UNIVERSITATEA MIHAIL KOGALNICEANU IASI MIHAIL KOGALNICEANU UNIVERSITY IASI

SUPORT DE CURS SEMINAR MATERIAL

ENGLEZA JURIDICA LEGAL ENGLISH

DREPT THE FACULTY OF LAW

AN II 2ND YEAR OF STUDY

SEMESTRUL I + II 1st AND 2nd SEMESTER

An universitar 2011 2012 Academic year 2011 2012

Titular: As. drd. CATALIN DRACSINEANU Lecturer: CATALIN DRACSINEANU, Univ.as. PhD. candidate
Cuprins Contents
1. Introducere 1. Introduction

2. Principalele caracteristici ale englezei juridice 2. General Features of Legal English (legalese)

3. Contractul de vnzare cumprare 3. Contract of Purchase and Sale

3.1. Prile contractului/Formule introductive posibile 3.1. Contracting Parties/Possible Introductory Statements
3.2. Obiectul contractului 3.2. Object of the Contract
3.3. Valoarea contractului/Preul contractului/Termeni de plat 3.3. Value of the Contract/Price of the Contract/Payment Terms
3.4. Termene i condiii privind livrarea 3.4. Terms and Conditions regarding Delivery
3.5. Termene i condiii privind recepia/acceptarea 3.5. Terms and Conditions regarding Reception/Acceptance
3.6. Obligaiile prilor 3.6. Obligations of the Parties
3.7. Garanii 3.7. Warranties, Representations and Covenants of Seller
3.8. Compensaii/despgubiri 3.8. Indemnity
3.9. Fora major 3.9. Force Majeure
3.10. Rspunderea contractual 3.10. Contractual Liability
3.11. Pstrarea titlului de proprietate/ Transferul proprietii/ 3.11. Retention of Title/Property/Transfer of Property/Risk of
Riscurile Loss
3.12. ncetarea/Anularea contractului 3.12. Termination/Cancellation
3.13. Drepturi de proprietate intelectual 3.13. Intellectual Property Rights
3.14. Modificarea contractului 3.14. Modification
3.15. Confidenialitate 3.15. Confidentiality
3.16. Divizare 3.16. Severability
3.17. Dispoziii finale/Diverse. 3.17. Final Dispositions. Miscellaneous
3.18. Legea aplicabil/Litigiile/Disputele/Soluionarea disputelor 3.18. Applicable Law/Litigation/Dispute/Settlement of Disputes
3.19. Cesionare 3.19. Assignments
3.20. Intuitu personae 3.20. Intuitu Personae
3.21. Renunarea la drepturi 3.21. Waiver of Rights
3.22. Non-transferabilitate 3.22. Non-Transferability
3.23 ncheieri posibile 3.23. Possible Endings
1. INTRODUCERE 1. INTRODUCTION

Scopul acestui capitol este acela de a familiariza cititorii This chapter aims at familiarizing readers with the key
cu termenii cheie ai englezei juridice. Dei limbajul contractelor terms of legal English. While the language of contracts is
se schimb n mod constant, att n Statele Unite ct i n Marea constantly changing, both in U.S. and in U.K. - as consumer and
Britanie pe msur ce grupurile de afaceri i consumatori business groups campaign for more contemporary language so
militeaz pentru utilizarea unui limbaj contemporan pentru a that the agreements are easier for people without a legal
uura nelegerea contractelor pentru persoanele fr pregtire background to understand - contracts between businesses have
juridic contractele ntre firme nregistreaz un ritm sczut de been slower to change. It is therefore advisable for more
schimbare. Este indicat prin urmare pentru profesionitii avansai advanced professionals (lawyers, translators, or even self-
(avocai, translatori sau manageri autodidaci) s depun eforturi educated managers) to make efforts to understand this type of
pentru a nelege acest limbaj care devine din ce n ce mai puin language that is becoming less common today. The higher the
comun. Cu ct mai mare este valoarea unui contract, cu att sunt contract value, the more devastating the implications of a poor
mai devastatoare implicaiile unei traduceri proaste a unui interpretation/translation of sale and purchase agreements may
contract de vnzare cumprare. prove.
Este aproape o sarcin imposibil s acoperim toate It is an almost impossible task to cover all fields of law in
domeniile dreptului ntr-o singur carte i se poate s fie nevoie one single book and it might take years of experience to master all
de ani de zile pentru a stpni toate conotaiile legale chiar i legal connotations of even one field. Out of the core subjects of
numai dintr-un singur domeniu. Dintre domeniile cheie ale law criminal law, land law, equity and trusts, administrative and
dreptului dreptul penal, dreptul funciar, drept administrativ i constitutional law, tort law, family law, employment law, etc., we
drept constituional, dreptul familiei, dreptul muncii, etc., am ales have therefore selected for a more detailed analysis only
pentru o analiz mai amnunit doar dreptul comercial sau commercial or contract law (covering most situations related to
dreptul contractelor (care acoper majoritatea situaiilor legate de Business English), with a particular emphasis on the sale and
engleza pentru afaceri), cu un accent special pe contractul de purchase agreement, which nonetheless contains a variety of legal
vnzare cumprare, un subdomeniu al dreptului care conine terms and phrases common to all legal documents. It is an
totui o mare varietate de fraze i termeni legali comuni tuturor undeniable fact that for students wishing to work in a commercial
documentelor juridice. Este dincolo de orice ndoial c studenii practice knowledge of foreign languages is essential. When law
care doresc s lucreze n practica comercial trebuie s cunoasc firms hire new recruits, they generally look at four things:
limbi strine. Atunci cnd un cabinet de avocatur angajeaz education, personality, work experience and language ability.
tineri aspirani urmrete n general patru aspecte: educaia, Since English is the language of the international legal
personalitatea, experiena profesional i cunoaterea unei limbi community, law firms increasingly expect graduates to have a
strine. De vreme ce engleza este limba comunitii juridice good command of English.
internaionale, firmele de avocatur se ateapt din ce n ce mai
mult ca studenii s aib cunotine temeinice de limb englez.
n cadrul dreptului comercial un accent deosebit este pus
pe contractul de vnzare cumprare. Acest document care
produce efecte juridice conine clauze care se refer la bunurile
care urmeaz a fi transferate, pre i structura plii, garaniile
vnztorului, etc. Dei unele prevederi sunt comune tuturor
contractelor (oferta i acceptarea, preul i aa mai departe), exist
de asemenea prevederi particulare care se aplic n funcie de
natura unui contract anume. Consultai un avocat pentru orice
prevedere contractual i croii un model de contract n funcie
de necesitile dumneavoastr particulare ntr-o anumit situaie.
Deoarece un contract reprezint legea dintre pri, trebuie s
analizai toate clauzele i s nelegei toate conotaiile i substitute your need for a sale purchase contract and always
interpretrile legale. Nu v bazai pe paragrafele de mai jos pentru
a crea un contract de vnzare cumprare i contactai ntotdeauna
un avocat cu licen de practic n ara dumneavoastr.
Credem c limbajul juridic nu poate fi scos din context.
Exist o ofert extraordinar de bogat n ceea ce privete
dicionarele juridice sau de afaceri i toate reprezint unelte
indispensabile pentru orice cursant de limba englez. Cu toate
acestea, deoarece numeroi termeni au nelesuri diferite n
contexte diferite, este poate o idee bun s nu rupem cuvintele de
contextul lor i iat de ce ne-a hotrt s v oferim nu doar unul,
ci mai multe contexte posibile. Se nelege de la sine c de cele
mai multe ori prevederile din prezentul capitol se exclud una pe
cealalt. Scopul principal al acestui capitol NU este acela de a v
ajuta s redactai un contract de vnzare cumprare (cerei
ntotdeauna sfatul unui avocat specializat) ci de a v semnala cele
mai importante interpretri lingvistice. Credem c o lectur atent
a acestui capitol v va ajuta s v familiarizai cu cei mai dificili
termeni i s folosii engleza juridic n mod profesionist.
A major focus in contract law is dedicated to the
agreement of purchase and sale. This legally binding document
contains clauses dealing with the assets to be transferred,
purchase price and payment structure, warranties of the seller, etc.
While there are certain provisions that are basically the same for
all contracts (offer and acceptance, consideration and so on), there
are also particular provisions that apply depending on the nature
of a specific contract. Make sure you check with a lawyer any
contract provision and tailor a sample contract to suit your
particular needs in your particular situation. As a contract is the
law between the parties, you need to thoroughly investigate all
clauses and make sure you fully understand all connotations and
legal interpretations. Do not rely on the paragraphs below to
contact a lawyer licensed to practice law in your state.
We believe that legal language cannot be taken out of
context. There is an extraordinary rich offer in legal or
business English dictionaries and they all are indispensable
tools for any English student. However, as various terms may
have various meanings in different contexts, it is perhaps a good
idea not to sever words out of their context and that is why we
have decided to provide you with not one but several contexts in
which these terms might appear. It goes without saying that the
provisions below exclude one another most of the times. The
main purpose of this chapter is NOT to help you draw up a sale
purchase contract (always get legal advice from a professional
lawyer) but to signal to you the most important linguistic
interpretations. We believe that a careful lecture of this chapter
will help you familiarize yourself with some of the most
challenging terms and also use legal English in a more
professional manner.
2. Principalele caracteristici ale englezei juridice (cunoscut de 2. General Features of Legal English (also casually referred to
asemenea ca legalez) as legalese or lawspeak):

Chiar i cei mai avansai vorbitori de limba englez pot
ntmpina dificulti atunci cnd trebuie s traduc documente
juridice, deoarece acestea se dovedesc adesea foarte nclcite i cu
neles neclar. Este adevrat c textele juridice ar trebui s fie pe
nelesul tuturor dar, deoarece sistemul de drept motenit de rile
vorbitoare de limb englez dreptul cutumiar se bazeaz pe
tradiie i, deoarece pn nu demult nu a fost scris niciodat ci
transmis prin practic, acestea conin un numr de caracteristici
neobinuite legate n mare msur de terminologie, convenii
lingvistice sau tehnice. Traductorul trebuie prin urmare s fie
foarte atent atunci cnd utilizeaz unele cuvinte care au o anumit
semnificaie n engleza de zi cu zi i o cu totul alt semnificaie n
engleza juridic. Mai mult, numrul cuvintelor similare (aa
numitele false friends) pare s creasc atunci cnd folosim o
terminologie juridic. O traducere n englez a verbului a
respecta poate fi alegerea corect atunci cnd traducem respect
toi profesorii mei/ I respect all of my teachers dar poate trda
slabe cunotine n domeniul juridic atunci cnd traducem
cumprtorul nu respect clauzele contractului prin the buyer
doesnt respect the contractual provisions, care ar trebui tradus
prin the buyer fails to obseve/comply with the contractual
provisions. n mod similar, cumprtorul este obligat s poate
fi tradus cu the buyer is obligated to, dar versiunile preferate ar
fi the buyer is bound to sau formele active the buyer binds
to/undertakes to.
Printre cele mai importante caracteristici ale limbajului following:
juridic se numr:
- prezena unor cuvinte i expresii latineti. Dup cum
Even most advanced students of English may have
difficulties when it comes to translating/interpreting legal
documents, as they often prove to be very dense and obscure. It is
true that legal texts should be made understandable to everybody
but, as the system of law inherited by the English-speaking
countries the common law is based on tradition, and, until not
very long time ago it was never written down but passed down in
actual practice, it contains a number of unusual features largely
related to terminology, linguistic conventions or technical
conventions. The interpreter/translator should therefore pay
extreme care when using certain words that have a particular
meaning in plain, everyday English and quite another one in legal
English. Note furthermore that the number of so-called false
friends increases as legal terminology is used. An English
translation from the Romanian a respecta, which is to respect
in English may be the right choice in translating respect toi
profesorii mei/I respect all of my teachers but may be indicative
of a poor legal background when translating cumprtorul nu
respect clauzele contractului, which should be translated by
the buyer fails to observe/comply with the contractual
provisions. Similarly the buyer is obligated to for the
Romanian cumprtorul este obligat s may be acceptable but
the preferred versions would be the buyer is bound to or the
active form the buyer binds to/undertakes to.
Among the most important characteristics of legalese are the
- the presence of Latin words and phrases. As Alcaraz
pointed out in his bookvii, it was inevitable for English law
 Alcaraz sublinia n cartea sai, dreptul britanic nu putea
scpa de influena limbii latine, sprijinit de puterea
bisericii romane n Europa pe de o parte i care era, pe de
cealalt parte, limba universal a cunoaterii. O list
cuprinztoare a acestor latinisme poate fi gsit pe
internetii, dar iat cteva cuvinte i fraze latineti frecvent
folosite: de facto, bona fide, actus reus, prima facie, etc.
- utilizarea arhaismelor, care dau un sentiment de formalism
documentelor juridiceiii. Cei mai muli autori
contemporani prefer formele nvechite precum pe
spezele n loc de pe cheltuiala, diligene pentru
eforturi sau defunct pentru decedat. Pe lng
formalism, utilizarea conservatoare a acestor termeni
arhaici asigur att siguran ct i un grad de
convenien. O dat cu folosirea repetat, unii din aceti
termeni au ctigat n timp o interpretare autoritar i
folosirea altor termeni ar prezenta un risc. Este principiul
descris de Crystal i Davy n 1986: ceea ce a fost testat i
gsit potrivit nu trebuie schimbativ.
- o redundan expresiv, care se poate observa cel mai bine
n perechi de cuvinte folosite de avocai pentru a evita
ambiguitatea. De cele mai multe ori aceste cuvinte provin
din limbi diferite i n timp au devenit un fel de obinuin
lingvistic. (unii autori consider c aceast dublare nu
este dect o simpl tradiie n redactarea documentelor
juridicev). Astfel de dublete lingvistice (de cele mai multe
ori pleonasme in limbajul comun) sunt: nul i neavenit,
de i ntre, direct i nemijlocit, definitiv i
irevocabil. Exist de asemenea o repetiie lexical n ceea
ce privete subiectul, deoarece avocaii evit utilizarea
pronumelor refereniale pentru nu conduce la confuzii.
to escape the influence of Latin which was supported by
the power of the Roman Church over Europe on one hand
and which was widely used on earth as a language of
learning and literature, on the other hand. A
comprehensive list of Latinisms can be found on the
internet, but here are some commonly used Latin words
and phrases: de facto, bona fide, actus reus, prima facie,
etc.
- the use of archaisms, which give a flavor of formality to
the legal documentviii. Most contemporary authors still
prefer old forms such as fortwith as a substitution for
right away, to inquire rather than to ask or the eth
ending for the third person singular of the present tense as
an alternative for the modern es: (witnesseth instead
of witnesses). Beside formality, the conservative use of
these rather old terms conveys both safety and
convenience. With repeated use, some of these terms have
acquired in time an authoritative interpretation and
therefore altering them may come with a risk. Its the
principle described by Crystal and Davy in 1986: what
has been tested and found adequate is best not alteredix.
- an expressive redundancy which can be best seen in pairs
of words used by lawyers to avoid ambiguity. Most of the
times these words come from different languages and in
time they became a sort of linguistic habit (Some authors
believe that this is merely a tradition when drafting legal
documents.x). Such linguistic doublets are: will and
testament, lands and tenements, have and hold,
represents and warrants, null and void, any and all,
by and between etc. There is also a lexical repetition
with respect to the subject, as lawyers avoid the use of
 Comparai: cumprtorul va plti bunurile Vnztorului
la sediul su, ceea ce creeaz confuzie i ambiguitate,
forma preferat fiind cumprtorul va plti bunurile
vnztorului la sediul vnztorului.
- utilizarea arhaic a verbului modal shall n limba
englez. n textele juridice legiuitorii prefer adesea
shall deoarece atrage cu sine o datorie sau o obligaie,
opus funciei sale comune de a exprima viitorul.
Comparai: Supplier will deliver the goods (la un anumit
moment dat n viitor, exprim o aciune viitoare) i
Supplier shall deliver the goods (care exprim o
obligaie de a livra i nu doar o indicaie a unei aciuni
ulterioare).
- prezena n limba englez a unor mixaje din elemente
deictice (here, there i where) cu anumite
prepoziii: of, under, by sau after. Cteva - the presence of a mixture of deictic elements (here,
exemple: hereinafter, hereunder, thereto, thereafter,
folosite pentru a evita repetiia unor nume sau obiecte din
document: anexat aici este mai scurt dect anexat la
prezentul contract.
- utilizarea n limba englez juridic a unor verbe cu
prepoziii joac un rol mai important dect n engleza de zi
cu zi, deoarece acestea sunt folosite ntr-un sens cvasi-
tehnic: a semna un contract to enter into a contract, a
anula datorii to write off debts, a redacta documente
to draw up documents, a opune/revendica aciuni n
instan to set off claims, a formula prevederi to set
forth provisions, etc.
- utilizarea unor cuvinte obinuite n contexte neobinuite:
referential pronouns because legal English is highly
concerned with the exactness of reference. Compare for
instance: The Buyer shall pay for the goods to the
Supplier at his office which creates confusion and
ambiguity with the more redundant, but more accurate
The Buyer shall pay for the goods to the Supplier at the
office of the Supplier.
- the archaic use of modal shall in legal English. In legal
text draftsmen usually prefer the modal shall because it
carries out an obligation or a duty as opposed to its
common function of expressing futurity. Compare
Supplier will deliver the goods (at a certain point in
time, expressing a future action) and Supplier shall
deliver the goods (expressing an obligation to deliver and
not a mere reference to a future action).
there and where) with certain prepositions of,
under, by, after, etc. By way of illustration:
hereinafter, hereunder, thereto, thereafter, used as a way
of avoiding repetition of names or things in the document:
annexed hereto is shorter than annexed to this
contract.
- the use of phrasal verbs plays a significantly larger role in
legal English than in plain English as these are often used
in a quasi-technical sense: the parties enter into contracts,
write off debts, draw up documents, set off claims, set
forth provisions, etc.
- use of ordinary words in apparently peculiar contexts:
construction of a contract refers to the interpretation of a
 n limba englez, termenul construction of a contract se
refer la interpretarea unui contract, termenul
consideration se refer la preul pltit n timp ce
title este un termen legal care se refer la o serie de
drepturi asupra unei proprieti n care o parte are un
interes legal sau echitabil.
- utilizarea unor cuvinte tehnice. Ca orice alt domeniu,
engleza juridic are un vocabular specific format din
termeni tehnici. Unii din aceti termeni nu au aplicabilitate
dect n sfera legal: ipotec, nchiriere, renunare la un
drept, decret, n timp ce altele au dezvoltat un neles
specific n context juridic (vezi mai sus).
contract, the familiar term consideration refers to a
promise by one party to a contract that constitutes the
price for which the promise of the other party is bought
(a definition from the Oxford Dictionary of Law) while
title as a legal term refers to a bundle of rights in a piece
of property in which a party may own either a legal
interest or an equitable interest.
- the use of technical words. Just like any other field, legal
English has its own specific vocabulary made up of purely
technical terms. Some of these terms are only applicable
in the legal sphere and nowhere else: mortgage, lease,
waiver, promissory estoppel, decree, while others have
developed a particular meaning in a legal context (see
consideration or title above).
3. Contractul de vnzare cumprare 3. Contract (Agreement) of Purchase and Sale/ Sale and
Purchase Contract

Un contract comercial ncepe de obicei cu propria descriere, de
exemplu PREZENTUL CONTRACT, dup care urmeaz
prile contractului i data. Apoi pot urma definiiile unor
cuvinte folosite n mod frecvent n contract i textul introductiv
care prezint detalii privind istoricul sau scopul contractului.
WHEREAS sau WITNESSETH pot fi folosite n acest context
pentru a introduce informaiile privind tranzacia pe care cele
dou pri doresc s o ncheie.
A commercial contract usually begins with its own description,
for example THIS AGREEMENT, followed by the parties and
the date. Next usually come the definitions of words used
repeatedly in the contract and then recitals, giving details of the
history or purpose of the contract. WHEREAS or
WITNESSETH may be used in this context to introduce the
information about the transaction that the two parties want to
enter into.

3.1. Prile contractante 3.1. Contracting parties

Formule introductive posibile: Possible introductory statements:

1. Prezentul CONTRACT DE VNZARE CUMPRARE 1. THIS AGREEMENT OF PURCHASE AND SALE

(Contract) este ncheiat astzi _______, de i ntre __________ (Agreement) is made as of this ____ day of ____, by and
(Vnztor) i _______ (Cumprtor). between ______ (Seller) and the _____ ("Buyer").

Unde: Whereas/Witnesseth:
n baza prevederilor prezentului contract prile sunt de In consideration of and in reliance upon the covenants
acord ca: herein contained, and for other good and valuable consideration,
the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, the
2. Prezentul CONTRACT DE VNZARE DE BUNURI parties agree as follows
este ncheiat astzi _____ de i ntre _________ o
[corporaie/partneriat/persoan fizic autorizat/persoan fizic] 2. This CONTRACT FOR SALE OF GOODS is made
din [statul de reedin], cu sediul principal n [adresa complet], this __ day of ________ by and between _________, a [state of
(Vnztor) i ___________ o [corporaie/partneriat/persoan organization or residence] [corporation/partnership/sole
fizic autorizat/persoan fizic] din [statul de reedin], cu proprietorship/resident], with its principal place of business at
sediul principal n [adresa complet], (Cumprtor) pentru [complete address], (Seller) and ___________, a [state of
achiziionarea bunurilor descrise mai jos. organization or residence] [corporation /partnership/sole
proprietorship/resident], with its principal place of business at
 3. Acesta este un CONTRACT din data _____ ntre [complete address] (Buyer) for the purchase of the goods
______ o companie cu sediul n ________, din _______, i _____ described below.
cu sediul n ______.
Prezentul contract va intra n vigoare de la data semnrii 3. This is a CONTRACT dated _______ between
i va fi valabil pe o perioad de ____ ncepnd cu _______ care ______________, a corporation with offices at ________in
se ntinde pn cnd cantitile livrate n conformitate cu _______, and ________ with offices at _______
prezentul contract ating suma de _______ (dac nu se aduc This Contract shall be in effect from its date and for a
modificri conform articolului _____) sau pn la data de (dac performance period of ____ beginning ______ and extending
nu se aduc modificri conform articolului _____), care are loc until the quantities delivered hereunder equals ______, (unless
mai nti. revised pursuant to article ____) or _______ (unless extended
pursuant to article ___), whichever occurs first.
4. Vnztorul, cu sediul social n _______, oraul ______,
judeul ______, avnd obiectul principal de activitate ______. 4. Seller, whose business address is ______, in the city of
Cumprtorul, cu sediul social n _______, oraul ______, judeul ____, county of _______, is in the business of _____________.
______, avnd obiectul principal de activitate ______. Buyer, whose business address is __________, in the city of
________, state of _________, is in the business of _______.
5. Acest CONTRACT este ncheiat astzi, _____, ntre
[specificai vnztorul] (numit n continuare Vnztor), o 5. AGREEMENT made this ____________ day of
companie din [specificai statul] cu sediul n [specificai adresa], ______________, between [specify seller] (hereinafter referred
[specificai cumprtorul] (numit n continuare Cumprtor), o to as "Seller"), a [specify state] corporation having its offices at
companie din [specificai statul] cu sediul n [specificai adresa], [specify address], [specify buyer] (hereinafter referred to as
i [specificai garantul] (numit n continuare Garant), o "Buyer"), a [specify state] corporation having its offices at
companie din [specificai statul] cu sediul n [specificai adresa]. [specify address], and [specify guarantor], (hereinafter referred to
as "Guarantor"), a [specify state] corporation having its offices at
6. Prezentul Contract este ncheiat de i ntre __________, [specify address].
o persoan fizic cu adresa n _______ (Vnztor) i ______, o
persoan fizic cu adresa n ______ (Cumprtor). n baza 6. This Agreement is entered into by and between
prevederilor agreate de comun acord i cu intenia de a respecta _________, an individual with an address of _____ ("Seller"),
legea, Vnztorul i Cumprtorul sunt de acord dup cum and _____, an individual with an address of ____ ("Buyer"). In
urmeaz: consideration of the mutual covenants contained herein and other
valuable consideration received, and with the intent to be legally
bound, Seller and Buyer agree as follows:
ntre: Between:

1. SC _________ cu sediul n ________, tel. ________ fax 1. SC _____ with the headquarters/social address in/located at
________, e-mail ______ cod fiscal ______, cont (IBAN) ____ phone: ____ fax: ______ e-mail: _____ tax identification
_______, cod SWIFT ________ banca _____ prin reprezentant number (U.S.)/ taxpayer identification number (U.K.) _____bank
legal _______ (in baza procurii nr. ______ din data ________) account (IBAN) ____, SWIFT code _____ bank _____ legally
denumita in continuare Cumprtor. represented by / through its duly authorized representative
________ (duly authorized), (on the basis of proxy no: ______
i from ______) hereinafter referred to as Buyer/Purchaser.

SC ________ cu sediul n ________, nregistrat la Oficiul And

Registrului Comerului sub nr. ____, tel. __________, fax:
__________cont _______ , numr de TVA _________
reprezentat prin ________ n calitate de administrator; denumita
n continuare Vnztor/Furnizor.
2. ________________ persoan juridic, nregistrat n
conformitate cu legile din / existnd i funcionnd potrivit
legislaiei statului _______, cu sediul la _____________ (numit
n continuare "Vnztor"), reprezentat de _________ pe baza
__________, pe de o parte
i _______, on the one hand
SC _____ with the social address in ________, registered at the
Trade Register under no. ____, phone _____, fax _______, bank
account _______, sales tax number (U.S.)/ VAT registration
number (U.K.), ______represented by ____________ as
administrator, hereinafter referred to as Vendor/Seller/Supplier.
2. ________ legal entity/ legal person /juristic person,
registered/incorporated under the laws of/a company organized
and existing under the laws of _______, with the
headquarters/registered office in/at _______ (hereinafter referred
to as Seller), legally represented by _________ on the basis of

_________________ persoan fizic, identificat cu CI And

nr._______ seria_______ eliberat de ____________, la data de
______________, numit n continuare Client, pe de cealalt ___________ individual/natural person, identified with IC no
parte. ______ series ______ issued by ______, on _______, hereinafter
referred to as Client/Customer, on the other hand.

IBAN = numr de cont bancar internaional
Rolul su este de a standardiza identificarea conturilor bancare.
Contul IBAN a plecat, n formarea sa, de la numerele iniiale de
cont bancare, existente anterior introducerii IBAN, la care s-au
adugat anumite caractere de identificare internaional. Dup
introducerea codificrilor conturilor IBAN, numerele IBAN au
devenit suficiente in realizarea transferurilor financiare tot
teritoriul Uniunii Europene.

IBAN: International Bank Account Number
Its role is to make the identification of bank accounts standard.
The IBAN account originated from the initial bank accounts
prior to the introduction of IBAN, to which certain characters
for national identification were added. After the introduction of
IBAN accounts, the IBAN numbers were sufficient to make
financial transfers on the whole territory of the European
Union.

Cod SWIFT
SWIFT code

Cunoscut i sub numele de SWIFT-BIC sau BIC - este un
format standard al codurilor de identificare bancar aprobate de
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) i
reprezint un cod unic de identificare al unei anumite bnci.
Acest cod este folosit la transferul de bani ntre bnci, n special
la transferul internaional, precum i la schimbul de mesaje
ntre bnci.
Also known as SWIFT-BIC or BIC code is a standard format
of Bank Identifier Codes approved by the International
Organization Standardization (ISO) and it represents the
unique identification code of a particular bank. These codes are
used when transferring money between banks, particularly for
international wire transfers as well as for the exchange of other
messages between banks.

3.2. OBIECTUL CONTRACTULUI 3.2 OBJECT OF THE CONTRACT

Clauze posibile: Possible provisions:

1. Obiectul prezentului contract l constituie trecerea din 1. The object of the hereby contract is the transfer from the
proprietatea vnztorului n proprietatea cumprtorului, dup ce Sellers property to the Buyers property, upon payment by the
acesta din urm va plti preul cuvenit, a produsului _______ latter of the due price, of the product _______

2. Obiectul prezentului contract l reprezint vnzarea bunurilor la 2. The object of the hereby contract is the sale of the goods in the
calitatea i cantitatea prevzute n anexe. quality and in the amount stipulated in the annexes.

3. Obiectul prezentului contract l constituie cumprarea de la 3. The object of the hereby contract is the purchase from the
Vnztor de ctre Cumprtor a ______, avnd descrierea tehnic Seller by the Buyer of _______, having the technical description
menionat n Anexa ___ la contract. mentioned in Annex ____
4. Obiectul prezentei convenii l constituie cumprarea de la 4. The object of the hereby agreement is the purchase from the
Vnztor de ctre Cumprtor de bunuri avnd denumirea Seller by the Buyer of the goods with the commercial name
comercial nscris n comanda ferm parte integrant a indicated in the firm order made a part hereof - and with the
prezentului contract i caracteristicile tehnice conform ofertei. technical characteristics as per the offer.

5. Vnztorul se oblig s vnd, iar cumprtorul se oblig s 5. The Seller binds to sell and the Buyer binds to purchase
cumpere _______ (bunurile prevzute n anexa numrul _____ ________ (the goods mentioned in annex no. ______ which
care cuprinde descrierea acestora, cantitile, calitatea, preurile, comprises their description, quantities, quality, price, delivery
termenele de livrare i valorile aa cum au fost negociate i terms and values as negotiated and agreed upon by the parties)
convenite de pri.)
6. The Seller undertakes to supply and the Buyer undertakes to
6. Vnztorul se angajeaz s furnizeze iar Cumprtorul s purchase the equipment ______ in conformity with the
achiziioneze echipamentul _____ n conformitate cu specifications, terms and conditions specified in the provisions
specificaiile, termenii i condiiile care sunt specificate n below and in Section____ annexed hereto.
clauzele de mai jos i n Seciunea ___ anexat la prezentul
Contract. 7. The technical and quality parameters for the merchandise
which constitutes the object of the hereby contract are mentioned
7. Parametrii tehnici i de calitate, pentru marfa ce face obiectul in Section ____ annexed hereto.
prezentului contract, sunt cei menionai n anexa _____ la
prezentul contract. 8. Seller is hereby selling and Buyer is hereby purchasing the
following assets ("Assets") of Seller at the price, terms and
8. Vnztorul vinde iar Cumprtorul cumpr urmtoarele conditions hereinafter set forth.
bunuri (Bunuri) ale Vnztorului la preul, condiiile i
termenii stabilii n prezentul contract.
 Cuvintele valabil, executoriu, operativ i n vigoare produc The words valid, enforceable, effective and in force sometimes
confuzie uneori. cause confusion.

Un permis de munc sau un permis de edere poate fi valabil,
adic are tampilele corecte pe el sau nu a expirat.
Un contract de munc poate fi operativ, adic este n curs de
desfurare i are nsemntate legal.
Ca angajat, se poate s am anumite drepturi sau pretenii fa de
un angajator care sunt executorii, adic m pot adresa
tribunalului i pot cere satisfacerea drepturilor i preteniilor
mele.
Un contract fr baz legal deoarece, de exemplu, una din
prile contractante a acionat sub constrngere sau deoarece
obiectul clauzei este ilegal este nul.
O lege precum i orice alt document legal care nu a fost
nc abrogat/revocat/anulat este nc n vigoare. abrogated/revoked/cancelled is still in force.
A work permit or residence permit can be valid, i.e. it has the
correct stamps on it or hasnt expired.
A contract of employment can be effective, i.e. it is in use and
has legal relevance.
As an employee, I might have certain rights or claims with
respect to an employer that are enforceable, i.e. I can go to
court and ask the court to ensure that my rights are respected or
my claims met.
A contract that has no legal basis because, for example, one
of the contracting parties acted under duress or because the
object of the clause is unlawful is void.
A law as well as any other legal act - that hasnt been

3.3. VALOAREA CONTRACTULUI/PREUL 3.3 VALUE OF THE CONTRACT/PRICE OF THE

CONTRACTULUI/CONDIII DE PLAT CONTRACT/PAYMENT TERMS

Clauze posibile: Possible provisions:

1. n absena unui acord special, preurile vor fi considerate ca 1. In the absence of any special arrangement, prices shall be taken
fiind Ex Works. Preurile nu includ rata taxei pe valoare as being Ex Works. Prices shall not include the prevailing
adugat curent. statutory value added tax.

2. Cambiile i cecurile sunt acceptate doar pentru a uura plata; 2. The acceptance of bills of exchange and checks shall only be to
costurile de ncasare aferente vor fi suportate de partea care face facilitate payment; the costs of any discounting and collection
comanda bunurilor. shall be borne by the party ordering the goods.

3. Dac partea care face comanda bunurilor ntrzie la plat, 3. If the party ordering the goods falls into arrears with payment,
Vnztorul are dreptul s perceap penaliti de ntrziere de the supplier is entitled to charge default interest of _____ %. The
___%. Vnztorul are dreptul de a furniza probe ale unor daune supplier is entitled to provide evidence of higher damage in the
mai extinse n funcie de caz. Obligaia de a plti penalitile de
ntrziere se aplic de asemenea n cazul plilor ealonate. individual case. The obligation to pay interest also applies in the
case of deferred payments.
4. Cumprtorul nu are dreptul de a reine o plat pe motivul
unor cereri reconvenionale ce pot fi invocate de furnizor sau de a 4. The Buyer is not entitled to withhold payments on the grounds
compensa aceste pli. of any counterclaims which may be disputed by the supplier or to
set these off against the claims of the supplier.
5. Dac Vnztorul nu a convenit n mod diferit n confirmarea
comenzii, preurile sunt n EURO i sunt exprimate EXW 5. Unless otherwise agreed by Seller in the order confirmation,
conform versiunii relevante a Incoterms. Preurile nu includ TVA prices are quoted in EURO and are effective Ex Works(EXW)
care - dac este obligatorie va fi nscris separat pe factur la according to the respectively relevant version of Incoterms. Prices
rata curent la data facturrii. do not include value added tax which if mandatory will be
declared separately on the invoice at the rate effective at the date
6. n cazul unor creteri substaniale, neobinuite a costurilor dup of the invoice.
semnarea prezentului contract, de ex. n costurile Vnztorului
sau a furnizorilor Vnztorului privind materialele, energia sau 6. In case of unusual, substantial increases in costs after
transportul i dac aceste creteri duc la o modificare substanial conclusion of the contract, e.g. in Sellers or Sellers suppliers
a preurilor de cumprare sau a preului materiilor prime ale costs for material, energy or freight, and shall these rises lead to a
Vnztorului, acesta are dreptul de a cere s poarte negocieri cu considerable increase of Sellers purchase prices or raw material
Cumprtorul n vederea ajustrii imediate a preurilor. costs, Seller is entitled to demand negotiations with Purchaser for
price adjustment immediately.
7. Dac prile nu au convenit altfel, sumele de peste ____
EURO vor fi facturate n dou rate de 50% fiecare din valoarea 7. Unless otherwise agreed, ordering amounts of more than ____
comenzii. n acest caz, i n lipsa unui alt acord, livrarea nu va fi EURO will be invoiced in two installments of 50% of the order
efectuat dect dup ce prima rat a fost pltit. Cea de a doua value each. If so and unless otherwise agreed, delivery will not be
rat este scadent dup livrare. Cambiile si cecurile sunt performed until receipt of the first installment. The second
acceptate doar n urma unui acord explicit. n cazul ntrzierii installment is due after delivery. Bills of exchange and cheques
plii, se aplic prevederile statutare. n mod particular, (Commonwealth and Ireland)/ checks (U.S.) are only accepted on
Cumprtorul trebuie s plteasc penaliti cu ___% peste rata explicit agreement. In case of late payment, statutory provisions
de baz curent a Bncii ______ la cererea Vnztorului. apply. Particularly, Purchaser has to pay interest at ___% above
the current base rate of the ______ Bank on Sellers claim.
8. Cumprtorul nu are dreptul s compenseze lipsa plii cu
cereri reconvenionale dect dac acestea sunt confirmate legal, 8. Purchaser is not entitled to set off with counterclaims unless
nu sunt n litigiu i au fost acceptate de Vnztor. Preurile said claims are legally confirmed, undisputed or have been
Vnztorului se aplic gamei de performan i livrare agreat de accepted by Seller. Sellers prices apply for the scope of
ctre pri. Performanele suplimentare sau speciale vor fi taxate performance and delivery that has been agreed. Additional or
separate. special performances will be charged separately.

9. Plile vor fi efectuate n termen de _____ zile de la data 9. Payments shall be made within ___ days from the date of
facturrii, n cazul n care nu se specific diferit n oferta invoice, unless otherwise stipulated in Sellers offer and/or
Vnztorului i/sau acceptarea comenzii. n cazul livrrilor acknowledgment of order. In case of partial shipments Seller
pariale Vnztorul are dreptul de a factura separat. shall be entitled to issue invoices in part accordingly.

ntr-un contract de vnzare, obligaiile minime sunt ca
vnztorul s livreze bunurile i cumprtorul s plteasc
preul. Prile stabilesc de obicei preul n contract aceasta
este situaia cea mai simpl i des ntlnit. Evident, prile pot
fixa preul n mai multe feluri (pre global sau unitar de
exemplu). Cu toate acestea, exist de asemenea posibilitatea de
a lsa preul s fie fixat de o manier agreat prin contract. O
astfel de posibilitate ar fi evaluarea fcut de o ter parte, n
timp ce prile pot fi de acord de asemenea ca preul s fie fixat
printr-un acord ulterior (o manier comun dar potenial
periculoas). Nu este nicio problem dac prile nu cad de
acord asupra unui pre, dar pot apare dificulti n caz contrar.vi.
In a contract of sale, the irreducible minimum of obligations is
for the seller to deliver the goods and the buyer to pay the price.
The parties usually fix the price in the contract this is the
simplest and probably most common situation. Obviously, the
parties may fix the price in a number of different ways (global
or unit price for instance). However, there is a also the
possibility to leave the price to be fixed in a manner agreed by
the contract. One such manner would be third party valuation
while the parties may also agree that the price shall be fixed by
agreement between them later (a common but potentially
dangerous course). There is no problem if the parties do not
agree on a price, but difficulties arise if they do notxi.

10. Plile se vor face exclusiv n unul din conturile Vnztorului
i vor fi scutite de comisioane la data scadenei fr nicio
deducere. Comisioanele, cheltuielile sau alte taxe diverse
suportate de Vnztor ca urmare a acceptrii cambiilor sau
cecurilor conform acordului special dintre Vnztor i
Cumprtor vor fi suportate de Cumprtor. Data scadenei va fi
determinat de data de facturare sau de notificarea disponibilitii
de livrare. Data ndeplinirii tuturor obligaiilor de plat va fi data
la care suma pltit este la dispoziia Vnztorului.
10. Payments shall be made exclusively to one of Seller's
accounts and shall be exempted of charges at the date due without
any deduction. Fees, expenses or sundries incurring to Seller by
accepting bills or cheques upon specific agreement between Seller
and Buyer shall be at Buyer's expense. Determination when
payment becomes due shall be in respect of the date of invoice or
notice of readiness for dispatch. The date of fulfillment of all
kind of payments shall be that on which the sum paid is actually
at Seller's disposal.

11. Preul total de vnzare (inclusiv valoarea oricror obligaii sau 11. The total purchase price (including the value of any liabilities
datorii ale Vnztorului asumate de Cumprtor n conformitate or debts of Seller assumed by Buyer under this agreement) to be
cu prezentul contract) care trebuie pltit de Cumprtor ctre paid by Buyer to Seller for the Acquired Assets is ______
Vnztor pentru Bunurile Dobndite este de ______ (numit n (hereinafter Purchase Price). The Purchase Price consists of a
continuare Pre de vnzare). Preul de vnzare const din plata cash payment in the amount of ______ to be made on or before
n bani lichizi a sumei de _____ care trebuie efectuat nainte sau the execution of this agreement and liabilities of Seller to be
n ziua execuiei prezentului contract i din obligaiile assumed by Buyer in the amount of _______ (hereinafter
Vnztorului asumate de ctre Cumprtor n valoare de ______ Assumed Liabilities)
(numite n continuare Obligaii asumate).
12. Annexed hereto and made a part hereof is a list of all leases,
12. Ataat i parte integrant la prezentul contract este o list a union agreements, employment agreements and any other
tuturor contractelor de nchiriere, acorduri sindicale, contracte de contracts, commitments or obligations of Seller of a continuing
munc i orice alte contracte, angajamente sau obligaii ale nature. Buyer shall in no way assume or be responsible for any of
Vnztorului de natur permanent. Cumprtorul nu va asuma said commitments and obligations and the indemnity provision of
n nici un mod i nici nu va fi rspunztor pentru astfel de Article ___ hereof shall apply thereto.
angajamente i obligaii iar prevederea de scutire de obligaii din
Art. ____ din prezentul contract se va aplica i n acest caz. 13. All expenses, including legal fees, incurred by Seller in the
process of collecting outstanding amounts from the Purchaser
13. Toate cheltuielile, inclusiv taxele legale, suportate de will be charged to Purchaser for immediate payment. Seller may
Vnztor n procesul de ncasare a sumelor restante de la charge to Purchaser, and Purchaser agrees to pay, interest on any
Cumprtor vor trece n contul Cumprtorului n vederea plii amounts outstanding past the due dates set forth in Section ___ at
imediate a acestora. Vnztorul poate percepe Cumprtorului, iar a rate not exceeding the maximum rate allowed by applicable law.
acesta se oblig s plteasc, penaliti la oricare din sumele
restante care depesc datele scadente stabilite n Seciunea ____ 14. Time shall be of the essence and failure by the Buyer to pay
la o rat care nu depete rata maxim admis de legea aplicabil. the price of any installment thereof in due time shall entitle the
Seller to treat such failure as a repudiation of the whole contract
14. Respectarea strict a termenilor este esenial iar neplata by the Buyer and to require the Buyer to make immediate
oricrei rate de ctre Cumprtor la scaden va da dreptul payment of all monies due or to become due and to recover from
Vnztorului s o interpreteze ca o reziliere a ntregului contract the Buyer damages for such breach of contract and/or (at the
din partea Cumprtorului i s cear Cumprtorului s Seller's option) to charge interest at either __% per annum or
efectueze de ndat plata tuturor sumelor scadente sau care devin __% per annum above the Base Rate of ____Bank, which ever
scadente i s recupereze de la Cumprtor daune pentru o astfel shall be greater, from the due date until payment. The right to
de nclcare a contractului i/sau (la alegerea Vnztorului), de a claim more extensive losses due to default remains thereby
percepe penaliti de ___% pe an sau de ___% pe an peste rata de unaffected.
baz a Bncii ____, care din ele va fi mai mare, de la data
scadenei pn la efectuarea plii. Dreptul de a cere daune mai 15. If the customer falls in arrears of payment of more than __
extinse ca urmare a neefecturii plii rmne neatins. days, we shall be entitled to make due all claims arising from the
entire business relationship, even in so far as deferment or
15. Dac cumprtorul ntrzie plata mai mult de ___ zile, vom installment payments have been agreed, and to collect the total
avea dreptul de a cere scadena tuturor restanelor aprute de-a balance. We shall be entitled to hold back further outstanding
lungul ntregii relaii de afaceri, chiar n msura n care amnarea deliveries and services. The commitment to delivery dates within
plilor sau plata n rate a fost agreat, pentru colectarea ntregii the scope of the overall business relationship shall lapse.
balane. Vom avea dreptul de a suspenda orice livrri i servicii
restante. Angajamentul fa de datele de livrare cu privire la 16. Our field sales staff is not authorized to accept payments.
ntreg spectrul relaiei de afaceri i va pierde valabilitatea.
17. Incoming payments shall be offset firstly against any incurred
16. Personalul nostru de teren nu are dreptul de a accepta pli. expenses, next against interest, then against claims for any
ancillary services and finally against the oldest respective
17. Plile primite vor fi folosite mai nti pentru acoperirea purchase price/service wage.
oricror cheltuieli suferite, pentru acoperirea penalitilor, apoi
pentru servicii auxiliare i n fine pentru cel mai vechi pre de 18. The price of the goods is the equivalent in _____ of _____
vnzare/serviciu respectiv. EURO without VAT and import duties. The total price is
indicated in the proforma invoice issued by the Seller, annexed
18. Preul bunurilor este echivalentul n ____ a _____ Euro fr hereto, made a part hereof.
TVA i fr taxe de import. Preul total este nscris n factura
proform emis de Vnztor, parte integrant a prezentului 19. The total price of the equipment is the equivalent of _______
contract. EURO + VAT. The Buyer shall pay the Supplier the amount of
________ EURO + VAT within ___ days from the receipt of the
19. Preul total al utilajului este echivalentul a ________ Euro + following documents: signed copy of the sale purchase contract,
TVA. Cumprtorul va plti Furnizorului suma de ____________ invoice, technical documentation and declaration of conformity.
Euro + TVA la ___ zile dup primirea Contractului de cumprare
semnat, a facturii, a prezentrii documentaiei tehnice i a
declaraiei de conformitate.
 Grammar Grammar
Simple Present Present Tense in Legal English

We normally use simple present:
- when we talk about permanent situations: I live in Iasi.
- about things that happen regularly: I go to work by car.
- to express general truths or common knowledge: The
Danube flows into the Black See.
We also use simple present in demonstrations, commentaries,
instructions or stories:
Go straight on to the traffic lights and then turn right.
Jameson shoots and its a goal!
So I open my eyes and I see the lion right in front of me and I
say
When adding s to the 3rd person singular, affirmative, there
are some changes in spelling:
- verbs ending in s(s), -sh, -ch, -x and o add -es: He
crosses/washes/watches
- verbs ending in y preceded by a consonant change the
y into I and receive -es: He tries/cries (but he
plays/enjoys)
- have changes to has.
In legal English avoid using present tense continuous as the
situations are deemed to be permanent:
The Buyer binds to pay NOT The Buyer is binding to pay.
The Seller delivers the goods and the Buyer makes the payment
NOT The Seller is delivering the goods and the Buyer is
making the payment.
The negative forms dont/doesnt are generally avoided in legal
English. Here are some alternative suggestions:
The Seller doesnt warrant The Seller makes no warranties
If the Buyer doesnt pay on due time Unless the Buyer pays
on due time
If the Seller doesnt deliver If the Seller fails to deliver
If the parties dont reach an agreement Should the parties fail
to reach an agreement

20. Valoarea total a mrfii vndute este de _______ USD. Preul, 20. The total value of the sold merchandise is of ________ USD.
defalcat pe sortimente de produse, este cel menionat n anexa nr. The price, broken down into various product ranges, is mentioned
_____ la prezentul contract. in Annex no.______ annexed hereto. The price includes
Preul include cheltuielile de transport pn la _________ transportation expenses to __________

21. Cumprtorul se oblig s plteasc preurile aa cum sunt 21. The Buyer binds to pay the prices as negotiated, agreed upon
negociate, convenite i prevzute n anexa numrul _________ la and stipulated in Annex no. _________ annexed hereto.
contract.
22. The payment is made on the basis of the invoices issued by
22. Plata se va face pe baza facturilor emise de vnztor i the Seller and signed by the Buyer. The corresponding value
semnate de cumprtor. n preul mrfurilor a fost inclus i taxa added tax has been included in the price of the merchandise.
pe valoarea adugat aferent.

Pentru a traduce avans, sau plat n avans n limba englez In order to translate a payment made in advance you should
este bine s reinei urmtoarele aspecte: pay attention to the following distinction:

Down payment: sum pltit n avans fr garanii pentru
cumprtor sau pentru cel care mprumut.
Advance payment: plat care atrage o serie de rspunderi.
Cumprtorul sau cel care mprumut primete o serie de
garanii din partea vnztorului sau a persoanei care d cu
mprumut.
Down payment: a sum paid in advance with no warranties for
the buyer or for the borrower.
Advance payment: a payment that implies a series of liabilities.
The buyer or the borrower receives certain warranties from the
seller or the lender.

23. Dac cumprtorul nu pltete la scaden, va suporta 23. Should the Buyer fall into arrears with the payment, the Buyer
penaliti de ntrziere n decontare de __________ % pe zi de shall be bound to pay default interest of ______% for each day of
ntrziere, calculat la suma datorat. delay, calculated at the outstanding amount.

24. Instrumentul de plat agreat de vnztor este 24. The payment instrument the Seller agrees upon is
_____________________________. ________________

25. Vnztorul poate majora preul mrfurilor n raport de 25. The Seller may increase the price of the merchandise
____________________ depending on _____________

26. Preul utilajelor este cel nscris n oferta confirmat; oferta 26. The price of the machines is that indicated in the confirmed
confirmat este parte integrant a prezentului contract. offer, annexed hereto and made a part hereof. The bills payable
Scadenarul ce precizeaz termenele de plata i sumele ce book indicating the payment terms and the amounts to be paid is a
urmeaz a fi achitate face parte din prezenta convenie. constituent part of the hereby agreement.

27. n absena unui acord special, condiia de livrare este ____ 27. In the absence of a special agreement, the delivery condition
(conform INCOTERMS 2000), la adresa indicat n comanda is _____ (according to INCOTERMS 2000) at the address
ferm. Preurile nu includ TVA i nici taxe vamale. indicated in the firm order. The prices do not include VAT or
customs duties.
28. n absena unui acord special, plile se vor face prin virament
n contul furnizorului 28. In the absence of a special agreement, the payments will be
made by bank transfer to the Suppliers account.
29. Dac partea care face comanda bunurilor nu face plata la
termenul convenit, va fi obligat s achite penaliti de ntrziere 29. If the party ordering the goods fails to make the payment on
n cuantum de _______ pe zi calculate asupra sumelor scadente. due time, the party at fault will be bound to pay late payment
Penalitile curg de drept, fr a fi necesara punerea n interest in the amount of __________ per day, calculated on the
ntrziere. Cuantumul penalitilor poate depi cuantumul outstanding amounts. The penalties are rightful, no legal action
debitului asupra crora au fost calculate. being required. The amount of the penalties may exceed the debt
used as basis for calculation.
30. Dac prile nu au convenit altfel, pentru a garanta plata
preului, beneficiarul va deschide in favoarea furnizorului un 30. Unless the parties agree differently, the beneficiary will open
acreditiv documentar irevocabil, netransferabil. Acreditivul for the Supplier a non-transferable, irrevocable letter of credit.
documentar nu privete plata avansului. The documentary letter of credit should not be mistaken with the
payment of the advance payment.
31. The Seller preserves the property right on the goods until the
31. Vnztorul pstreaz dreptul de proprietate asupra bunurilor full payment of the price as well as of the potential interests.
pn n momentul ncasrii integrale a preului precum i a
eventualelor penaliti. 32. The Buyer binds to take all necessary and legal steps to make
the payment of the merchandise in agreement with the provisions
32. Cumprtorul se oblig s ntreprind tot ce este necesar i of the hereby contract.
legal pentru a se efectua plata mrfii n conformitate cu
prevederile prezentului contract. 33. The payment shall be made on _____, in____________. The
documents used to make the payments are: ________.
33. Plata se va efectua la data de _______,
n ______Documentele prin care se vor efectua plile sunt: ___. 34. The consideration shall be paid within ___ days from the
moment the Company effectively cashes in any amounts under
34. Comisionul se va plti (plata se va face) n termen de ___ zile the present Agreement.
de la momentul n care Compania ncaseaz oricare din sumele
stipulate n prezentul Contract.
3.4. CONDIII I TERMENE PRIVIND LIVRAREA 3.4. TERMS AND CONDITIONS REGARDING DELIVERY

Clauze posibile Possible Provisions

1. Condiia de livrare este EXW/CIP/DDU etc. (vezi mai jos), 1. The delivery conditions is EXW/CIP/DDU etc. (see below),
(conform INCOTERMS 2000), la adresa _______. (according to INCOTERMS 2000), at the address ________.

2. Dup efectuarea formalitilor vamale de ctre Cumprtor, 2. After the completion of the customs formalities by the Buyer,
bunurile se vor transporta pe cheltuiala Vnztorului la adresa de the goods will be transported on the Sellers expense at the
destinaie indicat de Cumprtor la data semnrii prezentului address of destination indicated by the Buyer on the date the
contract. hereby contract is signed.

3. Bunurile se vor livra la destinaia indicata la pct. ____ al 3. The goods will be delivered at the destination indicated at pct.
prezentului contract, n termen de ______ zile de la data achitrii __________ of the hereby contract, within ____ days from the
avansului. date of the advance payment/down payment.

4. Livrarea se va efectua cu respectarea condiiilor specificate de 4. The delivery will be carried out with the observance of the
art. ______ al prezentului contract. specific conditions mentioned by art. _____ of the hereby contract

5. La livrare bunurile /utilajul /marfa va fi nsoit() de 5. Upon delivery, the goods/machine/merchandise will be
urmtoarele documente n original: accompanied by the following documents in original:

- factura comercial definitiv; - final commercial invoice

- specificaia mrfii pentru fiecare colet; - specification of the goods for each individual package
- scrisoarea de transport internaional (CMR); - letter of international transport (CMR)
- certificatele de calitate i conformitate. - quality and conformity certificates

CMR
CMR

Este o abreviere a titlului din francez (Convention relative au
contrat de transport international de marchandises par route)
a Conveniei Naiunilor Unite (titlul complet: Convention on
the Contract for the International Carriage of Goods by Road)
semnat la Geneva n data de 19 mai 1956, care cuprinde o
serie de aspecte legale privind transportul rutier al mrfurilor.
Convenia a fost ratificat de majoritatea rilor europene i, pe
baza ei, IRU (International Road Union) a dezvoltat un model
standard pentru o acceptare i recunoatere mai uoar a
documentului pe teritoriul Europei.
It is an abbreviation from the French title (Convention relative
au contrat de transport international de marchandises par
route) of the United Nations Convention (full title: Convention
on the Contract for the International Carriage of Goods by
Road) signed in Geneva on May 19th 1956, which comprises
various legal aspects regarding the road transportation of
goods. The Convention was ratified by most European
countries and, based on it, the International Road Union (IRU)
developed a standard CMR waybill for an easier acceptance
and recognition throughout Europe.

Actul normativ care reglementeaz scrisoarea de trsur n The normative act regulating the CMR waybill in Romania:
Romnia: Ordonana nr. 1982/17 octombrie 2006 pentru Order 1982/October 17th, 2006 for the approval of the norms
aprobarea normelor legate de organizarea i efectuarea regarding the organization and conduct of road transport as
transportului rutier precum i alte activiti conexe. well as other related activities.

Traducerea n romn: scrisoare de trsur pentru transportul Romanian translation: scrisoare de trsur pentru transportul
rutier rutier

6. Livrarea utilajului se face intr-o singura tran/n mai multe 6. The delivery of the machine is to take place at once/partial
trane. deliveries are allowed.

7. Termenele de livrare artate n ofert au caracter orientativ, 7. The delivery terms indicated in the offer are merely for the
fr a crea obligaii i fr a atrage rspunderea furnizorului. Buyers reference and are not binding for the Seller. Seller will
Vnztorul nu va rspunde pentru nerespectarea acestor termene. not be liable for failure to observe these terms. The delivery term
Termenul de livrare nu va ncepe sa curg mai nainte de shall not begin to run prior to the written confirmation of the
confirmarea scris a comenzii. Termenul de livrare nu va ncepe order. The delivery term shall not start to run before the party
s curg nainte ca partea care face comanda bunurilor s fi ordering the goods has obtained all necessary documents, license
obinut toate documentele, orice autorizaie sau aviz, i nainte de or permit and after Seller has received a down-payment as
primirea unei pli n avans stabilite anterior de comun acord. mutually agreed upon by the parties.
8. Perioada de livrare va fi extins n eventualitatea unor msuri
care au legtura cu greve, ntreruperi tehnice ale fabricii i
producerea unor circumstane neprevzute pentru care Vnztorul
nu este responsabil, n msura n care aceste circumstane se
dovedesc c influeneaz respectarea termenului de livrare al
bunurilor comandate. Aceast extindere se va aplica de asemenea
dac astfel de circumstane afecteaz subcontractorii. Aceste
circumstane menionate mai sus nu vor fi imputate Vnztorului
dac apar n perioada de livrare. nceputul i sfritul acestor
circumstane va fi notificat de ctre Vnztor prii care face
comanda bunurilor n cel mai scurt timp posibil.
8. The delivery period shall be extended in the event of
occurrences related to strikes, factory technical breakdowns or
unforeseeable circumstances independent from the Sellers
actions, to the extent these circumstances are proven to influence
the observance of the delivery period for the ordered goods. This
extension shall also be applied in case such circumstances affect
subcontractors. The above mentioned circumstances shall not be
imputed to the Seller should they occur within the delivery
period. The beginning and the end of these circumstances shall be
notified by the Seller to the party ordering the goods as soon as
possible.

9. Dac expedierea este ntrziat la dorina prii care face 9. If the dispatch is delayed at the wish of the party ordering the
comanda bunurilor, Vnztorul are dreptul sa perceap costuri de goods, the Seller shall be entitled, to charge monthly warehouse
depozitare lunare de ____ din totalul sumei facturate, pentru costs of ____ of the total invoiced amount. The Seller is also
fiecare lun. Vnztorul are dreptul de asemenea, dup o entitled, after allowing a reasonable period of grace of ____
perioad de graie de _____ luni, s livreze bunurile altui months, to dispose of the goods elsewhere and to supply the party
beneficiar i s onoreze comanda fa de partea care a comandat ordering the goods within a suitably extended delivery period.
bunurile iniial ntr-o perioad de livrare extins n mod
corespunztor. 10. The Seller binds to deliver the merchandise, at the address
indicated by the Buyer, on _______, according to the Buyers
10. Vnztorul se oblig s livreze marfa, la adresa indicat de instructions.
cumprtor, la data de _________ n conformitate cu
instruciunile acestuia. 11. The Seller binds to dispatch the first batch on ________,
according to the Buyers instructions.
11. Vnztorul se oblig s expedieze primul lot de marf, la data
de ___________, n conformitate cu instruciunile
cumprtorului.
 Majoritatea contractelor internaionale de vnzare fac referire la
INCOTERMS n ceea ce privete rspunderea privind
transportul. Totui, nu este obligatoriu s folosii clauzele
INCOTERMS, dar n acest caz trebuie s indicai numele
transportatorului, locul exact i data de livrare, precum i partea
care rspunde de costurile de transport, risc, asigurare, etc.
Prevederile legate de livrare nu trebuie s omit cerinele
speciale privind condiiile speciale de depozitare (precum
indicaii extrem de importante legate de temperatur i
umiditate) sau clauze speciale de siguran. Un alt aspect
important este disponibilitatea de expediere, atunci cnd
vnztorul notific cumprtorul c bunurile sunt gata de shipment.
livrare.
Most of international sale contracts make reference to
INCOTERMS as far as the liability for the shipment is
concerned. However, it is not mandatory to use the
INCOTERMS clauses, but in this instance you need to indicate
the name of the carrier, the exact place and date of delivery, as
well as who shall be liable for freight expenses, risk, insurance,
etc. The provisions regarding delivery shouldnt omit special
requirements regarding storage conditions (such as crucial
indications of temperature or humidity) or special security
clauses. Another important aspect is the readiness of dispatch,
when the seller notifies the buyer that the goods are ready for

12. Termenul de livrare a mrfii va fi cuprins ntre data de 12. The delivery term of the merchandise shall run between
________ i data de _________, dar nu mai trziu de data de ________ and ________, but not later than _______, conditioned
_______________, termen n care sunt incluse condiiile: by: the success of the analyses/test, the opening of the L/C, the
terminarea i reuita probelor de analiz sau de ncercare, obtaining of export/import license, etc.
deschiderea acreditivului, obinerea licenei de export/import etc.
13. With the written consent of both contracting parties, under the
13. Cu acordul scris al ambelor pri contractante, n condiiile conditions of the hereby contract, anticipated delivery is allowed.
prezentului contract, se vor putea efectua i livrri cu anticipaie.
14. The Seller binds to pack the goods in proper packaging to
14. Vnztorul se oblig s ambaleze mrfurile n ambalaje allow the transportation of the goods in such a manner as not to
adecvate care s permit transportarea mrfurilor de o asemenea cause damage for the Buyer. The merchandise is sold with the
manier nct s nu-l pgubeasc pe cumprtor. Mrfurile se packaging which thus is transferred to the Buyers property. The
vnd mpreun cu ambalajele care trec n proprietatea price of the packaging is included in the price of the merchandise.
cumprtorului. n preul mrfurilor a fost inclus i
contravaloarea ambalajelor. 15. The Seller binds to deliver clearly marked, labeled and
15. Vnztorul se oblig s predea mrfurile marcate, etichetate i stamped goods according to legal requirements and safety
timbrate potrivit cerinelor legale i msurilor de siguran care measures related to the security of the goods, etc.
se impun referitoare la securitatea mrfurilor, etc.
16. Unless otherwise agreed in writing, the delivery period shall
16. Dac nu se precizeaz diferit n scris, perioada de livrare va begin to run on the latest of the following dates: (i) date on which
ncepe la ultima din datele urmtoare: (i) data la care comanda the order is confirmed; (ii) date on which Buyer has complied
este confirmat; (ii) data la care Cumprtorul a ndeplinit toate with all technical, commercial and other requirements that fall to
cerinele tehnice, comerciale i de alt natur care cad n sarcina Buyer's responsibility; (iii) date on which Seller receives a down-
sa; (iii) data la care Vnztorul primete plata avansului sau a payment or a security payable before delivery of the goods.
unei garanii nainte de livrarea bunurilor.
17. The delivery period shall have been deemed as complied with
17. Perioada de livrare se presupune a fi respectat dac, nainte if, prior to its expiry, the goods ordered have left the works or
de data expirrii sale, bunurile comandate au prsit fabrica sau readiness for dispatch has been notified.
dac disponibilitatea de expediere a fost notificat
Cumprtorului. 18. The party ordering the goods is entitled to withdraw from the
agreement in case of delayed delivery or demand compensation if
18. Partea care comand bunurile are dreptul de a se retrage din the supplier is in default and if a reasonable deadline set by the
contract n cazul unei livrri ntrziate sau s cear despgubiri party ordering the goods, combined with threat of refusal, has
dac ntrzierea s-a produs din vina Vnztorului i dac o expired without results.
perioad de graie rezonabil stabilit de Cumprtor, dublat de
ameninarea unui refuz, a expirat fr niciun rezultat. 19. Unless expressly stated otherwise in Sellers Confirmation, all
deliveries of Goods shall be Ex Works Sellers production facility
19. Dac nu se specific n mod diferit n Confirmarea or supplier production facility. The term Ex Works shall have the
Vnztorului, toate livrrile bunurilor vor fi Ex Works de la meaning set forth in the latest version of INCOTERMS published
fabrica Vnztorului sau locul de producie al furnizorului. by the International Chamber of Commerce at Paris, France, at
Termenul Ex Works va avea semnificaia stabilit n ultima the time of Sellers Confirmation. Customer shall accept the
versiune INCOTERMS publicat de Camera Internaional de Goods upon delivery.
Comer, Paris, Frana, la momentul Confirmrii Vnztorului.

Toate contractele comerciale trebuie s conin indicaii clare n All commercial contracts should contain clear indications with
ceea ce privete livrarea: locul de livrare, momentul livrrii, respect to delivery: place of delivery, time of delivery, effect of
efectele ntrzierilor la livrare, regulile privind cantitile late delivery, rules as to quantities delivered, delivery by
livrate, livrarea n trane precum i acceptarea bunurilor. installments as well as acceptance of goods.

20. Dac nu se specific diferit n Confirmarea Vnztorului, 20. Unless expressly stated otherwise in Sellers Confirmation,
datele de livrare ale Vnztorului sunt doar estimative i nu any times or dates for delivery by Seller are estimates and shall
creeaz obligaii. Vnztorul are dreptul de a livra bunurile, dup not be of the essence. Seller is entitled to deliver the Goods as
cum se stipuleaz n Confirmarea Vnztorului, pe componente i stated in Sellers Confirmation in parts and to invoice separately.
poate factura separat. Vnztorul nu va fi rspunztor pentru nicio In no event shall Seller be liable for any delay in delivery. Delay
ntrziere n livrare, n nicio situaie. ntrzierile la livrarea in delivery of any Goods shall not relieve Customer of its
oricror bunuri nu va exonera Cumprtorul de obligaia sa de a obligation to accept delivery thereof. Deviations in quantity of
accepta livrarea. Variaii ale cantitilor bunurilor livrate fa de Goods delivered from that stated in Sellers Confirmation shall
cele stipulate n Confirmarea Vnztorului nu vor da dreptul not give Customer the right not to accept the Goods.
Cumprtorului de a nu accepta bunurile.
21. Each delivery shall stand as a separate transaction and any
21. Fiecare livrare va fi considerat ca o tranzacie separat i failure to deliver shall have no consequences for other deliveries.
nerealizarea unei livrri nu va avea nicio consecin asupra
celorlalte livrri. 22. If Purchaser defaults in payment in the context of other
contracts between Purchaser and Seller, Seller is entitled to detain
22. Dac cumprtorul ntrzie plata n contextul altor contracte delivery under this contract for the duration of default, prior
dintre Cumprtor i Vnztor, Vnztorul are dreptul de a opri notice to Purchaser provided. This shall not apply in case of
livrarea agreat prin prezentul contract pe durata ntrzierii, cu minor outstanding payment.
condiia notificrii prealabile a Cumprtorului. Aceasta situaie
nu se aplic n cazul restanelor minore la plat.
23. In case of a petition to open insolvency proceedings, Seller is
23. n cazul unei cereri de deschidere a procedurii de insolven, entitled to detain delivery until full payment has been made or
Vnztorul are dreptul de a reine livrarea pn cnd se face plata until Purchaser furnishes appropriate security. Furthermore, Seller
integral sau pn cnd Cumprtorul depune o garanie pe is entitled to claim full payment and after futile expiration of a
msur. Mai mult, Vnztorul poate pretinde plata preului reasonable extension of time granted by Seller to withdraw from
integral i dup scurgerea unei perioade rezonabile de timp the contract unless Purchaser furnishes adequate security on
acordat de Vnztor poate rezilia contractul dac Cumprtorul Sellers demand.
nu ofer o garanie satisfctoare la cererea Vnztorului.
24. Way of delivery and packaging type are at Sellers sole
24. Modalitatea de livrare si ambalarea sunt la alegerea discretion.
Vnztorului.
25. Delivery shall be deemed as accepted if and to the extent of
25. Livrarea va fi considerat acceptat dac i n msura n care: which:
- dup livrare Cumprtorul vinde articolele livrate sau permite - after delivery Buyer sells the delivery items to or lets them being
utilizarea acestora de ctre tere pri; used by third parties, or
- articolele livrate sunt folosite mai mult dect n scopul testrii de - the delivery items are used beyond simple testing by Buyer or
ctre Cumprtor sau tere pri sau dac third parties, or
- Cumprtorul aprob procesarea articolelor livrate precum i - Purchaser approves processing of the delivery items as well as
amestecarea lor cu alte articole. their mixing with other items.

26. n cazul n care Cumprtorul ntrzie acceptarea sau ncalc 26. In case Purchaser may be in default of acceptance or culpably
din vina sa alte obligaii contractuale, Vnztorul are dreptul de a infringes upon other contractual duties of contribution, Seller is
cere compensaii pentru pierderile astfel cauzate, inclusiv costuri entitled to demand compensation of damage arising therewith,
suplimentare posibile. including possible additional expenditure.

27. Acceptarea va fi considerat ca final dup 30 zile de la 27. Acceptance shall be presumed conclusively to have occurred
livrarea produsului ctre Cumprtor, dac Cumprtorul nu a thirty (30) days following delivery of product to Buyer, unless
acceptat produsul anterior acestei date. Buyer has accepted the product prior to that date.

28. Ne rezervm dreptul de a modifica designul sau forma, cu 28. We reserve the right to modify the design and shape, provided
condiia ca obiectul livrrii s nu fie schimbat de o manier that the subject matter of the delivery is not altered in a manner
inacceptabil pentru Cumprtor i cu condiia ca modificarea s unreasonable for the buyer and that the modification is based on
aib la baz mbuntiri tehnice. technical improvements.

 The whole chapter, as well as other valuable information generically referred to as Business English (including, among
others, information related to the set-up of a company in Romania/U.S./U.K, commercial correspondence, accounting or
banking) can be found in A Comprehensive Business English Usage for Romanian Professionals, to be published in 2012.
Practice
Based on the provisions above, find the right translations for the following Romanian words and phrases, commonly met in
legal documents:

numit n continuare
a respecta clauzele contractului
cumprtorul se oblig s
la data scadent
datorie restant
a intra n vigoare
a semna un contract
prin derogare de la
ataat() la prezentul contract
a nclca obligaiile contractuale
persoan fizic
penaliti de ntrziere
impozit/tax/comision
acreditiv documentar
n conformitate cu
execuia contractului
n termen de 3 zile
cu acordul anterior scris al vnztorului
nerespectarea de ctre cumprtor a termenului de plat
pe rol

Translate into English, paying attention to the use of simple or progressive present:

1. Ce se ntmpl cnd semnezi un contract fr s consuli un avocat?

2. Reducerea cheltuielilor pare o idee bun, dar nu ajut prea mult.
3. De ci bani ai nevoie? 100 euro sunt de ajuns?
4. Mi se ntmpl mereu s uit cuvinte de baz din limba englez.
5. Ascult tirile i m gndesc la viitorul firmelor mici i mijlocii din Romnia.
6. Nu este nicio problem, ajungem i acolo.
7. Nu lucrez nicieri n prezent, dar sper s m angajez n curnd.
8. Ct consum maina ta?
9. Lucrez la o firm de consultan n domeniul financiar-contabil.
10. Nu se ntmpl nimic dac ntrzii.
11. Cunotinele mele de francez sunt mai limitate dect acum 10 ani.
12. V asigurm garanie pentru 12 luni de la data achitrii integrale a produsului.
13. De ce nu ai mai mult grij cu documentele importante ale firmei?
14. Cum ajut ministerul firmele mici?
15. Nu mi se pare corect s muncesc mai mult dar s primesc mai puin dect ceilali angajai.

Useful idioms:

(to) bite the bullet: to make a difficult decision; to take a difficult step.
(to) test the waters: to try something out before committing to it, to see what the response or outcome will be to an intended action.
good call: a good decision
tough call: a difficult decision, something difficult to predict.
my gut tells me: my intuition tells me, I have a strong feeling that.
(to) make it up to someone: to do something to compensate one for the trouble
nothing ventured, nothing gained: if you dont try something, youll never succeed.
(to) roll up ones sleeves: to get ready to start something, to prepare to do something.
(to) give ones best shot: to make ones best efforts to get something done; to try to do something even though youre not sure of the
success.
out of touch with reality: unrealistic, not aware of whats really going on.

Match the words below with the right sentence:

defendant, plaintiff/claimant, affirms, find for, appeal, reverses, court of appeals (appellate court)

1. The person who brings an action in a court of law is called the ................
2. A court which hears appeals from lower courts is called an ......... or a ..............
3. To bring a case before a higher court so that it can review the decision of a lower court is to ................... a case.
4. When a case is decided in favor of a certain party, the court ............... that party.
5. The person against whom an action is brought in a court of law is known as the .........
6. When a court states that a judgment of lower court is true, it .......... that judgment.
7. When a court changes the judgment of a lower court to its opposite, it ....... that judgment.

Use the correct prefix for the adjectives. Use any of the negative forms below

-ir, -un, -in, -im, -dis

-valid
-complete
-reasonable
-satisfactory
-correct
-foreseeable
-lawful
-satisfied
-reconciliable
-affected
-effective
-partial
-confirmed

Pay attention to the translation of the term avocat in English. Fill in the gaps with the right choice:

lawyer, attorney, attorney-at-law, solicitor, barrister

........is a general term which we use to refer to someone who has learnt the law and has a license to practice. In the U.S., lawyers are
often called ..... or ....... In England and Wales, the legal profession is not unified, so a distinction between ....., who have rights of
audience in only some courts, and ...... who specialize in advocacy (the art of presenting cases in court) and who have a right of
audience in all courts. Generally, a .... will consult with his or her client and prepare a brief. This brief is then passed on to a ..... who
will present the case in court.
Identify in the right column the legal version of the plain English words in the left column:

1. invalid 1. surrender
2. give back 2. undertake
3. in place of 3. be entitled to
4. promise 4. provisions
5. have the right to 5. inoperative
6. agreement 6. in lieu of
7. holiday 7. consent
8. terms 8. duration
9. begin 9. commence
10. length (of time) 10. leave

Fill in the gaps using the verbs below and then translate the text into Romanian:

are tried is brought is committed is fined is punished is put is resolved was caused

A crime is a wrong which ......against society. The wrongdoer .........: he or she ............... in prison or ......... a sum of money. A tort,
on the other hand, is a wrong which ........ against an individual. The injured party can sue the wrongdoer and receive damages from
the court. Criminal sanctions exist to make society safer and to keep people from committing certain acts. Tort remedies exist to
make the injured party whole again for the harm which ...... by the wrongdoer.
A key difference between the two is that a crime requires a criminal intent (mens rea), whereas a tort can result without intent to
cause harm on the wrongdoers part.
Crimes ..... in the criminal courts. An action ...... by a governmental body against the wrongdoer. A tort, conversely, ........in the civil
courts: the injured party brings an action against the wrongdoer.

i
Alcaraz, E. & Hughes, B. Legal Translation Explained. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 2002, p. 5
ii
Vezi de exemplu: http://bogdantodoran.wordpress.com/expresii-juridice-latine/
iii
Tiersma, P. Legal Language, London, The University of Chicago Press, 1999, p. 95.
iv
Crystal D & Davy D. Investigating English Style, New York, Longman, 1986, p. 213.
v
Sabra, A. M. M. Translation of Contracts, The American University of Cairo, 1995, p. 31
vi
Furmston, Michael. Principles of Commercial Law, 2nd edition, Cavendish Publishing Limited, 2001, p. 18
vii
Alcaraz, E. & Hughes, B. Legal Translation Explained. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 2002, p. 5
viii
Tiersma, P. Legal Language, London, The University of Chicago Press, 1999, p. 95.
ix
Crystal D & Davy D. Investigating English Style, New York, Longman, 1986, p. 213.
x
Sabra, A. M. M. Translation of Contracts, The American University of Cairo, 1995, p. 31
xi
Furmston, Michael. Principles of Commercial Law, 2nd edition, Cavendish Publishing Limited, 2001, p. 18