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Cartea Fundamentele Pedagogiei Chis V 1
Cartea Fundamentele Pedagogiei Chis V 1
FUNDAMENTELE PEDAGOGIEI
Repere tematice pentru studenţi şi profesori
FOUNDATIONS OF PEDAGOGY
Thematic highlights for students and teachers
© Prof. Univ. Dr. Vasile Chiș
Editura EIKON
Cluj-Napoca, str. Mecanicilor nr. 48
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ISBN 978-606-711-002-9
FUNDAMENTELE PEDAGOGIEI
Repere tematice pentru studenţi şi profesori
FOUNDATIONS OF PEDAGOGY
Thematic highlights for students and teachers
Cluj-Napoca, 2014
CUPRINS / CONTENTS
FUNDAMENTELE PEDAGOGIEI
Repere tematice pentru studenţi şi profesori .....................................9
Tema 1
EDUCAŢIA ŞI SISTEMUL ŞTIINŢELOR EDUCAŢIEI .............15
1.1. Educaţia. Evoluţia conceptului ..................................................15
1.2. Concepţia pedagogică a lui J.A. Comenius................................25
1.3. Sistemul ştiinţelor educaţiei. Evoluţii contrastante ....................27
Bibliografie .......................................................................................38
Tema 2
FACTORII DEZVOLTĂRII PERSONALITĂŢII .........................39
2.1. Concepţii referitoare la dezvoltarea personalităţii .....................39
2.2. Cercetările de genetică şi relevanţa lor în educaţie ....................42
2.3. Rezultate ale unor cercetări ereditariste,
clasice și ale cercetărilor de psihologie genetică ..............................49
2.3. Studiile de psihologie genetică
şi teoria dublei determinări ...............................................................55
Bibliografie .......................................................................................62
Tema 3
PRINCIPIILE FUNDAMENTALE ALE EDUCAŢIEI .................64
3.1. Ce sunt principiile fundamentale ale educaţiei?
Ce rol au ele în educaţie? ..................................................................65
3.2. Care sunt sursele principiilor fundamentale ale educaţiei?
Cum sunt formulate ele în domeniul pedagogiei? ............................66
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PROF. UNIV. DR. VASILE CHIȘ
Tema 4
FINALITĂŢILE EDUCAŢIEI ........................................................101
4.1. Idealul educaţional – analiză pedagogică.................................102
4.2. Taxonomia obiectivelor educaţionale ......................................105
4.3. Operaţionalizarea obiectivelor educaţionale ............................111
4.4. De la pedagogia pentru cunoștințe
la pedagogia pentru competențe ......................................................116
Bibliografie .....................................................................................134
Tema 5
SISTEME EDUCAŢIONALE CONTEMPORANE ŞI
DEZVOLTĂRI ÎN PEDAGOGIA CONTEMPORANĂ...............136
5.1. Tipuri de sisteme educaţionale şi caracterizarea acestora ........136
5.2. Analiză comparativă a sistemelor organizate ierarhic şi a
sistemelor organizate în reţea ..........................................................141
5.3. Curriculumul – rețele conceptuale ...........................................149
Bibliografie .....................................................................................157
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FOUNDATIONS OF PEDAGOGY
Thematic highlights for students and teachers...............................160
Foreword ............................................................................................162
Theme 1
THE EDUCATION AND THE EDUCATIONAL
SCIENCES SYSTEM .......................................................................166
1.1. Education. The concept evolution ............................................166
1.2. J.A. Comenius’s pedagogical conception ................................175
1.3. The system of the educational sciences.
Contradictory evolutions .................................................................178
Bibliography....................................................................................190
Theme 2
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT FACTORS ...........................192
2.1. Conceptions related to personality development .....................192
2.2. The genetic investigations and their relevance in education ...195
2.3. Results of heredity, classical researches
and of genetic psychology research ................................................202
2.4. Genetic psychology studies and the theory
of double determination ..................................................................208
Bibliography....................................................................................215
Theme 3
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION ....................217
3.1. What are the fundamental principles of education? .................218
What role do these play in education? ............................................218
3.2. What are the sources of the fundamental principles of
education? How are they formulated in the field of pedagogy? .....219
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PROF. UNIV. DR. VASILE CHIȘ
Theme 4
THE FINALITIES OF EDUCATION ............................................253
4.1. The educational ideal – pedagogical analysis ..........................254
4.2. The educational objectives taxonomy ......................................258
4.3. The operationalization of the educational objectives ...............263
4.4. From the knowledge pedagogy
to the competences pedagogy .........................................................268
Bibliography....................................................................................287
Theme 5
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AND DEVELOPMENTS
IN THE CONTEMPORARY PEDAGOGY...................................289
5.1. Types of educational systems and their characterisation .........289
5.2. Comparative analysis of hierarchical systems
and of network-organized systems ..................................................294
5.3. The curriculum – conceptual networks ....................................302
Bibliography....................................................................................310
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FUNDAMENTELE PEDAGOGIEI
REPERE TEMATICE PENTRU STUDENŢI ŞI PROFESORI
Cuvânt înainte de
Mușata BOCOȘ
Olga CHIȘ
Notă: în textul lucrării s-a utilizat următoarea simbolistică:
Suport teoretic
? Interogaţii
Esenţializarea conţinutului
Surse bibliografice
CUVÂNT ÎNAINTE
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FUNDAMENTELE PEDAGOGIEI. REPERE TEMATICE PENTRU STUDENȚI ȘI PROFESORI
TEMA 1
EDUCAŢIA ŞI SISTEMUL ŞTIINŢELOR EDUCAŢIEI
Aristotel (384 î.H.-322 î.H.) a fost unul din cei mai importanţi filosofi ai
Greciei antice, cu preocupări relevante în domeniul educației. A studiat la
Academia lui Platon din Atena, apoi a fost la Curtea Împăratului Filip, în calitate
de învățător al tânărului Alexandru, o personalitate care a rămas în istorie cu
numele de Alexandru cel Mare prin calitățile sale de mare strateg şi conducător
militar al Macedoniei.
Deşi bazele filosofiei la vremea aceea au fost puse de Platon, Aristotel este
cel care a desprins concluziile necesare din filosofia lui Platon şi a dezvoltat-o. El
afirma că: „Nu spiritele produc transformările în lume, ci transformările sunt date
de ceea ce poate fi interpretat.”
În educația din antichitate, Aristotel este consecvent cu semnificaţiile
naturale ale conceptului „educaţie” – acelea de creştere, cultivare, hrănire. El a
înfiinţat la Atena o şcoală celebră – Lykeion sau şcoala peripatetică. Filozoful
obişnuia să educe plimbându-se cu discipolii săi prin Lykeion, o grădină în natură.
Prin şcoala peripatetică, se încurajau studiile clasice de gramatică, retorică, logică,
matematică, teologie, ştiinţele naturii, arte, euritmie. Corespondentul termenului
Lykeion pentru Roma antică era Lyceum, din el derivând termenul Lycée (limba
franceză) şi Liceu (limba română). Este interesant de menţionat că educaţia şi
şcoala peripatetică fondate de Aristotel are prelungiri în educaţia contemporană:
profesor itinerant, „şcoala altfel”, activităţi extracurriculare, educație nonformală
etc.
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Pedagogul ceh Jan Amos Comenius a trăit între anii 1592 şi 1670 şi este
autorul lucrării de referinţă „Didactica Magna”, tipărită, după unii, în jurul anului
1630 şi, după alţii, în 1650 – reper la care ne vom raporta şi noi.
Lucrarea „Didactica Magna” este importantă pentru că ea reuneşte şi
structurează toate cunoştinţele de pedagogie existente până în acel moment. Să
comparăm acea epocă istorică – a doua jumătate a secolului al XVII-lea, perioadă
în care toate cunoştinţele de pedagogie erau cuprinse într-o carte şi epoca actuală,
în care vorbim despre milioane de cărţi.
O dată cu apariţia cărţii lui J.A. Comenius, o dată cu apariţia pedagogiei ca
ştiinţă, s-a formulat o nouă definiţie a educaţiei, la un nivel superior faţă de prima
definiţie etimologică, o definiţie împrumutată din ştiinţele naturii. Dacă în
antichitate „educatio” însemna „creştere”, „cultivare”, în epoca modernă a
ştiinţelor, în epoca pedagogiei ştiinţifice, educaţia înseamnă dezvoltare, formare,
formare şi dezvoltare. Definiţia este formulată în termeni concreţi şi anume
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FUNDAMENTELE PEDAGOGIEI. REPERE TEMATICE PENTRU STUDENȚI ȘI PROFESORI
sistematic, continuu.
Aşadar, putem conchide că între educaţie şi dezvoltare se naşte o relaţie
cauzală circulară. Această relaţie este demonstrată şi de situaţia statelor slab
dezvoltate, în ţările slab dezvoltate, în care există familii dezavantajate, sărace,
comunităţi dezavantajate şi comunităţi sărace. În cazul acestor categorii de
populaţii, întotdeauna sărăcia se leagă de accesul la educaţie, care este îngrădit din
motive economice.
Accesul la educaţie este la parametrii mai scăzuţi sau mai ridicaţi, în
funcţie de gradul de dezvoltare socio-economică al ţării respective. Dar, lipsa
accesului la educaţie permanentizează sărăcia, o reproduce, o menţine şi o
adânceşte, tocmai pentru că între sărăcie şi nivelul scăzut de educaţie, de acces la
educaţie, se aşează această relaţie cauzală circulară. Relaţia este esenţializată
sugestiv de George Văideanu, pe care îl parafrazăm cu un accent personal: Acolo
unde domneşte sărăcia şi ... prostia. Cu alte cuvinte, cantitatea de incultură este
direct proporţională cu lipsa de educaţie sau, aşa cum spunem uneori, cu proasta
educaţie. Iată că relaţia educaţie-dezvoltare poate fi analizată şi semnificată la
diverse paliere, începând cu individul şi terminând cu societatea şi cu dezvoltarea
globală a întregii planete. Şi în acest context legat de educaţie şi dezvoltare globală,
discursul se poartă frecvent şi ferm în prezent, pe tema educaţiei pentru dezvoltare
sustenabilă, durabilă, pentru dezvoltare continuă, sistematică, profundă a întregii
planete.
Cea de a doua carte referitoare la rolul educaţiei este a lui Mircea Maliţa, J.
Botkin şi M. Elmandjara şi se numeşte „Orizontul fără limite al învăţării.
Lichidarea decalajului uman” (1981), dar, foarte bine s-ar putea numi „Orizontul
fără limite al educaţiei”. Aceasta pentru că, în contextul cărţii, învăţarea are sens
generic, educaţional, global, vorbindu-se despre orizontul fără limite al învăţării.
Autorii cărţii sunt trei personalităţi, care au fost consilieri UNESCO, forumul
internaţional UNESCO (Organizaţia Naţiunilor Unite pentru Educaţie, Ştiinţă şi
Cultură, conform denumirii originale din engleză, United Nations Education,
Science and Culture Organization), un forum extraordinar şi foarte activ în
domeniul educaţiei şi culturii.
Mircea Maliţa, la fel ca George Văideanu au fost experți din partea
României în forumul internaţional UNESCO, iar aceste două cărţi au fost, de fapt,
rapoarte UNESCO pe tema educaţiei. Şi Mircea Maliţa susţine că educaţia are
puteri şi valenţe deosebite. Pentru ca educaţia să valorifice şi să multiplice aceste
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Timp
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PEDAGOGIA GENERALĂ
TEORIA TEORIA
EDUCAŢIEI INSTRUIRII
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PEDAGOGIA VÂRSTELOR
PEDAGOGIA PREŞCOLARĂ
PEDAGOGIA ŞCOLARĂ
PEDAGOGIA UNIVERSITARĂ
PEDAGOGIA ADULŢILOR
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FUNDAMENTELE PEDAGOGIEI. REPERE TEMATICE PENTRU STUDENȚI ȘI PROFESORI
Germania, Rusia, Elveţia, Statele Unite ale Americii au venit la Cluj să vadă şcoala
de psihopedagogie specială de şi au fost impresionaţi de rezultatele acesteia.
În domeniul surdologiei, la Cluj era şi cel mai perfecţionat aparat al vremii,
de diagnostic auditiv şi de decizie pentru protezare auditivă, amplasat într-un spaţiu
în vecinătatea clădirii centrale a Universităţii Babeş-Bolyai de pe strada Mihail
Kogălniceanu.
Vizavi de clădirea Centrală a universităţii, la etajul III, a funcţionat un
laborator auditiv complet izolat fonic şi dotat cu un aparat imens, care genera sunete
de diferite intensităţi, de diferite lungimi de undă şi scana tot aparatul cohlear, tot
nervul cohlear, astfel încât se vedea pe ce registre nu se aude, nu se percepe sunetul.
La acest laborator pentru diagnostic şi pentru decizie de protezare auditivă veneau
persoane inclusiv din străinătate.
La Cluj, la Catedra de Psihopedagogie specială s-a produs prima
performanţă de recuperare a unui elev orb surdomut, un eveniment care nu s-a mai
înregistrat în istoria pedagogică a vremii. Un tânăr cu auzul, văzul şi limbajul
suprimate complet a fost recuperat şi exersat în domeniile compensării auditive şi
vizuale. Elevul, iar apoi studentul a lucrat foarte mult cu profesorii defectologi
specializaţi în surdologie şi tiflologie în anii ’60-’70 la Catedra de Psihopedagogie
specială. De notat că studentul a parcurs cu succes programul universitar de
pregătire în Psihopedagogie specială (defectologie) la Cluj, iar apoi a lucrat ca
profesor defectolog la o şcoală specială din municipiul Cluj-Napoca. Această
performanţă extraordinară, la vreme aceea, a fost mult mediatizată, dar şi în prezent
sunt ecouri în presă.
Ceea ce nu a fost în preocupările noastre la Cluj, decât mai târziu, după
anii 90 este domeniul dificultăţilor emoţionale şi de comportament, astfel încât nu
s-a conturat o pedagogie a dificultăţilor de comportament Adeseori, copiii cu
tulburări de comportament şi delincvenţă juvenilă erau plasaţi în şcoli de corecţie.
Exista, înainte de 1989 o reţea foarte dură de şcoli de corecţie, în care copiii nu erau
educaţi, ci se încerca să fie dresaţi, într-un regim de detenţie pentru minori.
Menţionăm, însă, că în toată lumea, în toate sistemele educaţionale s-a creat o reţea
amplă de educaţie destinată copiilor cu tulburări emoţionale şi de comportament.
Redăm, în figura nr. 4, ramurile pedagogiei speciale/ psihopedagogiei
speciale sau a pedagogiei cerinţelor educaţionale speciale.
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PROF. UNIV. DR. VASILE CHIȘ
DIFICULTĂŢI DIFICULTĂŢI
DIFICULTĂŢI
DE ÎNVĂŢARE AUDITIVE EMOŢIONALE ŞI DE
COMPORTAMENT
PSIHOLOGIA EDUCAŢIEI
FILOSOFIA EDUCAŢIEI
SOCIOLOGIA EDUCAŢIEI
ECONOMIA EDUCAŢIEI
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I
IE RI TEORIA
L EVALUĂRII
SI
CON TEORIA
I A INSTRUIRII
OR
TE TEORIA
CURRICULUMULUI
MANAGEMENT
EDUCAŢIONAL
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Bibliografie
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TEMA 2
FACTORII DEZVOLTĂRII PERSONALITĂŢII
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FUNDAMENTELE PEDAGOGIEI. REPERE TEMATICE PENTRU STUDENȚI ȘI PROFESORI
mai faimoasă oaie din lume, Dolly, născută, de fapt, cu câteva luni în urmă, pe
5 iulie 1996, a fost o oaie domestică, femelă, care a reprezentat prima clonare
reuşită a unui mamifer dintr-o celulă somatică adultă, prin procedeul de transfer
nuclear. Clonarea a fost realizată de Ian Wilmut, Keith Campbell şi colegii lor
de la Institutul Roslin, în apropiere de Edinburgh, Scoţia, după o serie de 276
de încercări nereuşite. Numită mai întâi cu codul „6LL3”, prima oaie clonată a
fost botezată apoi cu prenumele cântăreţei şi actriţei Dolly Parton, la sugestia
crescătorilor de ovine care au sprijinit acest proiect. Profesorul Ian Wilmut a
transferat nuclee, provenite din glanda mamară a unei oi mature, în ovulele unei
oi din altă rasă. Din 277 de transferuri s-au obţinut 29 de embrioni, care au ajuns
în faza de blastocist. După 148 de zile, din singurul embrion, care a supravieţuit
după implantare, s-a născut oaia Dolly. Această realizare a fost capitală pentru
evoluţia acestor experimente, pentru că nu s-au mai folosit nuclee de embrioni,
ci celule de la un organism adult. După naşterea lui Dolly, cercetarea în
domeniul clonării a evoluat mult. În 1998, s-a anunţat naşterea a două vaci şi
obţinerea a 20 de copii de şoareci. Dolly a trăit până la vârsta de şase ani, până
la 14 februarie 2003, când a fost eutanasiată pentru că suferea de artrită şi de
cancer pulmonar. Dolly a fost împăiată şi este în prezent expusă la Muzeul
Regal Edinburgh. Clonarea a avut susţinători doar atâta timp cât a fost
prezentată ca un experiment genetic şi cât nu s-a pus problema de a se face
acelaşi lucru şi în cazul oamenilor. În momentul în care cei mai curajoşi dintre
geneticieni au adus în discuţie clonarea umană, numărul oponenţilor a crescut
continuu, iar guvernele mai multor state au interzis prin lege această posibilă
încercare. Printr-o decizie a UNESCO, din 1997, s-a interzis în spaţiul european
clonarea reproductivă umană. Parlamentul României a ratificat, la 22 februarie
2001, conform Constituţiei României, art. 74, alin. 2, Convenţia Europeană
pentru protecţia drepturilor omului şi a demnităţii fiinţei umane, faţă de
aplicaţiile biologiei şi medicinei”.
Sursa: http://clonarea.wikispaces.com/Oaia+Dolly+-+Eveniment+marcant
+in+stiinta+clonarii
Este de reţinut că apariţia ingineriei genetice, experimentele de clonare la
plante și animale au stârnit un val de entuziasm, optimism și speranță. Însă
această atmosferă avea să dispară curând, aducând în dezbatere riscurile
clonării, incapacitatea ingineriei genetice de a tine sub control științific
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Ne aflăm într-o eră a culturilor genetice de tot felul, într-o eră în care pe cale
genetică se stăpâneşte o parte a proceselor şi fenomenelor biologice, dar sunt
incertitudini, zone semnificative de necunoaştere în ceea ce priveşte componenta
umană, psihopedagogică a problemei. De aceea, pedagogii, profesorii, specialiştii
din domeniile psihopedagogiei trebuie să se asocieze acelor organisme şi instituţii
care pledează pentru instituirea unor reguli ştiinţifice şi etice în privinţa produselor
create genetic.
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FUNDAMENTELE PEDAGOGIEI. REPERE TEMATICE PENTRU STUDENȚI ȘI PROFESORI
Decupăm, din cercetările lui Francis Galton două exemple despre legile
sau regularităţile formulate, pe baza datelor obţinute prin măsurători
antropometrice.
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FUNDAMENTELE PEDAGOGIEI. REPERE TEMATICE PENTRU STUDENȚI ȘI PROFESORI
? Cum vor fi urmaşii părinţilor de dimensiuni minime (îm)?. Vor fi mai mici decât
părinții lor, vor fi la fel, vor fi mai mari?
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PROF. UNIV. DR. VASILE CHIȘ
? Cum vor fi urmaşii părinţilor de dimensiuni maxime (ÎM)?. Vor fi mai mari
decât părinții lor, vor fi la fel, vor fi mai mici etc.
Răspunsul lui Galton este magistral și este redat într-un grafic complicat,
mai greu de înțeles fără o cultură statistică (figura IX în articolul citat).
În figura nr. 1, se observă că părinții cu înălțimea sub valoarea medie a
populației, au copii mai înalți, cu dimensiuni spre valoarea medie. Părinții cu
înălțimea peste valoarea medie a populației, au copii cu înălţime diminuată, cu
dimensiuni spre valoarea medie.
De formație și matematician, Galton vorbește de legea regresiunii filiale
în termeni statistici, fiind de altfel recunoscut astăzi ca fondator al analizei de
regresie din statistica modernă. În reprezentarea noastră, în figura nr. 1, linia de
regresie este tocmai axa care unește valorile bipolare (îm) și (ÎM), După cum se
vede, pe această linie de regresie are loc reproducerea, transmiterea caracterelor/
trăsăturilor de la părinți la urmaşi.
Concluziile care se desprind de aici sunt directe și accesibile:
Părinții foarte înalți, nu vor produce copii tot mai înalți. Este evident
că înălţimea nu este o trăsătură în creştere ne-definită prin naștere.
Părinții foarte scunzi nu vor produce copii tot mai pitici. Este evident
că înălțimea nu este o trăsătură în scădere ne-definită prin naștere.
Caracterele, trăsăturile se transmit de la părinți la urmaşi între limite
valorice și în frecvenţe regularizate din punct de vedere statistic.
Pe temeiul datelor antropometrice culese de Galton, savantul are o celebră
exclamație: Gad lovesc normal curve! Dumnezeu iubește curba normală. O
imagine intuitivă a regresiunii filiale prin întoarcerea spre mediocritate, în
distribuție gaussiană (curba normală) este redată în figura nr. 2.
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Veri primari
Persoane
fără grad de
rudenie
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Spre exemplu, dacă ne raportăm la două persoane, doi copii, aceştia pot să
fie asemănători din punct de vedere genetic, chiar echivalenţi, dar pot fi și total
diferiţi. Deci, echivalenţa, asemănarea sau diferenţierea persoanelor din punct de
vedere ereditar reprezintă similaritatea sau variabilitatea genetică a acestora.
Persoanele, cei doi copii, de exemplu, pot să trăiască pe parcursul vieţii lor
în acelaşi mediu, un mediu de viață comun, identic. Astfel definim similaritatea de
mediu. Sau, copiii pot să trăiască în medii total diferite. Astfel definim
variabilitatea de mediu.
Fireşte, se pune și problema similarităţii sau variabilităţii de profil
psihologic. Acest concept este o generalizare a unor rezultate/ scoruri obţinute, prin
aplicarea testelor psihologice la copiii studiaţi, în diverse condiţii de determinare
genetică și de mediu (similaritate versus variabilitate).
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atunci mediul este mai tare. Nu este aşa că întrebarea este pertinentă? Ce părere
aveţi? Care au fost rezultatele?
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Spre exemplu, dacă un copil este ezitant, este stângaci la desen, nu îl numim
deficient mintal, dacă un copil nu are voce, nu îl forțăm ore în șir să facă vocalize
să devină interpret de muzică, soprană. Toţi copiii trebuie să fie tenori, toţi copiii
trebuie să fie pictori, scriitori, academicieni? Nu! Fiecare individ se exprimă în
anumite domenii şi zone de experienţă, fiecare are potenţialităţile, înclinaţiile și
performanţele sale. Iar şcoala are datoria de a identifica aceste componente, aceste
premise și de a le valorifica pe deplin, pentru fiecare copil în parte. Educaţie
înseamnă tocmai acest lucru: să valorizezi, deopotrivă, înclinaţiile și traseele de
dezvoltare optime pentru copil, care să ţină cont de aceste înclinaţii și să asigure
formarea și dezvoltarea personalităţii fiecărui copil în condiţii optime.
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Bibliografie
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TEMA 3
PRINCIPIILE FUNDAMENTALE ALE EDUCAŢIEI
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FUNDAMENTELE PEDAGOGIEI. REPERE TEMATICE PENTRU STUDENȚI ȘI PROFESORI
? Care sunt criteriile, cerinţele în baza cărora ştiinţele sunt validate ca ştiinţe?
Care sunt cerinţele pe care trebuie să le îndeplinească o ştiinţă?
să aibă un domeniu, un obiect de studiu, de cercetare propriu şi
anumite finalităţi;
să posede metodologie proprie, metode proprii de cercetare,
adecvate obiectului cercetării;
să formuleze legităţi, legi în sensul strict al termenului (spre
exemplu, legităţi ale naturii, legităţi universale, universal valabile,
legi tari, cum sunt cele din fizică, legea gravitaţiei, de exemplu
ş.a.);
să aibă domeniu de aplicare teoretică şi/ sau practică,
aplicabilitate.
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Meritul lui Jean Piaget este conturarea unei noi direcţii în pedagogie, o
direcţie foarte cunoscută – pedagogia constructivistă, o pedagogie a dezvoltării
experienţiale, a învăţării experienţiale, foarte productivă. Această idee este foarte
bine preluată în curriculumul învăţământului preşcolar românesc, şi nu numai în
curriculumul de la acest nivel al învăţământului. Ne referim la acest curriculum
întrucât la grădiniţă s-a renunţat (ceea ce este foarte bine) la elementele de
curriculum concepute ca arii curriculare şi s-au propus domenii experienţiale,
domenii de învăţare experienţială, domenii de dezvoltare experienţială. Pedagogia
pe care o propune Jean Piaget este o pedagogie experienţială, care a fost numită
pedagogie constructivistă, pentru că, în concepţia lui Jean Piaget, dezvoltarea
trăsăturilor de personalitate se produce după un anumit proces de construcţie şi
reconstrucţie a personalităţii.
În lucrarea sa „Judecata morală la copil” (1980), psihologul elveţian Jean
Piaget analizează, prin prisma concepţiei sale interacţionist-cognitiviste, evoluţia
diferitelor forme ale judecăţii morale infantile.
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? Dacă întrebăm copilul mic: Ce este bine?, Ce înseamnă să faci bine?, răspunsul
va fi: Să faci ce spune mama şi tata! Acest răspuns arată foarte clar că, într-o
anumită perioadă de vârstă, comportamentul copilului este dependent de prezenţa
fizică a adultului; copilul face ceea ce spune adultul, dar atunci când adultul este
prezent. De îndată ce părintele a dispărut din câmpul vizual al copilului, regula
morală „s-a stins” şi ea, cerinţa părintelui „s-a stins”. Aceasta este faza
heteronomiei morale, faza dependenței morale de prezenţa adultului.
Faza conştiinţei morale, a autonomiei morale este o achiziţie mai târzie,
acum copilul aplică regula, indiferent dacă instanţa morală este sau nu este
prezentă. Regula poate să fie aplicată şi este aplicată pentru că s-a produs
interiorizarea ei, regula nu este exterioară copilului, nu este ceea ce spune părintele.
Trecerea de la heteronomie la autonomie morală este posibilă şi se produce prin
exerciţiul sistematic al aplicării regulilor morale. De aceea, în învăţământul
preşcolar şi primar, se recomandă ca regulile să fie stabilite, cu claritate, împreună
cu copiii, să fie repetate de câte ori este necesar şi să fie expuse/ afişate în sala de
grupă/ clasă. Este necesar să se alcătuiască un set de reguli la care copiii să adere,
să fie bine cunoscute, repetate sistematic şi să fie aplicate. Aceasta pentru că
exerciţiul aplicării şi repetării regulilor face trecerea de la faza de moralitate
dependentă de instanţa morală – adultul, la moralitatea autonomă, determinată de
cunoaşterea regulilor, de conştientizarea utilităţii regulilor, de convingerea că
acestea sunt utile.
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I II III IV
Aşa cum se poate observa în figura nr. 1, de la 0 ani până la 2-3 ani,
copilul parcurge un prim stadiu/ etapă de dezvoltare intelectuală, de la 2-3 ani
la 6-7 ani o altă etapă, iar de la 6-7 la 11-12 ani o altă etapă. În jurul vârstei de
14-15 ani, din punct de vedere intelectual, copilul este format ca structură a
inteligenţei, cu excepţia unor situaţii în care, datorită unui deficit mintal, a unor
dizabilităţi mintale, copilul nu se dezvoltă mintal mai mult decât reperul de la
11-12 ani.
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De exemplu, copilul îşi mişcă mâna în câmpul său vizual, în spaţiul său
de vedere şi, totodată, are percepţia vizuală a mişcării. Din întâmplare, copilul
îşi atinge cu degetele gura, buzele, moment în care se declanşează un alt act
instinctual – reflexul de supt. În acest fel, copilul este gratificat, mişcarea şi
vederea sa sunt gratificate de reflexul suptului. Din acest moment, copilul va
repeta tot mai frecvent această înlănţuire de acte, astfel încât, la un moment dat,
copilul va duce intenţionat degetul la gură, pentru a fi declanşat reflexul
suptului. Acesta este momentul în care două fenomene separate anterior,
mişcarea şi văzul, sunt integrate într-o structură nou, într-o structură
senzorio-motrică.
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? Cum răspunde copilul la întrebarea: Cine e mai frumos?, Cine este mai tare?
Răspunsul unei studente: Copilul răspunde: Eu!
Acesta este răspunsul modal al copilului mic, atunci când este pus să
se compare cu alţii. Este un comportament tipic, de vârstă, în copilăria timpurie,
determinat de o caracteristică denumită egocentrism.
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Se pot realiza cu copiii foarte multe clasificări, spre exemplu, din mulţimea
de figuri, copiii să aleagă toate figurile roşii (cercul, pătratul, triunghiul,
dreptunghiul) sau să aleagă toate figurile subţiri sau toate cercurile mari ş.a.m.d.
Acesta este un profitabil exerciţiu de clasificare şi cercetările au atestat că operaţia
de clasificare a figurilor exersată cu ajutorul trusei se transferă la alte tipuri de
clasificări, realizate în alte contexte şi împrejurări.
O operaţie concretă şi mentală totodată (acţiune mentală), cu dezvoltări în
proximitatea clasificărilor, este reprezentată de serierea elementelor unei mulţimi.
În chip natural, se pare, copiii au o predilecţie la seriere. Dacă oferim copiilor
obiecte, ei le pun în şir, fac „trenuleţul”.
Se pune întrebarea: sunt mai multe feţe decât steluţe/ ... sunt mai puţine ...
decât ..., sau sunt tot atâtea? Exerciţiul poate fi făcut cu variate obiecte, de
exemplu, creioane şi radiere etc.
Este de observat că în aşezarea mulţimilor, în corespondenţă termen cu
termen, în acest exemplu, avem o dublă echivalenţă:
echivalenţa elementelor mulţimilor, 5 feţe, 5 steluţe;
echivalenţa de spaţiu, întinderea primei mulţimi este egală cu
întinderea celei de a doua mulţimi.
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Se pune iar întrebarea: sunt mai multe feţe decât steluţe/ ... sunt mai
puţine ... decât ..., sau sunt tot atâtea?
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sau strică obiectele, ci, dimpotrivă, să lăsăm pentru copii deschisă poarta
experienţelor, să îi sprijinim să urmeze calea experienţelor acţionale, în vederea
influenţării benefice a personalităţii lor.
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mintale etc. Mai recent, s-a conturat o nouă prezentare a principiilor didacticii,
graţie aplicaţiilor psihologiei cognitive în procesul de învăţământ.
Este un fapt unanim recunoscut că psihologia a oferit fundamentele
proiectării activităţilor şcolare, o dată cu consacrarea ei ca ştiinţă. Cercetarea
naturii umane, a psihologiei personalităţii, a dezvoltării psihice, a psihologiei
vârstelor, a învăţării şi a educaţiei, au condus astăzi la conturarea unor domenii
de predilecţie ale psihologiei aplicate.
Progresele înregistrate în descifrarea mecanismelor gândirii, memoriei
şi cogniţiei, a proceselor motivaţionale, au o contribuţie directă la înfăptuirea
actului de predare şi învăţare, la întreaga activitate numită generic şcolarizare.
În acelaşi timp, apariţia unor confruntări de amploare, cum sunt accesul la
educaţie, inegalitatea de şanse în educaţie, abandonul şcolar precoce sau mai
tardiv, nivelul ridicat al dificultăţilor şcolare, precum şi alţi parametri ai
pedagogiei de recuperare aduc argumente în plus în susţinerea unor demersuri
curriculare centrate pe nevoile educaţionale şi pe posibilităţile beneficiarilor
educaţiei. Aceste demersuri schiţează trecerea de la pedagogia omogenizării şi
recuperării la o pedagogie a diversităţii şi dezvoltării. Diversitatea se constituie
drept valoare, care, bine tradusă în strategii didactice, poate să sporească rata
succesului şcolar şi să asigure inserţia reformelor educaţionale în realităţile
existenţei contemporane.
Principiile didacticii moderne sunt produsul ultimului secol de
cercetare psihopedagogică a predării şi învăţării, în special a învăţării şcolare.
Ele sunt, în prezent, bine articulate într-un sistem care, în mod firesc, are
caracter dinamic şi deschis noilor tendinţe din educaţie, cu atât mai mult cu cât
în prezent se manifestă tendinţa de evoluţie transdisciplinară a educaţiei. De
altfel, (re)formularea principiilor didactice devine posibilă datorită unor
cercetări şi aplicaţii realizate în domenii conexe psihopedagogiei, cum ar fi:
sociologia, filosofia educaţională, axiologia, antropologia etc. Totodată,
principiile didactice sunt larg diseminate în practica şcolară, ele regăsindu-se
nu doar în dezbaterile referitoare la politicile educaţionale, ci, mai cu seamă, la
nivelul secvenţelor instructiv-educative particulare, la nivel microeducaţional.
Aplicarea principiilor didacticii moderne este un factor de susţinere a
reformei sistemului educaţional în ansamblul lui. Analiza sistemică a
procesului de învăţământ focalizează atenţia asupra diversităţii componentelor
ce urmează a fi coroborate: predare – învăţare – evaluare. Fie şi numai din acest
unghi de vedere, practica pedagogică poate aspira la succes atunci când
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şcolară este situată în zona proximei dezvoltări (L.S. Vîgotski, 1972). La acestea se
adaugă cerinţa ca materia de studiu să fie prezentată interesant, atractiv, să
stimuleze procesele intelectuale şi emoţionale ale elevilor.
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Bibliografie
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TEMA 4
FINALITĂŢILE EDUCAŢIEI
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? Dar: Este acest portret, descris de ideal, reper util în proiectarea şi realizarea
practică a educaţiei? Suntem, cu adevărat, personalităţi libere, integrale şi
armonioase? Considerăm că, indiferent de societatea în care trăiește, nicio
persoană nu poate trăi pe deplin nici libertatea, nici armonia, nici integralitatea,
deoarece libertatea este o responsabilitate asumată. Prin urmare, noi, ca membri
activi ai societății, asumăm diverse constrângeri, în sensul că anumite aspecte ale
vieții sunt uneori mai mult constrângere decât libertate.
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Cunoştinţele sunt acelea care se produc şi se aşază în gândire, nu sunt acelea care
se produc şi se aşază în memorie. Învăţarea bazată pe memorie este o învăţare
realizată pe de rost, pe dinafară, în timp ce învăţarea bazată pe gândire este o
învăţare realizată pe dinăuntru.
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- evenimentele instruirii;
- scopurile (acestea sunt mai generale şi nu se pot realiza într-o
singură activitate didactică).
În completarea analizelor mai sus realizate, este de menţionat faptul că,
operaţionalizarea obiectivelor educaţionale comportă atât avantaje dar şi unele
limite. O sinteză a acestora poate fi observată în tabelul nr. 6:
Avantaje Limite
- obiectivele asigură rigoarea - nu toate obiectivele pot fi
necesară acţiunii educaţionale; precizate în termini concreţi,
- au rol orientativ pentru specifici, spre exemplu, cele care
profesori şi stimulativ pentru urmăresc formarea trăsăturilor de
elevi; caracter, a atitudinilor, a
- reprezintă repere în proiectarea, sentimentelor;
realizarea şi evaluarea - nu toate comportamentele pot fi
rezultatelor învăţării. anticipate în mod riguros, mai
ales când vizăm dezvoltarea
creativităţii elevilor, rezolvarea de
probleme prin metode euristice.
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ADL) devin tehnologii uzuale, sincronizate cu educaţia nouă. În sfârşit, cea mai
importantă schimbare în educaţie o constituie noile modele organizaţionale
şcolare – trecerea de la organizarea şcolară ierarhică, singura structură
funcţională în educaţia tradiţională, la organizări în matrice, în reţele, în
proiecte, guvernate de un curriculum atent proiectat (figura nr. 2).
Modele
Rolul elevului Dinamica tehnologiilor
organizaţionale
Obiect al predării Materiale tipărite Organizare verticală:
Înregistrări A/V - ierarhică
Audioconferinţe
Videoconferinţe
(Internet, Satelit)
Circuit TV Organizare orizontală:
Multimedia - în matrice
Sisteme integrate - în reţele
ADL - Clase virtuale - în proiecte
Subiect al învăţării
mileniului trei.
În evoluţia lor, disciplinele pedagogice au fost fragmentate şi încorporate
în diverse ramuri sau domenii mai largi sau mai restrânse. La sfârşitul secolului
XX, inventarul disciplinelor pedagogice includea peste 30 de denumiri.
Tabloul mozaicat şi fragmentat al pedagogiei tradiţionale este acum aşezat
într-o structură comprehensivă. Reconstrucţia pedagogică (Moise, C., Cozma, T.,
1996) este într-un proces continuu de cristalizare de idei şi experienţe, dar şi de
validare a lor în plan teoretic şi aplicativ.
Etapele dezvoltării pedagogiei marchează trecerea de la teoria cu aspiraţii
spre experimentare practică, la practica însoţită de reflecţie teoretică sistematică şi
de fundamentare ştiinţifică. Integrarea şi acumularea cunoaşterii şi a practicii, a
teoriei şi strategiei s-au realizat în secvenţe succesive, cu complexitate crescândă,
graduală.
Figura nr. 3 ilustrează principalele momente în dezvoltarea diacronică a
pedagogiei, de la apariţia sa, ca reflectare ştiinţifică a fenomenului educaţional,
până în prezent. În esenţa lor, etapele dezvoltării pedagogiei încorporează, în mod
firesc, caracteristici specifice.
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Studenţi 2
ADL
Învăţământ
clasic
Rata învăţării
claselor s-a schimbat total în numeroase şcoli, în ultimii ani. Dar, în ciuda noilor
resurse şi a libertăţii organizatorice a cadrului didactic, de regulă elevii sunt
aşezaţi în clasicul „şir indian”, unul în spatele celuilalt. De ce s-au instalat în clase
module (bănci) flexibile? „Cultura” diseminată de acest spaţiu şcolar este teama
de a comunica, tăcerea, obedienţa, conformismul, sufocarea personalităţii,
frustrarea copilului aflat în câmpul psihologic al numeroşilor stimuli, adeseori
mai puternici decât cei programaţi de şcoală.
Se pun o suită de întrebări: Ce rol educaţional asumă şcoala şi cum
acţionează strategic pentru realizarea misiunii sale? Pentru ce îl pregăteşte
şcoala pe elev? Pentru a nu comunica? Pentru a nu privi în ochii colegului, care,
de altfel, stă toată ziua în banca din faţă? Interactivitatea nu este o teorie, este o
realitate cotidiană, atât în viaţă, cât şi în şcoală, este un mediu de învăţare benefic,
elevii învaţă prin confruntări reciproce directe, sub coordonarea profesorului. Dar
este limpede că acest mediu de învăţare interactivă nu poate fi instalat în designul
şcolii tradiţionale. Este necesar să se asigure o atmosferă educativă constructivă,
pozitivă, stimulativă pentru elevi, în care sunt valorificate oportunităţile de
ascultare activă şi acceptare a opiniilor celorlalţi, de comunicare şi cooperare, de
schimb de experienţe.
Caracteristici
Caracteristici ale educaţiei în viitor
ale educaţiei în trecut
Focalizare pe programe de
Focalizare pe performanţe
studiu
Organizare pe criterii de timp/
Organizare în funcţie de obiective/ rezultate
orar
Învăţare extinsă, cuprinzătoare Învăţare intensă, în adâncime
Centrare pe obiecte de studiu, Centrare pe procesul învăţării, pe competenţe şi
teme, cunoştinţe abilităţi de învăţare
Învăţare prin memorare şi Învăţare prin rezolvare de probleme, gândire
reproducere critică
Monitorizare pe baza
Monitorizare prin performanţe ridicate, succes
eşecurilor, insucceselor şcolare
Proiectare şi management prin
Proiectare şi management în parteneriat, şcoala
sine, şcoala izolată de
ca servicii pentru comunitate
comunitate
Studiu programat în secvenţe
Studiu în orice timp şi în orice loc, la opţiunea
de timp de activităţi şcolare
beneficiarilor
(semestre, ani, cicluri)
Educaţie centrată pe profesor Educaţie centrată pe elevi/ adulţi
Investiţii în manuale şi cărţi Investiţii în resurse (centre de resurse)
Ritm uniform de învăţare Ritmuri şi stiluri de învăţare variate
Educaţie în şcoli, în clădiri Educaţie în locaţii cu acces multiplu pentru
destinate special elevilor diverşi utilizatori
Activităţi şcolare pe clase, Activităţi instructiv-educative personalizate,
grupuri largi (învăţământ individualizate
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frontal)
Elevul să se adapteze la
Şcoala să se adapteze la caracteristicile elevului
caracteristicile mediului şcolar
Educaţie de segregare, pe
Educaţie inclusivă, integrată; educaţie pentru toţi
nivele de performanţă şcolară
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Bibliografie
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TEMA 5
SISTEME EDUCAŢIONALE CONTEMPORANE
ŞI DEZVOLTĂRI ÎN PEDAGOGIA CONTEMPORANĂ
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STRUCTURI IERARHICE
ÎNV.
SUPERIOR
ÎNV. LICEAL
ÎNV. GIMNAZIAL
ÎNV. PRIMAR
ÎNV. PREŞCOLAR
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nivelul fiecărui ciclu, respectiv crearea cât mai multor tipuri de şcoli (figura nr.
2).
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FUNDAMENTELE PEDAGOGIEI. REPERE TEMATICE PENTRU STUDENȚI ȘI PROFESORI
Din explicitările realizate mai sus, rezultă cu claritate că diferenţele dintre cele
două tipuri de structuri – ierarhică şi în reţea – determină şi procese diferite în
interiorul lor, respectiv în ceea ce priveşte:
- modul cum funcţionează şcolile zilnic;
- programul zilnic;
- viziunea şi valorile pe care se axează programul şcolilor;
- managementul sistemului la macronivel pedagogic;
- managementul educaţional la micronivel pedagogic.
Caracteristicile unei structuri, modul în care se realizează construcţia
curriculară, influenţează, deopotrivă, funcţionarea acelei construcţii şi
administrarea acelei construcţii.
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Răspunsurile studenţilor:
Elevul să se adapteze la şcoală Şcoala să se adapteze la elev
- elevul trebuie să răspundă - şcoala trebuie să vină în ajutorul
cerinţelor şcolii; elevului când acesta are nevoie de
- elevul este obligat, într-un fel sau sprijin şi atenţie deosebită;
altul, să facă ceea ce nu doreşte; - şcoala trebuie să cunoască limitele
- elevii trebuie să se conformeze elevului;
regulilor şcolii; - şcoala trebuie să valorifice exact ce
- elevii trebuie să îşi procure singuri are fiecare elev mai bun şi să îl
materialele necesare învăţării; determine pe acesta să dorească să
- elevii trebuie să urmeze un înveţe;
curriculum general obligatoriu; - şcoala trebuie să se asigure că
- cadrele didactice predau unor clase îndeplineşte nevoile educaţionale ale
unitare şi omogene. elevilor;
- şcoala trebuie să ofere fiecărui elev
materialele necesare învăţării;
- programele şcolare să fie adaptate
nevoilor educaţionale ale elevilor;
- fiecare cadru didactic trebuie să
predea diferenţiat, în funcţie de
potenţialul elevilor, de aptitudinile şi
competenţele lor;
- şcoala trebuie să creeze mediul
oportun pentru elevii cu cerinţe
educaţionale speciale.
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curriculum intern
curriculum electronic
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4
3
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CURRICULUM OPŢIONALE
INDIVIDUAL
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Bibliografie
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FOUNDATIONS OF PEDAGOGY
THEMATIC HIGHLIGHTS FOR STUDENTS AND TEACHERS
Foreword
Mușata BOCOȘ
Olga CHIȘ
The symbols used in the text represent the following:
Theoretical supports
? Questions
Key contents
Ideas to remember
Examples
References
FOREWORD
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THEME 1
THE EDUCATION AND
THE EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES SYSTEM
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Aristotle (384-322 BC) was one of the most important philosophers of the
ancient Greece, with relevant contributions on the field of education. He studied at
Plato’s Academy in Athens and then, at the Emperor Philips’s court, he became the
teacher of young Alexander the Great, a personality recognised in history by this
name due to his strategic and military qualities as leader of Macedonia.
Although the basis of philosophy was set back then by Plato, Aristotle was
the one to extract the necessary conclusions from Plato’s philosophy and develop
it. He stated that: “The transformations of the world are not generated by the spirits,
but by what can be interpreted.”
In the ancient education, Aristotle was consistent in following the natural
significance of the “education” concept – those regarding the raising, the
cultivation, the nourishing. He set up a famous school in Athens – Lykeion or the
peripatetic school. The philosopher used to educate his disciples by walking with
them into Lykeion, a natural garden. The peripatetic school encouraged the
classical grammar studies, rhetoric, maths, theology, natural sciences, arts, and
eurhythmy. In the ancient Rome, the correspondent of the Lykeion was the
Lyceum, from which derived the French term Lycée and the Romanian term Liceu.
It’s interesting to mention that the peripatetic school and education founded by
Aristotle have extensions in the contemporary education: the peripatetic teaching,
the “other” school, the extracurricular activities, the informal education etc.
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The Czech pedagogue Jan Amos Comenius lived between 1592 and 1670,
and is the author of the reference work “Didactica Magna” edited, in some
opinions, around 1630, and by others, in 1650 – the moment to which we will relate.
“Didactica Magna” is important because it gathers and structures the entire
pedagogical knowledge existing up to that moment. Let’s compare that historical
period – the second half of the XVIIth century, when the entire pedagogical
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for the construction of the contemporary societies, with a force difficult to describe,
immeasurable, in relation to the development, because of the tight, reciprocal
relations existing between education and development. The education represents a
force and a cause for the development, which is, at its turn, a challenge for
education and for its progress on higher levels. The more developed a society is,
the more prepared it is to provide higher educational levels and a larger access to
education for its individuals. The more developed and suitable an education is, the
more systematic and continuous is the progress of society.
Therefore, we can conclude that between education and development
raises a causal circular relation. This relation is proved by the case of the poorly
developed countries, with disadvantaged, poor families and communities. In the
case of these populations, the poorness is always related to the access to education,
restricted due to the economic reasons.
The access to education is in higher or lower parameters according to the
level of the socio-economic development of the country. But the restricted access
to the education perpetuates poverty, reproduces, maintains and aggravates it,
exactly because of the causal circular relation existing between poverty and a low
level of education. George Văideanu concentrates this relation in a single phrase, I
paraphrase in a personal note: Where’s poverty, there’s also … stupidity. In other
words, a poor culture is directly proportional to the lack of education or, as we often
say, to the bad education. So the education-development relation can be analysed
and interpreted at various levels, starting with the individual and ending with the
society and the global development of the planet. In this context related to
education a global development, there is a frequent and firm discourse on the theme
of the education for sustainable and durable development, for a continuous,
systematic and profound development of the entire planet.
The second book referring to the role of education is Mircea Maliţa, J. Botkin
and M. Elmandjara’s “The limitless horizon of learning. The extermination of the
human differences” (1981) which could be as well called “The limitless horizon of
education” since the work gives a generic, educational and global meaning to
learning, talking about the limitless horizon of learning. The three authors are
former UNESCO counsellors (The United Nations Education, Science and Culture
Organization), and extraordinary and very active forum in the field of education
and culture.
Mircea Maliţa, as well as George Văideanu, were Romanian experts in the
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international forum of UNESCO, and the two books were in fact, UNESCO reports
on education. Mircea Maliţa also states that the education has special powers and
influences. For the education to valorise an multiply these powers, we, the society,
must take care of the way we see and organise this education, and the way we
articulate and contextualise the educational components in a systemic manner,
taking into account the cultural, social, economic and political characteristics of the
societies.
Identify in the Romanian textbooks, for the second and the third grade,
curriculum sequences which express realities from the past, present and from the
future (as shown in table no. 1).
2. The world of
tomorrow represents a
challenge for the new
generations Textbook...
X
grade ..., page...
The present world experiences major changes, the societies are forced to look
towards the future and to promote a prospective, anticipative, education, an
education for the future. The preservation education, related to traditions, the
conservation education and the education for the future become complementary
alternatives, favourably articulated in the contemporary educational systems – see
figure no. 1.
past-history Future
Present
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FOUNDATIONS OF PEDAGOGY. THEMATIC HIGHLIGHTS FOR STUDENTS AND TEACHERS
Figure no. 1: The conservation education versus the shock education and the
education for future (elaborated after M. Maliţa, J. Botkin and M.
Elmandjara, 1981)
The conservation education incorporates into the curriculum and into the
learning experiences ideas, attitudes and traditional practices, inherited from old
times.
These conservation and historical values have their role in the education
of the new generations, but if they become exclusive or dominant, is less probable
to assure the children’s adaptation to the present and future realities. A simple
surface observation of the Romanian school books and school programmes allows
us to identify the increased frequency of the learning experiences at the past time.
The education for future is an anticipative education, oriented towards
preparing the human structures for the acceptance, valorisation and management
of the changes induced by the life dynamics. The new events, the technological,
social, cultural, biological, climate changes etc. are profitable or less aggressive and
harmful if they are anticipated and welcomed with the suitable knowledge, attitudes
and practices, according to the new situations.
The shock education is an intense human experience, aggressive, chaotic
and disorganized; an experience encountered when an essential and unpredicted
major change occurs and when the human attitudes and practices related to that
specific situation are untrained, precarious and vulnerable.
The conclusion regarding the two perspectives on education – the
conservation education and the education for future are multiple; their unbalanced
management can easily make room for the shock education, with a great waste of
human and material resources.
The contemporary societies have major options in orienting the education
on the temporal axis. If the educational system is mainly focused on traditions and
history, the school curriculum and the learning experiences will place the child’s
development only on his grandparents’ and great-grandparents’ experience.
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There are educational systems which promote the anticipation learning, for
the future. It is pedagogically preferable for the students to learn “what will be
tomorrow” but, of course, some of “what has been yesterday” as well.
M. Maliţa’s hypothesis regarding the lack of preoccupation for the
education for future is obvious and significant. If the educational systems do the
shock education take over. It is a crisis situation, of education by a forced adaptation
to the new conditions in an accelerated, disorganized manner, with negative
individual and collective consequences.
The solution of the contemporary pedagogy is for the educational systems
to balance in their school curriculum the conservative learning experiences with the
learning for future experiences. We find a negative example in the curriculum
excessively focused on experiences from the past, from the grandparents’ and
great-grandparents’ lives.
It is necessary for the citizens to be prepared by a set of good practices and
attitudes, in order to meet and build the future. The education for future, for the
construction of the new, the creative-innovative learning with its anticipative,
prospective and participative character, become priorities.
The education represents the systematic process for the child’s and young
personality development. The contemporary pedagogy identifies the causes and the
influences which mediate the development and the formation. They are influences
generated in the context of certain interpersonal relationships, placing the education
in a psycho – social environment.
The classification of these influences leads us to a multifactorial taxonomy
of the education types, as follows:
Criteria 1: characteristics of the educational influences
Runa Patel (1984), in the work Educational activities in developing
countries: a discussion of types of education in relation to culture and a suggested
model for analyses, offers the following classification of the types of educational
influences and of the types of education:
(a) Formal education – the total of systematic, planned, organized influences
taking place in the educational institutions with the purpose of developing
the children’s and youngsters’ personality.
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Jan Amos Comenius’s ideas were revolutionary for his times. Not only
they marked the appearance of pedagogy as a science, but they also set the
fundaments for the first educational system dedicated to all individuals in the
society, the first educational system with a global, mass opening, engaged in an
education for all.
We will characterize Comenius’s work by referring to two coordinates
of analysis:
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The word “pedagogy” comes from Greek, from the terms “paid, paidos”,
meaning “child” and also from “agoge, agogos”, meaning “to lead”. The
association of these terms suggests that, etymologically speaking, the pedagogy
meant at its beginnings leading the child.
? Who were the first pedagogues of the Antiquity, called “paid - agoge”?
The answer of a student: The slaves, the persons used by the aristocrats in
different activities and domains.
So, we can say that during the Antiquity the wealthy families organised
educational activities in the family, with the help of a teacher or master with
pedagogical attributions, in the present sense of the term, and with the help of a
slave who had accompanying attributions, who accompanied the child to his
teacher.
We discussed in the previous course about Aristotle’s peripatetic
school, about Socrates’ contribution, about Plato’s Academy. So, in education,
as in other activities, slaves were used, since the social activities were held by
the slaves.
The proverbial saying is that the gods got upset with the teachers and
transformed them into slaves. It is a metaphorical part of the observation,
because indeed, teaching equals a noble slavery.
? What do you think about this personal definition, elaborated based on the
studies regarding the pedagogues’ origins and their lives? A noble slavery!
Interesting – being a slave as well as a noble! We notice that today, a teacher is
not real without devotion, without that note of total self-giving, for the mission
he assumed and for which he prepared. Today also the teachers carry on this
slavery enriched by contemporary values and competences.
It’s interesting to observe how, at his origins, the pedagogue is
assimilated to an irksome layer of the society, and how, over time, this
characteristic of availability and unconditioned self-giving perpetuates as a
fundamental core of the teacher's mission.
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Of course, since the appearance of pedagogy till now more than two and
a half centuries passed. We talked in the previous courses about Aristotle –
somewhere in 350 BC, and there are 2500 years since the pedagogy and the
pedagogue appeared. But the pedagogy as a science appeared later.
? When did pedagogy appear as a science? In the first half of the XVIIth
century, beginning with the appearance of J.A. Comenius’s work. Since the
XVIIth century till now, pedagogy registered extraordinary evolutions, which
we will present in sequences in order to build a global image on the evolution
of pedagogy.
The education and the educational phenomenon represent the study and
research object of a science – the pedagogy. Thus, we can define pedagogy as
the science which studies the educational phenomenon in all of its aspects, its
fulfilments and the implications of education on the cognitive, emotional and
psycho-physical development of the human being. The pedagogy studies the
educational phenomenon is all its complexity, in order to reach the following
major finalities:
- the optimisation of the educational theory and practice
- the optimisation of the educational influences on the educated
personality formation.
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? The general pedagogy developed very fast, so that in the XVIII century
appeared independent preoccupations for education and didactic. Why?
Because in a general sense, the education requires also the formation of
qualities, personality features and the instruction, respectively the learning
process; so, the general pedagogy includes and articulates the educational
theories and the applied didactics. In the XVIII century the general pedagogy
split into two main bodies – the educational theories and the applied didactics.
Afterwards the educational theories developed continuously and, as we have
seen in the previous courses, a lot of theories considered “old educations”
appeared: the intellectual education, the moral education, the esthetical
education, the religious education, the physical education and the professional
education. We also notice that the theory of instruction includes a general
didactics, which we call the theory and methodology of instruction (or the
general didactic), which we study in the second year and some other applied
didactics – see figure no. 2, which you will study in the third year.
GENERAL PEDAGOGY
Figure no. 2: The pedagogy’s domains. From the general pedagogy to the
educational theories and the applied didactics
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PRESCHOOL PEDAGOGY
SCHOOL PEDAGOGY
COLLEGE PEDAGOGY
ADULT PEDAGOGY
? The question arises: What types of pedagogy have developed under this criteria?
a) The pedagogy of children with mental deficiency. Not very long ago,
until the 90’s, a French term was used for the pedagogy of children
with mental deficiency: Oligofrenologia (from the French oligofrenie
– pathological state characterized by slow development of psychic
capabilities, combined sometimes with physical development
disturbances and lesions of the central nervous system, caused by
cerebral accidents during intrauterine life, birth or childhood
(http://dexonline.ro/definitie/oligofrenie).
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The special field dealing with the educational process of the children
with SEN was named defectology (a term originated in Russian
language, defektologhiia: the field of study dealing with psychic and
pedagogical study of subjects with sensorial, intellectual and other
deficiencies (Source: DEX, 1998).
b) Pedagogy of sight deficiencies, visual impairments. This pedagogical
science was aiming the education of children with visual problems and
was called tiflolologie (term originated in the French, typhlologie – a
branch of defectology that studies multidisciplinary the blindness and
amblyopia, and the compensation of these impairments with tactile-
techniques, education, training and qualification of blind persons
(Source: DEX, 1998).
The phrase special needs education is of English origin (special
education or special needs education). This practice implies a
multidimensional adaptation of teaching techniques to the needs and
individual possibilities of pupils.
e) Pedagogy of deficiencies/ impairment of speech – a field known as
logopedy (speech therapy, from the French term logopédie – a branch
of medical and pedagogical science that studies, treats and corrects
the pronunciation and vocal emission defects, Source: DEX, 1998).
The term logopedy is used less and less, being replaced by speech
therapy.
d) Pedagogy of deficiencies/ impairment of hearing – named surdologie
(deafology).
We can observe that special pedagogy terms of French, German and Russian
origins is massively replaced nowadays with English origin terminology.
These four branches of defectology, of special pedagogy, namely:
oligofrenologia (the pedagogy of mental deficiencies), tiflologia (the pedagogy of
sight deficiencies), logopedia (the pedagogy of speech impairments) and
surdologia (the pedagogy of hearing impairments), have been and still are well
represented in pedagogical studies from our university in Cluj.
For example, we had the most important school for defectology in this part
of the world, a school that was competing with more famous schools in Austria,
Germany, and England. Teachers and psychologists from France, Germany,
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Russia, Switzerland or United States of America have come to Cluj to see the
school of special needs education and they were impressed by the results we
obtained here.
In the field of hearing impairments, one of the most advanced equipment
for hearing impairment diagnostics and decisions for hearing augmentation was
based in Cluj, and placed in the neighbourhood of the central building of Babes-
Bolyai University, on the Mihail Kogălniceanu street.
Across the street of the Central Building of the university, on the third
floor, there was a laboratory for hearing impairments, completely sound proof
isolated and with a large equipment that was generating sounds of different
intensities and band waves, and was scanning the entire cochlear apparatus, the
cochlear nerve, so that it was clear what registers are affected, what registers do not
perceive the sounds. This diagnosis and augmentation decision laboratory was very
popular, including here many foreign patients.
In Cluj, in the Special Psycho-Pedagogy Department the first performance
of recovering a blind-deaf-mute pupil was register, an event that was unique in
pedagogy of those years. A young man, with the hearing, sight and speech
completely impaired was recovered and exercised in the field of hearing and
sighting compensation. The pupil, and later student of university, worked a lot with
defectology professors specialized in hearing and sight impairment in the 60’s and
70’s within the Special Psycho-Pedagogy Department of the University. Notably,
the student has successfully completed the university curricula for Special Psycho-
Pedagogy (defectology) in Cluj and later on worked as a professor in a special
needs education institution in Cluj. This extraordinary performance, for that period,
was largely presented in the media; even today some articles still make their way
in the spotlight.
The topic that was not very present in the research programs in Cluj, until
later on, after the 90’s was that of the emotional and behavioural difficulties, so a
pedagogical field in the area of behavioural difficulties does not exist. children with
behaviour disturbances and juvenile delinquency were very often placed in
correctional institutions. Before 1989 a network of tough correctional institution
was in place, institutions in which the children were not educated properly, but
rather forced in some sort of detention program for minors. Important to notice that
all over the world, in all educational systems, a network of educational facilities for
children with behavioural and emotional deficiencies was implemented.
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Please write within a half of a page what does it mean to have a trans-
disciplinary approach and trans-disciplinary education.
As it is presented in the figure no. 5, there are developments, branches that
are in the near proximity of pedagogy: Educational Psychology, Educational
Philosophy, Educational Sociology and Educational Economy.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY
EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY
EDUCATIONAL ECONOMY
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FOUNDATIONS OF PEDAGOGY. THEMATIC HIGHLIGHTS FOR STUDENTS AND TEACHERS
Some chronological marks will be presented; marks that will help us create a
dynamic image of the evolution of pedagogy in time and about the beginning
of integration fields in the sciences of education.
? One can ask him/ herself: Why is the Educational management the first
pillar?
Educational management is a fairly recent research topic for
educational sciences, more precisely since the 20th century. For the first time
when it was decided that the Educational Management will be included in the
mandatory curricula for educational sciences, in 1964, when a summit of
education ministries in Europe took place in Caserta, Italy.
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Bibliography
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THEME 2
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT FACTORS
word “innate”, which means inherited, from birth, genetically registered. This
hereditary conception dominated the stage of pedagogy for many decades;
according to this conception it was argued that the personality of the child, young
man, adult and individual is entirely the result of genetic determination, the result
of hereditary inheritance influences, which the child inherits from his parents.
At that time, there were some famous papers (the 1800s) that you can see and
consult at the University Central Library, but also online. One of these is entitled
The hereditary genius (Fr. Galton, 1889), a provocative title at that time, a book
stating that the talent is innate, hereditary determined. It is good to mention, in this
context, some totally opposite views, such as, for example, the famous quote of
Thomas Edison: Talent is 1% inspiration and 99% perspiration.
Another option is represented by Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909), in the theory
of the born killer (concept of criminal atavism), in which he sustains the idea that
the negative, criminal traits are genetically determined.
I recommend you to analyze the two hereditary theories and to read the
passages that express the clearly outlined opinions regarding the genetic origin of
personality traits.
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Another aspect that should be remembered is the fact that the right to
education was regarded as a genetic problem. An example for this situation can be
cropped from the reality of the sixteenth century, time during which the European
societies were deeply divided. In the books written in and about that time, we read,
for example, about the social stratification in the Netherlands, which was divided
into two large categories: the citizens, populus, the superiors and multitudos,
meaning the many, the plebs. Multitudos had no right to education; this right was
possessed only by the citizens, populus. Only towards the end of the seventeenth
century, freedoms and access to education are given to those who were till then
considered multitudos, but not because they were equal. They had these rights only
because they could be used better in social-economic activities that gradually
became more and more complex.
We present in the summary the main aspects of the hereditary approach:
- the first aspect relates to its ideological load, until late, the middle of
the twentieth century;
- the second aspect relates to the consequences of the heredity in the
organization, the segregation of the societies and to antihuman
practices;
- the third aspect captures the modern forms of heredity concepts that
we can also meet in the contemporary psychology and pedagogy,
forms that are drained from an ideological point of view.
It is obvious that in today pedagogy these heredity conceptions are no
longer associated with discriminatory and segregationist ideologies and practices.
These have been removed. The possibility that these still exist in isolated contexts
should not be neglected, but such theories and practices can not be found as
propagated, disseminated science; we belive that the humanistic approach in the
contemporary science will last and will further develop.
There are contemporary, modern, heredity conceptions, like the one of
Noam Chomsky, being opposed to the constructivist vision of Jean Piaget. Noam
Chomsky - psycholinguist and researcher in the language psychology, developed
in the late twentieth century a fantastic theory, sustaining that the language has a
genetic origin. In the late '70s and early '80s, before the death of Jean Piaget, the
two met in a public event and have confronted their conceptions. Jean Piaget
supported the constructivist conception, regarding the external influences on the
personality, and Noam Chomsky defended the conception regarding the genetic
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During the 1950s the world was in a veritable scientific revolution, with
spectacular results, when famous scientists, James D. Watson and Francis Crick
have decoded the double helical structure of the DNA (1953). This discovery has
also brought them the Nobel Prize, but unfortunately Francis Crick was not alive at
the award ceremony.
Read the passages from specialized literature dedicated to the presentation of
the double helical structure of the DNA. Observe the photos depicting these
miraculous discoveries. Search and remember the data regarding the challenges of
contemporary genetics, such as genetic vulnerability in childhood, biological and
psychological resilience or robustness of the child, but also regarding all the global
and comprehensive issues related to the child development and education.
Thus, in the 60s and from the 60s later on, genetic engineering becomes a
current practice, of course, with a lot of debates regarding the moral and the ethics
that remain valid even today. The spectacular of these practices gets even to that
point, where teams of researchers from famous genetic laboratories in Scotland,
near Edinburgh, the United States etc. begin from the 90s to transmit through media
channels information about the mammals cloning. We reproduce below such an
information regarding the prominent event in the science of cloning, transmitted to
us also by media channels in the late 90s and in the 2000s.
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paragraph 2, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and
dignity of the human being, towards biology and medicine applications”.
Source:http://clonarea.wikispaces.com/Oaia+Dolly+-+Eveniment+marcant+
in+stiinta+clonarii
It should be noted that the emergence of genetic engineering, cloning
experiments on plants and animals have aroused a wave of excitement, optimism
and hope. But the atmosphere disappeared soon, bringing into debate the risks of
cloning, genetic engineering inability to control scientific cloning products. We
present, further, an online selection from Adevărul newspaper, published to us in
10th of March, 2003.
perhaps more details about the causes of accelerated deterioration of its health
condition. Ever since last year, when the the arthritis phenomena were noticed,
Professor Jan Wilmut declared that this proves that the cloning techniques are still
"ineffective" and further research is still needed. On the other side, after the
announcement the euthanasia, he affirmed that simply being able to obtain an
animal using a nonsexual cell taken from an adult specimen had "profound effects
on biological research and in medicine." In turn, Professor Richard Gardner, who
led a team that conducts research on primary cells and cloning for therapeutic
purposes, for creating tissue that can serve for implants, declared that if it can be
shown that the premature end of Dolly occurred because it was a clone, than new
samples will be added in order to prove "the obvious dangers of cloning for
reproductive purposes and the total irresponsibility of those who try to extend these
experiments on human beings." It is known that at the end of the last year and the
beginning of this one, the Clonaid company claimed, through the voice of its
director, Dr. Boisselier that it would have created the first cloned babies, but these
statements could not be proved. They caused the indignation of the majority of
experts, who argued that any attempt to clone a human being is dangerous and
irresponsible, considering the limited success of animals cloning. And Professor
Wilmut was always against human cloning. As for the brave sheep Dolly, after the
autopsy ended, it will be stuffed and donated to the Museum of Natural Sciences
in Scotland, to be exposed in public, in a not too distant future, as a true "hero" in
the service of science.
Source:
http://adevarul.ro/news/societate/moartea-prematura-oii-dolly-confirma-
riscurile-clonarii-1_50acbe647c42d5a663895cb9/index.html
Despite the spectacularity brought by molecular genetic research, useful data,
important for analysis and control of genetic determinations of personality, has not
been brought. These studies are scientifically spectacular, but not from the
psychological or pedagogical point of view, they have not served to clarify the role
of heredity in the transmission of characters/ traits from ancestors to descendants.
The examples presented above show that by cloning researchers have biological
surprises, unexpected events occur. What would happen in case of a human
cloning? How much and what would remain under scientific control from the
personality traits of the reproduced creatures? It is known that currently the
psychological and pedagogical mechanisms are not sufficiently decoded in human
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individuals naturally reproduced; the problem would involve more serious risks in
the case of cloned individuals.
New names and concerns appear gradually in the context of sciences, such
as genetic psychology and genetic pedagogy.
Genetic psychology is a relatively new branch of psychology that studies
the influence of genetic factors on the traits and human behaviour. This field of
study uses the interdisciplinary methodology, offered by psychology, biology,
genetics, statistics, etc.
Twin studies, research on twins also represents a concern of genetic
psychology. In this research two factors are taken for correlation - genetic
similarity/ variability and environmental similarity/ variability. By overlaying these
two factors, the researcher aims to measure the similarity/ variability of the psycho-
behavioural profile of the studied subjects.
Source:http://www.questia.com/library/psychology/other-types-of-
psychology/genetic-psychology
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Read the biography of the researcher Sir Fr. Galton. Some items will
surprise and impress you. He was born in Birmingham, UK. Francis Galton was
Darwin's cousin, author of the theory of species evolution. According to
psycho-diagnostic assessments, Fr. Galton had an intelligence quotient, IQ over
200. Here's what is said about this researcher: "Possessed of a remarkably high
degree of intelligence (an estimated IQ of 200) and a wealth of novel ideas,
Galton is perhaps without equal in the history of modern psychology". Sources:
History of Modern Psychology, Oxford, Companion to the Mind,
http://www.psych.utah.edu/ gordon/Classes/Psy4905Docs/
PsychHistory/Cards/Galton.html
and dad), these have an ancestral, historical origin and are taken from all
existing donors in the family phylum: grandparents, great grandparents, great-
grandparents and so on, until the origin, the beginnings of the nation.
Galton also offered a mathematical formula, a model of the ancestral
inheritance law, as follows:
1 = 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32 +.........+ 1/? (1/∞?)
The equivalence above, described by Galton, should be interpreted like
this:
The term on the left, 1 is the unit of the individual genetic traits, the
whole of his inherited dowry.
Then, the sum of the terms 1/2... 1/32 etc., represents progressive
fractions of the genetic contribution of all members belonging to the ancestral
clade, to the completion of individual hereditary dowry.
A direct reading of the genetic equivalence proposed by Galton, reveals
that the totality of the individual hereditary dowry cumulates as follows: one
half (1/2) from parents, one quarter (1/4) from grandparents, one eighth (1/8)
from great grandparents and so on, until the fraction able to conclude this
infinite limit, in a more general interpretation, until the human appearance.
It is known that the appearance of man is a controversial issue and it is
summed by various theories, so that the fraction that would end, would
complete the cumulative sequence of ancestral heredity and can be put in the
form of some hypotheses:
If the man emerged from Adam and Eve (creationist theory), then
the cumulative series of hereditary characters of each individual
ends in that ancestral point.
If the man is the result of evolution, according to Darwin's theory,
then the cumulative series of hereditary characters of each
individual ends in that ancestral point.
Finally, if the man is the creation of aliens on earth, then the
cumulative series of hereditary characters of each individual ends
in that ancestral point.
Going beyond the speculative aspect of the ancestral law of heredity,
even put in mathematical expression, it is necessary to remember the qualitative
and comprehensive aspect of the approach offered by the researcher. Indeed,
the role of heredity is very well defined in the life of mankind. By genetic way,
it is not directly decided that the individual John or Peter is exceptional or that
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Further in his study, Fr. Galton showed that the branch regression
towards mediocrity registers in certain approximate values of range, being
proportional to the standard deviation of the dimensions obtained at the new
seeds. But there is not an exact rate of the regression, due to multifactorial
influences in characters transmission from parents to offspring.
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Let’s take for analysis an example, to show how the branch regression
towards mediocrity takes place, regarding the characters of the offspring compared
to the characters of the parents. The example is based on the actual situation of
characters that will be possessed by the descendants of a couple (parents) with a
maximum physical height (MH) and of a couple (parents) with a minimal physical
height (mh). In fact, all human traits can be placed in this bipolar dimension: The
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? How will the descendants of the parents of minimum size be (mh)? Will they be
smaller than their parents, will they have the same height or will they be taller?
? How will the descendants of the parents of maximum size (MH)? Will they be
smaller than their parents, will they have the same height or will they be taller etc.?
Galton's response is shown in a masterly complicated graphic difficult to
comprehend without a statistical culture (figure IX in the cited article).
In figure no. 1, it is observed that parents with height under the average of
the population have taller children, with dimensions close to the average value.
Parents with the value over the average of the population have children with
reduced height, with dimensions close to the average value.
Trained as mathematician, Galton speaks about the branch regression law
in statistical terms, being today recognized as the founder of modern statistical
regression analysis. In our presentation, in figure no. 1, the regression line is just
the axis linking the bipolar values (mh) and (MH). As it can be seen, on this
regression line, the reproduction and the character/ traits transmission from parents
to offspring take place.
The conclusions drawn here are direct and accessible:
Very tall parents will not produce taller children. It is obvious that the
height is not a growing trait, undefined at birth.
Very short parents will not produce shorter children. It is obvious that
the height is not a decreasing trait, undefined at birth.
Characters, traits are transmitted from parents to offspring between
value limits and statistically regularized frequencies.
On the basis of anthropometric data collected by Galton, the scientist has
a famous exclamation: God loves normal curve! An intuitive image of the branch
regression through regression towards mediocrity, in Gaussian distribution (normal
curve) is shown in figure no. 2.
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Identical
twins
Bivitelini
twins
Siblings
Cousins
Persons
without
kin
For example, if we think about two persons, two children, they can be
genetic similar, almost equal, but they can also be totally different. So, the equality,
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PROFESSOR PHD VASILE CHIȘ
the similarity or the difference between persons regarding their genetic features
represent the genetic variability and similarity.
The persons, the two children, for example, can live during their life in the
same environment, a common, identical living environment. Thus we define the
environmental similarity. Or, the children can live in totally different environments.
Thus we define the environmental variability. Of course, the problem regarding the
similarity or variability of the psychological profile arises. This concept is a
generalization of some results/ scores obtained, through the application of
psychological tests to the investigated children, in various conditions of genetic and
environmental determination (similarity versus variability).
? Under which circumstances can we talk about genetic equivalence? (In the case
of identical twins, a response formulated by the student).
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Homework: For next week, you have homework about the twin studies results.
Please search the results of the twin studies, select one-two conclusions and
comment them on a half a page, answering the questions: Does the psychological
profile, traits similarity exist at the twins that live in separate environments? What
about the twins living together? What happens in the case of strangers, who live
together? Is the similarity higher at strangers, who live together than at twins, who
live separately?
Formulate conclusions and arguments on the basis of conducted research.
Consult literature from specialized libraries and online books or articles.
For example, there is an outstanding synthesis in this field, entitled Not all Twins
Are Alike. Psychological Profiles of Twinship, (Barbara Schave Klein , 2003). This
book can be found online, at this address:
http://www.amazon.com/Not-All-Twins-Alike-
Psychological/dp/0275975843#reader_0275975843
It is an obvious fact that the studies in the field of genetic psychology and
pedagogy had a great impact regarding the conception and the theory of the
personality development factors. The data obtained from this research is very
important, because on this basis the permanent transition from the exclusive
hereditarianism and from the exclusive environmental theories to a new theory
regarding the personality development factors was possible – the double
determination theory.
Let us further analyze the way the double determination theory is expressed,
its significance regarding the personality development factors. For this, we will
analyze the graphical descriptive model of the theory that overlaps hereditary and
environmental factors (figure no. 4).
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It is also known that, if the language is not mastered until 7-9 years,
some major difficulties will appear subsequently.
Some capabilities have a longer latency, waiting period. For example,
in the field of sciences, people have also remarked themselves after 60 years.
This is the heredity offer in the personality development, native
predisposition, potential, development premises, and not ready made qualities.
In the figure no. 4, we illustrated the heredity offer using the sign „+”.
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Bibliography
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THEME 3
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION
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PROFESSOR PHD VASILE CHIȘ
? Which are the criteria, the requirements according to which the sciences are
validated as sciences? What are the requirements that must be accomplished by a
science?
to have a domain, an object of study, of research and some
purposefulness;
to possess its own methodology, its own research methods,
appropriate to the object of research;
to formulate regularities, laws in the strict sense of the term (ie,
regularities of nature, universal regularities, universally valid,
strong laws, like the ones in physics, the law of gravity, for
example and so on);
to have field of theoretical and/ or practical application,
applicability.
? Are there laws formulated in pedagogy? What type of laws, what attributes do
these have?
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? What are the specific and the role of fundamental principles of education?
Based on scientific research and on direct educational experience, on
educational practice, in pedagogy there are developed some generalizations that
capture the regularity of manifestation of some educational components. So
generalizations do not capture phenomena placed in total relativity, but rather a
certain order, a certain structure of their conduct, which provides, through
knowledge, their exploitation for practice optimizations. Therefore, generalizations
in science get the attribute/ name of principles, namely the fundamental principles
of education; not only that we don’t ignore them, but, on the contrary, we respect
them, these becoming milestones in our educational activities.
Fundamental principles of education ensure theoretical and praxeological
foundation in education. So, their role is to orient, to guide, and to adjust the design
and actual implementation of education, of educational activities at macro and
micro pedagogical level.
We will take into attention two examples, two major pedagogical theories,
which generate fundamental principles in education, stating, however, that not all
principles are generated by the two pedagogies (for example, alternative
pedagogies also have an important contribution to the formulation and refinement
of principles):
Research of Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
P.I. Galperin's theory (1902-1988)
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In his book, „Moral judgment at children” (1980), the Swiss psychologist Jean
Piaget analyzes in terms of its interactionist, cognitive conception the development
of the various forms of infantile moral judgment.
Identify in this book an aspect that captures your attention and produce a
description/ explanation/ comment on it.
The book is very generous from a psychological and pedagogical point of
view. The stages of the moral development of the child are presented. A central
concept is the concept of "justice", also analyzed from an evolutive point of view,
under the influence of requirements but also of the constraints exerted by the social
environment on the child through his parents.
In Piaget's conception, the moral conduct of the child is heteronomous at
the beginning, meaning that is being taken over "nonselective" from the family
environment, in the presence of parents and it concerns only the act, and not the
motivation of it. Piaget talks about the moral heteronomy stage, where the moral
behaviours are determined by the presence and authority of the adult.
? If we ask the little child: What is good? What it means to do good?, the
answer will be: To do what mother and father say! This answer shows clearly that,
in a certain period of age, the child's behaviour is dependent on the physical
presence of the adult; the child does what the adult says, but only when the adult is
present. Once the parent has disappeared from the child’s view, the moral rule is
also „quenched”, the parent requirement was”quenched”. This is the moral
heteronomy phase, the stage of the moral dependence on the adults’ presence.
The stage of the moral conscience, of moral autonomy is a later
acquisition, now the child applies the rule, whether the moral instance is present or
not. The rule can be applied and it is applied because its internalization took place,
the rule is not external to the child, it is not what the parent says. The transition
from heteronomy to moral autonomy is possible and takes place by systematic
exercise of applying moral rules. Therefore, in the preschool and primary
education, it is recommended that rules are clearly established together with
children, are repeated as often as necessary and are exposed/ displayed in the class.
It is necessary to build a set of rules that are accepted, known by children,
systematically repeated and applied, as the exercise of application and repetition of
rules assures the transition from the dependent morality phase to the autonomous
morality, determined by knowledge of rules, by perception of the rules use, by the
opinion that these are useful.
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The concepts that we will further develop are related to another book of Jean
Piaget – „The birth of intelligence at the child” (1973).
According to Jean Piaget, the intellectual development of the child, as well
as the moral one, take place during more stages, phases, steps or stages of
intellectual development, represented by us in the figure nr. 1.
I II III IV
0 2/3 6/7 11/12 14/15
As it can be observed in the figure no. 1, from 0 to 2-3 years, the child passes
through the first stage/ step of intellectual development, from 2-3 to 6-7 years there
is another stage, and from 6-7 to 11-12 another one. Around the age of 14-15 years,
from an intellectual point of view, the child is trained as intelligence structure,
except the cases where, because of a mental deficiency, of some mental disability,
it doesn’t develop mentally over the landmark of 11-12 years old.
Jean Piaget has defined each stage of intellectual development, through
concepts that faithfully reflect the typical intellectual behaviours of children in that
segment/ age range.
The first stage is called the sensorimotor stage or the sensorimotoric stage,
because intellectual expression of the child during this age range is sensorimotor,
formed of senses and movement/ motricity, of sensoriality and motor skills. An
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For example, the child moves his hand in his field of sight, in his vision
space, and, in the same time, he has the visual perception of the movement. A
accidentally, the child touches his mouth and lips with his fingers, moment that
triggers another instinctual act – the sucking reflex. In this way, the child is
gratified, his motion and his sight are gratified by the sucking reflex. From this
moment on, the child will repeat more and more often this chain of acts, so that at
some point, the child will intentionally take his finger to his mouth, in order to
unleash the sucking reflex. This is when two previously separated phenomena,
movement and sight, are integrated into a new structure, the seonsorimotor
structure.
The second stage, that coincides with the kindergarten time, is called
preoperational stage (intuitive stage of the intelligence development). At this stage
we can also talk about rich and complex manifestations that are typical for the early
period of the child's life, for the preschool period.
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PROFESSOR PHD VASILE CHIȘ
? How does a child respond to the question: Who is more beautiful? Who is
stronger?
A student answer: The child responds: I am!
This is the modal response of the small child, when asked to compare
himself with others. It's typical behaviour, at this age, in the early childhood,
determined by a feature called egocentrism.
Please study in depth the new terms you are facing, using dictionaries, to
decrypt their meaning.
Egocentrism means, literally, centred on the ego, on the self, meaning an
emphasis of the self, a self-locating in the centre of the universe. Why is the child
self, the ego emphasized? Because the ego is revealed in the absence of another;
the toddler discovers the self before discovering another, the other. Self-
centeredness can be manifested and developed beyond its natural phase in youth
and adulthood, if it is reinforced, rewarded in childhood. Self-centeredness is an
obstacle in the socialization of children in kindergarten, but the interactive methods
for developing communication and cooperation skills gradually lead to socio-
emotional maturation of the child.
For example, the early preschool child goes to kindergarten and wants to
capture all the toys and if someone else takes his toy, he becomes rebellious, he is
crying, according to the experiences he lived in the family and the manifestations
that his parents have allowed him. Such egocentric behaviours of children put the
kindergarten teacher in very difficult situations, to which this must cope with a lot
of pedagogical tact.
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Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, The Bear fooled by the Fox etc. What tells the
child when we talk about fairies, dwarfs?
Children have a very vivid imagination. They make personal descriptions
richer than the stimulus-reality.
? How is this narrative creativity, this rich fantasy of the infant called?
Record and study the term fabulation. It refers to the typical fantasy of the
early childhood period, to the fantastic, unreal presentation of reality, so it is,
apparently, the fantasy is a lie. The fabulation is not a lie, because a lie is a false
presentation of things, is the de-realization of reality, altering the reality made with
a clear intent to gain advantage or to defraud another. Lying is a fabulation with
purpose, while the fabulation does not have an assumed particular purpose, it is
simply fantasy, imagination. It should be noted that from the fabulation to lie just
the assumed purpose is missing.
? A legitimate question arises here: The fabulation of the child should be praised
and stimulated or inhibited?
Sometimes, children, through their natural manifestations, in exercising
imagination and creativity, are taught to persevere, because their parents reinforce
this behaviour by feedback, verbal praise and material rewards.
It is important that gradually, along with the child’s transition towards
primary school, the children learn and understand that there is a difference between
the fantastic world and the real world.
? We put before the child a lot of concrete objects, for example bees, cats and we
ask: How many ... are here? What does the child answer, is he saying 3, 5, 7...?
No, the child in the preoperational stage doesn’t have a mathematical
answer, situated in equivalence classes, in digists. The given answers can be: here
are many/ a lot ..., less/ few...
In the preoperational stage of intellectual development, the child uses
undefined quantitative concepts; this is the specific property of this stage, the use
of undefined quantitative concepts. At this age, respectively at kindergarten, the
child does not use digits and he doesn’t have to use them, but he must learn to do
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many exercises with sets of objects, not with digits and numbers. Sometimes, the
kindergarten teacher forces too early the learning and assimilation of digits and
numbers by the preschoolers. Because the preschooler will not perform in
numeracy, even if he uses numbers as some labels – 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on. In this
preschool period, the experiential domain is Science (and not Mathematics), and in
this area there are also mathematical activities, more specifically, pre-mathematical
activities.
? The following question arises: What learning experiences are appropriate in the
pre-mathematical activities at kindergarten?
The classification of specific sets of objects must be very much practiced
with children.
We recommend the use of the educational logic games (example, Logi II)
that contain concrete-objectual material suitable for classification operations
exercising. The pieces of the kit, wooden or plastic are geometric shapes easy to
identify and are called: square, rectangle, triangle, circle. The pieces are big and
small, thick and thin, coloured differently. Thus the experience of classifying
objects can be diversified.
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Many classifications can be realized with children, for example, from the
set of figures, children have to choose all the red figures (circle, square, triangle,
and rectangle) or to choose all thin figures or all big circles etc. This is a profitable
classification exercise and research has confirmed that the operation of
classification of figures, practiced with the kit, is being transferred to other types of
classification, performed in other contexts and circumstances.
A concrete operation and also mental (mental action), with developments
in classifications proximity, is represented by the series of the elements of a set. In
a natural way, it seems, children have a propensity in doing series. If we give
children objects, they put them in a row, they make the „train”.
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First sequence: In front of the child are placed the elements of two sets, in
a range and in term by term correspondence, as shown below.
The question is: are there more faces than stars/ ... are less ... than ..., or
there are as many? The exercise can be done with various objects, for example,
pencils and erasers etc.
It is noted that in the set placement, in term by term correspondence, in
this example, we have a double equivalence:
the equivalence of sets elements, 5 faces, 5 stars;
the equivalence of space, the extent of the first set is equal with the
extent of the second one.
The second sequence: In front of the child there are put the elements of the
same set, ranged and in term by term correspondence, but without spatial
equivalence, the extent, the occupied space by the two sets is not equivalent.
Now, in this example, the quantitative equivalence of the sets was kept, 5
faces, 5 stars, but the spatial equivalence is altered, the extent of the elements of the
two sets. The star set obviously occupies a larger space than the set of faces.
And the question arises again: are there more faces than stars/ ... are there
less ... than ..., or there are as many?
The structure of the preoperational intelligence, specific for the preschool
time, is anchored in undefined quantitative concepts: more, less, equally. The child
of 3/4 - 6/7 years does not measure the quantities arithmetic, he does it intuitive.
Regarding the above mentioned task, the child gives several answers: there are
more stars than faces. Now the sets are not measured by quantitative content, by
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their element number. The concepts like more, less or as many as are a global,
syncretic result, given by the space on which the elements of the set are extended.
Only in the concrete operational stage (approximately after 6-7 years old),
the child will declare the set equivalence based only on the quantitative content,
regardless of the length of the string or the size of the area in which the elements
are placed. In this moment, it can be said that the child is in the concrete operational
stage that he has reached the stage of quantity conservation. This psychogenic
landmark is an important argument of programming learning tasks in a sequential
way, during the schooling cycles at the early age (kindergarten, primary school).
Summarizing the above presented information, the first stage of intellectual
development is characterized by sensory-motor behaviors, in the second one
preoperational capacities are put into action, in the third one the child expresses
himself concrete-operational, and the propositional intelligence stage/ the formal
intelligence stage ends, in Jean Piaget's view, this process of intellectual
development in the childhood.
In the figure no. 1 it is noted that each stage of development, in
chronological determined landmarks, includes children that have common
manifestations. Children have psychical age traits, as: sensorimotor skills,
preoperational skills, concrete-operational features, propositional, formal
characteristics.
? If we will ask the child: What does the expression The water flows, the stones
remain mean? What would a child in the concrete-operational intelligence stage
say? He will say, simply, that the water flows and the stones remain, they do not
flow, respectively he will emphasize the concrete part of the expression. Only in
the stage of formal, propositional intelligence, the child will say that the sentence
reflects the stability, the depth, seriousness, what is valuable and is not transitory,
is durable, strong.
Another important remark is the following: knowing and valuing mental
age traits gives the possibility of organizing educational group activities, with
identical or similar tasks regarding the difficulty/ complexity degree.
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Individual activities involve the design of individual work tasks and their
capitalization, especially in the following situations:
- to gifted children, who need additional stimulation, in order to exploit
their superior potential compared to the average level specific to a
particular age;
- to children with learning difficulties, in order to support them to
overcome these difficulties.
The theoretical foundations of the constructivist pedagogy emphasize the
Principle of respecting the individual and age features in education.
Education is effective, if it is sized optimally to the individual, personal
particularities of the pupils. Developing and implementing an adapted curriculum
is a common practice in the contemporary education.
Unfortunately, the mainstream education in our country continues to be
dominated by the collective teaching project, through common activities for all the
children in the class. Only in the special education, the design and the
implementation of the teaching activities become more flexible, more adjusted to
the individual and personal needs.
Effective education, modern education abandoned the scenario of the
mainly common activities, with all the students of a class. New concepts and
practices are valued in the contemporary pedagogy: Individual Educational Plan.
Such approaches are consonant with the Principle of respecting individual
psychological traits and physical age traits, principle that comes from the
constructivist pedagogy of Jean Piaget.
We bring into attention, in the contemporary context, the phenomenon of
accelerated development of the child. So, the chronological landmarks mentioned
by Jean Piaget should not be considered in a rigid, absolute way. Moreover,
immediately after the release of Piaget's stage theory of development comments
about chronological landmarks that the author has set have emerged.
Currently, children of 7 years, capable of propositional, formal intelligence
can be seen. It is observed that today the children register a faster rhythm regarding
the intellectual, social and emotional development, compared to the previous
generations.
With the help of the figure no. 1 we showed that development occurs
sequentially, step by step, so that we can talk about a continuum in the development,
explained in the constructivist pedagogy. For example, the concrete-operational
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intelligence stage is not a complete new stage, isolated from the continuum; it is
placed just in this continuum.
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Just like Jean Piaget, Galperin argues that education is being continuous
and phased. The notions and the mental operations are achieved according to a very
generous fundamental principle, named the principle of internalizing concepts and
mental operations. From the pedagogical point of view, internalization refers to the
fact that what is achieved in the mental plan, is learned, comes from the outside,
from concrete experiences. We can not talk about internalizing, notions, mental
operations, of what is has not been outside, in concrete experiences.
In figure no. 3 we represent the internalizing axis and its sequences.
Figure no. 3: The graphical model for the illustration of the principle of
internalizing concepts and mental operations (after P.I. Galperin)
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For example, child is given a set of objects and he orders its elements, makes
the series or "train"/ the column. A toy is given to the child and he is dismantles it,
decomposes it into component elements. The child does not only contemplate the
reality, he is not satisfied only to look to the objects that are close to him. He
engages spontaneously in actions of active exploration of the objects: puts the hand,
tests the material he is coming into contact with, composes and decomposes objects
from his surrounding reality, breaks and fixes them. This is the debut phase of
learning, which involves receiving learning material and making changes to the
external reality, a very important step in the development of action skills in
children. This is because the concrete actions of the child – the handling of objects,
cutting, arranging, making series, setting terms in correspondence, develop many
components of his intelligence, required in the intellectual acts.
For example, the child action for identification of objects and their properties
are made easier and more deeply by exploring and transforming them. How else
could the child notice that an object is rectangular, the other has a square, that one
is thinner, thicker than the other and so on, than acting with them, working
effectively?
So, the action helps to identify objects and their features, to group objects
into categories/ types, to identify and reproduce some relationships between the
components of the object. In his actions, the child will not put the tractor wheels
on the hood, as the relationship between the components of the object is a
predetermined one, and the child learns it like this, through construction and
deconstruction, through assemblage and disassemblage.
The child forms spatial representations, that are very important in
finalizing and refining of the body scheme, in the acquisition of notions: left-right,
up-down, front-back. The child gets to build classes/ categories of objects,
discovers new things, and develops his vocabulary.
According to Galperin, all the ideas and knowledge of the child, everything
that the child will have in mind at a certain time, goes through the effective external
action, through the concrete-objectual operation. Research data confirms this,
showing that children who explore and experiment actively, deeper, more
thoroughly and more frequently the external concrete reality, are more intelligent
than the passive and withdrawn ones; the more energetic children, the ones with
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more initiative, more curious, more experiential form and develop better the
abilities than the ones who experience with apprehension, hesitation and shyness.
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Subsequently, subjects were asked not to verbalize anything, only to realize mental
analysis, the image analysis in mind. The devices recorded the currents from the
cortex and from the larynx in this conditions too, which means that cortical
stimulation lead immediately to activation of the vocal cords, even if there was no
requirement of aloud verbalization. This is the unquestionable proof not only for
the relation of content between language and thinking, but also of the morpho-
physiological link, especially physiological, that is established between thinking
and language.
So, in general, is worth appreciating that under normal conditions of verbal
language development, there is a reciprocal relationship between verbal statement
and thinking: the language is an expression of the accuracy of thinking and thinking
is an expression of the accuracy of language. Naturally, this is a general conclusion,
because, in fact, differences may appear, such as: I can not say what I mean!,
respectively we can think in a certain way, and the language and the message is not
in fully in line with what we thought. Given the close link between thought and
language, one of the most important goals of preschool education is to stimulate
the development of language, this having an extraordinary power and influence in
the overall development of the child.
The last level of internalizing is what Galperin called the mental action. The
mental action is the external action totally transferred to the level of concepts and
mental operations. It is about a transfer from the concrete plan to the abstract one,
context in which, the action is transferred in inner language, hence the name of the
principle – the principle of internalizing, because the transfer is done in the inner,
internalized language.
The notions and the mental operations represent the internalization of
concrete, external actions. Some examples of external actions are: placing objects
in pairs, achievement of the letters of the alphabet (for example, the games with
plastic or paperboard letters, that children put into a row and with which they learn
the letters of the alphabet). So, Galperin believes that the concepts that we have in
mind are the result of such concrete external actions. For them to come to mind and
thinking, a transfer phase needs to be browsed, transfer that is made at the talked
aloud level of language.
So, concrete actions turn into verbal statements, so that children acquire the
ability to verbalize their actions. To say, for example: we made the row of dots, we
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took the yellow dot, then the pink one, then the purple one and at the end the green
one. Or, we made the train.
This phase of enunciation, the verbalization, is very important and values
the strong relationship between thinking and language; it is natural not to be able
to transfer in mental plan a notion or an operation/ mental action, without passing
it through the language filter.
Let us look at a very simple example from mathematics: When the child
says 2+3=5, as mental action, he sais it because he internalized the concrete external
action, in which he gathered two dots and three dots, put them together and
observed that there are five in total.
The theory of mental actions developed by Galperin transmits a clear
methodological message: in school, mental notions and operations can not be
developed, without doing concrete, external actions. This conclusion represents, in
fact, a fundamental principle in the activity with children in the kindergarten and in
the primary school. In order to support them in their intellectual development, it is
necessary for them to operate with objects, to collect them, to separate them,
because arithmetic operations can not be learned from arithmetic operations nor the
concepts from the definition of the concepts.
? What is the student doing on this route? He actually works, being permanently
active. From here derives the principle of active and aware learning of the
student in the educational process, since the acquisitions that the student obtains
do not come just from the educator, these are being achieved with own effort, as
learning is an individual process. The knowledge of the teacher will not "be
poured" directly in the minds of the students, they will have to read, to take notes,
to reflect, to figure out significances, to recode, to analyze critically, to interpret,
to capture the essence, extract the main ideas, to deduce, discover, anticipate etc.
Currently teaching and learning processes should not be perceived in a
traditional way, respectively teaching does not consist in the transmission of
knowledge and learning in the passive reception and repetition/ mechanical
reproduction of knowledge. On the contrary, teaching is a complex activity of
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of acquisitions. In other words, it was considered that perception is the basic source
of knowledge, the cell of thinking.
Generally speaking, the cell of an organism is its morpho-functional unit.
If the perception is the thinking cell, it means that perception is the morpho-
functional unit of thinking, it was invested with this role and accredited in the
traditional pedagogy. This explains why education based on auditory perception
and on explanations, arguments, oral presentations and lectures developed so
much. The teacher dictated, the students were writing and then repeated in chorus
several times, maybe few dozen times, until they knew. Learning was mechanical;
it was not a conscious learning, based on the employment of thinking.
This explains the fact that the principle of intuition, which was a fundamental
principle in old pedagogy, is being reconsidered and it develops another principle,
the principle of active and conscious participation of the student in the educational
process. And, much more, in the last period, in the contemporary pedagogy, the
principle of active participation is being revised and reformulated in a modern
principle – the principle of interactive participation. Why? Because it is in
consonance with the generous, optimal educational context of today, which is an
interactive environment, based on interactive curricular conditions. These involve
a double hypostasis of the student involvement in the educational process:
a) on the one hand, he engages in educational sequences through
individual engagement, through his own effective activity;
b) on the other hand, he is engaging not in a solitary manner, no by
himself, not isolated, but in interaction with other colleagues,
establishing social, intellectual and affective interactions with them.
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Components of metacognition
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confidence in the own cognitive capacities and optimal engagement in the process.
Learning capacity, namely the capacity to learn how to learn is often valued in the
pedagogy for competencies.
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directed and conditioned by punishment (not bodily/ physical – they are forbidden)
and rewards and the inner motivation is substituted by external reasons.
The development of inner motivation in learning is being included in the
fundamental didactic principles because, the inner motivation, is generated by
learning itself, as a process, and also by the learning contents. Of course, here are
the choices involved, the cognitive interests of the student, but also the extent in
which he is being rewarded, through results, by the invested learning effort. As
examples of inner motivation, we mention: the passion for a particular field of
knowledge and related scientific discipline, epistemic curiosity, the wish for
personal development and self-edification, the self-fulfilment wish etc.
or when the task is situated in the area of proximal development (L.S. Vîgotski,
1972). To these, the requirement that the study subject to be presented in an
interesting, attractive way, that stimulates the intellectual and emotional processed
of the students, can be added.
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Bibliography
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THEME 4
THE FINALITIES OF EDUCATION
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„The Romanian educational ideal aims at the free, integral and harmonious
development of the human individuality, the autonomous shaping of personality
and the internalization system of values necessary for the personal fulfilment and
development, for the development of the enterprising spirit, for the active
participation within the society, for the social inclusion and for employment on the
labour market.”
A student’s answer: The ideal, both the personal and educational one, will
be strongly connected to society’s values and to the society itself. From this point
on result the educational finalities and thus, the directions in the child’s
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? Thus, we come across another question: What do we prepare the children for?
The educational ideal describes the ideal portrait of personality (which is
why we use the term “ideal”) necessary within the society at a certain moment in
time.
? But: Is this portrait, described by the ideal, a reliable scale for the design and
for the practical process of education? Are we indeed free, integral and
harmonious personalities? No matter of the society he lives in, we consider that no
individual can fully experience freedom, thoroughness or harmony, because
freedom is an assumed responsibility. Therefore, as active members of the society,
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Thus, it becomes obvious that the educational ideal mentioned by the National
Education Law has only a theoretical relevance. It does not hold a concrete,
instrumental, functional value and cannot be found in any of the working
documents used by the preschool, primary or other teachers.
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definitions must be functional, underlining the use of things and objects. Thus,
the child is capable to:
- name the object and perform classifications – for instance, he can
name a fruit, without precisely naming an apple, a pear etc.;
- realise comparisons – for instance, the child names the green colour
of an object, in comparison to other white objects;
- go beyond particular and expand his thinking from particular to
general;
- know his body;
- understand the special and temporal coordinates of his actions and
even modify them, by answering questions like: Where? When?
The knowledge is the information producing and setting in the thinking
process, and not the information producing and setting in the memory. The
learning based on memory is a mechanical type of learning, whereas the learning
based on thinking is an interiorized type of learning.
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might be: What examples can be found for…?, How would you organise the
examples….?, What would you propose for…? etc.
4. The analysis requires setting the main ideas in a text, discovering the
causes of a phenomenon and the premises staying at the basis of a philosophical
essay, identifying the errors within an argumentation etc.
In this taxonomic level, the relevant key-words in formulating the tasks
are: Analyse…, Differentiate…, Distinguish…, Discriminate…, Compare…,
Select…, and some typical examples of questions might be: What common and
differentiating elements are there between…?, What can we differentiate … from
….?, Which are the main aspects of the comparative analysis of … from the
perspective…? etc.
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Table no. 4: “Action verbs” examples for the classes of objectives according to
Bloom’s taxonomy
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To complete the above analysis, we mention the fact that the operationalization
of the educational objectives presents some advantages but also some limitations,
synthesised in table no. 6:
Advantages Limitations
- the objectives provide the - not all objectives can be
necessary rigour to the formulated in concrete, specific
educational action; terms (for examples those
- the objectives have an orientation aiming the formation of the
role for the teachers and a character features, the attitudes,
motivational role for the pupils; the feelings);
- the objectives represent guides - not all behaviours can be
for the designing, realization and anticipated rigorously,
evaluation of the learning results. especially when targeting the
development of the children’s
creativity, the problem solving
by heuristic methods.
Each time, the announced triumph of the new pedagogies was not fully
validated. Although they continuously marked the development of the domain,
the new pedagogies entered, each one at its turn, in the shadow, the debating
and applications space being caught by new horizons, ever larger.
Of course, the technology and the pedagogy are in a causal and circular
relation. They develop by reciprocity and complementarity, even if there are
gaps between the generalized implementation of the new technologies in
schools. The learning creates new technologies, and the technological creation
becomes a driver of learning, developing new educational environments and
forcing the revision and the restructuring of the learning strategies.
Why did most of the pedagogical reforms fail, so far? The explanations
touch, obviously, various causes, but one of them holds a major weight.
Comenius’ pedagogy and the education on classes and lessons dominated the
European educational systems more than 300 years (since the second half of
the XVII century until the end of the XX century). The alternative pedagogies
were always suspected of adventuring and distancing themselves from the
Comenius’ system, and their majority proved, over time, to be incompatible to
what was consecrated as valuable educational tradition in the conception of the
classes and lessons organisation.
In the present, the education gains a new horizon on the coordinates of
the interactive pedagogy and on the competences pedagogy. The new
pedagogies are not simple theories artificially incorporated into the Comenius’
pedagogy. They have built more flexible educational systems, with a higher
adjustment capacity, under the pressure of three important factors in the
contemporary pedagogy: the children’s and the adults’ personal capacities of
development; the educational requirements specific to the diversity of the
school population; the community’s priorities.
In consequence, three dimensions were restructured in education, in
order to provide the school with the flexibility and the adjustment to the new
realities. First, we mention the rethinking of the pupil’s role from the
perspective of the interactive pedagogy. The pupil, generally speaking (the
child, the young and the adult), becomes the subject of education, with no
restraint and no discrimination. Then, the gap between the appearance of the
new technologies and their use in the education reduces and even disappears.
For instance, the electronic computer, the internet, the virtual classes (the
learning distributed in advance– Advanced Distributed Learning / ADL)
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become usual technologies, synchronised with the new education. At last, the
most important change in education are the new school organizational models
– passing from the hierarchical school organization, the only functional
structure in the traditional education, to the matrix organization, in networks
and projects, governed by an attentively designed curriculum (see figure no. 2).
The figure no. 3 illustrates the most important moment in the diachronic
development of pedagogy, since its appearance as a scientific reflection of the
educational phenomenon, till the present. In essence, the phases of the
pedagogy development incorporate naturally, specific characteristics.
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vessels, specific to physics, a big and full recipient – the teacher, fills all the small
and empty recipients – the pupils, transmitting information.
reform: the nature and content of the learning experiences, the teacher - pupil
relationship, the teacher - teacher relationship, the pupil - pupil relationship, but
especially the necessary connections between school, education and the real life
experiences. This three-dimensional integration – the pedagogical action –
interpersonal relationships – the real life – defines the new, interactive pedagogy.
The synthesis of the new pedagogy is one of maximum concentration, and
the disciplinary picture, heterogeneous and disseminated into tens of branches, is
condensed in comprehensive, fundamental domains: the educational management,
the curriculum theory, the theory of instruction and evaluation.
Now, at the beginning of the third millennium, there are well designed
dimensions and tendencies of the education and of learning. The unique school and
the common and obligatory curriculum passed us, with decisive steps in the history
of pedagogy. The new educational models assume dynamism, flexibility and
adjustment to the individual and community needs. Then, school as an entity, as a
solitary actor in a socio-professional environment limited or isolated from the
community, ceases its existence.
The future belongs to the innovative school, to the networks of educational
institutions, connected to common programmes of experimenting teaching,
learning, management and quality promotion. More than ever, the modern school
tries to identify and develop alternative learning structures, with multiple ways,
adaptable and efficient in formal, informal and nonformal contexts, active during
the entire social and professional life. The educational phenomenon can no longer
be reduced to the educational institutions dedicated to the different levels of study;
it integrates and articulates all sources, experiences and educational influences,
combined with the nonformal and informal frameworks, including the self-
education.
A new pedagogy for the school space in its wholeness, including the
university, but also for the continuous education is imperatively necessary. Its
construction will incorporate novelty dimensions and tendencies, continuously
placed in complementarity. Among these tendencies we mention:
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of learning in the ADL system compared to the classical system. Such comparisons
bring to actuality the data offered by the full learning theories, set in the present,
naturally, under the impact of the modern technologies of instruction.
All in all, the participants who have been taught using the ADL system have obtained better results
in comparison with 98% of the participants who have been taught in a traditional manner.
Students 2
ADL
Traditional
teaching
Learning rate
The research and the educational practice prove the role as main
pedagogical operator held by the curriculum. Thus, it is clear that the innovation
in education, the reform of an educational system is decided on the curriculum field
(A. Marga, 2003). In the effort to adapt to the market and competition requirements,
the success belonged to those educational systems which adopted flexible
principles of projecting the learning experiences, alongside the creation of some
new alternative structures for formation and perfection, articulating the theoretical
and the practical preparation.
The efficient projection and implementation of the curriculum becomes an
issue of pedagogical instrumentation: both methodological and technological, but
also one of pedagogical creativity, to set the educational system within new,
functional parameters. The didactic activity incorporates a various and flexible
methodological support; the science evolution and the social practice offers the
school new models and suggestions for projecting and conducting the learning
experiences. Placed at the interface between the technology and the methodology,
the teacher, with his personality, competence and creativity, will be motivated to
assume educational projects of effective conception and action.
The educational policies gained their place in the foreword of the global,
regional and local development strategies, due to their conceptual and pragmatic
validation (source: Constructing Knowledge Societies: New Challenges for
Tertiary Education, The World Bank, Washington D.C, 2002). Principles widely
mediatized today, such as the knowledge-based economy; the knowledge age; the
global education; the lifelong learning; the inclusive education; equal
opportunities; the partnership in education; the experimental school and
experimental community etc., represent challenges for essential searches regarding
the comprehensive reform of the education. With all these openings, at the
beginning of the third millennium, the mankind is still marked by the horizon
limitation of its prospect over the future in the every-day existence, as well as in
education.
As a consolation, if necessary, studies dedicated to the domain observe that
all changes in the far or close past evolved in a similar manner. For instance, in
only 24 years (1950-1975) happened developments hard to anticipate in the 40s.
The prospective pedagogue Harold Shane G. (1981) notes that the most significant
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books
Unitary rhythm of learning Various rhythms and styles of learning
Education in schools, specially Education in locations with large access for
designed buildings various beneficiaries
Educational activities on
Personalized, individualized instructive –
classes, large groups (frontal
educative activities
teaching)
The pupils adapts to the school
The school adapts to the pupil’s characteristics
environment characteristics
Segregation education, on
Inclusive, integrated education;
levels of educational
education for all
performance
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increasing. The rural educational system for instance, functions mostly with
substitute teachers and the mobility rate of the teachers is very high, even during
the school year.
The implications of this competition are complicated and the schools
which aren’t systematically preparing to face it will fail, following the destiny
of the unproductive industries.
The function of the school into the future will be conditioned by its
large opening towards the diversity of the educational services.
The successful school is the one providing flexible educational
programmes, adapted to the diversity of demand and of the learning capacities.
The preference for elite pupils, for recruiting and matriculate some groups of
pupils while rejecting others on performance or ethical, social, cultural criteria
etc. will create difficulties in many schools. In this context, we must underline
the tendency of the inclusive school, integrating the children and the young
belonging to underprivileged groups, such as the groups with special
educational needs, such as the disabled children. The inclusion of these children
in the school’s programmes not a disadvantage but on the contrary, an important
component of resource development: additional financial allocations, the
development of the pedagogical competences by the direct confrontation to the
diversity of the learning difficulties etc.
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It is a certainty that into the future the school will focus more on
winning educational contracts; these will no longer simply be offered neither to
the state school nor to the private ones. The teachings councils and the schools’
management will have to dedicate more time to the contract negotiation and to
the educational alternatives, to assure the quality of the instructive-educative
process, to the educational marketing etc.
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The concept of the classical pedagogy: the The concept of the modern pedagogy
pupils must adapt to the teacher The teachers must adapt to the pupil
- the traditional school, the unique type - the school of change
- the conservative school - the school for all
- the school for the modal pupil - the inclusive school
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Bibliography
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THEME 5
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AND DEVELOPMENTS
IN THE CONTEMPORARY PEDAGOGY
There are even now, in the third millennium, educational systems that
conserved and kept the concepts and practices of J.A. Comenius, the founder of
the modern educational systems in the world in the middle of the XVII century.
We are referring to the education cycles proposed by J.A. Comenius, in those
times: Scuola Materna, Scuola Vernacula and Scuola Latina (preschool
education, primary education and gymnasium education).
Recognising Comenius’ exceptional contribution to the development of
didactics and pedagogy in general, we must notice though that there is an obvious
difference in thinking and in practices between Comenius’ world and the today’s
world, under the impact of the multidimensional development of the society.
This statement is also embraced by the reputed Swiss psychologist Jean
Piaget who presented a synthesis study on the importance of Comenius’s work
(The Significance of John Amos Comenius at the Present Time) in the context of
celebrating 300 years since the publication of ”Didactica Magna” in 1957. The
study was reedited in 1993, after 400 years since the birth of the Czech
pedagogue, in the UNESCO publication, International Bureau of Education, vol.
XXIII, no. 1-2, p. 173-196.
Piaget’s message surprises both the historical importance of Comenius’s
work and the conceptual and applying discrepancies compared to the present
time. The discrepancy is being formulated in the following terms. Nothing is
easier and more risky than considering an author from the second half of the XVII
century as modern and fully placing him at the origins of the recent tendencies in
thinking and in the educational practice. If we go over his numerous writings, it
becomes extremely difficult to surprise concepts adopted by the system, we rather
find unclearness and contradictions. Firstly, how do we appreciate de fact that a
theologian passionate about metaphysics and touched by the speculative spirit of
the time was preoccupied by education, creating “Didactica Magna”? Then, how
can we explain the fact that, on philosophically purely speculative basis, he
proposed and consecrated a system of education? A system which dominated
Europe for over 300 years.
Then, how can we explain the fact that an entire educational system was
proposed and developed on philosophically purely speculative basis?
So, Comenius’s work established the European didactic activity on
classes and lessons which determined the hierarchical organisation of the
education ever since the XVII century. These systems are built on a vertical
hierarchical organisation, and their succession can be easily represented using a
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pyramid in which the educational cycles come one after another, from the
kindergarten to the primary education, the secondary inferior education, the
secondary education and the superior education, on a succession established by
Comenius – preschool, primary, gymnasium and high school – as shown by
figure no. 1.
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of an educational cycle are not closed to each other, but, on the contrary, a whole
dynamic of entrances and exits may be noticed. A student that enters the general
technical gymnasium, for example, may transfer to the pre-university gymnasium
in the case he accomplishes the requirements of the supplementary curriculum
proper to this school.
All the same, the educational systems organised in network promote the
curriculum flexibility, a fact that assures a large range of optional activities for the
whole school population of a certain educational cycle; thus, the “compulsory”
curriculum represents only a part of the whole curriculum. Moreover, in the process
of instruction, an important role is played by the “individual curriculum”, which
reflects possible study paths that are the expression of personal training option.
Consequently to the above presented analyses, we could affirm that the
educational systems organised according to the network model promote the
paradigm of the school that adapts to the requirements and educational
possibilities of the student. From this perspective, the flexible structure of the
educational system organised in a network is continuously enriched, a fact which
determines the permanent innovation and diversification of the learning
experiences. The school is not structured in accordance with the possibilities and
training needs of the “typical student”, but according to the ones of each and every
student that may have individual particularities of diverse natures.
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hand, within an education system that is network-organized there are four types of
secondary schools, for example:
- Secondary education offers an enriched curriculum and is organized in
order to prepare students for direct admission to upper secondary
education. Therefore, following this type of secondary education
students have the opportunity beginning with 17 years old to be admitted
to a university if the scores / grades obtained are above a certain
threshold standard. This secondary education is, up to a certain extent,
similar to the centres of excellence, which were intended to be
developed in our country. Obviously, this case does not concern only the
gifted children, but children who are able to learn very effectively in a
short time.
- General upper secondary education – this type of education is organized
as a secondary level, below the university level.
- Vocational or technical upper secondary level – is designed to guide
learners to take up various professions, providing them with the
possibility to enrol in polytechnic universities and vocational higher
education institutions.
- Inferior upper secondary education, the minimum level, targets
underperforming students.
It is important to note that these types of secondary schools are not
"closed", that is if a student has enrolled in upper secondary education, it does not
mean that he/she cannot switch to another type of secondary school, including
towards an inferior one. It is the family’s decision to enrol a student within a certain
type of secondary education, but this choice is influenced by the results obtained in
the final evaluation test, at the end of primary education. These results have a
diagnostic and prognostic value that is acknowledged by the parents. In addition, it
has to be mentioned the fact that just because a student has been admitted initially
in an inferior secondary school, it does not mean that he/she cannot have access
afterwards to other secondary schools, including upper secondary level. If the
student is aware that he/she has other options and if he/she proves to be capable,
then he/she can switch to another type of secondary school. This change is allowed
on a normal basis, depending on the student's progress, i.e. his/her academic
progress. In other words, within the network-organized education systems it is
offered a variety of flexible educational routes. Therefore one does not provide a
single route, as it is the case of our secondary education, which provides a single
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The data presented above suggest that the differences between the two types of
structures - hierarchical and network - determine different processes within them,
respectively as regards:
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The two structures – hierarchical and network – differentiate from each other
in terms of their underlying pedagogical concepts. As Comenius has laid a
pedagogical concept at the basis of the system, nowadays, the world's education
systems distinguish from each other in terms of pedagogical concepts that underlie
and establish their basis.
Based on the analyses above we can conclude that within the hierarchical
education systems, the predominant educational requirement is that students adapt
to school. They have no other option, they have nothing to choose from but to do
what it takes to adapt to the school, namely to the school they are being offered. In
contrast, within the network- organized education systems, the educational
requirement is in fact the opposite, namely the schools must adapt to the students.
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- the student is forced, in one way or - the school should know the limits of
another, to do what he/she does not each student;
want to do; - the school needs to value the best in
- students must comply with the school each student and determine him/her to
rules; develop an interest for learning;
- students have to buy themselves the - the school has to make sure that it
necessary learning resources; meets the educational needs of
- students must follow a mandatory students;
general curriculum; - the school has to provide each student
-teachers teach to unitary and with the necessary learning resources;
homogeneous classes. - the curriculum has to be tailored in
accordance with the educational needs
of the students;
-each teacher has to teach differently,
depending on the potential of each
student, on his/her skills and
competencies;
- the school has to create an
appropriate environment for learners
with special educational needs.
Thus, within the paradigm that promotes student adjustment to school, the
educational institution operates in accordance with curriculum documents, with
unique and compulsory teaching-learning programs, offering the same education for
all the students. If we would offer a comprised definition this would be a uniform
school. Naturally, it is made reference to the clothing item "uniform" that students
use, but the fact that the school is uniform, i.e. the schools have the same design
construction. The traditional uniform school-type education system that is
hierarchically organized can be characterized as follows:
- a wagon building type, with a corridor on the side or in the middle,
depending on how many spaces are available and with successive
entries in the classrooms;
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- the desks are always placed in rows and are firmly secured to the floor;
- is not allowed to change the classroom setting;
- the arrangement of the desks in rows, one after the other, hinders
communication between students who are arranged in a row, so that
they cannot speak to each other and collaborate together;
- the distance between students sitting in the same desk is greater than the
distance between the classmate sitting in front of the desk; the rationale
for this is to reduce visual contact and communication;
- the teacher’s desk is located above the level of the students’ desks so
that the teacher is above the class in order to dominate the classroom not
only psychologically but also physically, by height;
- the lesson, in its turn, was standardized in terms of the processes it
implied; the lesson was organized according to the following standard
steps: it started with checking the homework, it continued with drawing
students’ attention, with updating prior knowledge, with the teaching of
new content, with providing contexts for applying the new content and
with establishing a homework;
- the lesson plan had a unique structure, did not provide any
differentiation of content, it was addressed the whole group, without
taking into account that each student had individual characteristics.
So, school uniform type is a school that aims to homogenize and standardize
the training of its students through all that it offers and the way in which it functions.
In other words, it aims that all students have the same performance in mathematics,
biology, foreign languages etc. In reality, however, some students successfully cope
with school requirements, but many, sometimes too many, have quite significant
gaps in relation to curricular requirements. Therefore, it is imperative that the old
model – the uniform in education, should be added in an optimum manner the model
of diversity, of multiple-shape which takes into account differences. Concepts and
new practices such as "open school", "school for all", "inclusive school", "school-
centred resources," "integrated education" and so on, reflect global solutions that the
network-organized education systems make them applicable in contemporary
education structures.
In addition, another very important characteristic of the hierarchical
educational system, is that it promotes a segregationist system, which generates
segregation, which does not produce inclusion, but, on the contrary, it creates
separation. Accordingly, students are organized (separated) in performance groups:
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the outstanding student, the good student, the desirable student, the student with high
performance, the obedient student, the conformist student – the student who can
adapt, the student who follows the request to adapt to school. Usually, it is this type
of student that the teacher works with within a hierarchical school system, while the
other students are more or less tolerated. Their presence is accepted in the classroom,
but provided that they do not disturb the activity, that they are "obedient", i.e. they do
not speak. It is a system that differentiates learners according to performance levels
and develops a preference to work with the good student and neglect/ ignore the
student with learning disabilities. Students with visible learning disabilities have
always been excluded from the system and sent to a special school – at the school for
children with mental disabilities, language impairment, hearing impairment, visual
impairment etc. Basically, the hierarchical school is hierarchical because it produces
segregation/ division/ separation on various criteria, including:
- Gender separation - girls and boys; the school does not agree that girls
and boys perform common activities.
- Separation/ segregation based on the parents’ socio-economic and
cultural status – which, to a certain extent, persists even today.
As we mentioned, the lack of communication between students, is another
feature of the traditional school that is hierarchically organized. By making an
analogy, it is known the custom of Ethiopian mothers who use to carry her baby on
her back, in a kind of backpack and not have eye contact with it; in doing so, the child
is unable to make eye contact with others, and when it succeeds to have that contact,
the child is unable to speak.
This explains the fact that in the case of pupils and graduate students within
hierarchically organized schools, there is the risk of certain difficulties in performing
nonverbal and paralinguistic communication; this is due to the fact that students have
stood behind each other for many years and did not have a face-to-face seating
arrangement that would allow them to discuss, to communicate, to express their
opinions, to problematize etc. It is known that the physical space creates a
psychological space, or at least gives the possibility of creating a psychological space.
Likewise, if the physical space is restricted, then the psychological experiences
within that space are restrictive and have a poor content in terms of communicative
exchanges and educational influences.
The importance of this space can be emphasized at all levels of education,
from kindergarten, where one is always in contact with the others and always remains
in contact with the teacher. When students are enrolled in pre-primary education, they
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begin to be placed in desks, in rows; this generated discomfort and malfunction both
for themselves and for the teacher. When learners are not placed in desks, "obedient",
the teacher states that “students are not ready for school instruction.” Based on this,
we deduce the importance of two defining characteristics of the network-organized
education systems, namely diversity and flexibility. They are indispensable attributes
to inclusive training and inclusive education; one cannot talk about inclusion without
diversity and without flexibility and, conversely, one can talk about segregation in
the system.
Thanks to diversity, education becomes effective if it provides and operates
more diverse curricular resources that are adapted to the particularities of the school,
requirements and flexible educational programs.
In conclusion, we consider that the following two dimensions of the
educational system can provide the greatest level of flexibility to the educational
programs and thus, can increase the effectiveness of training students:
1. The structure of the educational system: if the structure is hierarchical,
then it is inflexible, so a network structure is needed; this one has to be
flexible and to allow the manifestation of diversity. Thus, to be flexible
means to promote and develop diversity.
2. The educational curriculum should be flexible, should enable and
propose appropriate educational programs that are tailored to the
particular characteristics of each student.
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6 Pre-primary
level
5 Pre-primary education
4
3
CURRICULUM
LOCAL CURRICULUM DECIDED BY
THE SCHOOL
INDIVIDUAL
CURRICULUM
OPTIONAL
The central role of the curriculum in the educational systems in the world
is to render more flexible the study programs, to allow the transfer in education
from the old paradigm — the student should adapt to school, to the modern
paradigm — the school needs to adapt to the student. Consequently, the curriculum
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FOUNDATIONS OF PEDAGOGY. THEMATIC HIGHLIGHTS FOR STUDENTS AND TEACHERS
becomes the main operator in the modernization of the educational systems since
the curriculum proposes various study itineraries, group and personalized ones,
instead of the traditional study programs, common and compulsory, incorporated
in the contents of education.
Situational analyses performed in schools allow the observation that the
curriculum stratification in Romania is mainly a formal activity and the
applications per se frequently remain anchored in the old undertaking of the
common and compulsory programs.
In addition to the concepts defined and analysed above, we present below
a series of concepts that are stated in the Romanian Education Law no.1/ 2011,
and are associated with the curriculum reform:
1. The national curriculum represents the coherent ensemble of the
education frameworks and of the study programs in upper secondary and
compulsory education (Chapter IV, art. 64, paragraph (2)).
2. The education frameworks consist of the disciplines, fields of study,
respectively the compulsory and optional training modules as well as a
minimum and maximum number of allotted hours (Chapter IV, art. 65,
paragraph (1)).
3. The common courses program consists of compulsory
disciplines/domains of study/ training modules and the curriculum decided
by the school is formed of the optional disciplines/domains of study
/training modules (Chapter IV, art. 65, paragraph (2)).
4. The school programs establish for each discipline/domain of
study/training module from the education plan the aims envisaged and
highlight the fundamental theoretical, experimental and applicative
contents. There are offered general methodological approaches for their
achievement and assessment (Chapter IV, art. 65, paragraph (3)).
5. The school frameworks and programs for the compulsory
disciplines/domains of study/training modules in the upper secondary and
compulsory education are elaborated by the institutions and organisms
authorized by the Ministry of Education, Research, Youth and Sports
(Chapter IV, art. 65, paragraph (4)).
6. The curriculum decided by the school consists both of optional courses
offered at a national, regional or local level and of optional courses
provided by the educational institutions (Chapter IV, art. 65, paragraph
(5)).
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16. In public or private educational institutions there are used course books
and auxiliary teaching resources that are approved by the Ministry of
Education, Research, Youth and Sports (Chapter IV, art. 69, paragraph
(1)).
17. The Ministry of Education, Research, Youth and Sports regulates the
elaboration of alternative school manuals (Chapter IV, art. 69, paragraph
(2)).
18. The curricular auxiliaries are constituted of methodological guides that
because of their content are in conformity with the legal provisions in
force. The teachers can select and use these in the classroom, in accordance
with their professional initiative, in order to improve the quality of the
educational process (Chapter IV, art. 69, paragraph (5)).
19. The school libraries and documentation and information centres are
organized and function based on regulations elaborated by the Ministry of
Education, Research, Youth and Sports (Chapter IV, art. 70, paragraph
(1)).
20. There has been established the Virtual School Library and the E-
learning school platform that include school programs, samples of
lessons addressing all topics in the school programs, methodological
guides, evaluation sample tests (Chapter IV, art. 70, paragraph (2)).
21. The gifted children and youth, regardless of their age, benefit from
educational programs that respect their learning abilities and performance.
These programs focus on advanced study and they group students
according to their skills. The program is enriched with new fields such as
tutoring, competence transfer and, the intention of promoting the
individual study pace (Chapter IV, art. 57, paragraph (5)).
22. The school council comprises all the teachers from the school that has a
legal entity. It is chaired by a director and meetings are held monthly or
when the situation requires it, at the director’s request or at the request of
at least one third of the teaching staff (Chapter VII, Article 98, paragraph
(1)). The duties of the school council staff: the board proposes to the
administration council the curriculum decided by the school (Chapter
VII, Article 98, paragraph (2), letter e).
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