Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Investete n oameni!
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
SYNTAX
Ecaterina POPA
Specializarea ENGLEZ
Forma de nvmnt ID - semestrul II
2011
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 1
Unit 1 THE SENTENCE
Unit Objectives 5
1.1. The Sentence What Is a Sentence 5
1.2. Sentence Classification 6
SAQ 1 7
1.3. The Simple Sentence 7
1.3.1. Structural and Functional Classification 8
1.4. Syntactic Elements of the Simple Sentence 10
1.4.1. Classes of Sentence Patterns 10
1.4.2. Adverbial Modifiers 12
SAQ 2 12
1.5. The Declarative Sentence 13
1.5.1. Negative Declarative Sentences 13
1.5.2. Realization of Negation 13
SAQ 3 15
Summary 16
Key Concepts 16
Selected Bibliography 17
PA No. 1 18
Answers to SAQs 19
i
Table of Contents
SAQ 2 94
5.3.3. Means of Expressing the Direct Object 95
5.4. The Object Complement 96
SAQ 3 98
Summary 99
Key Concepts 100
Selected Bibliography 100
PA No. 4 101
Answers to SAQs 102
iii
Table of Contents
UNIT 9 COORDINATION
Unit Objectives 162
9.1. What is Coordination 162
9.1.1. Coordinating Sentence Constituents 164
SAQ 1 165
9.2. Coordinating Simple Sentences 165
9.2.1. Coordinating Two Sentences with the Same Subject 167
SAQ 2 168
9.2.2. Coordinating Simple Sentences with Different Subjects 169
9.2.2.1. Coordinating Sentences with Different Subjects, the 169
Same Action Performed
9.2.2.2. Coordinating Sentences with Different Subjects, 172
Different Actions Performed
SAQ 3 173
Summary 175
Key Concepts 175
Selected Bibliography 175
PA No. 7 176
Answers to SAQs 178
iv
Table of Contents
SAQ 1 185
10.2.2. Deleting the Relative Pronoun 186
SAQ 2 187
10.3. Non-Defining Relative Clauses 188
10.3.1. Introductory Markers of Non-Defining Relative Clauses 189
SAQ 3 190
10.4. Independent Relative Clauses 191
10.5. Reduced Relative Clauses 191
SAQ 4 193
Summary 194
Key Concepts 195
Selected Bibliography 195
SAA No. 3 196
Answers to SAQs 198
PA No. 9 235
Answers to SAQs 236
Summary 280
Key Concepts 281
Selected Bibliography 282
PA No. 10 283
Answers to SAQs 284
BIBLIOGRAPHY 286
vi
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Module Structure
1
Introduction
2
Introduction
3
The Sentence
UNIT 1
THE SENTENCE
UNIT OUTLINE
Unit Objectives 5
1.1. The Sentence What Is a Sentence 5
1.2. Sentence Classification 6
SAQ 1 7
1.3. The Simple Sentence 7
1.3.1. Structural and Functional Classification 8
1.4. Syntactic Elements of the Simple Sentence 10
1.4.1. Classes of Sentence Patterns 10
1.4.2. Adverbial Modifiers 12
SAQ 2 12
1.5. The Declarative Sentence 13
1.5.1. Negative Declarative Sentences 13
1.5.2. Realization of Negation 13
SAQ 3 15
Summary 16
Key Concepts 16
Selected Bibliography 17
PA No. 1 18
Answers to SAQs 19
4
The Sentence
After having read this introductory unit you will be able to:
He left.
He left yesterday.
He left by train yesterday.
Did he leave all by himself?
He didnt leave yesterday.
5
The Sentence
a) independent or main
b) dependent or subordinate clauses (or subclauses)
6
The Sentence
SAQ 1
Identify the kinds of sentences: a. simple; b. compound; or c.
complex in the following text. All sentences start with a capital letter
and end with a full stop.
It was late, and everyone left the caf except an old man who
sat in the shadow of the tree leaves. In the daytime the street was
dusty, but at night the dew settled and the old man liked to stay late.
He liked it because it was quiet. The old man was a little drunk. Two
waiters were looking at him from inside the caf. The old man was a
good client, but he could have left without paying.
(adapted after E. Hemingway, A Clean, Well-Lighted Place)
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7
The Sentence
Im coming!
He disappeared.
Shes a nurse.
8
The Sentence
Is she a teacher?
What do you mean?
Couldnt he come by car?
9
The Sentence
the Subject
the Verb
The matching symbols we will use for these patterns will be:
S1 S+V SV
S2 S+V+C SVC
S3 S+V+O SVO
S4 S+V+O+O SVOO
S5 S+V+O+C SVOC
S6 S + V + PrepO SV + PrepO
10
The Sentence
1. S + V + A:
She sings beautifully.
2. S + V + C + A:
The weather is fine today.
3. S + V + O + A:
She knows the lesson well.
4. S + V + O + O + A:
She gave me the book yesterday.
5. S + V + O + C + A:
They appointed John manager last year.
6. S + V + PrepO + A:
She agreed with me right away.
Can you provide examples for the six main sentence patterns
and add some other constituents to provide information about time
and/or place? (You can use adverbs for instance.)
In the space below, write your sentences. Take them to the
next tutorial to discuss them with your classmates and your tutor.
11
The Sentence
SAQ 2
Try to identify the basic constituents of the following sentences
according to the verb type and use the symbols to write down the
structure. The first is done for you.
4. He likes sweets.
___________________
___________________
12
The Sentence
7. The children were getting tired.
___________________
___________________
13
The Sentence
NOTE!
Nobody / Nothing as subjects cannot be replaced by any or
anything.
*Anybody didnt mention his name to us.
(incorrect)
14
The Sentence
NOTE!
Such adverbs can be used in initial position in the
sentence. When they are used like that for emphasis then
inversion is necessary.
I have never seen such a man.
Never have I seen such a man.
They meet rarely nowadays.
Rarely do they meet nowadays.
SAQ 3
Negate the following affirmative sentences by using the negative
verbs or words in the brackets. The first one is done for you.
Summary
Key Concepts
emphasis
inversion
negation
verb
o auxiliary
o modal
o lexical transitive/intransitive
o linking
clause
o main
o subordinate
sentence
o simple
o compound
o complex
simple sentence
o one-member
16
The Sentence
o unextended two-member
o extended two-member
o declarative
o interrogative
o imperative
o exclamatory
o negative
simple sentence constituents
o subject
o predicate
o complement
o object
o adverbial modifier
Selected Bibliography
1. Broughton, Geoffrey A Penguin English Grammar A-Z,
Penguin Books, 1990, pp. 278 - 282
17
The Sentence
PA No. 1
I. Identify the types of sentences in the following text (simple,
compound or complex):
In the fall the war was there, but we did not go to it any more.
It was cold in Milan, and the dark came early.
We were all at the hospital that afternoon. The hospital was
very old and very beautiful. Beyond the hospital were new
pavilions where we met every afternoon We all had medals
and were very proud of them. The other boys asked me what
I had done to have so many medals.
III. Insert the appropriate form of one of the given verbs in each of
the following sentences and identify the pattern of the sentence
according to the verb. You are given ten verbs and ten sentences,
one verb for each sentence.
to write, to be, to break, to go, to seem, to give, to think of, to
become, to buy, to depend on
1. She _____ me a cup of tea.
2. Children _____ their parents.
3. He _____ rather tired, doesnt he?
4. She _____ two cups yesterday.
5. They _____ a new car last year.
6. Days _____ longer and longer in spring.
7. Shakespeare _____ novels.
8. They _____ to school on Sundays.
9. Will he _____ his friend?
10. _____ she a nurse?
18
The Sentence
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
Sentence 1 It was late of the tree leaves. complex sentence.
Sentence 2 - In the daytime to stay late. compound sentence
Sentence 3 He quiet. complex sentence
Sentence 4 The old man drunk. simple sentence
Sentence 5 Two waiters inside the caf. simple sentence
Sentence 6 The old man without paying. compound sentence
SAQ 2
2. S + V + O
3. S + V + O + O
4. S + V + O
5. S + V
6. S + V + Prep.O
7. S + V + C
8. S + V + Prep.O
9. S + V + O
10. S + V + O + O
SAQ 3
2. He never tells lies.
3. Nobody was present.
4. Nobody knew the answer.
5. They rarely go to the theatre.
6. None of the pupils came to the party.
7. She can barely speak English.
8. She didnt say anything to him.
9. They wont go anywhere during the summer holiday.
10. No man is perfect.
NOTE:
In case your answers differ from the given ones, or you have
encountered difficulties in solving the SAQs, we suggest you go back
and re-read the following subchapters:
19
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
UNIT 2
UNIT OUTLINE
Unit Objectives 21
2.1. Interrogative Sentences or Questions 21
2.1.1. Definition 21
2.1.2. Main Question Types 22
SAQ 1 24
SAQ 2 28
SAQ 3 32
2.1.3. Other Types of Questions 32
SAQ 4 36
2.2. Imperative Sentences 36
SAQ 5 38
2.3. The Exclamatory Sentence 39
SAQ 6 40
Summary 41
Key Concepts 42
Selected Bibliography 42
SAA No. 1 42
Answers to SAQs 43
20
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
After you have completed the study of this unit and have solved
the tasks (SAQs) you should be able to:
2.1.1. Definition
An interrogative sentence is defined by:
a) a specific structure;
b) a communicative purpose
Is John a student?
Where did he learn English?
Can he speak English?
21
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
22
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
These questions are also called yes/no questions because they ask
for general or short information expressed by a short answer:
NOTE!
There are instances when the speaker expects an affirmative
answer and subsequently the question has a positive
orientation expressed by some (somebody, something).
Have you got some money?
Yes, I have.
Has somebody called?
Of course.
Did they go somewhere for the winter holidays?
Surely.
23
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
SAQ 1
I. Give short affirmative and negative answers to the following
questions. The first one is done for you.
Question Answers
1. Can you speak English? Yes, I can.
No, I cant.
2. Do they play chess? ________
________
3. Did she meet her friends yesterday? ________
________
4. Have you been busy lately? ________
________
5. Do you enjoy teaching? ________
________
6. Will he be here tomorrow? ________
________
7. Were they at the cinema last night? ________
________
8. Should he see his doctor? ________
________
9. Could they have been wrong? ________
________
10. Is it true? ________
________
24
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
6. Shall we go back?
_____________________________________
25
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
which is used both for persons and objects partitively (one of two
or more)
Which of them is your friend? The tall man in the grey suit.
Which do you like best? (ice-creams) Chocolate.
26
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
NOTE!
When the pronouns who, what and which perform the
function of the subject in the interrogative sentence, the
structure is identical with that of a declarative sentence,
namely SVO.
What happened?
Who left?
Which of you wants to read the story?
NOTE!
In everyday speech the form who is used instead of whom.
Who are you looking at?
Who have you been talking to?
NOTE!
Special questions may occur in fluent conversation as being
represented only by the question word:
He managed to do it.
Who?
John.
How?
He did it himself.
Where?
At home.
SAQ 2
I. Add the wh-question word to the following questions. The first one
is done for you. Can you provide two question words for some of the
sentences? Which of the sentences? You will find the answers at the
end of the unit, as mentioned in the contents.
II. Turn the following sentences into questions by asking about the
words underlined. The first two are done for you.
1. He is looking at me.
Who is he looking at?
2. They bought a house in the countryside.
Where did they buy the house?
3. The dog bit the little boy.
__________________________________
We will say:
Compare:
Do you know
Can/Could you tell me where the post office is?
(subject verb sequence)
When we have a general question in such a position the
introductory word will be if or whether:
Will he be late?
Do you know if/whether he will be late?
29
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
falling intonation
rising intonation
30
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
After having read this part of the unit, make up a list of the
purposes these four types of questions are asking and compare
them to your own list, drawn at the beginning of the unit.
In the space below, write those communicative purposes
that were missing from your initial list and provide your own
examples. Take them to the next tutorial to discuss them with your
classmates and your tutor.
31
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
SAQ 3
Add a tag to each of the following sentences so that you obtain
disjunctive questions. The first one is done for you.
a) negative questions
b) statement-like questions
c) echo-questions
d) rhetorical questions
32
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
a) Negative questions
33
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
34
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
b) Statement-like questions
In everyday talk speakers tend to use questions which
structurally look like a declarative sentence, only that they are uttered
with a rising tone. From a communicative point of view they express
confirmation of what is being said, with a slight touch of surprise or
uncertainty.
When the verb is in the affirmative the expected answer is yes.
c) Echo-questions
These are a minor class of questions which occur during a
longer stretch of conversation. They repeat in question form the
whole or part of a message in order to confirm something or to make
it clearer.
b) Rhetorical questions
These questions are questions from a structural point of view,
but they do not necessarily require an answer. They take the function
of a strong statement as in Who knows? (meaning that nobody
knows) or of an exclamatory sentence expressing surprise,
uncertainty, admiration or an ironical remark.
35
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
SAQ 4
State the kind of questions (negative, statement-like, echo or
rhetorical) and suggest their communicative functions. The first one is
done for you.
Go there!
Do your homework now!
36
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
For the first person and the third person the imperative
sentences are constructed with the auxiliary let followed by the
accusative form of the noun or pronoun, which functions as the
subject (the person/persons who is/are supposed to do something).
37
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
Do come in!
Do have some more coffee!
c) the tag will you or wont you, can you in its interrogative can
accompany the imperative sentence in order to make it more direct:
SAQ 5
I. Turn into negative the following imperative sentences. The first
one is done for you.
1. Go away!
Dont go away!
39
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
SAQ 6
I. Insert what or how as introductory words in the following
exclamatory sentences. The first one is done for you.
40
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
Summary
41
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
Key Concepts
communicative function
clarification
confirmation
emphasis
information
intonation
inversion
sentence constituents
syntactic structure
Selected Bibliography
1. Beaumont, D., Granger, C. The Heinemann ELT English
Grammar, MacMillan Heinemann, 1989, 1992, pp. 220-233
2. Broughton, Geoffrey A Penguin English Grammar A-Z, Penguin
Books, 1990, pp. 259-269
3. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S. A University Grammar of English,
Longman, 1973, pp. 191-202
SAA No. 1
III. Identify the types of sentences (interrogative, imperative
and exclamatory) and suggest their communicative
functions in the following texts:
1. Cant you believe me, mother?
Please, believe me.
2. Now, you pray, Harold.
I cant.
Try, Harold.
I cant.
Do you want me to pray for you?
3. Why dont you tell him? What do you think its all about?
Let me alone.
4. What stupid people they are!
Who said so?
II. Make up your own examples (four for each type) of general
questions, special questions, disjunctive questions (affirmative and
negative). Explain their structure. Youll have 12 sentences.
42
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
I. 1. Yes, I can.
No, I cant.
2. Yes, I do.
No, I dont.
3. Yes, she did.
No, she didnt.
4. Yes, I have.
No, I havent.
5. Yes, I do.
No, I dont.
6. Yes, he will.
No, he wont.
7. Yes, they were.
No, they werent.
8. Yes, she should.
No, she shouldnt.
9. Yes, they could.
No, they couldnt.
10. Yes, it is.
No, it isnt.
II.
2. I dont know
3. I hope not
4. I hope so/ I think so
5. I think so/ Im afraid not
6. I think so
7. I hope not
8. I think not
9. I expect so
10. I dont know/ I hope so
III.
2. Did my friend buy any English books?
3. Was she told the news?
4. Did they go to the cinema last night?
5. Has Mary been busy this week?
6. Do you have any/some good news for me?
7. Will everybody be present at the celebration?
8. Can she speak three foreign languages?
9. Was there anybody/somebody at the door?
10. Will you have some coffee?
43
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
SAQ 2
I.
2. who
3. which
4. who
5. what
6. where/when
7. how long
8. where/when
9. how much
10. whom
II.
3. Whom did the dog bite?
4. Who has just called me?
5. Which is one of the best hotels in Bucharest?
6. Where did they play?
7. With whom did Mary go to the cinema?
8. Why has she got the flu?
9. How long have they been talking?
10. What did they buy in December?
11. What could she speak when she was five?
12. Who knew the truth?
SAQ 3
2. were you?
3. havent you?
4. cant he?
5. will you?
6. didnt they?
7. dont we?
8. arent they?
9. hasnt it?
10. is he?
SAQ 4
2. negative exclamation
3. statement-like disbelief
4. rhetorical
5. echo-question
6. negative seeking information
7. rhetorical anger
8. rhetorical exclamation/surprise
9. negative offer
10. statement-like disbelief
SAQ 5
I.
2. Dont let them quarrel. / Let them not
3. Dont tell
4. Dont finish
5. Let me not read it.
6. Dont sit down!
44
Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences
7. Dont get out of here.
8. Dont switch on the TV set.
9. Lets not watch TV.
10. Let him not take the medicine now.
II.
2. will you?
3. can you?
4. shall we?
5. can you?
6. will you/can you?
7. will you?
8. can/shall we?
9. wont you/will you?
10. shall we?
SAQ 6
I.
2. How
3. What
4. How
5. What
6. What
7. How
8. What
9. How
10. How
II.
2. How fast the young man ran!
3. How poor the woman is!
4. How rapidly youve improved your English!
5. How suspicious they are!
6. What an old man he is!
7. How dearly they love each other!
8. How easily they won the game!
9. What fine tastes you have!
10. How quiet the patient is!
NOTE:
In case your answers differ from the given ones, or you have
encountered difficulties in solving the SAQs, we suggest you go back
and re-read the following subchapters:
45
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
UNIT 3
UNIT OUTLINE
Unit Objectives 47
3.1. The Subject 47
3.1.1. Means of Expressing the Subject 49
3.1.2. It as Subject 50
SAQ 1 53
3.1.3. Introductory there 54
SAQ 2 56
3.2. The Predicate 56
3.2.1. The Verbal Predicate 57
3.2.2. The Nominal Predicate 58
3.2.2.1. Linking Verbs 58
3.2.2.2. The Subject Complement 59
SAQ 3 62
Summary 63
Key Concepts 64
Selected Bibliography 64
PA No. 2 65
Answers to SAQs 66
46
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
The subject and the predicate are the two basic constituents of
the simple sentence. It is very important to bear in mind that as in
English, the verb does not change according to number and person
(except in Present Tense Simple, 3rd person, singular and the verb to
be), the subject must always be expressed. Actually what follows
after the subject refers back to it. The predicate will always tell
something about the subject: the action performed or suffered by it;
the process undergone; a state of being; a quality or status.
Both the subject and the predicate can be identified according
to their position in the sentence.
After having read and studied this unit you will be able to:
Subj. Pred.
Subj. Pred.
47
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
48
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
b) a noun phrase
The pretty young girl in blue jeans speaks very good English.
My teacher of English is a nice person.
Athens, which is the capital of Greece, is a famous city.
NOTE!
In English we refer to the parts of speech or clauses that
accompany a noun as being part of the Noun Phrase (NP).
As such:
articles
pronominal adjectives
o possessive
o demonstrative
o indefinite
o negative
function as determiners. Adjectives function as premodifiers,
while prepositional phrases (preposition + noun) as well as
relative clauses and appositions function as postmodifiers. We
will consider as the subject in each of the examples above the
whole string of words (in bold).
For example, in The pretty young girl in blue jeans we
can notice that pretty, young as well as in blue jeans describe
the noun girl, which is defined as the head noun.
d) a substantivized adjective
49
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
e) a numeral
g) the pronouns one, you, they and the noun people used in a
general sense:
3.1.2. It as Subject
The 3rd person personal pronoun it is very often used as subject
and not always as a substitute for a noun as in case (c).
50
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
A. Impersonal it or empty it
The pronoun it is used as the grammatical subject for
impersonal constructions expressing natural phenomena, time and
distance. It is also called empty it because it has only a
grammatical role but no meaning.
It is still raining.
Its five oclock.
Its about 300 km from Cluj to Timioara.
B. Introductory it
Introductory it introduces or anticipates the actual subject of
a sentence when the subject is expressed by:
a) a verb in the infinitive
b) an infinitive construction for to
c) a verb in the gerund
d) or a subject clause introduced by that, how or what
It is mean
It is necessary
Its useless
Its a mystery
51
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
52
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
SAQ 1
I. Identify the subject in each of the following sentences. State what
it is expressed by. The first one is done for you.
53
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
54
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
55
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
SAQ 2
Insert there is, there are in the appropriate forms (affirmative,
negative or interrogative) in the following sentences. The first one is
done for you.
56
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
verbal predicate
nominal predicate
57
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
a) The verb most frequently used as a linking verb is the verb to be.
NOTE!
As in the case of the verb to be, which can be used as a
notional verb with the meaning of to exist, there are other
verbs in the above mentioned groups which can be used as
notional verbs, having another meaning.
to appear All of a sudden something appeared in the sky.
to get He got a letter. [He received a letter.]
to grow He grows vegetables. [He cultivates
vegetables.]
to turn Dont turn the page.
to fall He fell.
to stay We stayed at a hotel.
to keep He kept his money in the bank.
to remain He remained at home.
The verbs of perception used transitively are verbs of full
predication.
to taste The cook tasted the soup.
to smell She smelt the roses.
to feel You can feel the taste of honey.
Mary is pretty.
Mary is happy.
59
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
60
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
NOTE!
Some of these adjectives are obligatorily followed by a
preposition:
afraid of; ashamed of; content with; aware of; due to; fond of
c) a pronoun
e) a subordinate clause
61
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
SAQ 3
I. Complete the following sentences with linking verbs. In some of
the sentences you can choose from two or more linking verbs. Mention
all the linking verbs which you consider appropriate. The first is done
for you.
62
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
Summary
The Subject and the Predicate are the basic constituents of a
sentence.
a noun
a noun phrase (NP)
a pronoun as noun substitute
a substantivized adjective
a numeral
a non-finite form of the verb
a clause
Impersonal it
Introductory it
Introductory there
The Predicate
verbal
nominal
Nominal Predicate
linking verb
+
subject complement
63
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
Key Concepts
existential sentences
subject
subject complement
verbal predicate
impersonal it
introductory it
introductory there
linking verb
nominal predicate
operator
Selected Bibliography
Broughton, Geoffrey A Penguin English Grammar A-Z, Penguin
Books, 1990, pp. 149-153; pp. 285 296
64
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
PA No. 2
I. Add the correct form of it is or there is to the following
sentences:
1. _____ a good movie on tonight.
2. _____ fine tomorrow, I hope.
3. _____ a long time since we met.
4. _____ a man standing on the wall a few minutes ago.
5. _____ difficult to find a cheap place to live these days.
6. _____ snowing for three days now.
7. _____ a beautiful park right in the middle of the town.
8. _____ time to get started.
9. _____ many people outside the concert hall.
10. _____ many sports grounds in your town ?
11. _____ not far to walk there.
12. _____ enough food for everybody.
13. _____ anyone willing to help?
14. _____ pity you missed the show.
15. _____ fun talking to you.
III. Identify the predicates in the following text. Say whether they are
verbal or nominal.
I was lying on my back on the rocks. I opened my eyes and
saw a star. I had been having a familiar dream and yet I had
never had that dream before. I dreamt that my cousin James
was here. I was aware of the stars, and I was breathing. I felt
happy, and I was relaxed. I closed my eyes and breathed
deeply again.
IV. Make up ten sentences of your own by using the following linking
verbs one in each sentence:
to seem, to be, to smell, to grow, to become, to turn, to fall, to
sound, to keep, to look
65
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
I.
1. impersonal it
2. personal pronoun
3. common noun
4. introductory it
5. proper noun
6. pronoun one used in a general sense
7. indefinite pronoun
8. subclause
9. impersonal it
10. abstract noun
II.
2. It is impossible that he cheated.
3. It is a surprise for him to be sent to London.
4. It is worth going there.
5. It doesnt matter whether they come or not.
6. It did not occur to us that he could be away.
7. It was understood that we should help them.
8. Its a pity to lose a game in the last minute.
9. It is natural for her to do her duty.
10. It shocked us to hear such news.
SAQ 2
2. There are
3. There is
4. There are
5. Is there
6. Are there
7. There was
8. There arent
9. Will there be
10. There is
SAQ 3
I.
2. tastes, is
3. are
4. is, fell
5. feel
6. fine, well
7. turned
8. were, kept
9. looks
10. is, become
66
The Constituents of the Simple Sentence
II.
2. afraid
3. fond
4. glad
5. ablaze
6. alone
7. ashamed
8. aware
9. ready
10. alive
NOTE:
In case your answers differ from the given ones, or you have
encountered difficulties in solving the SAQs, we suggest you go back
and re-read the following subchapters:
67
Subject Predicate Concord
UNIT 4
UNIT OUTLINE
Unit Objectives 69
4.1. Subject Predicate Concord 70
4.2. Concord of Person 70
4.3. Concord of Number 71
4.3.1. Concord of Collective Nouns 71
4.3.2. Uncountable Nouns Followed by the Verb in the Singular 71
SAQ 1 72
4.3.3. Uncountable Nouns Followed by the Verb in the Plural 73
SAQ 2 74
4.3.4. Concord between Subject and Predicate when the Subject is Expressed by
Other Means than a Noun 75
SAQ 3 76
4.3.5. Concord of Coordinated Subjects 77
Summary 78
Key Concepts 79
Selected Bibliography 79
PA No. 3 80
Answers to SAQs 81
68
Subject Predicate Concord
After having read and studied this unit you should be able to:
69
Subject Predicate Concord
In the case of the verb to be, where there are distinct forms for
each person in the Present Tense singular, the person can be
specifically marked by the verb form.
I am a student.
You are right.
He/She is wrong.
For the Past Tense, this distinction is also marked by was 1st
and 3rd person and were 2nd person singular and all plural
persons
Ill go.
Id go.
70
Subject Predicate Concord
b) abstract nouns
71
Subject Predicate Concord
SAQ 1
Complete the following sentences with the appropriate form of the
verb to be. The first one is done for you.
b) The noun clothes and other nouns which denote clothing and
are perceived as being made of two parts: jeans, pyjamas, overalls,
slacks, tights, pants, etc.
d) Nouns derived from adjectives the rich, the poor, the blind
73
Subject Predicate Concord
NOTE!
In order to refer to one person belonging to the police, the
clergy or the blind we can use the noun man / woman: a
policeman, a clergyman, a blind man. When we want to refer
to one piece of clothing, we use a pair of trousers, jeans,
scissors, glasses.
SAQ 2
Complete the following sentences with one of the following nouns
according to the context. The first one is done for you.
NOTE!
The pronouns all and some can be followed either by a
singular or a plural depending on the meaning attached to
them.
All is well that ends well.
(meaning everything)
All were there except Mary.
(meaning all the people)
Some is enough.
(some bread, money)
Some are staying on, others will be leaving.
(some people)
75
Subject Predicate Concord
SAQ 3
Complete the following sentences with the appropriate form of the
verb to be. The first is done for you.
76
Subject Predicate Concord
NOTE!
The subject may be linked to another noun by: as well as,
except, but, with. In such cases only the first noun dictates
the agreement with the predicate.
Mary as well as all her colleagues is expected to come.
All the pupils, but John, are here.
A lady with a dog was coming on the road.
77
Subject Predicate Concord
Summary
Uncountables
Collective Nouns
Coordinated Subjects
Concord of Person
o with all lexical verbs, only the 3rd person Simple Present is
different from the other forms. With the verb to be there
are different forms for 1st, 2nd and 3rd person singular in the
Present Tense.
78
Subject Predicate Concord
Key Concepts
concord or agreement
countable nouns
collective nouns
coordinated subject
correlative conjunctions
notional verbs
proximity rule
uncountable nouns
Selected Bibliography
Leech, G., Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English,
Longman, 1975, pp. 220 - 222
79
Subject Predicate Concord
PA No. 3
I. Choose the correct form of the verb, singular or plural, according
to the subject.
1. Physics was / were his best subject at school.
2. Three days isnt / arent long enough for a holiday.
3. Does / Do the police know who robbed the old man?
4. The news wasnt / werent too bad.
5. The information they gave was / were inaccurate.
6. Is / Are the audience seated?
7. Where does / do your family live?
8. The money is / are not enough for shopping.
9. The rich has / have money.
10. Some people is / are waiting outside.
II. Complete the following sentences with the appropriate form of the
verb in brackets. Use the Present Tense Simple or Continuous or
the Present Perfect to make sure whether you use the singular or
plural form. The first one is done for you.
1. Both Mary and her friend (to read) have read the book.
2. Either he or you (to have) __________ to do it now.
3. The little boy with his friends (to save) __________ the
trapped animal.
4. Neither the witness nor the victim (to tell) __________
the truth.
5. Football as well as volleyball (to play) __________
outside.
6. Not only the students but also the teacher (to participate)
__________ in the competition.
7. Many people with umbrellas (to walk) __________ in the
street.
8. All the books, except one dictionary (to arrive)
__________ in good condition.
9. Food and drinks (to be served) __________ now.
10. Not only the policeman, but the passers by too (to run)
__________ after the thief.
80
Subject Predicate Concord
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
1. are
2. was
3. was
4. is
5. is
6. is
7. is
8. is
9. is
10. has been
SAQ 2
1. scissors
2. The blind
3. The police
4. The Carpathians
5. The surroundings
6. These trousers
7. people
8. The cattle
9. Clothes
10. belongings
SAQ 3
1. is
2. is
3. are
4. is
5. are
6. are
7. is
8. are
9. is
10. is
NOTE:
In case your answers differ from the given ones, or you have
encountered difficulties in solving the SAQs, we suggest you go back
and re-read the following subchapters:
81
Complementation of the Verb (I)
UNIT 5
UNIT OUTLINE
Unit Objectives 83
5.1. What is Complementation 83
5.2. Transitivity and Complementation 84
5.2.1. Classification of Transitive Verbs 85
5.2.2. Passivization 86
SAQ 1 88
5.3. The Direct Object 89
5.3.1. Monotransitive Verbs and the Direct Object 89
5.3.2. Phrasal Verbs and Transitivity 92
SAQ 2 93
5.3.3. Means of Expressing the Direct Object 94
5.4. The Object Complement 95
SAQ 3 97
Summary 98
Key Concepts 99
Selected Bibliography 99
PA No. 4 100
Answers to SAQs 101
82
Complementation of the Verb (I)
83
Complementation of the Verb (I)
84
Complementation of the Verb (I)
85
Complementation of the Verb (I)
b) ditransitive verbs which ask for two objects: a direct object and
an indirect object, as the verbs to give something to somebody or to
do something for somebody:
5.2.2. Passivization
Transitivity is directly linked to passivization and generally a
sentence which is constructed with a transitive verb can be
transformed into a passive one by moving the direct object in subject
position.
a) Monotransitive verbs
86
Complementation of the Verb (I)
The meeting was put off (by them).
87
Complementation of the Verb (I)
c) when the interest of the speaker or writer lies in the activity or the
event expressed by the predicate and not in the doer of the action
SAQ 1
Turn the following active sentences into passive sentences paying
attention to the agent (by-object). Mention the number of the
sentence in which you do not think that the agent should be
expressed and why. The first one is done for you.
88
Complementation of the Verb (I)
a) Monotransitives proper
Monotransitive verbs, those which ask only for a direct object
form a very large class and are widely used in everyday language.
Here are some of them: to achieve, to admire, to build, to carry, to
catch, to complete, to correct, to cut, to destroy, to discover, to enjoy,
to express, to fill, to find, to hate, to hear, to hit, to keep, to kill, to
know, to love, to need, to own, to plan, to please, to produce, to
protect, to raise, to release, to receive, to remember, to rent, to
reveal, to risk, to sell, to test, to trust, to use, to waste, to welcome.
All sentences built with these verbs can be changed into
passive ones.
89
Complementation of the Verb (I)
NOTE!
When to measure and to weigh refer to the action expressed
by the verbs, they become regular transitive verbs which can
be used in the passive.
The saleswoman measured the material.
The material was measured.
They weighed the crates.
The crates were weighed.
90
Complementation of the Verb (I)
NOTE!
In the case of the verb to want we may come across a
sentence like:
91
Complementation of the Verb (I)
to smile a smile
to live a life
to dream a dream
to sigh a sigh
to dance a dance
to bring in, to give up, to put down, to take away, to think over
to go up, to get off, to stop by, to fall off, to drink to
Check your answers as you read on.
92
Complementation of the Verb (I)
Still, there are phrasal verbs which are transitively used as the
simple verb which is transitive: to beat up, to bring about, to bring in,
to carry out, to cut down, to fill in, to find out, to give away, to hand
out, to knock down, to leave behind, to pay back, to point out, to
push down, to put away, to put off, to see off, to set aside, to take
away, to take on/up, to try on/out, to turn on, etc.
SAQ 2
Fill in the following sentences with an appropriate noun as the
direct object so that they become meaningful. The first one is done
for you.
93
Complementation of the Verb (I)
a) a noun phrase:
b) a noun-phrase substitute
indefinite pronouns
negative pronouns
demonstrative pronouns
94
Complementation of the Verb (I)
possessive pronouns
interrogative pronouns
In both cases, the two underlined words refer back to the direct
objects, him respectively the job.
The object complement can be expressed by an adjective or a
noun.
The object complement is required by some groups of verbs:
95
Complementation of the Verb (I)
96
Complementation of the Verb (I)
SAQ 3
Choose one of the given adjectives or nouns as appropriate
complements in the context. State whether the function is subject (SC)
or object complement (OC). The first one is done for you.
a joke; man and wife; Carolyn; alive; red; salty; tired; sick; still; open
97
Complementation of the Verb (I)
Summary
o monotransitive
o ditransitive
o complex transitive
The boy hit the dog. The dog was hit by the boy.
o Noun Phrase
o Noun Phrase
o Adjective
98
Complementation of the Verb (I)
Key Concepts
complementation
transitivity
passivization
cognate object
causative verbs
agent
complement
object
transitive verbs
intransitive verbs
ergative verbs
Selected Bibliography
1. Broughton, Geoffrey A Penguin English Grammar A-Z, Penguin
Books, 1990, pp. 257 - 259
99
Complementation of the Verb (I)
PA No. 4
I. State whether the statements below are true or false. Justify your
choice.
1. Verbs in English are either transitive or intransitive.
2. Transitive verbs are followed by a direct object.
3. Phrasal verbs are always intransitive.
4. All transitive verbs can be used in the passive.
5. In a passive sentence, the by-object denoting the agent is
always expressed.
6. The object complement follows a linking verb.
7. The direct object is expressed only by nouns and
pronouns.
8. The order of the subject, verb, direct object is flexible.
9. In passive sentences, the direct object becomes subject.
10. The object complement identifies or describes the direct
object.
II. Identify the direct object in the following sentences. State what it
is expressed by.
1. Save our souls.
2. She found a large sum of money in the street.
3. I couldnt see anybody in the room.
4. She saw herself in the mirror.
5. They wanted to leave.
6. What did you buy?
7. They denied having seen the accident.
8. This colour doesnt suit you.
9. They own a large property.
10. Nobody knew the whole truth.
100
Complementation of the Verb (I)
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
2. Books must not be stolen.
3. Valuable paintings were destroyed by the fire.
4. A pencil is used to write with.
5. This beautiful piece of music was composed by Beethoven.
6. Mother will be taken to the hospital tomorrow.
7. A suspect is being looked for by the police.
8. The room must be cleaned.
9. Many people were killed by the huge waves.
10. Lessons should be made interesting for pupils.
SAQ 2
2. football (any game)
3. a cake
4. the light, the TV, the gas
5. mother
6. life
7. a lot of money/ or sum
8. the door/window
9. smoking
10. pen
11. the glass/cup
12. dress
13. tea/coffee/cake
14. answer
15. trip/performance
SAQ 3
2. tired (SC)
3. salty (OC)
4. still (SC)
5. Carolyn (OC)
6. alive (OC)
7. man and wife (OC)
8. open (OC)
9. a joke (OC)
10. sick (SC)
101
Complementation of the Verb (I)
NOTE:
In case your answers differ from the given ones or you have
encountered difficulties in solving the SAQs, we suggest you go back
and re-read the following subchapters:
102
Complementation of the Verb (II)
UNIT 6
UNIT OUTLINE
103
Complementation of the Verb (II)
In this unit we will deal with the types of sentences which fall
into the S + V + DO + IO; S + V + DO + Prep.O and S + V + Prep.O
patterns as well as with complex constructions that follow certain
transitive verbs.
The two units with reference to complementation cover the
obligatory constituents of the sentence which are in close
relationship to the verb as predicator.
There are some verbs which ask for two objects in order to
form a complete sentence. One group of these verbs are those which
ask for a direct and indirect object. Generally the direct object
expresses the object or person affected by or related to the action,
whereas the indirect object expresses the person to whom the action
is directed to or who benefits from it. In the sentence:
a doll is the DO, whereas Mary benefited from the action of buying,
so Mary is IO.
According to the role of the Indirect Object as receiver/recipient
of the action or beneficiary, the ditransitive verbs fall into two groups:
104
Complementation of the Verb (II)
105
Complementation of the Verb (II)
But there are verbs which can make meaningful sentences with
either object expressed. Such verbs as: to write, to read, to play, to
cook, to sing can be used to make up meaningful sentences with
either of the objects.
106
Complementation of the Verb (II)
Why do you think that these verbs can be used with either of
the objects? What is the relationship between their meaning and the
direct object?
Write your answers in the space below and then check them
as you read on.
I. S + V + DO + IO (preposition to/for)
NOTE!
The exception to the rule are the verbs in group d) (to ascribe,
to prescribe, etc.) which always require a to-prepositional DO.
107
Complementation of the Verb (II)
S + V + IO + DO
c) a reflexive pronoun
108
Complementation of the Verb (II)
109
Complementation of the Verb (II)
SAQ 1
I. Identify the direct and indirect objects in the following sentences.
The first one is done for you.
7. Do it for them.
II. a) Turn the following sentences into passive ones using the IO
as subject. The first one is done for you.
110
Complementation of the Verb (II)
111
Complementation of the Verb (II)
112
Complementation of the Verb (II)
SAQ 2
Complete the following sentences with the appropriate
prepositions and underline the prepositional object. The first one is
done for you.
113
Complementation of the Verb (II)
114
Complementation of the Verb (II)
115
Complementation of the Verb (II)
NOTE!
The verbs to get and to have are not used in the passive.
the speaker is not sure whether she managed to lock it or not. The
action is seen as in progress.
116
Complementation of the Verb (II)
Other verbs that can be used in the Accusative + Participle are the
verbs to catch, to find, to leave:
117
Complementation of the Verb (II)
SAQ 3
I. Choose from the 3 verbs in brackets the appropriate form of the
verb for the complex construction. The first one is done for you.
5. The old man did not notice the window (to open, open,
opened).
7. They made him (to pay, paying, pay) for the damage.
10. They will try to get him (do, done, doing) it.
II. Turn the following sentences into passive. The first one is done
for you.
119
Complementation of the Verb (II)
Summary
Ordering DO and IO
I. S + V + DO + IO
II. S + V + IO + DO
Means of expressing IO
NP
NP substitute
reflexive pronoun
Complex Complementation
S + V + DO + Inf.
S + V + DO + Present Participle
S + V + DO + Past Participle
Passivization
DO S + V + Inf./Participle
Key Concepts
Object
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Prepositional Object
Complex construction
Complex Complementation
recipient
beneficiary
Selected Bibliography
Broughton, Geoffrey A Penguin English Grammar A-Z, Penguin
Books, 1990, pp. 296 - 301
120
Complementation of the Verb (II)
SAA No. 2
I. a) Complete the following sentences with the direct object and the
appropriate indirect object or prepositional object given in brackets.
1. She explained (the pupils, the new lesson).
2. They assured (we, their support).
3. Mary reminded (his name, I).
4. They offered (no explanation, the patient).
5. The officials congratulated (the success, young man).
6. The students handed (the teacher, the papers).
7. They blamed (the lie, John).
8. The students asked (questions, the teacher).
9. Introduce (John, your parents).
10. He promised (I, a present) on my birthday.
1. S + V + IO + DO
2. S + V + DO + IO
3. S + V + DO + Prep.O
4. S + V + Prep.O
5. S + V + DO + Inf.
6. S + V + DO + Present Part.
7. S + V + DO + Past Part
8. S + V + DO + short Inf.
9. S + V + DO + OC
10. S + V + SC
121
Complementation of the Verb (II)
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
I.
2. the teacher IO; several questions DO
3. the letter DO; to Mother IO
4. we IO; your rubber DO
5. a birthday cake DO; for John IO
6. me IO; a rose garden DO
7. it DO; for them IO
8. yourself DO; to the newcomers IO
9. to them IO; their mistakes DO
10. a game of tennis DO; for the onlookers IO
II.
a)
2. The visitors were shown the new house.
3. You will be sent the necessary information.
4. I wasnt told the whole story.
5. She was given a new watch.
b)
2. The rules were explained to the guests.
3. Harm was done to me.
4. Some milk was left for the cat.
5. Dinner has been cooked for the family.
SAQ 2
2. from
3. of
4. to
5. in
6. on
7. at
8. of
9. of
10. on
SAQ 3
I.
2. to be
3. move/moving
4. to be
5. open
6. swim
7. pay
8. opening
9. to help
10. do
122
Complementation of the Verb (II)
II.
2. He was requested to leave the place.
3. The soldiers were ordered to shoot.
4. Mother was persuaded by the child to take him home.
5. Dogs wont be allowed in the shop.
6. The young man was encouraged to speak English.
7. The singer was expected to come back on stage.
8. I was meant to do the job.
9. The matter was not considered to be over.
10. The tourists were warned to take care of their valuables.
NOTE:
In case your answers differ from the given ones, or you have
encountered difficulties in solving the SAQs, we suggest you go back
and re-read the following subchapters:
123
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
UNIT 7
UNIT OUTLINE
124
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
After having completed the study of this unit and solved the
SAQs, you should be able to:
S + V + DO
S + V + DO + A + A
125
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
a) Adv. M of Time
b) Adv. M of Place
c) Adv. M of Manner
d) Adv. M of Reason/Cause
e) Adv. M of Purpose
f) Adv. M of Condition
g) Adv. M of Concession
h) Adv. M of Result
126
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
NOTE!
In these two units we will discuss the adverbial modifiers
which occur in a simple sentence. These concepts are also
expressed by clauses. The adverbial clauses will be dealt with
in units 12 and 13.
127
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
Within the exact time adverbials we will also include adverbs or noun
phrases as: soon, early, late, recently, suddenly, previously,
formerly, once, before long, last night, next year.
128
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
NOTE!
In all these instances of expressing time, the question used is
when?
When do they leave?
When will she get home?
When did the wind start to blow?
NOTE!
In all these instances, the question asked to the adverbial
modifier is how long?
b) An action can last for some time, and we can point out the
beginning of the action, the end of the action or both time points.
The beginning of the action is expressed by using since or from
and the time division (year, part of day, etc.)
129
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
The end of an action, which lasts for some time, is expressed by till,
until associated with the time division word.
NOTE!
The questions for these time adverbials are since when? till
when?
130
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
NOTE!
The questions with reference to frequency is how often? or a
variant of it, how many times?
How often do you go to the cinema?
How many times have you made this mistake?
He is already here.
Have you already eaten?
NOTE!
The sentences with already and still can be affirmative and
interrogative, while the sentences with yet are negative and
interrogative.
131
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
132
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
They have been living here for more than ten years.
Most people work from 6 a.m. to 2 p.m.
NOTE!
Adverbial modifiers of these three groups do not exclude one
another in the same sentence. We can make up sentences
using two of them observing the rules of placing them in the
sentence.
They get up early every Monday.
Every Monday they get up early.
He always goes fishing in the summer.
She has already been to school today.
133
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
SAQ 1
I. Complete the following sentences with one of the time adverbials
given below. Pay attention to time tense relationship.
in the morning, always, for a week, yet, about noon, two months
ago, since 2001, from 8 a.m. to 2 p.m., hardly ever, twice a year
II. Ask questions to the time adverbials in bold. Pay attention to the
kind of adverbial (exact time, duration or frequency). The first one is
done for you.
134
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
135
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
There are a few adverbs which express distance: deep, down, far
away, low/down, high/up.
NOTE!
The question that is used with reference to adverbials of place
starts with where?
Where do they live?
Where did she run?
Where did she look?
136
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
NOTE!
The question referring to distance starts with How far?
How far did he throw the ball?
How far does she have to go?
137
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
NOTE!
Adverbial modifiers of place, expressed by prepositional
phrases which refer to the position of objects, can be placed in
initial position.
On the top shelf there was a china bowl.
At the far end of the street youll see the park.
NOTE!
In sentences that contain both an adverbial of place and one
of time, the adverbial modifier of place follows the
intransitive verb or the direct object of a transitive verb.
They went on a trip yesterday.
I didnt see you at the party last night.
SAQ 2
I. a) Identify the adverbial modifiers of place in the following text.
Say what they are expressed by.
An old man with steel rimmed spectacles sat by the side of the
road. There was a bridge across the river, and soldiers were crossing
it. Carts were moving up the steep bank, and peasants were walking
along it. But the old man did not move, he only sat there.
138
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
Summary
Key Concepts
Adverbial modifier
o time
exact time
duration
frequency
o place
place
direction
destination
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of place
Adverbial particles
Prepositional phrase
Selected Bibliography
1. Broughton, Geoffrey A Penguin English Grammar A-Z, Penguin
Books, 1990, pp. 24 - 29
140
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
PA No. 5
I. Answer the following questions, referring to yourself (if possible)
using the appropriate adverbial modifiers of time.
1. When were you born?
2. How long have you been studying English?
3. When did you graduate from high school?
4. Since when have you been living in this place?
5. What time did you start teaching yesterday?
6. How often do you go to the cinema?
7. Havent you finished your task yet?
8. Are you still at school?
9. How long have you been teaching English?
10. When will you go on a holiday?
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
I.
2. always
3. twice a year
4. yet
5. from 8 a.m. to 2 p.m.
6. in the morning
7. two months ago
8. for a week
9. since 2001
10. about noon
141
Adverbial Modifiers (I)
II.
2. How long have they been in the mountains?
3. When will we go to the cinema?
4. Since when havent I had time to read a novel?
5. When did he work in his office?
6. How often does Mary read in the garden?
7. How long has he been here now?
8. When did the lesson begin?
9. Till when did Peter work?
10. How often does he go to the theatre?
SAQ 2
I. a)
o by the side of the road expressed by prepositional phrase
o across the river expressed by prepositional phrase
o up and down the steep bank expressed by prepositional
phrase
o along it expressed by prepositional phrase
o there expressed by adverb
b)
Where did the old man sit?
Where was the bridge?
Where were the carts moving?
Where were the peasants walking?
Where did the old man sit?
II.
2. in
3. from
4. across
5. between
6. on
7. round
8. on
9. under
10. into
NOTE:
In case your answers differ from the given ones, or you have
encountered difficulties in solving the SAQs, we suggest you go back
and re-read the following subchapters:
142
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
UNIT 8
UNIT OUTLINE
143
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
144
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
145
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
NOTE!
These degree pointers as well as the comparatives can be
used also with some adverbs of time. Early, for instance, can
be earlier, too early, very early, quite early, etc.
a) The adverbials of manner indicate the way the action takes place.
Lots of adverbs can be used with this function among which:
accurately, badly, beautifully, carefully, dangerously, easily,
fiercely, freely, honestly, peacefully, pleasantly, roughly, silently,
strangely, vaguely, warmly, willingly, etc.
c) Other adverbs also imply the opinion of the speaker about the
action. This opinion may be
o positive as with: nicely, perfectly, favourably, well,
marvellously, wonderfully
146
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
NOTE!
Very often the prepositional phrase can be replaced by an
adverb of the same meaning.
Handle the baby with care / carefully.
They met by accident / accidentally.
147
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
NOTE!
Adverbial modifiers of manner, circumstance or degree
exclude one another from a sentence, unlike the adverbials of
time or place.
148
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
SAQ 1
a) Replace the prepositional phrases (in bold) which are used as
adverbials of manner with an adverb having the same meaning. The
first one is done for you.
1. _______________________
2. _______________________
3. _______________________
4. _______________________
149
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
5. _____________________
6. _____________________
7. ______________________
8. ______________________
9. ______________________
10. ______________________
He saved money.
He wanted to buy a house.
He saved money with the purpose of buying a house.
He saved money to buy a house.
150
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
The but for is used when the action is prevented from taking place
due to the but for prepositional phrase.
151
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
For instance:
SAQ 2
a) Complete the following sentences with appropriate given
adverbial modifiers and mention the concept they express.
152
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
2. Many people left the country __________________
3. The young sportsman did his best __________________
4. Call the police __________________
5. The man continued to work __________________
1. __________________
2. __________________
3. __________________
4. __________________
5. __________________
153
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
NOTE!
Word order in English concerns not only the subject, predicate
and object relationship but also the ordering of adverbials. The
normal word order moves from the subject towards the
predicate and its compulsory constituents ending with
adverbial modifiers according to the patterns mentioned
above.
154
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
NOTE!
If there is no auxiliary, do / does / did is used as in the case of
questions.
155
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
SAQ 3
Complete the following sentences with the adverbial modifiers given
in brackets according to the appropriate order. The first one is done for
you.
156
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
Summary
Adverbial modifiers of
Reason/cause: because of
Purpose: in order to
Concession: in spite of
Condition: in case of
Result: as a result
Principles
of the same kind from particular to more general
of different kinds Manner, Place, Time, etc.
Key Concepts
Adverbial modifiers
o manner
o circumstance
o instrument
o means
o degree
o reason
o cause
o concession
o condition
o purpose
o result
Emphasis
Inversion
157
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
Selected Bibliography
1. Leech, G., Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English,
Longman, 1975, pp. 197 - 201
PA No. 6
I. Identify the adverbial modifiers in the texts below. State what kind
of adverbial modifiers they are (time, manner, etc) and what they
are expressed by.
a)
It was raining hard, and the rain splashed mud on the
sidewalks. In San Pier dArena there is a wide street, and we
drove down to the centre of the town. On our left was the
Mediterranean.
b)
We got in early in the afternoon from the shooting-trip. We
had been up that morning since five oclock. The day before
we had good shooting, but that morning it was bad Across
the plain we could see the mountains. The summer was
ending, but the new snow had not yet come on the high
mountains. Only the old sun-melted snow was shining
brightly in the distance.
(Adapted after E. Hemingway, Short Stories)
II. Rewrite the following sentences so that you emphasize the words
in bold. Make the necessary changes of inversion.
1. He scarcely ever goes to bed before midnight.
2. He never caught a fish in his life.
3. You will miss the class under no circumstance.
4. Their father rarely punished them.
5. A magic box was talking there on a shelf.
6. The dancers are here.
7. He helped us very little.
8. He realized his mistake only much later.
9. The rain came pouring down.
10. Their life was endangered at no other time.
158
Adverbial Modifiers (II)
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
a)
2. hurriedly
3. clearly
4. foolishly
5. silently
6. lovingly
7. kindly
8. politely
9. efficiently
10. dangerously
b)
2. She left the room hurriedly.
She hurriedly left the room.
3. The teacher explained the lesson clearly.
The teacher clearly explained the lesson.
4. You should not behave so foolishly.
*You should not so foolishly behave.
5. They attended the ceremony silently.
They silently attended the ceremony.
6. He looked at her lovingly.
He lovingly looked at her.
7. The patients are treated kindly here.
The patients are kindly treated here.
8. The young man greeted politely.
The young man politely greeted.
9. They seem to work efficiently.
*They efficiently seem to work.
10. The young man was driving dangerously.
The young man was dangerously driving.
Sentences 4 and 9
SAQ 2
a)
1. because of the fog
2. in consequence of the war
3. in order to win
4. in case of an emergency
5. despite poor health
b)
1. Because of the fog, the mountaineers could not climb to the top.
2. In consequence of the war, many people left the country.
3. In order to win, the young man did his best.
4. In case of an emergency, call the police.
5. Despite poor health, the man continued to work.
SAQ 3
2. The train arrived in Bucharest very late this morning.
3. The child spoke rudely in the classroom.
4. He was born on a lovely day in the spring of 1976.
5. Come to my office at 7 oclock tomorrow morning.
6. They learned English very well in England last summer.
7. Lets wait patiently here for another half an hour.
8. He went to school in this town during the war.
9. He must be at home about noon.
10. This patient must always take his medicine before dinner.
NOTE:
In case your answers differ from the given ones or you have
encountered difficulties in solving the SAQs, we suggest you go back
and re-read the following subchapters:
160
Coordination
UNIT 9
COORDINATION
UNIT OUTLINE
161
Coordination
After you have studied this unit and completed the tasks you
should be able to:
This means that we coordinated two noun phrases: the plates and
the glasses, and two adjectives: young and pretty.
162
Coordination
NOTE!
Within a simple sentence adversative conjunctions are limited
in usage to sentence constituents expressed by adjectives
and adverbs and clauses set in contrast.
163
Coordination
a) Subjects
b) Subject Complements
c) Objects
NOTE!
Both simple conjunctions and correlatives can be used to
coordinate subjects, subject complements and objects.
1) Mary and her sister
Both Mary and her sister
2) Joan is intelligent and hardworking.
Joan is not only intelligent but also hardworking.
3) You can buy flowers and a present.
You can buy either flowers or a present.
The correlatives have the function of emphasizing the
coordinated elements.
164
Coordination
d) Adverbial Modifiers
SAQ 1
a) Complete the following sentences with the conjunctions and, or
or but in order to coordinate the constituents of the sentences given
in brackets. The first one is done for you. Pay attention to the
relationship between the coordinated constituents.
165
Coordination
2. _______________________
4. _______________________
6. _______________________
9. _______________________
10. _______________________
166
Coordination
167
Coordination
c) when the verb phrases are made up of a modal verb and a main
verb, we can coordinate two different modals (1) with the same
main verb or (2) two main verbs with the same modal
In such instances, we should place the main verb after the second
modal (1) and use the modal verb only with the first main verb (2).
SAQ 2
Link together the following simple sentences to obtain a compound
sentence by means of and, but or or. Make the necessary changes.
The first one is done for you.
7. Is it raining? Is it snowing?
___________________________________
8. You should tell them the truth. You must tell them the truth.
___________________________________
10. Mary goes to school regularly. Mary does her homework. Mary
gets good marks.
___________________________________
169
Coordination
NOTE!
In case of using the conjunction but or or, the whole
simple sentence is mentioned once again.
John studies English, but Mary studies French.
I will come tomorrow, but my friend will come next
week.
I will come tomorrow or my friend will come the day
after tomorrow.
a) John does, too; Mary can, too; cats are, too. The order of this
second part of the compound sentence follows the subject verb
order, but instead of repeating the whole predicate, we repeat the
auxiliary, modal or the verb be, adding too at the end. In the case
of a simple lexical verb, we replace it by the substitute verb do.
170
Coordination
171
Coordination
a) John is a pupil.
Mary is a student.
John is a pupil, and Mary is a student.
172
Coordination
SAQ 3
I. Join the following simple sentences by using and too / and
so for the affirmative ones and and either / and neither for the
negative ones. The first two are done for you.
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
173
Coordination
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
3. They did not look for help. They did not ask for help.
_________________________________________
b) There are two sentences for which two solutions are possible.
Which of them? Provide the alternative solutions, too.
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
174
Coordination
Summary
Coordination
Key Concepts
Coordination
Coordinator
Conjunctions: simple and correlative
o copulative
o adversative
o disjunctive
Selected Bibliography
Broughton, Geoffrey A Penguin English Grammar A-Z, Penguin
Books, 1990, pp. 92-94
175
Coordination
PA No. 7
I. Identify the coordinating conjunctions in the following texts and state
whether simple or correlative and type: copulative, adversative or
disjunctive.
a)
He was a well-built boy. He had curly hair and good teeth and a
skin envied by girls. He was fast on his feet and did his work
well and he loved his sisters.
b)
The man shot, but the animal kept going. He either did not hear
the shot or he didnt feel the pain yet. Both the driver and the
hunter got out of the car and started running after the wounded
buffalo.
c)
He despised those people, but he kept living with them. They
neither quarrelled nor argued, yet each of them knew that truth
of his feelings.
176
Coordination
4. We are going to a party on Saturday. They are going to a
party on Saturday.
_______________________________________
9. Youll have to observe the rules. You will lose the game.
_______________________________________
177
Coordination
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
2. My friend and I; Both my friend and I
3. bread, butter and cheese
4. English or American
5. sunny but cold
6. either a cake or an ice-cream
7. slowly and silently
8. down the street and round the corner
9. at 9 oclock or 10 oclock
10. Either Mother or Father
SAQ 2
2. John read the novel and liked it.
3. He opened the book but didnt start reading.
4. He is looking at me and listening to me.
5. Are you coming or leaving?
6. I looked everywhere but couldnt see anybody.
7. Is it raining or snowing?
8. You should and must tell them the truth.
9. You should either go to see them or call them up.
10. Mary goes to school regularly, does her homework and gets good
marks.
SAQ 3
I.
3. John went to the concert and Tom did, too / and so did Tom.
4. I like the Beatles and Tom does, too / and so does Tom.
5. Jane didnt go to the seaside last year and her daughter didnt
either / and neither did her daughter.
6. John doesnt work hard and you dont either / and neither do you.
7. My friends will come tomorrow and her parents will, too / and so
will her parents.
8. Your eyes are blue and your dress is blue, too / and so is your
dress.
9. Mary wont go to school tomorrow and John wont either / and
neither will John.
10. I appreciate his work and everybody does, too / and so does
everybody.
11. I cannot speak Japanese and my students cant either / and
neither can my students.
12. Everybody should see his/her doctor twice a year and I should,
too / and so should I.
II.
a)
2. They both swam in the lake and sailed on it. / They not only
swam in the lake, but also sailed on it.
3. They neither looked for help nor asked for it.
4. These pupils both like and appreciate their teacher. / These
pupils not only like their teacher but also appreciate him.
178
Coordination
5. He can neither read nor write.
6. He either stays here or goes away.
b)
Sentences 2 and 4 because in both cases not only the meaning but
also the structure of the sentences make it possible for both
copulative correlatives both and and not only but also.
NOTE:
In case your answers differ from the given ones or you have
encountered difficulties in solving the SAQs, we suggest you go back
and re-read the following subchapters:
179
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
UNIT 10
UNIT OUTLINE
180
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
After you have studied the unit and completed the tasks, you
should be able to:
181
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
In all these three examples the words in bold, form the relative
clause which refers to the girl (1), to Toms father (2) and to the
people (3). The first two clauses contain finite-verb forms, while the
third clause contains a non-finite verb form. In all these cases we are
provided with information with reference to the girl, Toms father
and the people.
Relative clauses are introduced as subordinators by relative
pronouns: who, which, that or by relative adverbs: when, where,
why.
a) defining
b) non-defining
NOTE!
Defining and non-defining relative clauses are also called
restrictive and non-restrictive. As the terminology does not
make any difference, we will opt for the defining and non-
defining terms.
The clause in bold refers back to the fact that they are always
quarrelling.
182
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
a) subject
The man who lives next door is an actor.
b) subject complement
He is the man who bought our car.
c) direct object
I saw the man who was here yesterday.
d) indirect object
I gave the money to the woman who does my shopping.
e) prepositional object
He approved of the proposal which best suits us.
a) who, whose, whom are used when the clause refers back to
nouns denoting people:
b) which, of which (whose), about which, etc. are used when the
clause refers back to nouns denoting objects:
183
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
c) that can replace both who and which in all cases except for the
possessive whose:
184
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
These relative adverbs are limited in usage and except reason why
they can be replaced by the relative pronoun which.
SAQ 1
a) Complete the following sentences with the appropriate
introductory marker, relative pronoun or adverb (who, which, that,
where, when, why). Pay attention to the noun or noun substitute
which is defined by the relative clause. The first one is done for you.
b) Point out the sentences in which you can replace who / which by
that as introductory marker.
185
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
and omit the relative pronoun, the new clause will be a contact
clause and the whole sentence is meaningful.
186
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
NOTE!
As the defining relative clause is perceived as an important
part of the complex sentence, necessary in specifying the
noun, it is not separated by commas from the main clause,
irrespective of its position.
SAQ 2
Delete the relative pronouns or adverbs where possible in the given
sentences. Change the place of the preposition in case of deletion.
The first two are done for you.
187
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
6. All the papers that you read carry the same story.
___________________________________
7. I saw the girl with whom you were in the street yesterday.
___________________________________
11. Give me the knife with which you cut the meat.
___________________________________
The tourists, who spent the night at the motel, were saved by
the mountaineers.
My friend John, who is a writer, has just published a volume of
short stories.
People all over the world are still mourning the Pope, who died
two weeks ago.
a) subject
b) subject complement
c) direct object
d) adverbial modifier
NOTE!
The preposition which is associated with whom or which
always precedes the relative pronoun.
189
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
My daughter was born in 1969, when the first men set foot on
the Moon.
Many people moved to villages, where they will set up farms.
SAQ 3
Complete the following sentences with appropriate relative
pronouns or relative adverbs and underline the non-defining relative
clauses. The first is done for you.
7. The pupils, _____ have been in school for more than two
months, are eager to go on a three day trip.
190
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
NOTE!
The independent relative clause is always separated by
comma from the rest of the sentence.
Can you rewrite the sentences using a finite form of the verb
and adding a relative pronoun or adverb? What is the function of the
relative introductory word?
Write down your answers in the space below. Check your
answers as you read on.
191
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
192
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
SAQ 4
I. Replace the finite relative clauses by a non-finite clause using the
present or past participle. Dont change the punctuation. The first two
are done for you.
The money which was stolen from the bank has never
been found.
The money stolen from the bank has never been found.
6. The rain, which has been falling night and day, will
damage the crop.
________________________________________
193
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
II. Replace the finite relative clauses by a non-finite one using the
long infinitive. The first one is done for you.
Summary
Relative Clauses
o describe, identify, provide information about a Noun
Classification
o defining
o non-defining
o independent
o reduced
194
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
o present participle
o past participle
o long infinitive
Key Concepts
relative clause
o defining
o non-defining
o independent
o reduced
relative pronouns
relative adverbs
deletion
contact clause
subordination
subordinators
main clause
subordinate clause
Selected Bibliography
195
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
SAA No. 3
I. State whether the following statements are true or false. Explain
why you consider them true or false.
1. Defining and non-defining relative clauses always refer to a
noun in the main clause.
2. Relative clauses always start with a relative pronoun.
3. Relative pronouns which introduce the relative clause perform
syntactic functions.
4. Relative pronouns or adverbs can always be deleted.
5. A non-defining relative clause provides necessary information
and specifies the noun.
6. Non-defining relative clauses are separated by commas from
the main clause.
7. Relative clauses can take initial position, mid position and end
position.
8. Independent relative clauses can be introduced by relative
adverbs.
9. Reduced relative clauses have a finite verb form as predicate.
10. Participial reduced relative clauses can be defining or non-
defining.
196
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
III. Complete the blanks with relative pronouns or adverbs only where
necessary and use contact clauses where possible. Pay attention to
the structure of the relative clause.
1. The house _____ they are looking at is for sale.
2. Nobody knew the girl _____ won the first prize.
3. The bridge, _____ was built 50 years ago, collapsed.
4. I think this is all the money _____ I have.
5. His mother always finds fault with him, _____ annoys him.
6. People _____ live in glass houses should not throw
stones.
7. It will be summer by the time _____ you will be back.
8. All the goods, _____ are displayed, must be sold within a
week.
9. The film about _____ they are talking must be very new.
10. The new building _____ the Ministry of Education will
move is finished.
197
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
a)
2. which/that
3. whose
4. who/that
5. who/that
6. where
7. which
8. when
9. that
10. which/that
SAQ 2
3. The flowers I got yesterday have already died.
4. Can you remember the shop you bought it from?
5. The house they are admiring belongs to a friend of mine.
6. All the papers you read carry the same story.
7. I saw the girl you were with in the street yesterday.
8. A person who works in a hospital is a doctor or a nurse.
9. Give me the knife you cut the meat with.
10. Everything that happened was our fault.
SAQ 3
2. , which is the capital of the UK,
3. , who is the best Romanian poet,
4. , which was sold two years ago,
5. , who always comes in the morning,
6. , whose father is a teacher,
7. , who have been in school for more than two months,
8. , when the days are longer,
9. , about which I was talking to my students,
10. , where they can learn about folk traditions,
SAQ4
I.
3. Money given for charity
4. The man carrying the bag
5. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, published a century ago,
6. Money spent on books
7. The rain, falling night and day,
8. The flowers given to me by my students
9. The letter posted a month ago
10. Children playing in the street
198
Subordinate Clauses (I). Relative Clauses
II.
2. The house to buy
3. The book to read
4. Sunday is the day to rest.
5. London is the place to visit.
NOTE:
In case your answers differ from the given ones or you have
encountered difficulties in solving the SAQs, we suggest you go back
and re-read the following subchapters:
199
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
UNIT 11
UNIT OUTLINE
200
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
After you have studied the unit and completed the tasks, you
should be able to:
201
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
202
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
a) subject
c) subject complement
d) direct object
e) complement of an adjective
a) That-clauses as subject
203
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
That-clauses as the direct object follow certain verbs such as: verbs
of telling, verbs of mental activities, verbs of potential situation or
verbs of proposal/suggestion. Depending on the meaning of the verb
which requires a direct object that-clause we use certain verb forms
as predicates of the subordinate clause.
204
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
I promise that I will help you.
They expect that their friends can/will help them.
NOTE!
In American English the should + infinitive subjunctive is
replaced by the short infinitive of the verb as
They suggested that we all see the performance.
Mary insisted that I go, too.
They proposed that the meeting be postponed.
He is aware of danger.
He is aware that the experiment is dangerous.
f) That-clauses as apposition
205
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
The problem that he was severely ill was not discussed in the
family.
The belief that money makes the man is not always true.
NOTE!
These that-clauses look very much like relative clauses but
they are not. First there is the head noun which is used in a
general way. Secondly the that introductory marker cannot be
replaced by which.
The fact that they were stealing
cannot be replaced by
*The fact which they were stealing
SAQ 1
Identify the syntactic function of the that-clauses in bold. Pay
attention to their position in the complex sentence and to the words
that precede the that-clause. The first one is done for you.
8. She found out that the papers had been missing for
several days.
_______________
206
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
9. The rumour that Mary became an actress was proved
wrong.
_______________
a) subject
b) subject complement
c) direct object
207
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
e) object complement
f) prepositional object
a) subject
b) subject complement
c) direct object
d) adjective complement
208
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
e) prepositional object
SAQ 2
Identify the syntactic functions of the nominal relative clauses and
wh- nominal clauses in bold. Pay attention to the position of the
subordinate clause in the complex sentence and the words which
precede the nominal clause. The first one is done for you.
2. They did not understand why the plane couldnt take off.
_______________
6. They are not sure when the news will come out.
_______________
209
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
The non-finite forms of the verb, namely the long infinitive and
the gerund, can have syntactic functions which are identical with
those of a noun. For instance, in the following examples the
infinitive or the gerund can function as the subject.
These clauses with the infinitive and the gerund are known as
non-finite nominal clauses.
a) subject
Such sentences start with the infinitive as the subject takes first
position, and the infinitive clause is followed by the verb of the main
clause.
210
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
b) adjective complement
c) subject complement
d) direct object
The most common function of the infinitive is that of the direct
object after a transitive verb.
a) subject
As in the other cases, the non-finite clause as the subject takes initial
position.
c) direct object
211
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
There are certain transitive verbs which ask for a gerund non-
finite direct object clause. Such verbs are: to avoid, to deny, to
dislike, to postpone, to risk, to finish.
With a gerund clause, the two actions of the two verbs can be
performed by the same subject as in He certainly minded leaving the
room. or by two different subjects
NOTE!
In the case of verbs + compulsory preposition the existence of
the different subjects is also marked grammatically by using
the possessive or the accusative form of the subject of the
gerund.
SAQ 3
Identify the syntactic functions of the non-finite infinitive and gerund
clauses in the following sentences. Pay attention to the position of the
clause in the complex sentence and to the words that precede them.
The first two are done for you.
213
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
Summary
Nominal Clauses
o perform syntactic functions in a complex sentence
That-Clauses
o introductory word that
o syntactic functions:
subject
delayed subject
subject complement
direct object
indirect object
complement of adjective
apposition
Infinitive Clauses
o no introductory word
o syntactic functions
subject
subject complement
adjective complement
direct object
214
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
Gerund Clauses
o no introductory word (can take their own subject expressed
by a possessive or accusative noun or pronoun)
o syntactic functions
subject
subject complement
direct object
prepositional object
Key Concepts
apposition
nominal-relative clause
nominal clause
finite clause
non-finite clause
introductory marker
contact clause
subordination
subordinator
subordinate clause
subjunctive
syntactic function
Selected Bibliography
215
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
PA No. 8
I. State whether the following statements are true or false. Write T or
F after each statement.
1. Nominal clauses are also defined as noun clauses because
they perform the syntactic functions of a noun.
2. Nominal clauses are finite and non-finite.
3. That-clauses always take end position.
4. Nominal relative clauses are introduced by who and which.
5. Only nominal relative clauses can be indirect objects.
6. Wh-nominal clauses are questions.
7. Non-finite nominal clauses perform the functions of a noun.
8. All nominal clauses can be the subject or object of a complex
sentence.
9. A non-finite gerund clause can have its own subject.
10. Nominal clauses are important constituents in a complex
sentence.
III. Complete the blanks spaces with one of the non-finite verb forms
given below.
smoking, to live, to hear, helping, to see, to lose,
having taken, to teach, to do, to open
1. Dont promise _____ it if you are not sure that you can.
2. He appreciated our _____ them.
3. Mary was pleased _____ the good news.
4. Nobody knew how _____ the new window.
5. We were delighted _____ them again.
6. She was happy _____ in such a beautiful house.
7. They seemed _____ courage.
8. Do you mind my _____ here?
9. _____ someone like you is a pleasure.
10. They denied _____ the books from the library.
216
Subordinate Clauses (II). Nominal Clauses
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
2. subject complement
3. direct object
4. subject
5. adjective complement
6. direct object
7. delayed subject
8. direct object
9. apposition
10. direct object
SAQ 2
2. direct object
3. subject complement
4. subject
5. direct object
6. adjective complement
7. indirect object
8. prepositional object
9. direct object
10. direct object
SAQ 3
3. direct object
4. adjective complement
5. subject complement
6. direct object
7. prepositional object
8. subject
9. subject
10. direct object
11. direct object
12. direct object
NOTE:
In case your answers differ from the given ones or you have
encountered difficulties in solving the SAQs, we suggest you go back
and re-read the following subchapters:
217
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
UNIT 12
UNIT OUTLINE
218
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
After you have studied this unit and completed the tasks, you
should be able to:
219
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
When you are walking in the street, pay attention to the traffic
lights.
can be reduced to
220
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
221
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
period of time expressed by as long as, (sentence 8), short lapse of
time between two actions, as soon as and once, (sentences 7 and
9), frequency expressed by whenever, (sentence 3), and beginning
of the action, since, (sentence 11).
Time clauses that refer to the future are made with the verb in
the Present tense or Present Perfect tense, while in the main clause
we can use a future tense or the imperative.
The present tense is used instead of the future tense and the
present perfect instead of the future perfect tense.
223
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
NOTE!
Future tenses are not used in time clauses.
SAQ 1
Complete the adverbial clause of time with the verb given in
brackets in the appropriate tense. Pay attention to the tense used in
the main clause and to the subordinator which signals the temporal
relationship between the two actions. The first one is done for you.
Non-finite time clauses can occur when the subject of the main
clause is identical with the subject of the time clause, and so the
subject of the time clause can be omitted.
The non-finite forms in ing and ed result from the reduction
of the continuous and of the passive forms of the verb by omitting the
verb be, and the subject of the time clause.
or
Having consulted the patient, the doctor prescribed the
necessary medicine.
225
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
SAQ 2
Rewrite the time clause in bold into a non-finite clause making the
necessary changes. The first one is done for you.
4. After the tourists had visited the museum, they left the small
town.
___________________________________
226
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
NOTE!
The subordinator where also introduces relative clauses and
nominal clauses, which do not establish relationships between
actions but refer to a noun (in the relative clause) or perform a
syntactic noun function (the nominal clause) in the complex
sentence.
227
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
SAQ 3
Complete the following sentences with the appropriate form of the
verb given in brackets to indicate real, hypothetical and unreal
comparison between the two actions. Pay attention to the
subordinators. The first one is done for you.
5. Her eyes were red, and she looked as if she (be crying).
___________________________________
228
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
The words in bold are adverbial clauses of purpose which show the
aim of performing the actions in the main clauses. So the purpose of
working hard is to become rich (1); the purpose of getting up early
was to catch the bus (2), and the purpose of speaking clearly is that
the pupils may understand him (the teacher)(3).
Non-finite clauses with the infinitive are used when the subject of
the main clause is identical with the subject of the purpose clause.
229
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
The subject in the main clause is the teacher while in the subordinate
clause the subject is the pupils.
Finite purpose clauses are introduced by the following
subordinators: so that, in order that in affirmative clauses and for
fear that or lest in negative clauses.
With purpose clauses, as with other subordinate clauses, there
is a relationship between the tenses or verbs that are to be used in
the main clause and the subordinate clause.
230
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
Past could
Indicative Past Perfect might
should
would
She has locked the door lest someone should get in.
She locked the door for fear that someone should get in.
We can use finite purpose clauses with the two clauses having the
same subject when the action in the subordinate clause has a modal
connotation and is rather hypothetical than factual.
Compare:
231
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
SAQ 4
Complete the following main clauses with a purpose clause by
using the verb in brackets in the appropriate form. Pay attention to a)
the subordinator; b) subjects of main clause and subordinate clause.
The first one is done for you.
10. The leader of the group gave the tourists a map for fear
that they (lose) their way.
________________________________________
Summary
Adverbial Clauses
o express concepts like time, reason, purpose, etc., and
establish relationships between actions
o are introduced by subordinators
o can be finite and non-finite
232
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
Finite clauses
subordinators: when, whenever, which, as, once, after,
before, as soon as, as long as, since, till, until
time tense relationship observed between main clause
and subordinate clause
no future tense in the subordinate clause to express
futurity
Non-finite clauses
subordinators: optional
the ing or ed forms of the verb are the non-finite forms
of the verb
the two actions are performed by or refer to the same
subject
Non-finite clauses
expressed by the long infinitive of the verb
subordinators:
o in order affirmative clauses
o so as not negative clauses
identical subject for main clause and subordinate clause
Finite clauses
verbs used in the subordinate clause
o can/could
o may/might + main verb
o shall/should
o will/would
subordinators:
o so that, in order that in the affirmative clause
o for fear that, lest in the negative clause
subject of the main clause different from subject of the
subordinate clause or same subject for both clauses with
modal connotation of the action in the subordinate clause
233
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
Key Concepts
time clause
temporal relationship
o simultaneity
o anteriority
o posteriority
subordinators
finite clause
non-finite clause
emphasis
inversion
clause of place
clause of purpose
clause of manner
clause of comparison
indicative
subjunctive
hypothetical
Selected Bibliography
1. Beaumont, D., Granger, C. The Heinemann ELT English Grammar,
MacMillan Heinemann, 1989, 1992, pp. 244 - 249
234
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
PA No. 9
I. Underline the subordinate clauses of time, place, manner and
purpose in the following texts.
1. As we were leaving, my father came up to where my mother
was and they stopped the carriage to kiss me good-bye.
2. I was met by my nurse before I got to the door, and she took
me into the house. Her grief burst out when she first saw me;
but she controlled it and spoke in whispers as if the dead
could be disturbed.
3. When he got near the house he got out of the car as quickly
as he could so that he might not be in that company which he
disliked so much.
235
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (I)
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
2. goes
3. started
4. arrived
5. were trying
6. get
7. heard
8. ask
9. saw
10. rang
SAQ 2
2. while working
3. until having finished
4. (after) Having visited the museum, the students
5. Once verified, the results can be published.
6. / before going to school
SAQ 3
2. do
3. had seen
4. were
5. were/had been crying
6. teach
SAQ4
2. to learn
3. should hurt
4. not to be seen
5. may go
6. to get slimmer
7. to do
8. wont get wet
9. to learn
10. should lose
NOTE:
In case your answers differ from the given ones, or you have
encountered difficulties in solving the SAQs, we suggest you go back
and re-read the following subchapters:
236
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
UNIT 13
UNIT OUTLINE
237
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
After you have studied this unit and completed the tasks you
should be able to:
238
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
239
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
240
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
241
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
SAQ 1
Answer the following questions which refer to general truth or
habitual actions by providing the main clause. When the question
refers to you, answer with a personal response having I as subject.
The first two are done for you.
242
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
NOTE!
There are some variations of verb form usage in these
conditionals:
a) in the if-clause we can use the verb should to indicate
that the speaker considers the condition less likely to
be fulfilled: If I should need help is less likely to happen
than If I need help. In such instances, we can drop the
conjunction if and invert should with the subject:
Should I need help, Ill ask someone to help me.
Should he come here, tell him that Ill be back soon.
243
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
SAQ 2
a) Complete the following sentences with the appropriate form
(future or imperative) of the verb given in brackets. The first one is
done for you.
244
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
1. __________________________________
6. __________________________________
245
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
The past form of the verb in the conditional clause is called past
tense only for practical reasons. Actually it is the subjunctive form
of the verb, subjunctive which expresses an action contrary to
reality at the moment of speaking. The subjunctive form of the
verb is expressed only by the verb to be, the form were in the first
person singular and plural.
The main clause is constructed with the conditional mood
should/would + the short infinitive of the verb. The use of would
is more common, and the contracted forms are common in speech: I
would go/Id go.
NOTE!
As with the open conditionals, there occurs the situation when
the willingness of the subject in the conditional clause is
required for the fulfillment of the action in the main clause. In
such instances, would is used in the if-clause:
If you would be so kind to help me, I could finish by
two oclock.
Actually, this conditional functions as a polite request.
SAQ 3
a) Complete the following sentences with the appropriate auxiliary
or modal (should, would, could, might) of the verb given in brackets.
The first one is done for you.
246
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
3. If he were in good shape, he (work) in the garden.
___________________________________
2. What would you look for if you found yourself on a deserted island?
___________________________________
The event of being caught in the rain and the fact that I did not
leave early enough, made the catching of the train impossible.
The relationship between the main clause and the subordinate
clause is also signalled by the verb forms. The Past Perfect form of
the verb in the if-clause refers to an unreal situatio, so it is actually a
past subjunctive which expresses past situations contrary to reality.
In the main clause, the form of the verb is should / would +
have + -ed.
NOTE!
The conjunction if can be omitted with this type of conditional.
In such cases inversion between the auxiliary had and the
subject takes place:
If they had bought more books
Had they bought more books
You wont get your cake, unless you eat your soup.
Dont ask for their help, unless you are in real need of it.
248
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
NOTE!
Conditional subordinate clauses can take both initial position
and end position, but in the end position the focus is rather on
the result than on the condition:
Youll drop it if you are not careful.
SAQ 4
a) Complete the following sentences with the appropriate form of
the verb given in brackets (should/would/could/might + have + -ed).
The first one is done for you.
249
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
Had she read the novel
3. __________________________
5. __________________________
6. __________________________
8. __________________________
He was old,
He still worked.
250
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
251
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
reference to past time we use might + have + -ed. In the main verb a
modal is commonly used in such cases.
NOTE!
The subordinators, however and no matter how are followed
by the adverb which functions as an adverbial modifier of
manner (work hard), or by an adjective which is the subject
complement of be (might have been difficult).
By reduction, we obtain:
Rich though they were, they did not give to the poor.
Rich as they were, they did not give to the poor.
252
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
All these emphatic constructions always take initial position and
in initial position, the adverbial subordinate clauses are separated by
a comma from the main clause.
SAQ 5
Combine the pair of statements set in contrast by using the
following subordinators of concession: although, though, even
though. The first one is done for you.
3. ________________________________________
5.
______________________________________________
because in the first one we are told about the period of time since he
has been working, and in the second we are told about the reason
why he is not allowed to work, and the position of the two clauses are
different.
As for as, which both in the time clause and the clause of
reason can take initial positions, the logical relationship between the
two statements has to be taken into consideration.
In the first case, the logical question is When did he find the
bag? while for the second case the question would be Why couldnt
he go to the concert?
254
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
255
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
NOTE!
So that is also used as a subordinator for the clause of
purpose. The difference lies in the relationship established
between the main clause and the subordinate clause.
Compare:
They watered the flowers so that they wouldnt die.
[the purpose of watering the flowers]
They watered the flowers so that they looked much
livelier.
[the result of watering the flowers]
The old man was so tired that he sat down by the side of the
road.
He ran so fast that they couldnt catch him.
So tired was the old man that he sat down by the side of the
road.
Such marvellous music did he compose, that he became
famous at once.
The verb forms in the clauses are related to one another and
belong to the Indicative mood.
They have been working so hard that they need a break now.
They had been working so hard that they needed a break.
256
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
SAQ 6
Complete the subordinate clauses of reason or result with the verb
given in brackets in the appropriate form. The first two are done for
you.
2. The storm was so fierce that the ships (not leave) the
harbour.
The storm was so fierce that the ships could not leave
the harbour.
257
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
Summary
Conditional Clauses finite
o subordinators: if, unless, provided that/on condition that
o omission of if + inversion
o use of should/will/would in the subordinate clause
Clauses of Concession
o subordinators: although, though, even though, however, no
matter how
o verb forms
subordinate clause: Indicative; may/might + main
verb
main clause: Indicative; modal + main verb
o finite
o reduced
o emphatic
Key Concepts
clauses of condition
o factual conditional
o open conditional
o hypothetical conditional
o imaginary conditional
o unreal past conditional
clauses of concession
o contrast
o hypothetical concession
emphasis
inversion
logical deduction
reduced clauses
clauses of reason/cause
correlative subordinator
subordinator
omission of the subordinator
modal connotations
modal verbs
subjunctive
imperative
indicative
auxiliary verbs
Selected Bibliography
1. Beaumont, D., Granger, C. The Heinemann ELT English
Grammar, MacMillan Heinemann, 1989, 1992, pp. 112 - 120
259
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
SAA No. 4
I. State whether the following statements are true or false.
1. Factual conditionals are statements which express general
truth or habitual actions.
2. Open conditionals express conditions which can become true
in the future.
3. In an open conditional we can use any form of the verb.
4. Hypothetical or imaginary conditionals express a situation /
event which is not true at the moment of speaking.
5. Should or will/would can be used with modal connotations in
the conditional clause.
6. Conditionals of unreal past express an event or situation
which did not take place in the past.
7. The past perfect form of the verb in the conditional clause
expresses an action which was performed in the past.
8. The conjunction if cannot be omitted.
9. When we omit if, the auxiliary is inverted with the subject.
10. All conditional clauses express the condition upon which the
fulfilment of the action in the main clause is dependent.
II. Supply the correct form of the verb in the subordinate clauses.
Pay attention to the form of the verb in the main clause.
1. Tell him to call me if he (want) to see me.
2. If I (know) his address, I would write to him.
3. He would have heard something by now if anything
(happen).
4. If he (not do) it right now, he will do it for the next time.
5. You dont have to do it, unless you (want) to.
6. If you (want) some coffee, you should have told me so.
7. What will happen if you (not go) to work tomorrow?
8. Many people would like to go to the seaside if they (have)
money.
9. If she (like) the job, she would have applied for it.
10. I could have come, if you (invite) me.
260
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
the answers may differ in content, not in form:
SAQ 2
a)
2. will get
3. call me up
4. will drop
5. lets eat
6. Ill answer him
7. well go
8. will pass
9. lets start
10. tell it
b)
1. If he should come, hell meet
6. If he should write to me, Ill answer.
SAQ 3
a)
2. would tell it
3. he could work
4. might join
5. should be able to
6. could win
7. would/could marry
8. would go to see
9. wouldnt worry
10. would you do?
261
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
SAQ 4
a)
2. would have known
3. could have understood
4. might/would have arrived
5. could have studied
6. would have visited
7. would/might have been saved
8. would have examined it
9. he would have come
10. wouldnt/couldnt have got
b)
3. Had he spoken more clearly,
5. Had he taken his parents advice,
6. Had he known that his friend
8. Had he realized the importance
SAQ 5
a)
2. Though/Even though he couldnt swim, he jumped into the river.
3. Although it was late, I went for a walk.
4. Though/Even though everybody was invited, a few persons
came.
5. Although he was hungry and thirsty, he didnt stop.
6. Even though they were good friends, they competed for the same
prize.
b)
2. However late it was, I went for a walk.
5. However hungry and thirsty he was, he did not stop.
SAQ 6
3. had
4. could not speak
5. there was
6. fell/had fallen asleep
7. is
8. loved
9. doesnt know
10. stopped
262
Subordinate Clauses (III). Adverbial Clauses (II)
NOTE:
In case your answers differ from the given ones or you have
encountered difficulties in solving the SAQs, we suggest you go back
and re-read the following subchapters:
263
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
UNIT 14
UNIT OUTLINE
264
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
After you have studied and completed the tasks, you should be
able to:
265
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
266
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Changes
267
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
Changes
The tense of the verb is not changed. It is only the form that
changes from interrogative into affirmative or negative.
He has asked us: Did you see the Tower of London when
you were in London?
He has asked us if/whether we saw the Tower of London when
we were in London.
268
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
Let me go!
Let them play!
He tells me to let him go.
He tells me to let them play.
Changes
SAQ 1
a) Change the following quoted statements into reported speech
starting with: She is saying. The first is done for you.
269
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
270
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
here there
now then
today that day
last night the night before
yesterday the day before
a few weeks ago a few weeks before
this evening that evening
this week that week
this book that book
tomorrow the next day/
the following day
next week the next week/
the following week
Come here.
271
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
He told me to go there.
She told me that she had been in Bucharest the month before
and would go again the next month.
Tense changes
Direct Speech Reported Speech
Present Simple Past Simple
Present Continuous Past Continuous
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Past Simple/Continuous Past Perfect or Past
Future Simple/Continuous Future in the Past
She said:
I go to school every day. that she went to school every
day.
I am leaving. that she was leaving.
I have been ill for two weeks. that she had been ill for two
weeks.
I was at home. that she had been/was at
home.
I had been away when they had been away when they
came. came.
Ill help you. she would help me.
Ill be going away. she would be going away.
272
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
B. When the verb phrase contains a modal verb as can, may, shall
or will, in reporting them we change them into could, might, should
and would. The modal must meaning obligation becomes had to.
Shall we go now?
He asked whether they should go.
273
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
With both questions and statements, the changes are the same as
with the reporting verb in the present. Namely, the pronouns are
changed according to the principle of who speaks and who the
reported sentence is about.
The statements are introduced by that, the general questions
are introduced by if / whether, and the special questions by a wh-
word.
The structure of a question is turned into the structure of a
declarative sentence.
All these reported statements and questions become nominal
clauses, functioning as the Direct Object.
SAQ 2
I. Turn the following statements in reported speech using as the
reporting verb he/she told. Pay attention to the change of tense. The
first one is done for you.
II. Turn the following questions, general and special, into reported
speech. Pay attention to the structure of the newly formed sentence.
Introduce your reported question with wanted to know. The first two
are done for you.
a) the tense of the verb remains the same when the reported
statement contains a general truth:
275
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
meaning that the post office is still a red building and still there on the
main street.
276
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
SAQ 3
Turn the following statements and questions into reported speech.
Pay attention to the verb forms in the reported sentence as all the
sentences are exceptions to verb form changes. The first one is done
for you. Choose the reporting verb from: She told me, He said,
She wanted to know, He asked. The first one is done for you.
Do it now! (order)
Come here! (request)
Buy this book for the child. (recommendation)
He told me to do it then.
He asked me to go there.
He recommended me to buy that book for the child.
278
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
SAQ 4
Turn the following combinations of sentences into reported speech.
Use the reporting verb of your choice in the past tense and pay
attention to the changes required in each type of sentence. The first
one is done for you.
279
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
10. Let them do their tasks! They will have an exam soon.
________________________________________
Summary
Reported Speech is saying / telling what other people tell, have told
or told us
Reporting verbs
statements: to say, to tell
questions: to ask, to want to know
imperatives: to order, to ask, to tell, to invite, to recommend, to
request, to advise
exclamations: to remark, to exclaim
Statements that
Imperatives
280
Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
Structure Changes
Statements become nominal clauses - pronouns
Questions become nominal clauses - word order
- pronouns
Imperatives infinitive constructions - pronouns
Exclamations nominal clause - pronouns
Statements pronouns
Questions Past sequence of tenses
Imperatives distancing
Exclamations
Exceptions
conditionals (type 2 and 3)
general truth
modals (ought to, should, used to, might, must logical
deduction)
past perfect
Key Concepts
direct speech
reported speech
reporting verbs
reported clause
distancing
sequence of tenses
statements
questions
imperatives
exclamations
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Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
Selected Bibliography
1. Beaumont, D., Granger, C. The Heinemann ELT English
Grammar, MacMillan Heinemann, 1989, 1992, pp. 121 - 128
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Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
PA No. 10
I. Change the following sentences into reported speech.
a) Use the reporting verbs in the present or present perfect and pay
attention to the change of pronouns, word order in questions and
verb form in the imperative.
1. Ill buy the tickets for the cinema tonight.
2. Stand still and listen to the doctor!
3. Where can we find a good bookshop?
4. I met her many years ago but havent seen her for a long
time.
5. Will they play the concert in our town tomorrow?
6. He could have won the game if he had been faster.
7. I am leaving for Bucharest next week.
8. Come in, sit down and have a cup of tea!
9. I dont think I can finish my paper today.
10. How many people have come to the lecture?
b) Report the same sentences but use the reporting verbs in the
past tense and pay attention to the sequence of tenses and change
the adverbial modifiers of time and place to indicate distancing.
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Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
a)
2. She is saying that I must see the movie.
3. She is saying that she hasnt been to school today.
4. She is saying that John is ill today.
5. She is saying that Mother will be late.
b)
3. She wants to know if I can hear a noise.
4. She wants to know where I have put my glasses.
5. She wants to know if Mary is kind to me.
6. She wants to know what the time is.
7. She wants to know whether I speak French.
8. She wants to know what happened to her.
9. She wants to know whether they have already left.
10. She wants to know how much the apples are.
c)
2. He has told him/has ordered him to open the gates.
3. He has asked me to let him go.
4. He has invited me to go in.
5. He has asked me to wait outside.
6. He has ordered them to let the dog alone.
7. He has ordered/has told me not to touch it.
8. He has told/has invited me to have one more cake.
9. He has ordered them to get out of there.
10. He has told me to listen to my parents.
SAQ 2
I.
2. She told me that her friends were getting married soon.
3. He told me that he had been playing all day long.
4. He told me that he would be leaving the next day.
5. He told me that Tom had been ill for more than a month.
6. She told me that he could speak English quite well then.
7. He told me that I might finish it the next day.
8. He told me that his friend had studied engineering.
9. He told me that he didnt know what John was doing there.
10. He told me that people hardly went to the movies those days.
II.
3. He wanted to know why Tom hadnt gone to school that day.
4. He wanted to know whether I had had a good time at the seaside.
5. He wanted to know why I had to borrow money.
6. He wanted to know whether I had to do that (then).
7. He wanted to know what that word meant.
8. He wanted to know if I could tell him Marys address.
9. He wanted to know why I didnt answer the phone.
10. He asked me whether we would have dinner together.
11. He told me that people hardly went to the movies those days.
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Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
SAQ 3
2. He said that the Danube is a long river which crosses many
countries.
3. She told me that I ought to study more.
4. She wanted to know where he could be at that time of the night.
5. He said that Mary should be more careful.
6. He said that there must be an answer to that question.
7. She told me that they used to spend their holidays in the
countryside.
8. She wanted to know what he would have done if he had found
out the truth.
9. He asked me if I would be so kind to translate the letter for him.
10. She told me that bears are hibernating animals.
SAQ 4
2. She said that she was going shopping and asked me if she
should buy anything for me.
3. He asked me if I had a pencil as he thought that he had lost his.
4. She asked/urged me to go and ask a policeman and told me that
he must know the way.
5. She exclaimed what a beautiful day it was and said that it was a
pity they couldnt go for a walk.
6. She asked me if I understood the exercise and said that she
could explain it to me if I didnt.
7. She asked me if I would like some coffee and said that she would
get me one cup.
8. She advised me to listen to them and told me that I had to follow
their instructions.
9. She wanted to know why those people were arguing and said that
they could solve the problem peacefully.
10. She told me to let them do their tasks and said that they would
have an exam soon.
NOTE:
In case your answers differ from the given ones, or you have
encountered difficulties in solving the SAQs, we suggest you go back
and re-read the following subchapters:
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Reported Speech and Sequence of Tenses
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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