Limba Engleza Exerciții Pentru Admiterea În Învațămîntul Superior

MINISTERUL EDUCAȚIEI ȘI INVAȚAMINTULUI
Universitatea București
LIMBA ENGLEZA
EXERCIȚII PENTRU ADMITEREA
ÎN ÎNVATĂMÎNTUL SUPERIOR
EDITURA DIDACTICĂ Șl PEDAGOGICĂ

București — 1978
Prezenta lucrare a fost elaborată în colectivul catedrei de limba
și de literatură engleză a Facultății de limbi străine a Uni
versității din București.
Redactor: Cătină Rioșanu

Tehnoredactor: Victoria Ghimiș
Coperta: Florin Ionescu
Cuvint înainte
Lucrarea de față, după cum arată și subtitlul ei, se adre
sează, în primul rînd, candidaților la examenul de admitere
pentru secțiile de limbă și literatură engleză ale facultăților
filologice. în același timp, însă, ea va putea fi folosită atît
de elevii din ultimii ani de liceu care studiază limba și literatura
engleză, cit și de toți cei care doresc să își perfecționeze cunoș
tințele în acest domeniu. în alcătuirea ei s-a ținut seama de
dificultățile întîmpinate de candidați la examenele de pînă
acum în mînuirea corectă a limbii engleze și în organizarea
corespunzătoare a răspunsurilor, de cele mai frecvente greșeli
înregistrate atît la proba scrisă cit și la cea orală (în traducerea
textelor românești și englezești, în exprimarea ideilor în limba
engleză și în înțelegerea subiectelor de literatură). Căci, cu tot
progresul incontestabil constatat an de an în pregătirea candi
daților, progres care reflectă îmbunătățirea predării limbii
engleze în școlile generale și în licee, asemenea dificultăți și
carențe, ținînd în bună măsură de deosebirile de structură
dintre limba engleză și limba română, persistă încă și sînt deci
necesare, în continuare, eforturi susținute pentru a-i ajuta pe
viitorii candidați să le evite printr-o pregătire tot mai temeinică.
Aceasta implică, în primul rînd, sporirea capacității lor de a
aplica, în mod adecvat, creator, cunoștințele dobîndite în școala
generală și în liceu, evitînd reproducerea lor mecanică, indife
rent de cerințele situației concrete, adică ale problemelor pe care
trebuie să le rezolve în cadrul examenului de admitere. Pentru
aceasta, însă, trebuie ca, încă din timpul studiilor în școlile
generale și licee, să se stăruie mai mult asupra formării la elevi
a deprinderilor de exprimare orală și scrisă în limba engleză,
de traducere în și din această limbă, precum și de înțelegere și
analiză a fcnemenelor literare.
Exercițiile cuprinse în cele două părți ale lucrării au fost
concepute tocmai în acest sens, urmărind să consolideze deprin
derile foi mate în școala generală și în liceu în direcțiile pe
care s-au axat pînă în prezent examenele de admitere în învă-
țămlntul superior la specialitatea limba și literatura engleză.
Contents
PART ONE
GRAMMAR 9 Agreement .............................. 138
Morphology .................................. 9 Direct, Indirect and Preposi
tional Objects .......................... 141
The Noun.................................. 9
Passive Sentences .................. 144
The Article .............................. 22
Coordination .......................... 148
Other Determinatives.............. 30
Interrogative Sentences.......... 150
The Adjective .......................... 37
Negation .................................... 152
The Pronoun...................... 45
SubjectClanses......................... 154
The Verb .................................. 58
/*The Simple Present and the Predicative Clauses ................. ’ 154
Attributive/Relative Clauses . . 154
Present Continuous .......... 58
Object Clauses.......................... 157
The Present Perfect Simple
CoQditiona£Clauses................... 159
| and Continuous .................. 61
/ The Present Perfect and the Adverbial ClaHE^&Jif Purpose.. 162
' Past Tense ........................... 63 Adverbial Clauses of Result.... 163
1 The Simple Past and the Adverbial Clauses of Concession 165
( Past Continuous ........................... 68 Indirect or Reported Speech .. 166
\ The Past Perfect and the Past The Sequence of Tenses.......... 168
/ Perfect Continuous ............... 71 Word Order .............................. 173
/ The Simple Past, the Past KEY TO EXERCISES .............. 178
I Continuous, the Past Perfect Morphology .................................. 178
; and the Past Perfect Conti-
The Noun .............................. 178
\ nuous ................................... 72
The Article .............................. 184
i The Simple Future and the
Other Determinatives .......... 188
\ Future Continuous ............... 75
\ The Future Perfect and the The Adjective .......................... 189
The Pronoun ........................... 192
^Future Perfect Continuous.. 77 The Verb . ?............................. 196
Modal Verbs ...................... 83 Modal Verbs.......................... 205
Non Finite Forms of the Non Finite Forms of the
Verb ...................................... 95 Verb ....................................... 209
The Subjunctive .................. 101 The Subjunctive .................. 211
Phrasal Verbs ...................... 106 Phrasal Verbs ...................... 214
The Adverb .............................. 115 The Adverb................................. 218
The Preposition ...................... 121 The Preposition......................... 221
Syntax .............................................. 135 Syntax .......................................... 223
The Maj or Parts of the Sen tence : The Subject and The Predicate 223
the Subject and the Predicate 135 Agreement .............................. 224
Objects ....................................... 225 Daniel Defoe. From Robinson
Passive Sentences .................. 226 Crusoe^-v ..................................- 285
Coordination .......................... 229 Jeilathan Swift. From Gull/-
Interrogative Sentences.......... 229 Cver’s travels 286
Negation .................................. 230 Henry Fielding. “FfomThe His-
Attributive/Relative Clauses .. 232 tory of Tom Jones.................. 287
Object Clauses.......................... 232 George Gordon Byron. From
Conditional Clauses .................. 233 Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage .. 288
Adverbial Clauses of Purpose .. 234 Percy Bysshe Shelley. From
Adverbial Clauses of Result.. 235 Ode to the West Wind.............. 290
Adverbial Clauses of Concession 235 John Keats. From The Eve of
Indirect Speech ...................... 235 St. Agnes .................................. 291
The Sequence of Tenses.......... 238 Walter Scott. From Ivanhoe. . 292
Word Order .............................. 240 Charles Dickens. From Hard
Times.......................................... 293
{ft Index of Propre Names.................. 244
Thomas Hardy. From Tess of
TRANSLATION......................... 244 the D’Urbervilles ...................... 295
1. A Brief Guide to Transla Oscar Wilde. From The Happy
tion from English into Roma Prince . .'.................................. 295
nian and from Romanian into William Butler Yeats. No
English........................................ 244 Second Troy .......................... 297
General Comments on Transla Eugene O’Neill. From Mourning
tion............................................... 244 Becomes Electra ................. 297
2. Comments on the Most Fre
quent Errors Made in the Identifying and Summing up the
Written Examinations of July Main Ideas in a Literary Text.... 300
1975 and 1976 ......................... 248 William Shakespeare. From Ti
3. Exercises ............................ 257 mon of Athens.......................... 300
William Shakespeare. Sonnet
PA KT TWO LXVI............................................ 301
Daniel Defoe. From Robinson
COMPOSITION .......................... 261 Crusoe ....................................... 301
I. The Sentence ....................... 262 Henry Fielding. From The His
Il The Paragraph .................... 264 tory of Tom Jones .................. 302
III The Fragment .................... 274 William Wordsworth. The Soli
A. The Portrait .................... 274 tary Reaper .............................. 303
B. The Place ........................ 276 Walter Scott. From Ivanhoe.. 304
C. Dialogue............................... 277 William Makepeace Thackeray.
D. Comparison, Description, From Vanity Fair .................. 305
Explanation, Illustration.... 277 George Bernard Shaw. From
E. Narrative ........................ 278 Caesar and Cleopatra.............. 306
IV. The Story ........................ 279 John Galsworthy. From The
V. Topics for Composition .... 281 Man of Property....................... 307
Mark Twain. From The Adven-
PA KT THREE tures of Huckleberry Finn.... (308,
Ernest Hemingway. From The
LITERATURE .......................... 283 Short Happy Life of Francis
Answering Questions about Vari Macomber .............................. 309
ous Problems in and Implications Defining Attitude, Feeling, and
of a Literary Text........................... 284 Modality ....................................... 312
William Shakespeare. From Geoffrey Chaucer. From The
Honry IV .............................. 284 Canterbury Tales .................. 312
William Shakespeare, From William Butler Yeats, From The
Macbeth ..................................... 313 Second Corning ...................... 348
Charles Dickens. From Dombey Ernest Hemingway. From A
and Son ..................................... 315 Farewell to Arms .................. 349
William Makepeace Thackeray. Mark Twain. From The Adven-
From Vanity Fair..................... 316 tures of Huckleberry Finn.... «B50
Oscar Wilde. From The Happy John Galsworthy. From The
Prince ........................................ 317 Man of Property...................... 351
Herbert George Wells. From
Drawing Parallels between Lite
The Invisible Man .................. 318
rary Works of Particular Aspects
William Butler Yeats. From The
319 of Such Works....................... 353
Wild Swans at Coole ..............
Edgar Allan Poe. From The 1. Fiction ..................................... 353
Gold Bug..................................... 321 James Joyce. From A Portrait
Analysing Characters and Means of the Artist as a Young Man. 353
of Delineating Character Richard Aldington. From Death
Geoffrey Chaucer. From The of a Hero.................................. 354
A. Walter Scott and Thomas
Canterbury Tales..................... 323
Hardy .......................................... 359
Charles Dickens. From David
B. Charles Dickens and William
Copperfield .............................. 325
Makepeace Thackeray.................. 362
’VVilliam Makepeace Thackeray.
C. Richard Aldington and Ernest
From Vanity Fair..................... 326
Thomas Hardy. From Tess of Hemingway .................................. 364
the D’Urbervilles...................... 328^ 2. Poetry ......................................... 366
Oscar Wilde. From The Devoted A. William Wordsworth and John
Friend .................................. 329 Keats .......................................... 366
George Bernard Shaw. From B. Percy Bysshe Shelley and
Caesar and Cleopatra .......... 330 - George Gordon Byron.................. 369
James Joyce. From The Sisters 331
Eugene O’Neill. From Mourning ANNEX .......................................... 373
Becomes Electra...................... 332 Making a Complex Analyse of a
Literary Text .............................. 373
Discussing Style .......................... 335 A. How to Analyse Fiction.... 373
Geoffrey Chaucer. From The The Nature of Fiction .......... 374
Canterbury Tales (Prologue) .. 335 The Craft of Fiction .......... 375
William Shakespeare. From Much Jonathan Swift. From
Ado about Nothing (Scene V).. 336 Gulliver’s Travels .............. 378
Daniel Defoe. From Robinson Walter Scott. From Ivan
Crusoe ...................................... 338 hoe ........................................... 379
Henry Fielding. From The His Mark Twain. From A Con
tory of Toin Jones.................. 339 necticut Yankee in King
Walter Scqtt. From Ivanhoe.. 341 Arthur’s Court...................... 381
Samuel Taylor Coleridge. From B. How to Analyse a Poem.. 384
The Rime of the Ancient Mari William Shakespeare. Son
ner ......................................... 342 net XLIII ....................... 385
George Gordon Byron. From George Gordon Byron. To
Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage.... 344 Caroline ............................... 389
Charles Dickens. From Hard Percy Bysshe Shelley. To
Times ...................................... 345 Night ................................... 390
Thomas Hardy. From The Re William Butler Yeats.
turn of the Native.................. 347 That the Night Come.......... 391
Part One
GRAMMAR
MORPHOLOGY
The Noun
exercise 1. Attach the appropriate noun-forming suffix to each of the follow
ing nouns*
-dom London teen-age
-hood child star
-ship Portugal impression
-ist mouth village
-ism brother boy
-er friend Darwin
-ful Japan owner
-ese piano spoon
art member
hand cello
behaviour king
philosophy
exercise 2. Attach the appropriate noun-forming suffix to each of the follow
ing verbs:
-age develop arrive refuse
-al use defend happen
-ance/ence embody house enlighten
-ant write describe thrill
-ation/(t)ion accept clean inhabit
-ee receive form * starve
-er descend abolish bathe
-ing paint train cover
-merit employ
upheave
marry
produce
EXERCISE 3. jlZiacA the appropriate noun-forming suffix to each of the following
adjectives:
-dom cruel social wise proper
-ism strong wide childish long
-(i)ty/iety free existential sane mean
-ness sentimental anxious dull fix
-th
exercise 4. Translate into English paying attention to the use of prefixes
with the italicized words:
1. Subsecretarul de Stat n-a făcut nici o declarație. 2. Fostul președinte nu
a mai dat nici un interviu în ultima vreme. 3. Premergătorul maratoniștilor
este grecul care a adus vestea victoriei asupra Perșilor. 4. De ce nu ți-ai
îmbrăcat salopeta? 5. Nu uitați că sînt și nefumători printre noi. 6. Numele și
^prenumele, vă rog. 7. Repulsia lui față de animale îmi pare nefirească. 8. Un
astfel de proiect nu admite nici un fel de imprecizie. 9. Se găsește la orice mare
magazin universal. 10. Aș vrea să citesc „Iarna nemulțumirii noastre^ de
J. Steinbeck. 11. într-adevăr antibioticele l-au salvat. 12. Subiectul tezei lui de
doctorat este antimateria.
exercise 5. Translate into English paying attention to the use of suffixes

with the italicized words:
1. Un neplăcut sentiment de plictiseală puse stăpînire pe ascultători.
2. ^Regatul meu pentru un cal“. 3. Ne uiipea înțelepciunea lui. 4. După unii
copilăria nu este cea mai fericită perioadă a vieții. 5. Ei au devenit victimele
neglijenței lui. 6. Bunătatea lui este impresionantă. 7. „Peisajul marin“ pe
care l-a pictat este mai valoros decît „Peisajul citadin''. 8. Notează-ți lungimea
și lățimea bazinului precum și adincimea apei. 9. Nici măcar în gînd nu suporta
eșecul, singurătatea, văduvia, munca neinteresantă, persecuția. 10. Alarmați
de creșterea șomajului, liderii sindicali au cerut guvernului să ia măsuri pentru
a-i pune capăt.
exercise 6. Translate the following Romanian words and phrases by using

compound nouns:
1. cutrejnur de pămînt 9. cap sec
2. mașină de spălat 10. urbanism
3. tunsoare 11. pată de sînge
4. picup 12. camuflaj
5. apă potabilă 13. centură de siguranță
6. revărsat de zori 14. cocoșat
7. strîngere de mînă 15. pieton
8. zbor de noapte
exercise 7. Find the full forms of the following:

a) l.ad; 2. cable;3. math;4. specs; 5. lab; 6.gym; 7.champ; 8. movie; 9. vet;
10. fan; 11. prefab; 12. phone; 13. bus; 14. zoo; 15. bike; 16. flu;
b) 1. BBC; 2. TB; 3. L.P.;4. UN; 5. FBI; 6. T.V.; 7. UNESCO; 8. VIP;
9. Hi-Fi; 10. GM.
exercise 8. Translate into English:

1. Oficiul poștal era deja închis cînd am ajuns acolo. 2. Fiul meu vitreg este
un pasionat al cuvintelor încrucișate, 3. Pentru un astfel de rol ai nevoie de
un machiaj special. 4. Nimic nu e mai frumos declt curcubeul după mai multe
zile de ploaie. 5. Ne-am mutat de curînd într-un bloc cu încălzire centrală.
6. Ne întîlnim la gară la ora 8 fix. 7. Eu sînt elev la liceu, iar sora mea este
studentă la arte plastice. 8. Ești sigură că ți-ai lăsat geanta la garderobă? 9. Te
rog să cureți argintăria înainte de sfârșitul săptămînii. 10. A înflorit mărul din
curtea din spatele casei noastre.
exercise 9. Translate into English using the following phrases containing
nouns derived from verbs by means of conversion / zero suffixation:
to give something a twist; to have/take a walk; to give something a
good rub; to have a fight; to make a call; to give a nod; to give somebody a
ring; to give an apologetic laugh; to take a step.
1. Mai răsucește o dată frînghia, te rog. 2. Cum profesorul intrase deja
în clasă, el pur și simplu rîse drept scuză și se așeză în bancă. 3. Făcu un pas
la dreapta, și apoi unul la stînga. 4. Hai să facem o plimbare la lacuri! 5. Su-
nă-mă, te rog, dacă intervine ceva. 6. Freacă bine lingurița, te rog. 7. S-au
bătut pe mingea roșie*8. Nu sînt prea ocupat azi, trebuie numai să fac o scurtă
vizită la ora 10. 9. A dat din cap cînd a trecut pe lîngă mine.
exercise 10. Translate into English paying attention to the ways the italicized
nouns are formed:
1. O jumătate are 2 pătrimi. 2. Dă o fugă pînă la mașină și adu țigările.
3. Acuzații părăsiră camera fără un cuvînt. 4. Și-au folosit economiile ca să-și
cumpere mobilă frumoasă. 5. Copiii mergeau doi cite doi. 6. Ne-a expus toate
argumentele pro sau contra acestei idei. 7. împrejurimile erau atît de încîntă-
toare încît prețul nu mai conta. 8. Mărfurile au fost livrate la timp. 9. întot
deauna pornești discuția de la antici. 10. Un astfel de tablou costă o avere.
11. Nu poți întotdeauna să eviți aspectele neagreabile din viață. 12. Ar trebui
să-i apărăm pe cei slabi și pe cei bolnavi.
exercise 11. Form the plural of the nouns listed in the table below, paying
attention to the pronunciation of the plural. Remember that the -s ending is
pronounced /s/ after voiceless consonants, /z/ after voiced consonants and
after vowels, and /iz/ after hissing sibilant consonants.
book — books [buks] pencil — pencils class — classes

['penslzl [' kin :siz]
boy — boys [baiz]
remark pen bus

thought tooth [tu:6z] bandage
ant dog piece
tip day box
haircut mirror dose
sink bottle boss
pot cinema judge
earth egg buzz
mouth pill lash
belief ray peach
bus stop bath [bardz] size
scientist team by-pass
exercise 12. Nouns ending in form their plural in-lsț-tes (1) or-ves (2)
or both (3).Give the plural form of the following nouns and noun groups into the
respective three categories:
Half, cuff, wolf, belief, leaf, scarf, chief, calf, cliff, shelf, dwarf, self, thief,
safe, gulf, proof, loaf, wife, roof, handkerchief, knife.
exercise 13. a) Write the singular of:
{allies
alleys
f
(
countries
enemies
f
(
taxes
taxis
doves ( shoes
halves ( kangaroos
( toes
( potatoes
dresses ( skies f sizes pies f valves
{houses [ skis ( buzzes eyes j porches
b) Write the plural of: potato, radio, hero, cargo, echo, tango, buffalo,
concerto, Negro, volcano.
exercise \^Ă^Group the following compound nouns according to the way they
form their plural: a) plural in the first element; b) plural in both the first and the
last element; c) plural in the last element:
e.g. a) passer-by — passers-by; b) woman doctor — women doctors;
c) boy friend — boy friends.
fellow-citizen, father-in-law, man-friend, man-eater, man-servant, take-off,
sister-in-law, footstep, man-of-war, grown-up, cameraman, looker-on, break
down, woman diplomat.
exercise 15. Turn into the plural:

1. Englishman 2. Spaniard 3. Chinese 4. frenchman 5. Pole 6. Swede
7. Norwegian 8. German 9. Dutchman 10. Italian 11. Romanian 12. Russian
13. Greek 14. Australian 15. Japanese 16. Dane 17. Finn 18. Irishman 19. Scot
20. Pakistani.
exercise 16. Supply the plural of the following nouns of Greek and Latin
origin. Give their phonetic transcription:
1. bacillus, 2. addendum, 3. series, 4. datum, 5. analysis, 6. crisis, 7. paren
thesis, 8. synthesis, 9. thesis, 10. schema, 11. stimulus, 12. criterion, 13. basis,
14. hypothesis, 15. phenomenon.
exercise 17. Use the italicized nouns in the plural. Make the necessary changes:
1. This pencil is not exactly what I need. 2. There is a nice picture in their
dining room. 3. Bob’s horse was sold about 3 weeks ago. 4. Do you find the
box large enough? 5. The new teacher took them to a museum. 6. His story
was really exciting. 7. This play can’t have been written by Shakespeare.
8. The singer was the most handsome negro I have ever seen. 9. I don’t think
this photo is really good. 10. She bought a Venetian mirror last year. 11. There
is a blank page in this book. 12. That was the worst match in the history of
the team. 1§. Is this the only city you visited ? 14. A monkey is a funny creature.
15. May I have a loaf of white bread, please? 16. The new handkerchief must be
in the top drawer. 17. Have you brought the scenario along? 18. There was no
mosquito in his room.
exercise 18. Fill in the blanks with the plural form of the italicized words:
1. The doctor says you should take one spoonful of this medicine and
two ... of the other. 2. I appreciate the responsibility of an editor-in-chief.
Out of all the . . . Mr. Smith is the most conscientious. 3. My friend’s eldest
sister-in-law is a student. The other . . . are still at school. 4. That delicate
blue flower is a forget-me-not. If you go for a walk in the woods you can pick
up a lot of. . . 5. Lord Silbury fired one man-servant today. He says he is going
to fire his other ... as well. 6. He is an enthusiastic theatre-goer, but unfortu
nately not all. . . are like him. 7. She asked a passer-by to show her the way to
the railway station. Suddenly several. . . offered to accompany her there.
exercise 19. Replace the italicized nouns by their collective correspondent:

1. Thirty (or more) pupils form a ... 2. A body of 12 persons in a court
of justice form a ... 3. A gathering of people in a theatre/concert hall form
a... 4. A number of persons who have come to a meeting form a ... 5. A
body of persons united by political opinions, by their support of a common
cause, form a .... 6. A number of cows form a . . . . 7. A number of thieves
form a .... 8. A group of persons controlling a business or a government
department form a ... 9. A number of people in a public square form a..........
exercise 20. Choose the right form of the verb:

1. a) The committee (consist, consists) of 12 members.
b) The committee (has, have) come to a common point of view.
2. a) My friend’s family (is, are) small.
b) The family (was, were) asleep when we arrived.
3. a) The press (is, are) kindly requested to leave the Conference Hall.
b) The press (is, are) always present on such occasions.
4. a) The audience (was, were) taking their seats.
b) The audience (was, were) applauding enthusiastically.
5. a) The mob (has, have) been fighting among themselves for some time,
b) A mob (is, are) a disorderly crowd.
6. a) The Education Board (is, are) arguing aborrt the cost of textbooks,
b) The Selection Board (has, have) selected the best pupils from the can
didates.
7. a) The government (has, have) announced further wage rises.
b) The government (stand, stands) firm in refusing to make further
concessions.
8. a) The new Cabinet (was, were) the result of his bargaining with the
center-left parties.
b) The new Cabinet (is, are) reluctant to look into it.
9. a) A flock of sheep (has, have) invaded my garden.
b) Look out I Your flock (is, are) straying in all directions.
10. a) The Army (has, have) seized power.
b) The invading Army (was, were) defeated.
11. a) Canada (is, are) bilingual.
b) Canada (has, have) got into the semi-finals again.
exercise 21. Choose the singular or plural form. Translate into Romanian:
1. colour a) I simply hate this ....
b) You must stand still when the country’s ... is being raised.
c) My favourite . . . are blue and beige.
2. custom a) You have to declare everything at the ....
b) She was privileged to get acquainted with this ... of the
Burundians.
c) Hand shaking is one of the most frequent... in Europe.
3. damage a) I’ll have to pay for the . ..
b) In case of fire the insurance company will pay the....
4. ground a) You must have solid ... if you want to ask for a divorce.
b) What was the ... of this quarrel?
c) Children have taken good care of their sports . . .
5. minute a) How many . .. does it take to get to the office?
b) We wanted him to read the ... of the previous meeting.
c) Wait a . . . !
6. pain a) She feels no . . . now.
b) What do you recommend for stomach .. . ?
c) You do take great. . . with your work.
7. scale a) My neighbour has been practising... for hours.
b) Did you know he could play with a fish . . . . ?
c) The ... of this species of fish are phosphorescent.
d) On top of the Court House one can notice a sculptured ... of
Justice.
8. term a) When does . . . end ?
b) Are you on good . . . ?
c) What are the ... of the treaty?
9. spectacle a) It was a terrifying.. .
b) Why not wear . . . ?
10. spirit a) That’s the right. . .
b) How can you believe in ... ?
c) I shall never touch . . . again.
d) Is there no ... in your lighter?
exercise 22. Combine the partitive expressions in column A with the uncount
able nouns given in column B. Translate them into Romanian:
A B
an article of sugar
a bar of meat
a cake of bread
a grain of paper
a heap of soap
an item of chocolate
a loaf of land
a lump of rice
a piece of rubbish
a pile of evidence
a sheet of information
a slice of advice
a strip oi luggage
a word of furniture
news
exercise 23. Choose the appropriate form of the verb. Note the difference in
meaning with the nouns that take both a singular and a plural predicate:
1. His phonetics is/are much better than hers. 2. My trousersîs/are flared.
3. The scissors is/are lost for ever, I guess. 4. Statistics is/are Kis favourite
study. 5. Cod eats/eat a variety of food. 6. Acoustics iscare a branch of physics.
7. The new statistics shows/show a great increase in manufactured goods.
8. Youth today is/are turning away from the church. 9. What is/are the most
efficient means of dealing with this problem? 10. The pliers is/are on the table.
11. The acoustics of the National Theatre Hall is/are excellent. 12. Politics
is/are the art of the possible. 13. Poultry was/were expensive that winter.
14. What is/are your politics? 15. The people of that country lives/live beyond
their means. ÎS. He had no time for visitors while the poultry was/were being
fed. 17. Everybody’s means is/are being tested. 18. Mathematics is/are given
top priority nowadays. 19. What is/are cattle good for?. 20. The police has/
have made no arrest yet. 21. Fresh-water fish includes/include salmon, trout,
carp and eels. 22. Gymnastics is/are not given enough attention in our school.
23. The Italian clergy was/were opposed to divorce. 24. Advice is/are readily
given on all the technical aspects.

1. Ai auzit de cursele de alergări ale poștașilor? 2. Statisticile au constatat că
femeile care șofează sînt mai atente și produc mai puține accidente mortale.
3. La vîrsta de 6—7 ani dinții de lapte ai unui copil sînt înlocuiți cu alți dinți
pe care îi va păstra pînă la bătrînețej4. Am auzit pași în apartamentul vecinilor
mei de la etajul 5. 5. El nu e un pescar ca toți pescarii, adică nu e nici mincinos
și nici pasionat. 6. Clinele se sprijini cu labele din față pe fotoliu și își privi stă
pânul ca și cum i-ar fi înțeles gîndurile. 7. în zilele noastre femeile de la țară
nu se deosebesc mult de cele de la oraș. 8. Sportivele și sportivii au primit flori
și cadouri din partea organizatorilor. 9. Demonstrația milițienilor a îneîntat
întreaga asistență.

1. Din acest punct de vedere toate soțiile au aceleași dorințe. 2. Spre amu
zamentul celor care priveau, cele două maimuțe începură să arunce cu banane
In ei. 3. Aveau de efectuat săpături și măsurători pentru a marca șanțurile,
șoselele și aleile noilor cartiere. 4. Am cumpărat cîteva cutii de chibrituri deoa
rece toate brichetele mele sînt stricate. 5. Toți contabilii au declarat că au
nevoie de mai multe creioane, ascuțitori, bricege și scrumiere. 6. Sindicatele
au cerut patronilor respectarea drepturilor muncitorilor. 7. Soacrele au deseori
necazuri cu nurorile. 8. Am cumpărat două periuțe de dinți pentru copii.
9. Sînt un pasionat al curselor, așa că nu e de mirare că merg atît la cursele de
cai cît și la cursele de automobile. 10. în acest muzeu sînt expuse cîteva capodo
pere ale școlilor de pictură italiene și franceze. 11. Ori de cîte ori soția mea a
avut concediu medical, socrii au avut grijă de copii.

1. Lorzii Cancelari ai Angliei au avut mari răspunderi în stat. 2. La consfă
tuirea care a avut loc ieri directorii generali din instituțiile de cercetare au
pus problema ridicării eficienței cercetărilor. 3. S-a întîmplat de multe ori ca
inspectorii generali să nu fie de acord cu una sau alta dintre soluțiile noastre.
4. De ce nu Lai invitat pe Brown-i la masă? 5. Cei doi John din familia lor se
află acum la New. York, — unul este John L. S. Harrison, avocat, celălalt
John T. S. Harrison, unul dintre cei mai cunoscuți sportivi americani. 6. Era
foarte amuzant să-i vezi pe copii mergînd cîte trei, în uniformele lor albastre
cu funde roșii. 7. In anii ’50 s-au turnat unele dintre cele mai bune filme post
belice?©. Toate produsele chimice obținute în această uzină sînt expuse în
sala alăturată. 9. Nu există criterii conform cărora unghiile să facă parte din
categoria lucrurilor comestibile. 10. Sorții de izbîndă sînt de această dată
împotriva noastră. 11. Ai știut că la Jocurile Olimpice s-a clasat pe locul II?
12. Bogățiile acestor regiuni sînt încă necunoscute. 13. Toate valorile au fost
asigurate pentru o sumă imensă.
exercise 27/ Translate into English, paying attention to the restrictions in

the use of (numerical and quantitative) determinatives in front of uncountable
nouns:
1. a) Știrile pe care le-am primit pînă acum nu sînt demne de încredere,
b) Fiecare știre despre activitatea astronauților este așteptată cu emoție.
2. a) Bagajele au fost făcute și desfăcute timp de trei ore fără întrerupere,
b) Dacă fiecare călător ar avea un singur bagaj, vama nu ar dura atît de
mult.
3. a) Trebuie să publicăm toate informațiile care sînt necesare candidaților.
b) Fiecare informație le este utilă.
4. a) Prostii, dragul meu! Știi bine că țigările nu pot face bine.
b) N-am mai auzit niciodată o prostie mai mare.
5. a) Nu se compară cu piesa noastră (de mobilier).
b) Mobila de dinainte de război nu e de mare clasă.

1. De cînd și-a scos amigdalele s-a îngrășat și nu se mai îmbolnăvește atît
de des. 2. M-am săturat de ieșirile ei isterice ori de cîte ori este vorba de bani.
3. Ar fi mai bine să-i cumperi niște bretele noi. 4. Mi-am spălat salopeta deși nu
era prea murdară. 5. Avem nevoie de un binoclu și o busolă, 6. Dă-mi cleștele,
te rog. 7. Poartă ochelari de la vîrsta de 8 ani. 8. Este cel mai bun jucător de
popice. 9. Jocul de dame cere multă atenție. 10. Cosmonautica este una dintre
cele mai noi științe. 11. Cunoștințele lui de fonetică și lingvistică generală sînt
remarcabile. 12. Deputatului i~au fost puse întrebări în legătură cu politica
locală.
1. a) îmi place grozav nisipul fin de la Mamaia.
b) Se auzea o muzică plăcută dinspre plajă.
2. a) Conținutul acelor scrisori a rămas un mister.
b) De ce nu consulți tabla de materii de la sfîrșitul cărții?
3. a) Este imposibil să-i înțeleg scrisul.
b) Scrierile lui Byron au apărut în mii de exemplare.
4. a) Apele Mediteranei sînt foarte poluate.
b) Ce-ai zice de o cură de ape minerale la Herculane?
5. a) Ne vedem peste 3 sferturi de oră.
b) Nimeni nu știa unde se află Statul Major.
6. a) Este indiscutabil un remarcabil om de litere.
b) Cîte scrisori ai primit de la Helen?
7. a) Acestea sînt efectele negative ale cărților polițiste.
I)) A fost obligat să depună la intrare toate efectele personale.
8. a) Hai să facem o partidă de dame.
b) Răcești dacă stai în curent.
exercise 30. Form feminine nouns from the following masculine nouns using
the following suffixes: -ess, -ix, -a, -ine:
Actor, host, shepherd, administrator, sultan, god, lion, prior, negro, hero,
prince, tiger, heir, waiter.
exercise 31. a) Give the corresponding masculine nouns of the following femi
nine nouns; b) then give the generic term, if any:
model: — a) mother — father
b) mother — father — parent
Quern, woman, wife, daughter, nun, lady, sister, goose, bee, duck, grand-
(hi ugh t er.
exercise 32. List the feminine nouns in the 2nd column and the generic nouns
in the 3rd column so as to correspond to the masculine nouns in the 1st column:
hog mare pig/swine
cock vixen dear
hound hen dog
buck ewe OX
bull bee horse
drone . bitch fowl
stallion hind fox
fox cow sheep
ram doe deer
stag sow cattle
exercise 33. Give the masculine and feminine for the following generic nouns:
Cat, dog, pheasant, turkey, wolf, bear, bird, goat, ass, fox.
exercise 34. Give the masculine of:

Bride, girl-friend, maidservant, female candidate, policewoman, lady
footballer, woman diplomat, lady speaker, spinster, lady, nurse, female student.
exercise 35. Arrange the following nouns into two columns according to their
usual gender when personified in poetry, etc. Remember that the masculine
gender is usually ascribed to nouns denoting strength, harshness, cruelty, and
negative features while those denoting delicacy, feebleness, tenderness and other
positive features are feminine. On the other hand, the distinction sometimes
depends on the author's imagination or intentions:
Friendship, anger, boat, fury, ship, terror, car, crime, moon, spring, storm,
morning, thunder, evening, sleep, night, sun, pride, time, truth, fear, soul,
death.

1. Știai că premiul a fost din nou cucerit de români? 2. Este cea mai
modernă poetă a noastră. 3. Sora mea a jucat rolul prințesei. 4. Ambasadoarea
a rostit o cuvîntare. 5. Era o fată bătrînă foarte excentrică. 16. Nu cred că
văduva de la parter este acasă. 7. Leoaica pe care ai văzut-o la circ a fost adusă
din Africa. 8. A venit lăptăreasa azi? 9. E plăcut cînd ești servit de vînzătoare
atît de politicoase. 10. Toate miresele sînt frumoase? 11. Prietena fratelui meu
are numai 18 ani. 12. Bunica e mîndră de copiii și nepoții ei. 13. Este foarte
dificil să ai de-a face cu astfel de paciente. 14. Toți membrii juriului — atît
jurații cît și juratele — au fost de acord asupra verdictului. 15. Contele și con
tesa au rang mai mic decît ducele și ducesa.

1. Ea este cea mai bună dactilografă din birou. 2. A insistat să fie consul
tată de o doctoriță. 3. Mîncărurile italienești au fost pregătite de ajutoarea
bucătarului. 4. Una dintre prietenele mele mi-a trimis acest tablou. 5. Singura
funcționară care știe nemțește este acum în concediu. 6. O cunoști pe veri-
șoara mea Ann? 7. Cînd ziarista și-a reluat locul în sală, toată lumea votase.
8. M-am întîlnit cu elevele din clasa de fizică.
exercise 38. Give the pronunciation of the following nouns in the synthetic
genitive. Remember that there are three possibilities of marking it in writing: 's for
singular nouns and unmarked plural nouns (e.g. boy's, children's), zero (0) for
plural nouns and some Greek nouns (e.g. boys', Xerxes') and 's or ’ in the case
of proper nouns ending in ]-z] (e.g. Wiggins'(s)). There are four forms in
speech: /-z/, (children's), /-s) (aunt's), l~iz/ (Wiggins'(s) /'wigujziz/) and
zero (boys', Xerxes'Ibjiz 'zaiksiz/, and certain nouns used in set phrases
(e.g, for conscience' sake) generally observing the rules of the regular plural:
The boy’s dog, the ship’s surgeon, the dog’s bone, a week’s holiday,
Dickens’(s) novels, for goodness’ sake, Aldridge’s novels, the lion’s mane, Words
worth’s poems, George’s friends, his wife’s handbag, Socrate’s philosophy,
Burns’(s) poetry, their wives’ shopping, the students’ books, Marx’s
teachings, women’s status.
exercise 39. Substitute synthetic genitive forms for the prepositional genitive
forms. The former are generally used with animate nouns, mainly with persons,
with collective nouns (e.g. government, company), and with certain kinds of
inanimate nouns denoting: a) geographical names (continents, countries, cities,
towns); b) locative nouns denoting regions, heavenly bodies, institutions (e.g,
the region's welfare, the earth's core, the sun's impact, the Club's band); c) tem
poral nouns (e.g. yesterday's reception, this year's anniversaries)', d) nouns of
the type: body, mind, science, life, treaty, play, book, car, ship etc. (e.g. the play's
success, the ship's captain, science's progress):
1. The new car of his friend is a Fiat 125. 2. What do you know about
the climate of this country ? 3. I admired the hats of the ladies. 4. He has
been studying the folklore of Wales for three years. 5. What’s the name of the
new typist of the manager? 6. This is the most important museum of/in
London. 7. The parents of all the other girls are present. 8. What are the first
signs of spring? 9. These are the best paintings of Turner. 10. He won’t say
a word about the purpose of his life. 11. The interests of the Government lie
elsewhere. 12. What do you know about the War of a Hundred Years?
13. The future of Africa is in the hand of its own peoples. 14. The blouses
of the shop-girls are the best advertisment. 15. Bob doesn’t even know the
time-table of his child. 16. Is it possible to track the rays of the sun?
17. He is proud of the performance of his car on the road. 18. Do you
doubt the good intentions of my relatives?
exercise 40. Build up sentences with the following phrases in which the
synthetic genitive is the rule with nouns denoting time, space, weight:
Today’s paper, in two year’s time, a five miles’ distance, a three days’trip,
a half year’s course, a moment’s regret, two dollars’ worth of coffee, a twenty
minutes’ delay, a pound’s weight, yesterday’s deadlock, last year’s prize, this
month’s edition, a hand’s breadth.
exercise 41. Use the following set phrases in which the synthetic genitive is
the rule, in sentences of your own:
At one stone’s throw, to be at one’s wits’ end, for Heaven’s sake, a bird’s
eye view, at death’s door, in my mind’s eyes, at arm’s length, to my heart’s
content, for conscience’ sake, art for art’s sake.
exercise 42. Use the 's genitive and/or the of genitive, noting that the ’5 form
is the rule with the classifying genitive (e.g. Azor is a dog's name.):
1. He was exhausted when the (fighting, day) was done. 2. There’s a (sale,
woman, shoes) on. 3. Who is to draw up a Menu Card for a (day, meals)? 4. I
think they’ll eat their first (meal, day) in Paris. 5. What do the (film, defen
ders) point out? 6. The grass is about a (man, height). 7. This is the (largest
high school, city). 8. He wants to live there, cutoff from the (world, affairs).
9. Rats eat up every year (millions, pounds, worth, stuff). 10. After (two or
three minutes, playing) she stopped. 11. I will not gratify her whim at the
(cost, another, misery). 12. I couldn’t stand the mixed smell of unwashed
(sheep, wool), turf smoke and kerosene. 13. There was a sharp fight between
(White, attempts) to gain space on the (queen, flank) and (Black, counterplay)
against the white King. 14. What did he need a (fireman, helmet) for? 15. I
hate to see him with a (two days, beard) on his chin. 16. The (book, publica
tion) is a triumph. 17. This will be the top priority of the (Labour Government,
programme.). 18. He looked into the (realities, power). 19. What is the (ship,
power)? 20. I met him at my (lawyer, office).
exercise 43. Complete the following sentences with synthetic genitive forms.
Note that the second noun is generally omitted if it is: shop, place or house and
b) that the second noun is optionally omitted, if it is church, cathedral, college,
motel, store, when it is preceded by a proper noun:
a) You can buy bread at a . . . . 2. You can buy tabacco at a . . . . 3. You
can buy meat at a . . . . 4. You can buy medicine at a .... 5. You can buy sta
tionery at a . . . . 6. You can buy English gabardine at a . . . . 7. You can
have your coat cleaned at the ... . 8. You can have a suit made at the . . .
9. You can have your shoes repaired at the .... 10. I met him at my. . .
(place, house).
b) I did not manage to visit. . . (cathedral). 2. Have you been into . . .
(store)? 3. We admired the nave of. . . (church). 4. Have you seen the new
building of. . . (College)? 5. If you contract a peculiar disease go to . . . (Clinic).
exercise 44. Use the prepositional dative with to or for instead of the non-
prepositional dative:
model: Give Bob some money.
Give some money to Bob.
1. Would you sell me this old painting? 2. Call me a taxi, please. 3. Did you
tell your friends the good news? 4. The maid forgot to give Ann the message.
5. There’s nobody who could write me the essay. 6. He bought me a parrot.
7. She handed him the file. 8. You offered him a new job. 9. He chose me a
funny-looking hat. 10. Mother saved John some cakes.
exercise 45. Make sentences of your own according to the model. Can you
express them both ways?
model: a) I showed Mike the dog.
b) I showed the dog to Mike.
1. show — lab — students. 2. mention — secret — Mary. 3. describe —
car — Bob. 4. give — money — her cousin. 5. throw — ball — children. 6.
teach — game — son. 7. lend — dictionary — his schoolmate. 8. pass — wine
— your mother. 9. explain — situation — customer. 10. tell — lie — his
wife.
exercise 46. Complete with to or for;

1. Whom are you going to introduce me . . . ? 2. Who(m) did you order
' it . . . ? 3. Who is the man you talked . . . ? 4. Who(m) else must you explain
it. . . ? 5. Who(m) is this . . . ? 6. Who(m) did they build it. . . ? 7. Who(m)
did you send it. . . ? 8. Who(m) are you keeping this book . . . ? 9. Who(m)
did you lend your car . . . ? 10. Who(m) are we giving it. . . ?

1. Căsătoria copiilor prietenilor noștri a avut loc acum două săptămîni.
2. Concediul medical de două luni al dactilografei a produs o mulțime de neca
zuri. 3. Mașina cea nouă a administratorului căminului de studenți al facul
tății noastre este într-adevăr frumoasă. 4. Spune-i, te rog, d-lui Jones, șoferul
directorului băncii, să ducă mașina la spălat. 5. L-ai cunoscut pe profesorul de
engleză al surorii mele? 6. Iată rezultatele meciurilor de astăzi. 7. La vîrsta ei
o călătorie de 6 ore cu avionul este desigur obositoare. 8. După ce-am mers
20 de minute am ajuns pe platou^ 9. Ne-ar prinde bine să ne odihnim o jumă
tate de oră. 10. Zburînd deasupra orașului am avut o vedere de ansamblu a
celor mai importante clădiri din New York. 11. Ochii ei îmi amintesc de albas
trul florilor de nu-mă-uita. 12. Admirația spectatorilor de teatru pentru acest
tlnăr actor este pe deplin justificată. 13. întotdeauna au neglijat drepturile
celor săraci.

1. îți amintești de bătrînul Petre, tatăl lui George și Paul, care spunea
povești tuturor copiilor din cartier? 2. Scriitorul a relatat celor prezenți intriga
viitorului său roman, explicînd mai ales tinerilor evoluția Cristinei și a lui
Anton, eroii principali. 3. Copiii vor oferi un buchet de flori învățătoarei lor
după ce aceasta va adresa părinților discursul de bun venit. 4. Comerțul
României cu țările Americii Latine contribuie la strîngerea legăturilor de prie
tenie cu aceste țări. 5. Toți profesorii din catedra noastră au fost invitații cole
gilor lor de la o școală profesională din Cluj. 6. Autorul invenției a explicat
șefului său principiile noului sistem și a oferit colegilor care erau sceptici în
privința rezultatelor*dovezi atestînd eficiența metodei.#?. Ar fi mai bine să ne
hilllnim acasă la George, nu avem de mers mai mult de 5 minute de la gară.

1. Căprioarele pot fi dăunătoare. 2. Atunci cînd publicul se plînge, trebuie
nă se țină seama de opiniile lui. 3. E slab la matematică. 4. Personalul La con
damnat în unanimitate. 5. Membrii familiei Smith nu sînt parveniți. 6. Statele
Unite au o mare suprafață de teren productiv. 7. Dinamo a rămas pe locul doi.
8, Conduce echipa României și e aproape sigur c-o să ia medalia de aur. 9. Cînd
6-a construit oțelăria de la Reșița? 10. Sîntem pe listă dar trebuie să așteptăm
șase luni. 11. Un român a efectuat primul zbor vertical din lume. 12. Candida
telor nu li se cere probă orală. 13. Te duci diseară la unchiul tău? 14. Se găsește
la orice magazin de bijuterii. 15. Și acum știrile principale. 16. Camera de zi
a lui Daisy, semănînd cu o cameră de păpuși, este plină de fumul țigărilor
fumate ieri. 17. Continuă să meargă pînă ajunse la magazinul Selfridge.
18. Banii nu aduc fericirea. 19. Cîți pești ai prins ieri? 20. Are cap de bărbat.
21. Mulți tineri s-au oferit să ne ajute la săpături. 22. Peste o sută de ani
vor exista infinit mai multe date cu privire la decolarea pe verticală.
The Article
exercise 1. Insert definite or indefinite articles. Pay attention to the use of

definite articles for anaphoric or situational reference and the use of indefinite
articles for introducing new information:
1. I have ordered . . . washing machine and . . . washing machine has
come. 2 . . . climate does not suit me. 3. How did . . . press receive it? 4. Since
lunch was not ready yet, my husband read . . . paper for a while, then he
rose from . . . armchair and turned on . . . television. 5. I mentioned bridge;
he was very good at. . . game. 6. Give me . . . newspaper to clean the mirror
with. 7. Give me . . . newspaper, I want to have a look at the ads. 8. . . . moon
rose out of the sea. 9. Is there . . . moon tonight? 10. The door opened and . . .
teacher came in. 11. The door opened and . . . headmaster came in. 12. I heard
on . . . radio that they have come to . . . truce. 13. . . . man has called and
left. . . present for you. 14. . . . moon goes round . . . earth and . . . earth goes
round . . . sun. 15. How have myths come into . . . world?
exercise 2. Supply the necessary article(s): zero (Q), the or a/an, used in
their generic function. Make the necessary changes in b patterns:
model: 1. . . . seagull is a bird.
a) A/the seagull is a bird.
b) Seagulls are birds.
2. What will you do for. . . oil ?
What will you do for oil?
1. . . . verdict has to be unanimous. 2. . . . tiger is larger than . . . lynx.

3. . . . witness may tell only what he himself knows to be true. 4. . . . French
have good wines. 5. . .. leopard is a cat. 6. . . . leopard is the fastest 6at.
7. He’s wasted his life in search of. . . unusual. 8. You’re rather partial to . . .
asparagus, and . . . trout. 9. They have a fine taste in . . . music and . . . lite
rature. 10. The responsibility of. . . parents is stressed in the Declaration
on the Rights of. . . Child. 11. . . . fellow does a lot of crazy things when he
has been drinking. 12. . .. man has left his imprint here too. 13. What can . ..
man do when he is cast on a far-off island? 14. .. . (rubber tyre, do, not, make
a noise). 15. . . . (first offender) should be treated with sympathy. 16. . . . rich
have always exploited . . . poor.
exercise 3. Supply the necessary article: zero (0), ajan. Note that a/an is used
in patterns of the form:
is N found
became student considered N
remained genius
to get a job as a N; with the exception of patterns of the form:

N N
X turned 0 linguist The office of 0 headmaster
to act as 0 N
interpreter
to appoint I N (unique office)

to make somebody 0 I manager
1. He had served his country as . . . Minister of Finance and . . . Ambassa

dor to Finland. 2. She was . . . typist by trade. 3. Can you act as . . . guide?
4. Who is going to hold the office of. . . secretary? 5. Be . . . foster parent!
6. He had the help of two deputies, the economist Mark Webster,. . . Director
of the U.N. Population Division and Roy Wilkins,. . . career U. N. officer.
7. You can get a job as . . . waiter. 8. He’ll be acting the part of. . . solicitor
next week. 9. The castle in which Mary . . . Quên of Scots was imprisoned
is worth a visit. 10. He became . . . unwilling sailor. 11. He fully well deserved
to be awarded the rank of. . . general. 12. He spent his adolescence as . . .
seaman,. . . prospector and . . . fireman. 13. He was . . . firm believer in the
t riumph of good. 14. He has been elected . . . President of the Conference.
15. Now he’s had a go at solving a difficult case, he might turn . . . detective.
16. I rather doubt he’ll remain . . . content accountant all his life. 17. I won’t
have you take her for. . . fool. 18. What with everybody finding him . . .
indispensable person! It’s gone to his head.
exercise 4. Supply the necessary article: definite or zero:

1. I hate . . . wet weather, 2. I spent four hours going from . . . hotel to . . .
hotel, trying to find a room. 3. . . . winter of last year was pretty mild. 4. . . .
youth look down on oldtimers. 5. A humane leader is loved by . . . people.
6, That type of. .. skirt is no longer fashionable. 7. He doesn’t go by. . .
train because he can never find a seat. 8. Nobody liked . . . cheese but I;
I thought it very tasty. 9. She has . . . youth and she has . . . taste. 10. Did
you see . . . van Eyke at the National Gallery? 11. I decided to stay in . . . bed.
12. He hoped he would be inside the harbour before . . . sundown. 13. He
looked forward to leaving . . . school and joining . . . army. 14. . . . dinner is
being prepared by the children today. 15. The number of. . . smokers has
dropped. 16. She is suffering from . . . loss of. . . memory. 17. They generally
have . . . breakfast out on the porch in . . . warm weather. 18. Don’t drive.
Take . . . train. 19. Everybody feels . . . spring is in . . . air. 20. There are no
raspberries on . . . market. 21. Cover the roots of the plant with . . . earth.
22. . . . lunch was good but. . . breakfast was awful. 23. Granny went to . . .
market to buy . . . fruit for the family. 24. One can get tired of. . . fish and
chips. 25.. . . health is better than . . . wealth. 26. It is not visible at.. .
night. 27. The party went on far into . . . night. 28. The party started in . . .
evening and broke up after . . . midnight. 29. Around . . . noon he can be found
in his office. 30. . . . atmospheric polluants turn . . . marble into . . . fine dust
which is washed away by . . . rain.
exercise 5. Insert definite or zero articles before the geographical names used
in the following sentences:
1. . . British Isles have a total area of about 121,600 square miles. The largest
islands are . . . Great Britain proper (comprising the mainlands of. . .
England,. . . Wales, and . . . Scotland) and . . . Ireland (comprising . . . Nor
thern Ireland and ... Irish Republic). 2.... Isle of Man in. .. Irish Sea and . . .
Channel Islands between . . . Great Britain and . . . France have administra
tive autonomy. 3. The latitude of 50° North cuts across.. . Lizard Peninsula and
latitude 60° North passes through... Shetland Islands. 4. The boundaries of this
region run from the mouth of. . . Tyne to the mouth of. . . Exe. 5. . . . North
Atlantic Current reaches the islands from across. . . Atlantic. 6. . .. Highland
Britain comprises the whole of. . . Scotland (including the hills and moors
of . . . southern Scotland as well as the mountains of. . . Scottish Highlands,
which extend from . . . Forth-Clyde valley to the extreme north-west), .
Lake District in . . . north-west England, the broad central upland known as
. . . Pennines. 7. The whole of. . . Britain north of a line joining... river Thames
and . . . Bristol Channel was covered by ice caps. 8. The red sandstone on . . .
Cumberland coast and the limestone masses and slates of. . . Pembrokeshire
coast in . . . South Wales are notable features of the varied coastline. 9. Between
150 and 200 inches of rain fall on the summits of. . . Snowdon and . .. Ben
Nevis during the average year. 10. The eastern coast of England between . . .
Humber and . . . Thames estuary is for the most part low-lying.
(Adapted from “Britain-An Official Handbook 1968”)
exercise 6. Supply the necessary article: zero or the before proper nouns:
1. Wonderful views can be obtained from the tower on top of. . . Beacon
Hill. 2.. . . Kendal is a market town on . . . River Kent.3. Coleridge and Southey
both lived for a time at. . . Greta Hall.4. Katherine Parr was born in. . . Ken
dal Castle in 1512. 5. The view from . . . Castle Head, on . . . Borrowdale road,
must be seen from . . . Surprise View. 6. . . . Scafell Pike is thț highest peak in
England. 7. We travel east, making for. .. Hard KnottPass,along . . . Wrynose
Bottom. 8. A short step further and we are at. . . Skelwith Bridge. 9. We are on
our way to the southern tip of... Grasmere Lake. 10.... Wordsworth Museum is
full of the most fascinating exhibits. 11. ... Dove Cottage at. .. Grasmere was
Wordsworth’s home. 12. The road passes by . . . High Fells. 13. Take the right
fork by . . . Kirkstone Pass Inn. 14. Amblesede is nicely positioned near the
head of. . . Lake Windermere.
(Adapted from “Lake District”)
exercise 7. Group the following proper names according to the article they
take under the following heads: museums and galleries, theatre halls, libraries,
gardens and parks, palaces and halls, newspapers and periodicals, streets, squares,
monuments and institutions:
British Museum, Tate Gallery, National Portrait Gallery, Old Vic Theatre,
Nottingham Playhouse, Royal Opera House, National Film Theatre, Albert
Hall, Covent Garden, Cambridge University Library, Trinity College Library,
Hyde Park, Royal Botanic Garden(s), Kew Gardens, Buckingham Palace,
Westminster Hall, Palace of Cristiansborg, Windsor Castle, Times, Daily
Telegraph, Morning Star, Sun, Woman’s Weekly, Punch, News of the World,
Sunday Times, Spectator, Oxford Street, Piccadilly Circus, Strand, West
minster Bridge, Washington Monument, Trafalgar Square, Broadway, Lin
coln Memorial, Regent Avenue, Townhall Square, St. John’s Road, Charing
Cross, British Broadcasting Corporation, United Nations Organization, Scot
land Yard, Royal Greenwich Observatory, English Teaching Forum.
exercise 8. Form noun phrases according to the table. Note the use of the zero
article with countable nouns in the singular followed by a numeral or a letter of
the alphabet:
Article Noun Numeral or letter of the alphabet
act one
age five
book three
chapter eleven
line twenty four
number one hundred and sixty two
0 page four
part two
scene B / two
answer E / five
figure C/three
group A 1 one
position D / four
question
1
exercise 9. Supply the necessary article:

a) 1. . . . editors of. . . newspapers and . . . magazines often go to ... ex-
Iremea to provide their readers with . . . unimportant facts and . .. statistics.
2. Last year . . . journalist had been instructed by . . . well known magazine to
write . . . article on . . . president’s palace in . . . new African republic, probably
. . . Congo. 3. When . . . article arrived, . . . editor read . . . first sentence and
then refused to publish it. 4. . . . article began: ' . . . hundreds of. . . steps
lead to. .. very highwall which sourrounds... president’s palace... ’. 5... editor
immediately sent. . . reporter back to . . . palace instructing him at. . . same
time to find out. . . exact number of. . . steps and.. . . height of. . . wall!
(Alexander — Practice & Progress)
b) 1. . . . historians have long been puzzled by . . . dots, . . . lines and . . .

symbols which have been engraved on . . . walls, and bones and . . . ivory tusks
of... mammoths 2.... nomads who made these markings lived by ... hunting
and by . . . fishing during . . . last Ice Age. 3.. . . historians have been able to
find out that this difficult code is connected with . . . passage of. . . days and
. . . phases of. . . moon. 4. It is, in . . . fact, . . . primitive type of. . . calendar.
5. . . . scenes depicted on . . . walls were not simply . . . form of artistic expres
sion. 6. They had . . . definite meaning much more difficult for . . . people
of today to understand.
(From “Beader's Digest”)
exercise 10. Supply articles where necessary:

1. Nearly all . . . furniture had been taken out of. . . dining-room. 2. . . .
big piano was put in . . . corner and then there came . . . row of flower pots
and then there came . . . goldy chairs. 3. That was for ... concert. 4. When
Sun looked in . . . white-faced man sat at. . . piano — not playing, but banging
at it. 5. He had . . . bag of. . . tools on . . . piano and he had stuck his hat
on . . . statue against. . . wall. 6. So they went into the dining-room; . . . red
ribbons and . . . bunches of. . . roses tied up . . . table at . . . corners.
7. In . . . middle was . . . lake with . . . rose-petals floating on it. 8. ‘That’s
where . . . ice-pud-ding is to be’, said . . . Cook. 9. Two silver lions with . . .
wings had . . . fruit on their backs. 10. And all. . . winking glasses and shining
plates, and all. . . food! 11. ‘Are . . . people going to eat. . . food?’ asked
Sun. 12. While they were being unbuttoned . . . Mother looked in with . . .
white thing over her shoulders; she was rubbing ... stuff on her face.
13. ‘I’ll ring for them when I want them, . . . Nurse.’
(Katherine Mansfield - “Sun and Moon”)
exercise 11. Insert definite, indefinite or zero articles. Note that nouns linked
by and/or take the zero article:
1. What. . . man has done,. . . man can do. 2. He wanted to be . . . race
horse and win . . . Derby. 3.1 am adamant about. . . rules. 4. . . . horse has
come home. 5. Why not turn . . . linguist? 6. . . . books filled low shelves. 7. He
believes in . . . woman. 8. He insisted on . . . nap in . . . sun. 9. He is afraid of
nothing,... man or ... beast. 10. More and more young girls want to become...
Nadia Comaneci. 11. ... rivers burst their banks, ... bridges collapsed. 12. He
should have told me she was in . . . hospital. 13. Inflation is on . . . increase
again. 14. The end is in . . . sight. 15. We don’t sell. . . pepper by . . . weight,
we sell it by . . . box. 16. He was sitting there,. . . cap in . . . hand, speaking
in ... whisper. 17. He is away on ... trip to ... West Germany, ... Nether
lands, . . . United States (where he will be visiting. . . South Dakota, . . .
Niagara Falls, . . . Yosemite Valley),. . . West Indies, . . . People’s Republic
of China, . . . Philippines and . . . Soviet Union. 18. . . . castle in . . . ruins
is . . . sad sight. 19. He is always on . . . run and she is always in . . . hurry.
20. Do you think our pattern of. . . life will have changed a lot by . . . year
2000? 21. He made them . . . man and . . . wife. 22. ... plane was on . . .
domestic flight to . . . Alexandria on . . . Mediterranean Sea. 23. We have
no job for you whether you are . . . accountant or. . . builder. 24. They have
been directors of. . . mine, . . . father and . . . son for six years.
exercise 12. Insert definite, indefinite or zero articles:

1. Peter Townsend, who is . . . Professor of Sociology at. . . University of
Essex, is . . . member of. . . Fabian executive and . . . chairman of. . . Child
Poverty Action Group. 2. . . . government seems to expect us to live on. . . diet
of.. . bread and . . . margarine. Do we have to go to . . . sales for . . . clothes?
3.... International Women’s Year 1975 endeavoured to give publicity for... advan
cement of. . . women, its central theme being. . . equality, . . . development
and . . . peace; . . . year was . . . time to evaluate . . . progress but. . . work
must go on until ... women participate fully in... economic, social and cultural
development of. . . Socialist Britain. 4. In. . . early society. . . women were. . .
men’s equal and occupied . . . leading position in . . . household and in . . .
society.
(from “Morning Star”)
\ exercise 13. Supply articles where necessary:

a) They live in . . . great barn of. . . farm-house. . . . inside’s like . . .
museum, full of. . . old junk mixed up with some really lovely things. They
have been there for . . . hundreds of years and they’re madly proud of it.
They won’t let anyone do . . . single thing for them and of course . . . result
is that. . . place is in . . . most frightful mess. The older one, Marian, wears . . .
long skirts, almost to . . . ankles and . . . school blazer. The younger one is
said to have been . . . beauty but now she is quite ... old doll, dressed in all. . .
colours of. . . rainbow, with . . . dyed red hair which is constantly falling.
(Angus Wilson — “Raspberry Jam")
b) Big Lannie went out by . . . day to . . . houses of. . . secure and leisured
Indies to wash their silks and linens. She did her work perfectly: some of. . .
Indies even told her so. She was . . . great, slow mass of ... woman, coloured
. . . sound black brown save for her palms and . . . flat of her fingers. She was
«low because of her size and because. . . big veins in her legs hurt her and her
buck hurt much of. . . time.
exercise 14. Supply a, the or the zero article:

1. Long before . . . birth of. . . Christopher Columbus . . . people in Europe
believed that. . . earthly paradise, . . . land of. . . plenty, with . . . perfect
climate lay to... west across.. . Atlantic Ocean. 2. In his letter... Columbus
wrote of. . . Carribean lanscape and described . . . abundance and . . . fertility
)f.. . newly-found islands. 3. In ... report sent home from ... other side of ...
Atlantic, he wrote“ ... islands are fertile to . . . extraordinary degree. There
ire . . . trees of. . . thousand kinds, some in . . . flower, some with . . . fruit.”
1. From . . . West Indies he wrote: “I learned by . . . signs that there was . . .
king in .. . south, who owned many vessels filled with . . . gold.” 5. When . . .
later explorers reached . . . Andes and found .. . gold for . . . taking, it seemed
that their dreams of. . . paradise on . . . earth had at last come true.
exercise 15. Insert definite, indefinite or zero articles. Note that countable
nouns used in parallel constructions (e.g. hand in hand, from top to toe) take the
zero article:
1. Out of... ignorance he made ... mistake after... mistake. 2. They sailed
through ... Straits of Magellan. 3. ... school and... home were far away. 4. I’ll
start as . . . deck boy at. . . pound . .. month. 5. . .. children of. . . lane used
to play together in . . . field: . . . Browns, . . . Pages, little Tom . . . cripple.
6. They walked along . . . North Strand Road till they came to . . . Finlandia
House and then turned to . . . right along . . . Wharf Road. 7. I went from . ..
room to . . . room singing. 8. At . . . Victoria Station . . . crowd of. . . people
pressed to... carriage doors. 9. That’s an order, ’’said... Major Dunn. 10... police
officer Dan Taylor stood guard over her outside ... St. Francis Hotel. 11 . . .
judge James Taylor was not lenient. 12.... Chinese language is totally unlike. ..
Japanese. 13... Japanese have transcribed their language into ... Roman alphabet
as well. 14. I thought about it... day and... night. 15. They transmitted television
pictures back to . . . earth. 16. . . . earth shone . . . brilliant blue green, curved
at. . . horizon, against . . . blackness of. . . space, below the two ships as . . .
Soyuz trailed. . . Apollo. 17. She settled down to sip. . . tea from. . . paper cup.
18.... crocodiles can be bred commercially just like . . . cows or . . . pigs. 19. . .
lava and . . . ash from. . . Merapi Volcano, . . . Central Jawa have forced
170 families to flee their homes. 20. . . female crocodile lays about 40 eggs. ..
year. 21... farm life doesn’t agree with them. 22. She was training for.. . Swan
Lake. 23... lack of . . . parking space forces. . . motorists to double-park reduc
ing. . . wide streets to . . . narrow lanes. 24. They discovered . . . fossils of. . .
bony fishes on . . . field trip to . . . Ellesmore Island in . . . Artic. 25. The fire
broke out near . . . Lake Hemet, south of. . . mountain resort of. . . Idyllwild,
and burned to . . . southeast.
(Adapted from the press)
exercise 16. Insert definite, indefinite or zero articles:

1. His second book, just on . . . market in France is due for . . . publication
in Britain in February. 2. He had undertaken to offer . . . British . . . peace
bid. 3. He said he was there to make . . . peace. 4. He was sentenced to twenty
years imprisonment by . . . Nuremberg Tribunal. 5. Dr. Jim Parker, . . . head
of Boston’s neuro-surgical clinic said . . . injuries had caused . . . irreparable
damage. 6. . .. race marshal was hit by . . . wreckage during . . . accident.
7. . . . temples of Pagan are . . . valuable source of. . . historical information
for . . . scholars and, of late, . . . tourists. 8. . . . explorer Marco Polo was
among those impressed by its splendour. 9. How do you treat. . . malaria?
10. The novel created. . . great sensation. 11. The plane came to . . . halt in ...
marshland adjoining .. . Kennedy Airport during . . . take off yesterday.
12. He was killed in . . . battle. 13. She is on . . . vacation in . . . Hebrides.
14. Unlike . . . wheat, . . . soybeans and . . . dairy products, which sustain
life, . . . tobacco causes . . . disease and . . . death. 15. ... tobacco industry
promotes . . . tobacco habit. 16. She’s not afraid to sit in . . . dark. 17. They
were sitting in . . . ring. 18. Don’t look . . . gift horse in . . . inouth. 19. ...
absent are always in . . . wrong. 20. What is . . . sauce for . . . goose, is . . .
sauce for. . . gander. 21. ... affection blinds . . . reason. 22. ... higher . . . ape
goes . . . more it shows its tail. 23. All is not at. . . hand that helps. 24. There
is not so bad . . . Gill, but there’s as bad . . . Will. 25. ... honey is sweet
but. . . bee stings. 26. ... belly full of. . . gluttony will never study willingly.
27. In . . . kingdom of. . . blind men,. . . one-eyed is . . . king. 28. ... crown
is no cure for . . . headache. 29. ... fish begins to stink at. . . head.

1. Mi s-a spus că azi dimineață s-a făcut un anunț special la radio. 2. Doc
torul Taylor lucrează într-un spital londonez lîngă teatrul Old Vic. 3. îi place
viața, dar nu a avut o viață prea interesantă. 4. Admirăm cu toții ordinea și
disciplina și detestăm haosul și dezordinea. 5. Ce vă faceți dacă nu găsiți var
și ciment? 6. Ar trebui să stai în casă cînd vremea e ploioasă. 7. Omenirea a
visat întotdeauna să exploreze spațiul cosmic. 8. Organizația Națiunilor Unite
urmărește realizarea unității între state și depășirea barierelor pe care le ridică
viața politică, diferența de naționalitate, rasă și cultură. 9. Fasolea, oricum
ai găti-o, tot gust de fasole are. 10. Leul face parte din familia felinelor. 11. Cît
e ora? 12. O interesează studiul naturii, dar nu neglijează natura umană.
13. Poeții ar trebui să cînte demnitatea omului. 14. E bun profesor? 15. Călă
toreau ziua/noaptea. 16. Rîsul este mai mare decît pisica. 17. Vă declar soț și
soție. 18. Fluviul a fost venerat de poeți, țărani și muzicieni. 19. După toamnă
vine iarna. 20. Stă prost cu sănătatea. 21. în ultimii 40 de ani monumentele
de marmură de pe Acropole au avut mai mult~?e ~suTerîUdin cauza poluării
decît în"ultimele patru secole? 227Tare ăș vfesTsa'ăm’uh taKIoifTun de Baba.
23. Deținuții comunișTî ^rau transportați dintr-o închisoare în alta, pentru a-i
împiedica să se organizeze. 24. în drum spre casă, domnul X, președintele
recentei reuniuni a apicultorilor, care a avut loc la Suceava, în Nordul Moldovei,
va face o scurtă escală la aeroportul internațional Otopeni.

1. Aseară a avut loc premiera unei noi opere de Ion Dumitrescu. 2. Regulile
fiu sînt făcute pentru a fi încălcate. 3. îți doresc mult noroc! 4. Grîul se macină
pentru a obține făină. 5. I s-a cerut să servească drept interpret. 6. Noi trebuie
nA inspirăm tineretului sentimentul datoriei. 7. Nu traduceți textul cuvînt cu
rjivînt. 8. Creangă s-a născut în satul Humulești. 9. Au oferit un cocteil la
rest aurantul Athenee Palace. 10. Locuiesc aproape de podul Grozăvești. 11. Nu
Mcrieți cu creionul, scrieți cu cerneală. 12. îl considerăm sportiv bun. 13. Intrați,
vfi rog, cite unul. 14. N-aș vrea să o pun față în față cu el. 15. Nu pe Broadway
nr văd spectacolele cele mai interesante. 16. Meseria de olar nu este o raritate
In România. 17. Tîrgoviște, oraș cunoscut pentru monumentele sale istorice,
vn deveni In curînd un puternic centru industrial. 18. Nu sînt în măsură să vă
apun dacă aceste metode au fost introduse pe scară largă. 19. De regulă li se
spune oamenilor să viziteze Muzeul Britanic, Mănăstirea Westminster, Piața
Piccadilly și Galeria Tate. 20. Dacă va fi numit director, o să încurajeze tinerii
specialiști.
exercise 19. Translate into English paying attention to the use of articles in
English set-phrases:
1. Am să-ți spun altă dată, acum mă grăbesc. 2. Ar trebui să lucrezi mult
și să-ți termini experiențele. 3. Nu pot să vin la tine căci mă doare capul îngro
zitor. 4. îmi pare rău dar te-ai făcut de rîs. 5. Cu puțin timp în urmă I-am văzut
și pe fratele ei. 6. De ce face atîta caz de succesul lui? 7. Lui Tom i-ar place să se
plimbe cu bicicleta ta. 8. E timpul să pui capăt acestei situații ridicole. 9. Regret
dar nu sînt în măsură să-ți spun.

1. Nici nu-mi vine să cred că materialul acesta costă 3 lire metrul. 2. Dan
clnta la vioară 6 ore pe zi. 3. Ne întîlnim o dată pe săptămînă la hanul „Pasul
Oituz“. 4. Aș dori jumătate de duzină de ace. 5. Acest vers trebuie spus cu
voce tare și sigură. 6. Ce făptură ciudată! 7. Faptul că nu vorbește limbi
străine îl dezavantajează. 8. Aceasta a fost într-adevăr o surpriză! 9. O duzină
de ace costă un penny. 10. Lasă-1 în pace! E furios. 11. Ei n-or să ne dea dic
ționarul în schimbul cărților cu poze. 12. Apartamentul 3 e la parter. 13. Tre
nul a sosit la timp. 14. Substantivul “rickets” este urmat de un verb la singu
lar. 15. Nu găsea cuvîntul de care avea nevoie să-și exprime nemulțumirea.

„Ipu adună armele, le duce în ascunzătoarea lor, pune capacul și acoperă
totul cu pămînt și iarbă; mă ia apoi de mînă și pornim spre firul gălbui al apei
și cu cît ne apropiem cu atît sîntem mai atenți. Ne uităm de unde bate vîntul
și unde e soarele și unde e apa“.
(Titus Popovici — „Moartea lui Ipu“)
Other Determinatives
exercise 1. Make up sentences in the table below. Note that the items listed
in the first column are interchangeable with the definite, indefinite or the zero
article and that they are all mutually exclusive:
a)
the
my, your, etc.
this (N sg)
(N mass)
these (N pl) visit is a big event for her
no drills are difficult
whose (?) wine has been spilt
which (?)
(much) (N mass)
b)
a / an
every
each visit is a big event for her
either book will do
neither
0 (N mass) 1
some > wine will do
any J
0 1 wine has been drunk ...
enough J
0 (N pl)
some bridges collapsed
any Did ... bridges collapse?
0
enough only he has given ... examples
exercise 2. Make up sentences in the table below. Note the items that can
precede the definite article (or possessive or demonstrative determinatives)
and the patterns of their combinations:
all ) 0 visits can bo boring

both / [the
(of) < my,.. . visits were enjoyable
(those
[the
half (of) < my,... visits were enjoyable
(those
a third of the visits were big events for her

two sixths of the
five times the 1 amount (is needed for__ )

double this/
twice a day / week / month / year / term .. .

every / each
what a lovely creature!
a dull book!
such 0 rotten weather 1
exercise 3. Make up sentences in the table below:
some
few (of the) visits were annoying to her
most
several
(continuare )
enough (of the) I cake has been left... |

little 1
much
/each / either / of the visits will flatter her

neither
\each / either / visit will flatter her
neither
exercise 4. Make up sentences in the table below noting the behaviour of car
dinal numerals in combinations with certain determinatives:
three (of the) visitors wore pink dresses

the three visitors made a lot of noise 1
everv three visitors brought flowers i
all (the) seven visitors left before five
exercise 5. Make up sentences in the table below. Note the non-optionality

of one in combinations with every:
every visit
every one of the visits
each
either
neither visit
any (one) of the visits tired her
which (?)
exercise 6. Add the I of the when necessary; state when of or of the are
optional:
1. Both . . . kids have much talent. 2. He would have taken half . . . time
you took. 3. Two thirds . . . salaries are “out of this world”. 4. Did you read
all... book? 5. There’s too much... bickering in international politics.
6. Every one ... six little monkeys was given an injection. 7. It is half. . . size
of this country. 8. A few . . . twenty tourists are injured. 9. Each . . . students
took his share in the work. 10. She took a little . . . jam. 11. Both . . . these
people were resolved to treat her well. 12. How much is six times . . . value
of this painting? 13. Five. . .tourists detest drawn-out departures. 14. The
place is mentioned in all. . . guidebooks.
exercise 7. Fill in the blanks with the necessary possessive determinative or

the definite article. Note that possessive determinatives are the rule with nouns
denoting parts of the body, articles of clothing or any other nouns denoting
inalienable possession. But in sentences containing activity verbs, the affected
part of the body is preceded by the definite article when the structure of the
verbal group is: Vb + smb-j-P-j-the+part of the body:
1. I was struck with the expression of. . . face. 2. The waist of the coat
was below. . . hips. 3. The dog bit him in . . . leg. 4. I could not hide . . . curio
sity as to . . . origin, . . . life. 5. He struck me on . . . head. 6. I could hear . . .
teeth grinding in . . . jaws and . . . faces were so pale that I grew alarmed for . . .
lives. 7. She kissed the baby on. . . forehead. 8. You look quite a sight in ... pink
dress. 9. Mrs. Slate took him by . . . hand and led him up to us. 10. We con
cealed . . . pleasure. 11. You’ll have to cut short. . . supper. 12. I know where
he stands in . . . profession. 13. It gave me a pain in . . . neck. 14. I was going
to take . . . nap anyway. 15. The thief was shot in . . . leg.
exercise 8. Restate the following sentences according to the model:

model: a. All of the money is in cash. The money is all in cash.
b. Both of the cars have been overhauled. The cars have both been
overhauled.
c. Each of the boys brings a gift. The boys each bring a gift.
1. All of the towels disappeared. 2. Both of the children are taking violin
lessons. 3. Each of the participants receives a card. 4. All of the scarves came
from India. 5. Both of the boys can do with a haircut. 6. Each of the typists
should be given a trial. 7. Both the students looked bored to tears. 8. All of
the witnesses lost their tongue. 9. Each of the guests wants an icecream. 10. All
of the tenants say you’re a laugh.
exercise 9. Substitute every-f-singular noun for $3X-\-plural noun. Make the

necessary changes:
1. The explosion broke all the glasses. 2. That’s the sort of job that all
the students like doing. 3. That is my favourite pastime all Sundays. 4. All the
men were thinking hard. 5. The students have filled in all the blanks correctly.
6. All medals are made of metal. 7. All winds are ill to broken ships. 8. All men
cannot be masters. 9. All Stuarts are not sib to the king. 10. All things have
their place.
exercise 10. Supply each, every or all ;

Note that all is typically used in a collective sense while each and every are
distributive, (e.g. He rang her up every {each day.) Each, unlike every directs
our attention to the individuals, taken one by one. (e.g. ‘Good evening', he said
with a separate bow to each person.) Each is the rule when reference is made to
mily two items (e.g. each of the two books[girls). Every is the rule whenever
I here is a numeral (e.g. every five days):
1. Wages differ with . . . job. 2. Write down . . . item you buy and . . .
penny you spend for a week. 3. ... women go in for trinckets. 4. One of the
efleets of higher education should be to develop in . . . student a greater sense
id' responsibility. 5. . . . member union sends delegates to the conference. 6.
. . . warmth is sentimental. 7. It is not easy to find the right job . . . time.
8? . . . man has some secret in his life. 9.1 enjoyed . . . minute of it. 10. ... the
leaves had fallen. 11. ... project lasts for one to four weeks. 12. ... (of) the oil
; — Limba cngiezA pentru adm. In Inv. superior 33
has been shipped. 13. A new film is released . . . three weeks. 14. He was sitting
with a child on . . . side of him. 15. ... oak has been an acorn. 16. It takes . . .
sorts to make a world. 17. In . . . art it is good to have a master. 18. ... bird
loves to hear himself sing. 19. ... man has the defects of his qualities. 20. He
was to . . . appearance(s) dead.
exercise 11. Fill in the blanks with all, both, each;

a) 1. Peter, George and Don are three boys who live in the same block of
flats but they ... go to a different school. 2. Peter and George are . . . very
good at mathematics, but Don is better at physics. 3. They are . . . good at
work, and they have . . . won several prizes. 4. Peter and Don have . . . decided
to go to a university, but George hopes to become a pilot. 5. They are . . . very
well known in the neighbourhood.
b) 1. Andy, Billy and Cyril . . . met at four. 2. Darrin and Myrtle . . . spoke
at once. 3. Daisy and Tom . . . dined out. 4. Ali, Joe and Tom . . . weigh more
than two hundred pounds. 5. Dick,' Jack and Rusty . . . ate alone.
exercise 12. Fill in the blanks with some, any or no;

1. . . . person or other has spotted us. 2. I’ll see you . . . day next week.
3. ... morning sun lasts a whole day. 4. She is forbidden to do . . . washing.
5. Come at. . . time you like. 6. He might make it as ambassador to . . . remote
country. 7. . . . two men are alike. 8. She is . . . friend of mine. 9. Can you
give me . . . lunch? 10. I have . . . hesitation in saying that it was worth it.
11. ‘What troubles her?’ ‘The impossibility of giving them. . . education.’
12. It’s . . . trick to make a lot of money. 13. I don’t owe . . . man a penny.
14. Let’s have . . . beer and crab cakes. 15. That’s a town of. . . importance.
16. The fire will cover . . . evidence. 17. ... Japanese sculptures have found
their way to the town’s museum. 18. He affects it has . . . importance whatever.
19. I’ll abandon . . . claim. 20. Did he have . . . excuse?
exercise 13. Fill in the blanks with some or any;

Note that some is typically used in affirmative sentences, while any is
typically used in interrogative sentences, conditional clauses and sentences
with a negated verb or containing words of the type: never, neither, nor, hardly,
seldom; adjectives like reluctant, hard, difficult or other adjectives with too;
verbs like to prevent, to deny, to fail.
Some can replace any in interrogative and negative sentences or conditional
clauses, when the basic meaning is assertive or when one makes an offer or
an invitation.
Any can be used in affirmative sentences, but with a change of meaning:
1. If he gives . . . trouble, we will call his parents. 2. I have hardly . . .
doubt that he did it. 3. If you would lend me . . . money I should buy myself
a dictionary. 4. I had . . . pills recommended me the other day. 5. If you find
us . . . chairs, we’ll sit on the terrace. 6. They failed to turn out. . . nice
dress. 7. ... of the sketches are very good. 8. He has scarcely . . . friends in
this town. 9. If you had . . . time left, you could visit the Village Museum.
10. Are you sure you don’t want me to make . . . coffee? 11. She denied that
she had sold . . . records to him. 12. Would you like . . . more salmon? 13. If
you have . . . doubts, ask for further explanations. 14. It occurred to him that
her neighbour would, if he had . . . knowledge of the accident, be very alarmed
to see him there. 15. He doubted whether it had . . . melody for the other listen
ers. 16. At . . . instant he might burst in upon him. 17. No girl with . . . sense
gets tired of such a good man. 18. May we have ... entertainment, too ?
19. Neither of them made . . . offer to buy the rug. 20. The test was too difficult
for him to give . . . correct answers. 21. Did the film lay claim to having . . .
sort of political message?
exercise 14. Supply some, (a) little, (a) few, much, many;
Note that much and many are typically used in interrogative and negative
sentences, while in affirmative sentences they may form part of the subject
or come after too or very:
1. As she was still hungry, she asked for . . . more ham and eggs. 2. Last
year I spent the New Year’s Eve at the seaside; there were . . . people on the
beach. 3. Are there . . . lions at the Zoo? 4. Have . . . salmon 1 5. Did you have
. . . difficulties in translating the text? 6. The tea is too sour, you have put
too . . . lemon in it. 7. There are . . . letters for you today. 8. . . . Europeans
spend their holiday in Brasil. 9. There are . . . fine shops in this street. 10. His
lectures provide . . . opportunity for discussion. 11. ‘It won’t, sir’, he said
with . . . firmness. 12. ... of my knowledge was dated. 13. The workers’
meeting bore . . . resemblance to their noisy assemblies. 14. He is familiar
with ... of the museums in this country. 15. ... coin, . . . care. 16. ...
wealth, . . . care. 17. There’s very . . . accomodation near the colleges.
18. Very . . . ideas get farther than the inventor.
exercise 15. Complete these sentences with (much) less, (far) fewer, most,
more;
1. It is a fact that the universities received . . . applications from students
intending to study humanities. 2. Now that we have a regular bus-service . . .
time is wasted. 3. We wonder why there is . . . demand for this model of sewing
machine than there used to be. 4. Now that the road regulations are stricter
there will be . . . accidents. 5. Because of the fuel shortage . . . car-owners have
taken to bus-riding. 6. Customers showed . . . patience than usual when taking
delayed delivery of the goods. 7. We’ll discuss this in . . . detail later. 8. In . . .
cases there was no mark on the body of the victims. 9. There are . . . adobe
houses being built these days than twenty years ago. 10. If she is on the fat
side she should eat. . . bread, . . . sweets, and . . . fruit. 11. With . . . win
dows the house would be warmer. 12. I wonder who has made . . . mistakes?
exercise 16. Fill in the blanks with (a) little/(a) little of the, (a) few/(a) few
of the, much of the, many/many of the;
1. There is too . . . flour left for the pancakes. 2. He has looked over .... let
ters. 3. There are still. . . people stubbornly waiting for the doctor. 4. Tractors
now do . . . work formerly done by the farmers. 5. People usually have . . .
money left by the end of the holiday. 6. Mrs. Kean has planted . . . rose-bushes
I have sent her. 7. I think we’re going to break our journey and stay . . . days
in Copenhagen. 8. May I have ... jam, please? 9. He has squandered...
money his father has left him. 10. Now that she has had . . . lessons her pro
nunciation has greatly improved. 11. There were . . . unoccupied seats when
he arrived. 12. ... wine today is made scientifically. 13. Regretably, . . .
free time I have is devoted to visiting relatives. 14. ... people I stopped had
heard of Half Moon Lane. 15. We can do without . . . things you’ve listed.
exercise 17. Make up sentences according to the table:

Note the possibility of using various quantitative expressions to replace
much or many in affirmative sentences:
I There is heaps of food in the pantry

bags of time / room / money
mountains of work to get through
a great deal of trouble ahead
a great amount of money in the bank
lots of money in the business
a lot of time / independent judgement /knowledge
involved
plenty of time / room / money
There are / lots of workers on strike

were a lot of minor mistakes in your paper
plenty of inspired artists
a great / large number of students protesting about the fees
a good many people waiting outside
exercise 18. Choose the correct expressions on the left of the sentence:
a good deal of 1. There is . . . fog tonight. Drive carefully.
much 2. I need . . . money.
a couple of 3. We visited . . . the museums as the time was
lots of short.
a few of 4. My son got. . . presents on his birthday.
neither of 5. I hope we’ll have ... ice next Saturday.
several 6. The readers need . . . light.
less 7. It takes . . . courage to fight catching diseases.
enough 8. Mother takes pride in . . . her children.
half
more
each
a great deal of
all
each of
most
1. Nu e nici un pic de lapte în casă? 2. Unele cărți sînt chiar ieftine. 3. Ați
fost obligați să închideți vreun pavilion? 4. Orice colecție se poate mîndri cu
acest tablou. 5. A părăsit conferința aparent fără nici un motiv. 6. Nu știu
dacă vreunul din musafirii noștri s-a odihnit puțin înainte de masă. 7. Dacă
ai cîteva benzi recente putem să dăm o petrecere. 8. Jocul lui nu are nici o
încărcătură emoțională. 9. Nu vrei să te servești și cu curcan? 10. N-a făcut
progrese mai de loc. 11. Mă îndoiesc că a luat vreo pastilă. 12. Nu-i așa că ți-am
dat niște bani și ieri? 13. Nu mi se întîmplă niciodată să văd o florăreasă fără
să cumpăr flori. 14. Nu a ascultat niciodată nici o bandă de-a mea. 15. Plouă
prea tare ca să plantăm vreo floare în dimineața asta.

1. Toți banii sînt în monede fără valoare. 2. Amîndoi copiii au nevoie de
ochelari. 3. Fiecăruia dintre musafiri i s-a dat o floare. 4. S-au vîndut toate
discurile. 5. Amîndoi copiii sînt extrem de conștiincioși. 6. Toți prietenii noștri
au fost luați la bord. 7. Fiecare membru al expediției ar trebui să încerce să se
odihnească puțin. 8. Amîndoi vînătorii au venit acasă cu mîna goală. 9. Fie
care dintre cei trei șoferi a fost amendat cu cincizeci de lei. 10. Din cauza ceței
s-au suspendat toate cursele aeriene. 11. Și Boots și Rusty și Fatty sînt foarte
buni la istorie. 12. în familia Brown fiecare are cercul lui de prieteni.
1. Puține întreceri sportive sînt privite cu mai mare seriozitate. 2. Mulți
dintre muncitorii uzinei noastre urmează la seral. 3. Majoritatea timpului se
poartă cu mine de parcă aș fi sora ei mai mică. 4. Niște prieteni de-ai noștri
stau la noi cîteva zile; trebuie neapărat să-i cunoști pe toți. 5. N-o invidiez deși are
o groază de bani. 6. Sînt bani mulți la bancă? 7. Peter are timp berechet, dar
nu știe să-i folosească cum trebuie. 8. Ei or să facă foarte multe cadouri de
Anul Nou. 9. Am multă încredere în tine. 10. Doar trei zile ne despart de con
ferință, dar sînt încă foarte multe lucruri de făcut. 11. A existat o oarecare
rigiditate în timpul repetiției. 12. Pe mulți oameni îi interesează postul de
radio local. 13. Cîteva ziare au inserat reportaje despre acest șantier. 15. Timpul
probabil pentru mîine: vreme însorită în majoritatea localităților. 16. Se pot
face multe studii arheologice în Dobrogea. 16. Noi exportăm o cincime din fil
mele noastre. 17. Nu prea sînt speranțe să se facă bine. 18. Mă duc în dormitor
să mă odihnesc puțin înainte să mă schimb pentru spectacol. 19. Pe mai
puțini oameni îi interesează astăzi viețile artiștilor. 20. Filmul a dat naștere la
multe controverse.
The Adjective
exercise 1. Attach the appropriate adjective-forming suffix to each of the fol
lowing nouns:
-arian thought soldier
-ed lady chill
-ful ice hope
-ish Turk day
-less Parliament plenty
See next page as well:
-like harm wood
-ly fog self
-some Swede brother
-y speech child
chalk love
snob fool
wind point
authority heaven
ghost
month
delight
wall
hour
rest
exercise 2. Give the adjectives in -ial/-ieai/-ic or -ous corresponding to the

following nouns:
anxiety, atom, philosophy, fame, music, industry, emphasis, suspicion,
heroism, diplomat.
EXERCISE 3. Attach the appropriate adjective-forming suffix to each of the

following verbs:
-able verify
refresh
-ful submit
encourage
-ing move
mourn
-ive possess
attract
comfort
forget
advise
excite
break
exercise 4. Choose the appropriate adjective. Note that -ie alternates with
-ical with a difference of meaning:
1. I am fond of classic I classical languages. 2. Caragiale’s play “The Lost
Letter’" is a comic I comical masterpiece. 3. Everybody has realized that
big cars are not economic / economical to run. 4. It has taken long years of
historic I historical research to gather all the data about this historic / historical
building. 5. The Royal Ballet’s performance of “The Nut-cracker” was a clas
sic/ classical one. 6. Romania’s economic / economical performance is no
longer considered a miracle. 7. She was quite a sight with that comic / co
mical old hat on. 8. Many an innocent man has gone to the electric / electrical
chair. 9. He is quite an expert in electric / electrical engineering.
exercise 5. Form sentences with the following collocations containing adjectives
derived from participles:
model: a) I’ve done for her what no living man has ever done.
b) A restaurant on a revolving platform is no longer a curiosity
nowadays.
a) no living man; the wisest man breathing; the results obtained; the sum
required.
b) a revolving platform; the coming events; the remaining members; the
surrounding walls; an investigating committee.
exercise 6. Make two columns: a) past participles; b) adjectives derived from

irregular past participles of the same verbs:
stricken, died, drunk, shaved, dead, loaded, cleft, cloven, melted, beloved,
sunk, swelled, drunken, struck, loved, sunken, shaven, molten, swollen, laden.
exercise 7. Group the adjectives listed below under the three heads of the
table.
Note that there are two regular ways of marking the category of comparison
in English; a) by means of -er in the comparative and (the) -est in the super
lative (the synthetic comparison) with monosyllabic adjectives; b) by
means of the periphrastic forms with more and (the) most (the analytic com
parison), in case of plurisyllabic adjectives. A series of monosyllabic adjectives,
such as: calm, cross, fit, fond, frank, scarce, grave, prompt display both patterns.
Many disyllabic adjectives display both patterns too. It is typically the case
with adjectives ending in -y, -ow, -le, -er such as: clumsy, sallow, humble, clever,
as well as the following adjectives: handsome, common, polite, quiet, pleasant*
precise, sincere etc.
sly, wicked, convenient, foolish, active, vague, afraid, common, red, wound
ed, thin, pretty, startling, stupid, big, healthy, correct, alive, fertile, worthy,
pleasant, minute, eager, cruel, tiring, remote, early, comic, simple, easy,
tender, low, calm, sore, fast, just, docile, proper, distinct, high, sincere.
a) -er b) more-f-Adj. c) a) -er; (the) -est /

(the) -est (the) most+Adj. b) more + Adj. (the)
most + Adj.
exercise 8. Provide the irregular degrees of comparison of the following adjec

tives. Remember that some of them have two forms of degrees of comparison:
1. good, 2. bad I ill, 3. little, 4. near, 5. much / many, 6. far, 7. late, 8. old.
exercise 9. Use the correct form of the adjectives in brackets:

1. What is the (late) information you’ve got? 2. Her (old) brother is called
Jim. 3. We were in a hurry to catch the (late) bus. 4. Which is (old) of the two?
5. Who is the (old) member of the students’ club? 6. They got down to business
without (far) delay. 7. I’ve got a still (old) edition of the dictionary. 8. The
(old) sister was twenty years (old) than the youngest. 9. The (late) half of May
was quite rainy. 10. I was told to wait until (far) notice. 11. I wish I had
bought it at the (near) shop. 12. He provided them with (far) information as
agreed. 13. The (near) station is Calea Victoriei. 14. John’s (late) novel was
a (good) seller and for sure it won’t be his (late) one. 15. He is the (little) writer
of the two. 16. I saw him meet her at the (far) end of the street. 17. I shall
need (far) help with this.
exercise 10. Supply the appropriate form of the adjectives given in brackets:
1. This is the . . . book I have read for a long time (good). 2. He has one
of the . . . cars on the road (fast). 3. The work you are doing today is . . . than
the work you did yesterday (easy). 4. Ann often wears . . . dresses than her
mother (expensive). 5. Which is the . . . play you have lately read? (interest
ing). 6. The actress on the stage was the . . . girl I have ever seen (striking).
7. Tom is . . . than his friend (tall). 8. They have a . . . garden than ours
(lovely). 9. He said this was the . . . day in his life (important). 10. He was . . .
than his wife when the child broke the window (angry). 11. He was the . . .
man in the world to do that (late). 12. A: 4Which was your . . . subject at
school and which was your . . . (good, bad)?’ B: ‘Physics was my . . . and
history my.. .(good, bad).’ 13. Is Bucharest or Prague the . . . from London
(far)? 14. Tom is 17 years old, his brother Jack is 19 and his sister Jane is 15.
Therefore Jane is the . . . and Jack is the . . . (young, old).
exercise 11. Complete the following sentences with the suitable forms of the com'
parativeof a) equality b) superiority c) inferiority of the italicized adjectives:
1. John’s paper is . . . good . . . Tom’s paper. 2. The door is . . . narrow . . .
the window. 3. Tony is . . . industrious. . . his closest friend. 4. A dress is . . .
expensive ... a blouse. 5. Ann is . . . gentle . . . her younger sister. 6. His solu
tion is . . . simple . . . mine. 7. This joint is . . . tender . . . veal.
exercise 12. Supply the comparative form of the adjectives given in brackets.
Note that the meaning of the pattern the comparative of Adjective . . . , the
comparative of Adjective is cu cit. . . cu atlt:
1. The (long) the speech is, the (tedious) it is. 2. The (weak) the patient,
the (great) his dependence on the nurse. 3. The (stormy) the weather, the
(dangerous) the trip. 4. The (humble) a man is, the (haughty) her manner
becomes. 5. The (scarce) the food is getting, the (wild) the beasts become.
6. The (prompt) the answer, the (high) the grade. 7. The (proper) the word,
the (exact) the translation is. 8. The (narrow) the path was getting, the (hostile)
the horse was becoming. 9. The (eager) the child, the (intricate) the questions
he asks. 10. The (fertile) the land, the (little) the amount of fertilizer given
to it.
exercise 13. Use the comparative of the adjectives given in brackets with an
emphatic meaning.
This meaning is typically rendered in the case of a) monosyllabic adjectives
by repeating the comparative form of the respective adjective and in the case of
b) plurisyllabic adjectives by repeating more, Note that you can also use (by)
far or ever, or much before the comparative with an intensifying force:
model: a) (Great) attention is being paid to gymnastics.
Greater and greater /by far greater/ ever greater attention is
being paid to gymnastics.
b) It sounds (appealing).
It sounds more and more/ever more / far more / much more
appealing.
1. Her words are becoming (sharp). 2. They are getting (excited). 3. Don’t
count on him to do it before. He is getting (tired). 4. His face was growing
(dark). 5. It’s becoming (important) to rely on our own experts. 6. Her voice
was growing (loud). 7. It is becoming (plain) that he is involved. 8. As buses
are becoming (fast), we’re growing (idle). 9. His pace is (slow). 10. Fines are
(stiff).

1. Lucrul cel mai simplu ar fi să trimiți un bilet. 2. Care dintre ei doi e
mai stîngaci? 3. Ia-o pe poteca cea mai îngustă. 4. Spune-i ce crezi, dar evită
să-i faci reproșuri dintre cele mai amare. 5. încearcă să pari mai interesat.
6. O casă la periferie e mai liniștită decît un apartament în centru. 7. Nu sesi
zează niciodată lucrurile mai subtile. 8. Este o muncitoare mai serioasă decît
Ann. 9. îi e mai frică decît mie. 10. Interesîndu-se în continuare, află că ea
căzuse la examen. 11. N-am evitat decît beleaua cea mai mică (din cele două
belele). 12. Tu ești în măsură să știi că am trecut și prin lucruri mai rele.

1. Erai mai ocupat decît mine la vremea aceea? 2. El nu e așa de înalt ca
fratele său. 3. După părerea mea, ea trebuie să fie mai bătrînă decît el. 4. Asta
a fost cea mai caldă zi de pînă acum. 5. E mai mare sau mai mic decît dormito
rul nostru? 6. Ana este cea mai timidă prietenă a fiicei noastre. 7. Parcă este
mai puțin frig decît anul trecut pe vremea aceasta. 8. Am două portocale, ia-o
pe cea mai mare. 9. Copiii vecinului nostru sînt mai gălăgioși decît ai noștri.
10. Hotelul acela era mult mai elegant. 11. Un televizor portabil este mai greu
decît un tranzistor. 12. A fost pe departe cea mai plăcută vacanță pe care am
pelrecut-o vreodată la munte iarna.

1. Deși fratele meu e mai în vîrstă decît mine cu trei ani, pare mult mai
l inăr decît mine. 2. în mod cu totul surprinzător, cea de a doua jumătate a Iui
iu lie a fost foarte rece. 3. Deocamdată acestea sînt ultimele noutăți; să sperăm
că o să ne mai parvină și alte detalii. 4. Este adevărat că romanul polițist care
ii apărut recent este ultima Dvs. operă? Intenționați să nu mai scrieți? 5. Mi-am
dat seama din primul moment că vrei să intri în clădirea alăturată care era
du fapt cea mai apropiată bancă din acea parte a orașului. 6. Am avut de ales
Intra Sinaia și Breaza. Am optat pentru prima, bineînțeles. 7. Cu cît vocea lui
devine mai aspră cu atît ea devine mai docilă. 8. El e din ce în ce mai discret
pe măsură ce ea e tot mai pusă pe rele. 9. Nici c-am văzut om mai frumos!
10. Exprimă acest lucru în cuvinte mai simple.
exercise 17. Use the following adjectives in pattern a) and/or bJ, illustrating
the attributive and predicative function of this class. Note that most adjectives can
fill these two positions, but some subclasses of adjectives can only be used attribu-
tively:
— intensifying adjectives (pure, sheer, definite, clear, mere, plain, utter,
total, perfect, true, etc.);
— restrictive adjectives (the same, the only, the main, the exact, the precise,
the very, etc.);
— former, present, past, possible, old (an old friend).
Other subclasses of adjectives can only be used predicatively:
— well, unwell, ill
— most of a- adjectives (afraid, asleep, ablaze, awake etc.)
1. a. a . . . man (hungry) 2. a. a . . . fool (mere)

b. the man is . . . b. a fool is . . .
3. a. the . .. boy (asleep) 4. a. an . . . folly (utter)
b. the boy is . . . b. a folly is . ..
5. a. the . . . student (very) 6. a. a . . . scientist (true)
b. the student is . b. a scientist is . . .
7. a. the . . . girl (beautiful) 8. a. the . . . soldier (alive)
b. the girl is . . . b. the soldier is . . .
9. a. the . . . baby (ill) 10. a. the . . . worker (hard)
b. the baby is . . . b. the worker is . . .
11. a. his . . . excuse (chief) 12. a. the . . . wall (stone)
b. his excuse is. . , b. the wall is . . .
13. a. the . . . woman (unwell) 14. a. the . . . house (ablaze)
b. the woman is . . b. the house is . . .
15. a. a . . . child (particular) 16. a. his . .. friend (former)
b. a child is . . . b. his friend is . . .
17. a. the . . . girl (clever) 18. a. the . . . solution (only)
b. the girl is . . . b. the solution is . .
exercise 18. Form sentences in the table below noting that the adjectives in
the second column can only be used attributively :
Adj. N.
We can do perfect idiots

without mere lip-service
sheer recklessness
total destruction
possible counter-examples
iron bars
wollen skirts
the same old stories
exercise 19. Make up sentences according to the model, paying attention to
the order of adjectives in attributive position:
Det. Quality Size Shape Age Colour | Material

Origin Noun
a few long narrow red and triangles

black
a nice big rectan old green Chinese silk carpet
gular
a nice young Greek nurse
cheerful
a beautiful 1 white wooden horse
the slender 18th black Venetian gondolas
century
the little painted stone pagodas
grey
a lot fragrant red cooking
of apples
a luxurious white Roman carved bathtub
marble
thin ' oval white silk shades
| her best long !1 cream- velvet evening
i coloured dress |
।
exercise 20. Give the correct succession of the adjectives in the following noun
phrases:
1. a/an (blue, washable, good, cotton) skirt; 2. (blue, frightened, small)
eyes; 3. a/an (Asiatic, large, striped) quadruped; 4. (cold, turbulent, greyish,
deep) waters; 5. (volcanic, dark, tall) rocks; 6. a (Greek, young, bright) stu
dent; 7. a/an (fifteen-foot, pale-red, age-old) brickwall; 8. a/an (little, marble,
Roman, brownish) statue; 9. a/an (intelligent, Polish, wiry, elderly) logician;
10 a/an (fluffy, orange, wide, wollen, Peruvian) shawl.
exercise 21. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate preposition.

Note that some adjectives when used in their predicative function can be
followed by a) a prepositional phrase (e.g. The boy is delighted with his task)\
b) an infinitival phrase (e.g. I am pleased to see you) or c) by a clause (e.g.
He was aware that he had made a blunder). A number of adjectives may occur
with all these types of construction (e.g. afraid):
1. George was not at all pleased . . . the offer, on the contrary he was
quite indignant... it. 2. He has hardly been satisfied . . . my performance
recently. 3. Nobody is afraid . . . spiders. 4. We are all impatient. . . delay.
5. I was shocked . .. the news of their defeat. 6. What are you glad . . . ?
7. Don’t be sorry . . . me. 8. Don’t be so eager . . . your progress. 9. Tom is
rather eager. . . success. 10. We were surprised . . . the bitterness of your
reply. 11. I’m angry. . . myself for having missed the train. 12. He looked
astonished . . . the news. 13. He was angry . . . being mistaken for his brother.
exercise 22. Form sentences according to the model. (See the note to the pre
vious exercise):
I’m afraid
He was angry to be told the same thing

bored hear her laugh
furious find she had done nothing about it
indignant
astonished
You are glad to rest for a couple of days

content be offered a prize
happy be promoted
delighted
satisfied,
impatient
eager
She is reluctant to agree with her teacher

willing comply with her sister’s wishes
inclined spoil her husband
disposed
exercise 23. Form sentences in the following table. See the note to Ex. 21:
Adj. Conj. Clause
afraid he had made a blunder

angry there was no escape for him
shocked it had blown off
sad
He was confident that was the best move

glad (that) there were better things in store
happy for him
pleased he would be appointed manager
not aware it had happened

convinced he had neglected her before
disappointed he had hurt her feelings
certain
sorry
exercise 24. Form sentences in the following table. See the note to Ex. 21;
why Nick meets her

where Nick left it
Ted is not sure when Nick left her
what you’re doing

where you put up
Be careful how you carry it
when you start the engine
who(m) you talk to
exercise 25. Translate into English using the adjectives in brackets:
1. Mă tem că nu-i voi putea ajuta (afraid). 2. N-avea nici un chef să supra
vegheze copilul vecinei (reluctant). 3. Nu sînt sigur dacă i-am înțeles bine
sensul (sure). 4. Ți-e frică de cîini (afraid)? 5. Nu fi așa neliniștită în privința
examenului lui; o să-i treacă (anxious). 6. A fost fericit să-mi scrie eseul
(happy). 7. își pierde răbdarea cînd e vorba de ceremonii (impatient). 8. Mă
întristează faptul că n-ai fost la înălțimea așteptărilor (depressed). 9. Azi
nu-mi prea place mîncarea (happy). 10. Era atît de bucuroasă că fiica ei obți
nuse bursa încît plînse de bucurie (glad). 11. Era absolut indignat de faptul că
îl induseseră în eroare (indignant). 12. Sînt fericit că ai reușit (să vii) (happy).
13. Le-a părut rău cînd au auzit de accidentul soțului tău (sorry). 14. Ne dăm
seama că vom avea de întîmpinat greutăți (aware). 15. Le-a părut rău că soțul
tău suferise un accident (sorry). 16. Sîntem foarte fericiți că sînteți în mijlocul
nostru (glad). 17. Ai grijă să nu strici robinetul (careful). 18. Noi dorim pacea
și colaborarea între toate națiunile lumii (desirous).
The Pronoun
exercise 1. Substitute the corresponding personal pronoun(s) for the italicized

nouns:
model: Patricia is waiting for her cousin.

Patricia is waiting for her/him.
1. The boatjcar is sinking fast, isn’t... ? 2. One of Tom’s friends has got
into tho semifinals, hasn’t. . . ? 3. The child is hungry, isn’t . . . ? 4. Your
cousin is a boxer, isn’t. . . ? 5. The baby is asleep, isn’t . . . ? 6. The speaker
Im rather buxom, isn’t... ? 7. This boat/car is a beauty, isn’t. . . ? 8. The
French will speak highly of her, won’t. . . ? 9. My cousin is pretty, isn’t...?
10. ... were indeed a queer-looking party. 11. Your people do a lot of scientific
printing, don’t. . . ? 12.1 love this dog; . . . is very clever. 13. Have you watered
the horse? . . . looks rather restless. 14. Where can the shears be? Have you
given . . . away? 15. Hungary is at a disadvantage because . . . has no moun
tains to speak of. 16. I don’t like their baby because . . . cries in the night.
17. We cannot guarantee that the company will deliver the goods safely, but
we can hope that. . . will do so. 18. Celtic will play before a large audience
when . . . meet Chelsea next week. 19. I am angry with Dan’s teacher for . . .
kept him in for being late. 20. The new steel works will be commissioned next
month, won’t. . . ?
exercise 2. Put the pronouns between brackets in the correct case form:
Note that after prepositions pronouns are used in the accusative. Possible
exception: than and as can be followed both by the accusative and the nomi
native, because they are felt either as prepositions or conjunctions (e.g. Pat
is cleverer than he is j him). But and except also take both forms. Note also that
the accusative case is preferred in familiar style in verbless sentences (e.g.
'Who wrote this?'' 'Him?), in exclamatory sentences (e.g. Him carry the suit
cases 1) and when the pronoun is used as a predicate for purposes of identifi
cation (e.g. 'Who's there?' 'It's her'.):
1. This packet of cigarettes is for John and (I, me). 2. They are always
making jokes about (we, us). 3. My husband and (I, me) have not been well
recently. 4. You are as clever as (she, her). 5. “Who is it?” “It’s only (we, us),
(I, me) and my friend George.” 6. He has invited you and (I, me) to dinner.
7. I wouldn’t do it for the life of (I, me)I 8. Do you think (he, him) is cleverer
than (I, me)? 9. What! (I, me) angry! Surely, it’s (he, him) who is angry,
not (I, me)! 10. Was it (she, her) they were talking about? I think so, because
it is (she, her) who lost her bag. 11. It’s (he, him) you are hurting. 12. She said
she saw you and (I, me) last night. 13. There was an argument between (she,
her) and (he, him). 14. Nobody except (he, him) can solve the problem. 15. If
I were (he, him), I wouldn’t go on that trip. 16. No one but (she, her) is in the
secret. 17. You are as affectionate as (she, her). 18. If everyone behaved like
(I, me) there wouldn’t be any cause for worry.
exercise 3. Build up sentences according to the model:
model: He gave a ring (she).

a. He gave her a ring.
b. He gave a ring to her (not to Mary).
He said something (she).
b. He said something to her.
1. He offered a job (I). 2. Let me throw an orange (you). 3. I made a pro

posal (she). 4. I showed it (they). 5. They have built a house (for — we).
6. Darrin introduced Samantha (they). 7. He pronounced it (he) again. 8. Ho
was not very willing to lend the barrow (I). 9. Will you choose one (for — we)?
10. He translated the document (she) as he read it.
exercise 4. Complete the sentences in column A with the verbs or the adjectives
in column B in order to build up sentences with the impersonal pronoun it:
A B
a) 1. Sometimes it ... in summer. rains
2. It ... in winter. snows
3. It often ... in spring. drizzles
4. It usually ... in autumn. freezes
hails
b) 1. It is ... in spring. sunny
2. It is ... in summer. cool
3. It is ... in winter. hot
4. It is ... in the morning. fine
5. It is ... at night. chilly
wet
dry
windy
sultry
dark
cold
exercise 5. Render the following sentences emphatic by using the it was/is . . •

that/who construction with the italicized items:
model: Joe spotted him first.
It was Joe who spotted him first.
1. My younger brother suggested it. 2. He gave me the first copy of the
minutes. 3. I gave the bone to the dog. 4. He improved his English by hard
work. 5. She met him on her way home. 6. John goes to the swimming pool
every afternoon. 7. Mother gave the books to me. 8. George found the solution,
not Margaret. 9. Are they scared about an invasion? 10. He realized how
useful the girl might be when he accompanied the detective to his cousin's study.
11. His nerves were on edge, because Ann's method had been so odd. 12. The
man with a stick came first.
exercise 6. Supply it or there as necessary:

1. ... is time to go to bed. 2. ... is three miles to the Zoo. 3. ... is a
long time since I gave up smoking. 4. ... is so much work to do that I haven’t
limo to think about my own problems. 5. ... is time to finish the cleaning
before we go. 6. ... is very strange that they should have arrived at the same
time. 7. ... is no place like home. 8. ... is two years since they married.
0. ... is only a short way now. 10. Don’t eat that. ... is a poisonous mush
room. . . . are many of them in these parts. 11. ... is a shame that even
today . . . are so many unkempt gardens around. 12. ... is no time to stop
and talk. ... is a bus to catch, ... is a fair distance to the stop.
exercise 7. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word it or there:
1. ... is such a glorious night that I hate the idea of going to bed. 2. . . .
was on the tip of his tongue to tell her that he had seen her father less than
two hours before. 3. . . . was a fine drizzle of rain falling. 4. . . . had been a
witness to their early departure. 5. ... is a standing wonder to me why a
man like you should be content to have only one objective in life. 6. ... is
nothing so pathetic as your attempt to be interested in such subjects. 7. I can’t
imagine . . .’s going to be a war. 8. Though the house was not more than forty
feet from the road, . . . was a considerable time before he sighted it. 9. He
looked at his watch. 4... is time to transfer those things to my car’, he thought
to himself. 10. ... is something fishy going on there and ... is your job to
find out what. 11. ... is something to know that my fate is deplored by you.
12. ... was some time before I discovered what he was after.
exercise 8. Make sentences in the table below illustrating the anticipatory

function of the pronoun it;
a)
| Anticipated Subject
Predicate
it
would be a great idea to follow him.
would be a pity to abandon this project.
It makes them happy to see us doing well.
delighted him to be taken on a trip.
amazed her to learn that the bridge had collapsed.
surprised me to see him bully a child.
was a pity that you mistook her for Ann.

It ’s small wonder that you have fallen for her.
’s a fact that they were questioned for three hours,
’s a good thing that they were not caught in the storm,
was unfortunate that we lost touch.
is doubtful whether he’ll come or not.
is strange that he should give credit to this story,
1 is amazing how often one takes things for granted,
is possible that he may lodge a complaint against us.
is true that they live in style.
is obvious that he plays first fiddle.
’s no good pretending not to have heard,

’s no use crying over spilt milk.
It would not be any good keeping open house.
wasn’t much use his keeping a jealous eye on her.
was a difficult business finding our bearings.
b)
Verb anticipa adj. or N anticipated object
tory it
They thought it unwise to leave the cottage so late at night

considered a mistake to make fun of the conductor
I thought it childish for him to live in the clouds

considered a mistake for her to make friends with Sean
He thought it odd that I should call white black.

considered a pity that she should stand on the defensive.
exercise 9. Rephrase the following sentences by using the anticipatory pronoun

it, according to the model:
model:1. He is sure to come. It is sure that he’ll come.
2. They seemed to be on the best of terms. It seemed that they were
on the best of terms.
3. He was not easy to classify. It was not easy to classify him.
1. You seem to have survived the atmosphere very well. 2. She looks as
if she were about to faint. 3. We’re certain to miss the jokes. 4. They appear
to be in the know. 5. He is sure not to set the Thames on fire. 6. You are said
to have no feeling. 7. He is difficult to get along with. 8. She is known to have
no patience with fools. 9. You are sure to make a blunder. 10. I happen to
set no price by such things.
exercise 10. Make sentences using the patterns in the table below:
It is lovely to know that you’re loved.

was impossible to avoid associating them with Ryan’s accident.
hardly possible to keep such a promise.
necessary to explain his reasons.
disappointing to discover he was so English.
It was unusual for you to take sides with Ann.

hard him to wander from the subject,
wrong us to make amends for it.
necessary them
possible
exercise 11. Translate into English using the anticipatory pronoun it. See
Exercises 8 and 10;
1. Crezi că e prudent să stai așa de mult în soare (think — prudent) ?
2. Cred că e greșit să li se spună aceasta copiilor lui (think — wrong). 3. Ne-a
fost ușor să traversăm rîul înot (find — easy). 4. Poți să contezi pe noi că vom
Hosi la timp (rely on). 5. Au considerat o mare cinste să fie invitați la recepție.
(consider — honour) 6. Voi avea grijă ca copiii să fie bine îngrijiți (see to).
7. Directorul școlii a indicat clar că sînt necesare măsuri disciplinare deose
bite (make — clear). 8. Cred că e greșit din partea ta să renunți la studiul lim
bilor străine (think — wrong). 9. Am considerat o greșeală să învățăm cursurile
pe dinafară, (consider — a mistake). 10. Mi s-a părut ciudat ca el să facă exces
de zel (think — odd). 11. Poți fi sigur că o să-și flateze prietenul (depend
upon). 12. Ție îți datorez faptul că nu m-am făcut de rîs (owe).

1. Mie și mamei mele nu ne plac foarte tare dulciurile. 2. Mai e mult de
așteptat pînă la cină. 3. Spune că e tot atît de înaltă ca el. 4. Baia Mare e
departe. 5. Ei ne-au determinat să recenzăm cartea. 6. E cale lungă de la Cluj-
Napoca la Constanța. 7. Odihnește-te puțin; te așteaptă o călătorie lungă.
8. Dacă aș fi în locul ei aș face cerere să obțin acest post. 9. I-am explicat (ei)
cum stau lucrurile cît m-am priceput de bine. 10. Se pare că vei fi promovat.
11. Toată lumea a adus o probă de sînge în afară de mine. 12. Cu ei ești nedrept,
nu cu mine. 13. Astăzi e duminică; sîntem în 6 iulie; e vară. S-a înnorat din
nou; e zăpușeală; o să plouă. 14. Pregătesc o surpriză pentru tine și mine.
15. Trimite-mi un exemplar și mie. 16. Trimite-mi primul exemplar, te rog.
17. Sînt două săptămîni de cînd le-am trimis manuscrisul. 18. Se spune că
(ea) a mai scăzut în greutate. 19. Nu prea ajută mult să tocești. 20. Mai e o
lună pînă la 1 Mai.
exercise 13. Substitute possessive pronouns for the italicized groups of words:
model: His results are more impressive than my results.
His results are more impressive than mine.
1. Jim’s sense of humour is as unusual as her sense of humour. 2. Grand
mother’s pears are very juicy; our pears are not. 3. Our employers will be as
surprised as their employers, k. Tom boasted to his. friend about his success
and Bob boasted to his friend. 5. I’m glad I haven’t a mind like your mind.
6. You have your own interests, and I have my interests. 7. The Browns took
their twins to the Zoo, and the Ashtons took their twins to the circus. 8. He’ll
take my hand and I’ll take her hand and we’ll start dancing. 9. She is mad at
her daughter and I am mad at my daughter. 10. Scratch my back and I’ll
scratch your back.
exercise 14. Use the possessive pronoun instead of the possessive adjective:
model: He is one of her fans.
He is a fan of hers.
1. He is one of my friends. 2. Tom lent his friend one of his books. 3. I gave
him one of our dictionaries. 4. She played one of her old records. 5. Some of
their neighbours had come over to tea. 6. He took a fancy to one of my cousins.
7. Here, John, meet one of your well-known commentators. 8. Is this another
of their little schemes? 9. Was it one of her favourite puns? 10. That’s one of
our favourite tunes.
exercise 15. Fill in the blanks with the suitable reflexive pronouns:
1. If the child eats so little he’ll make . . . ill. 2. Can a five-year-old boy
wash . . dress . . . , feed . . . ? 3. We find it still difficult to express ... in
English. 4. Alice hurt. . . when she fell down the tree. 5. They are likely to
have enjoyed ... at your party. 6. One has to serve... in that restaurant.
7. My cousin switched the light off and finding ... in the dark began to cry.
8. I was told you have devoted ... to science. 9. She cheers ... up by talking
about her youth. 10. I bought a new watch for . . . yesterday. 11. One can
lose . . . quite easily in London. 12. We forced ... to smile. 13. Do pull . . .
together! 14. The ringleader shot.... 15. I chose to defend . . . against her.
16. The cat looked at... in the looking glass. 17. Make ... at home (pl).
18. They could only speak for .... 19. She cooked ... a good meal and went
to bed. 20. They say we are pleased with ....
exercise 16. Fill in the suitable reflexive pronoun:
1. The only place on which he could hide ... is the roof. 2. We did not
often control ... so easily. 3. I dressed . . . more or less sketchily. 4. They
crushed . . . into the dark angle between the stair-wall and the doorpost.
5. She had told the story to ... so often that she had come to believe it her
self. 6. We did not dare to show... . 7. I locked the door and, throwing. . .
down on the sofa, I cried ... to sleep. 8. You (pl) sometimes repeat....
9. She lifted . . . with difficulty to her feet. 10. She had stopped talking as
though what she had said were in . . . sufficient. 11. Did you let Mr. Poppins
in? No, he let. . . in. 12. Do you think you can look after. . . ? 13. We can
never cease to be .... 14. I can tell interesting incidents concerning ....
exercise17. Choose the necessary pronoun:
Note that prepositions denoting concrete spatial relations are not followed
by reflexive pronouns. With the following prepositions as, like, but, except
personal and reflexive pronouns are used in variation:
1. He began to imagine how he might rescue her in spite of (her/herself).
2. They tried to live up to a lot of people who were better off than (them/
themselves). 3. The car was heading straight towards (them/themselves).
4. Then he went crazy, screamed and threw (him/himself) about. 5. Look
about (you/yourself)! 6. Somebody like (you/yourself) should set the fashion.
7. I winced inside (me/myself). 8. She was beside (her/herself) with rage.
9. My sister and (I/myself) went shopping. 10. Do they have any money on
(them; themselves)? 11. When he was (him/himself) again she was too happy
to question him. 12. We’ll place our paper in front of (us/ourselves). 13. I am
deeply touched to be offered help by so eminent a man as (you/yourself).
14. He takes too much upon (him/himself). 15. For somebody like (me/myself)
this is no surprise. 16. I hope it’ll remain between (us/ourselves).
exercise 18. Use the necessary form of the personal pronoun or the corres
ponding reflexive pronoun or both:
1. My sister is as old as. . . (I). 2. Nobody is more aware of the truth
than . . . (he). 3. Did anyone meet her besides . . . (you)? 4. He can depend
on . . . (we) to do it. 5. He can be repulsive to a man like . . . (I). 6. Her brother
4*
was five years younger than . . . (he). 7. Now that she’s been promoted, she
has got above . . . (she). 8. This book is above . . . (I). 9. Between . . . (we),
he is a coward. 10. Come and sit between . . . (we).
exercise 19. State when the reflexive pronoun is omissible:

1. They have got themselves tangled up in a fishy affair. 2. He cut himself
while he was shaving himself. 3. She should not risk isolating herself altogether.
4. The disease spread itself rapidly. 5. You must prepare yourself for the exam.
6. You are interested only in yourselves. 7. I got up at 10, washed myself,
dressed myself and had a hearty breakfast. 8. We can adjust ourselves to the
new conditions. 9. They did not know what to do with themselves. 10. You
should avail yourselves of this opportunity.
exercise 20. Use the necessary self-pronoun in its emphatic function:

Note the possibility of using it either at the end of the sentence or imme
diately after the element that is emphasized, with extra stress:
1. !(...) am a dabbler in science (. . .). 2. They took the blame for some
thing they (. . .) had done (. . .). 3. Having reached the place ..., he ran tiptoe
down the steps. 4. In a moment we . . . had broken the spell. 5. If you (. . .)
can’t translate the essay (...), find somebody who can do it for you. 6. I feel
as if I (...) were going mad (...). 7. He (...) had read and accepted the
news (. . .). 8. I know that you (. . .) have lent three Japanese boxes to the
exhibition (. . .). 9. We (...) mounted the exhibition (. . .). 10. She would
insist on going ....
exercise 21. Translate into Engish using reflexive and emphatic pronouns:
1. E foarte posibil să o fi pictat chiar el. 2. înafară de ea l-a mai văzut
cineva pe actor? 3. Ar trebui să vă fie rușine! 4. Și mie îmi surîde destul de
mult această idee. 5. Dacă își ia o săptămînă de concediu o să se refacă repede.
6. Te-ai străduit foarte mult! 7. Se felicită pentru că îi reușise manevra. 8. Mi-a
recomandat cartea cu căldură; și ei îi plăcuse. 9. Ai grijă de tine, draga mea!
10. Nu te amăgi cu gîndul că o să fie ușor. 11. Asta o știu și eu, domnule doc
tor. 12. Fiecare se gîndea numai la el!
exercise 22. Translate into English using reciprocal pronouns:

1. Tom și John se cunosc din copilărie și se iubesc ca frații. 2. Nu ne
auzeam din cauza gălăgiei pe care o făceau copiii. 3. Femeile vorbeau între
ele în șoaptă în spatele nostru. 4. Bărbații își dădeau coate. 5. Cei doi bărbați
se întoarseră și se măsurară cîtva timp din ochi. 6. Se înțelegeau unul pe
altul. 7. Am continuat să ne spunem „Căpitane Sennett“ și „Doamna Elmers“
pînă la sfîrșit. 8. Ne-am luat rămas bun unul de la celălalt pentru totdeauna.
9. Se temeau unul de celălalt. 10. S-au certat și nu mai vorbesc unul cu celălalt.
exercise 23. Fill in the necessary pronoun: some, any, none:

1. ‘Is there any oil in these parts?’ ‘. . . say there is plenty of it here’.
2. ‘Any mark on the body?’ . . ,, but one arm has been scratched by a splinter?
3. Still looking for fingerprints? I’ll give you a call if I see . . . around. 4. Don’t
cry, little girl. There are plenty of such shells. If we find . . . we’ll share them
with you. 5. . . . like it hot. 6. You have no excuse; . . . whatever. 7. He was
a clever man and by. . .accounted eccentric. 8. ‘No word from her yet?’
‘. . .’ . 9. A: ‘Coffee for you, Tony?’ B: ‘I’m not having. . ., thank you.’
10. ... offered to order it. 11. ... so blind as those who won’t see. 12. A:
‘Anything for me to do?’ B: ‘You can collect the eggs, if . . .’. 13. A: ‘Did he
find any scrolls?’B:‘He denied that he had found . . . 14. I don’t condemn
out of hand like ... . 15. The salmon is delicious. Won’t you have . . . ? Do!
16. There were lots of interesting books for sale. But he was reluctant to
buy ... . 17. Will you lend me one of your pencils? . . . will do.
exercise 24. Replace the negative forms of the indefinite pronouns in the
following sentences according to the model:
model: He claimed he needed no one/nobody to assist him.
He claimed he didn’t need anyone/anybody to assist him.
1. I have nothing against it. 2. She had nothing to do with this business.
3. Nobody knows about Ann. 4. They will do nothing for money. 5. Have
you got nothing to do? 6. He blamed nobody/no one for it. 7. He favours
nobody. 8. She looks up to nobody. 9. Nobody was up to the mark. 10. We had
done nothing out of the ordinary.
exercise 25. Fill in the blanks with the necessary word: someone/somebody,
something, anyone/anybody, anything, no one/nobody, nothing;
1. I felt I ought to do ... to clear up the misunderstanding. 2. He was not
the man to allow ... in his company to keep silent. 3. It is such a relief to
feel that we have ... in charge on whom we can rely. 4. ‘Have you found
out. . .?’ ‘. . . whatever to go on.' 5. You must have . . . with you? Why?
6. I suddenly became aware that. . . was standing close behind me. 7. She is
too dumb to understand ... 8. If they suspected . . . and made trouble, it
would be terrible for Roy. 9. ‘What are you trying to avoid telling me?’
‘. . 10. Almost. . . might have those. 11. I found her too uncooperative
to ask her to do . . . . 12. ‘I suppose you haven’t . . . missing from this
house, sir?’ 13. She never says . . . about... 14. Did . . . happen to fetch
you downstairs? 15. ... can see it. 16. She could not prevent him from doing
.. . against her will. 17. ... will say . . . that will cast a suspicion on her.
18. Without a word to . . . she pulled the shutters down. 19. ‘Is there . . . left
for us to do?’ ‘Hardly . . .’ . 20. ‘Who says that?’ ‘Oh, ... in particular.’
21. ‘It was a person I used to know in Cluj.’1. . . you were in love with?’
22. There is little chance . . . will get through the lines. 23. I have seldom
witnessed . . . like that. 24. She will eat .... 25. Won’t you have ... to
eat?
exercise 26. Fill in the blanks with something else, anything else, nothing
else, everything else, somebody/someone else, anybody/anyone else, nobody/no
one else, everybody else;
1. Find ... to do. 2. If you’ve ... to do, at least do not disturb me. 3. I
could only count on John to help me; . . . had colds. 4. There was ... in the
field. 5. I couldn’t see how my opinions would be of interest to . . . but my
parents. 6. Is there . . . your heart desires? 7. I have tolerated , ,,, John. But
not this. 8. She has innocence, ... is entirely admirable about her. 9. He gave
me a deliberate wink when . . . was looking. 10. Is there ... in this depart
ment that you would like to put right? 11. The thieves didn’t bother about
the children’s clothes, but they stuffed . . . into their bags. 12. ... before you
appreciated my talents.
exercise 27. Fill in the blanks with much, many, (a) little, (a) few;
1. The people involved are only as ... as half a dozen. 2. Ask ... to have
. . . . 3. . .. have no record at all. 4. The workers were quite upset; . . . threat
ened to down tools;. . . chose togo on working. 5. They don’t give you . . .
for this kind of work, do they? 6. ... is being done to lay their suspicions.
7. What about buses? . . . are broken down, . . . are in good repair. 8. Some
go for crisps but quite ... go for popcorn in a big way. 9. A: ‘Anything to
drink? The pineapple squash is very nice indeed.’ B: ‘Yes, please, I’ll have
. . . ’ . 10. It was quite a shock for all of them, but. . . were seriously injured.
exercise 28. Insert either, neither or none;

1. a) I like ... of the two. b) I don’t like ... of the two, they are both
too fanciful for my taste. 2. . . . was worth mentioning. 3. A: ‘Which of the
two paintings did you buy?’ B: ’ 4. It doesn’t matter which you choose,
a) I don’t like .. . / b) I like ... 5. A: ‘Which of her friends do you like best?’
B: ‘I like ... of them.’ 6. A: ‘Have you seen my husband or my son?’ B:
‘I’ve seen ... of them'. 7. A: ‘Have you played all these records?’ B: ‘I’ve
played .... of them.’ 8. A: ‘Have you read the English or the Romanian
version?’ B: ‘I haven’t read . . . of them.’
exercise 29. Supply another, the other, others, the others, in the sentences
below:
1. Each of them seem to find . . .’s silence restful. 2. He was seen siphon
ing petrol from one tank to . . . . 3. He that tells a secret is ...’s servant.
4. Mother made a sign to ... to help. 5. Of course, I reflected, . . . might have
known all about it. 6. A candle lights . . . and consumes itself. 7. She hunted
from one grocery to . . . .8. I’ll do my best to find out if there are any . . .
besides Mr. Parker. 9. Tell. . . that we’ll be performing tonight. 10. He had
one large plate of ham in one hand and a bottle of beer in . . . 11. Our son has
grown out of his trousers and we’ll have to buy him ... .12. This flat is as
cosy as . . . across it.
exercise 30. Substitute one or ones for the repeated nouns. Give the structures
of the nominal groups thus obtained:
1. You get as much service from a small radioset as from a big radioset,
2. Their old dictionary is a good dictionary. I think it’s even better than our
new dictionary, 3. Which boy hit you? That boy / The fair-haired boy / The
boy over there. 4. Jane’s printed dress cost more than Tina’s plain dress, 5. A:
‘What chickens will you have?’ B: ‘I’ll have some healthy-looking chickens f
I will not have any sickly-looking chickens I I’ll definitely have no skinny
chickens. 6. An old car can be as fast as a new car. 7. George’s cheap shoes
look as smart as Zeno’s expensive shoes. 8. A: ‘Which painting appeals to you
most?’ B: ‘This painting I The sombre-coloured painting / The painting
depicting heroic old age. 9. I prefer his orange shirt to his pink shirt. 10. A:
‘What kind of songs will they have?' B: ‘Some old-time songs I They will
not have any sad songs I they will have no jarring songs. 11. I liked all the
singers. Each singer had a personality which came across. 12. A: ‘Where are
the pillowcases that I left on the sofa?’ B: ‘Do you mean the pillow-cases
that needed washing?’ A: ‘No, those pillow-cases I wanted to give away. I
mean the pillow-cases embroidered by my mother.’
exercise 31. Fill in the blanks with the necessary pronouns: one/ones, it/they.
Note that it I they replace a noun together with its determinative and modi
fier (s), if any, and that they are always definite:
model: A: ‘I’m going to have a bath.'

B: ‘Are you having. . . after tea? I thought of having ... as
well’.
A: ‘I’m going to have a bath.’
B: ‘Are you having it after tea? I thought of having one as well.’
1. My marks are very low ... . 2. I have no kind of proof that his story
is the correct.... But. . . rings true. 3. The children pressed against the
doors. She sent in the younger . . . first. 4. Sorry about the noise; we’ll keep . . .
down. 5. A: ‘What about your lectures? Did ... go down well with the stu
dents?’ B: ‘My lectures? Oh, the early morning. . . ! I’d rather not talk
about... ! 6. The two elder children were down with the flu and the youngest
. . . had mumps. 7. The story was a stale ... .8. There is a very simple expla
nation, but... is not the only . . . that I can give. 9. A: ‘Have you heard
about John’s girls? . . . seem to be in for trouble.’ B: ‘Funny how all the
really attractive . . . never come to anything.’ 10. When she flopped down on
the sofa, a cloud of dust rose from ....
exercise 32. Complete the following sentences with one, you and they;
1. What a fool . . . can make of. . . self at that age. 2. . . . stood respect
fully in the gutter while they passed. 3. . . . have a lot of sentimental stuff on
at the pictures these days. 4. His voice is so slurred . . . wouldn’t understand
what he says. 5. . . . pay pretty well for this kind of work. 6. I explained that
. . . generally got a hint for a tale. 7. Some of the soft drinks . . . give . . .
nowadays taste like weak tea. 8. It is impossible not to give. . . self away
— unless . . . never opens . . .’s mouth. 9. I hear . . . are closing that place
down. 10. If. . . agree to carry the calf,... ’ll make . . . carry the cow.
exercise 33. Supply the necessary interrogative pronoun: which or what;

1. . <are the days of the week? 2. . . . have you chosen? 3. . . . will you
take? 4. . . . will you take, milk or cream? 5. I hear there are three painters
in the town. Of... is he speaking? 6. ... is the better student, Nick or Tom?
7. ... is her address? 8. ... .’s the news today? 9. A . of the two should I
interview? 10. ... . is your job on the paper? 11. . 1 . of you was it who came
to fix the light? 12. ... is your secret?
exercise 34. Fill in the blanks with whoever, whichever, whatever;

1. ... of you comes in first will receive a prize. 2. A . says that is wrong.
3. A . would want a thing like that in their house? 4. You’re right. A others
will say. 5. ... I have is at your service. 6. . ! . wrote that pamphlet is a trai
tor. 7. Take . . . you like best. 8. A: ‘He prefers me to stay away/ B: ‘.. . for?'
9. .'.’.finds it may keep it. 10. .. .you choose, you’ll have good value for
your money.
exercise 35. Fill in the blanks with who, whose, whom, which, that. State
when they can be omitted.
Note that which is not used after all, much, little, everything, no (and com
pounds) and after nouns modified by superlatives. Who is the rule when it is
the subject of a relative clause and the antecedent is personal, while that is
typically used when the relative pronoun functions as object or object of a
preposition, even if the antecedent is personal: 1
1. The girl. umbrella you took is raging against you. 2. The apples . . .
he saw on the table were not big at all. 3. The play ... we saw last week was
rather dull. 4. The girl with ... you saw me yesterday studies Spanișh.
5. The student to . . . you were talking looked very clever. 6. The boys . . .
are playing football under your windows are brothers. 7. The raft on . . . he
was standing was caught in a whirl. 8. They have cut down the tree . . . used
to stand here. 9. The only opponent. . . can defeat him is Joe Bugner. 10. The
only opponent. . . he is afraid of is Joe Bugner. 11. The most unusual book . . .
has appeared this winter is a book on caterpillars. 12. Frank is not the man . . .
he was. 13. Here’s the man . . . car was stolen. 14. Is this the box . . ..you
took it out of ? 15. It’s a library * . . object is to serve the neighbouring villages.
16. Everybody . . . one asks says he is innocent. 17. This is the funniest story
... he has written. 18. She is the sort of girl. . . will do her best to persuade
him. 19. All. . . they can do is pacify him. 20. You’re the only man . . . I’ve
ever met. . . can really play bridge.
exercise 36. Remake the sentences given below omitting which and whom.
Make the necessary changes according to the model.
Note that the sentence thus obtained is the preferred one:
model: The man to whom she was speaking was a famous explorer.
The man (that) she was speaking to was a famous explorer.
1. The works to which this unit belongs was commissioned in 1970. 2. The
rope with which they had tied him had cut into his skin. 3. The enemies from
whom he guards his master are not really dangerous. 4. The car with which
we collided was badly damaged. 5. The man for whom she has deserted her
husband did not really love her. 6. They didn’t say a word about the weather
conditions to which they had had to adjust. 7. The children with whom our
son is playing are quite well-behaved. 8. The people with whom she associates
are so unpleasant. 9. The reform about which he had spoken to his headmaster
was never carried out. 10. The tankard out of which you are drinking once
belonged to a famous pirate.
exercise 37. Insert relative pronouns wherever necessary:

1. I don’t know . . . fault it is. 2. The story ... I heard was very amusing.
3. The boy . . . you see there is our teacher’s son. 4. It was he . . . told me the
news. 5. He did the best thing ... he could do: he gave in. 6. Show me the
album . . . you’ve bought for her. 7. Where’s the article . . . you have trans
lated? 8. It was the very thing ... I wanted. 9. It was the brightest day . . • we
had on our trip. 10. They remembered the place . . . they had seen together.
11. He never invites people . . . are not interested in his work. 12. I don’t
know . . . drawing is better. 13. Don’t address anyone . . . you have not been
introduced to. 14. I know of no one . . . could help you. 15. He’s very pleased
with all . . . you’ve said about him.

1. Femeia pe care am întîlnit-o în fața prăvăliei era elegant îmbrăcată.
2. Cum poți să lucrezi cu un om pe care nu poți să-i suferi? 3. Fata a cărei
fotografie ai văzut-o în ziar le-a bătut pe unele dintre cele mai bune jucătoare
de tenis din Europa. 4. Nu m-a deranjat; piesa pe care o ascultam era foarte
plicticoasă. 5. Tînărul care a luat cuvîntul ieri nu a spus nimic nou. 6. Aceasta
este piesa la care mă gîndeam. 7. I-am vorbit despre subiectul care mă interesa.
8. îmi dai și mie articolul la care s-a referit John? 9. Cărțile despre care ne-a
vorbit sînt excelente. 10. Cei care și-au terminat lucrul pot să plece acasă.
11. îl cunoști pe omul care și-a lăsat mașina în fața garajului tău? 12. Mașina
pe care o conduce nu-i a lui. 13. Genul de material pe care îl cauți tu nu se
mai poartă. 14. Asta-i tot ce știu. 15. Aceasta este fotografia care a provocat
toate neplăcerile. 16. Care a fost cel mai bun hotel în care ai stat?

1. Era ceva la capătul străzii, dar el nu putea să-și dea seama ce anume
(era). 2. Orașul nu se vede din cauza caselor. 3. Pe ce scaun stăteam? 4. Nimeni
altcineva nu crede că cu bani poți cumpăra orice. 5. Nu ne auzeam din cauza
zgomotului motoarelor. 6. Mi-e rușine că sînt așa de neîndemînatică. 7. De la
care bibliotecă ai împrumutat cartea? 8. Mă cam îndoiesc că s-a schimbat ceva.
9. Sînt trei săptămîni de cînd vasul pescuiește în Atlantic. 10. Programul a
cuprins o simfonie de Schubert și un concert pentru pian de Beethoven;
acesta din urmă mi-a plăcut tare mult. 11. Dacă nu facem economie ne-am
putea trezi fără apă. 12. E prea obosit să traducă ceva astă seară. 13. — Pentru
cine le-ai cumpărat? — Pentru puștii mei. 14. Văd că faceți pregătiri. Vine
cineva astă seară? 15. Credeam că nu vrei să te ajute nimeni altcineva. 16. —
Ce distanță e pînă la Ploiești? — Vreo 60 km. 17. Au trecut numai douăzeci
și cinci de minute de cînd am început să cosim. 18. A fugit de acasă fără să
spună nimănui nimic, nici măcar prietenului său cel mai bun.
1. Sînt sigură că oricine va vedea albumul îl va lăuda. 2. Alice i-a oferit
lui Desmond niște romane polițiste, dar el nu a ales nici unul. 3. Nu trebuie să
închiriem nici un pick-up, îl avem pe al vostru. 4. Eu ți-am cumpărat banda
de magnetofon, dar ea a ales marca. 5. Mă mîndresc că am făcut prăjitura
fără ajutorul nimănui. 6. Și-a dat el îns.uși seama de asta. 7. Ambii erau vino-
vați. 8. Nimeni n-a aflat deocamdată nimic. 9. — Cine bate la geam? — Eu!
10. Nu vă mai bateți pentru niște soldăței de plumb! 11. Se știu puține lucruri
despre Omul zăpezilor din Munții Himalaia. 12. Nu i se prea vînd cărțile;
foarte puține (mai niciuna) au fost traduse în alte limbi. 13. E evident că cei
care participă regulat la seminarii vor avea rezultate mai bune la examen.
14. Toți și-au împachetat lucrurile. 15. Cum se ajunge la poștă? 16. Cînd i-am
întîlnit pe colegii mei de facultate, Brian și Egbert, cel dinții era îmbrăcat cu o
haină de ploaie, deși soarele strălucea puternic. 17. Din ce beau copiii? 18.
Poftim cafeaua; dacă vrei și altceva servește-te. 19. E cale de o oră cu mașina
pînă acolo. 20. Sîntem recunoscători unul altuia pentru micile servicii pe care
ni le facem. ------
The Verb
I. The Simple Present and the Present Continuous
The Simple Present may be used:

A. Without reference to specific time
1. Universal truths or time statements.
e.g. Two and two make four.
Still waters run deep.
The sun rises in the East and sets in the West.
2. Habitual time statements (associated almost always with dynamic
verbs and often being followed by adverbs like every day, etc.).
e.g. We wake up at seven o’clock and leave home at 8.
He likes reading books.
B. The Instantaneous Simple Present — used only with dynamic verbs which
signify an event going on at the moment of speaking.
e.g. Smith passes the ball to Charlton.
Here comes the winner!
We acknowledge your letter.
Note: With certain verbs (the more important of which are have (=to pos
sess, to own), be (except in the Passive Voice), see (physical perception), hear,
notice, recognise, smell, taste (when intransitive), believe, feel (that), think (that),
know, understand, remember, forget, suppose, mean, gather (that), want, wish,
forgive, refuse, love, hate, care, seem, belong to, contain, consist of, possess, own,
matter) the Simple Present is sometimes used to express an action going on
at the moment of speaking. As a rule, these verbs cannot be used in tho
Present Continuous.
e.g. I see a car in the street; it is approaching our house. Nevertheless,
some of the verbs mentioned above may be used in ^the continuous aspect
but only:
a) for emphatic purposes:
e.g. You’re always hearing thieves.
b) with reference to an immediate future:
e.g. I’m seeing them next week.
c) to express a temporary condition in process:
e.g. How is he feeling now?
Are you thinking to see him at the hospital?
C. The Simple Present with future time reference
a) to indicate a future action as part of a programme. Usually there is a
temporal adverbial in the clause.
e.g. Our steamer sails next week.
In a fortnight he goes back to school.
b) in conditional and temporal clauses introduced by if, unless, after,
before, as soon as, when, etc.
e.g. Unless you leave now, you will miss the tram.
I’ll come back as soon as I can.
D. The Simple Present with past time reference (associated usually with u commu
nication verbs” — tell, hear, learn, write, etc.) expresses the persistence in
the present of the effect of a past communication.
e.g. They tell me that you have only now recovered from that bad illness.
The Present Continuous rpay be used:
A. To express an action which is going on at the present moment i.e. the
moment of speaking. The progress of the action and the fact that the
action is not completed are of interest here.
e.g. He is talking to our neighbour.
I’m looking for my slippers.
B. To express an action which will take place in the near future due to a
previous arrangement (especially with dynamic verbs — to go, to come, to
leave, to start, etc.). The time is generally indicated.
e.g. We are having a football match this afternoon.
She is leaving Bucharest next week.
They are starting on a trip tomorrow.
exercise 1. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Present or the Present
Continuous tense: \
1. They (want) to see you for a minute. 2. He (walk) to hospital every
day. 3. She (move) her books into her new bookcase. 4. He usually (speak)
his mother tongue, but today he (speak) English. 5. You (drink) coffee or tea?
6. You (understand) the Present Tenses in English? 7. He (play) the piano
like a professional musician. 8. You can’t speak to Mary now; she (sleep).
9. I (not hear) what you (say). 10. It’s autumn. The leaves (turn) yellow and
(fall) down. 11. I (wear) a raincoat because it (rain). 12. Something (burn) in
the oven; I (see) that smoke (come) out of it. 13. We (not drink) tea with milk
in our country. 14. We (spend) next week wNh our parents; we (go) on a trip
with them. 15. You (go) to town this afternoon?
exercise 2. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple or Continuous Present:
1. My friend (come) to see us next month. 2. Apricots (ripe) in early sum
mer. 3. Here (come) our long waited for teacher! 4. I (see) her occasionally, as
she (open) the windows in the morning. 5. I (walk) to school every day, but
today as I am late I (go) by bus. 6. “I (see) that you (wear) your best clothes.
You (go) to a party?” “No, I (go) to a wedding.” “And who is the unhappy
man who (throw) away his freedom?” You must tell him I (feel) sorry for him.”
“He (speak) to you now!” (from Stannard Allen). 7. I (see) what you
(mean)! You can’t join us today as you (feel) ill. (See) the doctor this after
noon? 8. Still waters (run) deep. 9. Stop making a fool of yourself! You again
(forget) your manners! 10. Egg plants (not grow) on trees. 11. Don’t get off
the bus till it (stop)! 12. How he (feel) now? You (think) of going to see him
at the hospital? 13. She always (complain) about something. 14. Why you (not
stay) indoors for a change? 1^. Although he is unhappy with his mark, he
(deserve) it as he hasn’t laid hands on a book this term. 16. We constantly
(see) you outside the cinema. 17\ However late it may be, my father never
goes to bed until I (come) back home.

1. Nu este politicos să te uiți la oameni cînd mănîncă. 2. Nu, nu mă deran
jezi, privesc doar apa cum izbește malul. 3. Poți să te așezi, este scaunul pe
care îl folosesc eu cînd am musafiri. 4. — Astăzi mă simt mai bine. — Dar arăți
mai rău. 5. Ce s-a întîmplat? Nu mai mergi la teatru? 6. Ești cam slab,
George, oare mănînci destul? 7. John se îndreaptă spre celălalt colț al camerei,
și își toarnă un pahar cu apă. E evident însetat (indicații scenice). 8. Așteap-
tă-mă, vreau să-ți vorbesc! Am încredere în tine; vin la tine de îndată ce îmi
termin serviciul. 9. închide geamurile. Simt că trage. Zău că simt. 10. Cînd
se dictează, trebuie să se vorbească clar.

feceli/îr
1. Și cerbul acela este Jxărbat tot cu petre scumpe, mult mai mari și mai
frumoase decît aceste. Cică are una în frunte, de strălucește ca un soare. Dar
nu se poate apropia nimene de cerb, căci este fărmecat și nici un fel de armă
nu-i prinde; însă cel pe care l-a zări nu mai scapă cu viață. De aceea fuge
lumea de dînsul de-și scoate ochii. (Harap Alb). 2. Se aude glasul lui Matei
Boiu, care vorbește cu servitorul. Ioana vrea să iasă, simte că e tîrziu și trece
în camera din stînga. (Suflete tari). 3. Mitică, care se așază la biroul lui, îngîn-
durat, descoperă copleșit cît de îndurerată e patroana. O urmărește cu privirea
cum urcă amărîtă scara. Stă pe gînduri. Ia o hotărîre ... iar șovăie ... își fră-
mîntă nervos mîna dreaptă ... își mușcă buzele ... se ridică în picioare ... se
așază ... apoi se hotărăște definitiv, trece la director, se apropie de el. (Idem.)
4. Domnul se plimbă de colo pînă colo pe peron, trăgînd cu ochiul aci cătră
partea pe unde vin pasagerii, aci cătră geamul la care stă în picioare omul cu
sacul, pe cînd acesta se uită foarte distrat pe geam la mișcarea de pe peron.
(Accelerat no 12. I. L. Caragiale)
’I. The Present Perfect Simple and Continuous
The Present Perfect is used to express a past action:
1. When there is no indication of time.
e.g. They have found the missing book.
Oh, I have broken my leg!
2. With an adverb (or adverbial phrase) of still unfinished time.
e.g. She has examined more than a hundred students this week.
Many important scientific discoveries have been made during the
twentieth century.
3. With adverbs, adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses when they mean
“some time in the past up to now'', such as: never, before, just, lately, yet,
recently, for years, for ages, for a long time, already, since, so far, etc...
e.g. He has been a very good student so far.
Note that the Present Perfect can never be used with an adverbial expres
sion of entirely past completed time. In such instances the Past Tense is re
quired. Likewise the expression “just now'' is always connected with the Past.
There is free choice in using either the Present Perfect or the Past Tense with
this month, year, autumn, etc., depending on whether the speaker considers
the action completed or not.
e.g. Many great writers lived in the nineteenth century.
But: The great writers of the nineteenth century have largely influ
enced modern literature.
They left just now.
I saw him this morning.
The Present Perfect Continuous is used to indicate continuous activity
over a period of time extending to the present, while the Present Perfect
Simple conveys repeated activity in a period extending to the present.
e.g. I have been watching an old movie on TV.
I have seen this movie at least twice before.
The simple form is used to express an action in terms of its result or product.
The continuous form^ expresses the action itself.
e.g. I have washed three shirts this morning.
I have been washing shirts this morning.
I The Present Perfect Simple is preferred to the Present Perfect Continuous
| in negative sentences.
e.g. Let’s rest a little! We haven’t rested for ages!
The Present Perfect Simple and Continuous are always associated with for
and since. For is used with length of time and it answers the question How
long...? Since refers to a period of time m the past.
e.g. I haven’t seen you for ages. '
I haven’t seen you since you moved to your new apartment.
Asa rule the Present Perfect is used in the main clause, while in the since-
clause one uses the Past. But a Present Perfect may sometimes also be used
in a aince-clause if the action expressed is still going on.
e.g. I have seen you but once since you’ve been staying in your new
apartment.
exercise 5. Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect or the Present
Perfect Continuous. Specify where both tenses may be used:
1. He not (be) to this restaurant for years. 2. She must tell us what she
(read) since her last exam. 3. I (look) for the pen everywhere, but (not find)
it. 4. You (run) too fast. Stop and rest a little. 5. She (sit) in that armchair
since you left. 6. I (know) him since he was a child. 7. My friend (teach) in
that school since 1966. 8. They (build) that block-of-flats for several months,
but (finish) only half of it. 9. He not (come) yet but his wife already (arrive).
10. This tower (stand) here for two hundred years. 11. You (not buy) me flow
ers for years. 12. I (not play) much chess lately, I (be) too busy. 13. We (not
speak) since we quarrelled. 14. Somebody (smoke) in this room, it smells of
cigarettes. 15. He (waste) his time instead of learning.
exercise 6. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences by using for or since;
1. He has been away . . . three years. 2. She hasn’t worn that dress . . .
she was a girl. 3. He has been working . . . ten years. 4. They have been climb
ing . . . half an hour. 5. We have forgotten the language ... we left the country.
6. He has been gathering strawberries ever . . . sunrise. 7. She has been ill . . .
a fortnight. 8. Have you read many articles ... I gave you the newspaper?
10. They have been here ... 2 o’clock. 11. I’ve been trying to tell you . . .
you came. 12. It has been raining . . . two days.
exercise 7. Use the Present Perfect Simple or Continuous. Note that with
verbs such as to learn, to lie, to live, to rest, to sit, to stand, to stay, to
study, to wait, etc., the Present Perfect Continuous is more often used than
the Present Perfect Simple:
1. So there is something in the stories that (go round)? 2. I think the time
(come) to explain where we stand. 3. My position (not alter) since last May.
4. “I (want) a word with you, Lewis.” 5. “During the past year I (have) many
interesting talks upon the future of the college.” 6. “Did you know that Night
ingale (try) to coerce young Luke?” 7. “I (not forget) it for an instant this
afternoon.” 8. “I (everywhere, look for) you,” he said. “Why didn’t you leave
word where you’d gone?” 9. “He (only say) one word. He (keep) unnaturally
still.” 10. “I (pretty well, live and feed) at the lab, ever since”. 11. “In one office
or another you (guide) our department all your life”. 12. “People here (never
show) me the slightest consideration.” 13. No one (ever do) me so much harm
before. 14. “I (try) to collect my thoughts, but it’s not a very pleasant process.”
(Examples taken from C. P. Snow)
exercise 8. Use the Present Perfect Simple or Continuous. Insert “for” or

“since”:
model: “How long (you, row)?” “. . . half an hour”.
“How long have you been rowing?” “For half an hour.”
1. “Why didn’t you ask me before?” “That’s just what I (do). . . the last
five minutes.” 2. I (mean). . . some time to buy a fire guard. 3. He (allow)
me to think he (do) more or less nothing . . . then. 4. “This lab (go) at least
five years/’ “That’s new to me. I (be away) . . . the past fifteen years.” 5. I
(watch) you . . . the last ten minutes, hanging about the tearoom. 6. . . . the
last year she (go) to some classes at night. 7. He steadily (drink) . . . his wife
died. 8. Ever. . . she stopped working she (hang about) the place. 9. You
(irritate) me . . . months, walking along to the bus-stop with me. 10. They
(award) this prize ... a year or two, but it’s gratifying to secure it. 11. ... the
last couple of days I (do) what I can to help her recover them.
exercise 9. Translate into English, using either the Present Tense or the Pre
sent Perfect Tense, Simple or Continuous:
1. Sora mea își face bagajele de azi dimineață, dar incă n-a terminat.
2. Discută această chestiune de cind ești aici și incă nu au ajuns la nici o con
cluzie definitivă. 3. Aceasta este casa în care locuiesc; locuiesc aici din copilă
rie. 4. — Ai pierdut ceva? — Da, stiloul. — L-ai căutat peste tot? De cînd îl
cauți? 5. Ninge tare de cinci ore așa că n-am ieșit din casă toată ziua. 6. N-am
mai văzut-o de cînd s-a măritat. N-am mai văzut-o de cînd e măritată. 7. Ea
e de obicei punctuală, dar în dimineața asta nu a sosit încă. 8. Unde ți-ai petre
cut vacanța în vara asta? 9. Bărbatul care vorbește cu soția mea este vecinul
nostru care locuiește alături. 10. Ce faci? N-a răspuns fratele tău? De cît timp
încerci să iei legătura cu el? 11. Vă declar soț și soție. 12. Nu-mi place să
stau aici în această perioadă a anului. Plouă încontinuu. 13. Copilașul a înce
put să plîngă și mai plînge încă, deși rareori plînge noaptea. 14. Citești cărți
englezești în original? Ce citești acum? 15. Unchiul meu e scriitor. De doi ani
scrie un roman, dar nu l-a terminat încă. Nu a strîns încă tot materialul
necesar și acum își petrece timpul la țară.
III. The Present Perfect and the Past Tense
The Present Perfect is used when it is merely stated that an action took
place without mentioning the definite moment when it occurred. It falls within
the boundaries of the present because of its effect in the present and our lack
of interest as to when the action took place.
e.g. I have come (— I am here)
He has seen the film (— He knows what it’s about)
When there is an indication of past time in the sentence, the Present
Perfect is not used. In this case the Past Tense is used as the interest falls not
only on the occurrence but also on the time of the event.
e.g. I saw him yesterday.
She arrived a few minutes ago.
Note. In questions introduced by when the Past Tense is used and not the
Present Perfect.
e.g. When did he decide to leave?
When did they finish their work?
The Present Perfect is used when the time of the action is not given.
e.g. They have done so much to help us.
She has gone to London.
The Present Perfect is used where there is an adverbial modifier of time in
the sentence that denotes a period of time which is not over yet: today, this
morning, this week, this month, etc.
e.g. I have read two novels this week.
It has been a fine day today.
But if we refer to a period that is oyer or to a particular past moment
within the period, the Past Tense is used.
e.g. Did you read the newspaper this morning?
Whom do you think I met this morning?
exercise 10. Complete the following sentences adding another clause, using
the Present Perfect or the Past Tense:
model: 1. I have missed the bus . . .
I have missed the bus, that’s why I am walking to school.
2. I missed the bus yesterday. . .
I missed the bus yesterday so I had to walk to school.
1. I have had a lot of work this week.... I had a lot of work last month ....
2. We have lived here for .... We lived here .... 3. John has just heard ....
Yesterday John heard.... 4. The weather has changed.... The weather suddenly
changed.... 5. She has visited the museum.... She visited the museum....
exercise 11. Make questions using the Present Perfect or the Past Tense:
model: 1. You (see) him lately?

Have you seen him lately?
2. You (see) him at school today?
Did you see him at school today?
1. It (snow) much last winter? 2. He (be) always so hard-working? 3. You
(make) many mistakes in your last composition? 4. Betty (pass) her examina
tion yesterday morning? 5. She (ask) him to help her? 6. They (finish) their
holidays? 7. You (borrow) any books from the library last week? 8. Ben (see)
her there by herself? 9. You (feed) the hens? 10. They (visit) this town two
years ago?
exercise 12. Answer the following questions:

1. When did you read the novel? 2. Have you read many novels by this
author? 3. What did he say when he saw you? 4. Have you seen him lately?
5. Where did you find that dress? 6. Have they comeback yet? 7. How much did
that ticket cost? 8. Has she been there before? 9. Did you understand the
question? 10. Has he never drunk coffee?
X exercise 13. Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect or the Past
Tense, depending on the given alternatives:
1. They (try) to speak only English (lately, last night). 2. She (have) a
lot of work (today, in January). 3. I (practise) for three hours (today, before
I came here). 4. He (complete) his work (yesterday, this morning, for a long
time now). 5. My grandparents (live) in the country (since the war, until the
war). 6. Who(m) you (speak) to (just now, all this time)? 7. I (dislike) mathe
matics (when I was a pupil, always). 8. We (live) here (for three years, three
years ago). 9. John (hear) about your arrival (yesterday, just). 10. The weather
(change) (since this morning, as I left the house).
exercise 14. Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect or the Past
Tense:
1. He (write) two pages so far. 2. She (forget) to take her book with her.
3. They (leave) the village last week. 4. Ann (live) in Bucharest from 1968 to
1970. 5. They not (play) football since last week. 6. John (start) to learn French
last October. 7. Father not (come) home yet. 8. I cannot tell you where she is,
as I not (see) her. 9. When you (receive) the letter from them? 10. They (be
come) very well-known now. 11. Much progress (be made) lately in nuclear
science. 12. She never (teach) grammar before. 13. Years ago he (work) here
but now he (move) to another factory. 14. This novelist (write) some very
good plays too, he (write) them in his youth. 15. The play (begin) half an hour
late last night so we (be) late for dinner.
exercise 15. Answer the following questions putting the verbs in brackets
into the Present Perfect Tense or the Simple Past:
model: “Have you taken those strangers into your confidence?”

a) “Yes, I . . .” or “No, I. . .”
b) “Yes, I (tell) them about it last night.
Answer: a) “Yes, I have.” or “No, I haven’t.”
b) “Yes, I told them about it last night.”
1. “Have you been travelling all night?” a) “Yes, I...”/“No, I...”
b) “Yes, I (come) by the 5.10 Express.” 2. “Have you been having anything
for breakfast?” a) “Yes, I. . .’’/“No, I . . .” b) “I (have) a cup of milk a couple
of minutes ago.” 3. “Have they awarded the prize for a long time?” a) “Yest
they. . .’’/“No, they .. .” b) “Yes, they (first, award) it in 1924.” 4. “Has he
given her many fine things?” a) “Yes, he . . .” /“No, he . . . ”b) “No, he (only,
give) her a few things on her birthday.” 5. Has she been hanging about the
place for a long time?” a) “Yes, she . . .” /“No, she . . .”b) “No, she (come)
five minutes ago.” 6. “Have you been going into thisbusiness lately?” a) “Yes,
I .. .” /“No, I . . .” b) “No, I (only, mention) the case to him a month ago.”
7. “Have you noticed any different table customs here?” a) “Yes, I . . .”/ “No,
I . . .” b)“ No, I (only, arrive) last Monday.” 8. “Has she been practising the
swan dive for a long-time?” a) “Yes, she . . .’’/“No, she . . .” b)“Yes, she (start)
diving at 8 o’clock.” 9. “Have you looked out a train?” a) “Yes, I . . .’’/“No,
I . . .” b)“No. I (mean) to took them up but I could not find my time-table.”
10. “Has the baker been?” a) “Yes, he . . .’’/“No, he. . .” b)“No, he (phone)
to say he was not coming.”
S — Limba englezi pentru adm. în înv. superior 65
exercise 16. Use the Past Simple or the Present Perfect Simple:
1. They (not, tell) him yet. He (come) in late last evening. 2. What a mag
nificent dinner this (be)I 3. “I (never see) such human misery and loneliness
as I (do) today.” (C.P.Snow) 4. “She (never have) any idea what he’s really
like.” (C.P.S.) 5. I (always be) puzzled by her jokes. 6. This anxiety (come) to
Nightingale each spring. (C.P.S.) 7. When I (go away) the four of them (be)
still at table. 8. “She (always know) that she (fail) him.” (C.P.S.) 9. There (be)
something formidable about him at that moment. 10. “My apologies for being
late. I (have) to attend the council on the Royal. And this weather (not be)
very good for the train.” (C.P.S.) 11. “Remember, he (always try) to do the
proper thing, and he’s bound to let Jago know.” (C.P.S.) 12. “How long is it
since you (see) the Lent races, Nightingale?” (C.P.S.) 13. “Has Jago been dining
recently? I (not see) him all the week,” Brown (ask) casually. 14. “He (not be)
here any of the nights I (be),” I (say). 15. “I (only dine) once this week,” (say)
Chrystal. “He (not be) here.” (C.P.S.) 16. I (tell) you exactly what Mary (tell)
me.
exercise 17. Translate into English using either the Past Tense or the Present
Perfect Tense:
1. Ai citit ceva de Dickens? Pe care din romanele lui le-ai citit în copilărie?
2. — Ați luat masa? — Nu, nu încă. Ospătărița mi-a luat comanda acum 15
minute și încă nu mi-a adus nimic. 3. Este un bun prieten. Totdeauna m-a
ajutat în momentele grele. 4. De cînd locuiți în acest oraș? Cînd ați venit să
locuiți aici? 5. Am stat la părinți în ultimele 6 luni, iar acum ne gîndim să ne
mutăm în apartamentul nostru propriu. 6. — Ai fost vreodată la această gale
rie de tablouri? — Da, am vizitat-o o dată cînd eram copil șf tablourile m-au
impresionat mult. De atunci nu am mai fost aici. 7. Joacă tenis de cînd era
școlar. 8. N-am fost duminică nicăieri fiindcă veneau niște prieteni la mine.
9. Lada care se afla pe podea conținea 20 kg. de făină. 10. Ai terminat de citit
“Forsyte Saga”? Cînd ai terminat-o? Cît timp ți-a luat s-o citești? 11. Acum
că a fost publicată cartea, toată lumea poate vedea ce muncă grea a depus
autorul scriind-o. 12. — De unde ai pantofii aceștia frumoși? — Mi i-au dat
părinții mei de ziua mea.
exercise 18. For fixing the Present, the Past and the Present Perfect, read
each sentence twice, replacing the italicized part with a) and b), and changing
the verb form accordingly:
model: He is just getting over a bad heart attack.
a) already b) last year
Answer: a) He has already got over a bad heart attack,
b) He got over a bad heart attack last year.
1. Look at the progress we are making now, a) until the war b) since the
war. 2. She’s had a lot of trouble at home for years, a) now b) when we went
to Greece. 3. He is writing a play at the moment, a) since he left school b) when
I last met him. 4. These people are getting on my nerves these days, a) soon
after they came home for their holidays b) since they moved into our flat.
5.1 was not frank just now, I still want money, a) now b) all day today. 6. You
are always thinking of others, a) often b) yesterday. 7. I’m growing slow-witted,
a) for some time now b) at the time. 8.1 didn’t take genuine jewelry with me
last week, a) now b) for the past few weeks. 9. Hasn’t your ear been hurting
today'} a) now? b) when you entered his cabinet? 10. Why are you idling
in this disgraceful fashion (no wj? a) these last days? b) when everybody else
was busy doing something?

1. Dacă nu te ții de cuvînt, înseamnă că ne-ai mințit pînă acum. 2. E întot
deauna trist să te desparți de cei pe care i-ai cunoscut atît de bine. 3. Mi-a
fost simpatic de cînd te-am întîlnit. 4. Mi-ai umplut ceașca de ceai cu bucăți
de zahăr și mi-ai oferit prăjituri, deși știi cît de puțin îmi plac dulciurile.
5. — Te-ai gîndit la ce ți-am spus aseară? — Nu m-am gîndit la nimic alt
ceva. 6. Unchiul meu tocmai a venit de la gară cu mașina și și-a adus și baga
jele. 7. Știu aproape totul despre voi, căci fratele meu tocmai mi-a povestit
despre ultima vizită pe care v-a făcut-o. 8. Acum că am venit să-ți spun totul,
fii drăguț și ascultă-mă. 9. Am tăcut pînă acum, ți-am respectat părerile, dar
termină. 10. Mi-am ales Shakespeare pentru că îl prefer lui Milton.

1» a) Au încercat în ultimul timp să vorbească numai englezește; b) Aseară
au încercat să vorbească numai englezește. 2. a) Ea a avut mult de lucru astăzi;
b) Ea a avut mult de lucru în ianuarie. 3. a) Am exersat trei ore în dimineața
aceasta; b) Am "exersat trei ore aseară; c) Am exersat timp de trei ore înainte
de a veni aici. 4. a) John a fost la Paris cu 10 ani în urmă; b) John a fost
la Paris de mai multe ori. 5. a) Pînă acum Mary a fost o studentă bună;
b) Mary a fost o studentă bună anul trecut. 6. a) Copiii s-au uitat seară de
seară la televizor săptămîna trecută; b) Copiii s-au uitat la televizor seară de
seară zilele acestea. 7. a) Tatăl meu tocmai a închis radioul; b) Tocmai acum
tatăl meu a închis radioul. 8. a) Cît timp ai locuit aici? b) Cît timp ai locuit
acolo înainte de a veni să stai cu noi? 9. a) L-ai ascultat pe Menuhin cîntînd
cînd a fost în România? b) L-ai ascultat vreodată pe Menuhin?

1. Harap Alb, Harap Alb! De nume ți-am auzit, dar de văzut nu te-am
văzut. Ieși numai oleacă să te văd măcar, vrednic ești de comoara ce ți-o las,
și apoi să mor cu plăcere, dragul meu! (I. Creangă, Harap Alb) 2. — Ei,
Ivane, ce mai diriguiești? Moartea n-a mai venit pe aici?... — Ei, Ivane, destul
de-acum; ți-ai trăit traiul și ți-ai mîncat mălaiul! De milostiv, milostiv ești;
de bun la inimă, bun ai fost, nu-i vorbă. Dar, de la o vreme încoace, cam de
cînd ți-am blagoslovit turbinca aceasta, te-ai făcut prea nu știu cum. (I.
Creangă, Ivan Turbincă). 3. Casierul, care de la început caută și el să se
regăsească îi reproșează (lui Mitică) uimit. (C. Petrescu.— Mitică
Popescu) 4. (Toți cei de față au urmărit povestirea cu semne de interes și
exclamații potrivite, iar acum se îngrămădesc inimoși în jurul lui Mitică.)
(C. Petrescu. — Mitică Popescu)
IV. The Simple Past and the Past Continuous
A. The Simple Past is the most frequently used form to express a past action.
It may be used to express:
a) single accomplished actions;
e.g. She arrived yesterday afternoon.
b) a succession of actions;
e.g. He entered, took off his coat, put on his slippers and went up the
stairs.
c) recurrent actions in the past;
e.g. We spent many of our evenings walking in the neighbourhood.
Note: Recurrent actions in the past may also be rendered by using used to
+ infinitive or would + infinitive.
e.g. She used to read stories to us. (but not any more)
They would often come to spend their holidays with us.
B. The Simple Past may also be related to the attitudes of the speaker rather
than to time. The past tense is felt to be more polite than the present
tense.
e.g. Did you want to see me now?
I wondered if you could help me.
C. The Past Continuous is used to express actions in progress at a given
moment in the past.
e.g. He was reading a book at ten o’clock.
D. The Simple Past is preferred to the Past Continuous:
1. with verbs which do not admit of the progressive aspect.
e.g. His voice didn’t sound normal.
He hated his treating her like a child.
2. if the action, however long, is completed:
e.g. It snowed for two months without stopping.
I waited for you for a very long time.
He went to London and stayed there for a whole month.
The sun shone all the time we were there.
3. with habitual actions in the past:
e.g. We often took a walk before dinner.
4. when there is another past continuous form in the same sentence and
the two actions depend on each other.
e.g. While my friend was reading I washed up.
5. is the permanent feature of a scene:
e.g. I got off the bus and waked through the gate. Water was dripping
(impermanent) from the bush that lined (permanent) the drive that
led (permanent) up to the house.
p exercise 22. Supply the Past Tense form of the irregular verbs given in
orackets:
1. I (fall) down a well and (break) a leg. 2. The smell of the garden (creep)
into the room. 3. He (win) her over by his gentleness. 4. They (kneel) down and
(bind) the man tight. 5. The cat (overthrow) an inkpot, and (spill) the ink onto
his papers. 6. She (fling off) her night-gown, and (fly) into her bath. 7. She
(hold) out her arms. 8. If nostalgia ever (sweep) over him, he (thrust) it back.
(G.P.S.) 9. All his instincts (drive) him on. 10. She (bring) in an outsider.
11. We all (drink) tea. 12. They (wind) up the evening with a song. 13. The
light in his bedroom (shine) over the court each night. 14. He (keep) open
house for us each Thursday. 15. They (weave) cotton into cloth. 16. One day
an idea (strike) Ann. 17. It (cost) me a lot. 18. She (shrink) from society.
19. He (seek) power. 20. They (feed) the baby by turns. 21. His leg (bleed)
and (swell). 22. His knee (hurt), his head ached. 23. He (burst) into tears.
24. The police (speed) to the scene of the crime. 25. Our blood almost (freeze)
in our veins. 26. A dog (bite) it and an elephant (tread) on it. 27. They (fling)
the door shut, and rushed to their cars. 28. He (tear) his hair, (wring) his hands
and (swear). 29. It (teach) him a bitter lesson. 30. I (know) the bus-route like
the back of my hand. 31. You (run) into debt. 32. We (set) the blankets ablaze.
33. She (knit) her brows, (stick out) her jaw, and (grind) her teeth. 34. He
(lend) her his attention for a while. 35. Then he (shoot) uneasy glances towards
her mother. 36. That war (breed) misery and diseases. 37. He (catch) my eye.
38. Miss Tramp (forget) names. 39. The news (come) as a total shock. 40. The
panthers (spit) at all who ventured near them. 41. My voice (ring out) jubi
lantly from the hall. 42. Luke (cut) her short. 43. They (swing) from one extreme
to the other. 44. I (burn) the paper in the grate. 45. That wall (shut off) my
view of the sea. 46. The house (smell) of flowers all through the early summer.
47. Then he (feel) a complete release. 48. Tom (throw) the whole of his nature
into his work. 49. She (stride off) with a triumphant look in her eyes. 50.
David’s heart (sink), but Paul’s spirits (rise). 51. I (weep) with rage. 52. When
he (see) his father drawing near, he (steal away). 53. We (choose) him ourselves.
54. He (bear) it valiantly. 55. He (read) very slowly. 56. I (hold) the umbrella
over her head as she shuffled along. 57. The wind (blow) down the streets,
umbrellas were (bend) to meet it. 58. He (lay) bare his heart about her. 59. He
(fight) shy of a scene. 60. Mr. Peel (withdraw) from the election a week ago.
61. Heavy clouds (hang) over the roofs. 62. Those words (spell out) bad news.
63. The attackers (beat) him up. 64. He (stick) to his advantage. 65. She
(give away) his secret. 66. The experiment (bear out) his theory. 67. My hus
band (cut out) smoking. 68. He (put) his watch back an hour. 69. The car
(draw) to the kerb. 70. They soon (make) it up. 71. He (pay) her back for her
rudeness. 72. The policeman (let) her off with a fine. 73. The committee (deal)
with the question of housing several times. 74. He (sleep off) the headache.
75. The tramp (take) her in with his lies. 76. I (wake) early. 77. He (spread)
the sheets of paper on the counter. 78. Most people (eat) with zest. 79. I (have)
her by the shoulder, but she (shake) me off. 80. He (speak) of his aims. 81. He
(go) in cheerful spirits. 82. The young men (ride off) to games each Sunday.
83. He (lie) in bed all morning. 84. She (lie) to me.
exercise 23. Answer the questions, using the Past Continuous in your an
swers:
model: When did she meet her brother? (walk in the park).
She met her brother when she was walking in the park.
1. When did you break your leg? (come down the stairs) 2. When did he
compose the symphony? (have a holiday) 3. When did they learn French?
(live in France) 4. When did you hear the news? (listen to the wireless) 5. When
did the man hurt himself? (ride a horse) 6. When did she find the book? (do
the house) 7. When did they lose their child? (walk about town) 8. When did
he pay you a visit? (have lunch) 9. When did John notice the flaw? (inspect
the vase) 10. When did he ask her that? (talk about their future)
exercise 24. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or the Past Con
tinuous:
1. When he (enter) the room, the children (play) with their toys. 2. He
(write) his essay when somebody (knock) at the door. 3. The players (train)
the whole day yesterday. 4. While she (listen) to the concert, her brother (play)
with a noisy toy car. 5. He (stand) a long time in the darkest corner of the
room. 6. When the doorbell (ring) she (sleep). 7. The young man (jump) on to
the bus while it (run). 8. The little boy (help) himself to another slice of
cake when his mother (not look). 9. When the train (arrive) many travellers
(wait) on the platform. 10. The electric power (go off) while they (listen) to
the radio programme. 11. The fire (burn) brightly when the hikers (reach) the
chalet. 12. They (realize) they (travel) in the wrong direction. 13. She (clean)
the mirror when it (break). 14. While he (drive) the lorry, a tyre (burst). 15. Tke
guests (enjoy) themselves when the landlady (tell) them they (have) to leave
the house.
exercise 25. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or the Past Con
tinuous:
1. The track (lead) us through the thick jungle where the trees (hang)
over us forming a dark roof. Although the sun (shine) its rays (fail) to penetrate
the heavy green foliage. 2. While I (pump) up my bicycle tyres, a man (look)
in over the wall and (ask) me the way to the police-station. 3. While we (stay) in
London the dome of St. Paul’s (be repaired). It(berepaired)stillwhenl(return)to
London a year later. 4. Towards dusk we (come) to a little inn which (stand) on
the outskirts of the village. Some church bells (ring) and smoke (rise) from
numerous cottage chimneys. The inn itself (be) most pleasant. The landlord
(show) us into a large room where a cheerful fire (burn). 5. Napoleon III (live)
in England when he (die). 6. I (see) your aunt yesterday. She (wear) a white
hat and (carry) a blue bag. 7. It (rain). I (put) on my mackintosh, (go) out of
the front door and (cross) the road to catch the bus which (wait) there. The
driver (smoke) a cigarette and (talk) to the conductor. 8. By the time they
(arrive) it (rain) hard. 9. The bricklayers (go) on strike on Tuesday morning.
When I (look) out of the window, they all (stand) about in the street with
their hands in their pockets. They (wait) for the mass meeting that was to
take place that afternoon. 10. He (put) the kettle on and while he (wait) for
it to boil he (ring) up the Regal Cinema to find out what film they (show).
(From: A New Way to Proficiency in English, by Cook, Gethin, Mitchell)

1. Mi-am luat servieta și am alergat afară din hotel. Mașina mă aștepta
afară. Șoferul citea un ziar. Am urcat și m-am așezat. Servieta am aruncat-o pe
scaunul de alături. 2. Drumul șerpuia ușor printre șiruri de case care cu greu se
puteau vedea din cauza ceții de dimineață. Am observat însă în curlnd că ceata
se ridica și astfel puturăm vedea că în fața noastră se întindea unul din cele
mai frumoase parcuri pe care le văzusem vreodată. 3. Din copacii care mărgi
neau drumul picura apă încontinuu. 4. Cărarea care ducea la cabană era aco
perită de zăpadă. Mai continua să ningă, dar deja se putea vedea soarele care
își trimitea razele palide din spatele unui nor cenușiu. Cind am ajuns la cabană
ne era foame și visam la un somn bun, dar cabanierul a venit să ne spună că
din cauza viscolului de peste noapte focul din sobă nu mai ardea și că vîntul
era încă prea puternic ca să-i aprindă din nou. 5. In timp ce căutam adresa,
m-am întîlnit cu un fost coleg de școală pe care I-am recunoscut după cravata
roz pe care o mai purta încă și acum, după atîția ani. 6. în timp ce se îneca,
lui Martin Eden îi treceau cu repeziciune prin minte scene din tinerețe.
V. The Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous

The basic function of the Past Perfect is to express the priority of an action
to a given moment in the past.
e.g. He had studied French thoroughly before he went to Paris.
She had read much and could tell beautiful stories.
The Past Perfect may also serve to express an action which began before
a given past moment and continued into it or up to it. With this meaning it
is parallel to the Past Perfect Continuous. In the choice of the Past Perfect
or the Past Perfect Continuous we observe the same indications as those
mentioned in the case of the Present Perfect Continuous.
e.g. He had been a teacher for three years before he became a novelist.
But: He had been teaching in that school for three years before he left it.
In negative sentences the Past Perfect is preferred to the Past Perfect
Continuous:
e.g. They had not met for many years.
exercise 27. Join the following pairs of sentences using the Past Perfect
Tense. Use the conjunctions in brackets:
model: They went out to play. They finished their tasks (after).
They went out to play after they had finished their tasks.
1. He threw the letter away. He wrote it (as soon as). 2. He recovered. He
was very ill (before). 3. She didn’t know the truth. He explained it (until). 4. I
reached the bus-stop. The bus started (when). 5. He left the room. I switched
on the TV set (as soon as). 6. We had breakfast. We went for a walk (after).
7. They didn’t call on us. We dressed for the trip (until). 8. He was an actor.
He became a stage director (before).
(Adapted from “Practical Grammar in Patterns" by T. N. Ruzmiciova)
exercise 28. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or the Past Perfect
Tense:
a) 1. They not (get) a reply, so they (decide) to spend their holidays at
home. 2. We (have) to go back, it (rain) for two hours and the ground was
water-logged. 3. How long he (live) there when the war (break) out ? 4. Only a
long time after that he (find) out what (happen). 5. He (know) where I (live)
but he never (be) to my flat. 6. He (listen) to her story for two hours and
(think) it boring. 7. Nobody (know) he (disappear). 8. She had (stay) at the
seaside for more than a week when the weather (grow) cold. 9. He (laugh) at
her hair and she (be) angry with him. 10. They (wonder) what (become) of
their luggage. 11. The hotel (be) much cheaper than he (think) at first. 12. We
(tell) him that his house (burn down). 13. The explorers (travel) for weeks
without enough food and water. 14. They asked her why she (lie) to them. 15,
He (be pushed) out of the room, before he (be able) to speak.
b) 1. I (not, yet, translate) the letter when he (come back). 2. As soon as I
(pay) for the bulb I (say) good-bye to Mr. Hobbs. 3. Mr. Smith, who (never,
fire) a revolver in his life, (slip) it gingerly into his pocket. 4. Report (go) that
he (be maimed) in his youth. 5. Pieces (come off) so that the walls (look) awful.
6. There (be) a ripping sound. The sidecar (come loose) from the motorcycle.
7. It (be) very sudden. Though for many years she (have) pains on and off.
8. “And if I (venture) to say a word, Mrs. Welman (be ready) to bite my head
off, though I (be) with her nearly twenty years”. (Ag.C.) 9. We (hide) in the
shadow until we (see) him across the river. 10. He (tell) me her name only
after I (ask) him twice. 11. Half way through he (find) he (forget) the beginning
of the story. 12. He (place) the saucepan back on the stove, and (grasp) the cup
he (fill). (J.G.)

1. Săptămîna trecută ne-am mutat din casa în care am locuit 10 ani.
2. Cînd ne-am întors în cele din urmă acasă, călătorisem 2000 de km. 3. Anul
trecut m-am urcat pe Vezuviu. Fusesem fascinat de vulcani de cînd am văzut
un film despre ei. 4. Cînd s-a făcut ora 11 și ea nu venise încă, am început să
mă întreb dacă nu avusese cumva vreun accident. 5. Mi-a spus că l-a întîlnit
seara trecută și că se schimbase așa de mult încît era de nerecunoscut.
6. I-am putut afla numele doar după ce a plecat. 7. M-am supărat foarte tare
cînd mi s-a spus că trenul a plecat deja și I-am întrebat pe chelner de ce nu m-a
anunțat din vreme și de ce a continuat să-mi servească băutură. 8. Hoțul a
refuzat să recunoască faptul că el era cel ce furase banii. Dar poliția îi găsise
amprentele pe poșeta doamnei. 9. Copiii căutau peste tot jucăriile și spuneau
că le puseseră într-un sertar care însă se dovedi a fi gol. Fusese de mult gblit
de mezin care acum nu-și mai amintea ce făcuse cu ele. 10. Cînd am fost la
Londra am reușit să vedem aproape tot orașul cu ajutorul unei mașini pe care
ne-a împrumutat-o un prieten.
VI. The Simple Past, the Past Continuous, the Past Perfect and the
Past Perfect Continuous
exercise 30. Put the verbs in brackets into the\Simple Past Perfect Tense or
the Continuous Past Perfect Tense: '
1. When I visited him in Berlin I discovered that he (paint) just the same
stale things that he (paint) for years in Rome. (W.S.M.) 2. He waajaughing-
heartily ... at a story which he (tell) Gabriel on the stairs. (J. J.) 3. While he
(be) full of memories of their secret life together, . . . she (compare) him in
her mind with another. (J.J.) 4fBy the time he (speak) for five minutes the
spirit (go) out of us all. (J.J.) 5. Once he nearly got run overby a bus. He
(collect) bits of evergreens. (Sh. D.) 6. They (talk), but as they saw me at
the gate there was a hush. 7. His composure (return) when he and Chrystal
called on me after the ball. (C.P.S.) 8. He (do) two men’s work for months . . .
His fundamental work (not, receive) the attention that he looked for . . .
(C.P.S.) 9. Mrs. Jago welcomed us with a greater assumption of state than
ever; she (tell) herself that no one wished to see her. (C.P.S.) 10. I asked him
if he (see) Jack recently. 11. “Oh, why didn’t you tell me I (keep) you?” she
said, getting up at once. (Ag.C.) 12. For the moment, he was not smoking, for
long enough he (not, talk). 13. I remembered something I (read) only a few
hours before. 14. She wanted to join her guest who (just, arrive) 15. Soon after
wards, Mrs7 Jago came in from the concerET^She was happier than I (ever, see)
her, she (be exalted) by the music, she (mix) with fashionable Cambridge . . .
(C.P.S.) 16. Meanwhile, Roy (drink) faster than the rest of us. The dangerous
glint (come) into his eyes. (C.P.S.) 17. When I (sit) there for five minutes I
saw Mahony’s grey suit approaching. (J.J.) 18. He (stand) in the twilight, but
she (switch on) the lights as we went in. (C.P.S.) 19. “When did you know you
(make) a discovery?” (C.P.S.)
exercise 31. Fill in the blanks with the correct past tense:
a) Miss Sharp’s father (be) an artist and (give) drawing lessons at Miss
Pinkerton’s school. He (be) a clever man, a pleasant companion, a careless
student. He (owe) money for a mile around Soho, where he (live). He (marry)
a young woman of the French nation who (be) by profession an opera-girl.
Rebecca’s mother (have) some education somewhere, and her daughter (speak)
French with a Parisian accent. It (be) in those days a rare accomplishment,
and (lead) to her engagement with Miss Pinkerton. She (be) seventeen when
she (come) to Chiswick as a pupil; her duties (be) to talk French and her privi
leges to live cost free, and, with a few guineas a year, to get some knowledge
from the professors of the school. She (live) there for nearly two years when a
battle (begin) between her and Miss Pinkerton. Miss Pinkerton (tell) her that
she (be) to instruct the younger girls in music for the future. Rebecca (refuse).
Thus a battle (begin) which (last) for months.
(After Thackeray)
b) A light (appear) at the further end of the passage and I (see) Colonel
Stark rushing forward with a lantern in one hand and an axe in the other.
I (rush) across the bedroom, (open) the window and (look) out. It (can) not
be more than thirty feet down into the garden. I (get) upon the sill, but I
(hesitate) to jump. At that moment the Colonel (be) at the door. I (let) myself
go and (hang) when his blow (fall). I (feel) a dull pain and (fall) into the garden
below. I (be) not hurt by the fall, so I (rise) to my feet and (run) as fast as I
(can), for I (understand) that I (be) not out of danger yet. Suddenly, as
I (run), I (look) down at my hand and then, for the first time, (see) that my
thumb (be cut) off, and that the blood (pour) from my wound. I (try) to tie my
handkerchief round it but the next moment I (faint).
(After Conan Doyle)'
c) Andrew (be) the first to come. It was Cristine herself who (open) the
door for him. Later Watkins and his wife (come) in apologizing for being late.
And almost at once they (sit) down to supper. After the skumpy meals he
usually (have) it (be) a great treat to Andrew to find hot appetizing food
before him. Though plain, every dish (be) good and there (be) plenty of it.
When Andrew (praise) her landlady’s cooking, Watkins who (observe) how
Andrew (devour) his food, suddenly, (laugh) out loud. “That’s a good one”.
He (turn) to his wife “(Hear) him? He says old Mrs. Herbert’s a marvellous
cook!” Christine (colour) slightly. She (beg) Andrew not to pay attention to
Watkins. It (be) the nicest compliment she (ever have) because he (not mean)
it as such. She (cook) the supper.
(After Cronin)
exercise 32. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense: the Simple Present,
the Present Perfect, the Past Tense, the Past Continuous Tense or the Past
Perfect:
1. It (be) the first time that Lottie and Kezia ever (be) out so late. (K.M.)
2. It was not until long after she (say) “yes” that she (wonder) whether she (do)
wrong. After all, she really (not know) him. But he (be) so old and (be) so kind
about the strawberries. (K.M.) 3. “Get hold of the gardener, Raffles. Perhaps
he (work) then.” “I (ask) him that, sir. He (say) he’s not; and what’s more, that
these flowers (be) all right when he (leave) at five o’clock yesterday evening,
because he always (look) over them last thing”. (H.W.) 4. He asked the butler
whether he (notice) anything different about his master the previous night.
Jackson (reply) that he (notice) nothing of the kind. (H.W.). 5. “How long you
(be) with him?” “Twenty three years, sir. Ever since he (start) tobe anything at
all.” (H.W.) 6. I know I smoked one or two cigarettes while we (talk) business.
And I (smoke) probably a couple more afterwards, when we (drink) our whisky.
They would be either in the fireplace or in that ashtray. Sir John (smoke)
one cigar directly after dinner and while we (talk) business. 7. But Sir John
has been touchy in a way I (never know) before, and it (seem) to me that he
(not be) on the friendly terms with Mr. Hastings that you’d expect with a
son-in-law. (H.W.) 8. The inspector (not be) in his office long when he (receive)
a message that a gentleman (call) and (ask) to see him on urgent private busi
ness. 9. “What about this chap James? (Be) with you long?” “Not very, sir.
About four months, I (think). As a matter of fact, I (not know) much about
him — I (not engage) him myself”^(H.W.) 10. For myself it (be) twenty years
since I (be) brave enough to eat strawberries. (K.M.)

Cu puțin mai înainte, vrusesem să-mi trec timpul, care se scurgea grozav
de greu, scăldîndu-mă. Nu mă îndurasem însă să-i stric nemaivăzuta-i limpe
zime. După noi, poate că aveau să mai treacă pe acolo și alți oameni să-și
astîmpere setea. Cu jegul de care-mi era îmbîcsită pielea, mi se părea că,
intrînd în lac, l-aș fi spurcat. Știam de acasă că pîinea e sfîntă, că e păcat să
arunci fărămiturile. Și tot de acasă știam că sfîntă e și apa. Mă despuiasem și
luînd apă în pumni îmi spălasem trupul încet, cu grijă, parte cu parte.
(Jocul cu moartea Zaharia Staneu)
VII. The Simple Future and the Future Continuous
There are several possibilities of denoting future time in English.

A. Auxiliary verb constructions: (shall + infinitive; 1st person only); will
+ infinitive; all persons, 1st person included).
It expresses:
a) a pure future fact.
e.g. I shall be thirty tomorrow.
They will come to see you soon.
b) a future fact dependent on a condition.
e.g. If I go abroad I shall have to buy a new pair of shoes.
B. Be going to 4- infinitive.
It expresses:
a) intentions.
e.g. I am going to be a teacher when I grow up.
b) the idea of an action on the way.
e.g. The sky is very dark. It is going to rain again. She is going to have
a baby soon.
C. The Present Continuous: to express arrangements, the maximum of human
influence.
e.g. I’m going to town this afternoon.
They are giving a party tonight.
I’m not seeing you again till Monday.
D. Be about to + infinitive: expresses near future, i.e. imminent fulfilment,
e.g. We are (just) about to quarrel.
E. Be to + infinitive: to express: (cf. Quirk)
a) arrangement
e.g. We are to be promoted soon.
b) command
e.g. You are to be back by 10 o’clock.
c) pre-destined future
e.g. If he’s to succeed in his new profession...
Future time in the past (R. Quirk): it expresses time which is in the future
when see*n from a viewpoint in the past.
a) Auxiliary verb construction with would (rare; literary narrative style),
e.g. The time was not far off when he would regret this decision.
b) Be going to + infinitive (unfulfilled intention)
e.g. You were going to tell me about last night’s party.
c) Past progressive
e.g. I was meeting him in the same place the next day.
d) Be to infinitive (formal — was destined to, or arrangement)
e.g. He was later to regret his decision.
The meeting was to be held the following week.
e) Be about to (on the point of)
e.g. He was about to hit me.
The Future continuous expresses an action in progress at a given moment in
the future. The emphasis is on something happening.
e.g. This time tomorrow morning I shall be having breakfast on the
plane.
The Future Simple expresses a complete, whole future action.
e.g. I think I shall have breakfast on the plane tomorrow.
Note. The Future with will and shall cannot be used in conditional and tem
poral clauses. The present tense is used instead.
e.g. If you do not accept my terms, we shall part.
You won’t be a good driver until you learn to keep your temper.
The Future perfect becomes the Present perfect.
e.g. When the first buds have come out spring will not be very far
away.
exercise 33. Change the following sentences using “going to” instead of the
future:
1. They will travel all over Europe. 2. Where will she sleep while you are
away? 3. She will sit up all night to finish her report. 4. We shall visit all the
museums. 5. The Smiths will help me to build my house. 6. We shall tidy up
the room. 7. The teacher will ask you a few questions. 8. She will choose
the new dress for me. 9. He will breed race-horses. 10. They will work together
next year.
(Adapted after “Living English Structure' by 8. A 11 e n)
exercise 34. Change the following sentences using the Present Continuous:
1. The Professor will deliver a new lecture on Tuesday. 2. They will start
on a new exploration next week. 3. The expedition will set out tomorrow.
4. My mother will take me to the theatre. 5. The children will stay at home this
evening. 6. What will we have for lunch? 7. He will buy her a new doll next
week. 8, We shall leave by the night train. 9. The choir will sing next. 10. She
will give you a control-paper tomorrow.
(Adapted after “Living English Structure" by S. Allen)
exercise 35. Insert shall or will following sentences:

Note. Where shall and will are used in any other way than to express pure
future time, they give emotional colour to the verb. They are modal verbs
used to express some impulse, will or desire.
a) if the impulse, will or desire is that of the subject, will is always used
(with all persons).
e.g. I will help you.
b) if the impulse, will or desire is that of anybody other than the subject,
shall is always used (with all persons).
e.g. Shall I help you? Will you have a drink? Or shall my wife make
you a cup of tea?
1. You . . . not have a cake until you have finished the soup. 2. You ... be
taken to the circus if you behave well. 3. I have decided he . . . not play in the
team. 4. . . . you have something to eat? 5. I . . . check the engine myself.
6. You . . . get a room to yourself when you’re seven. 7. ... I open the window
or the door? 8. I promise you that you . . . not be the loser. 9.. . . you lend me
your pencil? Mine has broken. 10. I ... go if you insist on my going.
exercise 36. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense; remember the
future is not used after temporals:
1. We mustn’t speak until he (finish) recording. 2. You will find outthesecret
when you (open) the letter. 3. As soon as you buy the house, I (move) in with
you. 4. He’ll buy you a present before he (leave). 5. I shall not move from here
till you (promise) to buy me the toy. 6. It will be too late to do anything when
you (come) back. 7. The child won’t fall asleep until its mother (kiss) it good
night. 8. I (have) a square meal as soon as I arrive in Bucharest. 9. Don’t
stand up till the show (be) over. 10. You (know) the truth when you see her.
exercise 37. Put the verbs in bracketsîiito the Future Continuous Tense:
1. This time next year I (sit) in the chairman’s chair. 2. When you come
I probably (sleep). 3. In a few days’ time we (sail) down the Rhine. 4. We
(wait) for them when they arrive. 5. He (deliver) a special grammar course
next year. 6. Put on your new suit, because I (wear) my best dress. 7. You’d
better ring up your parents, they (wonder) where you are. 8. When we get
back home the fire (burn) brightly in the fire-place. 9. I (come) round to see
you next week. 10. We (see) a lot of each other at the seaside.
VUI. The Future Perfect and the Future Perfect Continuous

The Future Perfect expresses an action completed before a future moment
which is usually expressed by an adverbial modifier.
e.g. I shall have finished the book before you come back.
By the time they arrive we’ll have made up our minds.
Note. After Temporals the Future Perfect becomes the Present Perfect,
e.g. He won’t go away till you have promised you’ll accept the invitation.
The Future Perfect Continuous is very seldom used.
e.g. By the end of the year I shall have been working here for ten years.
exercise 38. Put the verbs in brackets into the Future Perfect Tense:
1. In a month’s time he (finish) all this work. 2. I (read) this bibliography
by the end of the term. 3. By the time the winter comes he (build) himself
a log-cabin. 4. By the time we get to the stadium the game (finish). 5. In 1983
he (be) an actor for twenty years. 6. The doctor (start) out on his round by
the time you leave. 7. All the beautiful things (sell) by the time you make up
your mind to buy something. 8. If you stay away another week I (not see)
you for 5 whole weeks. 9. By six o’clock she (take) her lesson. 10. The expedi
tion (reach) the North Pole by May.
exercise 39. Complete the following sentences:
1. By this time next year, we ... 2. If he has not yet begun to study
he ... by tomorrow. 3. The flowers . . ., by the time the snow has come. 4. A
year hence I ... 5. This work is so vast, that... in a year’s time. 6. By the
time you leave school... 7. I hope that when you are as old as I am . . .
8. Perhaps scientists ... by the twenty-first century. 9. They believe that
they . . . before the year is over. 10. Before you leave this part of the country
you . . .
exercise 40. Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect Tense:
1. We’ll wait downstairs till you (dress). 2. Don’t trouble him until he
(finish) his examinations. 3. When I (have) supper I shall go to bed. 4. Until
the frost (go) we will not be able to leave this chalet. 5. You cannot become a
great man until you (do) something remarkable. 6. As soon as you (understand)
the difficulty of the matter you will give it up. 7. He must stay in hospital
till (get rid of) his measles. 8. When you (wash) your hands I shall give you
lunch. 9. We shan’t find our seats until the lights (go on). 10. We’ll come and
see this house again when the builders (finish) it.
exercise 41. Put the verbs in brackets into the Future Perfect, the Future
Perfect Continuous and the Present Perfect Tenses:
1. By the end of July he (teach) in this school for a year. 2. I (look up) the
word in the dictionary before you (remember) it. 3. By the time you (come)
back she (marry) somebody else. 4. By next Sunday Bob (stay) in the moun
tains for a month. 5. I hope the rain (stop) by six o’clock. 6. I’ll not speak to
him again until he (apologize) for his impoliteness. 7. Tomorrow I (live) in
this flat for six weeks. 8. By the time you (come) back with the wine I (lay)
the table for both of us. 9. When (hear) the truth you will understand why she
ran away. 10. At 12 o’clock I (write) for six hours. 11. When you (take) some
of these pills you will feel better. 12. Twenty minutes from now I (wash) all
the windows. 13. The child (feat) all the sweets before the other children (arrive).
14. I shall tell him everything when he (recover) from his illness. 15. By the
end of the year he (learn) English for three years.
exercise 42. Translate into English using future tenses:

1. Delegația va pleca la Londra de îndată ce va primi viza. 2. Dacă mă
voi duce la petrecere fără nimeni și nu va fi nici un cunoscut acolo, mă voi simți
singură. 3. George nu crede că va putea să treacă pe la ei și să-și ia rămas bun
înainte de a pleca la mare. 4. Din ușă Jack strigă că se va întoarce în trei ore.
5. Ai să fii acasă mîine după masă? Ce vei face la ora 5? 6. Se întreba dacă o
să poată rezolva o astfel de problemă singur, fără nici un ajutor. 7. Doctorul
i-a spus lui John: — Vei sta în pat trei zile. 8. Peste o săptămînă la ora asta
studenții de la germană vor da scrisul în timp ce studenții de la engleză vor
avea proba orală. 9. Familia Thompson nu va ajunge acasă înainte ca să în
ceapă ploaia. 10. Va pleca la Cluj-Napoca peste cîteva ore;trenul pleacă la ora
10. 11. întrebați-1 pe secretar dacă vom studia după vechiul orar sau dacă va
fi gata unul nou cînd vom începe noul semestru. 12. Băiatul spuse: — Pînă
cînd te vei adresa profesorului să te ajute noi vom termina deja cea mai mare
parte din lucrare. Băiatul spuse că pînă cînd se va adresa profesorului s-o ajute,
ei au să termine cea mai mare parte din lucrare.
Revision Exercises.
exercise 43. Put the verbs in brackets into the Future Tense or the Simple
Present Tense, bearing in mind that there is no Future Tense after time conjunc
tions, or after if;
1. If we (ask) for another copy they (not think) much of our efficiency.
2. It (not be) long before they (come). 3. If it (rain) you (please, bring) the
clothes in? 4. I (take) my coat off before permanent damage (be done) to it.
5. If this boy (not, get) his honours degree, I (cross off) the experiment as a
failure. (C.P.S.) 6. “I (ndt feel) inclined to celebrate until I (see) a cheque arrive
on the bursary table." (C.P.S.) 7. I (not, let) myself be put up until I (stand)
a good chance. 8. “But we (be) well-advised not to t$ke any action until we
(hear) from Nightingale himself." (C.P.S.) 9. It (not, do) them any harm if
they (turn out) to be wrong. 10. I (be) surprised if we (see) him back again.
11. He (be) greatly relieved if the examiners (let) him through. 12. “We (not,
get far) if we (start) scoring points off one another." (C.P.S.) 13. She (not,
alter) till she (die). 14. Every time they (see) me, I (be ashamed).
exercise 44. Put the verbs in brackets into the Future Perfect Tense or the
Present Perfect Tense:
model: 1. You (mend) it by 5 o’clock.
2. I’ll stay until you (mend) it.
Answer: 1. You will have mended it by 5 o’clock.
2. I’ll stay until you have mended it.
1. The trees will look very bare as soon as the leaves (fall). 2. When I (do)
four years, I’ll decide in what branch I’ll specialize. 3. He (break in) the horse
by mid September. 4. They (call off) the game by the time we get there. 5. Put
your knife and fork side by side on the plate, when you (finish) eating. 6. If
you (still, not find) it by 9 o’clock, I’ll ask them for another copy. 7. Mark
(cut) heavily into the money by the time he is 21. 8. I’m going to make a cup
of coffee after I (shave). 9. Alice (do up) the parcel by the time the van arrives.
10. The police (catch) the prisoner by dusk. 11. I think he’ll make a very good
manager when he (have) a few years’ experience. 12. Most students (drop off)
by the end of term. 13. I’ll have to go as soon as I (tell) him. 14. The debt (be
paid) by then.
exercise 45. Make questions, using the tense form required by the time adverb
or adverbial phrase accompanying the respective verb:
model: (you, still, dig)?

Are you still digging?
1. (you, ride, before)? 2. (he, not, wind the watch, yet)? 3. (she, weep,
since then)? 4. (I, not, tear it open, five minutes ago)? 5. (they, hide, still)?
6. (he, go out shooting duck, every Saturday)? 7. (she, not, choose it, a few days
ago)? 8. (you, not, bend the bar, yet)? 9. (he, not, steal, any, spare parts, since
mid April)? 10. (he, not, strike her, before)? 11. (she, not, sweep the room,
last Saturday)? 12. (Mr. Hide, wring his hands, still)? 13. (I, not give her a
lift, since)? 14. (Mrs. Green, not grind the coffee beans yet)? 15. (David, quarrel
with his sister, every day)? 16. (you, mow your meadow, before)?
exercise 46. Complete the following sentences with the correct verb form(s)
selected from the alternatives given below each:
model:He... the film last year.
(shoot, am shooting, shot, has shot)
answer: He shot the film last year.
1. By next March she... history for three years.
(had taught, has been teaching, will teach, will be teach
ing, will have been teaching)
2. You don’t know what we...
(’ll say, say, said, are saying, have been saying)
3. It ... only a few days later that Mark... back.
(will be, was, had been, is) (came, will come, has come, had come)
4. When they ... she will know them for what they are.
(are speaking out, speak out, will speak out, have spoken out)
5. Funny things ... in their house.
(will happen, are always happening, are happening, happen,
have been happening, had happened, happened)
6. He ...free of depression since June.
(is, was, has been, will be, had been)
7. He ........................................ what... about it?
(knows, does ... know, is said, was being said, is being said,
has ... known)/ has been said, was said, had been said)
8. Ic... here until you ... examined.
(am waiting, wait, ’ll have (are being, are, have been,
been waiting, ’ll be waiting) will be)
9. Your ear ... long?
(is ... hurting, does ... hurt, was ... hurting, has ... been hurting)
10. As we............................... Andrew................ Hugh to stay behind.
(left, leave, has told, was
were leaving,) telling, told,)
exercise 47. Combine the following pairs of sentences using a time conjunc
tion. Make the necessary changes:
model: “Let’s go out for a walk”.
“You’ll have to clean out the attic first”.
answer: We’ll go out for a walk when / as soon as you’ve cleaned out tho
attic.
1. “Will you ever forgive her?” “She’ll have to cut out smoking first”.
2. “May I get in now?” “You’ll have to do up your coat first”. 3. “Let’s ring
her up.” “You’ll have to look up her number first.” 4. “Can he hand in the
paper now?” “He’ll have to go through the figures first.” 5. “Can I entertain
our new neighbours to dinner?” “You’ll have .to settle down first.” 6. “Can’t
you tell me your reasons?” “You’ll have to answer my questions first.” 7. “Do
you think I’ll make a good teacher?” “You’ll have to have a.few years expe
rience first.” 8. “Can he come downstairs?” “He’ll have to shave first.” 9. “Can
I put my knife and fork together side by side on the plate?” “You will have
to finish eating first.” 10. “Shall I go before the Board now?” “You’ll have to
do three years first.”

1. O să te doară burta dacă continui să fîTănînci așa de multe prăjituri.
2. Dacă ești cuminte, vei primi un tren electric de ziua ta. 3. Știi cumva dacă
și compozitorul va fi acolo? 4. Vei primi tot ce dorești dacă reușești la examen.
5. E prima dată cînd văd o balenă adevărată. 6. Nu mă deranja la 4 după
masa. Voi dormi. 7. De săptămîni încerc să găsesc pe cineva care să-mi
repare chiuveta din bucătărie. 8. Te asigur că de îndată ce-1 vei vedea îți va
place. 9. îmi plăcea să-i citesc pe Dickens, dar acum mă plictisește. 10. Ne-am
așezat în jurul focului de tabără. Fratele meu cînta la ghitară, în timp ce noi
ceilalți cîntam din gură. 11. Cînd Columb a acostat la țărmul Americii credea
că a ajuns în India. 12. Cînd va ajunge tatăl său acasă, Jimmy își va fi văzut
programul la televizor, și se va fi culcat.
exercise 49. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct\ejise: the Present
Simple or Continuous, the Present Perfect Simple or Continuous, the Past Tense
Simple or Continuous, the Simple Future, the Future Perfect and the Future in
th? Past:
1. I know, Jackson, and you’ve only told me one side of the story. I (hear)
the other from Sir John. You (be) a good friend, too. I only hope that I (be)
as lucky when my time (come) to start a household of my own. (H.W.) 2.
“Thank you”, he said, when the other (finish). (H.W.) 3. We’ll talk about that
when I (do) telephoning. (H.W.) 4. “What do you do about the next day’s
orders?” “I (get) them when I (take) the whisky in at ten. If there (be) any
thing after that, Sir John (ring) for me. Yesterday, as a matter of fact, he
(send) me a messaged^ Mr. Hastings that he (ride) in the morning and (want)
to be called early.” 5YHe saw them — Miss Smethurst and her young man —
as soon as he (get) here, and (tell) you (come) and (let) them know when you
(want) them. (H.W.) 6. “When Jou last (see) your master alive?” “Last night, sir.
Sir John’s secretary (dine) with him and they (sit) in the study after dinner . . .
Mr. Hastings just (come) out of the study when I (get) into the front hall,
he (stop) in the door to talk to Sir John. Sir John (sit) in that armchair next
the door, smoking and he (ask) Mr. Hastings if he (be) in the Row tomorrow
morning.” (H.W.) 7. I do not wish to make trouble, but it (become) noticeable
latterly that things (not be) as they (be) between my employer and Mr. Has
tings. (H.W.) 8. “Please tell us what happened that night.” “I (dine) alone and
(sit) up reading till late. At a quarter past nine Mr. Hastings (come) in. I
(expect) him. He (stay) till ten, and then (leave). (H.W.)
1. De obicei ne întîlnim de două ori pe săptămînă, însă cînd sîntem ocupați
nu ne întîlnim de loc. 2. Auzi? Cineva cîntă la pian și acum este ora 12. 3. —XCe
face Ana? — Pregătește prînzul în bucătărie; de obicei gătește la ora aceasba.
4. Auzi ce spun, sau cîntă radioul prea tare? 5. Sună telefonul. Mă duc să văd
cine este. 6. în general ne petrecem vacanța la mare, însă anul acesta mergem
la munte. 7. Mîine începem un nou trimestru la școală. 8. Acum plouă și noi
nu jucăm tenis decît dacă terenul este uscat. 9. Privește 1 Soarele răsare de
după colina aceea. 10. — Vezi vaporul de la orizont? — Nu, nu văd nimic.
Nu văd bine fără ochelari. 11. Lacul a secat; a fost foarte cald vara aceasta.
12. Toată ziua a stat în aer Idler și acum se odihnește. 13. Ai cumpărat vreo
carte bună în ultima vreme?Q^> Ați locuit toată viața în această casă veche?
15. Nu I-am văzut de cînd era copil. 16. învățăm engleza de patru ani. 17. De
trei zile ninge mult, deci am stat în casă. 18. A pierdut multe lecții de cînd s-a
îmbolnăvit. 19. Nu-ți pot spune dacă îmi place filmul, întrucît nu I-am văzut
încă. 20. Aceasta este cea mai interesantă carte pe care am citit-o vreodată.
21. El stă cu noi acum, întrucît și-a vîndut casa. 22. Ea a uitat franceza de
cînd a părăsit Parisul. 23. Cînd locuiau la mare, adesea se sculau în zori și
mergeau să vadă răsăritul soarelui. 24. L-am văzut adesea cumpărînd cărți
de la librărie. 25. —De cînd plouă? — A început să plouă acum trei zile și nu
s-a mai oprit de atunci. 26. Ieri un grup de elevi a făcut o excursie în munți.
27. N-am mî fost la munte de un car de ani. 28. Uneori ieșeau afară în grădină
și se așezau pe buturuga de lîngă lac. 29. Vorbea ca un om cu multă experiență.
30. Uneori îl întîlneam la bibliotecă cînd învăța pentru examen. 31. Venea cu
buzunarele pline de daruri și le dădea copiilor. 32. Ea ținea la el, dar nu cred
că îl iubea. 33. Ieri m-a durut măseaua îngrozitor, deci a trebuit să mă duc la
dentist. *34. Tocmai plecam de la școală cînd a sosit directorul și mi-a spus că
eu sînt cîștigătorul concursului. 35. Băiatul se juca în curte cînd mama lui
La chemat în casă. 36. Unde te duceai cînd te-am întîlnit pe stradă ieri? 37.
Despre ce vorbeau cînd ai trecut pe lîngă ei? 38. Trenul tocmai pornea cînd
trei bărbați au apărut alergînd dealungul peronului și l-au prins în ultima clipă.
39. Purta o rochie roșie, pentru că știa că o prinde bine culoarea aceea.
40. Ne-am întors de Ia teatru înainte ca să înceapă să plouă. 41. El a plătit
la casă, după ce măcelarul a cîntărit carnea. 42. El citise toate cărțile din
biblioteca tatălui său și nu mai știa ce să citească. 43. Au vizitat locurile
unde au stat cu ani în urmă. 4a) Și-a cumpărat un stilou nou deoarece pe cel
vechi îl pierduse. 45. Pînă la snrșitul lui iulie țăranii cooperatori strînseseră
recolta de grîu. 46. Au ajuns la gară după ce trenul plecase. 47. Pescarul a
stat mult timp pe malul rîului înainte de a prinde un pește. 48. Jucătorii se
antrenau serios de la ultima lor înfrîngere. 49. Artistul picta tabloul de cîteva
luni, dar nu-i terminase încă. 50. De la ultima lor întîlnire ea se gîndea tot
timpul la propunere^ lui. 51. Deodată și-a dat seama că este întuneric și că se
plimbă de multă vrelne. 52. După aceste examene voi pleca în vacanță. 53. Ne
vom întoarce la hotel de îndată ce vom vedea orașul. 54. Vrei să mă ajuți să-mi
duc bagajul? 55. Ce faci mîine după amiază? 56. Pleci la Paris diseară? 57. Iți
vei vedea părinții curînd, nu-i așa? 58. Nu mă întrerupe. Voi ajunge la această
problemă curînd. 59. Iți vei termina compunerea pînă la 8, nu-i așa? 60. Te vei
simți mai bine după ce vei lua medicamentul. 61. Cînd te vei întoarce de la
studii vor fi trecut doi ani de cînd te aștept. 62. Sper că te voi Intîlni mai
tîrziu. 63. Are de gînd să cosească iarba azi după amiază. 64. Gurînd va veni
acasă. 65. Vor pleca cu următorul tren. 66. Ai de gînd să citești toată noaptea?
67. Potrivit buletinului meteorologic vom avea o zi frumoasă mîine. 68. Tre
buie să așteptăm pînă ce fierbe apa înainte de a putea bea ceaiul. 69. Ce cărți
vei fi citit pînă în trimestrul 2? 70. Presupun că pînă mîine vă veți hotărî.
71. Mă voi plimba în timp ce tu te scalzi. 72. Luna viitoare se vor împlini doi
ani de cînd locuiesc aici. 73. Pe ziua de 6 ale acestei luni se va împlini un an
de cînd ne cunoaștem. 74. încă n-am aflat dacă va sosi azi sau mîine. 75. Voi
stinge radioul cînd vei adormi. 76. La ora aceasta mîine voi avea ora de engleză.
77. Toată săptămîna viitoare voi lucra la bibliotecă. 78. Voi lucra singur cîteva
ore înainte ca tu să vii să mă ajuți.
Modal Verbs
exercise 51. Fill in the blanks with can, may, could, expressing permission:
Remember that can is an informal alternative to may for permission.
Can and could are both used for requests. Could is the more polite and tenta
tive. The negative answer may not is hardly ever used, being considered rude.
1. ... I borrow your car on Sunday? I’m afraid you ... 2. He . . . leave
till five o’clock. It was settled before. 3. Each student. . . take only one book
home. 4. . . . you wait till next week? Yes, of course I ... 5. We were told
that on Sundays we . . . stay in bed till nine. 6. ... I borrow your pen? Yes,
you ... 7. You . . . park here. Look at the “No Parking” sign. 8. He . . . smoke
now, the children have left the room. |
exercise 52. Fill in the blanks with may / might:

Note. 1. May I might is used to express formal permission. 2. May / mighty
present infinitives expresses possibility in the future. Might expresses
greater doubt, (e.g. He may I might come tomorrow = perhaps he will come,
perhaps not). 3. Might must be used when the verb of the main clause is in
the past tense, (e.g. I thought that she might like the concert, so I bought
two tickets). 4. MayJjnight + perfect infinitives is used in speculations about
past actions. (e.gi He may I might have read that book = It is possible
that he has read that book.) 5. May / might can be used in conditional clauses
to express a possible result, (e.g. If they live in the same building, he may
know her. If he came to our party he might enjoy himself, but I’m not sure).
6. May not expresses prohibition; it is a synonym of must not.
1. I . . . have been asleep when you arrived; I didn’t hear the bell ring.
2. Father said that it. . . rain later. 3. You . . . not bring dictionaries into the
examination room. 4. If we wave to him, he . . . give us a lift. 5. It... be rain
ing, you’d better take your umbrella. 6. ... I borrow your umbrella? 7. I
can’t find the meat. The cat. . . have stolen it. 8. I was afraid they... be
too late to catch the train.
exercise 53. Fill in the blanks with may/might or to be allowed to/to be
permitted to in the required tense:
Note that to be allowed I permitted to replace may expressing permission
when specific time references require tenses that modal may does not have.
may = present, future
might = conditional, reported speech
to be allowed I permitted to = can be conjugated in the present, the past,
the future, the present perfect, etc.
1. He asked us if he . . . make some suggestions. 2. After the new year

tree had been decorated, the children ... go into the hall. 3. He . . . join the
yacht club as soon as he is through with his last exam. 4. The teacher said
that everybody . . ; take part in the discussion. 5. Everybody . . . take part
in the discussion. 6. He ... go his own way if he likes. 7. No sooner . . . the
children . . . leave the room, than they started a game on the playground.
8. On a train passengers . . . smoke only in smoking compartments.
exercise 54./ Replace the words in italics by can, could, can’t or couldn’t:
Remember that can I could + present infinitives = permission.
e.g. Can he come too? No, he can’t.
In the negative = prohibition
can I could + present infinitives = present / past ability.
e.g. I could(n’t) ski when I was a child.
In the negative = lack of ability.
can I could + perfect infinitives = past unused ability; sometimes with a
nuance of reproach.
e.g. He could have come earlier, but he didn’t want to.
can't I couldn't + present infinitives = negative present deduction.
e.g. It can’t be Tom. He’s too short to be Tom.
can't I couldn't + perfect infinitives = negative deduction about the past,
e.g. He couldn’t have studied the lesson.
He didn’t know anything.
1. I . . . carry this suitcase any more. It’s too heavy. 2. ... we stop for
a minute? 3. Tom . . . read and write when he was only five. 4. He ... be in
the street now; it’s pouring. 5. You . . . have done such a thing. I don’t believe
you. 6. . . . you show me the way to the railway station please? 7. She . . .
have helped me, but she said she hadn’t got enough time. 8. Tom . . . speak
three languages fluently.
exercise 55. Fill in the blanks with can’t / couldn’t + present infinitives
(to express negative deduction about a present event) or with can’t / couldn’t |
4- perfect infinitives (to express negative deduction about a past event):
1. Mother says that the meat . . . (be) good after so many days. Mother
said that the meat . . . (be) good since all of them have fallen ill. 2. I feel
that he . . . (do) it without any help. 3. You . . . (be) thirsty. You’ve just had
two glasses of water. 4. They . . . (be) here already; the train only arrived half
an hour ago. 5. It. . . (be) her husband who answered the phone. He’s been in
Vienna for a year. 6. He . . . (break) the window of the study. He was at school
all day. 7. He . . . (be) away. I saw him this morning. 8. He . . . (win) the com
petition. He hadn’t entered it.
exercise 56. Underline can I could expressing permission with one line and
can I could expressing possibility with two lines:
1. You can ski in the Romanian mountains from October on. 2. On Sun
days the students could stay in bed till nine. 3. You could bathe here in summer.
4. Can you lend me your typewriter for a week? 5. I’m afraid you can’t stay
any longer. 6. One couldn’t cross the street. They were taking pictures in front
of the concert hall. 7. That child can be very naughty sometimes. 8. It can
rain quite often in Scotland.
exercise 57. Fill in the blanks, using can for present, could for past, and
shall / will I be able to for future actions:
1. . . . you ride a bicycle yet? No, but I . . . ride one by this time next
year. 2. When he was younger, he . . . swim like a fish. 3. Only when the fog
lifted, ... we see where we were. 4. We . . . get out if you don’t look for the
key. We are locked in. 5. ... you type? Yes, I . . . type but I. . . do shorthand.
6. When he has passed his driving test, he . . . start driving his car. 7. I’m
sure that at the end of this month he will be sent an enormous telephone bill,
which he . . . pay (negative). 8. . . . you play football? I . .. when I was at
school, but I . . . now.
exercise 58. Fill in the blanks with could or be able to.-

Could is used for past ability, (e.g. He could skate when he was six.)
Was able to is used for past achievement, (e.g. He was able to skate although
the ice was melting.)
1. When the coach plunged into the river, only the driver . . . get out.
2. He was as strong as a horse; he . . . work all day and dance all night. 3. I . . .
mumble a few Hungarian words. 4. She . . . reach the shore before she collapsed.
5. I . . . type when I was sixteen. 6. . . . you walk after the accident or did
they have to carry you? 7. Although a long way from the door, they . . . get
out very quickly. 8. The man asked me the way, but as he . . . only speak
Italian, I . . . help him.
exercise 59. Translate the following sentences into English:

1. N-am putut niciodată înțelege ce o făcea să se poarte astfel. S-ar fi
putut căsători cu oricine ar fi vrut. 2. Putem fuma aici? 3. S-ar putea să nu
fiu prea deștept, dar știu ce vreau. 4. Mi-ai făcut un mare serviciu. Știam că
mă pot încrede în tine. 5. Mă gîndesc că s-ar fi putut să-ți spună ceva despre
noua lui slujbă. 6. Nu face nimic, amice. Se poate întîmpla oricui. 7. E posibil
<a această bătrînă să fie Louise? Nu putea să se fi schimbat într-atît! 8. Pot
să mă uit puțin la cărți? 9. Am să pot pleca la munte de îndată ce voi termina
examenele. 10. N-am mai văzut-o pe Ana în ultima vreme. S-ar putea să fie
plecată din oraș. 11. Dan nu putea scrie această compoziție. Cred că e a Măriei.
12. Nu te culca încă. Ea s-ar putea să vină cu trenul de noapte. 13. Niciodată
n-ar fi putut să ghicească de ce Alice era supărată pe ea, dacă nu i-ar fi spus
Mary. 14. N-am știut că pot să fumez aici. 15. Nu-mi vine să cred. Acesta să
fie fratele tău? 16. După ce a tîrguit timp de trei ore, d-na Brown a reușit în
sfîrșit să găsească ce căuta — o pereche de mănuși albe.
exercise 60. Read the following sentences paying attention to the uses of the
verb must:
Note. Must usually indicates: a) a general necessity (e.g. He must be more
careful.); b) a necessity imposed by the speaker — on himself or on others (e.g. I
must hep him. You must stay here.); c) very emphatic advice (e.g. You must
see that film.); d) an urgent obligation (e.g. I must be there at eleven. It’s really
important.); e) ruTes, regulations (e.g. You must have a driving licence if you
want to drive a car).
1. You must show your passport at the barrier. 2. The train leaves at 6.
I must be at the station at 5.45. 3. I must go home now and cook dinner for
my family. 4. You must see that play, it is extraordinarily good. 5. You must
listen to what your mother says. 6. You must speak English during the English
lesson. 7. Pedestrians must cross the street at the crossings. 8. He is in hospital.
You really must go and visit him on Sunday.
exercise 61. Rewrite the italicized sentences, using must;
Note. Must may also signify logical deduction, besides obligation of various
kinds:
1. Probably it was already late. 2. I'm sure you are cold. 3. Where are the
9th form pupils now? They are not in the classroom. I'm sure they are having
their P.E. lesson in the gym. 4. She has probably worked very hard to pass the
exam. 5. He is a very experienced worker. I'm sure he has been working here for
20 years at least. 6. Look I I can see light in Mary’s window. I feel,sure she is
at home. 7. The Browns have never been early risers. I'm sure they are still
sleeping. 8. Probably they have changed the programme. The pianist is playing
a piece which hasn’t been announced.
exercise 62. Fill in the blanks with must, or the future or past tense of have to;
1. I . . . write to my father today. 2. Why did he go to town last Friday?
Because he . . . take the car to the garage. 3. If he buys a car he . . . learn to
drive. 4. You ... be punctual tonight. Everybody will be late. 5. When he
changed his job, he . . . move to another town. 6. If it is raining, we . . . take
a taxi. 7. If you take the exam this year, you . . . take it next year. 8. You . . .
help your father today. Why? I . . . help him only yesterday.
exercise 63. Fill in the blanks with mustn’t or needn’t;
Note that mustn't indicates prohibition.
e.g. You mustn’t smoke = you are forbidden to smoke.
Needn't indicates absence of obligation.
e.g. You needn’t come = it is not necessary for you to come.
1. Passengers . . . climb into a moving vehicle. 2. They . . . hurry, it’s only
six. 3. He . . . pour her any more beer. She’s had too much of it already,
4. You . . . take your umbrella, it isn’t going to rain. 5. You . . . come in your
car, you can use mine. 6. You . . . smoke in the nursery, it is bad for baby’s
health. 7. Zoo notice: Visitors . . . feed the animals. 8. Shall I ask Mary? No,
you . . . , I know the answer myself.
exercise 64. Fill in the blanks with must or need;
Note. In questions must and need are often similar in meaning, but need
cannot be used after question words; when using need the speaker hopes for
the answer no:
1. ... I take the exam this term? No, but next term you must. 2. Where
... I put the ashztniy? 3. ... I do the shopping today, mother? I have such
a lot of homework to do. 4. ... I attend the meeting too? 5. ... I put my coat
on yet? No, if you are not cold. 6. Where ... I meet her? At the station. 7. . . .
I hurry? Yes, it’s quite late. 8. ... I pay the telephone bill today? I’m so
busy.
exercise 65. Fill in the blanks with must, have to, or have got to;
Note. Must expresses an obligation imposed by the speaker.
(e.g. You must talk to him at once).
Have to suggests an obligation imposed by external authority or circumstances,
as well as a habitual necessity.
Have got to conveys a sense of urgency or immediacy and commonly refers to
single or limited obligations.
(e.g. A: I’ve got to be at my office at 7 today.
B: Oh, I have to be at my office at 7 everyday.)
1. You . . . read this book. It’s really excellent. 2. Pupils . . . wear uni
forms at school. 3. ‘Why did she say she wouldn’t come to the cinema tonight?’
‘She . . . write a composition?’ 4. ‘Why is she going to town today?’ ‘Because
she . . . attend a meeting.’ 5. She . . . attend a meeting once a month. 6. She
has caught a cold and she . . . leave earlier than usual. 7. ‘Why are you in
such a hurry?’ 'I... be at the station at 5 o’clock, as my friend is arriving
from the country today. ’
exercise 66. Turn the following sentences into the negative, according to
meaning and time references:
Note. Present actions: need not = I don’t consider it necessary.
have not got to = I’m not required to perform this particular action today or
tomorrow.
do not have I need to = habitual absence of necessity.
Past actions: had not (got) to = rarely used.
did not have I need to = the usual negative
not to be to I must not = prohibition (negative command).
1. I must be there before 6. (Everybody will come after 6.) 2. He is to
wear a suit at the party. (It’s not a formal one.) 3. She had to wash all the dishes.
(There were some clean plates in the cupboard.) 4. She has to come by bus to
her office. (She lives very near.) 5. She had to begin very early. (Nobody else
did.) 6. I’ll have to show him my licence when he stops my car. 7. You’ll have
to bring your dictionary with you. (I’ll bring mine.) 8. The workers are to
repair this. (You must do it yourself.)
exercise 67. Insert didn’t need to or needn’t have to:

Note, didn't need to I didn't have to = the action wasn’t necessary, so it
wasn’t performed.
needn't -f- perfect infinitives = the action wasn’t necessary, but it was never
theless performed.
e. g. She didn’t need to water the flowers, for it started to rain. (So she didn’t
water them.)
She needn’t have watered the flowers, for it is going to rain. (So she wasted
her time.)
1. I . . . (leave) early, as the Browns offered to take me home in their car.
2. My coffee was already sweet, so I . . . (put) any sugar in. 3. They had
wanted to paint their house, but then they decided to move and so they . . .
(paint) it. 4. They painted the house but then they had to move. They . . .
(paint) it. 5. John . . . (wait) for his friend, because he never came. 6. He . . .
(take) his swimming things, as his friends said they could lend him some.
7. I . . . (do) the exercise, which would have saved me a lot of time. 8. I . . .
(do) the exercise, which saved me a lot of time.
exercise 68. Replace the italicized words by the required forms of the verb
need:
Note. To need, regular verb = to want, to require, to be in need of, to be
necessary.
Need, modal verb = to be necessary.
1. Must you finish your composition today? Couldn’t you postpone it?
2. The teacher didn't require us to write any homework (and we didn’t write
it). 3. It isn't necessary for you to revise all the subjects. 4. Is it necessary for
me to write a letter or just telephone a good friend when I want to turn down
an invitation to a party? 5. No, it isn't necessary for you to write if you are
good friends. A telephone call will do. 6. You are not required to do it un the
spot. 7. My students didn't require my help, so I’m free. 8. It didn’t rain al.
all during the holidays so I might have left my raincoat at home, and not taken
it with me.
exercise 69. Translate into English, using the modal verbs must, need, have
to, have got to, be to:
Note that had to is not the past of must. It is the past of have to. Thus;
must should be used in indirect speech when the subject of the direct speech
is the first person. When orders or instructions are reported, was to / were to
is used instead of must.
E.g. I must clean the car — He said he must clean the car.
Passengers must cross by the bridge.
The notice said that passengers must cross by the bridge.
You must put your raincoats on if it rains.
She told the children that they were to put their raincoats on if it rained.
1. Am auzit că e bolnav. Trebuie să mă duc să-i văd neapărat. 2. Trebuie
să mă duc acolo chiar acum? Nu, nu este nevoie. 3. Este nevoie să se scoale
așa de dimineață în fiecare zi? Da, altfel întîrzie la școală. 4. Nu era nevoie să
calci rochia. E din fibre sintetice și nu se calcă. 5. Nu a fost nevoie să ia un
taxi pentru că mai era o oră pînă la plecarea trenului. 6. Nu ar fi trebuit să-i
telefonezi. Știa deja despre ce e vorba. 7. Nu aveți voie să fumați aici. Acesta
este un vagon pentru nefumători. 8. Mîine urmează să plec în străinătate.
Trebuie să-mi rezolv toate treburile azi. 9. Trebuie să-mi continui lectura.
Trebuie să termin cartea pînă mîine. 10. Trebuie să-i trimit o felicitare. E ziua
lui mîine. 11. E atît de surd încît trebuie să strigi dacă vrei să te audă. 12. Bea
niște apă. Trebuie să-ți fie sete după atîta plajă. 13. Perfect, deci. Urmează
să ne revedem cu toții aici într-o jumătate de oră. 14. Trebuie mereu să-i amin
tesc să-și facă lecțiile. 15. Ea trebuie să stea în pat pînă îi scade temperatura,
ôctorul a spus că ea trebuie să stea în pat pînă îi scade temperatura. 16. Tre-
Kuie să mă spăl pe dinți înainte de culcare. John a spus că trebuie să se spele
pe dinți înainte de culcare.
exercise 70. Read the following sentences, paying attention to the uses of the
verb will;
Note 1. Will you? can express:
(interrogative)
a) an invitation — e.g. Will you have
some fruit?
b) a request — e.g. Will you make me
some coffee, will you?
or: e.g. Make me some coffee, will
you? (not so polite)
2. Will — can express: a) a formal, impersonal command: (You

(affirmative) will come to the meeting at 6 o’clock).
b) a characteristic action (He will
watch TV for hours on Sunday),
c) determination (I will help him),
d) something unavoidable (Children
will be children).
e) volition — intention (If you will
come, I’ll send the car for you).
f) supposition (That will be our hotel).
1. I have paid my money, and I will see the show. 2. If you will send the
money immediately, it will save a great deal of trouble. 3. Will you please
bring me a glass of water? 4. Who is it at the door? It will be Mary. 5. Will you
come to my place tomorrow? 6. You will work in this office from 8 a.m. to
5 p.m. 7. She will sit for hours under the old tree, looking at the beautiful
country around her. 8. Accidents will happen.
exercise 71. Rewrite the following sentences beginning with “He said. . . /
He didn’t know ..
Note. Would as a modal verb usually expresses in reported speech the same
shades of meaning as will.
e.g. I will soon be back, (intention, volition)
He said he would soon be back.
1. What will John do about it? 2. I will leave for the seaside tomorrow.
3. I’ll be glad if you will come. 4. Will you have dinner with me tomorrow?
5. The window won’t close. 6. Will you marry this man? 7. I will help you.
8. I’ll be hanged if I will do it.
exercise 72. Fill in the blanks with won’t (present) or wouldn’t (past):
Note. Won't / wouldn't may express:
a) — refusal to perform an action, (e.g. I asked him to tell me the truth,
but he wouldn’t.)
b) — with things — failure of something to perform its immediate func
tion. (e.g. The door won’t open.)
1. I expected him to be reasonable, but he . . . listen to me. 2. I want to
give him a chance, but he . . . take it. 3. “I expected her to come too”. “She
wanted to, but I ... let her.” 4. I wanted to leave, but she . . . hear of it. 5. No
matter how hard I try, this engine . . . start. 6. Can you lend me your pen?
Mine . . . write.
exercise 73. Read the following sentences, paying attention to the uses of shall:
Note. Shall I? Shall we? — are used in inquiries about orders or advice,
(e.g. What shall I buy?)
Shall (in the 2nd and 3rd persons) is used to express:
a) the subject’s promise or determination to perform an action — in
formal English — (e.g. You shall have the bicycle).
b) a command — in legal documents (e.g. Each competitor shall wear a
number.)
1. You shall have the book tomorrow. 2. Shall I read it again? 3. You shall
stay just where you are! 4. Shall I help him? 5. She rose to her feet: “You shall
hear from me in the course of the day”. 6. Shall we stop and have a look at
the monument? 7. “Forgive me,” he said, “I promise it shall not happen again.”
8. Guests shall enter their names in the book.
exercise 74. Put shall or will in the spaces in the following sentences:
1. ... you be at home when we come? 2. Clause in a lease: The tenant. . .
be responsible for all repairs. 3. He . . . have to think it over. 4. Next time I go,
you . . . join us. 5. It’s very dark in here. I . . . turn on the light. 6. What. . .
I say? 7. Some people. . . try to cross a busy road against the traffic lights.
8. I’ve got a hole in my shoe. I . . . have to have it repaired.
exercise 75. Translate the following sentences into Romanian:

Note. Should is used to express:
a) polite advice, similar to ought to. (e.g. You should read the book; it’s
quite good.)
b) astonishment, indignation — particularly in rhetoric questions, (e.g.
How should I know?)
c) something reasonably expected, (e.g. They should be home by now.)
d) a very unlikely condition, in conditional clauses, (e.g. If he should
phone, I’ll tell him where he can find you.)
e) In clauses of purpose introduced by in order that, in case, lest. (e.g. I
bought her a ticket so that she should go and see the film.)
g) in object clauses after certain verbs: to decide, determine, agree, recom
mend, suggest, insist, propose, order, command, etc. (e.g. He suggested that
we should go.)
1. Should we really help her? 2. We should be more tolerant. 3. The film
should be very good, everybody wants to see it. 4. I suggest that you should
do it. 5. I closed the window so that it shouldn’t be cold in the room. 6. If
he should come, tell him to wait. 7. He shouldn’t have behaved in such a silly
way. 8. They thought it an opportunity that shouldn’t be missed.
exercise 76. Insert should or would in the blanks in the following sentences:
Note that would is also used for polite requests, (e.g. Would you help me,
please?)
1. She was a terribly obstinate wife, who . . . never follow the simplest
advice and . . . argue every point of it. 2. When the clock struck midnight she
began to worry lest he . . . have met with some accident. 3. The traveller
insisted that they .. . have dinner together. 4. He was astonished that you . . .
suggest such a solution. 5. He said he . . . try to put up with it. 6. He’s not due
to arrive until this evening, but in case he . . . arrive earlier, we’ll leave some
food on the table. 7. If you . . . kindly wait here, I’ll look for him. 8. People
are very fond of saying, “something ... be done about this”, but if they had
to do it themselves, they . . . not know what to do.
exercise 77. Translate into English using will I would, shall I should:
Note that will may be used for all persons to express a habitual action in
the present (mostly in literary style) or deduction, assumption, supposition, in
the present, (e.g. After lunch she will take a nap and then she will go for a
walk. Is his name Brown? Then he will be English. If their train is in time,
they will have arrived by now.)
1. Vei fi pedepsit dacă nu spui adevărul. 2. Desigur că te dor ochii dacă
plîngi tot timpul. 3. Să-mi pun rochia cea nouă astă seară? 4. Dacă vrei să mă
asculți un moment, am să-ți spun motivele. 5. Să aprind lumina? 6. De o vezi
cumva, spune-i complimente din partea mea. 7. Dacă ești așa de drăguț să-mi
deschizi ușa, voi duce tava de aici. 8. Să te ajut sau vrei să încerci singur?
9. Ce să fac după aceea? 10. Vrei să deschizi te rog fereastra? 11. Va plăti
pentru că mi-a insultat fiica. 12. Nu sînt dezamăgit. Voi reuși data viitoare.
13. Dacă găsiți cumva o bluză frumoasă cumpărați-mi și mie una. 14. Dacă
ai vrea să vii cu mine, o să fiu încîntat să te iau.
exercise 78. Fill in the blanks with ought to, must, have to, should
Note. Ought to expresses the subject’s obligation or duty.
must expresses the speaker’s authority, strong advice.
Have to expresses an outside authority.
Should expresses moral obligation, less forceful advice.
(Should is not quite interchangeable with ought to.
Should is less forcefull, while ought to remains more emphatic.)
1. As the others insist on it you ... do as they say. 2. You ... go to Pre
deal. You look very tired. 3. ‘You . . . finish your work before going on holi
day.’ ‘I know I . . . .’ 4. You . . . take these pills three times a day as the doc
tor has told you to. 5. You . . . smoke cigars, they will ruin your health.
6. Robert looks quite ill. He . . . have a rest. And he . . . not smoke so much.
7. I want to get thinner. What... I do? You .. . see a doctor about it. 8. You
. . . stop drinking, or else you will get drunk.
exercise 79. Change the sentences below, using I would rather or I had better
followed by a short infinitive:
Note, would rather + infinitives shows preference.
(e.g. I would rather drink lemonade than orangeade.)
had better + infinitives shows desirability or advisability,
(e.g. You had belter come in now. — You should come in now = You ought to
come in now.)
I prefer to have tea than coffee.
I’d rather have tea than coffee.
It will be better if I tell them the truth.
I’d better tell them the truth.
1. He prefers to watch television than go to the theatre. 2. It will be better
if he sees a doctor at once. 3. It is advisable for her to spend more time in the
library. 4. I prefer not to sit up so late. 5. It will be better for you to come home
earlier. 6. My old uncle prefers to live in the country than in the town. 7. It is
advisable that I phone Irene myself. 8. She prefers to see a good film than to
go to the opera.
exercise 80. Replace the italicized words by used to or to be used to as required

by the sense. Make any other necessary changes:
Note, used to + infinitives = a past discontinued habit.
(e.g. I used to like chocolate cakes when I was young.)
be used to + noun^-ing form = be accustomed to.
(e.g. She was used to the noise in the children’s room.
She was used to listening to the children’s complaints.)
1. At their age they are riot accustomed to working three hours at a stretch.
2. John was in the habit of running for half an hour every day. 3. Usually they
went to the university by bus. 4. He always had a cup of coffee after lunch.
5. Students usually turned in rather late. 6. Before I went into hospital I
was in the habit of smoking twenty cigarettes a day. 7. I am not accustomed to
being spoken in this way. 8. He had the habit of asking “why” to whatever
question you asked him.

1. Nu e obișnuit să se rîdă de el. 2. Ne-am obișnuit mult prea tare cu con
fortul. 3. Cînd era tînăr, înota foarte mult. 4. Cu mulți ani în urmă aici era
o prăvălie veche. 5. înainte de a mă mărita locuiam la Brașov. 6. Niciodată
nu-i tratai pe copii așa! 7. Voi doi nu erați prieteni (pe vremuri) ? 8. Fuma foarte
mult înainte de a face pneumonia aceea grea. 9. își petreceau toate vacanțele
împreună înainte de moartea bunicii. 10. Veneai aici adeseori?
exercise 82. Replace the italicized words by the verb dare as required by the
sense:
Note. To dare, regular verb = to venture, to challenge.
Dare, modal verb = to have the courage or impudence to.
1. Did he venture to ask the question once again? 2. Have you enough cour
age to make such a promise? 3. Do you challenge me to dance all night? 4. I
wouldn't have the courage to ask him, 5. The child was afraid to go out without
his mother’s permission. 6. Do you have the impudence to call me a liar? 7. He
is unlikely to have the courage to fight him again. 8. I think you would be afraid
to face him.
exercise 83. Translate the following sentences into English:

1. Mai bine ai sta în casă pînă te simți mai bine. 2. Trecuse de miezul
nopții și am propus să plecăm, dar el nici nu voia să audă. 3. Aș prefera să
nu-ți spun ce știu despre el. 4. Fereastra nu se deschide! Trebuie să o repari!
5. Ar fi trebuit să te duci la concert. De ce să-i pierzi? 6. Să răspund la telefon?
7. îmi pare rău. Nu s-ar fi cuvenit să spun asta. 8. Dacă urmează să fim vecini
pe viață, dacă tu urmează să te căsătorești cu cineva dintr-o familie de care
sînt apropiat, ei bine, cred c-ar trebui să fim prieteni. 9. Nu îndrăzni să le
povestească prietenilor întîmplarea de teamă să nu rîdă de el. 10. Lumea obiș
nuia să creadă că soarele se învîrtește în jurul pămîntului. 11. Era obișnuit ca
toată lumea să-i asculte. 12. De obicei era multă lume la piață la ora asta.
13. Nu sînt obișnuit să mă trezesc așa de tîrziu. 14. L-a provocat să bea vodca
dintr-o înghițitură. 15. Obișnuiești să te razi în fiecare zi? 16. Eram sigură că
prietenul meu nu va avea curajul să spună ce gîndește.
exercise 84. Use the perfect infinitive of the verb in italics with the appro
priate auxiliary. Phrases underlined should not be repeated. Their meaning
should be expressed by auxiliaries + perfect infinitives,
model: You apologized, which was not necessary.
You needn’t have apologized.
1. He thinks that it is possible that his friend lied to him. 2. You didn’t
leave a note. It was very impolite of you not to do so. 3. Peter looks very tired
today. I think he worked very hard last night. 4. You know you always catch
colds. Why did you go out without a coat last night? 5. ‘Somebody called at
his place at twelve o’clock.’ Terhaps it was my brother. He often visits him at
lunch time.’ 6. I’m sure she met him. He usually waits for her there. 7. It was
possible for me to have helped him, but I didn’t want to. 8. ‘Bob caused an
accident yesterday.’ ‘That’s impossible. I was with him all day long and he
did no such thing.’
exercise 85. Translate into English by using a modal verb and a present
perfect infinitive:
Patterns with a perfect infinitive are usually translated into Romanian by
a conditional 4- a subjunctive.
In English the perfect infinitive expresses the idea of a past action whereas
in Romanian the verb in a perfect tense is in the first part of the construction,
(e.g. You should have helped him = Ar fi trebuit să-i ajuți.)
1. Mi-aș putea lua soția cu mine. Mi-aș fi putut lua soția cu mine. 2. Ar fi
trebuit să-i ajuți pe prietenul lui John la traducere. Ar trebui să-i ajuți pe
Peter acum. 3. Nu mi-aș fi putut minți prietenii. 4. Aș fi vrut să-i pot crede.
5. Se poate să fie mașina lui Mary și John. E posibil ca ei să fi venit ieri, dar
nu sînt sigură. 6. Aș vrea să-i pot ajuta. 7. Nu ar fi trebuit să-și mai cumpere o
rochie, are destule. 8. Trebuie să te fi costat bani buni această istorie a litera
turii.
exercise 86. Translate the following into Romanian:

Daughter: I’m getting chilled to the bone — what can Freddy be doing all
this time? He has been gone twenty minutes.
Mother: Not so long. But he ought to have got us a cab by this time. We
must have a cab. We can’t stand here until half past eleven. It’s too bad.
D: If Freddy had a bit of gumption, he could get us a cab at the theatre door.
M: What could he have done, poor boy?
D: Other people got cabs. Why couldn’t he?
(Freddy rushes in* out of the rain).
D: Well, haven’t you got a cab?
Freddy: There isn’t one to be had for love or money.
M: Oh, Freddy, there must be one. You can’t have tried.
F: The rain was so sudden, everybody had to take a cab.
M: You really are very helpless, Freddy, go again.
F: I’ll simply get soaked for nothing.
D: And what about us? Are we to stay here all night with next to nothing on?
(B. Shaw — Pygmalion)
exercise 87. Translate the following into English:

Stau deseori pe un scaun în circiuma mea preferată, să beau un pahar de
bere și să citesc ziarul de seară. Abia dă cu ochii de mine,cînd Tom își și trage
scaunul lîngă al meu și începe: „Poate am dreptate, sau poate greșesc44, spune
el, „dar e un lucru pe care trebuie să-i admit, Elena este sigur cea mai drăguță
fată din lume!“
Rareori mă iartă de povara de a-i asculta. Cîteodată îmi vine să-i zic:
„Hei, bătrîne, mai curînd mi-aș citi ziarul decît să te ascult“, dar deobicei
nu mă lasă inima să-i spun. îmi zic doar mie: „Chiar trebuie să vorbească atît
de mult despre ea? De ce uită că există o limită a drepturilor prieteniei și că
prietenii nu ar trebui să devină groaznic de plicticoși? Ar trebui să existe o
lege împotriva acestui lucru 1“
Cit despre mine, dacă stau să-i ascult de fiecare dată cînd mă duc la cir
ciumă, nu-mi rămîne decît un lucru de făcut, să-mi schimb circiuma. Și apoi
nici nu mă interesează frumusețea Elenei. Sigur, nu îndrăznesc să-i spun toate
astea lui Tom. Sîntem prieteni și nu-mi permit să fac nimic care i-ar răni senti
mentele. în orice caz n-aș dori. Dar de ce n-ar fi și el mai atent? Și-ar putea
pierde toți prietenii altfel. Ei nu suportă asta, mai curînd ar renunța la priete
nia lui. Cel mai bine e să-i spun, așa, ca între prieteni, să-și păstreze emoțiile
pentru el.
Non Finite Forms of the Verb

exercise 88. Insert “to” where necessary before the infinitive in brackets:
Remember that after verbs of perception, causative verbs in the active
voice and modals — a short infinitive should be made use of:
model: She heard the child (slam) the door.
She heard the child slam the door.
1. It’s better (be) sure than sorry. 2. We let him (go) early as he wanted
(meet) his colleagues. 3. He is said (be) the best astronomer in the country.
4. You can (take) a horse to water but you can’t (make) him (drink). 5. Can
I listen to you (play) that sonata? 6. I’d like him (go) to a concert but I can’t
(make) him (go). 7. He’ll be able (do) it himself when he is older. 8. She is
expected (arrive) in a few days. 9. You can (leave) your children with us if
you don’t (want) (take) them with you. 10. We were made (wait) for hours.
11. You ought (go) now. It may (rain) at any minute. 12. If you can’t (remem
ber) her phone number, you’d better (look) it up.
exercise 89. Translate into English using a “Split Infinitive” in each of the
following sentences:
1. Se așteaptă ca mulți participant să refuze categoric de a lua parte la
competiție pe o asemenea vreme. 2. Profesorul dorea ca elevii săi să înțeleagă
clar toate datele problemei. 3. El s-a hotărît să se opună cu incăpâțînare la
toate propunerile noastre. 4. Am promis să examinez personal situația și doresc
cu tot dinadinsul să mă țin de cuvînt. 5. A încercat să uite cu desăoîrșire tre
cutul, dar s-a străduit în zadar. 6. Ne așteptam ca ei să fie întru-totul de acord
cu sugestia noastră. 7. Nu e ușor să răspunzi prompt la o asemenea avalanșă
de întrebări. 8. Acum este esențial pentru noi să încercăm a restabili fără
întârziere adevărul. 9. Se presupune că el își dă pe deplin seama de poziția gre
șită pe care se situează în această problemă. 10. Găsesc că e foarte drăguț din
partea lui de a consimți bucuros la propunerea noastră.
exercise 90. Translate into English making use of (at least) two Infinitival
Constructions in each sentence:
1. S-a întîmplat să fie bolnavă și nu s-a putut prezenta la ultimul examen,
dar se așteaptă să-i dea în toamnă. 2. Te-am rugat să te grăbești, mai mult ca
sigur că o să pierdem trenul. 3. Se relatează că ei au furnizat noii hidrocentrale
80% din utilajul necesar, restul urmînd a fi livrat în lunile următoare. 4. Cel
mai bun lucru pe care-i poți face este să-i rogi pe fratele tău să te ajute. 5. A
fost de-a dreptul surprinzător pentru noi să-i auzim vorbind englezește atît de
cursiv. 6. Se spune că a fost invitat la recepție, dar nu a putut să se ducă, deoa
rece doctorul l-a sfătuit să stea în casă. 7. Iată un nou articol pe care să-i
citești și sînt sigur că te va face să înțelegi mai bine esența teoriei mele. 8. Se
spune că e o cîntăreață de operă foarte talentată, dar din păcate eu n-am auzit-o
niciodată cîntînd.
exercise 91. State whether the verbs in brackets ought to be made use of — with
or without “to” — and point out the cases in which a present participle could be
used instead of an infinitive:
model: They saw the aeroplane (crash) onto the hill and (burst) into flames.
They saw the aeroplane a) crash I b) crashing onto the hill and
burst I bursting into flames.
(Note: The former (saw the aeroplane crash) is an “Accusative with the
Infinitive” and the latter (saw the aeroplane crashing) is an “Accusative with
the Participle”. The difference between them lies in the fact that the pattern
with the infinitive is used to describe a complete action whereas the pattern
with the participle describes the action in progress (like a Continuous Tense).
In other words, a) means that they watched the whole scene when the aero
plane crashed onto the hill, and b) means that when they noticed that
action, it was in progress):
1. There is nothing (do) but (wait) till someone comes (let) us out. 2. That
is far too difficult for a beginner (solve); let me (help) you. 3.1 saw an excursion
ist (open) the window and (throw) a little box into the bushes. 4. It is up to
you (pass) your exams successfully. 5. We heard the front door (open) and
saw a somewhat long shadow (move) across the floor. 6. They should (know)
how (write) a composition, but if they don’t, you had better (show) them. 7. He
tried (make) us (believe) that he was a specialist in electronics. 8. We felt the
house (shake) with the earthquake. 9. Tourists are asked (not feed) the birds
and animals. 10. Did you forget (ask) Tom (pay back) the money he owes us?
exercise 92. Supply the -ing ending to the following verbs pointing the
cases in which the final consonant is doubled:
Note. 1. The verbs of one syllable double their final consonant only when
they end in a single consonant preceded by a short vowel: e.g. cut — cutting.
2. The verbs of more than one syllable double their final consonant when it
is preceded by a short vowel and the stress falls on the last syllable: e.g.
admit — admitting. The verbs ending in: -I, -ap, -ip double their final
consonant both if the verbs are stressed on the first or the last syllable):
1. beg; 2. spur; 3. dig; 4. rub; 5. run; 6. swim; 7. cheat; 8. cancel;
9. worship; 10. develop; 11. shut; 12. wrap; 13. regret; 14. offer; 15. support;
16. fit; 17. kidnap; 18. control; 19. rebel; 20. occur; 21. feel; 22. invert;
23. prefer; 24. enter; 25. listen; 26. dream; 27. travel; 28. begin; 29. gather;
30. level.
exercise 93. Translate into English making use of an Objective Participial

Construction in each of the following sentences:
Note. Causing something to be done by someone else is usually expressed
by “have”, “get”, or “make” with a Past Participle.
As a rule, “get” and “got” can easily replace “have” and “had” in the object
ive participial constructions.
e.g. I had / got my piano tuned.
1. N-am putut veni ieri deoarece am vrut să-mi plombez măseaua, așa că
m-am dus la dentist. 2. A trebuit să-și facă un palton nou; cel vechi era cam
demodat. 3. Unde ți-ai reparat magnetofonul? 4. Dacă vrei să arăți mai bine
ar trebui să te coafezi și să-ți faci manichiura. 5. Am să-mi strîmtez rochia,
deoarece am slăbit în ultimele cîteva luni. 6. Te rog nu veni pe la noi mîine,
deoarece ne zugrăvim apartamentul. Arată atît de neîngrijit! 7. Fratele tău
și-a făcut ieri revizia la mașină, nu-i așa? 8. A strigat pînă a răgușit, dar nu
și-a putut face auzită vocea. 9. Mai bine ți-ai scoate măseaua decît să înduri o
asemenea durere. 10. Unde ți-ai tipărit cărțile de vizită? Trebuie să mărturisesc
că-mi plac foarte mult.
exercise 94. Combine the following sentences making use of Participial Con
structions where possible:
model: He didn’t want to see the film again. He had seen it twice.
Having seen the film twice, he didn’t want to see it again.
1. They had lost their key, but they managed to enter the house. They
made use of a master-key. 2. The little boy took the picture out of the scrap
book. He pinned it on one of his bedroom walls. He stood in front of it for a
long time. He looked at it admiringly. 3. A lot of old men and women sat on
the benches of the village park. They watched their grand children. They
were running to and fro. 4. She got up early as usual. She flung open all the
windows of her cosy bedroom. She let the scented summer air blow in from
the garden. 5. The tiger found his cage door open. He didn’t see any sign of
his keeper. He left the cage and walked slowly towards the gate oî the Zoo.
exercise 95. Put the verbs between brackets either into Infinitive or Gerund.
Insert prepositions where necessary:
model: Can you manage (finish) (do) all these exercises alone?
Can you manage to finish doing all these exercises alone?
7 — Limba engleză pentru adm. în înv. superior 97

Note. Do not forget that there are verbs that can be followed only by ~ing
forms. Here are the commonest verbs and phrases that are followed by gerunds
or gerundial constructions:
appreciate go on (= continue)
avoid keep (on)-
consider (= think about) leave off (= cease)
delay mention
detest mind (negations and questions)
dislike miss
escape pardon
excuse practice
(negations and questions) put off (= postpone)
5 recollect
forgive stop
give up understand
can’t resist it is no use deny
can’t stand to be worth postpone
can’t help risk
1. He used (dance) a lot but he hasn’t had any opportunity of (do) it
since he began (prepare) for the entrance examination. 2. They were used to
(live) alone, so they didn’t really mind the lonely life they led on the moon.
3. I like (skate) and (ski), but it is very difficult for me (say) which I like
better. 4. We got tired of (wait) for him (come) and eventually decided (go)
out without (leave) any notice to him. 5. I remember (hear) her (say) the flow
ers needed (water). 6. We highly appreciate (you, want) (help) our son, but
it’s time he began (do) his homework by himself. 7. We don’t remember (you,
say) before that John wanted (buy) our car. 8. I wonder why he hated (I,
smoke) at the office since he often enjoys (smoke) a cigarette himself. 9. It is
no use (you, ask) me (insist) on (Mike, come) in time as he can’t get rid of his
bad habit; he often tried (be) punctual but he always failed. 10. Wherever I set
to work, I recollect (my father, say) that if a job is worth (do) at all it is
worth (do) well.
exercise 96. Supply correct prepositions in front of the Gerunds and Gerundial
Constructions:
model: She is very fond . . . reading historical novels.
She is very fond of reading historical novels.
a) 1. The rainy weather prevented us . . . going to do some shopping.
2. He is very proud . . . being invited to parties. 3. Excuse me . . . having been
so late. 4. Everything depends . . . his coming in time. 5. I am looking forward
. . . seeing you again. 6. At dinner he annoyed me . . . smoking between the
courses. 7. They surprised us all. . . going away . . . saying ‘Good-bye’. 8. We
are interested . . . improving our English. 9. I have always found great diffi
culty . . . mastering foreign languages. 10. Being a bachelor, he is used . . .
cooking his own meals. 11. We are surprised . . . your refusing to see us off to
the station.
b) 1. She takes great pleasure. . .helping her colleagues. 2. There is no
harm . . .paying them another visit this week. 3. He was not capable . . .
doing his duty. 4. Jane has always been fond . . . buying very expensive luxu
ries. 5. Mike insisted . . . going with him to the concert. 6. Please, excuse me
. . . being so late this morning. 7. Betty grew tired . . . bearing her husband’s
rudeness. 8. We have already had the pleasure . . . meeting each other. 9. Con
trary to all expectation, my sister succeeded . . . gaining the prize. 10. I am
used . . . getting up early.
exercise 97. Combine these sentences by using the appropriate preposition

with the -ing form of the verb:
model: Bill is sorry. He always arrives later than his fellows.
Bill is sorry for always arriving later than his fellows.
1. He is ashamed. He hardly ever helps his little brother.
2. Tom was angry. He couldn’t see anything.
3. Mike was sorry. He wasn’t included in the tennis team.
4. Mr. Black was disappointed. He had not been elected president of the club.
5. Susan was upset. She had missed the train.
exercise 98. Translate into English making use of a Gerund or a Gerundial

Construction in each of the following sentences:
model: Ar fi trebuit să-i dojenești că te-a întrerupt atît de. des.
You should have reprimanded him for his interrupting you so often.
1. Vara florile au nevoie de apă (de a fi udate) în fiecare zi. 2. îmi face multă
plăcere să-i accept invitația deoarece ea întotdeauna reușește să gătească
mîncăruri foarte gustoase. 3. Iertați-mă că vă deranjez, aveți cumva un chi
brit? 4. îmi place să mănînc înghețată chiar cînd e frig. 5. Vă deranjează dacă
deschid fereastra pentru cîteva minute? E un aer foarte închis aici. 6. N-are
nici un rost să pleci de miercuri, se așteaptă ca tu să fii acolo sîmbătă. 7. Au
insistat să le scriu în fiecare zi, dar asta mă exasperează deoarece mie nu-mi
place să scriu scrisori. 8. Ei au refuzat să ne permită să intrăm fără a cumpăra
bilete, deși fuseserăm invitați la premieră. 9. A trebuit să ne amînăm plecarea
pentru că Jane era bolnavă. 10. Nu-mi place ca cineva să se uite la mine cînd
încerc să învăț a merge pe bicicletă.
exercise 99. Make the suggested substitutions, supplying an -ing form or

+h e infinitive of the second verb. Point out the cases where alternatives are possible:
model: He wanted to spend his holidays at the seaside.
enjoys spending
doesn’t like to spend / spending
Note. Special attention should be paid to the verbs that can be followed
by either gerund or infinitive. Here is a list of the commonest verbs belonging
to this group:
advise forget prefer
agree hate propose
allow intend regret
attempt like remember
begin love start
cease mean study
continue permit try
a) They must avoid annoying their roommates.
1. don’t want 4. hate
2. dislike 5. do not intend
3. kept on 6. denied
b) The children are not likely to come with us.
1. always enjoy 4. could not help 7. do not like
2. are too weak 5. are willing 8. did not need
3. didn’t fancy 6. are looking forward to 9. agreed
c) She wanted to buy a new hat.
1. couldn’t resist 4. used to 7. didn’t try
2. can’t afford 5. will avoid 8. had occasion
3. put off 6. is expected 9. mustn’t miss
10. does not consider
11. happened
12. won’t mind.
exercise 100. Point out the difference in meaning between the sentences in
he groups below by translating each sentence or explaining it in your own words:
model: a) He tried to push the car to make it start, but without success,
b) He tried pushing the car to make it start, but without success.
Answers: a) means that his attempt to push the car failed, i.e. he could
not push the car, — while
b) means that he pushed the car but could not start it, i.e. his
experiment of starting the engine by pushing the car failed.
I. a) He tried to speak German to me but I couldn’t understand him.
b) He tried speaking German to me but I couldn’t understand him.
II. a) I paid him to translate the essay.
b) I paid him for translating the essay.
III. a) We saw them cross the street.
b) We saw them crossing the street.
IV. a) He stopped to smoke.
b) He stopped smoking.
V. a) I regret to say it wasn’t true.
b) I regret having said it wasn’t true.
exercise 101. Rewrite each of the following groups of sentences as one sentence,
making use of constructions with the infinitive, the participle, or the gerund.
Avoid the use of BECAUSE, AND, BUT and SO:
model: People are always pulling his leg. He’s used to it.
He’s used to having his leg pulled, (or He’s used to people pulling
his leg.)
1. Let’s try to make the engine start. It’s worth it. 2. His roommates
make fun of him. He doesn’t like it. 3. They will come later. I’m sure of it.
4. It was too noisy. She couldn’t concentrate. 5. This problem is too difficult.
No pupil could solve it.
exercise 102. There are 15 italicized and numbered -ing forms in the
following excerpt from R. Browning's poem. How many verbal nouns, verbal
adjectives, indefinite participles, or gerunds does it comprise — in your opinion?
Point out their numbers:
There was a rustling (1), that seemed like a bustling (2)

Of merry crowds justling (3) and pitching (4) and hustling (5),
Small feet were pattering (6), wooden shoes clattering (7),
Little hands clapping (8), and little tongues chattering (9),
And, like fowls in a farm-yard when barley is scattering (10),
Out came the children running (11).
All the little boys and girls,
With rosy cheeks and flaxen curls,
And sparkling (12) eyes, and teeth like pearls,
Tripping (13) and skipping (14), ran merrily after
The wonderful music with shouting (15) and laughter.
(R. Browning, The Pied Piper of Hamelin)
exercise 103. Translate the following phrases and proverbs into Romanian and
state whether the italicized -ing form are: a) verbal nouns, b) verbal adjectives,
c) indefinite participles, d) gerunds:
model: That goes without saying.
Se înțelege de la sine (Gerund).
1. Weather permitting. 2. This is John speaking. 3. There is no use crying

over spilt milk. 4. To a boiling pot flies come not. 5. No parking\ 6. One can’t
make an omelet without breaking eggs. 7. The sands are running out. 8. Like a
dying duck in a thunderstorm. 9. By doing nothing we learn to do ill. 10. Short
reckonings make long friends. 11. There is no accounting for tastes. 12. The
beginnings are always hard. 13. What is worth doing at all is worth doing well.
14. Saying and doing are two things. 15. To feel the ground sliding from under
one’s feet.
The Subjunctive
| AJ The Subjunctive proper is not very widely used in English. It is still

used in /Aa/-clauses after a main clause whose verb belongs to the group
represented by: demand, require, ask, insist, suggest, urge, etc. The verb in
the ZAaZ’dause is the short infinitive (the Synthetic Subjunctive) unchanged
for the Present or for the Past l enses and with no concord for the 3rd person
singular.
The same type of used after it + Adjective constructions of
type:|nt fs necessary, it is inftidHant, it is advisable, it is essential, fete.
exercise 104. Build up sentences with the following words:
model: The doctor required that . . . (the nurse, there, 8 o’clock, to be) =
The doctor required that the nurse be there at 8 o’clock.
1. He insists that (John, that, every day, medicine, to take). 2. Mother
suggested that (father, for her, to wait). 3. We insisted that (the colonel, with
us, in our car, to go). 4. The teacher recommended that (we, that famous novel,
to read). 5. The President demanded that (the delegates, on time, there, to
be). 6. The general manager urged that (employees, more efficiently, to work).
exercise 105. Make changes in the following sentences so as to introduce one

of the verbs: recommend, demand, insist, urge, require, propose, suggest, etc.,
instead of ask, and the Synthetic Subjunctive:
model: The doctor asked her to go to hospital. = The doctor insisted
that she go into a hospital.
1. Her grandfather asked her to wait a few minutes for him. 2. He asked
me to lend him some money. 3. The president asked the assembly to vote for
the new republic. 4. The bill asks the citizens to avoid accidents. 5. The doctor
asked her to take a long holiday. 6. They ask for an immediate withdrawal of
the enemy troops from their territory. 7. They asked the assembly to elect
him president.
exercise 106. Give the correct form of the verb in brackets:

model: It is necessary that you ... (to be) here on time. = It is necessary
that you be here on time.
1. Is it important that this paper (to be written) in one hour? 2. It is impe
rative that they (to send) the goods immediately. 3. It was necessary that the
money (to be returned) quickly. 4. It was vital that she (to get married) to
John. 5. It was right that the old professor (to be appointed) Headmaster.
CbI The Subjunctive forms of the verbs in the above cases are used in formal
style, especially in American English. In speech or generally speaking in less
formal contexts, they are replaced by the Should 4- Infinitive construction
(which is the Analytic substitute for the Synthetic Subjunctive).
exercise 107. Use the Should + Infinitive forms instead of the Subjunctive
forms in the above exercises (104, 105, 106).*
model: a) The doctor required that the nurse be there at 8 o’clock = The
doctor required that the nurse should be there at 8 o’clock.
b) The doctor insisted that she go to hospital = The doctor
insisted that she should go to hospital.
c) It is necessary that he be there on time = It is necessary that
he should be there on time.
The Subjunctive (with Should) may also be used in sentences expressing
emotional attitudes, as in: Why should you do the donkey work? or: (Context:
My fiancee has come to think that I am a thief.) Why should she think that?
1. Tocmai terminasem de vorbit despre Ana, cînd cine altcineva (decît
Ana) intră în birou? 2. De ce să ne certăm pe un lucru atît de neînsemnat?
3. Eram exact pe punctul de a pleca din casă împreună cu prietena mea, cînd
pe cine întîlnim în ușă? Pe tatăl ei furios!
In attributive clauses referring to nouns such as: wish, suggestion, recom
mendation, request, etc. we use the Analitic Subjunctive expressed by
Should + Infinitive. (E.g. His suggestion that we should go to the cinema
was accepted.)
exercise 109. Complete the following sentences:

1. His recommendation that ... 2. His wish that ... 3. The magistrate’s
request that ... 4. Our decision that ... 5. Her suggestion that ....
rCjThe Synthetic forms of the Subjunctive are also used in set phrases
which express wish, as in: Long live our country! or: Far be it from me, etc.
They may also occur in oaths, as in: Confound those flies!; the Analytic Sub
junctive also expresses wish in constructions with May + Verb, as in: May
you live happy!
exercise 110. Use the following set phrases in sentences of your own, or in
larger contexts:
model: Far be it! Far be it from me to criticise her sister!
1. Come what may; 2. Suffice it to say that . . . ; 3. Heaven forbid it!
4. Be it as it may ....
exercise 111. Translate into English (using the Synthetic Subjunctive):

1. Trăiască Partidul nostru! 2. Trăiască Republica Socialistă România!
3. Trăiască și înflorească patria noastră socialistă! (using the Analytic Sub
junctive). 4. Fie să recîștigi ce am pierdut eu! 5. Fie să cîștigi întrecerea!
6. Fie să reușești să-i convingi pe tatăl tău că ești nevinovat! 7. Fie ca fiica
ta să reușească!
frT) Hypothetical meaning may also be conveyed by the Subjunctive,
coinciding in form with the Simple Past. The form wejLE. of the verb to be
occurs in all the persons singular and plural after constructions like: it is
time; as if (though); I wish .. . The subjunctive is preferred in formal written
English e.g. I wish he were here now; or: it is time he saw a doctor; or:
he looked as if he were very ill, etc. To express past actions after such con
structions, the Past Perfect tense of the verb is used, asin: I wish he had
not come so early. For future actions would + Verb is used after ‘wish’.

1. Se uita la mine de parcă eram o ființă de pe o altă planetă. 2. Se mișca
prin cameră ca și cum ar fi ascultat zgomotul propriilor ei pași. 3. Alergi de
parcă ai fi întirziat. 4. Arăta atît de fericit de parcă era întradevăr fericit.
5. Suspina ca și cum era foarte nefericită. 6. Plîngea de parcă era disperată.
7. Copilul se holba la mine de parcă nu era mulțumit cu mărul pe care i I-am
dat. 8. Mă uitam la ușă de parcă așteptam pe cineva. 9. E timpul să fii înțelept.
10. E cazul să te decizi dacă o feliciți de ziua ei. 11. E timpul să te pensionezi.
12. De mult trebuia să te fi culcat. 1$. Cam e timpul să răspunzi la scrisoarea
tatălui tău. 1$ Ar vrea să fie o vestită autoare de romane. Ig. Aș vrea ca visele
ei să se realizeze. 1£ Aș vrea să pot zbura spre lună.
exercise 113. Translate into Romanian:

1. I wish it would stop snowing. 2. I wish Mary wouldn’t do this. 3. I
wish you would learn English when you go to England. 4. He wishes you
would not talk so loud. 5. Joan is away, but I wish she would come soon.
6. I wish you would give up smoking.
The Subjunctive is used in conditional sentences in which an unreal
condition is expressed (in the IF Clause) knd an unreal consequence is expressed
in the main clause, as in: What would you do if you saw a crocodile in your
bathroom? (for those conditions which refer to the present) and: If he had
dived from that cliff, he would have broken his neck; the water is shallow there
(for those conditions which refer to the past).
exercise 114. Change the following real conditions into unreal present ones:
model: Will you buy the car if you like it? = Would you buy the car if
you liked it?
1. I shall send my daughters to Sibiu next summer, if they want to learn
German. 2. The teacher will give you the book if you ask for it. 3. He will set
the alarm clock for 3 o’clock, if you give it to him. 4. If that ladder slips you
will have a nasty fall. 5. If he admits that it is all his fault, everybody will
respect him for it. 6. If John brings his wife, his mother-in-law, his sister-in-law
and his daughters with him, it will not be easy to put them all up. 7. If the
position is offered to you, will you accept it?
exercise 115. Translate the following present unreal conditional sentences

into English:
1. Dacă ți-aș da 100 lei, cum i-ai cheltui? 2. Dacă fratele tău ar avea bani
ar cumpăra o bicicletă. 3. Chiar dacă ai încerca din răsputeri n-ai reuși. 4. Chiar
dacă am cumpăra pianul, nu știu unde I-am pune. 5. Dacă părinții lor s-ar
întoarce acasă pe neașteptate, ce ar vedea în casa lor? Geamuri sparte, podeaua
murdară ... 6. Dacă aș fi în locul tău l-aș ruga pe director să mg. primească.
7. Dacă ai scrie scrisoarea, am putea pleca înainte de a se lăsa întunericul.
Îjf) In conditional clauses of unreal condition (in the subordinate clause)
more uncertainty can be expressed by the use of should both with and without
inversion. In the main clause either the Subjunctive or the Indicative Mood is
present, as in: If you should be offered the money, would you accept it?; or:
Should you be offered the money, would you accept it?; or: Should you be
offered the money, will you accept it?
exercise 116, Complete the following sentences, first by using the normal word
order and then with inversion:
model: If anyone call for her ... = (Possible sentence); If anyone should
call for her, will you, please, tell them she is in hospital?; If he
gives you the money = Should he give you the money, would you
accept it?
1. If they invite you to dinner ... 2. If it proves incorrect that she has
married him ... 3. If it snows ... 4. If you succeed in ... 5. If he is late
for school. . .
exercise 117. Translate into English (by using Should with, or without inver
sion ):
1. De vine cumva pe la noi, spune-i să revină după ora 8. 2. Dacă cumva
Maria își schimbă părerea, telefonează-mi. 3. De îl întîlnești pe Ion, vrei să-i
dai numărul meu de telefon? 4. De ți-ar oferi tabloul acela, l-ai refuza? 5. Dacă
ai fi rugat să iei parte la o expediție polară, ai spune da?
\ G J In adverbial clauses of purpose the Analytic Subjunctive is used
(May 4- Infinitives after a Present tense in the main clause, or Might + Infin
itives after a Past tense in the main clause) as in: I have asked the operator
to ring me up at 5 o’clock, so that I may catch the 6.45 train; or: She borrowed
some money so that she might buy a new hat. Such adverbial clauses are intro
duced by: that, so that, in order that, so as, in case. Should instead of may, or
might may be used, or can, could (but not after in order that); in negative
adverbial clauses of purpose, should is introduced by lest, as in: She didn’t
dare climb the mountain in winter lest she should be caught by blizzards.
exercise 118. Finish these sentences:

1. Mother took me to the cinema so that I ... 2. I gave the old woman
some money so that she ... 3. I wrote to him a long letter so that he ... 4. I
bought myself a new umbrella in order that I ... 5. My sister offered to help
me with my spring cleaning so that we ... 6. I shall give John your telephone
number so that he ... 7. Mother will take you to the dentist so that he . . .
8. They worked hard in order that they ... 9. We will fulfil our plan so that
our country ... 10. I moved a little to my left so that he ... 11. His parents
worked hard in order that he . . . 12./The poor woman sewed night after night
so that her little boy... 13. They ștre hunting down the escaped prisoner so
that they ... 14. She always cookyân Saturdays so that she ... 15. She didn’t
tell him anything lest he . . . 16. fie didn’t dare ski lest he . . . 17. She spoke
very quietly lest she ... I
( h! The Analytic Subjunctive is used in adverbial clauses of concession,
introduced by: although, though, however, no matter, whatever, etc. as in:
Although they may look a happy couple, they often quarrel; No matter how
bright ideas he may have, he is always short of money; Whatever mistakes
he may make, he is a good pupil, etc.
1. Oricît de puțin ai cîștiga, s-ar cuveni să dai niște bani și surorii tale.
2. Orice ai afla despre Ana cred că Vei continua s-o iubești. 3. Deși se poate
să aibă studii, n-a dovedit-o în rezolvarea acestei probleme. 4. Oricît de mult
ar iubi-o pe Ana, sînt niște lucruri du care nu se poate împăca. 5. Indiferent
de ce gîndești despre mine, nu-ți dău rochia mea s-o porți la bal.
exercise 120. Rewrite the following sentences so as to introduce the May
Subjunctive instead of the verb in the Indicative Mood:
model: Although he is only 5 years old, he can read and write = He may
be only 5 years old, but he can read and write.
1. Although her dress is more expensive than mine, I don’t think she looks
better than I do. 2. Although he looks happy, he is very sad. 3. Although he
has promised to write, I don’t think he will. 4. Although it seems incredible,
some fish can fly. 5. Although he says he has a University degree, she does
not believe him.
exercise 121. Rewrite the following sentences in the Past, by using a Perfect
Infinitive after May;
model: Although he has promised to come, I don’t think he will = He
may have promised to come, but I don’t think he will.
1. Although he had a lot of books, he didn’t read as much as you did.
2. Although she has told a lie, she is not a liar. 3. Although he has made a lot
of mistakes, he is a good pupil. 4. Although he has said that he will lend me
that book, I don’t think he will remember to do it.
After whenever and wherever, in adverbial clauses of time and place,
when" the sentence has a concessive meaning, the concessive meaning is
expressed by may or might, as in: He will be happy to meet you, whenever
that may be.
Orișiunde ar lucra, ea va fi întotdeauna lăudată de toată lumea. 2. Oricînd
ai trimite telegrama, poștașul nu mi-o va da înainte de Anul Nou. 3. Orișiunde
te-ai duce, nu vei găsi un post mai bun. 4. Oricînd te-ai întoarce la soția ta,
ea va fi fericită să te primească.
Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb is a group of verb + preposition I adverbial particle.

The meaning of phrasal verbs is either independent of that of the compo
nent elements taken separately (e.g. give in = yield, make out = decipher,
understand), or a result of the meaning of the verb and that of the preposition/
adverbial particle.
e.g. He looked up the street (= s-a uitat în susul străzii)
He came across the way (— a venit de-a curmezișul drumului)
Phrasal verbs also raise syntactical problems, besides lexical ones, as the
order of words coming after them may vary as follows:
a) Verb + preposition take the particle / particles immediate-
1. b) Intransitive phrasal verbs ly after the verb.
c) Verb + 2 particles
e.g. a) He came across it by chance.
b) Tom turned up rather late.
c) I know he will catch up with his colleagues.
2. With transitive phrasal verbs (verbs + adverbial particles) the position of
the adverbial particle depends on the type of object:
a) If the object is expressed by a pronoun, the particle is placed after the
object:
He rang me up last night.
b) If the object is expressed by a noun, the particle may be placed either
before or after the object:
He rang up Mary last night
He rang Mary up last night.
c) If the object is made up of two or more words (noun + determinative(s)
or noun -f- determining clause), the adverbial particle is always placed
immediately after the verb:
He rang up his friend Tom last night
He rang up the friend he had just made as soon as he got home.
In speech a difference in stress arises between combinations of verb +
preposition and verb + adverbial particle (± preposition):
a) at the end of a sentence with a verb + preposition there is a final stress
on the verb, e.g.:
Who has he taken after?
b) at the end of a sentence with a verb + adverbial particle (± preposi
tion) there is a final stress on the adverbial particle, e.g.:
There isn’t a word I haven’t looked up.
There are three examinations she is going in for.
exercise 123. Translate into Romanian and notice some of the many
possibilities of using up in a verbal phrase:
1. I’m fed up with old cars. Mine’s always breaking down. 2. They split up
into two groups. 3. Look at the state of this room. What have you been up to?
4. I refuse to put up with her nagging any longer. 5. I’ve given up playing cness.
It takes up too much of my time. 6. Speak up. will you? I can’t hear a word.
7. The house is in a shocking condition. The whole place needs doing up.
8. I’ll bring that point up at our next meeting. 9. We stayed up late to listen
to music. 10. You needn’t make up your mind straight away. 11. He walked
so fast that I couldn’t keep up with him. 12. I’ll pick you up at the corner of
the street. 13. I must take up French again. 14. You don’t want to go to a
hotel! We’ll put you up. 15. Let’s wash the supper things up before we go
out. 16. Children love to dress up and pretehd they are famous people. 17. The
watchman was beaten up and left unconscious. 18. You must back your argu
ment up with solid facts. 19. When do the schools break up for the spring
holiday? 20. He set up a new record for the mile. 21. A car pulled up outside
Lho house. 22. Cigarettes have gone up again. 23. He tore the letter up and
dropped the pieces into the waste paper basket. 24. I can’t remember their
phone number. I’ll have to look it up. 25. I haven’t any money on me at the
moment. I’ll settle up with you later. 26. Don’t forget to wind the clock up.
21. Ring me up at ten o’clock. 28. Sorry we are late. We got held up by the
traffic. y
exercise 124. Translate infyr "Romanian paying attention to the meanings
of away and off:
1. Don’t get carried away by your enthusiasm. 2. Slowly the sound of the
drums died away. 3. You won’t get away with an excuse like that. 4. I don’t
want this old umbrella. Throw it away. 5. They’ve done away with compulsory
Latin for university entrance at Cambridge. 6. We set at dawn. 7. Shall
we break off now and have some coffee? 8. At the last minute the trade-union
called off the strike. 9. He was fined £ 5.1 think he was let off nicely. 10. We’ll
all come and see you off at the station.
exercise 125. Translate into Romanian paying attention to the meanings
of in and out:
1. I shan’t ask you in. The house is in a mess. 2. I’ve got quite enough
work to do without letting myself in for anymore. 3. Someone broke in while
they were away. 4. I think we must have run out of petrol. 5. Can we hold
out for another day without water? 6. I’ll call in and see you later. 7. How
often does that magazine come out? 8. He always gives in in the end and does
what his friends tell him. 9. “I saw the house you’ve bought. When are you
moving in?” “As soon as the other people move out.” 10. Did the photos come
out well? 11. I’m going in for that competition. 12. Her bedroom looked out
into some playing fields. 13. Look out! The milk’s boiling over! 14. I couldn’t
make out a word he was saying.
exercise 126. Translate into Romanian paying attention to the meanings
of on and down:
1. Do you know enough English to be able to carry on a conversation?
2. I’d like to take on the job when he retires. 3. It is essential for the country’s
economy for us to cut down imports. 4. Once she had got better, she began
putting on weight. 5. I look back on my school days with nostalgia. 6. The rebel
lion was put down ruthlessly. 7. It is a custom which has been handed down
from generation to generation.
exercise 127. Fill in the blanks:
1. She couldn’t make . . . what had brought . . . that change in him. 2. The
old regulations were done............ and new ones have been made .... 3. I In
saw a car pull... at the front door and a big man get............ it. 4. He had
forgotten his key so he kept trying to think ... a way to get.... 5. The
doctor had warned the patient that a rash would come . . . after three days.
6. I hate clearing. . . the flat after a big party, although I enjoy preparing
everything for it. 7. He has never called ... us again since we told him we dis-
liked early callers. 8. As his clothes gave ... a strong smell of tobacco, Torn
realized that this would give him ... 9. Whole districts of squalid-looking
houses had been pulled . . . and new blocks of flats put. . . instead. 10. Aft or
he had spun ... his arguments at length all the people present fell............
him. 11. They were held ... by the snow a whole afternoon right in the middle
of a desert plain. 12. The spot has almost gone. . .; it’s hardly discernible
now. 13. As there was no reply to his call, he hung . . . and decided to ring . . .
again later.

1. He is very unruly and keeps . . . talking during the classes or takes . . .
all the teachers. 2. Who do you take me . . . ? Do you think I’ll do it without
seeing where I come . . . ? 3. The car had broken . . . and they had had to
walk the rest of the way. 4. Let’s go . . . for another week-end before the
autumn rains set... 5. He said he was not born yesterday and he could look
. . . himself. 6. He puts his foot. . . whenever the question comes ... of his
mother-in-law coming. . . (from London) to live with them. 7. He hadn’t
expected to be turned . . . without a word of explanation. 8. She can take . . .
notes in shorthand at a remarkable speed. 9. John couldn’t be easily taken . ..
and he checked ... all the details ensuring the success of his plan. 10. Why
haven’t you put. . . your new hat? 11. He said he had to be . . . ; he simply
could no longer stand . . . her incessant nonsense. 12. The speaker set. . . his
arguments so skilfully, that he won everybody ... 13. Two merchant ships
ran . . . each other and one of them went... in twelve minutes.

1. No arguments will ever bring him ... ; he is too proud to go............. his
opinion. 2. When they are eighteen, boys are called ... ( — join the army).
3. A strong wind had got. . . and there was no sign of it abating the whole
night. 4. Hold . . . please, I’ll call Tom right away. 5. I’ve had enough of them,
they go . . . each other every time they meet. 6. This 3 miles’ march in the
forest simply has done me... . 7. A strange mood had come . . . him of late.
He seemed to be expecting his end. 8. Exceptional situations call .. . exception
al measures. 9. He had been brought... in a cult for work and couldn’t
stand seeing others loaf... . 10. The steamboat was going to pull... in
ten minutes so they had no time left to buy cigarettes. 11. His parents think
his weak eyesight ought to dissuade him from going............ architecture.

1. He fell. . . the other members of our little party in order to carry ... a
secrete conversation with his bosom friend. 2. The ship was to have called
only . . . two ports but because of the accident our fuel gave . . . and we had
to call... a third. 3. He is so irritable he’s all the time the impression every
body is getting . . . him. 4. With careful nursing the patient should pull........
5. Don’t forget to come ... at 5 o’clock. We are all looking............ seeing
you. 6. Will you help me clear . . . the dishes? 7. Exasperated by his insolent
tone she promptly rang........ 8. Luckily we had a bottle of brandy with us and
that brought him . . . (from his swoon).^9. It was his habit of shrugging his
shoulders every now and then that gave him .... 10. He kept ... it with a
perseverance that filled us with admiration.yll. I felt the tears well........... my
eyes and made terrible efforts to hold thenK . . 12. When they let it............
him about his fribndjs behaviour he wouldn’t believe it. 13. She has been
going . . . very little since her brother died. 14. The whole village turned . . .
to welcome the distinguished visitors.
exercise 131. Make up questions with the verbs between brackets to fit the
following answers:
1. (get . . . ) I think she will never quite recover from the shock of her
husband’s death. 2. (pull . . .) They will have demolished this row of low houses
by the end of next year. 3. (hold . . .) It was the fog that delayed the plane for
over three hours. 4. (look . . .) The whole story went back several generations.
5. (pull . . .) The car stopped abruptly to avoid running into a lorry coming
from the opposite way. 6. (run . . .) He met her quite by chance. 7. (make . . .)
I have not invented this story, it’s the truth I’ve told you. 8. (get . . .)It will
take me about two hours to finish reading all these papers. 9. (put . . .) Her
neighbour is a pianist and keeps practising the whole afternoon. 10. (keep . . .)
We couldn’t go out because of the drizzle that activated my old rhumatism.
11. (pass . . .) I simply cannot get at the bottle. 12. (give oneself. . .) The
thief had surrendered himself to the police and confessed everything the very
next day after the bank was broken into. 13. (go . . . ) They say now a blue
blouse can match a green skirt, but I prefer to match it differently. 14. (get. . .)
These shoes are one size too short.

1. When the moment for parting came she almost broke........ 2. They had
promised to bring. . . his booklet of verse in a year but they were already . . .
the term. 3. The mail car calls . . . the office three times a day. 4. Tom’s article
was too long; so the editor told him to cut it... to half its length. 5. She’s
given . . . smoking three times so far and then has taken . . . tobacco worse
than before. 6. Do you really think Mary and Tom are not getting . . . well?
In my opinion it’s just a rumour that has got........ 7. When he heard the firm
had gone bankrupt he said that he was done........ 8. Come . . ., muster ... a
little courage, can’t you? 9. I wish we could leave for the week-end but unfor
tunately it’s quite unlikely it will clear........ 10. They had seemed in love with
each other. Why their engagement was broken . . . nobody will ever know.
11. Let’s spread the blankets on the floor; we can shake . . . those for the night
(= colloq.: sleep on an improvised bed). 12. The editor was sorry he couldn’t
go . . . my article but he was up to the eyes in work just then. 13. The good
news got ... in no time. 14. The tourists were eager to go . . . the town on
their own to see those sights they were most interested........ 15. Her feel
were so swollen she could no longer get. . . her shoes.

1. No decent man could pass . . . such an insult. 2. Don’t take any notice
of him; he’s just showing........ 3. They had put ... so many new houses that
he almost failed to recognize the place. 4. As soon as he arrived at his office,
he set.............running ... all the papers that had come that day. 5. Her
nerves have broken ... so badly that she needs someone to stand . . . hen
6. The thief made . . . the gate but the two policemen caught............him and
took him . . . custody. 7. Shakespeare’s great poetical personality stands . . .
among the other poets of the English Renaissance. 8. John is not really a
mischievous boy but he was set. . . by his brother. 9. The fire brigade had
great difficulty in putting . . . the fire because of the wind that had got....
10. It was difficult for him to set . . . all the reasons for his calling . . . the
party. 11. They told him the matter would stand . . . until the manager came
. .. . 12. He didn’t believe a word of what she told him. He knew the story was
made ... .13. Though they had invited him, he didn’t show ... .14. They
decided he should put the little girl . . . the train and ask one of the travellers
to look . . . her during the journey. 15. We can’t drive too fast; the car isn’t
run . . . yet. 16. He was run ... by a car before he had made ... a will, so all
his property went to his wife. 17. The police ran the escaped prisoner ... in
a public house after hunting for him for over a week.

1. She has promised to look me . . . when she comes to Bucharest. 2. The
dish I really wanted to have is ... so I’ll take the same with you. 3. He told
the maid to show the visitor ... . 4. You may be sure that however jealously
kept, a secret will finally be found ... .5. Will the rain never let... ? 6.
She likes to put... dresses that show ... the figure. 7. Let’s look...........
the museum, I just want to have another look . . . that picture by Hogarth.
8. It speaks well. . . him that he did not accept that bargain. 9. Speak. . .!
I can’t make. .. what you are saying because of the noise outside. 10. He is a
charming teacher; all his pupils love him and look........... him. 11. By the
look on his face, the mother guessed the boy must have been............ some
thing. 12. He knew his wife would be sitting ... for him. 13. Patients are
carefully looked ... in this hospital. 14. Tom didn’t want to speak . . . any
body and repeated it was........... me to decide. 15. She wanted to sit the
lecture . . . even if she was going to be late for her appointment. 16. Mary
couldn’t make a cake for us because she was I had run............sugar. 17. I
must look . .. this matter thoroughly before I can make . . . my mind about an
answer. 18. At last he settled............ peace and confort.
exercise 135. By the aid of a dictionary, translate the phrasal verbs used in
the folowing sentences:
1. She was much given to the carrying about of small bags with snaps to
them, that went off like pistols when they were shut up (Dickens).
2. The odour of a flower, or the mention of a familiar word, will sometimes
call up sudden dim remembrances of scenes that never were, in his life (D i -
c k e n s). 3. It seems almost as if these grisly figures were keeping something
back from the author as well as from the reader (Chesterton). 4. Never
put off till tomorrow what you can do today. 5. Do as you would be done by.
6. Murder will out. 7. There came back to me with tremendous force a scene at
which I had been present only a few days before (Michael Innes).
8. For a moment the Dean’s voice rang out in passionate refutation (Ibidem).
9. It was an arrangement of a candle-stub and a burnt-out squib just such
a one as they are letting of/* around us now (Ibidem). 10. I had stumbled by the
merest accident upon a very subtle plot (Ibidem). 11. Quietly Appleby took up
Deighton — Clerk’s questions (Ibidem)—
exercise 136. Translate and comment on the phrasal verbs in the following
sentences:
1. Haveland was not the sort who would deliberately give himself away,
2. The double inquest will reveal the insanity which brought aboutNlr. Umpleby’s
death. 3. He had pointed at Haveland later when putting up a story to explain
his own strange conduct. 4. But no sooner had he seen the three intruders
bearing down on him than he plunged into the bushes. 5. The De Dion was
up with him and had edged him into the ditch. 6. And I suppose you have
worked all out. 7. In Ransome’s circumstances I think I should simply have
given myself up or thought of a plausible lie. 8. I look forward to anything
your collaboration may produce. 9. We were carried away by the funny joke.
10. He got back to his room at nine thirty and settled down to work. 11. And
the ivory complexion, set off by the dead white shirt, was softened by the
faded rose and gold of the old silk. 12. This system had worked well enough
but putting through calls had required the fairly constant attention of the
porter on duty.
(Michael Innes)
exercise 137. Supply equivalents for the italicized phrasal verbs:

a) 1. Just before his mother died, I took her up to the city to see him. . . .
2. When he saw who it was at the door, he locked it and wouldn’t let us in. 3. I
don’t know why my oldest boy should turn onHike that. 4. I’d hate something
awful to have to give all the gold to him. I couldn’t stand for that, Pluto.
5. What’s on your mind, Pluto ? Go ahead and ask it. 6. Make her so pleased she’ll
leave offvf&h everybody but you. 7. In my time I’ve run across a heap like her.
8. Pluto sat against the trunk of the live-oak tree, waiting until he felt like
getting up. 9. I reckon he’ll try to put up a stiff scrap when I tell him to
come along up here.
10. They dig more of the time than me and the boys and we're at it from
daybreak to sundown most days. 11. I don’t know what you are aiming to
catch him with, so I can’t say how to go about it, but I sure don’t advise
shooting him with a gun. 12. If you can get a little time off, Pluto, I wish
you would come out this way in a day or two and give us a hand with a shovel.
b) 1. It never does pay to put things off. 2. Pluto would not have noticed
them if they had not kept on laughing. 3. All right, boys . . . I’ll move it
again but I ain’t aiming to do away with God’s little acre altogether. 4. And
I’ll bet they’ve given up trying to raise any more, there at that place. . .
5. That’s a rare feeling to come over a man ... 6. Mr. Ty Ty, Pm all out of
something to eat at my house. 7. When Ty Ty had turned and gone back to
the front yard, Shaw went up to the colored man. 8. “I thought you were
going to send for Rosamond and Will”, Griselda broke in. 9. Pluto looked at
the tire with a feeling of great fatigue coming over him. 10. Pa has his head
set on you and Will coming over there, anyway. 11. What part of the country
did she come from? 12. I’ll turn the light out so it won’t hurt his eyes.
13. Will drew up a chair and sat down, leaning back to look at Pluto.
14. We’re going m there (i.e. to the mill) ourselves and turn the power on.
15. They cut the pay down to a dollar-ten eighteen months ago.
(Erskine Caldwell, God's Little A ere)
exercise 138. Supply equivalents for the italicized phrasal verbs:
a) 1. Who is supposed to look after this room ? 2. At the speech day when you
were giving away the prizes, you said there were no synonyms in the English
language. 3. I’m always willing to stand by anything I’ve said. 4. Is anything up ?
5. Couldn’t you put the other people off until next week? 6. My dear Elizabeth,
it’s no good going over all that again. 7. I can’t look on her as my mother.
8. What you can’t get over is that she didn’t think of you. 9. He tried to force
her by refusing to support her and turning her out of the house. 10. That’s a
pleasing taste of yours, but you must take care not to put on weight. 11. My
dear, how you let your imagination run away with you!
b) 1. In England if people don’t get on they go their own way and jog along
after a fashion. 2. “I knew your father”. “Yes”. “Alive still?” “Yes”. “He must
be getting on. Is he well?” 3. Hughie, do you think Arnold takes after me or after
his father? 4. What exactly are you getting at? 5. Who would have thought that
animation would turn into such frivolity? 6.1 gave seventy-five pounds for that
chair. I’m very seldom taken in. 7. I’ve put up with him for thirty years and now
I’m at the end of my tether. 8.1 have been relieved to find that the country got
on perfectly well without me. 9. I was just strolling along to my cottage to put on
a dinner jacket. 10. I daresay you’ve run down and want a change. I’ll take you
over to Paris for a fortnight, if you like. 11. “I think if you’ll follow my advice
to the letter, you’ll probably work the trick”. . . . “But supposing it doesn’t
come off?”
(S. Maugham, The Circle)
exercise 139. Translate into English using get as a phrasal verb:

1. Tom promise că se va apuca serios de treabă dar numai începînd de
lunea viitoare. 2. Șterge-o. Degeaba încerci să mă cucerești. N-o să ajungi la
plăcintă, am încuiat-o în cămară. 3. De cînd i s-a publicat lucrarea nu își mai
încape în piele de mîndrie. k. Raskolnikov și-a dat seama că nu poți rămîne
nedescoperit cînd faci o crimă. 5. Ai scăpat ieftin! Să fi fost în locul tău eu aș
fi încasat-o sigur. 6. N-am putut scăpa să nu vin la acest spectacol, dar sînt
într-adevăr prea obosită ca să-mi facă plăcere. 7. De fapt nu și-a revenit nici
odată complet din astenia pe care a avut-o. 8. Iți voi da o mînă de ajutor de
îndată ce-mi voi termina lucrul. 9. Grupa noastră organizează un recital de
poezie pentru duminica viitoare. 10. Știe cum s-o ia pe mătușa ei și s-o facă
să-i cumpere tot ce-și dorește. 11. Curînd va fi un bal costumat și aș vrea să
mă costumez în Puck. 12. Spune-mi, te rog, cum ai reușit să descoperi adevărul?
exercise 140. Translate into English using give and carry as phrasal verbs:
1. Majoritatea întreprinderilor au îndeplinit cincinalul înainte de termen.
3. Talentatul scriitor a luat premiul de stat pentru literatură. 4. Știe să vor
bească fără să se trădeze cu nimic. 5. A fost scos din fire de obrăznicia cu care
îi replica puștiul. 6. Ce bine îmi pare că ai venit. Nu te mai așteptam. 7. Gustul
prăjiturii îi aminti lui Proust de zilele petrecute în casa bunicilor. 8. Ziarele
îl dădeau drept mort în accidentul de cale ferată. 9. Maiorul îl întrebă pe Tober
mory despre aventurile lui cu pisica de la grajduri. 10. Fusese prea sigur că
norocul nu-i va părăsi. 11. Higgins a fost foarte amuzat cînd auzi că fostul său
elev se dădea drept specialist în fonetică. 12. Această fereastră dă spre țărmu 1
mării. 13. Pe Beowulf îl părăseau puterile cînd Wiglaf îi dădu balaurului o
lovitură mortală,
exercise 141. Translate into English using look as a phrasal verb:

1. Va trebui să te descurci fără ca să te îngrijească Mary, 2. După ce voi
trece un minut pe la club vom merge împreună după cumpărături. 3. Este
lipsit de experiență și deci trebuie supraveghiat cu grijă. 4. Aștept cu nerăbdare
să-mi spui că ai examinat chestiunea cu grijă. 5. Camera lor de zi dă spre gră
dină. 6. Ce-ar fi să mă ajuți în loc să asiști numai? 7. Mă întreb de ce se uită
de sus la toți cei din jur. 8. Acum treburile lui promit să meargă mai bine, 9. Nu
știam că prietenul tău e considerat cel mai bun chirurg din oraș. 10. Pentru a
o salva pe Euridice, Orfeu trebuia să nu-și întoarcă privirile (către ea). 11. îl
privise totdeauna cu admirație și acum era extrem de dezamăgită descoperind
că nu era de fapt un om extraordinar. 12. Treci să mă vezi mîine după ora
cinci. 13. Fii atent! Vine un autocamion cu o viteză cam mare. 14. Profesorul
îi spuse că s-a uitat pe lucrare și că unele pasaje ar trebui reformulate.
exercise 142. Translate into English using make and be as phrasal verbs:
1. Nu îmi pot face o rochie nouă în toamna aceasta dar îmi voi transforma
unele mai vechi. 2. Dacă nu ar fi reumatismul care mă supără aș merge cu tine
după tîrguieli. 3. Cei doi veri nu se împacă deloc bine. Jane îl sîcîie într-una și-1
înțeleg pe Tom că a explodat așa aseară. 4. Știu că nu e perfect, dar calitățile
lui îi compensează lipsurile. 5. Copilul era atît de liniștit că mama avea o pre
simțire că probabil pregătea vreo năzdrăvănie. 6. Nu îți pot descifra scrisul, e
prea neciteț. 7. Lucrăm numai cu materialul clientului. 8. Filmul acesta rulează
la “Capitol” de o lună; trebuie să fie bun. 9. Hai să ne împăcăm! Am fost niște
proști să ne certăm pentru un fleac. 10. Farmacistul promise că va face rețeta
prescrisă de specialist în cel mult două ore. 11. Nu m-a anunțat că ședința
s-a contramandat. 12. Dacă mai ameninți mult cățelul cu vătraiul să vezi că
o să se repeadă la tine. 13. Tom se îndreptă spre pădure hotărît să-și petreacă
toată după amiaza în liniște. 14. Deși are doar 16 ani nu iese în oraș fără să se
machieze două ore înainte.
exercise 143. Translate into English using put and write as phrasal verbs:
1. Această fabrică produce 100 strunguri pe săptămînă. 2. Vom trage la
motelul Cozia pentru această noapte dacă mai sînt locuri libere. 3. Tu-mi vei
dicta și eu voi nota ce-mi spui. 4. Stinse luminile, verifică dacă a închis gazul
și se duse la culcare. 5. Ai mîncat un cuvînt, adaugă-l, te rog. 6. Răspunsul
lui m-a scos din răbdări, 7. I-am dat o hîrtie ce anula datoria. 8. Nu poate
tolera nici un fel de obrăznicie din partea nimănui. 9. Era nerăbdător cînd tatăl
său scria numerele de telefon. 10. Tom fu indignat cînd proprietarul veni să-i
anunțe că de la 1 ale lunii următoare avea să mărească chiria, 11. Nu mai
notase nimic de cîteva zile în jurnalul ei și se hotărî ca în seara aceea să-i aducă
la zi, 12. își ia un aer atît de inocent cînd mă minte că îmi vine greu să nu o
cred. 13. Reporterul se hotărî să se ducă imediat să scrie dintr-un condei un
articol despre neobișnuitul incident. 14. Trebuie neapărat să-i văd și o să-și
dea seama că nu va scăpa de mine numai cu promisiuni vagi. 15. Autoritățile
au reprimat cu cruzime demonstrația greviștilor împotriva orelor suplimentare
de muncă. 16. Au pus răspunsul său obraznic pe socoteala tinereții lui. 17. Asea
ră am uitat să întorc ceasul și a rămas cam în urmă. Trebuie să-i dau cu 20
de minute înainte.
exercise 144. Translate into English using turn and do as phrasal verbs:
1. Dacă vrei să citești fă lumina mică, eu vreau să mă culc. 2. Comitetul
i-a respins cererea de concediu pentru luna septembrie. 3. Spune că toțt s-au
purtat frumos cu ei în ultimul timp (pasiv) 4. Cîinele mă atacă pe neașteptate
și mă mușcă de picior. 5. Ce ție nu-ți place altuia nu-i face. 6. Această fabrică
produce bunuri de cea mai bună calitate. 7. Tom îi ura pe snobi și susținea că
snobismul trebuie desființat printr-un act al Parlamentului. 8. în ciuda pre
simțirilor sale toate se terminaseră cu bine. 9. Prospero îi trecuse administrația
ducatului fratelui său care se dovedi a fi un trădător. 10. Era disperat că fusese
înșelat și furat de toți banii pe care tocmai îi moștenise. 11. Nu ne-am așteptat
ca tocmai Mary să strimbe din nas la propunerea noastră. 12. Ai uitat să închizi
robinetul și acum baia s-a transformat într-un lac.
The Adverb
exercise 1. Form adverbs from the following adjectives and nouns by adding
the suffix -ly or -ward(s), paying attention to their spelling. Remember that certain
adverbs coincide in form with the adjectives they derive from:
Gay, extreme, back, sincere, true, sensible, east, whole, final, due, beautiful,
good, sure, home, pleasant, hungry, whole-hearted, deep, bad, thank
ful, late, devoted, striking, hard, west, unhappy, terrible, diligent, silent,
fast, near.
exercise 2. Choose the correct word:

1. You are an excellent cook. The food tastes (good, well). 2. It was a
lovely day with birds singing and the sun shining (bright, brightly) and girls
wearing (bright, brightly)-coloured dresses. 3. I hate taking medicine. It tastes
(bitter, bitterly). 4. I don’t think he is ill. His voice sounds (merry, merrily).
5. It rains (heavy, heavily). 6. It is (near, nearly) five o’clock. 7. You must
work (hard, hardly) for your exams. 8. He spoke so (quick, quickly) that we
could (hard, hardly) follow him. 9. When did you (last, lastly) see him? 10. I
am (direct, directly) interested in what you think. 11. He couldn’t move as
he was (dead, deadly) tired. 12. His eyes hurt him (bad, badly). 13. Mr. Jones
held it (tight, tightly). 14. It was six o’clock as (near, nearly) as he could guess.
15. (last, lastly) I must account for my sister’s behaviour.
exercise 3. Rewrite these sentences substituting -ly adverbs for the italicized
phrases:
model: ‘Who’s afraid?’ he said in an uneasy manner.
‘Who’s afraid?’ he said uneasily.
1. He smiled a contemptuous smile. 2. I pick my staff in a careful manner.
3. ‘Oh, John’, she said in a hoarse voice, He bade us farewell in a cold voice.
5. She cried with bitter tears. 6. He came up to me at a slow pace. 7. He spoke
about the trip in an excited voice. 8. They defended their friend in convincing
words. 9. She stared at me with a fixed look. 10. The Indians lived a simple life,
hunting and fishing.
exercise 4. Give the degrees of comparison of the following adverbs:

Much, brightly, quietly, expressively, badly, quickly, late, fast, high, often,
well, swiftly, far, little, slowly.
exercise 5. Rewrite the following sentences using the adverbs in parantheses

in the correct degree of comparison:
1. In a large city you must cross the street (carefully) than in a small
one. 2. He walked (far) than I did. 3. Please speak (slowly), so that I can take
notes. 4. She moved (awkwardly) an elephant. 5. He reviewed her work (unfa
vorably) than Dixon did. 6. Of the three men, you behaved (disgracefully).
7. He’s been sleeping (badly) than myself the last few months. 8. Of the ten
students he has been working (hard). 9. I pick my staff (carefully) than you
do; that’s why our results are worse. 10. The answer came back (quickly)
than I had expected.

1. Tu joci șah mai prost decît fratele tău. 2. Eu joc șah mai prost decît
toți. 3. Cine aleargă mai repede, Tom sau Bob? 4. Colegul meu aleargă mai
încet decît mine. 5. Luna aceasta a lucrat mai puțin ca luna trecută. 6. Nick
vine întotdeauna mai tîrziu ca ceilalți. 7. Care dintre toate tablourile expuse
a fost descris cel mai puțin convingător? 8. Dintre toți studenții grupei
voastre John a făcut-o cel mai bine.
exercise 7. Form intensified comparatives placing the adverbs ever, îar, still,
even, much, a great deal in front of the comparative degree of the adverbs below:
model: Tom runs quicker than John.
Tom runs far quicker than John.
1. A snail moves slower than a turtle. 2. You should speak English more
correctly. 3. She rides more beautifully since she went to the training-school.
4. She sings better than an opera-singer. 5. She did better in the summer
exams. 6. She admonished the boy more severely than the headmaster. 7. He
prepared himself more thoroughly than his opponent. 8. That crowd took the
decision more sportingly. 9. He worked harder than his father. 10. He spent
less than his companion.
exercise 8. Translate into English. Note that whenever a past participle is
used as a predicative it is preceded by very much, highly, greatly, quite, particu
larly, keenly, pretty, deeply etc., and not by very alone:
model: Ea a fost foarte uimită de cele întîmplate.

She was highly / quite surprised at what had happened.
1. N-am putut vorbi cu ea. Era foarte enervată de prostia lui. 2. Mă inte
resează foarte mult problema aceasta. 3. Prăjiturile făcute de mama au fost
foarte lăudate. Sînt foarte dezgustată de purtarea ta. 5. Părinții mei au fost
foarte mulțumiți de notele mele. 6. M-au îndurerat foarte tare vorbele tale.
7. Ți-aș rămîne foarte îndatorată dacă ai vrea să mă ajuți. 8. Iago considera
că a fost foarte nedreptățit de Othello. 9. Realizările noastre economice l-au
impresionat foarte mult. 10. Ne-a șocat foarte mult răutatea lui.
exercise 9. Translate into English using the adverb far in its verb modify
ing and in its adjective intensifying function:
1. Nu a mers prea mult și a văzut un călăreț îndreptîndu-se spre el. 2. Știi
cît te costă un bilet pînă la Oradea? 3. Deși pornisem devreme, nu am ajuns
departe în ziua aceea, deoarece ninsese toată dimineața. 4. Mi-au pus mult mai
multe întrebări decît mă așteptam și discuția noastră a durat pînă tîrziu noap
tea. 5. El înoată mult prea bine ca să se înece. 6. Departe, pe o străduță se
află o casă sărăcăcioasă. 7. El a mers mai departe decît mine. 8. Cartea ta este
cu mult mai interesantă decît a mea. 9. Nu te întrece cu gluma. 10. A zis că
mașina a rămas în pană; în plus, nu era nici o speranță să găsească un mecanic.
exercise 10. Fill in the blanks with rather or fairly:

Note that fairly implies the idea of something “favourable” while rather
the idea of something “unfavourable”. Rather can be used before alike, like,
similar, different and before comparatives conveying the meaning of a little,
slightly, (e.g. Your example is rather similar to mine. The suitcase was rather
heavier than I expected). Fairly cannot be used before comparatives. Rather
can be used before certain “favourable” words such as:good, well,pretty, clever,
amusing, and the verbs to like, to enjoy, etc., its meaning becoming nearly
equivalent to very. (e.g. The performance was rather good.)
1. This cake is . . . good, but the other is . . . sour. 2. They behaved . . .
meanly. 3. You speak English . . . well. 4. It was . . . stupid of him to propose
to Mary. 5. She looks . . . nice. 6. Lesson 25 is . . . difficult but Lesson 24
was . . . easy. 7. She was . . . kind to me. 8. The teacher was . . . angry with
us. 9. She is . . . tall for her age. 10. It was . . . cruel of him to say that. 11. The
lecture was . . . interesting but. . . long. 12.1 didn’t want to make friends with
them but now I . . . like them.
exercise 11. Translate into English using the adverbs pretty and prettily.
Note that pretty as an adverb means rather, fairly:
1. Sînt aproape sigură că va veni. 2. Se îmbrăca drăguț în tinerețe. 3. E
cam rece pentru luna mai. 4. Am auzit că și-a aranjat drăguț noua locuință.
5. Nu putem merge pe jos pînă,la grădina zoologică; e destul de departe pînă
acolo. 6. Părea cam îngrijorată. 7. Părea destul de convinsă de ceea ce spune.
8. Vocea lui suna destul de fals.
exercise 12. Translate into English using the adverbs rather, enough or
fairly:
1. Se simte destul de bine ca să facă o plimbare. 2. 20 de lei dicționarul!
Serios că e foarte ieftin. 3. E destul de clar că e nou în meserie. 4. Ea are niște
idei destul de ciudate. 5. Aș veni cu voi în excursie dar nu prea am bani. 6. Lu
crarea este destul de bună pentru a fi publicată. 7. Discursul președintelui a
fost cam scurt. 8. Conferința mi s-a părut destul de interesantă și destul de
bine documentată. 9. L-am recunoscut imediat deși se schimbase destul de
mult. 10. Pînă în vîrful muntelui am făcut doar o oră deși drumul era destul
de abrupt. 11. M-am simțit destul de nefericit. 12. Patul acesta nu este destul
de lat pentru două persoane, dar este destul de moale.
exercise 13. Insert the given manner adverbs in the correct places:
1. He put it in English (well). 2. It was put in English (well). 3. He misled
us (deliberately). 4. He spoke (slowly and deliberately). 5. He offered to put
me up (kindly). 6. I was learning to spell (painstakingly). 7. I wanted to see
it (very badly). 8. She sang the tune (cheerfully). 9. She offered her apologies
(humbly). 10. He flapped his hands at his sides (limply). 11. She started looking
for her glasses (slowly and inneficiently).
exercise 14. Rewrite these sentences placing the adverbs in brackets in their
correct place:
model: He dealt with the subject / it (perseveringly).
He dealt perseveringly with the subject.
He dealt with it perseveringly.
1. The teachers talked about the new methods of teaching (endlessly),
2. On Sundays they walked about the town (slowly). 2. She spoke to me
(tenderly). 4. He laughed at us (kindly). 5. The critics spoke of the play (highly).
6. Nicholas glanced about him (quickly). 7. The children surrounded the teach
er and listened to his story (quietly and eagerly). 8. Aided by the wind the
fire spread over the whole city (rapidly).
exercise 15. Insert the given adverbs of time in the correct place. Note that
in a series of adverbs of time those which represent the detail precede the more
general ones:
1. He was born (in the year 1952, on 15th June, at 5 a.m.). 2. When the
tourists went out of their tents they saw that the mountain was covered with
snow (in the morning, early). 3. He returned to Bucharest (last week, in the
afternoon, at four o’clock). 4. I first met him (last year, in May). 5. The grea I
fire of London broke out (in 1666, one night, in September). 6. The news was
broadcast (last Saturday, at half past two). 7. We shall come here (in future,
every morning, at 9). 8. They went away (on Sunday, for a week).
Ei vin întotdeauna la timp. 2. Profesorul nostru de engleză nu ne vorbește
niciodată în limba română. 3. Cîteodată nu știm ce e bine și ce e rău. 4. Chiar
acum mi-am terminat lucrul. 5. Nu voi uita niciodată ziua aceea. 6. Chiar
adineauri I-am văzut în grădină. 7. L-am întrebat deseori despre aceasta. 8. Vă
puteți adresa întotdeauna lui Tom cînd aveți nevoie de ajutor. 9. L-am văzut
ieri la teatru. 10. întotdeauna ne vom aminti cu plăcere aceste zile vesele.
11. 11 vom întîlni uneori la bibliotecă. 12. Se va întoarce curînd? 13. Ai fost
vreodată la patinoar?
exercise 17. Insert the given adverbs in the correct place:

1. Tom and Becky had been wandering (for many hours, about the cave).
2. Jim was to recite his poem (that very morning, in the centre of the exami
nation hall). 3. Though I was very busy I snatched a minute to answer his
letter (yesterday, at the office). 4. Tom, Huck and Joe decided to run away
(at daybreak, from home). 5. I wish I were (now, over there). 6. They returned
(in the evening, to the camp, late). 7. I had the pleasure of meeting a fine
woman of about fifty (the other day, in New York, here). 8. My brothers and
my husband will be (soon, home) from the shooting. 9. Bathing is very good,
when the sea is mostly calm (here, in summer). 10. The great fire broke out,
and aided by the east wind, burnt down the wooden houses of which a large
proportion of the town was built (in 1666, in London, in a baker’s shop, in
September).
exercise 18. Insert yet or still as required:

Note that still is used in affirmative and interrogative sentences and in
interrogative-negative sentences with an emphatic force. Yet is used in nega
tive sentences. In interrogative sentence yet means already.
1. You may finish your work in time. 2. Was he working when you rang
him up? 3. ‘Have the tourists left the hotel?’ ‘No, they have not left the hotel.
They are in their rooms’. ‘Haven’t they left the hotel?’ 4. Haven’t you fin
ished writing? 5. Have you not understood? 6. Are you waiting for him? 7. He
hadn’t come. 8. Have you told him? 9. The concert is not finished. It is going
on. 10. I want to learn English. 11. She looks tired in spite of the long holiday
she has had. 12. I am wondering what he meant. 13. I cannot come, I am busy.
14. You can’t be hungry. You have just eaten your dinner.
exercise 19. Translate into English using the adverbs yet and still:
1. încă nu mi-ai spus cum te cheamă. 2. Deși plouă încă, a ieșit soarele.
3. Lecția nu s-a terminat încă. 4. E încă prea frig să ieși fără haină. 5. Arată
încă foarte tînără. 6. Cum? Tot n-ați reușit încă să deschideți seiful? 7. Cerul
e înnorat, dar încă n-a început ploaia. 8. Tabloul acesta este și mai frumos.
9. Cum? Tot mai este o scrisoare pe care n-ați tradus-o încă?
exercise 20. Translate into English using the adverbs yet, still, already:
1. — Ai și citit articolul acesta? — încă nu I-am terminat. îl mai citesc
încă. 2. — E dej a ora 8 și el încă nu s-a sculat. Doarme încă. — Cum, încă doarme ?
3. — Fratele meu mi-a și trimis o vedere. — Eu n-am primit încă nimic.
4. — încă n-ai restituit cărțile la bibliotecă? — Nu, sînt tot la mine. 5. încă nu
ne-ai spus de ce ți-ai făcut griji inutile. 6. — Ai expediat deja scrisoarea? — Nu,
n-am expediat-o încă. 7. Tot te mai gîndești la el? 8. N-ai găsit încă altceva
de făcut? 9. încă nu m-am hotărît cum s-o abordez. 10. încă nu e prea tîrziu.
Mai putem prinde primul accelerat.
exercise 21. Translate into English using the adverb of time long:
1. A stat mult în Anglia, așa că nu e de mirare că vorbește engleza atît
de bine. 2. Nu mai vreau să-mi petrec concediul la mare. 3. Nu mai locuiește
aici. 4. Studiază de mult engleza. 5. De cînd ești în București? Cît stai? 6. Nu
mai vreau să te ajut la lecții. Trebuie să le faci singur. 7. Nu mai știu ce să
cred despre el. 8. Cît o să fii plecat? 9. Nu I-am mai văzut de mult. 10. Iarna
a trecut de mult, a venit primăvara. 11. Așteaptă-mă! Nu întîrzii mult.
exercise 22. Translate into English using adverbs of time:

1. Abia acum o lună am aflat că s-a măritat. 2. S-a măritat abia acum o
lună. 3. încă din anul 55 î.e.n. lulius Cesar a debarcat cu trupele sale pe țăr
murile Angliei. Dar adevărata cucerire a Angliei a devenit un fapt abia în
anul 43 al erei noastre. 4. Legiunile romane au fost retrase abia în sec. V.
5. Enescu a început să cînte la vioară de mic copil. Era încă un copil cînd a
apărut prima dată într-un concert public. 6. în 1440 Gutenberg inventase
deja tiparul. 7. încă acum cîțiva ani era greu de închipuit că omul va cuceri
cosmosul. 8. Nu se poate încă vorbi de ‘camerele’ parlamentului în timpul dom
niei lui Edward I. 9. El a început să învețe engleza abia anul trecut. 10. El
știa să citească încă înainte de a merge la școală.
exercise 23. Rewrite the sentences below placing the adverb only in as many
positions as possible:
model: I wanted to see him. Am vrut să-i vorbesc.
Only I wanted to see him. Numai eu am vrut să-i vorbesc.
I (only) wanted to see him (only). Nu am vrut decît să-i vorbesc.
I wanted to see only him. Am vrut să-i vorbesc numai lui.
1. I had a boiled egg for breakfast. 2. She helped me with my translation.
3. Did you meet Tom yesterday? 4. I took the dog for a walk. 5. This summer
I have spent my holidays with my family.
exercise 24. Rewrite the sentences below using the adverb only in its correct
place (s):
1. Today “savage” means that a nation is living, not at any inferior but at
a younger stage of culture (only). 2. You do not say that a child is inferior to
a man. He is younger than an adult (only). 3. At first Ernest shrugged hieu
shoulders and seemed to hesitate (only). 4. He made Jackson answer in a way
that damaged the case (only). 5. Luckily no one was hurt and the driver got
frightened (only). 6. The liberty of the press that the western countries boast
of is a freedom that the ruling classes enjoy (only). 7. Therefore we shall deal
with such facts of English history as throw light on the development of the
English language (only).
exercise 25. Translate into English paying attention to the use of the adverb
hardly;
1. In iarna aceasta nu a ancorat aproape nici un vapor în portul acesta.
2. în această regiune pustie nu crește aproape nimic. 3. Cu o sută de ani în
urmă oamenii nu știau aproape nimic despre acest fenomen. 4. N-am fost
aproape nicăieri, dar sper că voi călători de acum încolo. 5. Abia am putut
scoate cîteva cuvinte de la el. 6. N-am citit aproape nici o carte englezească
în vara aceasta. 7. Nu-I cunosc prea bine, deci nu știu ce intenții are. 8. Nu
prea am timp să rezolv problemele zilnice. 9. Nicholas aproape că nu o observă.
10. Abia și-a putut ține firea cînd a auzit de accident. 11. Ploua atît de tare
încît abia vedeam drumul. 12. N-aș putea spune că mi-a folosit prea mult.
13. Abia puteam vorbi de rîs.
exercise 26. Translate into English paying special attention to the correct
place of the adverbs:
1. Scopul învățămîntului din țara noastră este de a forma tineri foarte
cultivați, constructori activi ai socialismului. 2. Chip gustă vinul și îi plăcu,
așa că bău mult. După puțin timp adormi. 3. Nu trecu mult după ce se întu
necă și Miss Donner veni în camera lui David cu niște pîine și lapte. 4. M-a
bătut așa de rău că n-o să i-o iert niciodată. 5. Profesorul a fost adînc mișcat
de cuvintele elevilor săi. 6. Trebuie să conduci mașina foarte atent, mai ales
cînd virezi la curbă. 7. Acum odihnește-te puțin, ai tradus toată ziua. 8. — Pro
babil va veni cu trenul. — Sînt aproape sigur că va veni cu cursa. 9. Probabil
că este un dispozitiv foarte complicat. 10. -Ți-aplăcut cartea? — Da, într-adevăr
foarte mult. Este una din acele cărți pe care poți să o tot recitești. 11. Sincer
vorbind, mie nu mi-a plăcut în întregime această carte. 12. Eu sînt numai
parțial de acord cu tine. Totuși capitolele care descriu viața în junglă sînt
scrise foarte realist. 13. — Ei văd această problemă diferit. — Cu atît mai
interesant.
The Preposition
A. Relationships in SPACE
to onto into
at on in
from off out of
Examples:
Destination Position
That damaged car goes to the garage. It has stopped at the garage.
On Saturday you will be driving away You will be well away from the
from the town. town.
You will turn onto the main road. You will be on it in a minute.
To reach the motel you must turn off You will be off the main road in
the main road. no time.
It is a pleasure to dive into a You will be happy to be in
swimming pool in summer. water.
You get out of the water when you Stay out of it if it’s cold!
are tired.
But:
get on the bus at a place (small inhabited place, village,
get in the car town)
put the money in the bank in a place (that geographical area, continent,
run into difficulties region, big city)
get into trouble
fall into bad habits
exercise 1. Make up 20 sentences by combining a phrase from column 7,

a preposition from column 2, and a word from column 3:
1 2 3
They are going to, at Liverpool

They are getting off, out of New York
The train is coming away from the Island of Man
You get fruit on, in the tunnel
She has arrived into a place called The Falls
You were born from a tree
His family lives onto a supermarket
exercise 2. Choose the correct preposition in parentheses in the sentences

below:
1. Mary walked (in, into) the dining-room. 2. She put her packages (on.
at) the table. 3. She is sitting (in, on) an armchair (into, in) the living-room.
4. Is her husband (at, in) home now? No, he is (on, at) the library. 5. He also
spends many hours (in, on) his office (on, at) 50, Fleet Street. 6. I found a note
pinned (in, on) my door which said: “Meet me (at, in) the corner of Oxford
Street and Regent Street. 7. His family lives (at, on) Bridge Street (in, on)
Edinburgh, Scotland. 8. You must always write your return address (in, on)
the envelope. 9. The team arrived (in, at) England last week.
exercise 3. Fill in each blank with to, into or from;
1. She learnt English . . . books. 2. Then she taught it. . . you. 3. A pri
soner has escaped . . . prison. 4. He escaped . . . the woods. 5. He fell ... a
river and the police rescued him ... it. 6. They saved him . . . drowning.
7. Her father has retired . . . bed. 8. He has retired . . . the army.
exercise 4. Fill in each blank with onto or into whenever possible; otherwise
with on or in:
a) 1) Take a seat. . . the car. 2. Don’t take everything.. . the car. 3. Help
me lift this suitcase . . . the seat. 4. They are arriving . . . Rome. 5. They are
driving . . . the city. 6. Are they staying . . . the city tonight?
b) In which of the last 6 sentences could we use off, and in which could we
use out of?
INSIDE WITHIN OUTSIDE
FOR TOWARDS AS FAR AS
for: end of a movement after the verbs: start, leave, set out, search, ask, look,
send, call, wait.
towards: in the direction of it
as far as: all the way to that point, no farther
inside: emphasizes going into, being in contrast with outside
within: being in an area bound by definite limits
Examples:
He is running for a bus. It’s the bus for Windsor. It follows the road towards
Reading but it doesn’t go as far as Reading. Not all the six people waiting
outside the bus have gone inside it. The buses of the Red Line run only within
the London area.
exercise 5. Fill in each blank with the suitable preposition. Use a different
preposition each time:
1. The Danube rises . . . the Black Forest and flows . .. the Black Sea.
2. The Isles of Scilly are a group of islands . . . the Atlantic, . . . Cornwall.
Not many people live . . . them. 3. The train leaves . . . Paris early in the
morning, and it gets . . . Curtici by dinner-time. 4. Step . . . this ladder, but
be careful you don’t fall ... it. 5. Wait... me round the corner, just . . . the
baker’s. 6. You aren’t permitted to smoke . . . the area of petrol tanks. 7. Look
out, children! There’s a car racing. . . you!
BY BEYOND
BESIDE ALONG
PAST ACROSS
THROUGH
by (a point): a movement passing a point, or position close to a point

beside: movement or position on the side, or along the side
along (a line)
across: a movement from one end of a line or surface to the other, or position
at the end of the movement
through: a movement from one end of a space or one side to the other
past: the latter part of the movement
beyond: to or at a point further than
Examples:
He passes every evening by her window. Sometimes he sits by (or besides)
her on a bench in the park and sometimes he walks beside her either along the
path beside the stream or across the grass.
The train will go through a tunnel first, then past the ruins of an old castle
and it will disappear beyond those steep hills.
exercise 7. Make up 20 sentences from the following:
They got quickly across the gate

The girls were walking along the valley
They live beside Piccadilly Circus
His horse ran beyond the Danube
The road runs by the side of the road
We rode past the bridge
The liner sailed through the ocean
WITH BETWEEN AMONG ABOUT
WITHOUT AGAINST ROUND
with: movement or position — one person or thing accompanies another
between 1 _ fo]]owe(] by a plural; movement or position
among
Examples:
A lot of people go for a walk with their dogs. They don’t like going without
them. Look at those two! They are walking round the statue for the forth
time.
Hungaria lies between Romania, Austria, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
The host must move about among his guests.
It is difficult to walk against the wind.
Don’t lean against the wall, the paint is fresh 1
exercise 8. Make up 20 sentences; use the phrases from the first column
twice:
Share this food about you

I don’t like tea against your teeth
Put your tongue among a former champion
Flowers were scattered between the trees
Don’t fight round lemon
You live with weaker people
The dog was running without those two rocks
He played the garden
I don’t believe she can decent people
swim the house
BEHIND AT THE BACK OF OPPOSITE NEXT TO
BEFORE IN FRONT OF NEAR
behind — in front of: relative position in a horizontal direction
near — next to: relative position
Examples:
All cars behind ours got stuck because there was a cart in front of us.
There is a big barn at the back of the farmhouse.
The teacher asked the students to look at the picture before them.
My house is number 13. Number His next to ours and 10 opposite ours.
I never sit too near the band in a restaurant.
exercise 9. Choose the correct preposition in parentheses in the sentences
below:
1. They stopped (in front of, below) the museum and sat down (in, on)
the steps. 2. Jim said, “I must go (to, towards) the library and take out some
books. I’m living (to, in) our hostel this term”. 3. Our house is number 40.
Number 42 is (opposite, next to) ours. 4. Number 41 is (opposite, next to)
ours. 5. We like to live (about, among) civilised people. 6. Something is hidden
(at the back of, behind) this simple occurence. 7. I am (behind, at the back of)
my work. 8. There is a beautiful park (behind, at the back of) my house.
UP OVER ABOVE BENEATH AT THE TOP OF
DOWN UNDER BELOW UNDERNEATH AT THE BOTTOM OF
all used for movement or position on a vertical direction;
up and down also used idiomatically in reference to a horizontal axis;
over and under with verbs of motion express relative destination or passage
Examples:
He is up the hill in half an hour and down it in no time.
I walked up and down the platform waiting for the train.
My children don’t use the gate. Jumping over the fence is fun.
It’s raining, come under my umbrella. Don’t you want to have it over you?
If you don’t want to get wet you have to get right underneath it.
The hovercraft runs above the surface of the water. The submarines go
under I below I beneath / underneath the surface.
exercise 10. Make up 20 suitable sentences. Use each phrase in the first
column twice, each time with a different preposition:
The sun is rising above the bridge

Don’t run below the fence
Aeroplanes fly beneath the stairs
The river flows down the mountain
The boat sank over the waves
In no time it will be under the clouds
Try and jump up at the top of that rock
It isn’t difficult to jump at the bottom of the water
Cars go
a) 1. When I go . . . the office, I go . . . Victory Road. I pass the museum . ..
my way. I stop . . . the traffic lights. 2. When the lights turn green, I go . . .
the road, ... a gate and . . . the Cismigiu Gardens. 3. I walk . . . the Gardens
and . . . them . . . another gate . . . the other side. 4. I arrive . . . my office at
five to seven.
b) 1. In a game of basket ball, two teams play. . . each other. 2. To play
well, the members of each team must get used to playing . . . one another.
3. A player throws the ball . . . someone ... his own side or runs . . . it . . .
the goal. 4. If a member of the other team gets ... his way, he gets . . . or . . .
him.
c) The aeroplane is flying , . . the village.
d) 1. At eight o’clock children go . . . class. 2. At one o’clock they come . . .
class.
e) A lot of swimmers have tried to swim . . . the Channel.
B. Relationships in TIME
AT DURING
ON THROUGH
IN
at, on, in: an event happens

during, through: an event continues
at a point of time — on a day or date — in a period of time
during a period of time
through (out) emphasizes the idea of continuation from beginning to the end
Examples:
on Monday, on Tuesday morning, on May 1st, but: next Monday, last Monday,
and also: We arrived Monday evening.
in the day-time, in the afternoon, in January, in summer, but: last January,
next month, and: on the afternoon of May 1st.
during the meal, during the day, to sleep through the night.
FROM SINCE ttmttt BEFORE BY
FOR TILL UiNilb AFTER IN
TO
from: beginning of a period

to: used only with from.
till I until: when from is omitted
since: marks the beginning of a period during which an activity has continued
(till now) or had continued (till then)
for: marks relationship between activity and the length of the period through
which it continues
before: earlier than . . .
after: later than . . .
by: at any time, not later than . . .
in: the event will happen a period of time from now = within
Examples:
from 9 o’clock in the morning, from 9 to 5, till I until 5. I haven’t seen him since
1960. I haven’t seen him for 15 years. I don’t go to sleep before midnight, I
always go to bed after midnight. You have to finish your work by 5 o’clock.
I shall be home in half an hour. Within this period I must see the doctor.
AROUND ABOUT
around — about: indicate approximate time
Examples:
around noon, around 7 o’clock. He’ll come, I think, about 7 o’clock.
exercise 12. Choose the correct prepositions in parentheses in the exercise

below:
1. Does the show begin (on, at) 7.00? No, it will not begin (for, until) 7.30;
so do not arrive (by, before) that time. 2. He asked me to come (in, at) 7.00,
not (at, in) 7.30. 3. The stores stay open (in, on) Saturdays (for, until)
9.00 p.m. 4. My friend has been in England (for, during) a year. 5. She has also
lived in France (for, since) two years. 6. Is your birthday (in, on) April? Mine
is (in, on) April 11th. 7. Come (on, around) 8.00 if you want; nobody will be at
home (since, before) 7.30. 8. The projector broke down twice (during, for) the
showing of the film.
exercise 13. Insert the appropriate preposition in the blanks in the following
sentences:
1. John was born . . . January. 2. The examination began . . . the morning
of July 5th. 3. They were married . . . 1960. 4. We usually stop work . . . mid
day. 5. There was a big fire . . . the last century. 6. We went to the moun
tains . . . New Year. 7. It was very cold here . . . the winter. 8. They were
called . . . Friday morning.
exercise 14. Fill in each blank with after, before, from, since, to or till;
1. “The agency is open in the afternoon . . . 4.00 . . . 8.00." “Was it open
. . . lunch?" “Yes, it stayed open . . . 1.00 o’clock p.m." 2. I go home at four
and have dinner at six. I read the paper and have a rest. . . 5.00 and then
I cook .. . 5.00 . . . 6.00. Working . . . dinner gives me an appetite. 3. I’m
thirsty. I haven’t had anything to drink . . . last night. Bring me something
to drink, I can’t wait . . . lunch time. 4. ‘How long has he known her?’ ‘Oh,
he’s known her . . . September.’ 'Hadn’t he met her . . . then?’ ‘No, never.’
5. I told you that he had known her . . . September. He had never met her
. . . autumn. 6. My aunt stayed at our house . . . last week. 7. My office is
open . . . half past eight every morning. 8. It has been open . . . half past eight
this morning.
exercise 15. Supply for, in, till or by;
1. I walk to the university . . . half an hour every morning. I get there
. . . half an hour. 2. John has just arrived from Sofia. He got here . . . one
hour, in spite of the rain. It had been pouring . . . the last half an hour of the
journey. 3. It is now seven o’clock. We are driving fast. If there isn’t too much
traffic on the road we shall reach Sinaia . . . nine o’clock. If there is a lot of
traffic we shall be on the road . . . ten o’clock. 4. In the 21st century, astro
nauts will travel round the earth ... a matter of minutes. 5. Let’s go for a
swim tomorrow. Can you be ready . . . 8.00? I’m afraid I can’t. I have lessons
. . . lunch time. In fact I shan’t finish . . . half past twelve. 6. I think they are
going to finish this building . . . May Day. 7. . . . the time we’d walked five
miles, he was exausted.
C. Other relationships
FOR BECAUSE OF
FROM ON ACCOUNT OF
OUT OF
These prepositions can express the material or psychological cause or
motive for a happening, support.
Examples:
It is wet because of the rain. Do it for fun I Are you for my plan?
He gave the beggar some coins out of pity. Thousands of children are dying
from lack of food. He was advanced on account of his knowledge.
For can be used after the verbs:
account, be, act (something or somebody), answer, apologize, appeal, apply,
ask, blame, beg, charge, die, hope, live, mourn, wish, thank;
and after the adjectives:
eager, famous, grateful, responsible, sorry, thankful.
From can be used after the verbs:
defend, differ, hinder, prevent, prohibit, protect;
and after the adjectives:
different, safe.
exercise 16. Insert the appropriate prepositions in the blanks:

1. Let’s go . . . the circus, just. . . fun! 2. The players have thrilled their
audiences. They were loudly acclaimed . . . their performances. 3. . . . the
drought, the price of bread was high that year. 4. The survivors were weak
. . . exposure and lack of food. 5. The thief hid the money. . . fear the police
would find it. 6. Two Austrians, . . . their experience in climbing, were voted
leaders of the expedition. 7. . . . his poor health, he could not work in a hot
country. 8. He fell. . . love with her . . . pity.
exercise 17. Make up sentences using phrases on the pattern out of pity
with the following words:
CONTROL DANGER DEBT ORDER SIGHT STOCK
FOR TO AT FROM
for can express relationships of purpose or object of activity, recipient, exchange

or price.
Examples:
What were they looking for? Sell it for less than you paid for it.
Wear the belt for safety. Use your pen for writing.
For expressing the above relationships can be used with the verbs:
arrange, call, look, mistake, pay, prepare, provide, sell, search, wait, work;
or after the adjectives: fit, qualified, ready, valid; or with the nouns: safety,
money, emergency, etc.
To can express the notion of “actual recipient”, the thing or person to which
activity is directed.
Examples:
Do you object to my smoking? No, not at all, I am used to it. All compass
needles point to the north. The impressive TV tower points to the sky like a
giant finger.
To can be used after the verbs: abandon, accustom, adapt, address, admit,
allude, amount, answer, appeal, apply, ascribe, attach, attend, belong, chal
lenge, compare(d), condemn(ed), confess, consent, convert, entitle(d), explain,
give, lend, listen, look, mention, object, occur, prefer, reply, respond, see, sell,
submit, surrender, turn, yield; or after the adjectives: close, contrary, cruel,
dear, equal, faithful, fatal, harmful, indifferent, inferior, liable, new, obedient,
obvious, polite, previous, rude, sensitive, similar, useful.
At can express the notion of ‘target’, or relates to a point on a scale.
Examples:
Can’t you see my house? I’m pointing straight at it. Don’t point at people
as if you were aiming at them. It’s dangerous to drive at 120 kilometres an
hour I at such a high speed.
At can be used after the verbs: aim, drive, bite, glance, guess, knock,
look, point, stare, snap, work; or after the adjectives: skilful, bad, clever,
efficient, expert, good, quick, slow.
From is the converse of to (goal); it expresses the notion of source.
Examples:
We get oil from the earth. We travel south from Edinburgh. Look at the
valley from the summit. She has made this cake from butter, eggs, sugar and
flour. Where does the teacher come from? From England.
From can be used after the verbs: borrow, come, demand, dismiss, draw,
emerge, escape, get, receive, separate; or after the adjectives: absent, away,
far, resulting.
exercise 18. Use these words with for:

a) cup, fork, hammer, knife, needles, soap;
model: What are these needles for? For sewing sacks.
b) work, ask, die, live, wait, care, hope, long, pay, prepare, sell;
model:Who are you working for? For a publishing house.
c) be grateful, apologize, pardon me, mistake me.
model: Why don’t you apologize for your rudeness?
9 — Limba englezA pentru adm. în tnv. auperlor 129
1. He made a beautiful doll ... his daughter. 2. He’ll do anything . . .
money. 3. Some support charities . . . duty, some . . . sense of guilt. 4. Every
one ran . . . safety. 5. The scenery . . . the play isn’t ready. 6. If you get lost
in a desert, you can die . . . thirst. 7. She divorced . . . her husband’s bad
behaviour. 8. They helped them . . . kindness.
exercise 20. Make up sentences using the prepositions for, to, at, from after
the following adjectives:
rude quick ready absent slow
valid fit indifferent qualified
useful far efficient polite
WITH LIKE
They express relationships of manner.
Examples:
He was received with courtesy. She sings like a bird. He acted like a thief.
He corresponded with enthusiasm.
BY WITH WITHOUT
They can express relationships of means, instrument.
By and with will also accompany the instrumental (agentive) subject in passive
sentences.
With can also express “having”, the converse being expressed by without.
Examples:
The play was written by G.B. Shaw. It is dangerous to be bitten by a
snake. The hostess greeted us with a smile. Come by bus. Succeed by working
hard. He was killed with an arrow. Draw without a ruler. I like the box with
the carved lid.
With can accompany the following verbs: agree, arm, arrange, associate,
begin, communicate, compare, compete, comply, confuse, contrast, cope,
correspond, disgust, do, finish, help, interfere, mix, part, please, quarrel,
reason, satisfy, threaten; or the following adjectives: angry, busy, consistent,
content, familiar, identical, patient, popular.
AT
can express the relation between an emotion and its stimulus as well.
Examples:
I’m really astonished at you; how can you pretend knowing everything!
At can follow the verbs: alarm, amaze, amuse, annoy, astonish, estimate,
delight, disgust, exult, please, puzzle, shock, stagger, surprise, wonder; or
the adjectives: angry, indignant, sad.
exercise 21. Use these words with the prepositions at, with or by;
a) ship, anchor, bus, pen, train, arrow, J.S. Bach, plane, stone, telegram,
your convenience, chance, an accent, electricity, care, mistake, ease, instinct;
b) wonder, agree, be pleased, be disgusted, succeed, be satisfied, be amused,
be shocked, be occupied, be surprised.
c) familiar, angry, patient, indignant.
1. It isn’t polite to point . . . people. 2. After aiming carefully . . . the bird,
he missed it completely. 3. He was very angry and shouted . . . me. 4. He was
too far from the ship so that he had to shout. . . the sailors if he wanted them
to hear him. 5. A compass needle points . . . the north. 6. He is a Spaniard.
He comes . . . Madrid. 7. Can’t you see our house? It’s over there, I’m pointing
straight... it. 8. In Istanbul there are a lot of tall minarets pointing . . .
the sky.
exercise 23. Supply by, for, from, with or without;
1. There was a loud scream . . . above. 2. The man. . . Scotland spoke
... an accent. 3. We came to Bucharest. . . aeroplane. We travelled . . . air.
4. He is very capable; he can speak and debate . . . the best. 5. To repair
the damage, they worked . . . four hours ... a break. 6. On his deathbed he
spoke fondly of his wife ... his last breath. 7. They were bundled out. . .
ceremony as soon as they tried to force their way in. 8. You always go to the
cinema. Why don’t you go to the theatre ... a change? 9. ... a child, he
always showed great interest in music. 10. I don’t like either men but v. .
certain Harrison is the better. 11. I shall submit the manuscript to a publisher
. . .‘consideration. 12. ... degrees they became very good friends. 13. The
handwriting was very bad, and I read the letter. . . some difficulty. 14. He
succeeded in answering all the examiner’s questions. . . difficulty. 15. I
wouldn’t have harmed her . . . the world. 16. The whole scene and the sunset
were too beautiful . . . words. 17. Being a brilliant student, he passed his exa
minations . . . ease. 18. These oranges are sold separately and not. . . weight.
19. He pleaded . . . the director to reinstate his son but. . . effect. 20. The bus
stopped . . . warning and several passengers were thrown to the floor. 21. His
worries seemed . . . end, so he tried to commit suicide. 22. She tried hard to
pass the test, but. . . success. 23. I promise to be here at nine o’clock . . . fail.
24. He was lucky. His efforts were crowned . . . success. 25. The brave youth
approached the bull . . . fear. 26. I know the man . . . sight but I have never
even heard his name. 27 . . . the first, I knew that he was not a man to be
trusted. 28. He is travelling to the Far East. . . land and sea. 29. This is an
old sewing-machine; it is worked . . . foot. 30. The engine has broken down.
I have tried to start the car but. . . result. 31. A country should not try to
gain superiority over its neighbours . . . force. 32. This is the best hotel. I
can recommend it. . . reserve. 33. Are you interested in a car . . . hire or . . .
sale? 34. Why are you so rude? Nobody can regard such behaviour . . . indif
ference. 35. The parcel I received was sent to me . . . post. 36. The man was
hungry, and stole food, . . . necessity. But he was dismissed ... his employer
. . . notice. 37. Try and look at the problem . . . prejudice.
OF
a) can occur chiefly as a postmodifying genetive in a noun phrase;
b) can relate to the original substance something is made of;
c) relates to the thing we are referring to in thought or speech.
Examples:
a) We are the owners of the riches of the earth. Our country lies north
of the equator. Are you a member of our sports-club?
b) Your ring is made of gold.
c) What are you thinking of? What is the subject of your thoughts?
Of can be used after the following verbs: admit, advise, approve, assure,
beware, boast, complain, conceive, consist, convince, cure, despair, dream,
excuse, expect, hear, get I be, rid, smell, suspect, thank, talk, think, tire, warn;
or after the following adjectives: aware, capable, careful, certain, cbnscious,
fond, guilty, ignorant, independent, jealous, kind, north I south / east /
west, short, shy, sure.
ABOUT
relates to the subject matter of thought, speech or feeling.
Examples:
I’m reading a book about superstitions. We are glad about it. ‘What did
you dream about?' ‘That we talked about a lot of interesting books.’
About can be used after verbs like: argue, ask, boast, brag, dream, commu
nicate, confer, consult, converse, debate, deliberate, disagree, dispute, do,
doubt, dream, feel, forget, inform, hold forth, joke, know, quarrel, laugh,
learn, lecture, preach, read, find out, see, speak, talk, tease, tell, think, trouble,
worry, write; and after adjectives like: angry, annoyed, anxious, curious,
enthusiastic, excited, frightened, glad, happy, honest, mad, pleased, reason
able, reluctant, right, uneasy.
ON IN
on expresses a relationship with a precise subject matter, occasion or a
completed act (as distinct from a process in which one is engaged);
in can also relate to a process or condition (a process one is engaged in).
Examples:
We’ve heard on good authority that he is innocent. We rely on it. He
was arrested on suspicion, not on evidence. His lecture was on “offshore drill
ing”. We congratulate him on the excellent results.
On reading it I realised I had been mistaken. Use your talents in trying
to impress everybody. Are all your friends in love?
On follows verbs like: act, agree, argue, attend, base(d), call, comment,
consult, communicate, concentrate, congratulate, decide, depend, economize,
experiment, hold forth, insist, operate, preach, pride (oneself), rely, write;
or adjectives like: dependent, content, keen, reliant, severe.
In is used after verbs like: believe, delight, employ, encourage, experi
ence^), fail, instruct, interest(ed) involve(d), persist; or after adjectives like:
deficient, fortunate, honest, weak.
exercise 24. Supply of, about, on or in;

1. I’m rather anxious . . . my son’s health. 2. I don’t want to comment
. . . their work. 3. I often dream . . . the seaside. 4. It*s no use complaining . . .
the heat. 5. The waiter’s tip is included . . . the bill. 6. My friends congra
tulated me . . . having got married. 7. You can never rely . . . her to be
punctual. 8. What are you interested . . . ? 9. Don’t worry . . . what is
going to happen! 10. We suppose we can count . . . your help . . . this
matter. 11. Beware. . . the dogs! 12. Why do you persist. . . asking such
useless questions? 13. He’s going to speak... a very interesting topic.
14. Parents insist. . . their children telling them the truth . . . everything. 15. It
took him a long time to get rid . . . them. 16. Do you mean to say you have
never heard . . . Shakespeare? 17. The doctors can only cure him ... his
illness if they operate ... him. 18. You cannot always depend . .. people. 19. I’ll
inform you . . . the new development. 20. She doesn’t accuse him . . . anything,
but she suspects him . . . having taken her ring. 21. Our country has invested
a lot of money . . . heavy industry. 22. The serial was based ... a novel by
Galsworthy. 23. I like animals and don’t approve . . . hunting. 24. It’s absurd
to believe . . . superstitions. 25. . . . making enquiries, I learned that my house
had been struck by lightning. 26. I went to an interesting lecture yesterday.
It was . . . “Exploring oil . . . the sea”. 27. Try to forget your pain: don’t
think ... it now. 28. What is this book . . . ? It’s . . . prepositions. 29. What
does this delightful drink consist... ? 30. Two or three people were involved
. . . the accident. 31. After discovering the new substance, the doctors began
experimenting . . . rats. 32. It isn’t nice to boast . . . your success. 33.What,
me? Jump from an aeroplane? I wouldn’t dream ... it! 34. I saw a plane crash
once, and I’ve dreamt... it ever since. 35. Can you advise me . . . the subject?
36. Romeo and Juliet is a story . . . two lovers.
exercise 25. Supply the suitable prepositions. Note that in some cases more
than one answer is possible:
1. What on earth is he talking . . . ? 2. Who was the man John was talk
ing ... ? 3. A preposition can be used to end a sentence ... 4. Was that the
picture they were looking . . . ? 5. What do you clean your shoes ... ? 6. What
did this film remind you . . . ? 7. Every item of the expenditure has been
accounted ... 8. This is the room the professor usually works .... 9. ... com
bining business . . . pleasure, we make the best. . . both worlds. 10. You bad
boy, I’m ashamed . . . you. Your brother would be ashamed to do a thing . . .
that. 11. Come . . . my shop and shelter . . . the rain. 12. Stop that awful
noise! Have pity . . . my poor nerves!

a) 1. Alfred e bolnav. A lipsit de la școală două săptămîni. 2. Trebuie să
cerem scuze gazdei că am ajuns așa tîrziu. 3. Nu mă tentează nicidecum să
lucrez toată ziua într-un birou. 4. Cînd voi avea nevoie de sfaturile tale în
această materie, ți le voi cere. 5. Nu mi-e frică de nimeni și nu mi-e frică să
spun adevărul oricui. 6. Nu cred că mama ta mă agreează de fel! 7. Vei sosi în
Franța sîmbătă. La sosirea la hotel vei găsi un mesaj în căsuța de la recepție.
8. Luna este atrasă de Pămînt. Această atracție a Lunii de către Pămînt este
cea care cauzează mareea.
b) 1. Am fost totdeauna slab la istorie. Aveam senzația că îmi strică
digestia. 2. Crezi în stafii? Eu nu. 3. Această carte îmi aparține. Poți însă să o
împrumuți de la mine pentru cîteva zile dacă vrei. 4. Compară-ți răspunsurile
la aceste exerciții cu răspunsurile date la pagina 23. 5. Pot să vă felicit cu
ocazia zilei de naștere? 6. George ne-a fost totdeauna un prieten bun. Puteam
conta oricînd pe el pentru ajutor. 7. Mi-a dat cineva de ziua mea cravata
asta. Pot s-o schimb cu ceva mai puțin țipător? 8. Poți deosebi griul de secară?
Cum le deosebești între ele?

a) 1. Ai împrumutat dicționarul meu. Ai terminat cu el? 2. X și Y sînt
egale cu Z. Dacă X este egal cu 6 și Y egal cu 8, cu cît este egal 2 Z? 3. Te-ai
familiarizat cu sunetele englezești? îți sînt familiare? 4. Pentru a-și cîștiga
libertatea, popoarele au trebuit să lupte pentru ea. 5. Mă iubești, sau numai
ții la mine? 6. lartă-mă că am făcut o asemenea cruntă greșeală. Am uitat cu
totul. 7. Nu-ți invidia vecinul. N-are nici un rost să fii gelos pe el. 8. înainte
de a lega o sîrmă de alta asigură-te că s-a întrerupt curentul. /
b) 1. Cînd m-am mutat acolo, vecinii mei locuiau în casă de cinci ani,
din 1970. 2. Se mutaseră din vechea locuință cu atîția ani în urmă, dar tot mai
vorbeau de grădina pe care o avuseseră acolo. 3. Noi locuim aici numai de doi
ani. 4. Toată lumea are mașină în cvartalul nostru, așa că trebuie să te învîrți
de trei ori în jurul lui înainte de a găsi un loc de parcare. 5. Spectacolul este
foarte bun. Biletele se vînd la casa Teatrului Național. Se va da un spectacol
în fiecare seară, în afară de duminică, la ora opt seara; va fi și un matineu,
miercurea la ora 2,30. Se pot rezerva bilete prin poștă sau telefon. Se reia piesa
Sf. Ioana, de Bernard Shaw. 6. Te așteaptă de două ore, de ce nu-i vorbești?
7. L-am întîlnit de multe ori în timpul călătoriei, dar niciodată nu venea la
timp.
SYNTAX
The Major Parts of the Sentence:

the Subject and the Predicate
Note:
The basic syntactic functions to be distinguished in independent sentences,
as well as in clauses of all types, are the Subject and the Predicate, which actually
represent the “backbone” of any sentential construction. They are so closely
inter-related that neither can be removed without producing the destruction
of the sentence as such. This mutual dependence is formally confirmed by the
number and person markers, for the Subject and Predicate should always
coincide.
The Subject represents the “theme” of the sentence, the topic commented
upon by the Predicate. Grammatically, the Subject is expressed by a noun
phrase equivalent (a nominal).
The inner structure of the noun phrase may vary.
e.g.:
a) The library / closes at ten. (Determiner + Noun)
b) The covers of the book / are purple. (Determiner + Noun + Modifier)
c) Gold, which is a precious metal, I is not to be found in this area. (Deter
miner + Noun + Relative Clause).
Complex noun phrases formed by coordinating two or more noun phrases
may also function as Subjects.
e.g.:
d) Bob and Tom / are my best friends.
Noun substitutes (pronouns) quite frequently appear as Subjects; the same
function is discharged by Non-Finite verb forms such as the Infinitive or the
Gerund and by a whole clause.
e-g.: Z
e) She I is being ironical. (Pronoun)
f) To err / is human. (Infinitive)
g) Giving little children money / is foolish. (Gerund)
h) That it could be so / seems incredible. (Clause)
In English the Subject is always expressed, with the exception of impera
tive sentences having “you” as implied Subject.
This restriction, which does not exist in Romanian, accounts for the use
of “empty” or formal Subjects, such as “it” or “there”, whose function is merely
to fill the subject position (always initial in English).
e.g.:
i) It was very hot yesterday.
j) There are no fish in this stream.
exercise 1. Identify the Subject and state what it is expressed by:
1. The pale moon rose. 2. Dick’s incessant talking distresses me. 3. Whoever
did that will suffer. 4. My Latin teacher and I had a long talk. 5. It is kind
of you to ask. 6. He who hesitates is lost. 7. Anything will do. 8. My old friend
Bill Jones is a plumber. 9. Illmatched cups and saucers were on the table.
10. Those three look good to me. 11. To bask in the sun and to swim a little
seemed to be all he wanted to do. 12. For Samuel to teach German would be
a joke. 13. Who told you that? 14. His was a blue, sportscar. 15. Howto mix
the stuff wasn’t clear to me. 16. There are no matches left in the box. 17. Wheth
er he had been right or not was what troubled him. 18. Playing ball and
talking about cars are his chief interests. 19. What to say was a problem.
exercise 2. Analyse the .Subject in the sentences below, taking into account
the fact that a number of other parts of speech and constructions, besides the ones
mentioned before may dis charge this function. Identify them by assigning each to
ihe part of speech or type of phrase they stand for:
1. It is much too close. 2. “The” is a definite determiner. 3. Over the
fence is out of bounds. 4. From five to six is my real working time. 5. Outside
the circle doesn’t count. 6. “Since” may be a preposition, a conjunction or an
adverb. 7. To the school and back is a full mile. 8. “Is” is what I mean, not
“has”. 9. Over the bridge and down the road makes a delightful walk. 10. Once
is enough!
exercise 3. Compare the coordinated noun phrase constructions functioning

as Subjects, differentiating those that refer to several objects or beings from those
that refer to one and the same thing. The latter may be labelled as “Compound
Subject”. Point out its formal characteristics (in point of determination, agree
ment, pronominalization):
1. a) His wife and his secretary.will be attending his lecture, b) His wife
and secretary is attending his lecture. 2. a) The poet and the musician have
discussed their creations, b) The poet and musician has talked about his crea
tions. 3. a) The brandy and soda was cool and conforting. b) The brandy and
the soda have not cooled as yet. They are still in the fridge.
exercise 4. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to the way

you express the Subject, which is impersonal:
Among the means commonly used in English there are the pronouns one,
we, you, they and the noun people:
1. Sentimentele celorlalți trebuie cruțate. 2. Nu se pot face două lucruri
în același timp. 3. Se spune că vremea o să se schimbe în scurt timp. 4. Trebuie
să fii cu băgare de seamă cînd înoți într-un rîu necunoscut. 5. Deseori observăm
greșelile altora în loc să le vedem pe ale noastre. 6. Acest număr de telefon
se poate găsi în cartea de telefon. 7. în această țară se mănîncă multă carne.
8. In ultimii ani am băut tot mai multă cafea. 9. Nu se știe niciodată. 10. Dese
ori vorbim înainte de a ne gîndi.
exercise 5. Fill in the blanks with it or there. Comment on their use:

1. A woman was standing near the top of the first flight. ... was his wife.
She was leaning on the banisters, listening to something. . . . was grace and
mystery in her attitude (J. Joyce). 2. “Is . . . someone you want to marry?
Who is . . . ”? (S. Taylor). 3. Look! ... is a nest over the window! I know . . .
is a swallow’s nest. It came in spring and built a nest here. Now ... are some
little swallows in it. . . . is interesting to watch them. ... is the swallow that
I like best of all animals. 4. . . . was a banknote in his pocket, wasn’t. . . ?
5. The weather seemed to break this afternoon. ... is the last of the heat
waves for this summer. Although ... is hot in London, . . . are threads of
clouds too.
exercise 6. State the nature of the it subjects below (introductory, antici

patory, demonstrative, emphatic, impersonal):
1. I looked at my watch. It had gone eleven. 2. The telephone rang; I
went to answer. It was Joe. 3. It was the dignity that checked my tongue. 4. It
is necessary to finish the work at once. 5. It is a pity that he should marry
her. 6. It was no use asking her about it. 7. It is pleasant to hear that the sea
will calm down towards the end of the day. 8. It is here that she asked me to
come. 9. It is a long way to the centre of the city. 10. This was the Old Chief’s
country. It stretched from these mountains way back to the river.
exercise 7. Translate into Romanian and point out the difference in form
and meaning between a) and b):
1. a) There is a man in the garden, b) “Who else is there to help?” “There’s
the man in the garden.”
2. a) There was an accident caused by the truck driver’s carelessness.
b) There’s the accident!
3. a) There was an old photo, two pencils and a rubber in the bag.
b) “What is there in the bag”? “There’s the old photo, the two pencils
and the rubber.”
exercise 8. Translate into English, paying attention to the position of the

Subject:
La începutul anului 1933 s-a produs o creștere tot mai accentuată a spiri
tului de luptă în rîndul muncitorilor de la atelierele Grivița. 2. Mă întrebam
cum îl cheamă și de cînd locuiește în același cartier cu sora mea. 3. în ultimii
trei ani s-au construit zece blocuri noi și s-au deschis două școli în acest oraș
de provincie. 4. în istoria luptelor revoluționare purtate de eroica noastră
clasă muncitoare la loc de cinste se înscriu grevele din perioada crizei economice.
5. Dicționarul nu ți-1 pot împrumuta nici eu, nici sora mea.
Agreement
exercise 1. Choose the correct form of the verb in parantheses:
1. Nobody in my family (has, have) ever dreamt of such a thing. 2. Every
one in the office (likes, like) her. 3. (Does, do) either of you know anything
about him? 4. Everybody (was, were) standing up. 5. Neither the doctor nor
the nurse (is, are) here on Sunday. 6. None of them (likes, like) fried chicken.
7. (Is, are) anyone interested in this? 8. Each of us (types, type) forty words a
minute. 9. Neither of the stores (is, are) open on Saturday afternoon. 10. Some
body (is, are) getting on my nerves.
exercise 2. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the auxiliary do;
1. . . . the scissors belong to you? 2. . . . either of them want to join us?
3. One . . . not lie if he is honest. 4. . . . any of these problems bother him?
5. Few of the new students . . . not seem shy. 6. Everybody . . . not intend to
leave that early! 7. . . . neither of these dresses suit you? 8. . . . any of you
play the piano?
exercise 3. Decide which verb is right. Explain why:

Note that one of, type of, kind of, sort of take the third person singular
verb.
model: He is not one of those Americanffjwho is / âre)capable of melancholy
Are. Who refers to Americans.
1. This is one of the best jokes that has / have ever been told. 2. One of
the most pleasant facts about the discussion is / are that everyone of them
takes it seriously. 3. There is not one of them who wants / want to walk so far.
4. The kind of western movies that I see these days bores / bore me. 5. John
is the only one of those men who knows / know how to hand the problem.
6. The kind of manners they all strive for is / are irreproachable. 7. One of
the main reasons for the rapid decline of Spain as a sea power was / were the
series of naval defeats she suffered at the hands of the English. 8. I decided
to go and see how one of these new cars is / are put together.
exercise 4. Use the correct form of the infinitives in brackets:

Note: 1. Most compound subjects joined by and are plural and take
plural verbs.
2. Singular subjects joined by or or nor are singular and take singular
verbs.
3. When two subjects, one of which is singular and the other is plural,
are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the nearer word.
1. Mary and Tom (to tease) my sister about being too fat. 2. Either my
father or my mother (to accompany) my younger brother. 3. Neither the dic
tionary nor the newspaper (to belong) to me. 4. Every evening it’s either Jane
or her sisters that (to do) the dishes. 5. Nobody in the group (to know) about
this. 6. Neither Mr. Evans nor his secretaries (to answer) the phone. 7. Jack
and Robert (to be) dependable. 8. Jack or Robert (to be) dependable. 9. (to be)
he or his colleagues at the lecture last night? 10. Either Mary or her parents
(to be) to entertain the guests. 11. Five dollars (to be) too much to pay for a
used book. 12. Neither expensive lotions nor frequent massaging (to prove)
successful in the treatment of baldness. 13. The class of 1953 (to request) your
presence at a reception to be given Thursday, June 3, at eight o’clock. 14. His
warmest admirer and severest critic (to be) his wife. 15. Three months
(to be) no time at all when you spend your vacation in such pleasant surround
ings. 16. If they both or he alone (to wish) to eat apple pie I will bake one.
exercise 5. Answer the following questions by using compound subjects joined

by and, nor, and or. Make your answers complete sentences and be sure that every
verb agrees with its subject:
1. What gifts please a four-year old child? 2. Is Denmark or Sweeden part
of the Netherlands? 3. Have any of you ever been to the Danube Delta?
4. Who is to blame?
exercise 6. Complete the following sentences paying attention to the agreement

between subject and predicate:
Note that together with, in addition to, including, as well as and similar
constructions following the subject do not affect the number of the subject:
model: 1. My father, as well as my mother, . . .
My father, as well as my mother, is eager to know you.
2. My brother, along with his friends, . . .
My brother, along with his friends, never misses a football
match.
1. The heavy rains, in addition to the cold, ... 2. The cat, together with
her kittens, ... 3. The driver, as well as his wife, ... 4. Everyone in the
family, including my parents, ... 5. The beautiful design, in addition to the
performance of the car, ... 6. An interest in children, together with a sense
of humour, ... 7. The principles on which he thought, as well as acted, ...
8. The President, together with his advisers, . . .

1. Veștile sînt proaste. 2. Cleștele este în sertarul de sus al dulapului.
3. Familia mea nu pleacă în Făgăraș acum pentru că aci vremea este încă rece.
4. Guvernul se întrunește mîine dimineață să discute măsurile ce trebuie
luate. 5. Schimbul de după amiază începe lucrul la ora 15. 6. Echipa de fotbal
a uzinei joacă cu colegii lor din Galați. 7. Clasa noastră pregătește un spectacol
folcloric. 8'. Informațiile lui sînt mai totdeauna greșite. 9. Sfaturile părinților
se dovedesc deosebit de valoroase. 10. Grupul de străini care ne-a vizitat de
curînd școala ne felicită pentru succesele noastre. 11. Majoritatea studenților
din anul I vorbesc engleza bine. 12. Asociația studenților se interesează de
rezultatele obținute de fiecare student în parte.
exercise 8. Recast the following sentences according to the directions given
for each. Make whatever changes are necessary in the verb form and other wording:
1. Change one mile to three miles:
I generally take the bus home, since one mile is too far to walk after stand
ing on my feet all day.
2. Change lighting to acoustics'.
Several speakers have suggested that the lighting in our auditorium is
not as good as it might be.
3. After you add and she:
Your friend Mary told me that you intended to go on a trip.
4. Add one of those parents who + the verb to be after is:
I can now see that my father is almost right.
5. Add of Bucharest and Cluj-Napoca after Association:
The Students’ Association make special efforts to enable the largest possible
number of students to spend their vacations in student camps.
exercise 9. Fill in the blanks with the correct personal pronoun:

1. Not one of us could believe . . . eyes! 2. If someone asks for me while
I am out, just tell. . . I’ll be back in a minute. 3. Each of the students ex
pressed . . . point of view. 4. Nobody raised . . . hands to vote for Paul. 5. Both
of the boys brought. . . bunches but one of the girls forgot... at home.
6. Neither Bob nor Tom has finished. . .homework. 7. Bill and Jane will
lend us . . . bicycle. 8. Bill or Jane will lend us . . . bicycle. 9. Each of them
displayed . . . stamp collections. 10. Neither apologized for . . . blunders.
exercise 10. Choose the correct form of the verbs and pronouns given in paran
theses. Motivate your choice:
1. The team (is, are) bent on going (itself, themselves) heart and soul.
2. (Has, have) anyone else slackened (his, their) pace? 3. John and Mary
(says, say) goodbye to Helen, and each of them (gives, give) her (his, their)
parting gifts. 4. At the end of each class everyone (gets, get) up and (takes,
take) (his, their) things to move to another room. 5. There (is, are) not one
of them who (wants, want) to forget (his, their) source of inspiration. 6. Every
four pages (has, have) (his, their) metaphors, and pieces of irony. 7. Not one
of the persons who (has, have) produced the report (is, are) immodest about
(his, their) achievements. 8. Since John is not one of those men who (boasts,
boast) of (his, their) achievements, few people know what a good engineer he is.

Aproape toți din grupul nostru colecționează diferite obiecte. Unii dintre
prietenii mei colecționează timbre sau monezi vechi. Una dintre fete strînge
bucle tăiate din părul prietenelor ei. Fiecare buclă din colecție este pusă într-un
plic care este apoi lipit cu grijă într-un album. Bill, precum și cei doi frați ai
săi, posedă o colecție de poze făcute încă din anii 20. Fiecare dintre ei se mîn-
drește cu colecția sa. Jack nu colecționează totuși nimic. Una din plăcerile
sale este să privească lucrurile — șopîrle sau păsări de exemplu. Dar nici
unuia din prietenii mei nu-i place să citească atît cît îmi place mie. în loc să
colecționez obiecte vechi sau să privesc o rîndunică, mă informez despre lucruri
de pe alte meleaguri. Toți din clasă spun că citesc prea mult. Dar fiecare carte,
ca și fiecare revistă, mă învață mult mai mult decît crede oricare dintre prie
tenii mei.
Direct, Indirect and Prepositional Objects

exercise 1. Make up sentences with the following, paying attention to the place
of the direct object of a complex verb:
model: â) the direct object is a pronoun
I / put on I it
I put it on.
b) The direct object is short
I I put on I my coat
I put my coat on.
I put on my coat.
c) The direct object is long
I I put on I my new dark blue coat
I put on my new dark blue coat.
1. I ought I to take up / French. 2. Don’t / brush aside / the question.
3. John wanted / to take out / the baby. 4. The landlady / turned out / him.
5. He / gave up / his job in the hospital. 6. The boy / picked up/himself.
7. The manager / didn’t turn down / his request for a day off. 8. Workers in
capitalist countries / put up / claims for higher wages. 9. His accent / gave
away / him. 10. He/put forward / the theory that this sonnet might have
been written by Shakespeare.
exercise 2. Make up sentences of your own in which impersonal it should
be the direct object of the verb given in brackets:
model: It is a pity to waste our time (I think)
I think it a pity to waste our time.
1. It is wrong to tell lies (People consider.) 2. It is unlikely that it should
rain tomorrow (The weather forecast declared.) 3. It is interesting to travel
all over the world (You find)? 4. It is most foolish for them to behave like that
(Father thinks.) 5. It is an honour to work for such a project (The pupils
esteemed.)
exercise 3. Instead of the usual accusative and infinitive construction,

make ‘there’ the direct object of the verb, using the construction there + be +
+ noun (or pronoun):
model: The teacher does not want his pupils to disobey him.
The teacher does not want there to be any disobedience.
1. I should like the commission to discuss this matter publicly. 2. The
manager expected people not to argue about his decision. 3. Parents mean
their children not to disobey. 4. The Dean did not want any of the students
to misunderstand the measures he had adopted. 5. John would prefer his
group to meet in order to have this problem solved.
exercise 4. Translate into English using the cognate objects of the verbs in
italics:
1. A murit de moarte bună? 2. Cînd auzi asta zimbi amar. 3. Au dus (trăit)
o viață fericită singuri, în pădure. 4. Susan rise vesel cînd ajunseră la o cabană.
5. Azi noapte am avut (visat) un vis ciudat. 6. Vrei să dansezi dansul acesta cu
mine? 7. Ridică privirea spre băiat (zimbind) cu cel mai fermecător zîmbet
posibil. 8. Dorm somnul drepților în micul cimitir de pe deal.
exercise 5. Translate into English using the verb pattern subject + predicate
-|- direct object -f- an adjective (which denotes a state that results from the action
indicated by the verb):
1. Mama a fiert ouăle tari. 2. Împinse ușa ca s-o deschidă (și o deschise).
3. Vezi să nu te îmbolnăvești dacă mănînci atîtea prăjituri. 4. Ploaia aproape
i-a scos din minți pentru că nu puteau să iasă din cabană. 5. Au fost eliberați
toți prizonierii? 6. Răguși de atîta țipat. 7. Povestea e cam lungă; te sfătuiesc
s-o scurtezi. 8. Deschide gura mare! 9. A reușit să scape.
exercise 6. Make up sentences with the following, paying attention to the

position of the direct object and the indirect object in a sentence'.
model: a) The indirect object is longer than the direct object, or the indirect
object is stressed.
They sent (letters) all the institutions.
They sent letters to all the institutions.
They sent (copies of the letters) all the institutions.
They sent copies of the letters to all the institutions.
b) The indirect object is short (e.g. a personal pronoun) or the direct
object is stressed.
He lent (me) a pen.
He lent me a pen.
She bought (a dictionary, not a novel) her brother.
She brought her brother a dictionary not a novel.
c) Both the direct and the indirect objects are personal pronouns.
Send (it) him.
Send it him sau send it to him sau send him it.
1. She has cooked (eggs) the whole family. 2. Don’t show (the letter) any
body. 3. Please pass (the sugar) me. 4. Mr. Jones found (a dog) his little boy.
5. She teaches (English) very small children. 6. That saved (the trouble of
going there) me. 7. I wish I could send (some) my aunt. 8. Ministers concerned
with local government give (assistance) local authorities. 9. The girls offered
(beautiful flowers) one another. 10. They allot (scholarships) good students.
11. Bring (it) me. 12. The lecturer (asked several questions) all those attending
the lecture. 13. They awarded (this important prize) the best folk song played
at the festival. 14. She sent (a nicely trimmed cake) her niece who had been
ill for a month. 15. Don’t tell (such a story) me!
exercise 7. Fill in the blanks with the prepositions to or for which govern an
indirect object:
1. Mr. Poppins sent invitations ... all his friends. 2. The headmaster
refused permission . . . the pupils who had not made an application. 3. Mother
made a new dress . . . me. 4. Have you showed the photos . . . your parents?
5. Can you spare 5 gallons of petrol . . . John and his brother? 6. Please,
will you get the black low-heeled shoes . . . me? 7. Should one render help . . .
those in need? 8. Lily decided to write a compositon . . . her brother. 9. The
gold medal was awarded . . . the Romanian team for their fine performance.
10. The photo was passed round ... all the members of the family. 11. The
first two rows of the hall are reserved . . . special guests. 12. Won’t you
play a Chopin prelude . . . your father? 13. Joan owes her English pro
nunciation . . . her first teacher. 14. Can you reach my umbrella ... me?
15. I can’t lend English books ... all the students who need them.
exercise 8. Translate into English, using the verb pattern: subject—pre

dicate — direct — indirect object and paying attention to the preposition
governing the indirect object which is either to or for:
1. I-ai ales fratelui tău cele mai bune dicționare? 2. I-am găsit soțului
meu o cravată foarte drăguță. 3. Gazda le-a oferit tort tuturor celor din
cameră. 4. Mie mi-a promis romanul, nu ție. 5. Du-i te rog florile astea
surorii tale din partea mea. 6. îmi lași și mie puțină friptură? 7. Celor mai
bune studente li se acordă burse speciale. 8. Trebuie să aduc niște exerciții
grele pentru elevii avansați. 9. Mama a pregătit (cook) ouă cu șuncă pen
tru ea și pentru copii. 10. A predat corespondența timpurilor tuturor elevi
lor la începutul acestui semestru.
exercise 9. A large class of verbs can be used with a direct object which is
followed by a prepositional object. Fill in the blanks with the required preposi
tions:
1. Excuse me, I have mistaken you . . . somebody else. 2. My teacher
spends a lot of money . . . books. 3. You must help your little brother . . .
his homework. 4. This reminds me . . . my childhood. 5. He was prevented
. . . coming earlier by the storm. 6. Can you convince them . . . the truth?
7. Add this new stamp . . . those you already have. 8. Mother blamed Pete
. . . the broken vase. 9. Mother blamed the broken vase . . . Pete. 10. The
Government supplied food . . . the homeless. 11. The Government supplied
the homeless . . . food. 12. Excuse me . . . being late.
exercise 10. The transitive verbs in the following examples can also take
an intransitive object which is always prepositional. Combine the following parts
of the sentence paying attention to the only possible place of the prepositional
intransitive object,
model:
I I shall explain I this I you.
I shall explain this to you.
(It is not possible to say *7 shall explain (to) you this)
1. He dedicated / his memories / his daughter. 2. The young composer
dedicated / his first song / a popular folk singer. 3. He / proved / his capacity
of working hard / his parents. 4. May / I I introduce / you / my mother? 5.
I I said I the whole truth / them. 6. Mary / suggested / the subject of a new
short story / her brother. 7. Will / you describe / your new flat / your class
mates?
Passive Sentences
exercise 1. Give passive equivalents to the following sentences:
e.g. Somebody had locked the door.
Passive: The door had been locked.
You must take this book.
Passive: This book must be taken.
Note. In point of meaning, a passive sentence, as compared to its active
equivalent, lays the stress on the action in the sentence, not on the agent,
the doer of the action. That is why a passive is used when we want to avoid
the agent, either because we are not interested in it, or because we do not
know it. Compare:
e.g. All the nuts have been eaten and
The squirrels have eaten all the nuts.
Moreover, unless the agent has some interest of its own or is necessary for
completing meaning (e.g. The sonata was played by Enescu), it does not appear
in passive sentences, especially when in the active equivalent of the sentence
it would be expressed by a personal or an indefinite pronoun (7, you, one,
somebody, they (people), etc.).
1. The dog frightens her. 2. One makes such mistakes sometimes. 3. Big
fish eat small fish. 4. Do you sell mushrooms here every day? 5. They don’t
speak English there. 6. He left the papers in the taxi 7. A car hit our dog, but
it didn’t kill him. 8. You found the door shut. 9. Did your mother tell you
we had left? 10. We didn’t call Mike. 11. The sight of the body has upset her.
12. Jimmy has thrown it away. 13. They have built three blocks. 14. Has
anybody 'bought the cigarettes? 15. He hasn’t paid the fine. 16. His parents
had allowed him to go. 17. Someone had written something on the book.
18. They had chosen a very nice place. 19. Had you made all the necessary
arrangements? 20. The instructor hadn’t taught them how to shoot.
21. People will forget him in a few years’time. 22. They couldn’t see the chalet
because of the fog. 23. We’ll expect you by Tuesday. 24. Somebody shall do
justice. 25. She said somebody would announce him. 26. If you explain well,
people can understand anything. 27. They will have finished the job by that
time. 28. You needn’t check the figures now. 29. I must presss my shirt
for tonight. 30. Somebody would have told her, if it had been necessary.
31. One must expect that sort of thing. 32. Writers should write more books
for children. 33. Someone must have seen John there. 34. People ought to
visit their grandparents more often.

e.g. They were carrying him to the ambulance.
Passive: He was being carried to the ambulance.
Note: Continuous forms for other passives than the present and past tense
indicative are extremely rare; normally there is no passive equivalent to such
a sentence as:
They have been repairing the house.
1. The team are carrying out an interesting experiment. 2. The doc
tor is examining the wounded driver. 3. You can ring nobody right now, be
cause John is making a phone call. 4. The customs officials are checking
their passports. 5. Can’t you see she is lecturing me? 6. They were showing
Henry VUI on TV. 7. She was cooking dinner when he came. 8. They were
keeping his books on the floor. 9. I was writing a poem when she died.
10. They were speaking at least ten different languages at that party. 11.
The guests will bedrinking tea at that hour. 12. They had been digging the
garden for two hours when it started raining.
exercise 3. Put the verbs in brackets in a passive form:

e.g. Kids must not (spoil) — Kids must not be spoilt.
1. It wasn’t his mistake, he shouldn’t (punish). 2. The doctor found him
very ill, so he (send) to a hospital. 3. I arrived when the news (broadcast).
4. Your daughter (introduce) to my family next week. 5. You must (give)
the papers before you came here. 6. These letters were to (send) yesterday,
why are they still here? 7. He is sure to (accuse) of ingratitude. 8. The plan
(take over) by the new director. 9. People who don’t smoke (may) live
longer than people who do. 10. Nothing (move) in the house since you
left.

Note 1. While in Romanian only transitive verbs can have passive forms,
in English verbs which can take a prepositional object can be passivized as
well.
e.g. Rom: Aveau grijă de ea — no passive equivalent;
Engl: Active: They took care of her.
Passive: She was taken care of.
Of course, complex verbs have also passive forms, (e.g. He was brought up
in Switzerland, The child will be looked for.) Notice that in passive sentences
the preposition or the adverbial particle comes immediately after the main
verb.
2. The usual place of the adverbials of manner and frequency in a passive
sentence is immediately in front of the main verb (the participle) (e.g. The
door had been easily I often opened with the other key).
1. Her frankness had impressed me deeply. 2. The speaker hinted at
several shortcomings. 3. Everybody follows these regulations usually.
4. They operated on him yesterday. 5. One must account for every action,
whether good or bad. 6. They had spoken to me for two hours. 7. The
audience acclaimed him enthusiastically. 8. Somebody has left the light
on in the kitchen. 9. People pay for imprudence. 10. It’s about time you gave
the baby her meal. 11. Everybody speaks well of her. 12. I never told John
about it. 13. Has anybody heard her say that? 14. People ought not to
speak about it. 15. Travellers generally obey these instructions. 16. Had they
already told her? 17. People will laugh at you if you talk such nonsense.
18. They are bringing the witness in. 19. Who is directing the film?
20. Mothercats often eat their kittens. 21. Someone should look into the mat
ter as soon as possible. 22. They have turned down our proposal. 23. Do
you think his story is true or has he made it all up ? 24. Make sure that you
fill in the form properly before you send it off. 25. They took me for a
girl.
exercise 5. Complete the following passage with the appropriate passive form
of the verb given in brackets:
A little house, which .... (build) a few years ago in our street . . . ,
almost completely .... (destroy) by the fire. Other auxiliary buildings on
either side of the house .... also badly .... (damage). Fortunately the two
old people who lived there .... (evacuate) in good time and none of them
.... (injure). The fire brigade .... (announced) earlier by a passer-by, but
they were busy with another fire, and by the time they arrived the house ....
almost entirely (burn down). The cause of the fire .... not yet .... definitely
.... (establish) but it ... . (believe) that it ... . (start) by overheating the
gas-stove which. . . . (situate) too close to a wooden table.

Note 1. The subject of a passive sentence in English can be not only the
direct object of the equivalent active sentence, but also the indirect object.
e.g. Active: Somebody gave her a flower.
Passive (Dir. Obj.): A flower was given to her.
Passive (Ind. Obj.): She was given a flower.
It is preferrable to use a being rather than an object as the subject of a
passive sentence (therefore in the above example the second variant is more
natural).
2. It is a characteristic of English only that sentences introduced by It is
said/ considered/ believed, etc. have a variant with the subject of the subordi
nate clause as subject of the passive is said/ considered, etc.
e.g. Active: They say that dolphins are very intelligent.
Passive: It is said that dolphins are very intelligent.
Variant: Dolphins are said to be very intelligent.
The last sentence is the most frequently used. Notice that in this sentence
the verb in the subordinate clause becomes an infinitive (are said to be).
1. He promised us better equipment. 2. Auntie will give your little sister
a cake, too. 3. Nobody has ever shown me the door. 4. Someone is pre
senting the visitors the new wing. 5. Did he deny you the right to sign
your own article? 6. Somebody had asked her a stupid question. 7. I could
recommend you another school. 8. They will give you all the necessary in
structions. 9. Granny will read you the story of Little Red Riding Hood.
10. They have given Bill the job he was looking for. 11. The teachers have
said that your sister is top of the class. 12. People expect that the di
rector will change the cast. 13. His friends believe him to be rather stupid.
14. People consider that this last variant is the best. 15. Everybody knows
that this detergent is by far the least harmful.
exercise 7. Make passive sentences using the tense(s) required by the adver
bial:
e.g. (write, Shakespeare, this play) in 1594.
This play was written by Shakespeare in 1594.
1. (promise, an electric train, little Jimmy) for his birthday. 2. (arrange,
the furniture) right now. 3. (embroider, my grandmother, this tablecloth)
when she was a girl. 4. (destroy, the little hut, the wind) during the storm.
5. (analyse, the problem) tomorrow. 6. (attack, the monkeys, the explorers)
the previous day. 7. (congratulate, he) when I saw him. 8. (throw away, that
junk) this morning. 9. (look, into the matter) next week. 10. (not live, in
this castle) for two hundred years.
exercise 8. Do exercise 7 again, this time using:

a) passive forms with modal verbs
b) negative passive forms (with and without modals)
c) interrogative passive forms (with and without modals).
exercise 9. Give active equivalents to the following passive sentences:

(When the agent is missing in the passive sentence you will have to in
troduce it in the active sentence: somebody, they, John, etc. as youthink it
best fits the sentence.)
1. We’ve been offered tickets for tomorrow night’s concert. 2. A new cine
ma-hall is being built on the corner. 3. He was so rude that he had to
be turned out of the office. 4. The cake for your birthday is being prepared
by the children. 5. Milk is considered to be more nourishing than meat.
6. The radio hasn’t been switched on, and still some music can be heard.
7. Wasn’t the poem recited by the author himself? 8. Those flowers in the
vase must have been brought by your husband. 9. She should have been
sent for earlier. 10. She will be asked to spend the week-end at our cot
tage. 11. A lot of mistakes used to be made with this type of drill. 12.
Weren’t you told there were no buses during the night? 13. A statement ought
tobe made about it. 14. Her presence is said to be very helpful. 15. A car
had to be stopped so that the wounded driver could be taken to a
hospital.
exercise 10. Translate into English looking up unknown words in a dictio

nary; use as many passives as you can:
în noaptea de duminică s-a abătut asupra Olandei o puternică furtună,
care a provocat moartea a cinci persoane și rănirea gravă a altor opt. Au fost
înregistrate de asemenea zeci de răniri ușoare. Numeroase întreruperi ale
curentului electric au fost determinate de vîntul extrem de violent. Mașini
staționate pe trotuare au fost purtate de rafalele de vînt la zeci de metri de
părtare. Una dintre victime a fost atinsă de un arbore smuls de vînt. Im
portante pagube au fost aduse și unor nave ancorate în porturile olandeze,
una din ele fiind desprinsă de țărm și eșuînd la șapte kilometri mai departe.
Au fost recepționate apele SOS lansate de o navă panameză și una daneză.
In Belgia vîntul a atins 130 km./sec. și au fost doborîte practic toate ante
nele TV. La Anvers navigația pe rîul Escaut a fost complet oprită. N-a fost
cruțată nici Marea Britanie, rafalele de vînt provocînd inundații pe coasta
de sud a Țării Galilor. In cîteva regiuni au trebuit să fie evacuate cca 350 de
locuințe. Pe mai multe șosele circulația a fost întreruptă ca urmare a pră
bușirii unor copaci. A fost oprită provizoriu circulația cu ferryboat-ul între
Europa continentală și țărmul britanic.

Note: When you translate from Romanian into English or from English
into Romania, you should bear in mind that in Romanian in many cases the
passive voice has a reflexive marker. Compare:
English: The subject was much talked about.
Romanian: S-a vorbit mult despre subiect.
Toamna trecută băieții au construit un bob. Ideea le fusese dată de pro
fesorul de sport și a fost pusă în practică cu entuziasm. Bobul ar fi putut
fi făcut numai din lemn, dar s-au folosit și unele părți din metal, aduse
de unul din băieți. In timp ce se construia bobul, a început să ningă, și
băieții s-au bucurat că va fi pus la încercare de îndată ce va fi gata. Anul
acesta s-a inițiat un concurs de bob, care se va ține în februarie.
Coordination
Coordination is one of the most productive processes for forming struc
turally complex sentences; the result of coordination is either a compound
sentence or a sentence with compound constituents.
What we call compound sentences results from coordination. No sentence
is dependent on the other, but simply added together in sequence, with
or without the so-called coordinating conjunctions.
The conjunctions may be:
a) copulative: and, not only . . . but also, as well as, no less than, both
... and;
b) disjunctive: or, either ... or, neither . . . nor:
c) adversative: but, and, whereas, which.
When coordinated sentences contain repeated elements which are there
fore redundant, the tendency is to reorganize the compound elements by means
of two processes:
a) deletion of the repeated material — ellipsis;
b) regrouping of elements after coordination. This second process has as
a consequence the reduction of a compound sentence to only one sentence
with a compound element.
e.g. John will come later.
Mary will come later.
= John will come later and Mary will
come later = John and Mary will come later.
Some problems of agreement
And conjuncts: And — conjoined subjects occur with plural verbs. If
the conjuncts refer to the same thing, they occur with a singular verb.
e.g. My teacher and friend is to come tomorrow.
With such conjunctions as together with, as well as, no less than, the verb
generally agrees with the first conjunct.
e.g. Killing as well as violence are punished by law.
With conjunctions having a disjunctive value (or, either ... or, neither
. . . nor) the verb generally agrees in number with the nearest noun.
e.g. Either Mary went to the concert or John went to the concert =
Either Mary or John went to the concert.
exercise 1. Complete the following sentences by filling the blank spaces with
the connective words you consider appropriate:
1. I don’t agree with you............. does my partner. 2. He drinks..............
beer........... wine. 3. Their actions were............. risky.............positively sui
cidal. 4. Those who are not prepared to study should........... change their way
........... make room for those who will work. 5. He............ his children can play
at least one musical instrument. 6. His driving is a danger........... to him
self ........... to everyone else on the road. 7. They have............. the capital
........... the skill to build up a business. 8. He is............. a gifted musician
........... a talented linguist. 9. She speaks German fluently............. has very
little knowledge of the Scandinavian languages. 10. It was three o’clock
........... we could not get lunch............. we had a cup of tea.
exercise 2. Join these pairs of sentences. Use the joining words in brackets:
1. I did not know the way to my hotel. I asked a porter (so). 2. I spoke
English very carefully. I spoke very clearly (not only... but. . . as well).
3. I repeated my question several times. At last he understood (and). 4. He
answered me. He did not speak slowly. He did not speak clearly (but . . .
neither . . . nor). 5. Then he spoke slowly. I could not understand him (but).
6. The English understand each other. I don’t understand them (but).
7. Thieves can be very daring. They can be very timid (either . . . or). 8.
A thief broke into a house. He stole some money. The lady of the house
caught him (and . . . but). 9. The thief gave back the money. He paid for the
window he had broken (not only . . . but also).
exercise 3. Group together the constituents of the same type and with the same
syntactic arrangement. You will get a compound subject and a compound predi
cate. To avoid semantic confusion add the word “respectively” where necessary:
model: John gave flowers to Mary and Andy gave flowers to Jane.
John and Andy gave flowers to Mary and Jane respectively.
1. John plays football, Bill plays basketball and Tom plays baseball.
2. She found the handbag in the car and she found the purse in the
garage. 3. John has won a prize and Susan has won a prize. 4. Harold drank
wine and Mary ate fish. 5. Harry married Jane and John married Helen.
exercise 4. Omit the repeated material:

model: Max seems to be trying to get along with Sue and Fred seems to
be trying to get along with Irma.
Max seems to be trying to get along with Sue and Fred with
Irma.
1. Either Mary ate the peaches or Bill ate the peaches. 2. I bought three
bottles of wine and I bought two bottles of beer. 3. They were married in
1970 and they were divorced in 1976. 4. Bill drinks sparingly and Bill
smokes sparingly. 5. Lily goes to the hairdresser’s every day and Liz goes to
the hairdresser’s every two days.
exercise 5. Give the correct form of the verb in brackets:
1. Justice as well as mercy (allow) it. 2. Bread and butter (to be) a
wholesome food. 3. There (to be) eggs and bacon for breakfast. 4. Apple pie
and custard (to be) my favourite dish. 5. John and Mary (have) gone for a
holiday in France. 6. Winifred with the children (to be) tied to the little
flat in London. 7. Neither the girls nor Jane (to be) to blame. 8. Either Harry
or his parents (to be) coming. 9. A cart and a horse (to be) seen at a
distance. 10. My friends as well as myself (to be) ready to help you.
Interrogative Sentences
exercise 1. Write questions to which the following statements might be the
answer. The point of the question is italicised:
1. I am taking this stapler home for my father. 2. He stole the jewels
for the sake of his starving wife. 3. They make false teeth by means of a mould.
4. Mary lives about five miles away. 5. All of us liked the film. 6. He jumped
on the mayor's foot, 7. She is a very handsome woman. 8. This magnifying
glass is for counting stamps perforations. 9. You must drink out of the small
glass. 10. Old Tom is as fat as a tortoise these days. 11. He fell fifty feet
down the mountain. 12. Since you mention it, you went off with Chuck's
hat. 13. Well, you see, he managed to score nine out of ten. 14. That
exquisite car is mine! 15. Her house is just about one mile beyond the bridge.
16. I was going to put it in the cupboard. 17. I was going to get it from the
butcher's.
exercise 2. Respond to the following:

Model: ‘Go quickly!’ ‘Open it!’
'Where to?’ ‘What with?’
1. Listen! 2. Send it now! 3. Look! 4. Cut the string! 5. Go on, have
another dance! (with) 6. Don’t you ever sit and think! (about) 7. Mother
has given all my clothes away! 8. Address this envelope! 9. Play with me!
(at) 10. I’ve just received a big parcel. 11. John’s just arrived by air. 12. Tell
me a story! (about) 13. Take it away! (to) 14. I’m thinking! (with).
15. I’ve been punched on the nose! 16. He’s married at last!
exercise 3. Add suitable tags (disjunctive questions) to the following sentences:

1. I must go now. 2. I may not see you tomorrow. 3. I may see you
tomorrow 4. You ought not to smoke. 5. The boy never watched his sis
ter. 6. The boy often watched his sister. 7. The boy watched no one.
8. No one watched my house. 9. He hasn’t any money in his pockets.
10. He had his hair cut last night. 11. I have to go to Vienna next month.
12. They have a shower every day. 13. She hardly ever looks at us now
adays. 14. There’s nowhere to stay in this house. 15. There happen to
be two cups on the table. 16. I’m going to the library now. 17. Every
one likes me. 18. Everyone likes one another here. 19. Everyone likes him
self here. 20. Few people like me. 21. A few people like me. 22. Either
John or Bill will go. 23. Each of us is staying. 24. All of us will stay. 25. He
never used to smoke so much.
exercise 4. Turn the following commands into requests by adding future or

conditional tags:
model: 'What do you want me to do, take a taxi or go by bus?’
'Go by bus, will you?’
1. What do you want me to do, show him in or say that you are busy?
2. What do you want me to do, leave the radio on or turn it off? 3. What do
you want me to do, dust the furniture or beat the carpets? 4. What do
you want me to do, mend the socks or throw them away? 5. What do you
want me to do, ignore the man or give him a tip?
model: ‘These are delicious cakes. May I have another?’
‘Of course. Have as many as you like, won’t you?’
6. What lovely chocolates. May I have one? 7. You cook delicious rice.
May I have some more? 8. I love these cigars. May take one? 9. This meat
is perfect. May I eat some more?
exercise 5. Add tags to the following imperatives:

1. Let’s take the dog for a walk. 2. Don’t sit in the draught. 3. Let’s
spend the day in the country. 4. Don’t choose too bright a colour. 5. Let’s
eat less than Bill does.
exercise 6. Build reactive tags to the following statements:

model: ‘I’m tired.’
‘Oh, you’re tired, are you?’
1. They didn’t want to do it. 2. I think it’s all nonsense. 3. You
mustn’t go any further. 4. I’d better apologize now. 5. You ought to work
harder than that.
model: ‘It’s a lie.’
‘So it’s a lie, is it?’
6. The plan is ridiculous. 7. We’d be fools to attempt it. 8. You’re stupid;
you’ve made a mess of it. 9. Your son had to turn back. He’s got no guts.
10. I told you the car was out of order. It was your own fault.

1. De unde vii? 2. Cui i-ai dat cărțile? 3. Oare unde pot găsi asemenea
bijuterii? 4. A fost el oare așa de talentat cum spui? 5. Ce să facem,,
domnule, ce să facem? 6. Poate el să fie omul pe care-i caut? 7. Să le iau
sau să nu le iau? 8. Se gîndea dacă să le ia sau nu. 9. Voia să știe cînd
trebuia ea să vină. 10. Se întreba la ce se gîndea ea. 11. Nu știu nici cît
a stat și nici cîți bani a luat. 12. Sînt surprinsă să văd cît de drăguță s-a
făcut. 13. Voia să știe cît e chiria. 14. Care carte vrei să ți-o dau? 15. Hai
să facem o scurtă plimbare, vrei?
Negation
exercise 1. Negate the verb in the following sentences: use contracted forms
where possible:
1. She has to be there tomorrow. 2. Mary has a new dress. 3. Sue has
sore feet. 4. Open the door. 5. Mary is having lunch. 6. They’ve found
him. 7. They’ll miss you. 8. John has found out the truth. 9. I will visit
London this year. 10. Let us open the window! 11. We’re ready. 12. She
used to play tennis when she was younger. 13. We are prepared to meet
him. 14. You must be telling lies. 15. You may smoke in the child’s room.
16. You must pay that fine.
exercise 2. Give the negative counterparts of the sentences below; make all
the necessary changes paying special attention to indefinite pronouns, to con
junctions and to adverbs. Give alternatives whenever possible:
1. Someone came here sometime after 5. 2. She managed to find some
thing appropriate somewhere else. 3. If you don’t like it here you can
move someplace else. 4. He may be somewhat displeased when you tell
him the news. 5. Anyone can swim. 6. There were some flowers on your desk.
7. There are lions in Africa. 8. He could answer some (of the) questions on
the subject. 9. They think that John is a fool. 10. There has been only one
train since the 2.30. 11. Many people can sing and dance. 12. Peter knows
some English and so does John. 13. Both Peter and John have pretty
wives. 14. It’s still raining. 15. John will arrive before midnight. 16. It’s
a long time since we last saw them. 17. He is already an expert on the sub
ject. 18. Almost everybody did well on that exam. 19. Daddy drinks a lot
of coffee now, and he always used to. 20. I nearly always have to do it my-
sel f.
1. Nu mai plouă. 2. Nu poți decît să-i admiri dacă ajungi să-i cunoști.
3. Poți să nu mergi, dacă spui că te doare capul. 4. Nu poți să mergi dacă
așa a spus tata. 5. Nu obișnuia să joace tenis cînd era tînăr. 6. Abia dacă-1
cunosc pe noul nostru profesor. 7. Foarte rar se culca înainte de miezul
nopții. S. Abia mai respira cînd am ajuns în sat. 9. Nici unul dintre voi nu
trebuie să învețe poemul pe de rost, dacă nu vrea. 10. Puținii prieteni pe
care-i mai are nu o vor părăsi și nimeni n-o să-i mai facă nici un rău
niciodată. 11. N-am putut planta trandafirii săptămîna asta, și nici săptă-
mîna viitoare n-o să am timp. 12. După tot ce s-a întîmplat, nu te mai poți
aștepta să-ți mai împrumute cineva vreo carte, nu-i așa? 13. E puțin pro
babil să fi ajuns deja acasă. 14. E așa de frig, că s-ar putea să nu mai
merg la înot. 15. —Spune-i să mai aducă niște material din acesta. —Nu mai
poate aduce; nu mai este. 16. Nu se poate ca Petru să fi citit articolul.
17. Nu s-a plîns niciodată de munca lui și nici nu cred că seva plînge vreodată.
18. Nici unul dintre noi nu și-a dat seama că nu mai aveam timp să ajun
gem la gară. 19. Nu trebuie să plătești despăgubiri decît dacă vrei. 20. Nu azi
sîntem invitați la masă cu oaspeții străini, ci mîine. 21. Nici Maria nici Ion
n-ar îndrăzni să-i spună tatei una ca asta.
exercise 4. Give the affirmative counterparts of the following negative sen
tences:
Pay special attention to negative pronouns and determiners, adverbs, con
junctions, modal verbs:
1. No man will ever make Snoopy a good wife. 2. Nobody ever under
stands anything in this class! 3. You don’t know anything about chemistry.
4. She is no fool. 5. No one of that name ever worked in our office.
6. I haven’t got much spare time. 7. Not a cheer came from the crowd.
8. The baby can neither walk nor talk. 9. Not anyone can swim across the
river. 10. Scarcely anybody expected him to get there until midnight.
11. The eclipse isn’t easy to see yet. 12. No one must smoke in the child’s
room. 13. It wasn’t far back, was it? 14. Tricia isn’t young anymore.
15. She couldn’t have been gone long. 16. John can’t have done it.
Subject Clauses
exercise 1: Make up sentences of your own with the adjectives, nouns and
verbs that trigger a subject clause:
Adjectives with sentential subject clauses:
a) likely, unlikely, certain, possible, probable, sure, certain.
model: It’s unlikely / that there will be rain before evening/, subject.
It’s impossible I he behaved like such a bore /.
It’s certain / that Hary is a good student /.
b) clear, doubtful, evident, feasible, true, anomalous, appropriate, fair,
fantastic, funny, good, important, inconvenient, crucial, essential, unnatural,
usual, interesting, alarming, surprising, gratifying, splendid:
It’s amazing / Hary did it so fast /.
That he did not have any chance / was clear to everyone.
c) Nouns: problem, surprise, miracle, pity, mystery:
model: That he could save her life was a wonder.
It’s splendid news / that you got the scholarship.
d) Transitive verbs of psychological state:
alarm, amaze, attract, baffle, boast, confuse, discourage, elate, embarass,
enrage, irritate, madden, relieve, scare, tempt, trouble.
model: That nothing better came out of it intrigues me.
It intrigues me I that nothing better came out of it.
I’m intrigued / that nothing better came out of it /.
Predicative Clauses
exercise 1: Make up predicative clauses with the following nouns as sub
jects of the Be predicate:
Nouns: fact, idea, question, statement, claim, reason.
model: The reason is / that he simply refuses it/.
The important fact is/ that you are well again /.
Attributive/Relative Clauses
Relative clauses are used as adjective equivalents and are introduced by:
a) relative pronouns: who, what, which and that;
b) relative adjectives: which, what;
c) adverbs: where, when, why.
Relative clauses are of two kinds:
I. Defining (or Restrictive) and
II. Non-defining (or Descriptive).
/. Defining Relative Clauses
A defining relative clause is one that is essential to the meaning of the sen
tence. The clause limits the antecedent of the relative pronoun or adverb.
e.g. This is the man who broke his leg.
In defining clauses that can be used as the subject for both persons and
things (though who is often preferred after people and after the pronoun those).
Which is occasionally used as the subject for things, but that is much commoner:
e.g. The girl who (that) lives opposite my house is pretty.
The book that (which) is lying on the desk is mine.
When the relative is the object of the verb in the clause, the relative pro
noun is usually omitted. The relative clause introduced asyndetically is called
contact-clause.
e.g. This is the boy I met at the theatre.
This is the dress I bought yesterday.
Defining clauses are not marked off by commas in writing and print.
In defining clauses with an object that is governed by a preposition, the
object that is usually dropped. The preposition is placed at the end of the clause.
e.g. Who is the man you were talking to this morning?
(More formal: Who is the man to whom you were talking... ?)
This is the house I was telling you about.
(More formal: This is the house about which I was telling you.)
The relative adverbs where and when are often used instead of a preposition
and a relative pronoun:
the office in which Tom works.
the office Tom works in.
the office where Tom works.
I Saturday is the day on which we usually watch T.V.
( Saturday is the day when we usually watch T.V.
II. Non-Defining Relative Clauses

A non-defining relative clause is not essential to the meaning of the sentence
but it adds some more information to it. Unlike defining relative clauses, they
can be omitted without causing confusion. Also unlike defining relative
clauses, they are separated from their noun by commas.
e.g. John’s brother, who is living next door, is a doctor.
Mr. Green, whose wife is teaching English, is himself a teacher of Eng
lish too.
The ‘ Glass Menagerie’^ which you are going to see tomorrow was written by
Tennessee Williams.
exercise 1. Complete the following defining relative clauses using a contact

clause where possible:
1. The man ... is sitting at the desk is the manager. 2. This is the boy
. . . bicycle was stolen. 3. There goes a boy . . . name I can never remember.
4. They’ve cut down the tree . . . used to stand here. 5. I asked the girl . . .
you met yesterday to send you her address. 6. The woman . . . usually
brings the milk is ill. 7. The eggs . . . you bought yesterday weren’t very
fresh. 8. The person . . . you want has just gone home. 9. Have some of
the cake . . . my mother made this morning! 10. What’s the name of the
boy . . . has just left? 11. Is that the man . . . you lent the money to?
12. The house . . . they are looking at is Mary’s house. 13. The people . . .
are looking at that house are my parents. 14. The girl . . . you see at the
door is my friend. 15. The man . . . waved to us was my uncle.
exercise 2. Insert the appropriate relative pronouns in the following non

defining relative clauses:
1. My uncle, . . . went to Bucharest two days ago, arrives back tonight-
2. My father, . . . you met yesterday, has left for Brasov. 3. The Paris plane,
... is due at five, is late today. 4. Your friend, . . . name I can never
remember, rang just now. 5. Your father, to ... I was speaking just now,,
tells me you are going to Cluj-Napoca next week. 6. Mozart, one of . . .
symphonies you have been just listening to is my favourite composer.
7. My uncle John, to ... I wrote a letter yesterday, is coming back next week.
8. The plane from Timisoara, . . . ought to be here at 11 a.m., will be an
hour late. 9. Our T.V. set, . . . has been broken for weeks, is now mended.
10. Your cousin, ... I happened to meet yesterday,has become a hand
some boy. 11. Chess, ... is a very old game, is difficult to play. 12. Flies, ...
come mostly in the summer, carry diseases.
exercise 3. Reconstruct the following, using connective relatives:

model: I gave Ann a box of chocolates, and this pleased her very much.
I gave Ann a box of chocolates which pleased her very much.
1. I gave Ann a book and she started to read it at once. 2. He stood on
his hands for five minutes, and that was quite a difficult thing to do.
3. He lent me his coat, and that was more than I expected him to do.
4. I had a large breakfast and it satisfied my hunger for the whole day.
5. He spent his holiday at Predeal, and he liked that better than going to
the seaside. 6. I’ve taken six examinations and they were all successfully
passed. 7. They gave her a nice present, and this pleased her a lot. 8. They
have four children and they all go to school.
exercise 4. Combine the following sentences by means of relative clauses;

use contact clauses where possible and be careful about punctuation:
1. Here is the girl. You met her yesterday. 2. Mrs. Green has just
moved in. She is living next door to us. 3. Bring me the book. I left it
on the table. The table stands by the window. 4. Don’t forget to see the
Art Gallery. So much has been written about it. 5. The Volga flows into
the Caspian Sea. It is one of Soviet Union’s largest rivers. 6. I have only
a few books. They are all second hand. 7. Is that the new restaurant?
You pointed it out to me two days ago. 8. Last week I visited the town.
Eminescu used to live there. 9. I met your friend yesterday. You intro
duced me to him last week. 10. The old gentleman has died. You were talk
ing to me about him. 11. He spoke with dignity. His dignity convinced
everyone of his sincerity. 12. The matter has been settled. You were talking
about it last night.

1. El a sosit într-o mașină pe care o conducea el însuși. 2. Ei au înde
părtat (to remove) copacul care a căzut de-a curmezișul drumului. 3. Nu
pot găsi cartea pe care o citeam ieri. 4. Vara mea, pe care n-ai cunoscut-o
(întîlnit-o) niciodată, vine mîine. 5. Am dat rochia care era demodată.
6. Copilul despre care îți spuneam este fiul Măriei. 7. El a cules hîrtiile care
erau împrăștiate prin cameră. 8. Am întîlnit o fată ai cărei părinți te cu
nosc. 9. Mătușa Maria, care ne iubește foarte mult, este bolnavă. 10. Ea
cumpărase niște flori al căror parfum a umplut camera. 11. Tatăl ei, care
a fost la Suceava, tocmai s-a reîntors. 12. Omul căruia te-am prezentat săptă-
mîna trecută este unchiul Ion.
Object Clauses
I. Direct Object Clauses
The Direct Object Clause acts as the object of the verb in the main clause
and is introduced by:
1. a) conjunctions: that, if, whether
b) conjunctive relative pronouns: who, which, whoever, whatever
c) adverbs: where, when, how, why
2. asyndetically: (by omitting the conjunction that)
I hear he is leaving tomorrow.
She has decided she will never see him again.
Direct object clauses may also be either reported statements or reported
questions:
She said she had been there before.
She asked me what I was doing.
When the verb in the main clause expresses a request, a recommendation
or an order such as: to order, to demand, to recommend, to suggest, the analy
tical subjunctive is used in the direct object clause:
, I suggest that he should go there at once.
In colloquial English the present tense may also be used after to suggest:
I suggest that he goes there at once.
II. Indirect Object Clauses

The indirect object clause acts as the indirect object of the verb in the main
clause and is introduced by relative conjunctive pronouns: whoever, whom
ever, whichever, whatever, governed by the preposition to:
You may give this book to whomever you like.
III. Prepositional Object Clauses
The prepositional object clause acts as a prepositional object of the verb
in the main clause and is introduced by:
a) conjunctions: that, whether
b) conjunctive relative pronouns: who I whom, what, whoever I whomever,
whatever, whichever
c) adverbs: when, where, how, why — governed by a preposition:
It all depends on how you are feeling.
The preposition is always omitted when the object clause is introduced by
that] it can also be omitted after adjectives:
I don’t care what he thinks.
I’m glad you have enjoyed your stay here.
I am not quite certain he is telling the truth.
exercise 1. Use the following sentences as object clauses in reported speech

after verbs in the past tense (in the main clause):
model: a) They will be there soon.
He told me they would be there soon.
b) Do you think you can learn a foreign language in two years?
He asked me if I thought I could learn a foreign language in
two years.
1. Shall I be seeing you on Sunday? 2. How far is it to the Art Gallery?
3. Why didn’t you get up earlier? 4. Can you tell me where I can find
him? 5. Must we be there at seven or can we come a little later? 6. Who do
you suppose would believe that story? 7. How can one tell if she is speak
ing the truth? 8. Where were you when it started raining? 9. I would do
the same myself if I were in your position. 10. You must decide what you
want to do. 11. These pears won’t keep, they are too soft. 12. What are
you thinking of when you say this? 13. When did you come in? I didn’t
hear. 14. Tom won’t do this . I’m sure. 15. Have you got a fountain-pen?
I lost mine.
1. Ea mi-a spus că imediat ce va sosi acolo, îmi va telefona. 2. Ana
a promis că va veni pe la noi după ce își va termina lucrul. 3. Nu știu care
din cei doi studenți a răspuns mai bine la întrebări. 4. El mi-a spus că dacă
ar fi avut timp ar fi citit mai mult. 5. El m-a întrebat dacă vreau două
bilete pentru spectacolul de mîine. 6. Mă întrebam dacă ea v-a scris iar.
7. Nu știu cine mi-a dat vestea. 8. Știam că el este un pictor talentat. 9. Ma
ria mi-a spus că învață de mai multe zile pentru examen. 10. Ea a întrebat
care este numărul de telefon al doctorului căci fiul ei a căzut pe scări și
și-a rupt piciorul. 11. Tom m-a întrebat dacă am uitat să întorc ceasul
fiindcă acesta a stat. 12. Totul depinde de cît de mult vrei să stai aici.
13. Insiști ca și eu să merg la concert? 14. Nu sînt sigur dacă el mi-a spus
aceasta. 15. Dă această scrisoare oricui îl întîlnești mai întîi. 16. Propun
ca următoarea noastră adunare să aibă loc la 15 octombrie. 17. El e sigur
că scrisoarea e în sertar. 18. Sînt sigur că aceasta este cartea pe care o
cauți. 19. Aș vrea să-ți pot da un sfat. 20. Aș fi vrut să fi venit și tu pe la noi.
exercise 3. Complete the following sentences supplying object clauses:
1. I’d like to know ... 2. I’m not sure ... 3. I don’t know why . . .
4. Tell me where ... 5. She didn’t tell me why ... 6. I can’t explain how . ..
7. I asked him ... 8. He promised ... 9. He suggested that . . . 10. She
insisted ... 11. I wondered ... 12. He is certain ... 13. I’m glad . . .
14. Do you know when ... 15. Can you tell me where ... 16. She didn’t
know why ... 17. I’m quite certain ... 18. She was uncertain...
Conditional Clauses
Conditional clauses are formed of two types of sentences: the “if (subordi
nate) clause” referring to the condition, and the main clause referring to the
result of the condition.
There are 3 types of conditional sentences: a) future-possible sentences
which express a possible situation and refer to a future period; b) the present-
unreal sentences which refer to an unreal situation in the present and c) the
third type — sentences which refer to a past-unreal situation.
a) In the first type the tense in the “if clause” is the Present Tense, e.g.:
If you drive slowly, you’ll never have accidents.
b) The second type of conditional sentences has in the “if clause” a
Past Tense and in the main clause should, would + the short Infinitive of
the verb (or could or might 4~ the short Infinitive when a corresponding
modal meaning is implied), e.g.: If he did not waste so much time on reading
thrillers, he would learn much better.
c) In the third type of conditional sentences, in the “if clause” a Past Per
fect Tense is used, while in the main clause should and would + the Perfect
Short Infinitive are used (could and might + the Perfect Short Infinitive as
above), e.g.: If he had told her the truth, perhaps she wouldn’t have left him.
Subordinate clauses may be Introduced by : if, (even if, if only) unless, so
long as, in case, provided (that), suppose, supposing (that) etc., of which in
case and provided are used especially in the first type of sentences, while sup
posed is used in the other two types. Unless is used when a negative condi
tion is implied; it has the same meaning as “if not” but it is more emphatic,
e.g.: The operator won’t be able to put you through to your friends unless you
give her the exact telephone number.
Inversion may occur in conditional clauses when if is omitted,
e.g.: If he had come earlier, we should have gone to the theatre.
Had he come earlier, we should have gone to the theatre.
If he were at home now, I should congratulate him.
Were he at home now, I should congratulate him.
We can make the “if clauses” more uncertain by using Should + short Infini
tive instead of the corresponding tense. In such cases inversion is sometimes
used, e.g.: If it is sunny tomorrow, we shall go skating. If it should be sunny
tomorrow, we shall go skating. Should it be sunny tomorrow, we shall go
skating.
In conditional sentences willingness may be expressed by will in the
first type of sentences, would in the second. Would may also be used in the
first type of sentences to express politeness, e.g.:
If you will (would) answer my question, I shall be grateful to you.
Constructions such as but for, if it were not for, if it had not been for,
may replace the “if clauses” of unreal condition, e.g.:
But for his mother he would be a beggar.
If it were not for his mother’s help, he would be a beggar.
If it had not been for his mother’s help, he would not have become an
engineer.
Besides the main types mentioned above, there may also be mixed
types of sentences, e.g.:
If she had taken my advice, today she would be on good terms
with her mother.
If she were not so beautiful, he would never have married her.
exercise 1. Choose the correct form:

1. If I had a burglar alarm in my handbag, I (shouldn’t be afraid,
shouldn’t have been afraid) of anybody. 2. If you leave this bag in the
middle of the street, be sure someone (would, will) steal it. 3. If I (was,
were) you, I shouldn’t care a fig for all that. 4. If the manager (was, had
been) here, he would have taken the floor. 5. If yesterday (was, has been,
had been) Sunday, we could have gone to the concert. 6. If I (would be, were)
in his position, I should turn down all the applications.
exercise 2. Change the following sentences to present-unreal conditions:

1. If I have a spare afternoon this week, I shall go to the swimming-
pool. 2. If the doctor comes on time, the patient will be saved. 3. If moth
er is at home, she can cook dinner for us. 4. If he doesn’t have to learn, he
will go to the cinema. 5. If we find some bananas, we may have a fruit
salad. 6. If she sends the money, mother may go to pay her a visit in the
country. 7. If we are in Bucharest, we shall accept the invitation. 8. If he
asks for money now, she can give it to him.
exercise 3. Change from present-unreal conditional to past-unreal conditional:

1. If the pupils had more practice, they would speak better. 2. If he
were more hardworking, he would make good progress. 3. If I were more
realistic in my plans, I might get a first prize in the Town Hall compe
tition. 4. She could swim better, if she paid more attention to her training.
5. I should be more careful with the gas, if I had a gas-stove. 6. If William
came to his English classes, he would be a student now.
exercise 4. When you have changed the above sentences to past-unreal condi
tional, use inversion in the if clause;
exercise 5. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses:
1. If they (hang) the poster lower, people would be able to see the de
tails. 2. Nobody would have recognized the burglar, if he (wear) a mask. 3.
Unless you listen to the instructions more carefully, you (not be able) to
find your way out of the forest. 4. In case it (not be) inconvenient to you,
let’s meet at 6 o’clock sharp. 5. If he (be) in, I should have told him the
bad news. 6. If you (have) the courage, I’m sure you should have answered
him back. 7. Unless I learn to type, I (not be able) to save money. 8. If Mary’s
shoes hadn’t such high heels, she (not fall down). 9. If you (call) a dog a
bad name, it will certainly bark at you. 10. If you work harder, you (have)
more chances to pass the examination. 11. If Mike had had a drink at the
party, the policeman (fine) him and (take) his driving-licence. 12. If you
were a liar, I (not trust) you.
exercise 6. Give complete answers to the following questions:

1. What would you do if you became a millionaire? 2. What would
you have liked to be if you had lived during the Middle Ages? 3. What
would you do if you met one of your enemies at a party? 4. What will you
do if someone asks you to call an ambulance? 5. What will you do if you
win a big lottery prize? 6. What would you do if you were the only survivor
of a shipwreck? 7. If you had been able to choose your identity, who would
you have liked to be? 8. What will you do if on your trip to Africa you come
across a lion? 9. Which country would you like to visit if someone offered
you a free trip abroad? 10. If you could change yourself into an animal, or
insect, what would you like to be?
exercise 7. Add more uncertainly to the following sentences:

1. If you would insist on that silly idea, we shall have an argument.
2. If anyone asks about my mother-in-law, tell him she is abroad. 3. If you
happen to meet him, don’t tell him you saw me. 4. If the hunter comes face
to face with the tiger, he will probably run away. 5. If Susan passes her exam
ination, her parents will send her to the seaside. 6. If John hears about
your divorce, he’ll be angry with you.
exercise 8. Use inversion in the above sentences.

exercise 9. Add willingness to the following sentences:
1. If you lend me the money, I can buy the house. 2. If she paid us a
visit, we should be very happy. 3. If you drive me home, mother will be gra
teful. 4. If my sister baby-sits for me, I shall be able to finish the translation.
5. If you accepted the invitation to Mary’s party, Tom would accept it
too. 6. If you knit a pullover for me, Mike will buy you a new hat.
1. Dacă l-ai vedea acum, nu l-ai mai recunoaște; e numai o umbră din
ce a fost odată. 2. Dacă n-ai fi atît de mincinos, n-ai fi acum in situația
regretabilă ca nimeni să nu aibă încredere în tine. 3. N-aș fi consimțit nici
odată să părăsesc adăpostul dacă aș fi știut că se va întîmpla o nenorocire.
4. N-ar fi trebuit să cîștige atît de multi bani și n-ar fi dat de necaz dacă so
ției lui i-ar fi plăcut mai puțin luxul. 5. De data asta te-aș putea duce cu
mașina mea dacă îmi promiți să nu se mai repete. 6. In cazul în care voi
uita, te rog reamintește-mi de promisiunea făcută. 7. Dacă se întîmplă
să treci pe lingă biroul lui, ai putea să intri și să-i înapoiezi dicționarul pe
tl — Llmbu enulexft pentru adm. în înv. «uperlor 161

care l-ai împrumutat de la el. 8. Presupunînd că partenerul dvs. ar accepta
aceste propuneri, care ar fi următoarea etapă a tratativelor? 9. Dacă n-ar fi
nins, excursia noastră la munte n-ar fi fost atît de plăcută. 10. Mi-a spus de
cîteva ori că va accepta postul cu condiția ca salariul să fie mulțumitor.
Adverbial Clauses of Purpose

Adverbial clauses of purpose are introduced by: so that, in order that and
(more formal) that alone.
The auxiliaries may I might, can/could, will / would, shall / should are used
as a rule in all clauses of purpose. May, can, shall, will are used when the main
verb is in the present tense; could, might, should, would are used when the
main verb is in the past tense.
e.g. I’m speaking clearly so that everybody here will understand me.
I stepped aside so that he could go in.
20 copies of the book were bought so that each student should
have one.
Lest and in case also introduce adverbial clauses of purpose.
When an action is taken as a precaution against possible future events we
use lest with should -|- infinitive or (more colloquial) in case with a simple pres
ent or past, or with should + infinitive,
e.g. She doesn’t let the child go alone in town lest he should get lost.
She doesn’t let the child go alone in town in case he gets lost.
She doesn’t let the child go alone in town in case he got lost.
exercise 1. Combine the two sentences into one using so that or in case / lest?
model: a) We left home early. We wanted to catch the train.
We left home early so that we could catch the train.
b) He hurried to the bus-stop. He didn’t want to miss the bus.
He hurried to the bus-stop in case / lest he should miss the bus.
1. He started early. He wanted to arrive there in time. 2. She studied
a lot. She wanted to pass her exam. 3. He got up early. He wanted to be
at the office at a quarter to seven. 4. She keeps dieting. She wants to get
thinner. 5. She took a coat. She didn’t want to catch cold. 6. He read the
poem several times. He wanted to know it by heart. 7. He hurried home.
He didn’t want to miss the T.V. program(me). 8. He turned the radio
off. He didn’t want to disturb his mother. 9. He reads a lot of English books.
He wants to have a thorough knowledge of English. 10. She listens to English
tapes. She wants to improve her pronunciation.
exercise 2. Change the following for + pronoun + infinitive constructions

into clauses of purpose:
model: He opened the door for her to go out.
He opened the door so that she might go out.
1. I stood aside for her to enter. 2. He brought some papers for me
to sign. 3. The announcement was put up on the notice-board for everyone
to see it. 4. The policeman stopped the traffic for the old man to cross the
street safely. 5. He sent a letter to his mother for her to learn the good
news. 6. The dog was barking for someone to let him out.
exercise 3. Complete the following sentences supplying adverbial clauses of

purpose:
1. Ann read the letter twice ... 2. He locked the door ... 3. He ran
quickly ... 4. He stopped working ... 5. He went on arguing ... 6. He
worked hard ... 7. He spelled the word several times ... 8. He spoke
clearly ... 9. He repeated the rule several times ... 10. He wrote down
her address ... 11. He started at ten ... 12. He stepped back ... 13.
Don’t shout ... 14. He sent her a telegram ... 15. He hurried to his office...

1. Am închis radioul ca să nu-i deranjez pe tata. 2. Băiatul a luat tre
nul de 5.30 ca sa ajungă acolo înainte de a se întuneca. 3. Noi am scris
Anei azi dimineață astfel ca să poată primi scrisoarea pe joi. 4. Ea a
trimis o telegramă tatălui ei ca să afle vestea cea bună. 5. Citește artico
lul cu voce tare ca să-i poată asculta toată lumea! Ș. Legați cîinele ca să
nu poată scăpa! 7. El a făcut aceasta pentru ca toată lumea să fie satis
făcută. 8. Am stat în picioare ca să urmăresc meciul mai bine. 9. Nu des
chide radioul ca să nu trezești copilul! 10. Am fugit la stația de autobuz
ca să prind autobuzul. 11. înștiințează-mă cînd vii ca să te aștept la gară.
12. El și-a notat numărul tău de telefon ca să nu-i uite. 13. Profesorul a
cerut elevului să repete cuvintele noi de mai multe ori ca să le poată pro
nunța corect. 14. Trebuie să te grăbești ca să nu întîrzii. 15. Conferențiarul
a vorbit rar astfel ca toată lumea să înțeleagă ce spune. 16. Nu mai plec
duminică ca să pot merge și eu la petrecerea prietenei tale. 17. Ar fi ceva
nesăbuit (to be foolish) să lași casa deschisă astfel ca cineva să poată
intra. 19. Deschide ușa ca să poată ieși pisica aâră.
Adverbial Clauses of Result

Adverbial clauses of result may be introduced by that following an adjec
tive, adverb or noun preceded by so or such or so that. An adjective or adverb
is preceded by so, a noun by such. So . . . that, such . . . that and so that are
followed by a present tense if the main verb is present, and by a past tense if
the main verb is past.
e.g.: The man speaks so fast that I can never understand what he says.
It was so foggy that we couldn’t see the road.
It was such a foggy night that we couldn’t see the road.
He worries about his son all day, so that he can’t sleep at night.
When so that is used, that is sometimes omitted.
e.g.: No one answered the first time so I called again.
Sometimes for emphasis so is placed at the beginning of the sentence.
The verb must then be inverted.
e.g.: So absorbed was she in her work that she did not hear the knocks at
the door.
exercise 1, Combine each of these pairs of sentences by using: so . . . that, or

such . . . that:
model: a. The coat cost a lot of money. I couldn’t buy it.
The coat cost so much money that I couldn’t buy it.
b. It was a bad storm. We had to seek shelter.
It was such a bad storm that we had to seek shelter.
1. The cake was good. I ordered another one. 2. Tom was tired. He went
to bed. 3. It was hot coffee. I burnt my mouth. 4. We had fun. We want to
go there again. 5. The music was loud. It gave me a headache. 6. She is an
ambitious girl. I’m sure she’ll be successful. 7. The wind was strong. It blew
down several trees. 8. It was foggy. The driver couldn’t see before his eyes.
9. He speaks fast. I can hardly follow him. 10. It was a heavy chair. I couldn’t
move it by myself. 11. I waited a long time. I finally had to leave. 12. The
light was dim. I wasn’t able to read. 13. The coffee was bitter. I couldn’t
drink it. 14. It was a difficult problem. I couldn’t solve it. 15. The table was
heavy. I couldn’t move it without help.

1. Ea a vorbit așa de clar încît noi am putut înțelege tot ce spunea. 2. Era
atîta lume la teatru, încît nu am putut găsi un loc. 3. Atît de repede vorbea ea
încît de-abia o puteam urmări. 4. El a fugit atît de repede, încît noi nu I-am
putut prinde. 5. Nu-I puteam auzi pe profesor, așa că (eu) m-am mutat în
față. 6. Hainele nu i s-au potrivit, astfel că el le-a dat. 7. Atît de violentă a
fost furtuna, încît copaci întregi au fost dezrădăcinați. 8. Nu mai aveam cer
neală în stilou, așa că nu am putut scrie scrisoarea. 9. Ea a fost atît de impresio
nată încît a izbucnit în plîns. 10. Ai spus că vii, așa că te-am așteptat. 11. El
nu a putut rupe sfoara, așa că a tăiat-o cu cuțitul. 12. Carnea era stricată,
așa că (noi) am aruncat-o. 13. (Ea) arăta așa de nefericită încît (noi) am lăsat-o
în pace. 14. Fotoliul era atît de confortabil încît (el) a adormit. 15. (Ea) era
așa de scundă încît nu putea ajunge la raftul de sus.

result:
1. The dress was so expensive that... 2. She is such an ambitious student
that ... 3. So quickly did he speak that... 4. The soup was so hot that. . .
5. It started to rain so ... 6. To such an extent was she hurt that ... 7. It was
so hot that ... 8. He started to speak so ... 9. I was so tired that... 10. She
gave me so much trouble that... 11. It costs so much money that ... 12. She
was so busy that ... 13.They had such fun.. . 14. We waited such a long
time... 15. It was such a nice day...
Adverbial Clauses of Concession
Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by although, though, even if,
even though, no matter, however, whoever, whatever, usually followed by the
simple present or past tense.
The clause of concession makes a statement which seems opposed to the
main clause.
e.g.: Although he has a car he often goes by bus.
Even if it takes me six months, I’m determined to finish my job.
No matter how hard I tried, I couldn’t manage it.
In clauses introduced by compounds in ever, the idea of possibility is also
present.
e.g. However often I try (though I often try) I cannot find the solution.
In pure suppositions may I might + infinitive can be used.
e.g. Whatever faults she may have, (although she perhaps has some
faults) hypocrisy is not one of them.
However rich one may be there is always something one wants.
exercise 1. From each pair of sentences below, make three sentences with
adverbial clauses of concession:
a) with although, b) with though, and c) with even though
model: It was a cold day. Mike didn’t wear a coat.
a. Although it was a cold day, Mike didn’t wear a coat,
b. Though it was a cold day, Mike didn’t wear a coat,
c. Even though it was a cold day, Mike didn’t wear a coat.
1. Ann studied very hard. She didn’t do well on the exam. 2. It looked
like rain. We went on a picnic. 3. The road was icy. Tom drove very fast.
4. He has lived in London for years. He can’t speak English fluently. 5. John
is only four years old. He can read. 6. There wasn’t much in it. The box seemed
heavy. 7. I asked her politely. She wouldn’t listen to me. 8. He ran fast.
He failed to win the race. 9. She felt ill. She went to work. 10. It was only
11.00 a.m. I felt hungry. 11. It was snowing hard. We went to the theatre.
12. He is quite rich. He always wears old clothes. 13. He was wet to the skin.
He didn’t feel cold. 14. I watered the plants. They withered. 15. The car
was smashed to pieces. The man was unhurt. 16. She was sleepy. She didn’t
go to bed early.

concession:
1. Although ... he finished his work in time. 2. Though ... he missed the
train. 3. Whatever I did ... 4. No matter what I did ... 5. Even if he did
say so ... 6. However much she tried ... 7. Though . . . she couldn’t reach
the top of the mountain. 8. Even though ... his work was still unsatisfactory.
9. Although ... he didn’t understand the question. 10. Though. . . he never
became a famous actor. 11. Although ... he couldn’t solve the problem.
12. Although ... he didn’t eat much. 13. Even though ... he leads a very
active life. 14. Though ... he always wears old clothes.
1. Cu toate că l-a durut capul, el a studiat toată seara. 2. Oricît de tare
aș încerca, nu mă pot ține drept pe schiuri. 3. Deși el vorbea foarte rar, eu nu-i
puteam înțelege. 4. Nu puteam fi supărat pe ea, chiar dacă încercam. 5. Deși
nu mănîncă mult, se îngrașă întruna. 6. Deși tocmai citise cartea, (el) nu putea
să-și amintească numele personajelor. 7. Deși locuiește departe de serviciu,
(el) ajunge totdeauna punctual la lucru. 8. Oricît de bogat ar fi, (eu) nu-i
invidiez. 9. Oricît de des am încercat, nu am putut afla adevărul. 10. Cînd
face un exercițiu, (ea) face greșeli, oricît de mult ar încerca să le evite. 11. Deși
zgomotul s-a putut auzi clar, lui i-a trebuit mult timp ca să reacționeze.
12. Oricît de frig ar fi, (eu) voi merge în excursie. 13. Orice s-ar întîmpla, vei
fi totdeauna bucuros că ai încercat să faci tot ce ți-a stat în puteri să-i ajuți.
14. Orice aș spune, tu nu mă vei crede niciodată. 15. Oricît de des ai suna,
nimeni nu-ți va răspunde.
Indirect or Reported Speech

exercise 1. Change the following from Direct to Indirect Speech:
1. We say, “We are learning English”. 2. He says, “I don’t speak English”.
3. I am glad I can say, “I speak English”. 4. The boy is saying, “I can’t play
baseball”. 5. They never say, “We speak English very well”. 6. She always
says, “I’m very busy”. 7. The pupils always say, “We are never late”. 8. I
often hear you say, “I work very hard”. 9. You seldom say to him, “You are
a diligent boy”. 10. Doesn’t she always say, “I’d like you to speak English
to me?” 11. They are saying, “We are looking at you”.

1. The boys said to us, “We have been playing football the whole after
noon”. 2. She answered, “I am reading a novel”. 3. I repeated, “I live in Bucha
rest”. 4. The young girl said to her mother, “I have often played tennis with
Dana”. 5. The old man shouted angrily, “I have been waiting too long”.
6. The pupils answered, “We usually play basketball better”. 7. The old lady
asked, “Where is the post office?” 8. The children repeated, “We didn’t play
in the garden”. 9. My friends answered, “The railway station is very near”.
10. He said, “Nobody came to see me at the hospital”. 11. They said to us,
“Your friends came to see us in January”. 12. He asked me, “When did you
go to the theatre?” 13. We asked him, “What are you doing with that pen?”
14. She asked them, “Why didn’t you bring me the dictionary?” 15. Helen’s
mother asked her, “When did you meet my cousins?” 16. We asked the boy,
“Who teaches you English?” 17. They asked us, “Which of you speaks
English?” 18. The teacher asked me, “Which textbook do you find easier?”

1. I asked him, “Had you been there before?” 2. We asked them, “Why
hadn’t you told us anything before?” 3. They said, “We had never seen that
play before”. 4. He said to us, “I bought the book yesterday”. 5. The young
166
man asked me, “What were the pupils doing there?” 6. The children asked
their teacher, “Did you see us playing volleyball last week?” 7. I heard her
saying to the girls, “When I was a schoolgirl I always wore my uniform.”
8. The tourists asked, “When did Stephen the Great build this monastery?”
9. I heard you answer, “That monastery wasn’t built by him; his father built
it”. 10. We were asked, “Which of you drew this beautiful map?” 11. They
repeated, “We had been working the whole time before leaving for the cinema”.
12. She said to me, “I told you to go to the station earlier”. 13. He said angrily,
“I had been trying to open the box for more than an hour before throwing
it away”. 14. Mother asked me, “Where did you put my gloves?” 15. The
teacher asked Dan, “Why didn’t you tell me you didn’t understand the gram
mar rule?” 16. I shall say to my friend, “I was waiting for your telephone call”.
17. They were asked, “Were you at home yesterday afternoon?” 18. The
teacher asked the pupils, “Did you buy the dictionary recommended to
you?”
exercise 4. Change the following from Direct to Indirect Speech.-

1. We heard the boy saying to his friend, “I shall bring you the book
tomorrow”. 2. I promised the librarian, “I will return you the review next
week”. 3. They answered me, “We shall be waiting for you at the bus-stop”.
4. The student asked me, “How much will you have read by this evening?”
5. My cousins said, “Our friends will have been travelling a lot by the end of
this month”. 6. We were asked by somebody, “If you live here another three
years, how long will you have been living here in all?” 7. The little girl asked
her friend,“When will you pay me a visit again?”8. My cousins said, “We shall
have finished visiting the museum before you have finished your shopping”.
9. The teacher asked me, “Will you have finished reading this novel by next
Thursday?” 10. I thought, “My brother will reach home before me”. 11. We
promised, “We shall work harder and get better marks”. 12. Susan said to
me, “I’ll wait for you until you have finished writing your composition”.
13. Our friends answered, “We shall be spending our summer holidays at the
seaside next year”. 14. We were asked, “How long will it take you to translate
this short story into Romanian?” 15. I was answered, “The new theatre will
have been completely finished by next autumn”. 16. She was asked by them,
“When will the presents be given to our friends ?“ 17. The young man said,
“I’m sure I shall be met by my friends at the airport”.
exercise 5. Change the following from Direct to Indirect Speech.-

1. The doctor said, “I would take the medicine if I were you”. 2. Many
people say to me, “If I were in your place I should do this better”. 3. The
patient said, “I wish I were younger and I had better health”. 4. My col
league said to me, /‘That young man was walking nervously up and down
as if he were waiting for somebody”. 5. The little boy said to me, “I crouched
behind the armchair so that I should not be seen”. 6. We said, “We are anxious
that you should attend the performance at our school”. 7. The teacher added,
“I wish you helped your colleagues more”.
exercise 6. Change the following from, Direct to Indirect Speech;
1. My brother said,“ I don’t want you to speak to that person again”. 2. Father
said, “And you may always count on my help”. 3. His friend said, “Yes, I can
give you my cousin’s address”. 4. The little boy said again, “My name is Bill”.
5. The old man said, “Good Gracious! I never expected to hear such a thing!”
6. The teacher said, “Bring with you a thin exercise-book next time, to write
a paper”. 7. The doctor said, “Everything should be perfectly clean by tomor
row”. 8. They said insistently, “We need to learn two foreign languages in
school”.
exercise 7. Turn into: Reported Speech?

“Sam,” said Mr. Pickwick, grasping his hand, “you’re a capital fellow, an
invaluable fellow. You must follow him, Sam.”
“Certainly, sir”, replied Mr. Weller.
“The instant you discover him, write to me immediately, Sam”, said Mr.
Pickwick. “If he attempts to run away from you, knock him down, or lock him
up. You have my full authority, Sam”.
“I’ll be very careful, sir,” rejoined Sam.
“You’ll tell him,” said Mr. Pickwick, “that I am highly excited, highly
displeased, and naturally indignant.”
“I will, sir,” replied Sam.
“You think you can find him, Sam?” said Mr. Pickwick, looking earnestly
in his face.
“Oh, I’ll find him if he’s anywhere,” rejoined Sam with great confidence.
(Dickens — The Pickwick Papers)
exercise 8. Rewrite the passage in Direct Speech:

One evening, my friend Peter, who is a man of wild enthusiasms, came to
see me, bursting with excitement. Without so much as a greeting, he announced
decisively that what we needed to wake the town-up was a music festival.
I expressed amazement at the idea, and asked whether anyone would come to
it. Peter emphatically affirmed that they would, saying that all we needed
was a good orchestra and a few soloists, and people would come from miles
around. I remained doubtful, asking how we were going to pay an orchestra,
and what happened if there was bad weather, and nobody came. Peter brushed
this objection aside, and went on to say that he had thought of a wonderful
programme. All we needed, he said, was a few people to run the thing.
(B.D. Graver — Advanced English Practice)
The Sequence of Tenses

exercise 1. Translate into English paying attention to the Sequence of Tenses:
1. Te voi suna cînd vdi porni de acasă spre tine, ca să nu risc să fii plecat.
2. Știam că ai să vii la mine, dar m-am întrebat de ce ai făcut un secret din asta.
3. I s-a spus in repetate rînduri că cinstea e cea mai bună dintre politici, dar
nu a vrut să creadă, și am aflat că acum a păți t-o. 4. De îndată ce a văzut-o,
a rămas tăcut, gîndindu-se că este mult mai frumoasă decît și-o închipuise
vreodată. 5. A venit să mă vadă, dar nu eram acasă, nel'iind anunțat din timp,
iar la întoarcerea mea tocmai plecase să se întîlnească cu un alt prieten
de al lui, cu toate că i-ar fi plăcut să se sfătuiască cu mine, deoarece are mai
multă încredere în mine, decît în el. 6. Ori de cîte ori treceam prin fața școlii
mă întrebam ce or mai fi făcînd foștii mei profesori și unde sînt oare colegii
mei. 7. Ne-a scris că nu îi vom găsi la sosire pentru că vor fi plecați la mare.
8. De cînd s-a înființat fabrica nu a mai trecut nici un tren prin gara aceasta,
fără să oprească. 9. Mă întrebam dacă nu este mai bine să mai citesc ceva
pentru examenul ce-1 voi da miine, așa îneît am preferat să nu vin cu voi în
excursie. 10. Să-I fi văzut doar și i-aș fi spus că regret că John este un om rău.
117;Ori de cîte ori te întîlnesc, simt nevoia să-ți spun cît de mult aș fi dorit*
sa fim prieteni. 12. 11 admir mai puțin decît I-am admirat pe bunicul său care
a fost un om adevărat. 13. N-a fost un secret pentru nimeni că reușita lui se
datorește, în mare parte, sîrguinței cu care_Ha.,invALat în tot timpul care a
trecut de lă sosirea lui la facultate. 14. în romanele sale, Henry James a încer
cat să ne arate cum sînt afectați americanii de o ședere prea îndelungată în
Europa. 15. Misiunea Apollo nu a reușit să demonstreze că există viață pe
lună. 16. Am sosit aici doar de trei zile, dar mă simt de parcă aș fi venit de
mult.
exercise 2. Use the correct verb form:

“As I (tell) him yes, he (lay) it on the table, and, resting his head upon
his hand, (begin). He (read) not far, when he (rest) his head upon his two
hands — to hide his face from me. In a little while he (rise) as if the light (be)
bad, and (go) to the window. He (finish) reading it there, with his back to
wards me; and, after he (finish) and (fold) it up, he (stand) there for some mi
nutes with the letter in his hands. When he (come) back to his chair, I (see)
tears in his eyes.”
(Charles Dickens — Bleak House}
exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into English. Use two variants
in English:
1. Voi pleca pentru ca să nu mă întîlnesc cu membrii echipei adverse.
2. Du-te, să nu te mai găsesc acasă la întoarcere. 3. îmi voi lua umbrela ca
să nu mă plouă. 4. A întors capul ca să nu o vadă plîngînd. 5. Plecă de acasă
să nu-i mai audă văicărindu-se.
exercise 4. Complete the following sentences, using a clause:

1. Almost as soon as I entered the company ... 2. ... that they might
come across our letter. 3. The old woman who confronted me in the street. . .
4. She was nicer than ... 5. He said that many years ago ... 6. They spoke
English much better than ... 7. We arranged to hire a coach that... 8. . . .,
the more I liked him. 9. He declared that... 10. They announced that . . .
exercise 5. Select the correct word or expression in parantheses in each of
the following sentences. Give the reason for your choice:
1. I learnt recently that Jupiter (is, was) the largest of the planets. 2. If
I (had had, have had) more time, I would have done a better job of cleaning
the house. 3. After Eminescu (had become, became) famous, his works were
published by the Academy. 4. It is a long time since I (read, have read, had
read) a novel as absorbing as this one. 5. Mr. Black asked me yesterday where I
(have gone, went, had gone) the day before. 6. She (has not bought, did not
buy) her dress when she was in town last week. 7. He remained silent as soon
as he (had heard, heard) that. 8. He walked so far that he (tired, had tired)
himself. 9. His illness showed him that all men (were, are) mortal. 10. I was
glad to hear that her brother (was, is) industrious.
exercise 6. Translate into English using a dictionary:

„îmi închipuii o clipă în fața ușii, înainte de a bate, că voi găsi înăuntru o
splendidă fată, visul meu.
In odaie însă zăcea pe jumătate ridicat în perne un domn miop cu ochelari
foarte groși, cu ramă de oțel, încălecați pe vîrful nasului, cu un enorm volum
în fața lui, pe care îl răsfoia cu mare atenție. Era un volum de drept comercial
danez, iar domnul acela, cînd făcurăm cunoștință, îmi spuse că este avocat la
Copenhaga și că este aproape vindecat, dar că se plictisește îngrozitor, ceea ce
îl făcuse să puie anunțul pe ușă.“
„Cînd ajungeam la clinica aceea unde mă duceam și cînd deschideam ușa,
geamul întotdeauna zbîrnîia și întotdeauna credeam că zbîrnîie pentru că nu
e bine pus în cadru, dar în după-amiaza aceea am descoperit că tremurul
geamului era prelungirea, mai amplă și mai sonoră a tremurului mîinii mele.“
(M. Blecher — Vizuina luminată)
exercise 7. Put the verbs in parantheses into the correct tense:

1. I no sooner (to make) his acquaintance than I (to cease) to wonder at
the esteem and even affection with which he, a young man, (to be regarded)
at the university. 2. After I (to be) here a certain time, I (to go) over there
to the forest. 3. That he (to miss) me, for it (to be) very dark, although with a
starry sky above, (to be) my only hope; for no weapon with me, except my
knife, my chances (to be) small indeed, should he overtake me. 4. Glancing
away from the mountain, I (to catch} sight of that pale solitary star which
Runi (to point out) to me low down in the northwestern sky when I (to ask)
him where his enemy (to live). In that direction we (to travel) since leaving
the village. Surely if I (to walk) all night by tomorrow I (can) reach Managa’s
hunting ground, and be safe to think over what I (to hear) and on what I
(to have) to do.
(W. H. Hudson — Green Mansions)
exercise 8. Translate into English the following sentences from Minulescu:

1. „Nu știam cine este acest Abraham Zacheul, condamnat să trăiască
la infinit. îmi dam seama însă că moartea unui om nu este decît o simplă
oprire de ceasornic și că trupul fără inimă, ca și omul fără ceasornic, poate trăi
cu adevărat la infinit...“
(Omul cu inima de aur)
2. „Alesesem din cartea de telefon cîteva adrese. Nu bănuiam că nu o să

am nevoie decît de una singură. . . . Dar tu nu știai? Un om, cînd vrea să cîș-
tige la loterie, cumpără mai multe bilete odată.“
(Manechinul sentimental)
3. „Prima aruncătură de ochi mă făcu să tresar ca în fața unui prieten

vechi, pe care nu l-aș fi văzut de ani de zile.“
(Măști de bronz și lampioane de porțelan)
4. „Dacă ar fi știut, dacă cineva i-ar fi spus, dacă măcar ar fi bănuit cîndva,
ceva cît de puțin, din grozavul adevăr pe care, afară de el, toată lumea îl știa,
eu n-aș mai fi fost nimeni, aș fi rămas veșnic bastardul ce-și caută tatăl și
căutîndu-1, nu l-aș fi găsit niciodată, fiindcă fără numele și averea lui, n-aș
fi putut ajunge niciodată pînă aici.” (Idem)
exercise 9. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense:

Shakespeare (be) an absolute beast. He (can) (bring) that monk along
before Romeo so that when Romeo (arrive) he (can) (explain) to him all about
the potion and Juliet (wake up) and they (live) happily ever after, or he (can)
(have) the monk write a letter saying what he (do); but he (do not), he (want)
them to die and I (hate) him.
(Giles Cooper — Happy Family, act one)
exercise 10. Supply the most logical form of the verb in the following:
A. Lowering the lamp, he turned his face towards the fire. Perhaps he
(get) a sleep before that boring dinner at the Tellassons’. He (wish) it (be)
vacation, and Maisie back from school. A widower for many years, he (lose)
the habit of a woman about him; yet tonight he (have) a positive yearning
for the society of his young daughter, with her quick ways, and bright, dark
eyes. Curious what perpetual need of a woman some men (have)!
(J. Galsworthy — The First and the Last)
B. A day (dawn) in the white winter in 1739. It (be) a day that (be) to
end strangely, and sweetly, and bitterly, for the high lady and the menial.
Sir Richard (be) away in London that day. He (be) always away in London.
Madame Turleigh (go) to a ball that evening. All day long she (try) to make
up her mind whether she (go) or not. She (be) bored with their eternal minuets,
gavottes, pavanes. But if she (stay) at home she (be) bored, too. Her maids
(stand) about, fluttering and twittering nervously. On days like this her
temper (be) very uncertain. In the late afternoon, the head coachman’s wife
(beg) to be allowed to see her. The head coachman (try) to get up for the last
two hours. He (be) absolutely swollen with gout. He (can) not put foot to
grounds. What madame (do)?
(Louis Golding — Bare-knuckle Lover)
0. One night, in the spring of 1922, Mary, wakened by the cough, (have)
a sudden startling conviction of Sin. She (be) a tenderhearted, generous
woman and it (come) to her in a flash that they (behave) wickedly because
they (keep) their secret to themselves. Here in another brief year or two
everything (come) to an end. How it (come) she (considered never) in all
these years. It (may) (be) Bang! like a shot from a gigantic gun, or it (may)
(be) an immediate slipping into darkness and icy cold, or it (may) (be) a blast
from a Trumpet — whatever way it (come) it (be) the End for millions and
millions of poor souls who, they but (know), (can) (make) preparations,
(wind up) their affairs, (say) their farewells to those whom they (love).
(Hugh Walpole — The Last Trump)
D. I just (go) to bed after a very hard day when the phone rang. It (be)
an eccentric farmer. I never (meet) him before, although I often (hear) people
talk about him. He (seem) quite hysterical and he (talk) for a minute or so
before I (understand) anything. Even then all I (can) (make out) (be) that
someone called Milly (have) a very bad accident. I (have not) the slightest
idea who she (be) but I obviously (have) to go.
It (snow) heavily that day and I (not know) the way. I (drive) for at least
an hour when I finally (find) his place. He (stand) there, waiting for me. It
(seem) Milly already (die). “She (mean) more to me than anyone . . . even my
own wife!” he said. I (can) (see) that he (cry). I (assume) a terrible tragedy
(take place) with overtones of a possible scandal. I must (admit) I (be) even
more shocked when he (tell) me he (put) her in the barn. “I (will not)
(leave) her out in the cold!” he said.
Milly clearly (be) a secret sweetheart of his. I (be) about to tell him he
(cannot) (expect) me to cover anything up when he (open) the barn door and
(point) his torch at a motionless shape on the straw.
“She (be) such a good cow! I (will not) (let) anyone but a doctor touch
her!” he said, and (burst) into tears again.
(R . O’N e i 11 — English in Situations)
exercise 11. Translate into English the following fragments from Preda"s
„Marele singuratic":
Dar rămase la Niculae. La prînz îl găsi tot acolo, vesel nevoie mare, ca și
cînd cine știe ce s-ar fi întîmplat între timp și ar fi vrut să-i spună că, iată,
vecina i-a dat ceva de mîncare și s-a purtat bine cu el, nu La gonit, dar el îi
rămîne totuși credincios lui, care l-a luat de acolo din mijlocul șoselei și La
adus aici. Semăna cu un viezure cu o dungă albă trasă pe frunte pînă la nas
și avea părul puțin zbîrlit de o culoare parcă albăstrie, amestecată cu cenușiu,
începu să crească și curînd Niculae află că nu era de loc cuminte.
Nichi nu se simțea bine sub el, ceva îl speria, ca și cînd trunchiul lui cu
coaja încrețită, adîncă și plină de cleiuri, ar fi fost chipul unui căpcăun care s-ar
fi strîmbat la ei, și dacă ar mai fi stat acolo copacul și-ar fi aplecat unul din
brațele lui atletice, cu frunze puține, ar fi pus mina pe Nichi și apoi bar fi
azvîrlit departe ....
în legătură cu ce-i spunea mai înainte, zise Iosif, după ce făcură drumul în
tăcere și intrară apoi într-un restaurant pe care, după felul neșovăielnic cu
care acesta îl găsi, se pare că îl cunoștea și aprecia, el, Iosif, a observat o ciudă
țenie.
— S-a recunoscut în ultimul timp că versul vrea să fie cuvînt pentru el
însuși. Părțile simple ale unei poezii nu sînt cuvintele, ci versurile.
(Ion Barbu)
— Contele Arnaldo, cu șoimul pe mînă — povestește Longfellow în balada
The Secret of the Sea — văzu venind către țărmul la care vina, o mîndră galeră,
al cărei cîrmaci făcea să răsune un cîntec așa de sălbatec și clar, că pasărea
navigatorilor însăși se liniștea pe catarg, să-i asculte.
(Ion Barbu)
— Dacă, adineaori, nu-ntîlneam pe nenea lancu, mergeam, cum eram de
plictisit, drept la gară, să mă arunc sub roatele primului tren la îndemînă.
Vă mulțumesc... Sînteți salvatorii vieții părintelui copiilor soției mele, care era
să citească, mîine, la Cîmpulung, în Universul, încă o nouă tragică sinucidere.
(I. L. Caragiale — Repausul duminical
— Relațiunile dintre cei doi prieteni au fost cu desăvîrșire rupte, în urma
unui răspuns foarte politicos pe care prietenul l-a scris lui Odobescu, căutînd
să-i dovedească că nu se simte vinovat de loc de pornirea inexplicabilă a dom
nului Odobescu. în același răspuns, prietenul adăuga cum că hotărîrea d-lui
Odobescu de a rupe relațiile amicale, deși regretabilă, va fi respectată de un
om care nu înțelege posibilitatea de existență a unui prieteșug forțat.
Acestea se petreceau acum patru ani.
De atunci și pînă acum vreo două-trei luni, cei doi prieteni s-au mai revăzut
cîteodată, dar n-au mai schimbat măcar un salut.
Prietenul — care, ca om cu minte, știa că la oamenii deosebiți toane de un
moment pot determina o mare parte a vieții; prietenul, care cunoștea lumea,
nu lăsase să se altereze în inima lui sentimentele de dragoste pentru Odobescu,
din cauza toanelor acestuia — se hotărăște să meargă.
(I. L. Caragiale — A. Odobescu)
Word Order
exercise 1. Rearrange the following words in order to form correct sentences:
1. You when him see did? 2. Books read does English he? 3. Exercises
must all the do student the? 4. Door at somebody the was there. 5. Break
for bell is there ringing the. 6. Oak-tree the was old there an house near. 7. So
I tall very and my is am brother. (Two sentences). 8. Very she speak I well
too and English does so. 9. Does nor like I not quinces he do. (Two sentences).
10. House my like do I do parents not this nor. (Two sentences). 11. Speak
Greek pupils can my I nor not can. (Two sentences). 12. Coat here your isl
13. Here bus our goes! 14. The is English here dictionary!
exercise 2. a) Omit the conjunction if in the following sentences and make
the other necessary changes:
1. If any of your family should have come to our house, we should
have been delighted to welcome them. 2. If you had taken the tram, you would
have arrived at the station in time. 3. She would have passed the exam if she
had worked harder. 4. They would not have made so many mistakes if they
had had a dictionary at hand.
b) Translate into English omitting the conjunction if:
1. Dacă ar fi venit încoace i-aș fi vorbit. 2. V-aș fi scris dacă v-aș fi cunoscut
adresa. 3. L-am fi ajutat dacă ne-ar fi rugat să-i ajutăm. 4. Dacă nu s-ar fi
întîmplat să plouă aș fi venit și eu la concert. 5. Acest lucru nu s-ar fi întîmplat
dacă ne-ar fi avertizat mai devreme. 6. De n-aș fi fost atît de obosit aș fi putut
cîștiga meciul.
Note: When placed at the beginning of a sentence or clause for emphasis,
negative adverbs and adverbs of degree trigger off inversion of the subject
and the verb to which they refer.
1. Nici nu-și strînseseră bine toate lucrurile și așiînceput să plouă (scarce
ly). 2. De-abia ajunsese acasă cînd cineva de la spital La chemat din nou
urgent (hardly). 3. Cum am plecat de la mare vremea s-a schimbat și a început
să plouă (no sooner). 4. De abia mă înapoiasem din vacanță și s-a și anunțat
data examenului. 5. Cum am terminat de citit primul roman I-am și început
pe al doilea. 6. Nici nu ieșiserăm bine din cabană și au și sosit excursioniștii
care urmau să vină după noi. 7. Nici nu se însănătoșise bine cînd s-a îmbolnăvit
de altă boală. 8. De-abia terminasem de tradus prima piesă și mi s-a cerut să
o traduc și pe a doua. 9. Cum s-a terminat construirea primului bloc a și început
construirea celui de al doilea. 10. De-abia sosisem acasă și a trebuit să plec
din nou. 11. Cum am primit telegrama de la bunicul m-am și dus să-i văd.
exercise 4. Rewrite the sentences, placing the adverbs or adverbial phrases

in italics at the beginning of their sentence or clause, and making inversions
(See note to previous exercise):
1. The back of this radio should under no circumstances be removed unless
the set has first been disconnected at the mains. 2. We have seen such security
measures as are being taken for the President’s visit on only one previous occa
sion. 3. Such a major operation has proved completely successful in very few
cases. 4. We haven’t had the opportunity of hearing this fine pianist in action
for some time now. ('Not ...’). 5. The police admitted that they had seldom
had to deal with such a baffling case. 6. The Minister claimed that help from
the Government had been forthcoming on each occasion to deal with emer
gencies, and that such emergencies had continued for longer than one day
in not one single case. 7. The Bill was given a sympathetic hearing in neither
the Commons nor the Lords. 8. The talks didn’J appear to have much chance
of success until quite recently however. 9. A lasting peace will be established
in the area only if both sides accept the agreement. 10. The pilot agreed to land
the plane only when the hijackers threatened to shoot some of the passengers.
(Graver — Advanced English Practice]
exercise 5. Insert the adjectives in the brackets so as to modify the italicized
words:
model: I have nothing to tell you (interesting).
I have nothing interesting to tell you.
1. No one will accept such a job (honest). 2. We need someone to move the
cupboard (strong). 3. Something had happened that made her change her
mind (inexplicable). 4. There was something in her voice that put her out
(sarcastic). 5. We had a long talk with somebody (intelligent). 6. They spent
the afternoon somewhere (nice). 7. Everything has been done (conceivable).
8. I looked for the lost ring everywhere (possible). 9. Td rather have something
to eat (unusual). 10. Did anything happen (strange)?
exercise 6. Rearrange the adjectives in the right order:
1. A/an (Romanian, dry, inexpensive, red) wine. 2. The (Scottish, green,
beautiful, wide) valleys. 3. The (yellowish, big, delicious, tasty, African, cheap)
bananas. 4. A/an (young, thin, Swiss, good-hearted, tall, fair) man. 5. A/an
(French, large, expensive, blue, beautiful, new, fast) car. 6. A/an (linen, beauti
fully decorated, cheap, Romanian, wide) table-cloth. 7. A/an (porcelain,
ancient, valuable, blue, Chinese, tall) statue. 8. A/an (old, Latin, very expen
sive, large) dictionary.
1. Am găsit o stofă de lină englezească, ieftină, de culoare gri închis, lată
și subțire. 2. Ne-am întîlnit cu un băiețel italian, voinic, înalt și oacheș. 3. Era
o casă de cărămidă, mare, nouă și foarte scumpă, luminoasă și vopsită în porto
caliu. 4. Avea o bibliotecă olandeză veche, din lemn de stejar, castanie, înaltă
și grea. 5. Am cumpărat o statuetă chinezească din jad de culoare verzuie
închisă, foarte delicată și nu prea scumpă.
exercise 8. Place the Indirect Object and the Direct Object correctly in the
following sentences:
1. I read (my brother; the letter). 2. He owes (my former landlady;
some money). 3. The mechanic sold (a friend of mine; his car). 4. Bring (me,
riot my brother; the umbrella). 5. Will you sell (me; your dictionary)?
6. I handed (the principal; the letter). 7. The boy told (to everybody in
our block of flats; the news). 8. She lent (him; her pen). 9. I wrote (Paul;
a long letter). 10. He took (his brother; the books). 11. The pupil wished
(her teacher; good morning). 12. The teacher gave (them; a French
lesson). 13. Show (mother; your hands). 14. We sent (you ; them) . 15. I
took (them; him). 16. The boy read (us; the letter). 17. Did you throw
(the dog; the bone)? 18. Don’t give (anybody; it). 19. Please pass (us; the
water). 20. Would you tell (them; a story)? 21. Please send (my brother;
Nick). 22. The music teacher is teaching (several of my friends; the piano).
1. Autorul și--a citit piesa tuturor prietenilor săi. 2. Poetul i-a citit lui Alee
pltimul său poen), 3. Lui nu-i place să-și împrumute cărțile nimănui. 4. Elevul
mi-a promis dicționarul săptămîna trecută. 5. (El) a promis să mi-l dea mie
și nu cumnatului meu. 6. Vreți să duceți acest pachet persoanei care așteaptă
în hol ? 7. Fratele meu a trimis felicitări de Anul Nou tuturor foștilor săi colegi.
8. Foștii colegi i-au trimis fratelui meu o mulțime de felicitări frumoase
de Anul Nou. 9. Ar trebui să cumperi fratelui tău enciclopedia care a fost publi
cată luna trecută. 10. Aduceți-ne fotografiile data viitoare. 11. Nu ne-ați tri
mis încă fotografiile, nu-i așa? 12. Nu uita să trimiți cîteva fotografii și sorei și
fratelui meu. 13. Inmînați scrisorile secretarei școlii. 14. Nu uitați să-i dați și
plicurile. 15. Voi arăta scrisoarea și fratelui meu. 16. Am arătat și prietenilor
mei scrisoarea pe care mi-ai trimis-o. 17. Elevele i-au spus profesoarei lor
„Bună seara“. 18. Elevele i-au spus, politicos, bătrînei lor profesoare „Bună
dimineața". 19. Treceți, vă rog, sarea, domnului din dreapta dvs. și apoi trece-
ți-mi-o mie. 20. Am auzit că ai trimis o telegramă unchiului tău. 21. Am împru
mutat enciclopedia vărului tău care studiază medicina. 22. I-am trimis imediat
o telegramă fratelui meu. 23. Te rog repetă-mi poezia. 24. Vă rog repetați-mi
numele dvs. 25. Le-am explicat totul foarte clar. 26. I-am indicat toate difi
cultățile. 27. Le-ați dictat tot textul? 28. Băiatul mi-a repetat conținutul
scrisorii cuvînt cu cuvînt. 29. Au anunțat portarului ora plecării. 30. Elevii
au supus neînțelegerea lor dirigintelui. 31. Am vrut să sugerăm prietenului
nostru o soluție. 32. îmi sugerați soluția aceasta? 33. I-am prezentat pe verii
noștri lor. 34. Am prezentat oaspetelui nostru pe toți membrii echipei de
basket. 35. încă nu mi-ați explicat toate regulile.
exercise 10. a) Place the adverbs in the following sentences correctly:

1. We arrived at the chalet exhausted (late in the evening). 2. They are
going to Moldavia (next month). 3. Have you seen my cousin in “Pygmalion”
(ever)? 4. Did you see my cousin in “Pygmalion” (last month)? 5. My cousin
plays in “Pygmalion” (twice a month). 6. The children don’t go to bed late
(often). 7. Do you go to the skating-rink on Sundays (always)? 8. Do you go
to the skating-rink (every Sunday)? 9. Tell your friend he must do that again
(never). 10. They go to concerts (seldom). 11. The students are in the library
(in the afternoon) (usually). 12. We have seen better work (rarely). 13. My
brother plays tennis (four times a week). 14. She has English lessons (every
other day). 15. The driver stopped to look at the map (ever so often).
16. She left for Craiova (a few months ago).
b) Translate into English:
1. De obicei mă duc cu bicicleta la universitate. 2. Mă duc cel puțin odată
pe lună la teatru. 3. Unchiul Paul vine din două în două săptămîni pe la noi.
4. Sîntem acasă de obicei după ora 6. 5. Bunicul nu mai joacă aproape nici
odată tenis acum. 6. Verii mei îmi scriu rar acum. 7. Plecăm joi dimineața la
munte. 8. Avionul nostru a aterizat devreme după masă la aeroportul din Cluj-
Napoca. 9. Vara trecută unde v-ați petrecut vacanța ? 10. Am ajuns, într-o di
mineață rece de decembrie, la Babele. 11. Au fost cîteodată și la circ. 12. Cînd
luați masa de seară în mod obișnuit? 13. Ați mai fost prin aceste părți ale
țării vreodată? 14. Am fost foarte rar la mare. 15. Trebuie să luați doctoria de
două ori pe zi. 16. Prietenii mei se duela cinema numai odată la cîteva săptă-
mini. 17. Mă întreb dacă ei vor învăța vreodată toate regulile. 18. Au sosit ieri
de la Oradea cu rapidul. 19. N-am jucat niciodată football cînd eram la școală.
20. Mă sculam totdeauna devreme cînd eram la școală. 21. Mă duceam adesea
la bibliotecă anul trecut.
exercise 11. a) Place the adverbs in the following sentences correctly:

1. The audience liked the play (rather). 2. Our friends caught the train
(just). 3. They missed the train (nearly). 4. They have arrived from abroad
(just). 5. I agree with you (quite). 6. I can agree with them (quite). 7. We are
waiting for your answer (still). 8. You didn’t try (even). 9. He hasn’t tried to
do it (even). 10. My cousin hinted at the possibility (merely). 11. I have men
tioned it as a possible solution (merely). 12. I spilled all the milk (nearly).
13. They have spoiled all our work (nearly). 14. She had read Arthur Miller’s
latest play (also). 15. I know what to say (hardly). 16. They had come back
(hardly). 17. There were twenty students present (scarcely). 18. We would go
to a play than to a film (rather). 19. Our new neighbours have visited us (al
ready).
b) Translate into English:
1. Am vrut numai să-mi împrumuți stiloul. 2. Nici nu a mai fost nevoie să
le spun. 3. Verii mei tocmai își terminaseră examenele. 4. Mi-au spus că mai
curînd s-ar duce la un concert. 5. Au văzut deja noul film englezesc? 6. El nici
nu poate măcar să citească englezește. 7. Sîntem destul de satisfăcută de noua
noastră locuință, 8. Desigur va fi bucuros să ne vadă. 9. Curînd am descoperit
greșeala. 10. El căuta încă să ne convingă. 11. Au vrut numai să vă ajute.
12. Vor veni și ele curînd aici. 13. Erau aproape să piardă avionul. 14. Aștept
deja de o săptămînă răspunsul lor. 15. Nu sînt chiar de acord cu acest răspuns.
16. Am cumpărat și o carte de istoria artelor. 17. Aproape am terminat tra
ducerea. 18. Nici nu mi-au dat măcar un telefon. 19. Nu e nevoie să le spunem
ce să facă. 20. Băiețelul de-abia își poate scrie numele. 21. De-abia ne termi
naserăm lucrul.
12 —* Llmhn rnKlvzA pentru pdm. In înv. superior

KEY TO EXERCISES
Morphology
The Noun
Ex. 1: Londoner; childhood; Portuguese; mouthful; brotherhood; friendship;
Japanese; pianist; artist; handful; behaviourist, behaviourism; teen-ager;
stardom; impressionist, impressionism; villager; boyhood; Darwinist, Darwin
ism; ownership; spoonful; membership; cellist; kingdom; philosopher.
Ex. 2: developer, development; user; embodiment; writer, writing; accept
ance; receiver; descendance, descendant; painter, painting; employee,
employer, employment; upheaval; marriage; producer; arrival; defendant;
housing; description; cleaner, cleaning; formation; abolishment; trainee,
trainer, training; refusal; happening; enlightenment; thriller; inhabitant;
starvation; bather, bathing; coverage, covering.
Ex. 3: cruelty; strength; freedom; sentimentalism, sentimentalist, sentiment
ality; socialism, socialist; width; existentialism, existentialist; anxiety;
wisdom; childishness; sanity; dullness; propriety; length; meanness; fixity.
Ex. 4:1. The State Undersecretary made no statement. 2. The ex-presiden
has not given any interviews of late. 3. The forerunner of marathonists is the
Greek who brought the news of the victory against the Persians. 4. Why
didn’t you put on your overalls? 5. Remember there are nonsmokers among
us. 6. Your name and surname, please. 7. His dislike of animals seems to me
rather unusual/uncommon. 8. Such a project admits of no imprecision. 9. You
can get it at any supermarket. 10. I’d like to read “The Winter of Our Discon
tent” by J. Steinbeck. 11. Indeed antibiotics have saved him. 12. The subject
of his thesis is antimatter.
Ex^J^r 1. An unpleasant feeling of boredom seized the listeners. 2. “My king
dom for a horse!” 3. We were amazed at his wisdom. 4. According to some
people, childhood is not the happiest time of life. 5. They became the victims
of his carelessness. 6. His kindness I goodness of heart is impressive. 7. The
Seascape he painted is more valuable than his Townscape. 8. Put down the
length and the breadth of the swimming-pool as well as the depth of the water.
9. She couldn’t bear the thought of failure, loneliness, widowhood, drudgery,
victimization. 10. Alarmed at the growth of unemployment the trade-union
leaders called on the government to take actions to stop it.
Ex. 6: 1. earthquake 2. washing machine 3. haircut 4. record player 5. drink
ing-water 6. daybreak 7. handshake 8. night flight 9. blockhead 10. town
planning 11. bloodstain 12. black-out 13. safety belt 14. hunchback
15. passer-by.
Ex. 7: a) 1. advertisment 2. cablegrams, mathematics 4. spectacles 5. lab
oratory 6. gymnastics 7. champion 8. moving picture 9. veteran
10. fanatic 11. prefabricated 12. telephone 13. autobus 14. zoolog
ical gardens 15. bicycle 16. -influenza.
b) 1. British Broadcasting Corporation 2. tuberculosis 3. long-playing
record 4. The United Nations 5. The Federal Bureaif of Investigation
6. television 7. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization 8. very important person 9. high fidelity
10. General Meeting.
Ex. 8: 1. The post-office had already closed when we arrived there. 2. My
stepson is a crossword puzzle fan. 3. For such a role you need a special make up.
k. There’s nothing more beautiful than the rainbow after several rainy days.
5. We have recently moved into a block of flats with central heating. 6. We
meet at the railway-station at 8 o’clock sharp. 7. I am a high-school pupil
and my sister is an art-student. 8. Are you sure you left your handbag at
the cloak-room? 9. Clean the silverware before the week-end, please. 10. The
apple-tree in our backyard is in blossom.
Ex. 9:1. Give the rope another twist, please. 2. As the teacher had already
come in, he just gave an apologetic laugh and sat down. 3. He took a step
to the right, then another one to the left. 4. Let’s take a walk to the lakes!
5. Give me a ring if there’s a change of plans. 6. Give the spoon a good
rub, please. 7. They had a fight over the red ball. 8. I’m not very busy
today, I’ve only got to make a call at 10 o’clock. 9. He gave me a nod
as he passed.
Ex. 10: 1. A half has two fourths. 2. Have a run to the car and fetch the
cigarettes. 3. The accused left the room without a word. 4. They used their
savings to buy some beautiful furniture. 5. The children were walking in
twos. 6. He set forth all the pros and the cons of this idea. 7. The surround
ings were so charming that the price no longer mattered. 8. The goods were
delivered in time. 9. You always start the debate from the ancients. 10. Such
a painting costs a fortune. 11. You can’t always avoid the disagreeable in
life. 12. We should protect the weak and the sick.
Ex. 12: (1) cuffs, beliefs, chiefs, cliffs, safes, gulfs, proofs, roofs, (2) halves,
wolves, leaves, calves, shelves, selves, thieves, loaves, wives, knives, (3) scarfs/
scarves, dwarfs / dwarves, handkerchiefs / handkerchieves.
Ex. 13: a) ally / alley; country / enemy; tax/taxi; dove/half; shoe / kan
garoo ; toe I potato; dress / house; sky / ski^ size / buzz; pie / eye; valve /
porch.
b) (-s) radios, tangos, concertos; (-es) potatoes, heroes, echoes, Negroes;
(-s or -es) cargos I cargoes, buffalos I buffaloes, volcanos I volcanoes.
Ex. 14: a) fathers-in-law, sisters-in-law, men-of-war, l©okers-on; b) men-
friends, menservants, women-diplomats; c) fellow-citizens, man-eaters, take
offs, footsteps, grown-ups, cameramen, break-downs.
Ex. 15: 1. Englishmen / English people 2. Spaniards 3. Chinese (people) 4.
Frenchmen / French people 5. Poles 6. Swedes 7. Norwegians 8. Germans
9. Dutchmen / Dutch people 10. Italians 11. Romanians 12. Russians
13. Greeks 14. Australians 15. Japanese (people) 16. Danes 17. Finns
18. Irishmen 19. Scots 20. Pakistani(s).
Ex. 16: 1. bacilli / bo'silai / 2. addenda / o'dendo / 3. series / ‘siorios /
4. data / 'deito / 5. analyses / o'naelosi:z / 6. crises / 'kraisirz / 7. parantheses
I po'renOisirz / 8. syntheses / 'sinOosiiz / 9. theses / r0i:siz / 10. schemata
I 'ski:moto / 11. stimuli / 'stimjulai / 12. criteria / krai’tiorio / 13. bases /'bei-
si:z I 14. hypotheses / hai'po0isi:z / 15. phenomena / fi'nomino /
Ex. 17: 1. these pencils; 2. (some) pictures; 3. horses; 4. boxes; 5. a number
of museums; 6. stories; 7. these plays; 8. negroes; 9. these photos; 10. two
mirrors; 11. several pages; 12. matches; 13. cities; 14. monkeys; 15. two
loaves; 16. handkerchiefs / handkerchieves; 17. scenarios; 18. mosquitoes.
Ex. 18: 1. spoonfuls 2. editors-in-chief 3. sisters-in-law 4. forget-me-nots
5. menservants 6. theatre-goers 7. passers-by.
Ex. 19: 1. class 2. jury 3. audience 4. assembly 5. party 6. herd 7. gang
8. board 9. crowd.
Ex. 20: l.a) consists, b) have 2.a) is, b) were, 3.a) are, b) is 4.a) were,
b) was 5.aj^have, b) is 6.a) are, b) has 7. a) has, b) stand 8. a) was, b) are
9.a) has, b) are lO.a) have, b) was 11.a) is, b) have.
Ex. 21: l.a) sg—culoare; b) pl—drapel; c) pl—culori; 2.a) pl—vamă; b) sg.—
obicei; c) pl—obiceiuri; 3.a) sg—stricăciune; b) pl—daune; 4.a) pl—mo
tive; b) sg—motiv; c) sg—teren; 5.a) pl—minute; b) pl—proces verbal;
c) sg—minut; 6.a) sg—durere; b) pl—dureri; c) pl—eforturi, osteneală;
7.a) pl—game; b) sg—solz; c) pl—solzi; d) pl—balanță; 8.a) sg—trimestru;
b) pl—relații; c) pl—termeni, clauze; 9.a) sg—spectacol, scenă; b)pl—ochelari;
10.a) sg—spirit; b) pl—fantome; c) pl—băuturi alcoolice; d) sg—spirt, alcool
Ex. 22: a lump / piece of sugar (o bucată de zahăr); a piece of meat (o bucată,
de carne); a slice / loaf of bread (o felie de pline / o franzelă, o pîine); a sheet
I piece of paper (o foaie / bucată de hirtie); a bar / cake of soap (un săpun);
a bar / piece of chocolate (un baton de ciocolată); a piece / strip of land (o
bucată / fîșie de pămînt); a grain of rice (un bob de orez); a pile / heap
of rubbish (o grămadă de gunoi); a piece of evidence (o probă); a piece/
an item of information (o informație); a piece / word of advice (un sfat);
a piece of luggage (un bagaj); a piece / an article of furniture (o piesă de mo
bilier); a piece I an item of news (o știre).
Ex. 23: 1. are 2. are 3. are 4. is 5. eat 6. is 7. show 8. are 9. is 10. are
11. are 12. is 13. was 14. are 15. live 16. were 17. are 18. is 19. are
20. have 21. include 22. are 23. were 24. is.
Ex. 24: 1. Have you heard of postmen’s races? 2. Statistics have established
that women drivers are more attentive and cause fewer fatal accidents.
3. At the age of 6 or 7 a child’s milkteeth are replaced by other teeth which
he will keep till old age. 4. I heard footsteps in my neighbour’s flat on the
5th floor. 5. He is not a fisherman like other fishermen, that is he is neither
a liar nor a fan. 6. The dog rested his forelegs on the armchair and stared at
his master as though he had understood his thoughts. 7. Nowadays, country
women are not much different from townswomen. 8. The sportswomen and
the sportsmen received flowers and gifts from the organizers. 9. The
policemen’s demonstration charmed the entire audience / everybody
present.
Ex. 25: 1. From this point of view all wives have the same wishes. 2. To
the oplookers’ amusement the two monkeys started throwing bananas at
themi 3. They had to do some diggings and measurements to indicate the
place lor the ditches, roads and alleys of the new districts. 4. I have bought
several matchboxes, as all my cigarette-lighters are out of order. 5. All the
book-keepers declared they needed more pencils, pencilsharpeners, pen
knives and ash-trays. 6. The trade-unions asked the employers to observe
the workers’ rights. 7. Mothers-in-law often have troubles with their daugh
ters-in-law. 8. I have bought two tooth-brushes for my children. 9. I am a
racing man, so it is no wonder that I go to both horse-races and car-races.
10. This museum exhibits several masterpieces of the Italian and French
painting schools. 11. Whenever my wife was on sick leave, my parents-in-law
looked after our children.
Ex. 26: 1. England’s Lord Chancellors had great state responsibilities.
2. At yesterday’s meeting the general managers of the research institutes raised
the questioned of increasing research efficiency. 3. The inspectors general
often happened to disagree about one or another of our solutions. 4. Why
haven’t you invited the Browns to dinner? 5. The two Johns of their family
are now in New York — one of them is John L.S. Harrison, solicitor, the
other, John T.S. Harrison, one of the best known American sports
men. 6. It was very amusing to see the children walking in threes, in their
blue uniforms with red ribbons. 7. Some of the best post-war movies were
shot in the fifties. 8. All the chemicals produced in this works are exhibited
in the next I adjoining room. 9. There are no criteria according to which nails
fall under edibles. 10. The odds are against us this time. 11. Did you
know he came in second at the Olympics? 12, The riches of these parts are
still unknown. 13. All the valuables have been insured for a large sum of money.
Ex. 27: 1. a) The news we’ve had so far is not reliable, b) Every item of
news about the austronauts’ activity is (being) expected with excitement.
2.a) The luggage was ceaselessly packed and unpacked for three hours, b) If
every traveller had just I only one piece of luggage, customsformalities wouldn’t
take so long. 3.a) We must publish all the information which is necessary
to the candidates, b) Every piece of information is useful to them. 4.a) Non
sense, my dear! You know cigarettes can do no good, b) I have never heard
a bigger piece of nonsense. 5. a) It’s no match to our piece of furniture,
b) Prewar furniture doesn’t have style.
Ex. 28: 1. Since he had his tonsils removed he has gained in weight and
hasn’t fallen ill so often. 2. I’ve had enough of her hysterics whenever it
comes to money. 3. You’d better buy him a new pair of breeches. 4. I washed
my overalls although they weren’t very dirty. 5. We need a pair of bin
oculars and a compass. 6. Give me the tongs, please. 7. He has been wearing
spectacles since he was eight. 8. He is the best player of ninepins. 9. Draughts I
I checkers require(s) a great deal of attention. 10. Cosmonautics is one of
the newest sciences. 11. His knowledge of phonetics and general linguistics
is remarkable. 12. The Member of Parliament was asked several questions
about local politics.
Ex. 29: l.a) I love the fine sand at Mamaia, b) Fine I pleasant music was
heard from the sands. 2.a) The content of those letters has remained a mys
tery. b) Why don’t you consult the contents at the end of the book? 3.a) I
can’t make out his handwriting, b) Byron’s writings have been issued in
thousands of copies. 4.a) The waters of the Mediterranean are highly pol
luted. b) How about a cure of waters at Herculane? 5.a) I’ll see you in
three quarters of an hour, b) Nobody knew where the headquarters was /
were. 6.a) He is doubtlessly an outstanding man of letters, b) How many let
ters have you got from Helen? 7.a) These are the negative effects of thrillers,
b) He was obliged to deposit all personal effects at the entrance. 8.a) Let’s
have a game of draughts, b) You’re going to catch cold if you stand in the
draught.
Ex. 30: actress, hostess, shepherdess, administratrix, sultana, goddess, lion
ess, prioress, negress, heroine, princess, tigress, heiress, waitress.
Ex. 31: queen — king — sovereign / monarch; woman — man — man /
human being; wife — husband — spouse; daughter — son — child; nun —
monk; lady — lord; sister — brother; goose — gander — goose; bee —
drone — bee; duck — drake — duck; granddaughter — grandson — grand
child.
Ex. 32: hog — sow — pig / swine; cock — hen — fowl; hound — bitch —
dog; buck — doe — deer; bull — cow — ox; drone — bee — bee; stallion —
mare — horse; fox — vixen — fox; ram — ewe — sheep; stag — hind— deer.
Ex. 33: tom-cat — tib / tabby cat; he-dog — bitch / she-dog; cock-pheasant —
hen-pheasant; turkey-cock — turkeys hen ; dog-wolf / he-wolf — she-wolf /
bitchwolf; he-bear — she-bear; he-bird — she-bird; he-goat/billy-goat — she-
goat/nanny-goat; jackass — jennyass; dog-fox — bitch-fox.
Ex. 34: bridegroom; boy-friend; manservant; (male) candidate; policeman;
footballer; diplomat; speaker; bachelor; gentleman; male nurse; (male) stu
dent.
Ex. 35: Mase: anger, fury, terror, crime, storm, thunder, sleep, sun, fear,
time, death;
Fem: friendship, boat, ship, moon, car, spring, morning, evening, night, pride,
truth, soul.
Ex. 36: 1. Did you know the prize was again won by the Romanians?
2. She is our most modern poet. 3. My sister acted the princess. 4. The
ambassadress made a speech. 5. She was a very eccentric spinster/old
maid. 6. I don’t think the widow on the ground floor is at home. 7. The
lioness you saw at the circus has been brought from Africa. 8. Has the
milkwoman been? 9. It is nice to be attended to by such polite shop-girls.
10. Are all brides beautiful? 11. My brother’s girl-friend is only 18.
12. Grandmother is proud of her children and grandchildren. 13. It is most
difficult to deal with such female/lady patients. 14. All the members of the
jury — both jurymen and jurywomen — agreed on the verdict. 15. The
count and (the) countess are lower in rank than the duke and (the) duchess.
Ex. 37: 1. She is the best (girl) typist in the office. 2. She insisted on being
examined by a woman doctor. 3. The Italian food was prepared by the
cook-maid. 4. One of my (girl) friends has sent me this painting. 5. The
only woman clerk who knows German is now on holidays/leave. 6. Have you
met my cousin Ann? 7. When the woman/lady journalist resumed her place
everybody had given his vote. 8. I met the schoolgirls of the physics class.
Ex. 38: /boiz/; /Jips/; /dogz/; /wi:ks/; /’dikinziz/; /'gudnis/; /1 □.Idridsiz/;
/'laianz/; /'wo:dzwo:0s/; /‘d3D:dsiz/; /waifs/; /‘sokrotiz/; /’bomziz/;
/waivz/; /'stjudonts/; /‘ma:ksiz/; /‘wuiminz/.
Ex. 39: 1. his friend’s new car. 2. this country’s climate. 3. the ladies’ hats.
4. Wales’(s) folklore. 5. the manager’s new typist 6. London’s most impor
tant museum. 7. all the other girls’ parents. 8. spring’s first signs. 9. Turner’s
best paintings. 10. his life’s purpose. 11. the Government’s interests. 12. the
Hundred Years’ War. 13. Africa’s future. 14. the shop-girls’ blouses. 15. his
child’s time-table. 16. the sun’s rays. 17. his car’s performance. 18. my
relatives’ intentions.
Ex. 42: 1. the day’s fighting 2. a sale of women’s shoes 3. a day’s meals 4.
meal of the day 5. the film’s defenders I defenders of the film 6. a man’s
height 7. the city’s largest high school / the largest high school in (of) the city
8. the world’s affairs / the affairs of the world 9. millions of pounds’worth of
stuff 10. two or three minutes’ playing 11. cost of another’s misery 12. sheep’s
wool 13. White’s attempts; queen’s flank / the flank of the queen; Black’s
counterplay 14. a fireman’s helmet 15. -a two day’s beard 16. the book’s
publication / the publication of the book 17. Labour Government’s pro
gramme 18. the realities of power 19. the ship’s power I the power of the
ship 20. my lawyer’s (office).
Ex. 43: a) 1. baker’s 2. tobacconist’s 3. butcher’s 4. chemist’s 5. stationary’s
6. draper’s 7. cleaner’s 8. tailor’s 9. cobbler’s/shoemaker’s 10. aunt’s/ uncle’s I
cousin’s, etc.
b) 1. St. Paul’s 2. Selfridge’s 3. Great St. Mary’s 4. St. John’s 5. St. Luke’s.
Ex. 44: 1. Would you sell this old painting for/to me? 2. Call a taxi for me,
please. 3. Did you tell the good news to your friends? 4. The maid forgot
to give the message to Ann. 5. There is nobody who could write the essay
for me. 6. He bought a parrot for me. 7. She handed the file to him. 8. You
offered a new job to him. 9. He chose a funny-looking hat for me. 10. Alother
saved some cakes for John.
Ex. 45: 1. a/b 2. b 3. b 4. a/b 5. a/b 6. He taught his son the game.
7. a/b 8. a/b 9. b 10. b
Ex. 46: 1. to 2. for 3. to 4. to 5. for 6. for 7. to 8. for 9. to 10. to
Ex. 47: 1. The wedding of our friends’ children took place a fortnight/two
weeks ago. 2. Our typist’s two months’ medical leave of absence caused a lot
of trouble. 3. The new car of the administrator of our faculty students’ hostel
is really beautiful. 4. Please tell Mr. Jones, the bank manager’s driver,
to have the car washed. 5. Have you met my sister’s English teacher?
6. Here are the results of today’s matches. 7. A six hours’ trip by plane is, nat
urally, tiring at her age. 8. After a twenty minutes’ walk we reached the
plateau. 9. We could do with half an hour’s rest. 10. Flying over the city
we had a bird’s-eye-view of New York’s most important buildings. 11. Her
eyes remind me of the blue of the forget-me-nots. 12. The theatre-goers’ admira
tion for this young actor is fully justified. 13. They have always been neglectful
of the rights of the poor.
Ex. 48: 1. Do you remember old Peter, George and Paul’s father, who
used to tell fairy tales to all the children in the neighbourhood ? 2. The writer
related to the audience the plot of his future novel, explaining to the young
people especially the evolution of the main heroes, Cristina and Anton.
3. The children will offer their teacher a bunch of flowers after she has delivered
the welcome speech to the parents. 4. Romania’s trade with Latin American
countries contributes to the strengthening of the friendship with these coun
tries. 5. All the members of the teaching staff were the guests of their col
leagues at a vocational school in Cluj. 6. The author of the invention explained
to his superior the principles of the new system and he offered proofs of
the efficiency of his method to those of his colleagues who were sceptical
of the results. 7. We had better meet at George’s; it’s only a five minutes’
walk from the station.
Ex. 49: 1. Deer can be pests. 2. When the public make complaints their views
must be taken into account. 3. His mathematics are very poor. I Mathemat
ics is his weak subject. 4. The staff were unanimous in condemning him.
5. The Smiths are not upstarts. 6. The United States has a large area of pro
ductive land. 7. Dynamo keep their second place. & Romania are leading and
they are sure to get the gold. 9. When was the steel-works at Reșița
built? 10. There is a six months’ waiting list. 11. The world’s first vertical
flight was carried out by a Romanian. 12. Women candidates are not sup
posed to take an oral examination. 13. Are you going to your uncle’s
tonight? 14. You can get it at any jeweller’s. 15. Here is the main news.
16. Daisy’s dolls’ house living-room is dense with yesterday’s cigarette smoke.
17. She went on up as far as Selfridge’s. 18. Money doesn’t make you happy.
19. How many fish did you catch yesterday? 20. She’s got a mind like
a man’s. 21. A lot of young people volunteered to help with the digging.
22. In a hundred years time there will be infinitely more data on vertical
take-offs.
The Article
Ex 1: 1. a, the/a; 2. the; 3. the; 4. the, the, the; 5. the; 6. a; 7. the;
8. the; 9. a; 10. a/the; 11. the; 12. the, a; 13. a, a; 14. the, the, the,
the; 15. the.
Ex. 2: 1. a) A; b) Verdicts have ... 2. a) A......... a/The......... the;
b) Tigers are....... lynxes; 3. a) A; b) Witnesses........ they themselves. 4. a) The;
5. a) A/the; b) Leopards are cats; 6. a) the; 7. a) the; 8. a) 0, 0 9. a) 0, 0;
10. a) 0, the; 11. a) A; b) People do......... they have ......... ; 12. a) 0;
13. a) a; 14. b) Rubber tyres do not........... ; 15. a) A; b) First offenders
............. ; 16. a) The, the.
Ex. 3: 1. 0, 0; 2. a; 3. 0 ; 4. 0; 5. a; 6. 0, a; 7. a; 8. a; 9. 0; 10. an;
11. 0; 12. a, a, a; 13. a; 14. 0; 15. 0; 16. a; 17. a; 18. an.
Ex. 4: 1. 0; 2. 0, 0; 3. the; 4. the; 5. the; 6. 0; 7. 0; 8. the; 9. 0, 0;
10. the; 11. 0; 12. 0; 13. 0, the; 14. 0; 15. 0; 16. 0, 0; 17. 0, the;
18. the/a; 19. 0, the; 20. the; 21. 0; 22. the, the; 23. (the), 0; 24. 0;
25. 0, 0; 26.0; 27. the; 28, the, 0; 29. 0; 30. the, 0, 0, 0.
Ex. 5: 1. the, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, the; 2. the, the, the, 0, 0,; 3. the, the;
4. the, the; 5. the, the; 6. 0, 0, 0, the, the, the, 0, the; 7. 0, the, the;
8. the, the, 0; 9. 0, 0; 10. the, the.
Ex. 6: 1. 0; 2. 0, the; 3. 0; 4. 0; 5. 0, the, 0; 6. 0; 7. 0,0; 8. 0;
9. 0; 10. the; 11. 0, 0; 12. the; 13. the; 14. 0.
Ex. 7:
a) With the definite article b) With the zero article
Museums and galleries
The British Museum, The Tate Gal
lery, The National Portrait Gallery;
Theatre halls
The Old Vic Theatre, The Not
tingham Playhouse, The National Covent Garden;
Film Theatre, The Albert Hall;
The Royal Opera House
Libraries Trinity College Library;
The Cambridge University Library;
Gardens and parks Hyde Park, Kew Gardens;
The Royal Botanic Garden(s);
Palaces, halls Buckingham Palace, Westminster
The Palace of Christiansborg; Hall, Windsor Castle;
Newspapers and periodicals Morning Star, Woman’s Weekly,
The Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Punch, News of the World, English
Sun, The Sunday Times, The Spec Teaching Forum;
tator ;
Streets, squares, monuments Oxford Street, Piccadily Circus, West
The Strand, The Washington Monu minster Bridge, Trafalgar Square,
ment; The Lincoln Memorial, The Broadway, Regent Avenue, St. John’s
Townhall Square; Road, Charing Cross;
Institutions
The British Broadcasting Corpora
tion, The United Nations Organiza Scotland Yard;
tion, The Royal Greenwich Observa
tory;
Ex. 9: a) 1. 0; 0; 0; 0; 0;0; 2. a; a; an; the; a; the; 3. the; the; the;
4. the; 0; 0; a; the; 5. the; the; the; the; the;0; the; the;
b) 1. 0; the; the; the; the; the; the; 0; 2. the; 0; 0; the; 3. 0; the;
the; the; the; 4. 0; a; 0; 5. the; the; a; 6. a;the;
Ex. 10: 1. the; the; 2. the; a; a; the; 3. the; 4. a; the; 5. a; 0; the; a;
the; 6. 0; 0; 0; the; the; 7. the; a; 0; 8. the; 0; 9. 0; 0; 10. the;
the; 11. 0; the; 12. 0; a; 0; 13. 0;
Ex. 11: 1. 0; 0; 2. a; the; 3. 0; 4. the; 5. 0; 6. 0; 7. a / the / 0;8. a; a;
the; 9. 0; 0; 10. a; 11. 0/the; 0/the; 12. 0; 13. the; 14. 0; 15.
0; 0; the; 16. 0; 0; a; 17. a; 0; the; the; 0; the; the; the; the; the;
the; 18. a; 0; a; 19. the; a; 20. 0; the; 21. 0; 0; 22. the; a; 0; the;
23. 0; 0; 24. the; 0; 0;
Ex. 12: 1. 0; the; a; the; 0; the; 2. the; a; 0; 0; 0; 0; 3. 0; the;
0; 0; 0; 0; the; a; 0; the; 0; the; a; 4. 0; 0; 0; a; the; 0.
Ex. 13: the; a; the; a; 0; 0; a; the; the; a; 0; the; a; a; an; the; the; 0;
b) the; the; the; the; a; a; a; the; the; the;
Ex. 14: 1. the; 0; 0; an; a; 0; a; the; the; 2. 0; the; the; (the); the;
3. the; the; the; the; an; 0; a; 0; 0; 4. the; 0; a; the; 0; 5. 0; the; 0;
the; a; 0;
Ex. 15:1. 0; 0; 0; 2. the; 3. 0; 0; 4. a; a; a; 5. the;the; the; the; the; the;
6. the; 0; the; the; 7. 0; 0; 8. 0;a; 0; the; 9. 0; 10. the; 0; 11. 0
12. the; 0; 13. the; the; 14. 0; 15. 0; 16. the; a; the; the; 0; the; the;
17. 0; a; 18. 0; 0; 0; 19. 0; 0; 0; 0; 20. a; a; 21. 0; 22. 0; 23. the;
0; 0; 0; 0; 24. 0/the; 0; a; 0; the; 25. 0; the; 0; the;
Ex. 16: 1. the; 0; 2. the; a; 3. 0; 4. the; 5. 0; the; 0; 6. a; 0; the;
7. the; a; 0; 0; 0; 8. the; 9. 0; 10. a; 11; a; a; 0; 12. 0; 13. 0; the;
14. 0; 0; 0; 0; 0; 0; 0;15. the; the; 16. the; 17. a; 18. a; the; 19. the;
the; 20. 0; the; 0; the; 21. 0; 0; 22. the; the; the; 23. 0; 24. a; a;
25. 0; the; 26. a; 0; 27. the; 0; the; 0; 28. a; 0; 29. a; the;
Ex. 17: 1. I’ve been told that a special announcement was made on the radio
this morning. 2. Doctor Taylor works in a hospital in London, near the Old
Vic Theatre. 3. He enjoys life but he hasn’t had an exciting life. 4. We all
admire order and discipline and we hate chaos and untidiness. 5. What will
you do for lime and cement? 6. You should stay indoors in wet weather. 7. It
has always been mankind’s dream to explore space. 7. The United Nations
seeks to fasten unity among states and to transcend barriers of politics, nation,
race and culture. 9. Beans, no matter how you cook them, taste like beans.
10. The lion is a species of cat. 11. What time is it? (Do you have the time?).
12. She is interested in the study of nature, but she does not leave out human
nature. 13. Poets should sing of the dignity of man. 14. Is he a good teacher?
15. They travelled by day / night. 16. A (the) lynx is larger than a (the) cat.
17. I pronounce you man and wife. 18. The river has been venerated by poets,
peasants and musicians / by poet, peasant and musician. 19. Winter comes
after autumn. 20. She is in bad health. 21. Pollution in the last 40 years has
created more damage to the marble monuments in the Acropolis hill than in
the past four centuries. 22. I wish I had a top quality Baba. 23. The Communist
prisoners were driven from prison to prison to prevent their getting organized.
24. On his way home, Mr. X, chairman of the recent meeting of the apiarists,
which took place at Suceava, in Northern Moldavia, will take a brief stopover
at Otopeni International Airport.
Ex. 18: 1. Last night there was a premiere performance of a new opera by
Ion Dumitrescu. 2. Rules are not made to be broken. 3. The very best of
luck to you! 4. Wheat is ground to flour. 5. He was asked to act as interpreter.
6. We must inspire youth with a sense of duty. 7. Don’t give a word for word
translation of the text. 8. Creangă was born in the village of Humulești.
9. They gave a cocktail party at the Athenee Palace restaurant. 10. I live close
to Grozăvești Bridge. 11. Don’t write in pencil, write in ink. 12. We consider
him to be a good sportsman. 13. Please come in one at a time. 14. I wouldn’t
like to bring her face to face with him. 15. It is not on Broadway that you
see the most interesting shows. 16. The trade of a potter is not something of
a rarity in Romania. 17. Tîrgoviște, a town renowned for its historical monu
ments, will in the near future become a powerful industrial centre. 18. I’m
not in a position to tell you whether these methods have been introduced on
a large scale or not. 19. As a rule people are told to visit the British Museum,
Westminster Abbey, Piccadilly Circus and the Tate (Gallery). 20. He will
encourage the young specialists if he is appointed manager.
Ex. 19: 1. I’ll tell you some other time; now I’m in a hurry. 2. You ought to
work much and bring your experiments to an end. 3. I can’t come over to
your place because I’ve got a terrible headache. 4. I’m sorry but you made a
fool of yourself. 5. A short time ago I saw her brother, too. 6. Why is he making
such a fuss about his success? 7. Tom would love to have a ride on your bicycle.
8. It is high time you put an end to this ridiculous situation. 9. Sorry but I’m
not in a position to tell you.
Ex. 20:1. I can hardly believe this cloth costs £3 a meter.2. Dan practised the
violin 6 hours a day. 3. We meet once a week at the Oituz Pass Inn. 4. I want
half a dozen needles. 5. This line should be said in a loud, confident voice.
6. What a strange creature! 7. His inability to speak foreign languages puts
him at a disadvantage. 8. This was a real surprise! 9. Needles are a penny a
dozen. 10. Leave him alone. He’s in a bad temper. 11. They are not going to
give us the dictionary in exchange for the picture books. 12. Flat 3 is on the
ground floor. 13. The train came in on time. 14. The noun “rickets” takes a
verb in the singular. 15. He was at a loss for a word to voice his dissatisfaction.
Ex. 21: Ipu gathers up the weapons, takes them to their hiding place, shuts
the lid and covers everything with earth and grass; then he takes me by the
hand and we start towards the yellowish watercourse and the nearer we get
the more attentive we are. We look where the wind blows from and where
the sun is and where the water is.
Other Determinatives
Ex. 6: 1. (of) the 2. (of) the 3. of the 4. (of) the 5. 0 6. of the. 7. the 8. of the
9. of the / each student 10. (of the) 11. (of) 12. the 13. (of the) 14. (of the).
Ex. 7: 1. his 2. his 3. the 4. my; her, her 5. the 6. their; their; their; their
7. the 8. your 9. the 10. our 11. your 12. his 13. the 14. my 15. the.
Ex. 8: 1. The towels all . . . 2. The children are both ... 3. The participants
each receive ... 4. The scarves all came ... 5. The boys can both ... 6. The
typists should each be given ... 7. The students both looked ... 8. The wit
nesses all lost... 9. The guests each want... 10. The tenants all say ....
Ex. 9: 1. The explosion broke every glass. 2. That’s the sort of job every
student likes doing. 3. That is my favourite pastime every Sunday. 4. Every
man was thinking hard. 5. The students have filled in every blank correctly.
6. Every medal is made of metal. 7. Every wind is ill to a broken ship.
8. Every man cannot be a master. 9. Every Stuart is not a sib to the king.
10. Every thing has its place.
Ex. 10: 1. each 2. every, every 3. all 4. each 5. each 6. all 7. every
8. every 9. every 10. all 11. every 12. all 13. every 14. each 15. every 16.
all 17. every 18. each I every 19. every 20. all.
Ex. 11: a) 1. each 2. both 3. all; each 4. both 5. all
b) 1. all 2. both 3. each 4. all 5. each / all 6. all / each.
Ex. 12: 1. some 2. some 3. no 4. any 5. any 6. some 7. no 8. no 9. some
10. no I some 11. any 12. no 13. any 14. some 15. some / no 16. any
17. some / no 18. no 19. any 20. any.
Ex. 13: 1. any 2. any 3. some 4. some 5. some 6. any 7. some 8. any
9. any 10. some 11. any 12. some 13. any 14. some 15. any 16. any 17. any
18. some 19 any 20. any 21. some.
Ex. 14: 1. a little / some 2. few 3. many 4. some / a little 5. much 6. much
7. some / a few / few 8. few / some 9. a few / some / few / many 10. little
11. some 12. much I little / some 13. little 14. many / some / few
15. little, little 16. much, much 17. little 18. few.
Ex. 15: 1. (far) fewer / more 2. less 3. (much) less 4. fewer 5. most 6. less
7. more 8. most 9. (far) fewer 10. less, fewer, more 11. fewer 12. (the) most.
Ex. 16: 1. little 2. many (of the) 3. a few 4. much of the 5. little 6. (a) few of
the 7. a few 8. a little (of the) 9. much of the 10. a few 11.few / a few
1-2. much of the 13. little of the 14. few of the 15. many of the.
Ex. 18: 1. a good deal of 2. lots of 3. neither of 4. several 5. enough
6. more 7. a great deal of 8. each of.
Ex. 19: 1. Is there any / no milk in the house? 2. Some books are quite cheap.
3. Have you had to close any ward? 4. This painting will be the pride of any
collection. 5. He left the conference for no apparent reason. 6. I don’t know
if any of our guests got any rest before dinner. 7. If you have some recently-
recorded tapes we can throw a party. 8. He plays without any emotional
charge at all. 9. Won’t you have some turkey, too? 10. He has scarcely made
any progress at all. 11. I doubt he has taken any pill. 12. Didn’t I give you
some money yesterday too? 13. I never see a flower-seller without buying
some flowers. 14. He has never listened to any of my tapes. 15. It is raining
too hard to plant any flower this morning.
Ex. 20: 1. All the money is in coins of no value / The money is all in . . .
2. Both (of the) children / Both the children / The children both need glasses.
3. Each of the guests was given a flower / The guests were each given . . .
4. All the records have been sold / The records have all been sold. 5. Both
(of the) children are extremely diligent / The children are both ... 6. All (of)
our friends were taken aboard / Our friends were all taken aboard. 7. Every
member of the expedition should try to rest a little / The members of the expe
dition should all try to rest / All the members should ... 8. Both (of the)
hunters I Both the hunters have come home empty-handed / The hunters
have both come ... 9. The three drivers were each fined fifty lei / Each of
the three drivers was ... 10. Because of the fog flights have been cancelled /
/Every flight has been cancelled ... 11. Boots, Rusty and Fatty are all profi
cient in history. 12. The Browns each have their own circle of friends.
Ex. 21: 1. Few contests are taken more seriously. 2. A large number of the
workers in our plant are taking evening, courses. 3. She treats me most of the
time as if I were her younger sister. 4. A few of our friends are staying with ns
for a couple of days, and you must meet them all. 5. I don’t envy her, though
she has heaps I loads / lots of money. 6. Is there much / a lot of money in the
bank? 7. Peter has bags of spare time but he can’t use it properly. 8. They
are going to give away a great number of / lots of presents at New Year. 9. I
have a great deal of confidence in you. 10. With three days to go before the
conference there is still mountains of I a lot of / plenty of work to do. 11. There
was a certain amount of stiffness during the rehearsal. 12. A great many / a
lot of / lots of people have an interest in their local radio. 13. Several news
papers have carried feature reports on this site. 14. The outlook for tomorrow:
sunny in most places. 15. There is a lot of / a great deal of archaelology to do
in Dobrudja. 16. One fifth of our films is exported. 17. There isn’t much '
There is little hope for his recovery. 18. I’m going to my bedroom to have a
little rest before I change for dinner. 19. Fewer people today are interested in
artists’ lives. 20. The film caused a considerable amount of controversy.
The Adjective
Ex. 1: thoughtful, thoughtless; ladylike; icy; Turkish; Parliamentary;
harmful, harmless; foggy; Swedish; speechless; chalklike, chalky; snobbish;
windless, windy; authoritarian; soldierlike, soldierly; chilly; hopeful, hopeless;
daily; plentiful; wooded, woodless; selfless, selfish; brotherless, brotherlike,
brotherly; childish, childless, childlike; lovely; foolish; pointed, pointless;
heavenly; ghostly; monthly; delightful; walled; hourly; restful, restless.
Ex. 2: anxious, atomic, philosophical, famous, musical, industrious, emphatic,
suspicious, heroic, diplomatic.
Ex. 3: verifiable; refreshing; submissive; encouraging; moving, movable;
mournful; possessive; attractive; comfortable, comforting; forgetful; advis
able; exciting; breakable.
Ex. 4:1. classical 2. comic 3. economical 4. historical, historic 5. classic 6. eco
nomic 7. comical 8. electric 9. electrical.
Ex. 6: a) struck, died, drunk, shaved, loaded, cleft, melted, loved, sunk,
swelled.
b) stricken, dead, drunken, shaven, laden, cloven, molton, beloved, sunken,
swollen.
Ex. 7: a) (the) -er, -est: sly(ier), red(d), thin(n), big(g), early, easy, low, fast,
high;
b) (the) more I most + Adj.: convenient, foolish, active, afraid, wounded,
startling, stupid, correct, alive, fertile, eager, tiring, comic, docile, proper,
distinct;
c) a)lb): wicked, vague, common, pretty, healthy, worthy, pleasant, minute,
cruel(l) remote, simple, tender, calm, sore, just, sincere.
Ex. 8: 1. better, best 2. worse, worst 3. less, least 4. nearer, nearest, next
5. more, most 6. farther / further, farthest I furthest 7. later / latter, latest I
last 8. older I elder, oldest I eldest.
Ex. 9:1. latest 2. elder / eldest 3. last 4. the older 5. oldest 6. further 7. older
8. eldest, older 9. latter 10. further 11. nearest 12. further 13. next 14. latest,
best, last 15. lesser 16. farthest 17. further.
Ex. 10:1. best 2. fastest 3. easier 4. more expensive 5. most interesting 6. most
striking 7.taller 8. lovelier / more lovely 9. most important 10. angrier 11. last
12. best, worst; best, worst 13. farther 14. youngest, oldest.
Ex. 11: 1 as good as, better than, less good than I not so good as (less-forms
are not recommended with one-syllable adjectives) 2. as narrow as, narrower
than, not so narrow as, less narrow than 3. as industrious as, more industrious
than, not so industrious as, less industrious than 4. as expensive as, more ex
pensive than, not so expensive as, less expensive than 5. as gentle as, gentler
than, not so gentle as, less gentle than 6. as simple as, simpler I more simple
than, not so simple as, less simple than 7. as tender as, tenderer / more tender
than, not so tender as, less tender than.
Ex. 12: 1. The longer the speech is, the more tedious it is. 2. The weaker
the patient, the greater his dependence on the nurse. 3. The stormer the
weather, the more dangerous the trip. 4. The humbler a man is, the haughtier
her manner becomes. 5. The more scarce the food is getting, the wilder the
beasts become. 6. The prompter the answer, the higher the grade. 7. The more
proper the word, the more exact the translation is. 8. The narrower the path
was getting, the more hostile the horse was becoming. 9. The more eager the
child, the more intricate the questions he asks. 10. The more fertile the land,
the less the amount of fertilizer given to it.
Ex. 13: 1. sharper and sharper / more and more sharp 2. more and more
excited 3. more and more tired 4. darker and darker 5. more and more I ever
more I far more important 6. louder and louder 7. plainer and plainer I more
and more plain I ever plainer / ever more plain 8. faster and faster, idler and
idler 9. slower and slower 10. stiffer and stiffer.
Ex. 14: 1. The easiest thing to do would be to send a note. 2. Which is the
clumsier of the two? 3. Follow the narrowest path. 4. Speak up your mind
but avoid the bitterest reproaches. 5. Try to look more eager. 6. A house in
the suburbs is quieter / more quiet than a central flat. 7. He always misses the
subtler things. 8. She is a more steady / steadier worker than Ann. 9. She is
more afraid than I am. 10. On further inquiry, he found she had failed the
exam. 11. We avoided only the lesser of the two evils. 12. You know best that
I have seen worse (things).
Ex. 15: 1. Were you busier than me at that time? 2. He is not so tall as his
brother. 3. In my opinion she must be older than he I him. 4. This has been
the hottest day so far. 5. Is it smaller or larger than our bedroom? 6. Ann is
the shyest of our daughter’s friends. 7. It doesn’t seem as cold as it was this
time last year. 8. I’ve got two oranges; you can have the bigger (one). 9. Our
neighbour’s children are noisier than ours. 10. That hotel was much more
smart / posh. 11. A portable TV set is heavier than a walkie-talkie. 12. It was
by far the pleasantest / the most pleasant winter holiday we had spent in the
mountains.
Ex. 16: 1. Although my brother is three years older than me I my elder by
three years, he looks much younger than me. 2. Quite unexpectedly, the latter
half of July was very cold. 3. For the time being this is the latest news; let’s
hope further details will be coming in. 4. Is it true that the thriller that has
been recently published is your last work? Do you intend to give up writing?
5. From the first moment I realized you wanted to enter the next building
which was in fact the nearest bank in that part of the town. 6. I could only
choose between Sinaia and Breaza. Of course, I choose the former. 7. The harsh
er his voice, the more docile she becomes. 8. He is getting more and more
discreet while she is getting wickeder and wickeder / more and more wicked.
9. A more handsome fellow I have never seen! 10. Put it in simpler words.
Ex. 17: 1. a) b); 2. a); 3. b); 4. a); 5. a); 6. a); 7. a); b); 8. b); 9. b);
10. a); 11. a); 12. a); 13. b); 14. b); 15. a); 16. a); 17. a) b); 18. a).
Ex. 20: 1. a good washable blue cotton skirt 2. small frightened blue eyes
3. a large striped Asiatic quadruped 4. deep, cold, turbulent, greyish waters
5. tall, dark, volcanic rocks 6. a bright young Greek student 7. an age-old,
fifteen-foot pale-red brick wall 8. a little brownish Roman marble statue 9. a
wiry intelligent elderly Polish logician 10. a wide fluffy orange
Peruvian woollen shawl.
Ex. 21: 1. with, at 2. with 3. of 4. of 5. at 6. about 7. for 8. about 9. for
10. at 11. with 12. at 13. at.
Ex. 25: 1. I’m afraid I won’t be able to help him. 2. She was reluctant to
baby-sit for her neighbour. 3. I am not sure whether I grasped its meaning
or not. 4. Are you afraid of dogs? 5. Don’t be so anxious about his exam;
he’ll get through. 6. He was happy to write the essay for me. 7. He is impa
tient of ceremonies. 8. I am depressed that you should not have risen to the
occasion. 9. I am not very happy about the food, today. 10. She was so glad
that her daughter had been given the grant that she cried for joy. 11. He was
absolutely indignant at their having misled him. 12. I am happy that you
could make it. 13. They were sorry to hear about your husband’s accident.
14. We are aware that there are difficulties ahead. 15. They were sorry that
your husband had been in an accident. 16. We are glad, indeed, to have you
with us. 17. Be careful not to break the tap. 18. We are desirous of peace
and cooperation among all the nations of the world.
The Pronoun
Ex. 1:1. it 2. he / she 3. he / she 4. he 5. he / she 6. she 7. she I it 8. they
9. she 10. they / we / you 11. they 12. he / she 13. he 14. them 15. she / it
16. it I he I she 17. they 18. they 19. he / she 20. it.
Ex. 2: 1. me 2. us 3. I 4. she (is) / her 5. us, me 6. me I I (you and I is felt
as a unit) 7. me 8. he, I (am) I me 9. me, he, me. 10. her, she 11. him 12. me I I
13. her, him 14. him I he 15. him 16. she / her 17. she (is) I her 18. me
Ex. 3: 1. a, b 2. a, b 3. a, b 4. b 5. a, b 6. b 7. b 8. a, b 9. a, b 10 b.
Ex. 5: 1. It was my younger brother who suggested it. 2. It was the first copy
of the minutes that he gave me. 3. It was the dog I gave the bone to. 4. It
was by hard work that he improved his English. 5. It was on her way home
that she met him. 6. It is to the swimming pool that John goes every after
noon. 7. It’s me mother gave the books to. 8. It was George, not Margaret
who found the solution / It wasn’t Margaret but George who found the solu
tion. 9. Is it an invasion that they are scared about? 10. It was when he accom
panied the detective to his cousin’s study that he realised how useful the girl
might be. 11. It was because Ann’s method had been so odd that his nerves
were on edge. 12. It was the man with a stick who came first.
Ex. G: 1. it 2. it 3. it 4. there 5. there 6. it 7. there 8. it 9. it 10. it;
there 11. it, there 12. there, there, it.
Ex. 7: 1. it 2. it 3. there 4. there 5 it 6. there 7. there 8. it 9. there
10. there, i* 11. it 12. it.
Ex. 9: 1. It seems that you have survived ... 2. It looks as if she were . . .
3. It is certain that we’ll miss ... 4. It appears that they are ... 5. It is
sure that he won’t set... 6. It is said that you have ... 7. It is difficult to
get along with him. 8. It is known that she has ... 9. It is sure that you’ll
make ... 10. It happens that I set . . .
Ex. 11: 1. Do you think it prudent to lie in the sun so long? 2. I think it
wrong that his children should be told this / to tell this to his children. 3. We
found it easy to swim across the river I It was easy for us to ... 4. You may
rely on it that we’ll be in time. 5. They considered it a great honour to be invited
to the party. 6. I’ll see to it that the children are well cared for I looked after.
7. The headmaster made it clear that special disciplinary measures were
necessary. 8. I think it wrong for you to give up studying foreign languages.
9. We considered it a mistake to learn the lectures by heart. 10. I thought it
odd for him to make a great show of zeal. 11. You may depend upon it that
he is going to flatter his friend. 12. I owe it to you that I have not made a fool
of myself.
Ex. 12: My mother and I don’t care for sweets. 2. It’s a long time to wait till
supper. 3. She says she is as tall as he (is) I him. 4. It’s a long way to Baia
Mare. 5. It’s they who made us review the book. 6. It’s a long journey from
Cluj-Napoca to Constanta. 7. Take a littlerest; there’s a long journey ahead of
you. 8. If I were her I should apply for the job. 9.1 explained the matter to her as
well as I could. 10. It seems that you are in for promotion I you seem to be in
for . . . 11. Everybody except me 11 has brought a blood sample. 12. It’s them
you are unfair to, not me. 13. It’s Sunday today; it’s the 6th of July I July
the 6th; it is summer. It has clouded up again, it’s sultry; it’s going to rain I it
looks like rain. 14. They have a surprise in store for you and me 11. 15. Send
a copy to me too. 16. Send me the first copy, please. 17. It’s a fortnight since
I sent them the manuscript. 18. She is said to have lost some weight / It is
said that she has lost... 19. It’s not much use swotting. 20. It’s a month to
May Day.
Ex. 13: 1. hers 2. ours 3. theirs 4. his 5. yours 6. mine 7. theirs 8. hers 9. mine
10. yours.
Ex. 14: 1. a friend of mine 2. a book of his 3. a dictionary of ours 4. an
old record of hers 5. some neighbours of theirs 6. a cousin of mine 7. a well-
-known commentator of yours 8. another little scheme of theirs 9. a favourite
pun of hers 10. a favourite tune of ours.
Ex. 15: 1. himself I herself 2. himself, himself, himself 3. ourselves 4. herself
5. themselves 6. oneself 7. himself I herself 8. yourself 9. herself 10. myself.
11. oneself. 12. ourselves 13. yourself / yourselves 14. himself 15. myself
16. itself I herself 17. yourselves 18. themselves 19. herself 20. ourselves.
Ex. 16: 1. himself 2. ourselves 3. myself 4. themselves 5. herself 6. ourselves
7. myself, myself 8. yourselves 9. herself 10. itself 11. himself 12. yourself I
yourselves 13. ourselves 14. myself.
Ex. 17: 1. herself 2. themselves 3. them 4. himself 5. you 6. you/yourself
7. myself 8. herself 9. I / myself 10. them 11. himself 12. us 13. you I yourself
14. himself 15. me I myself 16. ourselves
Ex. 18: 1. I (am) I me / myself 2. he (is) I him / himself 3. you I yourself 4. us
5. me, myself 6. he I him / himself 7. herself 8. me 9. ourselves 10. us
Ex. 19: 1. yes 2. no; yes 3. no 4. yes 5. yes 6. no 7. yes, yes 8. yes 9. no
10. no
Ex. 21: 1. He might have painted it himself. 2. Did anyone else see the actor
besides herself? 3. You ought to be ashamed of yourselves! 4.1 rather fancy the
idea myself. 5. If he takes a week off he will soon be himself again. 6. You
have given yourself a great deal of trouble! 7. She congratulated herself on
the success of her manoeuvre. 8. She strongly recommended the book; she
had enjoyed it herself. 9. Take care of yourself, my dear! 10. It’s not going to
be easy; so, don’t deceive yourself. 11. I know that myself, doctor. 12. Every
body was thinking of himself.
Ex. 22: 1. Tom and John have known each other since childhood and they
love each other as if they were brothers. 2. We could not hear one another
13 — Limba engleză pentru adm. In înv. superior 193
because of the children’s din. 3. The women whispered to each other behind
our backs. 4. The men nudged each other with their elbows. 5. The two men
turned and eyed each other for a while. 6. They understood one another. 7. We
were Captain Sennett and Mrs. Elmers to each other right up to the end. 8. We
said goodbye to each other for ever. 9. They were afraid of each other. 10. They
had an argument and do no longer speak to one another.
Ex. 23: 1. some 2. none 3. any (I don’t think I’ll find any). 4. some (I feel
certain we’ll find some). 5. some 6. none 7. some 8. none 9. any 10. some I none
11. none 12. any 13. any 14. some 15. some 16. any 17. any.
Ex. 24: 1. I don’t have anything against it. 2. She didn’t have anything to
do with this business. 3. The transformation does not apply in subject position.
4. They won’t do anything for money. 5. Haven’t you got anything to do?
6. He didn’t blame anybody / anyone for it. 7. He doesn’t, favour anybody.
8. She doesn’t look up to anybody. 9. (see 3). 10. We hadn’t done anything
out of the ordinary.
Ex. 25: 1. something 2. anyone 3. someone 4. anything; nothing. 5. somebody
6. someone 7. anything 8. anything 9. nothing 10. anyone 11. anything 12. any
thing / anybody 13. anything, anything 14. something 15. anybody / nobody
16. anything 17. no one, anything 18. anyone 19. anything, anything 20. no
body 21. somebody 22. anybody 23. anything 24. anything / nothing 25. some
thing.
Ex. 26: 1. something else 2. nothing else 3. everybody else 4. nobody else / no
one else 5. any one else / anybody else 6. anything else / something else 7. every
thing else 8. nothing else 9. no one else / nobody else 10. anything else 11. every
thing else 12. nobody else.
Ex. 27: 1. few 2. much; a little 3. many / a few 4. many; few 5. much 6. little
7. many; few 8. few 9. a little 10. few.
Ex. 28: 1. neither / either 2. none / neither 3. neither 4. a) either b) neither
5. none 6. neither 7. none 8. either.
Ex. 29: 1. the other 2. another 3. another 4. the others 5. the others 6. others
7. another 8. others 9. the others 10. the other 11. others 12. the other.
Ex. 30: 1 a big one 2. our new one 3. that one / the fair-haired one / the
one over there 4. Tina’s plain one 5. some healthy-looking ones / not. . . any
sickly looking ones / no skinny ones 6. a new one 7. Zeno’s expensive ones
8. This one / The sombre-coloured one / the one depicting heroic old age
9. his pink one 10. some old-time ones / not. . . any sad ones / no jarring ones
11. each (one) 12. the ones; those ones; the ones embroidered by my mother.
Ex. 31: 1. ones 2. one; it 3. one(s) 4. it 5. they; ones; them 6. one 7. one 8. it;
one 9. they; ones 10. it.
Ex. 32:1. one, oneself / you, yourself 2. one 3. they 4. you 5. they 6. one 7. they,
you 8. oneself, one, one. 9. they 10. you, they, you.
Ex. 33: 1. what 2. which 3. what 4. which 5. which 6. which 7. what 8. what
9. which 10. what 11. which 12. what.
Ex. 34: 1. whichever 2. whoever 3. whoever 4. whatever 5. whatever 6. whoever
7. whichever 8. whatever 9. whoever 10. whichever
Ex. 35: 1. whose 2. that / which 3. that / which 4. whom / the girl you saw
me with 5. whom 6. who 7. which 8. that 9. who 10. that / whom 11. that
12. that 13. whose 14. that / which 15. whose 16. (that) 17. (that) 18. that
19. (that) 20. (that), who.
Ex. 36: 1. The works (that) this unit belongs to was commissioned in 1970.
2. The rope (that) they had tied him with had cut into his skin. 3. The enemies
(that) he guards his master from are not really dangerous. 4. The car (that)
we collided with was badly damaged. 5. The man (that) she had deserted her
husband for did not really love her. 6. They didn’t say a word about the weather
conditions (that) they had had to adjust to. 7. The children (that) our son is
playing with are quite well-behaved. 8. The people (that) she associates with
are so unpleasant. 9. The reform (that) he had spoken to his headmaster about
was never carried out. 10. The tankard (that) you are drinking out of once
belonged to a famous pirate.
Ex. 37: 1. whose 2. that/which 3. that / whom 4. who 5. that 6. that/
which 7. (that / which) 8. (that) 9. (that) 10. (that I which) 11. who 12. whose
13. (that) 14. that/ who 15. (that)
Ex. 38: 1. The woman (that I whom) I met in front of the shop was smartly
dressed. 2. How can you work with a man (that / whom) you cannot stand?
3. The girl whose photo you’ve seen in the (news)paper has defeated some of
the best tennis players in Europe. 4. He did not really disturb me; the play
(that I which) I was listening to was awfully dull. 5. The young man who
took the floor yesterday had nothing new to say. 6. This is the play (that /
which) I was thinking of / This is the play of which I was thinking (formal).
7. I talked to him about the subject (that / which) I was interested in. 8. Will
you let me have the article (that / which) John referred to yesterday? /. . ,
the article to which John referred yesterday? (formal). 9. The books (that/
which) he spoke to us about are excellent / The books about which he spoke
to us... (formal). 10. Those who have finished their work may go home. 11. Do
you know the man who left his car in front of your garage? 12. The car (that /
which) he is driving is not his. 13. The sort of fabric / material (that / which)
you are looking for has gone out of fashion. 14. That is all (that) I know.
15. This is the picture that caused all the trouble. 16. Which was the best
hotel (that) you lived in?
Ex. 39: 1. There was something at the far end of the street but he couldn’t
make out what it was. 2. You I one cannot see the city for the houses. 3. Which
chair was I sitting on? 4. No one else thinks money can buy anything. 5. We
couldn’t hear one another / each other because of the noise of the engines. 6. I
am ashamed of myself for being so clumsy. 7. Which library did you borrow
the book from? 8. I rather doubt anything has been changed. 9. It is three
weeks since the ship has been fishing in the Atlantic. 10. The programme
included a symphony by Schubert and a piano concerto by Beethoven; I
really enjoyed the latter. 11. If we don’t economize we might find ourselves
without water. 12. He is too tired to translate anything tonight. 13. “Who
have you bought them for? /Who are they for?” “For the little ones.” 14. I see
you are making preparations. Is somebody coming here tonight? 15. I thought
you wanted no one else to help you. 16. “How far is it to Ploiești?” “It’s some
60 km I about 60 km.” 17. It’s only twenty five minutes since we started
moving. 18. He ran away from home without saying anything to anybody,
not even to his closest friend.
HR*
Ex. 40: 1. Anybody who will see the album is sure to praise it. 2. Alice offered
Desmond some thrillers but he didn’t choose any. 3. There’s no need to hire
a record-player, we’ve got yours. 4. It is I who bought you the tape, but it
was she who chose the brand. 5. I pride myself on having made the cake
without anybody’s help. 6. He himself realized it I He realized it himself.
7. Both (of them) were guilty I They were both guilty. 8. Nobody has learned
anything for the time being. 9. “Who’s knocking at the window?” “(It’s) only
me!” 10. Stop fighting each other over tin soldiers! 11. Little is known about
the Snow Man of the Himalayas. 12. His books don’t sell well; few, if any,
have been translated into other languages. 13. It is quite obvious that those
who attend the seminars regularly will have better results. 14. All (of them)
are packed. / They are all packed. 15. Which is the way to the post office?
16. When I met my fellow students Brian and Egbert, the former was dressed
in a raincoat, though the sun was shining bright. 17. What were the children
drinking out of? 18. Here’s your coffee; if you want anything else, help your
self. 19. It’s an hour’s drive away. 20. We are grateful to each other for the
little services that we do one another.
The Verb
I.Ex. 1:1. want; 2. walks; 3. is moving; 4. speaks, is speaking; 5. Are you drink
ing; 6. Do you understand?;7.plays; 8. is sleeping; 9. don’t hear, are saying;
10. are turning, (are) falling; 11. am wearing, is raining; 12. is burning, see,
is coming; 13. do not drink; 14. are spending, are going; 15. Are you going?
Ex. 2: 1. is coming; 2. ripe; 3. comes; 4. see, opens; 5. walk, am going;
6. see, are wearing, are you going, am going, is throwing, feel, is speaking;
7. see, mean, feel, are you see; 8. run; 9. are forgetting; 10. do not grow;
11. stops; 12. is feeling; are you thinking? 13. is always complaining; 14. don’t
you stay; 15. deserves; 16. are seeing; 17. come.
Ex. 3: 1. It’s not polite to look at people when they are eating. 2. No, you’re
not disturbing me, I’m only watching the water as it hits the shore. 3. You
may sit down, it is the chair I use.myself when I have visitors. 4. “I feel
better today”. “But you are looking worse”. 5. What’s the matter? Aren’t
you going to the theater any more? 6. You are quite thin, George, are you
eating enough? 7. John goes tqJthe far end of the room and pours out a glass
of water. He is evidently thirsty. 8. Wait for me, I want to talk to you! I trust
you; I’m coming to you as soon as my office hours are over. 9. Shut the win
dows. I feel a draught. I feel it distinctly. 10. When one is dictating one should
speak clearly.
Ex. 4: 1. The stag is studded with precious stones larger and more beautiful
than these. They say he has one on his forehead that shines like the sun. But
no one can approach the stag, for he is bewitched and no weapon can pierce
him. Besides, when the stag catches sight of a man, that’s the end of him. That
is why people run away from him as fast as they can (Fairy Tales and Legends
from Romania, page 212). 2. Matei Boiu is talking to the servant. Ioana wants
to go out, she realizes how late it is and goes to the room on the left. 3. Mitică
who sits down at his desk lost in thoughts, with emotion realizes how grieved
his employer is. He watches her as she climbs the stairs sadly. He hesitates.
Makes a decision . . . hesitates again . . . nervously rubs his right hand . . .
bites his lips . . . stands up . . . sits down again ... he finally makes up his
mind . . . goes into the manager’s room, goes up to him. 4. The gentleman is
walking up and down the platform looking stealthily now at the gate through
which the passangers are coming, then at the window behind which the man
with the sack is standing, while the latter absent-mindedly is looking out of
the window at the busy movement on the platform.
II. Ex. 5: 1. has not been; 2. has read / has been reading; 3. have looked I
have been looking, have not found; 4. have been running; 5. has bfe^n sifting;
6. have known; 7. has taught / has been teaching; 8. have been building,
have finished; 9. has not come, has already arrived; 10. has been standing;
11. have not bought; 12. hhve not played I have not been playing, have been;
13. have not spoken; 14. has smoked / has been smoking; 15. has wasted I has
been wasting.
Ex. 6: 1. for; 2. since; 3. for; 4. for; 5. since; 6. since; 7. for; 8. since;
10. since; 11, since; 12. for.
Ex. 7: 1. have been going round; 2. has come; 3. hasn’t altered; 4. have
been wanting; 5. have had; 6. has tried I has been trying; 7. haven’t forgotten;
8. I’ve been looking everywhere for; 9. has only said, has been keeping;
10. I’ve been pretty well living and feeding; 11. you’ve guided; 12. have
never shown; 13. has ever done; 14. I’ve been trying.
Ex. 8: 1. have been doing, for; 2. have been meaning, for; 3. has allowed,
has been doing,. . . since; 4. has been going, have been away, for; 5. have
been watching you, for; 6. for,. . . has been going I has gone; 7. has steadily
drunk,. . . since; 8. since,. . . has been hanging about; 9. have been irritating,
...for; 10. have been awarding,... for; 11. for,... have been doing.
Ex. 9: 1. My sister has been packing since morning, but she has not finished
yet. 2. They have been discussing this question ever since you have been here
and they have not reached any definite conclusion yet. 3. This is the house
where I live; I have been living here since childhood. 4. “Have you lost some
thing?” “Yes, my fountain-pen”. “Have you looked for it everywhere? How
long have you been looking for it ?” 5. It has been snowing hard, for fivehours so
that I have not gone out all day long. 6. I have not seen her since she got married.
I have not seen her since she has been married. 7. She is punctual usually,
but this morning she hasn’t arrived yet. 8. Where have you spent your holi
days this summer? 9. The man who is speaking to my wife is our neighbour
who lives next door. 10. What are you doing? Has your brother not answered
yet? How long have you been trying to get in touch with him? 11. I pro
nounce you man and wife. 12. I do no't like to live here at this time of the
year. It is continually raining. 13. The baby has started crying and it is
still crying, though it seldom cries at nigM.44-IMyou read English books in
the original? What are you reading now? 15ûncle is a writer. He has been
writing a novel for the last two years, but Ber has not finished it yet. He has
not gathered all the necessary material yet and now he is spending his time in
the country-side.
III. Ex. 13: 1. have tried, tried; 2. has had, had; 3. have practised, practised;
4. completed, has completed / completed, has completed; 5. have live, lived;
6. did you speak, have spoken; 7 disliked, have always disliked; 8. have
lived, lived; 9. heard, has just heard; 10. has changed, changed.
1. has written; 2. has forgotten; 3. left; 4. lived; 5. have not played;
6. started; 7. has not come; 8. have not seen; 9. did you receive? 10. have
become; 11. has been made; 12 has never taught; 13. worked, has moved;
14. has written, wrote; 15. began, were.
Ex. 16: 1. have not told, came; 2. has been; 3. have never seen, did; 4. has
never had have always been; 6. came; 7. went away, were 8. has always
known, has failed; 9. was; 10. have had to, wasn’t; 11. has always tried;
12. saw; 13. haven’t seen, asked; 14. has not been, have been, said; 15. have
only dined, said, wasn’t; 16. have told, told.
Ex. 17: 1. Have you read anything by Dickens? Which of his novels did
you read when a child? 2. “Have you had dinner yet?” “No, not yet. The
waitress took my order 15 minutes ago and has not brought me anything
yet.” 3. He is a good friend. He has always helped me in difficult circum
stances. 4. How long have you lived in this city? When did you come to
live here? 5JWe have been living with our parents for the last six months
and now we think of moving to a flat of our own. 6.4“Have you ever been
to this picture gallery?” “Yes, I visited it once as a boy and the pictures
made a great impression on me. I have not been here since.” 7. He has
been playing tennis ever since he was a schoolboy. 8. I did not go any
where on Sunday because some friends were coming to see me. 9. The box
which was lying on the floor contained 20 kilograms of flour. 10. “Have you
finished reading ‘Forsyte Saga’”? “When did you finish it? How long did
it take you to read it?” 11. Now that the book has been published, every
body can see what thorough work the author has been doing writing it.
12. “Where have you got this fine pair of shoes from?” “My parents gave
them to me as a birthday present.”
Ex. 18: 1. a) made. .. until the war; b) have made since the war; 2. a) is
having now; b) had... when we went to Greece; 3. a) has written / has
been writing. . . since he left school; b) was writing. . . when I last met
him; 4. a) got on my nerves; . . . soon after. . . b) have been getting / have
got on my nerves since they moved. . . 5. a) am not being frank now ;b) haven’t
been frank all day today; 6. a) have often been thinking; b) were think
ing / thought of others yesterday; 7; a) have been growing... for some
time now; b) was growing. . . at the time; 8. a) am not taking now;
b) haven’t taken for the past.. . 9. a) doesn’t your ear hurt now?
b) didn’t your ear hurt when...? 10. a) why have you been idling...
these last days? b) why were you idling. . . when. . .?
Ex. 19: 1. If you don’t keep your promise, then you have been lying to
us so far. 2. It is always painful to part from people whom one has known
so well. 3. I’ve liked you ever since I met you. 4. You have filled my tea
with lumps of sugar and you have given me cakes although you know how
much I hate sweets. 5. “Have you been thinking over what I spoke to
you about last night?” “I have been thinking about nothing else”. 6. My uncle
has just driven over from the station and he has brought his luggage with
him. 7. I know nearly everything about you, because my brother has justc
been telling me about the latest visit he paid you. 8. Now that I’ve come
to tell you everything, be so kind and listen to me. 9. I have been silent
so far, I’ve respected your opinions, but have done with that. 10. I’ve
chosen Shakespeare because I prefer him to Milton.
Ex. 20: 1, a) They have tried to speak only English lately; b) They tried
to speak only English last night. 2. a) She has had a lot’of work today;
b) She had a lot of work in January. 3. a) I have practised for three hours
this morning; b) I practised for three hours last night; c) I practised for
three hours before I came here. 4. a) John was in Paris ten years ago-/
b) John has been to Parisêveral times. 5. a) Mary has been a good student
so far; b) Mary was a good student last year. 6. a) The children watched
TV every night last week; b) The children have watched TV every night
these days. 7. a) My father has just turned off the radio, b) My father
turned off the radio just now. 8. a) How long have you lived here? b) How
long did you live there before you came to stay with us? 9. a) Did you
hear Menuhin play when he was in Romania? b) Have you ever heard
Menuhin play?
Ex. 21: 1. “Harap Alb, I know you by name but I have never seen you.
Come out and let me see if you deserve the treasure I will leave you.
If you do, I shall die in peace” (I. Creangă: “The Story of Harap Alb” —
Fairy Tales and Legends from Romania, p. 213). 2. “Well, Ivan, what are
you up to? Hasn’t Death been around yet?”... “Well, that’s enough, Ivan,
you have lived your life and eaten your share of corn. It is true you have
a kind heart and have shown compassion, but you have changed lately,
ever since I blessed this bag of yours” (I. Creangă, “Ivan and His Bag”,
p. 292, Fairy Tales and Legends from Romania, 1971). 3. The cashier (who
from thebeginning has tried to be himself again). Taken aback with astonish
ment reproaches (Mitică). 4. (All those present have listened to the story
with great interest and with proper remarks and now they all gather happily
around Mitică).
IV. Ex. 22: 1. fell, broke; 2. crept; 3. won; 4. knelt / kneeled, bound;
5. overthrew, spilt / spilled; 6. flung, flew; 7. held;.8. swept, thrust; 9. drove;
10. brought; 11. drank; 12. wound; 13. shone; 14. kept; 15. wove;
16. struck; 17. cost; 18. shrank /shrunk; 19. sought; 20. fed; 21. bled, swelled;
22. hurt; 23. burst; 24. sped / speeded; 25. froze; 26. bit, trod; 27. flung;
28. tore, wrung, swore; 29. taught; 30. knew; 31. ran; 32. set; 33 knit/
knitted, stuck, ground; 34. lent; 35. shot; 36. bred; 37. caught; 38. forgot;
39. came; 40. spat/spit; 41. rang; 42. cut; 43. swung; 44. burnt / burned;
45. shut; 46. smelt / smelled; 47. felt; 48. threw; 49. strode; 50. sank,
rose; 51. wept; 52. saw, stole; 53. chose; 54. bore; 55. read; 56. held;
57. blew; bent; 58. laid; 59. fought; 60. withdrew; 61. hung; 62. spelt /
spelled; 63. beat; 64. stuck; 65. gave; 66. bore; 67. cut; 68. put; 69. drew;
70. made; 71. paid; 72. let; 73. dealt; 74. slept; 75., took; 76. woke;
77. spread; 78. ate; 79. had, shook; 80. spoke; 81. went; 82. rode. 83. lay;
84. lied.
Ex. 24: 1. entered, were playing; 2. was writing, knocked; 3. trained; 4. was
listening, was playing; 5. stood; 6. rang, was spleeping; 7. jumped, was run
ning; 8. helped, was not looking; 9. arrived, were waiting; 10. went off,
were listening; 11. was burning, reached; 12. realized, were travelling;
13. was cleaning, broke; 14. was driving, burst; 15. were enjoying, told, had.
Ex. 25: 1. led, hung, was shining, failed; 2. was pumping, looked, asked;
3. were staying, was being repaired, was still being repaired, returned;
4. came, stood, were ringing, was rising, was, showed, was burning; 5. was
living, died; 6. saw, was wearing, (was) carrying; 7. was raining, put, went,
crossed, was waiting, was smoking, talking; 8. arrived, was raining; 9. went
on strike, looked, were standing, were waiting; 10. put, was waiting, rang
up, were showing.
Ex. 26: 1. I picked up my briefcase and ran out of the hotel. The car was
waiting for me outside. The chauffeur / driver was reading a newspaper. I
got in and sat down. I flung the case onto the seat beside me. 2. The
road wound gently between the rows of houses, that could hardly be seen
because of the morning mist. But I soon noticed that the mist was rising
and thus we could see that in front of us there lay one of the most beauti
ful parks we had ever seen. 3. Water was dripping incessantly from the
trees that lined the road. 4. The path that led to the chalet was covered
with snow. It was still snowing but the sun could already be seen sending
its pale rays from behind a grey cloud. By the time we reached the chalet,
we felt hungry and were dreaming of a good sleep, but the landlord came
to tell us that because of the storm at night the fire in the oven wasn’t
burning anymore and that the wind was too strong for it to be lit again.
5. When I was looking for the address, I met an old school fellow whom
I recognized by the pink tie that he was still wearing after so many years.
6. Scenes from his youth flashed through Mr. Eden’s mind as he was drown
ing.
V. Ex. 28. a) 1. had not got, decided; 2. had, had rained; 3. had he lived/
did he live, broke; 4. found, had happened; 5. knew, lived, had never
been; 6. had listened I had been listening, thought; 7. knew, had disappeared;
8. had stayed / had been staying, grew; 9. had laughed, was; 10. wondered,
had become; 11. was, had thought; 12. told, had burned; 13. had travelled;
14. had lied; 15. had been pushed, was able.
b) 1. had not yet translated, came back; 2. had paid, said; 3. had
never fired, slipped; 4. went, had been maimed; 5. had come off, looked;
6. was, had come loose; 7. was, had had; 8. ventured, was ready, had been;
9. had hidden, saw; 10. told, had asked, 11. found had forgotten; 12. placed,
grasped, had filled.
Ex. 29: 1. Last week we moved out of the house where we had lived for
ten years. 2. When we finally returned home, we had travelled 2,000 ki
lometers. 3. Last year I climbed Vesuvius. I had been fascinated by volcanoes
ever since I had seen a film about them. 4. When eleven o’clock came and
she still hadn’t arrived, I began to wonder if she had had an accident. 5. She
told me that she had met him last night and that he had changed beyond
recognition. 6. I could find out her name only after she had left. 7.
veryangi^_jsdieDÎ--was_ told that the train had already left and I asked
the^waiterwhy he hadn’t let me know in time and why he had continued
to serve me drinks. 8. The thief refused to admit that he was the one who
had stolen the money. But the police had found his fingerprints on the
lady’s bag. 9. The children were looking for the toys all over the place and
they said that they had laid them in a drawer which then proved to be
empty. It had long been emptied by the baby who couldn’t remember any
more what he had done with them. 10. When we were in London, we
managed to see almost all the town with the help of a car that a friend of
ours had lent us.
VI. Ex. 30: 1. had been painting, had painted; 2. had been telling; 3. had
been, had been comparing; 4. had been speaking, had gone; 5. had been
collecting; 6. had been talking; 7. had returned; 8. had been doing, had
not received; 9. had been telling; 10. had seen; 11. had been keeping; 12. had
not been talking; 13 had read; 14. had just arrived; 15. had ever seen,
had been exalted, had been mixing; 16. had been drinking, had come;
17. had been sitting; 18. had been standing, had switched on 19. had
made.
Ex. 31: a) was; had given; was; owed; lived; had married; was, had had;
spoke; was; led; was; came; were;Tiad been living; began; had told; was;
refused; began; lasted.
b)appeared; saw; rushed; opened; looked, could; got; hesitated; was; let;
was hanging; fell, felt; fell; was; rose; ran; could; understood; was; ran;
looked; saw; had been cut; was pouring; tried; fainted.
c) was, opened, came, sat, had; was, was, was, was praising; had been observ
ing; was devouring; laughed, turned, did you hear, coloured, begged, was;
had ever had; hadn’t meant, had cooked.
Ex. 32: 1. was, had ever been; 2. had said, wondered, had done, did not
know, was, had been; 3. has been working, asked, says, were, left, looks;
4. had noticed, replied, had noticed; 5. have you Been, started; 6. were talk
ing, smoked, were drinking, smoked, were talking; 7. have never known,
seemed, was not; 8. had not been, received, had called, (had) asked;
9. has he been, think, don’t know, didn’t engage; 10. is, was.
Ex. 33: A few minutes before, I had intended to while away my time which
hung heavy upon me, by having a dip. Nevertheless I hadn’t had the
heart to spoil the unparalleled clearness of its waters. Some other people
might pass it by later on and wish to quench their thirst. It seemed to me
that plunging into the lake with all that thick filth on my skin I should
have profaned it. Ever since I could remember I had known that bread
is sacred and that it is sinful throwing away the crumbs. And it was since
that selfsame time that I had known water is no less sacred. I had stripped
off and splashing water in handfulls over my body I washed myself slowly,
thoroughly, bit by bit,
(Z a h a r i a 8 t a n.X u, Playing with Death)
VIL Ex. 35. 1. will; 2. will; 3. will; 4. will; 5. shall; 6. will 7. shall; 8. will;
9. will; 10. shall.
Ex. 36: 1. finishes; 2. open; 3. shall move; 4. leaves; 5. promise; 6. come;
7. kisses; 8. shall have; 9. is; 10 will know.
VI11. Ex. 41:1. will have been teaching; 2. shall have looked; remember; 3. come,
will have married; 4. will have been staying; 5. will have stopped; 6. apolo
gizes; 7. shall have been living; 8. come, shall have laid; 9. have heard;
10. shall have been writing; 11. have taken; 12. shall have washed; 13. will
have eaten, arrive; 14. has recovered; 15. will have been learning.
Ex. 42: 1. The delegation will start for London as soon as they have received
their visas. 2. If I go to the party alone and there is nobody I know
there, I shall feel lonely. 3. George does not think he will be able to call
on them and say good-bye before he leaves for the seaside. 4. Jack shouted
from the doorway that he would be back in three hours time. 5. Will you
be at home tomorrow afternoon? What will you be doing at 5? 6. He won
dered if he would be able to solve such a problem alone, with nobody’s help.
7. The doctor told James: “You are going to stay (shall stay I are to stay)
in bed for three days.” 8. This time next week the German students will
be writing their examination paper while the English students will be hav
ing their oral test. 9. The Thomsons will not get home before the rain
starts. 10. He is leaving for Cluj-Napoca in a few hours; the train leaves at 10.
11. Ask the secretary if we shall study according to the old timetable, or
a new one will be ready when we begin the new term. 12. The boy said:
“By the time you turn to the teacher for assistance we shall have done
the greater part of the work.” The boy said that by the time she turned
to the teacher for assistance they would have done the greater part of
the work.
IX. Ex. 43: 1. ask, won’t think; 2. won’t be, come; 3. rains, will you please
bring; 4. I’ll take, is done; 5. doesn’t get, shall cross off; 6. shan’t feel,
see; 7. shan’t let myself, stand; 8. shall be, hear; 9. won’t do, turn out;
10. shall be, see; 11. will be, let; 12. shan’t get far, start; 13. won’t alter,
dies; 14. see, ’ll be ashamed.
Ex. 44: 1. have fallen; 2. have done; 3. will have broken in; 4. will have
called off; 5. have finished; 6. still haven’t found; 7. will have cut; 8. have
shaved; 9. will have done up; 10. will have caught; 11. has had; 12. will
have dropped off; 13. have told; 14. will have been paid.
Ex. 45: 1. Have you ridden before? 2. Hasn’t he wound the watch yet? 3. Has
she been weeping since then? 4. Didn’t I tear it open five minutes ago?
5. Are they still hiding? 6. Does he go out I Has he gone out shooting every
Saturday? 7. Didn’t she choose it a few days ago? 8. Haven’t you bent
the bar yet? 9. Hasn’t he stolen any spare parts since mid April? 10. Hasn’t
he struck her before? 11. Didn’t she sweep the room last Saturday? 12. Is
Mr. Hyde still wringing his hands? 13. Haven’t I given her a lift since?
14. Hasn’t Mrs. Green ground the coffee beans yet? 15. Does / did / has
David quarrel / quarrelled with his sister everyday? 16. Have you mown
your meadow before?
Ex. 46: 1. will have been teaching; 2. ’ll say/ said/ are saying/ have been
saying; 3. was, came; 4. have spoken out; 5. are always happening/ happen;
6. has been / had been; 7. does he know, is being said / has been said?
8. ’ll wait I I’ll be waiting, have been; 9. has your ear been hurting long?
10. were leaving, told.
Ex. 47: 1. I shall forgive her when she has cut out smoking / I won’t for
give her until... 2. You may get in as soon as/when you’ve done up
your coat. 3. We shall ring her up as soon as you’ve looked up her
number. 4. He can hand in his paper when he has gone through the figures.
5. You’ll entertain / you can entertain our new neighbours to dinner when
you have settled down. 6. I’ll tell you my reasons as soon as you have
answered my questions. 7. You’ll make a good teacher after/when you
have had a few years’ experience. 8. He’ll come downstairs when I he may
come downstairs as soon as he has shaven. 9. You’ll be allowed to put
your knife and fork together side by side on the plate when you have
finished eating. 10. You’ll go before the Board after you’ve done three
years.
Ex. 48: 1. If you eat so many cakes, you’ll get a tummy-ache. 2. If
you are a good boy you shall have an electric train set for your birthday.
3. Do you happen to know if the composer himself will be there too? 4. You
shall have anything you want if you succeed in your examination. 5j This
is the first time I have ever seen a real whale. 6. Don’t disturb me at
4 p. m. I shall be having my nap. 7. I haye been trying for weeks to find
somebody to mend my kitchen sink. 8. I can assure you that as soon as
you have seen him you will like him. 9. I used to enjoy reading Dickens,
but now he bores me. 10. We sat round the camp-fire. My brother played
the guitar, while the rest of us sang. 11. When Columbus landed on the
coast of America, he thought he had reached India. 12. Jimmy will have
seen his programme and (will have) gone to bed by the time his father gets
home.
Ex. 49: 1. have heard, have been, shall be, comes; 2. had finished; 3. have
done; 4. get, take, is, rings,»sent, would ride,^wanted; 5. got, told, would
be coming, would let, wanted; 6. did you last see, had been dining, sat, was
coming,* got, stopped, was sitting, asked, would be. 7. had become, were not,
had been; 8. had dined, sat, came, had been expecting, stayed, left.
Ex. 50: 1. We usually meet twice a week, but when we are very busy we
don’t meet at all. 2. Do you hear? Somebody is playing the piano and it’s
twelve o’clock. 3. “What is Ann doing?” “She is cooking lunch in the kitchen;
she usually cooks at this time of day.” 4. Do you hear what I am saying,
or is the radio playing too loudly? 5. The telephone is ringing. I’m going to
see who it is. 6. We generally spend our holidays at the seaside, but this year
we are going to the mountains.’7. Tomorrow a new term is beginning at
school. 8. Now it is raining and we don’t play tennis unless the ground
is dry. 9. Lookl The sun is rising from behind that hill. 10. “Do you see
the ship on the horizon?” “No, I can’t see anything. I don’t (can’t) see well
without glasses.” 11. The lake has dried up; the weather has been very hot
this summer. 12. He has been (has been staying) out in the open all day and
now he’s having a rest. 13. Have you bought any good books lately? 14. Have
you lived all your life in this old house? 15. I have not seen l)im since
he was a child. 16. We have been learning English for four years. 17. It
has been snowing (has snowed) hard for three days so we have been
staying in-doors. 18. He has missed a lot of lessons since he fell ill. 19. I
cannot tell you if I like the film as I have not seen it yet. 20. This is
the most interesting book I have ever read. 21. He is living with us now
as he has sold his house. 22. She has forgotten French since she left Paris.
23. When they lived at the seaside, they often got up ^t daybreak and
went to see the sunrise. 24. I have often seen him buying bomcs'at the book
shop. 25. “How long has it been raining?” “It began to rain three days ago
and it has not stopped since.” 26. A group of pupils went on a trip in the
mountains yesterday. 27. I haven’t been in the mountains for ages.
28. Sometimes they would go out in the garden and sit on the log near the
lake. 29. He talked like a man with much experience. 30. I used to meet
him sometimes in the library when he was studying for his examination.
31. He used to come with his pockets full of presents and give them to the
children. 32. She was fond of him, but I do not think she loved
hțm. 33. My tooth ached awfully yesterday so I had to go to the dentist’s.
f34. I was just leaving school when the headmaster arrived and told me
that I was the winner of the contest. 35. The boy was playing in the
yard when his mother called him in. 36. Where were you going when I met
you in the street yesterday? 37. What were they talking about when you
passed by them ? 38. The4cîn was just starting when three men came running
up the platform and caught it in the nick .of time. 39. She w~as wearing
a red frock because she knew that colour suited her. 4(1 \Ve had come
back from 'the theatre before it began to rain. 41. He paid at the cash
desk after the butcher had weighed the meat. 42. He had read all the books
in his father’s bookcase and did not know what else to read. 43. They
visited the places where they had lived years before. 44. He bought
a new fountain-pen as he had lost his old one. 45. By the end of July
the cooperative farmers had gathered the wheat harvest. 46. They reached
the station after the train had left. 47. The fisherman had been sitting
(had sat) on the bank of the river for a long time before he caught a fish.
48. The players had been training hard since their last defeat. 49. The artist
had been painting the picture for several months but had not yet finished
it. 50. Since their last meeting she had been thinking about his proposal
all the time. 51. She suddenly realized it was dark and that she had been
walking for a long time. 52. After these examinations I shall go on holiday.
53. We shall return to the hotel as soon as we have seen the town.
54. Will you help me carry my luggage? 55. What will you be doing (are you
doing) tomorrow in the afternoon? 56. Are you leaving for Paris tonight?
57. You’ll be seeing (You’ll see) your parents soon, won’t you? 58. Don’t
interrupt me. I’ll be coming (I’ll come) to that matter soon. 59. You
will have written your composition by 8, won’t you? 60. You will
feel better after you have taken your medicine. 61. By the time you come
back from your studies I will have been waiting for you for two tears. 62. I
hope I’ll be seeing you later. 63. He’s going to mow the grass this afternoon.
64. He’ll be coming (He’ll come) home soon. 65. They’ll be leaving (will
leave) by next train. 66. Are you going to read all night? 67. According
to the weather forecast we shall be having (shall have) a fine day tomorrow.
68. We must wait until the water has boiled, before we can drink our tea.
69. What books will you have read by the second term? 70. I suppose
you will have made up your minds by tomorrow. 71. I’ll take a walk while
you are bathing. 72. Next month I shall have been living here for two
years. 73. On the sixth of this month we shall have known each other for
a year. 74. We have not yet learned if he will arrive today or tomorrow.
75. I shall switch off the radio when you have fallen asleep. 76. This time
tomorrow I shall be taking my English lesson. 77. I shall be working in
the library all next week. 78. I shall have been working for a few hours
by myself, before you come to help me.
Modal Verbs
Ex. 51: 1. can / could, can’t; 2. can’t; 3. can/may; 4. can / could, can/
could; 6. may / can, may/can; 7. can’t; 8. can / may.
Ex. 52: 1. may / might; 2. might; 3. may / must; 4. may / might; 5. may /
might; 6. may/might; 7. may/might; 8. might.
Ex. 53: 1. might; 2. were allowed / permitted to; 3. will be allowed / permit
ted to; 4. might; 5. may; 6. may; 7. had the children been allowed/per
mitted to; 8. are allowed to.
Ex. 54: 1. can’t;' 2. can / could or can’t / couldn’t; 3. eould; 4. can’t^
5. can’t / couldn’t; 6. can / could 7. could; 8. can.
Ex. 55: 1. can’t / couldn’t be, couldn’t have been 2. can’t / couldn’t have
done; 3. can’t be; 4. can’t be 5. couldn’t have been; 6. couldn’t have
broken; 7. can’t be; 8. couldnY have won.
Ex. 56: 1, 3, 7, 8— possibility; 2, 4, 5, 6 — permission.
Ex. 57; 1. caaLt-shall be able to; 2.jcould; 3. could; 4. shall not be able
to; 5. can, gan, can’t ; 6. will be able to; 7. will not be able to; 8. can,
could, can’t.
Ex. 58: 1. was able to; 2. could; 3. was able to; 4. was able to; 5. could;
lx) could / were you able to; 7. were able to 8. could, couldn’t / wasn’t able to.
Ex. 59: 1. I could never understand what made her behave as she did /
like that. She could have married anybody she chose. 2. Can we smoke
here? 3. I may / might not be very clever, but I know what I want.
4. You’ve done me a great service. I knew I could trust you. 5. I think
he might have said something to you about his new job. 6. Never mind,
old chap. It may / might (can / could) happen to anyone. 7. Could this
old woman be Louise? She can’t / couldn’t have changed like that! 8. May /
might I have a look at your books? 9. I shall be able to go to the moun
tains as soon as I have finished my exams. 10. I haven’t seen Ann lately.
She may / might have left the town/be out of town. 11. Dan can’t/
couldn’t have written that composition. It may be Mary’s. 12. Don’t go to
bed yet. She might come by the night train. 13 Never could she have guessed
why Alice was angry with her, if Mary hadn’t told her. 14. I didn’t know
I might smoke in here. 15. I can’t believe it. Can this be your brother?
16. After shopping for three hours, Mrs. Brown was finally able to find
the thing she had been looking for — a pair of white gloves.
Ex. 60: 1. e; 2. b; 3. b/d; 4. c; 5. a/c; 6. b/e; 7. e; 8. c.
Ex. 61: 1. It must have been; 2. you must be; 3. they must be having;
4. she must have worked; 5. he must have been working; 6. she must be;
7. they must be still sleeping; 8. they must have changed.
Ex. 62: 1. must; 2. had to; 3. will have to; 4. won’t have to;5. had to;
6. shall have to; 7. won’t have to; 8. must, had to.
Ex. 63: 1. mustn’t; 2. needn’t; 3. mustn’t; 4. needn’t; 5. needn’t; 6. mustn’t;
7. mustn’t; 8. needn’t.
Ex. 64t 1. need / must; 2. must; 3. need; 4. need / must; 5. need; 6. must;
7. need / must; 8. need.
Ex. 65: 1. must; 2. must / have to; 3. has got to; 4. has got to; 5. has
to; 6. has to / has got to; 7. must.
Ex. 66: 1. I needn’t be there before six, as everybody will come after 6;
2. needn’t; 3. didn’t have to; 4. doesn’t have to; 5. didn’t have to; 6. shall
not have to; 7. won’t have to; 8. are not to.
Ex. 67: didn’t need to; 2. needn’t have put; 3. didn’t need to paint; 4. needn’t
have painted; 5. needn’t have waited; 6. didn’t need to take; 7. needn’t
have done; 8. didn’t need to do.
Ex. 68: 1. need; 2. we didn’t need to (write); 3. you needn’t (revise) 4. shall
I need to / do I need to; 5. you needn’t / don’t need to; 6. you don’t need
to; 7. didn’t need my help; 8. I needn’t have taken.
Ex. 69: I hear he’s ill. I really must go and see him. 2. Must / need
I go there right now? No, you needn’t. 3. Does he need / have to get up
so early everyday? Yes, he does, or he’ll be late for school. 4. You needn’t
have ironed the dress. It’s made of synthetic fibres and it doesn’t need iron
ing. 5. He didn’t need I have to take a taxi, as the train wasn’t due to
leave for another hour. 6. You needn’t have called him up. He already
knew what it was all about. 7. You mustn’t smoke here; this is a non-smoker.
8. I am to go abroad tomorrow. I’ve got to settle all my affairs today.
9. I must get on with my reading. I have to finish the book by tomorrow.
10. I must send him a card. Tomorrow is his birthday. 11. He is so deaf
that you have to shout if you want him to hear you. 12. Have some water.
You must be very thirsty after so much sunbathing. 13. All right then.
We are all to meet back here in half an hour. 14. I am constantly having
to remind him to do his homework. 15. She must stay in bed until her
temperature goes down. The doctor said she was to stay in bed until her
temperature went down. 16. I must brush my teeth before I go to bed.
John said he must brush his teeth before he went to bed.
Ex. 70: 1. determination; 2. volition; 3. request; 4, supposition; 5. invi
tation; 6. command; 7. characteristic action; 8. something unavoidable.
Ex. 71: 1. He didn’t know what John would do about it. 2. He said he would
leave for the seaside the next day. 3. He said he would be glad if she
would come. 4. He didn’t know if she would have dinner with him the
next day. 5. He said the window wouldn’t close. 6. He didn’t know if she
would marry that man. 7. He said he would help her. 8. He said he would
be hanged if he would do it.
Ex. 72: 1. wouldn’t; 2. won’t; 3. wouldn’t; 4. wouldn’t; 5. won’t; 6. won’t.
Ex. 73: 1. intention I promise; 2. request I inquiry about instructions; 3. com
mand; 4. inquiry; 5. determination; 6. inquiry; 7. promise; 8. command
(regulation).
Ex. 74: 1. will; 2. shall; 3. will/shall; 4. shall; 5. will; 6. shall; 7. will;
8. shall.
Ex. 76: 1. would, would; 2. should; 3. should; 4. should; 5. would; 6. should;
7. would; 8. should, would.
Ex. 77: 1. You shall be punished if you don’t tell the truth. 2. If you will
cry all the time, of course your eyes will ache. 3. Shall I wear my new
dress tonight? 4. If you will listen to me a minute, I will give you my
reasons. 5. Shall I put the light on? 6. If you should see her,
give her my love. 7. If you would kindly open the door, I’ll take
that tray away. 8. Shall I help you or will you try it all by
yourself? 9. What shall I do next? 10. Will you open the window,
please? 11. He shall pay for having insulted my daughter. 12. I am not
disappointed. I will succeed next time. 13. If you should find a nice blouse,
get one for me too. 14. If you would like to come with me, I shall be happy
to take you.
Ex. 78: 1. ought to; 2. must; 3. must, must; 4. have to; 5. mustn’t; 6. ought
to, ought not to; 7. should, should; 8. must.
Ex. 79: 1. He’d rather; 2. he’d better; 3. she’d better; 4. I’d rather not;
5. you’d better; 6. my old uncle would rather; 7. I’d better; 8. she’d rather.
Ex. 80: 1. are not used to working; 2. used to run; 3. they used to go;
4. he used to have; 5. used to turn in; 6. I used to smoke; 7. I am not
used to being;8. he used to ask.
Ex. 81: 1. He is not used to being laughed at. 2. We are getting far too
used to comfort. 3. He used to swim a lot when he was young. 4. There
used to be an old shop here many years ago. 5. I used to live in Brașov
before I married. 6. You never usedto treat children like that! 7. Didn’t you
two use to be friends? 8. He used to smoke a lot before he caught that
bad pneumonia. 9. They used to spend all their vacations together before
their grandmother died. 10. Did you use to come here often?
Ex. 82: 1. did he dare to; 2. dare you make; 3. do you dare me to dance;
4. wouldn’t dare to ask; 5. didn’t dare to go; 6. dare you call; 7. daren’t
fight; 8. wouldn’t dare to face.
Ex. 83: 1. You’d better stay indoors until you get better. 2. It was past
midnight and I suggested going, but he would not hear of it. 3. I’d rather
not tell you what I know about him. 4. The window won’t open; you
must have it fixed. 5. You should have gone to the concert. Why should
you miss the music? 6. Shall I answer the telephone? 7. I’m sorry. I shouldn’t
have said it. 8. If we are to be neighbours for life, if you are to marry
into a family I’m attached to — well, I think we should be on friendly
terms. 9. He didn’t dare to tell his friends what had happened because he
was afraid they would laugh at him. 10. People used to believe that the
sun revolved round the earth. 11. He was used to everybody listening to
him. 12. There used to be a lot of people in the market at this time.
13. I’m not used to getting up so late. 14. He dared him to drink the
vodka down in one. 15. Do you usually shave every day? 16. I was sure
my friend wouldn’t dare to say what he thought.
Ex. 84: 1. may have lied; 2. should/ought to have left; 3. must have worked;
4. shouldn’t have gone; 5. may have been; 6. must have met; 7. could
have helped; 8. can’t /couldn’t have caused.
Ex. 85: 1. I could take my wife with me. I could have taken my wife with
me. 2. You ought to I should have helped John’s friend with the translation.
You ought to / should help Peter now. 3. I couldn’t have lied to my friends.
4. I wish I could have believed him. 5. It may I might be John and Mary’s
car. They may I might have come yesterday, but I’m not sure. 6. I wish
I could help him. 7. She needn’t have bought another dress; she’s got quite
a lot. 8. This history of literature must have cost you quite a lot of money.
Ex. 87: I will often sit down on a chair in my favourite pub, to drink a
glass of beer and read the evening paper. Hardly has Tom seen me, when
he draws up his chair beside mine and begins, “I may be right, or I may
be wrong,” he will say, “but there is one thing I must admit: that Helen
must be the prettiest girl in the world”.
Seldom will he spare me the ordeal of listening to him. Sometimes I
feel like saying, “Look here, old man, I’d rather read my paper than listen
to you”, but usually I have not the heart to. I just think for myself,
“Need he really talk so much about her? He should remember that there
is a limit to the privileges of friendship; and that friends should not turn
themselves into awful ’-ores. There ought to be a law against it!”
Personally, if I am to sit and listen to him every time I go to the pub,
then there is only one thing left for me to do: I must change my pub.
After all, I am not interested in Helen’s beauty. Of course, I daren’t say
all this to Tom. We are friends and I mustn’t do anything to hurt his feel
ings. In any case, I’d rather not. But he’d better be more careful. If not,
he might lose all his friends. They won’t stand it, they’d sooner lose his
friendship. I think I’d better tell him, as a friend, to keep his emotions to
himself.
Non Finite Forms of the Verb
Ex. 88: 1. to be; 2. go, to meet; 3. to be; 4. take, make, drink; 5. play;
6. to go, make, go; 7. to do; 8. to arrive; 9. leave, want, to take; 10. to
wait; 11. to go, rain; 12. remember, look.
Ex. 89: 1. Many participants are expected to^ flatly refuse to go in for the
competition on such weather. 2. The teacher wished Eis pupils to clearly
understand all the data of the problem. 3. He has made up his mind to
stubbornly oppose to all our proposals. 4. I promised to personally examine
the situation and I do want to keep my word. 5. He tried to utterly forget
the past but he haăTns trouble for nothing. 6. We expected them to wholly
agree to our suggestion. 7. It is not easy to promptly reply to such an
avalanche of questions. 8. Now it is essential for us to try to quickly
restore the truth. 9. He is supposed to fully realize the wrong stand he
takes in this matter. 10. I consider it very nice of him to gladly consent
to our suggestion.
Ex. 90: 1. She happened to be ill and could not go in for the last exami
nation, but she is expected to take it in autumn. 2. I asked you to hurry
up, we are sure to miss the train. 3. They are reported to have provided
the new hydro-power station with 80% out of the necessary equipment,
the rest to be delivered in the months to come. 4. The best thing for you
to do is to ask your brother to help you. 5. It was quite surprising for
us to hear him speak English so fluently. 6. He is said to have been in
vited to the party but he could not go because the doctor advised him to
keep indoors. 7. Here is a new article for you to read and I am sure it will
make you better understand the essence of my theory. 8. She is said to
be a very talented opera singer but unfortunately I have never heard her
sing.
Ex. 91.: 1. to do, wait, to let; 2. to solve, help; 3. open / opening, throw/
throwing; 4. to pass; 5. open / opening, move / moving; 6. know, to write,
show; 7. to make, believe; 8. shake / shaking; 9. not to feed; 10. to ask, to
pay back.
Ex. 92: 1. begging; 2. spurring; 3. digging; 4. rubbing; 5. running; 6. swim
ming; 7. cheating; 8. cancelling; 9. worshiping; 10. developing; 11. shut
ting; 12, wrapping; 13. regretting; 14. offering; 15. supporting; 16. fitting;
17. kidnapping; 18. controlling; 19. rebelling; 20. occurring; 21. feeling;
22. inverting; 23. preferring; 24. entering; 25. listening; 26. dreaming;
27. travelling; 28. beginning; 29. gathering; 30. levelling.
Ex. 93: 1. I could not come yesterday because I wanted to have my tooth
filled so I went to the dentist’s. 2. She had to have a new winter coat
made; the old one was rather old-fashioned. 3. Where have you had your
tape-recorder repaired? 4. If you want to look better, you should have your
hair done and your nails manicured. 5. I shall have this dress taken in
because I have lost weight these last few months. 6. Please don’t come to
our place tomorrow because we are having our flat painted. It looks so
untidy! 7. Your brother had his car serviced yesterday, didn’t he?8. He
shouted himself hoarse but he couldn’t make his voice heard. 9. You had
better have your tooth pulled out instead of bearing such a pain. 10. Where
did you have your (visiting) cards printed? I must confess that I like them
very much.
Ex. 94: 1. In spite of having lost their key they managed to enter the house
by using a master-key. 2. After taking the picture out of the scrap-book and
pinning it on one of his bedroom walls, the little boy stood in front of it for a
long time, looking at it admiringly. 3. A lot of old men and women sat
on the benches of the village park, watching their grand children running to
and fro. 4. Getting (having got) up early as usual, she flung open all the
windows of her cosy bedroom, letting the scented summer air blow in from
the garden. 5. The tiger, finding his cage door open and seeing no sign of
his keeper, left the cage and walked slowly towards the gates of the Zoo.
Ex. 95: 1. to dance; doing; to prepare. 2. living. 3. skating; skiing; to
say. 4. waiting; to come; to go; leaving. 5. hearing; say (saying); wat
ering. 6. your / you wanting; to help; doing. 7. your / you having said;
to buy. 8. my/me smoking; smoking. 9. your / you asking; to insist; Mike’s /
Mike coming; to be. 10. my father saying; doing; doing.
Ex. 96: a) 1. from; 2. of; 3. for; 4. on; 5. to; 6. by; 7. by, without;
8. in; 9. in; 10. to; 11. at.
b) 1. in; 2. in; 3. of; 4. of; 5. on; 6. for; 7. of; 8 of; 9. in; 10. to.
Ex. 97: 1. He is ashamed of never helping his little brother. 2. Tom was
angry at not being able to see anything. 3. Mike was sorry for not being
included in the tennis team. 4. Mr. Black was disappointed at not having been
elected president of the club. 5. Susan was upset at / over having missed
the train.
Ex. 98: 1. In summer flowers need watering every day. 2. I am very pleased
to accept her invitation as she always succeeds in cooking very tasty
dishes. 3. Forgive my bothering you, do you happen to have a match?
4. I enjoy eating ice-cream even when it is cold. 5. Do you mind my open
ing the window for a few minutes? It’s very stuffy in here. 6. There is
no need for your leaving on Wednesday, you are expected there (on) Sat
urday. 7. They insisted on my writing to them every day, but it puts me
beside myself because I hate writing letters. 8. They refused to let us in with
out buying tickets although we had been invited to the first night. 9. We
had to delay our departure because of Jane’s being ill. 10. I dislike being
looked at while attempting to learn how to ride a bicycle.
Ex. 99: a) 1. to annoy; 2. annoying; 3. annoying; 4. to annoy / an
noying; 5. to annoy / annoying; 6. annoying.
b) 1. coming; 2. to come; 3. coming; 4. coming; 5. to come; 6. coming;
7. to come/coming; 8. to come; 9. to come / coming.
c) 1. buying; 2. to buy; 3. buying; 4. buy; 5. buying; 6. to buy; 7. to
buy/buying; 8. to buy; 9. buying; 10. buying; 11. to buy; 12. buying.
Ex. 100: I. a) means that his attempt was unsuccessfully performed although
I could have understood him if he had spoken German properly — while,
b) means that he did speak German to me but I couldn’t understand him.
IL a) means that I paid him for an action which was going to take place in
the future — whereas b) means that I paid him for a past action.
III. a) points out that the whole action of crossing the street is meant i.e.
from one side to the other — while b) refers to one moment.
IV. a) means that he stopped in order to smoke — b) denotes that he had
been smoking but he ceased the action of smoking.
V. a) I am sorry that I must now say ... —b) I am sorry that I said . . .
Ex. 101: 1. It’s worth trying to make the engine start. 2. He doesn’t like
being made fun of by his roommates. 3. They’re sure to come later.
4. It was too noisy for her to be able to concentrate. 5. This problem is
too difficult for any pupil to solve.
Ex. 102: Verbal Nouns: 3 = (1), (2), (15)
Verbal Adjectives : 1 = (12)
Indefinite Participles : 11 = (3), (4), (5), (6), (7), (8), (9), (10), (11), (13), (14).
Gerunds: 0
Ex. 103: Dacă vremea e favorabilă. (Participial construction). 2. John este
la telefon (Indefinite participle). 3. Mortul de la groapă nu se mai întoarce
(Gerund). 4. Muștele nu se așază pe ceaunul ce clocotește (Verbal adjec
tive). 5. Parcarea interzisă (Verbal noun). 6. Nu se poate și cu slănina în
pod și cu varza unsă (Gerund). 7. Nu mai e timp de pierdut (Indefinite
participle). 8. Ca o curcă plouată (Verbal adjective). 9. Lenea e mama tu
turor viciilor (Gerund). 10. Socoteală deasă e frăție aleasă (Verbal noun).
11. Gusturile nu se discută (Verbal noun). 12. începutul e greu (Verbal
noun). 13. Dacă faci un lucru, fă-1 bine (Gerunds). 14. Una-i vorba, alta-i
fapta (Verbal nouns). 15. A simți că-i fuge pămîntul de sub picioare (Indefi
nite participle).
The Subjunctive
Ex. 104: 1. He insists that John take that medicine every day. 2. Moth
er suggested that father wait for her. 3. We insisted that the colonel
go with us in our car. 4. The teacher recommended that we read that
famous novel. 5. The President demanded that the delegates be there on
time. 6. The, general manager urged that the employees work more effi
ciently.
Ex. 105: 1. Her grandfather suggested that she wait a few minutes for him.
2. He insisted that I lend him some money. 3. The president proposed
that the assembly vote for the new republic. 4. The bill requires that the
citizens avoid accidents. 5. The doctor recommended that she take a long holi
day. 6. They urged that the enemy troops be immediately withdrawn from
their territory. 7. They suggested that the assembly elect him president.
Ex. 106: 1. Is it important that this paper be written in one hour? 2. It
is imperative that they send the goods immediately. 3. It was necessary
that the money be returned quickly. 4. It was vital that she get married
to John. 5. It was right that the old professor be appointed Headmaster.
Ex. 107: (104) 1. . . . John should take . . . 2. . . . father should wait . ..
3. the colonel should go with us ... 4. ... we should read ... 5. the dele
gates should be there ... 6. ... the employees should work .. .
(105) 1. .. . she should wait ... 2. ... I should lend ... 3. the assembly
should vote ... 4. . . . the citizens should avoid ... 5. ... she should take
. . . should avoid ... 6. the enemy troops should be immediately with
drawn from . . .
(106) 1. . . . this paper should be written ... 2. ... they should send . . .
3. . . . the money should be returned ... 4. she should get married to ...
5. the old professor should be appointed . . .
Ex. 108: 1. I had just finished speaking about Ann, when who should
come into the office but Ann? 2. Why should we have an argument about
such a trifle? 3. I was just leaving the house with my friend, when who
should we meet in the doorway? Her angry father!
Ex. 109: (Possible solutions) 1. His recommendation that we should lis
ten to her explanation is not acceptable. 2. His wish that she should be
come a teacher is very realistic. 3. The magistrate’s request that he
should be brought before the court as soon as the holiday is over is very fair.
4. Our decision that she should first graduate and then marry John is
very reasonable. 5. Her suggestion that we should buy a house is quite
understandable.
Ex. 110: (Possible solutions) 1. Come what may, I shall never speak to her
again. 2. Suffice it |bo say that there was a terrible mess in her room.
3. She may commit suicide any moment. Heaven forbid it! 4. Be it as it
may, I shall break the door and I shall go in.
Ex. Ill: 1. Long live our Party! 2. Long live the Socialist Republic of Ro
mania! 3. Long live and flourish our socialist homeland! 4. May you win back
what I have lost! 5. May you win the competition! 6. May you succeed in
persuading your father that you are innocent! 7. May your daughter succeed!
Ex. 112: 1. He was looking at me as if I were an invader. 2. She was mov

ing about the room as if she were listening to the noise of her own steps.
3. You are running as if you were late. 4. He looked so happy as if he
were really so. 5. She was sighing as though she were very unhappy.
6. She was crying as though she were desperate. 7. The child was staring at
me as if he were not satisfied with the apple I had given him. 8. I was
looking at the door as though I were waiting for somebody. 9. It’s time you
were wise. 10. It’s time you made up your mind whether you will congrat
ulate her on her birthday. 11. It’s time you retired. 12. It’s high time you
went to bed. 13. It’s about time you answered your father’s letter. 14. She
wishes she were a famous novelist. 15. I wish her dreams would come true.
16. I wish I could fly to the moon.
Ex. 113: 1. Aș vrea să stea ninsoarea. 2. N-aș vrea ca Maria să facă asta.
3. Aș vrea să înveți engleza cînd te duci în Anglia. 4. Ar vrea să nu vorbești
atît de tare. 5. Ioana e plecată, dar aș vrea să se întoarcă curînd. 6. Aș vrea
să te lași de fumat.
Ex. 114: 1—7: Replace: shall by should; will by would; and the Present
in the //’-clause by the Past tense of the corresponding verb.
Ex. 115: 1. If I gave you 100 lei, how would you spend the money? 2. If
your brother had money, he would buy a bicycle. 3. Even if you tried hard,
you wouldn’t succeed. 4. Even if we bought the piano, I don’t know where we
could put it. 5. If their parents returned home unexpectedly, what would
they find in their house? Broken windows, dirty floors ... 6. If I were you I
should ask the manager to receive me. 7. If you wrote the letter we could
leave before dark.
Ex. 116: Possible solutions: 1. Should they invite you to dinner / If they
should invite you to dinner don’t accept the invitation. 2. If it should prove
incorrect that she has married him I Should it prove incorrect that she has
married him, you will be accused of being a liar. 3. If it should snow I Should
it snow, take the dog into the house. 4. If you should succeed in eating
all those cakes / should you succeed in eating all those cakes, you’ll be sick.
5. If he should be late in coming home I Should he be late for school
ring Helen up and tell her to come tomorrow.
Ex. 117: 1. Should he drop in, tell him to return after 8 o’clock. 2. Should
Mary change her mind, ring me up. 3. Should you meet John, will you
give him my telephone number? 4. Should they offer you that painting,
would you refuse it? 5. Should you be asked to join an expedition to the
Pole, would you say ‘yes’ ?
Ex. 118: Possible solutions: 1. Might (could, should) see ‘Gone with the Wind’.
2. Might buy herself a new pair of slippers. 3. Might understand my posi
tion. 4. Might take long walks next spring. 5. Might finish it as soon as pos
sible. 6. May ring you up and make it up with you. 7. May take out
your bad tooth. 8. Might have a day off on New Year’s Eve. 9. May
prosper. 10. Might see his fiancee in the row behind me. 11. Might go
to a University. 12. Might get oranges for his thirst. 13. May bring him
back to prison. 14. May be free on Sunday. 15. Should be angry with
her. 16. Should fall and break his legs. 17. Should be accused of making
noise in the children’s ward.
In 4, 8, 11, can, or could are not possible. In 15, 16, 17, only should.
Ex. 119: 1. However little you may earn, you ought to give your sister
some money too. 2. Whatever you may hear about Ann, I think you will
go on being fond of her. 3. Although he may be well educated, he did
made no proof of it in solving the problem. 4. However much he may love
Ann, there are things he can’t put up with. 5. Whatever you may think
of me, I won’t give you my dress to wear it at the ball.
Ex. 120: 1. Her dress may be more expensive than mine, but ... 2. He
may look happy, but ... 3. He may have promised to write, but ... 4. It
may seem incredible, but ... 5. He may say that he has a University degree,
but . . .
Ex. 121: 1. He may have had a lot of books, but ... 2. She may have
told a lie, but ... 3. He may have made a lot of mistakes, but .. .
4. He may have said that he will lend me that book, but . . .
Ex. 122: 1. Wherever she may work, she will always be praised by every
body. 2. Whenever you may send the telegram, the postman won’t bring
it before New Year’s Day. 3. Wherever you may go, you won’t find a
better job. 4. Whenever you may return to your wife, she will be happy
to see you back.
Phrasal Verbs
Ex. 123: 1. Sînt sătul de mașini vechi. A mea se strică mereu. 2. S-au îm
părțit în două grupuri. 3. Uite în ce hal e camera. Ce-ați avut de gînd?
4. Refuz să-i mai suport (tolerez) cicăleala. 5. Am renunțat la jocul de șah.
îmi ia prea mult timp. 6. Vorbește deslușit, te rog. Nu aud nici un cuvînt.
7. Casa este într-un hal făr’ de hal. Are nevoie de reparații capitale
/ Trebuie reparată toată. 8. O să ridic (pun în discuție) problema la ur
mătoarea ședință. 9. Am stat (aseară) pînă tîrziu / Am stat treji pînă
tîrziu / ca să ascultăm muzică. 10. Nu trebuie să te hotărăști pe loc.
11. Mergea atît de repede, îneît nu am putut ține pasul cu el / Nu m-am
putut ține după el /. 12. O să te iau de la colțul străzii. 13. Trebuie să re
încep franceza / Să mă ocup din nou de franceză. 14. Nu cumva să mergi la
hotel 1? O să te găzduim noi. 15. Hai să spălăm vasele de la cină înainte
de a pleca în oraș. 16. Copiilor le place să se costumez^ și să pretindă că sînt
personaje celebre. 17. Paznicul a fost bătut și lăsat în nesimțire. 18. Tre
buie să-ți susții argumentul cu fapte serioase. 19. Cînd se întrerupe școala
pentru vacanța de primăvară? 20. A stabilit un nou record la milă.
21. O mașină a oprit în fața casei. 22. Prețul țigărilor a crescut din nou.
23. Rupse scrisoarea și aruncă bucățile în coșul de hîrtii. 24. Nu-mi
pot aminti numărul lor de telefon. Va trebui să-i caut. 25. N-am nici un
ban Ia mine pentru moment. Voi aranja cu tine mai tîrziu. 26. Nu uita să
întorci ceasul. 27. Sună-mă la ora 10. 28. Ne pare rău că am întîrziat.
Circulația e de vină.
Ex. 124: 1. Nu te lăsa dus de entuziasm. 2. Treptat, sunetele tobelor se
pierdură în depărtare. 3. Nu vei scăpa cu o astfel de scuză. 4. Nu am ne
voie de umbrela asta veche. Arunc-o. 5. La Cambridge s-a renunțat la exa
menul obligatoriu de latină pentru admitere. 6. Am pornit în zori. 7. Să
facem o pauză acum și să bem o cafea? 8. In ultimul moment sindica
tul a oprit declararea grevei. 9. A fost amendat cu 5 lire. Cred că a scăpat
ușor. 10. Vom veni cu toții să te conducem la gară.
Ex. 125: 1. Nu te poftesc în casă. E într-un hal fără de hal. 2. Am și așa
destul de multă treabă de făcut ca să nu mă mai apuc de alta. 3. Cineva
le-a spart casa în timp ce ei erau plecați. 4. Cred că am rămas fără benzină.
5. Putem să mai rezistăm încă o zi fără apă? 6. Am să vin să te văd
mai tîrziu. 7. De cîte ori apare revista? 8. în cele din urmă cedează întot
deauna și face ce-i spun prietenii. 9. „Am văzut casa pe care ați cumpă
rat-o. Cînd vă mutați în ea?“ „De îndată ce ceilalți pleacă din ea“. 10. Au
ieșit bine pozele? 11. Particip la concurs. 12. Dormitorul ei dădea înspre
un teren de joacă. 13. Ai grijă! Dă laptele în foc! 14. N-am putut desluși
nici un cuvînt din ce spunea.
Ex. 126: 1. Știi suficientă engleză ca să poți purta o conversație? 2. Aș vrea
să preiau eu slujba cînd el iese la pensie. 3. Este vital pentru economia
țării ca noi să micșorăm importurile. 4. De îndată ce s-a făcut bine, a început
să se îngrașe. 5. îmi amintesc cu nostalgie de anii de școală. 6. Răscoala a
fost reprimată cu violență. 7. Este un obicei ce s-a transmis din generație
în generație.
Ex. 127: 1. out, about; 2. away with, out; 3. up, out of; 4. up, in; 5. out;
6. up; 7. on; 8. off, away; 9. down, up; 10. out, in with; 11. up; 12. off;
13. off / up, up.
Ex. 128: 1. on, off; 2. for, in; 3. down; 4. away/down, in; 5. after; 6. down,
up, down; 7. out/away; 8. down; 9. in, up; 10. on; 11. off, for; 12. out,
round; 13. into, down.
Ex. 129: 1. over, back on; 2. up; 3. up; 4. on; 5. for; 6. up; 7. over;
8. for; 9. up, about; 10. in; 11. in for.
Ex. 130. 1. behind, on; 2. at, out, at; 3. at; 4. through / round; 5. round,
forward to; 6. away; 7. off; 8. to / round; 9. away; 10. at; 11. up to, back;
12. on to; 13. out; 14. out.
Ex. 132: 1. down; 2. out, behind; 3. at; 4. down; 5. up, to; 6. on, about;
7. for; 8. on, up; 9. up; 10. off; 11. down; 12. over; 13. about; 14. about,
in; 15. into.
Ex. 133: 1. over; 2. off; 3. up; 4. down to, through; 5. down, by; 6. for, up
with, into; 7. out; 8. on; 9. out, up; 10. out/forth, off; 11. over, back;
12. up; 13. up; 14. on, after; 15. in; 16. over, out; 17. down.
Ex. 134:1. up; 2. off; 3. in; 4. out; 5. up; 6. on, off; 7. in at, at; 8. for; 9. up/
out; out; 10. up to; 11. up to; 12. up; 13. after; 14. for, up to; 15. out;
16. out of; 17. into, up; 18. down to.
Ex 135: 1. explodau; 2. trezesc / evocă; 3. ar ascunde; 4. amina; 5. tra
tat; 6. iese (întotdeauna) la iveală; 7. mi-a revenit în minte; 8. răsună;
9. dau drumul / aprind; 10. descoperisem; 11. a luat (să examineze).
Ex. 136: 1. să se trădeze; 2. a cauzat; 3. a născocit; 4. năpustindu-se;
5. îl ajunsese din urmă; 6. ai rezolvat; 7. m-aș fi predat; 8. aștept cu
nerăbdare; 9. am fost entuziasmați; 10. s-a înapoiat, s-a apucat serios;
11. scoasă în evidență; 12. să dea legătura telefonică.
Ex. 137: a) 1. brought from the province; 2. allow our entrance; 3. come to
be (in the end); 4. tolerate; 5. proceed without hesitation; 6. stop (seeing);
7. met by chance; 8. rising to his feet; 9. (si) provoke a row / resist violently;
make haste; 10. working; 11. deal with it; 12. not have to go to work;
walk to open land.
b) 1. postpone; 2. continued to laugh; 3. abolish; 4. renounced; 5. seize;
6. no longer have (any supply); 7. approached; 8. said interrupting the
speaker; 9. seizing; 10. is firmly determined you should come; 11. in what
part of the country was she born; 12. extinguish; 13. moved away;
14. set working; 15. reduced.
Ex 138: a) 1. take care of; 2. distributing; 3. be faithful to; 4. is anything
going on; 5. postpone the engagement you have with the other people;
6. repeating; 7. consider; 8. recover from; 9. evicting from the house; 10. get
fatter; 11. how you lose control over your imagination.
b) 1. advance; 2. growing old; 3. resembles; 4. trying to suggest; 5. change
into; 6. deceived; 7. tolerated; 8. managed; 9. walking leisurely; dress
for dinner; 10. are exhausted, carry; 11. succeed.
Ex. 139: 1. Tom promised to get down to work but only beginning with
next Monday. 2. Get along with you I You are trying in vain to get round
me. You’ll never get at the pie, I’ve locked it in the pantry. 3. Since he
had his work published he has simply got above himself. 4. R. realized
one can’t get away with crime. 5. You got off cheaply! Had I been in
your place I’d have certainly got a good thrashing. 6. I couldn’t get out
of coming to this show but I’m actually too tired to enjoy it. 7. He never
quite got over his nervous breakdown. 8. I’ll give you a helping hand as
soon as I’ve got through with my work. 9. Our group is getting up a poetry
recital for next Sunday. 10. She knows how to get round her aunt and
make her buy her whatever she wishes. 11. There will be a fancy dress
ball soon and I’ll get up as Puck. 12. Tell me, please, how did you get at
the truth?
Ex. 140: Most enterprises carried out the five-year plan ahead of schedule.
3. The gifted writer carried off the State Prize for Literature. 4. He knows
how to talk without giving himself away at all. 5. He was carried away
by the impudence of the urchin’s retorts\ 6. I’m so glad you’ve come. We
had given you up. 7. The taste of the cake carried Proust back to the days
spent at his grandparents’ place. 8. The newspapers gave him out as dead
in the railway accident. 9. The major asked Tobermory about his carryings-on
with the pussy cat at the stables. 10. He had been too sure his luck
would not give out. 11. Higgins was very amused to hear that his former stu
dent gave himself out to be an expert phonetician. 12. This window gives
on (to) the seashore. 13. Beowulf’s strength was giving out when Wiglaf
dealt the dragon a deadly blow.
Ex. 141: 1. You’ll have to manage without Mary looking after you. 2. After
I’ve just looked in at the club we’ll go shopping together. 3. He is rather
inexperienced and he must be carefully looked after. 4. I’m looking forward
to your telling me you’ve looked into the matter carefully. 5. Their living
room looks out on (to) the garden. 6. How about your helping me instead
of merely looking on? 7.1 wonder why he looks down on everybody around.
8. His affairs seem to be looking up. 9. I didn’t know your friend was
looked upon as the best surgeon in the city. 10. In order to save Euridice,
Orpheus was not to look round (for her). 11. She had always looked up to
him and now she was extremely disappointed to find out he was not really
a remarkable man. 12. Look me up tomorrow after five o’clock. 13. Look
out I A lorry is coming along at a rather high speed. 14. The professor told
her I him he had looked over the paper and that some passages ought to
be reworded.
Ex. 142: 1. I can’t have any new dress made this autumn but I’ll make
over some older ones. 2. If it were not for the rheumatism troubling me
I’d go shopping with you. 3. The two cousins don’t get on well at all. Jane
is always (on) at him so I can understand Tom going off so baldy last
night. 4. I know he is not perfect but his qualities make up for his de
fects. 5. The child was so quiet that the mother felt he was up to some
mischief. 6. I cannot make out your (hand) writing, it is really illegible.
7. Only customers’ materials made up here. 8. This film has been on at
The Capitol for a month; it must be a good one. 9. Let’s make it up! We
were fools to quarrel over a trifle. 10. The chemist promised to make up
the prescription made / written out by the specialist in two hours at most.
11. He did not let me know the meeting was off. 12. If you keep I go on
making at the dog with the poker you’ll see it will turn on you. 13. Tom
made for the wood determined to spend all his afternoon in peace. 14. Al
though she is only 16 she is never going out without making up for two
hours first.
Ex. 143: This factory puts / turns out 100 lathes a week. 2. We’ll put up
at the Cozia motel tonight if they can accomodate us. 3. You’ll dictate
and I’ll take I put / write down what you say. 4. He / she put out the lights,
checked if she had turned off the gas and went to bed. 5. You’ve skipped
a word, put it in please. 6. His answer put me out of countenance. 7. I
gave him a paper that wrote off the debt. 8. He cannot put up with im
pudence on anybody’s part. 9. He was impatient while his father was writing
down the phone numbers. 10. Tom was indignant when the landlord came
to inform him that beginning with the first of the next month he was
going to put up the rent. 11. She had written down nothing in her diary
for several days and she made up her mind to write it up that night.
12. She puts on such an innocent air when lying to me that I find it hard
not to believe her. 13. The reporter decided to go right away to write off
an article on the unusual incident. 14. I must see him by all means and he’ll
realize he won’t put me out with vague promises. 15. The authorities cruelly
put down the strikei/s’ demonstration against overtime work. 16. They put
his impudent answer down to his youth. 17. Last night I forgot to wind
up my watch / clock and it is slow now. I must put it 20 minutes for
ward.
Ex. 144: 1. If you want to read turn down the light, I want to go to bed.
2. The committee turned down his application for getting his leave in Septem
ber. 3. He says he has been nicely done by of late. 4. The dog turned
on me unexpectedly and bit me in the leg. 5. Do as you would be done
by. 6. This factory turns / puts out first quality goods. 7. Tom hated snobs
and maintained snobbery ought to be done away with by an act of Par
liament. 8. In spite of his forebodings everything had turned out well.
9. Prospero had turned the administration of his dukedom over to his brother
who turned out to be a traitor. 10. He was desperate as he had been
taken in and done out of all the money he had just inherited. 11. We
hadn’t expected Mary of all people to turn up her nose at our suggestion.
12. You forgot to turn off the tap and now the bathroom has turned into
a lake.
The Adverb
Ex. 1: gaily; extremely; backward(s); sincerely; truly; sensibly; eastward(s);
wholly; finaly; dully; beautifully; well; surely; homeward(s); pleas
antly; hungrily; whole-heartedly; deeply; badly; thankfully; late, lately;
devotedly; strikingly; hard; westward(s); unhappily; terribly; diligently;
silently; fast; near, nearly.
Ex. 2: 1. good; 2. bright, brightly-coloured; 3. bitter; 4. merry; 5. heavily;
6. nearly; 7. hard; 8. quickly, hardly; 9. last; 10. directly; 11. dead; 12. badly;
13. tight / tightly; 14. near; 15. lastly.
Ex. 4: much — more — (the) most; brightly — more brightly — (the) most
brightly; quietly — more quietly — (the) most quietly; expressively — more
expressively — (the) most expressively; badly — worse — (the) worst;
quickly — more quickly — (the) most quickly/ quicker— quickest; late —
later — (the) latest; high — higher — (the) highest; often — oftener—
(the) oftenest/more often— (the) most often; well — better — (the) best;
swiftly — more swiftly — (the) most swiftly; far — farther — (the) farthest
I further — (the) furthest; little — less — (^the) least; slowly — slower —
(the) slowest / more slowly (the) most slowly.
Ex. 5: 1. more carefully; 2. farther; 3. more slowly; 4. as awkwardly as;
5. more / less unfavourably; 6. the most disgracefully; 7. worse; 8. the hard
est; 9. less carefully; 10. quicker / more quickly.
Ex. 6: 1. You play chess worse than your brother. 2. I play chess the worst
of all. 3. Who runs the faster, Tom or Bob? 4. My mate runs slower than
myself / more slowly than I do. 5. This month he has worked less
than he did last month. 6. Nick always comes later than the others. 7. Which
of the paintings on display was described the least convincingly? 8. Of all
the students in your group John did it (the) best.
Ex. 7: 1. still slower; 2. much more correctly; 3. even more beautifully;
4. even better; 5. a great deal better; 6. even more severely; 7. far more
thoroughly; 8. much more sportingly; 9. a great deal harder; 10. even less.
Ex. 8: 1. I could not speak to her. She was quite annoyed at his stupidity.
2. I am very much / greatly / quite / particularly / keenly / interested in this
problem. 3. My mother’s cakes were highly praised. 4. I am quite / deeply
disgusted at your behaviour. 5. My parents were highly / greatly / quite /
particularly / pretty satisfied with my marks. 6. I was very much / quite /
deeply hurt by your words. 7. I’d be very much / deeply / particularly obliged
if you would help me. 8. Iago thought that he had been deeply wronged
by Othello. 9. He was very much / deeply / greatly / particularly impressed
by our economic performance. 10. We were very much / greatly / quite shocked
at his wickedness.
Ex. 9: 1. He had not gone far when he saw a horseman coming toward(s)
him. 2. Do you know what the fare is to go as far as Oradea? 3. Although
we started early, we did not travel far that day as it had been snowing
all morning. 4. They asked me by far more questions than I had expected
and our talk continued far into the night. 5. He swims far too well to get
drowned. 6. Far away, in a little street there is a poor house. 7. He walked
farther than I did. 8. Your book is by far more interesting than mine. 9.
Don’t carry the joke too far. 10. He said that the car had broken down
and, further, that there was no hope to find a mechanic.
Ex. 10: 1. fairly, rather; 2. rather; 3. fairly; 4. rather; 5. rather; 6. rather,
fairly; 7. rather; 8. rather; 9. rather; 10. rather; 11. fairly, rather; 12. rather.
Ex. 11: 1. I am pretty sure he will come. 2. She dressed prettily in her youth.
3. It is pretty cold for May. 4. I hear she has arranged her new flat pret
tily. 5. We can’t walk to the Zoo; it is pretty far from here. 6. She looked
pretty worried. 7. She seemed pretty sure of what she was saying. 8. His
voice sounded pretty false.
Ex. 12: 1. She feels well enough to go for a walk. 2. 20 lei for the dictionary!
It’s really rather cheep. 3. It is fairly obvious that he is new to the job.
4. Her ideas are rather strange. 5. I’d join you on the trip but I’m rather
short of money. 6. The paper is good enough to be published. 7. The pres
ident’s speech was rather short. 8. I think the conference was fairly in
teresting and informative enough. 9. I immediately recognized him although
he was rather changed. 10. It took us only one hour to the top of the moun
tain, although the road was rather abrupt. 11. I felt rather unhappy. 12.
This bed is not wide enough for two persons, but it is fairly soft.
Ex. 13: 1. He put it well in English. 2. It was well put / put well in Eng
lish. 3. He deliberately misled us. 4. He spoke slowly and deliberately.
5. He kindly offered to put me up. 6. I was painstakingly learning to spell.
7. I wanted to see it very badly. 8. She cheerfully sang the tune / She
sang the tune cheerfully. 9. She humbly offered her apologies. 10. He flapped
his hands limply at his sides. 11. Slowly and inefficiently she started look
ing for her glasses I She started looking for her glasses, slowly and ineffi
ciently.
Ex. 15: 1. He was born at 5 a.m. on June (the) 15th in the year 1952.
2. Early in the morning when the tourists. . . 3. He returned to Bucharest
at 4 o’clock in the afternoon, last week. 4. I first met him in May last
year. 5. . . . broke out one night in September 1666. 6. The news was, broad
cast at half past two last Saturday. 7. In future we shall come (here at
9 every morning. 8. They went away for a week on Sunday.
Ex. 16: 1. They always come in time. 2. Our teacher of English never
speaks Romanian to us. 3. Sometimes we can’t tell right from wrong. 4.1
have just finished my work. 5. I shall never forget that day. 6. I have
just seen him in the garden. 7. I have often asked him about that. 8. You
can always turn to Tom when you need help (for help). 9. I saw him at
the theatre yesterday. 10. We shall always remember those merry days
with pleasure. 11. We shall (sometimes) meet him at the library (sometimes).
12. Will he return soon? 13. Have you ever been to the skating rink?
Ex. 17: 1. Tom and Becky had been wandering about the cave for many
hours. 2. Jim was to recite his poem in the centre of the examination hall
that very morning. 3. Though I was very busy at the office yesterday, I
snatched a minute to answer this letter. 4. Tom Huck and Joe decided
to run away from home at daybreak. 5. I wish I were over there now.
6. They returned to the camp late in the evening. 7. a) The other day, here
in New York, I had the pleasure of meeting a fine woman of about fifty,
b) The other day I had the pleasure of meeting a fine woman of about
fifty here in New York. 8. My brothers and my husband will be home
soon from the shooting. 9. Bathing is very good here, in summer, when
the sea is mostly calm. 10. The great fire broke out in a baker’s shop in
London in September 1666 and aided by the east wind, burnt down the
wooden houses of which a large proportion of the town was built.
Ex. 18: 1. You may still finish your work in time. 2. Was he still working
when you rang him up? 3. ‘Have the tourists left the hotel yet?’ ‘No, they
have not (yet) left it (yet). They are still in their room.’ ‘Haven’t they
still left the hotel?’ 4. Haven’t you (yet) finished writing yet? 5. Have you
still not understood? I Have you not understood yet? 6. Are you (still)
waitihg for him? 7. He hadn’t (yet) come (yet). 8. Have you told him yet?
9. The concert is not (yet) finished (yet). It is still going on. 10. I still want
to learn English. 11. She still looks tired in spite of the long holiday she
has had. 12. I am still wondering what he meant. 13. I cannot come yet,
I am still busy. 14. You can’t be hungry yet. You have just eaten your
dinner.
Ex. 19: 1. You haven’t told me yet what your name is. 2. Although it is
still raining the sun has come out. 3. The lesson isn’t over yet. 4. It is
too cold yet to get out without a coat. 5. She still looks very young. 6. What?
Have you still not managed to open the safe? 7. The sky is overcast but
it hasn’t begun raining yet. 8. This painting is still more beautiful. 9. What!
Is there still a letter you haven’t translated yet?
Ex. 20: 1. ‘Have you already read this article?’ ‘I have not finished it
yet. I am still reading it’. 2. ‘It is 8 o’clock already, and he hasn’t got
up yet. He is still sleeping.’ ‘What? Is he still sleeping?’ 3. ‘My brother
has already sent me a card.’ ‘I haven’t received anything yet.’ 4. ‘Have
you not returned the books to the library yet?’ ‘No, I’ve still got them.’
5. You have not told us yet why you worried unnecessarily about it 6. ‘Have
you already posted the letter?’ ‘No, I haven’t posted it yet.’ 7. Are you still
thinking of him? 8. Have you not yet found anything else to do? 9. I
have not yet decided how to approach it. 10. It is not too late yet. We
can still catch the next fast train.
Ex. 21: 1. He stayed long in England, no wonder (that) he speaks English
so well. 2. I do no longer want to spend my holidays at the seaside. 3. She
is no longer living here. 4. She has been long studying English. 5. How long
have you been in Bucharest? How long will you be here? 6. I will no longer
help you with your lessons. You must do them on your own. 7. I do no
longer know what to think of him. 8. How long will you be away? 9. I
have not seen him for a long time. 10. Winter has long gone, spring is here.
11. Wait for me! I won’t be long.
Ex. 22: 1. I heard about her marriage only a month ago. 2. She only got
married a month ago. 3. J.C.’s troops landed on the coast of Britain as early
as 55 B.C. But the actual conquest of Britain took place as late as A.D. 43.
4. The Roman armies were only withdrawn in the 5th century. 5. Enescu
started playing the violin at an early age. He was still a child when he made
his first appearance at a public concert. 6. By 1440 Gutenberg had already
invented the printing-press. 7. As late as a couple of years ago it was unthink
able that man would conquer outer space. 8. We cannot speak of “Houses”
of Parliament as early as the reign of Edward I. 9. He only started learning
English last year. 10. He could read even before he had gone to school.
Ex. 24: 1. Today ‘savage’ only means ... 2. He is only younger ... 3. At
first Ernest only shrugged ... 4. He made Jackson answer in a way that
only damaged . . . 5. . . . and only the driver ... 6. ... is a freedom that
(only) the ruling classes enjoy (only). 7. ... we shall only deal. . .; ... we
shall deal only with such facts . . . (only); .. . throw light only on . . .
Ex. 25: 1. This winter hardly any ship has anchored in this harbour. 2.
Hardly anything grows in this wasteland. 3. One hundred years ago people
knew next to nothing / hardly anything was known about this phenomenon.
4. I’ve hardly travelled to any place so far but I hope to do it in future.
5. I could hardly get a few words out of him. 6. I have hardly read any
English book this summer. 7. I hardly know him so I can’t say anything
about his intentions. 8. I hardly have the time to get through the day’s
business. 9. Nicholas hardly took any notice of her. 10. He could hardly
control himself when he was told about the accident. 11. It was raining
so hard that we could hardly see the road ahead (of us). 12. I could hardly
say it was very useful to me. 13. I could hardly say a word for laughing.
Ex. 26: 1. Education in our country aims at shaping young people into
highly cultivated / accomplished, active builders of socialism. 2, Chip tasted
the wine and he liked it; so he drank a lot of it. After a little while he
fell asleep. 3. Short after it had grown dark Miss Donner came into David’s
room and brought him bread and milk. 4. He beat me so hard I shall
never forgive him. 5. The teacher was deeply touched by his students’
words. 6. You must drive very carefully, indeed, especially when you turn
round a bend. 7. Take a little rest (now), you’ve been busy translating all
day long. 8. ‘He will probably come by train4 ‘I am pretty sure / almost
sure he will come by couch.’ 9. It must be a very complex device. I It must
be quite a complex device. 10. ‘Did you like the book?’ ‘Very much in
deed. It is one of those books you enjoy reading again and again. 11.
Frankly speaking I didn’t like the book in its entirety / all of the book.
12. I partly agree with you. The chapters describing life in the jungle are
true-to-life, though. 13. ‘They see this question differently’. ‘(This is) the
more interesting.’
The Preposition
Ex. 2: 1. into. 2. on. 3. in, in. 4. at, at. 5. in, at. 6. on, at. 7. on, in.
8. on. 9. in.
Ex. 3: 1. from. 2. to. 3. from. 4. to. 5. into, from. 6. from. 7. to. 8. from.
Ex. 4: a) 1. in, 2. into. 3. onto. 4. in. 5. into. 6. in; b) off: 2, 3; out of. 2, 5.
Ex. 5: 1. in, into. 2. in, off, on. 3. for, as far as. 4. onto, off. 5. for, out
side. 6. within. 7. towards.
Ex. 9: 1. in front of, on. 2. to, in. 3. next to. 4. opposite 5. among. 6. be
hind. 7. behind. 8. at the back of.
Ex. 11: a) 1. to, along, on, at. 2. across, through, into. 3. through, out
of, through, on. 4. at. b) 1. against. 2. with. 3. at, opposite to, with, to
wards. 4. in, past, round, c) over, d) 1. into. 2. out of. e) across.
Ex. 12: 1. at, until, before. 2. at, at. 3. on, until. 4. for. 5. for. 6. in, on.
7. around, before. 8. during.
Ex. 13: 1. in. 2. on. 3. in. 4. at. 5. in. 6. at. 7. during. 8. on.
Ex. 14: 1.Trom, to, before, till. 2. till, from, to, before. 3. since, till. 4.
since, till / before. 5. since, till / before. 6. till. 7. from. 8. since.
Ex. 15: 1. for, in. 2. in, for. 3. by, till. 4. in. 5. by, till, till. 6. by 7. by.
Ex. 16: 1. to, for. 2. for. 3. because of. 4. from. 5. for. 6. on account of. 7.
because of. 8. in, out of.
Ex. 19: 1. for. 2. for. 3. out of, out of. 4. for. 5. for. 6. from. 7. on account
of /because of. 8. out of/from.
Ex. 20: rude to, valid for, useful to, quick at, fit for, far from, ready
for, indifferent to, efficient, at, absent from, qualified for, polite to, slow at.
Ex. 22: 1. at. 2. at. 3. at. 4. to. 5. to. 6. from. 7. at. 8. to.
Ex. 23: 1. from. 2. from, with. 3. by, by. 4. with. 5.. for, without. 6. with.
7. without. 8. for. 9. from. 10. for. 11. for. 12. by. 13. with. 14. without.
15. for. 16 for. 17 with. 18. by. 19. with, without. 20. without. 21. with
out. 22. without 23. without. 24. with. 25. without. 26. by. 27. from. 28. by.
29. by. 30. without. 31. by. 32. without. 33. for, for. 34. with. 35. by.
36. from, by, without. 37. without.
Ex. 24: 1. about. 2. on. 3. about. 4. about. 5. in. 6. on. 7. on. 8. in. 9.
about. 10. on, in. 11. of. 12. in. 13. on. 14. on, about. 15. of. 16. of. 17. of,
on. 18. on. 19. about. 20. of, of. 21. in. 22. on. 23. of. 24. in. 25. on.
26. on, under. 27. of. 28. on, on. 29. of. 30. in. 31. on. 32. on. 33. of.
34. about. 35. on. 36. of.
Ex. 25: 1. about. 2. about / to. 3. with. 4. for. 5. with. 6. of. 7. for. 8. into.
9. by, with, of. 10. of, like. 11. into, from. 12. on.
Ex. 2C: a) Alfred is ill. He has been absent from school for a fortnight
2. We must apologize to our host for arriving so late. 3. Working all day
in an office doesn’t appeal to me a bit. 4. When I need your advice in/on
this matter, I will ask you for it. 5. I’m not afraid of anyone, and I am
not afraid to tell the truth to anybody. 6. I don’t think your mother approves
of me at all! 7. You will arrive in France on Saturday. On your arrival
at the hotel you will find a message in the pigeon-hole. 8. The Moon is
attracted by the Earth. It is this attraction of the Moon to the Earth
that causes the tide, b) 1. I was always bad at history. I had a feeling it
was bad for my digestion. 2. Do you believe in ghosts? I don’t 3. This
book belongs to me. But you can borrow it from me for a couple of days
if you want to. 4. Compare your answers to this exercise with the answers
given on page 23. 5. May I congratulate you on your birthday? 6. George
has always been a good friend to us. We could always count on him for
support. 7. Someone gave me this tie for my birthday. Can I change it
for something less gaudy? 8. Can you distinguish wheat from rye? How do
you distinguish between them?
Ex. 27: a) 1. You borrowed my dictionary. Have you finished with it? 2. X
and Y are equal to Z. If X equals 6 and Y equals 8 what is 2 Z equal to?
3. Are you familiar now with the English sounds? Are they familiar to you?
4. To win freedom peoples have had to fight for it. 5. Do you love me,
or are you just fond of me? 6. Forgive me for making such an awful mis
take. I forgot all about it. 7. Don’t envy your neighbour. There’s no point
in being jealous of him. 8. Before you join one electric wire to another,
make sure the current has been switched off. b) 1. When I moved, my neigh
bours had been living there for five years since 1970. 2. They had moved
from their old lodgings so many years before, but they kept talking about
the garden they had had there. 3. We have been living here only for two
years. 4. Everybody has a car in our block. You have to drive round it
three times before you find a parking place. 5. The performance is very
good. The tickets are on sale at the box office at the National Theatre. There
will be a performance every night, except Sunday, at 8.00 p. m. There
will be a matinee too on Wednesday at 2.30 p.m. Reservations may be
made by mail or telephone. It is a revival of Saint Joan by Bernard Shaw.
6. He has been waiting for two hours, why aren’t you talking to him? 7. I
met him several times during the trip but he never came on time.
Syntax
The Subject and The Predicate
Ex. 1: The pale moon (Det + Modifier + Noun). 2. Dick’s incessant talking
(Possessive Det Mod + Gerund.) 3. Whoever did that (Clause). 4. My
Latin teacher and I (Poss + Det + Mod + Noun coordinated with Pro
noun). 5. It ... to ask (formal pronominal Subject + real Subject + Infin
itive). 6. He who hesitates (Pronoun + Relative Clause). 7. Anything (In-
def. Pronoun). 8. My old friend, Bill Jones. (Det + Mod + Noun followed
by an apposition). 9. Illmatched cups and saucers (Mod + 2 coordinated
noun phrases). 10. Those three (Demonstrative Det 4- Numeral). 11. To
bask in the sun and to swim a little. (2 coordinated Infinitival Phrases). 12. For
Samuel to teach German (Complex For + Infinitive Phrase). 12. Who (In
terrogative pronoun). 14. His (Possessive Pron) 15. How to mix the stuff
(construction how + Infinitive). 16. There ... no matches (formal “there”-|-
real Subject Det + Noun). 17. Whether he had been right or not (Clause).
18. Playing ball and talking about cars (2 coordinated Gerundial con
structions). 19. What to say (Clause).
Ex. 2: 1. It = pronoun. 2. The = quoted article. 3. Over the fence = place
adverbial expressed by Prepositional Noun Phrase. 4. From five to six =
time adverbial (expressed by Prepositional Noun Phrase). 5. Outside the
circle = place adverbial expressed by Prepositional Noun Phrase. 6. Since =
quoted item (preposition, conjunction or adverb). 7. To the school and back=
coordinated adverbial phrases, the first expressed by Prepositional Noun
Phrase. 8. Is, has = quoted auxiliaries. 9. Over the bridge and down the
road = coordinated place adverbials expressed by Prepositional Noun Phra
ses. 10. Once = quantifying adverb.
Ex. 3: 1. b), 2. b) and 3. a) contain “Compound Subjects”, characterized
by determination in front of the first noun only, agreement and pronomi-
nalization in the singular.
Ex. 4: One must spare other people’s feelings. 2. You cannot do two differ
ent things at a time. 3. They say the weather will change soon. 4. One
should be careful when swimming in an unknown river. 5. We often see
other people’s faults instead of seeing our own. 6. One can find this phone
number in the telephone directory. 7. They I People eat much meat in this
country. 8. In the last few years we have been drinking more and more
coffee. 9. You never can tell. 10. We often speak before we think.
Ex. 5: 1. it, there. 2. there, it. 3. there, it, it, there, it, it. 4. there, there.
5. it, it, there.
In all instance “there” is existential. The functions of “it” are: demonstrative,
introductory, impersonal and emphatic.
Ex. 6:1. Impersonal. 2. Demonstrative, identifying. 3. Emphatic. 4. Introduc
tory, anticipatory. 5, 6, 7. Introductory, anticipatory. 8. Emphatic. 9. Im
personal. 10. Personal pronoun.
Ex. 7: 1. a), 2. a) and 3. a) are existential sentences containing indefinite
noun phrases as real subjects, l.b), 2.b) and 3.b) are special uses of “there”
constructions with definite noun phrases.
Ex. 8: 1. Early in 1933 a steady upsurge of the fighting spirit made itself
manifest among the workers at the Grivița Workshops. 2. I wondered what
his name was and how long he had been living in the same neighbourhood
with my sister. 3. Ten new blocks of flats have been built and two schools
opened in this provincial town within these three years. 4. The strikes
organized during the period of economic depression hold a prominent place
in the history of the revolutionary struggle carried out by our heroic work
ing class. 5. Neither I nor my sister can / is able to lend you the book.
Agreement
Ex. 1: 1. has; 2. likes; 3. does; 4. was; 5. is; 6. like; 7. is; 8. types; 9. is;
10. is.
Ex. 2: 1. do; 2. does; 3. does; 4. does; 5. do; 6. does; 7. does; 8. does.
Ex. 3: 1. Have. There have been many jokes. This is one of the best. 2. Is.
One very pleasant fact among many others. 3. Wants. Who refers to one:
there is not one person who wants to walk so far. 4. Bores. That special
kind bores me. 5. Knows. Who refers to one: John is the only one who knows.
6. Is. Kind remains the subject. 7. Was. One reason is the subject. 8. Is.
One stands for a new car.
Ex. 4: 1. tease; 2, accompanies; 3. belongs; 4, does; 5. knows; 6. answers;
7. are; 8. is; 9. was; țO. are; 11. is; 12. proves; 13. request; 14. is; 15.
is; 16. wishes. ' -”
Ex. 7: 1. The news is bad. 2. The tongs are in the top drawer of the cup
board. 3. My family is I are not going to the Făgăraș mountains because
the weather is still cold. 4. The government meets tomorrow morning to
discuss the measures (steps) to be taken. 5. The afternoon shift begins work
at 3 o’clock. 6. The football team of our factory (our factory football team)
plays against their colleagues of Galatzi. 7. Our class prepares I prepare a
folklore show. 8. His information is almost always wrong. 9. The parents’
advice proves invaluable. 10. The group of foreigners who has recently
visited our school congratulates us on our successes. 11. Most of the first
year students speak English well. 12. The Students’ Association is interested
in the results obtained by each and every student.
Ex. 8:1.1 generally take the bus home since three miles is too far to walk.
2. Several speakers have suggested that the accoustics in our auditorium
are not as good as they might be. 3. Your friend Mary told me that you
and she intended to go on a trip. 4. I can now see that my father is
one of those parents who are almost always right. 5. The Students’ Asso
ciation of Bucharest and Cluj make special efforts to enable the largest
possible number of students to spend their vacations in student camps.
Ex. 9: 1. his; 2. him; 3. his; 4. his; 5. their, hers; 6. his; 7. their; 8. his I
her; 9. his; 10. his/her.
Ex. 10: 1. is, itself; 2. has, his; 3. say, gives, his; 4. gets, takes, his; 5. is,
wants, his; 6. have, their; 7. has, is, his; 8. boast, their.
Ex. 11: Nearly everybody in our group collects different things. Some of
my friends collect stamps or old coins. One of the girls keeps (gathers,
collects) locks clipped from the hair of her friends. Every lock in the collec
tion is placed in an envelope and carefully pasted in an album. Bill, as well
as his two brothers, has a collection of old pictures, taken as far back as
the 20’s. Each of them is proud of his collection. Jack, however, does not
collect anything. One of his pleasures is watching things — lizards or birds
for instance. But none of my friends likes to read as much as I do. Instead
of collecting old things or watching a swallow, I learn about things in other
lands. Everybody in my class says that I read too much. But each book,
as well as each magazine, teaches me far more than any of my friends is
ready to believe.
Objects
Ex. 2: 1. People consider it wrong to tell lies. 2. The weather forecast
declared it unlikely that it should rain the next day. 3. Do you find it
interesting to travel all over the world? 4. Father thinks it most foolish
15 — Limba englezA pentru adm. In înv. superior 225
for them to behave like that. 5. The pupils esteemed it an honour to work
for such a project.
Ex. 3: 1. I should like there to be a public discussion of this matter. 2. The
manager expected there to be no argument about his decision. 3. Parents
mean there to be no disobedience. 4. The Dean did not want there to be
any misunderstanding of the measures he had adopted. 5. John would prefer
there to be a meeting in order to have this problem solved.
Ex. 4: 1. Did he die a natural death? 2. When she heard the news she
smiled a bitter smile. 3. They lived a happy life in the wood all by them
selves. 4. Susan laughed a merry laugh when they reached a chalet. 5. I
dreamt a strange dream last night. 6. Will you dance this dance with me?
7. She looked up at the boy and smiled her most gracious smile. 8. They
sleep the sleep of the just in the small cemetery up the hill.
Ex. 5: 1. Mother boiled the eggs hard. 2. He pushed the door open. 3. Mind
you don’t make yourself sick if you eat so many cakes. 4. The rain almost
drove them mad because they couldn’t leave the chalet. 5. Were all the
prisoners set free? 6. He shouted himself hoarse. 7. The story is rather
long; I advise you to cut it short. 8. Open your mouth wide! 9. He made
good his escape.
Ex. 7: 1. to; 2. to; 3. for; 4. to; 5. for; 6. for; 7. to; 8. for; 9. to; 10. to;
11. for; 12. for; 13. to; 14. for; 15. to.
Ex. 8: 1. Have you chosen the best dictionaries for your brother? 2. I have
found a very nice tie for my husband. 3. The hostess offered some cake to
everybody in the room. 4. He promised the novel to me, not to you. 5.
Please, take these flowers to your sister from my part. 6. Will you leave
a little roastbeef for/to me too? 7. Special scholarships are awarded to
the best students. 8. I must fetch some difficult exercises for the advanced
pupils. 9. Mother cooked ham and eggs for herself and for the children.
10. He taught the sequence of tenses to all the pupils at the beginning
of this term.
Ex. 9: 1. for; 2. on; 3. with; 4. of; 5. from; 6. of; 7. to; 8. for; 9. on;
10. for; 11. with; 12. for.
Ex. 10: 1. He dedicated his memories to his daughter. 2. The young com
poser dedicated his first song to a popular folk singer. 3. He proved to
his parents his capacity of working hard. 4. May I introduce you to my
mother? 5. I said to them the whole truth. 6. Mary suggested to her brother
the subject of a new short story. 7. Will you describe your new flat to
your class-mates?
Passive Sentences
Ex. 1: 1. She is frightened. 2. Such mistakes are made sometimes. 3. Small
fish are eaten by big fish. 4. Are mushrooms sold here every day? 5. Eng
lish is not spoken there. 6. The papers were left in the taxi. 7. Our dog
was hit by a car, but he wasn’t killed. 8. The door was found shut. 9. Were
you told we had left? 10. Mike wasn’t called. 11. She has been upset by
the sight of the body. 12. It has been thrown away. 13. Three blocks have
been built. 14. Have the cigarettes been bought? 15. The fine hasn’t been
paid. 16. He had been allowed to go (by his parents). 17. Something had
been written on the book. 18. A very nice place had been chosen. 19. Had
all the necessary arrangements been made? 20. They hadn’t been taught
how to shoot. 21. He will be forgotten ... 22. The chalet couldn’t be seen. . .
23. You will be expected ... 24. Justice shall be done. 25. She said he
would be announced. 26. . . anything can be understood. 27. The job
will have been finished ... 28. The figures needn’t be checked now. 29. My
shirt must be pressed ... 30. She would have been told if . . . 31. That
sort of thing must be expected. 32. More books should be written for child
ren. 33. John must have been seen there. 34. Grandparents ought to be
visited . . .
Ex. 2: 1. An interesting experiment is being carried out. 2. The wounded
driver is being examined (by the doctor). 3. ... a phone call is being made. . .
4. Their passports are being checked. 5. Can’t you see I’m being lectured?
6. Henry VIII was being shown on TV. 7. Dinner was being cooked . . .
8. His books were being kept. 9. A poem was being written ... 10. At
least ten different languages were being spoken ... 11, 12 — normally no
passive equivalents.
Ex. 3: 1. be punished, have been punished. 2. was sent 3. was being broad
cast. 4. will be introduced. 5. have been given 6. be I have been sent. 7. be
accused. 8. has been I was taken over 9. are said (to live). 10. has been moved.
Ex. 4: 1. I had been deeply impressed by her frankness. 2. Several short
comings were hinted at. 3. These regulations are usually followed. 4. He
was operated on ... 5. Every action, whether good or bad, must be ac
counted for. 6. I had been spoken to for two hours. 7. He was enthusiasti
cally acclaimed. 8. The light has been left on ... 9. Imprudence is paid
for. 10. It’s about time the baby was given her meal. 11. She is well spoken
of. 12. John was never told about it. 13. Has she been heard to say that?
14. It ought not to be spoken about. 15. These instructions are generally
obeyed. 16. Had she been already told? 17. You will be laughed at . . .
18. The witness is being brought in. 19. Who is the film directed by?
20. Kittens are often eaten by mother-cats. 21. This matter should be
looked into ... 22. Our proposal has been turned down. 23. ... or is it
all made up ? 24. ... that the form is properly filled in before it is sent
off. 25. I was taken for . . .
Ex. 5: had been built, was almost completely destroyed, were also badly
damaged, had been I were evacuated, was injured, had been announced, had
been almost entirely burnt down, has not yet been definitely established, is
believed, got started, was situated. __
Ex. 6: 1. We were promised better equipment (*). 2. Your little sister
will be given a cake too. 3^1 have never been shown the door. 4. The
visitors are being presented the new wing. 5. Were you denied the right. . .
6. She had been asked a stupid question. 7. You could be recommended
♦ 1 — 10 have also passive equivalents with the direct object of the active sentence
as subject, e.g. Better equipment was premised to us, but such sentences are far less
frequent in the language than in the variant given here.
another school. 8. You will be given all the necessary instructions. 9. You
will be read ... 10. Bill has been given the job ... 11. Your sister has
been said to be . . . (**) 12. The director is expected to change the cast.
13. He is believed to be rather stupid. 14. This last variant is considered
to be the best. 15. This detergent is known to be . . .
Ex. 7: 1. Little Jimmy has been / was / had been promised an electric
train ... 2. The furniture is being arranged ... 3. This tablecloth was
embroidered by my grandmother ... 4. The little hut was / has been des
troyed by the wind ... 5. The problem will be analysed ... 6. The ex
plorers had been attacked by the monkeys ... 7. He was being / had been
congratulated ... 8. That junk has been / was thrown away ... 9. The
matter will be looked into ... 10. This castle hasn’t been lived in for two
hundred years.
Ex. 8: Use exercises 1. 2. 3. as models.
Ex. 9: 1. Somebody / our friends, etc. offered us tickets ... 2. They are
building . . . 3. . . . they / the director / we had to turn him out ... 4. The
children are preparing ... 5. (some) people / we consider milk to be . . .
6. No one has switched on the radio and still we can hear some music.
7. Didn’t the author himself recite the poem? 8. Your husband must have
brought ... 9. We / somebody / they should have sent for her earlier. 10.
My parents / we / they will ask her to spend ... 11. Pupils / students / they
used to make ... 12. Didn’t they/did nobody tell ... 13. Somebody / we
ought to make a statement ... 14. They / people say her presence is . . . 15.
We / they / somebody had to stop a car so that we / etc. could take the
wounded driver to the hospital.
Ex. 10: During the night from Saturday to Sunday a heavy storm broke /
burst out in Holland (burst / fell upon Holland); five persons were killed and
eight more persons were seriously wounded. Several dozens people were
also reported to be slightly injured. Numerous power breaks were caused
by the gale (extremely violent wind). Cars (which were / had been) parked
on the sidewalks were carried / driven away / along by the gusts of wind (and
dropped) scores of yards further off. One of the victims was struck by
a tree pulled up by the wind. Serious damage was done to several
(some of the) ships (which were) anchored in the Dutch harbours; one of
. them (which was / had been) torn away / loose (from shore), was stranded
(some) five miles (seven kilometres) further away. SOS calls were launched/
sent by a Panamese and a Danish ship. In Belgium the wind reached 90 m.p.h.
(miles per hour) / 130 km. p.h. and practically all TV aerials were blown
down. At Anvers, navigation on the Escaut was made impossible / was com
pletely interrupted. Great Britain was not spared either; the gusts of wind
brought about floods on the South Coast of Wales (caused the South coast
of Wales to be flooded in several places). In some / several parts, people from
about 350 dwellings had to be evacuated. The traffic was interrupted on
several / some roads (some roads became / were made impassable because of
(the) trees which had been torn down (which had fallen to the ground).
*♦11 — 15 also have passive equivalents of the type It has been, said that...;
the variant given here is more frequent.
Passage by ferryboat was temporarily interrupted between the British shore
and the continent.
Ex. 11: Last autumn / fall the boys built a bobsleigh. The idea had been giv
en by the sports teacher, and was enthusiastically put into practice. The
bobsleigh could have been made of wood only, but some metal parts were also
used, (which had been) brought by one of the boys. While the bobsleigh was
being built it started snowing and the boys were happy at the idea that it
would be put to test as soon as it was ready. This year a bobsleigh competi
tion has been initiated, which will be held in February.
Coordination
Ex. 1:1. neither (nor); 2. neither. . . nor; either ... or; 3. not only . . . but
also;4. either ... or; 5. as well as; 6. not only . . . but also; 7. neither . . .
nor/both . . . and; 8. both . . . and; 9. but; 10. and ... so.
Ex. 2: 1. I did not know the way to the hotel so I asked a porter. 2. I
not only spoke English very carefully, but very clearly as well. 3. I re
peated the questions several times and at last he understood. 4. He an
swered me but he spoke neither slowly nor clearly. 5. Then he spoke slowly
but I couldn’t understand him. 6. The English understand each other but
I don’t understand them. 7. Children can be either very daring or very timid.
8. A thief broke into a house and stole some money but the lady of the
house caught him. 9. John not only gave back the money but paid for the
window he had broken.
Ex. 3: 1. John, Bill and Tom play football, basketball and baseball respect
ively. 2. She found the handbag and the purse in the car and the garage
respectively. 3. Both John and Susan have won a prize./John and Susan
have each won a prize. 4. Harold and Mary drank and ate wine and fish
respectively. Harold and Mary drank wine and ate fish respectively. 5. Harry
and John married Jane and Helen respectively.
Ex. 4: 1. Either Mary or Bill ate the peaches. 2. I bought three bottles of
wine and two of beer. 3. They were married in 1970 and divorced in 1976. 4.
Bill drinks and smokes sparingly. 5. Lily goes to the hairdresser’s every
day and Liz every two days.
Ex. 5: 1. allows 2. is 3. are 4. is 5. have 6. is 7. is 8. are 9. is 10. are
Interrogative Sentences
Ex. 1: 1. Who are you taking it home for? 2. For whose sake did he take
it? (who / what did he take it for?) 3. How do they make false teeth? 4.
Where (abouts) does Mary live? 5. How many / which of you liked the film?
6. Whose foot did he jump on? 7. What is she like? 8. What is it for?
9. Which glass must I drink out of? 10. What is old Tom like these days?
11. How far down did he fall? 12. Whose hat did I go off with? 13.
How many (out of ten) did he score? 14. Whose car is that? / Whose is
that car? 15. (About) how far beyond the bridge is her house? 16. Where
were you going to put it? 17. Where were you going to get it from?
Ex.2: 1. What to? 2. Where to? 3. What at? 4. What with? 5. Who(m)
with? 6. What about? 7. What with / for? 8. Who to? 9. What at? 10. Who
from? 11. Where from? 12. What about? 13. Where to? 14. What with?
15. Who by? 16. Who to?
Ex.3: 1. Musn’t I? 2. Will I? 3. Won’t I? 4. Ought I? 5. Did he? 6.
Didn’t he? 7. Did he? 8. Did he? 9. Does he? 10. Didn’t he? 11. Haven’t
I? 12. Don’t they? 13. Does she? 14. Is there? 15. Aren’t there? 16. Aren’t
I? 17. Don’t they? 18. Don’t they? 19. Doesn’t he/she? 20. Do they?
21. Don’t they? 22. Won’t he? 23. Aren’t we? 24. Won’t we? 25. Did he?
Ex. 4: 1. Show him in, will you? 2. Turn it off, will you? 3. Dust the fur
niture, will you? 4. Throw them away, will you? 5. Give him a tip, will
you? 6. Of course. Have as many as you want, won’t you? 7. Of course.
Have as much as you wish, won’t you? 8. Of course. Have as many as you
like, won’t you? 9. Of course. Have as much as you like, won’t you?
Ex. 5: 1. shall we? 2. will you? 3. shall we? 4. will you? 5. shall we?
Ex. 6: 1. Oh, they didn’t want to do it, did they? 2. Oh, youthink so,
don’t you? 3. Oh, you mustn’t, must you? 4. Oh, you’d better apologize,
hadn’t you? 5. Oh, you ought to, ought you not? 6. So, it’s ridiculous, isn’t
it? 7. So we’d be fools, shouldn’t we? 8. So, I’m stupid, aren’t I? 9. So,
he’s got no guts, does he? 10. Oh, it’s my own fault, isn’t it?
Ex. 7: 1. Where do you come from? 2. Who(m) have you given the books to?
3. Where on earth can I find such jewels? 4. Was he really so gifted as you
say? 5. What’s to be done, sir, what’s to be done? 6. Could he be the man
I’m looking for? 7. Shall I take them or not? 8. She was thinking whether to
take them or not. 9. He wanted to know when she was to come. 10. He
was wondering what she was thinking of. 11. I know neither how long he
stayed nor how much money he took. 12. I am surprised to see how nice she
has grown. 13. He wanted to know how much the rent was. 14. Which book
do you want me to give you? 15. Let’s go for a short walk, shall we?
Negation
Ex. 1: 1. She doesn’t have to be there tomorrow. 2. Mary hasn’t any new dress.
3. Sue doesn’t have sore feet. 4. Don’t open the door! 5. Mary isn’t having
lunch. 6. They’ve not found him. 7. They’ll not miss you. 8. John hasn’t
found out the truth. 9. I won’t visit London this year. 10. Don’t let’s
open the window./Let’s not open the window, (formal) 11. We’re not ready.
12. She didn’t use to play tennis when she was younger./She usedn’t
to play tennis . . . (seldom used) 13. We aren’t prepared to meet him. 14.
You needn’t be telling lies. 15. You mustn’t smoke in the child’s room. 16.
You needn’t pay that fine.
Ex. 2: 1. Nobody came here at any time after five. 2. She didn’t manage
to find anything appropriate anywhere else. 3. Even if you don’t like it here
you cannot move anywhere else. 4. He can’t be displeased at all when you
tell him the news. 5. Not anyone can swim. / No one can swim. 6. There were
no flowers on your desk./There weren’t any flowers on your desk. 7. There
aren’t lions in Africa. 8. He couldn’t answer any of the questions on the
subject. / He couldn’t answer some of the questions on the subject. / He
could answer none of the / no questions on the subject. 9. They think
that John isn’t a fool / is no fool./They don’t think that John is a fool. 10.
There hasn’t been any train since the 2.30./There has been no train since
the 2.30. 11. Many people cannot sing and dance./Many people cannot
sing or dance. / Many people can neither sing nor dance. 12. Peter knows
no English, nor does John. I Peter doesn’t know any English, nor does John.
13. Neither Peter nor John have pretty wives. 14. It isn’t raining anymore.
15. John won’t arrive until midnight. 16. It isn’t long since we last
saw them. 17. He isn’t an expert on the subject yet. 18. Scarcely anybody did
well on that exam. / Almost no one did well on that exam. 19. Daddy doesn’t
drink much coffee now and he never used to. 20. I hardly ever have to do
it myself.
Ex. 3: 1. It isn’t raining anymore. 2. You can’t help admiring him if you
get to know him. 3. You may / can not go, if you say you have ahead-
ache. 4. You cannot go if Father said so. 5. He never used to play tennis
when he was young. 6. I hardly know our new teacher. 7. Only seldom did
he go to bed before midnight. 8. He could scarcely breathe when we reached
the village. 9. None of you need learn / should learn the poem by heart,
unless they want to / he wants to. 10. The few friends she still has won’t
let her down, and nobody will ever do her any harm any more. 11. I
couldn’t plant the roses this week and I won’t have time to plant them next
week either. 12. After what happened you can no longer expect anyone to
lend you any book, can you? 13. He isn’t likely to have got home yet.
14. It’s so cold that I may not go swimming any more. 15. ‘Ask him to
bring me more of this material’. ‘He can’t bring you any more; there isn’t
any’ 16. Peter can’t have read this article. 17. He has never complained
about his work and I don’t think he ever will. 18. None of us realized that
there wasn’t enough time left to get to the station. 19. You needn’t pay dam
ages unless you want to. 20. It isn’t today but tomorrow that we are
invited to .have dinner with so many guests. 21. Neither Mary nor John
would dare tell Father such a thing.
Ex. 4: 1. One day some man will make Snoopy a good wife. 2. Everybody
always understands everything in this class! 3. You know everything about
chemistry. 4. She is some fool. 5. Somebody of that name did once work
in our office. 6. I have got a lot of spare time. 7. Cheers came from the
crowd. 8. The baby can walk and talk. 9. Anyone can swim across the river.
10. Almost everybody expected him to get there before midnight. 11. The
eclipse is already easy to see. 12. Anyone can / may smoke in the child’s
room. 13. It was a long way back, wasn’t it? 14. Tricia is still young. 15.
She must have been gone (for) a long time. 16. John may have done it.
Attributive I Relative Clauses
Ex. 1: 1. who; 2. whose; 3. whose; 4. that (which); 5. (whom); 6. who; 7.
(that); 8. (whom); 9. (that); 10. who; 11. (that); 12. (that) 13. who;
14. (whom); 15. who.
Ex. 2: 1. who; 2. whom; 3. which; 4. whose; 5. whom; 6. whose; 7.
15. whom; 8. which; 9. which; 10. whom; 11. which; 12. which.
Ex. 3: 1. that she started; 2. which was quite . . .; 3. which was more . . .;
4. which satisfied . . .; 5. which he liked; 6. that were all successfully . . .;
7. which pleased her . . .; 8. all of whom go . . .
Ex. 4: Here is the girl you met yesterday. 2. Mrs. Green, who has just moved
in, is living next door to us. 3. Bring me the book I left on the table,
which stands by the window. 4. Don’t forget to see the Art Gallery about
which so much has been written. 5. The Volga, which flows into the Caspian
Sea, is one of the Soviet Union’s largest rivers. 6. The few books I have
are all second-hand. 7. Is that the new restaurant you pointed out to me
two days ago? 8. Last week I visited the town where Eminescu used to live.
9. I met your friend to whom you introduced me last week. 10. The old
gentleman you were talking to me about has died. 11. He spoke with dig
nity which convinced everyone of his sincerity. 12. The matter you were
talking about last night has been settled.
Ex. 5: 1. He arrived in a car which he drove himself. 2. They removed the
tree that fell across the road. 3. I can’t find the book I was reeling yesterday.
4. My cousin, whom you have never met, is coming tomorrow. 5. I gave
away the dress which was out of fashion. 6. The child I was telling you
about is Mary’s son. 7. He picked up the papers which were scattered about
the room. 8. I met a girl whose parents know you. 9. Aunt Mary, who is
very fond of us, is ill. 10. She had bought some flowers whose fragrance
filled the room. 11. Her father, who has been to Suceava, has just returned.
12. The man to whom I introduced you last week is uncle John.
Object Clauses
Ex. 1: if I should ... 2. how far it was ... 3. why I hadn’t got up . . .
4. if I could . . . where he I she could ... 5. if we had to be ... or if we could
... 6. who I supposed . . . would have believed ... 7. how one could ... if
she was ... 8. where I had been . . . when it had started ... 9. he would
have done ... if he had been 10. I had to . . . I wanted to do . . . 11.
wouldn’t . . . they were ... 12. what I was thinking of when I said that . . .
13. when I had come in because he/she hadn’t heard. 14. he was sure Tom
wouldn’t do that. 15. if I had got ... he had lost his / hers.
Ex. 2: 1. She told me that she would ring me up as soon as she arrived
there. 2. Ann promised she would come and see us after she had finished
her work. 3. I don’t know which of the two students answered the ques
tions better. 4. He told me that if he had had time he would have read
more. 5. He asked me if I wanted two tickets for tomorrow’s performance. 6.
I wondered if she had written to you again. 7. I don’t know who has
told me the news. 8. I knew he was a talented painter. 9. Mary said that
she had been learning for her exam for several days. 10. She asked me
what the doctor’s telephone number was as her son had fallen downstairs
and broken his leg. 11. Tom asked me if I had forgotten to wind up the
clock because it had stopped. 12. It all depends on how long you want to
stay here. 13. Do you insist that I should go to the concert too? 14. I’m
not sure whether he has told me that. 15. Give this letter to whoever/whomever
you meet first. 16. I propose that our next meeting should take place on
October 15. 17. He feels certain the letter is in the drawer. 18. I’m sure
this is the book you are looking for. 19. I wish I could give you some
advice. 20. I wish you had come to us too.
Conditional Clauses
Ex. 1: 1. shouldn’t be afraid 2. will 3. were (was is also used in “if
clauses” in spoken English) 4. had been 5. had been 6. were.
Ex. 2: If I had a spare afternoon today, I should go to the swimming-
pool. 2. If the doctor came on time, the patient would be saved. 3. If
mother were at home, she could cook dinner for us. 4. If he didn’t have
to learn, he would go to the cinema. 5. If we found some bananas, we
might have a fruit-salad. 6. If she sent the money, mother might go to
pay her a visit in the country. 7. If we were in Bucharest, we should ac
cept the invitation. 8. If he asked for money now, she could give it to him.
Ex. 3: 1. If the pupils had had more practice, they would have spoken
better. 2. If he had been more hardworking, he would have made good
progress. 3. If I had been more realistic in my plans, I might have got
a first prize in the Town Hall competition. 4. She could have swum better if
she had paid more attention to her training. 5. I should have been more
careful with the gas, if I had had a gas-stove. 6. If William had come to
his English classes, he would have been a student now.
Ex. 4: 1. Had the pupils had ... 2. Had he been more hardworking . . .
3. Had I been more realistic... 4. Had she paid more attention... 5. Had I
had a gas-stove ... 6. Had William come . . .
Ex. 5: 1. hung. 2. had worn. 3. won’t be able. 4. is not. 5. had been.
6. had had. 7. shan’t be able. 8. wouldn’t have fallen down. 9. call.
10. you’ll have. 11. would’have fined, would have taken. 12. shouldn’t trust.
Ex. 7: 1. If you should insist on this silly idea ... 2. If anyone should
ask about my mother-in-law ... 3. If you should happen to meet him . . .
4. If the hunter should come face to face with the tiger... 5. If Susan should
pass her examination ... 6. If John should hear about your divorce . . .
Ex. 8:1. Should you insist on this silly idea ... 2. Should anyone ask about
my mother-in-law ... 3. Should you happen to meet him ... 4. Should
the hunter come face to face with the tiger. . .5. Should Susan pass her exam
ination ... 6. Should John hear about your divorce . . .
Ex. 9: 1. If you will (would) lend me the money ... 2. If she would pay
us a visit ... 3. If you will (would) drive me home ... 4. If my sister will
baby-sit for me ... 5. If you would accept the invitation ... 6. If you will
(would) knit a pullover for me ...
Ex. 10: 1. If you saw him now, you wouldn’t recognize him any longer;
he is a mere shadow of his former self. 2. If you weren’t such a liar, you
wouldn’t be now in the unfortunate position of being mistrusted by every
body. 3. I should have never accepted to leave the shelter if I had known
that a misfortune was going to happen. 4. He wouldn’t have had to earn so
much money and wouldn’t have got into trouble if his wife had been less
fond of luxuries. 5. I could give you a lift in my car this time if you promise
not to ask for a lift again. 6. In case I forget, please remind me of my
promise. 7. Should you be passing his office, you might enter and return the
dictionary you borrowed from him. 8. Supposing your partner accepted
these proposals, what would be the next stage of the negotiations? 9. If it
had not snowed (but for the snow) our trip to the mountains wouldn’t
have been so pleasant. 10. He has told me several times that he will accept
the job provided the salary is satisfactory.
Adverbial Clauses of Purpose

Ex. 1: 1. so that he might ... 2. so that she might ... 3. so that he
might ... 4. so that she may ... 5. lest I in case she should or in case she
caught ... 6. so that he might ... 7. lest he should ... 8. lest he should . . .
9. so that he may ... 10. so that she may.
Ex. 2: 1. so that she might... 2. in order that I should ... 3. so that everyone
might/could ... 4. so that the old man could ... 5. in order that his
mother would ... 6. so that someone would . . .
Ex. 3: (free completion)
Ex. 4: 1. I turned the radio off lest I in case I should disturb Father.
2. The boy took the 5.30 train so that he could arrive there before dark.
3. We wrote to Ann this morning so that she would get the letter by Thurs
day. 4. She sent a telegram to her father so that he would learn the
good news. 5. Read the article aloud so that everybody here can /
may listen to it! 6. Tie the dog up so that he can’t run away! 7. He did
that so that everyone might be satisfied. 8. I stood up so that I might
watch the match better. 9. Don’t turn the radio on in case / lest you should
wake the child. 10. I ran to the bus-stop so that I could catch the bus.
11. Let me know when you come so that I may meet you at the station
12. He wrote down your telephone number in case I lest he should forget it.
13. The teacher asked the pupil to repeat the new words several times so that
he might pronounce them correctly. 14. You’ve got to hurry in case I lest you
should be late. 15. The lecturer spoke slowly so that everybody would un
derstand what he was saying. 16. I won’t leave on Sunday so that I can
go to your friend’s party too. 17. It would be foolish to leave the house
open in case / lest someone should enter. 18. Open the door so that the cat
can go out!
Adverbial Clauses of Result
Ex. 1: (Strictly according to given patterns)
Ex. 2: 1. She spoke so clearly that we could understand everything she
was saying. 2. There were so many people in the theatre that we couldn’t
find a seat. 3. So quickly did she speak that we could hardly follow her.
4. He ran so quickly that we couldn’t catch him. 5. I couldn’t hear the teacher,
so I moved to the front (of the room). 6. The clothes didn’t fit him so he
gave them away. 7. So violent was the storm that even the trees were up
rooted. 8. I didn’t have any more ink in my pen so I couldn’t write the letter.
9. To such an extent was she impressed that she burst out crying. 10. You
saicTyou were coming, so I was expecting you. 11. He couldn’t break the
string, so he cut it with a knife. 12. The meat was spoiled so we threw
it out. 13. She looked so unhappy that we left her alone. 14. The armchair
was so comfortable that he fell asleep. 15. She was so short that she couldn’t
reach the high shelf.
Ex. 3: (Free completion)
Adverbial Clauses of Concession

Ex. 1: (Strictly according to given patterns)
Ex: 2: (Free completion)
Ex. 3: 1. Even though he had a headache, he studied all evening. 2. How
ever hard I try, I cannot keep upright on my skis. 3. Although he was
speaking very slowly, I couldn’t get / catch him. 4. I couldn’t be angry
with her even if I tried. 5. Though she doesn’t eat much, she keeps putting
on weight. (^Though he had just read the book, he couldn’t remember
the names oi the characters. 7. Although he lives far from his office, he al
ways gets to work on time. 8. However rich he may be, I don’t envy him.
9. However often I tried, I couldn’t find out the truth. 10. When she does
an exercise, she makes mistakes however hard she tries to avoid them.
11. Although the noise could be heard clearly, it took him a long time to
react. 12. However cold it may, be, I’ll go on the trip. 13. Whatever may
happen, you will always be glad that you tried to do your best to help him.
14. Whatever / no matter what I say, you will never believe me.
15. However often you ring, no one will answer.
Indirect Speech
Ex. 1: 1. We say (that) we are learning English. 2. He says (that) he
doesn’t speak English. 3. I am glad I can say (that) I (can) speak English.
4. The boy is saying (that) he can’t play baseball. 5. They never say (that)
(.hey speakj4înglish very well. 6. She always says (that) she is very busy.
7. The pdpils always say (that) they are never late. 8. I often hear you
say (that) you work very hard. 9. You seldom say to him (that) he is a
diligent boy. 10. Doesn’t she always say (that) she’d like you to speak Eng
lish to her? 11. They are saying (that) they are looking at us.
Ex. 2:1. The boys told us (that) they had been playing football the whole
afternoon. 2. She answered (that) she was reading a novel. 3. I repeated
(that) I lived in Bucharest. 4. The young girl told her mother (that) she
had often played tennis with Dana. 5. The old man shouted angrily (that)
he had been waiting too long. 6. The pupils answered (that) they usually
played basketball better. 7. The old lady asked where the post office was.
8. The children repeated (that) they hadn’t played in the garden. 9. My
friends answered (that) the railway station was very near. 10. He said (that)
nobody had come to see him at the hospital. 11. They told us that our
friends had come to see them in January. 12. He asked me when I had
been to the theatre. 13. We asked him what he was doing with that pen.
14. She asked them why they had not brought her the dictionary. 15. He
len’s mother asked her when she had met her cousins. 16. We asked
the boy who taught him English. 17. They asked us which of us spoke English.
18. The teacher asked me which textbook I found easier.
Fx. 3: 1. I asked him whether he had been there before. 2. We asked them
why they hadn’t told us anything before. 3. They said (that) they had nev
er seen that play before. 4. He told us (that) he had bought the book the
previous day. 5. The young man asked me what the pupils were doing there.
6. The children asked their teacher if he had seen them playing volley
ball the previous week. 7. I heard her telling the girls (that) when she was
a schoolgirl she always wore her uniform. 8. The tourists asked when Stephen
the Great had built that monastery. 9. I heard you answer (that) that mon
astery had not been built by him and that his/the latter’s father had
built it. 10. We were asked which of us had drawn that beautiful map.
11. They repeated that they had been working the whole time before leav
ing for the cinema. 12. She said to me (that) she had told me to go to
the station earlier. 13. He said angrily (that) he had been trying to open
the box for more than an hour before throwing it away. 14. Mother asked me
where I had put her gloves. 15. The teacher asked Dan why he hadn’t
told him he hadn’t understood the grammar rule. 16. I shall say to my friend
that I was waiting for his (her) telephone call. 17. They were asked if
they had been at home the previous day in the afternoon. 18. The teacher
asked the pupils if they had bought the dictionary recommended to them.
Ex. 4: 1. We heard the boy saying to his friend (that) he would bring him
the book the following day. 2. I promised the librarian (that) I should
return him the review the following week. 3. They answered, me that they
would be waiting for me at the bus-stop. 4. The student asked me how
much I should have read by that evening. 5. My cousins said (that) their
friends would have been travelling a lot by the end of that month. 6. We
were asked by somebody how long we should have been living there in all if we
lived there another three years. 7. The little girl asked her friend when she
would pay her a visit again. 8. My cousins said (that) they would have
finished visiting the museum before we had finished our shopping. 9. The
teacher asked me if I should have finished reading that novel by the fol
lowing Thursday. 10. I thought (that) my brother would reach home before
me. 11. We promised (that) we should work harder and get better marks.
12. Susan told me (that) she would wait for me until I had finished writ
ing my composition. 13. Our friends answered (that) they would be spend
ing their summer holidays at the seaside the following year. 14. We
were asked how long it would take us to translate that short story into Ro
manian. 15. I was answered (that) the new theatre would have been com
pletely finished by the following autumn. 16. She was asked by them when
the presents would be given to their friends. 17. The young man said (that)
he was sure he would be met by his friends at the airport.
Ex. 5: 1. The doctor said (that) he would take the medicine if he were I.
2. Many people say to me (that) if they were in my place they would do
that better than I do it. 3. The patient said (that) he wished he were young
er and he had better health. 4. My colleague said to me (that) that young
man had been (was) walking nervously up and down as if he were wait
ing for somebody. 5. The little boy said to me (that) he had crouched be
hind the armchair so that he should not be seen. 6. We said (that) we were
anxious that they should attend the performance at our school. 7. The teacher
added (that) he wished we had helped our colleagues more.
Ex. 6: 1. My brother requested me not to speak to that person again.
2. Father assured me (that) I might always count on his help. 3. His friend
answered (that) he could give him his cousin’s address. 4. The little boy repeat
ed (that) his name was Bill. 5. The old man exclaimed (that) he had never
expected to hear such a thing. 6. The teacher ordered us to bring a thin
exercise-book with us the following lesson in order to write a paper. 7. The
.doctor ordered (that) everything should be perfectly clean by the following
day. 8. He/They declared (that) they needed to learn two foreign languages in
school.
Ex. 7: Mr. Pickwick grasped Sam’s hand and assured him that he considered
him a capital fellow, an invaluabl6 fellow. Then he told him that he must
follow the man; and Sam readily agreed. He instructed Sam that he was to
write to him as soon as he discovered the ruffian and that if he attempted
to run away Sam was to knock him down or lock him up, with Mr. Pick
wick’s full authority. Sam replied that he would be very careful. Mr.
Pickwick then continued telling him to be sure to let the villain know
how excited, how displeased, how indignant Mr. Pickwick was, and Sam
promised to do this also. Then he looked earnestly in his face and asked him
if he thought he could find him, and Sam answered confidently that he
would find him if he was anywhere.
Ex. 8: One evening . . . excitement. 'A music festival’, he said. ‘That’s what
we need to wake the town up.!’ ‘What, here?’ I asked in amazement.
‘Would anyone come to it?’ ‘Of course they would. All we need is . . .
orchestra . . . soloists, and people will come . . . around.’ ‘How are we
going to pay an orchestra?’ I persisted. ‘What if there is bad weather, and
nobody comes?’ Peter brushed ... aside. ‘I’ve thought of a wonderful
programme,’ he went on, ‘and all we need is a few . . . thing.’
The Sequence of Tenses
Ex. 1:1.1 shall ring you up when I leave for your place, lest I should find
you gone. 2. I knew you would come to my place, but I wondered why
you had made a secret of it. 3. He was told several times that honesty is the
best of policies, but he did not want to believe it, and I heard / have heard
that he is in trouble now. 4. As soon as he saw her, he was silent, think
ing that she is much more beautiful than he had ever imagined. 5. He came
to see me, but I was not at home, not having been told in advance, and
when I returned, he had just left to meet another friend of his, although he
would have liked to hold counsel with me, because he trusts me more than
him. 6. Whenever I passed in front of the school I wondered what my for
mer professors were doing and were my fellow-students were. 7. He wrote
us that we should/would not find them when we arrived, as they would be
gone to the seaside. 8. Ever since this factory was built no train has passed
through this station without stopping. 9. I asked myself if I hadn’t better
read more for tomorrow’s examination, so that I preferred not to join you on
your trip. 10. If I had only seen him I would have told him how much I
regretted that John is a bad man. 11. Whenever I meet you, I feel like tell
ing you how much I would have liked us to be friends. 12. I admire him
less than I did his grandfather, who was a real man. 13. It was no secret
for anybody that his success is largely due to the industry with which he has
studied all the time (which passed) since his arrival at the faculty. 14. In
his novels, Henry James tried to show us how the Americans are affected by
a longer sojourn in Europe. 15. The Apollo mission did not succeed in demon
strating that there is life on the Moon. 16. I have been there for only three
days, but I feel as if I had come a long time ago.
Ex. 2: told; laid; began; had read; rested; rose; were; went; finished;
had finished; folded; stood; came; saw.
Ex. 3: 1. I shall leave lest I should meet/that I may not meet the members
of the opposite team. 2. Go, lest I should find you/that I may not find
you home when I come back. 3. I shall take my umbrella, lest I should
get wet/that I may not get wet. 4. She turned her head, lest she should
see/that she might not see her crying. 5. He went out lest he should hear
them complain/that he might not hear them complain.
Ex. 5: 1. is; 2. had had; 3. had become/became; 4. read; 5. had gone;
6. did not buy; 7. heard; 8. tired; 9. are; 10. is/was.
Ex. 6: I imagined, for a moment, standing in front of the door, and be
fore knocking, that behind it I should find a beautiful girl, my dream. But
in the room, half propped in the pillows, there lay a short-sighted gentleman,
with very thick steel-rimmed spectacles mounted on the tip of his nose, and
who was very carefully leafing through an enormous volume that was in
front of him. It was a volume on Danish commercial law and, when we
had become acquainted with each other, that gentleman told me that he
was~aTlawyer in Copenhague and that he was almost recovered, but that
he was terribly bored and that was why he had had the notice pinned on the
door.
Whenever I reached the clinic I was going to, and opened the door,
the glass would always clink and I always thought that it clinked because it
was not well-framed, but that afternoon I discovered that the trembling of
the glass was the ampler and more sonorous extension of my hand’s trembling.
Ex. 7: 1. had made, ceased, was regarded; 2. had been, went; 3. would
miss me, was, was, would be; 4. caught, had pointed out, had asked, lived,
had travelled, walked, could, had heard, had.
Ex. 8: 1. I did not know who this A.Z. was condemned to live for ever.
But I realized that a man’s death is nothing but a simple stopping of a watch
and that the body without a heart, like a man without a watch, can really
live for ever. 2. I had chosen a few addresses from the telephone direc
tory. I did not know that I would need only one . . . But you didn’t
know? A man who wants to win in a lottery buys several tickets at a time.
3. The first glance made me start as if in front of an old friend whom I had
not seen for years on end. 4. If only he had known, if somebody had told
him, if at least he had ever suSpecTecf something, no matter how little of
the horrible trutH, which everybody except"irmr“lnrew, I wouldn?t have been
a nobody any more. I would for ever have remained the bastard who was
looking for his father and looking for him, I would never have found him,
because without his name and fortune I would never have got so far.
Ex. 9: was; could have brought; arrived; could have explained; would have
woken up; would have lived; could have had; had done; did not; wanted;
hate.
Ex. 10:Â. would get; wished; were; had lost; had; had. B. dawned; was;
was; was; was; was going; tried; should go; would be bored; stayed; would
be bored; were standing; was; begged; had been trying; was; could not
put; would madame do. C^had; was; came; were behaving; kept; would;
come; would come; had never in all these years considered; might be; might be;
might be; came; would be; had they but known; could have made; woundup;
said; loved; D. had just gone; was; had never met; had often heard; seemed;
had been talking; understood; could make out; was; had had; hadn’t; w$s; had;
had been snowing; didn’t know; had been driving; found; was standing;
seemed; had already died; meant; could see; had been crying; assumed;
had taken place; admit; was; told; had put; would not leave; had clearly
been; was; could not expect; opened; pointed; was; wouldn’t let; burst.
Ex. 11: But he remained at Nicolae’s place. At noon he was still there, ex
tremely happy, as if who knows what had happened in the meanwhile, and
he wanted to tell his master that, look, the neighbour had given him some-
thing to eat and had treated him well, she hadn’t driven him away, but that
he was still faithful to the one who had picked him up in the middle of the
road and brought him here. He looked like a badger, a white stripe on
his forehead down to his nose, his hair tousled, somewhat bluish mixed
with grey. He began to grow and before long Nicolae found out he wasn’t
at all well-behaved. (...)|Sichi wasn’t at ease under it, something frightened
him, as if the trunk with its crumpled, thick and gluey bark were the
figure of an ogre who was making wry faces at them and if they were to go
on lying there, the tree would reach down one of its skeletal arms almost
leafless, and would grab Nichi and then thrust him far away . . .
As to what he was telling him before, said Iosif, after they had walked
all the way in silence, and had then entered a restaurant which, judging
by the unhesitating way in which the latter found it, seemed to be known and
appreciated by him, he, Iosif, had noticed something uncanny.
Ex. 12: — It has been admitted of late that the line seems to be a
word in itself. The smallest units of a poem are not the words, but the lines.
— Longfellow tells us in the ballad The Secret of the Sea how count Ar
naldo, the falcon on his hand, saw a stately galley coming towards the
shore where he was hunting, its steersman making the place resound with
a song so savage and clear, that the sailor’s bird itself kept quiet on the
mast to hear it.
— If I hadn’t met friend lancu a while ago, I would have gone straight
to the station, as I was fed up with it all, to throw myself under the
first train that came along. Thank you . . . you are the saviours of the father
of my wife’s children, who otherwise would have read about a new trag
ic suicide in the “Universe”, tomorrow, at Cimpulung.
— All connections between the two friends were altogether severed, as a
consequence of a very polite answer the friend^wrote to Odobescu, trying
to prove to him that he didn’t feel in the least guilty of "Mr. Odobescu’s
inexplicable outburst. In that same answer the friend added that Mr. Odo-
bescu’s decision to put a stop to their friendly relations, though an un
fortunate one, would be respected by a man who could not comprehend the
possibility of imposed friendship.
That took place four years ago.
Since then, until some two or three months ago, the two friends had seen
each other occasionally, but had never even greeted each other.
The friend, being a wise man, knew that momentary whims could largely
determine the course of the life of special men; the friend, knowing the way
of the world, hadn’t allowed his feelings of love for Odobescu to turn sour in
his heart just because of the latter’s whims. So he made up his mind to go.
Word Order
Ex. 1:1. When did you see him? 2. Does he read English books? 3. Must
the student do all the exercises? 4. There was somebody at the door.
5. There’s the bell ringing for the break. 6. There was an old oak-tree near
the house. 7. My brother is very tall and so am I. I am very tall and
so is my brother. 8. I speak English very well and so does she, too. 9. I do
not like quinces, nor does he. He does not like quinces, nor do I. 10. I do
not like this house nor do my parents. My parents do not like this house,
nor do I. 11. I cannot speak Greek, nor can my pupils. My pupils cannot
speak Greek nor can I. 12. Here is your coat! 13. Here goes our bus!
14. Here is the English dictionary!
Ex. 2: a) 1. Should any of your family have come ... 2. Had you taken the
tram, you would have ... 3. Had she worked harder she would have . . .
4. Had they had a dictionary at hand, they would not have . . . b) 1. Had he
(she) come here I should have spoken to him (her). 2. Had I known your
address I should have written to you. 3. Had he asked us to help him we
should have done it. 4. Should it not have rained I should have come to
the concert too. 5. Had he (she, they) warned us earlier this would not have
happened. 6. Had I not been so tired I could have won the match.
Ex. 3: 1. Scarcely had they gathered all their things when it began to rain.
2. Hardly had he reached home when someone from the hospital called
him urgently back. 3. No sooner had I left the seaside than the weather
changed and it began to rain. 4. Hardly had I returned from my holidays
when the date of the exam was announced. 5. No sooner had I finished
reading the first novel than I began to read the second. 6. Scarcely had we
come out of the chalet when the excursionists who were to come there
after us arrived. 7. Scarcely had he recovered when he got another ill
ness. 8. Hardly had I finished translating the first play when I was asked
to translate the second, too. 9. No sooner had they finished building
the first block of flats than they started building the second. 10. Hardly
had I arrived home when I had to leave again. 11. No sooner had I
received the cable from my grandfather than I went to see him.
Ex. 4: 1. Under no circumstances should the back of this radio be removed...;
2. On only one previous occasion have we seen...; 3. In very few cases has
such a major operation proved...; 4. Not for some time now have we had...;
5. The police admitted that seldom had they had to deal...; 6. The Minister ...
that on each occasion help from the Government had been forthcoming,
and that in not one single case had such emergencies continued...; 7. In
neither the Common nor the Lords was the Bill given...; 8. Not until quite re
cently, however, did the talks appear...; 9. Only if . . . agreement will a lasting
peace be established...; 10. Only when ... passengers did the pilot agree....
Ex. 5:1. No one honest will ... 2. We need someone strong to . . .
3. Something inexplicable had ... 4. There was something sarcastic in . . .
5. We had a long talk with somebody intelligent. 6. They spent the afternoon
somewhere nice. 7. Everything conceivable has ... 8. I looked . . . every
where possible. 9. I’d . . . something unusual to eat. 10. Did anything strange
happen?
Ex. 6:1. An inexpensive dry red Romanian wine. 2. The beautiful wide green
Scottish valleys. 3. The cheap delicious big tasty yellowish African bananas.
4. A good-hearted thin tall fair Swiss young man. 5. A beautiful expensive
fast large new blue French car. 6. A cheap beautifully decorated wide Roma
nian linen table-cloth. 7. A valuable tall ancient blue Chinese porcelain statue.
8. A very expensive, large old Latin dictionary.
Ex. 7: 1. I’ve found a cheap broad light (thin) dark grey English woolen
cloth (material). 2. We met a sturdy, tall swarthy Italian little boy.
3. It was a very expensive large bright new orange brick house. 4. He (she)
had a heavy high old brown Dutch oaken book-case. 5. I bought a not too
expensive exquisite dark greenish Chinese jade statuette.
Ex. 8: 1. I read my brother the letter. 2. He owes some money to my
former landlady. 3. The mechanic sold his car to a friend of mine. 4. Bring
the umbrella to me, not to my brother. 5. Will you sell me your dictio
nary? 6. I handed the principal the letter. 7.The boy told the news to every
body in our block of flats. 8. She lent him her pen. 9. I wrote Paul a
long letter. 10. He took his brother the books. 11. The pupil wished her
teacher good morning. 12. The teacher gave them a French lesson.
13. Show mother your hands. 14. We sent them to you. 15. I took him to
them. 16. The boy read us the letter. 17. Did you throw the dog the bone?
18. Don’t give it to anybody. 19. Please pass us the water. 20 Would you
tell them a story? 21. Please send Nick to my brother. 22. The music teacher
is teaching the piano to several of my friends.
Ex. 9:1. The author read his play to all his friends. 2. The poet read Alec
his latest poem 3. He doesn’t like to lend his books to anybody. 4. The
pupil promised me the dictionary last week. 5. He promised to give it to
me and not to my brother-in-law. 6. Would you like to take this parcel
to the person waiting in the hall? 7. My brother has sent New Year’s
cards to all his former colleagues. 8. His former colleagues have sent my
brother a lot of beautiful New Year’s cards. 9. You should buy your brother
the enciclopaedia which was published last month. 10. Bring us the photos
next time. 11. You haven’t sent us the photos yet, have you? 12. Don’t
forget to send my brother and my sister a few photos too. 13. Hand the letters
to the school secretary. 14. Don’t forget to give her the envelopes too.
15. I’ll show the letter to my brother too. 16. I’ve also shown my friends the let
ter you sent me. 17. The pupils said “Good evening” to their teacher.
18. The pupils wished their old teacher “Good morning”. 19. Pass the salt
to the gentleman on your right, and then pass it to me, please. 20. I
hear you’ve sent a cable to your uncle. 21. I’ve lent the enciclopaedia to
your cousin who studies medicine. 22. I sent my brother a cable immedi
ately. 23. Please repeat to me the poem. 24. Please repeat to me your name.
25. I’ve explained to them everything very clearly. 16. I’ve pointed out
to him all the difficulties. 27. Did you dictate to them the whole text?
28. The boy repeated to me the contents of the letter word for word.
29. They announced to the porter their leaving time. 30. The pupils submit
ted to their class teacher their disagreement. 31. We wanted to suggest to
our friend a solution. 32. Do you suggest to me this solution? 33. We’ve
introduced to them our cousins. 34. We’ve introduced to our guest all the
members of the basket-ball team. 35. You haven’t explained to me all the
rules yet.
Ex. 10: a) 1. We arrived at the chalet exhausted late in the evening. 2. They
are going to Moldavia next month. 3. Have you ever seen my cousin in “Pygma
lion”? 4. Did you see my cousin in “Pygmalion” last month? 5. My cousin plays
in “Pygmalion” twice a month. 6. The children don’t often go to bed late.
7. Do you always go to the skating-rink on Sundays? 8. Do you go to
the skating-rink every Sunday? 9. Tell your friend he must never do that
again. 10. They seldom go to concerts. 11. The students are usually in the
library in the afternoon. 12. We have rarely seen better work. 13. My brother
plays tennis four times a week. 14. She has English lessons every other
day. 15. The driver ever so often stopped to look at the map. 16. She left
for Craiova a few months ago.
b) 1. I usually ride on my bicycle to the University. 2. I go to a play at
least once a month. 3. Uncle Paul comes to see us once a fortnight.
4 We are usually at home after 6. 5. Grandfather almost never plays tennis
now. 6. My cousins seldom write to me now. 7. We are going to the mountains
on Thursday morning. 8. Our plane landed at Gluj-Napoca airport early in the
afternoon. 9. Where did you spend your holidays last summer? 10. We reached
the Babele on a cold December morning. 11. They have sometimes been to
the circus too. 12. When do you usually have dinner? 13. Have you ever been to
these parts of the country? 14. I have seldom been to the seaside. 15. You
must take the medicine twice a day. 16. My friends go to the cinema only
once in a few weeks. 17. I wonder whether they will ever learn all the rules.
18. They came from Oradea by a fast train yesterday. 19. I never played
football when I was at school. 20. I always got up early when I was at school.
21. I often went to the library last year.
Ex. 11: a). 1. The audience rather liked the play. 2. Our friends just caught
the train. 3. They nearly missed the train. 4. They have just arrived from
abroad. 5. I quite agree with you. 6. I can quite agree with them. 7. We
are still waiting for your answer. 8. You didn’t even try. 9. He hasn’t even
tried to do it. 10. My cousin merely hinted at the possibility. 11. I have
merely mentioned it as a possible solution. 12. I nearly spilled all the milk.
13. They have nearly spoiled all our work. 14. She had also read Arhur Mil
ler’s latest play. 15. I hardly know what to say. 16. They had hardly come
back. 17. There were scarcely twenty students present. 18. We would
rather go to a play than to a film. 19. Our new neighbours have already
visited us.
b) 1. I merely wanted you to lend me your pen. 2. It was hardly necessary
for me to tell them. 3. My cousins had just finished their exams. 4. They
told me they would rather go to a concert. 5. Have they already seen
the new English film? 6. He cannot even read English. 7. We are quite satis
fied with our new house. 8. He will certainly be glad to see us. 9 I (we)
soon discovered the mistake. 10. He was still trying to convince us.
11. They merely wanted to help you. 12. They will soon come here too. 13. They
almost missed the plane. 14. I have already been waiting for a week for theirj
answer. 15. I don’t quite agree with this answer. 16. I (we) have also bought
a history of arts book. 17. I (we) have almost finished the translation.
18. They haven’t even phoned me. 19. We scarcely need to tell them what to
do. 20. The little boy can hardly write his name. 21. We had hardly fin
ished our work.
Index of Proper Names
J.J. — James Joyce H.W. — Herbert Wells

W.S.M. — William Somerset Maugham Ag.C. — Agatha Christie
Sh. D. — Shelagh Delaney C.P.S. — Charles Percy Snow
K.M. — Katherine Mansfield
TRANSLATION
1. A Brief Guide to Translation from English into Romanian and

from Romanian into English
General Comments on Translation

This above all; translation is option, or selection. Consciously or intui
tively, the translator chooses from a greater or smaller number of bilingual
synonyms, i.e. of units that are reasonably comparable or “similar” in the
relation between language A (the language of the original text, the source
language) and language B (the language into which the original text is to
be translated, the target language.) Supposing that language A is English
and language B is Romanian, here is an illustration showing the multiple
choices of the translator at the level of the word:
English Romanian
to begin v.t. a începe
a porni
a se apuca de
a debuta în
a lansa; a se lansa în
a pune mîna pe
a pune problema /cu gen./
a iniția
a întreprinde
a face primii pași în
/ direcția, cu gen./
English Romanian
a-și asuma: răspunderea,
riscul, sarcina etc. feu
gen. sau de a .../
a concepe
a-i trece prin minte / să .../
sau ideea să /sau de a .../
This (incomplete!) list of virtually possible Romanian renderings is, in fact,
an entry in an English-Romanian dictionary, very much enlarged in compari
son with what a portable or even a big sized English-Romanian dictionary
can list as a maximum. But a dictionary only registers the potential values
of a word or of a word-group, and, seldom enough, all these values; for,
contexts (linguistic or extralinguistic) are practically infinite, and it is contexts
that often define and limit the exact meaning of a word or word-group. The
context gives a word or a word-group its personality, its identity-card. How
ever, the context does not drive synonymy away, e.g.
It’s time to begin work. — E timpul să începem lucrul/munca. E timpul să
ne apucăm de lucru/treabă. Hai la lucru, nu mai putem întîrzia. Dați-i dru
mul, e tîrziu. Nu mai putem aștepta. De ce să stăm cu mîinile în sin? Treaba
nu mai suferă nici o amînare etc.
The context limits and defines the meaning of a word, etc., but on the
other hand, it makes it part of a whole, and thus, while reducing the syno
nymous potentialities of the word, etc. (consequently, its translations),
it increases the synonymous potentialities of the SENTENCE (consequently,
the translations of the sentence).
The bilingual synonyms of a word are rich; how far richer those of a
sentence, the really operative unit of translation. This being the case, it follows
of necessity that more than one translation of a sentence may be styled cor
rect; the passage from one word or one word-group to a sentence is, from the
viewpoint of translation, very much like the passage from science to art. And
art, when it is there, can never be ‘incorrect’.
It must be made clear, however, that although the frontiers between
which various translations can be said to be ‘correct’ are very wide, they
should not be pushed into the territory of ignorance or incompetence. At
first sight the problem is quite simple. “The translator must have a good
command of the two languages” is a current, yet wrong, opinion. For,
leaving aside the fact that the very notion of ‘a good command’ is relative
enough, there are many people who do have ‘a very good command of the
two languages’ yet are very bad translators. If to all this we add such
ingredients as probity, or concentration, or ‘adequate mood’, or the trans
lator’s affinity or lack of affinity with the work of the author that he is
going to translate, it is easy to suspect how complex translation work is.
Given this complexity it is highly difficult to give rules or prescriptions
as to how a translation should be made. Still, the following general recom
mendations are valid under any circumstances:
1. Make sure that you have understood the original text thoroughly. The
points below are of vital importance.
a) Denotation — “the objective, impersonal and intellective” meaning
of words. It must be rendered especially at the level of referents (denotata),
of the lexical-morphological meanings (such as the functions of articles, the
grammatical number of nouns, the temporal values of verbs, the general
and particular, etc.), and of the lexical-syntactic units (word-groups, sen
tences). There are here numerous pitfalls in store for the translator: the rela
tive character of bilingual synonyms, the so-called false friends, the poly
semy and homonymy of words, etc. “Sesiune jubiliară”, for example, should
not be translated by Jubilee session, for the English jubilee only refers to the
50th aniversary of some event. “Nice and warm” means destul de călduros
or foarte călduros (not drăguț și călduros), for it is a qualitative hendiadys,
a figure of speech almost unknown in Romanian. “He is a lawyer” should
be translated by (El) e avocat, not by (El) e un avocat, etc.
b) Accentuation. Something is always accentuated in a sentence, either
by phonetic, lexical, morphological, syntactic, or stylistic means. Conse
quently, the translator must first find out what is accentuated (as well as
what is not accentuated), then render the accentuation pattern correctly.
In such an example as “He gave the book to me”, “to me” bears the main
stress, so that the right translation is Mi-a dat cartea mie (nu altuia), not
Mi-a dat cartea.
c) Modality — “the speaker’s attitude towards the utterance”, “the soul
of the sentence” (as Charles Bally called it). Like accentuation, it is mate
rialized by phonetic, lexical, morphological, syntactic and stylistic means.
Separately or in concert, they express jealousy, love, disgust, cynicism,
request, order, symphaty, etc.; and it is the translator’s duty to render
these “attitudes” exactly, often with a change of the formal pattern (for
example, a phonetic pattern can be rendered by a lexical pattern, etc.).
Here are a few illustrations from the field of English modal-defective verbs.
“Can you speak English?” is rendered by Vorbiți englezește? (not by Puteți
vorbi englezește?) “A tower could be seen in the distance” is rendered by
în depărtare se zărea un turn; “You should have taken his advice” is Ar
fi trebuit să-i asculți sfatul, or De, dacă l-ai fi ascultat...
d) Connotation — sometimes defined as “what is suggested in addition
to the fundamental meaning”. Thus, a rose is the denotation of “any of a
number of related flowers of red, pink, white, yellow, etc. having many
statements”; while its connotation is “beautiful, fragrant, symbolizing fresh
ness, youth, love, etc.” The translator must render connotations to the
best of his ability after grasping it in the original text. Think of such a
word as “ear”, neutral in English, and frequently deprecatory in its Romanian
translation, ureche (chiefly because of its being used in humorous phrases,
e.g. “a fi într-o ureche”, “a cinta după ureche”, “a avea bumbac in urechi”,
“a face urechea toacă”, “a împuia urechile cuiva”, etc.). Whenever ureche is
wrong from the connotational point of view, something else must be found
(glas, auz, auzite, vorbe, etc.).
e) Contextual connection — the grammatical-logical connection between
words, word-groups, sentences and paragraphs. To observe it is important
because, to a large extent, it characterizes the style of an author. Do not
“explain” disconnected sentences and do not make concise what is not con
cise in the original.
f) Style — Failure to render the stylistic level of language A in lan
guage B is one of the most frequent offences of translators. “Thou” for
instance, is a very good equivalent of the Romanian tu, but it must be
used carefully, for tu occurs everywhere (in literary language, in slang, in
ordinary talk, etc.), whereas “thou” is either archaic or regional.
2. Do not add to, or subtract from, the text to be translated. A translation
is a translation, not an ‘adaptation’, an ‘abstract’, or a ‘betterment’ of the
original.
3. A good translation must never smack of translation ! A translator’s final
version is meant to be read by somebody; if it is published, it will be read
by thousands. Consequently the language into which the translation is made
must sound as natural as does the original text to the ears of native
speakers.
2
The translation sample that follows is from Vanity Fair by William M.
Thackeray. It occurs in Limba engleză, manual pentru clasa a XI-a de liceu,
Editura didactică și pedagogică, București, 1970, p. 224.
...“Shall I write to your brother—or will you?” asked lady Jane of her
husband, Sir Pitt.
“I will write, of course,” Sir Pitt said, “and invite him to the funeral;
it will be but becoming.”
“And — and — Mrs. Rawdon,” said lady Jane timidly.
“Jane!” said lady Southdown, “how can you think of such a thing?”
“Mrs. Rawdon must of course be asked,” said Sir Pitt resolutely.
“Not whilst I am in the house!” said lady Southdown.
“Your Ladyship will be pleased to^recollect that I am the head of this
family,” Sir Pitt replied. “H you please/lady Jane, you will write a letter
to Mrs. Rawdon Crawley, requesting her presence upon this melancholy
occasion.”
Possible Romanian Translation

Preliminary Note. The excerpt is not difficult as to denotation; the 11-th
class pupil will hardly make use of a dictionary (he may look up such
words as becoming — suitable; appropriate; resolutely — with determination,
firmly; whilst — while; as long as; to recollect — to remember, not to forget;
to request — to ask for, chiefly in a polite way). The prevailing modality
is resoluteness combined with opposition. Some of the words are accentuated
strongly. (Shall I write ... or will you? I will write of course; Mrs. Raw
don; Not while 1 am in the house, etc.)
— Să-i scriu eu fratelui tău — sau vrei să-i scrii tu? îl întrebă Lady
Jane pe soțul ei, Sir Pitt.
— Bineînțeles că am să-i scriu eu, spuse Sir Pitt. Și, bineînțeles am
să-i invit la înmormîntare. Așa se cuvine.
— Și. . . și pe doamna Rawdon, adăugă Lady Jane sfios.
— Jane!!! exclamă Lady Southdown. Cum te poți gîndi la așa ceva?
— Bineînțeles, trebuie s-o invităm și pe doamna Rawdon, spuse Sir Pitt
cu hotărîre în glas.
— Atîta timp cît mă aflu în casa asta, nu! ripostă Lady Southdown.
— O rog stăruitor pe Lady Southdown să nu uite că eu sînt capul fa
miliei aici, răspunse Sit Pitt. Lady Jane, fii bună si scrie o scrisoare doam
nei Rawdon Crawley cu rugămintea să fie prezentă la această tristă ceremonie.
Commentaries
1. “Shall I write to your brother — or will you?” Shall in the 1-st person
has a slight modal force of necessity which „să” renders very well. Will
too, is more than a mere auxiliary in the 2-nd person (both shall and will
are in the interrogative!); it implies politeness or desire to know the will
of the person addressed (“vrei să-i scrii tu?” —not “îi scrii tu/ îi vei
scrie tu?”). Taking into account Lady Jane’s submissiveness to her hus
band, “fratelui tău” and “tu” can be replaced by “fratelui dumitale” and
“dumneata”. Mark the use of dashes in the Romanian dialogue as an equiv
alent of the English inverted commas (“. . .”).
2. . . .asked Lady Jane of her husband. Sir Pitt. When used before proper
names, Lady and Sir show British aristocratic titles (sir Pitt Crawley was
a baronet), so they must be preserved in the translation (“doamna Jane”
and “domnul Pitt” would be altogether wrong).
3. “Z will write of course” — another modal future (instead of the non-
modal form “I shall write . . .”), implying volition. “Bineînțeles că am să-i
scriu eu”, although the latter may be preferred since Sir Pitt’s authoritative
manner is as well expressed by “viitorul I” (“am să-i scriu”).
4. ...Sir Pitt said — “spuse Sir Pitt”. More often than not, the English
Preterite / or Past Tense / should be translated by the Romanian perfectul
simplu in the 3rd pers. sing, and pl. (and by perfectul compus in the
other persons).
5. ...and invite him. . . — “Și, bineînțeles, am să-i invit. . .”, “Bineînțeles”
is not quite out of place here, for it once more underlines Sir Pitt’s author
itative manner (by the way, of course appears again in Sir Pitt’s speech a
few lines further, and so it may be interpreted as a sort of leit-motif).
On the other hand, “și, bineînțeles” allows us to balance and make clearer
the two sentences as to accentuation. (Judge for yourselves how clumsy a
closer Romanian translation would be: “Bineînțeles că am să-i scriu eu și
am să-i invit la înmormîntare”.)
6. . . . it will be but becoming — “Așa se cuvine”, or “Așa e frumos”, etc.
“Nu va fi decît foarte indicat / potrivit”, etc. is wrong for we never speak
like that.
7. “And — and — Mrs. Rawdon. . .” Mark the use of plural dots in Ro
manian for the English dashes: “Și... și pe doamna Rawdon...”
2. Comments on the Most Frequent Errors Made in the Written

Examinations of July 1975 and 1976
We give below the texts to be translated into and from English as

part of the papers set for the 1975 and 1976 entrance examinations.
Our aim is to help future candidates to assess both their own level of com
petence and the types of tests they are expected to take.
We offer a correct (though not definitive) version of the translations.
We would like to stress the fact that the translations do, by no means,
represent the only possible rendering of the original text. They are merely
intended to serve as a guide showing the level of competence the candi
dates are supposed to have when confronted with a text they have to trans
late. From the texts assigned for translation it can be seen that the candi
dates are expected to resort to their creative use of the language, paying
great attention to the lexical, grammatical and stylistic characteristics of
the text.
The suggested translations of the two 1976 texts are followed by a brief
comment on the most frequently occuring errors which are indicative of the
real difficulties encountered by candidates sitting for the entrance examination.
Note. In our versions, the slashes separate several correct renderings of
various passages from the original text. Square brackets are used allowing
for the tendency of many candidates to offer hypercorrect translations.
Written examination, July 1975
A. Translate into English:
„Deși in ultima vreme orbise de tot, bătrîna se uită spre cer, încercînd
să-și dea seama dacă nu cumva are să plouă.
— Mamă, stai acasă, încearcă s-o convingă Emilia; dar Ana se prefăcu
că n-o aude:
— Ține-ți gura!
în fiecare joi se ținea tîrg la Tîrnăuțeni, unde se puteau vinde și cum
păra cele mai felurite lucruri. Pînă la marginea satului putură merge în
voie, dar acolo se făcuse înghesuială; un car se răsturnase, omul pusese
căruța de-a curmezișul și nu voia să lase pe nimeni să treacă pînă cînd nu
și-o încărca la loc.”
B. Translate into Romanian:
We drove fast when we were over the bridge and soon we saw the
dust of the other cars ahead down the road. The road curved and we saw
the three cars looking quite small, the dust rising from the wheels and going
off through the trees. We caught them and passed them and turned off on
a road that climbed up into the hills. Driving in convoy is not unpleasant
if you are the first car and I settled back in the seat and watched the
country. We were in the foot-hills on the side of the river and as the road
mounted there were the high mountains off to the North with snow still
on the tops. I looked back and saw the three cars all climbing, spaced by
the interval of their dust. We passed a long column of loaded horses, the
drivers walking along beside them.
Suggested versions
A. Although she had lately gone almost blind, the old woman looked
up at the sky trying to guess / see whether / if it was going to rain [or not].
“You should stay [at] home, Mother”. “Don’t come with me, Mother,”
Emilia tried to persuade her, but Ana pretended not to hear [her].
“Shut up!”
Every Thursday was marketday at Tîrnăuțeni, where all sorts of I no
end of things could be/were bought and sold. They managed to go / get
to / they were able to reach the end of the village with no difficulty, but
there was a terrible congestion I tangle I bustle there; a waggon I cart had
overturned / turned over, the man had placed it across the road and would
not let I anyone pass through I allow anyone to pass through until / before
he had loaded it again.
B. După ce am trecut de pod am accelerat /mers repede I (am pornit
rapid) și curind am văzut praful stîrnit pe drum de celelalte mașini / din
față / dinaintea noastră. Drumul cotea / făcea o curbă / și am văzut cele
trei mașini ca niște puncte [arătînd foarte mici] cu praful ridicîndu-se în
urma roților și risipindu-se / înălțîndu-se / printre copaci. Le-am ajuns din
urmă, le-am depășit și am apucat-o / luat-o / pe un drum care urca în munți
spre dealuri. Nu e neplăcut să călătorești în convoi dacă ești în prima ma
șină; m-am așezat confortabil în scaun și am privit ținutul / regiunea. Eram
/ ne aflam / la poalele munților / în regiunea dealurilor / submontană de pe
marginea rîului / apei și pe măsură ce / cum drumul urca, în depărtare spre
nord se înălțau / apăreau / munții înalți cu vîrfurile / coamele / crestele
acoperite încă de zăpadă. M-am uitat în urmă / înapoi / și am văzut toate
cele trei mașini urcînd, separate / distanțate una de alta, de nori de praf.
Am trecut pe lîngă un șir lung de cai încărcați, cu oamenii care-i mînau,
mergînd alături de ei.
Written examination, July 1976
A. Translate into English:
“Ca om care-și petrecea viața pe drumuri, Lică venea des pe la Moara

cu Noroc, cîteodată, cîte de două ori, ba și cîte de mai multe ori pe săp-
tămînă. El venea, descăleca, bea cîte un pahar de vin, mînca ceva și iar
se ducea. Numai arareori se întîmpla ca el să stea mai mult; însă mai ales
duminica el venea adeseori cu cîte doi—trei tovarăși și atunci era în voie bună.
Lui Ghiță îi părea totdeauna bine cînd Lică venea, și fiindcă lui îi părea
bine, se bucura și bătrîna.
Atunci, duminică după amiazăzi, cînd Lică venise fără de veste la cir
ciumă, Ana fusese muncită de gînduri grele, care o îmbătrîniseră oarecum
într-un singur ceas și care îi veneau iar de cîte ori îl vedea pe Lică. Dar
plecînd Lică, ea îl întrebase pe Ghiță despre cele petrecute și el îi răspun
sese că n-a fost nimic, că ce putea să fie? și că Lică e omul lui.
De aceea Ana tăcuse atunci și de atunci tăcea mereu și privea din cînd
în cînd la Lică, zicînd în sine: „Trebuie să fie om rău și primejdios".
B. Translate into Romanian:

The young man first discussed with the elder his plans for obtaining his
position as a farmer on an extensive scale either in England or in the col
onies. His father then told him that as he had not been put to the ex
pense of sending Angel up to Cambridge, he had felt it his duty to save
a sum of money every year in order to buy some land for him some day.
Would it not be well for him to marry?" thought the young man.
“What kind of wife do you think would be best for me as a hardwork
ing farmer”? he asked his father.
“One who ought primarily to be able to milk cows, make good butter
and cheese, know how to direct labourers on the farm, and estimate the
value of sheep and calves. In other words, a farmer’s wife would be dc-
sirable. And I think that for a pure and honest woman you will not find
one more to your true advantage, and certainly not more to your mother’s
mind and my own, than your friend Mercy.”
Suggested versions
A. As a man who I that spent / used to spend his life on the roads,
Lică would often call at / come to the Mill of Luck and Plenty, once, twice
and even I nay several times a week; he would come, dismount / get off his
horse, have a glass of wine and something to eat, and off he would go
again. He rarely happened to remain / remained longer. Especially on Sun
days he often came / would often come with / accompanied by one or two / a
couple of friends and then he was in high / good spirits.
Ghiță was glad / pleased / happy when Lică came / dropped in. And since
I as he was glad I pleased / happy, so was the old woman I the old woman
was glad I pleased I happy too.
On that Sunday afternoon when Lică had unexpectedly appeared at / come
to I shown up at the inn I tavern Ana was tormented I had been tormented
by gloomy / dark / sad / heavy thoughts, which had as it were / so to speak
aged her in a single hour I overnight and which would come back to her I
I return whenever/every time she saw Lică. But after/when Lică had gone,/left,/
but after Lică’s departure, she asked I had asked Ghiță what had happened
and he answered / had answered that nothing had happened for what could
have happened ? and that Lică was his man.
Ana had therefore made no answer I That is why Ana had kept silent
on that occasion and she had been / kept silent ever since. Now and then
she would glance / look at Lică saying / and say to herself: “He must be
a wicked / bad and dangerous man!”
B. Tînărul [își] discută mai întîi cu bătrînul planurile / intențiile [sale]
de a-și face o situație ca mare fermier, fie în Anglia, fie în colonii. Iar tatăl
său îi spuse atunci că, întrucît / deoarece nu fusese pus la cheltuială / obli
gat, silit să cheltuiască [bani] cu trimiterea lui Angel la Cambridge, sim
țise /a simțit că e de datoria lui / sa să pună de-o parte / să economisească o
sumă de bani anual / în fiecare an, pentru a-i cumpăra într-o bună zi ceva
pămînt. Oare n-ar fi bine să se căsătorească? se gîndi tînărul.
— Ce fel de soție crezi că mi s-ar potrivi cel mai bine ca fermier har
nic / foarte muncitor / truditor? îl întrebă el pe tatăl său.
— Una care, în primul rînd, ar trebui să fie în stare să mulgă vacile,
să facă unt și brînză bună, să știe [cum] să supravegheze lucrătorii de la
fermă și să aprecieze / să poată stabili / cunoască valoarea oilor și vițeilor /
să știe cît prețuiesc oile și vițeii. Cu alte cuvinte, ar fi de dorit o ade
vărată soție de fermier. Și / iar cred / socotesc că nu vei găsi / afla o
femeie mai neprihănită / curată și cinstită care să-ți fie cu adevărat / într-a
devăr mai de folos și care, hotărît lucru / categoric, să fie mai pe placul /
gustul mamei tale și al meu decît / ca prietena ta Mercy.
Comments on the 1976 translations
A brief look at the papers written for the entrance examination in
summer 1976 shows the weak points of the candidates in the acquisition
of the basic grammar rules and lexical patterns of the English language.
Many mistakes are due to interference coming from Romanian grammar rules
and word combinations, which are transferred into English without consider
ing the differences existing between the structures of the two languages.
A. The most frequent mistakes occurring in the papers refer to the use
and sequence of tenses in English. Thus, in the last paragraph of the text
to be translated into English, all verb forms refer to a period of time
prior to that marking the events mentioned in the preceding paragraphs.
Although in the Romanian text the relation of priority is expressed by the
repeated use of the “mai-mult-ca-perfect ”, some candidates failed to use the
correct verb forms marking the succession of events in time.
Dar plecînd Lică, ea-1 întrebase *But after Lică left, she asked
pe Ghiță despre cele petrecute și el Ghiță about the things happened
îi răspunsese că n-a fost nimic, că ce and he answered her that it was
putea să fie? și că Lică e omul lui. nothing, what could have been?
and that Lică is his man.
In the first two italicized forms the use of the past perfect is obligatory
in English, in both cases the verbs refer to actions taking place before other
actions mentioned in the text.
The last mistake in the above sentence represents the violation of a rule
of English grammar which does not allow the present tense to mark events
or states that are not connected with the speech situation (in our case the
present viewed from the perspective of the author).
A mistake which recurs every year is the automatic use of the present
perfect whenever an adverb of indefinite time or frequency co-occurs with
a verb:
Ca om care-și petrecea viața pe drumuri, *As a wanderer who spent his whole
Lică venea des pe la Moara cu Noroc... life wandering, Lică has often come
to the Lucky Mill. . .
. . .însă mai ales duminica el venea *. . . on Sunday especially he has
adeseori cu cîte doi-trei tovarăși. often come with two or three
fellows . . .
Lui Ghiță îi părea întotdeauna * Ghiță has always been glad at . . .
bine cînd . . .
The misuse of the present perfect in such contexts as those given above
ranks high in a hierarchy of grammar mistakes as it completely changes
the way in which the speaker / writer considers the events he describes. In
the case of the present perfect the perspective from which the action is viewed
extends over the moment of speaking. Narration is, however, a type of lin
guistic expression presenting an account of events unconnected with the
moment of speaking. Therefore the typical tense of narration is the past tense.
The Romanian “imperfect” may have a variety of translations into Eng
lish, owing to the fact that it combines features of tense and aspect in
very special ways. In this area of grammar we therefore expect to come upon
mistakes. Indeed, in some translations the English continuous aspect was
used in place of the frequentative form, where the Romanian imperfect ob
viously indicates repeated action. In this case either a simple past tense
or a frequentative form would have been the correct solution.
Ca om care. . . Lică venea des pe *As a man who. . . Lică was often
la Moara cu Noroc. . . coming to the Lucky Mill . . .
El venea, descăleca, bea cîte un pahar
*He was coming, unmounting, drink
de vin, mînca ceva și iar se ducea. ing a glass of wine, eating some
thing and leaving again.
The Romanian imperfect was also wrongly rendered in another context:
. . .Ana tăcuse atunci și de atunci tăcea *Ana had not uttered a word then,
mereu. and she was always keeping silent
ever since.
*. . . and from then she still kepi
silent.
*. . . and since that time she was
always shutting up . . .
*. . . and from that time she did
never say anything.
* ... and would keep silent ever since.
* . . . and she would remain always
silent since.
* . . . and she used to be silent since
then...
The range of incorrect versions listed above is the more surprising as a
well-known rule of English grammar restricts the use of verb forms co-occur-
ring with the adverb “since” mainly to the present or past perfect (depending?
on the temporal perspective of the speaker in relation to the events described.)
Still within the sphere of problems relating to the English verb, we can
mention a not uncommon mistake in the selection of the correct modal verb
or their equivalents:
Trebuie să fie om rău și primejdios. He has to be a bad and dangerous
man.
In this case the candidates probably considered the verb have to a syno
nym of the verb must, thus failing to realize that have to does not express
probability in English.
A notorious area of contrast between English and Romanian is the use
of prepositions. Although the text presented for translation into English
does not contain many difficulties in this domain, errors occur illustrating
various aspects of the solution of prepositions in English. Thus, for instance,
we came upon the use of the preposition in in relation to norms denoting
days of the week:
Insă mai ales duminica. . . *Mainly in Sunday . . .
Atunci, duminică după amiazăzi . . . *Once in a Sunday afternoon . . .
A number of errors in the use of prepositions appear when these co
occur with verbs of various kinds: * and looked . . . to Lică, *often coming
al the Lucky Mill; * saying in herself; * the thoughts would come back in
her mind, * troubled of hard thoughts.
In some of these cases the use of the system of prepositions in Roma
nian is responsible for their misuse in the English translation. Thus, for
instance, the Romanian preposition la may imply either state or movement,
whereas in English there are two distinct propositions which render the two
situations (at, to).
Another type of error concerns the wrong use of a prepositional phrase
in a particular context;
. . .venea. . . și atunci era în voie bună. *. . . he came and by that time he
used to be in high spirits.
De aceea Ana tăcuse atunci . . . *That is why Ana had been silent
by that time . . .
Taken in isolation the phrase by that time is a correct construction, but
used in the contexts listed above it leads to grammatical incongruence in
the first case and to changing of meaning in the second (by that time means
“not later than” and it is not synonymous with the English adverb “then”—
Rom. “atunci”).
The correct use of the subject is another grammar problem causing diffi
culties to the learner of English. The difference between English and Roma
nian in the rules relating to the obligatory use of the subject and its position
versus the verb sometimes leads to the use of a double subject or to the
absence of the subject in the English sentence:
... el îi răspunsese că n-a fost nimic.............. he had answered that there
happened nothing ...
. . . că ce putea să fie? *what could it have happened?
*what could [. . .] have been?
In the field of word building a quite frequent error occurs in the Eng
lish rendering of the Romanian „a descăleca". Owing to the fact that many
candidates did not remember one of the English equivalents they resorted
to their knowledge of English derivational processes with prefixes indicating
reversal or undoing of an action. At this point, out of the available pre
fixes (un-, dis-, de-, mis-) many candidates failed to make the correct
choice (dismount) and selected the prefix un-, thus producing the non
existent English form * unmount.
Other translations contain the lexeme “unhorse”, which represents a case
of misuse of an existing English word. (The verb “to unhorse” means “to
cause to fall from a horse”.)
The sentence opening the passage under discussion introduced the can
didates right into the middle of a fragment of narration. In case one has
no knowledge of the characters and content of the whole story the best solution
is to keep as close as possible to the original text. Therefore the fragment
„ca om care-și petrecea viața pe drumuri" was best translated by those candi
dates who did not try to innovate on the original text. Being an overseer
of several herds of swine Lică had to ride from place to place within a
limited area (an estate in Transylvania) in order to see how the swineherds
were doing their job. He did not travel (which involves a longer distance
than the one he had to cover normally), wander (which presupposes lack
of definite purpose), or walk (which means that he covered the distance
on foot); he just spent most of his time on the roads.
A set of mistakes in the selection of the appropriate English vocabulary
had as a source the different cultural background. Thus we could hardly
associate the Romanian „circiumă” (which in our text is located in an iso
lated part of Transylvania) with the English words bar, saloon, which have
quite different cultural connotations. Inn or tavern are more neutral from
this point of view and therefore are more appropriate.
It is a well-known fact that languages differ in the way in which various
combinations of words become accepted by usage. Therefore we shall expect
to find an area of contrast between English and Romanian in the field
of collocations. Thus, for instance, the Romanian collocation “ginduri grele”
is best rendered in English by “gloomy thoughts”, although dark, sad,
heavy could also be used with the same noun. If, however, we sub
stitute the quite common phrase “ginduri negre” for the collocation in the
Romanian original, we shall come upon a difference in meaning if we trans
late it literally into English: black thoughts are wicked thoughts. Besides, the
English expression is much rarer than its Romanian source.
The last sentence in the passage contains the collocation “om ran”', the
best English equivalent of the expression is wicked man. Bad man is correct
as well although it does not mean exactly what the original text implies,
i.e. deliberate doing of something wrong.
If wicked and bad both collocate with the noun man, the adjective Z/Zis
not accepted in the same combination. Used attributively it collocates with
a restricted number of nouns, which are all inanimate: ill, will, news, luck,
temper, fame.
As to set phrases, one occurring in the text was almost invariably trans
lated by literal transfer into English: “doi—trei (tovarăși)” = * two or three
friends. In this case the candidates did not know that the corresponding
English expression is one or two (friends).
Before concluding our comments we would like to make a few remarks
on spelling. It might be thought that spelling errors are less important than
grammar mistakes. For a person, however, whose wish it is to get univer
sity education, a good command of the written norm of the language is
essential. Therefore we would advise future candidates to pay as great atten
tion to the spelling of English as to its grammar and vocabulary.
Spelling errors can be classified into a hierarchy ranging from slack com
mand of the spelling conventions of the English language (^beginning,
★comming, *occured), spellings indicative of confusions in the written form
of lexical items (and *than he was in good humour; a glass of * whine, errors
which may reflect possible mistakes in pronunciation (*bearhouse for beer
house, *havy thoughts, *bed man) to errors which are the result of sheer
absentmindedness (that is *way). Whatever their causes, the fact remains
that spelling mistakes reflect an incomplete command of one aspect of the
language, which for a future teacher of English is as important as the correct
use of the spoken language.
B. A cross section of the candidates papers shows that the commonest
mistakes were made in the areas marked A—D, as follows:
a) ([he] discussed) with the elder 1. . . *cu cel mai în virstă
2. .. *cu cel in virstă
3. .. *cu cel virstnic
4. .. *cu cel mai in virstă dintre cei doi
5. . *cu bărbatul mai virstnic
6. . *cu cei mai in virstă
7. .. *cu fratele său mai mare
8. .. *cu fratele mai mare
Note, a) 1 — 5 are cautious, non-committal translations. The candidates sensed
that the interlocutor was a man, which they indicated by lexical (“bărbat”)
or grammatical (“cel”) means. In a) 6 the singular (elder) was wrongly
taken to have plural meaning (“cei”). The translations in a) 7—8 are, on
the contrary, too imaginative (“fratele”). Here the candidates apparently
thought that ‘elder’ was an ellipted form of ‘elder brother’. In all cases,
the real meaning of ‘the elder’ (pl. elders), i.e. “părintele”, “bătrînul (tată)”,
“cel I ăl bătrîn”, etc. was ignored by the unsuccessful candidates.
b)... for obtaining his position as a farm- 1. . . *de a-și face o situație ca fer-
er on an extensive scale mier ce cultivă pe scară mare
2. . . *pentru obținerea poziției lui ca
fermier pe o scară largă, extensivă
3. . . *de a deveni un fermier pe o
rază intinsă
. . *de a obține o poziție ca fer
mier pe o latură extinsă
5. . . *de a obține rangul de fermier
intr-o măsură crescindă
6. . .*de a-și ocupa poziția de fer
mier pe scară largă
1. . . *de a deveni fermier multi
lateral
8. . . *pentru obținerea unei situații
pe scară intinsă
9. . . *de a obține poziția de fermier
la scară largă
Note.
All these literal, confusing, even ludicrous translations (b 1—9) are clear
instances of glaring errors in Romanian usage. They are indicative both
of faulty logic and a surprisingly poor knowledge of Romanian.
c) Would it not be well for him to 1. *N-arfi bine pentru el să se însoare?
marry? 2. *N-ar fi mai bine pentru el să
se însoare?
3. *N-ar fi bine pentru el să se
căsătorească?
4. *N-ar fi mai bine pentru mine
să mă căsătoresc?
5. *N-ar fi bine pentru el să mă
căsătoresc?
Note.
Here an English pattern (for-to Infinitive) was carried over literally into
the vernacular (“pentru-să”), which produced a string of un-Romanian sen
tences. In c)5, there is even an entirely unjustified change of personnel/
mă”), not to he found in the English text.
d) ...for a pure and honest woman 1... pentru o femeie mai pură / cu-
you will not find one more to rată și cinstită nu o să găsești
your true advantage... una mai spre binele tău. . .
2. . . * avantaj ui tău...
3. . . * realul tău folos...
4. . . âdevăratul tău noroc
5. . . *adevăratul tău țel ...
Note.
This is further evidence of violation of Romanian usage as a result of a
word-for-word rendering of English words in Romanian (for — pentru),
also accompanied by rather poor, unimaginative translations of 'advantage’
(See our suggested version). “For” translated solely as “pentru” shows the
unsuccessful candidates’ ignorance of the many other recorded meanings
of this preposition.
3. Exercises
Translate into Romanian:

It would theoretically be possible — I do not know if it has ever hap
pened — for a play to be written in which every speech was suited with
great subtlety to an individual, imagined character, and every speech was,
in itself, speakable and agreeable to hear, but the play could not be produced
because the dialogue bore no resemblance to real conversation. Perhaps in a
sense Shelley’s Prometheus Unbound is an example of this.
Certainly conversations in a play have marked differences from conversa
tions in real life. In dialogue there are fewer interruptions; people do not,
except for special comic effect, bore other people; almost everyone is a more
attentive and courteous listener than in real life, though, of course, the qual
ity of the talk makes boredom less likely.
(Marjorie Boulton, The Anatomy of Drama)
It may appear strange, that when I say I am talking about the “music”
of poetry. I put such emphasis upon conversation. But I would remind
you, first, that the music of poetry is not something which exists apart
from the meaning. Otherwise, we could have poetry of great musical
beauty which made no sense, and I have never come across such poetry. The
exceptions only show a difference of degree: there are poems in which we are
17 -- Limba oiulrz.i p’.’Jiu adm. în înv. snpctlor 257
moved by the music and take the sense for granted, just as there are poems
in which we attend to the sense and are moved by the music without
noticing it.
(T. S. E 1 i o t, The Music of Poetry)
I had quite made up my mind that I was going out with them next
morning, but I knew that it was no good asking my uncle if I might. If
he found out that I had been, and if Ted Driffield asked me whether I
had got my uncle's permission I was quite prepared to say I had. But
I had after all no need to lie. In the afternoon I walked down to the beach
to bathe, and my uncle, having something to do in the town, walked part
of the way with me. Just at that moment Ted stepped out of a pub, saw
us and came up to my uncle.
"Good afternoon,’ he said. T wonder if you remember me.’
My uncle was a very timid man, and he was surprised.
rOh, yes, how do you do? I was sorry to hear your father died.’
(W. Somerset Maugham, Cakes and Ale)
T only want to give you a little word of advice,’ she said. Tf your father
asks you, say that everything is going on.’
Catherine stood there, looking at her aunt, but not asking her to come
in/Do you think he will ask me?’
eI am sure he will. He asked me just now, on our way home. I
explained the whole thing to your Aunt Elizabeth. I said to your father I
knew nothing about it.’
rDo you think he will ask me, when he sees — But here Catherine
stopped.
eThe more he sees, the more disagreeable he will be,’ said her aunt.
eHe shall see as little as possible!’ Catherine declared.
'Tell him you are to be married.’
'So I am,’ said Catherine, softly; and she closed the door upon her aunt.
She could not have said this two days later — for instance, on Tues
day, when she at last received a letter from Morris Townsend.
(Henry James, Washington Square)
That afternoon I had been walking with my son in what for me were
familiar streets, streets of the town where I was born. I had taken him
there only once before, when he was a child. Now he was nearly fifteen, and
we spoke the same language.
The town was pretty enough . . .
We took the bus out to the suburbs, on what in my childhood would
have been the old tram route: red brick, the prison, the gasworks, less change
here than in the middle of the town. And when we got off and walked into
the back streets, there was less change still ... I looked up at the clouds,
breathed in the soft spring air, and said:
PI like this Atlantic weather.’
(C.P. S n o vv, The Sleep of Reason)
Translate into English:

Umanismul reunea tot ceea ce era înnoitor. In Anglia, literatura umanistă
... avea un aspect aparte: se manifesta atît împotriva nuanțelor feudale
cît și a celor burgheze. (Să nu uităm că în fața umaniștilor englezi se afla o
societate în care vestigiile feudale se înmănuncheau cu viciile noii orînduiri
burgheze . . . Lupta se ducea de pe poziția solidă a înfrățirii celor oropsiți
contra celor ce asupreau, fie ei feudali, fie burghezi înstăriți.)
In ambianța literaturii și artei umaniste se poate vorbi într-adevăr de
evoluție, de realizări, care vor constitui mîndria epocii elisabetane. Prima
fază se caracterizează prin înlăturarea treptată a scolasticii medievale din uni
versitățile din Oxford și Cambridge și prin promovarea noilor discipline ce
aveau ca punct de plecare antichitatea greco-romană. La toate acestea se
adăuga introducerea tiparului — prima tipografie engleză datează din 1476
(Caxton). Printre figurile proeminente ale acestei perioade poate fi considerat
și Thomas More, autorul cărții Utopia (1516).
(Doru P o po vie i, Muzica elisabetană)
Pornind să alcătuiască istoria patriei sale, Hasdeu și-a dat seama, cum s-a
văzut chiar de la început, că acest lucru nu este posibil fără cercetarea amă
nunțită a tuturor textelor românești și străine referitoare la trecutul nostru,
și fără cunoașterea istoriei limbii române, indispensabilă pentru lămurirea
epocilor obscure din trecutul nostru. Munca aceasta, care avea în intenția
lui rolul unei etape pregătitoare, l-a captivat atît de mult, încît el și-a schim
bat pe nesimțite obiectul cercetării, lăsînd istoria pe planul al doilea și preo-
cupîndu-se in primul rînd de filologie și lingvistică.
(Cicerone Poghirc, B.P. Hasdeu, lingvist și filolog)
Drumurile ce șerpuiesc printre colinele comitatului Sussex trec pe lingă

hanuri străvechi, cu ziduri groase, cenușii, la poarta cărora se leagănă firme
zugrăvite în veacul al XVII-lea sau al XVIII-lea. Din cînd în cînd, din mijlo
cul unui parc imens, răsar turnurile unui castel clădit de cine știe ce baronet
din timpul Stuarților sau chiar al Tudorilor. Călătorul ce s-ar întîmpla să
se afle într-o seară pe aceste meleaguri nu s-ar minuna de fel dacă de
după o cotitură ar apărea neîntrecutul cavaler Sir John Falstaff, ale cărui
isprăvi sînt amintite și în zilele noastre de nenumărate legende păstrate în
satele din jur.
In ținutul acesta, în care amintirea trecutului te întîmpină aproape pre
tutindeni, în castelul de la Field Place, trăia, în primii ani ai secolului trecut,
domnul Timothy Shelley, cap al unei familii numeroase: doi băieți și patru
fete. Domnul Shelley era un bărbat de vreo 50 de ani, înalt, voinic, blond,
cu miini mari, semănînd mai degrabă cu un cioban din Țara Galilor decît
cu un reprezentant al partidului liberal în parlamentul maiestății sale George
al Hl-lea.
(D an Gri gorescu, Shelley}
— E cineva la voi acasă? îl întrebă Nang oprindu-se și vorbind cu copilul

peste umăr.
Băiatul dădu din cap afirmativ.
— Cine e? reluă Nang.
Copilul spuse că e vorba de două surori ale lui mai mari.
— Numai ele sînt acasă ? întrebă Nang.
— Păi cine să mai fie?! se miră băiatul și adăugă că tata c plecat și că i-a
lăsat singuri, n-a mai venit pe acasă de mult.
Unde era dus? Copilul răspunse că el nu știa, că știau cele două surori
ale lui, dar acum ele erau in ca^ă și nu puteau să iasă afară... De ce?
Nu răspunse în prima clipă la această întrebare, apoi își ridică privirea și
spuse că el trebuie să aștepte, acuma nu poate să mănînce orezul...
(M a r in Pr e ă a, Intl'nirea din p urni nt uri)
Part Two
COMPOSITION
I The Sentence
EXERCISES
1. Complete the following sentences:

Richard couldn’t enter his house because . . .
He realized that his umbrella . . .
He made up his mind to break the window because . . .
He broke the parlour window by . . .
He was climbing through the window when suddenly . . .
2. Complete the following sentences paying attention to the sequence of tenses:
I told Maggie the story before . . .
While we were talking, a man . . .
When he came in . . .
He said in a most dreadful voice: “You’ll leave this house as soon as” . . .
“Go to help her before ...” he added keeping on smiling.
Had I known what would have happened, I . . .
“You can ask him if . . .” whispered Maggie from under the table.
Unfortunately the man heard the words and muttered: “We shall have a
good time if ...”
“I am going to see if ...” I replied quickly and made for the door.
“If I met you before, I . . .” laughed the man.
We could have escaped from the room if Maggie . . .
3. Develop the following sentences using the words and phrases given below:
She likes all kinds of music. Her sister doesn’t. Their parents are very
fond of musical instruments. Only Jimmy, the elder brother, is such a lazy
boy. As for their grandmother, well, she will never be able to enjoy a musical
party.
to have a musical ear, barrel-organ, strings, to be a music fan, cello,
to key an instrument, winds, to fiddle about, musical conductor, to set a poem
to music, to play the second fiddle, juke box, as fit as a fiddle, to face the
music.
4. Choose the right word to complete the following sentences:
Ben was a (1, 2), but sometimes his behaviour (3) his friends.
One summer night as he (4) in an armchair by the window and tried (5)
a detective story, the door flung open and the lights (6).
It was rather (7) for him to realize what (8).
However a (9) panic seized him.
He could only (10) the (11) beating of his heart.
He (12) to his feet and ran (13) the window.
Can you (14) who (15) the light again?
1 — genial, innocent, inspired, dilligent, clever.
2 — shop assistant, chemist, librarian, antiquary, confectioner.
3 — to astound, to upset, to bewilder, to puzzle, to vex, to confuse.
4 — to sit, to stand, to stay, to set.
5 — to remind, to recall, to remember, to recollect.
6 — to blow out, to quench, to extinguish, to turn off, to go out,
7 — light, easy, slight, heavy, difficult, hard.
8 — to happen, to occur, to go on, to come about, to befall.
9 — vast, huge, big, large, great.
10 — to hear, to listen.
11 — strong, powerful, fierce, hard, intense, towering.
12 — to jump, to spring, to leap, to bounce, to bound.
13 — to close, to fasten, to shut, to lock, to bolt, to bar.
14 — to realize, to fancy, to guess, to foretell, to divine, to find out.
15 — to light, to kindle, to switch on, to stir up, to put on.
5. Put questions to receive the following answers:
I imagine it was difficult to get used to it.
It was very stupid of me to lose your hat.
He believes that you've just stepped on his toe.
They say you’ve spoken ill of her.
They confessed they had never seen a dressing table.
The barber said it was true.
6. Show your agreement or disagreement with the following statements:

He had always had an odd fancy for clocks.
1 believe in ghosts.
The worst things in this world are the gnats and the weeds.
Ben Jonson was not only a very good cook but also a skilful musician.
7. Answer the following questions paying attention to the modal verbs:
Which are the things you-can, may, must, ought to, need, dare, would,
will, shall, should, must needs
— do and which are the things you cannot, may not, etc — do when you
are invited to deliver a speech?
8. When will you say that one is:
— all sugar and honey
— all over oneself
— all legs and wings
— all abroad
— as cross as two sticks
— dry/wet behind the ears
— dressed up to the nines
— in deep waters
— one’s own man.
Make up sentences with, these set-phrases and illustrate their meaning.
II The Paragraph
EXERCISES
1. Combine the following sentences so that, (hey should form a very short
rtory:
Annie was a very good painter.
The street was quite empty.
Mr. Brown kept on saying: “Somebody has stolen my easel”.
It was a cold winter night.
She painted only landscapes and ancient houses.
At last Mr. Brown left for a weekend in the mountains.
Annie entered the studio and took some of his brushes, a water colour box
and the easel.
The story could not have a happy end.
He realized at once what had happened in his absence.
Mr. Brown was a grey haired gentleman, black-spectacled and kind-hearted.
However Annie kept silent.
In his youth, Mr. Brown had been a clever sketcher.
She was forced to tell the truth.
2. Imagine a dialogue between Wakefield and his wife in the text below:
Let us now imagine Wakefield bidding adieu to his wife. It is the dusk
of an October evening. His equipment is a drab greatcoat, a hat covered
with an oilcloth, top-boots, an umbrella in one hand and a small port-manteau
in the other. He has informed Mrs. Wakefield that he is io take the night
coach into the country. She would fain inquire the length of his journey, its
object, and the probable time of his return; but, indulgent to his harmless
love of mystery, interrogates him only by a look. He tells her not to expect
him positively by the return coach, ijor to be alarmed should he tarry three or
four days; but at all events, to look for him at supper on Friday evening.
(from Wakefield by Nathaniel Hawthorne)
3. Change the following dialogue into a narrative:

Jack: I have lost both my parents.
Lady Bracknell: Both? ... To lose one parent may be regarded as a mis
fortune ... to lose both seems like carelessness. Who was your father?
Jack: I am afraid I really don't know. The fact is, Lady Bracknell, I
said I had lost my parents. It would be nearer the truth to say that my
parents seemed to have lost me ... I don't actually know who I am by birth.
I was . . . well, I was found.
Lady Bracknell: Found!
Jack: The late Mr. Thomas Cardew, an old gentleman of a very charita
ble and kindly disposition, found me, and gave me the name of Wor
thing, because he happened to have a first-class ticket for Worthing in his
pocket at the time. Worthing is a place in Sussex. It is a seaside resort.
Lady Bracknell: Where did the charitable gentleman who had a fust-
class ticket for this seaside resort find you?
Jack (gravely): In a hand-bag.
(from The Importa nee of Being Earnest by O. Wilde)
4. Retell the story above from Mr. Thomas Cardew' s point of view.
5. Expansion and Condensation of texts
1. Summarize in a brief paragraph the contents of the following excerpts:
Model: “The first time I went out, I presently discovered that there were
goats in the island, which was a great satisfaction to me; but then it was
attended with this misfortune to me, viz., that they were so shy, so subtle,
and so swift of foot, that it was the difficultest thing in the world to come at
them. But I was not discouraged at this, not doubting but I might now
and then shoot one, as it soon happened, for after I have found their haunts a
little, I laid wait for them in this manner. I observed if they saw me in the val
leys, though they were upon the rocks, they would run away as in a ter
rible fright; but if they were feeding in the valleys, and I was upon the rocks,
they took no notice of me, from whence I concluded that, by the position
of their optiks, their sight was so directed downwards that they did not
really see objects that were above them. So afterwards I took this method;
I always climbed the rocks first to get above them, and then had frequent
ly a fair mark.”
(From Robinson Crusue by D. D e f o e)
From the very beginning Robinson discovered that there were goats in
the island, but unfortunately they were so wild and swift that it was almost
impossible to approach them. He did not lose courage at this, but by
watching their movements noticed that they always kept their eyes to the
ground never raising them above their heads, thus they were an easy target
from the rocks higher up.
a) One morning, about a fortnight after I had obtained my liberty, Rel-
dresal, Principal Secretary (as they style him) of Private Affairs, came to
my house attended only by one servant. He ordered his coach to wait at a
distance, and desired I would give him an hour’s audience, which I really
consented to on account of his quality and personal merits, as well as the many
good offices he had done me during my solicitations at court. I offered to
lie down, that he might the more conveniently reach my ear; but he chose
rather to let me hold him in my hand during our conversation. He began
with compliments on my liberty, said that he might pretend to some merit
in it; but, however, he added that if it had not been for the present sit
uation of things at court, perhaps I might not have obtained it so soon. For,
said he, as flourishing a condition as we may appear to be in to foreigners,
we labour under two mighty evils — a violent faction at home, and the
danger of an invasion by a most potent enemy from abroad. As to the
first, you are to understand that for above seventy moons past there have
been two struggling parties in this empire, under the names of Tramecksan
and Slamecksan, from the high and low heels of their shoes, by which
they distinguished themselves.”
(From Gullivers Travels by J. Swift)
b) Allworthy answered “That he had forgiven him too often already, in

comparison to his youth, and in hopes of his amendment; that he now
found that he was an abandoned reprobate, and such as it would be crimi
nal in any one to support and encourage. “Nay”, said Mr. Allworthy to
him, “your audacious attempt to steal away the young lady, calls upon me
to justify my own character in punishing you. The world, who already
censured the regard I have shown for you may think, with some colour at
last of justice, that I connive at so base an abhorrence; and which, had
you had any concern for my ease and honour, as well as for my friend
ship, you would never have thought of undertaking. Fie upon it, young
man! indeed there is scarce any punishment equal to your crimes, and I
can scarce think myself justifiable in what I am now going to bestow on
you. However as I had educated you like a child of my own, I will not
turn you naked into the world. When you open this paper, therefore, you
will find something which may enable you, with industry, to get an honest
livelihood; but if you employ it to worse purposes, I shall not think my
self obliged to supply you farther, being resolved, from this day forward,
to converse no more with you on any account.”
(From Torn, Jones by H. Fielding)
c) “We now worked earnest, and never did I pass ten minutes of more
intense excitement. During this interval we had fairly unearthed an oblong
chest of wood, which, with its perfect preservation and wonderful hardness,
had plainly been subjected to some mineralizing process — perhaps that of the
bi-chloride of mercury. This box was three feet and a half long, three feet
broad, and two and a half feet deep. It was firmly secured by bands of
wrought iron, riveted, and forming a kind of open trelliswork over the
whole. On each side of the chest, near the top, were three rings of iron — six
in all — by means of which a firm hold could be obtained by six persons.
Our utmost united endeavours served only to disturb the coffer very slightly
in its bed. We at once saw the impossibility of removing so great a weight.
Luckily, the sole fastenings of the lid consisted of two sliding bolts. These
we drew back — trembling and panting with anxiety. In an instant a trea
sure of incalculable value lay gleaming before us. As the rays of the lanterns
fell within the pit, there flashed upward a glow and a glare, from a confused
heap of gold and jewels, that absolutely dazzled our eyes.”
6. Relate the following excerpt in a narrative form:
Model: “Why don’t you go into the country!” repeated June: “it would
do you a lot of good!’’
'Why?” began James in a fluster. “Buying land — what good do you
suppose I can do buying land, building houses? — I couldn’t get four cents
for my money!’
“What does that matter? You’d get fresh air.”
“Fresh air!” exclaimed James, "What should I do with fresh air?”
"I should have thought anybody liked to have fresh air”, said June scorn
fully.
James wiped his napkin all over his mouth.
“You don’t know the value of money”, he said, avoiding her eyes.
“No! and I hope I never shall!” and, biting her lip with inexpressible mor
tification, poor June was silent.
(From The Man of Property by J. Galsworthy)
June asked James again why he didn’t go into the country, as it would do
him a lot of good. James asked in a fluster why he should be buying
land and what good she supposed he could do buying land, and building houses.
He added that he couldn’t get four per cent for his money. June answered that
it didn’t matter because he would get fresh air. James wondered what he
could do with fresh air.
a) “Shall I write to your brother — or will you?” asked Lady Jane of her
husband, Sir Pitt.
“I will write of course,” Sir Pitt said, “and invite him to the funeral; it
will be but becoming”.
“And — and — Mrs. Rawdon”, said Lady Jane timidly.
“Jane!” said Lady Southdown, “how can you think of such a thing?”
“Mrs. Rawdon must of course be asked”, said Sir Pitt resolutely.
“Not whilst 1 am in the house!” said Lady Southdown.
“Your Ladyship will be pleased to recollect that I am the head of this
family”, Sir Pitt replied. “If you please Lady Jane, you will write a letter to
Lady Rawdon Crawley, requesting her presence upon this melancholy situa
tion.”
“Jane, I forbid you to put pen to paper!” cried the Countess.
“I believe I am the head of the family,” Sir Pitt repeated; “and how
ever much I may regret any circumstance which may lead to your Ladyship
quitting this house, must, if you please, continue to govern it as I see fit.”
(From Vanity Fair by W. M. Thackeray)
K,
b) “If you shout I’ll smash you face,” said the Invisible Man, relieving
his mouth. I’m an Invisible Man. It is no foolishness and no magic. I
am really an Invisible Man. And I want your help. I don’t want to hurt
you. but if you behave as a frantic rustic I must. Don’t you remember
me Kemp? Griffin, of University College.
“Lei me get up,” said Kemp. “I’ll stop where I am. And let me sit
quiel for a minute.”
He sat up and felt his neck.
uPm Griftin from University College, and I have made myself invisible-
I am just an ordinary man — a man you have known — made invisible-
‘■Griffin?"’ said Kemp.
“Griffin.” answered the Voice. “A younger student than you were almost
an albino, six feet high, and broad — with a pink and white face and red
eyes, who won the medal for chemistry."’
(From The Invisible Man by H.G. Wells)
c) “How ar? you baby? How do you feel? I bring you this — “It was a
bottle of cognac. The orderly brought a chair and he sat down’". And
good news. You will be decorated. They want to get you the medaglia
d'argento but perhaps they can get only the bronze."’
“What for?”
“Because you are gravely wounded. They say if you can prove you
did any heroic act you can get the silver. Otherwise it will be the bronze.
Tell me exactly what happened. Did you do any heroic act?"’
“No, I said. I was blown while we were eating cheese.”
“Be serious. You must have done something heroic either before or
after. Remember carefully.”
“I did not.”
“Didn’t you carry anybody on your back? Gordini says you carried sever
al people on your back but the medical major at the first post declares it
is impossible. He has to sign the proposition for the citation.”
“I didn’t carry anybody. I couldn’t move.”
“That doesn’t matter.” said Rinaldi.
(From T Farewell to Anns by G. Hemingway)
d) Orin: Like a tomb. That's what mother used to say it reminded her
of. I remember.
Lavinia: (reproachfully) It is a tomb — just now, Orin.
Orin: (hurriedly, shamefacedly) I — I’d forgotten. I simply can’t realize
lie’s dead yet. I suppose I’d come to expect he would live forever. (A
trace of resentment has crept into his tone) Or at least outlive me. I
never thought his heart was weak. He told me the trouble he had was not
serious.
Lavinia: (quickly) Father told you that, too? I was hoping he had.
(Then turning to Peter) You go ahead in, Peter. Say we’re coming a little be
hind. I want to speak to Orin a moment.
Peter: Sure thing, Vinnie. (He goes in the front door, closing it behind
him).
Orin: I’m glad you got rid of him. Peter is all right but — I want
to talk to you alone (with a boyish brotherly air — putting an arm around
her). You certainly are a sight for sore eyes, Vinnie. How are you, any
way, you old bossy fuss-buzzer! Gush, it seems natural to hear myself call
ing you that old nickname again. Aren’t you glad to see me?”
Lavinia: (affectionately) Of course I am!
(From Mourning Becomes Electra by Eugene O’Neill)
7. Relate the substance of the following verses in prose:
Model:
LUCY
She dwelt among the untrodden ways
Beside the springs of Dove,
A Maid whom there were none to praise
And very few to love:
A violet by a mossy stone
Half hidden from the eye!
Fair as a star, when only one
Is shining in the sky.
She lived unknown, and few could know
When Lucy ceased to be;
But she is in her grave, and, oh,
The difference to me!
A maiden whom nobody praised and very few loved dwelt alone by the
spring of Dove. She was like a violet growing overshadowed by a mossy
stone and was of unparalleled beauty. She lived unknown and few knew
of her death. But, oh. how very much her death means to me.
Wee, modest, crimson-tipped flower,
Thou's met me in an evil hour;
For I moun crush among the stoure
Thy slender stem;
To spare thee now is past my power,
Thou bonnie gem.
There in thy scanty mantle clad,
Thy snowy bosom sunward spread,
Thou lifts thy unassuming head
In humble guise;
But now the share uptears thy bed,
And low thou lies!
Such is the fate of artless Maid.
Sweet flow’ret of the rural shade!
By love’s simplicity betray’d,
And guileless trust;
Till she, like thee, all soil’d, is laid
Low i’ the dust.
Such is the fate of simple Bard,
On life’s rough ocean luckless starr’d!
Unskilful he to note the card
Of prudent lore,
Till billows rage, and gales blow hard,
And whelm him o’ver!
(From To a Mountain Daisy by R. Burns)
The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,
The furrow followed free;
We were the first that ever burst
Into the silent sea.
Down dropt the breeze, the sails dropt down,
eT was sad as sad could be;
And we did speak only to break
The silence of the sea!
All in a hot and copper sky,
The bloody Sun, at noon,
Right up above the mast did stand,
No bigger than the Moon.
Day after day, day after day,
We stuck, nor breath nor motion;
As idle as a painted ship
Upon a painted ocean.
Water, water, every where.
And all the boards did shrink;
Water, water every where,
Not any drop to drink.
(From The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by S. T. Coleridge)
XII
But soon he knew himself the most unfit

Of men to herd with Man; with whom he held
Little in common; untought to submit
His thoughts to others, though his soul was quell’d
In youth by his own thoughts; still uncompell'd,
He would not yield dominion of his mind
To spirits against whom his own rebelled;
Proud though in desolation; which could find
A life within itself, to breathe without mankind.
XIII
Where rose the mountains, theare to him were friends;

Where roll’d the ocean, thereon was his home;
Where a blue sky and glowing clime extends,
He had the passion and the power to roam;
The desert, forest, cavern, breaker’s foam,
Were unto him companionship; they spake
A mutual language, clearer than the tome
Of his land’s tongue, which he would oft forsake
For Nature’s pages glass’d by sunbeams on the lake.
(From Childe's Harold Pilgrimage by G. G. Byron)
XXXVII
ti)
Men of England, heirs of Glory,
Heroes of unwritten story,
Nurslings of one mighty mother,
Hopes of her and one another;
XXXVIII
Rise like lions after slumber
In unvanquishable number,
Shake your chains on earth like dew
Which in sleep has fallen on you —
Ye are many — they are few.
XXXIX
What is Freedom? — ye can tell
That which slavery is, too well —
For its very name has grown
To an echo of your own.
XL
’Tis to work and have such pay
As just keeps life from day to day
In your limbs as in your cell
For the tyrant’s use to dwell,
XLI
So that ye for them are made
Loom, and plough, and sword, and spade,
With or without your own will bent
To their defence and nourishment.
XLII
’Tis to see your children weak

With their mothers pine and peak,
When the winter winds are bleak, —
They are dying whilst I speak.
XLIII
’This to linger for such diet

As the rich man in his riot
Casts to the fat dogs that lie
Surfeiting beneath his eye:
XLIV
’Tis to let the Ghost of Gold
Take from Toil a thousandfold
More than e’er its substance could
In the tyrannies of old.
(From The Masque of Anarchy by P.B. Shelley)
8. Retell the following fragments from the point of view of a) Lady South-
down b) Soames c) Kemp d) the orderly e) Matt. Model:
“White Fang was suspicious. He knew something was impending. He
had killed my dog, bitten my companion, and what else could he expect
than some terrible punishment? But in the face of it he was indomitable.
He bristled and showed his teeth, his eyes vigilant, his whole body, weary
and prepared for anything. I had no club, so he suffered me to approach
quite near. I stretched out my hand and intended to pat him on the head.
I saw White Fang shrink together and grow tense as he crouched under
my hand.”
(From White Fang by J ack L o n d o n)
a) Lady Southdown rose up as magnificent as Mrs. Siddons in Lady

Macbeth, and ordered that horses might be put to her carriage. If her son
and daughter turned her out of their house she would hide her sorrows
somewhere in loneliness, and pray for their conversion to better thoughts.
“We don’t turn you out of our house, mamma!” said the timid Lady
Jane imploringly.
“You invite such company to it as no Christian lady should meet, and
I will my horses to-morrow morning.”
“Have the goodness to write, Jane, under my dictation” said Sir Pitt,
rising, and throwing himself into an attitude of command, like the portrait
of a Gentleman in the Exhibition, “and begin: Queen’s Crawley, Septem
ber 14, 1822. — My dear brother” —
Hearing these decisive and terrible words, Lady Macbeth, who had been
waiting for a sign of weakness or vacillation on the part of her son-in-law,
rose, and with a scared look, left the library. Lady Jane looked up to
her husband as if she would fain follow and soothe her mamma: but Pitt
forbade his wife to move”.
(From Vanity Fair by W. M. Thackeray)
b) From his seat by Mrs. Septimus Small, Soames was watching. He

had a reason of his own connected with a pet building scheme, for observ
ing Bosinney. The architect might do for his purpose: he looked clever,
as he sat leaning back in his chair, moodily making little ramparts with
breadcrumbs. Soames noted his dress clothes to be well cut, but too small,
as though made many years ago. He saw him turn to Irene and say some
thing, and her face sparkle as he often saw it sparkle at other people —
never at himself. He tried to catch what they were saying, but Aunt Juley
was speaking.
During Aunt Juley’s momentary silence he caught some words of Irene’s
that sounded like:
"Abandon hope, all ye who enter here”
(From The Man of Property by J o li n Gals vv o r t h y)
c) “I thought it was a lie*’? he said. The thought uppermost in his mind

was the reiterated arguments of the morning.
“Have you a bandage on?“ he asked.
"Yes,” said the Invisible Man.
“Oh”, said Kemp, and then roused himself. "I say!” he said. "But this
is nonsense. It’s some trick.” He stepped forward suddenly and his hand,
extended towards the bandage, met invisible fingers.
He recoiled at the touch, and his colour changed.
“Keep steady, Kemp, for God’s sake! I want help badly. Stop!”
The hand gripped his arm. He struck at it. “Kemp”! cried the Voice.
“Kemp, keep steady!” and the grip tightened.
A frantic desire to free himself took possession of Kemp. The hand
of the bandaged arm gripped his shoulder, and he was suddenly tripped
and flung backwards upon the bed. He opened his mouth to shout, and
the corner of the sheet was thrust between his teeth. The Invisible Man
had him down grimly, but his arms were free, and he struck and tried
to kick savagely.”
(From The Invisible Man by H. G. Wells)
d) My orderly had finished pouring water and the bed felt cool and
lovely and I was telling him where to scratch on the soles of my feet
against the itching when one of the doctors brought in Rinaldi. He came
in very fast and bent down over the bed and kissed me. I saw he wore
gloves.
(From A Fanwell to Anns by E. Hemingway)
e) “Matt took the rifle and began slowly to raise it to his shoulder.
White Fang’s snarling began with the movement, and increased as the
movement approached its culmination. But the moment before the rifle
came to a level with him, he leaped sidewise behind the corner of the cabin.
Matt stood staring along the sights at the empty space of snow which had
been occupied by White Fang.
The dog-musher put the rifle down solemnly, then turned and I looked
at his employer.
“I agree with you, Mr. Scott. That dog’s too intelligent to kill.”
(From Fang by J a c k London )
9. Develop the text below to -jOO words:

It rained heavily all the afternoon. If I had not left the windows and the
door of my bedroom open, my bed would not have become a boat.
10. Fill in the blanks in the following paragraph:
I had just begun to eat . . . when the waiter brought . . . with a huge lamb
chop on. I tried . . . and helped myself with . . . but no sooner did I. . .
the scrambled eggs, than the waiter set a big. . . before me. I was ready
to ask for more . . . when I saw a pretty old lady. . . and ... at my table.
Her first question was a. . . at which I found no reply. Then she asked
me. . . and ordered ... I rose angrily and ... but the waiter brought anoth
er. . . At last the lady confessed that . . . and to my amazement I discov
ered that she was...
Ill The Fragment
A. THE PORTRAIT
EXERCISES
1. Taking into account Wakefield's psychological features as they are de

scribed in this fragment, try to imagine his physical aspect. Use some of the
words and phrases given below.
What sort of a man was Wakefield? We are free to shape out our own
idea and call it by his name. He was intellectual, but not actively so; his
mind occupied itself in long and lazy musings, that ended to no purpose,
or had no vigor to attain it; his thoughts were seldom so energetic as to
seize hold of words. Imagination, in the proper meaning of the term, made
no part of Wakefield’s gifts.
(From Wakefield by Nathaniel Hawthorne)
chin, side-whiskers, eye-lids, beard, neck, countenance, eye-brows, broad-

shouldered, cheek, moustache, forehead, a dressy fellow, hair, curling, crisp,
bald-headed, neck, thick-lipped, complexion, mouth, face, freckles, nostrils,
elbows, fist, as tall as a lamp post, waist, as slender in the middle as a
cow in the waist, hand, leg, knee, wrists, ankles, big-bellied, snub-nosed.
2. Try to describe the character of the hero pictured below. Use for help
some of the words and phrases given at the end of the text.
Surely, man had never before so terribly altered, in so brief a period, as
had Roderick Usher! Yet the character of his face had been at all times re
markable. A cadaverousness of complexion; an eye large, liquid and lumi
nous beyond comparison; lips somewhat thin and very pallid, but of a
surpassingly beautiful curve; a nose of a delicate Hebrew model, but with
a breadth of nostril unusual in similar formations; a finely moulded chin,
speaking, in its want of proeminence, of a want of moral energy; hair of
m<re than web-like softness and tenuity, these features, with an inordinate
expansion above the regions of the temple made up altogether a counte
nance not easily to be forgotten.
(From The Fall of the House of Usher by E. A. Poe)
ill-tempered, in high spirits, absent-minded, to take to heart, gloom, restless,

broken heart, selfish, silent, unknown, haunted, frightened, superstitious,
nervous, as brave as a lion, talkative, to feel blue.
3. Describe the moral and physical aspect of the characters in the fragment
below:
There was one large drink left in the whisky bottle. John Verney poured
it out and swallowed it. Elisabeth brought in the supper and they sat down.
At last he said: “Elisabeth, why did you tell the doctor I had been
walking in my sleep?”
She quietly put down the plate she had been holding and looked curiously
at him.
“Why?” she said gently. “Because I was worried, of course. I didn’t
think you knew about it.”
“But have I been?”
“On yes, several times — in London and here. I didn’t think it matters
at first, but the night before last I found you on the balcony, quite near
that dreadful hole in the rails. I was really frightened.”
(From Tactical Exercise by E vel y n Waugh)
4. What kind of a character can dwell in the room described below?

The windows were long, narrow and pointed and at so vast a distance
from the black oaken floor as to be altogether inaccessible from within. Feeble
gleams of encrimsoned light made their way through the trellised panes, and
served to render sufficiently distinct the more prominent objects around.
Dark draperies hung upon the walls. The general furniture was profuse,
comfortless, antique and tattered. Many books and musical instruments
lay scattered about, but failed to give any vitality to the scene. An air
of stern deep and irredeemable gloom hung over and pervaded all.
(From The Fall of the House of Usher by E. A. Poe)
5. What can you say about the heroine that contemplates the following
landscape?
It was three o’clock; the church bell tolled as I passed under the belfry:
the charm of the hour lay in its approaching dimness, in the low-gliding
and pale-beaming sun. I was a mile from Thornfield, in a lane noted for
wild roses in summer, for nuts and blackberries in autumn, and even now
possessing a few coral treasures in hips and haws, but whose best winter
delight lay in its utter solitude and leafless repose. If a breath of air
stirred, it made no sound here. . .”
(From Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte)
B. THE PLACE
1. Describe the room such a man would like to live in. Use for help some
of the words given below:
■“Well, he is not mysterious or romantic looking. He is a little stout man,
with a funny, bald head and great gold rimmed spectacles; something be
tween a family doctor and a country attorney’".
(From Lord Arthur Savile's Crime by Oscar Wilde)
Leather armchair, stool, cupboard, screen, brackets, reading lamp, wardrobe,
rocking chair, mirror, sideboard, bookshelves, carpet, bedside table, writing
desk, chest of drawers, hall stand, curtain, wall paper, blinds, paper basket,
folding chairs, toilet table, rug, blanket, paintings.
2. In what kind of a landscape can such a dialogue occur? Use some of

the words suggested at the end of the text.
“Then you don’t like all insects ?” the Gnat went on.
“I like them when they can talk”, Alice said. “None of them ever talk,
where I come from”.
“What sort of insects do you rejoice in, where you come from?” the Gnat
inquired.
”1 don’t rejoice in insects at all”, Alice explained, “because I’m rather afraid
of them — at least the large kinds. But I can tell you the names of some
of them”.
“Of course they answer to their names?” the Gnat remarked carelessly.
“I never knew them to do it”.
“What’s the use of their having names”, the Gnat said, “if they won’t an
swer to them?”
(From Alice Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll)
jungle, lake, moors, maple grove, poplar, park, forest, weeping willow,
fernery, hill, meadow, island, prairie, rattle-snake, deer, water-lily, whale, sea,
sharks, hyacinth, gulf, stream, pansy, pine steppe, sunflower, lane, valley,
wren, magpie, birch, snowdrop, beach, bank of river, orchard, yard.
3. Describe the favourite landscape of this character:

Whenever I find myself going grim about the month, whenever it is a damp
drizzly November in my soul, then I account it high time to get to sea
as soon as I can.
(From Moby Dick by Herman Melville)
4. Imagine the place in which the following hero can possibly be found:
. and there seated right opposite me, was a gentleman wrapped in a
cloak. He had on a superbly shaped cartwheel hat of beautiful black felt.
TI is boots, which came to his knees, were of soft kid and he had a sword
with a guard of plain gold, but shaped, so, that it was a treasure and a delight
to look at.
(From Don Giovanni Explains by G. B. Shaw)
C. DIALOGUE
1. Change the following narrative into a dialogue. Use some of the words
and set-phrases given below:
It was after midnight when the secretary at last burst in and aroused
the household; and his face, white as a ghost looked all the paler against
the background of the stolid face and figure of a big Inspector of Police.
The news was broken to the two women with such consideration or conceal
ments as were possible. But the news was that the body of Admiral Craven
had been eventually fished out of the foul weeds and scum of the pool under
the trees; and that he was drowned and dead.
(From The Green Man by G. K. Chesterton)
to be at a loss, to look through one’s fingers, to go for nothing, to get
hot, to take wings, to talk to oneself, to be on the move, to speak one’s
mind, to say the least of it, to lose one’s mind, to stammer, to grumble,
as dead as a door nail, to linger.
D. COMPARISON, DESCRIPTION, EXPLANATION, ILLUSTRATION
1. Write a short description of any scene you like as seen by day and
then another description of the same scene as seen by night.
2. Write a character sketch of anyone you know well as that person is
today and compare this picture with the impression you had of him
or her six years ago.
3. Give a full description of:
a) a child; a youth; an old man
b) your room as it is; as you would like it to be
c) your street at noon; in the evening
4. Compare the car and the train as means of journeying.
5. Describe an accident, firstly as a militianman on duty might have seen
it, and secondly as seen by a passer-by.
6. Choose any two means of entertainment, such as television or films,
and show how they differ in their appeal to people.
7. Compare the living standard and the working conditions of our people
in the past and today.
8. Illustrate how you spend your time on week-days, on Sundays; on holi
days.
•9. Explain the advantages of practising sports, then state your reasons
for liking and disliking skiing; skating; swimming; boxing; wrestling;
football; tennis.
10. Write a letter to your friend
a) giving a short account of a journey, real or imaginary, by land, by
sea or by air;
b) containing an invitation to spend a holiday with you in the country
side; at the seaside; in the mountains;
c) explaining why you could not write to him or her (any reason will do).
11. Describe how the table should be set for breakfast; lunch; dinner.
12. Imagine a dialogue on good manners at table.
13. Try to explain each of the following natural phenomena: rain; snow;
a rainbow; an eclipse of the sun.
14. What is your own opinion on the value of the study of history; geography;
literature; mathematics; music?
15. Point out the special characteristics of your favourite author and the
benefits that you have obtained from the study of his writing.
16. Is it true that there is no accounting for tastes?
17. Give examples — from every day life and from literature — of friend
ship, love, hatred, devotion, selfishness, industriousness, laziness, courage,
cowardice — and comment upon them.
18. Give examples of patriotism: from every day life; history; Romanian
and world literature, and minutely explain their significance.
E. NARRATIVE
1. What was the man, described in the following fragment, actually doing?
The man was apparently fishing; or at least, was fixed in a fisherman’s
attitude with more than a fisherman’s immobility. He was a tall, fair man,
cadaverous, with heavy eyelids and a highbridge nose. When his face was
shaded with his wide white hat, his light moustache gave him a look of youth.
But the most curious thing about him, realized after a short scrutiny,
was that, though he looked like a fisherman, he was not fishing.
(From The Face in the Target by G. K. Chesterton)
2. Here are the beginning, the climax and the end of a story; try to make
the link among the three parts as to get a full story.
The beginning:
Mr. Appin was claiming to have launched on the world a discovery
beside which the invention of gunpowder, of the printing-press and of steam
locomotion were inconsiderable trifles.
The climax:
In the midst of the clamour, Tobermory entered the room and made
his way with velvet tread and studied unconcern across the group seated
round the table.
“Will you have some milk, Tobermory?” asked Lady Blemley in a rather
strained voice.
“I don’t mind if I do”, was (the cat’s) response, couched in a tone of
even indifference.
The end:
Tobermory had been Appin’s one successful pupil and he was destined
to have no successor.
(From Tobermory by H. Munro)
3. Imagine a story that might have begun this way:
The beginning:
There was a man who loved islands. He was born on one, but it didn’t
suit him, as there were too many other people on it. besides himself. He
wanted an island all of his own: not necessarily to be alone on it, but to
make it a world of his own.
(From The Man Who Loved Islands by D. H. L awre n c e)
4. Here is the climax of a story; imagine its beginning and end:

Suddenly I saw in front of me Lady Alroy, deeply veiled and walking
very fast. On coming to the last house in the street, she went up the steps,
took out a latch-key, and let herscdf in. “Here is the mystery” I said to
myself; and hurried on and examined the house.
(From The Sphinx Without a Secret by Oscar Wilde)
5. Imagine a story that might have ended this way:
It would be wrong to say that he died a broken man, but he did die a
profoundly sad one, with the special sadness of a hospitable host who
never gave a single lunch or dinner party for the last thirty years of his
life.
(From The Dinner Party by Nickolas Monsarrat)
IV The Story
EXERCISES
1. Write a composition entitled: A Never-Ending House, Use the words

given below:
To enter / lumber room / a sudden noise / attic/ a narrow passage I a winding
staircase / to be upset / nursery / oppressive silence / dressing room / to see /
in the sleeping room / a dark cellar / study / cloakroom / studio / balustrades /
the landing / to discover / dressing room / on the terrace / hall / a hidden
gallery / smoking room / from the ceiling / to run away / three doors / to
the bathroom / a new dining room I another balcony / a bachelor flat / to
•escape / a funny trick.
2. Write a composition entitled: .4 Story as Old as the Hills. Use for kelp
the words and setphrases given below:
As brave as a lion / a little kangaroo / large garden / to be as busy as
a bee / to keep silence / as bright as a button / an eccentric gentleman /
to find out I as drunk as a lord / at the tea party seven guests / as hungry
as a wolf I excessively happy I as mild as a lamb / the lady in blue I to talk :
red-nosed / as proud as Lucifer / to believe / as welcome as water in one's,
shoes I another bottle of milk j as merry as a cricket / fits of laughter.
3. Illustrate the meaning of the proverb: "Great talkers are little doers”
Use some of the setphrases given below:
to tell fortunes / to speak to heart / to backbite / frankly speaking / to tittle-
tattle / to speak to the wind / facts speak for themselves / 30 talk over/
to say no / to talk like a book / tell it to the horse marines / to talk non
sense I you don’t say so! / to tell somebody where to get off / to talk hats /
to speak through one’s nose / to talk shop.
4. Write a free composition using some of the words and phrases given
below:
to be on the jumps I a jumpy man I at one jump / to jump to a conclusion /
to jump out of one’s skin /to give somebody a jump /to jump a train / to
jump the rails I to jump to one s feet / to jump down a person’s throat / to
jump at the bait.
5. Write a composition (200—250 ) words such as to outline the situation

in which one of the following quotations might serve as a motto:
a) “Within the infant rind of this weak flower / Poison hath residence
and medicine power”. . .
(W i I 1 i a m S h a k e s p e a r e, Pomco cad Juliet, II, 3}
b) “What the plague, do you take me for Shylock in the play, that you*
would raise money of me on your own flesh and blood?"
(R, i c h a rd B. Sherida n, The S'ho<A for Scandal, III,
c) He bade me act a manly part,

Though I had never a farthing
For without an honest manly heart,
No man was worth regarding”
(It obert Bur n s, My Father Was a Farmer)
d) “But in equal rights and laws,

Hearts and hands in one great cause
But the heart, and the mind,
And the voice of mankind,
Shall arise in communion.”
(G. G. By1' Poems on Napoleon)
e) : “We are living away from the earth at a tangent, and as the moon
'is near her third quarter we are going somewhere towards her — I will open
.a blind—
(H. G. Wells, The First Man in the Moon)
V Topics for Composition

1) Proverbs:
Explain the meaning of the following proverbs and illustrate them with real
or imaginary situations:
Habit is a second nature.
Knowledge is power.
All is not gold that glitters.
There are more flies caught with honey than with vinegar.
There is no smoke without fire.
It never rains but it pours.
The last drop makes the cup run over.
Learn to say before you sing.
Least said, soonest mended.
Lies have short legs.
Little strokes fell great oaks.
Like master, like man.
Many hands make light work.
Many men. many minds.
You cannot see the wood for the trees.
A cat in gloves catches no mice.
It is very hard to shave an egg.
Eat to live, but do not live to eat.
The early bird catches the worm.
2) On trees:
a) The maple and the birch (a fable).
b) All happened in an oak-grove!
c) My first meeting with the fir-tree.
d) An evening with poplars.
e) A lecture on the olive-tree.
3) On animals:
a) They gave me a puppy as a birthday present.
b) My friend, the game-keeper.
c) The bat from the old castle.
d) The lizard and the hedge-hog (a fable).
e) The dangers of pollution for nature on our planet.
4) Points of view:
a) There is no good in loneliness.
b) An interview with myself.
c) Expressions of true patriotism.
5) Tastes:
a) My favourite painters.
b) A novel I shall never forget.
c) Classic and modern trends in music.
d) If I were a playwright.
6) Humour:
a) A white lie.
b) The art of telling jokes.
c) A man born with a silver spoon in his mouth.
Part Three
LITERATURE
NOTA
Exercițiile din această secțiune a lucrării vizează reliefarea unor

aspecte importante ale oricărei analize literare și în acest sens ele
pot să ajute la o mai bună pregătire a candidaților la examenul de
admitere sau elevilor din ultimii doi ani de liceu care studiază lite
ratura engleză. Căci răspunsul la orice întrebare privind literatura,
în cadrul probei orale, și rezolvarea temei de literatură, în cadrul
celei scrise implică, din partea candidaților, cunoașterea problemelor
specifice pe care le ridică analiza textelor literare, de la înțelegerea
ideii sau ideilor principale, la cea a descifrării atitudinilor, sentimen
telor și modalității, a identificării structurii, a recunoașterii tehnicilor
de construire a personajelor si a perceperii particularităților stilistice,
chiar atunci cînd subiectul de examen este, bunăoară, o paralelă
între două opere sau doi autori.
Answering Questions About Various
Problems in and Implications
of a Literary Text
Read each of the excerpts below carefully and then write as detailed an
answer to the questions accompanying them as the information they supply
allows of.
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
From Henry IV (Act IV, Scene V)
King, Where is the crown? Who took it from my pillow?

IFcjre'/cA*. When we withdrew, my liege, we left it here.
King. The Prince hath ta'en it hence. Go seek him Gul
ls he so hasty that he doth suppose 60
My sleep is death?
Find him, my Lord of Warwick, chide him hither.
(Exit Warwick.)
This part of his conjoins with my disease,
And helps to end me. See. suns, what things you are!
How quickly nature falls into revolt 65
When gold becomes her object!
For this the foolish over-careful fathers
Have broke their sleep with thoughts,
Their brains with care, their bones with industry;
For this they have engrossed and pil’d up 70
The canker’d heaps of slrange-achieved gold;
For this they have been thoughtful to invest
Their sons with arts and martial exercises;
When, like the bee, tolling from every flower
The virtuous sweets, 75
Our thighs pack’d with wax, our mouths with honey,
We bring it to the hive; and like the bees
Are murder’d for our pains. This bitter taste
Yields his engrossments to the ending father.
(Enter Wanvick.)
Now where is Im that will not stay so long 80
Till his friend sickness have determin’d me?
Warwick. My lord, I found the Prince in the next room,
Washing with kindly tears his gentle cheeks,
With such a deep demeanour in great sorrow,
That tyranny, which never quaff’d but blood, 85
Would, by beholding him, have wash’d his knife
With gentle eye-drops. He is coming hither.
King. But wherefore did he take away the crown?
(Enter Pince Henry.)
Lo where he comes. Gome hither to me, Harry.
Depart the chamber, leave us here alone.
(Exeunt Warwick and the rest.)
Prince. I never thought to hear you speak again.
King. Thy wish was father, Harry, to that thought;
I stay too long with thee, I weary thee.
Dost thou so hunger for mine empty chair
That thou wilt needs invest thee with my honours 95
Before thy hour be ripe? 0 foolish youth!
Thou seek’st the greatness that will overwhelm thee.
Stay but a little, for my cloud of dignity
Is held from falling with so weak a wind
That it will quickly drop; my day is dim. 100
(IV, 5, 57-100)
Explanatory notes. Line 59: ta'en — taken; 60 doth suppose (nonemphatic)
— supposes; 62 chide him hither — chide him and bring him here, or, chide
him for he has not come here; 63 part—action, piece of conduct; 68
broke — broken; interrupted; 71 strange-achieved—achieved in distant
lands (?); 75 virtuous — enjoying good qualities; 78—79 this bitter taste/
Yields his ( = its) engrossments to the ending father—the treasures he has-
gathered give this bitter taste to the dying father; 81 determin’d — put
an end to; 83 kindly — filial; 84 deep •— serious; 89 depart — leave.
1. What do you know about Shakespeare's idea of monarchy and its role?
2. What is the connection between this idea and Shakespeare's presentation
of Henry IV?
3. Why is the old king so angry with his son, the future Henry V?
4. How would you interpret lines 65—66?
5. Can you think of other instances when Shakespeare rises against gold
(in his other plays)?
6. Can you think of a contemporary of Shakespeare rising against gold with
a similar vehemence?
7. Is there another (famous) Shakespearian play in which love for one’s
father is strongly emphasized?
DANIEL DEFOE
From Robinson Crusoe (A Foot prin* in the Sand)
It happened one day about noon that on going towards my boat I was-
exceedingly surprised with the print of a man’s naked foot on the shore.
I stood like one thunderstruck or as if I had seen an apparition. I listened,.
1 looked round me, but I could hear nothing nor see anything. I went up
to a rising mound to look farther; I went up and down the shore but it
was all one: I could sec no other impression but that one. I went to it
again to see if there were any more and to observe if it might not be my
fancy. But there was no room for that, for there was the very print of a foot.
How came it thither I knew not nor could I in the least imagine. But,
like a man perfectly confused and out of myself, not feeling as we say,
the ground I went on, I came home to may fortification, terrified to the last
degree, looking behind me at every two or three steps, mistaking every bush
and tree, and fancying every stump at a distance to be a man. Nor is
it possible to describe in how many various shapes my affrighted imagina
tion represented things to me, how many wild ideas were found every
moment in my fancy, and what strange, unaccountable whims came into my
thoughts by the way.
When I came to my castle (for so I think I called my habitation ever after
this), I fled into it like one pursued. Whether I went over by the ladder or
went in at a hole in the rock, which I had called a door, I cannot remem
ber. For never frightened hare fled to cover, or fox to earth, with more ter
ror of mind than I to this retreat.
I slept none that night; the farther I was from the occasion of my fright,
the greater my apprehensions were. I presently concluded that it must be
some of the savages of the mainland opposite who had wandered out to sea
in their canoes and either driven by the currents or by contrary winds, had
made for the island, but were gone away again to sea, being as loath,
perhaps, to have stayed in this desolate island as I would have been to have
had them.
1. What could a footprint mean to a man who had lived so long alone?
2. What is the moral and stylistical connotation of the “like” patterns in
this fragment ? (ex.: “I stood like one thunderstruck“like a man perfectly
confused../7 “I fled into it like one pursued”).
3. There are three stages in Robinson’s reaction at the sight of the foot
print (1 — “I was exceedingly surprised...”; 2 — “I came home... terri
fied to the last degree...;” 3 — “I presently concluded that it must be
some of the savages...”). To what extent are these stages representative
for Robinson’s way of being?
4. Does Defoe present here a conflict between imagination and reason?
JONATHAN SWIFT
From Gulliver’s Travels (A Voyage to the Houyhnhnms, ch. V)
He asked me what were the usual causes or motives that made one coun
try go to war with another. I answered they were innumerable; but 1
should only mention a few of the chief. Sometimes the ambition of princes,
who never think they have land or people enough to govern; some
times the corruption of ministers, who engage their master in a war in
order to stifle or divert the clamour of the subjects against their evil
administration. Difference in opinions hath cost many millions of lives; for
instance, whether flesh be bread, or bread be flesh; whether the juice of a
certain berry be blood or wine; whether whistling be a vice or a vir
tue; whether it be better to kiss a post, or throw it into the fire; what
is the best colour for a coat, whether black, white, red, or grey; and
whether it should be long or short, narrow or wide, dirty or clean; with
many more. Neither are any wars so furious and bloody, or of so long
continuance, as those occasioned by difference in opinion, especially if it be
on things indifferent.
Sometimes the quarrel between two princes is to decide which of them
shall disposses a third of his dominions, where neither of them pretend to
any right. Sometimes one prince quarreleth with another, for fear the other
should quarrel with him. Sometimes a war is entered upon, because the ene
my is too strong, and sometimes because he is too weak. Sometimes our
neighbours want the things which we have, or have the thing which we
want; and we both fight, till they take ours or give us theirs. It is a very
justifiable cause of a war to invade a country after the people have been
wasted by famine, destroyed by pestilence, or embroiled by factions among
themselves. It is justifiable to enter into war against our nearest ally,
when one of his towns lies convenient for us, or a territory of land, that
would render our dominions round and compact. If a prince sends forces
into a nation, where the people are poor and ignorant, he may lawfully
put half of them to death, and make slaves of the rest, in order to civi
lize and reduce them from their barbarous way of living.
1. What is the significance of the sentence: ''Neither are any wars so furious
and bloody, or of so long continuance, as those occasioned by difference
in opinion, especially if it be in things indifferent1’?
2. What is the moral and stylistical connotation of the words “lawfully*
and "to civilize* in the last paragraph?
3. Which are the main anticlimaxes Swift’s satire is based upon, here?
4. What is the function of the reported dialogue between Gulliver and his
interlocutor?
5. Is Gulliver hiding behind a mask or is be simply speaking his mind,
while talking of wars?
6. What is the social message of the writer in the fragment?
HENRY FIELDING
From The History oî Tom Jones, A Foundling (Book III, Ch. II)
As we determined, when we first sat down to write this history, to flatter

a» man, but to guide our pen throughout by the directions of truth, we are
obliged to bring our hero on the stage in a much more disadvantageous man
ner than we could wish; and to declare honestly, even at his first appear
ance, that it was the universal opinion of all Mr. Allworthy s family, that
he was certainly born to be hanged.
Indeed, I am sorry to say, there was too much reason, for that conjecture;
(hr h.d havin'-7:., from his earliest years, discovered a propensity to many
vices, and especially to one which hath as direct a tendency as any other to
that fate which we have just now observed to have been prophetically de
nounced against him: he had been already convicted of three robberies, viz.
of robbing an orchard, of stealing a duck out of a farmer’s yard, and of picking
Master Blifil’s pocket of a ball.
The vices of this young man were, moreover, heightened by the disadvan
tageous light in which they appeared when opposed to the virtues of Master
Blifil, his companion: a youth of so different a cast from little Jones, that not
only the family but all the neighbourhood, resounded his praises. He was,
indeed, a lad of remarkable disposition: sober, discreet and pious, beyond
his age; qualities which gained him the love of everyone who knew him:
whilst Tom Jones was universally disliked; and many expressed their wonder
that Mr. Allworthy would suffer such a lad to be educated with his nephew,
lest the morals of the latter should be corrupted by his example.
Tom Jones, who, bad as he is, must serve for the hero of this history, had
only one friend among all the servants of the family... This friend was the game
keeper, a fellow of a loose kind of disposition, and who thought not to enter
tain much stricter notions concerning the difference of meum and tuum than
the young gentleman himself...
To say the truth, some of that atrocious wickedness in Jones, of which we
have just mentioned three examples, might perhaps be derived from the en
couragement he had received from this fellow, who in two or three instances
had been what the law calls an accessory after the fact: for the whole
duck, and great part of the apples, were converted to the use of the game
keeper and his family; though, as Jones alone was discovered, the poor
lad bore not only the whole smart, but the whole blame: both which fell
again to his lot an the following occasion.
1. What does the author mean when saying that Tom Jones had ua pro
pensity to many vices”?
2. Tom Jones’ character is rendered in pejorative, negative statements,
while Blifil’s in laudatory, affirmative ones. What is the true nature of
each of these two heroes?
3. What is the author’s attitude towards the characters presented in this
fragment?
4. To what extent is this fragment a satire and what is its target?
GEORGE GORDON BYRON
From Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (Canto II)
XXV
To sit on rocks, to muse o’er flood and fell,

To slowly trace the forest's shady scene,
Where things that own not man’s dominion dwell,
And mortal foot hath ne’er or rarely been;
To climb the trackless mountain all unseen,
With the wild flock that never needs a fold;
Alone o’er steeps and foaming falls to lean;
This is not solitude; ’t is but to hold
Converse with Nature’s charms, and view her stores unroll’d
XXVI
But midst the crowd, the hum, the shock of men,

To hear, to see, to feel, and to possess,
And roam along, the world’s tired denizen,
With none who bless us, none whom we can bless;
Millions of splendour shrinking from distress 1
None that, with kindred consciousness ended,
If we were not, would seem to smile the less,
Of all that flatter’d, follow’d, sought, and sued;
This is to be alone; this, this is solitude!
XXXVII
Dear Nature is the kindest mother still,

Though always changirig in her aspect mild;
From her bare bosom let me take my fill,
Her never-wean’d, though not her favour’d child.
Oh! She is fairest in her features wild,
Where nothing polish’d dares pollute her path:
To me by day or night she ever smiled,
Though I have mark’d her when none other hath,
And sought her more and more, and loved her best in wrath.
XLIII
Now Harold found himself at length alone,

And bade to Christian tongues a long adieu;
Now he adventured on a shore unknown,
Which all admire, but many dread to view:
His breast was arm’d ’gainst fate, his wants were few;
Peril he sought not, but ne’er shrank to meet;
The scene was savage, but the scene was new;
This made the ceaseless toil of travel sweet,
Beat back keen winter’s blast, and welcomed summer’s heat.
1. What kind of a landscape seems to offer the poet an ideal refuge?

2. How does Childe Harold justify his rejection of city life for the wilderness
in nature?
3. Why does Byron personify nature in stanza XXXVII and what is its
function?
4. Is here nature but a mirror reflecting the moods of the Byronic hero?
5. What can you say about the poet’s emotional involvement in the destiny
of his hero? Is it consistent throughout the excerpt?
19 — Limbii englczA pentru adm. tn înv. wuprilor 289
PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY
From Ode to the West Wind

0, Wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn’s being,
Thou, from whose unseen presence the leaves dead
Are driven like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing,
Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic red,
Pestilence-stricken multitudes: 0, thou,
Who chariotest to their dark wintry bed
The winged seeds, where they lie cold and low.
Each like a corpse within its grave, until
Thine azure sister of the spring shall blow
Her clarion o’er the dreaming earth, and fill
(Driving sweet buds like flocks to feed in air)
With living hues and odours plain and hill:
Wild Spirit, which art moving every where;
Destroyer and preserver; hear,*O, hearl
Make me thy lyre, even as the forest is:

What if my leaves are falling like its own I
The tumult of thy mighty harmonies
Will take from both a deep, autumnal tone,
Sweet though in sadness. Be thou, spirit fierce,
My spirit! Be thou me, impetuous one!
Drive my dead thoughts over the universe
Like withered leaves to quicken a new birth!
And, by the incantation of this verse,
Scatter, as from an unextinguished hearth
Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind!
Be through my lips to unawakened earth
The trumpet of a prophecy! 0, Wind,
If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?
1. How does Shelley’s outlook on nature emerge from his view of the West
Wind?
2. Choose one or two of the following alternatives and explain your choice
bearing in mind the ultimate effect of this poem and of Shelley’s verse in
general. Does Shelley actually describe (characterize) evoke (suggest the
West Wind and its actions) the consequences of its actions?
3. Is the West Wind to be taken literally throughout the poem? If not,
what is it made to symbolize, and how does its symbolic function chrysta-
lize, as the poem progresses?
JOHN KEATS
From The Eve of St. Agnes

XXXIII
Awakening up, he took her hollow lute, —
Tumultuous, — and, in chords that tenderest be,
He play’d an ancient ditty, long since mute,
In Provence call’d, ’La belle dame sans mercy’
Close to her ear touching the melody; —
Wherewith disturb’d, she utter’d a soft moan*.
He ceased — she panted quick — and suddenly
Her blue affrayed eyes wide open shone:
Upon his knees he sank, pale as smooth — sculptured stone.
XXXV
Give me that voice again, my Porphyro,

Those looks immortal, those complainings dearl
Oh leave me not in this eternal woe,
For if thou diest, my Love, I know not where to go.
XXXVI
Beyond a mortal man impassion’d far
At these voluptuous accents, he arose,
Ethereal, flush’d, and like a throbbing star
Seen mid the sapphire heaven’s deep repose;
Into her dream he melted, as the rose
Blendeth its odour with the violet, —
Solution sweet: meantime the frost-wind blows
Like Love’s allarum pattering the sharp sleet
Against the window-panes; St. Agnes’ moon hath set.
XXXIX
Hark! ’tis an elfin-storm from faery land,
Of haggard seeming, but a boon indeed:
Arise — arise! the morning is at hand; —
The bloated wassaillers will never heed: —
Let us away, my love, with happy speed;
There are no ears to hear, or eyes to see, —
Drown’d all in Rhenish and the sleepy mead:
Awake! arise! my love, and fearless be,
For o’er the southern moors I have a home for thee”
XLI
They glide, like phantoms, into the wide hall;
Like phantoms, to the iron porch, they glide;
Where lay the Porter, in uneasy sprawl,
With a huge empty flaggon by his side:
The wakeful bloodhound rose, and shook his hide,
But his sagacious eye an inmate owns:
By one, and one, the bolts full easy slide: —
The chains lie silent on the footworn stones; —
The key turns, and the door upon its hinges groans.
XLII
And they are gone; aye, ages long ago
These lovers fled away into the storm.
1. What are the elements suggesting the two levels at which the action takes
place (the natural — the supernatural)?
2. What do you think is the importance of dream in this two-leveled action?
3. What is the poet’s vision on an ideal love and why is it defined at the
supernatural level ?
4. Do you think the poem is an epic or a lyrical one? Bearing this in mind,
do you think the poem is a sonnet, a ballad, or an ode?
WALTER SCOTT
From Ivanhoe (Ch. XII)
Through a field slippery with blood, and encumbered with broken ar
mor and the bodies of slain and wounded horses, the marshals of the lists
again conducted the victor to the foot of Prince John’s throne.
“Disinherited Knight”, said Prince John, “since by that title only you
will consent to be known to us, we a second time award to you the hon
ours of this tournament, and announce to you your right to claim and
receive from the hands of the Queen of Love and Beauty the Chaplet of
Honour which your valour has justly deserved.” The knight bowed low and
gracefully, but returned no answer.
While the trumpets sounded, while the heralds strained their voices in
proclaiming honour to the brave and glory to the victor — while ladies waved
their silken kerchiefs and embroidered veils, and while all ranks joined
in a clamorous shout of exultation, the marshals conducted the Disinherited
Knight across the lists to the foot of that throne of honour which was
occupied by the Lady Rowena.
On the lower step of this throne the champion was made to kneel down.
Indeed his whole action since the fight had ended seemed rather to have
been upon the impulse of those around him than from his own free will; and
it was observed that he tottered as they guided him the second time across
the lists. Rowena, descending from her station with a graceful and dig
nified step, was about to place the chaplet which she held in her hand upon
the helmet of the champion, when the marshals exclaimed with one voice, “It
must not be thus — his head must be bare”. The knight muttered faintly a few
words, which were lost in the hollow of his helmet, but their purport seemed
to be a desire that his casque might not be removed.
Whether from love of form or from curiosity, the marshals paid no
attention to his expression of reluctance, but unhelmed him by cutting the
laces of his casque, and undoing the fastening of his gorget. When the hel
met was removed, the well-formed, yet sun-burnt features of a young man
of twenty-five were seen amidst a profunsion of short fair hair. His coun
tenance was as pale as death, and marked in one or two places with streaks
of blood.
Rowena had no sooner beheld him than she uttered a faint shriek; but at
once summoning up the energy of her disposition, and compelling herself,
as it were, to proceed, while her frame yet trembled with the violence of
sudden emotion, she placed upon the drooping head of the victor the splendid
chaplet which was the destined reward of the day, and pronounced in a
clear and distinct tone these words: “I bestow on thee this chaplet, Sir Knight,
as the meed of valour assigned to this day’s victor”; here she paused a mo
ment, and then firmly added, “And upon brows more worthy could a wreath
of chivalry never be placed!”
The knight stooped his head, and kissed the hand of the lovely Sovereign
by whom his valour had been rewarded; and then, sinking yet farther
forward, lay prostrate at her feet.
There was a general consternation. Cedric, who had been struck mute
by the sudden appearance of his banished son, now rushed forward, as if to
separate him from Rowena. But this had been already accomplished by the
marshals of the field, who, guessing the cause of Ivanhoe’s swoon, had has
tened to undo his armour, and found that the head of a lance had penetrated
his breastplate, and inflicted a wound in his side.
1. Which are the characteristic elements of the tournament ritual?

2. What is the aesthetic effect of the unrevealed identity of the Disinherited
knight ?
3. Which are the main ingredients that create the romantic atmosphere of the
scene ?
4. What is the function of the ceremonial style and obsolete language in this
fragment?
CHARLES DICKENS
From Hard Times (Ch. II — Murdering the Innocents)
The third gentleman now stepped forth.

“Very well,” said this gentleman, briskly smiling, and folding his arms.
“That’s a horse. Now, let me ask you girls and boys, Would you paper a room
with representations of horses?”
After a pause, one half of the children cried in chorus, “Yes, sir!” Upon
which the other half, seeing in the gentleman’s face that Yes was wrong, cried
out in chorus, “No, sir!” — as the custom is, in these examinations.
“Of course, No. Why wouldn’t you?”
A pause. One corpulent slow boy, with a wheezy manner of breathing,
ventured the answer. Because he wouldn’t paper a room at all, but would paint
it.
“You must paper it”, said the gentleman rather warmly.
“You must paper it”, said Thomas Gradgrind, “whether you like it or
not. Don’t tell us you wouldn’t paper it. What do you mean, boy?”
“I’ll explain to you, then,” said the gentleman, after another and a dismal
pause, “why you wouldn’t paper a room with representations of horses. Do
you ever see horses walking up and down the sides of rooms in reality — in
fact? Do you?”
“Yes, sir!” from one half. “No, sir!” from the other.
“Of course no,” said the gentleman, with an indignant look at the wrong
half. “Why, then, you are not to see anywhere, what you don’t have for Fact.”
Thomas Gradgrind nodded his approbation.
“This is a new principle, a discovery, a great discovery,” said the gentle
man. “Now, I’ll try you again. Suppose you were going to carpet a room.
Would you use a carpet having a representation of flowers upon it?”
There being a general convinction by this time that “No, sir!” was al
ways the right answer to this gentleman, the chorus of No was very strong.
Only a few feeble stragglers said Yes: among12 345them Sissy Jupe.
“Girl number twenty,” said the gentleman, smiling in the calm strength
of knowledge.
Sissy blushed, and stood up.
“So you would carpet your room — or your husband’s room, if you were
a grown woman, and had a husband — with representations of flowers, would
you?” said the gentleman. “Why would you?”
“If you please, sir, I am very fond of flowers,” returned the girl.
“And is that why you would put tables and chairs upon them, and have
people walking over them with heavy boots?”
“It wouldn’t hurt them, sir. They wouldn’t crush and wither, if you
please, sir. They would be the pictures of what was very pretty and peasant,
and I would fancy —”
“Ay, ay, ay! But you mustn’t fancy,” cried the gentleman, quite elated by
coming so happily to his point. “That’s it! You are never to fancy.”
“You are not, Cecilia Jupe,” Thomas Gradgrind solemnly repeated, “to
do anything of that kind.”
“Fact, fact, fact!” said the gentleman. And “Fact, fact, fact!” repeated
Thomas Gradgrind.
“You are to be in all things regulated and governed,” said the gentleman,
“by fact. We hope to have, before long a board of fact, composed of commis
sioners of fact, who will force the people to be a people of fact, and of nothing
but fact.
1. Which are the possible definitions of Fancy derived from Lissy Jupe’s
reaction and from the gentleman’s words?
2. What is the significance of the yes-or-no answer in the fragment?
3. What attitude does Thomas Gradgrind put on and what side of his
personality does his attitude reveal?
4. What is the stylistic connotation of the proper name “gradgrind” and
of the words “girl number twenty”?
5. What is the function of repetition throughout the fragment?
6. What linguistic devices (modal verbs, etc.) are employed for expressing
interdiction in the excerpt?
7. Can you point out to what extent this fragment is a satire and what
is its target?
THOMAS HARDY
From Tess of the D’Urbervilles (Ch. XVI, The Raley)

The bird’s-eye perspective before her was not so luxuriantly beautiful!
perhaps, as that other one which she knew so well; yet it was more cheer
ing. It lacked the intensely blue atmosphere of the rival vale, and its heavy
soils and scents; the new air was clear, bracing, ethereal. The river itself,
which nourished the grass and cows of these renowned dairies, flowed not
like the streams in Blackmoor. Those were slow, silent, often turbid; flowing
over beds of mud into which the incautious wader might sink and vanish
unawares. The Froom waters were clear as the pure River of Life shown
to the Evangelist, rapid as the shadow of a cloud, with pebbly shallows
that prattled to the sky all day long. There the water-flower was the lily;
the crowfoot here.
Either the change in the quality of the air from heavy to light, or the
sense of being amid new'scenes where there were no invidious eyes upon
her, sent up her spirits wonderfully. Her hopes mingled with the sunshine
in an ideal photosphere which surrounded her as she'bounded along against
the soft south wind. She heard a pleasant voice in every breeze, and in
every bird’s note seemed to lurk a joy.
Her face had latterly changed with changing states of mind, continually
fluctuating between beauty and ordinariness, according as the thoughts
were gay or grave. One day she was pink and flawless; another pale and
tragical. When she was pink she was feeling less than when pale; her more
perfect beauty accorded with her less elevated mood; her more intense
mood with her less perfect beauty. It was her best face physically that
was now set against the south wind.
The irresistible, universal, automatic tendency to find sweet pleasure
somewhere, which pervades all life, from the meanest to the highest, had
at length mastered Tess.
1. Why does the landscape acquire a symbolical meaning for Tess?
2. To what extent does nature here reflect the Heroine’s own state of mind?
3. What is the significance of the bird’s eye perspective in the relationship
man-nature?
4. Which are the stylistical elements that make this fragment lyrical?
OSCAR WILDE
From The Happy Prince

Leaf after leaf of the fine gold the Swallow picked off, till the Happy
Prince looked quite dull and grey. Leaf after leaf of the fine gold he brought
to the poor, and the children’s faces grew rosier, and they laughed and
played games in the street. “We have bread now” they cried.
Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets
looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening;
long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses,
everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated
on the ice.
The poor little Swallow grew colder and colder, but he would not leave
the Prince, he loved him too well. He picked up crumbs outside the baker’s
door when the baker was not looking, and tried to keep himself warm by
flapping his wings.
But at last he knew he was going to die. He had just enough strength
to fly up to the Prince’s shoulder once more. “Good-bye, dear Prince!”
he murmured, “will you let me kiss your hand?”
“I am glad that you are going to Egypt at last, little Swallow”, said
the Prince, “you have stayed too long here; but you must kiss me on the
lips, for I love you.”
“It is not to Egypt that I am going,” said the Swallow. “I am going to
the House of Death. Death is the brother of Sleep, is he not?”
And he kissed the Happy Prince on the lips, and fell down dead at his
feet.
At that moment a curious crack sounded inside the statue, as if something
had broken. The fact is that the leadsn heart had snapped right in two.
It certainly was a dreadfully hard frost.
Early the next morning the Mayor was walking in the square below in
company with the Town Councillors. As they passed the column he looked
up at the statue: “Dear me! how shabby the Happy Prince looks!” he
said.
“How shabby, indeed!” cried the Town Councillors, who always agreed
with the Mayor; and they went up to look at it.
“The ruby has fallen out of his sword, his eyes are gone, and he is gold
en no longer,” said the Mayor; “in fact, he is little better than a beggar!”
“Little better than a beggar,” said the Town Councillors.
“And here is actually a dead bird at his feet!” continued the Mayor.
“We must really issue a proclamation that birds are not to be allowed to
die here.” And the Town Clerk made a note of the suggestion.
So they pulled down the statue of the Happy Prince.
“As he is no longer beautiful he is no longer useful,” said the Art Pro
fessor at the University.
Then they melted the statue in a furnace, and the Mayor held a meeting
of the Corporation to decide what was to be done with the metal. “We
must have another statue, of course,” he said, “and it shall be a statue
of myself.”
“Of myself,” said each of the Town Councillors, and they quarrelled.
When I last heard of them they were quarrelling still.
“What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry.
“This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it
away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also
lying-
1. What are the fiairy-tale elements of this fragment?
2. Can you point mut the satiric notes in Oscar Wilde’s presentation of
the Mayor and the Town Councillors?
3. What is the symbolical significance of the Happy Prince’s heart refusing
to melt away?
4. What does happiness mean for the Happy Prince?
5. Why is the Happy Prince not a genuine fairy-tale and what is the func
tion of the realistic detail in this fragment?
WILLIAM BUTLER YEATS
No Second Troy
Why should I blame her that she filled my days
With misery, or that she would of late
Have taught to ignorant men most violent way"
Or hurled the little streets upon the great,
Had they but courage equal to desire 3
What could have made her peaceful with k mind
That nobleness made simple as a fire,
With beauty like a tightened bow, a kind
That is not natural in an age like this,
Being high and solitary and most stern?
Why, what could she have done, being what she is?
Was there another Troy for her to burn?
1. What is the aspect of the poet’s meditation?

2. What kind of images does he use to describe the beloved woman?
3. What dominant features in her character are emphasized by similes such
as “simple as fire”, “beauty like a tightened bow”?
4. Does Yeats reshape the legend of Helen of Troy? and if so, why ?
5. Why is the poem made up only of interrogative sentences? Does the
poem supply any answers to the questions?
6. Would you call this poem a sonnet?
7. Could you compare this poem to any Shakespearean sonnet?
EUGENE O'NEILL
From Mourning Becomes Electra (Act IV).

(Peters enters from the left front. He looks haggard and tormented. He walks
slowly, his eyes on the ground—then sees Lavinia and immediately makes an
effort to pull himself together and apear cheerful.)
Peter. Hello, Vinnie. (He sits on the edge of the portico beside her. She still
keeps her eyes closed, as if afraid to open them. He looks at her worried
ly) You look terribly worn out. Haven’t you slept? (He pats her hand
with awkward tenderness. Her mouth twitches and draws down at the corners
as she stifles a sob. He goes on comfortingly) You’ve had an awfully
hard time of it, but never mind, we’ll be married soon.
Lavinia, (without opening her eyes—longingly) You’ll love me and keep me
from remembering?
Peter. You bet I will! And the first thing is to get you away from this
darned house! I may be a fool but I’m beginning to feel superstitious
about it myself.
Lavinia. (without opening her eyes—strangely). Yes. Love can’t live in it. We’ll
go away and leave it alone to die — and we’ll forget the dead.
Peter, (a bitter resentful note coming into his voice) We can’t move too far
away to suit me! I hate this damned town now and everyone in it!
Lavinia. (opens her eyes and looks at him startledly) I never heard you talk
that way before, Peter — bitter!
Peter (avoiding her eyes) Some things would make anyone bitter!
Lavinia. You’ve quarreled with your mother and Hazel — on account of
me — is that it?
Peter. How did you know?
Lavinia. Hazel was just here.
Peter. She told you? The darned fool! What did she do that for?
Lavinia. She doesn’t want me to marry you.
Peter, (angrily) The little sneak! What right has she— ? (Then a bit uneasi
ly — forcing a smile) Well, you won’t pay any attention to her, I hope.
Lavinia, (more as if she were answering some voice in herself than him —
stiffening in her chair — defiantly) No!
Peter. She and Mother suddenly got a lot crazy notions in their heads. But
they’ll get over them.
Lavinia, (staring at him searchingly — uneasily) Supposing they don’t?
Peter. They will after we are married — or I’m through with them!
Lavinia, (a pause. Then she takes his face in her hands and turns it to hers)
Peter! Let me look at you! You’re suffering! Your eyes have a hurt
look! They’ve always been so trustful! They look suspicious and afraid
of life now! Have I done this to you already, Peter? Are you beginning
to suspect me? Are you wondering what it was Orin wrote?
Peter, (protesting violently) No! Of course I’m not! Don’t I know Orin was
out of his mind? Why would I pay any attention — ?
Lavinia. You swear you’ll never suspect me — of anything?
Peter. What do you think I am ?
Lavinia. And you’ll never let anyone come between us? Nothing can keep
us from being happy, can it? You won’t let anything, will you?
Peter. Of course I won’t i
Lavinia. (more and more desperately) I want to get married right away,
Peter! I’m afraid! Would you marry me now— this evening? We can
find a minister to do it. I can change my clothes in a second and put
on the color you like! Marry me today, Peter! I’m afraid to wait.
Peter, (bewildered and a bit shocked) But — you don’t mean that, do you?
We couldn’t. It wouldn’t look right the day Orin — out of respect for
him. (Then suspicious in spite of himself) I can’t see why you’re so
afraid of waiting. Nothing can happen, can it? Was there anything in
what Orin wrote that would stop us from —
Lavinia, (with a wild beaten laugh). The dead coming between! They
always would, Peter! You trust me with your happiness! But that means,
trusting the Mannon dead — and they’re not to be trusted with love!
I know them too well! And I couldn’t bear to watch your eyes grow
bitter and hidden from me and wounded in their trust of life! I love
you too much!
Peter, (made more uneasy and suspicious by this) What are you talking
about, Vinnie? You make me think there was something —
Lavinia, (desperately) No — nothing! (Then suddenly throwing her arms
around him) No! Don’t think of that— not yet! I want a little while
of happiness — in spite of all the dead! I’ve earned it! I’ve done
enough —! (Growing more desperate — pleading wildly) Listen, Peter!
Why must we wait for marriage? I want a moment of joy — of love —
to make up for what’s coming! I want it now! Can’t you be strong,
Peter? Can’t you be simple and pure? Can’t you forget sin and see that
all love is beautiful? (She kisses him with desperate passion) Kiss me!
Hold me close! Want me! Want me so much you’d murder anyone to have
me! I did that — for you! Take me in this house of the dead and love
me! Our love will drive the dead away! It will shame them back into
death! (At the topmost pitch of desperate, frantic abandonment) Want
me! Take me, Adam! (She is brought back to herself with a start by
this name escaping her— bewilderedly, laughing idiotically) Adam? Why
did I call you Adam? I never even heard that name before — outside
of the Bible! (then suddenly with a hopeless, dead finality) Always the
dead between! It’s no good trying any more!
Peter, (convinced she is hysterical and yet shocked and repelled by her dis
play of passion) Vinnie! You’re talking crazy! You don’t know what
you’re saying! You’re not — like that!
Lavinia, (in a dead voice) I can’t marry you, Pe’ter. You mustn’t ever see me
again. (He stares at her, stunned and stupid). Go home. Make it up with
your mother and Hazel. Marry someone else. Love isn’t permitted to me.
The dead are too strong!
Peter, (his mind in turmoil) Vinnie! You can’t — ! You’ve gone crazy —!
What’s changed you like this? (Then suspiciously) Is it — what Orin
wrote? What was it? I’ve got a right to know, haven’t I?
1. In what way do the stage-directions characterize the true nature of the

two heroes?
2. What is the significance of the past in the present state of the characters?
3. What is the dramatic turning point in Lavinia’s attitude towards Peter?
Does she justify her change to him?
4. What is the function of the ambiguity resulted from what the heroes ac
tually say and what they try to hide from each other?
5. Can you point out the main elements that give a peculiar tension to the
scene?
Identifying and Summing up the Main
Ideas in a Literary Text
Read to excerpts below attentively and, by following the hints they are
accompanied with, identify, sum up and write down the main ideas in each of
them.
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
From Timon of Athens (Act IV, Scene II, 30—44)

1
(On parting with his fellow-servants after Timon, now ruined, has left
Athens in disgust, Flavius, his faithful steward, is meditating upon his master's
unhappy fate.)
“0! the fierce wretchedness that glory brings us.
Who would not wish to be from wealth exempt,
Since riches point to misery and contempt?
Who would be so mock’d with glory? or so live,
But in a dream of friendship?
To have his pomp and all what state compounds
But only painted, like the varnish’d friends?
Poor honest lord! brought low by his own heart,
Undone by goodness. Strange, unusual blood,
When man’s worst sin is he does too much good!
Who then dares to be half so kind again?
For bounty, that makes gods, does still mar men.
My dearest lord, bless’d, to be most accurs’d,
Rich, only to be wretched, thy great fortunes
Are made thy chief afflictions,”
1. Shakespeare delights in antithesis and paradox. Flavius’s speech con
tains a number of antitheses in the form of statements and questions. They
make up a broader paradox. Identify them one by one, explain them, and
then define the general paradox.
2. The disparity between appearance and reality lies at the bottom of a good
many dramatic situations in Shakespeare’s plays. It is also dealt with in
this excerpt. Point it out in the text and state what it refers to.
3. Qualify the conditions to which Flavius’s reflections apply in the context
of the play as well as in human life in general.
4. On the basis of these elements, state the main idea in the excerpt.
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
Sonnet LXVI
“Tir’d with all these for restful death I cry,—

As, to behold desert a beggar born,
And needy nothing trimm’d in jollity,
And purest faith unhappily forsworn,
And gilded honour shamefully misplac’d,
And maiden virtue rudely strumpeted,
And right perfection wrongfully disgrac’d,
And strength by limping sway disabled,
And art made tongue-tied by authority,
And folly — doctor-like — controlling skill,
And simple truth miscall’d simplicity,
And captive good attending captain ill:
Tir’d with all these, from these would I be gone,
Save that, to die, I leave my love alone.”
1. Identify the two elements of the conflict in the poet’s soul as expressed
in the sonnet.
2. Examine the reasons why he wishes to die and classify the injustices
that poison his life according to their nature (whether they are social
circumstances or general human vices).
3. Point out what he, by implication, values in life.
4. Analyse the motive that prevents him from leaving this world and its
evils as they are listed in the first twelve lines of the sonnet.
5. On the basis of these elements, state the main idea in the sonnet.
DANIEL DEFOE
From Robinson Crusoe
(At the beginning of his fifth year of solitary life on the island, Robinson
Crusoe, on assessing his condition, found that he was possessed of wealth far in
excess of his limited needs,)
“In the first place, I was remov’d from all the wickedness of the world
here... I had nothing to covet; for I had all that I was now capable of
enjoying; I was lord of the whole manor; or if pleas’d, I might call my
self king or emperor over the whole country which I had possession of.
There were no rivals; I had no competitor, none to dispute sovereignty
or command with me. I might have rais’d ship loadings of corn; but I had
no use for it; so I let as little grow as I thought enough for my occasion.
I had tortoise and turtles enough; but now and then one was as much as
I could put to any use. I had timber enough to have built a fleet of ships.
I had grapes enough to have made wine, or to have cur’d into raisins,
to have loaded that fleet when they had been built.
But all I could make use of was all that was valuable. I had enough
to eat and to supply my wants, and what was all the rest to me? If I
kill’d more flesh than I could eat, the dog must eat it, or the vermin. If
I sow’d more corn than I could eat, it must be spoil’d. The trees that I
cut down were lying to rot on the ground. I could make no more use of
them than for fuel; and that I had no occasion for, but to dress my food.
In a word, the nature and experience of things dictated to me upon
just reflection, that all the good things of this world are no farther good
to us than they are for our use; and that whatever we may heap up indeed
to give others, we enjoy just as much as we can use and no more. The
most covetous griping miser in the world would have been cur’d of the
vice of covetousness, if he had been in my case; for I possess’d infinitely
more than I knew what to do with.”
1. Define Robinson’s feeling on taking stock of his possessions and explain
it.
2. See how it contrasts with the limited extent to which he can actually
enjoy them and state the reason why this is so.
3. Defoe defines the value of things in terms of political economy.
What are these terms?
4. The moral implicit in the conclusion Robinson arrives at has satirical
force. Define it.
5. On the basis of these elements, state the main idea in the excerpt.
HENRY FIELDING
From The History of Tom Jones (Book VII, Ch. 2)

(Soon after the painful interview which he had had with Mr. Allworthy, Tom
Jones received a letter from Blifil confirming his benefactor's determination that
he should leave the house as soon as possible.)
“Many contending passions were raised in our hero’s mind by this letter;
but the tender prevailed at last over the indignant and irascible, and a flood
of tears came seasonably to his assistance and possibly prevented his
misfortune from either turning his head, or bursting his heart.
He grew, however, soon ashamed of indulging this remedy; and starting
up, cried, “Well then, I will give Mr. Allworty the only instance he requires
of my obedience. I will go this moment — but whither? — why let Fortune
direct; since there is no other who thinks it of any consequence what becomes
of this wretched person, it shall be a matter of equal indifference to myself.
Shall I alone regard what no other? — Ha! have I no reason to think there
is another? — One whose value is above that of the whole world! — I may,
I must imagine my Sophia is not indifferent to what becomes of me. Shall I
then leave this only friend — and such a friend? Shall I not stay with her? —
Where? How can I stay with her? Have I any hopes of even seeing her, tho’
she was as desirous as myself, without exposing her to the wrath of her father?
And to what purpose? Can I think of soliciting such a creature to consent
to her ruin? Shall I indulge any passion of mine at such a price? — Shall I
lurk about this country like a thief? with such intentions? — No, I disdain,
I detest the thought. Farewell Sophia; farewell most lovely, most beloved —”
Here passion stopt his mouth, and found a vent at his eyes.
And now, having taken a resolution to leave the country, he began to
debate with himself whither he should go.”
1. Define Tom’s feelings towards Mr. Allworthy and the implications of the
word “obedience”.
2. Point to the hero’s vacillations between leaving and staying on.
3. Examine the generous motives that eventually prompt him to leave.
4. Think of the light this throws on his character.
5. Identify the main idea in the excerpt.
WILLIAM WORDSWORTH
The Solitary Reaper
Behold her, single in the field,

Yon solitary Highland Lass!
Reaping and singing by herself;
Stop here, or gently pass!
Alone she cuts and binds the grain,
And sings a melancholy strain;
0 listen I for the Vale profound
Is overflowing with the sound.
No Nightingale did ever chaunt
More welcome notes to weary bands
Of travellers in some shady haunt,
Among Arabian sands;
A voice so thrilling ne’er was heard
In spring-time from the Cuckoo-bird,
Breaking the silence of the seas
Among the farthest Hebrides.
Will no one tell me what she sings?
Perhaps the plaintive numbers flow
For old, unhappy, far-off things,
And battles long ago:
Or is it some more humble lay,
Familiar matter of to-day?
Some natural sorrow, loss, or pain,
That has been, and may be again?
Whatever the theme, the Maiden sang
As if her song could have no ending;
I saw her singing at her work,
And o’er the sickle bending; —
I listened, motionless and still;
And, as I mounted up the hill,
The music in my heart I bore,
Long after it was heard no more.
1. We are told very little about the solitary reaper. Try to identify the
elements that are mentioned about her.
2. Identify the comparisons the poet draws in connection with the reaper’s
song.
3. Identify the elements that make the scene both commonplace and myste
rious, incomprehensible.
4. Comment upon the impact of the reaper’s song on the listener.
5. On the basis of these elements, state the main idea in the poem.
WALTER SCOTT
From Ivanhoe
(While Ivanhoe lies wounded in a tower of Front-de Boeufs castle, where
Cedric, Athelstane, Rowena, Isaac of York, and his daughter are also pris
oners, Rebecca is relating to him from a window the progress of the battle
fought, under the guidance of the Black Knight (Richard the Lion-Heart him
self) by Locksley's outlaws who have come to their rescue and have already
won a partial victory owing largely to the knight's valour.)
“ 'Rebecca,’ said Ivanhoe, ‘Thou hast painted a hero; surely they rest
but to refresh their force, or to provide the means of crossing the moat.
Under such a leader as thou hast spoken this knight to be, there are no
craven fears, no cold-blooded delays, no yielding up a gallant emprise;
since the difficulties which render it arduous render it also glorious. I
swear by the honour of my house — I vow by the name of my bright
lady-love, I would endure ten years’ captivity to fight one day by that good
knight’s side in such a quarrel as this.’
'Alas,’ said Rebecca, leaving her station at the window, and approaching
the couch of the wounded knight, 'this impatient yearning after action —
this struggling with and repining at your present weakness, will not fail
to injure your returning health. — How wouldst thou hope to inflict wounds
on others, ere that be healed which thou thyself hast received?’
'Rebecca,’ he replied, 'thou knowest not how impossible it is for one
trained to actions of chivalry to remain passive as a priest, or a woman,
when they are acting deeds of honour around him. The love of battle is
the food upon which we live — the dust of the melee is the breath of
our nostrils! We live not — we wish not to live — longer than we are vic
torious and renowned. Such, maiden, are the laws of chivalry to which
we are sworn, and to which we offer all that we hold dear.’
'Alas!... What remains to you as the prize of all the blood you have
spilled — of all the travail and pain you have endured — of all the tears
which your deeds have caused, when death hath broken the strong man’s
spear, and overtaken the speed of his war-horse?’
‘What remains?’ cried Ivanhoe; ‘Glory, maiden, glory! which gilds our
sepulchre and embalms our name.v;
1. Define Ivanhoe’s view of chivalry and of its attractions to men of an adven
turous bend like him.
2. Examine, in the light of Rebecca’s remark, the reverse of the coin —
the perils attending such a life and the meaninglessnesss, from her point of
view, of an endeavour after glory at the price of such arduous toil and of
bloodshed.
3. Consider everything the men who embraced the ideals of chivalry had
to sacrifice in pursuit of them.
4. State the main idea in the excerpt.
WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY
From Vanity Fair
“You’ll go in and say good-bye to Miss Pinkerton, Becky!” said Miss

Jemima to a young lady of whom nobody took any notice, and who was
coming downstairs with her own bandbox.
“I suppose I must,” said Miss Sharp calmly, and much to the wonder
of Miss Jemima; and the latter having knocked at the door, and receiving
permission to come in, Miss Sharp advanced in a very unconcerned manner,
and said in French, and with a perfect accent, “Mademoiselle, je viens vous
faire mes adieux.”
Miss Pinkerton did not understand French; she only directed those who
did; but biting her lips and throwing up her venerable and Roman-nosed
head (on the top of which figured a large and solemn turban), she said,
“Miss Sharp, I wish you a good morning.” As the Hammersmith Semiramis
spoke, she waved one hand, both by way of adieu, and to give Miss Sharp
an opportunity of shaking one of the fingers of the hand which was left out
for that purpose.
Miss Sharp only folded her own hands with a very frigid smile and
bow, and quite declined to accept the proffered honour; on which Semi
ramis tossed up her turban more indignantly than ever. In fact, it was a
little battle between the young lady and the old one, and the latter was
worsted. “Heaven bless you, my child,” said she, embracing Amelia, and
scowling the while over the girl’s shoulder at Miss Sharp. “Come away,
Becky”, said Miss Jemima, pulling the young woman away in great alarm,
and the drawing-room door closed upon them for ever.
Then came the struggle and parting below. Words refuse to tell it. All the
servants were there in the hall — all the dear friends — all the young la
dies — the dancing-master who had just arrived; and there was such a scuf
fling and hugging, and kissing, and crying, with the hysterical yoops of
Miss Swartz, the parlour-boarder, from her room, as no pen can depict,
and as the tender heart would fain pass over. The embracing was over; they
parted — that is Miss Sedley parted from her friends. Miss Sharp had de
murely entered the carriage some minutes before. Nobody cried for leaving
her.
Sambo of the bandy-legs slammed the carriage-door on his young weep
ing mistress. He sprang up behind the carriage. “Stop!” cried Miss Jemima,
rushing to the gate with a parcel.
“It’s some sandwiches, my dear,” said she to Amelia. “You may be hungry,
you know; and Becky, Becky Sharp, here’s a book for you that my sister
— that is, I — Johnson’s Dixonary, you know; you mustn’t leave us with
out that. Good bye. Drive on coachman. God bless you!”
And the kind creature retreated into the garden, overcome with emotion.
But lo! and just as the coach drove off, Miss Sharp put her pale face out
of the window and actually flung the book back into the garden.
This almost caused Jemima to faint with terror. “Well, I never,” — said
she — “what an audacious” — Emotion prevented her from completing
either sentence. The carriage rolled away; the great gates were closed; the
bell rang for the dancing lesson. The world is before the two young ladies;
and so, farewell to Chiswick Mall.
1. Examine the two opposite ways in which the people in the ACADEMY
FOR YOUNG LADIES take their leave from Becky Sharp and Amelia
Sedley.
2. Refer in detail to Becky’s attitude when she takes her leave from Miss
Pinkerton.
3. Comment upon the significance of Becky’s throwing away Miss Jemima’s
gift
4. Comment upon the way Rebecca chooses in order to make her way in
the society which had been denied her because of the circumstances of her
birth.
5. State the main idea in the fragment.
GEORGE BERNARD SHAW
From Caesar and Cleopatra (Act I)
(Caesar has stopped opposite the left flank of the Sphinx to admire the beauty
of the night and to think of the fate that has brought him to Egypt. He is
unaware of Cleopatra's lying asleep on a heap of red poppies between the great
paws of the Sphinx and speaks to himself aloud.)
The Girl, (who has wakened, and peeped cautiously from her nest to see who
is speaking) Old gentleman.
Caesar, (starting violently, and clutching his sword) Immortal gods!
The Girl. Old gentleman: don’t run away.
Caesar, (stupefied) “Old gentleman: don’t run away”!!! This! to Julius
Caesar!
The Girl, (urgently) Old gentleman.
Caesar. Sphinx: you presume on your centuries. I am younger than you,
thou your voice is but a girl’s voice as yet.
The Girl. Climb up here, quickly; or the Romans will come and eat you.
Caesar, (running forwards past the Sphinx's shoulder, and seeing her) A child
at its breast! a divine child!
The Girl. Come up quickly. You must get up at its side and creep round.
Caesar (amazed) Who are you?
The Girl. Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt.
Caesar. Queen of the Gypsies, you mean.
Cleopatra. You must not be disrespectful to me, or the Sphinx will let
the Romans eat you. Come up. It is quite cosy here.
Caesar (to himself) What a dream! What a magnificent dream! Only let me
not wake, and will conquer ten continents to pay for dreaming it out to
the end. (He climbs to the Sphinx's flank, and presently reappears to her
on the pedestal, stepping round its right shoulder).
Cleopatra. Take care. That’s right. Now sit down: you may have its other
paw. (She seats herself comfortably on its left paw). It is very powerful
and will protect us; but (shivering, and with plaintive loneliness) it would
not take any notice of me or keep me company. I am glad you have
come: I was very lonely. Did you happen to see a white cat anywhere ?
Caesar (sitting slowly down on the right paw in extreme wonderment) Have you
lost one?
Cleopatra. Yes: the sacred white cat: is it not dreadful? I brought him here to
sacrifice him to the Sphinx; but when we got a little way from the city a
black cat called him, and he jumped out of my arms and ran away to
it. Do you think that the black cat can have been my great-great-great
grandmother?
Caesar (staring at her) Your great-great-great-grandmother! Well, why not?
Nothing would surprise me on this night of nights.”
1. Describe Caesar’s reaction on hearing himself all of a sudden addressed
to as an old gentleman by a girl’s voice and his thoughts on discovering
Cleopatra between the paws of the Sphinx.
2. Define the tone in which they speak to each other, and its implications.
3. Explain why Caesar would not be surprised if what Cleopatra tells him were
true.
4. Sum up these elements and state the main idea in the excerpt.
OHN GALSWORTHY
From The Man oî Property (Ch. VIII)
(Bosinney, the architect, shows Soames Forsyte the plans of the house the
latter wants him to build).
“The principle of the house,” said the architect, “was that you should
have room to breathe — like a gentleman!”
Soames extended his finger and thumb, as if measuring the extent
of the distinction he should acquire, and replied:
“Oh! yes; I see.”
The peculiar look came into Bosinney’s face which marked all his enthu
siasms.
“I’ve tried to plan a house here with some self-respect of its own. If you
don’t like it you’d better say so... In architecture”, he went on — and though
looking at Soames he did not seem to see him, which gave Soames an un
pleasant feeling — "as in life, you’ll get no self-respect without regularity.
Fellows tell you that’s old-fashioned. It appears to be peculiar, anyway:
it never occurs to us to embody the main principle of our life in our buil
dings; we load our houses with decoration, gimcracks, corners, anything
to distract the eye. On the contrary, the eye should rest; get your effects with
a few strong lines. The whole thing is regularity — there’s no self-re
spect without it.”
Soames, the unconscious ironist, fixed his gaze on Bosinney’s tie, which
was far from being in the perpendicular; he was unshaven too, and his
dress not remarkable for order. Architecture appeared to have exhausted his
regularity.
‘‘Won’t it look like a barrack?” he inquired.
He did not at once receive a reply.
“I can see what it is,” said Bosinney, “you want one of Littlemaster’s
houses — one of the pretty and commodious sort, where the servants will
live in garrets, and the front door be sunk so that you may come up again.
By all means try Littlemaster, you’ll find him a capital fellow, I’ve known
him all my life!”
Soames was alarmed. He had really been struck by the plans, and the
concealment of his satisfaction had been merely instinctive. It was dif
ficult for him to pay a compliment. He despised people who were lavish
with their praises...
“ It’s — a big place,” he said.
“Space, air, light,” he heard Bosinney murmur, “you can’t live like a
entleman in one of Littlemaster’s — he builds for manufacturers.”
g Soames made a deprecating movement; he had been identified with a
gentleman; not for a good deal of money now would he be classed with
manufacturers.
1. Define the way in which Bosinney had thought to make the house expres
sive of Soames’s position in life.
2. Point out the discrepancy between his view of regularity in architecture
and his outer appearance.
3. State the reason for Soames’s alarm and what he actually thinks of the
plans.
4. Discover what, in Bosinney’s last statement, tipped the balance in his
favour and prevented Soames from shrinking any longer.
5. Identify and state the main idea in the excerpt.
MARK TWAIN
From The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Ch. Ill)
(Huck, Tom and their “gang” had been harmlessly playing robbers for some
time with pieces of lath and broomsticks by way of weapons, when Tom, the
Captain, decided that they should make a really great attempt.)
“One time Tom sent a boy to run about town with a blazing stick, which
he called a slogan (which was the sign for the Gang to get together), and
then he said he had got secret news by his spies that next day a whole par
cel of Spanish merchants and rich A-rabs was going to camp in Cave Hollow
with two hundred elephants, and six hundred camels, and over a thousand...
mules, all loaded down with di’monds, and they didn’t have only a guard
of four hundred soldiers, and so we would lay in ambuscade, as he called
it, and kill the lot and scoop the things. He said we must slick up our swords and
guns and get ready. He never could go after even a turnip-cart but he must
have the swords and guns all scoured up for it, though they was only
lath and broomsticks, and you might scour at them till you rotted, and
then they warn’t worth a mouthfull of ashes more than what they was before. I
didn’t believe we could lick such a crowd of Spaniards and A-rabs, but I wanted
to see the camels and elephants so I was on hand next day, Saturday,
in the ambuscade; and when we got the word we rushed out of the woods
and down the hill. But there warn’t no Spaniards and A-rabs, and there
warn’t no camels nor no elephants. It wern’t anything but a Sunday-school
picnic, and only a primer class at that. We busted it up, and chased the
children up the hollow; but we never got anything but some doughnuts
and jam, though Ben Rogers got a rag doll, and Joe Harper got a hymn-
book and a tract; and then the teacher charged in, and made us drop every
thing and cut. I didn’t see no di’monds, and I told Tom Sawyer so. He said
there was loads of them there, anyway; and he said there was A-rabs there,
too, and elephants and things. I said why couldn’t we see them, then?
He said if I warn’t so ignorant, but had read a book called Don Quixote,
I would know without asking. He said it was all done by enchantment. He
said there was hundreds of soldiers ther, and elephants and treasure, and
so on, but we had enemies which he called magicians, and they had turned
the whole thing into an infant Sunday-school, just out of spite.”
1. Define the improbability in the “secret news” which Tom claimed to

have got.
2. Explain why Huck did not question the truth of the news.
3. Point out the relation of Don Quixote to the episode.
4. Analyse the difference between the ordinary conventions of a children’s
game and this particular scene.
5. Identify and state the main idea in the excerpt.
ERNEST HEMINGWAY
From The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber
It was now lunch time and they were all sitting under double green fly
of the dining tent pretending that nothing had happened.
“Will you have lime juice or lemon squash?” Macomber asked.
“I’ll have a gimlet,” Robert Wilson told him.
“I’ll have a gimlet too. I need something,” Macomber’s wife said.
“I suppose it’s the thing to do,” Macomber agreed. “Tell him to make
three gimlets.”
The mess boy had started them already, lifting the bottles out of the canvas
cooling bags that sweated wet in the wind that blew through the trees that
shaded the tents.
“What had I ought to give them?" Macomber asked.
“A quid would be plenty," Wilson told him. “You don’t want to spoil
them."
“Will the headman distribute it?"
“Absolutely."
Francis Macomber, had, half an hour before, been carried to his tent from
the edge of the camp in triumph on the arms and shoulders of the cook,
the personal boys, the skinner and the porters. The gun-bearers had taken
no part in the demonstration. When the native boys put him down at the
door of his tent, he had shaken all their hands, received their congratula
tions, and then gone into the tent and sat on the bed until his wife came in.
She did not speak to him when she came in and he left the tent at once
to wash his face and hands in the portable wash-basin outside and go over
to the dining tent to sit in a comfortable canvas chair in the breeze and
the shade.
“You’ve got your lion," Robert Wilson said to him, “and a damned
fine one too."
Mrs. Macomber looked at Wilson quickly. She was an extremely handsome
and wellkept woman of the beauty and social position which had, five years
before, commanded five thousand dollars as the price of endorsing, with
photographs, a beauty product which she has never used. She had been
married to Francis Macomber for eleven years.
“He is a good lion isn’t he?" Macomber said. His wife looked at him
now. She looked at both these men as though she had never seen them
before.
One, Wilson, the white hunter, she knew she had never truly seen before.
He was about middle height, with sandy hair, a stubby mustache, a very
red face and extremely cold blue eyes with faint white wrinkles at the cor
ners that grooved merrily when he smiled. He smiled at her now and she
looked away from his face at the way his shoulders sloped in the loose tunic
he wore with the four big cartridges held in loops where the left breast
pocket should have been, at his big brown hands, his old slacks, his very
dirty boots and back to his red face again. She noticed where the baked
red of his face stopped in a white line that marked the circle left by his
Stetson hat that hung now from one of the pegs of the tent pole.
“Well, here’s to the lion", Robert Wilson said. He smiled at her again
and, not smiling, she looked curiously at her husband.
Francis Macomber was very tall, very well built if you did not mind that
length of bone, dark, his hair cropped like an oarsman, rather thin-lipped,
and was considered handsome. He was dressed in the same sort of safari
clothes that Wilson wore except that his were new, he was thirty five years
old, kept himself very fit, was good at court games, had a number of big
game fishing records, and had just shown himself, very publicly, to be a
coward.
“Here’s to the lion", he said. “I can’t ever thank you for what you did."
Margaret, his wife, looked away from him and back to Wilson.
“Let’s not talk about the lion," she said.
Wilson looked over at her without smiling and now she smiled at him.
“It’s been a very strange day/’ she said. “Hadn’t you ought to put your
hat on even under the canvas at noon? You told me that, you know.”
“Might put it on,” said Wilson.
“You know you have a very red face, Mr. Wilson,” she told him and
smiled again.
“Drink,” said Wilson.
“I don’t think so,” she said. “Francis drinks a great deal, but his face
is never red.”
“It’s red today,” Macomber tried a joke.
“No,” said Margaret. “It’s mine that’s red today. But Mr. Wilson’s is
-always red.”
“Must be racial”, said Wilson. “I say, you wouldn’t like to drop my
beauty as a topic, would you?”
“I’ve just started on it.”
“Let’s chuck it,” said Wilson.
“Conversation is going to be so difficult,” Margaret said.
“Don’t be silly, Margot,” her husband said.
“No difficulty,” Wilson said. “Got a damn fine lion.”
Margot looked at them both and they both saw that she was going to cry,
Wilson had seen it coming for a long time and he dreaded it. Macomber
was past dreading it.
“I whish it hadn’t happened. Oh, I wish it hadn’t happened,” she said
and started for her tent. She made no noise crying but they could see that
her shoulders were shaking under the rose-coloured, sun-proofed shirt she
wore. “Women upset,” said Wilson to the tall man. “Amounts to nothing.
Strain on the nerves and one thing’n another.”
“No,” said Macomber. “I suppose that I rate that for the rest of my
life now”.
1. Identify the two different sets of elements that contribute to rendering
Macomber’s “triumph” ironical.
2. Notice Hemingway’s careful use of colours to suggest states of mind and
characteristic traits of the personages in this short-story.
3. Point out the importance of the lion and what it stands for in relation
to Francis Macomber.
4. Notice the deeper significance of Macomber’s physical defeat.
5. On the basis of these elements, state the main idea in the fragment.
Defining Attitude, Feeling, and Modality
After reading each excerpt carefully, follow up the clues accompanying

it and define:
A. The character’s, or characters’, attitudes and feelings.
B. The modality (detached, sympathetic, serious, humorous, comic,
critical, ironic, sarcastic, ambiguous, etc.) adopted by the author in portraying
the character(s), relating the incident(s), and depicting the scene(s), as well
as the means by which this modality is conveyed.
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
From The Canterbury Tales (The Miller's Tale)
‘Now listen, said the Miller, all and some,

To what I have to say. But first I’m bound
To say I’m drunk, I know it by my sound.
And if the words get muddled in my tale
Just put it down to too much Southwark ale.
I mean to tell a legend and a life
Of and old carpenter and of his wife,
And how a student came and set his cap...’
The Reeve looked up and shouted, Shut your trap!
Give over with your drunken harlotry.
It is a sin and foolishness, said he,
To slander any man or bring a scandal
On wives in general. Why can’t you handle
Some other tale? There’s other things beside.
To this the drunken Miller then replied,
’My dear old brother Oswald, such is life.
A man’s no cuckold if he has no wife.
For all that, I’m not saying you are one;
There’s many virtuous wives, all said and done,
Ever a thousand good for one that’s bad,
As well you know yourself, unless you’re mad.
What’s biting you? Can’t I tell stories too?
I’ve got a wife, Lord knows, as well as you,
Yet for the oxen in my plough, indeed,
I wouldn’t take it on me, more than need,
To think myself a cuckold, just because
I’m pretty sure I’m not, and never was.
One shouldn’t be too inquisitive in life
Either about God’s secrets or one’s wife.
You’ll find God’s plenty all you could desire
Of the remainder, better not enquire.
What can I add?* The Miller had begun,
He would not hold his peace for anyone,
But told his churl’s tale his own way, I fear.
And I regret I must repeat it here,
And so I beg of all who are refined
For God’s love not to think me ill-inclined
Or evil in my purpose. I rehearse
Their tales as told, for better or for worse,
For else I should be false to what occurred.
So if this tale had better not be heard,
Just turn the page and choose another sort;
You’ll find them here in plenty, long and short:
Many historical, that will profess
Morality, good breeding, saintliness
Do not blame me if you should choose amiss.
The Miller was a churl, I’ve told you this,
So was the Reeve, and other some as well,
And harlotry was all they had to tell.
Consider then and hold me free of blame;
And why be serious about a game.
1. What does the Miller say about himself and the world?
2. What can you say about the Reeve’s attitude towards the Miller’s intro
ductory speech?
3. What is the narrator’s opinion about the Reeve’s quarrel with the Miller?
4. What is the author’s attitude towards his narrative, towards the speech
of his characters?
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
From Macbeth (Act V, Scene V)
Dunsinane. Within the Castle.

(Enter, with drum and colours, Macbeth, Seyton, and Soldiers.)
Macbeth. Hang out our banners on the outward walls;
The cry is still, They come: our castle’s strength
Will laugh a siege to scorn*, here let them lie
Till famine and the ague eat them up:
Were they not forc’d with those that should be ours,
We might have met them dareful, beard to beard,
And beat them backward home.
(A cry of women within,)
What is that noise?
Seyton: It is the cry of women, my good lord.
(Exit,)
Macbeth: I have almost forgot the taste of fears:
The time has been, my senses would have cool’d
To hear a night-shriek; and my fell of hair
Would at a dismal treatise rouse and stir
As life were in ’t; I have supp’d full with horrors;
Direness, familiar to my slaught’rous thoughts,
Cannot once start me.
(Re-enter Seyton)
Wherefore was that cry?
Seyton: The queen, my lord, is dead.
Macbeth: She should have died hereafter;
There would have been a time for such a word. —
To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow,
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day,
To the last syllable of recorded time;
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle!
Life’s but a walking shadow; a poor player.
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
And then is heard no more: it is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.
(Enter a Messenger,)
Thou com’st to use thy tongue: thy story quickly.
Messenger: As I did stand my watch upon the hill,
I look’d toward Birnam, and anon, methought,
The wood began to move.
Macbeth: Liar, and slave!
(Striking him.)
Messenger: Let me endure your wrath, if’t be not so.
Within this three mile may you see it coming;
I say, a moving grove.
Macbeth: If thou speak’st false,
Upon the next tree shalt thou hang alive,
Till famine cling thee: if thy speech be sooth,
I care not if thou dost for me as much.
I pull in resolution; and begin
To doubt the equivocation of the fiend
That lies like truth: Fear not, till Birnam wood
Do come to Dunsinane; — and now a wood
Comes toward Dunsinane. — Arm, arm, and out! —
If this which he avouches does appear,
There is nor flying hence nor tarrying here.
I’gin to be a-weary of the sun,
And wish the estate o’ the world were now undone. —
Ring the alarum-bell! — Blow, wind! come, wrack!
At least we’ll die with harness on our back.
(Exeunt.)
1. Define Macbeth’s attitude and feelings towards the battle and his own
position in this respect. What sort of soldier is he?
2. What is Macbeth’s reaction at the “cry of women”? Is he afraid or
not? What does he think of fear?
3. Define Macbeth’s philosophy of life in the famous monologue “To-morrow,
and to-morrow, and tomorrow. . .” (10 lines).
4. Now try and sum up Macbeth’s personality taking into account these
three instances.
5. Do these attitudes, views and feelings about fear, courage, life, death
point towards a consistent or a contradictory personality?
6. Account for your answer to question 5 pointing out why and how Shake
speare made of his character a linear and consistent personality or a
complex and contradictory one. In so doing what is Shakespeare’s atti
tude towards Macbeth?
CHARLES DICKENS
From Dombey and Son (Ch. 2)
“My good woman”, said Mr. Dombay turning round in his easy chair,
as one piece, and not as a man with limbs and joints, I understand you
are poor, and wish to earn money by nursing the little boy, my son, who
has been so prematurely deprived of what can never be replaced. I have
no objection to your adding to the comforts of your family by that means.
So far as I can tell, you seem to be a deserving object. But I must impose
one or two conditions on you before you enter my house in that capacity.
While you are here I must stipulate that you are always known as — say
as Richards — an ordinary name, and convenient. Have you any objection
to be known as Richards? You had better consult your husband.”
As the husband did nothing but chuckle and grin, and continually draw
his right hand across his mouth, moistening the poem, Mrs. Toodle, after
nudging him twice or thrice in vain, dropped a curtsy and replied “that
perhaps if she was to be called out of her name, it would be considered
in the wages.”
“Oh, of course,” said Mr. Dombey. “I desire to make it a question of wages,
altogether. Now, Richards, if you nurse my bereaved child, I wish you to
remember this always. You will receive a liberal stipend in return for the
discharge of certain duties, in the performance of which I wish you to see
as little of your family as possible. When these duties cease to be required
and rendered, and the stipend ceases to be paid, there is an end of all
relations between us. Do you understand me?”
Mrs. Toodle seemed doubtful about it; and as to Toodle himself, he had
evidently no doubt whatever that he was all abroad.
“You have children of your own”, said Mr. Dombey. It is not at all in
this bargain that you need become attached to my child, or that my child
need become attached to you. I don’t expect or desire anything of the
kind. Quite the reverse. When you go away from here, you will have con
cluded what is a mere matter of bargain and sale, hiring and letting; and
will stay away. The child will cease to remember you; and you will cease,
if you please, to remember the child”.
Mr. Toodle, with a little more colour in her cheeks than she had had
before, said “she hoped she knew her place.”
1. Define Dombey’s attitude towards Mrs. Toodle and point out the words
that convey it.
2. What are the implications of Dombey’s changing the woman’s name into
Richards, “an ordinary and convenient name”, for the time he is to em
ploy her?
3. Does Dombey’s attitude towards Mrs. Toodle illustrate a more general
outlook on life?
4. Comment on Dombey’s attitude towards feeling and affection.
5. Define Mrs. Toodle’s attitude to her employer and the outlook on life
Dombey stands for, pointing out the passages that express it.
6. Analyse the author’s attitude towards Dombey and single out the de
scription that conveys it.
7. Speak about the modality in which the author presents Toodles. What
comic means does Dickens use to this purpose?
From Vanity Fair (Ch. LXVII)
“It was time you sent for me, dear Amelia,” he said.
“You will never go again, William.”
“No, never,” he answered: and pressed the dear little soul once more
to his heart.
As they issued out of the Custom-house precinets, Georgy broke out
on them, with his telescope up to his eye, and a loud laugh of welcome;
he danced round the couple, and performed many facetious antics as he led
them up to the house. Jos wasn’t up yet; Becky not visible (though she looked
at them through the blinds). Georgy, ran off to see about breakfast. Emmy,
whose shawl and bonnet were off in the passage in the hands of Mrs. Payne,
now went to undo the clasp of William’s cloak, and — we will, if you please,
go with George and look after breakfast for the colonel. The vessel is in
port. He has got the prize he has been trying for all his life. The bird has
come in at last. There it is with its head on his shoulder, billing and cooing
close up to his heart, with soft outstretched fluttering wings. This is what
he has asked for every day and hour for eighteen years. This is what be
pined after. Here it is — the summit, the end — the last page of the third
volume. Good-bye, colonel — God bless you. honest William! — Farewell
dear Amelia — Grow green again, tender little parasite, round the rugged
old oak to which you cling!
1. Define Dobbin’s attitude towards Amelia. Point out the ironic effect
of the phrase “the dear little soul”, a probable quotation by the author
of the words Dobbin would use for his beloved.
2. Speak about Georgy’s attitude and feelings toward the couple.
3. Discuss the feeling implied by Becky’s attitude.
4. What modality is reflected by the narrator’s sudden withdrawal, allegedly
to accompany the little boy?
5. Define the modality conveyed by the author’s commentary.
6. Comment on the possible readings of the metaphorical expressions: “The
vessel is in port”, “The bird has come in at last...” and “Grow green
again, tender little parasite, round the rugged old oak to which you cling.”
7. Dwell upon the irony implicit in calling “a rugged old oak” a character
that goes by the name of Dobbin which is a pet name for a farm horse.
8. What is Thackeray’s attitude towards the literary convention of the
time, the so-called Victorian “three-decker”?
OSCAR WILDE
From The Happy Prince
“Dear little Swallow”, said the Prince, “you tell me of marvellous things,
but more marvellous than anything is the suffering of men and of women.
There is no Mystery so great as Misery. Fly over my city, little Swallow,
and tell me what you see there.”
So the Swallow flew over the great city, and saw the rich making merry
in their beautiful houses, while the beggars were sitting at the gates. He
flew into dark lanes, and saw the white faces of starving children looking
listlessly at the black streets. Under the archway of a bridge two little boys
were lying in one another’s arms to try and keep themselves warm. “How
hungry we are!” they said. “You must not lie here”, shouted the watchman,
and they wandered out into the rain.
Then he flew back and told the Prince what he had seen.
“I am covered with fine gold”, said the Prince, “you must take it off
leaf by leaf, and give it to my poor; the living always think that gold
can make them happy.”
Leaf after leaf of the fine gold the Swallow picked off, till the Happy
Prince looked quite dull and grey. Leaf after leaf of the fine gold he brought
to the poor, and the children’s faces grew rosier, and they laughed and
played games in the street. “We have bread now!” they cried.
Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets
looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening;
long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses,
everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated
on the ice.
The poor little Swallow grew colder and colder, but he would not leave
the Prince, he loved him too well. He picked up crumbs outside the baker’s
door when the baker was not looking, and tried to keep himself warm by
flapping his wings.
But at last he knew that he was going to die. He had just enough strength
to fly up to the Prince’s shoulder once more. “Good-bye, dear Prince!” he
murmured, “will you let me kiss your hand?”
“I am glad that you are going to Egypt at last, little Swallow”, said the
Prince, “you have stayed too long here; but you must kiss me on the lips,
for I love you.”
“It is not to Egypt that I am going”, said the Swallow. “I am going
to the House of Death. Death is the brother of Sleep, is he not?”
And he kissed the Happy Prince on the lips, and fell down dead at
his feet.
At that moment a curious crack sounded inside the statue, as if something
had broken. The fact is that the leaden heart had snapped right in two.
It certainly was a dreadfully hard frost.
1. Define the “happiness” of the Happy Prince.

2. Point out the Swallow’s attitude towards, and feelings about the Prince.
3. Analyse the tone of the Happy Prince’s comments on the “living”.
4. Account for the Prince’s heart breaking the very moment the Swallow
dies.
5. Define Wilde’s attitude towards the Happy Prince and the Swallow as
well as towards the people they help.
6. Point out the realistic elements in the fairy tale context.
7. Explain the effects obtained by Wilde through the image:
„Leaf after leaf of the fine gold the Swallow picked off, till the Happy
Prince looked quite dull and grey. Leaf after leaf of the fine gold he
brought to the poor, and the children’s faces grew rosier”.
8. Single out and characterize the epithets in the excerpt that reveal attitude,
feeling, modality.
HERBERT GEORGE WELLS
From The Invisible Man (Ch. IV)
“Give me something to drink,” said Cuss, and he sat down.

When his nerves had been steadied with a glass of cheap sherry — the
only drink the good vicar had available — he told him of the interview he
had just had.
“Went in,” he gasped, “and began to demand a subscription for that nurse
fund. He’d stuck his hands in his pockets as I came in, and he sat down
lumpily in his chair. Sniffed. I told him I’d heard he took an interest in
scientific things. He said, “Yes”. Sniffed again. Kept on sniffing all the time,
evidently recently caught an infernal cold. No wonder — wrapped up like
that. I developed the nurse idea, and all the while kept my eyes open.
Bottles — chemicals — everywhere. Balance, test tubes, in stands, and a
smell of — evening primrose. Would he subscribe? Said he’d consider it.
Asked him point blank was he researching. Said he was. A long research ?
Got quite cross, a ‘damnable long research’, said he, blowing the cork out
so to speak. ‘Oh?’ said I. And out came the grievance. The man was just
on the boil, and my question boiled him over. He had been given a pre
scription — most valuable prescription — what for he wouldn’t say. Was it
medical? ‘Damn you. What are you finishing after?’ I apologised. Dignified
sniff and cough. He resumed. He’d read it. Five ingredients. Put it down;
turned his head. Draught of air from window lifted the paper. Swish, rustle.
He was working in a room with an open fireplace, he said. Saw a flicker, and
there was the prescription burning and lifting chimneyward. Rushed towards
it just as it whisked up chimney. So! Just at that point to illustrate his
story, out came his arm.”
"Well?”
No hand. Just an empty sleeve. Lord! I thought, IhaVs a deformity! Got
a cork arm, I suppose, and has taken it off. Then, I thought, there’s some
thing odd in that. What the devil keeps that sleeve up and open if there’s
nothing in it? There was nothing in it, I tell you. Nothing down it, right
down to the joint. I could see right down it to the elbow, and there was a
glimmer of light shining through a tear of the cloth. ‘Good God!’ I said.
Then he stopped. Stared at me with those blank, goggled eyes of his, and
then at his sleeve.”
"Well?”
"That’s all. He never said a word, just glared and put his sleeve back in
his pocket quickly. . . .”
1. Account for Cuss’ state of mind at the beginning of his narrative.

2. Point out the stages in Cuss’ story that reflect the general practitioner’s
emotion and his change of attitude towards the stranger. Analyse Cuss’
state of mind at each stage.
3. Define the stranger’s reaction to Cuss’ intrusion and account for it.
4. Analyse the implications of the stranger’s replies during the interview.
5. Select all the elements pertaining to feeling, tone, modality, etc. and show
to what extent they contribute to the dramatic character of the above
scene.
6. Select the word(s) that epitomize the stranger’s attitude towards Cuss.
7. Show to what extent the scene contains hints pointing to Wells’ attitude
towards the characters.
8. Explain the value of the exclamatory, interrogative, elliptical and clipped
sentences in the text above and show how they express feeling, attitude,
modality.
The Wild Swans at Coole
The trees are in their autumn beauty,

The woodland paths are dry,
Under the October twilight the water
Mirrors a still sky;
Upon the brimming water among the stones
Are nine-and-fifty swans.
The nineteenth autumn has come upon me
Since I first made my count;
I saw, before I had well finished,
All suddenly mount
And scatter wheeling in great broken rings
Upon their clamorous wings.
I have looked upon those brilliant creatures,

And now my heart is sore.
All’s changed since I, hearing at twilight,
The first time on this shore,
The bell-beat of their wings above my head,
Trod with a lighter tread.
Unwearied still, lover by lover,

They paddle in the cold
Companionable streams or climb the air;
Their hearts have not grown old;
Passion or conquest, wander where they will,
Attend upon them still.
But now they drift on the still water,

Mysterious, beautiful;
Among what rushes will they build,
By what lake’s edge or pool
Delight men’s eyes when I awake some day
To find they had flown away?
1. Define the link between the poet’s state of mind and the autumn twilight.
2. Point out the poet’s attitude to and feelings about the swans.
3. Analyse the change in tone while the poet describes the swans.
4. Account for the relationship between the proud vitality of the flying
swans and the poet’s melancholy.
5. Define Yeats attitude towards the passage of time and the way he
translates his vision into symbol.
6. Point out the metaphors linking the elements of nature with the
poet’s mood.
7. Explain the effects obtained by Yeats through the image:
“The bell-beat of their wings above my head”
as well as through the final question:
“Among what rushes will they build
By what lake’s edge or pool
Delight men’s eyes when I awake some day
To find they had flown away?”
8. Single out and characterize the metaphors and epithets in the poem
that reveal attitude, modality, feeling.
EDGAR ALLAN POE
From The Gold Bug
“It was about three in the afternoon when we arrived. Legrand had been
awaiting us in eager expectation. He grasped my hand with a nervous em-
pressement which alarmed me and strengthened the suspicions already enter
tained. His countenance was pale even to ghastliness, and his deep-set eyes
glared with unnatural lustre. After some inquiries respecting his health, I
asked him, not knowing what better to say, if he had yet obtained the
scaraboeus from Lieutenant G.
“Oh, yes,” he replied, colouring violently, ”1 got it from him the next
morning. Nothing should tempt me to part with that scaraboeus. Do you
know that Jupiter is quite right about it!”
“In what way?” I asked, with a sad foreboding at heart.
“In supposing it to be a bug of real gold.” He said this with an air
of profound seriousness, and I felt inexpressibly shocked.
“This bug is to make my fortune,” he continued, with a triumphant
smile, “to reinstate me in my family possessions. Is it any wonder, then,
that I prize it? Since Fortune has thought fit to bestow it upon me, I have
only to use it properly and I shall arrive at the gold of which it is the
index. Jupiter, bring me that scaraboeus!”
“What! de bug, massa? I’d rudder not go for trubble dat bug — you
mus git him for your own self.” Hereupon Legrand arose, with a grave
and stately air, and brought me the beetle from a glass case in which it
was enclosed. It vas a beautiful scaraboeus, and, at that time, unknown
to naturalists — of course a great prize in a scientific point of view. There
were two round black spots near one extremity of the back, and a long
one near the other. The scales were exceedingly hard and glossy, with all
the appearance of burnished gold. The weight of the insect was very re
markable, and taking all things into consideration, I could hardly blame
Jupiter for his opinion respecting it; but what to make of Legrand’s concord
ance with that opinion, I could not, for the life of me, tell.
“I sent for you,” said he, in a grandiloquent tone, when I had completed
my examination of the beetle, “I sent for you, that I might have your
counsel and assistance in furthering the views of Fate and of the bug”—
“My dear Legrand,” I cried, interrupting him, “you are certainly unwell,
and had better use some little precautions. You shall go to bed, and I
will remain with you a few days, until you get over this. You are feverish
and — ”
“Feel my pulse,” said he.
I felt it, and, to say the truth, found not the slightest indication of fever.
“But you may be ill and yet have no fever. Allow me this once to prescribe
for you.” In the first place, go to bed. In the next”—
“You are mistaken,” he interposed; “I am as well as I can expect to
be under the excitement which I suffer. If you really wish me well, you
will relieve this excitement.”
“And how is this to be done?”
“Very easily. Jupiter and myself are going upon an expedition into the
hills, upon the main land, and, in this expedition, we shall need the aid
21 — Limba enBlezft pentru adm. In Inv. uuperlor 321
of some person in whom we can confide. You are the only one we can
trust. Whether we succeed or fail, the excitement which you now perceive
in me will be equally allayed.”
1. Define Legrand’s reaction while receiving his friend.
2. Point out the friend’s attitude towards, and feelings about Legrand’s
behaviour.
3. Analyse the tone of Legrand’s replies concerning the scaraboeus.
4. Account for the friend’s and Jupiter’s distrust of Legrand’s suppositions.
5. Define Poe’s attitude towards Legrand and his theory as well as towards
his friend and Jupiter.
6. Point out the fantastic elements in the scene and their source.
7. Explain the effects obtained by Poe through the image:
“His countenance was pale even to ghastliness and his deep-set eyes
glared with unnatural lustre”.
8. Single out and characterize the epithets in the excerpt that reveal atti
tude, feeling, modality.
Analysing Characters and Means
of Delineating Character
The questions accompanying the excerpts refer to the various means by

which the writers have delineated their character or characters. Read the
excerpts attentively and write down the answers to the questions.
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
From The Canterbury Tales
(translation into Modern English by Nevill Coghill)
An Oxford Cleric still a student though,

One who had taken logic long ago,
Was there; his horse was thinner than a rake,
And he was not too fat, I undertake,
But had a hollow look, a sober stare;
The thread upon his overcoat was bare.
He had found no preferment in the church
And he was too unworldly to make search
For secular employment. By his bed
He preferred having twenty books in red
And black, of Aristotle’s philosophy,
To having fine clothes, fiddle or psaltery.
Though a philosopher, as I have told,
He had not found the stone for making gold.
Whatever money from his friends he took
He spent on learning or another book
And prayed for them most earnestly, returning
Thanks to them thus for paying for his learning
His only care was study, and indeed
He never spoke a word more than was need,
Formal at that, respectful in the extreme
Short, to the point, and lofty in his theme.
The thought of moral virtue filled his speech
And he would gladly learn and gladly teach.
21* Mil
Lexical Notes
rake = greblă
I undertake = I understand
preferment = avansare în post
unworldly = concerned with spiritual matters
secular = laic
psaltery = psalterion (vechi instrument muzical de coarde)
1. What was the clerk of Oxford’s main concern? Point out the instances
in which it is repeatedly referred to.
2. What note does his physical appearance and attire strike?
3. What is his main feature that makes him different from the other repre
sentatives of the clergy?
4. What does he value most in life?
5. Detect the various shades in the author’s tone.
6. The clerk tells the tale of the pacient and virtuous Griselda. How does
this story confirm his character as presented in the Prologue?
This Pardoner had hair as yellow as wax,

Hanging down smoothly like a hank of flax.
Thinly they (his locks) fell, like rat-tails, one by one.
He wore no hood upon his head for fun;
The hood inside his wallet had been stowed,
He aimed at riding in the latest mode;
But for a little cap his head was bare
And he had bulging eye-balls, like a hare.
He’d sewed a holy relic on his cap;
His wallet lay before him on his lap,
Brimful of pardons come from Rome all hot.
He had the same small voice a goat has got.
As to his trade, from Berwick down to Ware
There was no pardoner of equal grace,
For in his trunk he had a pillow-case
Which be asserted was Our Lady’s veil.
And, in a glass, a rubble of pig’s bones
And with these relics, any time he found
Some poor up-country parson to astound,
On one short day, in money down, he drew
More than the parson in a month or two.
And by his flatteries and prevarication
Made monkeys of the priest and congregation.
But still to do him justice first and last
In church he was a noble ecclesiast.
How well he read a lesson or told a story!
But best of all he sang an Offertory,
For well he knew that when the song was sung
He’d have to preach and tune his honey-tongue
And (well he could) win silver from the crowd
That’s why he sang so merrily and loud.
Lexical Noles
hank of flax = scul, fuior de in
wallet (arh.) = bag
rubble (here) = bits of broken bones
prevarication = making untrue or partly untrue statements
Offertory = part of mass or communion at which money is usually collected.
1. What is the general impression made by the Pardoner’s appearance?

Point out how the numerous animal similes contribute to conveying it.
2. Compare his clothes with those of the Clerk of Oxford.
3. How did the Pardoner make his “trade” lucrative?
4. What is his main moral feature?
5. Describe the author’s tone when presenting the Pardoner. Point out how
he strives to give the impression of objectivity.
6. Detect the difference between the author’s irony in the presentation of
the Clerk and in that of the Pardoner.
7. The Pardoner tells an exemplum about three young rioters who wanted to
kill Death. What characteristic mentioned in the Prologue portrait does
this story illustrate?
CHARLES DICKENS
From David Copperfield (Ch. IV)
It was Miss Murdstone who was arrived, and a gloomy-looking lady she
was; dark, like her brother, whom she greatly resembled in face and voice;
and with very heavy eyebrows, nearly meeting over her large nose, as if,
being disabled by the wrongs of her sex from wearing whiskers, she had
carried them to that account. She brought with her two uncompromising
hard black boxes, with her initials on the lids in hard brass nails. When she
paid the coachman she took her money out of a hard steel purse, and she
kept the purse in a very jail of a bag which hung upon her arm by a
heavy chain, and shut up like a bite. I had never, at that time, seen such
a metallic lady altogether as Miss Murdstone was.
She was brought into the parlour with many tokens of welcome, and
there formally recognized my mother as a new and near relation. Then she
looked at me, and said:
“Is that your boy, sister-indaw?”
My mother acknowledged me.
“Generally speaking”, said Miss Murdstone, “I don’t like boys. How d’ye
do, boy?”
Under these encouraging circumstances, I replied that I was very well,
and that I hoped she was the same; with such an indifferent grace, that
Miss Murdstone disposed of me, in two words:
“Wants manner!”
Having uttered which with great distinctness, she begged the favour of being
shown to her room,which became to me from that time forth a place of awe
and dread, wherein the two black boxes were never seen open or known to be
left unlocked, and where (for I peeped in once or twice when she was
out) numerous little steel fetters and rivets, with wich Miss Murdstone em
bellished herself when she was dressed, generally hung upon the looking-glass
in formidable array.
On the very first morning after her arrival she was up and ringing her bell
at cock-crow. When my mother came down to breakfast and was going to
make tea, Miss Murdstone gave her a kind of peck on the cheek, which was
her nearest approach to a kiss, and said:
“Now, Clara, my dear, I am come here, you know, to relieve you of
all the trouble I can. You’re much too pretty and thoughtless” — my
mother blushed but laughed, and seemed not to dislike this character — “to
have any duties imposed upon you that can be undertaken by me. If you’ll
be so good as to give me your keys, my dear, I’ll attend to all this sort
of thing in future.”
From that time, Miss Murdstone kept the keys in her own little jail
all day, and under her pillow all night, and my mother had no more to
do with them than I had.
1. What are the details in the description of Miss Murdstone which suggest
her nature?
2. What are Miss Murdstone’s traits and how do they relate to one another?
Does ’Murdstone’ connote anything?
3. Does her behaviour to David and to his mother confirm or infirm our
first impression, and how?
4. To what does the adjective “metallic” refer?
5. What objects belonging to Miss Murdstone are singled out and de
scribed by the author and why?
6. Does the author comment upon this character? If so, how?
7. To what extent is the character rendered realistically, or in a distorted
manner?
8. Does the character illustrate or emphasize some fundamental attitudes of
Dickens’?
From Vanity Fair (Ch. Ill)
Downstairs, then, they went, Joseph very red and blushing, Rebecca very
modest, and holding her green eyes downward. She was dressed in white,
with bare shoulders as white as snow-the picture of youth, unprotected
innocence, and humble virgin simplicity. “I must be very quiet,” thought Re
becca, “and very much interested about India.”
Now we have heard how Mrs. Sedley had prepared a fine curry for her
son, just as he liked it, and in the course of dinner a portion of this dish
was offered to Rebecca. “What is it?” said she, turning an appealing look to
Mr. Joseph.
“Capital”, said he. His mouth was full of it: his face quite red with
the delightful exercise of gobbling. “Mother, it’s as good as my own curries
in India.”
“Oh, I must try some, if it is an Indian dish”, said Miss Rebecca. “I am
sure everything must be good that comes from there.”
“Give Miss Sharp some curry, my dear,” said Mr. Sedley, laughing. Re
becca had never tasted the dish before.
“Do you find it as good as everything else from India?” said Mr. Sedley.
“Oh, excellent!” said Rebecca, who was suffering tortures with the cayenne
pepper.
“Try a chili with it, Miss Sharp,” said Joseph, really interested.
“A chili”, said Rebecca, gasping. “Oh, yes!” she thought a chili was some
thing cool, as its name imported, and was served with some. “How fresh
and green they look!” she said, and put one into her mouth. It was hotter
than the curry; flesh and blood could bear it no longer. She laid down her
fork. “Water, for Heaven’s sake, water!” she cried. Mr. Sedley burst out
laughing (he was a coarse man from the Stock Exchange, where they love all
sorts of practical jokes). “They are real Indian, I assure you,” said he.
“Sambo, give Miss Sharp some water.”
The paternal laugh was echoed by Joseph, who thought the joke capital.
The ladies only smiled a little. They thought poor Rebecca suffered too much.
She would have liked to choke old Sedley, but she swallowed her mortification
as well as she had the abominable curry before it, and as soon as she could
speak, said with a comical, good-humoured air.
“I ought to have remembered the pepper which the Princess of Persia
puts in the cream-tarts in the ‘Arabian Nights’. Do you put cayenne int o
your cream-tarts in India, sir?”
Old Sedley began to laugh, and thought Rebecca was a good-humoured
girl. Joseph simply said, “Cream-tarts, miss? Our cream is very bad in Bengal.
We generally use goats’ milk; and, ’god, do you know, I’ve got to prefer it!”
“You won’t like everything from India now, Miss Sharp” said the old
gentleman; but when the ladies had retired after dinner, the wily old fel
low said to his son, “Have a care, Joe; that girl is setting her cap at you.”
“Pooh! nonsense!” said Joe, highly flattered.
1. What are Rebecca’s reasons for trying to appear interested in every

thing that comes from India?
2. Does her behaviour reveal some aspect of her character?
3. What is the author’s attitude towards Rebecca?
4. Do the details concerning Rebecca’s physical description give you a clue
to her character?
5. How does old Mr. Sedley’s conduct appear to you? Is it accountable?
6. What traits of Joseph Sedley’s are brought into relief in the fragment
above?
7. What is the prevailing tone of this fragment?
8. Do these characters illustrate the basic idea of ‘Vanity Fair’? if so, how?
THOMAS HARDY
Tess of the D’Urbervilles

(A. from Phase the First, Ch. 2)
She was a fine and handsome girl — not handsomer than others, possibly —
but her mobile peony mouth and large innocent eyes added eloquence to
colour and shape. She wore a red ribbon in her hair and was the only one
of the white company who could boast of such a pronounced adornment.
... Tess Durbeyfield at this time of her life was a mere vessel of emotion
untinctured by experience ...
Phases of her childhood lingered in her aspect still. As she walked along
to-day, for all her bouncing, handsome womanliness, you could sometimes
see her twelfth year in her cheecks or her ninth sparkling from her eyes;
and even her fifth would flit over the curves of her mouth now and then.
Yet few knew, and still fewer considered this. A small minority, mainly
strangers, would look long at her in casually passing by, and grow momentarily
fascinated by her freshness, and wonder if they would ever see her again; but
almost to everybody she was a fine and picturesque country-girl, and no
more.
(B. from Phase the Third, Ch. 20)
Being so often — possibly not always by chance — the first two persons
to get up at the dairy-house, they seemed to themselves the first persons up
in the world...
At this dim inceptive stage of the day Tess seemed to Clare to exhibit
a dignified largeness both of disposition and physique, an almost reg
nant power, possibly because he knew that at that preternatural time
hardly any woman so well endowed in person as she was likely to be walk
ing in the open air within the boundaries of his horizon...
... whilst all the landscape was in neutral shade his companion’s face,
which was the focus of his eyes, rising above the mist stratum, seemed to
have a sort of phosphorescence upon it. She looked ghostly, as if she were
merely a soul at large. In reality her face, without appearing to do so, had
caught the cold gleam of day from the north-east; his own face, though
he did not think of it, wore the same aspect to her.
It was then, as has been said, that she impressed him most deeply.
She was no longer the milkmaid, but a visionary essence of woman — a
whole sex condensed into one typical form. He called her Artemis, Demeter,
and other fanciful names half teasingly, which she did not like because she
did not understand them.
“Call me Tess”, she would say askance, and he did.
1. Who is describing Tess in fragment A?
2. Which are the main physical features presented?
3. How is Tess made conspicuous among the other country girls?
4. What does the patch of colour in her appearance suggest ?
5. What metaphor does the author use in order to render Tess’ inner life?
6. Is there any anticipatory hint at what lies in store for the girl?
7. What characteristic traits does the insistence on her appearance empha
size?
8. What attitude of society is suggested by shifting the point of view to the
strangers ?
9. Through whose eyes is Tess presented in fragment B?
10. What is the background of the description and what is its function?
11. Which are the epithets used to render those qualities of Tess that impress
Clare?
12. How does this description coincide with that made by the author?
13. Angel’s vision adds the dimension of myth to Tess. Explain the function
the mythological names mentioned have to this effect.
OSCAR WILDE
From The Devoted Friend
“Once upon a time, “said the Linnet," there was an honest little fellow
named Hans."
“Was he very distinguished?" asked the Water-rat.
“No," answered the Linnet, “I don’t think he was distinguished at all,
except for his kind heart, and his funny round good-humoured face. He lived
in a tiny cottage all by himself, and every day he worked in his garden. In all
the country side there was no garden so lovely as his. Sweet-william grew
there, and Gilly-flowers, Shepherds purses, and Fair-maids of France (...)
“Little Hans had a great many friends, but the most devoted friend of
all was big Hugh the Miller. Indeed, so devoted was the rich Miller to little
Hans, that he would never go by his garden without leaning over the wall
and plucking a large nosegay, or a handful of sweet herbs, or filling his
pockets with plums and cherries if it was the fruit season.
“ ‘Real friends should have everything in common,’ the Miller used to say,
and little Hans nodded and smiled, and felt very proud of having a friend
with such noble ideas...
“Sometimes, indeed, the neighbours thought it strange that the rich Miller
never gave little Hans anything in return, though he had a hundred sacks of
flour stored away in his mill, and six milch-cows and a large flock of wooly
sheep; but Hans never troubled his head about these things, and nothing gave
him greater pleasure than to listen to all the wonderful things the Miller used
to say about the unselfishness of true friendship.
“So little Hans worked away in his garden. During the spring, the summer
and the autumn he was very happy, but when winter came and he had no
fruit or flowers to bring to the market, he suffered a good deal from cold and
hunger, and often had to go to bed without any supper but a few dried pears
or some hard nuts. In the winter also, he was extremely lonely, as the Miller
never came to see him then.
“ ‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts,’
the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should
be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea
about friendship, and I am sure I am right. ..."
1. How does the reader get acquainted with little Hans and Hugh the Miller?
2. What are little Hans’ qualities? Is there any discrepancy between what
we learn about him from the story and what he says or does?
3. As compared to little Hans can the Miller’s attitude towards his poorer
friend be called ‘unselfish’?
4. What are the neighbours’ reflections on the two friends?
5. Are the simple names of the characters suggestive of their natures, of indi
vidual or typical traits?
6. Can you detect any symbolism in the story’s title? Which of the characters
may be rightly called ‘a devoted friend’?
GEORGE BERNARD SHAW
From Caesar and Cleopatra
The Man: Hail, Sphinx: salutation from Julius Caesar! I have wandered in
many lands, seeking the lost regions from which my birth into this world
exiled me, and the company of creatures such as myself. I have found
flocks and pastures, men and cities, but no other Caesar, no air native
to me, no man kindred to me, none who can do my day’s deed, and
think my night’s thought. In the little world yonder, Sphinx, my place
is as high as yours in this great desert; only I wander, and you sit
still; I conquer, and you endure; I work and wonder, you watch and
wait; I look up and am dazzled, look down and am darkened, look round
and am puzzled, whilst your eyes never turn from looking out — out of
the world — to the lost region — the home from which we have strayed.
Sphinx, you and I, strangers to the race of men, are no strangers to
one another have I not been conscious of you and of this place since I
was born? Rome is a madman’s dream: this is my Reality. These starry
lamps of yours I have seen from afar in Gaul, in Britain, in Spain, in
Thessaly, signalling great secrets to some eternal sentinel below, whose
post I never could, find. And here at last is their sentinel — an image
of the constant and immortal part of my life, silent, full of thoughts,
alone in the silver desert. Sphinx, Sphinx: I have climbed mountains at
night to hear in the distance the stealthy footfall of the winds that
chase your sands in forbidden play — our invisible children, 0 Sphinx,
laughing in whispers. My way hither was the way of destiny; for I am
he of whose genius you are the symbol: part brute, part woman, and part
god — nothing of man in me at all. Have I read your riddle, Sphinx?
The Girl:fw/w has wakened, and peeped cautiously from her nest to see who is
speaking) Old gentleman.
Caesar: (starting violently, and clutching his sword) Immortal gods!
The Girl: Old gentleman: don’t run away.
Caesar: (stupefied) “Old gentleman: don’t run away” 111 This 1 to Julius Caesar!
The Girl: (urgently) Old gentleman.
Caesar: Sphinx: you presume on your centuries. I am younger than you,
though your voice is but a girl’s voice as yet.
The Girls: Climp up here, quickly; or the Romans will come and eat you.
Caesar: (running forward past the Sphinx's shoulder, and seeing her) A child
at its breast! a divine child!
The Girl: Come up quickly. You must get up at its side and creep round.
Caesar: (amazed) Who are you?
The Girl: Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt.
1. Look up the word Sphinx and point out the extent to which its attributes
throw light on The Man’s personality.
2. By what means does The Man’s monologue make it clear that he is Caesar
himself?
3. What is the significance attached to The Girl’s calling him “Old gentleman” ?
4. Does the author hint in any way at The Girl’s true identity?
5. Do either of the two characters realize the ironical character of his own
situation?
JAMES JOYCE
From The Sisters
There was no hope for him this time: it was the third stroke. Night
after night I had passed the house (it was vacation time) and studied the
lighted square of window: and night after night I had found it lighted in
the same way, faintly and evenly. If he was dead, I thought, I would
see the reflection of candles on the darkened blind for I knew that two
candles must be set at the head of a corpse. He had often said to me:4 I
am not long for this world,’ and I had thought his words idle. Now I knew
they were true. Every night as I gazed up at the window I said softly to
myself the word paralysis. It had always sounded strangely in my ears,
like the word gnomon in the Euclid and the word simony in the Catechism.
But now it sounded to me like the name of some maleficent and sinful
being. It filled me with fear, and yet I longed to be nearer to it and look
upon its deadly work.
Old Cotter was sitting at the fire, smoking, when I came downstairs
to supper. While my aunt was ladling out my stirabout he said, as if
returning to some former remark of his:
— No, I wouldn’t say he was exactly... but there was something queer...
there was something uncanny about him. I’ll tell you my opinion... He began
to puff at his pipe, no doubt arranging his opinion in his mind. Tiresome
old fool! When we knew him first he used to be rather interesting, talking
of faints and worms; but I soon grew tired of him and his endless stories
about the distillery.
— I have my own theory about it, he said. I think it was one of
those... peculiar cases... But it’s hard to say...
He began to puff again at his pipe without giving us his theory. My
uncle saw me staring and said to me:
— Well, so your friend is gone, you’ll be sorry to hear.
-Who? said I.
— Father Flynn.
— Is he dead?
— Mr. Cotter here has just told us. He was passing by the house. I
knew that I was under observation, so I continued eating as if the news
hadt not interested me.
1. Look up in the dictionary the words gnomon and simony and point out
what fields of activity they refer to.
2. In what sense do these words characterize the boy and the old priest?
3. What is the difference between the dictionary sense of these words and
the sense ascribed to them by the boy?
4. Who characterizes the old priest?
5. By what means is the boy himself characterized?
6. Sum up the means by which the old priest is characterized and the means
by which the boy is characterized.
EUGENE O’NEILL
From Mourning Becomes Electra: The Haunted (Cut Two)
Scene — Same as Act of “The Haunted” — Ezra Mannon's study — on an

evening a month later. The shutters of the windows are closed. Candles on the
mantel above the fireplace light up the portrait of Ezra Mannon in his judge's
robes. Orin is sitting in his father's chair at left of table, writing by the
light of a lamp. A small pile of manuscript is stacked by his right hand.
He is intent on his work. He has aged in the intervening month. He
looks almost as old now as his father in the portrait. He is dressed in black
and the resemblance between the two is uncanny. A grim smile of satisfaction
twitches his lips as he stops writing and reads over the paragraph he has just
finished. He puts the sheet down and stares up at the portrait, sitting back in
his chair.
Orin [sardonically, addressing the portrait) The truth, the whole truth and
nothing but the truth! Is that what you’re demanding, Father? Are
you sure you want the whole truth? What will the neighbors say if this
whole truth is ever known? (H* chuckles grimly) A ticklish decision for
you, Your Honorl (There is a knock on the door. He hastily grabs the
script and puts it in the drawer of the desk.) Who’s there?
Lavinia. It’s I.
Orin (hastily locking the drawer and putting the key in his pocket) What do
you want?
Lavinia (sharply). Please open the door!
Orin. All right. In a minute. (He hurriedly straightens up the table and
grabs a book at random from the bookcase and lays it open on the table
as if he had been reading. Then he unlocks the door and comes back to his
chair as Lavinia enters. She wears a green velvet gown similar to that
worn by Christine in Act Three of “Homecoming”. It sets off her hair
and eyes. She is obviously concealing beneath a surface calm a sense of
dread and desperation.)
Lavinia, (glances at him suspiciously, but forces a casual air) Why did you
lock yourself in? (She comes over to the table) What are you doing?
Orin. Reading.
Lavinia (picks up the book) Father’s law books?
Orin, (mockingly) Why not? I’m considering studying law. He wanted me
to, if you remember.
Lavinia. Do you expect me to believe that, Orin? What is it you’re really
doing?
Orin. Curious, aren’t you?
Lavinia (forcing a smile) Good gracious, why wouldn’t I be? You’ve acted
so funny lately, locking yourself in here with the blinds closed and the
lamp burning even in the daytime. It isn’t good for you staying in this
stuffy room in this weather. You ought to get out in the fresh air.
Orin, (harshly) I have the daylight. It’s like an accusing eye! No, we’ve re
nounced the day, in which normal people live or rather it has renounced
us. Perpetual night-darkness of death in life-that’s the fitting habitat for
guilt! You believe you can escape that, but I’m not so foolish!
Lavinia. Now you’re being stupid again!
Orin. And I find artificial light more appropriate for my work — man’s
light, not God’s — man’s geeble striving to understand himself to exist
for himself in the darkness! It’s a symbol of his life — a lamp burning
out in a room of waiting shadows!
Lavinia (sharply) Your work? What work?
Orin (mockingly) Studying the law of crime and punishment, as you saw.
Lavinia (forcing a smile again and turning away from him) All right, if you
won’t tell me. Go on being mysterious, if .you like. (In a tense voice) It’s
so close in here! It’s suffocating! It’s bad for you! (She goes to the win
dow and throws the shutters open and looks out) It’s black as pitch
tonight. There isn’t a star.
Orin (somberly) Darkness without a star to guide us! Where are we going,
Vinni? (Then with a mocking chuckle) Oh, I know you think you know
where you’re going, but there’s many a slip, remember.
Lavinia, (her voice strident, as if her will were snapping) Be quiet! Can’t
you think of anything but — (Then controlling herself, comes to him—
gently) I’m sorry. I’m terribly nervous tonight. It’s the heat, I guess.
And you get me so worried with your incessant brooding over the past.
It’s the worst thing for your health. (She pats him on the arm—soot
hingly) That’s all I’m thinking about, dear.
Orin. Thank you for your anxiety about my health! But I’m afraid there
isn’t much hope for you there! I happen to feel quite well!
Lavinia (whirling on him—distractedly) How can you insinuate such hor
rible—! (Again controlling herself with a great effort, forcing a smile)
But you’re only trying to rile me—and I’m not going to let you. I’m so
glad you’re feeling better. You ate a good supper tonight—for you.
The long walk we took with Hazel did you good.
Orin, (dully) Yes. (He slumps down in his chair at left of table) Why is
it you never leave me alone with her more than a minute? You approved
of my asking her to marry me—and now we’re engaged you never
leave us alone! (Then with a bitter smile) But I know the reason well
enough.
Lavinia, (sits in the chair opposite him—wearily) Can you blame me, the
way you’ve been acting?
Orin. No. I’m afraid myself of being too long alone with her, — afraid
of myself. I have no right in the same world with her. And I feel so
drawn to her purity! Her love for me makes me appear less vile to
myself! (Then with a harsh laugh) And, at the same time, a million times
more vile, that’s the hell of it! So I’m afraid you can’t hope to get
rid of me through Hazel. She is another lost island! It’s wiser for you
to keep Hazel away from me, I warn you. Because when I see
love for a murderer in her eyes my guilt crowds up in my throat
like poisonous vomit and I long to spit it out—and confess
Lavinia (in a low voice) Yes that is what I live in terror of—that in one
of your fits you’ll say something before someone—now after it’s all past
and forgotten—when there isn’t the slightest suspicion —
Orin, (harshly) Were you hoping you could escape retribution? You can’t!
Confess and atone to the full extent of the law! That’s the only way
to wash the guilt of our mother’s blood from our souls!
Lavinia (distractedly) Ssshh! Will you stop! Ask you father, the Judge,
if it isn’t! He knows! He keeps telling me!
Lavinia. Oh God! Over and over and over! Will you never lose your stu
pid guilty conscience! Don’t you see how you torture me? You’re
becoming my guilty conscience, too! (With an instinctive flare-up of her
old jealousy) How can you still love that vile woman so — when you
know all she wanted was to leave you without a thought and marry
that —
Orin, (with fierce accusation) Yes! Exactly as you’re scheming now to
leave me and marry Peter! By God, you won’t! You’ll damn soon stop
your tricks when you know what I’ve been writing!
Lavinia (tensely) What have you written?
Orin. (His anger turned to gloating satisfaction) Ah! That frightens you,
does it? Well, you better be frightened!
Lavinia. Tell me what you’ve written!
Orin. None of your damned business.
Lavinia. I’ve got to know!
Orin. Well, as I’ve practically finished it — I suppose I might as well tell
you.
1. Point to the function of the ‘portrait’ and the ‘books’ in the development
of Orin’s attitude towards Lavinia.
2. How does Orin’s sense of guilt determine his symbolic view of life?
3. Does Lavinia accept or reject the past? How can you explain her suspi
cions?
4. Can Orin be sincere? Describe his complex state of mind.
5. How does O’Neill build atmosphere?
6. How does Lavinia integrate in the scene?
7. How do mutual accusations build up the truth? Do you think that
the truth will, ultimately, bring brother and sister together or, on the
contrary, sharpen the conflict between them?
Discussing Style
By following the directions and answering the questions at the end

of each excerpt, define the various stylistic aspects of the texts.
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
From The Canterbury Tales
The Prologue
The Squire
He had his son with him, a fine young Squire,
A lover and cadet, a lad of fire
With locks as curly as if they had been pressed.
He was some twenty years of age, I guessed.
In stature he was of a moderate length,
With wonderful agility and strength.
He’d seen some service with the cavalry
In Flanders and Artois and Picardy
And had done valiantly in little space
Of time, in hope to win his lady’s grace.
He was embroidered like a meadow bright
And full of freshest flowers, red and white.
Singing he was, or fluting all the day;
He was as fresh as is the month of May.
Short was his gown, the sleeves were long and wide;
He knew the way to sit a horse and ride.
He could make songs and poems and recite,
Knew how to joust and dance, to draw and write.
He loved so hotly that till dawn grew pale
He slept as little as a nightingale.
Courteous he was, lowly and serviceable.
And carved to serve his father at the table.
The Yeoman
There was a Yeoman with him at his side,
No other servant; so he chose to ride.
This Yeoman wore a coat and hood of green,
And peacock-feathered arrows, bright and keen
And neatly sheathed, hung at his belt the while
— For he could dress his gear in yeoman style,
His arrows never drooped their feathers low —
And in his hand he bore a mighty bow.
His head was like a nut, his face was brown.
He knew the whole of woodcraft up and down.
A saucy brace was on his arm to ward
It from the bow-string, and a shield and sword
Hung at one side, and at the other slipped
A jaunty dirk, spear-sharp and well-equipped.
A medal of St Christopher he wore
Of shining silver on his breast, and bore
A hunting-Horn, well slung and burnished clean,
That dangled from a baldrick of bright green.
He was a proper forester I guess.
1. Mention the epithets characterizing the Squire and his actions.

2. Can you establish a connection between the metaphor “a lad of fire”
and “he loved so hotly”?
3. What are the predominant shades of colour which portray the Squire?
4. Is it a static or a dynamic portrait? Give the reasons.
5. From what point of view is the Yeoman described? (Moral? Physical?
Costume? Action?)
6. Is it a static or a dynamic description? Give details.
7. Which are the dominant shades of the portrait? Can you establish a
connection between the respective colours and the activity of the
Yeoman?
8. Which are the details evoking the Yeoman’s trade?
9. What is the difference in the way Chaucer describes the Squire and
the Yeoman?
10. Can you trace the ironic tone in any of the two portraits?
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
From Much Ado about Nothing (Scene V)
Another room in Leonato’s house

Enter Leonato, with Dogberry and Verges
Leon What would you with me, honest neighbour?
Dog Marry, sir, I would have some confidence with you that decerns you
nearly.
Leon Brief, I pray you; for you see it is a busy time with me.
Dog Marry, this it is, sir.
Verg Yes, in truth it is, sir.
Leon What is it, my good friends?
Dog Goodman Verges, sir, speaks a little off the matter: an old man, sir,
and his wits are not so blunt as, God help, I would desire they were;
but, in faith, honest as the skin between his brows.
Verg Yes, I thank God I am as honest as any man living that is an old
man and no honester than I.
Dog Comparisons are odorous: palabras, neighbour Verges.
Leon Neighbours, you are tedious.
Dog It pleases your worship to say so, but we are the poor duke’s officers;
but truly, for mine own part, if I were as tedious as a king, I could find
it in my heart to bestow it all of your worship.
Leon All thy tediousness on me, ah?
Dog Yea, an’twere a thousand pound more than’tis; for I hear as good
exclamation on your worship as of any man in the city; and though I
be but a poor man, I am glad to hear it.
Verg And so am I.
Leon I would fain know what you have to say.
Verg Marry, sir, our watch to night, excepting your worship’s presence,
ha’ta’en a couple of as arrant knaves as any in Messina.
Dog A good old man, sir; he will be talking: as they say, when the age
is in, the wit is out: God help us! it is a world to see. Well said, i’faith,
neighbour Verges: well, God’a good man; an two men ride of a horse,
one must ride behind. An honest soul, i’faith, sir; by my troth he is,
as ever broke bread; but God is to be worshipped; all men are not
alike; alas, good neighbour!
Leon Indeed, neighbour, he comes too short of you.
Dog Gifts that God gives.
Leon I must leave you.
Dog One word, sir: our watch, sir, have indeed comprehended two aspicious
persons, and we would have them this morning examined before your
worship.
Leon Take their examination yourself and bring it me: I am now in great
haste, as it may appear unto you.
Dog It shall be suffigance.
Leon Drink some wine ere you go: fare you well.
Enter a Messenger.
Mess My lord, they stay for you to give your daughter to her husband.
Leon I’ll wait upon them: I am ready.
(Exeunt Leonato and Messenger)
Dog Go, good partner, go, get you to Francis Seacoal; bid him bring his
pen and inkhorn to the gaol: we are now to examination these men.
Verg And we must do it wisely.
Dog We will spare for no wit, I warrant you; here’s that shall drive some of
them to a noncome: only get the learned writer to set down our excom
munication and meet me at the gaol.
( Exeunt)
In MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING Dogberry is mixing up the meanings

of certain words. Can you point out the words he misuses?
DANIEL DEFOE
From Robinson Crusoe — Part One
And this put me in mind that I wanted many things, notwithstanding

all that I had amassed together; and of these, ink was one; as also a
spade, pick-axe, and shovel, to dig or remove the earth; needles, pins, and
thread; as for linen, I soon learned to want that without much difficulty.
This want of tools made every work I did go on heavily; and it was
near a whole year before I had entirely finished my little pale, or surrounded
habitation. The piles or stakes, which were as heavy as I could well lift, were
a long time in cutting and preparing in the woods, and more, by far, in bringing
home; so that I spent sometimes two days in cutting and bringing home one of
those posts, and a third day in driving it into the ground; for which purpose, I
got a heavy piece of wood at first, but at last bethought myself of one of the
iron crows; which, however, though I found it, yet it made driving those posts
or piles very laborious and tedious work. But what need I have been con
cerned at the tediousness of anything I had to do, seeing I had time
enough to do it in? nor had I any other employment, if that had been
over, at least that I could foresee, except the ranging the island to seek for
food, which I did, more or less, every day.
I now began to consider seriously my condition, and the circumstance
I was reduced to; and I drew up the state of my affairs in writing, not so
much to leave them to any that were to come after me, for I was like to
have but few heirs, as to deliver my thoughts from daily poring upon
them, and afflicting my mind: and as my reason began now to master my
despondency, I began to comfort myself as well as I could, and to set the
good against the evil, that I might have something to distinguish my case
from worse, and I stated it very impartially, like debtor and creditor, the
comforts I enjoyed against the miseries I suffered, thus:
Evil Good
I am cast upon a horrible, deso But I am alive; and not drowned,
late island, void of all hope of as all my ship’s company were.
recovery.
I am singled out and separated, But I am singled out, too, from all
as it were, from all the world, to the ship’s crew, to be spared from
be miserable. death; and He that miraculously saved
me from death, can deliver me from
this condition.
I am divided from mankind, a But I am not starved, and perishing
solitary; one banished from human on a barren place, affording no sus
society. tenance.
I have no clothes to cover me. But I am in a hot climate, where if I
had clothes, I could hardly wear them.
I am without any defence, or But I am cast on an island where I
means to resist any violence of man see no wild beasts to hurt me, as I saw
or beast. on the coast of Africa: and what if
I had been shipwrecked there?
I have no soul to speak to, or But God wonderfully sent the ship
relieve me. in near enough to the shore, that
I have gotten out so many necessary
things as will either supply my wants,
or enable me to supply myself, even
as long as I live.
Upon the whole, here was an undoubted testimony, that there was scarce
any condition in the world so miserable, but there was something negative, or
something positive, to be thankful for in it: and let this stand as a direction,
from the experience of the most miserable of all conditions in this world:
that we may always find in it something to comfort ourselves from, and to
set, in the description of good and evil, on the credit side of the account.
1. Which aspects of Robinson’s account strike you as peculiarly demonstra
tive for the sober view he takes cn human nature?
2. Comment upon the enumeration in the first paragraph. In what way are
the activities mentioned significant for the veracity and accuracy of Ro
binson’s mind? How do they help you to better visualize his life?
3. Could you account for the form in which Robinson values the good and
evil sides of his position as basic purposes of his reflections?
4. Does a sentence contain a complete thought, and if so, in which way?
Give illustrative examples.
5. Show that the structure of the sentence is strictly logical. Comment on the
various syntactical means of expressing motives and purposes.
6. In which ways is Defoe’s style hinting at prevailing 18-th century Enlight
enment views (and its zeal for universa improvement, moral, social and
intellectual). Do you admit “... my reason began now to master my despond
ency...” as key sentence? If yes, why?
HENRY FIELDING
From The History of Tom Jones (Part two, Book XVI, Ch. II)
A Whimsical adventure which befel the Squire, with the distressed situa
tion of Sophia
We must now convey the reader to Mr Western’s lodgings, which were

in Piccadilly, where he was placed by the recommendation of the landlord
at the Hercules Pillars at Hyde Park Corner; for at the inn, which was
the first he saw on his arrival in town, he placed his horses, and in those
lodgings, which were the first he heard of, he desposited himself.
Here, when Sophia alighted from the hackney-coach, which brought her
from the house of Lady Bellaston, she desired to retire to the apartment pro
vided for her; to which her father very readily agreed, and whither he
attended her himself. A short dialogue, neither very material nor pleasant
to relate minutely, then passed between them, in which he pressed her ve
hemently to give her consent to the marriage with Blifil, who, as he acquaint
ed her, was to be in town in a few days; but, instead of complying, she gave
a more peremptory and resolute refusal than she had ever done before.
This so incensed her father, that after many bitter vows, that he would
force her to have him whether she would or no, he departed from her
with many hard words and curses, locked the door, and put the key into
his pocket.
While Sophia was left with no other company than what attend the
closest state prisoner, namely, fire and candle, the squire sat down to
regale himself over a bottle of wine, with his parson and the landlord of
the Hercules Pillars, who, as the squire said, would make an excellent third
man, and could inform them of the news of the town, and how affairs went;
for to be sure, says he, he knods a great deal, since the horses of many
of the quality stand at his house.
In this agreeable society Mr. Western past that evening and great
part of the succeeding day, during which period nothing happened of suffi
cient consequence to find a place in this history. All this time Sophia past
by herself; for her father swore she should never come out of her chamber
alive, unless she first consented to marry Blifil; nor did he ever suffer the
door to be unlocked, unless to convey her food, on which occasions he always
attended himself.
The second morning after his arrival, while he and the parson were at
breakfast together on a toast and tankard, he was informed that a gentle
man was below to wait on him.
“A gentleman!” quoth the squire; “who the devil can he be? Do, doctor,
go down and see who’tis. Mr Blifil can hardly be come to town yet. — Go
down, do, and know what his business is”.
The doctor returned with an account that it was a very well-drest man,
and by the ribbon in his hat he took him for an officer of the army;
that he said he had some particular business, which he could deliver to none
but Mr Western himself.
“An officer!” cries the squire; “what can any such fellow have to do with
me? If he wants an order for baggage-waggons, I am no justice of peace
here, nor can I grant a warrant. — Let us come up then, if he must speak
to me”.
A very genteel man now entered the room; who, having made his compli
ments to the squire, and desired the favour of being alone with him, deliv
ered himself as follows:
“Sir, I come to wait upon you by the command of my lord Fellamar;
but with a very different message from what I suppose you expect, after
what past the other night”.
1. By what narrative means does the author convey the information concern
ing the setting of the action?
2. Who is the narrator? Point out his direct addresses to the reader. What
kind of information does he express?
3. Does the narrator comment upon the related facts?
4. Point out the existence of the “direct dialogue” and the “related dialogue”.
5. Show the two assertions describing the “intruding gentleman”. Is there
any stylistic difference between them?
WALTER SCOTT
From Ivanhoe (Ch. 29)

It was not, however, by clamour that the contest was to be decided,
and the desperate efforts of the assailants were met by an equally vigorous
defence on the part of the besieged. The archers, trained by their woodland
pastimes to the most effective use of the long-bow, sb^t, to use the appro
priate phrase of the time, so “wholly together”, that no point at which a
defender could show the least part of his person, escaped their cloth-yard
shafts. By this heavy discharge, which continued as thick and sharp as hail,
while, notwithstanding, every arrow had its individual aim, and flew by
scores together against each embrasure and opening in the parapets, as well
as at every window where a defender either occasionally had post, or might
be suspected to be stationed, — by this sustained discharge, two or three
•of the garrison were slain, and several others wounded. But, confident in
their armour of proof, and in the cover which their situation afforded, the
followers of Front-de-Boeuf, and his allies, showed an obstinacy in defence
proportioned to the fury of the attack, and replied with the discharge of
their large cross-bows, as well as with their long-bows, slings, and other
missile weapons, to the close and continued shower of arrows; and, as the
assailants were necessarily but indifferently protected, did considerably more
damage than they received at their hand. The whizzing of shafts and of
missiles, on both sides, was only interrupted by the shouts which arose when
•either side inflicted or sustained some notable loss.
“And I must lie here like a bedridden monk”, - exclaimed Ivanhoe,
“while the game that gives me freedom or death is played out by the hand
of others! — Look from the window once again, kind maiden, but beware
that you are not marked by the archers beneath — Look out once more,
and tell me if they yet advance to the storm”, with patient courage, strength
ened by the interval which she had employed in mental devotion, Rebecca
again took post at the lattice, sheltering herself, however, so as not to be
visible from beneath.
“What dost thou see, Rebecca?” again demanded the wounded knight.
“Nothing but the cloud of arrows flying so thick as to dazzle mine eyes,
and to hide the bowmen who shoot them”.
“That cannot endure”, said Ivanhoe; “if they press not right on to carry
the castle by pure force of arms, the archery may avail but little against
stone walls and bulwarks. Look for the Knight of the Fetterlock, fair Re
becca, and see how he bears himself; for as the leader is, so will his fol
lowers be”.
“I see him not”, said Rebecca.
“Foul craven!” exclaimed Ivanhoe; “does he blench from the helm when
the wind blows highest?”
“He blenches not! he blenches not!” said Rebecca, “I see him now;
he leads a body of men close under the outer barrier of the barbican. —
They pull down the piles and palisades; they hew down the barriers with
axes. His high black plume floats abroad over the throng, like a raven over
the field of the slain. — They have made a breach in the barriers — they
rush in — they are thrust back! — Front-de-Boeuf heads the defenders;
I see his gigantic form above the press. They throng again to the breach,
and the pass is disputed hand to hand, and man to man. God of Jacob!
it is the meeting of two fierce tides — the conflict of two oceans moved by
adverse winds!” She turned her head from the lattice, as if unable longer
to endure a sight so terrible.
1. By what means does the author convey tne movement and action of
the battle?
2. What is from the stylistic point of view: “By this heavy discharge, which
continued as thick and sharp as hail”.
3. What is the stylistic part played in the text by the nouns denominating
arms and weapons?
4. Point out the two means of describing the battle (Who narrates in one
instance and who narrates in the other?)
5. Is there any difference in tone or rhythm between the two descriptions?
SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE
From The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (Part II)
The Sun now rose upon the right;

Out of the sea came he,
Still hid in mist, and on the left
Went down into the sea.
And the good south wind still blew behind,

But no sweet bird did follow,
Nor any day for food or play
Game to the mariners’ hollo!
And I had done a hellish thing,

And it would work’em woe;
For all averr’d, I had kill’d the bird
That made the breeze to blow.
Ah wretch! said they, the bird to slay.
That made the breeze to blow!
Nor dim nor red, like God’s own head,
The glorious Sun Huprist:
Then all averr’d, I had kill’d the bird
That brought the fog and mist.
“Twas right, said they, such birds to slay,
That bring the fog and mist.
The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,
The furrow follow’d free;
We were the first that ever burst
Into that silent sea.
Down dropt the breeze, the sails dropt down,
’Twas sad as sad could be;
And we did speak only to break
The silence of the sea!
All in a hot and copper sky,
The bloody Sun, at noon,
Right up above the mast did stand,
No bigger than the Moon.
Day after day, day after day,
We stuck, nor breath nor motion;
As idle as a painted ship
Upon a painted ocean.
Water, water, every where,
And all the boards did shrink;
Water, water, every where,
Nor any drop to drink.
The very deep did rot: ’O Christ!
That ever this should be!
Yea, slimy things did crawl with legs
Upon the slimy sea.
About, about, in reel and rout
The death-fires danced at night;
The water, like a witch’s oils,
Burnt green, and blue and white.
And some in dreams assured were
Of the Spirit that plagued us so;
Nine fathom deep he had followed us
From the land of mist and snow.
And every tongue, through utter drought,
Was wither’d at the root;
We could not speak, no more than if
We had been choked with soot.
Ah! well a day! what evil looks
Had I from old and young!
Instead of the Cross, the Albatross
About my neck was hung.
1. What is the main idea of the excerpt?

2. Why have silence and heat an ominous, harmful value?
3. What is the main colour of the landscape; comment upon its symbolical
character.
4. Speak about antithesis as a means of making the main idea of the
excerpt obvious.
5. Comment upon the epithets attached to the wind, the sea, the sky, the
sun, the ocean.
6. Pick up examples of inner rhyme.
7. Comment upon Coleridge’s use of alliteration.
GEORGE GORDON BYRON
From Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (Canto I)
XVI
What beauties doth Lisboa first unfold!
Her image floating on that noble tide,
Which poets vainly pave with sands of gold,
But now whereon a thousand keels did ride
Of mighty strength, since Albion was allied,
And to the Lusians did her aid afford:
A nation swoln with ignorance and pride,
Who lick yet loathe the hand that waves the sword
To save them from the wrath of Gaul’s unsparing lord.
XVII
But whoso entereth within this town,
That, sheening far, celestial seems to be,
Disconsolate will wander up and down,
’Mid many things unsightly to strange ee;
For hut and palace show like filthily:
The dingy denizens are reared in dirt;
No personage of high or mean degree
Doth care for cleanness of surtout or shirt,
Though shent with Egypt’s plague, unkempt
unwashed unhurt.
XVIII
Poor, paltry slaves! yet born’midst noblest scenes —
Why, Nature, waste thy wonders on such men?
Lo! Cintra’s glorious Eden intervenes
In variegated maze of mount and glen.
Ah, me! what hand can pencil guide, or pen,
To follow half on which the eye dilates
Through views more dazzling unto mortal ken
Than those whereof such things the Bard relates,
Who to the awe-struck world unlocked Elysium’s gates?
XIX
The horrid crags, by toppling convent crowned,
The cork-trees hoar that clothe the shaggy steep,
The mountain-moss by scorching skies imbrown’d,
The sunken glen, whose sunless shrubs must weep,
The tender azure of the unruffled deep,
The orange tints that gild the greenest bough,
The torrents that from cliff to valley leap,
The vine on high, the wilow branch below,
Mixed in one mighty scene, with varied beauty glow.
XX
Then slowly climb the many-winding way,
And frequent turn to linger as you go
From loftier rocks new loveliness survey,
And rest ye at “Our Lady’s house of Woe”
Where frugal monks their little relics show,
And sundry legends to the stranger tell:
Here impious men have punished been and lo!
Deep in yon cave Honorius long did dwell,
In hope to merit Heaven by making earth a Hell.
XXI
And here and there, as up the crags you spring,
Mark many rude-carved crosses near the path;
Yet deem not these Devotion’s offering —
These are memorials frail of murderous wrath:
For wheresoe’er the shrieking victim hath
Pour’d forth his blood beneath the assassin’s knife,
Some hand erects a cross of mouldering lath;
And grove and glen with thousand such are rife
Throughout this purple land, where Law secures not
life.
1. What is Byron’s attitude towards freedom?

2. Speak about the pairs of contrasts presented in this excerpt.
3. What is the relationship between landscape and people?
4. Speak about the existence of a natural landscape and a man-made land
scape.
5. What symbols are used in the excerpt?
6. What is the prevailing tone of the poem?
CHARLES DICKENS
From Hard Times (Ch. I)
“Now, what I want is, Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but
Facts. Facts alone are wanted in life. Plant nothing else, and root out
everything else. You can only form the minds of reasoning animals upon
Facts: nothing else will ever be of any service to them. This is the prin
ciple on which I bring up my own children, and this is the principle on
which I bring up these children. Stick to Facts, Sir I”.
The scene was a plain, bare, monotonous vault of a schoolroom, and
the speaker’s square forefinger emphasized his observations by underscoring
every sentence with a line on the schoolmaster’s sleeve. The emphasis was
helped by the speaker’s square wall of a forehead, which had his eyebrows
for its base, while his eyes found commodious cellarage in two dark caves,
overshadowed by the wall. The emphasis was helped by the speaker’s mouth,
which was wide, thin, and hard set. The emphasis was helped by the speak
er’s voice, which was inflexible, dry, and dictatorial. The emphasis was
helped by the speaker’s hair, which bristled on the skirts of his bald head,
a plantation of firs to keep the wind from its shining surface, all covered with
knobs, like the crust of a plum pie, as if the head had scarcely warehouse-
room for the hard facts stored inside. The speaker’s obstinate carriage, square
coat, square legs, square shoulders, — nay, his very neckcloth, trained to
take him by the throat with an unaccommodating grasp, like a stubborn fact,
as it was, — all helped the emphasis.
“In this life, we want nothing but Facts, Sir; nothing but Facts!”
The speaker, and the schoolmaster, and the third grown person present,
all backed a little, and swept with their eyes the inclined plane of little ves
sels then and there arranged in order, ready to have imperial gallons of
facts poured into them until they were full to the brim.
Indeed, as he eagerly sparkled at them from the cellarage before men

tioned, he seemed a kind of cannon loaded to the muzzle with facts,
and prepared to blow them clean out of the regions of childhood, at one
discharge. He seemed a galvanizing apparatus, too, charged with a grim
mechanical substitute for the tender young imaginations that were to be
stormed away.
1. Analyse the structure of Mr. Gradgrind’s sentences and point out the
feature of his character they help to emphasize. Explain why “Fact”
is always capitalized. Point out the two verbal metaphors that bear witness
that Gradgrind is aware of the tremendous importance of an educational
system.
2. Detect the metaphors and similes expressing the author’s opinion of the
nefarious consequence of Mr. Gradgrind’s principles of education. These
figures of speech are to be found in the description of the classroom and
in Mr. Gradgrind’s portrait. Explain how the name of Mr. Gradgrihd
and the title of the second chapter also convey the writer’s attitude to
wards the reality he presents.
3. What features of Mr. Gradgrind are thrown into relief by the specifically
Dickensian insistent repetition of the epithet “square” and of the words
“the emphasis was helped”.
4. What is the effect produced by the metaphors used by the author to
describe Gradgrind’s forehead and eyes.
5. Point out how the epithets depicting Mr. Gradgrind’s mouth are confirmed
and strengthened by those rendering his voice.
6. What is the effect produced by the description of the top of Mr. Grad
grind’s head?
1. From what field did Dickens choose the term of comparison for the
inside of Gradgrind’s head and why?
8. Point out the means used by the author to convey his attitude towards
the little schoolchildren.
THOMAS HARDY
From The Return of the Native (Book First)
In fact, precisely at this transitional point of its nightly roll into dark
ness the great and particular glory of the Egdon waste began, and nobody
could be said to understand the heath who had not been there at such a
time. It could best be felt when it could not clearly be seen, its complete
effect and explanation lying in this and the succeeding hours before the
next dawn; then, and only then, did it tell its true tale. The spot was, in
deed, a near relation of night, and when night showed itself an apparent
tendency to gravitate together could be perceived in its shades and the
scene. The sombre stretch of rounds and hollows seemed to rise and meet
the evening gloom in pure sympathy, the heath exhaling darkness as rapidly
as the heavens precipitated it. And so the obscurity in the air and the
obscurity in the land closed together in a black fraternization towards which
each advanced half-way.
The place became full of a watchful intentness now; for when other things
sank brooding to sleep the heath appeared slowly to awake and listen.
Every night its Titanic form seemed to await something; but it had waited
thus, unmoved, during so many centuries, through the crises of so many things,
that it could only be imagined to await one last crisis — the final overthrow.
Only, in summer days of highest feather did its mood touch the level of gaiety.
Intensity was more usually reached by way of the solemn than by way
of the brilliant, and such a sort of intensity was often arrived at during
winter darkness, tempests, and mists. Then Egdon was aroused to reci
procity; for the storm was its lover, and the wind its friend. Then it be
came the home of strange phantoms; and it was found to be the hitherto
unrecognized original of those wild regions of obscurity which are vaguely
felt to be compassing us about in midnight dreams of flight and disaster,
and are never thought of after the dream till revived by scenes like this.
It was at present a place perfectly accordant with man’s nature — neither
ghastly, hateful, nor ugly: neither commonplace, unmeaning, nor tame;
but, like man, slighted and enduring; and withal singularly colossal and mys
terious in its swarthy monotony. As with some persons who have long lived
apart, solitude seemed to look out of its countenance. It had a lonely face,
suggesting tragical possibilities.
1. Hardy describes Egdon Heath not as a mere landscape but as an element
of nature endowed with a life and latent power of its own. Point out
the numerous instances of personification that build this effect, personi
fication being the key device employed in this description.
2. What sort of lurking potentiality in the Heath is suggested by the meta
phor “The spot was indeed, a near relation of night”?
3. Why is “Titanic” spelt with a capital?
4. What is the heath’s attitude to the human beings? Point out the epithet-
whereby it is expressed.
5. Dwell on the elements through which Hardy makes this stretch of earth
correspond to the Tellurian part *of human nature.
6. What main features of the heath parallel human nature in Hardy’s vision ?
7. What is the key note of the human condition that Hardy emphasizes?
The Second Coming

Turning and turning in the widening gyre
The falcon cannot hear the falconer;
Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold;
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world,
The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere 5
The ceremony of innocence is drowned;
The best lack all conviction, while the worst
Are full of passionate intensity.
Surely some revelation is at hand;
Surely the Second Coming is at hand. 10
The Second Coming! Hardly are those words out
When a vast image out of Spiritus Mundi
Troubles my sight: somewhere in sands of the desert
A shape with lion body and the head of a man,
A gaze blank and pitiless as the sun, 15
Is moving its slow thighs, while all about it
Reel shadows of the indignant desert birds.
The darkness drops again; but now I know
That twenty centuries of stony sleep
Were vexed to nightmare by a rocking cradle, 20
And what rough beast, its hour come round at last,
Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born?
1. Analyse the opening image as symbolic of the state of things referred
to in the poem.
2. Single out the images by which the Second Coming is depicted.
3. Account for this particular type of apocalyptic images bearing in mind
that Yeats wrote the poem in January 1919 after the Black and Tan
War in Ireland and that in a 1938 letter he quoted the poem as evi
dence of his prophetic attitude concerning the rise of fascism.
4. Analyse the component parts of the images and define their common
elements.
5. Explain the reasons behind the division of the poem into two stanzas.
6. Define the degree of the poet’s detachment and involvement in each sepa
rate stanza, paying special attention to his means of suggesting involvement
in the second stanza.
7. Explain the effects obtained by Yeats through the juxtaposition in the
second stanza, of “surely” (9, 10) and the image of the sphinx-like figure
(14) as well as the juxtaposition of “now I know” (18) and the question
at the end of the poem (22).
8. Speak about the significance of the implied parallel between the first
and the second coming concentrating on the means by which the parallel
works in the second stanza.
ERNEST HEMINGWAY
From A Farewell to Arms (Book Three, Ch. XXVII)
“Yes”, said Gino. “But those were Frenchmen and you can work out
military problems clearly when you are fighting in somebody else’s country.”
“Yes”, I agreed, “when it is your own country you cannot use it so
scientifically.”
“The Russians did, to trap Napoleon.”
“Yes, but they had plenty of country. If you tried to retreat to trap
Napoleon in Italy you would find yourself in Brindisi.”
“A terrible place”, said Gino. “Have you ever been there?”
“Not to stay.”
“I am a patriot,” Gino said. “But I cannot love Brindisi or Taranto.”
“Do you love the Bainsizza?” I asked.
“The soil is sacred,” he said. “But I wish it grew more potatoes. You
know when we came here we found fields of potatoes the Austrians had
planted.”
“Has the food really been short?”
“I myself have never had enough to eat but I am a big eater and I
have not starved. The mess is average. The regiments in the line get pretty
good food but those in support don’t get so much. Something is wrong some
where. There should be plenty of food.”
“The dogfish are selling it somewhere else.”
“Yes, they give the battalions in the front line as much as they can
but the ones in back are very short. They have eaten all the Austrians’ pota
toes and chestnuts from the woods. They ought to feed them better. We
are big eaters. I am sure there is plenty of food. It is very bad for the
soldiers to be short of food. Have you ever noticed the difference it makes
in the way you think?”
“Yes,” I said. “It can’t win a war but it can lose one.”
“We won’t talk about losing. There is enough talk about losing. What
has been done this summer cannot have been done in vain.”
I did not say anything. I was always embarrassed by the words sacred,
glorious, and sacrifice and the expression in vain. We had heard them, some
times standing in the rain almost out of earshot, so that only the shouted
words came through, and had read them, on proclamations that were slapped
up by billposters over other proclamations, now for a long time, and I had
seen nothing sacred, and the things that were glorious had no glory and
the sacrifices were like the stockyards at Chicago if nothing was done with
the meat except to bury it. There were many words that you could not stand
to hear and finally only the names of places had dignity. Certain numbers
were the same way and certain dates and these with the names of the places
were all you could say and have them mean anything. Abstract words such
as glory, honor, courage, or hallow were obscene beside the concrete names
of villages, the numbers of roads, the names of rivers, the numbers of re
giments and the dates. Gino was a patriot, so he said things that separated
us sometimes, but he was also a fine boy and I understood his being a pa
triot. He was born one. He left with Peduzzi in the car to go back to Go-
rizia.
1. Does Hemingway seem to have a specific attitude toward his subject?
Is he interested in arousing an emotional response?
2. Is the total effect descriptive or dramatic? Consider how much of the
effect is produced by visual description and how much by the rhythmic pat
tern of the prose.
3. Does the text supply any examples of ironic contrast? (e.g., expectation
fulfillment, victory-defeat, etc.) Are they relevant to the author’s relation
ship to the world and universe?
4. Does the war have any symbolic implications? Do any metaphors appear?
What ideas are they meant to convey?
5. Describe the characteristic quality of Hemingway’s diction. Does it vary
with the nature of the scene, or is it consistent throughout? What is the
dominant pattern of the sentence construction? (i.e., sequence within the
sentence of subject, predicate and modifiers, and simple, compound or
complex constructions from sentence to sentence.)
6. What accounts for the vividness and fluidity of Hemingway’s style?
7. Is the fragment illustrative of oral style? If so, give your reasons.
MARK TWAIN
From The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Ch. XXI)
“Hamlet’s soliloquy, you know; the most celebrated thing in Shake

speare. Ah, it’s sublime, sublime! Always fetches the house. I haven’t got
it in the book—I’ve only got one volume — but I reckon I can piece
it out from memory. I’ll just walk up and down a minute, and see if I can
call it back from recollection’s vaults.”
So he went to marching up and down, thinking, and frowning horrible
every now and then; then he would hoist up his eyebrows; next he would
squeeze his hand on his forehead and stagger back and kind of moan; next
he would sigh, and next he’d let on to drop a tear. It was beautiful to
see him. By and by he got it. He told us to give attention. Then he strikes
a most noble attitude with one leg shoved forwards, and his arms stretched
away up, and his head tilted back, looking up at the sky; and then he begins
to rip and rave and grit his teeth; and after all that, all through his speech,
he howled, and spread around, and swelled up his chest, and just knocked
the spots out of any acting ever I see before. This is the speech — I
learned it, easy enough, while he was learning it to the king:
To be or not to be; that is the bare bodkin
That makes calamity of so long life;
For who would fardels bear, till Birnam Wood so come to
Dunsinane,
But that the fear of something after death
Murders the innocent sleep,
Great nature's second course,
And makes us rather sling the arrows of outrageous fortune
Than fly to others that we know not of.
There’s the respect must give us pause:
Wake Duncan with thy knocking! I would thou couldst;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,
The opressor’s wrong, the proud man’s contumely,
The law’s delay, and the quietus which his pangs might take,
1. Do the two characters use English in a similar way? (Refer to their

speaking or writing it, reporting speech, degree of grammatical correct
ness, etc.).
2. Whose usage seems more intelligible to you and why?
3. Whose utterance sounds more ridiculous?
4. What does the duke mean by ‘recollection’s vaults’? What figure of
speech is it?
5. Huck’s description of the duke’s recitation is both colorful and vivid.
Could you select all the stylistic devices that help create that character
istic ?
6. Both characters use the American variant of the English language. Pick
up and draw up a list of all Americanisms in the text and then give
all their British equivalents.
7. The utterances above are typical of Twain’s famous ‘oral style’. Find
evidence in the text to support this view.
8. Is the phrase ‘to knock the spots out of sth.’ colloquial English or
slang? Translate it into Romanian.
9. The* passage from Shakespeare is purposefully misquoted. Could you name
at last one play, besides Hamlet, from which the lines of the soliloquy
are borrowed? Show whether the lines are correct.
10. What stylistic device does Twain use when misquoting Shakespeare?
11. How does Twain’s use of “two voices” contribute to the general humorous
effect of the text.
JOHN GALSWORTHY
From The Man of Property (Ch. I)
This misgivings, this disapproval and perfectly genuine distrust, did
not prevent the Forsytes from gathering to old Jolyon’s invitation. An
“At Home” at Stanhope Gate was a great rarity; none had been held for
twelve years, not indeed, since old Mrs. Jolyon died.
Never had there been so full an assembly, for mysteriously united in
spite of all their differences, they had taken arms against a common peril.
Like cattle when a dog comes into the field, they stood head to head and
shoulder to shoulder, prepared to run upon and trample the invader to
death. They had come, too, no doubt, to get some notion of what sort of
presents they would ultimately be expected to give; for though the question of
wedding gifts was usually graduated in this way — “What are you givin’?
Nicholas is givin’ spoons!” — so very much depended on the bridegroom.
If he were sleek, well-brushed, prosperous-looking, it was more necessary
to give him nice things; he would expect them. In the end each gave exactly
what was right and proper, by a species of family adjustment arrived at as
prices are arrived at on the Stock Exchange — the exact niceties being regu
lated at Timothy’s commodious, red-brick residence in Bayswater, over
looking the Park, where dwelt Aunts Ann, Juley, and Hester.
The uneasiness of the Forsyte family has been justified by the simple
mention of the hat. How impossible and wrong would it have been for
any family, with the regard for appearances which should ever characterize
the great uppermiddle class, to feel otherwise than uneasy!
The author of the uneasiness stood talking to June by the further door;
his curly hair had a rumpled appearance as though he found what was
going on around him unusual. He had an air, too, of having a joke all to himself.
George, speaking aside to his brother Eustace, said:
“Looks as if he might make a bolt of it — the dashing Buccaneer!”
This “very singular-looking man,” as Mrs. Small afterwards called him,
was of medium height and strong build, with a pale, brown face, a dust
coloured moustache, very prominent cheekbones, and hollow cheeks. His
forehead sloped back towards the crown of his head, and bulged out in
bumps over the eyes, like foreheads seen in the lion-house at the Zoo. He
had sherry-coloured eyes, disconcertingly inattentive at times. Old Jolyon’s
coachman, after driving June and Bosinney to the theatre, had remarked
to the butler:
“I dunno what to make of 7im. Looks to me for all the world like an ‘alf-
tame leopard.”
And every now and then a Forsyte would come up, sidle round, and take
a look at him.
1. How would you describe the author’s tone? Is it neutral or emotional?

What words, phrases and constructions are responsible for the tone?
2. Is the effect of the story one of argument rationally explained or dramat
ically represented ?
3. Is irony used at any points? Is ridicule?
4. What ideas underly the choice of the details? How does Galsworthy’s
style serve to express his meaning? Give your reasons.
5. Consider to what extent the effect is produced by visual description.
What is the part the nouns, adjectives and verbs play in the text?
6. What makes Galsworthy’s manner of writing realistic?
7. Note Galsworthy’s metaphor for the Forsyte family. Does it help to
organize the description? Explore the figurative use of language (i.e.,
comparison, metaphor, antithesis, etc.).
8. Can you extract from the description any statements that might serve as
generalizations about human nature?
9. Is the English the characters speak far different in rhythm and structure
from the language of ordinary conversation?
Drawing Parallels between Literary
Works or Particular Aspects of Such
Works
1. FICTION
The discussion of the excerpts from James Joyce’s A Portrait of the

Artist as a Young Man and Richard Aldington’s Death of a Hero sheds
light on some of the problems involved in a parallel analysis of two literary
texts, in this case two novels. Study it carefully and then analyse the pairs
of texts selected for discussion by following the directions that accompany
them, as well as other texts of your own choice.
JAMES JOYCE
From A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
— Look here, Cranly, he said. You have asked me what I would do and
what I would not do. I will tell you what I will do and what I will not
do. I will not serve that in which I no longer believe, whether it call itself
my home, my fatherland, or my church; and I will try to express my
self in some mode of life or art as freely as I can and as wholly as I can,
using for my defence the only arms I allow myself to use — silence, exile,
and cunning.
Cranly seized his arm and steered him round so as to lead him back
towards Leeson Park. He laughed almost slyly and pressed Stephen’s arm
with an elder’s affection.
— Cunning indeedl he said. Is it you? You poor poet, you!
— And you made me confess to you, Stephen said, thrilled by his touch,
as I have confessed to you so many other things, have I not?
— Yes, my child, Cranly said, still gaily.
— You made me confess the fears that I have. But I will tell you also
what I do not fear. I do not fear to be alone or to be spurned for another
or to leave whatever I have to leave. And I am not afraid to make
a mistake, even a great mistake, a lifelong mistake, and perhaps as long
as eternity too.
Cranly, now grave again, slowed his pace and said:
— Alone, quite alone. You have no fear of that. And you know what
that word means? Not only to be separate from all others but to have
not even one friend.
— I will take the risk, said Stephen.
23 — Limba armiei* pentru adm. !n înv. «uparlor 353
— And not to have any one person, Cranly said, who would be more
than a friend, more even than the noblest and truest friend a man ever
had.
His words seemed to have struck some deep chord in his own nature.
Had he spoken of himself, of himself as he was or wished to be? Stephen
watched his face for some moments in silence. A cold sadness was there.
He had spoken of himself, of his own loneliness which he feared.
— Of whom are you speaking? Stephen asked at length.
Cranly did not answer.
RICHARD ALDINGTON
From Death of a Hero
Prologue — Morte d’un erde. Allegretto

The casualty lists went on appearing for a long time after the Armi
stice — last spasms of Europe’s severed arteries. Of course, nobody much
bothered to read the lists. Why should they? The living must protect them
selves from the dead, especially the intrusive dead.
Under the heading “Killed in Action,” one of these later lists contained
the words: “Winterbourne, Edward Frederick George, A/Capt., 2/9 Battn.
R. Foddershire Regt.”
The small interest created by this item of news and the rapidity with
which he was forgotten would have surprised even George Winterbourne;
and he had that bottomless cynicism of the infantry subaltern which veiled
itself in imbecile cheerfulness, and thereby misled a good many not very
acute people. Winterbourne had rather hoped he would be killed, and knew
that his premature demise in the middle twenties would be borne with
easy stoicism by those who survived him. But his vanity would have been
a little shocked by what actually happened.
A life, they say, may be considered as a point of light which suddenly
appears from nowhere, out of the blue. The point describes a luminous
geometrical figure in space-time; and then just as suddenly disappears I
suppose Winterbourne’s name does appear on some War Memorial, proba
bly in the Chapel of his Public School; and, of course, he’s got his neat
ration of headstone in France. But that’s about all. Nobody much minded
that he was killed. But I know — because he told me himself — that he
had rather relied on four people to take some interest in him and his fate.
They were his father and mother, his wife and his mistress. If he had
known what actually occurred with these four at the news of his death
I think he would have been a little shocked, as well as heartily amused
and perhaps a bit relieved. It would have freed him from certain feelings
of responsibility.
Winterbourne’s father was an inadequate sentimentalist. Mild, with an
affectation of gentility, incompetent, selfishly unselfish, he had the genius
for messing up other people’s lives. That was the one thing he ever did
with complete and satisfactory thoroughness. Old Winterbourne was in
London, “doing war work,” when the news of George’s death came. At the
fatal news Mr. Winterbourne had fallen upon his knees ejaculating: “Lord
Jesus, receive his soul!” Mr. Winterbourne remained on his knees for some
time. But, as the hall tiles hurt his knees, he went and knelt on a hassock
at the prie-dieu in his bedroom. After dinner, of which he ate sparingly,
thinking with dreary satisfaction how grief destroys appetite, he went round
to see his confessor, Father Slack. He spent a pleasantly emotional evening.
Mr. Winterbourne cried a good deal, and they both prayed. Father Slack
said he would pray for George’s soul, and Mr. Winterbourne left £ 5 for Mas
ses for the repose of George, which was generous (if foolish), for he didn’t
earn much. And then Mr. Winterbourne used to pray ten minutes longer
every night and morning for George’s soul, but unfortunately he went
and got himself run over just by the Marble Arch. So, as the £ 5 was soon
exhausted, there was nobody to pray for George’s soul; and for all the
Holy Roman and Apostolic Church knows or cares, poor George is in Hell,
and likely to remain there.
So much for George’s father and George’s death. The “reactions” of
Mrs. Winterbourne were different. She found it rather exciting and stim
ulating at first, especially erotically stimulating. She was a woman who
constantly dramatised herself and her life. She was as avid of public consid
eration as an Italian lieutenant, no matter what the quality of the praise.
Although a lady of “mature charms”, Mrs. Winterbourne loved to fancy
herself as a delicious young thing of seventeen, passionately beloved by a
sheik-like but nevertheless “clean” (not to say “straight”) Englishman. She
had had so many of these clean, straight young sheiks, that even poor
Mr. Winterbourne got mixed up.
The formula for the death of a married mistress’s son was stern heroism,
and gentle consolation to the wounded mother-heart. Mrs. Winterbourne
played up at first — it was the sort of thing that the sheik always did
with his passionate but tender love. But the effect of George’s death on
her temperament was, strangely enough, wholly erotic. Couldn’t the man
see that tender nerves like hers needed to be soothed with a little Real
Love at once?
Elizabeth was out when the telegram came from the War Office. She
did not get it until nearly midnight, when she came back to the flat with
a fascinating young Swedish painter she had met at a Chelsea “rag” that
evening. The telegram was lying on the door-mat with two or three letters.
Elizabeth picked them up, and opened the telegram mechanically as she
switched on the electric light. The Swede stood watching her drunkenly and
amorously. She could not avoid a slight start, and turned a little pale.
“What’s the matter?”
Elizabeth laughed her high little laugh, and laid the telegram and let
ters on the table.
“The War Office regrets that my husband has been killed in action.”
It was now the Swede’s turn to be startled.
Next day Elizabeth wrote to Fanny the first letter she had sent her
for months:
“Only a line, darling, to tell you that I have a telegram from the W.O.
to say George was killed in France on the 4th. I thought it would be less
of a shock for you to hear it from me than accidentally. Come and see me
when you get your weeps over, and we can hold a post-mortem.”
Fanny didn’t reply to the letter. She had been rather fond of George,
and thought Elizabeth heartless.
The death of a hero! What mockery, what bloody cantl What sickening,
putrid cant! George’s death is a symbol to me of the whole sickening
bloody waste of it, the damnable stupid waste and torture of it. You’ve
seen how George’s own people — the makers of his body, the women who
held his body to theirs — were affected by his death. The Army did its
bit, but how could the Army individually mourn a million “heroes”? How
could the little bit of Army which knew George mourn him? At dawn the
next morning we were hot-foot after the retreating enemy, and did not
pause until the Armistice.
What can we do? Headstones and wreaths and memorials and speeches
and the Cenotaph — no, no; it has got to be something in us. Somehow
we must atone to the dead — the dead, murdered, violently-dead soldiers.
The reproach is not from them, but in ourselves. Most of us don’t know
it, but it is there, and poisons us. It is the poison that makes us heart
less and hopeless and lifeless — us, the war generation, and the new gener
ation too. The whole world is blood-guilty, cursed like Orestes, and mad,
and destroying itself, as if pursued by an infinite legion of Eumenides.
Somehow we must atone, somehow we must free ourselves from the curse —
the blood-guiltiness.
Both fragments belong to novels interested in the shaping of a young

personality (James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, first
published in 1916; Richard Aldington, Death of a Hero, first published in
1929); both characters are excessively sensitive, frustrated and alienated
from their environment; both fragments are concerned with the loneliness
of the two characters. It is here, however, that the points of resemblance
end. Instead, the difference between the two fragments, novels and writers
is rather considerable.
First of all there is the different length of the two fragments, which is
not an accident or the result of arbitrary choice, but a very significant
difference in mode of artistic expression. Loneliness in the case of Joyce
is expressed in a very short, significant and symbolical dialogue, while in
the case of Aldington it could only be rendered through an accumulation
of facts and events. Stephen’s complete and self-conscious alienation from
all men is suggested in a brief dialogue which implies two widely different
attitudes; George’s loneliness is a matter of gradual alienation because of
the indifference and criminal selfishness of his environment — his parents,
his wife, his mistress, the whole of society. While in the case of Joyce
we have one single moment of complete significance, in the case of Aldington
significance can only be inferred through a number of stories which
lead us to the final awareness and significance. Although both fragments
rely on a concrete incident (or incidents) their concreteness is different:
with Joyce we have a concrete incident significant in itself, with Aldington
we have a number of incidents or stories which can become significant if
only related to each other. Completeness here is not suggested in one incident,
but revealed, as the story develops, in all these incidents put together.
Secondly, the two writers use in widely different ways the literary con
vention of the narrator, that is the way in which they tell their story and
consequently their attitude towards this story. Aldington is veiled behind
his first person narrator, presumably a friend of George Winterbourne’s,
Joyce does not take the trouble to put on such an obvious mask. But,
paradoxically, Aldington is much more involved in his story than Joyce
is. Joyce lets his story happen of itself, Aldington constantly comments
upon it and passes judgments.
Each of the short scenes in Aldington’s fragment is accompanied by
remarks which explain the incident to us and interpret it for us: “The
living must protect themselves from the dead, especially the intrusive dead”;
“A life, they say, may be considered as a point of light...”; “and he had
that bottomless cynicism of the infantry subaltern which veiled itself in imbe
cile cheerfulness”; “Winterbourne’s father was an inadequate sentimentalist...”;
“She found it exciting and stimulating at first, especially erotically stimulat
ing”; “The death of a hero! What mockery, what bloody cant!” (and the
rest of the last two paragraphs). These remarks are of two apparently con
tradictory types: detached flippancy and pathetic sentimentalism. Alding
ton’s flippancy is meant to create that feeling of grotesque and sordid
farce which has made of George a hero. The whole society seems to have
conspired in making of George — whom they all think a silly ass and for
whom nobody cares ~ a hero, an armour for their own worries and a
tool for their self-dramatization: grotesque incompetence (Old Winterbourne),
monstruous and histrionic egotism (Mrs. Winterbourne), haunting despair
(Elizabeth), universal guilt (the whole of society). This horrifying insincer
ity creates the discrepancy between truth and reality which accounts for
the bitter irony implied in the title of the novel.
At the same time, this irony which is a result of Aldington’s flippant
tone can in no way be defined as detachment, since it is based on passion
ate protest, frustration and ultimately emotional involvement. This is why
this ironic flippancy is only apparently detached, and this is why it does
not contradict, but it is perfectly integrated into the other characteristic
attitude of the writer towards his story: pathetic sentimentalism. This is
evident in the emotional outbursts of the narrator (“A life, they say, may
be considered as a luminous point..”; and the last two paragraphs), as well
as in his attitude towards George. At first sight he too is one of the gro
tesque figures of the novel — his imbecile cheerfulness, his bottomless but
wholly immature cynicism, his insignificance. He is both incompetently and
pathetically grotesque (like his parents and like his wife and mistress).
On the other hand, of all these people, he is the only one who is redeem
ed, because he is their victim, while they are victims, if at all, of them
selves only. In this respect the title is more deeply ironical since it is
obvious that George is no hero, but it is equally evident that in his own
way, from the point of view of his inner agony, suffering and pain he is
some sort of a hero — not a spectacular, but a pathetic one.
In the case of Joyce, his attitude is only implied, never explicitly ex
pressed. Joyce, as a narrator, is completely effaced. Aldington is veiled
behind his first person narrator and constantly shouts his feelings through
him; Joyce is there, as the conventional third person authorial voice, but
he is never there, actually.
The only two instances when Joyce’s attitude is betrayed are the fol
lowing ones (and even in this case it is very difficult to see what he means):
“He laughed almost slyly and pressed Stephen’s arm with an elder’s affection”;
“Cranly did not answer”. These two remarks imply Stephen’s immaturity
and Cranly’s maturity manifested in their different attitudes towards “si
lence, exile, and cunning”. Stephen’s silence is very loquacious, without his
realizing this, without his realizing that in talking about it, accounting for
it, justifying it he also destroys it. Cranly’s silence instead is genuine and
perfect. Stephen chooses loneliness (exile) as a principle of conduct, as an
ideal perfectly justified not only because he has been driven to it by disap
pointment (see “that in which I no longer believe“), but also because this
is his only possibility of being honest and sincere towards himself and the
world (his family, his country, his religion, men in general). Cranly’s lone
liness is not an ideal, it is a curse of which he is afraid — man cannot
live alone. Finally, “cunning” in this text refers to a mode of expression
which should not be direct and straightforward, but hidden, devious, indi
rect — in a word, cunning. Stephen is not “cunning” here, he is very straight
forward, he makes confessions, he explains his position. Cranly instead is
much more cunning — he is sly, he drops hints, he implies things.
Now, trying to define Joyce’s attitude towards Stephen will be more
difficult than defining Aldington’s attitude towards his hero. Joyce’s atti
tude can be defined as “silence and cunning” — he is never positive he states
nothing, he does not commit himself; he only suggests things. He cunningly
introduces Cranly in order to define Stephen. Cranly’s mere presence demon
strates that Stephen is not the whole truth, that his answer to the dilemma
of this world is not satisfactory because it is insufficient. Joyce does not
exactly condemn Stephen, on the contrary he justifies him, but he does
not necessarily side with him. Aldington, by contrast, does take sides —
for him George alone can be accepted, while the others are rejected. This
is done in a very obvious, almost ostentatious way. Joyce is more cautious,
his attitude is more balanced — he neither completely rejects nor complete
ly accepts. Finally, this is done not in a direct, obvious way, nor in
outbursts of feeling, but in a “cunning” and “silent” manner — he only im
plies and suggests things.
If we try to sum up we may say that: Joyce’s prose writing relies on
an incident significant in itself an by itself, Aldington’s on a story per
manently commented upon; Joyce’s attitude is neither definitely detached,
nor definitely involved, while Aldington’s attitude is emotionally involved
(either completely rejecting or completely accepting); this attitude is implied
in the case of Joyce, and obviously stated in the case of Aldington.
This mode of artistic expression is translated in the theme which, in our
two fragments, is not simply loneliness, because a theme cannot be only
an idea, but an idea realized in artistic form, consequently an idea and the
attitude towards it. For both writers loneliness is the fundamental condition
of modern man, but while for Aldington a dying, decayed society is held
responsible, for Joyce it is only the individual who is responsible for his
own loneliness — after all a society is made of individuals. Aldington’s hero
is offered no chance, Joyce’s hero is subtly offered one, but he does not take
it. Anyway, Joyce cannot turn a lonely individual into a heroic victim,
while Aldington can, and this is why theme cannot exist as an entity sepa
rate from expression.
Finally, the differences between the two fragments and the two writers
are, and can only be, thematic and aesthetic at the same time.
K WALTER SCOTT AND THOMAS HARDY

W. Scott and Th. Hardy have often been associated as “facile romancers”
or as “eccentric” novelists.
For one thing, both were paramount story-tellers and romancers: their
novels exist basically as plot and suspence. Before Scott, the 18th cen
tury novel of Fielding could be taken seriously — it was criticism of life
performed with intelligence and responsibility. Scott and Hardy and preem
inently Dickens, represent a stage in English novel-writing when the
readers could, in hypnotic, often grotesque fashion, get the upper hand over
the novelist’s art and vision. With them fiction became the counterpart of
drama, acting or melodrama meant for the moral sense of convention ridden
audience. Scott’s and Hardy’s or Dickens’ novels may well range with “facile”
romances for the world they present us with sometimes corresponds to human
nature and human norms, sometimes it does not. It is this feeling that some
what levels down Scott’s novels of the British and the Scottish series or
Hardy’s “Romances and Fantasies”, “Novels of Ingenuity”, “Novels of Char
acter and Environment”.
For another thing, Scott and Hardy may be regarded as “eccentric”
novelists not simply because they were regional writers echoing out the
voice of their native lands — Scotland and fictitious Wessex — but also
because through them English fiction got an infusion of folk vitality, in
stinctiveness and poetic imaginative prose that it stored up with national
pride alongside its gains of the intellectual, cerebral prose of Fielding, Sterne
or G. Eliot. In the novels of Scott or Hardy’s the people’s history and geog
raphy overlap and mingle to the point they get dissolved into each other
and existence assumes the significant proportions of myth. Characters exist
in relation to social life — as it is the case in the historical novel or in
the novel of manners — but also in relation to a number of things scarce
ly existing in Thackeray’s, Trollope’s or G. Eliot’s novels, such as the
seasons, folklore, a sense of historical evolution synonymous with both growth
and extinction.
Accordingly their novels break with historical reality twice: once as
romances (though not completely devoid of realistic reflection of life); a
second time as novels ascending to the epic — poetic quality of the myth.
The fragment from “Ivanhoe” is part from the exposition in the plot of
the novel. The fragment from Hardy’s novel anticipates the denouement
of Tess’s conflict with the society of men and fate. The former is part of
a historical novel par excellence, the latter is part of a “Bildungsroman”
type of novels i.e. novels about the physical and spiritual growth of a char
acter within a social context. Nevertheless, the excerpts present similar
subject matters: historical relics — Yorkshire monoliths and the famous
Stonehenge in Dorsetshire — by the side of human character in later his
torical ages — end of the 2nd and end of the 19th centuries.
WALTER SCOTT
From Ivanhoe (Ch. I)
The sun was setting upon one of the rich grassy glades of that forest.
...A considerable open space, in the midst of this glade, seemed formerly
to have been dedicated to the rites of Druidical superstition; for, on the
summit of a hillock, so regular as to seem artificial, there still remained
part of a circle of rough unhewn stones, of large dimensions. Seven stood
upright; the rest had been dislodged from their places, probably by the
zeal of some convert to Christianity, and lay, some prostrate near their for
mer site, and others on the side of the hill. One large stone only had
found its way to the bottom, and in stopping the course of a small brook,
which glided smoothly round the foot of the eminence, gave, by its oppo
sition, a feeble voice of murmur to the placid and elsewhere silent streamlet.
The human figures which completed this landscape, were in number two,
partaking, in their dress and appearance, of that wild and rustic character,
which belonged to the woodlands of the West-Riding of Yorkshire at that
early period. The eldest of these men had a stern, savage, and wild aspect.
His garment was of the simplest form imaginable, being a close jacket with
sleeves, composed of the tanned skin of some animal on which the hair
had been originally left, but which had been worn off in so many places,
that it would have been difficult to distinguish from the patches that re
mained, to what creature the fur had belonged. ...One part of his dress
was a brass ring, resembling a dog’s collar, but without any opening, and
soldered fast round his neck, so loose as to form no impediment to his
breathing, yet so tight as to be incapable of being removed, excepting by
the use of the file. On this singular gorget was engraved, in Saxon char
acters, an inscription of the following purport: “Gurth, the son of Beowulph,
is the born thrall of Cedric of Rotherwood”.
Beside the swine-herd, for such was Gurth's occupation, was seated, upon
one of the fallen Druidical monuments, a person about ten years younger
in appearance, and whose dress, though resembling his companion’s in
form, was of better materials, and of a more fantastic appearance. His jacket
had been stained of a bright purple hue, upon which there had been some
attempt to paint grotesque ornaments, in different colours. To the jacket
he added a short cloak, which scarcely reached half way down his thigh;
it was of crimson cloth, though a good deal soiled, lined with bright yellow;
and as he could transfer it from one shoulder to the other, or at this plea
sure draw it all around him, its width, contrasted with its want of longi
tude, formed a fantastic piece of drapery. He had thin silver bracelets upon
his arms, and on his neck a collar of the same metal, bearing the inscription,
“Wamba, the son of Witless, is the thrall of Cedric of Rotherwood”.
1. To what extent is Scott’s interest in pagan history (the time of Drui
dical rites and monuments) central to his vision of medieval times i.e.
the subject matter of “Ivanhoe”?
2. To what extent is Hardy’s interest in pagan history, geology and evolu
tion central to his vision of the 19th century English society and indi
vidual?
3. In which of the two excerpts does the historical remnant subtly, symbol'
ically dissolve into the human character to the extent that background
and character are no longer felt as coexisting side by side but rather
existing as one indissoluble presence?
4. The excerpt from Scott’s novel is highly descriptive, the one from Hardy’s
“Tess” is both descriptive and dramatic (through dialogue and action)
in the presentation of human character. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of each of the two narrative techniques?
5. What is the significance of juxtaposing secondary characters (Gurth,
Wamba) to history?
6. What is the significance of juxtaposing protagonists to history in Th.
Hardy’s novel?
7. W. Scott had a historian’s habits and pursuits. He was a medievalist
and a collector of antiquities. Th. Hardy had an architect’s training and
besides he was a widely read man. Both were acknowledged poets. Which
of the two descriptions of pagan relics is more convincing and for
what reasons?
8. What particular aspects of human character are the two novelists in
tent upon?
9. What is the perspective (the close proximity or the sensible distance)
the omniscient narrator chooses in depicting characters and to what
effects?
THOMAS HARDY
From Tess of the D’Urbervilles (Ch. LVII I)
Though the sky was dense with cloud a diffused light from some frag
ment of a moon had hitherto helped them a little. But the moon had now
sunk, the clouds seemed to settle almost on their heads, and the night
grew as dark as a cave. ...They had proceeded thus gropingly two or three
miles when on a sudden Clare became conscious of some vast erection close
in his front, rising sheer from the grass. They had almost struck them
selves against it.
“What monstrous place is this?” said Angel.
“It hums”, said she. “Hearken 1”
He listened. The wind, playing upon the edifice, produced a booming
tune, like the note of some gigantic onestringed harp. No other sound came
from it, and lifting his hand and advancing a step or two, Clare felt the
vertical surface of the wall. It seemed to be of solid stone, without joint
or moulding. Carrying his fingers onward he found that what he had come
in contact with what was a colossal rectangular pillar; by stretching out his
left hand he could feel a similar one adjoining. At an indefinite height
overhead something made the black sky blacker, which had the semblance
of a vast architrave uniting the pillars horizontally. They carefully entered
beneath and between; the surfaces echoed their soft rustle; but they seem
ed to be still out of doors. The place was roofless. Tess drew her breath
fearfully, and Angel perplexed, said:
21 — Limba rtmlvzA pentru adm. în înv. superior 361
“What can it be?”
Feeling sideways they encountered another towerlike pillar, square and
uncompromising as the first; beyond it another and another. The place was
all doors and pillars, some connected above by continous architraves.
“A very Temple of the Winds”, he said.
The next pillar was isolated; others composed a trilithon; others were
prostrate, their flanks forming a causeway wide enough for a carriage;
and it was soon obvious that they made up a forest of monoliths grouped upon
the grassy expanse of the plain. The couple advanced farther into this pavil
ion of the night till they stood in its midst.
“It is Stonehenge!” said Clare.
“The heathen temple, you mean?”
“Yes, older than the centuries; older than the D’Urbervillesl Well, what
shall we do, darling? We may find shelter farther on”....
...“I don’t want to go any farther, Angel” she said stretching out her
hand for his. “Can’t we bide here?”
“I fear not. This spot is visible for miles by day, although it does not
seem so now.”
“One of my mother’s people was a shepherd hereabouts, now I think
of it. And you used to say at Talbothays that I was a heathen. So now
I am at home.”
B. CHARLES DICKENS AND WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY
Draw a comparison between the following prose texts along the following
topics: a) incident b) characters c) atmosphere d) authorial commentary
e) language.
CHARLES DICKENS
From The Posthumous Papers oî the Pickwick Club (Ch. V)
‘Woo!’ said the gentleman, ‘I have dropped my whip.’

‘Winkle!’ said Mr. Pickwick, ‘I have dropped my whip.’
‘Winkle’, said Mr. Snodgrass, as the equestrian came trottin up on the
tall horse, with his hat over his ears, and shaking all over, as if he would
shake to pieces, with the violence of the exercise, ‘pick up the whip, there’s
a good fellow.’ Mr. Winkle pulled at the bridle of the tall horse till he was
black in the face; and having at length succeeded in stopping him, dis
mounted, handed the whip to Mr. Pickwick and grasping the reins, prepared
to remount.
Now whether the tall horse, in the natural playfulness of his disposition,
was desirous of having a little innocent recreation with Mr. Winkle, or
whether it occurred to him that he could perform the journey as much to
his own satisfaction without a rider as with one, are points upon which, of
course, we can arrive at no definite conclusion. By whatever motives the
animal was actuated, certain it is that Mr. Winkle had no sooner touched
the reins, than he slipped them over his head, and darted backwards to
their full length.
‘Poor fellow,’ said Mr. Winkle soothingly,—‘poor fellow—good old horse.’
‘The poor fellow’ was proof against flattery: the more Mr. Winkle tried to get
nearer him, the more he sidled away; and notwithstanding all kinds of coax
ing and wheedling, there were Mr. Winkle and the horse going round and
round each other for ten minutes, at the end of which time each was pre
cisely at the same distance from the other as when they first commenced
— an unsatisfactory sort of thing under any circumstances, but particularly
so in a lonely road, where no assistance can be procured.
‘What am I do to?’ shouted Mr. Winkle, after the dodging had been
prolonged for a considerable time. ‘What am I do to? I can’t get on him.’
‘You had better lead him till we come to a turnpike,’ replied Mr. Pick
wick from the chaise.
‘But he won’t come’, roared Mr. Winkle. ‘Do come and hold him.’
Mr. Pickwick was the very personation of kindness and humanity: he
threw the reins on the horse’s back, and having descended from his seat,
carefully drew the chaise into the hedge, lest anything should come along
the road, and stepped back to the assistance of his distressed companion,
leaving Mr. Tupman and Mr. Snodgrass in the vehicle.
The horse no sooner beheld Mr. Pickwick advancing towards him, with
the chaise whip in his hand, than he exchanged the rotary motion in which
he had previously indulged, for a retrograde movement of so very deter
mined a character, that it at once drew Mr. Winkle, who was still at the
end of the bridle at a rather quicker rate than fast walking, in the direction
from which they had just come. Mr. Pickwick ran to his assistance; but
the faster Mr. Pickwick ran forward, the faster the horse ran forward.
There was a great scraping of feet, and kicking up of the dust; and, at
last Mr. Winkle, his arms being nearly pulled out of their sockets, fairly
let go his hold.
W. M. THACKERAY
From Vanity Fair (Ch. II)
She took advantage, therefore, of the means of study the place offered
her; and as she was already a musician and a good linguist she speedily
went through the little course of study which was considered necessary
for ladies in those days. Her music she practised incessantly, and, one day
when the girls were out, and she remained at home, she was overheard to
play a piece so well, that Minerva thought wisely, she could spare herself
the expense of a master for the juniors, and intimated to Miss Sharp that
she was to instruct them in music for the future.
The girl refused; and for the first time, and to the astonishment of the
majestic mistress of the school. ‘I am here to speak French with the chil
dren,’ Rebecca said abruptly, ‘not to teach the music, and save money for
you. Give me money, and I will teach them.’
Minerva was obliged to yield, and, of course, disliked her from that
day. ‘For fivo-and-thirty years,’ she said, and with great justice,
‘I never have seen the individual who has dared in my own home to question
my authority. I have nourished a viper in my bosom?
‘A viper—a fiddlestick,’said Miss Sharp to the old lady, almost fainting
with astonishment, ‘you took me because I was useful. There is no question
of gratitude between us. I hate this place, with a horrid sarcastic demonia
cal laughter, that almost sent the mistress into fits. ‘Give me a sum of
money,’ said the girl, ‘and get rid of me—or, if you like better, get me a
good place as governess in a nobleman’s family—you can do so if you
please.’ And in their further disputes she always returned to this point,
‘Get me a situation—we hate each other? and I am ready to go.’
Worthy Miss Pinkerton, although she had a Roman nose and a turban,
and was as tall as a grenadier, and had been up to this time an irresist
ible princess, had no will or strength like that of her little apprentice, and
in vain did battle against her, and tried to overawe her. Attempting once to
scold her in public, Rebecca hit upon the plan of answering her in French,
which quite routed the old woman. In order to maintain authority in her
school, it became necessary to remove this rebel, this monster, this ser
pent, this firebrand; and hearing about this time that Sir Pitt Crawley’s
family was in want of a governess, she actually recommended Miss
Sharp for the situation, firebrand and serpent as she was.
C. RICHARD ALDINGTON AND ERNEST HEMINGWAY
RICHARD ALDINGTON
From The Death of a Hero
At dawn one morning when it was misty he walked over the top of
Hill 91, where probably nobody had been by day since its capture. The heavy
mist brooded about him in a strange stillness. Scarcely a sound on their
immediate front, though from north and south came the vibration of furi
ous drum-fire. The ground was a desert of shell-holes and torn rusty wire,
and everywhere lay skeletons in steel-helmets, still clothed in the rags of
sodden khaki or field grey. Here a fleshless hand still clutched a broken
rusty rifle; there a gaping, decaying boot showed the thin, knotty foot
bones. He came on a skeleton violently dismembered by a shell explosion;
the skull was split open and the teeth lay scattered on the bare chalk; the
force of the explosion had driven coins and a metal pencil right into the
hip-bones and femurs. In a concrete pill-box three German skeletons lay
across their machine-gun with its silent nozzle still pointing at the loop
hole. They had been attacked from the rear with phosphours grenades,
which burn their way into the flesh, and for which there is no possible
remedy. A shrunken leather strap still held a battered wrist-watch on a
fleshless wristbone. Alone in the white curling mist, drifting slowly past
like wraiths of the slain, with the far-off thunder of drumfire beating the
air, Winterbourne stood in frozen silence and contemplated the last achieve
ments of civilised men.
A raiding party was sent out from his front. He watched the box bar
rage from the Front line. The Germans filled the night with Verey lights
and coloured rockets. Their artillery and trench-mortars and machine-guns
retaliated fiercely. Smoke and gas drifted across. After interminable waiting
the officer and three of the men staggered back, bleeding, blackened with
smoke, their clothes torn to pieces on the wire. The raid had failed.
ERNEST HEMINGWAY
From A Farewell to Arms
It stormed all that day. The wind drove down the rain and everywhere
there was standing water and mud. The plaster of the broken houses was gray
and wet. Late in the afternoon the rain stopped and from out number two
post I saw the bare wet autumn country with clouds over the tops of the hills
and the straw screening over the roads wet and dripping. The sun came
out once before it went down and shone on the bare woods beyond the
ridge. There were many Austrian guns in the woods on that ridge but
only a few fired. I watched the sudden round puffs of shrapnel smoke in
the sky above a broken farmhouse near where the line was; soft puffs with a
yellow white flash in the centre. You saw the flash, then heard the crack,
then saw the smoke ball distort and thin in the wind. There were many
iron shrapnel balls in the rubble of the houses and on the road beside the
broken house where the post was, but they did not shell near the post that
afternoon. We loaded two cars and drove down the road that was screen
ed with wet mats and the last of the sun came through in the breaks
between the strips of mattings. Before we were out on the clear road be
hind the hill the sun was down. We went on down the clear road and as it
turned a corner into the open and went into the square arched tunnel of mat
ting the rain started again.
The wind rose in the night and at three o’clock in the morning with the
rain coming in sheets there was a bombardment and the Croatians came
over across the mountain meadows and through patches of woods and
into the front line. They fought in the dark in the rain and a counter
attack of scared men from the second line drove them back. There was
much shelling and many rockets in the rain and machine-gun and rifle fire
all along the line. They did not come again and it was quieter [and be
tween the gusts of wind and rain we could hear the sound of a great bom
bardment far to the north.
The wounded were coming into the post, some were carried on stretch
ers, some walking and some were brought on the backs of men that came
across the field. They were wet to the skin and all were scared. We filled
two cars with stretcher cases as they came up from the cellar of the post
and as I shut the door of the second car and fastened it I felt the rain on
my face turn to snow. The flakes were coming heavy nad fast in the
rain.
1. Explain by what means the two authors suggest the inhumanity of
war.
2, Which of the two authors uses more violent descriptions? Explain your
choice and point out instances.
3. Draw a parallel between the use of nature and landscape elements in the
two texts.
4. Does the enemy appear at all in the two texts? In what way? Are there
differences between the two authors in this respect?
2. POETRY
A. WILLIAM WORDSWORTH AND JOHN KEATS
Garry out a parallel analysis of the poems below considering the following
indications and questions:
1. Consider the choice of persons illustrated in personal pronouns and
indicating the position of the two poets against the worlds created in
their poems.
2. Why does the preference of the two romantic poets go for the cuckoo
and the nightingale? Account for the presence of these birds in the two
poemsand speak about their symbolic value.
3. Speak about the affinity between music and poetry as implied in these
poems.
4. Define and distinguish between the different states of mind produced by
the two birds in the soul of the two poets.
5. Account for Wordsworth’s uncertainty about the physical reality of the
cuckoo and Keats’ question “Do I wake or sleep?”.
6. Identify the qualitative difference between reality and the respective
world called to life by the song of either the cuckoo or the nightingale.
Try to tell the ideal and the perfect from the imperfect according to
the poetic creeds of the two poets.
7. Illustrate Wordsworth’s and Keats’ love of nature by insisting on images
of natural beauty included in the two poems.
8. Gan you tell any difference in tone between Wordsworth’s “To the
Cuckoo” and Keats’ Ode?
9. Analyse the rhyme pattern of each poem taking a stanza of either of them
as a sample.
10. What figures of speech are there to be found in these poems? Detect and
compare similes, metaphors, synecdoches, personifications, a.s.o.
WILLIAM WORDSWORTH
To the Cuckoo
0 BLITHE New-comer! I have heard,
I hear thee and rejoice:
0 Cuckoo! shall I call thee Bird,
Or but a wandering Voice?
While I am lying on the grass,
I hear thy restless shout:
From hill to hill it seems to pass,
About, and all about!
To me, no Babbler with a tale
Of sunshine and of flowers,
Thou tellest, Cuckoo, in the vale
Of visionary hours.
Thrice welcome, Darling of the Spring!
Even yet thou art to me
No Bird; but an invisible Thing,
A voice, a mystery.
The same whom in my School-boy days
I listen’d to; that Cry
Which made me look a thousand ways;
In bush, and tree, and sky.
To seek thee did I often rove
Through woods and on the green;
And thou wert still a hope, a love;
Still long’d for, never seen!
And I can listen to thee yet;
Can lie upon the plain
And listen, till I do beget
That golden time again.
0 Blessed Bird! the earth we pace
Again appears to be
An unsubstantial, faery place;
That is fit home for Thee!
JOHN KEATS
Ode to a Nightingale
I
My HEART aches, and a drowsy numbness pains
My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk,
Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains
One minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk:
’Tis not through envy of thy happy lot,
But being too happy in thine happiness, —
That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees,
In some melodious plot
Of beechen green, and shadows numberless,
Singest of summer in full-throated ease.
II
0, for a draught of vintage! that hath been
Cool’d a long age in the deep-delved earth,
Tasting of Flora and the country green,
Dance, and Provencal song, and sunburnt mirth!
0 for a beaker full of the warm South,
Full of the true, the blushful Hippocrene,
With beaded bubbles winking at the brim,
And purple-stained mouth;
That I might drink, and leave the world unseen,
And with thee fade away into the forest dim
III
Fade far away, dissolve, and quite forget
What thou among the leaves hast never known
The weariness, the fever, and the fret
Here, where men sit and hear each other groan;
Where palsy shakes a few, sad, last gray hairs,
Where youth grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies;
Where but to think is to be full of sorrow
And leaden-eyed despairs,
Where Beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes,
Or new Love pine at them beyond to-morrow.
IV
Away! away! for I will fly to thee,
Not charioted by Bacchus and his pards,
But on the viewless wings of Poesy,
Though the dull brain perplexes and retards:
Already with thee! tender is the night,
And haply the Queen-Moon is on her throne,
Cluster’d around by all her starry Fays;
But here there is no light,
Save what from heaven is with the breezes blown
Through verdurous glooms and winding mossy ways.
V
I cannot see what flowers are at my feet,
Nor what soft incense hangs upon the boughs,
But, in embalmed darkness, guess each sweet
Wherewith the seasonable month endows
The grass, the thicket, and the fruit-tree wild;
White hawthorn, and the pastoral englantine;
Fast fading violets cover’d up in leaves;
And mid-May’s eldest child,
The coming musk-rose, full of dewy wine,
The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.
VI
Darkling I listen; and, for many a time
I have been half in love with easeful Death,
Call’d him soft names in many a mused rhyme,
To take into the air my quiet breath;
Now more than ever seems it rich to die,
To cease upon the midnight with no pain,
While thou art pouring forth thy soul abroad
In such an ecstasy!
Still wouldst thou sing, and I have ears in vain —
To thy high requiem become a sod.
VII
Thou wast not born for death, immortal Bird!
No hungry generations tread thee down;
The voice I hear this passing night was heard
In ancient days by emperor and clown:
Perhaps the self-same song that found a path
Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home,
She stood in tears amid the alien corn;
The same that oft-times hath
Charm’d magic casements, opening on the foam
Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn.
VUI
Forlorn! the very word is like a bell
To toll me back from thee to my sole self!
Adieu! the fancy cannot cheat so well
As she is fam’d to do, deceiving elf.
Adieu! adieu! the plaintive anthem fades
Past the near meadows, over the still stream,
Up the hill-side; and now’this buried deep
In the next valley-glades:
Was it a vision, or a waking dream?
Fled is that music:— Do I wake or sleep?
B. PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY AND GEORGE GORDON BYRON
Compare the two fragments below concentrating mainly on such topics

as: (a) the treatment of external nature; (b) the lyrical quality of the verse;
(c) the relationship between man and environment; (d) the chief stylistical
devices resorted to by the two poets.
From Mont Blanc
IV
The fields, the lakes, the forests, and the streams,
Ocean, and all the living things that dwell
Within the daedal earth; lightning, and rain,
Earthquake, and fiery flood, and hurricane,
The torpor of the year when feeble dreams
Visit the hidden buds, or dreamless sleep
Holds every future leaf and flower; — the bound
With which from that detested trance they leap;
The works and ways of man, their death and birth,
And that of him and all that his may be;
All things that move and breathe with toil and sound
Are born and die; revolve, subside, and swell.
Power dwells apart in its tranquillity,
Remote, serene, and inaccessible:
And this, the naked countenance of earth,
On which I gaze, even these primaeval mountains
Teach the adverting mind. The glaciers creep
Like snakes that watch their prey, from their far fountains,
Slow rolling on; there, many a precipice,
Frost and the Sun in scorn of mortal power
Have piled: dome, pyramid, and pinnacle,
A city of death, distinct with many a tower
And wall impregnable of beaming ice.
Yet not a city, but a flood of ruin
Is there, that from the boundaries of the sky
Rolls its perpetual stream; vast pines are strewing
Its destined path, or in the mangled soil
Branchless and shattered stand; the rocks, drawn down
From yon remotest waste, have overthrown
The limits of the dead and living world,
Never to be reclaimed. The dwelling-place
Of insects, beasts, and birds, becomes its spoil
Their food and their retreat for ever gone,
So much of life and joy is lost. The race
Of man flies far in dread; his work and dwelling
Vanish, like smoke before the tempest’s stream,
And their place is not known. Below, vast caves
Shine in the rushing torrents’ restless gleam,
Which from those secret chasms in tumult welling
Meet in the vale, and one majestic River,
The breath and blood of distant lands, for ever
Rolls its loud waters to the ocean-waves,
Breathes its swift vapours to the circling air.
V
Mont Blanc yet gleams on high: — the power is there,
The still and solemn power of many sights,
And many sounds, and much of life and death.
In the calm darkness of the moonless nights,
In the lone glare of day, the snows descend
Upon that Mountain; none beholds them there,
Nor when the flakes burn in the sinking sun,
Or the star-beams dart through them: — Winds contend
Silently there, and heap the snow with breath
Rapid and strong, but silently! Its home
The voiceless lightning in these solitudes
Keeps innocently, and like vapour broods
Over the snow. The secret Strength of things
Which governs thought, and to the infinite dome
Of Heaven is as a law, inhabits thee!
And what were thou, and earth, and stars, and sea,
If to the human mind’s imaginings
Silence and solitude were vacancy?
GEORGE GORDON BYRON
From Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (Canto IV)

There is a pleasure in the pathless woods,
There is a rapture on the lonely shore,
There is society, where none intrudes,
By the deep Sea, and music in its roar:
I love not Man the less, but Nature more,
From these our interviews, in which I steal
From all I may be, or have been before,
To mingle with the Universe, and feel
What I can ne’er express, yet cannot all conceal.
Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean — roll!
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain;
Man marks the earth with ruin — his control
Stops with the shore; upon the watery plain
The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain
A shadow of man’s ravage, save his own,
When, for a moment, like a drop of rain,
He sinks into thy depths with bubbling groan,
Without a grave, unknell’d, uncoffin’d, and unknown.
His steps are not upon thy paths, — thy fields
Are not a spoil for him, — thou dost arise
And shake him from thee; the vile strength he wields
For earth’s destruction thou dost all despise,
Spurning him from thy bosom to the skies,
And send’st him, shivering in thy playful spray
And howling, to his Gods, where haply lies
His petty hope in some near port or bay,
And dashest him again to earth: — there let him lay.
The armaments which thunderstrike the walls
Of rock-built cities, bidding nations quake,
And monarchs tremble in their capitals,
The oak leviathans, whose huge ribs make
Their clay creator the vain title take
Of lord of thee, and arbiter of war —
These are thy toys, and, as the snowy flake,
They melt into thy yeast of waves, which mar
Alike the Armada’s pride or spoils of Trafalgar.
Thy shores are empires, changed in all save thee —

Assyria, Greece, Rome, Carthage, what are they?
Thy waters wash’d them power while they were free,
And many a tyrant since; their shores obey
The stranger, slave, or savage; their decay
Has dried up realms to deserts: — not so thou,
Unchangeable save to thy wild waves’ play: —
Time writes no wrinkle on thy azure brow:
Such as creation’s dawn beheld, thou rollest now.
Thou glorious mirror, where the Almighty’s form

Glasses itself in tempests; in all time,
Calm or convulsed — in breeze, or gale, or storm,
Icing the pole, or in the torrid clime
Dark-heaving — boundless, endless, and sublime —
The image of Eternity — the throne
Of the Invisible; even from out thy slime
The monsters of the deep are made; each zone
Obeys thee; thou goest forth, dread, fathomless, alone.
ANNEX
MAKING A COMPLEX ANALYSIS OF A

LITERARY TEXT
The two analyses below cover a variety of aspects of poetry and fiction
which form the object of any critical discussion on poems or novels. Study
them carefully, answer the questions they ask and try to apply the directions
and hints they contain to other texts.
A. HOW TO ANALYSE FICTION
CHARLES DICKENS
From Hard Times (Book the First, Ch. I)

The One Thing Needful
“Now, what I want is, Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but
Facts. Facts alone are wanted in life. Plant nothing else, and root out
everything else. You can only form the minds of reasoning animals upon
Facts: nothing else will ever be of any service to them. This is the principle
on which I bring up my own children, and this is the principle on which
I bring up these children. Stick to Facts, Sir!”
The scene was a plain, bare, monotonous vault of a school-room, and the
speaker’s square forefinger emphasized his observations by underscoring
every sentence with a line on the schoolmaster’s sleeve. The emphasis was
helped by the speaker’s square wall of a forehead, which had his eyebrows
for its base, while his eyes found commodious cellarage in two dark caves,
overshadowed by the wall. The emphasis was helped by the speaker’s mouth
which was wide, thin, and hard set. The emphasis was helped by the speak
er’s voice, which was inflexible, dry, and dictatorial. The emphasis was
helped by the speaker’s hair, which bristled on the skirts of his bald head,
a plantation of firs to keep the wind from its shining surface, all covered
with knobs, like the crust of a plum pie, as if the head had scarcely ware
house-room for the hard facts stored inside. The speaker’s obstinate car
riage, square coat, square legs, square shoulders, — nay, his very neck
cloth, trained to take him by the throat with an unaccommodating grasp,
like a stubborn fact, as it was, — all helped the emphasis.
“In this life, we want nothing but Facts, Sir; nothing but Facts!”
The speaker, and the schoolmaster, and the third grown person present,
all backed a little, and swept with their eyes the inclined plane of little
vessels then and there arranged in order, ready to have imperial gallons of
facts poured into them until they were full to the brim.
Why do we read fiction in general, novels in particular? Is that because
fiction has some value to us or because it has no value at all, because it
is just another form of social indulgence or a pleasant pastime whose popu
larity rests precisely on the lack of public esteem? The answers to these
questions reflect the growth of aesthetic consciousness. The novel, this com
paratively young literary genre (compared to poetry and drama) struggled
into acknowledged existence first as history (records of the character’s life,
letter-writing, autobiographies) until it reached an aesthetically autonomous
condition of a new almost infinitely comprehensive and significant genre.
Starting from the assumption that literary form or technique is divis
ible only for theoretical purposes of demonstration but indivisible in the proc
ess of percepting the literary phenomenon as a whole — content speaks
through form; form expresses the idea and theme; style is plot in piecemeal
aspects; an author’s technique is his vision —the following elements may be
considered in a critical analysis of a fiction text:
1. The Nature of Fiction
2. The Craft of Fiction
a) Problems of structure of the Novel (unity and coherence; plot and
story; time)
b) The Narrative Technique
c) Subject-matter
d) Characterization
e) Dialogue
f) Action and Plot
g) Atmosphere and Tone
h) Style
1. The Nature of Fiction
The history of the English novel records the progress of the novel
from interest in the externals of man’s life i.e. plot, through concern for
human character (introspection), to interest in expression.
The novel is not history solely for though curiosity for man’s fate
actuates both the novelist and the historian their object and treatment
differ considerably: the historian’s concern is for actualities, the novelist’s
for actualities and possibilities as well as probabilities.
Similarly, journalism differs from fiction in that it communicates things
literally whereas fiction communicates them symbolically. The novel creates
recognition (life-likeness) and insight through a series of imaginary situations
and characters symbolically selected and ordered. Philosophy also communi
cates insight, journalism also communicates recognition, but the former does
not deal in recognition, the latter — in insight. Only fiction communicates
them simultaneously. The novel may be then defined as the narrative com
munication of a series of imaginary but usually plausible events that are so
patterned, selected, ordered and expressed, as to make up a coherent unity
of significance: litteral, ensuring recognition of the subject matter as taken
from life, symbolic, ensuring a larger range of interpretations other than the
literal truth.
The coherent unity of significance is not the superficial unity of charac
ters or places or time. It is the more vital unity between the novelist’s philos
ophy, life experience, imagination, narrative gifts and the subject matter
that he chooses to illuminate from a special angle. It is the existence or
the absence of this fusion that distinguishes the artist from the mere crafts
man.
2. The Craft of Fiction
a) Besides, a piece of fiction is a unity in the sense that its elements are
related in a net of vital relationships but it is also the grounds for con
flict or conflicts without which fiction would no longer be fiction: conflicts
between characters or between ideas, external conflicts (struggles between
characters or against the environment) or internal conflicts (struggles be
tween the selves of a split ego).
The conflict developing through the stages of complication — exposition
(presentation of the premise of the conflict), complication, climax and denoue
ment (solution) — may be termed plot. Plot may also be defined as the spe
cial structure of actual life action; or else plot is character acting; or plot is
dramatization of the theme or the idea — for all the elements of a piece of
fiction hang together and cohere.
Unlike the intensive effect in poetry, the expansive effect in fiction lies
in the cumulative manner of fusing cause and effect, retrospect and anticipa
tion, in an order which is rarely the strict chronological order of the action in
real life.
b) To determine the narrative technique is to identify the point of view
of the narrator. Any of the following or combinations of them are possible:
— the omniscient (all-knowing) author narration which may be edito
rial (with the author’s interpretation of significance) or objective. The om
niscient technique has its advantages — large scope and freedom of move
ment and introspection — and disadvantages — the more or less strong feel
ing the reader has that he is patronized in his judgements;
— the limited point of view narration may assume either the first person
narration (protagonist, secondary character or observer) or the third person
narrative form with the author identified with the outlook of the character
he narrates about. The limited point of view may be efficient in providing
a greater amount of plausibility and empathy or inefficient through its exces
sive partisan and subjective narration. The novel seldom makes use of
only one such technique throughout its length; it prefers variations, combi
nations, shifts, in the narrative perspective.
c) see: The Nature of Fiction.
d) See the section of exercises dealing in characterization.
Broadly speaking, the methods of characterization may be narrative and
dramatic. The narrative method is drawing a character by description,
interpretation by the author or by other characters. It is narrative in the
sense that the character is narrated about. The dramatic method means
drawing of a character in action (behaviour, self-presentation i.e. speech, his
thoughts). It is somewhat more objective than the narrative method, al
though its degree of objectivity is debatable since it is its author, who, after
all, is the controlling force.
e) see: Characterization.
f) see: The Structure of the Novel.
g) Atmosphere or the dominant emotion permeating a piece of fiction and
communicable to the reader’s sensibility subsumes the tone (modality) i.e.
the author’s attitude towards subject matter and reader. Even the purely
objective realistic narrative technique can seldom refrain form transmitting
the author’s sympathies or antipathies obvious in the humorous, benevo
lent or ironic, satiric, sarcastic tone of expression.
h) Since in the perception of fiction, subject matter and expression are
taken in simultaneously, it follows that ultimately, style is novel.
The range of potentialities of style in fiction comprises word choice,
structure of sentences (briefness, expansion, richness or flatness), repetition,
imagery (visual or auditory), symbol, allegory, allusion, etc.
The text presented for critical consideration is Chapter I, Book I —
“Sowing”.
The character here introduced as “the speaker” is in chapter II identi
fiable as Thomas Gradgrind, a retired merchant, owner of “the model
school” in which M’Choakumchild is headmaster and advocator of “the dry
fact” as “the only thing needful” for any personal or public success.
The chapter can be divided into three sections:
1 — the dramatic presentation of the character’s mind;
2 — the descriptive presentation of the character’s looks (Dickens’ edi
torial omniscient point of view);
3 — a concluding section, combining the dramatic with the descriptive
presentation.
Section 1 strikes us as direct statement of the character’s mind; yet a
closer look at the text invites us to consider the author’s attitude towards
the character (i.e. the irony, the satire in the author’s insistence upon the
key-word “facts” as well as in the absurd, dictatorial recommendations:
“You can only form the minds of reasoning animals upon Facts, nothing
else will ever be of any service to them”.
It is here that we get the sensation that the author is up to a trick,
that he cannot mean what he says, that he is in one of his ironical moods.
In section 2 the sensation becomes certainty: the character that in sec
tion 1 might have been credited with authentic existence i.e. the ordinary
language he uses, the commonplace philosophy he lectures about, his condi
tion as a father, is here projected into the grotesque dimensions of a fictional
world, partly real (the school room, the forefinger, the sleeve, etc.), partly
fantastic and of a grim comic quality (the epithets, metaphors, repetitions).
Gradgrind is not a realistic personage despite the narrator’s insistence upon
the human anatomy of the man: Gradgrind’s human anatomical attributes
are merely abstract words, mathematical symbols barren of life-likennes; the
character’s humanity is grotesquely overridden by objects and characteris
tics of the inanimate world.
The author’s technique in drawing the grotesque character lay, in the
main, in simplifying and exaggerating; like a cartoonist Dickens did not con
centrate his attention on the ordinary, repetitive, typical features but on
the picturesque, bizarre, comic or grotesque detail which he magnified by
overstatement or hyperbole. Besides, grotesque effects are further achieved
by transferring the potencies of the inanimate world on to the dehumanized
world of the humans; the incongruity between the gruesome and the real
istic, the intrusion of one order of existence upon the other, only en
hances the sense of horror.
If in section 1 the reader was introduced to the deceivingly life-like and
the actually monstruous mind and outward appearance of one person — the
theorizer of utilitarianism section 3 enlarges the reader’s scope of vision by
presenting the recipients of the doctrine — “the little vessels arranged to have
imperial gallons of facts poured into them until they were full to the brim”.
The same technique of shifting characteristics from one order of exist
ence on to the other, the same incongruity and clash between incompatible
worlds: this time, however, the grotesque vision of the children — victims
derives its effect from the clash between the monstruous and the comic
elements, e.g. “the little vessels” (Chap. I);
“the little pitchers” (Chap. II).
The conclusion that comes out in the end is that both in the dramatic
presentation and in the descriptive presentation of character the text dis
plays salient satiric purposes that relate Dickens to his predecessors —
J. Swift, H. Fielding, T.G. Smollett, L. Sterne — and his contemporaries —
W. M. Thackeray.
As a writer of the social novel Dickens originated the highly concrete,
picturesque way of looking at society. His criticism did not choose to be
philosophical or theoretical but extremely sensuous and pictorial creating
unmistakable effects through humour, irony, satire, the caricaturist’s tech
nique.
The novelty of Dickens’ enterprise was a matter of vision and technique:
the novelist seems to have preserved a child’s literalism of vision in taking
in objects and beings not as standardized, generalized articles representative
for their genus but as highly individualized bodies. The technique he used
matched his vision.
His fictional world is made up of patches or fragments: recurrent gestures
and phrases, out-of-the-way physical looks, are all amassed on horizontal
levels (as if on a painter’s canvas):
e.g. “the speaker’s square forefinger”, his “square wall of a forehead, “his
square coat”, “square legs”, “square shoulders”, his “mouth which was
wide, thin and hard set”.
or: “the scene was a plain, bare, monotonous vault of a school-room”.
The author organizes the sensuous pictorial fragments by transferring
the attributes of the non-human-world on to the human beings that come
out as humorous or grotesque caricatures of their life-size equivalents and
the reverse correlative transfer that animates the world of objects thus achiev
ing a background of dramatized human emotion.
e.g. The squareness of the anatomical parts of Gradgrind’s body, the compar
isons with such items of the object-world as: wall, cellarage, caves, knobs,
crust, picture a character who is, humanly, impossible, but artistically,
quite plausible — the whole is coherently organized to achieve the effect
of inflexibility, lack of emotion and imagination — all in all, a ghastly
combination of the utilitarian looks and mind.
Similarly, Gradgrind’s neckcloth “trained to take him by the throat...”
is, physically speaking, impossible, but it perfectly coheres with the rest,
in the organized world outside the character i.e. a hard, sometimes aggres
sive world, a world of material gains, of objects turned into fetishes (gold).
Last but not least, the question of Dickens’ realism may be safely posed
here and now for the novelist’s vision of the world is responsible for his
artistic technique — partly realistic, partly melodramatic and satiric. His
show of life originated in the emotional sentimental and melodramatic fidel
ity to his own personal experience. The novelist somehow conceived other
people’s lives as his own life, particularly as his own melodrama. Seldom, and
then unsuccessfully, did Dickens regard life from a distance, as life in gen
eral, life in the grey, well-balanced hues. Dickens’ realism cannot be consid
ered apart from the hallucinatory powers of his imagination and his quiv
ering sensitivity. The swarming host of Dickens’ characters do not
resemble life, neither does his inanimate fictional world, but they possess
the irresistible vitality and vividness of life: you may not remember his
novels by the title or by the labyrinthine plots but you are likely to recall
them by some unforgettable character.
1. JONATHAN SWIFT
From Gulliver’s Travels (A Voyage to Brobdingnag, Ch. I)
At the same time I heard the reapers not above an hundred yards be
hind me. Being quite dispirited with toil, and wholly overcome by grief
and despair, I lay down between two ridges, and heartily wished I might
there end my days. I bemoaned my desolate widow, and fatherless children:
I lamented my own folly and wilfulness in attempting a second voyage against
the advice of all my friends and relations. In this terrible agitation of
mind I could not forbear thinking of Lilliput, whose inhabitants looked upon
me as the greatest prodigy that ever apperared in the world; where I was
able to draw an imperial fleet in my hand, and perform those other actions
which will be recorded for ever in the chronicles of that empire, while poster
ity shall hardly believe them, although attested by millions. I reflected
what a mortification it must prove to me to appear as inconsiderable in this
nation as one single Lilliputian would be among us. But, this I conceived
was to be the least of my misfortunes: for, as human creatures are ob
served to be more savage and cruel in proportion to their bulk; what could
I expect but to be a morsel in the mouth of the first among these enormous
barbarians, who should happen to seize me? Undoubtedly philosophers are
in the right when they tell us, that nothing is great or little, otherwise than
by comparison: it might have pleased fortune to let the Lilliputians find
some nation, where the people were as diminutive with respect to them as
they were to me. And who knows but that even this prodigious race of mor
tals might be equally overmatched in some distant part of the world,
whereof we have yet no discovery?
Scared and confounded as I was, I could not forbear going on with these
reflections; when one of the reapers approaching within ten yards of the
ridge where I lay, made me apprehend, that with the next step I should be
squashed to death under his foot, or cut in two with his reaping-hook. And
therefore when he was again about to move, I screamed as loud as fear
could make me. Whereupon the huge creature trod short, and loaking
round about under him for some time, at last espied me as I lay on the
ground. He considered a while with the caution of one who endeavours to
lay hold on a small dangerous animal in such a manner that it shall not be
able either to scratch or to bite him; as I myself have sometimes done
with a weasel in England. At length he ventured to take me up behind by
the middle between his fore-finger and thumb, and brought me within three
yards of his eyes, that he might behold my shape more perfectly. I guessed
his meaning; and my good fortune gave me so much presence of mind,
that I resolved not to struggle in the least, as he held me in the air
above sixty foot from the ground; although he grievously pinched my sides,
for fear I should slip through his fingers. All I ventured was to raise mine
eyes towards the sun, and place my hands together is a supplicating posture,
and to speak some words in an humble melancholy tone, suitable to the con
dition I then was in. For, I apprehended every moment that he would dash
me against the ground, as we usually do any little hateful animal which we
have a mind to destroy. But my good star would have it, that he ap
peared pleased with my voice and gestures, and began to look upon me as a
curiosity; much wondering to hear me pronounce articulate words, although
he could not understand them. In the mean time, I was not able to for
bear groaning and shedding tears, and turning my head towards my sides;
letting him know, as well as I could, how cruelly I was hurt by the pres
sure of his thumb and finger. He seemed to apprehend my meaning; for,
lifting up the lappet of his coat, he put me gently into it, and immedi
ately ran along with me to his master, who was a substantial farmer, and the
same person I had first seen in the field.
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a first person narrator
as regards the theory that realistic fiction should be a factual document
of actual life?
2. Does Swift’s “Gulliver”s Travels” observe the truth of correspondence
to reality or the truth of coherence?
3. What are the particular elements evident in the excerpt but still more
obvious in “Gulliver’s Travels” as a whole that would entitle it to the
qualification of a novel?
4. What particular elements prevent this piece of fiction from the condi
tion of a novel?
5. To what purposes does Swift use the comic and the grotesque in charac
ter-drawing, the relations among characters, situations?
WALTER SCOTT
From Ivanhoe (Ch. II)
Prior Aymer, therefore, and his character, were well known to our Saxon serfs,
who made their rude obeisance, and received his “benedicite, mes fils,” in return...
“I asked you, my children,” said the Prior, raising his voice, and using
the lingua Franca, or mixed language, in which the Norman and Saxon
races conversed with each other, “if there be in this neighbourhood any good
man, who for the love of God, and devotion to Mother Church, will give
two of her humblest servants, with their train, a night’s hospitality and
refreshment?”
“If the reverend father”, he said, “loved good cheer and soft lodging,
few miles of riding would carry them to the Priory of Brinxworth, where
their quality could not but secure them the most honourable reception;...
The Prior shook his head at the proposal.
“Mine honest friend”, said he, “if the jangling of thy bells had not dizzied
thine understanding, thou mightest have known “Clericus clericum non deci
mat”; that is to say, we churchmen do not exhaust each other’s hospitality,
but rather require that of the laity, giving them thus an opportunity to
serve God in honouring and relieving his appointed servants.”
“It is true,” replied Wamba, “that I, being but an ass, am, nevertheless,
honoured to bear the bells as well as your reverence’s mule; notwithstand
ing, I did conceive that the charity of Mother Church and her servants
might be said, with other charity, to begin at home.”
“A truce to thine insolence, fellow,” said the armed rider, breaking in
on his prattle with a high and stern voice,“and tell us, if thou canst, the
road to — How called you your Franklin, Prior Aymer?”
“Cedric,” answered the Prior: “Cedric the Saxon. Tell me, good fellow,
are we near his dwelling, and can you show us the road?”
“The road will be uneasy to find,” answered Gurth, who broke silence
for the first time, “and the family of Cedric retire early to rest.”
“Tush, tell not me, fellow,” said the military rider; “It is easy for them
to arise and supply the wants of travellers such as we are, who will not
stoop to beg the hospitality which we have a right to command.”
“I know not,” said Gurth, sullenly, “if I should shew the way to my
master’s house, to those who demand as a right, the shelter which most
are fain to ask as a favour.”
“Do you dispute with me, slave!” said the soldier; and, setting spurs
to his horse, he caused him make a demivolte across the path, raising at
the same time the riding rod which he held in this hand, with a purpose
of chastising what he considered as the insolence of the peasant.
Gurth darted at him a savage and revengeful scowl, and with a fierce,
yet hesitating motion, laid his hand on the haft of his knife; but the
interference of Prior Aymer, who pushed his mule betwixt his companion
and the swine-herd, prevented the meditated violence.
“Nay, by St. Mary, Brother Brian, you must not think you are now
in Palestine, predominating over heathen Turks and infidel Saracens; we
islanders love not blows, save those of holy Church, who chasteneth whom
she loveth. — Tell me, good fellow,” said he to Wamba, and seconded his
speech by a small piece of silver coin, “the way to Cedric the Saxon’s;
you cannot be ignorant of it, and it is your duty to direct the wanderer
even when his character is less sanctified than ours.”
“In truth, venerable father,” answered the Jester, “the Saracen head of
your right reverend companion has frightened out of mine the way home —
I am not sure I shall get there to-night myself.”
“Tush,” said the Abbot, “thou canst tell us if thou wilt. This reverend
brother has been all his life engaged in fighting among the Saracens for the
recovery of the Holy Sepulchre; he is of the order of Knights Templars,
whom you may have heard of; he is half a monk, half a soldier.”
“If he is but half a monk,” said the Jester, “he should not be wholly
unreasonable with those whom he meets upon the road, even if they
should be in no hurry to answer questions that no way concern them.”
“I forgive thy wit,” replied the Abbot, “on condition thou wilt show
me the way to Cedric’s mansion.”
“Well, then,” answered Wamba, “your reverences must hold on this path
till you come to a sunken cross, of which scarce a cubit’s length remains
above ground; then take the path to the left, for there are four which meet
at Sunken Cross, and I trust your reverences will obtain shelter before
the storm comes on.”
The Abbot thanked his sage adviser; and the cavalcade, setting spurs to
their horses, rode on as men do who wish to reach their inn before the
bursting of a night-storm. As their horses’ hoofs died away, Gurth said
to his companion, “If they follow thy wise direction, the reverend fathers
will hardly reach Rotherwood this night.”
“No,” said the Jester, grinning, “but they may reach Sheffield if they
have good luck, and that is as fit a place for them. I am not so bad a
woodsman as to show the dog where the deer lies, if I have no mind he
should chase him.”
1. What means of characterization does Scott resort to in the selected

fragment — the descriptive or the dramatic-and to what effects?
2. What is the author’s attitude towards the characters?
3. What is the impact of the “editorial” omniscient narrative technique used
in the fragment upon the reader’s ideas of the plot, characters, con-
flict?
4. Attempt an outline of the central conflict in the novel as it is introduced
in the fragment.
MARK TWAIN
From A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court
(Sir Dinadan the Humorist, Ch. IV)
Sir Dinadan the Humorist was the first to awake, and he soon roused
the rest with a practical joke of a sufficiently poor quality. He tied some
metal mugs to a dog’s tail and turned him loose, and he tore around
and around the place in a frenzy of fright, with all the other dogs bel
lowing after him and battering and crashing against everything that came in
their way and making altogether a chaos of confusion and a most deafen
ing din and turmoil; at which every man and woman of the multitude
laughed till the tears flowed, and some fell out of their chairs and wal
lowed on the floor in ecstasy. It was just like so many children. Sir Dina-
dan was so proud of his exploit that he could not keep from telling over
and over again, to weariness, how the immortal idea happened to occur
to him; and as is the way with humorists of his breed, he was still laugh
ing at it after everybody else had got through. He was so set up that
he concluded to make a speech — of course a humorous speech. I think
I never heard so many old played-out jokes strung together in my life.
He was worse than the minstrels, worse than the clown in the circus. It
seemed peculiarly sad to sit here, thirteen hundred years before I was born,
and listen again to poor, flat, worm-eaten jokes that had given me the dry
gripes when I was a boy thirteen hundred years afterward. It about con
vinced me that there isn’t any such thing as a new joke possible. Everybody
laughed at these antiquities — but then they always do; I had noticed
that, centuries later. However, of course the scoffer didn’t laugh — I mean
the boy; No, he scoffed; there wasn’t anything he wouldn’t scoff at. He
said the most of Sir Dinadan’s jokes were rotten and the rest were petrified.
I said “petrified” was good; as I believed, myself, that the only right way
to classify the majestic ages of some of those jokes was by geologic periods.
But that neat idea hit the boy in a blank place, for geology hadn’t been
invented yet. However, I made a note of the remark, and calculated to
educate the commonwealth up to it if I pulled through. It is no use to
throw a good thing away merely because the market isn’t ripe yet.
Now Sir Kay arose and began to fire up on his historymill with me
for fuel. It was time for me to feel serious, and I did. Sir Kay told how
he had encountered me in a far land of barbarians, who all wore the same
ridiculous garb that I did — a garb that was a work of enchantment, and
intended to make the wearer secure from hurt by human hands. However,
he had nullified the force of the enchantment by prayer, and had killed my
thirteen knights in a three hours’ battle, and taken me prisoner, sparing my
life in order that so strange a curiosity as I might be exhibited to the
wonder and admiration of the king and the court. He spoke of me all the
time, in the blandest way, as “this prodigious giant”, and “this horrible
sky-towering monster,” and “this tusked and taloned man-devouring ogre,”
and everybody took in all this bosh in the naivest way, and never smiled
or seemed to notice that there was any discrepancy between these watered
statistics and me.
He ended by condemning me to die at noon on the 21st; and was so little

concerned about it that he stopped to yawn before he named the date.
I was in a dismal state by this time; indeed, I was hardly enough in my
right mind to keep the run of a dispute that sprung up as to how I had
better be killed, the possibility of the killing being doubted by some, because
of the enchantment in my clothes. And yet it was nothing but an ordinary
suit of fifteen-dollar slop-shops. Still, I was sane enough to notice this de
tail, to wit: many of the terms used in the most matter-of-fact way by this
great assemblage of the first ladies and gentlemen in the land would have
made a Comanche blush. Indelicacy is too mild a term to convey the idea.
However, I had read Tom Jones, and Roderick Random, and other books
of that kind, and knew that the highest and first ladies and gentlemen in
England had remained little or no cleaner in their talk, and in the morals
and conduct which such talk implies, clear up to a hundred years ago; in
fact clear into our own nineteenth century — in which century, broadly speak
ing, the earliest samples of the real lady and real gentleman discoverable
in English history — or in European history, for that matter — may be
said to have made their appearance. Suppose Sir Walter, instead of putting
the conversations into the mouths of his characters, had allowed the charac
ters to speak for themselves? We should have had talk from Rebecca and
Ivanhoe and the soft lady Rowena which would embarrass a tramp in
our day. However, to the unconsciously indelicate all things are delicate.
King Arthur’s people were not aware that they were indecent, and I had
presence of mind enough not to mention it.
They were so troubled about my enchanted clothes that they were migh
tily relieved, at last, when old Merlin swept the difficulty away for them
with a commonsense hint. He asked them why they were so dull why didn’t
it occur to them to strip me. In half a minute I was as naked as a pair
of tongs! And dear, dear, to think of it: I was the only embarrassed person
there.
Everybody discussed me; and did it as unconcernedly as if I had been
a cabbage.
1. What are the reasons for which the characters in the excerpt appear
simultaneously as realistic and fantastic?
2. What are the gains of placing the Yankee in the bewildering situation
between two ages so widely apart historically and geographically?
3. A somewhat similar ironic situation is experienced by Swift’s Gulliver.
Does Swift present Gulliver with a sense of humour enabling him to grasp
the comic of the situation? Are there moments when Gulliver is deficient
in his sense of the comic and does he himself ever become object of some
one else’s comic sense? Compare the Yankee and Gulliver in this respect.
4. What aspects of human character does Twain* choose to dwell upon in
the portrait of his Yankee?
5. What is the function of the digression in the literary genre of the fac
tious voyage or adventure? Compare Swift’s and Twain’s use of digres
sion.
Supplementary General Questions about Swift, Scott, and Twain
1. What are the recognizable (life-like) elements in the excerpts expressing

actual or possible life?
2. What symbolic significance may be drawn from placing the character in
distant historical ages (W. Scott), or in the bewildering situation between
two ages so widely apart historically and geographically (M. Twain)
or in the situation of a fantastic order of existence different from the
actual or at least possible life (M. Twain, J. Swift)?
3. What stage in the novel’s main plot may the fragments belong to (exposi
tion, climax, denouement)?
4. Define the narrative technique used in the fragments having in mind its
gains and losses in communicating ideas, characterization, plot.
5. Is retrospection (the flash back, the narrative in the past tense or histori
cal present) or anticipation made use of in structuring character and the
narrative, in the fragments?
6. What means of characterization do the authors resort to, in the frag
ments, the descriptive or the dramatic, and to what effects?
7. To what extent is the narrative technique responsible for creating at
mosphere and tone?
8. How does style communicate characterization, ideas (symbolic signif
icance), plot?
B. HOW TO ANALYSE A POEM
When we have read a poem we always have the impression that we have
undergone a special experience that no circumstance in everyday life could
offer. If so, does it mean that a poem necessarily throws its reader into a
unique world, and that the person enjoying the reading of the poem finds
himself or herself in a position to investigate a real universe? Does it follow
that he or she moves—as long as the reading lasts—through a cosmos having
its own consistency? Is this cosmos an entity presenting a self-organization?
There is, indeed, an atmosphere of its own reigning in a piece of poetry,
one that cannot possibly be “translated” into anything else. If we were to
paraphrase the poem, we would obtain something different, we would betray
its identity.
It naturally follows that a poem has a special peculiar structure, one that
is consistent with itself and therefore impossible to split into component
parts. Any attempt to “dismember”, as it were, a poem is then doomed to
failure, since a poem will always be itself only in as much as it is itself
and not the sum of its parts. In the romantic line of ideas we might call
a poem an organic structure, rather than a mechanic whole. The analyst set
on dissecting a poem kills it at the same time, by depriving it of its vital
principle. Nevertheless, he can have a view of the “inside” after he has ad
mired the “outside” of the body under examination. He is now able to
find out the “whats” and “whys” of it, but he will never reach as excellent a
moment of enjoying the beauty of it as when the body was alive, as when it
lived by its own organic structure.
There is, however, an advantage in this process; there is a necessary evil.
As a poem cannot exist in the consumer’s mind without the latter trying
to dissect it (so much more as the consumer is a person enjoying it aes
thetically), analysis proves to be desirable.
An analysis apparently runs counter the synthetic force of the poem. So
it is, at first sight. But in splitting the unity of the whole into parts, in
trying to read the poem on different levels, the analyst must permanently
show by this the very complexity of the “thing of beauty” he has chosen to
“describe” (an analysis shares something of the qualities of a description in
that it necessarily divides the whole into parts whose details are gradually
given an account of). It also takes time for this to be done. It naturally
is so, since the analyst resorts to the means of “temporal” arts — in Les
sing’s terms — when describing. All this linear — as it were — concatena
tion of components should but make the analyst keep thinking of the
complexity of the poem. After he has enumerated the series, he has to
finally understand all these elements as constituents co-existing within the
same boundaries, and being contemporary with themselves.
Let us try to apply this to four poems by writers belonging to differ
ent periods in the history of English literature. The poems are: Sonnet
XLIII by William Shakespeare; “To Caroline” (You say you love, and yet
your eye) by George Gordon Byron (in “Hours of Idleness”, 1805); “To
Night” by Percy Bysshe Shelley; “That the Night Come” by William
Butler Yeats (in “Responsibilities”, 1914).
Here we have Shakespeare’s sonnet as a model of analysis on the basis
of which you may perform similar experiments for the analysis of the
other three poems. Questions will be provided for the latter in order to
help the orientation of the approach.
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
Sonnet XLIII
When most I wink, then do mine eyes best see,
For all the day they view things unrespected;
But when I sleep, in dreams they look on thee,
And, darkly bright, are bright in dark directed.
Then thou, whose shadow shadows doth make bright,
How would thy shadow’s form form happy show
To the clear day with thy much clearer light,
When to unseeing eyes thy shade shines so!
How would, I say, mine eyes be blessed made
By looking on thee in the living day,
When in dead night thy fair-imperfect shade
Through heavy sleep on sightless eyes doth stay!
All days are nights to see till I see thee,
All nights bright days when dreams do shadow thee me.
We shall look at this sonnet by Shakespeare as illustrating our idea of

a poem being a coherent unity. This makes the classical form — content
division impossible, or at least simply didactic. It is normal that we
should accordingly try to demonstrate the way in which form relates to
content, expressing it.
Before we start the analysis proper, it is absolutely necessary for us to
make sure that we have understood each and every word in the poem, each
and one grammatical construction. An aesthetic evaluation of the poem can
not be successful without the very stuff of the latter being intimately known
to the reader. This is the first step securing a correct reading and avoiding
misreadings. It is the one leading to a literal understanding of the son
net. By this we mean that the reader is confronted with a reality existing by
virtue of a series of linguistic symbols (words), which he has to under
stand as such, without any attempt to compare the poem with, or contrast
it to, any other poem. This is the very basic way of enjoying a poem, much
like the way a child reads and understands a fairy-tale. Everything is tak
en for granted, though so different from everyday logic, so apparently im
possible. The child gives credit to whatever is part of the tale, without “sus
pecting” it of any “trick”. So must the reader of a poem do when he reads
it literally.
It is on this literal level that the reader is impressed by the poem for the
first time. The kind of reading thus obtained is basic — as we have
said — and therefore only partial. A complete understanding requires fur
ther investigations. Since everything has to be, for the time being, taken
literally, it follows that we can get the same plain sense of the sonnet by
paraphrasing it. We can replace words by what we usually call synonyms
in everyday speech; we can take the liberty of changing the given word
order, without thus violating the rules of English grammar. We do have
a limited choice, but anyway we can choose at least one more “variant”
- as it were — besides the one offered in the form of our sonnet. The choice
is limited however because we must nevertheless observe a set of rules order
ing the English language in which Shakespeare’s sonnet is written. Bearing
this in mind, let us paraphrase the first four lines of Sonnet XLIII; we
can either observe its arrangement in lines, or do away with it altogether and
obtain a short passage of prose:
“When I wink most, then my eyes see best, because
all the day they see unesteemed things; but in dreams
they look on you, when I sleep, and though they are
darkly bright, they are bright, directed in dark.”
The paraphrase has entailed several formal changes, without altering
the meaning as such. We have retold the quatrain resorting to synonyms
and using synonymous constructions for the grammar of the passage (e.g. a
relative clause instead of an absolute construction derived from the former); we
have introduced a few conjunctions with a view to maintaining the same logi
cal relationships in the case of utterances that formerly appeared condensed:
“though they are darkly bright”
instead of
“darkly bright”.
All these changes have led us to a formal expansion whose main expla
nation is the need we have felt of rendering the meaning of the four lines
explicitly. It is the urge of “calling a spade a spade” that has made the
lines result in a fragment of prose containing no other meaning, but ob
viously having a different form. The formal expansion of this prose section
can be a good proof of the synthetic force of poetry, which is destroyed
when poetry is “translated” into plain language. In fact, what we have done
is a “translation” of poetic language into everyday speech. We have there
fore passed from a linguistic code to another, both possible variants of
the same liguistic system, the system of the English language.
It is definitely mistaken to consider the literal meaning sufficient for the
poem. Confining one’s interest within the limits of a literal reading is a classical
misreading of poetry. Recounting the poem is not an aesthetic evaluation. It is
out of a misreading that we may find ourselves stating “This is a sonnet ab
out...”. This sonnet is not about something, it cannot be reduced to a summary
or to a word defining it, or else we deprive it of its aesthetic value. Reduc
ing the sonnet to a theme is therefore as dangerous as expanding its liberal
meaning by means of everyday speech.
Moreover, it is absolutely clear that we react differently when we read
such a “translation” than when we are faced with the sonnet itself, though
in point of content we have not changed it. But the different form thus
obtained can by itself operate a change. It follows that content depends on
form. A poem may not lose its formal identity without being fundamentally
altered. We have said that the literal meaning is the same in the quatrain
and in the paraphrase, yet the latter creates a different impression than the
former. Does this not mean that there is another meaning embedded in the
sonnet beside the literal one? We shall consider this, but not before point
ing to the concreteness that the sonnet achieves by its imagery.
The world existing in the sonnet is offered to us in a set of images
that render it sensible to our eyes and ears. The very images contained by
the sonnet exist in words and as such are meant to make an auditive im
pression on us. They are sensible to the ear. Having a visual quality, they
turn the sonnet into an object to be enjoyed with the eyes as well. As images
make up a concrete picture, they cannot and should not be replaced by
more or less “synonymous” images (a change possible to operate on the lit
eral level). The sensible appearance of a flower cannot be reduced or ex
panded in words describing it (whereas the notion of a flower allows or such
an operation). Of course, it is only by means of our senses that we can
realize the concreteness of the flower. It is the same with our poem. To pre
sent the second quatrain as one speaking about shadow and light, about
day and the quality of shining is not the same with perceiving the set
of visual images the quatrain is based on. We have to see with our eyes
the shadow that “shadow doth make bright”, the “shadow’s form” forming
“happy show / To the clear day” with “much clearer light”, or the shade
shining on “unseeing eyes”. We can thus have a very direct experience of
the sonnet. But since this may also happen in real life (since reality is any
moment perceived by our senses), is there any difference between the sen
sible qualities of a real object and the sensible qualities of words making
up an image in a poem? Such combinations as “living day” or “dead
night”, rejected by a common perception of day or night by means of
senses appear to be normal in this sonnet. They have as much influence
on our senses as the image of “clearer light”. We can speak about “living
day” or “dead night” in terms of a non-poetic language discussing the two
opposite principles of life and death and associating them with day and
night respectively. But speaking about “living day” ot “dead night” is not
the same with sensing them. It is the function of imagery to make us
sense them.
We have asked ourselves the question whether there is not another mean
ing besides the literal one in the sonnet This question may be given an an
swer in the affirmative if we admit that the sonnet has a language of its
own, which is not equal to that of everyday conversation. Operating a for
mal change we have also noticed a change of effect that the poem has suffered.
If we think again of the poem as an organic structure does not a certain
form create a certain meaning? Rendered in everyday language, the son
net has a literal meaning and a commonplace form, but unaltered, read
in the original, it offers its reader a figurative language as well. This neces
sarily implies an “uncommon” meaning and a form of its own, the two of
them functioning in an inter-relationship (we shall analyse later how form
depends on meaning). The figurative language of the sonnet makes of it
something incompatible with reality. This language has its own formal
elements (figures of speech). Its special meaning is illustrated by these
formal marks. A figure of speech generally consists in using words that
have a meaning differing from the one they usually have. This rounds off
the definition of a figure of speech and makes us see in it not only a for
mal arrangement, but also a special content. It does not only associate
words in a special way, it also gives birth to special units of meaning and
therefore implies an outlook offering us a unique image of a unique world,
that of the sonnet. The image is unique because irreplaceable, the world
mirrored in it is unique because not repeatable. By its uniqueness the figur
ative language of the sonnet invites us to directly participate in the life
of the poem (while the repeatable literal sense engages us in a relationship
of relative detachment). Thus, the two metaphors in the final couplet (“All
days are nights”, and “nights bright days”) cause — by the two identities
produced by the verb cto be’ — a juxtaposition of a real element (the for
mer in either of them) with one created by the poet (the latter). These
identities enrich the images of day and night that have appeared in the
sonnet before. They give us their symmetrical images, in that in terms of
opposites. Of course, this operates a change of meaning that everyday logic
rejects. The same uniqueness of form and content is attained by the meto
nymy in the first line: “I wink” instead of “I am awake” (in commonplace
expression), further contrasted to “I sleep” in line three.
Let us consider now how the uniqueness of meaning finds a replica in
form, how form depends on meaning. The metaphors of day and night are
anticipated throughout the sonnet by images centring round fundamental
notions that illustrate the night — day pair. The first two lines, built on the
image of day (“I wink”, “do mine eyes see”, “all the day they view”) is
contrasted with the following two embedding thei mage of night (“I sleep”,
“dreams”, “dark”). The formal arrangement of the first quatrain shares of
the attributes of the day — night distinction operated in content. The next
quatrain apparently offers a victory of day by insistence on such words
as “make bright”, “happy show”, “the clear day”, “clearer light”, “shines so”,
but this is counterbalanced by implied images of night (“shadow”, “unsee
ing eyes”, “shade”). This is a quatrain based on the image of day on the
surface, but hiding its replica in the image of night. The third quatrain
takes over the arrangement of the first one: the first two lines contain im
ages of day (“mine eyes/.../blessed made”, “looking”, “living day”), the fol
lowing two, the reverse (“dead night”, “shade”, “heavy sleep”, “sightless
eyes”). Formally we have noticed a coupling of opposite images appearing
in a vertical arrangement, obvious in the first and third quatrain. The
final couplet orders the two images horizontally, thanks to the two meta
phors (“days are nights”, and “nights bright days”). This formal disposition of
notions made sensible in images suits the very essential characteristics of
the Shakespearean sonnet. The meditative tone, the one vacillating be
tween the two opposites gives the sonnet the power of a logical argument
that never avoids considering the foil too. Form helps the sonnet acquire
a stronger meditative quality. The vertical arrangement in the three quat
rains makes the meditation dynamic. It denies its statements in repeated
alternations of the two basic images. This enhances the tension existing
in the sonnet and pulls down the point of the poem towards a long expected
conclusion. Tension is released in the final couplet having the horizontal
arrangement of logical conclusion. This accurately organized form is the
framework in which the image pattern of the sonnet is developed. Could
we possibly separate form from content in analysing the sonnet?
As a characteristically Shakespearean sonnet, Sonnet XLIII observes
the quatrain — couplet structure and its famous rhyme pattern (abab
cdcd efef gg). To further illustrate how form depends on meaning, let us
have a look at the words rhyming in the second quatrain: “bright” — “light”,
and “show” — “shines so”. There is more than a formal consonance in these
pairs, there is a “rhyme” of meaning in them. Form is as profound and as
organic in the poem as the meaning that it shapes. Both form and con
tent are intimately organized in their components and no analysis can really
cover the scope of their complexity (as we have stated earlier in this paper).
It can only illustrate parts of it, as we have done so far. It can make us
more and more conscious of the organic structure of the poem.
Bearing in mind the model of analysis we have offered for Sonnet XLIII
by Shakespeare, and trying to illustrate the night theme in the following
poems, answer the questions given by us as a way leading towards analyses
of these poems too.
GEORGE GORDON BYRON
To Caroline (You say you love, and yet your eye)
Your image fills my anxious breast,

Till day declines, adown the West;
And when at night I sink to rest,
In dreams your fancied form I view.
“Tis then your breast, no longer cold,
With equal ardour seems to burn,
While close your arms around me fold,
Your lips my kiss with warmth return.
Ah! would these joyous moment last;
Vain HOPEI the gay delusion’s past,
That voice I — ah, no, ’t is but the blast
Which echoes through the neighbouring grove.
But when awake, your lips I seek,
And clasp enraptured all your charms,
So chill’s the pressure of your cheek,
I fold a statue in my arms.
If thus, when to my heart embraced,
No pleasure in your eyes is traced,
You may be prudent, fair, and chaste,
But ahi my girl, you do not love.
To Night
1
Swiftly walk over the western Wave,
Spirit of Night!
Out of the misty eastern cave
Where, all the long and love daylight,
Thou wovest dreams of joy and fear,
Which make thee terrible and dear, —
Swift be thy flight!
2
Wrap thy form in a mantle gray,
Star-inwrought!
Blind with thine hair the eyes of Day,
Kiss her until she be wearied out,
Then wander o’er city, and sea, and land,
Touching all with thine opiate wand —
Come, long-sought!
3
When I arose and saw the dawn,
I sighed for thee;
When Light rode high, and the dew was gone,
And noon lay heavy on flower and tree,
And the weary Day turned to his rest,
Lingering like an unloved guest,
I sighed for thee.
4
Thy brother Death came, and cried,
Wouldst thou me?
Thy sweet child Sleep, the filmy-eyed,
Murmured like a noon-tide bee,
Shall I nestle near thy side?
Wouldst thou me? — And I replied,
No... not thee!
5
Death will come when thou art dead,
Soon, too soon —
Sleep will come when thou art fled;
Of neither would I ask the boon
I ask of thee, beloved Night —
Swift be thine approaching flight,
Come soon, soon!
That the Night Come
She lived in storm and strife, That packed his marriage day
Her soul had such desire With banneret and pennon,
For what proud death may bring Trumpet and kettledrum,
That it could not endure And the outrageous cannon,
The common good of life, To bundle time away
But lived as ’twere a king That the night come.
You can try to illustrate the theme of the poems we have chosen as
samples pointing to the form — content relationship underlined in the analysis
of Shakespeare’s sonnet. Consider the following statements and answer the
question accompanying them.
— Is there any special implication in Byron’s use of the two different
rhyme patterns in the poem dedicated to Caroline? As you can see, there
are stanzas based on the following pattern: aaab, and stanzas ordered by
the abab rhyme pattern. You can also notice the distribution of stanzas ac
cording to this formal arrangement. Try to detect the function of each rhyme
pattern in the economy of the respective stanza, then account for the re
peated alternation of stanzas having the two different rhymes.
Is line b in aaab a conclusion for the rest of the stanza? Does it share of
the function of the Shakespearean final couplet in a sonnet?
What do lines a express in abab stanzas when compared to lines b?
Is the final remark (“But ah! my girl, you do not love”) correlated to any
special insistence on certain feelings in the poem? If so, does the formal
arrangement of the last stanza help the content of the whole fragment?
— In Shelley’s poem we can also notice a certain repetition of rhymes
within the same stanza. The rhyme pattern is ababccb. Can you dis
tinguish any special quality of lines a? How does line 2 (b rhyme) relate
to line 7 (b rhyme), they being formally distinct owing to their length
too? What is the effect of all these shorter lines on the whole poem? Do
lines c forming a couplet within each stanza play a special part? How do
the first and the last shorter line function in the poem? Does their rela
tionship help to the dynamics of the poem? Does this resemble Shakespeare’s
vertical arrangement in Sonnet XLIII?
— Yeats’ poem observes a very interesting rhyme pattern (abcbacefgfeg).
If we split the poem into two parts we get the same pattern repeated (abcbac),
for the first six lines and the following six ones have the same rhyme struc
ture. As you can see, there is a perfectly symmetrical arrangement of cer
tain lines round another line: ab-c-ba. Does the central line (c) contain a fun
damental idea ordering the other lines? What kind of relationships do lines
a and b hold between themselves? (e.g. how does the image of strife /l.l/
relate to the notion of life /1.5/; is there any connection between 1.2 and
1.4.; does “such” /1.2/ relate to “that” /1.4/?) Do images of day and night
appear arranged in a way similar to Shakespeare’s use of imagery in Son
net XLIII? Line 3 (a central line, as we have noticed) rhymes with line 6.
Line 6, in its turn, is completed by line 7 (the latter being a relative clause
bringing information about the former). Is there any special “rhyme” of
content between them? Line 12 has the same rhyme with line 6. If line 6
relates to line 7, line 12 itself holds a certain relationship with line 7.
How does the image of day which is being packed relate to that of night
which is desired to come? Does line 3 relate to line 12? How?
— What kind of images are used in the three poe^s above, and how are
these images arranged? Is the imagery of each poem comparable with the
one of the other two? How do the images of day and night in the three poems
illustrate the attitude of the three poets towards night? Is there any resem
blance between the image of “thy shadow’s form” (Shakespeare), that of “your
fancied form” (Byron), and “Wrap thy form in a mantle gray” (Shelley)?
— As you can see the address of the poems under discussion is different.
This also implies different attitudes and tones which make the same
theme appe. in different lights to the reader. Byron addresses his love
directly and night is a desired friend for him, as it brings him the “fan
cied form”. Shelley speaks to the spirit of night directly (as he also speaks to
death or sleep); this is quite characteristic of Shelley: such images are quite
recurrent in his poetic system in which Platonic and neo-Platonic influences
become obvious owing to such images; the second person in Shelley’s “To
Night” is therefore night itself, whose coming is also a release. With Yeats
we have no such address in “That the Night Come”, where the person desir
ing night is presented from a certain distance in an almost dramatic way
(a third person address, one of detachment). Night is invoked by means of
this indirect address. Will you try to define the different attitude of the
three poets resorting to the three different kinds in which the same theme
appears in their poems? Is the lyrical quality of the address characteristic
of Byron? Is the insistence on nature images incidental in Shelley’s poem?
Is the image of life compared with storm and strife characteristic of Yeats;
is it normal that “she” in his poem should live with the only desire “that the
night come”? By answering these questions you can state whether there is
consistency in using certain form — content inter-dependence.
— Detect figures of speech used in these poems and show how they illus
trate the ideas contained in them. Try to work out lists of recurrent fig
ures in each of the three poems.
— After you have analysed the imagery and the figures of the poems un
der discussion try to prove the insufficiency of the literal meaning by op
erating substitutions of the kind you have come across in our analysis of
Shakespeare’s sonnet. Can you, by means of such an operation, demonstrate
the uniqueness of form of the three poems? Can you, on the basis of the form-
content inter-determination, show the uniqueness of content, i.e. the impossi
bility of substitutions, in these poems?
Nr. colilor de tipar : £4#

Tiraj : 24-(TBO ex.
Bun de tipar : 21.1.1978
Com. nr. 70 264/5 581
Combinatul Poligrafic
„CASA SCÎNTEII“
București — R.S.R.

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MINISTERUL EDUCAȚIEI ȘI INVAȚAMINTULUI

EDITURA DIDACTICĂ Șl PEDAGOGICĂ

Redactor: Cătină Rioșanu

exercise 5. Translate into English paying attention to the use of suffixes

exercise 6. Translate the following Romanian words and phrases by using

exercise 7. Find the full forms of the following:

exercise 8. Translate into English:

book — books [buks] pencil — pencils class — classes

remark pen bus

exercise 13. a) Write the singular of:

exercise 15. Turn into the plural:

exercise 19. Replace the italicized nouns by their collective correspondent:

exercise 20. Choose the right form of the verb:

exercise 24. Translate into English:

exercise 25. Translate into English:

exercise 26. Translate into English:

exercise 27/ Translate into English, paying attention to the restrictions in

exercise 28. Translate into English:

exercise 34. Give the masculine of:

exercise 36. Translate into English:

exercise 37. Translate into English:

exercise 46. Complete with to or for;

exercise 47. Translate into English:

exercise 48. Translate into English:

exercise 49. Translate into English:

exercise 1. Insert definite or indefinite articles. Pay attention to the use of

1. . . . verdict has to be unanimous. 2. . . . tiger is larger than . . . lynx.

to get a job as a N; with the exception of patterns of the form:

to appoint I N (unique office)

1. He had served his country as . . . Minister of Finance and . . . Ambassa­

exercise 4. Supply the necessary article: definite or zero:

Article Noun Numeral or letter of the alphabet

exercise 9. Supply the necessary article:

b) 1. . . . historians have long been puzzled by . . . dots, . . . lines and . . .

exercise 10. Supply articles where necessary:

exercise 12. Insert definite, indefinite or zero articles:

\ exercise 13. Supply articles where necessary:

exercise 14. Supply a, the or the zero article:

exercise 16. Insert definite, indefinite or zero articles:

exercise 17. Translate into English:

exercise 18. Translate into English:

exercise 20. Translate into English:

exercise 21. Translate into English:

all ) 0 visits can bo boring

a third of the visits were big events for her

five times the 1 amount (is needed for__ )

twice a day / week / month / year / term .. .

what a lovely creature!

exercise 3. Make up sentences in the table below:

enough (of the) I cake has been left... |

/each / either / of the visits will flatter her

three (of the) visitors wore pink dresses

exercise 5. Make up sentences in the table below. Note the non-optionality

exercise 7. Fill in the blanks with the necessary possessive determinative or

exercise 8. Restate the following sentences according to the model:

exercise 9. Substitute every-f-singular noun for $3X-\-plural noun. Make the

exercise 10. Supply each, every or all ;

exercise 11. Fill in the blanks with all, both, each;

exercise 12. Fill in the blanks with some, any or no;

exercise 13. Fill in the blanks with some or any;

exercise 17. Make up sentences according to the table:

I There is heaps of food in the pantry

There are / lots of workers on strike

1. He had served his country as . . . Minister of Finance and . . . Ambassa

exercise 8. Provide the irregular degrees of comparison of the following adjec

1. He offered a job (I). 2. Let me throw an orange (you). 3. I made a pro