei asigurate de uzine. Uzinele unui grup industrial pot fi localizate n apropierea clien ilor lor. n acest caz, ele pot s asigure rolul de depozit regional; regruparea produc iei uzinelor ntr-un depozit central, care asigur gestiunea livrrilor. Uzinele nu dispun de stocuri, ele livreaz depozitului central loturi complete, urmrind doar optimizarea transportului; aprovizionarea depozitelor regionale din stocurile uzinelor pentru a asigura livrarea ctre clien i; depozitele sunt localizate n apropierea zonelor n care se gsesc clien ii. Fiecare depozit stocheaz totalitatea produselor selectate care provin din stocuri ale diferitelor uzine. Aceast organizare este utilizat cu scopul de a reduce durata termenului de livrare i/sau pentru a realiza livrri ctre clien i numeroi i rspndi i geografic; depozitul expediaz produsele la platformele de repartizare, care livreaz la client; platforma regrupeaz expedierile sale ntr-o anumit zon geografic prin optimizarea rutelor i realizarea acoperirii capacit ii de transport. n aceste condi ii, depozitarea trebuie s fac fa unor situa ii de multe ori contradictorii. Astfel, se poate men iona delocalizarea activit ilor de produc ie, care induce efecte asupra numrului, localizrii i mrimii depozitelor. n acest sens, exist preocupri ale unor firme de consultan ,

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precum A. T. Kearney, care realizeaz studii privind atractivitatea unor ri pentru activit ile delocalizate de mari grupuri interna ionale. Astfel, aceast firm realizeaz anual un studiu n urma cruia elaboreaz, prin agregarea a trei criterii structura financiar, mediul de afaceri i gradul de specializare al for ei de munc un clasament al celor mai atractive ri. n ultimii trei ani pe primele 2 locuri s-au clasat India i China. n anul 2007, Romnia s-a clasat pe locul 33 din 50 de ri analizate, cea mai bine clasificat ar european fiind Bulgaria (locul 9). O alt situa ie se refer la extinderea puternic a unor noi forme de vnzare a mrfurilor i mai ales, comer ul electronic, care contribuie substan ial la reducerea timpului i extinderea spa iului pentru firmele implicate. De asemenea, se refer la schimbarea modalit ilor de produc ie, cu tendin e de reducere la zero a stocului, ceea ce nu nseamn automat lipsa depozitrii, ci dimpotriv (de exemplu, n Fran a, n ultimii 10 ani suprafe ele depozitelor au evoluat de la circa 12 milioane m2 la peste 25 milioane m2). n astfel de sisteme nu este suficient s se reduc costul unor activit i prin transferarea acestora n exterior, ci trebuie cutate solu ii pentru optimizarea costului logistic pe ansamblul lan ului de distribu ie. n aceste condi ii, trebuie lua i n considerare o serie de factori atunci cnd se adopt decizia de amplasare a unui depozit, precum costul terenului, localizarea n cadrul uzinelor, localizarea n apropierea porturilor sau aeroporturilor, apropierea de zonele de consum. Dei costul terenului este un factor important, totui se prefer amplasarea depozitelor n apropierea marilor orae, datorit unor avantaje precum infrastructuri corespunztoare, existen a utilit ilor, disponibilitatea for ei de munc necesare, accesibilitate ridicat etc., care compenseaz pre ul mai mare pe m2 sau chiria mai ridicat.

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some countries for dislocated activities of some great international groups. So, this firm yearly achieves a study behind which there is an elaborate a ranking of most attractive countries through aggregation of three criteria financial structure, business medium and specialization degree of work power. In the last three years on first two places have been ranked India and China. In the 2007, Romania has been ranked on 33rd place from 50 countries, Bulgaria being the most classified European country (9th place). Another situation is referring to power extinction of some new forms of merchandises selling and especially ecommerce, which contribute substantially to time reducing and space extinction for involved firms. Production modalities, changing also, with tendency to reduce the stock to zero, which dont automatic mean the warehousing lack, but on the contrary (for example, in France, in the last 10 years the surfaces of warehouses have been excelled from about 12 millions m2 to above 25 millions m2). In such systems it isnt enough to cut cost of some activities through their outside transfer, but solutions must be found for logistics cost optimization in assembly of supply chain. In these conditions, one has to take into account a few factors than when deciding warehouse location as land cost, location of plants, location near ports and airports, proximity of consuming areas. Land cost is a significant factor. Nevertheless it is preferred to locate the warehouses near great cities owing to some advantages as adequate infrastructures, already existing utilities, available of necessary power force, raised accessibility etc., which compensate for bigger price per m2 or bigger hire.

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Tendencies of plants dislocation are non-viable solutions to locate warehouses in their interior because they would not have enough time for investments absorption. Warehouses location in airports and port areas is a right decision in the case of products that enter international flows. Warehouses proximity to consumption places is a viable solution from an economic point of view. 3. Tends in warehousing activity in context of supply chains Developments that will emphasize warehousing activity can be structured in several components: constructive; organizational; functional; operational. In present, warehouses are built with a single level. This constructive solution favors flows fluidity, through mechanization and automatization of operations, intensive use of space (vertically extended), cutting building cost per m2, incomes increasing per m2 warehousing surface etc. To reduce exploiting cost of warehouses and necessary time for orders preparing the construction designing have to permit such fitting out and arrangement that improve significantly its productivity. This way it is achieving the designing from interior to exterior of warehouse, starting up from euro-pallet dimensions, as equipment that represents loading, handling and warehousing unit. Dimensions of warehousing, handling equipments, lanes, balusters, checking and picking spaces for received merchandises, warehouse in whole etc. become euro-pallet multiples. In addition, there are applied modern methods for merchandises warehousing, for instance the dynamic stocking of these, who are in principle the packets displaying on mobile

Tendin a de delocalizare a uzinelor face neviabil solu ia de a amplasa depozitele n cadrul lor ntruct acestea n-ar mai avea suficient timp pentru amortizarea investi iilor. Amplasarea depozitelor n zonele aeroporturilor sau porturilor este o solu ie corect n cazul produselor care intr n fluxuri interna ionale. Apropierea depozitelor de locurile de consum reprezint o variant fiabil din punct de vedere economic. 3. Tendin e n activitatea de depozitare, n contextul lan urilor logistice Evolu iile care vor marca activitatea de depozitare pot fi structurate pe mai multe componente: constructiv; organizatoric; func ional; opera ional. n prezent, depozitele se construiesc pe un singur nivel. Aceast solu ie constructiv favorizeaz fluiditatea fluxurilor, prin mecanizarea i automatizarea opera iunilor, utilizarea intensiv a spa iului (extins i pe vertical), reducerea cheltuielilor de construc ie pe m2, creterea veniturilor pe m2 suprafa de depozitare etc. Pentru a reduce costul de exploatare al depozitului i timpul necesar pregtirii comenzilor trebuie ca proiectarea construc iei s permit o amenajare i o organizare a acestuia care s mbunt easc semnificativ productivitatea sa. n acest sens, se realizeaz proiectarea din interior ctre exterior a depozitului, pornind de la dimensiunea euro-paletei, ca echipament ce reprezint unitate de ncrcare, manipulare i depozitare. Dimensiunile echipamentelor de depozitare, manipulare, ale culoarelor de circula ie, ale rampelor, ale spa iilor de verificare i triere a mrfurilor sosite, ale depozitului n ntregime etc. devin multipli ai europaletei. n plus, se aplic metode moderne de depozitare a mrfurilor, cum ar fi

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stocarea dinamic a acestora, al crei principiu este de a dispune coletele pe echipamente de depozitare mobile, care diminueaz suprafe ele necesare i reduc distan ele care trebuie parcurse. n proiectarea construc iei unui depozit este necesar s se ia n calcul o serie de elemente, printre care: compartimentarea, dispunerea echipamentelor de depozitare, rezisten a la foc, numrul deschiderilor spre exterior i mai ales a ieirilor de siguran etc. Din punct de vedere organizatoric, depozitul se gsete la confluen a a patru variabile: de intrare, de ieire, de rezultate i de ac iune, dup cum este prezentat schematic mai jos (fig. 1):

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warehousing equipments, which diminish necessary surfaces and reduce distances that must covered. In designing of a warehouse it is necessary to take into account a few elements, among which can be mentioned: compartmentalizing, warehousing equipment disposal, fire proof, opening number to outside and especially of emergency exits etc. From an organizational point of view, a warehouse finds itself at the junction of 4 variables: input, output, results and action, such is schematically represented below (figure no. 1):

Variabile de intrare (Input variables)

Variabile de ac iune (Action variables)

Fluxuri Fizice (Physical flows)

Fluxuri de informa ii (Information flows)

Variabile de rezultat (Results variables)

Obiective (Objectives)

Costuri (Costs)

Constrngeri (Constraints)

Depozit (Warehouse)

Servicii (Services)

Fluxuri Fizice (Physical flows)

Fluxuri de informa ii (Information flows)

Variabile de ieire (Output variables)

Figura 1 Variabile care influen eaz activitatea depozitului (Variables that influence warehouse activity) Sursa: Cours entreposage et gestion d entrepot, versiune electronic www.logistique.com (Cours entreposage et gestion d entrepot, electronic version www.logistique.com)

Variabilele de ac iune fixeaz obiectivele care urmeaz a fi ndeplinite (graficul expedi iilor, termene de punere a mrfurilor n stoc, durate ale diverselor opera iuni efectuate etc.).

Action variables settle the objectives that follow to be achieved (dispatches timetable, terms for merchandise putting out, length of various carried out operations etc.).

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These objectives are determined by constraints linked to dimensions of available human and material means. Input and output variables characterize orders quality and frequency, as preparing and delivering achievement flows. Result variables are exploiting the costs and services level provided in warehouse. From the functionality point of view there are several carried out activities in a warehouse based on following the physical circuit that products register, schematically further represented (figure no. 2) In regard of the operational aspect, we assist more and more to a situation in which warehouse isnt no more exploited by an independent firm, specialized in this type of activity, but by logistics service providers, which provide an assembly of services for their clients with goal of cost cutting. At the origin, most such providers were transport firms. Such evolution has been determined by continuous trying to find solutions of physical flows optimization. Through succession, logistics service providers propose to theirs clients an assembly of complementary services for physical and information flows management. Logistics service provider contributes to physical flows optimization through endowment with infrastructures (warehouses and platforms) that permits it, besides of stocking functions to minimize transport costs through grouping and regrouping operations. Grouping is a logistics operation by which are reunited in a single merchandises transport with the same destination, but that results from many senders. Regrouping consist of packets dispersal that result from the same sender to many delivery points.

Aceste obiective sunt determinate de constrngerile legate de dimensiunea mijloacelor umane i materiale disponibile. Variabilele de intrare i de ieire caracterizeaz calitatea i frecven a comenzilor, ca i fluxurile de pregtire i realizare a livrrii. Variabilele de rezultat reprezint costurile de exploatare i nivelul serviciilor prestate n depozit. Din punct de vedere func ional se pot prezenta diversele activit i desfurate ntr-un depozit pe baza urmririi circuitului fizic pe care l nregistreaz produsele, redat schematic n figura 2. n privin a aspectului opera ional, asistm n prezent din ce n ce mai mult la situa ia n care depozitul nu mai este exploatat de o firm independent, specializat n acest gen de activitate, ci de ctre prestatori logistici, care presteaz un ansamblu de servicii pentru clien ii lor cu scopul reducerii costurilor. La origine, cei mai mul i astfel de prestatori au fost firme de transport. O asemenea evolu ie a fost determinat de ncercarea permanent de a gsi solu ii de optimizare a fluxurilor fizice. Prin urmare, prestatorii logistici propun clien ilor lor un ansamblu de servicii complementare de gestiune a fluxurilor fizice i de informa ii. Prestatorul logistic contribuie la optimizarea fluxurilor fizice prin dotarea cu infrastructuri (depozite i platforme) care i permit, n afara func iilor de stocare s minimizeze costurile de transport prin opera iuni de grupare i regrupare. Gruparea este o opera iune logistic prin care sunt reunite ntr-un singur transport mrfuri cu aceeai destina ie, dar care provin de la mai mul i expeditori. Regruparea const n dispersia coletelor care provin de la acelai expeditor ctre mai multe puncte de livrare.

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Vehicul de transport

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Controlul documentelor Da Descrcare-manipulare

Nu Refuzul mrfurilor recep ionate

Recep ie Recurs la furnizori (Contract de vnzare)

Nu Da Control calitativ i cantitativ OK Punerea n stoc (schimbarea condi ionrii)

Recurs la transportatori (Contract de transport)

Stocarea (management, conservare i urmrire)

Pregtirea comenzilor

Ieire de mas

Ieire de detaliu

Regruparea i pregtirea comenzilor

Cross-docking Control Da

Nu Revizuire

Expediere: ambalare, co-ambalare, etichetare, identificare ncrcare manipulare n vehiculul de transport

Figura 2 Circuitul fizic al produselor ntr-un depozit Sursa: Conseil et formation logistique et transport, versiune electronic www.logistique.com

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Transport vehicle

Not OK Documents checking Receptions refuse for delivered merchandises OK Discharging -manipulation

Reception Recourse to providers (Sale contract)

Not OK OK Quantitativ e & qualitative checking OK Put out (conditioning changing)

Recourse to transporters (Transport contract)

Stocking (management, preserve and supervision)

Orders preparing

Mass output

Picking

Regrouping and orders preparing Cross-docking Checkin g OK Dispatching: packing, co-packing, labelling, identification Loading manipulation in transport vehicle

Not OK Reviewi

Figure 2 Physic circuit of products in a warehouse Source: Conseil et formation logistique et transport, electronic version www.logistique.com

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Prestatorii logistici depesc activit ile de gestiune a stocului n favoarea opera iunilor cu caracter industrial i comercial. Ei devin profesioniti n gestiunea fluxurilor fizice (transport, manipulare i stocare) i de informa ii (gestiunea ansamblului documentelor care nso esc fluxurile fizice). Astfel, ei pot s preia activit i cum ar fi: contracte de transport aerian i maritim; servicii vamale; servicii de mesagerie; transport european multimodal; re ele de depozitare; re ele de schimb de date etc. Concluzii n condi iile recurgerii din ce n ce mai mult la delocalizare i a reducerii dimensiunilor stocurilor depozitul capt un rol nou. Dei ntr-un lan logistic depozitul se gsete att sub constrngeri ale produc iei, ct i ale cererii activitatea sa nu poate fi delocalizat, ci dimpotriv conduce la relocalizri ale productorilor pe care i deservete. Depozitele vor rmne n continuare localizate n apropierea clien ilor si. n condi iile n care schimbrile pie ei sunt tot mai rapide este necesar ca activitatea de depozitare s fie condus n aa fel nct pre ul de vnzare al produselor s fie unul competitiv. Succesul ntreprinderilor se bazeaz tot mai mult pe eficacitatea logisticii lor, care s-a transformat dintr-un simplu mijloc de ac iune ntr-un element esen ial al strategiei lor.

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Logistics service providers excel activities of stock management in favor of industrial and commercial operations. They become professionals in physical (transport, handling and stocking) and information (management of assembly documents that accompany physic flows) flows management. So, they can take over activities such as: air and maritime transport contracts; customs services; parcel post services; multi-modal European transport; warehousing networking; data interchange networking etc. Conclusions Under the circumstances of referring more and more to dislocation and reducing stock dimensions the warehouse gets a new goal. Although warehouse is found in a supply chain both on constraints of production and demand its activity cant be dislocated, but on the contrary lead to producers relocations that deserve it. Warehouses will still remain located near theirs clients. Under the circumstances in which market changes are more quick it is necessary that warehousing activity be lead in such a manner that selling prices of products stay competitive. Enterprises success is relying more and more on their logistics effectiveness, which has been transformed from a simple action means to an essential element of their strategy.

References [1] Ayers J.B., Handbook of Supply Chain Management, The St. Lucie Press/ APICS Series on Resource Management, 2001 [2] Dornier Ph.P., Fender M., La logistique globale enjeux principes exemples, Edition dOrganisation, 2001 [3] Kotler Ph., Managementul marketingului, Editura Teora, 1997 [4] Pimor Y., Logistique techniques et mis en uvre, 2e dition, Ed. Dunod, 2001 [5] Sachland F., The Impact of EU Enlargement on the Location of Production in Europe, Ifri, 2005 [6] Sohier J., La logistique comprendre la dmarche logistique, ses exigences et ses rpercussions sur la gestion, 3e dition, Librairie Vuibert, 2002

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[7] *** A.T. Kearney Global Services Location Index 2007, [versiune electronic] www.atkearney.com [8] *** Conseil et formation en logistique et transport, [versiune electronic] www.logistique.com [9] *** Cours entreposage et gestion dentrepot, [versiune electronic] www.logistique.com

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The logistics of merchandise ROLUL STOCRII N LAN UL LOGISTIC

(The role of inventory in the supply chain) Lect. univ. dr. Mihai Felea Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti mihai.felea@com.ase.ro

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Rezumat Lan ul logistic este un sistem coordonat de organiza ii, oameni, activit i, informa ii i resurse implicate n micarea unui produs ntr-o manier fizic sau virtual de la furnizor la client. Activit ile din lan ul logistic transform materiile prime i componentele ntr-un produs care este livrat ctre consumator sau utilizator. Activitatea de stocare, alturi de transport i de localizarea spa iilor de produc ie sau a depozitelor, reprezint un factor important care influen eaz performan a lan ului logistic. Stocul cuprinde materiile prime, munca n curs, i toate produsele finite din cadrul unui lan logistic. Schimbarea politicilor de stocare poate duce la modificarea dramatic a eficien ei i receptivit ii lan ului logistic. Managerii firmelor care fac parte dintr-un lan logistic trebuie s identifice principalele categorii de stocuri i modul n care acestea pot fi dimensionate. La nivelul fiecrei firme se pot identifica stocuri curente, stocuri sezoniere i stocuri de siguran i se pot calcula o serie de indicatori care pot oferi o imagine a activit ii de stocare. n mod tradi ional, managementul stocurilor reprezint o provocare deoarece are un impact direct att asupra costurilor, ct i asupra nivelului de serviciu. Varia iile neprevzute ale cererii i ofertei conduc la necesitatea men inerii stocurilor n diferite verigi ale lan ului logistic pentru a rspunde nevoilor clien ilor. n consecin , creterea stocurilor n lan ul logistic va duce la creterea nivelului de serviciu i la sporirea veniturilor, dar i la mrirea costurilor. Cuvinte cheie: lan logistic, stoc curent, stoc de siguran , stoc sezonier, metode de stocare Clasificare JEL: D20, D30, M10 Abstract The supply chain is a system coordinated by organizations, humans, activities, information and resources involved in the movement of a product in a physical and virtual manner from the supplier to the client. The activities from the supply chain transform raw materials and components in a product that is delivered to the consumer or to the user. The inventory, together with the transport, the location of the production spaces and of the storage represent an important factor that influences the performance of the supply chain. Inventory contains the raw materials, the work in process and all the finished products of a supply chain. The changes of the inventory policies can lead to a dramatic alteration of the supply chains efficiency and responsiveness. The managers of the firms that build up a supply chain have to identify the main categories of inventory and the way that they can be dimensioned. In every company we can identify cycle inventory, safety inventory and seasonal inventory and we can calculate a series of indicators that can offer an image of the inventory. Traditionally, in the management of supply chain processes, inventory management is challenging because it directly impacts both cost and service. Uncertain demand and uncertain supply make it necessary to hold inventory at certain positions in the supply chain

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to provide adequate service to the customers. As a consequence, increasing supply chain process inventories will increase customer service and revenue, but it comes at higher cost. Keywords: inventory, supply chain, cycle inventory, safety inventory, seasonal inventory, methods of storage JEL Classification: D20, D30, M10 Introducere Logistica este arta coordonrii lan ului logistic i tiin a administrrii fluxului de bunuri, energie, informa ie i alte resurse precum produse, servicii i oameni de la furnizorii productorilor pn la consumatorii/ utilizatorii finali. Logistica implic integrarea informa iei, transportul, stocarea, depozitarea, manipularea materialelor i ambalarea. Responsabilitatea operativ a logisticii este repozi ionarea geografic a materialelor brute, derularea proceselor i dimensionarea stocurilor la cel mai mic cost posibil. Logistica reprezint un domeniu care a cunoscut i cunoate numeroase transformri determinate de schimbrile mediului economic. Perioada actual este marcat de trecerea logisticii de la o activitate opera ional la una tactic i chiar strategic. n acest mod, s-a ajuns s se extind logistica n afara ntreprinderii i s se contureze concep ia de lan logistic (Figura 1). Termenul de lan logistic reprezint procesul care integreaz, coordoneaz i controleaz micarea mrfurilor i a materialelor de la furnizor la client, pn la consumatorul final (Emmet, 2005). Caracteristica esen ial a lan ului logistic este reprezentat de capacitatea de a face legtura n timp util ntre toate activit ile ce au loc ntre furnizori, clien i (productori sau distribuitori) i consumatorii finali. Deci, lan urile logistice cuprind activit ile de cumprare/aprovizionare, produc ie, livrare/ distribu ie i vnzare. Cu alte cuvinte, lan ul logistic pornete de la cererea clientului sau consumatorului ini ial. 110 Introduction Logistics is the art of managing the supply chain and science of managing and controlling the flow of goods, energy, information and other resources like products, services and people from the source of production to the marketplace. It involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material handling and packaging. The operating responsibility of logistics is the geographical repositioning of raw materials, work in process and finished inventories where required at the lowest cost possible. Logistics represents a field that has been through many transformations determined by the economic environments changes. The present period is marked by the passing of logistics to a tactical and even strategic activity from an operational one. In this way, logistics has extended out of the company and the conception of supply chain has appeared (Figure 1.). The term supply chain is the process that integrates, coordinates and controls the movement of goods and materials from a supplier to a customer and the final consumer. (Emmet, 2005). The essential point of a supply chain is that it links all the activities between suppliers and customers in a timely manner. A supply chain involves the activities of buying/sourcing, making, moving and selling. Therefore, the supply chain follows from the first customer/consumer demand and drives the whole process.

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Lan ul cererii

Lan ul logistic

Lan ul valorii

Furnizori

Fluxul produselor

Activit i: Achizi ionare Produc ie Livrare Vnzare Flux: Produse Procesarea comenzilor Capital fizic Flux: Numerar

Clien i

Flux: Idei Crearea comenzilor

Capital intelectual

Profit/Capitalul activelor

Figura 1 Lan ul logistic Sursa: Emmet, Stuart (2005). Excellence in Warehouse Management: How to Minimise Costs and Maximise Value, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, p. 2

Demand Chain

Logistic Chain

Value Chain

Suppliers Flow of Products

Activities: procurement production delivery Selling Flow: Products Order

management

Customers

Flow: Ideas Creation of the orders

Flow: Cash

Intellectual capital

Physical capital

Profit/assets capital

Figure 1 The Supply Chain Source: Emmet, Stuart (2005). Excellence in Warehouse Management: How to Minimise Costs and Maximise Value, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, p. 2

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Therefore, the supply chain follows from the first customer/consumer demand and drives the whole process. Indeed some people consider that the term supply chain could be named the demand chain. The value chain divides into primary activities and support activities (Porter, 1985). Primary activities are directly concerned with the creation or delivery of a product or service. They can be grouped into five main areas: inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing and sales, and service. Each of these primary activities is linked to support activities which help to improve their effectiveness or efficiency. There are four main areas of support activities: procurement, technology development, human resource management, and firm infrastructure (systems for planning, finance, quality, information management etc.). According to Porter, the value is dependent on the way a customer uses the product and not just totally on the cost incurred in buying, making and moving it. These costs, including all the raw materials and activities that create the product, then represent the value. But it is only when product is purchased that this value can be measured; and it is not until the product reaches the final consumer that the real value is to be found. 1. The Importance of Inventory within the Supply Chain The inventory exists in the supply chain because of differences between demand and supply. For example, for a steel manufacturer its more economical to produce in large lots that afterwards will be stored for future sale. Even a retail store has to hold inventory of merchandise in order to satisfy the demand. An important role of inventory is increasing the demand that can be satisfied by having the product available when the client wants it.

De fapt, cererea este cea care conduce ntregul proces. De aceea, unii specialiti consider c lan ul logistic ar trebui s se numeasc lan ul cererii. Lan ul valorii cuprinde activit i primare i activit i de suport (Porter, 1985). Activit ile primare se refer la produc ia i distribu ia produselor i serviciilor i sunt grupate n cinci categorii: logistic intern; produc ie; logistic extern; marketing i vnzare; service. Fiecare dintre acestea sunt legate de activit ile de sus inere care contribuie la creterea eficacit ii i eficien ei activit ilor primare. Activit ile de sus inere cuprind patru categorii: aprovizionare, dezvoltare tehnologic, managementul resurselor umane i infrastructura firmei. n concep ia lui Porter, valoarea depinde de modul n care consumatorul utilizeaz produsul i de costurile de achizi ie, produc ie i livrare ale acestuia. Aceste costuri, incluznd toate materiile prime i activit ile desfurate cu scopul realizrii produsului, reprezint valoarea lui. Totui, numai cnd produsul este achizi ionat aceast valoare poate fi msurat, iar valoarea real poate fi apreciat doar cnd produsul finit ajunge la consumatorul final.

1. Importan a stocurilor n lan ul logistic Stocurile exist n lan ul logistic din cauza diferen elor dintre cerere i ofert. De exemplu, pentru un productor de o el este mai economic s produc n loturi mari care mai apoi s fie depozitate pentru o vnzare viitoare. i un magazin cu amnuntul trebuie s de in stocuri de mrfuri pentru a satisface cererea. Un rol important pe care-l au stocurile este de a crete cererea care poate fi satisfcut prin faptul c produsul este disponibil atunci cnd clientul l vrea.

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Alt rol semnificativ este c reduce costurile exploatnd economiile de scal care pot aprea n timpul produc iei sau distribu iei. Stocurile apar sub form de materii prime, semifabricate sau bunuri finite. Stocurile sunt o surs major de costuri n lan ul logistic. Spre exemplu, un lan logistic care are stocuri mari la nivelul comer ului cu amnuntul, are un grad nalt de receptivitate deoarece clientul intr n magazin i iese cu produsul pe care l cuta. n contrast, un lan logistic cu stocuri mici poate fi eficient dar va face clien ii s atepte cteva sptmni sau luni pentru mrfurile pe care i le doresc. Stocurile au un rol important n fluxul materialelor n lan ul logistic. Managerii vor trebui s ac ioneze cu stocuri ct mai mici fr s creasc n niciun fel costurile sau s reduc receptivitatea, deoarece reducerea scurgerii timpului poate fi un avantaj semnificativ ntr-un lan logistic. Stocurile joac un rol important n abilitatea de a asigura competitivitatea unei firme. Dac strategia competitiv a unei firme cere un nivel ridicat de receptivitate, compania poate atinge acest el prin amplasarea unor mari cantit i de mrfuri lng clien i. Invers, o companie poate folosi stocurile pentru a deveni mai eficient, reducnd costurile. Dilema, n cazul stocurilor, este ntre receptivitatea care rezult din stocuri mai mari sau eficien a care rezult din stocuri mai mici. Constituirea stocurilor poate avea la baz diverse motive: specula, adic voin a de a cumpra o marf abundent, apoi de a o revinde realiznd un ctig n perioadele de penurie (cnd cererea este superioar ofertei); strategia i politica statelor sau organiza iilor, de exemplu n alegerea de a stoca aur, metale pre ioase, carburan i, mrfuri considerate de importan strategic pentru o anumit firm;

AE

Another significant role is the fact that it reduces the costs by exploiting economies of scale that can appear within the production or distribution. The inventory appears like raw materials, work in process or finished goods. The inventory is a major source of costs in the supply chain. For example, a supply chain that has big retail inventory has a high level of responsiveness because the client enters the store and comes out with the product that he was looking for. In contrast, a supply chain with small inventory can be efficient but it will make clients wait a few weeks or months for the products that they want. The inventory has an important role in the materials flow of the supply chain. The managers will have to act with as few inventories as possible without increasing the costs or reducing responsiveness, because reduced flow time can be a significant advantage in a supply chain. Inventory has an important role in assuring a companys competition. If a firms competitive strategy requires a high level of responsiveness, the company can achieve this goal locating large amounts of inventory near clients. Contrary, a company can use inventory to become more efficient, reducing costs. Dilemma in case of inventory is between the responsiveness that results from bigger inventory and the efficiency that results from smaller inventory. Constituting inventory can have varied reasons: speculation, meaning the intention to buy opulent merchandise, then to resale making a profit in periods of penury (when the demand is superior to the supply); the strategy and politics of states and organizations, for example in choosing to stock gold, precious metals, carburant, inventory, supplies are considered of a strategic importance for a firm;

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the obligations resulted from regulations, namely to comply with the quarantine terms, for example in pharmaceutical and cosmetics production; commercial constrains, for example a fruit, flowers, animal reaching maturity before becomes commercialized; production constrains, for example the obligation to regroup different components of a product, before assembling it; financial necessities, that make transportation more expensive than usual and if it is made on smaller lots; in this case it must be verified whether its less expensive to use stocking, building deposits and making them work and whether its less expensive to use transportation on production lots. Therefore, the two important motives of a firm for holding inventories are economies of scale, related to the aim of reducing fixed costs by producing or ordering large lots, and the uncertainties inherent in the demand and supply. Although demand uncertainty is the most obvious and significant source of uncertainty for most systems, other uncertainties exist as well. Uncertainty in the order delivery lead time is a common problem in industries. Many firms have undertaken re-engineering efforts to improve the efficiency of their supply chains with the goal of better matching supply with demand so as to reduce the costs of inventory and the customer service times. To increase efficiency and responsiveness we must analyse the main types of inventory and the way these can be dimensioned (Chopra, 2007). Cycle inventory. Represents the inventory used to fulfil the demand in the period between two deliveries of the suppliers. The size of the current inventory is the result of the production, the transportation or of the acquirement of the merchandise in large lots.

obliga ii rezultate din reglementri, adic respectarea duratelor de carantin, de exemplu, ca n produc ia farmaceutic sau cosmetic; constrngerile comerciale, ca de exemplu, atingerea creterii la maturitate n cazul unui fruct, unor flori, sau unui animal nainte de a deveni comercializabil; constrngerile de produc ie, ca de cum ar fi obliga ia de a regrupa diferitele componente ale unui produs finit, nainte de a face asamblarea lui; necesit ile financiare, care fac ca transportul s fie mai costisitor dac este mai frecvent i dac se face pe mrimi de loturi mai mici; n acest caz, trebuie verificat dac este mai pu in scump s se recurg la stocare, construind depozite i fcndu-le s func ioneze sau dac este mai pu in scump s se recurg la transport pe loturi de produc ie. n concluzie, cele dou motive principale ale constituirii stocurilor sunt economiile de scal, realizate atunci cnd firmele produc sau achizi ioneaz cantit i mari de mrfuri i incertitudinile legate de cerere i ofert. Dei varia iile cererii reprezint de cele mai multe ori o surs evident i semnificativ de incertitudine, la fel de bine pot fi identificate i alte surse. Incertitudinea legat de termenele de livrare reprezint o problem obinuit cu care se confrunt firmele. Multe companii au n eles c trebuie s depun eforturi pentru a mbunt i eficien a lan ului logistic, ndeplinind obiectivul corelrii cererii cu oferta pentru a reduce costul stocrii i timpul livrrii ctre consumatori. Pentru a crete eficien a i receptivitatea trebuie analizate principalele tipuri de stocuri i modul n care acestea pot fi dimensionate (Chopra, 2007). Stocul curent. Acesta reprezint stocul folosit pentru satisfacerea cererii n intervalul dintre dou livrri ale furnizorilor. Mrimea stocului curent este rezultatul produc iei, transportului sau achizi iei mrfurilor n loturi mari.

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Firmele produc sau achizi ioneaz loturi mari pentru a exploata economiile de scal n produc ie, transport sau n procesul de cumprare. Odat cu creterea lotului, apare i creterea costului expedi iei. Stocul de siguran este stocul care trebuie inut n cazul n care cererea depete ateptrile sau furnizorii nu livreaz mrfurile la timp. Dac totul ar fi previzibil, atunci ar fi suficient doar stocul curent. Deoarece cererea este nesigur i ar putea depi ateptrile, firmele in un stoc de siguran pentru a putea satisface o cerere ridicat, dar neateptat. Managerii se confrunt cu o decizie cheie atunci cnd trebuie s stabileasc mrimea stocului de siguran . Dac stocul de siguran este prea mare, mrfurile nu vor putea fi vndute i vor trebui scoase la vnzare la un pre redus dup nchierea sezonului. Dac firma are un stoc de siguran mic atunci va avea vnzri mai pu ine. Aadar, optarea pentru o anumit mrime a stocului de siguran implic o legatur ntre costul de a avea prea mult stoc de siguran i costul de a scdea vnzrile din cauza unui stoc de siguran nesemnificativ. Stocul sezonier este utilizat n cazul n care cererea are varia ii previzibile. Firmele constituie stocuri n perioadele n care cererea este mic i depoziteaz mrfurile pentru perioadele n care nu vor mai putea produce att de mult pentru a satisface cererea. Managerii se confrunt cu decizii cheie atunci cnd trebuie s decid dac trebuie s aib un stoc sezonier i, dac se decid s l constituie, atunci trebuie s stabileasc nivelul acestuia. Dac o firm i poate schimba rapid rata sistemului de produc ie la un cost foarte sczut, atunci s-ar putea s nu mai aib nevoie de stocul sezonier, deoarece sistemul de produc ie se poate adapta unei perioade cnd cererea este mare, fr a implica costuri mari.

AE

The companies make or acquire large lots to exploit the scale economies in production, transportation or the purchasing process. With the increase of the lot, the expedition costs grow too. Safety inventory is the inventory that needs to be held in the case the demand overflows the expectations or the supplier doesnt deliver the merchandise in time. If everything were predictable then current inventory would be enough. Because the demand is uncertain and it could overflow expectation, firms keep a safety inventory so they can be able to satisfy a high but unexpected demand. Managers face of with a key decision when they must establish the size of the safety inventory. If the safety inventory is too large then the merchandise wont sell and they will have to sell it for a lower price after the season is closed. If the firm has a small safety inventory then the firm will have smaller sells. Therefore, deciding for a certain size of the safety inventory implies a link between the cost of owning too much in a safety inventory and the cost of decreasing the sells because of an insignificant safety inventory. Seasonal inventory is used in case the demand has predictable variations. Companies create inventory in periods when demand is low and they deposit merchandise for the periods when they wont be able to produce a sufficient quantity to satisfy the demand. Managers face the key decisions when they have to decide whether they have to form a seasonal inventory and if they do decide to create it, they must decide on its size. If a company can easily change the rate of the production system at a very low cost then they must not need a seasonal inventory, because the production system can adapt itself for a period when the demand reaches high values without implying high costs.

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Anyway, if changing the production rate is expensive (for example, when employees must be fired or hired) then a company must establish an appropriate rate of production and they must form an inventory when the demand is low. So, the main problem for the supplying chains managers who form a seasonal inventory is the cost of it in comparison with the cost of having a flexible rate of production. The service level is a part of the demand satisfied in time by the products in the inventory. A high level of the availability of the products creates a high level of responsibility implying at the same time a growth of the cost because lots of inventory are formed but rarely used. In opposition, at a low level of product availability, the inventory cost is lower but its possible that a client isnt served on time. Traditional supply chain metrics focus on efficiency and productivity (Cohen and Roussel, 2005). Improvements in service levels, costs and inventory levels are the desired outcome of an operations strategy and are measured accordingly. A more strategic perspective looks at these measures as enablers of business objectives such as growth within a specific segment or market, accelerated product development, or immediate product availability. When aligned with key business objectives, the supply chain becomes an added source of competitive advantage. 2. Selecting the Right Method of Storage Storage management is often thought of as being just an operational day-to-day job. The storage has a critical part to play in supply chain management and it can only play this if it is involved in the strategic aspects of the business.

Oricum, dac schimbarea ratei produc iei este costisitoare (de exemplu cnd angaja ii trebuie concedia i sau cnd trebuie fcute angajri), atunci o firm trebuie s stabileasc o rat a produc iei potrivit i s constituie un stoc atunci cnd cererea este mic. Deci, principala problem cu care se confrunt managerii lan urilor de aprovizionare care constituie un stoc sezonier este costul acestuia n raport cu costul de a avea o rat de produc ie flexibil. Nivelul disponibilit ii produsului (nivelul de serviciu) este o parte a cererii care este satisfacut la timp de produsele care se afl n stoc. Un nivel ridicat de disponibilitate a produselor produce un nivel ridicat de responsabilitate, implicnd totodat i o cretere a costului deoarece multe stocuri sunt constituite, dar foarte rar sunt folosite. n opozi ie, la un nivel sczut al disponibilit ii produselor, costul stocului este mai sczut dar exist posibilitatea ca un client s nu fie servit la timp. Indicatorii tradi ionali ai lan ului logistic sunt eficien a i productivitatea (Cohen i Roussel, 2005). mbunt iri la nivelul serviciilor, costurilor i nivelului stocurilor reprezint rezultate dorite ale strategiei unor opera iuni i se msoar n consecin . O perspectiv strategic privete aceste msurtori drept suport al obiectivelor firmei, cum ar fi creterea n cadrul unui segment specific sau pia , dezvoltarea accelerat sau disponibilitatea imediat a produsului. 2. Alegerea metodei de stocare potrivite Managementul stocrii este considerat, de cele mai multe ori, a fi doar o activitate opera ional zilnic. Stocarea joac un rol crucial n managementul lan ului logistic, iar acest rol poate fi ndeplinit doar dac este luat n considerare n toate aspectele strategice ale afacerii.

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Firmele pot alege dintre urmtoarele metode principale de stocare: stocare static; stocare mobil; stocare rotativ, orizontal sau vertical; stocare dinamic; stocare de mare nl ime automat (Mondou, 2000). Aspectul cheie ce trebuie avut n vedere n toate aceste metode de stocare este conflictul ce apare ntre prioritatea de maximizare a spa iului folosit pentru fiecare metod n parte, i cea de minimizare a timpului necesar pentru ndeplinirea unei sarcini de stocare (Pimor, 2001). Stocarea static se poate face prin dulapuri sau mobil cu sertare pentru a stoca mici piese, dar mai adesea este realizat prin stelaj (mobilier format din rafturi suprapuse). Stelajele pot fi foarte diverse, de la c iva metri la mai mult de 30 de metri nl ime, cel mai adesea independente de structura depozitului, dar uneori integrate n scheletul cldirii. Nu exista nicio regul sau o prevedere legal specific. Suprafa a ocupat pe sol nu depinde numai de stelaje, ci i de spa iul necesar ntre ele pentru a aranja mrfurile sau pentru a le extrage, innd cont de mijloacele de manipulare a mrfurilor utilizate pentru fiecare din aceste opera iuni. Stocarea mobil. Stelajele cu etajere sau cu palete care sus in produsul se deplaseaz pe ro i de o el montate pe ine care pot fi sau nu ncastrate n sol, sunt antrenate manual cu volan demultiplicator - sau motorizat i permit deplasarea unui aranjament complet de etajere. Se ctig astfel spa iu n ceea ce privete aleile pentru c este nevoie doar de una singur pentru un ansamblu de etajere. Se utilizeaz asemenea solu ii atunci cnd costurile pe metru ptrat de stocare sunt foarte ridicate i articolele nu necesit deplasri dese, de exemplu pentru arhivele care vor fi depozitate ntr-un spa iu restrns n centrul oraului.

AE

Companies can use five main methods of storage: static storage; movable (mobile) storage; rotational storage in horizontal or vertical position; dynamical storage; automatically height storage (Mondou, 2000). The key aspect to be considered in all these methods of storage is the conflicting priority of maximizing the use of the space allocated to each method, while minimizing the time taken to undertaken the storage (Pimor, 2001). The static storage. Cupboards and chest of drawers can be used for static storage because there can be stored small pieces, but it is useful to be done with shelves (a piece of furniture made of deck shelves). The shelves can vary, from a few metres to more than thirty metres high, most frequently independent from the warehouse structure, but sometimes incorporated in the building frame. These is no rule or legal specification in this case.The bottom surface doesnt depend on only by the shelves, but also on the necessary space between them to arrange the goods or to take them out, taking into account the goods manipulating means, used for each of these operations. The movable storage. The shelves with racks or pallets are moved on steel wheels fit up on rails which can be or not fixed on ground, they are manually moved (with scalar steering wheel) or motorized moved, they allow the movement of whole set of shelves. The advantage is the space for lanes because only one lane is necessary for a set of shelves. These solutions are used when the costs for one square metre storage are very high and the items dont request frequent movement, for example for the archives which will be stored in a narrow space in the centre of the town.

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The rotational storage in horizontal or vertical position. For the rotational storage in vertical, the items are often arranged in shelves or boxes carried by transporters which are moved by continuous rolling bands rotating between two horizontal spindles found apart several metres. This system is very useful for small mechanical or electronical items, or for the pharmaceutical products and it reduces the searching time and also the necessary access surface. The rotational storage in horizontal position is made using a circular moving on rail carousel with hanging baskets fixed by carousel with string. The dynamical storage. This method of storage uses more or less long storage blocks in which the same pallets or collets are arranged one behind the others using a horizontally transporter or roller bearings which form an easy chute. In the front someone can take out what he needs: pallets, collets or a part of their content. The pallets or collets move one element forward every time when a pallet or box is pulled up, no mater of reason, even though they are empty or even though they are totally extracted. Each block can be fed of flats through the back side, thus separating the statement preparation and the supply just with two lanes, no matter how deep the storage blocks are. Thus, an important storage space economy can be done and also a significant reduction of movements, starting with the statement preparation using a FIFO output system if it isnt necessary to work with important quantities, but with a reduce number of items (the A or B items of the ABC analyse). Automatical height storage: the transtockers. The transtockers are cranes thought to work only on lanes of pallet shelve. Some models may change the lane.

Stocarea pivotant pe orizontal sau vertical. n stocarea pivotant pe vertical, cel mai adesea articolele sunt aranjate n rafturi sau n cutii sus inute de transportoare care se deplaseaz cu ajutorul unor benzi rulante ce se nvrt n mod continuu ntre dou axe orizontale aflate la distan de c iva metri. Acest tip de sistem este foarte utilizat pentru piese mici, mecanice sau electronice, sau pentru produse farmaceutice i reduce timpul de cutare, precum i suprafa a de acces necesar. Stocarea pivotant pe orizontal se realizeaz pe un carusel cu couri care atrn cu ajutorul firelor de o in i care se mic circular. Stocarea dinamic. Acest mod de stocare este format din blocuri de stocare, mai mult sau mai pu in lungi, unde paletele sau coletele de aceeai natur sunt dispuse unele n spatele celeilalte, fie pe rulmen i care formeaz un plan uor nclinat, fie pe un transportor orizontal. n partea din fa se pot extrage paletele sau coletele sau o parte din con inutul lor. De fiecare dat cnd o palet sau un colet sunt ridicate, fie c sunt extrase n ntregime, fie se ridic pentru c sunt goale, celelalte palete sau colete ale blocului de stocare se deplaseaz cu un element. Se poate alimenta fiecare bloc prin partea din spate, separnd astfel pregtirea comenzii i reaprovizionarea doar cu dou alei, oricare ar fi adncimea blocurilor de stocare. Cu condi ia de nu a avea de lucrat cu cantit i importante, ci cu un numr mic de palete sau de colete identice (articole A sau B ale analizei ABC), se poate realiza n acest mod o important economie a spa iului de stocare i o diminuare semnificativ a deplasrilor, ncepnd cu pregtirea comenzii, cu ajutorul unui sistem FIFO. Sistemele automate de mare nl ime: transtockeuri. Transtockeurii sunt macarale concepute pentru a lucra numai pe aleile unui stelaj cu palete, unele modele permi ndu-le totui s schimbe aleea.

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Ele se deplaseaz pe alei nguste (l m pn la 1,2 m) cu ajutorul a dou ine, una la sol i una n partea nalt care ghideaz catargul de-a lungul cruia se deplaseaz furcile ce permit ncrcarea i descrcarea mrfurilor. La capetele aleilor, un transportor de intrare i unul de ieire permit aducerea sau recuperarea paletelor. Anumi i transtockeuri sunt manuali: un lucrtor comand opera iunile dintr-o cabin ce se deplaseaz la nivelul furcilor. Aceti transtockeuri nu depesc o nl ime de extragere n jurul a 15 m pentru viteze maxime de transla ie de 10 km/h i cu ncrcturi ce depesc rar o ton. Al i transtockeuri sunt automa i i pot atinge pn la 45 m cu ncrcturi ce depesc cteva tone. Toate aceste modalit i de stocare se organizeaz cu ajutorul unor mijloace informatice precum cititoarele de etichete cu coduri de bare, calculatoarele etc. Unul dintre instrumentele de baz ale depozitelor automatizate este echipamentul de sortare. ncepnd cu etichetele dispuse pe fiecare colet, sistemul poate mpinge coletele ctre un post de ncrcare sau paletizare. n locul coletelor se pot tria cutii sau colete plate. Coletele pot fi cele care trebuie repartizate pe o platform de livrare i provenind, de exemplu, din spargerea paletelor, sau pot fi colete provenind de la unul sau mai multe posturi de pregtire i reasamblnd, de exemplu, elementele provenind din opera iuni de picking. Concluzii Proiectarea i operarea eficient a unui lan logistic reprezint o component a activit ii de planificare, desfurat att la nivel strategic, ct i tactic. Planificarea la nivel strategic a lan ului logistic implic decizii de configurare a re elei, numrul, amplasarea, capacitatea, tehnologia unit ilor etc.

AE

Transtockers are moving on narrow lanes (between 1 metre and 1,2 metres) helps by two rails, one at the bottom, the other at the top guiding the mast along whose the loading and downloading forks move. By each end of a lane an input transporter and an output one allow pallets bringing in or back. Some transtockers are manually handled: a worker orders the operations from the cabin which moves at the forks level. Those transtockers dont exceed a 15 metres extraction height for 10km/h maximum translation speed and charges which rarely exceed a ton. Other transtockers are automatical and can reach up to 45 metres with loads exceeding a few tons. All of these methods of storage are organized with the help of information technology such as label readers, scanners or computers. One of the basic instruments of the automatic warehouse is the sorting equipment. Paying attention to the willing labels on each box the system can push the collets towards loading or paddling point. Boxes or flat collets can be sorted instead of the collets. The collets can be the ones which must be distributed on a delivery platform and coming, by example, from breaking of the pallets, or they can be collets that come from one or more preparing points and reassembling, by example, the elements coming from picking. Conclusions The designing and the efficient making of a supply chain is a structure of the planning activity performed at a strategic and tactical level. The strategic planning of the supply chain involves decisions of network configuration, the number, the location, the capacity, the technology of the facilities.

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The tactical planning of the supply chains operations involves decisions relating to the finding, the transformation and the distribution of the products. The supply chains strategic configuration is a key factor that influences the efficiency of the tactical operations and has a long term impact on a firm. The objective that rules over all the efforts in a supply chain is increasing competitivity by assuring services accepted by clients at a minimum cost. The improvement of the services can be achieved in two ways: the development of the integration of organisations and the elimination of the useless or expensive activities; better coordination of the flow. Therefore, the supply chains management has to integrate the organisational units from within it, to coordinate the necessary flows for the accomplishment of the clients demand, with the purpose of improving the chains competitivity as a whole. A company achieving strategic fit has found the right balance beetwen responsiveness and efficiency. Every element influences this balance. If the company has more facilities generally makes a chain more responsive, while it has fewer, central facilities creates higher efficiency. If the company holds higher levels of inventory increases the reponsiveness of the supply chain, while it keeps low inventory increases the chains efficiency. The effective and efficient use of both time and the warehouse space are also important. Therefore, the emphasis should be on the planning of all warehouse activities, including receiving, storing, assembling, kitting, picking and dispatching of customers orders.

Planificarea la nivel tactic a opera iilor din lan ul logistic implic decizii referitoare la achizi ia, procesarea i distribu ia produselor. Configurarea strategic a lan ului logistic este un factor cheie care influen eaz eficien a opera iunilor tactice i astfel, are un impact de lung durat asupra unei firme. Obiectivul care guverneaz toate eforturile ntr-un lan logistic este creterea competitivit ii prin asigurarea unor servicii acceptate de ctre clien i la un cost minim. mbunt irea serviciilor se poate realiza pe dou ci: dezvoltarea integrrii organiza iilor i eliminarea activit ilor inutile sau costisitoare; coordonarea mai bun a fluxurilor. Ca atare, managementului lan ului logistic i revine sarcina de a integra unit ile organiza ionale din cadrul acestuia, de a coordona fluxurile necesare ndeplinirii cererii clien ilor, cu scopul de a mbunt i competitivitatea lan ului ca un tot unitar. O companie care a atins echilibrul strategic n cadrul lan ului logistic a gsit balan a ntre receptivitate i eficien . Fiecare factor influen eaz aceast balan . Avnd mai multe unit i, n general, poate crete receptivitatea lan ului logistic, iar avnd mai pu ine, cele centrale cresc eficien a. De inerea unor stocuri ridicate duce la creterea receptivit ii unui lan logistic, n timp ce un nivel de stoc mai sczut duce la o eficien sporit. Folosirea de moduri de transport rapide duce la o receptivitate ridicat, pe cnd cele mai lente mresc eficien a. De asemenea, utilizarea eficient a timpului i a spa iului n depozit sunt la fel de importante. Astfel, accentul ar trebui s cad asupra planificrii activit ilor n cadrul depozitului, incluznd recep ia, stocarea, asamblarea, gruparea, alegerea i formarea comenzilor cumprtorilor.

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References [1] Chopra, Sunil and Meindl, Peter, Supply Chain Management: Strategy, Planning, and Operation, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 2007 [2] Cohen, Shoshanah and Roussel, Joseph, Strategic Supply Chain Management: The Five Disciplines for Top Performance, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2005 [3] Emmet, Stuart, Excellence in Warehouse Management: How to Minimise Costs and Maximise Value, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2005 [4] Mondou, Franois, Dimensionnement dune installation de stockage, Mmoire de lESSEC-IMD, Paris, octobre, 2000 [5] Pimor, Yves, Logistique: Techniques et mise en uvre, Dunod, Paris, 2001 [6] Porter, Michael, Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance, Free Press, New York, 1985

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Logistica mrfurilor LOGISTICA I MANAGEMENTUL LAN ULUI DE APROVIZIONARE-LIVRARE N TURISM

(Logistics and Supply Chain Management in Tourism)

Conf. univ. dr. Silvia Muhcin Universitatea Ovidius, Constan a muhcina@gmail.com

Conf. univ. dr. Veronica Popovici Universitatea Ovidius, Constan a verovnp@yahoo.com

Rezumat Pentru organiza iile implicate n turism, desfurarea eficient a activit ii este condi ionat, printre altele, de armonizarea i coordonarea eforturilor tuturor participan ilor inclui n lan ul de activit i specifice: prestatorii de servicii turistice, tour-operatorii, agen iile de turism distribuitoare, turitii nii. n rndul acestor categorii de participan i, un rol deosebit l au tour-operatorii. Plecnd de la anumite atrac ii turistice, acetia i asum fabricarea acelor produse care sunt solicitate de ctre turiti, asamblnd diferitele categorii de servicii turistice, de baz i auxiliare, care sunt oferite de numeroi prestatori i, mai departe, distribuindu-le agen iilor de turism detailiste sau, n mod direct, turitilor. Impactul activit ii lor este deosebit de puternic deoarece, prin produsele realizate, ncorporeaz diferitele tipuri de prestri de servicii turistice. Plecnd de la aceste aspecte i analiznd din punct de vedere logistic activitatea turistic n mod similar cu activit ile de producere a bunurilor materiale, se poate spune c succesul poate fi ob inut n situa ia n care diferitele categorii de participan i ac ioneaz ca un sistem, n cadrul unui lan de aprovizionare-furnizare. La nivelul tour-operatorilor, managementul lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare include, printre altele, planificarea i managementul activit ilor de aprovizionare i selec ie a furnizorilor, managementul logisticii interne, precum i colaborarea cu to i partenerii din cadrul canalului de marketing. Logistica intern include activit i referitoare la aprovizionare, sus inerea opera iunilor i anumite aspecte similare distribu iei fizice, lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare structurndu-se prin colaborarea i cooperarea unui numr variat de participan i, de la furnizorii de materii prime (al cror impact este vizibil mai ales n cazul serviciilor de alimenta ie/restaura ie) i pn la consumatorii finali. De altfel, rolul acestora din urm este cu att mai important, cu ct ei imprim i specificul activit ii turistice, prin participarea direct la reuita unei vacan e. Cuvinte cheie: turism, participan i, logistic, lan , aprovizionare, livrare Clasificare JEL: M31. Abstract For the organizations which are involved in tourism, efficiency is conditioned, among other determinants, by the coordination and harmonization of all participants efforts from the specific activities chain: tourism services suppliers, tour-operators, travel agencies and tourists themselves. Among these participants, a special role is assigned to the tour-operators. Going from certain tourism attractions, they take upon themselves the fabrication of those products that are required by tourists, assembling the different basic and supplementary tourism services, that are offered by numerous services suppliers, and further, distributing them to the retailers, or directly to the tourists. The impact of their activity is very strong because through the realized products they incorporate different 122 Amfiteatru Economic

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types of tourist services. Going from these aspects and analyzing in a similar manner the tourism activity as the material goods manufacturing activity from logistical point of view, it can be said that, successful activity can be achieved when those different participants categories act like a system, into a supply chain. On tour-operators level, the supply chain management incorporates, among the others, planning and management activities concerning purchasing suppliers selection, internal logistics management, as well as collaboration with all marketing channel partners. Internal logistics involves activities that refers to purchasing, operations support and some aspects that are similar with physical distribution, the supply chain being structured by cooperation between a various number of participants, from raw materials suppliers (their impact is visible especially in catering, foods or beverage suppliers services), up to end consumers. Otherwise, the role of the last category is more important because they lend the tourism activity specific nature, through theres participation on a successful holiday product. Keywords: tourism, participants, logistics, chain, supply, delivery. JEL Clasification: M31. Introducere Prin specificul lor, derularea activit ilor turistice implic un numr mare de participan i: prestatori de servicii turistice, tour-operatori i agen ii de turism revnztoare, clien i. n cadrul canalului de marketing, tour-operatorii au rolul de a prelua serviciile oferite de ctre diferitele categorii de prestatori, de a le mpacheta corespunztor i de a le distribui, fie n mod direct turitilor, fie agen iilor de turism revnztoare. Prin importan a lor, tour-operatorii au o contribu ie semnificativ asupra eficien ei activit ilor turistice, dat fiind faptul c de ei depinde att succesul activit ii prestatorilor i agen iilor distribuitoare cu amnuntul, ct i nivelul de satisfac ie al turitilor, beneficiarii produselor realizate de ctre tour-operatori. Ca i n domeniul bunurilor materiale, n domeniul turismului, armonizarea i coordonarea eforturilor proprii ale organiza iei cu cele ale furnizorilor i clien ilor constituie o premiz a reuitei. Aceste demersuri se realizeaz cu mai mult eficien n situa ia n care se reunesc n structura unui lan de aprovizionare-livrare, avnd punctul de organizare i comand la nivelul tour-operatorilor. Introduction By their specific, the evolution involves a big number of participants: tourism services suppliers, tour-operators and reselling travel agencies, clients. In the frame of the marketing channel, touroperators have the function of taking over the services offered by the different categories of suppliers, of packing them properly and of allocating them directly to the tourists or to the reselling tourism agencies. By their importance, the touroperators have a significant contribution to the tourist activity efficiency, given the fact that on them depend the successes of both the suppliers activity and retail distribution agencies, and on the tourists satisfaction level, the appointees of the products realized by the tour-operators. As in the material goods field, in tourism, the amortization and coordination of the own organization efforts along with the ones of the suppliers and clients, constitutes a success premise. These intercessions are realized with more efficiency when they are reunited in a supply-delivery chain structure, and the command and organization point is at the tour-operators level.

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1. Conceptual assignations Considering the necessity of correlating the participants efforts from the marketing channels, by the mediation of the common scheduling and information exchange, the rise of tourist activity efficiency and competitiveness can be realized through the assimilation and implementation, in the particular form of this activity, of the supply-delivery chain management concept. Starting from the definitions referring to the bale logistics domain, on the basis of which it can be said that the logisticians mission is to bring the assets and services at the right place, at the right time, in the requested conditions, resulting an increase in the firms profit (Blan, 2006, p. 19), also, it can be said that, concerning the tourism, the logistician mission is to create ond offer the touristic products requested by the consumers, at the right place and time and in the most fruitful conditions. Being given the specific tourist activity, this mission falls on the touroperators. If, at the material goods producer company level, the logistic system includes the production sustaining activities and supply, as well as the physical distribution activity, (Blan, 2006), at the tour-operators level, it can be said that logistic system summs up supply activities (including contractual arrangements with the caterer and the service suppliers), activities for supporting the operations (support and assistance concerning the activity of the basic service suppliers) and activities similar to the distribution (delivery of the products to the detailist agencies or to the final consumers). Marking out the same parallel, starting with the Logistic Management Council (CLM, 1991) on the supplydelivery chain management, it can be said that in tourism, the supply-delivery chain management integrates the scheduling

1. Delimitri conceptuale Plecnd de la necesitatea corelrii eforturilor participan ilor din canalele de marketing, prin intermediului planificrii comune i schimbului de informa ii, creterea eficien ei i competitivit ii activit ii turistice se poate realiza prin nsuirea i implementarea, n forme specifice acestei activit i, a conceptului de management al lan ului de aprovizionare-furnizare. Plecnd de la defini iile referitoare la domeniul logisticii mrfurilor, pe baza crora se poate spune c misiunea logisticianului este aceea de a aduce bunurile i serviciile la locul potrivit, la timpul potrivit, n condi iile cerute, rezultatul fiind creterea profitului firmei (Blan, 2006), se poate spune c, n turism, misiunea logisticianului const n crearea i oferirea produselor turistice solicitate de ctre consumatori, la locul i momentul potrivite, n cele mai profitabile condi ii. Dat fiind specificul activit ii turistice, aceast misiune revine touroperatorilor. Dac, la nivelul ntreprinderilor productoare de bunuri materiale, sistemul logistic include activit ile de sus inere a produc iei i aprovizionarea, precum i activit ile de distribu ie fizic (Blan, 2006), la nivelul tour-operatorilor, se poate spune c sistemul logistic cuprinde activit i de aprovizionare (inclusiv aranjamente contractuale cu furnizorii i prestatorii de servicii), activit i de sus inere a opera iunilor (suport i asisten n ceea ce privete activitatea prestatorilor de servicii de baz) i activit i similare distribu iei fizice (livrarea produselor ctre agen iile detailiste sau consumatorii finali). Trasnd aceeai paralel, plecnd de la accep iunea Consiliului Managementului Logistic (CLM, 1991) asupra managementului lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare, se poate spune c, n turism, managementul lan ului de aprovizionare-desfacere integreaz activit ile

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de planificare i management al tuturor activit ilor implicate de aprovizionarea i alegerea furnizorilor, activit ile de management logistic, precum i activit ile de coordonare i colaborare cu to i partenerii. 2. Categorii de participan i din cadrul canalelor de marketing n turism Ca i n domeniul bunurilor materiale, n func ie de numrul de verigi intermediare, i n turism se pot ntlni att canale directe de distribu ie, ct i canale indirecte, scurte sau lungi. Principalele categorii de participan i din cadrul canalelor de marketing sunt (Balaure i al ii, 2005; Gherasim i Gherasim, 1999; Stnciulescu, 1998; Toquer i al ii,1999): prestatorii de servicii turistice de baz i suplimentare: -prestatorii serviciilor de cazare (hoteluri individuale, lan uri hoteliere, campinguri etc.); -prestatorii serviciilor de alimenta ie/restaura ie (restaurante, baruri, cafenele, unit i de catering, magazine etc.); -transportatorii (companii aeriene, companii feroviare, transportatori auto, companii de transport naval); -furnizorii de servicii de agrement/divertisment pentru sntate (proprietarii de baze sportive, unit i SPA etc.); -alte categorii de prestatori de servicii turistice suplimentare/ complementare (nchirieri, rezervri etc.); -alte categorii de furnizori de servicii de infrastructur de la destina iile turistice (energie electric, ap-canal, preluarea i reciclarea deeurilor, transport local etc.); tour-operatorii (generaliti specializa i, productori de voiaje ocazionale);

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and management activities of all the activities involved in the suppliers provision and choosing, the logistical management activities, as well as the coordinating and collaborating activities with all the partners. 2. Participant categories from the marketing channel in tourism As in the material goods field, according to the number of the intermediary links, in tourism can be found both direct distribution channels, as well as indirect ones, short or longs. The main participant categories from the Marketing channel are (Balaure and others, 2005; Gherasim si Gherasim, 1999; Stnciulescu, 1998; Toquer and others, 1999): base and additional tourist services suppliers: -housing service suppliers (individual hotels, hotelier chains, campings etc); -alimentary /restoration service suppliers (restaurants, bars, coffee houses, catering units, shops etc.); -transportations (air companies, rail companies, auto transports, naval transport companies); -divertissement /agreement for health services providers (sports bases owners, SPA centers etc. ); -other categories of tourism supplementary/complementary service providers (rentals; reservations etc); -other categories of service providers in the infrastructure from the destinations (electrical energy, water, sweeping and recycling, local transport etc.); tour-operators (specialized generalists, occasional voyage producers etc.);

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retail tourism agencies (voyage agencies, including receptive agencies, as well as other intermediaries: commercial networks, implants, transportation networks etc.); clients (physical and juridical persons who purchase tourist products). From these categories of participants, the tour-operators differentiate themselves through the importance, the size and the financial power to influence the tourist market evolution. Because of their position, the tour-operators have the key-role in the supply-delivery chain management, having the possibility to unitarily coordinate their own efforts, and the efforts of other links from the supplydelivery chain, obtaining global benefits and the specific efforts amelioration.

agen iile de turism detailiste (agen ii de voiaj, inclusiv agen ii receptive, precum i al i intermediari: re ele comerciale, implanturi, re ele ale transportatorilor etc.); clien ii (persoane fizice i juridice care achizi ioneaz produsele turistice). Din rndul acestor categorii de participan i se diferen iaz tour-operatorii, cei care, prin importan a, mrimea i puterea lor financiar au posibilitatea de a influen a evolu ia pie ei turistice. Tocmai datorit pozi iei lor, tour-operatorilor le revine rolul-cheie n cadrul managementului lan ului de aprovizionare-furnizare, avnd posibilitatea de a coordona n mod unitar att eforturile proprii, ct i eforturile celorlalte verigi din structura lan ului de aprovizionare-furnizare, ob inndu-se n acest fel beneficii globale i ameliorarea proceselor specifice. 3. Managementul lan ului de aprovizionare-furnizare n turism Conform teoriei marketingului i logisticii, i n turism, ca i n cazul activit ilor de produc ie a bunurilor materiale, managementul lan ului de aprovizionare-furnizare vizeaz att integrarea intern a activit ilor logistice (inclusiv integrarea cu celelalte func ii ale organiza iei), ct i integrarea extern, cu partenerii din amonte (furnizorii) i, respectiv, cu partenerii din aval (cu clien ii). Practic, n turism, lan ul de aprovizionare-furnizare cuprinde toate categoriile de ofertan i de bunuri i servicii care contribuie la crearea i livrarea produsului turistic ctre consumatorul final, incluznd nu numai ofertan ii care sunt contractan i direc i ai tour-operatorilor i chiar ai furnizorilor acestora (furnizorii furnizorilor), precum i agen iile distribuitoare, ci i participan ii indirec i (spre exemplu, marile re ele de magazine sau prestatoriiter i ai unor servicii fr specific turistic).

3. Supply-delivery chain management in tourism According to the logistic and marketing theory, in tourism, as in the case of material goods production activities, the supply-delivery chain management concerns both internal integration of logistic activities (including the integration with the other functions of the organization point) and external integration, with the tide gate (caterers) and, respectively, with the partners from the surety (with the clients). Practically, in tourism, the supplydelivery chain contains all the categories of goods and services tenderers, which contribute to create and deliver the tourist product to the final consumer, including not only the tenderers that are direct contractors of the tour-operators and even of their caterers (the caterers of the caterers) as well as the distribution agencies, and the indirect participants (for example, the big network shops or thirdcaterers of services without tourist specific).

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ntr-adevr, conform opiniei anumitor autori de specialitate, to i furnizorii elementelor componente ale unui produs turistic fac parte integrant din lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare, lan care include verigi referitoare la urmtoarele categorii de activit i componente (Topper, 2003): furnizarea (prestarea) serviciilor turistice de baz (servicii de cazare, alimenta ie/restaura ie, transport al turitilor nspre i dinspre destina ia turistic, agrement, excursii etc.); furnizarea de produse i servicii complementare sau suplimentare (vnzarea de suveniruri, organizarea de evenimente culturale i artistice etc.); oferirea unor servicii de infrastructur local existent la destina ia turistic (transport local, telefonie etc.); furnizarea serviciilor de energie, ap, reciclarea deeurilor; tour-operarea; servicii de marketing i vnzare cu amnuntul; consumul produselor turistice. Dat fiind rolul-cheie de inut de ctre tour-operatori, succesul procesului de structurare a unui lan al aprovizionriifurnizrii n turism ar presupune parcurgerea unor pai specifici, astfel: stabilirea, la nivel de touroperator, a unei politici clare privind structura i managementul lan ului; asigurarea suportului necesar unei func ionri corespunztoare a colaborrii partenerilor implica i (ofertan ii de bunuri i servicii); elaborarea unor criterii unice n procesul de contractare a ofertelor de la furnizori; crearea unui sistem informatic care s conecteze verigile semnificative din re eaua turistic; colaborarea i implicarea partenerilor de la destina ia turistic (reprezentan i ai autorit ilor publice, conducerea diferitelor categorii de institu ii

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Indeed, according to some specialists opinion, all the caterers of the component elements of a tourist product are integrant from the supply-delivery chain, chain that includes links referred to the next categories of component activities (Topper, 2003): to deliver base tourist services (housing services, alimentary /restoration, transportation of the tourists to and from the tourist destination, recreation, excursions etc.); to deliver products and additional and complementary services (relics selling, organization of artistic and cultural events etc.); to offer local infrastructure services existent at the tourist destination (local transport, telephony etc.); to offer energy, water, sweeping recycling services; tour-operating; marketing and retail sells services; tourist product consumption. Because of the key-role that touroperators have, the success of the structuring process of the supply-delivery chain in tourism could presume taking some specific steps, such as: to determine, at the tour-operator level, a clear policy concerning the structure and management of the chain; to assure the necessary support for an adequate functioning in the collaboration of the implied partners (the providers of goods and services); to elaborate unique criteria in the tenderers offers contracting process; to create an informational system which connects the significant links from the tourist network; the collaboration and implication of the partners from the tourist destination (public authorities agents, the leading of different categories of cultural institutions, religious institutions, art, sports etc,

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that administrate public goods, of patrimony or in private regime, considered tourist attractions: archaeological sites, boroughs, museums, monasteries etc.), the development of partnerships with the private and public sector; the development of a clients relations system etc. Being given the tourist activity specificity, the supply-delivery chain includes all the tenderers who collaborate at manufacturing and delivering the touristic products to the final consumer, from the prime material tenderers, to the caterers, producers and outfitters of the touristic products (for example, in the tour-operator tide gate it can reach up to the caterers caterers, until the initial sources, at the place where the different prime materials are produced, from the flour from which the pastry products are realized up to the fuel used for transportation etc.). At the same time, the logistic management processes are taken into consideration, respectively the organization and control of the internal logistic operations, following and coordinating all the categories referred to the provisioning, supporting the operations and physical distribution of the product/service at the level of each link of the supply-delivery chain. Operating with business collaboration relations, the financial performances of the partners are reflected on the performances of the whole chain, imposing the settlement of specific criteria for activity evaluation and control. Analogously for the macroprocesses content specifically for the supply-delivery chain at the material goods producer companies level (Blan, 2006) the constitutive processes of the tourism supply-delivery chian, at the touroperators level, can be considered the following: the caterers management relations, activity that concerns the

de cultur, institu ii religioase, de art, sport etc., care administreaz bunuri publice, de patrimoniu sau n regim privat, considerate atrac ii turistice: situri arheologice, cet i, muzee, mnstiri etc.), dezvoltarea de parteneriate cu sectorul public i privat; dezvoltarea unei sistem de rela ii cu clien ii etc. Dat fiind specificul activit ii turistice, lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare include to i ofertan ii care colaboreaz la fabricarea i livrarea produselor turistice ctre consumatorul final, de la furnizorii de materii prime, la prestatorii, productorii i comercian ii produselor turistice (spre exemplu, n amontele tour-operatorilor se poate ajunge pn la furnizorii furnizorilor, pn la sursele ini iale, la locul de produc ie al diferitelor tipuri de materii prime utilizate, de la fina din care se realizeaz produsele de panifica ie, pn la carburantul folosit n transporturi etc.). Totodat, se au n vedere procesele de management logistic, respectiv de organizare i control a opera iunilor de logistic intern, urmrindu-se i coordonndu-se toate categoriile de activit i referitoare la aprovizionare, sus inere a opera iunilor i distribu ie fizic a produsului/serviciului la nivelul fiecrei verigi a lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Opernd prin rela ii de colaborare n afaceri, performan ele financiare ale partenerilor implica i se rsfrng asupra performan elor ntregului lan , ceea ce impune stabilirea unor criterii specifice de evaluare i control al activit ii. Analog con inutului de macro-procese specifice lan ului de aprovizionare-furnizare la nivelul ntreprinderilor productoare de bunuri materiale (Blan, 2006), procesele constituente ale lan ului de aprovizionarefurnizare n turism, la nivelul touroperatorilor, ar putea fi considerate urmtoarele: managementul rela iilor cu furnizorii, activitate care are n vedere

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raporturile dintre organiza ie i partenerii din amonte i implic urmtoarele: -colaborarea n domeniul proiectrii produselor turistice, identificarea de solu ii care s conduc la ob inerea celor mai potrivite produse, plecnd de la necesit ile i dorin ele turitilor, precum i de la resursele existente; -identificarea i selec ia furnizorilor (pe baza setului de criterii stabilite anterior), adic selec ia acelor furnizori de bunuri materiale i a prestatorilor de servicii de baz i suplimentare care se remarc prin performan e corespunztoare; -negocierea, respectiv stabilirea dimensiunii comenzilor de produse/ servicii care vor fi achizi ionate (spre exemplu, capacit ile de cazare care vor fi contractate de ctre tour-operatori, capacit ile de transport etc.), stabilirea pre urilor, a termenelor de livrare sau plat etc.; -cumprarea; -colaborarea n domeniul aprovizionrii (planificarea produc iei, previziuni etc.); managementul lan ului intern de aprovizionare-furnizare, activitate care are n vedere procesele derulate n interiorul organiza iei (logistica intern) i se refer la urmtoarele aspecte: -planificarea strategic (structurarea re elei de distribu ie i vnzare a produselor turistice); -planificarea cererii (previzionarea cererii turitilor, determinarea momentelor de vrf n sezonalitatea cererii, studierea cererii pe destina ii turistice, categorii de produse solicitate de diferitele segmente de turiti etc.); -planificarea aprovizionrii (planificarea achizi iilor de produse i servicii necesare procesului de fabricare a produsului turistic, planificarea i dimensionarea produc iei etc.);

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relations between the organization and the tide gate partners and implies the next categories of processes: -the collaboration in the touristic products design, the identification of solution that can lead to the obtaining of most suitable products, departing from the tourists needs and desires, as well as from the existent resources; -the caterers identification and selection (on the basis of the set of criteria previously established), the selection of those caterers of material goods and base and additional services suppliers that distinguish themselves by their adequate performances; -the negotiation, respectively the establishment of products/services orders dimensions that will be bought (for example, the housing capacity that will be contracted by the tour-operators, the transport capacity, etc), -the price; -the delivery or pay terms assignment etc; the internal supply-delivery chain management, activity that concerns the processes developed in the interior of the organization (the internal logistics) and it refers to the next activities: -strategic scheduling (the structuring of the distribution and sell network of tourist products) -demand scheduling (the tourists demand approximation, the determination of the top moment of demand seasonality, studying the demand on touristic destination, categories of products demanded by different segments of tourists etc.); -provision scheduling (scheduling the provisioning of services and products necessary to make the tourist product, the production planning and dimensioning etc.);

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-delivering the orders to the retail agencies, or, if the case, to other different clients categories (syndicates, schools, individual tourists etc.); -clients services (according to the respective tour-operators nature, the assurance of the necessary services in order to adequately commercialize the products, such as consultancy and expertise in choosing the products, marketing and promotion services for retail agencies, litigations solving etc.); clients relations management, process that involves the correct reaching of clients expectations, respectively the adequate satisfaction of their needs, by the intercession of the next categories of activities: -the marketing, respectively the market studying, market segments determination, strategy elaboration and marketing mixture put-together etc; -the selling, respectively the identification of the best solutions for the clients, the obtaining of information referring to the type and dimension of the order etc; -the orders management, respectively the planning and delivery of the orders made by the clients; -the contact with the clients, respectively the identification and solution of their problems, the solution of different juridical or administrative problems, improving the activity of tourism agents etc. Conclusions The essence of the supplydelivery chain management in tourism consists in the coordination of the next categories of activities: logistic management (internal integration of the logistic functions at the organization level), external integration, and the elaboration of a common strategy concerning the specific activity development of different categories of

-onorarea comenzilor ctre agen iile de turism detailiste sau, dup caz, ctre alte diferite categorii de clien i (sindicate, coli, turiti individuali etc.); -serviciile pentru clien i (n func ie de natura tour-operatorului respectiv, asigurarea serviciilor necesare pentru comercializarea corespunztoare a produselor, cum ar fi consultan i expertiz n alegerea produselor, servicii de promovare i marketing pentru detailiti, rezolvarea litigiilor etc.); managementul rela iilor cu clien ii, proces care are n vedere ndeplinirea corespunztoare a ateptrilor clien ilor, respectiv satisfacerea corespunztoare a nevoilor acestora, prin intermediul urmtoarelor categorii de activit i: -marketingul, respectiv studierea pie ei, determinarea segmentelor de pia , elaborarea strategiei i realizarea mixului de marketing etc.; -vnzrile, respectiv identificarea celor mai bune solu ii pentru clien i, ob inerea de informa ii referitoare la tipul i dimensiunea comenzii etc.; -managementul comenzilor, respectiv planificarea i onorarea comenzilor efectuate de ctre clien i; -contactul cu clien ii, respectiv identificarea i solu ionarea problemelor acestora, rezolvarea diferitelor probleme de natur administrativ i juridic, mbunt irea activit ii agen ilor de turism etc. Concluzii Esen a managementului lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare n turism const n coordonarea urmtoarelor categorii de activit i: management logistic (integrare intern a func iilor logistice la nivelul organiza iei), integrare extern, elaborarea unei strategii comune viznd desfurarea activit ilor specifice diferitelor categorii de participan i - parteneri n lan ul de aprovizionare - furnizare (furnizori de

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bunuri materiale, prestatori de servicii de baz i suplimentare, productori i distribuitori ai produselor turistice, prestatori-ter i de servicii, reprezentan i ai autorit ilor publice i ai comunit ilor locale de la destina iile turistice, consumatori). Plecnd de la rolul de inut, de la pozi ia specific i de la importan a lor economic, principala ini iativ viznd asigurarea unui management eficient al lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare revine tour-operatorilor, fabrican i i, totodat, angrositi de produse turistice. Situndu-se pe o pozi ie intermediar ntre prestatorii de servicii turistice i turiti, tour-operatorilor le revine misiunea de a asambla (plecnd de la diversele atrac ii turistice naturale sau antropice) o varietate de servicii sub forma produselor turistice complexe, produse care trebuie s rspund nevoilor specifice ale diferitelor segmente de consumatori. Deoarece marea majoritate a bunurilor materiale i a serviciilor incluse n pachetele turistice sunt furnizate n cadrul unui lan de aprovizionare-livrare alctuit din organiza ii diverse, responsabilitatea controlului i asigurrii unei oferte corespunztoare cerin elor turitilor revine n principal touroperatorilor. Ei trebuie s se asigure c fiecare component a lan ului, situat att n amonte, ct i n aval, livreaz produse i servicii corespunztoare, n condi ii de eficien ridicat. Servirea clien ilor n cele mai bune condi ii (component esen ial a activit ii logistice), asigurarea unei puternice reputa ii pozitive prin mbunt irea calit ii experien ei turistice oferite turitilor contribuie la creterea satisfac iei i loialit ii consumatorilor, la ntrirea valorii mrcii, la cristalizarea i men inerea unei imagini favorabile n rndul turitilor.

AE

participants partners in the supplydelivery chain (material goods providers, additional and base services suppliers, producers and distributors of the touristic products, third service providers, public authority and local community agents from the destination place, consumers). Considering the role it has, the specific position and its economic importance, the main initiative concerning the assurance of an effective management of the supply-delivery chain falls on the tour-operators, who produce and, at the same time, are stockers of the tourist products. Being situated in between the providers of the tourist services and the tourists, the tour-operators have the mission of packing together (choosing from the various natural or man-made touristy attractions) a variety of services as complex touristy products, products that have to satisfy the specific needs of different consumer segments. As the vast majority of material goods and services included in touristy packages are supplied within a supplydelivery chain consisting of various organizations, the tour-operators have the responsibility of controlling and ensuring that the offer is adequate to the tourists needs. The tour-operators have to make sure that each component of the chain, situated either above or below them, is supplying relevant goods and services, in a very efficient manner. Serving the clients in the best of conditions (an essential component of the logistic activity), ensuring a strong positive reputation through enhancing the quality of the touristy experience offered to the clients, are contributing to growing satisfaction and loyalty of the consumers, to strengthening the brand value, to crystallizing and maintaining of a favorite image among the tourists.

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References [1] Baker, M.J., Marketing. Theory and Practice, MacMillan Press Ltd., London, 1995 [2] Balaure, V., Ctoiu, I., Veghe, C., Marketing turistic, Editura Uranus, Bucureti, 2005 [3] Blan, C., Logistica, Ed. a III-a, Editura Uranus, Bucureti, 2006 [4] Dima, I.C., Sistemul logisticii firmei, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1997 [5] Minciu, R., Economia turismului, Editura Uranus, Bucureti, 2000 [6] Kotler, Ph., Managementul marketingului, Editura Teora, Bucureti, 1997 [7] Kotler, Ph., Armstrong, G., Saunders, J., Wong, V., Principiile marketingului, Editura Teora, Bucureti, 1998 [8] Porter, M.E., Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance, The Free Press, New York, 1985 [9] Snak, O., Baron, P., Neacu, N., Economia turismului, Editura Expert, Bucureti, 2003 [10] Stnciulescu, G., Tehnica opera iunilor de turism, Editura All, Bucureti, 1998 [11] Toquer, G., Zins, M., Hazebroucq, J.-M., Marketing du tourisme, Gaetan Morin Editeur, Europe, 1999 [12] Topper, R., Environmental Business & Development Group, 2003, n Tourism Supply Chain- A Report from LeedsMet for the Travel Foundation, retrieved on 24 March, 2008, on www.lmn.ac.uk/lsif/the/Tourism-Supply-Chain.pdf.

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AE

DISTRIBU IA PROCES SINERGETIC N CREAREA VALORII

(Distribution- the synergetic process in establishing the value) Conf. univ. dr. Monica Aureliana Petcu Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia, petcu_mona_a@yahoo.com Conf. univ. dr. Iulia David Sobolevschi Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia, iulia.david@kgaudit.ro

Rezumat Distribu ia, definit ca o combina ie de utilit i i func iuni prin care se asigur transferul succesiv al mrfurilor i serviciilor, precum i al dreptului de proprietate asupra acestora, de la productor pn la consumator, include fluxurile de mrfuri, tranzac ionale financiare, monetare, informa ionale, i are un caracter complex i un rol activ n circuitul economic. Paradigmatic, sediul strategiei de distribu ie se afl la productor, ca o component major a mixului su de marketing, viznd: canale, circuitul economic i logistica, selectarea partenerilor i raporturile dintre ei. Punctul central al strategiei distribu iei l constituie consumatorul i cea mai adecvat conectare a acestuia la canalele de distribu ie, esen ialitatea sa conferindu-i rol integrator la nivelul sistemului. Strategiile n domeniul distribu iei trebuie s abordeze ntreg lan ul de participan i n concep ie sistemic integratoare i s armonizeze interesele divergente care pot conduce la colapsul ntregului canal. Interesele divergente ale participan ilor la un canal de distribu ie nu trebuie s afecteze holismul sistemului care prevede preem iunea acestuia asupra elementelor sale, chiar dac n realizarea acesteia apar sisteme de tip holonic cu componente autonome, integrarea prin obiectivul comun de satisfacere a unei anume necesit i a consumatorilor, n anume condi ii, impunnd convergen a eforturilor. Analiza valorii, focalizat pe func ia de baz a fiecrui participant, poate permite gsirea cilor de eficientizare la nivelul subfunc iilor i propagarea sinergetic a efectelor n scopul crerii avantajului competitiv al canalului de distribu ie n ansamblul su. Cuvinte cheie: sinergia, holism, divergen e, integrare. Clasificare JEL: D46, L11, M31 Abstract The distribution, defined as a combination of utilities and functions which assures the successive transfer of goods and services and the right of property over these, from the producer to the consumer, includes the goods flow, the transactional, informational, currency, and risk, has a complex character and an active part in the economic process. Paradigmatically, the center of the distribution strategy is at the producer, as a major component of the mix of marketing, aiming at: the distribution channels, the economic circuit and the logistics, the selection of the partners and the relations among them. The aim of the distribution strategy is the consumer and the most appropriate connection that he has with the distribution channels; its importance is being given by its fundamental destination in the system. The strategies in the distribution domain have to come to the whole chain of partakers in the systemic view of integration, and to reconcile the conflicting concerns Nr. 24 Iunie 2008 133

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which could otherwise lead to the collapse of the entire channel. Despite conflicting concerns certain distribution channels must not affect the immaterialism of the system which foresees its option over its elements .However, during the process, holonic systems appear, with their independent components, components and the integration through the general purpose of fulfilling a certain necessity of the consumers, in specified conditions, imposes sustained efforts. The analysis of the value, focused on the basic function of each partaker can allow finding the most efficient ways at the sub-functions level and the synergetic spreading of the effects in order to create the competitive advantage of the distribution channel, in its general view. Keywords: synergy, immaterialism, dissensions, integration. JEL classification: D46, L11, M31 Introducere Definit ca o combina ie de utilit i i func iuni prin care se asigur transferul succesiv al mrfurilor i serviciilor, precum i al dreptului de proprietate asupra acestora, de la productor pn la consumator, distribu ia include alturi de fluxurile de mrfuri fluxuri tranzac ionale, informa ionale, financiare, monetare, de riscuri etc. i structurile organizatorice i dotrile necesare realizrii acestui obiectiv al ciclului economic al produselor. Distribu ia incumb un traseu (pe care l parcurg produsele/serviciile de la productor la consumator), o re ea de structuri organizatorice participante i un ansamblu de opera ii (la nivelul tuturor fluxurilor aferente) i de procese asupra produselor (logistica mrfurilor). Un canal de distribu ie const ntr-o anumit configura ie a utilit ilor i func iunilor necesare transferului unui produs de la productor la consumator / utilizator i se caracterizeaz prin lungime (dat de numrul de verigi i de transferuri succesive de produse i proprietate, numrul de transferuri de produse nefiind necesar identic cu cele al propriet ii), l ime (dat de multitudinea structurilor organizatorice care asigur distribu ia) i adncime (dat de apropierea distribu iei de consumator). Introduction Defined as a combination of utilities and functions securing the successive transfer of goods and services as well as of the right of ownership on them, from the manufacturer to the consumer, the distribution includes along with the goods flows the transactional, informational, financial, monetary, risks, etc., flows and the organizational structure and the equipments necessary for the achieving of this objective of the economic cycle of products. The distribution entails a routing (that the products/services follow from the manufacturer to the consumer), a network of participating organizational structures and a set of operations (at the level of all the related flows) and processes on products (goods logistics). A distribution channel consists of a certain configuration of the utilities and functions necessary to the transfer of a product from the manufacturer to the consumer/user and it is characterized by length (given by the number of successive links and transfers of products and ownership, the number of transfers of products not being necessarily identical with those of the ownership), width (given by the multitude of organizational structures securing the distribution) and depth (given by the closeness of the distribution to the consumer).

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Distribu ia are un rol activ n realizarea corespunztoare a fluxurilor implicate n furnizarea just in time a produselor i serviciilor necesare i este o activitate deosebit de complex i eterogen prin diversitatea intermediarilor, a opera iilor i proceselor ce au loc la nivelul fiecrui canal considerat.

AE

The distribution plays an active role in the proper performance of the flows involved in the Just- in Time supply of the necessary products and services and it is an activity extremely complex and heterogeneous by the diversity of the intermediaries, of the operations and processes taking place at the level of each channel under consideration. 1. Distribution value - connection The approach of distribution is made on two levels: spatial - approach by means of which the manufacture centers and the consumption centers are connected, specifying the intermediaries, the means of transportation, the storing points and the products intervention points (division per lots, packaging, assembling, etc.), so that the products or services should be supplied to the consumer/user as close as possible to the place of consumption/use. The proximity of the final beneficiary ensures the competitive advantage for the channel since it reduces the traveling costs of the consumer. temporal - approach by means of which the synchronization of the operations is secured so that the transportation time should be kept very short and the products should be supplied to the consumer/user as close as possible to the date of consumption/use. The rotation speed in the channel secures the recovering of the value of the dispatched products by the manufacturer within the optimal time interval for the cyclicality of its activities as well as of all the structures participating in the distribution channel, and the satisfying of the demand at the right time and in the requested parameters, providing the competitive advantage of reducing the waiting costs, activity interruption, stock breakage, etc. The movement of products and services from the manufacturer to the consumer/user is made directly (manufacturer/provider consumer/user), using short channels

1. Conexiunea distribu ie - valoare Abordarea distribu iei se realizeaz pe dou paliere: spa ial - abordare prin care se pun n legatur centrele de produc ie cu cele de consum, cu precizarea intermediarilor, a mijloacelor de transport, punctelor de depozitare i de interven ie asupra produselor (lotizare, ambalare, asamblare etc.), astfel nct produsele sau serviciile s fie furnizate consumatorului/utilizatorului ct mai aproape de locul de consum/utilizare, apropierea de beneficiarul final asigurnd canalului avantajul competitiv al diminurii costului de deplasare a consumatorului; temporal abordare prin care se asigur sincronizarea opera iilor astfel nct s fie scurtat ct mai mult timpul de circula ie i produsele s fie furnizate consumatorului/utilizatorului ct mai aproape de data consumului/utilizrii; viteza de rota ie prin canal asigur recuperarea valorii produselor expediate de ctre productor n timpul optim pentru ciclicitatea activit ilor sale dar i a tuturor structurilor care intervin pe canalul de distribu ie, precum i satisfacerea cererii la momentul oportun i la parametrii solicita i, oferind avantajul competitiv al diminurii costurilor de ateptare, ntrerupere de activitate, rupere de stocuri etc. Deplasarea produselor i serviciilor de la productor/prestator la consumator/utilizator se realizeaz direct (productor/prestator consumator/ utilizator), pe canale scurte

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(with the participation of a small number of intermediate links) or longer channels (multiple successive passages from one intermediary to another), each intermediary playing a well determined role in the distribution system. The classic theory states that a channel ends where a processing takes place, and then a new channel begins for the processed product. An extension of this theory is made in the case of assembling even if this supposes small adjustments also (it is the case of motor vehicles, for example, for which the modules are usually assembled at the representations or at the authorized dealers of the manufacturer, depending on the actual order of each consumer). A special category of goods is represented by the products supplied by the agriculture of zootechny, which, even though subject to processing, along with the outputs the inputs can be found as well. This is the case for coffee which goes thorough a decaffeination process, for milk of which a series of derivates are processed, (resulting milk as well marketed as such) and for meat. On the distribution channel of these products, although a series of intermediaries interfere, (including processors), upon their output the input products can be found as well (with the usual interventions of packaging, labeling, lot-dividing, etc.), which requires taking into consideration the entire channel for a conclusive analysis. A brief classification of the intermediaries in a distribution process is presented graphically in figure no.1.

(cu participarea unui numr redus de verigi intermediare) sau mai lungi (multiple treceri succesive de la un intermediar la altul), fiecare intermediar avnd un rol bine determinat n sistemul distribu iei. Teoria clasic afirm c un canal se termin acolo unde are loc o prelucrare, dup care ncepe un nou canal pentru produsul prelucrat. O extindere a acestei teorii se face n cazul asamblrilor chiar dac acestea presupun i mici ajustri (este cazul autoturismelor, de exemplu, la care asamblarea modulelor se face, de regul, la reprezentan ele sau dealerii autoriza i ai productorului, n func ie de comanda concret a fiecrui consumator). O categorie special de bunuri o constituie unele produse furnizate de agricultur sau zootehnie, asupra crora dei se fac prelucrri, ntre outputuri se regsete i inputul ca atare. Este cazul cafelei care poate trece printr-un proces de decofeinizare, a laptelui din care se proceseaz o serie de derivate, rezultnd i lapte pentru comercializare ca atare, sau al crnii. Pe canalul de distribu ie al acestor tipuri de produse, dei intervin o serie de intermediari, inclusiv procesatorii, la ieire se regsesc i produsele de la intrare (cu interven iile obinuite de ambalare, inscrip ionare, lotizare etc.) ceea ce necesit considerarea ntergului canal pentru o analiz concludent. O clasificare succint a intermediarilor dintr-un proces de distibu ie este prezentat grafic n figura 1.

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Independen i : distribuitori globali, procesatori (Independents: global distributors, processors) Independen e fa de productor, dar cu dependen e voluntare asociative: lan uri (Independencies in relation with the manufacturer but with voluntary associative dependencies: chains) Independen limitat: concesionarii, remizierii, mandatarii (Limited independence: concessionaires, intermediate brokers, representatives) Libertate minim: comisionari, brokeri (Minimum freedom: commission agents, brokers) Total dependen i: agen ii, reprezentan e (Total dependents: agencies, representations) Toate fluxurile (All flows) Numr limitat de fluxuri (Limited number of flows)

AE

Strict specializa i (Strictly specialized)

Aproape de intrare: angrositi (Close to the input: wholesale Locul n canal (Place in the channel) La mijloc: migrositi (Middle: middle-wholesale dealers) Aproape de ieire: detailiti (Close to the output: retailers)

Specializare (Specialization)

Figura 1 Clasificarea intermediarilor implica i n distribu ia mrfurilor (Classification of intermediaries participating in the distribution of goods)

Paradigmatic, sediul strategiei de distribu ie se afl la productor, ca o component major a mixului su de marketing, viznd: canale, circuitul economic i logistica, selectarea partenerilor i raporturile dintre ei. O strategie corect are punct de plecare consumatorul i cea mai adecvat conectare a acestuia la canalele de distribu ie, strategia distribu iei elaborat de productor avnd ca obiectiv rezultatul cumulat al ntregului canal, activitatea mai multor verigi independente, ceea ce incumb o dificultate foarte mare n planificarea activit ilor i evaluarea performan elor.

Paradigmatically, the headquarters of the distribution strategy is located at the manufacturer, as a major component of its mix of marketing, aiming at: channels, economic circuit and logistics, selection of partners and relations among them. A correct strategy starts from the consumer and is the most adequate connection of this one to the distribution channels, the distribution strategy elaborated by the manufacturer aiming at the cumulated result of the entire channel, the activity of several independent links, which entails a great difficulty in planning the activities and in assessing the performances.

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The intermediaries, in their turn, can have strategic options, the more so as they are independent and have become owners of the respective products. The chain of the value includes in the primary activities of an enterprise: the logistics of inputs and the logistics of outputs. The connection between the enterprises inputs logistics with the outputs logistics of its suppliers and distributors, upstream, and between the outputs logistics and the inputs logistics of its own distributors, downstream, supposes a systemic approach of the assembly, guided by the necessities of the consumers/users that have constituted the reason for manufacturing these goods/services. Each participant in a distribution chain has a certain function that satisfies a certain necessity conferring it a certain value, according to the following relation: Value = function satisfaction/cost. To perform the base function (transport, storing, stocking, sale, etc.), without which its place in the distribution channel would not exist, each participant has to carry out a series of sub-functions of the base function, at each level, the value as a result of the relation between the function/sub-function satisfaction and cost being the one that allows the assessment of the efficiency of the respective link. The analyses of the value of each sub-function, focused on the base function, with the identification of the excessive costs and the improvement of the value per subfunction and implicitly, per base function, without reducing the quality, are imposed by the generation of the competitive advantage of the distribution channel in its entirety. Paretos rule (80/20) stipulates that 20% of the causes determine 80% of the effects. The focusing of the efforts on those sub-functions whose improvements synergetically induce improvement at the function level can reduce the involved effort and costs.

Intermediarii, la rndul lor, pot avea op iuni strategice, cu att mai mult cu ct sunt independen i i au devenit proprietari ai respectivelor produse. Lan ul valorii include n activit ile primare ale unei ntreprinderi: logistica intrrilor i logistica ieirilor. Conexarea logisticii intrrilor ntreprinderii cu logistica ieirilor furnizorilor i distribuitorilor si din amonte, iar a logisticii ieirilor cu logistica intrrilor propriilor distribuitori, din aval, presupune o abordare sistemic a ansamblului, ghidat de necesit ile consumatorilor/utilizatorilor care au constituit ra iunea producerii acelor bunuri/servicii. Fiecare participant la un lan de distribu ie are o anumit func ie care satisface o anume necesitate ce-i confer o anume valoare, conform rela iei: Valoarea = satisfac ia func iei/cost. Pentru ndeplinirea func iei de baz (transport, depozitare, stocare, vnzare etc.), fr de care nu i-ar gsi locul pe canalul de distribu ie, fiecare participant are de realizat o serie de subfunc ii corespondente func iei de baz, la fiecare nivel, valoarea - ca rezultat al raportului dintre satisfac ia func ie/subfunc iei i cost - fiind cea care permite aprecierea eficien ei verigii respective. Analizele valorii fiecrei subfunc ii, focalizate pe func ia de baz, cu identificarea costurilor excesive i ameliorarea valorii pe subfunc ie i, implicit, pe func ia de baz, fr a se reduce calitatea, sunt impuse de crearea avantajului competitiv al canalului de distribu ie n ansamblul su. Regula lui Pareto (80/20) stipuleaz c 20% din cauze produc 80% din efecte. Concentrarea eforturilor pe acele subfunc ii ale cror mbunt iri induc sinergetic efecte de ameliorare la nivelul func iei poate reduce efortul i costurile implicate.

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O distribu ie neadecvat poate s compromit nsi producerea mrfurilor al cror tranzit l asigur, ceea ce impune, la nivelul productorului, o analiz extrem de documentat asupra partenerilor si, chiar i atunci cnd acetia au o independen deplin. De pre ul, condi iile de asigurare la consumator (n locul, la timpul, n cantitatea i la calitatea cerute) i raportul dintre acesta i costurile tuturor participan ilor depind toate eforturile din amonte, recuperarea cheltuielilor i reluarea ciclurilor productive. 2. Strategii ale logisticii mrfurilor Strategiile logisticii mrfurilor se bazeaz pe crearea de centre de ambalare i distribuire, evitarea stocurilor, prin asamblare conform comenzilor, standardizare, utilizarea modulelor din mai multe componente i diversificarea gamei prin concatenarea diferitelor module, utilizarea loturilor combinate i reducerea costului de livrare prin reunirea a dou loturi diferite la transport, toate acestea concretizndu-se n economii logistice. Strategiile n domeniu au ca obiectiv: crearea avantajului specific ca rezultant a propriet ilor produsului, promovrii distribu iei, pre ului prin abordarea problematicii ce consider consumatorul esen ial (orice strategie ncepe cu cunoaterea i n elegerea consumatoruului), fundament comun i factor de integrare indiferent de veriga care o elaboreaz; sinergia mbinrii elementelor care s asigure dezvoltarea ntreprinderilor participante att n ceea ce privete capacit ile interne, ct i cele de pia ; sinergia se reduce pe msura ndeprtrii de domeniul de competen tehnic maxim sau de segmentele actuale de cumprtori, declannd mecanismele unei noi abordri;

AE

An inappropriate distribution can compromise the very manufacturing of goods whose transit it secures, which imposes, at the manufacturers level, an extremely documented analysis of its partners, even when they are entirely independent. On the price, the conditions for consumer securing (at the place, at the time, in the requested quantity and quality) and the relation between this one and the costs of all the participants depend all the upstream efforts, the recovery of expenses and the resuming of the manufacturing cycles. 2. The strategies of the goods logistics The strategies of the goods logistics are based on the creation of packaging and distribution centers, avoidance of stocks, by the packaging according to the orders, standardization, use of modules form several components and the diversification of the range by the concatenation of various modules, the use of the combined lots and the cutting down of the delivery cost by unifying two different lots in a shipment, all these materializing in logistic savings. The field strategies aim at: creating the specific advantage as a resultant of the product properties, distribution promotion, price by the approach of the issue regarding the consumer as essential (any strategy begins with the knowing and the understanding of the consumer), common fundament and integration factor regardless of the link it elaborates; the synergy of combining elements securing the development of participating enterprises, both regarding the internal capacities and the market capacities; the synergy reduces with the moving off from the field of maximum technical competence or from the current buyers segments, triggering the mechanisms of a new approach;

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synchronization in time and compliance with the expense budgets securing a competitive final price; reducing the risk, as efforts integration and coordination dimension during the entire routing of the product, targeting, depending on its occurrence conditions, at: - preventing, delaying/modifying the forms of risk occurrence; - moderating the effects of the risk before affecting one or all the links; - moderating/decreasing the influences of the risk if it occurs. The experience accumulated in the field led to structuring of the production and of the distribution on a pull of products, pull of activities, pull of risks so that the lower profitability of some of them should be supported by higher profitability of the others, or the higher risk of some elements should be compensated by the lower risks of others, provided that the image of the participating firms should be supported. Moreover, the lifecycles of the products should be programmed so that the emergence or the decline of some products should be supported by others maturity. All these strategic elements materialize in the global approach of the marketing, at the level of the entire system characterized by holism, namely by the preeminence of the system upon its components. At the same time, it should be noted that the interests of the participants in a distribution channel are conflicting from the point of view of profits they develop on the whole. Between the costs of a product at the manufacturer level and the final price, at the consumer level, each link, including the manufacturer, wants to recover the expenses and to remunerate its own effort at a level as high as possible, the final condition being the securing of a price which should not prohibit the product.

sincronizarea n timp i ncadrarea n bugete de cheltuieli care s asigure un pre final competitiv; reducerea riscului, ca dimensiune de integrare i coordonare a eforturilor pe parcursul ntregului traseu al produsului, avnd ca obiective, n func ie de condi iile sale de apari ie: - prevenirea, amnarea/modificarea formelor de apari ie a riscului; - moderarea efectelor riscului nainte de a afecta una din verigi sau ansamblul lor; - temperarea/micorarea influen elor riscului dac acesta se produce. Experien a acumulat n domeniu a condus la structurarea produc ie i distribu iei pe un pull de produse, pull de activit i, pull de riscuri astfel ca rentabilitatea mai mic a unora s fie sus inute de rentabilit ile mai mari ale celorlalte, sau riscul mai ridicat al unor elemente s fie compensat de riscurile mai reduse ale altora, cu condi ia sus inerii imaginii firmelor participante. De asemenea, ciclurile de via ale produselor trebuie astfel programate nct emergen a sau declinul unor produse s fie sus inute de maturitatea altora. Toate aceste elemente strategice se concretizeaz n abordarea global a marketingului, la nivelul ntregului sistem caracterizat prin holism, adic prin preeminen a sistemului asupra componentelor sale. n acelai timp, trebuie constatat c interesele participan ilor la un canal de distribu ie sunt divergente din punctul de vedere al profiturilor pe care acesta le dezvolt n ansamblul su. ntre costurile unui produs la nivelul productorului i pre ul final, la nivelul consumatorului fiecare verig, inclusiv productorul, dorete s-i recupereze cheltuielile i s-i remunereze la un nivel ct mai nalt propriul efort, condi ia final constnd n asigurarea unui pre care s nu fac prohibit produsul.

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Depinde de importan a participantului, independen a, for a financiar i puterea sa de negociere modul n care i satisface interesele, concuren a perfect asigurnd optimul sistemului. n realitate, ns, n func ie de numrul vnztorilor i de cel al cumprtorilor unui produs se stabilesc mai multe situa ii pe care le prezentm n figura 2.

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The way it satisfies its interest depends on the participants importance, independence, financial power and negotiation power, perfect competition securing the optimal functioning of the system. In reality, however, depending on the number of sellers and on the number of buyers of a product, several situations arise, presented in the graphic no. 2.

Nr cumpratori (buyers) Mare (Large) Mediu (Mediu ) Unic (Unique) Monopol (Monopoly) Concuren a monopolist (Monopolist Monopol bilateral (Bilateral Oligopol (Oligopoly) Oligopol Bilateral (Bilateral Monopson concuren ial (Competitive Mediu (Mediu) Nr vnztori (sellers) Concuren a perefect (Perfect Oligopson (Oligopsony) Monopson (Monopsony) Mare (Large)

)
Unic (Unique)

Figura 2. Situa ii posibile pe pie ele produselor (Possible situations on the products markets)

Considerm c numai abordarea integratoare a problematicii distribu iei poate releva solu ii de optimizare, cu implicarea tuturor participan ilor n proces. Concluzii Distribu ia, ca o component a unui sistem clasic sau de tip holonic, n care func ioneaz mai multe sisteme autonome ce se integreaz pe baza unor criterii bine definite pentru atingerea unor obiective determinate, trebuie abordat n viziune sa de ansamblu i creatoare de valoare, n care interesele fiecrui participant trebuie armonizate pentru a contribui la homeostazia i incrementalismul sistemului.

We deem that only the integrating approach of the distribution issue can reveal optimization solutions, with the involvement of all the participants in the process. Conclusions Distribution, as a component of a classic or holonic system, in which several autonomous systems operate integrating based on well defined criteria for the meeting of determined objectives, shall be approached in its aggregate and value generating vision where the interest of each participant shall be harmonized in order to contribute to the homeostasis and incrementalism of the system.

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References [1] Boardman A.E., Greenberg D.H., Vining A.R., Weimer D.L., Analiza cost-beneficiu, Editura Arc, Chiinu, 2004 [2] Danciu V., Marketing interna ional, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 2005 [3] Demetrescu M.C., Metode de analiz n marketing, EdituraTeora, Bucureti, 2001 [4] Kotler P., Saunders J., Armstrong G., Wong V., Principiile marketingului, Editura Teora, Bucureti, 1999 [5] Kotler P., Marketing Management, Prentice-Hall, 7th ed., 1991 [6] Lancaster G., Massingham L., Essentials of Marketing, McGraw-Hill, 1988 [7] Porter M., Competitive advantage, The Free Press, New York, 1985 [8] Scarlat E., Chiri N., Sisteme cibernetice, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 1997 [9] Stern L.W., Marketing Channels, Prentice-Hall, 7th. Edition, 2006 [10] Smedescu I., Marketing, Editura Universitar, Bucureti, 2004 [11] Tacu A.P., Vancea R., Holban S., Burciu A., Inteligen a artificial, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 1998 [12] Whiteley R.C., The Customer Driven Company: Moving from Talk to Action, Pfeiffer&Company, 2000 [13] Wilson R.E., A Blueprint for Designing Marketing Channels www.chicagostrategy.com., accesat 2008

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O ANALIZ A FACTORILOR DETERMINAN I PENTRU PERFORMAN A LOGISTIC A UNEI RI

(An analysis of explanatory factors of logistics performance of a country) Conf. univ. dr. Basarab Gogonea Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia basarab.gogoneata@ecg.ase.ro Rezumat Lucrarea folosete tehnici econometrice standard i Indicele Performan ei Logistice calculat de Banca Mondial pentru o evaluare a impactului mai multor variabile macroeconomice asupra calit ii sectorului logistic din 42 de ri i regiuni. Rezultatele regresiilor i reprezentrile grafice arat existen a unei rela ii puternice ntre gradul de dezvoltare al sectorului serviciilor i performan a logistic a unei ri. Serviciile sunt o surs important de dezvoltare economic, dar n acelai timp ele sunt i foarte sensibile la calitatea infrastructurii i la modul de func ionare a institu iilor. O alt concluzie este c multe economii n care o parte semnificativ a valorii adugate este generat de activit i industriale tind s manifeste rate de cretere ridicate i o performan logistic mai redus. Multe dintre aceste ri sunt situate n Europa Central i de Est, iar expansiunea lor economic a fost sus inut n primul rnd de investi ii strine directe n loca ii industriale i dezvoltri imobiliare. Deoarece aceste activit i economice sunt ciclice, exist un risc nalt de contrac ie economic. Aceste ri, mai ales Romnia, ar trebui s-i mbunt easc rapid msurile de facilitare a comer ului i transportului, crescndu-i performan a logistic. Astfel de msuri permit dezvoltarea unui sector al serviciilor robust i capabil s confere sustenabilitate creterii economice, ac ionnd ca un amortizor al ocurilor ciclice de pe latura industrial. Cuvinte cheie: performan logistic; servicii; cretere economic Clasificare JEL: L81; L92; O11; O29. Abstract The paper uses standard econometric techniques and the Logistics Performance Index calculated by The World Bank for evaluating the impact of several key macroeconomic variables on the quality of the logistics sector from 42 countries and regions. The regression results and the graphs have revealed that there is a strong relationship between the development of the services sector and the logistics performance of a country. Services are a major source of sustainable economic development, but they are very sensitive to the quality of the infrastructure and the functioning of institutions. Another finding is that many economies where a significant part of value added is generated in industrial activities tend to have high growth rates and lower logistics performance. Many of these countries are located in Central and Eastern Europe and their economic expansion was mainly supported by foreign direct investments in industrial sites and real estate developments. Since these businesses are cyclical there is a high risk of an economic downturn. These countries, particularly Romania, should rapidly improve their trade and transport facilitation framework, i.e., logistics performance. Such measures will allow the emergence of a robust service sector able to make the economic development sustainable by cushioning the cyclical shocks from the industrial side of economy. Nr. 24 Iunie 2008 143

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Keywords: logistics performance; services; economic growth JEL Classification: L81; L92; O11; O29. Introducere mbunt irea cadrului logistic a devenit un obiectiv foarte important n economia interna ional. Dezvoltarea re elei logistice globale a impus provocarea de a transporta bunurile ct mai rapid, ct mai sigur i ct mai ieftin. Dat fiind faptul c semnifica ia logisticii a crescut puternic, s-a sim it nevoia de a-i evalua componentele i de a face compara ii ntre performan ele diferitelor ri (David, 2006). Indicele de Performan Logistic (LPI logistics performance index), calculat de Banca Mondial este un instrument construit pe baza unui studiu realizat cu ajutorul operatorilor care se ocup de comer ul i transportul de bunuri. Acetia i-au exprimat opiniile cu privire la disparit ile logistice dintre ri i constrngerile pe care le-au ntlnit de-a lungul timpului. Indicele acoper un numr mare de indicatori precum calitatea infrastructurii, competen a furnizorilor de servicii logistice att private ct i publice, gradul de corup ie i transparen , calitatea sistemului comercial i lan ului de aprovizionare, eficien a punctelor vamale. Informa iile au fost colectate de la mai mult de 800 de operatori i agen i ai serviciilor logistice din ntreaga lume (World Bank, 2007). Indicele de Performan Logistic surprinde cteva aspecte cruciale, care n mod cert ar fi fost dificil de cuantificat precum: percep ii asupra cadrului logistic, eficien a punctelor vamale, calitatea transportului i a infrastructurii, perioada maxim necesar a ncrcturilor de a ajunge la destina ie, costuri logistice interne. Indicele este construit folosind o scar de la 1 la 5, unde 1 reprezint foarte ru, iar 5 excelent. Introduction Enhancing the logistics framework has become an important goal in the worldwide economy. The establishment of global supply chains has brought the challenge to move goods rapidly, reliably and inexpensively around the world. Since the significance of logistics has steadily increased, there is a growing need of evaluating its components and comparing the achievements of different countries (David, 2006). The Logistics Performance Index (LPI) calculated by World Bank is an instrument built on a survey of operators in charge of moving and trading goods. The operators provided feedback on the logistics disparities among the countries and the constraints they met throughout the time. The index covers a broad range of indicators such as the quality of infrastructure, the competence of private and public logistics service providers, the degree of corruption and transparency, the reliability of the trading system and supply chains, the efficiency of customs and border agencies. The information was gathered from more than 800 operators or agents of the worlds main logistics service providers (World Bank, 2007). The LPI captures some crucial aspects which would have been very difficult to measure otherwise: perceptions of logistics environment, efficiency of customs, quality of transport and infrastructure, timelines of shipments in reaching destination, domestic logistics costs. LPI is reported on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 means worst and 5 represents excellent.

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rile care se situeaz n topul clasamentului sunt centre globale de transport i logistic, care au profitat din plin de avantajele globalizrii. rile cu un grad de dezvoltare redus, care de asemenea ntmpin conflicte sau lipsuri cronice de resurse, se situeaz la polul opus al clasamentului. Acest indicator de performan este un instrument foarte util att pentru compara ii ntre ri, ct i pentru investiga ii statistice pe date de tip panel. Performan a logistic a unei ri este influen at de varia i factori. Obiectivul acestei lucrri este de a evalua impactul unor importante variabile macroeconomice asupra calit ii sectorului logistic. n mod evident, variabilele macroeconomice i performan a logistic se afl ntr-o rela ie de interdependen . Totui, metodologia econometric cere clasificarea acestora n endogene sau exogene, dup caz. Cu toate c n aceast lucrare, indicatorii macroeconomici au fost trata i ca variabile determinante, rezultatele pot fi interpretate i din punctul de vedere al interdependen ei. Analiza econometric utilizeaz date de tip serie de distribu ie (crosssectional) pentru 42 de ri i regiuni privind cel mai recent LPI intern i indicatori macroeconomici din anul 2006, care ar putea influen a performan a logistic. Variabilele exogene sunt: ponderea n PIB a exportului de bunuri i servicii, ponderea n PIB a importului de bunuri i servicii, ponderea n PIB a comer ului cu mrfuri, ponderea n PIB a valorii adugate n industrie, ponderea n PIB a valorii adugate n sectorul serviciilor, venitul na ional brut pe cap de locuitor n dolari i creterea PIB-ului (vezi Alvis et al., 2007). Toate seturile de date provin de la Banca Mondial. Marimea i compozi ia modelelor au fost determinate de relevan a i disponibilitatea datelor.

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Countries that lead the top ranking are major global transport and logistics hubs, which took great advantage of the consequences of globalization. The least developed countries are situated at the bottom of the ranking, experiencing conflicts and suffering from chronic resources shortage. This performance indicator is a very useful tool both for comparisons between countries and for cross-sectional statistical investigations. The logistics performance of a country is influenced by many factors. The goal of this paper is to evaluate the impact of several key macroeconomic variables on the quality of the logistics sector. Obviously, macroeconomic variables and logistics performance are in a relationship of inter-dependence. Nevertheless, the econometric methodology requires a classification of variables according to their endogenous and exogenous quality. Even if in this paper the macroeconomic indicators have been considered explanatory variables, the results can easily be interpreted from an interdependence point of view. The econometric analysis uses cross-sectional data for 42 countries and regions concerning the latest domestic LPI and important macroeconomic indicators from 2006 that may influence the logistics performance. The explanatory variables are the share of exports of goods and services in Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the share of imports of goods and services in GDP, the share of merchandise trade in GDP, the share of value added by industry in GDP, the share of value added by services in GDP, Gross National Income (GNI) per capita in US$ and the GDP growth (see Alvis et al., 2007). All data sets come from The World Bank. The size and composition of the samples have been constrained by the relevance and availability of data.

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1. Econometric methodology, empirical results and interpretations The econometric methodology is based on unifactorial linear regression models. The LPI is set as endogenous variable while the macroeconomic factors are the explanatory variables. Seven models have been estimated (one for each macroeconomic factor) using the standard least squares method from the software package E-Views. Statistical t-tests have been performed for checking whether the parameters are significantly different from zero at 5% confidence level. The overall fit of each model is evaluated using the coefficient of determination (R2) which is the proportion of variability in a data set that is accounted for by the statistical model (Greene, 2000). In addition to the econometric results, some graphs are provided for a better representation of relationship between variables and the position of some countries. The graphs show the direction of relationship and the goodness of fit. The performance of each model is better when the data points are grouped nearer the estimated linear central trend line. Empirical results of econometric analysis are presented in table nr. 1. For all macroeconomic variables there seems to exist a relationship between logistics performance and the explanatory variable. Under the assumption of normality, the ttest outcomes of the regression suggest that all coefficients are statistically significant. The coefficient of determination measures the goodness of fit provided by the estimated regression equations. A higher coefficient indicates a stronger explanatory power or the considered variable. The estimated coefficients are between 11.36% and 49.21%.

1. Metodologie econometric, rezultate empirice i interpretri Metodologia econometric se bazeaz pe modele de regresie liniare unifactoriale. n modelele analizate, LPI reprezint variabila endogen, iar factorii macroeconomici sunt variabilele exogene. Au fost estimate apte modele econometrice (unul pentru fiecare factor macroeconomic), cu ajutorul metodei celor mai mici ptrate, utiliznd pachetul software E-views. Pentru a verifica dac parametrii sunt semnificativ diferi i de zero s-a utilizat testul statistic T, la un prag de semnifica ie de 5%. Pentru a aprecia modelul n ansamblul su, s-a folosit coeficientul de determina ie (R2), care exprim propor ia din varia ia variabilei explicate de modelul statistic (Greene, 2000). n sprijinul rezultatelor econometrice, sunt prezentate i cteva reprezentri grafice pentru a eviden ia ct mai sugestiv rela iile dintre variabile i pozi iile unor ri. Graficele arat sensul rela iei dintre variabile i ct de bine modelul se potrivete datelor analizate. Modelul este apreciat ca fiind mai corespunztor dac punctele sunt grupate ct mai aproape de trendul central. Rezultatele empirice ale analizei macroeconomice sunt prezentate n tabelul 1. Pentru toate variabilele macroeconomice se observ existen a unei rela ii ntre performan a logistic i variabilele determinante. Sub ipoteza normalit ii, rezultatele testului T pentru toate modelele estimate arat c to i coeficien ii sunt semnificativi din punct de vedere statistic. Coeficientul de determina ie msoar gradul de potrivire al modelului econometric estimat. Un coeficient cu o valoare ct mai apropiat de 100% indic o rela ie puternic ntre variabilele luate n considerare. Coeficien ii estima i se ncadreaz n intervalul 11,36% - 49.21%.

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Rezultatele modelelor de regresie unifactorial avnd LPI ca variabil endogen (Results for unifactorial linear regressions with the LPI as endogenous variable)

LPI = + X +
Variabila exogen (X) Exogenous variable (X) Ordonata la origine() (testul - t) Intercept() (t-statistic) Panta () (testul-t) Slope() (t-statistic) Tabelul 1 Coeficientul de determina ie (Coefficient of determination)

Exportul de bunuri i servicii (% din PIB) 2,70* 0,01* 27,02% Exports of goods and (15,74) (3,84) services (% of GDP) Importul de bunuri i servicii (% din PIB) 2,79* 0,01* 20,83% Imports of goods and (16,19) (3,24) services (% of GDP) Comer ul cu mrfuri (% din PIB) 2,79* 0,006* 22,58% Merchandise trade (16,67) (3,41) (% of GDP) Valoarea adugat n industrie (% din PIB) 4,14* -0,02* 11,36% Industry, value added (11,08) (-2,26) (% of GDP) Valoarea adugat n servicii (% din PIB) 0,8* 0,04* 49,21% Services, value added (1,98) (6,22) (% of GDP) Venitul na ional brut pe cap de locuitor, metoda 2,97* 0,0000183* 47,62% Atlas (dolari americani) (37,2) (6,03) GNI per capita, (US$) Creterea anual a PIB3,76* -0,08* ului (%) 17,14% (21,97) (-2,87) GDP growth (annual %) *indic faptul c parametrul este semnificativ la un prag de 5% (indicates significance at the 5% level)
Sursa: calcule proprii (own calculations)

Dat fiind faptul c logistica i comer ul interna ional sunt n mod evident corela i, ne putem atepta ca importurile i exporturile s aib o influen puternic asupra sectorului logistic.

As logistics and international trade are obviously linked, one could expect that the variables connected to imports and exports have a strong explanatory power for the logistics performance.

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The weight of exports performed better, with an explanatory power of 27%, while imports reached 20.83% and overall merchandise trade 22.58%. The higher explanatory power for exports is justified by the fact that countries are more likely to improve their logistics infrastructure and institutions when they can support higher exports. Nevertheless, as the econometric results show, the highest coefficient of determination (49%) belongs to the model that uses the value added in the services sector (% of GDP) as explanatory factor for LPI. It appears that the logistics performance of a country depends more on the strengths of its service sector than on its international trade. The econometric results are supported by fig. nr.1 and fig. nr. 2. Both graphs show a positive relationship

Rezultatele ob inute n urma regresiei arat c ponderea exporturilor n PIB explic n propor ie de 27% performan a logistic. Importurile au avut un rezultat de 20,83%, iar comer ul cu mrfuri 22,58%. Puterea mai mare a exporturilor poate fi explicat prin faptul c rile sunt mai motivate s-i mbunt easc infrastructura logistic i institu iile atunci cnd pot sus ine un nivel mai ridicat al exporturilor. n continuare, aa cum rezultatele econometrice o demonstreaz, cel mai mare coeficient de determina ie (49%) apar ine modelului care utilizeaz ca variabil exogen ponderea n PIB a valorii adugate n sectorul serviciilor. Performan a logistic a unei ri pare s depind mai mult de sectorul serviciilor dect de comer ul interna ional. Rezultatele econometrice sunt sus inute de (fig. 1) i (fig. 2). Ambele grafice ilustreaz o rela ie pozitiv.
4.5

Germany Ireland Czech Rep Bulgaria Ukraine Romania Hungary Poland France

3.5

LPI

3 Kazakhstan 2.5

1.5 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 Services, value added (% of GDP)

Figura 1 Rela ia dintre ponderea n PIB a valorii adugate generate de sectorul serviciilor i performan a logistic (Relationship between LPI and the weight of services value added in GDP) Sursa: calcule proprii (own calculations)

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Cu ct ponderea n PIB a exporturilor i a valorii adugate n sectorul serviciilor este mai mare, cu att mai performant este logistica. Totui, n cazul exporturilor se poate observa c punctele sunt mprtiate pe o suprafa mai mare. Mai mult dect att, valoarea pantei este de 0,01 n cazul exporturilor i de 0,04 n cazul valorii adugate n sectorul serviciilor. Astfel, rezultatele indic o elasticitate mai mare a performan ei logistice n func ie de dezvoltarea relativ a sectorului serviciilor, fa de importan a relativ a exporturilor. Rezultatele ob inute pot fi sus inute de cteva explica ii. n primul rnd, un sector puternic al serviciilor este o trstur comun rilor dezvoltate care tind s de in o infrastructur bun i o func ionare corespunztoare a institu iilor.

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The higher the exports and services value added share in GDP, the better the logistics performance. However, in the case of exports the data points are scattered over a larger surface. Moreover, the slope coefficient of the relationship is 0.01 in the case of exports and 0.04 in the case of services value added. Thus, the results indicate a higher elasticity of logistics performance to the relative development of services sector, than to the relative importance of exports.

There are several explanations for these results. First, a strong services sector is a common feature of developed and rich countries that tend to have good infrastructure and properly functioning institutions.

4.5

4 United Kingdom 3.5 LPI France

Germany

Poland Ukraine Romania

Bulgaria Slovenia

Hungary

Slovak Rep

Kazakhstan 2.5

2 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 Exports of goods and services (% of GDP)

Figura 2. Rela ia dintre ponderea n PIB a valorii exporturilor i performan a logistic (Relationship between LPI and the weight of exports of goods and services in GDP) Sursa: calcule proprii (own calculations)

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This explanation is reinforced by the regression on GNI per capita that has also achieved a high coefficient of determination (47.62%). Furthermore, the services sector is very dynamic and more vulnerable than the industrial or agricultural sectors to a poor infrastructure. Well functioning institutions and a friendly business climate are also vital for this sector. There is a vicious circle and a virtuous one in the relationship between services and logistics performance. In the vicious circle case, poor logistics performance causes fraud and a permanent need for controls that contribute to unfriendly procedures, which allow the extraction of overregulation rents. The market structures are inadequate and minimize the private entrepreneurs incentive to invest, especially in the dynamic sector of services. In the case of the virtuous circle, high quality logistics services allow integrity and compliance that further generate a seamless process and a liberalized market environment. Here businesses have incentives to invest, thus generating scale economies that in turn, lead to further investments and a stronger economic performance. Thus, it can be argued that logistics performance, development of services sector and economic performance are linked. A good step for countries locked in the vicious circle would be to urgently implement ample measures for trade and transport facilitation (Raballand, 2007).

Aceast motiva ie este confirmat de ecua ia de regresie ce utilizeaz ca variabil exogen venitul na ional brut pe cap de locuitor, ce nregistreaz de asemenea un nivel ridicat al coeficientul de determina ie (47.62%). Mai mult, sectorul serviciilor este foarte dinamic i mai vulnerabil dect ramura industriei i a agriculturii la o infrastructur necorespunztoare. Un mod corespunztor de func ionare a institu iilor i un climat de afaceri prietenos sunt factori vitali ai dezvoltrii acestui sector. Exist un cerc vicios i unul virtuos n rela ia dintre servicii i performan a logistic. n situa ia nefavorabil, performan a slab a logisticii cauzeaz apari ia fraudelor i a nevoii de controale permanente, care contribuie la proceduri greoaie ce permit un comportament de cutare de rent din partea func ionarilor. Structurile pie ei sunt inadecvate i afecteaz negativ motiva ia de a investi a antreprenorilor priva i, mai ales n sectorul dinamic al serviciilor. n cercul virtuos, servicii logistice de calitate nalt asigur men inerea integrit ii func ionarilor i a respectrii reglementrilor, ceea ce men ine un proces fluent i un mediu economic liber. Aici oamenii de afaceri sunt motiva i s investeasc, genernd economii de scar, care la rndul lor aduc noi investi ii i o performan economic superioar. Astfel, se poate afirma c performan a logistic, dezvoltarea sectorului serviciilor i creterea economic sunt legate ntre ele. O msur recomandat pentru rile prinse n cercul vicios este implementarea urgent de msuri ample pentru facilitarea comer ului i transportului (Raballand, 2007).

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Puterea explicatorie mai slab a exporturilor poate fi justificat de faptul c multe ri mediu dezvoltate nregistreaz o pondere mare n PIB a exporturilor. Dei economia acestor ri se bazeaz puternic pe comer ul interna ional, ele nu au suficiente resurse pentru o infrastructur i institu ii mai bune (Mangan, 2000). n plus, importurile i exporturile sunt induse n principal de nevoile economiei, pe cnd performan a logistic este adesea un bun public care depinde foarte mult de competen a i deciziile conductorilor. Multe ri au nregistrat importante progrese economice, n ciuda ineficien ei i corup iei guvernului. n timp ce creterea economic a dus la extinderea comer ului interna ional, politicile economice slabe au ngreunat dezvoltarea logisticii i implicit au mpiedicat o performan economic mai puternic. Un rezultat interesant al analizei econometrice este dependen a negativ dintre performan a logistic i creterea PIB-ului (fig. 3). Graficul arat c economiile cu o dezvoltare rapid tind s nregistreze performan e logistice mai slabe. Aceste concluzii sunt sus inute de faptul c, datorit globalizrii i a investi iilor strine directe, multe ri relativ srace au avut creteri economice puternice n ultimii ani. n acelai timp, multe ri bogate au fost nevoite s se lupte cu rate ale omajului ridicate i turbulen e financiare. Din nefericire pentru rile emergente, creterea economic sus inut de investi ii strine directe nu a condus automat la o mai bun infrastructur i institu ii care s func ioneze mai eficient. Companiile multina ionale au nv at s fac fa drumurilor proaste i oficialilor corup i. Acestea s-au orientat exclusiv asupra resurselor naturale i a for ei de munc ieftine.

AE

The lower explanatory power of exports for logistics performance can be justified by the fact that a high share of exports in GDP can be observed for many middle-income countries that despite their reliance on international trade do not have enough resources for better infrastructure and institutions (Mangan, 2000). Moreover, imports and exports are mainly driven by the needs of economy, while the logistics performance is often a public good that depends heavily on the competence and willingness of policy makers. Many countries have seen important economic progress despite an inefficient and corrupt government. While the economic growth has brought more international trade, bad politics have hindered logistic development, and implicitly a stronger economic performance. An interesting result of econometric analysis is the negative dependence between the logistics performance and the GDP growth (fig. nr. 3). It shows that the fastest growing economies tend to have a lower logistics performance. These findings are supported by the fact that thanks to globalization and foreign direct investments many poor countries have seen very large growth rates in the last years. At the same time many rich countries have had to fight with high unemployment and financial turbulences. Unfortunately for emerging economies, the economic growth fuelled by foreign direct investments does not automatically bring better infrastructure and institutions. Multinational companies have learned to cope with poor roads and corrupt officials. They tend to focus exclusively on natural resources and cheap labor.

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Germany Ireland Hungary France Italy Slovenia Czech Rep Bulgaria Ukraine Romania

3.5 LPI 3 2.5 2 1

7 GDP growth (annual %)

11

13

Figura 3. Rela ia dintre creterea anual a PIB i performan a logistic (Relationship between LPI and GDP growth (annual %)) Sursa: calcule proprii (own calculations)

Investi iile lor au ajutat la creterea bunstrii din rile gazd, dar nu au condus la mbunt irea cadrului legislativ i a infrastructurii. Dat fiind faptul c investi iile se realizeaz cu precdere n zonele industriale, ponderea n PIB a valorii adugate n industrie va tinde s fie negativ corelat cu performan a logistic (fig. 4). Multe ri ex-comuniste par s fie n aceast situa ie: cretere economic mare, valoare adugat n sectorul industriei semnificativ, performan logistic slab. Poate c aceste ri ar trebui s nve e din cazul Irlandei, o economie cu o cretere impresionant n ultimii ani. Irlanda a reuit s atrag investi ii strine directe i s-i mbunt easc cadrul comercial i al transporturilor n acelai timp (Hanningan, 2000). Concentrndu-ne asupra cazului Romniei, pot fi fcute cteva considera ii importante. 152

Their investments enhance the current welfare of the host country but do not dramatically change the friendliness of legal and infrastructure framework. As most investments are in the industrial area, the weight in GDP of value added by industry will also tend to be negatively correlated with logistics performance (fig. nr. 4). Many former communist countries seem to be in this situation: high economic growth, significant value added by industry, lower logistics performance. Perhaps these countries should learn from Ireland, an economy with a tremendous growth in the past years. Ireland has managed to attract foreign direct investments and improve trade and transport facilities at the same time (Hanningan, 2001). Focusing on the case of Romania several considerations can be made.

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n toate situa iile, Romnia este localizat ntr-o pozi ie de mijloc. Din studiile realizate de Banca Mondial reiese c performan a logistic de ansamblu a Romniei a fost puternic negativ afectat de infrastructura drumurilor i practicile vamale, aspecte care au un poten ial major de mbunt ire. n afara de acestea, potrivit unui studiu al Uniunii Interna ionale a Transportatorilor Rutieri cu privire la activitatea oferilor i companiilor de transport din peste 35 de ri din Europa i Asia Central, Romnia se confrunt cu o rat mare a criminalit ii rutiere. Studiul s-a concentrat asupra atacurilor criminale la care sunt expui oferii de tir. Rezultatele studiului au pus Romnia ntr-o lumin proast, fiind clasat pe locul nti ca cea mai nesigur ar cu 5,03 incidente la un milion de tone transportate, urmat la mare distan de Ungaria (1,31) i Polonia (1,21). Concluziile au eviden iat nevoia stringent de rezolvare a problemei (Vartolomei, 2008).

AE

In all samples Romania is located in a middle position. According to The World Bank the overall logistics performance of Romania has mainly been negatively affected by the road infrastructure and the customs procedures. Here lies a major improvement potential. Besides these areas, according to a survey conducted by International Road Transport Union on truck drivers and transport companies from 35 countries from Europe and Central Asia, Romania also suffers from wide-spread road criminality. The subject of the survey regarded the criminal attacks truck drivers are exposed to. The outcomes cast a shadow upon Romania, ranked as the most insecure country with 5.03 incidents for one million transported tones much more critical than Hungary (1.31) or Poland (1.21). The conclusions of the survey showed the stringent need of addressing the problem (Vartolomei, 2008).

4.5

Germania Ungaria Cehia Bulgaria Polonia Slovenia Ucraina

3.5 LPI Italia 3

Romania

2.5

2 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Valoarea adugat n industrie (% din PIB)

Figura 4 Rela ia dintre ponderea n PIB a valorii adugate generate de sectorul industrial i performan a logistic (Relationship between LPI and weight of industry value added in GDP industrial value added) Sursa: calcule proprii (own calculations)

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Conclusions The paper has presented the logistics performance measure developed by The World Bank and has investigated the influence of several key macroeconomic factors. The results indicate that all considered macroeconomic variables (the share of exports of goods and services in Gross Domestic GDP, the share of imports of goods and services in GDP, the share of merchandise trade in GDP, the share of value added by industry in GDP, the share of value added by services in GDP, GNI per capita in US$ and the GDP growth) have a significant influence over the logistics performance of a country. While both international trade and development of the services sector positively affect the logistics performance, the influence of the services appears to be much stronger. Almost 50% of the logistics performance of a country is explained by the relative weight of the services value added in GDP. On one hand, better and diversified services support the logistics performance which allows a further development of services in a virtuous circle. On the other hand, a vicious circle is making poor infrastructure and ill functioning institutions obstruct the development of services, which in turn, bring no incentive for improvement in the logistic support. Developing countries caught in this vicious circle can escape only by implementing trade and transport facilitation measures. Another important finding of the paper is that there is a negative relationship between the logistics performance of a country, its GDP growth and the importance of the industrial sector for GDP.

Concluzii Lucrarea de fa a prezentat instrumentul de msur a performan ei logistice, elaborat de Banca Mondial, concentrndu-se pe investigarea influen ei mai multor factori macroeconomici relevan i. Rezultatele indic faptul c toate variabilele macroeconomice explicatorii analizate (ponderea exportului n PIB, ponderea importului n PIB, ponderea comer ului cu mrfuri n PIB, ponderea valorii adugate n industrie n PIB, ponderea valorii adugate n sectorul serviciilor n PIB, venitul na ional brut pe cap de locuitor n dolari, creterea PIBului) au o influen semnificativ asupra performan ei logistice a unei ri. Cu toate c att dezvoltarea sectorului serviciilor, ct i cea a comer ul interna ional afecteaz pozitiv performan a logistic, influen a serviciilor pare s fie mult mai puternic. Aproximativ 50% din performan a logistic a unei ri este explicat de ponderea n PIB a valorii adugate n servicii. Pe de o parte, serviciile mai bune i mai diversificate sus in performan a logisticii, care la rndul ei duce la dezvoltarea serviciilor, ntr-un cerc virtuos. Pe de alt parte, un cerc vicios face ca infrastructura slab i institu iile cu deficien e n func ionare s obstruc ioneze mbunt irea serviciilor, care la rndul lor, nu aduc niciun stimulent pentru dezvoltarea cadrului logistic. rile n curs de dezvoltare prinse n acest cerc vicios se pot salva doar prin implementarea unor msuri de mbunt ire a transportului i comer ului. O alt concluzie important a acestei lucrri este rela ia negativ dintre performan a logistic a unei ri, creterea PIB-ului i importan a sectorului industrial n PIB.

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Rezultatele arat c rile care se bazeaz mai mult pe industrie i nregistreaz o cretere economic puternic, au un cadru logistic mai pu in dezvoltat. n mod particular, acesta este cazul unor ri din Europa Central i de Est, care au atras investi ii strine directe semnificative n industrie i n sectorul imobiliar. Companiile multina ionale care au realizat investi iile directe au fost interesate n principal de for a de munc ieftin i de resursele naturale. Companiile multina ionale au avut succes n ciuda cadrului logistic nedezvoltat al rii gazd. rile gazd nu ar trebui s amne dezvoltarea circuitului logistic. Activit ile industriale sunt ciclice i, de aceea, n timpul recesiunilor pot cauza un omaj ridicat i grave probleme sociale. Investitorii strini se pot retrage cu uurin dintr-o ar dac lucrurile ncep s mearg prost. Un sector puternic al serviciilor poate reprezenta sprijinul pentru o dezvoltate economic sustenabil. Irlanda, o ar care a atras investi ii strine directe i i-a mbog it cadrul logistic n acelai timp, a avut rezultate extraordinare n ultimii ani. Aceasta poate fi o lec ie pentru Romnia. Deoarece creterea economic a fost sus inut de investi iile industriale i imobiliare, dou sectoare ciclice, exist un risc major ca Romnia s sufere o criz economic. Avem nevoie de o mbunt ire a performan ei logistice, capabil s ajute la creterea sectorului serviciilor. Romnia ar trebui s ac ioneze rapid n vederea ameliorrii infrastructurii drumurilor, reducerii crimei la nivel rutier, suprimrii birocra iei cronice i introducerii unor practici vamale mai eficiente.

AE

It appears that countries that rely on industry and have a strong economic growth have a less developed logistic framework. This is particularly the case of countries from Central and Eastern Europe that have attracted huge foreign direct investments in industrial and real estate developments. The multinational companies that provided the direct investments were mainly interested in cheap labor and natural resources. They have been able to be successful even if the logistics framework of the host country was not very developed. The host countries should not postpone their efforts to improve the functioning of the supply chain. Industrial activities are cyclical and during recessions they can cause severe unemployment and social problems. Foreign investors can easily withdraw from a country when things go wrong. A strong services sector can provide the support for a sustainable future economic development. Ireland, a country that attracted foreign direct investments and developed its logistic framework in the same time, has performed extraordinarily well in the past years. This is a lesson to be followed by Romania. Since Romanias economic growth has been mainly fuelled by real estate and industrial developments, two extremely cyclical businesses, there is a major risk of an economic downturn if there is no major improvement in the logistics performance, able to boost the services sector. Romania should rapidly improve the road infrastructure, fight the crime on the roads, reduce chronic bureaucracy and introduce more efficient custom procedures.

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References [1] Arvis, J.F., Raballand, G., Marteau, J.F., The Cost of Being Landlocked: Logistics Costs and Supply Chain Reliability, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4258, 2007 [2] David, P.A., Stewart, R.D., International logistics, Atomic Dog Publishing, 2006. [3] Greene, W.H., Econometric Analysis, Prentice Hall International, 2000. [4] Hannigan, K., Mangan, J., Role of logistics and supply chain management in determining the competitiveness of a peripheral economy, The Irish Marketing Review, 2001. [5] Mangan, J., Hannigan, K., Logistics and Transport in a Fast Growing Economy. Managing the Supply Chain for Higher Performance, Blackball Press, Dublin, 2000. [6] Raballand, G., Arvis, J.F., Belleir, M., Success Factors for Improving Logistics in a Middle-Income Country, World Bank Transport Note No. TRN-35, 2006. [7] Vartolomei, A., Record negativ: cele mai multe atacuri asupra oferilor de tir au loc n Romnia, Revista de transport i logistic, nr. 17, 2008. [8] World Bank, The Logistics Performance Index and Its Indicators, 2007.

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ACTUALIT I N LOGISTIC I TRANSPORT

(Actualities in logistics and transport) Conf. univ. dr. Simona Dordea Universitatea Ovidius Constan a, Romania simona_utureanu@yahoo.com Conf. univ. dr. Liliana Nicodim Universitatea Ovidius Constan a, Romania nicodimlili@yahoo.com

Rezumat Creterea fluxurilor de mrfuri este o component fundamental a schimbrilor contemporane din cadrul sistemelor economice la nivel global, regional i local. Trebuie precizat c aceste schimbri nu sunt doar cantitative, ci i structurale i opera ionale. Schimbrile structurale se refer n principal la sistemele de produc ie, iar cele opera ionale privesc sistemele de transport i implicit distribu ie. Prin urmare, problema esen ial nu o reprezint originea i destina ia fluxului de mrfuri, ci modul n care acestea se deplaseaz. Noi sisteme de distribu ie apar concomitent cu noile sisteme de produc ie, fapt ce aduce n prim plan domeniul logisticii. Cuvinte cheie: servicii logistice, ICT tehnologii de comunica ii i informa ii, 3PL - a treia a verig din lan ul logistic Clasificare JEL: F23, L91, M31 Abstract The increasing flow of commodities represents a fundamental component of the actual changes within the economic systems at global, regional and local frameworks. It must be pointed that these changes have not a quantity substance only, but at the same time, a structural and an operational one. The structural changes refer in the essence to the production systems and the operational ones to the transport systems and, compulsory, to the distribution. So, being given this situation, the essential problem is not the origin and the destination of the freight flow, but the way of displacement. New distribution systems appear simultaneously with the production systems, a fact bringing in front the logistics field and freight forwarding. Keywords: logistics services, ICT - Information and Communication Technologies, 3PL - third-party logistics providers JEL Classification: F23, L91, M31 Introducere De la introducerea transportului containerizat comer ul interna ional a cunoscut o cretere constant. Dac n 1965 traficul de containere n porturi era practic inexistent, n 2003 a depit 300 milioane de TEU, iar pn n 2010 se estimeaz c va ajunge la 500 milioane TEU [4].

Introduction International trade has reached a constant increase in containerized freight since the introduction of containers. While in 1965, world container throughput at ports was practically nonexistent, it passed over 300 million TEUs in 2003. The expected trend is to reach 500 million TEUs by 2010 [4].

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Containerele sunt uor de operat i de stocat, ofer protec ie mpotriva furturilor i la agresiune mecanic, permit ncrcarea facil n diferite moduri de transport. Aceste calit i au ncurajat rspndirea rapid a utilizrii containerelor i au uurat opera iunile de transport intermodal. Mai mult, utilizarea containerizrii a mrit eficien a operrii mrfurilor n porturi i n depozitele temporare din interior prin folosirea echipamentelor specializate pentru manipularea lor i a contribuit la schimbarea etapelor de transport i a practicilor. n plus n afar de procesul de containerizare, cererea de transport a crescut i ca urmare a dezvoltrii tehnologiilor informa iei i comunica iilor (Information and Communication Technologies - ICT). Transportul i serviciile logistice au fost puternic influen ate de rspndirea comer ului electronic (E-commerce) care a fost favorizat de dezvoltarea acestui domeniu special (ICT). Comer ul electronic permite consumatorilor s comande mrfuri pe Internet i s realizeze tranzac ii comerciale rapide. Activitatea se concretizeaz n livrri de colete mici la diferite destina ii i aceasta impune operatorilor din transporturi i servicii de distribu ie s-i modeleze opera iunile, strategiile comerciale i practicile. Un alt element, care trebuie avut n vedere, este modernizarea i liberalizarea porturilor i a serviciilor de transport interna ional, care au avut loc n mai multe ri la nceputul anilor 90. Aceste schimbri au dus la mbunt irea opera iunilor logistice i portuare, la micarea mai rapid a navelor i a containerelor n porturi.

Because of the fact that containers are easy to handle and store, offer protection against damage and theft and allow interchange among various modes of transport, these features have encouraged the wide spread use of containers and facilitated multimodal transport operations. Furthermore, containerization has brought a greater efficiency in cargo handling in ports and inland freight stations through the use of specialized equipment and contributed in changing the transport patterns and practices. In addition to containerization process, the transport industry is being increasingly shaped by developments in the field of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). Transport and logistics services have been heavily influenced by the widespread use of Electronic commerce (E-commerce), which has enabled the growth of this particular ICT area. E-commerce allows consumers to place orders on the Internet and enables trade transactions to be rapidly concluded. This results in frequent deliveries of small packages to many different destinations, thus compelling transport and distribution services providers to modify their operations, business strategies and practices. Another element to consider is the modernization and the liberalization of ports and international transport services that have taken place in many countries since early 1990s. These developments have resulted in improved port and logistics operations, including speedy turnover of vessels and containers in ports.

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1. Procese de fabrica ie i distribu ie globale Sistemele contemporane de distribu ie s-au schimbat radical, devenind din ce n ce mai mult determinate de cerere. n aceste condi ii se constituie stocuri minime, majoritatea produselor fiind men inute n circula ie, lucru ce sporete importan a transportului i implicit a punctelor terminale cum sunt porturile n cazul nostru. Conducerea operativ a acestor sisteme se bazeaz puternic pe sisteme informa ionale care permit livrarea la momentul oportun al pieselor i/sau produselor solicitate. Comer ul cu anumite componente care trebuie livrate n timp foarte scurt, deoarece sunt esen iale unor etape de produc ie, reprezint aproximativ 30% din comer ul mondial de bunuri manufacturate [1]. Aceast evolu ie este sus inut i de importan a crescnd a comer ului din interiorul companiilor multina ionale, comer situat la un nivel reprezentnd o treime din comer ul sensibil la timpul de livrare. Procesele moderne de produc ie necesit implementarea unor tehnici manageriale privind lan ul de aprovizionare pentru a asigura primirea la timp a mrfurilor i livrarea produselor finite pe pia . Procesele de produc ie just in time (JIT) necesit ca cererea i aprovizionarea s se petreac n timp real pentru a reduce costurile de inventariere i stocare i, n acest fel, s realizeze economii la cheltuielile cu for a de munc i echipamentele. Cererile de pe pia au dus la sporirea ncrederii productorilor n func ionalitatea logisticii lan ului de aprovizionare privitoare la cea de-a treia verig asigurat de operatorii 3PL (ThirdParty Logistics). Liderii n domeniul 3PL sunt companii specializate n furnizarea de servicii logistice pentru ter i care Nr. 24 Iunie 2008

utilizeaz aplica ii capabile s genereze o valoare substan ial pentru clien i [4]. 1. Global manufacturing and distribution processes Contemporary distribution systems have radically changed, becoming more and more determined by the demand. In these conditions, minimal storages are to be made, the major part of the products being maintained in circulation, thing growing the transport importance and, compulsory, the terminal points as the ports in our case. The operational management of these systems is strongly based on informational systems permitting the delivery just in time of the needed pieces or products. Trade in components whose delivery is time-sensitive and which are essential to efficient production operations, accounts for around 30 per cent of global trade in manufactured goods [1]. This trend is reinforced by the growing importance of intra-company trade, which accounts for approximately one third of this trade. The new production processes require the implementation of supply chain management techniques to ensure timely receipt of inputs and delivery of finished products to the marketplace. The just in time (JIT) production processes require that supply and demand be matched in near real-time to reduce inventory and storage costs and free up working capital and equipment. The demands of the marketplace have resulted in manufacturers increasingly entrusting the logistics functions of their supply chain operations to third-party logistics providers (3PLs). Leaders in 3PL are specialized companies in furnishing logistic services for the thirds, using capable aplications

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Outsourcing logistics has allowed the manufacturers to focus on their core business activities to benefit from the economies of scale of their 3PL partners and the broad range of services offered by specialized logistics services providers. Below (table 1) is the list of the top 10 logistics services providers revenues. Figure 1 shows the graphical of this 10 top.

generating a substantial value for the clients [4].

Furnizorii ter i de servicii logistice au permis productorilor s-i focalizeze propriul nucleu al afacerilor n beneficiul ob inut din economii la scar rezultate prin colaborarea cu partenerii 3PL i datorit gamei largi de servicii oferite de operatorii specializa i n logistic. Lista con innd clasamentul primilor 10 operatori de servicii logistice, alctuit pe baza ncasrilor realizate, este dat n tabelul 1. Figura 1 prezint grafic acest clasament. Clasamentul primilor 10 operatori de servicii logistice (Top 10 logistics services providers revenues) Loc 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Operator Nippon Express Exel Group Schenker Deutche Post Logistics Kuehne&Nagel UPS SCS TNT Logistics Panalpina CH Robinson Geodis Total

Tabelul 1 ncasri (mil. USD) 14841 11123 9658 8168 7037 5015 4912 4722 4341 4057 73874

Sursa: Containerization International, septembrie, 2005 (Containerization International, September, 2005)

16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 mil. USD

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Figura 1 Clasamentul primilor 10 operatori de servicii logistice (Top 10 of the logistics services providers)

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2. Costurile logisticii Costurile logisticii, includ transportul, ambalarea, stocarea, inventarierea, administrarea, managementul i reprezint un factor de prim importan pentru to i juctorii implica i n lan ul logistic. Controlul acestor costuri permite companiilor s men in un avantaj competitiv ceea ce favorizeaz creterea comer ului n trile respective, deoarece costurile mai mici ale logisticii contribuie la creterea competitivit ii exportului, influen nd i mrimea pre urilor de import. n cadrul cheltuielilor logisticii globale, ponderea costurilor de transport crete, n timp ce ponderea costurilor de depozitare scade. Dei sunt relevante pentru toate economiile, costurile logisticii au un nivel mai ridicat n rile n curs de dezvoltare, unde sunt estimate a fi cele mai mari din lume. La apari ia acestor diferen e de cost contribuie o serie de factori ntre care: eficien a sistemelor de distribu ie, calitatea infrastructurii transporturilor, cadrul legislativ i institu ional. 3. Evolu ia recent a logisticii n ultimii ani, mul i expeditori i-au dezvoltat propriile activit i profitnd de avantajele oferite de furnizorii ter i de servicii logistice (Third Party Logistics 3PL), rspunznd n acest mod i cerin elor complexe ale transportatorilor navali referitoare la o logistic mai sofisticat care face parte din lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare. Multe dintre marile companii au adoptat ca int strategic scopul de a deveni operatori de logistic integrat global. Aceste companii au ncercat s introduc servicii cu valoare adugat la ambele capete ale lan ului de aprovizionare, fie n mod organic, fie achizi ionativ. Cifrele pentru 2006 arat c Europa este cea mai mare pia de

expedi ii de marf i servicii logistice, cu o pondere trecnd cu pu in peste o treime. 2. Logistics costs Logistics costs, including transport, packaging, storage, inventories, administration and management, are a key consideration for all players in the international logistics chain. Controlling logistics costs allows companies to maintain a competitive edge and countries to experience trade growth, since lower logistics costs translate into competitive export and import prices. Within global logistics expenditures, the share of transport is growing while that of inventory holding is decreasing. Although of relevance to all economies, logistics costs are more important for developing countries, where they have been estimated to be the highest in the world. Several factors contribute to differences in cost levels and structure, including the efficiency of distribution systems, the quality of transportation infrastructure, and the regulatory and institutional frameworks.

3. Recent trend of logistics In recent years many forwarders have developed their operations to take advantage of the current trend towards outsourcing and to meet shippers requirements for more sophisticated logistics and supply chain services, often defined as Third Party Logistics (3PL), especially on a global scale. Many of the major companies have adopted as their strategic goal the aim of becoming a globally integrated logistics provider. These companies have attempted to introduce value-added services at both ends of the supply chain, either organically or acquisitively. Data

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capital investit pentru a stabili o opera ie de expedi ie. AsiaPacific (29 per cent) has moved ahead of North America (27 per cent) as the market, both intra- and extraAsian, continues to grow rapidly. The global logistics and freight forwarding market is in a state of rationalization and consolidation. There are now a handful of major players that claim to have global coverage. DHL Global Forwarding is the largest logistics provider, taking into account air, sea and customs brokerage revenues. Kuehne & Nagel and Schenker make up the top three (table 2). There is a considerable gap separating those companies from the next largest forwarder, Panalpina. Many of the companies outside the top three are believed to be possible targets for takeover, whether by other trade buyers wishing to build scale or by private equity companies looking to take advantage of the buoyant market. In terms of market share, DHL holds about 9 per cent of the entire global freight forwarding and logistics market. The top 10 companies (table 2) have a consolidated share of about 40 per cent of the global forwarding and logistics market (fig.2). The major reason for this is the low barriers to market entry and exit, as it takes very little capital investment to establish a forwarding operation.

for 2006 indicate that Europe is the largest market for freight forwarding and logistics services, with a share of just over a third. AsiaPacific (29%) a trecut naintea Americii de Nord (27%) n condi iile n care pia a crete rapid. Logistica global i pia a expedi iilor de marf sunt ntr-o stare de ra ionalizare i consolidare. Exist n momentul actual un grup de juctori importan i pe pia . DHL Global Forwarding este cel mai mare operator de logistic, lund n considerare activitatea de transport aerian, maritim i veniturile din comisionare vamal. Kuehne & Nagel i Schenker fac parte din topul primilor trei clasa i (tabelul 2). Exist o diferen considerabil ntre sus-amintitele companii i urmtorul mare expeditor - Panalpina. Multe dintre companiile din afara topului 3 sunt considerate a fi posibile inte pentru preluare, fie de cumprtori de afaceri, doritori s-i consolideze imaginea, fie de companii private ce caut s ob in avantaje pe pia a de referin . Analiznd pozi ia pe pia , DHL se situeaz pe primul loc i de ine aproximativ 9% din ntreaga pia global de expedi ii de mrfuri i logistic. Primele 10 companii (tabelul 2) de in cca 40% din pia a global de logistic i expedi ii de mrfuri (fig. 2). Explica ia acestui fapt const n nivelul cobort de admitere i de ieire din pia , deoarece este nevoie de foarte pu in

Primele 10 companii de expedi ii de marf (Top 10 of principal freight forwarding providers in 2006) Tabelul 2
Loc 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Operator DHL Global Forwarding Kuehne&Nagel Schenker Panalpina Expeditors UPS SCS SDV EGL Sinotrans Nippon Express Cot de pia 2006 9% 7% 6% 4% 3% 3% 2% 2% 2% 2%

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Top 10 Rest 40% 60%

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DHL Global Forwarding 9%

Kuehne& Nage 7%

Schenker 6% Panalpina 4% Expeditors 3% UPS SCS 3% EGL 2%

rest 60% SDV 2% Nippon Express 2% Sinotrans 2%

Figura 2 Clasamentul primilor 10 operatori de expedi ii de marf n anul 2006 (Top 10 of principal freight forwarding providers in 2006). Sursa: Datamonitor

n afar de industria tradi ional de expedi ii de marf i de companiile de transport maritim, au intrat pe pia a serviciilor logistice entit i specializate cum ar fi Maersk Logistics, la fel ca i transportatori/integratori cu activitate expres ca Fedex. Nivelul ridicat al profitului, perspectivele de cretere, importan a activit ii expeditorilor de mrfuri i modelele de afaceri n logistic au fcut sectorul foarte atractiv pentru noi investitori. Dei a nregistrat un ritm de cretere mai sczut dect n anul anterior, logistica global i pia a expedi iilor de mrfuri au avut o evolu ie ascendent n 2006, sprijinit de creterea constant a acestor activit i n Europa i Asia de Est, n timp ce n SUA ritmul de cretere a economiei, dei a nregistrat scderi, nu a confirmat prognozele pesimiste. Comer ul n Asia a gsit solu ia economic i a focalizat strategia de dezvoltare a multor companii. De-a lungul anului 2006, au fost ob inute rezultate bune de ctre majoritatea operatorilor de

logistic i a operatorilor de expedi ii ale mrfurilor. Outside the traditional freightforwarding industry, both shipping lines, through dedicated entities such as Maersk Logistics, as well as express carriers/integrators such as Fedex, are also entering the logistics market. The levels of profitability in the market, growth prospects and the asset-light activity of freight forwarders and logistics business models have made the sector highly attractive to outside investors. Although at a slower pace than during the previous year, the global logistics and freight forwarding market expanded further in 2006, supported by steady growth in Europe and the Eastern Asia trades, whilst the US economy did not slow down as much as had been feared. Intra-Asian trade was also a key driving force and has focused many companies development strategies.

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redus, asigurnd o gam de servicii la marf, bazate pe costul de referin . European-based Kuehne & Nagel saw turnover rise by 30 per cent and profits by 52 per cent. Panalpina declared a 43 per cent increase in profits, with net revenues growing by 11 per cent. DHL Global Forwarding saw the impact of its acquisition of Exel take effect. Its air freight division revenues leapt by almost 70 per cent and sea freight revenues by 40 per cent. The US freight forwarder, Expeditors, announced strong growth over the year with net revenue up by 21 per cent and net earnings up by 23 per cent at $235 million [6]. Conclusions and forecast There is no doubt that logistics providers and forwarders are enjoying an exceptional period, which has lasted for several years. This has made their activities look attractive from the financial community from the perspective of investment opportunities, mergers and acquisitions. The year 2007 is forecast to be yet another dynamic year for an industry, which is still very much in a state of flux. This outlook is likely to be affected by security (15.6 per cent), technology requirements (14.9 per cent), and other factors. Mainly driven by globalization, overall the freight forwarding market is expected to continue to grow at 9.4 per cent over the next five years. By 2010 the market is forecast to reach 150.7 billion. This positive outlook is, however, subject to downward risks, including the cooling US economy and its potential impact on transPacific and trans-Atlantic trade. In addition, freight forwarders are negatively perceived by some customers as being a low-valueadding resource, providing a range of commoditized, cost-based services.

During 2006, exceptional results were achieved by most major logistics providers and freight forwarders. Compania european Kuehne & Nagel a nregistrat o cretere a profitului cu 52%. Panalpina a declarat o cretere a profitului cu 43%, nregistrnd creterea veniturilor nete cu 11%. DHL Global Forwarding a resim it impactul pozitiv al achizi iei companiei Exel. Veniturile diviziei aeriene de marf au crescut spectaculos cu aproape 70%, iar cele ale expedi iilor pe mare cu 40%. Expeditorul american de marf, Expeditors, a anun at o cretere important a venitului net, n anul 2006, cu 21% i a profitului net cu 23 %, nsumnd 235 millioane dolari [6]. Concluzii i previziuni Operatorii de logistic i expeditorii au avut o perioad favorabil, care a durat mai mul i ani. Aceasta a fcut ca activit ile lor s devin atractive pentru comunit ile financiare, din perspectiva oportunit ilor investi ionale, a fuziunilor i achizi iilor. Estimrile pentru anul 2008 sunt c va fi un alt an dinamic pentru o industrie care este nc ntr-o stare foarte fluid. Aceast previziune este probabil s fie afectat de riscuri (15.6%), expansiunea tehnologic (14.9%) i al i factori. n contextul globalizrii, este de ateptat ca pia a expedi iilor de marf s continue s creasc cu 9.4% n urmtorii cinci ani. Se preconizeaz ca n 2010 pia a s ating 150.7 miliarde . Aceast previziune pozitiv este, totui, expus riscurilor unor descreteri, incluznd recesiunea economiei SUA i impactul poten ial asupra comer ului trans-Pacific i trans-Atlantic. n plus, expeditorii de marf sunt percepu i n mod negativ de unii clien i ca fiind o resurs cu valoare adugat Abrevieri utilizate (Used abbreviations)

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ICT Information and Communication Technologies tehnologii de comunica ii i informa ii 3PL (third-party logistics providers) a treia a verig din lan ul logistic References [1] Blan, C., Logistica, Editura Uranus, Bucureti, 2006 [2] Banu, Gheorghe i Pricop, Mihai, Managementul aprovizionrii i desfacerii, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 1996 [3] Cristopher, Martin, Developing Customer Service Strategies, n John Gattorna (ed) The Gower Handbook of Logistics and Distribution Management, fourth edition, Gower Publishing Company Ltd., 1990 [4] Gordon, Benjamin H., The Changing Face of the 3-th Party Logistics, n Supply Chain Management Review, March 1, 2003 [5] Harrison, Alan, Just-in-Time Manufacturing in Perspective, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jerey, 1993 [6] *** Datamonitor, 2006

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PARTICULARIT I ALE PIE EI ROMNETI DE PRODUSE FARMACEUTICE DIN PERSPECTIVA LOGISTICII I MANAGEMENTULUI LAN ULUI DE APROVIZIONARE-LIVRARE
(A LSCM approach to the romanian pharmaceuticals market) Lect. dr. Mihaela Cornelia Prejmerean Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia mihaela.prejmerean@fabiz.ase.ro Asist. drd. Simona Vasilache Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia simona.vasilache@fabiz.ase.ro

Rezumat Lucrarea prezint particularit ile logisticii i managementului lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare n industria farmaceutic, i pune n discu ie factorii care influen eaz viteza de penetrare a medicamentelor pe pia a romneasc. Pe de o parte, satisfac ia consumatorilor, ca rezultat al managementului rela iilor cu clien ii este corelat cu eficien a logisticii i a managementului lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare, iar pe de alt parte profitul companiilor farmaceutice depinde de viteza de penetrare, care duce la ob inerea unei cote de pia mai bune ntr-un interval de timp prestabilit. Vom examina legtura ntre cele dou fa ete ale procesului, cu scopul de a stabili o rela ie ntre partea calitativ, reprezentat de satisfac ia consumatorilor, i partea cantitativ, reprezentat de vnzri. Concluziile studiului pot folosi drept ghid pentru productorii i distribuitorii de medicamente, pentru evaluarea vitezei de penetrare n lansarea de produse noi pe pia sau a evolu iei produselor existente, n identificarea unor msuri de mbunt ire n logistica i n managementul lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. Particularit ile pie ei farmaceutice romneti, prezentate n lucrarea de fa , deschid un drum spre extinderea lor n cercetarea pe o scar mai larg, prin aplicarea modelului de regresie propus unor seturi mai extinse de date, permi nd n cazul generalizarea rezultatelor i a concluziilor, i eventual translatarea lor n cazul altor pie e, sau integrarea n studii comparative. Cuvinte cheie: logistic, managementul lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare, pia a farmaceutic, Romnia Clasificare JEL: M31, O14, O33 Abstract The paper presents the particularities of the logistics and supply chain management in the pharmaceutical industry and discusses the factors which influence drugs diffusion speed on the Romanian market. On the one hand, customer satisfaction, as an outcome of successful customer relationship management, is correlated with the efficiency of the logistics and supply chain management (LSCM) and, on the other hand, the profits of the pharmaceutical companies depend on the diffusion speed, which enables them to obtain a better market share, over a predetermined interval. We examine the connection between these two sides of the process, aiming at establishing a relation between the qualitative side, of satisfaction, and the quantitative side, of sales.

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The conclusions of the study may serve as a guide for the pharmaceutical companies and the distributors, in appreciating the diffusion speed for a new product they launch on the market, or for an existing product, and in identifying the improvements in the logistics and supply chain processes which may lead to a better diffusion. The particularities of the Romanian pharmaceutical market, which are presented in this article, allow for a continuation of the research, in the form of large scale data gathering, and expanding the conclusions at a more general level. Keywords: logistics and supply chain management, pharmaceutical market, Romania JEL Clasification: M31, O14, O33 un farmacist. n primul rnd, el era o persoan care amesteca substan e active i Introducere excipien i pentru a ob ine un medicament Lema lui Drucker conform creia scopul afacerii este acela de a crea clien i confirm faptul c, astzi, avantajul Introduction competitiv al unei afaceri de succes este As a confirmation of the Drucker efectul managementului eficient al lemma, saying that the business exists to rela iilor cu clien ii. Pentru c create a customer, much of the managementul lan ului de aprovizionarecompetitive advantage successful livrare urmrete integrarea furnizorului, businesses today enjoy is due to efficient a distribuitorului i a consumatorului customer relationship management. As ntr-un lan al valorii care s ndeplineasc supply chain management, in its turns, is cerin ele logisticii i, n acelai timp, este committed to integrating the supplier, un mijloc de ob inere a satisfac iei distributor and customer into a valueconsumatorilor (Booth, 1996), putem s chain which meets their logistics analizm, pornind de la Lamming (2000), requirements and constitutes a means for logistica i managementul lan ului de creating customer satisfaction (Booth, aprovizionare-livrare ca o surs pentru 1996), we may analyze, following ob inerea avantajului competitiv. innd Lamming (2000), the logistics and supply seama c, n prezent, concuren a dintre chain management (LSCM) as a source of companii este nlocuit treptat de o competitive advantage. Given that the competi ie ntre canalele de distribu ie company-company competition is (Ketikidis et al., 2008), companiile trebuie gradually replaced by a chain-chain s se concentreze pe mbunt irea competition (Ketikidis et al., 2008), lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare i pe businesses have to focus on supply chain reconfigurarea re elei de distribu ie. improvements and supply networks n acest context, pia a farmaceutic reconfiguring. are o serie de particularit i care pot fi Considering this context, the grupate dup urmtoarele criterii: pharmaceutical market appears as particular a) Evolu ia intern. Conform lui Shaqha for a number of reasons, which may be i Zairi (2001), domeniul a evoluat n organized according to three criteria: ultimii 30 de ani, trecnd prin mai multe Internal evolution. According to etape. Prima etap a avut loc acum cteva Shaqha and Zairi (2001), the domain decenii, i este definit ca etapa amestec evolved over the last 30 years, passing i distribuie. Cu alte cuvinte, formula through three main stages. The first one ezoteric misce, fiat, respectiv, datur, was represented, some decades ago, by signatur, care nc apare, prescurtat, n the compounding and dispensing stage. In unele re ete, definete ce trebuia s fac other words, the esoteric formulas misce,
a)

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doctorului, i alege singur pentru el astfel, putem afirma c se trece de la rela ia paternalist la decizia informat i, de asemenea, n contextul proliferrii terapiilor naturiste, la modelul de decizie n care pacientul hotrte singur. secondly, a person enabled to distribute that drug to the clients. In the second stage, when drugs prepared extemporaneously were replaced by industrially synthesized medicines, the domain entered the stage of clinical pharmacy, the pharmacist being in charge with handling the doses and the side effects. This stage evolved into the pharmaceutical care stage, when the pharmacists are less distributors and more medical advisors, prescribing and monitoring therapy, from the point of view of the drug effects. As Hepler and Strand (1990) remarked, the focus moves from the drugs distributions to the patients, to providing care. b) Patient evolution. Although patients are conditioned by a third-party, the physicians, who, in most of the cases (excluding OTCs over the counter drugs, and nutraceuticals), choose for them (Prejmerean, 2008), they become more and more involved in healthcare and more actively interested in the quality of the services they receive. Following the classification of physicianpatient relationships, proposed by Shmueli (2007), Charles et al. (1999), Gafni et al. (1998), Mooney and Ryan (1993) which distinguishes between paternalistic relationship in which the physician, having all the information, acts on the behalf of the patient, as a perfect agent, shared treatment decision making, situation in which the two exchange information and decide together, informed treatment decision making, which the authors consider to be the most illustrative case of consumer behaviour in healthcare (the physician presents the information, and the patient chooses rationally) and patient alone, when the patient, using alternative sources of information, other than the physician,

fiat, and, respectively, datur, signatur, which still appear, abridged, in some recipes, defined what a pharmacist should do. He was, in the first place, a person enabled to mix active substances and excipients to obtain a particular drug, and anume, n al doilea rnd, o persoan care distribuia medicamente ctre clien i. n a doua etap, cnd medicamentele preparate extemporaneu au fost nlocuite de medicamentele ob inute prin sinteze industriale, domeniul a intrat n etapa farmaciei clinice. Farmacistul era responsabil cu manipularea dozelor i nlturarea efectelor adverse. Acesta etap a evoluat sub forma asisten ei farmaceutice, unde farmacistul este mai pu in distribuitor i mai mult un consultant medical, care recomand i monitorizeaz terapiile n func ie de efectele medicamentelor. Hepler i Strand (1990) au observat c accentul se mut de la distribu ia medicamentelor la asisten a acordat pacien ilor. b) Evolu ia pacien ilor. Dei pacien ii sunt influen a i de prescriptori, doctorii, care n majoritatea cazurilor (cu excep ia OTCurilor medicamente care nu necesit re et, i a nutraceuticelor), aleg pentru ei (Prejmerean, 2008), ei sunt din ce n ce mai implica i n sistemul de sntate, i mai interesa i de calitatea serviciilor pe care le primesc. Conform clasificrii rela iei doctorpacient, propus de Charles et al. (1999), Gafni et al. (1998), Mooney and Ryan (1993) i Shmueli (2007) se disting; rela ii paternaliste, n care doctorul ac ioneaz, pe baza unor informa ii complete, n numele pacientului, ca un agent perfect; mpr irea deciziei, situa ie n care cei doi schimb informa ii i decid mpreun; decizia informat, pe care autorii men iona i o consider cel mai ilustrativ caz al comportamentului consumatorului n sistemul de sntate (doctorul prezint informa iile, iar pacientul alege n mod ra ional); i decizia luat doar de pacient, cnd pacientul folosete surse alternative de informare, altele dect consultarea 168

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chooses on his own we may say that there is a shift from the paternalistic model to the informed decision making and also, in the context of the proliferation of naturist therapies, for instance, to the patient alone model. Prin urmare, pacientul este mai responsabil fa de tratamentul su i, astfel, ac ioneaz ca orice alt consumator, avnd ateptri privind calitatea i pre ul pltit. c)Particularit ile lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare. n orice industrie, lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare devine efectiv din momentul n care produsul trece de la furnizor la distribuitor pn la consumatorul final. n industria farmaceutic, nainte de producerea efectiv a medicamentelor, putem s amintim lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare n cercetarea i dezvoltarea farmaceutic (Shah, 2003), cu o durat medie de 17 ani, perioad n care prototipul trece prin teste, testri clinice, ob inerea de autoriza ii etc. Multe medicamente aflate n perioada de testare se pierd de-a lungul acestui lan de aprovizionare-livrare, care, de fapt, nici nu este reprezentat fizic, ci se bazeaz pe colectarea de informa ii i pe managementul informa iilor (Alshawi, Saez-Pujol, Irani, 2003). Dup ce medicamentul este produs i aprobat pentru distribu ie, intervin dou tipuri de produc ie, primar, a substan ei active, i secundar, a formulei farmaceutice. Fiecare implic existen a unui lan al aprovizionrii i livrrii. Din punctul de vedere al consumatorului, suntem interesa i de al doilea tip de produc ie, n care substan a activ devine medicament disponibil pe pia . n ceea ce privete distribu ia medicamentelor, Aptel i Pourjalali (2003) identific, n cazul distribu iei ctre unit ile sanitare, trei posibilit i: spitale: unde distribuitorul livreaz n cantit i mari, ceea ce implic pentru spital costuri mari de stocare i dificult i

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n centralizarea fluxului medicamentelor ctre departamente cu specialit i diferite; departamentul medical: scade stocul de medicamente i se fluidizeaz coordonarea, fiindc departamentul i administreaz stocurile independent de spital; Thus, patients are more responsible towards their treatment and tend to act as any other customers, requesting the quality they deserve for the price they pay. c)Supply chain particularities. In any industry, the supply chain is active from the moment the good is supplied to a distributor, to the moment it reaches the end consumer. In the pharmaceutical industry, before the good is actually produced, we may speak of the pharmaceutical R&D supply chain (Shah, 2003), lasting for about 17 years, period in which the prototype undergoes tests, clinical trials, gets approvals, etc. Many virtual drugs are actually lost along this supply chain, which is non-physical, based on information gathering and information management (Alshawi, SaezPujol, Irani, 2003). After the good is produced, and approved for distribution, two other types of production, primary (ingredient) production and secondary (formulation) production, are intertwined. Each of them implies the existence of a supply chain. From the point of view of the consumers, we are interested in the second production, through which the active substance becomes the medicine which is available on the market. As far as the drugs distribution is concerned, Aptel and Pourjalali (2003) identified, in the case of distribution to healthcare units, three possibilities: to hospital, when the distributor delivers large quantities to the hospital, which implies large inventory costs for the latter, and difficulties in centralizing the flows

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Trecerea dintre aceste dou nivele, recunoscut de distribuitor ca o cretere a vnzrilor, depinde de mrimea popula iei, de pre ul mediu al productorului, de cheltuielile individuale cu sntatea, i de disponibilitatea i accesibilitatea produselor-substitut. daily replenishment, when the distributor delivers only the minimum amount of drugs which would enable the hospital to work properly and resupplies on a daily basis, or upon demand. In this case, the hospital has to operate with minimum inventories, but this method entails the risk of not estimating the demand right, and the responsibility of maintaining a close and good quality relationship with the distributor. If we consider not only the hospitals, but the entire pharmaceutical market, following Desiraju et al. (2004), then the efficiency of distribution is connected with the diffusion of the drug in the market, which impacts on the total and periodical demand. Different diffusion speeds are assigned to drugs delivered to: general stores/ supermarkets. This is the case of nutraceuticals (for an explanation of the term, see Prejmerean, 2008), selfcare products, and some of the OTC drugs. A competition for the pharmaceutical supply chain is, thus, arising. And the market for the outsidethe-pharmacy sales of non-prescription drugs, according to the 2007 edition of the OTC Distribution in Europe, is growing; large pharmaceutical chains, including virtual pharmacies; individuals, based on a medical letter. These diffusion speeds move the product (the drug) from an initial level of market penetration (mp0) to an intermediate level of market penetration (mpi). The diffusion speed can be, then, defined as the difference between the two market penetration values (approximated by market shares) and the interval of time in which the market share increases.

of medicines to different specialized units; to medical department, which decreases the inventories stocked by a department and fluidizes the flows management, as the department manages its own amount of drugs and does not ask the hospital to deliver them; aprovizionare zilnic: distribuitorul livreaz zilnic ctre spital o cantitate minim de medicamente care i dau posibilitatea spitalului s func ioneze normal i l realimenteaz la cerere. n acest caz, spitalul opereaz cu un stoc minim, dar aceast metod este nso it de riscul unei estimri greite a cererii i de responsabilitatea men inerii unei rela ii apropiate i de calitate cu distribuitorul. Dac, pe lng spitale, lum n calcul ntreaga pia farmaceutic, conform lui Desiraju et al. (2004), eficien a distribu iei este n legtur direct cu penetrarea medicamentelor pe pia , ceea ce influen eaz cererea total i periodic. Viteza de penetrare este diferit, ca urmare a livrii medicamentelor ctre: magazine generale/supermarketuri. Acesta este cazul nutraceuticelor (pentru explicarea termenului, vezi Prejmerean, 2008), produse de ntre inere, i cteva produse de tip OTC. Prin urmare, concuren a pe lan ul de aprovizionarelivrare este n cretere, potrivit edi iei 2007 a OTC Distribution in Europe, prin intrarea altor juctori, n afar de farmacii; lan urile mari de farmacii, inclusiv farmacii virtuale; indivizi, pe baza unor scrisori medicale. Viteza de penetrare indic viteza cu care produsul se deplaseaz ntre nivelul ini ial de penetrare a pie ei (mp0) i un nivel intermediar de penetrare a pie ei (mpi). Viteza de penetrare poate fi, deci, definit drept diferen a dintre cele dou nivele de penetrare (aproximate de cotele de pia ) i intervalul de timp n care se nregistreaz creterea.

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The transition between these two levels, which is recognized by the supplier/distributor as a growth in sales, depends on the size of the population, the average price charged by the manufacturer of the drug, the average healthcare expenditures per capita and the availability and accessibility of substitute products. Trei dintre aceti factori (popula ia, cheltuielile individuale cu sntatea i disponibilitatea i accesibilitatea produselor-substitut) depind de pia , n timp ce pre ul mediu al productorului depinde de companie, n nite condi ii fixate de pia (pentru o analiz detaliat a formrii pre ului pe pia a farmaceutic, vezi Prejmerean, 2008). Analizm aceti patru factori, i influen a lor asupra lan ului de aprovizionare-livrare, reflectat n vnzri, construind, astfel, o conexiune ntre dobndirea unui nou client i ob inerea profitului. 1. Metodologie Folosind date ob inute prin sondaj i date de la Institutul Na ional de Statistic, am studiat pia a romneasc a produselor farmaceutice ntre 2001 i 2005, lund n considerare cele trei variabile mai sus men ionate, mrimea popula iei (population), valoarea medie a cheltuielilor pentru sntate pe care le face o persoan (expenditure) i disponibilitatea i accesibilitatea produselorsubstitut (substitutes). n cazul ultimei variabile, disponibilitatea i accesibilitatea produselor-substitut a fost apreciat pe o scal Likert, unde 1 nseamn greu disponibil i accesibil, iar 5 nseamn uor disponibil i accesibil. Sondajul a fost efectuat n perioada februarie-martie 2008, pe un eantion de 77 de pacien i din Bucureti (69%) i din Jude ul Ilfov (31%), din care 56% femei i 44% brba i. Grupa de vrst predominant (39%) a fost 51-60 ani, 23% dintre responden i au ntre 41 i 50 de ani, 21% ntre 31 i 40 de ani, i 11% au peste 60 ani i 6% sub 30 de ani.

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41% dintre responden i sunt absolven i de liceu, 34% sunt absolven i de gimnaziu i 25% absolven i de facultate. Datele ob inute pe baz de sondaj s-au referit la cheltuielile pentru sntate i la disponibilitatea i accesibilitatea produselor substitut. Three of these factors (population, average healthcare expenditure per capita, and the availability of substitute products) are market-dependent, while the average price is business-dependent, taking into account the influences of the market (for a thorough analysis of price formation, see Prejmerean, 2008). We examine these four factors and their influence on the pharmaceutical supply chain, on the Romanian market, by means of the relationship with the diffusion speed, which is reflected in the sales of pharmaceuticals, building the connection between creating a customer and obtaining a profit. 1. Methodology Using survey data and data from the National Institute of Statistics, we studied the Romanian pharmaceutical market between 2001 and 2005, considering the three variables mentioned before, the size of the population (population), the average healthcare expenditure per capita (expenditure) and the availability and accessibility of substitute products (substitutes). For the last variable, the general availability and accessibility of substitute products, we used a Likert scale, where 1 stays for hardly available and accessible, and 5 for easily available and accessible. The survey was conducted in February-March 2008, on a sample of 77 patients from Bucharest (69%) and Ilfov county (31%), out of which 56% were females and 44% were males. The predominant age group (39%) was that of 51-60 years, 23% of the respondents are aged between 41 and 50, 21% between 31 and 40, 11% are over 60, and 6% are under 30 years.

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referred to the healthcare expenditures and to the availability and accessibility of the substitute products. The descriptive statistics for the three variables is presented in Table no. 1 below: Tabelul 1 N Minimum 21623849 3.76 2 Maximum 22408393 12.15 4 Mean 21824020.00 7.4220 3.20 Std. Deviation 328981.08 3.5356 .84

41% of the respondents have graduated high-school, 34% are gymnasium graduates, and 25% are higher education graduates. Data collected by means of this survey Statistica descriptiv pentru aceste trei variabile este prezentat n tabelul 1:

Statistic descriptiv (Descriptive statistics)

POP EXPEND SUBST Valid N (listwise)

5 5 5 5

Valoarea testului Cronbach Alpha pentru acest set de variabile este 0.71, ceea ce arat c analiza este sigur, din punct de vedere statistic. Am analizat cinci produse farmaceutice, de uz general (antipiretice, analgezice, antibiotice, antiinflamatoare i vitamine, notate generic cu P1, P2, P3, P4, P5), a cror varian , dup pre i cota de pia , n perioada 2001-2005, este prezentat n tabelul 2:

The value of the Cronbachs Alpha for this set of variables is 0.71, which accounts for the reliability of the analysis. We analyzed five pharmaceutical products, of general use (antipyretics, analgesics, antibiotics, anti-inflammatory and vitamins, generically designated by P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5), whose variance in price and market share, during the 2001-2005 period, is presented in Table 2 below:

Varian a procentual, dup pre i cota de pia , a cinci produse farmaceutice (Percentage variation in price and market share, for five pharmaceutical products) Tabelul 2 Produse Creterea pre ului Creterea cotei de mediul al productorului pia (%) (%) P1 21 14 P2 14.3 22.7 P3 12.5 17.4 P4 31 12.3 P5 24.6 15.1 Pe baza acestor caracteristici ale variabilelor alese, am aplicat un model de 172 regresie multivariat, pentru a determina dependen a creterii cotei de pia (ca Amfiteatru Economic

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estimator al vitezei de penetrare a pie ei) de ceilal i patru factori men iona i. Based on these variables characteristics, we applied a multivariate regression model, in order to trace the increase in market share (increase in diffusion speed) dependence on the four factors mentioned above.

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2. Rezultate i comentarii Rezultatele regresiei multivariate sunt prezentate n tabelul 3: 2. Results and comments The results of the multivariate regression are presented in Table no. 3:

Coeficien ii modelului de regresie (Multivariate regression coefficients) Tabelul 3

Unstandardized Coefficients Model (Constant) POP 1 EXPEND SUBST PRICE B 4094.006 -1.770.004 7.333 -105.775 3.395 Std. Error .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 -14.460 6.437 -21.970 6.385 Standardized Coefficients Beta . . . . . . . . . . t Sig.

Modelul de regresie poate fi, deci, exprimat ca: SHARE = -14.460POP + 6.437EXPEND 21.970SUBST + 6.385PRICE + constant Dup cum se poate observa, n determinarea vitezei de penetrare a pie ei, reflectat n creterea cotei de pia , prezen a produselor substitut, disponibilitatea i accesibilitatea lor are cea mai puternic influen negativ, urmat de influen a negativ a mrimii popula iei (cu ct este mai mare pia a, cu att este mai dificil s penetrezi). Cheltuielile de sntate, pe cap de persoan au un efect pozitiv, la fel i pre ul, fapt care poate fi explicat prin statutul de bunuri de lux pe care-l au majoritatea produselor de auto-ngrijire i a medicamentelor care se prescriu fr re et, oamenii fiind nclina i s cread c un pre mai mare nseamn o calitate mai

bun. n cazul medicamentelor care sunt percepute de consumatori ca bunuri de necesitate, pre ul este un factor fr relevan , deoarece clien ii vor cumpra produsul, indiferent de varia iile pre ului. The regression model can, then, be expressed as: SHARE = -14.460POP + 6.437EXPEND 21.970SUBST + 6.385PRICE + constant As it can be seen, in determining the diffusion speed, which is reflected in the growth in market share, the presence of the substitutes, their availability and accessibility have the strongest negative influence, followed by the negative influence of the population (the larger the market, the more difficult to penetrate). Health expenditure per capita has a positive effect, and price also has a positive effect, which may be explained

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by the status of luxury goods that most of the self-care and OTC drugs tend to have, people being inclined to see the price as the guarantee for a better quality. In the case of the drugs which are perceived as necessity goods, the price is indifferent, as people will continue to buy the product, regardless the increases in price.
2.0 14 21 1.5 1.0 .5 0.0 -.5 17 12

Rezultatele analizei ANACOR a rela iei dintre pre i penetrarea pie ei sunt prezentate n figura 1: The results of the ANACOR analysis of the relationship price-market penetration are presented in Figure no. 1:

Row and Column Scores

15 24

16 21 13 20 23 30 19 22 29 18 28 17 27 26 15 25

12 31

Dimension 2

-1.0 -1.5 -2.0 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 22 14 PRICE SHARE

Dimension 1
Canonical normalization

Figura 1 Scorurile ob inute prin metoda ANACOR pentru cota de pia i pre (The ANACOR scores for share and price)

Distribu ia din figur arat c pre ul i cota de pia au acelai nivel de iner ie. Propor ia din varian a fiecreia care este explicat de corela ia dintre ele este de 0.25. Reprezentarea curbei cotei de pia , n func ie de cheltuielile cu sntatea, cel de-al doilea element cu coeficient pozitiv din modelul de regresie, este reprezentat n figura 2:
SHARE
24 22

As it can be seen from the figure, the share and the price have the same inertia level. The proportion from the variance of each explained by the correlation between them is 0.25. The curve fit of share, depending on healthcare expenditures, the second positive element of the regression model, is shown in Figure no. 2:

20

18

16

14 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Observed Linear

EXPEND

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Figura 2 Curba de fit a cotei de pia n func ie de cheltuielile individuale cu sntatea (The curve fit of share, depending on expenditure)

Dup cum se observ, corela ia linear nu explic ntr-un mod corespunztor rela ia dintre cota de pia i cheltuielile individuale cu sntatea, rela ie care e puternic nelinear. Cu alte cuvinte, mecanismele pie ei farmaceutice nu sunt complet exprimate prin modelul de regresie, ceea ce constituie principala limitare a acestui studiu. Concluzii Dei managementul aprovizionrii i livrrii, n industria farmaceutic, prezint particularit i importante, ele au doar o influen moderat asupra penetrrii produselor pe pia , fiindc modelul de regresie scoate n eviden aceiai factori la care ne-am atepta n cazul oricrui produs. Aceast constatare nu implic, totui, faptul c mecanismele pie ei produselor farmaceutice sunt, n totalitate, aceleai cu ale unei alte pie e, deoarece, plecnd de la particularit ile pe care leam eviden iat, putem afirma c modelele lineare nu explic n totalitate mecanismele care guverneaz pia a produselor farmaceutice, iar efectele de curb trebuie cutate, printre alte surse, i n aspectele specifice managementului aprovizionrii i livrrii n acest sector.

As it can be seen, the linear correlation doesnt explain properly the relationship between market share and healthcare expenditure per capita, which is strongly non-linear. In other words, the mechanisms on the pharmaceutical market are not totally expressed by means of regression models, which accounts for one of the main limitations of the study. Conclusions Although the logistics and supply chain management, in the pharmaceutical industry, exhibits important particularities, these have only a moderate influence on the products diffusion in the market, as the regression model incriminates the factors which are, normally, influential for the diffusion of any good. Still, linear models dont explain totally the mechanisms governing the pharmaceutical market, and the curve effects have to be sought for, among others, in the specific aspects of the logistics and supply chain in this industry.

References [1] Alshawi, S., Sauez-Pujol, I., Irani, Z., Data warehousing in decision support for pharmaceutical R&D supply chain. International Journal of Information Management, 23 (3): 259-268, 2003 [2] Aptel, O., Pourjalali, H., Improving activities and decreasing costs of logistics in hospitals. A comparison of US and French Hospitals. The International Journal of Accounting, 36:65-90, 2001 [3] Booth, R., The role of supply chain reengineering in the pharmaceutical industry. Logistics Information Management, 9 (3):4-10, 1996

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[4] Charles, C., Gafni, A., Whelan, T., Decision-making in the physician-patient encounter: revisiting the shared treatment decision-making model. Social Sciences and Medicine, 49: 651-66, 1999 [5] Desiraju, R., Nair, H., Chintagunta, P., Diffusion of new pharmaceutical drugs in developing and developed nations. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 21: 341357, 2004 [6] Gafni, A., Charles, C., Whelan, T., The physician-patient encounter: the physician as a perfect agent for the patient vs. the informed treatment decision-making model. Social Sciences and Medicine, 47: 347-354, 1998 [7] Ketikidis, O.H., Koh, S.C.L., Dimitriadis, N., Gunasekaran, A., Kehajova, M., The use of information systems for logistics and supply chain management in South-Eastern Europe: Current status and future direction. Omega. The international Journal of Management Science, 76 (4):592-599, 2008 [8] Lamming, R., Japanese supply chain relationships in recession. Long Range Planning, 33 (6): 757-778, 2000 [9] Mooney, G., Ryan, M., Agency in health care: getting beyond first principles. Journal of Health Economics, 12: 125-135, 1993 [10] Prejmerean, M., Marketingul produselor de uz veterinar, Tez de doctorat, ASE Bucureti, 2007 [11] Shah, N., Pharmaceutical supply chain. Key issues and strategies for optimization. Computer & Chemical Engineering, 28 (6-7):929-941, 2003 [12] Shaqha, W.M.S., Zairi, M., Pharmaceutical care management: a modern approach to providing seamless and integrated health-care. International Journal of Healthcare Quality Assurance, 14 (7):282-30, 2001 [13] Shmueli, A., The demand for clinical information and involvement in medical treatment decision-making: An empirical examination in the general population. Journal of Socio-Economics, disponibil online pe www.sciencedirect.com, accesat la: 17.02. 2008.

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PARTICULARIT ILE LOGISTICII N COMER UL ELECTRONIC

(The particularities of logistics related to e-commerce) Asist. univ. drd. Irina (Albstroiu) Mrun elu Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia irina_albastroiu@yahoo.com Rezumat Ctigurile n materie de productivitate i de eficien generate de comer ul electronic pe ansamblul economiei sunt att de promi toare nct practic orice ncercare de a ignora acest nou canal de derulare a vie ii de afaceri ar fi contraproductiv. ntreprinderile trebuie s accelereze ncorporarea noilor tehnologii informa ionale n strategiile lor de afaceri, i implicit n desfurarea activit ilor logistice, pentru c, n prezent, aceasta pare a fi solu ia cea mai bun pentru valorificarea avantajelor actualului val de globalizare. Organizarea logistic, structural i func ional, n cazul comer ului electronic, trebuie s respecte astfel cerin ele impuse de particularit ile acestei forme moderne de comercializare, dar i s se adapteze modelului de comer electronic adoptat de firme, precum i produselor i serviciilor comercializate de ctre acestea prin Internet. Acest articol prezint rolul i caracteristicile specifice sistemului logistic n comer ul electronic. Astfel, lucrarea are n vedere reliefarea diferen elor esen iale dintre activit ile logistice n cazul comer ului electronic i sistemul logistic n cazul formelor tradi ionale de comercializare a bunurilor i serviciilor, pe baza analizrii caracteristicilor i tendin elor e-commerce i a impactului inova iilor permise de comer ul electronic asupra desfurrii tranzac iilor comerciale. De asemenea, articolul accentueaz diferen ierea, din punct de vedere logistic, dintre modelele e-commerce, generat n special de dou aspecte: raportul dintre valoarea produsului i cheltuielile sale de transport i complexitatea inventarului. Cuvinte cheie: comer electronic, sistem logistic, livrare, transport, inventar Clasificare JEL: L81, L86, O33 Abstract The gains related the productiveness and efficiency generated by the e-commerce on the economy ensemble are so promising so that practically any attempt to ignore this new channel of business life development would be against productiveness. The companies must accelerate the incorporation of the new informational technologies in business strategies, and in their logistics activities, because, at present, this seems to be the most efficient solution for the rendering more valuable the advantages of the present globalization wave. The structural and functional organization of logistics related to electronic commerce has to comply with the requirements imposed by the particularities of this modern form of commerce and adapt to a specific model of electronic commerce and to the characteristics of products and services transacted through Internet

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This article presents the function and specific characteristics of the logistics system related to electronic commerce. Thus this article aims to present the essential differences between the logistics activities required by the electronic commerce and traditional form of commerce based on the characteristics and trends of e-commerce and the impact of innovations supported by the electronic commerce upon transactional processes. The article emphasizes the difference between specific models of electronic commerce in terms of the ratio product value/transportation expenses and the complexity of inventory. Key words: electronic commerce, logistics system, delivery, transport, inventory. JEL classification: L81, L86, O33 Introducere Convergen a economiei informaionale prin TIC (Tehnologii Informa ionale i Comunica ionale), Internet i comer electronic devine tot la fel de important n transformri ca i revolu ia industrial. Aceasta continu s schimbe peisajul economic mondial i s reconfigureze structurile de organizare. Impactul comer ului electronic, vector al acestei noi economii, asupra firmelor i asupra societ ii este deosebit, att ca ntindere, ct i ca intensitate. Pentru firme, comer ul electronic ofer ocazii unice de reorganizare a afacerilor, de redefinire a pie elor sau de creare de noi pie e. Ini iativele de comer electronic pot genera scderi ale costurilor, creteri ale veniturilor i eficien opera ional pentru companiile care urmresc s dobndeasc un avantaj competitiv n mediul economic. Comer ul electronic devine astfel cheia competitivit ii ntreprinderilor n era digital, asigurnd accesul la noi segmente de pia , creterea vitezei de derulare a afacerilor, flexibilitatea ridicat a politicilor comerciale, reducerea costurilor de aprovizionare, de desfacere i de publicitate, simplificarea procedurilor etc. Comer ul electronic a revolu ionat nu doar modul de vnzare a mrfurilor, ci i modalit ile de livrare. Activit ile logistice, cele mai pu in vizibile i spectaculoase din perspectiva utilizatorului obinuit al site-urilor de comer electronic, sunt totui parte a unor func ii critice ale firmelor ce practic aceast form de comer modern [1]. Consumatorii solicit produse personalizate, livrate rapid i cu o mare flexibilitate a modalit ii de plasare a comenzii.

Introduction The convergence of the informational economy through ICT (Information and Communication Technology), Internet and electronic commerce becomes as important in transformations as the industrial revolution. This continues to change the world economic environment and to recompose its organizational structures. The impact of the electronic commerce, new economy vector, upon the companies and upon society is of a great importance both as extent and as intensity. For the companies, the electronic commerce offers unique opportunities of reorganizing the businesses, of redefining the markets or of creation of new markets. The initiatives of electronic commerce can generate decrease of the costs, increase of the earnings and operational efficiency for those companies which aim at getting an competitive advantage within the nowadays economic environment. The electronic commerce is the key for enterprises competitivity in the informational era, insuring the access to new market segments, increasing the speed of developing business, the increased flexibility of commercial policies, decreasing the provisioning, sale

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and advertising costs, simplifying the procedures etc. Electronic commerce not only revolutionized the way goods are sold, but how they are delivered. Logistic activities, the least glamorous and visible for common Internet user, are the most critical functions in electronic commerce [1]. Customers demand customized products delivered at very high speed with complete order flexibility. Clien ii on-line de astzi doresc urmrirea comenzii instantaneu din momentul apsrii pe butonul de cumprare i pn n momentul n care produsele comandate le sunt livrate, vor s determine costurile i timpul de livrare necesar i s redirec ioneze comenzile. Transmiterea puterii de la vnztor la cumprtor creaz astfel o nou era a ateptrilor, iar cumprtorii, fie c sunt consumatori individuali sau firme, nu vor mai tolera experien e negative precum transmiterea par ial a pachetelor de produse comandate, ntrzierea livrrii sau politicile de returnare necorespunztoare [1]. Dezvoltarea comer ului electronic impune astfel o transformare radical a logisticii tradi ionale, ce trebuie adaptat noilor cerin e, comer ul electronic impunnd o abordare activ, flexibil i structural a logisticii, n func ie de modelul e-commerce i de tipul produselor i serviciilor comercializate. 1. Intercondi ionrile dintre comer ul electronic i logistic Comer ul electronic a devenit rapid un instrument de importan strategic pentru ntreprinderi. Op iunea pentru comer ul electronic presupune dezvoltarea i implementarea unor arhitecturi informa ionale interorganiza ionale bazate pe utilizarea Tehnologiilor Informa ionale i de

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Comunica ie (TIC) i ndeosebi a tehnologiei Internet n procesele de realizare a tranzac iilor comerciale, i, implicit, n activit ile sistemului logistic. Comer ul electronic joac i un rol structurant n func ionarea ntreprinderilor i determin organiza iile s reconsidere fluxurile informa ionale i mecanismele de coordonare. Procesele i rela iile sunt astfel organizate pe baze noi ceea ce presupune importante schimbri organiza ionale. Procesele sunt integrate ntr-un lan de valoare bazat pe comer ul electronic. Todays online customers want to be able to track their orders instantly from the moment they click the Buy button until the moment the package arrives on their doorstep, determine delivery costs and time-in-transit and be able to reroute packages. The shift of power from the seller to the buyer is creating a new era of expectations, and buyers, whether they are consumers or businesses, will not tolerate experiences such as partial shipments of goods, delivering delay or poor product return policies [1]. Ecommerce development requires a radical transformation of traditional logistics; electronic commerce demands an agile, high-velocity, granular approach to logistics and adaptation to specific models of electronic commerce and to the characteristics of products and services transacted through Internet.

1. Inter-conditionings between electronic commerce and logistics E-commerce quickly becomes an instrument of strategic importance for companies. Choosing e-commerce supposes developing and deploying intercompanies architectures supported by the use of information technologies and communications (IT&C) and especially

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de e-commerce, fa de logistica tradi ional, se refer la: - numrul mai mare de pachete (colete) mici, cantitativ i dimensional, revenind unui numr mai mare de cumprtori ce fac comenzi direct de la productor; - mai mul i cumprtori necunoscu i, anonimi pentru vnztori; - cererea este cu att mai imprevizibil i mai instabil cu ct aceasta provine de la mai mul i cumprtori on-line; Many enterprises restructure their value chain via e-commerce in order to generate added value. The Web value chain eliminates intermediaries and thus gets close to the end-user, the evolution to a web value chain (WVC) becoming a reality for many enterprises [3]. The economic relevance of ecommerce consists but mostly in the changes which it induces in the functioning of the enterprises which assimilate it. Following these changes, major increases of productivity are generated by means of the efficiency of the economic processes and reducing of company costs, resulting especially from: decreased expenses for set up and administration of a virtual company (comparative to a physical company), reduction of costs afferent to the management of the stocks (by adopting the just-in-time systems), a better prediction of the market demand, increase of efficiency and reduction of the time for administration of orders, increase of sale process efficiency, decrease of the costs of post-sale services, reduction of distribution costs for electronically delivered products, such as financial services, software, etc. Major characteristics of ecommerce [1], compared with traditional commerce, that impose new requirements on logistics services, compared with traditional logistics, are:

by the Internet technology in commercial transactions and in logistics activities. E-commerce also plays a structurant role in the functioning of enterprises determines the organizations to reconsider the information flows and the coordination mechanisms. The processes and relationships are thus organized on new bases, which means important organizational changes. The processes are integrated in a chain value based on e-commerce. Multe ntreprinderi i restructureaz lan ul de valoare, via comer ul electronic, pentru a genera valoare adugat. Aceasta elimin intermediarii i se apropie astfel de consumatorul final, evolu ia ctre un lan de valoare Web (LVW) devenind pentru multe ntreprinderi o realitate [3]. Astfel, relevan a economic a comer ului electronic rezid i n schimbrile pe care le induce n func ionarea ntreprinderilor care l asimileaz. Ca urmare a acestor schimbri, sporuri majore de productivitate sunt generate prin eficientizarea proceselor economice i reducerea costurilor la nivel de firm, aceste reduceri rezultnd ndeosebi din: cheltuielile mai reduse de nfiin are i de gestionare a unei firme virtuale (comparativ cu o firm fizic), reducerea costurilor aferente managementului stocurilor (prin adoptarea sistemelor just-intime), mai buna previzionare a cererii de pe pie e, creterea eficien ei i reducerea timpului de administrare a comenzilor, creterea eficien ei procesului de vnzare, scderea costurilor serviciilor post-vnzare, reducerea costurilor de distribu ie n cazul produselor livrate pe cale electronic, cum ar fi serviciile financiare, software-ul etc. Principalele caracteristici ale comer ului electronic [1], ntr-o abordare comparativ cu forma clasic de comercializare, care impun noi cerin e sistemului logistic ce sus ine activitatea

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- larger number of small parcels or packages due to a larger number of buyers making direct orders from producers; - larger number of on-line customers, mostly unknown to the sellers; - demand for shipments is much more unpredictable and unstable since it originates from more numerous customers; - originea i destina ia pachetelor de produse comandate on-line este considerabil mai dispersat avnd n vedere c mai mul i cumprtori plaseaz comenzi on-line direct ctre productori i distribuitori i mai mul i vnztori interac ioneaz direct, la nivel global, cu internau ii; - responsabilitatea onorrii comenzilor on-line se extinde la nivelul ntregului lan de aprovizionare-livrare, comparativ cu logistica tradi ional, n cazul creia responsabilitatea se limiteaz la anumite verigi ale lan ului; - consumatorii au ateptri mai mari n privin a calit ii serviciilor complementare i solicit o mai mare rapiditate a livrrilor; - o inciden mai mare a coletelor returnate, fa de comer ul tradi ional; - cererea mai mare de informa ii, dar i o mai mare disponibilitate a informa iilor privind parcursul comenzii pe ntregul lan de aprovizionare-livrare; - preocuparea pentru marketingul direct, ceea ce genereaz cerere pentru modalit i de livrare i servicii post-tranzac ie personalizate; - complexitatea proceselor implicate n onorarea comenzilor interna ionale, fa de comer ul tradi ional, ceea ce determin reticen a i precau ia vnztorilor i prestatorilor de servicii on-line privind comer ul interna ional; - apari ia cerin elor legate de procesarea on-line a comenzii, inclusiv rezervarea

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mrfurilor, calcularea pre urilor i managementul tarifelor; - creterea substan ial a volumului comenzilor mici, cantitativ i dimensional, conducnd la creterea cererii pentru spa ii de depozitare i alte infrastructuri logistice care permit manipularea unui numr mai mare de colete mai mici; - posibilit i mai mari de autoservire (n sensul de personalizare). - origins and destinations of shipments are more widely dispersed, given that more buyers place direct orders with producers and distributors and more sellers access buyers globally; - accountability for shipments extends through the entire supply chain, compared with traditional logistics in which accountability is limited to single links of the supply chain; - customers have high expectations about quality of services and demand fast delivery of shipments; - higher incidence of cargoes returned to the supplier than in traditional trade; - greater demand for and availability of information covering transactions over entire supply chain, thus allowing on-line shipment tracking and other supply chain management functions; - greater focus on one-to-one marketing, which creates demand for customized delivery and post-transaction customer services; - greater complexity in fulfilling international orders than in traditional trade, thus preventing some retailers and service providers from being involved in international e-commerce;

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Cele trei tipuri de inova ii permise de comer ul electronic i cele trei etape ale tranzac iei pot fi inter-rela ionate [2], iar matricea rezultat (fig. 1) arat interac iunea dintre logistic i comer ul electronic prin aceste elemente.

- the emergence of demand for on-line processing of shipments, including cargo booking, price calculations and tariff management; - substantial increase in the volume of small shipments, leading to growth of demand for warehousing transport and other logistics infrastructure that can handle larger volumes of small shipments; - greater scope for customer self-service. Comer ul electronic permite ca tranzac iile pe pie e diverse s se realizeze n moduri diferite fa de comer ul clasic. n sens larg, inova ia generat de comer ul electronic poate fi de trei tipuri, astfel [Dantuma i Hawkins, 2001]: inova ie a produsului (implic dezvoltarea de noi produse/servicii i/sau de noi caracteristici ale acestora); inova ie a procesului (se refer la concep ia i realizarea produselor/serviciilor); inova ie a rela iilor (se refer la noi modalit i i metode pentru interac iunea vnztoricumprtori pe pia ). Structura tranzac iilor comerciale, asupra crora se pot aplica aceste inova ii, sau, n unele cazuri, n care apare necesitatea, motiva ia inova iei, este format, de asemenea, din trei elemente (etape) [Dantuma i Hawkins, 2001]: pregtirea tranzac iei (presupune plasarea informa iilor despre produse i servicii pe pia i primirea acestei informa ii de ctre actorii pie ei); realizarea tranzac iei (comprim dou elemente, anume n elegerea/acordul asupra comenzii i modalit ii de plat, i transferul efectiv al produselor/serviciilor de la vnztor la cumprtor); suportul (sprijinirea) produc iei (se refer la preluarea i utilizarea informa iilor legate de tranzac iile desfurate pentru a determina tendin ele pie ei i a sprijini dezvoltarea, produc ia i marketingul produselor i serviciilor tranzac ionate).

E-commerce enables transactions in various marketplaces to be carried out in different ways than before. Innovation is widely held to be of three types [Dantuma and Hawkins, 2001]: product innovation (involves the development of new products and services and/or new product/service features); process innovation (refers to how products and services are designed and made); relational innovation (refers to new modalities and methods for buyer-seller interactions in the marketplace). The transaction structure to which innovation is applied, or in some cases, in which the motivation to innovate is generated, is likewise composed of three distinct elements [Dantuma and Hawkins, 2001]: transaction preparation (involves placing information about products and services in the market, and retrieval of this information by market participants); transaction completion (comprises two components: settlement, refers to ordering and the transfer of payments, and logistics, refers to the transfer of products and services from sellers to buyers; production support (relates to the capture and use of transaction-related data to assess market trends, and to support the development, production and marketing of products and services).

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The three generic innovation types can be related in a matrix (fig. no.1) to the three specific elements of commercial transaction.

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Inova iile Comer ului Electronic (E-commerce Innovations) Inova ia Produsului (Product Innovation) Inova ia Procesului (Process Innovation) Inova ia Rela iei (Relational Innovation)

Elementele Tranzac iei (Transaction Structure) Pregtirea Realizarea Suportul Tranzac iei Tranzac iei Produc iei (Transaction (Production (Transaction Preparation) Completion) Support)

Logistica (Logistics )

Figura 1 Matricea intercondi ionrilor dintre logistic i comer ul electronic (Matrix for inter-conditionings between electronic commerce and logistics) Sursa: Dantuma i Hawkins, 2001 (Adapted after Dantuma and Hawkins, 2001)

Astfel, multe dintre efectele comer ului electronic se plaseaz n aria inova iei procesului, mai ales n legtur cu realizarea tranzac iei i suportul produc iei. Aceast legtur este n concordan cu rolul structural al logisticii, ca func ie a unei ntreprinderi productoare. Un productor care i realizeaz singur partea de logistic va asocia aceste inova ii din aria procesului cu intensificarea acestora, acelai lucru fiind posibil s se ntmple i n cazul firmelor de servicii. Comer ul electronic are i va avea un impact pozitiv asupra eficien ei proceselor i asupra importan ei acordate clientului, acest efect nsemnnd

o mai bun comunicare intern i extern, o mai bun integrare a proceselor de afaceri, o mai mare transparen a acestora, dar i a proceselor logistice fa de client, i, n general, o mai mare flexibilitate a proceselor logistice. Most of the effects lie in the process innovation area, mainly as related to transaction completion and production support. This is consistent with the structural role of logistics as a business function within any individual producer firm. A producer that does its own

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logistics would consider most of the innovations in this area to be process enhancements, and is likely to regard similar innovations in logistics services firms in a similar light. E-commerce has had and will have positive impacts on process efficiency and client care this means internal and external communication, better integration of business processes, more transparency in business processes, more transparency in the logistics process for the client, and generally more flexibility in the logistics process. Comer ul electronic va extinde posibilit ile firmei prin reducerea costurilor i prin realizarea unor servicii mai convenabile pentru client, deci nu neaprat prin creterea volumului vnzrilor. Efectele plasate n aria inova iei produc iei sunt asimilate cu sistemul i interfa a specific (legat de plasarea comenzii, nregistrarea i urmrirea stadiului acesteia) care este disponibil pentru clien i ca o parte integrant a pachetului logistic al afacerii. Ambele elemente (inova ia produc iei i a procesului) necesit ac iuni complementare n aria suportului produc iei. Multe din aceste inova ii sunt orientate spre monitorizarea performan elor, men inerea profitului marginal i controlul calit ii. Legat de inova ia rela iilor, inciden a e-commerce se refer la faptul c multe rela ii logistice, n special cele din lan ul de aprovizionare-livrare, tind s fie rela ii pe termen lung. De asemenea, firmele de logistic ncep s exploateze capacit ile noilor instrumente orientate spre clien i ale marketingului on-line pentru a crete loialitatea acestora, astfel nct s se induc posibilitatea ca utilizatorii s devin strict dependen i de anumi i furnizori de servicii logistice.

2. Particularit ile sistemelor logistice ale modelelor de comer electronic Op iunea pentru comer electronic nseamn i op iunea pentru evolu ia entit ilor: apari ia unor activit i, dispari ia altor activit i, edificarea con inutului unor activit i sau modificarea ordinii de efectuare a unor activit i, managementul sistemelor informa ionale inter-organiza ionale i a tehnologiilor informa ionale i de comunica ie suport etc. Natura acestor schimbri induse de comer ul electronic ine n primul rnd de modelul de comer electronic adoptat. E-commerce will improve business prospects by saving costs and making services more convenient and efficient for customers, rather than necessarily by increasing sales volumes as such. Effects extents in product innovation are in connection with specific interfaces and systems (e.g. ordering, tracking and tracing etc.) that are made available to clients as part of the overall logistics package. Both process and product -related activities require some degree of complementary action in the production support area. Many of these innovations are oriented to performance monitoring, profit margin maintenance, and quality control. The relatively small incidence of relational innovation is consistent with remarks that many logistics relationships, especially in the supply chain, tend to be long-term. Logistics firms are beginning to exploit the capabilities of their marketing client-oriented tools to increase customer loyalty, thus possibly inducing users to become locked in to relationships with particular logistics suppliers.

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2. Particularities of logistics systems related to specific models of electronic commerce The option for e-commerce means also the option for evolution of entities: appearance of some activities, disappearance of other activities, understanding of the contents of some activities or changing of the performing order of some activities, management of inter-organization information systems and of information and communication support-technologies etc. The nature of these changes induced by ecommerce depends first of all on the adopted e-commerce model. Comer ul electronic poate fi desfurat de ctre i ntre trei tipuri de entit i: ntreprinderi, guverne i consumatori, iar principalele rela ii electronice specifice disponibile fiecrei organiza ii n lan ul valorii sunt B2B (ntre ntreprinderi: Business-to-Business), B2C (ntre o ntreprindere i consumatori: Business-toConsumer), B2A (ntre ntreprindere i administra ia guvernamental: Business-toAdministration). De asemenea, mai putem vorbi i despre B2E (ntre firma si angaja ii si: Business-to-Employee), Promotional Media (Medii de stimulare), Portal, C2C (Consumer-to-Consumer), M-com (mobile commerce), ca modele de rela ii electronice. ns, din punct de vedere a particularit ilor logistice intereseaz modelele B2B i B2C. Aspectele specifice fiecrei forme determin i schimbrile impuse sistemului logistic. Modelele B2B utilizeaz re elele informatice (n particular Internetul) pentru efectuarea schimbului de informa ii ntre ntreprinderi (par ial sau integral) i vizeaz furnizorii, subantreprenorii, clien ii, prestatorii de servicii etc. Modelele B2B ale rela iilor de afaceri electronice reprezint n mod curent cel mai mare impact economic msurabil al tehnologiei comer ului electronic. Acestei forme de comer electronic i corespunde modelul rela iilor

tranzac ionale [Florescu i Dumitru, 2007], model care se aplic proceselor de cumprare/vnzare (efectuarea unei comenzi, confirmarea de recep ie a comenzii, notificarea livrrii, trimiterea facturii i eventual executarea pl ii) ntre ntreprinderi angajate ntr-un parteneriat durabil ce efectueaz ntre ele tranzac ii numeroase i dispun de o logistic performant i, respectiv, de o informatizare intern avansat. De asemenea, modelele B2B sunt direct relevante pentru marketingul rela ional n msura n care rela iile sunt, de asemenea, dezvoltate n pie e de furnizori i distribuitori. n mod tipic, E-commerce can also be performed by and between three types of entities: enterprises, governments and consumers and the main specific electronic relationships available to each organization in the value chain are B2B (between enterprises: Business-toBusiness), B2C (between an enterprise and consumers: Business-to-Consumer), B2A (between enterprise and government administration: Business-toAdministration). Other models are B2E (Business-to-Employee), Promotional Media, Portal, C2C (Consumer-toConsumer), M-com (mobile commerce). For logistics approach, B2B and B2C models are important. The aspects specific to each form also determines the organizational changes to be made in enterprises. The B2B models are using the IT networks (especially Internet) for performing the information exchange between enterprises (partially or integrally) and are aiming at the suppliers, subcontractors, clients, service providers etc. B2B models of e-business relationships currently represent the largest measurable economic impact of ecommerce technology. To this form of ecommerce corresponds the model of transactional relationships [Florescu and 185

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comer ului electronic. n acest sens, din punct de vedere logistic, diferen ierea dintre modele este dat n special de dou aspecte: raportul dintre valoarea produsului i cheltuielile sale de transport i complexitatea inventarului. Raportul dintre valoarea produsului i cheltuielile sale de transport este adesea parametrul critic pentru alegerea modelului de comer electronic.

Dumitru, 2007], which applies to the buying/selling processes (making an order, confirmation of receiving the order, notification of delivery, sending the invoice and possibly making the payment) between enterprises engaged in a durable partnership which perform between them numerous transactions and have a higherperformance logistics, respectively an advanced internal informational structure. B2B models are directly relevant to relationship marketing to the extent that relationships are also necessarily developed in supplier and distributor markets. Typically, B2B models are used modelele B2B sunt utilizate pentru a facilita comunicarea intra-canale. Aceste modele se pot baza pe Internet, Intraneturi sau Extraneturi controlate de organiza ie i pot include procesarea i urmrirea comenzilor, plata, controlul inventarului, proiectarea/organizarea transportului, logisticii, precum i sisteme de control, vnzare sau deservire client. Modelele B2C se concentreaz pe utilizarea Internetului i a tehnologiei electronice pentru a crea i a sus ine n mod direct tranzac iile en-detail. La fel ca n modelul B2B, importan a strategic a modelului B2C este dat de interfa a tranzac ional o metod de ob inere i facilitare a vnzrilor i comenzilor direct de la ultimii clien i, n timp ce se elimin sau se reduce necesitatea vnzrii umane directe sau deservirea clien ilor. B2C utilizeaz Internetul pentru rela iile comerciale (publicitate, prezentare catalog, comenzi n linie, pl i electronice, distribu ie, servicii post-vnzare) ntre ntreprindere i consumatorii particulari. Avantajele oferite de Internet cumprtorilor sau vnztorilor depind ntr-o mare masur de caracteristicile produselor i serviciilor tranzac ionate pentru c acestea formeaz nivelul de baz al diferen ierii dintre modelele 186

to facilitate intra-channel communication and efficiency. These models may rely upon the Internet or organizationcontrolled Intranets and Extranets, and can include order processing and tracking, payment, inventory control, logistics and transportation design and control systems, selling or customer service. As in the B2B model, the strategic focus of the B2C model is to serve as a transactional interfacea method of obtaining and facilitating sales and orders directly from ultimate consumers while eliminating or reducing the need for direct human selling or customer service.

B2C uses Internet for commercial relationships (publicity, catalogue presentation, in-line orders, electronic payments, distribution, post-sale services) between the enterprise and private consumers. The benefits offered by the Internet to marketers depend to a large extent upon the characteristics of products and services being marketed, because the goods and services distinction forms the most basic level of differentiation among

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e-commerce concerning the its shipping complexity are approach. models. The issues ratio of product value to costs and inventory important for this logistic

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The ratio of product value to its shipping costs is often the most critical parameter for e-commerce model choice.

Anumi i specialiti [4] au sugerat c produsele scumpe au o mai mare oportunitate de a exploata avantajele tehnologiei comer ului electronic dect articolele ieftine, ns aceast deosebire simplific prea mult adevarata natura a rela iei. n realitate, o msur mai bun a oportunit ii este pre ul sau valoarea produsului n raport cu cheltuielile de transport. n timp ce frigiderele, de exemplu, au pre uri mari, impracticabile pentru depozite centralizate, produsele care au o valoare mic n raport cu cheltuielile lor directe de transport (de exemplu, mobila) pot fi candidate srace pentru modelele de comer electronic centralizat (precum B2C). n timp ce abordrile B2C nu sunt imposibile n aceste condi ii, avantajele oferite de comer ul electronic sunt serios limitate de costuri mari de transport. Eecurile afacerilor riscante ale livrrilor de articole de bcnie B2C, precum Webvan i HomeGrocer, sunt ilustrri ale limitrilor acestui model [Windsor i al ii, 2004]. n viitor se pot dezvolta ns noi modele pentru a distribui n mod eficient aceste produse, utiliznd sisteme de comer electronic ce includ depozite descentralizate. Excep ia de la regula de mai sus ar putea aprea acolo unde clien ii sunt dispui s achizi ioneze cantit i suficient de mari pentru a face livrarea economic. Pentru produsele care au un

raport mare valoare-cheltuieli de transport (de exemplu, cr i, articole de mbrcminte, bijuterii), modelele B2C de comer electronic centralizat realizeaz avantaje formidabile pentru organiza ii. Suplimentar, exist o categorie unic de bunuri care au raporturi infinite valoare-cheltuieli de transport. Aceast categorie de produse se extinde exploziv datorit capacit ii tehnologiei computerelor de a digitaliza bunuri care, nainte de comercializarea pe Internet, erau tangibile sau analoge, precum cr i, muzic i filme. Some specialists [4] have suggested that high-priced products yield a greater opportunity for exploiting the advantages of e-commerce technology than do low-priced items, but this distinction oversimplifies the true nature of the relationship. In reality, a better measure of opportunity is the price or value of the product in relation to its shipping costs. While refrigerators have high prices, for centralized warehouse impractical, products that have a low value in relation to their direct shipping costs (for example, furniture) may be poor candidates for centralized e-commerce models (such as B2C). While B2C approaches are not impossible under these conditions, the advantages offered by ecommerce are severely limited by high shipping costs. Failures of B2C home grocery delivery ventures, such as Webvan and HomeGrocer, are illustrations of the limitations of this model [Windsor et al., 2004]. Nonetheless, new models may be developed in the future to effectively distribute these products using ecommerce systems that include decentralized warehouses. The exception to the above rule would be where customers are willing to purchase large enough quantities to make delivery economically practical. For products that

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parte a planului lor strategic, au cel mai mult de ctigat din beneficiile logistice ale nivelelor nalte de centralizare permise de comer ul electronic (utiliznd un model B2B sau B2C). n plus, avnd n vedere c opera iunile centralizate cu un singur magazin sau depozit permit o mai mare vitez de circula ie a mrfurilor din inventar n compara ie cu opera iunile cu multe magazine sau multe depozite, tehnologiile comer ului electronic care pot facilita aceast centralizare permit afacerilor ce de in n inventar produse diverse s realizeze costuri mult mai mici de depozitare. Downloadable music is creating a popular (if controversial) revolution for both consumers and hardware (MP3) designers; also many books can now be quickly downloaded over the Internet in their entirety. The movie industry is also quickly approaching this same inevitability of distribution channel revolution. For providers of this form of product, B2C retailing using direct distribution channels would appear to be the imminent for the future, due to the tremendous time, place, form, and possession utilities yielded by this model of e-commerce, and the overall channel/transaction efficiencies allowed by this type of product. Inventory complexity also magnifies the benefits available to both B2B and B2C relationship approaches. Due to the efficiencies created through the assortment process, companies with varied products inventories benefit greatly from centralization. Amazon is an excellent example of this economic principle, as it must only carry in inventory a few copies of books with limited demand Traditional bricksand-mortar bookseller chains (such as Barnes and Noble), on the other hand, must carry an inventory of thousands of unique books in each of their many physical stores. Thus, companies that necessarily carry a inventory of diverse

have a high value to shipping cost ratio (for example, books, clothing, jewelry), B2C models of centralized e-commerce yield tremendous advantages to organizations. Additionally, there is a unique and growing category of goods that possess infinite value to shipping cost ratios. This category of product is explosively expanding due to the ability of computer technology to digitize previously tangible or analog goods such as books, music, and movies. Muzica ce poate fi descrcat de pe Internet creeaz o revolu ie popular (chiar dac este controversat) att pentru consumatori, ct i pentru designerii hardware (MP3); de asemenea, multe cr i pot fi acum descrcate n totalitate prin Internet. Industria filmelor se apropie, de asemenea, rapid de aceeai inevitabilitate a revolu iei canalelor de distribu ie. Pentru furnizorii acestei forme de produs, vnzarea cu amnuntul B2C utiliznd canalele directe de distribu ie pare a fi iminent pe viitor, datorit avantajelor extraordinare de timp, spa iu, form i posesie oferite de acest model de comer electronic i eficien elor globale de canal/tranzac ie permise de acest tip de produs. Complexitatea inventarului mrete de asemenea avantajele abordrilor rela ionale B2B i B2C. Datorit eficien ei create prin procesul de sortare, companiile ce de in n depozite produse diverse (variate) au avantaje mari de pe urma centralizrii. Amazon este un exemplu excelent al acestui principiu economic pentru c trebuie s in n inventar doar cteva copii de cr i cu cerere limitat. Pe de alt parte, lan urile de vnzare de cr i crmizi i mortar (precum Barnes i Noble) trebuie s in un inventar de mii de cr i unice n fiecare din numeroasele lor magazine fizice. Astfel, companiile care de in n mod necesar un inventar al unei game diverse de produse, ca

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products as part of their strategic plan have the most to gain from the logistical benefits of the high levels of centralization allowed by e-commerce (using either a B2B or B2C model). Further, since centralized operations with a single store or warehouse can achieve fasteness inventory turnover than can multi-store or multi-warehouse operations, e-commerce technologies that can facilitate this centralization allow businesses with diverse products inventories to realize far lower inventorycarrying costs. n corela ie cu aspectele mai susmen ionate legate de raportul dintre valoarea produsului i cheltuielile sale de transport, aspectele legate de mrimea i complexitatea inventarului pot explica ntr-o mare msur avantajele competitive ale multor firme de comer electronic de succes. O excelent ilustrare este dat de acele organiza ii care vnd cr i i CD-uri de muzic on-line (precum Amazon i CDnow) [Windsor i al ii, 2004]. Un alt factor cu impact asupra avantajelor n modelele B2B i B2C este cererea fiecrui produs specific pe pia a global. Afacerile care au o pia - int sau o cerere a clien ilor foarte limitat pot beneficia n mare masur de pe urma specializrii i expansiunii geometrice a zonei de comer , permise de metodele comer ului electronic, att timp ct pentru specialiti sau organiza ii extreme cu nie foarte mici de pia este dificil s ob in accesul la un numr adecvat de clien i cu metode tradi ionale de vnzare cu amnuntul. Acest avantaj se refer la ceea ce se numete teorie de spa iu central [4], care presupune urmtoarele: cu ct mai concentrat sau mai specializat este o pia de detailiti, cu att mai mare trebuie s fie zona ei de comer pentru a genera un volum suficient de vnzri. Avnd n vedere c e-commerce are poten ialul de a se adresa unei pie e ce cuprinde ntreaga

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popula ie global, afacerile cu pie e specializate vor putea s exploateze complet aceast caracteristic pentru a ob ine un avantaj competitiv. Afacerile cu vnzare de produse specializate par a beneficia astfel mai mult de avantajele oferite de tehnologia comer ului electronic, dect furnizorii produselor cu cerere generalizat. Abordrile B2C pot varia astfel din punct de vedere al dimensiunii avantajelor pe care le ob in din comer ul electronic, depinznd de preferin ele clien ilor individuali pentru interac iunea uman direct. In correlation with the issue of market specialization noted above, the level of inventory size and complexity can largely explain the competitive advantages of many successful ecommerce firms. An excellent illustration is provided by those organizations selling books and music CDs online (such as Amazon and CDnow) [Windsor et al., 2004]. A related factor impacting the benefits available in both the B2B and B2C models is the relative range of appeal of each specific product in the overall market. Businesses that have a very narrow target market or range of customer appeal can greatly benefit from the centralization and geometric expansion of trading area allowed by ecommerce methods, since extreme specialists or organizations with very small market niches typically find it difficult to gain access to an adequate quantity of customers with traditional retail methods. This advantage pertains to what is called central place theory [4], which states that the more focused or specialized a retailers market appeal, the larger its trading area must be to generate sufficient sales volumes. Since e-commerce has the potential to address a market encompassing the entire global population, businesses with very

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calea pentru produse radical noi care pot fi livrate on-line. Op iunea pentru comer ul electronic nseamn ns i alegerea sistemului logistic adecvat modelului de comer electronic i adaptat cerin elor clien ilor legate de flexibilitatea sistemului de comand, rapiditatea livrrii i personalizarea produselor i serviciilor conexe oferite on-line. Most customers do not have the time, energy, or interest to form relationships with the great number of product and service providers they patronize. Given this, the B2C model is likely poorly suited to the low tech-high touch customer segment, which tends to prefer the more traditional face-to-face or affect-based business relationships. In contrast, Web-based retailing is likely to be better received by the high tech-low touch customer segment, which tends to prefer anonymous transactional relationships with minimal personal interaction. To encourage these anonymous transactional relationships, a variety of customer relationship management programs are commonly applied to the electronic market place, including customer service efforts, frequency/loyalty programs, masscustomization (personalized Web sites, customized products), and virtual buyers/sellers team building.

specialized markets will be able to more fully exploit this feature for competitive advantage. Businesses selling highly specialized products are thus far more likely to benefit from the specific advantages offered by e-commerce technology than are purveyors of products with more generalized appeal. B2C approaches are also likely to vary in the magnitude of benefits they receive from e-commerce, depending upon the preferences of individual customers for direct human interaction. Cei mai mul i clien i nu au timpul, energia sau interesul de a forma rela ii cu numrul mare de furnizori de produse i servicii pe care i frecventeaz. Date fiind acestea, modelul B2C este pu in adecvat segmentului de clien i low tech-high touch care tinde s prefere rela iile de afaceri mai tradi ionale, fa n fa sau bazate pe influen . n contrast, vnzarea cu amnuntul bazat pe web se poate s fie mai bine primit de segmentul de clien i high tech-low touch, care tinde s prefere rela ii tranzac ionale anonime cu o interac iune personal minimal. Pentru a ncuraja aceste rela ii tranzac ionale anonime, la pia a electronic se aplic n mod obinuit o varietate de programe de management a rela iei cu clien ii, inclusiv eforturi de deservire rapid a clien ilor, programe de frecven /loialitate, personalizare de mas (web site-uri personalizate, produse personalizate) i construirea on-line a unei adevrate echipe vnztori-cumprtori.

Concluzii Internetul poate deveni astfel o surs ieftin i accesibil de informa ii privind cererea de pe pie e, un mecanism eficient pentru derularea contractelor, pentru deservirea clien ilor, pentru achizi ionarea de produse, pentru creterea eficien ei proceselor de vnzare i de pl i; totodat, poate s deschid

Conclusions Internet can become a cheap and accessible source of information regarding the market demand, an efficient mechanism for contract progress for servicing the clients, for purchase of products, for increase of efficiency of sale and payment processes; at the same time it can open the way to radically new products which can be delivered online. The option for e-commerce means also the option for the adequate logistics

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system, adapted to customer requirements concerning the flexibility of ordering process, rapidity in delivering and customized connected online services.

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References [1] Bayles Deborah, E-commerce logistics and fulfillment: delivering the goods, Prentice Hall, New York, 2001; [2] Dantuma L.M.Y., Hawkins R.W., E-commerce in the logistics sector. Assessing the effects on the logistics value chain, TNO Report 01-41, TNO and Telematica Instituut, Delft, 2001; [3] Florescu Vasile, Dumitru Valentin, Comer ul electronic i impactul organiza ional, Amfiteatru Economic nr.21, Bucureti, 2007; [4] Windsor Robert, Leisen Birgit, Leach Mark, Liu Annie, Corporate and brand web sites as customer relationship management tools: an overview of alternative approaches, Journal of Relationship Marketing, Vol. 3, Nr. 1, Haworth Press Inc., New York, 2004.

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IMPORTAN A LOGISTICII INVERSE PENTRU ACTIVITATEA DE COMER

(The importance of reverse logistics for retail activity) Preparator univ. drd. Mihaela Moise Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia mihaela_moise@yahoo.com Rezumat Logistica invers (LI) se refer la un set de programe sau competen e de inute pentru micarea produselor n direc ie invers n lan ul de distribu ie (ex. de la consumator la productor). Aceasta cuprinde mai mult dect simpla reutilizare a containerelor i a ambalajelor. Reprezint procesul de mutare a produsului din punctul de consum ctre un alt punct, cu scopul de a recupera valoarea rmas sau, eventual, pentru dispunerea corespunztoare a produsului. Stadiul dezvoltrii LI este asemntor cu acela al logisticii de acum 10-20 de ani. Scopul LI s-a extins de atunci de la managementul anumitor servicii, pentru a include diferite preocupri, i a atras n mod semnificativ aten ia majorit ii companiilor. Procesul logisticii inverse poate genera periodic fluxuri negative de numerar care sunt dificil de previzionat i de contabilizat, dar sunt importante n managementul lichidit ii comerciantului. Incertitudinile referitoare la logistica invers creeaz situa ia n care comerciantul poate ntmpina dificult i n respectarea obliga iilor financiare pe termen scurt sau n valorificarea oportunit ilor. Cuvinte cheie: logistic invers, comer cu amnuntul, recuperarea produsului, design de re ea, lichiditate Clasificare JEL: D30, L80, Q27, Q56 Abstract Reverse logistics (RL) refers to a set of programs or competencies aimed at moving products in the reverse direction in the supply chain (i.e., from consumer to producer). It entails more than the mere re-use of containers and the recycling of packaging materials. It is the process of moving a product from the point of consumption to another point for the purpose of recapturing the remaining value, or for the eventual proper disposal of the product. The state of development of RL is analogous to that of inbound logistics between 10 and 20 years ago. The scope of RL has, since, expanded from service parts management to include other areas and has attracted significant attention of a great majority of companies.

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The reverse logistics process can generate periodic negative cash flows that are difficult to predict and account for, but are important when managing retailer liquidity. Uncertainties surrounding reverse logistics create the possibility that the retailer may be strained in meeting short-run financial obligations or opportunities. Key words: reverse logistics, retail activity, product recovery, network design, liquidity JEL Classification: D30, L80, Q27, Q56 achizi ionare a produselor. Canalele directe (de exemplu comer ul electronic), intensific returnarea produselor, pe Introducere msur ce articolele sunt deteriorate n Logistica invers (LI) devine un tranzit sau pur i simplu sunt diferite fa aspect important pentru managementul de ateptrile clien ilor. canalului de distribu ie. Multe companii care, n trecut, nu au acordat timp i energie managementului i n elegerii logisticii inverse, au nceput s i acorde aten ie. Firmele au nceput s colaboreze Introduction Reverse logistics (RL) is pentru opera iunile de returnare cu cei mai becoming an important aspect of supply buni operatori din domeniu. Ter ii, chain management. Many companies that, specializa i n returnarea produselor, au previously, did not devote much time or sesizat creterea semnificativ a cererii energy to the management and pentru serviciile oferite.[1] Firmele lider understanding of reverse logistics have de pia recunosc valoarea strategic a begun to pay attention. Firms have begun sistemului LI pentru returnarea bunurilor to benchmark return operations with bestdeteriorate sau uzate moral. Aceste firme in-class operators. Third parties pot s satisfac nevoile clien ilor cu specializing in returns have seen demand bunuri care au cerere pe pia , respectiv for their services greatly increased.[1] cu produse proaspete pe raft. Leading-edge companies are recognizing Ciclurile de via ale produselor the strategic value of a RL system for the se scurteaz, acest lucru fiind evident n return of stale or obsolete goods. Those industria calculatoarelor, de exemplu. firms can maintain goods on the retail Apar pe pia modele noi la intervale shelf fresh and in demand. rapide de timp, pentru a-i convinge pe consumatori s sporeasc frecven a cumprturilor. n vreme ce consumatorii Product life cycles are shortening au beneficiat de o mare varietate a ofertei and this is evident in the computer i o performan crescut, aceast tendin industry. New designs are brought on in se reflect inevitabil n sporirea the market at an ever-quickening pace to produselor nevndute, creterea persuade consumers to increase the numrului retururilor, a ambalajelor frequency of their purchases. While utilizate i a deeurilor. Pe de alt parte, consumers have benefited from greater ciclurile de via scurte ale produselor au variety and enhanced performance, this crescut volumul bunurilor returnate i al trend inevitably results in increased deeurilor intrate n re eaua de LI, precum unsold products, increased returns, i costul pstrrii lor. increased packaging materials and Au fost dezvoltate noi canale de increased waste. Therefore, shorter distribu ie pentru a asigura consumatorilor product life cycles have increased the modalit i mai uoare i rapide de

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LI mai poate fi utilizat pentru a-i ajuta pe consumatori s se debaraseze de produsele uzate moral sau cu o vitez de circula ie lent, astfel nct acetia s poat cumpra mai multe bunuri sau produse noi. Caterpillar Asia i alte firme de echipament industrial, de exemplu, adopt deliberat politici de returnare care le permit s colecteze componente depite moral direct de la distribuitorii locali, apoi prelucreaz aceste componente mecanice pentru a recupera valoarea rmas.

volume of product returns and waste entering the reverse logistics network and the cost of maintaining them. New channels are also being developed to provide consumers with easier and quicker ways to purchase products. Direct channels (i.e. ecommerce) increase the likelihood of returned products, as items are damaged in transit or are simply different from the customers expectations.

n Asia, Dell i Gateway vnd calculatoare prin intermediul comer ului electronic, avnd ateptri ca 10%-15% din produse s le fie returnate direct sau prin intermediul ter ilor prestatori de servicii logistice. ntruct canalele directe gsesc consumatori nu doar n plan local, ci i global, managementul retururilor va deveni mai complicat i costisitor. Astfel, canalele directe vor face presiune asupra re elei de LI. Concuren a acerb i un numr mai mare de furnizori implic faptul c n lan ul de distribu ie, cumprtorii au mai mult putere. O cercetare realizat n rndul firmelor prestatoare de servicii logistice din Singapore a confirmat importan a vocii consumatorului n managementul logistic. Oferirea mai multor servicii logistice este considerat crucial, avnd n vedere numrul n cretere al firmelor de logistic din Singapore care se transform n ter i. Acetia trebuie s asigure solu ii complete pentru colectarea, transportul i alte servicii (repara ie, prelucrare). De fapt productorii se bazeaz din ce n ce mai mult pe cererea clien ilor, pentru a nu aglomera canalul de distribu ie cu produse nesolicitate (Tan, 1999).

In Asia, Dell and Gateway are selling their personal computers online and are expecting 10% - 15% of products to be returned directly to them or via third-party logistics providers. As direct channels find customers not simply locally but globally, managing returns will become increasingly complicated and expensive. Thus, direct channels will add pressure on the reverse logistics network. Increased competition and a larger base of suppliers have implied that buyers have more power in the supply chain. A survey conducted on the logistics service providers in Singapore confirmed the voice of the consumer to be the most important driver of logistics management (Sum and Teo, 1999). Offering more logistics services is considered crucial, as an increasing number of logistics companies in Singapore transform themselves into third-party logistics providers (3PLs). 3PLs are expected to provide complete solutions for collection, transportation and other value-added services (i.e. repair, remanufacturing). In fact, manufacturers are increasingly producing goods based on customer demands and requirements so as not to flood the channel with unwanted inventory (Tan, 1999).

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RL can also be used to clean out customers obsolete or slow moving inventories, so that these customers can purchase more or newer goods. Caterpillar Asia and other industrial equipment companies, for example, adopt fairly liberal return policies that allow them to collect obsolete spare parts and components back from their appointed dealers, they then remanufacture these mechanical spare parts to reclaim any remaining value.

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stadiu incipient n alte pr i ale lumii, incluznd India, unde contientizarea importan ei consumatorului i globalizarea conduc la o presiune mai mare n viitorul apropiat, sub aspect economic i legislativ. Societatea n general este nc sensibil la pre i mai pu in sensibil la calitate (calitate la un pre dat), dar nu este sensibil la mediu n comportamentul su de cumprare. Lipsa stimulentelor/penalizrilor din partea autorit ilor i lipsa presiunii clien ilor i consumatorilor asupra productorilor /prestatorilor de servicii inhib aceste ini iative. 1. Network design for reverse logistics Growing green concerns and advancement of RL concepts and practices make it all the more relevant. Three drivers (economic, regulatory and consumer pressure) drive product returns worldwide. This has also gained momentum because of fierce global competitiveness, heightened customer expectations, pressures on profitability and superior supply chain performance. Consumers expect to trade in an old product when they buy a new one. Different products may be returned at different stages of their life cycles. They may go for remanufacturing, repair, reconfiguration, and recycling as per the most appropriate disposition decision. This creates profitable research and business opportunities. [3] Consequently, original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) are expected to undertake RL activities in an effective and efficient manner. They may do so independently or by outsourcing. Estimation of returns is a pre-requisite for establishment of a RL network and hence becomes very crucial in this context. RL issues are mainly regulatorydriven in Europe, profit-driven in North America and in incipient stage in other

1. Designul re elei de logistic invers Intensificarea preocuprilor pentru mediu i dezvoltarea conceptelor i practicilor LI devin tot mai importante. Trei elemente (economic, legislativ i presiunea consumatorului) influen eaz procesul de returnare a produselor din lumea ntreag. Acest lucru devine mai important datorit competi iei globale acerbe, a creterii ateptrilor consumatorului, a presiunii asupra profitabilit ii i performan ei superioare ale canalului de distribu ie. Consumatorii se ateapt s schimbe un produs vechi atunci cnd achizi ioneaz unul nou. Diferite produse pot fi returnate n diferite etape ale ciclului de via . Acestea pot merge ctre remanufacturare, reparare i reciclare, func ie de cea mai potrivit decizie. Acest lucru genereaz subiecte de cercetare i oportunit i de afaceri. [3] n consecin , productorii de echipamente originale (PEO) se ateapt s abordeze activit ile de LI ntr-o manier eficient i eficace. Ei pot face acest lucru individual sau prin externalizare. Estimarea returnrilor este primordial pentru stabilirea unei re ele de LI, aceasta devenind crucial n acest context. Activit ile LI sunt, n principal, reglementate n Europa, sunt aductoare de profit n America de Nord i la un

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in its buying and promotion behavior. Lack of incentives/disincentives from regulatory authorities and lack of pressure from prospective customers and consumers on the manufacturers/service providers is inhibiting these initiatives. Therefore, RL has not received the desired attention and is generally carried out by the unorganized sector for some recyclable materials such as paper and aluminum. Only recently, some companies in consumer durables and automobile sectors have introduced exchange offers to tap customers who already own such products. Presently, these returns are either resold directly or after repair and refurbishment by firm franchisee/local remanufacturers in the seconds market. They are not remanufactured or upgraded by OEMs.
Distribu ie (Distribution) Consumator (Consumer)

parts of the world, including India, where both consumer awareness and globalization are likely to lead to greater economic, consumer and regulatory pressures in the coming future. Society in general is still price sensitive and to a little extent quality sensitive (quality for a given price) but not environment sensitive De aceea, LI nu a primit aten ia dorit, fiind n general nsuit de sectoare neorganizate pentru materiale reciclabile, cum ar fi hrtia i aluminiul. Recent, anumite companii din sectorul produselor de folosin ndelungat i al automobilelor au introdus oferte de schimb pentru a atrage clien ii care de in astfel de produse. n prezent aceste produse returnate sunt revndute direct sau dup repara ii i recondi ionri de ctre firme n franciz/productori locali pe pia a secundar. Aceste produse nu sunt remanufacturate sau recondi ionate de ctre PEO.
Materii prime (Raw material) Produc ie (Manufacturing)

Reparare (Repair)

Testare (Test)

Recondi ionare (Refurbishing) Prelucrare (Remanufacturing) Service (Service) Dezasamblare (Disassembly)

Reciclare (Recycling) Aruncare (Disposal)

Figura 1 Diagrama fluxului activit ilor logisticii inverse (Flow diagram of reverse logistics activities).

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Sursa: Srivastava Samir, Srivastava Rajiv Managing product returns for reverse logistics, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 36, Nr. 7, pp. 524-546, 2006)

Figura 1 indic diagrama fluxurilor de baz ale activit ilor LI. Complexitatea opera iunilor i valoarea recuperat cresc din stnga-jos ctre dreapta sus n figur. Figure 1 shows the basic flow diagram of RL activities. The complexity of operations and the value recovered increase from bottom-left to top-right in the figure. Modelul cadru al cantit ii, calit ii i al timpului de sosire al retururilor este de o foarte mare importan pentru designul re elei LI. Localizarea facilit ilor legate de procesele de intrare, pie e sau locurile de dispunere a deeurilor au fost considerate att analitice, ct i empirice n literatur. [6] Colectarea este prima i cea mai important etap n procesul de recuperare, n care sunt selectate tipurile de produse, localizate, colectate i, la cerere, transportate ctre facilit ile de prelucrare i remanufacturare. Produsele originale uzate, colectate din surse multiple, sunt aduse pentru recuperare, rezultnd un proces convergent. Srivastava (2006) sugereaz clasificarea schemelor de colectare bazate fie pe transportul ini ial realizat de consumator (colectare de la popula ie), fie pe colectarea deeurilor (colectarea gunoaielor). Inspec ia/Sortarea poate fi realizat fie la punctul/momentul colectrii sau ulterior (la punctele de colectare sau de prelucrare). Articolele colectate trebuie, n general, sortate. Inspec ia/sortarea ilustreaz nevoia unor abilit i n sortarea produselor uzate. Aceasta poate fi sau nu combinat cu preprocesare. Pre-procesarea poate lua forma sortrii, segregrii, dezasamblrii par iale

sau totale, repara iilor minore sau activit ilor de recondi ionare. Ea se poate desfura la centrele de colectare sau la cele care ofer facilit i de prelucrare, n func ie de factorii tehnologici i economici. Aceste activit i includ costurile opera ionale legate de energie, for de munc, mentenen , precum i scderea interesului pentru respectivele facilit i. Localizarea i Distribu ia constituie aspectul critic al LI, care presupune o importan n cretere. The pattern of quantity, quality and time of arrival of returns is of paramount importance in RL network design. The location of facilities relative to process inputs, customer markets or waste disposal locations has been considered both analytically and empirically in literature. [6] Collection is the first and a very important stage in the recovery process, where product types are selected and products are located, collected, and, if required, transported to facilities for rework and remanufacturing. Used products originate from multiple sources and are brought to a product recovery facility, resulting in a converging process. Srivastava (2006) suggests classifying schemes for collection based on whether the initial transport is performed by the consumer (i.e. bring schemes) or by a waste manager (i.e. kerbside collection). Inspection/Sorting may be carried out either at the point/time of collection itself or afterwards (at collection points or at rework facilities). Collected items generally need sorting. Inspection/sorting illustrates the need for skill in the sorting of used products. This

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may or may not be combined with preprocessing. Pre-processing may be in the form of sorting, segregation, partial or complete disassembly or minor repair and refurbishing activities. It may be carried out either at collection centers or at rework facility depending upon the technological and economic factors. These include the operational costs related to energy, labor, maintenance costs and the loss of interest related to the facilities. Location and Distribution are the most important and critical area of RL that is assuming greater importance day by day. n numeroase cazuri, re elele de recuperare nu sunt stabilite independent, la ntmplare, ci sunt interconectate cu structuri logistice existente. n particular, acest lucru este valabil dac PEO recupereaz produse. Localizarea i configurarea facilit ilor afecteaz n mod frecvent mediul natural exterior. Capacitatea i deciziile n acest sens vizeaz asigurarea corespunztoare a capacit ii de coletare, stocare (ct de mult) la locul potrivit (facilit i de localizare) i la timpul potrivit (cnd). Varietatea capacit ilor este determinat de mrimea facilit ilor fizice construite. n general, aceste decizii sunt afectate de volumul estimat al retururilor, costuri, comportamentul concuren ilor i alte considerente strategice i opera ionale. Strategiile opera ionale care presupun instalarea unor noi spa ii devin de asemenea din ce n ce mai complexe, pe msur ce cresc cerin ele consumatorilor pentru produse returnabile/reciclabile. A fost dezvoltat conceptul de mas critic a retururilor pentru o remanufacturare/ reciclare profitabil. n acest context, eficien a LI poate fi mbunt it prin reconsiderarea designului produsului, conform cerin elor post-utilizare/postconsum, colectare, sortare i reciclare.

2. Logistica invers pentru comercian ii cu amnuntul Logistica invers se refer la un set de programe i competen e necesare pentru a muta produsele n direc ia invers n canalul de distribu ie (de la consumator la productor). Scopul este de a maximiza valoarea produselor returnate i de a asigura dispunerea lor corespunztoare. Aceste activit i pot include manipularea produselor returnate, reciclarea, reutilizarea materialelor, depozitarea deeurilor, recondi ionarea sau remanufacturarea. In many cases, recovery networks are not set up independently from scratch but are intertwined with existing logistics structures. In particular, this is true if the OEM recovers products. Location and configuration of facilities frequently affect the external natural environment. Capacity decisions in general aim at providing the right amount of capacity (i.e. how much) at the right place (i.e. facilities location) and at the right time (i.e. when). Long-range capacity is determined by the size of the physical facilities that are built. In general, facility decisions are affected by estimated returns (assuming infinite markets), costs, competitors behavior and other strategic and operational considerations. Operations strategies that entail the installation of new capacity also become more complex as regulatory and consumer demands for returnable/recyclable products increase. There was developed the concept of critical mass of returns for profitable remanufacturing/recycling. In this context, the efficiency of RL could be improved by ensuring that product design takes into account the requirements of

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post-use/post-consumption sorting and recycling. collection,

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2. Reverse logistics for retailers Reverse logistics refers to a set of programs or competencies aimed at moving products in the reverse direction in the supply chain (i.e., from consumer to producer). The goal is to maximize value from returned items and insure their proper disposal or both. Related activities may include handling product returns, recycling, reuse of materials, waste disposal, refurbishing, or remanufacturing. Opera ionalizarea efectiv a programelor de LI constituie o parte critic a comer ului, deoarece acestea reprezint deseori efortul posibil cel mai vizibil n recuperarea valorii dintr-un serviciu euat. Eecul serviciilor a fost studiat n publica ii de marketing, iar la momente diferite a fost n mod negativ asociat cu satisfac ia consumatorului, loialitatea clien ilor, calitatea serviciului, ncredere i inten ii de comportament.[2] Similar, programele de LI reprezint o preocupare asupra recuperrii produsului, care dac este gestionat corespunztor, i ofer comerciantului o a doua ans de a proceda corect n rela ia cu clientul. Comercian ii care nu acord aten ie retururilor risc blocarea activit ii i, n plus, pierd o excelent oportunitate de a ctiga un venit suplimentar. De exemplu, urmnd o ini iativ referitoare la LI, Sears, Roebuck, and Co. au realizat peste 45 mil.$ din reducerea costurilor ntr-o perioad de 3 ani. Ca rezultat al unor

succese similare, numeroase firme s-au axat pe modul n care LI poate ajuta firmele n ob inerea valorii. Programele de LI cuprind n general un sistem de patru pai, incluznd pstrarea, colectarea, sortarea i dispunerea componentelor. Un sistem tipic de LI n comer este reprezentat grafic n figura 2. Operating effective reverse logistics programs is a critical part of retail business, because the programs often represent the firms most visible and possibly final effort at recovering value from a service failure. Service failure has been studied at length in marketing publications, and at various times, has been negatively associated with customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, service quality, trust, and behavioral intentions [2]. Similarly, reverse logistics programs represent an opportunity to undertake a sort of product recovery, that if handled correctly, gives the retailer a second chance to get it right with the customer. Retail firms that fail to pay close enough attention to returns risk any or all of the negative effects, and additionally, miss an excellent opportunity to turn a lost sale into additional revenue. For example, following an initiative directed towards a greater focus on reverse logistics, Sears, Roebuck, and Co. realized over $45 million in costs savings in a three-year period. As the result of similar successes, many firms are placing greater focus on learning more about how reverse logistics can help firms reclaim value. RL programs are generally comprised of a four-step system, including gate keeping, collection, sortation, and disposition components. A typical retail reverse logistics system is graphically depicted in fig. 2.

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Comerciant (Retailer) Pstrare (Gate keeping) Colectare (Collection) Sortare (Sortation) Dispunere (Disposition) Canale externe (External channels)

Returnare produs (Product return)

Inventar regulat/Dispunere intern (Regular inventory/Internal disposition)

Figura 2 Procesul logisticii inverse n comer (The retail reverse logistics process). Sursa: Horvath Philip A., Autry Chad W., Wilcox William E. - Liquidity implications of reverse logistics for retailers: A Markov chain approach, Journal of Retailing No. 81/3, pages 191203, 2005)

Odat cu ini ierea de ctre consumator a returnrii produsului i avnd n vedere func ia de pstrare (de obicei a unui asociat sau manager), se decide cror produse le este permis intrarea n sistemul LI. Datorit liberalizrii n cretere a politicilor de returnare, efii de depozit sunt mai dispui s accepte un produs returnat n sistem. Dup aceast etap, produsele sunt colectate i centralizate ntr-un loc, n ateptarea procesrii, sau sunt procesate la comerciant. n alte cazuri, produsele sunt periodic sortate, conform utilit ii lor pentru comerciant i, eventual, sunt dispuse n concordan cu decizii formale, sau de cele mai multe ori informale. Din perspectiva comerciantului, ultima por iune a procesului decizional al LI ia forma unui set multidimensional de op iuni. Cnd produsele reintr n sistemul comerciantului prin returnarea de ctre consumator, comercian ii au la dispozi ie acest set de op iuni pentru colectare i sortare. Produsele pot fi pstrate ntr-o mare varietate de stocuri de tranzit, dup cum comerciantul determin cea mai bun modalitate de dispunere a retururilor. Mai mult, n vederea dispunerii, produsele pot fi returnate furnizorilor, restocate pentru o eventual vnzare viitoare, sau vndute pe o pia a reducerilor sau pia secundar. 200

Managementul produselor returnate i executarea deciziilor procesului de dispunere este complex i frecvent dezorganizat, iar angaja ii din comer nsrcina i cu luarea acestei hotrri dobndesc competen e n gsirea celei mai bune destina ii pentru fiecare produs. n orice caz, procesul decizional al LI este unul foarte important i nu trebuie tratat cu superficialitate. Firmele care se preocup de fluxul invers al bunurilor au ob inut beneficii odat cu scderea nivelului stocurilor, reducerea costurilor i creterea satisfac iei clien ilor. [3] Upon the initiation of a product return by the customer, the gate keeping function (usually a retail sales associate or manager) decides which products should be allowed to enter the reverse logistics system. Due to increased liberalization of returns policies, gatekeepers are more likely than ever to accept a returned product into the system. After products have passed the gatekeeper, they are either collected in a centralized location to await processing, or are processed at the retailer location. In either case, products are then periodically sorted according to their remaining utility to the retailer, and are eventually disposed of according to some formal, or more often informal, decision heuristic.

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From the perspective of the retailer, the latter portion of the reverse logistics decision process takes the form of a multidimensional choice set. When products re-enter the retailer system via customer return, retailers have several options available for collection and sortation. Products can be held in a wide variety of transient inventory states as the retailer determines the best way to ultimately dispose of the returns. Furthermore, with regard to disposition, products can be returned to suppliers, restocked for eventual resale, or sold into the discount market or aftermarket. The management of the returned inventory and the execution of the disposition decision process is complex and frequently disorganized, and retail employees charged with making this choice develop expertise in finding the best destination for each product. However, the reverse logistics decision process is a very important one and should not be taken lightly. Firms that effectively manage the reverse flow of goods have been shown to benefit through decreased inventory levels, cost reductions, and enhanced customer satisfaction. [3] Un aspect al preocuprilor legate de LI care a fost ignorat de cercetrile academice i practica din comer l constituie implica iile financiare ale activit ilor de logistic invers, n special cele legate de lichiditatea firmei. Cnd produsele se ntorc n lan ul de distribu ie, acest lucru se poate ntmpla rapid i fr un preaviz. n timp ce activit ile LI au ca rezultat n general ob inerea valorii i intrri de fluxuri financiare, pot exista i perioade n care apar importante fluxuri de numerar neateptate. Acest lucru este datorat decalajului temporal dintre momentul n care firma recupereaz valoarea produsului returnat i asumarea costurilor implicate de procesul LI. De aceea, managementul financiar al procesului logisticii inverse devine important, fiind nevoie de

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concentrarea comerciantului n vederea continurii acestui demers. 3. Lichiditatea i procesul logisticii inverse n comer Amploarea, durata i incertitudinea opera iunilor din cadrul fluxului de numerar al comerciantului afecteaz mrimea i dinamica lichidit ilor sale. Dat fiind faptul c produsele returnate pot reprezenta un procent semnificativ din vnzri chiar i n timpul perioadelor de returnare, activit ile LI vor juca un rol important n calcularea fluxurilor de numerar ateptate. Pe msur ce comerciantul i extinde activit ile de LI, un nivel mai mare al lichidit ii va fi necesar pentru realizarea proceselor de LIbazat nu doar pe numrul articolelor aflate n retur, dar i pe durata n timp necesar procesrii produselor returnate, restocrii, reparrii, pn cnd acestea se rentorc sub form de intrri de fluxuri de numerar n firm. n plus, nivelul incertitudinii asociat activit ilor de LI presupune existen a unor rezerve de lichidit i, n cazul n care comerciantul ntmpin o situa ie neprevzut de lips a lichidit ilor. One area of concern related to reverse logistics that has been largely ignored by academic research and practicing retailers is the financial implications of reverse logistics activities, especially as related to firm liquidity. When products reverse directions in a supply chain, it can happen quickly and without notice. While effective reverse logistics activities generally result in value reclamation and increased cash inflows, there can be periods where significant unexpected cash outflows occur. This is often due to the time lag between the moment the firm recovers the value from the returned product and the assumption of costs incurred in the reverse logistics process. Therefore, financial management of the reverse logistics process becomes

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costurile subsecvente cu sortarea, procesarea i dispunerea sunt resim ite nainte de momentul n care comerciantul primete fluxul de numerar de pe urma stocului de produse returnate. Din cauza decalajelor de timp ntre ieirile i intrrile de fluxuri de numerar, comerciantul poate ntmpina probleme de lichiditate. Mai mult, orice fluctua ii n procesul LI pot avea un impact negativ asupra lichidit ii. Este important n elegerea acestor aspecte ale activit ilor de LI asupra fluxului de numerar, pentru a evita problemele care pot s apar n respectarea angajamentelor bneti. Toate acestea sunt considera ii necesare atunci cnd comerciantul contientizeaz impactul activit ilor de LI asupra capacit ii de respectare a obliga iilor. 4. Logistica invers aduce beneficii asupra mediului Logistica invers vizeaz activit i asociate cu manipularea i managementul echipamentelor, produselor, componentelor, materialelor sau chiar sisteme tehnice complete care trebuie recuperate. Reverse logistics, therefore, represents a salient issue for retail financial management and firm liquidity because the programs have ramifications for the availability of and the demand for cash. Effective reverse logistics programs should generate cash inflows due to the recovery of value from the returned product. However, the cash inflows from product returns occur in time periods subsequent to the return. Remuneration occurs when the returned item is returned to a previous channelmember and the retailer is reimbursed, or when the item is sold. On the other hand, the cash outflows associated with retail reverse logistics usually are absorbed as or soon after the item is returned. The

salient, and needs to be a retailer focus on an ongoing basis. 3. Liquidity and the retail reverse logistics process The amount, timing, and uncertainty of the retailers operating cash flows affect the size and dynamics of its liquidity position. Given that returned products can represent a significant percentage of sales even during off-peak returns periods, reverse logistics activities will play an important role in calculating expected cash flows, both directly and indirectly. As the retailer expands its reverse logistics activities, a greater level of liquidity will be required to account for reverse logistics processesbased not only on the number of items in the returns pipeline, but also on the length of time that returns require for processing, restocking, repairing, and so forth before they return as cash inflows to the firm. Additionally, the level of uncertainty associated with reverse logistics activities requires additional liquid reserveslest the retailer find itself in a position of sudden liquidity shortages. Aadar, LI constituie o oportunitate pentru managementul financiar i pentru lichidit ile firmei, deoarece programul are ramifica ii pentru disponibilitatea sau necesarul de numerar. Programele eficace ale LI ar trebui s genereze intrri de fluxuri de numerar datorate recuperrii valorii produsului returnat. n orice caz, aceste intrri de numerar se constituie drept etape subsecvente returnrii. Remunerarea apare atunci cnd articolul este returnat unui agent economic situat n amonte n canalul de distribu ie i comerciantul este pltit, sau atunci cnd articolul este vndut. Pe de alt parte, ieirile de numerar asociate cu LI din comer , sunt, de obicei, absorbite o dat cu returnarea articolului. Costul remunerrii, la fel ca i

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costs of remuneration, as well as all subsequent costs of sorting, batching, processing, and disposing are incurred before the retailer achieves the cash inflow from the disposition of the returned inventory. It is because of this time lag between cash outflows and cash inflows that the retailer could experience liquidity problems. In addition, any fluctuations in the reverse logistics process could also negatively impact liquidity. It is important to understand the ramifications of reverse logistics activities on retailer cash flows to avoid problems in meeting cash commitments. All of these are necessary considerations when the retailer is assessing the impact reverse logistics activities may have for the ability to meet its obligations. 4. Reverse logistics provides green benefits Reverse logistics concerns activities associated with the handling and management of equipment, products, components, materials or even entire technical systems to be recovered. Recuperarea poate reprezenta doar revnzarea unui produs, sau poate fi acompaniat de o serie de procese de colectare, inspectare, separare, mergnd pn la remanufacturare sau reciclare. Recuperarea materialului i refolosirea (par ial) a produsului sau echipamentului este o practic mai veche. n trecut, motiva ia principal era lipsa resurselor. n orice caz, emergen a materialelor ieftine i a tehnologiei avansate au condus societ ile vestice la un consum de mas i la risip. Atunci, problemele legate de protejarea mediului sau dezvoltarea durabil nu constituiau aspecte ale preocuprii umane. La nceputul anilor 70 un studiu efectuat pentru Clubul de la Roma releva faptul c exist o limit a creterii. Raportul anun a c n jurul anului 2050

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omenirea se va dezintegra, atrgnd aten ia asupra cursului civiliza iei. Pe parcursul decadei urmtoare, dezastrele mediului nconjurtor au intrat n preocuprile academicienilor, politicienilor, mass-media, iar societatea n general a nceput s fie preocupat de aceste aspecte. Termeni ca reciclare, reutilizare, reducerea resurselor, responsabilitatea fa de mediu i produse verzi au devenit familiare pentru noi to i. ncepnd cu mijlocul anilor 90, n special n Europa, acestea au fost acompaniate de sus inerea legal privind recuperarea produselor i materialelor. De asemenea, n SUA, echipamentele au devenit mai scumpe, iar restric iile privind transportul deeurilor ntre state au crescut substan ial. Recent, exemple cum ar fi remanufacturarea telefoanelor mobile au scos n eviden profitabilitatea activit ilor de recuperare i crearea de valoare adugat, mai mult dect aspectele referitoare la protec ia mediului. n plus, argumentele privind concuren a, marketingul sau strategiile au mpins companiile ctre politici generoase de returnare. Recovery can simply be just reselling a product. Or, it can be accompanied by a series of processes as collection, inspection, separation, and so on, leading to e.g. remanufacturing or recycling. Material recapture and product or equipment (partial) reuse is a very old practice. In the past, the primary motivation was scarcity of resources. However, the emergence of cheap materials and advanced technology led Western societies into mass consumption and routine throw away. By then, environmental matters or sustainable development were not objects of concern. In the early seventies however, the study for the Club of Rome augured that there was a limit to the growth. The report announced that around 2050

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ambalajelor. [5] Oricum, sunt necesare numeroase cercetri i trebuie stabilit o abordare mai clar i mai uor de n eles. Opera iunile productorilor i distribuitorilor prieteni cu mediul nconjurtor se rspndesc n toate col urile lumii. Exist trei for e care conduc aceast tendin : 1) legile i regulile referitoare la mediu se rspndesc rapid, 2) consumatorii devin mai receptivi la produsele realizate din materiale reciclate, la fel ca i din materiale noi i 3) unele companii consider reciclarea, remanufacturarea i procesarea produselor, materialelor i ambalajelor uzate drept o afacere bun, care reprezint surse adi ionale de venit. O arm important n lupta mpotriva distrugerii mediului o constituie LI. O abordare a LI este manipularea returnrilor, n special n domenii cum ar fi televnzarea, comer ul cu amnuntul i comenzile prin pot. Cu siguran , opera iile de acest tip nregistreaz importante procente ale returnrilor, iar deseori sunt stabilite sisteme separate pentru gestionarea mrfurilor returnate, reutilizarea i revnzarea lor. In Japan, any products purchased by the government must, by law, have a specific content of recycled materials. In the Netherlands, manufacturers are held responsible for the collection, processing, and recycling of used products such as refrigerators, washers, freezers, TVs, and consumer electronics items and their associated packaging. In the European Union (EU), a directive on handling waste from electrical and electronic equipment has been issued and member states are working on national legislation to implement it. In the United States, there are hundreds of environmental laws and regulations within individual states, as well as the federal government, which include mandates for recycling operations and responsibility for packaging recovery.[5] However, more research is

Mankind was going to disintegrate, drawing attention to the need of sustaining the course of civilization. During the following decade, environmental disasters kept the mind of the academicians, politicians, the media, and society in general addressed to such issues. Terms like recycling, reuse, resource reduction, environmental manufacturing responsibility and green products began to be familiar to all of us. Since the mid-nineties and especially in Europe, this was accompanied with legal enforcement of product and material recovery or proper disposal. Also in the US landfill tolls became a lot more expensive and restrictions on cross-State transport of waste rose substantially. More recently, real examples like the remanufacturing of mobile phones have pointed out the profitability of recovery activities and its value-creation rather then environmental aspects. In addition, competition, marketing or strategic arguments have pushed companies into generous return policies. n Japonia, orice produs cumprat de ctre guvern trebuie, prin lege, s aib un con inut specific de materiale reciclate. n Olanda, productorii sunt responsabili de colectarea procesarea i reciclarea produselor uzate cum ar fi frigiderele, maini de splat, congelatoare, televizoare, articole de consum electronice i ambalajele asociate lor. n Uniunea European (UE), a fost propus o directiv privind manipularea deeurilor provenite din echipamentele electrice i electronice, iar statele membre elaboreaz legisla iile na ionale pentru a o implementa. n SUA exist sute de legi de protec ie a mediului i reguli n cadrul fiecrui stat, precum i la nivelul guvernului federal, care prevd opera iuni de reciclare i reponsabilitatea recuperrii

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needed, and a more clear-cut and comprehensive approach needs to be established. Environmentally friendly manufacturing and distribution operations are growing in many parts of the world. There are three driving forces for this trend: 1) environmental laws and regulations are increasingly widespread, 2) consumers are becoming receptive to products made from recycled as well as virgin materials, and 3) some companies are finding recycling, remanufacturing, and processing of used products,
Ciclul logisticii directe (Forward logistic cycle)

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materials, and packaging to be good business that represents additional sources of revenue. A major weapon in the fight against environmental damage is reverse logistics. One view of reverse logistics is the handling of "returns," especially in such areas as TV shopping, retail, and mail-order operations. Certainly some operations of this type have a significant percentage of returns, and often separate systems are set up for dealing with returned merchandise and its reuse and resale.

Design produs (Product design)

Produc ie & Ambalare (Manufacturing & Packaging)

Distribu ie (Distribution) Angrositi (Wholesalers) Detailiti (Retailers) Ter i (3PLs)

Utilizatori (Users) Consumatori (Consumers) Afaceri (Businesses) Institutii (Institutions)

Reutilizare direct (Direct reuse) Prelucrare (Remanufacture) Reciclare (Recycling) Componente (Parts) Materiale (Materials)

Reparare, reconstruc ie (Repair or rebuild)

Colectare & Separare (Collection& Separation)

Ciclul logisticii inverse (Reverse logistic cycle)

Aruncarea deeurilor (Waste disposal)

Figura 3 Ciclul logisticii directe i inverse (Forward and reverse logistics cycle). Sursa: Kulwiec Ray Green reverse logistics, Target Review, vol. 22, nr. 3, (www.ame.org))

Astzi, LI are un scop n plus. Ea implic reciclarea i reutilizarea materialelor con inute n produs i n ambalaj, dup ce durata de utilizare a produsului s-a ncheiat. LI pornete de la aruncarea sau incinerarea materialelor utilizate, practici care nu mai sunt demult

acceptate n multe situa ii. n acest sens, logistica invers include reciclarea, substituirea i reutilizarea materialelor i remanufacturarea. Ea se regsete n to i paii logisticii implica i n colectarea, dezasamblarea i procesarea produselor uzate, componentelor, materialelor i ambalajelor, pentru a asigura o metod

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products, parts, materials, and packages to provide an environmentally safe method of recovery (Figure 3). To be successful, reverse logistics must encompass the entire supply chain.

sigur de pstrare a mediului nconjurtor (figura 3). Pentru a avea succes, LI trebuie s acopere ntreg lan ul de distribu ie.

Today, reverse logistics takes on Partenerii de afaceri trebuie s a broader scope. It involves recycling and lucreze n echip pentru a se asigura c reuse of materials contained in a product procesul LI este legat de-a lungul tuturor and its packaging, after that product's nivelurilor lan ului. Principalele diferen e useful life has ended. Reverse logistics is dintre logistica direct i cea invers sunt a departure from land filling or prezentate mai jos (tabelul 1): incinerating used-up materials - practices that are no longer acceptable in many Trading partners have to work situations. In place of land filling or together to ensure that the reverse incineration, reverse logistics includes logistics process is linked across all levels recycling, material substitution and reuse, of the chain. The main differences and remanufacturing. It takes in all the between forward and reverse logistics are logistics steps involved in collecting, presented below (Table 1): disassembling, and processing used Diferen e dintre logistica direct i logistica invers (Differences between forward and reverse logistics) Tabelul 1 Logistica direct Logistica invers (Forward Logistics) (Reverse Logistics) Ambalarea produsului uniform Ambalarea produsului deseori afectat Product packaging uniform Product packaging often damaged Pre relativ uniform Pre dependent de numeroi factori Pricing relatively uniform Pricing dependent on many factors Importan a vitezei recunoscut Viteza nu este considerat o prioritate Importance of speed recognized Speed often not considered a priority Costurile distribu iei directe sunt Costurile distribu iei inverse sunt mai vizibile uor pu in vizibile direct Forward distribution costs easily visible Reverse costs less directly visible Management consistent al stocurilor Management neconsistent al stocurilor Inventory management consistent Inventory management not consistent Metode de marketing bine cunoscute Marketing complicat de mai mul i factori Marketing methods well known Marketing complicated by several factors Transparen a procesului Lipsa de transparen a procesului Visibility of process more transparent Visibility of process less transparent Exemplul european: Europa a avut o micare verde puternic i sonor. Astzi, aceast micare a fost tradus prin ac iuni specifice pe care productorii trebuie s le urmreasc pentru a putea face afaceri n europa. O 206 ar lider n acest domeniu este Olanda, care a adoptat legisla ia logisticii inverse n 1999. Sub un program german, productorii trebuie nu doar s dezvolte un plan de produc ie i distribu ie a produselor, ci trebuie s planifice Amfiteatru Economic

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eventuala reciclare i reutilizare a acelor produse i a componentelor dup ce ultimul utilizator a dispus de ele (acest lucru este valabil dup ncheierea primului ciclu de via al produsului). Acest proces de planificare poate merge napoi pn la proiectarea produsului pentru o uoar dezasamblare i reciclare. The European Example: Europe has long had a strong and vocal "green" movement. Today that movement has been translated into specific mandates that manufacturers will have to follow in order to do business in Europe. A leading country in this regard is The Netherlands, which adopted reverse logistics legislation in 1999. Under the Dutch program, manufacturers must not only develop a plan for manufacturing and distributing products, but must also plan for the eventual recycling and reuse of those products and their components after the last user has disposed of them (that is, after their primary life cycle has ended). This planning process may go all the way back to designing the product for ease of disassembly and recyclability. n orice caz, productorii i importatorii au responsabilitatea final pentru colectarea, procesarea i reciclarea att a bunurilor albe (cum ar fi frigidere, rcitoare, congelatoare, maini de splat i usctoare de pr), ct i a bunurilor maro (precum televizoare i radiouri). n mod specific, n prezent colectarea este realizat pe baza unui aranjament ntre comercian i i municipalitate. Consumatorii nu suport niciun cost. Un model logistic tipic poate fi urmtorul: bunurile uzate pot fi preluate de la utilizator de ctre un comerciant. Apoi produsul uzat este preluat de la centrul de distribu ie al comerciantului de ctre un ter prestator de servicii logistice i livrat unui procesator. Procesatorul nltur substan ele duntoare, dezasambleaz i separ componente i

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materiale i apoi vinde aceste componente i materiale ctre firme specializate n produc ia bunurilor utiliznd aceste con inuturi. Procesatorilor le este solicitat ob inerea unei rate de reciclare de 75%, aceasta nseamn c 75% din greutatea total a bunurilor colectate trebuie s fie disponibil pentru reutilizare. Urmnd exemplul german, UE a propus o directiv privind deeurile provenite din echipamente electrice i electronice. Aceast directiv stabilete criteriile de colectare, tratare, reciclare i recuperare a acestor deeuri. Ea i responsabilizeaz pe productori n finan area majorit ii acestor activit i. Gospodriile pot returna aceste tipuri de deeuri fr nici un cost. n mod curent, numeroase state membre UE lucreaz la legisla iile na ionale pentru a implementa termenii acestei directive. O problem major o reprezint modalitatea de promovare a beneficiilor protejrii mediului nconjurtor, fr a impune obliga ii financiare productorilor. In any case, producers (manufacturers) and importers have final "producer responsibility" for the collection, processing, and recycling of both "white goods" (such as refrigerators, coolers, freezers, washing machines, and hair dryers) and "brown goods" (such as TVs and loudspeakers). Typically, the actual collection is performed on a fee arrangement by retailers and municipalities. Consumers do not incur a cost. A typical logistics path may be the following: used goods may be picked up from the user by a retailer. The used product is then picked up from the retailer's distribution center by a thirdparty logistics provider (3 PL), and delivered to a processor. The processor then removes harmful substances, disassembles and separates parts and materials, and sells these parts and

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state din ntreaga lume au elaborat diverse legi i reguli pentru a ncuraja reciclarea electronicelor uzate. De exemplu, n SUA, state ca Maryland, California i Maine au legi privind reciclarea calculatoarelor uzate. Aceast activitate de distribu ie invers poate fi crucial pentru supravie uirea companiilor, ntruct este n joc prestigiul acestora. Afacerile au succes deoarece rspund att schimbrilor externe, ct i interne i se adapteaz ntro manier eficient pentru a rmne competitive. Pentru a-i atinge obiectivele afacerii, o firm trebuie s rspund cererii n cretere din partea consumatorilor pentru produse verzi, s respecte regulile stricte de protec ie a mediului i s implementeze planuri de rspuns asupra mediului nconjurtor ca un bun cet ean institu ional. Conclusions As the RL process had not been mapped in most companies under the enlarged scope of RL, companies find it difficult to plan, implement and control the process properly. Without a proper map of the RL process, the components and their relationships cannot be accurately determined. Unless companies comprehend the complexities of the RL process, are able to identify its strengths and weaknesses and can map out action programs to implement RL strategies, it would be difficult to leverage on, and benefit from RL. As time goes by, companies will have to gear up their commitment to environmental well-being. Even today, they have to comply with environmental regulations in various countries abroad, and soon in most if not all of the EU. A number of states all over the world have considered various laws and regulations to encourage recycling of used electronics. For example, in the US, states like Maryland, California and Maine have

materials to firms specializing in remanufacturing products using these contents. Processors are required to attain a recycling rate of 75%; that is, 75 % of the total weight of the collected, discarded goods must be made available for reuse. Following the Dutch example, the EU has issued a directive on waste from electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). The directive sets criteria for the collection, treatment, recycling, and recovery of WEEE. It makes producers (manufacturers) responsible for financing most of these activities. Householders can return WEEE at no cost. Currently many EU member states are working on national legislation to implement the terms of the directive. A major issue is how to promote environmental benefits without placing undue financial burden on producers.

Concluzii ntruct procesul LI nu a fost prevzut n multe companii aa cum prevede scopul LI, companiile l consider dificil de planificat, implementat i controlat corespunztor. Fr o hart corect a procesului de LI, componentele sale i rela iile dintre acestea nu pot fi determinate cu acurate e. Doar dac firmele n eleg complexitatea procesului LI, atunci ele sunt capabile s i identifice punctele forte i pe cele slabe i pot proiecta programe de ac iune pentru implementarea strategiilor logisticii inverse, altfel le va fi dificil s beneficieze de pe urma acestui proces. Odat cu trecerea timpului, companiile vor trebui s i ndeplineasc angajamentul fa de bunstarea mediului nconjurtor. n prezent, acestea trebuie s respecte norme de mediu din diferite ri ale lumii i din ntreaga UE. Numeroase

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regulations covering recycling of used computers. This reverse distribution activity can be crucial to the survival of companies, because the permanent goodwill of the company is at stake. Businesses succeed because they respond to both external and internal changes and adjust in an effective manner to remain

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competitive. To achieve its business objectives, a company must respond to increasing customer demand for green products, comply with strict environmental regulations, and implement environmentally responsible plans as a good corporate citizen.

References [1] Arun, Kumar and Kwan, Tan, Albert, Improving the performance of a computer company in supporting its reverse logistics operations in the Asia-Pacific region, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 33, nr. 1, pp. 59-74, 2003 [2] Gunasekaran, Angappa and Cheng T.C. Edwin, Special Issue On Logistics: New Perspectives and Challenges, The International Journal of Management Science, nr. 36, pp. 505-508, 2008 [3] Horvath Philip A., Autry Chad W., Wilcox William E., Liquidity implications of reverse logistics for retailers: A Markov chain approach, Journal of Retailing nr. 81/3, pp. 191 203, 2005 [4] Krike, Ronald et al., A characterization of logistics networks for product recovery, The International Journal of Management Science, nr. 28, pp. 653-666, 2000 [5] Kulwiec, Ray, Green reverse logistics, Target Review, vol. 22, nr. 3, (www.ame.org) [6] Srivastava, Samir and Srivastava, Rajiv, Managing product returns for reverse logistics, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 36, Nr. 7, pp. 524-546, 2006 [7] Sum, Chee-Choung and Teo, Chew-Been, Strategic posture of logistics providers in Singapore, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 29, nr. 9, pp. 588-605, 1999 [8] Tan, A., The use of information technology to enhance supply chain management, Production and Inventory Management Journal, Vol. 40, nr. 3, pp. 7-15

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CRETEREA ROLULUI TRANSPORTURILOR DE MRFURI IMPLICA II N CADRUL LOGISTICII

(The growth of freight transport role implications to logistical framework ) Preparator univ. drd. Tatiana-Roxana Nae Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Romnia nae.roxana@yahoo.com Rezumat Transporturile sus in direct rela iile economice dintre ri i evolueaz conform raportului dintre cerere i ofert. Ele i aduc aportul continuu i direct la valorificarea resurselor planetei contribuind la redistribuirea veniturilor i la progresul economic i social al lumii. Lucrarea i propune s ncadreze activitatea de transport de mrfuri din punct de vedere logistic, prin prezentarea rela iei sistem logistic - dezvoltarea transporturilor i a unei rela ii cu impact economic la nivelul rilor europene. Se au n vedere att nivelul microeconomic, ct i cel macroeconomic. Rolul transporturilor de mrfuri este prezentat i analizat n raport cu activit ile logistice din cadrul sistemului logistic i n raport cu al i indicatori. n analiza realizat se pornete de la o abordare analitic a rela iei sistem logistic-transport de mrfuri, n sprijinul ideii de acordare a unei aten ii imperioase domeniului transporturilor. Rezultatele sunt fundamentate prin prezentarea unor indicatori cu impact economic la nivelul Uniunii Europene i al Romniei. De asemenea, o rela ie eviden iat este cea dintre transportul de mrfuri i produsul intern brut. n partea final a lucrrii sunt prezentate principalele rezultate ale analizei i sugestii pentru dezvoltarea transporturilor. Competitivitatea firmelor i avantajele comparative ale regiunilor depind de transmiterea i procesarea informa iilor, mobilitatea persoanelor i de micarea mrfurilor. Prin urmare, transporturile pot fi privite ca determinan i ai noilor sisteme de organizare spa ial i industrial. Cuvinte cheie: transport de mrfuri sistem logistic rela ia sistem logistic-transport cretere economic indicatori statistici ai transporturilor Clasificare JEL: L91, R41

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Abstract Transports sustain directly the economic relationship between countries and evolve according to connection between supply and demand. They bring a continuous and direct effort to valorification of our planet resources, contributing to redistribution of incomes and to world economic and social progress. The paper proposes to place transport activity from logistic point of view, through presentation of the relation between logistical system and development of transports, and of a relation with economic impact at European level. They are taken into consideration both microeconomic and macroeconomic level. The role of freight transports is presented and analyzed in interdependence with logistic activities from logistic system and with other indicators. The analyze starts from analytical relation of logistic system-freight transport, in endorsement of the idea of dragging an urgent attention to transports field. The results are sustained by presenting some indicators with economic impact at Romanian and European Union level. A highlighted relation is also that between freight transport and gross domestic product. In the final part of the paper there are presented the main results of the analyze and suggestions for development of transports. The competitiveness of enterprises and the comparative advantages of regions depend on information transmission and processing, mobility of people and movement of freight. In consequence, transports can be regarded as carriers of new systems of industrial and spatial organization. Key words: freight transport logistical system logistical system - transport relation economic growth statistical indicators of transports JEL classification: L91, R41 putnd implica tranzitul prin mai multe ri. Scopul acestei lucrri este acela de a Introducere eviden ia dezvoltarea i creterea rolului Transporturile au aprut i au transporturilor de mrfuri n Uniunea evoluat odat cu societatea omeneasc. n European i n Romnia i a sublinia micarea lor, oamenii i mrfurile, au implica iile acestor tendin e la nivel micro determinat o dezvoltare rapid a i macro economic, dar i regional. mijloacelor de transport n toate mediile: Abordrile teoretice sunt sus inute de ap, aer, sub ap, pe calea ferat, pe cadrul metodologic i de prezentarea unor drumuri, n depozite. Deoarece antreneaz indicatori ai transporturilor relevan i numeroase mijloace tehnice, ci de pentru problema urmrit. comunica ie, for de munc specializat, transporturile se prezint ca fiind un sistem dinamic i ra ional. Importan a transporturilor rezult att din func ia pe care acestea o de in la nivelul lan ului Introduction Transports appeared and evolved logistic, ct i din rela ia dintre transport in the same time with the human society. ca sector i economie. La nivel In their movement, people and goods, microeconomic, transportul de mrfuri determined a rapidly development of reprezint o func ie logistic. La nivel transports means, in all environments: macroeconomic accep iunea actual water, air, under water, railway, roads, pentru transportul de mrfuri este aceea and warehouses. Because implies various de deplasare a bunurilor ntre dou locuri technical means, communication ways, fie din aceeai ar fie din ri diferite,

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industriei i/sau geografic). Acceptarea acestei abordri tinde s creasc. S-a ncercat de asemenea i evaluarea construc iei lan ului logistic cu accent pe industria logistic a transporturilor (Lai i al ii, 2004). Contribu ia studiilor de acest gen a fost extinderea cercetrii lan ului logistic n contextul logisticii transporturilor. n prezent industria transporturilor trece prin schimbri profunde: noi solu ii de transport integrat, fuziuni, alian e strategice. Exist opinii diferite legate de consecin ele acestor schimbri. Unele vorbesc despre faptul c aceast dezvoltare implic o centralizare a activit ilor legate de transport, n timp ce al ii sunt de prere c dezvoltarea va conduce ctre construirea unei re ele de depozite descentralizate capabile s se lanseze pe pia ct mai curnd posibil. Politica n domeniul transporturilor a fost una dintre cele trei politici comune prevzute n Tratatul de la Roma. Recent research of logistics talks about the demand for quality transports, fact that determined a new approaching perspective which is that of logistics of freight transports (Drewes Nielsen et al., 2003). More often is developed the relation between logistical system and transport. There are two perspectives of this relation: Transport is perceived as an integrated part of logistical system, which makes it difficult to isolate transport as an independent activity. In this acceptance transport is perceived merely as a residual effect of logistics Transport is analyzed as activity embedded in its own systemic logic in transport chains. In this latter perspective, the focus is not only restricted to the movement of a single commodity through a specific supply chain, but includes the consequences of transport on an aggregated level (industrial or Amfiteatru Economic

specialized labor force, transports shape as being a dynamic and rational system. The importance of transports results both from function of these in logistical system and from the relation between transport as a sector and economy. At microeconomic level, freight transport represents a logistical function. At macroeconomic level, the current meaning for freight transport is the movement of goods between two places from different or the same country, inclusively transit through more countries. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the development and growth of freight transports role in European Union and Romania and to emphasize the implications of these tendencies at micro and macro economic level and regional level too. The theoretical approach is sustained by methodological framework and the presentation of some relevant indicators of transport for the problem in cause. n cercetrile recente asupra logisticii se vorbete despre cererea pentru calitatea transporturilor, fapt care a condus ctre o nou perspectiv de abordare, i anume aceea de logistica transporturilor de mrfuri (Drewes Nielsen i al ii, 2003). Tot mai des este abordat rela ia sistem logistic-transport. Exist dou perspective ale acestei rela ii: Transportul este perceput ca parte integrant a sistemului logistic, ceea ce face dificil izolarea transportului ca activitate independent. n aceast accep iune transportul este vzut ca avnd un efect rezidual asupra logisticii; Transportul este analizat ca o activitate inclus n propriul su sistem logic n lan urile de transport. n aceast ultima perspectiv, accentul nu este pus numai pe micarea unei simple mrfi printr-un lan logistic specific, ci include consecin ele activit ii de transport la nivel agregat (din punct de vedere al 212

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geographical). The accepting of this approach tends to increase. There have been made efforts to evaluate the construction of supply chain with accent on logistics industry of transports (Lai et al., 2004). The contribution of this kind of studies was the extension of supply chain research in the context of transports logistics. At present the transports industry is undergoing profound changes: new integrated transport solutions, mergers, strategic alliances. There are different opinions concerning the consequences of these changes. Some hold that this development implies a centralization of transport related activities, while others hold that development will result in the construction of a network of decentralized warehouses capable to appear on market as soon as possible. The policy in transport field was one of the three commune policies prescript by Roma Convention. Activitatea de transport este vital pentru func ionarea economiei, iar organizarea sa poate exercita un efect important n alegerea localizrii altor activit i. Importan a transporturilor provine din faptul c ele constituie un instrument necesar realizrii i func ionrii pie ei interne i interna ionale i din faptul c acest sector a devenit, n statele dezvoltate ale lumii, semnificativ din punct de vedere economic. n 2001 Comisia European a publicat Carta Alb privind transporturile, ceea ce face ca acest an s fie unul de referin . Transportul, ca func ie logistic, n Europa reprezenta la nivelul acestui an 82% din activit i (dac este vorba despre transport externalizat) i 63% din activit i (n ceea ce privete transportul intern) (Pimor, 2001). Comunicarea Comisiei Comunit ilor Europene din anul 2006, intitulat Pentru o Europ n micare - Mobilitate durabil pentru

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continentul nostru, ntrete ideea conform creia transporturile sunt o important ramur de activitate n sine i contribuie la func ionarea economiei europene n ansamblu. n acelai document se men ioneaz c n Uniunea European, la nivelul anului 2006, el reprezenta cca. 7% din produsul na ional brut, iar ca numr de locuri de munc 5% din totalul acestora. 1. Abordarea analitic a rela iei sistem logistic transport Deoarece locul activit ilor legate de transport prezint importan pentru dezvoltarea regiunilor, dezvoltarea structural din industria transporturilor are consecin e la nivel economic regional. ntr-o cercetare a situa iei Uniunii Europene, rela ia structur logistic-creterea transporturilor este vzut i descris pe trei nivele: micro, mezo i macro (fig. 1). Transport activity is vital for functioning of the economy, and its organization may have an important effect on choosing the location of other activities. The importance of transports derives from the fact that they constitute a necessary instrument for accomplishing and functioning of internal and external market and from the fact that this sector became, significant from economic view point for developed countries of the world. In 2001 European Commission published White Book for transports, fact that makes this year to be a reference one. Transport, as logistical function, represents in Europe 82% from activities (if it is about outsourcing transport) and 63% from total activities (when it is about intern transport (Pimor, 2001). The report of European Communities Commission from 2006, entitled For a in movement Europe Sustainable mobility for our continent confirms the idea that transports

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are an important branch of activity and contribute to the functioning of European economy in general. In the same document it is mentioned that in European Union, in 2006, this represented 7% by approximation from gross domestic product, and 5% from total number of working places.

1. Analytical approach of the relation logistical system - transport Because the role of related activities transport has an importance for development of regions, structural development from transport industry has consequences at economic regional level. In a research paper of European Union situation relation logistical structure-growth of transports is seen and described on three levels: micro, mezzo, and macro (fig. no.1).
Obiectivele tradi ionale la nivel macro (Traditional macro level goals)

Nivel macro (Macro level)

Maximizarea bunstrii: Orientare pe termen lung asupra sustenabilit ii i creterii (Welfare maximisation: Long term focus on sustainability and growth)

Analiz prin descompunere (Decomposition) Obiectivele industriei sau zonei geografice (Geographical or industry) Nivel mezo (Mezo level) De obicei nici o legtur (Usually no linkage)

Optimizarea bunstrii: Sectorul orientat pe termen scurt (men inut prin subsidii) (Welfare optimisation: Sector focus on shorter terms (under condition of subsidiarity) Optimizarea lan ului logistic:

(sub condi ia ctig-ctig) Figura 1 Migrarea orientrii de-a lungul lan ului logistic Obiectivele lan ului logistic (Supply (Migration towards a supply chain focus). chain optimisation: (Supply chain goals) (under condition of win-win)) Sursa: Organiza ia din Olanda pentru Cercetare tiin ific Aplicat, 2000 (Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research, 2000) Combinarea companiei obiectivelor

Nivel 214 micro (Micro level)

Obiectivele tradi ionale la nivel micro (Traditional micro level goals)

Maximizarea profitului: Orientarea pe termen scurt a Amfiteatru Economic ac ionarilor asupra maximizrii ctigului (Profit maximisation: Short term focus on shareholder value maximisation)

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Primul nivel reprezint obiectivele companiilor de a-i maximiza profitul, iar transportul reprezint un cost, alturi de alte costuri. Cel de-al doilea nivel reprezint obiectivele lan ului logistic. Aici condi ia cstig-cstig se refer la situa ia n care att vnztorul, ct i cumprtorul, sunt satisfcu i de tranzac ia ncheiat i de rela ia de afaceri. Att la acest nivel ct i la urmtorul, cel macroeconomic, transportul poate avea o influen dubl: una pozitiv, legat de faptul ca acest sector conduce la restructurarea economic i respectiv una negativ, asupra mediului. Schimbrile n organizarea logistic duc la o modificare a indicatorilor aferen i logisticii transporturilor, i anume: distan , vitez etc. Mai departe, efectul se propag i astfel influen eaz transportul, msurat aici prin indicatorii transporturilor [2]. Ultima implica ie este aceea asupra mediului, prin elementele nocive enumerate mai sus. Practic, aceast abordare explic o rela ie cauz-efect, care conduce la n elegerea trsturilor

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First level represents the goals of companies for profit maximization, and transport represents a cost among the other costs. The second level represents the objectives of the supply chain. Here, the condition win-win refers to the situation in which both the seller and the buyer are satisfied of made transaction and of business relationship.

transporturilor n general i implicit a transporturilor de mrfuri (figura 2). Both on this level and the next one, macroeconomic level, transport may have a double influence: positive, related to the fact that this sector focus on economic restructuration and negative, on environment. The changes in logistical organization imply transport logistical indicators changes, such as: distance, speed, etc. further on, the effect propagates and thus influences transport, measured here through transport indicators [2]. The last explanation is that on environment, through noxious elements enumerated above. Practically, this approach explains a relation causeeffect (fig. no. 2).

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Implic schimbri n organiza ia logistic ( Imply change in logistical organisation) Dezvluite de ctre indicatorii logisticii transportului (Is revealed in transport logistics indicators) Distan (Distance) Vitez (Speed) Frecven (Frecquency) Timp (Point in time) Efectele transportului reflectate n indicatorii transportului (Effects transport as shown in transport indicators) Modalitate de transport ( Transport mode) Con inutul transport ( Transport content) Distan a de transport ( Transport distance) Eficien a transportului ( Transport efficiency) Implic impact societal i de mediu (Has environmental and other societal impacts)

Exemple de schimbri (Change in e.g.)

Principii ale produc iei sau distribu iei (Production or distribution principles) Infrastructur (Infrastructure) Ownership (Ownership)

Structura logistic ( Logistic structure) Trsturi ale legturilor comerciale ( Pattern of trading links) Programarea fluxului produc iei ( Scheduling of product flow) Managementul resurselor pentru transport ( Management of transport resources)

Poluare (Pollution) Zgomot (Noise) Dioxid de carbon (Carbondioxide) Accidente (Accidents) Aglomera ie (Congestion)

Figura 2 Rela ia dintre sistemul logistic i transport din punct de vedere analitic (Analytical relationship between logistical system and transport). Sursa: Drewes Nielsen i al ii, 2003( Drewes Nielsen and others, 2003)

Nu trebuie uitat nici faptul c produsele, prin caracteristicile, ambalajul i complexitatea lor influen eaz transportul. Activitatea de transport de mrfuri poate fi evaluat n mai multe moduri, n func ie de scopul urmrit [2]. Pentru a ndeplini scopul acestei lucrri, adic pentru a studia situa ia rilor din cadrul Uniunii Europene i desigur situa ia Romniei n ceea ce privete transportul de mrfuri, e nevoie de indicatori care func ioneaz ca variabile dependente. Exist mai mul i indicatori care pot eviden ia dezvoltrile n domeniul transportului de mrfuri, indicatori care sunt corela i cu impactul economic, societal i de mediu: modul de transport;

con inutul ncrcturii (n sensul de volum); distan a pe care se transport; eficien a transporturilor. 2. Necesitatea dezvoltrii transporturilor de mrfuri Dup cum reiese din propunerile Cartei Albe n domeniul transporturilor pentru 2010, se poate spune c politica european a transporturilor nu s-a desvrit odat cu stabilirea pie ei interne unice. Este necesar ca aceasta s contribuie la surmontarea unor probleme asociate transporturilor, att n interiorul UE ct i n rela iile cu rile vecine sau cu statele membre ale UE. Transportul conectez rile i de asemenea faciliteaz creterea economic Amfiteatru Economic

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aceasta este i opinia oficial care reiese din cercetrile realizate la nivelul Uniunii Europene. Datele statistice furnizate de Comisia European de Statistica (Eurostat) prezint dezvoltarea transporturilor de mrfuri prin prisma indicatorilor relevan i. We do not have to forget the fact that the goods, through their characteristics, packaging and complexity influence transport. The activity of freight transport may be sized up in many ways depending on the considered objective. For accomplish the objective of this paper, in studying the situation of countries from European Union and of course the situation of Romania regarding freight transport, we need indicators that are functioning as dependent variables. There are many indicators that may evidence developments in transports fields, indicators that are correlated with economic, societal an environmental impact: Transport mode; Transport content; Dac de exemplu, se iau n considerare distan a parcurs de ncrctur i volumul acesteia, se poate calcula practic ncrctura n tone-km. n perioada 1999-2006, multe ri membre ale UE au raportat puternice creteri n tone-kilometri. Este vorba despre Spania, Irlanda, Luxemburg, Suedia, Italia [9] (tabelul 1). Transport distance; Transport efficiency.

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2. The necessity of freight transports development As it results from the proposals of White Paper in the field of transports for 2010, we can say that transports European policy has not been accomplished once with unique internal market establishment. It is necessary for this to contribute to solving problems of transports from European Union and relations with neighbor or member countries of European Union. The transport connects countries and facilitates economic growth this is the official opinion that results from researches in the European Union. Statistic data from European Commission of Statistics (Eurostat) presents the development of freight transports through some relevant indicators. If by example, we consider the distance made by freight and the volume of this, it can be calculated the freight in tones-kilometers. In 1999-2006 period many countries, members of European Union have reported considerable increases in tones-kilometers. It is about Spain, Ireland, Luxemburg, Sweden and Italy [9] (table 1).

Transportul de mrfuri n tone kilometri n 2006 (Freight transport in tonnes kilometres in 2006) Tabelul 1
Nr. Crt. (Item) Nr. Crt. (Item) ara (Country) Transport de mrfuri (milioane tkm) (Freight transport (million tkm)) ara (Country) Transport de mrfuri (milioane tkm) (Freight transport (million tkm))

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

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43017 13765 50376 21255 330015 5547 17453 34002 241789 211444 220400 1165 10753 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Lituania (Lithuania) Luxemburg (Luxembourg) Ungaria (Hungary) Olanda (Netherlands) Austria (Austria) Polonia (Poland) Portugalia (Portugal) Romnia (Romania) Slovenia (Slovenia) Slovacia (Slovakia) Finlanda (Finland) Suedia (Sweden) Regatul Unit (United Kindom) 18134 8807 30478 83193 39188 128316 45041 57129 12111 22212 29714 39918 172176

Belgia (Belgium) Bulgaria (Bulgaria) Republica Ceh (Czech Republic) Danemarca (Denmark) Germania (Germany) Estonia (Estonia) Irlanda (Ireland) Grecia (Greece) Spania (Spain) Fran a (France) Italia (Italy) Cipru (Cyprus) Letonia (Latvia)

Sursa: Trends in road freight 1999-2006 (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat )( Trends in road freight 19992006 (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat ))

Informa iile n domeniul transporturilor nu reflect numai situa ia acestora. Sunt indicatori ai activit ii economice i ai integrrii europene, rezulta i de exemplu n urma creterii propor iei valorii transportului intraeuropean, exprimat n diverse mrimi. Datele referitoare la transport sunt, de asemenea, folositoare pentru a descrie probleme cum ar fi securitatea aviatic, creterea pre urilor petrolului i impactul trasportului asupra snt ii. Panorama transporturilor (Eurostat, 2007) descrie din mai multe unghiuri dezvoltarea sectorului transporturilor din 1990 pn n 2005 n Uniunea European (UE). Abordarea din aceast analiz permite valorificarea informa iilor disponibile n baza de date 218

principal New Cronos, de pe site-ul Comisiei Europene, dar i a celor culese din diverse documente aprute recent care fac referire la transport. Din punct de vedere al includerii n rapoartele cu privire la datele statistice, Romnia a aprut pentru prima dat n cifrele Eurostat n 2006, ns sunt oferite date aferente i perioadei anterioare acestui an. Programul Opera ional Sectorial Transport 2007-2013 este un instrument strategic, elaborat pe baza obiectivelor Cadrului Na ional Strategic de Referin care stabilete priorit ile, obiectivele si alocarea financiar pentru dezvoltarea sectorului de transporturi din Romnia cu ajutor comunitar, n perioada 2007 2013.

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Dac analizm sectorul logisticii la nivelul rilor din Europa Central i Estic se poate observa c re eaua de transport nu e dezvoltat aa cum ar fi necesar. Raportul Central and Eastern European Logistics Outlook 2008, previzioneaz c cheltuielile nominale cu logistica vor crete de la 272,3 miliarde de dolari (ct se estimeaz n prezent) pn la 369,4 miliarde pn n 2012. The information in transports field do not reflect only the situation of this field. There are indicators of economic activities and European integration, resulted, by example, from rising up of the intra European transport, expressed in different measures. Data regarding transport are also useful for describing problems such as air security, the rise of oil price and impact of transport on health. Panorama of Transport (Eurostat, 2007) sets out to describe, from various angles, the development of the transport sector from 1990 to 2005 in European Union (UE). The approach in the present paper to exploit the wealth of data available on Eurostat's main n ansamblu aceste ri au o re ea relativ nedezvoltat dar atrag sume n cretere ale fluxurilor de investi ii din Uniunea European, de la guvernele locale i de la actorii priva i din sectorul logistic [11]. Cile ferate au devenit un mod de transport scump. Infrastructura cilor ferate, monopolizat de ctre guvernele locale este relativ slab dezvoltat n Europa Central i de Est. Doar 50% din infrastructura cilor ferate este operativ din pricina investi iilor i mentenan ei. n consecin , posibilit ile intermodale sunt limitate i o mul ime de mrfuri de tonaj mare, care ar putea fi transportate pe calea ferat, sunt transportate prin utilizarea

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dissemination database New Cronos, on European Union, but also of data from different papers recently appeared that refer to transport. Speaking of existence of Romania in statistic papers, our country appeared for the first time in Eurostat data in 2006, but now there is information about previous period too. Operational Sectoral Program Transport 2007-2013 is a strategic instrument, elaborated on base objective of Strategic National Framework which sets out the priorities, aims and financial allocation for development of Romanian transports sector with the communitarian support. If we look at logistical sector in Central and Eastern European countries it can be observed that transport network is not development as it should be. The report, Central and Eastern European Logistics Outlook 2008, predicts the nominal spend on logistics and storage in the region will grow from an estimated $272.3 billion today to $369.4 billion by 2012. camioanelor, ntruct infrastructura drumurilor este destul de bine dezvoltat. Guvernele ncurajeaz participarea sectorului privat, n special n cile ferate, pentru a atrage mai multe investi ii strine n scopul mbunt irii infrastructurii generale a transporturilor. Transportul maritim joac un rol major n transporturi, dar nu este un mod de transport preferat n Uniunea European. Transportul pe calea aerului este totui cel mai ieftin datorit eficien ei i livrrii la timp. O problem este legat de congestionarea re elei logistice i de depozitare. Deoarece activit ile de produc ie i distribu ie sunt concentrate n cteva centre (Praga, Varovia, Budapesta, Sofia, Moscova), alte orae din Europa Central i de Est au

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problem is the congestion of logistical and warehousing networks. Because production and distribution activities are concentrated in some centers (Prague, Warsaw, Budapest, Sofia, Moscow), other cities from Central and Eastern European need to develop logistical activities, for improving infrastructure and to create new transport, distribution and warehousing networks. Macroeconomic benchmarks: relation freight transport-gross domestic product Freight transport, as component of economy, is measured related to gross domestic product. De regul, acest indicator, ob inut n urma raportrii celor dou componente economice este citat pentru a ilustra importan a contribu iei transporturilor din punct de vedere economic. Uneori dou variabile sunt puse ntr-o rela ie nu pentru a sublinia vreo interdependen intrinsec ci datorit faptului c fiecare poate reprezenta un reper pentru cealalt. Indicatorii astfel ob inu i pot fi numi i msuri nonrela ionale (Fang i Han, 2000) (tabel 2). As a rule, this indicator, obtained as ratio between the two economic components is cited for illustrating the importance of transports contribution from economic point of view. Sometimes the two variables are put in a relation not because the two have any intrinsic underlying relationship but because one provides a benchmark for the other. The measures so derived can be called nonrelational measures (Fang and Han, 2000) (table 2). 3.

nevoie s-i dezvolte activit ile de logisic, pentru a mbunt i infrastructura i a crea noi re ele de transport, distribu ie i depozitare. 3. Repere macroeconomice: rela ia transport de mrfuri - produs intern brut Transportul de mrfuri, ca parte component a economiei, se msoar adesea raporat la produsul intern brut. On the whole, CEE has a relatively underdeveloped transportation network but is attracting increasing amounts of investment flows from the European Union, local government and large foreign and domestic private players in the logistics sector [11]. Railways have become an expensive transport mode. Railway infrastructure, monopolized by local governments is relatively scantily developed in the Central and Eastern European countries. Only 50 percent of the railway tracks are operative due to poor investment and maintenance. Consequently, the intermodal capabilities are limited and a majority of the gross tonnage, which could ideally be transported by rail, is being transported via trucks as road infrastructure is quite well developed. Government is encouraging private participation, especially in railways, to attract more foreign investments to improve the overall transport infrastructure. Maritime transport plays a major role in the transportation, but it is not a preferred transport mode across EU. Air transport is still the costliest transport mode due to its efficiency and timely deliveries. A

Evolu ia volumului de mrfuri transportate raportat la produsul intern brut 2002-2006 (Evolution of the freight transport volume related to gross domestic product 2002-2006) Tabelul 2
UE (numr de ri asociate, cuprinse n eantion) Ani (Years) 2004

2002

2003

2005

2006

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Volumul de mrfuri transportate raportat la produsul intern (EU (number of brut (exprimri procentuale %, an de baz 1995 = 100) associated countries, (Volume of freight transport related to gross domestic product included in the (percentage increase %, Index 1995 = 100)) sample)) UE (27 ri) (EU (27 countries)) 99.3 98.7 104 105.4 106.7 UE (25 ri) 99.7 98.9 104.0 104.6 106.2 (EU (25 countries)) UE (15 ri) (EU (15 countries)) 101.4 99.7 104.7 104.6 105 Sursa: Prelucrare date statistice de pe Eurostat (http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu ) (Statistical data on Eurostat (http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu ))

Conform datelor statistice pe termen lung creterea economic evoluez n paralel cu dezvoltarea transporturilor. Acest subiect - corela ia dintre dezvoltarea transportului de mrfuri i creterea economic - a fost studiat de Pieter Hilferink. A prezentat transportul ca fiind o parte a economiei. n cadrul Uniunii Europene produsul intern brut a crescut cu o rat mai mare dect cea a transportului de mrfuri pn n 1993, dar dup aceea, dinamica transporturilor de mrfuri a depit creterea produsului intern brut. Mai mult, din 1995 pn n prezent, rata de cretere a transportului de mrfuri este mai mare dect cea a transportului de persoane [7]. n perioada 2002 2006 n Uniunea European, valorile indicatorului volum de marf transportat raportat la produsul intern brut nregistreaz n general creteri, pe totalul rilor asociate ncepnd cu 2004 (tabelul nr. 2). Acest indicator este definit ca raport ntre volumul de mrfuri, exprimat n tonekilometri i produsul intern brut (exprimat n pre urile anului de baz 1995). S-au luat n calcul transportul rutier, prin re eaua de cale ferat i cel maritim. Concluzii Din analiza realizat asupra transporturilor de mrfuri se poate

According to statistical data on long term, economic growth evolves parallel with transport development. This subject correlation between freight transport development and economic growth has been studied by Pieter Hilferink. He presented transport as being a part of the economy. In EU the gross domestic product raised with a greater rate than that of freight transport until 1933, but after that, the dynamic of freight transports had outrun the increase of gross domestic product. observa cu uurin locul pe care transporturile l ocup att la nivel microeconomic, ct i macroeconomic. Din acest rol deriv i interesul sporit al organismelor din ntreaga lume pentru acest subiect. Comisia European sus ine dezvoltarea noilor coridoare pentru transportul intermodal. Se dorete crearea unei re ele europene de transport bine pus la punct, de aceea Comisia promoveaz o abordare modern i sugereaz o implicare gradual n ceea ce privete proiectarea acestui sistem, mai ales prin scheme care vor promova calitatea n logistica transportului intermodal. n studiul realizat abordarea a fost de natur analitic i statistic ns problema transporturilor de mrfuri poate fi analizat, pornind de la rezultatele

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Relevant indicators for economic growth there can be thus estimated, by example. Problemele care se ridic ntr-o astfel de abordare sunt legate de gsirea modelului potrivit, ntruct n realitate, fenomenele, n special cele din economie nu evolueaz liniar; ele au traiectorii neliniare. Exigen ele dezvoltrii durabile consacr domeniul transporturi ca un sector distinct. Libera circula ie a bunurilor este una dintre libert ile fundamentale ale Uniunii Europene, iar Comisia European face tot posibilul ca acest lucru s devin o realitate sustenabil. Politica european n domeniul transporturilor continu s sufere din pricina utilizrii necorespunztoare a diferitelor modalit i de transport. Costurile pe care le suport companiile sunt n cretere. Aceste costuri rezult dintr-o infrastructur congestionat, pre uri mari la combustibil i alte tipuri de cost, inclusiv cele legate de emisiile de dioxid de carbon (CO2). Presiunea cererilor i dezideratul dezvoltrii durabile, n corela ie cu rapida asimilare a progreselor tehnologice, ngreuneaz ac iunile pentru strategiile de dezvoltare a sectorului transporturilor. Se fac resim ite exigen ele logisticilor industriale i comerciale. n acelai timp, trebuie fundamentate, n corela ie, strategiile de repartizare a resurselor financiare, materiale, for de munc etc. ntre infrastructuri i dezvoltarea economico-social. Modelele sunt multicriteriale i se bazeaz pe estimri tehnice, financiare i economice.

ob inute, prin aplicarea unui model econometric n care s se verifice rela iile identificate. Pot fi astfel estima i indicatori relevan i pentru creterea economic de exemplu. More over, from 1995 until present, the growth rate of freight transport is bigger than that of persons transport [7]. In 2002-2006 in EU, the values of volume of freight related to gross domestic product, generally registers increases, at level of all associated countries starting with 2004 (table no.2). This indicator is defined as the ratio between tones kilometers (inland modes) and GDP (in constant 1995 EUR). It is indexed on 1995. There have been sized up transport by road, rail and inland waterways.

Conclusions From the present analyze on freight transport it can be observed the role that transports have at microeconomic and macroeconomic level. From this role derives the increasing interest for this subject of organisms from entire world. European Commission supports the development of new corridors for intermodal freight transport. It is aimed the development of an European transport network, this being the objective for which the Commission suggests a modern approach and suggests a gradual implication in projection of this system, mainly through schemes that will promote quality in intermodal transport logistics. In this study the approach has been an analytical and statistical one, but freight transport problem can be analyzed, starting from the obtained results, through applying of an econometrical model which to verify the relation identified.

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The problems in this kind of approaching are the finding of the right model, because in reality, the facts, especially economic ones do not evolve linearly, they have nonlinear trajectory. The exigency of sustainable development makes transport field a distinct sector. Free movement of goods is one of fundamental liberty of EU and European Commission makes efforts that this thing to become a sustainable reality. European policy in transport field still suffers from inadequate valorification of different modes of transport. The costs that company supports are increasing. These costs results from congestion infrastructure, high oil prices and other kinds of cost, inclusively that related of CO2 emissions.

The pressure of demands and desideratum of sustainable development, correlated to rapidly assimilation of technological progress, are slowing down the actions for development strategy in transport sector. There are experienced the exigency of industrial and commercial logistics. In the same time, there must be established in correlation, the strategies of allocation the financial, material, labor force resource between infrastructure and economic social and economic development. The models are multicriterial and are based on technical, financial and economic estimation.

References [1] Blan, Carmen, Logistica: parte integranta a lantului de aprovizionare-livrare, Editura Uranus, Bucureti, 2006 [2] Drewes Nielsen Lise, Jespersen Per Homann, Petersen Tina, Hansen Leif Gjesing, Freight transport growth a theoretical and methodological framework, European Journal of Operational research, nr. 144, pp. 295-305, 2003 [3] Fang, Bingsong and Han, Xiaoli, Relating Transportation to GDP: Concepts, Measures, and Data, MacroSys Research and Technology, Washington, DC, SUA, 2000-preluare http://www.ajd.umontreal.ca [4] Lai Kee-Hung, Ngai E.W.T, Cheng T.C.E, An empirical study of supply chain performance in transport logistics, International Journal of Production economics, nr. 87, pp. 321-331, 2004 [5] Mason, Robert and Lalwani, Chandra, Transport integration tools for supply management, International Journal of Logistics: Research and Applications, Vol. 9, nr.1, pp. 57-74, 2006 [6] Pimor, Yves, Logistique, Techniques et mise en oeuvre, Dunod, Paris, 2001 [7]*** European Freight Transport, Comisia European de Statistic, 2007 - preluare http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu

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[8]*** Panorama of Transport European Communities, Comisia European de Statistic, 2007 - preluare http://www.epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu [9]*** Trends in road freight transport 1999-2006, Comisia European de Statistic, 2008 - preluare http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu [10]*** Benchmarking infrastructure and logistic services across Europe, Asia-Pacific and North America, Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research, 2000 [11]*** Central and Eastern European Logistics Outlook, Dublin, Irlanda, 2008 - preluare http://www.researchandmarkets.com

PERFORMAN A LAN ULUI LOGISTIC: ARMONIZAREA STRATEGIC

(The performance of the supply chain: Strategical harmonization) Lect. univ. dr. Oana eitan Universitatea Transilvania din Braov, Romnia oana.seitan@unitbv.ro Rezumat n aceast lucrare, definim strategia lan ului logistic i explicm felul n care crearea unei armonizri strategice ntre strategia competitiv a companiei i strategia lan ului logistic afecteaz performan a la nivelul firmei. Analizm, totodat, importan a extinderii armonizrii strategice de la o opera iune din cadrul companiei la toate nivelurile lan ului logistic. Lucrarea de fa i propune: explicarea motivului pentru care ob inerea unei armonizri strategice este critic pentru succesul de ansamblu al unei companii, descrierea felului n care o companie realizeaz o armonizare strategic ntre strategia lan ului logistic i strategia sa concuren ial/competitiv, precum i discutarea importan ei extinderii sferei armonizrii strategice asupra lan ului logistic.

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Cuvinte cheie: strategii concuren iale, logistic, armonizare strategic, nevoile consumatorilor, lan valoric Clasificare JEL: M15. Abstract On this paperwork, we define the strategy of the logistic chain and we explain the way in which the creation of a strategical harmonization between the competitive strategy of the companz and the strategz of the logistic chain affects the performance of the whole company. We also analyse the importance of the extension of strategical harmonization from an operation inside the companyto all the levels of logistic chain. This paperwork propose: explaining why obtaining a strategical harmonization is critical for the succes of a whole company, the description of the way in which a company realize a strategical harmonization between the strategy of the logistic chain and its competitional strategy and the disscution about the importance of expanding the strategical harmonization over the logistic chain. Keywords: Competitional strategies, logistics, strategical harmonization, consumers needs, values chain. JEL Classification: M15 Introducere Armonizare strategic semnific faptul c att strategia logistic, ct i cea competitiv au eluri comune. Aceasta se refer la compatibilitatea dintre priorit ile clientului, pe care sper s le satisfac strategia competitiv i la capacit ile lan ului logistic pe care strategia logistic intete s le construiasc. n contextul procesului armonizarii strategice, cele mai noi abordri au n vedere conceptul de supply-chain management. Lan ul logistic sau supply-chain presupune func iile operative ale firmei, achizi iile, produc ia i vnzrile care fac legtura ntre furnizori i clien i, precum i acea func ie prin care se gestioneaz i coordoneaz opera iunile (figura 1). Zona COMERCIAL (COMMERCIAL Zone) Vnzari V (Sales) Introduction Strategic harmonisation means that both logistic and competition strategy have common aims. This refers to the compatibility between the customers priorities which the competitive strategy hopes to satisfy and to the capacities of the logistics chain which the logistic strategy aims at achieving. In the strategic harmonization process, the most recent approaches take into.consideration the supply-chain management concept. Supply chain suppose firms operative functions, production and sales wich make conection between purveyors and clients as well that function though the firm manage the operations (fig.1).

Zona TEHNIC (TEHNICAL Zone)

Zona LOGISTIC (LOGISTIC Zone) Stoc si distributie (Stock and Distribution)

Produc ia (Production)

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Figura 1 Verigiile supply-chain (Supply chain link) Source: Chopra, S., Meindl, P., Supply Chain Management, Pearson Education, USA, 2007, p. 41

Toate procesele i func iile care fac parte din lan ul valoric al unei companii, contribuie la succesul sau eecul acesteia. Aceste procese i func ii nu func ioneaz n izolare: niciun proces sau func ie, de unul/una singur() nu poate asigura succesul lan ului. n schimb, eecul oricrui singur proces sau func ie poate conduce la eecul ntregului lan . O companie poate da gre fie datorit lipsei unei armonizri strategice, fie datorit faptului c procesele, conceperea ntregului lan logistic i resursele nu ofer capacit ile necesare pentru a sprijini armonizarea strategic dorit. Ob inerea armonizrii strategice reprezint un element cheie n realizare strategiei lan ului logistic sau n faza de concepere 2. Strategii competitive i logistice Strategia competitiv a unei companii definete, legat de concuren a sa, setul nevoilor consumatorilor pe care ncearc s le satisfac prin intermediul produselor i serviciilor sale. De exemplu, Wal-Mart are n vedere oferirea unei mari disponibilit i dintr-o varietate de produse de calitate rezonabil la pre uri sczute. Majoritatea produselor comercializate la Wal-Mart sunt produse generale (de tot felul, de la aparatur electrocasnic la mbrcminte) i pot fi achizi ionate de oriunde altundeva. Ceea ce ofer WalMart este un pre sczut i disponibilitatea produsului. McMaster-Carr vinde produse pentru ntre inere, repara ii i produse tehnologice (MRO). Aceasta ofer mai mult de 400 000 de produse diferite att prin intermediul unui catalog, ct i printr-un site web. Strategia sa competitiv se axeaz pe furnizarea de accesibilitate, disponibilitate i rapiditate clientului. Axndu-se pe rapiditate,

All the processes and functions belonging to the value chain of a company contribute to the companys success or failure. These processes and functions do not act isolately: no process or function alone can ensure the success of the chain. On the other hand, the failure of a single process or function can lead to the failure of the whole chain. A company can fail either due to the lack of a strategic harmonisation or because the processes, the planning of the whole logistics chain and the resources do not offer the necessary capacities for supporting the desired strategic harmonisation. Achieving strategic harmonisation is a key element in pursuing the strategy of the logistics chain or in the project stage. McMaster nu concureaz pe baza pre ului sczut. n mod evident, strategia competitiv a Wal-Mart este diferit de cea a companiei McMaster. Putem face diferen , totodat, ntre Dell, cu modelul su build-to-order (produc ie-la-comand), i o companie precum Gateway care vinde calculatoare eMachines prin intermediul detailitilor. Dell a pus accent pe adaptare i varietate la un cost rezonabil, clien ii trebuind s atepte aproximativ o sptmn pentru a-i primi produsul. n mod contrar, un client poate merge la un detailist de calculatoare, poate fi ajutat de ctre un vnztor i poate pleca n aceeai zi cu un calculator eMachines. Gradul de varietate i adaptare disponibil la detailist este, cu toate acestea, limitat. n fiecare dintre aceste cazuri, strategia concuren ial este definit pe baza felului n care clientul percepe costul produsului, durata livrrii, 2. Competitive and logistic strategies

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The competitive strategy of a company defines, as far as its competition is regarded, the set of the consumers needs which the company tries to satisfy by means of its products and services. For example Wal-Mart aims at offering a variety of available products of a resonable quality at low prices. Most of the products sold in Wal-Mart (all sorts, from domestic electric appliances to clothes) can be bought in any other shop, as well. What Wall-Mart offers is a low price and availability. McMaster-Carr sells products for maintenance, repair and technological producs (MRO). It offers more than 400.000 different products both by means of a catalogue and a website. Its competitive strategy focuses on providing accessibility, availability and rapidity to the customer. Focusing on rapidity, McMaster does not compete by low prices. The competitive strategy of Wal-Mart is obviously different from that of McMaster. varietatea i calitatea. Un client McMaster-Carr pune mai mare pre pe varietatea produsului i timpul de rspuns, dect pe costul acestuia. Un client WalMart, n mod contrar, pune mai mare accent pe cost. Un client Dell, care cumpr online, pune mare accent pe varietatea produsului i adaptare. Un client care cumpr un calculator Machines de la un detailist este mai preocupat de pre , de rspunsul n timp rapid, i de ajutorul acordat pentru selectarea produsului. Astfel, strategia competitiv a unei companii va fi definit pe baza priorit ilor clien ilor si. Strategia competitiv are n vizor unul sau mai multe segmente de consumatori i are ca scop oferirea de produse i servicii care s satisfac nevoile acestor consumatori. Pentru a observa rela ia dintre strategiile competitive i cele ale lan ului logistic, vom ncepe cu lan ul valoric al unei organiza ii tipice, dup cum apare n figura 2.

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We can also make the difference between Dell, with its build-to-order model and a company such as Gateway which sells eMachines computers by means of retail sellers. Dell focused on adaptability and variety at a resonable price, but customers have to wait around one week in order to get their product. On the contrary, a customer can go to a computer retail seller, he can be helped by the shop assistand and can go home with an eMachines computer on the very same day. Nevertheless the variety and availability degree is limited with a retail dealer. In each of these cases the competitive strategy is defined according to the way the customer perceives the price of the product, the delivery time,

the variety and quality. A McMaster-Carr customer is more ineterested in the variety of the product and the response time. On the other side, a Wal-Mart custmer is focused rather on price. A Dell customer who buys on-line centers on the variety and adaptability of the product. A customer who buys a Machines computer from a retail dealer is rather concerned with the price, the promptness and the assistance offered for choosing the product. Consequently the competitive strategy will be defined according to the customers priorities. Competitive strategy has as target one or more consumers segments and aims at offering products and services which should satisfy the customers needs. For examining the relationship between the competitive strategies and those of the logistics chain we will start

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with the value chain of a typical organisation, as it can be seen in figure 2.

Finan e, Contabilitate, Tehnologie Informa ional, Resurse (Finances, Accounting, Information Technology, Human Resources Umane)

Dezvoltare produs nou (Development of a new product)

Marketing i Vnzri (Marketing and Sales)

Opera iuni (Operations)

Distribu ie (Distribution)

Service (Service of a new product)

Figura 2 Lan ul valoric ntr-o companie (Value chain in a company) Sursa: Chopra, S., Meindl, P. - Supply Chain Management, Pearson Education, USA, 2007, p. 23

Lan ul valoric ncepe cu dezvoltarea de noi produse, care creeaz condi ii tehnice (specifica ii) pentru produs. Marketingul i vnzrile genereaz cerere prin divulgarea priorit ilor clien ilor pe care produsele i serviciile le vor satisface. Marketingul aduce, de asemenea, inputul The value chain begins with the development of new products which provides the technical conditions (specifications) for the product. Marketing and sales generate demand by revealing the customers priorities which the products and services will satisfy. consumatorului napoi la dezvoltarea de noi produse. Folosind noi specifica ii pentru produs, opera iunile transform inputurile n outputuri pentru a crea produsul. Distribu ia fie duce produsul la client, fie aduce clientul la produs. Servirea rspunde la cerin ele clientului n timpul sau dup vnzare. Toate acestea reprezint procese sau func ii fundamentale care trebuie realizate cu scopul de a avea o vnzare de succes. Finan ele, contabilitatea, tehnologia informa ional i resursele umane sprijin i faciliteaz func ionarea lan ului valoric.

Toate aceste func ii joac un rol n realizarea strategiei competitive a unei companii i fiecare dintre ele trebuie s-i dezvolte propria strategie, incercand sa realizeze deosebit de bine fiecare proces sau functie. O strategie de dezvoltare a produsului specific portofoliul de noi produse pe care o companie ncearc s le dezvolte. Dicteaz, totodat, dac efortul de dezvoltare va fi intern sau externalizat. O strategie de marketing i vnzri specific felul n care pia a va fi segmentat i produsul pozi ionat i promovat, iar pre ul stabilit. O strategie logistic determin natura achizi iei materiei prime, transportul materiei de la i pn la companie, fabricarea produsului sau opera iunea de service-are i distribu ia produsului ctre client, alturi de orice serviciu ulterior precum i o specificare dac aceste procese se vor efectua n interiorul companiei sau vor fi externalizate. innd cont de faptul c firmele sunt rareori integrate complet pe vertical, este important s recunoatem faptul c strategia logistic definete nu numai care sunt procesele din cadrul firmei care ar trebui s fie bine efectuate, dar i care este rolul jucat de fiecare Amfiteatru Economic

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entitate a lan ului de aprovizionaredistribu ie. Marketing brings also the users input back to the development of new products. Using new specifications for the product, the operations turn inputs into outputs in order to create the product. Distribution brings the product to the customer or the customer to the product. Service meets the customers demands during or after sale. All these represent fundamental processes or functions which have to be performed in order to have successful sales. Finances, accounting, information technology and human resources support and facilitate the operation of the value chain. All these functions play a role in achieving the competitive strategy of a company and each of them has to develope their own strategy. In this context, strategy refers to what each process or function will try to achieve extremely well. A strategy for product development specifies the portfolio of new products which a company tries to develop. It also decides if the development effort will be internalised or externalised. A marketing and sales strategy specifies the way in which the market will be segmented and the product positioned and promoted and the price set. A logistic strategy determines the type of raw material acquisition, the transport of the raw material from and to the company, the product manufacture or the service operation and the distribution of the product to the customer together with all the subsequent service as well as the specification if these processes wil be performed within the company or will be externalised. Taking into account the fact that companies are seldom entirely vertically integrated, it is important to admit the fact that the logistic strategy designates not only which processes within the company should be well

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performed, but also which role each entity of the supply-distribution chain plays. De exemplu, strategia logistic a companiei Cisco necesit ca o mai mare parte din activitatea de fabricare i asamblare a componentelor s fie externalizat. n acest caz, strategia logistic a companiei Cisco identific nu doar ceea ce Cisco ar trebui s efectueze bine, ci i rolul fiecrei ter e pr i creia i se externalizeaz sarcinile lan ului logistic. Strategia lan ului logistic specific ceea ce opera iunile, distribu ia i func iile servirii, fie acestea interne sau externe, ar trebui s realizeze deosebit de bine. Deoarece ne axm aici pe strategia lan ului logistic, o vom defini mai n detaliu. Strategia lan ului logistic include o specifica ie a structurii largi a lan ului logistic i ceea ce mul i numesc, n mod tradi ional, strategia furnizorului, strategia opera iunilor i strategia logistic. De exemplu, decizia Dell de a vinde direct, decizia companiei Gateway de a ncepe s vnd calculatoare prin intermediul detailitilor i decizia companiei Cisco de a folosi fabricarea sub contract (externalizat) definesc structura larg a lan ului lor de aprovizionare-distribu ie i fac toate parte din strategiile lan ului lor logistic. Strategia lan ului logistic include, de asemenea, deciziile de concepere cu privire la inventar, transport, facilit i de exploatare i fluxuri de informa ii. De exemplu, deciziile companiei Amazon de a construi depozite pentru nmagazinarea anumitor produse i utilizarea n continuare a distribuitorilor ca surs de alte produse fac parte din strategia lan ului su logistic. n mod similar, decizia Toyota de a avea facilit i de produc ie pe fiecare dintre pie ele sale principale face parte din strategia sa logistic.

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The value chain underlines the tight relationship between the functional strategies within a company. Astfel, diversele strategii func ionale nu pot fi formulate n izolare. Acestea sunt strns legate ntre ele i trebuie s se potriveasc i s sprijine una pe cealalt dac o companie dorete s reueasc. De exemplu, succesul companiei japoneze Seven-Eleven poate fi legat de armonizarea excelent dintre strategiile sale func ionale. Marketingul de la SevenEleven a accentuat accesibilitatea sub forma accesului facil la magazine i a disponibilit ii unei game largi de produse i servicii. Dezvoltarea de noi produse la Seven-Eleven adaug, n mod constant, produse i servicii, ca de exemplu serviciile de plat a facturilor care atrag clien ii i exploateaz infrastructura informa ional excelent i i determin pe clien i s viziteze frecvent SevenEleven. Opera iunile i distribu ia la Seven-Eleven s-au axat pe a avea o mare densitate de magazine, pe a fi foarte receptivi i pe oferirea unei infrastructuri informa ionale excelente. Rezultatul este un cerc virtuos n care infrastructura lan ului logistc este exploatat pentru a oferi noi produse i servicii care s mreasc cererea, iar cererea sporit, la rndul ei, faciliteaz mbunt irea de ctre opera iuni a densit ii magazinelor, a activit ii n reaprovizionare i a infrastructurii informa ionale. n urmtoarea parte vom aprofunda no iunea de armonizare i vom cuta s rspundem la urmtoarea ntrebare: n func ie de strategia sa competitiv, ce ar trebui s ncerce s realizeze deosebit de bine lan ul logistic al unei companii? 3. Ob inerea armonizrii strategice Acesta parte a lucrarii este construit pe ideea c, pentru ca o companie s aib succes, strategia sa

Lan ul valoric subliniaz rela ia strns dintre strategiile func ionale din cadrul unei companii. For example the logistic strategy of Cisco company requires that a greater part of the manufacturing and assemblying activity should be externalised. In this case the logistic strategy of Cisco company identifies not only what Cisco should perform well, but also the role of each third party whom the tasks of the logistics supply chain are assigned. The strategy of the logistics chain specifies what operations, distribution and service functions, not matter if internal or external, should perform extremely well. Since we focus here on the strategy of the logistics chains, we will describe it in detail. The strategy of the logistics chain includes a specification of the large structure of the logistics chain and what many traditionally call providers strategy, operations strategy and logistic strategy. For example, Dells decision to sell directly, Gateways decision to start selling computers by means of retailers and Ciscos decision to manufacture on the basis of contracts (externalised) define the large structure of their supply-distribution chain and all of them are part of the strategies of their logistics chain. The strategy of the logistics chain also includes conceptual decisions regarding inventory, transport, operation facilitis and information flows. For example Amazons decision to built warehouses for storing different products and to continue using distributors as a source of other products belongs to the strategies of its logistic chain. Similarly, Toyotas decision to have production facilities on each of its main markets is also part of its logistic strategy.

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logistic i strategia competitiv trebuie s se armonizeze mpreun. Armonizare strategic semnific faptul c att strategia logistic, ct i cea Thus the different functional strategies cannot be mapped out isolately. They are tightly connected to each other and have to match and support each other if a company wants to be sucessful. The success of the Japanese company Seven-Eleven, for example, can be attributed to the excellent harmonisation of its functional strategies. The marketing at Seven-Eleven increased accessibility by means of easy access to shops and availability of a large range of products and services. The development of new products at Seven-Eleven constantly adds new products and services such as invoice payment service which atract clients and exploit the excellent information infrastructure, as well as the fact that customers frequently visit SevenEleven. The operations and distribution at Seven-Eleven focused on a high density of shops, on being reactive and offering an excellent information infrastructure. The result is a virtuous cycle in which the infrastructure of the logistic chain is expoited for offering new products and services which should increase the demand; the increased demand in its turn facilitates the improvment of the shops density by means of operations, the reactivity in resupply and information infrastructure. In the next part we will study the concept of harmonisation and will try to answer the following question: With respect to its competitive strategy, what should the logistics chain of a company try to achieve extremely well ?

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3. Achieving the strategic harmonisation This part of the paper is based on the idea that for being a successful

company, its logistic and competitive strategy have to harmonise with each other. Strategic harmonisation means that both logistic and competition strategy have common aims. This refers to the competitiv au eluri comune. Aceasta se refer la compatibilitatea dintre priorit ile clientului pe care sper s le satisfac strategia competitiv i la capacit ile lan ului logistic pe care strategia logistic intete s le construiasc. Chestiunea referitoare la ob inerea armonizrii strategice reprezint un element cheie n realizare strategiei lan ului logistic sau n faza de concepere. Toate procesele i func iile care fac parte din lan ul valoric al unei companii contribuie la succesul sau eecul acesteia. Aceste procese i func ii nu func ioneaz n izolare: niciun proces sau func ie, de unul/una singur() nu poate asigura succesul lan ului. n schimb, eecul oricrui singur proces sau func ie poate conduce la eecul ntregului lan . Succesul sau eecul unei companii este, aadar, strns legat de urmtoarele puncte cheie: Strategia competitiv i toate strategiile func ionale trebuie s se armonizeze pentru a forma o strategie final coordonat. Func iile diferite din cadrul unei companii trebuie s-i structureze n mod corespunztor procesele i resursele pentru a putea realiza aceste strategii cu succes. Conceperea ntregului lan logistic i rolul fiecrei etape trebuie aliniat pentru a sprijini strategia lan ului logistic. O companie poate da gre fie datorit lipsei unei armonizri strategice, fie datorit faptului c procesele, conceperea ntregului lan logistic i resursele nu ofer capacit ile necesare pentru a sprijini armonizarea strategic dorit.

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If we think of the main tasks of an executive director, few of them are more important than the task of aligning the planning of the logistics chain and all the main functional strategies with the ntreaga strategie competitiv pentru a ob ine armonizarea strategic. n cazul n care nu se realizeaz aceast aliniere, apar conflicte ntre diferite scopuri func ionale, sau ntre scopurile diferitelor niveluri ale lan ului logistic. Astfel de conflicte au drept rezultat faptul c diferite func ii din cadrul firmei i diferite niveluri de-a lungul lan ului logistic vizeaz priorit i diferite ale clien ilor. Acest conflict din cadrul firmei sau de-a lungul lan ului logistic conduce la conflicte n timpul opera iunii lan ului logistic. S lum, de exemplu, o situa ie n care marketingul face reclam la abilitatea unei companii de a oferi o gam larg de produse foarte repede; simultan, distribu ia vizeaz gsirea mijloacelor de transport cu cel mai sczut cost. n aceast situa ie este foarte probabil ca distribu ia s ntrzie comenzile pentru a ob ine costuri de transport mai bune prin gruparea comenzilor sau prin folosirea unor mijloace de transport necostisitoare, dar ncete. Aceast ac iune ntr n conflict cu scopul expus de ctre marketing, acela de a oferi varietate n mod rapid. n mod similar, imagina i-v un scenariu n care un detailist a decis s ofere un nivel ridicat de varietate i n acelai timp s aib niveluri sczute de inventar, dar a selectat furnizori i societ i de transport pe baza pre ului lor sczut i nu a reactivit ii acestora. n acest caz, este probabil ca detailistul s se trezeasc cu clien i nesatisfcu i, datorit disponibilit ii sczute a produsului. Pentru a aprofunda subiectul armonizrii strategice, revenim la exemplul cu Dell Computer.

Dac ne gndim la sarcinile majore ale unui director executiv, pu ine dintre ele sunt mai importante dect sarcina de a alinia conceperea lan ului logistic i toate strategiile func ionale principale la compatibility between the customers priorities which the competitive strategy hopes to satisfy and to the capacities of the logistics chain which the logistic strategy aims at achieving. Achieving strategic harmonisation is a key element in pursuing the strategy of the logistics chain or in the project stage. All the processes and functions belonging to the value chain of a company contribute to the companys success or failure. These processes and functions do not act isolately: no process or function alone can ensure the success of the chain. On the other hand, the failure of a single process or function can lead to the failure of the whole chain. The success or failure of a company is closely connected with the following key elements: The competitive strategy and all the functional strategies have to harmonise with each other in order to result into a final coordinated strategy. Each functional strategy has to support the other functional strategies and to help a company to achieve the aim of the competitive strategy. The different functions within a company have to structure the processes and resources accordingly in order to sucessfully achieve these strategies. A company can fail either due to the lack of a strategic harmonisation or because the processes, the planning of the whole logistics chain and the resources do not offer the necessary capacities for supporting the desired strategic harmonisation. 232

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Strategia competitiv a firmei Dell const n a furniza o gam larg de produse, care pot fi adaptate la un pre rezonabil. Clien ii firmei pot alege din mii de posibile configura ii PC. whole competitive strategy in order to achieve strategic harmonisation. If this alignment is not performed, there appear conflicts between different functional aims or between the aims of the different levels of the logistics chain. Such conflicts have as a result the fact that different functions within the company and different levels along the logistics chain focus on different priorities of the customers. This conflict within the company or along the logistics chain leads to conflicts during the operation of the logistics chain. We mention as example a situation in which marketing advertises the ability of a company to offer a large range of products very fast; simultaneously distribution focuses on finding the transport means at the lowest cost. In this situation it is very likely that distribution could delay the orders in order to get better shipping costs by grouping the orders or by using unpretentious but slow transportation means. This action comes into conflict with the marketing puprose, that of offering variety very fast. Similarly imagine a scenario in which a retailer decided to offer great variety and at the same time to have a low inventory stock, but he selected suppliers and shipping companies for their low prices and not for their promptness. In this case it is possible that the retailer should have to deal with unsatisfied customers because of the low product availability. For a better understanding of the strategic harmonisation concept, lets go back to the example with Dell Computer from Chapter 1.

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The competitive strategy of Dell company consists in providing a large range of products that can be adapted, to a resonable price. The companys customers can choose from thousands of possible PC configurations. n ceea ce privete strategia lan ului logistic, productorul de calculatoare are o serie de op iuni. Pe de o parte, o companie poate dispune de un lan logistic eficient axat pe producerea de calculatoare la costuri sczute prin limitarea variet ii i exploatarea economiilor de scar. Pe de alt parte, o companie poate dispune de un lan logistic foarte flexibil i reactiv care este foarte bun pentru producerea unei largi variet i de produse. n cel de-al doilea caz, costurile vor fi mai ridicate dect ntr-un lan logistic eficient. Ambele strategii logistice sunt viabile de unele singure, dar nu se potrivesc n mod neaprat cu strategia competitiv a companiei Dell. O strategie logistic care pune accent pe flexibilitate i reactivitate dispune de o armonizare strategic mai bun cu strategia competititv a companiei Dell de a oferi o mare varietate de produse care pot fi adaptate. Aceast no iune de armonizare se extinde, totodat, i la celelalte strategii func ionale ale companiei Dell. De exemplu, strategia companiei de dezvoltare a produselor ar trebui s pun accentul pe conceperea produselor care sunt uor adaptabile, ceea ce poate include conceperea de platforme comune pentru mai multe produse i utilizarea de componente comune. Produsele Dell folosesc componente comune i sunt concepute pentru a fi asamblate rapid. Aceast caracteristic i permite companiei Dell s asambleze rapid calculatoare ca rspuns la o comand a unui client. Conceperea de noi produse la Dell sprijin capacitatea lan ului logistic de a asambla calculatoare ce pot fi adaptate ca rspuns la comenzile clientului.

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This ability, in its turn, supports Dells strategic aim of offering adaptability to its customers. Dell obviously acquired a strategic harmonisation between its different functional strategies and its competitive competitiv. No iunea de armonizare se extinde i la alte niveluri din lan ul logistic Dell innd cont de faptul c Dell ofer un mare grad de adaptabilitate n timp ce opereaz cu stocuri mici, este foarte important ca furnizorii i transportatorii si s fie reactivi. De exemplu, capacitatea transportatorilor de a altura un calculator de la Dell cu un monitor de la Sony permite companiei Dell s nu transporte monitoare Sony n inventar. Dell a ncercat s ob in aceast aliniere a capacit ilor de-a lungul lan ului logistic. Concluzii Lipsa unei armonizri strategice ntre strategia competitiv i cea a lan ului logistic poate face ca lan ul logistic s ia msuri care nu sunt conforme nevoilor consumatorului, ceea ce conduce la o reducere a excedentului lan ului logistic i o scdere a profitabilit ii lan ului. Armonizarea strategic necesit ca toate func iile din cadrul unei firme i toate fazele lan ului logistic s vizeze acelai scop, unul care s fie compatibil cu nevoile clientului. Pentru a ob ine armonizarea strategic, o companie trebuie, n primul rnd, s n eleag nevoile clien ilor deservi i, incertitudinea lan ului logistic i s identifice incertitudinea implicit. Cel de-al doilea pas const n n elegerea capacit ilor lan ului logistic n ceea ce privete eficien a i reactivitatea. Cheia ctre armonizarea strategic este asigurarea c reactivitatea lan ului logistic este compatibil cu nevoile clientului, Amfiteatru Economic

Aceast capacitate, la rndul su, sprijin scopul strategic al companiei Dell de a oferi adaptabilitate clien ilor si. Compania Dell a ob inut, n mod clar, o armonizare strategic ntre diferitele sale strategii func ionale i strategia sa As far as the strategy of the logistics chain is regarded, the computer manufacturer has a series of options. On one hand, a company can have an efficient logistics chain focused on computer manufacturing at low costs by limiting variety and by exploiting scale economics. On the onther hand, a company can have a very flexible and reactive logistics chain which is appropriate for manufacturing a great variety of products. In the second case the costs will be higher than in an efficient logistics chain. Both logistic strategies are viable by themselves, but they do not necessarily match with Dells competitive strategy. A logistic strategy that centers on flexibility and reactivity has a better strategic harmonisation with Dells competitive strategy which offers a great variety of adaptable products. This harmonisation concept also extends to the other Dells functional strategies . For example, the copmpanys strategy regarding products development should focus on designing easily adaptable products, which can include projecting common platforms for more products and using common components. Dell products use common components and are so designed that they could be rapidly assembled. This feature allows Dell to rapidly assembe computers as an answer to a customers order. Designing new products at Dell supports the capacity of the logistics chain to assemble computers which can be adapted according to the customers requirements.

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capacit ile lan ului i incertitudinea implicit rezultat. strategy. The harmonisation concept also extends to other levels of Dells logistics chain. Taking into account the fact that Dell offers a high degree of adaptability while operating with small stocks, it is very important that its suppliers and shippers should be reactive. For example the shippers ability to assemble a Dell computer with a Sony monitor allows Dell not to transport Sony monitors in inventory. Dell tried to acquire this alignment of capacities along the logistics chain.

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Conclusions The lack of strategic harmonisation between competitive strategy and that of the logistics chain can have as a result the fact that the logistic

chain takes decisions which do not correspond to the customers needs, which leads to a diminution of the logistic chains surplus and to a lowering of the chains profitability. The strategic harmonisation requires that all the functions within a company and all the stages of the logistics chain should serve the same purpose, one which is compatible with the customers needs. For acquiring strategic harmonisation a company has, first of all, to understand the needs of its customers, the uncertainty of the logistics chain and to identify the implicite uncertainty. The second step consists in understanding the capacities of the logistics chain with respect to efficiency and reactivity. The key to strategic harmonisation is making sure that the reactivity of the logistics chain is compatible with the customers needs, the capacities of the chain and the resulted implicite uncertainty.

References [1] Blackwell, Roger D., and Kristina, Blackwell, The Century of the Consumer: Converting Supply Chains into Demand Chains, Supply Chain Management Review (Fall 1999): 22-32. [2] Bovet, David M., and David G. Frentzel, The Value Net: Connecting For Profitable Growth, Supply Chain Management Review (Fall 1999): 96-104 [3] Fine, Charles H. Clock Speed, Winning Industry Control in the Age of Temporary Advantage, Reading, MA: Perseus Books, 1999. [4] Fisher, Marshall L., What Is the Right Supply Chain for Your Product? Harvard Bisiness Review (March-April 1997): 83- 93. [5] Fuller, Joseph B., James OConner, and Richard Rawlinson, Tailored Logistics: The Next Advantage, Harvard Business Review (May-June 1993): 87-98. [6] Gilmore, James H., and B. Joseph Pine II., Markets of One: Creating Customer Unique Value Through Mass Customization. Boston, Harvard Business School Press, 2000. [7] Lee, Hau L., Aligning Supply Chain Strategies with Product Uncertainties, California Management Review (Spring 2002): 105-19. [8] Lee, Hau L., The Triple-A Supply Chain, Harvard Business Review (October 2004): 102-12. [9] Magretta, Joan, Fast, Global, and Entrepreneurial: Supply Chain Management, Hong Kong Style, Harvard Business Review (September-October 1998): 102-14.

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[10] Magretta, Joan, The Power of Virtual Integration: An Interview with Dell Computers Michael Dell, Harvard Business Review (March-April 1998): 72-84. [11] Pine, B. Joseph II., Mass Customization. Boston, Harvard Business School Press, 1999. [12] Shapiro, Roy D., Get Leverage from Logistics, Harvard Business Review (May-June 1984): 119-27. [13] Shapiro, Roy D., James L. Heskett, Logistics Strategy: Cases and Concepts, St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company, 1985. [14] Stalk, George, Jr., and Thomas M. Hout, Competing Against Time, New York: Free Press, 1990.

SISTEM INFORMATIC PENTRU MANAGEMENTUL LAN ULUI LOGISTIC

(Information system for the supply chain management)

Drd. Delia Adriana Mrinca Universitatea Babe-Bolyai - Facultatea de tiin e Economice i Gestiunea Afacerilor, Cluj Napoca, Romania marincasdelia@gmail.com Rezumat Managementul lan ului logistic reprezint integrarea i managementul organiza iilor din lan ul logistic i a activit ilor prin colaborare, procese de afaceri eficace i nivele ridicate de partajare a informa iilor. Conceptul de lan logistic a devenit o preocupare datorit competi iei globale i cererii pentru valoare crescut a clien ilor. Astfel, informa iile trebuie s fie disponibile n timp real n cadrul lan ului logistic i aceasta nu se poate realiza fr un sistem software pentru managementul lan ului logisitc. Membrii acestuia trebuie s colaboreze prin partajarea informa iilor pentru creterea nivelului de satisfacere a clien ilor. Tehnologiile Web permit companiilor s devin mai eficiente, s realizeze comer cu furnizorii i clien ii prin Internet n timp real. Pentru

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aceasta, firmele trebuie s integreze sistemele lor informatice cu cele ale clien ilor i furnizorilor. Prima dat firmele trebuie s-i reproiecteze lan ul logistic pentru a crea un sistem valoare integrat i apoi s poat dezvolta aplica ii business to business n cadrul structurii lan ului logistic, pentru optimizarea acestuia. Implementarea sistemelor informatice pentru lan ul logistic n companii permite o cretere a competitivit ii lor i a profiturilor. Cuvinte cheie: managementul lan ului logistic, logistic, sistem informatic, tehnologii Web, comer electronic, colaborare, vizibilitatea informa iilor Clasificarea JEL: M11, M15, C88 Abstract Supply chain management SCM is the integration and management of supply chain organizations and activities through collaboration, effective business processes and high levels of information sharing. The supply chain concept has become a concern due to global competition and increasing customer demand for value. Thus, the information must be available in real time across the supply chain and this can not be achieved without an integrated software system for supply chain management. Supply chain members have to collaborate, sharing information for improving customers satisfaction. Web technologies enable enterprises to become more effective, to trade with suppliers and customers over the Internet in real time. For this, businesses have to integrate their information systems and applications with those of their suppliers and customers. First, companies have to redesign their supply chain to create an integrated value system and afterwards, companies can develop business to business applications across supply chain structure for the optimization of the supply chain . The implementation of the supply chain information systems in companies facilitates an increase in their competitiveness and their profits. Keywords: supply chain management, logistics, information system, Web technology, e-commerce, collaboration, information visibility. JEL Classification M11, M15, C88 articol am eviden iat faptul c dezvoltarea unui sistem informatic pentru Introducere managementul lan ului logistic implic Managementul lan ului logistic munca alturi de partenerii de afaceri este o tem important care necesit o pentru rezolvarea problemelor din lan ul abordare detaliat pentru c mediul logistic, pentru reproiectarea i stabilirea economic s-a schimbat n ultimii ani unei infrastructuri solide a lan ului datorit cererii crescute a clien ilor, logistic, precum i pentru proiectarea i dezvoltarea rela iilor inter-organiza ionale implementarea sistemului informatic. i tehnologiei informatice. Creterea ateptrilor clien ilor n ceea ce privete valoarea con inut n produsul sau 1. Sistem informatic pentru serviciul final, necesitatea interac iunii n managementul lan ului logistic Un lan logistic este o re ea de timp real cu clien ii i competi ia crescut furnizori, productori, depozite, pentru cota de pia necesit un sistem distribuitori i detailiti care, prin planuri informatic care permite integrarea i i activit i coordonate, dezvolt produse managementul informa iilor i prin convertirea materiilor prime n materialelor n lan ul logistic. n acest

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chain. Developing an information system for supply chain management implies a joint work with trading partners for the redesign and settling of a solid infrastructure for the supply chain and the design and implementation of the information system.

bunuri finite. (Chandra and Grabis, 2007). Lan ul logistic cuprinde toate organiza iile i activit ile asociate cu fluxul i transformarea bunurilor din materii prime pn la utilizatorul final, precum i fluxurile de informa ii asociate cu acesta. Materialele i informa iile se deplaseaz n amonte i n aval n lan ul logistic.

Introduction Supply chain management is an important issue that needs a detailed approach because economic environment have considerably changed in the past years due to increasing customer demands, development of the interorganizational relationships and information technology. Increasing customer demands for value in the final product or service, necessity for real-time interaction with customers and increased competition for market share require an information system that enables the integration and management of information and materials over the supply Managementul lan ului logistic implic abordri variate folosite pentru integrarea furnizorilor, productorilor i distribuitorilor n executarea func iilor lor: achizi ia materialelor, transformarea materialelor n produse intermediare i finale, distribu ia acestor bunuri la clien i n cantit ile corecte, loca iile corecte i la timpul potrivit pentru a satisface nivelurile de service cerute cu cost minim. Prin colaborare i partajarea informa iilor, firmele pot crea sisteme valoare de performa ridicat care asigur organiza iilor membre un avantaj competitiv important. (Handfield and Nichols, 2002). Sistemul valoare este o serie conectat de organiza ii, fluxuri de resurse i cunotin e implicate n crearea i livrarea de valoare clientului final. (figura 1) Companiile trebuie s creeze

1. Information System for Supply Chain Management A supply chain is a network of suppliers, manufacturers, warehouses, distributors and retailers who, through coordinated plans and activities, develop products by converting raw materials to finished goods. (Chandra and Grabis, 2007). The supply chain encompasses all organizations and activities associated with the flow and transformation of goods from raw materials to the end user and the information flows associated with it. Material and information flow up and down the supply chain. valoare mai mare pentru clien i, s reduc ciclul de fabrica ie pentru dezvoltarea de noi produse la pre uri mai mici. Clien ii cer produse noi bazate pe ultimele tehnologii i adaptate diferitelor nie de pia . Supply chain management involves various approaches used to integrate suppliers, manufacturers and distributors in performing their functions: materials procurement, materials transformation in intermediate and finished products, the distribution of these products to costumers in the right quantities, to the right locations and at the right time to meet the required service level with minimal cost. Through collaboration and information sharing companies create high-performing value

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systems, providing member organizations an important competitive advantage (Handfield and Nichols, 2002). The value system is a connected series of organizations, resources and knowledge streams involved in the creation and delivery of value to the end customer. (Figure no.1)

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Companies have to create higher value for clients, reduce cycle times for developing new products at lower prices. Costumers require new products based on the latest technologies and tailored to different market niches.

Figura 1 Lan ul logistic integrat ((Handfield and Nichols, 2002)

Figure 1 The Integrated Supply Chain (Handfield and Nichols, 2002)

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Analysing the present situation in the market, we can notice that managers have to make decisions in a shorter time, with less information and with higher penalty costs. In order to manage these aspects, companies increase their responsiveness and flexibility in their operations, paying high attention to time. Reduction of delivery lead time allows inventory cuts, less re-work, higher quality, less overheads across the supply chain. It could be made by the implementation of an informatics system which can increase the speed of all the activities from the supply chain.

Analiznd situa ia actual de pe pia , putem remarca faptul c managerii trebuie s ia decizii ntr-un timp mai scurt, cu mai pu ine informa ii i cu costuri rezultate din penalit i mai ridicate. Pentru a gestiona aceste aspecte, companiile ncearc s rspund mai repede i s creasc flexibilitatea opera iilor lor, acordnd mare aten ie timpului. Reducerea timpului de livrare permite reducerea stocurilor, mai pu in munc pentru repararea defectelor, calitate mai ridicat, cheltuieli mai mici de-a lungul lan ului logistic. Aceasta se poate realiza prin implementarea unei aplica ii informatice care s permit creterea vitezei de execu ie a tuturor activit ilor din lan ul logistic. Exist i beneficii externe care rezult din luarea n considerare a factorului timp: calitate mai ridicat, rspuns mai rapid al clientului, produse avansate. Beneficiile interne sunt: procese mai eficiente, timp de rspuns mai bun, comunicare, coordonare, colaborare ntre func ii. Fluxurile de materiale i informa ii de-a lungul lan ului logistic sunt posibile pe baza rela iilor organiza iilor ntre membrii lan ului logistic. Pentru mbunt irea acestor rela ii sunt necesare comunicarea i activit ile de rezolvare a problemelor, cum ar fi proiecte comune, programe de pregtire comune, ntlniri ale personalului. Companiile trebuie s partajeze numeroase informa ii: datele referitoare la produc ie, la previziuni, la costuri pentru identificarea surselor de non-valoare. Evolu ia tehnologiei informa iei este un alt factor care a facilitat inser ia lan urilor logistice n sisteme valoare integrate. Tehnologiile e-business au sprijinit mediile centrate pe client de astzi, unde furnizorii folosesc Internetul pentru conectarea sistemelor lor

There are external benefits resulting from paying attention to time: higher quality, faster customer response, advanced products. Internal benefits are: more efficient processes, shorter planning periods, better responsiveness, communication, coordination, cooperation between functions. informatice de afaceri i pentru creterea eficien ei procesului de luare a deciziei pentru clien ii i furnizorii lor. Sistemele informatice inteligente permit creterea calitativ a produselor i serviciilor, a serviciilor informatice i legturilor e-business, reducerea stocurilor, mbunt irea service-ului la client. naintea implementrii unui sistem informatic complex pentru managementul lan ului logistic, companiile trebuie s-i reproiecteze lan ul logistic, s creeze o infrastructur pentru a permite folosirea acestor tehnologii moderne. Pentru a crea un sistem valoare integrat, trebuie implementate o serie de activit i: reprezentarea proceselor din companie; integrarea intern a sistemelor Amfiteatru Economic

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informatice ntre func iile de afaceri; analiza financiar pentru maximizarea procesului de creare de valoare; dezvoltarea colaborrii i ncrederii cu principalii clien i/furnizori; managementul strategic al costului; Materials and information flows across supply chain are possible on the basis of organizational relationships among supply chain members. To improve these relationships, communication and problem-solving activities like joint projects, shared training programs, personnel meetings are needed. Companies must share many information: production data, forecasting data or cost data for identifying nonvalue added drivers (figure no 1). The evolution of information technology is another factor that enabled the integration of supply chains into value systems. E-business technologies supported today's customer-centric environment where suppliers use the Internet to link their business information systems and to increase the efficiency of the decision-making process for their suppliers and customers. Intelligent supply chains information systems enable quality growth of products, and services, information services and e-business links, inventory reduction, customer service improvement. Before implementing a complex information system for supply chain management, companies must redesign their supply chain, create an infrastructure to allow the usage of these modern technologies. In order to create an integrated value system, it is necessary to implement a series of activities: rocess mapping; Internal integration of information systems between business functions ; Nr. 24 Iunie 2008

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Financial analysis to maximize value creation process; Collaboration and trust development with core suppliers/customers; Strategic cost management; evaluarea tehnologiei existente i alegerea standardelor comune cu clien ii i furnizorii pentru a dezvolta un sistem informatic pentru managementul lan ului logistic ; dezvoltarea sistemelor pentru a furniza vizibilitate furnizorilor cheie n ceea ce privete cerin ele clien ilor. (Handfield and Nichols, 2002). 2. Reprezentarea procesului de afaceri Reprezentarea procesului de afaceri presupune reprezentarea procesului aa cum este el n realitate. Aceasta permite n continuare coordonarea func iilor firmei: achizi ia, opera iile, distribu ia i alinierea acestora cu strategiile de afaceri. (Handfield and Nichols, 2002). Procesele de baz trebuie s fie analizate i mbunt ite: satisfacerea comenzilor, aprovizionarea, fluxurile logistice. Structura re elei principale de furnizori i clien i trebuie s fie optimizat. Lan urile logistice integrate trebuie s furnizeze clien ilor finali i organiza iilor membre materialele necesare, n cantitatea necesar, forma, cu documenta ia corespunztoare, la loca ia dorit, momentul dorit i la cel mai mic cost posibil. Pentru a ob ine aceasta, organiza iile trebuie s ia n considerare urmtoarele teme: reprezentarea re elei lan ului logistic, recunoaterea rolului critic al ciclului de fabrica ie al produsului n lan ul logistic, reingineria logisticii din lan , stabilirea unui sistem de msurare a performan ei pentru lan ul logistic. n elegerea lan ului logistic permite determinarea importan ei fiecrei unit i din lan pentru organiza ie i determinarea mbunt irilor necesare. Dei 241

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is part of multiple supply chains, it must focus its efforts on the most important supply chain for business success, namely those assuring competitive advantage. Procesele de afaceri trebuie s fie mbunt ite ntr-o anumit msur i cu o anumit vitez. Pentru documentarea unui proces, realizm o definire i o descriere calitativ folosind reprezentarea urmatoarelor rela ii: se precizeaz clien ii, furnizorii, cerin ele pentru intrri i ieiri, fluxurile de activit i interne din proces i apoi construim o diagram de flux cu toate activit ile din proces cum ar fi: previziunea cererii, cererile clien ilor, partajarea previziunilor cu furnizorii, emiterea i executarea comenzilor. Dup aceasta, analizm fluxul de activit i n detaliu i le reprezentm folosind o hart a fluxurilor de proces la care adugm i alte detalii ca: fluxurile de informa ii, timpul necesar pentru activit i, distan ele, resursele, capacit ile. Dezvoltarea hr ilor de proces se realizeaz prin folosirea de echipe multifunc ionale pentru o reprezentare detaliat a proceselor principale i entit ilor asociate: transmisia, intrarea, pregtirea i expedierea comenzilor etc. n continuare, trebuie identificate cele mai importante lan uri logistice externe. Membrii lan ului logistic nu pot fi competitori direc i, trebuie s aib obiective comune, trebuie s beneficieze din implicarea lor n lan ul extins i s doreasc s partajeze informa ii cu al i membri cheie. Membrii acestui lan trebuie s formeze o echip care s includ reprezentan i din toate domeniile func ionale i organiza iile membre. Exist beneficii care rezult din aceasta: stabilirea contactelor de-a lungul lan ului logistic, cunoaterea practicilor interne ale altor firme, identificarea de oportunit i pentru proiecte comune pentru managementul lan ului logistic. Pentru mbunt irea lan ului logistic este necesar un sistem de msurare

o organiza ie este parte a mai multor lan uri logistice, aceasta trebuie s-i concentreze eforturile pe cel mai important lan logistic pentru succesul afacerii, i anume asupra aceluia care asigur avantajul competitiv. Evaluate systems technology and agree on common standards with customers and suppliers in order to develop an information system for supply chain management Deploy systems to provide visibility of customer requirements to key suppliers. (Handfield and Nichols, 2002).

2. Business Process Mapping Business process mapping assumes the representation of the business process as it is. This allows further coordination between business functions: purchasing, operations, distribution and alignment with business strategies. Basic processes must be analysed and improved: order fulfillment, sourcing, logistics flows. The main network structure of suppliers and customers must be optimized. Integrated supply chains must provide end-customers and member organizations with required materials, in the right quantities, form, with the appropriate documentation, at the desired location, time, and at the lowest possible cost. To attain these, organizations have to consider the following issues: mapping the network of the supply chain, recognizing the critical role of cycle time in the supply chain, re-engineering supply-chain logistics, establishing a performance measurement system for the supply chain. Understanding of the supply chain allows to determine the importance of every unit in the supply chain for the organization and the necessary improvements. Although an organization 242

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a performan ei bazat pe informa ii obiective ce privesc produsele i serviciile oferite, vnzri, cot de pia , cost, calitate, stocuri, livrri, ciclul de fabrica ie, utilizarea activelor, reac ia, service-ul la client. Business processes must be improved at a certain extend and at a certain speed. For determining the improvement type, we have to determine current performance of the process. To document a process we define and describe it in qualitative terms using relationship mapping: we specify the customers, suppliers, inputs and outputs requirements, internal activities flow in the process and then we construct a flow chart representing all the activities in the process such as demand forecasts, customer requirements, sharing forecasts with suppliers, orders issuing and completion. After this, we analyze the flow of activities in more detail and represent them using a process flow chart adding other details like: information flows, time requirements for activities, distance, resources, capacity. Development of process maps is accomplished using cross-functional teams for a detailed representation of main processes and associated entities: transmit, entry, preparation and shipment of orders etc. Then, most important external supply chains must be identified. They can not be direct competitors, they should have similar goals, should benefit from their involvement in the extended supply chain and they must be willing to share information with other key members. The members of this chain should form a team including representatives from all functional areas and member organizations. There are benefits resulting from this: establishing contacts across the supply chain, gaining insights into current organizational practices, identifying opportunities for joint projects for supply chain management. For supply chain improvements is needed a performance measurement

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system based on objective information concerning products and service offered, sales, market share, cost, quality, inventory holdings, delivery, cycle times, asset utilized, responsiveness, customer service. Performan a lan ului logistic poate fi analizat relativ la cele ale altor organiza ii prin benchmarking pentru adoptarea celor mai bune practici din domeniu. Organiza iile trebuie s aduc produsele i serviciile la clien i mai repede dect concuren a. Reducerea ciclului de fabrica ie se poate face la nivel inter i intra organiza ional n activit i ca: planificarea i programarea materialelor, ciclul ordinelor de achizi ie, transportul intern, recep ionarea materialelor, activit i de revizuire a materialelor, procesele de produc ie, procesarea comenzilor clien ilor, opera iile din depozit, transportul, returul materialelor. Lan urile logistice interne i externe trebuie s fie reproiectate pentru aprovizionarea n timp cu bunuri, astfel mbunt ind profitabilitatea, reducnd costurile, realiznd un control mai bun al stocurilor i managementul mai eficient al depozitelor. Dei costul reingineriei este ridicat, pierderea nerealizrii acesteia poate fi mai mare. Supply Chain Council a introdus n 1996 Modelul de referin pentru lan ul logistic Supply Chain Reference Model (SCOR) un instrument pentru msurarea performan ei lan ului logistic, eficacitatea reingineriei logistice, pentru testarea i planificarea pentru mbunt irea proceselor viitoare. SCOR cuprinde o piramid cu patru niveluri: stabilete obiectivele competitive, tipul de proces al lan ului logistic: planificare, aprovizionare, producere, livrare; definete cele douzeci i ase de categorii de proces ale lan ului logistic prin care partenerii acestuia pot s-i reprezinte mpreun actuala lor structur 243

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planning and setting goals for improvement implementation of supply chain process improvement efforts [1]. Cadrul furnizeaz o baz pentru integrare i o sintez a practicilor reale necesare pentru mbunt irea lan ului logistic. Specialitii au stabilit un mijloc pentru evaluarea performan ei lan ului logistic: Balanced Scorecard. Acesta abordeaz patru teme cheie: finan e, clien i, procesele de afaceri, nv area i creterea. Fiecare dintre aceste domenii are obiectivele i msurile de performan asociate. Exper ii au stabilit msurile de performan pentru managementul unui lan logistic integrat care abordeaz satisfac ia clientului, calitatea, timpul, costul i activele, mbunt irile de performan sunt sprijinite prin integrarea sistemelor informatice pentru partajarea informa iilor i managementul datelor, toate acestea avnd ca efect o mai bun satisfacere a clientului n timp real i o profitabilitate mai ridicat. Integrarea intern a func iilor companiei Integrarea intern a func iilor companiei pentru mbunt irea productivit ii i luarea deciziilor se poate ob ine folosind sisteme informatice. Organiza iile se confrunt cu integrarea datelor i probleme de validare n interiorul sistemelor lor informatice i n exterior cu clien ii i furnizorii lor. Integrarea intern presupune ca to i angaja ii s poat accesa sistemul informatic indiferent de func ia i loca ia n care ei ac ioneaz, uzual realizat prin sisteme Entreprise Resource Planning (ERP). Integrarea extern se ob ine folosind sisteme complexe incluznd sisteme de planificare, legturi Internet, comunicri prin re ea, Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) care leag furnizorii i Amfiteatru Economic 3.

opera ional; planific i stabilete scopuri pentru mbunt ire; implementeaz eforturi de mbunt ire a lan ului logistic [1]. Supply chain performance may be analysed relative to those of other organizations through benchmarking for adopting the best practices in this field. Organizations must get their products and services to their customers faster than the competitions. Cycle time reduction can be done at interorganizational and intra-organizational level in activities like: material planning and scheduling, purchase order cycle, inbound transportation, material receipt, material review activities, manufacturing processes, customer order processing, warehouse operations, outbound transportation, return materials. Internal and external supply chain must be reengineered for in time supplying of goods, thus improving profitability, reducing costs in administration, better inventory control, more efficient warehouse management, transportation. Although the cost of reengineering is high, the losses of not reengineering may be higher. Supply Chain Council introduce in 1996 the Supply Chain Reference Model (SCOR) - a tool for measuring supply chain performance, the effectiveness of supply chain reengineering, for testing and planning for future process improvements. SCOR encompasses a pyramid with four levels: establishes the competitive objectives, the key supply chain process type: plan, source, make, deliver definition of the 26 core supply chain process categories with which supply chain partners can jointly present their actual operational structure 244

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clien ii permi nd partajarea informa iilor critice cum ar fi previziunea cererii, comenzile actuale, nivelurile stocurilor (Marakas, 2003). The framework provide a base for integration and a synthesis of real practices necessary for supply chain improvements. Specialists established a means to assess supply chain performance: The Balanced Scorecard. This addresses four key issues: financial, customers, business process, learning and growth. Each of these areas has its objective and performance measures associated with them. Experts settled performance measures for management of an integrated supply chain addressing customer satisfaction, quality, time, costs, assets. Performance improvements are supported by information system integration for sharing information and data management, all these resulting in better and real time customer satisfaction and increased profitability.

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information as demand forecasts, actual orders, inventory levels (Marakas, 2003). Companiile au nevoie de sisteme informatice care conecteaz parteneri din ntreaga lume, permit calcula ii de costuri, mbunt esc comunicarea ntre unit ile de afaceri i partenerii lan ului logistic. Noile servere, telecomunica iile, aplica iile wireless i software-ul permit fluxurile de informa ii ntre partenerii de afaceri. Aceste cantit i uriae de informa ii trebuie s fie gestionate folosind tehnologii inteligente ca depozitele de date i sisteme suport de decizie pentru a ob ine informa iile necesare pentru procesul de luare a deciziei la timpul potrivit. Din analizele efectuate asupra sistemelor informatice din companiile din Romnia, am constatat c este necesar un efort financiar considerabil pentru organizarea datelor existente n firme n vechile aplica ii informatice i centralizarea lor ntr-o baz de date sau ntr-un depozit de date integrat n sistemul ERP al firmei. Acest sistem informatic integrat trebuie s fie conectat la aplica ia care gestioneaz lan ul logistic pentru a furniza partenerilor informa iile necesare referitoare la desfurarea activit ilor de recep ie, produc ie, livrare a produselor sau serviciilor. Lan urile logistice de succes trebuie s conecteze func ii diferite din cadrul companiei i func iile corespondente n organiza iile partener pentru a realiza un flux de informa ii n timp real. Strategia companiei trebuie s fie aliniat cu tehnologia informa iei pentru a atinge optimul pentru mangementul lan ului logistic. Sistemele informatice faciliteaz mbunt irea activit ilor logistice: productivitate crescut pentru concentrarea pe activit ile cu valoarea adugat, fluidizarea fluxurilor de materiale de-a

3. Internal Integration of Business Functions Internal integration of business functions for improving productivity and decision-making can be attained using information systems. Organizations are faced with data integration and validity problems inside their information systems and outside with their customers and suppliers. Internal integration supposes that all employees can access the information system whatever function and location they perform, usually accomplished through Entreprise Resource Planning (ERP) system. External integration is attained using complex systems including planning systems, Internet linkages, network communication, Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) that links suppliers and customers allowing the sharing of critical

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and variables through simulation and decision-support systems, on-time communication among member companies, consolidation of purchase cerin elor de achizi ionare, reducerea costului total, msurarea mbunt it a performan elor. (Turban i Aronson, 2001). 4. Analiza financiar Dup etapele anterioare, este necesar s se determine competen ele interne ale organiza iei i cele ale membrilor lan ului logistic. Analiza insourcing/outsourcing este esen ial n ceea ce privete gradul de satisfacere a nevoilor clientului, pentru c determin modul de alocare a resurselor. O companie ar trebui s foloseasc produc ia intern pentru acele activit i i tehnologii care reprezint competen e cheie, iar outsourcing-ul pentru cele care sunt cel mai bine executate de ctre alte companii. Avantajele insourcing-ului sunt: un nivel mai ridicat de control asupra intrrilor, o vizibilitate mai mare n cadrul procesului de produc ie, economii de scar i scop folosind integrarea. Dezavantajele sunt: volume mari de materiale i investi ii, limitarea echipamentului special i diferite alte probleme. Outsoucing-ul permite o flexibilitate mai mare n selec ia furnizorilor, riscuri mai mici de investi ii, cash flow mbunt it, costuri mai mici cu for a de munc. Dezavantajele sunt: pierderea controlului procesului, timpi de produc ie lungi, dependen a de furnizori. Companiile trebuie s evalueze i s investeasc n acele tehnologii pe care le consider esen iale pentru succesul lor viitor. 5. Colaborarea n lan ul logistic O alt faz important nainte de implementarea unui sistem informatic Amfiteatru Economic

lungul lan ului logistic, managementul informa iilor i variabilelor prin simulare i sisteme suport de decizie, comunicare la timp cu firmele membre, consolidarea Companies need information systems that connect partners all over the world, allow costs calculations, improve communication across business units and supply chain partners. New servers, telecommunication, wireless applications and software allow information flows between business partners. These huge quantities of information must be managed using intelligent technologies as data warehouses and decision support systems for getting the necessary information for decision-making process at the right time. After analyzing the information systems in the Romanian companies, we observed that it is necessary a considerable financial effort in order to organize the existing data in the old comapny applications and to centralize them in a data base or data warehouse as well to integrate them in the ERP system of the company. This integrated information system has to be connected to the application that will manage the supply chain to provide to supply chain partners the necessary information about the receipt, manufacturing and delivery of products. Successful supply chains have to connect different functions within the company and the correspondent functions in partner organizations for a dynamic and real time information flow. Company strategy must be aligned with the information technology for attaining the optimization of supply chain management. Information systems enable the improvement of supply chain activities: increasing productivity for focusing on value-added activities, streamline materials flow across the supply chain, management of information 246

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pentru lan ul logistic este stabilirea rela iilor cu partenerii pentru schimb de informa ii i mbunt irea performan ei. requirements, lowering of total costs, improved performance measurement. (Turban and Aronson, 2001).

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4. Financial Analysis After previous phases, it is necessary to determine the organization's internal competencies and those of supply chain members. This insourcing /outsourcing analysis is essential to meet the customer needs because it determines the allocation of resources. A company should insource those activities and technologies that are core competencies and outsource the others that are best executed by external sources. The advantages of insourcing are: higher degree of control over inputs, increasing visibility over the process, economies of scale and scope using integration. The disadvantages are: high volumes of materials and investments, limitation of special equipment and different problems across supply chain. The outsourcing allows greater flexibility in supplier selection, lower investment risks, improved cash flow, lower labour costs. It also has some disadvantages: loss of process control, long lead-times, supplier dependence. Companies must assess and invest in those technologies which they consider essential for their future success.

partners for information exchange and performance improvement. Companiile trebuie s reduc numrul de furnizori i s-i selecteze pe aceia cu poten ial mai mare pentru colaborare ntr-un proces de optimizare a bazei de furnizori. Analiznd desfurarea acestor rela ii de colaborare n cadrul companiilor romneti, am concluzionat c managementul acestor rela ii necesit mult timp, efort i resurse. Pentru mbunt irea activit ilor lor, companiile dezvolt alian e n cadrul lan ului logistic bazate pe un set de ateptri de performan i reguli. Sunt necesare schimbri organiza ionale, rezolvarea incompatibilit ilor sistemului, furnizarea de resurse. Colaborrile implic, de asemenea, rela ii de ncredere cu partenerii de afaceri. Aceasta se poate ob ine prin dezvoltarea ncrederii, competen , partajarea informa iilor i protec ia lor, loialitate. Numai dup stabilirea rela iilor solide cu partenerii comerciali, este posibil crearea unei re ele de furnizori i clien i i implementarea unui sistem informatic pentru managementul lan ului logistic. 6. Managementul costurilor Managementul costurilor trebuie s fie considerat din perspectiva lan ului logistic global. Are ca obiective reducerea costurilor prin diferite strategii: stabilirea volumului de achizi ii cu furnizorii, ingineria valorii, standardizarea, crossdocking etc. Noile strategii de reducere a costurilor includ colaborarea n amonte i n aval cu membri din lan ul logistic ca: dezvoltarea global a furnizorilor, partajarea hr ilor tehnologice, controlul schimbrilor tehnologice, costul total al propriet ii, pozi ionarea global a materialelor, reproiectarea lan ului logistic, calculul costului pe ciclu de via a produsului,

5. Collaboration across the Supply Chain Another important phase before implementing a supply chain information system is relationship settlement with

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cycle costing, global information visibility, collaborative forecasting. Reducerea costurilor a devenit o condi ie pentru supravie uirea organiza iilor ntr-o pia foarte competitiv (Lefter et al, 2007). Toate aceste ini iative necesit date referitoare la cost care pot fi furnizate de module speciale incluse n sistemele informatice pentru managementul lan ului logistic. Obiectivele companiilor trebuie s fie traduse n scopuri specifice ale lan ului logistic care pot fi msurate i gestionate folosind aplica ii de management al costurilor. 7. Sistemul informatic n prezent, companiile se concentreaz pe satisfacerea nevoilor clien ilor i captarea loialit ii lor. Afacerile depind de rela iile strategice cu clien ii i furnizorii lor pentru crearea de sisteme valoare care vor asigura un avantaj competitiv pe pia . Companiile fac comer cu furnizorii i clien ii prin Internet n timp real. Aceasta cere o automatizare n timp real a proceselor de afaceri ntre parteneri, folosind o varietate de sisteme informatice n interiorul companiei i ntre organiza iile membre ale lan ului logistic. Pentru a informa clien ii despre produse, servicii, tranzac ii, douzeci i patru de ore pe zi, companiile trebuie s-i integreze sistemele lor informatice cu cele ale furnizorilor i clien ilor. n urma studiilor efectuate asupra mediului de afaceri, am remarcat c integrarea e-business crete performan a companiei prin sprijinirea succesului afacerii: designul i scoaterea pe pia de noi produse i servicii mai rapid, un service mai bun, creterea vnzrilor, costuri mai mici cu produc ia i stocurile. E-business aduce complexitate aplica iilor de business n ceea ce privete securitatea, siguran a, toleran a erorilor, reglementrile guvernamentale, precum i

vizibilitatea global a informa iilor, previziunea colaborativ. Companies must reduce the number of suppliers and select those with greater potential for collaboration in a process of supply base optimization. Examining these relations of collaboration in the Romanian companies, we concluded that management of these relationships requires a lot of time, effort and resources. For improving their activities, companies develop supply chain alliances based on a set of performance expectations and rules. Organizational change, system incompatibilities solving, resource providing are needed. Collaboration also involves trusting relationships with business partners. This can be attained through reliability development, competence, information sharing and protection, loyalty. Only after establishing solid relationships with trading partners, we can create the suppliers and customers network and implement an information system for supply chain management.

6. Cost Management Cost management should be considered from a total supply chain perspective. It has as objectives cost reductions by means of different strategies: leveraging purchase volume with suppliers, value engineering, standardization, cross-docking etc.. The new cost reduction strategies include upstream and downstream collaboration with the members in the supply chain such as: global supplier development, target pricing, sharing technology roadmaps, engineering change controls, total cost of ownership, global material positioning, supply chain re-design, life-

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aspectele tehnice: cerin e B2B, conexiuni ntre clien i i furnizori, re ele, tehnologii Web (Roca, 2004). Cost reduction has become a condition for organization's survival in a high competitive market. (Lefter et al, 2007). All these initiatives require reliable cost data which can be provided by special modules included in information system for supply chain management. Company objectives must be translated into specific supply chain goals that can be measured and handled using the cost management application.

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7. Information System Nowadays companies focus on satisfying customer needs and capturing customer loyalty. Businesses depend on strategic relations with their customers and suppliers for creating value systems that will provide a competitive advantage in the market. Companies trade with suppliers and customers over the Internet in real time. This requires a real time automation of business processes between business partners using a variety of information systems inside the company and among supply chain member organizations. In order to inform customers about products, services, transactions twenty four hours a day, companies have to integrate their information systems with those of their suppliers and customers. After studying the business environment, we have noticed that e-business integration increase company performance by supporting business success: faster design and market of new products and services; better service; sales growth; lower costs with production, inventory. E-business brings complexity to business applications regarding security, reliability, fault tolerance, government regulations, as well as technical aspects:

B2B requirements, online customer and supplier connections, networks, Web technologies (Roca, 2004). Un sistem complex pentru managementul lan ului logistic ar trebui s execute urmtoarele opera ii: coordonare centralizat a fluxurilor de informa ii, luarea deciziilor prin consultarea mai multor departamente func ionale i organiza ii, managementul logistic, aprovizionarea global, accesul inter-organiza ional la informa ii, transmisiile de date prin comunica ii wireless, capturi de date urmrirea strii unei comenzi pn la clientul final. Aplica iile ERP sunt complexe, ele sunt scumpe i dificil de implementat, cum sunt: Oracle, SAP, Baan, Peoplesoft, J.D. Edwards. Analiznd sistemele informatice existente pentru lan ul logistic pe pia a produselor informatice i care sunt implementate n diverse companii din Romnia, am concluzionat c firmele pot beneficia de aceste avantaje chiar i prin implementarea de module sau aplica ii izolate pentru lan ul logistic. Multe sisteme ERP includ module pentru managementul lan ului logistic care folosesc informa ii din diverse surse: stadiul actual al stocurilor i al comenzilor, contabilitatea costurilor, previziunea vnzrilor i comenzilor clien ilor, capacit ile de produc ie, dezvoltarea de noi produse, desene CAD, specifica ii de produs i calitate, capacit ile furnizorilor, rate de transport, analiza de benchmarking. Companiile stocheaz date din diferite sisteme n depozite de date pentru facilitarea datamining pentru aplica ii de luare a deciziilor. Unele sisteme folosesc procesarea analitic ondine, on-line analytical processing OLAP pentru generarea rapoartelor executate on-line din orice loca ie de la distan . Datorit complexit ii SCM, companiile software au introdus sisteme suport de decizie n sistemele lor

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which provide reports on relationships and performance across the supply chain (Ilie, 2003). Aceste sisteme suport de decizie folosesc volume uriae de informa ii statice despre: ratele de produc ie, capacit i, liste de materiale, rute i informa ii dinamice despre previziuni, comenzi, livrri. Tehnologiile folosite pentru construirea unui sistem suport de decizie includ: interfe e SQL pentru legturi la baze de date dinamice, reguli de sistem expert, algoritmi de programare, programare liniar, programarea produc iei, stocurilor, centre de cerere, interfe e grafice pentru utilizator, baze de date definite de utilizator ce folosesc orientarea pe obiecte, managementul cererii etc. (Turban and Aronson, 2001). Pentru configurarea unui astfel de sistem sunt folosite diferite modele existente n literatura de specialitate cum sunt: modele statistice, modele bazate pe cunotin e, modele de optimizare, modele de simulare i modele hibride (Chandra, and Grabis, 2007). 8. Vizibilitatea informa iei Vizibilitatea informa iilor se refer la disponibilitatea informa iei privind activit ile i opera iile n cadrul lan ului logistic ntre membri acestui lan . Toate informa iile importante trebuie s fie disponibile, cum sunt informa iile referitoare la: comenzi, produc ie, transport, depozitare, stocuri, vnzri, previziuni, service la client prin Internet i tehnologii Web. Companiile trebuie s foloseasc modele colaborative care gestioneaz datele ce sunt partajate ntre nivelele multiple din lan ul logistic n timp real (Inovis, 2007). Partajarea previziunilor, gestionarea stocurilor, programarea for ei de munc, optimizarea livrrilor faciliteaz reducerea costurilor, mbunt irea productivit ii, creeaz

informatice care furnizeaz rapoarte despre rela iile i performan a din lan ul logistic (Ilie, 2003). A complex information system for supply chain management should execute the following operations: centralized coordination of information flows, cross-functional and crossorganizational decision-making; logistic management; customer fulfillment systems; inventory management; global sourcing, inter-organizational information access; data transmission through wireless communication; data capture - tracking an order status to the end customer. ERP applications are complex, they are expensive and difficult to implement such as Oracle, SAP, Baan, Peoplesoft, J.D. Edwards. Examining the existing information systems for supply chain in the software market and implemented in different Romanian companies, we concluded that entreprises may benefit from implementing even isolated modules or applications for supply chain. Many ERP systems include modules for supply chain management which use information from different sources: current inventory and order status, cost accounting, sales forecast and customer orders, manufacturing capacity, new product development, CAD drawings, product and quality specifications, supplier capabilities, transportation rates, benchmark analysis. Organizations store data from different systems in data warehouses for enabling data mining for decision-making applications. Some systems use on-line analytical processing OLAP for reports generations executed on-line from any remote location. Due to the complexity of SCM, software companies introduced decision support systems in their information systems

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valoare mai mare pentru clientul final din lan ul logistic. These supply chain decision support systems use huge volumes of static information such as: production rates, capacities, bills of material, routings and dynamic information about forecasts, orders, deliveries. Technologies used for building a decision support system include: SQL interface for direct links to common relational database; expert system rules; scheduling algorithms; linear programming capabilities; scheduling for production, inventories, demand centers; graphical user interface; user definable database using object oriented approach, demand management etc (Turban and Aronson, 2001). There are different models in the scientific literature for the configuration of such a system like: statistical models, knowledge based models, optimization models, simulation models and hybrid models. (Chandra and Grabis, 2007).

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Exist numeroase aplica ii pentru partajarea informa iilor de-a lungul lan ului logistic: I-Supply, Trade Matrix, Visibility Solutions, alte module de la SAP i Oracle. Implementarea unui sistem informatic pentru vizibilitatea informa iilor n lan ul logistic cere hotrre pentru colaborare i n elegere n ceea ce privete partajarea informa iilor, niveluri de service i planurile corective pentru situa ii de urgen deoarece necesit sume mari de bani i mult timp (Fotache, Hurbean, 2007). Concluzii Dezvoltarea unui sistem informatic pentru managementul lan ului logistic presupune reproiectarea lan ului logistic existent pentru crearea unei re ele solide de clien i i furnizori. Scopul acestui articol este acela de a prezenta modul n care tehnologia informa iilor sprijin dezvoltarea comunicrii, partajrii informa iilor i a vizibilit ii de-a lungul lan ului logistic. Pentru aceasta am descris fazele care trebuie parcurse pentru dezvoltarea unui sistem informatic pentru managementul lan ului logistic: reprezentarea proceselor, integrarea intern a func iilor afacerii, analiza financiar pentru maximizarea procesului de creare de valoare, colaborarea cu partenerii de afaceri, managementul strategic al costurilor, dezvoltarea unui sistem informatic n cadrul lan ului logistic i crearea vizibilit ii informa iei ntre parteneri. n urma analizei modului de proiectare, dezvoltare i implementare a sistemelor informatice destinate managementului lan ului logistic n cadrul unor firme din Romnia, am remarcat existen a unor probleme precum: reticen a unor parteneri fa de partajarea informa iilor considerate confiden iale de ctre companii;

8. Information Visibility Information visibility refers to the availability of information regarding activities and operations across the supply chain among its members. All important information must be available along the chain, such as: orders, manufacturing, transportation, warehousing, inventories, sales, forecasts, customer service information using the Internet and Web technologies. Companies should use collaborative models that manage real time data shared among multiple tiers of partners participating in the supply chain (Inovis, 2007). Sharing forecasts, managing inventories, scheduling labour, optimizing deliveries facilitate to reduce costs, improve productivity and create greater value for the final customer in the chain.

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difficulties in the correlation of the activities in the similar departments of the partner companies for in time delivery of products; tendin a de a minimiza investi iile realizate n infrastructura necesar pentru implementarea unui sistem informatic pentru managementul lan ului logistic; probleme tehnice legate de tehnologiile informatice folosite pentru dezvoltarea sistemului informatic; disponibilitatea datelor necesare legate de activit ile logistice i modul de organizare, centralizare sau partajare a datelor n func ie de necesit ile informa ionale ale partenerilor din lan ul logistic. Implementarea unui sistem informatic pentru managementul lan ului logistic este o sarcin complex i dificil, dar dac reuete, permite companiilor membre ale lan ului logistic s i satisfac mai bine clien ii i s ctige un avantaj competitiv i n consecin un profit mai mare. Acestea sunt posibile datorit faptului c sistemul informatic permite partajarea tuturor informa iilor referitoare la cerere, aprovizionare, desfacere, produc ie, livrare, modificarea condi iilor de pe pia .a., ntre membrii lan ului logistic, ceea ce asigur tuturor firmelor posibilitatea lurii deciziilor n timp real, deci rapid i eficient. n concluzie, sistemele informatice pentru managementul lan ului logistic sunt n prezent o necesitate pentru companiile mari i medii, dac doresc s satisfac cererile crescnde ale clien ilor, s fac fa competi iei globale i s ob in profit.

dificultate n corelarea activit ilor departamentelor similare din companiile partenere pentru livrarea produsului la termen; There are many applications for information sharing across the supply chain: I-Supply, Trade Matrix, Visibility Solutions, other modules from SAP and Oracle. Implementation of a supply chain visibility system requires commitment for collaboration and compliance concerning information sharing, service level and corrective plans for emergency situations because it necessitates large amounts of money and a lot of time (Fotache, Hurbean, 2007). Conclusions The development of an information system for supply chain management assumes the redesign of the existing supply chain for creating a solid network of suppliers and customers. The purpose of this paper is to present how information technologies support the development of communication, information sharing and visibility across supply chain partners. For this we described the phases that have to be covered for the development of a supply chain management system: process mapping, internal integration of business functions, financial analysis to maximize value creation process, collaboration with business partners, strategic cost management, the development of an information system for supply chain management, information visibility creation among partners. After analyzing the design, development and implementation methods of the information systems for supply chain management in the Romanian companies, we have noticed the existence of the following problems: reticence for confidential information sharing between partners ;

the trend to minimize the investments made for the required infrastructure to implement an information system for supply chain management

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technical problems related with the information technologies used for developing the information system the availability of the required data related with the logistic activities and the methods of data organization, centralization and sharing depending on the supply chain partners needs for information. Implementation of a supply chain information system is a complex and difficult task but if it succeeds, the participating companies will better satisfy their customers and will gain a competitive advantage and a higher profit. These are possible because the informaiton system allows to share all the

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information about the demand, supply, manufacturing, delivery, market conditions changes between the supply chain members, this provides to all these companies the posiibility to make decisions in real time, fast and efficiently. In conclusion, information systems for supply chain management are now a necessity for large and medium sized companies in order to meet the increasing customers demands, to face the global competition and to make profit.

References [1] Chandra, C., Grabis, J., Supply Chain Configuration Concepts, Solutions and Applications, Springer, New York: Springer Science+Business Media, 2007 [2] Fotache, D., Hurbean, L., Supply chain management: from linear interactions to networked processes, Informatica Economic, nr. 4 (40), p. 73-76, 2007. [3] Handfield, B. Robert, Nichols L. Ernest, Supply chain redesign. transforming supply chains into integrated value systems, Pearson Education, New Jersey: Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2002. [4] Ilie, L., Management logistic, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2003 [5] Inovis, Supply chain event management: Proactive supply chain visibility, www.inovis.com, 2007 [6] Lefter, V., Roman, C., endroiu, C., Roman, C., Electronic cost alternatives for e-commerce, Amfiteatrul Economic, nr. 21, pp. 79-90, 2007. [7] Marakas M.G., Decision support systems in the 21st century , Indiana University, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003. [8] Roca, I. Gh. et al, Comer electronic. Concepts, technologies and applications, Bucharest, Editura Economic, 2004. [9] Turban, E., Aronson, J., E., Decision support systems and intelligent systems, Pearson Education, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 2001.

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II. Economic Interferences
(Interferen e Economice)

Reservation prices and pre-auction estimates: a study in abstract art

Calin Valsan, Robert Sproule

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How does sector concentration evolve at country and region levels? The european case
Lecturer, Ph. D. CRIEF Cornel Oros, Lecturer, Ph.D. ISEMEESCEM Researcher, CRIEF, Camelia Romocea Turcu

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Specifics of Chinese Business Negotiation Practices

Jitka Odehnalov, Master of Economics

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RESERVATION PRICES AND PRE-AUCTION ESTIMATES: A STUDY IN ABSTRACT ART Calin Valsan Bishops University, Lennoxville, Quebec, J1M 1Z7 cvalsan@ubishops.ca

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Robert Sproule Bishops University, Lennoxville, Quebec, J1M 1Z7 rsproule@ubishops.ca

Abstract Using a sample of European abstract art we show that reservation prices constrain pre-auction estimates in such a way that we are more likely to observe overestimation relative to the midpoint of the estimation window. At the same time, we also find that the low pre-auction estimate is a more powerful, accurate and precise predictor of hammer prices than the high estimate. Key words: Art Auctions, Abstract Art, Pre-auction Estimates, Reservation Price, Bias JEL Classification: D440, G120, Z110 Rezumat n acest articol analizm un eantion de picturi abstracte de provenien european i descoperim c rezerva minim de pre a colec ionarilor care vnd lucrrile de art la licita ie constrng evalurile i prognozele specialitilor. Ca urmare, este mai probabil ca pre urile realizate ulterior la licita ie s fie n medie mai sczute dect mijlocul intervalului de prognoz al specialitilor. Mai mult, constatm c limita inferioar a intervalului de prognoz anticipeaz cu o precizie mai mare dect limita superioar pre ul de licita ie realizat ulterior. Cuvinte cheie: Licita ii de art Pictur abstract Estimri de pre Pre minim Eroare de estimare Clasificare JEL: D440, G120, Z110 Composition VI is a large rectangular oil painting. The canvas measures 195 by 300 centimeters. The art critic of the time must have squinted in disbelief: It displays a tangle of abstract geometrical shapes and lines bathed by large evanescent streaks of blue, green, brown, and red. There are no trees, peoples, flowers, or any other figurative representation. On the lower right-hand corner the signature of the artist is scribbled inconspicuously: Vassily Kandinsky, year 1913. Kandinsky was spearheading a radically new and bold approach to painting: abstractionism. Abstract forms and shapes were destined to replace the traditional landscapes and portraits. The painter knew very well that his art would become subject to controversy. And it did. Some art critics and fellow painters hailed him as a genius. Others were displeased and outraged by the aesthetic concepts that Kandinsky introduced to the world. In his native land, Russia, the Bolshevik party increasingly considered his art unproletarian and reactionary. In Germany, the Nazi scorned him and called his art degenerate. Only later did he become one of the most iconic abstract painters of all times.

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relevant constraints, and how do they influence the pre-auction estimates? We argue that reservation prices probably have a strong influence in swaying the pre-auction estimates. This constraint is likely to induce the appearance of overestimation. Moreover, we should be able to detect a difference in how each individual estimate predicts the price. In the end, we find that the low estimate has a higher prediction power than the high estimate with respect to the hammer price. Our paper is structured as follows: Section two briefly introduces to reader to the mechanism of art auctions. Sections three, four, and five discuss the literature on art auctions. Sections six and seven elaborate on the main hypothesis of our research. Sections eight and nine present the data, methodology, and results. Section ten concludes. 2. Art Auctions The mechanism for the auctioning of art is straightforward: Each lot is sold to the highest bidder. A lot usually consists of one object or a group of objects sold as one. In the case of paintings, a lot consists of one painting. The entire process starts when the owner of the artwork contacts the auction house with the intention to sell. The artwork is examined by specialists who determine its approximate worth. Based on this analysis, the auction house produces a low and a high estimate of the artworks expected value. The breadth of the pre-auction estimate range can vary considerably, depending on many factors; among these factors, the minimum price that the owner is willing to accept called reserve or reservation price plays a particularly interesting role. For reasons that are obvious, the pre-auction estimate range is set above Amfiteatru Economic

Almost a century later, another type of scrutiny would revolve around the selling of Kandindkys artwork. The scholars would come this time from a different field of study finance and economics; and they too espoused simplicity, symmetry, and elegance. Just like Kandinsky, these economists were about to learn that simplicity and elegance does not always rely on symmetry. 1. Introduction There is a growing body of recent research preoccupied with the relationship between pre-auction estimates and hammer prices at art auctions. These studies draw heavily on financial and economics concepts such as market efficiency and unbiased estimators. A large majority of studies set out to determine whether the average of the low and high pre-auction estimates (the midpoint of the pre-auction estimation window) is indeed an unbiased estimator of realized (hammer) prices. The midpoint of the estimation interval emerged as a reference point following the theoretical work of Milgrom and Weber (1982). Moreover, the average of the low and high estimates has its own appeal because it stands for simplicity and symmetry. Many subsequent studies produced evidence supporting the following results: no bias at all, slight underestimation, and slight overestimation. Here, we contend that the question of the midpoint of the estimation window is a red herring. In an ideal world it would most likely represent an unbiased estimator of hammer prices. Alas, there are plenty of market imperfections around to guarantee some sort of bias. We feel that it is more interesting to ask a different question: what are the most

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the reservation price. The reservation price is mutually agreed upon by the owner of the artwork and the auction house. In negotiating the level of the reservation price, the auction house has to be persuasive, yet flexible. In the end, the owner will not agree to consign the artwork unless the seller guarantees a minimum price perceived as a fair compensation for parting with the artwork. The pre-auction estimate, along with other pertinent information relating to the artwork is published well in advance of the auction date. Potential buyers can gather relevant information by subscribing to a catalog (featuring high quality graphics) or directly online, where more sellers provide increasingly better quality digital images. On the day of the sale, the artwork is brought in and becomes subject to bidding. The bidding price advances in increments, whose magnitude depends on the pre-auction estimate. The highest bidder (at the time when the hammer falls) is acknowledged as the buyer. If the artwork fails to reach the reservation price, it is bought-in and subsequently returned to its original owner. Following a successful sale, the owner (consignor) receives the hammer price less the sellers commission; the commission represents a flat percentage of the hammer price or can be set on a sliding scale, depending on the auctioneer. The buyer pays the hammer price, a buyers premium, and applicable sales or VAT taxes. The buyers premium can also be applied as a flat percentage or as a sliding scale fraction of the hammer price. In this entire process outlined above, we will focus on the reservation price, which plays a particular role, so far underestimated or ignored. As it will become clearer later, the reservation

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price represents one of the main constraints affecting the valuation of art. 3. Incentives to Underestimate Many authors cite statements made by auction house professionals who claim that estimates are tweaked down in an attempt to lure more bidders [DSouza and Prentice (2001), Lourgand and McDaniel (1991), Mei and Moses (2005)]. Obviously, too high an estimate would discourage a great many potential buyers. Another conjecture proposes that artificially low estimates compel the seller to a lower reservation price, and thereby increase the probability of selling the artwork. This argument relies on the assumption that the auction house expert produces the high and low estimates independent of sellers expectations. This contention would weaken considerably if the seller were in a position to influence or negotiate the reservation price. On a different level, underestimation will lead to a string of pleasant surprises for sellers, who see their hopes and expectations exceeded. This situation is akin to the earnings game played by some publicly held corporations that underestimate their current results in an attempt to surprise the market with better than expected results in the future. Finally, big auction houses, such as Christies and Sothebys have a reputation to defend [Mei and Moses, (2005)], and therefore the image of respectably and wisdom is preserved and enhanced by erring on the side of caution and conservatism. These auctioneers might look foolish and careless if the artwork consistently failed to fetch the expected price. Several studies already document the existence of this sort of bias. Bauwens and Ginsburgh (2000) find that 259

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Some studies seem to confirm that experts estimates are biased upwards. Beggs and Graddy (1997) find that recently executed Contemporary Art pieces tend to be overestimated. Bauwens and Ginsburgh (2000) find that Sothebys experts overvalue some English Silver sold between 1976 and 1991. Mei and Moses (2005) find that high estimates are associated with subsequent adverse abnormal return for periods of up to thirty years. These authors conclude that auction houses overestimate expensive artworks in order to reap maximum commissions and premiums. Last but not least, Ekelund et al. (1998) find an overall mean bias of 2.7 percent, which suggests overestimation. 5. Honesty as the Best Policy There is a case to be made for unbiasedness as well. These arguments largely fall in two categories: a) theoretical based on economic rational behavior, and b) ad-hoc based on intuition, common sense, and the preponderance of evidence: a) There is a consecrated theoretical literature contending that in a world of rational economic agents the best policy of auction houses is to estimate artwork as accurately as possible; this is the honesty-is-the-best-policy argument [Milgrom and Weber (1982)]. One can easily extend the informational efficiency case to the art market [Lourgand and McDaniel (1991)]. Auction houses would lose business to the competition if they over- or underestimated the artwork. While small or temporary biases might exist here and there, rational learning would eliminate them in the long run [Mei and Moses (2005)].

Christies underestimates systematically, while Sothebys underestimates expensive pieces. In the same vein, Chanel et al. (1996) find that the preauction estimates for jewellery auctions are systematically below hammer prices. DSouza and Prentice (2001) produce similar findings from a sample that includes European and Australian art. Ekelund et al. (1998) find that in 18 years out of 20, the average price of artwork was larger than the average guess. The authors investigated Latin American Art auctions conducted by Christies and Sothebys between 1977 and 1996. Beggs and Graddy (1997) reveal that larger paintings - especially Impressionist Art -tend to be underestimated by the experts. This finding could reflect a purposeful strategy, or might simply reveal overestimation of the demand for Contemporary Art and underestimation of the demand for large pieces [Ashenfelter and Graddy (2006)]. 4. Incentives to Overestimate There are also reasons why experts could overestimate the value of art. First, a higher estimate would induce more sellers to consign their artworks. Too low an estimate would depress the reservation price and thereby discourage artwork owners from consigning their art. This argument relies heavily on the assumption that the determination of the reservation price is residual in nature. Second, consider the sellers commission and the buyers premium. Both are proportional to the price fetched by the artwork. If it is believed that higher estimates will result in higher hammer prices, overestimation will produce higher revenues for the auctioneers [Mei and Moses (2005), Ashenfelter and Graddy (2004)].

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b) For every economic incentive in favor of a positive bias there is another one supporting a negative bias. On one hand, auctioneers might underestimate in order to attract bidders, but on the other hand they could also overestimate to attract sellers. One cannot really know ex-ante the net strength of the influences discussed earlier; however, intuition and common sense suggest that the truth must lie somewhere in the middle. The most likely scenario is that expected prices equal realized prices. This intuition is reinforced by the peculiar alternating pattern of studies documenting both upward bias and downward bias (it appears, however, that the preponderance of evidence tilts marginally in favor of slight overestimation). Sure enough, there is also a substantial body of empirical literature supporting unbiasedness. Abowd and Ashenfelter (1989) suggest that preauction estimates are better predictors of prices than hedonic price functions. Ashenfelter (1989) contends that experts estimate are truthful in the sense that they are unbiased predictors of art prices. Lourgand and McDaniel (1991) research Sothebys auctions of Americana and conclude that buyers and sellers participate in a fair game. Finally, Czujak and Martins (2004) investigate Sothebys and Christies auctions of Picasso paintings between 1975 and 1994; the authors find that pre-auction estimates represent good predictors of the subsequent hammer price. 6. Of Estimates and Prices: Ockhams Razor Until now, the debate on art estimates has produced evidence that is ambiguous. This predicament is hardly unusual given the nature of scientific Nr. 24 Iunie 2008

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inquiry. Many studies present contradictory findings indeed: Ashenfelter and Graddy (2006) appear convinced that experts estimates are truthful, although he acknowledges the legitimacy of studies that beg to differ. Lourgand and McDaniel (1991) declare art auctions a fair game, although they concede that some sort of bias might be present, which the authors dismiss as small. Ekelund et al. (1998) acknowledge that although in a majority of observation cases the estimate is below the hammer price the overall mean of the bias is in fact positive, at 2.7 percent. The most common answer to this empirical conundrum, unfortunately, is to declare any bias that might exist as insignificant. Alas, to accept this conclusion outright, without further questioning, requires a leap of faith. In this paper, we contend that, due to the ubiquitous nature of reservation prices, it is more probable to observe over- than underestimation. As a telltale sign, the low estimate should be a more powerful, accurate and lower variance predictor of the expected hammer price. Our conjecture is developed based on the following observations: a)The case put forth by the theoretical work of Milgrom and Weber (1982) does not account for the existence reservation prices. Once we allow reservation prices, it is not clear whether we should continue to expect pre-auction estimates to remain an unbiased estimator of hammer prices. b)The reservation price is not residual in nature; and the lower bound of the estimation interval is dependent on the reservation price negotiated with the seller. Ekelund et al. (1998) find that smaller estimation intervals increase the probability of no sale. The authors speculate that the estimation interval 261

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the result is the same: the realized price would be precluded from descending below the limit set by the reservation price. Because reservation prices are close to the low estimate, the distribution of the observed realized hammer prices would be truncated about the low estimate. Intuitively, we then expect that the low estimate be a better predictor of the price than the high estimate. Third, while reservation prices are hard to estimate with precision, their influence on the competitive bidding at art actions is not trivial. We thus have to rely on circumstantial evidence in order to isolate the influence of reservation prices from the influence of other factors. We need to conjecture the type of disturbances they are likely to induce in the observed art auction data and formulate testable hypotheses. 7. Development of Hypotheses Let us assume an ideal world where the unbiased estimator of the expected hammer price is a weighted average of the low and high pre-auction estimates: E(P) = HA + (1-)LA (1) Where: E(P) = expected hammer price LA = the best of experts-knowledge high estimate HA = the best of experts-knowledge high estimate and 0< < 1 In the absence of reservation prices or any other ex-ante constraints on the estimation window we expect = 0.5, hence: E(P) = (0.5)(HA + LA) (2)

becomes smaller whenever the owner requires a higher reservation price. Their findings suggest that the art owner has bargaining power. c)A substantial body of empirical evidence documents both underestimation and overestimation. These biases small as they might be appear to vary from one particular instance to the other. In the end, however, we feel that the preponderance of evidence points to overestimation. Reservation prices are interesting for three reasons. First, they lead to an upward adjustment in the low estimate. When the seller seeks a reservation price higher than the experts low estimate, the auctioneer might have to raise the low estimate if it has in place a policy requiring the reservation price be below the low estimate. The auctioneer would probably try to persuade the seller to lower the reservation price, but in the end the outcome of the negotiating process depends very much on conjectural factors, such as bargaining power. Once a compromise reservation price has been reached, the auctioneer has no choice but to increase its low estimate if the reservation price is above the original low estimate. If the expected price was originally centered on the midpoint of the best of experts-knowledge estimation, after the adjustment, the expected price moves off-center, closer to the low estimate. Second, reservation prices truncate the distribution of the observed hammer price. They ensure that we would not encounter instances of realized prices below the reservation price. If the competitive bidding process fails to reach the formal or informal reservation price, the painting would either be bought-in by the auctioneer, or repurchased by its owner. Whether it goes unsold or is sold at the reservation price, 262

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Unbiasedness requires that the midpoint of the estimation interval equal the expected hammer price: E(P) = M = (0.5)(HA + LA) (2a) Where: M = the midpoint of the estimation interval When the estimator is unbiased, the relative distance of the expected hammer price from the low estimate should equal in absolute value the relative distance of the expected hammer price from the high estimate. Moreover, the variance of the relative distance of the expected hammer price from the low estimate should equal the variance of the relative distance of the expected hammer price from the high estimate. This is to say that the expected price is an equally weighted-average of the low and high estimates. Hence, in the absence of any constraint, the following relationships should hold: 1 LA/ E(P) = HA/ E(P) 1 (3) VAR(1 LA/ P) = VAR(HA/ P 1) (4) In the presence of a reservation price, we infer that the expected hammer price cannot be lower than the reservation price: E(P) = MAX[ (0.5)(H + L ); S] (5) Where: S = the reservation price or, L - LA = k(HA L)
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However, we are not able to observe any hammer price lower than S. If the bidding process fails to reach S, the painting would be bought in. Recall that many auction houses, notably Sothebys and Christies have policies requiring that the low estimate be above the formal reservation price. If this is the case, the auctioneer will have to readjust the level of the low estimate upward. We would no longer be able to observe LA, only L, which is higher than LA such that: S<L (6) and LA < L (7) Where: L = the observed pre-auction low estimate We believe that the adjustment (L LA) has to be minimal. It is very likely that after the adjustment L will be less than (0.5)(HA + LA). If the observed low estimate were greater than the original mid-point, the expected hammer price would descend below the observed estimation window. It is hard to believe that an auction house that thrives on reputation for expertise would knowingly set the pre-auction estimates in such a way that it would expect the price to systematically end up below the low estimate. Thus, we expect that: L - LA < (HA L) (8)

(8a)

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Where: R=LS Here, we conjecture that the observed lower estimate (L) is simply a linear transformation of the reservation price (S). Since (0.5)(1-k) is obviously less than 0.5, it follows that as (HA L) increases, E(P) drifts more and more towards L, which is akin to saying that the extent of observed overestimation increases with the width of the estimation window. Alternatively, we can re-formulate (11) in terms of E(P) HA : E(P)HA = Max [-(0.5)(1+k)(HA-L); (HAL) R ] (13) Obviously, the interpretation of (13) is similar to that of (12) with one notable exception: we expect the width of the estimation window (HA L) to have more explanatory power in equation (13) than in equation (12). 8. Data We chose a relatively homogenous sample of observations in an attempt to control for subject matter. Our panel data consists of major modern European artists. The source of data is ADEC International, a Paris-based organization gathering and organizing auction data from around the world. The period covered ranges from 1986 to 2003. We require 150 valid observations to include a painter in our sample. Since we are convinced that subject matter is one of the least quantifiable determinants of art prices we include only abstract (non-figurative) art. In the end, four painters have been selected: Vassily Kandinsky, Juan Miro, Paul Klee, and Karel Appel. All these four artists share

Where: 0<k<1 Given (7), we now hypothesize the following: 1 L / E(P) < HA / E(P) 1 (9) VAR(1 L / P) < VAR (HA / P 1) (10) With reservation prices, we expect that the relative distance of the expected hammer price from the observed low estimate be less in absolute value than the relative distance of the expected hammer price from the high estimate. Moreover, the variance of the relative distance of the expected hammer price from the low estimate should be less than the variance of the relative distance of the expected hammer price from the high estimate. In other words, in the presence of reservation prices, we expect the observed low estimate to be a more accurate predictor of the hammer price than the high estimate. We also expect to find that the low estimate tends to be a lower variance predictor of hammer prices than the high estimate. We have assumed no constraints on HA as a result of reservation prices. We contend that the best of experts-knowledge high estimate will continue to be observable. In addition, we conjecture that the extent of overestimation, if any, increases with the width of the estimation window; this is not so obvious a result. To see how this is possible consider the following: By substituting (6), (7), and (8) in (5), it follows that: E(P) = MAX [(0.5)(1-k)(HA + L) ; S] (11) and
E(P) L = MAX [(0.5)(1-k)(HA L) ; (-R)]

(12)

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a strong stylistic and conceptual connection. The Russian-born Vassily Kandinsky is considered on of the main pre-cursors of modern abstract expressionism. He founded the legendary group Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider). Kandinsky wrote one of the first theoretical treatises on abstraction; he also held academic positions in Moscow, during and after the Bolshevik Revolution, and in Germany, where he taught at the Bauhaus. Both the Bolsheviks and Nazis regarded Kandinskys unconventional art with deep suspicion. The Nazis included 57 of his paintings in the Degenerate Art exhibition. A vanguard of pure abstraction in art, Kandinsky paved the way for the ascent of abstract expressionism in the post-World War II era. He remains one of the most influential artists of the XXth Century. The Swiss-born Paul Klee came from a family of musicians and almost became a musician himself. Eventually, Klee opted for a painting career; he joined Der Blaue Reiter, and later taught at Bauhaus in Germany, where he met Kandinsky and was influenced by his artistic concepts. Just like Kandinsky, he fled Germany in the wake of the Nazi rise to power, and just like Kandinsky he saw his paintings labeled as Degenerate

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Art. Later Klee came down with a terrible disease scleroderma - that forced him to reconsider his technique and eventually killed him. Klee is considered as one of the most achieved colorists of all times and one of the most celebrated abstract painters of the last century. Juan Miro was born in Spain and his ascent to fame took place in the shadow of Pablo Picasso. His parents wanted him to have decent job, so he was trained to become an accountant, but eventually turned to painting. Just like Kandinsky and Klee, he was influenced by postimpressionists and fauvists. As a young artist he moved to Paris, where Ernest Hemingway bought one of his largest canvases. After an initial surrealist phase, Miro became increasingly interested in abstractionism and developed a unique style that is now widely recognized as the hallmark of the Catalan painter1. The Dutch-born Karel Appel was initially inspired by early abstract painting, but later became a major player in the rise of the modern European Abstract Expressionism. He influenced and was influenced by the work of Jackson Pollock and fellow countryman Willem de Koonig. He was also a founder of the European group CoBra. Sample statistics are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 - Sample statistics. All dollar numbers are per square inch. M (Mid-point of the estimation window) = (L+HA)/2 Vassily Paul Klee Juan Miro Kandinsky Number of paintings Average low estimate Median low estimate Average high estimate Median high estimate Average hammer price Median hammer price P below L (%) P between Land H (%) P above H (%) 194 $307,804.45 $123,850.00 $435,977.83 $177,364.87 $415,006.24 $143,447.50 26.29% 40.21% 33.51% 427 $157,325.61 $60,000.00 $214,621.08 $81,900.00 $180,403.74 $70,000.00 31.38% 36.53% 32.08% 646 $233,538.12 $50,000.00 $340,360.25 $62,720.00 $319,819.19 $55,000.00 28.33% 38.85% 32.82%

Karel Appel 1,041 $21,609.06 $10,000.00 $29,324.25 $13,820.80 $25,591.02 $11,647.00 26.71% 43.52% 29.78%

Total sample 2,308 $130,092.18 $25,000.00 $184,844.96 $32,083.60 $169,318.48 $27,761.50 27.99% 40.64% 31.37%

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Vassily Kandinsky 49.48% 11.41% 11.00% -5.74% -2.00% -22.91% -16.00% Paul Klee 44.26% 7.79% 8.00% -10.06% -7.00% -27.95% -21.00% Juan Miro 49.85% 13.54% 14.00% -2.69% -2.00% -18.93% -15.00% Karel Appel 45.92% 8.85% 11.00% -7.61% -5.00% -23.98% -20.00% Total sample 47.01% 10.18% 11.00% -6.53% -4.00% -23.21% -19.00%

Price above M (%) Average (1- L/ P) Median (1- L/ P) Average. (1- M/ P) Median (1- M/ P) Average. (1- H/ P) Median (1- H/ P)

In total, the sample contains 2,308 artworks. Almost half of them, 1,041 are paintings by Karel Appel. Miro has 646 works, Klee 427, and Kandinsky only 194 artworks. Kandinsky also appears to be the most expensive painter, mostly because many of his canvases are very large. Karel Appel is the least expensive. In terms of dollars per square inch, Paul Klee is in fact more expensive than Kandinsky. Klees artworks tend to be small in size. We note that the distribution of pre-auction estimates and prices tends to be rather skewed; in the case of each painter there is a handful of masterpieces that pushes the averages very high. As well, oil on canvas is more expensive, while watercolors on paper are less expensive this fact provides a partial explanation for the skewness of the price distribution of our sample2. Ekelund et al. (1998) adopt two approaches to defining and measuring overestimation (or underestimation). The first one considers the relative frequency of hammer price outcomes below (or above) the estimation interval mid-point. The second one considers the distance of the hammer price from the estimation window mid-point, low, or high estimate. The overestimation that we document here is less equivocal than the one recorded by Ekelund et al. (1998). Overall, our sample shows that in 53% of cases, the hammer price was below the average of the high and low estimates. This pattern holds for each individual painter as well. The last six lines of Table 1 deal with the second approach to

measuring overestimation they show the relative price distance from the midpoint of the estimation window, low estimate, and high estimate. The relative distance from the mid-point of the estimation window is small, yet consistently and significantly negative, solidly placing our findings in the camp of overestimation. The relative distance of the hammer price from the low estimate (10.3%) is lower in absolute value than the the distance of the hammer price form the high estimate (23.16%) as predicted by equation (9). In addition, the standard deviation of the relative distance of the hammer price from the low estimate (49%) is lower than the standard deviation of the distance of the hammer price form the high estimate (80.26%) as predicted by equation (10). These differences are significant at the 1% level. 9. Empirical Tests The task at hand now is to estimate the coefficient of (HA-L) empirically. In keeping with the tradition of previous studies, we also include the estimation window midpoint. Hence, we use the following model specifications: (P-L) = a0 + a1(HA-L) + ai Xi + e (P-M) = b0 + b1(HA-L) + bi Xi + e (14) (15)

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(PHA) = c0 + c1(HA-L) + ci Xi + e Where: P= the observed hammer price L = the observed pre-auction low estimate HA = the observed pre-auction high estimate Xi = Dummy variables accounting for artist reputation, media, canvas orientation auction houses, location, and the years 1987 2003 Note that the model is specified in linear form so that we can interpret the coefficients a1, b1, and c1. We are not particularly interested in the coefficients

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of the yearly dummies because we are not seeking art price indices. A log specification would allow us to estimate price indices, but it would render the interpretation of other coefficients intractable. If M is an unbiased estimator of E(P) we would expect a1 to be equal to 0.5, b1 to be equal to 0, and c1 equal to -0.5. If, however, we expect M to overestimate E(P), and this overestimation is increasing with the width of the estimation window, consistent with our argument illustrated by equations (12) and (13), we predict a1 to be less than 0.5, b1 to be less than 0, and c1 to be less than -0.5. Finally, we predict a1 to be larger than 0.5, b1 to be larger than 0, and c1 to be larger than 0.5. Given the results in Table 1, we obviously expect overestimation.

Table 2 Regression results. The absolute price distance from the low estimate (P-L), estimation window midpoint (P-M). and high estimate (P-HA) is regressed against the observed width of the estimation window (HA-L), and a series of dummy variables accounting for the identity of the painters (MIRRO, APPEL, KLEE), the medium used (DMED =1 for oil on canvas), the orientation of the canvas (ORIENTD =1 for landscape-oriented canvases, the years 1987 through 2003 (Y1987 Y2003), the location of the auction (PARISD = 1 for Paris, NYCD = 1, for New York, LONDOND = 1 for London, AMSTERD = 1 for Amsterdam), and the auctioneer (CHRISTIE, SOTHEBYS). All regression coefficients are un-standardized. T-Statistics significant at the level of 5% and below are identified with *. (P-L) Std. Error Const. MIRO APPEL KLEE DMED ORIENTD Y1987 Y1988 Y1989 Y1990 Y1991 Y1992 Y1993 Y1994 Y1995 Y1996 Y1997 Y1998 Y1999 18.828 -7.953 -29.865 -10.640 9.984 -2.720 -32.028 6.855 12.332 18.789 9.705 -18.532 -13.964 -14.871 -7.961 -2.211 -7.981 -4.954 3.486 13.210 7.721 7.965 8.212 4.633 3.922 21.262 22.679 23.452 18.213 32.380 15.816 12.208 11.885 11.995 11.755 11.509 11.197 11.338 t 1.425 -1.030 -3.750* -1.206 2.155* -0.693 -1.506 0.302 0.526 1.032 0.300 -1.172 -1.144 -1.251 -0.664 -0.188 -0.693 -0.442 0.307 (P-M) Sig. Std. Error 18.8. -7.95 -29.87 -10.63 9.984 -2.720 -32.028 6.855 12.332 18.789 9.705 -18.532 -13.964 -14.871 -7.961 -2.211 -7.981 -4.954 3.486 t (P-HA) Sig. Std. Error 18.8. -7.95 -29.87 -10.63 9.984 -2.720 -32.028 6.855 12.332 18.789 9.705 -18.532 -13.964 -14.871 -7.961 -2.211 -7.981 -4.954 3.486 t

13.210 1.425 7.721 -1.030 7.965 -3.750* 8.212 -1.206 4.633 2.155* 3.922 -0.693 21.262 -1.506 22.679 0.302 23.452 0.526 18.213 1.032 32.380 0.300 15.816 -1.172 12.208 -1.144 11.885 -1.251 11.995 -0.664 11.755 -0.188 11.509 -0.693 11.197 -0.442 11.338 0.307

13.210 1.425 7.721 -1.030 7.965 -3.750* 8.212 -1.206 4.633 2.155* 3.922 -0.693 21.262 -1.506 22.679 0.302 23.452 0.526 18.213 1.032 32.380 0.300 15.816 -1.172 12.208 -1.144 11.885 -1.251 11.995 -0.664 11.755 -0.188 11.509 -0.693 11.197 -0.442 11.338 0.307

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Y2000 Y2001 Y2002 Y2003 PARISD NYCD LONDOND AMSTERD CHRISTIE SOTHEBYS (HA-L) Adj-R2 F-statistic

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-10.370 5.675 3.739 -0.222 7.850 -3.075 -7.078 -7.160 27.309 12.008 0.249 0.091 8.9* 12.044 11.826 11.701 14.338 8.769 12.513 12.512 13.372 12.560 12.832 .021 -0.861 0.480 0.320 -0.015 0.895 -0.246 -0.566 -0.535 2.174* 0.936 11.744* -10.370 5.675 3.739 -.222 7.850 -3.075 -7.078 -7.160 27.309 12.008 -0.251 0.06 6.45 * 12.044 -0.861 11.826 0.480 11.701 0.320 14.338 -0.015 8.769 0.895 12.513 -0.246 12.512 -0.566 13.372 -0.535 12.560 2.174* 12.832 0.936 0.2 -35.372* -10.370 5.675 3.739 -.222 7.850 -3.075 -7.078 -7.160 27.309 12.008 -0.75 0.36 46.2 8*** 12.044 -0.861 11.826 0.480 11.701 0.320 14.338 -0.015 8.769 0.895 12.513 -0.246 12.512 -0.566 13.372 -0.535 12.560 2.174* 12.832 0.936 0.2 -35.372*

Regression results are presented in Table 2. The most straightforward result is that the coefficients a1, b1, and c1 are less than 0.5, 0, and 0.5 respectively, which is consistent with an overestimation that is increasing with the width of the estimation window. Equation (14) shows the coefficient of (HA-L) at 0.249 (the number is statistically different from 0.5), equation (15) shows the coefficient of (HA-L) at 0.251 (the number is statistically different from 0), and equation (16) shows the coefficient of (HA-L) at -0.75 (the number is statistically different from 0.5). We interpret this as confirmation that (P-L) grows at a slower rate than (HA-L). In other words, our paintings tend to become overestimated to a greater extent (or underestimated to a lesser extent) as the estimation window widens. Since wider estimation windows are associated with more expensive pieces, we offer corroborating evidence to the findings of Mei and Moses (2005) that more expensive paintings tend to be overestimated to a greater extent. The inclusion of Christies in the sample causes the expected (P-L) to grow, thus decreasing the likelihood of overestimation; the same is true of paintings executed in oil on canvas: the coefficient of DMED is at 9.98 and is statistically significant. The orientation of the canvas (portrait or landscape) appears to have no bearing on our 268

results, as the coefficient of ORIENTD is not significant. The inclusion of Appel in the sample appears to cause the expected (P-L) to shrink, thus increasing the likelihood of overestimation. While this result is consistent with the statistics presented in Table 1, we are surprised that the coefficient for Klee is not larger in absolute value and more significant than that for Appel. Artworks by Klee appear overestimated to a greater extent than those by Appel according to Table 1. It is thus puzzling why Appel alone shows a significant coefficient in this regression. It is also puzzling why he should be overestimated to a greater extent in relation to Mirro or Kandinsky, for Appel has the lowest market valuation of the four. This result is at odds with studies that suggest a tendency to overestimate expensive, prestigious pieces of art [Mei and Moses, (2005)]. For the remaining regressors, the standard error of the estimated coefficients is too large to draw any meaningful conclusions. Another striking result is that equation (14) has a much lower explanatory power than equation (16). The adjusted R-square for equation (16) is 36.5%, while the adjusted R-square for equation (14) is a meager 9%. Equation (15) is obviously a linear combination of the other two. This difference is consistent with our conjecture illustrated by equations (12) and (13). We have Amfiteatru Economic

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hypothesized that E(P) L is explained by the width of the estimation window only when the transaction takes place at a price above the reservation price. When the painting is sold at the reservation price, E(P) L should be explained only by an unobservable variable R, which is the difference between the observed low estimate and the reservation price S. In light of this argument, model (14) is obviously under-specified. By contrast, model (16) appears better specified: E(P) HA is explained in all instances by the width of the estimation window, although when the painting is sold at the reservation price, R represents an additional unobservable explanatory variable. While one can argue that model (16) is also under-specified, it is, however, clear that is better specified than (14). Our results fully confirm this contention3. We also estimate the following alternative model specification:

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(17)

L/P = a0 + a1[(HA L)/P] + ai Xi + e

M/P = b0 + b1[(HA L)/P] + ai Xi + e (18) H/P = c0 + c1[(HA L)/P] + ai Xi + e (19)

Here again, we expect that the specification in model (19) would have more explanatory power than the specification in model (17) for the same reasons discussed above. Model (17) is less well specified than model (19), because (HA L)/P explains the dependent variable only when the transaction takes place above the reservation price. In model (19), even though R is still missing, (HA L)/P continues to have explanatory power even when the transaction takes place at the reservation price. We also hypothesize that the coefficients of (HA L)/P in all three equations should be positive.

Table 3. Regression results. The relative price distance from the low estimate (L/P), estimation window mid-point (M/P). and high estimate (HA/P) is regressed against the observed relative width of the estimation window (HA-L), a series of dummy variables accounting for the identity of the painters (MIRRO, APPEL, KLEE), the medium used (DMED =1 for oil on canvas), the orientation of the canvas (ORIENTD =1 for landscape-oriented canvases, the years 1987 through 2003 (Y1987 Y2003), the location of the auction (PARISD = 1 for Paris, NYCD = 1, for New York, LONDOND = 1 for London, AMSTERD = 1 for Amsterdam), and the auctioneer (CHRISTIE, SOTHEBYS). All regression coefficients are un-standardized. T-Statistics significant at the level of 5% and below are identified with *. L/P Std. Error Const. MIRO APPEL KLEE DMED ORIENTD Y1987 Y1988 Y1989 Y1990 Y1991 Y1992 Y1993 Y1994 0.885 -0.0113 0.125 0.02 -0.006 -0.015 0.08 -0.027 -0.084 -0.0074 0.167 0.146 0.009 0.114 t 0.067 13.308* 0.039 -0.294 0.040 0.317 0.041 0.502 0.023 -0.279 0.020 -0.759 0.107 0.754 0.114 -0.242 0.118 -0.710 0.091 -0.081 0.163 1.024 0.080 1.831* 0.061 0.151 0.060 1.907* M/P Sig. 0.885 -0.0113 0.125 0.02 -0.006 -0.015 0.08 -0.027 -0.084 -0.0074 0.167 0.146 0.009 0.114 HA/P Sig. 0.885 -0.0113 0.125 0.02 -0.006 -0.015 0.08 -0.027 -0.084 -0.0074 0.167 0.146 0.009 0.114

Std. Error 0.067 0.039 0.040 0.041 0.023 0.020 0.107 0.114 0.118 0.091 0.163 0.080 0.061 0.060

t 13.308 -0.294 0.317 0.502 -0.279 -0.759 0.754 -0.242 -0.710 -0.081 1.024 1.831 0.151 1.907

Std. Error

0.067 13.308 0.039 -0.294 0.040 0.317 0.041 0.502 0.023 -0.279 0.020 -0.759 0.107 0.754 0.114 -0.242 0.118 -0.710 0.091 -0.081 0.163 1.024 0.080 1.831 0.061 0.151 0.060 1.907

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Y1995 Y1996 Y1997 Y1998 Y1999 Y2000 Y2001 Y2002 Y2003 PARISD NYCD LONDOND AMSTERD CHRISTIE SOTHEBYS (HA-L)/P Adj-R2 F-statistic

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0.034 0.093 0.079 0.033 -0.047 0.068 0.004 0.021 0.025 -0.151 0.049 0.02 0.043 -0.193 -0.147 0.281 0.1 9.8* 0.060 0.059 0.058 0.056 0.057 0.061 0.059 0.059 0.072 0.044 0.063 0.063 0.067 0.063 0.065 0.019 0.568 1.566 1.371 0.594 -0.822 1.120 0.074 0.351 0.354 -3.424* 0.777 0.317 0.636 -3.053* -2.282* 14.497* 0.034 0.093 0.079 0.033 -0.047 0.068 0.004 0.021 0.025 -0.151 0.049 0.02 0.043 -0.193 -0.147 0.781 0.42 60.1* 0.060 0.568 0.059 1.566 0.058 1.371 0.056 0.594 0.057 -0.822 0.061 1.120 0.059 0.074 0.059 0.351 0.072 0.354 0.044 -3.424 0.063 0.777 0.063 0.317 0.067 0.636 0.063 -3.053 0.065 -2.282 0.019 40.306* 0.034 0.093 0.079 0.033 -0.047 0.068 0.004 0.021 0.025 -0.151 0.049 0.02 0.043 -0.193 -0.147 1.281 0.665 157* 0.060 0.568 0.059 1.566 0.058 1.371 0.056 0.594 0.057 -0.822 0.061 1.120 0.059 0.074 0.059 0.351 0.072 0.354 0.044 -3.424 0.063 0.777 0.063 0.317 0.067 0.636 0.063 -3.053 0.065 -2.282 0.019 66.116*

Results are presented in Table 3. The coefficients of (HA L)/P are indeed positive (0.281, 0.781, and 1.281) and significant. As predicted the explanatory power of equation (19) is much higher at 66.7%, compared to that of equation (17) at only 10%. The other coefficients are in general consistent with the previous specification. The coefficients for Christies and Sothebys are now both significant, indicating a lower likelihood of overestimation. It is conceivable that Sothebys and Christies bargaining position in dealing with art collectors is stronger than that of other lesser known auction houses; hence, their experts can resist the pressure to set higher reservation prices. Of course, the argument of conservatism cannot be completely dismissed, but the case for reservation prices is very strong. Another interesting result is the lower chance of overestimation occurring in Paris. In the post-World War II era, the art hype has migrated from Paris to New York, where the bidup of art prices has been amplified by the wealth flowing from the New York Stock Exchange and the proximity of Wall Street. Whether New York deserves its newfound status of art capital of the world remains an issue to be debated by 270

art critics and historians. We simply speculate that this could be one possible argument explaining our results. Conclusions The question of whether the midpoint of the estimation interval is indeed an unbiased estimator of hammer prices at art auctions has elicited substantial attention lately. The results are mixed; some studies find an upward bias, some find a downward bias, and some other find no bias at all. We produce here a new hypothesis that hopefully sheds more light on the existing empirical riddle. We argue that the key element to understanding the dynamic of preauction estimates and hammer prices is the reservation price. The existence of a reservation price sometimes forces the auction house to revise its lower estimate upwards (but not necessarily the high estimate, which is not subject to any particular exogenous constraints), hence creating the appearance of overestimation with respect to the midpoint of the estimation window. The extent to which the auctioneer will adjust the estimate depends on the bargaining power held by the owner of the artwork, Amfiteatru Economic

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which in turn is a function of particular market conditions. We conjecture that the observed low estimate is a linear transformation of the secret reservation price. As a corollary, the low pre-auction estimate should be taken as a more powerful, precise and accurate predictor of hammer prices. To test our hypothesis we utilize a panel data sample consisting of 2,308 abstract paintings by Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky, Juan Miro, and Karel Appel. We have purposely selected only abstract art in order to control for the hard-toquantify influence of subject matter. Our results document unequivocal overestimation of abstract art. We also find that indeed, the low pre-auction estimate appears as a more powerful, accurate and a lower variance predictor of hammer prices than the high estimate. There is enough circumstantial evidence

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to suggest that what other earlier studies have observed could be due in part to the influence of reservation prices in the context of particular market conditions. For example, the findings of Mei and Moses (2005) can be interpreted in a new light. Artworks that are perceived to have a very high market valuation might appear overestimated simply because their sellers would require a high reservation price to match the clout and glamour of their paintings. In the end, we have obtained these results using a relatively simple methodology and relying heavily on the results brought forward by previous studies. Yet we feel that our contribution is insightful. We believe that we are able to account for the incongruous findings observed so far in a better way than before. We hope that future research will confirm our view.

End notes 1 Miro considered one of the most original modern artists is also known for proposing exotic concepts, such as four dimensional painting 2 Oil on canvas pieces have always been considered somewhat more valuable than watercolors, tempera, and acrylics, caeteris paribus. Oil is the most versatile medium, adaptable to a dazzling array of techniques, methods, and artistic currents; an overwhelming majority of masterpieces are oil on canvas. In addition to being so flexible and artistically subtle, oil on canvas is also extremely durable; it is the most likely to endure the passage of time 3 We also estimated a specification that accounts for the interaction between (HA-L) and the dummies representing Sothebys and Christies. Since the results are consistent with equation (17), (18), and (19) but do not add much in terms of explanatory power, we chose not to report them here References [1] Ashenfelter, Orley and Kathryn Graddy, Art Auctions, in Handbook on the Economics of Art and Culture, Victor A. Ginsburgh and David Throsby, eds., Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2006, pp. 909-946 [2] Ashenfelter, Orley and Graddy, Kathryn Anatomy of the Rise and Fall of a PriceFixing Conspiracy: Auctions at Sotheby's and Christie's, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc, NBER Working Papers: 10795, 2004 [3] Ashenfelter, Orley How Auctions Work for Wine and Art, Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 3, no. 3, Summer 1989, pp. 23-36

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[4] Abowd, John and Orley Ashenfelter "Art Auctions: Price Indices and Sale Rates for Impressionist and Contemporary Pictures," Working paper, Mimeo, Princeton University, November 1989 [5] Bauwens, Luc and Victor Ginsburgh, Art experts and auctions: are pre-sale estimates unbiased and fully informative? Recherches Economiques de Louvain/Louvain Economic Review, 66, 2000, pp.131-144 [6] Beckmann, Michael, Why Do Sellers at Art Auctions Bid for their Own Items? Theory and Evidence, Schmalenbach Business Review, vol. 56, October 2004, pp. 312-337 [7] Beggs, Alan and Graddy, Kathryn, Declining Values and the Afternoon Effect: Evidence from Art Auctions, RAND Journal of Economics, vol. 28, no. 3, Autumn 1997, pp. 544-65 [8] Chanel, O.Gerard-Varet, L. A. Auction Theory and Practice Evidence from the Market for Jewellery, in V. Ginsburgh and P. Menger, eds. Economics of the Arts: Selected Essays, Elseviers, Amsterdam, 1996, pp. 135 149 [9] Czujack, Corinna and Martins, Maria Fraga Do Art Specialists Form Unbiased Presale Estimates? An Application for Picasso Paintings, Applied Economics Letters, vol. 11, no. 4, March 2004, pp. 245-49. [10] DSouza, Claire and David Prentice Auctioneer Strategy and Pricing: Evidence from an Art Auction, Marketing Intelligence & Planning vol. 20 (7), 2002, pp. 417-427 [11] Ekelund, Robert B, Jr., Ressler, Rand. W, and Watson, John Keith, Estimates, Bias and "No Sales" in Latin-American Art Auctions, 1977-1996, Journal of Cultural Economics, vol. 22, no. 1, 1998, pp. 33-42. [12] Louargand, M. A., McDaniel, J. R. Price Efficiency in the Art Auction Market, Journal of Cultural Economics, vol. 15, no. 2, December 1991, pp. 53-65 [13] Mei, Jianping and Michael Moses (2005) Vested Interest and Biased Price Estimates: Evidence from an Auction Market Journal of Finance, 60, 5, 2409 - 2435 [14] Milgrom, Paul R and Weber, Robert J., A Theory of Auctions and Competitive Bidding, Econometrica, vol. 50, no. 5, September 1982, pp. 1089-1122. [15] Valsan, Calin Canadian versus American Art: What Pays Off and Why, Journal of Cultural Economics, vol. 26, no. 3, August 2002, pp. 203-16 [16] Wieand, Kenneth, Jeff Donaldson, and Socorro Quintero Are Real Assets Priced Internationally? Evidence form the Art Market, Multinational Finance Journal, vol. 2, no. 3, 1988, pp. 167 -87

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HOW DOES SECTOR CONCENTRATION EVOLVE AT COUNTRY AND REGION LEVELS? THE EUROPEAN CASE
Lecturer, Ph.D. CRIEF, Cornel Oros Faculty of Economics, University of Poitiers - France cornel.oros@univ-poitiers.fr Lecturer, Ph.D. ISEME ESCEM Researcher, CRIEF, Camelia Romocea Turcu Faculty of Economics, University of Poitiers - France camelia.turcu@univ-poitiers.fr

Abstract This paper analyzes the evolution of the three main economic sectors agriculture, industry and services at the level of European countries and regions. We base our analysis on the Theil index constructed using European gross value added data for 23 EU countries and compare it to regional data for a ten-year period (from 1995 to 2004). Our results show that the most difficult challenges posed by the unequal concentration in the main sectors appear at the wider region not the country level. It will therefore be necessary to devise new regional policies that take into account these disparities. Keywords: sectors analysis, spatial concentration, European regions, Theil index, integration JEL Clasification: R11, R12, F15 Rezumat n acest articol analizm evolu ia celor trei mari sectoare economice agricultur, industrie i servicii - la diferite nivele teritoriale, n contextul Uniunii Europene. Folosim n acest scop indicele Theil, care masoar valoarea brut adaugat n cazul a 23 de ri membre ale Uniunii Europene, n perioada 1995-2004. Datele ob inute la nivel de ar sunt apoi comparate cu cele ob inute la nivelul a trei regiuni europene. Rezultatele finale sugereaz c problemele importante legate de inegalitate n repartizarea teritorial a celor trei sectoare economice se manifest la nivel regional pan-european, i nu la nivel de ar. Se impune deci, ca msurile de politic economic i social promovate n context european s fie reformulate pentru a ine seama de importan a problematicii de ordin regional. Cuvinte cheie: Analiz sectorial Concentrare geografic Regiuni europene Indicele Theil Integrare Clasificare JEL: R11, R12, F15 Introduction Fifty years after the Rome Treaty was signed, Europe offers the best example of international economic integration: EU has continued its enlargement and the process of production factors liberalization. Thus, the economic research has to take these changes into account: analyzing the exploitation of exogenously distributed resources is no longer enough as productive resources can be moved. A new perspective needs therefore to be added to the analysis of the spatial concentration of activities in different European countries and regions1.

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French departments (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Reunion), the two independent Portuguese regions (Azores and Madeira) and the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands. Even if the geographic disaggregation is very complex and allows us to take into account a high number of regions, data are available for only three sectors: industry, agriculture and services. Working on several sectors may be interesting, but it is not possible in the case of NUTS 3 regions. For a more complex sector analysis it would be necessary to choose a NUTS 1 or NUTS 2 geographic level. Therefore, we had to make a choice between, on the one hand, a large geographical disaggregation and more aggregated sectors levels and, on the other hand, a low level of spatial disaggregation and a more detailed sector decomposition. Studying the sectors geographic distribution at NUTS 3 level represents one of the original issues of our study. Indeed, very few empirical studies have been concerned with this aspect so far. We will base our analysis on production data which are more relevant for characterizing a countrys or regions economic structure than trade data, which offer merely an approximate estimation of the concentration issues and can be considered only as second best indicators (Brlhart, 2000). More precisely, the evolution of the production activities geographic concentration will be analyzed on the basis of a sample which will take into account only gross value added data. Long-term data is necessary to study this evolution. Therefore, in order to achieve our aim while working on homogenous data both at the level of calculation methodology and statistical units, we have dealt with the whole of gross value

In order to characterize the structure of economic activities in Europe, our study will be based on entropy indexes resulting from European sector data at country and region level. First, we will introduce the data sample, and will account for the indicators and for the methodology we use to build them. Secondly, we will present and dwell on our main results. 1. Data and measurement The geographic concentration2 of a sector is measured by the regions and countries shares in its overall activity. A given sector has a strong geographic concentration if an important share of its output comes from few countries or regions (Aiginger, 1999, WIFO, 1999, Longhi et al., 2005). Several types of indicators standard or more sophisticated can be used to describe the concentration of activities. As these indicators are very numerous, for simplicity reasons, we have chosen to use in this paper entropy indexes only; they allow a comparison between sectors concentration at different spatial levels. We will take into account 23 members of EU and their NUTS 3 regions and will use the Eurostat Regio database. Several EU members have been excluded from our study either because they have become EU members only recently (Romania and Bulgaria) or because they form only one region at NUTS 3 level (Luxemburg and Cyprus). The latter choice is justified by the fact that we analyse the disparities between both countries and regions inside each country. At NUTS 3 level, we will be dealing with 1180 regions within the 23 European countries. We havent taken into consideration the NUTS 3 ultra peripheral regions situated outside the European continent, i.e. the four overseas 274

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added European data available between 1995 and 2004 at NUTS 3 level. Entropy indexes will be used to study the spatial concentration of the three main economic sectors between 1995 and 2004. The main advantage in using these indexes is that they can be decomposed and thus can illustrate the sector concentration at country level and within countries. The entropy indexes we use imply that the number of sectors ( j ) varies between 1 and

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the whole variance of a two-index variable can be decomposed into a within variance and a between variance. We can thus decompose the degree of sector concentration in Europe into a country concentration degree and a region concentration degree, proper to each country, which can be written:
entropy entropy I entropy = I between + I within

(1) Generally speaking, this decomposition has only been applied to the Theil index, which is a particular case of the general entropy index, since, according to the general definition of the entropy index, the weighting coefficients of the within entropy depend on the between entropy and this may bias the issue. This is the reason why we will use the most common and the simplest form of the entropy index which is the Theil index. According to the approach used by Combes et al. (2006), the Theil index can be written in terms of concentration as follows:

NS

( j = 1..N S ) and that the number of

regions (i ) within a country varies between 1 and N R also consider that

(i = 1..N R ) . We
the number of

analyzed countries (k ) varies between 1 and N P ( k = 1..N P ) . Moreover, the indexes will be built according to Brlhart and Traeger (2005) and Combes et al. (2006), but we will also underline in an original manner their decomposition. This feature of the entropy indexes is based on the fact that
NR i =1

I iConc _ Theil = I ijAbsolute _ conc log(

I ijAbsolute _ conc Ii

)
(2)

Absolute _ conc ij

X ij

where

X ij

X ij X .j

Ii =

X X
ij j i j

ij

X i. X ..

I ijAbsolute _ conc The index represents the concentration ratio expressed in absolute terms and shows
the production share of the sector j of the region i

production of this given sector

(X j ) .

( X ij ) compared to the total

The index I i represents a region i ' share in the total activity of the whole countries and regions which are analysed.

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between component and the within component of the Theil index. - the between component of the Theil index is the share of inequalities caused by the international inequalities: NP I kj = I kj log Ik , k =1

The Theil concentration index used in our approach can be decomposed in order to take into account the variance between and within groups. Consequently, we can identify the
Conc I between_ Theil

entropy I between

(3)
N

where

I kj

and

Ik

I kj =

kj

X .j

kj

i k

X
ij

kj

and

Ik =

j =1

X ..

) (4)

represent the shares of the country k in the total production of the sector j and in the total activity of the whole of the countries respectively.
NP NP

- the within component of the entropy index results from the national Theil indexes weighted by the countries sector share in the total activity:

entropy I within = I k I ki = I k ( I ijAbsolute_ conc log

Conc I within _ Theil =

I ijAbsolute_ conc Ij

)
(5)

k =1

k =1

ik

where I k is the share of inequalities caused by international disparities while

I ki is the share of inequalities caused by

interregional inequalities.
2. Spatial concentration of sectors in Europe: some evidence

The entropy indexes have been long applied to income data only. But they were also used by Aiginger and Pfaffermayr (2004) in analysing the geographic concentration of several sectors at the level of European countries. According to their results, sectors concentration appears to have diminished in the 1990s (2% to 5%), while on the contrary European countries specialization rose. This has been confirmed by Aiginger and Davies
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(2004)s study. Their results are obtained by decomposing the entropy indexes related to concentration and to specialization and by showing that the two processes have a similar evolution only if the countries and/or the industries have a similar size. Brlhart and Traeger (2005)s study is also based on entropy indexes. But in order to avoid the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP), they chose to calculate their indexes on the basis of economic activity of basic units defined as a square kilometre of land area. Therefore, unlike the two previously mentioned studies, they distinguished between topographic concentration (which represents the degree to which sectors are concentrated relative to physical space, without any other weighting) and relative
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concentration (which measures the degree to which sectors are concentrated relative to the geographic distribution of aggregate activity). Using employment data for eight sectors, they showed that between the 1970 and 2000 in the 236 NUTS 2 or NUTS 3 regions belonging to 17 European countries, the relative concentration rose while the topographic concentration fell down. The short-term variations of the European regional concentration are widely influenced by the variations of concentration between countries, while not showing very important long-term variations. The within concentration remained stable over time. It is therefore difficult to assess whether disparities between sectors over time are really caused by the change in firms locations or by changes in these sectors production structure (Combes et al., 2006). Brlhart and Traeger (2005) used the entropy index decomposition properties when analysing the spatial concentration of industries. Their aim was to identify the evolution of this index between countries and within the European countries between 1980 and 1995, using a sample of NUTS 2 regions. In the industry sector, the concentration between the countries regions is higher than the level of concentration between the different countries. Moreover, over time, the former goes down while the

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latter goes up. Given this observation, it is possible to consider a growing specialization of the European countries. In our analysis, we will also calculate Theil3 indexes in order to show the impact of both national and regional scale on the evolution of concentration. We will estimate the trend of these indexes and will compare their coefficients in order to assess the dynamics of the relative concentration, defined as the ratio of the within and between components of the total entropy. The results obtained by using the Theil index in the analysis of the sector concentration on different spatial levels will be summed up in the following graphs. These graphs are built on the basis of the total Theil indexes where we distinguish the between level (between countries) and the within level (between regions within each country). The between component of the total entropy is measured by the Theil index presented here above; it has been calculated for each country whereas the within component has been calculated according to the average weighted by the share of the country in the total activity, which involves Theil indexes for each country. By means of this distinction, we can assess whether sectors are more concentrated either on the region or country level. We begin our presentation with the industry sector.

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0,035 0,03 0,025 0,02 0,015 0,01 0,005 0

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INDUSTRY

Theil_Within = 0.0004 x time + 0.0215 R2 = 0.866

Theil_Between = 0.0003 x time + 0.0017 R2 = 0.8619

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

Between

Within

Total

Linear (Within)

Linear (Between)

Graph 1 Disparities in industrys spatial distribution Source: Eurostat-Regio, own computations

Between 1995 and 2004 the concentration of the industry sector grows. This raise is due to an industry concentration increase both in the European countries and in the regions within each country. However, it is at regions level that the rise appears to be more significant. According to the given trend coefficients (0.0004 and 0.0003 respectively), this tendency seems to become more pronounced over time. If the growth of the within concentration is more significant than the between concentration for the given period, it follows that the relative concentration becomes more important and that the gap between the two components (between and within) deepens. The fact that the concentration of industries within countries regions is higher that between countries joins the conclusions of Brlhart and Traeger (2005)s study. Nevertheless, their conclusions also show that in the industry sector, the concentration between regions decreases over time in favor of the concentration at country level, which hasnt been proved by our

analysis. We therefore consider that the between and within concentrations have a growing trend, but that the former grows less rapidly than the latter. This suggests that there is no tendency for convergence between the two types of concentration. Hallet (2000) and Amiti (1999) have also shown the geographic concentrations growth for the European countries and have pointed out that this phenomenon can be accounted for by the intensification of the European integration4. Moreover, the significant growth of the industrys territorial concentration put forward in our analysis may be linked to the fact that eight Central and Eastern Europe countries are part of our sample. These countries underwent an important change of their production sector during the transition to the market economy, which involved significant foreign direct investment flows especially in the industrial sector (Dupuch, 2004, Oros, 2007, Romocea Turcu, 2008). We will now focus on the services sector that has witnessed an important development these last years.

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SERVICES
Theil_Within = -0.0001x time + 0.005 R2 = 0.9609 0,006 0,005 0,004 0,003 0,002 0,001 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

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Theil_Between = 3E-05 x tim e + 0.0004 R 2 = 0.4996

2004

Between

Within

Total

Linear (Within)

Linear (Between)

Graph 2 Disparities in services spatial distribution Source: Eurostat-Regio, own computations

The Theil indexs evolution shows that services concentration (total component) diminishes in Europe over the analyzed period. This is due to the fall of the services concentration in the regions within each country, since this sectors concentration at the countries level remains relatively stable, or even grows slightly. Consequently, the relative concentration (within component / between component) falls. The general tendency to tertiarisation and to urbanization reinforcement in developed countries can account for this sectors high concentration at country level. However, at regions level, services concentration decreased considerably during the given period. This can be explained by the fact that, under the impact of the public authorities decisions and of different market mechanisms, the distribution of services within countries has to cover the whole territory. For instance, a homogeneous distribution of the public

administrations services in the territory can be a consequence of the fact the public authorities want to maintain a minimum of administration in the outlying areas. Therefore, the location of this type of sectors depends exclusively on the public will. On the contrary, other sectors location can be influenced mainly by economic reasons (for instance the hotels and restaurants sector). Furthermore, services deconcentration at region level can be due to the fact that larger regions of the European countries tend to have a less significant share in the production of this sector, being overtaken by smaller but more attractive regions. In the same way, as Dupuch and Mouhoud (2004) show, we can also suggest that there is a tendency to dispersion in the households services which is beneficial to regions having natural resources. We will now focus on the agricultural sector.

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AGRICULTURE

Theil_Within = 0.0004xtime + 0.212 R2 = 0.1002

0,3 0,25 0,2 0,15 0,1 0,05 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Theil_Between = -0.0013xtime + 0.0624 R2 = 0.7539

2001

2002

2003

2004

Between

Within

Total

Linear (Between)

Linear (Within)

Graph 3 Disparities in agricultures spatial distribution Source: Eurostat - Regio, own computations

For the analyzed period, the between component of the index corresponding to the agricultural sector falls down, while the within component slightly rises. It follows that the concentration of this sector decreases between countries and becomes more important at the level of each countrys regions on account of the general stabilization of agriculture location disparities in Europe. Nevertheless, this sector territorial location depends on the spatial distribution of the resources used. The agriculture depends on soil constraints and will therefore be less influenced by agglomeration effects. Moreover, the fact that this sector has a fixed geographic location explains why it can only develop in regions with an important agricultural potential. Daniel (2003) confirms that the agricultural production tends to concentrate in the same basins, especially when we take into account all the products of the sector and not each product on its own. Besides, the agricultural subsidies system triggers a certain stability of the agricultural production localization. From another point of view, the relative deconcentration of the agricultural sector at country level reflects a general tendency in the

developed countries: the production structures undergo a growing tertiarization while the agricultural sector, whose development depends mainly on public subsidies, is relatively left behind. After having analyzed the overall spatial location of the three sectors, we can notice the following: the geographic concentration of the industrial sector is reinforced. the services undergo significant deconcentration at all spatial levels. the agricultures territorial concentration remains rather stable. Nevertheless, the degree of concentration is very different between the three sectors (as shown by the scale of the three graphs): agriculture is the most concentrated sector (0.27), followed by industry (0.029) and services (0.005). What is more important is that for all three sectors, it appears that the spatial concentration is more significant in the regions than in the countries.
Conclusion In this paper, we have studied sectoral concentration in Europe on the basis of entropy indexes and we have

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shown that the three analyzed sectors agriculture, industry and services are more concentrated at region rather than country level: the within component holds indeed a more important share in the overall disparities. Consequently, sectors concentration disparities between regions within countries mainly account for the overall extent of the European sectoral location inequalities. Our results are however strongly dependent upon our data, that is the level of sector aggregation and the size heterogeneity between countries, on the one hand, and the NUTS 3 regions, on the other hand. Nevertheless, our results show beyond doubt that sectoral location disparities in Europe represent a

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regional rather than a country issue. It follows that a new perspective must be adopted, that should put together the economic cohesion policies between countries and regions. Our results show that it is necessary to pay more attention to regional issues and to develop an active regional policy within each country but also at the level of Europe. Acknowledgments: We thank Christian Aubin and participants at the ERSA Congress 2007 Local governance and sustainable development in Paris for useful comments and suggestions related to our research on concentration and specialization issues. The usual disclaimers apply.

End notes 1 The term region is used only to designate the territorial division proper to Europe. The official division of EU for regional statistics is represented by the NUTS System (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics). 2 The sectoral geographic concentration as we analyse it here is different from the concentration used in industrial economics, where it represents the shares of the firms in a given industry or sector. 3 All computations for regions and countries are available upon request. 4 The significant increase of the European industrys geographical concentration can be analysed using specific elements of the new trade theory and the new economic geography. References [1] Aiginger K. (1999), Do Industrial Structures Converge? A Survey on the Empirical Literature on Specialisation and Concentration of Industries, WIFO Working Paper, no. 116 [2] Aiginger K., Davies S. W. (2004), Industrial specialisation and geographic concentration: two sides of the same coin? Not for the European Union, Journal of Applied Economics, vol. 7(2), p. 231-248 [3] Aiginger K., Pfaffermayr M., (2004), The single market and the geographic concentration in Europe, Review of International Economics, vol. 12(1), p. 1-11 [4] Amiti M. (1999), Specialisation Patterns in Europe, Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, vol. 135, p. 573-593 [5] Brlhart M. (2000), Evolving Geographical Specialisation of European Manufacturing Industries, DEEP Working Paper, no. 8 [6] Brlhart M., Traeger R. (2005), An account of geographic concentration patterns in Europe, Regional Science in Urban Economics, vol. 35, p. 597-624 [7] Combes P-Ph., Mayer T., Thisse J.-F. (2006), Economie Gographique : L'Intgration des Rgions et des Nations, Ed. Economica, Paris Nr. 24 Iunie 2008 281

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[8] Daniel K. (2003), Concentration et spcialisation, quel schma pour lagriculture communautaire ?, Economie et Prvision, vol.158, p. 105-120 [9] Dupuch S. (2004), Les investissements directs trangers dans les nouveaux pays adhrents lUnion europenne, Rgion et Dveloppement, no. 20, p. 45-64 [10] Dupuch S., Mouhoud E.M. (2004), Forces et faiblesses des rgions franaises dans lEurope largie, Le Quatre Pages du Plan, no. 2, http://www.plan.gouv.fr/intranet/upload/publications/documents/4PPerroux2.pdf [11] Hallet M. (2000), Regional Specialisation and Concentration in the EU, Economic Papers, no.141, European Commission [12] Longhi S., Nijkamp P., Traistaru I. (2005), Economic Integration and Manufacturing Location in EU Accession Countries, Journal of International Business and Economy, vol. 6(1), pp. 1-22 [13] Oros C. (2007), Essai sur les systmes de gouvernance conomique des PECO dans la perspective dadhsion lUnion montaire, Thse de doctorat en Sciences Economiques, Universit de Poitiers [14] Romocea Turcu C. (2008), Intgration, agglomration et spcialisation : analyse thorique et application aux rgions europennes, Thse de doctorat en Sciences Economiques, Universit de Poitiers [15] WIFO (1999), Specialisation and (Geographic) Concentration of European Manufacturing, Austrian Institute for Economic Research, Report of a Study for the Enterprise DG of the European Commission, Brussels

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SPECIFICS OF CHINESE BUSINESS NEGOTIATION PRACTICES

Jitka Odehnalov, Master of Economics University of Economics, Prague, Czech Republic odehnalj@vse.cz

Abstract

The new century is a turning point to the Peoples Republic of China (further just China), home to one fifth of the world population. This golden age is uniquely characterized by a fast growing, internationalized market for products and services. An increasing number of Western companies engage in negotiations with their Asian business partners. These companies need to become familiar with the process of building and maintaining good relations with their Asian business partners. How to understand the Chinese way of negotiation? What are the key elements of the Chinese business culture? What are the philosophical roots of the Chinese negotiation strategy? What should managers and other businessmen know in order to be successful? This paper is discussing to the basic cultural determinants influencing the Chinese approach to business negotiations. This article reviews and summarizes the existing research in the field of international business negotiation with Chinese enterprises and suggests topics for further research, in the hope that this knowledge will be found useful by scholars and practitioners alike.
Keywords: Culture, Negotiation, Cross-Cultural Buddhism, Taoism, Chinese Stratagems JEL Classification: F51

Negotiation,

Confucianism,

Rezumat Noul secol n care am intrat reprezint un punct de cotitur pentru Republica Popular Chinez, care nglobeaz aproximativ o cincime din popula ia globului. Aceast epoc de aur este caracterizat prin cretere economic rapid i interna ionalizarea pie elor produselor i ale serviciilor. Interna ionalizarea presupune negocieri ntre agen i economici foarte diferi i din punct de vedere cultural. Din ce n ce mai multe companii din Vestul industrializat negociaz cu cele din Extremul Orient i este important pentru succesul acestor negocieri ca ambele par i s n eleag semnifica ia legturilor de lung durat ntre partenerii de afaceri. Care sunt elementele definitorii ale culturii chineze? Care este filozofia chinez n privin a rela iilor de afaceri? Care este strategia chinez n contextul negocierilor? Ce trebuie s tim pentru ca negocierile s reprezinte un succes pentru ambele par i? n acest articol dezbatem filozofia i valorile culturale care definesc strategia chinez a negocierilor. Recapitulm lucrarile de referin n domeniu, teoriile cele mai importante i sugerm noi direc ii de cercetare pe aceast tem. Sperm ca aceste cunotiin e prezentate n articol s fie de folos oamenilor de afaceri care se pregtesc pentru astfel de negocieri. Cuvinte cheie: Cultur Negocieri Confucianism Budism Taoism Strategie chinez Clasificare JEL: F51

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1. Culture and negotiation Culture and negotiation are very complex terms, hardly describable in detail by one definition. However it is important to define them as they are understood within this article. Culture is a set of learned behaviour and its results, particular parts of which are shared and handed over by members of a concrete society. (Linton, 1945) Negotiation is a process when two or more parties try to solve seemingly contradictory aims. (Carnevale and Pruitt, 1992) We negotiate continuously with customers, suppliers, trade unions, family members, actually with everyone we meet. Negotiation can be divided into eight following phases: 1) preparation, 2) argumentation, 3) sending signals, 4) proposal, 5) offer, 6) bargaining, 7) conclusion and 8) agreement. At the moment of negotiation the negotiator must be perfectly aware of his maximal and minimal goals. Key role plays the ability to solve conflicts, to find a compromise and to deal with cultural differences in case of a cross-cultural negotiation. Negotiation always includes the risk and probability of a conflict therefore it is necessary to protect friendly relationships consciously. (Kharbanda and Stallworthy, 1991) 2. Roots of the Chinese negotiation research

Introduction The Peoples Republic of China opened its market to the rest of the world at the end of 70ties. This fast growing market with more than one milliard consumers represents nowadays an extremely interesting destination for activities of international trade companies. That is why more and more authors try to get to understand deeper Chinese business environment, business practices and negotiation style of Chinese partners within B2B. Key factors which must never be mixed with each other but have to be taken into account while doing business with Chinese counterparts (further using counterpart, he or she instead) are following: international trade environment in China Chinese political system, economic planning system, which is connected to the central decision making and bureaucracy, legal environment, geographical conditions, huge technology development, simultaneously backwardness of particular parts and not unified development accompanied by rash changes, Chinese culture, philosophy, social psychology and Chinese way of thinking which is fundamentally different from western conception. This paper is to shed light on particular specifics of behaviour and ways of thinking of Chinese businessmen negotiators and their cultural and philosophical connections. This paper issue deals with the interconnectedness among Chinese national culture, Chinese trade environment background and Chinese negotiation culture. It offers a great number of theoretical frameworks that seek to clarify the main aspects of above defined topic and analyzes the implication for the critique points of business negotiation. 284

Research concerning culture and negotiation has its roots in the work of the cultural studies of scientists E. T. Hall (Hall, 1959, 1966) and G. Hofstede (Hofstede, 1980) who created a method to categorize cultures according to basic indexes of deviation of habits, values and ideas which are in general judged as being good and suitable or inaccurate and bad within a nation. Within 80ties and 90ties two basic research approaches concerning the
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interaction of culture and negotiation could have been observed: 1) practically oriented description of negotiation techniques in individual countries and cultural differences definition which are to be controlled, leading in creating practical advice concerning the crosscultural negotiation: How to negotiate with members of specific cultures? and 2) the explanation of the cultural influence on the negotiation process, negotiation results and its interaction. (Gelfand and Dyer, 2000) Models defining conditions under which culture influences negotiation were developed. (Gelfand and Dyer, 2000; Morris and Gelfand, 2004) Culture can influence not only the process of negotiation including the personal behaviour of negotiators and their understanding, but also the forms of negotiation conditions and results. (Faure and Rubin, 1993; Ting-Toomey, 2000; Brett, 2001; Lewicki et al. 2001; Faure, 2002; Cellich and Jain, 2004) Culture influences negotiation interactively and dynamically. (Ruane, 2006; Gelfand and Dyer, 2000) Negotiators from different countries can 1) be used to different closer situational conditions, 2) implement different theoretical and judging prejudices, 3) work differently with information, 4) set different goals, modify them and use various tactics and 5) react differently to different conditions, perceptions, aims and behaviours, all those can influence the negotiation results. Existing results of the research on Chinese negotiation specifics could be divided into five areas: (Faure, 1998) 1) description of Chinese negotiation behaviour which very often does not include the Chinese point of view (Boarman, 1974; Chen, 1993; Deslandres and Deschandol, 1986; Galard, 1986; Lubman, 1983; Plasseraud, 1986; Seligman, 1989; Tung, 1982), 2) case studies introducing examples of
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behaviour which are considered to be typical (Chen and Faure, 1995; Hakam and Chan, 1990; Mann, 1989; Shapiro et al., 1991; Webber, 1989), 3) studies based on observations focusing on cognitive aspects representing basic characteristic of Chinese negotiators (Faure, 1995; Knutsson, 1986; Weiss and Stripp, 1985), 4) analytical description of most frequently used Chinese negotiators techniques and strategies and finally 5) specific aspects of negotiation, e. g. loss of face, the importance of connections and time perception. (Brunner and Wang, 1988; Campbell, 1989; Chen and Faure, 1995; De Paw, 1981; Frankenstein, 1986; Kirkbride and Tang, 1980; Kirkbride et al., 1991; Murray, 1983; Redding, 1980; Solomon, 1987) Even though China gains more and more importance worldwide, China oriented B2B studies are relatively behind. The lack on a deeper understanding of Chinese negotiation style and knowledge how to do business with Chinese counterparts causes continuous errors in building business relationships on the Chinese market. (Fang, 2006) The number of negotiations in China has increased a lot recently however they are often unsatisfactory. One of the reasons is the fact that Chinese negotiation conception is fundamentally different from the western conception. (Faure, 1998)
3. The influence of Chinese philosophies on the nowadays Chinese population behaviour, value patterns

While considering Chinese philosophies influencing nowadays Chinese behaviour, following three have to be mentioned: Confucianism, Taoism both of them originally Chinese and Buddhism with its origin in India.
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concept of face. Moral education based on ethic and long-life education highlights honesty and trust as important human characteristics. Interpersonal relations can work properly just on the basis of principle of trust, respect and further rules. Confucius defines five following basic relationships in a human society: superior subordinate, father son, husband wife, older brother younger brother, older friends younger friends. Relations are basically hierarchical, reciprocal and group oriented. Duties arising from those relationships are mutual and reciprocal. One must respect and follow socially higher positioned people simultaneously those have to take care of their followers. Within the four sees all people are brothers. Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you. Those are example formulations of Confucian thoughts. The family organization as further pillar of Confucian thoughts tells family is the fundamental and most important social unit. As an analogy to the family work as well further wider units as companies while on the top is situated state. The link between family (jia) and state or country (guo) is significant and clear. It is documented for example by using the term guojia, which is often used for the same meaning: country state. That signifies that family and state stand always side by side. All that is pointed out by following Confucian motto: If you want to lead a country, first your family is to be in the best order. Respect to the age and hierarchy goes as a red line across the whole Confucian doctrine. Age represents wisdom and that is why it is worth respect. Hierarchy is a way of organizing people within a society concerning their duties. It is an organization of assigned relationships, where everyone has his or her specific
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(Audrey, 1974; Boorman, 1972; Kircher, 1991; Ping and Bloodworth, 1976; Senger, 1991 and Yang, 1957) Confucianism focuses on interpersonal relations, Taoism on living in harmony with nature and Buddhism faces the human immortal life. Chinese do understand those philosophies more as doctrines than religions, which enables them to follow all three. In better words, depending on a concrete situation Chinese are able to behave according to that one of them which fits best. Such an approach gives to Chinese an exceptional ability to use all aspects, which are good and profitable without considering the original connection to a specific doctrine (religion). (Lee, 1995) Especially Confucian and Taoist influence are to be observed in the process of Chinese business negotiation. To complete the list of the key cultural aspects influencing the Chinese business negotiation among Confucianism and Taoism the WenWu model of masculinity and Chinese stratagems are to be introduced as well.
3.1 Confucianism Confucian thoughts influenced the way of thinking and forms of behaviour not only of the Chinese but of the whole eastern-Asian population. It is a moral, ethical and practical teaching, which is based on the belief in the moral base of human population and is basically a set of instructions telling how to be a good and an honourable person. It considers interpersonal relations and human behaviour. (Tu, 1984) Goodness, propriety, gentleness, honesty, humanity are fundamental virtues. Confucian thoughts consist of six following pillars: moral education, interpersonal relations, family organization, hierarchy and age respect, conflict avoiding and the necessity of harmony, 286

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position and specific duties to reach a mutual harmony and stability. The never ending trial to avoid conflicts and explicit concurrence of opinions and necessity of harmony has deep roots in Chinese culture. Highlighted is the necessity to reach harmony thanks moral behaviour within all forms of interpersonal relations. The real gentleman does not argue and never loses temper. That is what a concept of face is connected to. However an open stultification of people or open criticising is undue anywhere in the world, in the Chinese culture is the loss of face dishonour, direct arguing, criticizing or inability of an individual considered above all as a process of damaging a harmonic relationship and so as absolutely unacceptable. A strong importance of the phenomenon of loss of face is supported by the Confucian perception of shame. The principle of loss of face should work as a selfregulating system leading people in the society to behave according to moral standards. The influence of this concept could be observed in all aspects of the Chinese life. To sum up the basic Confucian thoughts it is important to mention following fundamentals. According to the feudal ethical code people should follow five constant virtues benevolence, righteousness, prosperity, wisdom and fidelity. The age respect principle is the key aspect of human lives. Young should respect the older. The whole is more important that a part. To be loyal to the state and proper to your parents is the key factor of success. To maintain the society work well everyone should understand his or her role in the society. The three cardinal guides are - ruler guides subject, father guides son and husband guides wife. The aim is to reach a great harmony under the heaven. Confucius defined also three
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obedience and four virtues for women. A woman should be obedient to her father before marriage, to her husband after marriage and to her son after her husbands death. Four fundamental virtues which a woman should know and maintain are morality, proper language, modest manner and diligent work for a woman. From the historical point of view is the role of a woman understood as a role of an inner helper, whose intention is to be a manager of the family, mediator aiming to make the life of her husband and his family easier. (Ebrey, 1993) To answer the question, why the wifes family is not taken into account is obvious. After her marriage a Chinese girl leaves her family, moves to her husband familys and becomes its member.
3.2 Taoism Taoism upgraded Chinese culture and arts by perfection and unique aspects as well as by ethical beauty, while highlighting the inner spirit and than external appearance. People should behave as water. Water directs forward, when there are no obstructions and stops when meets a mole. Water tries to find a way to continue flowing constantly and once a slot is found water flows on. Water becomes square in a square environment and round in a round one which makes it more significant and more powerful than all other elements. Within Taoism two following principles are to mention: YinYang principle, WuWei principle. YinYang represents a concept of dualism, symbol of a fundamental unity and harmony. Yin stands for feminine characteristics as moon, night, water, weakness, darkness, mystery, softness and passivity. Yang stands for masculine aspects as sun, day, fire, power, brightness, light, hardness and 287

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junzi heaven of rest to become exemplary human beings, so called real men rather than xiaoren basic (imperfect, spiritually poor) men, which requires by both Wu and Wen a strong self-control. (Ruane, 2006)
4 Chinese business negotiation culture

activity. YinYang principle is based on the belief that there is nothing absolutely good or bad, pure masculine or feminine, black or white. Everywhere every time the opposites appear together. Opposites are dependant on each other, are complementary in all situations and create a dynamic unity together. (Chen 2001, Fang 2006) Both of them are important, Yin and Yang, to create and maintain harmony in life. They are opposites but both of them are of the same importance, they are even needed balanced completing each other standing side by side. This approach is reflected by a Chinese proverb sai weng shi ma an zhi fei fu, which talks about an old man who lost his horse. It seemed bad, but nobody knows if it was a bad or a good luck. The story continued that thanks the loss of his horse the old mans family avoided a much worse misfortune finally. Its roots in Taoism has also the so called WuWei principle of behaviour and management not to push but avoid conflicts. WuWei principle also known as a do nothing principle points out the superiority of using wisdom and nondirect tools to overplay the partner in comparison with a direct fight.
3.3 WenWu model of masculinity

WenWu is a Chinese model of masculinity a model an imagination about the ideal man who embodies both the Wen hero and Wu hero characteristics. Wu heros features are his physical power (body structure, martial arts, brutality) as well as the ability to withstand feminine charm. He appreciates the ideology of brotherhood as an efficient tool to avoid competition among men. Wen is characteristic by its cultural elegance, good educational background and by a competitive spirit. Both Wu and Wen heroes search for
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Chinese idiom The market is a battlefield. reflects a Chinese belief, that the wisdom needed to win a battle is the same as the one to overplay a business partner. SunTzu methods of leading a war and Thirty six stratagems are the best links to the Chinese thinking. (Senger, 1991). Strategic thinking has roots in YinYang and WuWei principles. It is believed that better than winning one hundred of wars it is not to start a war at all. It means to make the enemy give up or change his or her mind without fighting. A natural part of fighting techniques is the usage of stratagems. Within the business behaviour this can be observed when Chinese counterparts rather than trying to force you to change the contract conditions directly just by the way mention that there are other potential partners with much better offer waiting behind the door willing to overtake your place. Negotiation is based on a reciprocal respect, trust and mutual profit and it is fundamental to follow the Chinese etiquette. Simultaneously Chinese are ready to use any stratagems suitable and necessary to reach the goals. It seems, that sometimes Chinese negotiators behave honestly and fair while sometimes they try to mislead and confuse their counterparts. The behaviour can change from one extreme to another one very quickly even within one negotiation. The approach of the Chinese negotiator is not possible to be defined as a single sided either as an honest or as tricky one. There is some
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paradoxical inner connection between the above mentioned tendencies. That clearly reflects the philosophy of YinYang. While concerning the ability Chinese are thanks their cultural background able to realize honest negotiations as well as negotiations full of stratagems. Chinese negotiation strategies are based on the interconnection of cooperation and competition, while trust is the key factor in the process of choosing the negotiation procedure. Chinese negotiator is ready to change his or her attitude and behaviour according to concrete situations. Quick changes in behaviour are typical. Fang (Fang, 2006) categorizes those changes into three different roles which can a Chinese negotiator adopt: Maoist bureaucrat in learning, Confucian gentleman, SunTzu-like strategist. The main priority for Maoist bureaucrat in learning are the national interests, he never distinguishes between politics and business, will not initiate anything and tries to avoid responsibility, is afraid of criticism and does not promise anything. For the Confucian gentleman the main values are mutual trust and profit, he tries to avoid conflicts in any case and every time he aims the win-win solution with a result profitable for all bodies involved. SunTzu-like strategist does not hesitate to lead the negotiation as a war and implement Chinese stratagems. The form of stratagems used within negotiation comes from YinYang and WuWei principles. If the mutual trust is high, the negotiation is very smooth, is creative and very often results in the win-win solution. On the contrary if the mutual trust is broken, manipulative techniques can be implemented and the whole negotiation changes into a low unstable haggling.
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According to the situation Chinese negotiator can lead the negotiation either as a mobile warfare or as a joint quest. Chinese messages expressed just as insinuations and their ability to hide the real negotiation purpose put their foreign partner to a weak position such as a fisherman who is trying to catch the moon according to its reflection on the water surface. Foreign negotiators leave China mostly with mixed feelings and more questions than answers. (Faure, 1998). Mobile warfare consists of very power oriented tactics and strategies, while the aim is to weaken the counterpart. Examples of tactics follow. Chinese negotiators may try: to weaken the counterpart, confuse, ensnare and at the end show mercy, to cut the counterpart off his or her basis, elicit the tiger from the mountains (such a typical situation can occur when a foreigner comes to unknown China and does not have sufficient connection to his or her colleagues in his country of origin.), to get the counterpart into the demanding position, when he or she has to make first adjustment the necessity to pay the tax to the emperor while asking for something, to remind the counterparts wrong and evil did by him or his ancestors off China, the aim is to make them feel guilty and cause them inconvenient feelings as a consequence, to discourage the counterpart by an excessive behaviour while discussing contract details, to warn the monkey by killing a chicken, to arrange the situation, so that it seems the counterpart is not consistent in his or her statements, that there exist discrepancies among team members, thanks erosions of individuals within

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According to the Chinese proverb just the devil is moving straight. In general the mobile warfare tactics lead to a negotiation which is conceived as a war or a chess game, while the only goal is to win or at least gain more points than the enemy. The approach joint quest is a harmonizing approach which is suitable just for civilized human individuals, human beings with good manners according to the Chinese cultural tradition as it comes from the Taoist trial to find a harmony and solve problems very guardedly while using an implicit and very cautious tongue which helps to develop a discussion and judgement. This approach requires not revealing the negotiators positions. To assure harmony also the loss of face must be avoided. Simultaneously the holistic conception of negotiation which requires a lot of time available and highlights the importance of responsibility to wider groups is fundamental. Chinese could by defined as inscrutable, versatile, harsh, stubborn and opinionated negotiators with a specific negotiation style. (Ghauri, 1999) They are capable to lead a win-win negotiation which has roots in Confucian thoughts as well as a win loss negotiation, which reflects a competitive spirit and the Chinese stratagems usage.
5. How to make a negotiation with Chinese counterparts easier

private dialogues, to use the fire to realize a big robbery, to obscure the negotiation context to mud the water to catch a fish, to offer so called quazi adjustments, to give up a brick in order to get a piece of jade, to make the counterpart lose manoeuvrability by disabling him or her to realize his or her habits and customs by forcing him or her to follow the Chinese negotiating customs, get the person to the position of gratitude, time pressure deadlines, limited time for negotiations, absence by negotiations, detailed questions repeated again and again, pretended lack of interest to sign the contract. To sum up the mobile warfare could be characterized by following words: abusing, destabilization, exhaustion and frustration. Still the aim is not to destroy the enemy, but just to get more points. Negotiation can be led in two ways as with a civilized partner or as with a barbarian. Just a foreigner who is aware of Chinese culture and is able to follow good standard practices will be considered as a civilized individual. Such an individual deserves the form of joint quest negotiation. The term joint quest, describes the way of negotiation when the aim is to find a certain stabilizing harmony. This conception comes from Taoism and is characteristic by the tendency to find a harmonic dynamic between elements, which direct against each other but simultaneously complete each other. Such a negotiation is usually fulfilled by empathy, a lot of observation, listening and questioning (without common aims nothing is worth negotiating Confucius XL, Faure, 1998). Typical are indirect expressions and obscurity in order to avoid a direct confrontation and to loss of face.
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While considering above mentioned elements influencing the culture of Chinese business negotiation (international trade environment in China: Chinese political system, economic planning system, decision making strategies, bureaucracy, legal environment, geographical position, specific technology development and Chinese culture: philosophies, social
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psychology and Chinese way of thinking) a number of good practises follows. Interpersonal relations Mutual trust, keeping face and developing interpersonal relationships are fundamental. It is very useful to communicate through a mediator a third party. The right choice of a mediator can be often more important than the pure negotiation. Long negotiations and ambiguity while signing a contract are typical. A signed contract plays mostly just a symbolic role rather than a document representing a detailed description of future actions. (Movius, 2006) Asuitable negotiation team Negotiation team is the basic connection to the Chinese negotiator. The role of every individual team member and his or her behaviour is observed and judged while forming the Chinese negotiators attitude and trust. The team leader should be credited and endowed with personal leaders charisma including an appropriate age as well as formal decision making responsibility. Team should consist of a technology and a financial expert, as Chinese are very sensitive to technical and financial parameters. An evident political support The most important authority, which takes decisions concerning business activities, is in China the state. According to the proverb: I judge you comparing to myself Chinese have the same imagination about other countries. To make the Chinese feel safe showing the counterparts country support is of high importance. The real decision makers identification The real decision makers do often not take physically part in negotiations. It is necessary to identify

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them and be in contact directly with them. People oriented approach Social relations and the system of contacts are in China of a great importance. So called pre-negotiations and social abilities and skills are a powerful gun in hands of a skilled negotiator. Those are very often more important than a formal face to face negotiation. Communication through a Chinese mediator Thanks their contacts and good relationships local Chinese can fundamentally help while communicating with a Chinese counterpart, especially in the beginning while trying to gain the counterparts trust. Local Chinese also know the local administrative system very well, they are able to recognize pushing tactics and stratagems and know how to react in order to avoid any cross-cultural faux pas and misunderstandings. The importance of a stable negotiation team Every company should avoid the risk to loose trust and long time built good relationship to a Chinese counterpart by changing the structure of its negotiation team. Inflated prices Chinese negotiator perceives all prices as they were inflated - first offer is considered to be fulfilled by water which is to be screwed. By decreasing the price negotiated Chinese negotiators gain respect, face and winner position in their boss eyes. Help towards the Chinese partner To help a Chinese negotiator reach the agreement of his superiors and get the authorization to sign the contract it is of a great importance to provide him with suitable materials. To overcome administrative restrictions, right
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simultaneously each of them is unique. A regional approach is of significance. Additional interesting points Negotiations are very often confusing and complicated, because the Chinese culturally based approaches are often directing against the western. Chinese start from the whole and continue with details. Western practises are oriented the other way round, starting with specifics one by one till closing the whole contract. Chinese negotiators, who appear as collectivistic, distinguish strictly between negotiation within one culture and negotiation crossing the border of cultures. While negotiating with foreigners they are ready to make significantly less adjustments. Time is not limited. There is no hurry. Time is not considered as a valuable asset. Negotiations are long while impatience is considered as a weakness and loss of self-control which leads to the loss of face. Be careful while waiting for a clear explicitly expressed word NO (Adler et al., 1992), such a formulation would be rather replaced by more implicit expressions: I will think it over, maybe, we will see.
Conclusions

language written and properly formulated documents are required. A good way to gain trust in a contract and avoid the negotiators fear is to mention that such a contract or a similar contract was already agreed and signed by another Chinese negotiator. Negotiation abroad A Chinese negotiator who is invited to realize one of the phases of negotiation abroad will remember the generosity of his host and will be ready to pay off later according to the guanxi principle. Lucky and unlucky numbers Whereas the number eight is loved by Chinese, number four is a kind of taboo. Respect to significant meaningful number combinations, colours and other culturally specific unique rarities, is worth. Be patient Patience, tolerance, calm and balance, stubbornness and honesty welt the journey to reach the trust of Chinese counterparts. Misuse of the myth of the loss of face Chinese can walk long miles not to have to express disagreement explicitly as the word NO. While negotiating with a Confucian gentleman a foreign negotiator can gain a lot when he helps his Chinese partner to avoid saying the word NO, and so keep his or her face. While negotiating with a strategist a foreign negotiator must be ready to detect his Chinese partners trials to argument that the contract was agreed on while the foreign negotiator was just trying to follow Chinese cultural behavioural manners while not expressing a clear and explicit NO. United states of China China is not a monolithic compact state, individual regions have common characteristics but

The characteristics of the ideal Chinese man are reflected also in the perception of the right characteristics of the ideal Chinese negotiator. Both of them are masculine heroes, who can perfectly control their relations with others and can use them within the relations game guanxi and within the wen/joint quest or wu/mobile warfare negotiation perfectly to reach their goals. (Ruane, 2000) The western win-win form of negotiation is close to the joint quest Chinese way of negotiation (negotiation with a civilized partner) and on the other hand the win-loss negotiation could be
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recognized in above mentioned so called mobile warfare way of negotiation (negotiation wit a barbarian). When negotiating with a civilized partner the Chinese negotiator will try to discuss the issue without unnecessary exchange of information and changing positions, which could cause any harm to the negotiation harmony, by loosing face of any person involved. To be considered as a civilized person rather than a barbarian the foreign negotiator must highlight the harmony of interpersonal relations and its defence. On the contrary while negotiating with a barbarian the negotiator would not hesitate using stratagems and pushing tactics and leading the negotiation as a war. As China is becoming more and more important within the area of international business, good knowledge about the Chinese negotiating strategies and behaviour is one of the key factors of success. So far research has described the

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roots and philosophical background of Chinese negotiation behaviour. Simultaneously there is a huge space for further research work which would be of a great significance especially in elaborating case studies which would even more brighten up good practices. There is now a wealth of academic literature concerning the cultural issue in China, from general introductions to detailed analysis of specific issues. This article aimed to organize all the published knowledge in order to offer a well structured scientific overview of results while serving a starting point for further future research concerning the detailed relationship between Chinese cultural values and negotiation values reflected in negotiation behaviour. Simultaneously the findings provide useful input for managers and businessmen who are seeking to develop effective working relationships with Chinese counterparts.

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III. Amfiteatru Economic v recomand (Amfiteatru Economic recommends)

BUNE PRACTICI Beneficiile integrit ii academice i ale mentorship-ului (Benefits of academic integrity
and mentorship)

Lect. univ. dr. Nela Popescu

Pagina 311

NEVOIA DE PERSONALIT I Omul care a format profesioniti, dar i caractere: Prof. univ. dr. Nicolae Sut
Prof. univ. dr. Dumitru Miron

Pagina 317 RECENZIE CARTE Principiile opera iunilor de la recep ia hotelului

(Principles of Hotel Front Office Operations)

Conf. univ. dr. Nicolae Lupu, Prep. univ. Andreea Marin-Pantelescu

Pagina 323

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BENEFICIILE INTEGRIT II ACADEMICE I ALE MENTORSHIP - ULUI

(Benefits of academic integrity and mentorship) Lect. univ. dr. Nela Popescu, Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, nela.popescu@com.ase.ro Rezumat Secolul XXI aduce cu sine, pentru nv mntul universitar, o varietate de provocri cotidiene. Studen ii reprezint indubitabil prioritatea absolut. Dezvoltarea abilit ilor cognitive, dificult ile asociate stimulrii gndirii critice, precum i cele referitoare la disponibilitatea pentru studiul individual sunt chestiuni ct se poate de importante. ns pe lng responsabilit ile activit ii didactice, nzuim i spre o dezvoltare profesional proprie, prin alte activit i i demersuri n plan institu ional. Contrabalansarea acestora poate fi dificil, la un moment dat, fiind influen at de mediul institu ional i de interac iunea colegial. Stimularea integrit ii academice n institu iile de nv mnt superior se impune ca urmare a dou stri de fapt. Prima, realitatea irefutabil a lipsei de onestitate, n cretere. Triarea, ho ia (copiatul la examene, lucrri de licen etc.) nregistreaz tendin e alarmante. A doua, prezen a incontestabil a unei crize de integritate n societate, n ansamblul su. Institu iile de nv mnt au o responsabilitate special, n aceast situa ie. Dac deprinderea unui comportament integru nu este nsuit nainte ca tnrul s prseasc mediul universitar, pentru a intra pe pia a muncii, ansa de a fi dobndit ulterior este minim. n contextul academic, mentorship-ul autentic poate juca un rol esen ial n dezvoltarea profesional, precum i n succesul academic, pentru c un bun mentor ofer o viziune aparte nv celului su, ghidndu-l n atingerea scopurilor asociate viziunii n cauz. Este extrem de important ca ndrumarea, orientarea s se fac de ctre un mentor inteligent, autentic, cu reputa ie. Mentorship-ul induce un sens transformrii personale i implicrii n plan institu ional, ceea ce nu poate fi dect benefic ambelor pr i. Abstract Faculties in the twenty first century face a variety of daily challenges. The students are, of course, the first priority of faculties members. Transfer of knowledge and the difficulties related to developing critical thinking skills and independent learning are very serious matters. Along with the responsibilities of teaching, we strive for our own professional growth through scholarly activities and service to the institution. Balancing these activities can be overwhelming at times and is influenced by the environment of the school and the interactions we have with colleagues. The cultivation of integrity within institutions of higher education is especially pressing now for two reasons. First, this is strong evidence to suggest that academic dishonesty is on the rise. Cheating in higher education suggests alarming trends. Second, we face a crisis of integrity in society as a whole. Educational institutions have a special responsibility in such a crisis. If habits of integrity are not strongly instilled before students Nr. 24 Iunie 2008 299

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leave school for the workforce, there is little hope that they will be developed after that point. In the context of higher education, effective mentorship can play a critical role in professional development as well as academic success, because an excellent mentor provides a distinct vision and can guide his or her mentee to achieve the goals associated with these visions. There is enormous value in having the guidance of an intelligent, dedicated, cheering, and authentic mentor. Mentorship develops a sense of personal transformation and empowerment, which is beneficial to the institution. Definim integritatea academic n termenii asumrii a patru valori fundamentale i a principiilor care deriv din acestea. n cazul integrit ii academice, cele patru valori reies din caracterul definitoriu al procesului academic: corectitudinea, ncrederea, obiectivitatea i responsabilitatea. O comunitate academic nu poate evolua fr aceste valori. n absen a corectitudinii, schimbul liber de idei este denaturat. Lipsa ncrederii conduce la ineficien n procesul educa ional. Fr impar ialitate, componenta de baz a formrii universitare este erodat. Iresponsabilitatea conduce la o detaare fa de orice efort n sus inerea i consolidarea acestor valori fundamentale. Aceste patru valori confer fundamentul i legitimitatea ac iunilor n mediul academic. Asumarea integrit ii academice ofer, de asemenea, cteva beneficii evidente, cum ar fi men inerea reputa iei i credibilit ii institu iei (studen i i corp profesoral), precum i relevan a, valoarea i validitatea diplomelor oferite. Corectitudinea este crucial pentru misiunea academic, n mod special, dat fiind menirea activit ii didactice i a celei de cercetare. Corectitudinea este condi ia necesar pentru evolu ia vie ii academice. Corectitudinea fa de sine nsui, precum i n raport cu ceilal i este esen ial n procesul didactic. n rela ia student - profesor, acesta din urm are o responsabilitate aparte n stabilirea unor standarde n acest sens. We define academic integrity in terms of a commitment to four fundamental values and the principles that flow from those values. In the case of academic integrity, four values emerged as fundamental to the academic process: honesty, trust, fairness, and responsibility. An academic community cannot flourish without these values. Without honesty, the free exchange of ideas is distorted. Without trust, the willingness to engage collaboratively in the learning process is stunted. Without fairness, the foundation of the critical dimension of educational inquiry is eroded. Without responsibility, we will not acknowledge ourselves as accountable for supporting and enforcing these fundamental values. The four values provide reasons and motivation for actions. A commitment to academic integrity also yields certain tangible benefits in, for example, maintaining the reputation and credibility of an institutions students and faculty, as well as the meaning, value and validity of the degrees it awards. Honesty is crucial to the academic mission, especially to the tasks of learning, teaching, and research. Honesty is a necessary condition for the flourishing of the academic life. Honesty with oneself as well as others is essential to learning. Professors have a particular responsibility to articulate for students the specific standards of academic honesty.

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Corectitudinea este la fel de important, att n activitatea didactic, ct i n cea de cercetare, profesorul fiind adesea privit ca model n nsuirea unei atitudini corecte. n ambele ipostaze, profesorul reprezint, pentru student, un model al corectitudinii academice, acesta fiind de altfel i cel mai vizibil. Absen a corectitudinii submineaz grav procesul formativ educa ional. Dei toate cele patru valori sunt esen iale pentru integritatea academic, corectitudinea are un rol aparte. Corectitudinea este fundamentul celorlalte valori. ncrederea, obiectivitatea i responsabilitatea au drept element de baz corectitudinea. ns rolul special al corectitudinii n via a academic nu nseamn c integritatea academic se reduce la aceasta. Corectitudinea este fundamentul integrit ii academice, ns fr a o putea reprezenta n toat plenitudinea sa. Cultivarea spiritului de corectitudine are un rol important n dezvoltarea moral. A ac iona n mod corect implic perspicacitate, curaj i responsabilitate; curajul de a alege solu ia corect ceea ce trebuie fcut , precum i asumarea responsabilit ii propriilor ac iuni, i a consecin elor aferente acestora, chiar cu riscul unor costuri n plan personal. Corectitudinea conduce la ncredere, n timp ce lipsa acesteia d natere nencrederii i suspiciunii. ncrederea este rspunsul firesc fa de un comportament corect, mai presus de orice dubiu. Din acest considerent, nu ar trebui s ne preocupe doar promovarea, ca principiu, a ncrederii n mediul academic, ci mai ales ncurajarea i legitimarea unui astfel de comportament din partea celorlal i. Dominat de nencredere, via a academic este steril.

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Honesty is equally important in teaching and researching, where the professor often provides a role model for the students developing a sense of academic honesty. Professors, in both their teaching and their research provide the model of academic honesty that is most visible to students. Dishonesty undermines the process of education. Although each of these four values is essential to academic integrity, honesty holds a special place. Honesty is necessary for the other values. Trust, fairness, and responsibility presuppose a foundation of honesty. Yet in recognizing the special place of honesty in the academic life, we do not intend to reduce academic integrity simply to honesty. Honesty is the foundation of academic integrity, not its fullness. The cultivation of honesty plays a crucial role in moral development. To act with academic integrity requires courage, insight, and self-awareness; the courage to face hard choices honesty and to choose to do what is right as well as to accept responsibility for ones actions and their consequences, even at personal cost. Honesty breeds trust, just as surely as dishonesty breeds mistrust and suspicion. Trust is the natural response to consistent honesty. We seek not only to encourage trust in the academic community, but even more importantly to encourage and justify an attitude of trust from others. Without trust, the academic life is impoverished.

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Just as we seek to encourage trust within the academic community, we also seek to encourage trust between the academic community and communities outside of it. Society must have confidence in our scholarship and degrees in order for our work and awards to have social value and meaning. An academic community should seek to ensure fairness in institutional standards, practices, and procedures for academic integrity as well as fairness in interactions with each other. Education plays an important role in the educational process: faculty and students alike are constantly evaluating ideas, data, and even one another. Without fairness, evaluation is false, misleading and unjust to the persons and positions being evaluated. This aspect of academic integrity enjoins faculty to evaluate one another fairly and administration to treat faculty and students with fairness. For students, predictability, clear expectations, and explicit standards are important components of fairness, as is a consistent and just response to cheating behaviors. There is a responsibility not only to act with integrity in our own learning, teaching, and research, but also to take action in the face of wrongdoing. To tolerate dishonesty and unfairness is to perpetuate its existence. Shared responsibility distributes the power to effect change, helps overcome apathy, and helps each individual to understand and feel that she or he is an integral part of the academic community. One of the most difficult issues in regard to our shared responsibility for maintaining the standards of academic integrity is how we deal with the dishonesty of others. Not only must we refrain from dishonesty, but we also must not permit it in others.

Aa cum impulsionarea unui climat de ncredere n mediul academic, n sine, este de dorit, tot astfel trebuie consolidat ncrederea dintre comunitatea academic i cea extra-academic. Societatea trebuie s aib ncredere n pregtirea conferit studen ilor i n valoarea diplomelor, relevan a socioeconomic a acestora. O comunitate academic ar trebui s asigure un mediu impar ial, att n plan institu ional, ct i n interrela ionarea personal, prin standarde, practici i proceduri. Formarea joac un rol important n procesul educa ional: corpul profesoral i studen ii sunt n mod sistematic n situa ia de a evalua informa ii, idei, sau de a se evalua reciproc. n absen a obiectivit ii, evaluarea este fals, eronat i injust n raport cu obiectul acesteia. Aceast component a integrit ii academice impune membrilor comunit ii o evaluare reciproc obiectiv. n cazul studen ilor, predictibilitatea, ateptrile clare i standardele explicite n evaluarea rezultatelor sunt componentele de baz ale obiectivit ii, reprezentnd un mijloc solid i legitim de combatere a comportamentelor incorecte. Responsabilitatea nu implic doar o raportare la propriile ac iuni, ci i sanc ionarea comportamentelor indezirabile. A tolera lipsa corectitudinii i subiectivismul, nseamn a perpetua existen a acestora. Promovarea responsabilit ii favorizeaz transformri dezirabile, n plan institu ional, precum ieirea din apatie, dezvoltarea sentimentului de apartenen la comunitatea academic. Unul dintre cele mai critice aspecte legate de dezvoltarea spiritului responsabil, n men inerea standardelor integrit ii academice, este lupta cu lipsa de onestitate corectitudine a celorlal i. Nu-i suficient autocontrolul propriu, ci se impune, n egal msur, sanc ionarea incorectitudinii celorlal i.

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Responsabilitatea este un atribut intrinsec i esen ial pentru via a intelectual, iar un reper al acesteia ar putea fi mentorul nostru profesional, n cazul fericit n care am avut aa ceva. Mentorul i ia nv celul sub protec ia sa, pentru a-l orienta, stimula i ncuraja, n fapt un proces care conduce la formarea unor profesori i cercettori motiva i i de succes. Motiv pentru care mentoringul este extrem de important n recrutarea unor tineri valoroi i men inerea acestora n institu ie, un aspect sensibil al nv mntului superior romnesc, constituind n consecin i un mijloc de dezvoltare profesional i de consolidare a satisfac iei n rndul membrilor comunit ii academice. Mentorul posed abilitatea de a inspira ncredere altora, de a-i determina s-i depeasc propriile limite i de a ncerca s-i valorifice ntregul poten ialul. Mentorul este persoana care vede n noi mai mult dect putem vedea noi nine. El are viziune, elabornd proiecte care s valorifice abilit ile i poten ialul de cretere al nv celului. Un excelent mentor este att de convins de valoarea intelectual a nv celului, nct viziunea sa asupra posibilit ilor este insuflat i celui din urm. Realitatea eviden iaz faptul c responsabilitatea atragerii unui bun mentor revine nv celului. Mentorul caut s se asocieze cu cei cu poten ial de nvingtor. Caracteristicile considerate drept calit i ale nv celului n atragerea unui bun mentor sunt disponibilitatea de a-i asuma responsabilit i, atitudinea pozitiv fa de munc/efort substan ial, ambi ie i contiinciozitate, disponibilitate pentru asumarea unor riscuri, spirit de ini iativ, receptivitate la feedback, disponibilitatea de a nv a i de a-l ajuta pe mentor, loialitate n rela ia interuman dar i n plan institu ional.

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Responsibilities are intrinsic and essential to the intellectual life and a source of this principle is our own mentor, supposing that we were fortunate enough to have had one. Successful mentor takes mentee under his or her wings for guidance, inspiration, and encouragement and in the process creates motivated and successful teachers and researchers. Mentoring is important for the retention of new faculty, a critical issue in Romanian higher education, and is a means of professional development that enhances career satisfaction among existing faculty.

Mentors have the ability to inspire confidence in others, push them to their limits, and continue to develop them to their greatest potential. Mentors are people who can see more in you than you see in yourself. They create a vision and project development that takes advantage of your own abilities and potential for growth. An excellent mentor is so convinced that we have greatness in us, and his or her vision of what is possible is so clear and powerful, that they wind up convincing us too. There is evidence that there should be accountability on the part of the mentee to attract a good mentor. A mentor wants to associate with winners. The characteristics as qualities for attracting a mentor are willingness to assume responsibilities, having a positive attitude to work, ambitious and conscientious, willing to take risks, having initiative, receptivity to feedback, willingness to learn and assist the mentor, loyal to individuals and the organization.

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The most effective mentor relationships evolve from a natural affinity between two individuals, generally after the two individuals have worked together for a while and developed mutual respect. In his/he turn, an effective mentor possesses perseverance, appropriate knowledge, ability to command respect from others, reliable information and valuable personal contacts, is imaginative and creative, promotes good judgment, is successful at what he or she does, providing status and prestige, leads and offers clear direction, invests time, energy, and effort toward a different type of working relationship, desires to motivate others, demonstrates initiative, and takes risks. Mentor should also serve as an advocate for the mentee and get to know him or her. It is obviously critically important for the mentoring pair to have compatible personalities and common professional interests. In fact, there are three Cs of excellent mentor: competent, confident, and committed. An excellent mentor will facilitate the development of independence, self-confidence, job satisfaction, and decision making problem solving skills in the mentee.

Cele mai eficace rela ii de mentorship au punct de plecare o afinitate natural ntre cele dou persoane, n general ca urmare a faptului c persoanele n cauz au avut ocazia unei colaborri prealabile, rstimp n care s-a dezvoltat un respect reciproc. Pe de alt parte, un excelent mentor se caracterizeaz prin perseveren , pregtire profesional bun, abilitatea de a dobndi respectul altora, o bun informare i contacte personale utile, este imaginativ i creativ, promoveaz corectitudinea n judec i i ra ionamente, este un nvingtor n ceea ce ntreprinde, confer prestigiu i prestan , (se) ghideaz dup direc ii clare, investete timp, energie i efort n stabilirea diverselor rela ii profesionale de colaborare, posed abilitatea de a-i motiva pe al ii, are ini iativ i i asum riscuri. Mentorul este, de asemenea, un avocat al nv celului, ncercnd n acelai timp s-l cunoasc ct mai bine. Este evident c dou aspecte sunt extrem de importante pentru raportul mentor nv cel: compatibilitatea n planul personalit ii i interesele profesionale comune. n fapt, exist trei atribute ale unui excelent mentor: competen a, ncrederea i devotamentul. Un bun mentor va favoriza, la nv celul su, dezvoltarea spiritului de independen , de ncredere n sine, satisfac ia n munc i capacitatea de a solu iona probleme. A dori s mi exprim, cu aceast ocazie, mul umirea fa de politica curent a institu iei mele, Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, de a promova meritocra ia, de a stimula integritatea academic i spiritul de mentorship. Ca membri ai comunit ii academice, putem ini ia i sus ine un dialog permanent cu privire la beneficiile acestor aspecte, ac ionnd n aa fel nct s ncurajm valorile i principiile expuse anterior.

As members of academic community, we can initiate and sustain an ongoing dialogue about these issues and act in ways which support the values and principles outlined above. I would like to express my gratitude for the policy of my institution, the Academy of Economic Studies from Bucharest, which reward worth and activate academic integrity and mentorship.

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Amfiteatru Economic v recomand PERSONALIT NEVOIA DE PERSONALIT I

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OMUL CARE A FORMAT PROFESIONITI, DAR I CARACTERE: Prof. univ. dr. NICOLAE SUT

Continum prezentarea celor mai importan i profesori care i-au desfurat activitatea n cadrul Facult ii de Comer de la Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti cu prof. univ. dr. Nicolae Sut.

De la nfiin area Facult ii de Comer , n 1951, cea mai mare parte a timpului studiul comer ului exterior/ rela iilor economice interna ionale a fost parte a acesteia; este vorba de perioadele 1957-1971 i 1974-1991, pe care prof.univ.dr. Nicolae Sut le-a parcurs ca membru de frunte al corpului profesoral al Facult ii de Comer . A fost ales ef al catedrei de Rela ii economice interna ionale de patru ori, prima dat n 1976. Evocnd perioada de dup rzboi, n 2004 scria: Primele haine lucrate la un croitor de ora, din stof foarte proast cumprat pe cartel, le-am putut face abia cnd am luat primul salariu de asistent i am fost fericit. (Nicolae Lupu) Sunt oameni care i-au asumat de la nceputul carierei universitare Nr. 24 Iunie 2008

valen ele, dar i servitu ile nobilei meserii de dascl i care i-au fcut pe cei care i-au ntlnit s se considere norocoi c le-au intersectat devenirea personal. coala universitar romneasc de rela ii economice interna ionale a consacrat c iva astfel de modelatori de carier, crora numeroase genera ii de absolven i le poart o autentic recunotin pentru ceea ce le-au transmis de la catedr, i-au nv at la cercurile tiin ifice studen eti, pentru c i-au ndrumat la lucrrile de diplom i la tezele de doctorat. Sunt pu ini cei care i asum provocrile, cred cu convingere atunci cnd al ii se ndoiesc, cultiv rigurozitatea cnd starea de fapt din jur este adaptabilitatea, care nu abdic de la principiile deontologiei profesionale atunci cnd majoritatea se modeleaz. Pentru fiecare tnr student este esen ial s n eleag la timp i ct mai complet ce nseamn corectitudinea i punctualitatea. Pentru mine, un astfel de universitar autentic este domnul profesor Nicolae Sut. Din ziua n care am devenit student, mi-am dorit modelul cu care orice tnr i dorete s semene. Acest moment al autenticei deveniri profesionale, pentru mine, s-a produs n anul universitar 1979-1980, cnd am intrat la primul curs de comer interna ional i politici comerciale. Circulau n comunitatea studen easc numeroase povestioare despre profesionalismul, rigurozitatea, dedicarea profesional i exigen a, pe fond de corectitudine, a profesorului. Realitatea perceput direct de mine a depit toate 305

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primele articole i comunicri tiin ifice n coautorat cu dumnealui, s constat n direct meticulozitatea devenit proverbial cu care i structura elaboratele tiin ifice, densitatea ideilor i respectul cu care acestea erau ntmpinate n comunitatea tiin ific. Studen ii care au avut n planurile de nv mnt disciplinele de Economie mondial, Comer interna ional i politici comerciale i, respectiv, Comer ul exterior al Romniei s-au convins rapid de privilegiul de care se bucurau trind la intensitate maxim emo iile examenelor, dar i satisfac ia reuitei. Incontestabila calitate a unui modelator de caractere const n rbdarea cu care i nva pe cei mai tineri s ncerce s fie ei nii, s caute excelen a i s doreasc s o gseasc, s i propun s ob in mereu mai mult i s nu fac niciodat compromisuri.

ateptrile. Dup un an de cursuri exemplare, n care am n eles i am nceput s reflectez la cariera didactic, am realizat la examen ce importan au toate aceste valori ale culturii universitare. La momentul absolvirii facult ii, care s-a asociat indisolubil cu profesorii de real voca ie, n anul 1981, am luat reparti ie, ca asistent universitar, la catedra de Rela ii economice interna ionale, pe care o conducea cu dedicare, profesionalism i cu o inegalabil tiin a managementului domnul profesor Nicolae Sut. Via a mi-a oferit ansa s devin, de la nceputul carierei mele universitare, discipolul Maestrului i s m expun, cu ocazia fiecrui curs sau examen, la radia iile excelen ei de la care nu a abdicat niciodat. Am n eles, lng Domnul Profesor, c o carier universitar de succes are nevoie, alturi de mult efort i dedicare, de un magistru de la care s nve i tainele nobilei, dar dificilei meserii de dascl. La fel ca mul i al i colegi de catedr, eu am fost norocos c le-am avut pe toate la timp i pentru mult vreme. De la Domnul Profesor am nv at s pre uiesc valoarea lucrului bine fcut, s cumpnesc atent la ceea ce primul impuls mi spunea s fac, s fiu corect, s-mi respect studen ii i colegii, s conduc colective, s fiu om i s nu cedez la cntecul falselor sirene. Profesorul Nicolae Sut ne-a nv at ce mult conteaz n timp verticalitatea atunci cnd cei din jur se mldiaz n raport cu vremurile, ce valoare are corectitudinea mai ales atunci cnd falsitatea este perceput ca o virtute, ce nseamn ca to i cei din preajma ta s te aprecieze firesc doar pentru ceea ce eti cu adevrat i nu pentru ceea ce te strduieti s pari. Domnul Profesor mi-a fcut onoarea s-mi fie conductor de doctorat i s m orienteze pe calea extrem de dificil a cercetrii tiin ifice. Am evoluat profesional i tiin ific lng Domnul Profesor, am avut privilegiul s-mi scriu

n 1997, pentru volumul aprut la Editura Economic, prof. univ. dr. Nicolae Sut a fost coordonator, la fel ca pentru cele mai multe dintre lucrrile pe care i-a depus semntura, n felul acesta ajutndu-i pe mai tinerii colegi s se afirme

Att eu, ct i colegii mei care au avut privilegiul de a-i fi asisten i ne

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aducem aminte cu mare emo ie de permanentele noastre tentative de a ajunge la diversele activit i universitare naintea Profesorului, dar i de eecurile n aceste ncercri, nu din cauza nepunctualit ii noastre, ci din cauza punctualit ii sale inegalabile. Liderii sunt personalit i care deplaseaz organiza iile din locul n care se afl spre locul unde ar trebui s se afle. Ca lider al catedrei de Rela ii economice interna ionale, domnul profesor Nicolae Sut ne-a artat cum astfel de precepte nv ate din cr i se transpun n via a real chiar lng noi. Modelatorii de caractere polarizeaz n jurul lor colective care i respect pentru ceea ce sunt i fac, care i urmeaz pentru c fac lucrurile s se ntmple aa cum trebuie, care doresc s se autodepeasc i pentru c vd la mentori aceast trstur de caracter, care vd inte nalte pentru c au lng ei personalit i care fac acest lucru n mod cotidian. Profesorul Nicolae Sut a creat la Facultatea de Rela ii Economice Interna ionale o autentic familie, care i duce mai departe valorile n care domnia sa a crezut i crede cu convingere.

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la Academia de Studii Economice, de profesorul Nicolae Sut, iar atunci cnd curgerea inexorabil, dar fireasc, a vremii face ca fiicele i fiii lor s devin studen i la institu ia noastr, acetia vin, de acas, cu lec ia nv at despre valorile colii de rela ii economice interna ionale. Devine o autentic datorie de onoare pentru fiecare membru al familiei noastre universitare, atinse de radia iile excelen ei emanate de la Profesor, s-i duc mai departe valorile pe care ni le-a predat o via i s se strduiasc s se ridice la nivelul la care a dorit domnia sa s fim, s ntoarcem ct mai mult din ceea ce ne-a oferit, s gestionm adecvat privilegiul de a-i fi fost studen i sau asisten i, s-l pre uim aa cum merit. Bog ia fiecruia dintre noi se constituie i din sfaturile n elepte pe care le primim n via i noi - cei de la Rela ii Economice Interna ionale - am fost privilegia i, din standarde nalte care s ne jaloneze devenirea profesional i tiin ific i noi le avem, din motenirea de excelen pe care o capitalizeaz organiza ia din care facem parte i domnul profesor Nicolae Sut a fost generos cu noi. Profesorul Nicolae Sut s-a nscut la data de 5 decembrie 1927, n comuna Albeni, jude ul Gorj, ntr-o familie care a fost srac material, dar foarte bogat spiritual, i a parcurs toate etapele sistemului na ional de nv mnt fiind permanent primul n forma iile de studii din care a fcut parte. Dup absolvirea, n 1950, a Facult ii de Economie General din cadrul Academiei de nalte Studii Comerciale i Industriale (denumit ISEP dup reforma nv mntului din 1948), a fost repartizat ca asistent universitar la catedra de Economie mondial a universit ii, fiind promovat lector universitar n anul 1952, devenind titularul cursului de Economie mondial.

n anul 2002, nconjurat de colegi de catedr, profesorii Sterian Dumitrescu i Virgil Gheorghi ; n spate, prof. univ. dr. Gheorghe Dolgu

Cei care suntem acum purttorii mesajului predat cndva de Maestru constatm cu emo ie c genera ii ntregi de absolven i ai facult ii, indiferent ce au ajuns n via , ntreab, atunci cnd revin

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s munceasc foarte mult, de cele mai multe ori mai mult dect majoritatea celor din jurul su. n anul 1968 a ob inut prin concurs gradul didactic de conferen iar universitar la catedra de Comer exterior (denumit ulterior Rela ii economice interna ionale), iar n anul 1973 a fost promovat la gradul didactic de profesor universitar. Se consacr a fi exemplar statutul de creator de coal atunci cnd resursele infrastructurale i umane sunt pu ine, piedicile sunt multe, provocrile sunt complexe i mediul nu este cel mai favorabil. Titlul tiin ific de doctor n economie a fost ob inut n anul 1970, cu teza intitulat Modificri n comer ul interna ional n perioada postbelic, o analiza de mare profunzime i corectitudine a fluxurilor comerciale interna ionale cu bunuri la scar interna ional. O astfel de cercetare a fost extrem de dificil ntr-o perioad n care accesul la informa ie era aproape un vis frumos, cnd realit ile trebuiau cosmetizate i cnd lumea se mpr ea n partea sntoas i partea putred.

Opera de cpti a profesorului univ. dr. Nicolae Sut, n dou volume, a aprut n 12 edi ii, ultima dat la Editura Economic, n anul 2003; coautor este fosta coleg de facultate i tovara de via , prof. univ. dr. Sultana Sut-Selejan

nsui modul n care domnia sa a reuit s urmeze cursurile colii primare, ale ciclurilor gimnazial, liceal i universitar este o colec ie de pilde exemplare prin densitatea n transformri, lec iile transmise i tria de caracter de care a trebuit s dea dovad pentru a nu abdica de la dorin a ferm de a dovedi c, atunci cnd flacra reuitei te anim, nimic nu te poate mpiedica. Domnul profesor Nicolae Sut este un exemplu i pentru viabilitatea aser iunii n via trebuie s- i asumi i s valorifici povestea propriei vie i fcnd parte dintr-o genera ie care a reinternalizat valorile perene ale nv mntului economic romnesc. n perioada 19521967, ca urmare a reconfigurrilor organiza ionale ale universit ii i a redefinirii curriculei academice, domnul profesor Nicolae Sut a fost fondatorul cursurilor de Comer interna ional, Economia comer ului interna ional, Comer ul exterior al Romniei. Pentru tot ce a ob inut n via , domnia sa a trebuit

Cartea aprut la Editura Scrisul Romnesc, la Craiova, n 1985, pentru care doi ani mai trziu Academia Romn va acorda autorului, prof. univ. dr. Nicolae Sut, Premiul "P.S. Aurelian"

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Pentru a reui n demersul de a fi cercettor, adic de a prezenta fluxurile comerciale interna ionale corect i nu distorsionat, cercettorul Nicolae Sut a trebuit s reinventeze metoda compunerii ntregului din pr i mici, dintre care pentru multe nu existau dect elementele de la cellalt capt al fluxurilor i acelea ob inute cu mare dificultate. Teza sa de doctorat poate fi citit n orice etap i se remarc prin acurate ea informa ional, corectitudinea analizei i caracterul paradigmatic al concluziilor. Din anul 1971, profesorul Nicolae Sut ndrum doctorat n economie, specializarea rela ii economice interna ionale, sub coordonarea sa finaliznd programe de doctorat 95 de cercettori i aflndu-se n proces de elaborare a lucrrilor tiin ifice al i 10 tineri doctoranzi. Rigurozitatea tiin ific, excelen a analitic i ndrzneala abordrilor au fost permanent calit i pe care domnia sa le-a promovat n tot ce a fcut i le-a insuflat celor cu care a colaborat n tot acest interval de

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timp. i-a nceput i desfurat cariera universitar ntr-o perioad de permanente i radicale schimbri societale, dar a rmas fidel lucrurilor durabile, transcendente peste capriciile vremurilor. A fost indiscutabil creatorul colii romneti postbelice de economie interna ional i, n special, a celei de comer interna ional. Dedicat carierei universitare n ntreaga sa completitate, profesorul Nicolae Sut a lucrat n Ministerul Educa iei Na ionale atunci cnd se lansau bazele unui nou sistem de nv mnt universitar romnesc i a condus, n perioadele 1976-1985 i 1991-1999, catedra de Rela ii economice interna ionale din cadrul Academiei de Studii Economice din Bucureti, consacrnd un inconfundabil i valoros stil de management al colii bazat pe excelen tiin ific, rigurozitate metodico-didactic i dimensiune strategic.

n juriul sesiunii cercurilor tiin ifice studen eti, alturi de prof. Gabriela Drgan i prof. Mirela Diaconescu

La ASE, n 1995, n mijlocul participan ilor la o lansare de carte; primul din stnga prof. Silviu Negu , actualul decan al Facult ii de Rela ii Economice Interna ionale

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profesorului Nicolae Sut au fost apreciate n Dic ionarul Specialitilor, elaborat de ctre Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, n 1999 i n lucrarea Protagoniti ai vie ii economice, aprut la Editura Economic, Bucureti, n 2002, precum i prin ob inerea, n anul 2000, a Diplomei Opera Omnia a Academiei de Studii Economice pentru ntreaga activitate n domeniul cercetrii economice i a Diplomei de excelen pentru ntreaga carier de cercetare i nv mnt a Asocia iei Generale a Economitilor din Romnia, n 2003. Dup cum aprecia nsui profesorul Nicolae Sut cu ocazia aniversrii vrstei de 80 de ani, pentru mine, activitatea didactic i munca cu studen ii au fost o adevrat pasiune, fapt ce a fcut s ne respectm reciproc i s ne ntlnim ntotdeauna cu mare plcere, dei am fost unul dintre cei mai exigen i profesori din ASE, dar mereu corect i politicos cu studen ii i cu to i colegii de catedr.

Profesorul Nicolae Sut a publicat, ca unic autor sau n colaborare, 23 de cr i dedicate domeniului economiei interna ionale i celei europene, 40 de caiete de seminar pe problematica politicilor comerciale, comer ului exterior, organismelor comerciale interna ionale i peste 100 de articole i studii legate ndeosebi de rela iile comerciale interna ionale, economia mondial i comer ul exterior al Romniei. Miile de pagini de tratate, cr i, cursuri universitare, caiete de seminar se deosebesc de celelalte lucrri din aceeai arie tematic, poart puternic amprenta minu iozit ii analitice dublat de sinteza generalizatoare, transmit mesaje ctre cercettori, alimenteaz nevoia de lectur, dar i de reflec ie, se pozi ioneaz inconfundabil n dialogul de idei i invit specialitii la dialog profesional i tiin ific. O astfel de carier exemplar a fost recunoscut, cum se cuvine, de comunit ile profesionale i tiin ifice. Contribu iile profesionale, tiin ifice, precum i calit ile umane ale

Prof. univ. dr. Dumitru Miron Autorul prezentrii este un absolvent strlucit al Facult ii de Comer , cu media 9,98, din anul 1981. Este cadru didactic la catedra de Rela ii economice interna ionale din 1983. Zece ani mai trziu a devenit doctor n economie, din 1998 este profesor universitar, iar din anul 2000 este conductor de doctorat. A urmat programe i stagii de specializare la universit ile din Paris, Reading, Lille, Nottingham, Berlin, Tbingen, Haloway, Warwick, Londra, Coventry i Montreal. Cele mai multe contribu ii tiin ifice ale profesorului univ. dr. Dumitru Miron, ca unic autor, se refer la disciplina Economia integrrii europene. Pe linie administrativ, n perioada 1991-2000 a fost prodecan, iar din 2000 este prorector al Academiei de Studii Economice. Este prim-vicepreedinte al Funda iei Romno-Americane. n anii 2005-2007 a fost secretar de stat pentru nv mnt superior i integrare european la Ministerul Educa iei, Cercetrii i Tineretului.

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Amfiteatru Economic v recomand RECENZIE DE CARTE

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PRINCIPIILE OPERA IUNILOR DE LA RECEP IA HOTELULUI

(Principles of Hotel Front Office Operations) Rezumat Cartea a fost conceput pentru a pune la dispozi ia studen ilor i a tuturor celor implica i n industria hotelier elementele de baz ale teoriei i practicii opera iunilor de front-office. Pe tot parcursul cr ii, aplica iile nlesnesc nsuirea modului de gndire a unui lucrtor de la front-office. Succesiunea capitolelor urmeaz un client tipic, de la check-in la check-out, n rela ie cu celelalte sectoare i departamente din cadrul unui hotel. Sue Baker i Jeremy Huyton predau la catedra de management hotelier i al turismului de la Politehnica din Hong Kong. Pam Bradley a fost conferen iar la aceeai catedr. Autorii au o vast experien didactic n Marea Britanie, precum i o bogat experien n industria hotelier. Abstract The book is designed to help students new to the hotel industry to explore thoroughly the principles and concepts of front office operations. Activities are provided throughout to help students move from an understanding of the basic principles to thinking like a front office person. The chapters follow a typical guest from check-in to check-out with small detours to other areas and departments. Sue Baker and Jeremy Huyton are currently senior lecturers in the Department of Hotel and Tourism Management at Hong Kong Polytechnic. Pam Bradley is a former lecturer in the same Department. All the authors have extensive previous teaching experience in the UK as well as working experience in the hotel industry.

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urm este redactorul-ef al revistei lunare Traveller Magazin. Dat fiind interesul nregistrat, n decembrie 2007, a vzut lumina tiparului o a doua edi ie din Principiile opera iunilor de la recep ia hotelului. n bun parte, textul ini ial a fost revzut. Volumul reapare n Colec ia Turism, totui, par ial abandonat la nivelul editurii; ntre timp, alte lucrri din sfera turismului au fost editate n cadrul Colec iei Oeconomica. Chiar Principiile opera iunilor... sunt ncadrate de ctre editur n tematica Economie practic. Peste toate, din 2006, Editura All Beck a devenit C.H. Beck, prelund integral numele ac ionarului din Mnchen, prestigioasa editur nfiin at n anul 1763, care i trage denumirea de la unul dintre fiii fondatorului Carl Heinrich Beck - i care continu s aib o tradi ie i s fie condus n familie. Pentru cele 344 de pagini, pre ul de copert al cr ii este de 21,90 lei. Printre cele mai importante aspecte analizate..., n transcriere lui Anne Nechita, se numr Organizarea unui hotel, Produsul cazare i clien ii hotelului, Departamentul front-office i Activit i de baz privind rezervarea. De asemenea, sunt prezentate Sistemele i documentele pentru rezervare, Check-in-ul pentru nou sosi i, Contabilitatea front-office-ului, Check-out-ul i achitarea conturilor, Controlul creditului, Front-office-ul electronic i, cel mai important capitol, Atitudinea fa de problemele clien ilor. ntr-o abordare didactic, fiecare capitol se ncheie cu un Sumar, precum i cu ntrebri i discu ii recapitulative. La urm, lucrarea cuprinde un instrumentar i mai valoros, reprezentat de Glosar i, respectiv, Index. Principalii beneficiari provin din sfera nv mntului universitar, preuniversitar i departamental/voca ional de profil; de asemenea, hotelierii i

Apari ia la Editura All Beck, n Colec ia Turism, n anul 2002, a volumului Principiile opera iunilor de la recep ia hotelului a constituit un eveniment editorial. Practic, n limba romn, este prima lucrare despre serviciul front-office, considerat placa turnant a activit ii unui hotel. Titlul original este Principles of Hotel Front Office Operations. A Study Guide, autori fiind Sue Baker, Pam Bradley i Jeremy Huyton. Edi ia n limba romn este publicat cu sprijinul programului British Books for Managers al Know How Fund i cu acordul Editurii londoneze Cassell. Traducerea i apar ine lui Florentin Vintil, n prezent doctorand i asistent de cercetare la Universitt Tbingen (Germania). Tot n 2002, n Colec ia THR, la Editura Gemma Print, apreau lucrrile Tehnologie hotelier Front Office, de Daniela-Anca Stnciulescu (coord.), Adriana Anca Cristea, Mihail Corneliu Acatrinei i Mihai Rjni , precum i Tehnologie hotelier Housekeeping, de Adriana Gabriela Mihail (coord.), Mihail Corneliu Acatrinei i Mihai Rjni . Astfel, prin publicarea primelor cr i n limba romn consacrate serviciilor front-office i de etaj, aprute n edituri recunoscute public, 2002 poate fi considerat un an de referin pentru literatura de specialitate din domeniu. Aprecierile despre Principiile opera iunilor... sunt conforme cu reflectarea n mass-media. n decembrie 2002, n unul dintre ultimele numere din Ziua Turistic, supliment sptmnal al ziarului Ziua, sub titlul Cum se vede lumea din front-office?, Anne Nechita scria: Traducerea acestei cr i reprezint, fr ndoial, pentru cunosctori, un eveniment editorial. Publica ia Ziua Turistic a fost editat n perioada 19972002, redactor-ef fiind Marian Constantinescu. n prezent, acesta din

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Amfiteatru Economic v recomand

personalul sectorului de cazare al hotelurilor, n primul rnd al serviciului front-office, sunt atrai n mod special de subiect. La nivelul facult ilor cu specializare de turism, lucrarea se dovedete foarte util pentru aprofundarea con inutului unor discipline cum ar fi Gestiune hotelier sau Tehnologie hotelier i de restaurant. De altfel, Principles... a fost conceput s rspund tocmai cerin elor unui manual universitar, autorii, Sue Baker, Pam Bradley i Jeremy Huyton, fiind cadre didactice universitare recunoscute. La Academia de Studii Economice din Bucureti, Facultatea de Comer , ncepnd cu anul universitar 2001-2002, programul de masterat n specializarea Administrarea afacerilor n turim i industria ospitalit ii a cuprins o disciplin dedicat front-office-ului Managementul recep iei i al rezervrilor; din 2008, programul de masterat a fost redenumit Administrarea afacerilor n industria hotelier. Tot din 2008, disciplina respectiv a fost inclus n planul de nv mnt al unui alt program de masterat, de pregtire complementar, intitulat Business n turism i desfurat n sistem on-line. Redactorul de carte este Alexandru Dan, care s-a afirmat ngrijind apari ia la aceeai editur a mai multor lucrri din colec iile de tiin e economice, n general, i din sfera turismului, n special. Pentru echipa care i-a asumat traducerea i adaptarea, o problem dificil a reprezentat-o alegerea i, prin aceasta, indirect, exprimarea ndemnului pentru folosirea unor termeni. n limba

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romn, neologismele cunosc niveluri diferite de consacrare i deci de adaptare grafic, fonetic i morfologic. n domeniu, anglicismele nu sunt rare i capt consacrare prin utilizare. Dincolo de dificultatea traducerii unor termeni, folosirea uzual a anglicismelor n marile hoteluri, n primul rnd din Bucureti, a constituit factorul determinant pentru adoptarea n lucrare a unora dintre ele. Din acest punct de vedere, hotelurile de lan , din Bucureti i din restul rii, prin for a exemplului, i aduc o contribu ie important. Totui, pentru titlu, n traducere, a fost preferat termenul recep ie, care, chiar dac n ultim instan nu reprezint dect o component a sectorului front-office, beneficiaz de recunoatere unanim. Necesitatea utilizrii sintagmei frontoffice rmne evident, cel pu in pentru hotelurile n care activit ile specifice sunt repartizate pe mai multe compartimente, dintre care recep ia - avnd ca sarcin principal atribuirea de camere - este numai unul dintre acestea. n plus, ceea ce n marile hoteluri reprezint departamentul/serviciul front-office i front-office managerul, n hotelurile mici va continua s se numeasc recep ie i, respectiv, ef de recep ie. Abordarea lucrrii se situeaz la nivel de principii sau baze. De aceea, n peisajul literaturii de specialitate sunt ateptate alte lucrri scrise sau traduse n romnete. Premisele sunt asigurate, o dat cu extinderea hotelurilor de lan i, implicit, cu dezvoltarea procedurilor performante. Conf. univ. dr. Nicolae Lupu Prep. univ. Andreea Marin-Pantelescu

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