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Investete n oameni!
MORPHOLOGY OF
CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH
Remus BEJAN
Camelia BEJAN
2010
Remus BEJAN
Camelia BEJAN
2010
2010
ISBN 973-0-04113-X
Cont ents
Contents
Introduction
2
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3
4
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5
6
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I
Cont ents
II
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102
Cont ents
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105
105
105
107
109
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112
113
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141
141
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144
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145
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150
153
155
157
157
III
Cont ents
5.5. Mood
5.5.1. Indicative
5.5.2. Imperative
5.5.3. Conditional
5.5.4. Subjunctive
Summary
Key terms
Further reading
Send-away assignment (SAA) 5
Answers to self-assessed questions (SAQs) 5.1 -5.21
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174
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176
177
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195
Bibliography
211
IV
159
159
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168
Introduction
Introduction
1. Introduction
1.1. Objectives of the course
1.2. Specific competences
1.3. Presentation of content
1.4. Course tasks
1.5. Evaluation, assessment and testing
1.6. Plan your study
2
2
2
3
4
4
6
Summary
Further reading
Diagnostic test
Answers to diagnostic test
6
7
7
9
Introduction
1. Introduction
The study of grammar traditionally includes morphology and syntax.
Morphology is that part of the grammar of a language that studies
the internal structure of words, while syntax involves the study of
word combinations or sentence structure. The Morphology of
Contemporary English is a mandatory course, part of pack 1
(specialism). It assumes a low intermediate standard of knowledge
and operational ability in the language and seeks to fulfill the
following aims:
to develop your knowledge of English through exploration and
analysis ;
to enable you to see grammar in general and morphology in
particular as providing means of understanding the relation of
form to meaning and of meaning to situation ;
to provide you with a basic terminology which will enable you to
make these relationships explicit.
Introduction
Basic concepts
Nouns
Determiners and pronouns
Verbs
Tense, aspect, voice, modality and mood
Adjectives and adverbs
Unit 1 gives a birds eye view of the whole course and defines
the basic units of grammar (phrase, word and morpheme). Units from
2 to 6 give a detailed description of the main word-classes of English
(noun, determiner, quantifier, pronoun, verb, adjective and adverb).
The units are further divided into sections, each one being conceived
as a learning component with appropriate practice tasks.
Every unit begins with a statement of the aim and lists its main
objectives. They are designed to assist you in your preparation and
offer a review for study purposes. Through its objectives, each unit
specifies what you will be able to do when you have finished it. The
objectives will help you monitor your own progress and decide on the
work that you need to do in order to get the best possible results.
Each of the six study units which make up the course is
accompanied by intensive practical work. We advise you to build up
a portfolio of the tasks to be undertaken. These and any work in
English that you consider relevant to your training should be
collected at any time for future reference. They will also assist your
preparation for the progress tests and the final examination.
The summary and the list of key terms organized
alphabetically, which we have placed at the end of every unit,
together with the glossary of grammatical terms at the end of the
book are meant to reinforce the main grammatical aspects
discussed.
To stimulate your interest in studying this course, each unit
contains a variable number of topics for reflection and study. We
encourage you to experiment and apply the ideas and the techniques
used in the course in your own activity, to reflect upon the results and
develop ideas and procedures adapted to the environment in which
you work.
Reflection points (Think first!) are signaled by a
question mark.
Introduction
Introduction
These assignments, which you will find at the end of each unit,
are based on the material you have studied in the units. You can use
extra material if you wish (you might find the suggestions for further
reading at the end of each unit useful). At the beginning of each
assignment you will find detailed instructions on how to do it. You will
have to spend about 60 minutes in doing each assignment, provided
you have completed all the tasks required by the unit.
We would prefer that you type your assignments but writing
them legibly will do as well. Once completed, send them to your tutor,
and he or she will send feedback on all of them (commentary and
assessment) within two weeks. It is of utmost importance that you
meet the deadlines specified in the course map. Remember that your
tutor has planned his or her time around these deadlines. If you do
not observe them, he or she may be unable to read your assignment
and send feedback quickly to you.
Every SAQ and every SAA contain a variable number of
exercises and items, depending on the specific learning tasks that
derive from the objectives mentioned at the beginning of each unit. In
establishing the weight of each SAA (see table on page 5), we have
taken into account the relative importance of objectives covering the
content of the unit, the difficulty that you are likely to face in their
realization, their degree of complexity and novelty, the time allotted
by the syllabus for dealing with them. For each exercise, a 50%
success rate should be considered as minimal. In case you fail to
solve any of the items, we strongly advise you to re-read the relevant
sections of the course, refer to the glossary of grammatical terms to
revise basic definitions and other material suggested in the Further
reading and in the general bibliographic list.
You will also sit a written examination (which counts for 60%
of the overall mark) at the end of the semester. You will have to
answer various questions and do exercises covering the major
problems dealt with in the course (units 1-6). Your grammar
competence will be evaluated by means of a variety of testing
structures such as multiple choice, modified cloze, text completion,
paraphrase, true false, error identification, word changing,
word/clause order.
Your grade will be based on your ability to understand and
describe the structure of English sentences (form and function), your
knowledge of vocabulary for thinking and about and discussing
grammar, your competence in the mechanics of writing
(demonstrated in your writing) and in communicating grammatical
concepts to others. Your grammar knowledge will also be
demonstrated by your ability to produce sentences, both written and
oral, which are perceived as grammatically correct.
Introduction
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Units
Introduction
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 4
Unit 5
Unit 5
Unit 6
Unit 6
Revision
Revision
Assignments
Diagnostic test
SAA 1 due
40 %
6%
SAA 2 due
7%
SAA 3 due
8%
SAA 4 due
5%
SAA 5 due
8%
SAA 6 due
6%
Date
Summary
The material for study is divided in six rather independent units. Unit
2 is important in the sense that it provides the essential information
about the basic units of grammatical analysis: the clause, the
phrase, the word and the morpheme. The following units give
details about the noun, the verb, the adjective, the adverb and the
grammatical categories associated with them: gender, number,
case (for nouns), tense, aspect, mood (for verbs). Each unit
contains a significant number of exercises of different types (SAQs)
that will allow you to practice the most important problems studied. At
the end of each unit, a Send-away assignment (SAA) tests what
you have learned in the respective unit. Reflection points (Think
first!) allow to link your study with your own activity. Throughout the
book we use a number of icons to identify the main types of activities.
Introduction
Further reading
We strongly encourage you to consult other works that will help you
find additional information on special grammar aspects. At the end of
each unit, you will find useful recommendations. However, when you
do this, remember to read critically. Sir Francis Bacon once said:
Read not to contradict and confute, not to believe and take for
granted, not to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider.
Diagnostic test
This diagnostic test is designed to give you a quick way
of assessing the approximate level of your knowledge of
English grammar and usage. Choose the word or phrase
which best completes each sentence grammatically. You
are advised to spend not more than 15 minutes on this
test.
1) Did you anywhere interesting last weekend?
a) go
b) going
c) was
d) went
2) I work as a teacher and my wife , too.
a) do
b) is
c) work
d) does
3) I think doctor.
a) her job is
b) shes a
d) shes
c) her job is an
d) been
d) I
c) rare
d) seldom
d) knows
Introduction
c) avoiding driving
c) lots
d) a very lot
c) much expensive
d)
d) some
d)
c) theirs
d)
c) had better d)
would
d) a
25) Would you like some more tea? There's still left.
a) few
b) a few
c) a little
d)
little
8
Introduction
26) I didn't realize that the shop was the other side of the
road.
a) by
b) for
c) on
d) in
27) The language school that I attend is 20 kilometers .
a) far
b) away
c) distance d) long
28) Many adult students of English wish they their
language studies earlier.
a) would start b) would have started c) had started
d) will
start
29) Tom has two sisters, but he doesn't speak to of
them.
a) both
b) any
c) either
d) neither
30) George goes to by car.
a) a work
b) the work c) an work
d) work
Basic concepts
UNIT 1
Basic concepts
10
Objectives
11
11
12
12
14
15
15
16
1.3. Words
1.3.1. Word vs. lexeme
1.3.2. Morphological structure of words
1.3.3. Word classes
1.3.3.1 Lexical words
Nouns
Lexical verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs
1.3.3.2. Function words
Determiners
Pronouns
Auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs
Prepositions
Adverbial particles
Coordinators
Subordinators
The negative particle not
The infinitive marker to
Numerals
17
18
18
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
24
24
25
26
26
26
27
27
27
27
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Summary
Key terms
Further reading
Send away assignment (SAA) 1
Answers to self-assessed questions (SAQs) 1.1 1. 7.
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29
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30
31
Basic concepts
Aim
This unit will introduce, define and illustrate the terminology used in
the grammatical analysis of English, with a view to enhancing your
awareness of the relationship between grammatical form and
meaning. We will examine the constituents of the simple sentence,
the major word-classes and their characteristics, the structure of the
word and will sketch the context in which any correct grammatical
analysis should be carried out.
Objectives
After you have completed the study of this unit and have done
all the tasks recommended, you should be able to:
recognize and identify the phrasal constituents of the clause:
the noun phrase, the verb phrase, the adjective phrase, the
adverb phrase, the prepositional phrase;
analyze the structure of phrases;
define and exemplify simple, complex or compound words;
explain how words are formed;
give brief definitions and examples of the following terms:
morpheme, root, base/stem, affix, inflection.
phrase
word
morpheme
Basic concepts
[John] is [a farmer].
[That farmer] is my uncle.
[Those farmers] are my neighbors.
[That farmer with a shovel in his hand] is my uncle.
postmodification
postmodification
premodification
postmodification
Basic concepts
(Determiners(s))
(Premodifier(s))
Head
(Postmodifier(s))
SAQ 1.1.
Underline the noun phrases and analyze them into their
determiners, heads, premodifiers and postmodifiers.
Eating a wide variety of fruit and vegetables helps ensure
an adequate intake of most micronutrients and dietary
fibers, says a UN agency. Increased consumption can help
avoid eating foods high in fats, sugar and salt. Though
developing countries largely contribute to the global supply
of fruit and vegetables and production can still be improved,
many people in the developing world do not eat enough.
Consumption is often low amongst lower socio-economic
groups.
13
Basic concepts
[motion + past]
[cognition + present]
[ability]
[possibility]
[obligation]
perf.
modal
modal
modal
modal
perf.
perf.
perf.
perf.
progr.
progr.
progr.
progr.
passive
passive
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
writes
has written
is writing
has been writing
will write
will have written
will be writing
will have been writing
is written
has been written
Basic concepts
head
old
angry
fond
complement
with John
of music
15
Basic concepts
specifier
quite
head
independently
independently
complement
of me
head
on
behind
at
complement
the shelf
him
odds
16
(prep + noun)
(prep + prep + noun)
(prep + adv)
(prep + adj)
Basic concepts
SAQ 1.2.
Identify the type of phrase (NP, VP, AP, AdvP). The first
has been done for you.
1) anti-terrorist laws;
2) quite hot;
3) pretty soon;
4) the urban young;
5) in a hurry;
6) a small black bag;
7) a student of Physics;
8) very kind to Mary;
9) rather carelessly;
10) before the war;
11) every bridge over the river
12) so efficient in his work.
1.3. Words
Phrases are made up of words. Although they look familiar to
everyone, their definition is far from simple. Words are however
identifiable by such criteria as:
a) a regular stress pattern, the possibility of being preceded or
followed by pauses in speech or separated from one another by
means of spaces and punctuation marks, in writing:
The boy is reading a book.
b) being the minimal possible unit in an utterance:
John.
Tonight.
Basic concepts
play.
play, plays, played, playing
noun lexeme:
forms of the lexeme:
play
plays (pl.), plays; plays (genitive)
SAQ 1.3.
Look up the entries for study and intellectual in a dictionary.
Identify the lexemes for each, together with the
corresponding word forms.
Write your answers in the space provided below and then
compare them with those given at the end of the unit.
Basic concepts
A free morpheme is one which can stand alone (farm, job, task,
man, child, box, etc.). The morpheme farm, for instance, cannot be
broken down into smaller bits, and it typically has semantic content,
in our case, an area of land, and the buildings on it, used for growing
crops and/or keeping animals.
A bound morpheme is one which cannot occur as an
independent word (re-, dis-, -tion, -er, etc.) and has to be attached to
other morphemes to build words: replay, dislike, education, farmer.
Their semantic content is more difficult to isolate. Bound morphemes
are typically called affixes.
SAQ 1.4.
Decide in which of the following words re- is a bound
root?
rewrite, rest, redo, reevaluate, resistance,
revolution, reunification, repeat
Write your answers in the space provided below and then
compare them with those given at the end of the unit.
unnecessary, untold
misunderstand, misfortune
-ful
-tion
fruitful, careful
construction, exploitation
humanism,
humanitarian,
humans,
inhuman,
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Basic concepts
SAQ 1.5.A.
A. Identify the roots for the following words. Write your
answers in the space provided below and then compare
them with those given at the end of the unit:
1) impossible
2) cloudiness
3) childhood
4) teacher
5) development
20
6) peacefully
7) exceptionally
8) parental
9) friendship
10) industrialize
Basic concepts
SAQ 1.5.B.
B. Complete the words in italics with the correct
derivational suffix: -ness, -ize,- able, -ity, -ible, -ive, -ment, fy. hood. Write your answers in the space provided below
and then compare them with those given at the end of the
unit:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
grammatical meaning
3 pers. sg. present
verb
past
verb
progressive
verb
past participle
verb
plural
noun
possessive
noun
comparative
adjective
superlative
adjective
rd
example
works, falls
worked
working, falling
fallen
carts
farmers
warmer
warmest
21
Basic concepts
SAQ 1.6. A.
A. Which words contain a derivational affix and which
inflectional affix? Write your answers in the space
provided below and then compare them with those given
at the end of the unit:
eggs, walked, singing, react, goodness, capitalism,
John's, worker, faster, employee, given, quickest, jobs.
derivational affix
inflectional affix
SAQ 1.6. B.
B. Identify and name all inflected forms. Write your
answers in the space provided below and then compare
them with those given at the end of the unit. The first has
been done for you.
1. John's house looks older than this.
2. The boys studied longer than you.
3. Fred may have written the longest essay.
4. John claimed that he had tried to find you.
5. I am waiting for the student who o wns this book.
6. The tallest student studies in Bill's class.
1) Johns genitive;
2)
22
Basic concepts
Nouns
Nouns typically refer to concrete people and things as well as
to abstract ideas and phenomena (John, teacher, book, land, peace,
rain).
Lexical verbs
Lexical verbs typically denote actions ( work, write, play),
processes (change, develop, increase) or states (sleep, fear,
frighten).
Adjectives
Adjectives typically describe qualities, characteristics and
properties of objects, people and phenomena expressed by nouns.
(nice, difficult, easy)
Adverbs
Adverbs specify the circumstances (place, time, manner) in
which an action takes place (here, no w, slowly).
function words
subordinators, wh-words, the negator not, the
infinitive marker to
coordinators
auxiliaries, modals, adverbial particles
determiners, pronouns, numerals,
prepositions
23
Basic concepts
Determiners
Determiners are words that modify noun phrases. The most
important are:
a) The definite article (the) specifies that the referent is known to
the speaker:
There was a horse in the field. The horse was black.
b) The indefinite article (a/an) typically signals that something is
mentioned for the first time and thus represents new information:
She was talking to an old woman.
c) Demonstrative determiners (this/these, that/those) indicates
whether the referent of the noun phrase is close or remote in
distance, or time:
Look at that man over there.
(remote in distance)
I saw her this morning (= today in the morning).
(close in time)
d) Possessive determiners (my, your, his, her, our, their) express
ownership:
Their parties are always fun.
e) Quantifiers (some, few, many, much) specify the number or
amount of something:
I don't have much money with me.
Pronouns
A pronoun is a pro-form (a word, replacing other words,
phrases, clauses or sentences, whose meaning is understood from
the linguistic or extra linguistic context) which functions like a noun
and replaces a noun phrase.
a) Personal pronouns identify the participants in a communication
situation: the speaker (I/me, we/us), the addressee (you), and a
third referent that is neither speaker nor addressee (he/him,
she/her, it, they/them):
Tell them the news.
b) Reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, herself) show coreference with the subject:
She must be very proud of herself.
24
Basic concepts
used in
Auxiliary verbs
The three auxiliary verbs of English, be, have and do are used
to form up complex verb phrases. Have specifies perfective aspect:
He has known Mary for two years.
For a few brief minutes they had all been part of one little
drama.
The auxiliary be marks the progressive aspect and the passive
voice:
They are taking a course in fertilizers.
She was seen at the theater.
(progressive)
(passive]
25
Basic concepts
Modal verbs
Modal verbs are used to build up complex verb phrases. There
are nine modal auxiliaries in English: can, could, may, might, shall,
should, will, would and must. Several characteristics differentiate
modals from other verbs and auxiliaries. Modal verbs can express a
wide range of meanings (possibility, permission, necessity,
obligation, etc). The verbs dare (to), need (to), ought to, used to can
be regarded as marginal auxiliaries. Moreover, a number of
multiword verbs such as have to, had better, have got to, be going to
are close in meaning to modal verbs.
Prepositions
Preposition (about, at, by, do wn, in, of, etc.) are invariable
words that introduce prepositional phrases and connect them with
other elements of the clause.
There's nothing you can do about it now.
The stone rolled down the hill.
The kids were playing in the street.
Adverbial particles
Adverbial particles are invariable words (a way, back, down,
forth, off, past, up), different from adverbs and prepositions, which
are used to build phrasal verbs, such as: give up, bring about, make
up. Their basic meaning is of motion and result. They are closely
connected with the verb:
Working in the slums brought her up against the realities of
poverty.
26
Basic concepts
Coordinators
Coordinators or coordinating conjunctions link phrases and
clauses that have the same syntactic function. They can be simple
(and, but, or) or correlative (both ... and, either ... or). Coordinators
express the meanings of addition, alternative or contrast.
Both his mother and his father will be there.
Is your sister older or younger than you?
Well, I think she's either Russian or Polish.
His mother won't be there, but his father might.
(addition)
(alternative)
(alternative)
(contrast)
Subordinators
Subordinators or subordinating conjunctions are words that
introduce finite dependent clauses. They indicate the meaning
relationship between the dependent clause and the superordinate
clause: time (after, as, since, while), reason (because), condition (if,
even if), comparison (as, than).
You can go swimming while I'm having lunch.
It's twenty years since I've seen her.
I did it because he told me to.
I'll get there, even if I have to walk.
It was much better than I'd expected.
(clausal negation)
(constituent negation)
27
Basic concepts
Numerals
A numeral is a word, functioning most typically as an adjective
or pronoun, that expresses a number, and relation to the number,
such as one of the following: quantity, sequence, frequency, and
fraction. There are four distinctive sets of numerals: cardinal (one,
two), ordinal (the first, the second), multiplicative (once, twice, four
times), distributive (by threes, in twos) and partitive (two thirds,
half):
Ten people were invited but only five turned up.
They go there twice a week.
It was the first time they had ever met.
Her mother had just given birth to another child, her fifth.
People arrived in twos and threes.
SAQ 1.7.
Identify the word classes in the following text. Write your
answers in the space provided below and then compare
them with those given at the end of the unit:
Two elephants went on holiday and sat down on the beach. It
was a very hot day and they fancied having a s wim in the sea.
Unfortunately they couldn't: they only had one pair of trunks!
Noun: elephants, holiday
Determiner:
Pronoun:
Adjective:
Numeral:
Verb:
Adverb:
Preposition:
Conjunction:
28
Basic concepts
Summary
Grammar is a description of a language. Morphology, as a
traditional part of grammar, deals with words and the changes that
affect their forms to express various grammatical meanings
associated with such categories as number, gender, case, tense,
aspect, mood, voice, or comparison. There are four fundamental
grammatical units characterized by a specific internal structure,
meanings and syntactic roles: clause, phrase, word and
morpheme. Phrases can be classified with regard to their head into
noun phrases, verb phrases, adjectival phrases, adverb phrases
and prepositional phrases. Words can be grouped into lexical
words (noun, verb, adjective and adverb) and function words
(pronouns, auxiliaries, prepositions, conjunctions).
Key terms
affix
aspect
case
clause
comparison
determination
grammatical category
grammatical meaning
inflection
mood
modality
morpheme
phrase
root
sentence
stem
tense
voice
word
Further reading
Downing, Angela and Philip Locke (1995). A University Course in
English Grammar. New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo,
Singapore: Phoenix ELT.
Greenbaum, Sidney and Randolph Quirk (1991). A Students
Grammar of the English Language. Harlow, England: Longman.
Levitchi, Leon (1970). Limba englez contemporan. Morfologia.
Bucuresti: Editura Didactic si Pedagogic.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik
(1976). A Grammar of Contemporary English. Longman.
29
Basic concepts
30
Basic concepts
a
an
a
the
premodifier
wide
adequate
head
variety
intake
UN
increased
agency
consumption
foods
countries
supply
production
people
consumption
groups
developing
global
many
lower socioeconomic
postmodifier
of fruit and vegetables
of most micronutrients and
dietary fibers
high in fats, sugar and salt
of fruit and vegetables
in the developing world
SAQ 1.2.
1. NP; 2. AP; 3. AdvP; 4.NP; 5. PP; 6. NP; 7. NP; 8. AP; 9. AdvP; 10. PP;
11. NP; 12. AP.
SAQ 1.3.
SAQ 1.4.
SAQ 1.5.
SAQ 1.6.
Basic concepts
SAQ 1.7.
word class
noun
determiner
pronoun
adjective
numeral
verb
adverb
preposition
conjunction
item
elephants, holiday, beach, day, s wim, sea, pair, trunks
the, a
it, they
hot
two, one
went, sat, was, fancied, having, couldnt, had
down, very, unfortunately, only
on, in, of
and
32
Nouns
UNIT 2
Nouns
Objectives
34
34
34
35
36
36
38
2.3. Number
2.3.1. Countable v. uncountable nouns
2.3.2. Regular plural formation
2.3.3. Irregular plural formation
2.3.4. Foreign plurals
2.3.5. Nouns resistant to number contrast
39
39
39
46
48
49
2.4. Case
2.4.1. The common case
2.4.2. The genitive case
51
51
51
2.5. Gender
2.5.1. Lexical expression of gender
2.5.2. Morphological expression of gender
2.5.3. Dual gender nouns
55
55
56
57
Summary
Key terms
Further reading
Send away assignment (SAA) 2
Answers to self-assessed questions (SAQs )2.1 2.10
58
59
59
59
62
33
Nouns
Aim
This unit will introduce you to the morphological characteristics of
nouns, as basic elements of noun phrases. You will study the nominal
categories of gender, number and case, which will facilitate your
understanding of the correct use of the noun in communication. You
will learn a number of important concepts used in the analysis of
nouns as well as develop practical skills by solving exercises.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
explain how nouns are formed;
classify nouns according to morphological and semantic
criteria;
explain the difference between countable and uncountable
nouns;
identify and use classes of nouns in the plural form;
illustrate the various meanings of the genitive constructions;
distinguish between nouns in the masculine, feminine and
neuter.
34
Nouns
Nouns
meat
bird
[U]
[C]
(verb)
(noun)
(noun)
36
Prefix
basic meanings
examples
antiautocounterhyper
interminimonononoutprepseudoresemisubsuperteleunder-
against, opposite to
self
against
extreme
between; among
small
one
not
outside; separate
before
false
again
half
below
more than; above
distant
below; too little
antiabortionist
autobiography
counterargument
hyperinflation
interaction
minibus
monotheism
nonconformist
outgrowth
predecessor
pseudo-democracy
reconstruction
semicircle
submarine
superhero
teleshopping
underachievement
Nouns
for-, mis-, out-, over-, under-, up-, withdis-, neo-, non-, pre-, pro-, sub-, super-, transanti-, bio-, geo-, hyper-, macro-, psycho-, tele-
SAQ 2.1.
Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of the
words in parentheses. Write your answers in the spaces provided
below and compare them with those given at the end of the unit:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
(help)
(sincere)
(confide)
(precede)
(drama)
6) (appreciate)
employer (noun).
Suffix
meanings
examples
-ance
-ant, -ent
-dom
-ee
-er
action/state of V-ing
person who V-s
state of being A/N
person who has been V-ed
person who V-s
smth. used for V-ing
amount that fills N
person concerned with N
action of V-ing
doctrine of N
person believing in N-ism
state of quality of being A
state of being N
skill as N
assistance
assistant
freedom
employee
farmer
computer
handful
mathematician
reading
Marxism
Marxist
blindness
friendship
craftsmanship
37
-ful
-ician
-ing
-ism
-ist
-ness
-ship
Nouns
(noun) drink
(noun) cut
(noun) move
(noun) the poor
(noun) the young
example
noun + noun
noun+verb-er
noun+verb-ing
adjective+noun
verb+noun
verb-ing+noun
verb+particle
particle+verb
database
bookseller, screwdriver
housekeeping
blackbird
cookbook
printing-press
go-between, dropout
income, input
SAQ 2.2.
Express the following ideas using a noun + noun structure.
Write your answers in the spaces provided below and compare
them with those given at the end of the unit:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
38
a paper factory
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
Nouns
2.3. Number
The grammatical category of number in nouns correlates with
the notion of countability. The number system has two terms:
singular, which denotes one, and plural, which denotes more than
one.
Think first!
Before reading the next section, identify the nouns in the
following paragraph and state whether they denote
countable entities or amounts of substance. Write your
answers in your portfolio and be prepared to discuss
them with your tutor and your colleagues.
The FAO report on forests and water stresses the need to
improve environment policy in support of the management of
mountain forests and upland areas. Mountainous forested
watersheds are the most important freshwater-yielding areas
in the world but also the source area for landslides, torrents
and floods.
Food and Agriculture Organization, Loss of forest cover threatens freshwater
supplies.
countable entities
one paper - two papers
one forest - two forests
substance
water
box - boxes
bus - buses
39
Nouns
Nouns
SAQ 2.3.A.
A. Complete each sentence with one suitable word from
the list. Use each word once only: blade, flight, item, piece,
sheet, head, lump, set, slice. Write your answers in the
spaces provided below and compare them with those
given at the end of the unit:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
SAQ 2.3.B.
B. Use a dictionary to decide what you call a group of . . .
ants
ducks
horses
rabbits
bees
fish
locusts
sheep
cattle
flies
mares
trout
chickens
geese
oxen
turkeys
cows
goat
pigeons
wolves
dogs
hen
pigs
_______
_______ _______
_______
_______
_______ _______
_______ _______
41
Nouns
a flush / team of
a shoal of
a flock of
a herd / team of
a plague of
a stud of
a team / yoke of
a flight / flock of
a colony / bury /nest of
a hover of
_______ _______
_______
_______
_______ _______
_______
_______
_______
_______
_______
_______
Think first!
Write the plural form of cat, dog, bush, church, fox.
.
.
How is the plural of these nouns formed?
When do you add es instead of s to form the plural of a
noun?
.
.
..
Write the plural form of the nouns
day, poppy, wolf, knife, tomato, potato
.
.
How do you form the plural of nouns ending in y, -f, and
fe ?
.
.
.
Write your answers in your portfolio too and be prepared to
discuss them with your tutor and/or your colleagues.
42
Nouns
map maps
cat cats
book books
cliffcliffs, roofroofs, gulf--gulfs
moth moths
The plural ending is pronounced /z/ when the singular ends with
a vowel or with a voiced consonant:
/b/
/d/
/g/
rib ribs
bed beds
pig pigs
The plural ending -es , pronounced [iz], is added when the noun
ends in sibilants [s, , ,, z, : ]
/s /
/ /
/ /
/z /
/ /
horse horses
bush bushes
church churches
prize prizes
mirage mirages
factory factories
wife wives
leaf leaves
shelf-- shelves
Nouns
SAQ 2.4.A.
A. Write the plural form of the nouns ending in y:
1) He withdrew the key from his pocket where he had been
toying with it.
2) There is a growing tendency among employers to hire
casual staff.
3) He waited for the students reply.
4) A grand jury called 10 witnesses yesterday.
5) The Secretary of State has repeated a warning.
6) Finding a doctor can be difficult in a foreign country.
Write your answers in the spaces provided below and
compare them with those given at the end of the unit:
44
Nouns
SAQ 2.4.B.
Write the plural form of the nouns ending in -o:
1) It was just a potato and tomato salad but it was the best
John had ever had.
2) If you listen carefully, you will hear the echo coming back
from the mountain.
3) In times of trouble anybody can become a hero.
4) On the piano there was a framed photo taken ten years
ago at their wedding ceremony.
5) Granny was watching too many soap operas on TV and
she never listened to the radio.
Write your answers in the spaces provided below and
compare them with those given at the end of the unit:
Think first!
Simple nouns get the s/-es marker of the plural attached
at the end of the word. What about compound nouns?
Underline the correct plural form:
A grown-up is requested to pay all the fees.
Grown-ups / growns up are requested to pay all the fees.
A gentleman farmer was invited to attend the meeting.
Several gentleman farmers / gentlemen farmers were invited to
attend the meeting.
Write your answers in your portfolio too and be prepared to
discuss them with your tutor and your colleagues.
45
Nouns
attorneys general
notaries public
passers-by
mothers-in-law
grants-in-aid
gentlemen farmers
menservants
women doctors
grown-ups
stand-bys
forget-me-nots
sit-ins
46
man men
woman women
/w u m n /
/wimin /
mouse mice
louse lice
Nouns
Zero plural
Some nouns have the same form both in the singular and in the plural.
They fall into three main categories: names of animals, quantifying
nouns and nationality names.
a) Nouns naming animals. Sheep, deer and cod though
countable have the same form for the singular and the plural. These
nouns take a verb either in the singular or in the plural:
This sheep has just had a lamb.
These sheep have just had lambs.
Other animals, birds and fishes can have zero plurals,
especially when viewed as prey:
They shot two reindeer, though this is strictly forbidden.
The woodcock/ pheasant/ herring/ trout/ salmon/ fish are
not very plentiful this year.
When these animals are not seen as a pray, they have the
regular s plural:
Arent those pheasants beautiful?
b) Nouns of quantity. There is a strong tendency for units of
number, of length, of value and of weight to have a zero plural when
premodified by another quantitative word:
three dozen / hundred people
many thousand / million insects
eight ton of coal
ten head / yoke of oxen
three pound / stone of potatoes
However, when not preceded by numerals, these nouns have
normal plural forms:
Dozens (and dozens) of people crowded into the room.
Thousands of people had lived in the flooded area.
c) Nationality names ending in ese (Portuguese, Chinese,
Japanese) also have zero plurals:
The Chinese are friendly, honest, and terribly proud of their
country.
47
Nouns
bacilli
stimuli
corpora
genera
foreign plural
formulas
vertebras
indices
matrices
analyses
axes
bases
crises
hypotheses
parentheses
theses
48
criteria
phenomena
formulae
vertebrae
Nouns
foreign plural
bureaus /-uz /
plateaus
bureaux /-u/
plateaux
SAQ 2.5.
The following nouns have retained in English their original
Latin or Greek plural forms. Write them in the
corresponding row. Some nouns have two plural forms:
the original one, and a second one following the English
rules of plural formation. Compare them with those given
at the end of the unit:
bacterium, criterion, curriculum, datum, formula, fungus, index,
larva, phenomenon, thesis, syllabus, synthesis
-us -i
-a -ae
-um -a
-ex, -ix -ices
-is -es
-on -a
Nouns
b) Plural nouns (also pluralia tantum) are nouns with only one form,
the plural. The set includes binary nouns (also known as
summation plurals). They refer to entities which comprise two
parts: tools and instruments (scissors, forceps, scales, tongs), and
articles of dress (jeans, pants, pajamas, shorts, trousers):
These scissors are too blunt.
These trousers dont match your shirt.
c) Collective nouns are common nouns that refer to groups of
people: class, committee, family, firm, government, jury, ministry,
party, staff, team, union, etc. Collective nouns agree with the verb
either in the singular or in the plural depending on their meaning. If
collective nouns are considered as denoting a group of individuals
doing personal things or involved in performing certain activities, they
are followed by a verb in the plural and plural pronouns:
My family are at the seaside. They are all on the beach now.
My children are playing and my wife is watching them.
My firm are wonderful. They do all they can for me.
When the emphasis is on the group as an impersonal unit, an
abstract entity, the collective noun is followed by a verb in the
singular:
The average British family has 3-6 members.
My firm was founded in the 19th century.
SAQ 2.6.
Underline the correct form of the verb. Compare your answers
with those given at the end of the unit:
1) My family always spend / spends their Easter holiday up in
the North of Moldavia.
2) The press was / were asked to leave the hall.
3) The press was / were asked to take their seats
4) The team has / have been working in different places since
May.
5) The whole team has / have been working on the same
project since May.
6) The police has / have no idea about the identity of the
murderer.
7) The police is / are looking for the murderer.
8) In this village it is the community that decide / decides
9) The staff is / are arguing fiercely with their opponents.
10) Cattle is / are feeding on the banks of the river.
50
Nouns
2.4. Case
Case is a grammatical category determined by the syntactic
function and the semantic role of a noun. Morphologically, English
nouns have two cases: the unmarked common case and the marked
genitive case.
Analogues
a)
possessive genitive
Marys passport
the cars wheel
b)
subjective genitive
the parents consent
c)
genitive of origin
the girls story
Englands cheeses
d)
objective genitive
the familys support
the boys release
e)
descriptive genitive
a womens college
a doctors degree
51
Nouns
toys
The
head
modifying of-phrase
head
modifying of-phrase
Europes future
Spains immigrants
Londons water supply
Harvards Linguistics department
52
Nouns
SAQ 2.7.
Match the situations when the s genitive is used with the
corresponding examples. The first has been solved for
you. When you have finished compare your answers with
those at the end of the unit:
1. when the first noun is a person or a big animal;
d.
2. when the first noun refers to a group of living creatures or
an organization;
3. with geographical names or places;
4. with some phrases connected to nature;
5. with words expressing time;
6. with words expressing distance;
7. with words expressing dimension or value;
8. with words followed by sake;
9. with nouns of special interest to human activity;
10. when the first noun is the user or producer of something
expressed by the second.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
53
Nouns
SAQ 2.8.
Rewrite the following sentences using s or the ofgenitive as appropriate. In certain cases both options
are possible. Compare your answers with those given at
the end of the unit:
1. Mary has a niece.
2. The project lasted for two years.
3. The town has a name.
4. The fence is colored.
5. The newspaper was published yesterday.
6. The accident has a cause.
7. The mayor has approved the funding.
8. The pupil has made a mistake.
9. The village road has an end.
10. The mountain is covered with forests.
11. This word has a meaning.
12. Dad has consented to our marriage.
13. A walk takes five minutes.
14. The cow gives milk.
15. The cottage has two windows.
54
Marys niece
Nouns
2.5. Gender
Gender is a grammatical category characteristic of nouns that
have male and female referents. It is therefore connected to
distinctions of sex and, consequently, the corresponding nouns tend to
be in separate classes, namely masculine and feminine. Such
distinctions are not normally made in the case of nouns referring to
things, which are therefore classified as neuter.
uncle - aunt
nephew - niece
spinster bachelor
lord lady
king - queen
monk - nun
cock - hen
stallion - mare
stag - hind
(female) nurse
(female) student
girl-friend
Jenny ass
she-goat
hen sparrow
tabby cat
55
Nouns
chairwoman
spokeswoman
businesswoman
congresswoman
feminine
actor
governor
mayor
mister
god
hero
actress
governess
mayoress
mistress
goddess
heroine
[the arrow shows the direction of derivation]
56
masculine
feminine
widower
bride
<=
<=
widow
bridegroom
Nouns
SAQ 2.9.
A. Underline the nouns marked for gender and give the
corresponding masculine or feminine pairs. Write your
answers in the spaces provided below and compare them
with those given at the end of the unit. The first has been
done for you:
1) Parents of the bridegroom are Mr. and Mrs. Ferguson
2) The hero of this novel is a man fighting injustice.
3) Gavin's stallion was in the barn.
4) The old woman had a nephew from Northern Italy.
5) "God save the King!
6) She is a very high-powered businesswoman.
7) The hunters had killed a lioness.
8) The Congresswoman tried hard, but she failed.
9) They have a she-goat in the barn.
1) bridegroom (M) bride (F);
Nouns
SAQ 2.10.
Fill in the table below, indicating the corresponding
masculine, feminine of dual gender noun (wherever
possible). Compare your answers with those given at
the end of the unit:
masculine
ram
engineer
stag
chairman
feminine
niece
spinster
nanny-goat
widow
dual
pig
sheep
engineer
goat
horse
hen
Summary
In this unit we have discussed the morphological criteria used to
identify a number of noun classes: proper nouns, which name unique
entities, and common nouns, which name ordinary things, further
grouped into countable and uncountable. Such distinctions correlate
with different grammatical patterns (countable nouns have singular
and plural number, while uncountable have only one form, either in the
singular or in the plural). The category of number indicates the
opposition between one, and more than one. Although most English
common nouns mark the plural by means of an s suffix, a large
number of nouns do not follow this pattern and use other markers:
vowel change, zero plural, etc. The English case system consists in
the unmarked common case (corresponding to the nominative, dative
and accusative cases) and the marked genitive case. The choice is
between a premodifying s genitive and a postmodifying genitive (ofgenitive) and depends on gender distinctions, the s genitive being
favored by animate nouns. In English, the grammatical category of
gender is closely connected with sex distinctions. Animate nouns are
masculine or feminine. Inanimate nouns are neuter.
58
Nouns
Key terms
case
collective noun
common noun
compound noun
countable
uncountable
foreign plurals
gender
genitive
noun
number
proper noun
quantifier
zero plural
Further reading
Baciu, Ileana (1999). English Morphology: Word Formation. A
generative perspective. Bucuresti: Editura Universitatii din
Bucuresti, 195 - 209.
Coser C. Vulcnescu R. (2004). Developing competence in English.
Intensive English Practice, Polirom, Iasi, pp. 11-40.
Glteanu, Georgiana, Ecaterina Comisel (1982). Gramatica limbii
engleze, Editura didactic si pedagogic, Bucuresti, pp 71 93.
Hulban, Horia (2004) Syntheses in English Morphology, Editura
Spanda, Iasi, 16 95.
Parlog, Hortensia (1995). The English Noun Phrase. Hestia Publishing
House. Timisoara.
59
Nouns
60
Nouns
guests,___________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
Nouns
SAQ 2.2.
Nouns
SAQ 2.3.
SAQ 2.4.
SAQ 2.5.
nuclei
/nucleuses
fungus fungi
/ funguses
syllabus
syllabi
/
syllabuses
[-ix, -ex > -ices]
index indices
bacterium
bacteria
phenomena
criterion - criteria
SAQ 2.6.
SAQ 2.7.
1. d; 2. h; 3. e; 4. f; 5. g; 6. b; 7. i; 8. j; 9. c; 10. a.
SAQ 2.8.
A.
1. two year project; 3. the towns name/ the name of the town;
4. the color of the fence; 5. yesterdays newspaper; 6. the cause of
the accident; 7. the mayors approval of the funding; 8. the pupils
63
Nouns
mistake; 9. the end of the village road; 10. the mountains forests /
the forests of the mountain; 11. the meaning of the word; 12. Dads
consent to our marriage; 13. a five minutes walk / a walk of five
minutes; 14. the cows milk; 15. the windows of the cottage.
NOTE: Should your answers to SAQs 2.7 - 2.8 not be
comparable to those given above, we strongly advise you to
revise section 2.4.
SAQ 2.9.
A.
1. bride; 2. heroine; 3. mare; 4. niece; 5. queen; 6.
businessman; 7. lion; 8. congressman; 9. he-goat.
SAQ 2.10.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
hog
nephew
ram
bachelor
engineer
billy-goat
widower
stag
stallion
chairman
cock
sow
niece
ewe
spinster
female engineer
nanny goat
widow
hind
mare
chairwoman
hen
pig
sheep
engineer
goat
deer
horse
chairperson
-
64
UNIT 3
Determiners and pronouns
Objectives
66
3.1. Determiners
3.1.1. The article
3.1.1.1. The indefinite article
3.1.1.2. The zero article
3.1.1.3. The definite article
3.1.2. Possessive determiners
3.1.3. Demonstrative determiners
3.1.4. Quantifiers
3.1.5. Numerals
3.1.6. Semi-determiners
66
67
68
70
72
76
76
77
81
85
3.2. Pronouns
3.2.1. Personal pronouns
3.2.2. Possessive pronouns
3.2.3. Reflexive pronouns
3.2.4. Reciprocal pronouns
3.2.5. Indefinite pronouns
3.2.6. Demonstrative pronouns
3.2.7. Interrogative pronouns
3.2.8. Relative pronouns
87
87
89
90
91
92
955
966
977
Summary
Key terms
Further reading
Send-away assignment (SAA 4)
Answers to self-assessed questions (SAQs) 3.1 3.13
98
99
99
99
102
65
Aim
In this unit we will continue our study of the noun phrase by focusing
on those items that precede the head - generically called determiners.
The second section will examine various types of pronouns and their
function as substitutes for nouns in appropriate contexts.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
3.1. Determiners
Determiners are words that specify the reference of a noun, i.e.
the entity in the real world to which a noun refers. The combinations
of nouns with certain determiners differ depending on the type of
noun. Among determiners, three sub-groups may be identified
according to their position:
1) Central determiners, with three subgroups:
a) articles: the, a,
b) demonstrative determiners: this, these, that, those
c) possessive determiners: my, your, his, etc
Central determiners are mutually exclusive, i.e. they cannot be
used simultaneously in the same noun phrase. This (sg) and these
(pl) are used to refer to a particular person(s), thing(s) or event(s)
that is/are close in time or space:
How long have you been living in this country?
He never comes to see me these days.
66
In contrast, that (sg) and those (pl) are used for referring to a
person/persons or thing(s) that is/are not near the speaker or as near
to the speaker as another/others:
Look at that man over there.
I was living with my parents at that time.
I think you'll find these shoes more comfortable than those.
2) Predeterminers: all, both, half and multipliers like double, once.
As their name indicates, predeterminers precede central determiners:
There is much truth in both these charges.
I'm gradually losing all my friends.
3) Post determiners, with two sub-groups:
a) ordinal numerals first, second and the semideterminers same, other, former, latter, last and next
b) cardinal numerals six, ten and quantifying determiners
much, many
Post determiners follow central determiners:
The disappearance of my former partner is extremely troubling.
These two colors don't look right together.
an umbrella
an egg
/ ju / a university, a union
/ ju / a Euro, a European
/ wu / a woman,
/ w/ a one-time hero
an hour /`au/
67
SAQ 3.1.
Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the indefinite
article (a, an) in the following noun phrases. Compare our
answers with those at the end of the unit:
1. honorable person; 2. historical speech; 3. honest
refusal; 4. heiress to the throne; 5. hare; 6.
Englishman; 7. European journey; 8. engineer; 9.
elephant; 10. useful book; 11. unintentional mistake;
12. unilateral agreement; 13. Ukrainian skater; 14.
one-way street; 15. wall; 16. worm; 17. one-man band;
18. Australian student; 19. ear-ring; 20. owl.
68
d) in idiomatic expressions with verbs like have, go, make, take, etc.,
to indicate an action:
have a talk / a walk / a sleep
have/take a bath / a look / a rest / an interest in
go for a ride / a run / a s wim / a walk
make a(n) attempt / a fuss / a mistake / a speech
You can have a sleep tonight.
If I'm lucky I will go for a ride on my stallion.
SAQ 3.2.
Decide whether the nouns are countable [C] or
uncountable [U] and use the correct form of the indefinite
article. Write your answers in the spaces provided below.
Compare our answers with those at the end of the unit.
The first has been done for you:
1. My neighbor is a photographer [C]; lets ask him for
advice [] about color films.
2. We had fish [] and chips [] for lunch [].
3. He is vegetarian [] ; you wont get meat [] at his
house. Hell give you nut cutlet [] .
4. travel agent would give you information []
about hotels [].
5. Wed better go by taxi [] if we can get taxi []
at such hour [] as 2 a.m.
6. I hope you have lovely time [] and good weather
[]. But Im not going for holiday []; Im going on
business [] .
7. I have headache [] and sore throat [] . I think
Ive got cold [] .
8. If you go by train [] you can have quite
comfortable journey [] .
9. Im having few friends [] in to coffee [] tomorrow
evening. Would you like to come?
10. Ill pay you hundred [] week [] . Its not
enormous salary [] but after all you are completely
unskilled man [] .
69
70
Meals
The zero article refers to the general term meal. In contrast,
the definite article is used if a special meal is singled out:
They had lunch at a cafe overlooking the intersection.
Jack grabbed the lunch from the table and went out.
days, months and seasons
We use the zero article with the names of the days of the week
and months of the year:
In April came a rapid thaw that produced high waters.
When winter comes in 12 weeks, they will freeze.
a unique position
Jobs and positions normally require an indefinite article, but
when somebody gains a unique position, the zero article is used:
Queen Elizabeth had lunch with President Bush.
He was elected chairman of the committee.
means of transport and communication
Prepositional phrases opening with the preposition by take a
noun with the zero article:
(go)
(travel)
(contact)
(send)
71
double expressions
The zero article is sometimes found in combinations of identical
or semantically related nouns, particularly with prepositions:
arm in arm
day after day
day by day
from cover to
cover
72
73
SAQ 3.3.a.
A. From the knowledge you have acquired about the use
of determiners with nouns denoting parts of the
human body, fill in the gaps either with an article or
with a possessive determiner, if necessary. Compare
your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) The bullet struck him in . arm.
2) Someone threw an egg which struck the speaker
on . shoulder.
3) I have a pain in . shoulder.
4) He stroked .. chin thoughtfully.
5) The lioness bit him in .. leg.
6) We shook .. hands with the host.
7) He is a selfish man; he wouldnt lift . finger
to help anyone.
8) Youll strain eyes if you read in bad
light.
9) She was soon on . knees, scrubbing the
kitchen floor.
10) I hit .. thumb with a hammer when I was
hanging the picture.
11) I saw him raise . right hand and take an
oath.
12) There was a shot and a policeman came out
with blood running down ..
face.
SAQ 3.3.b.
B. The following illustrate the use of the definite article.
Match the statements to each set of examples:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
74
g.
h.
i.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
SAQ 3.3.c.
C. Insert the definite article if necessary. Compare your
answers with those given at the end of the unit:
1. .. youngest boy has just started going to .
school; . eldest boy is at college.
2. When . Titanic was crossing Atlantic she
struck an iceberg which tore a huge hole in her bow. ..
captain ordered crew to help . passengers
into . boats.
3. Therell always be a conflict between old and .
young. .. young people want . change but
old people want . things to stay .. same.
4. Id like to see Mr. Smith, please. Do you mean
Mr. Smith who works in box office or other Mr.
Smith?
75
singular
this book
that book
plural
these books
those books
76
3.1.4. Quantifiers
Some determiners specify nouns in terms of quantity and are
therefore called quantifiers. They combine with both definite and
indefinite noun phrases. In the latter case, they are generally
followed by of:
all money
some money
much money
Inclusive
Large quantity
79
SAQ 3.4.a.
A. In the following sentences, fill in the gaps with one of
the following quantifiers: much, many, a lot of, a little, little,
a fe w, few. Compare your answers with those given at the
end of the unit.
1)
SAQ 3.4.b.
B. Fill in the spaces in the sentences below with some,
any, no. Compare your answers with those given at the
end of the unit:
1. There arent buses but you can take the train.
2. Ive got interesting ideas if you are willing to hear
them.
3. They never have fun.
4. Can I offer you wine?
5. If theres . milk left, put it in the fridge.
6. Do you know if .. of Johns friends is coming to the
party?
7. Hardly . of the new cars have acceptable prices.
80
3.1.5 Numerals
A numeral is a word, functioning most typically as a modifier of
a noun that expresses quantity or sequence. There are two main
types of numerals: cardinal numerals and ordinal numerals.
Cardinals are clearly related to quantifying determiners but differ from
these in providing a numerical rather than a more general
specification, i.e. they are used to express how many objects are
referred to:
There were some papers to be filled in. (quantifying det erminer)
There were four papers to be filled in. (cardinal numeral)
Ordinals, on the other hand, specify nouns in terms of order.
They designate position in a sequence and are more like semideterminers:
The first paper to be filled in was on the table.
English numerals are systematic in the sense that, with few
exceptions, they are formed by adding suffixes to other numbers, as
can be seen below:
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
30
cardinal numeral
naught, zero
one
two
three
four
five
six
seven
eight
nine
ten
eleven
twelve
thirteen
fourteen
fifteen
sixteen
seventeen
eighteen
nineteen
twenty
twenty-one
twenty-two
twenty-three
twenty-four
thirty
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th
13th
14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
19th
20th
21st
22nd
23rd
24th
30th
ordinal numeral
first
second
third
fourth
fifth
sixth
seventh
eighth
ninth
tenth
eleventh
twelfth
thirteenth
fourteenth
fifteenth
sixteenth
seventeenth
eighteenth
nineteenth
twentieth
twenty-first
twenty-second
twenty-third
twenty-fourth
thirtieth
81
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
101
forty
fifty
sixty
seventy
eighty
ninety
one hundred
one hundred and
one
one thousand
one thousand and
one
one thousand, two
hundred and fiftyfour
two thousand
one hundred
thousand
six hundred and
fifty-eight
thousand, nine
hundred and two
one million
1,000
1,001
1,254
2,000
100,000
658,902
1,000,000
40th
50th
60th
70th
80th
90th
100th
101st
fortieth
fiftieth
sixtieth
seventieth
eightieth
ninetieth
one hundredth
one hundred and first
1,000th
1,001st
one thousandth
one thousand and
first
one thousand, two
hundred and fifty
fourth
two thousandth
one hundred
thousandth
six hundred and fiftyeight thousand, nine
hundred and second
1,254th
2,000th
100,000th
658,902nd
Other numerals
1,000,000,000
1,000,000,000,000
British
one thousand million
one billion
American
one billion
one trillion
Br.E.
Am.E.
82
write
and read
Am.E.
write
and read
March 2, 1996
March the second nineteen ninety-six
=
=
12 inches
2.5 cm
30 cm
83
1 yard (yd)
1 mile (m)
=
=
1 acre
1 square mile
3 feet
=
1,760 yards =
=
=
1 ounce (1 oz)
1 pound (1 lb)
1 stone (British only)
1 kg
1 British pint
1 US pint
1 gallon
1 British gallon
1 US gallon
90 cm
1.6 km
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.4 hectares
259 ha
28 g
16 ounces =
455 g
14 pounds =
6.4 kg
2.2 pounds (2.2 lb)
568 cl
473 cl
8 pints (8 pt)
4.55 litres
3.78 litres
84
2x2 =4
7-4 =3
3x2 =6
(informal)
(informal)
(formal)
9:3 =3
(informal)
(formal)
(informal)
(formal)
g. The figure 0
In British English the figure 0 is called nought. When referring
to team games it becomes nil:
Manchester three; Liverpool nil.
In telephone numbers or accounts it is read like the letter O [u]:
My account number is 41206090.
My account number is four one two o six o nine o.
In measurements (for instance of temperature) 0 is called zero:
zero degrees Fahrenheit=17.8 degrees below zero Centigrade
In American English the figure 0 is called zero. Both the British
and the Americans use love for tennis game scores.
SAQ 3.5.
Read the following numbers. Compare your answers with
those given at the end of the unit:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
3.1.6. Semi-determiners
In addition to the determiners proper, there are some
determiner-like words which are often described as adjectives. They
differ from adjectives however in that they have no descriptive
meaning. Most semi-determiners co-occur either only with the
definite article or with the indefinite article but not with both. There
are four major parings of semi-determiners: same and other, former
and latter, last and next, certain and such.
Same may be added after the definite article to emphasize that
the reference is exactly to the person or thing mentioned before:
We were almost the same age. She was fifteen and I was
twelve.
These teams carried out the same operations in different areas.
85
3.2. Pronouns
A pronoun is a word which replaces a noun. The English
pronominal system consists of:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
I
you
he
she
it
we
you
they
accusative
me
you
him
her
it
us
you
them
possessive
determiner
pronoun
my
your
his
her
its
our
your
their
mine
yours
his
hers
ours
yours
theirs
reflexive
pronoun
myself
yourself
himself
herself
itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
It was he.
You think it's him?
(formal)
(informal)
SAQ 3.6.
The personal pronoun I is considered overcorrect, so in
informal speech me is used instead. Fill the gaps with the
appropriate form of the first person personal pronoun.
Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit:
1. When knocking at a friends door, do you say Its ?
or Its . ?
Well, it seems to . that . is the grammatically correct
form but . is the usage.
2. 'Whos there? Its only .. my friend Thomas and .
88
SAQ 3.7.
Fill in the gaps with the correct form of the possessive
pronoun. Compare your answers with those given at the
end of the unit:
1. My brother and I have bicycles but . is older than ..
2. Mary and John drink coffee but . is stronger than ..
3. Please, lend me a pencil. I forgot ..
4. I cant recognize his voice; but I never mistake . even
when you whisper.
5. We have a new tennis racket and Mary has a new one too,
but . is better quality than ..
89
90
SAQ 3.8.
SAQ 3.9.
Fill in the gaps with the correct reciprocal pronoun. Write
your answers in the spaces below. Compare them with
those given at the end of the unit:
1) Hearing the noise the three boys became silent and looked
at ....
2) Jane and Maggie used to help .... with
their Maths lessons.
3) The government and rebel delegations had begun to build
up some trust in ....
4) Ann and I allow .... absolute freedom.
5) Dear Lord, help each of us to care for . ..................... to
love .... and to help. .
6) The two smile at ....... and then move to hold one hand
together.
7) Everyone knew .... by name in the
village.
8) A committee of parents try to help .find
accommodation.
9) Europeans learn a little more about ....
10) Jerry holds his arms out and they both hug ......... and
pat ................................ on the back.
everybody
somebody
anybody
nobody
indefinite pronouns
everyone
everything
someone
something
anyone
anything
no one
nothing
SAQ 3.10.
Fill in the blanks with the corresponding indefinite
pronouns. Compare your answers with those given at
the end of the unit:
1) ............................. breathe a word about this!
2) ............................. stand up!
3) Have you had ............................. to eat, Peter?
4) I havent got ............................. to go with.
5) Theyve got ............................. to play with.
6) Is there ............................. who can advise me about tax?
7) Nothing is more precious than .............................s life.
8) I forbid ............................. to touch that clock.
9) Should we call a doctor or .............................?
10) When we confronted him, he denied .............................
94
95
SAQ 3.11.
Choose the correct form of the demonstrative pronouns
(P) or demonstrative determiners (D) in accordance with
the statement. Use this/these for something that is here,
close or happening now and that/those for something
that is over there, distant, unfinished or unwanted. Write
your answers in the spaces provided below. Compare
them with those given at the end of the unit. The first as
been done for you:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
96
SAQ 3.12.
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate interrogative
pronouns. Compare your answers with those given at the
end of the unit:
1) . way shall we go? By the stream or through the
woods?
2) .sort of film do you like best?
3) . will you have to drink?
4) . is the man over there?
5) . did you meet at the party?
6) . of your brothers works on this farm?
7) . has become of your old friend Martin?
8) . house is that?
9) . does he think he is to speak to us like that?
10) . umbrella did you take? I took Janes umbrella?
97
SAQ 3.13.
Insert in each blank the necessary relative pronoun.
Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit:
1) The boxer ............... career was ruined by health
problems was on TV last night.
2) The day ............... we met was the happiest of my life.
3) You'll have to speak to the person to ............... you gave
the money.
4) He's the guy ............... brother was sacked for stealing.
5) Is there a shop nearby ............... sells stamps?
6) Is there a store around here in . ............... I can get
some stamps?
7) They blamed me for everything ............... went wrong.
8) Nothing ............... she said surprised me.
9) There are those ............... say she should not have got
the job.
10) The man ............... answered the phone was rather
rude.
Summary
98
Key terms
article
cardinal numeral
definite article
demonstrative
pronoun
determiner
generic reference
indefinite article
indefinite pronoun
interrogative pronoun
ordinal numeral
personal pronoun
possessive pronoun
postdeterminer
predeterminer
pronoun
quantifiers
quantifying nouns
reciprocal pronouns
reference
reflexive pronoun
zero article
Further reading
Baciu, Ileana (2004). Functional Categories in English. Bucureti:
Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 89 137.
Foley, Mark and Diane Hall (2003) Advanced Learners Grammar.
London: Longman, 264-280.
Greenbaum, Sidney and Randolph Quirk (1991). A Students
Grammar of the English Language. Harlow, England: Longman,
70 -128.
Hulban, Horia (2004). Syntheses in English Morphology, Editura
Spanda, Iasi, 95 - 160, 178 - 230.
1)
2)
SAQ 3.2.
1) a., _; 2) _, _, _; 3) a, _,a; 4) a, _, _; 5) a, a, _, a, _, a; 6) a, _, a,
_; 7) a, a, a; 8) _, a; 9) a, _ 10) a, a, an, a.
SAQ 3.3.
A. 1. the; 2. the; 3. my; 4. his; 5. the; 6. _; 7. a; 8. your; 9. her; 10.
my; 11. his. 12. his.
B. a - 4; b 1; c 5; d 6; e 2; f 9; g 7; h 8; i 3.
C. 1. the, _, the, _; 2. the, the, The, the, the, the; 3. the, the. The, a,
the, _, the; 4. _, the, the.
NOTE: Should your answers to SAQ 3 not be comparable to
those given above, we strongly advise you to revise section
3.1.1.
SAQ 3.4.
SAQ 3.5.
1) one thousand nine hundred and five; thirty-three; one hundred and
seventy-nine; two thousand and eighty-nine; four; two hundred and
thirty-one; nine hundred and forty-one; 2) the fifth; the eighth; the
ninth; the twenty-fourth; the two hundred and forty-third; the nine
hundred and fifty-second; 3) three/fifths; six/eighths; two/thirds;
one/half; 4) nought/zero point three four one; five point four two
seven; nought/zero point two five one; 5) The second of
January/January the second nineteen seventy-eight; the twenty-third
of November/November the twenty-third two thousand and three; the
thirtieth of September/September the thirtieth seventeen eleven; oseven-one-five-two-o-seven-two-two/double two; o-six-one-seventwo-one-o-three-four; ten pounds (and) forty-five; thirty-five dollars;
forty-five Euros and ninety cents.
SAQ 3.6.
SAQ 3.7.
SAQ 3.8.
1. R; 2. E; 3. E; 4. R; 5. R; 6. E; 7. R; 8. R.
SAQ 3.9.
SAQ 3.10.
SAQ 3.11.
1. this (P); 2. those (D); 3. this (P); 4. that (D); 5. that (D); 6. These
(D); 7. that (P); 8. That (D); 9. that (D).
SAQ 3.12.
SAQ 3.13.
103
Verbs
UNIT 4
Verbs
104
Objectives
105
105
105
107
109
110
110
111
112
113
113
114
115
115
115
117
Verbs
Aim
In this unit, we discuss the morphological properties of lexical verbs
and show how these verbs are classified according to semantic and
syntactic criteria. You will also learn about the auxiliary verbs: be,
have, do. You will use new concepts in the analysis of verbs and
develop practical skills by solving exercises.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Verbs
inflection
lexical verbs
look
looks
looking
looked
-(e)s
-ing
-ed
play
plays
playing
played
try
tries
trying
tried
push
pushes
pushing
pushed
reduce
reduces
reducing
reduced
-(e)s is pronounced:
/s/ after voiceless consonants /p, t, k, f/, except /s, t/: hits, sleeps,
walks, laughs.
/z/ after vowels and voiced consonants: tries, moves, falls;
/iz/ after /s, z, ,/: passes, reduces, recognizes, pushes, watches.
-ed is pronounced:
/t/ after voiceless consonants: watched, stopped, looked;
/d/ after vowels and voiced consonants: tried, moved, called;
/id/ after /t, d/: waited, wanted, added, attended.
-(e)s is spelt es when the final letter of the verb is: s, z, sh, or ch:
pass - passes, push - pushes, watch - watches
If the base form of the verb ends in a consonant + e, the final e
is dropped before -ing or -ed:
reduce -- reducing -- reduced
If the verb ends in a consonant + y, the endings -(e)s, and -ed
take the form -ies and -ied respectively:
copy copies copied
dropping
admitting
dropped
admitted
ordering
failing
ordered
failed
Verbs
focussing
programming
cancelling
focussed
programmed
cancelled
SAQ 4.1.
Add -ing and -ed to the verbs below: agree -- agreeing
agreed. Write in the space provided below. Compare your
answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) argue;
2) cancel;
3) die;
4) dye;
5) enjoy;
6) hop;
7) hope;
8) hurry;
9) lie;
10) live;
11) occur;
12) offer;
13) picnic;
14) panic;
15) prefer;
16) refer;
17) regret;
18) stop;
19) travel.
past tense
built
sent
past participle
built
sent
107
Verbs
past tense
felt
told
left
brought
past participle
felt
told
left
brought
Class 3 verbs take the regular -ed suffix for past tense and the (e)n suffix for past participle:
base form
show
flow
past tense
showed
flowed
past participle
shown
flown
Class 4 verbs have no suffix for past tense forms but the suffix (e)n for the past participles, with a change in the vowel for one or
both:
base from
break
choose
eat
fall
forget
give
past tense
broke
chose
ate
fell
forgot
gave
past participle
broken
chosen
eaten
fallen
forgotten
given
Class 5 verbs have past tense and past participle forms marked
only by a change in the base vowel:
base form
come
begin
find
get
hang
past tense
came
began
found
got
hung
past participle
come
begun
found
got
hung
Class 6 verbs have past tense forms and past participle forms
identical to the base form:
base form
cut
hit
let
shut
108
past tense
cut
hit
let
shut
past participle
cut
hit
let
shut
Verbs
derived verb
dislike
mislead
overcook
undo
defrost
displace
encourage
discontent
enlarge
derived verb
assassinate
classify
computerize
simplify
actualize
blacken
SAQ 4.2.
Underline the derived verbs and comment on their
structure.
1) They should have their children immunized against
diphtheria.
2) They couldnt raise funds needed to industrialize all the
underdeveloped countries.
3) Pig manure has long been used to enrich soils.
4) He keeps his savings under his mattress because he
distrusts the banks.
5) His decision displeased the community.
6) They should encourage peasant families to grow
alternative crops.
7) The conflict demoralized the whole community.
8) Such a defeat is inevitably disheartening the football
team.
9) His wife persuaded him to institutionalize his aged
mother.
10) Parliament finally legalized trade unions.
109
Verbs
examples
verb + particle
verb + preposition
pick up
look at
verb + NP + preposition
verb + NP + PP
verb + verb
take a loot at
take into account
make do
intransitive
transitive
Verbs
prepositional verb
phrasal verb
Verbs
prepositional object
SAQ 4.3.
Decide whether the following verbs are: a. prepositional,
b. phrasal, c. prepositional phrasal verbs. Write your
answers in the space provided below. Compare your
answers with those given at the end of the unit. The first
has been done for you:
1) He turned the lights off when he went to bed.
b,
2) Raymond, I think you'll end up with her.
112
Verbs
4.2.4. Idioms
Fixed combinations of verb plus prepositional phrase
occasionally form idiomatic units, or idioms. Some of them can be
replaced by simple lexical verbs: bear in mind - remember, give sb.
the cold shoulder - reject, give sb. the creeps - frighten, have
second thoughts - change ones opinion, have green fingers - be
good at gardening, keep/lose ones head - act calmly, etc.:
It's important to bear in mind two things.
That house gives me the creeps.
You're not having second thoughts, are you?
This idiomatic category may include combinations of two verbs
such as make do (with) - manage, let sb go/be - allow sb. to
leave/do sth.:
We must make do with the evidence we have.
Let him be on the tractor beside me.
A few verbs, such as do, have, make, and take combine with
noun phrases and prepositional phrases to form set verbal
expressions:
You must take time into account.
This isn't very important. I don't want to make an issue of it.
progressive aspect
passive voice
113
Verbs
present
past
neutral statement
emphatic statement
neutral statement
emphatic statement
Summary
The verb expresses our perception of events, states, and acts of
consciousness. Lexical verbs can express a wide range of
meanings. Most English verbs are regular and have only four
morphological variants, involving three suffixes added to a base: (e)s, -ing and -ed. About 200 verbs have irregular morphological
variants for past tense and past participle forms. New verbs can be
114
Verbs
Key terms
auxiliary
idiom
lexical verb
multi-word lexical
verb
prepositional
phrasal verb
phrasal verb
prepositional verb
regular / irregular
Further reading
Budai, Lazlo (2000). Gramatica englez. Teorie i exerciii. Bucureti:
Teora, 9-12.
Courtney Rosemary (1983). Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs,
Longman Group, UK Limited.
Cowie, A.P. R. Mackin & I.R.McCaig (1993). Oxford Dictionary of
English Idioms, Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English,
volume 2, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik
(1976). A Grammar of Contemporary English, Longman. 24
69.
115
Verbs
116
Verbs
SAQ 4.2.
SAQ 4.3.
117
UNIT 5
Tense, aspect, voice, modality and mood
118
Objectives
119
5.1. Tense
5.1.1 Present simple
5.1.2. Past simple
119
120
125
5.2. Aspect
5.2.1. The simple aspect
5.2.2. The progressive aspect
5.2.2.1. Present progressive
5.2.2.2. Past progressive
5.2.3. The perfective aspect
5.2.3.1 Present perfect simple
5.2.3.2. Present perfect progressive
5.2.3.3. Past perfect simple
5.2.3.4. Past perfect progressive
5.2.4. Means of expressing future time
5.2.4.1. Future simple
5.2.4.2. Going to
5.2.4.3. Be to
5.2.4.4. Present progressive
5.2.4.5.Present simple
5.2.4.6. Future progressive
5.2.4.7. Future perfect
5.2.4.8. Future perfect progressive
128
128
128
131
132
134
134
136
138
141
141
141
141
142
143
143
143
144
144
5.3. Voice
145
5.4. Modality
5.4.1. Can could
5.4.2. May might
5.4.3. Must
5.4.4. Will would
5.4.5. Shall should
148
150
153
155
157
157
5.5. Mood
5.5.1. Indicative
5.5.2. Imperative
5.5.3. Conditional
5.5.4. Subjunctive
159
159
160
160
160
Summary
Key terms
Further reading:
Send-away assignment (SAA) 5
Answers to self-assessed questions (SAQs) 5.1 5.21.
164
165
165
166
168
Aim
Tense, aspect, voice and modality are fundamental categories in
grammar. Each of them represents perspectives from which we view
our experience of events. The category of tense marks the order of
events in time, while the category of aspect marks the temporal
contour of events, i.e. their duration, their being accomplished or not.
Tense and aspect are obligatory categories. With modality we add to
our statements such subjective meanings as possibility, probability,
necessity, prediction, or obligation.
Objectives
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
5.1. Tense
Time is a basic concept that exists independently of human
language. Tense, on the other hand, is the linguistic expression of
time relations realized by verb forms. It is a way of expressing events
as occurring at points situated along the linear flow of time. The
normal point of reference is the moment of speaking or the speech
time.
The moment of speaking is the point versus which some events
are anterior, i.e. they take place before the moment of speech, they
are recollected, posterior to the moment of speech, i.e. they are
anticipated and therefore will take place after the moment of
speaking, while other events are simply simultaneous with the
moment of speech, i.e. they happen at the same time.
Tense distinctions are largely dependent on whether the verb is
stative or dynamic. Stative verbs refer to a state of affairs, while
dynamic verbs refer to a sequence of separate events, as in:
I know nothing about him.
I wrote two letters yesterday.
(stative verb)
(dynamic)
(stative)
(dynamic)
119
examples
be, belong, contain, depend, have,
own, resemble, seem, sound
believe,
know,
realize,
think,
understand
disagrees, dislike, like, want, wish
feel, hear, see, smell, taste
ache, feel, hurt, itch, tickle
English verbs are inflected only for two tenses: present simple
and past simple.
drink milk.
drinks milk.
affirmative sentence
yes-no question
wh-question
tag-question
120
SAQ 5.1.A.
A. Fill in the gap with the correct present simple forms
(affirmative, interrogative, negative) of the verbs in
parentheses. Compare your answers with those given at
the end of the unit:
1) Fortunately, she . at my school.
(teach)
2) You ever . your grandma? Im sure
she . her relatives. (visit, miss)
3) My neighbor. to lock the gate
during the day. (not like)
4) .you . me
anymore? I . your brother.
He . a word of what
I . (not trust, understand, not
believe, say)
5) Pollution . the greenhouse effect
and it . life on the planet. (create,
endanger).
6) The foresters . a thousand saplings
on the hill slopes every spring. (plant)
SAQ 5.1.B.
B. Read quickly in the 3rd person singular: Compare your
answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Housewives have to work hard. They cook the meals, lay
the table, and wash up, clean the house and mend the
clothes. Sometimes they also do the washing and ironing
and look after the garden.
2. My name is Susan. I am a secretary. I write a lot of letters
every day, I answer the telephone, and meet people. I
type letters and official papers. I put papers away in the
file cabinet. I help my boss to plan his time. I also remind
him of important appointments. I work eight hours a day.
121
demonstrations or
step-by-step
instructions
performative verbs
(that refer to actions
performed while
uttering the clause)
JOAN:
That's good?
(Larkin moves away. He won't face her. Sound of a car, door
slamming, close. Joan looks up at the sound.)
LARKIN: (Quietly) Doing nothing is the brass ring in this
business.
SAQ 5.2.
Underline the verbs in the present simple and comment
on their meaning using the distinctions (ae) made above.
Write your answers in the space provided below.
Compare them with those given at the end of the unit. The
first has been done for you:
1. These men go to work by train every day. They stay in the
train for half an hour and sit and stand there and read the
newspapers. They try to read all the news during the journey
and in that way know a lot about the topics of the day.
2. Our friends leave for the seaside at three oclock today and
arrive there about seven; they spend their holidays there every
year and swim in the sea or sleep all the time. They forget
their work, enjoy the sea air and live as free as birds. Their
holidays finish in August.
3. Dogs make better pets than cats because they are more
friendly. They understand and obey their masters, but cats
like to live their own life.
4. One measures the coffee into a small saucepan, sprinkles
the gelatin and leaves it to soak for five minutes.
5. The park opens half and hour after sunrise and closes half
an hour before sunset.
6. A man comes to me yesterday and asks me to sign a
petition, but I dont feel like it, so I say no.
1) go--habitual present;
124
affirmative sentence
yes-no question
wh-question
tag question
SAQ 5.3.A.
A. In the narrative below put the verbs in brackets into the
simple past tense. Write your answers in the space
provided below. Compare them with those given at the
end of the unit. The first has been done for you:
Lightening twice by our house last night. (strike). We the
sound of thunder and we the lightening in the air. (hear,
smell) The first flash a neighborhood tree. (hit) It the bark
off the tree. (tear). Although the tree , the lightening the
tree. (not burn, kill) The second flash another
neighborhoods chimney and out a whole row of bricks.
(strike, tear) The chimney down noisily. (fall) The fire
immediately. (start) Our neighbors the firemen who ... at
once and the fire. (call, come, put out) We lucky. (be)
The lightening our house. (miss)
1)struck;
125
SAQ 5.3.B.
B. Ask yes-no questions to the following sentences. Write
your answers in the space provided below. Compare them
with those given at the end of the unit. The first has been
done for you:
A bird made a nest in this tree. It laid five eggs. Tommy saw
the nest. He climbed the tree. He held on to a branch with one
hand. He took two of the eggs. He put them in his mouth. He
needed both his hands. He began to climb down. One of the
branches broke. Tommy fell and hurt his arm. The eggs broke,
too. They tasted nice.
Did a bird make a nest in this tree?
indirect speech
SAQ 5.4.
In the sentences below put the verbs in brackets into the
past tense simple. Write your answers in the space
provided below. Compare them with those given at the
end of the unit. The first has been done for you:
Before modern farming methods, farmers (lose) many crops
owing to dry weather. Sometimes dry periods (last) for many
years. In those days, a long dry period, or drought, often (turn)
the land to dust. Then winds (come) along and (blow) the good
land away. This (happen) year after year. Farmers themselves
(make) the situation worse. Each year they (plant) the same
crops. They never (give) the land a rest. Farmers (have) a very
hard time until they (start) to use modern farming methods.
1) lost;
127
5.2. Aspect
While the category of tense marks the order of events in time,
the category of aspect marks the temporal contour of events, i.e.
their duration and their being accomplished or not. Three aspectual
distinctions are traditionally identified in English: simple, progressive
and perfective. Aspect always combines with tense.
Think first!
McDonalds slogan: Im loving it!
Is this slogan correct? Why? Why not? In case you
cannot find an answer, read what follows for a (possible)
solution. Write your answer in your portfolio and be
prepared to discuss it with your tutor or your colleagues.
128
example
They are building a house.
They were building a cottage.
The bird has been building a
nest.
He may be building a shelter.
A shelter is being built now.
A factory was being built then.
examples
like, dislike, hate, love, prefer, wish
verbs of cognition
Stative verbs are typically used in the simple aspect. One can
say I like your coffee, but not *I am liking your coffee.
When stative verbs are used in the progressive aspect their
meaning is altered. Verbs of cognition and relation take on dynamic
meanings, indicate temporary behavior or an attitude on the part of
the speaker. Verbs of perception combine with the progressive to
refer to deliberate actions rather than involuntary perception.
Compare the progressive and the non-progressive uses of certain
verbs:
129
simple aspect
Jane is at school.
progressive aspect
Jane is being rude today.
(She is a pupil)
(temporary attitude)
(I believe)
Im thinking of my grandmother.
(It is my opinion)
----
I see a bird!
(meet)
I heard music.
(get news)
SAQ 5.5.
Use the stative verbs either in the simple aspect or in the
progressive. Write your answers in the space provided
below. Compare them with those given at the end of the
unit. The first has been done for you:
1)
2)
3)
1) hear;
130
131
SAQ 5.6
Comment on the use of the present progressive in the
following, using the distinctions (a e) above. Write
your answers in the space provided below. Compare
them with those given at the end of the unit. The first
has been done for you:
1)
direct speech
indirect speech
SAQ 5.7.
A. Put the verbs in brackets in the past progressive,
then comment on the use of the past progressive. Use
the distinctions (a g) above.
1) Yesterday was December 31st. When the clock struck
midnight, Mr. Barton (pour) champagne and Mrs.
Barton cheerfully (talk) to her guests.
2) While she (eat) a sandwich, he was drinking some
wine.
3) She (work) in a hospital when I met her.
4) Your parents (live) in this town when you were born?
5) They (have) dinner at this time yesterday.
6) He always (invite) me to parties.
7) She (stay) with some relatives when I called on her.
133
SAQ 5.8.A.
A. Fill the gaps to distinguish between past simple (a)
and present perfect (b). Compare your answers with
those given at the end of the unit. The first has been
done for you.
1) Past tense expresses an event with no connection to
the present moment.
2) .. indicates an event that has just
taken place and whose effects are felt at the present.
3) The typical adverbs used with ..
are: just (already, yet, lately), today, this week
(month, year, summer), for (five minutes, two weeks,
three years), since (Monday, August, 1990).
4) The typical adverbs used with ..
are: just now, at two oclock, yesterday morning, last
week (month, year, winter), two minutes ago, five
weeks ago, three years ago)
5) Questions about time (when ?) have the verb
in .. .
6) Questions about quantity and number (How much ?
How many ?) contain a verb in the .
135
SAQ 5.8.B.
B. Now practice using the verb write in the past simple
or present perfect. Compare your answers with those
given at the end of the unit. The first has been done for
you:
1. Dickens wrote some very famous novels.
2. I two letters this evening. I will post
them tomorrow.
3. When you the
poem?
4. Who Harry Potter?
5. How many poems
you ?
6. I her several letters but she didnt
reply.
7. Mozart the
music?
8. The doctor me a prescription for
sleeping pills.
9. He for ages. (not write)
10. I sent them a card but they never ............... back.
(not completed)
(completed, result)
SAQ 5.9.A.
A. Fill the gaps to distinguish between the present perfect
simple (a) and the present perfect progressive (b).
Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit. The first has been done for you
a) Present perfect progressive emphasizes duration,
uninterrupted action still going on at present.
b) . focuses on repetition and completion of
the event.
c) Questions with How much or How many have the verb
in .
d) Questions with How long take a verb in the .
SAQ 5.9.B.
B. Fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs
given in parentheses. Compare your answers with those
given at the end of the unit. The first has been done for
you.
1) I have been earning my own living since I finished
school. (earn)
2) How much .. he ..? He a lot
of money lately. (earn)
3) How long ..the child .. TV?
(watch)
For two hours.
How many programs ..he ..?
(see)
Three.
4) I .. the car to work since I bought it. (drive)
How long you the car? I .. the car for
nine years. (drive)
5) The phone .. for the past five minutes. (ring)
6) His mother is very sick. He ..
just .. the hospital. (ring)
137
Compare:
When she sang, she sat down.
When she had sung, she sat down.
138
Direct Speech:
Ann: John returned from his trip two days ago. He has already
heard the news.
(past simple, present perfect)
You have annoyed the dog.
(present perfect)
Reported Speech:
Ann told me that John had returned from his trip two days
before and he had already heard the news.
I told him that he had annoyed the dog.
SAQ 5.10
Use either the past simple or the past perfect of the verbs
in parentheses. Write your answers in the space provided
below. Compare them with those given at the end of the
unit. The first has been done for you:
1) Almost all the guests (leave) by the time we (arrived).
2) John (wonder) whether he (leave) his wallet at home.
3) The couple (scarcely, enter) the house when they (begin)
to argue.
4) The teacher (ask) the boy why he (not do) his homework.
5) The car (hardly, go) a mile when it (have) a flat tire.
6) They (be) married for seven years when they finally (have)
a child.
7) No sooner he (leave) on holiday than he (return) because
his parents (ring up) him to tell him that some burglars
(break) into the house.
8) Betty (fill) the cake and (decorate) it with icing which she
(prepare) hours before and (keep) in the fridge to harden.
1) had left;
139
SAQ 5.11.
Fill in the gaps with the correct form of the verb in
parentheses. Use either past perfect simple or
progressive. Compare your answers with those given at
the end of the unit. The first has been done for you:
1) How long has Mary been watching TV by 10 oclock?
(watch)
She . TV for an hour.
How many programs she .. ?
She .. two programs.
2) How long . Jim .. English by January 2004?
(study)
He .. English for five months.
How many lesson ....he . from his
textbook?
He . 15 lessons.
3) They said they . to move to
the country for a long time. (plan)
4) We .. for forty-five minutes
when the bell rang. Then we stopped writing and handed
our papers in. (write)
5) 5) The waters of the river .. for the
last two days. The village was saved. (rise)
6) Aunt Berth .... the town with her
fresh vegetables for such a long time that even she
couldnt remember. (supply)
7) The lion ever .. the cage before it was
moved? (leave)
8) When I got to the butchers, he .. (close).
9) Didnt I warn you to be careful? If only you ...
(listen)
140
5.2.4.2. Going to
Going to future marks future planned activity and prediction based on
fact. It also refers to the future fulfilment of present cause or intention:
Im going to stay at home and watch TV.
Its going to rain. Look at the clouds.
intention
cause
With the adverb just, going to future conveys the same meaning
as be about to:
Why are you all sitting at the table?
We are just going to eat.
We are (just) about to eat.
141
5.2.4.3. Be to
Be to refers to a fixed and inevitable event or change in the
future and is used in reporting of news, frequently in the passive:
The government is to introduce new taxes.
The factory is to be closed until sanitary conditions are met.
All our vans now are to be re-fueled.
SAQ 5.12. A.
A. Use the verbs in parentheses in the future simple or
going to future. Compare your answers with those given
at the end of the unit:
1) She . the place if she
follows the map. (find)
2) Why have they got their coats on?
They . (leave)
3) As soon as the rain stops, I . to the
bakers to get some bread. (walk).
4) The horse is limping badly. He . the
race. (finish)
5) Put on your life-belts. The
ship ...(sink)
6) The weather forecast is excellent. It .
(rain)
SAQ 5.12.B.
B. Use future simple for unplanned intention and going
to future for planned intention. Compare your answers
with those given at the end of the unit:
1. What are you doing with that spade?
I some apple trees. (plant)
2. My car wont start. I .
and .. it a push. (come, give)
3. Why is Bob carrying his guitar?
He it at Marys birthday
party. (play)
4. There isnt any butter in the
house. I .
and . some. (go, get)
5. This is a terribly heavy box. I .... to
carry it. (help)
142
SAQ 5.13
Use the verbs in parenthesis in the future (progressive,
perfect or perfect progressive). Compare your answers with
those given at the end of the unit:
1) He the winner at 10
oclock tomorrow. (interview)
2) Nick .. a camera before
he starts on a trip around the world. (buy)
3) By tomorrow Alice . skiing
lessons for two weeks. (take)
4) She can sing so she . in
the school festival. (perform)
5) The Martins in this
house for ten years by January the first. (live)
6) By next month Mrs. Allen
as a librarian for twenty years. (work)
7) She .. from the
seaside by September the 15th. (return)
144
5.3. Voice
Voice refers to the semantic roles (the actual role a participant
plays in some real or imagined situation) of the subject of the
sentence. It indicates whether the subject is an agent (the person is
the doer of the event), a patient (a person or a thing which is
affected) or beneficiary of an event.
In the active voice, the subject is the agent of the action, the
participant that causes the change occasioned by the event. In the
passive voice, the subject is the undergoer, the participant that
suffers the change occasioned by the event. The agent performing
the action may appear in a by-phrase or may be omitted. Compare:
The pupil wrote an essay.
Agent
active voice
Patient
passive voice
Agent
the auxiliary be
the lexical verb in the past participial form
an optional by prepositional phrase containing the agent
A long letter was written (by John).
be
by-prepositional phrase
145
SAQ 5.14.
Remember: to use the passive voice effectively, use it
sparingly. Otherwise, your writing may well
substantiate the absurdity of this famous example.
Re-write the text and make all the necessary
corrections:
"It was midday. The bus was being got into by
passengers. They were being squashed together. A hat
was being worn on the head of a young gentleman. A
long neck was one of the characteristics of the young
gentleman. The man standing next to him was being
grumbled at by the latter because of the jostling that was
being inflicted on him by him. As soon as a vacant seat
was espied by the young gentleman, it was made the
object of his precipitate movements and it became sat
down upon."
(From Text Book: An Introduction to Literary Language, eds. R. Scholes,
Nancy R. Comley, and Gregory L. Ulmer. New York: St. Martin's Press
(1988) 138-142.)
146
Think first!
Situation 1
You get to a show on time. You need tickets. What will
you say to the person in the ticket office?
Situation 2
You discover that you need two more dollars. How would
you ask your friends for some more money?
Write your answers in your portfolio and be prepared to
discuss them with your tutor and your colleagues.
147
5.4. Modality
Modality is a category of the verb by which speakers express
their evaluation or judgment of the situations to which they refer in
their statements. Modality typically involves such notions as
possibility, probability, necessity, volition, obligation and permission.
The forms which realize these concepts are the modal verbs:
can, may, must, should, would, ought to, etc. Some modals have
pairs (can-could, may-might, will-would, shall-should) others are
single (must, dare, need).
The major syntactic properties of the modal verbs are:
Modals do not have non-finite forms (infinitive or participles):
*to can, *canning,
* to must, *musting
vs.
vs.
I speak English.
He speaks English.
active They could have painted the house before they sold it.
passive
The house could have been painted before they
modal + have + been + verb -en
sold it.
g)
direct speech
reported speech
149
in the past
objective possibility
permission
(mental ability)
negative deduction
(impossibility of
a present event
a past event)
150
SAQ 5.15.A.
A. Comment upon the meanings of can or could in the
following examples. Write your answers in the space
provided below. Compare them with those given at the
end of the unit. The first has been done for you:
1) What are you doing right now? What could you be
doing if you were not in class?
2) Everything looks deserted. They cant be at home.
3) Can I have another piece of cake?
4) She can sing. She is a member of the school choir.
5) He could dance very well so he was able to win the
dance contest.
6) Why didnt you invite Margaret? I couldnt get her
phone number.
7) Who can translate this paragraph into English for next
time?
8) You didnt attend all the classes, Jane? I could have
attended all the classes, but I had to stay home and
take care of my baby brother.
1) possibility;
151
SAQ 5.15.B.
B. Use be able to in the appropriate tense paying
attention to the adverbs of time. Compare your answers
with those given at the end of the unit. The first has been
done for you:
I will be able to read fast when I finish this speedreading course.
2) Have you ever eaten frog legs? No,
I face the idea.
3) I cant speak English without an accent now. Dont
worry, you . speak better next
month.
4) The children sail across the
lake last week.
1)
5)
152
(refusal of permission)
(prohibition)
153
SAQ 5.16.
Comment on the meanings of may - might in the
following. Write your answers in the space provided
below. Compare them with those given at the end of the
unit. The first has been done for you:
1) Jane may not have time to come to Bills party.
2) What do you think he will do there? / What might he
do there?
3) He may go boating on the lake or he may visit the
Village Museum.
4) My friend is flying to Paris. He may/might be reading a
book now.
5) Perhaps your umbrella is at home. Well, it might be
there, but I dont think so.
6) I am not sure what I will be when I leave school. I
havent decided yet. I may become a librarian or I might
become a teacher.
7) I dont know whether John signed the contract or not.
He might have signed it.
8) Mr. Grant looked worried. Im not sure why. He might
have been thinking about his sick mother.
9) I hate to bother you, but may I borrow your briefcase?
10) May I open the window? No, you may not. Its cold
today.
11) I asked if I might invite my friends over next Sunday.
1) present, possibility;
154
5.4.3. Must
Must is chiefly used to express obligation and logical necessity:
obligation imposed
by the speaker
obligation deriving
from rules/regulations
logical necessity
(deduction)
155
SAQ 5.17.
Comment on the meanings of must have to need.
1) I hear foot steps. Someone must be coming.
2) We didnt need to call an ambulance. Jim was feeling
better.
3) You neednt have washed the cardigan, because it was
clean.
4) I must go to the hospital early. My friend is sick.
5) I have to go to hospital early. I am a doctor.
6) You mustnt smoke in here. You can cause an explosion.
7) He had to stay indoors because of the heavy rain.
8) In England motorists must drive on the left side of the
road.
9) You neednt help me. I can manage.
10) Visitors mustnt feed the animals at the Zoo.
Write your answers in the space provided below.
Compare them with those given at the end of the unit. The
first has been done for you:
1) logical necessity (deduction);
156
will
would
weak volition
(willingness)
strong volition
(insistence,
obstinacy)
He will go
swimming in
dangerous waters.
regarding
habitual, typical
behavior
volition
shall
You shall stay with us as long as you
like.
(I am willing to have you here.)
should/ ought to
He should/ ought to
pay for the broken
window.
Our guests should /
ought to be home by
now.
(I am not sure, they might
have had a breakdown)
must
He must pay for the
broken window.
Our guests must be at
home now.
(I am sure. They have a
fast car.)
157
158
SAQ 5.18.
Comment on the meanings of the modals will would and
shall should. Write your answers in the space provided
below. Compare them with those given at the end of the
unit. The first has been done for you:
1) She will talk for hours about clothes and films.
2) When he had a problem to solve, he would always work
at it until he found an answer.
3) All competitors shall wear tracksuits.
4) He should be writing the composition, but he isnt.
5) Im going to study tonight. Its too late now. You should
have studied last night.
6) Was Laura going to school when you saw her?
7) She should have been going to school, but she wasnt.
8) Its cold and cloudy. It should rain.
9) I wonder why we havent received any news from aunt
Emily. We should have heard from her by now.
1) typical behavior in the present;
5.5. Mood
Mood is a grammatical category that signals the relationship of
the verb with reality and intent. In traditional terms, there are four
moods: the indicative, the imperative, the conditional and the
subjunctive.
5.5.1. Indicative
The indicative is the most common one and is used in factual,
objective statements. The speaker asserts the sentence as being
true (factual). A verb in the indicative varies for tense and aspect and
shows grammatical concord with the subject in the present tense:
159
5.5.2. Imperative
The imperative mood is typically used to ask, request or
command someone to do something. The imperative verb form is
similar to the base form of the verb.
Go away!
John, give me the book please!
Please, don't move until you've finished!
An imperative sentence typically contains no grammatical
subject, but the implied subject is you. Sometimes a subject may be
included, particularly in negative imperatives which are formed with
the auxiliary verb do:
Don't you dare touch that switch.
Don't you eat it. Don't you touch that butter.
5.5.3. Conditional
The conditional mood is manifested in independent clauses by
means of the modal auxiliary would added to the bare infinitive of the
main verb:
John would drink.
I would eat, but I'm not hungry.
What would you like to do now? Id like to go swimming.
The conditional mood is more frequently used to express
uncertainty, particularly in conditional sentences. The verb in the
main clause is in the present conditional (would + verb), while the
verb in the subordinate clause (introduced by if, unless, in case) is in
the subjunctive mood:
I would buy a huge house if I had a lot of money.
present conditional
subjunctive
160
subjunctive
past subjunctive
5.5.4. Subjunctive
The subjunctive is rare in main clauses in present-day English,
and survives in some set formulas whose subjunctive meaning is
either concession or a wish: far be it from me, so be it, suffice it to
say:
Far be it from me to interfere with your arrangements.
Come what may, Ill help you.
Be that as it may, well stick to our plan.
Long live the Queen!
God forgive you!
Curse this dog!
The subjunctive is mostly used in subordinate clauses to
express actions contrary to fact. The subjunctive mood has synthetic
and analytical forms.
The Synthetic Subjunctive is identical in form with the past
simple and the past perfect:
Its time you got down to business.
present subjunctive
He behaves as if he owned the place.
past subjunctive
I wish you had brought your sister with you.
If only you had asked someones advice!
Be is the only verb which has a special present subjunctive form
(were):
I wish I were younger.
If he were to leave, he wouldnt hesitate to tell us.
The present subjunctive expresses wishes, possibility,
uncertainty present unreality, i.e. actions contrary to present fact:
after Its time
after the verb wish
in conditional
clauses
in concessive
clauses
in comparative
clauses
SAQ 5.19.
purpose clauses
negative purpose clauses
after lest in expressions of fear
conditional clauses
(the action is unlikely to occur)
SAQ 5.20
Underline the words requiring the analytical subjunctive
with should + infinitive and put the verbs in parentheses in
the correct form. Write your answers in the space
provided below. Compare them with those given at the
end of the unit. The first has been done for you:
1) Andy suggested that I (sell) my bicycle.
2) He made the proposal that they (buy) a car with the
money.
3) It is important for children that they (learn) to share
things.
4) He writes telephone numbers down lest he (forget) them.
5) They came to the agreement that they (organize) cultural
exchanges.
6) The boys hid behind a bush for fear the men (see) them.
7) If Alec (win) the race, his trainer will be very proud.
8) I warned her about the danger so that she (not get hurt).
1) should sell ;
163
SAQ 5.21.
Underline the words that require may/might + infinitive
and comment on the use of the subjunctive. Write your
answers in the space provided below. Compare them with
those given at the end of the unit. The first has been done
for you:
1) The driver stopped so that the children may/ might cross
the street.
2) He was afraid that the news might upset her.
3) He sat with the door wide open at all times that he might
hear the footsteps as they entered.
4) She was overcome with fear that I might let her down.
5) I will order that my doors may no longer be open to you.
6) She is afraid that he may leave without seeing her.
1) clause of purpose;
Summary
Tense, aspect, voice and modality are fundamental categories
in grammar. Each of them represents perspectives from which we
view our experience of events. Tense is the grammatical expression
of time relations. In relation to the speech time, some events are
simultaneous with it (present), others precede it (past) or follow it
(future). English verbs are inflected only for two tenses: present and
past. All other temporal forms are periphrastic (that is they are
formed by means of auxiliary verbs). Aspect can be indefinite,
164
Key terms
active voice
aspect
imperative mood
indicative mood
modality
modal verbs
mood
passive voice
past tense
perfect(ive) aspect
present tense
progressive aspect
stative verb
subjunctive mood
tense
Further reading:
Coer C., Vulcnescu R. (2004). Developing competence in
English, Intensive English Practice. Iai: Polirom. 94-158.
Gleanu-Frnoag, Georgiana, (1987). Sinteze de gramatic
englez, Editura Albatros.Bucureti , 11- 275.
Hulban, Horia (2004). Syntheses in English Morphology, Editura
Spanda, Iasi, 324 365.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan
Svartvik (1976). A Grammar of Contemporary English.
Longman. 61 123.
165
166
167
SAQ 5.2.
1. habitual actions; 2. planned future action; 3. generic present; 4.
instantaneous present (cooking recipes); 5. announcements; 6.
historical present.
NOTE: Should your answers to SAQ 5.1-5.2 not be comparable
to those given above, please revise section 5.1.1.
168
SAQ 5.3.
A. struck, heard, smelt, hit, tore, did not burn, killed, struck, tore, fell,
started, called, came, put out, were, missed
B. Did it lay five eggs? Did Tommy see the nest? Did he climb the tree?
Did he hold ? Did he take ? Did he put ...? Did he need ? Did
he begin ? Did one of the branches break? Did Tommy fall and
hurt ? Did the eggs break? Did they taste nice? Did you last go, did
you see; went, saw.
SAQ 5.4.
1. lost, lasted, turned, came, blew, happened, made, planted, gave,
had, started.
NOTE: Should your answers to SAQ 5.3-5.4 not be comparable to
those given above, please revise section 5.1.2
SAQ 5.5.
1. hear; 2. like; tastes; 3. am smelling; 4. am seeing; 5. is thinking;
thinks; 6. do you smell; think; 7. care; desire; 8. are you being; 9. does
your library contain; 10. does not hear.
SAQ 5.6.
A. 1. am studying; 2. am being; 3. am going, am working; 4. is giving;
5. am dining, am having; 6. are playing; 7. are growing; 8. are you
growing.
B. 1. temporary action; 2. temporary behavior; 3. plans for the near
future; 4. actions annoying the speaker; 5. personal plans; 6. action
happening at the speech moment; 7. 8. with the verbs get and grow
transition from one state to another
SAQ 5.7.
A. 1. was pouring (action in progress at a specified time), was
talking (action in progress at a specified time); 2. was eating, was
drinking (simultaneous actions in progress); 3. was working (an
action that began before, and probably continued after a shorter
action expressed by a verb in the past simple); 4. were your
parents living (an action that began before, and probably continued
after a shorter action expressed by a verb in the past simple); 5.
were having (action in progress at a specified time); 6. was always
inviting (a frequently repeated past action, which annoyed or
pleased the speaker); 7. was staying (an action that began before,
and probably continued after a shorter action expressed by a verb
in the past simple).
B. 1. an action in progress at a certain past moment; 2. two actions
going on at the same time in the past; 3. contrast between a
prolonged action and a momentary action; 4. contrast between a
prolonged action and a momentary action; 5. an action in progress
at a certain past moment; 6. annoying events in the past; 7.
contrast between a prolonged action and a momentary action;
169
SAQ 5.8.
A. 1. past simple; 2. past perfect; 3. past perfect; 4. past simple; 5.
past simple; 6. past perfect.
NOTE: Should your answers to SAQ 5.8 not be comparable to
those given above, please revise section 5.2.3.2.1. and 5.2.2.1.
B.1. wrote; 2. have written; 3. did you write; 4. wrote; 5. have you
written; 6. wrote; 7. did Mozart write; 8. wrote; 9. hasnt written; 10.
wrote.
SAQ 5.9.
a) present perfect progressive; b) present prefect simple; c) present
prefect simple; d) present perfect progressive;
1. have been earning; 2. has he earned, has earned; 3. has the
child been watching, has he watched; 4. have driven, have (you)
been driving, have been driving; 5. has been ringing; 6. has just
rung.
NOTE: Should your answers to SAQ 5.9 not be comparable to
those given above, please revise section 5.2.3.1. and 5.2.3.2.
SAQ 5.10.
1. had left, arrived; 2. wondered, had left; 3. had scarcely entered,
began; 4. asked, had not done; 5. hardly had the car gone, had; 6.
had been, had; 7. had he left, returned, had rung him up, had
broken; 8. filled, decorated, had prepared, had kept.
NOTE: Should your answers to SAQ 5.10 not be comparable to
those given above, please revise section 5.2.3.3.
SAQ 5.11.
1. had Mary been watching, had been watching, had watched, had
watched; 2. had Jim been studying, had been studying, had studied,
had studied; 3. had been planning; 4. had been writing; 5. had been
rising; 6. had been supplying; 7. had the lion ever left; 8. had closed; 9.
had listened.
NOTE: Should your answers to SAQs 5.11 not be comparable to
those given above, please revise 5.2.3.3 and 5.2.3.4
SAQ 5.12.
A. 1. Will she find; 2. are just going to leave; 3. will walk; 4. is not
going to finish; 5. is going to sink; 6. is not going to rain.
B. 1. am going to plant; 2. will come and give; 3. is going to play; 4.
will go and get; 5. will help.
170
SAQ 5.13.
1. will be interviewing; 2. will have bought; 3. will have been taking; 4.
will be performing; 5. will have been living; 6. will have been working;
7. will have returned.
NOTE: Should your answers to SAQ 5.13 not be comparable to
those given above, please revise section 5.2.4.6, 5.2.4.7 and
5.2.4.8.
SAQ 5.14.
It was midday. Passengers were squashing one another to get into
the bus. A long-necked young man wearing a hat was grumbling at
the man standing next to him because he was jostling him. Seeing a
vacant seat, the young man precipitated toward it and sat down.
NOTE: Should your answers to SAQ 5.14 not be comparable to
those given above, please revise section 5.3.
SAQ 5.15.
A. 1. possibility; 2. negative deduction; 3. permission; 4. ability; 5.
past ability; 6. inability in the past; 7. future ability; 8. past ability,
not used.
B. 1. will be able to; 2. have never been able to; 3. will be able to; 4.
werent able to; 5. he is already able to; 6. wasnt able to; 7. have
been able to; 8. hadnt been able to; 9. used to be able to; 10. to be
able to.
NOTE: Should your answers to SAQ 5.15 not be comparable to
those given above, please revise section 5.4.1.
SAQ 5.16.
1. present possibility; 2. possibility (note that in questions may is
replaced by do you think, be likely; 3. present possibility of
something happening now; 4. less likely possibility; 5. possibility,
less likely possibility in the future; 6. a less likely possibility in the
past; 7. possibility that an action was going on at a certain time in
the past; 8. permission; 9. asking for permission, refusal of
permission; 10. permission in indirect speech.
NOTE: Should your answers to SAQ 5.16 not be comparable to
those given above, please revise section 5.4.2
SAQ 5.17.
1. logical necessity (deduction); 2. an action was not necessary in
the past; 3. you washed it although it was unnecessary; 4.
obligation imposed by the speaker; 5. obligation imposed by others;
6. obligation deriving from regulations; 7. external obligation; 8.
171
SAQ 5.18.
1. typical behavior in the present; 2. typical behavior in the past; 3.
insistence; 4. an obligation at the moment of speaking; 5. unfulfilled
past obligation; 6. unfulfilled obligation to perform an ongoing action
at a moment in the past; 7. logical necessity; 8. logical necessity in
the past.
NOTE: Should your answers to SAQs 5.18 not be comparable to
those given above, we advise you to revise sections 5.4.4.
SAQ 5.19.
1. took; 2. spoke; 3. stopped; 4. slipped; 5. had not eaten; 6.7. had
been; 8. had just come.
SAQ 5.20.
1. suggested; 2. proposal, should buy; 3. important, should learn; 4.
lest, should forget; 5. agreement, should organize; 6. for fear,
should see; 7. if, should win; 8. so that, should not get.
SAQ 5.21.
1. so that, clause of purpose; 2. afraid, expression of fear; 3. that,
clause of purpose; 4. fear, expression of fear; 5. afraid, expression
of fear.
NOTE: Should your answers to SAQs 5.19 - 5.2.1 not be
comparable to those given above, please revise section 5.5.4.
172
UNIT 6
Adjectives and adverbs
Objectives
174
6. 1. Adjectives
6.1.1. Semantic classes
6.1.2. Order of adjectives
6.1.3. Comparison of adjectives
6.1.4. Alternative inflectional or phrasal comparison
6.1.5. Formation of adjectives
6.1.5.1. Derived adjectives
6.1.5.2. Compound adjectives
6.1.5.3. Participial adjectives
174
175
176
177
178
181
181
182
184
6.2. Adverbs
6.2.1. Adverbs and adjectives with the same form
6.2.2. Comparison of adverbs
6.2.3. Syntactic functions of adverbs
6.2.4. Semantic classification of adverbs
6.2.5. Order of the adverbs
185
186
187
188
188
192
Summary
Key terms
Further reading
Send-away assignment (SAA) 6
Answers to self-assessed questions (SAQs) 6.1 6.11
194
194
195
195
198
173
Aim
This unit focuses on the basic forms, meanings and syntactic roles of
adjectives and adverbs.
Objectives
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
define the main morphological and semantic characteristics of
adjectives and adverbs;
identity different semantic classes of adjectives and adverbs;
form the comparative and superlative degree of adjectives and
adverbs correctly;
define the main functions of adjectives and adverbs in the
clause;
form adjectives and adverbs from other word-classes by
derivation;
locate adjectives and adverbs correctly in the clause.
6. 1 Adjectives
Adjectives are words that modify nouns. Adjectives commonly
specify the properties or attributes of a noun referent:
The house is old.
Ive bought a new car.
However, they vary considerably in their form, their syntactic
functions and the types of lexical and grammatical meanings they
express.
Adjectives may be used attributively or predicatively. As
attributes, adjectives modify nominal expressions; they occur as
constituents of the nouns phrase and typically precede the head
noun:
That is a nice old wooden cottage.
In a few fixed expressions adjectives occur after the noun:
attorney general, God Almighty, heir apparent, notary public, etc.
Modifying adjectives can also occur as predicatives and
characterize the nominal expression in subject position:
Francesca was charming, but Blanche was sweet.
174
SAQ 6.1
Paying attention to which adjectives are normally used
only attributively and which are used only predicatively,
write short sentences with the adjectives shown in
brackets. The first has been done for you. Compare your
answers with those given at the end of the unit:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
175
adjectives
black, white dark, bright
big, huge, long, large, little, high
annual, daily, late, new, old,
young
bad, beautiful, fine, good, right
adjectives
additional, complete, different,
final, following, general, initial,
necessary
ethnic (designate the national American, Chinese, Christian,
or religious group to which a
Democrat
referent belongs)
topical (giving the subject
chemical, (= connected with
area or showing a
chemistry), commercial, human,
relationship with a noun)
legal, medical, official, oral,
political
noun
vases
hall
racket
176
cardinal
ordinal
two
previous
future
second
speakeroriented
disgusting
possible
subjectoriented
angry
manner
thematic/
ethnic
friendly
American
noun
reaction
agreements
invasion
SAQ 6.2.
Arrange the adjectives given in brackets in the correct
order:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
comparative
superlative
inflectional
phrasal
stronger
more difficult
the strongest
the most difficult
SAQ 6.3
The following table gives the age, height, and weight of
each child in a group of three children, together with the
amount of money possessed by each child. Make up
clauses with adjectives in the comparative and superlative
degree:
Child's Name
Denise
Ray
Carl
Age (years)
Height (cm)
Weight (kg)
Money (dollars)
12
140
40
90
11
154
43
70
10
135
45
25
SAQ 6.4
Complete the following sentences by filling in the blanks
with the comparative forms of the irregular adjectives
given in brackets. Compare your answers with those
given at the end of the unit:
1) The bread tastes even ___________ than the rolls. (good)
2) He does not want to walk ___________ than necessary.
(far)
3) Ann drinks ___________ coffee than Jim does. (little)
4) We have ___________ honey than we need. (much)
5) The weather was ___________ yesterday than it is today.
(bad)
SAQ 6.5
Rewrite each of the following sentences in the space
provided below, using the construction in which the
comparative form of the adjective is repeated.
The wind is becoming increasingly strong.
The wind is becoming stronger and stronger.
1) It was increasingly dark outside and I couldn't see much.
2) The grass is becoming increasingly green.
3) The childs hands were increasingly dirty.
4) The situation is growing increasingly bad.
5) It is becoming increasingly clear that this problem will not
be easily solved. The mist became increasingly thick.
6) Her work is getting increasingly good.
7) The trees are growing increasingly tall.
8) The soil is becoming increasingly dry.
9) The time remaining grew increasingly short.
10) She is increasingly weak because of her illness.
180
suffix
derived adjectives
personal
careful
homeless
wooden
nervous
suffix
derived adjective
eatable
exciting
correspondent
-al
-ful
-less
-en
-ous
-able
-ing
-ent
SAQ 6.6
Complete the following sentences by using the correct
form of the words in parentheses. Compare your
answers with those given at the end of the unit:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
182
structure
adjective + adjective
adverb + ed-participle
adverb + ing-participle
adjective + color adjective
adjective + other adjective
adjective + ed-participle
adjective + ing-participle
noun+ adjective
noun + ed-participle
noun + ing-participle
adjective + noun
participle + adverbial
particle
compound adjectives
bitter-sweet, yellow-brown
ill-suited, new-born, well-timed, wellfed.
well-meaning, rapidly-growing
dark-blue, light-blue, gray-white.
bitter-sweet
clean shaven, ready-made, whitewashed.
good-looking, sickly-smelling
duty-free, iron-rich, life-long, waisthigh
classroom-based, home-baked,
horse-drawn
eye-catching, hair-raising, peacekeeping.
fast-food, free-market, full-time, largescale
blown-out, left-over, paid up
SAQ 6.7
Choose the right answer:
1) Politicians dont seem to get hurt by criticism, they are
so .
a) thick-skinned b) left-handed c) strong-willed d) coolheaded
2) How old are you when you become ...?
a) medium aged b) middle-aged c) in-the-middle aged d)
mid-aged
3) Which of the following heart adjectives does not exist?
a) warm-hearted b) cold-hearted c) soft-hearted d) hothearted
4) If you loose your temper easily, you are ... -headed.
a) cold b) warm c) hot d) boiling
5) Which of the following is NOT true? Easy-going people .
a) get on with people they dont know b) are very relaxed
about things c) find going to places very easy d) dont get
stressed out by things.
183
inflection
-ed
-ing
participial adjective
determined
annoying
SAQ 6.8
Choose the correct participial adjective for the context of
the sentence.
1)
184
6.2. Adverbs
Morphologically, we may distinguish three classes of adverbs:
a) simple adverbs are single words (well, rather, quite, soon).
b) compound adverbs are formed by combining two or more
elements into a single word: everywhere (every + where), therefore
(there + fore).
c) derivational adverbs are formed by suffixing ly to the base
form of an adjective:
adjective
cheap
suffix
-ly
adverb
cheaply
Not all adverbs ending in -ly are formed by the addition of -ly to
an adjectival form. Some adverbs are derived from adjectives that
already end in -ly: In these cases the adverb is normally formed by
zero derivation.
noun stem
week
father
suffix
-ly
-ly
adjective
weekly
fatherly
adverb
weekly
fatherly
SAQ 6.9
Complete the following sentences: use the correct form
of the word in parentheses:
1)
2)
3)
adjective
hard
high
late
little
long
loud
low
much
straight
wide
adverb
hard
high
late
little
long
loud(ly)
low
much
straight
wide
SAQ 6.10
For each of the following sentences, pay attention to
whether the word to be placed in the blank modifies a
noun or a verb and complete the sentence with either the
adjective given in brackets or the corresponding adverb,
as appropriate. Compare your answers with those given at
the end of the unit.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
186
comparative
superlative
hard
harder
hardest
late
later
latest
fast
faster
fastest
comparative
superlative
quietly
more quietly
most quietly
slowly
more slowly
most slowly
seriously
more seriously
most seriously
comparative
superlative
badly
worse
worst
far
farther / further
farthest / furthest
little
less
least
well
better
best
much
more
most
187
188
189
(this is my opinion)
(what I say is true)
190
(adjective)
(adverb)
(adjective)
(adverb)
apposition: namely
One group of people seems to be forgotten, namely pensioners.
191
last night.
for an hour.
manner
time
place
If you need to use more than one adverb of time at the end of a
sentence, use them in this order: duration frequency time:
I worked on a farm for five days every week last year.
duration
frequency
time
192
SAQ 6.11
Rewrite the following in the most straightforward word
order.
1) for some years / in France /this may be the last time a
competition is organized
2) every day of the week / in the park / after lunch / We
see John running
3) to first year students / enthusiastically / Jim lectures /
about folk art
4) on the main campus / the coach works / at the gym /
every day of the week / in his office
5) at the edge / all summer / rapidly / in the marshes / of
the pond / bacteria grow
6) in Cleveland / in the backroom / My father was born / of
a farmhouse /
7) next week / to see her doctor / Jane made an
appointment / at two o'clock
8) during the months of December and January / after
dark / she leaves the island
9) the children whispered / on Christmas Eve / excitedly /
in front of the tree
10) on Monday/ before we leave/ try to get back.
Write your answers in the space provided below. When
you have finished, compare your answers with those
given at the end of the unit. The first has been done for
you.
1) This may be the last time a competition is
organized in France for some years.
193
Summary
Adjectives specify the properties of the referent of the noun
they modify. They may be used either attributively, typically
preceding the noun (beautiful building) or predicatively, following a
copulative verb (Sue is charming). Many adjectives can denote
degrees of a given quality and are therefore gradable, which means
that they can take the comparative and superlative forms. Nongradable adjectives do not share these characteristics. Gradable
adjectives modify to express grammatical meanings associated with
the category of comparison. The comparative and the superlative
can be marked either inflectionally (long, longer, longest) or phrasally
(more beautiful, most beautiful). Adjectives can be formed with
derivation affixes (painful, homeless) and compounding (openminded, critically-ill). A major class of adjectives, identified by the
ing or -ed ending, is represented by participial adjectives (charming,
frightened). Adverbs express a variety of meanings. A significant
number of adverbs are formed from adjectives with the suffix -ly. Like
adjectives, adverbs can express the comparative and the
superlative either inflectionally or phrasally. In a clause adverbs
typically serve as verbal modifiers. In the clause adverbs occupy
various positions: initial, mid or final position. Semantically,
adverbs can express a large number of meanings, the most
important being circumstantial (time, place), manner, degree,
viewpoint, focusing, relative (or linking) adverbs.
Key terms
194
additive adverbs
adjective
adverb
attributive
adjectives
classifier
comparison
comparative
compound
adjectives
degree adverb
focus adverbs
frequency
adverbs
gradable /
ungradable
intensifier
linking adverbs
manner adverb
negative adverb
participial
adjectives
place adverb
predicative
adjectives
restrictive
adverbs
superlative
time adverbs
viewpoint
adverbs
Further reading
Foley, Mark and Diane Hall (2003). Advanced Learners Grammar.
London: Longman, 216-243.
Greenbaum, Sydney and Randolph Quirk (1991). A Students
Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 129-203.
Hulban, Horia (2004). Syntheses in English Morpgology, Editura
Spanda, Iasi. 160 175.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik
(1976). A Grammar of Contemporary English. Longman, 229297.
196
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
SAQ 6.2.
1. those three tiny birds; 2. all six thick quilts; 3. his ten mediumsized pumpkins; 4. our warm, damp, four-week-old puppy; 5. a thick,
heavy, round carpet; 6. their low, oval table; 7. her lively, six-monthold baby; 8. a long white satin dress; 9. ten narrow cement steps; 10.
the cool, damp basement.
SAQ 6.3.
1. Ray is older / taller / heavier / richer than Carl. 2. Denise is the
oldest / tallest / heaviest / richest child in the group. 3. Ray is
younger / shorter / lighter / poorer than Denise. 4. Carl is the
youngest / shortest / lightest / poorest child in the group.
Should your answers to SAQs 6.1 6.3. not be comparable to
those given above, please revise sections 6.1.1 6.1.3.
SAQ 6.4.
1.
SAQ 6.5.
1. It was darker and darker outside and I couldn't see much. 2. The
grass is becoming greener and greener. 3. The childs hands were
dirtier and dirtier. 4. The situation is growing worse and worse. 5. It
is becoming clearer and clearer that this problem will not be easily
solved. 6. The mist became thicker and thicker. 7. Her work is
getting better and better. 8. The trees are growing taller and taller. 8.
The soil is becoming drier and drier. 9. The time remaining grew
shorter and shorter. 10. She is weaker and weaker because of her
illness.
Should your answers to SAQs 6.4 6.5. not be comparable to
those given above, please revise sections 6.1.4.
SAQ 6.6.
1. critical. 2. influential; 3. glorious; 4. magnetic; 5. boyish; 6.
realistic; 7. discouraged; 8. helpless; 9. experimental; 10. advisable
SAQ 6.7.
1. a; 2. b; 3. d; 4. c; 5. a.
SAQ 6.8.
1. demoralizing; 2. falling; 3. excited; 4. fascinating; 5. disturbing; 6.
finished; 7. shooting; 8. confusing; 9. amazed; 10. tired.
Should your answers to SAQs 6.6 6.8. not be comparable to
those given above, please revise sections 6.1.5. 1 6.1.5.3.
SAQ 6.9.
1. fatally; 2. intentionally; 3. athletically; 4. Fortunately; 5.
occasionally; 6. heartily; 7. gracefully; 8. heroically; 9. reluctantly; 10.
methodically.
199
SAQ 6.10.
1. light; 2. clearly; 3. cheerfully; 4. heavy; 5. quietly; 6. Favorably; 7.
Unusual; 8. Relatively; 9. hot; 10. briefl.
SAQ 6.11.
1. This may be the last time a competition is organized in France for
some years. 2. We see John running in the park after lunch every
day of the week. 3. Jim enthusiastically lectures to his students
about folk art. 4. The coach works at the gym in his office on the
main campus every day of the week. 5. Bacteria grow rapidly at the
edge of the pond in the marshes all summer. 6. My father was born
in the backroom of a farmhouse in Iowa. 7. Jane made an
appointment to see her doctor at two oclock next week. 8. She
leaves the island after dark in the months of December and January.
9. The children whispered excitedly on Christmas Eve in front of the
tree. 10. Try to get back before we leave on Monday.
Should your answers to SAQs 6.9 6.11 be comparable to
those given above, please revise section 6.2.
200
Active voice
Adjective
Adjective phrase
Adverb
Adverb phrase
Affix
Aspect
Attributive
adjectives
201
Auxiliary
Case
Central
adjectives
Central adjectives are adjectives which fulfill all the criteria for the
adjective class: they are gradable, can be modified by an adverb of
degree, and may be used attributively or predicatively. The group
includes adjectives of size and dimension (big, tall, small), and
adjectives of time (new, old, young)
Clause
dependent
coordinate clause
subordinate clause
finite clause
Collective noun
202
Common noun
Comparative
Comparison
Compound
Concrete noun
Copulative
verb
Countable /
Uncountable
Degree adverb
The term refers to adverbs like enough, fairly, rather quite, very,
which broadly answer the question To what extent?
203
Determination
Determiner
Determiners are words that express the reference of a noun, i.e. they
determine the meaning of the noun. Examples include the definite
article (the) and indefinite articles (a/an), possessive adjectives (my,
your, her), demonstrative adjectives (this/these, that/those) and
quantifiers (few, little).
Double genitive
Dynamic verb
Extended verb
phrase
Finite verb
form
Focus adverbs
Focus adverbs are adverbs like even, just, merely, and only which
can precede the word they modify to focus attention on it: Only Mary
succeeded.
Foreign plurals
The term refers to some plurals of nouns of foreign origin that are not
formed with s. Nouns of foreign origin are frequently used in scientific
and technical contexts. Some have only foreign plurals (sg. basis pl. bases), others also have anglicized forms (sg. cactus pl. cacti
/cactuses).
Frequency
adverbs
The term refers to adverbs like always, often, usually which answer
the question How often?
204
Gender
Genitive
Gradable /
ungradable
Grammatical
category
Grammatical
relation
apple trees
Object
on the hill.
Adverbial Modifier
Head (of a
phrase)
Adverbial Modifier
by the villagers.
Prepositional Object
205
Imperative
(mood)
Indicative
(mood)
Inflection
Intensifier
Intensifiers are adverbs which are used with gradable adjectives and
adverbs (very slow/ very slowly) and in some cases, verbs (I entirely
agree). An intensifier normally strengthens the meaning. Compare:
Your work is good.
Your work is very good.
Typical intensifiers are very, such a/an, so, and ly adverbs instead
of very (extremely).
Lexical verb
-ly adverb
206
Manner adverb
Mid position
Modal verb
Modality
Modifier
Mood
Morpheme
Morphology
Non-finite
verb form
A nonfinite verb is a verb that is not fully inflected for the categories
of tense, person and number: working (present participle), to work
(infinitive).
207
Noun
Noun phrase
Number
Operator
The first auxiliary in an extended verb phrase, such as will in She will
be coming, or do in Do you study English?
Participial
adjectives
Passive (voice)
Past tense
Perfective
aspect
208
Person
Prepositional
phrasal verb
Prepositional phrasal verbs (get out of, get back to, get away with, go
out for, catch up with, turn away from, look forward to, put up with,
come down to, end up with) consist of a lexical verb combined with
an adverbial particle plus a preposition.
Phrasal verb
Phrase
Place adverb
Predicative
adjectives
209
Preposition
Prepositional
phrase
Prepositional
verb
Present tense
210
Progressive /
non-progressive
Proper noun
Qualify
Quantifier
Reference
Root
211
Semantic roles
Semi-modal
Sentence
212
coordinate clause
Complex sentence:
They irrigated the land when they got the pumps.
main clause
Sentence form /
type
subordinate clause
Stative
Stative verbs refer to a state, and require no action on the part of the
subject: be, have, contain, know, resemble. The distinction between
stative and dynamic verbs is relevant for the use of the progressive
aspect and the passive voice, since neither combines easily with
stative verbs. Note that verbs of perception (see, hear), and verbs of
opinion and of thinking (think, believe, understand) behave as stative
verbs when denoting involuntary perception/cognition.
Stem
Subjunctive
(mood)
213
Superlative
Syntax
Tense
Time adverbs
Verb phrase
214
Viewpoint
adverbs
Voice
Word
The word is the smallest linguistic unit that can have a syntactic
function. A word has an expression side (combination of sounds, or
of letters) and a content side (an independent meaning).
Syntactic
function
Zero
215
Bibliography
Bibliography
Bibliography
217
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