1 St at es of m at te r

1 .1 S ta te s o f m a tt e r 1 he , o Ium c o f a gas at a fixed

d • d b, in cr ea sin · te m pe ra tu re ca n ea
sil y be
g th e pr es su re on
re ~,cc m. pr cs sc d th e ga s. G a~ s ar e
I h'- rc re m .m , d1 . i )I m ttl r . fh c cas1 , co ('s qu as he d· ). Li qu
lk rc \.. .im id s ar e on l) sli gh tly
. , used h"I "' "" r .ill thl · nl ''
. m
"o rd
·. I of co mp. rc ss 1 ble . an d th e vo lu m e
of a so 1·d ·
,u l"- J m, 1tc na I is un a tliec t e d b
'' h ch th e \Il l\\ c-1,c.- t,, nu ., ·
,, (",,mp,,,cd " f \I, f th es e ch an gi ng th e pr es su )
n1 tc na l, h,I H" . 1m p\ e, 0 a O h re .
' " ' ' pr ,,~ n1 c, on
'-"'---Cup, ,p..h .:- m co mm · th e, ea c
. rth c, h, \\c
,o \u m e) an d the~ ha -
,e mass.
C hc m ht n , th e st
ud , of ho ,, m at te r
ho " 1.."•ne 1,..nJ of su beha,·es. an d of r- an yt hi ng th at oc cu
b~ tan ce ca n be ch an
' ' 71 '-h e, er ch em ic ge d in to an o t ber.
ha s m as s
pi es sp ac e an d
al su bs ta nc e we stu
,u b, t.i nc e ca n e:\.is d, . we find th at th e
t m th re e di ffe re nt
,t. ite s) de pe nd m fa'rms (o r ph ys ica l st a es o , .....
, a er so lid ' liq ui d an d ga s ar
g on th e co nd iti on e th e
' s. Th es e th re e di ffe -t h e st at es of m at
ar e re nt re te r in wh ic h an y su
C ha ng in g th e te m kn ow n as so lid. liquid an d gas. . t , de pe nd in g on bs ta nc e
th e st t · pe ra tu re an d/ or pr es su re
ca n ex 1s th e co n d..1u
...
on s o r
a e m w hi' ch a su bs . ·
ca n ch an ge te m pe ra tu re a nd pr
es su re
ta nc e ex ist s (F ig ur e 1.3).
Ea ch of th e di ffe flu id . a ga s or a liq
re nt ph ys ic al sta te ui d ; th ey ar e ab le
ch ar ac te ris tic s th s ha ve ce rta in ge ne to flow
at ar e tru e wh at ev ra l
is be in g co ns id er er ch em ica l su bs ta
ed . Th es e ar e su m nc e
m ar ise d in Ta bl e l.
Ta bl e 1.1 hi gh lig l.
ht s a m aj or di ffe re
an d th e ot he r tw nc e be tw ee n so lid s
o ph ys ic al sta tes .
a~ Ie ~o flo w, bu t Li qu id s an d ga se s
a so lid ha s a fix ed ar e
Li qU id s an d ga se sh ap e an d vo lu me .
s ar e tk id s . Th is m
ga se s ca n be po ur ea ns th at liq ui ds an
ed , or pu m pe d, fro d
an ot he r. Th e th re m on e co nt ai ne r to
e ph ys ic al sta te s al
in th e w ay th ey re so sh ow di ffe re nc es
sp on d to ch an ge s
an d pr es su re . ~ in te m pe ra tu re
th re e sh ow an in cr
ex pa ns io n) w he n ea se in vo lu m e (.,a n
th e te m pe ra tu re is
de cr ea se in vo lu in cr ea se d_an a a
m e (a co nt ra ct io n)
is lo w er ed . Th e ef wh en tb e te m pe ra
fe ct is m uc h bi gg tu re
so lid or a liq ui d. er fo r a ga s th an fo
ra -
Fig ur e 1. 3: Ga lliu
m metal melts with th e
P"ihiy~
"'.!~-~
i~,r
. i"it-.,.tre•)1:>~ · Volume
warmth of th e ha nd.
I
I

so lid De ns ity Sh ap e I
ha s a fix ed vo lu m Fluidity I
e hi gh
liq ui d ha s a de finite sh ap
ha s a fix ed vo lu m e do es no t flow
e m od er at e no de finite sh ap e
to hi gh ta ke s ge ne ra lly flo ws
no fix ed vo lu m e - th e sh ap e of th e co
ga s ex pa nd s nt aine r ea sily
to fill th e co nt ai ne lo w no de fin ite sh ap e
r ta ke s
Ta bl e 1 .1 : Di ffe th e sh ap e of th e co flo ws eaaj-ly
re nc es in th e pr op er nt aine r
tie s of th e th re e sta
te s of matter.
 ( UH l ll )OK

gas
0
t: Evaporation and
0 C condensation take
... 0
~C
Q) -...
e
Ill
place over a range
1J Q) of temperatures, boiling
Subl,m1t,on f w C ::,
o er takes place at a specific
dr ty u-=
temperature.
j t g on heating,
t m sublimation
d for the change 1n
liquid
t r d1rect1on
C
... 0 Melting: a pure substance
Note that subl1mat1on is 0 ·.:;
Ol (3
melts suddenly at a particular
not required knowledge. Ol C-.: temperature.
·E
Q)
N
Q) · -
ii
Freezing: the reverse takes
Q) -
... 0
E ..... V)
place sharply at the same
temperature.

solid

Figure 1.4: Changes of physical state and the effect of increasing temperature at atmospheric pressure.

Large increases, or decreases, in temperature and

pressure can cause changes that are more dramatic than
expansion or contraction. They can cause a substance to
change its physical state. The changes between the three
states of matter are shown in Figure 1.4. At atmospheric
pressure. these changes can occur by raising or lowering
the temperature of the substance.
KEY WORDS
melting point (m.p): tb.e temperature at which a
s~olid turnsl oto a liquid - it has the sam~ value as
the freezing_point; a pure substance has a sharp
melting point

Melting and freezing

increasing temperature
The temperature at which a substance turns to a liquid
is called the melting point (m.p.). This always happens solid liquid • gas

~ u
at one particular temperature for each substance

~
(Figure 1.5). The process is reversed at precisely the
same temperature if a liquid is cooled down. It is then
called thefree:ing point (f.p.). The melting point and
freezing point of any given substance are both the same
temperature. For example, the melting and freezing of melting point boiling point
(m .p.) (b.p.)
pure water take place at 0°C.
decreasing temperaturG

Figure 1.5: Relationship between tho molting and boiling

points of a substance

4 )
 11ml t1on l d1ox1dc, do not
Id c,"' )On
olid<; sulh ,,<; '- 0 1 mal pressures.
, )L n I ,~tc-d at nor
the\ 1lll' 1u .
b
as Solid car on
the\ tu1n d11rctly into,g . e the
d 'dry ice becaus
II
soften ca c . 1 6) This is
f the block ,s dry (F1gurehic.h has a thin
1t to a normal ,ce cube, w
liquid water on the surface.
. II d sublimation: the
s c h ange o f state ,s ca e . .
solid sublimes (see Figure 1.4). Sublimation is
a direct change of state from solid to gaS, or
g as to solid; the liquid phase is bypassed . ~s
with melting, this also happens at one particular
temperature for each pure solid .

Evaporation, boiling and condensation

If a liquid is left with its surface exposed to the air, it
evaporates. When liquids change into gases in this way,
th e process is called eva_poration. Evaporation takes place
Figure 1.6: Solid carbon dioxide sublimes. The wh ite smoke
from the surface of the li.9llid. The larger the surface
rea: t?efaster the liquid evaporates. The warmer the
is composed of water droplets con den sed from the air; there
is .QO liquid film on the solid pieces.
~uid is, the faster it evaporates. T he b ot climate around
e Dead S_ea means that water evaporates easily and the
iSea has a high salt concentration (Figure 1.7).

:>( KEYWORD . -'.'J"''··"R.

~
evaporati<2_n: a process occurri ng at the surface
_of a liquid, involving the change of state from a
liq~id into a vapour at a tem~rature below the
bo~point

Fig ure 1. 7: An aerial view showing large surface salt

fo rma t io ns in the southern part of the Dead Sea .
 ,
j \·r.,tm r. a liqmd becomes
a
\t hm the ltqmd and not just
\ippca r inside the liquid
tnown as bnihnp . It takes
J, known as the boiling pomt
, .5).

,<ly a nd has a relatively low

tater is quite a ,olatil c liquid .
..-tflg point of 78 °C, is more volatile
than \v.rret: IT has a higher ,olatility than water and
e,apo rates more easily.

The reverse of evapo ration is condensation . This is

usuall y broug ht about by coolin g. Howe ver, we saw
b
earlier that the gas state is the one most affected
by chang es in pressu re. It is possib le, at norma l }
tempe rature s, to conde nse a _gfil, into a liquid by
increa sing the Q_ressure, witho ut coo~ !

We can see these differe nt proces ses in action if we look

closely at a kettle as water boils (Figur e 1.8b). Colourless,
invisib le water vapou r escape s from the kettle. Water
vapou r is presen t in the clear region we can see at the
mouth of the kettle. The visible cloud of steam is made
up of drople ts of liquid water forme d by conde nsatio
n as
the vapou r cools in the air.

Figure 1.8 a: Water boiling in a glass kettle; bubble

KEYWORDS
boiling: the process of change from liquid to gas
at the boilin g point of the substance; a condition
under which gas bubbles are able to form within a
liquid - gas molecules escape from the body of a
liquid , not just from its surface
boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid
boils, when the pressure of the gas created above
the liquid equals atmospheric pressure
~lati le: term that describes a liquid that
evaporates eagly; it is a !lguid with a low boilin g
point because there are only weak intermolecular
forces between the molecules in the liquid ~ - wcu-
volatility: the prope rty of how easily a
liquid evaporates
s are
formed throu ghout the liquid. b: A boiling kettle produc
es.
colourless, invisib le water vapour that then condenses
to
produ ce a clou d of steam.
For a beake r of boilin g water, the bubbl es form when
there are enoug h high-e nergy water molec ules to give
a pocke t of gas with a pressu re equal to atmospheric
pressure. ~ boilin g poiDt of a liqµid ca n chang e if
th_e surrou nding pressu re chang es. The value given for
the boilin g point is usuall y stated at the pressu re of
the
atmos phere at sea level (atm ospheric pressure or standar
d
pressure). If the surrou nding pressu re falls, the boiling
p_oint fall ~ ! he boilin g point of water at standa rd
pressu re is 100 °C. On a high moun tain, the boiling
point is lower than 100 °C. If the surrou nding pressu
re 1s
increa sed , the boilin g point rises.

condensation: the change of a vapour or a gas

into a liqu id ; during this process heat is given out
to the su rroundings

6
L
 1 St t
of r 1tc r

I II••( I of imrurili01,
Pure subst~1ncf's Sc: ,w11 1,·1 1s i111p1111 w: 11 1.:1 '1bh lact ca n l)c ea,ily
A ' I ll\1 ,,,\1:\1,t:-. ,,t 1•\\ llh1 ll ll dc111 n 11 'i l1 :i 1cd ti yo 11 p11I .,,mu .,,::,wat er in a di hand heat
11111\ 111 11•, 11 I'' I ,1111

\11\,11111\• ""I''" 1111,, \ J'IIII' , 11 ti , 1.1111 1' 1111•l h

1 d,'111\lh' h'l\\1'1' 1;\1\11\'s l;1hk I 1 sll 1 m ~
11 11111 ti :ill ol t Ill w: 1l l 1 , v:1p,,r:1lci,. A :ol1d rcftiduc ,,1 alt
1
ll'I I IJl' llii 11 1111 IIt~ d1 -,lt (y,111 uni '>(.;1. lh111 cll <Xt in I igure 1. ,
Pl'IOi~ \\\dlmp 11 ,,1111, ,111d h,,11111>1, p,1111 h il l 7
'1 111111 ' wlwlt ·, IJc iWH 'l ol1d .,;ill lo, rn;11,,m.., on the 11url -il;C <,f the
• suh:--t.11\\\'s ,It ,\I""
,,,,111•1,, 1111•ss 1111• I k:td Sl':i)
linpt1i·,111..:s oll l! ll :dl'l!<.:I lhe valu~ ,,t the melting or boiling
Malling Bolllng pniiil ol :1 "''b.,1:111<.:l! An 1mpun.. 'l Ubi;tancc 11ometimc,
poh1t point ,ncll s 01 hoil 'l ovc1 r1 mnJ:,, <>I temperatures, not at the
1
/' C
I ,Jc iJIL'l' JSL' po111 I ol Ihl! r11 re 'i ll b"itance.

Sc:iw;11 e1 l1 ee1.es al :i lemrerature below the frec11ny

:> I 9 iflJ pollll ol p11n.: wat l!r (0'1 ( ) and boil-, al a h.:. mp~raturc
} 10 1% :,how Ille boil111 g point of run, water (I()()'' ( ) (Jther
I suhs1:111<.:cs th at t:onlain 1mpuntie~ -,how d1ffere,nU!:!. in
0 l1qu1d \ II /8
1lll!ir Irea1111" and ho1hni point -, when compared with the
1

Ii llld 100 k11 ow11 va lut:s 101 th e pure ~ubstance.

0
r solid I IS '1'111
~n
lll\-~ium Qu estions
fffcfide)
solid ao·, '1116!,
1 St:1te lht: names for the following physical changes:
solid 1083 ?600 a liquid to !ioli<l C , t
b liquid lo gas at a precise temperature
gas -7 8(o)
c gas to hqui<l . ' c J i
~ •sat atmosphc,ic- p, cssu, c 2 ·1he melting and boiling points of three pure
_.., 1,2: Melting and boi\1119 po int s ol some common substanccc; arc given in 'fable 1.3.
~ft'ftll substances.
Substance Melting point Boiling point
;oc 1°c
e thanol - 117 78
me thane - 182 - 164
. , . substance: a single chemi ca l element
or (:Ompound - it melts and boil s al definite me rcu ry - 30 357
pntcise temperatures Table 1.3: Melting and boiling points of ethar o,
methane and mercury.
tthe values for the melting point nn~I boilin ~,_P?inl or a
PW!9SUbstance are predse and pn.xl~ctublc. 1lrn; 111cans a
All _th ree substances have negative values for
tllat we can use them to test the punly of a_sam~lc. th eir melting point. Which of them has the
~ values can also be used to d1cc.:k the 1dcnt1ty or lowest melting point?
vu1a The mdtmg point o .a so I • can · · r I'd
u UUAUown substance.
--i.-
·ng an elcctrkally hcntcd me 1lmg- po111L
b
Which two substances are liquids at room
laiemeasured usl the appnr·itus descnbcc.
· I later 111 ~ 1gurc I .9.
. J"' temperature? Explain your answer. o ,
apparatus or bY ' · . . . C
What effect does the presence of an impurity
, melting and boiling points 111 rclc1L1on _Lo have on the freezing pomt of a hquid?
A substances ( t•\(llhrd lnkcn as 25 °C) delcr111111 e
. .
s, •
room temperature ,, . s , s,)lid
· · usua 11 Yst:c 11 '1• ' 1 • ' ,
. .i liquid or a gas.
whether it 1s . e melting point is below 25 oc ~tnd
For example. •.rt~ b , 2.:;oc the subswncc Will be a
the boiling pomt is n ovl:.: ,
liquid at room tempcratu1c.
 J,, u nd'- 1 nd h, the ,, ord ,v/at,le IIIL~ - - - - thermome ter
3 8
n '-hcn11<.lr+
•- - - - stirrer
~ thm: hqu J .. m order of volat,ht:). w11h
b , Jc hr-I " tcr (h.p. 100 (1. ethanoic u..::=,,...- - - melting-p oint tube

hf\ 1>"<.) ndcthano l(b.p. 78 .. q . t

T t,, I 4 ~how'- the melting a nd bo,hng points rubber band
C
.,. ,,ur , ub..'-lances A D. In ,,hich of the"e four 1111-b: ::--- solid
.. hst nce-5 re the pa rticles arranged in a lattice oil or water - - - - t-
regular structu re) at room temperat ure?

Melting point
Substance 1°c
Boiling point
1°c
79
t
heat
A -115
8 80 218 . 9· Apparatu s for measurin g the melting point of
F 1gure 1 . .
C -91 -88 a solid . A water-bat h can be used for melting points below
-23 77 100°c and an oil bath for melting points ab ~ 00°C.
D
Table 1.4: M e t ·ng and boi ng points of four
It is possible to continue to heat ~he liquid in th~ same
.,,...l(,...oi'T"I substance s.
apparatu s until its boiling point 1s reached. Agarn,
the temperat ure stays the same until all the liquid has
4 Iodine is often seen as an example of a substanc e completely evaporated.
that changes directly from a solid to a gas. However,
data books that give the standard physical We can perform this experim ent in reverse. Similar
measure ments for substances show values for the apparatu s can be used to produce a cooling curve, S~ns
melting point (I 14 °C) and boiling point (184 °C) of _b_ut...the thermom eter must be placed in a test-tube
iodine at atmospheric pressure. containi ng the solid being studied. The solid is then
a Explain why iodine seems to miss out the melted completely and the liquid heated. Heating is 0"9
then stopped. The tempera ture is noted every minute
liqwd stage if crystals are heated strongly in a
boiling tube. as the substanc e cools. This produce s a cooling curve I
(Figure 1.10). The level (horizon tal) part of the curve
b Suggest how you could demonstrate that iodine
occurs where the liquid freezes, forming the solid.
I
can melt to form a liquid at atmospheric pressure.
I
KEYW ORD
la -:e a regu lar three-di mension al arrange ment
of atoms, molecul es or ions in a crystallin e solid

Yeat in g and cooli ng curve s solid

The mel ting point of a solid can also be measure d using
the appa ratus shown in Figure 1.9. A powdere d solid
is put in a narrow melting- point tube so that it can be
heated easily. An oil bath can be used so that melting
points above f00 °C can be measure d. We can follow the
tempera ture of the sample before and after melting.
Time
Figure 1 .10: A cooling curve . The tempera ture stays
constant while the liquid solidifies. A cooling mixture of ,ce
and salt could be used to lower the tempe rature below 0°C

On heating, the tempera ture rises until the solid starts

These experiments show that hc.11 energy is needed to
to melt. H o wever, close observa tion shows that the
change a solid into a liquicJ, or n liquid into a gas. During
tempera t ure stays con stant until all the solid has meltcc.l .
the reverse processes, hent energy is given out.
The tem perature then rises as the liquid warms further.

8
 xPE RI MENTAL SKILLS 1.1
Safe ty
tting a cooling curve I t ll 15 ,mp ort;r nt that you follo w the Sdfety rulf
s
t 1s cxpc nnio nt , you ni (' goincg~ toA andr o
B.
Th '
,s
set out by you r t0.c1chcr for all practicdls.
In
) subs t,1n u 5, part icula r, pay atte ntio n to the type of
f
ling curv es 0 Wl1 1
ergy changes Bunsen
nme nt 111, os t ,g,,"'1u"S t I,c end .
belo w its burn er flam e nee ded as well as the conc
entr ation
k 9 plac e as a liquid cools own and volu mes of che mica ls used . Wea
r eye s
ng poin t. prot ecti on thro ugh out.

w,11 need : Get ting star ted

two beakers (250 cm 3) Befo re star ting the exp erim ent, mak e
sure you
are fam iliar with the scal e on the ther
Bunsen burn er mom eter
ou are usin g. You will nee d to be able
to read it
tripo d ~on fide ntly . You can che ck on you r read
ing of the
ther mom eter as you are hea ting up the
gau ze wate r-ba th .
Mak e sure you and you r part ner are
hea t-res istan t mat clea r as to the
tasks you each have.
stop watc h, stop cloc k or othe r time r
Met hod
two boil ing tube s labe lled A and B
1 Fill a 250 cm 3 bea ker thre e-qu arte rs full
of wate r
two stirr ing ther mom eter s (-10 to 110° and hea t usin g a Bun sen burn er to mak
C). ea
wate r-ba th. Place a ther mom eter in the
Sub stan ce A is para ffin wax (choose wate r.
a low m.p. Hea t the wat er unti l it is at 90 °C.
type , m.p . arou nd 55 °C). Sub stan ce
B is eith er
octa dec ano ic acid (stearic acid) m.p . 2 Put boil ing tube s con tain ing a sam ple
70°C or of each
phe nyl salic ylat e (salol) m.p . 43 °C. solid A and B into the wat er-b ath (Fig
ure 1.11 ).
3 Whe n the solid has mel ted, plac e a
ther mom eter in eac h tube . The re sho
boiling tube uld be
eno ugh liqu id to cov er the bulb at the
bas e of
the ther mom eter .

4 Rem ove the tube s from the wat er-b ath

and
250c m 3 stan d them in an emp ty bea ker for sup
port .
beak er hot wate r
5 Loo k at the ther mom eter and reco rd
sample A samp le B the
tem pera ture in eac h tube . The n star
t the time r.
-gau ze
6 Loo k at the ther mom eter and reco rd
the
tem pera ture in eac h tube eve ry min
ute unti l the
tem pera ture reac hes 40 °C.

i
heat
tripo d
7 Plot a grap h for eac h set of read ings
on the x-ax is and tem pera ture on the
with time
y-ax is.
Que stio ns

1 Whi ch of the two sub stan ces is a pure

sub stan ce? Exp lain you r ans wer.
A and Bare melt ed in a water-bath .
I _s_
ig~u::..:r...:.e_1_._1_1_: _Sam
.:_F.:,: _ p_e _ 2 Exp lain any way s in whic h you r met hod
cou ld
be imp rove d to give mor e relia ble resu
lts .

0
n
CONTINUED
Self--a~sessment
Comph..,t~ the self-assessment checklist below to assess your graph drawing skills.

For onoh point, award yourself:

2 marks 1f you did it really well

1 mark if you made a good attempt at it and partly succeeded

.
0 marks if you did not try to do it or did not succeed
Marks awarded
Checkpoint
·d?
Have you drawn the axes with a ruler, using most of the width and height of th e gn ·

Have you used a good scale for the x-axis and the y-axis, going up in 0.25 s, o. 5 s,
1 s or 2 s? (Note that the axes do not necessarily need to start at the origin (0,0).)
Have you labelled the axes correctly, giving the correct units for the scales on
both axes?

Have you plotted each point precisely and correctly?

Have you used a small , neat cross or encircled dot for each point?

Have you drawn a single, clear best-fit line through each set of points?

Have you ignored any anomalous results when drawing the line through each set
of points?

Total (out of 14):

Your total score will reflect how clear and well-presented your graph is. Drawing graphs is an important skill
in chemistry as you need be able to deduce reliable information from your graph.

Take a look at where you gave yourself 2 marks and where you gave yourself less than 2 marks. What did
you do well, and what aspects will you focus on next time? Having thought about your assessment, talk it
through with your teacher to gain further advice on areas that would help you improve your presentation
of graphical data.

Questions energy absorbed energy absorbed

5 Sketch a cooling curve for water from 80 °C to A - - - - - - - liquid _ _ _ _ _ _ _ gas
-20 °C, noting what is taking place in the different energy released
regions of the graph.
6 Energy is needed to overcome the forces of
C
attraction holding the particles in position in a solid.
Energy is absorbed during melting. Figure 1.12 energy released
shows how energy is involved in the different
changes of state. Complete Figure 1.12 by providing Figure 1.12: Energy changes involved in different changes
of state.
labels for the positions A, B and C.

10 )
 1 States of matter

7
A.s an altcrn..it1\c t r. I
0 0 lowm g the coo lin g of a
substance 11 .
Fig ure I 1',. -tpossibk to draw a heating curve.
- · s lO\\S the heating curve for s ubsta nce X.

C
D
A liquid can flow; it is a A gas ,s a fluid
A solid cannot
fluid It has a definite and spreads
so lid + fl ow. It has a
volume but takes the throughout its
liqu id definite shape
shape of its container. container. It
and volume .
has no definite
A volume.

T im e -
, F 1gure 1 -14·. The basic differences between t he physical
Figure 1 13· H _ pro p erties of the three states of matte r.
· · eating curve fo r subst ance X.

What physical stat -

A B C nd e, or states, will X be in at points
' ' a D o n the curve? Main points of the kinetic
particle theory
1.2 Kinetic particle The kinetic particle theon of matter describes the three
different states and the changes between them , in terms
theory of matter of the movem~nt of part icles.T he major points of the
theory are:
• All matter is made up of very small particles
Existence of atoms (different substances contain different types of
at,d molecules particles, such as atoms, molecules or ions) .
• Particles are moving all the time (the higher the
Elements and compounds mix and react to produce the temperature, the higher the average energy of
world around us. They produce massive objects such as the particles)_
the 'gas giants' (the planets Jupiter and Saturn) that we • The freedom of movement and the arrangement of the
met at the start of this chapter. They also give rise to the particles is different for the three states of matter.
tiny highly structured crystals of solid sugar or salt. How • The .e_ressure of a gas is produced by the atoms ;
do the elements organise themselves to give this variety?
or mo_lecules of the gas hitting the walls of the
How can an element exist in the three different states of
contamer. The more often the particles collide with
matter simply through a change in temperature? the walls, the greater the pressure_
Our modern understanding is based on ~he idea that
all matter is divided into very small par~1cles known as
atoms. The key ideas in our understandmg are that:
• each element is composed of its own type of atom atom: the ~ al lest narticle of an -'ern t th
..---- - - :- t::.tJ en at can
!_ake part in a ch emical reaction
• ·«-erent elements can combine to make
atoms o f d Iw
kinetLc_particle th~or-v: a theory h' h
the molecules of a compound. - f or t h e b ulk properties
"J- w 1c accounts
of the d '1ffe t
consist of very small particles - ren states of
This idea that all substances f the three different states matter in t erms of the movement f .
o part1c 1es
. 1 ·n the structure o f (atoms or molecules) - the theory _
begms to exp ai f freedom of movement o h . exp 1a1ns what
1 1 ~ ppens d uring changes in physical state
of matter. The di~erent e::: ~he different features of the
the particles explams som t the basic features of the molecule: a group of atoms held to ether b
F I I 4 ilJustra es covalent bonds 9 Y
three states. t~re . d rlier (see Table 1.1 ).
three states we d1scusse ea

1 :1 '\.
 CSE'M CH£ MISTRY: COURSEBOOK
\ CAMBRIDGE IG
• • rtic;lcs arc
sull close Logclher.
, h
111·11' ,11' 1he o1 g,mi,;1t ion
In " Jiqu1d . t I1 c r, 1 vc about past cac other.
• f ·1 ·11 Il'll " 11111 ' _, ·111 now mo .
1·1••urr I J 'i ,., ,1 nwn l l • t· t ., ,,l ma11c1 and cxpla111s 1 JC
J • r Jowcvc1 t I1cy <-, , rticlcs is much greater 1n
thl' 1hrc1·" •' l between pa ·
,,rc-
till' partKk, 111
·
ll' d1fli•H'l11 l'11:111gl', 111 ,ta lc lh c separation ·I ·i re very far apart and
ch.111gl·~ ,m ,,IH·d 111 1I a g;,-,, In a gas, the pa rue cs<
G111
move ra nd om ly. . h 1· 'd
. I . LO move in L e ,qui
Th<' part1clos in a gas are: . .
The ab ility o
r the paruc cs . T
tl,cir nuid properties. he
• arranged totally I s prod uccs b
irregularlY., a nd gas P , asc . .d I separa ted in a gas, ut close
• spread ve[)' far !!.P-art particles a re v~iy_wi c y I'd The space between the
compared to so lids and • liquid o r so 1 •
liquids
toge ther 1_11 a he intermolecular -,pa(, . In a gas,
• able to move cao,dQm]y. .,g_ar~icles is called t s ace is la rge a nd can be reduced
the intermolecular P press ure. Therefore,
1
by increasing th e ex terna_ ble In liquids this space
0
.
heating, the part1c 1es
move faster and the liquid expands. · 1 ompress1 • '
- 0) gases are eaSi Y c A result liquids are not
I d ome particles have enough energy to escape £ is very much smaller. s a ,
n the iqu1h, s rf e - evaP.oration takes place . As the 6
from t e su ac _ --- h ..0 very compressible .
, erature rises, more particles have enoug energy to "'O
C
ten P evanoration is faster at higher temP-eratures.
escape - _r:c--- - - - - -
ro . the external pressure on a sample of a gas
C C h angrng ·1 b
At the boiling point, the particles have enough energy to
produces a c h ange in volume that can eas1 y e seen.
0
·.;::;
break the forces attracting them together - the ~art_1cles . ro
0Q.
move very fast and separate from each other - me.
liQ.Y.id ~- ro • .
An increase ·n external pressure. produces a
1
~ . n 1·n volume · The gas 1s compressed.
contrac t 10
l,,l_quid • A decrease in external pressure produces an
The particles in a liquid are: increase in volume. The gas expa nd s.
• closely packed together
• in an irregular arrangement The volume of a gas is also altered by changes
• able to move around
in temperature.
past each other.
• An increase in the temperature of a
gas produces an increase in volume.
The gas expands.
When th e temperature is raised, the particles gain energy a~d
vibrate more strongly; the particles occupy more space - this • A decrease in temperature produces a
causes the solid to ~P-and.
0) contraction of the volume of a gas.
Eventually the particles have enough energy to break the C
·.;::;
forces holding the lattice together, and they can move around ai
- the solid melts. E
KEYWORDS

intermoleq..1lar space: the space between

Solid atoms or molecules in a liquid or gas. The
The particles in a solid are :
• packed close together
intermolecular space is small in a liquid, but
• in a r~gular relatively very large in a gas.
arrangement or lattice
• not able to move freely,
but simply vibrate in
The movement of particles in a liquid also helps to
their fixed positions.
explain evaporation from the surface of a liquid.
Some of the particles are moving faster than other
Figure 1.15: App lying the kinetic particle theory to changes in
particles. At the surface, these faster moving particles
pr ;s1cal state.
may have enough energy to escape into the gaseous
state (Figure 1.16).
The highly structured , ordered microscopic arrangements in
solids can produce the regular crystal structures seen in this
st
at~. ~ a solid, the particles are...12acked close t~gether. The "'
par~i~les ~ann ot move freely. They simply vibrate about fixed
positi ons m their rcg u1ar arrangement (lattice}
!
12 )

►
• both present
•
• C
• solid
•
• Time
6
•1 : Faster moving particles leaving the surface of
eausing evaporation.
~ t the space between the rapidly moving
ID a gas is much greater than in the other two
matte~ explains why the volume of a gas is
re easily changed by conditions of temperature
Ure. 1f the temperature is raised then the
Jes move faster and there is less chance of
n between them. The gas particles move
d ~o_re freely and occupy a greater volume.
site Is true if the temperature is lowered . The
~ moving more slowly. They are more likely to
W:lth each other and move together to occupy a
volume.
in pressure also affect the volume of a gas
An increase in pressure pushes the particles
together meaning that the moving particles are
Jy to interact with each other and move closer
r. The opposite is true when the external pressure
. The particles occupy a greater space and
·ons between the particles are less likely.
interpretation of a
ling curve
the particles in the three states are_arranged and
with each other aJso helps to explam the energy
involved when a substance is heated or cooled.
1.17 summarises the energy changes th ~t take place
different stages of a cooling-curve expenment.
1 States of matter
Cond(•n'.J;it ion ·
A / q,Vi rrnd l1qu1d
u
0
/ both present
Freezing
8 liquid and solid
~ Figure 1.17: The energy changes taking place during the
coo ling of a gas to a solid.
The cooling of the gas gives rise to a sequence of_changes
during which the particles move less rapidly and mteract
more strongly with each other. The substance passes
through the liquid state, eventually becoming a solid.
Over the course of the experiment the temperature falls.
However, the graph shows two periods during which t~e
temperature remains constant. These regions are the time
when first condensation , and then freezing takes place.
In region A (Figure 1.17), the temperature is falling.
The energy of the particles decreases. The particles
move more slowly and interact with each other more
strongly. The particles begin to come together to form
the liquid. As the intermolecular forces increase between
the particles, energy is given out. This results in the
temperature staying constant until the gas is completely
condensed to liquid .
Once the liquid is formed the temperature starts to fall
again (region B). The liquid cools. The particles in the
liquid slow down and eventually the solid begins to form.
The forces holding the solid together form and energy
is given out. While the solid is forming this release of
energy keeps the temperature constant. The temperature
stays the same until freezing is complete.
After the solid has formed the temperature falls again
(region C). The particles in the solid vibrate less strong!)
as the temperature falls.
KEYWORDS
intermolec.ula.rJor.ces: the wea k attractive forces
that act between molecul es
 > COURSE BOOK
, I J.m
1. "·''"-'r h't!C1 her. llC\\
, th t 1..nc.:rg, ,, gr,cn
lHtt
~,re. the temperature rcmams unchanged until
c- 1qwd or ,olrd 1, total!) formed.
Crg) ,, gn en out during thc:-c changes,
, ., Jen, uon and frcczmg arc c,orhcrnuc changes
C li.ipter I
( m mg out the c,periment in the opposite direction,
'-1.arlmf from the ,olid. would give a heating curve. In
th,, ca,c. rhc temperature stays constant during m elting
and bo1hng At these stages. energy has to be p ut in to
o, crcomc the forces between the particles. The energy
put m break.... these interactions and the particles are able
H"' mo, c more freely and faster. As energy h as to be put
m dunng these changes, melting, evaporation and boiling
are t ch ~t (Chapter 7).
-
\\'hat are the forces that hold a solid or liquid together?
The) must be attractive forces between the particles.
The~ are the forces that act when a s ubstance condenses
or freezes_ Their formation releases energy. However,
their nature depends on the substance involved. For
,ubstances such as water or ethanol t hey act between the
moJecuJes present, and so are intermolecul ar forces.
...
, jKE·Y WORDS . but not chemically combined - the substances
ex ·c clianges: a process or chemical
reaction in which heat energ_Y. is produ~n d
re eased to the surroundings .
l!.H for an exothermic change has a
negative value.
endntJ- ,. ... ·c changes· a process or chemical
react on that takes in heat from the surrounding s.
6H for an endoth ermic change has a - to form a solution;
post ,e -1alue.
pl ,c.c d11r111g
1 .3 Mixtur e s of
forces of substa nces and diffusi on
The chemical world is very c~mplex. owing to th~ vast
during
range o r pu re Su bsta nces available and to the
.
vanety of
.
ways in which these pure subs tances can mix with each
other. Each 1111 dun must be mad~ fr~m at least two
parts, which may be either s? lid , l_1qu1d or gas. There are
a number of different ways m which the three states can
be combined. In some, the s tates are completely mixed to
become one single state or phase. Technically, the term
solution is used for this type of mixture composed of two
or more substances.
Solid salt dissolves in liquid water to produce a liquid
mixture. This is called a salt solution (Figure 1.18).
The solid has completely disappeared into the liquid.
In general terms, the solid that dissolves in the liquid is
called the solute . The liquid in which the solid dissolves
is called the solvent . In other types of mixture, the -
states remain sepa~ate. One phase is broken up into
small particles, droplets or bubbles, within the main
phase. The most obvious example of this type of
mixture is a suspension of fine particles of a solid in a
liquid, such as we often get after a precipitation reac. .. .,
(Chapters 12 and 22).
mixture: two or more substances mixed together
can be separated by physical means
solution: is formed when a substance (solute)
dissolves into another substance (solvent)
solute: the solid substance that has dissolved in a
liquid (the solvent) to form a solution
solvent: the liquid that dissolves the solid solute
water is the most common
solvent but liquids in organic chemistry that can
act as solvents are called organic solvents
suspe_nsion: a mixture containing small particles
~f a_
n insoluble solid, or droplets of an insoluble
l1qu1d, spread (suspended) throughout a liquid
precipitatio n reaction: a reaction in which an
in so lubl e sa lt is prepared from solutions of two
so lubl e sa lts
 1

· liquids er( ll )
f solids in c such a, co~Pn becomes
Solubility osol,C ,I sub''~:.~1cr. 1hc solu~:,,,.ce1urated
11 \\I,; ll" to ~1~:d \olutnc ~:dd more sol!~~lutc. A d,lute
,ut1,1tc ,n :' -ntr.,tcd •'". ,-.lcproportton ol f solute. If we
111on.:, ~·on~c win, .1 h1g
1 °
ropor tion h ~<l when no
·olution con ·ns a ,mall p ·ot is rcac e . ·s a .iturat d
"' 0 . conta• 1·d
1 a poi This I
,_ 1uuon . ore so · perature. mperature
·. adding rn . l that tern ._ Ive. the te .
more ''- 1II dissoh e ore
keep a ::.o- 1·I d to d1::.so o t- '-Ol ute in a
., . To get~ The nnc ~ . f the solute at
st be increase . . the ,lub11Jt o
d Ssolving
mu luuon is

• saturated so
that temperature.
. . . of most so i
. h temperature.
rds increases wit h se
ends on t e
The solub1ht) tallisation dep . is cooled. the
solution - The process of crys a saturated solut1~n temperature
sol~e .Eilrticles \Vhen
- tions. hold t the lower
obse1:' a less solute a
~not be seen solut10n can tallises out.
1 1 and some solute crys
- 8: When solute dissolves ,n a soh,ent, the solute
are comp letely dis p e rsed 1n the liquid.

solub e: a solute that d isso lves in a

particular solvent .
. t often think of a solution as being made of a insoluble: a substance t h aL... d oes not disso lve in a
lved in a liquid. Two-thirds of the Earth ·s particular solvent
is covered by a solution of various salts in
The salts are totally dispersed in the water and miscible: if two liquids form a completely ~niform
be seen. Ho-wever, other substances that are not mixture when added together, they are sa id to
solid are dissolved in seawater. For example. b e miscibl e
lved gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide. are
t for life to exist in the oceans. alloys: mixtures of elements (u sua lly metals)
designed to have the properties useful for a
pa rticular purpose, e.g. solder (an alloy of tin and
lead) has a low melting point
is the commonest solvent in use, but other
are also important. Most of these other solvents saturated solut·o"": a solution that contains
·c liquids, such as ethanol, propanone and as much dissolved solute as possible at a
thane. These organic solvents are important p articular temperature
they will often dissolve substances that do not
in water. If a substance dissolves in a solvent, it ~odn~ent1rat,<:>n: a measure of how much solute
to be soluble; if it does not dissolve, it is insoluble . is isso ved in a solvent to make I .
S I
. s can be dilute (with
o ut1on h· a hso ut,on .
vious, but quite common, are solutions of one
in another. Alcohol mixes (dissolves) completely
solve nt), or concentrated (wit~
of solute)
'i-
phroporti o': of
a 19 proportion
r. Alcohol and water are completely miscible:
that they mm .a solution. s<:>lub"lit_: a measure of how
d issolves in a solvent at a n:1uch of a solute
· ·1ar mixtures of metals, though we do not
11 . I particular temperature
em so ut10ns. ey are made by mixing the
metals together (dissolving one metal in the other)
solidifying the alloy.
 Solubility of gases in liquids
l nhkc- nh,,t ~,,hd, ft,bl'' hc-l.·omc less soluble in water as
the- h"1llJ'Cr:Hun.' n:-c:-. 1 he solubility of gases from the
air u1 "ah.-.r 1, Qlllll.' ,mall. but the amount of dissolved
,,, ,-gen 1:- c-nl.,ugh to support fish and other aquatic life.
TI1t' ,,,luh1hty of gases mcreases with pressure. Sparkling
I
Jnnks con tam carbon dioxide dissolved under pressure.
The~ 'fizz· when the pressure is released by opening the
'----..--.ntamer. They go 'flat' if the container is left to stand
l--.pen. and more quickly if left to stand in a warm place.

Diffusion in fluids
Some of the earliest evid ence fo r the kinetic model of
the states of matter came from o bservations on diffusion,
where particles spread to fill the space available to them.
The main ideas involved in d iffusion are:
• particles move from a region of higher
concentration toward s a region of lower
concentration; eventually, the particles are evenly
spread. T heir concentration is the same throughout.
• the rate of d iffu sion in liquids is much slower than
in gases.
•
Figure 1 . 19·. The diffusion of potassium manganate(VII)
in water.
Whether a solid begins to break up li~e ~hi~ in a liquid
depends on the pa rticular solid and _h qmd mvolved.
But the spreading of the solute part~cles_thr~ughout the
liquid is an example of diffusio~ . D1ffus10°: ~ solution is
also important when the s?lut~ 1s a gas. !his 1s especially
important in breathing. Qiffusion contributes to the
movement of oxygen from the lungs to the blood, and of
~arbon dioxide from the blood to the lungs.

• diffusion does not take place in solids as the

particles cannot mo'Ve from place to place.
KEYWORD
d ffusion: the process by which different
fluids mix as a result of the random motions of
their p articles
D issolving
A potassi um manganate(VII) crystal is placed at the
bottom of a dish of water. The dish is then left to stand.
At first the water around the crystal becomes purple as
the solid dissolves (Figure 1.19). Particles move off from
the surface of the crystal into the water. Eventually,
the crystal dissolves completely and the pur~le colour
spreads through th e liquid . The whole solut10n becomes
purple. The particles from the solid become evenly
spread through the water.
Diffusion of gases
A few drops of liquid bromine are put into a gas jar and
the lid is replaced. The liquid bromine evaporates easily.
Liquid bromine is highly volatile. After a short time, the
brown gas begins to spread throughout the jar. The jar
becomes full of brown gas. Bromine vaporises easily and
its g~s will completely fill the container (Figure 1.20).
Gases diffuse to fill all the space available to them.
Diffusion is important for our 'sensing' of the world
around us. It is the way that smells reach us.
The atoms or molecules in gases move at high speeds.
We are being bombarded constantly by I}itrogen and
oxygen molecules in the air, which are travelling at ab®.l
1800km/hour. However, these particles collide very
frequently with other particles in the air (many millions
of collisions per second), so their path is not direct.
These frequent collisions slow down the overall rate of
diffusion from one place to another. The pressure of_~
gas is the result of collisions of the fast-moving paru es
with the walls of the container.
 1 State o-f

fl: OOld an
rcac.l whl:n they me t producm
ammonium c.,hlondc ·r h1 mok r
parucle of ohd ammonium c:hlor
ring 1c; nol formed halfv ay along the tu
ammonia. the lighter molecule of the t
The important points den\Jed from the kinetic pan c.
theory relevant here are:
• heavi e~art icles move more c;lowl, than lighter
particles at the c;ame tem~r ature

• larger molecules diffuse more slowly than

smaller ones
• the rate of diffusion is inversely related to the ma:
of the panicles
• the average speed of the particles increases wtth an
increase m temperature. --- ---- d
Rgure 1 -20: Bromin e •
eotntainer to fll h vapour diffuses through out the /I
1 t e space availab
le.

,
.' 1

Figure 1.21: Ammo nia and hydrochloric acid fumes diffuse at differen
- - t rates .
--------
 --- --- --- --- --- --- - -------------
> CAMBR IDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK

EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS 1.2

Method . · f h
Investigating diffusion in liquids . . on a white tile or piece o w 1te
1 Put a Petri dish . dish nearly to the top with
Hus experim ent helps to demons trate th e process paper. Fill the Petri
of diffusion in a liquid. Diffusion is shown by the
deionise d water.
formatio n of an insoluble precipita te where the ions ut a crystal of silver nitrate at
.
meet in a solution.
2 Using_tweez~= •~sh and a crystal of potassium
~n~ side ohf t ther side (Figure 1.22).
You will need: 1od1de at t e 0
tals Notice that as crystals
• Petri dish 3 Look at t h e crys ·
be in to dissolve in the water, a new .
• tweezers 9 d . f med within the solution .
compou n is or
• white tile
Petri dish
• silver nitrate, one crystal containin g water

• potassiu m iodide, one crystal

1 crystal of
• distilled or deionise d water silver nitrate 1 crystal of
• test-tub es potassium
iodide
• silver nitrate solution

• potassiu m iodide solution

• droppin g pipettes .
Figure 1.22: Experiment to investigate diffusion
Safety through water.
---------------------
We a r eye protecti on through out. Use tweezer s
to handle the crystals. Be careful with chemicals. Questions
Never ingest them and always wash your
1 What is the precipit ate formed in this reaction?
hands after handlin g them . Note that silver
nitrate is corrosiv e, oxidisin g and can sta in 2 Write a word equatio n to show the reaction
the skin. Silver nitrate is also hazardo us to the takin g place.
aquatic environ ment. Waste silver nitrate solution
must not be poured down the drain . 3 What factors control where the solid is formed
in the Petri dish?
Getting started
4 W_h y does the solid not form exactly in the
Before starting , try the reaction betwee n potassiu m middle of the dish?
iodide and silver nitrate solution s in a test-tub e.
Add 1 cm 3 of aqueou s silver nitrate to a similar
volume of potassi um iodide solution . Note the
formati on of the precipit ate, particul arly its colour.
 Porous p Ot
air ~ allows g as
Questions . . laced .in a gas
I I id bromine is p f
molecules
to diffuse
I A srnall amount o iqu . ha lid. Evaporation o ai r
r which is I hen sea led will
Ja .
the liquid bromine
. takes p acc.
·
Br,(I) -+ Br1(g) . . Lh ory to explain why,
Use the ideas of the ktncllC e b omine molecules
after about an hour, the gaseot~se ;hole container.
sarne level
have spread to evenly occupy . both sides
1
s demonstrat10n on
A teacher carried out a ca~ . ( M = ) 7)
diffusion similar to that ustng ammo~ia 1r 21 ).
&11d hydrochloric acid (M, = 36.S) <:
However: they replaced the ammonia wil . .
1
gu_re ·
h
coloured
liquid
'. h. h Ls in a similar
• 1. ....ethylamme (M, = 31), w 1c reac :
y to ammonia (note that M, is the relative
a
'10Jecular mass of the substance).
__ ......,. Where would you predict the position of t~e
smoke ring to be in this experiment? Explain hydrogen
your answer. / porous pot
Suggest other gases simi lar to hydrochloric
acid that could replace it in this demonstration
(use textbooks or the in ternet to find a
possible acid).
periments comparing the rate of diffusion of higher level
erent gases can be done using the apparatus this side
own in Figure J.23. l.:irge
cylinder of porous pot is used through which ga~ bec:1ker
olecules are able to pass. Any change m pressure
the cylinder pot shows itself in a change of liquid
Is in the side tu be. When there is air both inside
d outside the pot, the liquid levels arc the same.
lain why the levels of liquid change when
drogen is placed outside the porous pot cylinder
b
igure 1.23 b).
Figure 1.23 : Gas diffusion th rough a porous pot a: with ai
~ WORDS 1ns 1de and outside the pot, b: with hydrogen outside, air

inside, the pot.

us pot: an unglazed pot that has channels
s) through which gases can pass
 > (. AMB RI ( I I( '>l M C'H[ MIST RY ~C~O~U~R:S:E~B:O~O~ K
~ - - - - -- - - - - -- - - -
--- --.....
I

The kmc t,c mocf ol of matt e r disp lay shou ld answ er

Your m odel , diag r~m or uest ions:
Mod0llrn~1 th(• ,ll 1,rng l' m,m t o f the parti three of th e foll owi ng q . ?
cles in a
solid liqui d c,, gt'ls rs one way to help unde t t
rstan d • Why can three s a es of matte r exist .
.
th~ ~~10pl'I t10s of the d iffere nt state s of
matt er. . .
• Why is ,t that 1t t a kes time for a solid to melt?
\\ or king ,n a sm all grou p, crea te a mod
e l o r vi sual .d ot
H'prl ?sen tat ion that expla ins the mov em
ent of the • Why d o so l I s n diffu se over a norm al
i:-art,cles in the diffe rent stat es. Thin k abou tim e p eri o d ?
t:
• Wha t coul d you use t o repre sent the parti
cles? • Wha t .is d "ff
I
t
eren ab o ut su b st ance s that means
I .
have .
d iffer ent me t ing point
(Balls or marb les in a t ray or dish, circu lar that t h ey eac h s?
piece s of card on a plate , grou ps of peop
le, ·ff
symb ols perhaps?) • Di eren t su bsta nces also have. d. iffer ent boilin g
h
poin ts. 1s th e reas on for this
. s1m 11ar t o w y they
. ?
• How will you arran ge the parti cles to have diffe rent melt ing poin ts .
dem on strat e sol ids, liqui ds and gases?
• Why is it that you can feel a liqui d cool
w hen it
• How coul d you repre sent the mov eme
nt of evap orate s in your hand ?
th e parti cles?
Afte r you have take n t ime to answ er the
ques tions,
each grou p shou ld choo se one of the
ques tio ns to
dem onst rate how your mod el work s to
the rest of
the class.

REFLECTION
To u nder stan d som e the idea s intro duce
d in this • Are there any expe rime nts whic h give
ch apte r, you need to be able to think you clues
abou t the to the exist ence of sub- micr osco pic partic
b e havi our of parti cles sma ller than you les?
can see.
• How usefu l do you find the diffe rent appro
• Wha t strat egie s coul d you use to help aches?
you to
vi suali se parti cles such as atom s and mole
cule s?

SUMMARY

Ther e are thre e different physical states in whic

h a substance can exist: solid , liquid or gas.
The struc ture s of solids, liquids and gases can be
described in terms of particle sepa ratio n, arran
and motion. gement
Different changes in state can take place, inclu
ding melting and freezing, evap orat ion and cond
and boiling. ensation ,
Cha nges of state can be prod uced by chan ging
cond ition s of temp eratu re and/ or pres sure .
Pure substances have precise melting and boil ing -
points.
The kinetic part icle mod el describes the idea that
the particles of a subs tanc e are in cons tant moti
-
the natu re and amo unt of moti on of these part on and that
icles differs in a solid , liqui d or gas.
-
20
 f the substance staying
t the tempcn1t~re of cooling cu rves).
,ivcn ou . trucuon o
" . o,hcd or g . cntctl cons ---- . h a n be
, ,, ' hc111g .,h, the cxpcr11n of ases wh1 c c
1'-I ,tc lll"''H's i: m !!Y ,lh1,11 :1tcd hy n the vo lumes g
;, ur.11111ra111 \I ~ thl , h·,11,pl' t,,J.. i:'"1' 1•" l' (,ts . !Hoducc clwngcs 1
. bl
s rn tcmpc, .11t11 c ,,, I 1ll•nh'lll,l
1 )ll'''\11 l
.
t ,ckI t hcorY --------::--1.
11 of th e space ava il aJ:__l_:C:.... . more
'"' med m tc,m" \,, tlH' J..mctll' p.11 f rticlcs to fill a _ _ f I er mass d iffusing
1 1he spread ing o pa . h olecules o ow
D t <.1011 m hqmd-. .rnd g.1,l':--. ' ,dent on molecu
lar size, wit rn ------=~-_:_:_:_:_:._:_:_:_:_:_:_:..=~
tc ,,f d1 ffu , 11.m of a gas 1s dcpci
I) tlrnn tho se of higher mass.

.-,ROJECT
e'· Earth orbits the Su~ at
Goldilocks principle' The 'Goldiloc~s Zone for Ii uid water to exist on
·ust the right d1sta_nc o ~ot nor too cold for
We experience the world around us depends !ts surface. It is n_e1t~er t?
n which is known as the
the physical conditions and states in which h . Research this s1tuat10 , . Then think how
nces exist. This is particularly true in the case t 1s. , d its meaning.
'Goldilocks Zone, a~ f V nus Earth and Mars.
ter. The Earth is the only body in our solar it applies to the orbits o e ' .
m where water exists in all three states of matter.
. be ond our solar system.
in a group of three or four. Use the internet to Exe-planets and h~op/ robes have searched
h for some information on the topics listed The Kepler and _ CH sJar system (exo-planets)
• Then select one to research in detail. for planets outside our I d Research these
where life may have evo ve . . . f h
presence of water: What is distinctive about . . d f. d out the characteristics o ht e ·ng
m1ss1ons an in
physical conditions on Earth that mean that life other solar systems and planets they were op1
Id begin, and continue to exist, here? Why is to find.
er so important when thinking about how life
an? ls Earth the only planet to have water and Decide how you will share out the ta~ks between
refore life? Have other planets had water in their the members of your group. Then bring y~ur
st? Recent space research together as an illustrated talk delivered
obes have been to the whole class. A good illustrated talk should
nt to try to find include the following:
ter on Mars
d the moons
• a clear structure

Jupiter and • a strong introduction that includes details of

turn (Figure the question(s) you have investigated
24). Research the
rious missions to
• a short summary of the different areas you
researched : make sure your points are in a
nd out whether
sensible order
ere are other
Janets in our solar • a list of the key conclusions at the end
stem where life
ay have existed.
• the key information presented in a graphic
Figure 1.24: Saturn's moon
format (e.g. as a table, chart, pie chart)
Enceladus has a global ocean
instead of just text: illustrations will make your
of liquid salty water beneath
presentation much easier for your audience to
its crust.
understand and help them to remember your
key points .

21 \
 \ CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY COURSEBOOK

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
1 :\ ~rnup nl · fm'th· ts sit· s1rnnng · I men I togctl1c1·
· II spccut .. · When the food
[low <lid
\\as put on thl' tahk, they could nil smell the appet1s111g food . ?
thl' sml'II t'\.'ach them when the dishes were placed on the table
A d~l'Omposition
B diffusion
C distillation
[11
D dccolourisation

2 The figure shows one of the changes of physical state.

Which change of state is shown?

A boiling
B condensation
C melting
D evaporation [1]

3 The figure shows ice cubes floating on the surface in a glass of fizzy drink.

- - - - ice cubes

glass ------1
-r---drink

- - - bubbles

In which of A-Dare the particles close together but free to move past
each other?
A bubbles B glass ©drink D ice cubes [1]

22 >
1..1NTI NUED
. ')

D in the flgut 1.' shl''" s the pin1.:l.,. ~" <ll' dill 11" 1011
1

Koy

~ } different atoms

000 • • 0 •• 0
0 •• • 0 •
0 • 0 •

[11

riment on the diffusion of ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases

"ed out in a glass tube. The gases are given off by solutions held at
d of the tube.

[ Jy) 111 CJ[\ J

cotton wool cotton wool
soaked in soaked in
concentra ted concentra ted
hydrochlo ric ammonia
acid solution

two gases meet, they react to produce a white solid,

um chloride.
e (A-D) shows where the white solid is formed? [1]
\ CAMBRI DGE IGCSE™ CHEMI STRY: C O U R S E B O O ~ K ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

CONTINUED ~
· _. - ~

6 The figurt' sho" ~ tht' ,nran grnK'nt of particles in each state of matter.
---==----711
0 0

0
0
0
solid liquid gas

describe: state th e
a In a gas, the particles are moving rapidly and randomly. e-,cri the
[2] points of a topic/
movement of the particles in a liquid.
give characteristics
b How does the movement of the particles in a solid change when it and main features
is heated? [1]
c What name is given to the process which happens when liquid water explain: set out
changes to water vapour at room temperature? [1 l purposes or
d What is meant by the term freezing? [1] reasons/make
the relationships
[Total: 5]
between things
7 A teacher opens a bottle of perfume at the front of her laboratory. She evident/provide
notices a smell of flowers. A few minutes later, students at the front of why and/or how and
the lab notice the smell too. Those students at the back do not notice it support with re levant
until later. evidence
a What two processes must take place for the smell from the perfume to
reach the back of the lab? [2]
Later in the day, when the room had cooled, the teacher tries the same
experiment with a different class. The smell is the same but it takes
longer to reach the back of the lab.
b -· -r ..a this observation by reference to the particles of perfume. (2]
[Total: 4]
 · '" h,,rpcnin~ to the substance behvecn C and l>? [2 1
•
1
" h,,rrening to the panicles of the substa net: between A arid 8'? [2]:
· !· ,·, I he temperature not change between Band C! (1]
[Total: 51
•
1
•_·.,, f \/ = 17) is a base that chan,?es universal indicator
= 36.5) is an aciJ that changes
f t _, d r, 't!'-~n l'h lo ride gas ( ,\I
• 1: md,~;1101 ro red. '

\
. . ... I
universal cotton wool
·- .. nd1cator
paper
soaked in
hydrochloric
acid

, ,:-' u r,: ,I,,,\,, .m \.·,r~:rim\."nt Jone with these two gases. After two
_:;_·-. 1I,~: un1\a,.il 111JJl·ator pa~r change<l to purple.
~\ , 1. ll ,d I lh: lflll\ l."hal inJil·ator change to purple and not red? (3)
 > A" BRJDt,t IC, E TM CHE MISTRY COURSEBOOK

CONTfNUE0
~- ------ - -~--- -- - -- -

ool soaked paper

chloric acid

• ••
·-·-
In the ammonia tube, the colour changed in34s. Estimate
•

approximately how long it took for the indicator paper iri

tube to change colour. Choose your answer (A- 0)
A 34s
B 100s
C 50s
··;; b 25s
~ <;,t l F-EVAlUI-\TION CH~CK\..\ST

Needs Almo,t
more work there \o move
on

, " 1hc1lncc,tatcs 1.1

maJ0r d10crcncc..., I11. 1,n~n
lkr
be the ch,rngc:-. of :-.1,1tc observed with I .I
smg or decreasing temperature
nbc the effect of changes in ternperature on the 1.2
ot1on of particle~ m the different states or matter

ret the shape or a cooling curve ror a \.2

ce in terms or the kinetic particle theory
effects of changing ten,perature and \.2
on the volume or a gas
n. in terms of the kinetic particle theory, the
1.2
of changing temperature and pressure on the
es of gases
and how solids and gases can dissolve in 1.3
and the terms used to describe this
1.3
e diffusion in gases and liquids
"be the effect of relative molecular mass on the 1.3
of diffusio~n,.::o~f_:_a~ga:s~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __j__ _ _ __1._ _ _ __ , J L - - - - - . . . 1 - - - - ~