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Energia eoliana
2.1 Istoric
Vntul este rezultatul activitii energetice a Soarelui i se formeaz datorit nclzirii
neuniforme a suprafeei Pmntului. Micarea maselor de aer se formeaz datorit
temperaturilor diferite a dou puncte de pe glob, avnd direcia de la punctul cald spre cel
rece.
Fiecare or Pmntul primete 1014 kWh de energie solar. Circa 1-2% din energia
solar se transform n energie eolian. Acest indiciu ntrece de 5-10 ori cantitatea energiei
transformat n biomas de ctre toate plantele Pmntului.
Omenirea utilizeaz energia eolian pe parcursul a ctorva milenii. Vntul aciona
morile de vnt, mica corbiile cu pnze. Energia cinetic a vntului a fost i este accesibil
practic n toate prile pmntului. nc la orizontul civilizaiei energia vntului se utiliza n
navigaia maritim. Se presupune c egiptenii strvechi mergeau sub pnze nc 5.000 ani n
urm. n jurul anului 700 pe teritoriul Afganistanului maini eoliene cu ax vertical de
rotaie se utilizau pentru mcinarea gruntelor. Cunoscutele instalaii eoliene (mori cu elicele
conectate la turn) asigurau funcionarea unor sisteme de irigare pe insula Creta din Marea
Mediteran. Morile pentru mcinarea boabelor, care funcionau pe baza vntului, sunt una din
cele mai mari performane a secolelor medii. n sec. XIV olandezii au mbuntit modelul
morilor de vnt, rspndite n Orientul Mijlociu, i au nceput utilizarea larg a instalaiilor
eoliene la mcinarea boabelor.
turbine eoliene. Capacitatea total a acestor unitti este de aproximativ 550 MW. Ele erau
construite n locuri cu vnt puternic, grupate n asa-numitele wind farms"
Turbinele de vnt pot fi folosite pentru producerea electricittii individual sau n
grupuri, denumite ferme de vnt. Fermele de vnt, care n prezent sunt complet automatizate,
asigur, spre exemplu, 1% din necesarul de energie electric al Californiei, adic 280 de mii
locuinte.
Turbinele eoliene aveau ns si cteva probleme: modificrile mari al vitezei vntului
provocau variatii ale intensittii curentului electric, defectnd uneori sisteme de transmisie;
palele rotorului colectau n timp substante strine, particule de praf etc. care reduceau
randamentul.
2.2. Stadiul actual in domeniul energiei eoliene
a. Evolutia sectorului eolian la nivel mondial, european si national
Wind power has experienced dramatic growth[14] over the last years, and in 2007
there are five EU countries Denmark, Spain, Portugal, Ireland and Germany which have
more than 5% of their electricity demand covered by wind energy. The development of wind
power is not different from the initial development stages of other power sources. Figure 2.2
shows the global development of wind energy (1991-2006) compared with nuclear power
(1961-1976)
Figura 2.4
Capacitatea globala cumulata de energie eoliana la nivel european este redata in
imaginea de mai jos.
Figura 2.5
Spre sfritul anului 2003, UE-15 a instalat o capacitate de mai mult de 28.000 de
megawai (MW) n turbine eoliene. Spre sfritul lui 2007, Europa extinsa la 27 a avut o
capacitate de peste 56.000 MW. Aceti 56.000 MW acoper 3.7 % din cererea totala de
energie electrica din UE,
Distributia pe tari a capacitatilor instalate in 2008 este redata in figura de mai jos
Tendinta crescatoare de noi capacitati instalate a continuat si-n anul 2008. Ponderea noilor
capacitati instalate fata de celelate tipuri de energii in anul 2008 este redata in figura de mai
jos.
Annual installations of wind power have increased steadily over the last 17 years( figure )
from 814 MW in 1995 to 9,616 MW in 2011, an annual average market growth of 15.6%;
Adding up the 27 NREAPs, total wind power capacity increases from just under 84.5
GW in 2010 to 213.4 GW in 2020[13]. From 2.5 GW forecast in 2010, 43.3 GW of offshore
wind energy capacity is set to be operating by 2020.
The net increase in onshore wind power capacity will peak in 2011 and then decline
on average by just over 1.5% per year. The increase in offshore wind capacity, on the other
hand, is forecast to grow steadily up to 2020 with net annual increases starting at 1.1 GW in
2011 and reaching 6.5 GW in 2020; an annual increase in capacity of 21.5%.
Based on EWEAs calculations[13] , onshore re-powering (the replacement of old
turbines with new models) which is not made apparent by the NREAPs - will represent an
increasing part of the annual market from 2010 onwards. Re-powering hits 1 GW in 2015
and continues to grow steadily to over 4 GW by 2020.
According to the National Renewable Energy Action Plans wind energy will supply
14% of Europes total electricity demand in 2020, up from 2.3% in 2005, 4.2% in 2009 and
6,5% in 2012.
Repartizarea pe fiecare stat UE a cresterii procentuale a energiei eoliene
Capacitatile nete anuale de turbine eoliene ce vor fi instalate vor crestere in medie de 3,1%;
10
11
ntre 2007 - 2013, alocaiile UE vor fi de aproximativ 10,7 miliarde au fost fcute pentru
proiecte n domeniul energiei:
4,8 miliarde pentru energiile regenerabile (eolian, solar, biomas, hidro i
geotermal),
4, 2 miliarde pentru eficiena energetic, co-generrii i gestionrii de energie
1,7 miliarde pentru investiii n sursele tradiionale de energie, din care 674 m,
este alocat pentru investiiile n reelele transeuropene de energie (electricitate i
gaz).
Urmtorul tabel furnizeaz o defalcare a distribuiei fondurilor structurale ale UE pentru
perioada 2007 - 2013 i subliniaz alocarea a fiecrui stat membru pentru proiecte de energie
Romania din 19 miliarde euro are 603 milioane euro pentru energie adica 3,1% din
care RES 1% , eficienta energetica 1,3% si 0,5% surse traditionale (traditional energy
sources TEN) modernizari?
12
13
80 000
40 000
From
Sun
Solar
radiation
120 000
Absorbed on
Earth
300
100
From
Earth
From
Planetary
motion
30
Geothermal
Gravitation,
orbital motion
Sensible
heating
Latent heat
and potential
energy
Hydropower
Kinetic energy
Photon
processes
Heat
3
Tidal motion
Geothermal heat
Geothermal power
Figura Natural energy currents on Earth, showing a renewable energy system.Units terawatts
(1012)
Vantul este descris prin viteza lui care este un vector . Ca orice vector are un modul si
o directie. Cauza principal a formrii vntului este diferena presiunii atmosferice ntre dou
regiuni. Aerul cald fiind mai uor se nal producndu-se un minim de presiune, locul lui va
fi preluat de masele de aer din zona rece (maxim de presiune atmosferic), pn cnd se va
egala diferenta de presiune dintre cele dou regiuni. Aceast circulatie a maselor de aer st la
baza aerodinamicii. Intensitatea vntului depinde direct proporional de diferena de presiune
dintre cele dou zone geografice. Directia vntului este influenat de fora Coriolis care ia
natere prin rotaia pmntului, deviind, de exemplu, vnturile spre vest n emisfera nordic.
Un alt factor care schimb direcia i eventual temperatura vntului sunt obstacolele
topografice ca: muni, vi etc " Roza vanturilor "este termenul dat de modul n care viteza
vntului se distribuie ca intensitate , directie si durata
14
Roza vntul poate fi gndita ca o roat cu spie, distanate, , la 30 de grade. Pentru fiecare
sector, vntul este considerat separat. Durata pentru care vntul vine de la acest sector este
indicat de lungimea spitei si viteza este demonstrata de grosimea spitei.
Descrierea de mai sus s-a concentrat pe viteza vntului i rozei vantului. Alt parametru
important care determin producia unui parc eolian este distributia vitezei vntului ca
intensitate. Aceast distribuie descrie durata de timp cand viteza vntului este ntre diferite
niveluri.
a. Buna
b. Slaba
15
16
Din grafic rezulta o valoarea minima medie si maxima a vitezei vantului .Ferma se
proiecteaza la valoarea medie a vitezei vantului (in cazul prezentat 8,3 m/s) .Rezulta ca
pentru o ferma de 10MW proiectata la viteza medie a vantului productia acesteia a fost
scazuta in 1987 la 89% si ridicata la 113% in 1986
17
18
vntului, i c performana a unei ferme eoliene este foarte sensibila la incertitudini i erori
n estimarea de baz viteza vntului.
Pentru majoritatea fermelor eoliene prospectiv, dezvoltatorul trebuie s efectueze o
msurare a resurselor eoliene i un program de analiz. Aceasta trebuie s ofere o predicie
robust a produciei de energie preconizate a lungul vieii fermei eoliene.
La nceputul procesului de dezvoltare a proiectului, pe termen lung, viteza vntului medie
la site-ul este necunoscuta. Pentru a ilustra importana vitezei vntului pe termen lung medie,
tabelul I.2.2 prezinta producia de energie a unui proiect de 10 MW pentru o serie de variatii
cu durat anual a viteze medii a vntului
Se poate observa c, atunci cnd pe termen lung viteza medie a vntului a crescut de la 6
la 10 m / s, adica cu aproximativ 67 % iar productia de energiei crete cu 134 % .
Viteza vntului la locul ales, nalimea stlpului turbinei i eficacitatea produciei
determina producia de energie. Astfel, simpla cretere a nalimii turbinelor a permis o
producie de energie electrica mai ridicata . De asemenea, metodele de masura i de evaluare
a vitezei vntului ntr-un loc dat s-au ameliorat n mod semnificativ n ultimii ani, i astfel s-a
ameliorat amplasarea i factorii economici ai noilor turbine.
In figura se reprezinta procesul schematic de analiza pentru amplasarea unei ferme
eoliene
Pas 1 Prognoza vitezei vantului pe termen lung
In stanga se prezinta actiunile dezvoltatorului
-se alege locatia de amplasare a punctelor de masura
-se instaleaza piloni de masura i instrumentele
-se fac masuratori ale vitezei vantului
Datele culese se compara pentru prognoza cu cele oferite de statiile meteo din zona prin
cumpararea masuratorilor acestora
Datele astfel obtinute se compara si se ia prima decizie referitoare la prognoza pe termen
lung a vitezei vantului
Pas 2 Modelul topografic al fermei-amplasarea turbinelor distante dintre ele, impact
mediu ca- Se estimeaza in final Producia brut a parcului eolian
Pas 3 se stabileste Producia net a fermei eoliene
20
2.5.2 Costuri
Cheltuielile financiare ale proiectelor eoliene terestre, sunt dominate de costul turbinei
eoliene. Costul specific total al investiiei pentru o turbina medie instalata n Europa este n
jur de 1,23 milioane de /MW, cuprinznd toate costurile suplimentare pentru fundaii,
instalaie electrica i consiliere (preurile n 2006). Costurile principale se mpart dupa cum
urmeaza
(niveluri aproximative) :
turbina - 76 la suta,
conectarea la reea - 9 la suta si
fundaiile - 7 la suta.
Alte componente de pre, cum ar fi sistemele de control si terenul, reprezinta o mica parte din
costurile totale. Costul total pe kW la o capacitate generatoare din energie eoliana difera n
mod
semnificativ de la o ara la alta, ntre 1000 /kW pna la 1350 /kW.
21
n ultimii ani, trei tendine importante au dominat dezvoltarea turbinelor eoliene racordate la
reea :
1. Turbinele au devenit mai mari i mai nalte ;
2. Eficacitatea produciei turbinelor a crescut serios ;
3. n general, costurile investiiei pe kW au scazut, cu toate ca a existat o inversare a
acestei tendine n ultimii trei sau patru ani.
n 2007, turbinele de clasa MW (de peste 1 MW) au reprezentat o parte de piaa de
mai mult de 95 la suta,lasnd mai puin de 5 la suta pentru instalaiile mai mici n gama MW,
turbinele de capacitate de 2,5 MW sau superioare, devin din ce n ce mai importante, chiar i
n cazul aplicaiilor terestre.
Actualmente, costul de producie al energiei pentru o turbina eoliana din gama de 2
MW este de 5,3 pna la 6,1 Euroceni/kWh n funcie de resursele eoliene i de amplasarea
aleasa . si se ateapta ca gama costurilor sa se diminueze ntre 4,3 si 5,5 eurocenti/kW/ora
pna n 2015.
Eolienele din larg (offshore) reprezint doar n jur de unu la sut din capacitatea
eolian total instalat n lume, iar implantarea s-a facut n principal n jurul Mrii Nordului
i a Mrii Baltice. La sfritul lui 2007, exista o capacitate de mai mult de 1000 MW situat
n largul a cinci ri : Danemarca, Irlanda, Olanda, Suedia i Marea Britanie. Majoritatea
instalaiilor au fost efectuate n ape nu prea adnci (n jur de 20 m) i nu mai departe de 20 de
km de arm, pentru a reduce la minimum costurile fundaiilor i ale cablurilor submarine.
Costurile unei uniti eoliene maritime, ca i cel al turbinelor terestre, a crescut n ultimii ani.
Costul investiiei pentru o nou central eolian n larg este estimat n medie la 2,0 pn la 2,2
milioane de /MW pentru o unitate nu prea ndepartata de arm i n ap nu prea adnc. n
comparaie cu turbinele terestre, principalele diferene n structura costurilor sunt legate de
fundaiile mai scumpe, transformatoarele i cablurile submarine. Costul energiei electrice
generate n larg se situeaz ntre aproximativ ase i opt ceni/kWh i se datoreaz n principal
diferenelor de adncime a mrii, distanei de la arm i
costului investiiei.
22
Evolutia costurilor de productie a diferitelor surse de energie pentru perioada 2015-2030 este
redata in figura urmatoare
23
24
Un sistem eolian din punct de vedere energetic transform energia cinetic a vntului n
energie electric.
25
26
27
Este evident c cu ct suprafaa este mai mare cu att cantitatea energiei electrice
poate fi mai mare. Astfel, suprafaa de contact a elicei se mrete proporional diametrului
elicei la puterea a doua - la instalaia eolian mai mare de dou ori se poate produce de patru
ori mai mult energie.
ns procesul de mrire a suprafeei nu poate fi redus la simpla lungire a aripelor. La
prima vedere se pare, c aceasta este o cale mai simpl de mrire a cantitii energiei. Dar,
mrind suprafaa cuprins la rotire, noi mrim greutatea asupra sistemului la aceeai vitez a
vntului. Pentru ca sistemul s reziste la greutate este necesar de a ntri toate componentele
mecanice ale lui, ceea ce duce la cheltuieli suplimentare.
Viteza vntului este cel mai important factor de influen asupra cantitii de energie.
Viteza mai mare a vntului mrete volumul maselor de aer - cu mrirea vitezei vntului
crete cantitatea energiei electrice produse. Energia vntului se schimb proporional cu
viteza vntului la puterea a treia. Astfel, dac viteza vntului se dubleaz, energia cinematic
produs crete de 8 ori.
Obs Cantitatea energiei produse pe baza vntului depinde de densitatea aerului, de suprafaa
de elicei i viteza vntului la puterea a treia.
Progresele tehnice rapide sunt mai vizibile la tehnologia turbinelor eoliene precum
dimensiunile turbinei, puterea i complexitatea acesteia s-au dezvoltat vertiginos, dezvoltare
ilustrata prin creterea mrimii turbinei comercializate cu un factor de 100 n ultimii
20 de ani (Figura S.4).
28
Variatia energiei potentiale plus lucrul mecanic al fortei de presiune este egal cu variatia
energiei cinetice plus pierderile(caldura generata prin frecare) pe tubul de curent
Debitul masic
29
Rezultat al acestei modificari o parte din energia curentului de aer se transmite corpului.
intre
-zona de la infinit si disc
30
2
Forta de presiune este F pAd dar in expresie apare U w
. Aceasta viteza trebuie
exprimata in functie de viteza vantului U
Din analiza pierderii de viteza (figura) notand a factor axial de inducere al curgerii
adica trece aU in spatele discului rezulta
2
2
F ( AU
AwU w
) ( AU U AwU wU w ) Ad U d (U U w )
Intrucat forta de presiune este F pAd
Cu U d U (1 a) rezulta
F pAd
1
1
Ad (U 2 U w2 ) Ad (U U w )(U U w ) ( Ad U d (U U w )
2
2
Din relatia
1
Ad (U U w )(U U w ) Ad U d (U U w )
2
Rezulta
1
(U U w ) U d U (1 a)
2
Obtinand
U w U (1 2a )
Ceea ce indica ca jumatate din viteza curentului de aer se pierde in fata discului si
jumatate in spatele discului
Forta asupra discului devine
2
F Ad U (1 a )(U U (1 2a )) Ad U
(1 a ) 2a
P FU d Ad U 2 (1 a)2a U (1 a) 2 Ad U 3 (1 a) 2 a
2 Ad U 3 (1 a) 2 a
Cp
4a(1 a) 2 4a(1 2a a 2 ) 4a 8a 2 4a 3
1
1
Ad U 3
Ad U 3
2
2
P
4 16 12
sau
6
4 16 12
4 16 12 1
a1
1 respectiv a 2
6
6
3
31
1
1
4 4 16
C p max 4 (1 ) 2
0,5925
3
3
3 9 27
Limita lui Betz constat c o turbin eolian ideal poate extrage din vnt o
putere nu mai mare de 59,3 %, dar analiza fcut mai sus nu indic regimul de
funcionare a turbinei sau ce construcie trebuie s aib rotorul ca maximumul
factorului de putere s fie atins.
n continuare vom face o analiz calitativ a regimului de funcionare a turbinei
i a efectului numrului de pale sau factorului de soliditate asupra valorii factorului de
putere.
Eficiena conversiei energiei fluxului de aer n energie mecanic va fi mai mic
dect valoarea optimal dac:
1. Rotorul turbinei are un numr de pale mare (factorul de soliditate este mare)
sau rotorul rotete cu o vitez foarte mare i fiecare pal se mic ntr-un flux de aer
distorsionat (turbulent) de ctre pala din fa.
2. Rotorul turbinei are un numr de pale mic (factorul de soliditate este mic)
sau rotorul rotete cu o vitez foarte mic i fluxul de aer traverseaz suprafaa
rotorului fr a interacioneaz cu acesta.
Soliditatea unei elice exprima raportul dintre aria palelor si aria cercului de rotatie al
acestora . Coeficientul de performanta al elicei este dependent de aceasta soliditate
32
R R
U
V
33
optimal pentru care factorul de putere sau eficiena conversiei energiei este maximal
2. Dou turbine cu puteri egale, dar cu un numr diferit de pale se deosebesc
prin aceia, c turbina cu multe pale va dezvolta un moment mai mare i va avea viteza
de rotaie mai mic i invers turbina cu puine pale va dezvolta un moment mic, dar
va avea o vitez de rotaie mai mare.
3. Turbina cu trei pale are cel mai mare factor de eficien. Diferenele dintre
factorii de eficien maximali ai turbinelor cu 2-5 pale nu este semnificativ.
Avantajele turbinelor cu dou sau cu o singur pal const n posibilitatea funcionrii
ntr-o zon mai larg de variaie a rapiditii, n care factorul de eficien are valoare
maximal sau aproape de cea maximal.
4. Factorul maximal de eficien a turbinei cu 12-18 pale este mai mic dect a
turbine cu 3 pale i nu depete 0,35.
F
1
R 2v3C p ( )
2
34
Asupra elicei
actioneza doua forte una de tractiune si una de ridicare, forte
asemanatoare cu cele ce actioneaza asupra unei ambacatiuni cu panze
Iar puterea
35
Aceste forte reprezinta functii patratice ale vitezei vantului, iar amplitudinea
acestora este puternic influentata de forma barierei de aer, precum si de unghiul de atac ,
unghiul sub care elicea este afectata de actiunea vantului, v.unde:
vl viteza libera a vantului
v viteza vantului ce actioneaza asupra elicei
FL forta de ridicare
FD forta de tragere
unghiul de atac
In cazul eolinelor putem defini o forta de impingere si o forta de ridicare cu
urmatoarele relatii de calcul
36
Si un raport al fortelor
37
38
Unde
funcia densitate de probabilitate a vitezei vntului f(V) este
39
Turbine cu ax orizontal
Spre deosebire de turbinele cu ax vertical, cele cu axul orizontal au generatorul i
axul principal montate n vrful unui turn, i trebuie poziionate n direcia vntului prin
diferite mijloace
Sunt turbinele folosite la ora actual n ntreaga lume pentru generarea curentului
electric. Dezvoltarea lor este n continu cretere att n ceea ce privete capacitile
turbinelor (cele mai mari ajungnd la 5MW), ct i n ceea ce privete echipamentele
componente.
Turbinele eoliene moderne se mai pot diferenia i dup alte criterii cum ar fi dup
puterea eolienei ct i dup posibilitatea conectrii sau nu la reea:
a)
Tip
Puterea
Micro
< 3m
50W 2KW
Mici
3m -12 m
2KW-40KW
Medii
12m 45 m
40KW-999KW
Mari
> 45m
>1MW
b)
40
41
42
1
R 2 v 3C p Tb b
2
where
= air density (nominally 1.22 kg/m3)
R = radius of area swept by the turbine blades
= speed of moving air stream
Cp = coefficient of performance for the composite airfoil (rotating blades).
The extracted aerodynamic torque (Tb) is computed as a function of the air density (),
the blade length, the wind speed (v) and the power coefficient factor (Cp) as,
Cp 1
Cp
Cp
1
1
Tb R 2 v 3
R 2 v 2
R R 3 v 2
b R
2
b 2
2
v
Where the tip speed ratio () is expressed as a function of the blade length (R) and the blade
angular velocity (b) as,
R
b
v
The relations among the developed electrical torque (Tg), the mechanical torque (Tm) and the
extracted aerodynamic torque (Tb) can be described as functions of the angular velocities of
the wind turbine rotor (r ) and the generator shaft (g) as,
d r
Tb Tm J b
dt
Tm Dmc ( r g ) K mc ( r g )dt
43
Tm Tg J g
d g
dt
Where the constants ( Jb, Jg, Dmc and Kmc ) are assigned for wind turbine rotor inertia,
generator shaft inertia, mechanical coupling damping and mechanical coupling stiffness
respectively.
In steady operation, the magnitude of the mechanical torque is equal to that of the
electromagnetic torque, so the rotational speed remains constant, real power (the product of
rotational speed and torque) is delivered to the grid form of active power. The common way
to convert the low-speed, high-torque mechanical power to electrical power is using a
gearbox and a generator with standard speed. The gearbox adapts the low speed of the turbine
rotor to the high speed of the generator, though the gearbox may not be necessary for
multipole generator systems
From the point of view of mechanical system , the turbine must be protected from
rotational speeds above some value that could lead to catastrophic failure. Mechanical brakes
are provided for stopping the turbine in emergency conditions (high speed) , but are not used
in normal operations. Controlling the power (and hence, torque) extracted from the moving
air stream is the primary means for protecting the turbine from over-speed under all but
emergency shutdown conditions. The force developed on a blade is a function of: free wind
speed, turbine rotational speed and the blade pitch angle. These three quantities determine the
angle of attack. Based on this fact, different control strategies can be introduced.
All wind turbines are designed with some sort of power control. There are different
ways to control aerodynamic forces on the turbine rotor and thus to limit the power in very
high winds in order to avoid damage to the wind turbine
10.1.1 Stall control
The simplest, most robust and cheapest control method is the stall control (passive
control), where the blades are bolted onto the hub at a fixed angle. The design of rotor
aerodynamics causes the rotor to stall (lose power) when the wind speed exceeds a certain
level. Since wind speed and air density cannot be controlled, and the radius of the blades is
fixed, the performance coefficient is the only means for torque control. The performance
coefficient Cp itself is not a constant for a given airfoil, but rather is dependent on a parameter
, called the tip-speed ratio, which is the ratio of the speed of the tip of the blade to the speed
of the moving air stream. Figure 10.4 an example of a Cp() curve and the shaft power as a
function of the wind speed for rated rotor speed can be seen.
Figure 10.4.The coefcient of performance, Cp, as a function of the tip speed ratio
In some wind turbines, blades are designed so that Cp() falls dramatically at high wind
speeds. This method of aerodynamic torque control is known as stall regulation, and is
44
limited to preventing turbine over-speed during extreme gust conditions and limiting
maximum shaft power to around the rating value in winds at or above the rated value.
Figure 10.5 shows the lift and drag coefficients C L and CD, respectively, as functions
of the angle of attack for a chosen blade profile. The air flow around the blade is, for the
presented blade profile, fairly laminar up to the angle of attack at about 10 deg. The drag
force coeficient is very low in this region. When the angle of attack reaches the value of
about 15 deg the air flow on the trailing edge of the blade becomes more turbulent and the
value of the lift coefficient decreases as a consequence of this effect, which is called stalling.
The drag force coefficient now starts to increase.
Figure 10.5 Lift and drag coefficients as functions of the angle of attack.
This method is used in fixed speed system based on the design of the rotor blades, to
limit the upper power level (figure 10.8 a). The disadvantage is the peak average power that
occur at wind speeds around rated wind speed and the power level at the highest wind speeds.
10.1.2 Active stall control
Another type of control is the active stall control. The performance coefficient can
also be changed by adjusting the angle of attack of the blades , as is done on some modern
propeller-driven aircraft..
Figure 10.6 Coefficient of performance Cp (, ) for a modern wind turbine blade assembly
as a function of tip-speed ratio () and blade pitch (, in degrees).
45
Figure 10.6 shows Cp(, ) as a function of and for a modern wind turbine. Blade
pitch adjustment allows the energy capture to be optimized over a wide range of wind speeds
(even if the rotational speed of the shaft is relatively constant), while still providing for overspeed protection through large adjustments in pitch angle.
The various Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS) that are able to obtain
maximum power output [10] for varying wind speeds(figure 10.7a) . A variable speed wind
turbine follows the Cpmax to capture the maximum power up to the rated speed by varying the
rotor speed to keep the system at opt . The optimal tip-speed-ratio (TSR) is defined as:
opt
opt R
v
The maximum power coefficient for a given wind speed is obtained at the optimal
value tip-speed-ratio.
and the higher power fluctuations at high wind speeds. The instantaneous power will, because
of gusts and the limited speed of the pitch mechanism, fluctuate around the rated mean value
of the power. The pitch angle now varies within a wider range, in Figure 10.7 this range is
roughly between 0 - 35 deg.
The overall conversion of wind energy to electric power is normally described by a
turbine power curve, which shows turbine electrical output as a function of steady wind
speed (Figure 10.8). Such a representation is accurate only for steady-state operation, since
the inherent dynamics of the mechanical and electrical systems along with all possible
control functionality is neglected.
Figure 10.9 Wind power, turbine power, and operating regions [6]
47
Throughout these regions, the speed and power of the turbine are controlled by
varying the generator load torque and the blade pitch angles based on measurement of the
generator shaft speed.
Wind turbine configurations can also be classified with both the speed control ( fixed
or variable speed) and aerodynamic power control criterion (stall, active stall or pitch
control). Each combination of these two criteria receives a label (Table 1) ; for example, Type
A0 denotes the fixed-speed stall-controlled wind turbine. The grey zones, in table 1, indicate
combinations that are not in use in the wind turbine industry today [7].
Speed control
Fixed speed
Variable speed
Type A
Type B
Type C
Type D
Stall
Type A0
Type B0
Type C0
Type D0
The control scheme employed to operate the turbine to produce grid-quality electricity
varies among turbine manufacturers. No one control scheme is the best. Each has
advantages and disadvantages; however, they all successfully deliver energy into utility grids.
10.2 Control engineering in wind turbines
The generator converts the mechanical power into electrical power, which being fed
into a grid possibly through power electronic converters, and a transformer with circuit
breakers and electricity meters. The two most common types of electrical machines used in
wind turbines are induction generators and synchronous generators.
The dynamic properties of a wind turbine depend on its construction and on the
control system structure and parameters. Mostly it depends on the type of generator employed
and how it is connected to the grid; whether directly connected or via power electronics
converter.
From this perspective there are four (4) main types of wind turbine will be analyzed
(Table 2)
Type
A
Speed
Fixed
Limited variable
speed
Variable
Variable
C
D
configuration uses a capacitor bank for reactive power compensation. A smoother grid
connection is achieved by using a soft-starter. The high starting currents of induction
generators are usually limited by a thyristor soft-starter. The current limiter or soft-starter,
based on thyristor technology, typically limits the rms value of the inrush current to a level
below two times of the generator rated current. The soft-starter has a limited thermal capacity
and it is short circuited by a contactor , which carries the full-load current, when the
connection to the grid has been completed. In addition to reduce the impact on the grid, the
soft-starter also effectively dampens the torque peaks associated with the peak currents, and
hence reduces the loads on the gearbox..
This type of wind turbine is not equipped with generator control systems, and
therefore is more reliable than other types. Regardless of the power control principle in a
fixed-speed wind turbine, the wind fluctuations are converted into mechanical fluctuations
and consequently into electrical power fluctuations. In the case of a weak grid, these can
yield voltage fluctuations at the point of connection. Because of these voltage fluctuations,
the fixed-speed wind turbine draws varying amounts of reactive power from the utility grid
(unless there is a capacitor bank), which increases both the voltage fluctuations and the line
losses.
) j(
) U l jU t
UN
UN
UN
UN
Except for the cable and low frequency lines, in transport lines the line resistance is
much smaller than the reactance R g X g case in which the voltage drops become:
X g Q
Xg P
U l
U t
UN
UN
Transversal voltage drop is proportionally to the active power and leads to the alteration of
slip and implicitly to the Joule losses in the machine. The longitudinal voltage drop is
dependent on reactive power and reduces voltage level in the connection point. The increase
in the reactive power (consumed) at the same active power capacity, implies a bigger
reactive current which will determine an increase in the voltage drop in keeping as well as a
UPCC, voltage drop according to relation :
U PCC U N X g I q
When the generators speed increases during a fault, the reactive power absorption of the
induction generator also increases and can lead to unacceptably low voltages.
Induction generators with cage rotor can be used in the fixed speed wind turbines due to
the damping effect. However, compared with other types the stability performance of wind
turbines which use the SCIG(directly coupled to the grid) is relatively poor. The problems
which can occur with SCIG equipped wind turbines are :
during a fault the rotor speed increases and can become excessive, and
after a fault is cleared the terminal volts may not recover, both of which can cause
it to be disconnected from the grid.
The dynamic response of an induction generator to a fault will be examined using the
torque-slip curve shown in Figure10.12 and the equation that describes the motion of the
generator shaft:
J g o
ds
Tg Tm
dt
here Jg is the sum of constant inertia of the rotating mass in per unit, s is the slip, Tg is
the electromagnetically torque ,Tm is the mechanical torque from the turbine hub and o
synchronous speed
In steady-state operation the electromagnetically torque Tg is equal to the mechanical
torque Tm and the generator operates at constant slip so.
When a fault occurs at to, Tg collapses to zero (ignoring the electrical transients), while
the slip at that instant remains the same. The collapse of Tg results in a net increase in the
accelerating torque on the rotor (since Tg<Tm in motion equation) and a continuous increase in
slip. If the fault is cleared at time t1, when slip has increased to s1, then Tg will recover from
zero to a point on the torque-slip curve that is greater than Tm.This will cause a net decrease in
50
acceleration torque (due now to Tg>Tm in motion equation) and the rotor will return to its
original slip so (assuming that the voltage is the same as what it was prior to the fault). If the
voltage is low, it affects the torque-slip, and if the electromagnetically torque is less than the
torque mechanically decouples the generator from the grid
Tm Tg
K mc J g
Where g is the speed change of the generator at the faults inception, Kmc is the shaft
stiffness and JG is the moment of inertia of the generator rotor.
The maximum post-fault speed fg g g of an induction generator is
determined by adding the steady state speed g with the maximum speed change [10]. If
fg exceeds the critical clearing speed cr then the generator could become unstable and
should trip due to over speed [11].
Industrial application. All three versions (Type A0, Type A1 and Type A2) of the fixedspeed wind turbine Type A are used in the wind turbine industry, and they can be
characterised as follows[7]:
Type A0. Stall-controlled wind turbines cannot carry out assisted startups,
whichimplies that the power of the turbine cannot be controlled during the connection
sequence.
51
Type A1: The main advantages of a pitch control turbine are that it facilitates power
controllability, controlled start up and emergency stopping. Its major drawback is that, at high
wind speeds, even small variations in wind speed result in large variations in output power.
The pitch mechanism is not fast enough to avoid such power fluctuations. By pitching the
blade, slow variations in the wind can be compensated, but this is not possible in the case of
gusts.
Type A2: active stall control .These have recently become popular. This configuration
basically maintains all the power quality characteristics of the stall-regulated system. The
improvements lie in a better utilisation of the overall system, as a result the use of active stall
control. The flexible coupling of the blades to the hub also facilitates emergency stopping and
startups. One drawback is the higher price arising from the pitching mechanism and its
controller.
10.2.2Limited variable speed equipped with dynamic rotor resistance (Singly Fed
Induction Generator)
The type of wind turbine being discussed here employs a wound-rotor induction
generator (WRIG) which is equipped (singly-fed) with a converter to control the resistance of
the rotor. This solution still needs a soft-starter. Rotor resistance- controlled wounded
induction generators need to operate at a super synchronous speed to generate electricity. He
draw reactive power that might be supplied from the grid or from installed compensation
equipment, such as capacitor banks.
The torque-slip Tg(s) curves of the induction generator can be expressed by the Kloss relation
Where: maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance but dependent on the square ratio
voltage / frequency:
; Slip in normal
operation is :
52
53
Figure 10.15 A sketch of the Vestas OptiSlip wind turbine control system [14]
During start-up a large amount of torque is required to take the speed of rotation of the
induction generator from stand-still to above synchronous. At start-up the blade pitching
system is used and the generator is effectively soft-started by increasing rotor resistance to a
maximum. A large rotor resistance at start-up achieves a high starting torque.
The Power Control. When the wind turbine is connected to the grid, the power control
is active.The power control represents the outer control loop to the VRCC. The input for the
PI power controller is given by a calculation of the power reference on the basis of the
generator slip.
0
for slip 0%
Prated
Pref
slip for 0% slip 2%
slip 2%
for slip 2%
Prated
Partial load operation (between cut-in and rated speed). During start of the wind
turbine the wind might not be high enough to produce enough torque on the turbine for
running on rated power and the wind turbine is in partial load operation mode. The power is
controlled to increase with a generator slip of 2% as shown in Figure 10.16. If the wind speed
rises to a point where rated power can be produced, the wind turbine will switch to rated
operation mode.
effect the surplus of energy is transformed into the potential energy in the rotating shaft,
causing the rotor speed to increase. The external rotor resistance is increased by the converter
(increasing slip) to keep the output power of the generator constant, hence dampening power
variations caused by the wind. The external rotor resistance and the slip are eventually
returned to what they were prior to the increase in wind speed. The generator slip must be
kept as low as possible to maximise efficiency. During disturbances oscillations may appear
in the output power due to the dynamic mechanical forces which act on the wind wheel, that
are determined by its mechanical characteristics. These mechanical oscillations manifest
themselves in the rotor as torsion oscillations and some travel through the shaft and the
generator and appear as harmonics on the grid
The Speed Control. The speed reference and the power reference increase
proportionally until the rated values are reached. The rated speed reference is default 4%. If
the wind speed and the power output are below the rated values, the slip will be below 2%
and the pitch will be controlled from a parameter list based upon the wind speed. If the wind
speed is above the rated value, the power output will be almost constant at nominal power
and the generator speed is controlled to follow the reference speed by changing the pitch. The
speed non-linearity increases the gain if the slip is below or above the rated slip value
( fig.10.17). The increased gain below or above will speed up the pitch control. The increase
above is to avoid over speed errors of the turbine, while the increase below increases the
power production by returning fast to rated conditions.
.
Figure 10.17 Speed controller of the wind turbine control
The pitch Control. The turbine has a pitch control system for each blade. Each pitch
control system is a servo loop which will make the pitch follow a given reference as quickly
as possible and with sufficient damping. The pitch control can be accomplished simply with
a PI controller, whereas the pitch servo is modelled with a first order delay system with a
time constant Td as shown in Fig. 10.18 . The pitch control was at his way; minimize
unwanted thrust loads on the system.
55
56
dTm
0 then the generator speed is reduced by decreasing the effective rotor
ds
resistance.
dTm
0 the rotor resistance is held constant. The addition of a pitch controller is used
If
ds
to optimise the rotational speed of the wind turbine at partial load
The micro-interruption is a disconnection of the electric grid for a short moment. For
the case of the generating operation of an asynchronous machine the electric grid interruption
makes the system similar to a standalone induction generator. In this case the amplitude and
the frequency of the generator will not be assisted any more by the electric grid. That makes
the generators terminal voltage values depending on magnetizing and speed of the generator.
On this fact the influence of a micro-interruption on a wind turbine depends on the used
structure of generator (SFIG or asynchronous generator directly connected to the grid).
Under micro-interruption between the network and the wind turbine the amount of power
delivered to the electric grid will be forwarded towards the rotor. This amplifies excessively
the rotor current and consequently increases the stator tensions.
For the active and reactive powers, during a sudden increase in the rotor current
caused by a micro-interruption, a peak with a positive value appears in the active power curve
and a peak with negative value appears in the reactive power curve.
If
57
60 f
p
The magnetic field produced by the stator phase windings in a three-phase machine
with 2p=6 (p=3) supplied at 50 Hz , have the speed in revolutions per minute ns=1000 rpm.
The magnetic field produced by the rotor phase windings in a three-phase machine
with 2p=6 (p=3) supplied at by convertor with 15 Hz, have the speed in revolutions per
minute nr= 300 rpm.
In over synchronous mode the two magnetic fields are added together and the rotor
speed must be 1300 rpm. This corresponds to over-synchronous speed:
nsup
60
( fs fr )
p
58
In sub-synchronous mode the two fields are decrease together and the rotor speed
must be 700 rpm. This corresponds to sub -synchronous speed:
n sub
60
( fs fr )
p
Depending on whether the wind speed is high or low the rotor frequency and phase
with respect to the stator frequency the DFIG will rotate either above or below synchronous
speed. As a result the wind turbine can be controlled to rotate at an optimal speed which
extracts the maximum power from the wind. The power transfer between the DFIG and the
grid is determined by its speed.
About the balance of power, the ideal stationary power distribution through the
generator is dependent on the slip of the generator as shown in equation:
1 s
PS PR
s
P
PS M PM o
1 s
r
s
PR PM PS PM
sPS
1 s
PM r Te PR
With:
PM -obtained mechanical power through the shaft of the generator
PS -power through the stator of the generator
PR -the power through the rotor of the generator
o -synchronous speed
r -rotor angular speed
s- slip (s>0, r o and s<0 , r o )
PEL -total to the grid supplied power
In the over synchronous speed r o the mechanical power flows through stator
and rotor generator(PR delivered, PS delivered)but in sub synchronous operation, when the
speed of the generator is below synchronous speed r o , a part of the stator produced
power is fed back into the rotor of the generator through the converter (PR absorbed, PS
delivered) as shown in Figure10.22
59
interruption, bypassing the rotor-side converter. The role of the crowbar is to protect the
power electronics and to current limit. The result is that at controllability is lost and the
machine becomes a standard induction generator. Rcrow is the equivalent rotor resistance with
crowbar connection over Rr rated. The crowbar is a device mounted in parallel with the
rotor converter, as sketched in Fig. 10.23 which comprises a three phase diode bridge that
rectifies the rotor currents and a single thyristor in series with a resistor Rcrow
Figure 10.24 Electrical configuration of the Vestas 2MW OptiSpeedTM turbine [16]
The DFIG control basically it can be separated into two parts. Firstly the Vestas
Converter System (VCS) control, consisting of power controller, rotor current controller and
60
the grid converter controller. The other part is the overall wind turbine control, consisting of
speed controller, full-, partial load controller, pitch controller and logic.
Vestas Converter System (VCS) for 4- quadrants have two convertors, one Rotor
Converter Control and one Grid Converter Control(figure 10.25)
61
The stationary power obtained by the blades on this optimum condition is:
1
PEL R 2 v 3 C p _ opt
2
However, it is not always beneficial or possible to operate the turbine at a point for maximal
energy gain. The operational wind speed area is limited, due to the turbines operation area.
The operation area can be defined by introducing rotor speed limits. Between the minimum
and rated rotor speed [ min , max ] four different control strategies apply[17].
a generator speed vs. wind speed b power curve vs. generator speed
Figure 10. OptiSpeedTM wind turbine
The first is an operation at wind speeds less than the wind speed correlated to the minimum
rotor speed v1 . The rotor cannot operate on its optimal tip-speed and therefore the controls
main task is to keep the minimum rotor speed:
v1
R min
opt
62
In the partial operation range between minimum rotor speed and maximal rotor speed, the
turbine is controlled to operate with the optimal tip-speed ratio:
v2
R rtd
opt
If the wind speed is above defined v 2 the turbine cannot operate further with the optimal tipspeed ratio, since the speed is restricted to the rated generator speed
With further rising of the wind speed, the turbine switches from the partial load operation into
full load operation (fourth control strategy). Consideration about the optimal rotor efficiency
are in the last control areas not necessary, hence the power is limited to the rated power.
The shift between the different control areas is done with a logic block (Figure 10.28).
This logic decides between the partial load controller, which is designed to keep the turbine
operating on an optimal power set point, and the full load controller, which is controlling the
speed, while the power is limited to the rated power. Both controllers are very similar to the
described controllers used in the OptiSlip wind turbine model
63
Wind turbines with this control have the advantages of optimizing energy production,
minimizing structural loads, limiting noise emission and improvement of the power quality.
New challenges gave and give plenty possibilities for improvements in the control and
design during this long time usage of this wind turbine concep.
The 750 kW and 1.5 MW turbines (and the 3.6 MW prototype for offshore
applications) from GE Wind Energy Systems [2] employ an even more sophisticated rotor
current control scheme with a wound-rotor induction generator (Figure 10.30). Here, the
rotor circuits are supplied by a four-quadrant power converter (capable of real and reactive
power flow in either direction) that exerts near-instantaneous control (e.g. magnitude and
phase) over the rotor circuit currents. This vector control of the rotor currents provides for
fast dynamic adjustment of electromagnetic torque in the machine. In addition, the reactive
power at the stator terminals of the machine can also be controlled via the power converter.
64
Figure 10.32 Diagram of different electrical system alternatives for variable speed[19].
Inverter grid subsystem.T he inverter of the system is connected to the grid. Here, the
grid-commutated inverter, also called the thyristor inverter, and the VSC can be used. The
VSC requires a minimum dc-link voltage in order to operate, and in some cases a step-up
converter (DC/DC) must be introduced to increase the voltage level for the VSC. The VSC
can act both as a rectifier and as an inverter: the power direction is set by the controller.
Electrical system control is used for power output stability. Power system stability can
be generally defined for a power system as, its ability to remain in operation equilibrium
under normal operating conditions and to regain an acceptable state of equilibrium after
subjecting to a disturbance. Following a large disturbance, if the power system is stable, it
will reach a new equilibrium state with practically the entire system intact; the actions of
automatic controls and possibly human operators will eventually restore the system to normal
state. On the other hand, if the system is unstable, it will result in a run-away or run-down
65
66
Figure 10.34 Control block diagram for double PWM converter with induction
generator[20]
Vector control permits fast transient response of the system. Intelligent controls, such
as a fuzzy-logic-based vector control, can be used to enhance three important characteristics
in this system [17]:
1) Adaptive searching of the best generator speed command to track the maximum
extractable power from the wind (by controller C1);
2) Improving the generator efficiency by reducing generator rotor flux when the
optimum generator speed set-up is attained in steady-state (by controller C2); and
3) Robust control of the speed loop to overcome possible shaft resonances due to wind
gusts and vortex (by controller C3).
For a particular wind velocity (Vw), there is an optimum setting of generator speed (
*
r ). The speed loop control generates the torque component of induction generator current,
balancing the developed torque with the load torque. The variable-voltage variable-frequency
power from the super-synchronous induction generator is rectified and pumped to the DClink. The DC-link voltage controller regulates the line power Po (i.e., the line active current)
so that the link voltage always remains constant. A feed-forward power signal from the
induction generator output to the DC voltage loop prevents transient fluctuation of the link
voltage [20]
With the DC-link bus voltage fixed, the induction generator can be excited with ids, as
the rated flux is established in the induction generator. Next, a speed reference is commanded
67
to rotate the turbine with the minimum turbine speed required to catch power from wind; the
controller C3 is always working. The flow of wind imposes a regenerative torque in the
induction generator. Of course, the power generation is not optimum yet, but the slip
frequency becomes negative and the power starts to flow from the turbine towards the line
side. As the power starts to flow to the line side, the DC-link voltage loop control can be
gradually commanded to a higher value than the peak value of the line-side voltage (typically,
75% higher). After the DC-link voltage is established at its new higher value, the system is
ready to be controlled by controllers C1 and C2[20].
The IGBT PWM-bridge rectifier that supplies lagging excitation current to the
induction generator also rectifies the variable-frequency variable-voltage power generated by
the induction generator. The DC-link power is inverted to 50 Hz and fixed voltage AC is fed
to the utility grid at unity power factor through an IGBT PWM inverter. The line-power
factor can also be programmed to lead or lag by static volt-amperes reactive (VAR)
compensation, if desired. The generator speed is controlled by indirect vector control, with
synchronous current and torque control in the inner loops. The induction generator flux is
controlled in open loop by control of the ids current, but under normal conditions, the rotor
flux is set to the rated value for fast transient response. The line-side converter is also vectorcontrolled using direct vector control and synchronous current control in the inner loops. The
output power Po is controlled to control the DC-link voltage Vd. Since an increase of Po
causes a decrease of Vd, the voltage loop error polarity has been inverted.
New in industrial application is direct drive machines[21]. The advantage of direct-drive
concepts is the omission of the gearbox, by utilising a generator that can operate at the
rotational speed of the rotor. This has benefits in two separate areas:
for small and very small turbines, where rotor rotational speed is relatively high
anyway, with the aims of saving cost and achieving very low maintenance. Microturbines (< 3 kW)are in the range 0 to 3 kW approximately, and are characterised by
the almost exclusive use of direct drive permanent magnet generators (PMG) for
battery charging. Small wind turbines (< 30 kW) with direct drive generators of 2 to
10 kW rating have been developed by Bergey, Westwind.. All use permanent magnet
generators.
for very large turbines, where rotational speeds are low and torques very high, principally to
achieve cost reduction through a simplified integrated design. Direct drive machines always
take advantage of the opportunity for variable-speed operation allowed by the AC/DC/AC
converter. Most direct drive systems would be difficult to implement in fixed-speed operation
as they lack the compliance of induction machines. Turbines with direct drive systems range
from 200 kW to 1.5 MW (production and prototype machines). Both permanent-magnet and
wound-rotor designs are used. Current direct drive designs include;
o Enercon E30 (200 kW), E40 (500 kW) and E66 (1.5 MW): synchronous
generator, wound rotor, concept proven through extensive operating
experience.
o Lagerwey LW45/750 (750 kW) at prototype stage, synchronous generator,
wound rotor.
o Genesys 600, Tacke TW1500: proposed machines, permanent magnet
excitation rather than a wound rotor, and reduced generator diameter.
o Aeolus III (3 MW): proposed development of existing AEOLUS II wind
turbine, not yet built, using permanent magnets.
o PMG designs (prototypes tested up to 120 kW): ferrite magnets, elegant
modular design
68
69
According to in this figure, the stator resistance (Rs) is assumed to be zero and the
stator leakage inductance ( Ls ) is embedded into the (referred to stator) rotor leakage
inductance ( Lr ) and the magnetizing inductance Lm, which is representing the amount of
air gap flux, is moved in front of the total leakage inductance ( L Ls Lr ). As a result, the
magnetizing current that generates the air gap flux can be approximately the stator voltage to
frequency ratio. Its phasor equation (for steady-state analysis) can be seen as:
Us
Im
j L m
If the induction generator operated in the linear magnetic region, the Lm is constant. And the
phasor equation can be shown in terms of magnitude as:
Us
Im
m
2f s Lm
Lm
Us
From the last equation, it follows that if the ratio
remains constant for any
fs
change in s, then flux remains constant and the torque becomes independent of the supply
Us
frequency. In order to keep m constant, the ratio of
would also be constant at the
fs
different speed. As the speed increases, the stator voltages must, therefore, be proportionally
Us
increased in order to keep the constant ratio of
.However, the frequency (or synchronous
fs
speed) is not the real speed because of a slip as a function of the motor load. At no-load
torque, the slip is very small, and the speed is nearly the synchronous speed.
Us
Thus, the simple open-loop
(or V/Hz) system cannot precisely control the speed with a
fs
presence of load torque. The slip compensation can be simply added in the system with the
speed measurement. The closed-loop V/Hz system with a speed sensor can be shown in
Figure 10.37.
70
At higher frated Hz, the constant Us/fs ratio cannot be satisfied because the stator
voltages would be limited at the rated value in order to avoid insulation breakdown at stator
windings. Therefore, the resulting air gap flux would be reduced, and this will unavoidably
cause the decreasing developed torque correspondingly. This region is usually so called field
weakening region. To avoid this, constant V/Hz principle is also violated at such
frequencies.
Since the stator flux is constantly maintained (independent of the change in supply
frequency), the torque developed depends only on the slip speed. Both open and closed-loop
control of the speed of an AC induction motor can be implemented based on the constant
V/Hz principle. Normal scalar control of induction machine aims at controlling the
magnitude and frequency of the currents or voltages but not their phase angles.
The overall system implementing a 3-ph induction motor V/Hz drive implementation
to control an AC induction motor using the microcontrollers type TMS320F2803x is
depicted in [19]. The induction motor is driven by the conventional voltage-source inverter.
The TMS320F2803x is being used to generate the six pulse width modulation (PWM) signals
using a space vector PWM technique, for six power switching devices in the inverter.
For induction generator, the turbine speed is measured, and a target power is
determined based on the maximum Cp for that speed. The required frequency for the turbine is
then determined based on the machine characteristics. This is then fed as a command
frequency into a standard V/Hz drive. The wind turbine rotor is commanded to spin at the
optimum rpm in relation to the wind. A computer controller senses the wind and determines
what frequency the stator voltage should be for optimum operation of the turbine. With a DC
current link, two sets of switching modules are set up, one either side of the DC link (one to
control the frequency to the stator and the other to control the frequency of the lines output to
the grid).One set of switches may be controlled based on wind speed input, and another set
may be controlled based on the grid frequency.
10.3.2Vector control
The technique called vector control can be used to vary the speed of an induction
motor over a wide range. In the vector control scheme, a complex current is synthesized
from two quadrature components, one of which is responsible for the flux level in the motor,
and another which controls the torque production in the motor.
Essentially, the control problem is reformulated to resemble the control of a DC
motor. Vector control offers a number of benefits including speed control over a wide range,
precise speed regulation, fast dynamic response, and operation above base speed.
An induction motor can be modelled most simply (and controlled most simply)using
two quadrature currents. These two currents called direct (Id) and quadrature (Iq) are
responsible for producing flux and torque respectively in the motor. By definition, the Iq
current is in phase with the stator flux, and Id is at right angles. Of course, the actual voltages
applied to the motor and the resulting currents are in the familiar three-phase system. The
move between a stationary reference frame and a reference frame, which is rotating
synchronous with the stator flux, becomes then the problem. The second fundamental idea is
that of reference frames. The idea of a reference frame is to transform a quantity that is
sinusoidal in one reference frame, to a constant value in a reference frame, which is rotating
at the same frequency. Once a sinusoidal quantity is transformed to a constant value by
careful choice of reference frame, it becomes possible to control that quantity with traditional
proportional integral (PI) controllers.
Any current-carrying coil, magnetic field appears. The magnetic field acts in the
direction of the coil axis magnetization. If this axis is attached to a unit vector, then the
magnetic flux that occurs only on this axis can be associated with a vector.
71
a0 a0L i L i
Consider the case of three windings, as shown, driven by three phase currents. A
current in a winding phase, always corresponds to a spatial direction vector fixed by the
magnetic axis of the winding,. The size and direction of this vector is determined by the
instantaneous value of the current in time. Considering all three stator phases of a three phase
induction machines appear three magnetic flux vector spaces A , B and C and shifted
in space with angles 2 / 3 , respectively, and the size and direction of each corresponds to
the instantaneous current in the corresponding phase. If the currents in the three phases of the
stator are instantaneous values i a , ib and ic then the spatial vectors that are i a ia a 0 ,
i b a ib and. i c a 2 ic respectively. Where :
ae
2
3
1
3;
j
2
2
a e
4
3
2
3
1
3
j
2
2
Space vector direction is given by the windings position in space (machine).Since the phase
currents vectors are well defined position in space, they can be express with complex
numbers. By adding, defines the stator current space vector with the following relationship:
is
2
ia a ib a 2 ic
3
Space phasor in the plane of the axes of magnetization (a,b,c) is characterized by the way i s
and the argument t ,which is the angular frequency currents and projections of
this phasor by magnetization axis represents the instantaneous phase currents.
In the complex plane dq associated with the real axis in the axis of magnetization coil AX
space phasor is has two components:
i s id jiq 2 I e j (t )
With
id prd (is )
and
iq prq (is )
i *s id jiq
Results:
i s i *s
id Re
i s i *s
iq Im
a)-abc frame
b) -d-q frame
Figure 10.38Stator Current Space-Vector and Its Projection
The mathematical expressions of the space phasor in the magnetization axis system (a,b,c)
and in the complex plane d-q , we can determine the dependency relationships among
instantaneous phase currents and d-q currents:
72
2
i s (ia aib a 2ic ) id jiq
3
2
i *s (ia a *ib (a 2 )* ic ) id jiq
3
2 ia
Or in matrix
expressions
i s 2 1 a a 1 j id
i* 2 ib 1 j i
s 3 1 a a i q
c
1 a a2
1 a a
j
1
j
,
1 j
i abc
ia
ib ,
ic
i dq id
The relation between components d-q and instantaneous currents of phases are obtained by
inverting the matrix [ j ]
i dq j 1 2 a i abc
3
and result
2 4 i
1
cos
cos
i d 2 3 3 a
ib
i
q 3 0 sin 2 sin 4 i
3 3 c
The mathematical transformation is called Clarke transform and modifies a three
phase system to a two-phase orthogonal system (figure 10.39)
73
2 I cos(t )
iq
2 I sin(t )
i q i d sin iq cos
or
id cos sinid
i i
q sin cos q
d
, when the space phasor of the
dt
2 I sin(1t ) into d q system the
2I cos
I q
2I sin
It follows that the two components of the space phasor quantities are constant (DC)
that are reported as an axle that has the same speed of rotation space phasor. The two phases
d, q frame representation calculated with the Clarke transform is then fed to a vector rotation
block where it is rotated over an angle q to follow the frame attached to the rotor flux is
called the Park transform.
The stator phasor equations of the induction or synchronous machine, are obtained
from three equations of the phase windings by multiplying firstly with 2/3 , the second
(2/3)a , and the third to (2/3) a2 and adding the all equations.
74
2
dsa
usa Rsisa ,
3
dt
2
dsb
a usb Rsisb ,
3
dt
2 2
d
a usc Rsisc sc .
3
dt
ds
. Stator voltage phasor equation reported in the
dt
rotor system ( d q )involves performing the rotation operation of the phasor with angle
and results
d s
d
d j
u s e j Rs i s e j s e j Rs i s
j s
e
dt
dt
dt
d
Simplifying this equation with e j and noting
angular velocity of the rotor results:
dt
d s
j s
dt
Rotor voltage equations from their own system (rotor) are:
d r
u r R r i s
dt
With the equation for stator and rotor flux:
u s Rs i s
'
s ( L
3
3
'
Lm )i s Lm i r where i 's i s e j and s' s e j
2
2
This system of equations can be projected on the two axes orthogonal d-q and obtain four
scalar equation and next representation(figure10.40).
.
Figure 10.40 Model of the three-phase induction machine
The diagram in Figure 10.41 displays d-q reference frame and the relationships
between the stator voltage (Us), stator current (Is), and the rotor, stator and magnetizing flux
(r,s,m). The rotor magnetizing flux space-vector is aligned to the d -axis of the d -q
reference frame
75
3
p r (sd I sq sq I sd ) T g r
2
3
p( sd I sq sq I sd )
2
If the control is required isd=0, then the electromagnetic torque is similar to the DC machine:
Tg
3
p(sd I sq )
2
76
77
Figure 10.43 Basic structure of direct torque and flux vector control
Starting with a few basics in a variable speed drive the basic function is to control the
flow of energy from the mains to a process via the shaft of a motor. Two physical quantities
describe the state of the shaft: torque and speed. Controlling the flow of energy depends on
controlling these quantities. In practice either one of them is controlled or we speak of
"torque control" or "speed control". When a variable speed drive operates in torque control
mode the speed is determined by the load. Torque is a function of the actual current and
actual flux in the machine. Likewise when operated in speed control the torque is determined
by the load.
The idea is that motor flux and torque are used as primary control variables which is
contrary to the way in which traditional AC drives control input frequency and voltage, but is
in principle similar to what is done with a DC drive, where it is much more straightforward to
achieve. In contrast, traditional PWM and flux vector drives use output voltage and output
frequency as the primary control variables but these need to be pulse width modulated before
being applied to the motor. This modulator stage adds to the signal processing time and
therefore limits the level of torque and speed response time possible from the PWM drive.
78
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