CUPRINS

REZUMAT N LIMBA ROMN......................................................................................................................... 3 REZUMAT N LIMBA ENGLEZ ........................................................................................................................ 5 INTRODUCERE .................................................................................................................................................... 7 CAPITOLUL I ...................................................................................................................................................... 9 1. MEDICAL TRANSLATION A PROVOCATION FOR OFFICIAL TRANSLATORS........................................................... 9 1.1. Despre textele medicale n general .........................................................................................................10 1.2. Riscurile traducerilor medicale pentru un traductor..............................................................................12 1.3. Terminologie..........................................................................................................................................13 1.4. Abrevierile a terminologiilor speciale .....................................................................................................15 1.5. British vs. American English ..................................................................................................................15 1.6. Corectarea.............................................................................................................................................16 1.7. Latin vs. Englez ..................................................................................................................................16 2. CARACTERISTICILE GENERALE A TERMINOLOGIEI MEDICALE ............................................................................17 2.1. Cerinele unificrii .................................................................................................................................17 2.2. Tipurile de expresii n funcia de originea lor .........................................................................................18 2.3. Abrevieri cu acronime ............................................................................................................................19 2.5. Unitile semantice ................................................................................................................................19 3. ANALIZA TERMINOLOGIILOR MEDICALE ..........................................................................................................20 4. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ROMANIAN TERMINOLOGY IN MEDICINE .............................................26 SUMMARY ..........................................................................................................................................................28 CAPITOLUL II ...................................................................................................................................................29 1. O INTRODUCERE N METODOLOGIA PARALEL CORPUS ......................................................................................29 Traduceri ca date semantice .........................................................................................................................29 Colectare ......................................................................................................................................................29 Alinierea documentului .................................................................................................................................30 Divizarea propoziiilor i tokenizare .............................................................................................................30 Alinierea propoziiilor ..................................................................................................................................30 Metodologia privind cercetarea ....................................................................................................................30 CONCLUZIE ........................................................................................................................................................48 BIBLIOGRAFIE ...................................................................................................................................................49

TABLE OF CONTENTS
REZUMAT ............................................................................................................................................................ 3 ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................................... 5 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................. 7 CHAPTER I .......................................................................................................................................................... 9 1. MEDICAL TRANSLATION A PROVOCATION FOR OFFICIAL TRANSLATORS........................................................... 9 1.1. About medical texts in general................................................................................................................10 1.2. The dangers lying ahead for a medical translator ...................................................................................12 1.3. Terminology...........................................................................................................................................13 1.4. The abbreviations of the special terms ....................................................................................................15 1.5. British vs. American English ..................................................................................................................15 1.6. The proofreading ...................................................................................................................................16 1.7. Latin vs. English ....................................................................................................................................16 2. THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY ...................................................................17 2.1. The requirements of the unification.........................................................................................................17 2.2. Expression types according to their origin ..............................................................................................18 2.3. Abbreviations with acronyms..................................................................................................................19 2.5. Semantic units ........................................................................................................................................19 3. THE ANALYSIS OF MEDICAL TERMS .................................................................................................................20 4. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ROMANIAN TERMINOLOGY IN MEDICINE .............................................26 SUMMARY ..........................................................................................................................................................28 CHAPTER II .......................................................................................................................................................29 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO PARALLEL CORPUS METHODOLOGY ...............................................................................29 Translations as semantic data .......................................................................................................................29 Corpus Collection.........................................................................................................................................29 Document Alignment.....................................................................................................................................30 Sentence Splitting and Tokenisation ..............................................................................................................30 Sentence Alignment.......................................................................................................................................30 Methodology of the Research ........................................................................................................................30 CONCLUSION .....................................................................................................................................................48 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................................49

REZUMAT
Motivul pentru care am ales subiectul teoria i practica traducerilor medicale este c atunci cnd eram copil dorina mea era s m fac medic sau orice care este n legtur cu tiinele medicale. Fiindc am realizat c nu pot s m joc cu vieile oamenilor, sau s m exprim mai bine nu a fi putut s mi asum rspunderea pentru viaa unui pacient am ales urmtorul domeniu la care am fost foarte atras: limba englez. Dup un timp am remarcat c am posibilitatea de a m apropia de domeniul tiinelor medicale cu traduceri. Cum am constatat i n lucrarea mea de licen, traducerea textelor medicale nu este un domeniu uor. Poate cauza de multe ori dureri de cap, dar cum Peter Unistov a declarat, un actor englez celebru: Rusia este la fel ca i un drajeu ntors pe dos: partea amar este suprafaa i partea mai dulce este interiorul. Declaraia este valabil i pentru traducerile medicale. Lucrarea mea de licen conine dou pri majore: teorie i practic. n prima parte a teoriei prezint traducerile medicale n general care este o provocare serioas pentru un traductor autorizat. Aici menionez istoria medical, categoriile textelor medicale, riscurile traducerilor medicale, totodat vorbesc despre terminologii i abrevieri, diferenele ntre limba englez britanic i limba englez american n ce privete textele medicale, despre corectare i despre terminologia latin n fa de englez. Partea a doua a teoriei const din caracteristicile generale a terminologiilor medicale unde menionez cerinele unificrii, abrevieri cu acronime, unit i semantice i definiia eponimilor. Totodat aici explic ataarea sufixelor sau prefixelor la terminologiile latine care sunt aplicate la regulile pronuniilor n limba englez. n a treia parte a teoriei mele menionez analiza termenilor medicale unde acestea pot fi mprite n dou pr i majore: descriptiv (descrierea formei, culorii, mrimii, funciei, etc.) i eponimie care este un cuvnt derivat de la numele unei persoane cu care este onorat descoperitorul sau inventatorul cine a descris o structur anatomic pentru prima oar sau a diagnosticat o boal sau a dezvoltat un instrument medical sau o procedur. Aceast parte conine i tabele care explic structura unei expresii medicale (rdcina cuvntului, prefix, sufix), i demonstreaz cum poate un prefix i un sufix modifica sensul unei expresii fr s modifice sensul principal i a menine rdcina la fel. n partea a doua a licenei mele aplic teoriile n practic. Am asamblat un text medical cu trei pagini pe care l am trimis prin e-mail n format . pdf coninnd o poz, la un traductor autorizat s fie tradus din englez n romn. Textul a fost tradus n mai puin de 24 de ore. 3

Textul conine o construcie problematic care este o provocare major pentru un traductor. Soluiile pentru aceste probleme se afl n lucrarea mea de licen n partea teoriei. Traducerea coninea nu numai probleme terminologice (eco tradus simplu ca eco n limba romna, sau netraducerea sau explicarea instituiilor ca i PPA) ci i probleme gramaticale (probleme cu genurile feminine sau masculine a unui cuvnt). n analiza mea, am folosit metodologia corpus paralel, care este explicat n prima parte a practicii mele.

ABSTRACT
The reason I chose the topic of theory and practice of medical translations is because when I was young I wanted to be a physician, a doctor, or anything what is related to the field of medical science. Since I realized that I could not play with peoples life or to phrase it as I could not undertake the pressure if a patients life is in my hands, I chose the next field of which I was mostly attracted to: the English language. After a while I noticed that I have the chance to get more closer to the field of medical science by translations. As I stated in my thesis, the medical translation is not an easy work. It can give you serious headaches, but as Peter Ustinov states, the famous English actor: Russia is just like a turned outside drage: the bitter part is outside and the sweet part is inside and the same applies for the field of medical translations. My thesis contains two major parts: theory and a practical part. In the first part of the theory Im talking about the medical translation which is a real provocation for the official translators. In this part I also wrote about the history of medical science, categories of medical texts, about medical texts in general, the dangers lying ahead for a medical translator, about terminology and abbreviations, the differences between the British and American English language regarding medical texts, about proofreading and Latin vs. English terminology. The second part of the theory is about the general characteristics of the medical terminology where I mention the requirements of the unification, abbreviations with acronyms, and semantic units and the definition of the eponyms. Here I also explain the attach of a suffix or prefix to the Latin word which is applied for the English languages pronunciation rules. In the third part of theory I mention talking about the analysis of the medical terms where the medical terms can be divided into two major parts: descriptive (describing shape, color, size, function, etc.) and eponyms which means a word or name derived from the name of a person and are used to honor the discoverer or who first described an anatomical structure or diagnosed a disease or developed a medical instrument or procedure. This part also contains tables which explain a medical terms structure (word root, prefix, and suffix), demonstrate how the prefix and suffix changes can alter the meaning of a term without changing the central meaning and keeping the root the same. The second major part of my thesis is where I apply my theory in practice. I assembled a medical text with three pages which I gave to an authorized translator to be translated from English into Romanian which was sent via e-mail in .pdf format with a picture included and it 5

was translated within 24 hours. The text contains problematic structures which is a major provocation for a translator. The answers for these problems can be found in my thesis in the theory part. The translation contained not only terminological problems (eco being translated as eco in Romanian, or not giving any information nor translation of an institution like PPA), but also simple grammatical errors and problems (like problems with feminine of masculine genders of a word). In my analysis I used the parallel corpus methodology which is explained in the first part of my practice.

Introduction
The reason I chose the topic of theory and practice of medical translations is because when I was young I wanted to be a physician, a doctor, or anything what is related to the field of medical science. Since I realized that I could not play with peoples life or to phrase it as I could not undertake the pressure if a patients life is in my hands, I chose the next field of which I was mostly attracted to: the English language. After a while I noticed that I have the chance to get more closer to the field of medical science by translations. I had the chance to translate a medical text more precisely an orthopedic final exam. At first it was very difficult, caused me some serious headaches, but after I got familiar with it and its structure there were no problems. Throughout the history of medical science, terminology has been divided into five different eras. In the ancient times, at the beginning of the development of medical science, B.C. 500, the Greek language was the accepted in general as the language for special terminology. In middle Ages besides the Greek language, Latin and Arabic languages were also used depending on geographic location. The medical terminology is based on the traditional Ancient Greek and Latin languages vocabulary and it can be considered as an international language regarding the medical science (Fogarasi 2010). Mostly in the XI. century the Latin language was the medical sciences main language in the Western Europe. This is supported by that contemporary practice where many medical-related texts were translated from Greek and Arabic into Latin (Demeter, 2010). During the Renaissance (from the 14th to the 17th century), in the French medical science the Latin language took the most important stages in the medical community. The breakthrough of the English language oppositely with the French and German happened between the two World Wars. In the last half century the use of the English language in the international technical literature became dominant while other smaller languages were overshadowed. In the last decade the demands for professional medical translators have significantly increased. This is firstly due to the huge amount of published articles, most of which had been translated from other languages, but also due to the different international companies (pharmacies, companies distributing pharmaceutical products, devices, nutritional supplement) invading the Romanian health market. Here we can also mention the fact that many local medical 7

journals publish articles translations or summaries that were published in foreign journals. Since we are now members of the E.U., there are many texts to be translated in the field of medical science. Most of the translations happen to be from foreign languages, mostly from English into Romanian. The English language gained ground in almost all significant areas of life in front of the other world languages. This language globalization can be seen in the fields of medicine and pharmaceutical science, too. Nowadays in Romania most of the translations of medical texts are from English into Romanian, or from Romanian into English, since in the XXI century the English language has become the medical sciences lingua franca (Keresztes, 2006; Demeter, 2010). The English language has a great influence on the Romanian language and in some rare cases the physicians already replace the former Romanian medical term with the English equivalent. This happens mostly in oral communication and sometimes in informal texts.

CHAPTER I

1. Medical translation a provocation for official translators

Some say that the most difficult field of translation is the translation of medical texts because it is very diversified and multidisciplinary. The question arises, who would be a better medical translator: the linguist who knows well the field of the medical science, or those physicians who know a foreign language on a higher level. Both of them could be a professional translator. It is important that the translator must love the language (mother tongue and the foreign language used when translating), must have a sense of style, must identify correctly different registers discourse analysis and to be precise enough to use them properly. The technical discourse is formed by the cognitive, dynamic social and macro social processes. (Gunnarsson 1997, cited by Demeter 2010). The cognitive structure of the medical sciences language is built on the fields body of knowledge, terminology system and metaphors; while the discourses social part refers to the image of the professional community (Demeter, 2010). The secret of the success is the focused reading, consulting and using many dictionaries. A medical translator must have an unusual interest in the specific field, so (s)he can deal trustworthy with the stylistic characteristics and to spend hours on the internet to read appropriate medical articles on her field. The internet is our constant source but we have to be precautious and handle it wisely. We must visit only renowned professional websites and we should always check the texts nationality too, because nowadays many authors write in English though their mother tongue is far away from English. (Keresztes, 2006) The translation of medical texts is a really hard field if somebody wants to master it, but the same applies to the other fields of science. As an encouragement I would like to quote Peter Ustinov the famous English actors saying, that Russia is just like a turned outside drage: the bitter part is outside and the sweet part is inside. The same can be applied for medical translations because after we plod through it we start to enjoy it.

1.1. About medical texts in general The medical science is the field of science which is mostly about and is addressed to us. People are usually very interested in the topic of health and disease; therefore besides the general terminology of the field, we can also differentiate numerous so called "sub-terminologies" (Keresztes, 2006). In the field of medical texts the following categories are the most important: Published articles Original article/Case reports, Summary report, Abstract/summary, Course book/teaching material (for students who become doctors, pharmacists, nurses, specialist assistants, and for elementary school students), Educational Article (for laymen) Health Education leaflets (for kids, laymen, adults, health care professionals), Further (patient) information / medication review (for professionals, laymen), Research report, Professional autobiography/Professional CV, Applications, Findings (that of medical investigation), a hospitals final report, Product Information (for professionals, laymen), User manual / Description of instruments (professionals, laymen), Users manual/maintenance manual, etc.

As a translator we need to know how much the reader, the user of the target text knows about the text to be translated, how the reader interprets certain texts, the kinds of expressions and grammatical structures he uses while reading, because the used discourse aspects in our translation need to be generally accepted in that field. We must always express ourselves clearly 10

and articulately: the more complex a topic is, the more simpler and clearer does the translated text has to be. A problem came up with the use of international languages: should the translator create a text which perfectly fits in the given culture, or a text that sounds somewhat foreign? Localization - the relocation and adaptation of the terminologys in the target languages socioeconomic and cultural environment - is the international communication, the translations separate field, for instance we have to create an acceptable description of a medical device or of a vitamin product for the user (Keresztes, 2010). Difficulties may appear while translating a medical text due to different national types of hospitals, departments, etc. When we hear about medical translations we usually think about translating technical articles. Although as mentioned above, there are many other registers in the field of medical science. Difficulties in translating are different with every translator, but usually for an experienced translator the research article causes the least difficulty because these English articles contain a minimal amount of vocabulary and grammar and with the knowledge of some basic rules they can be easily translated. The two categories that are considerably more difficult to translate, are editorials and review articles (Keresztes, 2010). These are written by native English speakers, and they sometimes deal with ethical questions too. Their use of language and terminology occasionally give a hard time even for qualified translators. The translation of the final reports indeed give a hard time for a beginner (not physician) translator, but these have identical structures so after repeated translations we will get through more easily in this register. Therefore it is important to be careful here, because certain terms, abbreviations can have different meanings in different professions. The translation of manuals and maintenance manuals require a totally different type of knowledge. The translation of these texts does not require only a certain terminology skill, but the translator has to be well informed in the field of the technical too. In addition to the latest terminology, it is recommended to also know the latest guidelines and recommendations, for instance the publication called Guideline on the readability of the label and package leaflet of medical products for human use. These guides do not only give the proper help in choosing a certain terminology, but ensure the proper stylistic requirements for the translators. The translator has to know the topic which is going to be translated and has to create 11

his own image of it and has to understand the source texts every little detail. The translator should transmit the same message in the translated text that the original text has. Word for word translation is impermissible in any field. In the translation of medical texts it would lead to an unrecognizable distorted meaning. The best case scenario would be if the translation would be considered meaningless, but in the worst case it could mean quite the opposite. Although the translator does not have to know every part of the science, because a new therapy treatment can be translated almost perfectly without healing anybody or without knowing the diseases whole etiology or forecast. If we are not sure if we understand the target text, then we cannot create a reliable translation. At this point we dont speak about the case when a translator does not understand a certain terminology or a phrase, but about situations when specific or unique phrases must be translated, since while for the former problem we may use dictionaries the latter one can be solved only with the aid of the author. For instance: within 24 hours before shipment. This could mean 24 hours, more or less! How should we interpret the simple expression insert the gasket face up? How can we insert a gasket (cptueal) face up in a device? (Keresztes, 2010) When we accept a translation job we should always ask if we can somehow contact the original versions editor or writer of the text to get answers to the questions mentioned above. I emphasize it again, in these cases I do not need an expert, but rather the original writer. If the translator cannot contact the original writer (s)he should call attention to every ambiguous text that the translator could not clarify. Otherwise we know who will be held responsible (the translator of course) for all the ambiguities and contradictions in the text. The translations eternal question is: how can a bad text be well translated? We have to accept the fact, that the translation can only be as good as the original text. The translators common mistake is that they always try to create a better text in the target text than the original.

1.2. The dangers lying ahead for a medical translator What should we be aware of in addition to the above mentioned? The use of passive voice suits perfectly for the English medical language; lets just think about case reports, genuine publications, or users manuals. For instance the passive voice is not characteristically in the

12

Hungarian language, not even in the scientific registers. The use of the passive voice would make the translated text foreign to the Hungarian language (Keresztes, 2010).

1.3. Terminology One of the most difficult part of translating a medical text for a translator who is not doctor is the use of the Greco-Roman terminology. Although even the professional medical translators have to be very careful when using such expressions. In the English language many classical terms were simplified and got replaced with common words, while the Romanian language uses a specific terminology. While the Romanian language uses piroz, nefropatie, cardiopatie, sac hidric, the English language uses heartburn, kidney disease, heart disease, water film. The Greco-Roman terms are sometimes used differently in the English language than the Romanian language. The sistem nervos vegetativ is autonomic nervous system in English. While the dictionary offers us the vegetative nervous system, it sounds too archaic even in the circle of neurologists. The classical terminologies in some cases are used in a totally different meaning, for instance while the Latin word rigor in the Romanian language means rigiditate (see rigor mortis = rigiditate postmortal), tonus muscular accentuat, in the English language the rigor words primary meaning is chills/shivering. The original latin rubeola in Romanian is used in the same way (rubeol), but the English language uses as German Measles. (Keresztes, 2010) Complications may occur if we do not check certain examination, operation, surgery, etc. procedures names. Usually in the English language the procedures are named after the person who invented it, while the Romanian language names it after the study area, anatomical structures, for instance Pap smear (Papanicolaou smear), the same procedure in the Romanian language is named as frotiu Papanicolau. Although there are exceptions too: the X-ray/X-ray examination was discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen but it is used as X-ray, in Romanian radiografie (in Hungarian Rntgen-sugr and Rntgen-vizsglat). One of the most important characteristics of the English language is the so called verbing, certain nouns are used as verbs: for instance a pipette (noun) - to pipette (verb), a kit (noun) - to kit (verb) and a gown (noun) - to gown (verb) even de-gown (verb). These verbs formed from nouns sometimes give a painful headache for the translator when translating it from English into

13

Romanian or more likely into Hungarian. In such cases we must always check their original noun meaning first. Another difficulty is the translation of the general English words, such as to check for leaks (verificai dac este scurgere) which in fact means let us examine so there should not be a leak (s verificm s nu fie scurgere)! (Keresztes 2010). The translation of English medical texts into Hungarian will almost always be longer than the source text, because one of the most distinctive features of the English language is to try to describe everything as briefly and concisely as possible. This fact explains why most Hungarian translators get paid after the characters (and also because of the cs, dz, dzs, gy, ly, ny, sz, ty, zs letters). We should not use informal expressions, or slangs nor collocations in our translation. In English the medical languages euphemisms have spread, for instance: gap = vagina, choice = risk assessment, or bipolar disorder = maniac-depression (Keresztes 2010). When translating these expressions we must always use the official terminology in both languages. It is important to know the register accurately and to use adequate stylistic tools. In some points of view the Romanian language is more formal than the English language. Only a few health sciences allow the use of the informal style. Every year many new terms are introduced in the medical vocabulary. The specialists usually learn the new phrases in English and so they are used in everyday practice. In some cases it is not easy to find the correct Romanian term so the unqualified translator could create serious distortions in the translated text. The solution in such cases is that in the translation we give the original English terminology too in brackets so we ease the identification of the word for the reader. Sometimes serious research has to be done to detect if the specific expression was already published in a previous publication. If we find such previous translations and we judge it as a good translation then we should stick with that. With this we can contribute to the spread of the newly established professional terminology term. If the newly formed medical terms are already fixed, then we have to use them uniformly, because their identifying role can be filled in only within the text and between the text and only in this way can the coherence of the text be revealed. (Keresztes 2010) The spelling of medical words requires a peculiar attention both in the English and Romanian language. Since the medical terminology is based on the Greco-Latin language, we 14

should stick to the original spelling. We should always check these words standard spelling in the medical spelling dictionary. 1.4. The abbreviations of the special terms Always check the translated text, acronyms, and the meanings of the abbreviations. Some acronyms may be differing in other languages, for instance the English DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) in Romanian will be ADN (acid dezoxiribonucleic) and in Hungarian DNS (dezoxiribonukleinsav). We should not assume that the reader will be familiar with the abbreviations used by us. In brackets we should give the full meaning when we use it for the first time. For a medical translator it is clear that in the translated text the RR abbreviation means Riva Rocci = blood pressure (tensiune arterial), but in English they use a different abbreviation, BP (blood pressure). (Keresztes 2010) We must give the full meaning of the acronyms and abbreviations. We must pay a special attention when we translate original publications, case reports, case histories, hospitals final report, where the text, particularly the last two registers are teeming with the above mentioned technical terms. There is no need to make it sound more Romanian or Hungarian, although we have to look up each of them because sometimes there might be exception: for instance the abbreviation for the hematocrit in English is hct, while in Hungarian is hc. (Keresztes 2010)

1.5. British vs. American English The translator must know the origin of the source text because relevant differences may occur in the professional American English and British English language. I would like to draw attention to these differences which are very frequent. For example the dates: in British English the sequence is day, month, year, yet in the American English month, day and year. This is particularly delusive when the whole date is written in Arabic numerals and the months name is not even abbreviated. It is important to know if a blood work expires on 1st October or on 10th of January. Likewise some expressions could lead to a total misunderstanding: the continue a procedure expression in the British English means to continue/go on with/proceed with the procedure (a continua procedura), but in American English this means to postpone the procedure (a amna, ntrzia procedura). The same applies to the proposal was tabled 15

expression because in British English means the proposal was set, arranged while in American English means the proposal was delayed. (Keresztes 2010) If we are more familiar with the British English language, when we translate a text from American English some difficulties may appear because of the spelling. For instance in American English we write edema, but in British English it is oedema; A.E. esophagus, B.E. oesophagus; A.E. etiology, B.E. aetiology. Particularly the beginning of a word should create a little unsettlement (Keresztes 2010). When we are writing or translating a text we must always use the proper (United Kingdom or USA) spell check or proofing tools software, which can detect the problems and in some cases fix the problems. Differences may occur in punctuation because the Americans use the semicolon and the colon/double dot more rarely than the British. Although the use of these punctuations in the Romanian language are more widespread in the field of medical literature.

1.6. The proofreading We must pay a very special attention when we are proofreading the target text. The incorrect use of punctuation may change the meaning of the message, or even it can make it uninterpretable. We must focus and be precise when we proofread our translation. Of course a proofreader will immediately observe because of the context, if the redox reactions is translated as bull reactions (reacie de taur), but sometimes the erratum of figures is not that simple to notice when we are proofreading - however the consequences can be fatal. We have to be careful with the use of the decimal points: in English the comma in the case of numbers it is used for the separation of the thousands, while in Romanian language it is used a full stop (point), and in English the full stop (point) is used to separate the decimals, while in the Romanian language in this case it is used a comma. We must always double check the numericals in the translated text.

1.7. Latin vs. English The international medical terminology has undergone a huge transformation in the 20th century. From the middle Ages until now the medical terminology was based on the Latin 16

vocabulary, but nowadays the classical language is replaced by the English language. Since we live in the world of transformations, we witness the process of settling normative rules and standardizing where the specificity of the lexicology, semantics, grammar, translations and pragmatics requests this. It is not only about that the Latin -> English language exchange meets todays requirements. The expansion of the English language can be explained by the medical sciences brand new fields, its border areas, and by the formed auxiliary sciences. These are already built in the English language (microbiology, virology, immunology, biochemistry, stem cell research, colposcopy). There are many novelties in the field of surgery (vascular surgery, heart surgery, brain surgery), and new examinations and surgical procedures appeared, and these are also in English, moreover even the specific fields terminology is only in English. (Zimnyi 2010) According to Pter Bsze, the founder and chief editor of the Hungarian Medical Language (Magyar Orvosi Nyelv) the medical profession gone under revolutionary changes, namely because of the molecular biologys expansion. With this, many new technical terms get created, and of course mostly in English. About the main characteristics in today's international medical language Bsze Peter writes the followings: Nobody can deny that, the medical literature and its professional international language is the English language. This is totally appropriate, because the common language and the common interpretation is the medical practices borderless part. It would be incorrect if every country would have to formulate its own definitions: the situation would be confusing and this would create a lot of damage. (I. 1: 2)

2. The general characteristics of the medical terminology

2.1. The requirements of the unification

The requirements for unification is not only true for the mentioned brand new fields (microbiology, virology, etc.), but it is also valid even for the classical anatomy, which got its first unification in 1895 in Basel (the Basel Nomina Anatomica), when they agreed to only 5 thousand terms of 50 thousand proposed versions. After this the JENA version was created (1935), the BIRMINGHAM (1950) and the last one in 1955 the Parisian revision. However in the last century the specialized committee which works with the nomenclature is controlled by 17

English and lately even by American people (Zimnyi 2010). This also explains the Anglicism expansion. Against the terminology they set up three main requirements: semantic clarity, linguistic acceptability and practice (II. 2: 9). Tibor Donth explains why the international medical language can borrow so easily the English terminologies instead of the previous Latin. The English vocabulary contains 50% of Latin or Greek origin words, but in the case of terminologies the rate is 70%. In the case of periphrasis the grammatical structures go under a major change and instead of the simple structured term a more complicated form is created: abductio humeri - abduction motion of the arm at the shoulder. (Zimnyi 2010) The Latin and the Greek language - mostly for its word combination rules and because of the semantic order of the word formation - was suitable excellently for the medical nomenclature. Bla Buda talks about another consideration: that it is not a coincidence that even nowadays the Greco-Latin terminology formation is in progress from such English words, which words originate from one of the two classical language (II. 2: 6).

2.2. Expression types according to their origin According to Zimnyi rpd, based on the created mixed-language the following model phrases can be divided (the examples are from the field of intestinal surgery): a) Double formations, which the Romanian terminology language use it alike: i) Romanian/Latin: anastomoz/anastomosis; ii)Latin/English: colostomia/colostomy. b) Formations of one language: i) Latin: diveticulitis ('diverticulit'); ii) English: diverting colostomy, protective colostomy, blow-hole colostomy, temporary colostomy; c) Mixture of the formations: i) English/Latin: end to endanastomosis (coneciunea a celor dou capete'), 18

ii) lower rectal anastomosis (anastomoza a rectului de mai jos'). 2.3. Abbreviations with acronyms As we have seen we meet with more and more complex English denominations which are in fact periphrases, yet they are terms. Although the English language also shows the short version of the acronym: gastroinestinal tract associated lymphoid tissue - GALT tract gastrointestinal cu esut limfoid. It should be noted, that the English language frequently use uppercase letters in terms (Gastroinestinal Tract Associated Lymphoid Tissue), although the British governing writing exercise does not support this fully. Because of the frequent use of abbreviations and acronyms we should create a more clear picture. Their use are not trouble-free. There are acronyms that can be solved in many ways, so they do not meet the requirements of the clarity: RSV - respiratory syncytial virus, or Rous sarcoma virus. There are other problems with the simple idiomatic CD abbreviation: cell surface determinant suprafaa celulelor determinant - being an international nomenclature, it can not be replaced with an acceptable Hungarian abbreviation.

2.5. Semantic units According to Imre Szirmai the stroke term should not be considered as a terminology, because many forms of diseases contain this term (brain embolism, brain infarction, brain haemorrhage, cerbrovascular accident, cerebral accident, cerebral bleed, cerebral haemorrhage, cerebral hemorrhage, CVA, hematencephalon, intracerebral hemorrhage), etc. Nowadays the stroke term replaced the former ischemia. (III. 1: 25-6).

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3. The analysis of medical terms

The medical terms can be divided into two major categories: 1. Descriptive- describing shape, color, size, function, etc 2. Eponyms Eponym means a word or name derived from the name of a person. Eponyms are used to honor the discoverer or who first described an anatomical structure or diagnosed a disease or developed a medical instrument or procedure. Some examples of eponyms are Alzheimer disease (which was first diagnosed by Alois Alzheimer) or Gavriliu's operation (which procedure was developed by the Romanian surgeon Dan Gavriliu). The problem with the eponyms is that they do not give enough useful information about what is or where to find the item named. For instance if a physician says to his patient that he needs Plummer treatment, the patient will have no idea what does he need to be cured (use of iodine for the treatment of hyperthyroidism). Recently some eponyms were changed with descriptive means, however some things are known only by their eponym. Would you recognize "paralysis agitans" as Parkinson's disease? Although some descriptive terms were judged as offensive or stigmatizing. For instance leprosy has been replaced with Hansens disease. Eponyms can be also found in other fields of sciences (like architecture, law, etc). According to the document Ways of Translating Medical Terms from English into Romanian which I found on the internet 1, a medical term contains three basic parts: word root (usually it is the middle of the term and its central meaning) prefix (comes at the beginning and usually identifies some subdivision or part of the central meaning)
1

The document was shared by Nicole Palada on www.docstoc.com on 02.19.2010. and unfortunately had no

author. We tried to contact the uploader Nicole Palada via e-mail and messages but we had no luck. http://www.docstoc.com/docs/25867579/Ways-of-translating-English-Medical-Terms-Into-Romanian Hereinafter referred to as WTMTER.

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suffix (comes at the end and modifies the central meaning as to what or who is interacting with it or what is happening to it)

For instance:

Word Root therm = heat hypothermia (less heat), thermometer (measuring heat) Let us look at a real medical term and take it apart.

myocarditis (prefix) myo = muscle (root) card = heart (suffix) itis = inflammation

(Table 1.) The table above demonstrated the major parts of a medical term. The next table will demonstrate how the prefix and suffix changes can alter the meaning of a term without changing the central meaning and keeping the root the same. Prefix change: myocarditis pericarditis endocarditis = muscle layer of heart inflamed = outer layer of heart inflamed = inner layer of heart inflamed (Table 2.)

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The suffix is added to the end of the word and as a result it forms a new word. In medical terminology the suffix provides very important clues about a words definition. For instance, the suffix -itis means inflammation, so when we see a word ending with -itis we know it refers to an inflammation. Suffix change:

cardiologist Cardiomyopathy Cardiomegaly

= a physician specializing in the heart = damage to heart muscle layer = enlargement of the heart (Table 3.)

The following table contains the frequently used word beginnings (prefixes) and word endings (suffixes) which are used to create many medical terms.

-itis -osis

= inflammation = abnormal condition

tonsillitis, appendicitis cyanosis (of blueness, due to cold or low oxygen)

-ectomy

= to cut out (remove)

appendectomy, tonsillectomy

-otomy

= to cut into

tracheotomy (to cut into the windpipe, temporary opening)

-ostomy

= to make a "mouth"

colostomy (to make a permanent opening in colon)

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a/an

= without, none

anemia (literally no blood but means few red cells)

Micro

= small

microstomia (abnormally small mouth, see "stomy" in colostomy above?)

macro

= large

macrostomia (abnormally large mouth)

mega/ megaly

= enlarged

megacolon (abnormally colon = large intestine)

large

-scopy/ scopic -graphy/ graph -gram

= to look, observe

colonoscopy (look into colon)

= recording an image

mammography the breasts)

(imaging

= the image (X-ray) (Table 4.)

mammogram

According to the WTMTER document before we start learning specific medical terms for various systems of the body, we need to know word roots that identify major organs in the body. Note in each example, we have used some prefix or suffix we have already been introduced to.

Stomato Dento Glosso/linguo

= mouth = teeth = tongue

stomatitis dentist glossitis, lingual nerve

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Gingivo Encephalo Gastro Entero Colo

= gums = brain = stomach = intestine = large intestine

gingivitis encephalitis gastritis gastroenteritis colitis, megacolon

Procto

= anus/rectum

proctitis, proctologist

Hepato

= liver

hepatitis, hepatomegaly

Nephro/rene

= kidney

nephrosis, renal artery

Orchido

= testis

orchiditis, orchidectomy

Oophoro Hystero/metro

= ovary =uterus

oophorectomy hysterectomy, endometritis

Salpingo Dermo Masto/mammo

= uterine tubes = skin = breast

hystosalpingogram dermatitis mammography, mastectomy

Osteo

= bones

osteoporosis

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Cardio

= heart

electrocardiogram (ECG)

Cysto Rhino

= bladder = nose

cystitis rhinitis (runny nose!)

Phlebo/veno Pneumo/pulmo

= veins = lung

phlebitis, phlebotomy pneumonitis, pulmonologist

Hemo/emia

= blood

hematologist, anemia

(Table 5.) Although we have to note that some organs have more than one word root. For example "masto" and "mammo". Typically, one is derived from the Greek and one from Latin. Since the etymology of medical terms were mentioned it is appropriate to mention that most of the medical terminology derives from the Latin or the Greek language. I am going to present some examples of medical terminologies according to WTMTER document which were derived from these and other languages. In addition, looking up a medical term into a dictionary we can find out the origin of word with the help of abbreviations: AS. = Anglo Saxon: gut AS. guttas = the bowels. shoulder AS. sculdor = shoulder.

Gr. = Greek: acromegaly Gr. akron = tip or extremity, and megas = large. adenoid Gr. aden = gland, and eidos = resemblance. 25

L. = Latin: acinus L. acinus = grape. adipose L. adiposus; from adeps = fat. ML. = Medieval Latin: bursa ML. bursa = a purse, hence any closed sac. Mod.L. = Modern Latin: basilar Mod. L. basilaris = basal; originally from Gr. basis = a base. serosa Mod. L. sersus = membrane giving off serum. OE.= Old English: socket OE. socket = spearhead; from OF. soc = ploughshare. Later the meaning was transferred to mean a sheath or holder, the hollow into which something fits. OF. = Old French: ameloblast OF. en = on, amel = enamel, and Gr. blastos = germ. Fr. = French: bruit Fr. bruit = sound or noise. According to the WTMTER document there are some illustrative examples: Esophagus comes from Greek words meaning "that which swallows what we eat". Fallopian tubes. They are named after a 16th century Italian anatomist, Gabriello Fallopio. Placenta. It means a "flat cake" in Greek, simply describing its shape. To understand the meaning of a medical term we have to look at the whole word.

4. Connections between English and Romanian Terminology in Medicine

The Romanian language went through a major change from a well-known wooden language before the communist times to a more dynamic fresh and new language (Stiegelbauer, irban, Bene, 2012). The Romanian language is under the English language influence more than ever. Since the English is now the most used language the most prominent influence on the Romanian medical language has been that of English, and some old Latin terms got replaced by the new English terms (for instance Apoplexy now is used as stroke). In the 20th century we can notice the constant presence of new lexical elements in the medical terms corpus, which were already fixed during the last centuries. The translation of medical terms from Romanian into 26

English represents a valuable area for translation studies (Stiegelbauer, irban, Bene, 2012). All the European languages share the same Greco-Latin roots in the medical terminology. The preservation of the Latin language as the language of sciences until the 19th century, contributed to a great range of lexical similarities in medical nomenclature, and its effects can be observed until today. The knowledge of the Latin roots helps professionals in the field of medicine to understand medical texts in different languages. (Stiegelbauer, irban, Bene, 2012) The Anglicization of Latin medical terms was a beneficial process because of the English languages two roots, Saxon and Romance: Latin Adjuvantus Balsamum Bronchia Capsula Adjuvant Balsam Bronchus Capsula (Table 6.) Since the Romanian language is a Romance language there are many similarities between the Romanian and English language as seen in the above table. English Adjuvant Balsam Bronhii Capsula Romanian

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SUMMARY
To sum up, the medical translation is a really hard field of work and it can give some serious headaches. We have to remember, if we accept to translate a medical text, we always have to ask if we can contact the original author of the text, and ask if it is in American English or British English, if there are no clues to notice it, because it could cause major errors and problems in the final translation (like dates). If there are abbreviations in the source text we have to be very precautious because some abbreviations might refer to something else than to some usual terms. In the same time we have to explain the abbreviations, we should not presume that the client or the reader will know the meaning of the given abbreviation or knows more than us, so we should explain it. Also we have to be precautious with the eponyms, too because in Hungarian we are talking about Rntgen-sugr while in English X-ray and in Romanian Raze X. Sometimes the eponyms get new descriptive terms and descriptive terms eponyms, but this does not mean that we should forget the old term, because there are physicians or laymen people, who do not know the new term. If we really insist to use the new descriptive or eponym term then we should also give or explain the old term too in parenthesis so the reader will not have problems understanding it. The Romanian language went through a major change in the last decade and became a more dynamic fresh and new language and since the English language has a major influence on the Romanian language, many terms got renewed. If we are familiar only with the old terms, then the Latin roots will help us to recognize or to understand the specific new term. As I stated above, medical translations can give us a serious headache, but after a while, when we get familiar with it we will start enjoying it. After a lot of practice translating medical texts will be like translating simple sentences in middle school.

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CHAPTER II

1. An introduction to parallel corpus methodology

Translations as semantic data Parallel corpora, in which original texts are aligned with their translations into another language, are a rich source of semantic information. Translations come about when translators evaluate the degree of interpretational equivalence between linguistic expressions in specific contexts. In many ways such evaluations, made without any theoretical concerns in mind, seem more reliable as sources of semantic information than the careful paraphrases of the semanticist or the meaning descriptions of the lexicographer. Assuming that this is the case, can we then retrieve some of the semantic properties of expressions by going backwards from the network of translational relations in situated texts? Can we reconstruct semantic properties from the translational properties manifested in a parallel corpus?

We collected a corpus of parallel text in 2 languages from a medical course book, which was published on the web.

Corpus Collection Acquisition of a parallel corpus for the use in translation analysis typically takes five steps: obtain the raw data (e.g., by crawling the web) extract and map parallel chunks of text (document alignment) break the text into sentences (sentence splitting) prepare the corpus for analysis (coding, tokenisation) map sentences in one language sentences in the other language (sentence alignment)

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Document Alignment To obtain the maximum amount of data, we match the study in both languages. The document alignment is done without tokenization and sentence splitting.

Sentence Splitting and Tokenisation Sentence splitting and tokenisation require specialized tools for each language. Unfortunately, we do not have such tools available for the texts under consideration. Thus we matched separately the ST and TT sentences. The number of characters is and words is . after tokenization and sentence-alignment.

Sentence Alignment Sentence alignment is usually a hard problem, but in our case it is simplified by the fact that the texts are already available in paragraph aligned format. Each paragraph consists typically of only 25 sentences.

Methodology of the Research The text was sent in .pdf format via e-mail including a picture. The text was assembled together by myself and I included a lot of terminologies with problematic sentences, to which the solutions can be found in my thesis. The chosen text was built up of two major sections: the first one was a pure medical text and the second one was a medical-administrative text regarding the healthcare system of Great Britain. The translation contained not only terminological problems, but also simple grammatical errors and problems. The source language is in English and the target language is Romanian. In the present chapter I would like to analyze the above mentioned translation which was translated by an authorized translator working in Tg.Mure. It was translated within 24 hours and received in .doc format despite the fact, that the source text was sent in .pdf. 30

The source text will be marked by numbers starting with 1a) for the source text and 1b) for the target text.

1a) C.O.L.D. Chronic obstructive lung disease is the co-occurrence of chronic bronchitis and emphysema, a pair of commonly co-existing diseases of the lungs in which the airways become narrowed. This leads to a limitation of the flow of air to and from the lungs, causing shortness of breath (dyspnea). In clinical practice, COLD is defined by its characteristically low airflow on lung function tests. In contrast to asthma, this limitation is poorly reversible and usually gets progressively worse over time. 1b) B.P.O.C. Boala pulmonar obstructiv cronic este co-apariia bronitei cronice i a emfizemei, o pereche de boli ale plmnilor ce co-existent n mod frecvent, n care cile respiratorii se ngusteaz. Acest lucru duce la o limitare a fluxului de aer la i de la plmni, provocnd dificulti de respiraie (dispnee). n practica clinic, B.P.O.C. este definit de fluxul su de aer caracteristic sczut, n testele funcionale pulmonare. Spre deosebire de astm, aceast limitare este uor reversibil i, de obicei, devine treptat mai rea n timp. The title already got my attention because according to the theoretical research I concluded that we should not assume that the reader knows what this abbreviation stands for, although it is mentioned in the first line but if I had to translate the text I would probably explain the abbreviation of B.P.O.C. which stands for Boal pulmonar obstructiv cronic.

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In the source text I mentioned a term emphysema which was translated easily as emfizemei, which is fortunately an accurate translation but grammatically it is wrong. It should have been emfizemului instead of emfizemei. The grammatical mistake lies in the fact that the grammatical gender of the Romanian noun emfizem is masculine, meaning that its suffixed form should be emfizemului and not emfizemei. The expression ce co-existent n mod frecvent is also incorrect grammatically, I had trouble understanding it. If it was ce co-exist instead of ce co-existent n mod frecvent there would be no problems. The phrase fluxul su de aer is not the appropriate translation of the term flow of air which is a medical term and its translation would not need the insertion of any other word, yet the translator interrupts the phrase completing it with a possessive pronoun. Such a translation procedure is not permitted in the case of specialized languages. The phrase treptat mai rea n timp is a completely colloquial one, its use is not permitted in a medical text. The adequate expression would be aceast limitare este uor reversibil i de obicei devine treptat mai accentuat . The translators choice reflects his or her lack of skills in the domain of specialized language. 2a) COLD symptoms - In advanced COLD, patients may develop cyanosis (bluish discoloration of the lips and nail beds) due to a lack of oxygen in blood. - They also may develop morning headaches due to an inability to remove carbon dioxide from the blood. - Weight loss occurs in some patients, primarily (another possibility is reduced intake of food) because of the additional energy that is required to breathe.

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2b) Sipmtomele B.P.O.C. - n cazul B.P.O.C. avansate, pacienii pot dezvolta cianoz (o decolorare albstruie a buzelor i rupere a unghiilor), din cauza lipsei de oxigen n snge. - De asemenea, ei pot dezvolta dureri de cap dimineaa, din cauza unei incapaciti de a elimina dioxidul de carbon din snge. - Scderea n greutate apare la unii pacieni, n primul rnd (o alt posibilitate este consumul redus de alimente), datorit energiei suplimentare, care este necesar pentru a respira. Here the translator had a misspell in the subtitle. The term symptoms was translated as Sipmtomele which terminologically is correct, but since a misspell occurred we can not consider it as a correct term. This proves that the authorized translator is not a professional authorized translator. A professional translator should have a spellcheck software or the Microsoft Office Proofing Tools kit which can detect similar problems and it can even correct the problems. If the translator is not using a computer when translating, but rather uses the oldfashioned pen and paper then the solution would be the many proofreading. In this part of the text the advanced is translated incorrectly because it is translated in plural while it should be only in singular feminine form. Also the morning headaches would sound better if it was translated as dureri de cap matinale instead of the chosen version which is dureri de cap dimineaa. Between the penultimate and the last line there is line spacing, which was not included in the original source text, thus the requirement of the formal equivalence is not respected in spite of the fact that in case of specialized texts this would be essential.

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An other observation would be that comprehension is enhanced by the fact that the parenthesis is not positioned appropriately. It should be inserted at the end of the sentence instead of splitting by it the otherwise coherent text. So we may enunciate that text-formatting mistakes occur as well during the translation process, thus the rules of natural target-text formation are broken. 3a) - In advanced COLD, small blood vessels in the lungs are destroyed, and this blocks the flow of blood through the lungs. As a result, the heart must pump with increased force and pressure to get blood to flow through the lungs. (The elevated pressure in the blood vessels of the lungs is called pulmonary hypertension.) If the heart cannot manage the additional work, right heart failure also known as Cor pulmonale results and leads to swelling of the feet and ankles. - Patients with COLD may cough up blood (hemoptysis). Usually hemoptysis is due to damage to the inner lining of the airways and the airways' blood vessels; however, occasionally, hemoptysis may signal the development of lung cancer. 3b) - n cazul B.P.O.C. avansate, vasele mici de snge din plmni sunt distruse, iar acest lucru blocheaz fluxul de snge prin plmni. Ca urmare, inima trebuie s pompeze cu o for i presiune crescute pentru a asigura fluxul de snge prin plmni. (Presiunea crescut din vasele de snge din plmni poart denumirea de hipertensiune arterial pulmonar.) n cazul n care inima nu poate prelua lucrul suplimentar, are loc insuficiena cardiac dreapt, de asemenea, cunoscut sub numele de Cor pulmonar i duce la umflarea picioarelor i a gleznelor. - Pacienii care sufer de B.P.O.C. pot tui snge (hemoptizie). De obicei, hemoptizia se datoreaz deteriorrii prii interioare a cilor respiratorii i a cilor vaselor de snge, cu toate acestea, ocazional, hemoptizia poate semnala dezvoltarea cancerului pulmonar.

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Here the translator also translated the advanced in plural form which should sound correct if it was in feminine singular version, avansat. In some parts of this translation the reader might have the impression that this text is rather informal than formal. For instance you can not use phrases like acest lucru in this kind of rigid text. In the opinion of the Katharina Reiss all the texts must be translated according to their texttypes specificities (Reiss, 1973). Thus rigid texts (Bart, 2002) like medical and legal or official ones should be translated with an inflexible, monosemantic terminology respecting in the same time the rules of formal appearance. If we read the text attentively we can easily observe that the source text is not a weekday text, but rather a formal one. The translator again had problems with the plural/singular forms of the term crescute, because it should be in singular form.

The translation contains the phrase Pacienii care sufer de B.P.O.C. pot tui snge, and though later on the parenthesis makes reference to the medical term as well, we may conclude that the Romanian version is neither correct terminologically nor adequate from the point of view of language register. The Romanian expression is accurate only in weekday speech, maybe in a dialogue with a patient, but not in a written and authentic medical text. Instead of it the translator would have had two medical phrases to choose in between: au tuse productive i pot expectora snge sau au tuse cu expectoraie sangvinolent.

The last item to mention regarding this fragment is the use of an inappropriate conjunctive element that is in the Romanian text cu toate acestea, instead of the conjuction dar, that would be the perfect match.

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4a)

Pulmonary oedema Pulmonary oedema, is fluid accumulation in the air spaces and parenchyma of the lungs. It leads to impaired gas exchange and may cause respiratory failure. It is due to either failure of the left ventricle of the heart to adequately remove blood from the pulmonary circulation ("cardiogenic pulmonary oedema"), see below, or an injury to the lung parenchyma or vasculature of the lung ("noncardiogenic pulmonary oedema"). Whilst the range of causes are manifold the treatment options are limited, and to a large extent, the most effective therapies are used whatever the cause. Treatment is focused on three aspects, firstly improving respiratory function, secondly, treating the underlying cause, and thirdly avoiding further damage to the lung. Pulmonary oedema, especially in the acute setting, can lead to respiratory failure, cardiac arrest due to hypoxia and death. 4b) Edemul pulmonar Edem pulmonar, reprezint acumularea de lichid n spaiile n aer i parenchimul plmnilor. Aceasta duce la afectarea schimbului de gaze i poate provoca insuficiena respiratorie. Acest lucru se datoreaz fie lipsei ventriculului stng al inimii de a elimina n mod adecvat sngele din circulaia pulmonar ("edem pulmonar cardiogen "), a se vedea mai jos, sau o leziune a parenchimului pulmonar sau vascularizaia pulmonar ("edem pulmonar noncardiogenic " ). n timp ce gama cauzelor este multipl, opiunile de tratament sunt limitate, i ntr-o mare msur, cele mai eficiente terapii sunt utilizate, indiferent de cauz. Tratamentul este axat pe trei aspecte, n primul rnd mbuntirea funciei respiratorii, pe de alt parte, tratarea cauzei subiacente, n al treilea rnd evitarea deteriorrii n continuare a plmnilor. Edemul pulmonar, n special n faza acut, poate duce la insuficiena respiratorie, stop cardiac din cauza hipoxiei i moarte.

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In this part of the text I gave a clue for the translator, to observe whether the source text had been drafted in British English or in American English. Oedema is the original Greek term formerly known as dropsy or hydropsy, which is used only in the British English texts, while the edema (dropping the o letter) is used in the American English language. This part is very relevant, because there are major differences between the two territorial variants of the English language, as I have already mentioned this aspect earlier in the theoretical part of my paper. An other item that I also observed was that in the source text there is no line between the title and the first paragraph but the translator insisted for the extra space. In the same time I also observed some terminological problems and errors. In the source text it is mentioned air spaces which was translated as aer which in my opinion terminologically is wrong because it would suit more with n alveole. Also parenchyma of the lungs is translated with some problems because parenchimul plmnilor is incorrect not only terminologically but also grammatically. It should have been parenchimul pulmonar. In this excerpt we also can observe phrasing problems as well. The Romanian sentence segment introduced by the disjunctive conjunction fie must be used with its grammatical pair that is also fie (just as the English either/or or neither/nor). The translator does not respect this rule, this mistake making the text difficult to understand. In the target text we can read a se vedea mai jos which is referring to the image below. In this case the translator should have translated as pe figura 2. The translator also had problems with the quotation marks because in the ("edem pulmonar cardiogen "), part we can see space between the last word and quotation mark. Also in the ("edem pulmonar noncardiogenic " ) part there is space not only between the last word and the quotation mark, but after the quotation marks and before the parenthesis we can also see that space was introduced.

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5a)

38

5b)

[tampile indescifrabile] First of all the introduced picture was stretched in the target text and the quality of the image got very low. The signature was removed in the target text (picture), it was not even mentioned if there were any signatures.

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6a) CASE STUDY HISTORY: This 54-year-old retailer who presents with acute shortness of breath, hypertension, found to be in acute pulmonary oedema. No confirmed prior history of heart attack, myocardial infarction, heart failure. History dates back to about six months of intermittent shortness of breath, intermittent very slight oedema with shortness of breath. FAMILY HISTORY: Negative for coronary disease. Dad died of lung cancer. LABORATORY STUDIES: On 04.02.07 white count: 6.7, hemoglobin 13, hematocrit 39.3. Potassium of 3.2. RADIOGRAPHIC DATA: Chest x-ray, pulmonary oedema, cardiomegaly. PLAN: Admit. Aggressive heart failure management. Get echo. After discharge another meeting on 04.05.07 to get extra medication if needed. TREATMENT: Medication: Coenzyme Q10 (100 mg two times per day), L-carnitine (500 mg three times per day). 6b) STUDIU DE CAZ ISTORIC: Acest vnztor n vrst de 54 de ani, care se prezint cu dificulti de respiraie acut, hipertensiune arterial, sufer de edem pulmonar acut. n antecedente nu s-a confirmat atac de cord, infarct miocardic, insuficien cardiac. Antecedentele dateaz de aproximativ ase luni de dificulti de respiraie intermitent, edem intermitent foarte uor, cu dificulti de respiraie. ISTORICUL FAMILIEI: Negativ n cazul bolii coronariene. Tatl a decedat, fiind diagnosticat cu cancer pulmonar. STUDII DE LABORATOR: n data de 02.04.07 numrul celulelor albe: 6,7, hemoglobina 13, hematocrit 39.3. Potasiu de 3,2. 40

DATE RADIOGRAFICE: radiografie pulmonar, edem pulmonar, cardiomegalie. PLAN: Recunoate. Tratarea insuficienei cardiace agresive. A se efectua eco. Dup efectuare, o alt ntlnire n data de 05.04.07 pentru a obine medicamente suplimentare, dac este necesar. TRATAMENT: Medicaie: Coenzima Q10 (100 mg de dou ori pe zi), L-carnitina (500 mg de trei ori pe zi). The title of the next part is Case Study, this being translated into Romanian with the phrase Studiu de Caz. In the Romanian medical practice physicians rather prefer the expression Prezentare de Caz. The first paragraph named HISTORY was translated as ISTORIC which in fact is used as antecedente by the physicians.

As I have mentioned above this is not a weekday text, so you can not say vnz tor, although it is mentioned as retailer in the source text, but it would sound more formal with pacient in the target text. This latter option seems to be better also because of the Romanian medical practice which identifies patients by their names and gender, their occupation being relevant only when the physician must deal with a professional disease. Here I also observed that the translator the History dates back part translated as Antecedentele dateaz. In my opinion it would be a more accurate translation with simptomele dateaz, term, because physicians use this more often in this case, than antecedentele dateaz. The second paragraph named FAMILY HISTORY was translated as ISTORICUL FAMILIEI. Grammatically this translation is correct, but the Romanian physicians rather use Antecedente familiale. Earlier I mentioned that I gave a clue for the translator to notice if the source text is in British or American English language, and it is now that this clue plays a role of major importance. As I 41

stated in my thesis it is very important to know whether the source text is in British or American English, because if a date has to be translated it may cause some headaches. In this part of the text I wrote three dates, which could mean 4th of August 2007, or 8th of April 2007. Here the translator was not attentive enough, because the date was in British English version (day, month, year), yet the translator translated it as if it was an American English date (month, day, year), because since the American English language is known better than the British English, the translator thought this texts language was American English. At the laboratory studies part the translator translated the term white count as celule albe which in fact should be leucocite. Here also I can mention that the translator didnt defined the unit of the white counts which should be millimolar, though in the source text it is not mentioned, but if I were to translate this part, I would include the unit as well. The Romanian simple preposition de at the Potasiu part is not necessary. The RADIOGRAPHIC DATA part should have been translated as Radiografie toracic pulmonar: edem pulmonar, cardiomegalie because it would sound more familiar for the physicians. In the next part I would like to mention that the English physicians might prefer the PLAN term, but the Romanian physicians prefer more the term Recomandri. This also proves that the translator is not familiar enough with the field of the medical science. In this part the original text contained a term admit, which was translated as recunoate. This is a loan translation or metaphrase because literally it means to admit if we did something wrong for instance, or more likely a synonym to confess, but in this case, since this text is rather a formal, a medical one, its context indicates that here the admit means something else. The term may have two meanings: the first one would be admit as to accept the treatment but its major meaning would be the term which means that the patient will be interned while the patient will be examined and treated. In this part I noticed another problem with the target text, which is A se efectua eco. Since as I stated above that this medical text is not a weekday text, the term eco should not be shortened, but rather written down entirely as ultrasonografie or ecografie.

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The source text did not contain the clinical examination or physical examination term though the translator should know that this part was missing and to insert the Romanian translation as Examen clinic. This is not the translators fault, because the source text did not contain the specified term. At the plan part the translator translated the to get extra medication if needed term as pentru a obine medicamente suplimentare which in fact would be more formal if it would be pentru alte indicaii terapeutice. The latter option is more familiar for the physicians. Here the translator also introduced space between every sub-heading, which is not included in the original source text.

7a) PPA The work of the PPA is fundamental to the payment and budget management of professionals involved in front-line patient care. Their prescribing information services provide the basic building blocks to enable improved patient care and for performance management in the primary care sector. Their main functions are: - to calculate and make payments for amounts due to pharmacists and appliance contractors, and calculate amounts due to general practitioners, for supplying drugs and appliances prescribed under the NHS; - to produce information for General Practitioners (GPs), Nurses, Primary Care Trusts (PCTs) and other NHS stakeholders about prescribing volumes, trends and costs; - to manage a range of health benefits including the NHS Low Income Scheme, Medical and Maternity Exemption Certificates, Prescription Pre-payment Certificates and Tax Credit exemptions.

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7b) PPA Activitatea PPA este fundamental pentru plata i administrarea bugetului profesionitilor implicai n ngrijirea principal a pacientului. Serviciile lor de prescriere de informare furnizeaz blocurile de construcie de baz care s permit ngrijirea mbuntit a pacientului i pentru gestionarea performanei din sectorul asistenei medicale primare. - De a calcula i efectua pli pentru sume datorate ctre farmaciti i contractani, i de a calcula sumele datorate medicilor generaliti, pentru oferirea de medicamente i dispozitive prevzute n cadrul NHS; - De a furniza informaii pentru medicii generaliti (GPS), asistente medicale, trusturi de ngrijire primar (PCT) i alte pri interesate cu privire la NHS cu privire la volumele de prescriere, tendine i costuri; - De a gestiona o serie de beneficii de sntate, inclusiv Sistemul de Venituri Minime NHS, Certificate medicale i de maternitate de scutire, Certificate de pre-plat prescrise i Scutirile fiscale de credit. First of all the translator again inserted an empty space between the title and the first line which is not present in the original source text and has a paragraph space, which was not present in the source text. Also the translator didnt even try to explain the PPA acronym, thus the reader cannot easily make the match between the denoted object of the original acronym and its target equivalent that would be CNAS (Casa Naional de Asigurri de Sntate). An explicitation should have been used in English as well, but probably in the context of Great Britains health system such an

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acronym is self-evident. But the Romanian translator must have searched for its meaning and for its Romanian institutional equivalent. The same applies for the NHS (National Health Service) which its target equivalent would be SNS (Serviciul Na ional de Sntate) and GPs. 8a) The UK Health Care System What is covered? Services: Publicly-funded coverage: the National Health Service (NHS) covers preventative services; inpatient and outpatient (ambulatory) hospital (specialist) care; physician (general practitioner) services; inpatient and outpatient drugs; dental care; mental health care; learning disabilities; and rehabilitation. Cost-sharing: There are relatively few cost-sharing arrangements for publicly-covered services. Drugs prescribed by general practitioners are subject to a co-payment (6.85 per prescription; $13.79), but about 88% of prescriptions are exempt from charges (Department of Health 2007). Dentistry services are subject to co-payments of up to about 200 per year (about $400), although there is difficulty in obtaining NHS dental services in some areas. Out-of-pocket payments accounted for 11.9% of total expenditure on health in 2005 (World Health Organization 2007). How are costs controlled? The government sets the budget for the NHS on a three-year cycle. To control utilization and costs, the government sets a capped overall budget for PCTs. NHS trusts and PCTs are expected to achieve financial balance each year. The centralized administrative system tends to result in lower overhead costs. Other mechanisms that contribute to improved value for money include arrangements for the systematic appraisal of new technologies through the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE).

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8b) Sistemul de ngrijiri de sntate din Marea Britanie Ce anume sunt finanate? Serviciile: acoperire finanate din fonduri publice: Serviciul Naional de Sntate (NHS), acoper serviciile de prevenire; ngrijire medical (de specialitate) pentru pacienii staionari i ambulatorii (ambulator); servicii ale medicului (medic generalist), medicamente pentru pacienii staionari i ambulatorii, ngrijire dentar, ngrijire a sntii mintale; nvarea handicapurilor, precum i reabilitare. Repartizarea costurilor: Exist relativ puine acorduri de repartizare a costurilor pentru serviciile finanate din fonduri publice. Medicamentele prescrise de ctre medicii de familie sunt supuse unei co-pli ( 6,85 per prescripie; 13.79 dolari), dar aproximativ 88% din reete sunt scutite de taxe (Departamentul de Sntate 2007). Servicii de Stomatologie sunt supuse unei co-pli de pn la aproximativ 200 de lire sterline pe an (aproximativ $ 400), dei exist dificulti n obinerea de servicii stomatologice de la NHS n unele zone. Plile din buzunar au reprezentat 11,9% din totalul cheltuielilor pentru sntate n 2005 (Organizaia Mondial a Sntii 2007). Cum sunt controlate costurile? Guvernul stabilete bugetul pentru NHS pe un ciclu de trei ani. Pentru a controla utilizarea i costurile, guvernul stabilete un buget total redus pentru PCT. Trusturi NHS i PCT-urile se preconizeaz a atinge echilibrul financiar n fiecare an. Sistemul centralizat administrativ tinde s duc la costuri generale mai mici. Alte mecanisme care contribuie la o valoare mai bun pentru bani includ dispoziiile pentru evaluarea sistematic a noilor tehnologii, prin intermediul Institutului Naional de Sntate i Excelen Clinic (NICE).

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In the first paragraph a misspell problem or maybe because of lack of knowledge the translator translated the term ambulatory as ambulator which term is rather used as ambulatoriu in the Romanian language. Here also I would like to mention that the translations appearance does not match with the source texts. Contrary to the previous part of the text, here the translator explained the abbreviation for the NHS as Serviciul Naional de Sntate (NHS). Also in the penultimate paragraph I observed that the currency was left as in the source text. In my opinion, if I had to translate this text, I would give an approximate RON value, since it was translated into Romanian, so the client would get a more clear picture of its value. In the last paragraph of the The UK Health Care System - What is covered the translator translated the Out-of-pocket payments as Plile din buzunar which sounds rather informal than formal, so in my opinion if it was translated as Sumele neimpozitate it would sound more better, since the target text is not a fairy tale.

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CONCLUSION
As a conclusion what I remarked was that the translator had some serious problems with the medical terms and in some cases with simple grammatical structures. Although, the second part of the translation where were less medical terms was way much better, but the final translation was not satisfying at all. Some important abbreviations were not explained nor translated, and as I stated in my thesis we should not assume that the client or the reader has more knowledge of the topic than us. If I had created a similar translation I would not have given this work out of my hands. The translator did not notice that this text was a formal one so the translation became informal, which is a major problem. Also the translator did not know for certain terms which are more used by and are more familiar for the physicians. The problems with the dates were not minor errors but huge problems. These errors could cause even the death of a patient if we are translating for instance an expiration date. As I observed, the translator is not quite familiar with and proficient in the field of the medical texts. I believe that after the text was translated, there was no proofreading at all. The translator has a minor background knowledge regarding medical science but that is not enough for an authorized translator. Since I had the chance to translate medical texts I noticed that this field is not as easy as it seems. I had to translate an orthopedic final exam from Hungarian into Romanian with approximately 60 pages. It took a lot of time until I got friendly with the text and got accommodated with its style and structure but in the end everything went better than expected.

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REFERENCES
DEMETER va, Az orvosi szaknyelv, Szaknyelvi kommunikci, 219. pg., ed. Dobos Csilla, Tinta Kiad, Budapest FOGARASI Katalin, 2010, A beteg neve: orvosi szaknyelv, MANYE (Hungarian Association of Applied Linguistics and Language teachers), ZIMNYI rpd (editor), Vol. 6., pg. 952., Szkesfehrvr ZIMNYI rpd, 2010, Latin vagy angol? Orvosi szaknyelvnk dilemmi, MANYE (Hungarian Association of Applied Linguistics and Language teachers), ZIMNYI rpd (editor), Vol. 6., pg. 959., Szkesfehrvr KERESZTES Csilla, 2006. Orvosi - egeszsgtudomnyi szakszvegek fordtsnak nehzsgei. In: Fordtstechnikai tmutat. Krnyei Tibor (editor). Magyarorszgi Fordtirodk Egyeslete. Budapest. 38 - 46 pp. WTMTER - Ways of Translating Medical Terms from English into Romanian shared by Nicole Palada on docstoc.com on 02.19.2010. http://www.docstoc.com/docs/25867579/Ways-of-translating-English-Medical-Terms-IntoRomanian Gunnarsson, B.L. 1997. On the sociohistorical construction of scientific discourse. In Gunnarsson, B.L. - Linell P. Nordberg, B (eds.): The construction of professional discourse. London: Longman.

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STIEGELBAURE Laura Rebeca Precup, IRBAN Narcisa, BENE Cristian Are there Connections between English and Romanian Terminology in Medicine? - 2012 International Conference on Language, Medias and Culture IPEDR vol.33 (2012) IACSIT Press, Singapore BSZE Pter (chief editor of) Magyar Orvosi Nyelv 2001-

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