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ADELA ROGOJINARU
COMUNICARE l CULTUR
ORGANIZATIONALA:
IDEI l PRACTICI N ACTUALITATE
TRITONIC
INTRODUCERE
COMUNICAREA ORGANIZATIONAL:
UN SPAIU TEORETIC COMPOZIT
6 | ADELA ROGOJINARU
ce altceva este exerciiul de responsabilitate social corpo
rativ" dect o ncercare de reconciliere a corpului social cu
instituia corporativ.
Dat fiind consolidarea epistemologic recent a Comu
nicrii organizationale, mult vreme a fost considerat mai
curnd un instrument al proceselor de administrare intern
i nu un proces organizaional autonom. Construciile para
digmatice ale unui atare cmp comunicaional par s avan
seze pe msura modificrilor produse n ansamblu n tiinele
comunicrii. Comunicarea organizaional a intit dintotdeauna elucidarea celor dou aspecte-cheie ale comunicrii
umane: tranzitivitatea sa, cu referire la coninutul mesajelor,
i reflexivitatea sa, cu trimitere la relaia angajat de comu
nicatori. Primele i cele mai frecvente aplicaii de analiz a
coninutului comunicrii, anume informaia transmis prin
mesaj, se dezvolt n domeniul gestiunii/administrrii infor
maiei. Inspirate deopotriv din modelul clasic cibernetic, al
teoriei aciunii i retroaciunii (feed-back) comunicative, dar
i din funcionalism, teoriile privind administrarea eficient
a informaiei organizationale se regsesc adesea asociate
cu modelarea proceselor de decizie i aciune colectiv. La
nivelului utilizrii instituionale s-au reinut mai ales defini
rile dihotomice, ca cele de definire a direciei de comunicare
- orizontal vs. vertical, sau de instituionalizare a comuni
crii -formal vs. informai. Tratamentul informaiei a putut
msura gradul de dispersie/ concentrare la nivelul schim
burilor comunicaionale i a permis o modelare a interaci
unilor verbale (a se vedea modelul clasic al interaciunilor
propus de R.F. Bales n anii '50 ai secolului trecut). Probabil
c cele mai semnificative analize produse n urma aplicrii
analizelor privind administrarea eficient a informaiei s-au
soldat de timpuriu cu rezultate n modelarea deciziilor colec
tive, n funcie de cile i nivelurile de penetrare social a
informaiei prin mediile de informare. nscris de unii autori
n cadrul paradigmelor ..tehnicii i ale mediaiei" 3 , modelul
3 Bernard Miege, Gndirea coinunicaiona/, Cartea Romneasc,
1998, p. 70.
8 | ADELA ROGOJINARU
organizaionale. Aceast separare radical a regiunilor sociale
i organizaionale ni se pare interesant n prezent tocmai
prin caducitatea sa, cci dreptul la culise al organizaiilor este
din ce mai mult contestat de publicul extern. Transparena
i sinceritatea cerute organizaiilor fac ca acestea s le cear
actorilor lor s performeze n multiple scene expuse, pentru
diferite categorii de public, i s-i redefineasc culisele prin
comuniti virtuale interactive, pentru a le face disponibile
unor publicuri tere. Lecia pare s fi fost nvat de companii
nc nainte de apariia web 2.0, n momentul n care simpli
tatea pare s se fi impus pentru eliminarea ineficacitii (n
numele complexitii!) birocratice: un raport bun e trans
parent" spune lecia 37 din volumul-manifest corporativ al
P&G7. Sigur c ar fi util s reflectm n ce msur structurile
limbajului corporativ folosesc efectiv o pragmatic a simpli
tii sau ajung s ating un nivel de semidoctism prin care
se impune un odios jargon departamental care folosete fr
discernmnt termeni colocviali, regionalisme, calcuri ling
vistice i idiolecte, n ansamblu un amalgam greu de suportat
de o persoan nzestrat cu educaie i bun sim. Dar despre
toate acestea, cu alt prilej editorial.
Dac ne-am ndrepta ctre sociologia politic, o teorie care
ni se pare cu deosebire important pentru definirea compor
tamentului organizaional, inclusiv cel al comunicrii organi
zaionale, este cea elaborat de Albert O. Hirschman, anume
cea a loialitii, respectiv a abandonului organizaional8. Teza
lui Hirschman, care conine precizri importante cu privire
la schimbarea organizaional, analizeaz starea organizaional ca permanent ameninat de declin, rspunsul organiza
iilor fiind, n mod raional sau iraional, unul de meninere a
strii de fapt i de stagnare. Dou perspective: stagnarea este
o atitudine prudent, de conservare, sau, dimpotriv, stag7 Charles Decker, S ctigm n afaceri cu Procter & Gamble,
Bucureti, Editura Image, 1999, pp.105-106: Angajaii compani
ei P&G sunt nvai s scrie dup cum vorbesc, astfel fcndu-se
scrierea mai fireasc i mai accesibil, mai antrenant".
8 Albert Hirschman, Abandon, contestare, loialitate, Bucureti,
Ed. Nemira, 1999.
10 | ADELA ROGOJINARU
de comportament organizaional i-au lrgit sfera de cuprin
dere, recurgnd la examene critice aplicate nu numai compa
niilor, dar i instituiilor publice, precum i organizaiilor
non-profit. Grila de analiz cultural se modific continuu,
pentru a permite, mai nou, ajustri ale paradigmei sociologice
la tiinele comunicrii, n mod special la studierea culturilor
interne sub influena noilor media sociale, a blogging-ului n
primul rnd. Noiunea de cultur i recursul la perspectiva
cultural devin din ce n ce mai cuprinztoare n studiile organizaionale, fiind invocate n varii contexte, de la explicarea
comportamentului i codurilor corporative, pn la constru
irea imaginii i a publicitii de marc." n domeniul Resur
selor umane, structurile culturale orienteaz i indic valori ale
structurilor i relaiilor de munc, precum leadership, perfor
man de echip, forme de atribuire intern i determinarea
relaiilor de putere n comunicare i luarea deciziilor colective.
In Relaii publice, cultura intern modeleaz formele de iden
titate i de discurs corporativ sau instituional, constituie sursa
diferenelor de angajament public i mediatic (vizibil n gradele
de deschidere i de transparen"), i reprezint baza progra
mrii situaiilor de gestiune a riscului i a crizei, altminteri
marcate de incidental i de inconsisten.12
ntr-un atare spaiu teoretic compozit, numrul ntrebrilor
rmne n mod inevitabil mai mare dect cel al rspunsurilor
formulate. Disciplinele asociate culturii i comunicrii organizaionale tind s se impun i s substituie discipline formale
precum managementul organizaional, practicile organizaionale ns rmn n mare msur birocratice i exclusive,
sensibile la ierarhii funcionale i la matrice comportamentale
care s menin un nivel acceptabil de predictabilitate acional. Curentul de gndire impus de Hofstede rmne la rang
de meta-teorie, n numeroase cazuri, cci conflictele interculturale rezultate din ciocniri de civilizaie corporativ n cazul
11 Vezi poziia lui Wally Olins n Noul Ghid de identitate, comuni
care.ro, 2004, dar i Jim Aitchison n Inovaie nAdverstising, Brandbuilders, 2006 (refleciile cu privire la nelepciunea neconvenional").
12 Arlette Bouzon La place de la communication dans la conception de systemes a risques, L'Harmattan, 2004, pp. 82-90.
12 | ADELA ROGOJINARU
n ciuda limitrilor sau dezechilibrelor teoretice - sau
tocmai de aceea - cultura organizaional continu s gene
reze un numr impresionant de cercetri aplicate. O secie
distinct a ECREA i este dedicat, ca i laboratoare de cerce
tare. 1 6 Volumul de fa este realizat printr-un Apel transmis
ctre cercettorii din domeniu cu prilejul conferinei anuale
a Catedrei de Comunicare i Relaii Publice din Facultatea
de Litere, conferin cu participare internaional la care s-a
asociat i organizarea celui de-al XlV-lea Colocviu Bilateral
Franco-Romn, coordonat de Prof. univ. dr. Ioan Drgan,
directorul Centrului pentru studii media i noi tehnologii de
comunicare din Facultatea de Sociologie i Asisten Social.
Conferina a avut ca tema Fundamentele comunicrii organizaionale. Tendine actuale i perspective" i a fost organi
zat n perioada 1-2 iunie 2007, la Bucureti. Secia ECREA
de Comunicare strategic i organizaional s-a reunit pentru
prima dat cu acest prilej.
Lucrarea pe care o prezentm n continuare este o alctuire
multilingv de texte teoretice i aplicaii, redactate n limbile
de lucru ale conferinei, anume romn, francez i englez.
(Humanitas, 1993) cap. 14 (La fabric la birou"), pp. 200-206, asupra
formelor de zvon intern, ca i observaiile lui Serge Moscovici din Psi
hologia social sau Maina de fabricat zei (Polirom, 1997) cu privire
Ia dezirabilitatea consensului n societile moderne. Se poate obiecta
c recursul la sisteme de intranet, precum i la interdicia de a naviga
liber pe internet sau de a comunica prin sisteme de mesagerie instant
reprezint noi forme de control ierarhic. Vom spune c, dimpotriv,
reprezint consecinele incapacitii de a controla eficient reele libere
i deschise de comunicare cum sunt cele virtuale. De aceea, se recurge
la reele informale online, cum sunt blogurile interne sau sistemele de
chatting. Printre puinele lucrri publicate la noi i dedicate comunic
rii prin grupuri online sau e-grupuri, vezi Doina Fotache, Groupware.
Metode, tehnici i tehnologii pentru grupuri de lucru, Polirom, 2002,
pp. 95-1 !4 (organizaia virtual").
16 European Communication and Research Association, secia de
Comunicare strategic i organizaional", preedinte Arlette Bouzon
(Toulouse, Frana), vicepreedini Adela Rogojinaru (Bucureti, Ro
mnia) i Lars Thoger Christensen (Danemarca).
14 | ADELA R0G0J1NARU
promovarea gndirii tiinifice romneti n context european
i internaional. Singurul nostru regret este decalajul de publi
care a acestui volum, al doilea emis de actele conferinei din
2007, fa de primul, deja lansat cu lucrrile de expresie fran
17
cez. Varietatea lucrrilor cuprinse aici confirm observaiile
noastre introductive cu privire la diversitatea i efervescena
preocuprilor din cadrul disciplinelor dedicate culturii organizaionale. Desigur c nu acest volum face lumin n domeniu,
cci, dup cum spune o zicere medieval, muli multa sciunt,
nemo omnia, muli tiu multe, nimeni nu le tie pe toate. Dar
bogia interpretrilor, ca i complexitatea metodologii lor i a
perspectivelor ne indic un interes consistent i coerent pentru
dezvoltarea acestui domeniu. Sperm c cititorii vor aprecia
att plcerea lecturii, ct i folosina acestei cri adugate la
efortul colectiv de cunoatere.
ADELA ROGOJINARU
I
PERSPECTIVE EUROPENE
LA COMMUNICATION EN FRANCE:
DES PRATIQUES PLURIELLES ENTRE
CONFIANCE ET INCERTITUDE
Ariette Bouzon
Universit Toulouse III et CERTOP, Toulouse (France)
arlette.bouzon@iut-tlse3.fr
Introduction
Une grande partie de l'activit d'attach de presse (l'un des
mtiers de la communication) consiste en l'obtention d'articles
ou de reportages de journalistes en faveur de l'annonceur
concern; l'activit ne pouvant s'envisager indpendamment
des retombes correspondantes. Or le dveloppement des technologies de l'information et de la communication et surtout la
diminution des budgets de communication ont accentu ces
dernires annes les exigences en matire de performance des
relations presse, comme en tmoignent les nombreux dbats
qui agitent la profession depuis plusieurs mois en France.
Mais une telle valuation, qu'elle soit quantitative ou qualitative, reste une notion floue, souvent confondue avec la simple
ralisation d'un panorama de presse ou d'un press-book.
Paradoxalement, alors que les tudes permettant de mieux
caractriser les techniques de communication sont nombreuses, les travaux portant sur les pratiques des communicants
en matire de mesure de relations publiques internes et de
retombes presse sont, quant eux, quasiment inexistants.
Par ailleurs, la publicit (autre mtier de la communication)
cherche, quant elle, obtenir un effet sur le comportement des
individus d'une cible vise, en faveur d'un annonceur donn;
18 I ADELAROGOJINARU
l'activit publicitaire pouvant difficilement s'envisager indpendamment de ses retombes. Or l'interdpendance grandissante
des marchs, l'essor des produits standardiss, l'mergence de
mdias internationaux et la diminution des budgets de communication accentuent depuis quelques annes les exigences en
matire de performance publicitaire, comme en tmoignent les
nombreux dbats sur le neuromarketing qui agitent la profession en France depuis plusieurs mois. Mais qu'elle soit quantitative ou qualitative, l'valuation de la performance publicitaire
reste l encore une notion vague qui ne peut se confondre avec
la simple augmentation des ventes. En effet, la publicit ne
constitue qu'un moyen communicationnel parmi d'autres (les
relations publiques, la promotion par exemple) dans un environnement satur de messages concurrents et s'intgre dans
une stratgie globale elle-mme plus ou moins performante.
En outre, cette mesure recouvre une pluralit de moyens (pr
test en amont des campagnes, post test en aval, taux de mmorisation, de comprhension, d'agrment, d'attribution...) qui
rendent difficilement compte du ressenti rel des prospects et
consommateurs potentiels. Paralllement, les discours transitent via de nouveaux mdias, dont notamment Internet, qui
intgrent de nouvelles rgles de communication.
Dans ce contexte difficile, les communicants, quels qu'ils
soient (en relations publiques, relations presse ou publicit)
recherchent les outils susceptibles de les aider btir au
mieux leurs stratgies et justifier ces dernires auprs des
dcideurs. Ils sont ainsi amens mobiliser des concepts et
notions le plus souvent imports des sciences humaines et
sociales. Mais leurs pratiques sont mal connues... et d'ailleurs
peu tudies scientifiquement parlant! Si de nombreux crits
professionnels (manuels, magazines, tmoignages) portent sur
les relations publiques ou les campagnes publicitaires, ceux
acadmiques dcrivant les processus de travail de ces communicants sont en effet beaucoup plus anecdotiques. Ainsi, qu'il
s'agisse des rflexions menes par les professionnels, des
mthodes employes, des tendances observes ou des rsultats obtenus, les recherches scientifiques sur leurs pratiques
professionnelles restent mconnues. Aussi, la prsente
COMUNICARE^ICULTURORGANIZATIONAL | 19
contribution, vise exploratoire, tente-t-elle de mettre en
vidence quelques-unes de leurs logiques structurantes.
Aprs avoir pris connaissance des rsultats des enqutes
ralises par les professionnels eux-mmes, notre rflexion
s'appuie d'une part sur la littrature professionnelle existant
sur le sujet (manuels, ouvrages monographiques, magazines
professionnels1 depuis 2003), et d'autre part sur l'interrogation
d'un chantillon2 raisonn et diversifi d'quipes de cration
publicitaire et d'attachs de relations publiques (internes et
externes) en France (agences, indpendants, services intgrs
chez l'annonceur), selon un mode d'investigation ouvert et
semi directif favorisant l'expression spontane de rflexions
personnelles des intresss sur leurs propres pratiques. Les
rsultats de ces entretiens ont t traits par une analyse de
contenu thmatique. Premier constat : travers ces entretiens, la performance de la communication (tant en relations
publiques qu'en publicit) est apparue comme une question
rcurrente, qui interpellent tous les acteurs du processus de
communication, les uns et les autres considrant que ces
actions communicationnelles et leur mesure sont deux tapes
successives et complmentaires d'une mme dmarche.
Dans une premire partie, nous nous intresserons tout
d'abord aux pratiques d'valuation des attachs de presse. Nous
nous intresserons ensuite au processus de cration publicitaire et aux modles mobiliss. Nous nous concentrerons alors
sur les pratiques des cratifs, qu'ils soient concepteurs-rdacteurs (CR) auteurs des discours, ou directeurs artistiques (DA)
concepteurs des images.
1 Stratgies, CB News
2 Largement utilis, ce terme d'chantillon pourrait prter confusion car il est le plus souvent associ une dmarche quantitative
fonde sur un questionnaire standardis. Or ce n'est pas le cas ici,
compte-tenu de notre approche qualitative. Mais, mme s'il ne cherche
pas donner lieu des corrlations statistiques, l'chantillon retenu
constitue l'lment cl de l'investigation et a corrobor les conclusions
des dbats tenus lors de salons professionnels de la profession.
20 | ADELA ROGOJINARU
I - Relations presse: des pratiques de mesure
incertaines
Les relations presse ont pour objet de communiquer
un public donn une information par le biais de diffrents
mdias: presse, radio, tlvision ou Internet. Si ces derniers
sont jugs particulirement dcisifs dans une stratgie de
communication donne, c'est qu'ils constituent de puissants
relais multiplicateurs: une information transmise par un seul
journaliste pouvant atteindre des dizaines de lecteurs, auditeurs ou tlspectateurs. Dans le contexte actuel de concurrence exacerbe existant entre marques (et/ou entreprises),
l'valuation des relations presse, mme si elle n'est pas systmatiquement pratique, devient de plus en plus courante. Pour
ce faire, les annonceurs procdent soit par mthode personnelle, soit en faisant appel un prestataire extrieur, que nous
envisagerons tout tour.
a) Pluralit des mesures de performance
des relations presse
Concernant les mthodes utilises en interne par les annonceurs, il existe, semble-t-il, une profusion de mthodes personnelles fondes sur des critres quantitatifs, sachant que prs
de 95% des professionnels analysent l'ensemble des articles
apparus3. Pour 80% d'entre eux, l'tude se limite une apprciation au jug, dite au poids, partir de la comptabilisation
du nombre de retombes obtenues. Il s'agit en particulier dans
ce cas de calculer l'quivalent du budget qu'aurait dpens
leur entreprise si elle avait achet l'emplacement des articles
correspondants. Aid des guides qui recensent les tarifs de
publicit, l'attach de presse calcule ainsi le prix de chaque
article selon sa taille et son emplacement, en rpondant plusieurs questions: Combien y-a-t-il de papiers, quelle est leur
taille, est-ce que ce sont des citations, est-ce que l'entreprise
3 Evaluation de la profession.
COMUNICARESICULTURORGANIZATIONAL | 21
est cite dans le titre, est-ce qu'il y a une photographie, est-ce
qu'il y a une lgende de photographie?
Il s'agit l d'une premire mesure, certes basique, des retombes presse mais qui n'est pas sans poser un certain nombre de
questions. En effet, information et publicit ne sont pas de la
mme teneur. Elles ont des objectifs et des contenus diffrents.
Faire une telle comparaison entre articles d'information et
investissement publicitaire peut laisser penser qu'il y a instrumentalisation des journalistes par les professionnels des relations publiques. Par ailleurs, le simple comptage des coupures
de presse et son quivalent en achat d'espace est peu fiable car
il ne prend pas en compte le contenu, l'impact, ou le traitement
de l'information quivalent (le contrat de lecture de Vron).
L'tude de la performance par une tude quantitative se rvle
ainsi quelque peu rductrice et engendre une vision altre des
rapports entre information et communication.
Quelques annonceurs tentent en consquence d'aller plus loin
et pratiquent le benchmark, c'est--dire l'analyse de la progression en fonction de la part de voix, notamment par apport aux
concurrents ou autres preneurs de parole ce moment-l. Ils
vont au-del du calcul de la diffusion et effectuent les calculs
d'audience, de duplication et de rptition entre titres. 50% des
professionnels tudient ainsi l'adquation avec les cibles, types
de presse, audience et pertinence du contenu.
L encore, les pratiques sont plurielles et, hormis quelques
grands annonceurs disposant de budgets consquents, les
mesures effectues ne constituent gure une vritable aide la
dcision pour les actions venir, mais plutt une justification a
posteriori des dpenses effectues... sachant en outre que les
actions de relations presse ne sont qu'un des moyens communicationnels parmi d'autres (la publicit, la promotion par
exemple) et s'intgrent dans une stratgie globale elle-mme
plus ou moins performante.
Dans le cas de relations presse confies un prestataire
extrieur, le client annonceur exige gnralement de bnficier d'instruments de reporting performants. Les dossiers en
prparation peuvent tre demandes avec une visibilit de 6
mois 1 an (journaliste en charge du dossier avec toutes ses
22 I ADELAROGOJINARU
COMUNICARESICULTURORGANIZATIONAL | 23
24 | ADELAROGOJINARU
COMUNICAREICULTURORGANIZATIONAL | 25
roges, 34 % transmettent leur panorama de presse par courrier lectronique8. Si la facilit et la souplesse de diffusion
permises par le numrique permettent d'adapter l'information
et son contenu des publics trs divers, elles ne doivent toutefois pas faire oublier les consquences de ces pratiques sur le
monde de l'information.
Travailler avec et auprs de journalistes pour les informer
de la vie conomique sociale et culturelle de la cit demande
le respect de la rglementation et de la dontologie. Toute
information mise par les professionnels des Relations Presse
doit en consquence tre vrifie, vrifiable, et libre de droit.
Mais les chargs de relations presse (agences, indpendants,
intgrs) sont galement soumis une vive concurrence, et
se pose au final la question de leur rmunration. Comment
celle-ci est-elle calcule?
95% des responsables R.P. en entreprise interrogs
indiquent pratiquer une rmunration non assujettie aux rsultats obtenus, affirmant que le mtier d'attach(e) de presse
repose sur l'obligation de moyens et non de rsultats. Pourtant 2% des professionnels interrogs reconnaissent pratiquer
la seule rmunration aux rsultats, et 6% d'entre eux partiellement. Leurs critres de rmunration sont alors fonds sur:
- l'emplacement de l'article (bas sur la diffusion);
- des honoraires fixes plus un pourcentage variant entre 5%
15% de la valeur publicitaire;
- une valeur forfaitaire allant de 1 315 euros par
coupure.
Face aux rcentes dclarations tapageuses de certaines
agences en faveur d'une rmunration des relations presse aux
rsultats (c'est--dire en fonction des retombes presse), les
syndicats professionnels ont jug ncessaire de raffirmer un
certain nombre de principes. Le Code d'Athnes (mai 1965)
ne fait ainsi nullement apparatre la notion de paiement aux
rsultats. Le Code de Lisbonne (mai 1989) inclut cette notion
d'interdiction de paiement aux rsultats. Et ces deux textes
8 66 % jugeant d'ailleurs ce procd peu efficace, onreux et donnant des coupures de qualit mdiocre.
26 I ADELAROGOJINARU
C0MUNICARE5ICULTUR0RGANIZATI0NAL | 27
historique mrite-t-il d'tre rappel avant de chercher dcrire
le processus d'laboration d'une campagne publicitaire.
La conception d'une campagne de communication est
habituellement fonde sur les grandes lignes d'une stratgie
et d'un plan marketing dfinis pralablement, qui prcisent les
objectifs atteindre. C'est le cratif (qu'il soit prestataire de
service en agence ou intgr dans un service de l'annonceur)
qui conoit et rdige les messages publicitaires partir d'un
axe de campagne dfini par les services commerciaux, en
tenant compte des caractristiques du produit et des mdias
retenus. Il labore le message sur la base d'un brief, souvent
centr sur une copy strategyw. Pour cela, il doit faire preuve
de crativit, de capacit d'analyse et de synthse afin d'tre
mme d'interprter les donnes concernant le march pour en
tirer ds arguments vendeurs. Ce faisant, il devient tour tour
technicien spcialis, thoricien et crateur.
a) Un processus itratif
Nous reprendrons, ici, les diffrentes phases du processus
telles qu'elles nous ont t exposes verbalement ou qu'elles
sont indiques dans les divers ouvrages professionnels. Tout
d'abord, lors de la phase de conception, le concepteur, en
collaboration avec le directeur artistique s'il existe, met au
point plusieurs projets suivant les supports envisags: pour
les annonces et les affiches, un titre et une image, et pour
les messages audiovisuels, un argument et un thme de film.
La tche du cratif est de rdiger les diffrents textes des
messages publicitaires visuels (annonces, affiches) ou sonores
(textes, communiqus radiophoniques, scnarii, dialogues de
films et/ou des spots publicitaires). Il peut galement crire
10 Appele aussi plan de travail cratif, ou charte crative, ou star
stratgie, ces pralables la cration publicitaire prsentent des variantes (permettant notamment de diffrencier des agences concurrentes) mais cherchent atteindre le mme but : contribuer l'mergence
d'une campagne performante dote d'une cration attractive rpondant
aux objectifs marketing et publicitaires de l'annonceur.
28 | ADELA ROGOJINARU
COMUNICAREICULTURORGANIZA]ONAL | 29
sont galement mobilises, comme la dimension rationnelle
d'un acte d'achat. Avec un nouveau logo, une nouvelle signature et une nouvelle campagne institutionnelle, l'assureur
souhaite se diffrencier des bancassureurs, rappeler son
positionnement du bon rapport qualit/prix et surtout qu'il
est un gnraliste. (CB News, 22/06/2006, p. 15). La notion
d'inconscient est aussi souvent reprise. Un vent de contestation souffle, qui fait trangement cho l'actualit. La pub
rvlerait-elle l'inconscient de notre socit? (Stratgies,
n 1392,011\ 2/2005, p. 21). Ces rfrences diverses sont reprises
par les cratifs eux-mmes dans leurs discours, de faon plus
ou moins mlange, mariant les notions entre elles (besoin
et inconscient par exemple) et sans toujours les diffrencier.
Mais sont-elles mobiliss lors du processus de cration?
Les quelques travaux portant sur l'laboration d'une
annonce publicitaire estiment que les praticiens de la publicit oscillent entre deux stratgies; ces deux conceptions
n'tant pas exclusives, mais se compltant, se confrontant,
s'enrichissant mutuellement (Snyder, Bono de, 1985). Tantt
ils font prfrentiellement appel au rle des symboles associs
l'usage des produits, tantt ils se focalisent sur les qualits
inhrentes aux produits ou sur leur valeur fonctionnelle. Ainsi
les auteurs distinguent-ils les publicits fondes sur l'image
de ce que reprsente le produit, des publicits fondes sur
l'argumentation intrinsque, mme s'il est vrai que dans la
pratique ces deux stratgies sont souvent lies et dpendent
des types de produits. (Georget, 2004, p. 73).
Les praticiens interrogs dclarent tre davantage inspirs
par l'intuition ou l'exprience que par des thories13; Ils
indiquent appliquer chaque situation de cration particulire
des modles d'action de la communication lmentaires,
leurs yeux pragmatiques: ils les connaissent, les considrent
comme des moyens mis leur disposition, estiment qu'ils
prsentent un caractre universel, quels que soient les situations, les annonceurs et/ou les individus cibls.
13 Confirmant en cela les travaux portant sur 1' influence attendue
et influence effective de la publicit sur l'Internet (Fourquet-Courbet,
2004).
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Paradoxalement, la multiplicit des modles d'action de la
communication renvoie schematiquement un petit nombre
de rfrences, plus ou moins imbriques les uns aux autres.
La pyramide des besoins
Abraham Maslow a dfini une hirarchisation des besoins
humains, sous forme de pyramide, dans le but de dfinir les
leviers de la motivation. Son raisonnement est fond sur le fait
que l'individu a des besoins hirarchiss; les besoins d'ordre
suprieur n'tant ressentis par l'individu que lorsque les
besoins d'ordre infrieur sont satisfaits. Sa pyramide part des
besoins physiologiques, primaires de survie, tels que nourriture, eau, air, sommeil. Vient ensuite le besoin de scurit
physique (vtements, toit, foyer...) puis les besoins sociaux ou
de reconnaissance. Le besoin d'estime correspond au besoin
de signes d'apprciations positifs mis par les autres. La ralisation de soi est l'affirmation de son individualit, ce qui identifie l'individu et le rend unique.
Tous les publicitaires interrogs jugent ncessaire d'adapter
les messages aux diffrents marchs en se basant sur les
besoins15 satisfaire. Chaque message doit rpondre un
besoin identifi du consommateur prcise l'un de nos interlocuteurs.
Prsentant l'avantage de pouvoir tre aisment mmorise16,
la pyramide de Maslow est systmatiquement invoque comme
fondement initial de la conception. Les magazines professionnels s'y rfrent frquemment, estimant que tout achat de
produit correspond l'tat de maturit de notre socit o
chacun a besoin de se raliser (...) Ce comportement renvoie
la pyramide de Maslow, du nom de son inventeur, le psychologue amricain Abraham Maslow, qui s'est pench sur les
besoins et les motivations de l'homme. Il distingue ainsi cinq
15 Le terme de besoin ici utilis ne fait pas rfrence au concept
scientifique (construit social ou invariant) correspondant, ni ses limites, auquel ne se sont pas rfrs les publicitaires interrogs.
16 Largement reprise dans les manuels.
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COMUNICARE$ICULTURORGANIZATIONAL | 37
la persuasion est le rsultat de la rptition et qu'il suffit de
rpter un nom de marque pour que la cible la retienne et
la rclame. Sachant que chaque individu ne peut retenir que
deux ou trois noms de marques dans une catgorie de produits
donne, il s'agit d'amener ce nom en tte de liste, top ofmind,
dans la tte des cibles vises car c'est celle qui a le plus de
chance d'tre choisie au moment o la cible prendra une dcision d'achat.
Les produits visant un large public, et surtout ceux faible
cot dont l'achat est impulsif et rpond un besoin cyclique,
recourent cette approche. C'est le cas, par exemple, des boissons gazeuses ou des loteries. Ainsi, Coca-Cola, voyant ses
marchs dcliner, a annonc au printemps 2001 qu'il augmentait ses budgets publicitaires de prs de 50%.
Frquemment cite par les personnes interroges, les
manuels et ouvrages de marketing, la mthode "AIDA"18 qui vise
attirer l'attention du prospect tout prix l'aide d'lments
souvent sans lien avec les caractristiques du produit, renvoie
galement ce modle.
Le modle du conditionnement est repris dans le camp de
la critique sociale de la publicit; la pense antipub y trouvant le principal ressort du marketing et de la communication:
La publicit s'attaque notre cerveau (...). Elle nous conditionne. crivent les Casseurs de pub19.
Le modle psychanalytique
Si le bhavioriste assume que l'humain ragit son environnement, Freud explique dans Introduction la psychanalyse (1929) qu'il agit plutt en fonction de forces internes
obscures, les instincts, oscillant entre ros (l'instinct de
survie) et Thanatos (l'instinct de destruction).
Les tenants du modle psychanalytique en publicit partent
du principe que les consommateurs ne sont pas conscients
des motivations qui gouvernent leurs choix car elles sont
18 AIDA: attirer l'Attention, susciter l'Intrt, crer le Dsir, convaincre d'Acheter.
19 Site Les casseurs de pub, consult le 16/08/2006).
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Le modle de la dissonance cognitive montre que la cible
ragit selon son exprience qu'elle a du produit. Plus son
implication est forte et moins elle souhaite remettre en cause
ses choix. Elle tend ainsi viter ou filtrer les messages qui les
contredisent et se rvle rceptive ceux qui les confortent. Ce
modle explique notamment ce que les publicitaires appellent
l'exposition slective: les consommateurs ne voient pas
les annonces qui peuvent trop gravement compromettre leur
quilibre interne et vitent mme les circonstances qui pourraient les confronter de l'information dsquilibrante. Il n'y
a rien de plus difficile que de convertir un utilisateur d'Apple
un PC, de mme Celui qui a une Mercedes ne voudra
jamais reconnatre la supriorit d'une BMW. Toutefois,
certains publicitaires recommandent aux marques de poursuivre la pression publicitaire bien aprs la phase d'achat afin
d'viter que les acheteurs ne soient mis dans un tat d'inconfort
psychologique par des publicits de produits concurrents.
Malgr tout, certaines quipes cratives cherchent crer
une telle dissonance, un malaise chez les destinataires, afin de
se singulariser tout en esprant obtenir l'adhsion d'une partie
du public20. A l'poque de nos entretiens, la campagne publicitaire de la collection automne-hiver 2006-2007 de la marque
de vtements Marith et Franois Girbaud faisait beaucoup
parler d'elle. Axs sur le thme de la guerre, les visuels mettaient en scne des femmes et des hommes jeunes couverts de
boue et de poudre canon dans un paysage dvast.
Les modles communicationnels utiliss ne sont pas
homognes et semblent mobiliser diffrents paradigmes,
rfrences thoriques et mthodes. Les concepts retenus sont
des termes polysmiques, pouvant tre qualifis de nomades
(au sens de Stengers). Ils ont migr d'un champ scientifique
l'autre, chacun de ces derniers ayant contribu les dfinir
avant d'tre utilis leur tour par les publicitaires. Ils nous
20 Partant du principe que plus le spectateur d'une campagne est
malmen par elle, plus il est tent d'emprunter le chemin qui lui est indiqu pour rsoudre son malaise. Cf la stratgie utilise par la marque
Benetton il y a quelques annes.
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indre un but personnel - valoriser leur travail, justifier leur
activit, montrer leur utilit, ou assurer tout simplement leur
avenir - et toutes les tactiques faites de bricolage pour mesurer
la performance des relations publiques, et de braconnage (le
respect tout relatif des droits d'auteur par exemple) leur paraissent concourir l'obtention de ce rsultat. Le braconnage,
jug plus rapide et moins onreux, semble ainsi souvent de
mise. Mais, au del de la question de leur efficacit professionnelle court terme, ces pratiques peuvent contribuer
entacher la profession, affaiblir sa crdibilit et diminuer les
moyens d'existence de la presse.
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Communication et Organisation, n5, 1994
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COMUNICARE$ICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 47
People can articulate themselves better via in-house
and external social media. They can also stick their necks
out more than ever before. It is a matter for each company
and its corporate culture to decide how online behavior is
promoted, trained, prosecuted or sanctioned. Is open expression of opinion by the free citizen encouraged? Internally
and externally? The famous anonymous Microsoft blogger
calls Microsoft a passionless, process-ridden, lumbering
idiot" and states at the same time that he seeks in this way
to improve the corporation: Sometimes you have to destroy
the village in order to save it" (http://minimsft.blogspot.com).
What prompts employees to comment in this way in public?
How are they motivated to rate their freedom of expression
more highly than the risk of being identified?
Authors of online text can already be identified by their
style of speech (Zheng et al, 2006), comments in weblogs can
be retrieved, contact partners and their networks can be revealed, the presence of employees in chatrooms can be checked
live, and e-mail conversations can be followed in detail.
Legal restrictions may apply to electronically based control,
but technically it is easier than ever using software such as
http://www.ontrackfirstview.com, http://www.buzzlogic.com
or http://www.protectcom.de.
Not only the question what employees are allowed to do is
culturallly important but also how they are treated.
Eurodisney uses software and personal digital assistants
(PDAs) to direct employees toward the very attractions where
support personnel are in short supply. Business process management software is aimed at modeling and automating as many
processes as possible. Management software standardizes all
transactions, leaving employees with few options as to how to
respond to the reality.
Dealing with corporate electronic media therefore means
more than just recording the number of e-mails, blogs and
other social media and their functionalities and contents. It
means taking an integrated view of all electronically based
interactions. They are, after all, offered and experienced via
48 i ADELA ROGOJINARU
an integrated portal, often with signal sign-on, on a personalized computer screen. What then goes on is a matter of
corporate culture. On which idea of humankind is the interaction based? Does it bear the hallmark of trust, of freedom, or
of control? Which forms of communication are practised? Are
they limited, open or even demagogic? All of these will reflect
the style of company management. Case studies show that this
has so far been taken into account by only the most modern
enterprises (Hein 2007). Yet those that do not make use of the
new media are uniformly agreed by market analysts to run
the risk of losing attractiveness and relevance (cf. Morello &
Burton, 2006; O'Kelly, 2006).
Cultural Models Provide Instruments for Analysis
Discussions on corporate culture differ according to the
questioner's perspective. Employees want to know which
behavior will make them personally successful. Groups
are concerned with their cohesion, entrepreneurs with the
company's success. Consultants ask, What do successful
companies do differently?" Answers often differ, defining
culture" and success" itself is difficult. Baetge (2006) sees
corporate culture as a dynamic structure consisting of values,
standards and convictions shared by employees that has evolved
over a longer period and points the behavior of the collective
of all employees in the company in a certain direction." He
considers the following functions of a corporate culture to be
relevant if commercial success is to be achieved:
- Identification and integration function: Employees should
identify with the company (the we" feeling), and new employees should be integrated;
- Co-ordination function: When issues recur, employees
can assess precisely their specific room for maneuver;
- Motivation function: Commitment, independence and
individual responsibility of employees are encouraged and
satisfaction also tends to increase;
- Innovation function: Employees are developed by means
of in-service training, thereby enhancing the company's innovation capability.
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COMUNICAREICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 51
employees, partners and executives in dealings with customers can be ideally collected, discussed and made available
by means of social software.
Example: Fruit juice manufacturer Kelterei Walther
GmbH & Co. KG, Dresden, is a prime example of innovative communication with third parties. It communicates with
customers and in-house via its juice blog (http://www.saftblog.de/). Customers' reactions are experienced directly, and
their comments force the company to be frank and to act. The
company's employees see themselves accordingly as their
customers' advocates, dealings with each other have become
more sustained, and the company has gained economically.
-4- Ability to learn and adapt. A company's openness
to change is shown for one by how easily it lets external facts
in and for another by the frankness of debate on the subject.
Electronic media mark this interface.
Examples: SAP has decided to invite bloggers actively to
attend company events and to make their reports a natural
part of the firm's daily in-house Press digest. The result is that
everyone knows what people outside the company think about
it. The external environment is given an internal hearing,
enabling everyone to react fast.
-5- Innovative capability. Many new products, services
and processes are based on employees' ideas. Without social
software it is much more difficult to collect, discuss and
evaluate these ideas.
Example: Griffiths Consulting, an (as yet) small Munich PR
agency, has replaced its organization manual, which requires
continuous updating, with a WieWiki" (meaning How-Wiki).
With its origins in the concept of quality assurance, knowledge
orientation and continuous enhancement of efficiency were
thereby made the hallmark of the agency's culture. The the
company's employees acting jointly but on their own initiative
have taken the place of a central authority.
-6- Harnessing employees' potential. The part that
employees and executives play in corporate success has been
52 I ADELA ROGOJINARU
demonstrated on many occasions. This dimension in particular has a wide range of immediate points of contact with
social software. Dealings in form and content with traditional
electronic media such as e-mail and with more recent e-media
such as Instant Messenger and relatively new ones such as
Wikis speak volumes.
Example: Frankfurt-based agency BlueMars opted for a
very modern approach of its own. In its intranet it dispensed
deliberately with diversification, syndication and qualification in order to boost employee participation. All forms of
employee contributions are valued, be they a blog, a Wiki or
a text file. The company's intranet is seen as a channel and
not as a station, with content provided by all employees made
available at one address. Content that is in demand or linked is
given a better placement, while less popular content is moved
to the back. The stated objective is to record and make available more knowledge and to intensify specialized exchange
within the company and beyond.
-7- Management by partnership and in keeping with
corporate culture - Open communication: Sackmann here
especially underscores interaction between levels of hierarchy.
How a company is managed is seen as relevant for employee
commitment, identification and, in the final analysis, financial
success.
Modern electronic media make precisely that possible - if
the right use is made of them. They make a widely based
expression of opinion technically possible, and potential
consequences are less a technical than a cultural issue. How
do employees deal with their superiors and vice-versa? What
is delegated and how? How are responsibility, tasks and
competences transferred? How long does one have to wait
for an answer? What is communicated formally, in writing,
or informally? How is the gray area of transient electronic
media assessed?
Example: When a boss makes an ad-hoc inquiry about the
status of a project by e-mail or chat, it can be perceived as
disparaging because the previously delegated responsibility
COMUNICAREICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I S3
(management by objectives) is withdrawn. If, in contrast, the
manager consults a database (a Wiki etc.), personal control no
longer applies. In the first instance a stated culture of empowerment is called into question (the writer has found this frequently
to be the case), in the second instance it is retained.
-8- Performance orientation / readiness and capability.
Management by target agreements is widespread. Modern
media provide not only an opportunity to record individual
performance automatically but can also make the collective
performance of the entire enterprise transparent in a simple
manner.
Example: Bombardier Aerospace places on its intranet
once a quarter a highly detailed Dashboard overview of performance figures in relation to previously stated targets. Each
data field is highlighted in a stoplight color and every statement can be clicked on to reveal further details. Originally the
three overriding objectives were drawn up jointly with all of
the employees. Granular results now reflect the performance
of departments that contribute toward the whole.
-9- Balanced stakeholder orientation. Balanced consideration of the interests of the three central stakeholders - customers, employees and stockholders - is not only followed with
increasing attention externally but also commented on internally. Using social software the two overlap.
Examples: In Brussels, Belgium, around 20 employees
of the public rapid transport system (mostly drivers) blog
regularly on their sites. They comment not only on personal
matters but also on work issues. Here too it is clear that if
in-house communication is inadequate, those concerned will
seek another outlet. Thanks to electronic media this outlet is
then usually public.
-10- Strategic fit. This quality criterion shows how well the
corporate culture fits the company's strategic orientation and
current position in the market. The contents and use of social
media can deliver important findings here. Are relevant topics
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COMUNICARESICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 57
The more people are preoccupied with themselves and their
internal organization, the less they will be concerned with the
outside world - the customers.
People have a marked sense of internal contradictions.
They notice and usually make an immediate issue of inconsistencies that arise in their environment, their organization, such
as when a gap opens up between normative expectation and
experienced behavior, when management by partnership and
in keeping with corporate culture is stated but not practised,
when participation and harnessing of employees' potential
remains lip service or a balanced stakeholder orientation does
not come about. When tension between freedom and power
cannot be resolved or people are declared to be a company's
most important asset" yet are nonetheless treated as objects.
Employee perception
of communication:
about
External
Adaption
Sufficient
Insufficient 1
institutional
instltutionnl
Insufficient
institutional
| + individual
11111111
58 | ADELA ROGOJINARU
Social Reality
Talk
Artefacts
Purpose
Walk
People
Means
Empowerment
Power
Rules
Control
Examples:
People reductions
Reorganizations
Reaction to bribery
Application of Values
Introducing automation
Judgement
Status of experts
Contract negotiations
Trust
Project management
COMUNICARE I CULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 59
Both forms of communication are necessary and signs of a
healthy commitment to the organization. For both forms struc
tures should be offered and ways found to pursue contents
and results. The more the employees identify with the orga
nization, the more active the role that the play, the likelier the
organization is to be successful.
If a company trusts only traditional media, the leeway for
individuals remains limited and communication remains asym
metrical. Employees may be able to write a letter to the Executive
Board, to submit proposals for improvements or to pen a letter
to the company magazine, but the breadth of any effect that this
may have is nonetheless limited. Social software provides new
and alternative platforms for the process of adaptation and inte
gration. These platforms make not just asymmetrical internal
communication channels a thing of the past:
- They strengthen collaborative processes in networks
- They bring about a thaw of deep-frozen hierarchies by
sharing information easily
- People can exchange information swiftly and in an
uncomplicated manner even across physical borders by means
of individual social media
- The matrix of possible senders and recipients is extended
to include external entities such as media, suppliers or resear
chers with whom only dedicated internal function holders
such as the Press department or Purchasing were previously
able to speak
- Communication achieves a new quality and intensity
- It is also easier to follow technically means of, say, social
network analysis.
All electronic media, especially modern social software,
has its own cultural horizon. When it is newly introduced in
a company, either pioneers of the technology bring practical
external experience with them or employees resort to behavior
patterns with which they are familiar from other, known situ
ations. Consciously or unconsciously, cultural expectations
come into play that can either be fulfilled or disappointed. If
they are disappointed, that distracts attention from the content.
60 | ADELAROGOJINARU
If the local culture implies a certain use but another use was
learned previously, that leads to fresh contradictions that need
to be resolved - either by changing or leaving the organization, by using the medium in a different way or by choosing
other media.
Someone who has learned that weblogs are an individual,
open exchange of opinions might consider their institutional
use to be inadequate as a disciplinary instrument. Someone
who holds Wikis in high repute as a means of collaborative
and iterative formulation of documents might take exception
to institutionalized editing of their contents.
Anyone who sees social software in general in the context
of free expression of opinion will have doubts about its unfree
use in a corporate context - and will then switch to the
public domain just like Minimicro or the Brussels bloggers.
If that then clashes with other interests pursued by the official communication departments, such as the desire to convey
a homogeneous overall impression externally, it might be
understood that even corporations can no longer exercise
total institutional control over content and channels. It will
become clear that people will switch to public (social) media
to the extent that internal media fail to allow them to engage
in adequate debate. Conversely, the only institutional communicator to retain internal attention in the face of competition
will be the one who communicates so credibly, transparently
and consistently in terms of delivering meaning that an individual or an external debate on perceived contradictions is not
even provoked. That, however, cannot be realized against the
top management but only with it.
COMUNICAREICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 6i
Join in the Debate Now and Gain a Competitive
Edge - Hesitate and Lose
To make social software available for individual communication within the company and to deploy it institutionally in
keeping with its typical characteristics is to promote processes
of internal integration and external adaptation in all of the
cultural dimensions stated above. If a use is practised that is
not in accord with the typical properties of these media, it
will lead to new internal contradictions and potential attempts
lo resolve them. To ignore or even prevent the use of social
software within the company is to prompt employees to articulate themselves via this software used externally on private
initiative. To disregard the contents of external social software
platforms is to lose touch with public debate in the long term
and to risk becoming obsolete both as an attractive employer
and in economic terms.
Ozzie (2005) refers to future consequences in the corporate IT landscape. For him there have never been such big
differences in technological development between outside
and inside corporations as there are now. Search technologies,
for example, differ fundamentally. On the Internet things are
made public, while in companies they are concealed. Anyone
who wants to promote innovation and collaboration and is
anxious to resolve contradictions cannot leave matters there.
Gartner analysts (cited by Morello & Burton, 2006) even
suppose that companies which behave as if they own people
and can control them" will in future be obsolte. Their argument is that "neither managements nor IT departments will
be in a position to control the individualized working environment. Employees will take changes forward at the workplace, in business and in communication." They therefore
advise companies to observe how younger people use electronic devices and the Internet. Company employees should
gain practical experience of the rules of conduct practised by
electronic communities.
For detailed information on the choice, introduction and
use of electronic media overall and of social software in particular, see Hein (2007).
62 I ADELAROGOJINARU
The greatest opportunities will be gained by companies
that regard social software not just as a means of institutional and individual communication but as a cultural interface. These will be companies that use electronic media to
surmount what in many companies are traditionally marked
borders between functions, divisions and countries and foster
innovation by making the people in charge of communication,
marketing, knowledge management, development and sales
not use separate platforms but share their explicit know-how
and access to experts. They will be companies that see all
individual computer-based interaction by their employees
from a cultural viewpoint and ensure that the underlying IT
infrastructure reflects these criteria in practice.
Those managers also deserve recognition that succeed in
persuading their top executives to make deliberate use of the
potential that is offered by social software to eliminate deficits in the company's organization and thereby to optimize
themselves on a permanent basis. They are the managers who
persuade them to use the new tools to control not their employees but, above all, their own behavior. They are the ones who
are able to make it clear to their executives that although they
may forfeit classical, hierarchical authority in this way the
company overall will gain in strength to pursue internal integration and external adaptation.
An E-Communication Manifesto
1. Employees always use institutional, individual, internal
and external media
2. No company will ever be able to control corporate media use
3. The use of institutional media can not be ordered, it's
always a result of its perceived value
4. Good institutional communication is consistent with the
target culture and the qualities of the media used
5. Organizations without institutional communication
are unlead; new leader's individual communication turns
institutional
COMUNICARE$ICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 63
6. If institutional media are perceived as of little use, people engage in more individual communication
7. Institutional and individual communication can address
individuals, groups or the whole organisation
8. Institutional media must convey facts and meaning - Individual media can challenge facts and meaning
9. Using media wrongly creates contradictions, reduces
reception, trustworthyness and effectiveness
10. External media are being used the more, the less the
internal convey facts and meaning
11. The evolution of media use is increasingly carried from
the outside into companies
12. Technology-pioneers are constantly advancing media
usage patterns and organizational communication
13. Companies which use electronic media less than their
industry peers become obsolete
14. Companies which use electronic media more than their
industry become more attractive
15. Companies which employ a maximum of electronic
media will become more agile and innovative
16. Electronic media bridge all gaps between internal and
external, institutional and individual communication
17. Modern electronic media offer checkpoints to understand and track corporate culture
Literature
Alder, S. G. (2001): Employee reactions to electronic performance monitoring: A consequence of organizational culture.
In: Journal of High Technology Management Research,
12/2001, Amsterdam
Baetge, J. (2006): Messung der ^Correlation zwischen
Unternehmenskultur und Unternehmenserfolg. Munster
Boos, M.; Jonas, K., Sassenberg (eds.) (2000): Computervermittelte Kommunikation in Organisationen. Gottingen
D'Aprix, R. (2004): Face-to-Face: Creating an Engaged
Workforce. San Francisco
64 I ADELA ROGOJINARU
COMUNICARESICULTURA ORGANIZATIONAL^ | 65
COMUNICARE5ICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 67
Ryszard Lawniczak
Poznan University of Economics
Department of Economic Journalism and Public Relation
ryszard@prelite.pl
Introduction
The end of the 2nd Millennium was witness to a revolutionary change in the world - the peaceful transition from political and socio-economic system of real socialism (communism) to capitalism (market economy) The area at which this
historical change is still taking place covers not only the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, former Soviet Union, but
also China, Vietnam and very soon also North Korea and
Cuba - together publics of over 1,5 bin citizens.
That systemic transition could not proceed smoothly and
efficiently without effective communication strategies and
tools applied to help to legitimize the new values, market
mechanism and its institutions, to overcome fears and prejudices and conceal the transition failures. Unique challenges
confronted the PR profession and its practitioners operating in
the transition economies, where the legacy of the old communist system dominated the minds of its older generations, and
the economic structures and institutions which have had to be
adopted to the new market mechanisms.
The paper addresses only one, micro-level of the problem
- the a question of what role the internal corporate communication and public relations have played in two cases of priva-
68 | ADELAROGOJINARU
COMUNICAREICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 69
70 I ADELA ROGOJINARU
COMUNICAREICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 71
72 I ADELAROGOJINARU
However, above mentioned problems were "smoothed" by
PR activities in the restructuring and privatisation processes:
technical ease of reaching audiences by PR efforts (and
usually relatively low costs involved),
possible access to precise data on PR audiences (practically "personal" when based on a company's Human Resources department's data).
2.2. Chief assumptions behind a PR privatisation
campaign in a company.
Our experience tells us that when developing a plan and
implementing a PR campaign it is worth adopting the following
basic assumptions:
PR activities are of primarily internal character,
the campaign should be based upon surveys and observation of the organization's atmosphere,
the campaign should be kept simple, inexpensive and be
devoid of any traces of manipulation,
it should promote both detailed solutions and the essence/
philosophy of the changes. This is how it is possible to quickly
adjust to the changing recommendations,
its construction should incline all interested parties to
co-operate on its implementation,
its construction should allow for continuation - if need be
- also after co-operation with the consultancy company,
it should start at the client's present level of development,
it should not be of an instructive nature - it should explain
and present possible solutions and the related advantages and
disadvantages rather than promote one option only, to support
the selection process,
it should communicate with the client in his/her language
and employ communication channels familiar to the client.
COMUNICAREICULTURA ORGANIZATIONAL^ I 73
3.1. Example 1:
One of the biggest Polish state-owned company operating
in the mining sector which commenced a thorough restructuring process in 1995. A Capital Group was established to
replace a socialist factory employing over 10 000 people.
The Group comprised of companies established on the basis
of the so-called resource plant assets. In late 1996 the Group
consisted of over 50 companies of various operation profiles,
including a mining machinery manufacturer and a travel
company. Mines and steelworks operated within a structure
similar to the Western patterns.
In mid-1996 the Management Board decided to transform
the Transport company, employing approximately 2 000
people and remaining the Factory's subsidiary into an independent transport company.
Company restructuring enforced by a bank - a prerequisite for a settlement procedure. Suggested restructuring
model - diving the enterprise into smaller chunks, making
them independent and submitting to privatisation at individual rates and modes.
The campaign's goal was primarily to explain the nature of
the changes to come and reasons for dividing the enterprise,
stimulating positive attitudes and willingness to participate
directly in an employee company.
The campaign was conducted chiefly by means of impersonal messages (leaflets), impersonal feedback (employee
surveys) and personal contacts (meetings, strategic and
diagnostic workshops).
Chief effect of the PR campaign: the employees became
the driving force behind the restructuring process, enforcing
it (threatening with a strike action among other things) on the
conservative board members and the owner's representatives.
The employees became (!) the bank's allies.
3.2. Example 2:
A state-owned company operating in the building construction sector, generating minimum profits insufficient to under-
74 I ADELA ROGOJINARU
take investment activities. The employees (approx. 200 individuals) did not regard restructuring necessary, let alone privatisation. Considerable fear of an investor was topped with
an opinion that 'things were not so bad'. The State Treasure
intended to dispose of the company as quickly as possible.
The company's management together with a group of active
employees wanted to establish an employee company to purchase the enterprise. The other employees (Employee Counsel)
needed to approve of that. Owing to the enterprise's price the
company would be able to purchase the enterprise only with
the help of an external investor and that only after a "slimming" restructuring process - disposal of redundant assets.
The campaign's goal was to promote a positive attitude
towards the changes and preventing the employees from being
divided between company shareholders and the rest, encouraging to become part of the company. Other important issues
included influencing the potential investors and representatives of the State Treasure. Due to a small number of employees, direct PR activities were employed (personal contacts,
meetings with employees - public presentations, diagnostic
and strategic workshops).
The mentioned PR activities resulted in changed attitudes
among the employees whose majority established an employee
company, actively seeking an investor. The employees were
willing to support a passive investor which seemed possible
after the company's restructuring. The employees are no
longer passive; they expect changes, want to affect them and
are aware of their company's value.
Conclusions
1. At the micro/corporate communication level one of the
most important tasks of transitional public relations happened
to be building of support for privatisation and restructuring of
state owned enterprises.
2. Even the best developed restructuring plan fails when its
goals are not internalized by the process' direct participants
COMUNICAREICULTURA ORGANIZATIONAL^ I 75
COMUNICAREICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 77
risk communication are industries and governments, scientists, public groups, media, general public.
Media is a powerful tool for increasing food risk awareness
and it plays an important role in food risk perception. However,
experts feel that media have a tendency to communicate information on food risks that is misleading and that print and TV
media in particular put a slant on food risk messages to maximize its impact (De Boer, 2005). Kasperson et al. (1988) and
Rowe et al. (2000) found that substantial media coverage is
more likely to enhance the perception of risk. Fifty-five percent
of the experts interviewed in their study felt that acknowledging scientific uncertainty in food risk messages in the media
is likely to undermine public confidence although they also
acknowledged that it was not correct for scientists to make
absolute statements.
An effective communication management of food companies with the society is unquestionably essential when there is
a risk of food safety. Food companies build their trustworthy
image on public very slowly, which usually takes years
(Dierks, 2004). However, this image is very fragile and could
be easily damaged in the event of food crisis regarding food
safety. Careless, popular or negative approach by media in the
case of food crisis can easily end up with panic in the society.
Or, not giving a proper attention to this sort of crisis may put
the society in danger. In any case both society and food sector
pay the price. Both situations have been experienced during
mad cow disease in Europe.
In Turkey (Turkish Republic), most of big food companies
(Coca-Cola Icecek, Sodexho, Koc) have been provided with
public relations services and communication consultancy by
external PR consultant companies. It is most likely that each
company has its own strategy to defeat any crisis that may
occur. However, small and medium sized (SMEs: less than
250 employees, less than 25 million YTL) poultry product
producing companies have no established corporate culture
to communicate with public using internal PR facilities
effectively and professionally. It is customary that company
owners are also the PR decision makers (personal communi-
78 | ADELAROGOJINARU
cation: Grup7 PR consultancy company, 2007). Some small
scale crisis has shown how this sector was fragile in corporate communication terms and forced the companies to form
a platform and seek for external PR consultancy to establish
a proper and effective corporate communication with public.
Below given is a success story of the Platform's establishing
an organizational and strategic communication by means of
external PR assistance.
COMUNICARE5ICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA | 79
birds were culled. Approximately 10 million USD were spent
for culling hens. Sales dropped dramatically.
The Turkish government that appeared to be ignorant
during the first hit took the necessary measures rapidly and
effectively in the second outbreak. The government supported
the industry and villagers in several ways (e.g. postponing
taxes, paying villagers for their culled birds etc).
3. Small Companies Fights Back
80 I ADELAROGOJINARU
4. To ensure that all institutions involved in food production adopt international systems and strict product standards
in the field of food safety;
5. To provide reliable information for the public in an effort
to combat unfair and unfounded claims that harm the industry.
The platform (HCMP) had to fight back. The aim was to
regain the public trust via effective corporate and risk communication tools which were;
1. Distribution of poster and leaflets;
2. Press conferences;
3. Launching awareness-raising campaigns;
4. Sponsoring TV programmes;
5. Newspaper announcement.
In the first crisis (October 2005), a campaign named ,,100%
safe" was launched by The Platform within two weeks after the
outbreak. The spots were broadcast via radios. 180 spots were
broadcast nationwide (between 18-23 October 2005). 4740
spots were broadcast on local radio stations (1-6 November
2005). Announcements were placed on newspapers (October
16-18, 2005). At the sales points (markets & supermarkets),
50.000 leaflets were displayed.
In the second crisis, in addition to the communication
tools employed in the first crisis, this time, the platform also
exploited the public figures. A lunch hosted by Turkish Prime
Minister at Turkish House of Parliament was arranged where
chicken was on the menu to prove the public how safe was to eat
chicken. However, this attempt was not influential as expected.
In the UK, MORI polls shows that the politicians still manage
to create enough doubt to worry people. So, politicians are still
doing damage today (Wolstenholme, 2007:126).
The second public figure was a well-known and well-trusted
journalist, Ugur Dundar. An intensive risk communication
campaign with a well-trusted journalist was launched. 893
TV spots were broadcast (February 6-28, 2006); 540 spots on
national radios and 12.144 spots on local radios were broadcast (February 6-28, 2006); 335 poster announcements were
COMUNICARESICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA | 81
82 | ADELAROGOJINARU
COMUNICARE$ICULTURA ORGANIZATIONAL^ I 83
TEME TRANSVERSALE
MELANCOLIA OCHIULUI
Odette Arhip
Universitatea Petre Andrei" Iai,
arodette@hotmail.com
odettearhip@yahoo.com
Ionela Carmen Tofan
Universitatea Petre Andrei" Iai,
Ce s-ar fi ntmplat, ntreb din nou, dac nici unul nu
ar fi fcut mai mult dect predecesorii si? ...am naviga n
continuare cu pluta, iar arta picturii ar fi limitat la trasarea
unei linii n jurul unei umbre proiectat de corpurile aflate
n lumina soarelui"
Quintilian
Nu ne propunem o zgriere" a suprafeei culturii publi
citare ori consumatiste n stilul feministelor ce atac campa
niile de branding/publicitare etc. ori, n termeni mai largi, n
maniera antiglobalizant a crii lui Naomi Klein, No Logo.
Tirania mrcilor", n sfrit tradus i la noi'. Dac autorul
citat invoc, ntr-un fel de motto, pericolul, focul, care, la
suprafa, nu se observ, dar, n adncuri, a izbucnit deja, noi
evocm originile picturii". De asemenea, pledm pentru o
necesar asimilare a cunoaterii artistice, ca s nu utilizm
alt termen mai pedant i elitist, dei, personal. l percepem
ca pe unul foarte normal, pe numele su cultur, trecut n
obscurantism, pe baza unor compromisuri ruinoase. Cultura
nu agonizeaz, aceasta este vie i se afl la rdcina tuturor
] Cf. Naomi Klein, No togo. Tirania mrcilor", trad. Alina Scur
ii, Buc, Ed. comunicare.ro, 2006.
88 | ADELA ROGOJINARU
formelor vizuale valoroase ori ieftine ce ne nfrumuseeaz
sau doar mobileaz viaa.
Astfel, brandul de personalitate este o variant, a zilelor
noastre, a temei dublului i se bazeaz tot pe nlocuire/substi
tuire. De aceea, firesc, practica contemporan are multe n
comun cu cea antic. Dintre multiplele posibiliti de exem
plificare n acest sens am ales coloss-ul, care trimite la un
sistem simbolic general. Collos2, de origine preelenic, nu
are nimc n comun cu efigiile de dimensiuni gigantice3, ci
desemneaz un obiect n poziie vertical (o statuie-coloan
ori o statuie-menhir) menit a evoca persoane decedate sau a
pstra amintirea persistent a unei fiine: Collos-ul realizeaz
trecerea ntre lumea celor vii i celor mori. Dup caz, trecerea
se face n ambele sensuri: morii i fac simit prezena n
universul celor vii, alteori cei vii se proiecteaz ei nii n
moarte. Referitor la ultima posibilitate, amintim practica de
a arunca collosoi (dubluri din cear/lemn etc) n foc, spiritul
vital i social lichefiindu-se i disprnd cu anticipaie n invi
zibil. Cei vii doresc s pstreze n apropiere fiinele pierdute
i, n intensitatea sentimentului de durere dup moartea cuiva,
invocarea mortului ia forma collos-ului. Unul dintre celebrele
exemple literare" l constituie fragmentul n care Ahile vede
fantasma/apariia supranatural/ imaginea oniric/ collos-u\
prietenului Patrocle. Ceea ce vede Ahile este aparena lui
Patrocle, un efect neltor, de amgire, de decepie; este
prezena, dar, mai ales, absena iremediabil.
Dac documentele arheologice i epigrafice pun n
eviden tema dublului astfel, modernitatea i dorete i i
inventeaz charis-u\, adic strlucirea i plenitudinea vieii.
Practic, este vorba de fenomenul invers. Viii nu se mai ntl
nesc cu Gorgona pentru a fi transformai n piatr4, ci cu un
2 Georges Roux, Qu'est-ce qu'un coloss?, Revue des Etudes anciennes, 1960, pp. 5-40 apuci Jean-Pierre Vernant, Mit i gndire n
Grecia antic, Bucureti, Ed. Meridiane, 1995, pp. 387-390.
3 Cf. Emil Benveniste, Le sens du mot colossus et Ies noms grecs
de la statue, n Revue de philologie, 1932, pp. 118-135.
4 Moartea este perceput ca o pietrificare a celor vii, iar Gorgona
este instrumentul magic al morii (se poate aminti i obiceiul vechi de
ajura pe piatr).
90 | ADELA ROGOJINARU
face apel la aceeai teorie n tabloul su Fuga din Egipt",
n care utilizeaz dou modaliti picturale cu totul distincte.
Scena din prim-plan, nfind-o pe Fecioara Mria, pe losif
i pruncul Iisus, respect normele lumii bidimensionale, plate,
tipic pentru reprezentarea medieval. Practic, prim-planul
pare o friz7, umbra este integrat n reprezentare, element
teoretic binecunoscut, comentat de ctre Cennino Cennini 8 ori
n tratatele de pictur bizantin. Planul secund al tabloului lui
Giovanni di Paolo este populat de corpuri care se manifest
sub forma umbrelor purtate. Desigur, discutarea acestei opere,
a altora, comport numeroase aspecte interesante, dar, aici,
dorim s subliniem preocuparea privilegiat pentru carnaie"
existent secole de-a rndul. Stereotipia, monotonia i evidena
erau cu grij i subtil evitate. Este adevrat c peste secole,
pentru a se pune la adpost de repetiia ab integro a aprut
iari acel loc clar n istorie al renceperii radicale9. Sperm
s fie suficient s amintim demersul pictorului belgian Rene
Magritte, care a relevat interioritatea obiectelor ce i deconspir intelectului conotaiile doar prin art, ori a fragmentat
i suprapus obiecte obinuit picturale ntr-un demers nelini
titor, subversiv. Picturile lui Magritte nu sunt niciodate pasive
i nu se mai ncadreaz n autarhia antitezei umbr-lumin.
Lumea pictat este practic o cortin dincolo de care se vede
creatorul, imaginaia sa, fora sa ludic (avem n vedere pictu
rile Transfer', Carte Blanche", The Lost Jockey, pentru a
le enumera pe acelea celebre). n aceeai paradigm se nscrie
De Chirico i reuita sa de a transfera relativitatea, chiar inco
erena verbal, n fome vizuale (obligatorie referire se face,
tradiional, la tabloul Misterul i melancolia unei strzi").
Dorina modernilor de a reconcilia dou metode de reprezen
tare este lesne de neles, dar, n paralel, se asist la un proces
continuu de desacralizare a umbrei, care, care n concepia
arhaic, magic, era o exteriorizare a sufletului, iar n Faptele
7
8
Buc,
9
noiu,
Cf. Ibidem.
Cf. Cennino Cennini, Tratatul de pictur, trad. N. Al. Toscani,
Ed. Meridiane, 1977.
Cf. Vladimir Jankelevitch, Ireversibilul i nostalgia, trad. V. ToBuc, Ed. Univers Enciclopedic, 1998, p. 84.
92 I ADELA ROGOJINARU
fost plecarea fiinei iubite. Legenda spune c umbra o ajut pe
femeia nefericit s substituie brbatul plecat undeva, departe
{abeunte Mo peregre), de fapt o form modelat a iubitului,
cruia tatl i d volum i aceasta este depus ntr-un templu.
,.Problema care se ridic n acest caz este considerabil, pentru
c, de fapt, scoate n eviden calitatea metafizic a imaginii,
ale crei origini ar trebui cutate n ntreruperea relaiei erotice,
n desprire, n plecarea modelului, de unde i caracterul
15
de substitut, de surogat al reprezentrii." O lectur atent a
textelor dezvluie un sens ascuns vital: femeia capteaz, n
ajunul plecrii iubitului, imaginea acestuia ntr-o verticalitate,
caracteristic pentru ntreaga pictur greac, verticalitate pe
care o dorete perpetu, exorciznd, n felul acesta, primejdia
morii i pstrnd pe vecie alturi de ea o imagine vie", adic
n picioare" a fiinei iubite, compensatoare pentru absena
acesteia. In concluzie, toi autorii, dar i numeroi alii, firete,
au demonstrat, fr putin de echivoc, legturile simbolice
dintre umbr, suflet i dublul unei persoane (imaginea creat,
menit a o substitui/ a o populariza).
O anumit idee, extrem de preioas, trebuie menionat
i o vom avea permanent n vedere, pe parcursul contribu
iei noastre, pentru a o dezvolta, nuana, degajnd conotaii
avantajoase prin plusul de subtilitate deloc de gsit n jargonul
profesionitilor, supra-americanizat i cam att. Aadar, se
detaeaz o diferen, plin de sensuri, ntre coloss ca ceva
durabil, nsufleit, nlat i nltor simultan, i, pe de alt
parte, eidolon, anume silueta trasat de tnra femeie, imagine
fr substan, o dublur impalpabil a cuiva ce urmeaz a
pleca. Aceasta imagine, odat fixat pe perete, oprete timpul.
Avem de a face cu un tip de raport umbr/timp n reprezen
tarea diurn, solar, evocat de Quintilian, i o alt relaie
umbr/timp n regimul nocturn. Eidolon iese din fluxul
devenirii, oprind ordinea natural a timpului. Coloss este un
anumit moment i nimic mai mult16.
Nu putem s refuzm paralela cu teoria lui Gustave Guil
laume, care vorbete tocmai despre decupajul sincronic,
15 Idem, p. 13.
16 V. Victor leronim Stoichi, op. cit., pp. 17-18.
94 | ADELA ROGOJINARU
iari, relevant pentru perspectiva noastr: Sistematizarea nu
ine de gndirea n activitate operativ, n activitate liber, ci
de modul n care gndirea ia cunotin de ea nsi. Pentru
c nu trebuie s pierdem din vedere [...] c gndirea nu exist
fa de sine dect atunci cnd este capabil s ia cunotin de
ea nsi distingnd n sine diferitele momente ale activitii
sale. Aceast percepie de sine se identific cu reprezentarea:
20
ea este ceea ce este reprezentarea" (s. ns.)
Bineneles, nceputurile moderne se leag automat de
21
22
numele lui Merleau-Ponty i Roland Barthes , dar i de contri
23
buia esenial a Grupului u , n special Jean-Marie Klink24
enberg . Treptat, semiotica vizual i-a apropiat o terminologie
proprie, eminamente interdisciplinar, evident, inevitabil,
sinestezic. Facem referire, de pild, la sintagma gndire
25
vizual", care este totodat i titlul unei cri de referin ,
combinaie sintagmatic ce amintete oricui de mai vechea
Gestalttheorie. Expresia asociaz, pe de o parte, percepia
vizual, care nu se reduce la senzaie, adic la un automatism
fizico-psihologic, cu, de cealalt parte, posibilitatea generoas
de a putea exprima fr a face apel la cogniia intelectului,
anume fundamentarea neaprat pe un raionament, pe o jude
cat. Se constituie, astfel, n sens husserlian, un spaiu intern"
unind nelegerea de vedere26. Ipoteza perceptivo-cognitiv
servete i ca liant teoretic: arta de a vedea, de a gndi i de a
descrie opera vizual nu este propriu-zis o problem de limbaj
20 Cf. Principes de linguistique theorique de Gustave Guillaume,
Les Presses de PUniversite Laval, Quebec, 1973, p. 182.
21 Cf. Phenomelogie de laperception, Paris, Gallimard, 1945
22 Cf. Mythologies, 1957, Rhetorique de Pimage, 1964.
23 Cf. Trite du signe visuel. Pour une rhetorique de l'image,
Seuil, 1990.
24 Cf. Iniiere n semiotic general, (trad. Marina Mureanu),
Iai, Ed. Institutului European, 2004.
25 Cf. Rudolf Arnheim, La pensie visuelle. Paris, Flammarion, 1976
26 Cf Mrie Carani, Voir, pense/; decrire etpercevoir l'objet vi
suel. L'epineuse question de l'applicahilite des modeles semiotiques
en domaine visuel, n revista Visio, publicaia oficial a Asociaiei In
ternaionale de Semiotic vizual, nr. 4/1999, pp. 9-30.
96 | ADELA ROGOJINARU
citatea i interculturalitatea. Edificarea semiotic a mode
lelor, n fapt simulacrelor vizuale, exclusiv pe baza demer
sului interpretativ analogic, extrem de arbitrar i artificial,
nu reuete dect s evidenieze scenografia/coregrafia/n cel
mai fericit caz, scenariul, ntr-adevr patentat i argumentativ,
ignornd arheologia teoretic27. Este adevrat c tematizarea
i focalizarea vizual/descriptiv atrage automat iconicul28,
dar, traversnd limbajul, graie gramaticilor cognitive29 n
special, se ajunge la identificarea unei categorii noi, aceea a
aspectului spaio-temporal, nu n sensul cronotopului lui M.
Bahtin, ci n acela al echilibrului spaiului arhitectural-conceptual, i anume ntre o structur profund, organizat pe
temei de opoziii categoriale i definind un sistem de valori,
respectiv o structur de suprafa, exprimnd derularea
povestitoare" n care sunt implicate i asociate determinri
actaniale: cauzale, pasive, instrumentale, de agent etc. 30 Ceea
ce este esenial reprezint necesitatea ca, plecnd de la una
dintre structuri spre alta, s se reconstituie sintetic ce a fost
descompus analitic. Omul este capabil de o astfel de ntre
prindere, n vreme ce o main/un robot separ mecanic. Cu
privire la iconicitate, se cuvine a preciza cteva elemente teore
tice fundamentale, fie c avem n vedere semiotica continen
tal, ori pe aceea noncontinental - se are, normal, n vedere
contribuia esenial a lui Ch. S. Peirce. Recapitulnd sumar
ideile acestuia, reamintim: exist un element prim (represantemul), care are o calitate material i ncorporeaz semnul;
n al doilea rnd, ori n secundaritate, exist relaia dintre
semn i obiect/referent -adic referina sau obligativitatea ca
semnul s se nasc, ntruct exist n lume obiectul; la un al
treilea nivel (teriaritate), interpretantul acoper funcia de
27 Cf. Jean-Claude Gardin, Pour ime archeologie theorique, Pa
ris, Hachette, 1979.
28 Cf. Iconicite, hypoiconicite, hypoicons, n revista Visio, publi
caia oficial a Asociaiei Internationale de Semiotic vizual, nr. 1,
voi. 111/1998.
29 Cf. Vandeloise, Langacker, Lakoff, Descles etc.
30 V. Greimas, A., Courtes, J., Semiotic/ne. Dictionnaire raisonni
de la theorie du langage, Paris, Hachette, 1979.
98 I ADELA ROGOJINARU
COMUNICARESICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 103
Ana Bazac
Politehnica" University of Bucharest
ana_bazac@philos.pub.ro
1. The desirable context that requires democratic leadership and communication in organisations as the university
chairs has two aspects. One is the political one, and especially
in the post-communist countries as Romania the democratic
principles legitimate the system and constitute the ground of
social confidence, civic education and institutionalised relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition"' just in
this respect, or, to say it briefly, of what was coined as social
capital".2
The other is the psychological one, formed by the complex
expectations of members for democratic relationships. Indeed,
they hope that the criteria through which the members are
evaluated be equal for all.5 But, at the same time and in the
1 Pierre Bourdieu, The Forms of Capital", in Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, ed. John G. Richardson, Greenwood, New York, 1986, p. 248.
2 See James Farr, Social Capital. A Conceptual History", in Political Theory, Vol. 32, No. 1, February 2004, p. 6-33.
3 From this standpoint, we understand the psychological ground
of Rawls' theory of justice: his analytical construction, which poses
that the basic liberties are associated with the status of citizen in a
democracy and that they are equal for all citizens, is an answer to the
historical expectations of people during the constitution of modernity
as well as of theirs hopes generated from strong democratic education
and mentalities. See John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, (1971), in the
COMUNICARESICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 105
the entire population before 1944 - was formed from different small or medium bureaucracies living, through indirect
relations, from the labour of the 80% peasants. The dependency of the small and medium bureaucracies on the high one
generated very corrupt institutions and social relations. The
appearance of all these ones was somehow controlled by the
democratic rules and the successive critique of media of those
in power.
Even though realising the modernisation of Romania - the
first industrial revolution, the urbanisation, the throwing of
the masses into the culture (as Trotsky formulated this aspect)
- Stalinism was a new type of bureaucratic society. Because
all the former holders of the economic power were substituted
with the political - state and party - bureaucracy, this one,
being obviously stratified, became the only dominant class.
The socialist type legitimating values tended to realise a socialist 'justice as fairness', so the permitted liberties be equal
for all, but they did not succeed in annulling nepotism, the
personal arbitrariness of the leaders, the infringement of
criteria in the allocation of rights and awards.
What is important here is that after December 1989 letting alone, as irrelevant for our problem, the continuity of
the representatives of the former Stalinist bureaucratic strata
in economy, services and even institutions of political power
- a main source of income, welfare and power remained the
bureaucratic position. At high and low level as well. For
this reason, and in the frame of quite enough weak control
of the political institutions (formed themselves by and in a
bureaucratic manner) over the bureaucracy, the bureaucratic
character of an organisation as the university chair is part of
p. 41; from the entire active population, 4,6% (p. 46) worked in different public institutions (as central and local administration, post-offices,
hospitals, schools and universities, churches. It was a social stratification of this social category, the authors specifying "the modest living
standard of the office workers strata" (p. 47), as well as the inclusion
of the wealthy high level bureaucrats in the dominant class. It is not
strange at all: see the Pareto "80-20 law" discovered in a country with
similar features.
COMUNICAREICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 107
108 | ADELAROGOJINARU
COMUNICARESICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 109
the control of allocation of professional ascension, by transforming the mechanisms of consultation and consent into a
formalistic game. Bottom-up democratic control (transparency, broadly-based, deliberative participation) is powerless
just because particular nets are intertwined and linked to the
powerful political circles. In this respect, the participants
to these circles of power are mutually dependent and reject
every constructive critique of this bureaucratic system. This
is the famous 'bureaucratic inertia', which is however the set
we saw of present bureaucratic capture and subjugation of
democratic rules.
Are all these a simply aspect of the spread of bureaucracy
and rising of its power, as Weber theorised it, i.e. an inevitable
phenomenon, or a result of the crisis of democracy, so a fact
that could be changed and improved? 1 don't reject that the
personal motives of the leaders could be made congruent with
the democratic rules and criteria, but only with the improvement of democracy itself as political regime.
We are witnessing the theory that innovative behaviours are
rather linked to the privatised organisations than to the state
ones, and at the same time the suggestion that the cancellation
of some bureaucratic behaviours would harm to the development as, fundamentally, economic evolution. But if one could
add that the excessive form of autonomy of private universities does not at all annul the bureaucratic connections of these
organisations and the circles of political power, including the
ministry, the statement which accepts bureaucracy because of
its 'efficiency' leads to the doubt that this ambiguous requirement could ever consolidate democracy.16
16 If we don't forget what Ronald Coase, Nobel prised in economy in 1991, demonstrated in 1937: that the hierarchical mechanism in
the market economy is utilised because it would be the single non expensive mechanism of decision making - see Jean-Jacques Rosa, La
crise des capitalismes hierarchiques", in Comment aire, no. 116, Hiver
2006-2007, p. 957-the hierarchical concentration of decision in public
institutions is more understandable. The negative bureaucratic characteristic of the hierarchical decision making in this type of institutions,
and especially in the organisation of universities and high education,
is the consequence of many social (and historical) causes, and not only
of the technical one.
17 One could rememberthe famous book of C.R Snow, The masters
(1951), in the Romanian edition, Universitarii, translation by Veronica
Suteu, Editura pentru literatura universale, Bucuresti, 1967.
18 See Ana Bazac, "Intellectuals in the field of power", (a review
of Mihai Dinu Gheorghiu's book Intelectualii in cdmpul puterii. Morfalogii si traiectorii socia/e, lasi, Polirom, 2007), in Romanian Review
of Political Science and International Relations, 1, 2007.
3. The source of my paper is the observation of the functioning of the ministry of education, some of its agencies
(those connected to the high education) and the leadership of a
university and its department of philosophy and social sciences
in the last 17 years. The problem here is not the simply competing for leader positions17 or professional recognition, but the
state of democratic leadership and internal communication in
so specific communities as the ones from the high education.
There certainly were different periods: in the first one, the
former party school graduated18 were quickly transformed into
state universities graduated in an obscure manner, without
any examination and debate of the scientific community. At
the same time, after 1989 some members of the former party
leadership in universities immediately have reconverted in
new political colours and became the 'new' leaders in departments. Even though in many places the periodical elections
led to the substitution of these ones with persons of same type,
in the chair I describe there was only one head of chair from
1990 until the next elections from the autumn of this year,
2007, (and only one head of department from 1990 till now,
minus a year).
110 I ADELAROGOJINARU
3. the control of the members of chairs through recruitment, promise of ascension and inclusion in the council of
chair/department.
Till 2001, as a concretisation of one of Murphy's laws, it
was not initiated at least one single scientific conference, the
model of 'scientific community' being the continuation of a
Stalinist type pyramid with very weak performances.
What is important is the neo-dogmatic message from
above: the refuse to critically understand our disciplines, the
new political suppositions, the refuse to critically discuss the
paradigms, theories and theirs consequences. As permanent
laudatores tempori acti, the leaders rejected every debate on
the present hot events (as the war in Afghanistan and Iraq etc.)
and insisted on the support of the official political standpoint.
The social aspects, as well as the huge corruption were never
put into debate - rather the discussions over these problems
were discouraged - because the own corrupt movements
would have been emphasised.
One could conclude that the members of the chair form
a non-homogenous group where some are centred on the
head of chair as being and aiming to be situated in an 'interior circle' (for use Orwell's famous formula), and where the
others, grouped or not in different groupings, are shared by
two tendencies: one is to keep the given status quo, by equating it somehow with the identity of the chair,19 and the other is
to press for democratic change. But the result of the pressure
was the strengthening of the crisis behaviours - behaviours
of resistance to the change20 - of the members of the 'inte19 See Gabriel Mugny, Juan Antonio Perez, Strategii de influenta
sociala i de persuasiune: teoria elaborarii conflictului" ( Strategies
of social influence and persuasion: the theory of the elaboration of
the conflict") in Adrian Neculau (coord.), Psihologia sociala. Aspecte
contemporane, Polirom, Iasi, 1996, p. 234. But also Jeffrey T. Polzer,
How Subgroups Interests and Reputations Moderate the Effect of Organizational Indentification on Cooperation", in Journal of Management, volume 30, no. 1,2004.
20 See Adrian Neculau, ,,0 perspective psihologica asupra schimbarii" (,.A psychological perspective on the change"), in Adrian Neculau (coord.), Psihologia sociala. Aspecte contemporane, Polirom,
Ia?i,1996, p. 234.
112 I ADELAROGOJINARU
COMUNICARESICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 113
possible in the real world. But the above-mentioned relationships and communication are a profound source of dissatisfaction and complaint, particularly in regard to sensitive issues as
promotion and recognition. If the general high level of corruption decreases the general trust in the society,28 the direct
non democratic relations and management at the workplace
deepen the alienation and, concretely, lower the social solidarity, raise the social cynicism.29 They generate a habit with the
non democracy, but not annul the protest against it: only the
protest could be of different kinds of non-conformism.
One could observe that there are close connections between
the positive and negative affectivity as affective experience at
the workplace. The positive affectivity was grasped as antecedent of the creative performance, by enhancing mechanisms
for increasing the appropriate affect, these ones be moods or
discrete emotions.30
For example, self-esteem itself is linked to the work of
individuals, as organisation based self-esteem (self-evaluation inside the organisation), and the relationships inside the
organisation could change the self-esteem. This one, on the
other part, is a psychological basis for the efficient labour
and integration of the individual in the concrete organisation, thusly in society. If the organisational context does not
send signals for the increase of the individual self-esteem,
but is characterised by 'low affectivity and Machiavellism',
non participatory leadership, negative success-building role
conditions, the organisation based self-esteem is low (the
intrinsic motivation, work related attitudes, adaptation to
28 See Francis Fukuyama, Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity, Hamish Hamilton, London, 1995.
29 See Paul Dekker, Political cynicism: A hard feeling or an easy
way to maintain distance?, paper presented in panel 4, Citizens and
politics: political cynicism' of the Political Psychology Section at the
ECPR general conference in Budapest, 8-11 September 2005.
30 Russell Cropanzano, Howard M. Weiss, Jeff M. S. Halle, Jochen Reb, "The Structure of Affect: Reconsidering the Relationship
Between Negative and Positive Affectivity", in Journal of Management, vol. 29, no. 6, 2003, p. 835.
COMUNICARESICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 115
116 I ADELAROGOJINARU
he/she tends to do this, but the formalistic feature is immediately grasped and, vocally or quietly, sanctioned.
Dewey has insisted that the effective democracy is depending on the associations, and his position suggests that the
improvement of the internal democracy of organisations
could take place relatively autonomously from the state of
the high political level. Dewey "makes this linkage between
intimate communication - AB, the deliberation - and political
consciousness..."33
Nevertheless, in this respect, literature emphasised that
the feed-back seeking behaviour, at both the leaders and the
members of organisations, is not a neutral mechanical one but
takes over the characteristics of the context.34
6. For the bureaucratic feature of an organisation like a
university chair/department involves a bad internal communication - which is obviously connected with a bad external
communication -, so the practical consequences are bad,
researches and even some practices from the post-communist
Romania showed that all these are nor inevitable forever, but
could be at least at some extent changed. In this respect, if
there is a preoccupation for transparently expose the problems
and conclusions related to the bureaucratic leadership and
communication within organisations, there already would be
a step forward. Even if the power relations in the 'late capitalism' (see Habermas) are aggressive, the internal democratic
management and communication could improve and sweeten
their consequences on particular local levels. They strengthen
the organisation (and the members') identity and integrity,
the legitimacy of the organisation and the self-esteem of the
members, as well as the internal acceptance. These elements
will lead to a new image and to the reputation of the departments within the scientific and professional community. But
33 Ibidem, p. 672.
34 Susan J. Ashford, Ruth Blatt, Don Vande Walle, Reflection in
the Looking Glass: A Review of Research on Feed-back Seeking Behavior in Oganizations" in Journal of Management, volume 29, no.6,
2003, p. 783-784.
COMUNICARESICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 117
118 | ADELAROGOJINARU
Bibliography:
Ahearn, Kathleen K, Gerald R. Ferris, Wayne A. Hochwarter, Ceasar Douglas, Anthony P. Ammeter, "Leader Political Skill and Team Performance", in Journal of Management, volume 30, no. 3, 2004
Argyle, Michael, Competentele sociale" (The social
competences"), in (coord.) Serge Moscovici, Psihologia
sociala a relatiilor en celalalt (1994), Polirom, Iasi, 1998
Arneson, R. J., Rawls versus Utilitarianism in the Light
of Political Liberalism", in C. Wolf and V. Davion (eds.), The
38 See Tim Simkins, ,.Leadership in Education", in Educational
Management Administration & Leadership, volume 33, no. 1, 2005, p. 12:
a constructivist leadership needs: ...an intention to redistribute power and
authority, for without such intention and action none of us can lead...'"
39 But see also that in the liberal constitutionalist literature the
problem of the leadership is missing or regarded as suspicious, that
permit to not discuss the question of leeway from democracy, the question of arbitrariness, for example.
COMUNICAREICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 119
120 I ADELAROGOJINARU
COMUNICARE$ICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 121
Rawls, John, Justice et democratie, Introduction, presentation et glossaire de Catherine Audard, traduit de l'anglais par
C. Audard, P. de Lara, F. Piron et A. Tchoudnowsky, Editions
du Seuil, Paris, 1993
Robillard, Jean, "Philosophy of communication: what does
it have to do with philosophy of social sciences?" in Cosmos
and History. The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy,
vol. 1, no. 2, 2005
Rosa, Jean-Jacques, La crise des capitalismes hierarchiques", in Commentaire, no. 116, Hiver 2006-2007
Salminen, Ari, "Accountability, values and the ethical
principles of public service: the views of the Finnish legislators", in International Review of Administrative Sciences (An
International Journal of Comparative Public Administration),
volume 72, no. 2, June 2006
Simkins, Tim, Leadership in Education", in Educational
Management Administration & Leadership, volume 33, no.
1, 2005
Simon, Herbert A., and Associates, Decision Making and
Problem Solving, http://dieoff.org/pagel63.htm (19-IV-2007)
Sinclair-Desgagne, Bernard, Antoine Soubeyran,/! Theory
of Routines as Mindsavers, 2000, http://cirano.qc.ca/pdf/
publication/2000s-52.pdf (22-1V-2007)
Snow, C.P, The masters (1951), in the Romanian edition,
Universitarii, translation by Veronica Suteu, Editura pentru
literatura universale, Bucuresti, 1967
Ulrich, Werner, ,,The Design of Problem-Solving Systems",
in Management Science, Vol. 23, No. 10 (Jun. 1977)
Vromen, Jack, Organizational routines and individual
skills. Beyond analogies, 2006, http://www.eur.nl/fw/english/
eipe/workingpaper3 (22-IV-2007)
Warah, ATda A., "Governance, Power and ego Development: Toward the Democratic Organization", in The Innovative Journal, volume 7, no. 3, Winter 2002. http://www.innovation.cc/peer-reviewed/governance.pdf (21-111-2007)
130 I ADELAROGOJiNARU
Author
1.
Dessler G.
(2001)
2.
Commission of
the European
Communities
(2001)
3.
White A. L.
(2006)
4.
Harvard
University"s
Kennedy School
of Government
(2005)
5.
Definition
CSR refers to the extent to which companies
should and do channel resources toward improving one or more segments of society other than
the firm's own stockholders.
If the corporation is committed to being socially responsible, this can have a direct impact on employee's behavior.
However, the level of corporate commitment to social responsibility is complex and depends on a variety of factors, as
corporate culture. Corporate culture affects thoughts, feelings
2 Lebow R., Simon W. L., Lasting Change: the Shared Values Process that Makes Company Great, New York, John Wiley&Sons, 1997.
COMUNICAREICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 133
2.
Engage
significant
communities
Certain communities are more significant to the company than others. A significant community is a subset of all
stakeholders (e.g. a local neighborhood, a marginalized
group in society, a country). The company has to determine how it will engage those communities in defining
its objectives and strategies for enhancing its economic
impact. Only 19 percent of companies actually defined
their significant community in their reports. Some of the
benefits engaging communities are:
Community self-reliance.
Transferable models.
Improved efficiency.
Improved reputation in communities.
There are also challenges:
o Difficulty in establishing trust,
o Significant investment of time,
o Release of control.
3.
Define
strategy to
improve
impact
The corporation and the significant community/communities can work together to determine which are the most
important activities. They should have developed a clear
economic strategy with goals, budget, and time line.
4.
Develop
indicators
5.
Manage and
improve
impact
1.
Elements
Contents
Identify
risks
and opportunities
134 | ADELAROGOJINARU
ten principles (Box l) meant to help companies ensure that
their business upholds standards in the following areas:
o Human rights.
o Labor rights.
o Environmental protection.
o Anti-corruption and bribery.
In pursuit of a more sustainable and inclusive global
economy, GC provides a framework for corporate best practices and represents a roadmap for companies seeking to
incorporate a greater level of social responsibility into their
activities and operations.
Box l- The ten principles of GC4
Principle l: Businesses should support and respect the
protection of internationally proclaimed human rights within
their sphere of influence.
Principle 2: Businesses should make sure that their own
operations are not complicit in human rights abuses.
Principle 3: Businesses should uphold the freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right of collective
bargaining.
Principle 4: Businesses should uphold the elimination of all
forms of forced and compulsory labor.
Principle 5: Businesses should uphold the effective abolition of child labor.
Principle 6: Businesses should uphold the elimination of
discrimination in respect of employment and occupation.
Principle 7: Businesses should support a precautionary
approach to environmental challenges.
Principle 8: Businesses should undertake initiatives to
promote greater environmental responsibility.
Principle 9: Businesses should encourage the development
and diffusion of environmentally friendly technologies.
Principle 10: Businesses should work against corruption in
all its forms, including extortion and bribery.
4 Business for Social Responsibility, Building the UN Global
Compact Principles into Business: A practical Integration Guide,
2005, www.bsr.org.
C 0 M U N I C A R E I C U L T U R A 0 R G A N I Z A T I 0 N A L A I 135
Primary Involvement
from:
Actions
Senior Executives.
Board of Directors,
Oversight or Governance Committee
II. Implementation
1) Comprehensive
Implementation
Program
2) Metrics Established
3) Efforts Evaluated/Appropriate Improvements Made
III. Transparency
Senior
Manager;
Project Manager and
Team;
Corporate
Communications
COMUNICAREICULTURAORGANIZATIONALA I 139
138 I ADELAROGOJINARU
Value
chain
impacts
Agriculture and
sourcing
Manufacturing and
distribution
Products and
consumers
Purchasing practices
Sourcing for
quality and sustainability
Research and
development for
better yields
Environmental,
labour and safety
practices
Food safety
through improved
standards of operations
Labour practices
for mutual benefit
Improved environmental standards
New/renovated
products for
nutrition, health
and wellness
Research for
consumer benefit
Consumer
nutrition, health
and wellness
Building
a context
for growth
Agricultural and
supplier development
Knowledge
transfer and farm
assistance
Partnerships
for sustainable
agriculture
Value for
Nestle
Access to raw
materials at
specified quality
and foreseeable
price
Premium food
manufacturer
Profitable growth
from superior
product benefits
Value for
society
Wider access to
food, and improved nutrition
and health
10. Hellriegel D., Jackson S. E., Slocum J. W. Jr., Management: A Competency- Based Approach, Cincinnati,
South-Western, Thomson Learning, 2002
11. Hopkins M., A Planetary Bargain: Corporate Social
Responsibility Comes of Age, London, Macmillan, 1998
12. Kramer M., Kania J., Changing the Game. Leading
corporations switch from defense to offense in solving global
problems, Stanford Social Innovation Review, Spring 2006,
www.ssireview.org
13. Kramer M., Porter M. E., Zadek S., Redefining CSR,
Harvard Business Review, February 2007
14. Lebow R., Simon W. L., Lasting Change: the Shared
Values Process that Makes Company Great, New York, John
Wiley&Sons, 1997
15. Pearce II A. J., Robinson Jr. B. R., Strategic management: formulation, implementation and control, Boston, Irwin
Mc Graw-Hill, Seventh Edition, 2000
16. The Nestle concept of corporate social responsibility as
implemented in Latin America, www.nestle.com/NR/rdonlyres
17. The Nestle corporate business principles, www.nestle.com
18. 100 Best Corporate Citizens 2007, www.thecro.com/files
19. White A. L. (2006)- Business Brief: Intangibles and
CSR, Business for Social Responsibility, February 2006,
www.bsr.org
20. World Business Council for Sustainable Development,
Corporate Social Responsibility. Meeting Changing Expectations, Conches-Geneva, 1999
III
IDEI l PRACTICI ACTUALE
MANAGEMENTUL PERFORMANEI
l COMUNICAREA INTERN N ORGANIZAIILE
ROMNETI: CORELAII CU TEORIA LUI HOFSTEDE
Diana Cismaru
Facultatea de Comunicare i Relaii Publice
coala Naional de Studii Politice i Administrative,
Bucureti
diana.cismaru@comunicare.ro
Managementul performanei reprezint un subiect intens
dezbtut n literatura de specialitate. Fie explicit, fie implicit n
teoriile aplicate de management (managementul prin obiective,
managementul calitii, managementul prin observare direct)
performana reprezint mobilul i inta unor modele care s-au
dovedit cu mai mult sau mai puin succes n practic.
Pentru firmele romneti, managementul performanei
reprezint nc un subiect teoretic. La nivel aplicativ, mana
gementul performanei a fost practicat mai mult n firmele
multinaionale. Companiile romneti consider n mod greit
consultana organizaional drept un aspect opional, lsnd
ca n multe cazuri configurarea structurii, sarcinilor, fielor
de post s se realizeze aleator, iar performana se se bazeze
doar pe remuneraie ca motivator, fr obiective specifice n
acest sens. Companiile evolueaz exclusiv sub semnul legilor
economice ale pieei; marketingul este singura direcie de
comunicare extern, i aceea desfurat unilateral. In aceste
condiii, variabilele socio-umane, eseniale pentru evoluia,
performana i supravieuirea unei companii, rmn neuti
lizate. De asemenea, comunicarea intern, un instrument
important pentru managementul performanei, nu este consi
derat ca un posibil instrument, ci ca o stare de fapt (ree-
COMPORTAMENT
performan
CONSECIN
ntrire/pedeaps
MANAGEMENTUL REPUTAIEI
Rosemarie Haine
coala Naional de Studii Politice i Administrative,
Bucureti Facultatea de Administraie Public
rh2006ro@yahoo.com
ntr-o viziune integratoare, organizaia poate fi conce
put ca un grup uman, formal i durabil, cu un patrimoniu
autohton, supus unei autoriti continue i care produce bunuri
1
sau servicii apelnd la calculul economic . Incluznd noiunea
de grup uman, aceast definiie ne oblig s ne completm
demersul i s punem n eviden multiplele interaciuni pe
care orice organizaie le are cu mediul nconjurtor, organi
zaia fiind o entitate complex care evolueaz n contextul
unor relaii sociale i care are nevoie s fie recunoscut i
legitimat de mediul nconjurtor. De aceea, vom considera
organizaia ca un loc de intersectare a unui interior cu un exte
rior, un mediu mai mult dect un sistem, n care se ntretaie
mai multe fluxuri: cel fizic, cel informaional i cel financiar.
Din necesitatea de a-i gestiona aceste fluxuri, organizaia
contemporan este obligat s-i redefineasc limitele, nive
lele de intervenie, ca i teritoriul.
Mai mult ca oricnd, astzi, este necesar o redefinire a leg
turii dintre sfera privat i sfer public. Aceast problematic
a fost abordat de Jurgen Habermas2 i Jean Francois Lyotard3.
Primul recompune o aciune comunicaional fondat pe o
1 Eric Vatteville, Mesure des resources humaines et gestion de
l'entreprise, Paris, Economica, p. 6, 1985.
2 Jurgen Habermas, Morale et communication, Paris, Editions Du
Cerf, 1987 i Lapensee post-metaphysique, Paris, Armnd Colin, 1993.
3 Francois Lyotard, La condition post-moderne, Editions De
Minuit, Paris, 1979.
Prioriti n viitor:
profesionalismul comunicrii,
strategii pe termen lung,
inte precise,
definirea obiectivelor,
comunicarea,
autonomie n raport cu comunicarea electoral.
TEHNICI DE ARGUMENTARE
N ACTIVITATEA DE RELAII PUBLICE
Ionel Naria
Universitatea de Vest din Timioara
inarita@litere.uvt.ro
Scopul activitii de relaii publice este influenarea compor
tamentului publicului prin determinarea deciziilor luate de
membrii acestuia n diferite situaii. De exemplu, atunci cnd
Ivy L. Lee, unul dintre prinii activitii de relaii publice,
a prezentat presei cauzele i urmrile unui accident feroviar
n loc de a ncerca s le ascund, el urmrea, pe aceast cale,
s prentmpine reducerea numrului celor care prefer calea
ferat altor mijloace de transport i n special, a celor care
apeleaz la serviciile unei anumite companii de cale ferat.
Comportamentul unui public relativ la o organizaie, produs
sau persoan, este rezultanta comportamentului membrilor
acelui public, adic este rezultanta unor comportamente i
decizii individuale. Ipoteza de la care pornete activitatea de
relaii publice este c, la rndul su, comportamentul individual
este determinat ndeosebi de opinii (sau credine) i atitudini.
De exemplu, dac alte circumstane sunt echivalente, un client
cumpr produsul X\ nu produsul y deoarece crede c produsul
Xeste mai potrivit nevoilor i posibilitilor sale dect Y.
Pe de alt parte, comportamentul unui public poate fi
controlat n variate moduri. De exemplu, instituiile coerci
tive ale statului, cum ar fi poliia sau jandarmeria, urmresc
acelai scop. Diferena ntre aciunile acestora i activitatea
de relaii publice este c relaiile publice utilizeaz exclusiv
tehnici de comunicare pentru a influena comportamentul
publicului. Acestea pot intra fie n sfera comunicrii publice,
Florin Stoica
Specializarea Jurnalism,
Facultatea de tiine Socio-Umane,
Universitatea din Piteti,
f.stoica@yahoo.com
Dezvoltarea mijloacelor de comunicare implic o continu
perfecionare a tehnicilor jurnalistice, a resurselor folosite de
ziariti. Investind din ce n ce mai mult n training - adic
n dobndirea de noi cunotine, abiliti i atitudini necesare
ndeplinirii atribuiilor unui anumit post - se pun bazele unei
metode sigure de cretere a eficienei organizaiei. Instruirea
permanent st la baza unei dezvoltri continue a capacitii
de lucru. De training este indicat s beneficieze att efii, ct i
subalternii, att membrii mai vechi ai redaciei, ct i nou-veniii. S-a dovedit c este mult mai ieftin pentru o instituie
media s-i pregteasc propriii angajai, dect s recruteze
alii experimentai, din afar.
Nevoia de training se resimte i la nivelul ziarelor locale
din Romnia. Dintr-un studiu pe care l-am realizat n 2006
pe problema organizrii edinei de redacie, a reieit c n
presa cotidian din Arge discuiile despre calitatea actului
jurnalistic au loc destul de rar, mai ales n edinele de dimi
nea sau de dup-amiaz, cauz din care sunt purtate ntot
deauna pe fug, abordeaz aceleai teme i nu in pasul cu
noutile din domeniu. Curentul de opinie n rndul ziaritilor
era c rundele periodice de training nu ar trebui s lipseasc.
Cristina erbnic
Universitatea Constantin Brncoveanu din Piteti
cpantelica@yahoo.co.uk
Scurt perspectiv istoric
La nivel internaional, interesul pentru evaluarea i msu
rarea activitii comunicaionale a aprut n urm cu circa
60 de ani, cnd numeroi oameni de tiin - cu precdere
specialiti n comunicarea de mas - au condus studii i au
elaborat lucrri pe tema eficienei comunicrii. Specialistul
n PR - Walter Lindenmann (2005, p.2) a dedicat un studiu
perspectivei istorice a evalurii Relaiilor publice, subliniind
faptul c, dei eforturile de evaluare au atras atenia comu
nitii academice abia n ultimele dou decenii, ncercri de
abordare a temei au existat nc de la jumtatea secolului XX,
din anii 40'-50', atunci cnd primele articole pe tema evalu
rii au fost publicate n revista Public Opinion Quarterly",
semnate de unor autori celebri, precum: Herbert Hyman, Paul
Sheatsley, Raymond Bauer, Cari Hovland, Paul Lazarsfeld,
Wilbur Schramm, Charles Wright etc. n aceeai perioad
poate fi consemnat apariia lucrrii "Effective Public Relations" (1952)-autori ScottM. Cutlip i Allen H. Center-care
se impune a fi consemnat drept prima analiz de profunzime
a problematicii evalurii.
Interesul pentru msurarea impactului comunicrii a crescut
n timp, unele dintre cele mai importante etape consemnate n
istoria de specialitate referindu-se la brouri i manuale de speci
alitate (Measuring and evaluating Public Relations activities",
American Management Institute, 1968, PR Evaluation: Professional Accountability", Institute for PR 1994. pagini Guide-
lines and Standards for measuring and evaluating PR effectiveness", Institute for PR, 1997, How to measure the effectiveness of PR", PR Consultants Association, London, 1999 etc),
conferine i simpozioane la universiti din America, Suedia,
Germania etc, artciole n reviste de specialitate (PR Review,
PR Quarterly, PR Week, Journal of PR Research etc), dar i la
diferite metode, modele i metodologii de evaluare dezvoltate
de specialitii n domeniu (Walter Lindenmann, Tom Watson,
Fraser Likely, Jim Macnamara etc.)
Unul dintre cele mai importante evoluii n cercetarea
asupra evalurii l reprezint nfiinarea, n ianuariel999, la
Institute for PR, a US Commission on PR Measurement and
Evaluation" (Comisia de evaluare i msurare a activitii de
relaii publice), o comisie al crei scop este acela de a promova
standarde tiinifice de msurare i evaluare a activitii de PR
- n special i a activitilor comunicaionale - n general. n
februarie 1999, nou formata comisie a organizat prima mare
conferin la Universitatea din Florida n Gainesville; comisia
includea reprezentani ai sectorului profit i nonprofit, cercet
tori, agenii de PR, academicieni (Glen Broom, James Grunig,
Linda Hon, Donald Wright etc). Din anul 2000 i pn n
prezent, comisia de evaluare i msurare a activitii de relaii
publice a elaborate zeci de articole i lucrri de specialitate pe
problematica evalurii.
Fr pretenia de a fi exhaustiv, aceast scurt prezentare
cronologic nu dovedete altceva dect faptul c eforturile de
cercetare s-au amplificat de-a lungul timpului, c problema
tica evalurii activitilor comunicaionale se afl n centrul
ateniei teoreticienilor, dar mai ales al practicienilor i c pn
n prezent s-a conturat un instrumentar destul de consistent de
msurare i evaluare.
Evaluare vs. Msurare
Evaluarea este procesul prin care se determin eficiena
sau valoarea activitii de relaii publice i comunicare organizaional, prin comparaie cu un set prestabilit de obiective.
Pe termen scurt, prin procedeele de evaluare se determin
1.
2.
3.
4.
Modelul
Modelul Pil
Scott Cutlip,
Alan Center,
Glen Broom
Modelul pirami
dal de evaluare
Jim Macnamara,
1992
Modelul Etalonul
Eficienei
Walter Linden
mann, 1993
Modelul unificat
de evaluare
Paul iVoble i
Tom Watson,
1999
Inputuri
Pregtire
Outputuri
Distribuie
Impact
Rezul
tate
Pregtire
Implemen
tare
Rezul
tate
Inputuri
Outputs
Outcomes
Producie
Outputs
Outgrowth
Outcomes
Distribuie
Impact
Rezul
tate
5.
Modelul Evalurii
continue
Tom VVatson,
1999
Soluia: interdisciplinaritatea!
Pentru a putea evalua corect rezultatele activitii de comu
nicare, specialistul n Relaii publice are nevoie de cunotine
din domenii complementare. Este vorba, n primul rnd, de
cunotine de management i finanele ntreprinderii: el trebuie
s cunoasc cu exactitate care sunt principalii indicatori de
msurare a rezultatelor (KPYs - key performance indicators)
ai organizaiei pentru care lucreaz, care este modul lor de
calcul, i, cel mai important, care este semnificaia i relevana
lor n contextul pieei. Astfel, performna de afaceri nu este
redat, n mod obligatoriu, doar de creterea vnzrilor, ci,
la fel de bine, ea poate fi reflectat n creterea productivitii
muncii, aprecierea aciunilor pe pia, mrirea cotei de pia,
reinerea unui capital uman valoros, fidelizarea clienilor etc.
Analiza cost-beneficiu aplicat la nivel organizaional trebuie
s ia n calcul i activitile de comunicare, respectiv costu
rile raportate la rezultatele obinute, indiferent de natura lor
tangibil sau intangibil. Nu n ultimul rnd, specialistul n
PR trebuie s fie familiarizat cu limbajul economic i mana
gerial de specialitate.
Pe de alt parte, specialitii n PR i comunicare corpo
rativ trebuie s dobndeasc cunotine mult mai specifice
despre tehnicile de cercetare i s dobndeasc abiliti nume
rice pentru a prezenta date calitative i cantitative managc-
COMUNICAREICULTURORGANIZATIONAL | 249
LA RCONFIGURATION DU MARCH
DES MDIAS ROUMAINS
Poliana Stefnescu
Universit de Bucarest
Facult de Sociologie et de PAssistance Sociale
poliana.stefanescu@gmail.com
Introduction
Aprs la chute du rgime totalitaire, la transition s'est
reflte dans mass mdia roumains par un grand volume de
changements dans une priode trs courte.
Les dernires recherches ont montr que les mdias
roumains se sont occidentaliss rapidement1, en adoptant des
rgles et normes que les mdias amricaines et europennes
ont connu dans une priode plus large.
Le march roumain des mdias s'tait dvelopp acclr
au cours de ces dernires annes, en termes de volume et
diversification. Les budgets de publicit ont augment toutes
les chanes traditionnelles des mdias aussi bien que dans
l'Internet, le cinma et les mdias endroit bass ou nouveaux.
Le dveloppement des outils de recherches (audience, style
de vie, trafic et profil sociodmographique des utilisateurs
d'Internet) ont suivi la mme tendance.
Plus de chanes de tlvision ont t lances, d'autres ont
annonc de telles intentions. Les nouveaux journaux ont
merg avec une nouvelle tendance de contenu tablod afin
d'attirer et continuer une audience de plus en plus volatile qui
cherche principalement le divertissement au dtriment des
1 Pascu, Rodica(2004), Presa din Romnia: Tranzitie sau schimbare?, dans Schimbri n Europa, Schimbri n mass-media (coordonator Ilie Rad), Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca.
2 www.imas.ro.
3 Stefanescu, Poliana (2006), Mass Media and Ethnie Issues in
Romania, dans "'Ethnicity and Mass .Media in South east Europe'", Ed.
Nikolai Genov, Lit Verlag, Berlin.
\r
250 I ADELAROGOJINARU
COMUNICAREICULTURORGANIZATIONAL I 251
252 | ADELAROGOJINARU
Le march de presse crite continue le procs de consolidation sous le parapluie des groupes d'dition internationaux
principaux, pourtant la fragmentation de l'audience continue.
La croissance globale pour dpensent de la publicit est prvue
8% en 2008.
La presse crite continue perdre la part en faveur de
l'Internet et le cinma qui en 2007 se dveloppait de 115%
contre 2006.
COMUNICAREICULTURORGANIZATIONAL | 253
la presse et la radio apprcient dj la mesure fiable et industriellement compatible. L'Internet est prochain dans la ligne
pour mettre en application un systme dans un avenir proche
normalis et fiable de mesure. Pendant que les outils de mesure
se dveloppent, acheter et vendre des mdias est devenu une
affaire dpendant de plus en plus de l'excution d'audience,
rsultant dans une meilleure optimisation de budget.
Les diteurs internationaux importants sont prsents sur
le march local - Ringier, Edipresse, Sanoma Hearst, Burda,
WAZ - aussi bien que les diteurs locaux tablis - groupe
de MediaPro (Publimedia, Mediafax et Playboy Roumanie),
Intact, Ziua, etc. En mai 2006, les mdias de Realitatea
assure le groupe de Catavencu et le possde actuellement:
Academia Catavencu, Tabou, Psihologia Azi, Aventuri La
Pescuit, 24-FUN, Cotidianul, etc. Quelques groupes d'dition
principaux, tels que Ringier et MediaPro ont un ventail de
catgories dans leur brochure: Guides de TV, titres de style de
vie, affaires et titres conomiques, sports, journaux valus
suprieurs nationaux ou locaux, feuilles libres, etc. D'autres
diteurs sont spcialiss sur certaines catgories: Edipresse
- magazines de style de vie des femmes, groupe de mdias
d'affai res (BMG) - les revues commerciales etc. Ringier,
groupe de MediaPro, Intact et le Realitatea Catavencu restent
les joueurs dominants du march en termes d'audience et
recette publicitaire.
Essayant de consolider leurs audience et de dvelopper des
marques non simplement intituls, en accord avec la tendance
europenne, les diteurs roumains principaux ont cr un
Web monde compltant le produit principal de mdias avec
une source d'audience rapidement croissante, souvent beaucoup plus grande que celle du titre imprim. Comme exemple,
l'dition numrique de Gazeta Sporturilor s'est dveloppe
accompagne par www.stelisti.ro, www.rapidisti.ro, www.
dinamovisti.ro, www.violamania.ro, www.aulofl.ro etc.
254 | ADELAROGOJINARU
Le pourcentage des organisations mdias dans la
presse crite
COMUNICARESICULTURORGANIZATIONAL | 255
La tlvision
La tlvision reste le milieu fournissant qui offre la porte
la plus leve et la plus rapide au niveau national, sa pntration s'approchant de 100%, agissant en tant que source principale de divertissement peu coteux pour la majorit accablante de la population.
Selon l'enqute d'tablissement 2007, dveloppe par IM AS
et TNS-AGB, la pntration de cble est 82% au niveau national et 92% dans le secteur urbain, un des plus hautes dans la
totalit de l'Europe.
Car la dpense de publicit s'est dveloppe plus rapidement que les prix, un dispositif dominant du march est le
frquent vendu dehors avec l'escalade brusque de l'image
de fond dans les priodes plus agglomres. En consquence,
une autre augmentation significative des prix s'est tendue
dans le magasin pour 2007 essayant d'quilibrer l'inventaire
dcroissant contre la demande explosive.
256 | ADELAROGOJINARU
COMUNICAREICULTURORGANIZATIONAL | 257
INSTITUIONAL
Ana-Maria Teodorescu
Universitatea din Bucureti, Facultatea de Litere
Catedra de Comunicare i Relaii Publice
anamete2002@yahoo.com
Dialogul ca discurs instituional/organizaional - do
meniu de cercetare
Premisele teoretice ale acestui studiu pornesc de la cteva
abordri teoretice cu aplicare practic ale lui Paul Drew,
Marja-Leena Sorjonen , Dennis Mumby, Robin Clair despre
dialogul instituional i discursul organizaional. De aceea
am creat o premis hibrid acestui demers tiinific dialogul
instituional ca discurs. Acelai aspect ar putea fi aplicat
studiului discursului prin utilizarea acelei reele de concepte
critice, dar fenomenul discursului trebuie abordat prin
resuscitare"prezentnd cele mai importante concepte n relaie
unele cu celelalte sub o form schematizat. Renkema pornete
aceast abordare de la cele trei perspective ale lui Karl Buhler
referitoare la discurs ca o compoziie de semne ale limbii:
Discursul este simbol, deoarece se refer la o realitate,
creia i ine locul prin propoziii cu o anume tem;
Discursul este un simptom, deoarece creatorul de discurs
vrea s exprime ceva prin el, de aceea are ntotdeauna un scop;
Discursul este un semnal ntre cel care creeaz discursul
i cel care l consum, ceea ce determin un anume efect
pentru receptor, de aceea tendina n studierea discursului
implic relaia dintre forma discursului i strategiile prin care
funcioneaz.
3.1. Vocabularul
In cercetarea fenomenului denumit de specialiti vorbire
instituional sau interaciune instituional sau conversaie
instituional apreciem c introducerea dialogului instituional
este integrat argumentrii propuse. De aceea dialogul medi
atic generat ca produs de comunicarea de mas va fi definit,
interpretat i evaluat n termenii dialogului instituional ceea
ce va impune demonstraiei un caracter aplicativ vor fi exem
plele din comunicarea de mas. Prima dimensiune pus n
discuie de Drew i Heritage este alegerea cuvintelor -lexical
choice-. Aceast dimensiune contureaz la nivelul vorbitorilor
implicai n interaciune orientarea instituional a dialogului.
Numeroi cercettori accentueaz specializarea vocabularului
ceea ce induce n contiina utilizatorilor nu numai termenul
de tehnic", dar i pe cel de identitate instituional recognoscibil pentru cei aflai n interaciune,care selecteaz un
anumit tip de vocabular, din domeniile recunoscute- legislaie,
afaceri, medicin, educaie sau mass-media.
fenomene
prin care
alt parte
vizat ca
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