"

M A N UA L O F

E N G L I S H GRAM MAR
AND C O M P O S I TI O N

J . O . N E S F I E L D, M A
. .

A U TH O R OF

E NG LI S H G R A MM A R P A S T A N D P R E S E N T ,

H I S T O R I CA L
E NG L I S H A N D D E R I V A TI O N

E TC, .

I N S I X PA R T S

I . PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S
-

II C O M P O S IT I O N FO R C E A N D PR O PR I ET Y O F DI C TI O N

-
.

II I . E N LA R G E M E N T O F V O CA B U L A R Y : F I G U R E S O F S PE E CH

IV .
PR O S E A N D P O E TR Y
H I S T O R Y O F TH E LA N G UA G E
V .

VL S O U N D S S Y M BO LS A N D S PE LLI N GS
, ,

A P PE N D IX O N D ER I VA TI O N S

M A C M ILL A N AND C D , L I M I TE D
.

ST . M A R TIN S S T R E E T, L O N D O N

1 908
 P UBLI S HE R S

N O TI CE

O WI NG to the i n crea sing importanc e a tta ch ed to Ph one ti c s a ,

si x th P a rt b ea ri ng th e n a me o f S o wncls S y mb ols a nd Sp el ling s

, , ,

a nd c o n si sting o f th ree c h a pters h a s b een a dd e d to th i s b oo k

,
.

T h e rst c h a pter d eal s w ith L ett ers A c c en ts a nd S yl l a b l es
, , ,

th e n ex t w i th Vo w el S o u n d s a nd h o w th ey a re spel t
-
th e ,

l ast w ith C onsonan ta l S ou n d s a n d h ow th ey a re spel t

The .

sy st em fo ll o w e d in t h i s Pa rt Q s th a t o n w h i c h a l l th e b est
'

au th oriti es o n P h one ti c s a re a greed v iz

,
D r S w eet Pro fessor
. .
,

S k ea t M i ss L a u ra S o a mes a n d D r M u rray (in th e I ntro d u c ti on

, ,
.

to th e O x ford D i c ti o na ry) .

Besid es th e n ew ma tter fu rni sh ed in Pa rt VI a n A ppendi x .

,

o n D eriva ti o ns (ma i nl y b a sed o n S k ea t s E tymologi c a l D ic ti ona ry)

h a s b een a dd e d a t th e c l o se o f th e b oo k T h e A ppend ix g iv es
.

ve di fferen t l i sts o f D eriva tiv esth e rst c o nsi sti n g o f W ord s

deriv ed fro m P ro per N a mes th e sec o n d O f W o rd s formed by
,

C o mpo siti o n th e th i rd o f D eriva tives from T eu ton i c (ma i nl y

,

A S ) R oo t s th e fou rth of D eriva tives fro m La ti n R o o ts th e

. .
, ,

fth a nd l a st o f D eriva tives fro m G reek R oo ts .

N o th i ng h as b een a dd ed to th e pri c e of th e b ook o n a c c ou n t

o f th e a dditi o nal ma tter th us fu rn i sh ed w h i c h c onsi st s al togeth er
,

o f se ven ty six pa es
g
-
.
 CON TE N T S
PA R T I .
P A R S I NG AND A NA L Y S I S .

CR A P .

1 . A NA LY
S I S I N O UT I N E L
2 . TH E P
A RTS O F S P E E C H
I N O UT I N E : L PH R A S E S
S ec t ion 1 Th e a rt s O f S pee c h
. P
2 C l a ssi c a t io n O f
.
h ra ses P
3 . N O UN S
S ec tio n 1 .Th e k inds of N ou ns
2. G
en der
3. N
umb er
4 C a se
.

4 . J
A D E CTI E S V
S ec t ion 1 Th e kin ds of A dj ec t iv es
.

2 Th e t w o u ses o f A dj ec t ives
.

3 C ompa rison o f A dj ec tives

.

5 . P R O N O UN S
S ec t io n 1 . P ersona l Pronou n s
2. D emon st ra t ive Pronou ns
3. R el a tive or C onj u n c tive Pronou ns
I nt erro g a tiv e Prono uns
6 . V R BS
E
S ec t ion 1 Th e kinds O f erb s
. V
2 Tra n sitiv e erb s
. V
3 I n tra n sit ive erb s
. V
A ux ilia ry erb s V
5 A c t iv e a n d a ssive o i c es
. P V
6 C onj u g a t i on o f a erb in V
init e M oods F
7 I ndic a tiv e M ood
8 I mpera t ive M ood
9 S u b j u n c tiv e M oo d
.

1 0 I n nit ive M oo d
.

11 . P
a rt ic ipl es
12 . G
eru nds a n d erb a l V
oun s N
1 3 Th e S tron g a n d W eak C onj ug a t ion s
.

14 . D
ef ec t ive , I rreg u l a r, a n d I mperso na l V erb s
7 . AD ER S V B
S ec t io n 1 . F
Th e u nc tio n s o f A dverb s
2 Th e k in ds o f A dverb s
.

3 C omparis on o f A dverb s
.

4 . V
erb s c o mpo u nded w i th A dverb s
5 Th e t w o u s es o f A dverb s
.

)
!C P R E P O S ITI O N S
D
( C O N J UN CT I O N S
S e c tio n 1 C o -ordina tiv e C o nju n c t ions
.

2 S u b ordina t ive C o nj u n c t ion s

.

10 J
I NT E R E C T I O N S
I FF E R E N T A R T S
.

11 . T HE S AM E W O RD US E D A S D O F SPEE C P H
Y
S N TA X A N D A R S I NG P
13 . ANA LY
S IS IN E TA I D L
S ec tio n 1 S entenc es S impl e , C o mpou n d, a nd C o mpl ex
.

2 S c h eme o f A n a l y si s in
. et a il D
3 . D
eg rees o f S u b o rdina t io n
E x A M P L E S I N P A R S I NG A N D A N A S IS LY
M L
E XA P E S I N D N
I R E CT A N D I ND I R E C T A R R A TI O N

PA R T I I CO M P O S I T I O N : F O R C E A N D PR O PR IE T Y
. D I C TI O N
14 . P UN CT UA T I O N O R T H E R I G HT US E O F S T O P S
,
15 . T H E N O R M A L O R D E R O F WO R D S
16 . I N V E R S I O N O F T H E NO R M A L O R D E R : E M P H A S I S
17 . ST R U CT U R E O F S E N T E N CE S
18 P UR IT Y o r D I CT I O N
Vi E N G L I S H G RA M M A R A N D CO M P O S ITI O N
t HA P PA GE
1 9 . P R O PR I E T Y OF D ICT IO N
S ec tio n 1 C o mmon E rro rs in t h e Us e O f C ommo n W o rds
.

2 W o rds u s ed in W rong S e nses o r W ro ng C o nnec t io n s

.

PL L
U R A S I N S PE C I A S E NS E S L
20 P E R S P I C UI I Y O R C E A R N E S S O F I CT IO N
L D
'
.

S ec t io n 1 ra mma t ic a l
. G
rec a u t i o ns P 1 79
2 Th e O b s c u re. 1 80
3 Th e ou b l e M ea ning
. D 1 83
21 . M L Y
S I P I CIT D
O R EA SE O F ICTIO N 1 89
22 RE IT O R B V Y T E R S E N E S S O F D I C TI O N 1 95
L D
.

23 E E G AN C E O F
. N I C TI O 204

A I I I E N L A RG E M E N T O F
. VO C A B U L A R Y F I G U R E S
: OF S PE E C H .

P ERNTL A R G E M E NT B Y C O M P O S I T I O N
24 .

S e c tio n 1 . J u xta -po s itio na l C o mpo u nds

U nrel a ted or
2 el a t ed o r S y nt a c t ic a l C o mpo u n ds
. R
25 . E N LA R G E E N T M BY
P R E F I x E S A N D S U FF I X E S
S e c t ion 1 eu t o nic P re x es T
T
.

2 eu to nic S u f x es
.
3 o ma nic re x es
. R P
4 o ma n ic S uf x es
. R
5 reek re xes. G P
6 reek S u f x es . G
S o me enera l . G
esul t s, w ith Q u es tio n s R
26 F I GUR E S OF RH E T O R I C
M E TO NYMY
.

27 . EN L AR G E M E NT OF V B UL R Y B Y M
O CA A E TA PHO R AND

P A R T I V PR O S E . A ND PO E T R Y .

28 MA IN DV I IS IO NS OF PRO S E -
CO M PO S I T ION

.

S ec t io n 1 C l a s si
. c a t io n a c c o rding t o M a tter
2 C l a ss i
. c a t io n a c c o rding to Form
29 . PRO S O D Y AND PO ETIC D
I C TI O N
S ec tio n 1 . P ro s o dy
2 . P o et ic D
ic t io n
30 M AI N D I VIS I O NS OF PO E TR Y
PA R T V H I S T O R Y
.

. O F TH E L A NG U A G E .

31 . O RIG I N A N D F G R O W T H O E NG L I S H
S ec tion 1 E ng l ish a n d C o g n a te L a ng u a g es
.

2 O l d E n g li sh .

3 M iddl e E ng l ish .

4 M odern E ng lish .

32 . BO RRO W I NG S
S ec t io n 1 C el t ic
D
.

s
u a nish
. or L a t er S c a ndia n
o
c u tc h
. D
s
L at i n
u
o ren c h
. F
c Greek
. M o dern B o rr w ing s : M isc el l a neo u
o D
s

33 NO T E S A FF I xE s A N D A CC I D E N C E
ON
T
.

S ec t i o n 1 O rig in o f eu t o n ic A fxes
.

N 2 o u n f o rms .

3 A djec t ive o rms

F .

4 P ro n o u n F o rm s

5 V erb Fo rms
.

PA R T VI S O U N D S S YM B O L S A N D S P E LL I NG S
.
, ,
.

3 4 L ET TE RS A C C E N T S A N D S Y LLA BLE S
3 5 V O W E L S O UND S
. , ,
-
N D H ow T H E Y A R E PE T A S L

3 6 C O N S O N N T A L S O UND S AN D H O W T H E Y A R E S P E LT
.

. A

A P P E ND I X O N D E R I V A T I O N S .

1 W O RD S D E R I VE F R O M P R O P E R N A M E S D

W O R D S FO R M E B Y C O M P O S T I O N O R B Y T H E A D D I NG O F PR E F I x Es
.

II. D I

II I D E R IVA TIVE S FR O M T E UT O N I C ( M I NLY A S ) R O O T S

.
A . .

l 1 ) I: R I V A T I V E S F R O M L T I N R O O TS A

D ER IV TIV E S FR O M G R E E K RO O T S
.

v A

I ND E X O F S U BJ E CT S A N D S E LE CTED W O R D S
.
 PAR T I .

PA R S IN G A N D A N AL YS I S .

C HA P TE R I .

A N A L YS I S IN OU T LI N E .

Thi s ch ap ter a ssu mes th a t th e stu den t h a s a rou gh kn ow l edge o f

th e P a rts of Sp eech to sta rt w i th

W h
.

1 . S ent en c e en o n e erson sa
p ys so meth i n g to an o th er ,

or pu s t w ha t ys i n t o w ritin g h e u ses a c o mbi n a ti on o f

he sa ,

w ords w h i ch is ca ll ed a sen t en ce

F i re b u rn s .

H ere re is th e th i n g t a l k ed a b ou t T h e w o rd re .
,

th ou gh it n ames th e th i n g d oes n o t ma k e a sen t en ce I t is a , .

n a me a n d n o thi n g mo re
,
I t is on l y by a ddi ng su ch a w o rd a
.
s

b u rns to th e w ord re th a t is by sa ying w h a t th e th i n g

, ,

) d t h t e ca n ma k e a sen t en c e
( r e oes a w

D efi ni ti on A sen t en c e is a c ombin a ti on o f w o rd s i n w hi ch

.
,

some th ing is sa i d a b ou t so me th i n g el se

.

T h a t w h i c h is sa id ma y b e a n a sserti on or a c o mma n d or

N ata
or a n ex c l a ma t i o n
, ,

a
q u est i o n o r a w i sh
, , w h a t e v er in fa c t c a n b e , , ,

ex ressed by a F i n i t e v erb ( o n t h e mea ni n g o f F i n i t e v erb see

p
T h u s t h ere a re v e different ki n d s o f sent enc es
( a ) A ssert ive a frmi ng or deny i ng
, ( I ndi ca ti ve M ood ) . .

A ma n s su c c ess dep ends c h i e y o n h imsel f ( A rma tive )

. .

H e did n o t g et mu c h h el p from o th ers ( N eg a ti ve ) .

( 6) Impera tive c o mma ndi n g or proh i b i ti n g

, ( I mp era ti ve M ood ) . .

R el y c h i ey o n y o ur o w n eff o rts ( Comma n d A dvi ce ) .

,
.

Do n o t re l y mu c h on t h e h el p o f o th ers ( P roh i b i ti on )
. .

( c) Int errog a tive, as ki ng a u e st o n

q i .
( I ndi ca ti ve M ood ) .

H a ve y ou n i sh ed t h a t ta sk i
( d) O pta tive , ex press n g a w i i sh .
( S u bju n cti ve M ood ) .

ki ng dom come th y w ill b e don e

Th y , .

( e) Exc l ama t ory ex pressi ng some emo t i on ( I ndi ca tive M ood )

,
. .

W h a t a fo ol i sh fell o w y ou h a v e b een
2 S ub j ec t a nd Pr edic a t e E v ery sen ten ce w h en it is ex
.
,

pressed in full c on si sts o f tw o pa rts a S u bj ec t a nd a Predi ca te

, , .

E G C. . . B 35
2 PA RS I N G A N D A N A LY S S I P A RT I

In a very S h o rt se n e n c e t l ik e re b u rns ,
th e w o r d re
(w h i c h is ca l l e d a N o u n) ex
presses th e w h o l e of th e S u bj ect a nd ,

th e w or d
b u rns (w h i c h is c a l l ed a F i nite Verb) expresses th e

w h o l e O f th e P redi ca t e .

H o w ever l on g a sen t en ce ma y b e it ca n a l w a ys b e divid ed ,

in to th e sa me tw o pa rts as th e S h ortest sen t en c e

S u bject P redi ca te .

(1 ) Fire b u rn s .

( 2) A erc e re b u rnt do w n my h o u se .

( 3 ) A erc e re , b rea ki ng out c o mpl e t el y b urnt d o w n my

y est erda y , h o u se .

( 4) A erc e re , su dde nl y b rea k c o mpl e t el

y b urnt do w n my
ing o u t y esterd a
y a fter h o u se a nd ma ny o th ers in t h e
n o o n, sa me stree t .

(5 ) A erc e re, s u d denl y brea k co mpl et el y do w n my h o u se

b u rnt
i ng o u t y est erda y a ft er a nd a ll t h e o t h er h o u s e s in t h e

n oo n a t fo u r O c l o c k , sa me s treet e x c e pt v e

.

D eni ti on s T h e S u bj ec t of a sen en ce t is a w or d or w or s d
d en o ti ng w ha t k a b ou t
w e S pea .

Th e Predi ca t e is a w o rd o r w o rd s by w h i c h w e sa y so methi ng
a b ou t th e t hi n d en o t ed by th e S u bj ec t
g .

N ote 1 .

I n g ra mma r th e S u b j ec t is n o t w h a t w e s pea a o u t, k b
b ut t h e w ord o r w ords den oti ng w h a t w e s pea a b out G ra mma r k .

i i i f
dea l s e x c l u s v el y w th w ords, a nd t h s a c t h a s t o b e rec o g n s ed in a l l i
ii
t h e den t o n s

.

N ote 2 .S uc h a sen te nc e a s Go i s el l pt c a l H ere t h e i i .

S ub j ec t

thou

or
y ou

i s u n ders t oo d S t ll m o re el l pt c a l i s a . i i i
i b
s en t e n c e in w h c h t h e S u j ec t a nd th e F n t e v erb a re o th u nder i i b
st oo d

C ompa n o n , h enc e S H A K S P E A R E
i .

TO e x pre ss th i s sente nc e in fu l l w e h ,
ave to sa
y
C o mpa ni o n g o th ou ,
h e nc e

3 N mi a t e
. o n i v or it s eq ivu a l n
e t T h e predi ca te verb -

h as fo r its S u bj ec t so me n o u n o r n ou n e qu i v a l en t o f th e sa me -

n u mb er ( S i n g u l a r o r Pl u ra l ) a n d t h e sa m e
p e rson (F i rs t ,

S ec ond o r T h i rd ) as th e v erb i tsel f

,
Th e n o u n th a t sta nd s .

as S u bj e c t t o a v e rb is i n v a ri a b l y in th e N o mi n a tiv e c a se a n d so ,

it is b est to c a l l it a N o min a tive a t o n c e .

F i re Ib u rn s .

H ere re is t h e N o mi n a ti v e t o t h e predi c a t e v erb

b urn s - .

A pro n ou n is a v ery c o mmo n fo rm O f n ou n e qui v a l en t -

H e is st a n di ng o u t si de .

W e c a nno t sa y H i m is sta ndi ng o u tsid e S o th e prono u n l ik e

.

th e n ou n mu s t b e in t h e N o mi na t i v e c a s e .
C HA P . I A N A L Y S I S IN O UT LI N E 3

A n o th er fo rm of N o mi na t iv e is a G e ru n d or Verb a l noun
en di ng in -i n g

W a lki ng is g o o d for h ea l t h .

S o meti mes an I n ni t ive is use d as an e

qui va l en t to th e
N omi n a tive .

To wa lk I g
i s o o d f or h ea l th .

S o me ti mes a c l au se (th a t
hi ch is pa rt o f a is, a sen en c e w t
l a rg e r sen t en c e) is used as a n e qu iv a l en t to th e N o mi n a tive Th i s .

is ca ll e d a N ou n c l au se, b eca use it d o es th e w o rk o f a n o u n

-

Wh o m the gods l ove die y o u n g P roverb

T h
.

4 . En l a rg ement of N o min a t iv e e N o mi n a ti v e is so me
times en l a r e
g d by a w or d or w or s d th a t add so meth in g t o i ts
mean i ng .

Th e co mmon est fo rm o f enl a r e

g men t is a n a dj ec t i v e o r a

ar ti c ipl e a n d b o th fo rms o f enl a r e men t ma y o c c u r t og e th er

p g
erce re
!
A
b u rn t do w n my h ou se
A erce re ,
b rea king ou t y est er a
y, d .

A n o th e r very co mmon fo rm of en l a rg e men t is a n ou n or

pron ou n in th e P ossessiv e ca se

M y pro s pec ts a re n o t b ad .

c s ta il

A f or is Of a t a w ny c o l ou r .

A n o th e r form of enl a r e
g men t is a n ou n in a
pp os i t i o n (i e . .

re err n g to th e sa me
f i thi n g
th er n ou n ) as th e o

J o h n th e b a ker h s t k en a n ew sh o p
, ,
a a .

A n o th e r fo rm O f enl a rg emen t is a prepositi on fo ll o w ed by a

n ou n
M y pro spec t s i n l ife a re n o tb ad .

A bird i n th e h a n d is w o rt h t w o in t h e b u sh .

S o me ti mes a c l aus e c a n be u se d to en l a r e
g th e N o mi n a t i v e .

T hi s is d an A dj ec ti v e
ca ll e -
c l a u se , b ec au se it e n l a rg es th e n o u n
a s an a dj ec t i v e w o ul d do .

Th e h o u se i n w h i ch w e l i ve I h a s b ee n so l d .

5 . F init e V erb A n y p ar t of a ve rb th a t c an b e us e d fo r
sa yi ng so meth in g a b ou t so methi n g el se (in a ny Of th e v e
sen ses sh o w n in l ) is c a ll e d F i n it e .

d n it e means
A F i n it e v e rb is so
l i mi ted

Th e w or .

c a ll ed , b e c ause it is l i mit ed t o th e sa me pe rso n (F i rst, S econ d, o r

Thi rd) an d to th e sa me nu mb e r (S in g u la r o r P lu ra l) a s i ts
N o mi n a tive
(a ) I see h im .
( b ) T h ey see him .

.

In bo th se n te n ce s th e f orm Of th e v erb see

is th e sa me .
4 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S IS PA R T I

Bu t in (a ) th e v erb is in th e F i rst person , b eca us e its N o m .

I is in th e F i rst person , a nd in th e S ingu la r n u mb er, b ecau se

its N om I is S ing u la r S i mil a rl y in ( b) th e verb is in th e

. .

Thi rd perso n , b eca u se its N o m th e y is in th e Thi rd person ,

.

a nd P lu ra l, b ec aus e its N o m th ey is Pl u ral

. .

N ote b
T h o se pa rt s o f a v er w h c h a re no t n t e, th a t is, a re n o t i i
l mit ed t o n u mb er a n d perso n , a re o f t h re e
i n ds ( l ) t h e In nit iv e ki
mo o d, a s I i
w s h to reti re ( 2) a P art c pl e, a s a reti red o c er i i f
( 3 ) a G eru n d o r Verb a l nou n , a s I t h in o f reti ri ng Th es e, k .

t h o u g h t h ey a re pa rt s o f a v erb , h a v e l o st w h a t i s mo st essen t a l in t h e i
b
v er c h a ra c t er
-
t h a t is, t h ey do n o t en a b l e u s t o sa y a ny t h n g a o u t i b
i
a n t h n g el se, a n d t h ere ore t h e
y f
y c a n n ev er b e t h e v er o f a P red c a t e b i .

6 . C o mpl et i on of F init e V erb S o me v erb s ma k e a c o mpl e te .

sen se by th emsel ves I f so th ey a re c a ll ed I n tran si ti v e verb s o f

.
,

C o mpl e t e Predi ca ti o n
F i sh sw i m R i v ers f l ow A l l a n i ma l s di e
. . .

O th er v erb s do n o t ma k e a c o mpl e te sense by th emsel v es b u t ,

re qui re so me w o rd o r w o rd s t o b e a dd ed fo r th is pu rpose S u ch .

a ddi t i o n a l w o rd o r w o rd s a re c a l l e d th e C o mpl et i on .

T h e C o mpl eti on ma y b e e ith er (a ) a n O bj ec t o r (b) a C o mpl e ,

men t ; a n d th ere is o n e c l ass o f verb (F a c titi v e see b el ow ) th a t ,

re qui res b o th

( ) O b j ec t
a

A v erb th a t requ i res a n O bj ec t is ca ll ed T ra n siti v e T ra n .

sitiv e mea ns
p a ssi n
g o v er or
p a ssi n
g on A
v e rb is .

T ra nsiti v e w h en th e a c ti on d en o t ed by it d oes n o t stop w i th

,

th e d o er b u t passes o n t o somet h i n g el se
,

S h i ps tra v erse th e ocea n H e sh o t a ti ger . .

T h ere is n o s en se o r a t l e st a v ery i mperfec t sen se in sa y i ng

,
a ,

S h i ps tr v ers e H e S h ot

a ,
.

A T ra nsitiv e v erb ma y ev en h a v e tw o o bj ec ts
H e a sk ed me a difcu l t qu esti on .

h e a sk ed g i v e s a v ery i n c ompl et e se n se H e a sk e d

To s a y .

me b ri ng s t h e sen se a st ep nea rer t o c ompl et i n B t t h e sen se i s o . u

n o t re ll y c o mpl et ed t i ll w e sa y

H e a sk e d me a difc u l t qu e st o n

a i .
,

(5) C ompl ement

T h i s w o rd is u sed t o d en o t e a n y kin d o f c o mpl e t i o n e x c ept
th e O bj ec t o r o bj e c ts to a T ra ns i tiv e v e rb T ra n si t i v e v erb s .

w h i c h n eed a c o mpl emen t as w ell as an o bj e c t a re ca ll ed

F a c t it iv e ; I n t ransi ti v e v erb s w h i c h n eed a c o mpl emen t a re

c all ed C o pul a t iv e .

Th a t g ri e f dro v e h im ( O b j ec t ) ma d ( C o mpl emen t ) ( F a c ti ti ve ) .

He see ms to b e ma d ( Co mpl ement ) ( Cop u l a ti ve ) .

C HA P . I A N A LY S I S IN O UTL I N E 5

If w e o m t t h e c ompl emen t , a n d sa y
i T h a t g ri e f dro v e h im, o r
H e se ems, t h e sen t e n c es a re a l mo st mea n i n g l ess I t i s th e .

c ompl emen t w h i c h furn i sh e s w h a t w a s w a n t ed t o c o mpl e te t h e sen se

in e i th er sen ten c e

.

7 E xt e i
. n s on of F in it e V e rb Th e F i ni t e v erb is sa id to b e
e x t en d ed w h en its me an i n g is i n c reased by a n a dverb o r

,

by some w ord o r w o rd s th a t h ave th e fo rc e o f a n a dverb

T h a t g ri e f n ea rl y dro v e h im ma d .

Th a t g ri e f dro v e h im ma d a l l of a s udden .

H ere th e mea n in g o f d ro ve is ex t en d ed in th e rst
sen t en c e by th e adverb n ea rly a nd in th e sec on d by th e ,

a d v erbi a l ph ra se a l l of a su dden .

S ometimes th e F i n it e v erb is e x t en d ed by a c l a use A .

c l a use so us ed is c a ll e d a n A dv erb c l a us e b e c a us e it h a s th e fo rc e
-
,

o f a n a dverb

Th e n ew s dro v e h im ma d, a s soon a s h e h ea rd i t .

The t
sen en c e ital i c ised ex t end s th e mean i ng o f
d ro ve by
men ti oni n g th e time o f th e a c ti on .

8 . S c h eme of A n a l y sis S en t en c es a re a n a l ysed a c c o rding

t o th e fo ll ow i ng sch eme ,
th e d eta i ls of w h ich h a v e b een a l rea dy
e x l a i n ed in 7
p g 3 -

Th e n ew ma st er so on pu t
th e c l a ss n t o g o o d o rder i .

A bi
rd i n t h e h a n d
i s w orth t w o in th e b u sh .

E v l c o mmu ni c a o n s c o rru pt g o o d ma n n ers

i ti .

l Vit h ou t a ny n ec ess ty , h e a s ed me a ru de qu est o n

i k i .

I . SU BJ E CT . II . P R E D I CA T E .

C o mpl et io n o f F n t e Verb
i i .

E xt en sio n o f
F ini t e Verb .

F 1 mt e Verb
O b j ec t . C o mpl emen t .

ma st er th e c l a ss i n to g ood so o n .

o rder

c o rru
pt

a sk e d i
w th o u t a n y
6 PA RS IN G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

A n a ly se th e f ollow ing sen ten c es a c c ordi n g to the model

1 . A i fo w l er h a v i ng x ed h is n et w i th drew t o a l i ttl e
c erta n , ,

di s t nc e t h t t h e b i rds mi g h t n o t b e fra i d t o c o me
a ,
a a .

2 A ig h t o f pi g eo n s l ed b y t h eir k i ng w a s b y c h n c e pa ssi n g
.
, ,
a

t h ro u g h t h e S k y a t t h i s t i me .

3 T h y c a u g h t si g h t o f t h e ri c e g r i ns sc t t ered b y th e fo w l er
. e -
a a

n ea r th e n et .

4 T h e pi g eo n w h o w a s ki ng o f th e rest t h en a sk ed h is ri c e l o v i ng
.
-

fo l l o w ers t h i s qu esti o n
5 W h y a re ri c e g ra i n s l y i ng h ere i n th i s l o n el y pl a c e
.
-

6 W e w i l l se e i n t o t h i s t h i n g
. .

7 W e mu s t b e c a u ti ou s in o u r mo v eme nt s
. .

8 O n e c o n c ei t ed pi g eo n a mo n g t h e rest g a v e t h em b a d a dv i c e
. .

9 H e t o l d t h em t o y do w n t o t h e ri c e g ra i n s a nd sa t i s fy t h ei r
.
-

h u n g er .

1 0 H a v i ng l i st en ed t o th i s b a d a dv i c e a nd o w n do w n , t h ey
.

b eg a n t o pec k u p a nd s w a l l o w th e g ra i ns .

1 1 O n b eg i nn i n g t o pec k t h ey w ere a l l c a u g h t in t h e n e t
. .

1 2 T h e n t h ey b l a med t h ei r ra sh a nd i mpru den t fri en d for h a v i ng

.

g i v e n t h em s u c h b a d a dv i c e .

1 3 Th ey o u g h t ra t h er t o h a v e b l a med t h ems el v es for h a v i ng

.

l i st en ed to h im .

1 4 T h e ki n g n o w t ol d t h em w h a t t o do
. .

1 5 A t o n e mo ment a nd w i t h o n e u n it ed mo v emen t s pri n g i ng

.

s u dde n l
y u p y O ff w i t h t h e n e t .

1 6 S ma ll t h i ng s b ec ome s tro ng b v b ei ng u ni t e d a mo ng t h em
.

s el v e s .

1 7 E v en ma d el eph a n ts c a n b e h el d fa st b y a ro pe ma de o f t h i n
.

b l a des o f g ra ss .

1 8 T h e pi g e o n s a c t ed o n t h i s a dv i c e
. .

1 9 M a ki ng a su dde n S pri ng t o g et h er, t h ey ew u p i nt o t h e a ir,

.

c a rr i n
y g t h e n et w i t h t h e m .

20 A t rst t h e fo w l er h o ped t o s ee t h em c o me do w n a g a i n t o th e
.

e a rt h .

21 F l y i n g a l o n g a s fa st a s th ey c o u l d , t h ey pa ss ed o u t o f S i g h t
.

w i th t h e n o t a b o u t t h em .

22 I n t h i s w a y t h e fo w l er l ost b o th h is n et a n d t h e pi g eo ns
. .

23 T h e pi g eo n s th e n sa i d t o th e ir ki ng
. kin g , w h a t is th e
n e x t t h i n g t o b e do n e
24 T h e ki n g direc t ed t h em t o a c ert a i n pl a c e
. .

25 Th ere h is fri end, th e ki ng o f t h e mi c e , rec ei v ed th em ki n dl y

. .

26 Th e ki ng o f t h e mi c e set t h em a ll free b y n i b b l i ng t h ro u g h
.

t h e n et .

27 Th u s t h e w h o l e t roo p o f pi g eo ns e sc a pe d b y mea n s o f u n i o n
. .

28 A l l men s h o u l d pro t b y t h i s l esso n

. .

29 A c h a rio t w i l l n o t g o o n a si n g l e w h e el
. .

3 0 A c reeper, h a v i n g n o t h i ng t o su pport i t , mu st fa l l to t h e

.

ea rt h Dig est of E a stern F a b l e .

S UMM A RY OF C H A PT E R I .

S ent enc e : a co mb i na ti o n of w o rds in w h ic h meth i ng is

so sa id
a b ou t so met h i ng e l se I) .
 on . 11 TH E PA RTS O F SP E E CH I N O U TL I N E : PH R A S E S 7

S u b jec t th e w o rd or w ords d e n o t i ng w h a t w e S pea k a b ou t

Predica t e : th e w o rd or w o rd s b y w h i c h w e sa y s ometh i ng a b o u t
th e th i ng den o t ed b y t h e su bj ec t
C l a u se a sent enc e t h a t is pa rt o f a l a rg er sen t en c e
N omin a t ive or it s e qu iva l ent t h e n o u n o r n ou n equ i va l en t -

th a t x es t h e nu mb er a nd perso n o f t h e F i n i t e v erb
N ou n c l a u se a c l a u se t h a t d o es t h e w ork o f a n ou n
-

Enl a rg ement of N omina t iv e a n a dj ec t i v e o r a d ec t iv e e u i va l ent

j q
-

t h a t e nl a rg es t h e mea n i ng o f t h e N o mi na ti v e
A dj ec t iv e c l a u se a c l a u s e th a t do es t h e w o rk o f a n a dj ec t i v e
-

Fini t e verb : a ny pa rt o f a v erb t h a t is l imi t ed t o n u mb er a nd

perso n

N on - nit e part s of a erb : v t

h ose pa rt s o f a v er th a a re n o t b t
l m t e to nu m er o r perso n , v iz t h e nn t v e, th e P a rt c pl e, a n d
i i d b . I ii i i
th e G eru nd
Tra ns it i e erb v v
o ne h a requ res a n o ec t t i bj t
t
In ra n sit i e erb v v
o n e t h a t do es n o t re u re a n o j ec t
q i b
Fa c t itiv e v erb : a T ra n s t v e v er th a t requ res b o t h a c ompl e
ii b i
ment a n d a n o b j ec t
C opu l a t i e erb : a nv v ntra ns t v e v er t h a requ res a c ompl e
I i i b t i
men t
E xt ens ion of F in it e verb a n a d v erb or a d v erb equ i va l ent
: -
th a t .

ex t e n s t h e mea n n g
d i o f a F i nite v erb
v
A d erb -c l a u se a c l a u s e t h a t d o es t h e w ork o f a n a d v erb

C HA PTE R II .

THE PA R T S O F S PE E C H I N
O UT L I N E : PH R A S E S .

S E C TIO N 1 .
T H E PA RT S OF S PE E C H .

Th e de ni ti on s gi ven in th i s cha p ter w i l l n ot be repea ted in

su b sequ en t ch a ters
p
T h
.

9 . T h e P a rt s of S peec h di fferen t ki nd s o f w ord s

e

u se d fo r di fferen t pu rposes i n a sen t en c e a re ca l l ed P a rts o f

S peec h .

Un til w e se e a w o r d in a sen ten c e

,
w e a re O ften u na bl e to sa y
to w h a t part it b el ongs
o f speec h

( a ) W a ter t h e roses ( b ) Ta k e s o me w a ter ( c ) A w a ter b ird

. . .

In ( a ) w a ter i s a v erb I n ( b ) it is a n o u n
. I n ( c ) it is a n a dj ec ti ve .
,
o r a n ou n u sed a s a n a dj ec t i v e

1 0 N o un T a k e su c h a sen t en c e a s th e fol l ow i n
.

.
g
Th e h ow l i ng o f th e w o lf ll e d th e f l ock w i t h terror .

H ere h ow li ng is th e n a me o f a n a c ti o n ; w o lf o f a n a n i ma l
; ,

ock o f a mul titu d e terror of a feel i n g

, S o h ow li ng w olf f lock
, .
, , ,

terror a re a l l n ou n s .
8 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S PA RT I

D e ni ti on A n ou n is a w or d use d fo r na mi n g an yth ing .

N ote 1 .
Th e w o rd

i
in t h s de n t o n st a n ds for perso n ,
t h ng i i i
pl a c e,
q u a l it , a c t o n ,
y ,
i feel i ng y g i
c o ll e c t o n , et c , a n th n , i n a c t , t h a t . i f
w e c a n spea a ou t k b
I t is S O u sed in a l l t h e de n t o n s t h a t o ll o w ii f
Vote 2 N ou n a nd n a me ot h mea n t h e sa me th n g a t ott om
. .

. . b i b .

N ou n i s rom L a t n n omen, a n a me
f i N a me is rom A n g l o - S a x o n . f
na ma a na me
T
.
,

11 . P rono u n a ke su c h a sen en c e a s t th e foll ow ing

I t ol d Ja mes th a t t h e sna k e w hi ch y ou sa w I n th e
g a rd en w o u l d do
hi m n o h arm, if h e l et i t g o i ts o w n w a y .

H ere I is u se d
fo r th e spea k er y ou fo r th e perso n spo k en to

h i m a n d h e fo r J a mes ; w hic h, i t, an d i ts ow n fo r
sn a k e

.

S o a ll th ese w o rds a re pro n ou n s

A
.

D eni tion pro n ou n ( L a t i n p o, for, i nstea d o f ) is a w ord

r

d i n st ea d o f a n ou n
u se .
( I t i s ,
in fa c t , a su b st i tu t e w o rd o r

proxy I t .d en o t es a th i n
g me fo r it )
i
w th ou t b ei ng a na .

N ote I .
Pro n o u n s in t h e F irst a n d S ec o nd perso ns sa v e th e menti on
i ng o f a n o u n , a n d in t h e T h i rd t h e rep eti ti on o f o ne . T h e S pea k er,
h o w ev er, c a n g i v e h is o w n n a me , if h e c h o o se s
W e J ohn Cod e , ,
so t erme d o f o ur su ppo sed fa th er , et c .

2 H en ry VI . iv 2, 3 3
. .

U su a ll y h o w ev er, th e spea k er si mpl y s a y s

,
I w i th o u t g i v i n g h is
o w n n a me, a n d in a ddre ssi n g a n y o n e h e s i mpl y sa y s y ou w i t h ou t
menti o ni ng t h e n a me o f t h e perso n spok en t o .

N ote 2 Pro n o u n s a re a l so u sed a s su b sti tu t es for a nou n

.
o

e u i v a l en t
q
C l i mb i ng u p ro cks is a n a mu sement t o me ; b u t th a t ( z c limb ing
u
p roc k s ) is a l ab our to y ou .

12 A dj
. ec t iv e A n ou n sta n di ng by itsel f is so meti mes o f
t oo g en eral a mea n i n g t o i n di ca t e th e t h i n g to w h i c h th e w ri ter
o r spea k er is re ferri ng

S u ppo si ng th e n ou n t o b e h ou se th e Spea k er mi gh t w ish ,

t o po i n t o u t so me pa rt i c ul a r h o u se H e w o ul d th en h a v e to sa y .

this h ou se, or tha t h o u se, or th e o th er h ou se .

O r h e mi g h t w i sh to a ll u d e to th e qu a n ti t y , as th e w ho le

o r t o th e n u mb er, a s

h o use on e h o u se , f ou r h o u ses o r to

th e seri a l o rd er, a s

th e rst h o u se, th e f ou rth h ou se .

O r h e mi g h t w i sh t o d esc rib e th e ki n d o f h o u se, a s a li ttle

a c om

h ouse, f orta b l e h ouse, a n u n ti dy h o u se , etc .

O r h e mi gh t w i sh t o spea k a b ou t sev eral h ou ses in a

di strib u tive sen se , as h o u se ea ch h ou se,

every .

A n y w o rd th us a dd ed to a n ou n is c a ll ed a n A dj ec tiv e (La t .

ed fo r a ddi n g h e n ou n a n d adj e c t i v e t h u s
ad jec ti vu s, u s T
c o mbi n ed ma k e a ki n d O f c om ou nd n ou n S ometi mes this
p
CH . II TH E PA RTS O F S PE E CH I N O UTL I N E : P HR A S E S 9

co mpou nd n ou n ca n b e w r d as grea t c oa titt en i

as a s n gl e w o r , ,

bl a c k d g u ar ,b m

n o le an ,

h a lf penn y q ui c k sa n d s sw eet ,

,

h ea rt et c ev ery o n e o f w hi ch ca n ea sil y b e b ro k en u p in t o a

, ,
.

Simpl e n o u n a n d an a dj ec tiv e th a t prec ed es it

D eni ti on
.

A n a dj ec tiv e is a w o rd th a t enl a rges th e meani ng

a n d n arro w s t h e a ppli c a ti o n o f a n o u n .

E nl a rg emen t o f mea n i n g i s n ec essa ri l y a c c ompa n i ed b y a n a rro w

ing o f a ppl i c ti o n Th i s i s a v ita l po i nt

a . T hu s t h e no u n h ou se .
,

so l o n g a s i t s mea ni ng rema i n s u n e nl a r ed t h a t is so l o ng a s n o
g , ,

a dj ec t i v e is a d ded t o it c a n b e a l i d t o n a lmo st c ou ntl ess n u mb er

pp e a ,

o f th i n s c a ll ed b y t h e
g g en e ra l n a m e o f
h ou s e B u t if I a dd t o .

th e n ou n t h e dj e c ti v e fou rth th e nou n so enl a rg ed c a n b e
a ,

appl i ed t o o nl y o n e h ou se v iz t o t h a t h ou se w h i c h st a nds fourth in

,
.

a c erta i n ro w o r t erra c e .

O b serv e th a t w h en w e e nl a rg e th e mea n i ng o f h o u se by a ddi ng

fo urth w e do no t a l ter t h e mea ni ng o f h ou se
,

F ourth .

h ou se mea n s a l l t h a t h o u se mea ns a n d more b esi des

S horter deni ti on A n adj ec tive is a w o rd u sed to quali fy a
.
,

1
nou n .

Th i s sh ort er i s i n t end e d t o si g n ify ex a c tl y th e sa me

d eniti o n
t h i n g a s th e l o ng er o n e O n a c c ou n t o f it s s h o rtn ess it is more c o n
.

v enie n t for pa rs i n g T h u s in pa rsi ng fourth h o u se w e c a n sa y
.

th a t fou rth is a n a dj ec ti v e qu a l ify i ng th e n ou n h o u se

A m
.

N ote o n g st j
a d ec t v es i wemu st n o t omit t o i nc l u d e t h e
D en te i a rt c l e i th e (a sh ort form o f th i s) a nd t h e I nden it e a rt i c l e a
(a sh ort form o f on e)

1 3 Ve b r Th i s h as b een d esc rib ed a l rea dy in 2 5

D en i ti on
. .
,

A v erb is a w ord u sed fo r sa y ing so meth i ng

a b ou t so me t h i n el se
g .

Verb is from L a t i n verb u m a w ord A v erb h a s b e en C al l ed

.
,

p re em-
i n en t l y t h e w o rd b e c a u se i t i s t h e c h i e f w o,
rd

i n a se n t e n c e .

I n fa c t i t is th e mo st i mpo rta nt ki n d o f w o rd in h u ma n spe ec h

,
.

Ja mes l a u g h s w e mi g h t des i g na t e Ja mes b y po i nt i ng t o h im

w i th ou r n g er ; b u t w e c a nno t e x pre ss a n f c t a b ou t him as

y a ,

l a u gh s w i t h o u t u si ng o u r v o i c e a n d sa i n t h w ord l a u gh s
, y g e .

1 4 Pr ep o sit i on
. T a k e su ch sen t en c es a s th e foll o w i ng
.
-

( a ) I pu t my h a nd on th e ta bl e .

( b ) A bi rd i n t h e h a n d is w orth t w o ( bird s) i n th e b u sh .

( 0 ) H e is o ppo sed to sev ere mea su res .

I n (a ) th e prepo siti o n on sh o w s th e rel a ti o n b e tw een th e

thi ng d en o t ed by ta b le an d th e a c ti on d en o t ed by pu t Th e .

ha n d mi gh t b e h el d a b ove th e t a b l e o r u n der it o r on it I t is , ,
.

th e prepositi on w hi c h d e n es th e rel a ti o n .

1
Ob serve th a t qu a l if y simpl y mea n s modif y I n g ra mma r it mea ns .

p re c is el y t h e s a me th in g th a t i t d o e s in o rdin a ry l a ng u a g e, a n d i s n o t b y
a ny mean s l imit ed t o a dj ec tiv e s th a t express so me qu a lity o r a tt rib u t e .
10 PA RS I N G A N D A N A LY S I S PA RT I
I n (b ) th e prepo siti o n i n Sh o w s th e rel a ti on b etw een th e th i n g
d eno ted by th e n ou n b i rd a nd th e thi ng d en o ted by th e n ou n
ha n d ; a l so b etw een th e th i n g s d en o t ed by th e n ou n birds a n d
th e t h i n g d en o t ed by th e n ou n b u sh .

I n (c) t h e preposi t i o n to S h o w s th e rel a ti on b etw een th e

thi n gs d en o ted by severe mea su res and th e qu a l i ty (o ppositi on)
d en o t ed by th e w o rd opp osed
D en i tion A prepo si ti o n is a w o rd u sed fo r sh ow i n g in
.

w h a t rel a ti on o n e t h i n g sta n d s t o a n o th er th i n g .

T h e n o u n o r n o u n e qu i v a l en t t h a t c o mes a fter a prepositi o n

-

is c a ll ed its O b j ec t .

N ote 1 A v o id su c h den i ti o n s a s t h e fo ll o w i n g
.

A pr po si t i o n is a w ord u sed b e fore a n ou n or pro nou n t o S h o w

e

rel a t io n t o s ome o th er w o rd

i ts i n t h e se n t enc e .

A c c o rdi ng t o t h i s, a J a c k in t h e b o x do es n o t mea n th a t a Ja c k
Ja c k i s in th e n ou n

is in t h e b o x , b u t t h a t t h e n o u n b ox .

N o r i s it e n o u g h t o sa y t h a t a
pre posi t i o n c o n nec ts a n ou n w i t h
a v erb , a n a dj ec t i v e , or o t h er n o u n I n t h e ph ra s e . ti me a nd t i de ,
w e h a v e o ne n o u n c o n n ec t ed w i t h a n o t h er nou n a n d i n t h e se n t e n c e

men a re mo rta l , w e h a v e a n ou n c o nn ec t ed w i t h a n a dj ec t i v e b y
t h e c o pu l a t i v e Y e t n ei t h er a nd nor a re is a prepo si t ion

a re

. .

N ote 2 . W h en t h e rel a t i o n b et w een t h e t w o t h i ng s n a med is n o t

a d e u a t el y e x re sse d b a si n l e r i t i n t w r o i t i o n s ma
q p y g p pe o s o ,
o
p pe s y
b e u sed fo r t h e purpo se
Th e mo u se c re pt out f rom u nder th e oor .

T h e ra b b i t esc a ped by ru nn n g i i n to it s h o l e

.

15 .C onj u n c t i o n T a k e su c h ex a mpl es a s th e fo l l o w i ng
( a ) H e is a h umb l e mi n ded a n d c o n t ent ed ma n
-
.

( b ) W e dmi re t h e c h a ra c t er o f a po o r b u t h o n es t ma n
a , , .

( )
0 T h a t m a n i s d i s l i k ed b ec a u se h e is i l l t em ered
, p
-
.

I n (a ) th e n o t i o n o f h u mi li ty ex pressed by hu mb le mi n ded is -

co nn ec t ed (in th e sens e o f a dditi o n) w i th th e n o ti o n o f c o n ten t

men t e x pressed by c on ten ted Th e o n e n o ti on is si mpl y add ed

.

t o t h e o th er T h e co nj u n c ti o n u sed fo r th i s pu rpose is a n d
. .

I n (b) th e n o t i o n o f po v erty ex pressed by p oor is c onn ec ted

(in th e se n se o f c o n t ra st ) w i t h th e n o ti o n o f h o n e st y e x
pre ssed

by hon est T h e o n e n o t i on is c on tra sted w ith th e o th er T h e

. .

c o nj u n c t i o n us ed fo r th i s u r o se is b u t
p p .

I n (c) th e th ou g h t e x pressed by th e sen ten c e h e is ill

tempered is c onn ec ted (in th e sen se o f ca use o r rea so n ) w i th th e
th o u g h t e x pressed by t h e sen t en c e
th a t ma n is di sl ik ed 1
.

T h e o n e th o u g h t is g i v en a s th e rea so n fo r th e o th er .

W h en mind j ec t

1
th e a ppreh en ds a sing l e ob ,
as fa th er, so n ,

h o n est y , po verty , th e resu l t is c a l l ed a n oti on ; a n d t his is e x pressed
12 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S PA RT I

I n (e) th e a dverb w ell is qu a li ed by th e a d v erb re

ma rkab l y

.

D en i ti on A n a d v erb is a w o rd th a t e x t en d s th e mea n i ng
a n d na rro w s th e a ppli ca ti o n o f a n y pa rt o f speec h ex c e t a n ou n
p
1
or ro n ou n
p .

N ote E x a mpl e ( c ) O b serv e th a t in ex t end ng t h e mea n n g o f

. i i
a b ov e b y t h e a dd t on o f ii
pa rt l y , w e do n o t a l t er t h e me a n in g

ex resses a ll t h a t i s i m

of a b ov e Th e phra s e a rtl a b ove
.
p y p

i d
pl e in t h e prepos t o n a b o v e, a n d so met h nii g more It S h o w s i .

i
t h a t t h e re l a t o n o f a b o v e n ess deno t ed b y ab ove is no t e n t re , b u t
-
i
i T h e sa me rema r s a ppl y t o t h e prepo sit o n k i

pa rt a l . b el o w .

E x a mpl e ( d) H ere t h e mea n ng o f t h e c o nj u nc t o n

. ec a u se is i i b
e x t e nded, n o t a l t ere d, b y t h e a dv er

merel y
T h e ph ra se merel y

b .

b ec a u se e x re sse s a l l t h a t i s m l ed in b ec a u s e , a nd so met h ni i i
p p g
more I t sh o w s t h a t t h e rel a t o n o f c a u se deno t ed b y t h e c o nj u n c t o n
. i i
b ec a u se

is t o b e u nderst oo d in a sen se t h a t ex c l u des ev ery o t h er
c a u se If w e c h a ng e th e o rder o f t h e w o rds a n d sa y ,
. H e w a s merel y
desp s ed, b ec a u se h e w a s po or, t h e mea n ng o f t h e se n t enc e i s n o t
i i
t h e sa me t h s w ou l d mea n , H e w a s merel y desp sed ( n ot h a t ed o r
i i
a tta c k
ed) b ec a u se h e w a s poo r

O r, w e l ea v e o u t t h e a dv erb . if
merel y , t h e sen se w ou l d a g a n b e d f eren t Th e se nt enc e w o u l d i if .

i
t h en mpl y t h a t th ere ma y h a v e een o t h er rea so ns b es des po v erty b i
i
for w h c h h e w a s esp sed i d .

1 7 I n t erj ec t ion A l l Pa rts o f S peech ex c ept i n t erj ec t i on s

. .

h av e so me g ra mma ti c al c o nn ec ti o n w i th so me o th er w o rd in th e
sen t en c e in w h i c h th e y o c c u r A n i n t erj ec ti o n is th e o n l y pa rt
o f s eec h t h a t sta n d s a l o n e i so l a t ed
.

p I t sc a rc el y d eserv es t o .

b e ca ll ed a pa rt o f speec h ; fo r it l i es o n th e b o rd erl a n d of
l a n g ua g e h al fw a y b e tw e en a rt i c u l a te speec h a n d th e i n a rt i c u l a te
,

c ri es o f a n i ma ls W e mu st g i v e it a n a me h o w ev er b ecau se i t
.
, ,

is a w ord fo r gra mma r ta k es a cc o u n t o f e v ery ki n d o f w o rd th a t

o c c u rs in h u ma n spee c h .

My so n , a l a s i
! d ed y est erda y .

D en i ti on A n i n terj ec ti on is d th row n i n t o a sen t en c e

a w or

to ex
press so me feel i n g of th e mi nd b u t forms n o pa rt o f th e
,

t
c o n s ru c t o n o f i th e t
sen en c e .

I nterj ec t io n from L a ti n i n terjec tu s

is , t h ro w n b e tw e e n .

N ote Th e a me n i ng o f a n i n t erj ec t i o n mi g h t b e ex pres se d by a

pa ren t h et c a l s ent enc e i

My so n (I a m sorry to sa y ) di ed y est erda y .

O b s erv e th a t a se n t en c e su b st i t u t ed f o r an i nt erj ec t i o n is alw ay s

1
In 1 7 it is sh o w n th a t an interj ec tio n is , pro perl y spea kin g , no t a
P a rt o f S peec h H en c e n o mentio n is ma de o f in terj ec tio ns in th is
.

de nition A n interj ec t ion, b eing ab sol u te or iso l a t ed, c a n no t b e qu al ied

.

b y a n y o th er w o rd .
 CH . II T H E PA R TS O F S PE E CH I N O U TL I N E : P H RA S E S 13

pa ren t h eti c a l Th e sent enc e I am sorry t o sa y is a s c ompl et el y

.

i sol a ted from th e s ent enc e M y so n di ed y esterda y b y th e pa ren

t h esi s a s t h e i n t e rj e c t i o n is i so l ted fro m i t by it s o w n

a la s ! a

n a t u re

1 8 D oub l e P a rt s o f S peec h
. Besid es th e ei g h t P a rts o f
S peech al rea dy d esc rib ed , th ere a re fou r ki nd s o f w o rds w h i c h
a re d ou b l e pa rt s o f spe e c h , t h a t is, tw o c o mbi n ed in o n e

( )
1 A P a rt i c ipl e T h i s is a v erb a n d adj ec t i v e c o mbi n ed
.
-
.

A reti red o fc er l i v es n ex t do or .

R eti red isb b ei n g pa rt o f th e v erb retire
a v er , I t i s a l so .

a n a dj ec t i v e , b ec a u se it qu a l i es t h e n ou n oi c er H enc e a pa rt i .

c ipl e ma y b e c a ll ed a v erb a l a dj ec t i v e .

( ) A
2 G eru n d o r V erb a l N o u n T h i s is a v erb a nd n ou n
co mbi n ed .

i k o f reti ri ng soon from s ervi c e

I th n .

R etiri ng is a v erb b ei ng pa rt o f th e v erb ,

ret i re I t is a l so .

n ou n b ec a u se i t is o bj ec t t o t h e prepo si t i o n

a of

.
,

( )
3 A n I n n i t iv e T hi s t o o is a v e r b a n d n ou n c o mbi n ed .

I w i sh to retu rn th a t b ook .

H ere t o ret u rn is a v erb in th e I nn i t i v e mo od I t is a l so

,
. a

ki nd o f nou n b ec a u se it is th e ob j ec t to th e Tra nsi t i v e v erb w i sh

, .

( )
4 R el a t iv e A d v e r b T hi s i s
p a rt l y a n a dv e
. r b a n d p a rt l y
a c onj u n c ti on I t h as h en c e b een c all ed a C onj u n c tive a dverb
. .

W e sh a ll b e g l a d w h en th e ri sk is o v er .

H ere w h en is a n a dv erb b ec a u se it qu a l i es th e v erb ,
is It .

h a s a l so t h e c h a ra c t er o f a c o nj u nc t i o n b ec a u se it c on n ec t s t h e t h ou g h t ,

ex ressed b w e S h al l b e gl a d w i th th e th ou gh t e x press ed b y
p y
t h e ri sk is o v er

.

E xercise .

I n the f ollow ing sen ten ces p oin t ou t the P a rt of Sp eech in w hi ch

ea ch i ta li ci sed w ord i s u sed, a n d gi ve y ou r rea son f or sa y i n g tha t

i t b elon gs to on e P a rt o f Sp eech ra th er tha n to a n oth er

i
l A squ a re th ng do e s n o t t n o a ro u nd h o l e
. D ra w a c rc l e i t . i
rou nd a g v en c e n tre i Th e e s a re
y n g rou n d a n d rou nd
. iM en i .

i
mu st g o t h e r da l y rou nd o f du t i Va sc o da G a ma w a s th e rst t o y .

rou nd t h e C a pe o f G o o H o pe d .

2 Th e ea rth is v er dry , a n d needs ra n

. H e mu st n eeds n o w th e
y i . k
rea so n o f th s i
O u r n eeds o r w a nts a re few
. .

3 . I i i
w l l w a t for y ou a t th e n ex t h ou se H e st o o d n ex t me in th e .

c l a ss . W h o c a me n ex t ?
4 W e mu st a l l die some da y
. W e l ost o u r a l l o n t h a t da y Th e . .

roa d w a s a l l c o v ere w th sa n d d i .

5 H e ret u rn ed af ter a w e e s a b sen c e
. k
H e ret u rn ed a fter h e h a d .

b b
e e n a sen t for a w ee Th e ma n di ed o f ev er, a nd h is so n d e d a
k . f i
f e w da y s a
f ter;
14 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT 1

6A b eg g a r is sta nd ng b ef o re th e g a te
. i
I ne v er sa w su c h a th n g . i
b efo re k
H e t o o t h e b o o , b ef ore h e h a d pa d fo r it
. k i .

. k
7 M y b o o is a b etter o n e t h a n y o u rs Y o u a re w o r ng b etter t o . ki
da y . D o n o t de sp se y ou r b etters i .

8 T h ere is b u t o n e ma n pres e nt
. W h o b u t y o u w o u l d h a v e ma de .

s u c h a m st a e H e i s a ma n o f c o mmo n sen se, b u t n o t l ea rn e d in

i k .

b o ok s .

9 . H e h a d en ou gh t o do W e h a v e w a g es e nou gh fo r th re e men
. .

10 . H a lf mea su re s do no t su c c eed O n e h a lf o f h is ta sk i s n o w .

do n e . H e w a s h a lf dea d w i th fea r .

11 . H e h a s ea t e n more b rea d t o da y th a n y e st erda y M ore h a s -

.

b een do n e th a n I l ik e h im more t h a n I l ik e y o u
w a s e x pec t ed . .

12 . N ea r o u r h o u se t h ere is a n e t ree H e is a n ea r rel a t i v e o f .

mi n e . S t a n d n ea r, w h i l e I w h i sper someth i ng i n t o y o u r e a r .

13 . H e h a s w a st ed mu ch ti me I a m mu ch pl ea s ed w i th y o u r c o n .

du c t . Y o u w i l l n o t g et mu ch fro m me .

14 . W e sh o u l d pi ty t h e so rro w s o f oth ers Oth er me n b esi des y o u .

deserv e pi ty .

1 5 Y o u w i l l sa ve h im if y ou try
. A l l th e men sa ve o n e peri sh e d . .

1 6 I h a v e n o t s e e n h im si n ce M o n da y l a st
. I t o o k t h i s h o u se fou r .

w eek s s i n ce W e sh a ll tru st y ou , si n c e y ou w ere a l w a y s h o n es t

. .

1 7 I a m n o t a st u de n t in th a t sc h o o l
. A st u de nt th a t w ork s h a rd .

w i ll g et pro mo t i o n I h ea rd th a t y o u w ere c o mi ng
. .

1 8 W e mu st st o p h ere a l i t tl e w h i l e
. W h i l e t h e c a t is a w a y , th e .

mi c e pl a y
C
.

S E CT I O N 2 , LA S S I FI CA T I O N OF P H RAS E S .

r
1 9 Ph a se de e d
. n A ph ra se i s a c o mbi n a t i o n o f w o rd s
in w hi c h n o F i n i t e v erb is e i th er e x pressed o r u n d e rst oo d .

A ph ra se is th ere fo re i n t ermedi a t e b et w een a S i n gl e w o rd a n d .

a sen t en c e .

20 Kin ds o f
. Ph r a se s Ph ra ses ma y . be c l ass i ed a c c or ding
t o th e pa r s t of spe ec h fo r w h i c h t h ey a re u se d as b sti tu tes
su .

T h ere is no ph ra se b sti tu ted fo r a

w h i ch c an be su pro n o u n si n c e ,

ro n o u n is a su b st i tu t e w o rd a l rea dy
a
p
( )
a N ou n p h r a se o n e w h i c h
-
d o es t h e w o rk o f a n o u n

H o w to do thi s is a difc u l t qu e st i o n .

b
( ) A d jec ti va l p hra se o n e w hi ch d o es t h e w o rk o f a n

a dj e c ti v e

A b i rd i n th e h a nd i s w o rth t w ( b irds ) i n th e b h o us .

d bi l h e : o n e w h i c h d o es t h e w o rk o f a n a d v e rb :
()
c A ve r a p ra s

I S h a ll w i t f ew mi n u tes a a .

H e sh o u t ed a t th e
f h i s voi c e top o .

T h e su n h a vin g set, t h ey a l l ret ire d .

d P i i a l ph ra se e w h i c h d o es th e k of
( ) rep os t on o n w or a
p re

p os iti on
He w e n t on b oa rd S h i p .
CH . 11 T H E PA RTS O F S PEEC H IN O U TL I N E : P H R A S ES 15

()
e Conju n c ti on a l p hra se on e w h i ch d o es th e w o rk o f a c on

j u n c ti on
In c a se w e fa i l ,
we mu st try a
g a in .

(f ) I n terjec ti on a l p hra se : one w h i ch d o es th e w ork of an

i n terj ec ti on
p i tW hat
y F o r s h a me
a G o od
g ra c i ou s

Th e resul t th en is th a t a n y c o mbi n a ti on o f w o rd s w h i ch c an
, ,

b e su b sti tu ted fo r some pa rt of spe ec h ma y b e ca ll ed a ph rase

a n d w e h a v e seen t h a t n ou n s a dj e c t ives a dverb s prepositi o ns , , , ,

c o nj u n c ti ons a n d i n terj ec ti o ns ma a ll b e x r e d by h r
y e
p ss e
p a ses
,

.
,

T h e o n e ex cepti on is a F i ni t e v erb N o thi n g b u t a F i ni t e

v erb ca n do th e w o rk of a F i n ite v erb w h i c h c orro b o ra tes w h a t
.

is sa id in 1 3 th a t a v erb is th e most i mpo rta n t ki n d o f w ord

,

in h u man s
p e ec h .

E xerc ise .

S how f or w ha t P a rts of Sp eec h the i ta licised phra ses a re u sed

in the f o l low in g sen tences

1 . I a m sorry th a t h e b eh a v ed w i th so mu ch ru den ess .

2 . A sh a rp rid e on a sp i ri ted h orse is th e b e st ki nd o f e x erc i se .

3 . Th e b ea u t i e s o f n a t u re re b ey ond descrip ti on
a .

4 . D i n n er b ei ng over l et u s no w g o i n t o th e n ex t roo m
, .

5 . H e w i ll b e di smi ssed i n th e event of hi s do i ng su c h a th i ng

aga m .

6 . you ng
h a v e t o l ea rn h ow to p ro t b y exp eri ence
Th e .

7 H e w a s n o t o ft en b ehi nd ti me
. .

8 A n E ng l i sh sa i l or h a d b een sh u t u p f or severa l y ea rs, b u t h e

.

w as set free a t th e p ea ce .

9 Bi n d h im h a nd a n d f oot a n d t a k e h im a w a y
. .

1 0 A ma n i n b a d h ea l th c a n s el do m b e h a ppy
. .

1 1 H e w a s n o t a ma n to tel l a l i e
. .

1 2 Th e tw o chi ef p oi n ts ha vi ng b een g a i n ed, su c c e ss is n o w c erta i n

. .

1 3 H e t o o k medic i n e i n order th a t h e mi g h t rec o v er

. .

1 4 H e st i l l feel s t i red , n otw i th sta ndi ng tha t h e h a d t en h ou rs

.

sl eep .

S UM M A R Y OF C H AP T E R II .

Pa rt s of S peec h t h e d f erentif ki nds o f w o rds t h a t serv e di ff e re n t

p u r o s es
p in a s en t e n c e

N oun : a w o rd u se fo r n a mi ng a nyth i n g
d
Pronoun : a w ord u sed i n st ea d o f a n ou n
A dj ec ti ve : a w ord t h a t enl a rg es t h e me a ni n a n d n a rro w s th e
g
a
ppl i c a t i o n o f a n o u n
Verb : a w ord u sed for sa y i ng so meth i ng a b ou t so me th i ng el se

1 3i
Pl epositi on : a w ord u se d for sh o w i n g i n w h a t rel a t o n o n e t h ing i
s t a n ds t o a n o t h er t h i ng
16 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S PA R T I
C onj un c ti on a w o rd u sed for sh o w i ng in w h a t rel a ti o n o ne not i o n
s ta n ds t o a n o t h er n o tio n , o r o n e t h o u g h t t o a n o th er t h o u h t
g
a w o rd t h a t e x t e n ds t h e mea n i n
A dv erb g a nd n a rro w s t h e
a pl i c a ti o n o f a n y pa rt o f spe ec h e x c e t a n o u n o r ro n o u n
p p p
I nt erj ec t i on a w ord t h ro w n i n t o a s e nt en c e t o ex re ss so me fe el i n
p g
o f t h e mi n d, b u t fo rmi n g n o a rt o f t h e c o n s tru c t i o n o f t h e se n t enc e
p
(S 1 7 )
Dou b l e P a rt of S pe ec h : a w ord in w h i c h th e c h a ra c t ers o f t w o
a rt s o f s ee c h a re c o mb i n ed
p p
P h ra se a c o mb i n a t i o n o f w ords in w h i c h n o F i ni t e v erb i s ei th er
e x pre ss ed or u n derst o o d

N ou n ph ra s e o n e w h i c h do e s t h e w ork o f a n o u n
-

A dj ec t iva l ph ra s e o n e w h i c h do es t h e w ork o f a n a dj ec ti ve
A dverb i a l ph ra se o n e w h i c h do es t h e w ork o f a n a dv erb
PreposI ti ona l ph ra s e : o n e w h i c h do es t h e w o rk o f a prepo si ti o n
(s
C onj u n c ti ona l ph ra se o ne w h ic h d oes th e w ork j
o f a c on u nc t o n i
20 )
t
I nt erj e c iona l ph ra se o ne w h ic h d o es th e w ork of a n i nt erj ec ti o n
20 )

C HA PT E R III .
N O U N S .

T H
S E CTI O N 1 . E KI N D S OF N O U NS .

21 . o n
N u s c l a s si e d N o un s a re o f v e differen t ki nd s
(one th ing a t a ti me)
P roper
C o mmon (a n y n u mb er o f thi ngs)
I C on c rete
C oll ec tiv e (a g rou p of th i ngs)
.

M a t eri al (w h a t a thi n g is ma d e O I )
I I A b stra c t (qu al ity sta te or ac ti on )
.
, ,

22 A P ro per N ou n is a n a me f o r on e p a rtic u la r th i n g
. as

d istin c t from ev ery o th er ; a s J a mes (a person), Keni lw orth (a

b oo k ), P a ri s (a c ity), F ra n ce (a c oun try) .

N ote
P ro per

( L a t p rop ri u s) mea ns
. ow n . Th u s a Pro per
n a me is ow n na me . I t c a n no t b e g i v e n t o more th a n o ne t h i ng a t
a t ime .

23 . A C o mmon N o u n d en o tes no on e th i n g in pa rti cu l a r,

b u t is co mmon to a ny nu mb er of things of th e sa me kin d ; a s

ma n ,
book ,

c ou n t r y .

o u t a n y pa rt i c u l a r ma n , su c h a s Ja mes ,
T h u s, ma n do es n o t po i nt
b u t c a n b e u se d for a ny a n d ev ery ma n Book do es n o t po int o u t a ny .

a rt i c u l a r b o o k , su c h a s Ken i l w orth , b u t c a n b e u s ed fo r a ny a n d
p
e v ery b o o k Cou n try do e s n o t po i n t ou t a ny pa rt i c u l a r c o u nt ry , su c h
.

a s F ra n c e, b u t c a n b e u sed f o r a n y c ou n try i n a ny pa rt o f t h e w o rl d .

N ote 1 . C ommo n

( La t . co mmu n i s ) mea ns
sh a red b y sev era l .
CR A P I I I
. N O UN S 17

Th i ng s o f th e sa me ki nd , i a possessi ng some pro pert y in . . co mmon ,

h a v e a n e qu a l ri g h t t o b e c a ll ed by th e sa me n a me
N ote 2 .

A Pro per n ou n b ec ome s a Commo n n ou n , w h en
.

it is u sed
i n a d esc ri pti v e o r g en era l sen se

T h e Cz a r o f R u ssi a Th e P h a ra oh s o f E gy pt . .

H e is th e N ew ton ( g rea t est a stro n omer) o f t h e c en t u ry .

24 A C oll ec t iv e N o u n is a n a me fo r a group
. of si mi la r
i n divi du a ls, th e g rou p b ei n g on e c o mpl et e w h ol e .

F or i nsta nc e, th ere ma y b e ma n y sh eep in a eld, b u t onl y on e f l ock .

H ere S h ee p is a Co mmo n nou n , b ec a u se it ma y st a nd f or a ny a nd

e v ery sh ee
p b ut oc k is a Co l l ec t i v e nou n , b ec a u se it sta nds for
a ll t h e sh ee
p a t o nc e, a n d n o t fo r a n
y o ne sh ee p t a k en s e pa ra tel y .

N ote 1 A C o ll ec t i v e N o u n ma y b e e i t h er Co mmo n or P ro per

.
-

Th u s th e t erm
o c k ma y sta nd for ma ny different o c k s Bu t .

P a rli a men t, th e H ou se of Common s, c a n st a nd fo r o n l y o n e b o dy

.

N ote 2 A N o u n o f M u l t i tu de, S in c e i t d en o t es a spec i c g ro u p,

.

mu st b e c l a ssed a s C o ll ec t iv e b u t w i t h a di ffere n c e .

( )
a A C o ll ec ti v e n ou n d eno t es on e u ndi vided w h ole a nd h e n c e t h e

v erb foll o w i ng is S i n g u l a r

Th e j u ry c on si sts o f t w el v e perso n s .

(b ) A n ou n o f M u l ti tu d e d en o t e s th e i nd ivi du a l s o f th e g ro u p ;

an d h en c e t h e v er b is pl u ra l , a l th ou g h th e n o u n is s n g u l a r i
Th e j u ry ( th e me n o n th e j u ry ) w ere di v id ed ir o pi ni o ns
i n th e .

25 . A n ou n o f M a t eria l is a n a me fo r so me pa rti cul a r ki n d

of ma tter o r su b sta nc e .

Th u s sh ee i s a C ommo n n ou n b ut mu tto n ( or th e esh o f

p
sh eep) is a M a t eri a l n ou n
Th
.

N ote e sa me w or d can be a M a t eri a l n ou n o r a C ommon no u n

a c c ordi ng t o th e s en s e

F i sh l i ve in t
w a er F i sh is g oo d for fo o d ( M a t)

26 . d en o tes some qu a li ty sta te o r a c ti on

A n A b st ra c t N o u n , , ,

a pa rt fro m a n yt h i n g possessi n g th e qu ali ty e tc ,

.

Qu a li ty
Cl ev ern e ss h ei g h t h u mi l i ty rog u ery c ol ou r
S ta teP o v erty ma nh oo d b o nda g e pl ea su re y ou t h
.
, , , ,

.
, , , ,

A c ti o n L a u g h t er mo v ement i g h t c h o i c e rev eng e

, , , , .

T h e fou r kin d s o f n o u ns rst na med a re all C on c r et e ; i e . .

th e y d en o t e o bjec ts of sen se v iz w h a t c an b e seen h ea rd t ou c h ed ,

.
, , ,

smel t o r ta st ed o r w h a t ca n b e
, perc e iv ed by th e mu sc u l a r sen se a s
, ,

w e i g h t e x t ens i o n e tc
, Bu t a n a b st ra c t n o u n rel a t es t o qu a li ti es
,
.
,

sta tes e tc,

w h i c h ca n n o t b e seen o r t o u ch ed e t c
.
,
a nd w h i c h a re ,
.
,

th o u gh t o f ap a rt f rom an y obj ec t o f sen se .

F or exa mp l e W e k n o w t h a t a s t o n e is h a rd W e a l so k n ow th a t .

iron i s h a rd W e a l so k n o w th a t a b ri c k is h a rd W e c a n th erefore
. .

spea k o f h a rdn ess a pa rt fro m s to n e o r i ro n o r b ri c k o r a n y o th er , , ,

o b j ec t h a v i ng t h e sa me qu a l ity A b st ra c t ( La t a b stra c tu s) mea ns. .

E G 0.
. 0 C
18 PA RS I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

dra w n o ff ( a b stra c t ed in th o u g h t ) from th e ob j ec t . H en c e h a rd

n ess is a n a b st ra c t n o u n ; w h le i ston e or b ri c k or i ron i s a c o nc ret e

n ou n .

27 T h e sa me w o rd ma y b e a n A b stra c t n ou n or a C ommon
.

(i s. . C onc re t e)n ou n , a c c o rdi n g to th e pu rpo se fo r w hi ch it is us ed

( )
a E xa mp les of P ersons .

1 J u st i c e is a v irtu e
J u sti c e
H e is a j u s t i c e o f th e pea c h
. .

2 .

1 S h e is a dmi red fo r h er b e au t y
B ea u ty
.

2 S h e i s t h e b ea u ty o f th e t o w n
.

1 H e h a s no a u th o ri ty
A u th o ri ty
.

2 T h e b est a u t h ori t i e s di ffer

.

r
A ab i l i ty
l I a dmire no b ili ty o f c h a ra c t er
.

2 H e i s o n e o f t h e n obi l i ty
.

(b) E xa mp les of Things .

1 H e is a ma n o f so u n d j u dg men t A b stra ct
J u dg men t
.

2 . Th e ma g i s t ra t e pa sse d a sev ere j u dgment Con crete

1 . S i g h t I S a v a l u a b l e fa c u l ty A b stra c t
2 . Th a t w a s a n e si g h t Con c rete
1 Th e n ew s l l s me w i t h w o nd er A b stra c t
W onder
.

2 . W e h a v e seen a w o nder t o da y . Con c rete

1 Ki ndn ess is pa rt O f h is c h a ra c t er A b stra c t
Ki ndn ess
.

2 . H e did me a g rea t ki n dn ess Con crete

N ote S ometi mes w e nd th a t t h ere is o n e form o f a dj ec t i v e for
a n A b s tra c t n o u n u s ed a s su c h , a nd a no th er f or t h e sa me A b s t ra c t

n o u n u s ed a s C o n c ret e or C o mmo n .

( 1 ) I ndu stri ou s a dj ec t i v e o f i ndu stry u sed a s a n A b stra c t nou n

,

( )
2 I n d u stri a l a d j ec t i v,
e o f i ndu stry u s e d a s a C o mmo n n o u n .

In
i ndu stry mea ns some spec i a l ki nd o f i ndu s try a s c o tt o n

,

s pi nn i n g a n i n du s t ri a l tra i n i n g me a n s a tra i n i n g w h i c h

Thu s .
:

w i ll re pa re a ma n fo r so me b ra n c h o f i n du s try su c h a s c o tt o n
p ,

S pi n ni ng A n i n du st ri o u s tra i ni n g
. w ou l d n o t e x pre s s t h i s

We .

a n i n d u s tri o u s ma n a n i n du st ri ou s t ra i n i n

b u t not

c a n sa y , g .

H ow A b stra c t N ou n s a re f med
or .

28 . A b stra c t N o u ns ca n be fo rmed from A dj ec tives, or from

C o mmon n ou n s, o r fro m Ve rbs
( )
a A b stra c t N ou n s f m
or
ed f rom A djec ti ves .

A b stra c t A b stra c t A b stra c t

A d] A d] A dj
N ou n . N ou n . N ou n .

W i se w i sdo m P ru dent pru den ce Bi tt er i

b tt ern es s
Po or po v ert y S w e et s w eet n ess W i de w dth i
H ig h h ei g h t Y o u ng y o u th S ol e s o l t u dei
S h o rt sh ort n ess P rou d pri de Bro a d b rea dth

H o n est h o n e st y Ju st j u st i c e D eep depth

D a rk d a rk n ess G rea t g re a t n e ss Tru e t ru th
L o ng l eng t h Hot h ea t C ol d c o l dness

Bra v e b ra v ery S l e epy sl ee pi ness H u mbl e h u m l ty ii

20 PA RS I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S PA RT I

S E C T I O N 2 G E ND E R

. .

30 G en der
. N o u ns a re n o w c l assi ed a cco rdi ng t o
. sex or

a b sen c e o f sex , a nd n o t, as o n c e , by
f o rm o r dec l en si on

(l )M a sc ul i n ema le a n i ma ls : b u ll, horse, hog .

( )
2 F e mi n in e f ema le a n i ma l s : c ow ma re, sow

, .

( )
3 C o mm on f i th r x p en t, chi l d
r
f
o e e se : a .

( )
4 N eut er o n ei th er sex : b ox, fl ock, pa in .

N ote 1 I t i s o nl y in th e pro no u n s h e, sh e, i t, t h a t g e nder

.

a c c o rd nig t f orm h a s s u rv v e d i

o .

N ote 2 W h e n n o a c c ou nt is a en o f sex , w e o ten spea o f

. t k f k
i
a n ma l s a s n e u t er

Th e chi l d is a sl e e
p l e t i t sl e e p o n .

H a v e y ou a h o rse w il l y ou l e t me i de i t 8
r

T h
.

3 1 M o des o f
. deno t in g G en der or S ex e re a re three
di ff e ren t w a ys i n w h i c h th e g en d er (
o r sex ) o f l ivi n g b ei ng s is
in di ca t ed
1 . By a Cha nge o f E n ding .

F emi n i ne . M a scu l i n e . F emi n i n e .

A b b ot ab b
ess M a rqu i s ma rc h o n ess i
A c tor a c tress M a st er mi s tress
A u t h or a u t h o res s M u rderer mu rderes s
Du e k du c h ess N eg ro n eg re ss
E mperor e mpress P a tro n p a tro n e ss

E x e c u t or e x ec u tr x i P o et po e t ess
i
G a nt g i a n t ess Pri est pr i es t ess

God g o dde ss Pri nc e pri nc es s

H eir h ei re ss P roph et r
p po h e te s

H ero h ero i n e S h e ph erd sh e ph erd e ss

H ost h o st ess S o n g st er so n g stress

H u nt er h u n tress Test a t o r t est a t r x i

La d l a ss T i g er i
t g ress
L i on l i o n ess W i do w er w ido w
'

o te .
T h ere a re some F emi n i n es th a t h a v e n o M a sc u l i n es b l onde ,

b ru n ette, dow a ger, do w dy , dra b , p ru de, sh rew , si ren , terma g a nt, vi x en .

i i
( Bu t ri p en w a s o r g na l l y t h e F em o f f ox ) . .

2 . By a Cha n ge f
o W ord .

M a scu l i n e .F emi n i n e l a sc u li n e . Femi n in e . .

Ba c h el o r ma id, spin st er D ra k e du c k
Boa r so w E a rl c o u n t ess

Boy g ir l F a th er m o t h er

Bro t h er si st er F ri a r ( or mo nk ) nu n
Bu c k do e G a n de r g o ose
Bu l l c ow G entl ema n l a dy
Bu l l o c k ( or st eer) h eifer H a rt ro e

C oc k h en H o rse ma re
Co l t l l y H u sb a n d w i fe
Dog b i tc h ( o r sl u t ) Ki ng q u e en
C HA P . II I N O UN S 21

F emi n i n e .

l a dy
w oma n
spa w n er

mec e
ew e

ma d a m
3 . By p la ci ng a W ord Bef ore or Af ter .

M a sc u l i ne . F emi ni ne . M a scu l i ne . F emi ni ne .

Brid e-g room brid e H e g oa t

-
sh e g oa t -

Co c k -spa rro w h en -
spa rro w L a nd l ord -
l a n d l a dy -

G ra nd fa t h er -
g ra n d-
mo t h er M a n serv a nt
-
ma i d serva n t -

G rea t u nc l e -
g re a t- a u nt P ea c o c k
-
p ea h en -

4 . N ou n s i n the Common Gen der ; i e den o tin g ei th er S ex . .

b
.

Ba by ma l e or fema l e O rph a n o
y or g irl w th o u t i

.

Bird c oc k or h en pa ren t s
P a ren tfa th er or moth er
. .

Ca l f b u ll oc k or h eifer

. .

C h i l d b oy or g irl P erso n ma n o r w o ma n

. .

Cou si n ma l e or fema l e Pig b o a r or so w

D eerst a g or h i n d
. .

P u pi l b o y o r g irl
F a ll o w de erb u c k or do e
. .

-
R el a ti o n ma l e or fema l e

. .

F o al c o l t or ll y S erva n t ma n or ma i d

. .

F o w l c oc k or h en S h ee p ra m or ew e
Fri en dE n emy ma l e or S tu d entb oy or g i rl
. .

fema l e

. .

M o n a rc h ki ng or qu een T ea c h er ma st er o r mi stress

. .

N ote o . S me
M a sc u l i n es, a s col t, dog , h orse, a n d so me F emi n i n es,
a s du ck, g oose, a re u s e d t o d en o t e e i th er sex , ro vid ed t h a t n o
p
u est i o n a ri s es a s t o w h e t h er t h e a ni ma l i s ma l e o r fema l e
q
A g oose is a mu c h bigg er bird th a n a du ck .

S E CTI O N 3 .
N U M BE R

32 W h en a N ou n d en o t es on e obj ec t, it is S ing ul a r
. . W h en
it d en o tes more tha n on e, it is Pl ur a l .

33 P ro per, M a t eri a l , a nd A b stra c t n ou ns h ave no Pl u ra l ,

u n l ess th e y ca n be us e d as C o mmon n ou ns .

y in A fric a ( P rop er
IM ny E gyp ts c o u ntries a s l arg e a s E g ypt ) c ou ld
E gyp t 1 3 a c ou n tr . .

( a ) Proper a

l b e c on ta i ned 1 n I ndia ( Common . .

T ea is a pl ea sa nt dri nk
{K
( M a teri a l )
( b ) M at eri al
. .

Th e b est tea s ( = ki nds o f t ea ) ( Common ) .

{H
( c ) A b stra ct
i ndn ess is pa rt o f hi s c h ara c t er .
( A b stra c t ) .

e did ma n ki ndn esses ( =y n ki d a c t s) ( Common )

. .

3 4 T h e g en era l rul e fo r fo rmi ng th e Pl u ral

. nu mb e
r of a

n o u n is by addi ng 3 t o th e S ingul a r

S i ngu l a r .

H a nd
Map
22 PA R S IN G A N D A N A LY S I S PA RT I

Bu t if th e N ou n en ds in s, a , sh, o r ch, th e P l u ra l is formed

by a ddi ng es i
t o th e S n g u l a r
'

S i ng u l a r . P l u ra l . S in g u l a r . P l u ra l .

G l a ss g l a ss es
-
G a sh g a s h -
es
Gas g a s - es Bru sh b ru sh es -

Ta x ta x -es Benc h b enc h es -

Bo x b ox -
es Co a c h c o a c h -es

35 . If th e N ou n en ds in y a nd th e y is prec e e d d by a

c onson a n t, th e Pl u ra l is formed by c h an
g i
n g th e y n o i es i t
S i ng u l a r . P l u ra l . S i ng u l a r . P l u ra l .

D u ty du t i es -
A rmy a rm i es -

Fl y i es
-
L a dy l a d i es
-

Bu t if
th e n a l y is prec e d ed by a vow el as in a y ey , , ,
o r oy ,

the Pl u ra l is orme s m l
f p d by i y a dding 3 to th e S i ngul a r
S i ng u l a r . P l u ra l . S i ngu l a r . P l u ra l .

Da y da y s -
M o nk ey mo nk ey -
s
Pl a y l
p y s
a -
Toy t o y -s
Key k ey s -
Boy b oy -
s

N ote I n c o l l oqu y th e gu z kw so y b ec o mes i es .

36 . If th e N ou n en ds in o a nd th e o is prec ed ed
by a
c on son a n t, th e Pl u ra l is g en era ll y (n o t a l w a ys) formed by a ddi n
g
es t o th e S n g u l a ri
S i ng u l a r . P l u ra l . S i ng u l a r . P l u ra l .

Ca rg o c a rg o - es Vo l c a no v o l c a n o es -

H ero h ero es -
P o ta t o po t a t o - es

B u ffa l o b u ffa l o -
es Ech o e c h o - es

M o tto mo tt o N eg ro n eg ro - es
g
-
es

N a ta Th e c h i e f e x c epti o ns a re z rotto, h a l o, memen to , p roviso,

tiro, p ia n o, ca n to, so l o .

Bu t if th e o is prec ed ed by a v ow el, th e Pl u ra l is formed by

simpl y a ddi n g 3 t o th e S i n g u l a r

S i ng u l a r . P l u ra l . S i ng u l a r .

Fol i o f i
ol o s -
H i ndoo
C a meo ca meo -
s Ba mb oo

37If . th e N ou n en ds in f or f e, th e Pl u ra l is g en e ra ll y
fo rmed by c h a n in
g g f or f e i n to f
ues

S ing u l a r . P l u ra l . S i n gu l a r . P l u ra l .

L oa f l o a e es
-f
T h i ef t h i e-ves
W ife w i ves -
Ha l f h a l ves
-

\Vol f w o l -ves M y sel f o u rsel -i es

'

Knife k n i oes -
S h el f sh el ves -

L ife l iv es -
L ea f l ea oes -

Ca l f c a l ves
-
S h ea f s h e a e es -f

(a ) S o me N ou n s en ding in f fo rm th e P l ura l by addi ng 3

C HA P . I II N O UN S 23

S i ng u la r .

R ee f fs ree d w arf s
-
D w a rf -

Ch i ef c h i ef s -
M f
R oo f roo f s c l i ff s
-
Cl iff -

H oo f h oo f s g ulf s
-
Gu l f -

Pro o f p ro o f s g r i ef s-
Gri e f -

b
( ) T h re e N o u n s in f e fo rm t h e P l u ral by a ddi n g s

S a fesa fe s ; stri fes trife s fe fe s

- - -
.

3 8 P ec ul ia r P1ura l s
.
( )
a E i g h t N o u ns in c o mm o n . use

form th e Pl u ra l by a c h an g e of ins id e v ow el
S i ng u l a r . P lu ra l . S i ng u l a r .

M an men To o t h t eeth
W oma n w omen Lo u se l i ce
F oo t feet M o u se mi ce
G oose g ees e D ormo u se dormi ce

(b) T h ere a re three N ou n s w hi c h form th e Pl u ra l in en

Ox il dc h il dr en ; broth erb rethr en

c x - en ch - -
.

T h e w ord c ow h as tw o pl u ra l s c ow s or kin e .

S m N h v h a me fo rm in b o th numb ers
()
0 o e ou ns a e t e s

A n i ma l s D eer s h eep sh ( ra rel y sh es) s w i n e g ro u se sa l mo n

, , , , , ,

t ro u t , c o d, h ea t h en

.

Col l ec ti ve n u mera l s Y o k e, b ra c e , do z en, sc ore, gro ss

M ea su res of w ei gh t S t on e, h u n dred w ei g h t
. .

. .

d
( ) S o me N ou n s h a v e no S i n gu l a r
A nn a l s G a ll o w s P i n c ers V ic tu a l s
S h ea rs S t a t i st i c s S c i s so rs T i di n g s
Bel l ow s S u ds S h a mb l e s N ew s
T o ng s N u pt i a l s Th a n k s M ea n s
N ata I n pi t s e of th e Pl ura l form w e sa y , By thi s mea ns,

n ew s is no t tru e .

(e) S ome N ou ns , din a ry ti mes use a

th a t t a k e a Pl u ra l a t or ,

S ing ul a r to ex press u a n tity so me spec i c

o r n u mb er
q
A t w el v e mon th -
A t h ree f oot ru l e
. A n ei g h t da y c l o c k A six
-
.
-
.

y ea r o ld h o rse A fo rt n i g h t fourt een ni g h ts) Forty h ea d o f

.
-
.

c a ttl e Tw el v e p ou nd w e i g h t
. T en sa i l o f t h e li n e A six . .

p en ny pi ec e
N ata S u c h a phra se a s
.

A h u ndred t h ou sa nd men d o es not

c ome u n d er t hi s h ea di n H r a h u ndred t h ou sa n d i C l l
g e e . s a o ee
ti v e nou n in th e S i ng ul a r nu mb er a nd t h e prepo sit i o n o f is u nder

,

st oo d a ft er it .

(f ) A N ou n o f M u l titu d e b e i n
g p l u ra l a l rea dy in se n se ,

24 b) h a s n o n eed o f a pl ural fo rm
, ,

T h e p ou l try a re d o i ng w el l T h ese ca ttl e a re mi n e Th ese vermin . .

do mu c h h arm Th ese p eop l e h a v e c ome . N o g en try l i v e h ere . .

24 PA R S IN G A N D A N A LY S I S P A RT I

(g) F o rei gn Pl u ra ls
L a t in : m ; a gend a a ddend a da t a , el u vi a erra t a
S in g . in -
u -
,
-
,
- -
,
-
.

S i ng 1 n u s a l u mn i f oe i ra di i
.
-
, S i ng in a ; f o rmu l a e
,
-
,
F ro m -
. .
-

o t h er S in g u l a rs ; g en era ( g en u s ) seri es ( sen e s ) a

pp endi c es ( a ppendix ) , ,
.

G reek S i ng i n i s ; b a s es, h yp oth es es, p a ren th es es

. .
-
S i ng in on ;
Freiic h : b ea u zc , b u rea u cc , messi eu rs , mesda mes
. .

p h en omen a , cri t ri d . .

It a l ia n : b a nditti , di l etta nti Heb rew : c h eru b i m, serap hi m . .

(h) C o mpo u n d Pl u ra l s T h e pri n c i pal w or d is pl u ra l i sed

.

S tep -so ns, so n s- i n - l a w ,

h a ng ers-on , ma i d serva n ts c ou rts - m a rti a l

.
,

(i) D ou bl e Pl u ra l s M en serva n ts, l ords ju sti c es

- -
.

N a ta For Pl ura l s in spec i a l se n ses, see b el ow pp 1 7 6 8 .

-
.

S E C TIO N 4 C AS E

T h
. .

39 . Case dened e rela ti on in t d i

w h c h a n ou n s a n s to
so me th er w o rd o r th e c ha nge
o ,
of f orm if a n
( y ) by w h i c h t h is
rel a ti o n is i n di c a t ed is cal l ed its Ca se 1

4 0 Th r ee C ases in mo dern E n g l ish

, .

. T h ese a re th e
N omin a tive, th e P ossessive, a nd th e O bjec ti ve .

Bu t t h e P o sse ssi v e is t h e o nl y c a se t h a t is n ow i n di c a t e d b y a
c a s e en di ng o r ch a ng e of f orm T h e o t h er c a ses h a v e l o st t h ei r c a se
e ndi ng s , a n d a re i ndi c a t e d o n l b g r a mma t i c a l rel a t i o n
y y

.

N ote A c h a ng e o f form is c a l l ed a n inexi on

. A ll our n o u n .

i ndex i o n s e xc ept ( 1 ) t h e pl ura l , a n d ( 2) th e poss essi v e, a re l o st T h e .

F emi ni n e en d n g i -
ess is not a n in e x io n , b u t a su fx .

41 . W h en a n ou n is d
use as th e su b ec t
j to a v erb or fo r
th e sa ke o f a ddress, it is sa id t o b e in th e N omi na t iv e c ase

R a i n fa l l s ( N omi n a ti ve of S u bject )
. .

A re y ou c omi ng , my f ri end ? ( N omi n a ti ve f A ddress )

o .

42 . W h en a n ou n is th e ob ec t j to averb 6 ,
a ) ,
or to a r
p e
p os iti on id t o b it
e in th e is sa case O bj ec t iv e
T h e ma n ki l l ed a ra t ( Object to Verb ) . .

T h e ea rth is mo i st en ed b y ra i n ( O bj to P rep ) . . .

4 3 T h e P o ssessiv e c a se is so ca ll ed b ecau se it
.
,
us u a l l y
d en o t es th e p ossessor o r o w n er I t is fo rmed by a ddin g .

s ( c a l l ed
h o S i n g u l a r n ou n s a nd some ti mes t o Pl u ra l
a
p ostr o
p e s
) t ,
o n es

S i ng u l a rma n s
P l u ra l m n e

s

Th
. .

N ote 1 . for t h e P ossessi v e c a s e w a s es W h en th e

e O l d in ex i o n .

e w a s o mi tt ed, a s i t n o w a l w a y s i s , t h e a b se n c e o f t h e e w a s i n di c a ted

b y t h e c omma o r a postro ph e a s moon , moon es, moon s

.

1
Ca se l it mea n s a ll ing
.

f
( La t ca s u s) T h e N o m w a s c o n sidered .
-
. .

th e u prigh t o r perpen dic u l a r, a n d th e o th er c ases w ere sa id to a l l o ff to f

o n e side o f it, a nd w ere h enc e c a ll ed ob l iqu e o r sl a nting S inc e E ng l ish .

n ou n s h a v e l ost every c ase ending b u t o ne ( th e P ossessive ), th e term

-

c as e is ety mol ogic a l l y ina ppro priat e W e reta in it, h o w ever, t o deno te .

g ra mmatic a l rel a tion a s w ell a s c h a ng e o f f orm .

OHA P . III N O UN S 25

N ote 2 .

Th ere a re t h ree diff erent sen ses in w h ch i th i s c a se c a n
be u se d
( ) S u b jec t ive
a

E ng l a nd s po w er is v ery g rea t ( P ossessi on ) .

A g oo d so n w i l l repa y h is f a th er s b en e ts

( Ori gi n ) . .

S h a ksp ea re s pl a y s a re ex c ell ent (A u th orsh ip , A gency ) . .

H i s fri endsh i p ( t h e fri e nd sh i p fe l t b y h im) is si nc ere ( S u bject . .

)
(b) O b jec t iv e (ra th er u n c ommo n)
fri end sh i p ( fri endsh i p for h im) mu st b e g iv en u p
H is .

Caesa r s murd erers w ere c o n qu ered a t P h i l i ppi

.

()
c D es c r ip t iv e (r a t h e r u n c o mm o n )
I l l b rea k y ou r kn a ve s ( = k n a v i sh ) pa t e S H A K S P E A R E

T h e moth er s ( mo t h erl y ) na tu re o f A l t h aea L O W E L L

. .

. .

H er w oma n s h ea rt t o w h i c h l o v e w a s a ll c ou l d a t rst sc a rc el y

c o mpreh en d t h e my st ery M R S
, ,

C RA I K Og i l vi es c h 1 .

44 O missi on of s T h ere a re t h ree ki n d s o f i ns t an ces in

. .
, ,

. .

w h i c h th e 3 b u t no t th e a post ro ph e is o mitt ed
, ,

( )
a A ft er a l l p l u ra l n ou n s en di n
g i n s as

H orses ta i l s th e b irds n est s th e dog s k enn el s

.

b
( ) W h e n e v e r t h e l a st sy l l a b l e o f a S i n g u l a r n ou n b eg i n s

a n d en d s w ith s as

( Bu t w e mu st sa y Venu s s b ea u ty J a mes s h a t etc )

M oses l a w s .
,
.

(c) W h en ever th e l a st syl l a b l e O f a S i ng u l ar n ou n ends w ith

s o r c e a n d th e n ou n is foll o w ed by sa k e

,
as

Consc i en ce sa k e for g oodness sa k e

( B u t w e m

u s t s a
y
a mou se s
. .

ski n J a mes s smil e )

4 5 R a r e use of P o ssessiv e Th e P ossessiv e c a se w a s o nc e

.

ed w i th a n ki n d o f n ou n b u t it i s n o w r est ri c t ed to su c h
y ;
e x a m l es as th ose sh o w n b el o w
p
( )
1 N o u n s d e n o ti n gp er son s o r o t h e r ki n d o f l i v i n g th i n g ; a s

H en ry s b o ok ; a ma n s foo t a l ib ra ry s

( B u t w e c a nn . o t s
ay

th e st oc ki ng s fo o t s in c e l i b ra ry st oc k

b ook , a nd
,

ing a re i n a n ima t e O b j ec t s ) .

A ca t s t a i l a h orse s h ea d a b i rd s fea th ers

.

( 2) N ou n s d eno ti ng p ersonied th ings a s

F o rtu n e s fa v ou rit e S orrow s t ea rs E ng l a nd s h ero es

.

(3 ) N ou ns d en o ting ti me spa c e o r w ei gh t ;
Time A da y s j ou rney
, ,

a mon th s h o l i da t

.

y h r e e w ee ks l ea v e a

y ea r s a b senc e a t six mon th s si g h t

th ree da y s g ra c e
S pac e
.

A b oa t s l eng th ; a h a n d s b rea d th ; a h a i r s b rea d th a

ra z o r s e d e i

a ston e s t h ro w a n eedl e s
p nt
W eig h t A p ou nd s w ei g h t a ton s w ei g h t
g
o

.

( ) N ou ns sign ifying c erta in di gn i ed O bj ec ts 35

4
26 PA R S I N G A N D A N A LY S I S P A RT I

th e moon s c re sc en t n a tu re s

Th e dec ree th e su n s ra y s

c ou rt s
w o rk s th e ea rth s a x i s th e sou l s del i g h t h ea ven s w i l l

th e
l a w s d el a y s tru th s tri u mph th e mi nd s ey e th e oc ea n s ro a r

du ty s c a l l t h e c ou n try s g o o d .

th o u a im st a t b e th y

L et a ll th e ends c ou n try s,

Th y G od s,

a n d tru th s H en VI I I iii 2

. . . . .

N ote . i
Th e P o sse ss v e i s a l so u se d in a few fa mi l i a r ph ra ses ,
in
i i
w h c h it h a s b een re t a n ed fo r t h e sa k e o f sh ortness
O u t o f h a rm s w a y a t h is w i t s e nd for mercy s sa k e h e did it to

h is h ea rt s c o ntent t h e ship s pa sseng ers a t h is n gers ends

h e g o t t o h is jou rn ey s end th e b oa t s c rew

.

C HA P T E R I V .
A DJE C T I VE S .

S E CT I O N l .
T H E KI ND S OF A DJ E C T I V E S .

4 6 T h ere a re a l t og eth er seven

. di fferen t kin d s O f A dj ec ti v es
( 1 ) P roper d esc ribi n g a th ing by so me P rop er n ou n .

( 2) D esc ript iv e sh ow i ng of w ha t q ua li ty or in w ha t sta te a

thi ng is .

(3 ) Qu a nt it a t ive sh ow i n g how mu ch of a th i ng is mean t .

(4 ) N umera l sh o w i ng how ma ny th i n g s o r in w ha t order .

(5 ) Demon st ra t ive sh o w i ng w hi ch o r w ha t th i ng is mea n t .

( )
6 I nt erro g a t iv e a skin g w hi ch o r w ha t th i n g is mean t .

( 7) Dist rib u t iv e : sh o w i ng th a t th i ng s a re ta k en sepa ra tely

or in se a ra te
p lo ts .

P rop er A djec ti ves .

4 7 T h ese rest ri c t th e a ppl i c a ti on o f a n o u n t o su c h perso ns

.

or th i ng s a s c o me w ith i n th e sc ope O f so me Proper n a me

A P ortu g u ese sa il o r= a sa i l o r from P ort u g a l .

Th e T u rki sh empire z th e empi re o f t h e T u rk s .

T h e E ng l i sh l a n g u a g e z th e l a ng u a g e o f E ng l a nd

.

N ote i
Pro per a dj ec t v es, l e P ro per n ou n s,
. ik ma y b e u sed in a
g e n era l s en se a s, F ren ch l ea v e ( l ea v e li e t h a t ta k k en b y t h e F re nc h )
k k ik
Bri ti sh pl u c ( pl u c l e t h a t o f a Br to n ) i .

D esc rip tive A djec tives Q ua li ty or S ta te .

4 8 T h ese restri c t th e a ppli ca ti o n o f a n ou n to su c h perso ns

.

o r th i ng s a s ossess t h e qu a li ty o r sta te d e n o t ed by th e a dj ec t iv e
p
A b ra ve b oy a si c k l i on a ta me cat a l a rg e el d a b l a ck h o rse .

Q u a n ti ta tive A djec ti ves Q u a n ti ty or D egree .

49 . T h ese t i t
res r c th e i ti on O f a
a ppl ca n o u n t o su c h th ings
as a re o f th e qu a n ti ty o r degree d en o t ed by th e a dj ec tive .
28 PAR S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I
If i
t h e n ou n is M a t er a l o r A stra c t , th e a dj ec t b i v e is Qu a nt i t ti v e a .

If th e n ou n is Co mmo n , t h e a dj ec t v e is N u mera l i
Qu a n ti ta ti ves . N u mera l s .

M u ch h e h a d mu c h b rea d . M a n y h e h a d ma ny l o a v es .

L i tt l e h e h a d l i t tl e b rea d . F ew h e h a d few l o a v e s .

E n ou gh h e h a d en ou g h b rea d . E nou gh h e h a d l oa v e s e n o u g h .

S ome h e h a d so me brea d . S ome h e h a d s ome l oa v es .

No h e h a d no b rea d . No h e h a d n o l oa v es .

A l l ; h e h a d a l l t h e b rea d . A l l ; h e h a d a ll t h e l o a v es .

A ny h a v e y o u h a d a ny b rea d A ny did y ou b ri n g a ny l oa v es

D emonstra ti ve A djec ti ves .

5 4 T h ese rest ri c t th e a ppl i ca ti on o f a n ou n t o th o se persons

.

or th i n gs th a t a re in t en d ed to b e p oin ted ou t by th e a dj ec ti v e .

Th e y a re su bdi v id ed , li k e N u meral s, i n to tw o c l asses :

I . D e n it e
I I I nd eni te . . .

W h en a person or th i ng is po in ted ou t exa c tly as th is ma n

, ,

th e a dj ec tiv e is c a ll ed a D e nit e D emo ns t ra tiv e .

W h en it is po i n t ed o u t in a c ert a in sense b u t n ot exa c tly it , ,

is ca ll ed a n I n de n it e D emon stra ti v e .

D e n i te I nden i te .

S i ngu la r . P l u ra l .

A, an ni l .

O ne , a ny an
y
A c erta i n c erta n i
S u c h a nd su c h su c h a n d s u c h

S ome so me

A n o th er, an
y o th er, a n y

o t h er o t h er

A ll purel y D emo ns tra tiv e a dj ec t ives a re g i v en in th e a b ove

lis t .

N ote .
I n so me b o ok s
h o w e v er, t h e O rdi n a l s
, 5 1 ) a re c l a ssed a s
D emo n stra t i v e s, b ec a u se t h ey po i nt a t h i n g o u t b y s h o w i n g it s pl a c e
in a l i st o r s eri es Bu t it is b ett er t o c a l l th em N u mera l s, b ec a u se
.

t h ey c a nn o t s h o w th e pl a c e o f a t h i ng w i t h ou t sh o w i ng it s nu meri c a l
o rder .

A rt ic l es t D eni t e

55 . Th e ( sh or fo r this, tha t) is a

D emon stra ti v e t I n d eni te

A ( sh o r fo r is
. or an on e ) an .

A n is us e d b efore an o
pen v ow el ,
a sil en t h, o r u n ac c en t ed

h as

A n a ppl e an he r i an h o n e st ma n an h i sto ri c a l fa c t .

A is us ed b efore a c ons on a n t b efo re ,

i t or ew o r eu so u n d ed
as y oo, a n d b efo re on e so u n d ed as w u n
CR A P . Iv A DJE CT IVE S 29

A kit e ; a c a rt ; a b o t tl e ; a u se u l f t h i ng ; a on e -ey e d ma n a

E u rope a n a ew er a n u nu su a l , b ut a u n1 qu e c a se .

I n terroga ti ve A djectives .

56 . T h ese res r ct i t th e a ppl ca i ti on of a n ou n by as ki n g a

qu es ti on
Wh a t b o ok is th a t ? Wh i ch b oo k do y ou l ik e b est ?
W h a t h a s a g en era l sense w h ic h a s el ec ti v e o n e

N ote .
,
.

W hat c a n a l so b e u sed i n a n e x c l a ma t ory s e nse a s W h a t fo ll y ,

I t c a n a l so b e u sed w h en n o qu est o n i is as k ed ,
a s, I do no t k no w at
"
w h a t time h e c a me .

D istrib u ti ve A djec tives .

57 D ist ri b u tiv e A dj ec tiv es sh o w th a t th e perso ns o r th i n gs

.

d en o te d by th e n ou n a re t a k en si n gly , o r in sepa ra te lots T h ere .

a re o n l y fo u r A dj ec tives o f thi s c l a ss

( ) a Ea c h O mb er ex ceedi ng tw o
n e o f tw o or o f any n u

Th e tw o men h a d ea ch ( ma n ) a g u n .

Th e tw en ty men h a d ea c h ( ma n ) a g u n
N
.

( b ) Ev ery . ev er u se d o f tw o . D e n o t es ea ch w i th ou t ex cep ti on

E very ma n ( o u t o f th e tw en ty p resen t) h a d a g u n

.

Every a nd si mi l a r ex ressi o n s i s mea n s

six h ours p Th e v ery

sp a ce o f s ix h ou rs, six h ou rs b ei n g
k en c ol l ec t iv el y a s on e peri od ta
H e c a me every ve h ou rs ( = a t t h e c l ose o f e v ery spa c e O f v e h ours)
Every ot h er T h i s mea n s every sec ond or ea ch a l tern a te
.

. as

H e w a s a t ta c k ed w i th fev er every oth er da y o n ev ery sec o n d da y )

th
.

( ) 0 E ith er .
f On e f o a t is b oth
tw o, or ( 2) ea ch o tw o, ,
.

( 1 ) Y ou c a n t a k e ei ther si de th a t is o ne si de o r t h e ot h er , .

( 2) T h e ri v er o v ero w ed o n ei th er si de t h a t is on b o t h si des

.

( )
d N ei t h er T hi s is t h e n eg a t i v e O f
. eit h er

Y o u sh o u l d t a k e n ei th er s id e ne i th er th i s nor th a t .

S E C T I O N 2 T R E T w o U S E S
. OF A DJ E C T I VE S .

58 T h ere di fferen t w a ys in w h i ch a n A dj ec tiv e ca n

a re tw o

.

b e u se d ( )
a t h e A tt rib u ti v e a n d b
( ) t h e P re di ca tiv e
1

.
,

( )
a A tt ri b u ti ve u se A n a dj ec tiv e is u sed a ttrib u tiv el y w h en ,

it qu al i es its n ou n direc tly so as to ma k e a ki n d O f c o mpou n d ,

n ou n A ll t ru e a dj ec tiv es ca n b e us ed a t t rib u tiv el y

.

A l a me h ors e A n o b l e c h a ra c t er . A tru e t a l e . .

1
We g o so fa r, h o w ever, as t o sa y ( as M r M aso n do es in
w o ul d n ot .

E ng l ish Gra mma r, p 3 7 , 87 ) th a t al l tru e a dj ec tiv es c a n b e u sed in
.

A D istrib u ti ve a dj ec t ive c a nn ot b e u sed predic a tivel y

b o th w a y s . F or .

ev ery ma n, ma n is every

in st a n c e, w e ca n sa y b u t w e c a nn o t sa y .

A g ain, Qu a nt ita t ives c a nnot in a ll c a ses b e u sed predic a tivel y W e c an .

so me b re ad, b rea d is so me

sa y b u t w e c anno t sa y .
30 PA RS I N G A N D A N A LY S I S PA RT I

N ote W h en no n ou n is ex press e d , th e j
a d ec t v e i is u se d as a
no u n
A n ob l e Th e bra v e ( = bra v e men ) . Th e tru e

W h en j i
a n a d ec t v e a ssu mes a n o u n -in ex io n , it h a s b ec o me a re a l
n ou n , a n d is no t merel y u sed a s o n e

N ob l es S ec re t s s ec ret th ng s)i
A n
.

b
( ) P re di ca ti ve u se dj ec tive is u sed predi c a t i v el y
a w h en
indi rec tly th ro u gh so me v erb
,

it u a l i es i ts n ou n n i
q g o g
b e fore
T h a t h orse w e nt l a me . H is c h a ra c t er is n ob l e .

S E CT I O N 3 C
MP A RI S O N O F A DJE C T I VE S
O

5 9 T h e d eg rees o f co mpa ri so n a re th ree in n u mb er

. .

. th e ,

Positi v e th e C o mpa ra tive a nd th e S u perl a tiv e

, ,
.

T h e P ositive den o t es th e si mpl e qu a l i ty a s a b ea u tif u l h o rs e , .

T h e C ompa ra t ive den o tes a h i g h er deg ree o f t h e qu a l i t y a s

a ,

more b ea u tif u l h o rse T h i s 1 5 u se d w h en tw o th i n g s a re c o mp red

. a .

T h e S u perl a ti ve den o tes th e h i g h est deg ree o f t h e qu a l i t y as ,

t h e most b ea u tif u l h o rse Th i s i s u sed w h en on e th i ng 1 s c o mpa red

.

w i th a l l oth er t h i n g s o f t h e sa me ki nd .

6 0 I n a ll a dj ec t iv es O f more tha n tw o sy l la b les a nd in mo st

.
,

a dj ec t i v es O f tw o sy l l a b l es th e C o mpa ra tiv e is fo rmed by a ddi ng

,

more a n d th e S u perl a t ive by adding most as in g 5 9

,
.

6 1 Bu t a dj ec tiv es o f o ne sy ll a b l e a n d so me a dj ec tiv es O f t w o
.

c a n a l so fo rm th e C o mpa ra tiv e by a ddi n g er o r r a n d th e S u per ,

l a t iv e by a ddi n g est o r st T h i s is th e inexi ona l meth o d

. .

( )
a I f t h e P o sitiv e e n d s in a c o n so n a n t er a n d est a re add ed ,

S ma ll s ma ll er s ma ll est
G re a t g rea t er g re a t est

Th i n i
t h nn er t h n n es ti
Fa t fa t t er
"

f
a tt es t

(b) If th e P o s itive en d s in e, o n l y r a nd st a re a dd ed ,
a nd n o t

er a n d est

Bra v e bra v er bra v est

Tru e truer tru est

( )cI f iti v e
d s in y an d th e y is prec ed ed by a
th e P o s en ,
c on

son a n t th e y is c h a n ed i n t o i w h en er a n d est a re a d ded

, g ,

H a ppy h a ppi er h ppi est a

D ry dri e r dri est

d
( ) I f t h e y is
pre ced ed by a vow el t h e y is n o t c h a ng ed ,

Gay er es t
g y a g y a

G rey rey er re e st
g y

g
62 . Irreg ul a r C mparis s
o on In th e exa mpl es ma rk ed
CR A P v . P R O N O UN S 31

th e Po sitiv e h as h ad a C o mp . S u perl a ll o tted to it fro m

an d a .

so me th er ro o t
o . T h ese a re d e fe c tive ra th er th an i rreg ul a r .

Ba d il l ev i l , , w ors e w o rst
F ore former fu rt h er
, foremost rst fu rth est , ,

G oo d b etter b est
H ind h i nder h i n dmo st
La te l a t er, l a tt er l a t est , l a st
L i tt l e l e ss l ea st
M u c h ( qu a nt i ty ) mo re mo st
M a n y ( n u mb er) more most
N igh n i g h er n i g h est , n ex t
O ld O l der, e l d er O l dest , el d est
63 . Th ere a re v e d
w or s w hi c h a re a dverb s in th e Po sitiv e
deg ree, b u t a dj ec tives in th e C ompa ra tive an d S uperl a tiv e
F ar fa rth er fa rth est
In i nner i nn ermo st inmo st ,

O ut o u t er, u t er t mo st u t most
u tt er ,

Be n ea th -
n eth er neth ermost
Up u pper u
pperm o st

64 . L a t in C o mpa ra t iv es .
A ll of th ese en d in or, a n d n o t

in er ; a n d a ll a re fo ll ow ed by to i ns t ea d o f tha n
S up eri or to, inf eri or to, a n teri or to , p ri or to, p osteri or to , seni or to .

C HA PT E R V .
P R O N O U N S .

65 . T h ere a re fou r differen t k in d s of Pron ou n s

(1 ) P er son a l ; a s, I , thou , he, she, et c .

( 2) Demon st ra t iv e ; a s, this, tha t, su ch, on e, etc .

(3 ) R el a t iv e o r C onju n c t iv e ; as, w hi ch, w ho, tha t, a s, e t c .

(4 ) I n t errog a t iv e ; as, w ho ? w hi ch ? w ha t ?
1
i
A d fferent c l assic a tion o f P ron ou n s is g ven in M ason s E ng lish i

G ra mma r, p 4 8 , ed 1 8 9 1 . . . f
A t er g iving eigh t c l asses O f Pron o u n s, h e
su b divides ea c h c l a ss, w h ere ver th is is po ssib l e , into tw o c ol u mns, o ne fo r

S u b st a ntive pro no u n s a nd th e o th er f or A dj ec tive pronou n s Un der a djec .

t iv e pro noun s h e inc l u des D istrib u tive a nd D emon stra tive a dj ec tives, w h ic h
in th is b o ok h a ve a l rea dy b een dis po sed o f in th e c h a pter o n A dj ec tives .

so me,

I t is difc u lt t o see h ow su c h a dj ec t iv es as

e very , ea c h ,

etc , or, in fa c t, a ny a dj ec tive, c a n b e c o rrec tl y c a l l ed a

o th er, an y ,

.

P ro nou n A Pronou n is a su b sti tu te w ord,

. a w o rd u sed f or a n o th er

so me , a re s impl y

w ord . Bu t every , ea c h ,

f oth er, a ny

qu a l if y ing w ords Th ey are n ot su b s titu te w ords

. T h ere a re no oth er .

w ords f o r w h ic h th ey are u sed a s su b stitu t es, a n d th ere o re th ey a re no t pro f

no uns T h e sa me au th or h as a c l a ss o f prono u n s w hi c h h e c a l l s Indenit e,
.

a n d sub divides into S u b sta ntives ( one, a u g h t, na u g h t) a nd A dj ec tives ( a ny ,

oth er, some n o ) W e h a ve al ready sh ow n th a t th e l ast ou r are n ot pro

, . f
n o u n s a t a ll A u g h t an d na ug h t are not prono u ns eith er, b ec a u se th ey are
.

n ot su b stitu tes for an y oth er w ords One is a pro nou n in c ertain c ont exts , .

as sh ow n b e l o w in 73 .
32 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

Th i s c l a ss i c a t i o n ex c l u des a ll w o r s d th a t a re a d ecti ves , a nd a l l

j
w or sd t h a t a re n o t su b sti tu tes for o th er w o r s d . I t is sh o w n in 72
t h a t th i s, tha t, s uc h a re no t h ere a dj ec t i v es ,
b ut su bstitu t es for nou ns .

S E CT I O N 1 .
P E RS O NA L P R O N O UN S

66 . T h e P er s on a l P rono u n s a re so d b ec a use th ey
c a ll e ,

t d
s an fo r th e th ree perso ns , a n d h a v e a di fferen t fo rm fo r ea c h .

(a ) T h e F i rst, w h i ch s ant d s for th e person sp ea ki ng

I ( th e p erson n ow sp ea ki ng ) h o pe t o w in a
pri z e t h i s t erm .

b
( ) T h e S e c o n d ,
w hi c h t ds
s an fo r th e perso n sp oken to
Yo u ( th e p erson n ow sp oken to) sh o u l d l ea v e o ff th is h a bi t of i dl e
n e ss .

()
c T h e T h i rd , w h ch i d en ot es
th e person o r hi ng sp oken of t
H e ( th e p erson a l rea dy men ti on ed) did g o o d w o r w th h is t u to r k i

.

67 F or
. m s o f P e r s on al P rono n
u s P erson a l Pron ou n s h av e
th e sa me differen ces O f g end er n u mb er a n d c a se t h a t n ou ns h a v e
, ,
.

I . Th e F i rst P erson, M a sc u lin e or F emin in e .

C a se . S ing ul a r . P l u ra l .

II . Th e S econ d P erson , M a scu lin e or F emi n in e .

Ca se . S ing u l a r . Pl ura l .

III . Th e Thi rd P erson , f

o a ll Gen ders .

S in g u l a r
. Pl ura l .

Ca s e .

M a s c ul ine . F eminin e . N eu t er . A ll G en der s .

She It
H er o r h ers I ts
H er It Th em
CR A P v . PR O N O U N S 33

68 . Tw o F orms of P o ssessiv e M ost of th e P erso n al P ro

n ou n s h a ve tw o fo rms fo r th e P ossessiv e

S ing ul a r . Pl ura l .

F i rst F orm M y T h y H er O ur
S econ d M i n e Th i n e H ers O u rs

T h e rst is u se d ,
w h en th e P o ssessiv e is pl a c ed b ef ore its n ou n .

It qu a li es th e n ou n l ik e an a dj ec tive
Th i s i s my
b o ok Th a t is th ei r h ou se
Th e sec o n d is used (a ) w h en it is sepa ra t ed from th e
. .

l i ed n ou n by a v erb c o mi n b t b
q u a
g e w e en ; ( ) w h en th e n ou n
is n ot ex pressed ()
0 w h en th e P ossess iv e i s
p re c ed e d by Of

( a ) Th i s b oo k is min e Th a t h ou se is th ei rs . .

( b ) M y h orse a nd y ou rs ( y o u r h orse ) are b oth tired .

( c ) Th a t h orse of y ou rs is t ired
6 9 R eexiv e or E mph a t ic F orms T h ese a re ma d e by
.

a dd i ng in th e N o m or O b j a n d ow n in th e P ossess iv e

self . . .

I The F i rst P erson . .

Cas e . S ing u l ar . P l u ral .

N om or O bj . . M y sel f
P ossessi ve My or mi n e ow n

II . Th e S ec on d P erson .

Ca se . S ing u l a r . Pl ura l .

N om or Obj . . T h y se l f
P ossessi ve Th y or t h i n e ow n

III . Th e Thi rd P erson .

S ing u l a r. Pl u ral .

C a se .

F eminin e . N eu t er . Al l G enders .

II ersel f I tsel f
P ossessi ve H er o w n I ts o w n

I h id my self ( Re ex iv e ) . I my self sa w it ( E mph a t i c ) .

E . GC . .
D
34 PA RS I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S PA RT 1

S E CT I O N 2 .
D E M O N S T RA T I V E P R O N O UN S .

70 . A D emon st r a t iv e P rono u n is o n e th a t p oi n ts to so me
n ou n g o in
g b e fore, a n d is u sed i ns t ea d O f it T h i s n o u n is .

ca ll ed th e A n t eced en t .

71 . The ch e i f pron o u n s O f th i s cl ass a re thi s, tha t, these,

those ; on e, on es, n on e ; su c h .

Th e t d en t w i ll h ave O b served th a t th ese w o rds h av e

s u

a
ppe a red a l rea dy in th e l i st o f D em o n st ra ti v e A djec tives W h ere .
,

th en is th e di fferen ce ?
,
T h is d epen d s en ti rel y o n th e i r use .

Wh en they qu a lify so me n ou n exp ressed or u n derstood, th ey a re

A djec t iv e s .

Wh en they a re sub st it u t es f or some n ou n exp ressed or u n der

stood, they a re P rono u n s .

(a ) H e ca me to my h o u se one da y .

H ere on e is a n a d ec j ti v e ( I nd eni te D emon stra t i v e) qu a l ify i ng its

n ou n da y .

t is bl a c k mi ne is a w h it e one
(b ) You r c oa .

H ere on e i s a pro no u n b ec a u se it is a su b st i t u t e fo r t h e prev i ou sl y

,

menti o ned nou n c oa t a nd is qu a l i ed b y th e a dj ec ti v e w h i t e

,

.

7 2 Thi
. s t h a t t h e s
,e t h o se ,
T h e u ses o f th ese w o rd s a s
,

on ou n s a n d n o t a s a d e a s fo ll o w s :
p r , j ec ti v es a r ,

( )
a W h e n t w o n o u n s h a v e b een m e n ti o n ed in a prev i ous .

sen t en c e o r c l a u se t his is a su b stitu t e fo r th e la tter a n d t h a t

, ,

fo r th e f o rmer
(1 ) W o rk a nd l
p ya a re b oth
t o h ea l th ; thi s ( = pl a ) n ec e ssa ry y
g v i
e s u s res t , a nd th a t = w o r ) g v e s u s e n erg y k i .

( 2) D og s a re mo re a th u l a n ma l s t h a n c a t s th ese = c a t s) a tta c h
fi f i
t h ems el v e s t o pl a c es, a nd th ose ( = do g s ) t o perso n s .

Ob t h a t in t h e rst o f t h e se s en t enc es
serv e thi s do es n o t spec y if
w h i ch o r w h a t pl a y is me a n t , a n d t h ere o re it i s n o t a D emo n stra t v e f i
A dj ec t v e i . i
I t is s mpl y pu t a s a su b sti tu te for t h e n o u n

pl a y , a n d
t h ere o re it is a D emo n st ra t v e P ro n o u n
f i .

A s mil a r e x pl a na t o n h o l ds g o o d for th e o th er e x a mpl e

i i .

b
( ) T h e d t h a t t ogeth er w ith its pl ura l form t h o se
w or

,

,

is us ed as su b stit u t e f o r a S i ngl e n ou n pre vi o u sl y men t i o n ed

( )
1 Th e ir o f h i ll sa is c o o l er t h n th t = th e a ir) o f pl i n s a a a .

( )
2 T h e h o ses o f t h e ri
u c h a re l a rg er t h a n th os e ( = t h e h ou ses ) o f

t h e po o r .

b in th e rst ex a mpl e do es n o t qu a l y
t if

O serv e t h e w o rd th a
t h e no u n a ir i
b y sa y ng w h i ch a ir or w h a t a ir, a n d t h ere o re i t is f
n o t a n A dj ec t v e i
I t st a n ds fo r a ir in g en era l , a n d i s a su b sti tu te
.

fo r th e n o u n a ir a nd t h ere ore i t is a Pro nou n f .

36 PA R S IN G A N D A N A LY S I S PA RT I

Th e st ep y ou h a v e t a k en is on e O f mu c h ri sk .

S u ch a b oo k a s y o u rs deserv es to b e w ell rea d .

P ro spero us me n a re muc h ex po s ed t o a tt ery for su ch a l on e c a n

be ma de t o pa y fo r it .

Prospero u s men a re n o t a l w a y s more h a ppy t h a n u nl u c k y on es .

A pa l e l i g h t , li k e th a t o f t h e ri si ng moo n , b eg i n s t o fri n g e t h e
i
h or z o n .

W ll y ou r e thi s h ors e or th a t ?
i id
A st ra ng er c ou l n o t b e re c e v e t w c e a s su ch in t h e sa me h ou se
d i d i .

T h e pl a n y o u h a v e c h osen do es n o t s e em t o me t o b e a w se one i .

O n e ma n sa y s th i s, a no t h er th a t ; w h om sh o u l d b el e v e I i
I n de n it e D emon st ra t iv e
75 . P rono u n s . S ometi mes
D emo ns tra t ive Pro n ou ns a re us ed a s su b st it u t es ,
not fo r so me
n ou n prev iou sl y men ti o n ed , b u t fo r so me n ou n un d erstood o r
i mpl i ed T h ese a re I n d en it e b ec aus e th ey h a v e
.
,
n o a n t ec ed en t .

A ll I nde n i t e pro no u n s a re in th e Third pers o n I a n d y ou c a n n o t .

b e i ndeni te b ec u s e w e k n o w w h o is spea ki n g or w h o is spok en t o

,
a .

( ) Th ey
a T h i s pro n ou n is some ti mes u sed fo r men i n
.

g en era l o r some perso n w h ose n a me is pu rposel y c on c eal ed

,

Th ey sa y th a t tru t h a n d h o n esty is th e b est po l i c y

.

b
() O n e U se d in th e se n se O f a n yp e rso n o r ev er yp e rso n

O ne sh ou l d t a k e c a re o f on e s h ea l th

.

= A ma n ( a n y a nd e very ma n ) S h o u l d t a k e c a re o f hi s h ea l th .

N ote 1 W h en ev er o ne is t h e su bj ec t t o a v erb it mu st b e
.
-

,

foll o w ed b y o n e a n d not b y h e
Th u s w e c a nn o t sa y .

one ,

mu st ta k e c a re o f h i s h ea l t h
N ote 2
.

W h en th ey a nd on e a re u sed a s a b o v e th ey a re n o t tru e
.
,

pro n ou ns b ec a u s e stri c tl y spea ki ng th ey a re n o t su b s t i tu t e w o rds

,
.

Th ey a re pro n o u n s u sed a s Commo n no u n s .

()
c I t I n s u c
. h se n t en c es a s t h e f oll ow i ng
it
is th e ,

su bj ec t t o th e v erb a n d th e n o u n o r o th e r pro n ou n is t h e
,

compl emen t

W h o i s i t ? I t is I I s i t y ou ? N O ; i t i s h e
. .

I t g iv es emph a sis t o th e n o u n o r pron o u n fo ll o w i ng
I t w a s I w h o t ol d y ou t h a t I t is t h e men w h o w o rk h a rd st n o t
. e ,

t h e w omen I t w a s th e qu een w h o died y est erd y

. I t is l i t t l e a .

t hi ng s t h a t c hi ey di st u rb th e mind .

SEC TIO N 3 .
R E L A T I VE OR C O N J U N C T I VE P RO N O U N S .

76 . A R el a t iv e Prono u n n ot o nl y f
re ers to so me no u n

g i
o ng b e fo re (a s D emons tra t i v e pro n ou n d oes), b u t it
a a l so
j oi ns

tw o sen ten c es tog ether (w hi c h a D emons t ra tiv e pron ou n d o es not

T h i s is a g o od h o u se I l i v e in i t ( D e mo n s tra t i ve P ron ou n )
. .

Th e h ou se in w h i ch I l i v e is a g o o d o n e ( R el a ti ve P ronou n ) . .
CR A P v . PR O N O UN S 37

77 . W ho , W hic h . T h ese a re d ec l i n ed as fo ll ow s fo r
S i n gu l a r an d Pl u ra l al ik e
N om . W ho ,
w h ic h .

P oss . W h ose , ( o f w h ic h ) .

O bj . W h om ,
w h ic h .

Th e fo rms w ho w hose w hom a re u sed fo r perso ns onl y T h e

, ,
.

form w hi ch is used fo r th i n gs w ith ou t lif e a n d fo r a n i mal s O f

a n y ki n d e x cept m e n an d w o men .

I n po etry a n d o c ca si on a ll y in prose w hose ca n b e used a s th e

, ,

Possessiv e fo rm of w hi ch
Th e tre e u nd er w h ose sh a d e w e a re si t ti n g
,
.

7 8 F o rms o f A n t ec edent T h e a n t ec ed en t ma y h a v e th e
. .

fo rm o f a n ou n o r an y kin d O f n ou n equ iva l en t 3 and

,
-

You ha ve p a i d y ou r deb ts w h i c h ( th e fa c t t h a t y ou h a v e pa id
,
:

y our deb ts) is a c l ea r proo f of y ou r h o n esty ( C l a u se ) . .

79 . A n t ec eden t
n
u de str oo d W h en n o a n t eced en t is .

ex pressed th e n eu ter R el a tiv e ta k es th e fo rm O f

, W h at ,

w hil e th e M asc ul i n e a n d F emi ni n e re t a i n th e fo rm o f

w ho .

( )aWh o = he w h o, o r she w ho, o r th ey w ho .

Who ( h e w h o ) st ea l s my purse st ea l s tra sh S R A KS P E A R E

z

Wh om ( = t h ose perso ns w h om) t h e g ods l o ve die y ou ng P roverb

. .
,

.
,

(b) Wha t the thin g w hi ch, or the things w hi ch .

I c a nn ot i c h ) th en h a ppen ed
t ell y o u n o w w h a t ( = t h e t h ng w h i .

Th e i
l a w s a re w h a t ( = th e t hi ng s w h c h ) y ou
sa
y t h ey a re .

()
0 S o ever o r soever a dd e d to a R el a tiv e ro n o u n o r to a
, , p
R el a tive adv erb g ives th e mea n i ng O f t o ta li ty
Wh osoever ( a ny a n d e v ery perso n w h o ) brea k s th i s l a w w ill b e
z

pu ni sh ed w h erever ( in a ny a n d e v ery pl a c e w h ere ) h e ma y l i v e

, .

N ote 1 . h a s b een c a ll ed a C ompo u n d R el a ti v e be ,

c a u se t h e a nt e c ed e n t i s sa i d t o b e c o nt a i n ed in it Bu t th i s i s n o t .

c orrec t : for t h e a nt ec eden t i s somet imes ex ressed e i t h er ( a ) in a

p ,

su b se u en t c l a u se or ( b ) i mmedi t el y a ft er t h e R el a t i v e it sel f
q ,
a :

( a ) Wh a t I t ell y ou in d a rk n ess th a t spea k y e in t h e lig h t ,

.

( b ) T a k e w ha t ( or w h a tever) h elp y ou c a n g et
N ote 2 W h e n ev er th e a n t ec ed ent is pl a c ed a ft er w ha t or w hi ch a s
.

,
.

in ex a mpl e ( b ) , th e w h a t or w h ic h is n o t a su b sti tu te w ord, an d t h ere

fore n o t tru e pro n ou n b u t a n
a ,
a dj ec t i v e ( se e 5 6 , N ote) .

Ta k e w h ich ever b ook ( = th a t b ook o f a ll b ook s w h i c h ) y ou pre fer .

8 0 Th a t .
T h e w o rd
.
tha t is O ft en used fo r w ho ,

w h om
b u t n ev er fo r w h ose

or w hi c h
, ,

Th i s is th e h ou se th a t = w h i c h ) Ja c k b u i l t .

Th e ma n th a t ( = w h om) w e w ere l o oki ng for h a s c ome .

38 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I
N ote W h en ev er

th a t bj ec t to
is t h e o a re o
p p s i ti o n , t h e pre
pos i ti o n is i nv a ri a bl y pl a c ed a ft er t h e v erb o f it s se n t enc e , a n d n e v er

b e fore it s o w n O bj ec t
T h e h ou se tha t we l iv e in
A s T h
.

81 . . e w or d as

ca n be d
u se fo r a R el a tive pro

n ou n , r
p o vid ed i t is preced ed by su ch o r ,
as,

or

th e
sa me .

I t may b e in th e N o mi na tive o r th e O bj ec tive c ase, b ut
n ot in th e P ossessiv e .

T h i s is not su ch a g o od b o ok a s I ex pec ted .

A s ma n y men a s c a me w ere c a u g h t .

Y ou rs is n ot th e sa me b o ok a s mi n e ( i s)

.

82 . But Th . e c on u n c j ti on
b u t,
w hen so me D emon stra ti ve

p ron ou n is u n derstood a f ter i t ,
is use d in th e sen se o f w ho not

or w hi c h n o t .

Th ere w a s n o o n e present, b u t sa w ( = b u t h e sa w z w ho did n ot see )

t h e dee d .

Th ere is n o v i c e so si mpl e , b u t ma y ( = b u t i t ma y z w hi ch ma y not)

b ec ome seri o us in t ime .

N ote Th e mu st a v o i d t h e c ommo n mi sta k e o f sa y i ng th a t

st u de nt

bu t i s a n eg a t i v e rel a t i v e I t is si mpl y a n A dv ersa t i v e c o nju n c

.

t i o n w i t h so me D emo n stra t i v e pro n ou n u n derst o o d a ft er it Th i s .

r n n i m t i m e x pressed a s i n t h e c o mmo n sa i n
p o ou s so e es y g ,

It n ev er ra n s, i b u t i t pours .

Th e u ses o f W ho a nd Which
Th
.

83 . R est ric t iv e, C on t in ua t iv e ese w or s d d enot e tw o

di stin c t us es O f w ho or w h i ch

( ) R estri ct
a Th e ma n w ho l i ved th ere di ed y est erd a y
I h
.

( b ) Con ti n . a v e s e en my r en d, w h o
fi recog n i sed me a t o nc e .

In ( ) t hae R e l a t v e c l a u s e doie s t h e w o r o f a n a djec ti ve t o t h e n o u n k

ma n, b
ec a u s e i t restri c ts t h e a ppl c a t o n o f t h s n ou n t o t h a t i p ar i i

t ic u l a r ma n w h o is sa to h a v e id
l ve th ere ( s ee

i d
I n ( b ) t h e R el a t v e c l a u se

iw h o rec o g n se me a t o n c e h a s no i d

i i f I t s mpl y c on ti n u es w h a t
fi i

restr c t v e orc e o n t h e n o u n r e nd .

i
w a s sa d in t h e prev o u s c l a u se i o u nd m r e n d a nd h e If
= w ho) fi
y ,

i
rec og n sed me a t o n c e

.

N ote . t o w h i ch in a i i
restr c t v e s en se a re l ess co mmo nly
u s ed t h a n th a t, w h ich
i nv a ria b l y restri c ti v e
is .

S E C T I O N 4 I NT E RR O G A T I VE P R O N O UN S
. .

84 . A n I nt erro g a t iv e P rono u n is o n e th a t asks a qu est i o n .

It ha s b een w el l ca ll ed a pron ou n in sea rch o f a n a n teced en t .

W h o spok e ( N o mi na t i v e t o t h e v erb ) .

O f w h om did h e spea k ( O b j ec t i v e a fter preposi ti on ) .

t a t did h e s y ? ( O bj ec t i v e a ft er v erb
a

Wh ose b o ok is t h a t ? ( Po ssess iv e C a se ) .

Wh ich of t h se b oy s w i ll w in t h e pri z e ( S el ec ti e )
e v
CR A P . v1 VE RBS 39

C H A PTE R VI .

VE R BS .

S E CT I O N l . TR E
-
KI N D S OF VE RB S .

85 . Ve rb s bdivid ed i n t o th ree ma i n cl a sses

a re su

N o ti o n a l or Tra n si t i v e Cl s s I a .

Pri n c i pa l I ntra nsiti v e Cl a ss II .

A u x i l i a ry Cl a ss I I I .

A n ex pl a na ti o n O f N o t i o n a l i s g i v e n in 8 8 N ote ,
.

8 6 A verb i s Tra n sit iv e if th e a c ti on does n ot stop

.
,
w i th th e
doer, bu t p a sses f rom th e doer to so mething else ( see 6)
( 1 ) Th e ma n kil l ed a sn a ke .

( 2) I do not k no w w h eth er h e ha s co me .

T h e w ord d d en o ti ng th a t person o r th ing t o w h i ch

o r w or s ,

th e ac ti on o f th e v erb is di rec t ed a re ca ll ed t h e O b j ec t
, .

87 A verb i s I n t r a n sit iv e w hen the a c ti on sto s w i th the

.
,p
doer, a nd does n ot p a ss
f m
ro th e do er to a n y thi n g else 6)
M en sl eep t o preserv e l ife .

S l e ep w ha t? Th i s i s n o n sen se . NO w or d or w or s c a nd b e pl a c ed
as o bj ec t t o b a s sl eep
su c h a v er .

8 8 A n A uxilia ry verb is on e w h i ch (a ) helps t o fo rm a t ense

.
,

o r a mo od O f so me , Pri n c i pa l v erb a n d (b) f org oes i ts ow n ,

sign ica ti on a s a P rin cip a l verb f or t h a t u r o se

p p
A merc h a nt bu y s t h a t h e ma y sell .

H ere ma y is no t u sed ei t h er in its ea rl y sen s e o f po w er or in

permi ssi o n I t h el ps t o form a su bju nc ti v e

I ts
present sense o f . .

I h a ve c ome from h ome t o d a y .

H ere ha ve forg oes its proper sig n ic a tio n p osses si o n a nd h el s

p ,

t h e v erb c ome to form a Presen t P erfec t t ense .

N ote Pri nc i pa l v erb s a re c a ll ed

. N o ti o n a l b ec au se ( u nl ik e ,

A u x i l i a ri es ) t h ey ex pre ss a n o ti o n o r fu ll mea n i ng o f th ei r o w n .

S E CTI O N 2 T R A NS I T I V E VE RB S
t T h
. .

89 . F orms of Ob jec ere a re sev en fo rms a t l ea st .

( )
a N o u n Th e ma n ki l l ed a sn a ke w i t h h is st i c k

.

( )
b P r o n o u n Th e ma n l ifted me u p o u t O f t h e w a t er

.

( )
0 A d j u s ed a s N o u n H e h el ped t h e n eedy

. .

( )
d In n it iv e H e desi res to l ea ve u s t o mo rrow

-
.

( )
e G e r u n d H e di sl ik ed sl eep i ng i n th e d a y t i me

z .

(f ) Ph ra s e N o o n e k new h ow to ma ke a b eg i nn i ng

.

(9 ) C l a use W e do not k no w w h o h a s c ome

Th
.

N ata eR el a ti ve pron ou n a s O b jec t is o ft en l e ft ou t

Th e b oo k s ( t ha t ) I b ou g h t h a v e b een l o st .
40 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT 1

90 . T h e D o ub l e Ob j ec t S o me T ra nsitive v erb s t a k e tw o
O bj ec ts ,
o n e d en o ti n
g a thi n g, th er a p erson a nd th e o .

T h e thing n a med is ca ll ed th e D ir ec t O bj ec t th e p erson or

o ther a n i ma l n a med is c a ll ed th e I n dir ec t 6)
I fo rg a v e him ( I ndirect) his fa u l ts ( D irec t) .

T h e I ndi rec t a l w a ys sta nd s rst I f it is pl a c ed a fter th e .

D i rec t it is prec ed ed by th e prepo siti on f or o r to

,

H e t a u g h t E u c l id ( D irec t) t o h is so n s ( I ndi rect) .

1
9 1 F a c t it iv e V erb s
. T h ose T ra n siti v e v erb s w h i ch t a k e
.

on e O bj ec t o n l y b u t sti l l re u i re so me o th er w o rd o r w o rds t o
, q
ma k e th e predi ca ti on comp lete a re ca l l ed F a c t it iv e ,

Th e w o rd o r w o rd s so a dd ed a re ca ll ed th e C o mpl emen t

92 . F orms of C o mpl ement .

T h ere a re a t l ea st e i gh t .

S u bject . Verb . Object . Comp l emen t .

N ou n T h ey ma de h im ng ki .

P ossessi ve Sh e ma de
A s qu a rrel h er o w n
. .

A djec ti ve Th e j u dg e set i
t h e pr so n er re e f .

P a rti cip l e T h ey fo u n d h er s t ll w ee i
p ng i .

!I
P
Th i s pl o t l l ed u s a ll w i th t erro r .

I n n i ti ve l ik e a ra sc a l to b pu ni sh ed
e .

A dverb T h ey ma nfo u nd th e a sl eep .

C l a u se We h a v e ma d e him w h a t h e is .

N ote T h e n ec essi ty o f a ddi ng a Co mpl ement to c erta i n v erb s to ,

ma k e t h e predi c a t i on c ompl e t e c a n b e se en a t o n c e fro m th e ex a mpl e 3

, ,

I l ik e a ra sc a l t o b e pu n i sh ed I f y ou merel y sa y I l ik e a

.
,

ra sc a l ,

y ou a re sa
y ng i th e O
pp os i te t o w h a t y o u i nt ended for y o u do
not l ik e a ra sc a l , b ut a ra sc a l to b e p u ni sh ed, or th e p u n i sh m en t O f a

ra sc a l .

93Tr a n sit iv e V erb s u sed I n t ra n sit iv el y

. T h ere a re .

tw o w a y s in w h i c h T ra n sitiv es c a n b eco me I n t rans itiv e

(a ) W h en th e v erb is u sed in su ch a g en eral sen se th a t n o

O bj ec t o r obj ec ts a re th o u h t O f in c o nn ec ti o n w i th it
g
M en ea t t o preserv e l ife He n ev er ea ts mea t ( Tra ns ) .

A n ew -
b orn c h i l d sees , b ut a ki tten is b orn b l i nd .

He w ri tes w el l He w ri tes a g o od l e tt er ( Tra ns ) .

( b) W h en th e R eex iv e pron oun is o mitt ed

H e drew ( h i msel f) n ea r me . H e ma de ( hi msel f) merry .

1
In b L a tin g ra mma r th e t erm F a c titive
o ok s o n is u su a l l y l imit ed
f
t o th o se T ra n sitive verb s th at a re ol l o w e d b y a n a dj ec tive a g reeing w ith
th e o b j ec t, o r b y a n o u n in a ppo sitio n w ith th e o b j ec t I n E ng li sh .

ra mm a r i t is m o re c o n v en ient t o e xt en d th e na me to a l l T ra nsitive verb s

g
t h a t re qu ire a c o mpl ement in a ny f o rm w h atever .
C HA P . VI VE R BS 41

Th e foll ow i ng a re c ommon ex a mpl es O f Tra nsit iv e v erb s w h ic h h a v e

a c u i red a n I n tra nsi t i v e forc e b
q y o mi t t i ng t h e R e ex i v e
pro n ou n

T ra n si ti ve Verb . I n tra n si ti ve Cou n terp a rt .

G et y o u ( y o u rsel f) g o n e . G et ou t O f my w a y .

Gi ve him a penny . T h e sh o e g i ves .

H e ob ta i ned a pl a c e . T h i s doc tri n e ob ta i ned ( ma i n

t a in ed i ts el f) fo r a l o ng t i me .

T h e re b u rn t u p th e h o u se . H e b u rnt w i th ra g e .

D o n o t stop me . L et u s stop h ere a l i ttl e .

Th ey op en t h e do ors a t n i n e S c h oo l op en s a t t en O c l o c k

. .

A ma n b rea ks ston es w i t h a Th e da y b rea ks a t six .

h a mmer .

T h e o x drew t h i s c a rt . H e drew n ea r t o me .

M ove a w a y t h i s st o n e . M ove o n a l it tl e fa ster .

H e b roke up th e meet i ng . S c h o ol b roke up a t t h ree .

Th e mou se stea l s fo o d . T h e mo u se stea ls i n t o it s h o l e .

T h ey b a th ed t h e c h i l d . L et u s b a th e h ere .

H e ro l l s a b a ll d o w n t h e h i l l . Th e b a l l rol l s d ow n th e h ill .

H e b u rst t h e do or o pen . T h e mo n soon h a s b u rst .

Ba d men h ide th e ir fa u l t s . Ba t s h i de du ri ng th e da y .

H e tu rn ed me o u t o f t h e room . H e tu rned t o me a n d spok e .

T h ey drop t h e b o a t i nt o th e Ra i n drop s from t h e sky .

t
w a er .

Th ey keep th e b oa t on th e l e t f Th e b oa t keep s on th e l e t f b a nk .

b a nk .

H e sets th e sc h ool in ord er . T h e su n sets a t six P M . .

H e f eeds th e h orse o n g ra i n . M a ny men f eed o n ri c e .

H e rested h is h orse . T h e h orse rested in t h e sta b l e .

H e l eng th en ed h is j ou rn ey . T h e d a y s b eg i n t o l eng th en .

H e sp rea d h is g a rme nt . Th e mi st sp rea ds o v er th e ea rth .

T h e sh eph erd g a th ered th e Th e sh eep g a th ered rou n d t h ei r

sh eep . sh eph erd .

T h e w i n d di sp ersed th e c l ou ds . T h e c l ou d s h a ve di sp ersed from

t h e sky .

H e c l osed t h e b u si ness . Th e da y c l osed a t six P M . .

Th e su n mel ts t h e sn o w . Th e sn o w mel ts in t h e su n .

H e da sh ed d o w n t h e c u p . H e da sh ed ou t o f th e ro om .

W e mu st w iden th e ro a d . T h e ro a d w i den s a t th i s po i n t .

L if t t h e b o x . Th e fog h a s l if ted .

S E CT I O N 3 I N T R A NS I T I V E VE RBS

. .

94 Of C o mpl et e P r edic a t ion

. T h i s is th e n a me g iv en to .

a n y I n tra n sitiv e v e rb , w hi c h ma k es a c o m l e t e sen se by it sel f,

p
a n d d o es n o t re ui re a C o m l emen t
q p
Riv ers f l ow W i nds b l ow . . H orse s ru n , o r w a lk; or g ra z e, or lie
dow n Birds f l y A ll ima l s sl eep A l l a n ima l s di e an

9 5 O f I n c o mpl et e P redic a t ion T h is is th e n a me g i v en

. . . .

. .

t o th o se I n tra n sitive verb s w h i c h do n o t ma k e a c o mpl e te sen se ,

b y th emsel v es b u t re qu i re a C o mpl emen t to su ppl y w h a t th e

,
42 P A R S I N G A N D A N A LY S IS P A RT I

verb l eft u n sa id verb s a re more b ri ey ca ll ed C o pu

S u ch
l a t iv e b eca u se th e y c ou pl e o n e id ea w ith a n o th er
,
'
.

T h e C o mpl emen t t o C o pu l a tive v erb s c an b e in th e sa me ei gh t

fo rms as th a t to F a c titi v e o n es .

S u bjec t . Verb . Comp l emen t .

T h a t b eg g a r tu rn ed o u t a th i ef .

P ossessi ve Th i s b o o k is mi n e 6 8, a )
,
n ot Ja mes

s .

A djec ti ve T h e ma n has fa l l en i
s ck .

P a rti c ip l e T h e st a g c o nt i n u ed ru n n n g a nd i j umpi ng
m
.

j
Pr z
gfg t
Th a t b o ok pro v e d o f n o u se .

I n ni ti ve Th e o w er see ms to b e f ding
a .

A dverb T h e ma n ha s fa l l en a sl ee
p .

C l a u se Th e resu l ts a re w ha t w e ex pec t ed

.

N ote l .W h en t h e C ompl ement c omes a ft er a C o pu l a ti v e v erb , it

is c a l l ed a S u b j ec t iv e C ompl ement , b ec a u se it rel a t es t o t h e S u bj ec t .

Bu t w h en i t c omes a ft er a F a c t i t i v e v erb in t h e A c ti ve v o i c e, it is
c a l l ed a n O b j ec t iv e C ompl ement , b ec a u se i t rel a t es t o t h e O b j ec t

N ote 2 Th e sa me v erb , w h et h er Tra n s or I n tra ns , ma y in dif

.

. . .

feren t c onn ec t i o n s b e e i th er c o mpl et e o r i n c ompl e t e predi c a t es

Th e w orl d i s ( ex i st s)
Th e w o rl d i s rou nd ( I n comp ) .

T h ey ma de a s n o w ma n -

T h ey ma de h im ki ng ( I n camp ) .

Th e tre e i s g row i ng
H e i s g row i n g strong ( I nc omp ) .

T h e w a t erf il l ed t h e pi pe
T h ey l l ed th e pi pe w i th w a ter ( I n comp ) .

o n
9 6 Th e C g a t e O b ec t
. j A n I n t ra n sitiv e v erb th ou g h
.
,

it is n ev er fol l ow ed by a n o u n d en o ti n g a n ou tsi de o r foreign

o bj ec t ma y someti mes b e foll ow ed by a n o u n a lrea dy i mp li ed
,

more or less in the verb i tself C ogn a te mea n s ki n d red )

.

T h ere a re v e differen t fo rms o f C og n a t e O bj ec t

( )
a Cogn a te n ou n f or med di rectly f rom the verb .

H e l a u g h ed a h ea rty l a u gh . H e sl ept a so u nd s l eep .

H e di e d a sa d dea th . H e pra y ed a n ea rn est p ra y er .

H e l i v ed a l o ng l if e . H e si g h ed a deep sigh .

( b) Cogn a te n ou n o f si mi la r mea n ing .

He w en t a l o ng w a y . He ra n h is o w n c ou rse .

He fo u g h t a h a rd b a ttle . I t b l o w s a b ri sk g a l e .

He stru c k a dea dy b l ow . T h e b ell s ri ng a merry p ea l .

the Cogn a te n ou n u n derstood

()
c A n ou n desc rip ti ve f
o .

Th ey sh ou t ed app l a u se : th ey sh o u t ed a sh ou t o f a ppl a u se
-
.

H e serv ed his a pp ren ti c eship = h e serv ed h is servi ce a s a n a ppren ti c e .

He ra n a g rea t ri sk = h e ra n a cou rse o f g rea t ri sk .

44 PA RS I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S PA RT I

We a c t on th i s ru l e
( A c tive ) .

T h i s rul e is a cted on b y u s ( P a ssi ve ) .

N o o n e reli es on his w ord ( A cti ve ) .

H is w ord c a n n o t b e relied on ( P a ssive ) .

O b serv e t h a t w h en t h e v er b is in th e Pa ssi v e v o i c e , th e on c a nn ot
b e pa rs ed a s a prepo si ti o n , si nc e t h ere is no O bj ec t to it . It mu st
t h ere fore b e pa rs ed a s pa rt o f t h e v erb i t sel f .

N ote 1 I n pre po si t i o n a l
. . v er s, b ii
th e prepo s t o n is a l most a l w a y s

pl a c ed a fter t h e v erb ; b u t a nd f d

w i th over a re O t en pl a c e
b efo re it
He ( stoo d a g a i n st end u red ) th e a tta c k
w i th stood , .

w a s overc ome ( de fea t e d) b y t h e e n em

He y .

Th e b a nk s w ere overf l ow ed ( i n u nda t ed) w i th w a t er .

T h e el d is overgrow n ( c o v ered) w i th w eeds .

T h e b o u nd a ry h a s b e en overstepp ed ( tra n sg ressed ) .

A l l t h ese v erb s w h en th ey a re u sed a pa rt from th e pre po si ti o n

, ,

a re I n tra n si ti v e I t is th e p rep osi ti on w hi ch ma kes th em Tra n si ti ve

N ote 2 I t someti me s h a ppen s th a t t h e prepo si ti o n a ft er th e I n
. .

t ra ns t i iv e v er b is no t expressed , b u t th e v er b is non e th e l ess fo ll o w ed

by an Ob j ec t
T h ey l a u ghed ( a t ) h i m t o sc o rn H e l ooked ( a t ) me in th e fa c e
. .

L e o n i da s f ou g h t ( a g a i n st ) th e P ersi a n s a t Th ermopy l ae .

I c a nno t si t ( o n ) t h a t h orse .

I c a nn o t sta nd ( w i th sta nd) y ou r imperti n enc e

-
.

1 0 1 S um . m a r y
Th ere a re th us tw o w a ys in w h i c h a n I n
.

t ra n sitiv e v erb ca n b ec o me T ran sitiv e w h en it is u sed in

a C a u sa l sense 9 8 ) ( 2) w h en it is c o nn ec t ed w ith a preposi
ti o n so c l osel y th a t th e verb c o mpou n d ed w ith th e prepositi on
, ,

ca n b e ma d e P assiv e

S i mi l a rl y t h ere a re tw o ki n d s o f O bj ec ts th a t c a n c o me a ft er
,

a n I n t rans itiv e v erb a l th ou g h th e v erb itsel f c o n ti n u es to b e

I n tran sitive
,

( )
l t h e C og n a t e O bj e c t ( )
2 th e R e e x i v e

o r P erso n al O bj e c t

S E CTI O N 4 A UX I LI A R Y VE RBS

. .

1 02 L ist of A uxilia ry r
Ve b s T h e A u x i l i a ry v e rb s ma k e
ha ve b e sha l l w i l l ma y doo n l y si x

.

u a v ery sma ll c l a ss
p , , , , , ,

a ll t o l d .

Bu t th ei r few n ess is c o mpensa t ed by th e i r use fu l n ess fo r n o

T ran si t iv e o r I n t ra ns itiv e v e rb c a n b e c o nj u ga ted w i th ou t t h em ,

e x c e t in tw o t en ses th e Presen t a n d Pa st I n d e n it e
p .

N ote l
,

H a ve b e a re a l w a y s fo ll o w e d b y Pa rt i c i pl es
.
,
Th e o th er .

A u x i l i ri es a re l w y s fo ll o w e d b y I nfi n i t i v s
a a a e
1
.

1
f
Th e I n nitive th a t o l l ow s a l l th e A u xil ia ries ex c ept b e an d ha ve
mig h t b e pa rsed ( if w e w ish to pa rse it sepa ra tel y ) a s th e o b j ec t t o th e
i
A u xil iary verb g o ng b e ore : th u s in
f
I sh al l g o , g o is ob j ec t t o th e
CRA P . v1 VE R BS 45

N ote 2 .
A u x il i
y v erb s h el p n ot o nl y Pri nc i pa l v erb s, b u t o n e
ar

a n o t h er I sh a l l h a ve b een g o i n g
. h ere th re e A u x i l i a ri e s c ombi n e
t o fo rm a si ng l e t ense S h a l l is fo l l o w ed b y a n I n n iti v e h a ve ha ve
.

is fo ll o w ed b y a Pa rti c i pl e b een T h e l a st A u x i l i a ry
.

b een is th en
foll o w ed, a s per ru l e in N ote 1 , b y a Pa rti c ipl e, g o i ng

N ote 3
Ca n , ou gh t, a n d mu st, t h o u g h D efec t i v e, a re Pri nc i a l
p
.

v erb s L et is a l so a Pri n c i pa l v erb Th ey a re n o t A u x i l i a ry

. .
(a )
b ec a u se t h ey do n ot h el p t o form a ny t en se, mo o d, or v o ic e a nd ( b )
b ec a u se th ey do not di sc a rd t h e ir mea ni ng s a s N o t i ona l v erb s for
a u x i l i a ry pu rpo ses T h e I nni ti v e th a t fol l o w s is t h ei r obj ec t , a s in
.

th e c a se o f sh a l l , w i l l , ma y , do .

1 03 A uxilia r y a n d P rin c ipa l

. T h e sa me v erb ma y b e an

A u xil i a ry a t o n e ti me a n d a P ri n c i pa l a t a n o th e r

Ha v e
I h a d a ne h orse ( P ri n cip a l )
I ha d g o n e a w a y ( A u xi l ia ry ) .

i
T h e ea rth i s ( ex st s) A h orse i s a qu a dru ped ( P ri nc ip a l )
.

H e w a s g o i ng H e i s l o v ed
.
( A u xi li a ry ) .

Yo u sh a ll l ea v e th e h ou se ( C omma nd A u th ori ty ) ( P rinc ip a l )

S h a ll ,

I sh a ll l ea v e t h e h ou se ( S impl e Fu turity ) ( A u xi l ia ry ) .

I w i l l g o t o d a y ( D et ermi na t i on)
{ Y o u w i ll g o to d a y ( S i mpl e F u t u ri ty )
I ma y g o am
( P ri n cip a l )
( A u xi l i a ry ) .

Ma y permi tt e d t o g o ) ( P ri ncip a l )
H e w ork s t h a t h e ma y l i v e ( P urpo se ) ( A u xi li a ry ) .

Yo u did t h a t w ork w ell ( P rin cip a l )

D0
Y o u did i n de ed w o rk h a rd ( A u xi l ia ry )
B
.

N ote e as a Pri n c i pa l v er b h as tw o u ses, a s b el o w

( a ) Th ere a re some w h o d eny th i s ( Comp l ete p redica ti on ) .

( b ) Th i s c oa t i s o f ma ny c ol o urs ( I n comp l ete predi ca ti on ) .

As an it h el ps t o form a ll t enses in Pa ssi v e verb s a nd

A u x i l i a ry , ,
a l l c o nt i n u o u s t en s es in A c t i v e o n es .

Ha v e a s a Pri n c i pa l v erb d eno tes possessi o n I ha ve a w a tc h .

A s a n A u x i l i a ry it h el ps t o form a ll th e P erfec t t en ses in a l l th e ,

M o o d s A c t i v e a nd P a ssi v e o f a l l v erb s Tra n si t i v e a n d I n tra nsi ti v e

, , , .

S h all a s a Pri n c i pa l v erb d en o t es c omma nd sh ou l d d en o t es d u t y .

Th ou sha l t n o t st ea l H e sh ou ld do it a t o n c e
. .

A s a n A u x i l i a ry , h el ps t o form th e rst person, Fu t u re,

sh a l l

I ndic a t i v e t o form a n y perso n in th e S u b

a nd sh ou l d
j u nc t i v e mood 1 22) H e w ork ed h a rd l est h e sh ou l d fa i l
.

W ill a s a Pri nc i pa l v erb d enot es i n t ent i o n , a nd w ou l d d eno t es

h a bi t .

I i l l n e v er do
w su c h a th i ng ag a n i
Th e dog w ou l d co me e v ery da y t o th e door

v erb sha l l This, a t all events, is th e w ay in w h ic h t h e F u t u re t en se c a me

.

in t o e xisten c e N ev erth el ess, w e c a nn ot c o nsider th e v erb sha l l t o b e a n

.

o rdin a ry Tra nsitive W e mu st still c a ll it a n A u xil iary for tw o rea sons

.

( 1 ) b ec a u se it h el ps t o f orm a ten se ( 2) b ec a u se it foreg oes it s o w n mea n

ing f or a n a u x il iary pu rpo se H a s, w h en it is n ot a n A u xilia ry , is a f u l l
.

W

T ra n sitive verb signif y ing oss
p esses e c a nn o t ,
h o w ev
.er, pa rse it as

a T ra n sitive in H e h a s g o ne, P res P er t ense . f
. .
46 PA RS I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S PA RT I
A s a n A u x i l i a ry , w ill h el ps t o fo rm th e second a nd thi rd perso ns
F u tu re I n di c a ti v e, a nd w oul d t o form t h e sa me persons o f

t h e S u b j u nc ti v e
M a y , mi g h t , a s a Pri nc i pa l v erb d en o t es permi ssi o n o r po ssibi l i ty .

Yo u ma y now go .
( Permissi on ) It ma y b e t ru e
( P ossi b i l i ty )
. .

As an A u x i l i a ry ,

ma y ex resses
p a w i sh n d
m a y a nd

a ,

mig h t press a pu rpos e

ex b ot h in th e S u b j u n c ti v e mood
DO , did .

O n th e A u x i l i a ry u ses, s ee b el o w 1 1 4 a nd
DO is a l so u s ed a s a Pro v erb , i e a su b sti tu te v erb , a n d in t h i s
-
. .

c a pa c i ty it sa v es t h e re pet i ti o n o f some P ri n c i pa l v erb g o ing b e fo re

a s, I a w o k e a t six A M , a nd s o did ( a w o k e y o u
.
= .
)
H e w o rk ed
more i ndu stri ou sl y th a n h is b ro t h er does

S E CTI O N 5 .
A C I T VE AN D PA S S I V E VO I C E S .

1 0 4 A Tra nsi tive verb h a s tw o v o i ces, th e A c tiv e a nd th e

.

P a ssiv e .

I n th e A c tiv e v o i c e th e person o r th i ng d en o t ed by th e
S u bj ec t is sa id t o do so methi ng methin g el se
to so

Tom ki l l s a sn a ke .
( H ere T om does somethi ng to a sn a ke )
.

I n th e Pa ssiv e i th e person o r th in g is sa id to suyfer

v o ce

somethin g f rom so me th i ng el se

A sn k e i s ki l l ed by Tom ( H ere a sna k e suers someth i ng f rom

a .

Tom )
A cti
.

( from L a ti n mea ns
N ote ve a c t iv u s do i ng . P a ssi ve
( fro m L a t i n pa ssw u s mea ns su fferi ng .

1 05 . A n I n tra nsi tiveve rb is n o t u sed in th e Passive vo i c e ,

u nl ess it t a k es a C og n a t e o bj ec t in th e A c tiv e

T h e A t h e n i a n s fou g h t a h a rd b t tl e a t M a r t h o n ( A c ti ve )
a a .

A h rd b a ttl e w a s fo u g h t b y t h e A t h en i n s a t M a ra th o n ( P a ssive )
a a .

H ere th e su bj ec t b a ttl e d oes n o t real l y su er a ny th i ng

N everth el ess th e v erb ,

g h t a l t h ou gh it is I n t rans itiv e c a n
, ,

b e c o nj u g a t e d a l l th ro u gh th e P a ssiv e v o i ce i n th e third Perso n .

I t h as n o Pa ssi ve fo rms h ow ev er i n th e rst a nd secon d , ,

P erso ns . I n th e th i rd perso n i t is c o nj u g a te d t h rou g h ou t .

1 06 R a . e t in e d Ob j ec t Verb s th a t t a k e tw o O bj ec ts in th e
A c ti v e c a n s ti l l reta i n o n e in th e P a ssiv e .

( )
a T h e I n di rec t O bj ec t o f t h e A c tiv e v e rb ; a s

A c ti ve Verb . P a ssi ve Verb .

I forg a v e h i m h is fa u l t . Th e fa u l t w a s forg i v en h i m b y me .

IVe a l l o w ed h i m t w o po u n ds . Tw o po u n ds w ere a ll o w ed h i m b y u s .

O r ( b ) th e D i rec t O bj ec t of th e A c t i v e verb ; as

A c ti ve Verb . P a ssive Verb .

f
I org a v e h im h i s f a u l t . He w as fo rg v en h i s f a u l t b y me
i .

W e a ll o w e d h im tw o p ou nds . He w as a l low e d
tw o pou nds b y u s .
CR A P . vI VE R BS 47

N ote 1 .
It h a s now b een sh o w n th a t t h ere a re v e different kinds
of o bj ec t s w h ic h c a n b e u sed w i th v erb s
( )
1 D ir ec t ( w it h T r n s v er b
) H e t a u g h t E uc li d

a s . .

( ) I di t ( i h T b ) H e t a u g h t hi s sons E u c l i d

2 n r e c w t r a n s v er s . .

( )
3 R et a in e d ( w i t h P a s s v er b s ) His so ns w ere t a u g h t E u c l id

. .

( ) C ogn a e (
4 t w i t h I n tr a n s v er b s ) Th e fev ermu st ru n its c ou rse
. .

( 5 ) R eexi ve ( w i t h I ntra ns v erb s) H e sa t h i mself d ow n . .

-

In a nd ( 4 ) th e v erb s a re fo l l o w ed by a D i rec t o b j ec t ; in

( 2) a nd ( 5 ) b y a n I ndi rect It sh ou l d b e a l so no t ed t h a t in ( 3 ) th e
.

v erb is Tr a n si t i v e w i th o u t b ei n
g A c ti v e w h i l e i n ( 4 ) i t i s A c ti v e ,

w i t h o u t b e i ng Tra ns i t i v e .

N o te 2 W h en ev er a F a c ti t i v e v erb is c h a ng ed from th e A c t i v e
.

v o i c e t o t h e P a ssi v e t h e O bj ec t i v e C ompl emen t b ec omes S u bj ec t i v e

, .

A c ti ve Comp to O bject . . P a ssi ve : Comp to S u bject . .

T h ey proc l a i med h im ki ng . He w a s proc l a i med ki ng b y t h em .

Th ey did n o t c ro w n him ki ng . He w a s n o t c ro w n ed ki ng b y t h em .

1 07 . V erb s A c t iv e in f orm, b ut P a ssw e in n se

se .

verb s A c tive are someti mes

Tra ns iti v e

, ,
use d in a Passiv e sen se .

( )
a Ve rb s w it h a C o mpl emen t
T h e st on e f eel s rou g h it is fel t ) ( is ro u g h w h en .

H o n ey ta stes sw eet ( is sw eet w h en it i s t a st ed ) .

T h e mi l k sme l l s so u r ( is sou r w h en it is smel t ) .

Y o ur b l a me co u n ts for nothi ng ( is w orth no t h i ng w h en it is

c o u nt ed ) .

Y ou r c ompo si ti on rea ds w ell ( sou nd s w ell w h en it is rea d ) .

T h e h ou se does no t l et ( is n o t t a k en w h en it is mea n t t o b e l et ) .

T h e h orse does n o t sel l ( is no t ta k en w h en it is mea n t t o b e sold) .

T h a t c l ot h w i ll w ea r t hi n ( w i l l b ec ome th i n w h en it is w orn) .

b
( ) V e rb s w ith ou t a C ompl emen t
T h e h ou se i s b u i ldi ng ( = is in a st a t e o f b ei ng b u i l t ) .

T h e tru mpet s a re sou ndi ng ( = a re b ei ng s ou n d ed ) .

T h e c a nno n s a re ri ng = a re b ei ng red) .

T h e dru ms a re b ea ti ng ( = a re b ei ng b ea t en ) .

T h e h ou se i s ni shi ng ( = is b ei n g ni sh ed ) .

T h e b oo k i s p ri n ti ng ( = is b ei n g pri n t ed ) .

T h e c o w s a re mi l ki ng ( = a re b ei ng mi l k ed ) .

N ote T h e g en era ll y rec ei v ed a n d b est su pport ed o pi n i o n reg a rd

ing t h i s c on stru c t i o n is t h a t w h a t l o ok s l ik e a present pa rt i c i pl e is
in re a l i ty a g eru nd w i t h t h e preposi t i o n on o r i n o mi tt ed
,
.

T h i s h o u se w a s t h ree y ea rs in b u i ldi ng ( G er o r Verb a l n ou n )

'

. .

O th ers h o w ev er th i nk t h a t it i s a rea l A c ti v e pa rt i c i pl e u sed in

, ,

a Pa ssi v e s en se l ik e t h e v erb s i n ex a m l e s ( a )
1
, p .

1
Th e w ord en ding in -i ng mu st c ert a inl y b e a pa rtic ipl e in su c h c o l l o
qu ial isms as

I w ant a b u tton sew i ng on I n su ch a senten c e a s Th e
w all is ra pidl y b u il di ng , b u i lding mu st c ert a inl y b e parsed a s a pa rtic ipl e,
a s o th erw i se th e a dverb rap idl y c ou l d n ot b e parsed .
48 PA RS I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

S E CT I O N 6 M D
. OO S AN D T E N S E S , A C T I VE AND PA S S I v E .

1 08 . M oo ds M oo d means
mann er in w h i ch th e mod e or

an a c t i o n is spo k e n o f Th e re a re thr ee F i n it e mo od s (i e li mit ed

. . .

by n u mb er a n d person ) a n d o n e I n n i t ive (n o t so l i mit ed

, ) .

( )
a T h re e F i ni t e moo d s

l I n di c a t i v e th e mo od o f A ssert ion or I n quiry H e comes

2 I mpera ti v e th e mo od o f C o mma n d o r A dv ic e Come
,
. .

3 S u bj u n c t i v e th e mo od o f S u pp o sit i on If h e come
,
. .

.
, . .

(b) I n ni tive mo o d To come .

1 09 . N umb er a nd P er son .

T h e n u mb er a n d perso n Of a

F i n it e v erb d epen d u po n th e n a t u re o f its S u bj ec t .

I f th e s u b j ec t i s S i n g u l a r, th e v erb mu st b e S i ng u l a r a s 7
R a i n i s fa ll i ng
N mb er
.

u
If t h e su bj ec t is Pl u ra l , th e v erb mu st b e Pl ura l ; a s,
R a i ndro ps a re fa lli ng .

If th e su bj ec t is in th e First pers on , th e v erb must b e

in t h e F irs t pers o n a s, I l o v e W e c ome . .

If th e su bj ec t is in th e S ec ond perso n , th e v erb mu st b e

P erson in t h e S ec o n d perso n a s, T h o u l o v est Y ou c o me . .

If th e su b j ec t is in th e T h ird perso n, t h e v erb mu st b e in

t h e Th ird pe rson ; a s, H e l o v es T h e t e a c h er h a s .

co me .

H en c e i th e foll ow i ng rul e ( w h chi is ca ll e d C o n co rd o r

a r ses a

A g reemen t) A Fi n i te verb mu st b e i n the sa me n u mb er a n d

p erson a s i ts S u bjec t .

110 .T en se dened T ens e is th e fo rm assu med by a v erb (by

mea ns of in e x io n o r w ith th e h el p O f A u xil i a ri es) f o r in di ca ti n g

e i th er (a ) th e time in w h i ch
ven t o c cu rs o r (b) th e deg ree
an e ,

of c om l eten ess a scrib ed t o an e v en t a t th e ti me o f i ts o c cu rren c e

p .

As rega rd s th e qu esti o n O f ti me th e v erb ma y t ell y ou ,

e c omes

( )
1 T h a t a n a c ti o n i s do n e in P r e sen t ti m e ; as h ,
.

( )
2 T h a t it w a s d on e in P a s t t i m e a s

h e c a me ,
.

T h t i i l l b e don e i n F u t u r e ti me h e w i l l c ome
( )
3 a t w a s ,
.

1 1 1 T o e x press th e differen t d eg rees o f c o mpl et en ess th ere

.

a re fo u r differe n t fo rms t o ea ch t ens e

I I n den it e ; w h i ch d en o t es P resen t P a st o r F u tu re t i me
.
, ,

in i ts si mpl est fo rm ; as
I see I sa w ,
I S ha ll see ,

,

.

I I C on tin u ou s w h i ch d en o t es th a t th e e v en t (in P resen t

.
,

Pa st o r F u ture ti me) is st i ll c on tin u i n g a n d is n o t y e t c o m

, ,

a m see i ng

p l e t ed as I,
I w as see i n g I,
S h all b e see i n g

,

.

 CR A P . vi VE R BS

N ote Th i t en se is somet mes

s i c a ll e d th e Imperf ec t , b ec a u se it
deno t es an ev en t w h c h is imper ec
f t or n ot c ompl et ed
i .

I I I P erf ec t w h i ch d en o tes th a t th e even t (in Presen t Past

.
, ,

o r F u ture ti me) is in a c ompl e t ed o r p er f ec t st a t e ; as I h a v e ,

seen ,
I h a d seen

I shall h a ve seen ,

.

I V P erf ec t C on t in u ous ; w h i ch c ombi n es th e mea n i ngs o f

.

th e tw o preced in g fo rms ; as

I h a ve b een seeing I h ad , ,

b een seeing I Sh all h a ve b een seei ng

,

.

C O M P L E T E C O N J U GA T I O N OF A VE RB IN T HE F I N I T E M O O DS .

In th is sc h e me 1 t
ds for F i rst person (I w e) 2 fo r S econ d
s an
,

erson ( thou y o u ) ; 3 f o r Th i rd erson (h e sh e i t the Th

p , p y ) e , , , .

n on F i n it e pa rts o f a v e rb a re Sh o w n in sec ti o ns 1 0 l l
-
12 , ,
.

F ro m th e fo ll o w i ng sch eme it w i ll b e seen th a t th e pnl y

t enses fo rmed by in exio n a re tw o in nu mb er viz th e Presen t ,
.

I nd eni t e a nd th e P ast I n d eni t e A c tiv e vo i ce in th e I n di c a , ,

tive an d S u bj u n c tive mo od s .

Al l th e o th er t ens es in th e A c tiv e v o i c e a n d a ll th e t en ses ,

in th e P assiv e vo i ce w ith ou t a ny ex c epti o n a re fo rmed by means ,

O f A u xil i a ry v erb s

A A c T I v E VO I C E OF Do .

I .

I din ca ti ve M ood .

S ing ul a r . P l ura l .

do est o r do st 1 do e s
a rt do ing is do in g a re do ing
h a v e do n e h a st don e h a s don e h a ve done
h a ve b e en doing h a st b een doing h a s b een doin g h av e b een do ing

I nde ni te didst did di d

w a st do ing w as doing w ere doing
h a dst don e h a d done h a d do ne
h a dst b een doin g h a d b een do ing h a d b een doing

sh all do w il t do w ill do 1 . sh all

2, 3 . w ill
sh a ll b e doing w il t b e doing w ill b e doing 1 . sh a ll be
2, 3 . w ill do ing
sh a ll h a v e do n e w il t h a v e don e w ill h a ve do ne 1 . sh a l l h a ve
2, 3 . w ill done
sh a ll h a v e b e en w i l t h a ve b een w ill h a v e b een 1 . sh a l l h ave
doing doing do ing 2, 3 . w ill b een
do ing
 P A R S IN G A N D A N A L Y S I S PA RT I

I I S u bju n c tive M ood

. .

I I I I mp era tive M ood

. .

P rese nt S i ng u l a r 2 . do ( th ou ) . P l u ra l 2 do ( y e . o r y ou )
.

B P A S S I V E VO I C E
. OF S ee .

T h is, if w e o mit th e Past Pa rti c ipl e

se en ,

g iv es a c o m l et e c o nj u a ti o n
p g
o f th e F i n it e mo o d s O f t h e v erb
to b e .

I .
I ndi ca tiv e M ood .

1 Th i P
t en se , th o u g h i t h a s t h e a st f orms shou ld, w ou ld, c a n b e u s ed t o den o t e a c o ndit io n a
s
c o n t ing e nt f u t urit y , a nd h en c e it i s s o met i mes ca l l ed t h e S u b ju n c t i v e f u t u re, a n s w erin g t o t h e

I ndic a t ive f u t u re shal l , w i ll , sh o u ld b eing su b st l t u t ed f o r sh a l l , a nd w ou l d f o r w il l
I sh a l ldo t h is , if y o u w il l l et me I ndic F u tu re
me
. .

I sh o u ld do t hi s, if y ou w ou ld l et S u bju n c t F u tu re
. .

2 O n t h e o th erh a nd, t h e P erfec t f o rms den o t e a c o ndit io na l pa st , a s is sh o w n b el o w in 1 22

Th e P e rf ec t f o rms c a nn o t b e u sed ma f u t u re sen se , b u t o nl y in a pa st s en s e .
52 PA RS I N G A N D A N A LY S I S P A RT 1

ev e nt s is sti l l p resent T h e Br
. itish E mpire stil l exists . H e n c e i t is
i
r g h t t o sa y h a s su c c ee ed d .

S o me I n t ra nsitive verb s (T ransitive o nes n ev er) a nd espec i al l y ,

th ose I n trans itive verb s th a t sig n ify g o i ng c o mi n g b ec o mi ng , , ,

c h a n i ng e tc
g ,
m a y u
. se,th e A u x i l i a ry i s i n s t e a d o f h a s a n d w as ,

i ns tea d o f ha d
( a ) T h e o w er is fa ded ( b ) Th e o w er h a s fa ded . .

I n ( a ) h o w ev er t h e sta te o f th e o w e r ( fa ded) i s mo re pro mi n entl y

, ,

indic a t ed ; in ( b ) th e time o f th e fa di ng S O t h e t w o s en t enc es a re .

n o t q u i t e equ i v a l ent .

( )
2 T h e P a s t P erfec t (c al l ed a l so th e P l u perfec t) is n ev er
u sed e x cept w h en w e w i sh t o sa t h a t so me a c ti o n w a s e ith e r
, y
( )
a c o m pl e t ed o r b
( ) pp
su
,
ose d t o b e c o m p l e t ed b efore a n o th er ,

w as c o mmen ced

( a ) H e h ad b een ill tw o da y s w h en th e doc to r w a s sen t for ( F a c t )

,
.

( b ) If I h a d seen h im I sh ou l d h a v e k no w n h im ( S upp osi ti on )

,
. .

( 3 ) T h e F u tu re P erfec t d en o tes th e co mpl eti on o f so me even t

(a ) in fu tu re ti me (b) in pa st t i me ,

( a ) H e w i l l h a ve rea ched h ome b efore th e ra i n set s in .

( b ) Y o u w i l l h a ve h ea rd t h i s new s a l rea dy so I n eed n o t repea t it .

It seems l ik e a c on tra dic ti o n t o ma k e a F u tu re t en se h a v e referen c e

t o P a st t ense Bu t th e fu tu re h ere i mpl i es a n i n ferenc e reg a rdi ng
.

s o met h i ng w h i c h i s b el i ev ed t o h a v e pa ssed ra t h er t h a n pa st t i me

i t s el f
Y o u w i l l h a v e h ea rd mea n s
I i n fer or b el i e v e th a t y o u

.

h a v e h ea rd .

114 . Do a nd Did T h e Presen t an d Past I n d en it e in

. th e
A c tive voice ca n a l so b e fo rmed by th e A u x i l i a ry do
P resen t T en se .

S ing u la r . P l u ra l .

1 st P erson I do l o v e W e do l o v e
2nd T h ou d o st l o v e Y e or y ou do l o v e
3 rd H e do es l o v e Th ey do l o v e
P a st T en se .

S i ng u l a r . P l u ra l .

1 st P erson I did l o v e W e did l o v e

2n d T h ou di dst l o v e Y e o r y o u did l o v e
3 rd H e did l o v e Th ey did l o v e

T hi s form is u se d fo r th ree differen t pu rposes

k O f e mph as i s ; a s,II do l o v e,
o ve

( )
a F o r th e e sa d i d l .

b
( ) F o r t h e sa k e O f b r ing gi n in t h e w o rd n ot as I d o ,

n ot l o ve (w h i c h is b e tt er t h a n sa yi n g I l ove n ot I di d n ot

l o ve (w hi c h is b ett er th an sa yi ng I l o v ed

F h e sa k e o f aski n g a qu esti o n D oes h e l o v e 1
()
c o r t as ,

W h y did h e l ove 1 D id h e n o t l ove ?

 CR A P . VI VE R BS 53

115 . Sh all a nd
W ill B g i e n n ers a re so meti mes pu z z l ed to

k n ow w h en to use sha ll an d w h en t o use w i l l
.

I t Sh o u l d b e un d erst o o d th a t th ere a re three sens es in w h i ch

t h e fu tu re t ense c an b e u sed

( a ) To ex press merel y f u tu re ti me a nd n o th i ng more ,

.

( b ) T o c ombi n e fu t u re t ime w i t h a n i mpl i ed comma n d .

( 0 ) To c ombi n e fu tu re t ime w i th a n impl i ed i nten ti on .

(a ) M erely f u tu re time .

W h en i
n o th ng fu ture time is i ntendedmere f u tu ri ty w i th
b ut

,

o f c o mma n d o r i nt en t i o n b e i n g mi x ed u
y i dea
ou t a n
p w i th i t sh a l l

mu st b e u sed for t h e F i rst perso n , a nd w i l l fo r th e S ec ond a nd Th i rd

perso n s, a s b el o w
S i ng u l a r . P l u ra l .

l st P erson I sh a l l g o W e sh a l l g o
2nd Th o u w i l t g o Y ou w i l l g o
3 rd He w ill go T h ey w i l l g o
I n t h ese perso n s sh a ll a n d w i l l a re s r c tl y tense- ormi n g , t h a t
ti f is,
A u x i l i a ry v erb s ( see 1 0 2,

b
( ) A n I mp ed Comma n d, P romise,
li or Threa t .

W h enev er w e d esire t o ex press n o t merel y fu t u re t ime b u t some , ,

c omma nd o r p romi se or th rea t in a dditi o n sh a l l i s u t for w il l in

, , p ,

t h e S ec o n d d T h ird perso ns ; a s
an
1

Y o u sh a l l b e h a n g ed ( b y s ome o n e s c omma n d)

.

Y ou sh a l l rec e i v e y ou r pri z e to morro w ( promi se ) -

.

If y o u do th i s, y ou sh a l l b e h a ng ed ( t hrea t ) .

In t h ese ex a mpl es, th e sh a l l is n o t a t e n se formi ng or A u x il i a ry -

v er b , b u t a Pri n c ipa l or N o t i o n a l o n e ( see 1 0 2,

() c A n I mp li ed I n ten ti on .

W h en t h e spea k er w i sh es to ex press s o me i nt enti on of h is o w n,

th en w i l l is pu t for sh a l l in th e F rst perso n : i 1

I w i ll c a ll o n y ou t o da y , a n d I sh a l l t h en sa y g oo d b y e
- -
.

H ere w i l l de n o t es th e i n ten ti on o f c a ll ng , w h l e sh a l l den o tes i i ,

merel y f u tu re ti me Th ere ore w i l l is a Pr nc pa l v er , a nd sh a l l is

f i i b

an A u x i l i a ry
In
.

N ote a co mma nd , pro mi se , i

th rea t , or n t ent o n t h ere is i
n ec essa r l i y so me sen se O f fu turity . N ev erth el e ss, th e v erb sh a l l in
a ll su c h c o nt ex t s as ( b ) a nd w i ll in su c h a c o nt ex t a s ( c ) a re in t h e

1
I n O l d E n g saca l ( sh al l ) means I mu st,
I a m l iab l e

. I ow e,
for ; a n d this sense is ma int a in ed, w h erever th is verb is u sed in th e

S e c ond a n d T h ird perso ns W i ll in O l d E ng mea n s to intend o r desire

. .

a nd t his sen se is ma inta in ed, w h enever th is v erb is u sed in th e F irst

person Bu t t h ese senses a re n ot ma inta ined, w h en sha l l is u sed in th e
.

F irst person , a n d w ill in th e S ec o nd a n d Th ird Th e verb s h a v e th en .

b e c o me A u xil ia ry , th a t is, th ey h a ve disc a rded th eir o rig nal mean ng s in i i

order to h el
p o th er verb s t o express fu ture time
54 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I
P resen t t en s e, n o t in t h e F u tu re Th ey a re si mpl y N o ti o na l v erb s .

( Tra n si t i v e ) in t h e Present t en se, a n d t h e I nni t i v e fol l o w i n g is t h eir

Ol jec t

I M
.

S E CTI O N 8 . PE RA T I V E M O O D .

1 1 6 T h e I mper a t iv e moo d is u sed o n l y in th e P resen t

.

t en se, S ec on d perso n t h e S u bj ec t is sel d om ex pressed .

S i ng u l a r . P lu ra l .

S pe a k . S pea k .

1 17 . To ex ti on w i th th e F i rst o r
p ess o ur w
r il l in c onn ec

T hi rd perso n w e eith er (a ) u se th e T ra ns itiv e v erb let w h i ch is ,

itsel f th e S ec on d person o f th e I mpera ti v e mo o d O f th e verb to

l et o r ( b) w e empl o y th e S u bj un c ti v e moo d

,

S i ng u l a r . P l u ra l .

( a ) l st P erson L et me spea k L et u s spea k

3 rd L et h im spea k L et t h em spea k
( )
b E v ery s o l d e r ki l l hi s pr i
so n er S R A KS P E A R E i

. .

i
Th th er o u r pa th l es w i n d w e u p t h e h e g h t i i . BR O W N I NG .

T h e T h i rd perso n o f t h e S u b j u n c ti v e o c c u rs i n t h e co mmo n phra ses

su c e i t : l et it su fc e so b e i t so l et it b e : .

S u ce i t to sa y th a t a ll
t h e pr so n ers w ere a c qu t te d i i

.

N o te I n su c h a i
c o n stru c t o n a s L et me sp ea k, spea

( Inn k .
) is

t h e di rec t O b j ec t t o l et , a nd me th e n d rec t i i

.

118 . Th e ch e i f u ses o f th e I mpera tive mood a re to ex

pre ss

(a ) co mma n d, (6) p rec ep t, or (c) en trea ty

(a ) Comma nd
A w a ke, a ri se, or b e for ev er fa l l en M I L T O N .

b
() P rec ep t or I n vi ta ti on
G o t o t h e a n t , th ou sl u gg a rd c on sider h er w a y s a nd be w i se

.

O ld T es ta men t .

()
c E n trea ty or P ra y er
i s d y o u r d a i l y b rea d
Gi ve us th L ord s P ra y er
a .

.

1 1 9 W h en th e v e rb is n eg a tiv e th a t is pro hi biti v e th e

.
, , ,

I mpera tive is n ow fo rmed by th e A u x i l i a ry do S ee 1 1 4 ( b) . .

O l der F orm . P res en t F orm .

F ea r n o t . Do f
n o t ea r .

Ta st e n o t th a t fo od . Do n o t t a st e t h a t fo o d .

N ote S o met mes , e v e n w h e n t h e v er is a ffirma t v e , t h e I mpera

i b i
i
t v e is ormed b yf do , in order t o g v e mo re emph a s s t o a n e n trea ty i i

.

i
T h s , h o w ev er, oc c u rs o nl y in c o ll o qu a l E n g l s h i i
D o h el p me to l ift i s b ox
th .

1 20 Th e I mpera tive mood is so me ti mes u se d to ex r s a

.
p es

S u ppo sit io n
CR A P . VI V E R BS 55

Ta ke t h e pen c e,
c a re o f an d th e pou n ds w ill t a k e c a re o f t h emsel v es
( = I f y o u t a e c a re k o f t h e pen c e, t h e pou n ds w i ll ,

1 21 . S o me times a n I mpera tiv e is us e d ab s ol ut el y ; i . e . in

i sol a ti on fro m th e rest O f th e sen t en ce
A l a rg e b
n u m er o f me n , sa y a h u n dred, a re w o r ki n g on th e ra l ro a d i .

S E CTI ON 9 .
S U B JUN C T I V E M OOD .

1 22 T h e S u bj u n c t i v e mo od e x presses
. a u
p pr ose, a w i sh, a

c on di ti on , o r a dou b t, a n yt h i n g ra th er th a n a fa c t .

(1 ) A P u rp ose .

I n th i s c a se in th e S u bj u nc t i v e mo od is prec ed e d b y th e
th e v er b
c o nj u n c t i o n th a t o r l est ( l est t h a t n ot ) T h e A u x i l i a ry v erb s .

ma y
migh t a re u sed a ft er th a t, a nd sh ou ld a fter

a nd

l est .

I n di c a ti ve . S u bju n c ti ve P u rp ose .

P resen t I g i v e y o u a pri z e , t h a t y o u ma y w o rk w el l a g a i n .

or l est y o u sh o u ld l ose i t
F u tu re
I sh a ll k ee p y ou r b O O k
t h a t y ou ma y n o t l ose i t
.

I g a v e y o u a priz e, t h a t y o u mi g h t w ork well a g a i n .

l e st y o u sh ou l d l ose it
I k ept y ou r b o ok , t h a t y o u mi g h t n o t l ose it
.

In
.

N ote t h e Tu d or P eri od , a nd s o mew h a t b ey o n d it , t h e S u b

j u nc t iv e of u r o se w a s c o
p p mmo n l y e x presse d in th e Pre s en t I n den i t e
t en s e , w t h o u i t t h e h el p Of th e A u x l i i a ry
ma y
L o v e n o t sl ee p, l e st t h o u c ome t o po v erty O l d T est . .

S pea k t o my b ro th er, th a t h e di vi de t h e i nh eri ta nc e i th me

w .

N ew T est .

(2) A W ish or Order .

TO ex i
press a w sh or o rder, forms O f th e S u bj u n c ti v e
th ere a re tw o
th a t ma y b e u sed e i th er ( a ) th e si mpl e fo rm w i th o u t a n A u x il i a ry ,

o r ( b ) t h e c ompo u n d fo rm w i th t h e A u x i l i ry ,
ma y a

T h y ki n g d om come t h y w i l l b e d o n e ,
.

M a y h e l i v e l o n g a n d see n o t th e g ra ve
I w i sh t h a t h e w ere a s c l ev er a s h is si st er .

F a r b e it from me to sa y n y th i ng fa l s e a .

M y sen tenc e is th a t th e pri so n er b e ha n g ed .

( )
3 Con di ti on a nd i ts Con sequ en c e .

W h en b
t h e v er ex presses a c ondi ti on I t is g en era l l y pre c eded b y
t h e c o nj u n c t o n if

i
T h e v er de n ot n g th e c on sequ en ce is ex
. b i
p r esse d b y t h e A u x l a r
y w au l in t ii
h e S ec o nd a n d T h rd pers o n s, i
a nd b y sh ou l in t h e F rst i
F i rst S en ten c e C on di ti on . S econd S en ten ce Consequ en ce .

P re en t

s
l
If h e sh ou ld meet me
If I w ere in h is pl a c e,
,
he
I
w ou l d kn ow me a t o n c e
sh ou ld p a y t h e mo n ey
.

F u tu re
.

If h e ha d met me h e w ou ld h a ve kn ow n me
{
.

Pa st ,

If I h a d b een in h is pl a c e ,
I sh ou l d h a ve p a id t h e mo n ey .
56 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

S o me ti mes t h e if is l e ft o u t I n t h i s c a se th e sh ou ld,
. or t h e h a d,
o r t h e w ere mu st b e l a c ed b e fore it s su bj ec t
p
Pr nt
if S h ou ld h e
W ere I
meet me
in h is pl a c e,
,
he
I
w ou ldkn ow me a t o nc e
sh ou l d p a y t h e mo n ey
.

F utu re
.

H a d h e met me, he kn ow n me
w ou l d h a ve .

H a d I b een in his pl a c e, I sh ou ld h a ve p a i d t h e mo n ey .

S o meti mes t h e C o ndi ti on a l s en tenc e i s l e ft o u t or u n derst oo d, a n d

o nl t h e C o n s e qu en t s e n t en c e is e x pre ssed
y
He w ou ld n e v er a g re e t o th a t a s ed h im,
if k u n derstoo d )
y o u .

He w ou l d b e v ery kf
t h a n u l t o y o u f or t h s ndn ess i ki if y ou w ere
to do h im t h e ki ndn ess, u n derst oo d) .

(4 ) A D ou b t or S upposi ti on .

A v erb in t h e S u bj u n c ti v e mo o d prec eded b y some

c o nj u nc t i o n o r
,

c o nj u n c t i v e pro n o u n i mpl i e s so me dou b t o r supp osi ti on

I w i l l n o t l et t h ee g o exc ep t t h o u b l ess me
, .

, O l d T est . .

M u rder th ou gh it h a ve n o t o ng u e w i l l spea k
, , .

Wh oever h e b e h e sh a l l n o t g o u npu ni s h ed
, .

T h e c o nj u nc t i o n is no t a l w a y s ex pressed
Come w ea l c ome w o e b y Bru c e s si de

, , ,

R epl i e d t h e c h i e f w i ll D o n a l d bid e
, S CO T T . .

N eo t Th e S u bj u nc t i v e mo o d in some form or o th er is a l w a y s u se d
t e x press
o a nd Bu t t o ex press ( 4 ) t h e I n di c a t i v e is n o w
o ft e n u sed i n s t ea d O f it Th e S u bj unc t i v e h o w ev er o u g h t st i ll t o
.
, ,

b e u se d w h en ev er w e ex press so meth i n g th a t w e k n o w o r b el i e v e t o
,

b e e i th er do u b t fu l o r c o n tra ry t o t h e fa c t
If h e w ere g u il ty ( w h ic h I k n ow h e is no t ) I sh ou ld n ev er g et ,

o v er it .

S E CT I O N 1 0 .
I NFI NI T I V E MOO D .

1 23 . The I n n i t iv e may d en o t e e ith er P resen t or P a st

t ime '

F orm . A c ti ve . P a ssi ve .

I nden i te To s e nd To b e se nt
P resen t
{
C on ti n u ou s
P erf ec t
TO
To
b e sen di ng
h a v e s en t
( W a n ti n g )
T 0 h a v e b ee n
v

se n t
P a st
l P erf Con ti n
. . To h a v e b e en s en di n g ( W a n ti n g )

F u tu re t i me can be ex
presse d on l y by so me ph ra se ; a s, to
be a b ou t to sen d to b e g o n g t o i sen d .

1 24 Th e P erf e c t f orm o f I n nit iv e A ft er v erb s ex press

.

in g w i sh , i n t en t i o n , d u ty , etc , th e P erfec t fo rm o f th e I n n is
. .

u sed , t o S h o w t h a t th e w i sh , e t c , w as n o t ca rri ed o u t .

He i nt ended to h a ve g one ( b u t someth i ng st o pped h im) .

He w o u l d h a ve g on e ( b u t h e w a s n o t a b l e ) .

He ou g h t to h a ve g on e ( b u t h e n eg l ec t ed t o do so ) .
CRA P . VI VER BS 57

It is a mista k e, h ow ev er, to use th e P erfec t I n ni t i v e in an y

o th er conn ec ti on . T h us w e ca nn o t sa y

It w a s u nki nd of h im to h a ve g on e i
w t h ou t sa y n g i g o o d-b e
y .

H ere to ha ve gon e sh o ul b e c h a ng e t o to g o d d .

i i
H is g o ng ( = t o g o ) w t h ou t sa y i n g g o o d b y e w a s u n nd -
ki .

N ote f
A ter th e v erb s a d,

n ow n ,

b el ev e d, i

su
ppo s ed, k i
a n d s u c h -l ik
e, t h e P er ec t f I ii
n n t v e is u sed t o de n o te pa st t 1 1 n e

H e is sa id to ha ve g on e = It is sa id th at he w en t .

1 25 . I n nit iv e W it h ou t to . d Th e w or to is u su a l l y ,

b ut n o t al w a ys ,
th e S i gn o f t h e I n n itive mood .

( ) M o st O f t h e
a v erb s n ot foll ow ed by to oc c u r in th e
fo ll o w ing ex a mpl es
I t k
h ea r h e e spea ( to spea ) o f a ett er l a n d k b .

I sa w h im t a e ( t o t a e ) a im w th h is b o w
k k i .

Y ou n eed no t sen ( t o send) th o se o o s t o me

d b k .

I feel t h e c o l a ir str e ( t o st r e ) a g a n st my a c e
d ik ik i f .

H e da red n o t sa y ( t o sa y ) t h s in o pen da y i .

H e ma de me c ome ( t o c ome ) a n d sit ( t o sit ) es de him b i .

I l et h im g o ( t o g o ) a c to h i s o w n h ou se
b k .

T h ey b a de me ell ( t o t el l ) t h em th e r g h t roa
t i d

W e w a tch ed h im g o ( to g o ) a n d c ome ( t o c ome ) .

W e b eh eld th e sh r se ( t o r se ) i i .

I h a v e kn ow n h im l a u g h ( t o l a u g h ) for no h ng t i .

b
( ) T h e to is a ls o l eft ou t a f er t A u x i l i a ry a n d D e fec ti v e
b
v e r s, as ma y b e seen b el ow
I sh a l l g o ; I w ill go ; I c a n go ; I ma y go ; I do g o ; I mu st go .

( Bu t I ou g h t to g o is an ex c e t i o n )
p .

(0 ) Th e to is l eft ou t af er t th a n and bu t
H e did no t h i ng b u t l a u g h .

H e did n o t h i n g el se th a n l a u g h .

d
( ) T h e to is l e ft ou t a fter c ert a in ph ra ses

Y o u h a d b e t ter n o t rema i n h ere .

I h a d ra t h er ta ke th i s th a n th a t .

The Uses o
f th e I nn i tive M ood .

1 26 . T h ere a re tw o ma i n u s es o f th e I n n itive mo od
I . Th e N o u n I n ni tiv e (a l so
-
ca ll e d S impl e) .

II . Th e Qu a l ifyi n g I n ni tiv e (
al so c a ll e d G eru n di a l ) .
1

1
Th e n a me G erun dial , th o u g h u nf o rtu n a t el y it is n o w w ell e sta b lish ed,
is misl ea ding I t implies th at th e Qu a lify ing I nn itiv e h a s s ome c on
.

n ec tion w ith w h a t w e n o w c a ll th e G eru n d o r V erb a l n ou n I n po in t o f .

fa c t , it h a s no c onnec tion w ith it w h a t ever, eith er h istoric a ll y or sy nt a c t i

c a ll y . Th ey are as distinc t in orig n a s th ey a re in u se i
Th e o n e do es .
58 PA R S I N G A N D A N A LY S I S P A RT I

1 27 I T h e N ou n I n n itive ma y b e u sed in a n y w a y in
. .

w h i c h N o u n s a re u sed , i e (a ) a s th e S u bj ec t t o a v erb , ( b ) a s th e
. .

O bj ec t t o a T ra nsi t i v e v erb o r to a P repo siti o n , (c) as th e C om

l emen t t o a v e rb , o r ( d) a s a fo rm o f e x c l a ma t i o n
p
(a ) S u bj ec t to a v erb
To err i s h u ma n to f org i ve, d iv i ne .

( b ) O bj ec t t o a T ra n siti v e v erb or to a Prepo si t i on

A g ood ma n do es no t fea r to di e .

H e w a s a b o u t ( n ea r) to di e :

( 0) C o mpl emen t to a verb

He a
ppe a rs to b e a w i se ma n .
( I n tra n s ) .

We c o n s i dered h im to b e t h e b est in th e c l a ss .
( F a cti t ) .

d
( ) A s a fo rm o f ex c l a ma t ion
T o th i nk th a t h e t o ld so ma ny l i es
I I T h e Qu a l ifyin g I n n itiv e ma y b e u sed in an y w ay in
.

w h i c h a n a dj e c t iv e o r a dverb is u sed a n d someti mes it i s u sed

a b so l u t el y

( )
a A f t e r a v er b ( h e re i t s us e i s a dv erbi a l
)
H e c a me to see ( = for t h e pu rpos e O f see i ng ) th e sport .

H e w ept to see ( a t seei ng ) th a t sh o c ki n g si g h t

z .

b
( ) A f t e r a n ou n (h er e i t s us e i s a dj e c ti v a l )
H e h o pes t o b e re w a rded in t h e w orl d to c o me .

G i v e h im c h a i r to si t o n
a

N ote T h e Qu a l ify i n g I nn w h en u sed w ith a n o u n c a n b e ei t h er

.

, ,

attrib u t i v e o r predi c a t i v e 5 8)
A h o u se to l et Th i s h ou se i s to l et

()c A f t er a n a dj ec ti v e (h e re it s u se i s a dv e r bi a l)
H e is qu i c k to h ea r a n d sl o w to sp ea k .

(d) A b sol u t el y fo r b ri n g i ng in a P a ren t h esis

,

I m to tel l y o u t h e tru th qu i t e t i red O f th i s w ork

a

.
,

T ey w r
h e e t h u n de r str c
u k s o to p s e k
,
O n h ea ri ng t h i s n ew s
a ,
.

S E CTI O N 1 1 P A RT I C I P L E S . .

1 28 T h e fo rms O f th e differen t P a rti c i pl es a re a s foll o w s

.

Tra nsi tive Verb s .

A c ti ve Voi c e . P a ssi ve Voi c e .

P resen t or Con ti nu ou s Lo v ing Bei ng l o v ed

P a st I nde n i te W a n ting) Lo v ed
P a st P erf ect H av i ng l o v ed H a v i n g b e en l o v e d

j
th e w o rk o f a n a d ec tiv e o r a dverb , th e o th er O f a n o u n a n d so th ey h a ve
no th ing a t a l l in c o mmo n T h e G eru n d so c a ll ed in i ng w a s n e ver a n
- -
.

I n nitiv e, a n d it is a grea t mist a k e t o c a l l it so .

60 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

( a ) Bei ng ti red o f w ork th e men w ent h o me , .

( b ) Th e ma n w a s pi c k ed u p in a n a lmost dy i ng sta t e .

( c ) T h i s o w er i s more f a ded t h a n t h a t .

( d) Let b y g on es b e b y g on es ( Th i s ki nd o f u se is ra re . .

1 32 . S ince a Pa rti c i pl e is a v erb as w ell a s an a dj ec ti v e ,

it
ca n ta k e a n O bj ec t w h i c h may b e o f ve di ff eren t ki n ds 1 0 6 )
,

H a v i ng sh o t th e tig er h e re tu rn e d h ome
, ( D i rec t O bj ) . .

H e is b u sy t e c h i ng h i s sons G reek
,
a
( I n di rec t O bj ) . .

H a v i ng b ee n ta u g h t Greek h e w a s a g o o d sc h o l a r , ( R eta i ned O bj ) . .

NVe sa w h im g h t i ng h a rd b a ttl e ( C ogn a te O bj )

a . .

H a v i n g sa t h i mself do w n h e b eg a n t o ea t ( R ef l exive O bj )
, . .

1 33 P a st I ndenit e T h e u se o f su c h pa rti c i pl es d epen d s

.

u o n w h e th e r th e v erb is T ra n siti v e o r I n t ra n sitiv e

p
(a ) I f th e verb is Tra n si tive, th e Pa st I n d en it e P a rti c i pl e
is n ev er us ed in th e A c tiv e v o i c e, b u t o n l y in th e P a ssiv e
T h i s mu c h p ra i sed ma n pro v e d t o b e
-
a rog u e .

G o l d 1 3 a meta l du g o u t o f t h e ea rth .

b
( ) If v erb is I n tra n si tive th e Pa st I nd en it e is n o t u sed
th e ,

a t a ll in most v e rb s Bu t w h en ev er it is used (w hi c h d epen d s

.

e n ti rel y o n cu s t o m
) it m us t p r
,
ec ede its n ou n a n d n o t fo ll o w it
,

Th e f a ded ro se A reti red O ffi c er T h e retu rn ed so l di er Th e f a l l en

. . .

c i ty Th e ri sen su n
. A w i th ered o w er .A dep a rted g u est . .

I f th e spea k er o r w rit er d esi res to pl a c e th e Pa st Pa rti c i pl e

o f a n I n t ra n si t i v e v erb a ter its n ou n h e mu st i n sert th e R el a ;
f ,

t iv e pro n o u n a n d c h an g e th e pa rti c i pl e i n t o a F i n it e v erb as

T h e h o rse o f M r A g on e t o A meri c a is for sa l e

. .
, ( T h i s 1 5 w ro n g , . .

T h e se n t en c e s h o u l d b e T h e h orse of Mr A . .
,
w ho h a s g on e
t o A meri c a , is fo r s a l e .
)
Bu t t h e Pa st P a rti c i pl e of a n I ntra nsiti ve v erb is so me times pu t
a
f ter it s n ou n i n p oetry
i
A D a n el c o me t o j u dg ment S R A K S P E A R E , M er Veni ce
To ll fo r th e b ra v eth e b ra v e t h a t a re n o mo re ,
. . .

f i i
A l l su n k b en e a th t h e w a v e, a st b y t h e r n a t v e sh o re COW .
PE R .

E v e n in pro se t h e P st P a rti c i pl e O f n I n t r n si ti v e v erb is som

a a a e

t i me s b u t very ra rel y pl a c ed ft er it s n o u n
, ,
a

I n t i mes p a st in t i mes w h i c h h a v e pa ssed

z .

H e is a m n descended fro m a h i g h fa mi l y
a .

1 3 4 T h e Past P a rti c i pl e O f verb s is so me ti mes u sed to ex

.

press so me p er ma n en t ha bi t, sta te, o r c ha ra c ter

A w el l rea d ma n = a ma n w h o h a s rea d mu c h a nd re a d w el l
- .

A w el l b eh a ved ma n : a ma n w h o se h a b t u a l eh a v ou r i s g o o d i b i .

A n ou t sp oken ma n : a ma n w h o h a it u a l ly spe a k s o u t h i s m n d b i .

A reti red ma n : a ma n w h o d sl es a ppea r n g in pu b li c i ik i .

A mista ken ma n z o n e w h o errs b y h a t o r i n some spec c c a se bi i .

CR A P . VI VE RBS 61

F rom this use o f th e Pas t P a rti c i pl e h as i

ar se na l arg e c l ass

of A dj ec tives, i
w h c h a re formed from n ou ns by a ddi ng ed to
th e en d o f th e n ou n
An ev il h ea rt
-
A ta l en t c d ma n
-
ed ma nA l a nd e d pro pri e t o r
.
-
.
-
.

A l o ng ta i l c d a pe A smoo th ski n n ed c a t
- -
H i s sa i n t e d
.
- -
.
-

mo th er A red co lou r ed rose

. A ro u g h f a ce d y ou th
- A -
.
- -
.

h ood ed sna k e -
A l o n g l eg g ed spi der. A pu rpl e crest ed .

h el met A ma ny p a g e d b oo k
. A l o n g a rm ed mo n k ey
-
A -
.
-
.

th i c kl y w ood c d hill A n obl e mi nd ed ma n A w a rm b l ood c d

-
. .
-

a ni ma l .

S E CT I O N 1 2 G E RUN D S AND VE R R A L N O U N S
t
. .

1 3 5 A G eru n d h as fo u r forms
. wo fo r t h e A c t i v e voic e
a nd tw o fo r th e P assiv e .

A cti ve .

P resen t or Conti n u ou s L o v i ng Bei ng l o v ed

P erf ect H a v i ng l o v e d H a v i ng b een l o v ed
1 3 6 T h e f orms of a G eru n d , th en , a re th e sa me as th o se o f
.

a P a rti c i pl e , a n d b o th a re pa rt s o f a v erb W h a t , th en , is th e .

di fferen c e ? A G eru n d is a kin d of N ou n b u t a Pa rti c i pl e is a

kin d O f A djec tive S O , in Spit e of th e resemb l an c e in f orm, th ey
.

a e qu it e d i sti n c t in n t e
r a u r 1

T h e rea so n o f t h e resembl a n c e in form i s a ma tt er o f h i st ory In .

O l d E ng l i sh t h e f orms O f th e V erb a l A dj ec t i v e a nd Verb a l N o u n w ere

qu i t e di st i n c t Th e su i x -i n g o ri g i na ll y b el o ng ed t o t h e l a tt er o n l y
. .

P a rt i c i pl e W ri t ende o r i nde or a n d -
,
-
,
-
.

V erb a l nou n Wri t u ng or w ri t ing ( b ot h forms o c c u r in -

,
-

A ng l o S a x o n) .

I n l a t er E ng l i sh th e su fx i nd e t oo k t h e form o f i ng w h i l e ende - -
,
-

a n d a nd di ed o u t ; a nd u n g b ec a me o b sol et e
-
H en c e w e h a v e n o w
-
.

o nl y o n e form i n st ea d O f t w o fo r t h e t w o pa rt s o f spe ec h

Pa rt i c i pl e W ri ti ng .

V erb a l n ou n W ri ti ng
A
.

1 37 . G erun d de n ed . G eru n d is th a t pa r t Of a v erb

i
w h ch , if th e v erb 1 s I n tran sitive h a s th e fu n c ti o n of a n ou n
b u t if th e v erb is T ra ns itiv e ret a i ns th e f un c ti on O f a
,

o nl y , ,

v erb a lso a n d ca n b e fo ll o w e d by a n O bj ec t in th e sa me w a as
, y
if it w ere a F ini te v erb
F o nd o f sl eep ing ( N ou n f u n cti on on l y ) -
.

F o nd o f h un ti n g fo x es ( N ou n a n d verb f u n cti on comb in ed ) -

.

I n po i n t o f f u n ctio n th ere i s n o di ff eren c e b etw een a G eru n d a nd

a n I n ni t i v e E i th er ma y b e c orrec tl y den ed a s t h a t pa rt o f a v erb
.

1
In so me b o ok s th e G eru n d is c a ll ed a P a rtic ipia l n ou n . Th is na me
sh ou l d b e a voided, sinc e a N ou n is on e part o f spe ec h and a P a rtic ipl e is
a n o th er .
62 P A RS I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT 1
w hic h na me s t h e a c ti o n , doer w t h ou t n a m n g t h e
i i
Bot h a re A b stra c t .
"

nou ns . T h e di fferenc e b et w een t h em i s n o t in fu nc ti o n , b u t i n f orm

O b s erv e t h e su f x i n g T h ey differ a l so i n sy n t a c ti c a l u sa g e for a
-
.

G eru n d h a s c a se , a n d c a n b e prec eded o r fo l l o w ed b y a ny k i n d o f

prepo si ti o n , a n d it c a n b e pre c eded by t h e D ef a rt th e ; th e sa me . .

c a n n o t b e sa i d o f I n n iti v es .

S u b s equ e n t l y t h e o t h er fo rms o f G eru nd ( somet imes c a l l ed C o m

p ou n d), b ei n g l o ved, h a vi n
g l oved, h a vi ng b een l oved, w ere fo rmed in
modern E ng l i sh , o n t h e a n a l o g y O f c o rrespo n di ng pa rti c i pl es .

1 38 . G er u n d as N o un S i nce a G eru n d is a ki n d o f n ou n ,

it ma y bj ec t to so me v erb o r O bj ec t to so me v erb
b e th e su , ,
or

c o m l emen t t o so me v erb o r O bj ec t t o so me r iti on

p p p e o s as ,

S u bjec t to a verb S l eep i ng is n c ess ry t o l ife e a

.

O bjec t to a verb H e enj o y ed sl eep i ng i n t h e O pe n a ir

Comp l emen t to a verb H is a l mo st c o n st a nt h a t w a s
. .

bi s l eep i ng
O bject to a p rep osi ti on H e w a s o n d o f s l eepi ng
.

f .

I n the f o l low ing sen ten c es sa

y w hether th e w ords n oted b elow
a re Geru n ds or P a rti c ip l es
The r ce w i g ro w w el l in th e c omi ng ra i ns
ill W e h ea rd o f h is .

c omi ng b a c k t o da Did y o u h ea r o f his h a vi ng w on a pri z e ? T h e

y
-
.

b oy h a vi ng w on a pri z e w a s mu c h pra i sed S h e w a s fo nd O f b ei ng .

a dmi red B ei ng a dmi red b y a l l sh e w a s mu c h pl ea s ed

. Th e c o w .

h a vi ng b een ki l l ed b y a t i g er y es t erd a y c o u l d n o t b e fo u n d T h e b oy .

w a s a sh a med o f h a vi ng b een b ea ten in c l a s s b y his si st er I a m t i red .

o f doi ng t h i s w o rk D oi ng t h i s w o rk ev ery da y y ou w i l l s o o n i mpro v e

. .

Sp e l l i ng is mo re dif c u l t t h a n w ri ti ng H e w a s in t h e h a b i t O f b oa st
.

i ng o f h is c l e v ern ess A b oa sti ng ma n i s mu c h despi s ed

. .

N ote I n s u c h ph ra s es a s
a h u n ti ng w h i ,
p

a dri nki n g fo u n

t a i n , t h e w o rds hu n ti ng a nd dri n ki ng a re G eru nd s, n o t pa rt i c i pl es

a w h i p fo r h u n t i ng , a fo u n t a i n fo r dri nk i n g

T h e G eru nd O r

. .

Verb a l n ou n is h ere u sed a s a su b st i t u t e for a n a dj ec t i v e se e 1 80 .

1 39 Ge u
. r n d as a V e r b S i n c e th e G eru n d o f a T ra n sitiv e
v erb re ta i ns its v erb ch a ra c ter -
th e O bj ec t by w h i c h i t is
fo l l o w ed ma y b e o f a n y O f th e v e ki n ds sh o w n in 1 0 6 N ote ,
.

Dire c t ( w i th H e is c l ev er t t e c h i ng E u c lid a a
H e is c l ev er a t t e c h ing h i s sons E u cl id
.

I ndirec t ( w i t h a

R et a ined ( w i t h Pa ssi v e ) H e is pl ea sed a t b ei ng t a u g h t E u c l id

.

H e is pro u d o f h v i ng fou g h t g o o d g ht
.
.

C og na t e ( w i t h a a

R eex iv e ( w i t h I n t ra n s H e is i n t h e h a b i t o f o v ersl e epi n g h i mself

.

. .

1 4 0 G eru n d w ith P o ssessiv e A n o u n w h en it is pl ac ed

.
,

b efo re a G eru n d S h o u l d b e in th e P ossessi v e c a se pro vid ed it

, ,

c a n b e u sed in th a t c a se

H w a s di spl ea se d a t th e b a rb er s n o t c o mi n g

e .

A v o i d su c h c on stru c t i o n s as th e fo l l o w i n g
H e w s di spl e sed a t t h e b a rb er n o t c o mi ng
a a .

W ou l d y o u mi n d me a ski ng y o u a qu esti o n .
CR A P . VI VE R BS 63

N ote
S o met i mes th e l et ter a ( a n a bb revi a t i on of on
l ac ed b efore a G e ru n d in a pre po si t io n a l sen s e
p
T h is s et h im a ( = 0 n ) th i nki ng

.

1 4 1 G e ru n div e u se of P a rt ic ipl es
. S u c h pa rti c i pl es a re

n o t G eru n d s, b u t pa rti c i pl es u sed i n a G eru n div e sen se :

I d epen d o n th e w a l l b eing b u il t i mmedia t e ly .

H ow a re
pa rs e b ei ng b u il t in su c h a c o nn ec ti on ? W e
w e to

mu s t pa rse i t a s a pa rtic i pl e b u t it is n o t u sed a s su c h in t h e o rdin a ry

w ay f o r it do es mo re t h a n q u a l ify t h e n ou n
w al l T h e se n t en c e
'

do es n o t me a n I de pen d o n th e w a l l t h a t w a s b ei n g b u i l t , o r

th e
w a l l w h e n i t w a s b ei n g b u i l t b ut I depend o n t h e w a ll b ei ng b u i l t - -

i mmedi a t ely , t h a t is , on t h e immedia te b u i ldi ng of t h e w a l l

.

T h ere is t h ere fo re a G eru n d o r V erb al n o u n i mpl i e d in t h e pa rti c i pl e

b ei n g b u il t, a n d h e n c e it ma y b e s a i d t h a t s u c h pa rtic i pl es a re
u sed G eru n di v el y ( D r A b b o t t c a l l s t hi s th e
. . N o u n u se o f t h e -

P a rt i c i pl e G eru ndi ve u se O f Parti

Bu t h e a l so u ses th e ph ra se

.

H ow to P a rse, 4 0 5 , p

c i pl es . .

1 4 2 A V erb a l no u n is th e sa me th i n g a t b o tt o m a s a G eru n d ,
.

b u t a di sti n c ti o n h a s b een d ra w n b e tw een th em 1 .

A Verb al nou n is preced ed by th e D en it e a rti cl e a n d

foll o w ed by th e prepositi on of w h erea s a G eru n d h a s n o
a rti c l e precedi n g it a nd n o r
p pe o s iti o n fo ll o w i n g it T h e .

fo rmer c on st ru c ti o n is th e o ri g i n al o n e T h e l a tter is mo d ern , .

a n d a rose si mpl y ou t o f th e o mi ssi o n o f th e prepo siti o n

2
of .

(a )I a m eng a g ed in the c a refu l rea di ng of a b o o k ( Verb a l n ou n ) .

(b )I a m eng a g ed in c a refu l l y rea di ng a b o ok ( Geru n d )

In ( a ) rea di ng is a si ng l e pa rt o f speec h 1

a n ou n a n d n o th i ng

more In ( b ) rea di ng is a dou bl e pa rt o f speec h

,

. a n o u n a n d v erb ,

c o mbi n ed O b serv e t o o th a t a Verb a l n ou n is qu a l i ed b y a n

.
, ,

A djec t iv e a g eru n d by a n A dverb

, .

S o met imes th e
is l eft o u t ev en w h en th ere is a

N ote 1 .
-
of ,

D en i t e a rt i c l e g o i ng b e fore

a w ord en ding in - i ng ma y b e a partic ipl e, or

1
I t h a s b een sa id th a t
a n a dj ec t ive, o r a n ou n , or a verb i n th e I n n i tive mood

F or th e l a st .

f
see P ro essor E a rl e s S im

p l e Gra mma r of E ng l ish , p 24 1 , w h ere h e c a l l s .

derived fro m th e O l d I nn itiv e en ding in

it a Fl ex io na l I n nitive ,

-
en as b u il d en, b u il d i ng
- -
I c a nnot nd a n y e viden c e f or th is
.

th eory , w hic h h e h a s b orrow ed, a s h e sa y s, fro m C a rl y l e T h e inexio n

-
en w a s dea d b y a b ou t 1 5 0 0 A D , a n d it die d w ith ou t l ea vi ng a nyt h ing
. .

b eh in d it T h e no u n - su ffi x -ing is a s O l d a s A ngl o S a x o n

. Wh a t w e -
.

n ow c a l l t h e G eru n d h a s no t spru ng ou t o f a ny I n nitive, b u t is simpl y

th e V erb al nou n it sel w ith th e of f
o mitted S ee my E ng l i sh G ra mma r .

P a st a n d P resen t, 5 23 , or H i storica l E ng l i sh a n d D eriva ti on , 1 48 .

Th at a w ord ending in -i ng ma y b e a part ic ipl e or an a dj ec t ive h a s b een

sh o w n a l rea dy ; see 1 3 1 a n d f o otno te I t n ever i s a n d i t n ever w as .

an I n n itive o f a ny k ind w h a t ev er .

2
C o mpa re th e o mission O f of in su c h ph ra ses as on b oa rd ( o f)
sh ip,

in side or ou tside ( o f ) th e door,

a th ou sand ( o f ) men .
64 PA R S IN G A N D A N A LY S I S PA RT I

Th e g i vi ng to th e c ou rt s th e pow er t o re vi ew h ard a nd u nc o n sc io n
a b l e b a r a i n s w i ll c o n tro l t h e re st
g R evi ew of R evi ew s , A u g u st
1 8 9 8, p 1 6 5 . .

a ft er th e w ord
H ere t h ere is n o of g i v i ng I n su c h a c o n .

s t ru c t i o n w e c a n n o t di st i n u i sh b et w een a V erb a l n o u n a n d a G eru n d

g .

N ote 2 Th e A b st ra c t n o u n , w h i c h
. w e c a ll a Verb a l n ou n or
G eru nd, c a n b e u sed in a C o n c ret e sen se
I a m pl ea sed w ith my su rrou ndings .

H e w en t a w a y w i th a ll h is b el ong i ng s .

S E C TI O N 1 3 .
T H E S T R O NG AND W E A K C O N JU GA T I O N S .

1 43 . S t ron g b W ea k
d istin gu ish ed a c co rd
a nd V er s a re

in g t o f u nc tion i n to T ra nsitiv e I n tra ns iti v e a n d A u x i li a ry , ,

A c c o rdi n g to f orm o r C onj u ga ti on t h ey a re di st i ng u i sh ed ,

in t o S t ron g and W eak (A l l ou r b o rrow ed v erb s a re W e a k ) . .

N o te Th e n a mes
I rreg u l a r a nd R eg u l r for S tro ng a nd a

W e k a re mi sl ea di ng for in poi nt o f fa c t t h e S tro ng c o nj u g a t i o n is

a ,

i n it s o w n w y n o t l ess reg u l a r th a n t h e Vl ea k b esi des b ei n g th e

a , ,

O l der O f t h e t w o T h e n a me I rreg u l a r is reserv ed in t h i s b ook for

.

c ert a i n v erb s me n t i o n ed b el o w in 1 47

Tests o f a W ea k verb
( ) a Al l v er s, w tbe n se e n d sh ose P as t
i n a d o r t w h i c h i s - -
,

n o t in th e P resen t t ens e a re W e a k ,

Li v e l i v e d ,
F a n fa n n cd
-
. T h i nk th ou g h t
,
S ell sol d
-
.
,
-
.
,
-
.

b
( ) Al l v e rb s w h ose P as t t en se
,
i s f o rm e d by sh o rt en i n
g (n ot

c h an i n h v l f h P en t t ens e a re W ea k :
g g) t e o w e o t e res ,

Bl eed bl ed S h o o t sh o t
,
. L ea d l ed L i g h t l it o r l i g h t c d
,
.
,
.
,
-
.

()
c A ll v er b s w h ose P as t t en s e,
i s t h e sa m e a s th e P rese n t a re ,

W ea k
Cu t, ou t . H u rt, h u rt . P u t , pu t . R id, rid . S prea d, sprea d .

f
Tests S tr on gov e r ba

( )
a All v e rb s,
w h i c h fo rm t h e P a st t ens e by c ha n i
g gn (n o t
merel y sh o rt en i ng) th e i ns id e v o w el , a n d do n ot a dd o n a n a l
-
d or -
t, a re S t ro n g
Fi g h t , fo u g h t ( b u t b u y , b ou g h t is W e a k , b ec a u s e, a ft er c h a n g
-

in g t h e i n s i de v o w el , it a dds a na L t ) H o l d, h el d S t a nd, -
. .

st o o d .

v erb s w hi ch fo rm th e
b) Al l ,
P a st pa rti c i pl e in n or
-e -
n , a re

e i th er w h o ll y o r a rtl y S t ro n g
p
Wh o l l y D r w a ,
dre w , dra w n -
.

S h a k e , s h o ok , s h a k e n

-
.

P a rtl y . S a w , sa w c d, sa w n
- -
.

Cl ea v e , c l e f t, ol o v en
- -
.
CR A P . VI VER BS 65

1 44 . List s of S t rong V erb s Th e lis t Of M i x ed v erb s

g iv en u n d er G rou
p III . ex e mpl i es th e t en d en c y o f S tron g
v erbs to b ec o me W ea k .

Group I .
( 5 0 verb s
) .
-
F inal n or
- -
t i d
en re a n e in P a st Pa rti c i pl e .

P resen t P a st P a st P resen t P a st
T en se . T en se . P a rt . T en se . T en se .

A ri se a ro se a r sen i H i de h id
Bea r ( pro b ore b orn
d u c e)
Bear b orn e
( c a rry )
Beg et

Bid
Bi n d

smo t e

D ri v e drov e ,

dra v e
E at a te ea en t
F a ll fel l fa ll en
Fly ew ow n
F orb ea r forb ore forb orne
Forg e t forg o t forg o tt en
F orsa k e forso ok forsa k en
Freez e froz e froz en
!
G et g t
o
g o tten , g t
o
Giv e g a ve g i v en
G O , w end w en t g on e
Grow g re w g r ow n

N ote .

Th e sev en pa rti c i pl es ma rk ed a re no w c hi e y u se d
Verb a l a dj ec ti v es o nl y , a nd n o t a s pa rts o f so me t en se

Verb a l A djecti ve . P a rt f
o so me Ten se .

O ur b ou nden d u ty . H e w a s b ou nd by h is promi se .

A dru n ken ma n . H e h a d dru n k mu c h w i n e .

A su n ken shi p . Th e sh i p h a d su n k u nder t h e w a ter .

A stri cken deer . Th e deer w a s stru ck w i t h a n a rro w .

Th e sh ru n ken s trea m . T h e strea m h a s sh ru n k in its b ed .

Ill gotten w ea l t h
-
. H e g ot h is w ea l th by il l me a ns .

A h idden mea ni ng . Th e mea ni n g is h id or h i dden .

E . G . c . F
66 PA RS IN G A N D A N A LY S I S P A RT

Gro up I I .
( 3 2 verb s) .
- F i na l -
n or -
en l os t in Pa st P a rti c i pl e .

P resen t P a st P a st P resen t P a st P a st
T en se . T en se . P a rt . Tense . T en se . P a rt .

A b i de b
a o de ab o de S i ng sa ng s u ng

A w ake aw o ke a w ok e S it sa t sa t

Bec ome b ec a me b ec ome S l i ng sl u n g l u ng

Be g i n b eg a n b eg u n S l i nk sl u n k sl u nk

Beh ol d b eh el d, b e h e l d, S pi n spu n spu n

b eh o l den 1
S pri ng spra ng S pru n
g
clu n c l u ng S ta n d st o o d st o o d
g
ca me mnn e S ti c k st u c k st u c k
du g du g S ti n g st u ng st u ng
fou g h t fb u g h t S ti nk s ta n k s tu n k
fo u nd fo u n d S tri n g stru ng st ru ng
u ng u ng S w im sw a m sw u m
g rou nd g ro u n d S w i ng sw u ng sw u n
g
h el d h el d W in w on w on
ra ng ru ng W ind w o u nd w oun d
ra n ru n W ri ng w ru n g w ru ng
sh o n e sh o n e

Gro up I I I M ixed or S trong W ea k Verb s ( 28 in n u mb er ) .

P resen t Ten se . P a st T en se . P a st P a rti cip l e .

Bea t b ea t be a t en

Cl ea v e ( spl i t ) c l a v e, c l e ft ft
!
c l o ven , c l e

C l i mb c l o mb , c l i mb e d cl i mb ed
Cro w c rew , c ro w e d c ro w e d, c ro w n ( ra re )
DO did do n e
G ra v e g ra ve d !
g ra v en , g ra v ed
H a ng 2
h u ng , h a ng ed h u ng , h a ng ed
H ew h ew e d !
h e w n , h e w ed
L a de l a ded l a den
M el t mel ted !
mol ten , mel ted
M ow mo w ed mo w n
Pro ve p o v ed Ipro v en pro v ed
'
r ,

Ri ve r vei d ri ve n
!
Ro t ro t te d ro t t e n, ro t t ed
Saw sa w ed sa w n

S eeth e s ee t h e d
!
S o dde n , s ee th e d
S ew se w e d !
sew n , sew ed

S h a pe s h a ped
J
rsh a pen , sh a pe d
S h a ve sh a v e d sh a v en

S h ear s h ea red
!
sh o rn, sh ea re d
S how sh o w e d sh o w n

S ow so w e d so w n

1
Beh ol den mea ns in deb ted .

2
Th e I ntra n sitive verb is c o nj u g a t ed in t h e S tro ng f o rm o nl y Th e .

T ra n sitive verb is c o nj u g a t ed in b ot h f o rms H a ng ed me a n s kill ed b y

.

Th e ma n w a s ha ng ed

h a nging a s, H u ng is u sed in a g e nera l sen se
.

as H e h u ng u p h is c o a t .
68 PA RS I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

P resen t P a st P a st P resen t P a st P a st
T en se . T en se . P a rt . T ense T en se
. . P a rt .

W e ep w e pt w e pt S mel l smel t sme l t

Bu rn b u rn t b u rnt S pell spel t s pel t

D ea l ( del ) dea l t dea l t L e a n ( l en ) l ea n t o r l ea n t o r

D rea m drea mto r drea mt o r l ea n ed l ea n ed
( drem) drea med drea med M ea n ( m n )mea n t mea nt

D w el l dw el t dw el t S pi l l s pi l t s pi l t
F eel fel t fel t S po i l s o il t o r
p spo i l t o r

Kne el k n el t k n el t spo i l ed s o i l ed
p
E x c ep ti on a l Verb s .
k
M a e , ma de , ma de H a v e, h a d, h a d . . H e a r,
h e a rd, h ea rd L ea v e , l e t , l e t
. f f
C l ea v e , c l e t , c l e t . f f . L o se ,
l o st , l o st S h o e , sh o d, sh o d F l ee , ed, ed
. S a y , sa
. . id , sa i d .

i
L a y , l a d, l a d i
P a y , pa d, pa d
. i i .

Group I I Cha ngi ng of

.

I nside Vow el .

P resen t P a st P a st P resen t P a st P a st
T en se . Ten se . P a rt . T en se . T en se . P a rt .

Bese ec h b eso u g h t b eso u g h t W o rk w ro u g h t , w rou g h t ,

Bri n g b rou g h t b rou g h t w o r ed k w o r ed k
Bu y b ou g h t b ou g ht Ow e o u h t , o w ed
g o w ed

Ca t c h c au gh t c au ght D a re du rst o rda re d da red

S eek so u g h t so u g h t Ca n c ou l d Wa n ti ng )
S el l so l d s ol d S h a ll s h ou l d W a n ti n g )
T ea c h tau g h t ta u g h t W ill w ou l d W a n ti ng )
T ell t ol d t ol d M ay mi g h t W a n ti ng )
Th i n k th ough t th o u g h t C l oth e c l a d , c l o th e d c l a d, c l o t h ed

Group I I I . Verb s en di ng in d or t .

Ve rb s en di n g in d o r t in th e P resen t t ens e h a v e di sca rd ed

th e su fx o f th e P ast t en se, t o a v o id th e repe t iti o n o f d o r t

S m v e rb s in t h i s g ro u p h a v e t h e t h ree fo rms ( Presen t
( )
a o e

t en se , P a st t en se, a n d Pa st P a rt i c i pl e) a l l ex a c tl y a l ik e
P resen t P a st P a st P resen t P a st
T en se . T en se . P a rt . T en se . T en se .

Bu rst b u rs t b u rst i
Sl t i
sl t

C a st c a st c a st Sp t i s
p tior

C o st c ost c ost s pa t

Cu t c ut cut S pl i t spl it s pl it
H it h it h it S prea d sprea d s pre a d

H u rt h u rt h u rt S w ea t sw e a t s w ea t

L et l et l et T h ru s t t h ru st t h ru s t
Pu t pu t pu t Bet b et b et
R id rid rid Qu i t q i
u t or qu i t o r
S et set s et u itt ed u i t t ed
q q
S h ed sh e d sh e d Knit k ni t or k ni t or

S h red s h red s h red k n tt ed i k n it t ed

S hu t sh u t sh u t

N ata
S pi t is a W ea k b
v er , a l t h o u g h it h a s a

form sp a t fo r
t h e P a st t e n s e . I n A n g l o S a x o n t h e Pres e n t h a d t w o
-
forms a l so .
CR A P . v1 VER BS 69

b
( ) O t h er v erb s in th is
g rou
p e n d i n d in t h e P r es en t t e n se ,

b u t fo rm th e Past t ense a n d P a st P a rti c i pl e by c h a n g i n g d i n t o t .

( T h e re a re a t l ea st i
n n e su c h verb s in E ng l i sh .
)
P resent P a st P a st P resen t P a st
T ense . T ense . P a rt . T en se . T en se .

Bend b ent b en t R en d ren t

Bu i l d b u il t b u il t S e nd sen t

Gi l d g i l t , g i l d e d g ti l S pe nd spen t

G ird g i r t , g ir d ed g irt W e nd w ent

L end l e nt l en t
E xc ep ti on s end ed mend ed
-
,
-
,
b l e nd e d
-
or b l en t de fend ed ,
-
.

()o O t h er v erb s o f t h i s g ro u p h a v e th e th ree fo rms a l l al ik e ,

ex c ept th a t th e y sh o rt en th e v ow el in t h e Past fo rms

P resen t P a st P a st P resen t P a st P a st
Ten se . Ten se . P a rt . T en se . T en se . P a rt .

Bl eed b l ed b l ed L ea d l ed l ed
Breed bred bred R ea d rea d rea d
F eed fed fed i
L gh t l it , l i g h ted lit , l i g h ted
S peed spe d sped S h oot sh o t sh o t

M eet met met

S E CT I O N l 4 .
D E FE C T I V E I RRE GU LA R
I M P E R S O N A L VE R BS
, ,
AND .

1 46 D efec t iv e V erb s I t h a s b een sh o w n th a t verb s c an

.

b e c l assi ed ( 1 ) a c c o rdi n g t o fu n c ti on i n t o N o ti on a l (T ra n s o r .

I n t rans ) and A u x i li ary see 8 5 a n d ( 2) a c c ordi ng to C o nj u g a

.
,

ti on o r form i n t o S tro n g an d W ea k see 1 4 3 ,

.

D f c tiv d oes n o t c onstitu te a sepa ra te cl a ss Th i s w ord

e e e .

merel y mea ns th a t a v erb w h eth er W ea k o r S tron g is n ot c on , ,

j u ga ted in a ll its pa rts .

T h e v erb s sha l l w i ll ma y ca n a re d e fec ti v e b ec au se th e y h a v e

, , , ,

n o o th er fo rms b esid es th a t o f th e P a st t ense v iz sh ou ld w ou ld ,

.
, ,

might ,
c ou ld .

Th e verb s qu oth mu st ou ght a re d efec tiv e b ec au se th ese a re

, , ,

th e o nl y fo rms o f t ens e in w hi c h th ey a re n o w seen a n d qu oth

is furth er d efec ti v e b ec a u se it is n ev er u sed in th e S econ d pe rso n

,
.

T h e v erb w i t is d efec tiv e b ec a u se it is seen c h i e y in th e ,

I n ni t ive mo od to w i t (used onl y in l eg al d ocu men ts ) (Th e

,

.

Presen t w ot a n d P as t w ist a re al mo st o b sol e t e ) T h e verb w orth is

d efec tiv e b e ca us e it is seen o nl y in th e S u bj un c t i v e m
.

,
oo d a s in ,

th e ph rase
W o e w orth ( = h e t o) th e da y T h e v erb s w on t .

,

high t y c lep t a re d efec tiv e b ecau se t h ese a re n o w seen o n l y a s

, ,

a rti c i l es
p p .

A noma l ous is th e n a me g iv en to th ose v erb s th a t a re

i ec ed to e th e r fro m a rts o f tw o o r mo re D efec ti v e v erb s ; a s
p g p ,
70 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT 1

a m, w a s, b een ; g o, w en t, g on e Th e v erb .

to b e is a
p a cht
w or k O f th ree di sti n c t roo t s, es (c f La ti n . es, est
) ,
b eo

(c f La ti n.

o)-
,
a nd w es .

1 4 7 I rreg u l a r V erb s
. .

Th ev erb s sha l l w i ll ma y ca n w ot
, , , , ,

u o th a re i rre u l a r b eca u se in th e T hi rd perso n S i n g u l a r th e y do

q g ,

n o t t a k e a n al 3 .

F o r th e sa me re a so n da re a n d n eed a re i rreg ul a r ,
w h en e ver

th e y a re fo ll ow ed by an I n n itive w th o ui t to

; a s, H e da re

not g o, Re n eed n o t
go .

Th e Pa st ten se c ou ld is i rregu l ar b ec a u se it ,
t a k en a n
h as
i n tru siv e l ,
in i mi ta ti on
O f sh ou ld w ou ld D id ,
. is a n i rreg u l a r
P a st t en se O f do ma de o f ma ke a n d ha ve O f ha d
, ,
. M a de h a s l ost
th e medi a l k a n d ha d th e medi a l v

.
,

1 48 I m p .e r s on a l V e rb s T h ese ta k e it fo r t h e i r S u bj ec t ,

a n d a re fol l ow ed by so me P erson a l pro n o u n in th e O bj ec ti v e ca se ,

w h i c h in P erson a l v erb s w o u l d b e th e S u bj ec t in th e N o m c ase .

I t sh a mes me t o h ea r t his = I a m a sh a med to h ea r t h i s .

I t repen t s me O f my fo l l y l repent o f my fol l y z .

I t b e h o v e s me t o do th is = I o u g h t t o do t h i s .

T h ere a re th ree i nsta n c es in w h i c h th e i t is o mi tt ed a n d th e ,

a ced b e ore th e v e rb i nst ea d o f a fter i t

p ro n ou n i s p l f
M ethi n ks = it s eems to me .

M eseems it seems t o me z .

M el i sts it se ems t o me , or i t pl ea ses me

z .

N ote I n M odern E ng l i sh th ere is n o di ff eren c e o f spell i n g b et w e en

.
-

th i n ks I mperso na l a nd th i nk Tra n si t i v e Bu t i n O l d E ng t h e former . .

w a s th y n e a n ( t o se em) a nd t h e l a t t er th en e-a n ( t o t h i nk )
-
.

C H A P TE R VI I A D VE R BS

. .

S E CTIO N 1 . TH E F UN C T I O N S OF A DVE RBS .

1 4 9 I t h as b een sh o w n a l rea dy
. 1 6 ) th a t a n A d v e rb ca n
u a l i fy P reposi t i o n s a n d C o nj u n c ti o n s, a s w ell a s v erb s, a dj e c tiv es,
q
a n d o t h e r a d v e rb s .

( ) Pr epo sit ion s

a

T h e bi rd e w ex a ctl y over t h e sl e eper s h ea d

.

H e pa i d th e mo n ey qu i te up t o da t e .

H is a b i l i t i es a re dec i dedl y a b ove t h e a v era g e .

H e w a s si tt i n g a l most ou tside t h e doo r .

H e a rri v ed l ong b ef o re th e ti me .

H e h el d h is h a n d p a rtl y on a nd p a rtl y of t h e t a b l e .

( ) C onj u n c t ion s
b
A ma n is t ru l y h a ppy on l y w h en h e i s i n sou n d h ea l t h .

I di sl ik i
e t h s w ea t h er si mp l y b ec a u se t h e a ir is t o o h o t .
C HA P . vn A D VER BS 71

I w i sh t o k now preci sel y h ow it h a ppened .

T h ey l o ok ed t h e d oor sh ortl y b ef ore th e thi ev es c a me .

Th e w a tc h w a s fo u nd l ong af ter th e thi ev es h a d b ee n c au gh t .

H e h a s b een ill ever si nc e h e l eft u s .

N ote .

If for a n a d v erb pro per w e su b stitu te a n a dv erbi a l phra se ,
w e nd t h a t su c h a ph ra se c a n qu a l ify a pre posi t i o n o r a c o nj u n c t i o n
in t h e sa me w a y a s a n a d v erb pro per do es
Preposit i on
H e a rri v ed a f ew h ou rs af ter mi dn i g h t

. .

C onj u nc t ion H e rec o v ere d ten da y s af ter h e h a d b e en t a k en ill

. .

1 5 0 A n A dverb c an
. a l so u al
q ify an en ti re sen ten ce . I n this
c a se i t mu st sta n d rst

Unf ortu na tel y t h e t h i e f w a s no t c a u g h t .

E vi den tly y o u w ere mu c h di stressed a t t h e n e w s .

We c ou l d rew ri t e t h ese s en t en c e s in t h e fo l l o w i ng form

I t i s u nf ortu n a te th a t t h e t h e w a s n o t c a u g h t i f .

I t w a s evi den t th a t y ou w ere mu c h d stre ssed i .

151 . A dverb s do n ot qu a lif y N ou n s or P ron ou ns . T his is th e

w or k Of a dj ec tives .

Th e a
ppa rent ex c ep ti ons
b o v e ru l e c a n a ll b e ex pl a i ned
t o th e a

( a ) I a m sin c erel y y ou rs Th a t b o ok is c erta i n l y mi ne . .

H ere t h e w ords y ou rs a nd mi n e a re t h e P ossessi v e fo rms o f

a nd I a nd a re t h ere fore e u l v a l en t t o a dj ec ti ves

y ou , q .

( b ) A b y pa t h a fore t a st e a n ou t h ou se
- - -
.

H ere t h e a d v erb s do no t qu a l ify t h e sev era l n ou n s b u t a re c om ,

o u nded w i t h t h em so t h a t ea c h c om ou nd ma k es a si n g l e w o rd
p p,
.

( c ) I n th e foll o w i ng e x a mpl es th e a dv erb th a t prec e des t h e n o u n

d o es not qu a l ify t h e n ou n b u t some pa rti c ipl e or a dj ec t iv e u nder
,

st oo d

Th e th en k ing = t h e ki ng th en reigni ng .

Th e l a te king = th e ki ng l a t el y rei g ni ng .

T he a b ove a c c o u n t = th e a c c o u n t g i ven a b o v e .

A f a r c o u ntry = a c ou n try fa r di sta n t .

A n up ma i l a n u p g oi ng ma i l : -
.

( d) In th e fol l o w i n g e x ampl e t h e a d v erb a l mo st or qu it e d o es

a l ify t h e n ou n k
d d b h

no t
q u r u n a r u t t e v erb is ,

H e i s a l most o r qu i te a dru nk a rd .

To sa y H e is a n a l mo st or a qu ite d ru nk a rd w ou l d b e i n c o rrec t

N ote A sl o v e nl y pra c t i c e is spri n g i n g u p h o w ev er b y w h i c h t h e

, , .

.
, ,

a dv erb
qu i t e is ma d e t o qu a l ify n o u n s
Qu i te a p a n i c ( = a seri ou s pa n i c ) w a s c a u sed .

Th ey h a d qu i te a ru n ( = a l o ng ru n ) o f il l l u c k .

S E CTI O N 2 ,
T H E KI ND S OF A D V E R Bs .

1 5 2 A dv erb s . a re su bdivid ed i n to th ree distin c t c l a sses

I . S i mpl e . I I I n terroga tive
. I I I C onj un c tive . . .
72 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S PA RT I

153 . S impl e A dv erb s T h es e ca n be di sti ngu is h ed fro m

o n e a n o th e r a c c o r ding to th e i r mean in g
( 1 ) Time H e did t h i s b ef o re, a nd
y ou h av e d o n e i t si n c e
N
.

Th e ch e i f a dv erb s of th is c l a s s a re z then , b ef o re, si n ce,

ow ,
a g o,

a l rea dy , soon , p resentl y , i mmedi a tel y , i nsta n tl y , ea rl y , l a te, e tc .

( 2) P l a c e W e mu st rest h ere, a nd no t th ere .

T h e c h i e f a dv erb s o f t h i s c l a ss a re H ere, th ere ; h en ce, th en ce

hi th er, thi th er; i n , ou t ; w i th i n , w i th ou t ; a b ove, b e l ow ; f a r, n ea r
S
.

N a ta o metimes th ere is merel y i n trod u c tory ,

a nd h a s no mea ni ng
O f pl ac e
Th ere is so me one k noc king at th e door .

( )
3 N u mb er H e did t h . i s on ce b u t h e w ill n o t do it a ga in
, .

Th e ch e i f a dv erb s of t h i s c l ss a re On c e tw ic e thri ce
a z , , ga i n ,
,
a

seldom, n ever, so meti mes ,

a lw a y s, f ten ,
o rstl y , secon dl y , th i rdly , e tc .

( 4 ) Desc ri ption 46, H e did h is w or k s l ow ly , b u t su rel y .

Th i s i s v ery nu merou s
c l a ss M ost O f t h em a re . formed b y a dding
by t o some a dj ec t v e Bu t some do n o t end in - l y
i . cf . th u s, so, w el l ,

i l l , a mi ss, a s l eep
H
.

(5 ) Q x ent, or Degree
u a nt it y ,
E t e is a l most, b u t no t qu i te, th e
c l ev ere st b o y i n t h e c l a ss . He w as i
to o t red t o g o o n .

To th is c l a ss o f a d v erb b el o ng
Very , mu ch , th e, too, qu i te, a lmost,
li ttl e, a li ttl e, ra th er, somew h a t, h a lf , p a rtly , w h o l l y , so, et c

i s qu t e d st n c t rom th e D en t e
b
i i i f i

N ata Th e a dv er th e
i
a rt c l e .I t is a n A dv er o f D eg ree, der v e d rom t h e I n stru men ta l
b i f
i
c a s e ( th i ) o f t h e D emo n st ra t v e, a n d i s n ev er u sed e x c ept b e o re a n f
th e more, th e

a dj ec t v e i o r a dv er b
in t h e Comp a ra ti ve degree :
merri er .

( 6 ) A frm ng i or Deny ing H did n e ot c o me a fter a ll .

Yes, n o, n ot, p erh a ps , p ro b a b l y, c erta i n l y ,

n ot a t a ll , etc .

N ote .
Y es a n d n o a re pro - s en t e n c e o r su b st i tu t e a dv erb s
( 1 ) D id h e co me

l
. Y e s ( H e did c o me)
: A rm . .

( 2) D id h e c o me ? N o ( = H e did n o t c o me ) N ega t . .

i b ti t f o r a n a frma t i v e sen t en c e, a n d in ( 2)
In ( )y
1 es s su s tu e

b i t
is su st tu e fo r a n ega v e s ti t n A s ro n ou n s sa v e th e
n p
-
no e e c e .

rep eti t i on of a n ou n , so t h ese a dverb s sa v e th e repet iti o n O f a

t
sen en c e.

IVo te l
In m b k oo s a 7 th c l a ss i s a dd ed, v iz a dv er s O f b Ca u se or

Th r f r
. so e .

C o n sequ e nc e z e e o e, th en , c on sequ en tl y , I t a ppe a rs , b ec a u se, f or .

h o w e v e r, t h a t t h e s e w o rd s d o n o t e x a c t l y m o d i fy y a n w ord o r w o rds

i n a s e n t e nc e ,
b u t a re ra t h er c o n j u n c t i o n s c o m b I n I n g t h e sen se o f o n e

s e n t e n c e w i t h t h a t O f a n o t h er b y w a
y O f i n fe r e n c e T h ey h a v e t h ere .

f ore b e e n i n c l u de d a mo ng st C o nj u n c t i o n s in th i s b o ok

.

A d b b d by h ra ses

N ote 2 Ph ra s e a dve
. r b s -
v e r s c a n e e x
p re s s e p
19) a s w e l l a s s i n g l e w o r d s n ow a n d th en ,
t o a n d f r o , a t p resen t,

b y a l l mea n s, u p a nd dow n , h ow l ong ? h o f

-a da
w a r ? n o w y s , etc - .
C HA P . vn A D VE R BS 73

154 I n t erro g a t iv e A dv erb s U se d fo r aski n g qu esti o ns

.

m W h did h m H i ll h m i h ?
i

( ) a Ti e en e co e ow l ong w e re a n e re

( b ) Pl a c e Wh ere did h e st op
. Wh enc e h a s h e c ome Wh i ther
is h e g o i n g ?
( 0 ) N u mb e r H ow of ten did th e dog b a rk

.

( d) De sc ript ion ( ma n n er, qu a l i t y , o r sta t e ) H ow did h e do th i s t

.

H ow ( in w h a t sta t e o f h ea l t h ) is h e t o da y

-

( Q
e ) u a n t it y or Deg ree H ow f a r ( t o w h a t ex t en t ) w a s t h a t

report tru e
(f ) C a u se or R e a son . Wh y did h e do th i s W h eref ore did h e g o it

1 5 5 T h e a dverb s
.

how a nd

w ha t a re so meti mes us e d in
an ex c l a ma t ory sen se

ki nd o f y ou t o do th a t
H ow
Wha t a fo ol i sh fell ow y ou a re
1 6
5 C o nj
.u n c t iv e A dv er b s T h ese a re th e sa me in f orm as
I n t errog a tive adverb s b u t in st ea d of a sk in g qu est i o n s th ey j o i n ,

s en ten c es b ei n a r t l y a dv er b s and
pa rtl y c o nj u n c ti ons
g p
,

( a ) Th e a ntecedent u nderstood .

T h i s is w h ere ( = t h e pl a c e in w h i c h ) w e dw ell .

L et me k n o w w h en ( = t h e t i me by w h i c h ) y ou w i ll c ome .

(b) Th e a n teceden t exp ressed.

Th i s is t h e pl a c e w h ere w e dw el l .

L et me k n o w th e t ime w h en y ou w ill co me .

S E CTI O N 3 .
C O M P A RI S O N OF A DVE RBS .

157 A dv erb s o f Qu a li ty h a v e d egrees o f c ompa rison ,

. w h ch i
a re fo rmed in th e sa me w ay as th ose of a dj ec tives :
( a ) If t h e A d v erb is a w ord o f on e sy ll a bl e t h e C ompa ra ti v e ,
is
formed b y a ddi ng er a n d th e S u perl a t i v e b y a ddi ng est :
Fa st fa st er fa st est Lou d l ou d er

l ou d est
H ard h a rder h a rdest La te l a ter l a t est or l a st
N ea r n ea rer n ea rest Fa r fa rth er fa rth est
L o ng l ong er l o n g est R a th e ra t h er

T i ll ra th e ea rl y ) sh e rose, h a l f c h e a t ed i n t h e t h o u g h t
NNYS O N .
T E .

( 6) S ome A d v erb s h a v e h a d a Compa ra t i v e a nd S u perl a ti v e a l l o tt ed

t o t h em from a n o t h er root
W ell b ett er b est M u ch more most
I ll or b a dl y w ors e w orst L i t tl e l ess l ea st

( 0 ) A dv erb s endi ng in l y form t h e Compa ra ti v e by a ddi ng more

a nd th e S u erl a t i v e b a ddi n m t
p y g os

W i se l y more w i sel y most w i sel y

Bea u t ifu ll y more b ea u t i f ul l y mo st b ea u t ifu l l y
N ata Th e A d v erb ea rl y h ow ev er h a s
ea rl i er
, for its Com ,

pa ra ti v e.
 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

S E CTIO N 4 .
V E RBS C O MP O UND E D W I T H A DV E RB S .

1 58 . A Verb is sa id to b e co mpou n d ed i
w th a n A d v erb , w h en
th e tw o w o r s a re sod h a bitu a ll y us e d to g eth er th a t ,
on e is c on

sidere d to b e a ar
p t of th e o th er .

S u c h A dv erb s a re a l mo st a l w a y s ( ex c ept in po e try ) pl a c ed af ter th e

s ea k o u t , i H

v erb as r r t h t sh o u l d b e pa rs e d a s
p se u p e e e o u .

pa rt o f t h e v erb s pea k ri se

a nd u p a s
pa rt o f t h e v erb .

Bu t in formi ng t h e c orrespo ndi n g n o u n , t h e a dv erb is pu t rst

Verb . N ou n .

Th e c ro ps w i l l c ome ou t w el l . Th e o u tc ome w a s a g o od c ro p .

N o pro t s w i ll c ome i n . H is i n co me is sma l l .

C h o l era did no t b rea k ou t . Th ere w a s n o ou tb rea k o f c h ol era .

H e set ou t o n his j o u rn ey . He h a d n o trou b l e a t t h e ou tset .

S i mi l a r i nst a nc es a re S et of ( v erb ) oset ( n ou n )

( v erb ) , pu t ou t ,

ou tp u t ( n o u n ) ;
t ou t ( v erb ) ou t t ( no u n ) ; sh oot of ( v erb ) osh oot , ,

( nou n ) ; sp ri ng of ( v erb ) af sp ri ng ( nou n ) ; sh oot up ( v erb ) up sh ot , ,

( n o u n ) ; tu rn ou t ( v erb ) ou ttu rn ( n o u n ) ; ca st ou t ( v erb ) ou tca st

, ,

( n o u n ) ; set on ( v erb ) on set ( n o u n ) ; l a y ou t ( v erb ) ou tl a y ( n o u n ) ;

, ,

l ook ou t ( v erb ) ou tl ook ( n ou n ) dra w i n ( v erb ) i ndra u gh t ( n o u n )

, ,

l et ou t ( v erb ) ou tl et ( no u n ) l et i n ( v erb ) i n l et ( n ou n )

.
, ,

a nd a few more a re a l so u sed a s

N ote S et o ff,
. t u rn ou t , - -

n ou n s .

S E C TIO N 5 .
T H E Tw o US E S OF A DV E RB S .

159 . A dv erb s, li k e A dj ec tiv es (see h a v e tw o differ

en t

u ses, vi z (a ) th e A tt rib u t ive , ( b) th e P redi ca ti v e

A n
. .

( ) a A ttri b u ti ve ib u ti v el y w h en
u se A dv erb is u se d a ttr ,

it qu a li es in th e o rdi n a ry w a y th e w ord a sso c i a t ed w i th it

H e is en ti rel y w rong H e sh ou ted l ou dl y H e did h is w o rk very
. .

b a dl y H a lf throu gh th e do or
. I di sl ik e hi m on l y b eca u se .

h e is l a z y
A
.

b
( ) P redi c a ti ve u se n A dv erb is us e d pre di ca ti v el y ,
w h en
it is ma d e pa rt di c a te o f a sen t en ce o r in o th er w o rd s
Of th e P re , ,

w h e n it is us ed as th e C o mpl emen t O f th e v erb g o i n g b e fo re it

1

Verb . Comp l emen t, etc .

w el l ( in g o o d h ea l t h ) t o da y -
.

b etter ( in b ett er h ea l th ) so o n .

a drif t ( t o g o w h ere h e c o u l d) .

ik
mu c h a l i ke ( l e t o ea c h o th er) .

i i
a li ve ( i n a l v n g st a t e ) .

i
a w a re ( c o n sc ou s) o f th e r a u l t s i f .

h a t is sa id in M a so n s E ng li sh G ra mma r, p 1 5 7,

1
We c a nn o t endo rse w .

A n A dverb or a dverb ia l p h ra se n ever f orms th e c omp l emen t of

ed 1 8 9 1
.

a p red ica te T h e e x a mpl es g iven in th e t e xt sh o w h ow very c o mmo n

.

th e predic a tiv e o r c o mpl ementa ry u se o f A dverb s is .

76 PA RS I N G A N D AN A L Y S I S P A RT I

( 1 ) Of
O n b o a rd of
( ) sh ip . A h u ndred ( o f) po u n ds . A ma n y ( = a mu l t i
tu de, o f) t ea rs 3 8 ( e), N ote) .

IVh a t w e no w ca l l th e G eru n d in - in g, as t el l i n g l i es ,
h as
co me i n to e x i sten ce so l el y th ro u gh th e o mi ssi on o f
o f

a fter
Verb a l n ou n in t el l i ng o f l i es
th e -
i ng ; a s ( S ee .

( 2) A t : see 1 0 0, N ote 2
T h ey l a u g h e d ( a t ) h im t o sc orn . He st a red ( a t ) me i n th e fa c e .

H e l o ok ed ( a t ) me in th e fa c e .

1 6 2 D isg u ise d P r epo sit ion s
. On is c h a n g ed i n t o a .

in su c h ph ra ses a s to g o a fishi ng .

S i mi l a rl y of c a n b e ch a n g ed i n t o fou r O c l oc k ,

o, a s in

Jac k l a n t ern ,

O et c .

T o th e sa me c l ass b el ong su c h ph ra ses as th e fol l ow in g

F l ou r se l l s a t t e npen c e a pou n d .

H e c a l l ed t o see me o n c e a w eek .

H e g a v e t h e men fou r sh i l l i n g s a p i ec e .

Th e a l ooks so mu c h l ik e t h e I n deni t e A rt i c l e , th a t b y a fa l se
s so me t i mes u s ed i n it s pl a c e

a na l o
gy t h e i as

Fl o u r sel l s a t t en pen c e th e p ou nd .

1 63 . Th a n Th i s w or d h as b een us e d as a P repo siti o n by

th e b est E ngl i sh
w rit ers .

N o mi g h t i er t h a n t h y sel f or me S H A KS P E A R E .

is h ea v y , a nd t h e sa n d w ei g hty
. .

A st o n e b ut a
fo o l s w ra th i s h ea v i er th a n th em b oth O ld T esta men t

.

S h e su ffers h ou rl y more th a n me S W I FT .

Y o u a re a mu c h g rea t er l o ser th a n me I b id .

L i n ed w i t h g i a n t s d ea dl i er t h a n th em a l l PO PE .

F o r t h ou a rt a g i rl a s mu c h b ri g h t er t h a n h er
A s h e w a s a poet su b l i mer t h a n me
T h ou h a st b e en w i ser a l l t h e w h i l e th a n me
Y o u k n o w t h a t I a m, n o t l ess t h a n h i m, a de
s pi s er o f t h e mu l t i t u de G O L D S M I TH
S h e sh ou l d l ook w ors e th a n hi m i me, J u l y 1 883 , p 8 3 T
.

I t stru c k me th en t h a t G o d k n ew b et t er t h a n me R evi ew of
. . .

R evi ew s, A u g 1 8 9 8, p 1 26 . . .

E v en s o fa r b a c k a s Ca x t o n , th e rst E ng l i sh pri n t er, w e n d th a n

u s ed a s a r
p pe os i t i o n ,
fo ll ow ed b y a n O bj ec t i v e c a se
F o r th er I s n o th y ng more su s pec t e t o ev
y l pe o pl e th a n th em, w h om
th ey k n o w t o b e w y se a n d trew e .
Th e Cu ri a l , 4 , 1 8 .

T h ese a re n o t erro rs o r so l ec s i ms o f i i
t h e l l tera t e Bu t in c u rren t .

b ook s on G ra mma r th e pre po si t i o n a l c h a ra c t er o f th a n is den ed

1
i .

F o r ex a mpl e, in M aso n s E ng l ish G ra mma r, p 1 7 7 , e d 1 8 9 1 , w e a re

1
. .

t o l d th a t no sy n ta c tica l e xpl a n a tio n c a n b e g iv en o f th e rel a tiv e w h om
f
a ter tha n T h e sy nta x, h ow ever, is very simpl e, if w e pa rse tha n as a
.
C HA P V I I I
. PR E P O S I T I O N S 77

O ri g i n a ll y th a n w a s n o t a c o nj u n c t i o n, b u t a n a d v erb ( a n o th er
form o f th en ) In mod ern E ng l i sh it h a s b een furt h er dev el o ped i nt o
.

a pre o si t i o n , a nd h a s b e en u sed a s su c h by oo d a u th ors, a n d i s st i l l

p g
u sed . Th e b est c ourse t o t a k e is t o pa rse i t a s a Co nj u n c t i o n , w h en
ev er i t i s possi b l e t o su
ppl y a F i n i t e v erb u nderst o o d
NO an i ma l is l a rg er t h a n a w h al e .

No a ni ma l i s l a rg er th a n a w h a l e ( is l a rg e) .

Bu t in su c h ti o n s a s t h e fol l o w i ng t h a n mu st sti ll b e
c o n stru c
a rsed a s a Pre o si t i o n b e c a u se t h ere i s n o F i ni t e v erb u n ders t o o d
p p ,

w h 1 c h c ou ld ma k e I t a C o nju n c t I O n
Ki n d of O bjec t .

I w i l l n o t ta k e l ess th a n ten sh i l li ngs N ou n

N o o n e o t h er t h a n a g ra du a te n eed a ppl y 1 .

H ere I s my so n th a n w h om a b ett er do es no t ex i st R el P ron

,
. .

H e did n o th i ng el s e t h a n l a u gh N ou n I n n -

I w i ll su ffer my sel f ra t h er t h a n ( th a t) h e sh ou ld
.

N ou n -
c l a u se .

He g o t more th a n ( w h a t ) h e a sk ed for
H e h a s sa id so more t h a n on ce A dverb 1 6 0, a ).

Bu t I n mpl es foll o w i n g b u t mu st
1 64 . su c h ex a as th e
b e pa rsed as a P repositi o n . O th erw ise it is a C o nj u n c t i on :
A ll b u t ( ex c ept ) o n e fu l l l ed t h eir pl omises .

H e w a s a ll b u t ( = ev ery t h i ng e x c ept ) ru i n ed ( H ere . i

ru n e d is
a n el l i t i c a l form o f t h e G eru n d b ei n g ru i n ed a nd th is

p
G eru nd is t h e ob j ec t of t h e pre pos t i i on b ut .

prepo sition Th ere is a mpl e a n al og y f or th e u se o f

. th a n a s a prepo

sitiou , b esides a mpl e a u th orit y S u perior to min e

. b ett er tha n

mine .

I f to is a prepo sition , w h y n ot tha n ? Th e S c otc h sa y , H e is
t a ll er b e ( = b y ) o nie O th aim

I f b y is a prepositio n , w h y n o t tha n ?
.

A g a in , th ere is th e a nal o gy o f th e F ren c h que ( = th an ) f oll o w ed b y l u i

j th a n h im

( O b ec t iv e c a se ) : .

N 0 oth er th an he n eed a ppl y is a n ex c eption al ph ra se th a t pro ves

n oth ing cf b u t he in
. W h enc e al l b u t he h a d ed ( M rs H eman s) . .

I n th e sent en c e g iven , N 0 oth er t h an a g radu a te n eed a ppl y , th e ph ra se
= dierent from, ex c ept , b u t W e c annot ex pand th an a
'

o th er th a n .

g r a d u a t e i n t o a c l a u se c o nt a in ing a F in it e v erb , a n d h en c e th a n is a pre

position I n so me editions o f S h a k speare w e h ave th e ph ra se

.

n o o th er

t h a n hi m
Th a t y ou el ec t n o other k ing th an h im 1 H en VI iv 1 , 4 .
. . . .

Th e editor w h o ma k es S h a k spea re sa y th an him,

e v dentl y reg ards i
th a n a s a prepo sit io n .

S o metimes th e preposition f rom is u se d in st ea d O f th a n a ter oth er f

T his is a f a r other t one f rom th at
In w h ic h th e D u k e spok e eigh t , nin e y ea rs a g o .

L R G
C O E I D E , P i cc ol omin i, i 1 2 . .

M rs Craik, in The Og il vies , c h x , u ses b u t a ter other, w h ere b u t,

. . . f
th ou gh u n dou b te dl y a prepo sit ion , is f o l l o w ed b y he
H o w c ou l d I h ear su c h w ords f ro m a ny oth er man bu t he 2 .
78 PA RS I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S PA RT I

Bu t fo r y o ur h el p ( = ex c ept o n a c c o u n t o f y ou r h el p = if y o u h a d
n o t h el ped me ) I s h o u l d h a v e b ee n ru i n ed H ere t h e ph ra s e

( .

fo r y o u r h el p is o b j ec t t o t h e prepo si t i o n ) .

I c a nno t b u t fea r ( I c a n n o t do a ny t h i ng e x c ept fea r) t h a t y o u a re

:

il l ( H er e
. t h e N ou n -I n n i
tiv e fea r is t h e o bj ec t ) .

C HA P TE R I X C O N J U N C T I O N S
. .

A di g t e d e iti o n g i v en in
1 65 c c o r .n t o h n 15, a con

j un c ti o n is a w o rd us ed fo r sh o w i ng in w h a t rel a ti on o n e n o ti on
st a n d s t o a n o th e r n o ti o n , o r o n e th ou h t t o a n o th er th o u h t

g g .

As ti o ns a re ex pressed by si n gl e w o rd s o r ph rases a nd
no ,

th ou gh ts by sen t en c es o r c l a u ses w e c a n su b stitu t e a S h o rter , ,

th o u g h l ess a c cu ra t e d e n i t i o n w h i c h is mo re c o n ven i en t fo r
, ,

a rsi n a n d a n a l y i a nj n c t i o n j o i n s o n e w o rd t o a n o t h e r
p g s s c o u ,

w o rd o r o n e se n t en ce t o a n o th e r sen t en c e C o nj u n c ti o ns a re

, .

su bdi v id ed i n t o tw o ma i n c l a sses

I Co or dina t iv e w h i c h j o in se n te n c es o f c o o rdi n a te (th a t

.
-
,
-

is o f equ a l) ra n k o r w o rd s t h a t sta n d in t h e sa me rel a ti o n t o

, ,

so m e o t h er w o rd in th e sen t en c e 1
.

I I S ub or din a t ive w h i ch j o i n a su b ordin a te o r d epe nd en t

,

sen t en c e t o a i i l t h i t f h i h
p r n c p a sen enc e
( t a t s t o a se n e n c e,
o g er

ra n k )

S E C T I O N 1 C O O R D I NA T I V E C O NJUN C T I O N S
.

-
. .

1 6 6 S en ten ces a re of C o or din a t e or e qua l ra n k w hen on e

.
-
,

is n ot dep en den t on th e o th er, n or en ters a t a ll i n to i ts c onstru c ti on .

1 67 . S en t en c es o f equ a l ra n k c a n b e rel a t e d to o n e a n o th er
in fou r di fferen t senses, a nd th i s g ives ri se t o fo u r di fferen t ki n ds
Of CO -
or di na tiv e C o nj un c ti o ns

C onj u n c tio n s f or th e most pa rt j oin sent en c es, n o t w o rds

1
W e c a nnot .

h ow e ver, a c c ept M r M a so n s sta temen t th a t

. a nd is t h e sing l e e x c eptio n ,

t h e o nl y i nsta n c e o f a c o nj u n c tio n w h ic h ma y j o in w o rds f or in po in t O f

fa c t, a ll t h e C o o rdin a tive c o nj u n c tio n s c a n j o in a d
-
jec tives .

( 1 ) A c a pt io n s a n d c o n c eit e d ma n i s n o t t t o re vie w a b ook ( C umu la tive ) .

( 2) W e a dmire th e c h ara c ter o f a po o r, b u t h on est ma n ( A dversa tive)

( 3 ) A dru nk or ma d M a l a y ra n a mu c k y esterda y ( A l tern a ti ve )
( 4 ) A n iro n ( a nd) theref ore du rab l e b o x w a s pro c u red ( I l l a ti ve ) .

f
I n ( 1 ) th e no tion O f sel -c o nc eit is a dde d t o th a t o f c a ptiou sn ess In .

h d i h h O f p o ve rt y I n ( 3 ) th e
( )
2 t e n o t io n o f h o n es t y i s c o n tra st e w t t a t .

n o t io n o f ma dness is g iven a s a n a l t erna t ive t o th a t o f dru nk e nn ess In ( 4 ) .

th e n o tion O f du ra b il it y is in erred fro m th a t o f iro n f .

T h e C onj u nc t ion a nd w ill j o in n ou ns a s w el l a s a dj ec tives I n thi s .

respec t, a nd th is o nl y , it is u n iqu e

You th a nd experienc e c a nno t ex ist to g eth er .

C HA P . Ix CO N J U N CT I O N S 79

( )
a C umul a t iv e By th ese one is si mpl y a dded to
th ou gh t
a no t h er a n d, b oth a n d, n o t on ly , b u t a lso, a s w el l a s

He w as b o th deg ra ded a nd expel l ed .

He as w el l a s y o u i s g u l t y i
By
.

( ) A l t ern a t iv e
b th ese a c hoi ce is O ffere d b e tw een one

t h o u g h t a n d a n o th e r -
ei th er or, els e, or, o th erw i se

L ea v e th e roo m, or t a ke th e c o n sequ enc es .

He i dl er n or a g a mb l er
w a s n ei th er a n

()
c A d v e r sa t iv e By t h es e c o nj u n c ti o ns o n e th ou
g h t is con

tra sted w ith o r set aga i ns t a n o th er b u t sti l l y et n everth eless , , , ,

however
H e is v er y ri c h sti l l o r y et or b u t h e is n o t c o n t ent ed

By
.
,

(d) Il l a t iv e th ese j ti o ns th ou g h t is i nf erred

ved fro m an o th er
. c on u n c on e

o r theref ore then so then

or pro f , , ,

H e w a s fou nd g u i l ty a n d th eref ore h e w a s h a ng ed , .

I t is t ime t o g o l et u s st a rt th en .

S E C T I O N 2 S UBO R D I N A T I V E C O N JU N C T I O N S
. .

1 6 8 O n e sen t en ce is sa id t o b e su b ordina te t o a n o th er w h en
.
,

it d epen ds u pon th e o th er th a t is fo rms part O f its c o nstru c t i on

, , ,

doing th e w o rk o f a n ou n adj ec tiv e o r adverb , ,

.

T h a t sen t en ce o n w h i c h th e su b o rdi n a t e sen ten ce d epen d s is

ca ll ed th e Prin c ipal se n t en ce .

P ri n cip a l . D ep enden t .

I w ill rea d t h a t b ook , if ou a dv i s e me ( A dv r b c l a u se )

y e -
. .

W e st i ll h ope that y ou ma y g et w ell .

( N ou n -
c l a us e ) .

1 6 9 Th e c h i e f mod es O f d epen d en ce a re ni n e in nu mb er
.

( ) pp
a A o s iti o n ,
b
( ) C a u sa ti o n , ( c
) E ffec t , ( )
d P u rpose, (e)
C o n diti o n , (f ) C o n cessi o n o r C on tras t, (g) C o mpa ri son , (h) E x t en t
o r M a n n er, (i
) T i m e

A pp osi ti on H e ma de a prom se , th a t h e w o u l soo n ret u rn i d

i
. .

Ca u sa ti on i
I w l l do t h s, b eca u se o r a s or s inc e y o u des re it i

. .

Eject H e t a l e so mu c h tha t h e ma de h ms el h oa rse

k d i f

.

P u rp ose M en w or th a t t h e ma y ea rn a l v n g
k y i i
i
. .

Condi ti on 1 w ll do th s, if I a m a l l o w e d
i u n l ess a m re v en t ed)
p I

. .

C oncessi on H e w a s a c o nt en t ed ma n, a l th ou gh h e w a s po or

. .

Comp a rison H e is qu t e a s c l e v er a s a m ( E qu a l degrees )

i I . .

H e is more c l ev er th a n a m U
( n equ a l deg rees ) I
E xten t, M a nn er
. .

M en w l l rea p a s t h ey so w i

. .

Ti me H e ret urn ed h ome af ter h e h a d n sh e w o rk i d

T hi
. .

170 . A S w ell as . s c on u n c j ti on al ph rase is C O O rdin a tiv e -

in o n e sen se a n d S u b o rdi n a tiv e in a n o th e r

( )
a Co- ordin a ti ve I n addin g . o ne c o o rdi n a t e
-
sen t e n c e t o

a no th er it g ives emph asis

, to th e rst
80 PA R S I N G A N D A N A LY S I S P A RT 1

He as w ell a s i s g u il t
ou
y y
N o t o nl y y o u , b u t h e a l so i s g u i l ty .

()
b S u b ordi n a ti ve

P ri n cip a l . D ep enden t .

H e do es n ot w ri t e a s w el l a s
y o u do
H is w ri ti ng is no t a s g oo d a s y ou rs .

171 Th o ug h , b u t Bo th O f t h ese c onj u n c ti o ns (th e rst

.

S u b o rdi n a tiv e, th e sec on d C o o rdi n a tiv e) d en o t e c o n c essi o n o r

con ra s t t
( a ) H e is h o n est th ou gh po or , .

( b ) H e is poor b u t h on est , .

T h ese t w o se n t en c es mea n pre c ise l y th e sa me th i ng b eca use

,

in ( )
a H e is h on est
is th e P rin cipa l c l a use , a n d in ( b) th e

CO -
or di n a te c l au se, b u t h e is h on est ,

is mo re empha tic th a n
th e c l a use
prec e di ng it . T h us th e P ri n c i pal c l au se and th e
E mph a ti c c l a u se a re th e sa me .

If ,
h ow e v er, w e rew r ite t h e tw t
o sen en c es th us
( a ) H e is h o n est t h o u g h po or
,

( b ) H e is h o nest b u t po o r , ,

th e t w o t
sen en c es a re n o t e qu iva l en t . T h e rst e mph asi ses th e
fa c t th a t h e is h o n est in s it e o f
p h is po v erty Th e seco n d .

e mph asises th e fa c t t h a t h e is poo r in spit e O f hi s h o n es ty

Conju n c tive a nd I n terrog a ti ve A dverbs .

172 It w as e x pl a n e i d in th a t
18 a C o nju n c tiv e
d v erb is a

.

a dou b le pa rt O f S peec h , a c o nj u n c ti o n a n d a dve rb c o mbi n ed I n

on e
w h en , w hy , w h ere, w h en c e, how , w h eth er .

The sa me is tru e of I n terroga tive a dverb s ,

w h en th e y a re

us e d as c o n u n c j ti ons
L et me
k y ou h ow y ou did th i s
as .

Th ere i s n o differenc e i n f orm b et w ee n a C o nj u n c ti v e a n d a n

I nt errog a t i v e a dv erb T h e fo rmer qu a l i e s so me n ou n e x pressed or
.

u n ders t oo d in t h e P ri n c i pa l sen t en c e T h e l a tt er is prec eded b y some

.

v erb t h a t si g n i e s a ski ng o r i n qu i ri ng .

C HA PT E R X .

I N T E RJ E C T I O N S .

173 .I n t erj ec ti on is u n li k e ev ery o th er Pa rt o f S peech

An ,

si n c e i t d o es n o t e n t er i n t o th e c o n st ru c t i o n o f a sen ten c e .

I t is merel y an exc la ma tory sou nd thro w n i n t o a sen te n ce to ,

d en o te so me strong feel in g o r emo ti on (see 1 7 )

C HA P . x1 D I FFE R EN T PA RTS O F S PE E CH 81

J oy
H u rra h h u z z a R epro of Fie e

.

G ri ef O h ! ah ! ala s ! alac k ! S tu ff ! b o sh ! tu t tu t !
on tem t
-

A mu semen t H a h a
C

A pp rova l Bra v o
.

ridi a l e p oo h !

t u sh
p i sh !
psh a w
l
W ea ri n ess H ei g h h o T o ca l l some one H o h o ll o a
-

A tten ti on L o h a rk ! h u sh ! h i st !
. .

1 7 4 T h ere a re c ert a i n mo od s O f v erb s a n d pa rts O f spe ec h w h i ch

.

ca n b e u sed fo r a n e x c l a ma t o ry o r I n terj ec ti o n a l pu rpose

( ) N ou n I n n i ti ve T o th i nk t h a t h e sh o u l d h a v e di ed
a 1 27, d)

- . ,

( b ) S u bju n cti ve W ou ld t h a t I h a d g a i n e d t h a t pri z e ( Wi sh )

.

( )
c I mp er a ti ve II ea r ! h ea r !
(A pp l a u se )
~

. .

( )
d N ou n D rea dfu l si gh t ! F o oli s h f el l ow F oo l ! D u n ce

.

( )
e A dj ec ti ve ( w i t h s o m e n o u n u n ders t oo d) S tr a n g e S h o cki ng
f

(f ) A dverb H ow v ery ki n d o f y ou H ow w o n derfu l

.

(g) P r on ou n W h a t a s a d t h i n g it i s

.

( h ) Conju n ti on If I c ou l d o nl y see h im o nc e more

c .

1 75 S ometimes in
. a id o r ex cl ama to ry sen t en c e a n
rap

A u x ili a ry v erb w ith its su bj ec t is l e ft ou t an d o nl y th e ma i n ,

verb is ex
presse d
W h y drea m a nd w a it for h im l o ng er L O NGF E L L O W .

= W h dost th ou o r w h do w e w a i t
y y for h im l o ng er ?)

C H A P TE R XI .

TH E S A ME W O RD US E D As D I FF E R E N T PA R T S OF S PE E C H .

I ndef A rti c l e Th e s portsma n sh o t a t g er

. . i .

P rep H e h a s g o ne a h u n t ng
. Th ey h a d t hree mea l s a da y -
i . .

A dj of Qu a n ti ty
. H e a t e a l l th e re a d . b .

I ndef N u m A dj W e mu s a l l die s ome da y

. . . t .

A dj u sed a s N ou n
. W e l o st o u r a l l o n th a t da y . .

A dv A l l b l oo l ess l a y th e u n tro dden sn o w

. d .

A dj of Qu a nti ty
. H a v e y o u a n y b rea . d
A dv of Qu . W e mu st sto p a nd rest e o re g o ng a ny arth er
. b f i f .

I n def N u m A djecti ve . D id y o u r ng a n y l oa v es
. . b i
I ndef D em A djecti ve . Ta e a ny oo th a t y o u l e es
. . k b k ik b t .

( a ) Conju n cti ve p ron ou n

H e is not su c h a foo l a s h e l o o s k .

A s ma ny men a s c a me w ere c a u g h t .

Y ou rs i s n o t th e sa me o o a s m n e b k i .

( b ) Conju n ctive a dverb ( o r su or na t v e c onj u nc t o n ) b di i i

T i me H e t rem l ed a s ( a t w h a t t me ) h e s po e
. b i k .

M a nn er D o n o t a c t a s ( in w h a t ma n n er) h e did
. .

S ta te H e t o o i t j u st a s ( i n w h a t st a t e ) i t w a s
. k .

H e i s n o t a s ( t o th a t ex t ent) c l ev er a s ( t o w h a t
ex t e n t ) ou a re
E xten t
ht
.

Ho t a s ( t o w a ev er ex en ) th e su n i s = h o w
.

t t
e v er h o t t h e su n i s ), w e mu st t i n it
g o o u .

R ea son Th e a ir is no w c o ol , a s ( for w h a t rea so n or

.

f or th e rea so n h a t ) th e ra n h a s a ll en . t i f
E . G . C. G
 PA R S I N G A N D A N A LY S I S P A RT I

( )
c I n E l l ip ti ca l P h ra ses a ll of th ese mpl y i
e x t en t .

I c o n de mn y o u a s a j u dg e ( t o w h a t ex t en t o r so fa r a s I
am a j ud e ma n ( to w h a t e x t en t I a m
g ) b ut as a , a
ma n ) I pi ty y o u .

I w i ll i nqu ire
t o ( t o w h a ex t en t t h e qu est o n
ag a n a s i t i
rel a t es t o ) t h a t ma t t er .

A s reg ards t h s j o u rn ey ( t o w h a t ex t ent th e qu est o ni i

reg a rds t h s j o u rn ey ), w e c a n n o w dec de n o th n i g i i .

Bet t er . Comp A dj M y b o o is a b etter o n e t h a n y ou rs

. . k .

Comp A dv Y o u a re w o r ng b etter t o da y
. . ki -
.

A dj u sed a s N ou n
. D o n o t desp se ou r b etters . i y .

Both . D ef N u m A dj B oth th e me n h a v e a rr v ed
. . . i .

Co nj Co -o rd. H e is b oth a ool a nd a na v e

. f k .

A dv T h ere is b u t ( o n l y ) o n e ma n present
. .

P rep W h o c ou l d h a v e do n e t h s b u t ( ex c ept ) h im ?
. i
c a nn o t b u t I el ev e t h a t
y o u a re l o st ( I c a n no b i . t
b i
el e v e a n th ng ex c ep t t h a t , e t c )
y i .

C onj Co-ord . H e i s a ma n o f c ommo n sense, b u t n o t l ea rn e

. d
in b ook s .

Conj S a b ord. b u t ( h e ) pi ti ed
. Th ere w a s no o n e present ,

w h o did n o t pi ty ) t h e l a me h o rse .

Perdi ti o n c a t c h my so u l , b u t I l o v e t h ee .

S H A KS P E A R E ( M a y perdi ti o n c a t c h my .

so u l , if I do n ot l o v e t h e e ) .

Eit h er D i stri b A dj H e is ru i n e d i n ei th er c a se
. . . .

Conj Co ord H e is ei th er a fool o r a k na v e

.
-
. .

A dv W e c ou l d not c a tc h a ny o n e else
. .

Conj Co ord H e h a s some rea l sorro w ; el se h e w o u l d n o t

.
-
.

w ee p a s h e do es .

Enou g h A dj of Qu a n ti ty
. H e h a s ea t en en ou g h b rea d
. . .

A dj of N u mb er W e h a v e en ou gh l o a v es
. . .

A dj u sed a s N ou n H e h a d en ou gh t o do
. . .

Ha l f . A dj of Qu a n ti ty H a lf mea su res do n ot su c c e ed
. . .

A dj u sed a s N o u n O n e h a lf o f h is t a sk is n o w do n e
. . .

A dv of Qu a n ti ty H e w a s h a lf dea d w i t h fea r
. . .

L it t l e A dj of Qu a li ty
. A li ttl e b l o w ma y g i v e mu c h pa i n
. . .

A dj of Qu a n ti ty H e h a s ea t en a li ttl e brea d
. . .

A dv of Qu a n ti ty L et u s w a i t h ere a li ttl e
. . .

A dj u sed a s N ou n M a n w a nts b u t l i ttl e h ere b el o w

. . .

M ore A dj of Qu a n ti ty
. H e e a t s mo re b rea d t h a n y ou
. . .

A dj u sed a s N ou n M ore is do n e t h a n w a s ex pec ted

. . .

A dv of Qu a n ti ty I l ik e h im more t h a n ( I l i k e ) y o u
. . .

A dj of N u mb er JII ore men c a me t o d a y t h a n y es t erda y

. . .

A dv of N u mb er I sa w him o n c e more
. . .

M u ch A dj of Qu a n ti ty
. H e h a s w a st ed mu ch t i me
. . .

A dv of Qu a n ti ty I a m mu c h pl ea se d w i th y o u r so n
. .
.

A dj u sed a s N ou n Y o u w il l n o t g et mu ch fro m me
. .

N eit h er A dj D i stri b . I a g ree w i th n ei th er si de

. . .

Co nj Co ord N ei th er y o u n or I c a n do t h a t
.
-
.
.

N ea r A dv
. S t a n d n ea r, w h i l e I spea k t o y o u
. .

P rep T h ere is a n e t re e n ea r o u r h o use

. .

A dj H e is a n ea r rel a t i v e o f mi ne
.
.
84 PA RS IN G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

C H A PT E R X I I S Y N TA X A N D PA RS I N G .

PA R S I N G C H A R T .

I . N ou ns .

Kin d o f N o un . G ender . N umb er . C a se .

C o n c re t e

A b st ra c t

II . P ron ou n s .

Kind O f P ro nou n . G ender . N umb er . P erso n . C a se .

S I mpl e M a sc u l in e
P erso n a l l mi n a ti ve
R e ex i v e F emi n in e S i ng u l a r
$3 g
5 o

D e n i t e C ommo n
ss es s l v e

q
D
Pl ura l
D emo n s 3 rd o jec tN
I nden i t e N eu t er e

A g re e n g ( i if
D emo n stra t v e o r C o nju n c i
i
t v e ) in G en der, N u m er, a n d P erso n w t h b i
it s a n t ec eden t .

III . T he Ca ses f
o N ou n s or P ron ou ns .

N o m . t o V er b Obj t o Ver D rec t

. b i O bj in A ppo s t o n
. ii
as C o mpl t o V erb
. I n d rec t i t o Pre po s t o n i i
in A pposi ti o n R et a n e i d A dv erb a l i
o f A ddre C o g na t e f
a t er c erta n A d i
A b so l u t e R e e x i v e jec tiv e s
P ossessi ve as C o mpl t o V erb . I n t erj ec t o na l i

IV . A djec ti ves .

Th e K nd o f A djec t iv
i e . D egre e .

N u mer .

A ttri b u t i v e
P redi c a t i v e
D emo n s
C HA P . x II S Y N TA X A N D PA R S I N G 85

V A dverb s
. .

Kind .

T O qu a l ify Verb
A dj ec t i v e
S1m le
' ' '

P 0 3 1 tw
A t trib u t i v e A dv erb
e
?
C o nju nc t i e C ompa ra tl v e
v Predi c a t i v e P reposi t i o n
I n t erro g a tl v e S u perl a t i v e
C o nj u n c t i o n
S en t e n c e

VI . F i n i te Verb s .

C onj u g V o ic e M o od T Form o f e ach

. . . en s e .

T en se .

Tra n s . S tro ng I n die . P resen t

In tra n s . W ea k Imper . P a st
a S ve
A u x il . M i x ed S ub ju nc . F u t u re

Nu mb er . P ers on .

A g re ei n g in N u mb er a n d P ers o n w i th i t s
su bj ec t o r su b j ec t s , e x press ed o r u n der

st o o d .

VI I I nni ti ve
. .

Form .
( b ) Us e as Qu a l if y i ng I nf .

To
S u bj ec t to Verb
O b je c t t o Verb
A ttrib u t i v el y
C ompl emen t t o V erb a N ou n
Predic a tiv el y
O b j ec t t o Prepo s i t i on
an A dj ec t i v e
E x c l a ma t ory
To i n tro du c e a P a ren th e si s

VI I I . Geru n d .

V o ic e . Kind O f Verb .

Tra nsi t i v e
I ntra nsiti v e
86 PA RS IN G A N D A N A LY S I S P A RT I

IX . P a rti cip le or Verb a l A djec ti ve .

Fo rm . V o ic e . K ind o f Verb .

A c t ve i Tra n si t i v e Co mpl eme n t

Pa ss v e i I ntra n si t i v e A b so l u t e

X . Conju n c ti on s .

Co -
i
o rd n a t v e i . S u b o rdi na t i v e .

S ome of the f o l low ing ru l es ha ve b een i n ci den ta l ly gi ven a l rea dy

in di eren t p la c es Th ey a re h ere c o l l ec ted a n d su mma ri sed a n d
.

o th ers n ot g iven b ef ore ha ve b een a dded, so a s to ma ke the a ccou n t

more co mp lete .

1 7 6 N omina t iv e
. I I I o f Pa rsing
c a se .

S ee NO . . C h a rt
( 1 ) A s S u bj ec t to a v erb (see 3 a nd 4 1 )
I did th i s R a i n is f l l i ng
. You a re t i red a . .

( ) As
2 S u bjec ti ve C o mpl emen t to a V erb (see 9 5)
I a m th e ma n . Caesa r w a s dec l a re d emp eror .

N ote .
A n I nni ti v e c an c ome b e t w e e n t h e v erb a n d th e n ou n

He a
pp e a red to b e a w i s e ma n .

( )
3 I n A pp os iti o n w i th a n ou n o r pro n ou n 4 )
Jo h n , th e c a rp en ter, h a s su c c ee ded w ell in b u si n ess .

(4 ) F o r pu rposes of A dd ress (see 4 1)

fa ll en 0 s
H ow a rt th o u ,
ar!

( )
5 I n t h e A b sol u te c on stru c ti on
( )
a W i th P a rti c ip le in pa st o r pr esen t ,
sen se

O ff w e s ta rt , h e rema i n i n g b eh i n d .

O ff we ig n l
s ta rt ed, h e h a vi ng g i ven t h e s a

N ote W i t h o u t a l t eri ng t h e sense w e c o u l d su b st i t u t e t h e c l a u se

.

.
,

w h i l e h e rema i n s b eh i n d

h e rema i n i ng b eh i n d

for t h e ph ra se .

I n t h e a b so l u t e c o n st ru c t i o n t h e n ou n o r pro n o u n is in t h e N omi n a
t i v e c s e b ec u s ( s w e se e fro m t h i s) it is th e S u bjec t to th e F i n i te
a ,
a e a

verb th a t i s i mp l i ed i n th e P a rti cip l e .

( b) W i th the Qu a lif y ing I nn i tive in fut ur e ,

sen se :

Th e caul w as i n a ra f e , th e w i n n er to p a y v e sh i ll i ng s
ut up
p .

D I C K E N S , D a vid C opp er el d .

T h e e st a t e h a s b e en di v i ded b etw e en u s , y ou to h a ve t w o th i rds -

of

it , a nd I o n e th i rd -
.
C HA P . xII S Y N TA X A N D PA RS I N G 87

1 7 7 P o ssessiv e
. c a se .

S ee N o I I I o f Pa rsi n g C h a rt
. . .

( ) A in th e P o ssessiv e ca se qu a l i es N ou n s
a n ou n o r
M
a nd G eru n d s as a n a djec t1 v e w ou l d do
My so n Th e b a rb er s sh o p
.

Th e tiger s c l a w. N

.
ou n .

I w a s di spl ea sed a t hi s g oi ng a w a y w i t h ou t l ea v e G eru nd

T h i s w a s a pl a n o f y ou r c o nt ri v i ng .
!
b
() W h en tw o P ossess ive n ou ns a re in a
pp os iti on w ith ea ch
o th er, th e a po st ro ph e s is a dd ed e ith er to th e rst o r l a st b u t ,

n o t u su a l l y to b o th
H ero d ma rri ed h is b roth er P h i l i p s w ife

qu een s sa k e, his si s ter BYR O N

F or t h e . .

()
0 W h en tw o n ou ns a re c o nn ec e t d by a n d,

th e a os ro ph e
p t
s is add ed t o b o th t o d en o t e sep a ra te possessi on and t o th e l a st ,

o n l y to d en o t e j oi n t
possess i on

A s a n d B s h orses w ere sol d y e st erd a y

. . .

A a nd B s h ors es w ere sold y est erda y

. . .

(d) A n ou n or pron ou n in th e P ossessiv e ca se ca n b e th e

C o mpl emen t to a v erb (see 9 2 9 5) ,

T h a t b o ok is mi n e n o t J a mes s

1 7 8 O b jec t iv e c a se S ee N O I I I O f Pa rsi n g C h a rt:

.
,

. . .

( 1 ) A s O bj ec t to a v erb o r in c onn ec ti on w ith so me v erb

,

1 0 6 , N ote)
( a ) Th e ma st er t ea c h es E u c l id ( D irect ) .

( b ) H e t ea c h es h i s son s E u c l i d ( I ndi rect ) . .

( c ) H is so ns w ere t a u g h t E u c lid ( R eta i n ed ) .

( d) Th e fe v er w i l l ru n it s c ou rse ( Cog na te )
1
. .

( e) H e sa t hi mself d o w n (R e exi ve ) . .

(2) A s O bj ec tiv e C o mpl emen t to v erb 9 5 ) a

T h e c i ti z en s ma d e him t h eir ki ng
N ol a
.

A n I nni t i v e c a n c ome b e t w e en t h e v erb a n d t h e nou n

T h e peo pl e c o n sid ered h im to b e a w i se ma n .

( 3 ) I n A ppositi on w ith a n o u n or pron ou n

Th e peopl e o f E ng l a n d b eh ea ded C h a rl es Ii t h eir king ,
.

( ) As O bj ec t to a prepositi on
4 4 2)
H e fo u g h t a g a i n st me A h ou se b u il t o n sa nd
. .

( )
5 A dv e rbi a l O bj e c tiv e ca ll e d A dv e rbi a l b ec au se su c h ,

ph ra ses qu a li fy w o rds as a n a dv erb w o u l d do

1
I t is ma int a ined in M a son s E ng lish G ra mma r, p 1 5 0, ed 1 8 9 1 ,

. .

th e c og na te ob j ec tive sh ou l d mo re pro perl y b e c l a sse d a mon g th e

th a t
A dverb ia l A dj u n c t s, th at is, a s a n A dverb ia l O b j ec tive, see

1 78
Th is w e c ann ot a dmit, b ec au se w h en th e verb of t h e sent en c e is c h a ng ed
fro m A c tive t o P assive, a s

H e f ou gh t a g o o d g h t, A g o o d gh t w a s
f ou g h t b y h im, th e c ogna t e o b j ec t b ec omes th e S u b j ec t w h ereas , if th e
c og na te o b j ec t w ere a dverb ial , it w ou ld rema n a dverb ia l i .
88 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

H e l i v ed t en y ea rs ( T i me ) . He w al k ed t en mi l es ( S pa c e ) . This
c ost t e n sh i l l i ng s ( Pr c e) i
Th a t b o x w e g h s t en p ou nds . i
( VVeI g h t ) Th e a ir is a trif l e h o t ter t o da y ( D egree ) B nd i
.

. -
.

him h a nd a nd f oot ( A tt en da n t c rc u mst a n c e) i .

( ) O bj e c t ive
6 a f
dj ec tives li k e o r u nl i k e n ea r
ter t h e a

,

,

(T hi s h a s a ri sen from th e o mi ssi o n O f th e preposi t i on

n ex t .

w hi c h is st i ll so me ti mes u sed a ft er t h ese a dj ec t iv es

to ,
)
N 0 ma n c ou l d b e n d t h e b o w l i ke hi m .

Th e h o u se n ea rest th e g rove is t h e o n e t h a t I re fer

p .

(7) O bj ec tiv e a fter I n terj ec ti ons o r in ex c l a ma t o ry phra ses

O h u nh a ppy ma n O h dea r me !
F o o l i sh f el l ow t o h a v e w a st ed h is t ime as h e h a s do n e

1 7 9 Tw o u ses of A djec t iv es
. .

S ee N o IV . . of P a rsi n g C h a rt .

(a ) A ttrib u ti v e u se 5 8)
A n i ndu stri ou s stu de n t w i ll g en era ll y su c c e ed .

b
() Predi ca t i v e use 5 8)
He w as i n du stri ou s, an d th erefore h e s u c c eeded .

1 80 . or G er un d u sed a s a n A djec t iv e I t
N o un ca n be
u sed a tt rib u tiv el y fo r a n a dj ec tiv e b u t n o t predi ca ti v el y ,

A vi l l a g e w a tc h ma n . D ri nk ing w a t er . A b a th i ng pl a c e .

1 81 . A dj ec t iv e su b st it u t ed f orA dv er b A n a d v erb qu a li
fy i n g a verb ca n
g be dj e c ti v e
c h an e d in to an a qu a l if i
y gn t h e

j
s u b ec t t o th e verb (M ore c o mmon in poetry th an in prose )
. .

A ndf u ri ou s e v ery c h a rg er n ei g h ed CA MP BE L L
T h ey n ei t h er t o i l n or spi n b u t ca rel ess g l o w T H O M S O N
. .

Fi rst th ey pra i sed h im sof t a nd l ow TE NNY S O N

. .
,

. .

N ote 1 W h en t h e a d v erb qu a l i es a n y p a rt of sp eech excep t verb

.
-
a ,

w e c a nn o t su b s t i tu t e a n a dj ec t i v e for it

T h u s w e c a nn o t s y He . a ,

i s i mmen se c l ev er f o r H e is i mmen sel y c l ev er

.

N ote 2 ty
I n poe r a n a dj ec t v e a n d a dv er a re
.
-
i b so met imes c o u pl ed
t o g et h er b y a nd

.

V ery ca ref u l l y a n d s l ow TE NNY S O N

G o o d g en t l eme n , l o ok f resh a n d merri l y
. .

S H A KS P E A R E . .

H ere ei th er o n e l y i s ma de t o do du ty for b o t h a dj ec t i v es ; o r
-

t h e c o n stru c t i o n is mi x e d, t h e a dj ec t i v e qu a l i fy i n g t h e su b j ec t , a n d
t h e a dv erb t h e v erb .

1 8 2 P rono u n
. a nd A n t ec eden t .
S ee N os . II . a nd III . of

P a rsi n g C h a rt .

(a ) A P ro n ou n is Of th e sa me pe rso n , nu mb e r ,
an d
g n
e d er
as th e n ou n i t st a n ds fo r ; b u t in d epen d s u po n
ca se it it s ow n

sen t en c e .
(Th is is ca ll ed a C on c o rd o r A g reemen t ) .

f
A t er Caesa r w a s dec l a red emp eror t h ey sl ew h i m ( O b j
Y ou mu st retu rn t h e b ook ( O b ec t v e), j i w h i c h ( N om n a t v e ) w a s l e n t i i .
C HA P . x1 I S Y N TA X A N D PA RS I N G 89

(b) A C onj u n c tiv e Pron ou n , if it h as tw o A n t ec ed en ts n o t o f

th e sa me person , agrees in person w i t h th e A n t e c ed en t n ea rest
to i t
You a re th e ma n w ho is ( no t a re ) c h o s en .

1 83 . Tw o u se s o f r
A dv e b s S ee No V . . of P a rsin g C h a rt .

(a ) A tt rib u tiv e us e

(1 ) A djecti ve
H e is rema rka b l y c l ever
Verb A c t deci si ve l y , if y o u a c t a t a ll
. .

( 2)
O th er A dverb H e e x pl a i n e d h is v i ew s rema rka b l y w el l
. .

(3 )
P rep osi ti on Th e su n st oo d ex a ctl y over o u r h ea ds
. .

(4 )

. .

(5 ) Conju n cti on Y ou ma y g o on l y if y ou promi s e t o return

. .

(6) S en ten ce F ortu na tel y , a l l th e th i ev e s w ere c a u g h t

.

( b) P redi ca tiv e u se

( 1 ) I ntra n s verb T h e resu l ts w i ll soon b e ou t

-
. .

( 2) T ra ns verb . W e h a v e fo u nd h im ou t ( z in h is tru e c h a ra c t er) .

1 84 Ve . r b j
a nd S u b e c t S ee N O V I O f Pa rsi n g C h a rt . . .

A F i ni t e Verb mu st b e in th e sa me nu mb er a n d person a s
its S u bj ec t (Thi s is an o th er C o n c o rd o r A greemen t ) .

N ote A v o i d su c h a mi s t a k e a s
. Th e ma n w i t h h is do g h a ve j u st
c o me S u c h a mi st k e ri se s from c o n fo u n di n g w ith

. a w i th
a a nd .

1 8 5 S ub j ec t s not o f t h e sa me P er s on (a ) W h en tw o o r
.

mo re S u bj ec ts n o t O f th e sa me Person a re j o i n ed by a n d th e
, , ,

v erb is in th e F i rst person ra th er th an th e S econ d an d in th e ,

S ec o n d ra th er th an th e T hi rd ; an d the F i rst p erson shou ld b e

men ti on ed la st
Ja mes
I a re w e a re ) g rea t fri ends
a nd .

(b) W h en tw o S u bj ec ts a re j o in ed by or o r n or th e

,

v erb a re es in r n w it h t h S bj t n r t t it
g p e s o e u ec ea es o

E i th er J me s o r I a m a t t h e t o p o f t h e c l a ss
a .

E i t h er y ou or Ja mes h a s do n e it .

N ei t h er Ja mes n or y ou w ere presen t .

I t w o u l d b e b ett er h o w ev er t o repea t t h e v erb fo r ea c h S u bj ec t

, ,
.

Th e sent en c e s w o u l d t h en b e re w ri tt en a s fo ll o w s -

E i th er Ja me s i s a t th e t o p o f th e c l a s s o r I a m ,
.

E i t h er y ou h a ve do n e it o r Ja mes h s ,
a .

N ei t h er J mes w a s present n o r w ere y o u

a ,
.

(0) W h en tw o S u bj ec ts a re j o in ed by as w ell as th e v erb ,

ag re es in n u mb er a n d erso n w i th th e rst o n e
p
M y c o mra des a s w el l a s I my sel f w ere c a u g h t .

Th e rea so n o f th i s ru l e is t h t M y c omra des w ere c a u g h t is t h e

a

Pri n c i p l c l u s e t o w h i c h th e o t h er c l a u se i n trod u c ed b y
a a ,
a s w el l a s

i s C o ordi n a t e ( see
-

1 8 6 Tw o S ing ul a r S ub j ec t s w it h P l u r a l V erb T w o o r
.
90 PA R S I N G A N D A N A LY S I S P A RT I

mo re S i n g ul a r n ou ns, w h en t h ey a re j o in ed by
a n d, re qu re ai
v erb in th e Pl ura l .

A ma n a nd h is w ife h a ve c ome h ere a ski n g for w ork .

Y ou r h ors e a n d mi n e ( = my h orse) a re b o t h a t t h e do o r .

TO th i s rul e th ere a re a few e x c epti on s

(a ) I f th e tw o n o u n s j o i n ed by a n t refer to th e sa me

er
p
,

so n o r t h i n t h e v e rb is S i n u l a r a n d n o t P l u ra l ; as
g , g ,

Th e g rea t sc h o l a r a n d o et i s dea d
p .

H ere sc h o l a r f me ma n

an d p t
o e re er t o th e sa ,
a nd th e sen
t enc emi g h t h a v e b e en w ri t t en
T h e ma n w h o w a s a g rea t sc h ol a r a nd a g rea t po et is dea d
te W h en t h e a rt i c l e i s ment i o n ed on l y o nce
.
, ,

No .
,
as in t h e s e n t en c e
th e g rea t sc h o l a r a nd po et , it sta nds fo r b oth th e n ou n s Th s . i
s h o w s t h a t on l y on e
perso n ( a n d n o t t w o ) is nt ended, a n d t h a t h e nc e i
t h e v erb mu st b e s n g u l a r i .

Bu t if t h e a rti c l e i s menti o n ed t w i c e, a s in th e sen t enc e th e
s c h o l a r a n d th e
po et , t h e n t w o di s t i n c t perso n s a re i n t ended ,
a nd

t h e v erb fo l l o wi ng mu st b e in t h e pl u ra l n u mb er a s
Th e sc h o l a r a nd t h e po et a re d ea d .

b
( ) If j o i n ed by a n d a re reg ard ed as den o t
th e tw o n o u ns

ing a si ng l e o bjec t or n oti on th e v erb is S i n gu l a r a s ,

Tru t h a n d h o n esty ( = t h e pra c ti c e o f tru th a n d h o n es ty ) i s t h e

b est pol ic y S l o w a nd st e dy w i ns th e ra c e
. a .

()
c I f th e t w o n ou n s j o i n ed by a n d a re
q u a l i ed by a
D i strib u tiv e a dj ec tiv e th e v e rb is S in g u l a r as
E v ery ma n a nd w o ma n i s g o ne ( Th i s is rea ll y a c o ndensed form
.

o f t w o s en t en c es E v ery ma n ( is g o n e ) a n d e very w o ma n is

(d) I f th e t w o S i n g u l a r n o u ns a re c on n ec e t d by as w el l a s,

th e v erb is S i n u l a r
g
Ja mes a s w el l a s J oh n h a s b een promo t ed ( T h i s is rea l l y a c o n .

dens ed fo rm O f t w o sen t en c es J a me s h a s b ee n pro mo t ed, a s

w e ll a s Jo h n h a s b e en promo t ed S ee a b o v e, 1 85 , e ) . .

1 8 7 O ne S ing u l a r S u b j ec t w it h P l ur a l V erb A n o u n
.

o f IV I u l ti tu de (see 24 , N o te si n c e i t i mpli es pl u ra l i t y , is

fol l o w ed by a P l ural v erb

T h e j u ry ( i e t h e i ndi v id u a l j u rors) w ere di v i ded in th ei r o pi ni o ns
. . .

Th e j ury ( a s o n e b o dy ) sel ec t ed i ts s pea k er .

1 88 N oun I nnit iv e S e e N o V I I o f C h a rt
.
-
. . . .

Th e N o u n I n n it iv e ma y b e (a ) th e S u bj ec t t o a v erb , ( b)
-

th e O bj ec t to a v erb , (0 ) th e C o mpl emen t to a v e rb , (d) th e

O bj ec t t o a preposit i on (a l th o u gh t h i s is v ery u n c o mmo n), ( e) a
fo rm of ex cl a ma ti on (see 1 2 7 , I ) .
92 PA RS I N G A N D A N A LY S I S P A RT I

so me th i n g th a t c oul d be a s w ell o r b ett er expressed by a G eri md

or Verb a l n ou n

Th i s prev e nt ed th e l et t er b ei ng sen t ,
T h i s prev e nt ed th e sendi n g of t h e l et t er .

N ote If w e i n s ert th e re posi t i o n rom, Th i s prev ent ed t h e

.
p f
l et t erf ro m b ei ng se nt , t h e form b ei ng sen t i s n o t a pa rt i c i pl e a t a l l ,

b u t a G eru n d o r Verb a l n ou n in t h e Pa ssi v e v o i c e O n th i s form s e e .

1 35 .

1 9 1 S equ en c e o f T en ses
. T h ere a re tw o ma i n ru l es
I A P a st tens e in th e P ri n c i pal sen t en c e mu st b e foll o w ed
.

by a Pas t t ens e in th e D epen d en t sen t en c e

He w ou ld c o me , if y ou w i sh ed it .

He s u c ceeded, b ec a u se h e w orked h a rd .

He w orked h a rd, t h a t h e migh t su c c eed .

E xc ep ti on s If th e verb in t h e D epen d en t sen t en c e e x

presses So me u ni versa l or ha bi tu a l fa c t , it is in th e Presen t
tense
T h ey did not k n ow , th a t th e ea rth moves ro u n d th e su n .

( 2) A fter t h an th e v erb c an b e in th e Presen t o r F u tu re

t en se in fa c t ,
in an
y t en se th a t ex presses th e sen se i n t en d ed
H e l i ked y ou b et t er t h a n h e l i kes me .

H e l i ked y ou b ett er t h a n h e w i l l l ike me .

I I A Presen t o r F u ture t ense in th e Pri n c i pal sen t en c e ca n

.

b e foll o w ed by a n y t en se w h a t ev er in th e D epen d en t sen ten ce

I kn ow t h t h e w a s a ngry a .

I sha l l so o n g e t t h e l et t er t h a t h e p osted y e st erda y .

N O TE ON C O NC O RD AN D G O V E RNM E N T .

S y n t a x is so met i me s su b di v i ded un d er t w o ma i n h ea di n g s
1 . C o n c ord or A g reemen t ; II . G o v ernmen t .

Bu t t h i s di v i si o n is no t o f mu c h u se in ou r S y n ta x .

Con cord or A g reemen t .

( 1 ) Th e v erb a g rees w i th its su b j ec t in N u mb era n d P erson

( 2) Th e D emo n stra ti v e a dj ec t i v e th is mu st b e o f
or th a t
t h e sa me n u mb er a s t h e n ou n it qu a l i es ( Th ese a re t h e o n l y t w o .

a dj ec t i v es t o w h i c h t h i s C o n c ord n o w a
ppl i e s ) .

( )
3 A pr o n o u n m u s t b e o f t h e s a me N u m b er G en d e r a nd P erso n , ,

as t h e n o u n it st a nds for . Th i s is dea l t w i t h in 1 8 2 .

( 4 ) A n ou n in a ppos t i i o n w i th a pro n ou n or ot h er no u n mu s t b e in
th e sa me c a s e. Th i s i s s h o w n in 1 76 1 7 7 ( b ), a nd 1 7 8

Govern ment .

C ert a i n Verb s, tw o thre e A dj ec t v e s, a nd

or i a ll Preposi t i ons
g o v ern a nou n or
pro n o u n in t h e O b j ec t v e c a s e i .
C H A P XII I . A N ALY S I S IN DETA I L 93

C HA P T E R X I I I A N A L Y S I S I N DE T A I L .

S E C TI O N l
S NT
N C E S S I MP LE C O MP O UND AN D C O M P L E X
E E

1 9 2 S impl e S en t en c e
.
, ,
.

. A S i mpl e sen t en c e (L a t simp l ex .

,

si n l e fo l d ) is o n e th a t h as on ly on e F i n i te verb ex pressed o r
g
-

u n d erst o o d .

S u bject . P redi c a te .

Th e merc h a nt , h a v i ng mu c h pro ca u sed a ll h is g o o ds t o b e c o n

p erty t o sel l , v ey ed o n c a mel s, t h ere e ng b i

i
n o ra l w a y i n t h a t c o u n try .

In th i s Sen t en c e th ere
di fferen t v erb s h avi ng to a re v e ,

,

ca us ed t o b e c o n v ey ed b ei n g O f t h ese o n l y o n e

sell , , ,
.
,

ca used T h e sen t en c e is th ere fo re S i mpl e

v iz is n i te
1 9 3 C o mp o u n d S en t en c e
. . .
,

. A c o mpou n d sen t en c e is o n e
mad e u p o f tw o o r more Co ordina te c l aus es -
.

C o o rdi n a t e c l au ses a re j o i n ed tog e th er by th e C o o rdi n a tiv e

- -

c onj u n c ti o ns

( 1 ) T h e su n ro se w ith pow er a nd th e fog di spersed ( Cu mu l a ti ve ) , .

( 2) H e c l l ed a t my h ou se b u t I w a s n o t a t h ome ( A dversa ti ve )

a
,

( 3 ) E i th er h e mu st g o or I (mu st g o ) ( A l tern a ti ve )
( 4 ) H e c a me b a c k t ired ; f or h e h a d b een o u t a l l da y ( I l l a ti ve ) .

I n ( 1 ) o n e c l a u se i s si mpl y a dd ed t o a n o t h er I n ( 2) o n e c l a u s e is .

c o n tra st ed w i t h a n o t h er I n ( 3 ) o n e c l a u se i s O ffered a s a n a l t ern a

.

t i v e t o a no th er I n ( 4 ) o n e c l a u se i s i n ferred from a n o th er
N ote
. .

W h en sent enc es a re c o n n ec t ed n ot b y a ny C o ordi na t i v e

.
,

c o nj u n c t i o n b u t merel y b y c o o rdi n a t i o n o f s en se a n d b y u n i t y o f
,
-

c o n st ru c ti o n , t h ey a re sa i d to be c o ll a t era l

Th e w a y w a s l o ng t h e w i nd w a s c o l d ;
T h e mi nstrel w a s i nrm a n d O ld ;
T h e h a rp, h is sol e rema i ni ng jo y ,
W a s c a rri ed b y a n o rph a n b o y S CO TT .
.

1 94 . T h e C o nj u n c tive pro n ou n w h o o r w hi c h, or a C on
j u n c tiv e a dverb su ch ,
a s w here, w h en , et c .
, prov id ed its sen se is

c on ti n u a tiv e a n d n o t ,
res r c t i tiv e may b e used to c on n e c t

C o o rdina t e c l a us es
-

He w ent to L o ndo n , t y ed t en d y s w h ere =

( a n d th ere ) h e s a a

1 9 5 Compl ex S en t en c e A C o mpl e x sen t en c e c o n sists o f a

.

P ri n c i pal c l a u se (i e th e c l ause c o n ta i nin g th e ma i n F in i te verb

. .

O f th e sen t en c e) w ith o n e o r mo re S u b o rdi n a t e c l aus es .

A merc h a n t ,
w h o had mu c h pro pert y to s el l , ca u sed a l l h is
Comp l ex g o ds
to b e
o ,
c o n v ey ed o n c a mel s
a s t h ere w a s n o ra i l
w a y i n t h a t c o u n t ry .

A merc h a n t , h a v ng mu c h property to sel l , ca u sed a ll his

i
S i mp l e g oo ds t o b e c o n v ey e d o n c a mels , t h ere b e ng 11 6 ra l i i
w a y in t h a t c o u ntry .
94 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

T h e l a tt er vid en tl y S i mpl e si n c e th ere is o n l y

sen te n c e is e ,

o ne F i n i te v e rb c a u sed T h e fo rmer c a n n o t b e S i mpl e si n c e it

,
.
,

h a s th ree F i n i te v e rb s ha ve ca u sed w a s (al l I ta l i c i sed ) ,

It , ,
.

c a n n o t b e C o m ou nd b e c a u se t h e c l a u se s a re n o t c o o rdi n a t e
p
-
, .

I t is th e re fo re C o mpl ex c o nsi sti ng o f o n e P ri n c i pal c l au se a n d ,

t w o S u b o rdi n a t e o n e s .

195A . C o mp o u n d mix e d A C o mpou n d a nd C ompl ex

sen t e n c e c a n n o w b e mo re fu ll y de n e d th a n it w a s in 193

A C o mpo u n d sen te n c e is o n e t h a t i s ma d e u p O f t w o o r
mo re C o o rdi n a te pa rts
-
.

H e re th e w id e r w o rd p a rts h a s b e en su b stitu t e d fo r th e
n a rro w e r w o rd c la u ses g iv e n in 193 .

H e sei z ed th e h i ll I a n d I o c c u pi ed th e s tro ng est po si t i o n th t h e a

fou n d th ere .

Th i s sen te n c e is C o mpo u n d th e rst pa rt b e in g c o nn e c ted ,

c o o rdi n a t el y by a n d w ith th e se c o n d a rt Th e rst pa rt i s a

p
-
.

S i mpl e sen t en c e b u t th e se c o n d pa rt i s C o mpl e x c o n sisti n g o f ,

a ma i n c l a u se h e o c c u pi ed th e stro n g est po si t i o n

and a ,
,

S u b o rdi na te c l au se th a t h e fou n d th e re ,
.

1 9 6 T h ere a re th ree kin d s O f S u b o rdi n a t e c l au ses th e

.

N o u n c l a us e th e A dj ec ti v e cl a use a n d th e A dv erb c l a u se ; a n d
-
,
-
,
-

th ese a re d e n ed as fo ll o w s
I A N ou n c la u se i s on e w hich does the w ork of a n ou n i n
.
-

rel a ti on to some w or d i n s ome other c la u se .

I I A n A djec tive c la u se i s on e w hich does the w ork of a n

.
-

a d ec ti ve i n rel a ti on to some w or d i n some o ther c la u se

j .

I I I A n A dverb c la u se is on e w hi ch does the w ork of a n a dverb

.
-

i n rela ti on to some w or d in some other c la u se 1 .

N ata Th e sa me c l a u se ma y b e N o u n c l a u se in o n e c o n t ex t ,
a -
an

A djec t i v e -
c l a u se I n a n o t h er, a n A dv erb c l a u se in a n o t h er
-
.

IVh ere M oses w a s b u ri ed i s

ti ll un k now n

s .

N o u n c l a u se , su b
to th e v erb is -
j ec t .

N O o n e h a s s e en t h e pl a c e w h ere Moses w a s b u ri ed

.

A dj -c l a u s e , qu a l y ng t h e n o u n pl a c e
. if i .

W t h o u t n o w n g it t h e A ra b s enc a mped w h ere M oses w a s b u ri ed

i k i

A dv erb c l a u se qu a l y ng t h e v erb en c a m ed
p
-
if i
.

1
I n t h ese th ree de n itio ns w ord h a s b een print e d in b l a c k t y pe ,
b ec au se, in sta ting th e kind O f c l au se, it is n ec essa ry t o st at e th e w ord t o
M a son s th ree de nitio ns ( E ng G ra mma r, p 1 6 0 ) merel y

w h ic h it rel a t es . . .

sa y in rel a t io n t o th e rest of the sen ten ce T his is ra th er to o va g ue f or .

pu rp o ses O f gu ida nc e .
96 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

18 . T h e qu e st i o n rst oc c u rri ng t o t h e mi n d o f a sa va g e i s h o w is
re t o b e ma de .

1 9 C o mmo n se n se so o n t a u g h t h im t h a t re c o u l d b e pI O du c ed b y
.
-

ru b b i n g t w o s ti c k s t o g e th er .

20 I n c h i ppi ng t h ei r i nt w ea po n s me n mu st h a v e s ee n t h a t re
.

o c c a s i o n a l l y a sh e d o u t .

21 W e l ea I n fro m tI a v el l ers t h a t sa v a g es c a n pro du c e re I n a fe w

.

s ec o n ds .

22 H e sh o u t ed o u t t o t h e th i e f,
. L e a v e th i s h ou se .

23 \Ve c a n n o t rel y o n w h a t h e sa y s
. .

24 I t i s qu i t e e v i de n t y o u h a v e ma de a mi st a k e
. .

25 I t w a s v ery u n fo rtu n a t e t h a t y o u w ere t a k e n il l

. .

26 H e w a s a ma n o f n e c h a ra c t er e x c ept t h a t h e w a s ra t h er
.

t i mi d .

II . E xp a n d ea c h S imp l e S en ten c e i n to a Comp lex one co nta i n

ing a N o un -
c l a u se or c l au ses

1 I l a d t o h ea r o f
w as r h a vi n s c c d d o w el l
.
g y o u g u ee e s .

2 . H e i s g e n era l l y b el i e v e d t o h a v e di ed o f po i son .

3 . N O o n e c a n t ell th e t i me o f h is c o ming .

O n e ma n s me a t is a no th er ma n s po i so n

4 . .

5 W e h a v e rea d o f sa v a g es b ei ng a b l e t o pro du c e re b y t h e
.

fri c ti o n o f t w o pi ec es o f w o o d .

6 H e sh o u t ed t o h is n ei g h b o u rs t o c ome t o h is h el p
. .

7 W e c a n pl a c e n o c o nden c e i n a ny o f h is w ords
. .

8 T h e fa c t o f h is h a v i ng g o n e a w a y w i t h o u t l ea v i n g u s h is
.

a ddre ss is a c l ea r ro o f o f t h e di s h o n esty o f his i n t en t i o n s

p .

9 T h e u s e fu l n e ss o f e v e n t h e si mpl est w ea po n s t o me n in th e
.

sa v a g e s ta t e w i l l e a si l b u n d e rs t ood
y e .

1 0 H is dea t h a t s o y o u n g a n a g e is mu c h t o b e reg rett e d

. .

1 1 W e mu s t h o pe for b e t t er t i me s
. .

1 2 T el l me t h e t ime a n d pl a c e o f y o u r b i rth
. .

1 3 T h e v erdi c t o f t h e j u dg e w a s i n fa v o u r O f t h e a c c u sed
. .

1 4 A l l h is st a t emen ts s h o u l d b e a c c ept ed
. .

1 5 T h ey qu e st i o n ed t h e pro pri e ty O f do i ng th a t
. .

1 6 T h e g rea t n ess O f h is l a b o u r c o u l d b e see n fro m th e resu l t

. .

1 7 M y depa rtu re w i l l depe n d u po n my g et t i ng l ea v e

. .

1 8 H e desi red t o k n o w t h e n a t u re o f h is O ff e nc e
. .

1 9 T h e b u ri a l pl a c e o f M o ses w a s n ev er k n o w n t o t h e J ew s
.
-
.

20 T h ey ex pl a i n ed t o h im t h e du ty o f c o n fes si ng h is fa u l t
. .

21 H e w a s report ed t o h a v e l o s t mo s t o f h is mo n ey
. .

22 IVe k n o w t h e n a me o f t h e w ri t er o f t h a t l ette r
. .

II . A djec ti ve c la u se
-
.

1 9 8 A n A dj ec ti v e
. h as b u t o n e fu n c ti o n , v iz
-
c l au se to .

u a l ify so me n o u n o r r n n b l n i n t o so me o th e r c l au se
q p o o u e o g g .

I n d o i ng th i s i t si mpl y d oes t h e w o rk o f a n a dj ec tiv e pro pe r .

R e me mb er th a t th e C o nj u n c tiv e pro n o u n o r C onj u n c t i v e a d v e rb ,

by w h i c h a n A dj e c t i v e c l aus e is i n t rod u c ed , mu st h a ve a R e
-

stric t i v e, not a C o n ti n u a tiv e, sen se fo r if th e sens e is

C HA P X I I I
. A N A L Y S I S I N D ETA I L 97

C on tin u a ti v e, a nd n o t R estri c tiv e, th e t

sen en c e is C o mpou nd ,
n o t C o mpl ex

(1 ) W e fou nd it in t h e pl a c e w h ere w e h a d l e t it f Comp l ex .

( 2) W e w en t to i
Br g h to n , w h ere w e spen t a w ee k Comp ou nd .

In ( 1 ) th e t
se n en ce is C o mpl ex , b ec au se th e c l ause w h ere

h a d l eft it
u a l i es th e n o u n

dj tiv
we q pl a c e as a n a e c e

w ou l d do . W h ere is h ere R est ri c tiv e . In ( )

2 t h e sen t en c e is
C o mpo u n d , b eca u se th e c l a use
k
w h ere w e spen t a w ee is

merel y C on ti n u a tiv e, c o o rdi n at e w ith th e precedi ng -
c l au se

W e w en t t o Bri gh t o n , a n d spen t a w eek there

Th e
.

N o te . C o nj u nc t i v e pron ou n ( w h en u sed in a R estri c t i v e

s en se ) i s s o met i mes l e ft o u t ( It is n ev er l eft o u t w h en t h e sen se i s
.

C o nt i n u a t i v e )
Th e fo od ( th a t or w h i ch ) h e n e eded w a s s en t .

I P i ck ou t th e A djec ti ve c la u se
.
-
or c la u ses in ea ch f
o th e
oll ow i ng exa m l es, a n d
f p p oin t ou t th e n ou n or p ron ou n qu a li ed
by i t i n so me other c la u se . If th e Conju nc ti ve p ron ou n ha s b een
omi tted a ny w here ,
supp ly it
1M a n h a s th e po w er o f ma ki n g i n stru men ts, w h i c h b ri ng i nt o
.

Vi ew stars, w h ose l i g h t h a s t a k en a t h ou sa nd y ea rs to rea c h th e ea rt h .

2 T h e rst th i n g t h a t ma n n eed ed w a s so me sh a rp edg ed t o o l

.
-
.

3 Th e ex a c t t ime w h en th e t h e ft w a s c ommi t t ed w a s n e v er fo u nd
.

4 Th e ma n by w h om th e th eft w a s c ommi tt ed h a s b een c a u g h t

. .

5 T h e h ou se w e li v ed in h a s fa l l en do w n
. .

6 T h i s is t h e sa me st ory t h a t I h ea rd t en y ea rs a g o
. .

7 I t s a n il l w i nd t h a t b l o w s n o o ne a ny g oo d

. .

8 T h i s is n o t su c h a b o o k a s I sh ou l d h a v e c h o sen
. .

9 H e ma d e h is l i v i ng by t h e present s h e rec ei v ed from t h e men

.

h e serv ed .

1 0 A ll t h a t g l i tt ers is n ot g ol d
. .

1 1 In po n ds, from w h i c h b u t a w eek b e fore th e w i n d bl ew c l ou d s

.

o f du st , men n o w c a t c h th e re a nima t ed sh -
.

1 2 A ri v er is j o i n ed a t pl a c es b y t rib u t a ri es th a t sw el l it s w a t ers
. .

1 3 O f w h a t u se is a k n o w l edg e o f b o ok s t o h im w h o fa i l s t o
.

pra c t se v rtiu e i
14 F o rtu n e s el ec ts h im fo r h er l ord, w h o re ec t s b e fo re a c t i n g
. .

15 S pri ng s a re f ed b y ra i n , w h i c h h a s perc ol a t ed t hro u g h th e

.

ro c k s or so i l .

1 6 N u nc oomar prepa re d t o die w i th th a t qu i e t fo rt i t u d e w i th

.

w h i c h t h e Be ng a l e e, so b a c k w a rd, a s a ru l e, in perso n a l c o n i c t , o ft en
enc ou nt ers c a l a mi t i e s for w h i c h th ere i s n o remed
y .

1 7 I h a v e seen th e h ou se w h ere S h a k spea re w a s b orn

. .

1 8 T h e pl a n y o u a c t ed o n h a s a n sw ered w ell
. .

1 9 T h ey a c c ept ed e v ery pl a n w e pro po sed

. .

20 S u rel y t h e st o ry y o u a re t elli ng me i s n o t tru e

. .

21 Th ri c e is h e a rmed t h a t h a t h h is qu a rrel j u st
. .

22 T h e ni g h t is l o ng th a t n e v er n ds t h e da y
. .

E G C . . . H
98 PA RS I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

23 . H e tra v el l ed h ome b y th e w ay h is fa th er sh o w ed h im .

24 . T h ere a re t i mes w h en e v ery o n e a feel s a l i ttl e s d .

25 . S u c h me n a s a re fa l se t o t h ei r fri en ds sh ou ld a l w a y s b e a vo i ded .

26 . I forg o t t o t el l y o u t h e t i me w h e n I sh a l l ret u rn .

II . E xp a n d ea c h S imp le sen ten ce i n to a Comp l ex on e c on ta i n

i ng an A djec t iv e -
c l a u se

1 . O u r prese nt h o u se su i t s u s ex a c tl y .

2 . T h i s ru l e, t h e so u rc e o f a ll o u r b
tro u l es, is d sl i ik ed by e v ery

o ne .

T h a t w a s a fa u l t no t to b e forg i v en
3 . .

T h e di a mo nd el d I s n o t fa r from h ere
4 . .

H e a n d h is fri e nd en t ered i nt o a pa rtnersh i p b i ndi n g t h em

5 .

sel v e s t o i n c ur e u a l ri sk s
q .

6 T h e ir e x pl a n a ti o n c a nno t b e t ru e
. .

7 Th e ki ng t o ok re fu g e I n t h e fo rtress, b ei ng det ermi n e d t o ma k e

.

a l a st a t te mpt i n t h a t
pl a c e t o sa v e h is ki ng do m .

8 Th e s n o w l i n e I n I ndi a 1 S a b ou t 20 , 0 0 0 feet h ig h
. .

9 T h e t ro u b l es b eset t i n g h im o n a l l si de s did n o t da u n t h im
. .

1 0 T h ey s o o n fo rg o t t h e ir pa st l a b o u rs
. .

1 1 T h i s s po t, t h e rst l a ndi ng pl a c e o f t h e P i l g rim Fa t h ers, i s h e l d

.
-

t o b e sa c red g ro u nd .

1 2 M y l ea v e a ppl i c a t i o n h a s b een di spa t c h ed

. .

1 3 I s th i s th e w a y t o l ea rn y o u r l esso n s
.

1 4 A c erta i n c h o l era c u re h a s n o t y e t b ee n fo u n d
.
-
.

1 5 E gy pt w a s o n e o f t h e rst c o u n tri es t o b e c o me c i v i l i s e d
. .

1 6 D ea t h fro m sn a k e b i t e i s o f da i l y o c c u rrenc e
.
-
.

1 7 T h e b e n e t s o f h is ea rl y t ra i n i ng w ere t h ro w n a w a y
. .

1 8 T h a t w a s t h e a c t o f a c o w a rd
. .

1 9 M i l t o n w a s t h e g rea t est po e t i n Ki ng Ch a rl es s re i g n

. .

20 Th es e h i l l s h a v e n ev er y e t b e en t ro dden b y t h e fo o t o f ma n
. .

III . The A dverb -

c l a u se .

199 . A n A dverb -
c l aus e d oes th e w or k Of an a dverb to so me
v er b dj ec t i ve o r a dverb b el ong i ng to some o th er c l a u se
,
a ,
.

A n A d v erb c l ause c a n b e i n t ro d u c ed by a n y O f th e S u b
-

o rdi na ti ve c o nj u n c t i o ns o r by th e C onj u n c t i v e a d v e rb s w here

, ,

w h en , w h ether, e t c

P ri n c ip a l C l a u se . A dverb Cl a u se -
. S u b ord Conju n c . .

i
H e w l l su c c ee d, b ec a u se h e w o rk s h a rd Ca u se .

k
H e w or e d so h a r d ,
th a t h e w a s q u i t e t i red
H e t o k me di c i n e
o th a t h e mi g h t g e t w e l l P u rp ose .

I w i l l do t h i s ,
vf l a m a l l o w ed Condi ti on .

H e i s h o n est , a l th ou g h h e i s
p o or Con tra st .

H e l ik es y o u more th a n ( h e l i k es) me Comp a ri son .

M e n w i l l re a p a s t h ey so w E x tent or M a nn er .

s t o pped

!
Th e t o o t h
w h en t h e dent ist ca me in T i me
a c h i ng
.

20 0 . A f te r th e con u n c j ti ons thou gh, w hen , u n l ess, ti ll, if ,

1 00 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S PA RT I

18 . I g a v e h im a pri z e , th a t h e mi g h t w ork h a rder n ex t y ea r .

19 . T h ey desert ed t h eir former a ssoc i a t e, w h o h a d b ec o me po or a nd

f
u n o rt u n a t e .

20 . f
A s t h e tre e a l l s, s o w ll it l ie i .

21 . i f
E v er s n c e w e l e t t h e h o u se, it h a s n o t c ea sed ra n ng i i .

22 . I s h o u l b e g l a d t o l e n d y ou t h a t mo n ey ,
d I h a d a s mu c h in if
my poc k et
ow n .

23 M urder, t h ou g h i t h a v e n o t o ng u e, w i l l y et s pea k
. .

24 U nl ess y o u l ea v e t h e h o use a t o nc e, I w i l l sen d fo r a po l i c ema n

. .

25 A j a c k a l , w h i l e pro w l i ng a b ou t t h e su b u rb s o f a t o w n , sl i pped
.

i nto a n i ndig o ta nk ; a nd no t b ei n g a b l e t o g e t o u t h e l a i d h i msel f

do w n , s o t h a t h e mi g h t b e t a k en for dea d .

26 A mb a ss a dors w ere s en t from S pa rt a , w h o sh o u l d su e fo r pea c e

. .

II . E xp a n d ea ch S imp le sen ten c e i n to a Comp lex on e c on ta i n

i ng an A dv erb -
c l a u se or c l a u ses

I n t h e a b senc e o f a ny o t h er h el per, w e mu st a c c ept h is a id

1. .

T h e t w o c h i e f po i nt s h a v i n g b e en g a i n ed, su c c ess is no w c erta i n

2. .

O w i ng t o repea t ed fa i l u res, h e ma de n o fu rt h er a tt empt

3. .

T h e pro b l em w a s t o o difc u l t t o b e so l v ed
4. .

H e w ork ed v ery w el l , t o th e a st o ni sh ment O f ev ery o n e

5. .

H e fell u nder su spi c i o n b y b ec omi ng su ddenl y ri c h

6. .

7 H e w ork ed h a rd fo r t h e purpose o f g a i ni n g a pri z e

. .

8 E v ery prec a u t i o n w a s t a k en a g a i n st t h e fa il u re o f t h e pl a n
. .

9 H e pu rpo ses t o b ec ome ri c h b y s t i c ki ng st ea di l y t o h is w o rk

. .

1 0 W i t h o u t l ea v e fro m t h e ma st er, w e sh o u l d n o t g o o u t
. .

1 1 H e w o u l d b e v ery t h a nkfu l t o b e rel i ev ed o f a ll t h i s tro u b l e

. .

1 2 W i t h or w i t h o u t h is l e a v e, I sh a ll l ea v e t h e room
. .

1 3 H e w o u l d h a v e b e en c a u g h t , b u t for h is i g h t a c ross th e b order

. .

1 4 N o t w i t h sta ndi ng t h e h ea t o f th e su n w e mu st g o o u t
. .

1 5 I n s pi t e O f a ll h is ri c h es, h e is n e v er c o nt en t ed
. .

1 6 F or a l l h is e x peri e n c e h e is st i ll i nc ompet ent

. .

1 7 T h e dept h o f t h e sea e qu a l s t h e h ei g h t o f t h e mo u n ta i n s
. .

1 8 W i t h e v ery ma n w h o c a me in, a no t h er w en t o u t
. .

1 9 O f a ll t h e b o y s in t h e c l a ss Ja mes is th e most i ndu s tri o u s

. .

20 Kee p perfec t l y si l e n t a t peri l o f y ou r l i v es

. .

2 1 Be it do n e u n t o t h e e a c c o rdi ng t o t h y b el i e f
. .

22 Th e h a rv est w i ll depe n d u po n th e so w i n g
. .

23 N o t h i ng i n my o pi n i o n w i l l pro sper u n der s u c h a ma n

. .

24 H e re t urn ed t o du t y i mmedi a t el y o n t h e e x pi ry o f h is l ea v e
. .

25 W i t h e v ery c o u g h h e fel t a g oo d de a l o f pa i n
. .

26 I n t h e perfo rma nc e o f du t y , n o o n e sh o u l d fe el a fra i d

. .

S E CTIO N 2 .
S H C E ME OF A NA L YS I S IN D E TA I L .

20 3 . S c h eme of A n a l y sis T h e sch e me O f A n a l ys i s, g i v en

.
-

a l rea dy in 8 , is h ere re ca pi tu l a t ed t o sa v e re feren c e

A ma n c o n v i nc e d a g a i n st h is w i ll is o f t h e sa me O pi n i on s ti ll .

H e ma de h ims el f mea n a n d o f n o re pu t a t i o n .

T h e sec o nd ma st er o f t h e sc h o ol h a s b een t ea c h i ng my s o n s E u c l id
i
s nc e T h u rs da y l a st .

W h om t h e g o ds l o v e die y ou ng .
C HA P X I I I . A N A LY S I S I N DE TA I L 1 01

I . SU BJ E CT . II . PREDI C A TE .

N omina tive E x t en smn O f

F i n te Verb
i .

( 1 ) D irec t C o mpl ement F in it e erb V

q
. .
.

E ui v a l ent
( a) I ndi rec t .

ma de h i msel f mea n an d
of n o re

p u t a t on i .

ma st er ( 1 ) Th e has b een ( 1 ) D i rec t

( 2) sec o n d t ea c h i ng E u c l id
(3 ) O f th e ( 2) I n
sc h ool di rec t
my so n s

20 4 N omina t iv e or it s e qu iv a l en t see h e a di n g t o c ol 1
. . .

This is th e ch i e f pa rt o f t h e S u bj ec t, a n d w h en th ere is n o
e n l a r emen t , it is th e o n l y rt I t i t h i t h a t th n u mb e r
g pa s s x es e .

a nd erson O f th e F i n it e v erb I t m t ty i a l fo rm is t h a t o f
p s o s p c .

a n ou n o r
pron ou n in th e N o mi n a tiv e case foll o w i n g is a
. Th e
li st of th e va ri ous fo rms in w h i ch a N o min a tiv e o r its e qu iva l en t
e x resse d
c an be 1
p
(1 ) N oun A sh ip w en ou t to sea e st er a y t y d

. .

( 2) A dj u sed a s N oun
. Th e b ra ve a re a l w a s respec t e y d .

(3 ) Pronou n H e ( some o ne pre v o u sl y n a med) h a s g o n e i

-
. .

(4) N ou n Inn itive ~

T o w a l k reg u l a rl y i s g o o d for h ea l th

. .

(5 ) G eru nd or Verb a l nou n R ea di ng is g oo d for t h e m n i d

.

(6) N oun ph ra se H ow to do th i s is a dii c u l t qu est on i

-
. .

(7) N ou n- c l a u se Wh om th e g ods l ove die y ou ng

S
. .

omet mes a sent en c e it , a n d th e N o m n a

N ata eg in s w th i b i H
i
t v e or it s equ v a l en is ment o n ed a t er t h e v erb
i i t
I t is ea sy t o do i f
is re u n a nt, a nd ma y b e l e t o u t in t h e

th s i
H ere t h e
.

it d d f
a na l sis
y T o do th s i s ea sy

i .

Th ere is n o n eed to c ommit this list o f f orms t o memory

1
T h ey a re .

e nu mera t ed merel t o sh o w w h a t th e stu dent ma y ex pec t t o n d Th e

y .

sa me remark a l i s t o t h e lis ts i n 20 5 -
2 0 9
pp e .
1 02 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

20 5 . E nl a rg ement see h eadi ng to col 2 T h e mo st typi ca l

. .

form is an A dj e c tiv e . We ca ll t h i s

en la r emen t,
g

b ec au se a n

ad e c t v e , a c c o r
j i di ng t o th e d e n iti on g iven in 1 2,
is a w or d
th a t en l a rg es th e mean i n g o f a n ou n a n d n a rro w s i ts a ppl i ca t i on .

Th e fol l ow i ng is a l ist O f th e vari ou s forms in w h i c h an

en l a r emen t d

g c a n b e ex p r esse

( )
l A d j e c t iv e J u st men deserv e t o prosper

. .

( )
2 P a r t i c ip l e A f erti l i si ng s h o w er fell t o d a y

.

( ) Q
3 u a li f y gin I n n W a t er to dri n k is sc a rc e in th i s pl a c e
Y
. .

( 4 ) P o sse ssiv e nou n or pronou n ou r t ea c h er h a s me

co .

( 5 ) N ou n u sed a s A dj T h e vi l l a g e sc h oo l O pen s a t e g h t A M i

. . .

( 6 ) G eru nd u sed a s A dj D ri n king w a t er is sc a rc e h ere

1
. .

( 7 ) Prep w ith ob j ec t A ma n of virtu e do es n o t t el l l es i

. . .

( 8 ) A dverb w ith Def artic l e Th e th en n g d ed su dden l ki i

y
. .

( 9 ) N ou n in A pposit ion C h a rl e s, my son , h a s c ome

.

( )
1 0 N ou n -
c l au se in A ppo s Th e ru mo u r th a t h e w a s dea d is a l se f

. .

( )
1 1 A d j t
ec iv e -
c l a u se Th e h ou se i n w hi ch w e l i ve h a s ee n so ld
. b .

20 6 Fin it e v erb : see h ea di n g to c ol

. . 3 . Th i s is th e c hi e f
p t o f th e predi ca te a nd w h en th e v erb
a r , , is I n transi ti v e and o f

C o mpl e t e predi c a ti on it c an b e th e on l y
pa rt ; as ,

H ogs

gru n t .

If tense o r moo d O f th e F i n ite v erb is formed n o t by

th e ,

in e x io n b u t by th e h el p o f o n e o f th e S ix A u x i l i a ry v erb s
,

rememb er th a t th e A u x i l i a ry v erb a n d th e P ri n c i a l
p
verb togeth er ma k e u p th e F i ni te verb and mu st b e men ti on ed ,

tog e th er in c ol u mn 3 .

S u b j ec t . Finite verb . O b j ec t .

ha ve b een exa mi ni ng i
t h e p c t u res .

Bu t if th e pre vi ou s v erb is n o t A u x i l i a ry , a s w i l l, for i nsta n c e,

w h en it o cc u rs in th e rst perso n o f th e F u tu re t ens e in
su c h a sen t en c e w i ll a l o n e ma k es th e F i n i te v erb , a n d th e N o u n

I n n itive th a t fo ll ow s is its O bj ec t

S u b j ec t . Finite verb . O b j ec t .

see h im t o -
mo rro w .

1
In phsu c h a
r ase as a b ru t e o f a m a n , t h e o

f d en o t es a ppo sitio n,

a ma n a b ru t e , i e a b ru tish ma n , a ma n w h o is a b ru te

. . . In su c h a

ph f
ra s e, th ere ore, th e sense is a na l o g ou s t o a n d n ot t o
1 04 PA R S I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

ten s i on mean s th e sa me t h i ng as en l a rg e men t . Bu t as o ne

rel a tes i i v erb a nd th e o th er to th e N o min a t ive o r

to th e F n te ,

its e qu i v a l en t it is c on v en i en t in a n a l ysi n g sen t en c es to g i v e

,

t h em sepa ra te n ames .

T h e foll o w i n g a re th e va ri ou s fo rms in w h i c h
e x t en si o n

c an b e e x ressed
p
(1 ) A dverb H e sl ept s ou ndl y
Prep w it h ob j ec t H e sl e pt f or six h ou rs
.

( 2)

. . .

(3 ) A dj ec t iv e H e W e n t a w a y sa d
P a rt i c i pl e H e w en t a w a y di sapp oi n ted
.

(4 )

.

(5 ) Q u a l if y in g I n n H e c a me to see t h e h o rse

A dverb ia l ob j ec t ive Bi nd him h a nd a nd f o ot

. .

(6)

.

( 7) A b s ol u t e p h ra e
s W e a ll set o ff , h e rema i n i ng b ehi nd .

(8) A dv erb c l a u se W e a l l se t O ff, w h i le h e rema i n ed b eh i nd

-
.
-
.

N ote T h e st u den t mu st n o t b e s u rpri sed t h a t in ( 3 ) a n a djecti ve

is i nc l u ded a mo n g fo rms o f ex t en s i o n , t h e ty pi c a l form o f w h i c h i s a n
a dverb . A n a l y s i s is n o t t h e sa me t h i ng a s pa rsi ng th ere a re t h ree
differen c es a t l e a st ( 1 ) I n a n a l y si s t h e u n i t t o b e dea l t w i th is a
.

s e n t e nc e ; in pa rs i n a si n l e w o rd ( 2 ) A n a l y si s dea l s w i t h g ra mma r
g g
.

o n it s l o g i c a l s i de ;
pa rsi ng 0 11 it s sy nt a c t i c a l Th e w ord sa d,

.

t h o u g h it is a n a dj ec t i v e i n fo rm a n d i n sy nta x , is a dv erb i a l i n
fu nc ti o n I n w h a t ma nn er or in w h a t sta te o f mi nd did h e g o
.

aw a
y I n a sa d s t a t e T h e w o rd sa d. t h e re fo re q u a l i es t h e v erb

w e nt a w a y i n j u st t h e sa me w a y a s if it w e re ex pre ssed in t h e

fo rm sa dl y T h e sa me rema rk a ppl i e s t o t h e pa rt i c i pl e
. dis
a
ppo i n t ed i n t h e fo u rt h sen t enc e ( 3 ) Th ere a re some w o rds w h i c h .

c an b e a rs ed, b u t do n o t c o me w i t h i n t h e fra mew o rk O f a n a l s i s a t

p y
a ll su c h a s a n i n t er j ec ti o n, a n ex c l a ma t ory ph ra se, a nomi na t iv e of
a ddress

D
.

S E CTIO N 2
3 . E GRE E S OF S U BO R D I N A T I O N .

21 0 . r
D eg e es o f S u b or di n a t i o n T h e fol l o w i ng sen t en c e
ma y b e t a k en as an e x a mpl e for an al ysi s
O n e m n i n t h e a u di enc e w h o w s c h i e f ma g i stra t e o f th e t o w n
a ,
a

a n d h p en d t o b e
a
p perese n t
o n s e e i n g t h t t h e l i o n f w n ed o n
,
a a

A n droc l es w h e n it w s e x pec t e d t o t ea r h im t o pi ec es c l l e d o u t w it h
,
a ,
a

a l o u d v oic e nd o rdered A ndro c l e s t o ex pl a i n h o w a s v g e b e st

,
a a a a

c o u l d h v e so fo rg o tt en it s i nn a t e di s o si t i o n a l l O f a su dden t h a t it
a
p ,

b ec a me c o n v ert ed i n t o a h rml e ss a ni ma l w h i c h c h o se to s p re it s
a ,
a

i nt ended V i c tim ra t h er t h a n dev ou r h im .

N o w w h en w e c o me to di v id e th i s sen t en c e i n to i ts c o m
,

p o n en t c l au ses w e n d rst l y
,
t h a t it is a C o m ,p o u n d se n t e n c e
, ,

c o n si st i n f t w c o o rdi n a te c l a u se s c o n n ec ted by a n d a n d
g O o -
,

sec o n d l y th a t e a c h O f th e c o o rdi n a t e c l a u ses c on t a i n s su b o rdi n a t e

,
-

o n es th e fo rme r c o n t a i n i n t h ree a n d th e l a t t er fo u r
, g ,
.

Th e tw o c o o rdi n a te c l a u ses w h i c h a re c o n n ec t ed by a n d a nd
-
,

ma k e th e sen ten c e a C ompou nd o n e a re ma rk ed by A a n d B , .

C HA P XI I I
. A N A L Y S I S IN D E TA I L 1 05

( A ) O ne ma n in th e au i f ma g i stra te O f t h e
di enc e ( a ) w h o
,
w as c h e

t o w n ( b ) a n d h a ppen ed t o b e pres e n t o n s ee i n g ( x ) t h t t h e l i o n ,
a

fa w n ed o n A ndro c l es ( y ) w h en it w a s e x pec t ed t o t e r h im t o pi ec es
,
a ,

c a l l ed ou t w i t h a l o u d v o i c e ( B) a n d o rdered A n dro c l es t o e x pl a i n ( a )
,

h o w a sa v a g e b e a st c o u l d h a v e so forg o t t e n it s i nn a t e di spo si t i o n a l l
o f a s u dden ( b ) t h t i t b ec me c o n v ert ed i n t o a h a rml e ss a n im l ( c )
,
a a a ,

w h i c h c h o se t o sp re i t s i nt en de d V i c tim ra t h er ( d) t h n t o dev o r him

a a u .

I n (A ) w e see th a t c l a u se ( ) a is an a dj ec tive -
c l a u se in th e rst

d egree , q if
u al yi n g th e n ou n m an c l a u se (b is c o o rdi n a t e t o
)

-

c l ause (a ) a n d th ere fo re a sec on d a dj ec t iv e c l a u se t o th e n ou n

,
-

man
c l a u se (x) is a n ou n c l au se in th e rst d e ree O bj ec t t o
g
-
,

th e verb see i n g c l a u se (y ) is a n a dv erb c l a u se in th e sec on d

-

d eg ree qu ali fyin g th e verb faw n ed

,
.

I n (B) w e see th a t cl au se (a ) is a n o un c l au se in th e rst -

d eg ree O bj e c t to th e verb expl a i n
,
c l a u se ( b i s a n a dv erb c l a u se
)

-

in th e seco n d d eg ree qu a li fyi n g th e verb ,
fo rg o tten c l a u se (0)
is an a dj ec ti v e c l a u se in th e th i rd d egree qu al if yi n g th e n ou n
-
,

a ni ma l a n d c l a u se (d) is a n a dv erb c l a u se in th e fou rth d e ree

g
-
,

u a l ifyi n g th e v erb

c h ose
q .

Th e d egree O f Su b o rdi n a ti on (a s rst sec o nd t hi rd fou rth , , , ,

is sh o w n by th e numb er of l i n es d raw n u n d er th e c l au se
c on c e rn ed .

21 1 Ta b ul a r f orm of A n a l y sis
. Befo re b eg i n n i n g to
a n al y se a sen t en c e o f ma n y c l au ses in t a bu l a r fo rm, it w i ll
b e b est to w rit e it ou t w i th th e c l a u ses ma rk ed O ff in th e ma nn er
sh o w n in 21 0 T h is w ill serv e as a k ey t o th e ta b ul a ti on , o f
.

w hi ch a c o mpl e t e ex a mpl e is g i v en on pa g e 1 0 6 .

W ord s th a t a re u n d erst ood mu st b e su ppl i ed : th ey ca n b e

sh o w n in b ra c k ets in t h e ir pro per c o l u mn .

W ords w hi c h do n ot c ome w i th i n th e fra mew o rk o f a n a l ysi s

must b e l eft ou t a s, for i ns ta n c e, a n i n t erj ec ti on , a n ex c l a ma t ory
p h ras e ,
a n ou n u se d f o r u
p pr oses O f a dd ress see N o te t o
g 2 0 9 .

Th i s h ea v y ra i n , a l a s h a s spo il t th e h a rv est th i s y ea r .

Th e fa rmers, p oor f el l ow s h a v e l ost h ea v i l y .

F ri ends, R oma n s, c ou n try men , l en d me y ou r ea rs .

A pa r ent h et ic a l nt en c e c a n n o t b e c o n sid ere d a c la u se

se o f
th e se n te n c e i nt o w h i c h it h a s b een w ed g ed .

M r R ( so a t l ea st h is fri e n ds sa y ) w i l l so o n re ti re
. . .

H ere th ere a re tw o di sti n c t sen t en c es to b e a n a l y sed

( 1 ) M r R w i ll soo n retire . . .

( )
2 S o a t l e a st h is fri en ds sa y .
P A RS I N G A N D A N A L Y S I S P A RT I

6 8
.

4
.

28 E 5
8 E
.

S 4 5 a
m 5 w m
E 8 3 o
9 o
8 z w
5
E - 5 5 t 5
0
0 5
3 m 5
8

2 . 2
G o 9 mm -
5
.
a a
w m S 8 E
$ 4 E a 5 o S E E
E > : g
d
E
8 s
m3 5 m o
E 9 m E
0
8 S 5 3 G v

8 : ?
O

3 58 a 0 2
H
o

83
.

x c 5
O c
p 2 B S o a
g
0 o
5 :
s

5
0 o
S8
v s
c 2 g
: 8 O
c
s p o 3
2 w A 9 w E5 m o s
a s
s
1 08 PA R S I N G A N D A N A LY S I S P A RT I

1 . By t orc h a nd tru mpet f a st a rra y ed,

E a ch h o rsema n drew h is b a ttl e b l a de,
A n d f u ri ou s e v ery c h a rg er n ei g h e d,
To joi n t h e drea dful re v el ry CA MP BE L L .

0
1 L e t me h ea r w h a t y ou h a v e to sa y .

3
9 l Veek i n , w eek ou t, fro m mo rn t il l n i g h t ,
Y o u ma y h ea r h is b e l l ow s b l ow L O NGF E L L O W . .

4 O n L i nden , w h e n t h e su n w a s l ow ,
.

A l l b l oodl ess l a y t h e u n tro dden sn o w ,

A n d da rk a s w i nt er w a s t h e o w
O f I ser ro l l i ng ra pi dl y C A MP BE L L

. .

5 P erdi t i o n c a tch my s ou l , b u t I l o v e t h e e
.
S H A KS P E A R E . .

6 I c a nno t b u t b eli eve t h a t y o u a re l o st

. .

7 T h es e men , tha n w h om I h a v e n e v er k n o w n men mo re u n

.

w i l l i n g h a v e su dde n l y l e ft me , me rel y b ec a u se I a sk ed t h em to w o rk
,

a l i tt l e o v ert i me o n a c c o u nt o f t h e orders th a t I u n ex ec t edl y rec e i v ed

p
th i s mo rn i ng fro m h ea dqu a rt ers .

8 T o ll fo r t h e b ra ve
.

B ra ve Kempen fel t is g o n e
H is l a st sea g h t i s f ou g h t,

-

H is w o rk o f g l ory don e CO W P E R . .

9 C o w a rds die ma ny ti mes b e fore t h ei r d ea t h

T h e va li a n t on l y t a ste o f dea t h b u t o nc e S H A KS P E A R E
.

. .

1 0 I n o w g a v e o ver a ny mo re t h o u g h t s o f th e sh i p, or O f g etti n g
.

a n th i n
y g o u t o f h er, ex cep t w h a t mi g h t dri ve a sh ore from t h e w rec k , -

a s i n deed di v ers
pi ec es o f h er a ft erw a rds di d ; b u t t h o se th i ng s w ere
o f sma l l u se t o me R ob i n son Cru soe
.
-
.

1 1 I l ik e a ra sc a l to b e p u n i sh ed, w h en I a m qu i t e su re t h a t h is
.
1

g u i l t h a s b een p roved b e fo re a ju ry w h o h a d n o prej u di c e a g a i n st h im,

b e fore t h ey b e g a n h ea ri ng h is c a se .

1 2 Th e rea so n w h y t h e s ev en sta rs a re n o more th a n sev en is a

.

p r e t t rea s o n S H A KS P E A R E
y . .

1 3 J u st so w e h a v e h ea rd a b ab y , mou n t ed o n t h e sh ou l ders o f it s
fa th er, c ry ou t, H o w mu ch ta ll er I a m th a n pa pa M A CA UL A Y
. .

14 .Th ere is n o de spa i r so a b so l u t e a s th a t w h i c h c o mes w i t h t h e

rst momen t s o f o u r rst g rea t sorro w , w h en w e h a v e n o t y et k n o w n
w h a t it i s to h a ve sujfered a n d b e h ea l ed, t o h a v e des pa ired a nd t o h a v e
rec o v ered h o pe G E L I O T . .

1 5 M u si c , w h en s o ft v o i c es die ,
.

Vib ra t es in th e memory
O dou rs , w h en sw eet v i o l ets si c k en,
L i v e w i t h i n t h e sen se th ey qu i c ken S HE L L E Y .

1
Th e e x pl a n a tio n
g iv en i n 9 2 is th a t to b e p u n i she d is t h e I nn orm . f
O f C o mpl ement a nd th is a g rees w ith t h a t g iv en b y A b b o tt in 9 7 and
1 05 in H ow to P a rse D r G o w , h ow ever, in M eth od of E ng lis h , p 1 1 7 ,
. . .

h as e x pressed th e Vie w th a t to b e p u n ish ed = pu n ish ment ) is th e D irec t

O b j ec t t o th e v e rb =

l ik e, a nd a ra sc a l ( f o r a ra sc a l ) t h e I n direct .

Both view s a ppea r t o b e t ena b l e ; b u t on g ro unds O f c o nv en ien c e I h a ve

a do pted t h e f o rmer I t c ov ers th e g rou n d O f su c h a sentenc e a s
. I sa w
h im c o me
I sa w come ( Direc t

Th is c o u l d sc arc el y b e b rok en u p int o
.

Ob j ec t ) f o r h i m
mm QUE S TI O N S A N D E X A M P LE S 1 09

16 W oe
th e c h a se, w oe w o r h th e da y ,
w orth t

.

Th a t c os t h y l if e, my g a ll a n t g rey l S C O
t TT .

1 7 W h a t mu st t h e n g do n o w ? M u s h e su b mi t ?
ki t

.

Th e ng sh a ll do it ki S H A KS P E A R E . .

f k
1 8 A t ou r o c l oc P M w e rea c h e d Y o r , w h i ch i s a n e o l d t o w n
. . . k
i
da t ng a c t o t h e t me o f t h e R oma n s, t h o u g h t h ey c a ll e d it b y a
b k i
f erent n a me , th a t c a nn o t n o w rememb er
di f I .

1 9 F o r w h a t a re men ett er t h a n sh eep a nd g o a ts

. b
i
T h a t n o ur sh a b l nd l e w th n t h e ra n , i if i i b i
k i
If, n o w ng G o d, t h e l t n o t h a nds o f pra y er y if
B o h f or th emsel ves a nd t h ose w h o c a ll h em r en d
t t fi
TE NNY S O N .

20 O u r d eed s sh a l l tra vel w i th u s from a fa r,

A n d w h a t w e h a v e b ee n ma k es u s w h a t w e a re G E L I O T
.

- -
. . .

21 Bec a u se h a l f a do z en g ra ssh o ppers u n der a fern ma k e t h e el d

.

ri ng w i t h t h ei r import u n a t e c h i nk , w h i l e th o u sa n ds o f g rea t c a t tl e,
repo si ng b e n ea th t h e sh a d o w o f th e Bri t i sh o a k , c h e w t h e c u d a nd
a re s i l en t , p ra y do n o t i ma g i n e t h a t t h o se w h o ma k e t h e n o i se a re th e

o n l y i n h a bi t a n t s o f t h e el d BURK E .

22 . F or w h en th e n ob l e Caesa r sa w h im sta b ,
I ng ra titu de, more strong th a n tra it ors a rms,

Qu i t e v a nqu ish d h im th en b u rst h is mi g h t y h ea rt

A nd, in h is ma ntl e mu ffl i ng up h is fa c e,
E v en a t th e b a se O f P ompey s st a t u a ,

W h i c h a ll th e w hi l e ra n b l ood, g rea t Caesa r fell S H A KS P E A R E .

.

23 . L et me
tel l y ou t h a
now t
every six h o urs o f st u dy w l l b e i
i i
nj u r ou s t o y o u r h ea l th , u nl ess y ou rea th e per o w th h a l a n b k i d i f
h o u r s w a lk in th e o pen a ir o r w th some l g h o rm o f rec rea t o n th a t
i i tf i

ca n gi ve reli e t o t h e ra nf b i .

24 H e w a s pro u d, w h en
.
p ra se ; h e w a s I
su m s s i d
v e ,
w h e n b i i I
repro v e him ; b u t h e did n ev er l ove me, a n d w h a t h e n o w m st a es
d i k
for j u st c e a nd in dn es s f or me, is b u t t h e pl ea sa nt sen sa t o n th a t a l l
ki i
p er so n s eel a t revfi si ti n g t h e s c e n es o f t h e r o i sh h o p e s a n d ea rs , i b y f
a n d t h e seei ng o n e u a l t erms t h e ma n th e
q w ere a c c u st o me t o l oo y d k
up i
to w t h rev ere nc e .

I I Gen era l Qu estions

1 W h en a S i ng u l a r n ou n e nds I n a n 3 sou nd h o w I s th e Po ssessi v e
.
,

S i n a ff ec t ed H o w I s th e P o ssessi v e ex pressed I n pl u ra l s
g
2 W h a t a re W ea k v erb s ? C l a ssify b ri n g si n g ta ke seek tea ch
.
, , , , ,

set b l eed ea t a s S tro n g o r W ea k

, ,
G i v e rea so n s in e c h c a se
. a .

3 N a me a l l th e A u x i l i a ry v erb s
. W h y a re th ey so c a l l ed D is
.

ti ng u ish t h em fro m e v ery o t h er c l ass o f v erb .

4 D i st i ng u i sh th e u se s o f b u t in t h e foll ow i ng sent enc es

.

Th ere is b u t one ma n present .

I i
b u t b el e v e th a t y o u a re l o st
c a nno t .

H e is a c l ev er ma n , b u t n ot l ea rned in b oo s k .

Th ere w a s n o o n e prese nt b u t p t ed th e l a me h orse ii .

H e w a s a l l b u t ru ned b y th a t n v estment
i i .

5 . E x pl a i n an d ex e mpl ify th e differenc e b et w een E x t en sio n a nd

1 10 P A R S I N G A N D A N A LYS I S P A RT I

C o mpl e ti o n of a F i n i te v er b ,
a nd b et w een a D irec t a nd a n I ndirec t
O b j ec t .

6 Po i nt
. th e g ra mma t c a l d f eren c e b etw e e n th e in su c h a
ou t i if
sen t e n c e a s H e did h is du ty , a n d w a s th e h a pp er fo r it, a nd th e in i
su c h a se nt enc e a s H e w a s th e h a pp er o f th e t w o i .

7 A c c o u n t fo r th e resem l a n c e in o rm b etw ee n th e V erb a l n ou n

. b f
a n d t h e P re s e n t P a rt c
pl e i i
P a rse a l l th e w ords e nd ng in i n g in
. i -

. i
t h s se n t e n c e ki
D a r l ng , w e w e nt s n g ng o n o u r w a y , w th o u r i i i
w al ki -
ik
n g st c s i n o u r h a n ds, w ea r o f t o l n
y g in t o w n

ii .

8 S h o w b y w h a t mea n s Tra ns t v e v erb s in E ng l sh c a n b e u sed

. ii i
ii
i ntra n s t vel a n d vi c e versa y Ca n I ntra ns t v e v erb s b e c onj u g a t ed
. ii
i n t h e P a ss v e v o c e i i
I f so , t o w h a t ex t en t ?
if
9 C l a ss y v e rb s o f I nc o mpl et e pred c a t o n , a n d e x empl y t h e
. i i if
di re n t orms th a t th e C ompl eme nt ma y a ssu me w th e a c h c l a ss o f
f i
'

v er g
10 W h a t princ i pl e w ou ld y o u a do pt in c l a ssify i ng n ou n s in
.

E n g l i sh E x empl ify e a c h c l a ss .

1 1 E x empl ify t h e u se s o f t h e Qu a l ify i ng o r G eru ndi a l I n ni t i v e

. .

I s th ere a ny c o nn ec t i o n in o ri g i n b e t w e e n th i s a nd w h a t w e n o w c a ll
a G eru n d o r V erb a l n o u n

1 2 E x pl a i n a n d e x empl ify th e me a n i ng o f ea c h o f th e A u x i l i a ry
.

v erb s, w h e n t h e s a i d v erb s a re n o t u se d a s A u x i l i a ri es .

1 3 U nder w h a t c i rc u mst a n c es a re w e deb a rred from pa rsi ng tha n

.

a s a c o nj u n c t i o n ? To w h a t pa rt o f speec h mu st w e t h e n a ss i g n it ?
G i v e e x a mpl es .

1 4 E x pl a i n th e po i nt s o f resemb l a nc e a nd th e po i n t s o f differe nc e
.

b e t w ee n ( a ) a dj ec ti v es a nd a dv erb s, ( b ) prepo si t i o n s a n d c o nj u nc t io n s .

1 5 E x pl a i n a nd e x empl ify th e t erms I mp erson a l verb s, D ef ec ti ve

.

verb s , I rreg u l a r verb s, A u xili a ry verb s, F a c ti ti ve verb s, Cop u l a ti ve

verb s .

1 6 W h a t is mea n t b y th e ca se o f a n ou n ? H o w did t h e w o rd
.

c o me t o b e u se d in su c h a se n se
1 7 H o w do w e e x press s impl y fu t u ri ty ( 1 ) in F i n i te v erb s, ( 2) in
.

t h e a b so l u t e c o nst ru c t i o n ? G i v e e x a mpl e s .

1 8 W h a t fo rm o f th e I n de n i t e a rt ic l e do y o u u se b e fo re th e w o rds

.

h i sto ry , h i stori c a l , E u rop ea n , u su a l , h u mb l e, ew e ? G iv e rea so n s .

1 9 S pec ify , w i t h e x a mpl es, t h e v a ri o u s mea n i ng s a nd u ses O f o n e

.

in o u r l a n g u a g e .

20 G i v e i nst a nc es o f th e c o n v e rsi o n O f A b stra c t no u ns i nt o C o n

.

c re t e , P ro per i n t o C o mmo n , M a t eri a l i n t o C o mmo n .

21 D e n e a se n t e n c e
. H o w w o u l d y ou de a l w ith th e fo l l o w i ng ?
.

(1 )
g o ; ( 2) h en ce ( 3 ) does i t ra i n y es l et u s retu rn .

22 E x pl a n a n d e x empl i y

. i
p ro n o u n ,

p ro v e rb , f - -

sen t e n c e .

23 E x pl a n ni te in t h e ph ra se
. i F n t e v e rb M e nt io n th o s e i i .

jpa rt s o f a v erb w h c h a re n o t n t e i i .

f
24 E x a min e t h e o l l o w ng den t o n s O f a pre po s tio n
. i ii i
f
A w o rd u se d b e o re a n o u n o r pro n o u n t o sh o w it s re l a t o n i
t o so me o th er w o rd

.

A w o rd t h a t c o nn ec t s a n o u n w t h a v e rb , a n a dj ec t v e , o r

i i
o t h er n o u n .

25 . G iv e ex a mpl es o f th e th ree ma i n sen ses in w h ic h th e Po ssessi v e

112 P A R S IN G A N D A N A LY S I S PA RT I

W h oev er t h e king fa v ou rs
Th e i
c a rd n a l w ill
nd empl o y men t fo r .

1 1 H ere y o u ma y see th a t V i si o n s a re t o drea d

. .

1 2 N o th i ng b u t w a i l i ng s w a s h ea rd
. .

1 3 N e i th er o f t h em a re rema rk a b l e f or prec i si o n
. .

1 4 I c a n no t t ell if it b e w i se o r n o
. .

1 5 I t mu st b e c o n fessed th a t a l a mpo o n o r a sa t i re do n o t c a rry

.

in t h em ro b b ery o r mu rder Sp ecta tor

. .

1 6 W h o se o w n ex a mpl e stre ng th e ns a l l h is l a w s,
.

A nd is h i msel f th e g rea t su b l ime h e dra w s .

1 7 T h ey w ere b o th fo nd o f o n e a n o th er
. .

1 8 T h ersit es s b o dy is a s g o o d a s A j a x , w h e n n ei th er a re a l i v e

. .

1 9 Th ou a rt mu c h o l der t h a n th y l o o k s
. .

20 Th ere w ere n o l e ss t h a n v e perso ns c o nc ern ed

. .

21 R ec i t e t h e rst six l i n es o f P a ra di se L ost

. .

22 N e i th er h e n o r w e a re di sen g a g ed
. .

23 O n e o f t h e b e st b o o k s th a t h a s b ee n w rit t en o n th e su b j ec t
. .

24 I l ik e it b e t t er t h a n a ny
. .

25 A nd si nc e I nev er da re t o w ri te
.

A s fu nny a s I c a n .

26 L a y i n g t h e su spi c i o n o n so me o ne , I k n o w n o t w h o
. .

27 W e l l is h im th a t h a th fo u n d pru denc e
.

28 N ei th e r h e n o r I h a v e a ny dou b t o f his su c c ess

. .

29 O n e o f t h e b est trea t i ses t h a t h a s b een w ri t ten o n th e su b j ec t

. .

3 0 I a m o ne o f t h ose w h o c a nn o t desc ri b e w h a t I do no t se e
. .

3 1 T h e c o u ntry w a s di v i ded i nt o c ou nt i es, a nd t h e c o u n ti es

.

l a c ed u nder ma g i stra t es
p .

3 2 N o b o dy e v er pu t so mu c h o f th emsel v es i nt o th e ir w o rk
. .

3 3 H e h a t h g i v en a w a y a b o v e h a l f h is fo rtu n e t o th e L o rd k no w s
.

w ho .

3 4 F ri endsh i ps w h i c h w e o nc e h o ped a n d b el i ev ed w o u l d n e ve r
.

g ro w c o l d .

3 5 N e po s a n sw ered h im, C el su s repl i ed, a nd n ei th er o f th em were

.

spa ri ng o f c en su res o n e a c h o t h er .

3 6 S u c h a re a f ew o f t h e ma n y pa ra do x es o n e w o u l d c i t e fro m his
.

w ri t i n g s , a n d w h i c h a re n o w b e fo re me .

3 7 T h e l a rg est c irc u l a ti o n o f a n y L i b era l n ew spa pe r

. .

3 8 I nj u st ic e s pri ng s o nl y fro m th ree c a u ses

. N e i th er o f th ese.

c a n b e fo u nd i n a b ei ng w i se , po w erfu l , a n d b e n e v o l en t .

3 9 T h i s dedi c a t i o n ma y s erve a l mo st fo r a ny b o o k th a t h a s, i s, o r
.

sh a l l b e pu bl i sh ed .

4 0 I n th e b est c ou nt ri es a ri se in rent s a nd w a g es h a s b ee n fou n d

.

t o g o t o g eth er .

4 1 H e b e l o ng s t o o n e c a st e , a nd th e h ew ers o f w o o d a nd dra w e rs
.

o f w a t er t o a n o t h er .

4 2 Th e sec o nd a ssa u l t w a s met b y Bu c ki ng h a m b y a c o u nt er

.

a t t a c k o n t h e E a rl o f Bri st o l , w h o m h e k n e w w ou l d b e t h e c h i e f

w i t n e ss a g a i n st h im .

4 3 A nd ma ny a h ol y t e x t a rou nd sh e strew s,
.

T h a t t ea c h th e ru sti c mo ra l i st t o die .

4 4 Th i s v i ew h a s b ee n ma i nt a i n ed b y o n e o f th e g rea t est w ri t ers

.

t h a t h a s a ppea red in th i s c ou nt ry .
PA R T 1 QU E S T I O N S A N D E X A M P LE S 1 13

45 . Th e admi n i stra t i o n o f
ma ny v a ri ou s i n t erests
so ,
a nd of

di stri c t s so remo t e dema nd n o

c o mmo n c a pa c i ty a n d v i g o u r
, .

4 6 H e h a v i ng n o n e b u t th em t h ey h a v i n g n o n e b u t h e
.
, .

4 7 Brea ki ng a c o n st i t u t i o n b y t h e v ery sa me erro rs t h a t

. so ma ny
h a v e b ee n b ro k e b e fo re .

4 8 T h e y a re n o t o nl y t h e mo st c h a ri ta b l e o f a ny o th er n a t i o n , b u t
.

mo st j u dic i ou s in di st i n g u i sh i ng th e pro perest o b j ec t s o f c ompa ssi o n .

4 9 T h e pa rt o f t h i s reed u sed b y t h e I n di a n s i s fro m 1 0 t o 1 1 fee t

.

l o ng , a n d n o t a peri ng c a n b e perc ei v ed, o n e e n d b ei ng a s t h i c k a s

a n o t h er .

5 0 I f h e h a d w ri t o ne w ord b y th e n ex t post , th i s h a d b een j u st

.

a nd c i v i l .

5 1 Th ou l o v est , b u t n e er k n ew l o v e s sa d sa t i e ty

.

5 2 Al a c b eth Th ere s b l o o d u po n t h y fa c e

. . .

M u ral T is Ba n qu o s t h en
. .

Ti s b ett er th ee w i th o u t th a n h e w i th i n

M acb . .

5 3 T h i s is h e , my ma st er sa i d,
.

D espi sed t h e fa ir A th e n i a n ma i d .

5 4 L u c ki l y th e mo nk s h a v e rec en t l y g i v e n a w a y a c o u pl e o f do g s
.

w h i c h w ere retu rn ed t o t h em, o r t h e b reed w ou ld h a v e b ee n l o st .

5 5 I t w a s t h e most a mi a b l e , a l t h o u g h t h e l ea st di g ni ed, o f a l l
.

th e pa rty squ a bb l es b y w h i c h it h a d b een prec e de d .

5 6 H a v i ng perc ei v e d t h e w ea k n ess o f h is po ems , t h ey n o w re a ppea r

.

t o u s u n der n e w t i t l e s .

5 7 N ei t h er y ou n o r I a m ri g h t
. .

5 8 I a m o n e o f t h ose w h o c a nn o t desc ri b e w h a t I feel

. .

5 9 W h o m t h ey w ere I rea ll y c a n n o t spe c ify

. .

6 0 W h om do y o u sa y t h a t I a m ?
.

6 1 H is i s a po em, o n e o f t h e c o mpl et est w o rk s t h a t e x i st s i n a ny

.

l a ng u a g e .

6 2 H e w a s sh o t by a sec ret a ry u nder n o ti c e t o qu i t , w i t h w h om

.

h e w a s n di n g fa u l t , v er
y fo rtu n a t el y w i th o u t effec t .

6 3 I t is c h a ra c t eri st i c o f th em t o a ppea r b u t t o o n e perso n , a n d

.

h e t h e mo st l ik el y t o b e del u ded .

6 4 I t h i n k it ma y a ssi st t h e rea d er b y pl a c i ng th em b e fo re h im in
.

c h ro n o l o i c a l o rder
g .

6 5 F ew peo pl e l ea rn a n y th in g th a t is w o rth l ea rn i ng e a si l y
. .

6 6 M y re so l u t i o n is t o spa re n o ex pense in e du c a t i o n
. it is a b a d
c a l c u l a t i o n , b ec a u se it i s th e o n l
y a dv a n ta g e o v er w h i c h c i rc u mst a nc es
h a v e n o c o n t ro l .

6 7 Ima g e a fter ima g e, ph ra se a ft er ph ra se , st a rt s ou t v i v i d, h a rsh ,

.

a nd em h a t ic
p .

6 8 Bo o k s th a t w e c a n a t a g l a nc e c a rry o ff w h a t is in t h em a re
.

w o rse t h a n u sel ess fo r di sc i pl i n e .

6 9 H e preferred t o k n o w th e w o rst th a n t o drea m t h e b est

. .

7 0 H u ma n i t y seldom o r ev er sh o w s i t se l f in i n feri o r mi nds

. .

7 1 Y o u h a v e a l rea dy b e en i n fo rmed o f t h e sa l e o f F o rd s th ea tre ,

.

w h ere M r L i n c o l n w a s a ssa ssi n a t ed, fo r re l i i ou s r

.
g p p
u o ses .

7 2: T h e M o or, sei z i ng a b ol st er, fu ll o f ra g e a nd j ea l ou sy , smo th ers

h er .

7 3 N or do I k n ow a ny o n e w i th w h om I c a n c o nv erse more
.

pl ea sa n tl y or I w ou l d pre fer a s my c ompa ni o n .

E G C
. . .
I
114 P A R S IN G A N D A N A LY S I S P A RT I

74 Th ey dro w n ed th e b l a c k a n d w h i t e ki t t ens
. .

1 0 T h e th e n M i n i st ry w ere i n fa v o u r o f t h e b i ll
. .

7 6 T h e peo pl e is o n e th ey h a v e a l l o n e l a ng u a g e
. .

7 7 G eo rg e a nd my sel f w en t u p th e mou n t a i n t o g eth er

. .

7 8 T h e D u k e o f W ell i ng to n is o n e o f t h o se w h o n e v er i nt erfere
'

w i t h ma tt ers o v er w h i c h h e h a s n o c o n tro l .

7 9 H er v 0 1 c e w a s e v er s o ft , g e n tl e , a nd l o w ; a n e x c el l en t t h ing
.

In w o ma n .

P e t er th e H ermi t di et mi o u s h is pra y ers l o ng

80 . s w a s a b st e , a nd
ferv ent .

81 I sh a ll h a v e g re a t pl e a su re in a c c e pt i ng y o u r i nv i t a t io n
. .

82 E a c h o f t h e g i rl s w e n t t o th ei r se pa ra t e ro o ms t o rest a nd
.

c a l m th emsel v e s .

8 3 Bei n g e a rl y k il l e d, I sen t a pa rt y in sea rc h o f h is ma ng l ed

.

b o dy .

IV .

Di rec t a n d I n di rec t N a rra ti on , w i th E xa mp l es .

A s
p eec h is sa id to b e in D i rec t N a rra t i o n , w h en t h e very
d
w o r s use d by th e spea k er a re repea ted w i th ou t an
y ch an
g e ; in
I n di rec t, w h en th e w o rd s a re g i v en w it h so me c h an e
g o f c on

stru c t o n i .

In I n di rec t N a rra ti o n th e v er s b a re b oun d by th e sa me

ru l es a s th ose g i v en in
g 1 9 1 fo r t h e S e u en c e o f T en ses
q .

T hu s by R u l e I , w h en th e repo rt i n g o r pri n c i pa l v erb is in

.

th e P a s t ten se th e P resen t t ens e in th e repo rted speec h mu st

,
be
c h a n ed i n t o i ts c o rres o n di n P a st fo rm T h u s w e c h an e
g p g g .

S ha l l i nt o sh o u ld S e i nt o s w e a

Wi l l w ou l d Is seein g w a s seein g .

migh t H a s seen h a d seen

C a n cou ld H a s b een seein g h a d b een seeing

O b serv e a l so th a t w h en th e P resen t t en se is c h ang ed i n toth e

Pa st by Rule Idj ec t i v e .
,
an a o r a d v erb e x pressi n g n ea rn ess is

si mi l a rl y c h a n ed i n to on e e x ressi n di sta n ce Th us w
g p g e .

c h an g e

i nt o th en T o da y
-
i nt o th a t da y
th a t or th ose T o morro w
-
n ex t da y
th i th er Yesterda y th e p revi ou s da y
th ere L a st n igh t th e p reci o u s n i gh t
th en c e A go
so

1 Direc t
. W h a t i s thi s stra n g e o u t c ry ?
. s a d S oc ra t es ; i I
sen t t h e w o me n a w a
y m a in l
y i n o rder t h a t t h ey mig h t n o t o end in ff
th i s w a y fo r I h a ve h ea rd t h a t a ma n sh o u l d di e i n pea c e B e qu e t . i
t h e n a n d h a ve pa t e n c e

i

.

I n dire c t S o c ra t es i n qu i red o f t h em w h a t th a t stra ng e o u t c ry w a s .

H e remi nded t h em t h a t h e h a d sen t t h e w o men a w a y ma nl y in o rder i

i
t h a t th ey m g h t n o t o f e n d in th a t w a y f
fo r h e h a d h ea rd t h a t a ma n
116 PA RS I N G A N D A N A LY S I S P A RT 1

23 . W h a t do y ou mea n k ed t h e
as ma n
h o w c a n a ro pe b e
u s ed f o r b i ndi n m i

d

g o u r ? A ro pe a
y b e u se f o r a n y t h n ,
g
re pl i ed t h e ma n , w h en I do n o t w i sh t o l en d it

.

24 A ri c h ma n o n c e sa i d t o h is po orer b ro t h er,
. W h y do y ou n o t
e n t er t h e s erv i c e o f t h e k in
g s o t h a t y o u ma y b e rel iev e d o f th e
,

b a se n es s o f l a b o u r ?
25 F i ndi n g no remedy , h e sa i d t o h i msel f,
.

I t is b e t t e r t o die
t h a n t o l i v e in su c h mi sery a s I a m c o mpel l e d t o su ffer fro m a m a st er
w h o t rea t s me a nd a l w a s h a s t re a t ed me so u nki ndl
y y .

26 A n d t h ey sa i d o n e t o a n o t h er,
.

W e a re v eril y g u il ty c o n c erni ng
o u r b ro t h er, in t h a t w e s a w t h e dist re s s o f h is sou l , w h e n h e b eso u h t
g
u s , a n d w e w o u l d n o t h ea r th ere fo re is t h i s di st re ss c ome u po n u s

.

O l d T esta men t .

27 Th e v i o l ent ma n sa i d,
.

W h a t v i o l en c e h a v e I do n e ? W h a t
a n er h a v e I b ee n
g g u i l t y o f ? T h e n t h e o th ers l a u g h e d a nd sa i d t o
h im, W h y sh o u l d w e spea k ? Yo u h a v e g i v en u s o c u l a r proo f o f
o u r v i o l en t t em er
y p .

28 Th e ro b b er sa i d t o A l e x a nder I a m th y c a pt i v e : I mu st

.
,

h ea r w h a t t h o u a rt pl ea sed t o sa y , a nd e ndu re w h a t t h ou a rt pl ea se d
t o i n ic t .Bu t my so u l is u n c o n qu ered a n d if I repl y a t a ll t o t h y
re pro a c h es , I w i ll re pl
y t o t h ee l i k e a free ma n .

29 . Y o u a re o l d, F a th er W i l l i a m, th e y ou ng ma n c ri ed,
C Th e l o ok s th a t a re l e ft y o u a re g re y
Yo u a re h a l e , F a t h er W i ll i a m, a h a l e o l d ma n
N o w t ell me th e rea so n , I pra y

.

30 .

I a m so rry i n de e d, repl i ed t h e ki n g , t h a t my v e ss el is
a l re a d a n d I c a nn o t t h erefo re sa i l w i t h t h e s o n o f t h e ma n
y c h o se n
w h o s erv ed m fa t h er D I C K E N S
y . .

3 1 H e c ri e d t o t h em in a g o ny ,
. R ow b a c k a t a n y ri sk I c a nn o t
b ea r t o l ea v e h er b eh i n d t o b e dro w n ed D IC KE NS
.
-
.

3 2 H e ma de a pro mi se t o t h e k in g s su rg eo n , sa y i ng Bl e ed

.

th e ki ng t o dea th w i t h t h i s l a nc et , a n d I w ill g iv e y o u a t h ou sa nd
p i e c es o f g o l d a n d w h e n I a s c e n d t h e t h r o n e , y ou s h al l b e m
y c h i ef
mi n i st er .

( 2) Convert the f o l low i ng sen ten c es f ro m I n di rec t to D i rec t

1 . H e ma de th em u n derst a nd th a t h e w o u l d so o n ret u rn .

2 . H e t o l d t h em t h a t h e h a d b een ro b b e d o f th e b o o k w h i c h h e
had b ou g h t .

He sa i d th a t he w as v ery s o rr
y f or th e f
au lt h e had co m
mit t ed .

4 . Th ey a l l sa i d t o h im t h a t h e de se rv e d t o b e pa rdo n ed .

5 . T h ey a frmed th a t h e w a s t h e b es t w o rk er t h ey h a d see n .

6 . H e a dm i t t e d t h a t h e h a d n o t w o rk e d s o h a rd a s w e h a d do n e .

7 . H e h ea rd t h em sa y t h a t h e did n o t deserv e t h e pri z e .

8 . H e promi sed t h em t h a t h e w o u ld do it a s so o n a s h e c o u l d .

9 . Th e y sa i d t h a t h e deserv e d t h e ir t h a nk s fo r a l l h e h a d do n e .

10 . A ll w h o h e a rd t h i s sa i d t h a t h e w a s spea k i n g t h e t ru t h .

11 . H e sa id t h a t h e h a d b ee n t h ree y ea rs in j a il , a n d y et w a s
i nn o c e nt .

d
1 2 Th ey t o l h im t h ey w ou l d n ev er b el ev e w h a t h e sa d
. i i .

i
1 3 H e repl e d t h a t h e w o u l d pro v e w h a t h e h a d sa d t o b e t ru e
. i .
P A RT I QU E S T I O N S A N D E X A M PL E S 117

14 M y b roth er t ol d me th a t h e h a d b een rea di ng a ll da y

. .

15 M y fa th er t ol d me t h a t I w a s w ro ng a n d w ou ld b e n ed
. .

16 I repl i ed t h a t if my fa u l t w a s pro v ed I w ou l d pa y th e n e
. .

17 I a dmi tted t h a t I h a d a c t ed fo o l i sh l y in w h a t I h a d do n e
. .

18 D a mo n , b e fore his ex ec u t i o n , requ est ed b u t o n e fa v ou r fro m

.

D i o ny s i u s , w h i c h w a s th a t h e mi g h t b e permi tt ed t o v i si t h is w ife
a n d c h i l dren , w h o w ere a t th a t t ime a c o n si dera b l e di st a nc e from h im,

a n d h e pro mi s ed fa i t h fu ll y t o ret u rn o n t h e da o i n t ed
y ppa .

1 9 T h i s D i o ny s i u s refu s ed t o g ra n t , u nl ess some perso n c o u l d b e

.

fou nd w h o w ou l d c o nsen t t o su ffer dea t h in h is st ea d, if h e did not

perfo rm h is promi se a n d ret u rn b y t h e a ppo i nt ed t ime .

20 I n a sh o rt s pe ec h P y t h i a s t o l d t h e su rrou ndi ng mu l t i t u d e th a t
.

hi s dea r fri en d, D a mo n , w o u l d so o n a rri v e b u t h e h o ped n o t b e fo re

h is o w n d ea th h a d sa v ed a l ife so dea r a s D a mo n s w a s t o h is fa mi l y ,

h is fri en ds, a nd his c ou n try .

21 H e s en t h is c o mpl ime nt s t o F ra n c i s, C l a v eri ng , a nd M o n so n ,

.

a n d c h a r ed t h em t o pro t ec t R aj a G u ru D a s, w h o w a s a b ou t t o
g
b ec ome th e h ea d o f t h e Bra h ma n s o f Beng a l .

22 Th e g o v ern o r o f th e t o w n th en c a l l ed ou t w i th a l o u d v o i c e ,
.

a n d o rdered A ndroc l es t o e x l a i n t o t h em h o w a s a v a g e a nd h u n r
p g y
l i o n c ou ld th u s in a mome n t h a v e fo rg o tten it s i nn a t e di sposi t i o n ,
a nd b e c o n v ert ed a l l o f a su dden i n t o a h a rml es s a n i ma l .

23 A n dro c l e s t h en e x pl a i n ed t o t h em t h a t t h a t v ery l i o n , w h i c h
.

w a s s t a ndi ng b e fo re t h em, h a d b ee n h is fri en d a n d pa rt n er in t h e

w o o ds, a n d h a d fo r th a t rea s o n spa red h is l ife , a s t h ey n o w sa w .

24 S oc ra t e s th en su gg e st ed t o Gl a u c o n t h a t t h e ent ire a b o l i t i o n o f
.

th e g u a rds w h i c h h e ( G l a u c o n ) rec ommended c o u l d n o t reme dy th e

ev il s w h i c h h e des ired t o remo v e , a nd h e i n qu i red o f G l a u c o n w h eth er

h e k n ew b y pers o na l e x a mi n a ti o n t h a t t h e g u a rds did t h ei r w o rk a s

b a dl y a s h e ima g i n ed .

25 W h en h e rea c h ed h o me , h is fa th er a sk ed h im w h ere h is sh i p
.

w a s a nd w h a t h a d b ec o me o f h is merc h a n di se Th e so n in repl y t o l d

.

h im w h a t h a d h a ppen ed, h o w h e h a d g i v en u p h is v essel w i t h it s

c a r o , a n d h a d t a k en in e x c h a ng e t h e sl a v es a n d s et th em fre e , a n d
g
h ow h e h a d c o n sent ed t o t a k e th i s g irl b a c k w i th h im a nd ma k e h er
h is w ife .

26 . k ed Th a l es w h a t th i ng in t h e w orl d h a d th e b est
W h e n t h ey as

c l a i m t o b e c ll ed u n i v ersa l
a h e re pli e d t h t H o pe h d th e b es t c l i m
, a a a

t o b e so c a ll ed b ec u se H o pe rem i n ed w i t h t h o s e w h o h a d n o t h i n g
,
a a

el se l e ft .

27 W h en S ol o n a n d P eri n der w ere s i t tin g t o g eth er o v er th e i r

. a

c u s P eri a n der ndi ng th a t S o l o n w a s mo re S i l e n t t h a n u su l sk ed

p , ,
a ,
a

h im w h et h er h e w a s s i l en t f o r w a n t o f w o rds o r b ec a u se h e w a s a foo l .

Sol o n t ol d him in repl y t h a t no fo ol c o u l d b e si l ent o v er h is c u ps .

 P A R T I I C O M P O S IT I O N
. : F O R CE A N D
P R O P RI E TY O F D I C T I O N .

C H A PT E R X I V

P U N C TU A T I O N , OR TH E R I G HT U S E or S TO PS .

21 2 . P u n c tu a ti o n di v id es on e sen en ce t or on e pa rt of a

t
sen e n c e fro m th er t o h el p th e read er s ey e
an o ,
c on

. M u ch
fu si on is c a u sed by u si n g w ro n g st o ps o r by pu tti n g th em in ,

w ro n g
p l ac es o r by l ea v i n
, g t h e m ou t w h e re t h e y a re w a n t ed .

P u n c tu a t i o n is th ere fo re a n el emen t in c o mpo siti o n .

T o t a k e a v ery si mpl e ex a mpl e th ere is a v a st di fferen ce in ,

mea n i ng b et w een th e tw o foll o w i ng sen t en c es

M a y I b e promot ed ?
M a y I b e promo t ed
A n d th i s differen ce t u rns n o t u po n th e g ra mma ti c al c o ns tru c
,

ti o n n o r u po n th e o rd er o f th e w o rd s n o r (if th e sen t en c es a re
, ,

rea d a l o u d ) u po n th e mod u l a ti on o f th e v o i c e b u t so l el y o n t h e

u n c tu a ti o n
p .

21 3 Th e n a mes a n d fo rms o f th e differen t po i n ts sto ps o r

.
, ,

ma rk s a re th e foll o w i ng
Comm i ndi c a t ed b y
a, N o t e o f ex c l ma ti o n in a ,

S emi c o l o n i n dic t ed b y
,
a dic a t ed b y
.

C o l o n i n di c t ed b y
,
a Bra c k et s i ndi c t e d b y or ,
a

F u l l st o p o r peri o d i n di c t ed b y
,
D sh i ndi c a t e d b y
a a ,

N o t e o f I n t errog ti o n i ndi c a t ed
a H y ph en i ndi c t d b y
, ,
a e

by I n v ert ed c o mm s in di a ,

A po stro ph e i n di c a t ed b y c t ed b y
n

,
a

Th e Comma .

21 4 . The sh o r estt pa u se in th e sen se or v o ce i is represen te d

by a c o mma . I ts ch e i f u ses in a si mpl e se n te n c e a re th e
fo l l o w i n g
(a ) Be tw een n ou n s or
pro n o u ns in a ppo s i ti o n ; as

A l ex a n der, th e son o f Ph il i p, ki n g of M a c e do n .
1 20 CO M P O S IT I O N P A RT 11

21 5 .
( )
a In a c o mpo u n d t
sen en c e th e co - o r di n a te c l a u ses,

w h en ex
presse d at fu ll l en g th , a re sepa ra t e d by a co mma
H is y is g re a t er t h a n h is i g n o ra n c e ,
v a ni t a nd w h a t h e l a c k s in
k no w l edg e is su ppl i ed b y impu denc e .

Bu t w h en th e t w o sen ten c es a re n o t e x resse

p d at f ul l l en g th
a nd h a v e t h e sa me S u bj ec t , th e co mma is o mit ted :

I ma de h a st e a n d c a u g h t h im .

I t o o k u p a st o n e a n d t h rew it at th e ma d do g .

( b) If th e j
co n u n c t o n i is o mitt ed b etw een C o o rdi n a t e c l a u ses,
-

t h ese mu s t b e sepa ra t ed ( 1 ) by a co mm a , w h en t h ey a re sh o rt ;

o r ( 2) by a semi c o l o n , w h en th ey a re l o ng
( 1 ) S t ea m pro pel s el e va t es l o w ers pu mps dra i n s pu l l s e t c
, , , , , ,
.

( 2) Be t w een fa me a n d tru e h on ou r t h ere is mu c h di ff ere n c e : t h e

fo rmer is a b li n d a ppl a u se t h e l a tt er is a n int erna l a n d mo re
s i l e n t h o ma g e .

21 6 . In c ompl ex t
sen en c es th e foll ow i ng a re th e ma i n
ru l es reg a r din g th e u se o f c o mma s
( )
a A N ou n -
c l au se is not sepa ra te d by a co mma fro m th e
w or d to w h i ch in g ra mma ca l rel a t o n
it sta n ds ti i
I t is g en era ll y a l l o w ed t h a t t h e a rt o f t ea c h ng i s d c u l t i if .

k
N o o n e n o w s w h e n h e w ll c o me i .

H is pa rdo n de pends u po n w h eth er h e w l l c o n ess h is a u l t f or no t i f .

Bu t tw o o r mo re N o u n c l au ses mus t b e sepa ra t ed by c o mma s -

,

w h en t h e y st a n d in t h e sa me rel a ti o n t o t h e sa me w o rd

N o o n e k n o w s w h n h e w i l l c ome or w h et h er h e w i ll c o m a t al l
e ,
e ,

r w h et h er h e is v e n a l i v e
o e .

W h o h e w s o r w h y h e c a me o r w h a t h e i nt en ds t o do w ill l l b e
a , , ,
a

fo u nd o u t in t i me .

( b) A n A dj ec t i v e c l ause is n o t sepa ra t ed fro m its n o u n o r

-

r o n ou n u n l ess it is ra th er l en th y
p , g
Th e m n w sa w y e s t erda y h s c ome a g i n t o d y
a e a a -
a .

Th e ma n w h o re ec ts ca ref u l l y b f ore c ti ng is m re l ik e l y t o b e
,
e a ,
o

s u c c ess fu l t h n o n e w h o th ou g h tl ess l y ta kes a l e p i n th e d rk

a ,
a a .

(0) A n A d v erb c l a u se is sepa ra ted fro m th e Pri n c i pa l c l a u se

-

H e w i ll su c c e ed b ec u se h e w o rk s h rd ,
a a .

I w i l l g l a dl y do t h i s if I a m a ll o w e d ,
.

T h e c o mma is n ev er o mit ted u n l ess th e A d v erb c l a u se is ,

-

e i t h e r v ery sh o rt o r e x ressed e ll i ti ca ll y :
p p
H e l ik es y o u b e tt er t h n me a .

S en d me w o rd b e fore y ou st a rt .

I n sert co mma s, w h ere n ec essa ry , i n the f o llow i ng sen ten c es

T h e tri pl e a l l i a nc e c o n si st s o f G erma ny A u stria . . d Ita l y

an My .

s o n s o fa r fro m b ei n g b l a med fo r h is c o nd u c t w a s c o mme n ded a nd

C HA P . x 1v P U N CT U A T I O N 1 21

e v en .rew a rded . Th e roo f

th e h ou s e ,h a v ng c a u g h t re ; t h e in
of i
ma t es ed a nd rema n ed o u t s e t h e h o u se ,u ntil t h e re w a s pu t o u t
i id .

T o w n s vill a g e s a n d h a ml ets w ere ,a l l a l e, a tta c ed w th t h e e p dem c ik k i i i

j
o f c h ol era s h a l l b e h a py t o ma e t h e a t t empt t h a t
I o u s ea o f k k
.
p y p ,

if I am
perm t t ed From morn n g t ll n oo n , from n oo n t o e v en ng.)
i . i i i
f ro m e v en n g t o m n g h t th s sa me g r e n ev er l ea v e s h im
i id i i E a rl y i f
>
.

t h s morn ng
i h en w e h a d j u st l e t th e h ou se y ve met t h e ma n t h a t
i f
w
w e h a d e en l o o b n g fo r ki
H e o u n as ex pec te d h e w ou l d h a t t h e
. f d I
h o u s e h e h a d l a t el y pu rc h a s ed w a s a b a d o n e W h a t w a s t e c a u se .

o f so mu c h g r e t o h im w a s n ev er n o w n t o a ny o f u s
i f I h o pe , my k

i
frie n d) t h a t y o u w ll c ome a n d spen d a t l ea st a w e e w th u s He k i .

h a s n o w g ro w n so o l d sth a t h e spen ds most o f h is t me in sl e ep ng s i i

ta ki f
n g h i s o o d o r s t t n g in a n ea sy c h a r i i I rema in ,my de a r sir, -
i .

2
y o urs fa i th fu ll y W ill ia m M a t th ew s I s h a l l n o t l ea v e h o me fo r u s . b i
n ess u nl ess o u set t h e e x a m l e E x a mpl e) a s t h e pro v er sa s) i s b
, y p y .

t h e s n c ere st orm o f prec ept

i f T o t e l l y o u t h e pl a n tru t h .I sh o u l
. i d
b e g l a d t o ret re rom b u s n es s a l t og et h er, c o n sidering t h a t I a m n o w
i f i
p a s t s x tiy y ea r s o f a
g e a n d h a v e a so n t o s u c c e e d m e T h e o a tma n . b
sh o u t ed t o a ma n o n sh o re at h ro w ou t t h e ro pe A sn a e, sl eep ng . k i
in t h e g ra ss vil l
y bi
t e ,if a ny o n e trea ds u po n it T h e priso n erJh a v ing
p
.

b een co n v c te d o f t h e c r me o f w h c h h e w a s a c c u s ed, mu st ma e u p
i i i k
h is m n d t o su f er t h e pen a l ty
i f T h e u l n g i s a no l e stru c tu re o f
. b i di b
red r cbi k a n d c om r se s a re a d n room , a l ib ra ry , a room for w r t n
i i ii
p g g
-

l ett ers 1 n d a ro om for re res h ment s f

It is qu te tru e th a t t h s n e i i
5
.

b i di
u l n g w a s erec t ed b y pr v a t e su b sc r pt on s iI n fa c tg o f a ll t h a t i i .

b ib
w a s su sc r ed ,L g a v e t h e l a rg est a mo u n t in c a sh b u t M w a s n o t
. .

ib
l ess l era l b e c a u se h e g a v e th e l a n d o n w h c h t h e
a u ld n
g w as i b i i
e rec t ed ki
A do g b a r ng a t n o t h n g i s a n u sa nc e
. i i .

Th e S emi co lon .

21 7 . A S emic ol on i n di c a t es a l o n g er pa use th a n w h a t is
i n di ca t ed by a c omma I ts c h i ef us es a re as fo l l o w s
.

( )
a T o se
pa r a t e l on g er C o o rdi n a t e c l a uses (see 2 1 5 b ) A -
,
.

l o n g er paus e g i v es g rea t er emph a si s t o ea c h c l a u se in th e seri es ,

as it g iv es th e mi nd mo re ti me to d w el l o n e a c h o f th em
se a ra t el y
p
H o n esty o f pu rpo s e in w orldl y ffa irs h a s ma n y a dv n t a g e s o v er a a

dec ei t I t i s a s a fer w a y o f de l i ng w i t h men

. it is a n e a si er a

mo de o f de spa t c h i n g b u si n e ss ; it i n spires men w i t h g rea t er

c o n den c e ; it a c qu i res more a n d more c o n de n c e i n i t sel f ,

w h i l e dec e i t b ec o mes mo re a n d more difde n t .

( b ) T o di v id e cl au ses w h i ch a re c o nn ec t ed by so me A l t ern a
,

ti v e o r I ll a t iv e c o nj u n c ti o n ( H ere a grea te r pa us e is re qui red .

,

b eca u se th e min d re qu i res a l it tl e mo re ti me to perc e i v e th e

a l t ern a tiv e o r th e i nf ere n c e
)
I me t h im a s h e w a s l e v i ng h is h o u se ; otherw i se I sh ou l d n o t h v e
a a

k n o w n w h ere h e l i v ed .

I re fu sed t o do w h a t h e a sk ed me t o do f or I w a s c onv i nc ed t h t a

h e h a d b een mi si n formed o f th e fa c ts .
1 22 C O M PO S I TI O N PA RT 1 1

Th e Co lon .

21 8 . C o l on : T h e ma i n u ses of th e c ol o n a re th e fol l ow

(a ) To i n t rod u ce an a dditi on al rema r k in ex

pl a n a t i o n or in
c on r ma t i o n of a
prev i ou s on e

S tri v e a bov e a ll t h i n g s , in w h a t ev er sta t i o n o f l ife y o u ma y b e , t o

preserve h ea l t h t h ere is n o h a ppi n ess i n l ife w i th o u t i t .

(b ) To i n trod u c e a
q t i
u o a t on : u su a ll y foll o w ed by a d a sh :
Th e n P et er s to o d fo rt h a nd sa i d O i a tru t h I pe rc ei v e t h a t
G o d 1 s n o respec t er o f perso n s, et c .

()
c To i n tro d u c e or to su m u p a ser es o f i Co -
or di na te c l a u ses .

H ere , t o o , th e c ol on is foll o w ed by a d ash :

Y ou mu st n o w h a t I h a v e t o sa y a b ou t t h e u ses o f i ro n w e
h ea r w
sl ee
p o n i ro n W e t ra v el o n i ro n w e o a t o n i ro n w e p l o u
g h
t h e el ds w i t h i ro n w e sh o o t w i th i ro n w e c h o p do w n trees
w i t h i ro n in fa c t , t h ere is s c a rc el y a n y t h i n g t h a t w e c a n do
w i t h o u t t h e h el p o f t h i s w o nderfu l meta l .

(d) T o i n tro d u ce a n en u mera ti on o f pa rti c u l a rs

S end me t h e fo ll o w i n g a rti c l es a pen a b ru sh pe n c i l , ,
a ,
a
po rt
fo l i o a nd some n e point ed nib s
,
~
.

I n sert co mma s, c ol on s, or se mic olon s ,

w here n ec essa ry , i n the
f ollow ing sen ten c es

1 . A c c o rdi ng t o a n o l d b el i e f 1 f a si c k ma n sn eez es it is a su re S i gn
o f rec o v ery b u t w h en a ma n is g o i n o n a j o u rn ey o r a b o u t t o c o m
j g
me nc e so me b u si n ess sh ou l d a ny o n e a b o u t h im sn e ez e t h e sn e ez e
in dic a e s t h a t t h e obj ec t i n w h i c h h e 1 3 i n t ere sted w i ll n o t b e a ec om
pl i sh e g
2 I n R o me th e a rmy w a s t h e n a ti o n: n o c i t i z en c o u ld t a k e o fc e
.

u nl e ss h e h a d serv ed i n t en c a m a i n s
p g .

3 Th e dri l l w a s u nremi tt i ng a t a ll t imes so l o ng a s a ma n c o n

.

t i nn ed t o b e a so l di er w h en t h e troo ps w ere in w i nt er qu a rters sh eds

w ere erec t ed in w h i c h t h e s o l di ers fen c e d w i t h sw o rds b u t t o n ed a t t h e

o i n t s o r h u rl ed j a v el i n s a l s o b u tt o n ed a t t h e po i n t s a t o n e a n o t h er
p .

4 T h e C a rt h a g i n i a n a rmy w a s c o mposed e n t i rel y o f me rc e n a ry

.

tro o ps iA fric a S pa i n a nd G a u l w ei s t h ei r rec ru i t i n g rou n ds a n d t h e se

g
c o u n tri es w ere a n i n ex h a u s tib l e t rea s u ry o f w a rri ms a s l o n a s th e
g
mo n ey l a st ed w h i c h t h e rec ru i t s rec ei v ed a s pa y .

. W h il e I w a s sti l l w o nderin g a t my s u dden del i v era n c e a ma n

c a me su dde n l y forw a rd a nd s a i d my g o o d sir t h ei e i s n o th i n g t o b e
.

s u rpri sed a t I w a s sen t l r y o u a nd re sc u e y ou fro m t h ese

"1 n d

ro b b ers w e l l I h a v e su c c e ri di ng y o u a nd so I h a v e a c c o m
"
l i sh e d w h a t I w a s se nt for, a s y o u n o w see
p .

6 W h en e v er y o u h esi ta t e a b o u t b eg i nn i n g to do some t h i n g w h i c h
.

mu s t b e d one ev ent u a lly rememb er th e ma x im a t h i n g b eg u n 1 s h a l f

do n e .
1 24 CO M P O S IT I O N P A RT 11

af s

no t
W h a ts t h e
th a t at
m a t t er

a l l sa i d h
ma s ist th a t ol d pa i n o f y o u rs a g a in n o its
o
u t so me t h i n g a
,

o o d de a l b e t t e w ou ld
J g g g y o u

b elie v my po or o l d u nc l e is dea d a n d h e h a s l eft v e t h o u sa ndp
ill
e

_

o u nd t w a v e r y gq o d o f h i
r s h e re pl ie ut c o me t o o l a t e

;
i a
p g c'
h e i n qu i re e c a u s esh e a n s w ered
y ou a re n o w o l dl a n d b rok en i n
f

wh
h e a l 11 w h a t a pi t y it is th a t h e did n o t; l i e t w e n ty y ea rs a g o , o r g i v e
"p
y o u t h b m o n ey w h i l e h e w a s s t i l l a l i v e .

D a shes .

224 . T h e D a sh h a s v e ma i n u ses

( )
a T o ma rk b rea k oar a b ru
pt tu rn in a sen t en c e :
H ere l i es t h e g re t fa l se ma rb l e w h ere a

N o th i n g b u t so rdi d du st l i e s h ere .

b
( ) T o m a rk w o rd s in a
pp os i t i o n o r in e x l a n a ti o n :
p
Th ey pl u c k ed th e s ea t ed h i ll s w i th a l l t h ei r l o ds a

R oc ks, w a t ers , w o odsa n d b y th e sh a g gy t o ps

U pl ift i ng b ore th em in th eir h a n ds P a ra di se L ost .
-
.

()
c To i ns ert a pa ren th esi s . H ere tw o d a sh es a re re qu i red .

A t t h e a g e o f t en su c h is th e po w er o f g e n i u s h e c o u l d rea d

k i
G ree w th a c l ty f ii .

(d) To res u me a sca t e re t d

bj ec t su

H ea l th , fri e n ds po si ti o n a l l a re g o n e
, ,
.

()
e To i ndi ca te a h esita ti ng o r fa l t eri n g speec h
IerI t h at is, I do n t

c a re .

Bra ckets .

225 Bra c k et s a re u sed l ik e a c o u pl e

. of d a sh es in ()
c ,
as j u st
e x pl a i n ed , fo r i n se rti ng a pa ren t h esi s .

A t th e age of t en ( su c h is th e po w er o f g en i u s ) h e c ou l d rea d G ree : k

Bra c k e ts a re a l so us e d fo r i n tro du c i n g h u mo ro u s or i ron i ca l
s id e spe e c h es
-

I g a ve a l l I h a d ( t w o penc e) t o th a t n o b l e c a u se .

The H yphen .

226 .A H y ph en is u sed fo r j o i n i ng th e pa rts o f a c o mpo u nd

w o rd b a th i n g pl a c e I t is a sh o rter l i n e th a n th e D a sh

as -
.
.

A h y ph e n is a l so u sed t o i n di c a te syll a bi c di v i si o n (see n o te

a t c l o se o f th i s c h a pt e r) as fo r mer l y - -
.

I nsert da sh, hyp h en , or b ra c kets, w h erever n ec essa ry , i n the

a

ow i n g sen ten c es, a n d a dd a n y o th er a pp rop ri a te stop s

f o l l
f
E ng l a nd a nd R u ssia wt h e t w o g rea t est empi res o n th e fa c e o f th e
e a rt l rh a v e n o rea l c a u s e 0 I c o u l d t ell y o u a ll a b o u t my
en mi ty .

b u t perh a ps y o u h a v e h ea rd e no u g h b y t h i s t i me M y do g s u c h i s .

t h e po w er o f j ea l o u sy a t t a c k ed it s ri v a l w h en ev er t h ey met hi s is .

u h i ll w o rk u rea d w it h o u t s pec ta c l es a nd I b el i e v e y o u
-
v er
y p I f y
. o
C HA P . x1v P U N CT U A T I O N 1 25

can b e so g o o d a s t o rea d ou t t h e c o n t ents o f th i s l et t er

- W h en I .

t ook my deg re e n d t hi s w a s t w el v e y ea rs a g o I h a d g o o d pro spe c t s

f
b e o re me W 11 n e v er
.
-
(
b u t I n e ed n o t n is my sen t e n c e fo r y ou
4

k n o w a h ea dy w h a t I w a s g oi n g t o sa y
'
.

D i aeresi s .

227 D ia resis (sepa ra ti o n ) c o n si sts o f tw o d o ts pl a c ed o v er

.

th e sec o n d o f t w o v o w el s, t o sh o w t h a t th e tw o v o w el s a re t o b e

sou n d ed sepa ra el t y :

C o opera t i o n c c - o pera t on i .

A steri sks .

228 . A st erisk s d en o t e t h a t so me w o rd s o r c l a us es h av e b een

o mi t t ed
Th e Je w s h a d t o pa y h ea v y t a x es t o t h e N orma n ki ng s .

l N o te on S y lla b i c D i vi si on .

S ylla bi c divi si on t o w h i ch a ll usi on is ma d e in 22 6 assi sts , ,

r o n u n c i a ti o n I t i t h r f r r l d by a c c en tu a t i on a n d n o t
p s e e o e u e .
, ,

a s h as b een so me ti mes ma i n ta in ed by ety mol og y W o rd ,

.

divi si on h as n o th in g to do w ith e tymol og y F ro m a prac ti ca l .

o i n t o f Vi ew i m u den c e is ri h t b e i n b e d o n t ru e ph on eti c
'

p p g g as - -
,

p r i n c i pl es i e o n th e s o k en l a n u a e
p ,
.
g g . I t is on l y w h en w e t a k e .

t h e w o rd to pi ec es th a t w e d isc o v e r th a t it is fo rmed fro m i m

(fo r in ) th e b a se p u d an d th e su fx en c e T h e spo k en l a ng u ag e
, ,
-
.

h as p e ru se a t o n e mo men t a nd p e ru sa l a t a n o th er I t ri gh tl y

- - -
.
,

reg a rd s ease o f u tt era n ce a n d n o th i n k ea t

el se ( S )
g ,
.

I t ma y b e a dd ed th a t syll a bi c di v isi o n by e ty mol og y is

imprac ti ca b l e for tw o reaso ns : ( 1 ) th e c o mpo n en t pa rts o f a
w o rd a re some ti mes so mi x e d t o g e t h er a s t o b e i n dis ti n g ui sh a b l e

cf .monkey ( 2 syll ) fro m O l d I ta l mon i cci o ( 4 , ( 2) t h e .

e ty mol o i es o f w o rd s c a n b e kn o w n o n l y t o t h o se few e rson s

g p
w h o h a v e st u di e d t h e su bj ec t w h ereas a ll men sh o ul d k n o w h o w ,

a w o rd ou gh t t o b e so u n d ed ; c f b a n gu et (l it l it tl e b en ch ) .
-
.
,

w h i c h is divid ed h n e ti c a l l y a s b a n qu et
p
-
o .

L a men t l a m en ta b l e A t o m a t o m ic A t tri b u t e ( n o u n )
-
' ' '
- - - - - - - -
, .
,
.
,

a t tri b Pro v i de

u t e ( v erb )
-
O r t h o do x o r th o g ra ph y
-
.
-
, o
-
.
,

g ra m, t e

r
p v
o -
i denc e
-
. T el e -
l eg -
ra ph y E x pe c t e x pec
.
-

ta t

-
i on . Me ch an -
1c mec h
a n s im . D o min i o n , do m i

- -

n a nt . Fi

-
n it e , n is h

-
. T a b l e,

-

t a b l et N u -me ra l ,

.

nu mer i c a l
-
O ea n

- -
.

-c
,
o

-
c e-

a n ic -
.

Th e t ermi n a ti on s ci a l, - -
c i ou s, -
c ea n , -
si on , -
g i on ,
-
ti on , -
ti a l,
-
i
ti ou s, th e y s n ce a re so u n d ed as on e s yl l a b l e ,
sh o u l d not be
di v id ed i n t o t w o
So

-
c ia l , o

-
c ea n , le

-
i
s on , l e g i on,
'
-
c on

-
i
sc o u s , mo '
-
t i on , p
'
i
ar -t a l ,

cap

t
- iou s , -
na n

-
c ia l .
 1 26 CO M P O S I T I O N P A RT 11

Bu t in su c h w o rd s a s th e foll o w i ng th e t ermi na ti on i on o r -

-
i ou s h a s t o b e d eta c h ed fro m t h e prec edi n g c o nso n a n t i n o rd er ,

t o th ro w th e a c c en t o n th e c o n so n a n t
R e l ig io n , c o n tri t io n , prec i ou s

- - - - -
,
c on -
dit io n ,
-
o -
pin io n ,
-
on -
io n ,
v e r m1 l l o n, de 0 1 s 1 o n

- - - -
.

N o te on the Use f
o Cap i ta ls .

C a pita ls a re u se d t fo r th e rst l e tt er o f a
fol l ow i n g a sen en c e

f ul l st o p fo r th e rst l e t t er o f a
se n t e n c e fo ll o w i n
g a

n o t e o f i n terro a t i o n f h t l f
g 22 3 ) o r t e rs e tt e r o
p o pe r
r

n a mes ; f o r th e rst l e t t er o f t h e n a mes o f d a ys a n d mo n th s fo r

th e rst l etter o f th e n a me o f th e D e ity ; fo r th e pro n ou n
I

fo r th e rst l et ter o f ev ery l i n e o f po et ry fo r th e rst l et t e rs

o f ti tl es o f h o n ou r o r o f c e fo r th e rst l et ter o f a qu o t ed
s eec h o r sen t en c e see i t j ti
p ( g 2 1 4 (j) a n d 2 2 0 ) f o r t h e n e r e c o n

O or Oh .

In a tech n i c al t rea ti se ,
su ch as one on A rc h itec tu re, Ph o to
g ra h
p y ,
G ra mma r, t ec h n i c a l t e rm is
e tc rst i n
. t r
,
o d u c ed
w h en a

a n d d e n ed i t is u su a l t o ri n t t h e rst l e tt e r o f e v e ry su c h
, p
t erm in a C a pit a l As th e w o rk pro c eed s th e u se o f th e C a pita l
.
,

may b e c o n t i n u ed o r n o t a t th e o pti on o f th e w rit er .

C H A PTE R X V .
T H E N O R M A L O RDE R O F W O RDS .

229 Th e R u l e of P ro x imit y T h e c a rdi n al ru l e reg a rdi n g

.

t h e o rd er o f w o rd s o r ph ra ses is t h i s thi n gs w hi ch a re to b e
thou gh t of tog eth er mu st b e men ti on ed tog eth er T h i s h a s b ee n .

c a ll e d th e

R u l e o f P ro ximi t y
1
.

I n a l an g u a g e l ik e o u rs w h i c h h a s l ost n ea rl y a ll i ts in exi o ns,

w e u su a ll y h a v e n o th i n g b u t t h e po si t i o n o f a w o rd t o sh o w

w i th w h a t o th er w o rd o r w o rd s i ts sen se is t o b e c o nn ec ted .

O b serv e th e fa u l ty o rd e r in th e fo ll o w i n g
A p i i s for sa l e b y a l a dy a b ou t t o c ro ss t h e C h a nn el in a n o a k
a no

c a se w t h c a rv ed l eg s i .

H e b l e w o u t h is b ra n s a ter i f
ng h is w e g o o d b y e w t h a g u n biddi if -
i .

E rec t ed t o t h e memory o f J o h n Ph l l ps a c c denta ll y sh o t a s a i i i

ma r o f a f ec t o n b y h is b ro th er
k f i

.

i
Th e U n v ersit y o f L o ndo n C omm ss o n ers D a i l y T el eg ra p h , 6 t h i i
A u g u st 1 8 9 8 ( y,
S a T h e L o n do n U
. n v e rs t y C o mm ss o n e rs ) i i i i .

Th e a b o v e i s a repro du c t o n o f t h e ma g n c e n t pic t u re b y t h e i i
c el e b ra t e d F renc h a rt st Benj a m n C o n s t a n t , repres e nt ing t h e i i
i i
n t e r o r o f a c a rpe t b a z a a r in T a n g e rs , n o w in t h e po s ses s o n i i
Co mp ositi on

1
Ba in s a nd R h etoric, p 1 . .
1 28 C O M P O S I TI O N P A RT 11

T h e re is t di fferen c e b et w e en a n E ng l i sh v i l l a g e a n d
a vas

v i ll a e E n l i sh a n d it is t h e u a l ifyi n r dj t i l w rd
g g q g o a ec v a o

st a n di n g rst th a t d e c id es th e mea n i n I h m
g n su c e x a pl es a s .

t h e fo ll o w i n g h o w e v er th e posi t i o n o f t h e a dj ec t i v e is e x c e p
, ,

t io n a l

( )
a I f dj ec t i v e is en l a rg ed b y some qu a l ifyi n g ph ra se
th e a ,

it mu st b e pl a c ed af ter i ts n ou n t o a v o id a b rea c h o f th e
ru l e
,

o f pro x i mi t y

A ma t t er t o o u rg en t t o b e pu t o ff a n
y l o n g er .

l Ve c ou l d n o t sepa ra t e ma tter fro m u rg en t by sa yi n g :

A too u r ent
g to b e
pu t o ff a n
y l o n g er ma tt er .

(b ) I f sev e ra l a dj ec ti v es qu a l ify a si n gl e n ou n it o ften so u n d s ,

b et t e r t o pl a c e t h em af ter th e n o u n th a n b e fo re it
G o d is t h e ma k er o f a ll t h i ng s vi sib l e a n d i n vi si b l e a n i ma te a nd ,

i n a n i ma te .

(c) T h ere a re t i
c e r a n s oc t k
h ra ses, in w h i c h it h as b e c o me
p
idi o ma ti c (ch i ey th ro u g h th e i n u en c e o f F ren c h ) to pl a c e th e
a dj e c t i v e a f t er i ts n o u n

T h e b o dy p o l i t ic M a l i c e p rep en se
. H e i r app a ren t L ord s T em
. .

p ora l a nd Sp iri tu a l N o ta ry p u b li c
. Kni g h t erra n t G o v er . .

n o r G en era l Bi sh op el ec t
. Th e su m tota l Po i n t b l a n k
. .

( t h e w h i t e o r b l a nk s po t in t h e c en tre o f a ta rg et ) L et t ers .

p a ten t P r
. i c e cu r r e n t L o rd p a ra mou n t
. D u ra n c e vi l e . .

C o u rt ma rti a l , e tc
N o l a Th e
.

j i
a d ec t v e a l on e, a s

he a l o n e, is a l w a y s pl a c ed a fter
th e n ou n o r pro n ou n th a t it qu a l i e s
W h
.

23 2 P r e dic a t iv e
. u se . en an a dj ec ti v e is u se d pre

dic a tiv el y it
is pl a ced a ft er i ts n o u n
A l l me n a re morta l H e l a y dea d o n t h e g ro u nd
. H e b ec a me .

very ri ch H e w a s l eft ri ch b y hi s fa t h er
.
( S u bjecti ve Com .

p l emen t,
f
M y a th er l e t f me p oor b u t w e l l edu ca ted
,
. Th e j u dg e d ec l a red
h im g u i l ty .
( O bjective C omp l emen t ,

The differen c e in mea n i n g b e t w een th e tw o fol l ow i ng sen

ten c es h i n g es o n t h e po si t i o n o f th e w o rd u bli c

p
H e m de p u b lic c o n fe ssi o n s
a ( A ttri b u se ) . . .

H e m de h is c o n fessi o n s pu b li c
a ( P red i c u se ) . . .

23 3 S o meti mes a n a dj ec tiv e

. 20 9 3 ) is u sed i n stea d o f ,

a n a d v erb t o u a l ify t h e redi c a t e v e rb o f t h e sen t en c e I n

q p
- .

t h i s c as e i t mu st b e pl a c ed a s n ea r a s po ssib l e af ter t h e v e rb
th a t it qu al i es a s in ex a mpl e (a ) g iv en b el o w
,

( a ) I c a n do it a l on e .

( b ) I a l one c a n do it .
C HA P . xv TH E N O RM A L O R D ER O F W O RD S 1 29

O b serv e th a t th e se nse o f ea c h t
sen enc e d epend s en tirel y on th e
po s i t i o n o f th e a dj ec t i v e a l one .

( 0 ) H e b o u g h t th e ma t eri al ch eap .

( d) H e b ou g h t ch eap ma teri a l .

In ( 0 ) c h ea p mu st b e p a rsed a s a n a dj ec t i v e qu a l ify i ng th e nou n

ma t eri a l b u t in po i nt o f mea n i n g it qu a l i e s t h e v erb b ou g h t

a n d si g n i e s i e rst s e n t enc e mea n s t h a t h e

a t a l ow
p r c e T h .

b o u g h t g o od ma t eri a l a t l ess th a n th e ma rk et pri c e th e sec o n d th a t -

,

h e b o u g h t i n feri o r ma t eri a l a t t h e ma rk e t pri c e -

.

A dverb s .

23 4 . If th e w o rd to
b e qu al i ed is a n A dj ec tiv e, o r a n
A dv erb , o r a P repo siti on , o r a C o nj u n c ti on , th e qu a l ifyi ng
A dverb is pl ac ed i mmedi a tel y b ef ore i t
A djecti ve W e a re h a lf pl ea sed a nd h a lf so rry
A dverb H e s to o df a r a pa rt fro m me
. .

P rep osi ti on H e a rri v e d l ong b e fo re th e ti me

.

Conju n c ti on Th i s is p reci sel y h o w it h a ppen ed

.

te B
. .

No ut enou g h is pl a c ed af ter t h e a dj ec t ive th a t it
qu a l i es, b ec a u s e it is fo l l o w ed b y a ph ra se
Y o u r pa y is g oo d en ou gh for y ou r w ork .

235 . If th e Verb to b e qu a l i ed is I n tra nsi ti ve, th e A dv erb ,

u n l ess it is on e o f T i me , is pl a c ed i mmedi a t el y af ter it

H e a l w a y s l a u g h ed hea rti l y a t a g o od j ok e .

H e n ever spok e b oa stf u l l y a b o u t h is o w n merits .

H e of ten w ept b i tterl y o n pa ssi ng t h a t t omb .

H e someti mes sl ept sou nd l y i n my h ou se .

H e seldom sl e pt w el l in a n y h ou se b u t hi s o w n .

23 6 . If th e Verb to b e
qu a l i ed
is Tra nsi tive, th e qu a li fyi ng
A dv erb mu st n ot b e al l ow ed to sepa ra t e th e verb and its obj ec t .

Th e A dv erb mu st th ere fore b e pl a ced e ith er b ef ore the Verb

or
( w h chi is ra th er more c o mmon) af ter the Objec t .

H e b ore his l osses cheerf u l ly .

H e b ri e y ex pl a i n ed his mea n i ng .

Bu t if th e O b j ec t is qu a l i ed b y a c l a u se o r c o nsi st s o f a g o od
,

ma ny w or s, d t h e a dverb ma y c ome b et w ee n th e v erb a nd its

o bjec t
He rew a r e d d th ose w h o h a d serv ed him w el l
l i b era l l y a ll .

But t h i s is sc a rc el y so idi o ma t i c a s H e l ib era l l y re w a rded et c

, , .

23 7 An A d v erb is o ften pl a c ed b etw een th e A u x i l i a ry verb

.

a nd th e P ri n c i a l v erb (w h e th er T ra n sitiv e o r I n t ra n sitive

p )
T h e w i nd h a s su dden l y ri sen I h a v e qu i te u nderstood y ou
. .

Th e N ega ti v e adv erb n ot is al w a ys pla c ed b e tw een th e

A u xili a ry v erb a n d th e Pri n c i pa l v e rb
W e h a v e no t se en h im si n c e M o n da y l ast .

R G c
. . .
K
1 30 CO M PO S I TI O N PA RT 11

23 8 . A n A dverb is pl a c e d rst in a sen t en c e ( a

) w h en it
qu al i es th e w ho le sen ten ce, (b ) w h en it is e mph a ti c .

R ew ri t e fol l ow i ng pa irs o f s en t enc es

th e ,
so as to sh o w h ow th e
sens e depen ds o n t h e po si t i o n o f th e A dv erb

f H a pp i l y h e did n o t di e . A t l eng th h e w ro e t o h er t .

[He did n o t die h app i l y . H e w ro te t o h er a t l eng th .

23 9 . Div ided I nnit iv eS A n a dverb sh ou l d n o t b e pl a c ed

.

b etw een a n d th e I n n itive T h e c u sto m is spri n g i n g

th e to .

u b
p, u t it is ti on ed by th e u sag e of an y g o od w rit ers
n o t sa n c

I feel it my d u ty t o pl a i nl y i n fo rm y o u etc ,
.

I feel it my du ty t o i n form y o u pl a i n l y etc

, .

24 0 O n l y
. T h i s a dv e rb mu st b e pl a c ed i mmedi a t el y
.

b efo re t h e w o rd th a t it is i n t en d ed to qu al ify
( a ) On l y h e promi sed to rea d th e rst c h a pt er o f th a t b ook .

H ere o nl y is a n A dj ec ti v e a nd n o t a n A dv erb a n d it qu a l i es

H e a l one w o u l d b e more su i ta b l e t h a n on l y h e

th e pro no u n he . .

H e a l o ne nd n o o n e el se promi sed t o rea d th e rst c h a pter etc

,
a , , .

( b ) H e on l y promi sed t o rea d t h e rs t c h a pt er o f th a t b o o k .

H ere o nly is a n A d v erb qu a l ify i ng th e v erb promi sed a nd

t h e mea ni ng i s t h a t h e merel y o r o nl y promised b u t did n ot perform ,

t h e promi se .

( c ) H e promi sed on l y to rea d t h e rst c h a pt er o f th a t b o ok .

T h a t is h e did n o t pro mi se t o stu dy a n a l y se or rememb er b u t

, , , ,

H ere o nl y is a n A dv erb qu a l ify i ng t h e v erb rea d

on l y to rea d . .

(d) H e promi sed t o rea d o nl y th e rst c h a pt er o f th a t b ook .

Th a t I S h e pro mi se d t o rea d n o t h i n g more t h a n t h e rst c h a pt er

, .

H ere o n l y is a n A dv erb qu a l ify i ng t h e a dj ec t i v e t h e rst

.

( e) H e promi sed t o rea d th e rst c h a pt er o f th a t b ook on l y ( or

on l y o f t h a t b o o k ) .

Th a t is h e pro mi sed t o rea d t h e rst c h a pt er o f n o o th er b oo k b u t

,

th a t . H ere o nl y is a n A dv erb qu a l ify i ng t h e ph ra se o f th a t

b ook
N ote
.

A t t h e b eg i n ni ng o f a senten c e on l y c a n h a v e t h e forc e o f
.
,

bu t :
Go w h erev er y ou l ik e on l y do n o t st o p h ere .

S u bjec t a nd Objec t .

24 1 . T h e S u bj ec t y prec ed es i ts verb b u t th e fol l ow

u su a ll

i ng ex c ept i o n s sh ou l d b e n o t ed
( )
a W h e n t h e v e rb i s I n t ra n sitiv e a n d i s
prec ed ed by th e ,

i n trod u c to ry a d v erb th ere ; see 1 5 3

O n th w h ol e there is n o t h i ng t o pro v e h is g u i l t
e .

(b) W h en th e verb is u sed fo r aski n g a qu esti o n

A t w h a t h o u r in t h e morn i ng do es h e g et u p ?
1 32 C O M PO S I T I O N PA RT 11

( a ) W h en w h o m, i
t h e O b j ec t is

w h ch, or w h a t, th e pre
po s i t i o n ma y b e pl a c e d l a st in t h e se nt en c e a nd it s O b j ec t rst
T h a t is t h e ma n w h om w e w ere l o oki ng f or ( Conju n cti ve ) . .

t i ch o f t h ese c h a i rs did y o u sit on ? ( I n terrog a ti ve )

( b ) t e n t h e O b j ec t i s t h e C o nj u nc t i v e pro n o u n t h a t, th e pre
o s i t io n mu st b e pu t l a st
p
T h i s is t h e ma n tha t w e w ere l o oki n g f or .

P rep osi ti on s .

24 7 . A P repositi o n mu st b e pl a c ed i mmedi a t el y a ft er th e
w or d w i t h w h i c h it is i n t en d ed to b e c o n stru ed

Bo ok s aut h ori sed b y t ea c h ers a s t for u se .

Boo k s a u t h o ri s e d a s t fo r u se b
y t ea c h ers .

T h e mea n in g o f ea c h se n t enc e t u rn s en t irel y u

po n t h e po si ti on o f
th e phra s e b y tea ch ers .

Correl a ti ve Conju n c ti ons .

24 8 W h en C onj u n c t i o ns a re used c o rrel a ti v el y, th a t is, in

.

a i rs e a c h memb e r o f t h e i r m t i n v ri a b l y b e c o n n ec t ed
p , pa u s a

w i t h w o rd s of th e sa me p a rt of sp eech o r of th e sa me f u n c ti o n .

A i
w se ph y s ic i a n en dea v o u rs n ot to c u re di sea ses, b u t to prev en t
th em .
( I nn i ti ve mood ) .

O bj ec t i o n s w ere ra i sed n ot t o h is h a v ng spent t h e i mo n ey ,

b u t to
h is h a v in g do n e s o i
w t h o u t l ea v e ( P rep osi ti on
. .
)
( 2) N ot on ly but a lso o r bu t
A ll h is w o rk w a s do n e n ot on l y w i t h z ea l , b u t a l so w i t h j u dg men t .

P rep osi ti on ) .

H e w a s n ot on l y sa d, b u t di sg u sted ( A djec ti ve a nd P a rti cip l e )

. .

T h i s n ot on l y a mu se d, b u t en l i g h t en ed t h em ( Verb ) . .

( 3 ) N ot more tha n
I a m n ot more a mu se d ,
th a n i
su rpr sed .
( P a rti c ip l e )
( 4 ) Both a nd

H e is t h oro u g hl y t i red o u t b oth in mi nd a n d in b o dy .

( P rep ositi on ) .

( 5 ) E i ther o r, n ei ther n or

T h ey h a v e w ork ed ei th er st u pidl y or l a z i l y ( A dverb ) .

T h i s w a l l w a s b u i l t ei th er c ro o k edl y o r o f b a d ma t eri a l .
( A dverb
a n d A dverb p h ra se ) -
.

N ei th er Ja mes nor I sa w it ( N ou n a n d P ron ou n )

. .

E xerc ise .

R ew ri te or rea rra n g e the f o l l ow i ng sen ten ces in su ch a way a s

to remo ve a ny i mp rop ri ety tha t ma y exist i n the order o f th e

w ords
C HA P . xv TH E N O R M A L O RD E R O F W OR D S 1 33

1 . T h e c h a i r c o st t en sh i ll i n g s o n w h i c h h e sa t .

2 . H e s h o t t h e ma d do g a ft er dri v i ng i t o u t o f t h e h o u se w i th a g u n .

3 . A g a ng o f ro bb ers ent ere d t h e h ou se a t n i g h t a rmed from h ea d

to fo o t .

4 . H e is an un d o u bt ed ma n
h o n esty , a n d y e t perso n s a c c u sed
of
h im o f c h ea t i n g w h o o u g h t t o h a v e k n o w n him b ett er .

5 T h i s t a b l et w a s erec t ed t o t h e memory o f a fa i th fu l do g t h a t
.

w a s a c c i den t a ll y s h o t a s a ma rk o f re spec t .

6 H e l e ft t h e h ou s e w h ere h e h a d sl ept n ex t mo rni n g mou n t e d

.

o n a h ors e .

7 H e repea t ed th ese l i n es a ft er h e h a d rea d t h em o n l y o n c e w i t h

.

perfec t a c c u ra c
y .

8 .Th e j u dg e sa w more c l ea rl y th a t t h e ma n w a s i n n o c en t th a n
th e j u ry did .

9 T h e g i rl w a s c o n v ey ed from t h e h o u s e w h ere sh e h a d j u st
.

b e en marri ed in a c a rria g e a nd pa ir .

1 0 T h ey fo u n d t h e h ou se o n t h e t o p o f a h i l l w h ere t h ey w i sh ed
.

t o spe nd t h e n i g h t .

1 1 It is b el i e v ed t h a t th ey a re mo st d esi ro u s o f k eepi n g u p t h i s
.

pra c t i c e w h o pro t mo st b y i t .

1 2 Th ere w a s a sma l l h ou se o n th e s i de o f t h e mo u n ta i n , o u t o f
.

w h i c h c a me a b l a c k sl a v e .

1 3 T h e ma g i stra te pa ssed t oo s ev ere a sen t e nc e , b ei n g y o u ng a nd

.

i nex peri enc ed .

1 4 E ng li sh is n o t o nl y difc u l t t o rea d, b u t a l so t o spea k

. .

S u c h w ere th e C e nt a u rs o f I x i o n s ra c e,

15 .

W h o a b ri g h t c l ou d fo r Ju n o did emb ra c e .

1 6 Th e g en era l ordered i n di g n a nt l y t h e des ert ers t o b e s h o t

'

. .

1 7 I o nl y l ik e a pea r w h e n it is ri pe
. .

1 8 H e w i sel y did th i s b ec a u se h e w a s ordered, n o t b ec a u s e h e 5K

.

11k ed it .

1 9 N orth ern I ndi a is b ou n d ed b y t h e H ima l a y a mo un t a i n s, w 1 t h

.

a t t h e ir b a s e a v er t h i c k j u n l
y g e .

20 T h e n a t i v e s o f t h e o t h er i sl a nd s o nl y k n ew h o w t o di v i de
.

t ime b y t h e su n a n d mo o n , w h erea s t h ese h a d a c quired so me k n o w

l e dg e o f t h e sta rs .

21 T h ey a re a s rea dy , n a y more rea dy , t o a ppl y t h ese t h i ng s t o

.

th e ir ri g h t u s es t h a n w e a re .

22 I so o n a rri v e d a t t h e ma n s1 o n o f my fri en d, g u a rded by a h u g e

.

ma st iff t h a t ew a t me .

23 H e c a nn o t b e sa id t o h a v e di ed prema t u rel y w h o se w ork w a s

.

ni sh ed, n or do es h e des erve t o b e l a me n t ed w h o di ed s o fu ll o f

h on o urs S O UTHE Y
.
~ . 1

24 S ir M orto n P et o spo k e o f t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e n a t i o n a l d eb t
.

mi g h t b e repu di a t ed w i t h a b sol u t e c o nt empt .

25 A n u n qu est i o n ed ma n o f g en i u s
. .

26 I a m n e i t h er a n a s c et i c i n t h eory or pra c t i c e
. .

27 H er su c c ess is n ei t h er t h e resu l t o f sy st em n or stra t egy

. .

28 I n ev er rememb er t o h a v e fel t a n e v e n t more de e pl y t h a n

.

H orn er s dea t h

.

29 H is l a st j ourn ey w a s t o C a nn es, w h e n c e h e w a s n ev er dest i n ed

.

to ret u rn .
1 34 CO M P O S I T I ON P A RT 11

3 0 N o one h a s
. een a b l e t o den b
th a t th ere is a c o nn ec t o n y i
b i
e t w een v rt u e a n d v c e o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d h a
pp n ess a n d m ser
i i i y
o n t h e o t h er S a t u rda y R evi ew
. 2nd S ept 1 86 5 , . .

3 1 A ll g o e s o n w ell a t W nc h est er, t h e a tt en t o n a n d a t t en a nc e

. i i d
g ra du a ll y de e pen i ng a nd in c rea si ng .

3 2 S i n c e s ev era l t h ou g h t s ma y b e n a t ura l w h i c h a re l o w a n d
.

g ro vel l i ng a n e pi c po et sh ou l d n o t o nl y a v o i d su c h sen ti me n t s a s a re
u nn a t u ra l o r a ffec t ed, b u t a l so s u c h a s a re mea n a n d v u l a r
.

g Sp ec .

ta to r N o 27 9
, . .

3 3 Th i s sh i pping is t o a g rea t ex t ent n o w th e pro du c t o f G erma n

.

y a rds w h i c h h a v e de v el o ped ra pi dl y t o su i t t h e requ i rement s ev ery

-
.

da y i nc rea si n g o f l oc a l sh i pb u i l di ng D a i l y Tel , 27 th Ja n 1 89 8 .
~
. . .

3 4 T h e re a re n o t mea n w h i l e c ri ti c s w a n t ing h ere w h o a ssi g n t h i s

.

v i c t ory a s re g a rds mora l a n d o l i t i c a l su rema c y i n C h i na t o R u ssi a

p p .

Berli n Te l eg ra m D a i l y Tel , 5 t h F eb 1 8 9 8. . . .

3 5 T h e S i t t i n g c l osed de ni t el y a t v e o c l oc k w i th o u t th e ma tter

.

w h i c h h a d b ro u g h t so ma ny t o g e t h er h a v i ng b e en pra c ti c a ll y ent ered

u o n D a i l y T el , 8 th F eb 1 89 8
p . . . .

3 6 T h e dea t h o c c u rred l a st w eek in M a drid o f M r W M ac

. . .

p h e rso n fo
, rm e rl y B ri t i sh Vi c e C o n su l a t S e v i l l e T i mes W eek l y , -

1 1 t h F eb 1 8 9 8 . .

3 7 T h e c a pta i n t o ok th e g o od t h i ng s w h i c h t h e g o ds pro vided

.

w i th t h a nk fu l g oo d h u mo u r -
.

3 8 H l s d a i l y c u st om i s t o t el l a n ec d o t es w h i c h a mu se o r ex c it e
.

th e c o mpa ny a ft er di nn er .

3 9 O t h e ll o sei z i ng a b ol st er fu l l o f ra g e a nd j ea l o u sy , smo th ers

. ,

D esde mo n a .

4 0 S o me pa i n ti ng s b y l a dy a rti st s, w el l w o rth y o f in spec t i o n , w i l l

.

b e e xh ibi t ed t o morro w -
.

4 1 T h e da u g h ter o f a c i v il o i c er retired from I ndi a , bro u g h t u p

.

in E n g l a nd se ek s e mpl o y me n t
. .

4 2 L o s t a w a l k i ng s ti c k b el o ng i ng t o a g en tl ema n , w i th a
. ,
!
.

c u ri ou sl y sh a ped h ea d .

4 3 H e re t h e t ra i n ma de a h al t to t a k e i n w a t er, w h i c h l a st ed
.

o nl y for a fe w mi n u tes .

4 4 H e w ept in pa ssi ng t h a t t omb o ft en

. .

4 5 D o y o u t a k e th e me di c i n e t h a t I sen d y o u reg u l a rl y ?
.

4 6 I n a l l s c i en ti c b o ok s it is n ec e ssa ry t o c l ea rl y den e t h e
.

t ec h ni c a l terms empl o y e d .

4 7 I n e v e r rememb er t o h av e spent a mo re a g re ea b l e v isi t

. .

4 8 Z edeki a h w a s sen t c a pti v e t o Ba b y l o n , fro m w h i c h h e w a s

.

n e v er dest i n e d t o ret u rn .

4 9 H is b o dy w a s fo u nd o a tin g l ifel ess o n t h e w a t er a t a sh ort

.
.

di st a n c e from w h ere th e b o a t w a s u pset b y a sh erma n .

5 0 N o o ne is en t i tl ed t o fo rm or ex press a n o pi n i o n o n t h e
.

rel a t i o n s b et w ee n N el so n a nd L a dy H a mi l t o n o r o n t h e pa ren t a g e o f .

H ora t i a , w h o h a s n o t c a re fu l ly st u di ed t h e l et t ers t o b e fo u n d in t h i s

i n v a l u a b l e c o l l ec ti o n T i mes Weekl y 4 th M a rc h 1 8 9 8 . .

5 1 I t w il l b e a w a r o n sea , i n st ea d o f l a n d, l a rg el y a nd w e do

. .

n o t k n o w mu c h a b o u t sea w a rfa re o f l a t e y ea rs Qu o t ed in D a i l y
T el 1 5 t h A pri l 1 8 9 8 .

5 2 R i g h t from t h e bi rth o f a S pa ni sh mon a rc h h e is su bj ec t t o a n

.
1 36 C O M PO S I T I O N PA RT 11

I mmen se is t h e a tt ent i o n t h a t th e g o v ernment in Fra nc e i s dev o t

ing t o t h e Z o l a tri a l D a i l y T el , 1 6 t h F e b 1 8 9 8
.
. .

Fa f
ll en , a b c i t y

l l en is Ba y l o n , t h e g rea t
R ev x v 1 1 1 2 .
1
. . .

( )
3 A dv er b o r A dv e rbi a l ph ra se
pl a ce d rst
N ot a t on ce w s l n g u a g e a d equ a t e to rec ei v e or ta k e u p i nto it sel f
a a

t h e i dea s t h a t w ere a ski ng for ex pressi o n JO W E T T . .

On th ese tw o c omma ndmen ts h a ng a ll t h e l a w a n d t h e pro ph ets .

M a tt x x ii 4 0
. . .

I n thy p resen c e is fu l n ess o f jo

y ; a t th y ri h t h a nd t h ere a re
g
pl ea s u res for e v ermo re P sa l ms x v 1 1 1 .
. .

( )
4 T h e V e rb p l a c e d rs t ( e exc ept in poetry)
ra r

E v ery ma n h a s l e ft b e h i nd him i n u e n c es fo r g o o d o r ev i l th a t
w i l l n e v er e x h a u s t th ems el v es I t ma y b e h i s resi de , it ma y .

b e a ki ng dom it ma y b e a v i l l a g e o r a g rea t n a t i o n b u t a ct
h e does, c ea sel essl y a nd for ev er CUMM I NG . .

F l a shed a l l t h e i r sa bres b a re ,
F l a sh ed a s t h ey tu rn ed in a ir .

T NNY N
,
E SO .

( 5 ) A d v erb w ith v erb pl a c ed rst

T hu s ca me
i n to p romi n en ce w h a t a re c a l l e sa c red a n d pro a n e d f
k no w l e g e : d
th u s ca me i n to th e p resen ce of ea ch oth er t w o
i i i
ppo s ng pa rt es, o n e rel y ng o n rea so n , t h e o t h er o n re v el a t o n i
D R
O .

A PE R
mi g h ty h ea rt S H A K S P E A R E
.

Th en b u rst h is . .

Up g oes my g ra v e I mpu denc e to t h e ma id Ta tler . .

( )
6 A dj ec tiv e o r A dj ec t iva l ph ra se pl ac ed a fte r i ts n ou n

I a ppea l fro m Ph i l i p dru n k t o Ph i l i p sob er .

A l fred th e Grea t Pl i ny th e E lder Pl i ny th e You ng er

. . .

I w il l ta l k i
t h ng s h ea ven l y o r t h n g s ea rth l y
of th n g s mora l o r i i
i i
t h ng s eva ng el i ca l ; t h n g s sa c red o r t h ng s p rof a n e ; t h n g s i i
p a st o r t h n g s to cio m e t h n g sf orei g n o r t h ng s a t h ome i t h n g s i i
i
essenti a l or t h ng s c irc u msta n ti a l pro vided t h a t a ll b e do n e t o
o u r ro t
p B . A UNY N .

I love th ee , C a ss io
fc er of min e S H A K S P E A R E
,

Bu t n ev ermo re be o

. .

25 0 .E m ph a t i c P o sit i on s T h e m idd l e o f a se n t en ce is

l ess emph a ti c t h a n th e b eg i nn i ng a n d th e b eg i nn i ng in most ,

c ases is l ess emph a ti c th a n th e en d .

1
T his is th e ren dering g iven in th e R evise d T ra nsl a tion, 1 8 8 5 . I n th e
tra n sl a tio n o f 1 6 1 1 th e w o rding is fa r l ess po inted .

Bab y l o n is fa l l en , is f th a t g re a t c ity
a l l en , .

C ompare w h at H ora c e pu ts into th e mou th of H a nnib a l

Oc c idit, occ idit,

S pes mnis fortu na n ostri

o et

N o minis, A sdru b a l e interempto . Od e iv 4 , 7 0

. .

F a ll en , f a l l en a re a ll ou r h o pes a nd o u r fortu ne for H asdrub a l is sl a in .

C HA P . X VI I N VERS I ON O F O R DER : E M P HA S I S 1 37

( ) Th a
e b egi n n i ng I f w e t a k e a w o rd o ut o f i t s n o rma l
o rd er in o rd er t o pl a c e it rst , t h e e mph a si s t h a t it a c qu i res

ari ses pa rt l y fro m th e su rpri se ex c it ed by i ts u n u su a l posi t i o n ,

a n d pa rtl y fro m th e promi n e n ce th a t n a tu ra l l y b e l o n gs t o th e

i n iti al d Th is h a s b een ex empl i ed a l ready in 24 9

w or . .

Th e su bj ec t o f a sen t en ce is u su a ll y pl a c ed rst b ec a u se th a t ,

is its n o rma l o rd er I n th i s po si t i on it possesses a c erta i n d eg ree

.

o f pro mi n en c e b ecau se it n a mes th e person o r th ing a b ou t

,

w h i c h th e asserti o n is ma d e .

R omu l u s a c c ordi n g t o th e a n c i ent l eg end fou nd ed R ome

, , .

I f th a t d egree of pro min en c e h ow ev er h appen s n o t to b e , ,

suf c i en t a dditi o n a l em h a si s ca n b iv en t t h u bj ec t
, p e
g o e s

R o mu l us by pl a c i n g it l a st
Ro me a c c ordi ng t o th e a n c i en t l eg end w a s fo u n ded b y R o mu l u s
, , .

Th e fo u nder o f R ome a c c ordi n g t o t h e a nc i ent l eg en d w a s

, ,

R omu l u s .

(b) The en d T h e en d o f a t
sen en ce is more emph a ti c th a n
th e b eg i n n i ng b ec au se on e s min d is h el d in su spense t i ll w e
,

kn o w th e c l osi ng c irc u mstan c e an d ou r i n terest is a roused to ,

k now w h a t th a t c i rcu mst an c e i s T h is is c all ed th e P RI N C I P LE .

O F S U S PE N S E .

( 1 ) A dd t o yo u r fa i t h vi rtu e ; a n d to v i rtu e kn ow l edg e ; a nd to

k no w l edg e temp era n ce a nd to tempera nc e pa ti en ce a nd t o
p a t i e n c e g odl i n ess ; a nd t o
g o d l i n e ss b roth erl y ki ndn ess
a ri ty
,

a n d t o b ro t h erl ki n d n ss ch 2 P eter i 5 7
y e -
. .

( 2) Kno w i n g t h a t y ou are v ery i nqu i si ti v e a ft er ev ery th i ng t h a t

is c u ri o u s in n a t u re I w i l l w a i t o n y o u in th e du sk of th e even
i ng w i th my sh ow
,

u p on my b a ck .
Sp ec ta tor, No . 27 1 .

H eret h e emph a ti c ph ra ses, t h e rst of w h ic h sh o w s th e time of

co mi ng ,
a nd th e sec o n d t h e pu rpose of c o mi n g ,
a re i
r g h tl y pl a c ed
l a st

.

C oro r
ll a y I f w e do n o t w i sh a w o rd to b e emph a ti c w e
. ,

mu st a v o id pl ac i ng it in an emph a ti c positi on .

Th a t a l l memb ers o f t h e sa me h ou seh ol d sh ou l d l i v e t og et h er in

pea c e is n ec essa ry .

He, desert ed b y h is fri end s a nd pu rsu e d b y h is en e mi es ,

e d from
t h e c ou ntry .

Th e un d u e emph a si s g i v en in o n e sent en c e t o th e w or d n ec es
c a n b e a v o i ded by l t eri ng th ei r

sa ry , a nd in t h e o t h er to he a

po si ti o n s
I t is n ec essa ry th a t a ll memb ers o f th e sa me h o u seh ol d sh ou l d
l i v e t og et h er in pea c e .

D esert ed b y his fri end s, a nd pu rsu ed by h is en emi es, h e ed from

t h e c ou ntry .
1 38 CO M PO S I TI O N P A RT I I

25 1 . C orr el a t iv e Co nju n c tion s a nd Ph ra ses C j

on a n e

ti ons a nd ph ra ses w h i ch g o in pa i rs add to th e en erg y of a sen

t en c e b eca u se th e rst on e k e eps th e mi nd in su spen se 2 5 0 b)
, ,

t i l l t h e sec o nd o n e h as b een me n ti on ed
Ei t h er or Pa rt l y p rtl y O n th e o n e h a n d on a

t h e o t h er h a n d
N ei th ern or I n th e rst pl a c e T h o u g h y e t
i n t h e sec o n d pl a c e
N ot o nl y - b ut a l so O n t h i s si de o n t h a t A ss o
si de

H ere th ere I n deed b ut

N o t b u t
( 1 ) Th e u se o f l a ng u a g e is t o c o nc ea l t h e t h o u g h ts
Th e
.

T o emph a si se con cea l , w e c o u l d sa y u se o f l a ng u a g e is

n o t t o ex pre ss, b u t t o c o n c ea l t h e t h o u g h t s .

( 2) I reg a rd t h e pro spec ts of

p ea c e i
w th c o nde n c e .

T o emph a si se d sa y
c onfiden c e w e c ou l I reg a rd th e prospec ts o f
pea c e n o t o nl y w i t h h o pe, b u t w i th c o ndenc e

.

( 3 ) H e is b o t h a fool a nd a k na v e .

To e mph a si se f ool w e sh o u l d sa y H e is n o t o nl y a kn a v e, b ut

fo o l H e is fool k na v e To emph a si se

a l so a o r, a a s w el l as a .

kna ve , w e sh ou l d sa y H e is n o t o nl y a fo ol b u t,
a l so a k na v e

or H e is k n v e a s w ell a s a foo l
a a

25 2 E mph asis b y R epet it io n E mph a sis is so met i mes

.

a dd ed t o a w o rd by repea ti n g i t o r by a ddi n g so me o t h er w o rd ,

a l most sy n on y mo us R epeti t i o n w h en it a dd s fo rc e is n o t l ik e
.
, ,

a bi rd a ppi n g i ts w i n g s us el essl y in t h e a i r b u t l ik e a b l a c k ,

smi th re ea t i n s b l o w s o n a n a n vi l i
p g h i ( N c h o l ) .

I f I w ere a n A meri c a n a s I a m a n E ng l i sh ma n I n ever w o u ld l a y

do w n my a rms n evern evern ever
, ,

,
BURK E . .

C hri s t b ei ng ra i sed from t h e dea d di e th n o more dea th h a th n o

more domi ni on over hi m .
N ew Test .

O u r l a ng u ag e a b ou n d s in ph ra ses, in w h i ch d
w or s o f th e

sa me o r a l most t h e sa me mea n i n g g o in pa i rs .

T h ey w ere dri v en
b a g a n d b a gg a g e
ou t H e w or s o nl y b y ts a nd . k
sta rts . H is prog ress is b y l eap s a nd b ou n ds H e w a s f a i r a nd squ a re .

i n a l l h is dea l n g s i
W ords u ll o f re a nd f u ry
. f H e i s a s t c l er . i k
forf o rms a nd c eremo n i es H e is f ree a nd ea sy in h is ma nn ers
. H is .

p r e se n c e i s g a l l a n d w o rm w o od t o m e W h e re a r e m y g o ods a nd .

c h a ttel s ? k
H e t oo t o it h ea rt a nd sou l H e is v ery h ig h a nd mi g hty .
.

Tu rn ed o u t o f h ou se a nd h ome T o a ll i n ten ts a nd p u rp oses

. E a g er .

fo r t h e l oa ves a n d sh es o f o f c e H e w o u l d no t y el d o n e jot or ti ttl e

. i .

i
H is w l l is n u l l a nd void O ver h ea d a nd ea rs i n deb t
. Th e p a i n s .

a nd p ena l ti es o f t h e l a w H e a rr v ed saf e a nd sou nd

. i
A ll stujf a nd .

n onsense Ti me a nd ti de w a t for n o ma n
. i
If y o u do t h s, w el l a nd . i
g o od . T h s i s mi y w i ll a n d p l ea s u re H e w o r e d w t h m i g h t a n d m.a i n k i .

d
D ren c h e throu gh a nd th rou gh F i rst a nd f oremost b e tru h u l
. t f .
1 40 CO M P O S I T I O N P A RT 11

g oo d ma nn ers ,

t i ons c o rru p t
T h e S a bb a th w as mad e fo r
ma n , not ma n fo r th e S a bb a th .

G o d, w ho at su n dry t i mes a nd in di v ers ma n n ers , spa k e in t ime

p a st u nt o h ers b y t h th e
e ro h f
p p et s , h a t h in t h e se l a st da y s
at

S pok en u n t o u s b y h is S o n , w h o m h e h a t h a i n t d h i r f

ppo e e o

a l l t h i ng s, b w h o m a l so h e m a de t h e w orl ds H eb rew s i 1 , 2
y . .

Th e a n t i t h esi s o f t h i s n el y b a l a nc ed s e n t enc e i s ma rre d in t h e

R ev i se d Versi o n o f 1 8 8 5 , w h ere i t is ma de t o ru n a s fol l o w s
G o d, h a v ng o f o l d t me s po e n u n to t h e a t h ers in t h e pro ph e t s
i i k f
b y d v ers po rt o n s a n d in d v ers ma nn ers, h a th a t t h e e nd o f
i i i
k
t h ese da y s s po e n u n t o u s i n his S o n , w h o m h e a ppo nt e h e r i d i
o f a l l t h n s , t h rou h w h o m a l so h e ma de t h e w o rl ds
i
g g .

E xerci ses .

I . R ea rra ng e, or if n ec essa ry su pp l emen t o r rew ri te, the f o l l ow

i ng sen ten c es so as to throw the e mpha sis on c erta i n w ords a s

direc ted
1 I a m n o t su re h e sa
. th a t ( E mph a s se ( 1 ) su re, ( 2) he, ( 3 ) id . i
s a i d, ( 4 ) th a t, ( 5 ) I ) .

2 T h ey b ro u g h t h ome h er dea d w a rr o r
.
( E mph a s se h ome ) i . i .

3 N o ma n h a t h g rea t er l o v e t h a n t h s ( E mph a s s e g rea ter l ove )

. i . i .

4 C o n su mma t e men o f b u s n e ss a re a l mo st a s ra re a s g rea t po et s , i

.

a nd
per h a s ra rer
p t h a n v er t a l e s a n t s a n d m a r t y rs H E S i b i LP .

mph a sise ra re a n d ra rer ) .

5 T h e b a t tl e o f H a st ng s w a s ou g h t in 1 0 6 6
.
( E mph a s se ( 1 )
i f . i
t h e b a ttl e of H a sti ng s, ( 2) i n
6 A g re a t er m st a e w a s n e v er ma de i ( E mph a s se n ever )
k i

. . .

7 T h ou
. d d st n o t a n o n t m n e i h e a d w t h o il N ew Testa ment
i i i . .

i
( E mph a s se mi n e h ea d w i th oi l ) .

8 Th e w nd l o w s e e n , a n d t h e n g h t is c om ng o n ( E mph a s s e
. i b k i i . i
keen ) .

I d
9 I f h a ve t ol y o u e a rthl y t h ng s , a n d y e b el e v e no t , h o w sh a l l
. i i
b i
y e el ev e if I
t el l y o u o f h e a v e nl y t h ng s ( E mph a s se ea rth l y a n d i . i
h ea ven l y ) .

1 0 W h en a ll w ere s ea t ed, a n o s e w a s su ddenl y h ea rd o u t s de

. i i .

( E mph a s se su dden l y ) i .

1 1 M o ses l ed t h e c h l dre n o f I sra el o u t o f E g y pt

. i ( E mph a s se . i
( 1 ) M oses, ( 2) th e c h i l dren of I sra el , ( 3 ) E gyp t ) .

1 2 T h e re g n o f C o n st a n t ne ma r s t h e e poc h o f t h e tra n s o rma

. i i k f
t o n o f C h r st a n ty ro m a re l g o n n t o a po l t c a l sy st em ( E mph a s se
i i i i f i i i ii . i
th e reig n of Con sta n ti n e ) .

1 3 A l l c l a sses o f t h e po pu l a t o n did no t w th e qu a l ra p d ty
. i i i i
a do t mo n o t h e st c v ew s
p ( E m p h a si i
se ( )
1 n oit w i th eq u a.
l rap i di ty, i
( 2) a l l c l a sses of th e p op u l a ti on ) .

1 4 A l l pa rt ie s in t h e R o ma n c ommo n w ea l t h c o nc u rre d in a ppo n t

. i
i ng Qu n t u s Fa b u s t o t h e c o mma n d o f th e R o ma n orc e s a g a n st
i i f i
H a nn b a l ( i
E m p h a s se.
( )
1 a l l p a r t i es , ( 2 ) Q i
u i n tu s F a b i u s, ( 3 ) c on

c u rred ) .

1 5 N a ture c o n c l a t es a nd orms th e m nd o f ma n t o his c o n d t o n

ii f i i i
G
.
.

OL D S M I TH .
( E mph a si se mi nd ) .
ca n
. xv 1 1 S TR UCT U R E O F SEN T EN CE S 1 41

IIGi ve some a ddi ti on a l p oin t to th e f oll ow in g sen ten c es by

. a

cha n g e of order, or by a c ha ng e of w ords, o r by a n y o th er mea n s

1 W h i c h o f y ou b y t a ki n g th ou g h t c a n a dd o n e c u bi t t o h is
.

s ta t u re ? ( c f M a tt v i 27 w i t h L u ke x ii
. . . .

2 T h e g o v ernmen t pro se c u t ed W a t so n fo r h i g h trea so n a nd w ere

.

de fea t ed h a d th ey i n di c t ed h im fo r a g g ra v a t e d a ssa u l t t h ey w ou l d ,

ha ve o bta i ned a c on v c t o n i i .

3 . Th e a u t h o rs of a rev ol u ti on a re n ot l ik e t h ose w h om t h e
rev o l u t o n i pro du c e s .

4 . Tu ll y t h e rs w h o o serv e
w as t
th a t r e n dsh p mpro v e s b d fi i i
i b i
h a pp n ess a n d a a t e s m sery b y t h e do u l ng o f o u r jo y a nd d v d ng o f bi i i i
ou r g r e i f
a t h ou g h t i n w h c h h e h a s e en o l l o w e d b i
y a ll t h e e ssa y ers b f
u po n r en dsh p, t h a t h a v e w r t t e n s n c e h is t me
fi i Sp ecta tor, N o 6 8 i i i . .

5 A c l e v er ma g stra t e w o u l d s ee w h e t h er a w tn ess w a s del er

. i i ib ~

t i
a el y l y n g a g rea t dea l ett er th a n a st u
p d j ury b i .

6 T h e a ir l a st n g h t c o nden se
. i
t h e v a pou r nt o w h t e pa r c l es, d i i ti
b u t w a s n o t c ol d en ou g h t o t u rn t h em n t o a c tu a l h o a r ro st i -
f .

7 N o th ng i n t h s w a r t h rea ten ed our n t erest s more t h a n t h e

. i i i
i nt erest s o f o t h er c ou ntr es i .

d it i i
8 A c o x c o mb , u sh e w h v c tor es o v er th e a r y ou n g c rea tures
. fi
w h o m h e h a s dec e v e d, w l l pro t e st a nd v o w h e n e v er t h ou g h t o f
i i
ma tr mo ny , a nd w o n er t a l ng c v ll y c o u l b e so stra ng el y mi s
i d ki i i d
n erpret e d Sp ecta tor, N o 28 8
i t . .

9 N o r is t h e rea so n t h a t h a s l ed t o th e esta li sh men t o f h s

. b t i
mora l l a w d ffic u l t t o b e d sc erned
i i .

1 0 In ou r sea rc h a t er G o d a n d c o nt empl a t o n o f H im o u r w sdom

. f i i
d oth c o n s st in ou r w orsh p a nd o ed enc e t o H im ou r rel g o n do t h
i i b i i i
c on s sti in oth o f t h em o u r h a pp n ess o th c o n s st
b i d i .

11 . It i
is no t w th ou t a deg ree o f pa t ent a t t en t o n , g rea t er t h a n. i i
i i i
th e g en era l t y a re w ll ng to b esto w , t h o ug h n o t g re a t er t h a n t h e
o b j ec t d
es erv es , t h a t t h e h a b t c a n b e a c qu re d o f e x a m n n g a n d i i i i
j u dg ng o f o ur o w n c o ndu c t w th t h e sa me a c c ura c a nd mpa rt a l ty
i i y i i i
a s t h a t o f a n o t h er .

1 2 E v ery ma n c a ll e h t h a t w h c h pl ea se h a nd is
. t eli g h ul to i t d tf
h msel g oo d, a n d t h a t e v l w h c h displ ea set h h im
i f i i .

1 3 O ur Berl n c orres po nden t t el eg ra ph s t h a t in d pl oma t c c rc l e s

. i i i i
t d
h ere c o n enc e is pl a c e d in n o report s a b ou t t h e C h n e s e l o a n i .

D a i l y Tel egraph , 8th Feb 1 89 8 . .

1 4 I n t h e l a st f ew h o u rs t h a pre c e e
. h is dea th h e w a s o n l y t dd
a l e t o ma e a few a u d b l e so u n ds, a n d n o o n e u n derst o o d t h em
b k i .

1 5 I n t h s e v l w orl
. i i d
g u l t h a s a b et t er c h a nc e t h a n m s ort u n e i i f
of b i
e ng trea t e d
w i t h n u l g enc e i d .

1 6 H e t h a t t ell s a l i e is n o t sen s l e h o w g rea t a ta s h e u n er

. ib k d
t k
a es for h e mu s t n v ent t w enty more t o ma n ta n o n e
i i i .

C HA P T E R XV I I S T R U C T U R E O F S E N TE N C E S .

25 7 R u l e of P ro x imit y
. S u b o rdi n a te c l a u ses a re su bj ec t .

t o th e R u l e o f P ro x i mi t y 22 9 ) t o th e sa me ex t en t a s t h e v a ri o us

p a rt s o f s
p e ech an d t h e c orres o n din
p g p h r ases A c o ns tru c t i o n . .
142 CO M P O S I T I O N P A RT 1 1
w h i c h vi ol a t es t his pri n c i pl e is ca ll ed by t h e F ren c h c on stru c tion
l o u che, a squ in ti n g c o n st ru c t i o n o r t o a d o t t h e mo re h o mel y
p

E ng l i sh ph ra se, O n e ey e is x ed o n t h e k e t tl e, w h i l e th e o th er
l oo ki ng u p t h e c h i mn ey

( )
a N o u n c l a use A N-
ou n cl a use m us t b e pl a c ed a s c l o se as -

p o ss ib l e t o th e v erb o r n ou n t o w h i c h i t b el o n s by
g g ra m m a t i ca l

rel a t o ni
M r J S C h a ppl e po i n t s
. . . in re ferenc e t o o ur rema rk l a st w eek ,
o ut

t h a t w i t h t h e e x c ept i o n o f S ir G S c o t t , n o o t h er a rc h i t ec t o f
, .

o ur t i me h a s erec t ed a c a t h edra l , t h a t M r W Bu rg ess erec t ed

S t Fin Ba rr s Ca t h edra l a t Co rk in t h e y ea r 1 86 2 Ch u rch
. .

. .

T i mes, 23 rd D ec 1 8 9 7 . .

The ch e i f fa u l t of th is
l i es in t h e fa c t t h a t i t
sl o v e n l y se nt en c e

S e pa ra t es t h e o b j e c t fro m i t s v erb b y a b l o c k o f t w e n ty ve w o rds , -

a n d t h i s w i th o u t a n
y n ec essi t y w h a t e v er Th e s ent enc e c ou l d ea s il y .

h a ve b ee n a rra ng ed a s fo l l o w s
In re fere nc e t o o u r rema r k
l a st w eek t h a t , w i t h t h e ex c ept i o n o f
S ir G S c o t t, n o a rc h i t ec t o f o ur t i me h a s erec t ed a c a t h edra l
.
,

M r J S C h a ppl e po i nt s o u t t h a t M r W Burg es s, et c

. . . . . .

b
( ) A d verb c la u se A n A dv erb cl au se must b e pl a c ed
-
.
-
a s c l ose

as os s i b l e t o th e w o rd t h a t i t u a l i es
p q
H e i mpruden tl y pu t all h is mo n ey in t h a t c o nc ern , a s the e v ent

S h o w ed .

T h e a dverb i a l c l a u se a s t h e e v ent sh o w ed is i nt ended t o q u a l ify

a nd e x l a i n t h e a dverb i m ruden t l y , a n d sh o u l d t h erefo re b e
p p pl a c ed
i mme d1 a t e l y a ft er it .

I mpru den t ly ,
as th e e v en t sh o w e d ,
h e pu t al l his mo ney in t hat
c o n c ern .

T o ta k e a n o th er exa mpl e
A l l t h i s is mea n t t o o pen th e ey e s o f t h e Ch i n ese, an d to c a use t h em
to pt ea c h a nd e v ery c l a i m t h a t w e ma k e u po n t h em a s
acce

s o o n a s possib l e D a i l y T el egrap h , 3 1 d Ja n 1 8 9 8 . .

T h e c l a use o r phra se a s soon a s p ossi b l e sh o u l d h a v e b een pla c ed

i mmedi a t el y a ft er t h e v erb a ccep t, si nc e it is not i nt ended to qu a l ify
t h e v erb ma ke .

()
c A djec ti ve c la u se -
.
T h e p os iti o n of su c h c l au ses is d et er
mi n ed by dow n
t h e ru l e l a id
2 4 4 t h a t a C onj un c t iv e pro in ,

n o u n o r C o nj u n c t iv e a dverb must b e pl a ced as c l ose a s possib l e

t o its A n t ec ed en t

25 8 R u l e o f P ri orit y
.

T h e R u l e o f Pro x i mi ty is su ppl e

. .

men t ed by a n o t h er t h e R u l e o f P ri o rity 1 A cc o rdi ng to th i s .

ru l e qu a l ifyi n g c l a uses S h o u l d
,
as fa r a s possib l e p rec ed e th e , ,

c l a u se o r w o rds t o w h i c h t h e y a re su b o rdi n a t e .

Comp osition , p 1

1
Ba in s R hetoric a nd . .
1 44 CO M P O S I TI O N P A RT 11

A L o o se sen en c et is o ne th a t c onti nu es ru nn i n g on a fter

r
g a mma ti ca l compl e ten ess h as b een rea c h ed a n d w h en w e t h i n k
,

th e se n t e n c e h a s c o me t o a n en d . T h e dist i n c t i o n a ppl i es t o
s i mpl e t
sen en c es n o l ess th a n to co m pl ex o n es
1 .

L oose . P eri odi c .

(1 ) W e me j ou rn ey s m i

ca to o ur ( )
1 A t l a s t ,
w t h n o s a ll dif ~

en d a t l a st , i
W th n o s m ll di th
a c ul t
y a n d a t er mu c h f
at
g u e, w e f i
fter mu c h f ti g u e t h ro u g h
c u l ty , a a ,
c a me, t h ro u h dee
g p r o a ds a n d i n

dee p roa d s a nd i n b d w ea t h er b a d w ea t h er, t o o u r jou rn ey s en d

a . .

( 2) T h i s w s fo rb i dde n b y g oo d
a i
( 2) Th s w a s o r dde n b oth b y f bi
ta s t e Ha s w ell a s b y j u dg men t .
g o o d t a st e a n d b
y j u dg men t .

( 3 ) Th is d spo s t o n sa v e s h im
i ii i
( 3 ) T h s d spos t o n sa v e s h im i ii
o tfen di u g h is o ppo n en t s, Ha nd fro m o e n d ng h is O
ff i
ppo n en t s on
a l so ro m a l e n a t i n h is su
f i rt r th e on e h a n d, a nd ro m a l e n a t ng f i i
g pp o e s .

h is su pport ers o n the o t h er .

(4 ) He k ept h imsel f al v e wi i th (4 ) H e k ept h i msel f a l i v e ei th er

t h e sh h e cau I or w i t h t h e
g h t, [ w i th
t he a s h h e c u g h t o r w i t h
g o a t s h e sh o t . t h e g o a t s h e sh o t .

( 5 ) T h e w o rl d is n ot et ern a l , ( 5 ) T h e w orl d is n ei th er e erna l , t

I] n o r is i t t h e re su l t o f c h a nc e n or t h e re su l t o f c ha n c e .

( 6 ) T h e R o ma ns c o n si der re ( 6 ) Wh i l e t h e R oma n s c o ns er id
l ig io n a pa rt o f v i rtu e , I] t h e Jew s i i
rel g o n a pa rt o f v rt u e , t h e J ew s , i
v irt u e a a rt o f rel i i o n o n th e co ntra ry , c o n s der v rt u e a i i
p g .

p a rt o f re l g o n i i .

( 7 ) H is i
a c t o n s w ere
cr it i c i sed II b u t
, h is
a b o e c ri t i c i sm
v .
frequ en tl y ( 7 ) T h ou g h h is a c t o n s w ere i
c h a ra c t er w a s f ii i d
requ en t l y c r t c s e , his c h a ra c t er
w a s a o v e c r t c sm
b ii i .

( 8 ) H is w o rd ma y b e as g oo d a s ( 8 ) Gra n ti ng th a t h is w or is d
h is b o nd, IIb u t w e h a v e st i ll t o a sk as
g o o d a s his b o nd, w e h a v e s t ll i
h o w g o od h is b o n d is . t o a sk h o w g oo d h is o nd is b .

I n th e e x a mpl es g i v en on th e l e ft
id e o f th e ta b l e th e d ou b l e s ,

st ro k e sh o w s w h ere th e sen t e n ce c ou l d h a v e st opped w i t h ou t

l ea v i n g a n y sen se o f i n c o mpl e t en ess in th e mi nd o f t h e rea d er .

U p to th a t po i n t th e sen ten c e is a Peri o d I n th e ex a mpl es .

g i v en on t h e ri g h t sid e t h e w o rd o r p h ra se by ,
w h i c h th e ,

i n terest o f th e read er is h el d in su spen se a n d th e sen ten c e

c h a n ed fro m Lo o se t o Pe ri o di c is i n di ca t ed by i ta l i cs
g ,
.

Th e di st i n gui sh i ng ma rk o f a P eri od t h en is th a t the min d , ,

i s kep t i n su sp en se 25 0 ) u n ti l th e sen ten c e c o mes to a n end .

F ro m t h e a b o v e e x a mpl es i t w i ll b e seen th a t su spen se c a n b e

ro d u c ed in fo u r differen t w a y s a t l east a n d th ere ma y b e
p ,

mo re

1
Th e t ab l e o f e x a mpl es is qu o te d ro m C a rpent er s E xerc is es i n f

R h etoric ( M a c mil l a n a n d C o , N ew Y o rk , p 99 .T h is a u th o r refers . . .

I n d, h o w ever, th a t th e rst,

t o H il l s P ri n c ip l es of R he tori c , p 1 5 3 . .

t h e f o urth , a n d th e sixt h e x a mpl e s a re ro m W h a tel y s R hetoric , p 206

f . .
C HA P . x vn S TR U CT UR E O F S E N TE N CE S 1 45

a B
( ) y p u tti n
g a d verbi a l o r qu a l ifyi n g ph ra ses b e fo re, a n d

n o t a ft e r, t h e w o rd th a t t h ey a re i n t en d ed t o qu a l ify , a s in

ex ampl e ( I ) (see ,

( 6) By us i ng c orrel a tive w ord s an d ph rases as in e x a mpl es ,

S ee rema rk s in 25 1 .

(6) By pu tti ng su b o rdi na t e c l au ses b efore th e ma in cl au se, as

in ex a mpl es (6 ) a nd (see
d
( ) yB u s i n
g pa rti c i pi al ph rases a n d ma k ing th em prec ed e ,

th e su bj ec t o f th e sen t en c e, a s in ex a mpl e

26 1 . A dva n t a g es
of t h e P er io d I n po i n t o f en erg y th e
Peri o d h as in mo st c a ses th e a dvan t a g e o v er L o ose sen t en c es .

W h en w e mee t w ith qu a l ifyi ng cl aus es o r ph rases, o u r t end en c y

is to l o o k fo rw a rd s ra t h er th an b a c k w a rd s O u r i n t erest is th u s .

rou sed t o k n o w w h a t is c o mi n g T h e L oo se sen t en c e is l ess

.

sti mu l a ti n a n d o ft en di sa o i n ti n A n u n e x ec t ed c o n tin u
p
g pp g .

a ti o n o f a sen t en c e, w h i c h th e rea d er h a d su ppose d t o b e c o n

cl u d ed , is a pt to prod u ce in t h e mi n d a sen sa t i o n o f b e i n g dis

a g reea b ly b al k ed , an a l o ous t o th e u npl easan t j a r w h i c h is fel t

g
w h en , in a sc en di n g o r d esc en di n g a i gh t of st a i rs, w e mee t w ith

o n e st ep mo re t h a n w e h a d e x ec t ed
p (W h a t el y) .

S h a ft esb u ry s streng th l a y in rea so ni n g a nd se nt i men t more th a n

in d esc ri pti o n, h o w ev er mu c h his d esc ri pt i o ns h a v e b een

dmired
a .
1

W h en th i s Loose sen t en ce h a s b een con vert ed in t o a Peri od ,

th e rea d er w i ll a t on c e perc e iv e h o w mu c h th e en erg y is in

c reased .

H o w e v er mu c h S h a ftesb u ry s d esc ri pt i o n s h a v e b een a dmi red h is

,

stren g t h l a y n o t so mu c h in d e sc ri t i o n a s i n rea so n i n g a n d
p
s en t i men t

26 2 O c c a sion a l I n c onv en ien c e of t h e P er io d O n th e

.

o th e r h an d t h e L o ose sen t en c e t h ou g h its n a me i mpl i es so me

, ,

th in g o f reproa c h is a t ti mes very usefu l an d man y sen t en c es

, ,

w o u l d b e spo i l t ra th er t h an i mpro v ed by a n a ttempt t o co erc e

th em i n t o P eri od s .

( 1 ) A s t h e su n t th i s t ime o f th e y ea r sets a s ea rl y a s four o c l oc k

a ,

w e h a d b e t t er s t a rt a t o n c e if w e a re t o g et t o ou r j ou rn ey s

e n d i n da l i h t
y g .

H ere t h e rh y t h m is i mpro v ed b y pl a c i ng th e pri nc i pa l c l a u se

b etw een t h e t w o su b ordi na t e c l a u ses t h a t qu a l ify it M oreo v er t h e . .

rst su b ordi n a t e c l a u se d oe s n o t g i v e a fu l l ex p l n a ti o n o f t h e rea so n a

for sta rti ng a t o nc e a nd h enc e t h e s ec o nd o n e do e s n o t c ome a s

, a

d i sa g re ea b l e su rpri se .

1
Comp osi ti on, p 5 5

Ba in s R hetoric a nd . .

L
1 46 C O M PO S I T I O N P A RT ii

( 2) Th ro u gh grea t , l o w l y ~
i ng
el ds o f g o lden g ra i n , o v er w h i c h th e
ev e ni ng b re ez es sw e t w i t h i m e t u ou s s ee d b l e n di n
p p p , g th e
ra di an t y ell o w o f t h e c o rn a nd t h e b ri h t b l o o d re d o f t h e
g
-

po ppi es in a g l o ri o u s a ra b esqu e o f g ol d a n d g ree n a n d sc a rl et ,

t h e ri v e r s t o l e l .

Th i s mpl i es t h e a b u se o f th e P eri o di c sty l e

se nt enc e ex e Th e .

se nt e nc e w o u ld b e
g re a tl y i mpro v ed b y c o mme nc i n g w i t h t h e ri v er
t ol e U ndu e emph a si s i s g i v en t o t h e w ord s t o l e b y pl a c i ng it
.

f
.

a st .

A P eri o d ma y b e so c l u msi l y c o n st ru c t e d t h a t, in spit e o f

t h e P eri odi c c h a ra c t er b e i n g su sta i n ed t o th e v e ry c l ose, th e

rea d er s i
a t te n t o n is ne ver on c e rou se d . Th e fol l o w i n g is an

exa mpl e
Th e ec t i ons o f su c h men a re so del i c t e u po n a l l oc c u rrenc es
re a

w h i c h t h ey a re c o nc ern ed i n t h a t t h e
y s h o u l d b e e x po s ed t o ,

more t h a n ordi n a ry i n fa my a nd pu n i sh me nt for o ffe n di ng

a g a i n st su c h
qu i c k a dmo ni t i o n s a s t h ei r o w n so u l s g i v e th em ,

a n d b l u nt i n g t h e n e e d e o f t h ei r mi n ds i n su c h a ma nn er
g
t h a t t h ey re n o mo re sh o c k ed a t v i c e a nd fo l ly t h a n me n o f
a

sl o w er c pa c i t i es a Sp ecta tor N o 6 , . .

26 3 R ul e of Un it y E v ery c l ause o r o th er pa rt o f a
. .

sen t en c e sh o u l d b e mad e su b servi en t to th e u n fo l di n of o ne

g
l ea di ng th ou gh t T h i s is c a l l e d th e R u l e o f U n ity
. I f sev era l .

l ea di ng t h ou g h ts a re th ro w n t o g eth er th e sen t en ce c o n ta i n i n g ,

th em sh o u l d b e di strib u ted i n t o a s ma n y sepa ra t e sen t en c es a s

t h ere a re l ea di n g t h ou gh ts I n po i n t o f g ra mma t i c a l a c c u ra c y
.
,

th e st ri n g o f t h ou g h ts ma y b e

as c o h eren t as a stri n g o f

sa u sa g es ; b u t saus a g es t o b e ea t en mu st b e sepa ra t ed H d
( o
g so n ) .

( 1 ) O n l o oki ng b a c k ( a t th e H o u se o f C o mmo ns a s it w a s t h i rty or

fo rty y e rs a g o ) I do t h i nk t h a t in t h e p st in spi t e o f ng ry
a ,
a ,
a

c o n tro versy t h ere w a s n o t t h e v u l g a r perso n l i ty w h i c h is n o w a

so met i mes h ea rd w i th reg ret F ort R eu

,

F e b 1 89 8 p 25 0 .
,
.
, . .

Th e U ni ty o f t h i s s ent enc e is m rred b y th e t w o l s t w o rd s Th e

a a .

se n t en c e sh o u ld h a v e e n ded w i th h e rd T h e reg re t e x pressed is a .

i rrel e va nt M oreo v er it renders th e sent enc e a mb i g u o u s fo r it mi g h t

.
,

mea n t h a t v u l g a r perso n l i ty is no t a l w y s b u t o n l y some t i mes t o

a a , ,

b e reg re t t e d I t mi g h t l so mea n t h a t t h e a ng ry c o ntro v ersi es o f a

. a

former da y w ere no t t o b e reg rett ed o nl y t h e v u l g r perso na l ity o f ,

a

t h e pres e n t d y T h ere w o u l d b e no b rea c h o f U ni ty n d n o c o n

a . a ~

seq u e n t a mb i g u i ty if t h e l st c l a u se w ere rew ord ed t h u s
,
a w h ic h

( w e reg re t t o say ) is n o w somet i mes h e rd

a .

( 2) Bu t n ow w e mu st a dmi t t h e sh ortc omi ng s th e fa l l a c i es th e , ,

d efec ts a s n o l ess essenti l el ement s in formi ng a so u nd j u dg

,
a

ment a s t o w h eth er t h e se er a nd a rti st w ere so u n i t ed in him

a s t o j u st ify th e c l i m rs t u t in by h i ms el f a n d a ft erw rds a
p a

1
C a rpenter s E xerc ises in R hetori c, p 1 03 . .
 1 48 CO M PO S I T I O N PA RT I I

E xercises

.

I . C on oert th e f o l low i ng L oose sen ten ces i n to P eri ods

S h e w a s a ph a n to m o f del i g h t ,
1 .

W h e n rst sh e g l ea me d u po n my si g h t .

2 M u rder h a s n o t o n g u e, b u t it w i l l s pea k
. .

3 T h e respo n si b i l i ty o f ma n a g i ng su c h a l a rg e b u si n e ss w a s more
.

th a n h e c o u l d b ea r, a s h e h a d n o t b e en t ra i n ed in b o ok k eepi ng a nd -

o th ee a c c o u n ts
-
.

4 E n g l ish ma y c l a i m t o b e c a l l ed th e u ni v ersa l l a ng u a g e, if a n
.
y
l a n g u a g e des erv es t o b e so c a l l ed .

5 T h e o rder o f n o b i l i ty w a s e x c ee di n g l y n u mero u s i n Fra n c e

.

b e fore t h e o u tb rea k o f th e R e v o l u t i o n , si nc e a l l t h e c h i l dren o f a

n o b l ema n b el o n g ed t o t h e c l a s s o f t h e i r fa th er, a n d t h e c l a ss w a s
c o n ti n u a l l
y i nc rea sed b y th e c rea ti o n o f n ew n o b l e s .

6 L i t t l e g o o d w i ll b e e ff ec t ed, n o t w i t h s t a n di n g t h e ex erti o ns t h a t
.

pu b l i c s pi ri te d i ndi v i du a l s ma y ma k e t o di s pel t h e i g no ra n c e a n d
-

ra i s e t h e mo ra l t o n e o f t h e l o w er o rders , w i t h o u t t h e c o rdi a l c o o era

p
-

ti o n o f t h e g o v ernmen t .

7 D u ring h is l o n g i mpri so nment h e w a s h a ra ssed w i th ma ny

.

bi tt er re ec t io ns, depri ved o f t h e c o nsol a ti ons o f fri endsh i p b y t h e

c ru el t y o f t h e t ra n t
y .

8 T h ere w a s n o th i ng ou t o f pl a c e i nsid e t h e h ou s e o r o u t si de
. .

9 W i l l i a m th e C o n qu ero r l a i d w a st e a t ra c t o f t h i rt y squ a re l ea g u es
.

i n H a mps h ire, t o ma k e s pa c e fo r t h e N e w F o res t , a s it is s t i ll c a ll ed .

1 0 O n t h a t o c c a si o n t h e men in t h e st re e t b eh a v ed i n a v ery
.

u nru l y ma n n er, a n d it w a s fo u n d n ec e ssa ry t o rea d t h e R i o t A c t .

1 1 H e h a s ma ny i ro n s in t h e re a nd h is a ff a i rs a re g et t i ng i nt o
.

di sorder .

1 2 I fou nd a ll th e sh o ps c l o sed n ex t morn i ng , a s I w en t d o w n th e

.

s tree t .

d
1 3 W e n o l o ng er u nderst a n th e l a ng u a g e o f o u r st a g e, i n so ni u c h
.

f f i
t h a t I h a v e o t e n b e e n a ra d, w h e n I h a v e seen o u r I t a l a n per i
fo rmers c h a t t er ng i n t h e v e h eme n c e o f a c t o n, t h a t t h ey h a v e b ee n
i i
c a l l ng u s na mes a n d a b u s n g u s a mo n g t h emsel v e s
i i Sp ec ta tor, N o 1 8 . .

II R ec o n stru c t the f o l low i ng sen tenc es so a s to enf orc e the ru le

.

o
f P roxi mi ty , or the ru l e of P ri ori ty , or the ru le of Un i ty If n o .

rea rra ng emen t is g i

c onsi dered n ec essa ry ,
ve y ou r r ea s o n

1 H e ret u rn ed t o E n g l a n d in 1 83 9 , a nd n ex t y ea r h e w a s per
.

s u a ded t o e n t er P a rl i a me n t , b u t h e s o o n l o st h i s s ea t , a n d t h e n h e

ret i red, a n d res u med h is l i t era ry s t u di e s, a n d di ed su dden l y in

1 84 9 .

2 To c ut a l ongI u l l ed t h e l a b o u ri n g o a r fo r a fe w
st o r sh ort ,
.

y p
y e a r s ,
a n d s a w e v e ry c l a ss o f b u si n es s ,
a n d ea rn ed m o n e
y en o u h t o
g
k e e p me , t il l I fo u n d my sel f ma n e n o u g h t o sa i l my o w n s h ip, a n d I
s t a y e d in Pa rl ia me n t S t reet fo r fo rty e a rs F ortn ig h tl y R evi ew ,
y
F eb 1 8 9 8 , p 24 0
. . .

3 T h e impro v ed re v en u e is du e t o a s t ea dy a n d u nifo rm i nc rea se

.

i n dema n d for t h e pro du c t s o f t h e c o mpa ny , a s w ill b e g a t h e red fro m

t h e s t a t eme nt t h a t sa l es fo r t h e t h i rt e en a n d o n e t h i rd mo nt h s j u st -
C HA P . x vi i S TR UCTUR E o r S E N TE N C E S . 1 49

mpl et e d b y 8 8 1 5 per c e n t t h e sa l e s o f t h e t w el v e mo nth s

d

co ex c ee

e n de d 3 oth Ju n e 1 8 9 6 D a i l y Tel egrap h , 1 st F eb 1 8 9 8

. . .

4 M rs J e n n i ng s en t ere d t h e dra w i ng room w h ere E l i n or w a s

. .
-

si t t i n g b y h ersel f, w i t h a n a ir o f su c h h u rry i n g i mpo rta nc e a s

p pr e a red h er t o h ea r somet h i n g w o n derfu l M .

i ss A U S T E N .

5 I ma y , h o w ev er, a g a i n st a t e th a t th e s ec u ri t y w a s a mpl e , a n d
.

t h a t I u rg ed u po n t h e F o rei g n O f c e t h a t t h ere w ere t h e stro ng est

rea so n s in t h e i nt ere s t o f Bri t i sh t ra de a n d c ommerc e , a nd o f t h e
o si t i o n a nd i n u en c e o f G rea t Bri ta i n in C h i n a , f o r t h e g o v ern men t
p
mo st seri o u sl y c on sid eri ng th e pro po sa l
D a i ly T el egrap h , 7 t h Ja n
. .

1 89 8 .

6 Th e v ery l a nd l ord s a g en t , w h o h a s b een g i v i ng y o u a ll th e

.

l a n dl ord si de o f t h e qu est i o n , w h en y o u c ome t o t h e su bj ec t o f

ev i c t i o n s, b rea k s a w a y a n d b ec o me s a n I ri sh ma n .

7 A s a ma n mu st h a v e n o sl a v i sh fea rs a nd a ppreh en si o ns h a n g i n g
.

u po n h is mi nd, w h o w i l l i n du l g e th e i h t s o f fa n c y or S pec u l a t i o n ,
g
a nd u sh hi s re s ea rc h es i n t o t h e a b stru se c orn ers o f t ru t h , so it is
p
n ec essa ry fo r h im t o h a v e a b ou t h im a c o mpet en c y o f a ll t h e c o n
v enienc es o f l ife
Sp ec ta tor, N o 28 7 . .

8 Be si des po v erty a n d w a nt t h ere a re o t h er re a so ns t h a t deb a se

.

t h e mi n d s o f me n w h o l i v e u n der sl a v ery , t h o u g h I l o ok o n t h i s a s
th e pri n c i pa l Sp ecta tor, N o 28 7 . .

9 T h e pro spec t o f b ei n g g u i l l o ti ned seemed t o b e si ng u l a rl y dis

.
(
~

a g reea bl e t o him, t h ou h h e h a d h el ed a mu l t i t u de o f eo l e t o
g p p p
nd t h a t ro a d o u t o f t h e w orl d w i th t h e u tmost c omposu re .

1 0 To t h e fu t u re o f t h e a g ri c u l t u ra l l a b ourer h e l ook s forw a rd

.

w i th c o n denc e , if t h e l a b ou rer w i l l o nl y b e tru e t o h i mse l f Ti mes

W eekl y , 2l st D ec 1 8 9 8 . .

1 1 N ei t h er I n or t h ey sh ou l d w ea r h a nd c u ffs a nd see t h e i nsid e

.

o f a j a i l , if I c o u ld h el i t J O S E PH A R C H
p . .

1 2 I n Pru ssi a , n o th i ng g o es do w n w i t h th e pu bl i c , t h a t is t o s a y ,
.

th ere is n o i ndepend enc e o f a c t i o n or j u dg ment , u nl ess t h e c ro w n or

t h e g o v ernmen t l ea ds t h e w a y
D a i l y T el egrap h , 28 th Ja n 1 8 9 8 . .

1 3 It w ou l d, in my o pi n i o n , b e sc a rc el y po ssib l e t o spe nd t h e
.

pu b l i c mo n ey for a b e t ter o r more pa tri o t i c pu rpo se , pro v id e d t h e

mo vement is k ept stri c tl y u n d eno mi na ti on a l L O RD R O BE RT S , .

4 t h F eb 1 8 9 8 . .

1 4 C u tt i ng ou r w a y t h ro u g h t h e u n d erg ro w th , w e c rept a nd
.

c l a mb ered do w n t h e sl i er s 10 es t i ll w r a c h ed t h e b o tt o m o f
pp y p ,
e e

t h e g l en a n d c a me t o a mo ss c o v ere d ro c k , from w h i c h a t i ny spri n g

-

i ssu es a nd h a s ma de a po ol b el o w Th e N ig er S ou rces, T R O T T E R
. .

1 5 A nd it is a l so ple a sa nt t o h a v e h ea rd L ord Ly n dh u rst , w h en

.

n i n ety y ea rs o f a e , t h e s o n o f C o l e F i l di n w h w b rn at
g p y e g ,
o a s o
Bost o n , a n E n l i sh su b j ec t b e fore t h e I ndepen den c e o f
g
A meri c a , spe ak i n g o n a C a n a di a n qu e st i o n , a n d h is v o i c e ri n g i ng a s
c l ea rl
y a s a b el l .

F ortn i g h tl y R evi ew , F e b 1 8 9 8 , p 25 0 . . .

1 6 T h e po l i ti c a l mora l i ty o f th e n a t i o n w a s u nd ermi n ed in t h e
.

rei g n o f Qu een A nn e b y t h e c o rru t r c t i c f t h c ou rt n d t h e

p p a e s o e a
mi ni st ers, a nd no t , a s h a s b een a sserted, b y t h e qu a rrel s b et w e e n
W h i g s a nd T ori es, w h ic h i nv o l v ed some deg re e a t l e a st o f pol i t i c a l
pri n c i pl e .

1 7 A ft er a smoo th a nd o n th e w h o l e enj oy a b l e v o ya g e , th e l ast

1 50 CO M P O S I T I O N PA RT I I

p t
a r of i
w h ch w as t h ro u g h t h e
th e A ra b a n S ea , w e c ool er a ir o f i
l a n ded a t Bo m a y , b w h i c h i s st i l l
su ff er n g ro m t h e
pl a g u e i f .

i
1 8 I t i s n o t w t h o u t a de g ree o f pa t e n t a t t e n t o n a nd pers e v er ng
. i i i
ii
d l g e nc e g rea t er t h a n t h e g e n era l ty a re w ll n g t o b est o w , t h o u g h i i i
n o t g rea t e r t h a n t h e o b j ec t deserv es , t h a t t h e h a b t c a n b e a c u ired
q i
o f e x a m n n g a n d j u dg n
i i i
o f o u r o w n c o ndu c t w t h t h e sa me a c c ura c i
g y
a n d mpa rt a l t y a s t h a t o f a n o t h er
i i i .

1 9 C l o se u po n t w o t h rds o f t h e pre se nt w o r a re e v o t e t o t h e
.
-
i k d d
w r t er s ea rl er c a re er in t h e n orth ern h em sph ere , a n d o f t h e
i i i

i
rema nder, t w o c h a pt ers t el l o f h is v s t s t o E u ro pe du r ng h is ii i
i
c o l o n a l c a re er, a l th o u g h h is pu b l c l e i n E u ro pe ex t en ded o nl
y i if
f ro m 1 8 3 6 t o 1 85 5 , w h l e h i s c o l o n a l c a re er o c c u p e d c l o se u po n a
i i i
qu a rt er o f a c en t u ry Bu t t h e pro port o n is n o t perh a ps ill a dj u st ed
. i -
.

-
T i mes W eekl y , 1 1 t h F eb 1 89 8 , p 9 2 . . .

20 N a t u ra l h st o ria ns t el l s u s th a t n o
. i ru t g ro w s o r g n a ll
y f i i i
a mo n s des h b i
s a n d h a w s, a c orns a nd i i
g u s e p pig n u t s, w t h o t h er
DD
-
,

i i
de l c a c es o f th e l e n a t u re A ISO ik . N .

21 A t t h e sa me t me, it w a s mpo ss l e t o d spro v e t h e a c t th a t

. i i ib i f
t h ere w a s a l a rg e b o dy o f l a y pu l c o p n o n in I rel a n d dra w n ro m bi i i f
i i
th a t s ec t o n o f t h e C a t h o l c s w h o c o u l d se nd t h e r s o n s t o a U n v ers t y , i i i
ff i
w h o w ere su er ng a v ery ser o u s e u c a t o na l d sa l ty M r L ecky s

i d i i bi i .

Sp eec h , 1 7 t h F eb 1 8 9 8 . .

22 M r Ph pro t e st e d a g a ns t peo pl e in t h e pro v nc es , w h o , w h en

. . . i i
t h ey w a n t ed a re c rea t o n g rou nd, h a d t h emse l v es t o pa y for i t ,
i e ng b i
i
t a x ed fo r t h e ma nt en a nc e o f t h e R oy a l Pa r s, w h c h w e re rea l l y k i
p l ea s u re
g r o u n s fo r L o n do ners d
D a i l y T el eg rap h , 1 9 t h A pr l 1 8 9 8 i .

23 W h a t !
. T h a t t h ere sh ou l d b e a re t u rn t o a na t c sm, a n f i i
a t t em t t o l
p g h t u p i i i
a re l g o u s w a r n t h s e po c h o f ou rs , o n e h u ndred i i
y f i
e a rs a ter t h e R e v o l u t o n , i n t h e h ea rt o f o u r g rea t Pa r s, in t h e i
da y s o f demo c ra c y , o f u n versa l to l era t o n , a t t h e v ery t ime w h e n i i
t h ere i s a n mmen se mo v eme n t b e ng ma e e ver w h ere t o w a r s
i i d y d
i
e u a l ty , j u st c e , a n d ra t ern t
q i y
ZO LA f i .

24 T h e w o r ng o f demo c ra t c
. ki n st tu t on s mea n s o n e l o ng i i i i
i i i
t ra n ng in e n l g h t e n ed a l tru sm, o n e c o nt nu a l w e g h ng o f t h ose i i i i
i
l a rg er ex per en c es o n w h c h a l l su c c e ss u l c o ndu c t o f so c a l l e i f i if
de pen ds, n o t o f t h e a dva n ta g e o f t h e pa rt c u l a r a c t t o t h e pa rt c u l a r i i
i i i
n d v du a l a t t h e pa rt c u l a r mo men t i
W E R B, S tu di es i n D emocra cy .
.

i
25 T h e w l l , in t h e t es ta t or s o w n h a ndw r t ng ,
. ea rs da t e ii b
4 t h N o v emb er 1 8 7 1 , o f t h e R e v C h a rl e s L D o dg so n ( L e w s C a rro ll ), . . i
st u den t o f C h r st C h u rc h i
O x ord, a u th o r o f A l i ce i n W on derl a nd , f
k i
a n d o t h er w o r s , w h o d e d a t t h e C h est n u t s, G u l d o rd, o n J a n u a ry i f
1 4 th l a st , a g ed s x t y v y
e e a rs i
D a i l y Tel ew ap h , 1 7 t h M a y 1 8 9 8
-
.

26 I n t h e rst pl a c e , t h ere w l l b e a dera ng emen t o f b u s ness ,

. i i
i
w h c h h a d j u st eg u n t o emerg e ro m a l o ng a n d ru n o u s de pres s o n ,
b f i i
w h ch i mu st a ec t mo st dee pl y e very l eg t ma t e ndu stry a nd
ff ii i
e mpl o me n t t h a t b el o n s t o a t me o f
y g p e ac e Q u o ted i n D a i l y T el e i
g rap h , 1 5 t h A pr l 1 8 9 8 i .

C H A P TE R XV I I I P U R I T Y . OF D I CT I ON .

26 5 . Pu rit y den e d . W h en w e spea k o f pure a ir, pu re

w e mea n a ir, g ol d , o r w a t er th a t h as

g ol d , or pu re w a t er,
1 52 CO M P O S I TI O N PA RT II

S u ch d
w o r s or ph rases as th e foll ow i ng we pl ac e a mong th e
fo rmer c l ass
Kid for ch i ld
Th a t a n g ry fo r s o a ng ry
. You b et for y o u

.

ma y b et a ny th ng y o u l e i
A wf u l l y for
v ery

He ik . .

don t fo r

h e do esn t ) T o o u tterl y u tter Q u i te p l en ty for . .

am l

p y su c en t f i
Ki c k th e b u cket fo r die

. To s l eep v e .

perso n s a nd ea t t en ( nd sl e ep ng ro om fo r v e a nd t a l e

i -
b
roo m fo r t e n

26 7 Co ll o qu ia l isms
. n ee d n ot be ex e mpl i ed at l en g th .

W h en u sed a t th e proper ti me a n d pl a ce th e y a re c onsid ered t o ,

g i v e z es t to c o n v ersa t i o n O t h e rs u se t h e m b ec au
. se t h e y w i l l ,

n o t ta k e t h e t rou b l e t o t h i n k o f th e ro per w o rd s O t h e rs u se
p .

th em v ery spa ri ng l y o r n o t a t a l l T h e sa fest ex a mpl e to .

fo ll o w is th e l ast .

P ecki sh for h u n g ry To b e sa t up on for b l a med c e n su red

. .
,

D o th e h a nds me th i ng fo r a c t a l ib era l o r g e n ero u s pa rt

o

.

D a n ce a ttenda n ce for g o b a c k w a rd s a nd fo r w r d s t o m eet a

so me o n e w h o t a k es h is o w n t i me fo r see i n

, g y ou B oss f o r .

h ea d ma n

l u c k y strok e

F l u ke fo r. O u t of sh eer .

cu ssedness fo r w i t h o u t a ny rea s o na b l e purpo se M a sh er fo r .

a ssu me

l a dy k i ll er -
P u t on th e h a w h a w fo r
. n a ir o f -
a

g re a t perso n l i mport a nc e E n d i n smoke for

a h a ve no .

c o me t o n o t h i ng

t a ng ib l e res ul t J i y for i n sta n t

,
et c , . .

26 8 P ro vin c ia l isms
. O u r ea rl i er li t era t u re w a s in th ree
.

mark ed l y di st i n c t di al ec ts th e N o rth ern t h e M id l an d a n d th e , , ,

S ou th ern P ro vi n c i a l i ms t h a t h a v e c o me d o w n fro m di a l ec ts
.
s

a re o l d E n l i sh ra th e r t h a n b a d E n l i sh F o r i n st a n c e if w e
g g .
,

h a ppen t o h ea r vixen st i ll u sed by ru sti c s fo r th e fe ma l e o f f or ,

o r s ta g fo r th e ma l e o f a n a n i ma l e v e n o f a du c k o r ou rn fo r
y , ,

o u rs o r c hi ldern fo r c hi ldren t h i s is me rel y a su rv i v al o f c o rrec t

, ,

l a n g ua g e w h i c h h a s b eco me a n t i qu a t ed a n d pro vi n c i a l
,
.

T h e po ems o f Bu rn s a n d th e di a l o g u es in so me o f S c o t t s

,

n o v el s a re a mo n g th e mo st rec en t s ec i men s o f t h e N o rth ern

, p
d i a l ec t. T h e L i n c o l ns h i re di a l e c t (c h i e y N o rth ern ) is seen in
T enn yso n s N orthern F a rmer ; th e S o u t h e rn in

Ba rn es s D orset
shi re P oems ; C o c k ney di a l ec t in so me o f th e c o nv ersa t i o n s in
D i c k ens s n o v el s

26 9 T ec h ic a l T e ms
. n r S u c h t erms a re a v o id ed by g oo d
w ri te rs if th e b o o k is i n t end ed fo r g en e ra l a n d n o t pro fessi o n a l
, , ,

read e rs . I h a v e o ften w o nd ered sa ys A ddi so n h o w M r ,

,
.

D ryd en c o u l d t ra n sl a t e a passa g e o u t o f V i rg i l a fter th e fo ll o w

i ng ma nn er
T a c k t o t h e l a rb o a rd a n d st a n d o ff t o sea ,

V eer st a rb o a rd s ea a nd l a nd .
CR A P XVI I I
. P U R I TY O F D I CT I ON 1 53

M il t on ma k es u se o f l a rb o a rd in th e sa me mann er . W h en
he is u b u il din g h e men ti o n s D ori c pi ll ars pi l a sters
pon , , ,

c o rn i c e fri ez e a rc h itra v e
, , W h en h e ta l k s o f h e a v enl y b o di es
.
,

y o u m ee t w ith ec l ipti c a n d ec c en tri c th e trepid a ti on st a rs , ,

droppin g from t h e z en i th ra ys c ul mi n a ti ng fro m th e e qu a t o r

,

t o w h i c h mi g h t b e a dd ed man y i n s ta n ces o f th e l ik e ki n d in
se v era l o t h e r a rt s a n d sc i en c es S ec ta tor N o 2 9 7

p .
, . .

T enn yso n in h is all usi o ns t o g eo l og y is more gu a rd ed ; h e

, ,

d o es n o t t al k o f th e I ch th yosa u ru s
A mon strou s ef t w a s o f o l d th e l o rd a n d ma st er o f e a rt h .

D ra g on s of th e p ri me,
Th a t ta re ea c h o th er in th e i r sl ime ,
W ere mel l o w mu sic ma t c h d w i t h h im

27 0 O b s l et e W
. o or ds H ere w e mu st di sti n gu i sh b e tw een
o et ry w h i c h ret a i ns ol d w o rd s a n d prose w h i c h di sca rd s t h e m :
p , , ,

E n t ered t h en i n to th e c h u rc h t h e R ev eren d t ea c h er
F a t h er h e h i gh t a nd h e w a s in t h e pa ri sh LO NGF E L L O W
, . .

Bu t c ome t h o u g o ddess f ir a n d free a

I n h ea v en y c l ep t E u ph ro sy n e M I L T O N
, , ,
'

N o mea n rec ompen se i t bri n g s t o y ou r b eh oof I b id

. .

Bri n g t h e ra th e pri mrose th a t forsa k en di es I b id

. .

.
, .

Beh ol den , p h a n ta sy , p oesy , b el i ke .

I mperson a l v erb s a re b ecoming more and more sca rc e ev en

in e t ry O u r mo re rec en t o e ts a e a r t o a v o id t h em
po .
p pp .

I t i rks me I t rep en ts me
. I t l i kes me I t y ea rn s me n o t ( H en
. . .

V iv 3 , . . I t w ou l d p i ty a n y li v ing ey e ( F aeri e Qu een e, 1 ,

6, S o li ke y ou , sir ( Cy mb ii 3 , W h ere it th i nks . .

b est u n t o yo u r roy a l sel f (R i ch I I I iii 1 , . . .

S o met i mes a w h ol e d s w i ll di sappea r F o r

c l ass of w or .

i ns ta n c e w e o nc e h ad sev era l w ord s b eg inn i ng w ith th e neg a tive

,

p re x w a n A ll. o f t h ese e x c e t w a n ton
p u n di sc i l i n ed
p
-
, ,

w o u l d n o w b e c on sid ere d i mpu ri ti es b ec ause th ey a re o b sol ete
, ,

a n d th ere is n o n e e d t o reviv e th em .

Wa nh op e ( d espa ir) w a n th rif t ( ex tra v a g a n c e ) w a n tu ck or w a n

hap ( mi s fortu n e ) w a n l u st ( i ndi ff eren c e ) w a n w i t ( fol l y )
w a ng ra c e ( w i c k edn e ss ) ; w a n tru st ( di i denc e ) ; w a n tru th ( fa l s e
h o o d) w a n cha n ce ( ill l u c k ) -

27 1 F eig W
or
. n or ds and Ph a ses r I t is a ma rk o f a ffec t a
ti on to us e ex o ti c F ren c h w ord s w h en E ngl i sh o n es e x ist to ,

ex press th e sens e

A mou r p rop re ( s el f respec t ) ; a l a mode ( a c c ordi n g t o fa sh i o n) ; a

-

l ordi na i re ( in t h e o rdi na ry w a y ) a p r0p o s ( w i t h re feren c e t o ) ;

a rri e re p ensee ( me n t a l reserv a t i o n ) a u f a i t ( u p t o th e ma rk )

a u reste ( b e sid es ) ; a u tre droi t ( a no t h er s ri g h t ) ;

b ete n oi re
( bl a c k b ea st b u g b ea r) ; b on soi r ( g o o d e v en i ng ) ; b on voy a g e
,
-
154 CO M PO S I T I O N PA RT i i
( g o od j ou rn ey ) ; b on jou r ( g o od da y ) ; b ou l eversemen t ( c a t a
st ro ph e ) ; emeu te ( a ri o t ) ; con g e ( di smissa l ) ; b el l es l ettres

( l i t era t u re ) ; tou t en semb l e ( a g g reg a t e ) ; c ortege ( tra i n o f a t t end

a nts ) f ra ca s ( b ra w l ) e tc , .

Bu t th ere a re so me L a t i n a n d G ree k w or s d th a t a re w ell

est a b li sh ed , a n d c ou l d n o t ea si l y b e s a red
p
S i n e di e ( w i t h o u t a da y n o da y b ei ng x ed) a d i n teri m ( fo r th e
,

mea n ti me pro v i si o n a l l y ) ; a d n a u sea m ( t o a n ex t en t t h a t

,

c a u s es di sg u st ) ; a l i a s ( a s su med n a me ) ; a l i b i ( e l se w h ere ) ;
i b id ( sh o rt f o r i b i dem
. in t h e s a me a u t h o r a l ma ma ter

b eni g n mo th er a p ri ori ( fro m t h e c a u se t o t h e e ffec t )

( li t .

a p osteri o ri ( fro m th e effec t t o t h e c a u s e ) a d h o mi n em ( a

erso n a l a rg u me n t ; l it t o t h e perso n el u vi a
p .
(b a d
sme ll s ) ; p h en o men a ( fa c t s w o rt h o f o b ser v t i on ) ; c ri teri on
y a

( t es t ) ; a n a l y si s ( b rea ki n g u p i n t o pa rts) ; ceteri s pa rib u s

( o th er th i n g s b ei n g e qu a l ) i n sta tu qu o ( a s b e fore ) ca vea t ( l e t
h im b ew a re ) ; eze o c i o ( i n v i rtu e o f h is o ffi c e ) ; u l tra vi res
( b ey o n d his j uri sdi c t i on ) de ju re ( b y ri g h t ) de f a cto ( in poi n t
o f fa c t ) et c
, .

27 2 N ew l y
. o in ed W or ds W h en n ew th ou gh ts or n ew
-
c

si tu a t i on s a ri se n ew w o rd s mu st b e fou n d t o e x press t h em if
, ,

n o n e e x i st a l rea dy Bu t th e a t t empt so meti mes ma d e t o e x pel

.

l o n g est a b l i sh ed w o rd s o f R o ma n i c o r G ree k o ri g i n
-
in o rd er t o ,

ma k e roo m fo r T eu to n i c gh o sts is ridi c u l ou s A few ex a mpl es ,

.

o f su c h g h ost s a re t a k en fro m a b o o k o n E n l i sh G ra mma r

1
g ,

w h i c h th e a u th o r t erms

S peec h c ra f Gra mma r h a vi ng b een
b an i sh ed o n a c c o u n t o f its fo reig n o rig i n
F o re sa y ( pre f c e ) ; sp eech l ore ( ph i l o l o g y ) ; sp eec h stra i n ( em
-
a - -

ph si s) ; w ord stra i n ( a c c e nt ) ma tterl y ( c o nc ret e ) ; u n ma tterl y

a -

( a b st ra c t ) ; on e- h ea d ( pro per n a me s ) ; su n dri n ess

th i ng -n a mes
( differen c e ) ra n k w o rds ( o rdi n a l s )
-
ma rk w ord ( a rt i c l e ) -

o n el y ( S i n g u l a r) so me l y ( Pl u ra l ) ou t sh ow i ng ma rk w ords - -

( D emo nstra t i v e a dj ec t i v e s ) ma rk w ords of su ch n ess ( A dj ec t i v es -

o f Qua l i t ) i tc h es o su ch n ess ( D e re e s o f C o m a ri s o n ) e t c
f
y p g p ,
.

S o me c u ri ous w o rd s l ik e t h e fo l l o w i n g a re o c c a si ona ll y seen

b u t th ere is n o n eed o f t h e m, a n d it is n o t sa fe to us e th em

E n th u se ( a b a d c o i na g e fro m e n t h u si a sm di va g a ti on ( dev i a
t i o n ) sel do mc y ( c o i n e d b y Tre n c h a nd a c c ept e d b y n o o ne ) ,

den i g ra ti o n ( b l a c k e ni n g t h e c h a ra c t er o f a ma n ) ; i l l a u da b l e
h b b a g el y ; g en t l ema n
( p
r e r e e n s i l e ) ; evi den ce ( a s a v er ) ; a ver
h ood ; p reven ta ti ve ( a ppa re n t l y a b l u n der for
do na te ( t o g i v e ) ; deon to l og y ( sc i e nc e o f du ty c o i n ed b
y ,

Bent h a m) e t c ,
.

Th e foll ow i ng ,
h o w ev er, h a v e b een a c c ep e t d b ec ause th ey
,

w ere w a n t ed

1
Sp eech craf t, b y R ev . W Barnes 1 8 7 8
.
, .
156 CO M P O S I T I O N P A RT II

C H A PTE R XI X .
PR O PR I E T Y O F D I CT I ON

27 3 P ro pr iet y dened P ro pri ety o f l a n g u ag e mea ns th e

. .

usi ng o f w o rd s ( 1 i t h eir
) n ro e r sen ses, ( 2
p p ) in
pro per c o n
n e c t io ns

(1 ) I do u b t t h a t h e is
i n el ig ib l e o n th e sc ore o f g e a .

H ere dou b t is u sed for f ea r T h i s is a n i mpro pri ety b ec a u se .

,

do u b t do es no t si g nify fea r .

( 2) H is l ife w a s sh a ki n g in t h e b a l a nc e .

H ere th e i mpro pri ety c o n si st s in u sing t h e v erb sh ke i n a c o n t ex t a

from w h ic h it is deb a rred b y i di om Th e v erb s h o u l d h a v e b een .

tremb l i n g T h e g ra mma r i s c o rrec t d

n d e v er w o rd i in a
.
y s u se ,

it s pro per s en se Bu t t h e c o n n ec t i o n is w ro ng
. .

A n y sen se o r c on n ec t i o n o f w o rd s ma y b e c o n sid ered pro per

th a t h as th e con cu rren t a u th o ri ty o f sta n d a rd w ri ters w h o h a ve ,

l i v ed n ea r en o u gh to o ur o w n time t o b e reg a rd ed a s sa fe g ui d es
fo r presen t u sa
g e .

iVote 1 .
W e a re o b l i g ed
t h e w ord c on cu rren t, b ec a u se a to a dd

b l u n der ma e b y a sta nda rd a u t h o r do e s n o t j u st y e v en t h e h u m l est

d if b
i f
w r t er in o l l o w n g a b a d e x a mpl e i
F o r n st a n c e , By ro n s e x press o n . i i
T h ere l et h im l a y , fo r T h ere l et h im l i e, is n o n e t h e l ess a n

impro pr e ty b ec a u se it is u sed b y a rst ra t e po e t l e By ro n , w h o

i -
ik
l v ed n ea r o u r o w n t me
i i
A g a n , su c h a ph ra se a s t h e seldom u se
. i
c a nn o t b e t o l era t ed, t h o u g h it h a s t h e a u t h o r ty o f a n em n en i i t
sc h o l a r l ik
e t h e l a t e A rc h sh o
p Trenc h bi
N ote 2 W e a re a l so o l g ed t o a dd th e l m ta t o n
.

. bi
w h o h a ve i i i
l v ed n ea r e n o u g h t o o u r o w n t me, etc
i O u r l a ng u a g e h a s n o t b eeni

.

c h a n g el e s s f o r t h e l a s t ou r c e nt u r es , f
o r e v e n fo r t h e l a st t w o i
c en t ur es W o rds h a v e in some n sta nc es a c qu red n e w mea n ng s,
i . i i i
a nd
ph ra ses h a v e a c qu red n ew orms i
S ome w o rds h a v e ed o u t , f . di
o t h ers h a v e c ome i n o r h a v e b een rev v e d
1
A w r t er, h e w sh es i . i if i

to k
eep c l ea r o f i
mpro pr et es, mu s t c o n o rm t o p resen t u sa g e

i i f .

T h ere a re ma ny mo des o f e x press o n in S h a k s pea re a n d M l t o n , a n d i i

i
e v e n i n so re c ent a w r t er a s A dd so n , w h c h c a nn o t n o w b e m t a t ed i i i i
i
w t h mpu n ty i i .

S E CTI O N 1 .
C O MM O N E RRO RS IN TH E US E OF C O MM O N W O RDS .

27 4 U n d er th i s h eadi ng w e h a v e pl a c ed a mi sc ell a n eous

.

co l l ec t i o n o f w o rd s a n d u sa es a b o u t w h i c h so me perso n s a re
g
l i a b l e to ma k e mi st a k es .

T h u s C a mpb el l , w h o w ro te l ess th a n 1 5 0 y ea rs a g o , sa y s th a t
1
a ll

w riters o f a ny na me h a ve no w c ea sed t o u se b eh es t, trib u l a tion , s elf sa me -

hi l h R h i E id l h d h a ve b een reviv ed
( P os op y f
o e to r c , p v en t y t ese w o r s

.

sinc e h is t ime

f or th ey a re n o w in present, repu t a b l e, a nd

n a t io na l u se .
C HA P . x xx PRO PR I ETY O F D I CT I O N 157

N ou n s.

( )
1 C on c r et e, A b st r a c t I f a n ou n c an be u se d in e ith er
sense (see ta k e ca re to u se it in o ne se ns e o n l y i
w th n th e i
sa me sen ten ce

H e is a ma n o f c l ea r j u d g ment ; b ut as reg a rds t h s c a se i I st ill

i k
th n it w a s t oo se v ere for t h e O f en c e ( F or i t sa y h i s sen ten c e, f .

or h i s verdi c t I t is h ere mpro per,

. ec a u se i t s ta n ds fo r i b

j u dg ment in a c o n c ret e sen se , w h erea s in t h e ormer c l a u se f
j u dg ment is u sed in a n a b stra c t sense ) .

( )
2 C o l l e c t iv e n o u ns mu st not be i t d w i th adj ec t ives
a sso c a e

th a t i mpl y i ndivid u al a ttrib u t es n o r ,

w it h v erb s t h a t i mpl y

individ u al a c ti on
T h e a v era g e po pu l a ti on o f E ng l a nd is ta l l ( F or a vera ge p op u l a ti on .

of E ng l a n d sa y th e a vera g e E ng l i sh ma n or most E n g l i sh men ) .

M a nki nd seek s for h a ppi n ess in b o th w o rl ds ( F or ma n ki nd sa y .

most men or men i n g en era l ) .

A b r t ou ns mu st n o t b e l l i ed w ith ou t au th o rity
( )
3 st a c n p u ra s

(5 29 >
L ea v e o ff su c h st u p idi ti es ( F or stup idi ti es sa y a c ts o f stup idi ty )
B
. .

( )
4 P o ssessiv e Ca se e c a re u l f h ow y ou u se i
th s c a se w ith
n o u ns d en o ting a n yth i ng i n an i ma t e o r n o t person i ed (see 4 5 )
Bew a re O f l ife s sh ort ness F or t h e Po ssessi v e fo rm su b st i tu t e

.

L oo k a t th i s l et t er s si g na t ure

of . .

o
( ) A p st p e s
5 ro h I f th e a post ro ph e s is g iv en t o th e
.

ea r it sh o u l d a l so b e g iv en t o th e ey e
,
I n o th er w o rd s it mu st .
,

b e w ritt en as it is pron ou n ced

( W ri te Epp s s for

E pps c oc oa

.

( 6 ) P l ur a l s in a S p ec ia l S en se O n t h i s
po i n t se e a
ppe n di x

to th is ch a pt er .

P ron ou n s
I f w
.

(7 ) We , I . e is su b sti tu ted for I ,

a vo id c ou pl n g i it w ith
i
a s n g u l a r n ou n

W e did th i ng s in a mu c h b ett er w ay , w h en w e w ere ma na g er .

( E i th er c h a ng e w e t o I ,
or c h a n
g e w ere ma n a g er t o h e ld th e
o ce of ma n a g er )

T
.

(8 ) I . a ke ca re t o pl a c e th e rs t pe rson al
pro n ou n l ast , if
it a
pp ea rs in co mpa n y w ith o t h er n o u n s o r
pro n o uns

I a nd H erb ert retu rn to sc h oo l to -

morro w .
( For I a nd H erb ert
w r te i H erb ert a nd I )
A v
.

( 9 ) Th em . o id i this D emo n stra tive

u s ng pron o u n as if it
w ere a D emon s ra t ti v e a dj ec tiv e

L ea v e th em b o o k s a l o n e .
( F o r th em sa y th ese or th ose .
)
 158 C O M PO S I T I O N PA RT II

( )
1 0 M y self , e tc A R eex iv e pro n ou n c a nn o t b e th e su b
j c et to a v er b
I n Oc to b er l a s t G eorg e a nd my sel f s
pe n t t en da y s at H a mpto n
C o urt ( Fo r my self sa
y I or I my se lf )

. .

( 1 1 ) Th ey T li is is l ess
. su ita b l e th a n th ose a s a n an e t

c ed e n t t o w ho

T h ey w h o h a v e l a rg e pri v a t e mea n s n e ed no t for t h a t rea so n l ea d

an i dl e l ife ( For th ey w ri t e th ose )
. .

( 1 2) O ne I nd en i te D emo n stra ti v e pro n o u n

,
as an Th is .

mu st n o t b e fo ll o w ed by h e h is o r h im S i n c e a D e n it e

, ,

,

D emo ns t ra t iv e c a n n o t h a v e a n I n d e n i te fo r i ts a n t ec ed en t
O n e mu s t n o t b e too c o ndent o f h is o w n su c c ess ( F o r h i s w ri te .

on e s )
Th
.

( 1 3) M y, our, y ou r , h is, h er, t h eir . e u se of th ese

P ossessive pro n ou n s a s a n t ec ed en ts t o a R el a t ive, th ou g h de
fen sib l e a n d u sed o c ca si o n a l l y by g o o d w rit ers, is n o t c o mmon
a n d h a d b et t er b e a v o id ed

Th e more a c c u ra t e ly w e sea rc h i nt o
mi n d th e st rong er th e h u ma n ,

tra c es w e e v ery w h ere nd o f H is w i sdo m w h o ma de i t .

BURK E ( F o r H i s w i sdom w ri t e th e w isdom of H i m )

.

( )
1 4 W h o , W hi c h ( a s su bj e c t s t o a v e rb ) T h ese mu st n o t .

be o mi tted l ik e
w h o m,

w h ich ( bjoec t s)
I h a d se v era l men in my sh ip di ed o f c a l entu res S W I FT . .
( I n sert
w h o b e fo re di ed )

(1 5 ) W h ic h , ( W h o m, t h a t
bj ec t s t o a v e rb ) W h eno o n e of .

th ese w o rd s is th e c o nn ec t ive b e t w een t w o ra th e r l o n g c l a us es ,

i t is b et t er n o t to l ea v e it o u t
T h e a c ti on for l i b el rec ent l y b ro u g h t in th e C i ty M a g i str t es

a

Co u rt b y M i ss a n u rs e g i n st M r in respec t
,
a a .

of l e tt er t h e l t t er h a d w ri t t e n t o a rel a t i v e w h o w a s b ei ng
a a

n u rsed b y t h e pl a i n t iff t ermi n t ed in f v o u r o f t h e de fen da n t

D i l y T leg rap h ( I nsert w hi ch or th a t ft er a l etter ),
a a .

a e . a .

( )
1 6 V V h ic h l f t h i s w o rd sta nd s f o r tw o diffe ren t c a ses in
.

th e sa me sen ten c e it mus t b e men ti o n ed t w i c e o n c e fo r ea c h

, ,

c ase 1

T h i s i s a po i nt w h i c h is v ery i mpo rt a nt , a nd a l l men ac k no w l edg e

t o b e so ( I nsert w h i ch a ft er a nd )
I
. .

(1 7 ) W h ic h , that n a res r ct i tiv e or l i miti ng sen se ,

h i ch is l ess su it a b l e th an

w ho or w th t (see 8 3, N o te )
p
T h i s is t h e h o u s e w h i c h Ja c k b u i l t ( S ay th a t )

. .

(1 8) m
Sa e A ft er

sa me
u se a s o r tha t fo r th e fol l ow i n g
R el a t ive, n o t w ho o r w hic h ( see
g )
8 1
Th i s is th e sa me ma n w h o c a me yest erda y .
(Say th a t .
)
1 60 C O M PO S I T I O N P A RT II

( 26 ) F ew , l itt l e
n o t ma n y n o t mu c h
t iv es
R memb er th a t
i mpl i ed n ega
e th ese a re
) u n l ess th ey a re prec ed ed by a
, ,

F e w me n esc ped a n d th ese w ere rew a rded

a , ( I nsert b e fore f ew ) . a .

L i t t l e h O pe rema i n ed b u t t h a t w a s so o n di sa po i nt ed
p , ( I nsert a .

b ef re l i ttl e )
o .

Al s o re memb er th a t
f ew d en o tes n u mb er a n d li ttle
,

u a n ti t y o r d e ree
q g .

T o d y t h ere i s l e ss th a n ei g h t h ou rs o f fu ll da y l i g h t
-
a
( F or i s l ess .

sa
y a re f ew er)

.

(27 ) A ny , eith er O b serve th a t . ei ther is us e d f o r tw o

th i n gs ,
a n d a n y fo r mo re t h a n t w o

He w as rst g ro o m, th en c o a c h ma n , th e n st a l e -b o ; a nd h e b did
y
n o t do w e l l in e th e r c a pa c t
y i
( Fo r ei th er sa y a n y ) i .

U se
.

( 2 8 ) C o mpa ra t iv es . th e C o mpa ra t ive in pre eren c e f to

th e S u perl a t ive ,
w h en tw o th n gs a re i re ferred to

Th i s pi c t u re is th e b est o f th e t w o ( F o r b est )
. sa
y b etter .

( )
2 9 C o m p a r a t iv es in -
or A v o id us n i
th a n
fter La ti n
.
g a
co mpa ra ti v es in -
or

H is w or k is su
peri or a nd d eserv es to b e b ett er pa id t h a n y ou rs .

(S ay sup eri or to y ou rs a nd deserves to b e b etter p a i d )

.

(3 0 ) id th e vu lga rism of
L ik e Av o u s ng i th is a dj ec tive as

if it w ere a c o nj u n c ti on
A t imid n erv o u s c h i l d l ik e M a rti n w a s
, .
(Say a s o r s u ch a s for
li ke o r pu t w h a t a ft er like )
, .

Verb s .

( 3 1 ) S h a l l , Wi l l R ememb er th a t th ese a re Pri n c i pal ve rb s

in so me perso ns and A u x i l i a ri es in o th ers (see 103 and 1 1 5)
I w ill dro w n ed ; n o b o dy sh a ll sa v e me
b e .
( L et sh a ll a nd w ill
c h an e
g pl a c es ) .

W i ll I a c c ompa ny y ou 1? ( Fo r w i l l sa y sha l l .
)
( ) P r esent ,
3 2 P a st A v o id pu tti ng a n H i st o ri c Presen t
1 1 2, )
e in th e sa me t
sen en ce w i th a Pa st I nd en ite .

W h i l e t h e g o v e rn o r is th u s qu i etl y k ept in b o nds th e pri so n ers ,

w ere t ri u mph a n tl y pa ra ded th rou g h t h e st re e ts ( F o r i s sa y .

w a s o r c h a n g e w ere t o a re )
, .

P r f I i i U h P e rfe c t fo rm, w h en y o u
( )
3 3 e ec t n n t v e se t e .
-

w i sh t o sh o w th a t so me e x pe c t a t i on , su ppo siti o n , o r d esi re w as

n ot rea lised U se i t al s o a fter th e verb sa id
in th e
P assi v e v o i ce ,
w h en y ou w i sh to ex
pre ss pa st time 1 24 , N o te
)
.

In a ll o t h e r c o nn ec t o n s use i th e P resen t fo rm
i him to h a ve b een i n t h e mpa ny da y s

Th ey , su ppo s n g co w ent a

,

j ou rney L u ke ii 4 4 ( Correc t ) . .
C HA P . xix P RO PR I E T Y O F D I CT I O N 1 61

Bu t for h is i ll n ess h e w ou ld h a ve come ( C orrec t ) .

I sh ou l d h a ve l i ked t o s ee h im ( Correc t ) .

I i n t en de d to h a ve see n h im, a n d I su c c e eded ( W ro ng .

)
( I n t h e l a st l i n e c h a n g e to h a ve seen t o to

H e is sa id to h a ve b een o n c e a n h o n est ma n ( C orrec t ) .

( 3 4 ) I n n it iv e, G eru n d T h e N o u n in ni tiv e
-
a nd th e
Verb a l n ou n or G eru n d
ival en t in sen se b o th b e i ng
a re e qu ,

e qui va l en t t o A b stra c t n ou ns Bu t if th e v erb o r o th er w o rd

.

o i n g b e fo re re qu i res a prepositi o n t h e I n n itiv e (w i th few

g ,

e x c epti o n s) mu st n o t b e used

H e per i s t e d t o sa y t h i s
s ( Ch a ng e t o i n sa y i ng ) . .

I i n si st ed t o h a v e my fe e p i d ( S a y on h a vi ng ) a . .

I a m c o n den t t o w in ( S a y of w i n n i n g . .

I a ssi st ed t o do t h i s ( S a y i n doi n g ) . .

D i squ a l i ed t o c o mpet e ( S a y f rom o rf or . co mp eti ng ) .

In so me fe w c o n te x ts, h o w ev er, th e I n n iti v e is mo re idi o

ma ti c th a n th e G eru n d , ev en th o u gh th e w o rd g o i ng b efo re
u su a l l y i
re qu res a i i re os t o n
p p
I have g r ea t d es ai re O f see i n g y ou (.S a
y to see ) . .

( ) G
3 5 e r u n dia l or Qu ali y i gf n I n n it i v e W h en th i s is
used to qu a l ify a n a d ec ti ve th e A c tiv e v o i c e is mo re c o mmo n
j ,

t h an th e Pa ssi v e
T h e ro a d o n a c c o u n t o f rob b ers w a s di ffi c u l t t o b e pa ssed
, , ( F or .

to b e p a ssed w ri t e to p a ss ) .

( )
3 6 T w o D ir e c t O b j e c t s t o t h e s a m e v e r b I f t h e s a m e

verb d o es n o t su it o n e of th e tw o o bj ec ts men t i o n ed a dd a ,

sec o n d v erb w h i c h su it s th e o t h e r

Very fe w o f t h e S u l ta n s o f Tu rk ey h a v e e nj o y ed a l ife o f pea c e or

a n a t u ra l dea t h ( A ft er o r i n sert di ed )
. .

3
( )7 O n e A u x ili a r y w it h t w o P ri n c i p a l v e r b s R e
p t
e a

th e A u x i li a ry if th e v o i c e o r n u mb er o f th e tw o P ri n c i pa l v erb s
,

is n o t th e sa me

Th e g ro w th o f tob a c c o h a s b ee n e s ta b l i sh ed in I ndi a fo r t h e l a st

3 00 y ea rs a nd o versprea d t h e c o u n t ry ( I n s e rt h a s b e fo re .

oversp ; ea d .
)
Th re e w ere ki l l ed ,
an d on e ta k en p i
r so n er .
( I n sert w as .
)
( )
3 8 Tw o A u xil ia ries w it h rb W h en o ne P rinc ipa l ve
tw o A u x i l i a ri es a re u sed w i th th e sa me P ri n c i pa l v erb u se th ,
e

P ri n c i pa l v erb in tw o fo rms if on e fo rm is n o t su f c i en t
,

I n e v er h a v e a n d I nev er w i ll a c c u se a ma n fa l sel y h
( A ft
a ve e
.
, ,

i nse rt a ccu s d a nd c nc el th e c omma ft er w i l l )

e a a

.
,

h
( ) M ix ed use of v erb s R epea t th e fu ll form
3 9 ! t e ten se a

M
1 62 CO M PO S I TI O N PA RT ii

in ea c h cl a use, if th e u se of th e verb is no t th e sa me in tw o
su c c essi v e c l au ses

H a ppi ly w e h av e no t a n d c ou l d n o t have se en a re e t
p i ti o n th eof

sc a n da l o u s h c h too
sc e n es i
a t th e A ss z e
w k pl ac e i C o u rt .

T i mes l Veek l y , 8t h A pr l 1 8 9 8 , p 21 3 i . .

T h e se n t e n c e sh o u l d b eg n ,
i
H a pp l y w e h a v e n o t seen , e tc i .

mu st b e n sert ed I n th e rst c l a u se
i

Th e seen h a v e see n
. is
t h e P re sen t P er ec t t e nse , I n di c a ti ve mo o d ; in t h e se c o nd c l a u se
f

h a v e se e n f
is th e Per ec t I n n i ti ve, o b j ec t t o th e v erb c ou ld .

A dverb s .

( )
4 0
Qu it e (a ) A v o id th e i mpropri ety
i s a d v erb of u s n i g t h
a s if it w ere a n a dj ec tiv e a n d c o m et e n t t o u a l ify n ou n s
p q .

Qu i te means perfe c tl v
e n ti rel y a n d sh o u l d n o t b e used

,

in a n y o th er sen se o r fo r a n y u se o th er th a n a d v erbi a l
Qu i t e a n i t em ( A c on si dera b l e i tem ) . .

Qu i te a pl a c e ( A n i mp orta nt p l a ce ) . .

Qu i t e a sensa t i o n ( A s ta rtli ng sensa ti on ) . .

b
( ) A v o id t h e i m r
p p o ri e ty o f us i n g t h i s a d v e rb i n t h e se n se

v e ry

of

Qu i t e u n iqu e nd i nteresti ng do c u ment h a s b een pu b l i sh ed h ere

a a
D
.

a i l y T el eg rap h , 1 3 th Ja n . 1 898 .

( Qu ite u n i qu e is fo r th ere c a n n ot b e deg re es o f u ni qu e

n o ns en se
n e ss . E ra se qu i te a nd i n sert very b et w e en a n d a n d i n teresti n g ) .

a g o T h dv erb s mean fro m

( 4 1 ) S in c e, . ese a th e presen t
i me rec k o n i n g b a c k w a rd s T h e y mu st a l w ays b e
rec ed e d b

t .
p y .

a v erb i n t h e Pa st I n d e n i t e t en se

M y h ou se h a s fa l l en do w n t w o w e ek s si nc e ( S a y f el l ) . .

N ote F o r t h e c o nj u n c t i o n l u se o f si n ce se e b el w a ,
o

( )
4 2 T h a t A v o id t h e v u l g a ri sm o f u s i n
g th a t as if i t w e re

a n a d v e rb s i n ifyi n

so
g g .

I m th t t i red th a t I c a n sc a rc el y w l k
a a ( S y s ti red ) a . a o .

( )
4 3 S c a r c el y h a r dl y
A,
v o id t h e v ul g a r i s m o f us i n g a
n eg a tiv e w i th th ese a d v e rb s .

I do n t h a rdl y k no w h o w t o a n sw er y ou ( O mi t don t )

. .

P rep osi ti on s

.

( )
4 4 n r o
S equ e c e o f P ep sit i ns o T a k e c a re th a t n o u ns ,

ec t iv es v e rb s a n d a d v erb s a re fo l l o w e d by t h e ri g h t prepo si
, ,

is th e prepo si t i o n re qu i re d by idi o m a n d by t h e
,

l i sb u ry ha s n ow i n h is di spo sa l th e w h ol e fu tu re o f S o u th
(Say a t fo r i n .
)
s v a in .
(S ay to .
)
1 64 C O M PO S I T I O N P A RT II

( 5 1 ) T ha n as As . w il l not do d u ty fo r tha n as w e l l as

fo r i tsel f
M y pro spec t s a re n o b et t e r, a nd n o t e v e n a s g o o d a s th ey w ere ,

b e fo re ( S a y my p rosp ects a re n o b etter th a n they w ere b ef ore,

.

a n d n o t eve n a s g ood .
)
( ) Th a t
5 2 T h i s mu st not be u se d as a
g e n e ra l h a c k , to sa v e

th e repe t t i i on of w h en , tho ugh, if , w hether, u n l ess, e tc . I t is,

h o w ev er, a co mmo n tr ick i
w th c a re l ess w r te rs i to mi su se i t in
th is w ay .
1

I f I do n o t spe a k t h e m,
it is b ec a u se t h e y do n o t c o me w t h n
of i i
my su b j ec t , a n d n o t t h a t t h ey a re l ig h t l y e st e emed b y me .

( Fo r th a t sa y b eca u se ) .

( ) AS
5 3 .

A v o id th e vu l
g ar s im of us n i g as fo r tha t to i n tro
du ce a n o u n - c l a u se .

I do no t k no w as I n eed s a y a ny t h ng i mo re .
(Say th a t .
)
( ) A nd t h a t
5 4 If th is is d fo r i n tro d u c i ng a
u se nou n

c l a u se , t a ke c a re th a t i t is re c ed ed by a n o t h er n o u n c l a use
p
-

w h ic h b eg i n s w i th tha t W h en t h e rst tha t h a s b een

a l so .

men ti o n ed a sec o nd on e n eed n o t b e repea ted u n l ess th e su bj ec t

,

0 t h e v erb is c h a n ed
g .

( ) I f n c i e d I sh o u l d g et o n w el l b y d g rees n d th a t I h a d a
a a e a

g o o d c h a n c e o f u l t i ma t e su c c ess ( I n sert th t a ft erf a n c ied . a

,

an mit th a t I in t h e su b s equ e n t c l a u se )
d o .

( b ) T h ere seemed t o b e so me h o pe o f h is rec o v ery a n d th a t h e

w ou l d l i v e t o ma k e a fresh e ffo rt ( F o r of h i s recovery sa y th at .

h e w ou ld rec over a nd o mi t th a t h e w ou l d in t h e su b s eq u e n t
,

c l a u se ) .

( c ) Ph y sic ia n s dec l a re l u n g di sea se t o b e di ffi c u l t t o c u re in E ng l a n d

-
,

a n d t h a t t h e pa t i e n t mu s t g o t o a mo re e u a b l e c l i ma t e ( S
q a
y .

th a t l u n g di sea se i s di c u l t e t c H e re th a t mu s t b e re pe a t ed , .

i n t h e sec o n d c l a u se b ec a u se t h e su b j ec t is c h a ng e d ), .

( )
5 5 T h u g h , b u t o R e m e m . b er th a t th ou gh is a su b o rdi n a t i v e
j i
c o n u n c t o n , w h l e b u t is a c o o r i -
di n a ti v e o n e a n d th ere fo re mo re
,

e mph a t i c (see
H e is an h o n est ma n , b u t po o r ; a n d h o n esty is a l w a y s re w a rded .

( Th e c o n t e x t sh o w s th a t in t h e rs t c l a u se t h e e mph a s i s is o n
t h e w o rd h on est H e nc e b u t mu s t b e c h a ng e d t o th ou g h )
. .

(5 6 ) W het h er W h et h er .
W h en c o n t ra di c to ry a l tern a
tiv es a re o ffered by a c o u pl e of b
v e r s, re e a t
p t h e w o rd w h eth er ;
o t h e rw i se si m l y sa y o r
p

mpl e s is g iven in H o dg so n

1 c o l l e c t io n of a u th ent ic a t e d e x a
A s E rrors
i n E ng l i sh , pp 1 20, 1 21 . .
ca n . X IX PR O P R I E T Y OF D I CT I O N 1 65

(1 ) I b eg t o a sk w h et h er o u r mi ni st er a t P eki n h a s pro t e st ed
a a i n st , o r i n a n y w r n i e d, t h e c l a i ms ma de b y
g a
y e c o g s

t h e G erma n mi nist er a n d c o n su l H ou se of Common s, l ot h

A u g u st 1 8 9 8 ( I n s ert w h eth er h e h a s a ft er or )
. .

( 2) I b eg t o a sk w h et h er o u r mi n i st er h a s pro t est ed a g a i n st o r in
an
y w a O
y pp o s e d t h e c l a i m s , e t c ( T h i s i s c o rre c t , b ec.a u se

r o t est in g a g a i n st a nd O os i n t h o u h n o t s n o n y mo u s, a re
p pp g , g y
n o t c o n t ra di c t ory )
\Vh
.

(5 7) Or . en th e n o u n foll ow i n g or is tt d w ith
c o n ras e

th e n ou n precedi n g it , pu t an a rti c l e or a preposi t i o n if ,

possib l e, b e fo re th e se c on d n o u n
H a s h e g a i n ed a
pr i
z e o r sc h o l a rsh ip ? ( I ns ert a b efore sch o la r
sh ip .
)
Tell me h eth er h e i n u en c ed y o u
w w i th promi ses or th rea t s .

( I n s ert w i th b e fore th rea ts ) .

E x erc ise .

Correc t an
y i mp ropri eti es tha t ma y b e f ou n d in th e f o l low in g
sen ten c es

1 T h e c reed o f Z oro a st er a ssu mes th e c o ex i st e n c e o f a ma l ev o

.

l en t a n d b en e v o l e n t pri n c i pl e, w h i c h di v i de t h e so v ereig n ty o f t h e
w o rl d b e t w e e n t h em .

2 Th e fa i l u re o f t h e spri n g a n d a u t u mn h a rv e st in 1 8 9 7 l ed t o
.

a s eri o u s fa mi n e i n I n di a t h a t e ar
y .

3 I s t h a t h ou s e i n t h e di st a n c e a h o spi t a l o r a h o t el ?
.

4 H e mi st o o k Ja mes h a t fo r h is o w n

. .

5 S ir R o g er w a s sa y i ng l a st ni g h t th a t h e w a s o f o pi n i o n n o n e
b u t men o f n e pa rt s de serv e t o b e h u n g Sp ec ta tor, N O 6
.

. .

N o te F o r c o rrec ti o n of th is ,
see p a
g e 6 6, N ot e 2
.

6 . A mb u sh ed w i th ma n y o f t h e se i n fa mou s v i c t o ri es ( o v e r
c o xc o ,

y o u n g w o me n ) s h a l l s a
y h e i s so rry fo r t h e p o o r fo o l s pro t es t a nd

, ,

v o w h e n ev er t h ou h t o f ma trimo n S ta to r N o 2 88
g y p ec ,
. .

7 Th e j u ry su mmo n ed t o a t t en d th e c ou rt w a s a c l ev er b o dy o f
.

me n .

8 M a z z i n i did mo re fo r th e ema nc i pa ti o n o f h is c o u ntry t h a n a n y

.

l i v i ng ma n o f h is ow n t i me .

9 Th e squ a dro n c o nsi st ed o f a b ou t 20 0 men a n d di v i ded th e

.
,

b oo ty a mo ng th emsel v es a ft er th e v i c to ry .

1 0 A ma st erl y g e n i u s do e s n o t c a re w h a t men sa y o f h im
. .

1 1 I h ea rd t h e mu l t i t u de s sh ou t

. .

1 2 Th e s ta mi na o f a pl a nt c o n si st s o f t h e a n th er a n d l a men t
. .

1 3 T h e v i o l en c es o f a mo b mu st b e su ppressed
. .

1 4 Bri n g t h em b o o k s do w n fro m t h e sh el f
. .

1 5 N o o ne a s y et h a d ex h i b i t e d th e stru c tu re o f t h e h u ma n
ki dney s Vesa l i u s h a v i ng o nl y ex a mi ned th em in do g s H A L L A M
.

. .
,

1 6 Th e c l a i m t o i nspi ra t i o n w h i c h is ma de fo r t h ese perso ns a nd

.
,

t h ey w o u l d n o t perh a ps c l a i m fo r th emsel v e s c a nn o t b e pro v ed ,

.

17 . Th ere w ere v ery few pa ssen g ers w h o esc a ped w i th ou t seri o u s

i nj u ry .
( W h y is th i s se nt enc e a mbi g u o u s remov e th e a mb ig u i ty ) .

18 . In Pa l esti n e a t th e t ime o f Ch ri st th e t h ree c h i ef sec ts w ere

1 66 C O M P O S I TI O N PA RT II

i
th e Ph a r sees, th e S a ddu c e es, a n d th e E ssen es a n d th e
y t h o ro u h l
g y
i ik
d sl e d ea c h o th e r .

1 9 M y re a ders t o o h a v e th e sa t s a c t o n t o n d th a t th ere is n o
. if i
ra n k
o r de re e a mo n
g g t h em w h o h a v e n o t th e r re prese n t a t o n in i i
t h s c l u b Sp ec ta tor, N o 3 4
i . . .

20 Y o u sh a l l sel do m nd a du ll ell o w o f g o o d e du c a t o n , b u t
. f i if
i
h e h a ppen s t o h a v e a ny l e su re u po n h is h a n ds, w l l t u rn h is h ea d t o i
o n e o f t h o se t w o a mu semen t s f o r a ll o o l s o f em n e n c e f i ii
po l t c s o r
po e try

Sp ec ta tor, N o 43 . .

21 Y o u r E n g l sh ma n is u st a s ser o u s in h is a mu seme n t s a s in
. i j i
an
y a c t o f h is l e if .

22 p r I
e er a
.
pr o t a b f
l e o c c u a t o n a nd w h c h I c a n l o o
p b ac i i k k
p f
u o n a t erw a rds w it h o u t re re t
g .

23 T h e re is n o po pu l a r L if e of O l iver Cromw el l in pr nt t h o se b y
. i
i i
G u z o t a n d C a rl y l e b e ng t o o b u lk y f o r g e n era l u se .

24 I h a v e rea d o f a ma n w h o w a s v ery r c h , b u t h e c o n s de red

. i i
h msel po or a l l th e sa me
i f .

i
25 O n a su b j e c t in w h c h th e e el ng s o f o th ers a re e nt tl ed t o
. f i i
res pec t , o n e mu st k
eep h is t h o u g h t s t o h mse l i f
.

i i
26 H o w do y o u d st ng u sh b e t w een a po et a n d o ra t o r, a n d w h a t
. i
is th ere in c ommo n b etw ee n th em
27 I
h a v e few th ng s mo re t o t a l
. a b o u t , b u t I h a v e n o t me
i k i
no w o u sh a l l h ea r th em t o mO i ro w
y .

28 . i k
A l ttl e no w l edg e i s a da ng ero u s th n g , sa s P o pe , b u t
y i
i f
w th a l l du e de erenc e t o P o pe, ev e n l tt l e n o w l edg e i s b e tt er th a n i k
none .

29M y fri end se nt me a pa i r o f t u rk ey s t o c h o o se from ; b u t I

.

ret u rned t h em w i th th a nk s, a n d t o l d h im I did n o t w a nt a n y o f

t h em .

3 0 S ev era l n e i g h b o u ri n g g e ntl eme n c o n tri b u t ed w o rk s, f o r w h i c h

.

th ey h a d e i th er g iv e n c o mmi ssi o n s di rec t t o ou r mo st di st i n g u i sh ed

a rt i st s, o r h a d u rc h a sed t h em du ri n g t h i s e x h i b i ti o n a t t h e R o y a l
p
A c a demy .

3 1 Y ou w ill perc ei v e th a t th i s is th e sa me h o rse w h i c h y ou rsel f

.

o sse sse d f o u r y ea rs a g o
p .

3 2 I do n o t th i nk th a t th e S qu i re a n d my sel f e v er h a d b e tt er
.

s po rt t o g et h er t h a n w e h a d th a t da y .

3 3 O n c ompa ri ng h is g u n w i th mi n e , th ey pro n o u nc e d h is t o b e
.

th e b est .

3 4 I n sel ec ti ng th i s h o u se in pre fere nc e t o a n y o th e rs, I h a d n o

.

o th e r O b j ec t b u t t o g et t h e o n e t h a t w a s n e a rest th e ra i l w a y s t a t i o n .

3 5 I n c o mmei c e it o ft en h a ppe n s t h a t th ey w h o h a v e a b il it i es
.

w a n t c a pi t a l , a n d t h ey w h o h a v e c a pi t a l w a n t a b i l i ti es .

3 6 W ere h e s t i l l di spose d t o g o t h ere , my pu rse sh a l l b e o pe n t o

.

h a v e g re a t pl e a su re i n a c c e pti ng y ou r i n v i t a ti o n
sh a l l .

3 8 I f h e h a s b ee n t h e c a u se o f a l l t h i s t ro u b l e , it w ou l d w ei g h
.

h ea v i l y o n h is c o n sc i enc e .

3 9 I h a v e l i v e d t e n y ea rs o f my l ife in Ca n a da , b u t l e ft it f o r
.

g o o d a n d a ll tw o
y ea rs a o
g .

4 0 I n e v er h a v e a nd n e v er w i l l a tt a c k a ma n fo r spec u l a t i v e

.

o i ni o ns B U C KL E
p . .
1 68 C O M PO S I T I O N P A RT II

67 I t is i n t eres t i ng t o o b serv e t h e v a ri ou s su b st i t u tes for pa per

.

b efo re it s i n v enti o n .

6 8 T h e v i rt u o u s a nd th e v i l e , t h e l ea rn ed a nd i g no ra n t , th e t em

.

p e ra t e a nd deb a u c h ed a l l
, g i v e a nd re t u rn t h e j est B R O W N
S Ch ar
a c i eri si i es .

69 Th i s b o l d sta t emen t o f fa c t w i ll b e su fc i en t t o sh o w t h a t t h e
.

perma n e nc y o f t h e Y u k o n g o l del ds is est a b l i sh ed b ey o n d pera dv e n

t u re L i i erp oo l D a i l y P ost, 29 th J a n 1 8 9 8
.
'
. .

7 0 H o w sh o u l d I l oo k t o h a v e a n y pa rt o f my desi re h erei n sa ti s
.

ed, u n l ess my sel f b e c a re fu l t o sa t is fy t h e l ik e de si re w h i c h i s i n o th er

me n H O O K E R .

71 h en c a re fu ll y t est ed, is fou n d t o c o n t a i n some th i ng el se

A ir, w
t h a n n i tro g e n a n d o x y g en G E I K I E
.

. .

7 2 T h e mi sre a di ng o f a perso n s c h a ra c t er is a n erro r ra th er diffi

.

c u l t t o b e a v o i de d .

7 3 H e i s a s l ik el y t o ma k e a g o od l i v i ng fo r h imsel f a s h is b roth ers

.

h a v e do n e .

D ri v i ng do w n th e street , h i s h ors e ra n o ff, a nd h e w a s throw n

out .

7 5 Th ere h a v e b een th ree fa mou s t a l k ers in G rea t Bri t a i n , ei th er

.

o f w h o m w ou l d i l l u st ra t e w h a t I sa
y a b o u t do g ma t ists w ell en ou g h
f o r my pu rpo se HO ES LM .

7 6 W e a l rea dy po ssess o u r t mes a s g rea t a tra de w th C h n a a s

f i i i

.

v r i
y o t h er n a t o n pu t t o g eth er

R ep o rl of G Ba lf ou r s Sp eedi , 4 t h
!i
!

. .

e . 1 898 .

7 7 Th e Z u l u c h i e f, D iniz u l u , a ft er so me y ea rs o f e x il e in S t
. .

H el e n a , h a s n o w b een rei n st a t ed, t o ra n k a s a h eredi t a ry c h ie f .

D a i l y T e l eg rap h , 8 th F eb 1 8 9 8 . .

7 8 F ra nc e h a s o b ta i n ed a rm fo o t i n g a t To nki n E n g l a n d is
.

se t tl ed a t H o n g Ko n g fo r so me t i me a st R u ssia i s a t t h e A mo or ;
p
-

a n d e v e n S a i n , a n d P o rt u a l , a n d H o l l a n d h a v e t h ei r rest in l a c es
p g g p
-

in E a st A si a D a i l y T el eg rap h , 8 th F eb 1 8 9 8 . .

7 9 N o o n e w o u l d a c c u se t h e re prese n t a t i v e o f a n E ng l i sh n e w s
.

a er a s a n I ri sh ma n de si rou s o f e x a era t i n t h e di st ress a n d r iev

p p gg g g
a u c es o f h is c o u nt r
y

D i l l on s Sp eech , l 0 t h F eb 1 8 9 8 . .

80 Qu it e a rec o rd g a l l o p fel l t o t h e W h a ddo n Ch a se fro m W i ng ,

w h e re L o rd O rk n ey k e pt O pen h ou s e D a i l y T el l 0 t h F eb
.

1 898 . . .

8 1 W e w ere n o so o n er sa t do w n , b u t a ft er h a v i ng l o o k ed u po n
me a l i tt l e w h i l e , sh e sa i d, e tc Sp ec ta tor, N o 7
.

. .

8 2 I t is difc u l t t o i ma g i n e a ro u g h er e x peri enc e th a n t h a t in

.

v o l v ed b h i a t t em t t o c a rr t t h e a dv e n t u rou s proj ec t o f re a c h

y s ou
p y
ing Pa ri s fro m N e w Y o rk b y l a nd Ti mes W eek l y , 1 1 t h F eb 1 8 9 8 , .

P 9 2 .

8 3 I t ( t h e w o r o f A b b e D u b o s ) rec o rds th e mpress o n s o f a n

k i i i

.

a c u t e a nd a
p i
a t e n t o b serv e r o f t h e a c t u a l l i e o f t h e H n du s T i mes f i
l Veek l y , 1 l t h F e b 1 8 9 8 , p 9 2 . . .

8 4 Th e pre dic a t e o f a se n t e nc e a l w a y s is o r c o n t a n s a v erb

. i .

85 F ew o f h is r ends e x c ept my s e l
. fi n e w o f h is b e n g in t h e f k i
ki ng do m .

86 T h e pu l c a n d pr v a t e g o o d a re so fa r rom b e ng nc o n s st e nt
. bi i f i i i
th a t th e y pro mo t e o n e a n o t h er .

8 7 H e reg re tt ed t h a t t h e pu p l -t ea c h er did n o t prev e nt th e b o s

. i y
C HA P . x xx P R O P R I E T Y O F D I CT I O N 1 69

from w ri ti ng so fa st a s h e no tic ed th a t is don e in th e a b senc e o f su c h

,

immedi a t e su perv i si o n a s th e ma st er o th erw i se e ng g ed w o u l d h a v e ,

a ,

re v ent ed
p .

8 8 M en a nd w o men w h o h a v e n o o j ec o r a im th a n a mu sement
. b t .

D a i l y Te l egrap h , l 6 th F eb 1 8 9 8 , p 8 . . .

i
8 9 Th o u g h th ese n n e w a rsh ps w ere b u l t in d f erent doc y a rds,
. i i if k
th e des g n o f t h e w h o l e n n e is t h e sa me , w th sl g h t d e ren c es in
i i i i iff
o nit s O f det a il D a i l y T el eg rap h , 1 6 t h F eb 1 8 9 8 p 9
p .
,
. . .

9 0 Bou n t eou s h a rv est s in t h e P u nja u b a n d i n t h e w h e a t l a nds o f

.

th e R v er P l a t e a re ex pec t ed t o u rn sh su ppl es rom th e S o u t h ern

i f i i f
i
H em sph ere t o t h e ex t ent o f a b o u t qu a rt ers, eta D a i ly
T el eg ra p h , 29 t h A pr l 1 8 9 8 i .

9 1 M r G l a dst o n e w a s a b l e t o sit fo r a sh ort w h l e in a n e a sy c h a r

. . i -
i
o n t h e sma ll l a w n b y th e s de o f t h e h o u se , w h c h i s c h a rm ng l y sh el
i i i
t ere d b y q u t e a s m a llip n e o rest D i f
a i l y T el , 22n d M a rc h 1 8 9 8 . .

i
I sh a ll l ea v e t h s h ou se a t o nc e w th o u t y o u pu t it i n pro per i
repa i r .

93 . Y ou w il l h a v e t o g et th a t l esson b y h ea rt l ik e I did .

94 He re ferred t o t a k e a sw ee c ros i n t h an b e h i s b rea d from

p p s
g g
-
.

doo r t o do or .

9 5 Th e a rmy l ik ed th ei r qu a rt ers so w el l , t h a t n e i th er o f c ers n o r

.

so l di e rs w a s i n a n y deg ree w ill i ng t o qu i t th em t i ll th e y sh ou l d b e

th o ro u g hl y re fresh ed C L A R E N D O N . .

9 6 Th e rec e n t g h t i ng h a s l ed ma n y pe o pl e t o rec o n si der th e

.

w h o l e qu est i o n o f t h e rel a t i o n s b et w een t h e C a pe, t h e I mperi a l

G o v ernme nt , a nd th e n a t i v es R evi ew of R evi ew s, F eb
1 89 8, p . .

1 47 .

9 7 I a m a nx i o u s fo r th e time w h en h e w i l l t a l k a s mu c h n o n sen se
.

t o me a s I h a v e t o h im W S L A ND O R .
-
. . .

9 8 From t h i s c o a l i t i o n, a n d n o t from th e spi ri t o f it s o w n l a w s

.

a n d i n st i t u t i o n s, h e a t tri b u t ed t h e h a rsh a n d u n en e ro u s t rea t ment

g
o f o u r fa l l en en emy , N a o l e o n Bu o n a a rt e M R S FLE TC H E R
p p . . .

9 9 T h e po si t i o n o f t h e C a b i n et i s e x c e edi n g l y di fc u l t b e t w een
.

th e da n g e r o f fo reig n a nd c i v i l w a r, e i th er o f w h i c h ma y b e prec ipi

t a t ed b y a simpl e erro r
T e l eg ra m f rom M a dri d, 1 4 th A pri l 1 8 9 8
. .

1 00 T h e i ma g e a n d n a me o f G o eth e o c c u rs t o u s a t o nc e w h e n w e

.

try t o e v o k e th e ma n o f mo st perfec t b ra i n w h o e v er ex i st ed F ort

n i g h tl y R evi ew , M a 1 89 8 7 6 6
y , p . .

1 0 1 Th e c o ndi t i o n o f M r Gl a dst o n e , w h o is w i th o u t pa i n , is n o t
u i t e so fa v ou ra b l e D a i l y Te l eg ra p h , 21 st A ri l 1 8 9 8
. .

q .
p .

1 0 2 Th e nu rses f o r t h e S pa ni sh R o y a l fa mi l y a re a l w a y s c h ose n
.

from th e pea sa n try o f A st u ria s ; a l a rg e n u mb er a re sen t for, a nd

fro m them t h e mo st h a n dso me o f th e prov inc e is na ll y sel ec t ed .

Ca ssel l s F a mi l y M a g a z i n e, J a n 1 8 9 8 , p 1 5 2

. . .

1 03 By th a t t ime h e w il l h a v e c o me i n c o n t a c t w i th so me o f th e

.

most g ift ed g eniu s o f th e ea rth I b id p 1 5 8 . . . .

1 0 4 H ere is a spec imen fro m H a ml et w h i c h i l l u stra t e s t h e n u

.

meth o di c a l c h a ra c t er c o nv ersa t i o n w il l a ssu me w h e n a pri n c i pa l i nt er

l o c u t o r is pu rsu i ng a pri v a t e t ra i n o f th o u g h t w i th i n t en se ea g ern ess

A BBO TT A N D S E E L E Y, E ng l i sh L esson s f or E ng l i sh R ea ders, p 23 1 . .

1 0 5 T h e w h o l e qu est i o n i s a c c o rdi ng l y remi tt ed t o a c ommi t t ee ,

.

th e c o mpo siti o n o f w h i c h h a s a l rea dy b een a nn o u n c ed in o u r c ol u mn s,

1 70 CO M PO S ITI O N P A RT 11

w ho w il l
ider a nd report u po n w i th a ll c onv eni ent speed th e pro
c o ns
o s a l s o f t h e G o v ernme n t o f I ndi a T i mes 3 rd M a
p y 1 89 8 ,
.

1 06 C h u ng C h i h T u ng Vi c ero y o f N a nki n a t h o ro u g h C h i n a ma n
.
, , ,

a P ro ress i v e t h ou h dis l iki n f r i n r b t w h h t h n i

g g ,g o e
g e s u o a s e u
qu e ,

di st i n c ti o n o f b ei ng a b so l u t el y h o n est a n d i nc o rru ptibl e h a s eng a g ed

G erma n i n st ru c t o rs fo r h is a rmy D a i l y T e l
,

1 9 th A pril 1 8 9 8 . .
, .

1 0 7 H e g a t h ered t h a t t h e G o v ernment w ere n o t a l t o g e th er s t i s a

ed w i th ea c h o m en M O RL E Y qu o t e d in D i l y T l
.

23 rd Ju n e 1 89 8 ,
a e .
, .

1 08 T h ro u g h o u t t h e w h ol e o f
t h e n o rth e a st o f th e S o u da n t ra de -

i
a n d n du st r a re re v v n
y g su r el y, b u t n o d o u b t s i i
l o w l y S ir M H I C S . . K
H
BE A C , qu o t ed in D a i l y T el eg ra ph , 28 th Ju n e 1 8 9 8 .

1 0 9 H o w c o u l d I h ea r su c h w o rds , h o w c o u l d I me et su c h l o o s, k
ro m a n y o t h er ma n b u t h e M R S C A I , T h e O g i l vi es , c h x
.

f . R K . .

1 1 0 N O o n e i s more u ll y a l v e t h a n h msel t o t h e h e a v y b u r en
f i i f d

.

o f h i s re s o n s b l t e s
p S t i iii
a n da rd, 1 1 t h A u u st 1 8 9 8 ,
g .
p 4 . .

1 1 1 T h es e a g en ts sh o u l d b e a u t h o r sed t o ( a n d c a pa b l e o f) dis
. i
c u ss ng ndu s tr a l qu e st o n s, a n d o f a v a l n g t h emsel v es o f t h e
i i i i est ii b
ma r e t s D a i l y Te l eg rap h , 1 5 t h A u g u st 1 8 9 8 , p 2
k . .

1 1 2 A t a ny o t h er t me , a n d i n a n y o t h er perso n , su c h a n ex hib i
. i
t o n m g h t h a v e e e n c o ndu c v e o f p t
i i b i
W i ndso r M a g a z i n e, A u g u st iy .

1 8 9 8 , p 25 8 . .

1 1 3 Th e a du l t era t o n o f o o d g en erall oc c u rs in so me w h o l eso me

. i f y
fo rm i
M a rg a r n e i s a n e x c ell e nt o o d s u sta n c e , t h o u g h i t is n o t
. f b
b u t t er t h e po t a to i s v ery n o u r sh ng , b u t it sh o u l d n o t b e o u n d in i i f
b rea d D a il y T el eg rap h , 27 th A u g u st 1 8 9 8 .

1 1 4 W ou l d n o t a ma n o f fa r n er o r a b l t es t h a n B sma rc
. have i f i iii i k
b ec ome c o g n sa n t rom t h a t mo me n t o f F ra n c e s e x a c t po w er o f res st
i f i

a n c e F ortni g h t l y R evi ew , S e t em er 1 8 9 8 , p 4 0 7 b
p . .

S E CT I O N 2 .
W o
U S E D I N W RO N G S E NS E S O R W RO N G
R Ds

C O NN E C T I O N S .

27 5 U n d er th i s h ea di ng w e h a v e g iv en c h i ey in a l ph a
.
,

b etica l o rd er so me e x a mpl es o f w o rd s t h a t h a v e w i th i n rec en t

,

ti mes b een u sed in sen ses th a t do n o t b el on g t o th em o r in c o n ,

t ex ts fro m w h i c h th e y a re d eb a rred by c u rren t idi o m

,
.

W h en th e u se o f a w o rd in a w ro n g sen se h as b ec o me so
g en era l t h a t th e a c u i red me a n i n
q g i s a s c o m m o n l y re c o g n i sed a s

t h e pro pe r o n e it is d o u btfu l w h et h er w e c a n st i ll c a l l t h i s a n
,

I mpropri e ty I t is mu c h to b e reg retted h ow ev er th a t w o rd s

.
, ,

sh ou l d b e h a n d l e d i n t h i s sl o v e n l y fash i o n ; f o r o u r l a n g u a g e

a i n s n o th i n in w e a l t h by t h e r ss w h i l e i t l o ses mu c h in
g g p o c e ,

prec i si on T o t a k e a few e x a mpl es

.

( 1 ) W h e n h e ( N po l eo n II I ) w s b rou g h t b e f re th e c o u rt in P a ri s
a . a o ,

h e demea n d h i msel f w i th dig n i ty w h ic h dimi n i sh e d t h e

e a

c h i l di sh b su rdity a nd t h e ri di c u l o u s det a i l s o f h is t tempt a

D
a

at Bou l o g n e . a i l y T el eg rap h , 2n d F eb . 1 898 .

H ere demea n is u se d
in i ts pro per se n se I t is deri v e d fro m o l d .

Fren c h demener, t o c o n du c t , g u i de, o r ma n a g e a n d i t is fro m t h i s

1 72 C O M P O S IT I O N P A RT 11

o r t h a t a c o u nt r
y is l a id w a st e ,
a m a t t er i s
c a rri ed t o e x t re mes ,
b
p l a ced w a st e
u t n ot o r th a t
b u t not p u t t o e x treme s ; o r

m
t h a t so e o n c s a t e

f m
tre b l ed i n t h e b a l a nc e , b u t not
sh ook i n
o r t h a t me n ma de merry , b u t n o t ma de joyf u l

th e b a l a nc e
mustered stro ng , b u t n o t c o l l ec ted st ro ng

o r th a t t h ey o r th a t

t h ey d so me o n e f a l se, a ed h im decei t u l

p l a
y e b u t n o t p yl f or

t h a t t h ey

p u t a t h ng r g h t , i b u t noti
p la c ed it rig h t

or th a t

mo n ey
ru n s sh o rt , b u t no t i es sh o rt ; o r th a t men steer

s w i m o r ri de c l ea r o r t h a t so me o n e

c l ea r o f a da n er, b u t no t
g

o r t h a t so me o n e

s top s sh o rt , b u t no t sta y s sh o rt c a sts h i s

i o r t h a t some o n e is

e es
y u po n a th n g , b u t n o t th ro w s h is e y es
o r t h a t a ma n

st ru c k du mb ,

b u t not
st ru c mu te k
th n s i k
i
t t o do a t h ng , b u t n o t t h n s su i ta b l e to do it i k .

:c erc ise
1
E .

Put c orrec t phra ses f or those i ta li cised b elow , a n d

w o rds o r

sh ow in w ha t th ei r i mp rop ri ety c on sists If y ou see n o i mpropri ety , .

g i ve
y o u r rea son s

1 H is w ri t i ng s did n o t mee t
. w i th a v er
y g e n era l a c c ep ta ti on .

2 I f b o th w ere t o a gg ra va te t h ei r pa ren t s, a s my b ro t h er a n d
si st e r do mi n e , e t c R I C H A R D S O N
.

3 M y dec i de d pre fere nc e is f o r th e fou rth a n d l a st o f t h e se

a l tern a ti ves G L A D S T O N E
.

. .

4 A n a n c i en t ma n , stra ng el y h a b i t ed, a sk ed f o r q u a rt ers

. .

S C O TT
5 L est a su dden pea c e sh o u l d a pp rec i a te t h e mo n e y R A M S A Y
.

. . .

6 T h ey h a v e approa ched t h e E du c a t i o n D epa rt me n t f o r so me

.

pu rpo se in w h i c h th ei r i n t erest s a re c o n c ern ed .

7 I n a fe w h ou rs a b o v e t h i rt y th o u sa nd men l eft h is st a n da rd a nd

ret u rn ed t o t h ei r o rdi n a ry a voca ti ons M A C A U L A Y

.

. .

8 Th o u g h t h e i n t en t i o n s o f a ny perso n sh o u l d b e e v er so
.

b en ec ent y e t if t h ey fa i l in pro du c i ng t h ei r effec t , h is meri t seems

imperfec t BE N T H A M
,

. .

9 T h e o n l y da ng er th a t a tt en ds th e mu l ti pl i c i t y o f pu b l i c a t i o n s i s
.

t h a t so me o f t h em ma y b e c a l cu l a ted t o i nj u re ra t h e r t h a n b e n e t
soc i et y G O L D S M I T H .

1 0 Bro di e ma de a sc ra w l o n pa per o nl y t o b e e qu a ll ed b y th e
C L A RK E
.

c a l l i g ra p h y o f E l lio t so n
1 1 I n t h e c a p a c i o u s rec e sses o f h is mi nd BA N C R O F T
. .

. .

1 2 M r Brig h t a tta c ked in pa rl i a me n t t h e ru i n ou s e x pe n se o f t h e

. .

a rm , a n d c l a i med t h a t t h e n f ers , w it h t h e i r sc a rl e t a n d g o l d,
y y ou g o c

w ere k e pt ma inl f r t h e a mu seme n t o f th e y o u ng l a dies o f th e

y o
a ris t o c ra c
y
F o rtn i g h tl y R evi ew , F eb 1 8 9 8 p 24 3

. .
.
, .

13 l Ve mu st l o o k h i g h er f o r th e c l i ma te o f ea rt y g h l o o d TA Y L O R
1 4 W e c o mmen ce j u dg es o u rse l v es C O L E R I D G E
.
.

. . .

1 5 \Vh e n th e a c t u a l mo t i o n s o f th e h ea v e n s a re c a l c u l a t ed i n th e

.

b st p s
e o s i b l e w a
y, t h e
p roc es s i s d if c u l t a n d co 7n p l ex W H E W E LL .

.

1
O u t o f th e 1 23 e xa mpl es h ere gi ven, a b ou t 20 h a ve b een sel e c t ed

fro m H o dg son s E rrors i n E ng l ish

.
C HA P . x xx P R O PR I ETY O F D I CT I O N

1 73

16T o persi st in n eg l ec ti ng t o h a v e a c h i ld v a c c i n a t e d is a b rea c h

.

o f pa re n t a l d u t w h i c h no th i n s h o u ld b e erm i tt ed t o co nd n
y g p o e .

T i mes, 5 th A pri l 1 8 7 8 .

1 7 Th e c o mpa c t n ess o f th e pa rt s rest i ng t o g eth er do th mu c h

conf er t o t h e st re n g t h o f t h e u n i o n G L A N V I L L
.

. .

1 8 Cong en i ta l l a me n ess c a u sed b y a fa ll fro m t h e n u rse s a rms

. .

1 9 I h a v e c o nsta n tl y seen o n e b u l l ki l l six o r se v e n h o rses, a n d

h a v e h ea rd o f o n e t h a t h a s ki l l ed a s ma n y a s se v e n t ee n H J R O S E
.

. . .

20 I t c o nt ri b u t ed a g o o d dea l t o c o n rm me in t h e c on temp ti b l e

.

ide I l a y s enterta i n ed o C l u s G I BBO N

a a w f e l a r i
21 H e t h a t is o f a merry h e a rt h a t h a c on ti n u a l fea st P roverb s
. .

xv 1 5
. .

22 I n sh o rt , th e fa c t s a re a s n ea rl y a s po ssi b l e t h e prec i se c o n verse

i n e v e ry respec t o f w h a t th e press st a t es i ll orn i n g S ta r, 1 9 th M a rc h
.

1 86 6 .

23 .
pt ed a ll th ese t a l es w i th a c redi b l e mi nd
He acc e .

24
,
N e x t mo rn i ng a se v ere fro st set i n w h i c h l a st e d t e n da y s, a n d
.

my el d o f tu rn i ps w a s a b sol u t el y dec i ma ted S c a rc e a ro o t w a s l eft .

u n t o u c h ed S c otsma n , 1 9 th D ec 1 8 5 9
-
. .

25 H er so n w o u l d demea n h imsel f b y a ma rri a g e w i t h a n a rt i st s

da u g h t e r T H A C K E RA Y
.

. .

26 A differenc e b et w een t h em a n d a n oth er descrip ti on o f pu b l i c

c redi t o rs H A M I L T O N
.

27 T h e sc h o ol o f R o u ssea u i dea l i se d th e n a tu ra l ma n a n d reg a rded

.

a l l soc i a l i n fl u en c e a s deteri ora ti ng fro m h is o ri i n a l r i ty Co n

g p u -
.

temp ora ry R evi ew , M a y 1 8 7 9 .

28 T h e pri n t i ng o f my l et t ers is l e ft e n t i rel y a t y o u r di sp osi ti on

29 I dou b t so me fo u l pl a y S H A KS P E A R E
. .

. . .

3 0 Th e b a l mi n ess o f t h e a tmo sph ere o c c a si o n ed b y t h e el u vi a

.

o f th e g u l f s t rea m

3 1 T h ei r eldest h i st o ri a n s a re o f su spec t ed c redi t

.

. S T I L L I NGFL E E T . .

3 2 H is mi ssi o n w a s t o el i mi n a te reli g i o n o f a ll su c h a n d k i ndred

ru b b ish CA RRU T H E R S
.

3 3 I t is ou r du t y t o endea vou r th e rec o v ery o f th ese b en e c i a l

.

su b j ec t s LO RD CH A T H A M .

3 4 H is b o dy b eh i nd t h e h ea d b ec omes b ro a d, fro m w h e n c e it is

.

a a i n ex ten u a ted a l l t h e w a t o th e t a i l G R EW
g y . .

8 5 W i t h a rel u c t a n c e n o t u n n a t u ra l in a f ema l e
3 6 W e n e ed n o t g o a ny f a rth er in t h i s su b j ec t E di n b u rg h
. .

R evi ew , Ja n 1 8 4 2

. .

3 7 H er f u tu re l ife w a s v i rt u ou s
. a n d fo rt u n a t e C H A M BE R S . .

3 8 A H ercu l a nea n t a sk
. .

3 9 N a t u re h a s i mpress ed u po n so me a n ima l s de fo rmi t y a n d

h orror
.

Sp ecta tor
. .

4 0 Th e b o di e s w ere so c h a rred th a t iden ti ty w a s impo ssi b l e

. .

4 1 T h e se perpl ex i t i es re qu i re i l l u mi n a ti on
4 2 N e v er w a s my li fe in su c h fea rfu l i mmin ence G I L C HR I S T
. .

. . .

43 . He i ndi vidu a l
w a s a v ery c u r o u s i .

I f P ers a h a d n v a ded G reec e a t th s c r t c a l t me, G reec e

44 i i i ii i

.

f
w o u l d h a v e a ll en a l mo st i f l
n a l i b l y G OTE . R .

4 5 T h e F renc h pu t M a rsh a l Ba z a n e
. n t o pr so n , b ec a u se th ey i i i
t
su spec ed h is i ndel i ty .
1 74 C O M P O S ITI O N P A RT 11

46 I nn a te d epra v ity du e to ea rl y t r i n i ng
a a nd
g en e ra l rec k l ess
o f 1ife A
.
,

n ess . . G R I FF I T H S .

47 . H e w a s a ma n o f i nsa ti a b l e e n erg y .

48 . M o st o f o u r mi sta k es a ri se fro m t h e n e g l ec t t o i n terrog a te fa c t s .

49 . H e h a s sh o w n t h ro u g h o u t a l a rg e a mo u nt O f pa t i enc e .

50 . H a v e y o u h ea rd th e l a st n e w s
51 D a ppl e h a d t o l a y do w n o n a ll fo u rs b e fo re th e l a d c ou l d
b est r de h im D A S E N T
.

i . .

5 2 H e repea t ed w th o u i
t h esi t t i o n l ength en ed pa ssa g e fro m o ne
a a

o f t h e ec l o u e s o f Vi r i l KI LL A N
.

g g . .

5 3 A reg imen t c o n t i n s n o t l ess th a n 800 me n

. a .

5 4 H e is a ma n o f l i mi ted i n c o me
. .

5 5 A ma de u se of t h e sa me i n c c u r c y s B
. . a a a .

5 6 M u tu a l e n mit ies a re s id t o c eme nt fri e ndsh i p

. a .

5 7 W h t a n i c e s t o ry w e h e rd y est erd y
. a a a

5 8 I n h is y ou th h e w a s a n ovi ti te o f th e F r nc i sc a n o rder
. a a .

5 9 I n su c h c i rc u mst a n c e s w e a re t o pro c u re l ea v e t o o mi t th e
o b serva ti on o f th e ru l e
.

JE R TA YL O R

. . .

6 0 T h e ra pi d strea m h a d over
.
!to w n i t s n a rro w b n k s BL A C K a .

6 1 A t o n e o c l o c k w e p rtook of l u nc h a t t h e h o t e l

. a .

6 2 H e did n o t e x mi n e th e w ou nd ti ll a ft er t h e de t h o f t h e
a a
L etters of
.

p ty
a r . J u ni u s .

6 3 T h e g rea t di f c u l t y o f p ermea ti ng t h e ma sses w i t h so u nd i de a s

.

i s t h e prev a l e n t l a c k o f el ementa ry edu c a t i o n JE R H E A D . .

6 4 H e t h i nk s v ery h i g h l y o f t h e p ersp i c u i ty o f h is so n s mi n d

. .

6 5 T h e pl a i ns o f T a rt a ry a re p erva ded b y n o ma d h o rdes

. .

6 6 I t is n o t so ea sy t o mou l d th e fo rmed c h a ra c t er o f a n a du l t a s
.

t h e p l a sti c mi nd o f a c h i l d .

6 7 T h e ev i de nc e fu rn i sh ed b y th i s w i tness is v ery p reca ri ou s

. .

6 8 I t n e eded n o g h o st from t h e g ra v e t o p redi ca te e v en t h e n th e

.

s u c c ess o f th e y ou n g D I sra el i i n pu b l i c l ife MA DDE N

-
. .

6 9 W e mu st t a k e n o t e o f t h e i r de fec t s a s w el l a s o f t h ei r qu a l i ti es
. .

7 0 H e l e nt me a qu a n ti ty o f b o ok s
f
. .

7 1 T h e qu esti o n pro po sed b y L o rd Bea c o n sel d w a s su c c ess u l l y

.

o s ed
o
PI .

7 2 H e c o u l d no t retri eve h is fri e nd fro m th e fa l se n o t i o n t h a t h a d

.

oss esse d h im
p .

7 3 T h a t si g h t prompt ed h im t o ri si b i l i ty
. .

7 4 A sma l l a l t e ra t i o n o f t h e st o ps w i l l ma k e th e sen t en c e qu i t e
.

c l ea r.

7 5 H is re ti remen t from pu b l i c l ife w a s sp on ta n eou s

. .

7 6 O u r i nt erest in P ersi a is sy n on y mou s w it h t h a t o f th e P ersia ns

.

t h emsel v e s A A RN O L D . .

7 7 H is rec o v ery from th a t i ll n ess tra n sp i red in a sh o rt er spa c e o f

.

t ime t h a n a ny o n e e x pec t ed .

7 8 T h e vera c i ty o f t h e G o spel n a rra tiv e is u n qu e sti o n a b l e

. .

7 9 A verb a l a g reemen t is l ess b i ndi n g t h a n a w ritt e n o n e

. .

8 0 H is c h a ra c t er is u nden i a b l e
. .

8 1 H e is mu c h a ddi c ted t o t h e st u dy o f ma th ema t ic s

. .

8 2 A ma n o f e v i l l ife a n d soa ked w i t h s e l sh n ess

. .

8 3 T h e sa l t t a x fa ll s mo re b u rden so me o n t h e po o rt h a n o n th e ri c h
. .

8 4 I app reh en d th a t mu c h g o o d w i ll resu l t

. .
1 76 CO M PO S I T I O N P A RT 11

116 . T a k e c a re t o pa rt y o u r h a i r in th e c entre .

117 . O n t h a t su b j ec t h e w a s l i tera l l y o u t a t sea .

1 18 T h ey a re mea nt n o do u b t t o ma k e t h e w ro ng do er su ff er in
1
.

h is p rop er perso n D a i l y T el eg rap h , 1 6 t h F e b 1 8 9 8

. . .

1 1 9 H is pl ea fo r u n it y a mo n g I ri sh men w a s u nderl i n ed b y th e
a u di en c e w i t h re pe a t ed a ppl a u se
.

D a i l y T e l eg ra p h , 1 7 t h F eb 1 8 9 8
. . .

1 20 G erma n g o o ds h a v e t a k en po ssessi o n o f ma rk e t s w h i c h w ere b u t

rec e n t l y i nn o c e nt o f t h ei r e x i st e nc e N in eteen th C en tu ry , F eb
.

. 1 89 8 . .

1 2 1 T h e w rit erdea l s th i s t ime w i th t h e qu est i o n o f c ru de ma t eri a l s

. .

R evi ew of R evi ew s, F eb 1 8 9 8 , 1 43
p . . .

1 22 I t w a s su mme r a ll o v e r U pper I ndi a , a se a so n s o e nt irel y

di ff e re n t fro m its c o ng en er in t h e Brit i sh I sl es Jl[a ri a m, p 2
.

. . .

1 23 S pa i n st a n ds c o n v i c t ed o f a h o rri b l e c rime , t h e M a i n e
.

di sa ster, a nd w e o w e i t t o o u rsel v es t o v i ndic a t e t h e v ic tims o f th e

e x pl o si o n fro m t h e c h a rg e t h a t t h ey w ere dea d b y t h ei r o w n h a nds,

a n d t o see t h a t t h e perpe t ra t o rs sh o u l d n o t
g o u n w h ipp ed b y j u st i c e .

Sp eech de l i vered i n Co ng ress, 1 4 t h A pril 1 8 9 8 .

A P PE N D I X T O C H A P T E R XI X .

P L U R A LS IN
S PE C I A L S E N S E S .

(a ) Tw o fo rms of Pl u ra l , ea ch w i th a se a ra t e
p mea n i n g
Bro t h ers, son s o f th e me mo th er
sa
B ro th er
.

Bre t h re n , me mb ers of th e sa me soci et

y .

C neru b im, a n g el s o f a c erta i n ra n k

Ch eru b
.

C h e ru b s, i ma g es or model s of a ch eru b .

C l o th
C lo t h s, ki nds or p i ec es of c l o th ( D str b u t v e ) i i i .

C l o t h es, a rti c l es of dress ( C o l l ec t v e ) i .

C o w s, i n di vi du a l c ow s ( D st r b u t v e ) i i i .

Ki n e , c a ttl e ( C o ll ec t v e ) i .

D es , i s ta mp s f or c oi n i ng ( D st r b u t v e ) i i i .

D c e, i s ma l l c u b es u sed i n g a mes ( C o ll ec t v e ) i .

G en i u s
G e n u s e s, i men of g en i u s or ta l en t .

G e n ii, f a b u l ou s sp i ri ts of th e a i r .

I n de x es, ta b l es of c on tents
I ndeac
.

Indi c es,
'

si g n s u sed i n a l g eb ra .

P e a s, ( D i stri b u t i v e ) .

1 P6 3 5 9 , ( C o l l ec t i v e ) .

P 8 11 11 16 5 , ( D istri b u ti v e )
{
:
p enn y p i ec es
-

P en n y
.

P e nc e , ( so metimes C o l l ec t i v e ) 2
.

S t a v es . sti c ks or p o l es .

S t a ff s, dep a rtmen ts i n th e a rmy .

S ta men f S t a me ns , ma l e org a n s of ow ers ( D str b u t v e ) i i i .

( S t a m na , i e ndu ra n c e, vi g ou r, l it th rea ds ( C o ll ec t . i ve )
.

S hot, l i ttl e b a l l s di sch a rg ed f rom a g u n .

S h o t s, di sch a rg es a s, h e h a d tw o sh o ts .

1
T h is is a misl ea ding t h e L a t in ph ra se i n p rop ridp ers on a
t ra n sl a tion of .

2
H en c e s ix p en ce h a s a C ol l ec tiv e sense, denoting a sing l e c o in , w h ic h
-

mak es t h e n o u n a ppea r t o b e S ing u l a r, so th a t w e sa y a S ixp ence ( S ing u l a r),

si xp en ces ( Pl u ra l ) .
C HA P . X IX PL U R A L S I N S PE C I A L S EN S E S 1 77

(b) D i fferen t sen ses o f S i n gu l a r a n d P l u ra l

S i ng u l a r . P l u ra l .

A dvi ce, c o u n sel . A dvi c es, i n forma t i o n .

A i r, a tmo sph ere . A i rs, demea n o u r .

B a n , a c u rse ( u nder a b a n ) . Ba nn s, a n n o u n c emen t ( b a n ns o f

ma rri a g e ) .

Beef , esh o f o x . R eeves, c a t tl e , b u ll s a n d c o w s .

Co mp a ss, ra n g e o r e x t e nt . Co mp a sses, a n n st ru ment i .

Copp er, a met a l . Copp ers, pe nn es i .

D o mi n o , a ki nd o f ma sk . D omi n oes, t h e g a me so c a ll ed -
.

F o rce, streng t h o r e nerg y . F orces, a rmy .

G ood, b en e t . G oods, mo v a l e pro perty

b .

I ron , a meta l . I rons, et t ers ma de o f ro n

f i .

M i n u te, o f t ime . M i n u tes, o f a meet ng i .

P h y si c , medic i n e . P h y si cs, n a t u ra l sc en c e i .

R etu rn , c o mi ng b a c k . R etu rn s, st a t st c s i i .

S a l t, sea so n i ng su b st a nc e . S a l ts, smel li ng sa l t s .

S a nd, a ki nd o f ma tt er . S a n ds, a t ra c t o f sa nd l a n y d .

Vap ou r, i n v i si b l e st ea m . d
Vap ou rs, ej ec t o n i .

Vesp er, e v e n i ng . Vesp ers, e v en n g i pra y ers .

Wa ter, t h e e l eme nt . Wa ters ,

i
spr n g s .

()
0 Tw o mea ni n gs in th e Pl u ra l a ga ns i t o ne in th e
S i ng ul a r
P l u ra l .

1 Ki nds o f c ol ou r
Co l ou r,
.

Col ou rs
.

2 F l a g of reg i men t
. .

j1 H a bi ts
Cu stom, h a bit Cu stoms
. .

(2 T ol l o r ta x
.
. .

S i mpl e su b st a nc es .

E l emen t, s impl e su b st a nc e . E l emen ts Con di ti on s of the

a ir .

R esu l ts
resu l t Ejec ts
' .

G oods a nd ch a ttel s
.

O f a l ph a b et
1 O f a l ph a b et
.

L etter, L etters 2 Ep i stl es

. .

2 E pi st l e
. .

L ea rn i ng
. .

M o de s, w a y s
M a nn er, mo de or w ay M a nn ers
.

Beh a vi ou r
.

A s in c o u nt i ng
N u mb er, in c ou n t ng . i N u mb ers
.

as
P oetry .

1 S u fferi ng s
f i
su f er n
g . P a i ns
2 T rou b l e, ca re
.

1 P o rt i o n s
p t on
o r i . P a rts
2 A b i l i ti es
.

a st a t e men t or 1 Pro posi t i o n s

P remi se, P remi ses
.

pro po si t i o n . 2 Bu i lding s .

1 F o u rth pa rts
a fou rth p a rt .

2 L odg i n g s .
.

1 Th i ng s seen
an yth i ng seen .
2 E y e g l a sses
.
-
.
.

E . G . C .
1 78 C O M PO S I T I O N P A RT II

(d) Tw o mea n i n gs in th e S ing u l ar a

g i t
a ns on e in th e
Pl u ra l
S in g u l a r . P l u ra l .

Ripbghig
l l l
A b u se A b u ses, w ro ng u s e s .

c .

dy
{ 2fig ii;
0
a rt s o f b o dy
'

l n p .

A qu a dru ped
{
L
H orse H orses, u a dru d
.

2. C a v a l ry .
q pe s .

R e su l t
I ssu e
{ I ss u es, resu l ts
.

2 O ffspri n g
.

A lam
{
1
ib L i g h ts ,
.

2. R a dia r e .

A n a ti o n
P e rso n s .
.

P eop l es , i
n a t o ns .

A medi c i na l mix
P o w der t u re . P o w ders , medi c i na l mi x t u res .

G u n po w der .

Ha b itu a l a c t .

P ra c ti ce P ro fessi o n a l c o n P ra cti c es, h a bi t u a l ac ts .

n ec t io n .

A pi ec e o f ro c k
S tone S ton es,
.

F o u rt een po u nds .

f 1 A forest
lVood W oods
. .

( 2 . T i mb er .
,

C HA P T E R XX P E R S P I C U I T Y
. O R C LEA R N E S S
OF DI CTI ON .

27 7 . P er spi c u ity .
M t
b een sa id h ith ert o os of w h a t h as
a b ou t u n c tu a t i o n t h e n o rma l o rd e r o f w o rd s i n v e rsi o n o f t h e
p , ,
.

n o rma l o rd er t h e st ru c tu re o f sen t en c es u ri t y o f di c t i o n a n d
, p , ,

pro pri et y o f di c ti o n l ea d s u p t o th e su bj ec t o f c l ea rn ess o r

,

p e rs i c u i t y ;
p a n d mu c h t h a t w e sh a l l h a v e t o sa y a b o u t
si mpl i c ity o r e a se o f di c t i o n a n d a b ou t b rev i t y o r t e rsen ess o f ,

di c t i o n l ead s u p t o th e sa me su bj ec t O f all qu al i ti es o f styl e .

t h e o n e t h a t is o f mo st g en eral u se is P erspi c u i t y f o r if th e
w ri t er d oes n o t ma k e h i msel f u n d erst o o d h e w ri t es t o n o pu rpo se .

By perspi c u i t y sa ys Qu i n ti l i a n c a re is t a k en n o t t h a t

, , ,

th e rea d er ma y u n d e rs t a n d if h e w i ll b u t t h a t h e mu st u n d e r , ,

s t a nd w h e t h er h e w i l l o r n o t
, .

Th e o ri g i n a l a n d o n c e t h e o nl y sense o f th e w o rd pe r

tra n spa ren c y t ra n spa ren c y o f t h e medi u m

s pic u it y w as ,

t h ro u g h w h i c h O bj ec t s ca n b e see n A fte rw a rd s by a v i g o ro u s .
,

me ta ph o r i t ca me t o b e a ppl i ed a n d w a s ev en tu all y rest ri c t ed

l a ng u a g e l a n g u a g e b e i n g th e medi u m
, , ,

t o tra n sp a ren c y of ,

th ro u g h w h i ch th e th o u g h t o r i ma g e i n t e n d e d by th e w ri te r
1 80 C O M PO S I T I O N P A RT II

U nl ess t h e a u x l a ry ii
h a d b een is re pea t e d, th e w o rd

tra i n ed
w o u l d n a t u ra l l y b e reg a rde d a s t h e se
qu el t o t h e w o rd mou l ded .

()e R e pea t th e Verb o r u se th e pro -

verb do a ft er th e c onju n c

t i on s
th a n and a s,

if th e o mi ssi on of th e v erb w ou l d c ause
an y a mbi g u ity
Th e Presb y t eri a n s o f S c o tl a n d di sl ik ed th e I n depende nt s l ed b y
C romw el l a s h ea rt i l y a s ( di d) t h e R o y a l i st s .

Th e P resb y t eri a n s o f S c o t l a n d di sl ik ed t h e I n dependen t s l ed b y

C ro mw ell mo re h ea rti l y t h a n t h e R o y a l i sts ( did) .

Th e a mb ig u i ty o f b oth se n t enc es is remo v ed b y us ni g th e pro

-
v erb
did .

(f ) A n t e c ed en t c l a uses mu st not be mi x ed u
p w th i c on

se
q u en t o n es

Th e pro speri ty o f E ng l a nd w i ll dec l i n e , if sh e l o ses h er c omma nd

o f th e sea , a n d o th er c o u n t ri e s st ep i nt o h er pl a c e .

D o es th e l a st c l a u se g o w i th t h e c o n sequ e nt o r w i th th e a n t ec eden t
Beg i n w i th t h e a nt ec e dent o r c o n di ti o n a l c l a u se rst in a ny c a se a n d ,

t h en th e se n t e nc e ma y b e rew ri tt e n in t w o differe n t w a y s, w h i c h ev er
mea n i ng t h e w ri t er ma y h a v e i nt ended
(1 ) If E ng l a n d l o ses h er c o mma n d o f th e se a , h er prosperi t y w i l l
dec l i n e a nd o th er c o u n t ri es st ep i nt o h er pl a c e .

( 2) If E ng l a nd l o ses h er c omma nd o f th e sea a nd o th er c o u ntri es

st ep i n t o h er pl a c e, h er pro speri ty w i ll dec l i n e .

(g) d epen d en t o n o n e w o rd mus t n ot b e mi x ed u p

I n n it iv es
w ith I n n i t iv es d epen d en t o n a n o t h er

H e d ec i ded to t a k e h is d a u g h t er w i th h im t o th e Bri t i sh M u seu m

to s ee t h e A ssy ri a n mo n u me n t s a nd to c o mpa re t h e se w i t h t h e
re sea rc h e s o f L a y a rd a n d R a w l i n so n .

Th i s sen t e nc e mi g h t b e rew ri tt e n s o a s t o ma k e a t l ea s t t hre e

di ff eren t s en s es
( 1 ) H e dec i ded t o g o w i th h is d u g h t er t o th e Bri t i sh M u s eu m
a

t h a t sh e mi g h t see t h e A ssy ri a n mo nu me nt s a nd c o mpa re

th ese w i t h et c ,
.

( )
2 H e d e c i d e d t o t a k e h i s d a u h t er t o th e Bri t i sh M u se u m t h a t
g
t h ey mi g h t see t h e A s sy ri a n mo n u m n t s nd c o mp re t h ese e a a

w i th e t c , .

( )
3 H e d ec i de d t o t a k e h i s da u
g h t e r w i th h im t o t h e Bri t i sh

M u se u m th a t sh e mi g h t see t h e A s sy ri a n mo n u me n t s a nd ,

( h e d ec i de d ) t o c o m p r e t h ese eat c , .

S E CTIO N 2 .
T H E O BS C UR E .

27 9 D ef ec t iv e E x pr essi o n E l l i pt i c a l ph ra ses o r idi o ms,

.

ro vid ed th e y a re in c u rren t u se an d a re g en era l l y u n d erst o o d , a re

p
u n o bj ec t i o n a b l e F o r i n sta n c e, th ere is n o l a c k o f pe rspi c u i t y in
.

th e sen t en c e, D o a l l y ou c a n , b ec a u se th e o mi ssi o n o f th e
R el a ti v e pro n o u n as o bj ec t to a v erb ,
th o u g h un kno w n in o th er
CH . XX P E RS P I C U I T Y O R CL E AR N E S S O F D I CT I O N 1 81

mod ern l an g uag es, mmon in E ng l ish

is co T h e sa me ca nn o t b e .

sa id h o w ever o f elli ses t h a t resu l t fro m o v er b rev i t y o r fro m

p
-
, ,

ra pidity o f th ou h t fo l l o w ed by ca rel essn ess o f di c t i o n

g
( 1 ) H e is i n spire d w ith a t ru e sense o f th a t fu n c t i o n w h en c h osen
from a reg a rd t o th e i n t erests o f pi et y nd v i rtu e Gu a rdia n
,

a .
,

N o 13 . .

A fu nc ti o n c a nn ot b e a s e n se o r sent iment . Th e w o rd ng sh ou li d
h a v e b e en a t ru e se n s e o f i
th e d g n t y , i or o f th e impo rt a nc e ,
of th a t
fu nc t i o n .

( 2) Y o u g h t t
ou o c o n t emn all th e w it in t h e w o rl d a
g a nsi t y ou .

G u a rdi a n , N o 5 3 . .

Th e i
w r t er mea n s a ll th e w it th a t c an b e e mpl o y ed a g a i nst y ou .

( 3 ) H e ta l k s a ll th e w a y u pst a rs i to a v s i it Sp ecta tor

.
,
No 2 . .

Th e i ter perh a ps mea ns H e t a l k s a l l t h e w a y a s h e g o es u p

wr ,

st a i rs t o p y a v i si ta .

( 4 ) A rb i t ra ry po w er I l o ok u po n a s a g rea t er ev il th a n a n a rc h y
it sel f s mu c h a s a sa v a g e is a h a ppi er sta t e o f l ife t h a n a
a

sl a v e a t
,

th e oar .
S en ti men ts of a Chu rch o f E ng l a nd M a n .

N e i t h er a sa v a g e nor a sl a v e can b e c al le d a st a t e o f l ife Th e .

w r t er mea ns
i th e l ife o f a
is h a ppi er t h a n sa v a
ge t h a t o f a sl a v e .

( 5 ) Th i s c o u ra g e a mo ng th e a dv ersa ri es o f t h e c ou rt w a s i nspired
i nto th em b y v a rio u s i nc idents, fo r ev ery o n e o f w h ic h th e
mi n i st ers, or, if t h a t w a s t h e c a se , th e mi ni st er a l o ne is t o
a n sw er .

F ree Th ou gh ts on th e P resen t S ta te of A f a i rs
If th a t w as th e c a se if th ere w a s b u t o n e mi n i ster
1 H e mea n s,
.

( 6 ) N ev er l et th e g l ory o f o u r n a t i o n w h o ma d e Fra nc e t remb l e , ,

a nd et h s t h e e ntl en e ss t o b e u n a b l e t o b e a r o ppo si ti o n
y g a

fro m t h e mea n est o f h is o w n c o u n try men b e c a l umni a t ed I n

so i nso l e nt a ma n n er e t c G u a rdi a n
,

N o 53 ,
.
,
. .

th e ma n w h o w a s th e

By t h e g l o ry o f o u r n a t i o n h e mea n s

,

l o ry o f o u r n a t i o n a fa c t t h a t is b n o mea ns o b v i o u s o n rst
g y
-
,

rea di ng .

( 7 ) H is c h pt ers o n t h ese th emes o r t h e c ommerc i a l prospe c ts o f

a ,

S ib eri a a re t h e pl e a sa nt est l n h is b oo k
,
D a i l y T el egrap h .
-
,

25 th Ja n . 1 89 8 .

Th e w ri t ermea ns a ppa rentl y o r th ose on th e c omm erc ia l prospec ts ,

( 8 ) Th e sh i p w a s i n su red fo r a from Ca ssi s t o C on st a nt i n o pl e

S y r n
v oy a g e
i
w t h c eme n t . e a nd S hipp i n g , 9 th F e b . 1 89 8 .

I t l oo k s a t rst a s if th e sh i p w a s i n su red w i th c emen t . Th e

sen t en c e sh o u l d b e w o rded Th e sh i p, w i t h a c a rg o o f c emen t ,
w as
i nsu red, etc

.

28 0 . Ba d A rra n g emen t of W or ds T h e rul es fo r th e

d
o r er o f d ph rases a nd c l au ses w ith ex a mpl es of t h e i r
w o r s, , ,

vi ol a t i on h a v e b een g i v en a lrea dy in C h a pt ers x v a n d x vii

,
. .

A few mo re ex a mpl es ma y b e g iv en h ere in ill ustra ti o n o f th e ,

su bj e c t o f o b sc u rity
1 82 CO M P O S I T IO N P A RT II

(1 ) It c o n t a n ed a i fo r c o n du c t ng me a n d my ret nu e t o
w a rra n t i i
Tra l dra g du b b o r Tril dro g drib , fo r it is pro n ou nc e d b o t h
w a y s , a s n ea r a s I c a n rem emb er, b a rt o f t e n h o rs e
y a
p y .

SW I T F .

T h e ph ra se b y a p a rty of te n h o rse mu st b e c o n st ru ed w i th t h e
c o ndu c t i n , f b e pl a c ed a ft e r t h e w o rd

ru nd n d h l d t h r r
g e
g a s o u e e o e

ret n u e i .

( 2) I perc e i v ed it h a d b een sc o u re d w i th h al f an e G u a rdi a n,

ye
N o . 10 .

Th e ph ra se w i th h a lf a n ey e mu st b e c o n stru ed w i th t h e v erb
erc ei v e d ou l d t h ere fo re b e a rra n ed a s fo ll o w s

p T h e s e n
. t e n c e sh g
l Vit h h a l f a n ey e I perc e i v ed it h a d b e en sec u red ; o r
I per
c eiv e d w i t h h a l f a n e e th a t,

et c
y .

( 3 ) Th e y o u n g ma n did n o t w a n t n a t u ra l t a l en t s b u t t h e fa th er
o f h im w a s a c o x c o mb , w h o a ffec t ed b e i n
g a n e g en t l ema n
so u n merc ifu ll , t h a t h e c o u l d n o t e ndu re i n h is si h t , o r
y g
t h e frequ en t me n t i o n o f o n e w h o w as h is so n , g ro w i n g i nt o

ma nh o o d a n d t h ru st i ng h im o u t o f th e g a y w orld .

Sp ec ta tor, N o 4 9 6 , T . .

Th e f
c o n u sed c o n st ru c t o n , i
t o g eth er w th th e v l e a ppl c a t o n o f i i i i
t h e w o rd u nmerc ull ,

if y
is su c h t h a t t h s sen t en c e m g h t w th e qu a l i i i
j u st c e b e ra nk ed u nder so l ec sm, mpropr et , o r o b sc u r t y ( Ca mpb el l )
i i i i y i .

28 1 Using t h e sa me W or d in diff er en t S en ses

.
Th e
sa me w o rd sh o u l d n o t b e re e a t ed in th e sa me sen t en c e u n l ess
p ,

it is used in th e sa me sen se a n d in th e sa me pa rt o f speec h

( 1 ) A ny rea so n s o f do u b t w h i c h h e m y h a v e in th i s c a se w o u ld,
a ,

have b ee n rea so n s o f do u b t in t h e c a se o f o th er men ,

w ho
ma y g i v e more b u t ,
c a nn o t
g iv e mo re i den t sig n s
ev , of
t h o u g h t th a n t h e ir fell o w -
c rea t u res .
-
BO L I NG BR O K E E ssa y ,

1 , S ec t 9 . .

H ere th e rst more deg ree o f ma n y

is t h e C ompa ra t ive It

sh o u l d b e c h a n ed t o
g m o re n u mero u s,

t o ma tc h t h e ph ra se more
ev i den t or mo re ev iden t mi g h t b e c h a ng ed t o c l e a rer .

( 2) O n e ma y h a v e h i ch pro c e eds ro m a j u st
a n a ir ( demea n o u r) w f
su fi c ie ncf a nd n o w l e d e o f t h e ma t t er b e o re h im, w h i ch
k f
y g
ma y n a t u ra ll y pro du c e s o me mo t io n s o f h is h ea d a n d b o dy ,
w h i ch mig h t b ec o me t h e b en c h b et t er t h a n t h e b a r .

G u a rdi a n , N O 1 3 . .

H ere is re pea t e d th re e t mes,

w h i ch i ea c h t ime w i th differen t
a

a n t ec e de n t T h s is t a n t a mo u n t t o u s
. i i ng th e sa me w o rd in t h ree
iff
d ere nt s enses in t h e sa me se nt enc e .

( 3 ) Th ey w ere perso n s o f su c h mo dera t e i nt el l ec t s ,

e v en b f
e ore

th ey w ere mpa red b y th ei r pa ss o n s i i i .

Th e rst they re ers t o

perso n s,

a n d th e f sec o n d to i nt el l ec ts .

k f i
T h ei r re ers b a c a g a n t o
perso n s .

n . r n
28 2 U c e t ai R e e f r e n c e o f P rono un s P ro n ou n s mus t
n o t b e u sed in su c h a w a as t o c a use a n y d ou bt a b o u t w h a t
y
n ou n t h ey sta nd fo r
1 84 CO M P O S I T I O N P A RT II

th e t t T h us if so me o n e sa ys th a t h e ren ts h is h ou se a t
c on e x .
,

fty po u nd s a y ea r n o o n e w o u l d su ppo se t h a t h e mea ns

,

o u n d s in t ro y w e i g h t o r po u n d s in a v o i rd u po i s S o me ti me s
p
-
.
,

h o w e v er t h e c o n t e x t fa i l s t o g i v e th e re qu i sit e c l u e o r g ives i t
, ,

so i mperfe c tl y t h a t th e re a d e r is fo rc e d to rea d th e sen ten ce

,

tw i ce a n d reec t a l i t tl e u pon its con ten ts b efo re h e ca n b e qu it e ,

su re t h a t h e h a s u n d e rst o o d it W h en ev er a n a u t h o r s styl e
.

e x a c ts su c h reec ti o n fro m h is rea d er h e h a s c o mmi t t ed a n ,

o ff en ce a g a i n st pe rspi cu ity .

Th ere is n o pa rt o f speec h w h i c h if u sed i n c a u ti ou sl y is n o t , ,

su sc ept ib l e o f a d o u b l e mea n i ng

( ) a P rep osi ti on s
(1 ) I a m persu a ded th a t n eith er dea th n o r l ife sh a l l b e ab le
t o sepa ra t e u s fro m t h e l o v e of G o d R oma n s
, ,

v iii . 38 .

th i s mea n G o d s l o v e t o u s o r o u r l o v e t o G o d

D oes ,

fter t h e re forma t i o n of Lu th er S W I F T
( 2) A l tt l e i a .

Th e na t u ra l mea n i n g o f t h e w o rds re forma t i o n o f L u t h er oc c u rs

to t h e mi nd mu c h mo re rea di l y t h a n th e i nt en ded mea ni n g re fo rma ,

t ion b y L u th e1 .

(3 ) If I c a n not be co mme nded f or t h e b ea u ty o f my st

y l e, I h o e I
p
ma y p d b
f its b re v t y
e a r o n ed or i .

H ere th e prepo si t i o n iff

fo r is u sed in t w o d erent sen s e s : t h e
rst

fo r me a n s

o n a c c o u n t o f,

w h l e t h e se c o nd

fo r mea ns

i

i W h a t t h e a u t h o r n t ended t o e x press ( b u t
i i

in c o n s dera t o n o f .

i i
t h e mea n n g is n o t a s o b v ou s a s it sh o u l d h a v e b e e n ) is, t h a t t h e
b re v ty o f h is sty l e ma y b e ta en a s a set -o ff t o it s w a n t o f b ea u ty
i k . .

( b) Conju n c ti ons
( 1 ) Th ey b o th mu c h mo re
w ere i t a mo ng
a nc e n th e P ers i a ns th a n
Z o ro a st er or Z erdu sh t .

Or is h ere e qu i v oc a l T h e men t i o n o f b oth su g g est s t h a t t h e w ri t er

.

n a mes t w o di st i nc t perso n s b y Z o ro a st er o r Z erdu sh t , b y w a y o f

b a l a nc e I t is n o t ev e ry rea der w h o w o u l d k n o w th a t or is h ere u sed
.

t o de n o t e a n a l t erna t i v e spel l i n g o f th e sa me na me A l l a mb i g u i ty .

c a n b e remo v e d b y i n s ert i n t h e a re nt h esi s ( a s h e i s a l so c a l l ed)

g p
a ft er or O n o th er mea n s o f a v o i di n g th e a mb i g u i ty o f or, s e e 27 4
.

(57
( 2) I did no t si n g y est e rd a y a s I w i sh ed .

O w i ng t o t h e a mb i g u i ty o f a s, t h i s sen t e nc e ma y g i v e O ppo si t e

se n s es e i t h er
. I did s i ng y e st erda y , b u t n o t in t h e ma n n er t h a t

I w i sh e d r I did n o t si ng y est erda y , t h o u g h I w i sh ed t o h a v e
do n e so .

(3 ) A nd seei ng drea ms a re c a u sed b y th e di stemper o f th e i nw a rd

a rt s o f t h e b o d , e tc
p y .

It i
requ res s omet h n g o f a n e ff o rt t o i nd ou t th a t seei ng h ere is
e
q i
u v a l en t to seeing th a t o r si n ce, -
j
a c o n u nc t o n . i not a
pa rt c
pl e ii .
CH . xx P ER S P I CU I T Y O R C LE A R N ES S O F D I CT I O N 1 85

(c) P ron o u ns
She un i t ed t h e g rea t b o dy of th e pe o pl e in h er a nd th e r c ommo n
i
i nt erest .

I s h er h ere O b j ec ti v e or P o ssessi v e ? Th e sense w ou l d h ave b een

c l ea r a t a g l a nc e, if t h e a u t h o r h a d sa i d

in th ei r a nd h er co mmo n
i nt erest .

( at) N ou ns

t
( 1 ) Y o u r M aj es y h a s l o st a l l h o pe s o f a ny fu tu re ex c ses i by t h eir
cons u mp ti on G u a rdi a n , N o 5 2.
. .

Co nsu mpt i o n mi g h t b e ei th er A c t i v e o r Pa ssi v e

. Th e s en se
a l l h o es o f l e v i n
a ppea rs t o b e p y g a ny fu t u re e x c i ses o n w h a t t h ey
sh a l l c o nsu me Bu t t h i s is a n y th i ng b u t o b v i o u s
. .

( 2) A ma n who h a s l o s t h is e y esi g h t h a s in on e sen se l ess c o nsc i ou s

n ess .

Th e it a l ic i sed mi g h t mea n eith er in
w o rds one o r a n o f sense
g
( ey e - si g h t ) o r

in o n e respec t W h i c h is it .

()
e Verbs
I h a v e l o ng si n c e l ea rn ed t o l ik e no th i n g b ut w h at y o u do .

Sp ec ta tor, N o 6 27 . .

I s do h ere a pro v erb 1 0 3 ) t o sa v e th e repe t i t i o n

- of like, or is it
no t i o n a l v erb 8 8 , N ote) si g nify i ng erfo rm

a p

(f ) A djec tives
He ha s a c erta i n c l a im t o a sh a re in th a t pro perty .

h ere mea n o r is it merel y a n I nd eni t e

D o es c erta i n u ndou b t ed,

D emo n st ra t i v e a dj ec t i v e ( see
(g) P hra ses
i
Y o u r c h a ra c t er o f u n v ersa l g u a r a n , j o n ed t o th e c o nc ern y o u di i
o u g h t t o h a v e fo r t h e c a u se o f v rt u e a n d rel g o n , a ssu re
1
me i i i
th a t y ou w ll n o t th n t h a t c l ergy men , w h e n nj u re d, h a v e
i i k i
i
th e l ea st r g h t t o y o u r pro t ec t o n G u a rdi a n , N o 8 0 i . .

He a med a t n oth i n g l ess th a n t h e c ro w n

i

.

I w ll h a ve merc y , a nd n o t sa c ric e
i M a tt ix 1 3 . . .

i
H e w r t es a s w el l a s y ou ( Th e sense is a m g u o u s, b ec a u se a s
. bi
w el l a s ma y b e e th er C o - ord n a t v e o r S u b o rd na t v e
i i i -
i i
i
M u c h c o n v ersa t o n w a s g o ng o n a b ou t me i .

Th e c ou n sel for th e de enc e spo e b ef ore th esjudg e f k .

i
F sh c a n sc a rc el y b e g o t n o w a t a ny ra te .

I g r ev e mu c h f or h i s l oss
i .

Th ere seems t o b e n o l m t to th e sco ldi ng of th e h ou sekeep er

i i

.

28 5 A mb ig u u s C
. o on r
st u c t i n o S u c h a mbi g uiti es a rise ,

n o t fro m th e e qu ivo c a l c h a ra c t er O f a W o rd o r a ph ra se b u t fro m ,

th e ca rel ess a rra n g emen t o r ca rel ess o mi ssi o n o f w o rd s

( 1 ) S ol omo n th e so n o f D a v id w h o b u il t th e t empl e o f J eru sa l em

, , ,

w a s th e ri c h est mo n a rc h t h a t e v er rei g n ed o v er t h e I sra e l i t es .

1
O b serve th a t h ere th e g ra mma r is w ro ng .
1 86 CO M PO S I TI O N P A RT 11

Is S ol o mo n t h e a nt ec eden t t o w h o, o r i s D a vid A c c o rdi n g

t o t h e ru l e g i v e n in 24 4 t h e a n t ec eden t sh ou l d b e D a v i d, b u t th e
w ri t er me a n s S o l o mo n .

( 2) I know th a t a ll w o rds w h i ch a re s i g n s o f c o mpl ex i de s fu rni sh a

ma t ter o f mi sta k e a nd c v i l BO L I NG B R O K E
a . .

Is w h i ch h ere u sed in a R estri c t i v e o r in merel y C o n ti nu a t i v e a

s e n se i? I f th e or er, f m a l l w o rds

sh o u l d
b e c h a ng e d t o all th ose
w o rds , or th a t sh ou l d b e su b s t it u t ed f o r w h i ch ( see

( 3 ) G o d h e a peth fa v o u rs on H is s erv a n t s e v er l i b era l a nd fa i th fu l .

Do the j
a d ec t v e s i l i b era l a nd fa i thf u l re erf t o G od or t o H is
serv a n t s ? I f t o th e former ,
sa
y, G o d, e v er l i b era l a nd fi fa th u l ,

h ea pet h , et c .

(4 ) T h e ec c l esi a st i c a l a nd sec u l a r pow ers c o nc u rred in t h a t mea su re .

Th e h i g h a n d mi g h t y st a t es o f H o ll a n d a re a g a i n s t u s .

T h e sec o nd sen t en c e is qu i t e c orrec t , b ec a u se th e sa me

st a t es

a re b o t h h i g h a n d mig h ty Bu t a re w e t o u n derst a n d t h a t t h e
.

e pi t h e t s e c c l esi a st i c a l a n d s ec u l a r rel a t e t o t h e sa me po w ers o r t o

di fferen t po w ers T h e c a rel ess o mi ssi o n o f th e b e fore s ec u l a r
w o u l d c o mpel u s, if w e did n o t h a ppen t o k n o w b e tt er, t o u n derst a n d
t h e ph ra se i n t h e fo rmer se n se T h i s is a n i n sta n c e o f i mpro pri ety

.

l ea di n g t o a mi su n derst a n di ng o f th e se n se s ee 27 4

(5 ) A n d t h u s th e so n ferv en t sire a ddressed

th e .

P O P E S Ody ssey Bo o k

,
x ix .

D id t h e so n a ddress t h e ,
fa th er o r th e fa th er t h e son ?
W e prefer
t o c o nsi der so n t h e su b j ec t t o t h e v erb , b ec a u se it st a n ds rst Th e .

s e n se , h o w e v er, w o u l d h a v e b e e n mu c h c l e a rer if th e o et h a d sa i d
p
h i s ferv en t sire in st ea d o f th e ferv en t si re

.

(6 ) A t l ea st my o w n pri v a t e l et ters l ea v e room for a pol i t i c i a n,

w ell v e rsed in ma tt ers o f t h i s na t u re, t o su s pe c t a s mu c h , a s
a
p e n et ra t i n
g fri e nd o f mi n e t e ll s me
Sp ec ta tor, N O 4 3 . . .

H ere, t
ex c e f o r t h e c o mma a t er mu ch , th e a mb g u t y o f t h e f i i
p
se n t e n c e a s i t st a n ds w ou l d b e n so l u b l e i
A ll do u b t w o u l d h a v e b e en .

remo v ed, if
th e a u t h o r h a d o b serv ed t h e R u l e o f Pro x m t y g v e n in i i i
25 7 . T h e sen t en c e w o u l d t h en ru n a s o ll o w s A t l ea st my o w n f
pr v a t e l ett ers, a s a pen et ra t ng r end o f m n e t ell s me, l ea v e ro om,
i i fi i

etc .

(7) I b eseec h i n form th ese fel l o w s th t th ey h a v e n ot

y o u , sir, to ,
a

t h e s pl een b ec a u se t h ey c a n n o t t a l k w i t h u t t h e h el p o f
,
o a

g l s o r c n v t h i r m n i n g t e c h o t h r w i t h o u t t h e

i nt erpo si ti o n o f c l o u ds Sp ecta tor N O 5 3

s a o ,
e y e a o e e a

. .
,

I s b ec u se i nt en ded t o qu l ify t h e v e rb
a

b eseec h a o r t h e v erb ,

i n fo rm o r th e v erb h a v e o r th e n eg t i v e v erb h a v e n o t
,

,
a

( )
8 H e h s b y so
a m e s t r n g e ma g i c r ri v e d aa t t h e v l e of h l f a a a u a

l m b a s t h e c i ti e n s c l l a h u n dred th o u sa nd pou n ds
p u ,
z a .

Ta tl er, N o . 40 .

D o e s th i s mea n t h a t a h u ndred th o u sa n d pou nds w as de n o t ed b y a

l umb , o r b y h a l f a pl u mb
p
1 88 C O M P O S I TIO N P A RT II

x i on , t o b e f i a rt o f l ea rn i n , I ra rel
p l e
p er e c t in t h s p g y mi ng l e w i t h
t h e me n , b u t fre qu e n t t h e t e a t a b l es o f t h e l a di es -
G u a rdi a n , N o 1 0 . .

21 . A l l o rd ers n o t i ssu e d b y t h e ma n a g i ng di rec t o r mu st n o t b e

a t t e n ded t o .

22 T h e h i st ory o f N a ta l du ri n g t h e pa st y ea r h a s b ee n , e x c e pt fo r
.

a ri c u l t u ra l de re ssi o n c a u s ed b
g p y ri nderpest a n d l oc u st s, t h e h a ppy
h ist o ry o f a c o l o n y w h i c h h a s n o n e
T i mes l Veekl y , 7 t h J a n 1 8 9 8 . .

23 T o a b a rb a ro u s a nd i nh u ma n w it t h ere c a nn o t b e a g rea t er
.

a t i c a t i o n t h a n t o st i r u s o rro w i n th e h ea rt o f a i
g r p p r v a te
perso n b y
sec ret c h a rg e s, a t t h e sa me t ime t h a t h e rema i ns u n seen a n d u ndi s

c o v ered Sp ec ta tor, N o 23 . .

24 I mu st c o n fess t h a t w e l i v e i n a n a g e , w h erei n a f e w e mpty

.

b l u st erers c a rry a w a y th e pra ise o f spea k i ng , w h il e a c ro w d o f fel l o w s

o v erst o c k e d w i t h k n o w l ed e a re ru n do w n b
g y t h em I sa y o v e rst o c k ed,
b ec a u se t h ey c erta i nl y a re so a s t o t h ei r serv ic e t o ma nki n d, if from
th ei r v ery st o re t h ey ra i se t o t h emsel v es i de a s O f respe c t a nd g rea t n ess
o f th e o c c a si o n , a nd I k n o w n o t w h a t , t o di s a b l e t h emsel v es fro m

ex l a i ni n
p g t h e i r t h ou
g h t s S p ec ta to r, N o 4 8 4 . .

25 T h e G erma n M erc a nt i l e M a ri n e h a s, si nc e 1 8 7 1 , mo re t h a n
.

t reb l ed it s c a pa b i l i t i es a n d si n c e 1 8 8 0 h a s mo re th a n dou b l ed t h em .

-
D a i ly T e l eg rap h , 27 t h J a n 1 8 9 8 , p 9 . . .

26 T h e mo re fa u l ty w e c o n si de r t h e pro t ec t i v e sy st em t o w h i c h
.

G erma ny , in c o mmo n w i t h a l l t h e o t h er G rea t P o w ers o f E u ro pe

e x c ept G re a t Bri t a i n a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t es o f A meri c a , a dh ere s, t h e
mo re su rpri si ng is t h e pro g ress rec o rded D a i l y T e l egrap h , 27 t h J a n .

1 8 9 8, 8
e
.

27 . B .has i ssu ed i nv it a t i o ns fo r fu l l dress p rl i a men t ry

a -
a a

dinner ,
a n d L o rd h is c oll ea g u e h a s i ssu ed i nv i t a t i o ns fo r fu l l
,
a

dress b a n qu e t .

28 N o o n e h a s n o w a n y i dea o f h o w t h e P o w e rs w i l l de a l w i th t h e
.
,

u est i o n o f t h e e v a c u a t i o n o f T h essa l , a s i t is c ert a i n t h a t th e P o rt e

q y
w i l l no t qu i et l y a b a n do n t h e o nl y fert i l e pro v i n c e o f G reec e if t h e ,

sel ec t i o n o f P ri n c e G eo rg e o f G re ec e ( f o r t h e g o v ern o rsh i o f C re t e )

p
is fo rc ed u po n h im D a il y T e l eg ra p h , 28 t h Ja n 1 8 9 8
.
-
. .

29 I t is o u t o f t h e qu est i o n t h a t G erma n y a nd A u st ri a w i l l j o i n in
mea su re s o f fo rc e a g a i nst T u rk ey D a i l y T el eg rap h , 2nd F eb 1 8 9 8
.

. . .

3 0 H is ( H u ds o n s ) fa ll w a s l ik e t h e c ra sh o f a c l iff He w ho had

. .

b een sl a ppi ng n o b l e l o rds o n t h e b a c k a n d t h e ki ng o f h is C o mpa n y ,

w a s l e ft a w rec k o n t h e sh o re , a n d desert ed b y a l l w h o h a d b a t t en ed
o n h im F ortn i h tl
.
g y R evi ew , F eb 1 8 9 8 , p 24 7 . . .

3 1 I n v i ew o f rec e nt c h a ng es, a n d e spec i a l l y si n c e th e w a r b et w e e n

.

C h i n a a n d Ja pa n , i t seemed desi ra b l e t h a t G erma n y sh o u l d h a v e a

se a o rt t h ere f or s a fe u a rdi n h er i n t erest s Sp eech f ro m B erl i n ,
p g g
9 t h F eb 1 8 9 8 . .

3 2 T h e h o pes o f pa re nt s a re b l i g h t ed, if th ei r c h il dre n a re

.

i ndol en t a nd t h e mo n ey s pent o n t h em is w a st ed
,
.

3 3 H e is a g rea t a dmi rer o f th e a rt i st w h o pa int ed th a t pi c tu re a nd

.

l i v es i n Brompt o n .

3 4 W e h a v e j u st h ea rd t h a t t h e t w o b o y s l ea v e sc h o o l a t th e e nd o f
.

n e x t w eek , a n d h o pe t h a t th ey w i l l n o t re t u rn t o t h e s a me sc h o o l a g a i n .

3 5 G e ddes is n o w o n e o f t h e b ri g h t po i n t s o f t h e w o rl d w h i c h l i es

.

i n da rk n ess, t o w h ic h my spi ri t w i ll o ft en t u rn for l i g h t N M A CLE OD . .

C HA P . XXI S I M PL I C I TY O R E A S E O F D I CTI O N 1 89

36 Th ere is pro b a b l y n o o n e o f th i s g en era t i o n w h o b e st o w s a ny

.

th o u g h t u po n t h e pro b l ems o f h i st ory a nd pol i t i c s, w h o w ill n o t

a c k n o w l ed e hi s i ndeb t edn es s t o M r
g C a rl l e
y T i m
. es, 1 8t h N ov .
.

1 870 .

3 7 Th ey fo rg et t o c o n su l t , a n d, a s fa r a s t h ey a re n o t v i c i o u s,
.

c o n fo rm t o t h e t a st e s, feel i n g s, h a bi t s o f t h o se w h o s e h a ppi n ess th ey

m
w ou l d pro o t e , a nd t i n k o n l y
h o f t eir o
h w n W J FOX . . . .

3 8 L o rd C h el msfo rd is pu t o n his t ri a l f o r a n a ll eg ed mi sta k e in th e

.

di spo sit i o n o f tro o ps in w a r, a n d w h y n o t a pol i c e o ffi c er w h o h a s

l a c ed a ou n m a n s l ife in peri l , a n d w h o b u t f o r

u b l i c e n er y
p y g
w ou ld h a v e b e e n e x ec u t ed l
W E S TUTTE R

. .
p
.
g

3 9 S ir M o rt o n P et o spo k e o f t h e n o t i o n th a t th e n a t i o n a l deb t
mi g h t b e re pu di a t ed w i t h a b so l u t e c o n t empt Sp ec ta tor, 1 8 th N o v
.

1 85 5 .

40 . S el dom h a s th ere b een a n y grea t rev o l t o f u n ski ll e d l a b ou r

w h i c h a ttra c t ed so mu c h a tt e nt i o n t h ro u g h ou t t h e w o rl d, a nd w h i c h
w a s fou g h t o u t u nder c irc u mst a nc es o f su c h c o n st a nt peri l o f v i o l en c e ,
w h i c h w a s b ro u g h t t o a c l o s e w i t h so c l ea n a s h e et R evi ew of
R evi ew s, F eb 1 8 9 8 , p 1 27
. . .

4 1 A nt o n y w a s n o t l e ss desi ro u s o f destro yi ng th e c o nspi ra t ors

.

th a n h is o fc ers .

4 2 T h e a mou nt w h i c h w e a nnu a l l y d ev o t e t o i n c rea si ng o u r n a v y

.

is , ro u g hl y spea ki ng , i den t i c a l wi th t h a t e x pende d b y F ra n c e, R u ssi a ,

a n d G erma ny D a i l y T el eg rap h , 22n d A pri l 1 8 9 8 .

4 3 T h e po l i t ic a l dema n ds o f t h e pa rty in po w er in M a dri d h a v e

.

ma de it n ec e ssa ry fo r t h e po l i t ic a l l ife o f t h a t pa rty t o resi st in e v ery

fo rm ev ery a tt empt u po n th e pa rt o f t h e C u b a ns t o sec u re th eir
l i b ert i e s, a nd t o resi st a l l a tt empt s o f o t h er c ou ntri es t o a ssert t h em

F o rtn i gh tl y R evi ew , Ju n e 1 8 9 8 , p 85 8 . .

4 4 F resh a t t empt s sh ou l d b e ma de t o g i v e sh el ter t o a h a rb o u r b y

.

l a ying o u t n o t a f ew l a rg e, b u t a l a rg e nu mb er o f sma ll , o a t i ng
b rea k w a t ers .

G eog rap h J ou rn a l , M a y 1 8 9 8
. .

4 5 By a n a rro w maj ori t y t h e A u stra l i a n F ed e ra l C o n v en ti o n h a s

.

rev ers ed it s d ec i si o n ma ki ng it c ompu l s o ry f or t h e F edera ti o n t o t a k e

o v er t h e d eb ts o f t h e i n di v i du a l st a t es
D a i l y T el eg rap h , 3 rd M a r .

1 89 8 .

4 6 I t w a s pa rt o f t h e w ork o f A l fre d th e G rea t t o c rea t e l ittl e by

.

l i ttl e t h e l ov e o f c ou n try in pl a c e o f th e o l d l o v e o f t ri b e H e mi g h t , .

l ik e th e Ki ng o f M erc i a , h a v e ed t o R ome a nd rel i g i ou s l ife in fa c t ,

h e fou g h t th em f o r n i n e l o ng y ea rs , g ro w i n g e v ery y ea r w ea k er .

T i mes W eekl y , 25 th F eb 1 8 9 8 . .

4 7 T h e tri a l re su l t e d in t h e bi n di n g o v er o f t h e t w o b o y s w h o
.

w ere c h a rg ed w i th t h e s t ea l i n g a n d t h e a c qu i tt a l o f t h e ma n w h o w a s
c h a r ed w i t h rec e i v i n
g g
D a i l y T el eg rap h , 8 t h A u g u st 1 8 9 8 .

C H A P TE R X X L S I M P L I C I T Y O R E A S E O F D I CT I O N .

28 6 . S impli c it y desc rib e d S i mpl i c ity of di c t i o n mea n s

th e u se Of pl a i n a n d e asy w or s d in pre feren c e t o u n c o mmo n ,
f t
a f ec ed, o r di ffi c ul t on e s . Th e fo ll ow i ng d esc ri pti o n of th e
merits o f si mpli c ity is w or th q uo ti n g
1 90 C O M PO S I T I O N P A RT 11

I t is b y mea n s o f fa mi l i a r w o rds th a t sty l e t a k es h o l d o f t h e

rea de r a nd g e t s po ssessi o n o f h im I t is b y mea n s o f th e se
.

th a t g rea t t h o u g h t s g et c u rre nc y a n d pa ss f or t ru e met a l , l ik e

l d a n d si l v er w h i c h h a v e h a d a rec o n i sed s t a m
g o
g p pu t u po n
t h em Th e y b eg et c o n denc e in t h e ma n w h o , i n o rder t o
.

ma k e h is th o u g h ts mo re c l ea rl y perc ei v ed, u se s th em ; fo r
pe o pl e fe el th a t su c h a n empl o y me nt o f th e l a n g u a g e o f
c o mmo n l ife b e t o k e n s a ma n w h o k n o w s th a t l i fe a n d it s c o n

c ern s, a n d w h o k ee ps h imsel f in c o n t a c t w i t h t h em Besi des , .

t h ese w o rds ma k e a sty l e fra nk a n d ea sy T h ey sh o w t h a t a n .

a u th or h a s l o ng ma de t h e t h ou h t o r t h e feel i n e x resse d
g g p
h is me n t a l foo d th a t h e h a s so a ssimi l a ted th em a n d fa mi l i a r
i sed t h em, th a t th e mo st c ommo n e x pressi o n s su i c e h im in
o rder t o e x press i dea s w h i c h h a v e b ec ome e v e r
y da y i dea s t o
-

h im b y th e l e ng th o f t i me t h ey h a v e b e e n in h is mind A nd .

l a st l y , w h a t o n e sa y s in su c h w o rds l oo k s mo re t ru e fo r o f a l l
t h e w o rds in u se n o n e a re so c l ea r a s th o se w h i c h w e c a l l
c o mmo n w o rds, a n d c l e a rn ess i s s o emi n en tl o n e o f th e
y
c h a ra c t e ri st i c s o f t ru th , t h a t o ft en it e v e n pa sse s f o r t ru th

i t se l f J C U BE R T , qu oted i n A rn o ld s
. E ssa y s on Cri ti c i sm

.

An f
a f ec t e d l o f t i n ess tyl e i e a sty l e th e o ppo site t o
of s ,
.

i mpl e h a s b een c a ll e d eu h u i sm fro m a b o o k n a med E up h u es

s , p
by L yl y (A D
28 7 . L on g W or ds a nd P eriph r a ses .
F i ne Wr iti ng to
e x press di n a ry fa c ts is a v u l g a ri sm th e ma rk o f a n 111
or ,
-

i nf o rmed mi n d th a t see k s t o h id e its empti n ess u n d er b ig

,

w o rd s a n d ph ra ses l ik e th e d ru m in th e fa b l e t h a t g a v e a
, ,

b o o mi n g sou n d b u t w a s fou nd o n i n spe c t i on to b e h o ll o w

,

w it h i n . N o th i n g is g a i n ed by sa yi n g i n a l l hu ma n p ro b a b il i ty

fo r m ost l ik el y o r most prob a b l y ; lu n a r e u lg en c e fo r

mo o n l i gh t ; the ten der p a ssi on o r the a morou s a ec ti on fo r

l o v e ; p ha rma c eu ti ca l chemist fo r
a po th ec a ry

ca u da l

a
pp en da e f o r
g t a i l t h e n

a sa l o r g a n f o r n o se ski lf u l a g ri

o o d fa rme r o o d h u sb a n d ma n a rta ke of

c u l tu rist fo r or
g g p

lu n c h fo r ta k e l u n c h o r l u n c h (v erb) ; i n eb ria te o r dip so

ma ni a c fo r d ru n k a rd ; mi n a tory exp ressi on s for t h rea ts ;

ru mi n a ti n g fo r

c h ew i n si t e

t h e cu d l oc a ti on fo r ; t on
g

sori u l a rtist fo r b a rb er o r h a i r c u t ter ; exp ressi on for -

a du mb ra te fo r

w o rd fo resh ad o w

to don a te fo r to pre
sen t

or
g i ve c u li n a ry dep a rtmen t fo r

k i t c h en m a tern a l

mo th er th e l ow er ex tremi ti es fo r l eg s o r feet

rela ti ve f o r

t b l es fo r
d r i n k b l r n f r

ec re ts eda g og u e f o r
p o a a e s a c a a o s p
t ea c h er i mp ec ca b l e fo r fau l tl ess

g er m
a n e fo r r el e v a n t

a l l i ed fru i tl ess b a rren o f resu l ts

or i nf ru c tu o u s fo r ,

a p o log u e fo r fa b l e ; the sa cred edic e fo r th e c h u rch ; the

1 92 CO M P O S I T IO N PA RT 11

c ou rse of t o u r to th e H eb rid es e x pressed h i msel f a s fol l o w s

h is ,

i n a l e t t e r t o a fri en d .

VVh e n w e w ere t a k e n u psta i rs a di rty fel l o w b o u nc e d o u t o f t h e

,

b ed o n w h i c h o n e o f u w a s t o l ie s .

Bu t i n th e J o u rn a l th a t h e prepa red fo r th e press th e

,

sa me i n c id en t is di sh ed u p f o r th e
pu b l i c in th e po mpo u s t e rms
u o t e d b el o w
q
O u t o f o n e o f th e c o u c h es o n w h i c h w e w ere t o re po se th ere sta rt ed
u
p t o u r e ntra n c e
a ma n a s b l a c k a s a C y c l o ps fro m th e fo rg e
a .

T h e sa me w rit er w h en a sk ed fo r his O pi n i o n o n t h e co medy

,

c a l l ed th e R eh ea rsa l sa id w it h o u t a n y rest ra i n t o r remedit a

, p
ti o n
I t h a s n o t w it e n o u g h t o k eep it sw eet .

Th en c orrec t i n g h i msel f h e a dd ed in mo re fo rma l b u t l ess

, , ,

e ffe c ti v e t e rms
,

I t h a s n o t v i t a l i ty e n ou g h t o pre serv e it fro m pu tre fa c t io n .

29 0 S impl ic it y ma rr e d b y a c l a sh of n eg a t iv es
. .

W h en tw o o r mo re n eg a t ives c o me t og e th e r in th e sa me sen
t en c e w e c a n n o t ea si l y ca tc h th e i r c o mbi n ed e ffe c t
,
N o men .

a re i mmo rt a l is n o t so ea si l y g rasped a s i ts mo re si mpl e

e qu iva l en t

A l l men a re mo rt a l 1
.

( 1 ) Th e re c a n b e n o do u b t th a t n oth i ng w ill b e do n e
W ri te I t is c ert i n th a t no th i ng w i l l b e do ne
.

a .

( 2) I dou b t w h eth er th e re v erse b e n o t th e c a se .

W ri te I sc a rc el y th i nk so o r I dou b t it ,
.

( 3 ) If w e c a n n o t rec ll a t pl e a su re a si ng l e i dea w e a re n ot l ess

a ,

u na b l e t o rec a ll a w h o l e t ra i n o f i dea s

W ri t e
.

If w e c a nn o t rec a ll a s i ng l e i dea w e a re equ a l l y o r mo re ,

a t a l oss t o rec a ll a w h o l e t ra i n o f i dea s .

( 4 ) Th e l o ss o f b l o od d estroy s streng th .

Th i s is l ess e a si l y ta k en in b y t h e mi nd th a n t h e more po si t i v e
fo rm Bl o o d is t h e so u rc e o f streng th .

( )
5 D o n o t d o t o o th ers w h a t y o u w ou l d n o t w i sh th em t o do t o
y ou .

Co N F U C I u s .

Th i s is l e ss di rec t th a n , Do u nt o o th ers a s y ou w o u l d b e do n e b y .

29 1 S impl ic it y s met imes u nsu i a

. o t b l e A si mpl e a nd
di rec t sta temen t is so meti mes a v o id ed fo r th e sa k e o f eu ph e m
ism

. T hu s C i c ero to a v o id sa yi ng th a t M i l o s serva n ts ki l l ed
,

C l odius e mpl o ys th e fo ll o w i n g pe ri ph ra si s
,

Th ey did th a t w h i c h e v ery m ster w o u l d h a v e w i sh ed h is ser a

v a nts t o do in su c h a n e merg enc y P ro M i l on e . .

Cmnp osi tion , P a rt I p 25 6

1
Ba in s R h etori c a nd . . .
C HA P . XX I S I M PL I CI TY O R EA SE O F D I CT I O N 1 93

S o me ti mes a
p er i ph rasis is u se d in preferen c e t o a sin g l e
w or d b e c a u se it su i ts t h e a rg umen t
,
o r su st a i n s th e g ra vi t y o f th e

su bj ec t b et t er t h a n a si n l e w o rd o r a sh o rt sen t en c e c o u l d do
g
( 1 ) S h a l l n ot th e j u dg e o f a ll th e ea rth do ri g h t

H ere t h e j u dg e o f a l l th e ea rth is a c irc u ml o c u t i o n f o r G o d ;

a nd t h e c o n t ex t is w ell serv ed b u si n g it
y .

( 2) Th e v ery so u rc e a n d fo u n t o f d y a

I s da sh ed w i th w nderi ng i sl es o f n i g h t TE NNY S O N a . .

A ro u n da b ou t b u t impressi v e w a y o f sa yi ng th a t e v en th e su n
, ,

h a s spo t s .

S imp lif y the f o ll ow ing sen ten c es . If n o si mp li ci ty i s requ i red

in a n y ca se,
give y ou r rea son
1 H e b rea th ed h is l a st in i ndi g en t c i rc u mst a nc es
. .

2 A t t en P M th e fa t a l n o o se w a s a dj u st ed t o t h e c ri mi na l s

. . .

n e c k , a n d h e w a s l a u nc h ed i n t o et ern i t y .

3 A v a st c o nc o u rse o f peo pl e c o ll ec t ed t o w i t n ess th e ev en t

. .

4 Vo t es w ere t a k e n b y memb ers ex h i b i t i ng th e ir h a n ds a b o v e

.

th e h ea ds o f di ssen t i ent s .

5 T h e ri der w a s prec ipit a t ed from h is h orse, b u t h e met w i th n o

.

ser ou si i nj u ry .

Y ou r mea n ng o es n o t c o me w th n my c ompreh e n s o n
6 . i d i i i .

7 T h ey c a ll ed nt o mmed a t e requ s t o n t h e serv c es o f th e

. i i i iii i
h s c a n w h o w a s a c c u st o med t o a t t en d t h e a m l
yi i f i
p y .

8 a m u nder t h e m ress o n ,
I sa d M r M c a w b er, t h at o u r i i i i
.
p y .

i i
pereg r na t o ns in th s metro pol s h a v e n o t a s y e t b een e x t en s v e , a n d i i i
t h a t y o u m g h t h a v e so me dii c u l ty in pen e tra t n g t h e a rc a na o f t h e
i i
M o dern Ba b y l o n in t h e d rec t o n o f t h e C ty R o a d, in sh o rt , sa d i i i -
i
t h a t y ou m g h t l o se

i
M r M c a w b er, in a n o t h er u rst o f c o nden c e , b i

.

y o u r s el f
I sh a l l b e h a ppy t o c a l l t h s ev en ng , a n d nst a l l y ou in i i i
K N
.

k
t h e n o w l edg e o f t h e n ea rest w a y DIC E S . .

9 Th e c o n t est o f b o a t s t erm n a t ed in a v c t o ry t o o u r c rew

. i i .

1 0 I en o . a
p ost
p j y
ra n d a l n a p in a c h a r ma de f o r e a se o f -
i i
postu re .

11 A n u nw se ma n ,
. h e is possesse o f mea n s ,
i so o n
p a rt s if d
c o mpa n i
y w t h t h em .

1 2 C l ou ds o f pa ss o n w h c h m g h o b u sc a t e th e i
n t el l ec t s o f i i t f i
mea ner ema l es S C O T
.

f . T .

3 S h e w a s r pp ng it o n th e lig h t a nt a st c t o e mo st o f l a st
ti i f i
1
.

n ig 1 t .

1 4 Th e a c tu a l c o st o f th e a rra es a t A ssou a n a n d A ssirt ( i n b

g

.

E g y pt ) w ll b e i
D a i ly T el eg rap h , 24 t h F eb 1 89 8 . .

1 5 S a ra h Bernh a rdt is rec u pera t ng ro m th e o pe ra t o n sh e u n der i f i

a o I b i d 25 t h F eb
.

w ent a w e e g k
1 89 8 . . . .

1 6 N a t u re se eme t o remb l e u nder th e erc e ra y s o f t h e mea n d t

.

de sc ent l u m n a ry M a ri a m, p 2 i . . .

1 7 D u r ng t h e mo nt h t h e h eb doma da l g u re s o f t h e a t a l t es
. i f ii
i y i
d rec t l du e t o th s u n o u b ed sc o u rg e ( n u en z a ) h a v e b e en 4 3 , t h en d t i
f
4 0 , o ll o w e 7 3 , a nd n ow 8 8 d by
D a i l y T el eg rap h , 2nd F eb 1 8 9 8 .
. .

E G C
. . . 0
1 94 CO M PO S I TI O N P A RT II

18 . W hat I
i t o do w a s t o fa c il ita te th e g ra n ti ng o f
w as ro
p p os n g
mu n i c i pa l i ti es t o c ommu n i ties t h t a re deserv i ng o f t h a t h o n u r a o .

Bu t it is n o w a y g erma n e t o su c h proc eedi n g s t h t I sh ou l d st rik e a

o ff t h t C ou n ty C ou n c i l w h i c h w a s t h e o b j ec t o f l e i sl a t i o n t en
a
g y e rs a

a o L O R D S A L I S BURY 3 rd F e b 1 89 8
g .
, . .

1 9 M r h eel er i n tro du c ed a n o l d fri e n d a n d b rou g h t u p th e

l

a o l o u e o f th e b o dy a nd i t s memb ers L O R D S A L I S BURY 3 rd F e b

. .
,

p g , .

1 898 .

20 Th i s h a ppy c o n su mma t i o n w a s a du mb ra ted l a st n ig h t a t a

.

s oc i a l a t h eri n o f t h e L o nd o n S i ri t u a l i st A ll i a n c e D a i l y T el e
g g p
grap h , 8 t h F eb 1 8 9 8 . .

21 H e h a s v a n i sh ed w i th th e o rder o f t h i n g s in w h i c h h e e x i st ed
h is l a mp c a n n o t b e rel u med
.

F ortn i gh tl y R evi ew , F eb 1 8 9 8 , p 25 9 . . . .

22 Th e ra i l w a y o fc i a l s did n o t l ik e t o t u rn th e st a t i o n i nt o a n
.

a b a tt o i r D a i l y T el eg ra p h , 8 th F e b 1 8 9 8
.
-
. .

23 W e l ea rn w i t h ou t immo dera t e su rpri se t h a t t h ere is rea so n t o

.

a p reh e n d t h e b rea k do w n o f t h e n e o ti a t i o n s f o r a C h i n es e l oa n
p g .

T i mes W eek l y , 1 l t h F eb 1 8 9 8 . .

24 Th e s a rt o ri a l a rt is qu i t e a s difc u l t a s t h e c u l i na ry
. .

25 E x peri enc ed memb ers o f t h e fea th ered tri b e a re n o t e ntra ppe d

.

w i th h u sk s o f c o rn .

26 I n Qu e e n sl a nd th e L a b ou r pa rt y h a s a n ta g o n i sed e v e n t h e
mo re a dv a nc ed port i ons o f th e c ommu n ity R evi ew of R evi ew s, J a n
.

1 8 9 8, p 8 6 . .

27 T h e b a ll o t b ox is n o l o ng er t h e pa n a c ea w h c h it a ppe a red in i

-
.

th e ey es o f t h e mu l t t u e o nl y t w enty ea rs a g o i d
R evi ew of R evi ew s, y .

Ja n 1 8 9 8 , p 6
. . .

28 Th s is n o t a t me fo r t w ddl ng ou r t h u m s o v e r th e b a n a l t es
i i i i b ii
o f w o rn o u t a c t o ns R evi ew of R evi e w s, Ja n 1 8 9 8 , p 7
.

-
f i . . .

i
29 H a v ng l a t el y c o n v erse d mu c h w t h t h e a r se x o n th e su j ec t
. i fi b
i
o f y o u r spec u l a t o n s ( w h c h s nc e th e r a ppea ra n c e in pu b l c h a v e i i i i
i f i
b een th e c h e e x erc se o f t h e ema l e l o qu a c ou s a c u l ty ), I o u nd th e f i f f
fi
a r o n es o sses sed w th a d ssa t s a c t o n a t ou r r x in G i
r i if i k

p y p e g ee

mo tt o es t o t h e ro nt sp ec e o f ou r l a t e pa pers f i i
S T E E L E , Sp ecta tor, y .

N o 29 6
. .

3 0 A ll th e il l o c es a nd de a ma t o ry w h spers, w h c h t a e t h e r
. f f i i k i
bi rth f
ro m do me st c s , w o u l d b e pre v en t e d, i
t h s c h a r ty c o u l d b e if i i
i
ma de u n v ersa l : it w ou l d c rea t e e n dea r ng depen de n c es ; a n d t h e i i
bi i
o l g a t o n w o u l d h a v e a pa t ern a l a ir in t h e ma st er, w h o w o u l d b e

rel i e v ed ro m mu c h c a re a n d a n x ety ro m t h e g ra t t u de a n d d l g e n c e
f i f i ii
o f a n h u mb l e r end a tt en d n
g h im a s h is serv a n t
fi S E E L E , Sp ec ta tor, i .
T
N o 29 4
. .

i
3 1 H is nc e ssa nt v g l a n c e f or th e pro mo t o n o f p ety d spo sed him
. i i i i i
i i
t o l o ok w t h d stru st u po n a ll met a ph y s c a l sy st ems o f t h eo l o gy a n d a l l i
i
sc h emes o f v rt u e a n d h a pp n ess pu re l y ra t o n a l a n d t h ere o re it w a s i i f
f
n o t l o ng b e o re h e w a s persu a ded t h a t t h e pos t o n s o f P o pe , a s t h ey ii
i
t erm n a t ed fo r t h e mo st pa rt in n a tu ra l re l g o n , w ere in t e n ded t o i i
ki
dra w ma n nd a w a y ro m re v el a tio n , a nd t o represe n t t h e w h o l e f
c o u rse of t h i ng s a s a n ec e ssa ry c o n c a t e n a t o n o f i n dis sol u b l e i
f a t a l it
y a n d it is u n de n a b l e t h a t in ma n y pa ssa g es a rel g o u s ey e i i i
ma y ea s l y d sc o v er e x press o n s n o t v er a v ou ra l e t o mo ra l s o r t o
i i i yf b
ib
l ert y
JO H N S O N S L if e qf P op e
. .
196 C O M PO S I T I O N PA RT II

I t o o pro u d to b e v a n S W I
a m FT i
A g r e t o o de ep fo r t ea rs S E
.

i f H LL Y
E
TE NNY S O N
.

i f i
R n g o u t th e e u d o f r c h a n d po or . .

( Th e sh o rt ph r se th e fe u d o f ri c h a n d po o r c o v ers th e gro u nd o f
a

t w o o f th e g re a t so c i a l qu est i ns o f t h e d y th e c o n i c t s o f l a b o u r
o a

a n d c a pi ta l t h e j ea l ou si es o f c l a ss fe el i ng )
,
-
.

29 4 . II . G ra mma t ic a l D evic es I n th e ex a mpl es g iv en

b el ow th e w o rd s en c l osed in b ra c k e ts sh o w th e
, l o n g e r fo rm, in
w h i c h th e sen t en c e ma y b e su p o sed t o h a v e b ee n resse d
p ex
p
pri o r t o c o n d en sa ti o n
( 1 ) U si n g A bstra c t n ou n s fo r cl au ses
T h e b ol dn ess o f G a ma s ma nn er G a ma s ma nn er w a s so b o ld th a t

:

it ) a l a rmed t h e Ki n g o f Ca l i c u t , a nd ma de h im su b mi t t o th e
P o rt u g u ese dema nds .

M r Ca sa u b o n s w o rds h a d b een qu i t e rea so n a b l e ; y e t th ey h a d

.

g i v en h er a v a g u e , i nst a nt a n eo u s sen se o f a l oof n ess o n h is pa rt

( th a t his th o u g h ts a n d pu rsu i ts w ere n o t in sy mpa th y w i th
:

h er o w n ) G E O RG E E L I O T . .

( )
2 C o n d en si ng tw o sen en c es t i n to one by mean s of a
ppos i
ti o n
Va sc o da G a ma , t h e c el eb ra t ed P o rt u g u ese a dmi ra l ( = w a s a
c el eb ra t ed P o rt u g u e se a dmira l , a n d) w a s t h e rst t o ro u n d th e
Ca pe o f G o o d H o pe
H e pu t a ll h is pri so n ers t o dea th a c ru el a nd b a rb a ro u s a c t
.

( w h ic h w a s a c ru el ,
:

( 3 ) C o n d e ns i n g t w o C O -
or di n a t e t
sen en c es i n to one by i
us n
g
a
pa rt c i i pl e or by o mitti n g on e of th e v erb s
Caesa r, h a v i n g n o w c o mpl e te d th e c o n qu e s t o f G a u l , det ermi n e d
( h a d n o w c o mpl et ed t h e c o n qu est o f G a u l , a n d so h e de
:

i n v a de Bri ta i n
t e rmin ed) t o .

H a nn i b a l l ed h is fo rc es o v er th e A l ps i n to th e pl a i n s ( = a nd
e n t e red t h e pl a i n s) o f I t a l y .

( )
4 Pl a c i n g a n o u n b e fo re a n o t h e r n ou n o r b e fo re an a d ec
j
t i v e t o a v o id a pe ri ph ra si s
,

E y e serv i c e ( se rv i c e do n e w h en th ere is s me o n e t see

- : o o it, b u t
n o t o th e rw is e ) .

Pe n n y -
i
w se a n d po u n d-
o o l sh f i = i
sa v n g a sl ig h t e x pe n se, to i nc ur

a mu c h h e a v i er o n e in th e l o ng ru n ).

H a t b o x ( a b o x fo r c a rry i n g
-
a h a t) .

(5 ) U si ng
dj ec ti v e to ex press w h a t w o u l d o th erw i se h ave
an a

to b e e x pressed by a ph ra se o r c l a us e
Co l o ni l O fc e ( th e o fc e in w h i c h th e ff i rs f th e C o l o n i es a re
a a a o

dmin i s t ered)
a .

Th e L ib era l p l i y ( th e po l i c y o f th e L i b era l p rty )

o c a .

P h y si c a l sc i e nc e ( t h e s i e n c e th t t rea t s o f ph y si c )
c a s .
C H A P XX I I
. BRE VI T Y O R TE RS E N E S S O F D I CTI O N

1 97

Th e i denc e o f l a ng u a g e is irrefra g a b l e
ev so c o n c l u si v e t h a t

n o th i n g c a n sh a k e it ) M A X M ULL E R . .

S u b st it u ti n i i l f S b di t e c l a u se
( 6 ) g a p a rt c p e o r a u o r n a

P u rsu ed ( = b ec a u se h e w a s pu rsu ed) o n ll si des h e w a s fo rc ed t o a ,

su rre n der a t l a st
P O P E
.

Slow i
r ses w o rt h by pov erty depressed .

it i s depressed b y po v erty )
( W h en .

Th e sh eph erd, h a v i ng c o u nt ed ( = a ft er h e h a d c o u n t ed ) th e sh e ep,

l eft t h e el d .

7
( ) S t a ti n
g a fa c t by i mpl i ca ti o n ,
instea d of s a t ti n g it
e x pli c it l y a n d a t ful l l en g th

Th e sprea d o f E n g l a n d s po w er t o n e w c o n ti n en t s is l a rg el y du e

to
th e a dv e n t urou s spi ri t o f h er peo pl e .

T h i s is sh o rt er th a n sa yi n g
Th e peo pl e o f E n g l a n d a re o f a n a dv e n tu ro u s spi ri t , a n d t h i s is
o n e o f th e c h i e f c a u ses th a t h a v e l ed t o t h e sprea d o f h er

p o w er to n ew c o n t n e nt si .

( 8 ) G iving a n ou n th e fo rm of a
p a rt ci i pl e to av o id us n i g a

ph ra se

L a nd ed a ri st oc ra c y ( o w ni ng l a rg e est a t es o f l a n d) .

A g ift ed ma n ( a ma n o f u n u su a l g ift s o r a b i l i t y ) .

A stro ng mi n ded w oma n ( a w o ma n o f u nu su a l c o u ra g e )

-
.

A o n e ey ed h orse ( a h orse w i th o nl y o n e e y e )
-
.

F mi C o m o u n d w o rd s (see fu rth er d et a i l s in C h a p
( )
9 o r n g p .

xx iv )
.

G eo gra ph y i s a mi nd ex pa ndi ng su bj ec t ( = a su bj e c t th a t
- ex
pa nds
t h e mi n d) .

R ed h o t ( : so h o t a s t o b ec ome red in c o l ou r)
-
.

( )
1 0 Th e use o f re x es a n d su fx es :
p
H is c o nd u c t w a s u h ma n l y - - : u n w o rth
y of a ma n ) .

H is c o n du c t w a s w oma n ish -
w o rth y of a w o ma n b u t ,
n o t w o rth y
of a ma n ) .

H e is du ll a rd ( more th a n u su a l l y du ll )
a -
.

A n e x j u dg e ( a ma n w h o w a s o n c e a j u dg e )
-
.

A n e xa min ee ( a perso n u nderg o i n g e x a mi n a ti o n )

-
.

A b sen t e e ism ( t h e h a b i t o f n o t l i v i n g o n o n e s e sta t e )

-
.

Ch ri st e n dom ( th e a g g reg a t e o f n a t i o n s pro fessi ng th e Ch ri st i a n

-

fa ith )
Criti c a st er ( a n u nw orth y a nd i nc ompet en t c ri ti c ) S W I N BU RN E
.

-
. .

G ri e v a nc e mo n g er ( o n e w h o ma k es a h a b i t o f c o mpl a i n i n g a b ou t
-

me g ri ev a nc e)
so .

To b ea u t i fy ( t o ma k e b ea u t ifu l ) To da rk eu ( to ma k e d a rk )
-
.
-
.

29 5 O ffen c es a g a in st Br evit y Th e fo u r c h i e f O ffen c es

. .

a g a in st b revi ty a re t au t o l og y ( 2) pl eo n asm o r redu n d a n c y , ,

( )
3 v e rb os ity a n d ( ) proli x i t y
4

, .

( l ) T a u t o l o g y T h i s c o ns ists in e mpl o y in g
. su eru o u s
p
1 98 CO M P O S I T I O N P A RT 11

sa me
d g ra mma ti c a l ti I n th e fo ll o w i n g
w or s in th e rel a on
1
.

ex a mpl es th e su
pe ru ou s w o r s a re d th ose en c l o sed in b ra c k e ts

I n th e A tti c c o mmo nw e a l th it w a s th e pri v i l eg e ( a nd bi rth ri g h t )

o f ev ery c i t i z en ( a nd ) i l l d d b i
p oe t t o ra ( a o u a n ) i n pu l c .

S W I FT .

I nteg ri ty h a th ma ny a d v a n ta g es o v er dissimu l a t i o n ( a n d dec ei t )

it is mu c h th e ( pl a i n er a n d) e a si er, mu c h t h e sa fer ( a n d
more sec u re ) w a y o f dea l i ng in t h e w orl d ; it h a s l ess o f
trou b l e ( a nd di f c u l ty ), o f e nt a ng l emen t ( a nd perpl e x i ty ), o f
d a ng er ( a n d h a z a rd) in it it is th e sh ort est ( a nd n ea rest ) w a y
t o o u r end ( c a rry i ng u s th i th er in a stra i g h t l i n e), a n d w i l l
h o l d o u t ( a n d l a st ) l o n g est T I L L O T S O N

. .

N ote Ca ses ma y a ri se , h o w e v er, in w h i c h t a u t ol og y is u se fu l

. I ts .

u se fu l n es s a s a n a id t o i m p ressi ven ess h a s b ee n sh o w n a l re a dy in

25 2 .I t ma y a l so b e a n a id t o p ersp i cu i ty , w h e n th e fu ll mea n i ng
c a n n o t b e e x pressed b a si n l e w o rd, a s i n t h e th re e fo ll o w i ng
y g
ex a mpl es

( 1 ) Th e tri b es a nd ca stes o f I ndi a

SHE R R IN G
. .

N ei th er ofi ta l ic i sed w o rds ex presses a ll th a t is w a nt ed ; for

th e
t h ere a re t rib es w h i c h a re n o t st ri c t l y c a st es a n d c st es w h i c h a re ,
a

n o t s t ri c t l y t rib es Th e t w o w ords a re no t qu i t e sy n o ny mou s

. I t is .

t h ere fo re n ec essa ry t o me n t i o n b o th .

( 2) O h h a ppi n ess o u r b ei ng s en d a nd a i m

G ood p l e su re ea se con ten t w h a t e er th y n

a, ,
a,
m e PO P E ,

.

D i ffere nt sh a d e s o f mea ni ng a re ex pressed in en d n d a i m ; a l so a

i n g ood, p l ea su re, ea se, con ten t .

( 3 ) A s sc enc e ma es prog ress in

i k an
y su b ect-
j ma tter po etry rec e d es
rom it N E W
,

f A . M N .

Th e w o rd su b ect j is u sed in su c h a v a ri et y o f se n ses th a t th e w o rd

ma tter h a s b een
k ed o n ta c t o it t o prev en t w h a t in c erta i n c o n nec ti o ns
w o u l d b e a n a mb i g u i ty

( )
2 R e d u n d a n c y o r P l e on a sm T h i s c o n s i st s in e m p l o yi n
g .

su peru ou s w o rd s th a t a re n o t in th e sa me g ra mma t i ca l rel a ti o n .

W h erev er it is possib l e th e su peru ou s w o rd s in th e fo ll o w i ng

,

e x a m l es a re sh o w n in b ra c k e ts
p
H e h a d th e ( ent i re) mo no pol y o f th e w h ol e tra de .

H e ( v ol u n ta ri l y ) offered t o st a n d sec u ri ty .

I mu st dec l i n e ( t o a c c e pt ) y ou r o ffer .

Th e j u dg e o rdere d th a t th e pro perty b e rest ored ( a g a i n ) t o its

ri g h t fu l o w n ers .

H e h a s m de a ( n ew ) di sc ov ery
a .

C h a rl es V o f S pa i n a nd Fra n c i s I o f Fra n c e ( mu tu a l l y ) en c ou ra g ed
. .

e c h o th er t o e x t i r a t e th e h eret i c s

a
p .

I w ent h o me fu ll o f ( a g rea t ma ny ) seri ou s ree t c i o n s G u a rdi a n ,

N o 34 . .

1
T his de nit ion T a u to l o g y h a s b e en a do pte d ro m Ba in s R h etoric
of f

a nd Co mp osition , a nd so me o f th e e x a mpl es u n der th is h ea d h a ve b een

f
s el e c t ed ro m th e sa me so u rc e .
2200 CO M PO S I TI O N PA RT II

d
t o th e st a l e , sa dl e h is h orse ,
ro u n b d d mo u n t ed ,
an d, a fter
i i
g v ng a few d rec t o ns t o th e c o o , ro de i i k o ff i nt o th e t o w n .

i
A prol x w a y o f sa y n g i
O n h ea rin g t h i s n ew s he ro de o ff a t o nc e i nt o th e t o w n .

( 2) L a st y ea r a pa per w a s b ro u g h t h ere from E ng l a n d c a l l ed a

di a l o g u e b et w ee n t h e A rc h b i sh o p o f C a n t erb u ry a nd M r .

H i g g in s, w h i c h w e o rdered t o b e b u rn t b y th e c o mmo n h a n g
ma n , a s it w el l deserv ed, t h ou g h w e h a v e n o mo re t o do w i t h
H is G ra c e o f C a n t erb u ry th a n y ou h a v e w i t h th e A rc h b i sh o p o f
D u b l i n , w h om y o u t a mel y su ffer t o b e a b u sed o pen l y a nd b y
n a me b y th a t pa l tr sc o u ndrel o f a n o b serv a t o r ; a n d l a t el
y y
u o n a n a ffa i r w h ere i n h e h a d n o c o n c ern , I me a n th e b u si n ess
p
o f th e mi ssi o n a r o f D ro g h eda , w h erei n o u r ex c ell en t
y prel a t e
w a s en g a g ed a n d did n o t h i ng b u t a c c o rdi ng t o l a w a nd
di sc re ti o n S W I F T .

W hat c an w e ma k e o f su c h a sent enc e a s th s 2 A i nu mb er o f

pa l try
det a i l s stru n g t o g eth er in an
y o rder w t h o u t a ni
y po i n t o r pu rpose .

29 6 S h ort S en t en c e b et w een t w o L o ng O n es I t is o ften

.

e x pe di en t t o w ed e a sh o rt a n d i th y en t en c e in b etw een t w o
g p s

l o ng o n es, es ec a l l
p i y if th ese a re in an ti th esi s to ea ch o th er . In
su c h a c ase ittl e w o rd b u t is
th e l h a rd l y su f c i en t to e x press
th e
t ransiti o n from on e b u l ky sen t en c e to an o th er
W i th ou t fo rc e or o ppo si t i o n c h i v l ry su b du ed th e erc eness o f ,
a

p r i de n d p oa w e r ; i t o b l i g e d so v ere i g n s t o su b mi t t o t h e s o ft
c o ll a r o f soc i a l est e em c om e l l ed st ern a u t h ori ty t o s u bmi t t o
p ,

el eg a n c e a nd a v e a domi n a t i ng v a n qu i sh er o f l a w s t o b e
g ,

su b du e d b m a nn ers B u t n ow a l l th i s i s to b e ch a n g ed A ll
y . .

t h e pl ea si ng i ll u si o n s w h i c h ma de po w er g e n tl e a n d o b edi e nc e
l i b era l w h ic h h a rmo n i sed th e different sh a des o f l ife a nd
, ,

w h i c h b y a bl nd a s si mi l t i o n i n c o rpo r t ed i n t o po l i ti c s t h e
a a a

senti men t s t h a t b e u t ify nd so ft e n pri v t e so c i ety a re t d b e

a a a ,

di sso l v ed b y t h i s n ew c o n qu eri ng empi re o f l i g h t a n d re so n a .

A l l th e decen t drap ery of lif e i s to b e ru del y torn of A l l th e .

su pera nn u a t ed de a s u rn sh ed ro m t h e w a rdro b e o f a mo ra l
i f i f
ima g n a t o n , w h ic h t h e h ea rt o w n s a nd th e u n derst a nd n g
i i i
i
ra t es, a s n ec essa ry t o c o v e r t h e de ec t s o f o u r n a ed sh v e r n g f k i i
n a t u re a nd t o ra s e it t o d g n t y in o u r o w n est ma t o n , a re t o
i i i i i
i i
b e ex pl o ded a s a r d c u l ou s, a b su rd, a nd a nt qu a t ed a sh o n i f i .

BURK E .

29 7 O v er b r evit y
.
-I l a b ou r to b e b ri ef, sa id H o ra c e,
.

a n d b e c o me o b sc u re Perspi c u i ty sh o u l d b e th e rst c o n

.

sid e ra ti o n , a n d t h i s mu st n o t b e sa c ri ced t o b re v i t y

L a dy E l l esmere W i th ou t t ra n sl a t i n g g en t l eme n mu st n o t t a lk
.
,

Lat ,
in n or s i n mok e
t h e pre se n c e o f l a d es
,
n o r sw e a r, i .

E l l esmere S h e th n s n o w sh e h a s b e en v ery ep g ra mma t c

. i k Th e i i .

me n ma y sw ea r, t h ey t ra n sl a t e it ? Th e c ommo n est o rm
if f
o f mu ddl e me n t in sen t e nc es is o c c a s o n ed b y t h e e n de a v o u r i
to b e b r e Y o u a ppl y t w o or th ree n om na t v es t o o n e v erb ,
i f . i i
C HA P . x x rr BR E V I T Y O R TE RS E N E S S O F D I CTI O N 20 1

or b
tw o o r th re e v er s t o o n e n om n a t v e , w h c h do n o t a g ree i i i
t o g eth er, ou l oo if k
a t t h em se a ra t el W h a t sh e did mea n
y p y
w a s, th a t i n th e prese nc e o f l a d es men mu st n o t smo e w th
.

i k i
ou t erm ss o n , mu st n o t sw ea r a t a ll , a nd mu st n o t
i i u ote
q
p
i i
L a t n w th o u t tra n sl a t n g it i
H E L P S S R ea l ma h

.
.

29 8 C o n den sa t io n I n c o n d en si n g a sen t en c e, t a k e ca re
.

t h a t th e sh o rten ed sen t en c e ex presses prec i sel y th e sa me po i n t

as t h e o ri i n a l
g
I h a v e b e en to ld th a t , if a ma n th a t w a s b o rn b l i nd c ou l d ob t a i n t o
h a v e his si g h t f o r b u t o n l y o n e h o u r, du ri n g h is w h o l e l ife, a n d
sh o u l d, a t t h e rst o en i n g o f h is ey es , x h is si g h t u po n t h e
p
su n w h en it w a s i n it s fu l l l o r e i t h e r a t t h e ri si n g o r sett i n
g y , g
o f it , h e w ou l d b e so t ra n s po rt ed a nd a ma z ed, a n d so a dmi re

t h e g l ory o f it , t h a t h e w ou l d n o t w i ll i n g l y t u rn h is ey es from
th a t rst ra v i sh i n g o bj e c t , t o b eh o l d a l l th e o th er v a ri o u s
b ea u ti es th i s w orl d c ou ld present t o h im IZ A A C W A L T O N
1
.
.

Th i s h a s b een a b ridg ed a s foll o w s

I t is sa i d th a t if a ma n b o rn bl i nd c o u ld o b t a i n h is si g h t fo r b u t
,

o n e h ou r th e g l o r
y o f th e su n set o r th e su nri se sh o u l d h e
, ,

h a ppe n t o b eh o l d it w ou l d e ntra nc e h im b ey o n d a ll th e o th er
,

b ea u t i es o f th e w orl d .

T h is ab ridg men t h o w ev er appears to mi ss th e po i n t

, ,
It .

i mpl i es th a t a fter c o mpa rin g th e gl o ry o f th e su nse t o r th e sun

,

ri se w i th th e o th e r b ea u tiful o bj ec ts o f th e w o rl d h e w o u l d b e ,

mo re en t ran c ed by th e su ns et o r su n ri se th an by a n yth i ng el se
w h ere as I z a a c W a l t on s mea n i n m o b e t h a t h e w ou l d n o t

g see s t
ta k e th e trou b l e ev en t o l o o k a t a n y th i n g el se W e sh ou l d .

th ere fo re c on d en se th e pa ssa g e in th e foll ow in g w a y

I h a v e b een t ol d th a t if a ma n b orn b l i n d c ou l d o b t a i n h is si g h t
,

fo r b u t o n e h o u r, a n d sh ou l d h a ppen t o x h is rst g a z e
u o n t h e ri si n r t h t t i n n h w l d b s t ra n s o rt ed
p g o e se g su ,
e o u e o p
b y t h e b ri ll i a n c y o f t h a t o n e spec t a c l e , th a t h e w ou l d h a v e n o
c u ri o si t t o see a n o f t h e t h er b e u t i es t h t t h i s w o rl d c o u l d
y y o a a

presen t t o h im .

E xercises .

E li min a te a ny sup erf l u ou s w ords tha t y ou ma y n d i n the

I .

f ow i ng if y ou f in d n othi ng sup erf lu ou s, give y ou r rea son

o l l
1 i n st itu t ed a stric t i nv est ig t i o n a nd i n qu iry i nt o th e c ir
. He a

c u mst a nc e s a tt en di n t h b n k r t f t h t i n l n t rm
g e a u p yc o a so v e .

2 L ess time is requ ired f o r th i s b u si ne ss b u t mo re mu st b e g i v e n

.
,
t o th a t .

R hetori c a n d Comp osi tion , p 3 9

1
Ba in s T h e a b ridg e d v ersio n w h ic h
. .

w e h a ve qu o t e d, a n d w h ic h w e do n o t c o n sider a n e u iv al ent, is b y th e
q
sa me a u th or I z a a c W al t o n it ma y b e h ere n ote d, sh ou l d h a ve in sert ed
.

f
th e b e ore th e w o rd sett ing see 27 4
20 2 CO M PO S I T I O N P A RT II

3 .Th e meet i ng g a v e o n e u na ni mou s v o t e in fa v ou r o f re el ec ti n g -

h im a s th ei r c h a i rma n .

4 I t w a s th e u n i v ersa l o pi n i o n o f a ll w h o sa w h im th a t h e l o ok ed
.

n o n e th e w o rse a ft er h is pro l o n g ed a n d o b st i n a t e a t t a c k o f fev er .

5 Th e l i t era t u re o f E ng l a n d sh ou l d b e st u di ed in c h ro n o l o g i c a l
.

o rder, b e i nn i n
g g w i th th e most a n c i en t b o ok s a n d c omi ng do w n
ra du a l l y t o t h e most rec ent
g .

6 L a mpo o ns a nd sa t i res, th a t a re w ri tte n w i th w it a nd spi ri t , a re

.

l ik e po i so n ed da rts, w h i c h n o t o nl y i n i c t a w ou nd, b u t ma k e it
i nc u ra b l e Sp ec ta to r, N o 23 . .

7 Th i s w e ek is in a ma nn er set a pa rt a n d dedi c a t ed to seri o u s

.

th o u g h t s Sp ecta tor, N o 23 . .

8 Th e i mmedi a t e rea so n w h i c h l ed L ou i s XI V t o c o n v o k e th e
. .

A ssemb l y o f 1 6 8 2, w a s i n o rder t o stre ng th en h is h a n ds in th e c o n test

h e w a s c a rry i ng o n w i th P o pe I nn oc en t X I .

9 Th e h i g h est a c tu a l b id fo r y ou r h o rse w a s 1 5 , b u t I did n o t

.

l et it g o a t th a t pri c e, w h i c h I c o n si dered mu c h t oo l o w .

1 0 W i th o u t a l o g i c a l h e a d a c ri t i c is perpe tu a l l y pu z z l ed a nd
.

perpl ex ed a mi dst h is o w n b l u n ders, mi st a k es t h e se n se o f th o se h e

w o u l d c o n fu t e , o r, if h e c h a nc es t o t h i n k ri g h t , do es n o t k n o w h o w
to c o n v ey h is t h o u g h t s t o a n o th er w i th c l ea rn ess a n d perspi c u i ty .

Sp ec ta tor, N o 29 1 . .

1 1 Pa y me nt o f a di v id end for th e pa st h a l f y ea r, a t t h e ra t e o f
.
-

20 per c e n t per a nn u m, ma ki ng 20 per c e n t fo r t h e y ea r, is rec om

men ded b y t h e direc t o rs o f th e M a c h i n ery Tru st , Li mi t ed D a i l y
T el eg rap h , 29 th Ja n 1 8 9 8. .

1 2 Th ere c a n n o t b e a g rea t er g ra t i c a t i o n t o a b a rb a ro u s a nd in
.

h u ma n w it , th a n t o e x po se w h o l e fa mi l i es t o deri si o n , w h i l e th e
t ra du c er rema i n s u nseen a n d u ndi sc o v ered Sp ec ta tor, N O 23 . .

1 3 Th e ma tt er b ei ng t h u s redu c ed w i th i n c l ea rl y den ed l imi t s,

.
-

a nd
prepa red fo r b u si n ess l ik e di sc u ssi o n , it w a s su b mi tt ed t o t h e
-

del i b era t i o n s o f a c ommi t tee o f Imperi a l a nd Col o ni a l del eg a t es .

T i mes W eekl y , 21 st Ja n 1 8 9 8 , p 3 4
'

. . .

1 4 I t w a s h er rm b el i e f t h a t t o th e c ol d ness, th e i nd epe n den c e ,

.

a n d t h e w a n t o f t h e a dori n fa c u l ty en era l l y in w ome n , w ere du e

g g
t h e so l e c a u ses o f ma trimo n i a l di sa g re emen t M R S LYNN L I NT O N . .

1 5 I a m persu a ded th a t if w e g o fu rth er w e sh a ll fa re w o rse , a nd t h e

l o n g er w e g o o n , t h e more h ea v i l y w e sh a l l su ffer S I R J O HN L U BBO C K
.

. .

1 6 I t ru st th e s essi o n o f 1 8 9 8 w i l l n o t pa ss w i th o u t some th i ng
.

b ei ng do n e t o pl a c e ou r W est I ndi a n C o l o n i es i n a po si tio n a nd

-

c o n di t i o n w h i c h sh a l l en su re fo r th em t h e b est po ss ib l e i n du st ri a l

p ro s p e ri t y
F ortn i g h tl y R evi ew , F e b 1 8 9 8 , p 3 20 . . .

1 7 T h ese respo n si b i l i ti es , t h ese o b l ig a t i o ns, t h ese du ti es c a n b e

.

a de u a t el , e ffec t i v el , a nd e c o n o mi c a l l fu l l l ed o n th e l i n es t h a t I
q y y y
h a v e i ndic a t ed F ortn i gh tl y R evi ew , F e b 1 8 9 8 , p 3 20 . . .

1 8 N e v er did A t t i c u s su c c eed b ett er in g a i n i ng th e u n i v ersa l l o v e

a n d est eem o f a l l me n Sp ec ta tor, N o
.

467

. .

1 9 A qu i t e u ni qu e c o mpl i me nt w a s pa id t
. o t h e n a vy D a i ly .

T el egrap h , 1 4 t h F eb 1 8 9 8
. .

II C . on den se the f o l l ow in
g sen ten c es, or correc t over- b revi ty , if

y ou n d a n y
20 4 C O M PO S I T I O N P A RT II

k f
1 7 I t is a rema r a b l e a c t , th a t th o u g h pro b a b l y t h ere w ere mo re
.

i i
w r t ers O f P ro v en ca l po e t ry du r n g t h ese t w o c en t u r e s t h a n t h ere i
i i i
e v e r w ere i n a s m l a r per o d i n a n y o t h er l a n d, t h ey h a v e n o t l e t a f
s ng l e ma st er
i p i
ec e : t h e y h a v e v a n sh ed a nd ma de n o s
g n R i S i . . .

W A TS ON .

18 . h er c o l u mn th ere a ppe a rs a n a rti c l e di sc u ssi n g th e

In a not

i n u e nc e c o n ic t b et w ee n t h e U nit ed S ta t es a nd S pa i n w ou l d h a v e
o n Bri t i sh c o mmerc e D a i l y T el eg rap h , 1 8 t h A pri l 1 8 9 8 .

1 9 W e h a v e n o w t o t h i nk a s w e n e v er b e fore h a d o f k ee pi n g O l d
c u st o mers a n d a t t ra c ti ng n e w Ti mes W eek l y , 25 th F eb
.

. 1 898 . .

20 I n t h e g rea t ra i l w a y , w h i c h is b ei ng c o n st ru c t ed n o t so mu c h
.

in th e i n t erest s O f t ra de a s i n c i v i l i sa t i o n , h e see s n o t h i ng b u t fo o l i sh
e x pe ndi t u re
R ep ort of M r Cu rz on s Sp eech i n

. Ti mes W eek l y , 4 t h

M a rc h 1 8 9 8 .

C HA PTE R XX I I I E LE GA N CE OF D I CTI ON .

29 9 W h a t is r equ ir e d b y E l eg a n c e E l eg a n c e o r b eau t y
di c ti o n re qu i res t w o th i ngs( l ) th a t al l h o mel y a nd c o a rse
.

of

d
w o r s o r ph rases sh a l l id ed ev en a t th e ex pen se o f b rev i ty ;
be avo ,

( )
2 t h a t in r es p ec t O f t h e so u n d O f s e n t e n c e s t h e re sh all b e a

s mo o t h a n d ea sy o w O f w o rd s (W t e y)

1
h a l .

3 0 0 R en emen t O f D ic t ion El eg a n c e in th e rst sense

i e th e a v o id a n c e O f c o a rse w o rd s an d ph rases is secu red (a )
.
.
,

. .
,

so me ti mes by c i rc u ml o cu t i o n 3 7 3 ) (b) so meti mes by u si n g a

l ess c o mmon w o rd w h i ch t h o u gh it ex presses th e sa me th i n g
, , ,

a
pp e a r s t o e x
p r es s it i n a l es s O ff en s iv e f o r m b ec a u se i t is l ess ,

c o mmo n ;
(c) so met i mes by th e d e c en t O b scu rity O f a fo re ig n
w o rd o r h rase a s in e x a m l e (2)
p , p
( 1 ) A n u g l i er ph ra se w a s n o w c omi ng o n th e st a g e I mea n w h a t
is n o w th e na t i o n a l o a th O f E ng l a n d .

( 2) Elu vi a a L a t i n P l u ra l n ou n u sed t o a v o i d th e w o rd sti nk s

.
, ,

3 0 1 S moo t h n ess of Dic t ion

. E u ph on y Th i s ki n d o f .

e l e a n c e is n r ll y ll d h on y th at ua l i t y O f st yl e w h i c h
g g e e a c a e eu p q ,

pl ea ses th e ea r T h e w ri t er h i msel f mu st h a v e a g oo d ea r if h e
.
,

w i sh es t o k n ow w h a t w i ll pl ea se th e ea r o f h is re ad ers A fe w .

h i n ts h o w ev e r a re h erew i th O ffered fo r g ui d a n c e
, ,

( 1 ) A v o id e ndi ng a sen t en c e w it h a sh o rt a n d po i n tl ess w o rd

Th e w a l l s O f th e fo rtress b a ttered w i th g u n s from th e sh i ps n d

,
a

a rt i ll er
y fr o m t h e sh o r e f o r a s p a c e O f e i h t h ou rs
g f e l l ,
.

( W ri t e w ere r ed t o t h e g rou nd )

,
az

( )
2 A v o id u si n g t w o c o n s t ru c ti o n s w h en it is
p oss ib l e t o use
,

one

W h a t el y
1
s R h etori c, P a rt I II . c ha p . iii p 21 3
. . .
C H A P XX I I I
. E L EG A N CE O F D I CT I O N 20 5

Th ey su spec t ed th a t h e h a d ee n r b b ib ed g i v e n a n u nj u st
a nd

a n d mi sl ea di n
s en t e n c e .
( H ere th ere is a n a b ru pt g t ra n si t i o n
from t h e i i
P a ss v e v o c e t o th e A c t v e i . W rit e Th ey su spec t ed
t h a t h e h a d rec e iv ed a b ri b e a nd g i v en a n u n u st j
( 3 ) A v o id us n i g th e sa me form of
p ar ti c ipl e more th a n on c e

in th e sa me c l a us e
ph ra se or

Y est erda y th e v estry O f S t G eo rg e , H a n o v er S qu a re, d ec i ded t o

.

sea l t h e memori a l t o b e
prese nt ed t o th e D u k e o f D ev o n sh i re ,
p ra y i n g fo r th e i ntro du c t i o n O f a b i l l in th e n ex t sessi o n O f
P a rl i a men t p rovidi ng for t h e c rea t i o n O f me tro pol i t a n mu ni c i
pa litie s

D a i l y Tel egrap h , 2l st Ja n 1 8 9 8

( W rit e , w h i c h . .

sh ou l d pro v i de f or th e c rea t i o n .

( )
4 A vo id i
us n g th e sa me w or d tw i c e in a di fferen t con

n ec ti o n

TO ena bl e us to ma k e t h e n ecessa ry a rra n g emen t s, it is n ec essa ry

f o r u s t o h ea r n o t l a t er t h a n n o o n on i
F r da y , 2l st c u rre nt .

D a i l y T el egrap h , 2oth Ja n 1 8 9 8 . .
( W r t e ri
e
qu s t e f o ii
r th e

rst n ec essa ry )
(5 ) A vo id us n g i th e sa me
d tw i c e in di fferen t sen ses w or

H e mea n s t o ta k e a dv i c e a s t o th e b est mea n s O f t est i ng th e fa c t .

(W rit e meth o d o r mod e for th e s ec o n d mea n s

or ,

i ntends for th e rst o n e ) .

We ( th e w rit er) w i ll no w e x pl a i n h ow w e (men in g e n era l ) a re l ed

i nto ma ki ng su c h a mi sta k e .

(6 ) A v o id us i ng w o rds O f n earl y th e same sou nd w ith i n a

sh o rt i n t erva l u n l ess th e pl a y u po n w o rd s is i n t e n ti o n a l
,

Th e a c t i o n f or l i b el b ro u g h t b y M i ss a n u rse a a i n st
g ,

Mr in respec t o f a l etter th e l a tter h d w ri t t en t o a a

t ermi n a t ed i n fa v o u r o f th e de fen da n t D a i l y
.

rel a ti v e ,

T el egrap h 27 th Ja n 1 89 8 , ( W rit e w h ich h e

. fo r th e .

If a ll l oc a l u th orities aected a cted in th e sa me ma nn er ra t epa y ers

a

mig h t rec e i v e so me b en et fro m u n it y

,

D a i l y T e l egrap h 8t h .
,

( W ri t e c o nc erned fo r

F eb 1 8 9 8 . .

( 7 ) A v o id mi x i n g Presen t pa rt i c i pl es to o freel y w ith Verb a l

n ou n s a s t h e fre u en t re e titi on O f i n n ot on l y h as a b ad
q p g
-
,

so u n d b u t ma y l ea d t o so me c o n fu si on in th e mi n d O f th e
,

rea d e r :

Th e E pi stl e t o th e H eb rew s b ea ri n g in it s t i tl e a spec i a l fo rm o f

,

a ddre ss i s e t u n i v e rsa l in it s drift a s desig ni n g t o c o n v i nc e

y , ,

a ll ma n ki n d o f t h e n ec e ssi t
y o f seeki ng f o r h a ppi n e ss in a
fu tu re l ife a nd a voi di ng a l l th in g s l ea ding men t o sin ( W rit e .

Th e e pi stl e t o th e H eb rew s th ou g h it b e rs in it s t i tl e a ,
a

s ec i a l fo rm O f a ddre ss is et u n i v ersa l I n it s drift a s it s a im

p y , ,

i s t o c o n v i nc e a ll ma h k in d O f th e n ec essi t y O f seeki ng fo r
h a ppi n ess I n a fu t u re l ife a nd v o i di ng e v ery th i ng th a t ma y a

l ea d men t o sin .
)
20 6 C O M PO S I T I O N P A RT II

( )
8 A v o id us n i g t i g f
a s rn
O R e l a tiv es in t h e sa me se n t en c e

Th e doc tri n e in qu est i o n o n l y a ppe rs

a a a a , p r do x b ec a u se it
has
u su a ll y b ee n so e x pressed a s a ppa ren t l y t o c o n tra dic t t h ese
w el l k n o w n fa c t s -
w hi ch , h o w e v er, w ere equ a ll y w ell k n o w n t o
th e a u t h o rs o f th e do c t ri n e , w h o th ere fo re c o u ld o nl y h a v e
a do pt ed fro m i n a dv ert e nc e a n fo rm of e x ressi o n w hi ch
y p
c o u l d t o a c a ndi d perso n a ppe a r i n c o n si st ent w i th it J S . . .

M ILL ( W ri t e t h e sa i d fa c t s for t h e rst w h i c h

. .

F ew , i n dee d, a re t h o se w h o st i l l l i n g er a mo ng u s w h o t o ok a n
a c t i v e pa rt i n t h e g rea t mo v emen t O f 1 8 4 8 R evi ew of R evi ew s , .

A pril 1 8 9 8 , p 3 43 . .

( )
9 A v o id g dv us n i
erb s cl ose t o et h er f o r u al ifyi n
g a
q g di ffe ren t
w o rd s if th e y ca n b e sepa ra t ed w i t h ou t l oss o f idi o m
,

I n f c t t h o se w h o st u dy su c h ma t t ers c l osel y a l rea dy I th i nk

a

e t c F ortni gh t l y R evi ew
, , , ,

p er c e i v e t h e t e n t a t i v e b eg i nn i n s
g ,
.
,

F eb 1 8 9 8 p 26 1 .
( W ri t e
,
.
p er c e i v e a l re.a dy I , ,

( 1 0 ) A vo id u si ng v erb s in differen t t en ses w i th ou t n ec essi ty :

Th e l i o n roa red t o f l se n ote a nd th en ra tes th e j c k a l s fo r
a a a

,

y el pi ng i n u n i n D a i ly T el egrap h 5 th Feb 1 8 9 8
s o , . .

( )
1 1 A dv e r b s o r a dv e r bi a l p h r a ses t h a t
q u a l ify th e sa me

w o rd sh ou l d b e sepa ra t ed by so me i n t erv e n i ng w o rd if th e ,

c o ns t ru c ti o n a d mit s O f it

H e, p m , i n sp i te of h i s con tra ct, o b sti n a tel y a n d w i th

a t f ou r o c l ock . .

some a c ri mon y dec l a red t h a t h e w ou l d n o t w o r a n o t h er h ou r k .

( W r te : i
A t ou r O c l o c P M f
h e, in sp t e o f h is c o nt ra c t , k . . i
dec l a red o b st n a t el y a n d w th some a c r mo n y th a t h e w ou ld
i i i
k
n o t w o r a n o t h er

( 1 2) A v o id a w k w a rd c on st ru c ti on s to w h i c h th e ea r is n o t .

a c c u st o med

F l y i ng v i si t s t o settl eme nt s o f F i r ms P o l es Boh emi a n s a nd , , ,

R u ssi n s l oc a t ed l o ng t h e N o rt h ern P c i c di sc l osed th em to

a a a

et c H a rp er s
, ,

h a ve a tt i n ed a deg ree o f A meri c n i sa t i o n

a a , .

( W ri te

M a g a i n e F eb 1 8 9 8 z ,
di sc l o s ed th e fa c t th a t t h ese
. .
,

foreig n s ettl ers h a d tta i ned etc ) a ,

.

302 . on W or ds E u ph o n y a s w ell a s po i n t is
Pl a y up .

so me t i mes pro d u c ed by repea t i n g t h e sa me w o rd s in a differe n t

mean i n g o r in a differen t rel a ti o n

E v il ( e v i l c o n se u enc es) b e t o h im th t e v i l t h i n k s ( = i mpu t e s
:
q a

mi sc o ndu c t ) .

Ba d ( u n l u c k y ) a c c i dents h a ppe n t o b d ( = u n sk il fu l ) pl y e rs
z a a

.

h i h
T e r g t ( ou n )
n di v i n e o f k i n g s t o g o v e rn w ro n g P O P E
n d pr t ic b l e me s r s F o rtn i g h t l y
.

T h ese re a ll pr c t i c l
a a a a ac a a u e

R evi ew , F eb 1 8 9 8 , p 3 1 7 . . .

If i i
th e m n st ers h a d c o mpreh e nded a s mu c h a s th ey a ppreh e n ded,
t h ey w o u l d h a v e sa v ed t h e n a t io n a g oo d dea l O f mo n e y

P u l ten ey s Sp eech .
20 8 CO M PO S I T I O N PA RT II

b o di l y a dv a n t a g e s o f streng th a n d h e a l th b u t t h e su perl a t i v e
b l essi ng s, in n e , a re t h o se o f t h e mi nd .

1 4 A c a me h ere da i l y
. . ev er
y o th er ma n c a me e v er
y o t h e r da
y .

1 5 I n n u mera b l e fa i l u res oc c u r e v ery da y in t h e n u mero u s c a reers

.

O f l ife .

1 6 A s o n e peru ses t h e a c c ou n t s, a s t h ey a re i ssu ed, t h e o u t l o o k

.

see ms t o b e v er
y se r i o u s .

1 7 \Ve sh o u l d c e a se persi st i n g in t ry i ng t o pu t a qu a rt i n t o a pi n t
o t R evi e w of R ev iew s
.

p .

1 8 Y o u r n o t h a v i n g h i th ert o pa i d t h e t i th e , sh o u l d su c h h e t h e
.

c a se , a n d t h e fa c t th a t t h e su m y o u a re n o w c a l l ed u po n t o
pa y do es
n o t ra t ea b l y c o rrespo n d w i t h a ny prev i ou s pa y me n t ma de b y ou ,
y
c a n n o t b e ra i s ed a s a n O b j e c t i o n

T i th e c o l l ec tor s N oti c e
.
- -
.

1 9 T h e fri e n dl ess st a t e t h a t h e w a s in , a nd th a t h e w i sh ed t o die ,

.

ma de e v ery o n e pi t y h im .

20 A c c i dent h a v i ng O pen ed a n e w a nd mo st c o ng eni a l c a reer t o

.

h im, a nd h a v i ng b ec o me a g rea t fa v o u ri t e o f , a n d O f mu c h u se t o , M r
N a s h , h e u l tima t el y a c c o mpa n i ed h is pa t ro n t o L o ndo n C J
.

. . .

M A THE W S .

21 P erh a ps w e mi g h t v en t u re t o a dd, t h a t it is h a rdl y e x pl i c a b l e ,

.

e x c e t a s a po rt ra i t dra w n b y a ski l fu l h a n d g u i ded b y l o v e , a n d b

p y
l o v e i nt en si ed b y t h e c o n sc i o u sn ess o f some impa ssa b l e b a rri er .

L E sL I E S T E PH E N .

22 W e b el i e v e th e fre edom a nd h a ppi n ess O f a pe o pl e a re n o t th e

.

resu l t o f t h e i r po l i t i c a l i n st it u t i o n s , b u t t h a t t h e ir po l i t i c a l in sti tu
t i o n s a re , in a g rea t deg re e , t h e resu l t O f t h e i r o w n t emper a nd
a s i ra t i o n P A RN E L L
p
-
. .

I h a v e a b o ok pri nt ed a t A n t w erp, a nd w h ic h w a s o nc e
o sse ssed b y A da m S mi t h
p .

24 Bu rn s is a h a n dy ma n w i th h is st s, a nd ma i nt a i n s, a ft er l o ng
.

e x pe ri e nc e , t h a t h e w ou l d pre fe r t o rel y o n th e c l en c h ed h a n d t o
de fe n d h i msel f in a ml e t o a ny w ea po n y et i nv en t ed
R evi ew of
R evi ew s , F eb 1 8 9 8 , p 1 29
. . .

25 M r J H C sa i d t h a t th ere h a d b een i nn u mera b l e i n st a n c es

. . . . .

O f b ri b ery i n th e G u a rdi a n s Bo a rds , l ea di n g t o t h ei r su persessi o n b y

t h e G o v e rn me n t b y p a i d g u a r d i a n s D a i l y Tel eg rap h , 28 t h A r 1 8 9 8
p . .

26 I t is t h e me n w h o h a v e b ri dg ed t h e o c ea n w i t h t h e st ea msh i p,
.

w h o h a v e t u nn ell ed t h e mo u n t a i n s a n d sev ered t h e i st h mu s , w h o

h a v e ma de th e empi re I b i d p 1 3 0 . . . .

27 N o t w i th st a ndi ng h is i l l n ess, a n d th a t h e h a d l ost n ea rl y a l l

.

his mo n ey , h e st i l l k ept t h e b u si n ess g o i ng , h o pi ng f or b ett er t imes .

28 Pri n c e F erdi n a nd o f Bu l g a ri a , w h o si nc e t h e mu rder O f M

. .

S t a mb u l o ff , fro m w h i c h t ime t h e rel a t i o n s b et w e en A u stria a n d

Bu l g a ri a c h a n g ed c o nsi dera b l y f o r th e w orse, h a s n o t a ppea red a t t h e
Vi en n a C o u rt , w a s rec ei v e d i n a l o ng a u di enc e t o d a y a t n o o n b y t h e
E mpero r .

D a il y T e l eg rap h , 8 t h M a rc h 1 8 9 8 .

29 T h e rst su gg es ti o n I w ou l d ma k e is th a t u su rers a l l o v e r t h e
.

c o u n t ry , w h o t ra de u n der fa l s e n a mes a n d pre t en d t o b e b a nk s , a n d

i ssu e c irc u l a rs a nd pro spec t u ses w h ic h a re fa l se a nd fra u du l ent , a nd

w h o u se t h e se n a mes fo r t h e pu rpos e o f sec u rin g c o n t ra c t s w i th
b o rro w ers in o rder t o de fra u d t h em b y a sy st em o f u su ry , sh o u l d b e
dea l t w i th
E vi dence of S i r G L ew i s, 1 1 th M a rc h 1 8 9 8
. .
C HA P . X XII I EL EGA N C E O F D I CT I O N 20 9

30 .Th e rst t h i ng t h e u su rers do is t o see w h o a re th e rel a t i v es o f

t h e y ou ng b o rro w er I n t h e S C c a se w e h a d a ma n w h ose bi l l s

. . .

w ere di sc o u n t ed b ec a u se a n o b l ema n t o ok t h em t o t h em .I b id .

3 1 O u r mi n i st ers c a nn o t u nderst a n d th a t E n g l a n d is si c k o f th e
a nd si c k est o f a l l o f t h e M a n c h est er s c h o o l R evi ew o
.

p a ri sh pum
p .
f
R evi ew s, A pri l 1 8 9 8 , p 3 5 4 . .

3 2 T h e A meri c a n s a re perh a ps si nc ere in sa yi ng th a t th e U n i t ed

.

S t a t es a re n o t c o n t empl a t i n g sei z i n g Cu b a in o rder t o a nn ex it .

Ti mes W eekl y , 6 t h M a y 1 89 8 , p 27 6 . .

3 3 I n 1 8 7 4 , th o u g h n o t t h en prepa red t o a dv o c a t e t h e dis

.

est a b l i sh ment of t h e S c o tc h C h u rc h , t h ou g h h e a dmi tt ed a n

e st a b l i sh ed c h u rc h i n a mi n o ri ty is a n a n o ma l y , h e y et st re n u o u sl
y
o posed w h en t h e C h u rc h P a t ro n a g e S c o t l a nd Bi ll w a s b e fore Pa rl i a
p
men t t o i nv est th i s Ch u rc h w i th pow ers n ev er b e fo re entru st ed t o a n
ec c l esi a st i c a l b o dy M id0l l esew Cou n ty T i mes, 4 th Ju n e 1 8 9 8
. .

3 4 Th e step w a s o nl y dec i ded u po n a t th e v ery l a st mo men t ;

.

i ndeed, for rea so ns u po n w h ic h it is u nn ec essa ry t o dw el l , it h a d

ppea red b u t a f ew h ou rs pre v i o u sl y u t t erl y a nd a b so l u t el y i mpossi b l e

a

th a t it c ou ld b e t a k en b e fo re t o d a y a t t h e e a rl i est D a i l y T el eg rap h ,
l 6 t h Ju n e 1 8 9 8 , p 7 . .

3 5 W i th a mi n i stry w i th ou t a ny a u th o rit y a ny su dden c o u rse o f

.

a c ti o n ma l k d
y b e oo e f e n D a i l y T e l eg p , 23 rd Ju n e 1 89 8 , p 9
r a h . .

3 6 W h en a perso n h a s a t t ra c t ed t o h im sel f b y a n el e v a t ed mo ra l
.

b ond sev era l o th er perso n s, w h en h e di es, it a l w a y s h a ppens th a t th e

s u rv i v o rs, o ft en di v i ded u t o t h a t t i me b y ri v a l ri es, b e et a st ro n
p g g

fri endsh i p th e o ne for th e o th er T ra n sla ti on f rom R E NA N S
.

A p ostl es .

3 7 Th i s a rmy is i nc a pa b l e b ec a u se o f si c k n ess o f ma rc h i ng a ny

.

w h ere e x c ept t o th e tra n sport s T el eg ra m qu oted i n D a i ly T el e

g rap h , 8th A u g u st 1 8 9 8 .

3 8 T h e rest o f th e ev en i n g w a s d ev o t ed t o v o ti ng a w a y th e

.

n a t i o n s mo n e , et c

S ta n da rd, 9 t h A u g u st 1 8 9 8
y .

3 9 Th e C a rl i st s po ssessed a n a rmy o f t h eir o w n , n o w di sb a nded,

.

b u t ma ny o f w h ose o fc ers w o u l d ex pec t t o b e re i n st a ted in th e i r

former po si t i on s F ortnigh tl y R evi ew , l st A u g u st 1 8 9 8
4 0 H e di sc ou rses more o r l ess di sc u rsi v el y u po n th e v a ri o u s

.

c h a n g es , etc R evi ew of R evi ew s, A u g u st 1 8 9 8 , p 1 6 5 . .

41 If th ere is o n e th i ng th a t strik es o n e mo re t h a n a n o th er, it is

.

H is M aj esty s a rd ent d esire fo r pea c e Ti mes, S l st A u g u st 1 8 9 8

. .

E . G . C .
 PA RT 1 11 .
EN L A RGE M EN T O F V O CA BUL A R Y
F I G URE S O F S P EE C H .

C H A P TE R XX I V E N LA R G E M E N T
. BY
C O M PO S I T I O N .

3 03 S o u r c es of E nl a rg ement
. Besid es th e b o rro w i n g o f
fo rei gn w o rds (w h i c h in E ngl i sh ma k e u p ab ou t tw o th i rd s o f -

th e v o ca b u l a ry), t h e re a re a t l east ei g h t h o me so u rc es fro m w h i c h -

th e v oc ab u l a ry h as b een o r c an y e t b e en l a rg ed
( )
1 P ro v i n c i a l o r l o c a l w o rds b ec o mi ng na ti on al : (ra th er
ra re) . A few ex a mpl es a re g iv en b el o w
P o ny g ru esome c a nny fec k l ess forc e ( w a t erf l l ) g l i n t g l o mi n g
, , , ,
a , ,
a ,

( l l fro m S c o tl a n d)

a F u n ( sl a ng w ord in D r J o h n so n s
. a .

t i me ) T ory ( n Iri sh w ord for b o g tro tt er rst u sed in a

. a -

po l iti c a l sen se i n W h i g ( s h o rt fo r w h ig g m or a ,

a

S c o t c h w o rd fo r dri v er rst u sed in po l i t i c a l s n se in a e

1 679 )

( 2) mes a c qu i ri ng a g en eral sense (n o t u n c o mmo n )

P ro per na .

O l d er ex a mpl es a re n u merou s ; as mi l li n er (a ma n o f M i l an ) ;
lu mb er room (a ro o m w h e re th e L o mb a rd b ro k e rs st o w ed a w a y
-

t h ei r pl ed g es) T h e fo l l o w i n g e x a mpl es a re rec en t

.

A l a ds t o n e b a T l h f m A m i an j ud e a med
g g o y n c (
. ro a n e r c g n
Ly nc h ) A da v y l a mp ( fro m t h e i n v e n t o r)
.
-
T o b o y c o t t ( from .

a C a pt a i n Bo y c o t t , so trea t ed in I rel a n d) T o b o w dl eri s e ( t o .

e x pu rg a t e fro m Bo w dl er s ex pu rg a t ed edi ti o n o f S h a k spea re )

.

A h a n so m c a b ( from t h e i n v e n t o r) .

(3 ) R ev i v al of o b so l ete w or s : d (ra re)

Love me ( T e n n y so n )
Bu rg eo n ( S c o t t ) H ol t s ( th e w o o ded t o ps

-
so . .

o f h i ll s T enny so n ) S ou g h ( t h e w h istl i n g o f w i n d t h ro u g h
O v er l o rd ( su z era in Freema n )
.

t rees) - W o rs en ( t o ma k e
w o rseS o u th ey , G l a dst o n e )
. .

A l o o fn e ss ( G eo rg e El i o t )
. .

b
( ) D o u l e ts
4 w o rd s d e ri v ed fro m t h e sa me o ri g i n a l el emen ts ,

b u t po ssessi n g di ffe ren t fo rms t o ea c h o f w h i c h th ere i s a di ffe r

,

e n t me a n i n g I n ou r v o ca b u l a ry w e h a ve a t l east fou r h u n d red

.
21 2 E N LA RG E M E N T O F VO CA BU L A R Y P A RT III

(b) S ome p oin t of f

re eren ce

A ir t g h t -
i =
( t g ht i a g a n st i a ir ), re pro o f, h ea d stro n g ,
- -
h ea rt
k
b ro en , b o o k -
l e a rn ed, t o p h ea v y , -
c o l o u r b l i nd, b l o o d t h i rst
-
y
-
.

() c The c a u se or sou rc e o
f the qu a li ty
H o me -
i k ( = si c k
s c for h o me ), pu rse pro u d, h ea v e n b o rn - -
.

(d) Th e exten t o r mea su re of the qu a li ty

S ki n de ep -
( : de ep a s t h e ski n ) w o rl d w i de ,
-
,
b re a st h g h , l -
i ife l o ng -
.

( 2) A nou n ( i
w th su fx -
cd
) prec e e d d by a no u n

C h i c k en h ea rt ed, h o ok -
i l ed w eb footed c o w h o g h ed
-
n o sed, o x - t a ,
-
,
-
u .

( )
3 A n a dj e c t iv e o r pa rt i c i l
p pe re c ed ed by a n a dj ec ti v e

R ed h o t d rk bro w n b ri g h t b l u e de d a l i v e l u k e w rm
-
,
a -
,
-
,
a -
,
-
a .

3 08 C o mpo u n d V erb s ca n b e fo rmed a s foll o w s

.

( )
1 A v e rb p r ece d e d by a n o u n

H e n pec k bro w b ea t t o p d ress b a c k b i te h oo d w i nk w y l a y

-
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
a -
.

( 2) A v erb prec ed ed by a n a dj ec ti v e
S a fe g u a rd ro u g h h e w w h i t e w a sh ro u g h sh o e du mb fou n der
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
.

S E CTI O N 2 .
R
T E D O R S YNT A C T I C A L C O MP O UND S
E LA .

3 0 9 C o mpo u n d N o u n s c an b e fo rmed a s fo l l o w s
.

( )
1 A v e rb T ra n s itiv e fo ll o w e d by i ts O bj e c t :

A t el l t a l e ( o n e w h o t ell s t a l e s)
-
c u t t h roa t a pic k po c k et ,
a -
,
-
.

( 2) A verb T ra n sitive (w ith su fx er or ing) prec ed ed by - -

its
O bj ec t :
S h o e ma k er t a x pa y er ; e n g i n e dri v i n g h ou se b u i l di n g e t c
- - -

Th
-
, , ,
.

N ol a e er a nd t h e i ng a re n o t a l w a s u sed, as in too th
y
p i c k ,
n o t to o th - ic ker
p ; b l o od sh ed ,
n o t b l ood sh eddi ng - -
.

( 3 ) A v erb qu al i ed by a n a dverb
( )
a W h en th e a dverb p rec edes the verb
An o u t - t u rn , a n o u t - l o o k ,
a n o u t - t , a n u
p
-
st a rt , a n in l et - .

(b) Wh en the a dverb is p la c ed a

f ter th e verb

A ru n - a w a y , a c a s t - a w a y , a b rea k do w n , -
a b rea k -
u
p, a f a re - w e ll .

N ote S ome mpo u n ds Of th is h a ve tw o

c l a ss forms P
co : set 01 -
7 or
o -
set tu rn - ou t o r ou t- tu rn ; l ook -
o u t o r ou t l ook -
.

(4 ) A n ou n
q i
u al ed by an a dj ec tiv e
A n o b l e - ma n , a h lf
penny a -
,
a ma d ma n -
,
a s w e et - h ea rt , mid da y -
.

( )
5 A n ou n u a l i ed by a pa rt c i i pl e
q
( a ) P resen t P a rti c ip l e
H u mmi n g -
bird l o v i ng -
ki ndn ess i
sp n n ng - t o p, i n i sh i n g -
s tro ke
th
.
, ,

N ote e i ng is n o t a l w a y s u se d as in sc reech - ow l, n o t screech

i ng ow l-
g l o w -
w o rm, no t g l o w i ng w orm
-
.
C HA P . X X IV BY C O M PO S I T I O N 21 3

verb w i th the f orc e

( b) A o
f a P a st or P a ssi ve p a rti cip l e
H u mp -
ba c k h u mped b a c k -
l oc k -
j aw l oc k ed ja w
-
.

(6 ) A n ou n qu a l i ed by a P ossess iv e n ou n

S a l es ma n ( for sa l e s ma n ), b a t s ma n , o a rs-ma n , T u esda y , ki n s

- - -

ma n , h erds ma n , c ra ft s ma n, b e es w a x , st a t es ma n , sports ma n
- - - - -

N o te 1 In so me co mpou n ds
t h e a postro ph e is ret a n ed b e o re i f
ston e s
.

th e s : -
th row , ki n g s b en ch , c a t s p a w , h ea rt s ea se, l a nd s -en d
- - -
.

T h e n ou n sp okes ma n h a s b een fo rmed b y a fa l se a n a l og y

-

N ote 2 Th e foll o w i n g c o mpo u n ds, si n c e th e rst n o u n is n o t

.

P o ss essi ve , a re o f t h e U n rel a t ed or Ju x ta po si t i o n a l c l a ss zb oa t ma n ,
.

- -

sea ma n , oi l ma n , w ood ma n , c a rt ma n , p l ou g h ma n , e tc
- - - - -
.

( 7) A n ou n in a ppos i t i on w ith a n ou n o r
pro n ou n

W a sh er w oma n -
; h e g oa t ,
-
sh e - g oa t ; ma n -
serv a n t , ma i d serv a n t -
.

3 1 0 C o mp o un d A dj ec t iv es c an b e fo rmed a s foll o w s
.

( 1 ) A n ou n prec ed ed a n d qu al i ed by a n a dj ec ti v e
E v i l h e a rt ed, h o t h ea d ed , l o ng t a i l e d,
- - -
o n e- s ided ,
red- c ol ou red .

( )
2 A n ou n as o bj ec t t o th e P res pa rt . . Of a T ra n s . ve rb
A h ea rt -
rendi ng s ig h t a ti me -
servi ng ma n a s ou l -sti rri ng st o r
y .

( )
3 A n o u n as O bj ec t to so me prepositi o n
An o ver- l a nd ( o v er th e l a n d) j o u rn ey a n u nderh a nd tr c ik .

31 1 . V erb s ith a dverb s c an be co mpou n d ed w

(a ) W h en th e a d v erb pre c ed es th e v erb (u n c ommo n)

Ba c k sl i de c ross qu est i on o v er a w e u nder st a t e w i th h ol d
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
.

b
( ) W h en t h e v e rb prec e d es t h e a dv er b T hi s i s v e ry c o mm o n . .

T h e t w o w o rd s a re w ritt en sepa ra t el y ; a s tu rn ou t c ome on e t c , ,

.

B = do o n = do O ff t h ey a re c o m o un d ed
( u t i n do n ( ) g) (
do
) p )
3 1 2 P h r a se C o mp o u n ds S u c h c o mpou n ds a re so meti mes
.
,

. .

u sed as n ou ns a n d some ti mes a s a dj ec t iv es ,

F org et me n o t ( n ou n ) ; h a nd a n d g l o v e ( fri en ds th a t t ea c h o t h er
- - - -

a s c o se l h a n d a n d g l o v e ) ma n O f w a r ; w o u l d b e ( a dj u sed f o r
ly as - - -
.

o n e w h o i n t en ded t o b e o r do s omet h i n , b u t w a s st o ed) b a rri st er

g p p
n o t e o f h a nd ; t i c k et O f l ea v e ; Ja c k O l a n t ern ; h ol e a n d

a t l aw ;
- - - - - - - -

c orn er ( a dj c l a n de st i n e ) ; so n in l a w ;
. fou r in -h a n d ; spic a nd s pa n - - - - -

n e w ( l it s ik e a n d s o o n n ew
p p
. n ew a s a n a i l o r s pik e j u st m a de, o r a

s o o n ( c h i ) j u st c u t )
p p .

313 . S pel l in g of C omp o u n ds .

In w or s of d tw o or mo re
s yll a b l es t is u su a l l y th row n b a c k o n th e rst syll a b l e
th e a c c en ,

a n d in ma n y cases t h i s h a s t h e e ffe c t o f a l t eri n t h e spell i n g :

g
B on re from b one re
-
H u s b a nd fro m h ou se b a nd ( lit h o u se
-
.
- -
.

dw ell er) H u s sif or h u s sy fro m h ou se w if e

.
-
Jvos tri l from n ose - -
.
-

th ri l S ta r b oa rd from steer b oa rd
.
-
T a d po l e fro m toa d p o l l F ort -
.
- - .

n ig h t from f ou r teen n ig h t S uf f oll fro m S ou th f ol k

-
F u r l o ng fro m
-
.
-
c -
.
-

f u rrow l ong S u s seoc from S ou th sex e t c

-
.
- -
, .
21 4 E N L A R GE M E N T O F VO C A BU L A R Y P A RT I II

In so me w o r s, d h o w ev e r, th e g d p ro d u c ed i n
ch an e of sou n

th is yll a bl e
rst s by th e a cc en t is n o t a cc o mpa n i ed by a ny ch an ge
in th e spel l i n g
Bl c k g u rd
a C u p b o rd
-
a .
-
a . Brea k -
f
a st . Tw o pe n c e , th ree penc e ,
- -

fou r pe nc e v e pe nc e R o w
-
,
-
.
-
l oc k ( so u n ded a s ru l l ock ) .

C H A PTE R X X V .
E N LA R G E M E N T BY PRE F I XE S
A N D S UF F I X E S .

314 P r ex es, S u x es,

.
p re x ( L a t p re e,
b e A ix es A . .

fo re i s a pa rti c l e pl a c ed a t th e b eg in n i ng O f a stem ; a su f x
( L a t su b,
. a ft e r

) is a
pa rt i c l e pl a c e d a t t h e e n d O f o n e Th e .

na me
a fx
(L a t . a d, a dd ed to e ith er sid e) ma y b e g i v en t o
e i th er ( S o me w ri ters u se aix fo r su icc
.

.

I t is more

c o n v en i en t h o w e v er t o h a v e a w o rd l ik e
, a f x
,
w h i c h w i th

ety mo l o i c a l pro ri et y ca n sta n d f o r e i th e r f

r re x )
g p su x o p
P re x es a l t er th e mea n i n gs o f w o rd s w h i l e su f x es a l t er ,

t h e i r fu n c t i o n s .

Th ere is a ra di c a l di ffere n c e o f me n i ng b et w e en tea ch n d u n tea ch ; a a

b id a nd f or- b id ; con - vert an d su b -

vert ; p ro -
c eed, p re -
c ede, su c - oec d,
a c - c ede, se- c ede, con - c ede, eac- oec d, i n ter -
cede, a n d re- c ede .

O n t h e o t h er h a n d, su f x e s fo rm n o u n s, a dj ec t i v es , v erb s, a n d
a dv erb s , a n d h e n c e t h ey c h a n g e t h e fu n c t i o n O f a w o rd, t h a t i s, t h ey

ma k e it O f o n e pa rt o f spee c h or a n o th er T h u s t h e s t em da rk b e .

c o mes a n o u n in da rk n ess, a v erb in da rk en , a n d a n a dv erb i n da rk

- -

l i ng a nd da rk l y -

o r
3 1 5 S u c es of A x es . T h e so u rc es fro m w h i ch O u r . .

a f x es h a v e c o me a re t h re e i n n u mb e r

I T eu to n i c (w h i c h c ons i sts o f A ng l o S ax o n fo rms t og eth er

.
-
,

w i th a fe w N o rse F ri si a n a n d D u t c h o n es) , ,
.

I I R o ma n i c (w h i ch i n cl u d es La t i n F ren c h a n d I ta l i a n)
.
, ,
.

I I I G reek (pa rtl y di rec t pa rtl y th rou g h F ren c h o r L a t i n)

.
,
.

O u r T eu to n i c a f x es h av e b ee n so me ti mes ca l l ed E ng l i sh .

T h e n a me T eu to n i c h o w ev e r a ppea rs t o b e prefera b l e fo r tw o
, ,

reaso ns ( )
a I f by . E n
g l i sh w e a r e t o u n d e rsta n d A n g l o

S a x o n so me o f o u r T eu to n i c a fx es a re n o t O f E n gl i sh o ri g i n
,

fo r i ns ta n c e th e Jain O f rk in a n d th e sc ap e O f l a nd sca pe

-

is F ri si a n b ask a n d
a re D u t c h th e u n O f u n to th e sk O f -

hus k is N o rse h a v i ng b een i mpo rt ed by th e D a n es b

( ) l l

,
A .

a f x es w h i c h h a v e b ec o me n a tu ra l i sed i n o u r l a n g u a g e w h a t
, ,

e v e r t h e i r o ri i n ma y h a v e b een a re n o w en titl ed t o b e c a ll ed
g ,

E n g l i sh O ur v o ca b u l a ry a b ou nd s in h yb rid s ; th a t is

. ,
21 6 E N LA R GE M EN T O F VO CA BU LA RY P A RT I II

To ( to, f or ) : to da y , to n g h t , to g eth er, to -w a rd,

- -
i -
u n -to -w a rd, to
morro w .

Tw i ( dou b l e) : tw i -
n , tw i - c e, tw i - l ig h t ,
tw i -
me .

U n ( n ot) : u n - t ru th , u n - rea l , u n - w i se ,
i pe
u n - t ol d, u n - r .

Un ( b a c k , reversa l ) u n -b o l t , u n - t i e , u n l o c k u n t w i n e u n do
-
,
-
,
-
.

Na a
t In t h e w o rd nu -
l o o s e,

th e

un is merel y i n te n si v e .

Un ( up to) u n t o , u n t il - -
.

Under : u nder g o , u nder st a n d, u nder h a n d, - - -

u nder- l n i g, u n der

ne a th , u n der mi n e , u n der sell , u n der t a k e

- - -
.

N ote Th s pre x a l so den o t es dec

. i i e nc y ,
or to o l i t tl e : u nder- pa id ,

u nder fe d, u nder v a l u ed, e t c

- -
.

Up up - r igh t up - w a rd, u p - o n , up - l a n ds , up - h o l d, up - sh o t

.
,

W el l ( i n g ood sta te) w el - a re , w el c o mef .

W it h ( a g a i n st b a c k) w i th - dra w , w i th - h ol d, w i th - st a nd
I
,
.

N ata n w i th - dra w i ng roo m, t h e w i th h a s b een dro pped .

S E C T I O N 2 T E UT O N I C S u F F I XE s , .

N ou n s .

31 7 . A n A g ent or D o er

-
er, -
a r, .
-
or : b ak -
er, do -
er, li -
a r, ta l i -
or, sa il -
o r, c l o t h - i -er, c ou rt - i - er,
law y - -
er, sa w -
y
-
er .

-
st er ( f em .
) s i
p n ster
-
. I t is n ot F emi ni n e, b u t merel y ma rk s th e
a g en t in so ng -ster, ma l t -ster, tr c -ster, y ou n g ster, h u c ster ik -
k -
.

en ( f e m ) o rmerl y t h e em n n e O f f f i i

-
v ix en , . fo x n o w den o t es
-

a c u n n n g a nd si p t e u l w o ma n i f .

h erd ( keep er) S h ep h erd, sw n e h erd, c o w h erd, n ea t h erd -

i - - -
.

man (person ) w o ma n , po st ma n , sh er ma n ( dou l e su x ) - - - -

b f .

mong er ( dea l er) a l l a d man g er, c o st er mong er, ro n ma ng er b - -

i -
.

nd ( o l d endin g of p resen t p a rti cip l e) e nd, r e - n d, erra n d, w i n d -

fi - -
.

h u sb a nd -
.

t er, th er, der -

dau g h ter, fa th er, mo -th er, spi der ( sp n der),
- - - -
i -

ru ( d) der ( ro m row )
-
f .

-
W i e ( w o ma n ) sh w e , mid w if e
f if - -
.

-
w ri g h t ( w orkma n ) i
sh p w ri g h t, w h eel -w ri gh t, c a rt - w rig h t -
.

3 1 8 A b st ra c t N o un s ma rki n g sta te a c tion c ondi tion

.
, , ,
.

c ra ft
-
w i t c h craf t pri est c raf t h n di c raf t
: -
,
-
,
a -
.

dom w i s dom k i ng dom fre e dom m rt y r do m serf dom

-
: -
,
-
,
-
,
a -
,
-
.

h ood
-
h ea d g o d,
h ea d ; -
m a n h ood c h i l d h ood n ei g h b ou r h ood
: - -
,
-
,
-
,

mo th er h ood w i do w h ood
-
,
-
.

ing
-
l ea rn i n g w ri t i ng w a l k i ng
: -
,
-
,
-
.

l e dg e l oc k
-
k n o w l edg e w ed l ock
,
-
: -
,
-
.

ne ss o d n ess h o l i n ess w it n ess ( fro m w is o r w i t )

g o - - -
.
, ,

re d
-
h a t red ki n d red
: -
,
-
.

-
(
red ) h u n d red
rec kon i n g : -
.

-ri c b i sh o p ri c ( T h i s de n o t es j u ri s di c t io n )
-
. .

-s h i
p, s c a pe : fri en d sh ip , l ord sh ip , w or sh ip ; l a n d sc a p e
- - - - -
.

t er : l a u g h ter, sl a u g h ter ( from s l a y )

- - -
.

-t h : h ea l th , st ea l th , b re a d th , dep th , w id th , tru th , l eng th

- - - - - - -
.

-t or -d : h ei h t s i h t d ee d ( fro m d o), c u d ( fro m ch ew ) - -

g g
- -
.
,
C HA P . x xv BY PR E F I X E S A ND S UFF I X E S 21 7

319 . Dimin ut iv es
el ,
- -
1, -
le z sa c k
k ern c l ; sc y th e sic k te ; na v e
, sa t c h -c l c orn , -
,
-
,

nav c l -
spa rk spa rk te s ec k s ec k l e
p , p frea k frec k l e ; fo w l h a i l
-
,
-
,
- -
,
-
.

N ote I n t h e fo ll o w i ng w o rds t h ese su fx es d en o t e th e mea n s o r

resu l t O f s o me a c t i o n sh o v c l ( a t h i n g t o sh o v e w i th )
.

g ird l e
- -
, ,

spi n d l e fro m sp in
-
sh u t t l e from sh oot h a n d l e th imb l e from th u mb
,
-
,
-
,
-
,

sa dd l e fro m si t se t t te from s it o r set b u nd l e from b i nd

-
,
-
,
-
.

-
en : c h i c k en ( fro m c oc k ) ki tt en ( a l l i ed t o ea t) ma i d en
-
,
-
,
-
.

-
ie y b i rd i e l ss i e b a b y d a dd y W il l i e A nn ie ma nn i kin
,
-
: -
,
a -
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
- -
,

l a mb i ki n ( E n de a rm e n.t T h e l a st t w o a re do u b l e dimi n u t i v e s . .

-
ing : fa rt h i ng t i th i ng sh i ll i ng w h i t i n g w i l d i ng
-
,
-
,
-
, ,
.

kin l a mb ki n r ki n P e t er ki n or P er ki n n p ki n b u mp ki n
: , , ,
a ,
.

ding du c k l i n g g o s l i ng da r l ing stri p ling su c k l i ng s ee d l i ng

: ,
-
, ,
-
, , .

-
oc k h i l l ock b u l l ock pa dd ock ( from p a rk ) h u mm ock ( h u mp )
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
.

3 20 M isc el l a n e o u s
.

-
e n, -
ou ( th a t w hich a c ts ) : hav -
en ( h a v e ), ma i -
n ( ma y ) ,
w a g - on ,
w a i -n( w ei g h ) .

fa re (g oi ng ) : w a rf a re th orou g h f a re w el f a re c h a f f er ( c h ea p
- -
,
-
,
-
,
-

fare) .

l oc k 1ic ( p l a n t) h em l oc k h ou se l eek g a r l i c
-
,
- -
,
-
,
-
.

st ea d ( p l a ce)
-
h o me stea d b ed stea d in stea d o f H a mp stea d -
,
-
,
-
,
-
.

tree ( sa w n ti mb er) a x l e tree ro o f tree

- -
,
-
.

3 21 . A djec tives .

-
ed (f or m of P a st w re c h - cd, t l e tt er-cd, l a n d -
c d, g ift cd -
,

ra g g - cd .

( ma de of ) w oo d en bra z en ea rth en si l k en w a x en
en -
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
.

en ( P a st P a rt ) dru nk en h ew n o p en ( th a t w h ic h is up )
.
-
,
-
,
-
.

ern ( direc ti on to ) ea st ern n ort h ern et c -

,
-
, .

fa st ( rm) st ea d f a st sh a me f a ced ( for sh a me f a st) -

,
- -
.

f old ( repea ted) t w o f o ld ma n i f o ld h u n dred f o l d -

,
-
,
-
.

fu l (f u l l of ) fea rf u l pl a y f u l h o pe f u l w il f u l tru th f u t-
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
.

ish ( somew h a t li ke) : g irl i sh w h i t i sh s el f i sh b ru t i sh sn o b b i sh -

,
-
.
-
,
-
,
-
,

w ol f i sh pa l i sh sn a pp i sh
-
,
-
( T h i s su fx O ft en impl i es c o nt empt )
,
-
. .

i sh ( n a ti on a l i ty ) E n g l i sh S pa n i sh Tu rk i sh Fren ch ( F ra nk i sh ) -
,
-
,
-
,
- -
.

l ess ( w i th ou t) : sh a me l ess h ou se l ess h o pe l ess c ea s e l ess sl ee p

- -
,
-
,
-
,
-
,

l ess, c a u se l ess, res st - l ess, w orth l ess

-
i -
.

lik e : g o d l i ke, w a r li ke, l a dy l i ke, b u s n ess li ke

- - - -
i -
.

1y ( l ike) : g o d l y , l o v e l y ,
-
ng l y , s c ly ,
-
n d- l y , r en d l y -
ki -
i k -
ki fi -
.

most
-
ore most, i n most, u t -mos t, h n d most, e t c
f - -
i -
.

ow , w : c a ll ow ,
- -
a ll ow , mel l ow fe w , ra w , l
-
f w , tr u e - - - - - -
.

s ome (f u l l of , i n c l i n ed to ) : g a me some, w i n some, b u rde n some,

- - - -

trou l e some , h a n d some, rol c some, qu a rrel -some

b - -
f i -
.

t een , t y ( ten ) n ne -teen , t w e n -ty , th r-teen , e tc

- -
i i .

t h ( order) six th , s e v en ih , et c
- - -
.

th er ( comp a ra tive) : fa r th er, fu r th er, w h e th er, O th er

- - - - -
.

w a rd ( tu rn i n g to ) : fro w a rd, s o u t h - w a rd, do w n w a rd, fo r- w a rd, -

w a y w a rd, h ea v en w a rd, h o me -w a rd
m
.

-
y (p erta i n i n g to,
a b o u ndi n g i n ) : h l l -
y, s o r -
y, u sh -
y, ro c -
y, i t b k
w o oll -y , smok y , w o o d- y , tru st -y , ea th er y
-
f .
21 8 E N L A RG E M E N T O F VO CA BU L A R Y P A RT III

3 22 . A dverb s .

l ing , -l ong -w i se, ma nn er) : h ea d l o ng , da r - ling , s de l ong

- -
k i -
.

1y ( li ke) sa d l y , c a re u l l y , b a d l y , o n l y
- -
f - - -
.

mea 1 ( di vi si on ) p e c e mea l , nc h mea l , l m mea l ( S h a s )

-
i -
i -
i b -
k .

n : w h e n , th e n c e , h e n c c ( Th ere a re t w o su x e s in then ce,

- - - - -
. f
h en ce F o r t h e s e c o n d o n e see s , c c b el o w )
.
- -
.

om
-
s el d c m, w h il o m ( T h s w a s o n c e a D a t v e c a se en d ng )
- -
. i i -
i .

re : w h e re, t h e re, h e re
- - - -
.

s,
-
oe z n eed s , t w i c c , b es de s, c l se, o n ce ( s
-
g n o f P ossess v e )
- -
i - - -
i i .

th er : w h i th er, t hi th er, hi th er
- - - -
.

w a rd, -W a rds ( tu rn i ng to ) f or w a rd, u p w a rds, do w n w a rds - - -

.

B Th e a dv formed b y w a rds th e a dj b y

N . . . . is u su a l l
y . w a rd .

w ay, -
W ay s : a l - w a y s, stra i g h t w a y an
y w a y no w a y
-
,
-
,
-
.

w i se ( ma n n er mode) : , o th er w ise n o w i se l ik e w i se
-
,
-
,
-
.

Verb s .

F r equ en t a t iv e (so meti mes in a u g men ta t iv e sense)

3 23 .

er -
l i ng er fro m l o ng u tt er fro m it fa l t er fro m fa i l c l a mb er
-
,
-
,
-
,
-

from c l imb sh imm er from sh i n e g l itt er from g l i nt , spu t t er from

,
-
,
- -

spo u t , h a n k er fro m h a ng s pa tt er fro m spo t -

,
-
.

k t a l k fro m t ell ( qu e st i o n ed b y so me ) h a r k from h ea r st a l k

- -
,
-
,
-
.

-
1e, -
1 : di b b l e, -
s pa r k -
l e, s t a rt - l e, k ne e -
l, c ra c k -
te, sh u f f -
te, cac k - te,
w rig g - te, pra tt - l e, da z z l e, dra w l , n ib b l e, sn iv c l ( fro m s n i ff)
- - - -
.

-
o n, -
o m m: ,
-
b l oss o m from b l o w , g l ea m from g l o w , sea m
- - -
fro m
s ew ,
P ec k -
o n, b laz -
on .

3 24 . C a u sa t iv e or F a c t it iv e
-
en z f a t t - en , sh o rt - en , l en g th -
en ,
g l a dd -
en, bl a ck -
en , th ic k -
en .

se : c l e a n - s e, rin - se, g l i mp se ( R a re )
- -
.

le z s ta rt - l e ( st a rt )
,
j o st te (j o u st ), stif te
- -
( sti ff ) .

S E CTI O N 3 .
R O M A N I C P R E F I XE s .

3 25 . A ab ab s ( awa y f ro m) : a h h o r,
-
a b -
u s e, a b -
su rd, a h nor
-

ma l ,
a b s t ra c t ,
-
a bs -
en t , a bs -
c o n d, a b s ta -
in a - v ert , a -
v o -c a t o n i .

A d ( to ) By a ss m l a t o n a c af ag dl an a
p ar as i i
at i
-
i
a d v c e, a d j o n , a d mo n sh , a d o re , a d h ere , a d O pt-
i -
i - - -
.

a o c u s t o m, a c c e pt , a c c ede , a o c e n t , d c c u se , d c qu re i

- - - - - -
.

a f ic t , af x , af fec t io n , af l ia t e , af a b l e , af rm
- - - -
f -
.

-
i
a g g r e v e , a g g ra v a t e , a g g reg a t e , a g g re sso r, a g g ra ndise
- - - -
.

a l l eg e, a l l o t , a l l u re , a l l o w , a l l a y , a l l ev a t e
- - - - - -
i .

a n n ou n c e , a n n e x , a n n o y , a n n u l , a n ni h il a t e
- - - - -
.

a p pro a c h , a p pea r, ap pe a l , a p po n t , ap pea se , a p pa l

- - - -
i - -
.

-
i
a r r v e, a r rea rs, a r rest , a r ro g a n t , a r-ra y , a r ra ng e
- - - -
.

a s pec t , a sc rib e , a s p re ( h ere t h e d h a s b een l o st )

- -
i .

a s s e n t , a s s ert, a s su me , a s c erta n , a s sa l , a s se t s
- - - -
i -
i -
.

a t t e nd, a t t a n , a t t ra c t , a t t a c h , a t t empt , a t t a c i k
- - - -
- - .

A mb i a mb a m ( a ro u n d) a m b i d e x t ero u s ,
a mb t o u ,
a m-
pu t a te - -
ii .

A nt e a nt i ( b ef ore ) a n te c h a m er, a n te c e den t , a n ti c ipa t e -

b - -
.

Ben e ( w e l l ) b en e t , b en e v o l en t , b en e d c t o n , h en c e b en so n - - -
i i -
i .

Bi b is b in z b i pe d, b i s c u t , b i sec t , b i e n nia l , b in oc u l a r
- - -
i - - -
.

Circ um c irc u ( a rou nd) : circu m erenc e, c i rcu it , c i rcu m st a nc e -

f - -
.
220 E N LA R G E M E N T O F VO CA BU LA R Y PA R T I II

0b i
( f t f, g i t ) b j , t h st m i
n ron o a a n s o ec o a te, c c c u
py , oc c a sio n ,
- -
: - -

of v -
f
fer, of e nd, op po se , op pre ss, os t ens b l e , o mit
- - -
i -
.

P er pel ( th rou g h ) p er- o rc e , p er s p re , p er o rm, p el l u c id f -

i -
f -

N ote
. ik
P er, l e t h e T eu to n c f or, so met mes pa sses ro m t h e n o t o n
. i i f i
O f th o ro u g h n ess t o t h a t O f g o n g too f a r o r i n a w ron
g di rec ti on i
-
i
P er v ert , p er s st , p er j u re , p er dy , p er-ish , p er-d t o n
- - -
ii .

P en e ( a l most) p en n su l a , p en u l t ma t e -
i -
i .

P o st ( af ter) p ost da t e, p ost sc r pt , p ost po n e , p ost h u mou s

- -
i - -
.

Pre ( b ef o re) p re d c t , p re c a u t o n , p re pa re, p re j u d c e

-
i -
i - -
i .

Pret er ( b ey on d) p reter n a tu ra l , p reter it e - -

.

Pro p o r p ol p u r (f or th ) p j , p pose , p ro n ou n , p ro
: ro e c t ro - - -

m se , p or t en d, p o l l u t e , p u r po se , p u r-su e, p u r po rt , p u r l o n
i - - - - -
i .

Qu a si ( preten c e) a qu a si j u dg e ( a sh a m or pret en ded j u dg e) -

.

Q u on da m ( f merl y ) a qu on da m j u dg e ( a ormer j u dg e )
o r -
f .

R e re d ( b a ck, a ga i n ) re j o n , re a c t, re n ew , red e c m, red ou n d, -

i - - - -

red u nda n t-
.

N ote .
Th e i nserti on of a h y ph en al t ers th e mea n i ng . C ompa re

rec o v er a nd re c o v er
-
re o n j i
a nd

re -
j oi n
redress

a nd

re - dress

re o rm f a nd

re - o rm f

; rec ol l ec t a nd

re

c o ll ec t re c o u n t a nd re c ou n t -
ret u rn a nd re -
t u rn .

R e tro ( b a ckw a rd) retro spec t , retro g ra de , retro c ess o n - - -

i .

Se s e d ( ap a rt) : se el u de , se pa ra t e , sed it io n , se c ret , se c u re

- - - - -
.

S emi demi ( h a lf ) semi c rc l e demi g o d, demi O fc ia l -

i - -
.

i
S ne ( w i th ou t) si n e c u re -
.

Sub ( u n der ,
af )
ter : su b je c t ,
su c c o u r, su c c ess , su f -
f er, s u
f c e, - - - -

t i
su g g es , su b - c o mm t t ee, su s t a n , su s pen d, sup po rt , su r rept i ti ou s
- -
i - - -
.

N a ta I n w o rds l ik e su b tro i c a l
p t h e su b m ea n s ra t h er -
.

In su b j u dg e it den o t es l o w er ra nk
-
I n su b ma ri n e ( u n der th e se a ) .
-

is prepo si ti o na l

a n d s u b t erra n e a n ( u n der t h e e a rt h ) t h e
-
su b .

( b en ea th ) su b ter u g e
S u b t er -
f .

S u per
su r ( a b ove, over, b ey ond) : sup er s tru c tu re , sup er c i a l ; - -

su r a c e, su r-pa ss , su r v v e , su r c h a rg e, su r- e t , su r mou n t
-
f -
i -
fi -
.

T ra n s t ra ( a c ross ) tra n s g u re , tra n s g ress, tra n s o rm, tra n s it , - - -

f -

tra n s mit , tra n s l a t e, tra n s pa re n t , tra v erse, tra d t o n , tra du c e

- - - - -
ii -
.

T ri ( th ree) tri a n g l e , tri l a t era l , tri nit y - - -

.

Ultra ( b ey ond ) u l tra l b era l ( v ery l b era l , a dv erb a l sen se ), u l tra -

i i i
ma r n e ( ey o nd t h e s ea , prepo s t o na l s en se )
i b ii .

Un u ni ( on e) u n a n mo u s , u n i orm, u n i c o rn -
i -
f -
.

i
V c e v is ( i n stea d of ) vi c e reg en t , vi s c ou nt , vi ce roy - - -
.

3 26 . D isgu ised P refixes (L a tin or F ren c h) .

A nt e ( b ef ore ) a n c est o r fo r a n te c esso r - -

.

Ri ( tw i ce) b a l a n c e -
.

C on co ( g
to eth er) c it s t om ,
c u r ry ( v er ), c o -
v e r ,
c o v e n a nt , - -
b -

c o u n t ( v erb a n d n o u n ), c ou c h , c o s t
- - -
.

Di s di ( ap a rt) : des c a n t , des pa t c h , de- ea t , de l u g e , s pen d - -

f - -
.

Ex e ( ou t) a -me n d ( b u t e me n da t io n ), a b a sh , a ra d, a w a rd - - -
f i -
.

a s t o nis h , es -c a pe , es c h ea t , es sa y , i s su e , s a m pl e , s c a rc e , s c o re b
- - - - - - -
.

E xt ra ( o u tside ) stra ng e, stra ng er ( S t em o rmed ro m prex )- -

. f f .

I n ( n ot) : en emy ( h e nc e a dj i n imic a l ), a n -O n t

-
.
-
i .

Int ra ( w i th i n ) entr-a l s ( H ere t h e

pr e x i s m a d e t h e s i
t e m ) . .
C HA P . x xv BY PR E F I X ES A N D S U FF I X E S 221

Ju xt a ( ) j ou st j ost l e
n ea r ( Th e prex is ma de th e st em ) ,
-
. .

N on ( n ot) u m pire ( O l d F ren c h n om per) -

,
-
.

P er ( th rou gh ) p a r do n p a r a mo u nt p a r s on p i l g rim -
,
-
,
-
,
-
.

P o st ( ( Fr p u i s n , L a t p ost na t u s)
a
f ter) p ny
u -
.
-
.
-
.

Pre ( b ef ore) p re a c h , p ro v o st - -
.

R e ( b a c k ) ren der, r a n som, r a l l y , ru na g a t e ( re n eg a tu s )

- - - - -
.

R etro ( b a ck ) rea r g u a rd -
.

S u b ( u nder) so j ou rn , su d den , s omb re ( su b o r ex u mb ra) - - -

.

S u per ( a b ove) s op r a n o , sover eig n ( O l der spell i n g , sovr a n ) - - -

.

Tra ns ( a cross) tres pa ss, tre a so n , tra f c - - -

.

Ul tra ( b ey ond) ou tr a g e ( H ere t h e prex is ma de th e st em -

. .
)
S E CTI O N 4 .
R O M A N I C S UF F I X E S .

3 27 . A g en t
a in .
-
en , -
l i b ra ri a n
an : c a pt - a i n , c h ie ft -a i n , g u ar di -
a n , c it iz - eu , -
.

a nt merc h a n t, serv a nt, b rig a n d, c o n d a n t, de pen d a n t

- - - - -
.

a rd, a rt : c o w a rd, w iz a rd, dru nk a rd, sl u gg a rd, b ra g g a rt

- - - - - -
.

a ry ,
-
a r, a ire : dig nit a ry , mi ssi o n a ry , sec ret a ry
- -
vic a r, - - - -

sc h O l a r ; mi ll i o n a i re, doc trin a i re

- - -
.

ate
-
c a n di d a te, a dv o c a te, c u r a te, pri m a te
- - - -
.

ee , y
-
t ru st ee, d e v o t cc , pa y cc
- -
u r y , l ev y , a t t orn ey
de pu t y , j - - - - - -
.

N ata Th ese w or s d
h ave a P a ssi ve s i g ni c a t i o n Th u s t ru st c c
.
-

mea ns one w h o is tru st ed : j u r- y me a ns o n e w h o is sw o rn Bu t .

th ere i s n o P a s si v e mea n i ng in t h e w ords a b s e nt c c

( o n e w h o is -

a b sen t ) ,
refu g ee -
( o n e w h o h a s t a k en refu g e ) .

-
e er, ier : e ng i n eer, a u c t i o n eer, v o l u nt eer ; sol d i er, fina nc i er
- - - - - -
.

ent : st u d en t, pre sid en t, pa t i en t, ro d en t

- - - -
.

-
e ss so n g str ess, poet ess, t i g r ess, l i o n ess - - - - -
.

-
ine , in : li b ert i n e, g o hl i n , c o u s i n , pil g r i m
- - - - -
.

c a pt i ve, f ug i t i ve, n a t i ve, pl a i n t i , c a i t i, b a i l if

' '

-
i v e, i - - - - - - -
.

-
ou : f el on , g l u tt on , ma s ou , sc u ll i on , dra g on
- - - - -
.

-
our, eu r, or, er s a v i ou r, emper or, g o v ern or, prea c h er, ro b b er,
- - - - - - - -

a c t - or, mo n i t or c en s
d oet -
or, -
,
-
o r, a n c est - or, a ma t -
eu r, c o n n o ss e u r i .

3 28 A b st r a c t N o un s
.

-
a cy , -
cy : pr v -
a c i
y, a c c u r-
a cy, intric -
a cy , sec re - cy , b a nk ru pt ey -
.

ag e :b o n d a g e, c o u r a g e, h o m a g e, ma rri a g e, pi l g rim a g e
- - - - - -
.

Cost of a cti on post a g e, frei g h t a g e, b ro k er a g e, h a l t a g e

- - - -
.

R esu l t of a cti on brea k a g e, l ea k a g e, mess a g e, pi l l a g e - - - -

.

A g en t : perso n a g e ( a perso n o f importa nc e ) -

.

a l , a l s : re fu s d l ,
-
ro o s a l , t ri a l , n u pt i a l s, c red e nt i a l s
p p
- - - - - -
.

a nc e ,
-
enc e : di stu rb a n ce, endu r a nc e, repen t a n ce ;
-
O b e di enc e,
- - - -

i n no c ence, a b s ence pres en c e, depen d en ce, di li g en ce, pa ti en c e

- -
,
- - - -
.

a n c y , enc y c o n st a n cy , b ri l l i a n cy , t en a n c y ; ex c ell en cy , re

en cy ,
g
- - - - - - -

u rg en c y , f re u en c y , in so l v en c , emer en c y , in n oc en cy
q
-
g
-
y
- - -
.

el , l e , el e : qu a rr el , sequ - c l , t u t e l a g e , c l i en t ol e, c a n d te
- - - - - - - -
.

e s s , ic e ,
-
ise : serv i ce, l a rg ess, ri c h es, pro w ess, merc h a nd i se,
- - - - - - -

e x erc i se, j u st i ce,

pra c t i ce, c o w a rd i ce, a v a r i ce, n o t i c e
- - - - - -
.

a nd c u r, l i u eu r T h l i b ou n )
eu r
-
g r q ( e a
-
s t s n o t a n a s tra c t n -
. .

it y , t y : fa l s i ty , rea l i ty
- -
c ru el ty , fra il ty , b ou n ty , u n i ty
- - - - - -
.

1enc e : pesti -len ce, v io -l ence, v iru l en ce tu rhu l en ce, O pu l en ce

- -
,
- -
.
222 E N LA RG E M E N T O F VO CA BU LA R Y P A RT III

-
ment : c o nc e a l - men t ,
e nc h a n t - men t n ou ri sh men t nu tri men t
,
-
,
-
.

-
mony : c ere - mon y ,
a cr i -
mon y ,
ma t ri mo ny t est i mony -
,
-
.

-
ou r, fa v ou r, h o n ou r, e rr or, l a ng u or, c o l ou r
-
or z - - - - -
.

ry , ery : c h v a l ry , po e t ry
-
i
sl a v ery , t re a c h er , c o o -er
y
-
y
- - -
k .

sion : c o n v er si on , c o h e si o n , o c c a si on , c o mpu l si on , proc e s si o n ,

- - - - -

ill u si o n , ma n si on , c o l l si on , c o n fu si on , a dm s si on
- -
i - -
i -
.

t i on , s on , s om b en e d c ti on , b e n son pO ti on , poi -son redemp

- -
i -
i - -

t io n, ra n so m ; o ra - ti o n, o ri son
-
t ra d tion , t rea so n -
i - -
.

i
t u de : l o n g tu de, a pt tu de, a l t tu de, mu l t tu de, s erv tu de
-
i -
i -
i -
i -
.

u re c re a t u re, v e rd u re, mea s u re, v e st u re, se z u re, a ric u l t u re -

i
g
- - - - -
.

-
y : h a r m o n y ,
s t u d y ,
v c t o r y , m se r y , -
n d u s tr y , e nv y -
i -
i -
i - -
.

3 29 . C o l l ec t iv es ; N ouns of Pl a c e
-a de : b a l u str a de, c a v a l e a de, b ri g a de, c ru s a de
c o l o n n - a de, - - - -
.

ag e a ss emb l a g e, l u m a g e, fo l i a g e, v i l l a g e, h ermi t a e c o t t
p
- -
-
g ,
-
a ge
- - -
.

-
a ry , -
ari u m : l i b r a ry , g ra n a ry , semi n a ry , s a n c t u a ry , g l o ss
- - - - -
a ry ,

di c t i o n -
a ry sa n it -
a ri a m ,
a
q a ri u
u -
m .

-
ery , -
ry : ma c h i n -
ery , c a v a l - ry , j ew el -
ry , g en t -ry , t en a n t -
ry , in
f a n t - ry ,
i
s t a t o n - c ry , sh ru b b -
ery , b ak -
ery , c e me t -
ery , s
pic -
ery , ro c k -er
y .

-
ory : f a c t - ory , dormi t -
ory , a r m -
c ry , t err t - ory , i O b s erv a t - ory .

3 30 . Dimin u t iv es
-
a st er : p pil
o e t - a ster, o l e - a ster,
a ster -
.

el , l e ,
-
e l l e : da ms el , c a st l e, mo d e l , c i t a d c l , mo rs c l , pa rc -el ,
- - - - - - -

b a g a t el l e -
( F em a l e fro m Fr fem el l e, L a t i n f em el l a )
.
-
.
- -
.

et , l et l o c k et, l a nc et, poc k et, t i c k et, t u rr et, c o ro n et, t h i c k et

- - - - - - - -

bra c e l et, strea m l et, b ro o k l et, l ea f l et, ri vu l et, ri ng l et, ro o t l et

- - - - - - -
.

-
et t e : e t iqu ette, st a tu ette, c i g a r ette, w a g o n ette, b ru n ette
- - - - -
.

i ol e , - c u l e : a rt i c l e, pa rt i c l e, a ni ma l cu l e, c u rr i c l e, c u rr i cu l u m,
- - - - - -

c u t i ol e, c o rpu s c l e, pi n n a c l e, c o d i cil , do mi ci l e
- - - - -
.

o t z f a
g o t ,
c h a ri o t, p
a-
rr o t ,
m a gg o t,
b a ll -
o t, p
i v -
ot
- - -
.

u l e : g l o b u l e, pi ll u l e, n o d-u l e, c a ps u l e
- - -
.

331 . M isc ell a n e o u s

a ce : o
p pu l -
a c e, pi nn -
a ce, men -
a c e, p l a -
a ce , s - a c e,
p g r im a ce -
.

-
a n d, -
end : v i - a nd o r v i - a n ds, l eg -
en d, di v i d -
en d, re v er- en d .

c re , -
c h re lu -
c re, se
p u l - c h re, ma ssa -
cre ( fo rmed i n imita t i o n ) .

-
en , -
o m ,
-
n : a l i - en , v e n - o m ,
cha i -
n .

ern : ta v -
ern , c a v - ern , l ec t -
ern , l a nt -e
rn , c st - ern i .

i c , k , g e z fa b r i c , ru st i c , mu s i c ;
- - - - -
c l er- k, sil - k ; ser- g e .

il , il e , l e z pu p i l , imb ec i l e, sea l ,
- - - - -
a is - l e,
q u a dr- i l l e, b a c i l lu s -
.

-
In : ma rg -
i n, o ri g - i n , V i rg -
in .

-
o : st u d i -
o, in c o g n it o
g ro tt o ,
- -
.

-
o on , -
on e ( a u g men ta ti ve) : b a l l oon , b a ss c on , t ro mb - - -
on e .

t er, -
t re : c l o is ter, t h ea tre, l u s tre, s pec tre, l ter,
- - - - -
mo ns -
ter .

3 3 2 A djec ti ves . .

-
t en a c i ou s, l o qu a c i ou s , me n d a c i ou s, c a p-a ci ou s
a c iou s : - - -
.

a l z l o y a l , l e g a l , ro y a l , reg a i, e qu a l , mo rt a l , v i t a l
- - - - - - - -
.

-
a n, a ne , a in : h u m a n , h u m a n e
- -
c ert a i n a
p g a n , R om- a n - - - -
.

a n eou s : s imu l t a n eou s, n st a n t a n c c a s, c o n t empo r a n eou s

-
i - -
.

a nt , en t : v a c a n t,-
n d g n a n t, ra mp-a n t, pa t i -en t, in n oc en t,
-
i i - -

c u rr en t, c o nd en t, t ru a n t, v a g r-a n t
- - -
.
224 EN LA RGE M E N T O F VO CA BULA RY P A RT III

Ca t a c a th c a t ( dow n ) : c a ta ra c t , c a th edra l , c a ta stro ph e, - - -

ca t
e c h i sm .

Dia ( th ro u g h ) : di a meter, di a l o g u e , di a dem, di a g o na l

- - - -
.

Di ( i n t w o ) di ssy l l a b l e, di ph t ho ng , di l emma
- - -
.

Dy s ( i l l ) dy s pept c , dy s e n t ery -
i -
.

Ec e x ( o u t, f ro m) ecc O du s , ec c e n tr c , c c l s l i i
p e c c o g e
u
- - - -
.
,

E u ( i n ) e n t h u sia sm, em ph a s s, el l ipsis , en c o miu m

- -
i - -
.

E ndo ( w i thi n ) endo g a mo u s, endo g en o u s - -

.

E pi eph ep ( p ) p g
u on e i ra m ep o c h ep i t a
p , p emera l ,
h e h -
: , ,
- - -

ep i st l e
-
.

E x o ( w i th ou t) ezc o g a mo u s, ex o t ic - -
.

Eu c v ( w ell ) : eu ph o n y , eu ph emi sm, c v a ng el ist

- - -
.

H emi ( h a lf ) h emi sph ere -

.

Hept a h ept ( seven ) h ep ta g on , h ep t a rc h y - -

.

H et ero ( different) h etero dox , h etero g en eou s - -

.

Hex ( six ) h ex a -me t er, h ex a g o n - - -

.

Homo h om ( sa me) : h omo g en e ou s, h om o ny m - -

.

Hy per ( a b ove) h yp er b o l e, h yp er c r t c a l ( c r t c a l t o a a u l t )
- -
ii ii f .

Hy p o , h yp h ( u nder) h yp o c rit e , h yp o t h es s, h yp h en - -
i -
.

M et a meth met ( af ter, su b sti tu ti on ) meta ph or, meth O d, met - -

o ny my .

M on o mon ( si ng l e, a l on e) mon o g ra ph , mon a rc h y , mon a st ery , - - -

mon k -
.

P a n pa nt o ( a l l ) : p a n t h ei st , p a n o pl y , p a n o ra ma , p a n to mi me
- - - -
.

P ara pa r ( b eside) p a ra ph ra se, p a ra b l e, p a r a ll el , p a ra s i t e - - - -

.

P ent a (jive) p en ta me t er, p en ta po l i s - -

.

P eri ( a rou nd ) p eri met er, peri ph ra sis, p eri O d - - -

.

P ol y ( ma n y ) : p o l y sy l l a bl e, p o l y t h ei st , p o ly g l o t
e - -
.

Pro ( b ef ore) p ro g ra mme , p ro l o g u e , p ro ph e t , pro b o sc is

- - - -
.

P s eu do ps eu d (f a l se) p seu do c ri t i c , pseu d o ny m - -

.

S y n ( w i th ) sy n t h e si s, s y n t a x , sy m pa t h y , sy l l a b l e, sy s t em
- - - - -
.

T el e ( af a r) tel e g ra ph , tel e ph o n e, tel e g ra m

- - -
.

T ri ( thri ce, or th ree) tri po d, tri sy ll a b l e , tri sec t - - -

.

335 . L a ti n a nd Greek equ iva l en t P rexes .

L a ti n . Greek . M ea n i ng .

A mb i a mb ig u o u s -
A mphi a mph i b io us -
O n b o th s i des
A h a h so l u t e -
A po a po l ogy -
From
Ex a m ne
-
i Ec c c s ta s
y
-
O ut O f
I n i n s pec tio n
-
E n E m em ph a si s I n t o , in -

S em demi dem g o d
i i -
Hemi h emi sph ere Hal f -

S u per su perv se i Hy per h y per b o l e A b ove -

S ub su b st a n t i v e
-
Hy po h y po t h esi s U nder -

Pro pro po rt o n -
i Pro pro ph et Be fo re or for -

Tri t ri a ng l e -
Tri tri po d T h ri c e -

S E CTIO N 6 .
G REE K S U FF I XE S .

N OW
A g en t
'

336 . :

-
ac : ma n i -
demo ni a c
a c, -
.

ant : i a n t, a da m a n t, el e ph a n t -
g
- - -
.

a st : e n t h u si a s t, i c o n o c l a st, g y mn
- - -
a st, enc o mi - a st.
C HA P . x xv BY PREF I X E S A N D S U F F I X E S 225

-
i c : b eret -i c, sc ept i c, c r t i c, c l er i c -
i - -

i st : ent - i st, t h e ist, e o t -i st, a l a rm i s t, e x t rem-i st, o t im- ist

d g
-
p
- -
.

it e l sra el i te, erem i te o r h erm i t, a nc h or i te or a nc h o r c t

- - - - -
.

-
i
ot : pa tr ot, z ea l c t, idi ot ( b ig ot, do u b t u l )
- - - -
f .

-
t e, -t : pro ph e t, poe t, pl a n e t, a po st a te, c o me t - - - - -
.

3 37 . A b st ra c t N o u n s
as m: en t h u si a s m
pl eo n
-
m ,
-
as m ,
sa rc - a s m ,
c h -a s .

-
ic ic s : l o g i c ma g i c mu s i a ; et h i cs ma th ema t i c s po l i t i c s
,
- -
,
-
,
- -
,
-
,
-
.

i sm : pa t ri o t i s m, b a rb a r i s m ma g n e t i s m t h e i s m c ri t i c i sm
- -
,
-
,
-
,
-
.

s is, -
dro p sy , pa l sy
sy , -
a ra l
se :
p y si s b a s is ;
- - -
,
-
ec l ip- s e, e lli
p
-
se .

y : mo n a rc h y , ph i l o so ph y , democ ra c y , e n erg y
- - - -
.

-
y sm : c a t a c l y s m,
pa ro x y sm
- -
.

338 . Dimin u t ives

- isk b el i sk b a sil i sle
a st er- i sk, O -
,
- .

33 9 . M isc ell a n e ou s
-
a d, -
id myri a d dec a de mo n a d
: -
,
-
,
-
,
Ili -
a d, E n e- i d .

-
m ,
-
mme : t h eore -
m pro b l e m
,
-
,
t el eg ra -m, pro g ra - m me , c l i- me ,

c l i- m a te
-
.

-
oid : a n t hro p- oid, n eg r- o i d, meta ll oid t a b l oid -
,
-
.

-
ter, tre
-
: c en -tre, me -
tre, di a me ter seep tre -
,
-
.

3 40 . A djec ti ves .

ast ic : pl e on a sti o, ec c l e si - a sti c , sa rc - a stio, dr a stic

- - -
.

ic : dra ma t i a, c o sm i c , c om i c , tra g i c ,
- - - -
po l i t ic ,
a u t h
-
en t i c -
.

-
ist ic : eu l o g i sti c , e v a ng el i sti c , pa t r i sti c
- - -
.

Verb s .

-
ise : c v i il -
i se, sc ru t n - i se, i ferti l -
i se, rea l - i se, th eo r-i se .

3 4 2 S ome Gen era l R esu l ts

. .

(a ) Afx es d en o tin g a modera te d eg ree o f so me qu ali ty

-
ish , T e u t o ni c bla c k -
i sh ( bl a c k )
ra t h er ,
s w ee t - i sh ( ra t h er sw e e t ) .

-
l y , T e u t on c : i c l ea n ~ l y ( di spose d t o b e c l ea n ),
s c i k -
ly ( li a b l e to
b e s c i k) .

Sub R oma ni c : s u b
id (ra th era c id ) su b tro pi c a l ( sl i g h tl y tro pi c a l )
-
ac ,
-
.

b
( ) S u i x e s d en o ti n
g a h ig h d e
g r ee O f so m e
q u ali ty

f u 1 T eu t o n i c
-
, p l en t i f ul w o nd erf u t t a st e f u l
: tru th f u t - -
,
-
,
-
.

-
ou s o se R oma ni c -
v erb ose n u me r ou s fa m o u s O di ou s : - - - -

.
, , , , ,

N a at T h e equ i va l en c e o f t h es e su ffi x es is seen from t h e fa c t th a t

th e s a me st em s o met imes ta k es b o t h forms
Pl en ti f u l pl ent e ou s -
Be u t i f u l b e u t e ou s
,
Bo u nt i f u l
-
. a -
,
a -
.
-
,

b o u n t e ou s P i t i f u l pit e ou s Jo y f u l jo y ou s G r c e f u l g r c i ou s
-
.
-
,
-
.
-
,
-
. a -
,
a -
.

()
c P r e x e s d e n o ti n g t h e u n d o i n
g O f so m e t hi n g d o n e

Un T eu t o ni c u n b ol t u n ti e u n l oc k u n fol d : -
,
-
,
-
,
-
.

De R oma ni c : de t hro n e de c a mp de t a c h -
,
-
,
-
.

Dis o r di R o ma ni c di s mou n t di s a ppea r di s a rm : -

,
-
,
-
.

E G 0
. . . Q
226 E N L A R G E M EN T O F VO CA BUBA R Y P A RT III

(d) A f x es d en o ti ng a ne
g a tive
For T eu t o n c f o r b id i -
.

-
i
l es s , T e u t o n c : h a p l ess, l a w - l ess, h o pe - l ess -
.

N i
T eu to n c : n o n e, n e v er, n e t h er, n o r - - -
i -
.

i
Un T eu t o n c : u n h a ppy , u n sa e, u n rea dy - -
f -
.

Dis di R o ma n c : di s qu et ( O ppo s te t o q u e t ), dif c u l t

i -
i i i ( no t
ea sy ), dif de n t ( n o t c o nde n t ), di s - h o n o u r
-
.

In R o ma n c : i n h u ma n , i r reg u l a r, i m mo ra l , i l l eg b l e
i - f - - -
i .

N e n eg n on R o ma n c : n e f a riou s, n eg l ec t , n on sen se i - - -
.

A or a h . k
G re e : a pa th y , a n a rc h y , a m b ro si a l - - -
.

()
e i n di c a ti ng th e F emi n i n e g en d er
S u f x es
-
st er T eu t o n i c
, spi n ster ( O nl y o n e w ord ) -
. .

-
e n T eu t o n i c
, v ix en ( O nl y o n e w o rd ) -
. .

e s s R o ma n i c
,
l i o n ess t emptr ess t i g r ess
: -
,
-
,
-
.

( f ) P re x es i n di ca ti n g someth i n g b ad
M is T eu to n i c ( from mi ss) mi s t k e mi s deed mi s h a p -
a ,
-
,
-
.

M a l e ma l R oma n i c ma l e fa c t or ma l tre t : -
, .
- a .

M is R o m n i c ( fro m mi n u s ) mi s u se mi s fort u n e
a -
,
-
.

Dy s G reek dy s e n tery dy s pepsia

: -
,
-
.

(g) i n di ca ting so me thi ng g ood

P re x es -

W e11 Te u t o n i c w el f re w el c ome w el l b ei ng : -
a ,
-
,
-
.

Bene R o ma n i c b en e v o l en t b en e t b en e di c t i o n
: -
,
-
,
-
.

E u G reek eu ph emism c v a n g el ist eu ph o ny

: -
,
-
,
-
.

(h) A f x es fo r fo rmi n g T ra n si t ive v erb s

'

Be T e u t o ni c b e fri end, b e c a l m, b e mo a n , b e l i ttl e

- - - -
.

-
en , T e u t o n i c : da rk en , l e n g t h en , h a st en , l ik en - - - -
.

-
l o , T e u t o n i c : st a rt l e, j o st te, s tif l e - - ~
.

-
s e , T eu t o n i c : c l ea n se, rin se, g l i mp se - - -
.

-
f y , R o ma n i c : ma g n i f y , mo di f y , st u pe f y - - -
.

In en R o ma n i c : i m peri l , en de a r, em o r i m bi t t er - - -
.

-
i se , G reek : h u ma n ise, b ru t a l i se, g a l va n i se - - -
.

(i) S u fx es h a vi ng a d eprec i a to ry fo rc e
T eu toni c f or f orming N ou n s
- f i
c ra t : pr e s t c raf t, st a t e c raf t, w tc h craf t
- -
i -
.

-
ere1, re 1 : mo n g rel , dog g ere l , do t t - erel , w a st -rel
- - -
.

-
i
l ing : h re - li ng , g rou n d l i n g , u n der li ng , w o rl d l i ng , w ea k l i ng - - - -
.

-
mong er : b a ll a d mong er, c ro tc h e t - mong er, g r e v a n c e-man g er
-
i .

-
st er : t r c ster,
y o i k
u n g ster, rh y me -ster
- -
.

R o ma n i c f or f ormi ng N ou n s
-
a rd : c o w a rd, dru nk a rd, sl u g g
- - -
a rd, do t -
a rd .

-
a st er : po e t a ster, c r t c a ster -
i i -
.

T eu ton i c f orf ormi ng A djec ti ves

-
i sh : R om i sh , w o ma n -i sh , c h l d i sh ,
-
i -
b a b y i sh , -
u
pp i sh ,
-
sl a v -i sh .

R oma n i c f or f ormi n g A djec ti ves

-
il e pu er-i l e ( c h l d i sh ), n a nt i l e i -
i f -
( b a by -
i sh ), s erv -i l e ( sl a v -i sh ).
228 E N LA R GE M E N T O F V O CA BU LA RY P A RT III

(d) Greek a nd R oma n ic su s

ia e

Ba rb a r ism, b a rb a r i ty
- -
.
-
ism, fo rma l it y -
.

C o mmu n i sm, c o mmu n i t y

- -
.
-
ism, v u l g a r it
y
-
.

F a t a l ism, fa t a l i t y
- -
.

II S how b y a n exa mp l e the dieren c e of mea n ing, if a ny , in ea ch

'

f
o the f o l low i ng p a irs of a djec tives f ormed w i th dizf eren t su x es
Ben ec i a l , b en ec e nt . J u di c i a l , j u di c i ou s .

C ere mo nio u s , c eremo n i a l . L u x u ri o u s, l u x u ri a n t .

C h i l dl i k e , c h i l di sh . M a st e rl y , ma st e rfu l .

C o mic , c o mi c a l . M o men t a ry , mo me n t ou s .

C o mpre h ensi ve , c o mpreh ensi b l e . N o t a b l e , n o to ri o u s .

C o n g e ni a l , c o ng e ni t a l . O fc i a l , O f c io u s .

C o n t empt i b l e , c o n t emptu ou s . O rdi n a l , o rdi n a ry .

C o n t i n u a l , c o nt i n u o u s . Permi ssi v e , permi ssi b l e .

Co rpo ra t e , c o rpo ra l . P o l i t i c , po l i t i c a l .

Cre di b l e , c redi t a b l e . P o pu l a r, po pu l o u s .

D e n i t e , deni t i ve . R e spec ti v e , re spec t fu l .

D ra ma t ic , dra ma t ic a l . R e vere n d, rev eren t .

E l e me n ta l , e l emen t a ry . S a n a t o ry , sa ni ta ry .

E x c e pt io n a l , e x c e pt i o n a b l e . S e nsi t i v e , sen si b l e .

E x pe di e nt , e x pedi t i o u s . S e n su a l , sen su o u s .

G o dl ik e , g o dl y . S i l v e ry , si l vern .

I l l usi ve , i ll u sory . S pi ri t u o u s , s pi ri t u a l .

Ima g i n a ry , i ma g i na t i ve . T e mpo ra l , te mpo ra ry .

i
I mpe r a l , mper ou s i i . T ra g i c , t ra g i c a l .

i
I ndus tr a l , n du s t r o u s i i . Tra n s i t o ry , tra n si t io na l
- -
.

i
I n g e n o u s, n g e n u o u s i . Verb a l , v erb ose .

I nn oc en t i nn o c u o u s
, . V i rt u a l , v i rtu o u s .

IIIS u b sti tu te a si ng l e
. w ord (a n a d ec ti ve
j ) f or the w ords

pri n ted b el ow i n i ta li cs

( a ) Th i s w r t ngii b e rea d is su ch a s c a nn o t .

( b ) T h e pl a n y o u me n t o n ca n n ot b e p u t i n to p ra c ti ce i .

( e) H e is on e w h o c a nn ot a c c ordi ng to th e ru l es b e el ected .

( d) Th a t h erb is f it to b e ea ten .

( e) T h e c o l o u r is b ey on d my p erc ep ti on .

(f ) Y o u a re l i a b l e to b e c a l l ed to a c cou n t fo r y ou r a c t o n s i .

( g ) T h e pl a n y o u pro po se is op en to o bjec t i on s .

( h ) T h a t w o rd is n o l ong er i n use .

i
( i ) T h s is a b rd of p a ssa g e i .

f
(j) Y o u r O c e is on e f or w h ich n o sa l a ry i s p a id .

( k) H is mo t v e w a s merel y to g et so me mon ey
i .

( l ) H is po s t o n w a s b ey on d a l l h op e of i mp ro vemen t
ii .

( m) H is ma nn ers a re more l i ke th ose of a w oma n th a n of a ma n .

( n ) H e is on e w h o ta kes n o trou b l e a b o u t h is w o r k .

( 0 ) H is sty l e is too f u l l of w ords .

( p ) H e is i n c l i n ed to n d f a u l t .

f
( g ) A w o l is a n a n ma l th a t c a n n ot b e ta med i .

( r) T h a t pro b l em is o n e w h i ch i s n erer l ike l y to b e s ol ved .

( 3 ) H is c h a ra c t er h a s a n evi l repu ta ti on .
C HA P . xxv BY P R E F I X E S A N D S UFF I X ES 229

( t) T h e u se o f o pi u m is l i ke l y to do mu ch i nju ry .

( u ) T h a t impre ssi o n is too vi vid ever to b e e a ced .

( v) H e is u n a b l e to p a y hi s deb ts .

IV . To f the verb s n ou ns
ea c h o , ,
or a d ec tives j gi ven b elow , a dd
so me A b stra c t suix or s uixes

S erv e , c o w a rd, ri g h t , g ra n d, e rr, mi ser, a pt , v i c to r, a c ri d, j u st ,

merc h a n t, t ri c k , pa ss, sei z e, t ry , j u dg e, c o mpel , a dmit , pa t ro n ,
re pen t, reg e n t , b a nk ru pt , a c c u ra te , po o r, rel y , c a pt i v e, fra g i l e , fa c il e ,
fel o n, so l e, a ssi st , sc a rc e, sec ret , de fy , fa th er, re a l .

V F orm D imin u ti ve
. n ou n s o u t o f the fo llow i n g by a ddi n g to
ea c h o f them i ts app rop ri a te D i min u tive su x

A n i ma l , c o d e, pou c h , b rook , po et , c i g a r, v a se , l a n c e g l o b e, mo de, .

pi ll , b i l l , c a r, c e ll a r, st a tu e , pa rt , so n g , si g n , t a b l e , h o me , w a g o n ,
h u mp, pa rk , ma i d, c u t , l a mb , h i l l , c h a n g e , b ird, l a d, sc y th e , c o rn .

VI . P oi n t ou t th e six dilf eren t sen ses of the su lx age as

exe mp lified in the f ollow ing w ords

H erb a g e, h ermi t a g e, c o u ra
g e, po s t a e,
g bre a k a g e , p erso n a
g e .

VI I . D esc ri b e the u ses o

f the su x -
en a s exe mp lied in the
o l l ow i ng w ords
f
M a i de n , a x en , i
v x en, fa t ten ,
dru n k e n , ki tt en ,
a l ien , ro t te n ,

g o l den , o x en , h a v en .

V I I I I n the f o llow ing sen ten c es, the mea ning of the w ord to
.

w hi c h te ha s b een p refixed dep en ds up on w h ether a hyp h en
ha s or ha s n ot b een p la c ed b etw een the p refix a n d the verb a l roo t .

S u b sti tu te some o ther verb or p hra se i n ea ch sen ten c e

f I have n ev er re ma rk ed th i s b e fore
(1 )
.

l Th e b o x mu st b e t e ma rk ed
-
.

M y l o sses w ere soo n rec o v ered

{
( 2) T h e c h a i rs mu st b e re c o v ere d
.

-
.

H e h a s rej o i n ed h is po st
{
( 3 ) H e h a s re j o i ned t h e t w o l a nk s
.

p
-
.

T h ei r w ro n g s w ere so o n redre ssed

{
( 4 ) T h e do l l mu st b e re dressed
.

-
.

H is c h a ra c ter w a s re fo rmed
{
( 5 ) Th e c l a sses w ere re formed
.

-
.

I c a n no t rec o ll e c t th i s
( 6 ) Y o u mu st re c o ll ec t a ll th e c o i n s t h a t h a v e b ee n l ost
.

-
.

( I w i l l n o t rec o u nt my sorrO
l Yo u h a d b etter re c o unt a ll th ese c o in s -
.

Y o u m u st re turn t h a t b o ok .

H a v i n g t u rn e d th e v erse i nt o pro se , h e re tu rned th e pro se -

i n to v erse.

Th i s h a s b een reserv ed for fu t u re u se .

Th e su mmo ns w h ic h h e c o u l d no t th e n rec e i ve , mu st b e
.

re se rv ed u po n h im
-
.

A w e n t o u t o f O ic e a nd w a s re pl a c ed b y B
( 1 0)
{
. .

A h a s b ee n re -pl a c ed i n h is a ppo i n t me n t
.
23 0 E N LA R GE M E N T O F VO CA BU L A R Y P A RT I II

IX . D en e a nd disti ng u ish th e three mea n in gs of th e prex

su b i n th e f o ll ow i n g w ords :

( ) S u b t erra n ea n , su b
a - -
mo nt a n e ; (b) su b -
ac id , su b -
tro p ic al ; (c)
su b j u d e , su b de u t
g p y
- -
.

XS how th e dv eren c e
. o f mea ning imp li ed i n th e f o l low ing
w ords b y th e p rex non
a n d th e
prex in or un

( )
a N on -
i
a c t v e, i na c ti ve
ffec t i v e i n effec ti v e ; ( c ) n o n ; (b ) no n - e ,

Ch ri sti n u n c h ri sti a n ; ( d) n o n fa mo u s i n fa mo u s ; ( e) n o n pro fes

a ,
-
,
-

s1 0 n a l u n ro fessi o n a l ;
p , (f ) no n ju di c i a l u nju di c i l -
,
a .

X I F orm sen ten c es show in g th e differen c e of mea n ing b e

.

tw een
C o nda nt , c o ndent ; dependa n t , depend en t ; penda nt , pen dent ;
l a i nt i v e , l a i nt i ff
p p .

X I I S how . w ha t pre xes a re disgu i sed in th e f o l low in g

w ords

C o st , e ssa ( tri a l ) spe nd pi l g rim su dde n so v erei g n o u t ra g e

y , , , , , ,

sojo u rn u m i re e n tra i l s del u e a n c e st o r b a l a n c e a n o i n t

.

t respa ss, p , g , , , , , ,

so mb re , pro vo st, ru n a g a t e, pu ny .

XI I I . D isti ngu ish the su xes in ea c h o f th e f o ll ow i ng p a i rs .

H a tred , h u n dred h eml o c k , w e dl o c k l ea rni ng , fa rth i ng frec k l e ,

s
pi n dl e se edl i n , da rk l i n
g g ; fri en d, re v ere n d .

X IV . D istingu ish the su

x -
t h er in ea ch o
f the f o ll ow

i ng
O th er, fa th er ,
h i th er .

XV . D istin g u ish the p rex a in ea ch

f
o th e f o l low i ng
A spec t , a pa t h y , a v ert , a resh , a f oa t ,
i
a r se , a do , a men d .

X VI S ep a ra te the stem f rom th e a xes (p refixes

. or s uj xes ) f o

th e f o l low in g w o rds, a n d the a xes f rom ea ch other

U n den o mi na ti o na l i sm ,
v a l et u d n a r a n ,i i i i
u n so ph s t c a t e d, ren eg a de ,

i nst ru ni e n t a l ity , d spro po rt o n a t e , t a l a t v e n ess, pro t e st a nt ism, a h

i i k i
s e n t ee ism, a c c ide n t a ll , m sc re a n t ,
y n den t u res , n to x c a t e , nt erest , i i i i i
i i
n t ell ec t u a l , demo n et s e, t el e ph o n e , nt rospec tio n , c a pt v a t e , in sig ni i i
c a n t , h o mo en eo u s,
g n a c c ess b l e , proc edu re, l i
el h o o d i ik i .

C HA PTE R XXV I F I G U RE S O F . R HE TO R I C .

3 43 . F ig u r e of S peec h de n ed A F i g u re Of S peec h or

R h et o ri c is a d e v i a t i o n fro m th e pl a i n a n d o rdi n a ry u se o f w o r s d
w i th a vi ew t o i n c rea si n g o r spec i a l i si ng th e e ffec t .

Th u s w e can sa y , T h ere a re six p i l l a rs o n e i t h er si de O f t h i s
c o l o n na de . H ere t h e w o rd p i l l a rs is u sed in its o rdi na ry a nd
l i t era l sen se .
23 2 E N L A R GE M E N T O F VO CA BU LA R Y PA R T III

C i c ero , N a pol eon w i th Al ex a n d er, o r th e R u ssi a n E mpi re w i t h

th e R o ma n E mpi re Th ese a re a ll g oo d pa ra ll el s
. Bu t , a s t h e .

c o mpa ri so n s a re li tera l th a t is, b e tw een O bj ec ts o e sa me ki n d

f th
th ere is n o t h i ng g ura t i v e a b ou t th em .

E rro rs, l i ke st ra w s , u po n t h e su rfa c e o w

H e t h a t w o u l d sea rc h for pea rl s mu st di v e b el o w D RY D E N . .

T h e t ri b es ( o n t h e N orth w est fro nt i er o f I ndi a ) h u n g u po n t h e

-

a nk s o f o u r retrea t i ng c o l u mn s li ke w a sps R evi ew of R evi ew s,

Ja n 1 8 9 8 , p 5
. . .

T h ey ou ri sh e d t h e i nt erests o f th e n a ti o n a l de fen c e, li ke a M e du sa s

h ea d, t o fri g h t en O ff t h e me n D a i l y T el egrap h , 24 t h F eb 1 89 8 . .

A si mi l e i y e ffec t i v e w h en some a bstra c t th o u gh t

is es
pe c al l ,

o r seri es O f th o u h ts i s i ll u st ra t ed by mea n s O f so me con c rete

g
pa ra l l el Ke a t s h a vi ng rea d sev era l t ra n sl a t i on s O f H o mer i n t o
.
,

E n g l i sh v erse a n d n o t b e i n g sa t i s ed w i t h a n y O f th em fou n d a
, ,

n ew w o rl d su dd en l y O en ed o u t b e fo re h im o n see i n t h e t ran s
p g
l a t i o n by C h a pma n (A D a nd e x ressed h is fe el i n gs u n d er
p .

t h e fo ll o w i n g si mi l e

Th en fel t I l ik e some w a t c h er o f th e ski es ,

W h en a n e w pl a n et sw im s i n t o h is k e n
O r l ik e st o u t C o rt ez w h en w it h e g l e ey es a

th e P a c ic , a nd
,

He s t a red a t all h is me n
L ook ed a t e a c h o th er w i t h a w il d su r mi se ,

S i l ent , u po n a pea k in D a ri en .

F ro m su c h ex a mpl es as th e a b o ve it w il l b e see n t h at a

s i mil e is y i n t rod u ced by so me w ord s su ch as like a s a s

u su a ll , , ,

so ,
w h i c h d ra w a t t en ti o n t o th e l ik en ess Bu t th i s is n o t .

n ec essa ry A l l th a t is n ec essa ry t o th e si mi l e is t h a t b o th s id es
.

O f t h e c o mpa ri son sh all b e di st i n c tl y sta t ed

W h e n ev er I h e r th e memb er for N a spea k b ou t E a st A fric a I a ,

a m remin de d O f o n e o f t h o se mi rro rs i n w h i c h w e see e v ery th i ng

u si de do w n n d i n w h i c h t h i n g a
s re re s en t e d i n a t o s t u rv a
p p p y y
-

c o n di t i o n M r Cu r on s Sp eec h 4 t h M rc h 1 8 9 8
,

. z ,
a .

Th e repo se O f repl et i o n m y n o t b e a v ery h ero i c a tti t u d e t o a a

g re a t n a t i o n l i k e t h e E ng l i sh ; b u t e v e n a l i o n sl eeps a ft er a

fu ll me l R eview of R evi ew s Ja n 1 8 9 8 p 8
a .
,
.
,
. .

3 4 6 M et a ph or : l it a t ra n sfer ( G r meta a c ross ; p hor e -

c a rryi n g ) A me t a ph o r is a p oten ti a l o r i mp li ed si mi l e
. . .
, ,

. In a .

si mi l e b o th sid es o f t h e c o mpa ri so n a re disti n c tl y st a t e d w h ereas

in a meta ph o r o n e sid e is st a t ed b u t n o t th e o th er Th u s .

w h en w e sa y

H e c u rb s h is pa ssi o n w e mea n t h a t h e restra i n s
, ,

h is pa ssi o n as a ma n w ou l d c u rb a restl ess h o rse

,
I f b o th sid es .

O f th e c o m a ri son w ere t o b e g iv en t h i s is h o w th e si mi l e w o u l d
p ,

be ex ressed
p .
C H A P XXV I
. F I G UR E S O F R H E TO R I C 23 3

O u r el dest so n is t h e sta r ( b ri g h t est memb er) o f t h e fa mi l y .

H is ra sh pol i c y l et l o o s e t h e dogs o f w a r .

H ol d fa st t o t h e a n ch or O f fa i t h .

T h e n ew s y ou b ri n g is a da g ger t o my h ea rt .

Th e t o w n w a s stormed a ft er a l o ng s i eg e .

H e w a s fo nd O f b l ow ing h is o w n tru mp et ( pra i s i ng h i msel f ) .

H e sw a m b ra v el y a g a i n st t h e tide O f po pu l a r a ppl a u se .

C a n st th o u n ot mi n i st er t o a mi nd di se a sed,

P l u ck from t h e memory a rooted so rrow S H A K S P E A R E .

3 47 . P erson a l M etap hors A met a ph or is person al , w h en

s
pea k s of i n a n i ma t e O bj ec ts as if th ey w ere l i v i ng .

A trea ch erou s c a l m a su ll en sk y a f row ni ng roc k p i ti l ess c o l d

c ru el h ea t a l ea rn ed a e t h e th i rsty g ro u n d a virg i n so i l
g .

E v ery h edg e w a s con sci ou s o f mo re th a n w h a t th e represen t a t i o n s

o f e n a mou red sw a i n s a dmi t O f T a tl er
.
.

Th e ch i ldh ood O f t h e w orl d t h e a ng er o f t h e t empest th e decei t

f u ln ess o f ri c h es Wi ne is a mocker
.

O h moth er I da , ma ny fo u n t a i n ed I da ,

-

D ea r mother Ida , h ea rk en ere I die T E NNY S O N

. .

O u r u n w ea ried a nd u n su b sidi sed a ll i es , t h e w a v es S TE A D . .

W h en empire in it s ch i ldh ood rst a ppea rs,

A w a t c h fu l fa t e o ersees it s tender y ea rs D RYD E N

. .

E v eryt h i ng s mi l ed o n h im Fa mi l i a ri ty b reeds c o n t empt

. .

P erh a ps th e v a l e
R el en ts a w h i l e t o th e re ec t ed ra y TH O M S O N
. .

T h e voice o f th y b ro t h er s b l o o d cri eth u nt o me from th e g ro u n d

.

G en iv 1 0 . . .

Wea ry w a v e a nd dy in g b l a st
S o b a n d moa n a l o ng t h e sh o re
A n d a l l i s pea c e a t l a st .

3 48 . S u sta in ed M etap hors T h e resem

b l a n c e ex pressed by
a me t a ph o r is u su a ll y l i mi t e d t o a si n l e po i n t O c c asi o n
g .

a ll y h o w e v er a me t a h o r c a n b e su st a i n ed t h rou h a seri es O f
, , p g
k i n d red i ma g es .

L e t u s ( si nc e l ife c a n l i t t l e el se su ppl y
Bu t j u st t o l o o k a b o u t u s a nd t o die)
E x pa t i a t e fre e o er l l th e sc e n e O f m n

a a ,

A mi g h t y ma z e b u t n o t w i th ou t a p l a n
,

A w i ld w h ere w eeds a n d f l ow ers promi sc u ou s sh oot

,

A ga rden tempt i n g w i t h fo rb i dde n f ru i t ,

To g et h er l e t u s b ea t t h e a mpl e eld,
Try w h a t t h e op en , w h a t t h e c overt y i el d
Th e l a ten t tra c ks, t h e g i ddy h ei g h ts e x pl ore
O f t h o se w h o b l i n dl y c ree p o r si g h tl ess so a r PO PE .
.

W e b el i ev e t h a t t h e emb ers O f mu n i c i pa l pa tri o ti sm h a v e n ev er

c ea se d t o b u rn a n d g l o w i n t h ese sma l l er c o mmu n i t i es , i n t o
w h i c h , b y h i st o ri c a l a n d ph y s i c a l n ec e s si t y , L o n do n h a s b ee n
di v i ded W e w i ll do not h i ng t o qu en ch these emb ers Ra t h er
. .
23 4 E N L A RGE M E N T O F VO CA BU L A R Y P A RT III

we w tend t h em a nd f a n t h em, u n t l o v er t h e w h ol e O f t h ose

i ll i
c o mmu n t e s t h e i i i if i
y h a v e sh ed an equ a l a n d a V v y ng l i g h t a n d
w a rmth
D u ke of D evonsh i re s Sp eech , 1 5 t h F eb ru a ry 1 8 9 8

3 4 9 Conf usi on of M etap hors

. M e ta ph o rs b o rro w ed fro m
mo re th a n o n e sou rc e mu st n o t b e c o mbi n ed in th e sa me ph rase
o r c l a us e Th e mi x i ng O f me ta ph o rs, fa r fro m i n c reas i n g th e
.

e ff e c t , w ea k en s it by th e sen se O f i n c o n ru i t y t h a t i t e x c i t es
g .

S a v o y a nd N i c e , t h e key s O f I t a l y a nd th e ci ta del i n h er h a n ds t o
b ridl e S w i tz erl a nd, a re i n t h a t c o n so l i da t i o n O f t h e F ren c h
p o w e r BURK E . .

He is u nderst o od t o h a v e ex pressed th e b el i e f th a t th e tru e po l i c y

fo r t h e L i b era l pa rty to pu rsu e w a s t o l a u nch a c a mp a ig n a g a i n s t
t h e H ou se O f L o rds
D a i l y Tel eg rap h .

Tra ders sh ou ld o nc e a n d f or a l l a b a n do n th e h o pe t h a t t h e pro

v i n c e o f Y u nn a n is a ri ch mi n e o nl y w a i t i ng t o b e tapp ed .

Con t R evi ew , F eb ru a ry 1 8 9 8
. .

N o th i ng c a n sa v e C h i na b u t a ra di ca l ri g h t a b ou t f a ce o n t h e pa rt

- -

O f t h e Bri t i sh F o rei g n O fc e R evi ew of R evi ew s, F eb ru a ry

.

1 8 9 8, p 1 4 8 . .

Th ere a re p h ra ses o f mu sic th a t g o h ome to th e cen tre o f ou r

b ei ng , a nd v e mi nu t es dw el l i ng o n t h em a t su nri se W I l l g i v e

a key note t h a t w i ll sou nd fo r t h e da y , t h e morn i ng b a th o f t h e

mi nd N a ti on a l R evi ew , F ebru a ry 1 8 9 8 .

I n c a ses o f th i s ki n d t h e S t oc k M a rk et , w h i c h is c o n si dera b l y
more l i a b l e t o t s O f p a n i c t h a n t o p h l eg ma ti c i n di ff ere n c e o r
fool i sh O pti mi sm, is th e sa fest poli tic a l th ermometer D a i l y .

Tel eg rap h , 25 th F e b ru a ry 1 8 9 8 .

I t i s b u t c o l d c o mfort t o k n o w th a t rea so n mu st in th e e n d prev a i l

o v er su perst it i o n , a n d t h a t a rel i g i o n g raf ted u po n s c i e n c e w i l l

c o me to th e b i rth b y th e sl o w b u t su re r oc esse s o f ev o l u t i o n
p
Ti mes W eek l y , 4 th M a rc h 1 8 9 8
.

3 5 0 S u c c ession w i th ou t c onf u si on
. W e may , h ow ev er, h a v e
a su c c essi o n O f me t a h o rs W i th o u t co n fusi o n
p .

(1 ) I b ridl e in my st ru g g l i n g mu se w i t h pa i n ,
T h a t l o n g s t o l a u n ch i nt o a h o l der stra i n A D D I S O N .

( 2) A t l en g t h E ra smu s, th a t g rea t h o n o u red n a me

( Th e g l ory o f t h e pri est h o od a nd t h e sh a me ),
S temmed t h e w i l d torren t O f a b a rb a rou s a g e,
A nd dro e t v h o s e h o l y V a n da l s o ff t h e s ta g e P O P E .

l Ve id er ( 1 ) a n i nsta n c e o f c o n fu si on a n d ( 2) a n i n stan c e
c ons ,

o f su c c essi o n w i th o u t c o n fu si o n E X ( 1 ) is a c onf u sion O f meta

. .

p h o r f o r t w o re as o n s ( )
a b e cau se a n a dj e c t i v e c l a u se b e i n g a ,

sy n t a c t i c a l a rt o f th e ma i n c l au se i s n o t e n t itl ed t o
p
e m l o y a me ta h o r di sti n c t fro m t h a t empl o y ed by th e ma i n
p p
c l a u se ; a n d ( b
) b ec a u se th e a dj ec t i v e c l a u se i tse l f c o n t a i n s t w o

di sti n c t meta ph o rs O n th e o th er h a n d w e c o n sid er ( 2) a

.
,

s u c essi on
c n o t a c on fu si o n
,
Of meta ph o rs b e ca u se th e fou rth
, ,
23 6 EN LA R G E M EN T O F V O C A BU L A R Y PA R T I II

352 M . eta
p h o rs b a sed on history , f a b le , p a ra b le, e tc M eta
ph ma y b e d raw n n o t on l y fro m rese mbl a n c es O f
o rs bj ec ts b u t O ,

fro m resemb l a n ces o f si tu a ti on , a n d th ese ma y b e ta k en fro m

h i st o ry o r fa b l e o r pa ra b l e o r pro v erb
, ,
E v e ry o n e is fa mi l i a r
,
.

w i th su c h ph ra ses a s h idi n g o n e s l i g h t u n d er a b us h el

th e ,

m
.

l i o n l yi n g d o w n w i t h th e l a mb (p a r a b l e s fr o th e Bib l e) ;

t o

w a sh o n e s h a nd s o f a t h i n i a t e s a c ti o n in t h e praeto

g ( P l
riu m) ;

c u tti n g o n e s c o a t a c c o rdi n g to th e c l o th l e t ti n g ,

sl e epi n g d o gs i i t rea m

l ie sw a
pp g n ,
h o r se s i n c r o s s n g a s ,
u in h b e fo re th e h o rse v b
p t t g t e c a r t (p r o e r s ) .

T h e l i on ro a red to a fa l se no te a n d t h en ra te d th e j a c k a l s fo r
l
y p g
e i n in u n i so n ( F a b l e o f j a c k l in l
. i o n s h i d e
) D a il y Tel a

. e

grap h , 5 th F eb ru a ry 1 89 8 .

i i
Th e n t erest s o f G rea t Br ta i n h a d to b e de en ded in l a ng u a g e th a t f
sh ou l d st e er sa el f y b
et w een t h e S c y l l a o f w ea n es s a n d t h e k
C h a ry b d s o f a rrog a nc e i ( Th e a b l ed W h rl pool s in th e S tra ts f i i

.

o f M ess na i
I b id 2nd M a rc h 1 8 9 8
. . .

. . . i
Th e H o n H B w t h h is g reen c u ta w a y c o a t a nd b ra ss b u t to n s
h a d a n a n nu a l t l t in fa v o u r o f th e a ll o t i ( D o n Qu x o t e h a v b i
in g a t l t a t a w ndm l l F ort R evi ew , F e ru a ry 1 8 9 8 , p 24 5
.

i i i . . b . .

i
T h e w e stern l a b y r n th o f b ill s serv es a s a n nva l u a b l e mu ra l i
b i
a rr er o f H n do st a n i
( Th e l a b y r n th 1 s b o rro w e from t h e

. i d
f
a mo u s b u l d n i i
a t A rs n oe in E t a n d t h e mu ra l b a rr er
i i
g gy p ;
ro m t h e G rea t W a ll o f C h n a
f R evi ew of R evi ew s, J a n 1 8 9 8 i .
-
. .

ii
M r L , w r t ng i n t h e F ortn ig h tl y , t ak es u p h is pa ra b l e a g a n st i

. .

L o rd S a l sb u ry i
( Ba l a a m a n d Ba l a . 1 b id F eb 1 8 9 8 k . . . .

i
T h e E ng l sh , w h en th ey a re l a v sh ng t h e r der s o n a g a n st th e i i i ii i
Ka ser a n d his b ro t h er, sh o u l d rememb er th a t t h ey a re l v n g
i i i
i n g l a ss h ou s e s a nd o u g h t n o t t o t h ro w st o n es ( Pro ver . b .

I b id Ja nu a ry 1 8 9 8
. .

H e rec e v ed h is b a pt sm o f re in t h e Cr mea
i i ( N a me for sp r u a l i i it
b a pt sm in N e w T est a me nt D a il y Tel eg rap h , 4 t h M a rc h 1 8 9 8
.

i . .

i b
I t w o u l d b e d srepu t a l e t o a l l u de t o th e M o st S ere n e , M g h t y , i
Bel o v ed E mperor a s th e dru n en H e l o t o f E ng l sh J n g o i sm k i i .

( T h e S pa rta n c u sto m O f ma n g t h e H el o t s dru n a s a c a u t o n ki k i

t o S pa rta n c i t z e n s i
R evi ew of R evi ew s, Ja n 1 8 9 8
. . .

Y o u h a v e b u rn t y o u r sh ps, a nd mu st g o o rw a rd o r per sh i f i .

( A g a t h oc l es O f S y ra c u se , a s so o n a s h e l a n ded a t C a rth a g e ,
i
b u rn t h i s sh ps so a s t o re n der re t u rn mpo ss l e ) i ib .

35 3 . A l l eg ory , F a b l e, P a ra b l e T h ese a re th e sa me at

b o tto m ,
a n d, l ik e b a sed u po n resemb l a n c e
meta ph o rs, a re .

A n A l l eg o ry is a ta l e c o n si sti ng O f a se ri es O f i n c id e n ts
a n a l o ou s t o a n o th er seri es O f i n c id en ts w h i c h it is i n t en d ed t o
g ,

i ll u st ra te T h e O bj ec t O f su c h a ta l e is to e x e mpl ify a nd
.

e n fo rc e so me mo ra l t ru th as in Bu n ya n s P ilg rim s P rog ress

.

A P a ra b l e is a sh o rt a l l eg o ry a s th e S ow er th e T e n V i rg i n s , , ,

th e P rodi g a l S on th e G ra i n O f M u st a rd S eed th e L ost S h e ep

, , ,
C H A P XXV I
. F I GUR ES O F R H E TOR I C 23 7

e tc .I n th e O l d T esta men t th e pa ra b l e Of th e E w e La mb w as
in t en d ed to b rin g Ki ng D a vid t o a sen se of hi s g u i l t by pu t ti n g
a p a ra ll e l c ase b efo re
it su c ceed e dhi m ; an d .

T h e F a b l es o f c l assi c a l l it era t u re in w hi ch bi rd s a n d b eas ts ,

a re ma d e t o t h i n k s ea k a n d a c t l ik e me n ll t h m
p , a e a c s
,o e ,

mora l as all eg o ry an d pa ra b l e do

.
,

Cla ss I I F ig u res b a sed on Con tra st or D ierenc e

.

35 4 . rst pri n c i pl e O f th e h u ma n
A n t it h esis . It is a

mi n d , th a t w e a re a ffec t ed o nl y b y c ha ng e of i mpressi on A mo n g .

th e man y c o n se qu en c es o f th is l a w is th e efca c y O f c on t ras t in

v erb al co mposi t i on (Ba i n ) .
1

We ca n n o t u se th e c o mmon est
d sa y w ea k for ex w or ,

a mpl e w i t h o u t i n w a rd l y c o n t rasti n g it w i th
,
st ro n
g Ba rri n g .

ro er n a me s w h i c h a re mere ma rk s o r t o k en s a n d i n t erj e c ti o n s
p p , , ,

w h i c h a re me re sou n d t h ere is n o t a w o rd in ou r l an g u ag e o r
s
, ,

i n fa c t in a n y l a n g ua g e w h i c h d o es n o t i mpl y so me o t h er w o rd
,

o r w o rd s w it h w hi c h i t is c o n t ra st ed in me a n in T h i s l a w is so
g .

u n iv e rsa l t h a t in o rdi n a ry s ee c h it is su f c i en t t o men t i o n o n e

, p
w i t h o u t a d di n g i ts n eg a t iv e fo rm

w o rd su c h as w ea k

, ,
not

st ron g .

S o me ti mes, h ow ev er,
it is ex pedi en t fo r th e sa k e o f in c reas ,

ing o r spec i al i si n g th e e ffec t to men ti o n b o th o f th e c o n t ra st ed

, .

t erms a nd as th i s is a d epa rtu re fro m th e o rdi n a ry u se o f
w o rds w e c all it a F i g u re o f S peec h
, ( S e e d e n iti o n in .

A n tith esi s is a G ree k w o rd si gn ifyi n g se tti ng a g a i nst th at
is sett i ng o n e w o rd a g a i n st a n o th er
,
.

He b ri b e, b u t h e c ann o t sedu c e
c an h e c a n b u y , b u t h e c a nn ot
ga i n h e c a n li e, b u t h e c a n n o t dec ei ve .

A f ri en d ex a g g era t es a ma n s vi rtu es, a n en emy h i s c ri mes

.

Bet w e en a me a n d tru e h o n ou r t h ere is mu c h d eren c e

f th e iff
o rmer i s a b li nd a nd n oi sy app l a u se
f th e l a tt er is a n i n terna l
a nd more si l en t h oma g e .

A s Caesa r l o v ed me , I w eep f o r h im a s h e w a s ortu n a t e , rej o c e a t f I i

i t a s h e w a s v a l a n t , I h o n o u r h im b u t , a s h e w a s a m t ou s, I
i bi i
sl e w h im Th ere is t ea rs fo r h is l o v e joy fo r h is ort u n e h o n o u r f

.

for h is v a l o u r a nd dea th f o r h is a m t o n S H A KS P E A R E bi i . .

T h o u g h de ep, y et c l ea r th o u g h g e n tl e , y et n o t du l l
S tro ng w t h o u t ra g e w t h ou t o ero w ing u ll D E
i i f NH M

A . .

Th ere is e v ery w h ere a pe rc ept b l e rea c t o n in a v o u r o f g o v ern i i f

men t b y t h e c a pa l e a s o ppo sed t o g o v ernme nt b y t h e c ou n t n g
b i
o f n o se s
R evi ew of R evi ew s, Ja n 1 8 9 8 , p 6 . . .

Th em stoc l es, b e n g a s ed w h et h er h e w o u l d c h o o se t o ma rry h is

i i k
1
R hetoric a nd Comp osi tion , P a rt I p 1 9 6 . . .
23 8 E N L A R G E M E N T O F VO CA BU LA R Y P A RT III

da u g h t er t o a n i ndi g en t ma n o f meri t, o r to a w o rthl ess ma n

o f w ea l t h , re l i ed : I w l d r f r a ma n w i t h o u t w ea l th t o
p

ou e e
p
w ea l th w i th o u t a ma n

Sp ec ta tor, N O 3 7 2
. . .

A n t ith esi s sh o u l d n o t b e sa c ri c ed to b rev ity C o mpa re th e .

f oll o w i n g , a n d see w h i c h o f th e tw o is th e mo re po i n t ed
( a ) Th e f
p osth u mou s a me o f Bu ddh a is fa r g rea ter t h a n w h a t
a c c ru e d
t o h im du r n g h is l e i if .

( 6) f
Th e a me w hi ch h a s g a th ered rou nd th e n a me of Bu ddh a si n ce
i
h i s dea th fa r ex c e eds th a t w h c h a c c ru ed t o h im du r n g h is l e i if .

O b serve t h a t in b
( ) n ot o nl y is on e c l a u se b a l a n c ed i
a g a n st

a n o t h e r, b u t Presen t P erfec t d
th e t en se h as g a th ere is

c o n t ra sted w ith th e P ast
I n d e n it e a ccru ed .

3 5 5 E pig r am : l it a n i nsc ri pti on (a G reek w o rd epi

. .
,

g ra m m a ) th ,
e n a me
g i v e n by t h e G ree k s t o a sh o rt p i ec e o f
v erse i nsc rib ed o n a pu b l i c mon umen t Brev i ty is st i ll o n e O f .

th e d ist i n g u ish i n g ma rk s o f epi g ra m Bu t t h e w o rd h a s b een .

ma d e t o d en o t e a n y ki n d o f po i n t ed sa yi n g a n d espec i a l l y o n e in ,

w hi c h th e w o rds a ppea r t o b e c o n t ra st ed o r a t l east t o c o n t a i n ,

so me ki n d o f i n c o n g ru ity I t is th erefore b a sed u pon th e per

.

c epti o n o f di ff eren ce a n d is c l osel y a l l i ed to A n tith esis

,
.

T h e epi g ra m is a n a ppa ren t c on tra di c ti on in l a n g u ag e ,

w h i c h by c a u si n g a t empo ra ry sh o c k rou ses o u r a tt en ti o n t o

, ,

so me i mpo rta n t mea n i n g u n d e rn ea th (Ba i n)

Th e chi ld i s f th er f t h e m n
.

a O W O RD S W O RT H
. a

By meri t r i se d t o th a t b a d emi n e nc e M I L T O N
. .

a . .

L o v e l in es s
N e eds n o t t h e fo rei g n a id O f o rn a men t ,
Bu t i s, w h en u n ad orn ed, a dorn ed t h e mo st TH O M S O N

.

Con sp i cu ou s b y it s a b sen ce D I S RA E L I

. .

I n t h e mi dst o f l if e w e a re in dea th P roverb .

H e l i v ed a l ife o f a cti ve idl en ess

Tis a ll t h y b u si n ess, b u si n ess h o w t o sh u n P O P E
.

. .

A rt l i e s in c o nc ea l i ng a rt L a ti n P roverb
. .

F a me is t h e spu r th a t th e c l ea r spi ri t do t h ra i s e
( Th a t l a st i n rmi ty O f n o b l e mi n ds )
To sc orn del i g h t s a n d l i v e l a b ori o u s da y s VI I L T O N .

A mbi t i o n rst s pru ng fro m y o u r b l est a b o de s,

T h e g l ori ou s f a u l t o f a n g el s a nd o f g o ds P O P E . .

H e w h o l i v es w i th ou t f ol l y is n o t so w ise a s h e ima g i nes .

P roverb
A ff ec t ed si mp lic i ty is ren ed a rtf u l n ess P roverb
.

. .

A w ork l ess w o rkma n ( a ma n s eek i n g fo r w o rk a nd n o t ndi ng it ) .

T o da mn w i t h fa i n t p ra i se

.

I ndec i si on is somet ime s a deci si ve ki n d o f a c t io n R evi ew of

R evi ew s .

A n o th er su c h vi ctory , a nd w e a re u n don e S a y i ng f P y rrh u s

o
RY
. .

Bew a re th e f u ry of a p a ti en t ma n D DE . N .
24 0 E N L A R GE M E N T O F VO CA BU L A R Y P A RT III

C o rsi c a is a n i sl a n d sw a rmi ng w i th b a n di t s a n d b a n di c o o ts .

T h ere u se d t o b e in P a ri s u nder th e a nc i e n t re g i me a fe w w o men

o f b ri l l i a n t t a l e n t s, w h o v i o l a t e d a l l t h e c o mmo n du t i es o f l ife

a nd g a v e v e r l ea sa n t l i t tl e su r A m n t h ed
y p p p
g
e s o ese s u
pp
.

a nd sin n e d M a da me D E in a y M O RL E Y

p . .

I t i s b y t h e g o o dn e ss o f G o d t h a t w e h a v e posse ssi o n O f t h ree

u n spe a k a b l y prec i ou s t h i n g s ,
freedo m o f speec h , freedom o f
c o n sc i e n c e , a nd t h e pru de nc e o f u si n g n e i th er M A RK T W A I N . .

N a pol eo n w a s equ a ll y g rea t in di rec ti n g a b a ttl e o r in reg u l a t i n g

th e l en g t h o f a b a ll e t g i rl s ski rts

-
D a i l y T e l eg rap h , 9 th F eb .

1 89 8 .

Cla ss I II .

F ig u res b a sed on Con tig u i ty .

358 . M et on y my : l it . a c h an
ge of na me (G r meta.
,

c h an
ge ; m a , n a me
on o ) T h i s g u re c o n si st s in
.
-
d esc ribi ng a
th i n g by so me a c comp a n imen t o r signica n t a dj u n c t, i n ste a d o f

n a mi n g th e t h i n g it sel f W h en th e si g n is su c h a s t o strik e th e
.

i mag i n a ti on mo re v ivid l y th a n w h a t it stan ds fo r, th e l a ng u ag e

a i ns in i mpressi v e n ess
g .

(a ) The symb o l f or the p erson or thi ng symb olised

H e su c c eeded t o t h e c ro w n ( fc e)
: ro y a l O .

H e is t o o fo nd o f red tap e ( o i c ia l rou t i n e )

z .

Fro m t h e c ra dl e t o t h e g ra ve ( fro m c h i ldh oo d t o dea th )

:
.

L ea th er ( : s h o e ma ki ng ) pa y s b e t t er t h a n l e rn i n g
-
a .

G rey h a i rs o l d a g e o r o l d me n ) sh o u l d b e res ec t e d
:
p .

S h o w de fere nc e t o t h e ch a i r ( = th e c h a i rma n s ru l i ng )

.

Bro u g h t t o t h e h a mmer = pu t u p t o a u c t i o n ) .

Ba cksta i rs ( = sec ret , i n tri g u i ng ) i n u enc e .

P ro mo t ed t o t h e b en ch ( t h e O fc e o f j u dg e )
: .

Th e w oo l sa c k = t h e s ea t , a n d h e nc e t h e o i c e, o f L o rd C h a n c el l o r) .

Ca l l ed t o t h e b a r ( = ma de a b a rri st er) .

Bl u ff H a rry b ro k e i n to t h e spen c e
A n d t u rn e d t h e c ow l s ( mo n k s ) a drift TE N N Y s 0 N . .

A b u s dri v er, su mmo n ed fo r del a y i ng h is b u s, pl ea ded t h a t h e

w a s h a i l ed b y a f a re w h o su b seq u ent ly c h a ng ed h is mi n d
D a i l y Tel eg rap h , 9 t h M a rc h 1 8 9 8
.

(b) The i nstru men t f o r the a g en t

T h e p en h a s mo re i n u enc e th a n t h e sw ord .

G i v e e v ery ma n th i n e c a r, b u t fe w t hy voi ce .

H e is a g oo d h a n d a t c ompo si ti o n .

T o c a rry re a n d sw ord ( = a desol a t i ng w a r) i n t o a c o u ntry .

T h e tong u e o f sl a n der i s ne v er si l e nt
T a lie s sin is o u r fu l l est th roa t o f so ng T E NNY S O N
.

. .

resi de n t c o mmi ssi o n er w i l l b e t h e ey es a n d ea rs , a n d t o a

Th e
l i mit e d e x t e n t t h e voi c e, O f t h e H ig h C o mmi ssi o n er T i mes .

W eekl y , 4 t h M a rc h 1 89 8 .

H o w sh a l l w e a tt ra c t men t o t h e c o l o u rs th e a rmy )
I n I ndi a t ra de prec ede d t h e a g , a n d t h e fu nc t i o n o f t h e f l a g is t o
p ro t ec t tra de D .

a i l y T el eg rap h , 25 th F eb 1 8 9 8 . .
C H A P XXV I
. F I G U R ES O F R H E TOR I C 24 1

S cep tre a nd crow n

M u st t u mbl e do w n,
A n d in t h e d u st b e e qu a l ma de
W i th th e poor c ro ok ed scy th e a nd sp a de .
J A ME S S H I RLE Y .

( Th a t is, ki ng s mu st die a s w ell a s pea sa n ts ) .

()
c Th e c on ta i n er
f or th e thing c on ta in ed

H e dra nk th e cup = t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e c u p) .

H e is t o o fo n d o f t h e b ottl e ( = th e l i qu or in t h e b o t tl e ) .

T h e kettl e ( = w a t er in t h e k e t tl e ) b o i l s .

T h e c o n qu erors smo t e t h e ci ty ( = i nh a b i ta n ts o f th e c i ty ) .

G o i n g o v er t o R o me ( = th e C h u rc h c en tred in R ome ) .

H e k ee ps a n e sta b l e ( = n e h orses ) .

T h e g a l l ery = spec ta t o rs in th e g a ll ery ) l ou dl y a ppl a u d ed .

T h e po w er o f th e p u rse ( = t h e mo n ey in t h e pu rse ) .

O xf o rd = t h e O x fo rd c rew ) w o n t h e l a st b o a t ra c e -
.

E ng l a nd d o es n o t d esi re w a r w i t h R u ssi a .

H e k eeps a s umptu o u s ta b l e ( = V i a n d s o n th e ta b l e ) .

d
( ) Th e e ec t
f or the c a u se

fa v ou ra bl e sp eed
A
R u l e th y mirrored ma st TE NNY S O N .
,
I n M emori a m .

( H ere sp eed is pu t for w i nd, th e c a u se o f s pee d) .

H e despera t e ta k es t h e dea th
d den pl u ng e T H O M S O N
W i th su . .

( H ere t h e dea th is t h e a n g l er s h o o k se i z ed b y t h e sh )

0 orf a b ea k er fu l f
l o t h e w a rm sou th KE A T S .

( H ere w i ne is d esc rib ed b y th e w a rm sou th t h a t is th e w a rm su n , ,

o f t h e so u t h w h i c h ri pen s t h e g ra pe fro m w h i c h th e w i n e is pro

,

du c ed T h i s is a met o n y my th ree d eep )

. .

()
e The ma ker f or the thing ma de ; th e p la c e f or the thing
T h ey h a v e M oses a nd th e p rop h ets N ew Testa men t .
.

I h a v e n ev er rea d H omer ( = t h e po ems o f H omer ) .

T h i s i s a c o mmo n ph ra se in T enn y son .

I a m no t fo nd O f E u c lid = g eometry ) .

Th e mi n er w ent w i th ou t h is D a vy ( = th e sa fety l a mp i nv en ted by

S ir H u mph ry D a v y ) .

L o ok it o u t in Bra dsha w ( = t ime t a b l e by Bra dsh a w ) -

.

I a m fo nd o f O l d chi n a ( = c ro c k ery ma de in C h i n a ) .

A b o o k b o u n d in morocco ( = l ea t h er o f M oro c c o ) .

W e h a v e sev era l Tu rners ( = pi c t ures by T u rn er) .

Y ou h a v e a b ea u t ifu l ca n a ry .

A l i ttl e c a y en n e w i l l improv e th e a v ou r .

(f ) The na me of a p a ssi on f or th e j
o b ec t o f the p a ssion
S h e is c omi ng , my l ife, my f a te T E NNY S O N

. .

F o r L y c id a s, y o u r sorrow , is n o t dea d M I LT O .

A t l en g th E ra smu s, t h a t g rea t h o no u red na me ,

T h e g l ory o f th e pri esth oo d a n d th e sh a me PO P E

.

Th e si gh O f h er sec ret sou l ( th e perso n s i g h ed for) O S S IA N . .

T h e L ord is my strength a nd my son g, a nd is b ec o me my sa lva

ti on 0 ld T esta ment
.
-
.

E . G . C .
242

E N L A RGE M E N T O F VO CA BU L A R Y P A RT II I

S o u l o f th e a g e
Th e a pp l a u se, del i g h t, a n d w on der o f o u r sta g e
M y S h a k spea re ri se lBE N J O N S O N .

Th e pe o pl e s p r y er, t h e g l a d di v in er 8 th eme

q
T h e y o u n g men s vi si on , a n d th e O l d me n s drea m

,

( T h e i t a l i c i se d w o rds a re a l l a ppl ed i b y D ry den t o th e D u k e of

M o n mo u t h ) .

35 9 . Syndo c h e : lit
-
ec -
th e u n d erst a n di n g o f o n e th i n g
-
.

s i mu l ta n eo u sl y w i th a n o th e r (a G reek w o rd t ra n sl i t era ted i n t o

E n gl i sh ) T h i s g u re is di st i ng u i sh ed fro m M e t o n y my by th e
.

fa c t th a t th e sig n , w h i c h is ma d e t o represen t th e th i ng sig n i ed ,

ma y b e a n y ki n d O f sy mb ol e x c ept a n a c comp a n i men t, th i s l a st
b ei n g th e e x c l u si v e pro pert y O f M et o n y my P erh a ps, h o w ev er, .

th e b est w a y t o di st i n g u i sh t h ese tw o g u res is a s fo ll o w s

In s yn e cd o c h e on e n a me is su b st i tu t ed fo r a n o th er, w h ose
mea n i n g is mo re o r l ess c ogn a te w i th its o w n .

I n me to ny my o n e n a me is su b sti t u t ed fo r a n o th e r w h o se ,

mea n i ng is w h o l l y f oreig n t o i tsel f

.

( )
a Th e l ess g en era l
p ut
f o r th e m or e g en er a l T h e mo r e

en e ra l t h e t e rm is, th e fa i n t er is t h e p i c t u re t h e mo re s ec i a l
g p
t h e t erm th e more vivid th e pi c tu re
,
H en c e if a w ri ter .
,

d esi res t o b e i mpressi v e, h e sh ou l d empl o y w o rds a s pa rti cu l a r

a n d d e t ermi n a te in sense as th e sc o pe Of th e su bj ec t w i l l
al l o w .

Th ey sa n k a s l ea d I n t h e mi g h ty w a t ers E x o du s x v 1 0 .
. .

C o nsi der th e l i l ies h o w t h ey g ro w : t h ey toi l n o t , t h ey sp i n n o t ;

a nd e t I sa n t t h a t S o l o mo n I n a ll h is g l o r w a s no t
y y u o y o u y
a rra e d l ik e o n e o f t h es e L u k e x ii 27
y . .

Th e ki ss sn a tc h ed h a s ty fro m t h e sidel o ng ma i d,
O n pu rpo s e g u a rdl ess T H O M S O N , W i n ter
A l l h a nds e mpl oy e d, th e ro y a l w o rk g ro w s w a rm D RYD E N
. .

. .

R et u rn t o h er a n d ft y men di smi ssed

N o , ra t h er I a b j u re a l l roof s, a n d c h o o se
T o b e a c o mra de w i t h t h e w o lf a n d ow l S H A K S P E A R E , Ki ng L ea r . .

A sa i l w a s desc ri ed i n t h e di st a nc e .

F o r se v en w e ek s h e tra mp ed, a w o rk l e ss w ork er, t h e s t o n y h e a rt e d -

s tree t s o f L o n do n R evi ew of R eview s , F e b 1 8 9 8 , p 1 24 . . .

M ora l i se c a pi t a l y o u mig h t a s w ell pro po se t o mo ra l i s e a b oa

c on stri c tor o r t a me a ti g er 1 b id

. .

D O me n g a t h e r g ra p es o f th orn s, o r g s o f th i stl es N ew T esta

men t .

ma i de n bl ood

Th a t s

Is a s u nc h r st a n a s ai i l eop a rd s

.
G E O RG E E L I O T Sp n i sh Gip sy
,
a .

b
( ) A n i n di vi dua l f or a c l a ss A w el l - k n o w n i n di v id u a l is
some t i mes mad e t o represen t a c l a ss in th i s w a y a P ro pe r nou n

be co mes a C o mmon n o u n see , 23, N o te 2 . E v en w h en a P ro per

244 EN L A RG E M E N T O F VO CA BU L A R Y P A RT III

(e) Th e a b stra c t f or the c on crete see 27 :

A l l th e ra n k a n df a sh i on c a me o u t t o s ee t h e s g h t i .

T h e a u th ori ti es pu t a n end t o t h e tu mu l t .

k if
Pec sn f is o n e o f th e ch a ra c ters c rea t ed b y D c e n s i k .

Gra ce a nd l ovel in ess, w i t a nd l ea rn i ng w ere a ssemb l e d in t h a t

me et ng i
id
.

Up g o es my g ra v e I mp u den ce t o th e ma T a tl er . .

Th e sa me g u re ppea rs in su c h ph ra se s a s , H i s Al ajesty fo r
a

ki ng , h er l a dy ship for l a dy , h i s l ordship for l ord H is
,

E x cel l en cy fo r g o v e rn o r or

V i c ero y , H i s H ol i n ess fo r po pe ,

H i s G ra ce f or a rc h bi sh o p, a ju sti ce o f t h e pea c e for j u dg e , et c

.

(f) Th e p a rt f or a w h o le

A eet o f fty sa i l
P i n mo n ey ( a l a dy s dress a ll o w a nc e )

.

H ow b ea u t ifu l u po n th e mou nta i n s a re th e f eet of h im th a t

bri n g eth g o o d ti ding s Old Testa men t .

H e is a v ery g o o d h a n d a t c ri c k et .

A m a n o f s ev e n ty w i n ters
1
.

(g ) The ma teria l f or the thing ma de

A fo ema n w ort h y o f h is steel
T h e s pea ki ng ma rb l e ( = sta t u e o f ma rb l e) .

H e w a s b u ri e d u n de r t h i s sto ne ( = t a b l e t o f sto n e ) .

H e w a s b o u n d in i ron s ( = fe tters ma de o f i ron ) .

H a v e y o u a ny c opp ers ? ( = pen c e ma de o f c o pper)

S i l ver a nd g o ld ( = mo n ey ) h a v e I n o n e N ew Testa men t
.

. .

360 Tra n sferr e d E pit h et

.

T h i s is a th i rd ki n d o f g u re
b a sed on C o n ti g u ity W h en tw o i mpressi on s a re a sso c i a t ed
.

t o g e t h er in th e mi n d , a n epi th e t th a t pro pe rl y b el o n g s to o n e
o n l y is t ra n sferred t o th e o th e r O n e O f th e c o mmo n est, th ou g h
.

n o t th e o n l y , a l i a ti o n o f t h i s u re is w h en so me e rso n a l
pp c g p
ity tra nsferred meth i ng i nan i ma te
.

qu a l 3 4 7 ) is to so

H e l a y a l l ni g h t o n a s l eep l ess pi ll o w .

T h e pri so n e r w a s pl a c e d i n t h e c ondemned c ell

M el i ssa sh o o k h er dou b tf u l c u rl s T E NNY S O N
.

. .

T h e l o ng to rmen ted a ir
-
I b id -

A n d b el l s ma de Ca th o l i c t h e t remb l i ng a ir
. .

G E O RG E E L I O T

. .

A l a c k ey prese n t ed a n ob sequ i ou s c u p o f c o ffe e CA R L Y L E

A n d dro w sy t i nk l i ng s l u l l t h e di st a n t fo l d G R A Y
.

S u c h ph ra s es a s t h e fo ll o w i ng a re c ommo n A vi rtu ou s i n di g n a
t i o n ; a h app y t i me a n u n l u c ky rema rk ; a f oo l i sh o b s erv a t io n ; a

l ea rn ed b o o k ; a c ri mi n a l c o u rt ; t h e C o l on ia l O ffi c e ; t h e F oreig n
O f c e ; ea sy c i rc u mst a n c e s ; a f a t i nc u mb e nc y ; a ch eap ma rk e t ; a

1
We a re n ow j u stied
perh a ps in c al l ing th is an e xa mpl e of S y n ec
do c h e Bu t in A S th e w o rd w in ter mea nt
.
y ear, a nd th is u se of th e
w o rd seems t o h a v e ne ver w h o l l y died o u t .
C HA P . X X VI F I GUR ES O F R H ETO R IC 24 5

w ea ry j ou rn ey ; mel a n ch o l y n ew s ; w ea ry roma nc e s ; an el oqu en t

s pe ec h h y steric a l a ppea l s ;
; t h rea t s ; t h e smi l i ng mo rn ; a
b ru ta l
f u ri ou s w a v e ; t h e a ng ry o c ea n ; a p r a tt li ng b ro o ; t h e dimp l i n g k
w a v es t h e b l u sh i ng ro se th e l a u g h i ng h a rv est t h e ra vi ng t empest
a n i n ex ora b l e l a w a b u sy l e a di sh on est c a ll n , etc
g if i .

Cla ss I 77 .
M i scella n eou s F igu res .

361 I nn u en do by ma k i ng a n od (La ti n w o rd b u t
: li t

o ft en w ro n g l y spel t in E n l i sh as i n u en do) T h i s g u re c o ns i st s
. .
,

g .

in h i n ti ng a t hi n g w i t h ou t pl a i n l y sa yi n g it
Th ere a re t w o t imes in a ma n s l ife w h en h e sh o u l d n o t s pe c ul a t e

w h e n h e c a nn o t a ffo rd it a n d w h e n h e c n ( Th t is N ev er a a

s ec u l a t e a t a ll )M A RK T W A I N
.
, ,

p . .

Th e pri nc i pa l differen c e b et w een c a t a n d a l ie is th a t a c a t h a s a

o n l y n i n e l i v es I b id

I do n ot c o n su l t ph ysi c i a n s for I h ope t o die w i t h ou t th em

. .

SIR .

W TE MP L E . .

H e h a d a n u mb er o f c oi n s o f th e R oma n emperors a n d a g o o d

,

m y mo e O f t h e l a t r E ng i s ki g
a n r e l h n s FU L LE R . .

T h ere is n ev er a g o o d c h a mpa g n e y ea r, u nl ess th ere is a g oo d

a
pp l e c ro p i n N o rma n dy
L O RD P A LM E R S T O N .

W e n eed not pry t oo de epl y i nt o th e mo t i v es w h i c h a c t u a t ed

Li H u ng Oh a ng in di sreg a rdi n g th e i n t ere s t s O f h is c o u ntry

- -

R u ssi a do es n o t empl oy a n a u di t or g en era l D a i l y T el eg rap h , -

.

9 t h S ept emb er 1 8 9 8 .

3 6 2 I rony : l i t di ssi mu l a ti on
( d G re e k
ei ron ei a ) w or

. . a ,
.

A mo d e O f speec h , in w h i c h th e w rit er o r spea k er sa ys th e

O
pposit e t o W h a t h e me a n s, b u t d oes n o t i n t en d o r expec t h is
w o rd s t o b e t a k en in t h ei r l it era l sen se .

An ar u
g m b o l iti on o f C hri s tia ni ty ma y a s
e n t t o pro ve t h a t t h e a ,

t h i n g s n o w sta n d b e tt en ded w i th s o me i n c o nv e ni en c es a n d
,
a ,

pe rh ps n o t pro du c e th e ma ny g o o d eff c t s proposed t h e r by

a e e
S W I FT
.

T h e H o l y A ll i a n c e ( R u ssi a; P ru ssi a A u stri a ) w a s mi n ded t o s tretc h ,

th e a rm o f its C h ri s tia n c h a ri ty a c ross t h e A t l a n t i c a n d pu t

re pu b l i c a n i s m do w n in t h e w est ern h emi s h e re a s w el l a s i n it s
p
own G O L D W I N S M I TH Un i ted Ki ng dom ii 3 24
S a r c a sm
.
, , . .

I n sa rca sm a ma n d o es n o t a s in i ron y sa y th e
.
, ,

O
ppo sit e t o w h a t h e mea ns H e sa y s w h a t h e m ea n s
. b u t sa y s
,

it in a w a y th a t i mpl i es ridi c u l e di sa ppro v a l o r c on tempt , ,

.

If i dea s w ere in na t e it w o ul d sa ve mu c h tro ub l e t o ma n v w o rth y

p e rso n s L o cu ,

m.

Mr . E w a rt a n nu a l l y b ro u g h t forw a rd a mo t i o n a g a i n st c a pi ta l
u n i sh me n t , a n d so fa r s uc c e ed ed t h a t , a c c o rdi n g t o o rdi na ry
p
a n c e , i t re u i res so me i n en u it ow , if th e re
1
rl t g t h u n g n

a o e
p q g y
is a fa i r l o oph o l e fo r t h e H o me O fc e t o c reep t h ro u g h F ort
nig htly R evi ew , F e b 1 8 9 8 , p 24 5 . . .

1
This w ord sh o ul d h a ve b een ha ng ed, n ot hu ng . S ee p 6 6 , N ote 2
. .
24 6 EN L A RGE M E N T O F VO CA BU LA RY P A RT I II

3 6 3 I n t errog a t io n
.

U su al l y , w h en w e a sk a qu est i on , w e
do so fo r th e sa k e o f g ett i n g a n a n sw er W h en ev er w e do th i s, .

w e a re us i n g l a n g u a g e in th e pl a i n a n d o rdi n a ry w a y , a n d

th ere is n o F i g u re O f Rh e to ri c i n v o l ved in th e pro c ess .

T h ere a re, h o w ev e r, a t l ea st tw o ki n d s O f i n sta n c es in w h i c h

I n t erroga t i on is u sed a s a rh eto ri cal d ev i c e (a ) w h en th e spea k er
o r w rit er h a vi n a sk e d a u est i o n l e a v e s t h e b ea rer o r rea d er t o
, g q ,

a n sw er it fo r h i msel f a n i n di rec t mod e O f a frmi n g o r d en yi n

g ,

w h i c h is so met i mes mo re fo rc ib l e t h a n di rec t a sse rt i o n ( b ) w h en

a qu esti o n is ask ed fo r pu rpo ses o f e x po si t i on h ere th e t ea c h er
o r w rit er di re c t s a t t en t i o n t o a po i n t by pu t t i n i t i n t h e fo rm
g
Of a u esti o n t o b e so l v ed h a v i ng d on e t h i s h e pro pou n d s h is
q ,

o w n a n sw e r H en c e sc h o o l ma n u a l s a re so me ti mes w ritt en in
.
-

t h i s fo rm .

(a ) F or p u rp oses o f persu a si on
C a n t h e E th i o pi a n c h a ng e h is ski n, o r t h e l eopa rd h is spo t s l O ld
T esta men t .

F o r th e b o dy i s n o t o ne memb er, b u t ma n y If th e fo o t sh a l l sa y , .

Bec a u s e I a m n o t th e h a n d, I a m n o t O f t h e b ody is it t h ere

fore no t O f t h e b o dy A nd if th e ea r sh a ll sa y , Bec a u se I a m
n o t t h e ey e, I a m n o t o f t h e b o dy ; i s it t h ere fo re n o t O f t h e
b ody ? I f t h e w h ol e b o dy w ere a n ey e , w h ere w ere t h e
h ea ri ng ? If t h e w h o l e w ere h ea ri ng , w h ere w ere t h e smel l i ng

1 Cor x ii 1 4 1 7 . . .
-
.

b
( ) F or u r oses
p p o f ex
p osi ti on

W hat is t h s w o rl d i n th e h g h sc a l e O f t h e A l m g h ty s w or ma n
i i i k

i
sh p ? A me re sh red w h c h , t h ou g h sc a t tered n t o n o th ng , i i i
w ou l d i
l ea v e th e u n verse O f G od o ne ent re sc en e o f g rea t n ess i
a n d o f maj esty C A L E S . H M R .

Th e sa me g ure can a l so be u se d in so l il o qu y ,
as w h en a

p erso n
pu s a
q t u es ti o n g iv t o h i msel f
es h is o w n a n sw er an d

W i ll ll g rea t N eptu n e s o c ea n w a sh t h i s bl o o d

a

C l ea n fro m my h n d N O th i s my h a nd w i ll ra th er
a

Th e mu l ti t u din o u s se s i n c a rn a di n e a

M a ki ng th e g ree n o n e re d M a c b eth
,

3 6 4 Exc. l a m a t i o n ) Vh a t a n I n t erj ec t i on is in g ra mma r .

,

E x c l a ma ti on is in rh e t o ri c I t is a mo d e O f e xpressing so me
.

s t ro ng e mo ti on w ith ou t d esc ribi n g i t in se t t erms By th i s .

mea n s th e spea k er o r w rit er h opes t o c o mmu n i c a t e th e sa me

feel i ng to th e min d o f th e h e a rer o r rea d er
0 w h a t a f l l w s th ere my c o u n try me n
,
a a ,

T h en y o u a n d I n d a l l o f u s fe l l do w n a

, , ,

W h l st l o y t
i b
o d rea so n ou r ish d o v er u s l S H A KS P E A R E .

Bu t sh e is in h er g ra v e , a nd O h
T h e diffe renc e to me W o R D sw 0 R T H .
24 8 E N L A RGE M EN T O F VO CA BU L A R Y P A RT III

th e sh o u t s Of b ru t a l so ld er i y an d i i
w th t h e c r e s a nd sh r e i ks
of th e i nh a b i t a n t s
Th e a t mo sph ere . w i th b l ood re ek s .

H o u se s a re set o n re , a n d h u n dre ds perish in t h e a me s .

H u sb a n ds ki ll t h ei r w i v e s, a n d t h e n de stro y t h emsel v es .

W o men t h ro w t h emsel v es i n t o t h e w el l s Ch i l dren a re .

sl a u g h t ered w i t h o u t merc , a n d i n fa n ts a re c u t t o i ec es a t
y p
th ei r mo th ers b rea st s W H E E L E R S I ndia

. .

( b ) S ome a n ti c i
p a ted f u tu re
I s e e a nd b eh o l d t h i s g re a t c i ty , t h e o rn a men t o f t h e ea rt h a n d
t h e c a pi t a l o f a l l n a t i o n s , su dde n l y i n v o l v ed in o n e c o n fl a g ra
ti on I see b efo re me t h e sl a u g h t ered h ea ps o f c i t i z en s l y i ng
.

u nb u ri ed in t h e mi ds t o f t h e ru i n ed c o u n tr T h e fu r i o u
y s .

c o u n t en a n c e o f C e t h e u s ri se s t o m
g y V i ew , w h i l e w i t h a
sa v a g e j o
y h e is tri u mph i ng in y o u r mi seri es C I C E RO .
.

()
0 S omethi ng i ma gin a ry
IVh a t g h o s t a l o ng th e mo o nl i g h t sh a de
b ec k o n i ng
I n v i tes my st e ps, a n d po i nt s t o y o nder g l a de
Tis sh e Bu t w h y th a t b l e edi n g b o som g ore d ?
W h y di ml y g l ea ms t h e v i si o na ry sw ord
.

PO P E .

Is t h i s a da g g er w h i c h I se e b e fo re me,
T h e h a ndl e t o w a rd my h a nd C o me , l et me c l u t c h t h ee .

I h a ve th e e n o t , a n d y et I se e t h e e sti ll .

A rt th o u n o t, fa t a l v i si o n , sen sib l e
TO fe el i n g a s t o si g h t o r a rt t h o u b u t
A da g g er O f t h e mi n d a fa l se c rea t i o n ,
Proc eedi ng from t h e h ea t o ppressed b ra i n S H A KS P E A R E
-
.

Th ese l i nes desc ri b e t h e v isi o n see n b y M a c b et h , j u st b e fo re h e

en t ered t h e c h a mb er o f D u n c a n t o mu rder h im .

3 68 Cl ima x , A n t i c l ima x
. I t a dd s mu ch t o th e im
-
.

ressiv en ess O f a sen t en c e o r g ro u p O f se n t en c es, if th e min d o f

p .

t h e rea d er is ma d e t o a sc en d fro m a l o w er t h ou g h t t o a h i g h e r
by su c c essi v e steps ; fo r it is a s di fc u l t fo r th e mi n d to g ra sp
a n a l i ssu e by a s i n l e s t e , a s fo r t h e b o dy t o a sc e n d a l a dd e r
g p
by a s ni g l e ru n g .

In a cl i ma x (G reek w or d fo r l a dd er
) t h e rst
pa rt O f a
sen t en c e prepa res th e mi n d fo r th e midd l e, a n d th e m l e fo r idd
th e en d

I t is an t o b nd a R o ma n c t z e n ; t o sc o u rg e h im is a n
ou tra g e i ii
i
a tro c o u s c r me i
t o pu t h im t o dea t h i s a l mo s t a pa rr c ide b u t i
to cr u c h i m ifw h a t s h a ll I c a l l i t l C I CE O , Co n tra Verrem R
y ,
.

H is rea so n h a d b ee n o u tra g ed a t L o u rde s ; h is l l u sio n s w ere i

dissi pa t e d i n R o me ; h is sh a e n a t h c o mes t o u t t er s h i p k fi
w rec k in P a r s i
T i mes Weekl y , 4 t h M a rc h 1 8 9 8 .

Th e O
pp osite pro c ess, by w th ou gh t d esc en d s fro m a
h i c h th e
h i gh e r l ev el to a l o w er is c al l ed A n t i c lima x o r Ba t h o s
-

(G re e k fo r d epth T h is may b e d o n e i t ti
n en o n a ll y fo r ,
C H A P XXV I
. F I GUR E S O F RH E TO R I C 24 9

po int ,
hu mou r, or an y o t h er p u rpose , -
or it may be done
t h ro u g h an i n adv erten ce in w h i ch c ase th e e ff ec t w i ll be
feeb l e o r ev en l u di c ro u s

H ere th ou , g rea t A n n a , w h o m t h ree rea l ms O b ey

a n d somet i mes t ea P O P E
,

D o st so me t ime s c ou n s e l ta ke , . .

Th e a u t o c ra t of R u ssi a po sse sse s more po w er t h a n an o t h er ma n

on ea rt h, b u t h e c a nn o t s t o p a sn eez e M A RK T W A I N y
.

The foll ow i ng is a n ex a mpl e O f in a dvert en c e w h ere th e ,

s t ro n g w o rd n ecessi t y is foll o w ed by t h e w ea k er w o rd

d esi ra bil i t y

I t w o u l d seem a l most su per u ou s t po i n t o u t th e pro pri e t y a n d o

n ec essi t y a n d desira bi l it y o f a ppo i nt i ng fema l e O f c ers F ort

,

ni gh tl y R evi ew , F eb . 1 8 9 8 , p 28 2
. .

369 Hy per b o
-
G reek W o rd O f fo u r sy l l a b l es, si g ni fyi ng
-
le (a

-
.

e x agg era t i o n) T h i s is u su a ll y a fa ul t
. Bu t w h en it is reso rt ed .

t o fo r th e sa k e O f h e i g h t en i n g th e effec t , a n d pro vid ed th a t th e

d epa rt u re from t ru th d oes n o t O ffen d o n e s sense O f th e tru th fu l ,

i t is a rec o gn se i d F igu re O f S peech

Th ey w ere s w ift er t h a n ea g l e s t h ey
,
w ere stro ng er t h a n l i o n s .

D a vid s L a men t f or S a u l a nd J ona th a n

.

A ll t h e perfu me s O f A ra bi a w i ll n o t sw e et en t h i s l i tt l e h a n d .

S H A K S P E A R E ( L a dy M a c b et h ) .

T h a t ex e c ra b l e su m o f a ll v i l l a ni e s, c o mm on l y c a ll ed t h e S l a v e

Tra de W E SLE Y
. .

M y d u st w o u l d h ea r h er a n d b ea t ,
H a d I l a i n for a c entu ry d ea d
W ou l d sta rt a n d trem l e b un d er h er feet
a nd red T E NNY S O N
,

A n d b l o ssom in pu rpl e .
,
M a ud .

S u ch ex a mpl es as th e fol l ow in g a ppea r, h o w ev er, t o be

t vaga n t
e x ra ti c i al
a nd a r

T h e sk y shru n k u pw a rd w i th u n u su a l drea d
A n d tremb l i n g b er di v e d b en ea t h h is b ed D RYD E N
,

. .

I sa w t h e i r c h i e f t l l a s ro c k o f ic e ; h is spe r t h e b l a s t ed r ;
,
a a a ,

h is sh i el d t h e ri si n g mo o n h e sa t o n t h e sh o re l ik e a c l ou d
o f mi st o n a h i ll O S S I A N
, ,

. .

370 . R epet it io n A n o th e r mo d e Of g ivi ng ex

press o n i to
i n ten se feel i n g o r c o n vi c ti o n is by repea ti ng th e pri n c i pa l w o rd ,

o r addi n
g e qu iv a l en t w o rd s R epe titi o n w h en it is u sed ,

w ith n o rh e t o ri ca l effe c t th a t is w h en it is a fau l t in c o m osi

, p ,

ti o n is c all ed T au tol og y o r Pl eo n asm 29 5 )

,

H e su ng D ri u s g rea t a n d g oo d a ,

Fa ll en fa l l en fa l l en fa ll en , , , ,

Fa l l en from h is h i g h e st t e
A n d w el t eri ng in h is b l o o d
a ,

D RYD E N . .
25 0 EN L A RGEM EN T O F VO CA BU LA R Y P A RT III

F a i th fu l fo u nd
A mo n g t h e fa i thl ess, fa i t h fu l o nl
y he .

M I LT O N ,
P a r L ost
. .

A nd l e a ra t

ik w i th o u t a ta l , i
I l l do , I l l do ,

an d I ll do .

S H A K S P E A R E , M a c b eth .

Yo u c a nn o t , sir, k e from me
ta y th i n g t h a t I w o u l d mo re
an
wi l l i ng l y pa rt w i t h l e x c e pta my l ife , ex c ept my l ife, ex c ept
my l ife S H A KS P E A R E
,

.
,
H a ml et .

A l o n e, a l o n e , a l l , a ll a l o n e,
A l o n e o n a w i de , w i de sea .

C O L E R I DG E , A n ci en t M a ri n er .

SO ru n s my drea m
b u t w hat am I
A n i n fa n t c ry i ng in t h e ni g h t ,
A n i n fa n t c ry i ng for th e l i g h t,
A nd w i t h n o l a ng u a g e b u t a c ry
T E NNY S O N , I n M emoria m .

A mu l ti pl i c ity o f w o rd s mea ni ng th e sa me, o r al most th e

sa me, th i n c a n b e u sed t o i n t ensify th e effec t
g
H ow w ea ry , s ta l e, a t , a nd u n
pro ta b l e,

S eem t o me a l l t h e u s es O f t h i s w o rl d S H A K S P E A R E

.

Bu t n o w I m c a b i n ed, c ribb ed , c o nn ed

I b id

. .

A ll is l i t tl e, a n d l o w , a n d mea n a mo n g u s BO L I NG BR O K E
A ma n o f sorro w s, a nd a c qu a i n te d w i t h g ri e f O ld Test
. .

S u rel y h e h a t h b o rn e o u r g ri e fs , a n d c a rri ed o u r so rro w s I bid .

W h a t is ma n, t h a t th o u a rt mindfu l o f h im ? o r t h e so n o f ma n ,
t h a t t h o u v i i t est
s h im Ib id .

371 . L it -
o -
d si gn ifyi ng pl a i nn ess si mpl i c ity)
t es (a G ree k w or ,
.

T h e n a me is n o w g iv en to th a t g u re O f speec h by w h i c h w e
pl a c e a n ega tiv e b efo re so me w o rd t o i ndi c a te a stro ng a frm ,

a tiv e i n th e O
pposit e di rec ti o n
H e is n o du l l a rd ( = dec i dedl y c l e v er)
A c i ti e n o f n o mea n ( = a di st i ng u i sh e d) c i t y N ew T est
.

z .

N ol a By th i s g u re su c h w ords a s i n f mou s

u n pro fe ss i o n a l a ,

,

u n c h ri st i n e tc
a ll O f w h i c h h a v e merel y n eg t i v e prex es
, .
,
a a ,

h a v e a c qu i red stro ng l y a frm t i v e sen se in t h e O ppo si t e di rec t i o n

a a ,

( s ee 3 25 , u nder N on) .

372 . E uph emism (G r . eu , w el l ; and p h emi , I s ea

p k) . By
th i s g ure we spea k in g en t l e a nd fa v ou ra b l e t erms O f so me
p e rso n , O bj ec t ,
or ev e n t w h i c h is o rdi n a ri l y seen in a l ess
l ea si n l i gh t 29 1 )
p g
C h i n a is a c o u n try w f
h ere y o u O t en g et d ff eren t a c c o u n t s O f t h e i
me i ng = w h ere ma n l i es a re t o l d) L o rd S a l i sb u ry s

sa th ( y .

Sp eech .

He k n eel ed do w n , a n d c ri ed w ith a l ou d v o ic e , L ord, l a y no t t h is

sin t o t h e ir c h a rg e A n d, w h en h e h a d sa i d t h is, h e fel l

.

a sl eep D ea th o f S t eph e n , A c ts v ii 6 0 . .
25 2 E N L A R G E M E N T O F VO CA BU LA R Y P A RT III

o r squ ea l i ng o f h o g s, b el l ow i n g o f b u ll s , l o w in g o f b l ea t
o x en ,

i n g O f sh e e p, b a a i n g O f l a mb s P ref a ce to . W edgw ood s

D i c ti ona ry .

O n th e sa me pri n c i pl e , au th o rs h a ve me ti mes u sed w o rd s

so

in su c h a w ay th a t i
th e r sou n d may see m to su gg est th e
sen se

( 1 ) G ra te o n t h eir sc ra nn el pi pes o f w ret c h ed s tra w M I LT O N

. .

( )
2 A l a rm g u n s b
-
oo m i n g t h rou g h t h e mi dn i g h t a ir W I R V I NG . . .

A t e v e t h e b ee t l e b oometh
A t h w a rt t h e t h i c k et l o ne T E NNY S O N
. .

H enc e dden a n d
a su r pi d a dv a n c e O f s o me
a rt i c l e o f c o mmerc e
a ,

a c c o m a n i ed w i t h n o i sy e x c i t emen t n d h ol l o w n e s s o f s u b s t a n c e h a s
a
p ,

b e e n c a l l e d a b oo m .

( )
3 S O h e w t h d ff c u l tiy a n d i i
l a ou r h a r b d
i i
M o v e d o n , w t h d f c u l ty a n d l a b ou r h e .
M I L T O N .

H ere th e di f c u l ty O f sc a nn i n g t h e rst
l in e, w i t h t h e re pet i t i o n o f
t h e sa me w o rds i n t h e s e c o nd, su g g est s th e diic u l ty w i t h w h i c h
S a t a n , b y re pe a t e d efforts, ma de his w a y t h ro u g h Ch a os t o o u r ea rth .

( 4 ) A l l u n a w a res,
Fl u t teri ng h is penn o n s v a i n , p l u mb dow n h e drops
T n t
e h o u sa nd fa t h o m d e e p
M I L T O N .

H ere t h e prec i pi ta t e desc ent of S a t a n is su

gg est e d b y t h e s ou n d

Of t he sec o nd l i ne .

( )
5 B n d w t h trem en i
do u s so u n d y o u r e a rs a su nder
P O P E
e

W th g u n , dru m, t ru mpet , l u nder u ss, a n d th u nder

i b b . .

( 6 ) E tern a l w ra th
Bu rnt a ter t h em t o t h e b ottoml ess p it M I
f O LT N .

H ere th e dro p O f t h e a c c e n t u a t i o n a t t h e c l o se o f th e s ec o n d
su dde n

l i n e, w h ere a n a c c e n t is i n di spe n sa b l e t o t h e me t re , su g g e st s t h e
s u dde n a nd prec i pi ta t e fa l l O f t h e reb el l i ou s a n g el s fro m h ea v e n t o h el l
'

C H A P TE R XXV I I .
E N L A R G E M E N T O F V O C A BU LA R Y
BY M E T A P H O R A N D M E T O N Y M Y .

376 D ec a y o f M et a ph or s
.

W e ma y d et ec t t h re e differen t
s t a es in t h e l ife O f me t a h o rs I t i s o n l y by t h e l a st t w o ,
g p

.

b o th O f w h i c h a re stag es O f d ec a y, t h a t th e v o c a b u l a ry O f a
l a n g u a g e is en l a r e
g d .

(1) I n t h e rst g sta d e th e w or d

s st i ll h a v e a pu rel yOI vo r
v

g u ra t i v e si g n i ca t i o n I n u si ng th em t h e o n l y th o u g h t t h a t
.

s t rik e s u s is th e si mi l a ri t y (in so m e a rti c u l a r o i n t) b e t w e en

p p
th e t w o t h i ngs c o mpa red , a n d w e a re f ul l y c o nsc i ous a ll th e
w h i l e t h a t w e a re e m l o yi n
p g a g u re O f spee c h .

A ny memb er of th e V i c eroy a l C ou nc i l ( in I ndi a ) w h o pro po ses ,

an
y i
e x t ens o n of Bri t i sh so v erei g n ty mo ng th e h i ll s sh o u l d
a ,
CH A P XXV I I
. BY M E TA P H O R A N D M E TO N Y M Y 25 3

d so w ith a rop e rou nd h i s n eck

o R eview of R eview s, Ja n .
.

1 8 9 8, p 8 . .

C l ea rl t h e fi rst th n g is th e ma n t en a nc e O f th e n a v , w th o u t
y i i y i
w h c h w e a re mere l
i a h u g e p l u m p u ddi n g rea d y h
yf r t e sp oon s

o
of ou r h u ng ry n ei g h b ou rs I b id p 9 . . . .

Th e ou ng ma n a ou t L o n do n o r P a r s w a s b ra n e a s a f a nged,
y b i d d
b u t h a n dl ess, sp ider, th a t su cks i n deed a nd sti ng s, b u t c a nn ot
sp i n , t h s w th a n i n t e ns e i i
s b l a t o n, w h c h ma de th e i d i i i i
w h o l e s en t enc e a h s s Cen tu ry M a g a z i n e, F eb i 1 89 8 . .

f bi f i i
A ter a r e d sc u ss on t h e H o u se sa i l ed smooth l y a n d qu i etl y
i n to th e sh a l l ow a nd b ec a l med w a t ers O f th e S u ppl emen ta ry
E s ma tes ti
D a i l y T el eg rap h , 25 th F eb 1 8 9 8 . .

( )
2 I n d st age th e si gn i ca ti on O f th e w o rd is
th e sec o n

divid ed b e tw een th e l it eral a n d th e gu ra tive Th e o rig in al o r .

l it era l mea n i n g is sti ll th ere b u t th e g ura tiv e h a s b eco me so

fa mi l i a r th a t w e a re on l y pa rt i a l l y con sc i ous th a t a n y su ch
gu re ex i sts I n t h i s st a g e th e d eca y O f th e met aph o r h a s
.

b egun a n d possib l y it ma y g o n o fu rth er

,
.

Th e p oin t o f a n eedl e I di ffer w i th y o u o n th a t p oin t (g ) .

D ra w a stra i g h t li n e A c l ea r l in e o f a rg u men t ( g ) .

H is h eigh t is six feet I t w a s th e h eigh t O f ru d eness ( g ) .

A smooth su rfa c e A smooth t o ng u e ( f ig )

T h e key t o a l oc k T h e key t o a prob l em ( g ) .

I h t h i d t h i i a l o r l it eral mea ni n
( )
3 n t e r s a g e t e o r g n
g h as
o n e qui t e ou t O f u se a n d n o t h i n g b u t t h e u ra ti v e rema i ns
g , g .

I n fa c t th e gu ra tiv e h as b ec o me th e l it era l
,
T h is is t h e n al .

st a g e O f d eca y t o w hi ch a me t a ph o r ca n c ome ( I t is c o nc e iva bl e .

,

h o w e v er th a t thi s a c qu i red l it era l sen se mi gh t it sel f so me da y

,

a c u i re a me t a h o ri ca l sen se a n d b e e v en t u a ll y ous t ed by it l ik e
q p
its pred ec esso r ) .

tra nspa renc y o f medi u m

P ersp icu i ty a t rs t , no w c l ea rn ess

O f di c t i o n .

M el a n ch o l y a t rst bl a c k bil e
,
n ow l o w spi ri t s .

en th u si a sm

A rdou r a t rst , ph y si c a l h e t n ow a z ea l ,

.

Cy n osu re a t rst ,
d og s ta i l a c o nstell a t i o n n ow a c en tre O f

a t tra c t i o n .

A cu ten e s a t rst sh a r n ess O f ed e n w u i c k n ess o f

mmf
p g o q
i
I t is n o t ti ll a meta ph o r h a s dec a y ed e ith er in w h ol e o r in ,

p a rt,
t h a t it ca n b e sa id t o en l a rg e th e v o ca b u l a ry O f a l an ua e
g g .

E v en th en it is n o t a n ew w o rd a dd ed to th e v o ca b u l a ry b u t ,

a n O l d w o rd i n v est e d w ith a n ew sen se I f t h e l a n g u a g e g a i ns .

n o th i n g in qu a n tity it a i n s mu c h in u a l ity t h a t is i n e x pre s

g , q , ,

siv en e s s F o r i nst a n ce t h e l i mita t i o n O f th e w o rd perspi c u ity

.
,

t o th e sense O f tra nspa ren c y of dic tion is a di stin c t ga in so l on g ,

as th e W o rd t ra ns pa ren c y is a va i l a b l e for o th er c onn ec ti o ns

.
 25 4 E N LA R GE M EN T O F V O CA BU L A R Y P A RT III

P e rspi cu ity is mo re ex
press ive th a n c l ea rn ess, b eca u se th e
l a t t er w or d ca n be a
ppl i ed t o man y ki n d s of th ings b esid es
di c ti on .

) Vh eth er g iv en w o rd h as any rea c h e d th e na l , or is o nl y

a ssi ng th rou g h t h e ea rl i er, sta g e Of d ec a y is a i
o nt o n w h i ch
p p
diffe ren t O pi n i on s migh t b e h el d S o me person s, fo r i n st a n c e,
.

mig h t st i ll be to so me e x t en t c o n sc i ou s O f u si n g a gu re O f spee c h
in th e w o rd a rd o u r,

w h i l e t o o t h ers

z ea l

mi g h t seem to b e
th e o n l y l i tera l mea n i n g th a t t h e w o r d ev e r h ad .

37 7 . N ou ns g u ra tiv e u ses, th a t h a ve b ec ome l it eral

A ra y o f h o pe A sha de o f d o u b t
. A f l a sh o f w it A n ou tb u rst
. .

O f t emper T h e re o f pa ssi o n
. A g l ea m o f delig h t . T h e l ig h t O f .

k n o w l edg e A igh t o f fa nc y A sp a rk o f h u mo u r T h e g l oom o f

. . .

despa i r . T h e w rec k O f h is h o pes T h e sp u r O f a mb i ti o n. Th e .

to rmen ts O f j ea l o u sy Th e rei n s O f O fc e
. T h e a ng er o f t h e t empest . .

Th e f ea st O f rea so n Th e tide o f demo c ra c y

. T h e f a l l o f e mpi res I n . .

t h e su nset o f h is y ea rs H is pro speri t y is o n th e dec l i n e ( g o i n g do w n )

. .

H is repu ta t i o n is o n th e w a n e T h e p a ng s O f remo rse . Th e sti ng .

o f c o n sc i e n c e Th e i mp u l se ( dri v i n g o n ) O f re v eng e
. Th e moti ve .

( mo v in g po w e r) O f fea r Th e w i sh w a s f a ther t o th e t h ou g h t
. Th e .

deca denc e ( fa l l i n g do w n o r fa l l i n g O ff ) O f t h a t rm .

Ha n d l i t e ra l ly t h e b o di l y o rg a n so c a l l ed
To b e h a nd a nd g l o ve w i t h a perso n ( t o b e o n t erms o f fri endsh i p
a s c l ose a s a h a n d i s t o a l ov e) T h e h a n d O f a c l oc k ( b e c a u se i t
g .

p o i n t s ) A
. h o r s e fo u rt e e n h a nds h i h ( a h a n d s b re a dth )
g O n all

.

h a nds ( o n a ll si de s , b ec a u se th e h a nd i s o n th e si de) Th e P ro t est .

a n t s w ere t h en O n t h e w i nn i n
g h a nd ( si de , M i l to n ) H e w a s t he i r .

rig h t h a nd ma n ( mo s t u se fu l c o o pera t o r)
- -
.

F oot l i t era l l y t h e b o dil y o rg a n so c a l l ed

T h i ng s a re n o w o n a g o o d f ooting ( b a sis ) Th e f oot ( b a se ) o f t h e .

mou n ta in T h e f oot O f a t a b l e ( th a t o n w h i c h th e t a b l e res t s )

. Th e .

f oot ( l o w es t
p a rt , fa g e n d) o f a
p roc e s s
-
i o n A fo u rf o ot ru l e ( mea su re .
-

A n I a mb i c f oot ( a mea su re in proso dy )

o f l e n g th ) . T O pu t o n e s .

f oot do w n ( ma k e a reso l u t e resi st a nc e ) To pu t th e b e st f oot foremost .

( t o do o n e s b es t a n d l o se no t ime a b o u t it ) TO set o n f oot ( s ta rt , set .

i n mo ti o n ) T O tra mpl e u nde rf o ot ( spu rn , o ppress)

. .

Bo dy l i t era l l y t h e ph y si c a l s tru c t u re a s O ppo s ed t o mi nd

R i v ers t h a t ru n u p i nt o th e b ody ( ma i nl a n d) O f I ta l y ( A ddi so n ) .

A b ody ( b a nd) o f tro o ps A b ody ( sy st em o r c o l l ec t i o n ) o f l a w s

. A .

b ody ( ma ss ) o f c o l d a ir ( H u x l ey ) T h i s w in e h a s n o b ody ( su b s ta n c e )
. .

Th e b ody ( n a v e ) o f a c h u rc h Th e b ody po l i ti c ( t h e st a t e )
. .

Bra nc h l i t era l l y w h a t gro w s from a t re e

T h e b ra n c h o f a ri ver T h e b ra n ch O f a n a n tl er
. T h e bra n ch o f a .

c h a ndel i er Th e b ra n ch o f a ra i l w a y
. Th e b ra n ch o f a su b j ec t ( a s
.

g e o me tr
y is a b ra n c h o f m a th ema t i c s) T h e y o u n g er b ra nc h o f a .

fa mi l y T h ey w ere ex termi n a t ed root a nd b ra nch ( to ta lly )

. .

R oot l it t h e u nderg ro u n d po rt i o n O f a pl a nt
.

T h e root o f a t o o t h ( t h e pa rt i nside t h e g u m) Th e root o f a n a i l . .

Th e root O f a c a nc er Th e l o ve O f mo ney is t h e root ( sou rc e, ma i n

.
 25 6 E N L A R GE M EN T O F VO CA BU L A R Y P A RT I I I
Dea d ( l t era l l y , n a n ma t e , t h a t ro m w h c h l e h a s
i i i e a rt ed)
p f i if d .

A dea d l a ng u a g e ( n o l o n g er spo en ) ; a th w th o u t w o r s is dea d, k fi i k

b e ng a l o n e ( N ew T est ) ; dea d ( n ert ) ma t t er ; h e is a dea d sh o t
i i
fi
( n e v er a l s t o h it ) a dea d ( u n a l tera b l e ) c erta n ty a dea d ( mo t o n i i
l e ss ) c a l m a dea d ( t o ta l l y u n c o n sc o u s ) sl eep h e i s dea d ( c a l l o u s ) t o i
a ll s e n se O f h o n o u r ; t h e dea d
( most s l en t h o u rs) O f n g h t ; a dea d i i
i
( u nc h a n g ng ) l e v e l ; a dea d w e g h t ( a w eig h t w h c h c a nn o t h el p to i i
i
ra s e tse l ) i a dea d l o c f k
( a st o ppa g e w h c h c a nn o t b e remo v ed) ; a
-
i
i
dea d ( rrec o v e ra b l e ) l o ss a dea d b a l l ( o n e t h a t is e x c l u ded rom t h e f
res t o f t h e g a me ) dea d ( u n pro du c t v e ) c a p t a l a dea d h ea t ( a ra c e i i
i
w t h o u t resu l t s ) ; dea d ( s
p r t l e s s ) c ol o u r n
g ; h e ma de a dea d s et ii i
( de t erm n ed a t t a c ) a t me h e w a s dea d a g a n st my pro po sa l ( O pposed
i k i
ii
t o it u nc o n d t o n a ll y ) dea d a l v e ( a l v e, b u t w t h o u t v t a l ty ) -
i i i i i
Lig h t ( l t era ll y , w h a t c a n b e e a s l y l te d, n o t h ea v y ) A l igh t
.

i i if .

i
a f ic t o n ; a l ig h t h ea rt ; l i g h t o o d ( ea sy o f d g e st o n ) ; a tro o p o f f i i
i
l ig h t h o rse ( l g h t l y a rmed) a l ig h t t o u c h o n t h e p a n o a li h t c o n
g i i
i
( c l ppe d, b el ow th e sta n da rd w e g h t ) a l igh t ( sa n dy ) s o l i i

.

S impl e ( l t era ll y s n l e o l d,
g i o n e a t a i A si mp le-
f
i
( pl a n , u n a do rned) dress ; simp l e ( u nm t g a t e d) ru b sh ; si mp le ii b i
m nded ( g en u ne ) ; simp l e ( u na ff ec te d) ma nn ers ; a si mp le ( d rec t)
i i i
st a t eme n t ) ; si mp l e ( l a n )
p d et ; a si mp l e ( l o w l ,
y u n i
p et ent ou s )
r i i
h u sb a ndma n a si mp l e se n t enc e ( w th o nl y o n e F n t e v erb ) a si mp l e i i i
b o dy ( a n a t om, nd v s l e, u l t ma t e ) i i i ib
a si mp l e e u a t o n ( w th o nl i i i
q y
o n e u nk n o w n u a nt t ) si mp l e n t erest ( n o t c ompou nd)
i i
q y .

37 9 V erb s g u ra tiv e us es, t h a t h a v e

. b ec o me l i tera l f

To emp l oy mea n s ; t o con tra c t h a bi t s ; t o ca rry a ma tt er to ex

t reme s ; t o ca st o n e s ey e s o n

th ng ; t o p rosecu te st u d es ; t o p a ss a i i
i
over in s l e nc e ; t o g a i n c el e r t
y ; t o p o cket a n n su l t ; t o p i c k a bi i
qu a rrel t o cu rry a v o u r t o h a rb ou r ma l c e t o c u l ti va te a n a c qu a n t
f i i
a nc e to i n du lg e i n h o pes t o ta ke o f enc e t o p la y t h e o o l t o pu t f f
a i
qu est o n t o triu mp h o v er d c u l t es t o s tick t o a po nt t o dra w if i i
up a sc h eme t o p u rsu e a su b j ec t , e t c

.

S trik e ( l tera l l y , t o h it a th ng w th s ome orc e )

i Th ey sh a l l i i f .

strike ( th ro w ) t h e b l o o d o n t h e t w o s de post s ( E x odu s x ii To i .

s trike ( s ta m ) c o n ro m met a l
p Th i f
e tree h a s stru c k ro o t ( th ru st it .

i n to th e g rou nd) T h e dru ms strike u p ( b eg n t o pl a y ) a ma rc h

. A i .

i
n e w dea h a s stru c k me ( o c c u rred t o me ) T O strike ( l o w er) s a l We . i .

stru c k ( u n t c h ed, t o o d i
o w n ) o u r t ent s T h e men h a v e stru c k ( l e t
k f
p .

O ff ) w o r k
T O stri ke a ma t c h ( g n t e i t b y c o nc u ss o n )
. T O stri ke i i i .

k if i i
( ma e o r ra t y b y j o n ng h a n ds ) a a rg a n Th ey stru c k ( h it u po n ) b i .

t h e t ra l i
Th e c l oc . k
stru c k ( s o u n ded t h e h o u r o f) t w e l v e Th s . i
p i
stri kes ( m resses ) me a s s tra ng e H e stru c k ( en t ered su ddenl y ) nt o . i
th e c o n v ersa t o n i
A ma n w e l l stri c ken ( a dv a nc ed) in y ea rs
. .

i
C a tc h ( l t era ll y , t o s e z e a ny th ng in mo t o n , w t h t h e e ec O f i i i i ff t
h o l d ng i t ) T O c a tch h im in h is w o rds ( en t a ng l e h im M a rk x ii
i .
.

T o ca tch a t u n e ( se z e w t h t h e m n d) ; t o c a tch a n a rg u men t ; t o

i i i
ca tc h a mea n n T h i
e h o u se c a u g h t re t o c a tch c o ld, c a tc h mea sl es
g .
.

T o ca tc h o n e a sl ee p ( c o me u po n u n ex pec t edl y ) T O ca tch a t ra n ( rea c h . i

i t in t me) i
TO c a tch o n e s ey e ( a ttra c t n o t c e )
. T o c a tch o n e u p i .

i
( n t erru pt a ny o n e c a pt ou sl , w h l e in th e a c t o f s pea ng ; o r to i y i ki
o v erta k e some o n e in fro nt ) .
CHA P XXV I I
. BY M E TA PH O R A N D M ETO N Y M Y 25 7

Break ( l it era l l y, t o by v i ol enc e ; a s to

sev er by fra c ture ,
di v id e
b rea k a sea l t o b rea k a l oc k t o b rea k a c h a i n t o b rea k a w i ndo w )
, , ,
.

T O b rea k t h e new s ( di sc l o s e or l a y O pe n for t h e rs t t i me espec i a l l y

i l l n ew s) . T O b rea k ( t ra n sg ress or v i o l a t e ) a l a w TO b rea k ( i nt er .

ru pt ) si l en c e T h e Fren c h c a v a l ry w ere n ot a b l e t o b rea k t h e

.

Bri t i sh squ a res ( t h ro w i n t o di sord er) H is h ea l t h h a s b ee n mu c h .

b roken ( impa ired ) TO b rea k a c o l t ( tra i n it for w ork )

. T o b rea k .

d ow n ( c ru sh ) O pposi t i o n T o b rea k o n e o f a h a bi t ( ma k e h im l ea v e
.

H e b roke t h ro u g h t h e en emy s l i n es

it O ff ) . T O b rea k u p h o use .

( g i v e it u p ent irel y ) Th e l a d der t h a t h e fel l a g a i n st b roke ( l e ssen ed

.

t h e v i o l en c e o f ) t h e fa l l To b rea k a fa st ( ta k e foo d a fter a l o n g

.

i nt erva l ) To b rea k n ew g rou nd ( O pen it o u t for t h e rst t ime ; t o

.

e n t er u po n s o me n ew proj ec t ) T h a t g ri e f b roke h is h e a rt ( o v er .

w h el med him w i t h g ri e f ) TO b rea k a l a nc e ( eng a g e in a c on test )

. .

TO b rea k t h e ic e ( i n t rodu c e a new su bj ec t )

I n tra nsi ti ve u ses T h e da y b eg i n s t o b rea k ( d a w n )
.

. M ea sl es .

b roke ou t T h e c oa c h b roke d o w n
. I a m a fra i d h e w ill b rea k .

( b ec ome b a nkru pt ) T h e b a nk b roke ( b ec a me i nsol v ent ) Th e

T h e sc h o ol t h e fro s th a s b roken u p
. .

h orse b roke i nt o a g a l o p . .

H is pa rt n er b roke w i t h h im ( di sso l v ed pa rt n ers h i p)

Cu t ( l i tera l l y t o ma k e i nc i si o n w i th a sh a rp e dg e)
.

,
Th a t sneer .

cu t ( w ou n d ed ) h im t o t h e u i ck H e w a s no t c u t ou t ( su i t ed b y
q .

t empera ment ) for a l a w y er O n e l i n e cu ts ( pa ss es t h rou g h ) a no th er .

a t ri h t a n l es
g g H e c u t me ( re fu sed to rec og n i s e me )
. H e cu t .

( g a v e u p) t h e pro fe ssi o n TO cu t a stra n g e g ure ( sh o w o n e sel f

.

in a stra n g e c h a ra c ter) T O cu t d ow n ( red u c e ) ex pen ses

. He w a s .

cu t O ff ( di ed ) in t h e h ei g h t O f h is c a reer TO c u t a person s h ort .

( su d denl y st o p him from spea ki ng ) T h e c h il d is cu tting it s t eet h .

( t h u st ing th em t hrou g h t h e g u ms) To cu t t h e c a rd s ( di v id e t h e

i
.

p ac

R un ( l i t era ll y , th e a c ti o n o f ru nni ng , u sed O f men a n d o t h er

a n i ma l s)
TO ru n i nt o deb t
. H e ru n s o n ( c ont i n u es t a l ki ng ) from .

o n e su bj ec t t o a n o th er R i v ers ru n i n t o t h e sea . T h e re ra n .

t h ro u g h t h e fo rest H er b l o od ra n c ol d . I ro n ores ru n ( mel t ) .

fre el y in t h e re Th i s t ra in ru ns t o Y ork Th e mi l l ru n s ( is a t
. .

w o rk ) six d a y s in t h e w e ek T h e en g i n e ru n s da y a nd nig h t .Th e .

ro a d ru ns ( h a s a di rec t i o n ) e a st a nd w est H is pl a n s ru n c o u nt er t o .

mi n e . Th e sent enc e ru n s t h u s ( is w ord ed t h u s) Th e pl a nt is .

ru n ni ng t o se ed Co l o u rs ru n ( do n o t rema i n x ed) in th e w a sh i n g
. .

T h e l ea se h a s n i n ety y ea rs t o ru n ( c o n ti nu e in forc e ) A ru n n i ng .

so re ( o n e t h a t c o nt i n u es t o di sc h a r e ma t t er) Th e sh i p ra n ( mov ed
g .

sw ift l y ) b e fo re t h e w i n d To ru n do w n a c o a st ( sa i l a l on g it )
. Th e .

mo ney h a s ru n o u t ( h a s a ll b e en spen t ) Th e c u p ru ns o v er ( is so .

fu l l t h a t t h e c ont ent s o v er o w ) H e ra n th rou g h h is mo ney ( spent .

it a l l ra pidl y ) .

TO ru n a t h rea d i n t o a n e edl e s ey e

T ra n si ti ve u ses .
-
TO ru n .

a n a i l i n to o n e s fo o t T h ey ra n t h e sh i p a g rou n d To ru n a ra i l

. .

w a y ( c a u se it t o b e ma d e ) t h rou g h a c o u n try TO ru n ( i nc u r) a ri sk . .

T o ru n a n h o t el ( k e ep i t a t w o rk ) To ru n a b l oc k a d e ( g et t h rou g h .

it W i t h ou t b e i ng c a u g h t ) To ru n a ma n do w n ( di spa ra g e , tra d u c e)
. .

H e ra n h im h a rd ( v ery n ea rl y c a u g h t h im u p) To ru n u p a bil l or .

a h o u se ( c a us e it to ri s e ra pid ly ) .

ma c . 3
25 8 EN L A R GE M E N T O F VO CA BU LA R Y P A RT I I I

3 8 0 P r epo si t ion s Th ere is sc a rc el y a n y pa rt O f speec h

.

th a t h as l en t i tsel f mo re rea dil y t o meta ph o ri c a l u sag e t h an

repositi o n s T h e i r rst n d l i t r l w to
p . a e a us e as e x ress
p
rel a t i o ns in sp a ce ; th e y w e re n e x t a ppl i ed me t a ph o ri c a l l y t o

rel a t i o ns in time ; a nd t h en g ra d u a ll y to ma n y o t h er ki nd s O f
rel a t i o n s .

Ab ou t l it j u st o n t h e ou t si de O f, v ery n ea r in
.

po i n t o f l oc a l i ty ; a s, h e h a s a c o mfort er a b ou t h is n ec k

ha v e
y o u a n y mo n e
y a b ou t y o u ? M etap h ori ca l u ses I t is a b ou t s e v en .

O c l o c k ( n ea rn ess o f t ime ) ; h e i s a b ou t t o b e ma rri ed ( n ea rn e ss O f

st a t e ) ; h e w en t a b ou t h is w ork in ea rn est ( o c c u pa t i o n ) ; I h a v e
h ea rd a b ou t i t ( c o n c ern i ng ) .

A b ov e lit in a h i g h er pl a c e ; a s , t h e h e a d is

.

a b ove t h e n ec k M eta p h ori ca l u ses

. H e st a y e d w i t h u s a b ove a
.

w e ek ( l o n g er in t i me ) a b ove a h u n dred ( mo re i n n u mb er or a mo u n t )
h e is a b ove su c h mea n n ess ( b ett er o r h i g h er in qu a l i t y ) .

A f t er : l it b a c k w a rds o r b eh i n d in pl a c e a s, I w i ll e nt er af ter

.

M H e a rri v ed af ter da rk ( sequ e n c e in

y o u . eita p h o ri c a l u ses .

t i me ) ; af ter a ll y o u h a v e t o l d me I a m c o n v i nc ed ( sequ e n c e i n
e ffec t ) h e is se eki n g af ter w ea l t h ( se qu e nc e in pu rsu i t ) ; h e t a k es
af ter h i s fa t h er ( se u en c e in i mi t a t i o n ) af ter a l l t h e a d vi c e i v e n
q g
h im, h e did t h e v ery O ppo si te ( se qu en c e in c o ntra st ) .

A g a inst : l it O pposi t i o n o f pl a c e ; a s , h e is l ea ni ng a g a i n st th e
JI eta p h o ri ca l u ses A g a i n st my i nt erest ( a im o r pu rpo s e ) ;
.

w a ll .

a g a i n st t h e da y o f b a t t l e ( in pre a ra ti o n fo r) f ur u i l s h a v e l eft
p o
p p
a g a i nst t h re e l a st t erm ( in c o mpa ri so n w i t h ) .

A t : l it t h e l oc a l i ty O f a n a c t i o n o r t h i ng , t h e po i n t reac h ed o r
.

t h e do g spra ng a t h im

desi red ; a s, h e is n o t a t h o me ;

M etaph o ri ca l u ses A t fou r O c l oc k ( ti me ) a t h is ea se ( sta t e) a t a

.

Cert a in pri c e ( v a l u e ) ; h e pl a y s w ell a t c ri c k e t ( sph ere O f a c t i o n ) ;

st a nd u p a t t h e g i v en si g n a l ( t ime a nd c o n seq u en c e c ombi n ed ) DO .

t h i s a t y o u r c o n v enie nc e ( ti me a nd st a t e c o mbi n ed) .

Before l it in fro nt O f, t h e O ppo si te t o
. a ft er

b eh i nd

a s, h e st a n ds b ef ore t h e door M etap h orica l u ses . .

Th e tra i n s ta rts b ef ore t en A M ( pri ori ty in t i me) ; dea th b e fore . .

di sh o n o ur ( pri o ri ty in qu a l i ty , preferenc e ) .

Beh in d ( b y + h in d) lit a t t h e b a c k o f ( in th e rel a ti o n O f spa c e )

.

t h e do g ru n s b ehi nd i t s ma s ter Th e tra i n

a s, M etaph ori c a l u ses . .

is b eh i nd t i me ( l a t eness ) t h ere i s a smi l e b eh in d h is fro w n ( di sg u i s e ,

c o n c ea l men t) .

Bel o w l it in a l o w er pl a c e , O ppo s i t e t o a b ov e a s,

.

h e st a n ds b e l ow me i n c l a ss Th e n u mb er

M etap h ori ca l u ses
. .

w a s b el ow t en ( l es s t h a n ) h is a tt a i nment s a re b el ow y ou rs ( i n feri o r in
ualit )
q y .

Benea th l it in a l o w er po si t i o n ; a s , h e sa t

.

b en ea th t h e s h a de H is c o n du c t is b en ea th

ill etap h ori ca l
. u se .

c o n t empt ( in feri o r in qu a l i t y , n o t ev en w o rth de s pi s i ng ) .

Beside, b e sides lit a t t h e si de O f ( in t h e rel a t i o n o f

.

p l a c e) a s ,
h e is b esi de
y ou ( a t y o u r M etap h ori ca l u ses .

Th a t rema rk is b eside th e qu est i o n ( n ea r t h e qu esti on , b u t not in i t

260 E N L A RG E M EN T O F VO CA BU L AR Y P A RT III

th e l a s t ma n (l imi t ) to t h e r g rea i t su rpri se ( eff ec t ) he ca me to s ee

us ( pu rpose G eru n d .

Under : l it si t u a t i o n b e n ea t h somet h i ng ; a s, h e sa t u nder t h e

t ree . M etap h ori ca l u ses T h e h o u se is u n der repa i rs ( c o ndi t i o n )

u nder t h e se c i rc u mst a n c es ( su bj ec ti o n ) h e tra v ell ed u nder t h e g u i se
o f a mo n k ( c o n c ea l men t ) .

W ith : l it n ea rn e ss in S pa c e ; a s,
. h e l i v es w i th h is mo t h er .

Metap h ori ca l l y i t de n o t es n ea rn ess in a fri endl y , h o s t i l e , o r n eu t ra l

s e n se H is v i e w s a c c o rd w i th mi n e ( a reeme n t )
.

g h e g et s u p w i th t h e
su n ( n ea rn es s i n t i me ) ; o n e ki n f u h t w i th a n o t h e r ( n ea rn ess in
g o g
h o s ti l i ty , o ppo s i ti o n ) I h a v e pa rt ed w i th my s erva n t ( sepa ra t i o n )
I do t h i s w i th pl ea sure ( c o nc o mi ta nt c irc u mst a nc e ) ; h e is po pu l a r
w i th h is pu pi l s ( re feren c e ) w i th a l l h is w ea l t h h e is n o t c o n t e n t ed ( in
s i t e o f) sh o t w i th a g u n ( i n st ru men t ) t rea t e d w i th re s ec t ( ma nn er)
p p .

381 . M et a ph or s l imit e d t o rt ic ul a r po int I f W e a pa

e x ec t a me t a h o r to h o l d oo d t h ro u h a se ri es O f rese mb l a n c es
p p g g ,

w e a re c erta i n t o b e di sa ppo i n t ed A rese mb l a n c e is l i mit ed to .

one a r t i cular o i n t a t a ti me ; a nd if th e me ta ph o r serv es t o

p p
se t t h is o i n t in a c l e a r l i g h t i t h a s a n sw ered t h e u r o se o f
p , p p
e nl a r i n t h e v oca b u l a ry
g g .

F o r i n s ta nc e w e sa y o f a ri v er th a t it h a s its hea d in t h e h i g hl a n ds
,

from w h i c h i t s pri ng s Bu t w e c a l l its ex tremi ty it s mou th ( no t

.

f e t) b ec a u s e t h a t is t h e o peni ng t h ro u g h w h i c h se w t er is po u red
e ,
a- a

i n t o its c h a nn el Th e c h nn el o f a ri ver is c ll ed it s b ed ; y et t h e
. a a

ri v er i s sa i d to ru n in it s c h a n n el T h e t ri b u t ri e s o f ri v er a re
. a a

c a ll e d it s f eeders ; e t t h es e e nt er t h e ri v er a t it s s ides n o t t it s a
y ,

mou th a s it w ou ld do if t h e met ph o r w ere preserved Th ese a g a i n

,
a .

a re a t o n e t i me c ll ed b ra n ch es a a s o f a t re e ; a t a n o t h er a rms a s
, , k
Of a m n a . E c h O f th ese met ph o rs su i ts it s o w n pu rpo se ; a nd
a a

t h ey mu st n o t b e e x pec t ed t o h a v e a ny c o nsi st en c y w i t h o n e a n o th e r .

3 8 2 M. e t a p h or s i n d i sp e n s a b l e T h e i mpo rt an c e o f met a
h o rs is b est see n in th e fa c t t h a t ma n y O f o u r id e as c a n n o t b e
p
t i n t o w o rd s w i th o u t th e m F ew if an O f o u r me n t a l
p u y .
, ,

o era ti o n s o r fa c u l t i es ca n b e ex pressed e x c ept by w o rd s t h a t

p
o ri i n a ll y d en o t ed so me t h i ng sen sib l e o r n o n men t a l
g
-
.

Th u s p ercep ti on ori g i n l l y me nt t ki n g h o l d O f con cep ti on l a y

a a a ,

in g h ol d o f w i t h b o t h h n ds o r o n a ll si des app r h n s ion se i i ng r

a ,
e e ,
z o

g r a s i
p g n w i t h t h e h a nd r ec o l l ec ti on g a t h e ri n g t h i n g s t o g et h er
,

a
g a i n ; i n sp i r a ti o n b r e a t h i n
, g i n t o ; i m a g in a ti on dr w i n g a v i s i b l e , a

ic t u re d l i beer ti on aw e i g h i ng i n a pa i r o f sc l es emo ti on mo v i ng a
p , ,

o u t o r b ein g mo v ed o u t exp ressi on s u eez i ng o u t sa g ci ty u ic k

q , q a ,

n es s o f sc en t ; a c t n e ss sh a rpn es s O f edg e ; su p n se
u e ,
h a n g i ng u p ; s e ,

p e n e tr tiaon m ,
ki ng a h o l e t h ro u g h a t h i n g ; moti ve
a t h at w h ic h ,

ro d c e s mo t i o n e t c
u
p ,
.

M a n y O f th e t ech n i c al t erms in mu si c h a ve b een fu rn i sh e d

by meta ph o rs ; as sc a le (l it a l a dd er) c hroma ti c (l it w h a t g ives
,
.
,
. .

h a t t u rn s a l oc k) key n o te sha rp f la t
c o l ou r
) y (
k l it W -
e
,
.
, , ,
.
C H A P XXV I I
. BY M E TA P H O R A N D M ETO N Y M Y 26 1

383 . En l a rg emen t V o ca b ul a ry b y of M et on y my .

M et o n y rny , l ik e meta ph o r, t o a sma l l e r, b u t s ti l l a n a pprec i a b l e,

e x t en t h a s h el ped t o en l a rg e o u r v o ca b u l a ry I n met on ymy, as .

in met aph o r, it is t h e deca y th a t i nv ests th e w o rd

Of th e gu re
w ith a n ew l it era l mea n i n g I n b o th w o rd s th e rst syll a b l e
.

is fro m G ree k meta w h i c h si gn i es c h a ng e t ra n sfer su b stitu

ti on
, , ,

,
th e t ra nsfer in th e ca se o f met a ph o r b ei n g b ased o n
S i mi la rity in th a t O f me t on ymy o n C o n ti gu ity
,
We
s e a k O f t h e l egs o f a c h a i r o r O f a b ed b eca u se th e i r uses a re
p ,

s i mi l a r t o th o se O f th e l egs O f a n i ma l s T h i s is M e t a ph o r b ased .
,

o n R ese mb l a n ce O n th e o th er h a n d w e spea k O f th e b a c k a n d
.
,

sea t o f a ch a i r b eca u se th e y a re asso c i a t e d in th e mi n d w ith

,

th e b a c k a n d sea t o f a person u si ng th e c h a i r a n d w e spea k O f ,

th e h ea d a n d f oot O f a b ed b eca u se th e y a re a sso c i a t ed in th e

,

mi n d w ith th e h ea d a n d foo t O f th e sl eeper T h i s is M et on ymy .

,

b ased on C o n ti gu i ty N O on e w h en h e spea k s o f th e b a c k a n d
.
,

sea t O f a c h a i r o r O f th e h ea d a n d fo o t o f a b ed is c o n sc i o us
, ,

th a t h e is u si ng a g ure O f spee c h Th e gu re ha s d eca y ed ; .

th e n a mes th a t w ere O n c e g ura ti v e a re n o w l it eral .

O rig in a l mea n i ng . T ra n sf erred mea ni ng .

S ty l e a t h i ng t o w ri t e w i th ma nn er O f co mposi ti o n .

R u bri c w ords pri n t ed red di rec t i o ns c o n t a n ed i i n th e w o r ds .

G u i n ea o n t h e w es t c o a st o f

A fri c a i
a c o n of Gu i n ea g ol d .

F a re w h a t is pa id fo r c o n v ey
a nc e t h e pa ss eng er w h o pa y s it .

C h i na o n t h e s ou t h ea st -
Of As ia th e c ro c ery ma de t h ere
k .

S ec u ri ty sa fety w h a t is depo s t ed for s a et i f y .

A rmy a mu l t i t u d e O f ar med
men ii
th e m l t a r pro e ss o n y f i .

N a v y : a mu l ti tu d e O f sh i ps f i
t h e na v a l pro e ss o n .

F o rc e en ergy , stren g th a b a n d o f s o ldi ers .

F o ot pa rt o f t h e b o dy i n fa ntry .

H orse a fo u r l egg ed a nima l

-
c a v a lry .

U ni form O f th e sa me form o fc i a l c o st u me .

C o u rt c h a mb er o f j u st i c e . th e pres d ng j u g e i i d .

Bri e f ( a dj c on c i s el y w ord ed ( no u n ) sta t emen t o f a c l en t s i

c a se.

P ort e : g a t e o f th e S u l t a n s pa l a c e t
t h e S u l a n a n d h is m n st ers i i .

Urb a n e b el o n g i ng t o a c i ty c o u rt eou s , po l t e i .

R u st i c : b el on g i ng t o th e c ou n try u nc ul ti
v a t ed, u nren e d .

E xerci ses .

I (a )
. P oin t ou t the li tera l mea n in g of the i ta li ci sed w ords i n

th e f o ll ow i n g sen ten c es b
( ) E xp a n d ea c
. h meta
p ho r i n to a si mi l e .

1 . Th e a tti tu de o f E n g l a n d h a s b een defensi v e th rou g h o u t .

2 . Th a t o pi ni o n is b a sed o n fa c t s, n o t fa nc i es .
26 2 E N LA RG E M E N T O F VO CA BU LAR Y P A RT III

T h ere is some th i n g v ery u n pra c ti c a l in b ea ting a b ou t t h e b u sh ,

3 .

i nstea d o f c o mi ng t o t h e po i n t a t o nc e .

4 T h e I ndi a n po st O fc e w i l l s o o n b id fo r a rst pl a c e a mo n g t h e

.

ost a l a dmi n i st ra t i o n s O f t h e l b T i m W eek l y , 4 th M a rc h 1 89 8

p g o e es . .

5 A l l h is h o pes w ere b lig h ted

. .

6 By c l o si n g t h e po rt s, t h ey a i med a dea dl y b l ow a t Bri t i sh

.

co mmerc e .

7 . A ny st a t e men t o f pol i c y th a t h e mi g h t dra w u p w o u l d, in it s

pro mu l g a t i o n ,
b l o w h is po l ic y i n to th e a ir
.
-
R evi ew o f R evi ew s, J a n .

1 89 8 .

8 . To ex pe c t a n
y th i ng from th e C h i n ese is b ey o nd t h e b ou n ds of

rea s o n o r O f h o pe .

9 . Tra de - u n i o ni sm h a s ac
q u red i a h ol d on e v ery b ra n ch of

i ndu stry .

10 . W h il e him o n th e ex c el l enc e o f his speec h , I

c on g ra t u l a t ng i
mu st c o n do l e w i t h h im o n t h e b a dn e ss O f h is b ri e
f .

11 . O u r mi l i t a ry sy st em h a s b roken dow n .

12 . Ki ndn ess ma k es h im b rim o v er w i th g ra t i tu d e .

13 . L et u s e nj oy a b ru sh a c ro ss th e c o u n try .

14 . S h e w a s a dmi red fo r h er b u sh y ey eb ro w s .

15 . H e p l a y ed h is ca rds so w ell t h a t h e w a s ta k en i n t o pa rtn er

sh i
lb . Th e d efec t s of h is st yl e w ere th a t he s
p o k e w i th a c erta n i
c h oppi n ess a nd jerki n ess .

1 7 I t is a da n g ero u s t h n g fo r a w r t er t o c oi n n e w w o rds
. i i .

i i
1 8 T h s y ea r h a s w tn essed t h e c b l l ap se o f t h e represen t a t v e
. i
s st em a t V enna
y i .

1 9 T h s sy mptom l en ds co l ou r t o t h e prev a l ng el e
. i ii b i f .

20 T h e men t o n O f l e -b o a t s c onju res u p pa n u l rec o l l ec t o ns

. i if i f i .

21 T h s w ou l d b e c ou rti ng a l mo st c ert a in ru n
. i i .

f
22 H is ef o rts w ere c row n ed w t h su c c ess
. i .

23 Pro v er s a re h omel y pre c epts in w h c h t h e w s om o f ma ny

. b i id
c en t u r es h a sie en c ry sta l l i sedb .

24 O sequ ou s men t a e th e r c u e rom th e r pa tro ns

. b i k i f i .

i
25 I t is s mpl y t h e sc a n da l O f t h e Pa n a ma C a n a l di sg u i sed u n der

.

th e n a me O f t h e A r c a n ra l w a y s fi i
T i mes W eekl y , 4 th M a rc h 1 8 9 8 .

26 T h e o o t st e ps o f deb t a re a l w a y s dogg ed b y c r me
. f i .

27 IVe c a nn o t g o o n drif ti ng l e t h s a ny l o n g er w th mpu n ty

. ik i i i i .

. i
28 Tra de -u n o nism i s dri vi ng tra de o u t o f t h e c ou ntry .

29 H e a l w a y s h a s a c a pa l e ma n a t h is el b ow
. b .

3 0 I n c ommo n w th mo st ep idemi cs, re qu en c y h a s more t h a n

i f

.

o n c e de pr v ed a w a rf ever o f it s ma l g n a n c y
i D a i l y T el egrap h , 25 th i
F eb . 1 898 .

31 i f
Bel e is exti nct in Fra nc e, a n d w th g oo re a so n
. i d .

3 2 W a r - ev er is a t o nc e a po pu l a r po l t c a l sti mu l a n t a nd a
f ii
l u c ra t v e na n c a l ex ped e n t D a i l y T el eg rap h , 25 th F eb 1 8 9 8
.

i i i . . .

i
3 3 F a c t s w h c h c ome o u t du r ng t h e present tr a l th row a ood o f i i

.

i
l g t p
h u o n t h s q u e s t o n Iib i d i

. .

d
3 4 T h re e g a u dy st a n d r s f l t t h l l k y B O b YR N

u e S
. a ou e p a e . .

3 5 L o v e i s f ou nded o n e st eem, t h e o nl y o u n da t o n w h c h c a n f i i

.

k
ma e th e pa ss on l a st Ti mes W eekl y , 4 th M a rc h 1 8 9 8
i
f
3 6 H e el t a g en a l g l ow o f sa t s a c t o n
. i i f i .
2 64 E N LA R G E M EN T O F VO CA BULA RY P A RT III

73 . A rup tu re w i th Fra nc e , if it c a n b e a v o i ded, is i n ex pedi ent .

74 . Th e pa ra mo u n t po w er in E u ro pe c a n a fford t o b e i nd u l g ent to
h er sa tel l i tes .

Pa ri s is a sca thi ng sa t i re pro fe ss edl y fo u nded o n fa c t

7 5 Z ol a s
. .

7 6 H e is a c o n serv a t i v e O f t h e O l d sch oo l
. .

7 7 I n Indi a i t is diic u l t t o c h ec k th e scou rg e o f ma l a ri a l fev er

. .

7 8 Th a t w a s a v ery sh a dy t ra n sa c t i on
. .

7 9 Th e fa i th o f t h e peopl e in t h e peo pl e h a s b een ru d el y sh a ken

. .

8 0 M y i de a s h a v e n o w a ssu me d a de ni t e sh ap e
. .

8 1 T o re l i e v e t h e di stre ss c a u se d b y t h e Ba l fou r sma sh

. .

8 2 W a r, w h a t e v er its i ssu e, w ou l d i n ev i t a b l y sp el l ru i n to th e ir
.

c ou n t ry .

8 3 A mo ng th e men presen h e sp otted th e c ul pr t

. t i .

k
8 4 H e t o o t h e u nu su a l step O f c h a n g n g his pro ess o n
. i f i .

i ii i
8 5 C v l sa t o n h a s a dv a n c ed w t h ra p d strides in J a pa n
. i i .

8 6 A more stri ki ng ex a mpl e c o u l d h a rdly b e na med

. .

8 7 T O t a mper w th ree tra de is a c o n es s o n o f a l u re c ro w n e

i f f i fi d by
su i c i de R evi ew of R eview s, Ja n 1 8 9 8 ,
.

p 9 . . .

8 8 H e ma de sw eep i n g c h a rg es
. .

f i
8 9 T h e sa es t pol tic a l th ermometer in h s c a se is th e s toc t i k
ma r e t D a i l y T el eg rap h , 25 th F eb 1 8 9 8
.

k

. . .

9 0 S ir E A
. B thu ndered, a n d S ir W L j o ed
. . . I b id . . k . .

9 1 A n emp re w o n b y t h e s w o rd a nd h el d b y t h e sw ord mu st a t
i

.

i
t mes pa y t h e to l l o f t h e sw ord I bid .

y
9 2 T h e a re t h e mo st l oy a l o f men , w h en th e r h ea rt s a re tou ch ed
. i .

9 3 T h e n ew s a nn ou n c ed in t h e L ords tri ckl ed ra p dl y do w n t o

. i
th e L o w er H ou se t h e sa me ev e n ng i .

9 4 W e c a nno t a l l o w a ny ore g n pow er t o tra de so fa r o n o ur

. f i
k no w n l o v e o f pea c e a s t o ex t ort u nrea so n a l e c o n c ess o n s b i .

9 5 T h e sent enc e pa ssed o n Z o l a is a tri u mph f or a n a t c sm

. f i i .

9 6 Th s i s n o t a mo me n t for tw iddli ng ou r th u mb s o v er tri es

. i .

b
9 7 C l a ss h a s ee n O ppressed b y c l a ss, a nd c a p t a l is t h e ty ra n t o f
. i
l a bo u r .

9 8 A c ompe en c e is vi ta l t o c on en tment
. t t .

9 9 E v ery ma n is a vo l u me,
.
y ou n o w h o w t o rea h im if k d .

1 0 0 O ur c orres po nde nt sa y s t h a t t h e w a r o f ra t e s
. et w ee n t h e b
i i i
C a n a d a n Pa c c R a l w a y a nd its r v a l s is c rea t n g g rea t n t ere st i i i .

Ti mes W eek l y 25 t h F eb , .

1 0 1 A t er t h e re g n O f th e P u r ta n s t h e w h i rlig ig o f t me ro u g h
. f i i i b t
i ts rev e n g e b y t h e c o rru pt a n d deb a sed re g n o f t h e s ec o nd C h a rl es i .

1 0 2 H it h ert o t h e t w o w ing s o f t h e U n o n st pa rty h a v e w or e

. i i k d
w el l t o g et h er .

ea O f h o w g rea t a ma n h e w a s ma y o e g a i n e
id d
Q

a t th e
0

1 03 A g o o d

.

c o st o f a g o o d dea l o f w i n n ow i ng F o rtnigh tl y R eview , J a n 1 8 9 8 , p 7 . . . .

1 0 4 H e is a ma n o f h ome sp u n w it
.
-
.

11 . W rite short sen tenc es i l l u stra ting th e u se o f metap hors

c on n ec ted w i th th e f o llow in g su b ec ts j
1 M eta l s
G o l d, si l v er, b ra ss l ea d, d ross min e

.
. , ,

2 B u i l di n g
. E dify c o n st ru c t io n
. fo u nda ti o n, pill a r,
, , c orner

st o n e , door, w a l l , o or, b a c k s t a i rs , t o w er ( v erb )

-
.

3 P a rts of a door
. Key , l oc k , u nl oc k , h i ng e, b ol t
. .
C H A P XXV I I
. BY M E TAPH OR A N D M ETO N Y M Y 26 5

4 M a ch in ery
P i v o t , sc rew , sa fety v a l v e , eng i ne

-
. .

5 T ra de Ba rg a i n , di sc ou nt , sh o p, stoc k

. .

6 Cookery C o nc oc t , h a sh , b o il

. . .

7 . M a th ema tic s S qu a re ( v erb ) c ou nt o n , mi sc a l c u l a t e,

. di sc o u nt ,

rec kon
R oot
.

8 . H orti cu l tu re .
,
ta p -
roo t , bra nc h o w ers o rid w eed
, , ,

o u t,
pru n e, en g ra f t, b l oom, ou ri sh ,
fa de ro sy c u l t i v a t e sea so n
, , , ,

fru it ri pe m
pl a nt , g erm
st e

.
, , ,

9 A g ri cu l tu re
. F i el d, pl o u g h ( v erb ), sow , seed , h ed g e, s ift ,
.

c h a ff , h a rv est , c ro p, fert i l e , rea p, pl a nt

.

1 0 N a vig a ti on
. A nc h or, s h e et a nc h or, st e er, pi l o t , h a rb ou r, -

h el m

.

11 T emp era tu re Col d , w a rm, l u k ew a rm, h o t , b o i l i n g

. . .

1 2 D i men si ons
. S ol i d, brea dth , dept h , su perc i a l , stra i g h t,
c ro o k ed

.

13 S .en se of tou ch S mo o th , rou g h , h a rd , so ft , pol i sh ed , sl i ppery ,

bl u n t, sh a rp, a t

.

1 4 S en se of ta ste S w eet , so u r, bi tt er, a c rimo n i o u s, n a u seo u s

. .

1 5 S en se of sigh t
.
Li g h t , da rk , c o l ou r, c l ea r, dim, g l o omy ,
.

O b sc u re, l u c id

.

1 6 S en se of sou nd D i sc ord , h a rmo n y

. .

1 7 N a tu ra l scen ery
. F o u nta i n , t orren t , o c ea n , v i sta , mo u n ta i n ,
forest d esert ( no u n )
S t r pl
.
,

18 Th e sky a n et , sa t ell i te met meteor c l ou d t h u nd er

C ni t
. a , ,
co , , , .

19 . Wa r . o c , co mb a t ( v erb ) a l a rm tru mpet d e fea t,

, , ,

tr u mph , pea c e
i

.

20 Bodi l y org a ns, etc

. P u l se , v e n , a rt ery , h ea r . i t ,
l eg s, n ec k ,

fo o t , mou t h , ey e, t o n g u e, h a nd s n e w s , b ro w , t h u m i b
i d
, .

21 Bodi l y c ondi ti on
. Bl n , l a me , h ea l th e n erg .
, y . w ea k n ess .

y
fev er, a tro ph , h u ng er, h rst , y o u th , c h l h o od, t re , t i id i d s ic k .
 PA R T IV .
PR O S E A N D P OE TRY .

C HA PTE R XXV I I I .

MA IN D IVI S I O N S O F P R OSE
C O M PO S I T I O N .

38 4 . P ro se, P o et ry P
t y (fro m La ti n p oet a G reekoe r -
,

oi et es a ma k er o r o ri i n a t o r) is di sti n u i sh ed fro m
p g g pro se (L a ti n
-
,

p rosa fo r rorsa o r roversa

, p p t u rn ed f o rw a rd u n c
,
h e c k e d ) by th e ,

res t ra i n ts O f me t re a n d by c ert a i n pec u l i a riti es O f th ou h t a n d

g
di c ti o n to b e d esc rib ed h erea fter A l l c o mposi t i on c o mes u nd er .

o n e o r o th er o f th ese g rea t h ea di ng s T h e presen t c h a pt er .

d eal s w i th prose o nl y
3 8 5 Tw o mo des of c l a ssif y in g Pro se I n a tt empti ng
.

t o d ra w u p a sc h eme sh o w i n g th e ma i n di v i si o n s O f pro se
c o mpo si t i o n w e ma y ma k e e i th er ma tter o r f o rm th e b a sis O f
,

th e c l assi ca ti o n W e pro pose in th i s c h a pter to cl a ssify th e

.

ma i n divisi o n s u n d er b o th h ea di ngs t a kin g th e fo rmer on e rst ,

.

S E CTIO N 1 .
C L A ss1 F I C A TI O N A CC O R D I NG TO M A TT E R .

3 86 . S ub j ec t s of P ro se c o mpo sit ion

-
Prose .
- -
co mpositio ns
ma y b e divid ed i n to A , T ec h n i ca l o r no n L itera ry
a nd B N o n -
,

T e c h n i ca l o r L i t erary .

L i tera ry pro se may b e fu rth er su bdivid ed u nd er th e ei gh t

h ea di n gs O f H i st o ry Bi o g ra ph y D esc ri pti o n R eec t i o n F i c ti o n
, , , , ,

P e rsu asi o n C en su re a n d H u mou r

, ,
.

T ec h n ic a l c o mpo si ti o n d eal s w ith th ose b ra n c h es O f stu dy

th a t c o n c ern th e spec i a l i st b u t do n o t i n t erest th e g en era l
,

rea d er I t is th ere fo re c l assed as n o n L i tera ry I ts o n e a im is -

t o i ns tru c tto i mpa rt a n y su c h i n fo rma ti o n in a rt sc i en c e

. .

, ,

h i l oso h y l a w l n e r t h l y as t h e i n u i rer ma y n e ed
p p ,
a u
g g,
a o e o o g , q
fo r h is pa rt i c u l a r c a l l i n g o r fo r so me d epa rtmen t O f resea rc h in
w h i c h h e is erso n a ll y i n t e rest ed
p .

N o u T e c h n i ca l c o mpo siti o n l ik e th e prec edi ng ma y h a v e an

-
, ,

i nstru c ti ona l a i m Bu t e ven w h en i t h as it n ev er sto ps th ere

.
.
,

I f it s ee k to i n st ru c t it a l so seek s to en t e t i
s
,
r a n to c ombi ne
26 8 PRO S E A N D P O ETR Y P A RT IV

of b o o k s b el ong to th i s c l ass S ermon s th a t a ppeal to men s .

d evo ti o n a l feel in gs o r a re i n tend ed to i n u en c e th e i r g en eral

,

c o nd u c t (a s di st i n c t fro m th ose t h a t a re i n t en d ed t o i n c i te men

to so me pa rti c u l a r a c t su ch a s s u b sc ribi n g t o so me c h a ri t y) c o me
, ,

u n d er th i s h ea di n g C o mmemo ra ti v e spee ch es in h o n ou r o f th e
.

d ea d si n c e th ey g iv e ex pressi o n t o th ou gh ts a n d feel i n gs mo re
,

th an t o a n yth i n g el se fa ll i n t o th e sa me c l a ss ,
.

T h e l i te ra t u re O f F ic t ion di ffers from a l l th e ki n d s o f c o m

o si t i o n th a t h a v e b e en h ith ert o n a med I n w o rk s O f H i st o ry
p .
,

Bi og ra ph y D esc ri pti o n o r R eec ti o n th e w ri te r is l i mi ted t o

, , ,

f a c ts a n d h is a im is t o in stru c t th e rea d er a s w el l a s to pl ea se
,

hi m th e i n stru c t i o n a l e l emen t b e i n g th e mo re essen ti a l o f th e

,

tw o . Bu t th e c h i e f a n d so me t i mes th e o n l y a im o f F i c ti o n is
, ,

t o pl e ase th e i ma g i n a t i o n i n st ru c ti o n (if it c o mes in a t a l l ) b e i n g

,

o nl y a n a cc esso ry T h i s c l a ss o f l i tera tu re c o mpri ses a l l eg o ry

.
,

ro ma n c es n o v els idyll s a n d fa i ry t al es
, ,
S u c h b o o ks a s w e h a v e
,
.
,

sa id ma y b e a nd so me ti mes a re w ritt en w i th a pra c ti ca l pu r

,

p os e . B u t if t h e y a r e n o t i n t e resti n
g a n d g i v e n o pl easu re n o ,

o n e re a d s t h e m M en w i l l rea d fa c t fo r th e sa k e o f fa c t b u t
.
,

t h e y w i ll n o t read c ti o n fo r th e sa k e of c ti on T h e g ivi ng .

of
p l easu re i s t h er e fo r e t h e m a i n a n d so m e ti mes th e o nl y c h a r
, ,

a c t erist ic o f w o rk s o f th is c l a ss .

T h e l i t e ra ture O f P er su a sion d o es n o t a im e ith er t o i n st ru c t

o r to l ease ( th o u h i n c id en t al l y it ma y do b o t h ) b u t t o i n c i t e
p g ,

men t o do some pa rti c u l ar a c t a s to v o te fo r so me c a n did a t e a t

a n el ec ti o n t o a c qu it o r c o nd emn s o me a c c u sed perso n t o pa ss

, ,

so me l a w t o su b sc rib e t o so me c h a ri t y e tc
,
I f w e w ere a sk ed ,
.

t o d esc rib e th e ki n d s o f su bj ec ts th a t P ersu a si v e l i tera tu re d ea l s

w i th in o rd er t o a i n i ts a rt i cu l a r e nd a c ti o n w e sh o ul d

g p , ,

su m t h e m u
p u n d er a si n l e w o rd
g m o tiv es

,
.

T h e l i t era tu re o f C en su r e c o ns ists o f sa t i re th e repro o f o f ,

i n dividu als o r c ommu n i t i es exposu re of a b u ses po l iti ca l in v ec , ,

tiv e e tc I ts a im if th is is sin c erel y a c t ed o n is t o c o rrec t a nd

, .
, ,

re fo rm evi l o f a n y ki n d Bu t th e o c ca si o n al vi ru l en c e o f i ts
.

t o n e ma k es o n e feel th a t it is so me ti mes i nspi red by a n i ndi gn a

ti o n o th er th a n w h a t is pu rel y vi rtu ou s .

T h e l i tera tu re O f Humo u r d eals w ith an y su c h po i n ts in

th e ma nn ers a c ti ons a ppea ra n ce a n d sa yi n g s o f men (rea l o r
, , ,

c t i t i o us ) a s a re l ik el y to ex c i te l a u gh t er A mus emen t n o t .
,

ridi c u l e (fo r ridi c u l e is on e o f th e k een est w ea po n s O f sa t i re) is i ts ,

o n l y a im .T h e c o mi c d ra ma is a la rg e c o n t rib u t o r to th i s c l ass
o f co m osi ti on a n d is o n th e w h o l e its b est represe n t a tive
p , , ,
.
CH . XXV I I I M A I N D I VI S I O N S O F P R O SE CO M P OS I TI O N -
269

The sch e me th en sta n d s as fo ll ow s ; b u t it w il l O f c ou rse

, ,

be un d ersto od th a t on e ki nd of co mposi t i on O ft en o v erl a s

p
a n o th er

A T e c hni c a l c ompo s t o n ( n o n -l t era ry ) a im to n stru c t

ii i S ub i

. .

je c t ma t t er t h e v a r o u s a rt s, t h e v a rio u s sc en c es, t h e v a r ou s
-
i i i
b i
ra n c h es o f l a w , ph l o so ph y , l a ng u a g e, o r t h eol o g y .

B N o n -T ec h n c a l c ompos t o n ( l it era ry )
i i i

.

1 . m t o i n st ru c t a n d a l s o t o pl ea se
Hist ory : ai S u bj ec t th e .

e v e n t s t h a t ma rk t h e l ife o f n a t i o n s i n st i t u t i o n s et c

a im S u bj e c t t h e
.
, ,

1 1 Biog ra ph y
. t h e sa me a s t h a t o f H i s t ory .

pri v a t e l ife a n d perso n a l c h a ra c t er o f i n di v i du a l s

III Description : a imt h e sa me a s I a nd II S u bj ec tna t ura l
.

. . .

sc en er , o bj ec t s a nd l a c e s o f i nt erest , t ra v el s, et c
y p
I V R eec t ion : a imt o st imu l a t e t h o u g h t a n d fe el i ng in some
.

spec i c di rec t i o n Cri t i c i sms o f b ook s, re ec t i o n s o n men

.

a n d ma nn ers , d ev o t i o n a l trea t i ses, s ermo n s i n t e n ded t o i n

u enc e men s g e nera l c o nd uc t

V Fic t ion : a im t o pl ea se t h e i ma g i na ti on A l l eg ory , roma n c es ,

. .

n o v el s , i dy l l s, a n d fa i ry t a l es
VI P ersu a sion : a imt o i n c i t e men t o do some pa rt i c u l a r a c t
.

. .

Po pu l a r a dd resses, pol i t i c a l pa mph l et s, foren si c a nd pa rli a

menta ry speec h es, sermo ns in a id O f so me c h a ri t y , et c

.

VI I C ensure a im t o c orrec t a nd reform

. S a t ire, t h e c ensu re o f
.

i ndiv i du a l s or c ommu ni ti es, pol it ic a l i nv ec t i v e

VIII Hu mour : a imt o e x c i t e l a u g h t er
.

. T h e c omi c dra ma , a n d
.

an o t h e r ki n d o f l i t era t u re i n t e nded c h i e y fo r a mu s eme n t

y
W
.

N a ta e ma y po n i
in pa ssi ng h ow t h ese sev era l ki nds o f
t out

pro se c omposi t i o n a re ex empl i ed in c u rrent j ou rn a l i sm

-

T ec h ni c a l c ompo si t i o n is see n in th e n u merou s w e ek l y o r mon th l y

j o u rna l s on spec ia l su bj ec t s, su c h a s E ng in eeri ng, A rc hi tec ture, Bu i ld
i ng , M i n i ng , M u si c , Edu c a t i o n , N a tu ra l S c i enc e , etc .

H i st ory ( th a t is, c o n tempora ry h i st ory ) is t o l d b y t h e d a il y pa pers

in t h e l a t es t t el eg ra ms o r n ew s a b ou t H o me, C o l o n i a l , a n d F o rei g n
a ffa i rs , o r a b ou t t h e
p roc ee di n g s o f
p u b l i c m e n a t h o me a n d a b ro a d

Bi o g ra ph y O n t h e dea t h o f a ny di st i ng u i sh ed person, t h e pa pers

.

u su a l l
y g i v e u s a sh ort a c c ou n t o f h is l ife .

D esc ri pt i v e c ompo si t i o n i s e x empl i ed in t h e a c c ou nt s g i v en o f

s o me sea si de resort , o r s o me
pl a c e o f i nt eres t , o r so me c o nc ert, o r
-

s o me dra ma t i c a l erfo rma n c e, o r s o me ex hi bi t i o n o f pa i n ti ng s, o r t h e

p
c eremo n
y o f o pen i n g so me n ew i n st i tu t i o n , o r some po l i t i c a l g a t h eri ng .

R e ec t i v e w ri t i ng is ex empl i ed in th e l ea di ng a rt i c l es, in w h i c h
t h e edi to r ex press es h is c omment s o n so me pa ssi ng e v e n t o r his a nt i c i
p a t io n s re a rdi n
g g t h e n e a r f u t u re o r in th e c ri t i c i sms o f b o o k s t h a t
a pea r in t h e mo n t h l n d a rt erl j r n l
p y a
q u
y o u a s .

F i c ti o n is represen t ed b y some sh o rt st o ry , or b y some n o v el t h a t

is pu b l i sh ed b y i n sta l ment s in a ny o f t h e n u mero u s peri o di c a l s .

O ra t ory o r persu a si v e c ompo si t i o n is ex empl i ed ev ery da y in t h e

report s o f s peec h es d el i v ere d i n c o u rt s o f j u st ic e , o r in pa rl i a me n t , o r
in po l i t i c a l g a t h eri ng s ou t sid e pa rl i a men t .

C enso ri a l c ompo si t i o n is seen in th e reb uk es a dmi ni s tered t o

pu b l i c men , or in t h e e xposure o f a b u ses .
 27 0 PR O S E A N D P O E TR Y PA RT IV

H u mo ro u s co mposi t i o n is s ee n in th o se pa pers t h a t a re de v o t ed
i y t o t h i s c l a ss o f su b j ec t
e n t rel .

Th u s a ll k i n ds o f pro se - c o mpo s i t i o n , if o u r c l a ssi c a t i o n is ex

h a u st iv e , a re re prese n t ed i n c u rren t j o u rn a l i sm W h a t is t ru e o f .

j ou rn a l i st i c l i t era t u re in pa rt i c u l a r is tru e o f t h e na t i o na l l i t era t u re

a s a w h ol e .

3 87 . Te c hn ic a l C o mp o sit io n T h i s, as i mpl i es
i ts na me ,

c a n n o t di spe ns e w i th t h e u se o f t ec h n i c a l t e rms a n d t h i s is o n e

o f t h e ca u ses t h a t l a c e it o u tsid e t h e ra n e o f en e ra l l i t e ra
p g g
t u re ; fo r in su c h l i t era tu re th e u se o f t ec h n i ca l t erms is a n
o ffen c e a a i n st
g p u ri t y I t w o u l d b e a m i s ta k e h o w e v e r , ,

t o suppose t h a t t e c h n i ca l c o mpo si t i o n th o u g h c l assed as n o n ,

li t era ry g i v es n o sc o pe fo r t h e ex erc i se o f l i tera ry ta c t A w ri te r

, .

w h o h a s t h e a rt o f sta t i n g h is fa c t s c l ea rl y a n d fo rc ibl y sel ec t i ng ,

hi s ma te ri a l s w el l a rra ng i ng t h em j u di c i o usl y a n d t est i ng h is

, ,

s ta t e men t s by w el l c h osen ex a m l es h as a mu c h b e t t er c h a n c e
p
-
,

o f b ei n re a d w i t h a t t n t i o n a n d r o t t h a n n e w h o t h h
g e
p o ou
g ,

e u a ll y a c c u ra t e a n d c o m l e t e i d e c i en t in t h ese a l i t i
q p s , _
q u es .

T h ere is a s mu c h a rt in h a n d l i ng a su bj ec t e ffe c tiv el y in w ri t i n g

'

a s t h ere is in t ea c h i ng it e ff ec ti v el y by w o rd o f mou th

T ec h n i c a l c o mposi t i on is seen in th ree diffe ren t v a ri e ti es(a )

: .

T h e fo rma l ex po si t i o n o f t h eo ry a n d fa c t ; (6) Th e h i sto ry o f

i n v en t i o ns a n d di sc o v eri es (c) C on t ro v ersy o r a rg u men t a t i o n .

3 8 8 Hi st ory T h e n a me h i sto ry is fro m a G ree k w o rd

. .

w h i c h mea n s

i n qu i ry Th i s is a pa rt a nd a v ery i mpo rt a n t

.
,

a rt o f i t s mea n i n ti ll f r i n i ry r r ea rc h i n t o fa c ts is
p , g s ; o
q u o e s

t h e c h i e f qu a l i t y t h a t di st i n g u i sh es H i st o ri c a l l it era tu re fro m
I ma g i n a t ive o r F i c t i o n Th e po i n ts o n w h i ch a n h isto ri an h as
.

t o b e espec i a l l y g ua rd ed a re th e fo ll o w i ng
( )
1 T o se
p a ra t e fa c t fr o m l e
g e n d I t i s. c h i e y in d ea l i n g
w i th ea rly peri o d s t h a t t h i s preca u ti o n h a s t o b e ex erc i sed Th e .

h i sto ry o f a l mo st ev ery co u n t ry mod ern a s w ell a s a n c i en t

, ,

b eg ins w i th tra diti o ns h a nd ed d o w n o ra l l y fro m a n a g e w h en

e v e n ts w ere n o t rec o rd ed by men l i v i n a t o r n e a r t h e t i me o f
g
th i r a l g ed occu rrence
e l e 1 .I t h as b een sa id o f H u me th e rs t ,

e a t h i st o ri a n o f E n l a n d t h a t h e rel a t es
en d a ry a n d h a l f
g r g ,
l e
g
1
I t w a s no t t il l S ir G eorg e C o rn e w a l l L e w is b ro ug h t ou t ( in 1 8 5 5 ) h is
E nqu i ry i n to th e Credib il i ty of E a rl y R oma n H is tory th a t t h e c a n o ns o f
hi st oric a l evide nc e, so f a r a s ea rl y perio ds a re c o nc erned, w ere est ab l ish ed .

A c c ording t o h i m n o th ing c a n b e a c c epted a s h isto ric a l w h ic h do es n o t

rest o n w ritten a n d a l mos t c on tem p ora ry t estimo ny G rot e w a s th e rst.

to ta k e a dva nt a g e o f th is c a no n ; h e di vides h is su b j ec t int o Part I .

Legenda ry G reec e, a n d P a rt II Histo ric al G reec e. .

27 2 PR O S E A N D P O ET R Y P A RT Iv

is of
g rt h el p to th e read er s c on c epti on o f th e ma in ev en ts
ea

,

b esid es a ddi n g mu ch t o th e i n teres t o f th e n a rra ti ve H ere .

,

a ga i n i t is t h e rel a t i v e i mpo rta n ce o f e v en ts th a t x es th e

,

l a n d ma rk s .Ta ki ng E ngl i sh h i st o ry a s a w h o l e few perso n s (w e ,

th i n k) w o u l d h esita te t o c l ose th e rst g rea t peri o d w i th th e

N o rma n C o n qu est 1 a n d th e sec o nd w i th t h e R e fo rma t i o n 2
,
If .

e a c h o f t h e t h ree g rea t e ri o d s is t o b e fu rt h e r se a ra t ed i n t o
p p
sma ll e r o n es th e rst o r r e N o rma n mi h t b e su bdi v id ed by
p g
-
,

Ki ng A l fred s d efea t o f th e D a n es in A D 8 7 9 w h i ch sa v ed

. .
,

E ng l a n d fro m a rel a pse i n t o b a rb a ri sm ; th e seco nd o r pre

R efo rma t i o n peri o d by th e b a t tl e o f L ew es A D 1 26 4 w h i c h ,
.
,

l ed t o t h e rst su mmo n i n g o f C o mmo ns t o Pa rl i a men t ; an d th e

t h i rd by t h e R ev o l u ti o n o f w h i c h in t h i s c o u n t ry
d ec id ed fo r ev er t h e qu esti on o f a b sol u te o r l i mi ted mon arch y .

D ifferen t w ri ters ma y o f c ou rse a d opt diffe ren t mo d es o f divi

, ,

si o n a n d t his w i l l l a r el y d e en d o n th e u r ose fo r w hi c h t h ey
, g p p p
w rit e .

Th e men tal fa c u l ti es c h i ey empl o y ed in th e c omposi t i on o f

h i st o ry a re (a ) j u d g men t o r disc ri mi n a t i o n fo r th e sift i n g o f
e vid en c e ,
a nd ( b ) th e i mag i n at iv e fac ul ty fo r rea l isi ng past
e v en t s a s if th e y w e re resen t a n d u tti n o n eself in th e pl a c e
p , p g
o f t h e pri n c i pa l a c t o rs I mag in a t i o n o r th e po w er to real i se a
.
,

sit u a t i o n n o t o n e s o w n is qui t e a s n ec essa ry t o a n h i st o ri a n a s

,

t o a n o v el i st o r ev en t o a po e t A w ri t e r w h o fa i l s t o c a t c h
.

th e spi rit o f th e a g e t o w h i c h h is n a rra t i v e rel a t es h o w ev er ,

a c c u ra te a n d i mpa rti a l h e ma y b e in c o mpi l i n g th e fa c ts a n d

e x ou n di n t h e e v en ts is n o t a n h i st o ri a n in th e fu ll se nse o f
p g ,

th e t erm . O u r Vi ew o f e v ery t ra n sa c t i o n espec i a ll y o ne th a t is

,

remo t e in t i me a n d pl a ce w i l l n e c essa ri l y b e i mpe rfec t a n d

,

en era l l y i n c o rrec t u n l ess it e mb ra ce so me t h i n g mo re t h a n a b a re

g ,

ou tl i n e o f th e o c cu rren c es ; u n l ess w e h a v e b e fo re t h e mi n d a

l i v el y id ea o f t h e scen es in w h i c h th e ev en t s t o o k pl a c e th e ,

h a bi ts o f th ou gh t a n d feel i n gs o f th e a c t o rs a n d a ll th e c i rcu m
,

s t a n c es c o nn ec t ed w i th th e t ra nsa c t i o n ; u n l ess in sh ort w e c a n , ,

in a c o ns id era b l e d eg ree t ra n spo rt o u rsel v es o u t o f o u r o w n a g e

1
f
Th is is th e divisio n a c tu a l l y o l l o w e d b y F ree ma n , w h o b ring s h is
E a rl y H is tory of E ng l a n d t o a c l o se w ith th e defea t o f H a rol d, a n d
c o mmenc e s a n e w w o rk w ith th e N o rma n C o n qu est .

2
F rou de c o mmenc es h is H istory of E ng l a nd w ith th e f al l o f C a rdinal
W o l sey , w h ic h w as imme dia tel y f ol l o w ed b y H enry V I I I s sec e ssio n fro m

.

R o me .

M a c a u l a y s H istory of E ng la nd b eg ins w ith J a mes I I , w h o w a s

3
.

f f
depo sed ( a t er a reign o f th ree y ea rs a nd a h a l ) in th e R evol u tion of 1 6 8 8 .
CH. XXV I I I M A I N D I VI S I ON S O F PRO S E - CO M PO S I T I O N 27 3

(1 t y a nd persons and i mag i ne ou rsel v es to b e th e a gen ts

co un r ,

o r spec ta t o rs ( W h t el y

)

a .

3 8 9 Biog ra ph y
. I n th e sift i ng o f evid en c e g ivi n g o f
.
,

r ea t er pro mi n en c e t o th e mo re i mpo rt a n t fa c t s su ppressi n g o f

g ,

u n n ec essa ry d e t a i l s a n d se a ra ti n g o n e po rt i o n o f a l i fe fro m
1
p ,

a n o t h er th e me t h o d s o f th e bi og ra ph er a re a n a l og o u s t o th ose o f
,

th e h i st o ri an T h e di fferen ce li es in th e su bj e c t a nd in th e sty l e
. .

S u bjec t I n bi o g ra ph y th e a im o f th e w rit er is t o d eli n ea t e

erso n a l c h a ra c t e r a n d d esc rib e a n i n divid u a l c a reer n o t a s in
p , ,

h i st o ry t o ex h ibit g rea t e v en ts o r g rea t n a ti o n a l mo vemen ts

, , ,

or th e o u t co me o f l a rg e c o u rses o f po l i c y Bi og ra ph y is priv a t e .

h i st o ry t ea c h i n g by ex a mpl e A n u n ev en tfu l bi og ra ph y c a n
.

th erefore b e qu it e a s in t eresti n g a nd so me ti mes more i n stru c tiv e , ,

th an on e th a t is fu ll o f st riki n g i n c id en ts Th ere is n o pl o t .

i n terest in th e rec en tl y pu b l i sh ed L if e of Tenny son su ch a s w e

n d; fo r mpl e, in M o o re s L if e of By ron y et th e o n e can b e
ex a

rea d w ith qu it e a s mu c h i n t erest as th e o t h er, a n d cert a i n l y

w ith mo re ro t
p
D ign ity
.

S tyl e l angu ag e is more su it ab l e to h i st o ry ;

of

i mpl i c ity to bi og ra ph y The D ec lin e a n d F a ll of the R oma n

th
s .

E mp ire ra n d est a n o ra ma in th e h i st ory o f ma n ki n d

e
g p
is t ol d by tyl e th a t ou r l angu ag e ad mits
G ibb on in th e l o fti est s

of . O n th e o th er h an d a n easy a n d fa mi l i a r styl e su c h a s th a t
, ,

d esc rib ed in 28 6 is pec u l i a rl y a ppro pri a t e to bi o g ra ph y o r

,

erso n al h i t ry I f w rit r h a s th o ro u hl y ma st ered th e

p s o a e .
g
c h a ra c t er a n d c a re er o f th e erso n w h o se l i fe h e rel a t es a styl e
p ,

th a t is fra n k an d easy is c erta in t o ca rry th e rea d er w ith h im

.

I mparti al ity is as g rea t a merit in a bi ograph er a s in a n

h i st o ri a n
I f it [th e li fe o f an au th o r] is w ritt en fro m th e
.

o i n t o f Vi ew o f an a d mi r r n a di i t t i
p e y o f a sc
p l e h a
,
i s r g t ;
h , ,

b u t th en th e di sc i pl e mu st b e a l so a c riti c a ma n o f l e tt ers n o t , , ,

a s t o o o ft en h a e n s so me rel a t i o n o r fri en d w it h n o u a li c a
pp q

ti o n for h is ta sk ex c ept a ffe c ti o n for his au th o r ( M a tth ew

A rn ol d) Bosw ell s L if e of J ohn son (th e ea rl i est mo d el o f

.

b i o g ra ph y 1 11 ou r li t era t u re) sh o w s h o w th e qu a l iti es of a di sc ipl e

ca n b e c o mbi n ed w it h th o se o f a man o f l e tt ers

3 9 0 D esc ript ion

. U n d er th i s h eadin g w e pl a c e th a t ki n d
o f c o mpo siti o n w h i c h d esc rib es o bj ec ts as di sti n c t fro m h i st o ry ,

or b i og raph y w h i ch rel a tes even ts pu b li c o r pri v a t e Th e sa me

, , .

A mo n g u nn ec essa ry deta il s w e sh ou l d in c l u de th o se l ett ers th a t

1
a re

no t w o rth pre serving , a n d c l o th e re a der s a ttention t o n o
g purp ose .

T
27 4 PR O S E A N D P O E TR Y P A RT IV

fa cul ti es a re n o t e mpl oy ed in d esc ripti on as in h i st o ry . W hat

resea rch o r th e s ifti ng o f ev id en c e is t o th e h i st o ri a n , o b serva t i on
is to th e d esc rib er O ne . c o ll ec t s h is fa c ts fro m w h a t h e read s ;
th e o th er fro m w h a t h e sees a n d h e a rs .

As mo d el s o f D esc ri ptive c o mpositi on , all w ritt en w ith i n th e

Vi c t o ri a n ag e w e mi g h t n a me W o rd sw o rth s Greec e (l a t el y

,

re e
-
di ted b ro u gh t u p t o d a te) R usk i n s S ton es of Venice
and ,

(o n e of th e n est d esc ri pti v e w o rks in ou r l ang u ag e) S ta n l ey s

S i na i a nd P a lestin e a nd W a l l a ce s R u ssi a A l l th ese w ere th e

,
.

resu l t o f o b serva t i o n a n d t ra v el ; a ll d esc rib e c ou n tri es an d

l a ces o f w o rl d w id e i n t erest ma k e fre u en t a ll u si o n s t o hi st o ry

p q
-
, ,

a nd
g iv e ra
g p h i c d esc ri pti o n s o f n a t u ra l sce n ery A ll a re .

w ritt en w ith c o nsu mma t e l it era ry skil l .

3 9 1 R eec t ion W h a t M a tth ew

. A rn ol d sa y s a b ou t

c riti c i sm ma y b e ta k en t o a ppl y to R ee c tiv e l it era tu re a s a

w h ol e . H e d en es it to b e a di sin terested endea vou r to l ea rn

a nd p rop a ga te th e b est th a t i s kn ow n a nd th ou gh t i n the w orld

(E ssa ys Cri ti cism, p

on S o mu c h i mpo rta n c e did h e
.

a tt a c h t o t h i s d en iti o n , t h a t h e pri n t ed it i n it a l i c s, a s w e

h a ve d o n e E x a mpl es z
. S mil es s t rea ti ses o n


C h a ra c t er,

S el f H el p, D u ty , T h rif t H el ps s F ri en d s in C o u n c i l ,

-

C o mpa ni on s o f my S ol itu d e C o l erid g e s A id s t o R eec J

ti on
Ba x t er s S a i n ts E v e rl a sti ng R est

a d ev o ti o n a l

t rea ti se still read w i th eag ern ess in a ll pa rts o f th e Briti sh

e m i re
p .

T h e di sti n c tive ch a ra c t er o f th i s ki nd o f l it era tu re is seen

fro m th e h a bi t th a t h as l a t el y spru ng u p of sel ec ti ng a n d
u b l ish i n g in a se a ra t e v o l u me ex t ra c ts fro m di st i n ui sh ed
p p g
w ri t e rs Th us w e h a ve The W i t a n d W i sdom o f S yd n e y S mith ;
.

lVi se W i tty a n d Ten der S a ying s o f G eo rg e E l i o t ; D a i ly

, ,

T ho u gh ts sel ec t ed fro m th e w ri t i ng s o f C h a rl es Ki ngsl ey Th e .

Book of Thou gh ts c o nsi sts o f th e fa v ou rit e passa g es in prose a nd

v erse u pon w hi c h th e l a t e M r Brigh t used to sti mu l a te a nd
,
.

re fresh h is mi n d d u ri n g h is sti rring a n d u sefu l ca ree r .

R eec t i v e c o mpo si t i o n d ea l i ng a s it d oes w i th g en eral

,

ri n c i l es a b ou t w h i c h o i n i o ns ma y differ is so me ti mes fo rc ed
p p , p ,

to reso rt t o a rgu men t a ti on I n su c h a case a j u di c i o us w ri ter

.

is ca refu l ( 1 ) t o a d o pt a mo d era t e t o n e in st at ing hi s o w n sid e

u est i o n d f ll j i c e to th e sid e fro m w h i c h h e
o f th e
q ( )
2 t o o u us t
differs Th e sa me preca u ti ons a ppl y to th e h ist o ri an a n d
.

bi ogra ph er a ls o if as ma y easil y h appen some d eb a t ea bl e

, , ,

q u es ti o n sh o u l d a ri se in t h e co u rse o f th e na rra tive I n i ns tru c .

27 6 PRO SE A N D PO ETRY P A RT Iv

c h a ra c t er . R i ch a rd son ( 1 6 8 9 1 7 6 1 ) w as the fo u nd er o f th i s k i nd o f
c t i o n , as D efoe w a s o f ro ma n c e I n su ch w ri t i ngs perso n a l c h a ra c t er
.

is sh o w n l ess by st a rtl i ng a dven tu res th a n by t rivi al i n c id en ts .

Th e i f i n c id en ts in J a n e A u sten s n o vel s a re mee ti ngs in

ch e

sh o ps o r a t b a l l s o r i c n i cs ; a n d mu ch th e sa me ma b id
, p y e sa

o f T h a c k e ra y s n o v el s I n T h a c k era y i t is rema rk a b l e th a t h e

.

a v o id s t h e
g rea t i n c id en ts th a t fa l l in h is w a y a n d c on n es ,

h i msel f t o t ra c i ng th e d o mest i c c o n se qu e n ces o f th em In .

Va n i ty F a ir fo r e x a mpl e th e n o v el i st sta ys a t Bru ssel s w h i l e

, , ,

t h e b a t t l e o f W a t erl o o is b ei n g fou g h t bb y
(A o t t a n d S e el e ) .

N ote R oma n c e a n d n o v el h a v e n o w b ec ome v ery mu c h mi x ed

in ou r l i t e ra t u re S c o t t th e g rea t est ma st er o f roma n c e in o u r
.
,

l a n g u a g e sel dom o r n ev er fa i l s t o del i n ea t e perso na l c h a ra c t er n o t

, ,

w it h st a n dmg t h e promi ne nc e t h a t h e g i v es t o sc en es o f w a rl ik e a nd
o t h er da ng erou s o r ex c i t i n g a dv ent u re

( )
4 I d y l ls A n idy ll is a t al e (so me ti mes o n l y a di a l ogu e)
.

desc ribi ng th e si mpl e sc en es a nd pu rsu its o f co u n t ry l i fe T he .

e a rl i est idy l l t h a t a ppea red i n o u r l it era t u re w a s t h e Vi ca r of

PVa keeld by G o l d smi th pu b l i sh ed in 1 7 6 6

, ,
T h e st o ry h o w .
,

e v er in so me o f i ts pa rts t a k es u s a w a y i n t o sc e n es t h a t a re fa r
,

remov ed fro m ru st i c si mpl i c i t y a n d th ese ma r i ts c on si st en c y o f

desi gn . A more perfec t idy ll is S i la s M a rn er by G eo rg e E l i o t , ,

t o w h i c h w e mi gh t a dd pa rt s o f A da m B ede by th e sa me
au t h o ress A rca di a by S ir P h i l i p S id n ey ( 1 5 5 4 8 6 ) ca n h ard l y
.
,
-

b e c a ll ed a na t i o n a l idy l l as it is b a sed o n I ta l i a n mo d el s

,
.

( )
5 F a i r y T a l es A m o n
g t h e m os t rec en t e xa m p l es a re

Kin g sl ey s W a ter Ba bi es,

an d A lic e in W on derla n d a n d A lice
thro u gh a L ookin g Gl a ss,
-
by L ew i s C a rro l l (C L D od gso n)
. . .

393 . I n termixtu re o ff a ct a n d c ti on I m g i a ive l it era tu re

nat

h as n ot ys k ept c l ea r o f H ist o ri ca l
al w a ,
n o t w i th st a n di n g th e

r ea t u l f th a t l i es b e t w een t h em i n po i n t o f a im a n d pu rpose
g g .

I n a n c i en t ti mes w h en th e sp eec h es o f st a tesmen w ere n o t

,

rec o rd ed h isto ri a n s b o th in G reec e a nd R o me w ere in th e h a bi t

,

of c o mposi n g speec h es w h i c h t h ey pu t i n t o th e mo u th s o f
,

st a t esmen a s if t h ey h a d b een a c tu a ll y d el iv ered T h i s w as a .

c o n v en i en t w a y o f ma ki n g a sta t esma n ex pou n d h is o w n po l i c y ,

a n d it a dd ed vi v a c ity to t h e n a rra tiv e T h i s mi x t u re o f c ti on .

w i t h h i sto ry is n o t n o w t o l era t ed .

Bu t ro ma n c ists h a v e i n t ro d u c ed a n o th er ki n d o f mi x tu re ,

p ec u l i a r to th e i r o w n c ra ft a n d to th i s n o o bj e c t i o n h a s y e t b een

ra i sed I n w h a t a re ca l l ed h ist o ri ca l n o v el s o r ro ma n c es

.
,

h i sto ri cal i n c id en t s a nd persons a re b l en d ed as pa rts o f th e

CH . XXV I I I M A I N D I VI S I O N S O F P R O S E - C O M P O S I T I O N 27 7

same st o ry w i th c titi o us o n es ; an d th e b l en di n g is d on e w ith

so mu c h l it era ry t a c t , th a t th e rea d e r is t h ro w n u pon h is ow n

resourc es to n d ou t w h a t is h ist o ry a nd w h a t is c ti on . Th e
so l i l o qu y th a t S c o tt pu ts i n t o th e mou th o f C ro mw ell a t th e
si g h t o f Ki n g C h a rl es s po rt ra it c o mes so n a tu ra ll y i n t o th e

st o ry th a t mo re th an on e read er h as t a k en i t for g en u in e
,
.

S i mi l a rl y D efoe s J ou rn a l of the Grea t P la gu e of L on don

, ,

w h i c h j o u rn a l is su pposed t o h a v e b een k ept by a L o n d o n

sh o pk eeper h as b een qu o t ed as if it w ere a n h ist o ri ca l d o c u men t
,
.

I t w as D efo e w h o set th e rst ex a mpl e o f th is mi x i n g o f

ro ma n ce w ith h i st o ry .

N ata Th ere a re t w o di fferent w a y s in w h i c h th e mi x i ng o f

h i st o ry a n d c t i o n h a s b een c a rri ed o u t I n Bu l w er L y tt o n ( a nd
.
-

th e s a me ma y b e s a i d o f Ki ng sl ey ) h i st o ry 1 s pu t in th e fo reg rou nd ,

a nd c ti o n is merel a n a c c es so ry E x a m l es H l d h L h
y p a ro t .e a st of e
t ,

S a x on s; R i enz i , th e L a st of th e T ri b u n es ; Th e L a st of th e Ba rons .

I n S c o t t , h o w e v er, th e ma i n a c t ors a nd e v en t s in th e st ory a re

c ti t i ou s , a nd th e h i st o ri c a l o n es c o me in a s it w ere b y a c c i dent .

Th u s Quen ti n D u rw a rd desc rib es th e c a reer o f a y ou ng S c o t c h ma n o f

ra nk w h o pl a y s a n e x t ra o rdi n a ry , b u t w h o l l y c t i t i o u s , pa rt in th e dis
u t es b et w een L ou i s X L , Ki ng o f F ra nc e , a n d Ch a rl es t h e Bo ld, D u k e
p
o f Bu rg u n dy I n fa c t , S c o tt do es no t sc ru pl e t o a l t er d a t es, if it su i t s
.

h is pu rpo s e Th u s in th e no v el j u st n a med, a s h e ex pl a i n s in a n o t e ,
.

t h e mu rd er o f th e Bi sh o p o f L i eg e h a s b een a nt eda t ed b y ft een

i a der o f roma n c es w i l l ea si l y a
y ea r s ,
fo rr ea s o n s w h c h t h e re pprec i a t e .

r
3 9 4 P e su asi n
. o P ersu asi on is th e art o f i nu en c in g th e
w i ll o f a n o th er by mea ns o f w o rd s a nd l ea di ng h im to do so me ,

a rti c ul a r a c t a dv o ca t ed by th e s ea k er o r w rit er T h ty i l
p p e
p c a .

fo rm o f th is kin d o f c o mpo siti on is tha t o f a speech o r sermo n

a dd resse d t o a n au di en c e Bu t o th er fo rms a re us ed
. Pa mphl e t s .
,

a rti c l es in mag a z in es a n d w h o l e b o o k s a re w ritt en t o a dv oca t e

,

a rti c u l a r meas u res I n a n o fc i a l d o c u men t ur in t h e a d o ti on

p .
g g p
o f so me n ew proj ec t o r pol i c y th e o n l y fo rm u sed is th a t o f a

l e tt er .

O ra tory o r ex t empo re spea ki n g is u nw ritt en c o mpo siti on

, ,
.

T h e c on diti on s o f su cc ess d epen d o n ma nn er styl e a nd a rgu men t

a nn er
, ,
.

( )
a M A m a nn er th a t i n di ca t es a ssura n ce
. si n c erity , ,

a n d fa ith i s a l w a y s e ff ec tiv e T h is ki n d o f mann er ca rri es w e i gh t

.

ev en i n c o n v ersa ti o n mu c h mo re so in l a r e a ssemb l i es o f men

, g .

S pe ech es o r sermo ns d eli v ered w ith th e h el p o f n o t es o r rea d ou t

fro m a ma n uscri pt a re l ess i mpressiv e th an a dd resses w h i c h th ou gh ,

th ey may h a v e b een ca reful l y prepa red b eforeh an d seem to th e ,

a u di en c e t o b e th e u n premedi ta t ed o u tpo u ri n gs o f th e spea k er s

so u l . O n e reason w h y S peech es a ppear l ess forc ib l e w h en th ey

27 8 PRO SE A N D PO E TRY P A RT IV

a re rea d th an w h en th ey a re h eard is th a t in readin g th em w e

l ose th e effec t o f t h e t ea c h e r s mann er a nd th e c o n ta g i o n th a t it

s rea d s t h rou h a n a ssemb l y o f l i st en ers

p g

.

b
( ) y S t l e I n o ra t o ry a si mpl e a nd n a tu ra l styl e is mo re
e ff e c t iv e t h an o n e t h a t is el a b o ra te a n d o l i sh ed T h e s eec h e
p p . s

o f Bu rk e a re th e mo st rema rk a b l e in o u r l it era tu re fo r ri c h n ess

a n d i n g en u i t y o f s tyl e b u t in t h e H o us e o f C o mmo n s t h ey w ere

n o t mu c h l i st en ed t o .T h e y a re mo re t to b e rea d th a n h ea rd .

T h e t w o g rea t qu a l i t i es o f st yl e th a t a spea k er is c o n cern ed

in a re perspi c u i t y a n d fo rc e P erspi c u i t y is t h e rst essen t i a l ;
.

b u t a s a n a u di en c e ma y b e i n a t t en tive i mpa t i en t o r ev en d u l l
, ,

o f u n d e rsta n di ng fo rc e is n ec essa ry a l so
,
.

F o rc e is pro d u c ed by a n t i t h esi s o c c a si on al e pi ra m
g
a n d t h e va ri o u o t h er d evi ces e x pl a i n ed in C h a pt er
s

x x vi . A sh o rt sen t en c e i n t erposed b etw een l ong o n es 29 6 )

i v es t i me fo r t h e b ea rer t o co l l t h i t h u h ts A n t h er
g ec s o g o .

rh e t o ri c a l d evi c e is th e fre qu en t rea ssert i o n in va ri ou s

differen t fo rms o r a spec ts o f t h e po in t on w h i ch most emph a si s
,

is l a id . A si mi l e o r met a ph o r t h a t co n v e ys th e pi th o f a n
a b stra c t a rg u men t by a c o n c ret e i ma ge is n o t e a si l y fo rg o t t en ,

a n d h el s t h e l i st en er t o r as w h a t t h e s ea k er d esi res t o
p g p p
A t e rse ph ra se is o ften v e ry e ec tiv e

e nf o rc e (see .

S o me fo rt y y ea rs a g o a pro po sa l w a s ma d e to est a b l i sh c o n stitu

en c ies w h i c h sh o u l d represen t l ea rn ed so c i eti es th e v a ri o us a rt s , ,

ro fessi o ns a n d sc i en c es T h e sh o rt c o n d emn a to ry ph ra se th a t
p ,
.

Bri g h t a ppl i ed t o th em
fan c y fran ch i se t o o k h ol d o f th e
-
, , .

u b l i c m i n d a t o n c e a n d did mo re t o di sc redit th e sc h eme th a n

p ,

man y l en g th y spe ec h es .I n ma rsh a ll i n g a nd a rra ng i ng fa c ts o r

e mi n d

a r u men ts C l i ma x 3 6 8 ) is a v a l u ab l e e x edi en t : t h
g , p ,

n o l ess th a n th e e y e ca nn o t so w ell t a k e in a n d do j us t i c e t o
,

an
y v a st o bj ec t a t a si n l e
g g l a n c e as by su c c essiv e a pproa c h es
,

a n d repea t ed c o mpa ri so n s W t y i i y e use o f

( h a e l ) F a .c l t i n t h
su c h d e vi c es ca n b e a c qu i red o n l y by pra c t i c e : p oeta n a sc i tu r ,

a po e t is b o rn a n o ra t o r is made

o ra to r t , ,
I t is n ow w el l
.

k n o w n th a t th e l a te M r Bri gh t t o o k g rea t trou b l e in prepa ri ng

.

h is spee ch es a n d w ro te d o w n so me o f h is most t ell i ng ph ra ses

,

b e fo re h e d el i v ered th em .

()
c A r g u m e n t
. I t is th e c h a r a c t eri sti c o f o ra t o ry th a t it

mu st b e u nd ersto o d a t o n c e a n d pro d u c e a l l its e ffec t s a t o n c e ,

si n c e it a t t e mpts t o i n u en c e a d e c i si on th a t is n ea r a t h a n d

bb d S l y h ea k er mu st th erefo re us e g rea t
( A o t t a n ee e ) . T e s p
ca u t i o n b o t h in th e se l ec ti o n a n d in th e a rra n g emen t o f h is fa c ts .
28 0 PR O S E A N D P O ETRY P A RT I V

ex po se a b u ses
i n divid uals o r soc i eti es a nd redress
,
c en su re ,

w ro n gs o f e ve ry ki n d P o l i t i c al i n v ec tiv e su c h as J u n i u s
.
,

L etters b el o n gs t o th i s c l ass A s a n o ra to r sel ec ts w h a t e v er w i l l

,
.

fu rth er th e end s o f persu asi on so a sa ti rist sel ec ts w h a t ever w i l l ,

d a mag e th e perso n o r th e c au se th a t h e a tta c k s an d g i v e pa i n ,

t o th e o ffen d er H e enl a rg es u pon th e ev i l sid e an d sa ys

.
,

n o th i n g a b o u t th e g o od T h e a rt s o f rh e t o ri c o n w h i c h h e
.

c h i e y rel i es w h e nev e r h e d o e s n o t reso rt to di rec t v i t u pera

,
!

ti o n a re i nn u en d o a nd i ron y (see e xa mpl es g iven in

,
36 1
3 6 2)
C en su re h a s ra rel y b een a d mi n i st ered w ith ou t a c ri mon y , an d
i ts mo t i v es h a v e sel d o m b een pu rel y vi rtu ou s O f S w ift ( 1 6 6 7 .

ou r mo st di sti n g u i sh ed sa ti ris t in rose , it h as b een sa id

p
H e is l ik e th e I n di a n sa va g e, w h o , in t o rtu ri n g h is ca ptiv e
at th e s a t ke ,
c a res l it tl e h owd s a nd h arms h im mu ch h e w o un

sel f ,
so l o n g a s h e c a n ma k e h is vi c ti m w rith e ; o r l ik e th e

st ree t ru i a n w h o in t h ro w i n g mu d a t h is vi c ti m is i n differen t
, , ,

t o th e mu d th a t ma y sti c k to h is o w n n g ers ( S h aw )

3 9 6 Hum . o u r U n d er th i s h eadin g w e h a v e pl a ced th e

l ast divi si on of l it e ra ry pro se H u mo u r w h i c h pro vo k es mi rth .
, ,

is n o t t o b e c o n fo u n d ed w ith ridi cu l e w h i ch gi v es pa i n Th e ,
.

l a tt er is o n e o f th e k een est w ea pons o f sa ti re .

H u mo rous l ite ra tu re is seen in tw o differen t fo rms ,

C o medy N a rra tiv e ,

I n th e fo rmer t h ere is a l w ay s so me ki n d
.

o f pl o t in th e l a tt er n o t a l w a ys
,
I n b o th h o w ev er th e .
, ,

l o t t h a t is th e ou t l i n e o f th e st o ry is as ridi c u l ous as th e
p
di al ogu es a nd th e a c to rs u n l ik e th e pl o t o f a n ovel w h i c h is
, , ,

, ,

in t en d ed to b e pro b ab l e or a t l east c on ceiva bl e

.
,

C m d W e have l d t hi b ecause it ca me rst

( )
a o e y p a c e s rst ,

in th e o rd er o f ti me I n th e E l i z a b eth an a ge th e l i n e b etw een

.

t rag edy a nd co medy w as n o t sh a rpl y d ra w n T h u s in M a c b eth .

th e c o mi c sc en e o f th e h el l po rt er is i n t ro d u c ed in th e most
t ragi c al c risis o f th e pl a y th e mu rd er o f D u n can ; an d in
-

H a mlet w e h a v e th e c o mi c sc en e o f th e g rav e dig g er in th e -

mids t o f th e pa th et i c sc ene o f th e b u ri a l o f O ph el i a M ost o f .

S h ak spea re s so ca ll ed c o medi es su ch a s th e Temp est a nd th e

-
,

M ercha n t of Veni c e a re n o t w h a t w e n o w mea n by c o medi es , ,

b u t ro ma n ti c o r idyll i c d ra mas w i th c o mi c scen es i n t erspersed .

Prose n o t v erse is th e l a n g u a ge of c o medy

, ,
T h e tw o c o mi c .

sc en es j u st re ferred to in M a c b eth a n d H a mlet a re en t i rel y in

r ose a l l o th er pa rt s o f th e pl a ys n a med b e i n g in me tre

p
.

S i m i l a rl y i n t h e n eu
,
t ra l d ra m a s t h e c o m i c sce n es a re in p r ose ,
CH . x x v rrr M A I N D I VI S I O N S O F P R O S E C O M P O S I T I O N -
28 1

th e mo re i
ser ous o n es in me tre
A ga i n , in th e
. h ist o ri c a l

l a ys, J a c k C ade in H en ry VI a nd F a l st a ff in H enry I V t al k ,

p . .

n o t in me t re, b u t in prose

.

b
() N a rra ti ve H u mo ro us n a rra tiv e did n o t appe a r in o ur

li t era tu re b efore th e R esto ra ti on I t b eg an w ith th e n ew t u rn

.

th a t C o medy th en t oo k ; a nd th e sa me a u th o rs someti mes

con trib u t ed t o b o th .

As a n e x a mpl e o f a na rra tiv e w ith a pl o t w e ma y men ti o n ,

th e P i ckw i ck P ap ers by D i c k ens w h i ch ca n h a rdl y b e c a l l ed a

,

n o v el as th e P i c k w i c k C l u b o n w h i ch t h e st o ry is b a sed
, , is ,

itsel f a s ridi cu l ou s as th e ch i e f a c t ors an d w i ll n ot b ear th e t est ,

o f pro b a bi l ity T h e g rea t est o f li vi n g h u mo ri sts is M r C l emen s

. .
,

popu l a rl y k n o w n as M a rk T w a i n a u t h o r o f I n n oc en ts A b roa d, ,

N ew P i lgri m s P rogress M ore Tra mps A b roa d etc H is n arra tives

.
, ,

h a v e l ittl e o r n o pl o t .

S E CTI O N 2 C LA ss1 PI OA TI O N A CC O R D I NG TO FO RM

. .

39 7F our f orms of P ro se c o mpo sit ion

. Th ere a re fou r -
.

di fferen t fo rms o f prose c ompositi on , C on versa t i on , L ett er

-

w riti n g , S peec h ma ki ng , N a rra t ion

-
.

398 . C onv ersa t ion C on v ersa ti on as a fo rm o f l itera ry

compositi o n ma y b e o f th ree di fferen t ki n ds I mita tive , ,

E x posit o ry, D ra ma ti c

.

( 1 ) I mi ta tive I t is i mit a tive, w h en

. it is ma d e to resemb l e th e
ki nd o f c on versa t i o n th a t t a k es pl ac e in o rdi n a ry l ife Th i s is .

seen c h i ey in w o rks o f c ti o n as t h ese a re l a r el y o f a n i mit a tiv e

g
,

c h a ra c t er Th o se n o v el i sts w h o ma k e th e i mita ti on o f n a tu re
.

th e sec ret O f th ei r a rt ca u se th eir a c t o rs to t a lk in a ma nn e r

,

su it ed t o t h e ir res ec tiv e c h a ra c t ers a n d ra n ks T h us S co tt

p .

i n tro d u c es c o un trymen w h o u se h o mel y ph ra ses in th e H i ghl and

,

di a l ec t D i c k ens pu ts a po mpou s styl e in t o th e mou th o f th e

.

a rro an t D o mb e y
g ; a pro vin c i al di a l ec t i n t o th e mo u th s o f S a m
W el l er and M a rk T apl ey a eu ph emi sti c o r pl ausib l e st vl e i n t o
th e mo u th o f th e h ypo c rit e P ec k sn i ff a eu ph u isti c o r sh o w y
,

sty l e 28 6 ) i n t o th e mou th o f th e empty h ea d ed M i ca w b er - .

E x a mpl es o f th e a rt o f po l it e c o n v ersa t i o n o c c u r so me ti mes

in b o o ks th a t a re n o t w orks o f c t i on ; as in H a z l itt s Ta bl e

H el ps s F ri en ds in Cou n ci l an d R ea lma h

Ta lk, a nd S u ch c o n .

versa ti on is d esu l t o ry a n d u n meth o di cal o n pri n c i pl e, a nd it

e xc l u d es su bj ec ts t h a t ca n n o t be ex ressed in sh ort speech es o r
p
a r eh en d ed w ith ou t men ta l effo rt.
pp
28 2 PRO S E A N D PO E TRY P A RT Iv

( 2) E xp osi tory
T h e mo st c el eb ra ted ex a mpl e is th a t o f
P la to s D ia log u es, w h i c h h a v e b een t ra n sl a t ed fro m th e

o ri i n a l
g
G ree k i n t o mo st mod ern l a n gu a g es I n ou r o w n l it era tu re w e
.

h a v e C o l erid g e s Ta b le Ta lk c oll ec t ed in h is L it era ry R ema i n s,

a n d I ma g in a ry Con versa ti on s b e t w een L it era ry men a n d S t a t es

(
men) by Lan d or form o f di a l og u e a s th e exa mpl e o f Pl a t o
. The ,

sh o w ed is a s su it a b l e fo r th e di sc u ssi o n o f seri o us su bj ec ts a s
,

it is o f l i gh t o n es A w ri t er c a n so meti mes sta te th e differen t

.

sid es o f a u esti o n mo re o i n t ed l y by a n i n f rm l di l t h n
q p o a a og u e a

h e c a n by fo rmal ex positi o n

.

( )
3 D r a m a ti c I n d ra ma ti c c ompositi on th e w h ol e o f th e
st o ry e x c e t i n
, p g th e sh ort di rec ti o ns g iv en t o th e st ag e ma n ag er ,

is t ol d in t h e c on v ersa t i o ns o f t h e dra ma ti s p ersonae I n seri ous .

d ra mas th e di al og u e is us u all y g iven in met re in comedy in prose ,

39 9 . L et t er w rit in g
-
.
Th
kin d s O f su bj ec ts th a t
ere a re few
h a v e n o t b een d eal t w ith in th e epi stol a ry fo rm .

H i st o ry is represen t ed by G o l d smi th s H istory of E ng la n d

,

w h i ch is t o l d in th e fo rm o f l et ters fro m a n o b l ema n t o his son .

D espa t c h es sen t by a n o ffi cer in c o mman d o f a n e x pedi t i o n t o

th e S ec ret a ry o f S t a t e f or W a r a re c on t empo ra ry h i st ory t ol d
in th e fo rm o f of c i a l c orrespo n d en c e .

Bi og raph y is represen t ed by th e l e tt ers a c tu a ll y w ritt en

by th e person w h ose l ife is t ol d S u ch l ett ers a re o f th e n atu re

.

o f a u t o bi o g raph y .

D esc ri pti on is represen t ed by th e c el eb ra t ed P a ston

L etters ( 1 4 24 c o ns is ti n of a t h ou sa n d l et t ers o f th e
g
P ast on fa mi l y 1 n N orfo l k w h i ch th ro w mu c h l i gh t o n th e st a t e
,

o f th e c ou n try a n d th e ma nn ers O f E n g l a n d in th e f t een th

c en tury . W hi t e s N a tu ra l H istory of S el b orn e is g i v en in a

seri es o f l e t t ers a dd ressed t o a c o u l e o f fri en d s L a dy M a ry

p .

M o n tagu s t ra v els o v er E u ro pe t o th e E a st a n d h er resid en c e in

C o nstan ti n opl e a re a ll t ol d in th e form o f L etters th e n a me ,

u n d er w h i c h h er c el eb ra ted b o o k w as pu b l i sh ed in 1 7 6 3 .

R eec t i on is represen t ed in L etters to his S on c o n t a i n i ng

,

advi ce o n b eh a vio u r mo d e o f l ife dress e tc

,
by L o rd C h ester
, , ,

el d ( 1 6 9 4 1 7 7 3 ) in L etters to S i r W i l li a m W i n dha m in
-
,

d efen c e o f h is pol i t i ca l c o n d u c t a nd L etters on the S tu dy a n d

,

Use of H i story by Bo l i n g b ro k e ( 1 6 7 8
,
in L etters f rom a
Ci tiz en of the W orld by G ol d smi th ,
in L etters on To l era ti on by ,

L o c k e ; in L etter on a R egi ci de P ea c e by Bu rk e ; a n d in L o rd ,

S elb o rn e s L etters to his S on on R elig i on
28 4 PR O S E A N D PO ETRY mm W

C HA P T E R XX I X PR O S O D Y A N D PO E T I C D I CT I O N .

S E CT I O N l .
-
P R os0 D Y .

4 02 P ro so dy ( G r p ros odia l it a son g su ng to a n in stru

. .
-
, .

men t) t rea ts o f th e l aw s o f metre I t mi gh t b e ca l l ed th e

.

g r a mm a r o f v erse .

4 0 3 R h y t h m ( G r rhu thmos mea su red o w o r mo ti on ) is

. .
,
h
t e mu si c a l o w o f l a ng u a g e T h i s is pro d u c ed fo r th e most

.

p a r t by a w ell b a l an c ed rec u rren ce o f

-
p a u se s a n d a c c e n t s .

R h y t h m h a s b een el sew h ere dened a pri n c i pl e

pro po rt i o n

of
i n tro du c ed i nto l a ng u a g e 1
T h i s de ni ti o n is pra c tic a ll y equ i v a l en t
.

to o u r o w n th o u g h perh a ps it sc a rc el y g i v es en ou g h promi n en c e to
,

sou nd . I t is o nl y a pra c ti s ed rea der w h o c a n perc ei v e th e pro po r
ti o n O f l a ng u a g e w i t h ou t rea di n g t h e c o mposi ti o n a l o u d .

R h y th m is n o t c o n n ed to v erse It i s qu i t e s n ec essa ry to a n . a

o ra t or a s t o a po et a n d t h ere i s sc a rc el
y a ny ki nd O f pro se o f w h i c h ,

t h e a t tra c ti ven ess is n o t i nc rea sed by t h e rec u rrenc e O f pa u ses a nd

a c c en t s a t su i t a b l e i nt erv a l s

4 0 4 Rime (A S rim
. n u mb er
. mi sspel t as rhy me fro m a
, ,

su ppo sed c o nn ec ti o n w ith G r rhu thmos) is a repe titi o n o f th e .

sa me so u n d a t th e en ds o f tw o o r mo re l i n es T h e effe c t o f ri me .
,

h ow ev e r is n o t pro d u ced u n l ess th e l i nes su cceed o n e a n o th e r

, ,

i mmedia tel y or n ea r e n ou gh for th e resemb l an ce o f sou nd to

st rik e th e e a r M o n osyl l a bi c ri mes a re al w a y s a c c en t ed
. .

N ote 1 A ri me is u su a ll y o f on e sy ll bl e Bu t ri mes c a n a l so b e

. a .

i n t w o or mo re sy l l a b l es pro v i ded t h a t t h e rst sy l l a b l e is c c ent ed

,
a

a n d t h e rest a re u n a c c en t ed ; a s moti o n ocea n ; b eh a vi o u r sa vi ou r , , ,

.

D o u b l e ri mes in F renc h a nd someti mes in E ng l i sh a re c a ll ed fem l e

, ,
a

or femi n i n e w h i l e a s i n l e ri me is c a l l ed a ma l e D o u bl e a nd trebl e
, g .

ri mes a re more c o mmo nl y u s ed in c omi c po etry

To h ea r th em ra i l a t h o n est S u nderl a nd
A nd ra shl y b l a me t h e rea l m O f B l u nderl a n d PO P E
,

. .

N ote 2 A mo no sy l l a b i c ri me is p erf ect u nder th ree c on di ti ons

.

( 1 ) t h e v o w el o r v o w el s w h a t ev er t h e spell i ng ma y b e mu st pro
, ,

du c e prec i sel y t h e sa me effec t o n t h e ea r ; ( 2) if a n y c o nso n a nt or

c o n s o n n t s f o l l ow t h e ri mi n
a
g v o w el or v o w el s t h es e ( w h a t ev er th e ,

s pe l l i ng m y h e ) mu s t
a r du c e re c i s el t h e sa me effec t ; ( 3 ) t h e
p o p y
c o n so n a n t t h a t p recedes t h e ri me mu st t o
prev en t mo n o to n y pro , ,

du c e a di eren t effec t o n t h e e r T h u s h a i r a nd f a i r re perfec t

a . a

ri mes b ec a u se t h e t h ree c o n di ti o n s j u st sta t ed a re a l l sa ti sed

,
But .

b ea r a ndf ea r a re no t perfec t ri mes b ec a u se t h e v o w el sou nds t h o u g h ,

-
,

n o t v e ry differe n t a re n o t q u i t e t h e sa me
, A g a i n f a re a n d af f a i r a re .
,
-

n o t perfec t ri me s b ec a u se t h e ri mi n g v o w el is prec eded b y t h e sa me

,

c o nso na nt A g i n a p p ea sed re l ea sed a re no t perfec t rimes b ec a u se

. a ,
-
,
-
,

A bb ott and S eel ey

s E ng lish L essons f or E ng l ish P eop le, p 1 4 3 . .
C HA P . x x rx PR O S O D Y A N D PO E TI C D I CT I O N 28 5

t h e na l c o n sona n s in t h e ormer h a ve th e sou n o f z d, w h l e h o se

t f d i t

in t h e l a tter h a v e t h e so u n o f st d .

W h en t h e r me is ss ll a c or pol sy l l a c , ev er s l l a l e ex c ep
i di y bi y bi y y b t
t h e rst mu st eg n w th t h e sa me c o nso na n
b i i of S u nderl a nd, t .

B l u nderl a nd , u n f ortu na te, im p ortu na te

i
- -
.

N ote 3 R me is a ma t t er o f t h e ea r, a nd no t o f th e ey e
. S gh . i t
r mes , s u c h a s l o ve a n d g ro ve, f a rm a nd w a rm, h ome a nd some, p a th
i
a nd h a th , a re n o t r me s a t a l l iO n th e o th er h a n , gh t is a t ru e r me
. d i
t o i ndi ct, da w n t o morn , f ou rth t o c l oth , re t o h i gh er, h ou r t o p ow er,
th ere t o a i r, c o l onel t o in -jern a l Pro nu nc a t o n , n o t spell ng , is th e
. i i i
o nl y t es o f a r meit

.

4 05 A ss on. a n c e ( L a t a d + so n a n t
. i a v e rb a ) Th i s term is ~
.

a ppl i ed t o w o rd s w h i c h ri me in t h e v o w el o r v o w el s b u t n o t ,

i n th e c on so n an t o r c o n so n a nt s fo ll o w i ng I t is th erefo re a .

very imperfec t ki nd of ri me ; as slu mb er b l u n der ; sa me c a n e A , , ,

.

s e c i men o f A sson a n ce in i mita t i o n o f a S an ish b al l ad o ccu rs

p , p ,

in th e Sp a nish Gy psy by G eo rg e E l i o t
M a i den c ro w n ed w i th g l o ssy b l a c k ness
, ,

Li t h e a s pa nth er forest roa mi ng -

,

Lo ng a rmed n a i a d w h en sh e d a nc es
-
, ,

O n a st rea m o f e t h er o a t i ng

.

.r
40 6 A l lit e a t i on ( L a t a d li ter a ) V.V h e n t w o o r m o re .

w o rd s b eg i n w i t h t h e sa me v ow el o r t h e sa me c on so n a n t o r t h e , ,

sa me syll a b l e t h i s is ca ll ed a ll it era t ion

,
I t is in i tia l
ri mi n g as di st i n c t fro m en d ri mi ng -
.

R u i n sei z e t h ee ru thl ess ki ng G RA Y

N ata A l l o u r e a rl i est poetry w a s a l l i tera t i v e
.
,

T h e l a st g rea t .

s pec i men o f su c h
po et ry in o u r l it era t u re is P i ers th e P low ma n by ,

W ill ia m La ng l a nd b orn in A D 1 33 2 T h e po em is w ritt en in l i nes

, . . .

o f t en t o t w el v e sy ll a b l es T h e fo l l o w i ng is a spec imen
.

In a somer seso n w h en so ft w a s t h e so nn e , ,

I sh o pe me in shro u des a s I a skepe w ere , .

4 0 7 Caesu ra (a L a t i n w o rd d en o ti ng
. a cu t I n L a ti n
o r divi si o n o f a fo o t somew h e re n ea r

r o so dy t h i s mea n t th e cu t
p
t h e midd l e o f th e l i n e th e cu t b ei n g fo ll o w ed by a pau se o f th e
,

v o i ce in rea di ng th e l in e al ou d I n E ngl i sh prosody c aesu ra .

means merel y th e p a u se o f th e v o i c e by w h i ch l in es o f eig h t o r ,

mo re syl l a b l es are u su a ll y divid ed w h en th ey a re rea d a l ou d ; ,

a n d th i s pa u se ma y o c cu r e i th er a t th e en d o r in th e midd l e o f

a foo t

(F o r th e mean i ng of foo t see b el ow Rh yth m

.
,

r e a t l y d e en d s o n t h e o siti on O f th e c aesu ra
g p p .

I n th e foll ow i n g ex a mpl e th e gu re a g a i n st ea ch l i n e sh o w s
th e nu mb er o f feet (w ith o r w ith ou t a h al f fo o t) prec edi n g ea c h
c aesu ra W h en a c o mma o r o th er stop o c cu rs in th e sa me pl a c e
.

as th e c aesu ra th e rh y th m O f th e line is h el ped by th e sens e ;

,
28 6 PR O S E A N D P O ETR Y P A RT Iv

b ut a pa mad e i n d epen d en tl y o f pu n c tu a
u se o r c aesu ra c a n be
t i o n if th e rh yth m o f th e l i n e is i mpro v ed th ereby
,
S o me ti mes .

a l i n e h a s n o c aesu ra ; t h a t is n e ith e r th e rh yth m n o r th e ,

sen se O f th e l i n e re qu i res t h a t a n y pau se sh o ul d b e mad e in

rea di ng o r re
p ea ti ng th e l i n e a l ou d
O f ma n s rst di sob edi en c e Ha nd th e fru i t

35
3 O f t h a t forb id den tree , w h o se morta l ta st e
Brou g h t dea t h i nto th e w orl d a nd a ll o u r w oe
es W i t h l o ss o f E den, [I t i ll o n e g rea t er M a n
1g R estore u s II a nd reg a i n t h e b l i ssfu l s ea t ,
2 S i ng , H ea v enl y M u se, I] t h a t o n t h e s ec ret t o p, etc .

M I LT O N .

O b serv e th a t mon o to ny is a v o id ed a nd th e rh y th m of i
t h e l nes
e n h a n c ed by v a ry i ng t h e pl a c e o f t h e c aesu ra .

O b serve a l so t h a t t h e t h i rd l i n e d o e s no t su g g est a ny c aesu ra .

4 08 . M et r e (G r . measu re )
is
rh yth m re u c e d d to l aw .

I t d epend s on fa c t ors
tw o

(a ) T h e a ccen t u a ti o n o f syll ab l es .

(b) T h e n u mb er o f a cc en ted syll ab l es to a l i n e .

N ata Q u a n t it y m ea n s t h e a mou n t o f ti me re u i red for

q pro nou nc
ing a sy l l a b l e di st i n c tl y I n L a t i n pro so dy sy ll a b l es w ere su b di v i ded
.

b y qu n t i ty i n to L o n g a n d S h ort
a I n E ng l i sh v ersic a tio n h o w ev er
.
, ,

u a n t i ty i s o f n o i mport a nc e I t i s e n t i re l y su b o rdi na t ed t o a c c e n t
q
a i n BYR O N
. .

T h en t ore l w i th b l o o d Iy t a l

o n t h e I re n t
' '
pl . .

H ere t h e sh ort sy ll bl e th e is m de a s l o ng a s po ssibl e for th e

a a

s a k e o f g i vi n g a n a c c e nt nd t h e l o n g sy ll a b l e rent i s ma d e a s sh o rt
,
a

as
po ssi b l e fo r th e s a k e o f remo v i ng o n e .

4 0 9 A spec i c c o mbi n a ti o n o f a cc en t ed a nd u n a c c en t ed
.

sy l l a b l e s is c a l l ed a f oo t T h e n u mb er o f syll a b l es t o a foo t
.

ma y b e e i th er tw o o r t h ree b u t it c a nn o t b e l ess th a n tw o o r ,

mo re th a n t h ree a n d on e of these mu st b e a c cen ted

,
.

(a ) A n I a mb u s c o ns i sts o f o n e u n a c cen t ed a nd o n e a c c ent ed

sy ll a b l e .T h i s is th e c o mmo n est o f a ll ou r fee t .

A p pea r b e si des a t ta c k su p pl y
'
- - - -
.
, , ,

b
( ) A T ro c h ee c o n si st s o f o n e a cc e n t ed a n d o n e u n a c c e n t ed
sy ll a b l e . N o t so c o mmo n as th e I a mb us .

H O l y u p per g ra nd eu r fa i l ing
'
- - - -
.
, , ,

()c A n A n a p aest c o n s i st s o f t w o u n a c c e n t e d sy ll a b l
. es fo ll o w ed

by a n a c cen t ed o n e R a th er u n c o mmo n
. .

C ol o n n de re a p pea r o n a h i ll

- -
a ,
- -
,
.

(d) A Da c t y l c o n si sts of o n e a c cen t ed syll ab l e fol l o w ed by ,

t w o u n ac c en t ed o n es Very ra re. .

M es

-
sen -
r
g ,
e mer
- ri -
l y , pro p r ty , in fa mo u s

-e -

- -

A fth ki nd
.

N ote 1 . Of foot is sometimes a dded , c a l l e d an A mphi

28 8 PR O S E A N D P OETRY P A RT IV

( )0 I n t h e T ro c h a i c a n d D a c ty l i c me t res,
a n a c c en t e d m ono

sy ll a b l e a t t h e en d o f a l i n e c o u n t s a s a n en t i re fo o t , t h ou h in
g
t h e fo rmer t h i s fo o t is sh o rt o f o n e u n a c c en t ed syll a b l e, a nd in th e
l a tte r o f tw o

L ife is m d am O NGF E L L O W

I Ib u t
p y I L
'
t re an e -
. .

( Troch a i c tetra meter 4 fe et ) , .

C om ra d es I l ea v e me I h ere a I lit tl e I w h il e a s I y et tis I

-

e a r l y I morn
-
, ,

TE NNY S O N ( T roch a i c octo meter 8 feet )

-
. .
,

M er ri l y Imer ri l y I sh a l l I l i v e I n o w

- -
, ,

Um der t h e I bl os so m t h a t I h a ng s o n t h e I b ou g h S HA K S

- -
. .

( D a cty li c tetra meter 4 fe et ) , .

( d) M e tres a re n ot al w a ys p er e c f tl y i d
c a rr e out . In an

I a mbi c l i n e th e rst fo o t is someti mes a T ro c h ee i n stea d o f an

I a mb u s I n th e A n apaesti c me t re I a mbi c feet a re so meti mes
.
,

u t fo r A n a aest s a n d th i s in a n y a r t f t h e l in e
p p , p o

Ba u g h t er I o f G od Ia nd ma n I a o c om I pl ish ed E v e M I L T O N

- -
, . .

( I a mb i c p en ta meter 5 feet ) , .

N o t a drum Iw a s h ea rd I no t a fu I n er l n o t e

,
a .

( A nap w sti c tetra meter 4 feet ) ,

.

( ) I n scann i ng a l i n e tw o sh ort syll a b l es c omi ng t og eth er

e
,

ca n b e c ou n t ed a s o n e fo r th e sa k e o f th e me t re

W ing d w i th Ired l i g h t I ni ng a nd I impet Iu c a s rag e

,

T h e mu l I ti tu d I i n c u s sea I i nc a rn I a di n e

-
.

( f ) T w o O pen v o w el s b el on g i ng to di ff eren t w o rd s c a n b e
'

sl u rred so as t o b e fu sed t og e th er a n d pro n ou n c ed a s o n e :

,

I mpressed I th e effu l Ig enc e O f Ih is g l o Iry a b i des

'
.

By h er I a l d s v o i c e I ex pl a i n ed ; I t h e h o l I l ow a by ss

,

A b o m I in a I b l e, u nu t I t era I b l e, a n d w ors e

.

o r b ea u ty in I di stress

To i n su l t th e poor I .

M a y I I ex pres s It h ee u nb l a med , Isi n c e G od I is l i gh t

Bl
.

4 1 1 Bl a nk V erse
. ank mea n s u n ri med T h i s is mu c h

.

u sed in E pi c a n d D ra ma ti c v erse, a n d g en e ra ll y in I a mbi c pen t a !

me t ers T h i s is th e n ob l est o f a l l v erse I t is th e most di fcul t

. .

to w rit e e ff e c tiv el y , th ou gh it seems th e easi est .

S ee ex a mpl e o f E pi c b l a nk v erse q u ote d from P a ra di se L ost in

4 0 7 u n der C aesu ra .

I n L on g fel l ow s H ia w a tha w e h a v e

a so l ita ry ex a mpl e of

b la n k v e rse in T ro c h a i c t etra meters

T h en t h e I l it -t l e I H i a I w a -th a -

L ea rn ed o f I c v -ery I bi rd th e I l a n -g u a g e

.

O c c asi o na l l y we h av e b l an k verse i n D a c ty l i c di meters

th em,

Ca n -n o n

C a n -n o n

C a n -no n
C HA P . XxI x PR O S O D Y A N D P O E T I C D I CT I O N 28 9

ttempts h a v e b een ma d e to in trodu c e C l assi ca l (La ti n

S o me a

an d G re ek ) met res i n t o E ng l ish T h is is a n o th er k i n d o f b l a n k .

verse T h e b est ex a mpl es o f La ti n h ex amet ers a re L o n g fel l o w s

.

E va ngelin e a n d Ki n gsl e y s A n dromeda

T h i s is t h e I for est pri Imev a l th e I mu r mu ri n g I pi n es

'
- - - -
, ,

a nd th e I h em l o c k L O NGF E LL O W

- -
. .

Sp ecia l M etres a nd S ta nz a s .

4 1 2 Th e Hero ic C ou pl et
. th i s metre l in es c ons isti ng .
I n

o f v e I a mbi c fee t ri me t og e th er in pa i rs .

T h i s is c a ll ed
H ero i c b ec au se it h a s b een mu c h u sed in tra n s
l a ti n g E pi c or H ero i c po etry a s in D ry den s tra n sl a t i o n o f V irg i l a n d

P o pe s H omer

.

Th i s metre is somet i mes v a ri ed by a tripl et , in w h i c h t h e th i rd

l i ne ( c a l l ed a n A l ex a ndri n e) c a n h a v e si x I amb i c fee t i n st ea d o f v e
T h e sa c red l a k e O f Tri v i a from a fa r,
T h e V el i n e fou n ta i n s, a n d su l ph u reou s N a r,
S h a k e a t t h e b a l e fu l bl a st , t h e si g n a l o f t h e w ar .
D RYD E N .

41 3 . Th e S onn et fro m I t a l y .
B rr w
I t c on si sts of
o o e d .

fou rt een I a mbi c pen t a met ers, o f w h i ch th e rst e i gh t l i n es a re

ca ll ed th e oc ta ve, a n d t h e l as t six th e sestette T h e I t a l i a n o c t a ve .

( fo l l o w ed by M i l t on ) h as tw o rimes, in th e o rd er o f a b b a , a bb a

th e o c t a v e in S h a kspea re s sonn e ts h as f ou r ri mes, in th e o rd er

o f a b a b , oded . Th e ses e t tte h as e ith er tw o or th ree rimes ,

an d

th ei r o rd er is va ri ous .

41 4 . O tt a va Rima B . o rrow e fro m I t al y

d E a ch . t
s an z a

i t
con s s s o f e i h t I a mbi c n t a m t r T h e l e tt e rs a , b , 0 sh o w
g pe e e s .

syst em o f ri mi ng d mea ns
t
th e (T h e . w or o tta va o c av e )
a

Tis sw e et t o h ea r th e w a tc h -
d o g s h on est b a rk

b Ba y de ep mou th ed w el c ome a s w e n ea r o u r h ome

-

Tis sw eet t o k n o w th ere is a n ey e w i ll ma rk

a

b O ur c omi ng , a n d l oo k b ri g h t er w h en w e c ome
I i s sw eet t o b e a w a k en ed b y t h e l a rk ,

a

b O r l u ll ed by fa l l i n g w a t ers sw ee t t h e h u m
0 O f b ees, t h e v o i c e o f g irl s, th e so n g o f birds ,
0 T h e l i sp o f c h i l dre n a n d t h ei r ea rl i e st w ords BYR O N -
.

C
.

41 5 . Th e S pen se ria n S t a n z a S pen seri an fro m its

a ll e d
or i gi na to r ,
S pen ser, w ho u se d it in w riti n g Th e F a eri e Qu een e .

R oll o n , I t h ou d eep Ia nd da rk I b l u e O I c ea n , roll ,

a

T e n t h ou I sa nd e et s Isw eep o I v er th ee I in v a i n

b
M a n ma rk s I th e ea rth I w i th ru Iin ; his I c o n trol
'
a

S t o ps w i th I t h e sh ore ; I u po n I t h e w a f ery ma i n

b I
Th e w rec k s I a re a l l I t h y de ed main

I
'
b I n o r do t h re

A sh a d I o w O f Ima n s ra v

c a g e s a v e I hi s o w n ,

W h en for I a mo I ment l ik e I a drop I O f ra i n

b
E G C
. . . U
29 0 PR O S E A N D PO E TR Y P A RT Iv

c He i
s nk s

I i nto I th y dept h s I w i th b u b

I b l i n g g ro an ,
0 W i th o u t
I a g ra v e I u nk n ell ed Iu nc of
,

,

I ned, a n d I u nk n o w n .

BYR O N .

T he i th a nd l ast l i n e w h i ch in th is me tre al w a ys c on si sts

n n ,

o f six fee t i n st ea d o f v e is c a l l ed a n A l e xa n d ri n e l ik e t h e t h i rd
, ,

li n e in h ero i c t ri pl ets

4 1 6 Th e M et r e O f
. I n M emoria m T h i s c o n si sts o f a .

fo u r l i n e sta nz a in w h i c h ea c h l in e c o n ta i ns fou r I a mbi c feet th e

-
,

fo u rth l i n e ri mi ng w i th th e rst a nd th e th i rd w i th t h e sec o n d , .

T h i s me t re w a s n o t as is O ften su ppo se d o ri g i n a t e d by T en n yson

, ,
.

I t w as us ed by S a n dy s in h is metri c a l pa ra ph rase o f t h e P sal ms ,

A D . . 1 636
W h a t prot c a n my bl o o d a ff ord ,

W h en I sh a l l t o t h e g ra v e de sc e n d ?
Ca n s ens el ess du st t h y pra i se e x t end
Ca n dea t h t h y l i v i n g t ru t h rec ord P sa l m x x x 9 . .

41 7 . S t a n z as ( I t a l . s ta n z a , O ld I ta l . sta n ti a , so d fro m
ca l l e

th e st o
p or
p a u se at th e en d o f it) . Al l t
s a n z as a re in ri med ,

not in bl an k , v erse .

A sta n z a o f th ree l n es is i
d a Tripl et as in T en n yso n s c a ll e ,

Tw o Voi c es in w h i c h ea c h l i n e co nsi sts o f a n I a mbi c tetra met er

,

t h e th i rd l i n e is n o t a n A l ex a n d ri n e .

W h atev er c ra I z y so r Iro w sa i t h

,

N o l ife I t h a t brea th es I w i t h h u I m n brea th

a

Has cv I er tru Ily l o n g ed I fo r dea t h .

A t
s anz a of fo u r l i n es is c al l e d a Qu at ra in (F r .
qu a tre, La t .

qu a tu or, O f su c h sta n z as th e most c o mmo n

fo u r) . e x a m l es a re
p
th e Ba l l a d me t re, a s in Ch evy Cha se ; a nd ( 2) th e E l eg ia c
me t re, a s in G ra y s E l egy I n b o th o f th ese t h e ri mes a l t ern a t e

in th e fo rmer a tet ra meter w i th a tri meter ; in t h e l a t t er a

.

e n ta me t er w i t h a en t a m e t e r T h e st a n z a used in I n M emori a m
p p .

is a n o th er ki n d o f qu a t ra i n ; see 416 .

A sta n z a O f six l i n es is c al l ed a S ex t a n t , in w h i c h th e ri mes

ma y o c c u r in th e fo ll o w i ng o rd ers a , b , a , b, a , b ( 2) a , a ,
b , c, c , b ; ( 3 ) a , b , a , b , c, c .

A sta n z a o f e i g h t l i n es is ca l l ed a n O c t a v e ; b u t i t is b est
k n o w n u n d er th e n a me o f O t ta va R i ma ( I ta l so u n d ed as ottdva .

reema , L a t oc ta vu s, e i gh t h) ; see
. 414 .

A sta n z a o f n i n e l i n es is th e S pen seri a n ; se e 415 .

S E CTI O N 2
TI C DI C T I O N P OE

, .

ro
4 1 8 P se P o
. et r y P o etry is di st i ng u i sh ed fro m pro se n o t
,
.

o nl y by t h e poss essi o n o f me tre b u t by c erta i n pe cu li a ri t i es o f ,

29 2 PR O S E A N D P O E TRY P A RT Iv

an d -e th a re st i ll co mmo nl y fo r th e s ec o nd a nd t h i rd perso ns
u se d

re s pec t i v el y T h e o l der o r S tro ng fo rms O f P a st t en ses a re u sed in pre

.

ferenc e t o t h e mo dern o r W ea k o n es a s w rou gh t fo r w orked b a de for

b id b ega t fo r b eg ot c l o ve for c l ef t c rew for c row ed dra ve f o r drove
th rove fo r th ri ved c l o mb fo r c l i mb ed stove fo r sta ved c l a d fo r c l o th ed

C onj u n c t ions P o etry o ft en u se s w h a t th ou gh o ra lb ei t for a l th ou gh ;

.

ere or or ere fo r b ef ore n a th l ess for n everth el ess ; a n i for if

f
T
.

( 2) Omission f
o w ords requ i red b y P rose wo u
p pr oses a re

v d by su ch o mi ssi ons th e met re is preserved

ser e ,
a nd th e di c ti on
is ma d e l ess l ik e th a t O f pro se
T h e b l i nk o f ( th e ) h a u n t ed stre m a

Cre epi n g l ik e ( a ) sn a i l u n w i ll i ng l y to sc h o ol
( H e ) w h o st ea l s my pu rse s t ea l s tra sh
L i v e s t h ere ( t h e ma n ) w h o l o v es h is p i n ? a .

For is t h ere au
g h t in sl e e
p ( tha t) c a n c har m th e
iw se
Tis di st a nc e ( t h a t ) l end s enc h a ntmen t t o t h e

v i ew
M ea n t h o u g h I a m ( I a m) n o t w h o l l y so
,

H pp ( i s ) t h e m n w h o se w i sh a n d c a re e tc F i ni te Verb
a
py a , , . .

T o w h om t h u s A d m ( spok e ) a

S ol di er rest t h y w a rfa re ( b ei ng ) o er etc

P a rti c ip l e
.
, ,

M y ra mb l e ( b ei n g ) ended I ret u rn ed
.

H e k n ew h i ms el f ( h o w ) t o si ng
Conju n cti on
'

P ermi t ( th a t ) I ma rsh a l t h ee t h e w a y
.

H e mo u rn ed ( fo r) n o rec rea n t fri end

Th ro u g h th e d ea r mi g h t o f H im t h a t w a l k ed ( o n )
P rep osi ti on
t h e w a v es
.

D espa i ra nda ng u ish ed ( fro m) th e s tru g g l i n g so u l

I n po e t ry a v erb is ften u sed a l o ne w h ere

o ,
in prose it
w o u l d h a v e a n A u x i l i a ry verb a ttach ed t o it
L o ng di e th y h a ppy da y s b e fore th y dea th
( M a y th y h a ppy da y s die , e tc ) .

Th i s da y b e b rea d a n d pe a c e my l o t .

( M a y pea c e a nd b rea d b e , e tc ) .

G i ves n o t th e h a w th o rn b u sh a s sw ee t a sh a de
( D o es i t n o t g i ve ,
e t c ) .

Tel l me n o t i n mou rn fu l nu mb ers .

( D o n o t t e ll m e , e tc ) .

H e g o es to do w h a t I h a d don e, if, e tc .

W h I h ou ld h a ve do n e , if, e tc )
( a t s .

( 3) Th e u se o f u nc o mmon c on stru c ti on s

( )
a A n A dj ec t iv e su bsti tu t ed fo r an A d v e rb (see 1 8 1)
F irst th ey p i ra s e d h im sof t a n d l ow TE NNY S O N -

w h is pered l ow a n d mi ld L O NGF E L L O W
. .

Th e g re en t ree s . .

b
( ) P o s iti ve a dverb 1n - l y c h a n g ed t o C o mpa ra tiv e in -
li er
You h a v e ta k en it t h I m
w i seli er
n e a n t h l d S H A KS P E A R E

a
y o u s o u . .

D est ro y ers rig h tl i er c a l l ed t h e pl a g u e s o f E l em M I L O T N .

C H A P XX I X
. PRO SO D Y AN D PO E TI C D I CT I O N 29 3

S tra ng e fri end, pa st , presen t , a n d t o b e

L o v ed deepl i er, d a rk l i er u nderst o o d TE NNY S O N -

Th i f
. .

N ote s m
or Of th e C o mpa ra ti v e a dv er b oc c u rs, h o w ev er, in

th e f mil i a r w ord
a e a rl er, i w h ich c an b e e i th er an a dv erb o r a n

a dj ec t i v e .

(c) S u peru o u s e mpl o y men t O f a pro n ou n

My b a nk sth ey a re fu rnish ed w i th b eeS S HE N S T O NE

Th ey t remb l et h e su st a i n i n g c ra g s T E NNY S O N
. .

T h e smi th a mi g h t y ma n is h e L O NGF E L L O W
. .

. .

(d) A n epith e t (a dj ec tiv e) used as a n ou n

Bel o w th e c h est nu t s w h en th ei r b u ds
TE NNYS O N
,

W ere g l i st en i ng t o t h e b re ez y b l u e
T h e d rea d va st ( = ex pa n se ) o f ni g h t M I LT O N
.

I b id
.

T h e pa l pa b l e ob scu re

.

T h e ki n dl i ng a z u re T H O M S O N .

e) Th e fo rma ti o n o f n ew c om ou n d w o rd s
( p
Th e a l w a y s w i n d ob ey i n g d eep S H A K S P E A R E
O r in th e vi ol et emb roidered v a l e
- -
. .

M I LT O N
P rox y w edded w i th a b o o tl ess c a l f T E NNYS O N
-
.

Be fo re th e cri mson ci rc l ed st a r I b i d
-
. .

-
. .

(f ) A fr e er us e o f R e e x iv e O bj e c t s a f t e r I n t ra n sitiv e v erbs

9 7)
Th en S a t a n rst k n ew pa i n ,
A n d w rith ed h i m t o a n d f ro .
M I L T O N .

T h e sh eph erd h i ed h im h ome .

(g) P ossessiv e ca se o f n o u n u se d dj ec tiv e 4 3 c)

fo r an a

w oma n l y ) c ompa ssi o n L O NGF E L L O W

,

P i t y a n d w oma n s

L O W E L L
. .

Th e moth er s ( = mo th erl y )

n a t u re o f A l t h ea . .

h
( ) Th e S i mpl e f o rm o f P e rs o n a l pro n o u n f o r t h e R e e x ive

I th o u g h t me ( = mysel f ) ri c h er th a n th e Persia n ki n g .

BE N J O N S O N
il s h er ( = h ersel f ) rou nd KE BLE
.

H ow c l o se sh e v e . .

i
() T h e u se O f a n d i n a n I n t erro
g a t iv e se n t e n ce t o ,
ex
press

a pass i o n a t e sense o f
g r i e f
A n d a rt th o u c ol d a n d l o w l y l a i d S C O TT

.

A n d w i l t th o u w eep w h en I a m l o w BYR O N
Th
.
,

( )
4 Ch a n g e i n th e reg u la r order o f w ords e sa me tw o

p u r oses a re
p h ereby v d as b efore see a b o ve ( 2)
ser e

(a ) A dj ec t ive pl ac ed a ft er its n ou n i ns t ea d o f b efo re it ,

O r w h ere t h e g org eo u s E a st w i th ri c h est h a n d

S h o w ers o n h er ki ng s b a rb a ri c pea rl a n d g o l d M I LTO N . .

(b) S u bj ec t pl ac ed a ft er its verb a nd o bj ec t b efo re it ,

N o hi ve h a st th ou of h o a rded sw e et s .
29 4 PR O S E A N D P O E TR Y P A RT Iv

(c) P repositi o n pl a c edfter its n ou n i nstead o f b e fore it

a

W h ere ec h o w a l k s st ee p h ill s a mong .

(d) I n ni tiv e pl a ced b efo re th e F i n i t e v erb i nst ea d , of

a fter it
W h e n rst th y s rei to sen d o n ea rt h ,

il d desi g n ed G RA Y
Vi rt u e, his da rl i ng ch ,
.

(e) A dv erb pl a c ed b efo re its v erb i nstead o f a fter it ,

Up spri ng s from y o n der t a ng l ed t h orn

A s t a g more w h i t e t h a n mo u n t i n S H O W S C O T T a . .

( f ) C o mpl emen t pl a c ed b efo re i t s v erb i nst ea d o f a ft er it : ,

Gri eved t h o u g h t h o u a rt fo rb ea r t h e ra sh desi g n, .

( 9) U se o f or fo r ei ther, a n d n or fo r n ei ther

R emo t e , u n fri e nded, me l a n c h o l y , sl o w ,

Or b y t h e l a z y S c h el d o r w a nde rin g P O .
G O L D S M I T H .

N or g ri ef n or pa i n sh a l l b rea k my rest .

( 5 ) The u se o
f j
a d ec ti ves or p a rti c i p les i nstea d of c la u ses .

T h is is d o n e fo r th e sa k e o f t e rseness . P o e try d oes n o t pa t ro nis e

R el a t iv es a nd C onj un c t i o ns so freel y a s pro se d o es .

( 1 ) H e c a n t c omb i ne e a c h w el l p rop ortion ed pa rt

.

Th a t is h e c n n ot ma k e th e di fferen t pa rt s pro po rt i o na t e t o ea c h
,
a

o th er a nd t h e n c o mb i n e t h em i n t o a s mme t ri c a l w h o l e
y

.

( )
2 S e e t h a t y o u r p o l i sh ed a rms b e pri m ed w i t h c re CO W P E R a . .

T h a t is se e t h a t y o u r a rms ( or w ea po ns) a re w el l pol i sh ed a nd

,

p ri m ed w i t h c a re .

( 3 ) F ort h g o es th e w ood ma n l ea vi n g u nc o nc erned

T h e ch eerf u l h a u nt s o f men C O W P E R
,

. .

H ere c h eerfu l me ns h ow ever cheerf u l they ma y b e

a .

( 4 ) F ro m h is h a n d t h e g a rl a n d w rea t h e d for E v e
s l a ck
D ow n dro pped, a nd a ll t h e fa ded roses sh ed M I L TO N .

H ere sl a c k sta n ds fo r w h ch i h a d b ec o me sl a c k .

h o h u rt s a h a rml ess n ei g h b o u r s pea c e,

( 5 ) Bu t h e w
I n su l ts f a l l en w o rth o r b ea u ty in di stress PO P E .

H ere h a rml ess
h e is h a rml e ss,

s t a n ds for th o u g h
fa ll en fo r w h en i t is fa ll e n

.

( 6 ) Fro m l ove l ess y o u th to u nresp ec ted a g e

N o pa ssi o n g ra ti e d ex c ept h er ra g e P O P E .

H er y o u t h w a s dev o i d o f l o v e, t h e pe c u l i a r g ra c e O f y o u t h an d h er
o l d a g e w a s de v o i d o f res ec t , t h e pec u l i a r r i v i l e e of
g a g e ; sh e
p p
r a t i ed n o ss i o n e x c t h er e v i l t em e r
g pa e p p .

( 7 ) T h e ja y , t h e ro o k ,
th e da w ,
A nd ea c h h a rs h pi pe, disc o rda n t h ea rd a l on e,
A id th e fu ll c o nc ern T H O M S O N .

H ere h ea rd a l on e mea ns w h en i t is h ea rd a l o n e .
29 6 PRO S E A N D PO E TR Y P A RT Iv

w e re mo v e th is d efec t by al t eri n g th e w d
o r s, w e n d it b etter
pro se t h an b e fo re ; b u t sti l l it is n o t g o o d prose Th e . fa c t th a t
t h e sa me st y l e w h i c h g a v e pl easu re in o n e ki n d o f c o mposi

t i o n pro v es o ffen si v e i n th e o th er sh o w s th a t poetry a n d prose

a re n o t mu t u a l l y c on v ertib l e w i th ou t i nj u ry t o b o t h c o n d ense d
(
fro m VVh a t el y ) .

If vi ew s a re b o rn e o u t by ex peri en c e th en th e pra c t i ce
th ese ,

Of a ra ph ra si n oe t ry i n t o rose sh ou l d n o t b e en c o u ra ed
p g p p g .

C HA PTE R X X X M A I N D I V I S I O N S O F P O E TR Y .

4 21 Diff er en t k in ds of P o et ry P o etry c a n b e c l assi ed ,

. .

a cc o rdi n g t o su bj ec t, o n l i n es a n a l o ou s t o t h ose o f
g prose W e .

w i ll ta k e t h e di v i si on s in th e sa me o rd er as th a t g iv en in
C h a pt er x x v iii T h e rea d er mu st n o t expec t th e a n a l og y t o b e
.

u i t e c o m l e t e : it is n ea r en o u h
q p g , h ow ev er, t o fo rm t h e b asi s
o f a c l assi ca ti on .

4 22 . T ec h n ic al I n po et r y thi s is ca ll e d
D id a c t i c . It
it
c o ns s s o f i n stru c ti o n set fo rth in a n d emb ell i sh ed as v erse ,
fa r
as ossib l e w i th oet i c o rn a men t a n d i l l ust ra ti v e a n ec d o t es
p p .

T ec h n i c al su bj ec ts b e i n g o f a n o n l i t era ry c h a ra c t er a re n o t
,
-
,

sui t ed t o oe t ry a n d n o a tt em t a t w ri t i ng su c h po et ry h as b een
p p
ma d e si n c e th e b eg i n n i n g o f th e n i n et een t h c en tu ry I t is n ow .

u it e o u t o f fa sh i o n a n d e rh a s w i l l n ev er c o me i n t o fa sh i o n
q p p ,

aga in .

A s sc i en c e ma k es progress in a n y su bj ec t ma t t er poe t ry re -
,

c ed e s fro m i t m m e e ffec t C o l erid e in h is

( N e w a n ) T o t h e sa g
.
,

Ta b le Ta lk c o n ten d s th a t
,
th e rea l a n tith esi s of po etry is n o t
o se b u t sc i en c e

p r , .

D ry den s R el ig i o L a i ci ( a defen c e o f t h e A ng l i c a n C h u rc h a g i nst

a

di ss en t ers ) 1 6 8 2 P o pe s E ssa y on Cri ti ci sm a nd M ora l E ssa y s ( 1 6 8 8

.
,

S o merv i l l e s Ch a se ( 1 6 9 2 A rmst ro ng s A rt of P reserv

i n g H ea l th , 1 7 4 4

D y er s F l eec e, 1 7 5 7
. G ree n s Sp l een ( 1 6 9 6 .

F a l c o n e r s S h ip w reck, 1 7 6 2 G ra ng er s S u g a r ca n e

Ph ilips s Cider
. i -
. .

4 23 . or
Histy
U n d e r t h i s h e a di n g w e h a v e ( )
a th e E pi c

oem ( b) th e H i st o ri ca l d ra ma (c ) th e H i st o ri ca l l y ri c
p , ,
.

E i T h e epi c o e m t rea ts o f o n e g rea t c ompl ex

( ) p p
a c oetry p .

a c ti o n in a g ra n d styl e a n d w i th fu l n ess O f d e t a i l (
,
A r n old
) .

T w o mo re po i n ts i t seems t o us mu st b e a dd ed to ma k e t h i s
, ,

d e n i t i on c ompl et e ( 1 ) A n e pi c is t ol d ma i n l y in t h e fo rm o f
.

na rra ti on I f t hi s po in t is n ot add ed an epi c po em mig h t b e

.
,
OHA P . XXX M A I N D I VI S I O N S O F PO E TR Y 29 7

c onf o u n d ed w ith a n hi st o ri c al d ra ma in w h i ch th e a c ti on O f th e ,

st o ry is t o l d by di a l og u e t c o m l ex a c t i o n

T h of
( )
2 e
g rea .
p
a n epi c th ou gh possib l y emb ell i sh ed w i t h a few c t i t i o us d e t a il s
,

a n d episo d es mu st b e h is t o ri c al o r a t l east i t mus t b e b eli e v ed

, ,

t o b e hi s t ori ca l a nd fra u gh t w i th importa n t co nsequ enc es e ith er

,

t o th e ra ce as a w h ol e o r to so me pa rti c ul a r n a t i on L et us .

ex a min e th is sec o n d po i n t a l it tl e mo re c l osel y :

H omer s Il i a d th e e x pl o i t s of A c h il l e s a n d o th er g rea t h eroes a t

th e si eg e o f Tro y M o st O f t h e Gre ek st a t es tra c ed t h e o rig i n o f t h e ir

.

h i st o ry t o t h ese h ero es w h o se ex i st en c e n o o n e dou bt ed

, .

Vi rg i l s E n eid : t h e fo u nda t i on o f R o me b y IEn ea s th e Troj a n

h ero a nd th e c ommen c emen t o f th e qu a rrel b et w een R ome a n d

,

Ca rth a g e a s preg ured b y t h a t b et w ee n [En ea s a n d Qu e en D i do

, .

t h e defe a t o f P o mpey th e G rea t b y J u li u s

Lu c a n s P h a rsa lia
Caesa r Th i s poem fol l o w s a u th en t i c a t ed h i st o ry v ery c l o sel y
. .

Ta sso s J eru sa l em D el i vered th e resc u e o f t h e h ol y c i ty from t h e

Tu rk s b y t h e Cru sa d ers Th ou g h th ere is a g rea t dea l o f roma nt i c

.

c t i o n in th i s poem th e g rou nd w o rk is h i st o ri c a l a n d o f v ery w i de

, ,

int erest .

M i l to n s P a ra di se L ost : th e w a rs in h ea v en th e c omi ng o f S a t a n

,

i nt o t h e ea rth th e o rig in o f h ea t h en id ol a tri es th e fa ll o f A dam a nd

, ,

E v e a n d th eir ex pu l si o n fro m P a ra di s e .

C mo en s L u si a d th e di sc o v ery by Va sc o da G a ma O f t h e pa ssa g e

a

t o I ndi a a nd S ou th ern A si a vi a th e C a pe o f G oo d H o pe .

Vol t a ire s H enria de 1 7 24 th e h i story o f th e Fre nc h ki ng H enry

, ,

IV .
(1 5 5 3
Th e tru e E pi c , th ere fo re, h as an h ist ori c al i n ten t i on I t is .

w ell kn o w n th a t M il t o n in t en d ed a t on e t ime t o ma k e Kin g

A rth u r a n d h is Knigh ts th e su bj ec t o f a n epi c Bu t sh a ri n g , as .

h e h i mself sa ys, th e c o mmo n d ou bt o f most w riters as t o w ho

Ki n g A rth u r w as, an d w h e th er
ign ed in hi st o ry
an y su c h re ,

h e rej ec t ed th e R ou n d Ta b le as a su bj ec t in fa v o u r o f th e L o ss o f
P a radi se T enn yson h as trea ted th e A rth u ri a n l eg ends fro m a n
.

a ll e o ri cal h i t i t d i t f t t
g n o t a n s
,
o r ca l s a n po n ( a
p g e ,
3 0 0 o o n o e); ,

a n d h e ca ll s t h em by th e mo re mo d est titl e I dy l ls of th e Ki ng ,
.

W e h a ve n o grea t n a ti ona l epi c M il ton s epi c is n o t fo r h is

.

o w n n a ti on o n l y b u t fo r th e w h o l e h u ma n ra c e
,
H is h ero is .

n e ith er A d a m n o r S a t a n b u t P ro vid en c e ; a n d th e a im o f h is
,

epi c a s h e t ell s us is to
, j ustify th e w a y s of G od t o men
,
.

D ou bt h as b een ex pressed as t o w h eth er w e a re l ik el y t o h a v e

a n y mo re epi cs in o u r l it era tu re T h e c riti ca l spirit w hi c h is n o w
.

a
ppl i ed t o h ist o ry ma k es epi c po et ry mo re th a n ev e r di f c u l t .

W h eth er fu tu re po ets w i l l su cc eed in t rea t i n g real hi st o ry in th e

e i c ma nn er ren ou n c i n t h r i h t f i n v n ti n n t i r l y b ut
p g
, e g o e o e e ,

st i ll n di n g sco e in th e sel e c ti on in te r re ta ti on a n d a rec ia

p p , pp ,
29 8 PR O S E A N D PO E TR Y P A RT Iv

t i on of i n c id en ts a c c or ding i mpo rtan c e ma y

t o th e i r h i sto ri c al ,

b e l e ft an O pen qu est i o n C a rl yl e h a s t ri ed th i s in h is H i story

.

of the F ren c h R evo l u ti on w h i c h resemb l es a n e i c , p poem mo re

th an a n y o th er w o rk o f th i s ag e (A bb o tt a nd S eel ey) .

C e rta i n l y th e c ri t i ca l spi ri t in w h i c h h i st o ry is n o w stu di ed

is a d v e rse t o th e c o mposi t i on o f epi c po etry j ust a s th e sc i en ti c ,

spi ri t o f t h e r esen t a g e is a dv erse t o di da c t i c oe t ry

p p
Y e t w e do n o t see w h y a n epi c po et O f th e fu t u re sh o u l d re

n ou n ce th e ri g h t o f i n v en t i o n en t i rel y so l o ng a s th e sa me ,

ri g h t is c on c ed ed t o w ri te rs o f ro ma n c e W e sh ou l d sa y
th a t Ki ngsl ey s H erew a rd th e W a ke a nd Bu l w er Ly tto n s L a st of

-

th e S a xon s a nd L a st of the B a ron s w ere t su bj ec ts fo r n a t i on a l

epi cs a n d mi g h t h a v e rea c h ed t h a t sta nd a rd
,
h a d th e g ifted ,

au th o rs d ev o t ed th emsel v es t o po etry i n st ea d o f prose If .

M a c au l a y s spl en did fra g men t th e A rma da h ad b een c o mpl eted

, ,

in t h e sta tel y; y et spi ri ted metre 1 t h e fu l n ess o f d e ta i l a n d th e

, , ,

l o fty pa t ri o t i c spi ri t w i th w h i c h it w a s c o mmen c ed w e sh ou l d ,

h a v e h a d a n a t i o nal epi c th a t w o u l d pro b a b l y b e rea d a fter h is

E ssa y s a n d H istory a re fo rg o t t en

.

b
( ) Th e h i s to r i ca l d r a m a O f su ch d ra ma th e h i st o ri es Of

S h a kspea re (as th ey a re c a ll ed t o dist i ngu i sh th em fro m h is ,

tra g edi es an d c o medi es) fu rn i sh th e b est ex a mpl e .

I n R oma n h i st ory w e h a v e S h a k spe re s J u l i u s Caesa r ; A n ton y

a

a nd Cl eop a tra ; Cori o l a n u s I n E ng l i sh h i st o ry Ki ng J oh n ; H en ry

.
,

I V P rts I II
.
,
a H en ry V H en ry VI P a rt s I I I I I I ; R i ch a rd
. . . .
,
. . .

II . R i ch a rd I I I H enry VI I I ( t en dra ma s )
. E n g l i sh h i st ory in
. .

S h k spea re s t i me w a s st i ll a t ra di ti on E v i den c e h a d n o t b e en

a .

sift ed n o r h a d ev ent s b e en n a rra t ed w i th h i st o ri c l ex a c t n ess

,
It a .

w a s t h ere fore e si er for S h a k spea re t o dra ma t i se E ng l i s h h i st ory t h n

a a

i t h a s b een t o h is su c c e ssors in t h e sa me el d .

Th e b est dr m s ( b a s ed o n E n g li sh h i story ) si n c e S h a k spea re s

a a

ti me re t h ose b y T enny so n v iz Qu een M a ry H a ro ld a n d Bec ket in

a , .
, , ,

a l l o f w h i c h th e o et a dh eres v er l l t o h i story
p y c o se y .

()
0 H i stor i c a l l y ri cs O u r l i t e ra t u re p ossesses so m e l yri cs

th a t a re pu rel y h i st o ri cal a nd o t h ers th a t a re pa rtl y so ,

.

P u rel y h i st ri c a l C o w per s Wrec k of th e R oy a l G eorg e ( 1 7 3 1

o :

1 800 ) W o l fe s Bu ri a l of S i r J oh n M oore 1 8 1 7 C a mpb el l s Ba ttl e of

,

th e Ba l ti c a n d H oh en l i n den ( 1 777 T e n ny so n s R evenge, Ch a rg e
of th e L i g h t B ri g a de, a nd b
a t tl e sc e n es i n t h e Ode on th e D u ke of -

W el l i ng ton s F u n era l I t is n o t ew o rt h y t h a t t h ese po ems, t h o u g h

.

str c t liy h s t o r c i i
a l , a re a mo n
g t h e v e r b es t l y r c s i n o u r l a ng u a g e y i .

1
Th e th e A rma da is th e l o ng I a mb ic l ine in seven feet
metre of . Th e
sa me me tre is u sed w ith ex c el l ent e ff ec t in C h a pma n s t ran sl a tion

o f th e

I l ia d, a n d in M orris s tra nsl at io n o f th e E neid .
3 00 P R O S E A N D P O E TR Y P A RT Iv

re ec t i on o n ,
so me su bj ec t c o nn e c t e d w i th l o ve , pa tri o ti sm
sorro w ,

h i s to ry et c ,
T h e b est so nn ets in o ur
. l a ng u a g e a re b y W y a t t ( 1 5 03
S u rrey ( 1 5 1 7 S i dn ey ( 1 5 5 4 S h a kspea re , M i l t o n, W o rds
w o rth , a n d M a rt i n T u pper

.

( )
d S o n g s S h o rt ry t h mic a l pi ec es, in st a nz a s, i nt end ed t o b e
a c c o m a ni ed b m u si c el odi es i s si m l y a c o l l ec t i o n

p y M oo re s I r i sh M .
p
o f so n g s c o mpo sed b y h im t o su i t Iri sh a i rs

4 27 F ic t io n . T h i s is represen t ed in poetry by ( )
a A ll eg o ry,
b
( ) R o ma n c e , L e en d , o r T a l e , (c Ba l l a d s,
g ) d
( ) Idy ll s or Pa st o ra l s
S p n
.

Q

Q

(a ) A l l eg ory e ser s F a ery
. u een ( 1 553 u a rl es s
D i vi n e E mb l ems ( 1 5 9 2 D ry de n s H i n d a nd P a n th er

G ay s .

P a rnel l s H ermi t ( 1 6 7 9

F a b l es ( 1 6 88 M a n devill e s
T h omso n s Ca stl e of I n do l en ce ( 1 7 0 0

F a b l e of th e B ees ( 1 6 7 0

( b ) R oma n ce, L eg end, or Ta l e N a rra t v e poetry o f h s c h ara c er .

i t i t
i s w ell re presen t ed i n o u r l t era t u re Th e rst ex a mpl e w a s set b y
i .

C h a u c er, w h o se Ca n terb u ry Ta l es h a v e sc a rc el y b e en su rpa ssed In .

mo re rec ent t mes w e h a v e Bea t e s M i n stre l ( 1 7 3 5

i ti

S c ott s
L a y of th e L a st M i n strel , L a dy of th e L a ke, R okeb y , M a rmi on , L ord

of th e I s l es ( 1 7 7 1 By ro n s T h e C a i ou r, B ri de of A b y dos,

Corsa i r, L a ra , S i eg e of Cori n th , a n d o t h ers ( 1 7 88 M o o re s
S h el l ey s R evol t of I s la m, H ell a s, a nd

L a l l a R ookh ( 1 7 7 9
t h e W i tch of A tl a s ( 1 7 9 2 C a mp ell s G ertru de of Wy omi ng , b

Kea ts s E ndy mi on , 1 8 1 8 W o rds w orth s Wh i te D oe of R y l

1 80 9 . .

ston e, 1 81 5 . i
C ol er dg e s Ch ri sta b el a n d A n ci en t M a ri ner ( 1 7 7 2

.

i
M rs Bro w n ng s A u rora L eigh , 1 8 5 6 M a c a u l a y s L a y s of

.

A n ci en t R ome ( l eg e n da ry ) ( 1 8 0 0 i

G eo rg e E l o t s Sp a n ish Gip sy
( to l c h e y in dra ma t c o rm, b u t n o t nt ended t o b e a c t ed)
d i i f i .

T e nny so n s P ri n cess, M a u d R o ert Brow n ng s Th e R i n g and

. b i
W hit tier s N a rra ti ve a nd L eg enda ry P oems L o ng el l o w s
f

th e Book . .

E l i d H i h Te nny s o n s I dy f h K i 1

v a n g e n e a n a w a t a .l l s o t e n g .

R o ma nc e a n d L eg end a re o t en tol d in dra ma t c orm, t h a t is, in f i f

th e orm o f d a l o g u e a s d st nc t ro m th a t o f n a rra t v e
f i i i f
T h s, t o o , i s i . i
l a rg el y represen t ed in o u r l t era tu re i

.

( )
c B a l l a ds Ba l l a ds o r sh ort metr c a l roma nc es prec e ed th e
. i d
l o n g er roma n c e s j u st desc r b ed i

I t w a s Perc y s rev v a l o f a ll a ds ,
. i b
u nder th e n a me o f R el i g u es of A n ci en t P oetry ( 1 7 28 th a t c rea t ed
a t a st e for roma nt c po e tr i
N ex t w e h a v e S c o t t sy .

a ll a ds o f b
t h e Border Ill i n strel sy ; W o rdsw o rth s L y ri ca l Ba l l a ds ; S o u t h ey s

Ba l l a ds of th e R hi n e T h e sh ort .a l l a d me tre is v er
y s m l a r to b i i
t h a t a do pt ed b y S c o t t in h is l o ng er ro ma nc es n a med u nder ( b )

.

( d) I dy l l s a n d P a stora l s S pen ser s S h ep h erd s Ca l enda r, a ser es

. i
i i
o f pa st o ra l s d v ded nt o t w el v e
p i
a rt s o r mo n t h s, i s th e
g re a t est pa s

t ora l po em in o u r l a ng u a g e

P o pe s P a stora l s, 1 7 0 5 . G a y s S h ep .

1
Th e st o ry o f th ese I dy l l s is n o t a mere n a rra tive o f ro ma nt ic a dven

tu re . f
T enny son h imsel c onsiders it t o b e pa rt l y a n a l l eg ory
An ol d i mpe rf ec t t al e ,
N e w ol d, a nd sh a dow ing S ense a t w a r w ith S ou l
-

R a th er th a n th a t g ra y king , w h ose na me, a g h o st,

S trea ms l ike a c l ou d, et c .
C HA P . xxx M A I N D I VI S I O N S O F PO E TR Y 3 01

h erd s W eek C o l l i n s s E c l og u es S h en st o n e s P a stora l s W o rd sw ort h s

. . ,

M i ch a el , a n d T enny so n s E n och A rden ( b oth i dy l l s or t a l es o f ru st i c

I dy ll s a re some ti mes in dra ma ti c form,

as S h a k spea re s A s You
L i ke I t, Jo n so n s S a d S h ep h erd, Bea um o n t

a n d F l et c h er s F a i thf u l

S h ep h erdess, a n d M i l t o n s Comu s

.

4 28 . P ersua sio n W e h a ve no d epa rt men t of

p oe r t y c or

respo n di ng t o o ra t ory in prose S peech es h o w ev er do o c cu r .

, ,

in poet ry as th e D eb a t es in H ell d esc rib ed in P a ra di se L ost

, ,

Bo o k ii a n d th e speech es o f Bru tu s a nd A n t on y o v er th e b o dy
.
,

o f J u l i us C aesa r .

4 29 C en su r e I n poe try th i s is c a ll ed S a ti re
. . I t b a rel y .

ad mits o f po eti c t rea t men t : th ere is n o th i n g in th e th ou g h t

th a t ra i ses it a b o ve o rdi na ry prose T h e poeti c el emen t if .

,

th ere is on e l i es in th e metre a nd th e di c ti o n N o metri cal

,
.

sa ti res h a v e b een w ritt en w it hin th e n i n e t een t h c en t u ry .

D o n n e s S a ti res in imi t a t i o n o f H o ra c e a n d Ju v en a l ( 1 5 7 3

H a l l s Vi rgidemi a ru m ( c o n si st i ng o f w h a t h e c a ll s

t o o t hl ess

sa t ires a n d bi tin g sa tires 1 5 7 4 D ry d en s M a cF l ec kn oe

( a i med a t his ri v a l S h a dw ell ) a n d A b sa l om a nd A chitop h l a po l i t i c a l

, ,
e ,

sa t i re a i med a t t h e D u k e o f Bu c ki ng h a m a nd o t h ers

P o pe s .

D u n ci a d th e I l i a d o f t h e D u nc es a n il l n a t u red a nd ma l i c i o u s in v ec
, ,
-

t i v e a g a i nst c on t empo ra ry a u t h o rs n i n si nc ere

J o h n so n s L ondon .
,
a

sa t ire a g a i n st L o ndo n l ife in i mi t a ti o n o f Ju v en a l s sa t ire a g a i n st

,

R ome C h u rc h i ll s R osci a d a pol i t i c a l sa t i re ( 1 7 3 1

. By ro n s
,

E ng l i sh Ba rds a n d S cotch R evi ew ers a imed a t c o n t empora ry po et s ,

a nd a t t h e edi t o r o f t h e E di n b u rg h R evi ew w h o h a d a tt a c k ed him , .

G i ord s Ba vi a d a nd M aevi a d a n d metri c a l t ra nsl a t i o n s o f J u v ena l s

'
,

S a ti res ( 1 7 5 7
4 3 0 Hum u o r
.
H u morou s poetry is w ell represen t ed in o u r
.

l it era tu re I t h as o ft en b een assoc i a t ed w i th S a ti re I f th e

. .

ridi c u l e is mo re h u mo rou s t h a n c orrec tiv e o r spit efu l w e c l a ss ,

it w ith th e former .

S k el t o n s Booke of P h i lip Sp a rro w d esc ribi ng h o w a spa rro w
w a s b u ri ed w i t h t h e ri t u a l o f th e R o ma n C h u rc h t h e Booke of Col i n
C l ou t in ridi c u l e o f W o l sey

,
Bu tl er s H u di b ra s ( 1 6 1 2 a b ur .

l esqu e po em more h u morou s t h a n sa t iri c a l a i med a t t h e P u ri ta n s

, ,
.

P o pe s R ap e of th e L oc k a moc k h ero ic th e mo st poet i c a l t a l e o f th e

-
, ,

h u mo rou s c l a ss in o u r l i t er t u re G a y s T rivi a or th e A rt of W a lk

a .
,

i n g th e S treets of L on don a mo c k di da c t i c po em

Co w per s b a l l d o f
,
-
. a

H o od s Wh i ms

J oh n Gi lp i n . a nd Oddi ti es ( 1 7 9 9 Th e I ng o ldsb y
L eg ends

.

4 3 1 N a mes of differ ent k in ds of P o et ry

. W e w i ll c on
c l u de w ith g ivi n g so me a cco u n t o f t h e n a mes g iv en t o t h e

di ffe ren t ki nd s o f po e ti ca l c o mpo si t i o n .

E pic : fro m G ree k epik os, th a t w h i c h perta in s to w o rds -
3 02 PR O S E A N D P O E TR Y PA RT IV

( G r ep os,
. a w or d) . H ero i c l eg en d s t ol d me t ri ca l l an g u ag e
in
w ere or i g i nall y i rec it ed ,
no t w r t t en ; h en c e su c h poe ms w e re
ca l l ed w o rd s
A n epi c is a l w a ys a . l o n g poem I ts su bj ec t is
.

h i sto ri ca l o r w h a t w as b el i ev ed t o b e so
,

L y ri c : f ro m G r l u rik os a da pt ed to th e l yre A l y ri c is
.
-
, .

a l w a ys sh o rt : it ex resses on e i n c id en t i t t i n r m t i
p s u a o o e o on , , .

I ts su bj ec ts a re l o v e b a t tl e sc en es pa tri o ti sm b a n qu e t i ng , A -
, , .

more di g n i ed ki nd o f l yri c is ca l l ed a n O de (l it so ng) ; as .

D ryd en s O de o n A l exa n der s F ea st o r C o w per s on Qu een
,

Boa di c ea .

D ra ma t ic : from G r dra ma ti k
.
-
os, th a t w h i c h pert a i ns t o
i
a c t on o r a c t n
g i .

N ote 1 .
Th u s
in th e na me E pic t h e idea o f rec i t a t i o n is pro

mi n ent in Ly ri c t h e mu s i c a n d in D ra ma ti c t h e a c ti ng

N ote 2 T h e w o rd L y ri c
, is n o w l o o sel y u s ed fo r a l most a ny
ki nd o f s h ort po em O ri g i na l l y it mea nt a n o de ex pressi ng t h e
.

emo ti o n s o f t h e
po e t h i msel f T h i s is st i ll t h e pro per mea ni ng o f .

L y ri c Th e met re ma y b e e ith er reg u l a r o r i rreg u l a r

. .

I dy ll : fro m Gr . ei du lli on , li t . l it tl e pi c tu re, a sh ort

a

d esc ri pt iv e p m G
oe ra d u all y ,
. h o w ev er, it c a me t o b e l i mi ted
to sh o rt o ems d esc ribi n r us ti c l ife, w thi or w ith ou t rus ti c
p g
i n c id en t
T
.

N ote enny so n s u se o f idy ll in th e t tl e I dy l l s of th e Ki ng

.

i
is pec u l a r H e a ppea rs t o h a v e g o n e b a c k t o t h e et y mo l o g ic a l u se
i .

o f t h e G ree eidu l li on , w h c h t h e a n c en t G ree s did n o t l m t t o

k i i k i i
ru st c l eiif i i
T h e I dy l l s of th e Ki ng a re a n y t h ng b u t ru st c
. .

P a st ora l : fro m L a t p a stor a sh eph erd Pa st o ra ls l ik e

.
,
.
,

idyll s d esc rib e ru ral l ife ; b u t su ch poe ms u su al l y c o n ist o f

,
s

c o n v ersa t i o n s b e tw een sh e h erd s a b o u t t h e i r l o v e a ffa i rs th ei r

p
-
,

l o sses th e sta t e o f th e i r o c k s e tc
, ,
.

E l egy : fro m G r el eg ei on a n
el e os
g o r l a me n .t t o l d i n ,

me t re T h e n a me is g i v en t o mo u rn fu l o r a ny o th er ki n d o f
.

se ri o u s e t ry

p o as G ra
y s E l egy i n a , Co u n try C h u rc h a rd
y ,

S h el l e y s A don a is ( o n th e d ea th o f Ke a ts) T en n yso n s I n

.

M emoria m is a prol o ng ed el eg y in me mo ry o f A rth u r H a ll a m ,

.

Ba l l a d : fro m O l d F ren c h b a l a de ( L o w L a t i n b a ll a re to ,

d a n c e) ; l it a d a n c in g so ng I t n o w mea n s a sh o rt l eg en d a ry
. .

ta l e t o l d in a l i gh t a n d ra pid me tre a n d t fo r rec i ta t i o n ;

, ,

mpl e , Chevy Cha se M a c au l a y s L a y s of A n ci en t R ome a re

ex a .

d b T en n y so n s I n M emoria m is a n e n l a rg ed el eg y

e nl a r e a ll ads a s
g ,
.

R oma n c e : th e w o rd w as o ri g i n al l y a ppl i ed t o th e l eg end s

of o pu l a r h e ro es t ol d i n medi e v a l v e rse I t is n o w a ppl i ed t o
p ,
.

an t a l e o f striki n g a d v en t u re w ith o r w i th ou t a l eg en d a ry
y , _
 P A RT V .
HIS TORY O F T HE L A N G UA GE .

C H A P TE R XXII I O R I G I N A N D G RO W TH O F
EN GLI S H .

S E CT I O N l .
E N G LI S H AN D C O G N A T E L AN GUA G E S .

432 Cel t ic B f e o re th e E n g l i sh
i n v ad ed a nd o c c u pi ed
Bri t a i n th e l a ngu ag e spo k en by th e n a tiv e trib esth e Brit o n s
.

c on sisted o f va ri o us di al ec ts o f C el ti c rema in s o f w h i ch a re
,

st i l l t ra cea b l e in t h e C y mri c o r W el sh th e l a n u a e o f W a l es
g g , ,

a n d in th e G a el i c o f th e H i h l an d s of S co tl a n d T h e M anx
g .

di al ec t o f th e I sl e o f M an and th e E rse o f I rel an d b el ong to th e

sa me fa mi l y th e C el ti c

L a t in W h en Brita in w a s a n n ex ed t o th e R oma n empi re

.

A D 4 3 L a ti n w a s th e l a n g u a e o f th e ru l i n c l ass a n d d u ri n
. .
, g g g ,

t h e l ast t w o c en t u ri es o f th e R o man o c cu pa ti on it w a s th e
l a n g u a g e o f th e C h u rch a l so A fo rm o f L a ti n w a s b eg i n n i ng
.

t o b e spo k en by th e n a t ive C el ts ; a n d th i s h a d th e R o ma ns ,

rema i n ed w ou l d in ti me h a v e o v ersprea d th e i sl a nd
,
Bu t a ft er .

A D 4 0 9 w h en th e R o ma n s n a ll y l eft th e c o u n t ry a ll tra c es o f
. .
, ,

th e L a t i n l a ng u a g e a n d n ea rl y a l l t ra c es o f th e C el t i c al so w ere
, ,

sw e t a w a y by a ra c e o f h ea t h en w h o c o mi n fr o m th e mou th s
p g , ,

o f t h e R h i n e th e V Veser a n d th e E l b e sw a rmed i n t o Brita i n

, , , ,

b ri ng ing th ei r o w n l an gu ag e w i th th em T h ese i n v a d ers w ere .

th e E n g l i sh a ra c e o f L o w G erma ns i e G erman s i n h a biti n g

,
-
,
. .

th e l o w l yi n g l a n d s fa c i n g th e N o rth S ea b et w een Bel g i u m a nd

-

D en ma rk

.

E g l ish
n I n th e o rd er o f ti me th i s w a s th e th i rd l a n g u ag e
s o k en in Brit a i n I t h as n o t o n l y o v ersprea d th e Bri t i sh I sl es
p .
,

b u t is n ow th e d o mi n a n t l a n gu a g e in N o rth A meri c a A u stra li a , ,

N ew Z eal an d I n di a Bu rma a n d S ou th A fri c a a n d is b eg i nn i ng

, , , ,

t o b e spo k en by t h e n a ti v es in E g y pt a n d in sev era l pa rts o f

C h i n a a n d J a pan T h e n a me i a s o ri i n

E ng lisc ( g
E n l sh ) w g
a ll y co n n ed t o th e di a l ec t spo k en by th e A ngl es
.

th e t rib e t h a t ,
C HA P . x xx r O R I G I N A N D GR O W T H O F EN GL I S H 305

o c cu p e i d N o rth u mb ri a As th is w as th e rst o f th e n ew di al ec ts
.

th a t f o rmed a l itera t u re o f i ts o w n , th e n a me w as gra d u a ll y

e x ten d ed to all th e o th er L o w G erman di a l ec ts s o k en in Brit a i n
-
p ,

to di stin gu i sh th em from L aeden ( La ti n) w hi c h a ft er t h e c on ,

v ersi on o f th e L ow G erman trib es to C h ri sti a ni ty h a d aga in

-

b ec ome th e l an gu ag e of th e C h u rch .

433 . Th e A ry a n f ami l y of l a n g u a g es Th e th ree la n

g g
u a es n a me d
dy t og eth er w ith cert a in o th er l ang u ag es to
a l rea ,

b e n a med b el o w a l l b el o n g to a l a rg er g rou p c a ll ed th e A ry a n ;
,

a n d t h is is su bdivid ed in t o E as t Ary an a n d W est A ry a n - -

E a st A ry a n -

S a nskrit , a n d th e n eo S a n skri t l a n g u a g es o f I ndi a

-
.

P ers ia n th e o l d a n d modern l a ng u a g es o f Persi a .

A rmenia n , a n c i ent a n d mo d ern .

W est A ry a n -

G reek , a nc i e nt a n d mo d ern .

R oma ni c L a t i n a nd t h e n eo L a ti n l a ng u a g es o f E u rope (Frenc h ,

-

S pa n i sh , P ortu g u ese, I t a l i a n , a n d R o u ma n i a n ) .

S l a v oni c th e l a ng u a g es ( a n c i en t a nd mo dern ) o f R u ssi a , P o l a nd ,

Bo h emi a , Bu l g a ri a , a nd S erv i a .

L ett ic : th e l a n g u a g es s pok en i n L i t h u a ni a a nd in t h e Ba l ti c
pro v i nc es o f R u ssi a a n d G erma ny .

T eu t oni c L o w G erma n ( i n c l u di ng E n g l i sh ) H i g h G erma n

- -

4 3 4 Th e Teu t. on ic fa mil y T eu t oni c ( from L a t Teu toni c u s

. .
,

a c o rru pti o n o f G erma n D eu tsc h w h i ch w e h a v e An g li c i sed t o ,

D utch) is th u s a di vi si on o f th e W est A rya n g ro u p a nd th i s -

,

ag a i n is su bdivid e d i n t o L o w G erma n a n d H i g h G erma n - -

.

H ig h G erma n th e o ffi c i a l a n d l it era ry l a n g u ag e o f th e

-
,

G erma n empi re (ca ll ed H i gh b eca use it rst spra ng u p in th e ,

h i g h er pa rts o f G erman y i e th ose fa rth est remo ved fro m th e

,
. .

se a ) is a n o ffsh o o t fro m L o w G erman th a t is th e l a n gu ag e o f

,
-
, ,

th e l o w l an d s fa c i n g th e N o rth S ea
-
H i gh G erma n w a s L o w .
-

G erma n on c e a n d did n o t b eg i n t o ex ist as a sepa ra t e b ra n ch

,

u n ti l a ft er th e b e i nn i n f th e e i h t h ce n t u ry A D I n G erma n y
g g o g . .

itsel f b u t n o t el sew h ere it is n ow th e mo re i mpo rtan t b ran ch

, ,

of th e tw o .

L ow G erma n i n c l u d es
-
th e G o th i c o r S ou th ea st ern g rou p, -

o f w h i c h fra men ts a re sti ll r eserv ed in th e t ra n sl a t ion o f pa rts

g p
o f th e Bib l e by U l h il as, A D 3 5 0 ; ( 2 th e S can di n a vi a n o r N o rth
p )

. .

e a st ern rou , o r mo re b ri ey th e S ca n di a n , t h e l an gu a es o f
g
g p
S w ed en , N o rw a y, an d D enma rk ( 3 ) th e W estern gro u p, S ax o n ,
F ri esi c , F l emi sh , D u t c h . It w as o u t o f a mi xt u re of th e t w o

g ro u ps l ast na me d th a t t h e E ng li sh L ang ua g e w as f ormed .

E G c
. . . X
3 06 H I S TO R Y O F TH E L A N G UA GE P A RT V

S E CT I O N 2 -
O LD E N G LI S H

. .

4 3 5 P eri o ds in t h e g ro w t h o f E n g lish
. T h e g row th o f
E n g l i sh h as b een su bdi v id ed i n to th ree ma i n peri od s, t o e a c h o f
w h i c h a ppro x i ma t e d a t es h a v e b een a ssi n ed ,
g a pp r o x i m a t e ,

b ec a u se c h a ng es in l a n g u a g e c a nn o t be o t h er t h a n g ra du al a nd

c on ti n u ou s

I . O l d E n g l i sh ; fro m A D 4 5 0 to ab ou t 1 2 0 0 . . .

II . M idd l e E n g l i sh ; fro m A D 1 20 0 t o a b ou t 1 5 0 0 . . .

III . M o d ern E ng l i sh ; fro m A D . . 1 5 0 0 t o t h e presen t ti me .

O ld E ng l i sh h as b een p e ri o d o f f gc a l l ed th e
u l l en di n s, M id .

E n g o f l evel led endi ngs, a n d M o d E n g o f lost en di ngs

. . .

Old l e orn i a n mon a su n n e

-
su n u - - -

M id . l ern en -
mo n e -
su n -n e s u n -e

M od . l ea rn mo o n su n so n

By level l ed en di ng s is mean t th a t th e v o w el s a , o, u a re a l l
l ev el l ed o r ass i mi l a t ed t o e By l ost en di ng s is mea n t t h a t n o n e ,
.

o r o n l y a v e ry few , o f t h em h a v e rema i ned , a nd t h ese few h a v e

u su a l l y b eco me n on sy ll a bi c T h u s stan a s (t w o syll a b l es) h as

- -

b ec o me ston es, on e syl l a b l e ; a n d luf o de o r luf

.

o den (th re e - - -

sy ll a b l es) h a s b ec o me l oved (o n e sy ll a b l e) .

436 . Dia l ec t s of O l d E ng l ish O l d E ngl i sh c on s st e i d of

th ree ma i n dia l ec ts 1

( )
1 T h e N o r t h u m b ri a n co v e ri n g t h e w h o l e,
t ra c t n o rt h o f
th e ri v er H u mb er u p t o th e H i g hl a nd s o f S c o tl a n d I t is .

represen t ed a t th e presen t da y by t h e di a l e c t s o f N o rth u mb e r

l a n d a n d L o w l a n d S c o t ch a n d l ess perfec tl y by th ose o f Y o rk

,

sh i re a n d L i n co l n sh i re T h i s w a s i mpo rt ed by a S c a n di n a v i a n
.

trib e c a ll ed A n g les w h o c a me fro m w h a t is n o w k n o w n a s th e

,

D u c h y o f S c h l esw i g A l t h o u gh i t g a v e its n a me E ng lisc

.

(E n g l i sh ) t o a l l th e o th er L ow G erman di a l e c ts spo k en in Bri ta i n -

i t is l ea st l ik e t h e st a n d a rd E ng l i sh o f th e presen t da y .

I ts S c an di a n c h a ra c t er h a s st u c k t o i t th rou g h a l l v i c i ssi tu d es
a n d th e ma rk ed pecu l i a ri t i es t h a t sti l l c l i n g t o t h e S co t c h a n d

N o rth u mb erl a n d di a l ec ts a re du e t o t h ei r S c a n di n a v i a n o ri g i n .

N ote O n e o f t h e ma rk ed pec u l i a ri t i es o f t h i s di l ec t is t h e a

ret en t i o n o f i t s o ri g i n a l g u t t u r l s T h u s N ort h erners t o t h i s d y

a . a

sa
y k i rk b ri g r i
, g w h i l e M i dl a n ders a nd S o u t h ern ers sa y c h u rch
, , ,

b ri dg e, ridg e .

( )
2 T h e M erc ia nk en b etw een th e H u mb er an d
di a l ec t ,
spo

th e T h a mes t h e g rea t a n c est o r o f M o d ern E n g l i sh

,
Th is .
,

a cc o rdi n t o t h e l ast resea rc h es w a s i mpo rt ed by F ri si a n t rib es

g , ,
30 8 H I S TO RY O F THE LAN G UA GE PA RT v

Th e reason w hy we l oo k
th er th an to to A ngl o S a x on-
ra

M erc i a n a n d N orth u mb ri an fo r th e o ri g i n o f most o f o u r

T eu t o ni c w o rd s is th a t a l a rg e pa rt o f th e A n gl o S a x on l it era
,
-

ture h as b een preserved w hi l e most of th e o th er tw o li tera tu res

,

h a s b een l ost W e do so th erefore from n ecessity n ot from

.
, , ,

c h o i ce
. I f w e h ad our ch o i c e w e sh ou l d g o to th e M e rc i an o r ,

M id l a n d di al ec t from w h i ch mod ern E ngl i sh h as c h i ey spru n g

,
.

438 . Ol d M deo rn
a nd n
E g i l s h c o m p ed
a r ol d E ngl i sh
is di sti n gu i sh ed fro m M o d ern by t w o c h i e f ch a ra c t eri sti c s .

( )
a I t w a s in t h e ma i n a S y n th eti ca l l a n u
g g a e i e i t h ad a ,
. .

l a rg e n u mb er o f in ex io ns w h i c h mo d ern E ngl i sh h as dis ,

c a rd ed

S yn th esi s mea n s
tti t t
ddi
.
p u n g o
g e h er a n
g o n ,
.

A l a n g u a g e is sa id to b e in th e S yn th et i c al st a g e w h en it ,

e x presses th e gra mma ti c a l rel a ti on s o f w o rd s by a ddi n g so me

in ex io n t o th e st ems o f n ou n s adj ec tiv es pro n o u n s an d v erb s , , , .

A l a n g u a g e th a t di sc a rd s su c h endi n gs a s mu ch a s po ssib l e a n d ,

in th e i r pl a ce ma k es a f reer u se o f prepositi o n s and o th er a u x i l i ary

w o rd s is sa id t o b e in th e A n a l yti ca l sta g e
,
T h i s is t h e c h a ra c t er .

o f M o d ern E n g l i sh .

(b ) I t w a s in th e ma i n a p u re l an g u ag e th a t is it con t a i n ed ,

very few w o rd s n o t of T eu to n i c o ri g i n w h erea s mod ern E nglish

is v ery mi x ed mo re th a n h a l f o f its v o ca b u l a ry b ei n g n o n
,

T eu t o n i c L a y a mo n s Bru t th o u gh it w as n o t c o mpl e t ed ti ll a

.
,

c en t u ry a n d a h a l f a fter th e N o rma n C o n u est a n d c on ta i n s

q ,

so me li n es h a s sc a rc el y 1 5 0 F ren c h w o rd s in it
,
Th e .

n u mb e r o f L a ti n w o rd s a mou n t ed t o l ess th a n 20 0 ; an d th e

n u mb e r o f C el t i c b o rro w i n g s did n o t c o me t o 1 5 .

( 1 ) G od b l e t s o de N o e a nd h is su n a ,
- - -
a nd c w aeth h em t
( G od b l essed N oa h a n d hi s son s, a nd g u oth th em to :
W ea x a th a nd b oth g emenig l de
- - -
a nd a ty l l a th th a
- - -

W a x ( y e ) a nd b e ( y e) ma n if olded a nd l l ( y e ) th e
e orth a n -
.

ea rth .
)
( 2) G o d b l e ss ed N o a h a nd his so n s , a nd sa d u n
- -
i to th em, Be
ru t u l a n d mu l t pl y , a nd repl e n sh t h e ea rth
f if i i .

O b serv e t h a t in ( 1 ) e v ery w ord ( b a rri ng th e H eb rew n a me N oe) is

T eu t o n ic w h erea s in ( 2) th ere a re t w o R o ma n i c w ords , mu l tip l y a nd
rep l en i sh , a nd o n e H y b ri d o r mi x ed w o rd, f ru i tf u l O b s erv e a l s o .

t h a t in ( 1 ) t h e v e rb s, a dj ec t i v es, a n d n ou n s h a v e in ex io n s, w h i c h
mo de rn E ng l i sh h a s di sc a rded .

4 3 9 C ont inuit y o f
. e n a me n
E ngli sh , t a k en
E g l ish Th

in i ts w id est sens e, d en o t es th e l a n g u a g e u sed by th e E ngl i sh

eo pl e fro m t h ei r rst set tl emen t in Brita i n u p t o th e presen t
p
C HA P XXX I
. O R I G I N A N D GRO W TH O F EN G L I S H 30 9

time ,
in w h a tev er pa rts o f th e w o rl d th ey ma y h a v e se ttl ed
s i n ce I t h as b een g ro w i ng for th e l ast 1 4 0 0 y ears, a nd is n ow
.

so u nl ik e i ts ea rl i est fo rms th a t mo st perso n s w o u l d pro b a b l y

n d it
h ard er t o l earn A ngl o S a x o n th a n to l ea rn F ren c h -
.

Yet w e mu st ca ll A ngl o S a x on a form o f E ngl ish , u n l ess w e a re

.
-

r
p pe a r ed t o d en y t h e n a m e o f E n g l i sh ma n t o Al fred t h e

G rea t ; fo r th a t w a s th e l a ng u a g e th a t h e w ro t e a n d spo k e .

M o reo v er, th ere a re man y w ord s th a t h a v e nev er a l t ered th e i r

fo rm w i th i n th e h i st ori ca l peri o d , su c h a s corn , la mb , n est, ra m,
w i n d, ha n d, sp el l, his, him, w ord, i n , b i l l (a x e), tw ist, b ed, gold,

ca n , b li n d, storm, i s, w i n ter, w h i ch w ere so spel t in th e sev en t h

cen t ury .

440 . P eri o ds of A n g l o S a xon -

.
The M erc i a n and th e
N o rt h u mb ri a n l it era tu res a re t o o fra g men t ary to a d mit o f a n y
th i ng l ik e a su bdivi si o n i n t o peri od s O n th e o th er h a n d, t h e .

A ngl o S a x on l itera tu re h a s, th ro u gh th e i n u en ce o f A l fred th e

-

G rea t, b een so w ell preserv ed , t h a t tw o g rea t peri od s, foll ow ed

by a tra nsi t i o n al o n e, can be t ra c ed
A D . . A D . .

E a rl y A S ( th e l a ng u a g e o f A l fred )
. . 7 00 9 00
L a t e A S ( t h e l a ng u a g e o f E l fric )
. . 9 00 1 1 00-

Tra nsitiona l P eri od ( t h e l a ng u a g e o f L a ya mo n ) 1 1 0 0 1 20 0

-

A l fred t h e G rea t , b orn in 8 4 9 , su peri nt ended th e t ra n sl a t i o n fro m

L a ti n i nt o S a x o n o f t h e H i story of th e W orld b y O ro si u s, th e Ch u rch
H i story b y Bede, th e Con sol a ti ons of P h i l osop h y b y Bo eth i u s, a nd
th e P a stora l s o f S t G reg ory .H e a l so su peri n t en ded th e c ompil a t i o n
.

o f t h e e a rl
y p o rt i o n s o f t h e O l d E n g l i sh Ch ron i c l e .

E l fric w ro te a c o ll ec t i o n o f H omi l i es a nd o th er w ork s a nd

L a ya mo n w a s a u th or o f th e po em c a l l ed Bru t, o n th e ki ng s o f
Brit a i n ( a ll u d ed t o in 4 3 8 , b ) .

S E C TI O N 3 M I DD L E E NGL I S H

. .

441 . Ch a r a c t er of M iddl e E ng lish I n its

. M idd l e
per oi d 1 20 0 1 5 0 0 A D th e
,
-
. .
,
E ngl ish l a ng u a g e w en t
th rou gh
th ree ki n d s o f ch a nge .

(a ) Th e M erc i an o r as w e sh ou l d n ow ca ll it th e M id l a nd
, , , ,

di al ec t b eca me even tu al l y d omin a n t t a kin g th e pl a c e of th e ,

W essex o r S ou th ern w h i c h u p to th e N o rma n C on qu est an d fo r

, ,

a b ou t t w o c en tu ri es l a t e r h ad b een in th e rst ra n k,
.

b
( ) M a n y o f t h e v o w el s o u n d s w e re c h a n g e d ;- m a n y o f t h e

o l d in ex io ns w ere l o st ; a n d a ll th a t w ere n o t l ost w ere

l ev ell ed fo rm w ords v iz preposi t i o ns a nd au x i l i a ry
-
,
.

v erb s w ere more freel y u sed ma n y S t ron g v erbs b eca me W ea k

,
.

()
c A v er y g re a t a dditi o n w as ma d e t o t h e v o c a b u l a ry A ,
.
31 0 H I S T O RY O F TH E LA N G U A G E PA R T V

l a rg e n u m er o f b d h i c h fo r a bo u t 20 0 y ea rs h a d
F ren ch w o r s, w

b een u sed o nl y by th e cl e rg y a n d th e u pper c l a sses a nd in th e

l a w c o u rt s l tra t ed a t l a st i n t o t h e n a t i v e speec h a n d b eca me
-
, ,

e rma n en tl y x ed a s
p p t o f o u r E n gl i sh v o ca b u l a ry
a r Th e .

a b so r t i o n o f a l l th i s F ren c h fa c i l i ta t ed th i n t r d t i on o f
p e o u c

fresh rel a ys o f La ti n w h i c h th ro u gh o u t th e M idd l e A g es c o n

,

t i n ned t o b e t h e l a n g u a g e o f th e l ea rn ed a n d o f th e c h u rch .

442 . T est s of t h e t h r ee D i a l ec t s T w o ma rk s o f dis

i
t nct i on b et w een t h e t h ree di a l ec ts ma y
be h e re men t i o n ed .

( )
1 T h e en di n g o f t h e Presen t I n di ca t i v e pl u ra l : th e N o rth ern

di a l e c t h a d es a s si ng os (w e y ou o r th ey sin g) ; th e M id
-
,
-

, ,

l a n d h a d en o r e a s si n g en o r si ng e (w e y o u o r th ey
- - - -
, , ,

si n ) ; t h e S o u th ern h a d h i h h y
g et a s s n g
- et (,
w e y o u o r t e -
, ,

si n ) ( )
2 T h n di n f t h P r P r t t h N r t h r n had
g . e e
g o e es a : e o .e

si n i i id d

-
a nd as
, g a nd ( s n
-
g g)n ; t h e M l a n h a d en de a s -
,

si n i i t i
g en de
-
( g g)
S n n ; t h e S o u h er n h a d i n d e as S n
g i n d e -
,
-

(si ng i ng) .

Bo th po i n ts a re i mpo rtan t I n ( 1 ) th e n a l en o r e o f t h e
.
- -

M id l an d di al ec t fell o ff a t th e c l o se o f t h e M idd l e peri o d l eavi ng ,

o n l y th e st em o f th e v erb su ch a s

fo r th e pl u ra l fo rm o f

si ng
, ,

th e P res I ndie th e v ery fo rm th a t w e h a v e n o w

.
,
I n ( 2) th e .

n a l i n de o f th e S o u th ern di a l ec t su persed ed th e en de o f th e
- -

M id l a n d a n d b ec a me i tsel f c o n v erted t o i ng th e v ery fo rm

,
-
,

th a t w e n o w possess of th e Pres Pa rt i c i pl e . .

4 43 S u pr ema c y o f t h e M idl a nd dia l ec t

. T h e riva l ry .

b etw een th e th ree di a l ec ts, w h i ch l a st ed t i ll a b o u t 1 4 0 0 A D , . .

e n d e d w i t h th e t ri u m h o f th e M id l a n d , o r ra th er w i th t h a t o f
p
t h e E a st M id l a n d , t h e a rea o f w h i ch i n c l u d ed th e i mpo rta n t
-

c i t i es o f L o n d on , O x fo rd , a n d C a mb rid e, L o n d o n , th e sea t o f
g
c o mmerc e a n d o f o v e rn men t ; O x fo rd a n d C a mb rid g e , th e tw o
g
rea t n a t i o n a l sea ts o f l ea rn i n I n t o w n s li k e O x fo rd , C a m
g g .

b ridg e, a n d Lo n d o n a ll di a l ec ts me t ; a n d h en c e th e M id l a nd
di a l ec t h a s b o rrow ed from b o th th e o th ers T h u s th e ph rase .

t h ey a re is o f N o rth ern o ri g i n ; th e ph rase h e h a th is o f
S o u th ern T h e M id l a n d a d o pt ed b o th
. .

w h o a re men o f

T h e M e rc i a ns , sa ys T re visa , A D 1 3 8 7 ,

. .

th e midd l e o f E n g l a n d , b ei n g as it w e re pa rt n ers w i th th e
e x t re mi t i es, b e t t e r u n d ers ta n d t h e sid e l a n g u a g es, N o rth ern a n d -

S o u th ern , t h a n N o rth ern a n d S ou th ern u n d ersta n d ea ch o th er

.

O th er rea so ns fo r th e a sc enda n c y o f th e M id l a n d di al ec t w ere

th e foll ow i ng z ( )
l I t was th e di a l e c t in w h i c h th e O ld E n g li sh
31 2 H I STO RY O F TH E LA N GUA GE P A RT V

i n cu rsi on s of th e by n o means l i mit ed to th e c oun try

D a n es w ere

n o rth o f th e H u mb er T h e i r c o n qu est o f E ast A n gl i a a n d th e

.

r ea t er a rt o f M erc i a mu st h a v e ma t eri a ll y a ffec t ed th e M id

g p
l a n d di a l ec t fro m w h i c h ou r mod ern E n g li sh h as ma i n l y spru n g
, .

T h e fo ll o w i ng a re ex a mpl es o f w o rd s in v e ry c ommo n use a ll ,

o f w h i c h w ere b o rro w ed by th e M id l a n d fro m th e N o rth ern

di a l ec t

S a me Th i s t o ok th e pl a c e o f th e S ou th ern th i lke
A re Th i s t o o k t h e pl a c e o f t h e S o u th ern sindon
.

T h ey , t e , t em
h ir h Th ese su perseded t h e S ou th ern h i , h eora ,
.

h em, t h e o l d pl u ra l s o f h e
i
.

T i11. ii i
Th s prepo s t o n i s o f S c a n d n a v a n o r g n, a n d w a s u n no w n i i i k
t o t h e A ng l o S a x o n o r W e s sex d a l ec t
-
i .

N ote Th e w ords th a t, ou rs, y ou rs , a n d sh e h a v e a l s o b een a s

c rib ed t o N o rth ern n u en c e Bu t t h s i s a m sta e
i . Th e rst th ree i i k .

o rm o f sh e ) i s i f i
a re A n g l o S a x o n , a n d seaa ( th e ea rl e st pu re M dl a n d

-

f
fo r it h a s b e en o u nd in t h e l a t er c h a pt ers o f th e O ld E ng li sh
i
Ch ron i c l e, th a t w ere w r tt en in P et er o rou g h , in th e E a st M dl a nd b -
i
i
d a l e c t ( see

4 4 6 Th e N orma n C on qu est
. T h e N o rma n C o n qu est,
w h i c h t o o k pl a c e a b ou t 1 8 0 y ea rs a ft er Al fred th e G rea t h a d
d e fea t ed th e D a n es a n d c o mpell ed th em to a c c ept h is t erms fo r
th e divi si o n o f th e isl a n d , h a d mu c h mo re e x t ens i v e c on se
u en c es T h e N o rma ns o r N o rth men w ere t h emsel v es o f D a n i sh
q .

o r N o rs e o ri g i n , a n d th e refo re, l ik e th e D a n es, c ous i ns o f th e

E nglis h Bu t it h a ppen ed t h a t b efo re th e i r c on qu est o f E n g l a n d

.

t h ey h ad l ived fo r ve o r six g en era ti ons on th e n o rth w est -

c oa st o f F ra n c e W h ere th e y fo rg o t th e i r mo th er t on g u e an d
, ,

b ec a me F ren ch in speech T h i s speech th ey b rou gh t w i th th em

.

t o E n gl a n d ; a n d fo r a t l ea st a c en tu ry a n d a h a l f a fter th e
C o n qu est it w as d ou btful w h i c h o f th e tw o l a n g u a g es F ren c h o r ,

E n gli sh w o u l d u l t i ma tel y t ri u mph

,
Th e y k ept sull enl y a pa rt .

a ll th ose y ea rs refus i n g t o i n t ermi n gl e

,
E n g li sh b e i n g st i l l th e ,
-

l a ng u a g e o f th e ma sses a n d F ren c h (o r ra th er th e N o rma n di al ec t

,

o f F ren c h ) th a t o f th e ru l i n g c l ass th e C ou rt th e a ri st o c ra c y -
, ,

th e l eg a l pro fess i on a n d t o so me ex t en t th e pri esth oo d

,
The .

l a rg e po em o f l i n es k n o w n a s L a y a mon s Bru t

,
4 3 8 b) , ,

c o n t a i n s sc a rc el y a n y w o rd s o f F ren c h o ri g i n ; a n d th i s w as n o t

c o m l et ed b efo re th e y e a r 1 20 5
p .

I t w as n o t t ill a fter 1 3 0 0 th a t F ren ch w o rds b eg an to b e

i n c o rpo ra ted in E ngli sh i n la rg e n u mb ers Bu t by th i s ti me .

E n g l i sh h a d mad e i tself th e d a il y spee ch o f th e u pper c l a sses a s ,

it a l w a ys h a d b een of th e l ow er w h i l e F ren ch w as g o i ng more ,

C HA P XXX I
. O R I G I N A N D GRO WTH O F EN GLI S H 31 3

a nd more ou t of d ail y use . Th e in c orpora ti on ,

w h en it did
co me ,
w as v ery co mpl e t e . S u ch w o rd s as gra c e , p ea c e, f mea ,

b eef , ea se (a ll o f F ren ch igin) a ppea r now

or to b e as mu ch a p a rt

of o u r or ig i nal l an g u ag e as kin dn ess rest sha me ox ca re of , , , , ,

a ll

w h i c h a re n a tiv e w ords th a t w ere in c o mmon use in th e ti me o f

Al fred Verb s w ere b o rrow ed as freel y as n ou ns a nd a dj ec tiv es
.
,

w h i ch pro v es th a t th e tw o l an gu ag es h ad c o mpl et el y c o a l esc ed .

4 4 7 Triu mph of E n g l ish ov er F r en c

. e tri umph o f h Th
th e E n glish l a ngu ag e o ver t h e F ren ch w as ma rk ed by th e
foll ow i ng even ts I n 1 2 0 4 th e l oss of N orman dy, by sepa ra ti ng
.

E n g l a n d from F ran ce, b ro k e th e c onn ec ti on b etw een th e F ren c h

an d th e A n gl o N orma n a ris to c ra c i es
-
I n 1 2 1 5 a combi n a ti on .

o f E n li sh a n d N o rma n b a rons fo rc ed Ki n J o h n t o si g n t h e
g g
M agn a C h a rta I n 1 2 5 8 E n glis h w as of c i a ll y u sed fo r th e rst
.

t i me si n ce t h e C on qu est , in th e c el eb ra t ed proc l a ma ti on used in

th e n a me o f H en ry I I I for su mmoning a pa rl i a men t o f b a ron s
.

fro m a ll pa rts o f E ngl a n d w hi c h sh o w s th a t F ren ch h a d c eased

t o b e th e onl y l ang u a g e S po k en an d rea d by th e A n gl o N o rman -

n o b l es I n 1 3 4 9 , th ree y ea rs a fter th e vi c t ory a t C rec y , it w as

.

rul ed th a t L a ti n sh oul d b e n o l on g er t a u g h t in E n gl an d th rou gh

th e medi u m o f F ren c h I n 1 3 6 2 it w as rul ed th a t a ll pl eadi n gs

.

in th e l a w cou rts sh o ul d b e c on d u c t ed in E n gl i sh , fo r th e reaso n

-

(as sta ted in th e prea mb l e to th e A c t), th a t F ren ch h as b e c ome

mu c h unkn ow n in th e rea l m W e ma y sa fel y sa y th a t by th e

.

y ea r 1 4 0 0 F ren ch w a s no t mu ch spo k en in E n gl an d A vast .

E nglish li t era t ure h a d sprun g u p in th e in t erim, w h i c h w as as

popu l a r in th e h a ll s o f n o b l es as in th e h umb l er d w elli ngs o f
kni gh ts a nd b u rg esses .

44 8 . F r en c h I nu en c e G ar mm a r on E ng lish
T h e o nl y .

in u en ce of F ren ch o n E nglis h gra mmar w as to a c c el era te th e

c h a n g e fro m S yn th e ti c a l t o A n a l yti ca l : it did f o r th e M id l a n d

a n d S ou th ern di a l ec ts w h a t th e D a n ish l a n u a g e h a d a l rea dy

g
d on e fo r th e N o rth ern W e sa y a cc el era te d esi g n ed l y fo r
th e c h a n ge w o u l d h a v e c o me in a n y c ase t h ou g h possib l y n e ith er ,

so ra pid l y n or so c o m l e t el y as it did w ith o u t th e h el p o f

p ,

F ren c h S ymptoms of th e ch ang e h ad sh ow n th emsel v es c l ea rl y

.

en ou gh b e fo re F ren c h i nu en ce h ad b e u n t o w o rk a n d ev en t o
g ,

some ex t en t b e fo re th e C on u est m s Bru t w h i c h

q I n L a y a o n .
,

sh ow s n o si ns of F ren c h in u en c e a n d c on t a in s very f ew w o rd s
g

o f F ren c h o ri g i n th e l ev ell ed in exi ons o f th e M idd l e peri od
,

b eg in to b e seen sid e by sid e w ith th e full in ex ions of O ld

31 4 H I S TO R Y O F T H E L A N G UA GE P A RT v

E n gl i sh T h e g ro w i n g t en d en c y o f E ng l i sh w a s t o streng t h en
th e a c c en t on th e rst sy ll a b l e , so th a t th e l a st sy ll a b l e, c on t a i n

in g t h e in e x io n , w as sl u rre d o v er o r l igh tl y sou n d ed . T h u s,

fo rms l ik e na m a (n a me),
-
su n - u ( so n ),
b e c a me na me -
,
su n - e . In
th e sa me w a y a l l u n a c c en t e yll a b l e ex c epti n g d v o w els in t h e n a l s

i w e re l e v ell ed 4 3 5 ) o r assi mi l a t ed to e so t h a t a n a s a th ,
-
,
-
,
-
,

-
on ,
0 d b e c a me
-
eu es eth eu a n d ed -
A dj ec t i v es o f F ren ch
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
.

o ri i n sel d o m t o o k E n l i sh in ex i ons w h i ch h el ped E n gl ish

g g ,

a dj ec t iv e s t o dis ca rd th e i rs .

4 4 9 E n g l ish G r a mma r ex cl u siv el y Teut on ic T h e g ra m

.

ma tic a l stru c tu re o f ou r l a n g u ag e w a s a s stri c tl y T eu ton i c by th e

c l ose o f th e M idd l e eri o d as i t h a d b e en b efo re th e C o n u est
p q ,

n o t w i th sta n d in t h e sh oc k t h a t it h a d re ce i v ed in th e i n t e ri m
g .

T h e T eu t on i c el emen ts a re n o t ed b el o w
( a ) G ra mma ti c a l f orms
( 1 ) N o u n inex io n s t h e po ssessi v e s pl u ra l in

en , pl u ra l in
-
- -
,
-
s .

( 2) A l l pro n o u n in ex io n s -
.

( 3 ) A ll v erb in e x ions t h e perso na l e ndi ng s

- -
st, -
th , a nd -
s

t ense end n i gs
-
d a nd -
t; pa rt c i ipia l e nd ng s i -
en an d ing ; g eru n di a l
-

e nd ngi -
i ng .

( 4 ) A dj ec t i v e su i x es er a nd est ma rki ng deg rees o f c ompa ri son - -

and t h e a u x i l i a ry w o rds more a nd most u s ed fo r t h e s a me pu rpo s e .

( 5 ) A ll t h e su fx es u sed for formi ng a dv erb s a nd ma ny f th o se ,

o

u s e d f o r fo rmi n
g v erb s .

( b ) G ra mma tic a l w ords

1 ) A l l n ou n s formi ng th e Pl u ra l b y v o w el c h a ng e -
.

( 2) A l mos t a ll n o u n s h a v ing th e sa me fo rm fo r th e Pl u ra l as fo r
i
th e S n g u l a r

.

( )
3 A l l t h e p ro n ou n s ,
P ers o n a l ,
D em o n st r a t v e , R e l a t v e , an d i i
In t erro g a t v e i

.

( )
4 A ll t h e D em o n st ra t v e a d je c t i v es , th i
e, th i s, th a t, oth er, s u ch , et c .

( 5 ) A ll t h e N u mera l s ex c e pt second, doz en, mi l l i on , b i l l i on , tri l l i on .

( 6 ) A l l th e D str b u t v e a dj ec t v es i i i i .

( 7 ) A ll a dj ec t v e s o f rreg u l a r c o mpa r so n
i i i .

( 8 ) A ll S tro ng v erb s ( e x c e pt stri ve a nd po ss b l y o n e o r t w o more ) i .

k
( 9 ) A ll W ea v erb s, ex c ept n g ca tch , th a t h a v e d f eren t v o w el s in i if
t h e P re s a nd Pa st t enses
. .

1 0 ) A l l A u x l a ry v erb s ii .

f
( 1 1 ) A l l D e ec t v e a nd A n o ma l o u s v erb si .

i
( 1 2) T h e ol d Ca u sa t v e v erb s , v iz th o se o rmed b y v o w el c h a ng e . f -
.

( 1 3 ) A l mo st a l l t h e prepo s t o n s ii .

( 1 4 ) A l mo st a ll t h e c o nj u nc t o n s i .

( 1 5 ) M o st o f t h e a dv erb s o f T me a nd Pl a c e i .

( 1 6 ) A ll pro n o m na l a dv erb s i .

I t is ea s y to ma k e
di n a ry su bj ec ts w i th ou t sen t en c es on or

us i n g a si n g l e w o rd o f F ren c h o r L a ti n o ri g i n Bu t i t is v e ry .

di fc ul t t o ma k e th e sh ortest E n gl ish sen ten c e ou t o f F ren c h o r

31 6 H I S T O R Y O F T H E LA N G UA G E PA RT v

A n o th er f t o f F ren c h on th e E ngl ish v o cab u l a ry w a s t o

ef e c

g iv e i t a d u a l ist i c o r b i ling u a l c h a rac t er T h us n ou n s o r ad ec

j .

t iv es o ft en g o in pa i rs ; a s f oe en emy ; hosti le i ni mi c a l ; home , , ,

domi ci le ; homely , domesti c ; u n li kely , i mp rob a b l e; b o ld, c ou ra geou s,

e tc . S o meti mes a R o ma n i c a dj ec ti v e is g i v en t o a T e u t o n i c
n ou n ; as b ovin e, or ; ova l, egg ; hu ma n , ma n ,
e tc . Verb s, t oo ,
o ften g o in pairs ; as ca st ou t, j
e ec t ; b e, exi st ; b u y b a ck,
redee m ,
e tc .

45 1 . O t h er
R esul t s o f F r en c h I nuenc e T o F ren c h
i nu en c e c o mbi n e d w ith L a t i n w e ow e c erta i n o th er eff ec ts
b esid es t h ose a l ready n amed
( )
a W ord b u ildin g W -
.

e o w e t o th i s i n u en ce a v ery l a r e
g
n u mb er o f pre x es a n d su ffi x es, ma n y o f w h i c h a re sti l l in li vi n g

u se f o r fo rmi n g n ew w o rd s O u r R oma ni c su fx es a re ev en
.

mo re n u merous t h a n ou r T eu to n i c on es T h e F ren c h fem . .

su i x ess su ersed ed th e T eu t on i c
-
p ster W e h av e a l so man y -
.

h yb rid w o rd s, in w h i ch T eu t o n i c a n d R o ma n i c el emen ts a re
c o m ou n d ed ; a s c o l t a g e ( from A n g l i a n c o t, F r
p
-
.

su fx) O u r l an g u ag e t h u s ga i n ed in w eal th as mu ch a s it l ost

.

in pu rity

.

b
( ) pS el lin g T h e c h i e f, p e rh a p s t h e o n l y ,
h a rm t h a t F ren ch
did to ou r l a ng uag e w as to d istu rb th e ph on e ti c spell i n g th a t it
o ssessed in i ts ea rl i est fo rm I t is t o F ren c h t h a t w e o w e th e
p .

u nn e c essa ry c o mpo u n d gu ( th e fu n c t i o n o f w h i c h w a s se rv ed

e u all y w ell by ou r o w n c w in th e sibi l a n t sou n d o f c

q
b efo re th e v ow els e and i , th e sou n d o f g as j b efo re th e same
vo w els, an d th e u se of th e l et ter i as a c on son an t to d en o t e th e
sou n d n o w e x ressed by us a l most a l l w o rd s c on t a i n i n
p j Th .
g a

en c h o r o t h er fo re i n o ri i n
j a re o f F r g g .

N ote A mo ng t h e e ffec t s c ommo nl y a sc ri b ed to F renc h i n u enc e ,

it is sa i d t h a t ou r l a n g u a g e h a s l o st th e po w er o f formi ng n ew c o m
p o u n ds T
. h i s o ft re pea t e d s t a t
-
em e n t i s a p u re fa l la c
y T enn so n
y .

c o i n s w h en e v er h e l ik e s : cf p rox y w edded, c ri mson c i rc l ed, s l ow

- -
.

a rc hi ng , h ea vy sh otted, h a mmock shrou d, h u ndred th roa ted, e t c

- -
We - .

fo rm few er c ompou nds th a n w e o nc e did, b ec a u se w e h a v e l ess o c c a

s i o n t o do s o , n o t b ec a u s e w e c a nn o t O u r v o c a b u l a ry h a s b ee n s o
.

e nri c h ed b
y b o rro w i ng s , t h a t w o rds u su a ll y ex i st t o e x press t h e
i dea s w e w a nt O th er c o i na g es b y Tenny so n a re t h e foll o w i ng
.

b rea ker b ea ten , esh f a l l en , g l oomy g l a ded, l a dy l a den , mock meek,

- - - - -

ra i n rotten ,
-
tong u e torn , w ork w a n ,
-
s l ow l y mel l ow i ng ,
- h ol l ow er -

C od l i v er o il w a s c o i n ed t h e momen t th e n a me

b e l l ow i n g , e t c .

w a s w a n t ed Cf H a nd i n h a nd fire a nd l ife I nsu ra nc e S oc i ety
. .
-

th i s I s o n e l a rg e c o mpou nd, th o u g h th e h y ph e n s b etw een th e w o rd s

a re omi t t ed t o s a v e t h e t ro u b l e o f w ri ti ng t h em .
 C H A P XXXI
. OR I G I N A N D GRO W TH O F E N G L I S H 31 7

S E CT I O N 4 .
M
DE RN E NGLI S H O .

45 2 Co mmen c ement of t h e M o dern P eri o d

. T h e peri od -

o f M o d ern E ng l ish b e i n s so mew h ere a b ou t A D 1 5 0 0 r l itt le

g o a . .
,

l a t er
. T h e c o mmen c emen t o f th i s peri od w a s prec ed ed o r a ec o m
a n i ed by sev era l r ea t ev en ts w h i ch in o th er c o un t ri es b esid es
p g , ,

E n gl a n d ma rk th e c o mmen cemen t o f M o d ern a s di sti n c t from

,

M edi eva l h i st o ry T h e a rt o f pri n ti n g w a s i n t ro d u c ed i n t o

.

E n gl a n d in 1 4 7 7 by C a x t on w h o l ea rn t it from th e D u t c h, .

C o l u mb us disco vered th e W est I n di es in 1 4 9 2 w h i c h l ed to th e ,

di sc o very o f th e A meri c an c on tin en t so on a ft er Va sc o de G a ma .

ro u n d ed th e C a pe o f G o o d H o pe in 1 4 9 7 w h i c h b ro u gh t ,

S ou th ern As i a in t ou ch fo r th e rst ti me w ith th e w est ern

na ti o n s o f E u rope T h e R en a i ssa n ce or R evi va l o f L ea rn i ng
.

o pen ed u p n ew el d s o f resea rch ; a n d in 1 4 9 7 E ra smu s th e ,

D u t c h ma n o n e o f th e fo remost c h a mpi on s o f th e n ew l ea rn i ng
, ,

visited E ngl an d a nd t oo k u p his resid en c e h ere fo r a ti me

, .

G ree k b ega n t o b e stu di ed fo r th e rst ti me in th e E ngl i sh

Un iversiti es L u th er h a d j u st b eg u n t o l ec tu re in G erma n y
.
,

w h en H en ry V I I th e rst o f o u r T u d o r ki ngs di ed o n 2 1 st
.
, ,

A pri l A D 1 5 0 9
. . .

4 5 3 Ch a a c t e ist ic s of M de
. r r o rn n
E g sh li T h e M o d ern
fo rm o f E n gl i sh is di sti ngu ish ed from th o se t h a t prec ed ed it by
tw o ma i n c h a ra c t eri sti cs

(a ) O u r l a ng u ag e h as n ow b ecome al most en ti rel y a na ly ti ca l

a s a n a l yti c a l in fa c t a s it is ev er l ik el y to b e a n d mo re so t h a n
, , ,

a n y o th er T eu t o n i c l a n u a e F i n a l e w h i c h in th e M idd l e
g g .
,

peri o d w a s syll a bi c h as eith er di sa ppea red o r is re t a in ed to g iv e

,

l en gt h t o th e prec edi n g v ow el T h e pl u ra l a n d possessi v e sufx es

.

o f n ou n s h a v e c ea sed t o b e syll a bi c ex c e t w h en th e prec edi n

p , g
c o n so n an t h a e n s t o b e o f su c h a ki n d a s t o c o mpel th e so u n di ng
pp
o f th e n al es Ben J o nso n th e d ra ma ti st w h o w ro t e a t rea ti se
-
.
, ,

o n E n l ish
g g ra mm a r l a m e n t ed t h e l
,
o ss o f th e pl u ra l su f x en -

in v erb s (see 4 4 2 w h ere it is sh o w n th a t eu w as th e Pl u ra l

,
-

in ex ion o f th e M id l a n d di al ec t) Bu t th e l a men t a ti on w a s in
.

va i n ; fo r th e su ffi x h ad g on e b ey on d rec o very Th e fa c t th a t .

th i s su fx t og eth er w ith th e su fx e (l ev ell ed fro m a o u see

, , , ,

disappea red af ter N o rma n F ren ch h a d c ea sed to o pera te -

,

a n d n o t w h i l e it w a s sti l l d o mi n a n t sh o w s t h a t th e t en d en c y t o,

di sc ard in ex ion s w a s i n h eren t in th e l an gu ag e itself a nd w as ,

merel y a c c el era ted no t pro d u ced by fo rei g n i n u en c es

, ,
.

b M d i d m k d by u mb e r o f n ew
( ) Th e o e rn p e r o i s a r e a l a rg e n
318 H I STO R Y O F T H E L A N G UA G E P A RT v

b o rrow i ngs a n d th ese fro m a g rea t vari e ty o f sou rc es Th e stu dy

,
.

o f G ree k i n t ro d u c ed i n t o E n gl a n d w ith th e re v iv a l o f l ea rn in g
,
,
,

l ed t o t h e i n u x o f a c o n sid e ra b l e n u mb er o f G ree k w o rd s in ,

a ddi t i o n t o su c h a s h a d b e e n re vi ou sl y b o rro w ed t h ro u h t h e
p g
medi u m o f L a t i n
S u rre y l Via t a n d o th ers i n t ro d u c ed a
.
, ,

k n o w l ed g e o f I ta l i a n l i tera tu re w h i c h so o n h a d a g rea t effec t , ,

e s ec i a l l y o n th e d ra ma S ev e ra l I t a l i a n w o rd s ca me in t h ro u h
p .
g
th i s a n d o th e r i n u en c es e ith er di rec t l y o r th ro u gh th e medi u m
,

o f F ren c h Th e di sc o v e ri es o f C ol u mb u s a n d th e o pen i n g u p o f
.

t h e N e w W o rl d b ro u gh t u s i n t o c o n t a c t w i th S pa n i sh an d ,

ma n y n a mes o f th i ng s o b ta i n ed fro m th e l Vest I n di es c a me t o

u s i n a S a n i sh fo rm T h e E n g l i sh vi c t o ri e s in I n di a b eg i n n i ng
p .
,

w i t h th e b a t tl e o f P l a ssy in 1 7 5 7 ma d e u s a c qu a i n t ed w i th ,

n u me ro u s E ast I n di a n w o rd s ; a n d E n g l i sh ma ri t i me a d v en t u re

h as b ro u gh t u s w o rd s fro m n ea rl y a ll pa rts o f th e w o rl d .

D u ri ng th e resi sta n c e o f th e N e th erl a n d s t o S pa i n in th e ti me ,

o f E l i z a b e th E n l i sh b o rro w ed se vera l w o rd s fro m D u t c h i t w as

g ,

n o t u n c o mmo n fo r E n g l i sh v o l u n t eers t o g o o v er t o H o l l an d t o

a id in th e re u l se o f th e S a n i a rd s E n l i sh h a s a l so b o rro w ed
p p g .
,

c h i e y i n v ery rec en t ti mes fro m G erma n a n d ev e n fro m remo t e

, ,

c o n t i n en t a l l a n g u a g es i n c l u di n g R u ssi a n a n d ev en T urki sh
, ,

a nd H u n a ri a n I n fa c t t h ere a re few l an u a g es fro m w h i c h

g .
, g
w e h a v e fa i l e d t o b o rro w w o rd s e i th er di rec tl y o r i n di re c t l y It .

o ft en re u i res a l i t tl e a ti en c e t o di sc o v er fro m w h a t fo re i g n
q p
l a n g u ag e a w o rd h a s b e en b o rro w ed a n d a t w h a t pe ri o d ,
I t is .

so me h el t o r e m e m b er t h a t most o f th e w o rd s t a k en f ro m
p
re mo t e a n d so mew h a t u n l ik el y so u rc es h a v e b een b o rrow ed

d u ri n g th e M od ern pe ri o d i e sin c e 1 5 0 0 ( S k ea t)
4 5 4 S u b div ision s of t h e M o dern P eri o d T h e M o d ern
.
,
. .

e ri o d c a n b e su bdi v id ed i n t o t h ree st a g es o r pe ri o d s
p
1 T u d o r E n g l i sh fro m a b ou t 1 5 0 0 to 1 6 2 5 th e d a t e o f t h e
.
, ,

d e a th o f J a mes I S pea ki ng ro u ghl y i ts l itera tu re ma y b e

.
,

c a ll e d th a t o f th e si x t een t h c en t u ry th o u g h it g o es so me t w en ty ,

v e y ea rs b e y o n d it .

I I T h e E n gl i sh o f th e re ma i nd er o f th e seven t een th cen tu ry

.
,

w h i c h c o mes t o a n en d w i th D ryd en w h o di ed in A D 1 7 0 0 ,
. . .

T h e l a ng u a g e o f M i l to n a b o u nd s in L a t i n i sms a n d o th er idi o ms ,

w h i c h a re n o t n o w a d mi ssib l e Th e a g e o f D ryd en is ma rk ed
.

by a l a rg e n u mb er o f b o rro w i n gs fro m M o d e rn F ren c h a g o o d ,

dea l o f w h i c h is n o t ev e n y et fu l l y assi mi l a t ed I t is a l so .

ma rk ed by th e th o rou gh est a b l i sh men t fo r th e rst ti me o f

i ts as th e P o ssessi v e fo rm o f i t

.
3 20 H I STO RY O F T H E L A N G U A G E PA RT v
ac
q u rn
gi i
th e n ew s eec h
p forg etti ng th ei r ow n W e a re and .

n o t ev e n su re w h e th er th e b u l k o f th em sti ll spo k e C el ti c fo r
man y h ad c ome to spea k a ru sti c ki n d o f L a ti n a s in G au l ,
.

M o st o f th e w o rd s su ppo sed to h a ve b een b o rro w ed by E ngl i sh

fro m C el ti c a nd sti ll qu o ted a s C el ti c in so me b oo k s a re n o w
, ,

kn o w n t o h a v e b een b o rrow ed th e o th er w a y ; a s b a ke b a sket , ,

c a rt c ra dl e dow n (h i ll ) p u t sl ou g h la d l a ss loop b oa st et c
, , , , , , , , , .

C e l ti c a ppea rs in a few g eogra ph i ca l n a mes a n d a few n a mes

o f o bj ec ts

( )
a G eo ra
g p hi c a l n a mes A von ( ri v er) ewe a x e ( ri v er c f E x et er ,
.
-
,

A x mi n s ter) a b er ( mou t h o f ri v er ; c f A b er de en ) ca r ( c a s tl e ; o f
-
.
-
.

Ca r l i sl e ) l l a n ( sa c red en c l os u re c f L l a n da ff) c omb e ( h o l l ow in a

-
.
-

h i l l s i de ; c f I l fra c omb e ) ; stra th ( b ro a d v a l l ey ; of S tr th c l y de ) ;

-
.
-
. a -

p en o r b en ( mou n t a i n ; o f P en rith Ben N e v i s ) ; i nch ( i sl a nd ; o f

- -
.
, .

I nc h c a pe)
-
.

( b ) N a mes of objec ts
( )
1 B e fo re t h e C o n q u e s t z
b ro ck ( a b a dg er) c rock ( h enc e c rockery ) , ,

du n ( b ro w n ) tap er ( l) ( a sma ll w a x c a ndl e )

, ( N u mb er o f w ords v ery .

sma l l )

.

( )
2 A f t er t h e C o n qu es t fr o m a b o u t 1 25 0 A D b a l d b og ( u a
, q g . .
,

mire ) b ra g b ra t b u mp c l ock ( o ri g a b el l ) c ra g ( ro c k ) cu b ( w h e l p)
, , , ,
.
, , ,

cu rd ( o f mi l k ) n ook p l od ru b ,
skip p rop ( su ppo rt ) ri b b on
, , ( M a ny , , , .

o f th es e h o w e v er a re do u b t fu l )

, , .

( )
3 F r o m W e l sh c a m ( c r o o k e d S h a k a ) c ro m l ec h ( st o n e mo nu , ,

ment ) D ru i d f la n n el g a g ( st o p th e mou th ) g u l l ( sea b ird) h a ssock

, , , ,
-
,

( fo o t st o o l ) h a w k ( c l ea r th e th roa t ) l a g ( sl a c k b a c k w a rd) toss ( t o

, , , ,

t h ro w ) b a rd ( po e t )

.
,

( 4 ) F r o m S c o t c h c a i r n c l a n C l a y m o re ( ki n d o f s w o rd ) g a,
l l ow a y , ,

( sma l l h o rse ) g i l li e ( a b o y pa g e ) p i b roch (ma rt i a l t u n e ) p l a id ree l

, , , , ,

( H ig h la nd da nc e ) w h i sky

.
,

( )
5 F r o m I ri sh z b rogu e ( w oo den sh o e ) col l een ( a l i t tl e g i rl ) f u n , , ,

mu g ( c u p) sh a mrock ( a tre fo i l ) sha n ty ( sma l l mea n dw el l i ng ) tory

, , ,

( a h o st il e pu rsu er rst u sed in a pol i t ic a l sen se in

,

S E CTI O N 2 .
D A N I S H OR L A T E R S CA ND I A N .

45 7 D a n ish b orro w in g s
.
D anish w o rds w ere u sed in c u rren t
spe e c h l on g b efore
it w as n o t ti l l a b ou t 1 2 5 0 o r l a ter
1 25 0 b ut
t h a t ma n y o f th em w ere b ro u g h t i n t o l it era ry u se I n t h ose .

d a ys n o t on e S a x on o r D a n e in a th ou sa nd c o u l d read o r w ri te ,

a n d h e n c e c h a n es w ere t h o ro u g hl y est a b li sh ed in po pul a r speec h

g
l o ng b efo re th ey sh o w ed th emsel v es in w ri t i ng T h e D a n i sh .

v erb ca ll appea rs h o w ev er in th e Ba ttl e of M a ldon a n A S

, , ,
. .

o em w ri t t en in A D 9 9 3 T h e v erb c a st a
pp ea rs in a
p . . .

H o mi l y w ri t t en in 1 23 0 T h ese a re a mong th e ea rli est ex ampl es .

of D a n ish b o rro w i n gs o f verb s .

C HA P . x xx u BO RR O W I N GS 321

D a n ish d h a ve a ten d en c y t o resist pa l a tal i sa ti on th a t

w or s ,

is th e c on v ersi on of th e g u ttu ral s k o r g t o th e c orrespo n di ng

,

a l a t a l s ch j o r y M a n y o f ou r w o rd s b eg i n ni ng w ith sk su c h
p , ,
.
,

as ski ll skin a re D a n i sh
, ,
T h e su fx sk as in b u sk (prepa re .
-
,
-

on esel f ) b a sk (o ri g to b a th e o n esel f ) is ex c l u si v el y D a ni sh a n d
,
-
.
,

is sti ll used in I c el a n di c .

( )
1 N o u n s o f D a n i sh o ri g i n ta rn ( po o l ) sta g h u sti ng s b a rk ( o f z , , ,

tree ) b ri nk b eck ( b rook ) b u l k ( si z e ) c l ef t cu r egg f el l (h i ll )

, , , , , , , ,

f e l l ow ( f el ag i pa rt ner), g ey si r, h a rb ou r, h u sb a nd, ki d, l eg , raf t, rei n

,

deer, si ster, ski rt, sky , sl a u gh ter, tru st, try st, w i ndow , w i ng

.

( )
2 V e rb s o f D a n i sh o r i g i n b a i t, b a sk, b u sk, ca l l , ca st, da sh , di e,

drip , droop , g a sp , g l i nt, g l i mmer, i rk ( h en c e i rk some), a re ( Th i rd pl u r -

.

o f a m), b a rk , ra i se, rou se, ru sh , ski m, s mel t, smi l e, ta ke, th ri ve, w a g ,

w a i l , w h irl , ri ve, th ri ve, e tc

.

( 3 ) A dj ec t i v es a n d a dverb s b oth , b ou n d ( for so me j ou rn ey ), h a rsh ,

i l l , i rksome, l oose, sa me, sc a n t, s l eek, s l y , th ei r ( P oss P ro n ou n ), tig h t, .

u g l y , w ea k , et c

.

( 4 ) P a trony mi cs Th e A S su f x f or formi ng pa tro ny mi c s is ing ,

. . .
-

a s H a rd i ng , M a nn ing , etc
-
Th e S c a ndi a n o r D a n i sh su fx is son ,
-
.
-

a s A n der so n E ri c son , Co l l i n son , S w a i n son , R o b ert son , D a vid son ,

- - - - - -

Th em son , e tc

-
.

( )
5 P re o s i t i o n s ti l l , f
r o ( a d o u b l e t o f A S f ro m o rf ra m), a f o r
p . .

on in a l of t, et c .

( 6 ) Pronou ns they , th em, th ei r -

.

S E C TIO N 3 .
D U T C H .

45 8 . D ut c h b orro w in g s
Tw o ( ) I n th e ti me o f
set s of
a
E d w a rd I I I a l a rg e nu mb er of D u t c h w ea v ers w ere i nd u c ed t o
.

se t tl e in E ng l a n d espec i a ll y in N o rfo l k , S u olk , E ssex , a n d

'

Ken t Th e di al ec ts t h a t th ey b rou gh t w ith th em (O l d F ri si a n

.

an d O l d D u t ch
) h a d m u c h i n c o mmo n w it h t h a t b r o u
g h t by
F risi an s and S a x o n s ma n y cen tu ri es b efo re b
( ) I n t h e re i g n o f .

E l i z ab eth , E nglis h sol di ers, w h o w en t ou t to H o ll a n d a s

vol u n teers to a ssi st th e D u tc h a g a in st th e D u k e o f P a rma ,

b rou gh t h ome a g o o d man y D u t ch w o rd s w ith th em Af ter th e .

fall o f A n tw erp a b ou t a th i rd o f i ts merc h an ts a nd man u fa c tu rers

,

se ttl ed o n th e b a n ks o f th e T h a mes a n d D u t ch sa i l o rs a t th e
,

sa me ti me b ro u h t so me n ew n au ti c a l t erms
g .

( a ) F irst b orrow i n gs
( 1 ) W ords c o nn ec te d w i th w ea v ing or th e sa l e o f w o v en g o o ds
B atch ( t o repa i r pa tc h ) b ra ke ( ma c h i n e f or b rea ki ng h emp) c u rl
, , ,

( c rimpl e ) l a sh ( t o j o in a pi ec e a n d ma k e a sea m) sp oo l ( a reel t o w i nd

, ,

ya rn o n ) tu ck g roa t h a w ker hu ckster la ck ( orig b l emi sh )

, , , , ,
. .

( )
2 O t h er w o rds i n c o mmo n u s e c ou g h mu d mu ddl e n a g f op , , , , ,

l o l l l u ck ra b b l e sc o scol d s l ot ( b o l t ) s l ender s l i gh t sp rou t tu b
, , , , , , , , ,

tu g w i sea cre ( D u t c h w ii s segg er a w i se sa y er a soo th sa y er)

,
-
, ,
-
.

R . Y
3 22 H I S TO R Y O F TH E L A N GUA G E P A RT v

( b ) S econd b orro w i n gs
l
( 1 ) N a v a l w o rds z deck ( o f a sh i p) f reeb ooter ( pi ra t e o r s ea ,

ro b b er) h oi se o r h o ist h o ld ( o f a sh i p) h oy ( a sma ll v e sse l ) h u l l ( o f a

, , , ,

sh i p) skipp er ( ma ri n er) y a ch t b oo m ( po l e ) cru i se s l o op

, , , , , .

( )
2 T ra d e w o rd s c op e ( o ri g t o b a rg a i n w i th ; o f ch eap ) do l l a r . .
, ,

d D h h d) h l l a n d ( D u t c h l i n en ) ra vel ( t o
g i l d e r h o
,g sh ea ( u t c ox o of o , ,

n n w e a v e o r e nt a n g l e )
W o rds pi c k ed u p b y v o l u n teers e tc b oor ( D u tc h pea sa n t )
.

(3 ) , .
,

b u rg o ma ster ( l it t o w n ma st er) c a n a ki ii f ro l i c f u mb l e g l i b ( smo o t h

.
, , , , ,

v ol u b l e) jeer l ea g u er ( a c a m o f b e l ea g u er l a i r l i e) l oi ter l a nd
p ;
-
, , .
, , , ,

scap e ma n a ki n mop
, mop e rover, ruy l e, s ni s u tl er toy tri ck sl op e
, , , , , , , ,

f op , w a g o n , et c .

( 4 ) A f e w w o rds c o nn ec t e w th p a nt n ,
g su c h a s ea se l , l a ndsca p e, d i i i 2

l a y g u re ( D u tc h l ee ma n , a j o n t ed mo del o f t h e h u ma n b o d th a t i y
ma y b e pu t u p in a ny a tt t u de ) i

.

N ote 1 S ome v ery rec ent D u tc h o rro w ng s h a v e c ome t o u s ro m b i f

.

t h e Bo ers in S o u th A r c a fi
l a a g er ( a c a mp), kra a l ( a c o l l ec t o n o f i
h u t s w i th i n a s t o c k a de ), trek o r treck ( t o mig ra t e w i th w a gg o n s
dra w n b y o x e n )
N ote 2 Th e di mi n u t i v e su i x ki n , a s in b u mp ki n , ma na ki n ,
.

-
.

ma nni ki n , is u su a ll y D u t c h , in w h i c h it h a d th e fo rm o f ken Th e .

s u i x sc ap e oc c u rri ng in l a ndsc ap e i s fi om D u t c h sch ap ( sh a pe )

.

S E CTI O N 4 .
LA T I N .

4 5 9 L a t in b orro w in g s distin c t from F r en ch S i n c e

.

F ren c h is l i ttl e el se t h an a mo d ern fo rm o f L a ti n , it h a s b een

usu a l t o u t t h e L a ti n a nd F ren c h b o 1 ro w in s t o e th er, a n d t o
p g g
a rra n e t h e m I n th e fo ll o w i n e ri o d s :
g g p
F i rst P eri od, A D 4 3 4 1 0 : b o rro w ng s t ra c e . .t o t h e R o ma n i d
i i i
o c c u pa t o n o f Br t a n o r p c e d u p o n t h e C o n t n en t a l l L a tin ik i .

S econd P eri od, A D 5 9 6 1 0 6 6 : w ords b ori o w ed du r ng a nd a t er

.

. . i f
i
t h e c o n v e rs o n o f o u r a nc est o rs t o C h r s t a n t y a l l L a ti n i i i
Thi rd P eri od, A D 1 0 6 6 - 1 4 8 0
.

w o rds b o rro w e d o n a n d a t er t h e
. . f
N orma n C o n qu e st t ll t h e a c c ess on o f H enry V II t h e c o mme n c e ment
i i .

o f M o dern H is t o1 y z a l l F ren ch
d b
.

F ou rth P eri od, ro m A D 1 4 80 w or s f o rro w ed du r n

g3 a nd a 1 ter
c
. . i
i
t h e g rea t n t ell ec t u a l mo v emen t n o w n a s t h e R en a issa nc e o r R e viv a l k
o f l ea rn n g ia l l L a ti n .

The a rra n
g m
fau l ty b ecau se sh o al s o f L a ti n b o rrow i ng s
en t is
e ,

c a me in w i th i n th e th i rd e ri o d a n d S h oa ls o f F ren c h n
p o es ,

w i th i n th e fo u rth M o re o v e r t h ere w a s a spe c i al c l a ss o f F ren c h

.
,

1
It mu st h o w ever, th a t a l l , o r e ven t h e majo rit y ,
no t b e su ppo se d,

o f o u r n a va l t erms a re f ro m D u t c h O th ers a re R o ma n ic , S c a ndia n , o r .

A ng l o S a x o n
-
R o ma nic : a n ch or, vessel , n a vy , n a vig a te, f l oti l la , c a reen ,
.

g a l l y , h u lk, p row , p ort, ma rin er, p o op , miz z en S c a n dia n : l ee,

h a rb o u r, raf t A ng l o S a x o n : sh ip , oa r, sea ma n , sa il , mas t, s teer, stern,
.
-

h el m, ke el , f leet, y a rd .

2
O n a rt t erms b o rrow ed ro m I tali a n, see 47 1 , (a ) f .
3 24 H I S T O R Y O F T H E L A N G UA GE PA RT V

pl o u g h ), f ever, ddl e, f enn el , h emp , ki l n ( L a t cu l i n a ), ki tch en ( L a t . .

c oqu i n a ), l a ke, l ob ster, mi l l , mou n t a i n , n oo n ( L a t n on a h ora , t h e -

.

n i n t h h o u r), p a n , p i l l o w , p i n e ( t ree ), p ip e, p i t, p o l e, p os t, p ri me,

p u n t,
sh a mb l es, si c kl e, so l e ( o f foo t ), ti l e ( L a t te u l a , tu n i c , tu rtl e
g ) .
-

verse, di sh ( A S di sc , L a t di sc u s), e t c
. . .
-
.

4 6 2 1 1 1 Th ir d P eri o d : pre Cl a ssic al or pre R en a issa n c e, - -

. .

A D 1 06 6 1 485
. . Th e N o rman C on qu est , w h i c h t oo k pl a c e in
-
.

1 0 6 6 , a n d w as th e mea ns o f ma ki n g a b ou t h a l f o u r v o c a b u l a ry
F ren c h t w o or t h ree l a te r, g a v e a g rea t i mpe t us t o th e
c e n u r es t i
t dy
s u of La ti n , fro m w hi c h F ren ch itsel f is ma i nl y d e rived .

I t mu st b e re memb ered , to o , th a t d u ri n g th e M idd l e A g es,

as C ra ik o bserv es ,
L a ti n w as th e l a n gu a g e
d of all th e l ea rn e
ro fessi o ns o f l a w a n d h y i c a w e ll a s o f divi n i ty in a ll th ei r
p p ,
s s

r a d es I t w a s in L a t i n th a t th e t e a c h ers in th e U n iv e rsiti es
g .

( m a n y o f w h o m i n E n g l a n d w e re f o re i g n er s) d el i v e re d t h e i r pre

l ec ti o ns in a ll t h e sc i en c es
.

W ords b orro w ed di rec t from La ti n as th e fol l ow i ng ex a mpl es ,

h o w a re mo re l ik e th e o ri g i n al L a ti n th a n th e ea rl y F ren ch
,

b o rrow i n gs (A D 1 0 6 6 to a b ou t 1 3 5 0 ) . .

A b b revi a te ( L a t i n b revis ; c f F r a b ridg e)

- -
A b n eg a t i on ( L a t . . .
- -
.

n eg n eg a t Fr de A o qu i esce ( L a t -gu i esc ere c f Fr
cf . .
-
.
-
. .

as -
g u i t) A o g u i re ( L a t gu w r ere c f F r
.
-
c on A d ju di c .
-
. .
-

a te ( L a t
ju di c ju di cat
. cf Fr ad A g g ra v a te ( L a t . .
- -
.

g ra v g ra va t c f F r a g g ri eve A l l evi a te ( L a t
. l evis, l i g h t ;
.
- - -
.

A p p reci a te ( L a t p reti u m, pric e ; o f F r

o f Fr
. re. ap - -
. . .

pra i se A p p reh end ( L a t p reh en d cf
-
Fr a p p ri se Ap . . .
-

p rox i m a l e ( L a t p rox i mu s ; c f Fr ap p roa c h , from La t p rop e,

- -
. . . .

n ea r) .D i s si mu l a te ( L a t si mu l -
si mu l a t t o pre t e nd ; c f F r
-
. . .

di s semb l e
-
Ben e di c ti on ( c f F r b en i son ) M a l e di cti on ( c f Fr
-
. . .
-
. .

ma li son ) Ca d en ce ( c f Fr ch a nc e), etc

.
-
. . .

O ne b o rro w i ngs o f th i s peri od a u tu mn h a s su persed ed

of th e , ,

ha rvest w h i c h in A S d en o ted t h e season (o f a u t u mn) a nd is

,
. .
,

n o w ma d e t o d en o t e th e fru i ts o f th e sea son .

Th e g rea t di ffe ren c e b e tw een th e L a ti n b o rro w i n g s o f P eri o d

I I a nd th ose o f Pe ri od I I I is th a t th e former w ere a d a pted t o
. .

S a x o n mod el s a nd th e l a tt er t o F ren c h o n es ,
.

463 I o .r
V F u th Pe i d f r o ro
. m A D 1 4 8 0 T h e t en d en c y ,
. . .

to La t i n i se o u r spee c h rec eiv ed a n ew a n d v ery po w erful i mpu ls e

fro m th e R ev i v a l o f c l a ssi ca l l ea rn i n g G ree k a n d La tin ,
.

A w ri t er in Qu ee n E l i b eth s t i me c o ndemn s su c h i n n o v a t i o n s a s

za

t h e f l l o w in g t h o u g h a l l b u t th e l a st t h ree h a v e h el d t h e i r g ro u nd
o ,

a u da c i ou s , co mp a ti b l e ,
eg reg i o u s , desp i ca b l e, destru cti on , h o mi c i de,
p rodig i ou s, a ttemp ta t, f a c u n a ity

o b sequ i ou s, p o nderou s, p o rten to u s,
,

i mp l ete .

A mo ng th e re ec t ej d w or s th e d fo l l o w in g w il l serv e a s e x a mpl es
C HA P . x x x rr BO R RO W I N GS 3 25

torve, tetri c , c eci ty , f a stide, tru ti n a te, i mma ni ty , scel esti ck, p ervi c a cy ,
stra mi n eou s, l ep i d, sul a mi na te, f a ci n orou s, i mmorig erou s, stu l ti l oqu y ,

mu l i erosity , c oa x a tion l u di b u n dn ess, etc

1
.

It b een esti ma t ed th a t th e t o ta l n u mb er o f
ha s d
w o r s w hi c h

w e h a v e b o rro w ed i mmedia t el y fro m L a ti n and ,

n o t t h ro u g h

th e medi u m o f F ren c h is c o nsid era b l y a b o v e ,

S E CTI O N 5
NC H .
F R E .

4 6 4 Th r ee set s o f F r en c h b orro w i ng s Th ere a re three

.

di fferen t se ts o f F ren c h b o rro w i n gs a s agai nst th e fou r o f L a tin ,

.

I.

W o rd s o f A ng l o F r en c h o ri g i n th a t c a me i n t o th e
-
,

l an g ua g e b e fo re 1 3 5 0 and b el on g t o th e g oo d o l d st o c k b e i n g
, ,

o f e qu a l v a l u e a n d u se w i th th e w o rd s o f n a tiv e o ri g i n I t w as
.

th e N o rma n C o n qu est in 1 0 6 6 th a t set t h is st rea m o w i n g in

fo rc e a n d l ed to th e fo rma ti o n in E n gl a n d itsel f o f a sepa ra t e
, , ,

F ren c h di al ec t w h i c h h as b een ca l l ed

,
A n gl o F ren c h -

II . W o rd s o f C en t ra l (o r P ari si an ) F ren ch o rig i n i mpo rt ed ,

c hi ey b et w een 1 3 5 0 a n d 1 6 6 0 th e d a t e o f th e a c c essi o n o f
,

C h a rl es I I

.

I I I L a t e F r en c h w ords (o f Pa ri si an o ri g i n) i n tro du c ed
.
,

i n t o th e l an gu ag e si n c e 1 6 6 0 o r th erea b ou ts T h ey a re o n th e .

w h ol e o f fa r l ess v al u e t h a n th ose in th e tw o former c l a sses

( S k ea t)
3

N ol a
.

I t h a s b een a ssert ed b y v ery h i g h a u th ori t i es th a t t h ere

w a s a set o f F renc h b orro w i ng s w h i c h p receded t h e N orma n C o n qu e st

( see a rt i c l e b y K l u
g e in E n g l i sch e S tu di en v o l x x i p 3 3 4 ) ba t , . . .
,

c ap on , ca stl e, ca t ( N orth ca tchp o l l ( in l a te A S . . c w c ep o l ) f a l se

, ,

ma n tl e, ma rket p rou d p ride, p u rse , , ,

ro ck, sot, ta rg e, tra i l , tu rn .

A ll t h ese a ppea r in l a te A S a nd a re tra c ea b l e t o a Frenc h o rig i n

. .
,
.

4 6 5 P opul a r a nd L ea rn ed Th e fo rme r b el on g c h i ey t o
.

C l a ss I th e l a tt er (to a l a rg e ex t en t ) t o C l asses I I a n d I I I
.
, . .

(a ) P opu l a r F ren ch w ord s a re su ch as grew u p o ra l l y in

a n c i en t G a u l fro m th e i n t erc ou rse o f R o man so l di ers a n d se tt l ers

w ith th e G a u ls o r p eop l e o f th e pro vi n c e ; a nd h en c e th ey a re

c a ll ed o u la r
p p li n g u a R o ma n a o
p pu l a ri s lip L a ti n a n d n o t -
,

b o o k L a ti n S u ch w o rds a re a g o o d d eal ch an g ed fro m th e

-
.

o ri g i n al L a ti n s eec h
p .

(b) L ea rn e d F ren ch w ords a re su ch as w ere b o rrow ed by

F ren c h w riters fro m th e stu dy o f L a ti n b o o k s a n d n o t fro m l ip ,

1
T renc h s E ng l i sh P a st a n d P resen t, ed 1 8 7 7 , pp 1 02- 1 1 0 . . .

S k ea t s P rin c E ng E ty m series ii p 25 0
2
. . . . . .

3
I bid series ii c h a p ix . . . .
3 26 H I STO R Y O F TH E L A N G U A G E P A RT v

L a tin . T h ey a re merel y L a t i n
d an d pu t w o r s sli gh d tl y al ere t
i n t o a F ren c h d ress C en t ra l o r Pa i isia n F ren c h en ri ch ed i tself .

w i th a l a rg e sto c k o f su c h w o rd s A mo n g o u r L ea rn ed w o rd s

.

so me w ere b o rro w ed di re c t fro m L a t i n i tse l f o th e rs fro m li t era ry

,

F ren c h I n th e fo l l o w i n g l i st w h i c h is by n o mea n s ex h a u st i v e
.
, ,

e a rn ed o rd rst b ec ause i ts c o n n e c t i o n w i th

w e
p u t t h e L w ,

La t i n o r l i tera ry F ren c h is mo re ea si l y t ra c ed H i st o ri ca l l y .
,

h o w ev er the P o pu l a r fo rm o f th e w o rd c a me rst
, .

A b b rev i t e a b ridg e a D i g ni ty da i nty

,
P e n i t e nc e pena nc e
.
, .
,
.

A gg ra v a t e a g g ri e v e D il a t e del a y
, P i ety pi ty .
,
.
, .

A l l oc a t e ll o w , D i u rna l j ou rnal
a . P ort i c o po rc h ,
.
,
.

A n t i qu e a n t ic , E rra n t a rr nt . P o ti o n po i so n ,
a .
,
.

A pprec i a t e a ppra i s e E x a mpl e s mpl e

,
Predi c a t e prea c h .
,
a .
, .

A ssimi l a t e a ssemb l e F a b ri c fo rg e
,
P rob e pro o f .
, .
,
.

Ben dic t i o n b en i so n
e F a c t fea t,
Pro l o ng pu rl o i n .
,
.
, .

C a de nc e c h a nc e ,
F a c ti o n fa sh i o n Pro po se pu rpo se
.
, .
,
.

C a l u mn y c h a l l n g e
F i de l i ty fea l ty
,
e Pro sec u t e pu rsu e.
, .
, .

C a n a l c h a n n e l k e n ne l
,
F ra g i l e fra i l , Pro v i de pu rv ey .
,
.
, .

C nc er c a nk er
a ,
G ra n a ry g a rn er. Pru n e pl u m , .
,
.

C nt c h a nt
a , H o spi ta l h ot el
.
Qu i et qu i t e ,
.
,
.

C pi t a l c h a tt el
a , I l l u mi n e l i mn . R edempti o n ra n som , .
, .

C pt i v e c a i ti ff
a , I ndic t i n di t e . R epro v e repri ev e , .
,
.

C a st i g a t e c h a t i s e
I nv i di o u s e n v i o u s
,
s R espec t respi t e
.
, .
, .

C a st l e c h a t e a u
, ( In )v i t e v ie . R o t e ro u t e ru t , .
, , .

Ca v e c g e ,
a L o c u s l i eu
. S ec u re su re , .
, .

C o ll ec t c o i l c u l l
,
L o c u st l o b s t er
, S e ni or sir sire
.
, .
, , .

C o l l oc a t e , c ou c h . M aj or, ma y o r S epa ra t e , s ev er . .

C ompl a c ent , c ompl a i sa nt . M a l edi c t i o n , ma l i son S pi ri t , spri t e . .

C ompl et e , c ompl y . M emory , memo i r S t a tu s, esta t e . .

C ompreh e nd, c ompri se . N a t i v e , n a i ve . S tri c t , st ra i g h t .

C ompu t e , c ou nt . O b edi enc e , o b ei sa nc e . Tra c t , t ra i t .

C o nc e pt i o n , c o nc ei t . O ra ti o n , o ri so n . Tra di t i o n , trea son .

C o ndu c t , c o n du i t . Pa l l i d, pa l e . Triu mph , tru mp .

D e po si t , de pOt . Pa r, pa i r, peer . Va s t , w a s t e .

D esc ri b e , desc ry . Pa tro n , pa t t ern . V erb , w o rd .

D es idera t e , desi re . P a u per, poor . Vo c a l , v o w el .

4 6 6 I A ng l o F r en c h b orro w ing s, u p t o a b o u t A D 1 3 5 0 -

. . . .

T h ese a re c a ll ed A n gl o F ren c h , as di st i n c t fro m t h ose o f ev ery .

-

o th e r F ren c h di a l ec t , b e ca u se th i s di a l ec t w a s devel op edi n E ng l a n d

i ndep en den tly of f o reig n i nf lu en c e .

O u r A n gl o F re n c h w o rd s a re o n th e w h o l e qu i t e as n ec essa ry
-

to ou r l a n g u a g e as ou r A n gl o S a x o n o n es Th e w o rd hou r, fo r -
.

e x a m l e , is i n di s ens a b l e , b e ca use A S t i d w h i c h a ls o
p p .

mea n t h ou r, is n o w used to d en o te th e eb b a n d ow o f th e

A g a i n , sec on d is i ndi spen sa b l e a s th e o rdi n al fo r tw o ,

se a .

bec a use A S oder ( = o th er, l it seco nd ) h as b ec o me us efu l in

. .

.

o th er w a ys . C f La t . . a u tu mn a nd A S ha rvest in
. . 462 .
3 28 H I S TO RY O F T H E L A N G U A GE P A RT v

4 68 I I I L a t e F r en c h b orrow in g s fro m A D 1 6 6 0
. .
,
. . .

T h e b o rrow i ngs o f th i s peri o d differ fro m th ose th a t prec ed ed

it in t h re e respec ts a t l ea st Th ey c o n t a i n sca rcel y a n y
verb s w h i c h sh o w s th a t M o d e rn F ren c h is t o M o d ern E n l i sh
, g
a n ex o t i c a n d n o t a t ru e
, g ra ft ( ) th e y h a v e in ma n y i n stan c es
2
ret a i n ed th e M o d ern F ren ch sy st em o f a c cen tu a t i n t h e l ast
g
sy ll a b l e w h erea s t h e o l d er b o rro w i n s fol l o w ed th e E n l ish
, g g
meth o d o f th row i n g th e a c c en t b a c k o n th e rst c f cap ta i n .

-

( O l d F ren ch ) ca m p a ign (M od ern F ren ch ) ; ( 3 ) th ey h av e in

'
-
,

man y i ns ta n c es preserved th e M o d ern F ren c h meth o d o f pro

n o u n c in g v ow el s a n d c on so n a n ts c o m a re f o r ex a m l e ra g e ( O l d
p p
F ren c h ) w ith rou g e ( ro o z h M o d ern F ren c h ) O ld F ren c h o n
_

,
.
,

th e c on tra ry w as pron o u n c ed in n ea rl y th e sa me w a y as E n gl i sh
,

w a s a t th e ti me o f i ts i n c o rpo ra ti o n .

A n a ffec ted pre feren ce for ev eryth i ng F ren ch ca me i n t o

fash i on w i th C h a rl es I I w h ose vi c i ous rei gn of tw en ty v e .
,
-

y ea rs c orru pt ed th e l a ng u ag e n o l ess th an th e moral s o f h is

c o u n t ry Th e po et D ryd en ( 1 6 3 1
. from a d esi re to pl ea se
th e C ou rt fel l in w ith th e preva i l i ng fash i on a s w h en h e n eed
, ,

l essl v su b stitu t ed th e F ren c h f ra i cheu r fo r th e E n g l i sh f resh

71 6 8 8

H i th er in su mmer ev en i ng s y ou repa ir
T o t a st e th e f ra i ch eu r o f t h e pu rer a i r .

Th e foll ow in g a re a few ex a mpl es of th e b o rro w ing s of th is

p i d
er o d a roi t, b ru n ette, ca det, c ajol e, c a mp a ign , c a pri c e, c a ress,

f estoon , g ri ma c e, g u i ta r,
ha ra n u
g ,e i n trig u e, g rotes u e
q .

S E CTI O N 6 .

GR EE K .

4 69 . C ont inuit y
r
of G e e k b orro w i n g s G ree k sh a res w it h
L a t i n th o u gh t o a mu ch sma l l er d eg ree th e di st i n c ti o n o f
, ,

h av i ng b e en a c on t i nu o u s so urc e o f su ppl y fro m th e fth c en tu ry

d o w n to th e presen t da y .

A ll G re ek b orro w i ngs u p t o th e R ev iv al o f G reek l earn i ng

h i h f E l d m a y b e d a t ed fro m A D 1 5 4 0 ) ea ch ed us at
(w c o r n g a n r . .

sec o n d o r th i rd h an d t h ro u gh L a t i n o r F ren c h .

S i n c e 1 5 4 0 so me G ree k w o rd s h a ve b een b o rro w ed di re c t

fro m G reek an d a re espec i al l y so b o rrow ed a t th e presen t day
, ,

w h en n ew w o rd s a re w a n t ed for so me n ew fa c t o r o bj ec t in a rt
o r sc i en c e O th ers h av e b een b o rro w ed th rou gh L a ti n o r
.

F ren c h a s b efo re o r th rou gh I tal i a n S pa n i sh A ra bi c P o r

, , , , ,

t u g u ese, o r D u t ch .
C HAP . x xe BO RR O W I N G S 3 29

4 7 0 S pec imen s of G r eek b orro w i ng s

.

( ) O f h L a ti n b o rrow i n s (ra th er l ess th a n 20 0 f h

a u t o t e
g ) o t e

S econd P eri o d a t l east o n e t h i rd w ere G ree k b e fo re th e y -

b eca me La ti n :
A l ms ( A S ael messe, Gr e l eemos y n e) ; a nth em ( A S a n tef n , G r
. . .
-
. . .

a n ti p h ou a ) ; a ng el ( G r a n g e l o s ) ; a po s tl e ( G r a p ostol os ) ; b i sh o
p
- - -
. .

( A S b i scop , Gr ep iscop os) c h e st ( Gr ki st e ) Ch ri st ( Gr Chri st 0 3 )

. . .
-
.
-
.
-

c h u rc h o r ki rk ( A S c y ri e e, G r ku ri a k a ) ; c l erk ( G r c l eri c os ) ;. .
-
.
-
.
-

dev i l ( A S deof ol , G r di a b ol os) di sh ( A S di sc , G r di sc os), e tc

. . .
-
. . .
-
.

b
() G ree k
b orrow i ngs th a t h ave co me th rou gh F ren ch , h a vi n g
rst passed i n to La t i n
Bl a me ( Fr b l a sm er, L a t b l a sp hem a re, Gr b l a sp h em ein ) ; c u r
.
-
.
-
.
-

ra nt s ( Fr ra i si n s de Cori n th e, G r Cori n th os ) dro psy ( Fr h y drop i si e,

. .
-
.
-

G r h y drop i si s ) ; fa nc y ( Fr f a n ta si e, G r p h a n ta si a ) ; frenz y ( F r
. . . .

f ren a i si e, G r p h ren esi s ) g o v e r n .

( F r g ov e r n e r,
G r k u b er n an ) .
-
.
-

g ra ft ( Fr g ray e, G r g rap h ei n ) ; ink ( Fr en qu e, G r en ca u st on ) ;

'

- - -
. . . .

p l a c e ( F r p l a ce, G r p l a t ei a )
. s l a n de r ( F r e s c l a nd r e ,
G r.sc a n d a l on ) ; -
. .
-

su rg eo n ( F r c h i ru rg i en , G r c h ei r u rg eon )
.
p al s
y ( F r p a ra l y si e, G r .
- -
. .

pa ra l y si s) a l c h emy ( A ra b a rti c l e d l G r c h emei a , mi ng l i ng )

- -
. . . .

() 0 b o G reek
rro w i n gs t h a t h a v e c o me f ro m G ree k di rec t

A na l y si s h yd ro ph obi a mo n o pol i st t el eph o n e a nth ol og y d emo

, , , , ,

l og y z o o l o g y t el e g ra m epi dem ic epi l epsy epi c u re u t o pi a

,
-
,
-
,
- -
,
-
, , ,

aest h e t i c c o smet i c c o smo po l i t e et c

, ,
-
, .

(d) H yb rids
Co n triv e ( L a t prex c on
-
O l d Fr trov er, t o n d G r trop os, a
. .
-
.
-

tu rn, rev ol v ing ) re triev e ( La t prex re b a se th e sa me a s th e pre -

.

c edi n g ) in t o x i c -a te ( L a t prex i n G r stem tox i c ou , po i so n , L a t

-
. .
-
.

su i x -
a te ) ,
e tc .

Verbs o f G ree k o ri g i n a re ra re Bu t a v ery l a rg e n u mb er o f .

verb s h a ve b een fo rmed w ith th e G ree k su i x iz e o r i se, w h i c h .

- -

ca n b e free y a tt a c h ed t o st e
l ms of a n
y o ri g i n w h a t v
e e r 1
.

S E CT I O N 7 M
D E RN BO RR O W I N G S : M I S C E L L A NE O U S O

4 7 1 M o dern b orro w ing s Un d er thi s h ea di n g w e i n c l u d e

. .

th e va ri ou s so u rces n o t a l ready n amed fro m w h i c h n ew w o rd s ,

ca me i n t o E n g l ish w ith i n th e mod ern peri o d of o u r l a ng u a g e ,

th a t is a fter A D 1 5 0 0

. .
,
.

( )
1 I ta li a n Th e R en a i ssan ce o r R e vi va l o f Lea rn i n g w h i c h
.
,

o ri i n a t ed in I ta l y l ed t o a stu dy o f I ta l i an l it era t u re D a n t
g e ,
.
,

T asso A ri ost o a n d P etra rc h w ere a ll t ra nsl a t ed i n t o E n gl i sh

, ,
.

T h e poems o f S u rrey W ya tt S penser a n d M il t o n a ll S h o w a n , , ,

i n ti ma te a c qu a i n tan c e w ith I tal i an I n th e reig n s o f th e T u d ors .

1
T h e spelling -ise is F ren c h b u t this w a s a l t ered t o iz e b y pedants, -

who k ne w G reek, b ut f org ot th at -ise c a me t o u s th rou gh F r -iser . .

3 30 H I S TO R Y O F T H E L A N G U A G E PA RT v

I tali an w as as n ec es sa ry to ev e ry c ou rti er a s F ren ch w a s in th e

ti me o f C h a rl es I I T h e O tta v a R i ma Bl a n k Verse a n d th e
.
, ,

S o n n e t a ll c a me fro m I ta l y T h e sc en es o f sev en o f S h a k spea re s .

l a y s a re l a i d in I ta l y T h e tid e rec ed ed w i th th e e st a bl i sh men t

p .

o f t h e C o mmo n w e a l th a n d w a s e n ti rel y th row n b a c k by th e

,

o v e rw h e l mi ng ta st e fo r F ren c h th a t set in w i th th e a c c essi o n o f ,

Ch a rl es I I .

O n e w o rd a n d possib l y tw o mo re c a me fro m I t al y a t a v ery

, ,

ea rl y peri o d P ilg ri m o c c u rs in L a y a mon s B ru t spel t a s pile

.
,

g r i m fro
,
m I t a l i a n p el l e ri n o
g A n o th er w o rd is roa m
p rob .
,

a b l y d eriv ed fro m R ome t o w h i c h pi l gri ma g es w e re ma d e by ,

E ng li sh men fro m th e ti me o f A l fred th e G rea t t o th a t o f

C h a u c er s W if e of Ba th D u ca t a Ven eti a n w o rd o c c urs in

.
, ,

C h au c er .

( a ) D irec t from I ta l i a n
Ba l c ony ( I t b a l c on e a sta g e ) ; b a ndi t ( It b a n di to o u t l a w ed) ;
.
, .
,

c a nt o c ompl y ( I t c omp li re L a t c o mp l ere) c o n tra b a n d ( L a t c on tra

.
, . .
,

a g a i n st b a n n u m a d ec re e ) ; di t t o ( a t h i n
g a l rea d s a i d fr o m La t
, , y , .

dictu m s a i d) ; du el ; du e t ; mo nk ey ( I t mon ic ch i o ) ; g u st o ( La t
,
. .

g u st a s t a st e ) fresc o ( o f th e sa me roo t a s f resh ) ; mi l l i n er ( a de a l er

-
,

in M il a n g o o ds ) i so l a te ( I t i sol a to det a c h ed) i mb ro g l i o g ro tt o .

,

port i c o ff etc
qu o t a ; reb u , .

N ote W e a re i ndebt ed to I ta l i a n for ma ny o f ou r t erms in mu si c

.
-
,

oetry a nd pa i n t i ng
p ,

M u si c c o n c ert s o n a ta spi n et fu g u e b rev e du et c o n tra l t o

, , , , , , ,

oper a,
pi a n o prima do nn a qu a rtet qu i nt et s o l o s o pra n o t ri o
, , , , , , ,

ca n z o n et t remo l o fa l se t t o e tc
P oetry c a n t o so n n et st a n z a i mpro v i s e o c t a v a ri m
.
, , ,

P a i n ti ng
, , , , .

mi ni a t u re prol e v i st a mo del pa l ett e pa st el mez z o , , , , , ,

ti nt o a mb er etc ( O n pa i n t in g t erms deri v e d fro m D u t c h see

.
, , ,

4 5 8, b .
)
( b ) Th ro u gh Fren c h
A l ert ( I t a l l erta ,
. t h e w

a t c h ); a rc a de ; a rt
on s a n ; b a n r pt
- u
i k
. f
( I t b a n c o, rotto , a t erw a rds c h a n g ed t o L a t rup ta ) ; b ru squ e ( I t . .

b ru sco ) ; b u st ( I t b u sto ) ; c a pr c e ( I t capp ri c ci o, a w h m) ; c a nt e en

. i . i
l l ( I L h a ) ; c a v a l c a de
( I t. c a n ti n a ,
a c e a r) ; c a rt o o n t ca rt on e,
a t c a r t . .

( I t ca va l ca ta , a tro op o f h o rsemen ) ; c a sc a de ( I t c a sca ta , a w a t er

. .

f a l l ), et c

O
.

2 S
( ) p a n i sh b orrow i ngs fro m S pa i n w ere n ot du e to a
ur

stu dy o f S pa n i sh l i t e ra t u re b u t t o o u r c o mmerc i a l a n d po l i t i ca l ,

rel a ti o ns w ith S pa i n a n d t o th e d es c ri pt i o ns o f th e c o u n t ry a n d
,

h er co l o n i es fu rn i sh ed by E n gli sh trav ell ers S pa n i sh b o rro w i ngs .

a re a l mo st as n u mero u s a s I ta li a n T h e a l pre x ed t o so me .

S pa n ish n ou ns is th e A ra bi c a rti c l e d l ,
.

( a ) D irec t from S pa n i sh
A llig a t or ( a l l ig a rl o a l i z a rd ) a rma da ( a rmed eet ) b o ob y ( b o b o
, ,
3 32 H I S TO RY O F T H E L A N G U A G E PA RT v

S pa i n , in t y th e A ra b spea ki ng M o ors w ere d omi n a n t

w h i ch c ou n r -

fo r a b ou t 7 0 0 y ea rs ; o t h ers l ess di rec tl y by w a y o f F ra n c e .

A dmira l ( s pel t b y M i l t o n a s a mmi ra l ; A ra b mi r pri nc e w i th . a , ,

s u ffi x l w h i c h m y h v e a ri sen in v a ri o u s w a y s ; see N ew E ng

-a
,
a a .

D i c t a l c o v e ( a rec e ss ) a l g eb ra A r b esqu e a rse n l rti c h ok e a ss ssi n

.
, ,
a ,
a ,
a ,
a ,

c l i ph
a c r w a y ( seed) c iph er c o ee c o tt o n g a rb a g e g rb l e n di r
,
a a , , , , ,
a ,
a ,

z eni t h e t c , .

( 1 2) T urki sh
Bey ( pro v i nc i a l g o v ern or), h orde , b o sh ( n o n sen se ), o t t oma n ( from
O ttoma n , fo un der o f t h e T u rk i sh empi re ), y a ta g h a n ( a da g g er l ik e -

s w o rd), j a n i z a ry , a nd a fe w mo re .

( )
1 3 D ra vi di a n I n di a) ( S ou th e rn

T ea k ( a ki nd o f t i mb er) b a n di c o t mu ng o o se ,
o , ,
c u rry , c h ero o t,

c oo l y ( l a b o u rer) ma ng o ( ki nd o f fru i t ) t o pe ( ma ng o
, ,
-
o rc h a rd ) pa ria h
,

( ) a nd a few mo re
o u t - c a ste , .

( ) M a la y
'

1 4
Ba mb o o c a ddy ( smal l t ea c h est ) c o c k a t o o g o n g ma n g ro v e
,
-
, , , ,

o u ra n g o u t a ng
pa ddy ( ri c e ) ra tt a n ( c a n e ) sa g o u pa s ( a ( fa b l ed)
-
, , , ,

p o i so n o u s t ree ) a mu c k ( a s in th e
p h ra se, t o ru n a mu c k D r y d en .

t re a t s th e a as an

i
a rt c l e , a n d u se s
th e ph ra s e t o ru n I ndi a n
an

mu c k . Th e no u n mu cker fo r mu ck is w ell x ed in c o ll o qu i a l s peec h ) .

( 1 5 ) Chin ese
C h i n a ( in th e se n se o f porc el a i n ), t ea ( Ch tsa , ch d ; th e l a st , .

t h o u g h n o t u sed in E n g l a n d, is u n i v ersa l l y u se d in I ndi a , w h ere it

b ec a me c u rren t th ro u g h t h e Po rtu g u es e ), na nk e en ( a ki nd o f c l o th ,
from N a n ki n ) .

( 1 6) Thib eta n
L a ma ( Bu ddh i st h ig h pri est at Ll a ssa ), y a k ( Th ib . ox ) .

( 7) A
1 u stra lia n
Bo o mera ng , k a ng a ro o , pa ra ma t t a ( so c a ll ed from th e pl a c e ) .

( )
1 8 P o ly n esi a n
Ta b o o ( a proh i b i ti o n ), ta tt o o .

( )
1 9 E g yp ti a n

Beh emo th , sac k ( h en c e dim . sa tch el , a nd sa c k- c l oth )

, g u m, g i psy ,
ibi s ,
o as s , i p per (papy ru s )
a .

( 0) N
2 orth A f ri ca n
Ba rb ( a h o rse), mo ro c c o ( fro m th e c o u n try ) ,
f ez ( M o o ri sh cap )
.

(2 1 ) W est A f rica n
C a n a ry , ch imp a nz ee ,
g i
u n ea , g or il l a , y m (as w e et po t a t o ) .

( ) N
22 orth A meri c a n
Ca u c u s ( perh a ps, o n e w h o u rg e s o n ; n o w , a prel imi na ry meeti ng
fo r a po l i ti c a l pu rpo se ), mo o se , sk u nk , squ a w , t o b a c c o , t o ma h a w k ,
t o t em ( a nc e st ra l sy mb o l ), W ig w a m ( I n dia n h u t ) o po ssu m, ra c c oo n , .
CH . xx q N O TE S O N A FF I X E S A N D A CC I D E N C E 8 33

( )
2 3 M exi c a n

Coc oa ( o ri g . c a ca o ),
c h oc o l a e , c o t pa l , j a l a p t oma to , .

eru vi a n
( )
2 4 P
A l pa c a , c oc a ( w h enc e c oc a i n e ), c o n dor, g u a n o , l l a ma , pa mpa ( a
w i de g ra s sy pl a i n in S ou th A meri c a ; c f p ra i ri e i n N o rt h A meri c a , .

a n d stepp e in R u ss i a ), j e rk ed b e e f ( c orru pt i o n o f ch a rqu i , ra w mea t

c u t u p i nt o st ri ps a n d dri ed i n t h e su n ), pu ma .

C HA P T E R XXX I I I N O TE S O N . A F F I XE S A N D
A C C I DE N C E .

S E CTIO N 1 .
O R I GI N OF T E UT O N I C A FF I X E S .

4 7 2 Th e st u dy of
. ere a re tw o
p o i n ts o f vi ew A fx es Th .

fro m w h i ch pre x es a n d su i x es c an b e stu di ed th e enl a rg e

men t o f th e v o c a b u l a ry , d eal t w i th al ready in C h a pt er x x v ( 2) .

th e e t ymol o g y o f w o rd s, w h i c h i n cl u d es t h e o ri g i n o f th e a fx es
th emsel v es .

O u r l an g ua g e, a s th e rea d er is a w a re , c o n ta i n s th ree di fferen t .

se t s o f a i x es, t h e T eu ton i c , th e R o ma n i c , a n d th e G ree k

-
Th e .

l ast t w o (see 3 2 5 3 4 1 ) a ppea r in o u r l a n g u ag e in mu ch th e-

sa me fo rms a s th ose by w h i c h t h ey w ere k n o w n in t h e i r o ri g in a l

tongu es,th e L a tin , th e n eo L a ti n , an d th e G ree k O n th e o th er -

.

h an d , most o f ou r T eu to n i c a ffix es a ppea r in a fo rm w hi c h is

mu c h l ess eas i l y rec og n i sed , si n c e A n gl o S a x o n is l ess g en era ll y -

k n ow n th a n L a tin o r G reek T h e presen t sec ti o n , th erefore, .

iv es so me a c c o u n t o f th e o ri g i n o f ou r T eu t oni c a fx es
g .

47 3 . Prex es T h
distin gu i sh ed in to S epara bl e viz ese a re ,
.

th ose w h i ch ca n b e us ed as i n d epen d en t w o rd s an d I ns epa ra b l e ,

th ose w h i ch a re n o w seen o n l y as pre x es .

A S epa ra b l e
.
( th e A S as h a d t h e so un d o f a in ra t) . . .

A ft er A S a f t aef ter prepo s i t i o n a n d a dv erb

. .
af ter w a rd s
, ,
: -
.

A I L A S ea l a ll a dj ec t i v e a l o n e l o n e a l rea dy
, . .
, ,
: -
,
-
,
-
.

At A S aet a t prepo si t i o n a t o n e a t o n e men t

. .
, ,
: -
,
- -
.

By A S b i b y pre po si t i o n a nd a dv erb
. .
b y p th
, ,
: -
a .

P ore A S f ore in fro n t prepo si t i o n n d a dv erb f ore t ell

. .
, ,
a : -
.

P orth A S f orth dv erb f orth c omi n g

. .
,
a : - .

Fro N o rse f ra fro m : f ro w ard ,

- .

In A S i n in pre po s i t i o n
. . i n si g h t i n l a n d
, ,
: -
,
-
.

M is A S . . a n d N o rse mi s ,
w ro n g l y , a dv erb mi s dee d ( A S mi s
: -
. .

O
'

A S . . o f ,
of o r o ff , prepo s it i o n : o spri n g
-
o in g ,
-
.

ou A S . . on , o n , re os
p p i t io n : ou - w a rds, on -set .
33 4 H I S T O R Y O F TH E L A N G UA GE PA R T v

O ut ut A S . . at, o u t , a dv erb : ou t- s id e ,
u i -most .

O v er A S of er, o v er, pre po sit o n : o ver w h el m

. . i -
.

Th rou g h t h oro u g h A S th u rh , t h ro u g h , prep : th orou g h . .

T o A S to , t o , pl epo sitio n : to da y ( A S to dx g e, fo r t h e da y )

. . . .

Un der A S u n der, b en ea t h , pre po si t o n : u nder l e t

. . i .

Up A S up , u p, a dv erb : up l a nds
. .

W el w el l A S w el , w el l , a dv erb : w el a re . .
-
f .

W it h A S w ith , a g a n st , b y , n ea r, prep
. w i th s ta n d
. i .
-
.

B . I nsepa ra b l e
A A S
f . do w n ( A S of du n e, o ff a h i l l or du n e )
. o : a -
. .
-
.

A A S
on a l i g h t ( v erb , A S o u l ih t a n , t o l i h t o n )
g
- - -
. . . . .

A or an A S a nd ( a g a i n st ) a n s w er ( A S a n d sw er i a n t o sw ear
. .
-
. .
- -

s pea k b a c k ), a l o no g ( A S a n d l a ng )
-
. . .

A A S a n ( o n e ) a u g h t ( A S a w ih t, o n e th i ng )
. .
-
. .
-
.

A A S a ( i n t e n s i v e ) a ri se ( A S d ris a n )

- - -
. . . . .

A A S mt ( a t ) a do ( for a t do , N o rth ern di a l ec t )

. .
- -
.

A A S g . a ( f ) fo rd ( A S
.
g e f o rth i a n , t o fu rt h er)
-
. .
-
.

Be A S b e ( b y ) b e h o o f ( A S b e h of , a dva nt a g e)

-
. . . . . .

E A S g e, w h i c h b ec a me i
. . e e n o u g h ( A S g e n og ) . .
-
.

F or A S f or ( i n t e n si v e ) : f o r l o rn ( A S f or l oren )
. .
-
. . .

G a in A S g ey n ( a g a i n st ) g a i n sa y ( t h e o nl y w ord l eft)
. .
-
.

N A S n e ( n o t ) n a u g h t ( A S n d w i h t, n o t h i ng )
. .
-
. .
- -
.

0 r A S or ( o u t ) o r dea l ( A S or del , a dea l i ng o u t )

. .
-
. .
-
.

T w i A S tw i ( dou b l e) tw i l i g h t , a do u b t fu l l i g h t
. .
-
.

Uh A S u n ( re v ers a l ) u n l o c k, t o re v erse t h e l o c ki ng
. .
-
.

Un F ri si a n u nd u n to , f or u n d to u n t il , for u nd til - - - -
.

Y A S g e y c l ept , y w is ( w ro n g l y c h a ng ed t o I w i s)
. .
- -
.

4 7 4 N o un f orming S uffix es
.
-
.

A S epa ra b l e, o r fo rmerl y S epa ra b l e

.

-c ra
,
ft
A S c raef t ( s l l ) : h a nd i craf t
. . ki - -
.

~
do m, A S dom (j ur sd c t o n ) w is do m
. . i i i -
.

-
f
are , A S f a r-u (j o u rn e ) : t h o ro u h f a re, c h a p f er ( c h ea p
.
y g .
- -

-
h erd, A S h eorde ( ee per) : S h e p h erd, s w n e-h erd
. . k -
i .

-
h o od, -h e a d, A S h ad ( s t a t e) : ma n h ood, ma den h ea d . .
-
i -
.

-
1edg e , l ate a n ( to pl a y , v erb ) n o w l edg e ( t h e o n ly w o rd)
-
k -
.

l oc k , A S l a k ( pl a y ) w ed l ock ( t h e o nl y w o rd)

-
. . .

-
l o c k , 1i c , A S l edc ( a pl a n t ) : h em l o c k , g a r l i e
-
. .
- -
.

ma n , A S ma nn ( perso n ) w o ma n ( A S w if ma n )
. .
-
. .
-
.

-
mong er, A S ma n y ere ( dea l er in m x ed g o o ds ) sh -mang er
. .
-
i .

-
red, A S rM en ( c o u n sel , c o n d t io n )
. . k in d red i - -
.

-
red, A S reed ( ra t e ). h u n d red ( t h e o n l y w o rd)
.
-
.

-
ri c , A S rice ( do m n o n )
. . b s h o p ri c ( th e o nl y w or ) i i i -
d .

s c a pe , D u t c h sch ap ( o rm, s h a pe ) l a n d scap e f -

.

sh ip , A S scip e ( o rm, s h a pe )
. r en d sh ip
. f fi -
.

son , A S s u n u ( s o n ), a pa tro ny m c : A n der s on

. .
-
i -
.

st ea d, A S stede ( pl a c e ) : b e d stea d, H a mp stea d

. .
- -
.

t ree , A S treow ( sa w n t m er) a x l e -tree i b

. . .

w a rd, A S w ea rd ( e eper) : s t e w a rd ( A S sti w ea rd )

. . k . . .

w if e , A S w if ( ema l e, n o t w e )
. sh w if e, mid-w ije
. f if . .

-w r i g h t , A S w y rht a ( w o r man ) : w h e el w ri g ht. . k .

336 I
H S T O R Y O F TH E L A N G UA G E is m V

-
ish , -sh , -oh , A S -i sc : ma w k -i sh , pa l i sh . .
-
.

-
l y ( i nse pa ra b l e form o f A S l ic , l ik e ) w o ma n - l g . . .

most , A S 7nesl , do u b l e su per] -ma + esl : fo re most

. . .
- -
.

ow , -W , A S - w e, - ii c a ll ow ( A S c a l -i i ), s l o w
'
- -
. . . . . .

t , -th ( a k i n t o p p W ea k v erb s ) sw if t, fou r iii , u nc ou -l li . .

- -
.

th er, A S i er, C o mpa ra t i v e su fx : o l h er, f u r th er

. .
- -
.

y , A S i g : m i g h.t y ,
a n y
.
( A S sen -i
g ,
fr o m ci n ,
o n e - -
. .

47 6 . A dv erb f orming S u fx es -
.

A . S epa ra b l e, or fo rmerl y S epa ra bl e

- mea l
,
A S mz l ,
o l , a t i me : pi ec e
. .
f
-
i i m D a t i v e pl u r f mz .
f
-
mea l .

-
W a rds , A S w aa ,
: b a c k w a rds. . rd th e s is po ssess i v e -
.

-W a
y s , A S w eg , a w a y t h e s is po ssessi v e al w a gs
. .
-
.

w i se , A S w is e, ma nn er : o th er w ise . .
- -
.

B . I nsepa rab l e
er, -
re , A S . . a nd e v - er, li e i a -
.

i
l ng , -l ong , A S l u ng -a , l a t er : a r - li ng , h ea - l ong . . l i ng -ii d k d .

l y , A S l ie e : o n l y , h a pp - l y
. .
- -
i .

n , A S -n n e : w h e n ( A S h w ae-n n e ), th e n
. .
-
. .
-
.

om, A S -
i i 7n , D a t v e in ex io n : s el d om, w hil om
. . i - -
.

s , c c , - se , A S po ssess v e - as
-
somet me s, o n - c e ( A S dn - as ),
. . i i -
. . el -se

( A S
. e l.l -
as ) .

-
t h er, A S d er : h i l li er, th i tli er, w h i-th er
. .
- -
.

47 7 . V erb f orming S u fx es -
.

-eu
, ( -
n p p S
c a u sa l
t ro n g v e rb s ) d a rk e n ,
o w n a ki n t o . . of - -
.

e r ( fre qu e n t o r c o n tin u a t ) c l a mb ar, w h imp er ( fro m w h i n e)

o - -
. .

-
k (A S c ia n , frequ en ta t i v e o r i n t en si v e )
. .
- -
h a r lc, h ea r ii e n - - -
,

-
l e , el , 1 ( fre qu en t or c o n t in u a t ) b a bb l a, sniv el, k n ee l
- -
. .
- - -
.

se , A S s ia n : c l ea n se, g l i m s e
p
- - - - -
. .

sk ( o f N orse o ri g i n , s el f

-
) b a sk (b a th e o n esel f) -
.

-
y (th e i of A S i a n , I nn su fx ) ferr g , t a rr g . .
-
.
- -
.

S E C TI O N 2 .

N O UN F O RMS .

478 . F emin in e su fx -
ess .

O u r ol d F emi n i n e su fx es

w ere ( estre i nn estre a w o ma n w h o s i ns ) a n d

c f sp n - ster, i A S s
p p
- -
. .
, ,

-
en
( c f v i x en A
. S f y x en o r i g t h e f e
-
mi n i n e o f fo x , T h ese . .
-
,
.

(w ith o n e mo re o f w h i c h n o t ra c e n o w rema i n s) w ere e v en tu all y ,

su ersed ed by th e N o rma n F ren c h esse (n o w s el t a s l t

p p ess
) a e - - -
,

L a t i n i ssa so n st e r i c h in A S sa n g estre mea n t

Th u s
-
g (w h . . .
-

a f ema l e si n g er) b e c a me a fter th e mea n i ng o f th e ste7 h a d b een

-
,

fo rg o tten a n o u n o f th e c o mmo n g en d er ; so t o form a F em1 n 1 n e

,

t h e su fx ess w a s a dd ed ma ki ng

-
so n g stress ,
-
.

4 7 9 P o ssessiv e in exion T h e o ri g i n a l en di n g w as res,

. .

w h i c h fo r so me ti me c o n t i n u ed t o b e a di st i n c t syl l a b l e It .

o c c u rs a s su c h , t h ou gh v ery ra rel y ,
in S h a kspea re
 CH . x xx n r N OTE S O N A FF I X E S A N D A CC I D E N CE 337

Larg er th a n th e moon es sph ere M id N D rea m ii 1

-
. . . .

To sh o w h is t eeth a s w h i t e a s w h a l es b o n e s L ove s L L ost, -

. v . 2 .

W h en th e b ecame n on syll abi c - es -

,
th e e w a s eli d ed ,
an d i ts l oss
was indi ca t ed by th e a postroph e
48 0 . S ub st it ut i on of

his f or
s .


Th e G eni tiv e or

P o ssessiv e in ex io n w a s so meti mes s

p el t as -
i s in st ea d of -es.

W h en th e n ou n w as a foreign ro er n a
p p me, th a t h ad no rea l

g eni tive o f its ow n in ou r l ang ua g e, th e i s w as o ften w ritten

a pa rt from it O w i n g t o th e
. u n c er a n t i ty of i ni ti al h th e is ,

b eca me co n fo u n d ed w i th hi s

D ec i us Caesa r h i s ty me TR E V I S A , A D 1 3 8 0

. . . .

F o r J esu s Ch ri st h i s sa k e E ng l i sh P ra y er B oole -

Th
.

N ol a e ol d t h eory th a t ou r po ssessi v e inex ion es or s

ca me
from his is, o f c ou rse ri di c u l ou s
, W e c ou l d n ev er h a v e sa id
. Ja n e
h is b o nnet

481Pl ura l inexions

.
( )
a Pl u ra l s in -i es 3 5 ) e, in
a r .

fa c t, fo rmed qu it e reg ul arl y, b eca use th e o rig in al S in g ul ar en din g

w as i e, n o t y
-
a s ci ti e, c i ti es -
.

(6) P l u rals in en 3 8 ) a re from A S a n (a s, steorr a n , stars)

-
. .
- -
.

T h is en di ng l ong dispu t ed th e gro u n d w ith es H osen, pl u ral -

.

o f h ose, o c c u rs in O l d T est , D a n iii 2 1 shoon , pl u ra l o f sh oe, . . .

in S h a ks pea re S penser h a s ey en fo r ey es, a n d f oen fo r f oes

. .

(e) Pl u ral s in -
es a re from A S; .
-
as (a s ,
s tan -
a s,

t
s on es )
.

O ri g i n al l y th i s i n flex i o n w as n o t mu ch mo re co mmon . th a n -
a n,

th ou gh it h as n o w b eco me prac ti call y u n iversal .

4 8 2 M u t a t ion Pl u r a l s T hi s is th e n ame g iv en to th ose

.

p l u ra l s t h a t a re f o r m ed by a c h a n g e o f t h e r oo t v o w e l (see l i st -

in T h e ea rli est f o rms o f th ese pl u ra l s w ere ma nn is (men ), -

mzi s is (mi ce, cf La t ma r es), lil s i s (li c e), f ol is (fee t , of L a t

'

- - - -
. . . .

p eel e
-
s
), t dth i s ( t e e t h ,
c f
-
L a t d en t es),
a n d g as i s.
(g e es e) T h. e - -
.

Pl u ra l w a s fo rmed simpl y by a ddi n g is es t o th e S i n g ul a r

) - -
.

T h e effec t o f th e v o w el in i s w as t o c h a n ge th e v o w el o f th e -

S in g ul a r n ou n i n t o so meth i ng mo re l ik e itsel f so th a t ma nn is -

b eca me menn is, mil s is b ecame mgs is, li i s is b ec a me ly s is, f dt is

'
'
- - ' - - - -

b eca me f et is, t th is b eca me teth is, a n d gos is b eca me ges is

- - - - -
.

W h en th e pl u ral en di ng is d ropped o ff, as it did even in A ngl o -

S a x on ti mes, n o th i ng b u t th e mu t a ti on o f th e ro o t v o w el re -

ma i n ed t o i n di c a t e th e pl u ral H en c e in A n g l o S a x on w e n d .
-

men n = E n g me n , mgs = E ng mi ce, lgs = E n g l i c e, f et = E ng

. .
.

fee t, teth = E n g t eeth , g es = E n g g eese

. . .

M a n y o th er n o u ns in o u r l an gu a g e w ere o n c e fo rmed by th i s
E . G . 0 . Z
33 8 H I S TO R Y O F T HE LA N GUA G E P A RT v

pro c ess o f mu ta ti on 1 . Th e i ns tan c es quo e t d are th e remna n ts

of w ha t w as o n c e a l a rg er c l ass .

4 8 3 S a me F orm f or P l u ra l a s Sin gu l a r see

. 3 8 (e) In .

A S th e pl u ra l fo rms o f deer, sheep , sw in e w ere th e sa me fo r th e

. .

l u ra l as fo r t h e si n u l a r, b ec a u se th e n o u n s w ere n eu t er Th e
p g .

A S pl u ra l o f y oke w a s g eoc u , in w h i c h th e n al i t b ec a me l ev ell ed

. .
~

4 3 5 ) t o e, a n d th e e b ec a me e v en tu a ll y si l en t T h e w o rd sco re .

w as Pl u ra l , b e fo re it w as e v er used a s a S i n u l a r Th fo rei n
g e
g .

w or s d g rou se,
b ra ce, doz en, gross, a n d th e n a t iv e w o rd
trou t, cod,

h ea then , a ll o f w h i c h h a v e th e sa me fo rm in th e Pl ura l a s in th e

foll o w ed th e same mod el

S i ng u l a r, h a v e .

S E C T I O N 3 A DJ E C T I V E F O R M S
4 8 4 O r ig in of t h e A rt ic l es Th e o ri g in o f th e I nd en i te
. .

a rt i c l e a o r a n fro m th e A S n u mera l an

on e is w ell in . .
, ,

k eepi ng w ith th e fac t th a t th e I n d en it e a rti c l e is n ev er u sed

w i t h a n y b u t S i n g u l a r n o u n s an d t h a t it sti ll so met i mes h a s t h e ,

sense o f one

bird one bird ) in t h e h a nd is w orth tw o in th e b u sh

A :
.

T h e fo rm a is sh o rt fo r a n th e l a t ter b ei n g ret a i n ed o nl y

,

b efo re vo w el s o r si l en t h a n d a n is merel y a n u n a cc en t ed form

of A S . . ( i ii .

I n A S th e . . form
d a s a n I nd ec l i n a b l e rel a t ive a nd
th e w a s u se ,

n o t as it n o w is as a D emon stra tiv e a dj ec t i v e

, ,
F o r a ll c ases a n d .

g en d ers o f n ou n s si n g u l a r a n d pl u ra l (ex c ept i ng th e N o m S i ng

,
. .

M asc a n d th e N o m S i n g F em w h i c h h a d se a nd sed respec ti v el y

.
,
. .

fo r th e i r D en i te a rt i c l es) th e D en it e a rti c l e w a s ex pressed by ,

a d e c l i n a b l e a dj ec tive c o n t a i n i n t h e b a se tha ou t o f w h i c h w e
g ,

g et o u r
p r ese n t fo rm s th i s th a t th ese th o se E v en t u a ll y t h e
, , ,
.

si m l e fo rm

su persed ed ev ery o th er fo r a ll c ases a n d b o th

p th e
n u mb ers a n d b eca me w h a t it n o w is th e D e n i te a rt i c l e
, , ,
.

N ote 1 I t i s th ere fore o ppo sed to h i st ory a s w ell a s t o rea so n

.

t o c o n si der th e A rt i c l es a di st i nc t pa rt o f s peec h I t is o ppo sed t o .

rea so n b ec u s e w h ere v er t h ey a re u s ed t h ey di sc h rg e a s t h e i r
,
a , ,
a ,

o ri g i n w o u l d i m l t h e fu n c t i o n o f a dj ec t i v e s in l i mi t i n g o r den i n g
py ,

th e a ppli c t i o n f a n o u n a T h e u n i v ers l i ty o f t h ei r u se g i v es t h em
o . a ,

it is tru e a n ex c e pti o n a l c h a ra c t er w h i c h di s t i ng u i sh e s t h em fro m

, ,

o rdi n a r a dj ec t i v es ; b u t t h i s do es n o t ma k e t h em di st i n c t pa rt s o f
y
speec h

.

N ote 2 h ra se a s a ma n y t ea rs
In su c h a ( u se d b y T enny s o n ,
p .

a n d c o mmo n l y u sed in c o ll o qu i a l s pe ec h ), t h ere i s n o c o n fu si o n o f

1
I n G erma n th is proc ess o f mu ta tion is c a l l ed Uml a u t T h e E ng l ish .

n a me, h o w e v er, is qu it e a s sui ta b l e, b esides b eing mo re g enera l l y u nder

s t o o d b y E n g l ish re a ders .
3 40 H I S TO R Y O F T H E L A N G UA GE P A RT v
T h e h edg e spa rro w fed t h e c u c k o o so l o ng ,
-

Th a t it h a d i t h ea d b it o ff b y i t y ou n g
K i ng L ea r, . i . 4 .

It s ( w ri t ten i
w th o u t an a
p t
o s ro h e , s n c e
p i th ere n e v er w a s a form
i i -es) w a s n o t w ell e st a l sh e t ll bi d i D ry den s t i me

D ry den u ses .

i
n o th n g el se ( see
She .

W ro ng l y a sc r b e to th e fem D en t e a rt c l e see ( o f w h c h
i d . i i i
i
ment o n is ma de in I t h a s c o me ro m t h e M erc a n scae o u nd f i f

b
i n th e P et er o ro u g h c h a pt ers o f t h e O l d E ng l i sh Chroni c l e Th e .

i
s pell n g sh e is reg u l a rl orme o u t o f seat yf d

.

F rom A S ag en , P a s pa rt
Ow n . d
po ssesse
. t . .

4 8 6 M y sel himsel f
f . e t c T h e e x pl a n a ti o n o f th ese fo rms
, ,

is a v ery si mpl e ma t ter if w e a tt en d t o th ei r hi st o ry a n d a v o id

,

c o nj e c t u re T h e w o rds o c c u r in A S in su c h fo rms a s min self es

. . .
-

m e sa me), me m (to me th e me), mee m

(of e t h se lf
-
u sa se lf n e
( -
e

th e sa me , A c e ) .

T h e rst t h i ng t o b e n o t ed , as in fa c t th e b o ve forms S h ow
a ,

is th a t self w as or i g in al l y n o t a n ou n ,
b u t a n a dj ec ti v e w h i ch
sa me

si n i ed a s i t sti l l d oes in th e fol l o w i ng l in e ; cf self
g ,
.

sa me (a dj) .

t ha t self moment enters Pa l a mo n D RYD E N

At . .

S el f is sti ll a n adj ec tive in th e ph ra se himself (hi m th e

sa me) Bu t l ik e man y o th er a dj ec tiv es it ca me in mo d ern ti mes
.
, ,

t o b e u sed a s a n ou n a n d a c qui red a pl u ral selves fo rmed o n th e

,

a n a l og y o f

sh elf sh el v es W e mu st regard it as a n ou n in th e
,
.

h r ase my self (li t my id en tity) ou r sel ves (o u r id en titi es) I n th e

p
- -
. .
,

T u d o r peri o d hi s self (h is id en tity) w as a s c ommon a s himself :

-

W h o h i s o w n self b a re o u r si n s 1 P eter ii 24 . . .

I n l o w l ife w e sti ll h ea r th e ph ra se H e h u rt hisself , .

T h e ph ra se themselves is du e to a co n fusi o n o f c on stru c t i on .

H ere selves w h i ch S h o ul d b e th e a dj ec tive
,
sel f
q u a l ifyi n
g

them (as in
h i msel f th e
sel f u al i es as rec e i v ed

q h
th e fo rm o f a pl u ral n o u n by a tt ra c ti on t o th e pl u ra l
th em .

t
o a W e c a n n o w se e w h y it is w ro ng ( a s po i nt ed o u t a t t h e t o p
of p 1 5 8 ) t o u s e my self , h i mself , e tc , a s su b j ec t t o a v erb
. Such . .

h r re su ppo se t h a t t h e c o rres o ndi n r o n l r n n h a s b een

p a s es
p p g p e s a
p o o u

men ti on ed a lrea dy
I my se lf ( t h e i dent ity o f me , th e v ery sa me
.

er s o n a s t h e s pea k er) sa w it H e did it h i mself ( t e b y h i ms el f,

p . . .

o r fo r h i mse l f, o r t o h i ms el f) H i m is h ere t h e D a t i ve c a se, w h i c h in

.

O ld E n g l i sh requ i red no pre posi t i on .

VE R B F O RM S S E CTI O N 5
48 7 P a st t en se T h e th eo ry th a t th e d o r t o f th e Pa st
. .

t ens e in W ea k verbs h as c ome from did (as l o ve did

l o v ed -

h as b een en ti rel y expl od ed T h e e xi on a l meth od o f th us formi ng .

CH . x xx n r N O TE S O N A FF I KE S A N D A C C I D E N CE 3 41

th e P ast t ense is fro m A S - de o r - te, . . w hi ch ag a in is t ra ced

fu rth er b a c k to th e G o thi c in ex i on - da or ~
ta .

G oth i c . A S . . E ng li sh .

bra h ta -
b ro h t e -
bro u gh t -

In so me W ea k v erb s w e a l so nd a di fference of ro o t vow el -

,
as

sel l, sol d . In v erb s it

is th e Presen t t ens e th a t h a s c h a ng ed ,
su c h

n o t th e Pa st T h u s sa l de (sol d ) is regu l a rl y fo rmed fro m th e roo t

.
-

sa l b u t t his sa l b eca me sel by mu ta ti o n th rou gh th e in

u en ce o f th e i in th e I n ni tiv e sufx -i a n A S sa l i a n , sel l a n , . .
- -

M idd l e E n glish sell en, a n d n all y (by th e l oss o f n al - e7i ) sel l

-
.

r . n r
4 8 8 P e se t P a t ic ipl e O f th e th ree ol d forms o f th e P re .

sen t P a rti c i pl e a n d w as
p ec ul i a r t o th e N o rth e rn di a l ec t
,
-
en de t o ,
-

th e M idl a n d a n d in de t o th e S ou th ern
,
T h e l a st sprea d
-

i n t o th e M idl an d also a nd x ed itsel f th ere Th e i n d h ow ev er ,

.
, ,

b eca me ch ang ed to i ng ow in g appa ren tl y to th e g rea ter fa cil ity o f ,

r o n ou n cin g th e l a tt er syll a b l e a t th e en d o f a w o rd T h e c h an g e
p .

w as u n fo rtu n a t e in on e respec t it redu c ed th e Pres pa rt to th e . .

sa me form as th a t o f Verb a l n ou n s en di n g in ing su c h a s bi n d -

,

ing w ith w h i c h th e P res pa rt is v ery a pt t o b e c onf o u n d ed

.
,
. .

4 8 9 P a st or P a ssiv e pa rt ic ipl e
. I n S tron g v erb s th e .

i nflex i on en ( th o u gh now in man y cases l ost) w a s so Spel t in

-

A ngl o S a x on ; a s g e cu m en ( c ome)
- - -
.

I n W ea k v erb s th e su fx - d o r - t w as l ik ew i se so spel t in
An gl o S a x o n-
F rom th e v ery rst i t w a s qu it e disti n c t from
.

th e endin g o f th e Pa s t t ense - de o r te, t h ou g h by l oss o f th e -

na l e in -
de or -
te th e y b eca me in disti ng u ish a b l e . T h e Pa st
t me th e t in La ti n ; c f a ma t- u s,

pa r . su fx -
t or -
d is th e sa as .
-

moni -
t -
us ,

rec - t- u s,

a u di - t- us Bu t th e Past i n fl ex i on - de
.

or - te is pec ul i a r to T eu t on i c l an g u a g es .

4 9 0 I nnit iv e
. .
I n A S
I n n itive (in d ecli na bl e) . th e S impl e
h a d th e su fx a n or ia n w h i ch a ft er b ei ng l ev ell ed t o en
- -
,
-

4 3 5 ) w a s ev en tu all y l o st T h u s w e h a ve bin d a n bin d en

- -
.
, ,

b in I n A S th i s I n ni t ive w a s n ev er preced ed by to a s it
. .
,

usu all y is in M o d ern E n lis h

g .

W h a t w e n o w ca ll th e Qu al ifyi ng o r G eru ndi a l I n ni tive w a s a

h r as e fo rmed in A S by t h e r iti n to n d by t h i n e x i on
p p pe os o a e. .

a n n e w hi c h a ft er b e i n c h a n e d rs t t o enn e a n d t h en t o en w a s
g
-
, g
e v e n t u a ll y l ost Th us w e h a v e t o bi n d a nn e t o bin d enn e

- -
.
, ,

t o bin d en to bi n d
-

, .

W h en th e preposi t i on to ca me t o b e add ed to th e S i mpl e

I n ni ti v e a lso (a process o f w h i ch th e ea rl i est traces a re seen
3 42 H I S T O R Y O F TH E L A N G U A G E PA RT V

a b ou t th e end o f th e tw el fth c en tu ry) n o differen c e in f orm ,

b e tw e en th e tw o I n n itiv es w as l eft Th e f u n c tion s h o w eve r .

, ,

t h a t is th e syn ta c t i ca l u ses of th e tw o I n ni t iv es a re sti ll a s

di sti n c t a s ev er th e S i mpl e I n n i t ive h a ving th e fo rc e o f a
, ,

n ou n th e G e run di a l t h a t o f a n a dj ec tiv e o r a d v erb

,

49 1 . G er u n d or V erb a l no un in -
ing .
Th e su fx -
i ng
is fro m A S in g . o r (a s i t w as mo re c o mmon l y S el t
.
-
p ) u ng A -
.

w o rd formed by addi n g i n g t o a v erb st em a s bi ndi ng w as

-

-
, ,

a n ou n
pu re a nd S i mpl e Th e u ng o r i n g w a s pu rel y a n ou n - -
.

fo rmi ng suf x l ik e th in steal ih o r r in sta i r o r l in aw l

,
- -
,
- -
,
- -
,

o r m in doo m
-
T h o ugh w e n o w ca l l su c h a w o rd a g e ru n d it
-
.
,

is properl y spea ki ng a n ou n in M od ern E ngl i sh a l so I n th i s .

respec t th ere is n o b rea ch o f c on ti n u ity from th e ti me o f Al f red

th e G rea t u p to th e presen t da y .

A s w e a pproa ch th e mod ern peri od th e h a bit g rew u p o f ,

o mi tt i n
g th e prepositi on of a ft er su ch n ou n s c f a si mi l a r o mi s .

si o n i n o n b o a rd (o f Sh i a t h o u sa n d (o f
) po u nd s a ma n y

) p , ,

(of) t ears

,
d espi te (of) th ose ri ch es ( S c o tt) Th u s men b ega n
.

sh o w i n g c o mpa ssi o n m

sh o w i n i

t o sa y fo r g ( ) o f c o
p ass o n .

Th e o mi ssi o n o f th e prepo si t i o n of mad e th e n o u n sh o w i ng

l oo k li k e a v erb w i th th e n ou n c o m assi o n s i ts o bj e c t

a
p .

S h o w i n g a s a Pres pa rt w as k n o w n t o b e a v erb a l rea dy a nd

,
. .

sh o w in
g th e a b stra c t n ou n l o o k ed l ik e a v erb a l so

so ,
.
,

I t w a s th u s th e id en tity in form b e tw e en th e Pres pa rt sh ow . .

i n g a n d th e a b st ra c t n ou n w h i c h g a v e ri se t o t h e

sh o w i n g -

n o ti o n th a t th e l a t t er mu st b e a v erb l ik e th e fo rmer a n d it w a s

th e o mi ssi o n o f th e prepo siti o n of w h i c h c o mpl et ed th e i ll u si o n .

W h en th e a b stra c t n ou n sh o w i ng w a s th u s mad e o u t to b e a

a rt o f th e v er it a s v e ry ea sy t o c o i n a Pa st fo rm

p S h ow w ,
h av

in g sh o w n c o rrespo n di ng t o th e fo rm o f th e Pa st pa rt i c i pl e

H e w a s pra i sed for h a vi ng sh ow n c ompa ssi o n .

F o r w o rd s th u s used su c h as sh o w i n g a n d h a v i n g sh ow n
, ,

ra mma ri a ns i n d es a i r h a v e i n v en t ed t h e t erm g eru n d

g p
( S k e a t ) a n d w e m us t n o w a c c e
p t t h es e f o rm s a s d ev e l o p m e n ts

o f mo d ern E n l i sh

g ( S w eet ) .

Bu t it sh o u l d b e c l ea rl y u n d erst oo d th a t th ere is n o c o n n ec t i o n
w h a t ev er b e tw e en th i s mo d e rn G eru n d a n d th e o l d G eru n di a l

I n n i ti v e T h e l a tter i nv a ria bl y en d ed in a nn e o r enn e o r

.
-
,
-
,

-
en u n ti l (by a b ou t A D 1 5 0 0 ) th e in e x ion di ed o u t
. .

a l tog e th e r T h e n a l en n e n ev er t o o k th e fo rm o f in g e o r ing
.
- - -
,

a n d in fa c t it h as n o c o nn ec t i o n w ith i t w h a tev e r .
3 44 S O U N DS , S Y M BO LS , A N D S PE LLI N GS P A RT v1

c o n son a n ,
h o w e v er,
t h t
e y is i n di sp en sa b l e
; f o r w e c ou l d n o t

e x re ss su c h w o rds a s y oke, y et w i th ou t it
p .

T h e l e tt e r w a s a v o w el is ev en l ess u sefu l (if th i s w ere

o ssib l e) th a n y ; fo r it c a n n o t st a n d a l o n e a s y c a n , b u t is seen
p
o nl y i n su c h c o mbi n a ti o n s a s a w , ew , ow , a l l o f w h i c h c a n b e

q u it e a s eas i l y s el t a n, en, on
p A s a c o n so n a n t, h o w ev e r, th e
.

l etter w is i ndi spen sa b l e fo r it en ab l es u s to e xpress su c h w o r s d

a s w i l l, w a x, w et .

N ote Th e v o w el s i a nd u ( c are b ei ng t a k e n t h a t i t h ere st a nd s for

th e u i n f u l l , a nd n ot fo r t h e u in tu n e) a c qu i re t h e c o n so n a nt a l
so u n ds o f y a n d w respec t i v el y , w h en t h ey a re fo l l o w e d b y o t h er

v o w el s . Th u s Op i n i on i s sou nded a s if it w ere spel t o p in y on ( th ree - -

sy l l a b l es ) S i mil a rl y if w e a tt empt t o so u n d u i l l i a m w e g et Wi l l i a m
. .

T h e l ett er w is merel y a dou b l e v, th ou g h it is c a ll ed a

dou b l e i i .

T h e sy mb ol v is merel y a n oth e r form o f u , a n d in L at i n du ri ng t h e

c l a ssi c a l peri o d i t w a s t h e o nl y sy mb o l u se d .

49 6 . D ig ra ph , diph t h on g It . is n e c essa r y to un d erstand

c l ea rl y w h a t is mea n t
by th ese tw o w o rd s .

A digra ph is a c o mpo un d l et t er ; a diphthong is a c o mpo u n d

soun d D i g ra ph is fro m G reek di tw o o r t w i c e a n d grap h

.
, , ,

t o w rite i t th ere fore mea ns a d ou bl e l ett er D i ph th o n g is

.

fro m G reek di t w o or t w i c e a nd phthong os a sou nd : it th ere

, ,
-
,

fo re mea n s a d ou b l e so u nd

.

O w i ng t o th e few n ess o f ou r v o w el symb ols an d th e mu l ti -

l i it f r v o w el sou nds w e a re so me ti me s fo rc e d t o u se a

m
p c y o o u -

di gra ph for ex pressin g a vo w el sou n d th a t is si mpl e o r u n c o -

ou nd ed a s a u O n th e o th er h a n d i t so me ti mes h appen s (su c h is

p ,
.
,

th e perversi ty o f o u r spell i ng) th a t w e u se a si ngl e l ett er to ex press

:

a v o w e l sou n d th a t is c o m o u nd in t u b u la r sou n d e d a s
p as u
- - -
,

-b
y oo l a r
'

:t y ob -
.

S i mi l a rl y w e so me ti mes u se a . di g ra ph to ex
pre ss a i
s n gl e

. c o nso n a n a l so u n t d, as p h i n Ph i lip; and a i

s n gl e c o n so n a n t to
ex
press d o ub l e
a so u n d , a s a in ta x,
so u n d ed a s ta ks .

1
if
4 9 7 V ic e o. l e s s a n d V o i c e d C on s on a n t s C o n so n a n t s a r e .

su bdivid e d i n t o t w o g r e a t c l a ss e s t h e V o i c e l e
,
s s a n d th e V o i c ed .

i
Vo c e d i t h n m iv e n t o t h o se c o n so n a n ts w hi c h c a n b e
s e a e g
d d t l i h t e x t e n t w i th ou t th e h e lp of a vow el ; t h e
so u n e o a s g
i
V o c el ess a re t h o s e t o w h i c h n o so u n d w h a t ev e r c a n b e g iv e n

i
w th o u t th i s h el p T h e V .o i c e d t h e r e fo r e h a v e so m e th i n g o f a

1 Voiced a re th e na mes a do pt ed b y P ro f e ssor S k ea t

Voicel ess a n d S u rd .

l l su it a b l e T h e n a me s H a rd
( sil ent ) a n d S on a n t ( sou n d in g) a re e qu a y .

f
a n d S o t, S h a p
r a n d Fl a t ,
a r e a l so u se d ; b u t t h e y a re n o t su i t a b l e A n .

a ppl e ma y b e h ard or so t , b u t not a c o so fn na nt .

CH . x x x rv L E TTE R S , A CCE N T S , S Y LL A BLE S 345

v oc al i c t
c h ara c er, a n d a re a c onn ec ting l in k b et w een Vo i cel ess
c o n so n a n ts a n d Vo w el s .

C o n son a n t s a s th u s di sti n gu i sh ed g o fo r th e most part in

i r A ll c on so n a n t s n o t in c l u d e d a mo n gst th ese i
pa s .
p rs a re
a

Vo i c ed , w ith th e ex c e pti o n O f h w h i c h i s Vo i c el e ss
, .

Voi cel ess . Voi ced . Voi cel ess . Voi ced . Voicel ess .

k s z
p
oh t d f
sh th ( i n) t h ( i s) w h

Th e di sti n c ti on b etw e en Vo i c el ess a n d Vo i c ed c an b e ea si l y

veri ed by an y o n e w h o w ill ma k e th e experi men t o n h is o w n
o r a ns
g W e .c a n sou n d ka fo r i n st a n c e so l on
g a s th
, e k is ,

fol l o w ed by a vo w el Bu t if w e c u t o ff t h e a a n d try to so u n d
.

th e k a l on e w e c a nn o t pro d u c e a n y so u n d w h a t e v er th o u gh w e
, ,

a re c o n sc i ou s o f a fe el i n g o f mu sc u l a r t e n si o n in th e t o n u e
g .

T h ere is n o voice in it a n d h en c e th e c o n so na n t k is c l asse d a s

V o i c el e ss .

O n th e o th er h a nd if w e t a k e th e c o mbi na ti o n g a a n d c u t
, ,

o ff th e a w e n d t h a t w ith o u t th e a ssi st a n c e o f th i s o r a n y
,

o th er v o w el it is possib l e to ma k e a n a u dib l e g u g l e Th i s
g .

c on so n a n t is t h ere fo re c l asse d a mo n g th e Vo i c ed .

T h e fol l o w i n g fa c ts a re o f v ery w id e a ppl i c a t i o n

I W h e n tw o c o n so n an t s c o me t o g eth er v o i c el ess c on son a n t s

.
,

a re a ssi mi l a t e d in so u n d to v o i c e d o n es o r v o i c e d t o v o i c el ess , .

( )
a I n m o n o s y ll a b l e s t h e rst l e tt er u su a ll y h o l d s its
g r ou n d ,

a n d th e sec o n d h as t o g iv e w a y t o it C o mpa re th e s in ca ts .

w ith th a t i n la ds I n th e rst th e s rema i n s v o i c el ess b ec a u se

.
,

it is prec ed ed by th e v o i c el ess t I n th e sec o n d th e 3 b ec omes .

a v o i c e d l et t e r i e rec eiv es th e so u n d o f z b e c a u se it is pre c ed e d

,
. .
,

b y a v o i c ed d S i mi l a rl y c o mpa re th e d in looked w ith th a t in

.

l oved th e s in ca ps w i th th a t i n c a b s
,
.

b I di y l l b l es a nd c o mpou n d w o rd s th e rst l e tt er u su a ll y
( ) n s s a

g iv es w a y t o t h e sec o n d o n e a s in f ive t e en so u n d e d a n d spel t -

,

a s f t e en ; c up b oa rd sou n d ed th ou gh n ot spel t a s cu b b oa rd
- -
-
, , ,

bla ck g u a rd so u n de d th ou gh n ot S pel t a s b la g gu a rd
-
, , ,
-
.

T h i s proc ess i s v ery c ommo nl y a t w o rk i n prex e s Th u s w e .

l i c t, app ea r f o r adp ea r, a sse nt

lic t fo r
f
'

h ave a cc e n t fo r a dc e nt , a ad

fo r a ds en t , a tta i n fo r a dta in , a gg ri e v e fo r a dgrie v e, a l l o t fo r a dl o t,

a nn u l fo r a dn u l , a rri v e for a driv e, i n t e ll ec t f o r int erl ec t , o cc u r for

o b ou r, of er f or o bf er, opp o s e fo r o bp o s e , pe l l u c i d fo r pe rl u c id, po l l u t e

f or po rl u t e, su cc e e d for su b c eed, supp o rt fo r su bp ort , e t c .

I I A v oi c el ess c on sonant O ften rec eives the so u nd of a voi c ed

.
3 46 S O U N D S , S Y M BO L S , A N D SP E L L I N G S P A RT VI

o n e, w h en it
is pl a c e d b etw een tw o v o w el s T h u s in b rea th th e .

th is v o i c el ess ; b u t in b rea the w h e re i t sta n d s b etw een t w o

,

v o w el s, it is i d
vo ce . A ga i n rise is sou n d ed a s rice, not as ri ce .

L a the is so u n d e d n o t a s la th , b u t i
w th t h e so u n d th as in th(i s)
I I I W h en o n e c o n so n a n t is su b sti tu te d fo r a n o th er a s
, .

.
,

so me ti mes h a ppen s a v o i c el ess c o n so n a n t is di spl a c ed by a

,

v o i c el ess o ne a n d a v o i c e d by a v o i c ed T h i s is espec i a ll y seen

in d o u b l ets
,
.

th a t is pa i rs o f w o rd s d e ri v ed fro m th e sa me
, ,

o ri g i n a l el emen t s b u t differe n tl y s el t
p ,

C ro ok c ross ( k su b sti tu t e d fo r 3 b o th v o i c el e ss )
,
'

A p t i t u de , .
,

a ttit u d e
(p a nd t b o th v o i c l ess ) A pric o ck ( o l der spell i ng ) a nd
,
e .

a ri c o t ( k a nd t b o t h v o i c el e s s ) B a rb b e a rd ( b a n d d b o t h v o i c ed)
p ,
.
, , .

Tr p l a p ( r a nd l b o th v o i c ed) Pru n e pl u m (r a nd l n a nd m
a , ,
.
, , ,

b o th pa irs v o ic ed) W rd g u rd ( w nd g b oth v o i c ed)

. a ,
a a , .

I n sho e (A S see) w e n d sh su b stitu t e d fo r sk (b o th v o i c el e ss)

. . .

S o t o o in she ( M id l a n d sc ale) v o i c e d th i s

I n se e the so dden .
, ,

i n terc h a nge d w ith v o i ced d so to o in mu rther (o l d er spel l i ng) ,

murder I n th e 3 rd S i ng c ast s (ol d er form c a st es c ast eth)

- - -
. .
, ,

w e n d th e v o i c el ess s su b sti tu t ed fo r th e v o i c el ess th .

I n A S na l o r medi a l h w a s so u nd e d a l mo st l ik e k as
. .
,

L o ch L o mo n d A su rvi va l o f th i s o c c u rs in th e w o rd

in .

n ext w h i c h in A S w a s spel t n ehst I n mo d ern . . .

E ngl i sh th i s h h as b ee n u su al l y respel t a s g h I n th e w o rd s .

l o u gh a n d h ou gh (so u n d ed a s l ok hok) th e o ri g in a l so u n d

, ,

o f th e It h as b ee n re ta i n e d Bu t i n c erta i n o th er w o rds a s .
,
~

enou gh ,
l a ugh rou gh trou gh tou gh c ou gh th e so u n d o f f h a s
, , , , ,

b een su b stitu ted fo r th e sou n d o f k b o th l e tters b ei n g v o i c el ess ,

.

4 9 8 A c c en t E mph a sis Qua n t it y R ou ghl y spea ki n g

.
, ,
.
,

b o th a c c e n t a nd e mph asi s a re th e ee c t o f lou dness (w h i c h h el ps

t o pro d u c e di sti n c tn ess) w h i l e qu a nti t y d epen d s o n th e ti me ,

t h a t it t a k es t o pro n o u n c e a sy l l a b l e .

W h en we la y stress u
po n a si ng l e sy ll a b le, i pro n ou n c e i t
. e.

mo re l o u dl y an d di stin c tl y th a n th e o th er sy ll a b l e o r syl l a b l es

o f th e sa me w o rd th i s is c all ed , A c c en t (L a ti n a d, to , ca n tu s, a

so n
g).

S u p pl y -

,
si m pl y
-
. R e b el -

( v erb ) ,
reb

-
el ( n ou n ) .

W h en w e l a y st ress u pon a n en tire w ord, i . e .

pron ounce it
mo re l o u d l y a n d di sti n c tl y th a n any o th e r w or d of th e sa me
se n t e n c e o r p h ra se , th i s is c al l e d E mph a sis ( G re e k en
,
in or o n,

p ha si s, s ee c h )
p .

I fro m Ph i l i p dru n k t o Ph il ip sob r

a ppea l e .

Qu a nt it y mea n s th e a mou n t o f time o c c u pi ed in u tt eri ng a

3 48 S O U N D S , S Y M BO L S , A N D S PEL L I N G S P A RT VI

h as th e t
a cc e n on th e rs t sy ll ab l e ,
as b efore ,
and th e a dj ec ti ve
on th e sec o n d

C o m pa c t ( nou n ), c om pa c t M in u te ( n ou n ), mi nu t e

- - - -

I n v a lid ( n ou n ), in v a l id
'
- - - -

N ote S o me t ime s, h o w ev er, t h ere is n o di fferen c e o f a c c en t ; a s

( a dj an d v erb ), con tents ( n o u n ); con sent , re sp ec t ,

c o n ten t
-
.
- - -

her a l d, s up p o rt ( a l l n ou n s a n d v erb s) ; c on c rete, p a ti en t ( b o th

'
- - - -

n o u n s a n d a dj ec t i v es ) S u c h ex a mpl e s a re n o t c o mmo n
. .

5 00 . S y ll a b ic div isio n I n
dividi ng a w o rd i n to syl l a b l es
w e mu st b e g u id e d by th e pro n u n c i a t i on ( w h i c h o f c o u rse is v e ry
mu c h a ffe c te d by th e a c c en t) n ot by th e ety mol ogy
W o rd , .

divi si o n sa y s P ro fesso r S k ea t h a s n o th ing to do w i th e ty

, ,

mol og y . F ro m a pra c ti c a l po i n t o f vi e w i m p u dence i s righ t

- -

b e i ng b ased o n th e spo k en l a ng u age It is o nl y w h en w e ta k e .

th e w o rd t o pi ec es th a t w e di sc o v er th a t it is fo rme d fro m i m
,

( for i n th e b a se pu d a n d th e su f x ence Ye t w e di v id e th e
,
-
.

w o rd a s i m p u den ce
'
T h e spo k en l a n
'
-
n o t a s i 7n p u d ence
-
_
,
- -
.

u se a t o n e mo men t a n d

g u ag e h a s
p e r -
p e ru sa l a t a n o th er I t ,
- -
.

ri gh tl y reg a rd s e a se o f u tt era n c e a n d n o th i n g el se

.
,

W e divid e b a n qu et i n to b a n gu et ; w e a re c o mpel l ed t o
-

do so by th e a c c en t Bu t if w e fol l o w ed th e e ty mol o g y w e
.

sh ou l d h a ve t o divid e i t i nto b a n u et d
g a n ig n o re th e a c c en t
-
,

a l t og e th e r fo r th e ste m o f th e w o rd is b a n gu e F r ,
.

C HA P TE R XXXV .

VO W E L -
S O U N DS A N D HOW
T HE Y A R E S PE L T .

5 01 . Tw en t y o n ds I f o u r a l ph ab e t w ere mo re
o
v w el s u -
.
1

erfe c t th a n it is w e sh o u l d h a v e on e sepa ra t e sy mb o l t o e x press

p ,

ea c h se a ra t e so u n d U n fo rtu n a tel y it is v ery i mpe rfe c t ; fo r

p .

w e h a v e o nl y ve v o w el si g n s (y h a vi n g b ee n e x c l u d ed a s su per
-

u ou s) t o e x pre ss fo u r ti mes a s ma n y so u n d s O f th ese t w enty .

v o w el so u nd s si xte en a re si mpl e a n d fou r a re di ph th o ng s (Th e

-
, ,
.

o n eti c sy mb o l u sed b el o w mea n s th e sy mb o l u sed t o

p h ra se
ph

1
Th e l ist of h ere g iven , th o u g h n o t t h e sa me a s th a t
t w en t y sou n ds

g iv e n in s o m e sc h oo l b o o k s w il l , I t ru st , b e a c c epted as c o rrec t ; f or it
-

is th e on e o n w h ic h a l l t h e b es t a u t h o rities are a gree d, Pro fesso r S k ea t,

,

M r S w eet M iss L a u ra S o a mes, a nd D r M u rra y ( in th e intro du c tio n t o

.
, .

D r M u rra y s sy st em i s mu c h more el a b ora t e , b u t

th e O x fo rd D ic t io n a ry ) . .

t h e b a sis is th e sa me A s t o t h e ph on e tic sy mb ol most su it ab l e f o r ea c h

.

s ou nd, a u th orities a re n o t e qu a ll y u n a nimo us I h a v e my sel a dopt ed t h o se . f

sy mb o l s w h ic h see med lik el y t o c a u se th e l ea st dif c u l t y t o a b eg inn er,

and w h ic h c o me n ea rest t o th os e u sed in th e c urrent Dic tio na r es i .

CH . xxx v VO W EL S O UN D S A N D H O W S P E LT
-
3 49

ex
pre ss or d en o te th e one p a rtic u l i gn ed to it Th e
a r sou nd ass .

rea son w h y so me a re b ra c k et e d a s a i rs is e x l a i n e d in
p p
A F o u r so u n d s frequ en tl y d en o t ed by th e sy mb ol a ; o n e
.
1

sh ort a n d th re e l o n
, g ; a ll s i m p l e n o n e di p h th o n
, g a l .

1 S h o rt : th e so u n d o f a in ma rry
. P h o n e ti c sy mb ol a . .

2 L on g
. th e so u n d o f a in M a ry P h o n eti c sy mb ol a . .

3 L ong : th e sou n d o f a in ma son

. Ph on eti c sy mb o l a . .

N ote O b serv e th a t ( 3 ) is qu i t e a di st i nc t sou n d fro m In

s ou ndi n g ( 2) y ou h a v e t o o en t h e mo u th a
p g rea t dea l w i der t h a n in
soun di n g I n ( 2) t h e a is a l w a y s foll o w ed b y a n r ; in ( 3 ) it
n ev er i s N o ( 2) is merel y N o ( 1 ) dra w l ed o r l eng t h e n ed
. . . .

4 L ong : th e so u n d o f a in pa th
. Ph o n eti c sy mb ol a . .

E T w o sou nd s c o mmonl y d en o te d by th e sy mb o l e ; o n e
.

sh o rt a n d o n e l on b o th s i m l e n ei th e r di h th o n al
, g p p , g .

5 S h ort : th e so u n d o f e in f ed
. P h on et i c sy mb ol e . .

6 L ong : th e so un d o f ee in f eed
. Ph o n eti c sy mb ol 5 . .

I T w o so u n d s c o mmonl y d en o t e d by th e sy mb ol i ; o n e
.

sh ort a n d o n e l o n g
,
th e sh o rt is si mpl e th e l on g di ph th on gal ,
.

7 S h o rt
. th e so u n d o f i in bit Ph o n e ti c sy mb o l 1 . .

8 L on g : th e sou n d o f i in b i te
. P h o n eti c sy mb ol 1 . .

0 T h ree so u nd s c o mmonl y d en o ted a n d a fou rth o c casi on

.
,

a ll y d en o te d by th e sy mb ol 0 tw o Sh ort a n d t w o l o ng ; al l
,

impl e n o n e di ph th on gal
, .

9 S h o rt : th e sou n d o f o in lot
. Ph on eti c sy mb ol 6 . .

1 0 Lo ng : th e sou n d o f o in lost
. Ph o n eti c sy mb ol a u . .

N ata S i nc e th e u su a l spel l ing i s a u a s in fra u d th is h a s b een , ,

ma de th e ph o neti c sy mb ol in pre fere n c e t o 0 Bu t th e u se o f t h e .

di g ra ph a u do es n ot ma k e th e so u n d l ess simpl e t h a n i t is I n fa c t .

( 1 0 ) i s no t h i ng mo re t h a n ( 9 ) dra w l ed o r l e ng th en ed I f dog is .

dra w l ed it h a s th e sou n d o f da u g If t h e rst sy ll a b l e o f l a u rel is

,
.

sh ort en e d ( a s in r a c t i c e i t a l w a s is ) it h a s t h e s ou n d o f l orel
p y , ,

rh y mi n g w i th mora l N ot i s merel y t h e sh o rt o f n a u gh t

. .

rt : th e so u n d o f o in o mit Ph o neti c sy mb ol o

-
. .

T o th e f our a sou n ds g iven a b ove , so me w riters a dd t w o more, viz

1
.

th e a in f a l l a n d th e a in w a n t Th e l atter is e videntl y a mista k e

. It .

c rea t es a re du n da nc y a n d l ea ds t o c o n usion f
f o r th e a in w a n t is ident ic al
in sou nd w ith th e 0 in n ot, and it n ever h a s th e sou nd o f 0 ex c ept w h en it
is prec eded b y w I n fa c t, it is a n 0 sou n d, a n d its c onn ec tion w it h a is
.

b oth a c c identa l a n d ex c eptio na l Th e f ormer is no t a n a sou n d eith er,

.

a n d is n o t e xpressed b y a e x c ept w h en t h e a is o l l o w ed b y l Pro essor f . f

S k eat a sso c iat es onl y f o u r sou n ds w ith th e sy mb ol a ( see h is N ote printed
in pa g e 4 5 9 o f my E ng l ish G ra mma r P a s t a nd P resent ) .
35 0 S O U N D S , S Y M BO LS , A N D S PE LLIN GS p m vi

N ol a Th ere
g rea t d ere nc e et w e en ( 1 1 ) a nd
is a I n so u nd iff b
i ng ( 9 ) y o u h a v e t o O pen y o u r mo u th ra t h er w de, w h ere a s in s o u n ding i
( ) y
1 1 o u a l mo st c l ose it N o ( 1 2) is merel y N o ( 1 1 ) dra w l ed o r . . .

l en g t h e n ed .

00 . mmo nl y d en o t ed by th e di g raph 0 0 ; o n e
Tw o sou n ds co

sh o rt, t h e o th e r l o ng b o th si mpl e , n ei th e r di ph th o nga l .

1 3 S h o rt th e sou n d o f oo in stood
. P h o n et i c sy mb ol 06 . .

l 1 4 L on
g : t h e so u n d o f 0 0 i n stool
. Ph o n e ti c sy mb o l 0 0 . .

U . Tw o d eno ted by th e sy mb ol u ; o ne
s ou n ds co mmo nl y
sh o rt th e o t h er l o n g
,
th e sh o rt si mpl e th e l o ng di ph th o n g al ,
.

15 S h o rt : th e so u nd o f u in du ck
. P h o n e ti c sy mb ol a . .

16 L o n g : th e sou n d o f u in du ke
. P h o n eti c sy mb o l a .
.

Oi O ne so u n d c ommonl y d en o t ed by th e di gra ph oi ;
.

diph th ong al .

1 7 L o ng : th e s ou n d o f oi in toi l
. Ph on eti c sy mb ol oi . .

O n O n e sou n d c o mmo nl y d en o t ed by th e di gra ph ou ;

.

di ph th o n g al .

1 8 L o n g : th e sou nd o f on in mou se
. P h o n eti c sy mb o l ou . .

L a stl y w e c o me t o tw o sou nd s o n e sh o rt th e o th e r l o n g
, , , ,

a n d b o t h si mpl e o r n o n di ph th o n ga l T h ese h a ve b e en c a ll ed -
.

th e O b sc u re N eu t ral o r I nd e n it e so u nd s
,
F o r th e expressi o n
, .

o f th ese so u n d s w e h a v e n o v o w el in o u r a l ph a b e t S O th e .

e x pedi en t w h i c h th e b e st a u th o riti es h a v e a ree d u po n is t o

g
u se a ( i n v ert ed e) f o r th e ph o n e ti c sy mb o l .

S h o rt : th e sou nd o f er in ga th er Ph o n eti c sy mb o l a
'
1
19 .
-
. .

[20 L ong : th e sou n d o f er in c on f er Ph o n eti c sy mb o l ea

1 '
-
. . .

5 0 2 G en er a l r esul t s W e h a ve th u s t w enty v o w el so u n d
.
-

o f w h i c h s i x t e e n a re u re o r si m l e n d f r r m i x ed o r
p p a ou a e ,

di ph th on al T h e si xteen si mpl e sou n d s a re su bdi v id ed into

g .

( a ) ei g ht sh o rt v iz a e i 0 cc ii a n d e ; a nd (b) ei gh t
,
.
, , , , , ,

l o ng v iz a a a e a u 0 0 0 a nd 9 9
,
.
, ,
T h e fo u r di ph t h o n gs
, , , , ,
.

a re i, a, o i, a n d ou .

S o u nd s h i c h in th e a b ov e d esc ri pti o n a re b ra c k eted t o g eth e r

w

as sh o r t a n d l o ng a re rea l pa i rs T h u s, th e a o f [Ma ry is th e .

1
I n S c otl a nd, h o w ever, a n d i n so me o f t h e n orth ern c ou n ties o f
E ngl an d, th e r is trill ed, t h a t is, distin c tl y sou n ded a s r O w ing t o th is .

p ec u l ia rity o f th e N o rth ern dia l e c t , I h a v e b een rel u c ta n tl y c o mp ell ed t o

a do pt f ro m M r S k ea t, M r S w e et, M iss S oa me s, a nd D r M u rra y th e

. . .

a w k w a rd-l oo k ing sy mb o l a Th is sou n d is so na tu ra l t o h u man spe ec h

.

t h a t h esit a ting spea kers u se it t o ll u p th e pa u ses in th eir sentenc es In

.

a m a w a re

b o ok s su c h pa u ses a re printed th u s l er er th a t,
et c .
35 2 S OUNDS, S Y M BO LS , A N D S PE LL I N G S P A RT v1

th t a theis di ph th o ng a l o r mi x e d
sou n d T h u s 1 a n d 11 , th o u g h .

e x re ss ed b s i n l e v w l re b ot h di ph t h o n g s ; w h i l e a u , 0 6 , (E ,
p y g o e s ,
a

as , t h o u g h e x pres sed b y dig ra h s , a re a l l si m l e so u n ds

p p .

5 04 . S pelling s of t h e t w en t y v o w el so u n ds W e sh a l l
-
.

fol l o w th e o rd er o f v o w el s, si mpl e a n d di h th o n al
p g g iv en in ,

g 5 0 1 .

1 a : ma d, pl a i , h a ve, sa lmo n , t h resh

. d .

2 a : M a ry , a i ry , b ea re r, h ei res s, ma y ora l ty , t h ere n

. i .

3 a : a t a l , a t e, a i l , pl a y , c a mpa ig n , st ra i g h t , v ei n , th ey , rei g n ,
. f f t
k
w ei g h , s t ea , g a ol , g a u g e , eh , da h l a , h a lfpenn
y F r e n c h w o rd s i .

fete , c o ng e, b a ll et, c h a mpa g n e , demesn e

4 a pa t h , a rt , h ea rt , c l er , a u n , a z a a r, pa l m, h u rra h , pl a i st er
. k t b .

Fr . w o rds : v a se, c la t .

5 . e : b ed, h ea d, an
y, sa i d, sa y s, l eopa rd , l ei su re, rey na rd, a t e,
fri end b u ry , .

6 6 : me, th eme, seen, ea c h , i eld, sei z e, k ey , C w sa r, pol i c e, in

. f 1

v a l i d, qu a y , peopl e , re c eip , Bea u c h a mp t .

7 1 : b it , ny mph , pret ty , g i v e, su r ei t, ma rri ed, h a ppy , g u n ea ,

. f i
o n ey , w omen ,
d k u s , b reec h es , si ev e b
y .

8 I : i do l, t ry , mi n e, l y re, S i g n, h ig h , h eig h t, di e, ry e, i sl a n , a i sl e,
. d
c h oi r, n di c t , ey e i .

f
9 0 : rom, w a nt , sh on e, l a u rel , n o w l e g e , y a ch t , h ou g h
. k d .

1 0 au z h a u l , l a w , l os t , t a l l , t a l , pou r, o u g h t , b roa d, so re, l ord,

. k
w a r, w a t e r, a u g h t , Va u g h a n , g on e .

11 o

. f
h e ro, o ll ow , h eroes, o ll ow ed, u rl o ugh Fr depot f f . . .

1 2 0 : n o, n o te, b ot h , t oa d, toe, dou gh , mow , rooc h , oh , y eoma n ,

. b
s e w , C oc kb u rn Fr ma u v e, b ea u . . .

1 3 0 6 : stoo , u l l , c ou ld, w ol
. d f f .

14 f
oo l , t om , sh oe, mo v e, sou ,
. b
p h rou gh , tru t h , l u e, u i c e , t b j
sl eu t h h ou nd, s l ew , ru de, ma noeu v re
-
.

1 5 a : sh u t , b l ood, so n, c ome, t ou c h
. .

16 a . du t y , t u ne, du e, su i t, few , eu d, l i eu , v i ew , im
-
f

ugn
p .

17 . oi : c o il , b oy .

18 . ou : l ou d , dow n .

19 . e : C hi n a , S a ra h ,
- -
E u rope, su f -
fer, squ ir - rel , b u t ton , - -

th o r o u g h , t o r t o i se, fa mo u s, me er sc h a u m, w a i s t c oa t , c u p b oa rd,

- - - - - -

pl ea s u re, c o l l a r, ma r t y r, b u n ku m a n c h or, ra n c ou r, mu r mu r

- - - - - - -
,

( a l l in u na c c en t ed sy l l a b l es Th i s sou n d is n ev er a c c e nt ed) . .

20 ee : h erd, erred, h ea rd, b ird, st i rred, t u rn b l u rred, w ord,

.
,

c o l o n el ( sou n ded a s k er n el )
-
( A l l in a c c ent e d sy l l a b l es ) -
. .

O n e h u n d red a n d n i n ety spel l i n g s ( n ot c ou n t ng i th e F ren c h

w o rd s) fo r tw en ty v o w e l so u nd s -

o n ds W e ma y no w
.

5 05 . S ame spel l in g i
w t h diffe e t s u r n
i n ve rt th e pro c ess a n d S h o w h o w th e sa me sy mb ol (i e th e sa me
,
. .

s e ll i n ) ma v b e u se d to d en o t e diffe re n t so u n d s
p g
1
Th e fo l l o w in g is a h a s th e sou n d of
l ist of a ll th e w o rds in w h ic h ci
'

c on c ei ve, dec eiv e, perc eive, rec e ive ( a n d th eir deriva tives ), c eil in g,

8 8 1 2 8 , e ith er, n eith er,

pl eb eia n, w eir, w eird, seign ory , in veig l e, c oun terfe1 t .
CH . xx x v V O W EL S O U N D S A N D H O W S PE LT
-
35 3

a : ra t ,
p th , ma ny , ma de, c a re, w a nt stew a rd
ta l l
,
a .

a e : ra v e, h a ve, a re, a t e .

a i : ma i d, sa i d, pl a i d, a i sl e .

a u : a u n t, h a u n t , g a u g e , ma u v e , me er sc h a u m -
.

e : h e, h er, c l erk , b ed, pret t

e e : t h ere, h ere
y
.
.

ea : h ea t, st ea k , h ea rt, h ea d .

ei : v ei n , l ei su re, s ei z e, su r fei t, h ei h t
g
-
.

ey : t h ey , k ey , ey e .

ew : n ew , sew
ie : b i te, ni c h e, pol i c e
.

ie : fi el d, di e, si ev e .

0 : h ot, c ol d, w ol f, w omen , w h om, s on , b u tt on, l ost , h ero

.

o e : c o v e, prov e, l o v e, mov e, sh ov e .

0 a : l oa d, b roa d , c u p b oa rd -
.

o e z sh oe, t oe .

0 0 : h ook , fool , b rooc h , ood , door .

ou : pou r, y ou n g , t h ou , sou p, sou l .

ou g h : rou gh , h i c c ou gh , c ou gh , h ou gh , trou gh , b ou gh , th ou gh ,
t h rou gh .

a l z fa ll , pa lm, sh a l l , h o spi ta l .

0 1 : c o l d, w o l f, g o l f, sy m - b ol
'
.

a r : a r ro w , a rt , c o l l a r
- -
.

N ol a Th e h y o u r v o w el s c a me t o e x press so ma ny
rea so n s w
different s ou nd s a re b ec a u se t h e N orma n sc rib es , w h en t h ey
a ddressed t h ems el v es t o th e st u dy o f E n g l i sh , di sc a rde d th e ma rk s

o r a c c en ts den ot i ng v o w el l eng t h in A n l o S a x o n w o rds, a nd t h ei r

g
- -

ex a m l e
p h as b een fo ll o w ed ev er si nc e ; ( 2) b ec a u s e o u r v oc a l ic
s mb ol s t h o u h s u fc i en t f o r th e s i m l e a n d u re l a n u a g e fo r
y ,
g p p g
w h i c h t h ey w ere o ri g i n a l l y i n t en ded, a re n o t su fc i ent f o r t h e v ery
c o mpo s i te l a ng u a g e t h a t E n g l i sh h a s si n c e b ec o me ( 3 ) b ec a u se o n e
o f t h e v oc a l i c sy mb o l s ( as ) u sed in A S h a s di sa ppea red in mo d ern . .

E ng l i sh , t h o u g h t h e sou n ds t h a t i t e x press ed h a v e rema i ne d ; ( 4 )

b ec a u se in t h e six t e en th a n d se v e nt eent h c en t u ri es a g en era l sh ift i ng
o f t h e v o w el sou nd s t o o k pl a c e , w h i c h w a s v ery seldo m a c c o m a ni e d
p
-

b y a c h a ng e o f spel l i n g ; ( 5 ) b ec a u se th e sou n ds o f c ert a i n v o w el s

a re a ffec t ed b t h e ro x imi t o f c ert a i n c o n s o na n t s, t h e r e senc e o r
y p y p
a b sen c e o f a n a c c e n t , a nd b s ll b i c d i v i i n i n s h o rt, t h e s o u nd
y y a s o ;
o f a v o w el v a ri es w i t h it s su rrou n di n s
g .

F o r e x a mpl e , t h e v o w el a , a s sh o w n a b o v e , i s n o w u sed t o ex press

a t l ea st e i h t di ffere nt so u n ds, v iz t h m l i d i n r t t l l a th ,
g ose e x e p e a ,
a , p .

ma n y , ma de, ca re, w a s, stew a rd ( 1 ) Th e so u n d o f a in ra t w a s repre .

sen t ed in A S b y t h e sy mb o l w
. . a s t h i s h a s b e c o me o b s o l et e , a i s

ma de to do du t y for it ( 2) Th e so u n d o f a in ta l l i s pro du c ed b y
.

t h e l i qu i d l , w h i c h h a s h a d t h e e ff e c t o f pro l o n g i ng t h e v o w el a n d
deepen i n g it s t on e ( 3 ) Th e so u nd o f a in p a th w a s repre sen t ed in
.

A S b y a ; b u t a s t h e a c c e nt h a s g o n e o u t o f u se t h ere i s n o th i n g
. .
,

b u t t h e simpl e a l e ft t o e x press t h is so u n d ( 4 ) Th e so u nd o f a in .

ma n y ( A S ma niy ) ma y b e a sc rib ed t o th e frequ ent i n t erc h a n g e o f

. .

a a n d e i n E n l i sh f A S th e n a n th a n k : t h e s ou n d o f t h e a in
g c e -
. . .
,

ma n iy h a s c h a n g ed , b u t t h e s pell i n g h a s re ma i ned ( 5 ) T h e sou nd .

o f a i n ma de w a s re rese n t ed in A S b l b h

p y e ( v er y n e a r y) u t a s t .e .

E G C
. . . 2 A
35 4 S O U N D S , S Y M BO L S, A N D S PELL I N GS P A RT v1

so u n d o f . .

i
A S e h a s s n c e sh t e t o t h a t o f c c i n seem, t h e v o w el a if d
h a s b ee n ma de t o do du ty fo r i t ( 6 ) T h e so u n d o f a in ca re w a s re .

p r es e n ted i n A S b y a ( v e ry n ea rl y ) b u t a s t h s sy mb o l h a s b ec o me
. .
?

i
o b sol ete, t h e v o w el a f
o l l o w ed b y re h a s h a d t o t a e i ts
pl a c e (7 ) k .

T h e s o u n d o f a in w a s ( : w os ) is pro du c e d b y t h e ro u n din g o f t h e
i i
l ps i n so u n d n g t h e w th a t g o es b e o re a n d i n so u n din g t h e v o w el o, f
t h e l i ps a re s o me w h a t ro u n ded a l so ( 8 ) T h e in de n l te o r n eu t ra l .

s o u n d o f a i n stew a rd a r ses ro m t h e w a nt o f a c c ent o n th e s ll a l e

i f b
y
i
i n w h c h i t s ta n ds .

C HA P T E R XXX V I C O N S O N A N TA L S O UN DS
. AND
H O W T H E Y A R E S PE LT .

5 06 Tw en t y nv e C on son a nt a l so u n ds I n E n gl i sh a s
.
-

n ow spo k e n t h e re a re a l to g e th er tw en ty f ive c o n so n a n ta l s o u nd s -
.

The y mb o ls u sed to d en o te th ese so u n d s i f

s ,
we pl ace th em as

n ea rl y a s w e c a n i n th e o rd e r o f th e a l ph a b e t ,
ru n a s fol l o w s

5 07 . S impl e a nd C o mpo u n d O ut of th e t w en t y -
ve
so u n ds e nu mera ted a b o ve all a re s i mpl e or u nc o mpo u n d ed
e x c e pt t w o, v iz .
j an d ch . T h ese a re c al l e d by Dr . M u rra y

th e O x fo rd D i c ti o na ry) di ph th o n gs b e c a u se
( in c o n so n a n ta l ,
'

h e w i th o th er ph o n e ti c i a ns h a s a na l y se d ch i nt o t + sh a n d
, , ,

7 i n to d + eh Th us th e so u n d o f ritshes c a n no t b e di sti ng u i sh ed
.

fro m th a t o f riches ; n o r th e so u nd o f ridz hid fro m that o f

rig id = ri ji d .

T h o ug h we t th i s a nal ysi s o n th e w ord o f th e

h a ve t o a c c ep

b est a u th o ri t i es a nd o n th e e v id en c e o f ou r o w n ex peri en c e it
, ,

w o u l d b e v e ry i n c o n v en i e n t t o w ri te tsh fo r ch a nd dz h fo r 7 ,
.

M o re o ver th e t w o so u n d s in qu esti o n a re o f su c h frequ en t

,

o c c u rre n c e in o u r l a n u a e t h a t j a n d ch e v e n if th e so u n ds
g g , ,

a re di ph th o n g al d eserve a pl a c e in th e l ist o f o u r c on so nan tal

,

s y mb o l s

.

5 0 8 R edu n da n t c on s on a nt s I t h as b een sa id th a t ou r
c j g cc
.

a l ph a b e t c o n ta i n s fo u r re d u n d a n t c o n so n a n ts

The , , ,
.

s ta t e me n t ma y b e a d mit te d fo r th e fol l o w i n g rea so n s

C is su peru o u s b ec a u se ( 1 ) w h en it prec ed es a 0 o r u it
, , , ,

e x resses th e so u n d o f k ( )
2 w h e n it p r ec ed e s e o r i it e x resses
p
p ,

th e s o u n d o f s ( )
3 w h en i t i s c o m bi n e d w ith h a s in c h u rc h t h e , ,

di gra ph ch h as b een a nal ysed i n to tsh .

35 6 S O U N D S , S Y M BO L S , A N D S P E L LI N GS P A RT VI

p i t
o n of th e t on g u e t o w a rd s th e tee th or u
ppe r g msut,
as in
ta il d, asin dog s, a s in sea l z , as in z ea l
I 77 , a s in na me
I, as in li n e th( i n), as in b rea th ; th( s i) ,
as in b rea the In .

so u n din g
th e rst pa r, t a n d d, th e po n t o f th e i i to ng u e to u c h es
th e u pper t e eth I n so u n n g th e se c o n pa r, 3 a n d z , i t c o mes
. di d i
v y
er n ea r th e ro o ts o f th e u p er ee th , b u t
p o es n o t
q u e t o u c h t d it
th e m . In so u n di ng th e th i rd pa i r n a nd l it t o u c h es th e u pper
, ,

g u ms . In so u n di n
g th e fo u rth pa i r th(i n) a nd th(i s) it is pl a c e d
, ,

b e t w e en th e u
pp er a nd th e l o w er t e eth .

IV . L a b ia l s : al l th ese so u n ds a re r
p o d u c ed by c l os n i g th e
l i ps : p ,
as in p o o r ; b , as in b oo n ; m, a s in moo n ; f ,
a s in

f ox ; v, as i n vi xe n ; w h, as in w h i n e ; w , as in i
w ne . In
so u n di ng p, b , a nd m th e l i ps a re c l o se d i t
a g a ns ea c h o th e r,

w h i l e th e t o ng u e is l eft to res t on th e l o w er jaw . In so u n di n g

f a nd v th e e dg es o f th e u
ppe r t eeth a re presse d i
a g a n st th e
l o w er l ip, wh ile
to n g u e rests o n th e l o w er ja w I n so u n d
th e .

ing w h a n d w th e l i ps a re ro u n d ed w ith th e c o rn e rs d ra w n
t o geth er w h i l e th e t o ng u e is a l mo st in th e sa me po si ti o n a s in
,

so u ndi n H e n c e w a n d g a re l i a b l e to b e i n t erc h a n ed
g g .
g a s ,

in w a rd (A S w ea rd) g ua rd (F ren c h spell i ng)

. .
,
.

5 1 0 Th e G l o t t a l
.

h (G ree k g lottis mo u th o f th e w i n d , ,

i t s th e n a me iv e O en th roa t sou n d

pp ) e . G l o tal i g e n t o t h p
-

e x ressed by th e l e t te r h I n so u n di ng h w e ma k e n o u se o f
p .

th e pal a te t ong u e tee th o r l i ps ,

I t is a mere b rea th so u n d o r
, , .
-

a s i ra t e a n d st a nd s a l o n e i n ou r a l h a b e t
p , p .

T h e u n c erta i nty b ou t so u ndi ng o r no t so u ndi ng th i s u nfort u n a t e

a

l e tter a ppe rs t o h v e a ri sen in s ome w a y fro m t h e c o l l i si o n b e t w ee n

a a

E ng l i sh a nd F ren c h w h ic h resu l te d fro m t h e N o rm n C o n qu es t

,
In a .

A n g l o S x o n t h e h w a s v ery di st in c t l y so u n ded in Fren c h v e ry i n

-
a

di st i nc tl y H en c e th e c on fu si o n
. .

5 1 1 M inor sub div ision s o f C on son a nt s T h ere a re a

. .

f ew su bdi v i si o n s o f c o n so n a n ts w h i c h c ro ss w i th th e fou r ma i n ,

divi si on s d esc rib ed a b o ve a nd so metimes w i th o n e a n o th er ,

.

S ib il a nt s ( L a t sib i la ntes h i ssi n g) O n a c c o u n t o f t he h i ssi n g

.
,
.

so u n d w h i c h th e y e x re ss th e n a me sibi l a n t a s b e en i
p h g ven
,

t o th e l e tters 3 , z , sh, a n d z h .

L iqu i d s ( La t liqu idus, o w i ng) . . T h i s is t h e n a me g i v en to

th e l e tt ers l, m ,
n , r, ng .

N a sa l s ( L a t . n a sus, n o se ) th e n a me g ive n to th e th ree l et ters

n, m ,
ng . T h ese a re c a l l e d n a sal s ,
b e c au se in fo rmi n g th e so u n ds
w h i ch t h ey e x pre ss th e b rea th pa sses u p th e n ose pa ssa g e a n d -

e sc a es th ro u gh t h e n o st ri l I f th e n o se pa ssa g e is b l o c k ed by a -
p .
CH . x xxvr C O N S O N A N TA L S O U N D S A N D H O W S PELT 35 7

c ol d tt u ra l ) is so u n d e d a l mo st a s g (a n o th er
ng (a u tt r l )
, g g u u a ,

n (a de nta l ) a l most a s d (a n o th er d e n ta l ) a n d m (a l a bi a l ) a l mo st ,

a s 6 ( a n o th er l a b ia l) .

JVote W h en a n i n tru si ve c o nso na nt i e o ne n o t b el o n g in g to th e

.
, . .

ro o t is i nsert ed i n t o a w ord t h e i n tru der I s u su a l l y o f t h e s a me c l a ss

, ,

a s t h e c o n so n a n t g o i ng b e fo re

N um b - -
er ( La t . nu mer u s) h u m b l e ( L a t h u m i l i s)
- - - -
.
- -
t en d - -
er

( La t ten er) g en d
.
- - -
er ( L a t g en er i s) O b serv e th e m a nd b
.
- -
. a re b o th
l a bi a l s, w h i l e t h e n a n d d a re b ot h denta l s

o n ds W e sh al l
.

512 . S pel l in g s
t h e C on son a n t a l of s u
t a k e e ac h o f th e tw en ty ve sou n d s in th e -
o rd e r in w h i c h th ei r

respec tive sy mb ol s a re g iven in 5 0 6

1 . d i ii
b : b o n ( n t al ), eb b ( na l ), b u oy , c up oa r -
b d .

2 . b
d : ond, l adder, c a ll ed, h o rde, w o u ld .

3 f : f el t, w h f , p h l eg m, l a u gh , h a lf, of ten, sapp h re, l eu - ena n

. i i i t t
( W h e r e i eu z
ef ) .

4 g : g a me, egg , g ho st , g u a r
. d .

5 h : h ot , w h o
. .

6 j: jo b , g s , G eorg e, u dg e, j u dgme nt , sol di er, Greenw ch , g a o l

. it j i .

i
7 k : k l l , c a l l , a c cou n t , b a ck,
. scu t, g u el l , l qu o r, g ro t esqu e, bi i i
a ch e , l ou g h .

8 l : l a e,
. ll , s l a nd, a sl e, g a z e l l e, serag l o , W o o l w c h
k ki i i i i .

9 m : mend, h a mmer, h mn , l a mb , pro g ra mme, ph l eg m, H a mp en,

. y d
d ra ch m .

1 0 11 : pin , in n , de gn , kn ee, g n a w , Jo hn , L n c o ln , W ednes a y ,

. i i d
ib
r a nd b
o rn e, A n n e, c o g n e
, i .

1 1 p : p l a c e , h appy , st epp e, Cl ap h a m, h c c ou gh
. i .

1 2 r : ra n , o rro w , rh y t h m, w r t e , N o rw c h
. i b i i .

1 3 8 : sel , ss, de nse, cel l , da n ce, sc en e, c o a l esce, sch sm,

f ki u rt i
.
q a z ,

sw ord, h asten , sthmu s, p sa l m, c re va sse i .

1 4 t : w e t, e ttl e , a z ette, Th k a mes , l oo ed, t w o e b t n d t k d i i

.
g , , c ,

i
rec e p t, y a ch t, c a ste .

1 5 v : vest , h a ve, n a vvy , of , n ep h ew , h a lve

. .

1 6 W : w ne, w h en , su a ve, c h o r
. i i .

1 7 y : y el d, u ni o n , h a ll el uja h
. i Frenc h v g n e t e ( gn z ny ) c o . i t
i
t l l on .

1 8 z : z ea l , z z , h is, c l ea nse, sc ssors , X erx es, u rz e, W ednesda ,

. i f y
Ch sw c , W ndso r, v eni so n , cz a r, u si n ess
i ik i b .

1 9 c h : ch u rch , n ch e, l a tch , na tu re , i
e sti o n, r g h teou s, v o l o n c ell o i i
k
d
. .

20 ng : t h n g , n g er, ong ue, h a n

. i erc h e , B rm n gh a m t i f i i .

. i
21 th ( s ) : th e n , so o the .

22 . t i
h ( n ) : rea th , M a tth ew b .

23 sh : sh a l l , A s a , t ssu e , pensi o n , mou sta ch e, uc h s a , m ssi o n ,

. i i f i i
f a sh i o n , o fc ia t e , so ci a l , o c ea n , c o n sci enc e, sch edu l e , v t a t e , po rti o n , ii
l u ncheo n , ch a se i .

i
z h : se z u re, l e su re, o c c a si o n, tra n s ti o n Fr rou g e, regime,
i i

o . .

juj b e ( somet mes sou nded a s juju b e) i .

25 w h : w h il e ( o t en so u n ded merel v a s w , ex c ept in N or h

. f t
Bri ta i n ) .
35 8 S O U N D S , S Y M BO LS , A N D S PELL I N G S P A RT v1

O ne h u n dred i y six spel l i ng s (not c o u n ti n g th e F ren c h

a nd s x t -

w o rd s) fo r t w en ty v e differe n t sou n d s -
.

5 1 3 S a me spel l ing w it h differ en t so un ds

.

c : V i o l o nc el l o c a t c i ty sc h : sch eme sch e du l e

, , .
, .

ch : ch e
a c h a i se su c h
, dr ch m s i : o c c a s i o n di s persi o n
, ,
a , .

( si l en t ) . t h : th i n thi s T h a mes , , .

j : J e w juju b e h a l l el uj h
, x : ex tra , ex a m l e
p X erx es Fr a .
, , . .

g e z ro u g e v i l l a g e g et ,
b ea u x , . .

g i z g iv e , g i ng er .
ph : ny mp h ,
n eph ew .

t i : n o ti o n, q u esti o n, t ra n s ti o n i .
gh z g ho st , l au gh , h o u gh .

s : h a s, g a s .
qu z i
l qu or, qu e en .

Sc sc en e, sc a rc e .

514 S il en t Con son a n t s

. .

( 1 ) b ( a ft er m) : l a mb l imb , d u mb nu mb pl u mb c l imb c l omb , , , , , ,

tomb w o mb c ru mb t h u mb c omb b o mb ( t h e b i s ex c resc en t in cru mb

, , , , , ,

l i mb n u mb a n d th u mb
,
i n t h e re st it is part o f t h e ro o t )
, .

b ( b efore t) dou b t de b t , de b t or , .

( 2) c h : y a ch t dra chm sch i sm , ,

.

3 ) g ( b efore n a n d m) g n a t g na w , g n a sh , g na rl e d g nei s s, dei g n , , ,

feig n , reig n c h a mpa g ne, c a mpa ig n c o ig ne i mpu g n phl egm

, , , , .

( 4 ) g h ( na l ) : h ig h , neigh , w eig h , do u gh , sl o u gh ( mi re ), pl ou gh ,
t h o u g h , t h ro u g h , o u g h b .

f
g h ( b e o re i ) : c a u g h t , h a u gh ty , ra u g ht , ou g h t , n a u gh t , th o u ght , f f
so u g h t , o u gh t , ta u g h t , m gh t , r g h t , et c
b i i .

( )
5 h : h e r h o u r h o n o u r h i
u m o u r ( w h ere u =
y oo ), h o n es t , Jo h n

, , , .

h is somet mes s l en t in t h e m ddl e o f a w o rd, a s i i i

N o te . ex
h ib i t o r .

f
( 6 ) k ( b e ore n ) kn o w , kn a c , kna v e, kn ea d, kn e e , kn ell , kn g ht , k i
i k
kn t , kn o b , kno c , kn o t, kn u c l e , kna c , kn o u t, kn ol l , kna c er, kn a p k k k
k
sa c , k n e if .

( 7 ) 1 : c o u l d, sh o u l , w ou l y o l ,
ol w a l , ta l p sa d
l m , p
a lm d k f k k k
f
h a l , c a l ; L nc o l n f i .

( 8 ) 11 ( a t er m) : a u tu mn , h y mn , c o ndemn , da mn , c ol u mn , l mn
f i .

( 9 ) s : v sc o u nt , pu sn e i sl e , sl a n d, a sl e i i i i .

t f
( 1 0 ) ( a t er 3 a nd f a nd e ore l a nd n ) : h a ste n , l sten , g l ste n, b f i i
mo ste n , t h stl e, w h stl e , w restl e , j o stl e, o ten , s o te n
i i i f f .

f
( 1 1 ) w ( b e ore r) w ra p, w ret c h , w ra th , w ra th , w ro t h , w rea th , i
k i
w re c , w r t e , w rig h t , w re nc h , w res t , w r n l e , w r g g l e, w r s t w r t h e i k i i , i
w ro ng , w ro u g h t , a w ry .

w : s w o rd, a nsw er, t w o , w h o , Kesw c , C h sw c i k i ik .

5 1 5 Th e l et t er .

r .
I n th e M id l a nd a nd S o u th ern
di al ec ts th e l etter r in su c h w o r s d ha ir, deer, moor, p ou r, is
as

n o t so u n d e d a s a c on sona nt (u nl ess th e n ex t w o rd o r th e n ex t
sy l l a b l e b e i n s w ith a v o w el ) b u t h a s t h e so u nd o f th e I n d e n it e
g ,

v o w el 9 d ib d i h t h e it h el s to ma k e a
( e sc r e n so t a e r p
di ph th ong a s hda da mooa pa u a I t is no t sou n d ed a s a , , , .

consona n t e x c e t b e fo re a w o rd o r sy l l a b l e b eg i nni n g w i th a v o w el
p .

C o mpa re
ma n
man
'
ha ir, th e ha ir of a b oor, a b oor ish -
.
 A PPEN DIX ON DE RIVA TI O N S .

I n rea ding th e f o l l ow i ng l i sts ( w hi ch h a ve b een ma i n l y c omp i l ed

f rom S k eat s E ty mol o g i c a l D ic t i o na ry ), th e stu dent i s a dvi sed to n ote

dow n o n a sep a ra te piece of p ap er a n y w o rds, a s th ey occu r, w h ose

deri va ti on h e thi n ks h e ma y f org et A f ew da y s af terw a rds h e ca n g o
.

over th ese w ords p ri va tel y w i th ou t a t rst con su l ting th e b o ok, a nd see

h ow ma n y or h ow f ew of th em h e h a s ma stered H e ca n of c ou rse
.

ref er to th e b ook f or verica ti on .

I .
W ORD S D ER I VED F RO M P R O PER N A M E S .

A c a demy , from A ca demia , n a me o f th e g ro v e w h e re Pl a t o

t au gh t . T h i s g ro v e w a s c a ll ed a ft er t h e h ero A c a demu s .

A maz on, a pu g n a c io u s ma sc u l i n e w o ma n ; c a l l ed a fter a ra c e o f

w a rl ik e w o men , t h e A ma z on s o f G r my th o l o g y
. .

A ra b es qu e, fa nt a st i c , o f A ra b i a n o r M o o ri sh d esi g n .

Arg o sy a, l a rg e merc h a nt sh i p, formerl y spel t a ra g ou sy o r

-

ra g u sy O ri g i n a l l y a sh i o f R a g u sa , o rt in D a l ma t i a Th e
.
p a
p .

na me , h o w e v er, b ec a me c o n fu sed w i th t h a t o f t h e s h i p A rg o .

A rra s, a ri c h gu re d fa bri c u sed f or a s c reen , c u rt a i n , etc F rom .

t h e pl a c e A rra s, a t o w n o f A rt o i s .

A rt esia n, from A rtoi s, w h ere su c h w ell s w ere ea rl y in u se .

A ssa ssin , a s ec ret mu rd erer from h a sh i sh in , dri nk ers o f h a sh

a n e x t ra c t from I ndi a n h em , w i t h w h i c h e O ld M a n of

ish , p t h
t h e M o u nt a i n in t h e 1 3 th c ent u ry s t imu l a t ed h i s a c c o mpl i c e s .

A tl a s , a b o ok o f ma ps fro m t h e G re ek demi g o d A tl a s, w h o w a s
su ppo se d t o b ea r t h e w o rl d o n h i s sh ou l ders .

A t ti c , a room u n der t h e ro o f o f a h ou se ; named a ft er th e A tti c

( A th e ni a n ) c u sto m o f b u il di ng h o u se s w ith a l o w u pper story .

A u g u st , t h e mo n t h n a med a ft er A u g u stu s Caesa r .

Ba nt a m, t h e fo w l n a med a ft er Ba n ta m, a t o w n in J a v a .

Ba y onet, F r b a y on ette, n a med from Ba y on n e, in Fra nc e

. .

Bedl am, M id E n g . b edl em, a c orru pt i o n o f Beth l eh em, in

.

P a l est i ne n o w a ppl i e d t o t h e l u n a t i c h o spi t al o f S t M a ry o f

.

Bet h l eh em .

Bl u c h ers , a ki nd o f h a l f b o ot n a med a ft er G en eral B l u cher .

Bow dl eri s e t o ex pu rg a t e
,
from a ma n n a med Bow dler, w h o
p u b l i sh e d a S h a k e s pea re c l e a red o f a l l i n de l i c a t e pa s sa g e s .

Boy c o tt , t o ex c ommu n ic a t e ; from C a pt a i n B oy c ott, w h o in A D . .

1 88 0 w a s so trea t ed b y t h e L a nd L ea g u e i n I rel a nd .

Broug h am, a fo u r-w h eel ed v eh i c l e na me d a fter L ord Brou gha m .

3 62 A PPE N D I X O N DE R I VA T I O N S

Bu nk u m, t a l l ta l k fro m Bu nco mb e, a c o u n ty o f N orth C a rol i na ,

th e repres e nt a ti v e o f w h i c h persi st e d i n ma ki ng f

a s pee c h ro m
Bu nc o mb e , w h en t h e H ou se w a s i mpa ti e n t t o h a v e th e qu est i o n

pu t t o t h e v o t e .

C a l i c o, c o tt o n c l o th , fro m Ca li cu t, o n th e M a l a b a r Co a st , I n di a
-
.

C a mb ri c , a ki n d o f l in e n c l o t h fro m Ca mb ra y , in Fl a n ders ( Fra n c e ) .

C a n a ry , a ki nd o f b ird fro m t h e Ca n a ry I s la n ds .

C a n t er, a n e a sy g a l l o p, a t w h i c h t h e Ca n ter b u ry pi l g rims ro de -

.

C h a o s c o nf usi o n t h e n a me g i v en b y th e G reek s to th e pri me v a l

,

s ta t e o f t h e u n i v erse .

Ch a u v ini sm, re c k l e ss bra g g in g a b ou t o n e s c o u ntry from

Cha u vi n , a c h a ra c t er i n a Frenc h pl a y , w h o h a d a b l in d i dol a try for

N a pol eo n .

Ch erry , M id E ng c h eri s ;
. n a med from Cera s o s, si tu a t ed in
.
-

P o ntu s, o n t h e Bl a c k S ea .

C h imera , a w i l d c rea t i o n o f t h e fa nc y fro m Gr Chi maera , a .

fa b u l o u s mo n st er, w ith t h e h ea d o f a l i on , th e b ody o f a g o a t , a nd

t h e t a i l o f a d ra g o n .

C ic erone , It a l c i c eron e, a g u i de
. fro m L a t i n Ci ceron em -
.

C opper, M id E ng c ap er n a med a ft er th e i sl a n d Kup ros o r Cypru s

. . .

Cra va t, a ki n d o f nec k c l o t h , su c h a s w a s w o rn b y th e C ro a ti a n s
o f A u stri a , w h o se n a me w a s o ft e n spel t a s Cra va tes .

C urra nt , n a me d a ft er Co ri n th , w h e nc e t h e fru i t rst c a me .

Cy n osure, c e ntre o f a t tra c t i o n t h e d og s

Gr ku n os ou ra , .

ta i l , t h e na me g i v e n t o t h e st a rs in t h e t a i l o f th e L esser Bea r

.

Da h l i a , from D a h l , a S w ede, w h o i nt ro du c ed t h e o w er i nt o
E urope .

Da ma sk , M id E ng da ma ske, c l o t h o f D a ma sc u s ( S y ri a )
. . .

Dams on, Fr da ma i sin e ; a pl u m fro m D a ma sc u s

. .

D elf , ea rth en w a re , rst ma de a t D elf t, in H o ll a nd .

Doll a r, G er th a l er ; rst c o i n e d fro m th e sil v er mi n es o f

.

Jo a c h ims th a l , in Bo h emi a
-
.

Du nc e, a ppl i ed in ridi c u l e b y t h e di sc i pl es o f T h oma s A qu i na s to

th e di sc i pl e s o f D u n s S c o t u s , a S c h o ol ma n , w h o di ed A D 1 3 08 . . .

E pi c u re, o ne w h o i s fo n d o f g o o d l i v i n g ; fro m Ep i cu ru s , t h e
G re ek , w h o t a u g h t th a t h a ppi n e ss sh o u l d b e t h e g rea t a im o f l ife .

Ermine , t h e fu r t a k en fro m t h e A rmen i a n w ea sel .

E u ph u ism, a n a ffec t ed st y l e ; fro m a b o o k c a ll ed E up h u es, th e

w el l b o rn ,
-
w ritt e n b y L y l y , A D 1 5 7 9 . . .

F a un a , c o l l e c t i v e n a me for t h e a nima l s o f a g i v en a rea o r e poc h

fro m F a u nu s, a ru ra l demig o d .

F i l b ert , t h e fru i t o f t h e h a z el nu t from Ph i li b ert, a sa i n t o f

-

Bu rg u n dy , w h o se a nn i v ers a ry fa l l s in t h e b eg i nn i n g o f t h e n u t ti ng
se a so n .

i
Fl ora , c oll e c t v e n a me for th e v eg eta l e pro u c t s o f a g v en a rea b d i
o r epo c h f
ro m F l o ra , th e g o ddes s o f o w ers .

Fl or n , a c o n o f F l oren ce, t h e l l y b o rn e o n i t b e ng t h e sy m o l o f
i i i i b
th a t t o w n .

F u c h si a , na med a t er F u chs, th e G erma n o t a n st

f b i .

F u stia n, a ki
n d o f c o a rs e c l o t h ; L o w L a t n f u sta neu m, c a ll e i d
f
a t e r F u stat, a no t h er n a me o f C a ro , in E g pt i y .

G a l l ow a y , a n a g rom G a l l ow a y ( S c o tl a n d)
f .
364 A PPE N D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

J et , a b l a c km nera l , O l d F r jet, ja et, rom Ga g a s, g a g a t em, a

i . f -

riv e r i n t h e so u t h o f A s a M no r i i .

J ovi a l , j ol l y , b o rn u nder t h e l u c y pl a n et , J ove o r J u p t er k i .

J ul y , t h e mo n th n a me d a ter J u l i u s Caesa r f .

J un e , t h e mo n th n a med a t er J u ni u s, a R oma n c l a n f .

i f k
L a c oni c , b r e , l i e t h e s pee c h o f t h e L a con i a n s ( S pa rt a n s ) .

i
L an da u , a k n d o f c o a c h , n a med rom L a n da u i n G erma ny f .

L a z a rett o , l a z a r h o u se , a h ou se fo r t h e rec ept o n o f d s e a se d

-
i i
f
perso n s c a l l e d a t er L a z a ru s i n L u k e s G o spel

.

Lu mb er, n a med a t er t h e L o mb a rd ro o m, w h ere t h e L o mb a r

f -
d
b k
ro er o f I t a l y s t o w e d a w a y h i s w a re s .

L y n c h , t o ex e c u t e a su ppo sed c r m na l b y mo b l a w ; rom J oh n i i -

f
i
L y nch , a n A mer c a n o f V rg n a i i i .

M a c a da mi se , t o pa ve a ro a d w th sma ll ro e n st o n e s, a s w a s i b k
do n e b y a M r Ill a ca da m, A D
. 1 81 9 . . .

M a c k int o sh , a w a terproo f o v erc o a t, n amed ro m th e n v e nt o r f i .

b
M a g ent a , a c ol o u r e tw een p n a n d red d sc o v ered in 1 8 5 9 , t h e i k i
da t e o f t h e b a t tl e o f M a en ta , i n N
g Ita l y . .

M a g n et , t h e l o de st o n e, L a t ma g net em, rst qu a rr e

-
ro m .
-
i d f
M a g ne sia in T h es sa l y .

l a g pie, for M a rg ery p i e S ee G rima l k in A pie is a nd o f ki

b i rg
-
. .

M a l a propism, a g rot e squ e mi su se o f w o rds fro m M rs M a lap rop , .

a c h a ra c t er i n S h erida n s c o medy , Th e R i v a l s

.

M a l msey , a s w eet w i n e from M a l va sia , in G reec e .

M a rc h t h e mo nt h n a med a fte r M a rs, t h e g o d o f w a r

, .

M a rt ia l , w a rl ik e , o f t h e sa me o ri g i n a s t h e a b o v e .

M a rt in, M artl et , a ki n d o f sw a ll o w , t h e pro per n a me M a rti n

b ei ng g i ve n t o th e bi rd a s a pet n a me o r n i c k n a me M a rt l et is - -
.

from t he dim form ma rti n et, in w h i c h th e n h a s b e en c h a ng ed

.

to Z . S ee G rima lki n .

M artinet , a ri g oro u s di sc i pl i na ri a n ; fro m a Fre n c h o i c er o f t h a t

n a me in t h e a rmy o f L o u i s X I V .

M a u dl in , s ob b i ng , morbi dl y sent i ment a l ; M id E ng M a u del ei n, . .

from M a ry M a gda len e, i e M a ry o f M a g da l a , w h o h a s b een depi c t ed

. .

a s sh e ddin
g t ea rs o f peni t en c e .

M a u sol eu m, a ma g ni c ent t omb , o ri g th e t o mb o f M a u sol u s, ki ng .

o f C a ri a , i n A sia M i n o r .

M ea n der, from Mw a nder, a w in di ng ri v er o f A si a M i no r

. .

M ent or, fro m l l en tor, t h e fa bl ed c o u n sel l o r o f T el ema c h u s .

M erc u ri a l v ol a t i l e i n spi re d b y t h e g o d M erc u ri u s

,
.

M esmeri se , t o o pera t e o n t h e n ervo u s sy st em o f a pa t i e n t b y me a n s

o f t h e e e s o r h a n ds
y fr o m M es mer,
a G erm an
p h y s i c ia n, A D 1 7 6 6 . . .

M illin er, o ri g o ne w h o dea l s i n w a res fro m M i l a n

. .

M i nt , from L a t M on eta , a s u rn a me o f J u n o , i n w h o se t empl e a t

.

R ome mo n ey w a s c o i ne d .

M oroc c o, l e a t h er pre pa red i n a c erta i n w a y ; fro m M oroc c o, 1 n

N ort h ern A fri c a .

M u s lin, a v ery th i n c o tt o n c l o th F r mou sse li n e, fro m l l osu l , a .

-

c i ty o f Ku rdi st a n .

N a nk een , a c o tt o n c l oth from N a n ki n , in Ch i n a .

N eg u s, from Co l N eg u s, w h o rst mi x ed t h e b ev era g e

. .
 W O R DS D E R I VE D F R O M P R O PE R N A M E S 3 65

N ic ot in e to b a c c o j u c e ; ro m N i cot, t h e F ren c h ma n , w h o rst

i f
'

-
.
,

i nt ro du c ed t h e pl a nt n to F ra n c e i .

Pa a n, a so ng o f v c t o ry ; o r g a s o n g o f h ea l n g ; rom P ec a n , i i . i f
i i
t h e ph y s c a n o f t h e g o ds .

P a l a c e , ro m P a l a ti u m, t h e re s den c e o f R o ma n E mpero rs o n o n e
f i
o f t h e se v en h ll s o f R ome , w h c h th u s a c qu red t h e n a me o f
i i i
Pa l a t n e

i .

k
P a l a din , a ni g h t -erra n t o f th e M d l e A g e s a n o th er spell n g o f i d i
P a l a ti n u s, a n o f c er o f th e Pa l a c e .

P a l l a diu m, a s a eg u a rd o f li erty fa st a t u e o f t h e
g o dd e s s Pa ll a s, b
i
o n w h c h t h e s a et y o f T roy w a s f el e v ed t o de en d, w a s c a l l e
p in b i d
G r P a l l a di on , i n L a t P a l l a di u m
. . .

P a nic , su dden a nd e x treme r g h t , a sc r b ed t o th e n u enc e o f fi i i

P a n , t h e g o d o f sh eph erds a nd h u sb a n men d .

Pa rc h ment , ro m P erg a mu s, i n A s a M n or
f i i .

P a ro qu et , Fr p erroqu et, b orro w ed ro m S p p eri qu i to ,

.

l ttl e f . i
i
P er c o , l tl e P e er it S ee G rima l kin
t . .

Pa rrot ; rom Fr p errot, p i errot, f l ttl e P erre, l ttl e P et er
. S ee i i i .

Grima l kin .

Pa s quin, pa s qu ina de , a l a mpo o n rom a c ob l er n a me P a squ in , f b d

d st n g u sh ed fo r h is po w ers of sarc a sm
i i i .

P ea c h , M id E ng p ech e, rom L a t P ersi a um, a pea c h , so c a ll e

. . f .
-
d
b ec a u se th e t ree w a s n d g e nou s t o P e rs a i i i .

Peel er, a po l c ema n rom S ir R P eel , o u n der o f th e o rc e

i f . f f .

P etrel, o rmerl y p eterel , f i

a l t tl e P et er, so c a l l e d b ec a u s e t h e
bi rd s eems t o w a l k
o n t h e su r a c e o f t h e w a t er, a s S t P et e r did f . .

Ph a et on , a n ki d
o f h o rse -c a rr a g e in G r my t h o l og y P h a eton o n c e i .

dro v e t h e c h a r o t o f th e su n i .

Ph ea sa nt , L a t Ph a sia n a a v s; . th e rd o f t h e r v er Ph a s s ,
-
i bi i i
i n C ol c h s i
Th e n a l t is e x c resc en
. t .

i
Philippic , a d sc ou rse o r speec h u ll o f nv e c t v e ; t h e speec h e s f i i
d iel v ered b
y D e m o st h e n es a g a n st P h i lip, n g o f M a c e do n, w ere i ki

c a ll e d th e P h li pp c s

i i .

Pinc h b ec k , a met a l rom t h e nv en t o r, 1 8 th c ent u ry f i .

P ort t h e w n e o f O po rt o
, i .

i
Prote a n , sa d o f a n y t hing t h a t c h a n g e s v e ry o te n ro m P ro teu s, f f
a sea
g o d in G r my t h ol o g y , w h o c o u l c h a n g e h msel nt o a n d i f i
-
.

i nn t e nu mb er o f o rms
i f .

a b ev era e ma de u i i i i
P un c h g p o f v e ng re d en ts, sp r t, w a t er,
l emo n j u c e , s u g a r, sp c e ; nt ro du c ed ro m I nd a : ro m p a n ch a , t h e
-
i i i f i f
i
I nd a n w ord fo r v e

.

a sh ort h u m b k f
Pu nc h p a c ed g u re in a pu ppe t sh o w ; ro m
-

P u n chin el l o, I t a l P u l ci n el l o, a droll c l o w n in N e a pol ta n c o medy

. i .

ki
Qu in c e , a nd o f a ppl e ro m Cy don , in Cret e f .

Q u i x o t i c , g ro t e s q u e r o m D o n Q u i f
x o te, t h e h ero o f th e c el e b ra t ed
mo c roma n c e c a l l e d b y t h a t n a me
k -
.

R h u b a rb ; rom R h eu m b a rb a ru m,
f R h eu m rom th e a rb a r a n -
f b i
c o u n t ry R h eu m i s ro m R h a , a n o l d n a me o f th e r v e r Vo l g a
. f i .

R o domont a de , h g h o w n l a n g u a g e : in a ll u s o n t o th e b o a st u l
i -
i f
c h a ra c t er o f R odomon te, i n t h e O rl a n do F u rio so o f A r o st o i .

S ardoni c , sn e er n g ; ro m a pl a n t t h a t i f i i
g ro w s i n S a rd n a ( G r .

i i
S a rdo ), w h c h is sa d t o sc re w u p t h e a c e o f a ny o n e w h o e a t s i t f .
366 A PPE N D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

S a t u rn ne , mel a nc h ol c , g l oo my
i i
n a med a t er t h e pl a n et S a tu rn f .

S a v oy , a c ru mpl ed ki
n d o f c a b b a g e , b ro u g h t ro m S a voy f .

i
S h a l l oo n , a l g h t w o o ll en s t u ro m Ch a l on s, in F ra n c e ff f .

S h a l l o t , s h a l ot a nd o f o n o n ki
ro m A sca l o n , in P a l est n e
, i f i .

S h erry , o rme rl y spel t sh erri s

f ro m X eres , i n S pa n f i .

S ilh o u e t t e , a mea g re o rm o f po rtra t c u t o u t in b l a c f a er,

p p i k
n a med ( in der s o n ) a t er a F re nc h m n st er o f n a n c e , E t enn e de
ii f i i i
S i l h o u ette .

S imony , t ra fc in ec c l e s a st c a l pre ermen t ; ro m S i mon M a g u s i i f f

( A c ts v iii .

S ol ec ism n a c c u ra c y i n spea ng o r w r t n g ; rom a t o w n c a ll e d

i, ki ii f
ii i
S o l oi i n C l c a , w h ere a v e ry c orru pt n d o f G ree w a s s pok e n ki k .

S pa niel a S pa n sh do g
, i
ro m E sp a n o l ,

S pa n s h

f i .

S pen c er, a s h o rt o ver j a c et, n a med a t er E a rl Sp en cer -

k f .

S t ent ori a n , v ery l o u d ro m S ten tor, w h o se vo c e is sa d b y H o mer f i i

t o h a v e b ee n a s l o u d a s t h a t o f t y me n a l l sh o u t n g t o g e t h er f i .

i if
S t oi c s t oic a l , n d f eren t t o pl e a s u re o r pa n , w o rth y o f a S t o c ,
,
i i
a s c h o o l o f ph il o s o ph ers o u n ded b f
y Z e n o , w h o a u g h t h is pu p l s t i
in a c o l o n n a de o r S toa i n A t h en s .

i
S w ede, a S w ed sh tu rn p o f y ell o w sh c o l ou r i i .

i
T a nt a l ise, t o e x c t e a c ra v n g w t h o u t s a t s y ng it ; ro m t h e i i if i f
fa b u l o u s pe rso n c a ll ed T a n ta l u s, w h o i n G r my th o l o g y s t a n ds u
p .

i
t o h is c h n i n w a t er, w h c h es ro m h is th rsty l ps w h e n e v e r h e
i i f i i
a t te mpt s t o dr n it i k .

T a w dry , i
msy , b u t sh o w y ; ormerl y u se d o nl y in th e ph ra se f

i
t a w dry l a c e , w h c h mea n t l a c e b o u g h t a t S t A w dry s a r h el d o n

. fi

S t A w dry s da y in t h e sl a n d o f E l y
. i .

T u rk ey , a l a rg e domest c o w l ro m T u rkey i f f .

i
Ut o pia n, b el o ng n g t o n o ma n s l a n d, t oo g o o d ev e r t o ex st

i
f n o ma n s l a n d, i k

ro m Utop i a ( G r O u top i a ),

. th e t tl e o f a b o o
i
w r tt en b y S ir Th o ma s M o re desc r b ng a n dea l re pu b l c i i i i .

Vol t , t h e st a n da rd u n t o f el ec tro mo t v e orc e ; rom Vo l ta , a n i -

i f f
i
I ta l a n el e c tr c a n i i .

Vo l c a n o , ro m Vu l ca n u s, th e d v n e l a c sm th
f i i b k i .

b
Vu l c a nit e , a h a rd, l a c k su b st a n c e , o f w h c h c omb s, b u t to n s, e tc i .

are ma de ro m Vu l c a n u s, a s sh o w n a b o v e
f .

W orst ed, t w s e w ool l en y a rn itd rom lVorsted, in N o r o l f f k .

II W O RD S
. F O R M E D BY C O M PO S IT I O N O R BY T H E
A D D IN G O F PR E F I X E S .

I n th i s a n d th e rema i n in g sec ti on s of th e A pp en dix A S sta n ds f or . .

A ng l o S a x on , O D u f or O ld D u tch , 0 F r f or O ld F ren ch , S c a n d
-
. . . . .

I c el a ndi c , O H G f or O l d H i g h G erma n , S p f or Sp a n i sh
f o r . . . . .

( ) a D I S GU I S E D C O MP O UN D S .

A g n a il : A S a ng n mg l , a n a i l o r h a rd k n o b th a t g i v es pa i n
. .
-

( g
a n t h e m o de rn c o rru pt ed fo rm i s h a ng n a i l S ee
p 3 7 1 -
. . .

A pri c ot , fo rmerl y a p ri cock ; P o rt a l b ri c o qu e, th e ( a l ) .

e a rl ( b ri L a t p rae) ri pe ( c og u e)
y : - . .
3 68 A P PEN D IX O N D ER I VA T IO N S

l i d
e r in a f l a g , om f e, f
F e l l ow Scan f : a g , a p a rt n . r
pro pert y
- - -

( E n g f ee), a nd l a g , a n a sso c a t o n o r l a y n g t o g e t h er
. i i i .

F ilib u st er, S pa n : a c o rru pt o n o f E n g f ree b ooter ; . ro m D u t c h i .

-
f
f
v rij ( re e), a n d b u i t, b o o t y , pl u n der .

Fil ig re e f
ormerl y s pel t a s l ig ra n e ; S pa n l ig ra n a L a t l u m, . .

a t h re a d, a nd g ra n u m, g ra n , t ex t u re i .

Preeb oot er : s ee Fil ib u st er a b o v e .

Frida y : A S F rig e dw g , da y o f F ri g u ( L o v e , Ve nu s)
. .
-
.

F u r- l onn urro w l o ng , t h e l eng th o f a u rro w -

f .

Fu tt oc k s , fo rf oot h ooks -
.

G a er, g a mmer : E n g g ra nd f a th er ( h y b r d) Fr g ra n d-mere i

'
-
. . .

G a rlic A S g dr l ea c, s pea r l ee ; g ar, spea r

. .
-

-
k .

G a nt l et , g a u nt l et ( in t h e ph ra se t o ru n t h e g a u n tl et Co n
f i
u s ed w t h g a u n tl et, a g l o v e Th e o l der o rm w a s g a n tl op e, ro m . f f

i w h ere g a te mea n s st re e t o r w a

S w e d sh g a t l opp, l it a g a t e l ea p,
y
- -
. .

To ru n t h e g a u nt l et is t o ru n dow n a l a n e o rmed b y t w o l es o f f
i
so l d ers , w h o st r e t h e o f en der a s h e pa sse s ik f .

G o s pel A S god sp el l , G o d st ory

. . st o r o f l
y e o f C h r st
-
if i .

G o ss a mer : l it g oose su mmer Th e pro v nc ia l E ng l sh n a me is

.
-
. i i
su mmer g oose so c a l l ed ro m t h e do w n y a ppea ra n c e o f t h e l m
-
f .

G os s p, l it a spo n so r in b a pt sm g od a nd si b ( rel a te in G o d)
i . i d .

G ra mpu s

L a t g ra ndi s p i scis , g rea t sh . .

G ru nsel , g rou ndsill , th re sh o l d ro m g rou nd a n d sil l f .

Ha b erda sh er : a se ll er o f sma ll w a re s ; sa d t o b e rom O l d Fr i f .

i
h ap erta s, w t h E n g s u f x -er ( a h y b r w o rd) Bu t D r M u rra y
. id . .

sa y s i i
o r g n u nk n o w n

.

( th ) c a p a mode o f ra w ng l o ts i d i

Ha ndi c a p h a nd .

Ha ndiw o rk : h ere t h e i a n sw ers t o A S g e ; a s in A S h a n d g e . . . .

-

w eo rc . I n ha n dicraf t t h e i h a s b een n s ert ed b y a n a l o g y i .

Ha n dsel , h a nsel t h e rst n sta l men t o f a b a rg a n L it i i .

h a nd sa l e, t h e c o nc l u s o n o f a b a rg a in b y sh a k ng h a nds
-
i i .

Harb ing er : O l d F r h erb erg e o u r ; l i t o ne w h o g o es b e o re t o .

-
. f
sec u re a h erb erg e ( l o d
g g n f o r a n a rm )
y ( S e e n e x t w o rd ) i . .

Harb ou r ( S c a nd ) h er b erg i , a rmy sh el t er O l d F r h erb erg e

.
- -
. . .

Ha w th orn A S h a g a , a h e dg e , a n d th orn . . .

if
He er : A S h ea h f ore, rom h ea h ( h g h , u ll g row n ), a nd f ore,

. .
-
f
i f -

c o g na t e w it h G re ek p ori s , a h e er A S jed i r, a u l l if . . b .

Henc h ma n : M id E ng h en sma n , h en ch ma n , a pa g e .
pro a b l y . b
fro m A S h eng st, a h o rse , a n d ma n
. . h en c e lit a g ro o m . .

Hey da y : h g h da y i
M id E ng h ey , h ig h -
. . .

H ob b y h ors e a h orse sh a ped t o y

-
S c a n d h opp e, a ma re -
. .

H ob n ob A S h ee b b a n , t o h a v e , a nd n aeb b a n n o t t o h a v e
. .
, .

Hu mb u g f
ro m h u m, t o c aj o l e , a nd b u g , a t erro r .

Hu sb a n d : l it h o u se dw el l e r S c a n d h us b on di

- -
. . .

Hu ssy , sh o rt fo r h o u se w e A S h us w if ( t h e h o u se w o ma n ) -
if . .
-

-
.

Hu st ing s , pro perl y h u stin g ; ro m A S h u sti ng , b o rro w ed ro m f . . f

S c a nd h i ts pi ng
. h ou se t h ng
-
a me et ng o f t h e h o u se
,
-
i i .

I c ic l e A S is g i c el , ro m is, ic e , a n d g i cel , a sma ll p ec e o f ic e

. .
-
f i .

J eo pa rdy : 0 F r jeu p a rti , a d v ded g a me . . i i .

f
Kerc h ie : O l d F r c o vre ch ef , c o v er t o t h e h ea d ( ch ef ) .
- - - -
.

L a dy : A S h l af dig e, l o a . n ea der
.
-
fk -
.

L a mma s A S h l af maesse, l oa ma ss o serv ed o n l st A u g u st

. .
-
f -
b .
 D I S G U I S ED CO M PO U N DS 3 69

L ema n : A S l eof ma nn , dea r o n e , from l eof , l i e f, d ea r

-
. . .

Lic h g a t e c orpse -g a t e, from A S l ie, a c orpse . . .

L impet a n o t h er form o f l a mp rey S e e L a mprey , in p 3 7 3 . . .

L iv el ih oo d : M id E n g li ve l ode, A S l if ( l ife ), a nd l aid, a w a y

. . . . .

L ord A S hl af -ord, prob a b l y fo r h l af -w ea rd, a l o a f k eeper

. .
-
.

Lu k ew a rm : l it w a rm-w a rm ; M id E ng l eu k, l u ke, t epi d . . . .

M a l a dy , si c k n ess L a t ma l u s, b a d h a bi tu s, c o n di ti on . .

M a l ari a : L a t ma l a , b a d a ri a , a ir . .

M a ling er, t o fe i g n i ll n ess L a t ma l e ( b a d l y ), w g er ( si c k ) . .

M a u g re, in spi te o f : 0 F r ma l g r L a t ma l e ( b a dl y ), g ra t- u s . .
-
.

( pl ea si ng ) .

M erma id : l a k e -ma id , w a t er n y mph from A S mere, a l a k e -

. . .

M idri A S mid rif ; from mi d ( middl e ), a nd h rif ( b el l y )

-
. . .

M idw if e : from A S mi d, w i th , a n d w if , w oma n fema l e h el per . . .

M il dew : A S mel e deaw , h o n ey de w ; A S mel e, mi l , h o n e y

. .
- -
. . .

M ist l et oe : l it bi rd l i me t w i g ; A S mistel ( th a t w h i c h h a s mi st
.
-
. .

o r b i rd l i me ), a nd tan , a t w i g
-
.

M onda y A S M ona n dw g , da y o f th e moo n

. .
-
.

M ort g a g e, l it a dea d pl edg e L a t mort u u s, a n d g a g e, a pl edg e

. .
-
.

M u ll ed a l e : c orru pt o f mou l d a l e, a fu n era l fea st ; of Bri da l , a

-
.
-
.

ma rri a g e -
fea st .

N a rw h a l th e sea u n c orn ; l it c orpse-w h a l e , rom S c a nd n dr ( a

: -
i . f .

c orpse ), a n d h va lr, a w h a l e so c a ll e ro m it s pa l l c ol ou r df id .

N a u g h t , n ot f or n e a u g h t h en c e na u g h t y S ee A u g h t -
. .

N eig hb ou r : A S n eah ( n g h ), a n d b ur, a h u sb a n dma n. . i .

N i ck n a me : l it a n a dd t o n a l n a me Th e n h a s b ee n w ro n g l
. ii . y
a t a c h ed ro m a n
t f a n ek e - n a me b ec a me a n c n a me i k

h e nc e .

N ig h t ing a l e : A S n ih te g a l e, a s n g er b y n g h t . .
-
i i .

N ostril : A S n os-b y rl , n ose t h rl , or no se h o l e

. .
-
i -
.

O sprey : t h e sh h a w , lit t h e o n e b re a e r, do u l e t o f
-
oss k . b -
k b i
f ra g e L a t 0 3 , ossis, a b o ne, a n d f ra g
. th e ro ot o f jra ng ere , t o -

b re a k .

P a rb oil : o r g t o o l i
th orou g h l y ; L a t p er, a nd b u l l i re
. b i
Bu t .

no w i
t o b o l part a l l y , th ro u g h c o n u s o n w it h p a rt i f i .

P a ri sh : M id E n g p a r i sch e, F r p a r oi sse, L a t pa r- ceci a , G r

. .
-
.
-
. .

p a r oiki a ,
-
dw ell ng n ea r i .

P orpois e : 0 F r p orp ei s ; L a t p orou s, pig , a n d p i sc i s, sh

. . . .

Pro s e L a t p ro ( orw a rd), a nd versa ( tu rn e d) ; sh o rt en ed t o p rorsa

. f
a n d t h en t o p rosa , a o rw a rd o r u n em ell sh ed s e e c h f b i
p .

P u t t oc k : p u t, a c o ntra c t o n o f p ou l t o r p u l l et, a n d h a w k ; h en c e i
k
l i t a h a w t h a t se z es pu ll ets
. i .

Q g
u a m ir e o rm e rl y q u a k e-
f
m i r e,
a qua n g m re ki i .

Q u i n sy : o rm er l y fs pe l t s qu i n a n c y o r g u i n a n c y ; G r k u n a n kh -
e, .

f rom ku n -o s ( o f a do g ), a n kh e ( pa n ) -
i .

R a n s a c k : I c e l ra nn , a h ou s e, a nd sae le j a , t o sea rc h
.
-
.

R ea rmou se, a b a t A S h rere mus, a u tter ng o r y ng mo u se i i

-
. . .

S a t urda y : A S S w tern dw g o r S is ter da g , da y o f S a t u rn

. .
- -

S c ot free , ree rom pa y n g seot or sh ot, c o n tr b u t o n

f f i i i .

S ennig h t , sev en n g h t s , a w e e i k .

S h el t er : A S sei Zd tru ma , a sh el -t roo p, a s qu a dro n o r g u a rd

. .
-
i d .

S h eri

A S s eir rf a , a sh re -ree v e , o c er o f t h e sh re
. .
-
i f i .

S irl oin : ro m O l d F r su r ( o v er, u po n ), a nd l onge ( l o n )

f . i .

E G C
. . .
2 B
37 0 A PP E N DI X O N D E R I VA TIO N S

S l edg e- h a mmer : l it a h a mmer h a mmer ; A S s l ecg e, h a mmer .

-
. . .

S omers a u l t : O l d F r sou b re sou l t sou b re z L a t s up er, o ver .

-
.

sa u l t z L a t sa l tu s, a l e a p
. .

S qu irrel : L a t shi u r el l u s, dim o f G r ski ou r u s ( sh a do w -t a l ed)

.
-
. .
- -
i .

S t a l w a rt : A S st l -w y rde ; stw l , o u nda t o n , a n d w y rde, w o rth y

. .

f i .

S t a rb oa rd : A S steorb ord, s t eerb o a rd t h e st e ersma n s dec k

. . .

S t a rk - na k e d : M id E ng sta rt n a ked, l i t

t a l na ed

. .
-
. i -
k .

i
S t ep- c h l d : A S stop c i ld, a n o rph a n ed c h l d . .
-
i .

S t ew a rd : A S stt w ea rd ee per o f s t es a n d c a t tl e e ns
. .
p
-
, k i .

S t i c kl eb a c k , t h e l 1 t tl e sh w t h sti ckl es ( pric k l e s ) o n i t s b a ck i .

S tirru p : A S stig rap , a ro pe t o c l imb u p b y

. .
-
.

S u n da y : A S S u n n a n dai g , da y o f t h e s u n
.
-
.

T a dpo l e , a toa d n ea rl y a l l h ea d o r p o l l .

T a nta mou nt : L a t ta n t u s ; F r a mon t, t o w a rds th e mo u nta n . . i .

T h u rs da y : A S Th u n res dw g , da y o f Th or o r T h u n der
. .
-
.

T ops y t u rvy : o r g top sy tervy

-
i
T op so tu rvy a t erw a rds a l te red .
-
.
- -
f
t o tap si de tu rvy , a s up so dow n w a s c h a n g e d t o up si de dow n
- -
T u rvy - - - -
.

mea ns o v ert u rn ed, ro m A S tor!t a n ( t o t h ro w ), M id E ng terven f . . . . .

Tra de- w i nd : w n d o f a c ert a i n tra de, t rea d, o r t rend ( pa t h ) i .

Tra mw a y , a ra l ro a d o n tra ms ( sl eepers ) i .

T u esda y : A S Ti w es dazg, da y o f T i w o r M a rs
. .
-
.

T w ilig h t : l it do u b l e ( i e do u b t u l ) l g h t. ro m A S tw i dou l e . . f i f . . b .

Va lh a ll a : S c a nd va l r, t h e sl a n h a l l , a h a l l .
-
i .

Vin eg a r : F r vi n ( L a t vin u m), a n d eg re ( L a t a cre, sou r)

. .
-
. .

W a lrus D u t c h w a l ru s D a n s h h va l ros , a w h a l e h o rse i - -

.

W a nt on, u ndisc pl n e d ; A S w a n , l a c k n g ; tog en , d sc pl ne i i . . i i i i d .

i f
W a ssa l : ro m A S w es h el , b e t h o u w h o l e o r h a l e . . .

W e dne sda y : A S IVodn es deeg , t h e da y o f W o den

-
. . .

W e ll a w a y : a n e x c l a ma t o n o f so rro w s omet me s c orru pte t o i i d

w el l a da y A S u a l a w a, w o e . lo . w oe
'

W hi t l ow a c o rru pt o n o f gu i c h z a w a a w in th e qu i c k i .

W il dern ess : A S w i l d ( w l d), deor ( de er, a n ma l )

. . i i .

W in dow : l it w nd e y e . i
S c a nd vi n dr ( w in d), a n d a u g a ( a n ey e ) -
. .

W oma n : A S w if ma n ; w if , a e ma l e , a n d ma nn , pe rso n f
'

-
. . .

f
W o o : A S O w ef , fo r on w ef , l it w e b o n o r a c ro ss t h e w e t
. .
- ~
. f .

W orl d : l it a g e o f ma n ; A S w er, ma n ; y ldu , o l d a g e

. . . .

f
Y e st erda y , ro m A S g eostra ( y est er) a n d da g ( da y ) . . .

Z oo ph y t e, a nima l pl a nt : G r z ob n ( a n ma l ), p h u l on , pl a n t
- -
.

i .

( b ) M I S TA K E N OR A PP A R E N T C O MP O UND S .

A c orn : n o t c o mpou n ded o f A S dc ( o a k ) a n d c orn A S secern, . . . . .

f i
ru t o f t h e el d ro m aec er, a e l d f
c o g n a t e w th L a t a g er i . .

Ba t t l e ment -
n o t ro m b a tt l e , b u t ro m F r b a sti l e, a o rtress f f . f .

f
Bel ry : n o t c o mpou nded w t h b el l O l d Fr b er f rei t, o f T e u t o n c i . .
-
i
i i
or g n b er o r b erg , t o prot e c t, a nd f rei t, a pl a c e o f sa ety f .

f
Bl in d o l d : n o c o n n ec t o n w th f o ld A S b l i nd f el l en , st ru c k i i . . .
-

i
b l nd . T h e s ec o n d w o rd i s p p o f f e l l a n ( t o s trik e do w n ) w th . .
-
i
in tru s v e di T h e w ord w a s so met me s w r tte n b li nd f elden
. i i -
.

Bo n da g e n o t ro m b on d, b u t ro m A S b on da , a s er

f f . . f .

C a t erpill a r : n o t c o mpo u nded w i th p i l l a r F r c ha te, a sh e c a t , . .

-

a nd
p el eu se ( L a t p i l osa ),
h a ry O l d F r e h.a tep el eu se,
a w ee v l i . . i .
372 A PP E N D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

P i c k a xe : M id E n g p ih oi s, p i hei s ; no c o n n ec t i o n w ith
-
. . axe

.

P oli c i e s ( i n su ra n c e pa per) n o c o n ne c tion w i th p o li c y G r p ol y . .

( ma ny ), p tu kon ( a fo l d), a w ri ting in ma ny fo l ds L a t e L a t p o l ec ti cu m . . .

P o s th u mou s : n o t c o mpou n de d w i t h L a t h u mu s, th e g ro u nd A . .

mi ss pel l ing fo r p ostu mu s, t h e l a st , su perl a ti v e o f p ost

.

Primrose n o t c o mpo u n de d w i th rose M id E ng p rimerol e, dim . . . .

o f L a t e L a t p ri m u l a , w h i c h is i t s el f a dim o f L a t
p ri m a
- -
. . . .

R a k eh el l : fo r M id E ng ra ke l , S c a n d rei h a l l , a v a g a b o n d
. . . .

R ein deer : n o t c o mpo u n ded w it h rei n

-
S c a n d h rei nn , a d e er . . .

R o s ema ry : L a t ros ( de w ), ma ri s ( o f se a ) sea de w , sea s pra y

. .

R u n a g a t e a c o rru pt i o n o f ren eg a de L a t re, a g a i n, a nd n eg a tu s, .

den ie d o n e w h o h a s den i e d his fa i th .

A S sam, h a l f, L a t semi

S a n db lind : l it h a l f b li nd .
-
. . . .

S a ngrea l w ron g l y t ra c e d t o sa n g ( b l oo d), rea l ( ro y a l , n ot rea l )

t h e w o rd is sa n ( h o l y ), g rea l o r g ra i l ( di sh ) T h e H o l y G ra il

. .

S erv i c e t ree , a ki nd o f w i ld pea r

-
C o rru pt i o n o f M id E ng serv es, . . .
-

p l u ra l , A S s y r.
f ,
b o.rro w e d f ro m L a t s o r b us C f sorb a ppl e .
-
. .
-
.

S h a me fa c e d : fo r sh a me f a st ; c f s t ed fa st

A S sec a m f eest
-
.
-
. .
-
.

S l ow w orm : A S s l a w y rm, a w o rm o r sna k e t h a t sl a y s

-
. .
-
.

S ov ereig n : L a t e L a t sup er a n eu s ; c f f oreign , L a t f or a n eu s .

-
. .
-
.

S u rc ea se F r su rsi s, p p o f th e v erb su rseoi r ; L a t super sedere

. . . .
-
.

S urroun d : fo r su r c u n d ; L a t su p er, o v er, a nd u n d a re, t o o w

-
.
-
.

T itmou se : S c a nd ti ttr, l i ttl e A S vui se, sma l l b i rd

. . . .

T ou c h y : c o rru pt i o n o f tetch y , from M id E n g tetch , a w h im . . .

T urmoil : fro m F r tremou i l l e, th e h o pper o f a mil l , so c a ll ed.

b ec a u se it is c o n sta ntl y in moti o n La t trem ere, tremb l e .

-
.

Uproa r : n ot c ompou n de d o f up a n d roa r D u tc h op roer, w h ere .

-

op mea n s u p, a n d roer mea n s c o mmo t i o n a l l i ed t o A S h rer a n , . .

-

t o u tt e r c f R ea rmou s e, p 3 6 9 R o a r i s from A S rar i a n

-
. . . . . .

W a l l ey e d, w i t h a b ea m in t h e ey e S c a nd va g l , a b e a m

-
. . .

W a l nu t n o t c o mpou nd ed w i th w a l l , b u t w i th A S w ea l h , forei g n . . .

W isea c re : D u t c h w igs segg er, a w i se sa y er - -

.

W it c h el m : A S w i ee, b e n di n g ; of w i cker, ma de o f t w i g s
. . . .

Y eoma n O l d Fri s g a ma n , a v i l l a g er, from g a , a v i ll a g e .

-
.

( 6 ) H Y B R I D C O MP O UN D S .

( C o mp ou nds m a de u p of w or d s ta k en f ro m di eren t l a n g u a g es ) .

A rc h end : G r a rkh ( c h i e f) ; A S f ond ( en emy h e nc e end)

-
. . .
,
.

Ba n dy l eg g e d : F r b a n de ( b o u n d) S c a n d l egg r ( l eg )

- .
. .

Ba nk ru pt : D u b a n cic ( b e nc h t a b l e ) L a t rup t a s ( b ro k e n )
-
.
,
.
-
.

Bee f e a t er : F r b oef b eeuf ( b eef) ; E n g ea ter o n e w h o e a t s h i s

-
.
,
.
,

ma st e r s b e ef a serva n t ( T h e t h eo ry w h i c h ma de it a c o rru pt io n o f

.

F r b ueti er a w a i ter a t a si de b o a rd h a s b e en di spro v ed in S k ea t s

-
.
, ,

S tuden t s P a sti me, pp 1 5 7 ,

.

Big a my : L a t b i s ( t w i c e ) G r g a m o s ( ma rri a g e )
. .
-
.

Bl a c k g u a rd : E ng b l a ck ( A S b l az e) F r g u a rd
-
. . . . .

C a u s e w a y : O l d Fr ca u c i e ( L a t c a l ci a ta ), pa v ed w a y ( A S w aeg )
-
. . . . .

F ou mart a po l ec a t A S f ul ( fo u l ) F r ma rte ( a ma rt e n ) . . . .

G ra n df a t h er, g ra n dmot h er F r g ra nd ( g rea t ) E ng f a th er, moth er . . .

H a u t b oy : F r h a u t, h i g h ; D u t c h , b osch , w oo d
-
. .

Heir l oom : Fr h eir ( L a t h er es) E ng l oom ( A S g e l dma , t o ol )

-
. .
-
. . .
- .
 D I S G U I S E D PR EF I X E S 3 73

Hol l y h oc k A S hdl i g ( h ol y ) C el t h oc y s ( ma l l ow )
-
: . Th e o w er
. .
-
.

w a s i n dig en o u s t o t h e H ol y L a nd .

Int er l eper : L a t i n ter ( b et w e e n ), a n d D u l oop er ( ru nn er)

-
. . .

Kerb st one : L a t cu rv-u s ( c u rv e d), a n d A S stan ( st on e )

-
. . . .

Knig h t erra nt : E ng kn i g h t Fr erra n t ( w a nde ri ng )

-
. . .

L a mprey ,

l i c k er o f ro c k s L a t l a mb ere ( t o l ic k ), G r p etra .
-
.

( a roc k ) A n o th er fo rm o f th e w ord is Limpet

. .

M a c a da mi se d : G a el ma c ( so n ) ; H eb A da m ; G reek i se or iz e, . .
- -

a nd E ng s u f x d .
( F o u r l a n g u a g es ) -
. .

M a ri g ol d : H eb M a ry
-
E ng g ol d s o c a ll ed fro m it s c ol ou r . . .

M il dew : L a t mel , h o ney ; A S deaw , dew

-
. . . .

N u n c h eon : M id E ng n on e sch eu ch e, n o o n dri nk L a t n on a ,
. .
- -
.

n i nt h h o u r, n o o n a nd A S sc en e a n , t o pou r o u t dri nk . .
-
.

N u t meg : A S h n u t a ( a n u t ) M id E n g mu g e, L a t mu se u s
-
. .
-
. . .
-
.

O rc h a rd : A S o rt g ea rd from L a t ( h )ort u s, g a rden A S g ea rd,

. .
-
.
-
. .

e n c l osu re ( T h e t h eo ry w h i c h i dent i es t h e rs t sy l l a b l e w i th A S
. . .

w ort i s n o w ex pl o de d ) .

O s tri c h : L a t a vi s ( bi rd ) G r strou th io n ( a ki n d o f b ird)

-
. .
-
.

P a r t a k e , fo rp a rt ta ke : L a t p a rt em, E ng ta k e ( from S c a n d ta c a )
- -
.
-
. .
-
.

P a s t ime -
Fr p a ss er, t o mo v e o n w a rd A S ti m a ( t ime )
.
-
. .
-
.

P e d e st a l : L a t p es, p ed i s ; A S s tw l , a s ta n ding pl a c e
- -
.
-
. .
-
.

P ent ro of : sl o pi ng ro o f Fr p en te, a sl o pe A S h rof , a c a bi n

-
. . . . .

P ie c e mea l : F r p i ece ( pa rt ) A S mai l ( a po rti o n o r t ime )

-
. . . .

F u r b l in d : o ri g p u re b li nd L a t p u r u s, A S b li n d
-
.
-
.
-
. . .

R ig ma rol e S c a n d ra g menn i ( c o w a rd) L a t rotu l a ( a l i ttl e w h eel , . .

a l o n g st u i d s t o r

h enc e ro l l ) A c o w a rd s ro l l .
p y .

S a l t c el l a r : rst sy l l a b l e, A S sea l t ( sa l t ) t h e rema i nd er o f t h e

-
. .

w o rd h a s n o thi ng t o do w i th c ell a r, b u t is from F r s a l i ere, L . .

sa l a ri u m, s a l t h o l de r .

S erb a ppl e L a t sorb u s ( a w i l d tree ) A S sepp el ( a ppl e )

-
.
-
. . .

S pik e n a rd L a t sp i c a t u s ( spik ed) S a n sk ri t n a l a d a ( na rd)

-
.
- -
.

T a r pa u ling : A S teoru ( ta r) L a t p a l l iu m ( a c o v erl et )

-
. . .
-
.

( d) D I S GU I S E D P nnrl x ns .

Ab d v- a u n t ( L at ), . a ( Fr d v a nt g a rd e ), a dv
b a n te v- a n - g u a r d .
- -

a n c e, a dv- a n t - a g e ( t h e l a st t w o deriv ed, w i th t h e h el p o f a dded

su ffix es from ,
Fr . a v a n t , w i th a n i n t ru s i v e d b e t w ee n th e a a nd
-

t h e v) .

Ad ex - c se i ( D u tc h a ksii s, c orru pt o n o f i O l d Fr . a ssi se, a ta x ;

L a t a s or a d sess u s, from sedere, t o sit )
.
-
.

A nt e a n c e st o r ( O l d F r a n -c e sso ur, L a t
-
a n te c esso r, o ne w h o . .
-

g o e s b e fo r e) .

Bi b a l a n c e ( F r b a l a n c e, L a t b i l a nc em, h a v i ng t w o sc a l es )
-
.
-
.
-
.

c u st om ( L a t con su et u men ), c u r r
C on c o y ( v erb , O l d Fr c on
- - -
. .

ro i), ao v er ( O l d F r c o vrir ; L a t
-
c o o perire ), c o v ena n t ( O l d F r .
-
.
- -
.

c on v ena n t), ao u nt ( v erb , Fr c on t er, La t c o m

pu ta re ), c o u nt ( n ou n ,
- - - - -
. .

L a t c om it em), c o u c h ( O l d F r c ou c h er ; La t col l oc a re ), co st ( L a t
.
- -
.
-
.
- -
.

c on sta re ), se il a n d c u ll ( O l d F r c oi ll er, L a t
- -
c o l l ig e re ), c o st i v e -
.
-
.
- -

( L a t c on stipa tu s ), c ou sin ( L a t con sob ri nu s), c u rfew ( 0 F r c c v re

.
- -
.
- -
. .
-

feu , c o v eri n g o f re s), ke reh ie f ( 0 F r co-vre ch ef, c overi ng to th e -

. .
-

h e a d) .

De di s t i l ( L a t de sti ll are ) -
.
-
.
3 74 APPE N D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

Dis des c a nt , des h a b ll e ( st a t e o f u n dress), des sert ( t h e l a st

di - -
i -

c o u rse a t din n er), de ea t , de fy , de l u g e ( L a t f

di l u vi u m), s pe nd
- - -
.
- -

( L a t d i s p e n
. d er e ), s ta -
n ( fo r d i s t a n ), d e -
b a r ( Fr dc s b a rqu er, t o
-
i -
i k .
-

l a n d ro m a s h p) f i .

Ex e a me nd ( b u t e me n da ti o n ), a s a nc e ( ex c a n sa re
-
to g o - -
k -
,

a sl o e ), a b a s h ( O l d F r es b a h i ss ,
p
-
mit a t v e ), af ra y ( L o w L a t esc .
-
i i -
f .

-
f i
fredia re ), a ra d ( pp o f a ra y ), a w a rd ( O l d F r es ( L a t eoc w a rd er), .
'

-
. .
-

a s t o n is h ( O l d Fr e s t o n n er, L a t e L a t ex t o n a re ), es c a e ( O l d F r
p
- - - -
. . .

es c a per ; L a t ex c a ppa, ou t o f o n e s c a pe ), es l a n a de ( L a t eo l
-
.
p c p )
a na t a , -
.
-

es c o rt ( L a t ex c o rre c t a s, c o rri ere ), es- c h ea t ( O l d F r es c h e t , f

g p p o
- - -
. . . .

es e h e o ir, L a t
-
ex c a dere ), es sa
y ( O l.d F r es sa i
-
,
a t r a l ; Lo w L a t -
.
-
i .

ex a g iu m, a t r a l o f w e g h t ), c a rt e ( a me a t c a rds , l i t
i i
d sc a rded), i
g
- -
.

i s s u e ( O l d F r i s su , L a t etc ire ), s a mpl e ( M id E n g s a mpl e ,

-
.
-
.
- -
. .
-

O l d Fr es sempl e, L a t ex empl u m), s c a rc e ( L a t e L a t sc a rp su s,

.
-
.
- -
.

sh o rt fo r ex c er tu s ), s c o reb
p ( O l-
d F r es c o rc h er, L a t eaJ c o rt c a re ,
-
.
-
.
-
i -

k
t a e o ff ar b k
o r r n d), s c o u rg e ( O l d F r es c o rg e, L a t i etc c o ria t a , -
.
-
i .
-

a ed o ff ), s o mb re ( esc u mb ra,
y r o m
-
t h e s h a d e ),
s c a m p ( O l d F r es f -
.

c a m er), s c a mper ( ru n a w a ), s lu c e ( L a t e x -
c l u sa ), s c o u r ( ecc y i
p
- - -
.

c u ra re ), s e w e r ( ew a qu a r a ), s -
p r a in ( O l d F r es pra in dre , L a t
-
esc i -
.
-
.

p r im er e ), s
q u a re ( L a t ex qu a dra re
-
so a l so s
q u a dro n ) .
- -
.

E xtra z stra n g e ( L a t ecctr( a ) n eo n s, e x t erna l )

- -
.
-
.

I n ( i n ) a n o nt ( L a t i n -u nc tu s ), a m- u sh ( L o w L a t i m b o sc a re ,
-
i . b .
-

t o s e t i n a b u sh ) .

I n ( n ot) en emy ( L a t i n imic u s , h enc e i n imic a l ) -

.
- -
.

I ntra -
i
en tr a l s ( O l d F r en tr a l l es , L a t e L a t i n tr( a ) a l a ) .
-
i .
-
i .

J u xt a j o u st ( L a t e L a t j u oe t a r e ) , j os t l e ( r e
q o f M id E n g .
- -
f . . .

jo u st- en )
.

M ale F r ma u
ma u g re ( in L a t ma l e, g re g ra t u m, i te o f,
'
-
sp .
z .
z

en c e t h e w o rd mea n s ea s i ng ,

p l e a sin
g h i ll p l u n pl ea s a n t -

N on um
p i re ( o l der fo rm n u m pi re, O l d F r n on per, peerl e ss
- a -
.
-

n u mpi rc w a s c h a n g ed t o a n u mp i re ) .

Per p i l g ri m ( It a l p el l eg rin o, L a t p er e g rinu s ), p a r do n ( L a t p er

-
. .
- -
.

do n a re ), pa r so n ( L a t p er so na , l it a ma sk , b e c a u s e a n a c t o r s v o i c e

- - -
. .

sou n ded th rou g h i t ) .

P o st u n r u i s n o ( O l d F r p u is n , L a t p ost n a t u s , y o u n g er,
p y o p
- - - -
. .

b o rn a ft er h e nc e i n feri o r in ra nk ) .

Pre p re a c h ( O l d Fr p re c h er, L a t -
p r ee d i c a re ), p ro v o st ( O l d .
-
.
- -

F r p ro v e s t o r p re v o st , L a t p res po si tu s , o n e pl a c e d i n a u t h o ri ty ),
.
- -
.
-

r i z e , p r i so n ( L a t p re h e n su m, p re h e n de re )
-
p
- - -
. .

P ro p r u d e n t ( s h o rt fo r L a t p
-
r o v i d e n t e m ,
o n e w h o l o ok s b e fo re .
- -

h im) .

Re re ( n ) de r ( F r ren dre, L a t red dere ), r a l l y ( F r r a ll ie r, L a t

- - - - -
. .
. .

rc + a l l ig a re , t o b in d t o g e t h er), r a n so m ( O ld F r ra e n s o n , L a t red - -
. .

e mpt io n em), ru n a g a t e ( c o rru pt fo rm o f re n eg a de, L a t re n eg a t u s,

- - -
.

o f re n eg a re , t o de ny o n e s fa i th )

p p
-
. . .

R et ro rea r g u a rd ( o l de r s pel l i n g rere w a rd), rere do s

- - -
.

Se s o b er ( L a t se, a pa rt eb ri u s, i n t o x i c a t e d), s u re, a sh o rt fo rm

- -
.

o f se c u re ( L a t se c u ru s )
-
.
-
.

S emi si n c i pu t ( l it h a l f th e h ea d, t h e fo re pa rt o f th e h ea d)
-
.
.

S ub su dde n ( L a t su b ita n eu s , O l d F r s o da i n ), so j o u rn ( L a t - - -
- . .
.

su b + diu rn a re, t o s t a y , O l d F r so j o u rn e r), s o mb re ( t ra c e d b y so me

- - - -
.

t o su b u mb ra, u nd er t h e s h a de
- b u t see a b o ve , u nde r Ex ) .
37 6 A PPEN D I X O N DER I VA T I O N S

Bidd -
an ( to p ra y ) b ea d ( ori g pra y er, n o w a h ea d fo r c o u nt i ng
. a

pra y e rs ), a b dd ng pra y er, i i - -

b eg ( M id E ng b egg en , A S b e d ec ia n , . . . .
- -

i req o f h dd a n )
. i -
.

Bin d a n ( to f a sten ) : b nd, b a nd, b a nd a g e, a nd b o x , b a ndog ( a

-
i -
b -

do g t h a t i s t ied u p), b e n d ( A S b end a n, o rig t o s tr n g a b o w , h en c e . .

-
. i
t o b e nd i t ), b a n dy -l e gg e d ( b o w l eg g e d), b a n n er ( O F r b a niere , L o w -
. .

L a t b a nderia , a b a n d o r s tri p o f c l ot h ), b o nd, b o ndsma n , b o dy ( A S

. . .

b o d 1g ,
-

i
t h e l t t l e b o n d t h a t c o n n e s t h e so u l ), b o d ic e ( a c o rru p -

rom

i
t on o f b o d e s,

t h e or g s pel l ng ), i b u ndl e ( A S b u n d, i . i . . f
b u n de n ,
pp o f b in d a n , t o b n d)
. .
-
i .

Bit a n ( to h e l d b etw een th e teeth ) b t e , b a t ( t o c a u s e t o b t e), b e t

-
i i i
( to w a g er, rom S c a nd b e t a , t o c a u s e t o b t e ), a b et , b it ( a mo u t h ul ,
f . i -
i -
f
sma ll p ec e ), b it ( c u rb fo r a h o rs e ), b tt e r ( A S
i b it o r, l it b t ing ), i . .
-
. i
b ee t l e ( A S b it e l , a b t ng o n e ), b e e tl e ( t o proj ec t o v er, a s in ph ra se
. .
-
ii

-
b
b ee tl e re w ed, i e w t h b ro w s proj ec t ng l e a n u pper ja w ) . . i i ik .

Bl aw a n ( to -
b l o w , b l a dder ( A S b l aedr, a b l o w n g o u t ), . . i
b l a st ( A S b l aest , a b l o w n g ), b l a z e ( A S
. .

l aese , a a me ), l a z o n ( ex i . . b b
t en ded orm o f prec edin g ), b l a re ( a n o l der o rm o f
f b l ist er f
( O D u b l u y st e r, a sw ell n g ), b l u st er ( req t o b l o w n o s l y )
. . i f . i i .

Bl end a h , b l a n d a n ( to mi ce o r c onf use) b l en d, b l n d ( A S b l in d),

- -
i . .

i f
b l n d o l d ( c o rr o f b l n d el den , stru c l n d), b l u n der ( M i d E n g
. i -
f k bi . .

b l o n dr en , re q -
ro m S c a n d b l u n d a , t o do z e , t o b e in a s t a t e o f
f . f .
-

men t a l c o n u s o n ) f i .

Bl ic a n -
b l nk e n ( D u ) to sh i n e : b l a n , b l a n c h , b l a n et , i -
. k k
b l e a c h ( A S b l ace, sh n ng ), b l nk , l en c h ( t o c a u se t o b l n ), b l g h t
. . i i i b i k i .

Bl w a n ( to b l oom a s a f l ow er) : b l o w ( in th e se n se o f b l o ss om),

-

b l o o m, b l o ss om ( A S b l Os t ma ), b l o o d ( A S b l o d, t h a t w h c h c a u s es
. .
-
. .

i
i i
t h e b l oo m o r o ur sh ng of l e ), b l ee d ( der v o f b l o o d, A S b l d a n ), if i . . .
-

b l ess ( A S b l et s ia n, t o c o n s ec ra t e b y b l o o d)
. .
-
.

Bre e a n ( to b rea k ) : b re a k , b ro e ,
-
re a c h , b r c ( F r b r qu e , o r g k b i k . i i .

a f
ra g me n t, a b it ), b rea a st ( A S eest ), b rea w a t er, b ra c en kf -
. . f k -
k -

f
( a e rn g ro w ng o n rou g h o r b ro en g ro u n d) i k .

Bredw a n ( to b oi l , f ermen t) : b rew , b rea d ( A S b rea d, i e o u r

-
. . . .

th a t h a s b een erme n t e d), f

b ro t h ( A S b roth ), b re w s o r b ro s e . . i
( po t t a g e , do u b l e t s ormed rom b re Ow a n , 0 Fr b ro u c s ) f f -
. .
-
.

Brun ( c opp er c o l ou red) : b ro w n , b ru in ( th e b ro w n b e a r), b ru n et t e

- -

( b ro w n sh , i b u rn sh ( t o po l sh , l i t t o enb ro w n ), b ro n z e ( Fr i i . .

b ro nz e )
E u a n ( to cu l ti va te) b o o r ( A S b 11 r, g e b ii r, a c u l t va t or), n e g h
-
. .

-

i i
b ou r ( A S n eah b ii r o r n e ah g eb u r, a n g h o r n ea r c ul t v a t o r),
. .
-

-
i i
b o nd a g e ( A S
-
b o n d a , a s erva n t o f th e so l ), h u sb a n d ( S c a n d h i s ,
. .
-
i .

h ou se , b On di o r b i i a ndi, o c c u p er), b o w er ( A S b l i r, M id E ng h o u r, a

i . . . .

c h a mb er) .

Bg a n ( to b en d) : b o w ( n ou n a n d v er ), b o w w ndo w ( a semi
-
b -
i
c irc u l a r w ndo w , n o t t h e sa me a s b a y w n do w ), b u x o m ( l it
i b en d -
i .

s o me , A S b r ig su m, y el d ng , o b edi en t ), b g h t ( A S b g h t , a
. .
-
i
g ht i i . . i bi
or b a o f w a t er), ou t ( a t u rn ), el b o w ( A S c l b o g a ; el n , a rm :
b -
y
-
. .

La t u l na )
. .

Bu l g ja ( S c a nd to sw el l ou t) :
-
u l g e , b o l , b o l e ( st em o f a t re e ),
. b i
b o l s t er ( A S b o l st er), b e l t ( a ro u nd st ron g pin , A S b ol t ), b o w l ( a
. . . .

ro u n d v es sel , A S b o ll a ), ul , b u l w a r ( lit . ol e w or
. or l og -
b k -
k . b -
k
w ork , w h e n c e F r b ou l ev a rd) . .
 D ER I VA TI VE S F RO M TE U TO N I C R O O TS 3 77

Bu sc ( a m b u sc a de ( L o w L a t im b o sc
th i cket) : b u sh ,
a m -
b u sh ,
a - -
.
-

a re , t o pl a c e me n in b u sh e s ) b o sc a g e ( g ra z i ng fo dder) b ou qu e t ,
-
, ,

( 0 Fr b o squ e t dim o f 0 F r b o s Fr b o i s)
. .
, . . .
,
. .

By rn a n b e orn a n b rinn a n ( to b e i n f l a mes o r p u t i n to th e

-
,
-
,
-
,

f l a m e) : b u rn b ra n d ( sw o rd o r b u rn i n
g pi e c e o f w o o d A S b ra n d
, , , . .
,

pt t o f b eo rn a n ) re b ra n d b ra n d n e w ( th a t i s n ew from th e
- - -
. .
, , ,

re ) b ra n d ish ( th ro u g h Fr b ra ndi ss a n t pres pt o f b ra n d ir t o

,
-
.
-
, . .
-
,

w i el d a b ra n d o r s w ord) b ra n d y ( fo rmerl y b ra nd w i n e or b ra n d y ,
- - -

w i n e w h i c h w h en th e sec o n d w o rd w a s dro pped b ec a me b ra nd y

-

, , , ,

l it
. b u rnt or h o t w in e brim sto n e ( su l ph u r M id E ng b rem -
, . .

s t o o n o r b re n st o o n ; M id E n g bre n n e n t o b u rn ) b ru n t ( a n o n s et
-
. .
-
, ,

l ik e a a sh o f re ) b ri n dl ed o r b ri n ded ( in th e sense o f strea k e d a s , ,

a bri ndl ed c o w
C eap ( b a rter, p ri ce) : c h ea p, c h a ffer ( A S c e ap, pri c e, a n d A S . . . .

fa ru , b u sin es s), c h a p ma n ( A S c eap ma nn , a merc h a nt ), c h o p ( t o -

. .
-

b a rter or e x c h a n g e, D u tc h k o o p em, A S c eap ia n ), c ope ( t o v ie -

. .
-

w i t h , do u b l et o f t h e prec edi n g ), k e e p ( A S c p a n o r c
yp a n, a . .
- -

deri v a t i v e o f A S c eap, pri c e ), Ch ea p si de ( a stre et in t h e C i ty o f

. .
-

L o ndo n, th e tra de qu a rt er
C oc c ( a ma l e b i rd) c o c k , c o c k a de ( Fr c o qu a rde , fem o f c o qu a rd, . .

sa u c ), c oc k l o ft ( l it a l e ft w h ere c oc k s ro o s t ), c o u e tt e
q ( fe m o f
y . .

F r c o qu e t , a l i t t l e c o c k ), c oc k y ( stru tti ng a s a c o c k ), c o x c omb

.

( a fo ol n a med from h is c ook s c omb o r fo o l s c a p), c h i c k e n ( A S

-
. .

c ic e n , pro b a b l y dim o f c o c c ), c h i c k en po x , c h i c k e n h ea rt ed
-
.
- - - -
.

Cric c , c rok ( a sta , a crook ) c ri c k e t ( dim o f c ric c ), c ro ok , c ru t c h ,

-
.

c ro c h et ( F r c ro c h e t , a l i ttl e h ook ), c ro t c h e t , e n c ro a c h ( t o c a t c h in a
.
-

h ook ), c ro si er ( 0 F r c ro c e, L o w L a t c roc i a ) . . . .

Cropp ( th e top of a p l a n t) c ro p, c ro u p ( t h e h i nder pa rt o f a h orse ),

c ru ppe r ( Fr c ro u pi ere ), g ro u p ( F r g ro u pe , a h e a p, a c l u st er)
. . .

C u nn a n ( to kn ow ), c a n ( u sed a s pres t en se )
-
c a n, c o n ( A S . . .

c u n n ia n , desi dera t i v e fo rm o f c u n n a n ), c u nn in g ,
-
u n c o u th ( l it - -
.

u n k no w n , A S c uth , k now n ) c u ddl e ( pu t for c ou t h l e, t o b e

. .
,
-

fa mi l i a r, t o emb ra c e ), k en ( A S c enn a n , c a u sa l form c u nn a n), ki t h . .

- -

( A S c yth th e , n a t i v e l a n d, ki ndred)
. .
-
.

C w el a n , pt t c w eel ( to di e) : qu a i l , qu a l m ( A S c w ea l m, l it
-
. . . . .

est i l en c e ), qu ell ( A S c w e l l a n , t o c a u se t o q u a i l )
p
-
. . .

Cy nn ( g en u s, ra ce) : k in , ki nd ( A S c y n d, g e c y nd, na tu re ), . .
-

ki nd ( a dj A S c y nde, n a t u ra l ), ki ndl e ( t o b ri ng forth y o u ng ),

. . .

ki ndred ( th e rst d is i ntru si v e , A S ey n , a n d t h e su fx . .

ki n g ( A S ey n ing , a ma n o f roy a l k in , A S c y ne, ro y a l ), kin g dom

. .
-
. .

( A S e y n e dom)
. .
-
.

D l ( a sh a re) : d ea l , dol e, o rd ea l ( l it a dea l i n g o u t, A S o r: . . .

out ) .

DO n ( to p erf orm, ca u se) : a do ( for

-
a t do t o do , i n t h e - -

N ort h ern d a l ec t
at

w a s = t o ), de ed ( A Si deed, a t h n g do n e ), . . i
do f ( do o ff ), do n ( do o n ), do o m ( A S dom, a t h ng dec de d o n ),
f . . i i
de em ( A S dem a n , lit t o e x press a do o m or j u dg me n t ), do omsda y
. .
-
. .

Dra g a n ( to dra w ) : dra g , dra w , dra g g l e , dra w ] , dra u g h t o r dra t

-
f
( a s in t h e ph ra se a dra u g h t o f sh es dre dg e , dreg s, dra y .

Dre s a n ( to drip ) drea r o r drea ry ( A S dre o r-i g , g o ry , ro m A S

-
. . f . .

i
dreOr, g ore ), dr z z l e ( re q of dreOs -a n ), dro ss ( A S dro s, t h a t w h c h f . . . i
s ettl es do w n ), dro w se ( A S drus ia n , der v ro m dre Os -a n ), dro w sy . .
-
i . f .
37 8 A PPEN D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

Drin c a n ( to dri n k ) dr n , dren c h ( t o c a u se t o dr n ), dru n a rd

-
i k i k k -

( A S dru h e b a se o f p p o f drinc a n ), dro w n ( A S dru ne n ia n, t o

. . . .
-
. .
-

s n i k) .

Dre Op -
an ( to drop ) : dro p, dri p ( S c a n d dry p) drib b l e ( fre q
.
, . of
dri p), dri b l et , dro o p .

Dry g e ( dry ) : dry , drou g h t ( fro m A S dru g ia n , t o dry ), dru g . .

-

( O Fr dro g u e
. D u dro o g , dri e d ro o t s b ei ng u se d medic in a ll y ),
.
,
.

dru g g et ( dim o f dru g , s o c a l l e d fro m c o a rse n es s o f ma t eri a l )

m
. .

in ( a h i l l ) : du n e, do w n , a do w n ( A S o f dun e, o ff t h e h i ll ), -
. .

S no w do n , H u n t i ng do n , S w in do n
- - -
.

Dy i a n , duf a n ( to p l u n g e ) : di v e , di v e r, do ve, di da pper ( a ki n d o f

- -

b ird, fo r di v e da pper, l it a di v e di v e r,
-
a re du l ic a t ed w o rd),
p .
-

do v e t a i l -
.

E ac ( a l so) ek e ( a dv erb a n d v erb ), n i c k n a me ( fo r a n ek e n a me

,
-

a n a ddi t i o n a l n a me t h e n o f t h e a rt i c l e h a s b e e n w ro n g l y t a c k e d o n

to ek e

E ag e ( ey e) : e y e , da i sy ( A S daeg c s c ag e, da y s ey e ), w i n do w

. .

( S c a nd v i n d a u g a ,
. a w i nd e e,
y
-
t h e sec o n d w o rd b e i n g a n o t h er -

form o f c ag e
E ast ( ea st) e a st , E a st er ( A S E a st re, t h e g o ddess w h o se fe st i v a l . .

w a s h el d i n A pril ), s t erl i n g ( fro m E a st erl i ng , ma n o f th e e a s t ,

t h e na me g i v e n t o H a n s e merc h a n t s, w h o frequ e n t ed L o ndo n in t h e

spr n g i ) .

Bi et a ( ki nd f
o l i z a rd) : e f t, t ( M id E n g n e w t e, fo r
n ew an . .

ew te , ew te b i
e n g a c o n t ra c t o n i o f M id E n g e v e t e ro m A S e fe t a
. . f . . .

F o r a n e x pl a na t o n o f t h e n i n i n ew t s e e a b o v e u n der E ac ) .

E f t o r aef t ( b eh i nd ) : a t er, a f f
t erw a rds , a h a ft ( A S a + b i + a ft -
. .

on b
y a ft ) .

Bt a n ( to ea t) : e a t ea t a l e , re t ( A S t for e t a n , t o b f f

-
r e a n z . .
- - -

i
de v o u r e nt re l y ), o r t s ( ro m A S o r= o u t , w h a t i s l e t, t h a t w h c h f . . f i
i s u n ea t en, h e n c e , t h e l ea v n g s : c f o rdea l u n der Del , a b o ve ), et c h i .

i
( t o en g ra v e w t h a c ds, D u e t s en, t o e t c h , t o c o rro de ) i .
-
.

F a ng ( a sei z i n g ) : a ng , f
ng er ( t h e er den o t es a g e n t ), n ew -

f a n l e d ( th e d is e x c resc e n t , M id E ng
g n e w e a ng el t h e l a t t er w o rd . .
-
f
sig n e s i
re a dy t o c a t c h
F a r a n ( to tra ve l , to g o ) : a re , a rew ell , t h o rou g h a re, w el a re,
-
f f -
f f
-

f erry ( A S fe r ia n , t o c a u s e t o g o , t o c o n v ey a c ro ss ),
. .
-
o rd ( A S o rd, f . . f
a pa s sa g e ), ri th o r f fi
rt h , w a r a re ( g o n g t o w a r), c h a er ( A S c e ap -
f i '

. .

f a ru ; see a b o v e, p .

F e b , f eo h ( ca ttl e, h en c e p rop erty ) : fe e , e ll o w ( S c a nd f l a g i , ro m f . f

f , pro perty , a n d l a g , a l a y n g t o g e t h e r : h e n c e
e ll o w l it mea n s i f .

a S h a rer i n r
p po ert
y M id E ng tel a w e ) . . .

F e Ow er ( f o u r) o u r, o u rt h ( A S f
fe Orth a ), o u rt een (A S fe dw er f . . f . .

ty n e ), o rty ( A S f eow er t ig ), a rt h n g ( A S
. f
f e o rt h ing , o u rth pa rt
.
-
f i . . f
o f a pe nn ),
y f
o rt n g h t ( o u rt e en n g h t s, A S f i f
eOw ert y n e nih t ), r i . .

k in ( fo u rt h pa rt o f a b a rre l , 0 D u v i er= A S e ow er, o u r) . . . . f f .

F ers c ( movi n g , o n th e mo ve, a l l ed t o F a r a n ) z re sh , re re sh , i -

f -
f
fik f k
r s , ris y , a re sh , f
re sc o ( a pa n t n g i n
-
re sh pl a st er), f re s h c t , i i f f -

fre sh ma n -
.

Fl eOg a n ( to oa t i n a ir) ea ( A S e d), e e ,

-
g h t ( A S y h t ), . . i . .

f i
edg e ( t o u rn sh w th e a t h ers , S c a n d e y g ja ), edg e li n g i f .
- -
.

Fl eOt -a n ( to oa t on w a ter) : oa t, a oa t , ee t ( A S eet , a sh p), . . i

3 80 A PPE N D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

H th ( u n ti l l ed l a nd) : h ea th , h ea th en ( lit dw ell er o n a h ea t h ) -

.

h ea t h er, h o id en o r h o y d e n ( a ro mpi n g g irl , fo rmerl y a ru sti c ,

- - -

do u b l e t o f t h e prec edi ng , fro m O D u h ey d en ) . .

-
.

H a g a ( enc l osu re, y a rd) : h a w , h a w t h o rn h edg e ( A S h ee g , a

-
, . .

s ec o n da ry fo rm o f A S h a
g a ), h a g g a rd ( O Fr h a g a rd, w il d, u se d
- - -
. . . .

of a h e dg e a l c o n ) -
f .

Ha n g ia n ( to su sp end) h a ng , h a n er ( req o rm, w e st l l sa y

-
to k f . f i
h a ng a b o u t a t er a t h n g f
h ng e ( ro m M id E n g h e ng e n ) i i f . .
-
.

Hea l d a h ( to keep ) h o l d, b e h o ld, u p h o l d, u p h ol -st er e r ( o n e w h o

- - - - -

i
h ol ds u p t h ng s t o sa l e o r g s pel l ng , u p h ol d st er er) i . i - - -
.

H eb b a n ( to l if t u p ) h ea v e, u p h ea v e , h e t ( orme d rom h ea v e
- -
f f f
a s h a t is ro m

f
h a ve f
h ea v y , h ea v e n ( A S h e o fo n o r h e fo n ; it s . .

c o nn ec t o n w it h i
h eb a n , h o w e v er, h a s n o t y et b e en pro v ed) b -
.

H err o r h ere ( a rmy ) : h a rb ou r ( M id E ng h erb erre, S c a n h er . . d .

b e rg i, l it a rmy sh el t er), h a r ng er ( M id E ng h erb erg e o u r 0 Fr

.
-
bi . .
-
. .

h erb erg er, t o h a rb o u r, t o pro v de sh e l t er f or a ny o n e ), h err ng ( t h e

-
i i
sh b e ng s o n a med, b ec a u se it c a me in s h o a l s, l e a n a rmy ), h a rry
i ik
(A S h erg ia n , t o de v a st a t e , a s is do n e b y a n a rmy ), h erio t ( l it
. .
-
.

m l t a ry a ppa rel , A S h er g e a t u )
ii . .
-
.

Hl a d a n ( to l oa d), pt t t d : l o a d, l a den
-
l a st ( sh p s

. . i
c a rg o , A S b l aes t ), b a l l a st ( l i t b a d c a rg o )
. .
-
. .

Hl eap a n ( to ju mp or ru n ), pt t h l e p : e -l o pe, n t er l o per, l a p

-
. . i -

i
w ng ( A S hl eape w n c e, o n e w h o t u rn s a b o u t i n ru n n ng ), o r l o p
. .
-
i i -

k
(D u t h e dec o f a sh i p, t h a t w h c h ru n s o ver t h e u pper pa rt o f a
. i
sh p) i F o r g a u n t l et
. see a o v e , G eat b .

Hopp ia n ( to l eap o r da n ce) : h o p, h o pp er ( o f a m ll ), h o ppl e ( a

- -
i
fe t t er f or h o rses ), h o b l e ( do u b l et o f t h e prec ed ng ), h o b b y , h ob b y b i
h orse ( a t o y s h a pe d l e a h orse ) ik .

Hre s a h ( to sta rt u p ) ro u se , a ro u se , ru sh ( S c a n d ru s e), ru st l e

- -
. k .

Hu n ig ( h o ney ) : h o n ey , h o n ey c o mb ( A S h u nig c o mb ), h o n ey
- -
. .
-

su c l e ( A S h u n ig sug e , rom A S
k s ag a n , t o su c k )
. .
-
f . .
-
.

H w it ( w h i te) w h t e, w h ea t ( so c a ll ed ro m t h e c ol ou r o f t h e o u r), i f
w h tt l e ( a i l a n et n a med ro m it s c ol o u r), W h t S u n da y ( A S h w it a
b k f i -
. .

S u n n a n deeg , t h e S u n da y w h en c h l dre n w ere c h r st en ed in w h t e )

-
i i i .

L ad ( a w a y or c ou rse) : l o de, l ea d ( A S l eed a n ), l o de st a r ( t h e

- -
. .

po l a r st a r, l it t h e w a y st a r, t h e st a r t h a t l ea ds), l o de s t o ne ( so me
- -
.

t mes m sspel t a s l o a d st o n e )
i i -
.

L ees s a ( c o mp o f li ttl e) : l ess ( A S l aessa ), l ea st ( A S l eest , c o n . . . . .

t ra c t ed rom l aes a s t ), l est ( A S t h y l ees t h e,

f
fo r t h e re a so n l ess
-
. .

L aet ( l a te, s l ow ) l a te , l a t er o r l a tt er, l a t est o r l a s t, b e l a t e , l e t d

( in t h e se n se o f h n der, A S l e tt a n , to ma e l a t e ) i . .
-
k .

L a ng , l ong ( ex ten ded) : l o n g , a l o n g ( A S a n d l a n g ), l o ng ( in th e . .

-

sen se o f w sh , A S i
l a n g ia n ), b e l o n g ( A S l a n g ia n ), l ng er ( A S . .
- -
. .
-
i -
. .

l en g a n , t o pu t o ff), l en g t h ( A S l en g th ), l e n g t h e n
-
. .
-
.

f
L ea (f o l i a g e) : l e a , l o b b y ( l a u e, a l ea b o w er, L o w L a t l ob -ia ), f b f -
.

l o dg e ( 0 Fr l o g e , L o w L a t l o b a ) . . . i .

L eas ( l oose, f a l se) ; l os ia n ( to set f ree, to p a rt w i th ) l o o se, l o o s e n , - -

i
l ea s n g , ( a l s eh o o d, A S f
l eas u n g ), l e ss ( t h e su x , a s in
- ea r . .
-
f f
l o se , l ost , fo r l o rn ( A S l oren w th n t en s v e prex ), l os s -
. . i i i
( A S l o s, de st ru c t o n ), l o u se ( A S l us, de st ro y er)
. . i . . .

Le eg a n, or li c g a n ( to rest, a b i de) : lie, a l -l a y ( A S a l eeg -a n ),

- -
. .
-
 D ER I VA T I VE S FRO M TE U TO N I C R O O TS 38 1

l a ir ( A S l eg er), l a w ( A S l eeg , th a t w h i c h l i es or is x ed), l a y ( t o

. . . .

c a u se t o li e do w n ), o u t l a y , l a y er ( do u b l et o f l a i r), l ea u er ( a c a m , -
g p
A l l s W ell , iii 6

b e l ea g u er, l edg e ( S c a n d l i g g ja , t o li e ),

see . .
-
.
-

l edg er, l o w ( S c a n d l ag r), re -l y ( L a t pre x re a h y bri d)

. . .

Le of ( dea r) l i e f, b e l i ev e ( A S g e l yf a n, t o est eem dea rl y ), l e a v e -

. .
-

( permi ssi o n , A S l eaf) . . .

L e ht ( n ot h ea vy ) : l i g h t , a li g h t ( t o d esc end fro m, A S o f l ih t , -

. .

t h e a b eing = A S of ), a l i g h t ( to l i g h t u po n . . h ere th e a z A S on ), -
. .

l i g h t en ( to a ll ev i a t e )
-
.

Lif ia n ( to ex ist, to rema i n ) : l ife ( A S l if), a l i v e ( A S on l ife,

-
. .
-
. .

in l ife), li v e l o n g o r l ife l o n g , l i v e l y ( l ife l ik e), l ife g u a rd, l i v el i h o o d

- - - - -

( c orr o f M id E n g l i v e l o de, l ife l ea di n g ,

. . A S l if l ad), l ea v e
.
- -
. .

( A S l eef a n , t o l ea v e a h eri t a g e, A S l af, t h a t w h i c h rema i n s)

. .
-
. . .

Lu st (p l easu re) : l u st , l i st ( A S l y st a n , t o desi re ), l i st l es s ( pu t . .

- -

for l u st l e ss) -
.

M esg ( I a m a b l e), maeg en ( streng th ) : ma y , dis ma y ( h y b ri d pre - -

x ), ma i den ( A S maeg den , sh ort for A S mac g e t h en , dim

. . o ne . .
- -
.

g ro w i ng in ma i n ( A S maeg en ), mi g h t (A S mach t or . .
-
. .

mih t ) .

M ea re ( b ou nd, ma rk, b order) ma rk ( a ro ot ki ndred t o L a t .

ma rg o , a b o rder), de ma rc a t ion ( a n A S st em w i t h R o ma n i c
- - - -
. .

a fx es, a n d t h ere fo re a h b ri d), ma rc h ( in t h e s e n se o f b o rder), ma r u e

y q
( a s in t h e ph ra se l et t ers o f ma rqu e, 0 F r ma rqu e), ma rqu ee ( a

. .

l a rg e t en t, a b a d s pell i ng o f F r ma rqu i s e, o ri g a t en t fo r a ma r . .

c h i o n ess or l a dy o f ra n k ), ma rqu i s ( L o w L a t ma rc h en s i s, a r f c t
p e e -
.

o f t h e ma rc h es ), ma rc h i o n ess ( fo rmed, w i t h su fx i ssa , from L o w -

L a t marc h io n em, a pre fec t o f th e ma rc h es ), ma rg ra v e ( pre fec t o f

.
-

t h e ma rc h es D u ma rk , a b o u n da ry , a n d g ra a f, a c o u n t ), ma rg ra vi n e
.

( fem o f prec e di ng ), re ma rk ( Fr re marqu er, t o t a k e not e o f)

.
-
.
- -
.

M eng a n ( to mi x ), ma ng ( a mi xtu re) mi n g l e ( freq form o f M id

-
. .

E ng mi ng en , A S men g a n ), a mon g ( A S o n ma n g , in a mi x t u re),

.
-
. .
- -
. .
-

a mo n st ( M id E n a mo ng e , a mo ng es , t o w h i c h t w a s a dded), mo n
g g
-
. .

g er ( dea l er, tra der, A S ma n g ere , from A S ma n g ia n , t o tra i c in

-
. . . .

mi x ed g oods ), mon grel ( for mo ng er c l , a n a nima l o f mi x ed b reed) - -

.

M et a n ( to f a l l i n w i th , to a ssemb l e) meet, mo o t ( a s in t h e ph ra se
-

moo t poi nt, a po i nt t o b e di sc u ssed in a n a ssembl y , A S mot ),

. .

W it en a g emo t ( t h e A ssemb l y o f t h e W i se, t h a t u sed t o mee t in

-

S a x o n t i mes), moo t h a l l ( h a l l o f a ssemb l y ), mo o t ( v erb, t o mo o t a

-

su bj ec t , bri n g it u p for di s c u ssi o n ) .

M i d ( th e c en tra l p a rt) : mid, a mid or a mid s t or mi dst ( A S o n -

. .

midde n , M id E ng a midd e O r a midd es, t o w h i c h a n al t w a s

. .
- - - -

a dded ), mi ddl e ( A S midd el ), middl in g ( f or midd el in g ), mid riff

. .
- - - - -

( A S h rif, t h e st oma c h ), mid sh i p ( for a mi d sh i p), mid s h ip ma n ,

. .
- - - - -

mid su mmer, mid da y , mid-w ife ( a w oma n w h o is w i th a no th er, A S

- -
. .

mid, w i th n o c o nn ec t i o n w i th me ed, a re w a rd)

.

M ol d e ( du st, soi l , ea rth ) : mo u l d, mo l dw a rp ( th e a n i ma l t h a t

-

c a st s u m ou l d H e nr I V iii 1 m o l e ( sh o rt e n ed form o f t h e
p , y . . .

r e c edi n g ), mul l ed a l e ( c orr o f mu l d a l e o r mo u l d a l e , a fu n e ra l a l e or

p
- -
.

fea st, fro m A S mol de, th e ea rt h o f th e g ra v e , a nd A S c a l o , a l e or

. . . .

fea st see a b o v e, p mou l d er, mou l d y .

- -
.

M on a ( th e moon ) mo o n ( lit th e mea su re o f t i me), mo n th ( A S

-
. . .

mOn a th ) M o nda y ( A S M Ona n deeg da y o f t h e mo on g o d)

-
, . .
-
.
-
.
3 82 A PP EN D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

M ew a n ( to g ra ss ) mo w , mea d ( A S ma d, a el d t t o b e
f
-
cu t . .

mo w e d), mea d ow (A S msed u ) -

. .
-
.

N ae ddre ( a s na ke) a dder ( th e n t a l n w a s c o n o u nded w t h a n i i i f i

i
t h e nde a rt c l e cf f
a pro n ro m na pro n ( s ee M a ppa ,
. i p um . f .

i f
p re ro m n u mpire , vide P a r, p .

N eah o r n h ( a dja c en t) ni g h , n ea r ( A S n e ar, c o mp o f A S ne ah ), . . . . .

nex t ( A S n h st , su perl a t v e o f A S n h o r, n eah ), n eig h b o u r ( A S

. . i . . . .

n eah g e b ur o r n eah b i i r, l it a n g h h u sb a ndma n )

-

-
. i -
.

N OS -u ( th e n a sa l org a n ) n o s e , n ostr l ( : n o s e th r l l o r n o se t h rl , i -
i -
i
A S n Ost h y rl , t h e n o s e per ora t i o n ; A S t h y rl i a n , t o h e re a h o l e),
. . f . .
-

n o z z l e ( dim o f

n ose .

N u ( a t th e p resent ti me ) n o w , n e w ( A S n w e, M id E ng n e w e ), . . i . .

new a n l ed ( A S
g
-
f a ng e ] , re a dy t o c a t c h ), n e w s ( l
p n .e w es , n e w
. f -
.
-

i
t h ng s, a t ra n sl o f Fr n o u v el l e s ), re n e w ( a h y b r d w ord, w t h . .
-
i i
L a t pre x a nd T eu t s tem)

. . .

Pl aet t a n ( to stri ke l ig h tl y ) : pa t ( b y l o ss o f l ), pa d l e ( req o f d f .

p at, f o r pa t t l e )

p a tt er ( re
q o f f
R eed
.
,

a n ( to di scern , a dvi se ) : re a d, rede ( c o u n s el ), r ddl e ( ro e rl

p p y i
i
r ddl e s , A S rwd el s e, a r ddl e , pl u r reed e l s- a n , r ddl e s ), E t h el red
. .
-
i .
-
i
t h e U nre a dy ( w it h ou t re de o r c o u n sel , nj u d c o u s ) i i i .

f
R c a i a n ( to rob ) re a v e o r b e rea v e , ro v er ( a p ra t e )
- -
i .

R id a n , pt t rad ( to g o on h orseb a ck) r de, ra d, ro a d ( A S rad),

-
. . i i . .

re a dy ( A S raede , e qu ppe d fo r rid ng ), a r ra y ( w th L a t pre x a d

. . i i -
i .

ra i me n t ( sh o rt fo r a r ra i men t ), b ed ridde n ( se e a b o v e , p
- - - -
.

R OW a n ( to p rop el w i th oa rs) ro w , ru dder ( A S roth e r, a pa ddl e )

-
. . .

R dm ( spa c e, a ch a mb er) ro o m ro o my , ru m ma g e ( fo r ro o m -

umma g e s g n es t o n d ro o m fo r c l o se i i

a e , s t o w a g e ; t h e v e rb r
g
pa c k n g i n a sh p) i i .

S ael ( ti me, sea son ) s l l y ( A S sal ig , lit sea so na b l e, t h e n l u c y ,

'
i . .
-
. k
t h e n s mpl e o r o o l ish ) i f .

S tir ( p a i nf u l ) : so re, sorry ( A S sar ig ) N o c o nnec t o n w t h . .

-
. i i
so rro w , ro m A S so rg e f . . .

S c ad a n , o r s c ead a n ( to p a rt or p ou r) sh ed ( a s in
-
w a t er sh ed, - -

i
t h a t w h c h sh eds o r pa rts t h e w a t ers o f a riv e r), s h ea t h ( A S sc aet h ,

. .

l it t h a t w h ic h s e pa ra t es , h e nc e a h u s , sh el l , o r po d), sh o ddy ( t h a t
. k
i
w h c h is sh ed o r t h ro w n o ff i n s p n n n g w o o l ) i i .

S c aed, s ec a d u ( a sh a de o r sh e l ter) : sh a de , sh a do w , sh ed ( a sl g h t
-
i
sh el t e r) .

S c ea c a n ( to sh a ke, a l s o to ru n ) pt t 8 0 60
-
sh a k e , sh o c , sh a c kl e . . k
( A S se c a o u l , a l oo s e b o n d), s h a n ( A S sc e a n c a , b o n e o f t h e l eg ,
. .
-
k . .
-

n a me d ro m i ts mo t o n in ru n n n g )
f i i .

S c ea p a n , o r s oa p a n ( to f orm o rf a shi on ) sh a pe , sh p ( A S s e p),

~ -
i . . i
ski ff ( do u b l e t o f prec ed n g ), s pper, l a n d sc a pe , fr e n d sh p i ki -
i -
i .

S c ea rp ( cu tti n g ) : s h a rp, sc a rp, e sc a rpme n t ( Fr e sc a rpe , w th . i

su x f me n t ), c o u nt er sc a rp ( Fr c o n t re sc a rpe ), sc ra p, sc ra pe
-
.

( A S sc e a rp ia n , t o sc a r y ), sc ra mb l e ( w th nt ru s v e m, req o f
. .
-
if i i i f .

sc ra pe

S c e a w ia n ( to p oi n t ou t) : s h ew o r sh o w , sh e en ( A S sc n e, M id
-
. . .

E ng s c h en e ),
. sc a v e n g er ( for

sc a v a g er of messeng er fo r .

mes sa g e r ; t h e n is in o t h w o rds i n t ru s v e ; sc a v a g e z sh ew

b i -

a g e , a h b r d w o rd o rme d w t h T eu t i
s te m s c a v a n d R o ma n c f i i
y .

su f x - a g e ) .
3 84 A PP E N D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

S t eel ( sta ndi ng p l a ce f or ca ttl e) : s t a ll , st a l e ( e pt t o o l o ng k

sta n din g ), s t a l ( dim ro m A S s teel ), s ta l l o n ( a h o rse n ot w o r ed,
k . f . . i k
b u t ept i n a st a ll ), st a l w a rt ( a m sspell ng fo r
k
st a l w o rth , A S i i -
. .

s teel w y rt h e s ee a b o v e ,
p
-
.

S t eOp ( orp h a n ed) : s t ep c h l d ( A S st eOp eil d), st ep a h er ( A S -

i . .
- -
ft . .

-
f
s teOp eeder), s t ep mo t h er ( A S st e Op m der) -
. .
-
.

S t e Or a n ( to g u i de a sh ip ) s t ee r, st ee r a g e ( a h y rid w o rd), sta r

- -
b
i i
b o a rd ( t h e r g h t s de o f a s h p, o n w h c h t h e st e ersma n s too d), s t ern i i
i
( t h e h n d pa rt o f a v e ssel , t h e st eera g e pl a c e ) .

S t g a n ( to c l i mb o r mo u n t) : s ta g ( th e ma l e , th e mo u n t er), s t l e
i -
i
( A S . s t g e
. l ), s t a r ( i
A S s t a
-
eg ),
r s t rru p ( A S st i-
i
rap, a ro pe t o . . i . .

mo u nt b y ), sty ( A S st g o , a pen fo r c a t tl e ), st e w a rd ( A S . . i -
. .

s ti w ea rd, a k eeper o f e nc l o su re s )
-
.

S t y b ( stu mp ) st u b , st u b l e , s t u mp ( a n a sa l sed o rm o f stu b i f b

S t u b b o rn ( s t o c -
l e , n o t ea s l y mo v ed, A S s ty b o r, w th ex
k ik i . .
-
i
c resc e n t n )
.

S w er ia n ( to dec l a re) : s w ea r, a n sw er ( A S a nd sw er ia n, a n d
- -
. .
- -

i
a g a n st ), fo r sw ea r ( A S fo r, deprec i a t o ry pre x )
-
. . .

S w il ia n ( to w a sh , to dri n k g reedi l y ) : S w ll , s w l l tu b , sc u ll er y
-
i i - -

s c u ll er is a v a r a nt o f s w l l er, du e t o S c a nd n u en c e ; for th ei i . i
su f x y c f pa n t r-y , sm t h -y , b u tt er y )
. i -
.

S w im a ( di z z i ness ) s w m,
-
squ ea m ish ( a c orr o f M id E ng i -
. . .

sw e y m o u s, a h y b r d w o rd), s w n dl er ( A S
-
sw in d a n , a i
orm o f i . .
-
f
i
s w m, t o b e d z z y , t o a c t t h ou g h tl e ssl y ) i .

T adig e , t adi c ( a toa d) : t o a d, t a d po l e ( a o a d w h c h is a ll -

t i

o r h ea d), t o a d ea t er ( n o w c o ntra c t ed t o t o a dy ,

po l l a s co
y
-

h a n t o r mo u n t eb a n w h o pret e n ded t o b e re a dy t o ea t t o a ds ) k
p .

T ees a n , o lder o rm t as ia n ( t o pu l l a o u t , t ea r) : t ea s e, t ou se ,
-
f -
b
t ea s e l ( A S t eesel , a pl a nt ), t u s sl e ( req o f t ou se )
-
. . f . .

T a kk e ( M id E ng a st e n n g ,
p r ob a b l
y a ll e d t o S c a n d t a k ~a ,
. . f i i .

ta ke ) t a c , t a c h e ( a b l em sh ), a t - t a c h , a t - t a c , de t a c h , t et c h y ( n o w
k i k -

c o rru pt e to d
T ear, t ar ( u i d f ro m th e ey e) : tea r, tra n o il ( o rmerl y spel t i -
f
t ra n e o y l e, O D u t ra en , t ea r : t h e ro ps t h a t c a me o u t rom w h a l e s d f

-
. .

b l u b b er) .

T eOh t e n ( to tu g a l ong ) : t o w , t o w l n e ( A S
-
a n, or t oh l n e , -
i . .
-
i
fro m t a g e n , pp o f t e Oh a n -
A S l n e is ro m L a t lin ea ), tu g ( ro m
.
-
. . i f .
-
f
t t l u r o f A S t e o h a n ), t u c ( t a t h e r i n a dre s s, ro m t h e k f
p p o g
-
. . . . .

s a me ro o t a s w a n to n ( A S w a n - t o w e n , u nt ra n e d, ro m -
. . i f
. . i
A S w a n, dec e nt , a n d t o w en = to g en , p p o f t eoh a n ), t ie ( A S . .
-
. .

t y g e , t eag , o r t e ah , a ro pe f o r pu l l n g ) i .

Th ersc a n ( to b ea t) : t h resh o r th ra sh , t h resh o l d ( = th resh -w ol d,

- -

A S t h ersc w a l d, l a t er S a x t h ersc o ld ; A S w a l d o r w ea l d ; t h re sh ol d
. .
-
.
-
. .

i
is t h e p ec e o f w o o d c o n st a nt l y b ea t en b y th e t rea d o f ee t ) f .

t hri ( th ree) : th rd ( A S t h ridda ), t h r c e ( M id E n g i . . i . .

th ri es , o f th ree ), t h ir t e e n ( A S t h re O t y n e ), t h rty ( A S t h ri t ig ),
- -
. .
-
i . .
-

i i i
r d n g ( fo r t h r d ing , o n e o f t h e th ree d v s o n s o f Y o r sh re )
-
i ii k i .

T id ( ti me) t i d a n ( to h app en ) t ide , b e -t de, V -

Vh it su n t de t d n g s i i -
, i i
( M i d E n g t i d
. n d e ,
a t erw a rd
. s s p e l t a s t
-
di n g s ,
t h n g s t h a t h a pe n )
p f i i i .

T red a n ( to p u t th e f o ot on a n y th in g ) : t rea d, t ra de , t ra de w nd
- -
i
f
( a w i nd t h a t o ll o w s a c ert a n c ou rse), trea dl e ( w h a t w e trea d o n in a i
l a th e or in a c y c l e ) .
 D ER I VA T I VE S F R O M TE U TO N I C RO OTS 385

Tre6w e, t ruw e ( rm, certa i n , b el i eved) : tru e ( M id

or E ng . .

t rew e ), t ro w ( A S tre Ow ia n , t o el ev e ),
. ro th o r tru t h ( A S
.
-
b i t . .

t reOw t h u ), b e- tro th , t ru c e ( M id E ng tre w es, th e pl u ra l o f tre w , . .

om A S f
a pl e d e , r t r w a , a c o n t ra c t ), tru st ( S c a n d tra u st , o f t h e
g . . .

sa me b a se a s

tru e
Tw a ( tw o ) : b e t w e en ( A S b e t w eOn a n ), b et w ix t ( t h e t is ex
-
. .
- -

c resc e n t , M id E n g b e t w x e, A S b e t w ih ), t w el v e ( A S t w el f ,
. .
-
i -
. .
-
. .

t w e l fe , G o th t w a l if, w h c h me a n s . t w o o v er t en
-

l if

me a n si
i i
re ma n n g ; t en a n d t w o o v er ; see Lif i a n , a o v e ), t w e n ty ( A S -
b . .

t w e n , t w eg en , t w a n, a n d A S t ig , t en ), t w c e ( A S t w ig es ), t w gi . . i . .
-
i
( sh o o t o f a t r e e , t h e p a r t o f a b ra n c h ,
w h c h i s n ec e ss a ril y d o u b l e ), i
i i
t w l l , t w n ( A S g e t w in n e ), t w n e ( A S t w in , a w s t e d o r do u b l ed
. .
-
i . . t i
th rea d), t w st ( A S t w st i rom A S tw i . w t h su i x
. i
st, a s in f . . i -

f
b l a - s t , ro m b l o w ) .

w ac a n , w a c ia n ( to a ri se, cea se f rom sl eep ) : w a e, a w a k en,

- -
k - -

t
w a c h (A S w aec c e ), a w a t ( O
. . F r a w a t ier ; ro m 0 H g h G er -
i . .
-
i -
f . i .

w a t s ( mu s c a l

w a h t a , a w a t c h ma n h e n c e th e ph ra se lie i n i i
w a t c h men ), b v o u a c ( F r i
vou a c , or g b v a c ; G er b e w a c h e, a . bi i . i . i
k i
ee p n g w a tc h , f
rom b e i , n ea r, a nd w a c h e n , t o w a t c h ) -
.

W w pen ( a n i mp l emen t of w a r) w ea po n , w a pe nt a e ( A S w aepen k . .

t aE li t w n t h n h n d t r t v rn d b a ma n i i i
g e c e a o u c g e c e a s c g o e e y
-
e o
p
- -
.
, ,

i
w h o se a u t h o r ty w a s c o n erred b y t h e t ou c h n g o f w e a po n s ) f i .

W a r ( ca u ti ou s ) w a ry , a w a re , b e w a re , w a re ( merc h a n d se, A S - -
i . .

w a r-u , h e e , c a re ), w a rn ( A Sd w ea rn ia n ), w e r ( A S w er, a da m, . .
-
i . .

a
p r i
o t ec t o n ), w a rr a n t g u a ra nt ee ( 0 F r g a ra n t e )
-
, . . i .

t
W a er ( w a ter) w a t er, ott er ( A S o t or, dw ell er in w a t er) . . .

W a rre ( gh ti ng ) : w a r, w a r a re ( A S fa r u , a s e tt n g o u t o r -
f . .
-
i
g oi n g) g,
u e r l l a ( rr e
g u l a r i
w a r a re, l it

i
a l t tl e w a r, d im o f Fr f . i . .

g u e rre ,
w a r ) .

W eard ( keep er) w ar d ,

a - w a rd, w a rd- en , g u a rd ( Fr g a rde.
,
th e
F renc h spell i n g o f w a rd

g u a rdia n of ( dou b l et
re w a rd, re g a rd, w a rd ro b e ( a pl a c e f o r k eepi n g ro b e s), v a n g u a rd
- - - -

( se e A h p .

W ed ( a p l edg e) : w ed ( v erb , A S w edd ia n , l it t o pl edg e in . .

-
.

ma n ia g e), w ed l o c k ( A S w ed l ac , A S l ac , s port ), w a g e ( a g a g e or

-
. .
-
. .

pl edg e , st i pu l a t ed pa y men t ), w a g er ( a b e t ) .

W eder ( th e sta te of th e a i r) w ea th er, w e a th er b ea t en , w ea th er -

bit t en ( W i nt er s Ta l e , v 2

w it h er ( l it to ex pose t o th e

. . .

w ea t h er)

.

W ef a n ( to w ea ve) w ea v e, w eb ( A S w e b b ), w e ft, w o o f ( a c orr . . .

o f M id E ng o o f, a n d th i s i s a c o n t ra c t i o n o f A S
. . O w e f, l i t o n t h e . .
-
.

w e f o r w a rp) .

W eg a n ( to c a rry , b ea r, l if t) : w ei g h , w a i n ( A S w seg n o r w een ),

-
. .

w a g o n o r w a g g o n ( A S w aeg n ), w a g , w a gg l e
- -
. .
-
.

W if ( a w oma n ) : w ife , w oma n ( a c o rr o f A S w if ma n , th e w o rd . . .

-

ma n b ein g formerl y a ppl i e d t o b o t h sex e s ; in th e 1 2t h c en t u ry

i t b ec a me
w u mma n
W ih t ( a p erson o r thi ng ) : w h i t ( a pa rt i c l e ), W ig h t ( a perso n ),
a u gh t ( A S a w ih t , o n e w h i t ), n a u g h t ( a u g h t w ith n eg a t i v e pre x ),
. .
-

no t ( c o ntr o f prec edi n g ) . .

W ill -a n ( to desi re) : w il l , w i l d ( A S w il d, u n ta me d), w i l dern es s . .

( A S w i l d ern nesse , M id E n g w ildern e , forme d w i th su fx n from

. .
-
. .

us e . 2 C
3 86 A PPEN D I X O N D E R I VA T IO N S

A S . il der a w il d ni ma l ; w il der is from A S w ild a nd deOr

. w ,
a

. .
,

a w i l d a n i ma l ) b e w i l der ( t o l ea d a st ra y ) w ea l ( A S , w el a pros
-
,
. .
,

perit y ) w ea l t h w ell ( a c c o rdi n g t o w i sh ) w el fa re w el c o me

- -
, , , , .

W in d ( the a i r i n moti on ) w i nd w i n d f l l w i nd mi l l w i nd o w ,
-
a ,
-
,
-

( S c a n d v i ndr u g .l it w i nd ey e ) w i nn o w ( A S w in dw i n t o
-a a, .
-
,
-
. .
-
a ,

e x o s e t o w i n d)
p .

W in d a n ( to t u rn rou n d) w i nd w e n d w a n d e r ( f1 eq o f pre c edi ng ) , ,

-
.
,

W i n dl ss ( S c a n d v i n d as s f1 o m ass a po l e o r rou n de d b ea m
a . th e l i s , , ,

i ntru si v e) w on der ( A S 1 u 11 d o r t h ing fro m w h i c h o n e t u rn s

,
. . 1 ,
a

a si de i n a w e ) w o n dro u s ( a c o rr o f M id E ng ,
w o nde rs po s s c a se o f . . .
, .

a nd t h ere fo re dv e rb i a l n ot n a dj ec t i v e ; in A S t h e

w o n der

,
a ,
a . .

o n der l ik e

ad a s w u n der l ic
j w . w -
,
-

W it a n ( to kn ow ) w it ( no u n a n d v e rb ) w i se ( in t h e se n se o f
-
: ,

di sc re et A S w is o ri g form w it sa po ssessed o f w it ) w is dom

,
. .
,
.
-
, ,
-

( A S w is dom) w i s e ( in t h e sen se o f ma n n er A S w ise w y )

. .
-
, , . .
,
a ,

l ik e w i se o th ei 1 ise g u i se ( dou b l t o f w i se dis g u i se ( a h y b ri d

,
1 e

f o1 m t io n ) t w i t ( A S aet w it a n t o re pro c h ) w ise a c re ( 0 H i g h

a , . .
,
a ,
-
.

G er r o h et h i c h in A S b ec me w it e a ) w it c h ( A S a
. a
p p g ,
11 . .
, . .

1 vic c a m s o r w i ec e
,
f m a w i c k ed ( t h e st em o f t h i s w o rd is A S
.
, ,
e . . .

w ic c s i n t h e p1 ec e din g )
a w it n e s s ( A S w it n s t e st i mo ny ) ,
-
. . e , ,

w iz a i d ( = w i t t ish rd) I w i s ( s u ppo sed t o b e = l k n o w b u t re a l l y a , ,

f1 o m M id E ng y w i s 0 1 i w is c ert inl y th i s b ei n g from A S g e w is )

. .
,
a , o
. .
-
,

w it e n a - g emo t ( a ss emb l y o f t h e
M et a n ) w i se : se e a b o v e n n der .

W ring a n ,
-
w ri c k ( M id E n g w rik k e n , a s in t h e
( to tw i st) w ri n g . .
-

ph ra se t o w ri c k o ne s a nk l e ri c k et s ( deri v e d fro m th e
prec edi n g ),

w ri g ( t o mo v e a b o u t , A S w ri g ia n ), rig ( a fro l ic , o r pra nk , fo r . .

-

w rig ( freq o f w ri g w ra n g l e ( fre q o f
orl e

w rigg .
,

w renc h ( A S w ren c o r w re n c e , a t w i st ), w ri nkl e ( a l i t tl e t w i st ),

. .

w ro ng ( A S w ra ng ; o ri g pt t o f v erb
. . w ri n g w ry ( A S . . . . .

w ri g ia n , t o i n c l i n e t o w a rds ), a w ry
- -
.

W rit h a n ( to tw i st a b ou t) w ri t h e, w ra th ( A S w rath, pt t Of t h e
- . . . .

v erb w ri t h a n ), w re a t h ( A S w raeth , a t w i st ed b a n d), W i est ( A S . . .

w raest a n , t o t w i st fo rc i b l y , t o di st o rt ), w res t l e ( freq of

pre c e din ),
g .

w ri st ( A S w ri st , t h a t w h i c h t u rn s t h e h a n d a b o u t ), w ro th ( A S
. . . .

w rath ) .

W y re a n ( to ma ke a n y thi ng ) : w o rk ( v erb , A S w y re a n ; n o u n ,
- . .
-

A S w e o rc o r w ere ), w ri g h t ( w ork ma n, A S w y rh t a ), c a rt wri g h t ,

. . . .
-

w h e el w ri g h t , sh i p w ri g h t
- -
.

IV .
D E R I VA T I VE S F RO M L A TIN R O O TS .

A LB Ob serve di sti n cti on b etw een L a t e La t . a nd L ow L a t .

(p .

Ao m ( sh a rp ) : a c er b ity a er id a c ri mo n y ea g e r ( F r
-
er, a er e - - -
,
-
,
- -
, .

a i re ) v i n e g a r ( F r v in a i re s u w i n e )
g g o i - -
. .
, ,

A o u e re a o u t u m ( sh a rp en ) : a c u t e a g u e ( sh i v eri n g t F r a i g u )
- -
,
- -
, ,
. .

E d es ( a h ou se) : e d i c e ed 1 fy ed i c a t io n
-
, ,
.

E qu u s ze qu a l is (ju st eq u a l ) : a d eq u a te e qu a t i o n e qu i ty
-
,
-
,
-
,
- -
,
- -
,

in iqu i t y eq u a l e q u a l i ty e qu a n i m i t y
- - -
,
-
,
- - -
,
- - -
.

E st im a re aest im a t u m ( to va l u e) : a im ( 0 F r a esm e r L a t a d
-
,
- -
. .
-
,
.

ae st im a re ) e s t e e m es t im a t io n
-
, ,
- -
.

E v u m ( a g e) c o e v a l me di c v a l pri m c v a l
- - -
,
-
,
- -
.
3 88 A PP E N D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

w a tc h n g o f i birds fo r pu rpo se s o f a u g u ry ) ,
au - ur
g y, b u s ta rd ( fo rmerl y
-

b is t a rd, L a
-
a a, t a v i s t rd
b i rd),
. a sl o w y in g -
o s t ri c h ( 0
-
Fr o s . .

tru c e , L a t a v i s + G r st ro u t h io n ) . .
-
.

Ba rb a ( b ea rd) b a rb , b a rb el ( b ea rded sh ), b a rb er, b a rb ed ( a s a

- - -

h o rse ), b e a rd .

Bel l u s ( fa i r, n e) : b el l e, b ea u , b ea u ty , b el da m, b el l a do n na
- - -

( L a t b el l a do mi na ), em b el l ish
.
- -
.

Bib ere ( to dri n k) : b ib , b ev era g e ( 0 Fr b ovra ig e ), b e v y ( Fr

- -
. .
-
.

b ev e, a c o mpa ny ), im b ib e , im b u e , w i ne b ib b er
- - - -
.

Bis ( tw i ce) ; b in i ( tw o a t a ti me) : b in a ry , b i n oc u l a r, c o m b i n e, - - - -

b a l a nc e ( F r b a l a nc e , L a t b i l a n c em), b i fu rc a t e ( furc a , fo rk )
-
.
-
.
- - -
.

Brev is ( sh ort ) : b rev e , b re v e t , b re v i a ry , b re v i ty , b ri e f, a h

- - - - - -

b rev i a t e, a b ri dg e
- - -
.

C a b a ll u s ( h orse) c a v a l ier, c a v a l c a de , c a val r , c h e v a l i er,

y
- - - - -

c h i va l r
y ( F r c h e va l )
-
. .

C a d ere , c a s u m ( to f a l l ) c a se, c a s c a de , c a s u a l , c a d en c e , c h a nc e
- - - - - -

( do u b l et o f prec e di ng ), c o in c i de, de c a d en c e , de c a y , de eid u o u s, - - - - - - - -

e s c h ea t ( O
-
F r esc h e t , ren t , L a t e x c a d ere ), a c c id e n t , in c id ent ,
. . .
- - - - -

o c c a s i o n , o c c id e n t
- - - -
.

C aed ere , ems u m ( to c u t o r ki l l ) : c aes u ra , c irc u m ei se , c o n c i se ,

- - - - -

de c i de , ex c iS io n , in c is i v e , c e me n t ( L a t
- -
c aeme n t u m,
-
c eed i - - -
.
-

men t u m), c h isel ( L a t e L a t c i s ell u s , f o r c ses ell u s ), h omi c i de, su i .

- - -

c i de i nfa nt i c i de
,
-
.

C a l x , c a l c e m ( ston e, l i me) : c h a l k , c a l c a reou s ( fo r c a l c a rio u s ),

- - -

c a l c ul u s , c a l c u l a t e , c a u s e w a ( L at a l c i a t a , pa v e d, t o w h i c h E n
y c
g
- - - - -
. .

h a s b e en a dded a h y b ri d c o mpo u nd s e e p

w ay .

Ga mer a ( a p a rtmen t ) : c h a m b er, c h a mb er l a i n ( for c h a mb er l i n g ,

- - - - -

0 F r c h a mb rel enc ), c o mra de ( S p c a ma ra da , a c o mpa ny , a n a sso c i a t e )

. . . .

C a mp u s ( pl a i n ) c a mp, -
c a mp a i g n , c a mp e st ra l , c h a mp a n e ,
g
- - -

c h a mp a i n , c h a mp i o n ( L a t e L a t c a mp io n e m, a c o mb a ta n t ), de
g
- - - -
.

c a mp, e n c a mp, sc a mp ( 0 F r es c a mp er, to ee, L a t ex c a mpu s ),

-
. .
- -
.

sh a mb l e .

C a nc ell u s ( g ra ting ) : c a n c el , c h a n c el , c h a n c el l o r, c h a n c ery ( for

- -

c h a n c el r )
y
-
.

C a nd ere ( to b e w hi te), c a ndid u s ( w hi te) : c a n d id, c a n d id a t e ,

- - - - -

c a nd l e ( L a t -
c a n d c l a ), ki n dl e , c a nn e l c oa l , c a n d o u r, c h a n del i er,
.
- - - - -

c h a n dl e r, i h c a n d e s c en t
- - -
.

C an ere, c a n t u m ; c a nt a re, c ant a t um ( to si ng ) : c a n t , a o c e nt ,

- - - - - -

c a n t i ol e , c a n t o , c h a n t , c h a nt i c l eer,
-
c h a n t ry , -
de s c a n t , e n c h a n t , - - -

i n c a nt a t io n , i n c e n t iv e , pre c en t o r re c a n t
- - - - - - -
,
-
.

C a n i s ( dog ) c a n in e , k e nn el ( 0 F r c h en il )
- - -
. .
-
.

C a p e r, c a pr i ( a g oa t) : c a per, c a b ri o l et , c a b ( sh o rt fo rm o f pre
- -

c edi n g ), c a pri c o rn , c a p ri c e ( I t a l c a pric c 1 o , a w h im, a fri sk l ik e a

- -
.

G
o
oa t s ) .

C a p ere , c a pt u m ( to ta ke o r h o l d) : a c c ept , a n t c ip a t e, c a b l e ,
- - -
i - - -

( L a te L a t c a p u l u m, a h o l d n g ro pe ), c a pt iv e, c a t
.
( do u b l et o f
- -
i -
i iff -

i
t h e prec e d ng ), c a p a b l e , c a t c h ( L a t e L a t c a pt i a re ), c h a se ( 0 F r -
.
- -
. .

c h a c i er), c o n c ei t , c o n c ei v e , e x c ept , i n c p e n t ,
-
n t er c ept , pre c e pt ,
- - - -
i i -
i - -

pu r c h a s e ( 0 F r pu r c h a c er), re c pe ( ta ke i t), su s c ept b l e

-
. .
- -
i - -
i .

C a ps a ( a vesse l ), a l l ed t o c a p ere : c a se, c a psu l e , c a se me nt , c a sh

-
i - -

i
( o r g t h e b o x in w h ic h c a sh w a s k ept ), en c a se, sa sh ( c orru ptio n o f
.
-

F r c hasse, L a t c a psa )
. . .
 DER I VA T I VE S F RO M LA T I N RO O TS 3 89

C a pu t , ca pit is (head) : a c h i e v e ( 0 F r a c h e f, L a t a d c a pu t , t o
- . .
-
.

a h ea d), a c h i e v e men t , c a bb a g e ( fro m I t a l

- -c a pu c c i o , a l i tt l e h e a d), .

c a pe, c a pi t a l , c a i t a t io n, c a pit o l , c a pi t u l a t e, c a pt a in ( L a t e L a t
p
- - - - - - -
.

c a pi t a n eu s ), c a tt l e ( L a t e L a t
- -
c a pi t a l e ), c h a pt er, c h a t t el s , c h i e f .
- - - -

( 0 F r c h e f, c h i e f), de c a pi t a t e , h a tc h men t ( c o rrupt i o n o f a c h men t ,

- - -
. .

sh o rt en ed fo rm o f a c h i ev e men t ), oc c ipu t , pre c ip ic e, sin c ipu t ( l it - - - - -

.

h a l f h ea d, semi c a pu t ) .

C ar o , ea rn is ( esh ) : ea rn a l , ea rn a g e, c a rn a t io n , c a rn i v a l ,
- - - - - - - -

c a rr i o n, c h a rn e l , i n ca rn a di n e , in c a rn a t i o n , ca rn i v o r o u s ( L a t
- - - - - - - - - - -
.

v o r a re, t o dev o u r)
-
.

C a r u s ( dea r) : c a r ess , c h a r 1 t y , c h er ish

- - - -
.

C a st u s ( pu re, ch a ste) c a st e ( l it a pu re b ree d), c h a st e , c h a st en ,

-
. .

c h a s t ise , in c est , c a st i ate

g
- - - -
.

C a u s a ( ca u se) a o c u se , b e c a u s e , c a u s a t iv e , e x c u se , re c u s a nt ,
- - - - - - - -

ru se ( a t ri c k , F r ru se , O F r reii s er, L a t re c u s a re ) . . . .
- -
.

Ca v u s ( h ol l ow ) : c a g e , c a v e , c aj o l e ( O F r c a g e o l er, t o c h a t t e r
-
. .
-

l ik e a bird in a c a g e), c o n c a v e , ex c a v a t io n, g a b i o n ( I t a l g a b b i o n e , - - - -
.

au m f L t e L a t g a bi a , a c a g e ), g a o l o r j a i l ( 0 Fr g a o l e , L a t e
g o . a . . .

L a t g a b i ol a )
. .

Ged ere, c ess u m ( to ma ke w a y o r y i el d) : c ede, a b s c e ss, a c c e de,

- - - -

a n c e s tor ( 0 Fr a h c e s s o u r, L a t a n t e c e ss o r), a n t e c e d en t , a c c ess ,

. .
- -
.
- - - - -

a c c ess o r , de c ea se ( L a t de c ess u s ), e x c eed, e x c es s, ex c e ss iv e ,

y
- ~ - - - - - -
.

i nt er c ede, pre de c e ss or, re c ede, re c es s, se c ede , se c ess io n , su c

- - - - - - - - -

c eed, su c c es s , su c c e ss i v e - - -
.

C ent u m ( a h u ndred) c en t ( a s in
-
per c e nt c en t en a ry , c en t - -

en n i a l , c en t i g ra de , -c e n t i pede , c ent u pl e , c en t u r i o n , c en t u r y
- - - - - - - - - - - -
.

C ern o , c ret u m ( to di sting u i sh ) : c o n c ern , de c ree ( La t de c ret

- - - -
.
-

u m), de c re t a l , dis c ern , di s orc et , s e c ret , se c re t a r

y
- - - - - - -
.

C h a rt a ( p ap er) c a rd, c h a rt, c a rt e ( a s in

-
c a rt e b l a nc h e c a rt e] , -

c a rt e o n , c a rt ou c h e, c a rt r i dg e ( dou b l et o f
- -
c a rt o u c h e , th e r is - - -

i n tru si v e , th e idg e is a c o rr o f ou c h e ), c h a rt er -
.
-
.

Cing ere, c in c t u m ( to su rrou nd ) : c i n c t u re , en c e i nt e ( La t i n

- - - -
.

c i nc t a , l it i rt i n ) p r in c t s s h i n l es ( L t c i n l m ) u c i n c t
g e c g a
g u u s c
- - - - -
. . .
, , ,

Civ is ( a ci ti z en ) : c iv il is
-
c i v i l , c i t y ( sh o rt f or c iv i t y , - - - -

L a t c iv i t a t em), c it i z en, c it a del ( Fr c i ta del l a , dim form)

.
- - - - - -
. . .

C l ar u s ( c l ea r, b righ t) c l ea r, c l a r et , c l a r i fy , c l a r i o n , de c l a re ,
- - - - - - -

g l a i re ( 0 F r w h i t e o f e g g ). . .

Cl a u d ere , c l a u s u m ( to shu t) : c l a u se , c l o ist er, c l o s e , c l os et ,

- - - -

c o n el u de, c o n c l u s i o n , re c l u se , s e c l u s io n , sl u i c e ( 0
- - -
F r es c l u se , - - -
. .
-

L a t ex c l u sa a qu a , sh u t o ff w a t er)
.
-
.

Cli v u s ( a sl op e) a o c l i v 1 ty ( sl o pi ng u p), de c l i v 1 ty ( sl o pi ng
-
.
- - - -

d o w n ), pro c l i v i ty ( sl o pi ng forw a rd) - - -

.

C og no s c ere , c og ni t u m ( to kn ow , c ompo u n de d o f con a n d g n ose

ere ) : c o g n it i o n , c o g n is a n t , c o nn oi sseu r ( a k n o w i ng o n e), in
c o g n it 0 , re c o g n i se , re e o g ni s a n c e , re c o n it i o n , rec o nn a i ssa n c e , re
g
- - - - - -

c o nn o itre ( 0 En rec o g n o ist1 e ) . .

C o l ere , c ul t u m ( to ti l l ) ; c o l o n y , c u l t u re , c u l t i v a t e , a g ri
- - - - - - -

c u l t u re-
.

C om e s, c omit i s ( co mp a n i on ) c o u n t ( from st em c omi t), c o u nt y

- - -

( L a t, c o m i t t
-a -u s
), c o n -
st a b l e ( L a t c o me s st a b u l i , c ou nt o f t h e st a b l e ), .

c o n c omi t a nt
- -
.

C o oper ire ( conc ea l ) : c o v er ( 0

- -
F r c o vr ir), c o v er l e t ( 0 Fr . .
- -
. .
390 A PPE N D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

c o v re -l it , a b ed c o v er), c o v ert , c u r fe w ( 0 F r c o v re fen , a re c o v er),

- - - -

N B
. .

dis c o v er, k er c h i e f ( 0 F r c o v re c h e f, h ea d c o v er)

- -
R e c o v er
. .
-
. . .
-

is fro m L a t re cup er a re, a n ent i rel y di st i nc t ro ot

.
- -
.

C o qu ere , c oc t u m ( to c ook) : b is c u i t ( F r b is c u i t, t w i c e c o o k e d),

- - -
.
-

c ak e c o o k , c o n c o c t , de c o c t io n , ki tc h e n ( A S c i c en , L a t c o u in a ,
q
- - - -
. . .

c o ok h ou se ), pre c oc i o u s ( L a t
-
praec o x , c o c is, ea rl y ri pe ), a pri c o t
- - -
.
- - -

( formerl y spe l t a s a pri c o c k , P o rt a l b ri c o qu e , th e ea rl y ri pe T h e . .

a l w a s merel y t h e A ra b i c a rt i c l e t h e b ri w a s fro m L a t p res ) . .

C or, c ord is ( h ea rt) : c ore , a o c ord, a c c o rd ing l y , c o n c ord, c o n

- - - - - -

c o rd a t , c o u r a g e , dis c o rd, re c o rd, re c o rd e r

- - - - - -
.

C or i u m ( h ide) : c u ir a ss ( F r c u i r, l ea t h er), e x c o ri a t e, sc o u rg e,
- - -
.
- -

( 0 F r es c org i e , L a t c x c o ria ta , a l ea t h er w h i p)
. .
-
.
-
.

C orn u ( a h o rn ) -
c orn , c orn c l , c o rn c l ia n , c o rn er ( L a t e L a t - - - -
.

c o rn er i a ), c o rn c t , u n i c o rn
- - - -
.

C oron a ( a c row n , -
c oron a re , c oron a t u m ( v ) c o rn ic e ( L a t e - - -
.
-

L a t c o ro n o r c o rn i c em, a b o rder), c oro l l a ry ( L a t c o ro ll a , dim o f

.
- - -
.
-
.

c o ro n a ), c o ro n a l , c o ro n e r ( L a t e L a t
-
c oro n a t o r, a c ro w n o fc er),
- -
.
- -

c o ro n et ( dim o f F r c o ro n e ), c o ro n a t io n
-
. .
- -
.

C orp u s , c orp or is ( b ody ) : c o rps, c o rpse , c orse , c orp u l e n t , c o r

- - - -

pu s c l e, c ors e t, c o rs l e t, c o rpo r a l , c orpo r a t io n, in c orpo r a t e

- - - - - - - -
.

Cre a re , c re a t u m ( to ma ke) c rea te, c rea t u re , c reo l e ( S p c ri o ll o ,

- - - -
.

a n e g ro , c o rru ti o n o f c re a d i ll o , dim o f c re a d o , o n e e du c a t e d,
p
- - - -
.

w el l b ro u g h t u p), pro c rea t e, re c re a t io n ( N o c o n nec t i o n w i th - - - -

.

rec rea n t se e n ex t w o rd ) .

C red ere , c redit u m ( to b eli eve) c re d e nc e, c red ibl e, c red it, c red
- - - - -

u l o u s, g ra n t ( fro m L a t e L a t fo rm o f c reden t
-
re c rea n t ( pre s pa rt .
-
. .

o f F r re c ro i re, L a t re c red ere ), mis c re a n t ( o n e w h o mi sb el i e v es )

.
-
.
- - -
.

Cresc ere , c ret u m ( to g row ) : a o c ret io n, a c c ru e ( 0 F r a o c reu ),

- - - - -
. .
-

c resc e n t , c o n c ret e, de c re a se, de cre me nt , e x c resc enc e , re c ru it ( il l

- - - - - - - -

fo rmed from F r rec ru t er, t o l ev y tro o ps ), in c re ment, c rew ( formerl y

.
- -

s pel t a s eru e , s h o rt fo r 0 F r a c c ru e , re i n forc ement ) . . .

C ru x , c ru c is ( c ross) c ross ( 0 Fr c ro i s ), c ru c i a l , c ru c i fy ( L a t
-
. .
- - - -
.

c ru c i fig ere , t o x o n th e c ro s s ), c ru s a de , e x c ruc i a t e , c ru i s e ( t o

- - - - - -

c ro ss t h e s ea , t h ro u g h D u tc h k ru i s e m ,
t o c ru i se ) -
.

C u b a re, c u b it o r c u b a t u m ( to l i e dow n ) eo v ey ( 0 Fr c o v e e ,
- - -
. .

b re e d o f pa rtri dg es ), c o n c u b in e , c u b it , i n c u b a t e , i n c u b u s, in - - - - - - -

c u mb en t ( La t c u mb ere , a n o t h er fo rm o f c u b a re ), re c u mb ent
-
.
- - - -
.

C u l p a re , c u l p a t u m ( to b l a me) : c u l p a b l e , c u l p r i t ( th e r is
- - - - - -

i ntru si v e, a s in pa rt r idg e, c a rt r idg e ), e x c u l p a t e, in c u l p a t e - - - - - - - -

.

Cu r a c u r a re, c u r a t u m ( to ta ke c a re of )
- -
c u re ( v erb a n d - -

n ou n ), s e c u r a t e, c u r a t e , c u r i o u s , pro c t or ( s h o rt fo rm o f pro c ur
- - - - - -

a t o r), pro c u re, pro x y ( L a t r r a t io ), s c o u r ( 0 F r e s c u r e r,

p o c u
- - - - - - - -
. . .

L a t e x c u r a re ), si n e c u re ( La t s i n e c u ra, w i t h o u t a ny tro u b l e ),
.
- - -
.

se c u re, su re ( sh o rt fo rm o f s ec u re ), a s s u re , e n su re
-
( N o c o n n ec ti on - - .

w i th c a re, A S c a r u , c ea r u ) . .
- -
.

C u rr ere, c u rs u m ( to ru n ) c o u rs e , c o n c o u rse, c o n c u r, c orri do r

- - - -

( I t a l c o rr i.do r e ,
a p a ssa g e o r g a l l e ry ru nn i n g a l o n g ), c o r s a ir , c ou r s e r,
- -

c o u r ier, -
c u rr e n t, c u rr e n c y , c u rr i c l e,
-
c u rs c ry , dis c o u rs e, e x - - - - - -

c u rs i o n , i n c u r, o c c u r, re c u r, pre c u rs o r, re c o u rse, su c c o u r ( L a t
- - - - - - - - .

s u c c u rr ere, t o h el p)
- -
.

C urv u s ( b en t), c u rv a re , c u rv a t u m ( to b en d)
- c u rv e , c u rb , - - -

eu rv a t u re , c u rv e t , k erb st o ne ( a mi ss pel l i ng fo r c u rb s t o ne )
- - - -
.
39 2 A PPEN D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

( It a l doc c i a , do c c i a re, L a t e L a t du c t i a re ), du e a l , d u c a t , du k e,
.
- -
.
- - -

du c h e ss, du c h y ( L a t e L a t du c a t u s, a du k edo m), du c t , du c t i l e ,

- -
.
- -

e du c e, e du c a t e , i ii du c t , pro du c e , re do u b t ( a n i n t re nc h ed l a c e of
p
- - - - - -

re trea t, fro m L a t re duc t u s ), s u b du e ( O F r so u du ire , L a t s u b .

- -
. . .

du c e re ), t ra duc e ( L a t t ra n s du c e re ) -
.
-
.

Du o ( tw o ) ; du b it a re , du b it a t u m ( to b e of tw o mi n ds) : du a l ,
- - - - -

deu c e, dou b l e ( L a t du pl u s ), do u b l e t , do u b t , do z en ( 0 F r do sa in e , .
-
. .

fro m do z e ( t w el v e ), L a t du o dec im, w i t h su i x a i n e), du b i o u s, .

- -

du e t da e l , da pl e x , i h du b it a b l e , rc do u b t a b l e
-
,
- - - - - -
.

Du r u s ( h a rd) ; du r a re , du r a t u m ( to l a st) : du r ing , du r a b l e,

- - - - - -

du r a n c e, du r a t io n , du r e ss ( L a t du r i t ia , 0 F r du r e sc e ), e n du re,
- - - -
.
- -
. .
- -

o h du -
r a te -
.

E d ere es u m ( to ea t), e sc a (f ood) : c d ib l e, e sc u l e nt, o h ese ( o n e

-
,
- - - - -

w h o h a s e a t en l a rg e l y ) .

E m ere , e mpt u m ( to b u y ) : e x empt , per empt o ry , pre m iu m

- - - - - -

( prae em ere o r im ere , to t a k e b e fo reh a n d), pro mpt ( pro empt u s), im
- - -

pro mpt u , red eem, re d e mpt i o n , ra n so m ( do u b l et o f t h e pre c edi ng )

- - - -
.

E o , i re, it u m ( to g o ) it er, itine r i s (jou rn ey ) : a mb i ent , amb

- - - - - -

it io n, c irc u it, c o mme nc e ( L a t c o m c u m, i nitia re , t o b eg i n ), ex it,

- -
.
: -

ey re ( 0 F r ei re , j o u rn ey , L a t it in er is ), erra n t ( a s in t h e ph ra se
. . .
-

k ni g h t erra n t, a t ra v e ll i ng o r w a n deri ng k ni g h t , fro m 0 Fr e rr er,

-

. .
-

o r e ir er, pre s pa rt err a n t , fro m L a t it in er a re , n o t fro m L a t

- - -
. . . .

err a re ), i n it i a l , i s su e ( O Fr i ss u e, fe m o f i ssu , p p o f issir, t o g o

- - - -
. . . . .

o u t, L a t e x ire ), i t in er a ry , o b it , per i sh ( fro m F r peri s s

.
-
Lat - - - - -
. .

p er i re ) p raet o r o r pr e t o r ( prae i t o r o n e w h o
g o e s b e fore), pret er it e,

- -
, ,

s ed i t io n , su dde n ( 0
- -
Fr su da i n , L a te L a t su b it a n u s ), t ra n s i t , . . .
- - -

t ra nc e , t ra n s i e nt , t ra n s it ory - - - -
.

E x empl u m ( ex a mp l e) : en sa mpl e , ex a mpl e , ex empl a ry , sa mpl e ,

- - -

sa mpl e r .

E xt ra ( o u ts ide) : e x tr a n eo n s ( L a t e xtr a n e u s ), est ra ng e ( Fr

- - - -
. .

es tra ng e r, fro m L a t ex t r a n e u s ), stra ng e ( sh o rt for estra ng e ), .

- -

i me

st ra ng - e r, e x t ra ( as an e x t ra , ex tra s e x t er o r, ex tre ,

i i
ex tr n s c , ex t e rna l .

f a b ric a t u m ( to f a sh i on ) ; f a b ric a
F a b ri c - a re , ab r c , or e
g
- -
f i f
( 0 F.r o rg ),
e a b r .c a t e f
,
a b r c -
a t io n f i -
f i -
.

Fa e ere , f a c t u m ( to ma ke) a f ee t , e n e t , b en e a c t o r, c o m t,
- - -
f b - -
f - -

c o u n t er e t , de e a t ( O -
fi
F r de a t , p p o f de a re ), de ee t , dec t -
f . .
-
fi . . fi- -
f i
( i t a l s o r a ll s sh o rt ), e f ee t, ef c a c y , fa c s m l e ( s h o rt for a c t u m
fi f -
f - - - -
i i f
i i
s m l e, ma de l e ), a c t io n , a c t it i ou s , fa c t o t u m ( L a t fa c ere ik f -
f - - - -
.
-

t o t u m), a sh i o n ( do u b l e t o f f ac t on ea s l e ( ro m 0 F r a s a n t , f i f -
ib f . . fi -

r e a rt o f a i re ), f e t i sh o r f et ic h ( Fr fet c h e , ro m L a t f a c t it i u s ),
f i f
p s p
- - - -
. . .

f ea t ( 0 Fr a t , do u l e t o f . . fi
e a t u re , h o no ri c , in eet , b f - -
f
i
ma g n fy , pe r e et , pre e e t , pro c i- e nt, pro t , re e et o ry , su f c e ,
-
f
- -
f - - -
f - -

-
fi
su r e t , t e rr fy , st u pe fy i - -
.

F a c i es ( f ac e) : a c e, a c a l , de a c e , e f a c e, fa e a de ( a c e o f a
-
f f i - -
f -
f -
f
b i i
u l d n g ), s u pe r c ies , su r a c e -
f -
.

F a c il is ( ea sy ) dif c u l -ty , a c l e , fa c u l t y , a c l i t a t e
~ ~ -
f i -
f i - -
.

F a l l ere , f a l s - u m ( to decei ve, di sa pp oi n t) :

- a l, al l a cy , a l se , fi f -
f
f a l t er ( 0 F r a l t -
e r ), a l l -
b.l e ,
a u l t ( I t a l a l t -a
. ,
a fd e e c t ), d e f i f . f f
f au lt -
er .

Fa l x f a l c ( ) : fa l eh ion ( a b e nt
,
-
is a s ic k l e - sw o rd ) ,
de -fa l c -a t e,
fa l c o ( so n a med fro m i ts h o ok e d b ea k )
-
u .
 D ER I VA T I VE S F R O M L A T I N R O O TS 39 3

F -a ri, f a t u m ( to sp ea k) : a f a b l e ( L a t a d f a b ilis ), a l e ( La t
- -
f . fb .

fba u l a ), f a
y ( 0 Fr fa e, L a t e L a t a t a , a g o ddes s o f dest ny ), a ry
. . . f i fi
( 0 . F r a e r e ,
e n c h
. a n t m e n t f
),
i n e f -
i
a b l e, i n a nt ( La t in ( no t ), -
f -
f .

f a nt em, s ea ki f f t i i

n ) i n a nt r ( i n an o nc e s n ed s erv a n t ,
p g y g
- - - -
,

f
a n d oo t so l d ers w ere a t rst t h e s erv a n t s o f
-
i n g h t s ), n e fa r- i - ou s , k i -

r f
a c e (Late Lat r ae fa t iu m)
p e p
- - -
. .

F er re , l a t u m ( to b ri n g o r ca rry ) c rc u m fer en c e , c o n fer, de f er,

- -
i - - - -

de -fer- enc e, dif fer, dif- f er en c e , in fer, o f f er, pre f er, re fer, su f f er,
- - - - - - -

-
i
t ra ns fer, fer t l e ; di l a t e , de l a y ( 0 F r del a , It a l d l a t a , th a t w h c h
- - -
. . i . i i
f
i s pu t o ff o r de erred), di l a t a t io n , pre -l a t e , pre-l a c y , re l a t e, tra n s - - - -

l a t e , il -l a t iv e , su per l a t iv e , c o r-re l a t iv e
- - - - -
.

F err- u m ( i ron ) : a rr ier, err o u s , err u g in ou s ( L a t err-u g in em, f -

f -
f - - -
. f - -

iro n ru st) .

Fid es (f a i th ); del is (f a i thf u l ) ; d ere ( to tru st) : a f f y , a f a n c e,

- - - - - -

a f da vi t ( h e h a s
-
p l e d g e , ro m L a t e La t d a re ), c o n de, de f ,
y d f .
- - -

de - a n c e , dif d en t, a it h ( 0 F r e , M id E ng e th ), del i ty ,
- - -
f . . f id . . fi - -

f ea l t y , in del , pe r d i o u s , per d y
- - - - - - -
.

Fil u m ( threa d ) : de-l e ( t o ma rc h in a l e ), e n l a de , l e ( o f

- - -

l a me n t , l i g re e ( L a t

i
sol d ers , a s in t h e ph ra se ra n a n d l e k - - - -
.

ra n u m ), l l c t ( dim o f 0 F r l a t h rea d o r s t r n g ), pro l e i

g
- - -
. . . .
,

Ping ere , c t u m ( to f a sh i on ) : ef g y , a n t , e nt, e g n , c t i o n ,

- - - -
fi fi fi -

g me nt , g u re , c o n g u r a t i o n , t ra n s g u re
- - - - - - -
.

Fin is ( end) : a f n i t y , c o n n e, de n e, n a n c e ( L a t e L a t n
- - - - - - -
.

an ti
a , set tl emen t b y
p y g
a n ),
n e ( La t n it u s , w el l n sh e o ff ), i .
- -
i d
n ic - a l , n e ( a t a x , L a w L a t n i s ), n ish , n -it e, re n e, su per
-
.
- - -

ne Th e ph ra se
.

in n e mea ns l a st l y , in sh ort , t o su m u p

.

Firm u s ( strong ); rm a re, rm a t u m

-
rm, a f rm, a f rm - - - - -

a t -i v e , c o n rm a t i o n , a rm ( L a t e L a t
-
rm a , 0 F r erme, a x ed
- -
f .
-
. . f
re n , h enc e a n e sta l sh men t t h a t pa y s ren ), rm- a -men t , i n
t bi t
rm i ty - -
.

Fl a g r a re , a g r a t u m ( to b u rn ) ; a m-ma f o r a g ma ( a a me)
- - - -

a g r a nt , a me, c o n a g r- a t i o n , a m e a u , a m n g o , in -a mm-a l e
-
- - -
b -
i b .

Fl a re , a t u m ( to b l ow ) in a te , a t u -l en t , u t e ( 0 F r a u t e,
- - - -
. .

eu t e ), o u t , u e ( sh ort o f u te
Fl o s , or-i s ( a ow er) or- ere ( v , to ou rish ): o w er, ou r, or a l , .
ef o r e sc e, or id, o s c u l e, ou r i sh

- - - - -
.

Fl u ere, u x u m ( to ow o r sw el l ) u c t u s ( a w a ve) a f u enc e ,

- - - -

c o n u - ent , u c t u a t e, u - id, u x ,
-
oss ( o u b l e t o f
- -
u x u sh d

( a n o th er do u l et ), in u enc e, in u enz a ( o u l et of - b n u e nc e- - -
d b i
in - u x , su per-u ou s -
.

F o li u m ( l eaf ) -
o l a g e , ex o l - a t e, f i
o l , o l o , t re o l , po rt o l o - -
f i fi f i - -
fi -
f i .

F ort is ( stron g ) : o rc e , o rt,

-
o rt e , c om ort , ef o rt , f ort -i t u de , f f f - -
f f -

f t
or i f ,
y
-
o rt a l
-
c e ( L a t e L a t f
o r t -
a l i t-
ia ),
i o r t re s s ( 0 F r f o rt ere sc e , . f f . .

fo rt el e sc e, do u b l et o f ort a l c e e n o rc e , re in o rc e f i -
f - -
f .

Pra ng ere ( for fra g ere ), fra c t u m ( to b rea k ) de ra ( 0 F r de

- - - -
f y . .

f ra y er, t o pa y e x pens es ),
-
ra c t - io n , ra c t -u re , ra g -me n t , ra g il e , f f f f -

f i
ra l ( ou l et o f d b

ra g l e f
in ra c t io n , in - r n g e, ir re ra g -a b l e, i -
f -
fi - -
f
f
re ra c t o ry , re ra n ( t h e
- -
u rden o f a s o n , 0 -
gf i F r re f rein dre, t o b . .
-

b rea b a c ) k k .

Fra t -er, fra tr-i s ( b roth er) ra -ern -a l , r ar ( 0 Fr re re, a f t fi . . f i

b ro t h er), ra t ern -ise, fra tr-i-c e f -
id .

Fron s , f ront i s ( f ron t, b row ) : a f ro nt , c o n - ro n t, e f ro nt-ery ,

- -
f f -
f
39 4 A PPE N D I X O N D E R I V A T I O N S

fro n t a l fro n t 1 s pi ec e ( mi ss pel l i ng o f fro nt i spic e

,
fi o nt ie r, -
a

,

L t e L t fro n t 1 s pic iu m a fro n t a spec t ) i ro n t l et

a a .
- -
, , .

Fru i i rn et u s n d fru it u s ( to enjoy )

, f ru x fru g is (produ c e) a ,
-

fru i t fru c t i fy fru it io n fru it er er fru i t g e fru g a i fru g l i ty

,
- -
,
- -
,
- -
,
-
a ,
-
,
-
a - -
.

F u g er fu g it u m ( to ee) fu g it iv e fu g u e re fu g e re fu g ee
-
e, -
: -
, ,
-
,
- -
,

c e nt ri f g a l fe hri fu g e su b t er fu g e
-
u -
,
-
,
-
.

F un d e re f u s m ( to p ou r o u t to m l t) f u n d ( t o c st meta l )
-
,
-
u ,
e : o a ,

fou nd ry fu se f s il f s ib l e c o n fo u nd c o n f se dif f se e f fu se
-
, ,
u -
,
u -
,
-
,
-
u ,
-
iz ,
-
,

fo i s o n ( 0 F r f i o u L t fu s io n em) f u ti l e ( th a t w h i c h is e si l y
-
. . o s- ,
a .
- -
,
-
a

po u re d f rth for La t f u d ti l i s ) in fu se pro fu se re fu nd t e fu se

o - - - - -
.
, , , , , ,

su f f u s io n t r n s fu s
- -
,
a -
e .

Fu n d u s ( b tt m) ; fu n d a re fu n d a t u m ( to f o u nd to esta b l i sh )
-
o o -
,
- -
,

fu nd fo u nd fou nd er ( t o g o to t h e b o ttom) fo u nd a t io n fu nd
, ,
-
,
- -
,
-
a

men t a l pro fou nd -

,
-
.

Gau d -
e re, g a v is u
-
m ( to en o y j ) g a u d-
iu m ( g l a dn ess ) g a u d ( S h o w ,

o rna ment ) g a u d y jo y ( 0 F r g o y e ,
-
, . .
,
j o y e ) e n joy j e w el ( 0 Fr
,
-
,
. .

jo y c l dim o f j o y e joc a l e a s h a s b ee n

-
, n o c o n n e c t io n w it h
.
,

a ss erte d) re j o i c e ,
-
.

G el u (f rost ) ; g el a re g el a t u m ( to f reez e) : g el id c o n g ea l
- -
,
- - -
,
-
,

el a t in e j ell
y ( fo rmerl y g el l y F r g e l e L a t g el a t u m)
G ens g ent is ( c l a n stock) : g en t
g
- -
. .
, , .
,

, i l e g e n t eel g e nt l e g en t ry
-
, ,
-
,
-
,
-
.

G en u s g ener is ( ki nd a l l i ed t o g en s a s a b o v e )
-
,
c o n g e n ia l
-
, ,
- -
,

c o n g en i t a l de g e n e r a t e g e n d er ( th e d is e x c re sc e n t ) e n g e n d er
- ~ -
,
- -
,
- -
,
- -
,

e n g i n e ( La t i h e n i u m) g in ( sh o rt form o f p1 e c e di ng ) g en er a l
g
- - - -
, ,
.
,

g e n er a t e
g e n e r i c g e n e1 o u s ,g e n i al
g e n i u s ( L at w o rd i n b o
,
rn -
,
-
,
-
.
,

fa c u l ty ) g e n u in e i ndi g en o u s in g en i o u s in g en u ou s pro g en
, , ,
- - -
,
-
,

it o r, pro g en y, re -

g e n e r-
a te .

G er ere , g e st u m ( to ca rry on ) j est ( 0 F r g est e ), c o n g er i es, c o n

- -
. .
- - -

g est io n, di g es t, e x a g g er a t e , g e s t a t i o n , g est ic u l a t e , g e st u re ,
- - - - - - - - - - -

-
i
re g s t e r, su g g es t io n- - -
.

G ra du s ( a step o r deg ree) g ra d i, g re ss u s ( v ) g ra de, a g g ress

- - - -
.

io n , c o n g re ss , de g ra de , di g ress , e g res s, g ra di en t , g ra du a l , g ra du
- - - - -

a te , i n g re di en t, in g rc ss , pro g re s s , re t ro g ra de, re tro -g re ss io n ,

- - - - - -

t ra n s g re ss or - -
.

G ra nd is (g ra n d, g rea t ) a
g g ra nd 1 se , g a f er ( fo r g ra n d- a th er), .
- -
'

f f
g a mmer ( fo 1 g ra n d mo t h e r), g ra me rc y ( in C h a u c er, g ra u nd merc y ,
. i
F r g ra nd me rc ), g ra m pu s ( La t g i a n dis p sc s ), g ra n d ee, g ra nd e u r, . i i -

g ra nd l o qu en t i -
.

G ra n u m ( a g ra i n , c orn ) : g ra n , e n o r in g ra n , g ra n a ry , g a rn er
-
i -
i -

( do u b l e t o f g ra na ry g a 1 n e t ( L a t e L a t g ra n a t u s ), g ra ng e ( L a t e .

L a t g ra n e a , a b a rn ), g ra nit e ( I ta l g ra n it e , l it spec kl ed st o ne ),
. . .

g ra n- u l e,
g re n a de ( I t al
g r a n a d 0 , La t
g ra n a t u m, -
u ll o f s eeds ), .
-
.
-
f
g re n d 1 e r, po me g ra n a t e ( 0 F r po me g ren a t e ), g ra n 11 1 a r, g ra n
-
a -
. .
-

u l a t io n , hl i r ee ( L a t l u m + g ra n u m )
g
- .
.

G ra t u s ( p l ea si n g ) ; gra t ia ( gra ce, th a n ks ) : g ra c e , a g re e ( F r

- - -
.

51 g r , t o o n e s pl e a su re ), c o n g ra t u l a t e , g ra t e fu l , g ra t i fy , g ra t is,

- - - - - - -

r t i t d r t i t r t it i r t i t i n ra t e , ma u re
g a u e
g a u o u s , g
a u y h g a a e
g g
- - - - - - - - - - -

, , ,

( ma l g r ) .

G ra y i s ( h ea vy ) ; g ra v a ri, g ra v a t u m
-
g ra v e , a g g ra v a t e , - - - - -

g ri e f,
a
g g r i e 1 e,
g r a v it a t e , g ra v i t a t i o n -
.

G rex , g reg i s ( oc k ) g reg a ri, g reg a t u m ( v - a r

g g ge a t e ,
c on .
- -

r a t e, e i u s e g reg a t e , g reg a ri o n s
g g e
g g1 e o s - - - - -
.
,
39 6 A P P E N D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

j
J u s, ( l aw ) ; j u r u r- is
a re ,
j u r a t u m ( to ta ke a n oa th ) ; a h j u re , - - - -

a d j u re ,
-
a d j u st ( L a t j u st u s ), c o n j u re , i h j u re, j u r dic a l , j u r s
-
.
- - -
i - -
i
dic t io n , ju r ist , ju r o r, ju r y ( F r j u r e , L a t ju r a t a , a b o dy o f s w orn
- - - -
. .
- -

me n ), j u st ( L a t j u st u s ), j u st ic e , j u st i fy , per j u re .
- - - - -
.

J u v a re, ju t u m ( to h e lp ) : a d ju t a nt , c o a d ju t o r, a id ( 0
- -
Fr - - - - -
. .

a id e r, L a t e L a t a d j
-
u t a re , re q o f a d j u v a re ) .
- -
f .
- -
.

J u v e n i s ( y o u n g ) ju v e n il e , j
-
u n io r ( sh o rt fo r u v e n i o r), j u n
j per
- - -
i -

( l it y o u th pro du c ng ), g in ( sh o rt fo r g e n e v a , a c o rru pt o n o f Fr
.
-
i i .

g e n ev re , a j u n per t ree ) i .

L a c , l a c t is ( mil k ) l a c t ea l , l et tu c e ( rom L a t l a c t u c a , th e m l y
-
f .
-
ik
h e rb ) .

L a c ert u s ( a n a rm) : l i z a rd ( F r l esa rd, L a t l a c erta ), a l l i g a t o r

-
. .
-

( S p e l l a g a rt o , th e l i z a rd, i e t h e g rea t l iz a rd)

.
-
. . .

L a c u s ( a p ool ) : l a k e, l a c u st ri n e, l a g oo n ( L a t l a c u n a )
- - -
.
-
.

L aed ere , l ees u m ( to do h a rm to ) : c o l l i de , c o l l is io n, e l id e,

- - - - - -

l es io n-
.

L a mb ere ( to l i ck) l a mb e nt, l a mp rey ( a sh so c a ll ed from L a t e

- - -

L a t l a m pe tra , l i c k er o f roc k s )
.
-
.

L a u s , l a u d is (p ra i se ) l a u d a re , l a u d a t u m -
l a uda b l e, - - -

l a u d a t o ry , a l l o w ( t o a dmi t o r a ppro v e o f, F r a l l o u er, L a t a d

- - - -

. .

l a u d a re Y -
e a l l o w t h e.dee d s o f y o u r fa t h er s Lu k e x i . .

L a v a re , l a v a t u m o r l a u t u m ( to w a sh )
- -
l a v e , l a v a t o ry ,
- - - -

l a u n dr e s s ( l a v en der ess ), l a u n dry ( L a t e L a t

-
l a va n deri a ), l a v a -
.

( mol t en roc k ), l a v ender, l o t io n -

.

L eg a re , 1eg a t u m ( to dep u te) : a l l eg e , a l l e g a t io n, c ol l ea g u e ,

- - - - - - - -

c o l l e g e, de l eg a t e , l eg a c y , l eg a t e , l eg a t ee , re l e g a t e
- - - - - - - - -
.

L eg ere , l ec t u m ( to rea d, to g a th er) c o i l ( 0 F r c o i l l er, L a t c o l

- -
. .
-
.

l ig e re , t o g a t h er t o g et h er), c u l l ( do u b l et o f prec e di ng ), c o l l ec t ,
- -

di lig e nt , e l e c t , e l i t e
- -
e l eg a n t ,
-
e l ig i b l e , i nt el l ec t , i n t el
- - - - - -

l ig e n c e , l ec t io n , l es so n ( do u b l et o f
-

l ec t i o n
-
l ec t u re , l eg e nd, l e g - - s

e n d a ry , l eg i b l e , l e g io n , l eg u me ( a po d), n eg l e c t ( th e g is i h
- - - -

t ru siv e ), n e g lig e nc e , pre di l ec t io n , re c o l l ec t , se l ec t , re l ig io n

- - - - - - - - - -

(re ferred b y s o me t o Lig a re, -

L ev is ( l i g h t ) ; l ev a re , l ev a t u m ( to ma ke l ig ht) : a l l ev i a t e ,
- - - - - - -

e l ev a t e, l e a v e n ( L a t l ev a men , t h a t w h i c h ra i s es t h e o u r), l eg er de
- -
.
-

ma i n ( 0 Fr l e g i er ( from L a t e L a t l e v i a riu s ) de ma i n , l ig h t o f
. . .
- -

h a nd), L ev a n t ( I t a l l e v a nt e , t h e e a st , w h ere th e su n ri ses ), l ev e, .

l e v e r ( L a t l ev a t or, t h e l ift er), l ev ity , l ev y , re l e v a nt , re l i e v e

-
.
- - - - - - -
.

L ex , l eg is ( l a w ) : l eg a l , l o y a l ( do u b l e t o f
-
l eg a l l ea l ( a - -

s e c o n d do u b l e t o f l e g i s l a t or, l e g is t, l eg it im a t e, a l l eg i - - - - - - -

a n c e , pri v i l eg e ( ri v a t e ri h t )
p g
-
.

Lib er ( f ree) l ib er a re, l ib er a t u m ( to ma ke f ree) de l i v er ( 0 F r - - - -

. .

de l i vre , L a t de l i b er a re ), l i b er a t e , l i b er t i n e , l i b er ty , l iv ery
-
.
- - - - - -
.

L ib er, l ib r i ( a b ook) l ib r a ry , l ib el , l i b r e t t o
- - - - -
.

Li b r a ( a p ou n d, a b a l a n c e) de l i b er a t e ( t o w ei g h i n th e b a l a nc e ),
- - -

l i v re ( Fr l e v el ( 0 Fr l iv el , L a t l ib el l a , dim o f
. . equ i . .
-
.

l i b r ium -
.

Li c e t ( i t i s l a u f u l ), l i c it u m : lie e n c e, il l i c i t, l e i s u re ( 0
-
Fr - - - -
. .

l e i s ir, t o b e a l l o w e d ; t h e su f x u re i s fro m t h e Fr i nn e ndi ng

- -
. .

i r) l ic en t i a t e, l ic e n t i o u s
,
- - - - - -
.

L ig a re , lig a t u m ( to b i nd) a l l ig a t io n , a l l y ( 0 Fr a l i-er, L a t

- - - - - - -
. .
-
.

ad li a re ), a l li a nc e , l ea u e , l i a b l e ( fo rmed w i th su i x a b l e fro m -
g
- - -
g
- -
 D E R I VA T I V E S F RO M LA TIN R O O T S 39 7

Fr l i .
), l i en ( Fr li en , L a t l ig a men , a t h i ng t h a t bi nd s), l ig a
-
er . .
- -

ment, l ig a t t ure , o h l i g e , o b l i g a t io n , ra ll y ( re + a l l ier, to re a l l y , o r

- - - - - - -

re a ssemb l e ), re l ig io n ( dou b t fu l , see L eg ere ) -

- - -
.

Lim es , lim it is ( a b ou nda ry ) ; lim en , l imin i s ( a th resh o ld) :

- - - -

l im it , de lim it a t i o n , l i n t e l ( L a t e L a t l i n t el l u s, fo r l im it e ll u s ,
- - - - - -
.
- - -

dim o f l i mit is ), e l i mi n a t e , pre l imi n a ry

.
- - - - -
.

Lin qu ere, l ic t u m ( to l ea ve ) : de l i n qu e nt , de re l i et , re lic ( La t

- - - - - - -
.

re l i qu i ae), re l i et , re l i n qu i sh , re li qu a ry
- - - - - - - -
.

Lin u m ( a x ) l in e a ( a stri n g ) l i n e , de l in e a t e , lin e a g e , l in

- - - - - - - -

e a l , lin e a me n t , l in e a r, l i n e n ( o ri ma de o f a x

g a n a dj,

- - - -
cf - -
-
. . .

a x en ) l in in g , l i nn e t ( t h e bi rd th a t feeds o n a x se ed), l in s e ed,

-
,
- - -

l in t ( L a t l i nt e u m) .
- -
.

Liq u ere ( to mel t ) : l i qu i d, l i qu e fy , l i qu id a t e , l i qu o r

-
N B - - - - -
. . .

L i qu ori c e h a s n o c onn ec ti o n w i th
l i qu o r se e L i qu o ri c e u n d er

G re e k R o o ts, V .

Lit er a ( l etter) : l e t t er ( Fr l e t tre, L a t lit era ), l it er a ] , lit er a t

- -
. .
- - - - -

u re, il l it er a t e , o h lit er a t e
- - - - - -
.

L o c u s ( a p la ce) ; l oc a re, l oc a t u m
-
a l l oc a te, a l l ow ( Fr - - - - - -
.

a l l ou er, t o a ss i n ,
g g ra n t ), c o l l o c a t e , c ou c h ( 0 F r c o u c h er, L a t
- - - - -
. . .

c ol l oc a re ),
-
dis l o c a t e , li eu ( Fr l i eu ), l i eu ten a n t ( L a t
- -
l oc um
-
.
- -
.

t e n en s ), l o c a l , l o c a te , l oc o mo ti o n - - - -
.

Loc u st a ( a l oc u st) l o c u st , l o b st er ( A S l o ppe stre , l o pu s t, c o rr o f

-
. . .

La t l o c u s t a )
. .

L o qu i, l oc u t u s ( to sp ea k) l o qu a c i o u s , a l l o c u t io n , c i rc u m l o c
- - - - - - - - -

u t io n , c ol l o qu
y , e l oc u t io n , e l o qu e n t , o b l o qu y , so l i l oqu y ,
- - - - - - - - - - - -

v en tri l o u i st
q
- -
.

Lu c is ( g en o f l u x , l i g h t) ; l u c ere ( to sh i n e) : l u c id, e l u c id a t e ,
-
.
- - - - -

l u c u b ra t io n ( w o rk ed o u t b y l a mp l i g h t , from L a t l u c u b ru m, a
- - - -
.
- -

l i g h t ), pel l u c i d, tra n s l u c en t - - - - .

Lu d ere , l u s u m ( to p l a y ) a l l u de, a l l u s io n , c ol l u d e , c o l l u s io n
- - - - - - - -

de l u d e , e l u de, l u d i c re u s , pre l u de
- - - - -
.

Lu men , l u min i s ( l igh t, fo rmed from l u c men

-
se e L u c i s a b o v e ) - -

il l u min a t e, l i mn ( sh o rt en ed fo rm o f
- -

l u min en , M id E ng -
. .

l i mn en ), l u min a ry , l u min o u s
- - -
.

Lu n a ( moon , fro m l u c n a , l i g h t g i v er) l u n a r, l u n a t ic , l u n a c y ,

- - - - - - - -

su b l u n a r
y
- -
.

Lu str a re, l u str a t u m ( to th row l i g h t, from t h e roo t l u c ; s e e

- - -

a b o v e ) : l u st re, il l u s tr a t e , l nstr o u s, l u t estri n g ( c orr o f l n str ing ,

- - -
.
-

a s o rt o f sh i ni n
g si l k ) .

M a g n u s ( grea t) ; ma g i s t er ( a gre a t ma n , a ma st e r) : ma g is
- - - - -

tra t e, ma g n a nimit y , ma g n a t e , ma g n i c e n t , ma g n i fy , ma g n i
- - - - - - - -

l o qu e n c e , ma i n ( O F r ma g n e , ma i n e ), maje st y , maj o r, ma y o r
-
. .
- -

( d o u b l et o f maj o r), ma ster ( 0 F r ma i stre , L a t ma g i s t e r), ma x im . . .

-

( from su perl ma x im u s ), ma x im u m, mi ss ( c o n t ra c ti o n o f mis -

- - -
.

tress mi st e r mi stress , .

M a l u s ( b a d ) : ma l a dy ( L a t ma l
-
a n d h a b i tu s c o n di t i o n ) ma l -
.
, ,

a ert ( L a t ma l e b a dl
p y a nd a pert u s o pe n ) ma l a ri a ( It a l a ri a a ir)
- -
,
.
, ,
.
, , ,

ma l e di c t i o n ma l i so n ( dou bl et o f t h e prec edi ng ) ma l ig n ma l i ng er

-
, ,
-
,
-

( L a t aeg er si c k ) ma l tre a t ma l v ers a t io n ma u gre ( 0 Fr ma l g r )

.
, ,
-
,
- - -
, . .
-
.

M a nd a re ma nd a t u m ( to g i ve a n order) c o m ma n d c om me n d
-
,
- - -
,
-
,

c o m mo do re ( S p fro m L a t c o m men d a t o r) c o u n t er ma nd de ma n d
-
. .
- - -
,
-
,
-
,

ma nda te, re c om me n d re ma nd M a u ndy T h u rs da y ( M id E ng

'

- - -
. .
, ,
39 8 A P PEN DI X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

ma nde e ,
fro m La t . ma nda tu m n o vu m ,
a n ew co mma nd , Jo hn
x iii .

man s u m ( to a b ide rema i n ) ma n or ( 0 Fr ma n o ir a

M an -
e re , -
,
-
. .
-
,

ma n sio n ) ma ns e ( L a t e L a t ma n s a a dw el l i n g ) ma n s i o n ma s t iff
, .
, , ,

( pro b fro m L a t e L a t ma nsa ti nu s c a ni s a h ou se do g) men a g e ri e

. .
, , D

( o ri g a pl a c e for k e epi n g h o u seh ol d a ni ma l s F r m n a g e O Fr

.
,
.
, . .

mes na g e) men i a l ( o n e o f a h o u seh o l d 0 F r me sn es w i th a dde d

, ,
. .
,

s u i x ) me ssu a g e ( L a te La t mes s u a g iu m ) pe r ma n ent re ma i n

,
.
,
- -
,
-
,

remn a n t ( fo r re ma n e n t ) - -
.

M a n u s ( th e h a n d) : a ma n u e nsis ma i n ta i n ( L a t ma nu t en
- - - -
,
-
.

ere ) ma n a c l e ( L a t ma n i o u l a ) ma n a g e ( 0
,
F 1 ma n eg e ) ma n i fe s t .
,
. .
-
, ,

ma n i pl e ( L a t ma n ipu l u s a h a ndfu l ) ma ni pu l a t e ma n ner ( O F r .

, , , . .

ma n i ere ) ma n oeu v 1 e ( L a t ma n u o pera ) ma nu a l ma nu fa c t u re

,
.
, , ,

ma nu mi s si o n ma n u re ( dou b l et o f ma n oeu vre

-
ma nu sc ri pt
, .

M a pp a ( a c l oth o r n ap ki n ) ma p a pro n ( formerl y n a pro n 0 F r

-
, , . .

n a pero n a u g m fo rm o f 0
F r n a pe a c l o t h L a t e L a t n a p a a c e r
, . . .
, , .
-
,

ru pti o n o f L a t ma ppa T h e i n i ti a l n o f n a pro n w a s c o n fo u n ded

. .

w i th a n t h e i nde f a rt i c l e b ec a me j

Th u s

,
n a pro n a ro n
p u st . .
,

n u mpire b ec a me u m i re

as s e e b e lo w u n der P a r)
p .

M ar e ( sea ) ma r in u s ( a dj ) ma r i nc ma r in er ma r it ime su b
- - -
.
-
,
- -
,
-
,

ma r i ne ro se ma r y ( La t ro s ma r is dew o f t h e sea no t from L a t

-
,
- -
.
-
, .

rosa a ro s e ) , .

M a t er ma tr is ( a moth er) ma t ern a l ma tri c i de ma tr ic u l a te

-
,
- - -
,
-
,
- - -
,

ma t r i mo n y ma t r ix ma t r o n
- -
,
-
,
-
.

M ed i u s ( mi ddl e ) demi ( from L a t di a pa rt a nd medi u s se pa r

- -
.
, , ,

a t ed in t h e mi ddl e ) im med i a t e mea n ( i n t h e se n s e o f mi ddl e

- - -

, , ,

0 Fr me i en L a te L a t medi a n u s ) med i a t e medi ev a l medi

. .
,
.
- -
,
- -
,
- -
,

o c re M edi t err a n ea n meri di a n ( c o rr o f L a t

,
-
medi di a n u s
- -
,
- -
. .
- - -

mez z o t i nt o ( I ta l h a l f ti nt ed) mi z e n o r mi z z e n ( 0 Fr mi sa i ne
-
.
, . .

mo i et y ( F r mo i t i L a t medi e ta t em) .
,
.
- - -
.

M el mell is ( h oney ) : ma r ma l a de ( 0 F r ma rmel a de L a t m l i

- - -
. . .
, ,

ma l u m h o ney a ppl e or qu i nc e ) mell i u o u s mil dew ( a h y b ri d

, , ,

L a t mel a nd A S dea w de w ) mol a sse s ( S p mel a z a )

.
,
. .
, ,
. .

M e min 1 ( I rememb er fro m a b a se min ) memor is ( min df u l ) , ,

memory c o m men i o i a t e memo ii memor a nd 11 m memor i a l re

, , , , ,

mem b er ( th e b i s i n tru si v e ) re min isc en c e memen to ( rememb e r

- -
,
- - -
,

th ou ) .

M ens ment is ( mi n d a ki n to t h e b a se min i n

,
me mi n i-
as ,
- -
,

a b ov e) c om men t ( L a t c om men t a ri ) de me n t ed men t a l men t io n

-
.
- -
,
- -
,
-
,
-
.

M erg ere mers u m ( to dip ) : e merg e e me rg eu c y im mers i o n

-
,
- -
,
- - -
,
- -
,

s u b merg e-
.

M erz mere i s ( mercha ndi se traic ) : a merc e ( 0 F r a L a t a d

,
-
,
-
. .
z .
,

a nd me re i er t o a y o ff ) c o rn merc e ma rk e t ( L a t merc a t u s ) ma rt
p
- - - - -
.
, , , ,

( do u b l e t o f ma rke t ma rk t ) merc a n t il e merc en a ry me re er

- - - - -
, , , , ,

merc h a nt merc h a n d ise M erc u r y ( t h e g o d o f tra fc )

-
,
- -
,
- -
.

M et iri men s u m ( to mea su re ; a k i n t o A S met a h t o me te )

-
,
-
. .
-
,

me a s u re ( 0 F r mes u re L a t me n s u ra ) c o m mens u r a t e di
-
. .
-
,
.
-
,
- - -
,

me n s io n im me n se me n s u r a t io n
-
,
-
,
- - -
.

M il l e ( a th ou sa n d) : mi l e ( a t h o u s a n d pa c e s a R o ma n mi l e )
-
, ,

mi l l io n b il l io n mil fo i l ( t h ou sa nd l ea f) mi l l e n n iu m
-
,
- -
,
-
,
- -
.

M in se ( th rea ts ) ; min a ri min a t u s ( v )

-
men a c e ( L a t min -
,
- -
.
-
.

ac em) a me n a b l e ( e a sy t o l ea d
.
-
,
-
Fr a men er t o l ea d L a t e La t
-
,
.
- -
, ,
.
4 00 A PPE N D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

N a v -is ( a ship ) n au t a ( a sa i l or) na v e ( a c h u rc h b e ng l en e -

i ik d
i
t o a s h p), na u s e o u s, n a u t ic a l , na u t -il u s, n a v -a l , n a v-ig -a b l e , - - -

n a v y , n a v v y ( a l a o u rer em l o e d in d g g n
-
p y
-
g a c a na l fo r na v b i i i
g a t io n ) .

N eg o , n eg a t u m ( to sa y n o) : a h n eg a t e , deny ( O F r de nei-er,
- - - -
. .
-

L a t de n eg a re ), n eg a t i o n , n eg a t iv e , re n e g a t e o r ru na g a t e ( L a t
.
- - - - - - - -
.

re n eg s t u s , o n e w h o h a s den ed his a th )
- -
i f i .

N oe ere ( to h u rt ) in- no c e nt , i n n oc -u ou s, n o x i o u s , o b n o x -i o u s,
- - - - - - - -

i
nu s a nc e ( F r .

N orm a ( ru l e) : n orm a ] a h no rm a l , e n o rm o u s , e -n orm ity

- - - - - - -
.

N o se ere ( fo r g no se ere ), not u m ( to kn ow ) b i no m ia l ( L a t n o m- eu ,

- - - - -
.

n om n i s , i a n a me ), de n o m n a t e ,
-
i g no b l e , i g n o mi n y , i g n o re -
i - - - - - -

( La t in + g n or a re ) n o b l e, n o b l ty , no me n c l a t u re, no m n a l ,
.
-
,
- -
ii - - -
i -

n o t ic e, n o t i fy , n o t o riou s, n o u n , pro n o u n , q u a in t ( O
- - -
F r c o i nt , - -
. .

L a t c o g nit u s , w el l n o w n ), a o qu a n t ( 0 Fr a c o in t er), re no w n
.
-
k -
i . .
- - -
.

N ot a re, n ot a t u m ( to ma rk ) ; not a
-
n o t e, a n n o t a t e,
- - - - -

de n ot e , c on n o t e , n o t a b l e , n o t a ry
- - - -
.

N ov u s ( n ew ) ; n ov a re , n ov a t u m ( to ma ke n ew )
-
i n n o v - a te , - - - -

n o v el , n o v it i a t e , n o v c e ( do u l et o f th e prec ed ng ), re- n o v - a t e, re n ew
- - -
i b i -

( do u b l e t o f r e -n
o v a te ) -
.

N u nt i u s ( messeng er) ; nun t i a re , nu nt i a t u m ( to b ri ng tidi ng s )

- - - -

i
nu nc o ( I ta l pa pa l me ss en g er), a n n o u n c e , a n n u n c a t i o n , e n u nc
-
.
- -
i - - -
i
a t i o n , pro n ou n c e , re n ou n c e
- - -
.

N u t ri re , nu t ri t -u m ( to n ou ri sh ) : n u tr men t , n u rse, n ou r-is h ,

-
i -

nu rt u re ( L a t n u t rit u ra ), n u t rit - i o u s , nu trit iv e

-
.
- - -
.

O di u m ( h a tred) a n n o y ( L a t in o dio ), a n n o y a nc e , en n u i
- -
.
- - -

no i s o me ( f or a h - n o i- s o me ), o di o u s
- -
.

C d o r ( smel l ) ; ol ere ( fo r o d ere, to smel l ) : o d o u r, o l - a c t ory ,

- - - -
f -

red o l en t- -
.

O l es c ere , u l t -u s ( to g row ) : a d o l esc en t , a d u l t , c o a l esc e ,

- - - - - - - -

c o a l - it i o n
- -
.

O p u s , o per i s ( w ork )
-
o per a ri , o per a t u m ( v )-
c o o per a t e , - - -
.
- -

in- u re ( 0 F r eu re , u evre , L a t i n o pera ), ma n oeu v re ( L a t ma nu s , t h e

. . . .

h a n d), ma n u re ( do u b l e t o f prec e d n g ), o per a , o per a t e

-
i - -
.

O rb is ( ci rc l e) -
o rb , o rb it , e x - o rb i t a nt - - -
.

ord o , ordin is ( order, ra n k) : o rd er, dis ord er, o rd-er l y , c o

- - - - -

o rdin a t e, ex t ra ord n a ry , in - o rd n a t e , o rd a in , o rd n a l , o rd n - a n c e ,
-
i -
i - -
i -
i
o rd n a n c e ( dou l et
-
o f prec ed ng ), o rd n a t i o n , pr m o rd i a l , su b
b i i - -
i - - -

i
o rd n - a t e .

O s , o r i s ( th e mou th ) ; or a re, or a t u m ( to sp ea k ) : a d o re, in ex

- - - - - -

o r a b l e , o r a c l e , o r a t io n , o r so n ( do u b l et o f prec ed n g ), o r a t o r,
- - - - -
i i - -

o ri c e , o r a l , o s c u l - a t e , per o r a t i o n
- - - - - -
.

O s , o ss is ( a b on e) o ss e o u s , o s prey ( L a t o s s ra g u s, l it a b o n e
- - - -
. if - -
.

b rea er), oss k ra g e ( L ev x i 1 3 if

do u b l e t o f th e prec ed ng ), o ss - fy
-
. . i i .

O st i um ( door) u s h er ( L a t o st i a r u s, do o r e e per)
- -
.
- -
i k .

F a g u s ( a vi l l a g e) pa g a n , pa y nim ( c o n tr o f pa g a n i sm), pea s a n t

-
.
- -

( 0 F.r p a s a n ,
L.a t p g
a e n s s i
; t h e t i
-
s e x c r e s c en t) .
-
i .

P a l u s, p a l i ( a s t
-
a k e ) p , p
a l e a l et t e , p
a l-
is a d e , pa ll -e
t , po l e - - - .

P a nd ere, pa ss u m ( to op en ) -
c o m pa ss , e x pa n d, -
p ac e ( L at - -
.

a s s u s ), a ssa g e , pa ss po rt ( L a t o r t a , a g a t e ), pa s t 1 me, -

p pa ss,
p p
- - -
.

s u r pa ss , t res pa ss ( L a t tra n s, b ey o n d)
- -
. .

Pa ng ere, pa c t u m ( to f a sten ) c o m pa c t
- mpa c t , im p1 ng e ,
- -
i -
 D E R I VA T I VE S F RO M LA T I N RO OTS 401

pa g e ( L a t p g
a i n a , p g
a b e i n.
g t h e e a rl i e r- fo rm o f pa ng
a g e a nt
p
- -
.

P a n i s ( b rea d ) : a p pa n a g e, c o m pa n ion , pa nn ier, pa nt ry ( La t e

- - - - - -

L at pa n et a ri a )
.
- -
.

P a nn u s ( a p i ece of c l oth ) pa n e ( pa tc h o f c l o th o r o f g l a ss ), c ou n t er
-

a n e, pa nn el , a n i ol e , pa w n
p p
- -
.

P a r, pa r is ( equ a l ) : pa i r, pa r, pa r i ty , dis pa r i ty , a p pa r el ,
- - - - - - - -

c om peer, dis pa r a g e, u m pi re ( 0
-
Fr n o m pa i r, L a t n o n pa r, th e
- - -
. .
-
.
-

o dd ma n w h o dec i de s b e t w een t w o o t h ers

N u m pi re b ec a me .
-

u m pi re j u st a s n a pron b ec a me a pro n , u nder th e mi sta k en

-

no t i o n t h a t n b el o ng ed t o t h e a rt i c l e a n ) .

Pa r a re , par a t u m ( to sh a ve of , to g et rea dy ) : pa re, a p pa r a t u s ,

- - - - - -

c om pa re , c om a r i so n , m r r ( L at i m r t o r) m i r
p e p e o p e a e p e,
- - - - - - - - - -
.
,

im per a t iv e , im per i a l , pa r a de ( Fr
- -
-
p a rry ( F r pa r er, t o g u a rd),
- -
- -
. .
-

a ra t ( I t al et t o , t h e b rea st , t h a t w h ic h u a rds t h e b re a st
p p e p g
- -
.

a ra so l t h a t w h i c h k e eps o ff t h e s u n r e a re , ra mpa rt ( 0 F r
p p p
-
. .

re m pa rt -
,
from re + im -
us ) ,
re- pa r, i se-
p a r- a t e, se v er

(0 . Fr sev r er), sev er a l , a p pa r a t u s

.
- - - - - -
.

P a r ere , pa rt u m ( to b ri ng f orth ) : p a r en t , p a rt u r i e n t ,
- - - - - -

a rt u r it io n , re ert or , o v i a r ou s , v i v i a r ou s , v i per ( c o ntr o f

p p y p p
- - - - - - - - - .

p r ec e di n g ), pu er per a l
- -
.

P a rs, p art is ( a p orti on ) : pa rt , pa rse ( to sa y to w h a t pa rt o f

-

speec h a w o rd b el o ng s ), a pa rt ( Fr a pa rt , L a t a d pa rt em), a pa rt -
. .
-

ment, c o m-pa rt me n t , de pa rt, im pa rt , parc el ( c o ntr fro m L a t - - -

. .

pa rt ic ell a ), pa r t a k e , pa rt i a l , pa rt i c ip a t e, pa rt ic l e, pa rt i sa n
- - - - - - - - - -

( La t e L a t pa rt i t i a nu s ), pa rt it io n , pa rt ner ( L a t e La t pa rt it ion
.
- - - - - -
.
- -

a ri u s ),
pa rt
y ( L a t pa rt it a ), re pa rt ee
- - - - -
. .

Pa s c ere, pa st u m ( to f eed) : pa b u l u m, pa st or, pa st el ( L a t pa st

- - - -
.

ill u m, a l i tt l e l o a f), pa st i ll e, pa st ern , pa st u re, pest e r ( O F r - - - -

. .

em pc st r er, t o h ob b l e a h orse a t
pa st u re ), re pa st
- - -
.

Pa t ere ( to l i e op en ) pa t en t, pa t en ( L a t pa t ena , pa t in a ), pa n
- - -
.
- -

( c o ntr o f prec edi ng ), pa i l ( L a t pa t ell a , dim o f L a t pa t ina )

. .
-
. .
-
.

P a t i, pa s s u s ( to suc r) : c om pa ss io n, c om pa t i bl e , pa ss io n,

- - - - - - -

pa ss iv e , pa ti e nt
- -
.

P a u per ( F r pa u vre, p oor) : pa u per, po or, po v erty , im po v er ish

.
- -

ment .

P a x, pa c is ( pea ce) ; pa c is c i, pa c t u s ( to ma ke a n a g reemen t)

- - - -

pa c t , c om pa c t a p pea s e ( 0 F r a pa i s , L a t a d pa c em), pa c i fy ,
- - - - -
. . .

p ea c e
p y
a ( L at
pa c a re, to di sc h a rg e a deb t ), re pa y
- -
. .
,

P el l ere, pu l s um ( to dri ve)

-
c o m pel , c o m pu l s io n , im pel , im
- - - - -

p u l s e , p el t ( L a t p u l t a r e f o r p u l s a r e ), p p , p
ro e l. u l s e , pu l s a t io n ,
- - - - -

pu sh ( 0 Fr po u ss er, L a t pu l s a re ), pu rs y ( s h o rt w i n ded, 0 Fr
. .
-
.
- - -
. .

po u ss er o r po u l s er, t o g a sp for b rea t h ), re pel , re pu l s iv e

- - - - -
.

P end ere ( to h a n g ) ; pend ere ( to w ei gh ), pens u m : pend a n t,

- - - -

ap
pend, a p pend ix , c o m pe n d i o u s, c om pe n s a t e, c o u n t er po i se
- - - - - - - - -

( 0 Fr po i s er, t o w ei g h , L a t pens a re ), de pen d, dis pens e, im pend,

. .
-
.
- - - -

pa ns y ( Fr pens e, t h o u g h t , t h e pa n sy b ei n g c o n si dered th e o w er o f
-
.

t h o u g h t ), pe n d u l u m, pen s io n, pens iv e ( t h o u g h t fu l ), pent h o u se

- - - - -

( 0 Fr a pent is, L a t a p pend ic i u m), per pend ic u l a r, pre pe nse,

. . .
- - - - - - - - -

r
p p o -
e ns i t y, re c o m p e n s-
e, s p e n d ( L a t d i s i en d ere
p
-
),
s u s pen d -
.
- -
.

P enn a ( a f ea th er) : pen, penn a n t, penn o u , pin, pin io n , pi n n

- - - -

a c 1e .

E G C . . .
4 02 A PPEN D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

P er iri, per it u s ( to try ) : e x peri enc e , ex pert , per il ( L a t

- - - - - - -
.

per ic u l u m), peril o u s, pa r l o u s ( dou b l et o f prec edi ng )

- - - -
.

P e s, ped is (f oo t) : b i ped, e x ped it e , despa t c h ( 0 F r de spec h er,

- - - -
. .

l it t o u nfet t e r, L a t e L a t dis pedi c a re, fro m L a t pe d ic a , a

- - -
. . .

fet ter), im pea c h ( La te L a t im pedic a re ), im pede, im pedi ment,

-
.
- - - - -

pa w n ( 0 F r pa o n, L a t e L a t pedo n em, a fo o t so l di er), ped e st a l

. . .
- - - -

( A S s teel
. .
pedest a l i s t h ere fo re a h y b ri d), ped e st r ia n , pi o n eer - - -

( 0 F r peo n o r pa o n , a fo o t so l di er), q u a dru ped, c e n t i pede

. .
- - -
.

P et e re, p et it u m ( to seek) : a p pe t it e, c om pet e n t, c o m pe t it or,

- - - - - - - - - -

im pet u s, pet u l a n t, re pea t, re pet it io n

- - - - - - - -
.

P il u s ( a h a i r) c a t er pi ll a r ( L a t c a t u s, c a t, a nd pi l o su s ,
- -

h a i ry .
-

c at 0 F r c h a te pel eu s e. M id E ng c a t y rpel ), de pil a t ory ,
.
-
. .
- - -

perru qu e peri w i g ( do u b l et o f t h e prec e di n g ), pl u sh ( Fr pil u c h e, -

.

L a te L a t pil n e i n s ), w ig ( sh o rt f or periw i g )
.
-
.

P i ng e re, pi c t u m ( to p a i n t) : pic t u re , depi c t , pa i nt , pig men t

- - - -
.

pi me nt o ( Port ), pi nt ( Fr pi n t e , S p pi n t a , a s po t o r ma rk )
- -
. . .

Pi u s ( devou t, h o l y ) pi o u s, i m pi ou s, e x pi a te, pi a c u l a r, pi e ty ,
- - - - - - - - -

pi ty ( a d ou b l et o f t h e pre c edi ng ) .

P l a c ere, pl a c it u m ( to p l ea se)
-
c om pl a c en t ,
-
c o m pl a i s a n t - - - -

( dou b l e t o f prec edi n g ), pl a c id, pl ea , pl ea d ( L a t pl a c i t u m), -

.
-

l e a su re ( F r pl a i s ir, i n n o f t h e F r v erb )
p
-
. . . .

Pl a ng ere, pl a n et u m ( to b ea t th e b rea st i n token of g ri ef ) pl a g a

- - -

( a b l o w ) : c o m pl a i n, pl a g u e , pl a i nt, pl a i nt iv e , pl a i n t i ( do u b l et o f
- - -

prec e di ng ) .

P l a n u s ( l evel ) : pl a i n, pl a n e, pl a n , es pl a n a de ( from 0 F r , L a t
- - -
. . .

e x pl a n a t a ), e x pl a i n , i n f r t ( I t l i a n o , s o ft , L a t l n u s)
p a o o e a p p a
- - - -
. . .

P l a u d ere, pl a u s u m ( to c l ap th e h a n ds) : a p pl a u d, e x pl o de ,
- - - -

pl a ud i t ( fro m L a t pl a u di te, c l a p y o u r h a n ds), pl a u si b l e

-
. .

Pl ec t ere , pl ex u m ( to p l a i t) : eo m pl ex io n , c o m pl e x , per pl
- - - - - -

S im pl e, du pl e x , du pl i c i t
y
- - - - -
.

P l ere, pl et u m ( to fi l l ) pl en u s ( f u l l ) a c c om pi ish , c om-pl e

- - - - - - -

ment , c o m pl ete , c o m pli me nt ( I ta l c o mpl i re , t o l l u p), c om pl y ,

- - -
.
-

c o m pli a nt ( I t a l
- -
c o m pl i re ), de pl et i o n, ex pl e t i v e , im pl e me n t
.
- - - - - - -
.

l n i t d e l n t ( f r l n i t L at l e n i t a t em), re l eu i sh ,
p p
-
e u e o e
p p y y p
- - - - - - - - -
.
, ,

re pl et e , su p pl e me n t , su p pl y
- - - -
.

Pl i c o , pl i c a t u m o r pl ic it u m ( to f o ld o r b en d) pl y , a c c o m pl ic e,
- - - - - - -

a
pp
-
l y ,
c om
pl i c a t e, c o m
p l i c-
i t y , d e l
p y
-
o ( F r d p l o y er), dis pl a y
- - - -
.
- - -

( L a t dis pl i c a re, t o u n fol d), e m pl o y , e x pl i c a t e , e x plic it , e x pl o it,

.
- - - - - - -

i m pl i c a t e , im pl y , pl a i t , pl e a t ( do u b l et o f prec edi n g , L a t pl i c
- - -
.

a t u m),
-
p l i a n t , p
l i g h t ( L a t -
p l i c i t a ) , p l o t ( s h o r t fo r c o m p l o t ,
L. a t - - -
.

c o m pl ic it u m), re pl , su p pl e , su p pli c a n t , s u p pl i a n t , su p pl i c a te
y
- - - - - - - - - -
.

P oen a (p u n i sh men t) pu n ire , pu n it u m pa in , im pu n i ty ,

- - - - - - -

p e n a l ,
-
p e n a n c e , p
e n i t e n c e
-
, p u n i sh , p u n c h ( d ou b l e
-
t o -
f t h e p re c ed -

i ng ), re pen t -
.

P on ere , posit u m ( to p l a c e) : po st , a p po sit e, c om pon ent, c o m

- - - - -

m d i d d o s i t , de posi t
p o s t , c o p ou n ( t h e d -
s e x c r e s c e n t ) ,
e p o n e n t ,
e p
- - - -

i o n , de pOt , di s po si t io n , e x po n e nt , ex po u n d ( w i th e x c re sc ent d),

- - - - - -

im post , i nt er po si t i on , o p po s it e, po si t i v e , po st i l l i o n ( It a l post ig
- - - - - -
.

l i o n e ), po st u re, pre po si t io n , pro po u n d, pro v e st ( L a t pree po si t u s ),

- - - - - .
- -

p u r p o -
s e ( La t
p r o p o s i t u m ),
r e p o
. s i t o r y ,
s u pp
-
o s i t i on - - - - -
.

P ore 11 s ( a p i g ) : po rk , po rc u pi n e ( L a t s pi n a , a t h o rn ; 0
-
Fr -
. . .

r e e spi n ), por o i s e ( 0 F r r i L at p r c u p i sc i s a p i g sh ), -
p o p p o p e s o s -
, , . . .
 4 04 A PPE N D I X O N D E R I VA TI O N S

L a t qu a dr a ri a , a pl a c e fo r di g g i ng o u t st o n es t o b e squ a red), q u a rt,

.
-

q u a rt e u , q u a rt er,
qu a rt ern, qu a rt e tt e, qu a t r a in ( a st a n z a o f fo u r
- - - - -

l i n e s), q u i re ( 0 F r q u a ier), squ a d ( 0 F r e squ a dre, fro m L a t e L a t

. . . . .

ex -
q u a dra re ), s u a dro n, s u a re
q q .

Qu er i, qu est u s ( to comp l a in ) : qu er u l ou s, qu a rrel ( La t qu er

- - - -
.

el a ),
qu eri mo ni o u s, c ry ( L a t qu irit a re, freq o f qu er i), de c ry ( t o
- - - - - -
. .

cr
y d o w n , t o c o n demn ) .

Qui es, qu i et is ( rest) qui e sc ere ( v ) qu i et , a c qu i es c e, a c qu i t

- - - - -
.
- - -

( L a t e L a t a c qu i e t a re ), c o y ( O F r c o i t, L a t qu i e t u s ), de c o y ,
.
- -
. . .
- -

qu i t , q u i t e, re qu i em, re qu i t e
- - -
.

R a d ere, ra s u m ( to sc rap e) : ra se, ra z e, ra z o r, e ra se, ra i l ( F r

- - - -
.

ra ill e r, L a t e L a t ra du l a re ), re i l l ery , ra sh ( 0
-
Fr ra sc h e, L a t e La t
.
- -
. . .

ra s ic a re, t o sc ra t c h )
- -
.

R a di u s ( a strea k of l i g ht ) ; ra di a re, ra di a t u m
-
ra y , ra di - - -

a n t, ra di a t i o n, ir ra di a t e - - - -
.

R a p ere, ra pt u m ( to s na tch a w a y ) : ra p id, ra p a o i o u s, ra p in c ,

- - - - - - -

ra pt u re, ra v a g e , ra v in e, ra v ish
- - - -
.

R eg e re, rec t u m ( to ru l e) reg u l a ( n ) a dro i t ( F r a d ro i t, L a t

- - - -
.
-
. .

a d di rec t u m), c o r rec t , di rec t , di r e ( s h o rt fo r L e t di ri e , di rec t

g g
- - - - -
.

t h o u ), dre ss ( 0 F r d re ss e r, L a t e L a t di rec ti a re), e rec t, esc o rt

. .
-
.
- - -

( 0 F r esc o rte, La t e x c or rec t u s, pu t ri g h t ), in su r g ent ( La t in

. . .
- - - -
.

s u b reg ere ), i n su r rec t i o n , rec t a ng l e , rec t i ty , rec t i l i n ea r, re

g i
- - - - - - - - - -

men , reg i men t, reg io n , s u rg e ( L a t su rg ere, fo r s u b reg ere ), so u rc e

- -
.
- - -

( L a t su r rec t u m), re so u rc e, re su r rec t io n, ru l e ( L a t reg nl a ), reg

.
- - - - - - .
-

u l a t io n, so rti e ( L a t e L a t su r rec t ire )

- -
.
- -
.

R eg n u m ( reig n ) ; reg n a re -
rex , reg is ( ki n g ) : rei g n, i nt er - -

reg n u m, rea l m ( L a t e L a t reg a l i men ), reg a l , ro a l ( do u b l e t o f t h e

y
- - - - -
.

prec e di n g ), reg i c i de
-
.

R ip a ( a b a n k o r sh ore) a r ri v e ( a d ri pa m), a r ri v a l , riv er ( L a t e

- - - -

L a t ri p a ri u s, 0 F r riv i ere n o t deri v e d fro m L a t ri v u s )

.
-
. .
-
. .

Riv u s ( a strea m of w a te r) : ri v u l et ( L a t riv u l u s, dim o f ri vu s),

- - -
.
- -
.

de ri v e, de riv a t io n, riv a l ( o n e w h o u ses th e sa me bro ok a s a no th er)

- - - - -
.

R ob u r ro b or is ( streng th ) ro b u st , c o r ro b or a t e
,
- - -
.

R og a re, rog a t u m ( to a sk) : a b ro g a t e, a r ro g a nt , de ro g a t e ,

- - - - - - - - -

i nt er rog a t iv e, pre rog a t iv e, pro ro g u e, su per e ro g a t ion, su r

- - - - - - - - - - -

re g - a t e .

R ot -
a ( a w h eel ) rot - u n d- u s rot - a re , rot a t - u m -
ro t
a t -or
y, c o nt ro l ( O Fr c o ntre ro l e, L a t c o n tra
ro t - a t e, ro t - a t - io n , . . .

ro t u l u s , dim o f ro t a ), c o mpt ro l l er o r c o ntro l l e r, ro l l ( L a t ro t u l

-
.
- - -
.
-

a re ), ro t u n d, ro u n d ( do u b l e t o f ro t u nd), ro u l - ea u ( a rol l o f pa per),

-

ro u l et te, ro u n d e ] , ro u n d el - a y , ro w el ( L a t e L a t
- ro t e l l a , dim o f
- - -
.
-
.

)
ro t - a ,
su r- ro u n d .

R ump ( to b rea k )-
: r pt
ere ,
u u re ,
a h r u
pt , ru pt u m
c o r ru pt ,
d is - - - -

ru pt io n , ir ru pt io n , ro t e ( 0
-
F r rot e, M id E n g b i ro t e, in a b ea t en
- -
. . . .

k
t ra c ), rou t e ( F r a b ea t en t ra c , a ru tt ), ro u t , ro u t in e, ru t ( a w h e el
. k -

t ra c k ) .
( N 0 c o n ne c t i o n w i t h ro ta , a w h eel .
)
S ac -
er ( sa cred) ;, s a c a t u m
sa c r a re
r , o r s a n e -
ire , s a n c -
u m ( to - -
t
ma ke sa cred, w th n tru s v e n ) : c o n s ec r-a t e, ex ec r-a te ( for e x i i i - -

s ec r a t e ),
-
s a c er-do t a l , s a c r-a me nt , sa c r c e, s a c r l eg e, sa c r s t e u
- -
i -
i -
i -

( L a t e L a t s a c r s t a ),
s e x t o n ( do.u l et o f t h e
pr i
e c e d n g ), s a n t ( L at b i i .

sa n c t - u s ), s a n c t i fy , s a n c t i-mo n ou s, sa n c t -i o n , sa nc t u a ry
- - -
i - - -
.

S a l , sa l is ( sa l t) sa l s u s ( a dj ) sa l a d ( Fr sa l a de ), s a l -a ry ( L a t
- -
.
-
.
-
.
 DE R I VA T I VE S F R O M L AT I N R O O TS 4 05

sa l -a riu mo n ey ) sa l ine sa l t c el l a r ( pu t for sa l t s el a r o f w h i c h

m ,
sa l t - ,
-
,
- -
,

th e rst syll a b l e ( A S sc a l t ) is su per u ou s : 0 F r sa l i ere a s a l t . . . .

,

h o l der L a t sa l a riu m) sa l t petre ( L a t sa l petree sa l t o f th e ro c k )

, .
-
,
-
.
, ,

sa uc e ( L a t sa l s a ) sa n s a e ( F r s a u c i sse L a t sa l s ic iu m)
g
- - - -
. .
, , . .

S a l ire s al t u m ( to l eap ) : sa l i ent a s sa i l a s sa u l t de su l t ory

-
,
- -
,
-
,
-
,
- -
,

ex u l t in su l t re su l t sa ll y ( Fr sa i ll i e ) sa l mo n ( t h e l ea i n
- -
, ,
p g sh )
- -
, .
, ,

e x il e ( f or ex s il e ; b u t deri v e d by s o me fro m e x so l o
- -
o n e b a n i sh ed ,

from h is n a ti v e so il ) .

S al u s s a l u t is (h ea l th ) ; sa l v us ( saf e sou n d) ; s a l v a re s a l v
-
,
- - -
,
-
,

a t u m ( to sa ve ) : sa fe ( M id E ng
-
sa u f F r sa u f L a t sa l v u s ) sa g e . .
, .
, .
-
,

( a pl a nt M id E ng sa u g e Fr sa u g e La t s a l v ia ) sa l u b ri o u s sal u t
, . .
, .
,
.
-
,
- -
,

ar
y sa l u t e sa l v a g e ( 0 Fr sa l v a g e L a t e L a t sa l v a t i c u m) sa l v er
- - - -
, , . .
,
.
,

( S p sa l v a r a pl a t e o n w hi c h v i a nds a re t a st ed t o ma k e su re th a t
.
-
, ,

t h ey c o n ta i n n o po i so n ) .

S a p ere ( to ta ste to b e w i se) sa pi ent in sip id sa g e ( in th e sense

-
,
-
,
- -
,

o f w i se L a t e L a t s a bi u s for sa i u s ) s a v ou r ( La t s a
p p o r)
- - - -
, .
, , . .

S c a nd ere s ca ns u m ( to c l i mb ) : sc a n ( sh o rt fo r sc a n d) a sc end
-
,
-
,
-

( a for L a t a d) c o n de sc e nd sc a l e ( L a t sea l a for sc a d l a ) esc al a de

.
,
- -
,
.
- -
,

( S p esc a l a de a sc a l i ng ) sc a ns ion tra n sc end

.
, ,
-
,
-
.

S c i re ( to kn ow ) sc i en
-
ce c o n sc i enc e c o n sc i ou s sc i o l ist ( a -
,
- -
,
- -
,
- -

sma t t erer) .

S erib a ( w ri ter) s erib ere

-
sc ript u m ( to w ri te) sc ri pt s c ri p -
,
-
,

( d ou b l e t o f t h e prec edi ng ) sc rib e a sc rib e ( La t a a d) c i rc u m , ,

-
.
z
,

sc rib e c o n sc ri t de sc ri b e de sc r ( do u b l et o f th e
p prec edi ng 0 F r
-
y
- -
, , , ,
. .

de sorire sh o rt form o f de sc riv re ) po st sc ri pt pre sc rib e sc ri b b l e

-
,
-
,
-
,
-
, ,

sc ri pt u re sc riv e n er ( L a t e L a t serib a n u s a n o t a ry )
-
,
- -
.
- -
, .

S ec a re se c t u m ( to cu t) b i s ec t dis sec t in sec t i n t er sec t sc i on

-
,
- -
,
-
,
-
,
-
,

( O F c i o n a c u tti ng )
. . sec t i o n s eg me n t
,
si c k l e (A S sic o ] Lat ,
-
,
-
,
-
. .
-
, .

se e S equ i b el o w

sec u l a ) tri sec t
- -
F o r sec t
,
-
.
,
-
,
.

S ed ere ses s u m ( to si t) : a s sess a s si z e ( dou bl et o f

-
,
- a sses s -
,
-

a s sid u o u s e x c i se ( a mi s s el l i n o f O F a ss i se D u a k siis a t a x )
p g
- - - -
.
, ,
.
, .
,

h o sta g e ( L a t e L a t oh sid i a t ic u s a h o st a g e ) in sid i o u s po s ses s .

- - - -
, ,
- - -
,
-
,

pre s id e re si de re sid u e sed i men t s ee ( o f a bi sh o p L a t sed es )

- - - - - - -
,
.
, , , , ,

s e ss io n si z a r ( fo r a s siz er o n e w h o rec e i v es a n a ll o w a nc e ) su b s id e
-
,
- -
, ,
-
,

f om

su b sid -
y su per sede -
su r
, c e a se ( n o t r c ea se b u t a c o rr
-
of ,
-
,
.

0 Fr su r sis su r si se i nt ermit ted) si eg e ( oh sid iu m)

. .
-
,
-
, ,
- -
.

S en ex sen i s ( o ld) : sen a t e s ei g n i o r ( Fr from L a t s en i or)

-
,
- -
,
- -
.
, .
- -
,

sen il e sen i o r sir si re sirra h su rl y ( sir l ik e i e do mi n eeri n g )

-
,
- -
, , , ,
-
,
. . .

S ent ire sens u m ( to f eel ) sc en t ( w i t h i nt ru si v e

-
,
s en se a s sen t
-
,
-
,

c o n sent pre s ent i ment re sen t s e n s u a l s ent en c e s e nt i men t

-
,
- - -
,
-
,
- -
,
-
,
- -
.

S equ i sec u t u s ( to f o l l ow ) : c o n sec u t iv e c o n s equ e nt e n su e

-
,
- - - - -
,
- -
,
-
,

ex c c u t e ( fo r ex s ec u t e ) in t ri n sic ( 0
- -
Fr i ntrin sequ e L a t i ntra +
- -
,
- -
. .
-
,
.

in + sequ i ) oh sequi es per sec u te pro sec u t e pu r su e ( dou b l et o f

-
,
-
,
- -
,
- -
,
-

o sec u t e ) d L d 0 F ec o n d) sec t ( L a t e
p r -
se c 0 n-
( a t se c u n u
,
s r s -
.
- -
,
. .
-
,

L a t sec t a no c o n n ec ti o n w i th sec a re t o c u t ) s ept ( do u b l et o f t h e

.
- -
, ,

r d in g) l t r i t u i t e ( do u b l e t o f t h e p re

gi
p s u e su s
c e s e
q u e s eq u e s e - -
, , , , ,

cc ng
Se i
u
m ( to pu t i n a
e re, s ert u ( for -
row ) : ser i es , a s sert , - - - c o n - c ert

c o n s ert ) de s ert ( in t h e s e ns e a t io n e x ert o f w i l dern ess ), dis sert - - -

- - -
, ,

( fo r ex s ert ) in sert serr ied

-
,
-
,
-
.

S erv u s ( serva nt) serv ire serv it u m ( to serve) s erv a re serv

~ -
,
- - -
,

at u m ( to keep ) : serv e, serf c on serv e de serv e ( L a t de serv ire)

- - - - -
.
, , ,
 4 06 A PP E N DI X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

de ( in t h e se nse o f me rit ), des sert ( from O Fr des serv ir, to ta k e

s ert -
. .
- -

a w ay t h e c ou rse s a t di n ne r), o h s erve , o h se rv a t io n, re s erv o ir - - - - - -

( L a t re se rv a t o riu m), s erg e a nt o r se rj e a n t ( L a t serv i e nt em)

.
- - -
.
- - -
.

S ig n a re , s ing a t u m ( to ma ke a ma rk ) ; sig n u m
-
S i n,
g
- - -

c o n si n me nt ,
a s si n ,
g g n t r ig n , de si g n, e n si g n, sea l ( L a t
-
c o u e s - - - - -
.

s ig i l l u m, dim o f s i
g n ), si g n e t, sig n a l
- - - -
. .

S imil is ( l i ke) ; simu l a re, simu l a t u m ( to p retend) : S i mi l a r,

- - - - -

a s s emb l e,
-
a s si mi l a t e , dis se mb l e, dis si mi l a r, semb l a n c e, re
- - - - - -

se mb l e , simi l i t u de , simu l t a n e o u s ( w i t h i n tru si v e t

- -
) - -
.

S ol u s ( a l o n e) : de s o l a t e , s o l emn ( L a t so l u s a nd a n nu s , y ea r),
- - - -
.

s ol i t a r , so l i t u de , so l O
-
su ll e n ( 0 F r s o l a i n , L a te L a t
y
- - - - -
. . .

so l a n u s )
- -
.

S ol v ere , s ol u t u m ( to l oosen , o r to p a y ) : s o l v e, a b sol u t e ,

- - - - -

dis so l v e , dis so l u t e, re sol v e, sol u b l e , s ol u t io n

- - - - - - - -
.

S pec ere , s pect u m ( to b eh o l d) : spec i es , a spec t , c i rc u m spec t ,

- - - - -

c o n s i c u o u s , de s i s e ( L a t de s i c ere , t o l o o k do w n o n ), de s i te
p p
-
p
-
p
- - - - -
.

( L a t de s pec t u s ), e s pec i a l ( O F r e s pec i a l , L a t s pe c i a l is), espy

.
- - -
. . .
- -

( 0 F r es pi e r), e x pec t ( fo r e x spec t , L a t spec t a re, freq o f

. .
- - -
.
-
.

s pec ere ),
per s pe c t i v e , per spic a o ity , re spi t e ( L a t re s pec t u s),
- - - - - - - -
.

spec i e ( mo n e
y
-
in g o l d o r s i l v e r),
s pe c i m e n , s ec i o u s , s ec t a c l e,
p p
- - - -

spec t re, s ec u l a r, s ec u l a t e , s i c e ( s ec i es, w h i c h in L a t e L a t

p p p p
- - - - - -
.

mea n t a dru g ), spi te ( sh ort fo r despi t e

spy ( sh o rt f o r
su spi c i o n .

S p r a re , spir a t u m ( to b rea th e) : sp r t ( L a t s p r it u s ), s pr t e
i - - -
i i . i - -
i
( do u b l e t o f prec e d ng , F r e spr t ), spr g h tl y ( a m sspel l n g for i . i i i i
s r t e I ),
p i -
i
Y S p r a c l e ( L a t sp r a o u l u m, a b rea t h ng h ol e ), a sp re ,
-
. i - -
i - -
i
c on s
p
-
re e x
p rie ,
i n s p r e , p er s-
p r e, i r e s
p r e ,
t r an s
p
-
re F ior -
i -
i -
i .

S pi ra l , see G re e R o o t s, V , i n l oc o
-
k . .

S pend ere , spons u m ( to p l edg e) spo ns o r, c or re spon d, de spo nd,

- - - - - -

es o u se
p ( 0 F r e s p o u s e r ,
. t h e e not b e n .
g p a rt o f t h e ro o t ), -
i
re - s po n s b l e , s o u se ( L a t s o n sa )
p
-
i p . .

S t a re , st a t u m ( to sta n d) : a r rest ( L a t a d + re + st a re, 0

- -
Fr -
. . .

- -
, i
a r rest e r) c rc u m st a n c e , c o n s ta n t , c o n tra st ( F r c o nt ra s t er, L a t - - -
.
-
.
.

c o n tra s t a re ), c o st ( 0
-
Fr c o st er, L a t c o n st a re ), di s
-
. st a b l e ,
.
-
.
- - -

c o n st a b l e ( L a t
-
c o mes s t a b u l , c o u n t o f t h e st a b l e
. c o n st a b u l i -

ar
y ( a c o l l ec t o n o f c o n s t a b l e s ),
e is t a b l i s h ,
s t a t e ,
e s t a t e ( d o u b l e t - - -

of t h e prec e d n g ), e x t a nt , i
i n st a n c e , n t er s t c e ( La t -
n t er -
i -
i . i
i
st t iu m), -
o h st a c l e , res t ( L a t -
re- st a re , F r rest - er), re s t iv e ( Fr . .
-
.

re s t i f, dra w n b w i
a rds), s t a e ( L a te L a t s ta t ic u m), st a -me n ,
k
g ac
g
- - -
.

st a n z a ( L a t e L a t s t a n t i a ), s t a t -
io n -
a ry, s t a t -
.i o n e r y ,
s t a t u e, - - -

s t a t - u re , su b s ta n c e , s u per st t io n - -
i -
.

S t a tu ere , s t a tu t u m ( to esta b l i sh ) : sta t u t e, in s t t u t e, de

- - - -
i -

s tit u t e , c o n - st t u t io n
-
i - -
.

S t ern ere , st ra t u m ( to sp rea d f l a t) : s tra y , st re et , c o n st ern a t io n ,

- - - - -

p r o s t r
-
a te ( N o c o n n ec t o n w th
. i i
S t ring ere , st ric t u m -
( to dra w tig h t ) : str ng ent , str c t , a -
i -
i
st r n i t t r n t r it t r ( L t L i t tr c t i a re ), c o n s t ra n, i i

g e n ,
s a
-
,
s a , s e s s a e a s -
.
- -

dis dis re st ra n N B S tra ig h t h a s n o c o n n ec -

i . . .

i i
t o n w th stra i t, b u t i s er v ed ro m A S streh t, p p o f strec c a n , t o d i f . . . .
-

s t ret c h .

S t ru -er
e, st ru c u m ( to b u i ld) : str u c t u r e ,
c t
o n - -
s t ru c t ,
c o n -
st r u e, -

de st roy , i n-st ru c t , in strn -me n t , su per stru c t -u re

- - -
.
4 08 A P P E N D I X O N DER I VA T I O N S

t ra c er, L a te L a t t ra c t -i a re ), a b s tra c t , a t tra c t , c on tra c , de

-
.
- - - -
t
t ra c t i o n , e n t rea t, pe r tra t , pe r-tra y , pro t ra c t , re t rea t , tra c t a l e ,
- - -
i - - -
b
i
t ra l ( 0 F r t ra a il , L a te L a t t ra h -a l e ), ra n ( L a te L a t t ra h -in a re ),
. . . t i .
-

t re a t , t rea t 1s e , t rea t y - -
.

T u rb a ( a c ro w d, c onf u sed ma ss) ; t u rb u l a

-
t u r i d, - -
b -

dis t u rb , pe r tu rb , t u rb u l e n t,
-
ro u b l e ( Fr t ro u b l er, L a t e L a t
- - -
t .
-
.

t u rb u l a re ) - -
.

Umb r a ( sha de) u mb r a g e ( F r

-
o mb r a g e , L a t u mb r a t c u m), -
.
-
.
-
i
a d u mb r a t e
-
( t o o resh a do w ), u mb r el l a ( Ita l u m re ll a , dim o f
-
f -
. b .

u mb r a ), u mb er ( F r o m re , s h o rt fo r t erre d o mb re, e a rth o f sh a do w ,

-
. b
a b
ro w n e a rth u sed fo r s h a do w n
g y b p a n t ers ) i i .

Ung u ere , u nc t u m ( to smea r) : u ng u e nt, o n t men t ( do u l et o f

- - -
i -
b
th e prec ed n g ), a n o n t , u nc t -i o n i -
i .

Un-u s ( on e) nu l l u s ( n on e, ro m n e u l l a s, u l l u s e ng th e sh ort -
f b i
fo r u n u l u s, dim o f u n u s) u n it y , a n n u l , n u ll , u n io n ( in th e se n se
.
- - -

o f o n en ess ), n u io n ( in t h e s en se o f e a rl ), o n -i o n ( do u b l et o f t h e
p
-

p r e c e d n g ), u n ain m o u s ,
n u i c o r n ,
u n -
q u e ( i
L a t n u ic u s ) ,
n u i -
so n - - -
i .
- - -

( La t so n u s, a so u n d), u n it e , 11 n i voc a l
.
- - - - -
.

Ut i, u s u s ( to u se) : u se , u s a g e , a b u se , per u se , u s u ry , u s-u rp

- - - - - -

( L a t u s u m
. + r u m p er e ,
o r p e r h a
p s L a t u su + ra p e r e ) ,
u t e n s il , .
-

u t il -is e, u t il ity
- - -
.

Va g u s ( w a nderi n g ) ; va g a ri, va g a t u s ( v )
-
va g u e, v a gr a nt - - -
.
-

( w t i
h n t ru s v e ri ), e x t r a -
i
v a g a n t , v a g a ry , v a g a b o n d - - - -
.

Va l ere ( to b e strong ) : v a l id, a v a l , c o n va l esc ent , c o u n er?

- - -
i - - -
t
va l , i p r e v a l e n t, v a l e d c t io n ,
-
v a
-
l i a n t , v a l o u r ,
v a l -
u e, v al e
-
i - - - - -

t u d in a r ia n
- - -
.

Veh ere , v ec t u m ( to ca rry ) v eh iel e , c o n- v ex , in v eig h , v e l ( L a t

- - - -
i .

v el u m, a sa l , so c a ll ed b ec a u s e it c a rr es o r pro pel s a sh p), v e n

-
i i i i
( c o n v e y e r o f b l o o d ), r e v ea l ,
v e h e -
m e n t ,
v e n o u s ,
v e x ( L at -
v ex a re - -
.
-
.

i nt e n s o rm o f v e h ere )
. f -
.

Ven ire, ent u m ( to co me)

-
v v en t -u re , -
a d v en t , a v e n- u e ( Fr - -
.

a v en ir,
-
L at -
a d v en ire ), c o n tra v en e, . c o n v e ne , -
c o n v e n i e n t,
- - - - - -

c o n v en t , -
c o v en a n t ( 0 F r c o n -
v e n a n t ),-
n t e r v e n e , i n v e n t,. .
- -
i - -

p a r v en u ( a r
-
p o f Fr-
p a r- v en ir, t o th r v e ), t .
p r e v e n t , re -v er
. i u e, -
i - -

so u v e n ir, v e n u e
- - -
.

Ver ere , v ers u m ( to tu rn o r ch a ng e) : v erse , a d-v erse , a d v e rt

t - - -

a d v ert- i s e, c o n ro v ers
-
y , c o n v e r s a t i o n ,
t d i v e r se , di v ers ( dou l e t
- - - - - - -
b
o f th e prec e l ing ), di v e rt , v o rc e , in v erse, pro se ( L a t pro s a , fo r -
di - -
.

p ro rsa , p ro v e r s a, t u r n e d o r-
w a r d ) , r e v e r s e ,
s u b -
v e r t ,
t r a v ers e, f - -

v ers i o n, a v ers io n v ert - e ra v ert ex , v ert ig o , v o rt ex

- - -
b .
- - -
.

Ver u s ( tru e ) -
v er
y, a v er , v e r -
s e -
ou s , v e r -
c t ( L a
-
t v e r e -
i di .

d c t u m), v er i fy , v er s m l -i tu e, v er-ity
i - - -
i i i
- -
d .

V i a ( ro a d
-
) : c o n v e
y ,
c o n v o y ( L a t e L a t c o n v i a
-
r e ) ,
d e -
v i at e , -
.
- - -

de v i o u s, en v oy , im per v i o u s, i n- v o c e ( c o rr o f en v o s, E ng
- - - - - -
i .
-
i .

l u ra l o f F r e n v o i, a s e n di n )
p g
-
. .

Vid e re , vis u m ( to see) v is io n, a d v i c e ( 0 F r a v is , L a t a d

- - - -
. . .

v is u m), a d v i se , en v y ( L t i n i d i ), i n v id i o u s, e v id e n t , -
v
-
-
a -
a -
.
- - - - -

i m pro v i se , pro v id en t, pru d ent ( do u b l et o f t h e prec e di n g ),

- - - - -

p u r v e y , v-
i e w ,
r e v i e w ,
r e v i s e ,
su r v e y , v is a g e v i s o r o r v iz o r,
- - - -
,
- -

v i sta v is it , v is i b l e, v it re o u s ( L a t v i tru m, fo r v i d tru m)

- - - - -
.
.

Vi ne ere , v i c t u m ( to c on qu er)
-
v i c t o ry , c o n v i nc e ,
-
e v i c t, - - -

e v i n c e, in v inc i b l e , va n qu i sh ( 0
- -
Fr v einqu iss, o f v erb v einqu ir)
-
. .
.
 D E R I VA T I VE S FR O M G R E E K R O O TS 4 09

Vind vin d ic is
-
ex , ( a ven g )
e r a v e n g , e -
r e -
v e n g
-
e , v e n g e -
a nc e , -

v i d
n -
ic -
a t e ,
v i n dic t v e ( s h o rt f o r v in d ic a t -
iv e ) -
i -
.

Viv - ere, vi c t u m ( to l i ve) ; viv u s ( a l ive) ; vit a ( lif e) c o n - vi v

- - -

- -
i
i a l , re v v e , su r v v e, vi a nds ( L a t v iv - e nda ), v i pe r ( L a t v v -
i -
.
-
. i i
p a ra ,
p ro d u c ng l v n g y o u n g ), iv i t al , v i v -
i i
a c i-t ,
y v iv -
id, v vi - -
i
i
sec t o n , v c t u a l s i - -
.

Voc a re, vo c a t u m ( to ca l l ) ; v ox , voc is ( n ) v o c e , v o u c h , a d

- - - -
. i
v o c a t e , a d- v o w s o n ( L a t
-
a d v o c a t i on em), a v o c -a t io n , a -v ou c h ,
-
.
- - - - - - -

-
k -
k
c o n v o e , pro v o e , v oc i fer a t io n , v o uc h - sa e, v oc a l , v o w el ( o u - - - -
f -
d b
l et o f t h e prec ed n g ) i .

Vo l y er e ,
v o l
-
u t u m ( to r o l l ) v o l u -
b
-
l e , c o n v o
-
l -
u t i o n ,
c o n -
v ol v - - -

u l -u s, de v o l u t io n , e v ol v e , re v o l
- -
( F r
-
r e v o l e ) ,
v a
-
u l t (0 Fr -
t .
-
t . .

v ol te, ro m L a t v o l u t u s ), v o l - u me
f .
- -
.

Vov ere, v ot u m ( to vow ) : v o t e , v ot -iv e , de-v o te, de-vou t ( a

- -

dou b l et o f th e prec ed ng ), v o w ( 0 F r v o u , L a t v e t -u m) i . . . .

Vu l g u s ( th e common p eop l e) v u l g a r, di- v u l g e

- -
.

V .
D E R I VA T I VE S FRO M G R E E K R O O TS .

Ag -
ein ( to l ea d ) : dem-
a
g
-
o
g ( G r dem o s, peo pl e ), ped a g o g u e
ue .
- - -

( Gr .
pa id -
OS, a b o y ), s
y n -
a
g o g u e ( G r su n, t o g et h e r,
-
h ou se o f .

a s se mbl y
A g on ( stru gg l e) a g o n y , a n t a g o n ist ( Gr a nti , a g a in st )
- - - - - -
. .

A k ol ou t h o s ( on e w h o f ol l ow s) a c ol y t e ( L a te L a t a c ol y th u s)
-
. .

A kr o s ( a t the top ) : a c re b a t ( G r b a t es, w a l k er), a c ro pol i s ( Gr

- -
.
- -
.

ol i s, c i ty ), a c ro s t i e ( Gr st ik h o s , a l i n e )
p
- -
. .

A l g o s (p a i n ) n eu r a l g ia ( G r n eu r o n , nerv e), n o st a l g ia ( h o me
- - -
.
- - -

si c k n e ss, G r n o st o s , ret u rn ) .
-
.

A l l l o n ( of ea ch oth er) : pa r a l l el ( Gr pa ra , b y th e sid e o f),

- -
.

a r a l l el o g ra m ( G r g ra mme , so met h i ng w ri tt en )
p
- - -
. .

A ll o s ( o th er) : a ll eg o ry ( G r eg oria , speec h ), a ll o pa t h y ( G r

- -
.
- -
.

pa th e , su fferi ng )
- .

An a kh or ein ( to reti re ;
- -
a na is merel y a pre x ) : a n c h o r it e - -

( o ne w h o h a s ret i red from th e w o rl d ) .

A n em os ( w i n d) a n em o meter ( Gr met ron, a mea su re ), a n emone

- - -
.

( w i nd o w er) -
.

A ng el o s ( messen g er) : a ng el , a rc h a ng el ( Gr a rk h e, l ea d ersh i p),

- -
.
-

c v a ng el i st ( Gr e u , w el l )
- -
. .

A nt h o s ( a ow er) a n th o l o gy , po l y a nt h u s ( Gr po l u s , ma ny )
- - -
.
-
.

A nth rop o s ( ma n ) : a nth ro p o l o g y , mis a nthro pe ( G r mi sos,

- - - -
.

h a t red ), ph i l a nt h ro p y ( G r ph i l o s , a l o v e r)
- -
.
-
.

Arkh e ( b eg i n n i n g , h ea dship )
-
a rk h a i o s ( a n c i en t ) a rc h a ic, - -

a rc h ae o l o g y , a rc h a ism, a rc h i v es, a rc h i pel a g o , a rc h i t eet , mo n

- - - - - - - -

a rc h ( G r mo n o s , a l o ne ), h ept a rc h y ( G r h ept a , se v en ), h i er a rc h y
.
- - -
.
- -

( G r .h i e r o s , s ac r ed ),
-
o l i g a rc h y ( G r o l i g o i,
f e w ) p
,
a t ri a rc h ( G r - -
.
- -
.

a t er, a fa t h er), a n a rc h y ( G r a n , n ot )
p
- -
. .

A ri ts o s ( b est) : a-
ri s t o e ra t ( G r k ra t e i n ,
t o r u l e ), a ri st o c-
ra c -
y
-
.
- - -
.

A rith m o s ( a n u mb er) a rit h m et ic ( G r a rit h m et ik e , sc i enc e o f

- - -
.
- - -

nu mb ers ), l o g a ri th m ( ra t i o n u mb er) - -
.

a ret u ru s

A rkt o s ( a b ea r) -
a rc t ic , a nt a rc t ic , ( G r o u ros ,
- - - -
.

w a t c h er or g u a rd ) .

A st er ( a sta r) : a str-o l og y , a st r o -nom y ( Gr n om o s, l a w ),

- - - -
.
-
41 0 A PP E N DI X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

a st - er-isk ( isk is G r dim su fx ), a ster o id ( a mi n o r pl a n et, G r .

-
.

e i do s, a ppe a ra n c e ) N B D is a st er i s n o t o f G re ek o ri g i n , b u t
. . .
-

from L a t dis ( in th e s ense of il l ) a nd a str u m, a sta r

.
-
.

A t h l o n ( a stru gg l e ) a t h l e t e , a t h l et ic
- - - -
.

A t m o s ( va p o u r) a t mo s ph ere ( G r s ph a ir a , a g l ob e )
- -
.
-
.

A u t o s ( self ) a u t o b io g ra ph y ( G r b i os , l ife , a nd G r g ra ph ein ,

- - -
. .
-

t o w rit e ), a u t o c ra t ( G r k ra t ein , t o ru l e ), a u t o g ra ph , a u t o ma t o n
-
.
- - -

( Gr st em, ma t mo v i n g ), a u t o no my ( sel f g o v ernmen t , G r n om o s,

.
- -
.
-

l a w ), a u t o psy ( G r o psis , sig h t ), a u t o t y pe ( G r t u p o s, a mo del )

-
.
-
.
-
.

Ba l l ein ( to th ro w ) ; b o l e ( a c t of th row i ng ) ; b l em a ( a th row )

- - -

sy m b o l , c o m a ri so n ),
h y per b ol e, pa ra b o l a , pa ra b l e ( l it a
p
- - - - - -
.

e m b l em
-
.

Ba pt e in ( to dip ) b a pt i se , b a pt ism, b a pt ist

- - - -
.

Ba r O S ( w ei g h t) b a re met er, b a r i t o n e
- - - -
.

Ba s is ( g oi ng ) -
b et es ( g oer) : b a se, b a s is, b a s ic , dia b et -es, - - - -

a c ro b a t
-
.

Bib l i o n ( a sc ro l l ) ; b i b l o s ( a b ook) : Bi b l e ( th e b oo k ), b ib l i o
- - -

ra
g p y h , b ib l i o m a n i a , b ib l i o
po l e ( Gr
- -
po l e in , t o sell ) - -
.
-
.

Bi o s ( l i fe ) : b io l o g y , b i o g ra ph y , a mph i b i o ns ( G r a mph i , o n
- - - -
.

t w o s i des , du b i ou s ) .

Bl a pt e in , ( fu t ) b l a ps o ( to da ma g e) : b l a s ph eme ( G r ph em e ,
-
.
- -
.
-

s peec h ), b l a me ( do u b l et o f t h e prec e di n g , 0 F r b l a sm er), b l a s . .

-

p h e m y ( G-
r p h e m e ,
sa i
y g n ,
w o
. r d ) -
.

Bom b ux ( si lk, c otton )

-
b om b a st ( l it c o t t on w a ddi n g , h en c e -
.
-

a ddi n g , a ffe c t ed l a n g u a e ), b o m b a s in e
p g
- -
.

Bronk h o s ( w i nd p ip e) b ro n c h ia , b ro n c h i t i s
- - -
.

Bu t i s b ou ti s ( a fla n k ) : b o tt l e ( L a t e L a t b u tic u l a , dim

, of . .

b u t i c a, M id E n g b o t el , F r b o u t e i ll e ), b u t l er ( fo r b o t tl er, M id E n g
. . . . .

b o t el er), b u t l ery ( fo r b o ttl ery , M id E n g b o t el eri e, c o n fu se d w i t h . .

b u t ter
Da i m On ( a sup ern a tu ra l b ei n g , a di vi n i ty ) : demo n , demo n i a o ,
- - -

demo n o l o g y - -
.

Dek a ( ten ) dec a de , dec a g o n ( G r g o n i a , a c o rn e r), dec a l og u e ,

- - -
.
- -

dec a h edro n ( G r h edra , a sea t o r b a se ), dec a sy ll a b l e

-
.
-
.

D em O S ( p eop l e) dem o c ra t ( G r k ra t ein , t o ru l e ), dem o c ra c y ,

- - -
.
- - - -

dem a g o g u e ( Gr a g ei n , t o l ea d), e n dem i c , e pi dem ic , demo

- -
.
- - - - -

g ra ph y ( t h e s t u dy o f ra c es w i t h re feren c e t o mo rta l i ty , si c k n ess,

Di a it a ( mode of l if e) di et , di et et i c , di et a ry
- - - - - - - -
.

Di da sk e in ( to tea c h ) d da c t ic ( h a v in g n stru c t o n for it s a im)

- -
i ~ -
i i .

Dok e i n ( to th i n k o r seem) dox a ( op i n i on ) do g ma , do g ma -t ic ,

- - - -

do g ma t i se , o rt h o do x ( G r o rt h o s , stra g h t , r g h t ), h et ero dox ( G r

- - -
.
-
i i -
.

h e t er o s , o t h er, d ere n t )
-
iff .

Dra ein ( to do , to a c t) dra ma , dra s tic

- - -
.

Drom a s, droma d o s ( ru n n i ng ,
-
drom o s ( c ou rse) : h ppo - -
i
dro me ( G r h pp o s, a h orse ), dro med a ry . i - -
.

Du n a m is (p o w er) dy n a m-ic s, dy n a m it e , dy n a m-o met er ( po w er

- - -

mea su re ) .

Du s ( i l l ,
u sed o nl y a s a
pre x ) dy s en t ery ( Gr e nt er o n , i nt est i n e ), -
.
-

dy s pept ic ( G r pe pt ik o s,
- -
.
-
t fo r di g est i ng ) .

E k h o ( a sou n d) e c h o ,
-
c a t e c h is e c a t ec h ist , c a t ec h -u m e n ( fro m
- -
,
- - -

G r pa rt -o u me n o s)
. . .
41 2 A P PE N D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

G umn o s ( n a ked) : g y mn a st, g y mn a stic , g y mn a siu m, g y mno

- - - -

so ph i s t .

Ha g i o s ( h o l y ) h a g i o l o g y , h a g i o S c o pe
- - - - -
.

Ha im a , h a ima t o s ( b l ood) : h aem o r rh a g e , Gr rh a g e, a rent ),

- - - -
.
-

h eema t ite ( re d i ro n o re ), emero d ( c o rr o f

-
h emorrh o i d, G r h a imo r . .

rh o id es, G r rh o o s, u x )
-
.
-
.

Ha ir e in ( to ta ke) ; h a ire s i s ( the a ct of ta ki ng , ch oi ce) : h eres y ,

- - -

h ere t ic , h eresi a rc h , di eeresis ( a ma rk o f se pa ra t i o n ), sy n aeres i s ( th e

- - - - -

fu si on o f t w o v o w el s i n to a di ph t h o ng ), a ph eeres is ( t h e remo va l o f - -

a l e tt er o r s l l a b l e fro m t h e b e i nn i n
y g g o f a w o rd) .

Hel i o s ( th e su n ) : h el i o c e n t ri c , h el i o sc o pe ( Gr sk o p o s, se ei ng ),
- - -
.
-

h el i o tro pe ( G r tro p o s, t u rni n g )

-
.
-
.

Hemer a ( da y ) e p h emer a l ( l a sti ng for a da y )

- - -
.

Hier o s ( sa cred) -
h i e ro g l y ph ic s ( G r g l u ph ein , t o e ng ra v e ) - -
.
-

h i ero ph a nt ( G r ph a n t e s, o n e w h o sh o w s o r e x pl a i n s ), b i er a rc h ( o ne
-
.
- -

w h o presides o v e r s a c re d ri t e s, G r a rk h ein , t o b e a t t h e h ea d) .
-
.

Hipp o s ( h orse) h i ppo dro me ( G r drom o s, a c o u rse ), h i ppo g ri

'

- - - -
.

( G r g ru ps, a g rii n ), h i ppo po ta mu s ( G r po t a m o s, a ri ver)

.
-
.
-
.

Hist or ia ( resea rch, n a rra ti ve) : h i sto ry ,

-
s to ry , h ist ori o -

r a ph er
g
-
.

Hod o s ( a w a y , a roa d) : ex o d u s, peri o d, me th o d, e pi so de ( l it

- - - - -
.

i s de e n tra n c e o r a ddi ti o n a l entra n c e G r e pi ( b esi des ) + ei s ( i nto ) +

i; i
.

0 es ) .

Hol -
os ( w h o l e, en ti re ) : c a t -h ol - ic ( Gr . k a ta ,
a c c o rd ng i t o ), h o l o
c a nst ( Gr k a i e in, t o b u rn ) .
-
.

Hom o s ( th e sa me) h omoi o s ( si mi l a r) h omo g en e o u s ( G r g en o s,

- - -
.
-

ki nd, ra c e ), h omo l o g o u s, e u o ma l -ou s ( Gr o ma l o s, e ven, rel a ted t o

- - -
.
-

h o me s, t h e sa me ), h o moeo pa t h y ( G r pa th e, su ffering ) - -
.
-
.

Hu d or ( w a ter) h y dr a , o t t er ( a l l i ed t o A S o t o r, p;
-
h y dr a n t, -
. .
-

h ydr a t e, h y dr a n g ea ( a o w e r w h o se s e ed v e ssel i s c u p formed , G r

- - - -
.

a ng ei o u , a c u ), h y dr a u l ic ( G r a u l o s, a i h d o dy n a m ic s

-
p pp e ), y r - -
.
- - -

( du na m is, po w er), h y dro g en ( g e n era tor o f w a t er, G r g en pro

- -
.
~

du c er), h y dro pa th y ( t h e w a ter c u re, G r pa th e, su fferi n g ), h y dro

- -
.
-

h o h ia ( G r h o h ein , t o fea r), dro s ( h r t f r G r h d ro p i si s,

p p o o y
-
s
p y
- -
. .

w a t er t h i rst ), h y dro st a t i c s
- -
.

Ide a ( n o ti on , o r p i c tu re i n th e mi n d) i dea , i dea l , i dea l ise

- -
.

I di os ( p ecu l i a r to on eself ) : idi o m, idi o t ( o ri g a pri v a t e perso n ),

- - -
.

i dio sy n c ra sy ( Gr s u n ( w i t h ) kra s is ( mi x t u re), h enc e c ompo sit i o n,

- -
.
- -

t empera ment ) .

I s o s ( equ a l ) iso b a r ( G r b a r-o s, w ei g h t ), i so th erm ( G r t h erm-os,

- -
.
-
.

h o t ), iso sc el es ( G r sk el o s, a l e g )
-
.
-
.

Ka i ein, ( fu t ) k a u s o ( to b u rn )
-
c a u st ic ,
. c a u t er-i se , - -

c a n s t ie -
.

Ka l -ein ( to c a l l ) kl e s is ( a ca l l ing ) : c c -c l es-i-a st i o ( Gr e c c l esi a , - ~

.

t h e c a l l i ng o u t, t h e c h u rc h ) .

Ka l o s ( b ea u tif u l ) c a l i g ra ph y , c a l o ty pe, c a l i sth en ic s ( G r

- - - - -
.

sth en o s , stren g th ), k a l e i do sc o pe ( Gr e id o s , fo rm, a n d sc o p- ein, t o

- - -
.
-

se e ) .

Ka n on ( ru l e) : c a n o n, c a n o n ise c a n o n ic a l
- -
,
- -
.

Ken o s ( emp ty ) c eno t a ph ( G r t a ph o s a t omb )

- -
.
-
,
.

Kentr o u ( a g oa d, a p oi nt) c e n t re, c o n c en tr a l ,

- - - e c - c entr- ic .

Kh ol e ( b i l e) : c h o l er, c h ol ar a , mel a n c h ol y
- - - - - -
.
 D ER I VA T I VE S FR O M G R E E K R O O TS 413

Kh or o s ( a b a nd of da n cers
- a nd si n g ers ) : i
c h o r, c h or-u s, c h or- a l ,

c h o r-i s t - er .

Kh ri ein ( to a n oi n t) kh ri s is ( a n oi n ti n g ) : C h ri st ( kh rist os, th e

- - -

a n o i n t e d) c h ri sm Ch ri st ma s ( L a t mi ss a
,
A S maesse) ,
-
.
-
,
. . .

Kh rom a ( c o l ou r) c h rom a t ic a c hrom a t ic , c h rome or c h romi um

- - -
,
- - -

( a meta l t h a t e xh ibi t s b ea u t ifu l c ol o u rs) .

Khron o s ( ti me) : c h ron ic l e c h ro n ic l er c h ro n o l og y , c h ro no

- -
,
- -
,
- -

r a ph sy n c h ro n o u s ( = c o n t emp o r a r o f L a t i n o ri g i n )
g
-
y
- - - -
.
, ,

Khru s o s ( g o ld) c h ry s a l is, c h ry s a l it e ( a ki n d o f s to n e ) c h ry s

- - - - -
,

a u t h em u m ( a k i nd o f o w er, G r a n th o s, a o w er)

- - -
. .

Kist e ( a b ox ) c i st ( h en c e A S c y st e ) c h est ( d ou bl e t o f t h e pre

-
. .
,

c edi n g ) c i st ern ( fo u nd o nl y in L a t c i st ern a )

,
-
.
- -
.

Kl er os ( l ot) c l er ic c l erk ( sh o rt fo rm o f c l eri c ), c l erg y , c l er ic a l

- -
,
- - -
.

Kl in e ( a b ed) kl in ein ( to l i e dow n ) c l i n ic a l c l i n i qu e ( nu rsi ng

- - - -
,
-

h ome ), e n c l i t ic , c l ime c l i ma t e a o c l im a t ise c l i m e x , a n ti c l im e x

- -
, ,
- - -
,
- - -
,

c l i m a o t er i c
- - -
.

Koima ein ( to s l eep ) k om a ( s l eep ) c oma , c om a t ose, c em et ery

- - - - - -

( Gr k o im et er io n a sl ee pi ng pl a c e )
.
- - -
,
-
.

Kouk h e ( sh el l ) c o nc h c onc h o l og y
-
,
- - -
.

Kosm o s ( order) c osmos c o sm ic a l c osm o g on y ( G r g e n e

-
,
- -
,
- - -
.
-
,

c omi ng i n t o e x i st e nc e ) c o sm o g ra ph y c o sm o po l i t e ( G r o l i t es, a
p
- - - - -
, , .

c i t i z e n ) c o s m et ic ( G r k o sm et es a n a dorn
,
er)- -
.
- -
, .

Kran io n ( a sku l l ) c ra n iu m c ra n i o l og y
- -
,
- - -
.

Kra t os (pow er) : demo c ra t dem o c ra c y a ri st o c ra c y , pl u t o

- -
,
- - -
,
- - -

c ra t ( G r pl o u t o s w e a l th )
.
-
, .

Kri s is ( jud g men t) kri t e s ( a ju dg e) c ri s is c ri t ic a l , c ri t er io n

- - -
,
- - - -

h y per c ri t ic a l , h y po c rit e , h y po c ri s y
- - - - - -
.

E ru pt ein ( to h i de) : c ry pt , c ry pt o g ra ph y ( s e c ret w ri t i ng ), a po

- -

c r ph a , a po c ry ph a l , g ro t t o ( I t a l g ro t t a ) g ro t es q u e ( F r g ot
r
y
- - - -
.
, .

esqu e , I t a l g ro t esc a ) -

N B N o c o nn ec ti o n
. .

,
Ku b o s ( a so l id squ a re) : c u b e, c u b ic a l
- - -
. . .

w it h

c u b i c l e,

from La t c u b a re, to l ie d o w n .
-
.

Ku k l o s ( circ l e) c yc l e, en c y c l ic a l , c yc l o n e ( a u gm fo rm),
- - - - -
.

c y c l o id ( Gr
-
e id o s, form), en c y c l o peedia ( Gr pa id ei a , in stru o
.
- - -
.
- -

t i o n ), c y c l o ps ( Gr o ps, t h e ey e )-
. .

E u on, poss k un o s ( a dog ) : ey n ic , ey n ic a l , ey n o s u re ( Gr

-
.
- - - - - -
.

k u n o s o u r a t h e d og s t a i l n o rth po l e st a r), q u i nsy ( formerl y spel t

- -

e x : from G r

s u i na nc , t h e 3 b e i ng a c o n tra c ti o n o f es = L a t
q y . .

k u n a n k h e, a do g t h ro ttl i ng , a b a d ki n d o f s ore t h roa t )

- - -
.

Kuri os ( l ord) kirk ( Gr k u ri a k e, t h e L ord s h o u se ), c h u rc h

- -
. .

L a b ( ta ke) ; l eps is ( ta ki n g ) ; l em ma ( a th i ng ta ken ) : sy l l a bl e - - -

( th e l a st l is i ntru si v e ), di l em ma , epi l eps y , c a t a l eps y - - - - - -

.

L a o s ( p eopl e) l a y , l ay ma n , l a ity
- - -
.

L eg ein ( to sa y o r ch oose) l ex i s ( n ) l og os ( n ) a na l o g y , a po
- -
.
-
.
- -

l og u e, a po l o g y , c a t a l o g u e, d ec a l og u e ( G r d ek a , t en ), dia l ec t , dia
- - - -
.
-

l o g u e , ec l e c t ic , c c l o g u e , e pi l o g u e, e u l o g y ( G r eu , w ell ), mo no
- - - - - -
.

l og u e ( G r mo n o s, si ng l e ), pro l o g u e , sy l l o g ism ( G r su n , w i th ),
.
- - - -
.

l og ic , l o g a rith m ( G r a rith m o s, a n u mb er, ra t i o n u mb er l ex i c o n ,

- -
- - ~ -

N B Th e re feren c e o f
.

l e x ic O g ra ph er
- - -
el eg y
. t o th e roo t l eg
. .

i s u n su pport ed by e v id enc e I t c ome s from G r el eg os, e l ame n t . .

-
.

L eip ein ( to l ea ve)

-
l ei p s i s ( n ) ec l i pse, e l l i pse , c c l i t ic ,
p
-
.
- - - -

el l i t ic a l
p
- - -
.
41 4 A P PE N D I X O N D ERI VA T I O N S

i
L th - o s (ston e ) l i th e g ra ph , l i th o tom y ( Gr t o m e , c u tt i ng ), a ero
- - - .
-

l i t e, mo n o -
l i th , n eo l i th ic ( G r n eo s, n ew o r rec ent ), pa l aeo l i th i c ( G r
- -
.
-
.

a l a i o s, a n c i e n t )
p
-
.

L u e in ( to l oo sen )
-
l u s i s ( n ) a n a l y se , a n a l y s is, a n a l y t ic , dia -
.
- - - - -

l y s is, pa ra l y s is, pa l sy ( do u b l et o f t h e prec e di ng )

- - -
.

M a rt u r ( a w i tn ess ) ma rt y r, ma rty r dom ( a h y b ri d, si n c e th e

- -

su fx is ma rty r o l o g y , pro t o ma rty r ( G r prOt o s, rst ) - - - -

.
-
.

M a th em a ( l ea rn in g ) ma t h em a t ic s
- - - - -
.

M ekh a n e ( c on tri va n c e ; L a t ma c h in a )
-
ma c h in e, me c h a n ic , .
- - -

mec h a n ic s, me c h a n is t - -
.

M el a s ( b l a c k ) mel a n c h o l y , M el a n es ia ( G r n e s os, a n i sl a n d)
- - - -
.
-
.

M et a ll o n ( meta l ; L a t met a l l u m) met a l , me t tl e ( do u b l e t o f t h e

-
.
-

p r ec edi n g ), m ett l e so me , h i g met t l e d, met a l l u rg y ( Gr erg o n ,

h - - - -
.
-

w or k) .

M et er, met r o s ( moth er) met ro po l i s ( G r po l i s, c i ty )

- - -
. .

M et r o u ( mea su re) me t er, me tre , me tr ic , h y per met ri c a l , h e x a

- - - - -

meter ( G r h ex a , six ), pen t a met er ( G r pent e, v e ), b a re me ter ( G r

.
-
.
-
.

b a ros, w e i g h t ), t h ermo met er ( G r th erm o s, h o t ), h y dro met er ( G r -

.
- -
.

h u dr o s, w a t er)
-
.

M ikr o s ( sma l l ) : mi c ro c osm ( G r k o sm o s, o rde r o r u n i v erse ),

- -
.
-

mi c ro sc o pe ( G r sk o p ein , t o se e )
-
.
-
.

M im o s ( i mi ta tor) mim ic , pa nt o mi me ( G r pa nt o s, po ss o f
- - -
.
-
.

pa s, a ll ) .

M is o s ( h a tred) : mis a nt h rope ( G r a nth ro p o s, ma n ), mi so g a m ist

- -
.
- - -

G m m a rri a g e ), mi so g y n is t ( G r u n e , a w o ma n )
( r .
g a o s ,
-
g
- -
.
-
.

M on o s ( a l on e, si n g l e) : mo nk ( G r mo n a k h o s, so l it a ry ), mo n
-
.
- -

a c h ism, mo n a d ( a u n i t ), mo n a st ery ( G r mo n a st es, o n e w h o l i v es

- - - -
.
- -

i
a l o ne ), m n st e r ( do u b l e t o f t h e
pr ec e di n g, t h rou g h A S m y t
n s e r)
. .

me n a rc h , mo n o dy ( G r O d e, a so n g ), mo no c h o rd ( G r k h o rd e, a

- - - - -
. .

mu si c a l st ri ng ), mo n o g a my ( G r g a m o s, ma rri a g e ), mo n o g ra m ( G r .
- -
.

r a m ma , so met h i n g w rit t e n ), mo n o g ra ph ( a t rea t i se o n a si ng l e

g
- -

t o pi c ), mo n o l i t h ( G r l it h o s, a st o n e ), mo no l o g u e, mo n o ma ni a
-
.
- - -

( ma dn ess o n a si n g l e su b j ec t ), mo n o pol y ( G r pol ein , t o sell , sol e

-

-
.

ri g h t o f mo n o t h ei sm ( Gr t h e o s, g o d), mo no sy ll a b l e , -
.
- -

mo no t o n o u s ( G r t o n o s, a t o n e )
- -
.
-
.

M orph e ( sh a p e, f o rm) a mo r h o u s ( sh a el ess ), M o r h eu s ( t h e

p p p
- - -

t h e G r g o d o f drea ms ), mo rph ia , met a mo rph o s is ( G r

sh a per, - -
- -
. .

met a a su fx den o t i n g c h a n g e ), mo rph o l o g y ( t h e sc i en c e o f c o m - -

a ra t iv e fo rms)
p .

M u ein ( to b e c l osed) mu st e s ( on e w h o i s i ni ti a ted i n to a sec ret

- -

order) : my st ic , my st e ry , my st er i o u s -
- - - -
.

N a u s ( a sh ip ) : n a u sea ( G r n a nsi a , sea s i c k n e ss ), na u t ic a l , n a u t .

- - -

il u s
-
.

N ekr o s ( dea d b ody ) : n e c ro pol i s, n ec ro ma nc y ( G r ma nt i s, a

- - -
.

r
p p o h et ) .

N e o s ( n ew ) n eo ph y te ( a n e w c o nv ert , G r ph u t o u , a pl a nt ), n eo
- -
.
-

l o g y , n eo l it h ic ( G r l it h o s, a st o n e ,
- -
t h e more rec ent S t o n e A g e
-
.
-

N o m o s ( l a w ) : a stro n o my ( G r a stro n , st a r), g a st ro n o my ( G r

- -
.
-
.

a st er, b el l y ), D eu t ero n o my ( G r deu t er o s, sec o n d), e c o n o my ( G r -

g
- -
.
.

o ik o s, h ou se )
-
.

O ik ein ( to dw el l ) o ik e s is ( n ) ec o h o my , di o c ese , cl i oc e s e u ,
- - -
.
- - - - - -

a r is h ( G r pa r o ik ia , F r pa r o isse ), pa r o c h i a l ( a dj o f a ri sh
p
- - -
p
- - - -
. . .
41 6 A PPE N D I X O N D E R I VA TI O N S

Ph o s, p h o t o s ( g )
l i ht : p
-
h o s -
ph oru s ( G r ph er ein, to b ea r), .
-

p h o t o g ra ph
-
.

P h ra z ein ( to tel l ) : ph ra s e, peri ph ra s 1 s, pa ra ph ra se ( G r pa ra , - - -

.

a l o n si de o f), h r a s e o l og
g p y .

Ph ren, phren O S ( mind) : ph ren z y , ph re n e t ic , fra n ti c ( do u b l e t o f -

th e prec edi ng ), ph re n o l o g y .

Ph u ein ( to p rodu ce) ph u s is ( n a tu re) ph u t o n ( th e thi ng b orn )

s , ph s i o l o
h
p y s i c h
p y s i c
y g y , ph y si o g n o my ( G r g no mo ni a , mea n s
- -
, .

o f k no w i ng ), h
p y si o
g ra ph y , z o o h
p y t e ( G 1 z o o n ,
a n i ma l ), n eo ph y te .
-

( G r n e o s, n e w )
. .

Pl a ss e in ( to mou ld) pl a st ic , pl a st er, pl a sm, pro to pl a sm - - -

.

Pl a t -u s ( b roa d) : pl a te , pa t e ( t h e c ro w n o f t h e h ea d ; th e l h a s
b ee n l o st ), pl a c e ( L a t ) l a te a , G r pl a t eia , fem o f pl a t u s), pl a i c e
d
-
. . .

( a ki nd o f sh , so c a ll e fro m it s a t n e ss ), pi a stre ( Fr p1 a st1 e, I ta l . .

i a s t ra , a pl a t e o f me t a l ),
p pi a z z a ( a c h i e f s tre et , L a t pl a t ea ), pl a n e .

( ki n d o f t ree , G r pl a t e u o s ), pl a n ta i n ( n a med fro m i t s sprea di ng

.

l ea f), pl a nt ( A S pla nte, L a t pl a nt a , G r pl a t u s), pl a t ea u , pl a t 1

. . . .
-

t u de , pl a t t er, pl a t in a ( a me ta l ), pl a tform ( Fr pl a t e forme )

- - -
.
-
.

P neum a ( b rea th ) pn eu m a t ic s, pn eu m o u ia
- - - - -
.

P oi ein ( to ma ke) po e t, po em, po esy , po e t ry , o n o ma to poei a ( see

- - - - - -

a b o v e , u nd er O nom a ), ph a rma c o poeia ( G r ph a rma k o u , a dru g )

- -
.
-
.

P ol -ein ( to sel l ) : mo n o po l y ( G r mo n os, so l e ), bi b l i o po l e ( b oo k - -

.
-

sel l er) .

P ol is ( ci ty , sta te) : po l ic e , po l it-y , pol i c y , pol it ic s, c o smo

- - - - - - -

p o l -
i t e ( G r k o s m o s
.
, t h e w o r l d ), m e t r o
p o l i s N B
P o l i te

i s -
. . .

from L a t pol i t u s, po l i sh ed, n ot fro m G r p oli t e s, c i ti z en

.
-
.
-
.

P ol u s ( ma n y ) po l y a n t h u s ( G r a n t h o s , o w er), po l y a rc h y ( G r
. . .

a rk h e, ru l e ), po l y c h ro me ( G r k h roma , c o l o u r), po l y g a m y ( G r
-
.
-
.

a m o s, ma rri a g e ), o l y g l ot ( G r l o s a o r g l ot t a , t o n g u e ), po l y g o n
g p g s -
.

( G 1 g on ia , a n g l e ), P o l y n e s i a ( G r nes os, i sl a nd), pol y pu s ( G r

. .
- -
.

o u s, fo o t ), po l y t ec h n 1 c ( G r t ek n e, a rt), po l y t h ei st
p
-
. .

P o u s, pod 0 3 (f oot) : t ri po d .

Pra ss ein ( to do ) , pra g ma ( th ing don e) pra c t ic e, pra c t -ise, pra g

- - -

ma t -ic a i -
.

Presb -u s ( o ld), pre sb u t er os ( o lder) presb y ter, pri est ( d ou b l et o f - -

th e prec e di ng , A S pre Ost ), Prest er ( Jo h n , o f A b y s si ni a )

. . .

Prot o s (rst) : pro t o pl a sm ( see a b o v e u n der Pl a s s ein ), pro to

- - -

c o l ( Gr k o l l a , g l
. a rst l ea f g l u ed o n t o a ma n u sc ri pt pro to
ty pe , pro t o -ma rty r .

P seu d -
os ( a
f a l seh ood) : p seu d- o ny m , p seu do - ma rty r , pse u d o
pro ph et .

P su kh ( f ,
l i e m-
ien d) py: s c h -i
c , psy c h o l og y , me t em psy c h o s is - - - - - -

( tra n sm g ra t o n o f so u l s)
i i .

P ur, pu r-os (fire) : py re, py r-it es ( a re s to n e ), py ro t ec h n 1 os - -

( G r t
. ek h n -
e ,
a rt o r c o n t 1 i v a n c e ), py r -a c a n h u s
t ( G r a k a n t h a, a
pr c k ly . i
sh ru b t h a t orms a red b erry ) f .

R h e- e in ( to ow ) ; rh eu m a rh eu m, rh eu m a t ism, rh y t h m - - -

( m e a su re d m o t o n ),
h em o r rh o i
id ( s e e H a im a ,
a b o v e ), emero d ( do u b l e t
- - -

o f t h e prec ed ng ), i
d a r-rh oea , c a t a rrh ( o w ng do w n , G r i a ta , i . k
do w n ) .

S a rx, sa rk os -
(esh ) : sa rc - a s m ( tea r ng i th e esh ) , sa rc o - ph a g u s

( G r ph a g ein , t o
.
-
ea t )
.
 D E R I VA T I VE S FRO M G R E E K R O O TS 41 7

S it o s ( b rea d) pa ra -si te ( Gr pa ra , by th e sid e o f o ne w h o h a s h is

- .

fo od a t a n oth er s e x pen se ) .

S k anda l o n ( th a t w hi ch trips u p ) : sc a nd a l , sl a nd er ( d o u bl et o f
-

th e prec edi ng ), sc a nd a l is e -

S khi z ein ( to sp li t) sk h ism o s ( n ) sc h i sm, sc h i sm a t ic

- -
.
- -
.

S kh ol e ( l ei su re) : sc h o o l , sh o a l ( o f sh e s, dou b l et o f prec edi n g ),

seh o l -a r, sc h o l iu m, sc h o l i a st , sc h o l a st ic
- - - - -
.

sc o e, mi c ro sc o e
S k op ein ( to see) ; sk op o s p p ( G r mikr o s,
- - - -
.

l i t tl e ), e pi sc o p a l ( G r e pi, o v er), bi sh o p ( A S b isc eO p, L a t e pisc o pu s,

- -
. . . .

G r epi sk o pos, o v erseer), s te t h o sc o pe ( Gr st et h o s, t h e brea st ), t el e

.
-
.
-

sc o e ( Gr
p t el e, a t a di sta nc e ), spec t re sc ope ( L a t spec tr u m, a n
.
- -
.
-

ima g e) .

S oph o s ( w i se ) so ph - is m so ph - i s t, so ph -ist -r h i
p lo so ph - er.
y,
-
: ,
-

S peir a -
(a c oi l ): sp r a l i -
. N B . . N o c o nnec t o n w i i th
sp re, i
t a per ng i b o dy ,
A . S . sp r i .

S ph a ir a ( a b a l l ) sph ere, h emi sphe re ( Gr h emi , h a l f), sph er ic a l

- -
.
- -
.

S t a s is, st em a ( sta n di ng ) a po sta s y , c c -st a s y , sy s

- - - - -

S t ell ein ( to send) ; st ol e ( equ ip men t) : s to l e , apo st i e , e pi stl e,

- - - -

e pi s to l -a ry , a po st ol ic
- - -
.

S t ere o s ( sol id) s t ereo sc o pe, st ereo ty pe

- - -
.

S tikh o s ( a l i n e) dis -
h emi st i c h , a c ro s ti c ( se e a b o v e, A kr o s ) - -
.

S tra t o s ( a rmy ) : stra t a g em ( fo r stra t e g em), s tra t eg y , stra t

- - - - - - -

t e w o rd s th e eg is fro m G r h eg i i i
e
g
-
is t ( I n. h e s w h c h s g es
n to .

l ea (i
S troph e ( a tu rn ) : strO ph e ( th e tu rn i n g i n a G r c h ora l d a nce
- -
.

o r so n ), a o st ro h e, a n t i stro ph e
g p p
- - - -
.

S u k o u ( a g ) : syc e more ( G r mo r os, a mu l b erry ), sy c o -ph a n t ,

- -
.
-

( l it . g sh o w e r ,
G
-
r p h a n t -es
,
o n e w h o s h o w s) . .

S uring x, suring o s ( a squ i rt) : sy ri ng e , sy ri nx ( a w i nd in stru-

ment ma d e o f ree ds ), sy ri ng a ( a pl a nt w h o se st ems w ere u sed for -

mu sic a l pi pe s) .

T akt o s ( a rra ng ed) ; t a x is ( a rra ng emen t) : ta c t ies , sy nta x N B

o - -
. . .

Ta ct is fro m L a t t a c t u s, ta n g ere, to to u c h .
- -
.

T ek h n e ( a rt) t ec h n i c a l , po l y t ec h n ic
- - - -
.

T el e ( af a r) t el e sc o pe, t el e g ra ph , t el e ph o n e, tel e-pa th y

- - - - -
.

T h e a esth a i ( to b eh o l d) ; th e or ia ( a seei n g ) : th e a trc , t h e or y ,

- - - - - - - -

t h e or em, a mph i th ea tre

- - -
.

Th e o s ( G od) th e ism, a th e ism, a po th e o s is (deic a tio n ), th eo

- - - - - - -

c ra c y , -
th ee l o g y, t h e o g o n y ( G r g o n ia , birth ), t h e u rg y ( G r
- - -
.
- - -
.

th eo so ph ist, en t h u s i a sm

erg o u , w o rk ,
-
su pern a tu ra l - - - - -

( Gr en + th eo + o u sia , th e sta t e o f b ei ng in Go d, i nspi ra t io n ), po l y

.

t h e ism, pa n t h e ism ( G o d i den ti ed w i t h t h e u ni v erse )

- - -
.

Th eri o n (w i ld b ea st) : trea c l e ( G r th eri -a k e, v i per s esh , u nd er

-
.

th e n o ti o n th a t su c h esh w a s a n a ntid o te a g a i n st a v i per s bi t e )

.

Th erm o s ( h ot) : th erm-a l , i so th erm ( Gr is o s, equ a l ), th erm o

-
.
- -

met -
er .

T h es is, th ek e , t h em a ( a p l a c i ng ) : t h eme, t h esi s, a po th ee -a ry ,

- - - -

h y po t h ec a te , h y po t h es is, sy n th es is, a na t h em a , trea s u re ( G r

- - - - - - - - -
.

t h es a u r o s t h e mea ni ng o f a u r o s is u nk no w n )
- - -
.

T om e, tom o s ( a cu tti ng ) : a na t om y , to me, a t om ( G r

-
- -
a - -
.

i g nify i ng n ot th e u nc u t o r i ndiv i sib l e ), eu tom o l o g y, epi t om e - - - - -

.

T on o s ( stretching ) to ne , t u ne, a t t u n e, mo no to n y , t o n ic , in t o ne
- - - - - -
.

E G C.
. . 2E
41 8 A PPE N D I X O N D E R I VA T I O N S

T op o s (p l a ce) t op ic , t o p o gra ph y , U-t op ia

- - - - -
.

T ox o u ( b o w ) t ox ik o u (poi son ) in t o x ic a t e
- - - - - -
.

T ra g os ( a h e g oa t) : t ra g c d y ( Fr t ra g di e, L a t t ra g cedi a , G r
- - - -
. .
-
.

tra g o di a , fro m Od e , a so n g : t h e b u ski n s c o v e ri ng th e a c to rs fee t

- -

w ere ma de o f g o a t l ea th e r), t ra g ic , tra g ic a l

- - - -
.

T ra kh u s ( rou g h ) t ra c h ea ( w i ndpi pe ), t ra c h e o t o m y ( se e T om o s ,
- - - - - -

a b o v e)
Tre i s ( Gr po d O S , a fo o t ), t ri g o n o metry ( Gr
(three ) : t ri po d -
.
- - - -
.

o n ia , a n g l e ), tri c h o rd ( G r k h o rd e , a st ri n ), Tri n i t
g g y ( L a t 11 n u s ,
- - - - - -
. .

o n e, t h ree i n o n e , a n d o n e i n tri l o g y ( a t ri a d o f pl a y s o r - -

v o l u mes ), t re s s ( G r t rik h a , th ree t i mes ), t ri a d ( a s et o f t h ree )

.
-
.

T rog l e ( a ca ve ) : tro g l o dy t e ( c a v e dw el l er, G r du t es, o n e w h o

- - -
.
-

ent ers ) .

-
i
T ro p e ( a tu rn ) : tro p c s, h el o - tro pe ( G r h el o s, th e su n ; th e i . i -

p l a nt t h a t t u rn s t o w a rd t h e su n

T u p o s ( i mp ressi on ) : t y pe, a nt t y pe , t y p ic a l , st ere o ty pe ( G r

-
i - - - - -
.

s t ere o s, s o l d), t
-
i
y p o g ra ph y
- -
.

Z el o s ( emu l a ti on ) : z ea l , z ea l o t , z ea l o u s ( a h y b r d, b ec a u se th e
- - -
i
i
su f x i s L a t n ), j ee l ou s ( do u b l e t o f t h e prec e d n g )
-
i .

Z o -o u ( a n i ma l ) ; z o d o n ( dim ) z o d -a c ( Gr z od a k - e ), z o o ph y t e
i -
. i . i - - -

( G r .
p h u t o n ,
a
p l a nt ),
-
z o o l o g y
- - -
.
4 20 E N G LI S H GRA M M A R A N D C O M PO S I TI O N
C E S UR A , 28 5 , 286
C a pita l s, u se o f, 1 26
C a se , 24 2 6 , 86 , 8 7
C a u sa l u se o f I nt ra nsit ive verb s, 43
v erb s , a f xes , 226
C el tic l a ng uag e, 3 04
b orro w i ng s , 3 1 9 , 3 20
F
C ent ra l renc h , 327 , 3 28
C irc u ml oc u tion, 1 9 3 , 25 1
C l a sh o f neg a t ives , 1 9 2
C l a u se, de n ed, 3
N o u n -c l a u se, 9 4 -9 6
A dj ec t iv e -c l a u se, 9 6 -9 8
A dverb -c la u se, 9 8 -1 00
C li ma x , 24 8
C o g na t e o b j ec t , 42, 4 3 , 8 7
C o l l a t era l s ent en c es , 9 3
C o l l ec tiv e no u ns , 1 7, 1 5 7
s uf x e s, 222
q
C o ll o u ia l is ms , 1 5 2
C o l o n , 1 22
C o mma , 1 1 8 -1 21
C o mma s, inverted, 1 23
C o mmo n g ender, 20, 21
C o mmo n no u ns , 1 6
o th er no un s u sed a s , 1 9
C o mpa ra t ives , irreg u l a r, 3 0 , 3 1
L a tin , 3 1 , 1 6 0
o l d f o rms , 3 3 9
C o mpl emen t , de ned, 4
f o rms o f, 4 0 , 4 2, 1 03
S u b jec tiv e, O b j ec t iv e, 4 2, 1 03
C ompl ex s ent enc e s, 9 3 , 9 4
C o mpou nd w o rds ,
el a t ed, 21 2, 21 3
U nrel a ted, 21 1 , 21 2
s ent enc es , 9 3
C o mpou nds, disg u ised, 3 6 6 -3 7 0
mista k en o r a ppa rent , 3 70 -3 7 2
DYDI ld, 3 7 2, 3 7 3
'
G
C o n c ord a nd o v ernment , 9 2
C o nc rete n o u ns , 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 5 7
C ondensa t io n , 20 1
C ondens ed sent enc e , 239
F
C onj ug a tio n o f init e moo ds , 4 8 -5 1
C o njun c t io n, de ned, 1 0, 1 1
C o -o rdina t ive, 7 8 , 7 9
S u b o rdina t ive, 7 9 , 80
onj u nc t ive pro no u ns, 3 6 3 8
a dverb s , 7 3
C o nso na nt , de ned, 3 4 3
V o ic el es s a nd V
o ic ed, 3 4 4 -3 4 6
S impl e a nd C o mpo u nd, 3 5 4
redu n da nt , 35 4 , 3 5 5
ma in divisio n s o f , 3 5 5
mino r divisio ns of , 3 5 6
S il ent , 3 5 8
C o nso na nta l so u nds , 35 4
s pe l l i ng s o f, 3 5 7 , 3 5 8
C o nt inua t ive u se o f w h o, 3 8, 9 3 , 9 6
C o ntinu ou s fo rms o f tense , 4 8 , 4 9
C u mu l a tive c onj u nc t ion s , 7 9
D Y L f t 286
A CT oo ,
D ni h in n 3 1 1 3 1 2
,
a s
b o rr w ing
o 3 20
ue
s,
c e,
D h i n p n t ti n 1 4
as u c ua
D ti f I nt r t 1 1 1
a ve o e es
D ec a y o f meta ph ors ,
nou ns, 25 4, 25 5
a d ec t ives ,
j 25 5 , 25 6
v erb s , 25 6 , 25 7
prepo sit ions, 25 8 -26 0
l imita t io n o f , 26 0
ef ec tive v erb s, 6 9
e ni te a rtic l e , 28
D eg rees o f S u b o rdina t io n, 1 0 4
D emo n stra tive a dj ec t ives 28
,
p ro n ou n s 3 4 -36
D
,
e n ta l s , 3 5 5
D eprec ia t o ry su f xes , 226
D e riva tiv es, L a tin roo t s , 386 -4 09
T eu to nic ro o t s , 3 7 5 -3 8 6
G reek roo ts , 4 09 -4 1 8
D esc ript iv e a dj e c tives, 26
D iaeres is, 1 25
D ia l ec ts o f O ld E ng l ish , 3 06 , 3 07
o f M id E ng l ish , 3 1 0, 3 1 1
.
dec a y o f , 3 1 9
D ida c tic prose, 26 7
poetry , 29 6 , 3 03
D ig ra ph , de ned, 344
D
iminu t ive su f x es , 21 7 , 222, 225
D
iph th o ng , de n ed, 3 44
D iph th ong s , h o w pro du c ed, 3 5 1
D irec t a nd I ndirec t N
a rr , 1 1 4 -1 1 7
.
D irec t o b j ec t t o v erb , 4 0
D
isg u ised pre x es , 220 , 221 , 3 7 3 3 7 5 -
pre po sit io ns, 7 6
istrib u t iv e a dj ec t ives 2 9
D o , did, 5 2
D o u b l e mea n ing , 1 83 -1 86
R
D ou b l e P a rts o f S peec h , 1 3
obj ec t t o v e rb s , 4 0
D o u b t , i n S ub ju nc t ive mo o d, 5 6
D ra ma tic poet ry , 3 0 2
D u t c h b o rro w ing s , 3 21
H
EA C o th er, o n e a no th er,
cc
1 59
E l eg a nc e o f D
ic t io n, 20 4
E l eg y , 29 9 , 30 2
E mph a sis , b y po sit io n , 1 36
b y C o rrel a t ive c o nj u nc tio ns, 1 38
by R epe t it io n , 1 3 8
by R ec a pi tul a t io n , 1 3 9
b y A nt it h esis, 1 3 9 , 1 4 0
b y l o u dne ss o f vo ic e , 3 4 6
E ng l ish , orig in o f na me , 3 0 4 , 3 05
-
E ng l ish l a ng u a g e, s ta g es o f c h a ng e, 3 06
L ow G
erma n o rig in , 3 04 , 3 05
b il ing u a l c h a ra c t er, c a u s e, 3 1 6
c o nt i n u it y o f, 3 0 8 , 3 09
t riu mph o ver renc h , 3 1 3 F
E nl a rg ement o f N
o mina tive, 3 , 1 02
V
E nl a rg ement o f oc a b u l a ry , sou rc es, 21 0
E pic p o et ry , 29 6 -29 8 , 3 0 1 , 3 02
E pig ra m, 23 8 , 23 9
E u ph emism, 25 0 , 25 1
E u ph o ny , 204 -206
E u ph u ism, 1 9 0
E xc ept , w ith ou t , a g a inst , 1 63
E xc l a ma t io n , 81 , 246
E xc l a ma t ory sen t enc e , 1
,
F
E xt ension o f init e v erb , 5 , 1 03 , 1 0 4
o , 2 F A BLE 236 275
, ,
,
Fa c titive verb s , 4 , 40
 I N DEX O F S UBJECTS A N D S E LE CTE D W O RD S 421

Fa iry tal es 276 ,

I nnu endo , 24 5
Feminines in ess 20 33 6 , ,
I nterj ec t ion , 1 2, 80, 8 1
I nterjec tio nal ph ra ses, 1 5

Few ,
l ittl e 1 60 ,

Fig u re o f speec h dened 230 , ,

I ntermixt u re o f fa c t and c tion, 27 6
c l a ssi ed 231 ,
I nt errog a t io n
Finite mo ods c onj u g ation 4 9 5 1 , ,
- in pu nc t u a tion, 1 23
Finite verb c ompl et ion o f 4 5 1 03
, , , , g u re o f speec h , 24 6
exte nsio n o f , 5 , 1 03 I nt errog a t iv e a dverb s, 7 3
F
oo t , de ned, 28 6 a dj ec t i ves, 29
F o reig n P
l ura l s, 24 sentenc es , 1
W ords a nd h ra ses, 1 5 3 P I nterrog a t ive prono u ns , 3 8
F o rms o f o b j ec t , 1 03 I ntra nsitiv e v erb s , 4 1 -44
F renc h a nd E ng lish , st ruggl e, 3 1 3 in c a u sal sen se, 43
in u enc e o n E ng ra m , 3 1 3 G I nv ersio n o f no rma l o rder, 1 3 5 , 1 3 6

. .

inu enc e o n E n g o ca b , 3 1 5 . V . I n verted c omma s, 1 23

b o rro w ing s , 3 25 -3 28 I ro ny , 24 5
F risia n o rig in o f M erc ia n, 3 0 6 , 3 07 I rreg ul a r c ompa rat ives, 30, 3 1
F ul l ste p, 1 23 v erb s , 7 0
F ut ure t e nse I ta l ia n b orro w ing s, 329 , 330

l nde nite , 5 3 I t i s , it w a s , 3 6 , 1 3 9
P erf ec t , 5 2

I ts, o rig in o f , 340

G E ND E R 20 21 B L
LA IA S , 356
i n O ld E ng 3 36
, ,

L a ng u a g es, rst spok en in B ritain , 304
G enera l Re sul ts o f A fxes 225 227
,

,
- F
L a t e renc h , 3 28
G enit ive o rP o ssessive meaning s 25 L a tin pl ura l s , 24
c o mpara t iv es , 3 1
, ,

P ersonal u se in pronou ns 1 5 8 ,
G erma n b orro w ing s 3 3 1 b o rro w ing s, 322-3 25
L o w a nd H igh 3 05 ,
,
a nd G q
reek e u iva l ent pre x es, 224
G eru ndial o rQua l ify ing I nnitive 58 3 41 ro o t s a nd deri va t ives, 3 86 -409
G eru ndive u se o f P a rtic ipl es 6 3 ,
, ,

L ett er, de ned, 3 43
G eru nds o r verb al nou ns 6 1 6 2 r, 3 5 8 , 35 9

h isto ry o f , 3 42
, ,

Lito te s, g u re o f speec h , 25 0
f o l l o w ed b y o b j ec t s, 6 2 L ow G
erma n o rig in o f E ng lish , 305

G l ottal

h , 35 6 L o w l a nd S c otc h , 3 06 , 3 1 9
G o vernment o f w o rds, 9 2
L y ric poetry , 3 0 2
G
re ek a f xes , 223 -225
M A TE R I A L ,
nou n s o f , 1 7
pl u ra l s , 24 u sed a sC ommo n, 1 9
b o rro w ing s , 328 , 3 29
M a y , mig h t , 4 6
G uttu ra l s , 3 5 5
M erc ia n dia l ec t , 3 0 6 , 307
H A N G E D h u ng 66
M eta ph or, desc rib ed, 232, 23 3
pers o na l , 233
, ,

H a ve ha d 45
, ,

sust ai ned, 233

H ero ic c o u pl et a nd
tripl et, 289
c onf u sio n o f , 23 4
H is f o r a postroph e s, 3 3 7

s u c c essio n o f, 23 4
H isto ric present, 5 1 , 1 6 0 , 247 deca y of , 25 2, 25 3
H y perb ol e, E xagg eration , 24 9 M eto nymy , 240 -24 2, 26 1
H y ph en , 1 24 M etre, 28 6 , 289 , 29 0
M iddl e E ng c h a ra c ter o f, 309 , 31 0
po sitio n o f, 1 5 7
.

1,
t h ree dia l ec t s o f , 31 0
I a mb ic f o ot , 286
M idla nd dia l ec t, 3 1 0 , 3 1 1
I dy l l , 27 6 , 3 00 , 302
I ll a t ive c o nj u nc tio ns, 79
M isu se o f W ords , 1 7 0 -1 7 6

I mpera t ive moo d, u ses o f, 54 , 5 5

M ixed or S trong -W eak v erb s, 6 6 , 6 7
M o d E ng c h a ra c t eristic s, 3 1 7
.

senten c es , 1
.

su b divisio ns , 31 8
I mpers o na l v erb s, 7 0
M odern b o rro w ing s , mis c ell , 3 29 -333
a b so l u t e, 9 1
.

M o des o f expressing c o mpa rison, 339

I nc o mpl et e predic a tio n
F a c t it i ve verb s , 4 0
M oo ds, f o u r k inds o f , 4S
M u l tipl ica tives , 27
I n tra n si tive v erb s , 4 1
Mu l titu de, nou ns of, 1 7

I nde nit e a rtic l e, 28 , 1 5 9
P
M u ta t io n l ura l s, 3 37
a dj ec t ives, 27 , 28
My se , lf
h imself , 340
pronou n s, 3 6
I ndic a t iv e mood, 5 1 -5 4 NE E DS , various rts o f speec h , 83
I ndirec t o b j ec t to v erb , 4 0 N ew l y c oined W O
- 8, 154

I n nitive, t w o k inds of, 5 7 , 5 8 , 9 0 , No minat ive in A nal y sis , 2, 1 01
w ith to, w ith o u t to, 5 7 , 3 4 1 , 3 4 2 in S y nta x, 8 6
4 22 EN GL I S H G RA MM A R A N D C O M PO S I TI O N

N ormal o rder , n o u n s, 1 27 Pl ay u pon w ords 206 ,

A dj ec tive s a nd a rt ic ipl es, P P l eo na sm 1 9 8 1 9 9,

A dverb s , 1 29 , 1 30 Pl ur l o l d fo rms o f 33 7
a s, 338 , ,

S u b j ec t a nd O b jec t , 1 3 0 , 1 3 1 s pec ia l sen ses o f , 1 7 6 -1 7 8

P ro nou n a n d A nt ec edent , 1 3 1 b y mu t a t io n , 3 3 7 , 3 3 8
P reposit io n a n d O b j ec t , 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 w ith n o c h a n g e o f f o rm, 33 8
P re po s it io n s , 1 3 2 P o et ic dic tio n , 29 0 -29 6
C o rrel a tive c o nj u nc t io n s , 1 3 2 P o etry , ma in divisio n s, 29 6 -30 1
N o rma n C o n u es t , 3 1 2, 3 1 3 q n a mes o f k inds , 3 0 1 -3 03
N o rt h u mb ria n dia l ec t , 3 0 6 P o pu l a r a nd L ea rned, 325 , 3 26
N o t e o f E x c l a ma t io n , 1 23 P o rt u g u es e b orrow ing s, 3 3 1
I nt errog a t io n , 1 23 P o ssess iv e c a se
N o t io na l verb s , 39 o f no u n s , 24-26 , 1 5 7
N
o u n , de n ed, 7 , 8 o f pro n o u n s, 3 3 , 339
kinds o f , 1 6 , 1 7 sy nta x o f , 86 , 8 7
o f M u l t it u de , 1 7 P redic a t e, de ned, 2
v erb a l , 6 3 pa rt s o f , 5

I n ni tive , 5 8 P redic a t ive, u se o f
u sed a s a dj ec t ive , 8 8 a dj ec t iv es , 3 0 , 8 8
N o un -c l a u se , 9 4 , 9 6 G eru n dia l I n nit iv e, 5 8, 9 1
N o vel , 27 5 , 27 6 a dverb s , 7 4 , 89
N u mb er, o f N
o u n s, 21 -24 pa rt ic ipl es, 9 1
N umera l a dj ec ti ves , 27 Pre x es
O BJ po sit io n o f , 1 3 0, 1 3 1 , 1 3 5
T e tonic 21 5 21 6
u , , , 3 3 3 , 33 4
E CT ,
o miss io n o f , 7 5
R o ma ni c 21 8 221 ,
-

O b j ec ti ve c a se, 8 7
G reek 223 224, ,

O b jec t s t o v erb s , ve k inds , 4 7 , 6 2

Preposit ion de ned , , 9, 10
D irec t , I ndire c t, 1 03
k inds o f ob j ec t s , 75
O b s c u rity , s o u rc es o f , 1 80 -1 8 3
se q u enc e o f ,
1 6 2, 1 6 3
o mi ssio n o f , 7 5 , 7 6
O b sol ete w ords , 1 5 3
O l d E ng c o mpa red w ith M o d , 3 08

.

O n e, 35 , 3 6 , 8 3 , 1 5 8
.

P repo sitio n l v erb s 4 3 4 4 a ,

Presen t I nde nite u ses o f

,

51
mixed c h a ra c ter o f, 3 07 P erfec t u ses o f 5 1
, ,

O n oma to poeia , 25 1 , ,

O pta t iv e sent enc e, 1 , 5 5

P resent Pa rt ic ipl e 3 4 1 ,

O r, 1 6 5
Princ ipa l c l a u se 9 3 ,

P rio rit y rul e o f 1 42 1 4 3

P
O rig in o f a st su i x -de, 3 40, 34 1 ,
P ro l ixi t y 1 9 9 200
, ,

O t h er, 1 5 9 , ,

O tta va R
ima , 289
Pro nou n de n ed 8, ,

k inds o f , 3 1
O ver-b revity , 200
s y n t a x o f , 88
P A LA T A LS 3 5 5 ,
o l d f o rms o f , 3 3 9 , 3 40
P a ra b l e 23 6 27 5
, , P ro per a djec t ives , 26
Pa ra ph ra sing f ro m poetry 29 5 29 6 , ,
no u n s , 1 6
P a renth esi 1 4 7 s, u s ed a s C o mmon no u ns, 1 7
Pa rsing c h a rt 8 4 86 ,
- na mes , w o rds de ri ved fro m, 3 6 1 -3 6 6
P a rtic ipl es t h ree u ses o f 9 1
, , P ro se -c o mposit io n
o ld f orms o f P res ent 3 1 0 3 4 1 , ,

c l a ssi c a t io n b y ma t t er, 266 -26 9
o l d f o rms o f P a st 3 4 1 ,

c l a ssi c a t io n b y f orm, 28 1 -283
Pa rt s o f v erb not nite 4
a tec h nic a l , 270
Parts o f S peec h de n ed 7 1 2 ,
-
h isto ry , 270 -273
sa me w o rd a s differen t 81 8 3 ,
-
b iog ra ph y , 27 3
P assi ve vo ic e 4 6 4 7 , ,
des c ript ion, 273 , 27 4
P a st o ra l po et ry 3 00 3 02 , , reec t io n , 27 4 , 27 5
P a st Pa rtic ipl e 3 4 1 , c t io n , 27 5 -27 7
Pa t tense in W ea k v erb s 3 40
s , p e r su a s io n ,
27 7 -
27 9
P erf ec t t enses u ses o f 5 1 5 2 , , , c en su re, 27 9 , 28 0
I n nit iv e 5 6 1 6 0 , ,
h u mo u r, 280 , 281
P eriod in punc tua tio n 1 23
, , P ro s ody , de ne d, 28 4
sen t enc e 1 4 3 1 4 6 ,
-
P ro -v erb , 4 6
P eriph r i 1 9 0 1 9 2
as s, ,
P ro vi nc ia l i sms , 1 5 2
P erso na l pro no u n s, 3 2, 3 3 , 33 9 , 3 40 P ro xi mit y , ru l e o f , 1 26 , 1 4 1
P erso n i ca tio n , 24 7 P u n, 239
P ers pic u it y , desc rib ed, 1 7 9 P urit y , t est s o f, 1 5 1

g ra mma t i ca l preca u tl o n s, 1 79 , 1 80
P h ra se , 1 4 , 1 5 QU A LI F Y I NG I n nitive 5 8 1 6 1 , ,

c o mpo u nds , 21 3 Qua ntita t ive a dj ec tives 27 ,