C8-C13-Conceptul de cavitatie cu aplicabilitate in hidrodinamica navala

1. INTRODUCERE

Cavitația este formarea cavităților de vapori într-un lichid - adică mici zone fără lichid („bule”
sau „goluri”) - care sunt consecința forțelor care acționează asupra lichidului. Apare de obicei
atunci când un lichid este supus unor schimbări rapide de presiune care determină formarea
cavităților în care presiunea este relativ scăzută. Când sunt supuși unei presiuni mai mari,
golurile implodează și pot genera o undă de șoc intensă.

Cavitația este o cauză semnificativă a uzurii în anumite contexte de inginerie. Golurile care se
impletesc aproape de o suprafață metalică provoacă stres ciclic prin implozie repetată. Acest
lucru duce la oboseala de suprafață a metalului cauzând un tip de uzură numit și „cavitație”. Cele
mai obișnuite exemple de acest tip de uzură sunt pomparea rotoarelor și îndoirile unde apare o
schimbare bruscă a direcției lichidului. Cavitația este, de obicei, împărțită în două clase de
comportament: cavitație inerțială (sau tranzitorie) și cavitație non-inerțială.

Cavitația inerțială este procesul în care un gol sau o bulă într-un lichid se prăbușește rapid,
producând o undă de șoc. Cavitația inerțială apare în natură în grevele creveților mantis și creveți
cu pistol, precum și în țesuturile vasculare ale plantelor. La obiectele fabricate de om, acesta
poate apărea în supape de control, pompe, elice și rotițe.

Cavitația non-inerțială este procesul în care o bulă într-un fluid este forțată să oscileze ca mărime
sau formă datorită unei forme de intrare de energie, cum ar fi un câmp acustic. O astfel de
cavitație este adesea folosită în băile de curățare cu ultrasunete și poate fi observată și în pompe,
elice etc.

Deoarece undele de șoc formate prin prăbușirea golurilor sunt suficient de puternice pentru a
provoca pagube semnificative părților mobile, cavitația este de obicei un fenomen nedorit. Este
deseori evitat în mod special în proiectarea de mașini precum turbine sau elice, iar eliminarea
cavitației este un domeniu major în studiul dinamicii fluidelor. Cu toate acestea, uneori este util
și nu provoacă daune atunci când bulele se prăbușesc departe de mașini, cum ar fi în
supercavitare.
 Fig. 1. Model pala cu cavitatie in tunel hidrodinamic

Fig. 2. Impactuyl unui jet de fluid cu viteza mare asupra unei suprafete fixe

Fig. 3. Pricolul cavitatiei pe o valvula plata a unei pompe hidraulice cu piston

 CUPRINSUL CURSULUI

1 Fenomenul fizic. Descriere

2 Hidrodinamica cavitației

3 Aplicații

3.1 Inginerie chimică

3.2 Biomedicale

3.3 Curățare

4 Deteriorarea cavitației

4.1 Pompe și elice

 4.1.1 Cavitație de aspirație

 4.1.2 Cavitatie de descărcare

 4.1.3 Soluții de cavitare

o 4.2 Supape de control

o 4.3 Deversări

o 4.4 Motoare

5 În natură

5.1 Geologie

5.2 Plante vasculare

5.3 Viața marinărească

5.4 Eroziunea costieră

• 6 Altele

• 7 Referințe

• 8 Citire ulterioară

• 9 Link-uri externe

1. Fenomenul fizic. Descriere

Cavitația inerțială a fost prima dată studiată de Lordul Rayleigh la sfârșitul secolului 19, când a
considerat prăbușirea unui gol sferic în interiorul unui lichid. Când un volum de lichid este supus
unei presiuni suficient de scăzute, acesta se poate rupe și forma o cavitate. Acest fenomen are loc
la începutul cavitației și poate apărea în spatele lamei unei elice cu rotire rapidă sau pe orice
suprafață care vibrează în lichid cu amplitudine și accelerație suficientă. Un râu cu curgere
rapidă poate provoca cavitații pe suprafețele de rocă, în special atunci când există o cădere, cum
ar fi pe o cascadă.

Alte modalități de generare a golurilor de cavitație implică depunerea locală a energiei, cum ar fi
un impuls laser focalizat intens (cavitație optică) sau cu o descărcare electrică printr-o scânteie.
Gazele cu vapori se evaporă în cavitatea din mediul înconjurător; astfel, cavitatea nu este un vid
perfect, dar are o presiune relativ redusă a gazului. O astfel de bulă de cavitație la presiune mică
într-un lichid începe să se prăbușească din cauza presiunii mai mari a mediului înconjurător. Pe
măsură ce balonul se prăbușește, presiunea și temperatura vaporilor în interior cresc. În cele din
urmă, bula se prăbușește până la o fracțiune minută din dimensiunea sa inițială, moment în care
gazul din interior se disipează în lichidul înconjurător printr-un mecanism destul de violent care
eliberează o cantitate semnificativă de energie sub forma unei unde de șoc acustic și ca lumină
vizibilă. În punctul de colaps total, temperatura vaporilor din interiorul bulei poate fi de câteva
mii de kelvin, iar presiunea de câteva sute de atmosfere. [Citare necesară] [1]
Cavitația inerțială poate apărea și în prezența unui câmp acustic. Bulele microscopice de gaz,
care sunt în general prezente într-un lichid, vor fi obligate să oscileze din cauza unui câmp
acustic aplicat. Dacă intensitatea acustică este suficient de mare, bulele vor crește mai întâi ca
mărime și apoi se vor prăbuși rapid. Prin urmare, poate apărea cavitație inerțială chiar dacă
rarefierea în lichid este insuficientă pentru ca un gol de tip Rayleigh să apară. Ultrasunetele de
mare putere utilizează de obicei cavitația inerțială a bulelor de vid microscopice pentru tratarea
suprafețelor, lichidelor și suspensiilor.

Procesul fizic de început al cavitației este similar cu fierberea. Diferența majoră dintre cele două
este căile termodinamice care preced formarea vaporilor. Fierberea are loc atunci când presiunea
de vapori locală a lichidului crește peste presiunea sa ambiantă locală și există o energie
suficientă pentru a provoca schimbarea fazei la un gaz. Începutul cavitației apare atunci când
presiunea locală scade suficient de mult sub presiunea de vapori saturată, valoare dată de
rezistența la tracțiune a lichidului la o anumită temperatură. [Citare necesară]

Pentru ca apariția incipitului cavitației, „bulele” cavitației au nevoie, în general, de o suprafață pe

care să se poată nuclea. Această suprafață poate fi asigurată de părțile laterale ale unui recipient,
de impurități în lichid sau de mici microbubble nedizolvate din lichid. În general, se acceptă
faptul că suprafețele hidrofobe stabilizează bule mici. Aceste bule preexistente încep să crească
fără restricții atunci când sunt expuse la o presiune sub presiunea pragului, denumită pragul lui
Blake.

Presiunea de vapori aici diferă de definiția meteorologică a presiunii vaporilor, care descrie
presiunea parțială a apei din atmosferă la o valoare mai mică de 100% saturație. Presiunea de
vapori în legătură cu cavitația se referă la presiunea de vapori în condiții de echilibru și, prin
urmare, poate fi definită mai precis ca presiunea de vapori de echilibru (sau saturată).

Cavitația non-inerțială este procesul în care bulele mici dintr-un lichid sunt obligate să oscileze
în prezența unui câmp acustic, când intensitatea câmpului acustic este insuficientă pentru a
provoca colapsul total al bulelor. Această formă de cavitație provoacă o eroziune semnificativ
mai mică decât cavitația inerțială și este adesea folosită pentru curățarea materialelor delicate,
cum ar fi napolitane de siliciu.
 2. Hidrodinamica cavitatiei

Cavitația hidrodinamică descrie procesul de vaporizare, generarea de bule și implozie cu bule

care are loc într-un lichid care curge ca urmare a scăderii și creșterii ulterioare a presiunii.
Cavitația va avea loc numai dacă presiunea scade până la un anumit punct sub presiunea de
vapori saturată a lichidului și recuperarea ulterioară peste presiunea de vapori. Dacă presiunea de
recuperare nu depășește presiunea de vapori, se spune că a apărut intermitent. În sistemele de
conducte, cavitația are loc, de obicei, ca urmare a creșterii energiei cinetice (printr-o constricție a
zonei) sau a creșterii ridicării conductei.

Cavitația hidrodinamică poate fi produsă prin trecerea unui lichid printr-un canal restricționat la
o viteză specifică sau prin rotația mecanică a unui obiect printr-un lichid. În cazul canalului
restrâns și bazat pe geometria specifică (sau unică) a sistemului, combinația de presiune și
energie cinetică poate crea caverna cavitației hidrodinamice în aval de constricția locală
generând bule de cavitație cu energie ridicată.

Procesul de generare a bulelor și creșterea și prăbușirea ulterioară a bulelor de cavitație au ca

rezultat densități energetice foarte mari și temperaturi și presiuni foarte ridicate la suprafața
bulelor pentru un timp foarte scurt. Prin urmare, mediul global lichid rămâne în condiții de
mediu. Când este necontrolat, cavitația este dăunătoare; prin controlul fluxului cavitației, cu toate
acestea, puterea poate fi valorificată și nedistructivă. Cavitația controlată poate fi utilizată pentru
a îmbunătăți reacțiile chimice sau pentru a propaga anumite reacții neașteptate, deoarece radicalii
liberi sunt generați în proces, datorită dezasocierii vaporilor prinși în bule de cavitare.

Orificii și venturi sunt raportate a fi utilizate pe scară largă pentru generarea cavitației. Un
venturi are un avantaj inerent față de un orificiu datorită secțiunilor sale convergente și
divergente, astfel încât poate genera o viteză mai mare la gât pentru o scădere de presiune dată
peste el. Pe de altă parte, un orificiu are un avantaj că poate găzdui un număr mai mare de găuri
(perimetrul mai mare de găuri) într-o zonă transversală dată a conductei. [2]

Fenomenul cavitației poate fi controlat pentru a spori performanțele vaselor și proiectilelor

marine de mare viteză, precum și în tehnologiile de prelucrare a materialelor, în medicină etc.
Controlarea fluxurilor de cavitație în lichide poate fi realizată numai prin avansarea
fundamentului matematic al cavitației procese. Aceste procese se manifestă în moduri diferite,
cele mai frecvente și promițătoare pentru control fiind cavitația cu bule și supracitația. Prima
soluție clasică exactă ar trebui să fie creditată la soluția cunoscută de H. Helmholtz în 1868. Cele
mai vechi studii distincte de tip academic asupra teoriei unui flux de cavitație cu granițe libere și
supercavitare au fost publicate în cartea [3]. de [4]. Utilizată pe scară largă în aceste cărți a fost
teoria bine dezvoltată a mapării conforme a funcțiilor unei variabile complexe, care să permită să
obțină un număr mare de soluții exacte de probleme plane. Un alt loc care combină soluțiile
exacte existente cu modele aproximate și euristice a fost explorat în lucrarea [5] care a rafinat
tehnicile de calcul aplicate bazate pe principiul independenței expansiunii cavității, teoria
pulsiunilor și stabilitatea cavităților aximetrice alungite etc. [6] și în. [7]

O continuare naturală a acestor studii a fost prezentată recent în [8] - o lucrare enciclopedică care
cuprinde toate cele mai bune progrese în acest domeniu din ultimele trei decenii și îmbină
metodele clasice ale cercetării matematice cu capacitățile moderne ale tehnologiilor
computerizate. Acestea includ elaborarea metodelor numerice neliniare de soluționare a
problemelor de cavitație 3D, rafinarea teoriilor liniare plane cunoscute, dezvoltarea teoriilor
asimptotice ale fluxurilor aximetrice și aproape aximetrice, etc. În comparație cu abordările
clasice, noua tendință este caracterizată prin extinderea teoria în fluxurile 3D. De asemenea,
aceasta reflectă o anumită corelație cu lucrările actuale cu un caracter aplicat asupra
hidrodinamicii corpurilor supracavatoare.

Cavitația hidrodinamică poate îmbunătăți, de asemenea, unele procese industriale. De exemplu,

suspensia de porumb cavitată prezintă randamente mai mari în producția de etanol în comparație
cu suspensia de porumb necavitată în instalațiile de frezare uscată. [9]

Aceasta se folosește și în mineralizarea compușilor bio-refractari, care altfel ar avea nevoie de

condiții de temperatură și presiune extrem de ridicate, deoarece în proces sunt generați radicali
liberi datorită disocierii vaporilor prinși în bulele de cavitare, ceea ce duce la intensificarea
reacție chimică sau poate duce chiar la propagarea anumitor reacții care nu este posibilă în
condiții de altfel ambientale. [10]
 3. Aplicatii
3.1. Inginerie chimica

În industrie, cavitația este adesea folosită pentru omogenizarea, sau amestecarea și

descompunerea particulelor suspendate într-un compus lichid coloidal, cum ar fi amestecuri de
vopsea sau lapte. Multe aparate de amestecare industrială se bazează pe acest principiu de
proiectare. De obicei se realizează prin proiectarea rotorului sau prin forțarea amestecului printr-
o deschidere inelară care are un orificiu de intrare îngust, cu un orificiu de ieșire mult mai mare.
În ultimul caz, scăderea drastică a presiunii, deoarece lichidul accelerează într-un volum mai
mare induce cavitația. Această metodă poate fi controlată cu dispozitive hidraulice care
controlează dimensiunea orificiului de intrare, permițând reglarea dinamică în timpul procesului
sau modificarea diferitelor substanțe. Suprafața acestui tip de supapă de amestec, pe suprafața
căreia bulele de cavitație sunt antrenate provocând implozarea lor, suferă o tensiune mecanică și
termică imensă localizată; prin urmare, sunt adesea construite din materiale super-dure sau dure,
cum ar fi oțelul inoxidabil, Stellite, sau chiar diamant policristalin (PCD).

Au fost de asemenea concepute dispozitive de purificare a apei de cavitare, în care condițiile

extreme de cavitație pot descompune poluanții și moleculele organice. Analiza spectrală a
luminii emise în reacțiile sonochimice relevă mecanisme de transfer de energie pe bază de
substanțe chimice și plasmatice. Lumina emisă din bulele de cavitație este denumită
sonoluminescență.

Produsele chimice hidrofobe sunt atrase sub apă de cavitație, deoarece diferența de presiune
dintre bule și apa lichidă îi obligă să se unească. Acest efect poate ajuta la plierea proteinelor.
[11]

3.2. Biomedicala

Cavitația joacă un rol important pentru distrugerea calculilor renali în litotripsia undelor de șoc.
În prezent, se efectuează teste pentru a putea folosi cavitația pentru a transfera molecule mari în
celule biologice (sonoporation). Cavitația cu azot este o metodă folosită în cercetarea pentru a
liza membranele celulare, lăsând organele intacte. Cavitația joacă un rol esențial în fracționarea
neinvazivă non-termică a țesutului pentru tratamentul unei varietăți de boli. [12] Cavitația joacă
probabil și un rol în HIFU, o metodologie de tratament termic noninvazivă pentru cancer. [13]

Ecografia este uneori folosită pentru a crește formarea oaselor, de exemplu aplicații post-
chirurgicale. [14] Tratamentele cu ultrasunete și / sau expunerea pot crea cavitații care pot „duce
la un sindrom care implică manifestări de greață, dureri de cap, tinitus, durere, amețeli și
oboseală” [15].

S-a sugerat că sunetul articulațiilor „crăpat” provine din prăbușirea cavitației în lichidul sinovial
din articulație. [16] Mișcările care provoacă crăpături extind spațiul articular, reducând astfel
presiunea până la punctul de cavitație. Gazul dizolvat în fluidul sinovial este în principal dioxid
de carbon. Rămâne controversat dacă acest lucru este asociat cu leziuni articulare semnificative
clinic, cum ar fi artroza. Unii medici spun că osteoartrita este cauzată de crăpăturile gâturilor în
mod regulat, deoarece acest lucru provoacă uzură și poate duce la slăbirea osului. Nu „bolile
apar”, ci mai degrabă frecarea oaselor care provoacă osteoartrită [17]

3.3. Industria curatirii

În aplicațiile de curățare industrială, cavitația are o putere suficientă pentru a depăși forțele de
aderență dintre particule și substrat, slăbind contaminanții. Presiunea de prag necesară pentru
inițierea cavitației este o funcție puternică a lățimii pulsului și a puterii. Această metodă
funcționează prin generarea cavitației acustice controlate în fluidul de curățare, prin preluarea și
transportarea particulelor contaminante, astfel încât să nu se atașeze la materialul care este
curățat.

4 Deteriorarea cavitației
 Fig.4. Pericolul de cavitatie la o turbina Francis

Cavitația este, în multe cazuri, o apariție nedorită. În dispozitive precum elice și pompe, cavitația
cauzează un zgomot mare, deteriorarea componentelor, vibrații și pierderea eficienței. Cavitația a
devenit, de asemenea, o preocupare în sectorul energiei regenerabile, deoarece poate apărea pe
suprafața lamei turbinelor cu maree. [18]

Când bulele de cavitație se prăbușesc, forțează lichidul energetic în volume foarte mici, creând
astfel pete de temperatură ridicată și emit valuri de șoc, acestea din urmă fiind o sursă de zgomot.
Zgomotul creat de cavitație este o problemă deosebită pentru submarinele militare, deoarece
crește șansele de a fi detectat de sonar pasiv.

Deși prăbușirea unei cavități este un eveniment relativ redus de energie, prăbușirile extrem de
localizate pot eroda metale, cum ar fi oțelul, în timp. Tăierea cauzată de prăbușirea cavităților
produce o uzură mare a componentelor și poate reduce dramatic durata de viață a unei elice sau a
pompei.

După ce o suprafață este afectată inițial de cavitație, aceasta tinde să erodeze într-un ritm
accelerat. Gropile de cavitație cresc turbulența fluxului de fluid și creează crevete care acționează
ca site-uri de nucleare pentru bule de cavitație suplimentare. Gropile cresc, de asemenea,
suprafața componentelor și lasă în urma eforturilor reziduale. Aceasta face ca suprafața să fie
mai predispusă la coroziune la efort. [19]
4.1 Pompe și elice

Locurile principale în care are loc cavitația sunt în pompe, elice sau cu restricții într-un lichid
care curge.

Pe măsură ce un rotor (într-o pompă) sau un propulsor (ca în cazul unei nave sau submarine),
lamele se deplasează printr-un fluid, se formează zone de joasă presiune pe măsură ce fluidul se
accelerează și se trece pe lângă lame. Cu cât lamele se mișcă mai repede, cu atât presiunea din
jurul acesteia poate fi mai mică. Pe măsură ce ating presiunea de vapori, fluidul se vaporizează și
formează mici bule de gaz. Aceasta este cavitația. Atunci când bulele se prăbușesc mai târziu, ele
provoacă de obicei valuri de șoc locale foarte puternice în fluid, care pot fi audibile și pot chiar
deteriora lamele.

Cavitația în pompe poate apărea sub două forme diferite:

4.1.1. Cavitație de aspirație

Cavitația de aspirație are loc atunci când aspirația pompei se află într-o condiție de presiune
joasă / cu vid ridicat în care lichidul se transformă într-un vapor la ochiul rotorului. Acești vapori
sunt transportați pe partea de descărcare a pompei, unde nu mai vede vid și este comprimat
înapoi într-un lichid prin presiunea de refulare. Această acțiune de implodare se produce violent
și atacă fața rotorului. Un rotor care funcționează în condiții de cavitație de aspirație poate scoate
din față bucăți mari de material sau îndepărtat bucăți foarte mici de material, ceea ce face ca
rotorul să arate spongel. Ambele cazuri vor provoca defectarea prematură a pompei, adesea din
cauza defecțiunii rulmentului. Cavitația de aspirație este adesea identificată printr-un sunet
precum pietriș sau marmură în carcasa pompei.

În aplicațiile auto, un filtru înfundat într-un sistem hidraulic (servodirecție, frâne de alimentare)
poate provoca cavitație de aspirație, făcând un zgomot care se ridică și se încadrează în
sincronizare cu RPM-ul motorului. Este destul de adesea o ploșnie groasă, cum ar fi un set de
angrenaje din nailon care nu sunt destul de bine.
4.1.2. Cavitate de descărcare

Cavitația de descărcare se produce atunci când presiunea de descărcare a pompei este extrem de
ridicată, care apare în mod normal într-o pompă care funcționează la mai puțin de 10% din
punctul său de eficiență. Presiunea ridicată de descărcare face ca majoritatea fluidului să circule
în interiorul pompei, în loc să i se permită să iasă din descărcare. Pe măsură ce lichidul curge în
jurul rotorului, acesta trebuie să treacă prin distanța mică dintre rotor și carcasa pompei la viteză
extrem de mare. Această viteză determină dezvoltarea unui vid la peretele carcasei (similar cu
ceea ce apare la un venturi), care transformă lichidul într-un vapor. O pompă care funcționează
în aceste condiții arată uzura prematură a vârfurilor paletei și a carcasei pompei. În plus, datorită
condițiilor de presiune ridicată, se poate preconiza o defecțiune prematură a garniturii mecanice
și a rulmenților. În condiții extreme, acest lucru poate rupe arborele rotorului.

Se consideră că cavitația de descărcare în lichidul articular provoacă sunetul produs prin

fisurarea articulațiilor osoase, de exemplu prin crăparea deliberată a gâturilor.

4.1.3. Soluții de cavitație

Întrucât toate pompele necesită un debit de admisie bine dezvoltat pentru a-și atinge potențialul,
o pompă poate să nu funcționeze sau să fie la fel de fiabilă așa cum este de așteptat datorită unei
dispuneri defectuoase a conductelor de aspirație, cum ar fi un cot cuplat strâns pe flanșa de
intrare. Când un debit slab dezvoltat intră în rotorul de pompă, acesta lovește paletele și nu este
în măsură să urmeze pasajul rotorului. Apoi, lichidul se separă de palete cauzând probleme
mecanice din cauza cavitației, vibrațiilor și a performanțelor din cauza turbulenței și a umplerii
deficitare a rotorului. Acest lucru duce la o etanșare prematură, eșecul rulmentului și al rotorului,
costuri ridicate de întreținere, consum ridicat de energie electrică și debit mai puțin decât
specificat.

Pentru a avea un model de debit bine dezvoltat, manualele producătorului pompei recomandă
aproximativ 10 diametre de conducte drepte rulate în amonte de flanșa de admisie a pompei. Din
păcate, proiectanții de conducte și personalul instalației trebuie să se confrunte cu restricțiile de
dispunere a spațiului și a echipamentelor și, de obicei, nu pot respecta această recomandare. În
schimb, este obișnuit să folosești un cot cuplat strâns la aspirația pompei, ceea ce creează un
model de debit slab dezvoltat la aspirația pompei. [20]

Cu o pompă de aspirație dublă legată de un cot cuplat, distribuția debitului către rotor este slabă
și provoacă deficiențe de fiabilitate și performanță. Cotul împarte debitul inegal cu mai mult
canalizat către exteriorul cotului. În consecință, o parte a rotorului cu aspirație dublă primește
mai mult debit la o viteză și o presiune mai mari, în timp ce partea înfometată primește un flux
extrem de turbulent și care poate dăuna. Aceasta degradează performanța generală a pompei
(capul livrat, debitul și consumul de energie) și provoacă dezechilibrul axial care scurtează
etanșarea, rulmentul și durata de viață a rotorului. [21]

4.2. Supape de control

Cavitația poate apărea în valvele de control. [22] Dacă scăderea de presiune reală pe supapă,
astfel cum este definită de presiunile din amonte și din aval în sistem este mai mare decât
calculul de dimensionare, poate să apară scăpări de presiune sau cavitație. Schimbarea de la o
stare lichidă la o stare de vapori rezultă din creșterea vitezei fluidului la sau doar în aval de cea
mai mare restricție de debit, care este în mod normal portul valvei. Pentru a menține un flux
constant de lichid printr-o supapă, viteza trebuie să fie cea mai mare la vena contractă sau la
punctul în care secțiunea transversală este cea mai mică. Această creștere a vitezei este însoțită
de o scădere substanțială a presiunii fluidului care este parțial recuperată în aval pe măsură ce
zona crește și scade viteza. Această recuperare a presiunii nu este niciodată completă la nivelul
presiunii din amonte. Dacă presiunea la vena contracta scade sub presiunea de vapori a bulelor
de fluid se va forma în fluxul de curgere. Dacă presiunea se recuperează după supapă la o
presiune care este din nou peste presiunea vaporilor, atunci bulele de vapori se vor prăbuși și se
va produce cavitația.

4.3. Deversoare

Atunci când apa curge peste o scurgere a barajului, neregularitățile de pe suprafața deversării vor
determina zone mici de separare a debitului într-un debit de viteză mare și, în aceste regiuni,
presiunea va fi scăzută. Dacă vitezele sunt suficient de mari, presiunea poate scădea sub nivelul
presiunii locale de vapori a apei și se vor forma bule de vapori. Când acestea sunt transportate în
aval în regiunea de înaltă presiune, bula se prăbușește dând naștere la presiuni mari și posibile
deteriorări ale cavitației.

Cercetările experimentale arată că deteriorarea pe canalele de evacuare a betonului și tunelului

poate începe cu viteze clare ale apei între 12 și 15 m / s și, până la viteze de 20 m / s, poate fi
posibilă protejarea suprafeței prin eficientizarea limitelor. , îmbunătățind finisajele suprafeței sau
folosind materiale rezistente. [23]

Atunci când este prezent un pic de aer în apă, amestecul rezultat este comprimabil, iar acest lucru
diminuează presiunea ridicată cauzată de balonul se prăbușește. [24] Dacă vitezele din
apropierea inversării deversare sunt suficient de mari, trebuie introduse aeratoare (sau dispozitive
de aerare) pentru a preveni cavitația. Deși acestea sunt instalate de câțiva ani, mecanismele de
antrenare a aerului la aeratoare și mișcarea lentă a aerului departe de suprafața deversării sunt
încă dificile. [25] [26] [27] [28]

Proiectarea dispozitivului de aerare de scurgere se bazează pe o mică deviere a patului de

deversare (sau a peretelui lateral), cum ar fi o rampa și o compensare pentru a devia fluxul de
viteză mare departe de suprafața deversare. În cavitatea formată sub nappe, se produce o
subpresiune locală sub nappe, prin care aerul este aspirat în flux. Proiectarea completă include
dispozitivul de deflexie (rampa, decalare) și sistemul de alimentare cu aer.

4.4. Engines

Unele motoare diesel mai mari suferă de cavitație din cauza compresiei ridicate și a pereților
cilindrilor subdimensionați. Vibrațiile peretelui cilindrului induc o presiune alternativă joasă și
mare în lichidul de răcire împotriva peretelui cilindrului. Rezultatul este punerea peretelui
cilindrului, care va lăsa în cele din urmă scurgerea lichidului de răcire în cilindru și gazele de
combustie să se scurgă în lichidul de răcire.

Este posibil să se prevină acest lucru cu utilizarea de aditivi chimici în fluidul de răcire care
formează un strat protector pe peretele cilindrului. Acest strat va fi expus la aceeași cavitație, dar
se reconstruiește. În plus, o suprapresiune reglementată în sistemul de răcire (reglată și menținută
de presiunea arcului capacului de umplere a lichidului de răcire) împiedică formarea cavitației.
Din aproximativ anii 1980, noile proiecte ale motoarelor cu benzină (benzină) mai mici au
prezentat și fenomene de cavitație. Un răspuns la nevoia de motoare mai mici și mai ușoare a fost
un volum de lichid de răcire mai mic și o viteză corespunzător mai mare de răcire. Acest lucru a
dus la schimbări rapide ale vitezei de curgere și, prin urmare, schimbări rapide ale presiunii
statice în zonele cu transfer de căldură ridicat. În cazul în care bulele de vapori rezultate s-au
prăbușit pe o suprafață, acestea au avut ca efect prima distrugere a straturilor de oxid de protecție
(din materiale din aluminiu turnat) și apoi deteriorarea repetată a suprafeței nou formate,
prevenind acțiunea unor tipuri de inhibitori de coroziune (cum ar fi inhibitorii pe bază de
silicat) . O ultimă problemă a fost efectul pe care temperatura crescută a materialului a avut-o
asupra reactivității electrochimice relative a metalului de bază și a componentelor sale de aliere.
Rezultatul a fost gropi adânci care puteau forma și pătrunde capul motorului în câteva ore, când
motorul funcționa la sarcină mare și viteză mare. Aceste efecte ar putea fi evitate în mare parte
prin utilizarea de inhibitori de coroziune organică sau (de preferință) prin proiectarea capului
motorului astfel încât să se evite anumite condiții de inducere a cavitației.

4.5. In natura

4.5.1. Geologia

Unele teorii referitoare la formarea diamantului joacă un posibil rol pentru cavitație - și anume
cavitarea în conductele de kimberlite, oferind presiunea extremă necesară pentru a schimba
carbonul pur în alotropul rar care este diamantul. [29]

4.5.2. Plante vasculare

Cavitația are loc în xilemul plantelor vasculare când tensiunea apei din interiorul xilemului
devine atât de mare încât apa lichidă (sau seva) se vaporizează local și aerul dizolvat în apa se
extinde pentru a umple elementele vasului sau traheidele. Plantele sunt în general capabile să
repare xilemul cavitat în mai multe moduri. Pentru plantele cu o înălțime mai mică de 50 cm,
presiunea rădăcinii poate fi suficientă pentru a redisolva aerul. Pentru plantele mai mari, acestea
trebuie să repare cavitația prin importul de solutii în xilem prin intermediul celulelor razei sau în
traheide, prin osmoză prin gropi mărginite; acest lucru face ca și apa să intre, care poate
redisolva aerul. La unii arbori, sunetul cavitației este clar auzit, în special vara, când rata
evapotranspirației este cea mai mare și poate fi utilizată pentru a determina viteza de cavitație.
Arbori de foioase văd frunzele toamna parțial deoarece cavitația crește pe măsură ce
temperaturile scad. [30]

4.5.3. Viata marina

La fel cum bulele de cavitație se formează pe un elice cu bară cu rotire rapidă, ele se pot forma și
pe cozi și înotătoarele animalelor acvatice. Efectele cavitației sunt deosebit de importante în
apropierea suprafeței oceanului, unde presiunea în mediu a apei este relativ scăzută și este mai
probabil să apară cavitația.

Pentru animalele puternice de înot, cum ar fi delfinii și tonul, cavitația poate fi dăunătoare,
deoarece limitează viteza maximă de înot. [31] Chiar dacă au puterea de a înota mai repede, este
posibil ca delfinii să fie nevoiți să-și restrângă viteza, deoarece bulele de cavitație care se
prăbușesc pe coada lor sunt foarte dureroase. Cavitația încetinește și tonul, dar dintr-un alt motiv.
Spre deosebire de delfini, acești pești nu simt bule dureroase, deoarece au aripioare osoase fără
terminații nervoase. Cu toate acestea, nu pot înota mai repede, deoarece bulele de cavitație
creează o peliculă de vapori în jurul aripioarelor lor, care le limitează viteza. S-au găsit leziuni la
ton care sunt în concordanță cu deteriorarea cavitației.

Cavitația nu este întotdeauna o limitare pentru viața la mare; unele animale au găsit modalități de
a o folosi în avantajul lor atunci când vânează prada. Creveții de pistol smulg o gheară
specializată pentru a crea cavitație, care poate ucide pești mici. Creveții de mantis (din soiul de
smocuri) folosesc și cavitații pentru a poteca, a deschide sau a ucide crustaceii cu care se
sărbătorește. [32]

Rechinii mai mici folosesc „pălării de coadă” pentru a-și debilita prada de pește mic și s-au văzut
bule de cavitație care se ridică de pe vârful arcului cozii. [33] [34]

4.5.4. Eroziunea costiera

În ultima jumătate de deceniu, eroziunea de coastă sub formă de cavitație inerțială a fost în
general acceptată. [35] Buzunarele cu vapori dintr-o undă de intrare sunt forțate să intre în fisuri
în faleză fiind erodate, apoi forța valului comprimă buzunarele de vapori până când bula
implodează, devenind lichidă, eliberând diverse forme de energie care distruge roca.

4.6. Cavitation number

The Euler number (Eu)[36] is a dimensionless number used in fluid flow calculations. It

expresses the relationship between a local pressure drop e.g. over a restriction and the kinetic
energy per volume, and is used to characterize losses in the flow, where a perfect frictionless
flow corresponds to an Euler number of 1. The inverse of the Euler number is referred to as
the Ruark Number with the symbol Ru.
It is defined as

where

  is the density of the fluid.

  is the upstream pressure.
  is the downstream pressure.
  is a characteristic velocity of the flow.
The cavitation number has a similar structure, but a different meaning and use:
The Cavitation number (Ca)[37] is a dimensionless number used in flow calculations. It
expresses the relationship between the difference of a local absolute pressure from the
vapor pressure and the kinetic energy per volume, and is used to characterize the potential of
the flow to cavitate.
It is defined as

where

  is the density of the fluid.

  is the local pressure.
  is the vapor pressure of the fluid.
  is a characteristic velocity of the flow.
Erosion corrosion of copper water tubes

 Erosion corrosion [38], also known as impingement damage, is the combined effect
of corrosion and erosion caused by rapid flowing turbulent water. It is probably the
second most common cause of copper tube failures behind Type 1 pitting which is also
known as Cold Water Pitting of Copper Tube.
 Copper Water Tubes
Copper tubes have been used to distribute drinking water within buildings for many years,
and hundreds of miles are installed throughoutEurope every year. The long life of copper
when exposed to natural waters is a result of its thermodynamic stability, its high resistance
to reacting with the environment, and the formation of insoluble corrosion products that
insulate the metal from the environment. The corrosion rate of copper in most drinkable
waters is less than 2.5 µm/year, at this rate a 15 mm tube with a wall thickness of 0.7 mm
would last for about 280 years. In some soft waters the general corrosion rate may increase to
12.5 µm/year, but even at this rate it would take over 50 years to perforate the same tube.

Occurence

If the general water speed or the degree of local turbulence in an installation is high, the
protective film that would normally be formed on a copper tube as a result of slight initial
corrosion, may be torn off the surface locally, permitting further corrosion to take place at that
point. If this process continues it can produce deep localised attack of the type known as erosion-
corrosion or impingement damage. The actual attack on the metal is by the corrosive action of
the water to which it is exposed while the erosive factor is the mechanical removal of the
corrosion product from the surface.
Impingement attack produces highly characteristic water-swept pits, which are often horseshoe
shaped, or it can produce broader areas of attack. The leading edge of the pit is frequently
undercut by the swirling action of the water. Usually, the surface of the metal within the pits or
areas of attack is smooth and carries no substantial corrosion product. Erosion-corrosion is
known to occur in pumped-circulation hot water distribution systems, and even in cold water
distribution systems, if the water velocities are too high. The factors influencing the attack
include the chemical character of the water passing through the system, the temperature, the
average water velocity in the system and the presence of any local features likely to induce
turbulence in the water stream.
It is unusual for the general water velocity in a system to be so high that impingement attack
occurs throughout the whole of the copper pipework. More commonly, the velocity is just
sufficiently low for satisfactory protective films to be formed and to remain in position on most
of the system, with impingement damage more likely to occur where there is an abrupt change in
the direction of water flow giving rise to a high degree of turbulence, such as at tee pieces and
elbow fittings. It is not generally realised how great an effect small obstructions can have on the
flow pattern of water in a pipe-work system and the extent to which they can induce turbulence
and cause corrosion-erosion. For example, it is most important, as far as possible, to ensure that
copper tubes cut with a tube cutter are deburred before making the joint. Also a gap between the
tube end and the stop in the fitting, due to the tube not having been cut to the correct length and
fully inserted into the socket of the fitting, can also induce turbulence in the water stream.

Recommendations
The rate of impingement attack on copper also depends to some extent on the temperature of the
water. The maximum velocities for fresh waters at different temperatures recommended
in Sweden are given in the table below. These figures are for aerated waters of pH not less than
about 7.
Recommended Maximum Water Velocities at Different Temperatures for Copper (m/s)

10°
50°C 70°C 90°C
C

For pipes that can be replaced: 4.0 3.0 2.5 2.0

For pipes that cannot be replaced: 2.0 1.5 1.3 1.0

For short connections to taps,

16.0 12.0 10.0 8.0
etc.§:

§ These velocities give a risk of impingement attack and are acceptable only for small bore
connections to taps, flushing cisterns etc., through which water flow is intermittent.
BS 6700 gives the following maximum water velocities although it does note that these are
currently under investigation and the velocities specified will be amended if the results of this
investigation so require.
 Water Temperature
Maximum Water Velocity (m/s)
°C

10 3.0

50 3.0

70 2.5

90 2.0

The minimum water speed at which copper pipes suffer impingement attack depends also to
some extent on water composition. Aggressive waters that tend to be cupro-solvent are the most
likely to give rise to impingement attack. Installations in large buildings where flow rates may be
high and water is in continuous circulation are much more susceptible to attack than ordinary
domestic installations. A high mineral content or a pH below 7 is likely to increase the
possibility of corrosion-erosion occurring while a positive Langelier Index and consequent
tendency to deposit a calcium carbonate scale is generally beneficial. The presence or absence of
colloidal organic matter is also probably of some importance.
Remedial measures for impingement attack include modifications to the system to reduce the
average water velocity, e.g. by using larger diameter tubes or, if appropriate, to lower the pump
speed, and/or to redesign the part of the installation concerned to eliminate the cause of local
turbulence, e.g. by using slow or swept bends and tee fittings rather than elbows and square tees.
It is important to minimise the possibility of any local turbulence occurring by ensuring that the
ends of tubes cut with a tube cutter are deburred and that the tubes are inserted fully to the stops
in the fitting before the joints are made, as referred to earlier in this section. In some cases, where
the above approaches are not possible, the length of copper tube affected can sometimes be
replaced by materials more resistant to corrosion-erosion, e.g. 90/10 copper-nickel (BS
Designation CN102) using appropriate fittings, or stainless steel to BS 4127:1994.
Rayleigh-Plesset equation

In fluid mechanics, the Rayleigh–Plesset equation [39] is an ordinary differential

equation which governs the dynamics of a spherical bubble in an infinite body of liquid.[41][42]
[43][44]
 Its general form is usually written as

where

  is the pressure within the bubble, assumed to be uniform

  is the external pressure infinitely far from the bubble
  is the density of the surrounding liquid, assumed to be constant
  is the radius of the bubble
  is the kinematic viscosity of the surrounding liquid, assumed to be constant
  is the surface tension of the bubble

Provided that   is known and   is given, the Rayleigh–Plesset equation can be
used to solve for the time-varying bubble radius  .
The Rayleigh–Plesset equation is derived from the Navier–Stokes equations under the
assumption of spherical symmetry.[44] Neglecting surface tension and viscosity, the equation
was first derived by John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh in 1917. The equation was first applied
to traveling cavitation bubbles by Milton S. Plesset in 1949.[45]
The Rayleigh–Plesset equation can be derived entirely from first principles using the bubble
radius as the dynamic parameter.[43] Consider a spherical bubble with time-dependent
radius  , where   is time. Assume that the bubble contains a homogeneously distributed
vapor/gas with a uniform temperate   and pressure  . Outside the bubble is an
infinite domain of liquid with constant density   and dynamic viscosity  . Let the
temperature and pressure far from the bubble be   and  . The temperature   is
assumed to be constant. At a radial distance   from the center of the bubble, the varying
liquid properties are pressure  , temperature  , and radially outward
velocity  . Note that these liquid properties are only defined outside the bubble,
for  .

Mass conservation
By conservation of mass, the inverse-square law requires that the radially outward
velocity   must be inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the origin
(the center of the bubble).[5] Therefore, letting   be some function of time,

In the case of zero mass transport across the bubble surface, the velocity at the interface must
be

which gives that

In the case where mass transport occurs, the rate of mass increase inside the bubble is given
by

with   being the volume of the bubble. If   is the velocity of the liquid relative to the
bubble at  , then the mass entering the bubble is given by

with   being the surface area of the bubble. Now by conservation of

mass  , therefore  . Hence

Therefore

In many cases, the liquid density is much greater than the vapor density,  , so
that   can be approximated by the original zero mass transfer form 
, so that[5]
Momentum conservation
Assuming that the liquid is a Newtonian fluid, the incompressible Navier–Stokes
equation in spherical coordinates for motion in the radial direction gives

Substituting kinematic viscosity   and rearranging gives

whereby substituting   from mass conservation yields

Note that the viscous terms cancel during substitution.[45] Separating variables and

integrating from the bubble boundary   to   gives

Boundary conditions
Let   be the normal stress in the liquid that points radially outward from the center of the
bubble. In spherical coordinates, for a fluid with constant density and constant viscosity,

Therefore at some small portion of the bubble surface, the net force per unit area acting on
the lamina is
where   is the surface tension.[45] If there is no mass transfer across the boundary, then this
force per unit area must be zero, therefore

and so the result from momentum conservation becomes

whereby rearranging and letting   gives the Rayleigh–Plesset equation[5]

Using dot notation to represent derivatives with respect to time, the Rayleigh–Plesset

equation can be more succinctly written as

Solutions

Numerical integration of RP eq. including surface tension and viscosity terms. Initially at rest
in atmospheric pressure with R0=50 um, the bubble subjected to oscillatory pressure at its
natural frequency undergoes expansion and then collapses.
 

Numerical integration of RP eq. including surface tension and viscosity terms. Initially at rest
in atmospheric pressure with R0=50 um, the bubble subjected to pressure-drop undergoes
expansion and then collapses.

Recently, analytical closed-form solution were found for the Rayleigh–Plesset equation when

the surface tension is present due to the effects of capillarity. [6]
 Also, for the special case, where surface tension and viscosity are neglected, high-order
analytical approximations are also known.[7]
In the static case, the Rayleigh–Plesset equation simplifies, yielding to the Young-Laplace
equation:

When only infinitesimal periodic variations in the bubble radius and pressure are considered,
the RP equation also yields to the expression of the natural frequency of the bubble
oscillation.

Sonoluminescence

Sonoluminescence is the emission of short bursts of light from imploding bubbles in a liquid

when excited by sound.

History
The sonoluminescence effect was first discovered at the University of Cologne in 1934 as a
result of work onsonar.] H. Frenzel and H. Schultes put an ultrasound transducer in a tank of
photographic developer fluid. They hoped to speed up the development process. Instead, they
noticed tiny dots on the film after developing and realized that the bubbles in the fluid were
emitting light with the ultrasound turned on. ] It was too difficult to analyze the effect in early
experiments because of the complex environment of a large number of short-lived bubbles. (This
experiment is also ascribed to N. Marinesco and J. J. Trillat in 1933, which also credits them
with independent discovery). This phenomenon is now referred to as multi-bubble
sonoluminescence (MBSL).
In 1960 Dr. Peter Jarman from Imperial College of London proposed the most reliable theory of
SL phenomenon. The collapsing bubble generates an imploding shock wave that compresses and
heats the gas at the center of the bubble to extremely high temperature.
In 1989 an experimental advance was introduced by D. Felipe Gaitan and Lawrence Crum, who
produced stable single-bubble sonoluminescence (SBSL).] In SBSL, a single bubble trapped in
an acoustic standing wave emits a pulse of light with each compression of the bubble within
the standing wave. This technique allowed a more systematicstudy of the phenomenon, because
it isolated the complex effects into one stable, predictable bubble. It was realized that the
temperature inside the bubble was hot enough to melt steel.] Interest in sonoluminescence was
renewed when an inner temperature of such a bubble well above one million kelvins was
postulated.] This temperature is thus far not conclusively proven; rather, recent experiments
conducted by the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign indicate temperatures around
20,000 K (19,700 °C; 35,500 °F).[48]

Properties

Sonoluminescence can occur when a sound wave of sufficient intensity induces a gaseous cavity
within a liquid to collapse quickly. This cavity may take the form of a pre-existing bubble, or
may be generated through a process known as cavitation. Sonoluminescence in the laboratory
can be made to be stable, so that a single bubble will expand and collapse over and over again in
a periodic fashion, emitting a burst of light each time it collapses. For this to occur, a standing
acoustic wave is set up within a liquid, and the bubble will sit at a pressure anti-node of the
standing wave. The frequencies of resonance depend on the shape and size of the container in
which the bubble is contained.
Some facts about sonoluminescence:

 The light flashes from the bubbles are extremely short—between 35 and a few
hundred picoseconds long—with peak intensities of the order of 1–10 mW.
 The bubbles are very small when they emit the light—about 1 micrometre in diameter—
depending on the ambient fluid (e.g., water) and the gas content of the bubble
(e.g., atmospheric air).
 Single-bubble sonoluminescence pulses can have very stable periods and positions. In
fact, the frequency of light flashes can be more stable than the rated frequency stability of the
oscillator making the sound waves driving them. However, the stability analyses of the
bubble show that the bubble itself undergoes significant geometric instabilities, due to, for
example, the Bjerknes forces and Rayleigh–Taylor instabilities.
 The addition of a small amount of noble gas (such as helium, argon, or xenon) to the gas
in the bubble increases the intensity of the emitted light.
Spectral measurements have given bubble temperatures in the range from 2300 K to 5100 K, the
exact temperatures depending on experimental conditions including the composition of the liquid
and gas.[49] Detection of very high bubble temperatures by spectral methods is limited due to the
opacity of liquids to short wavelength light characteristic of very high temperatures.
Writing in Nature, chemists David J. Flannigan and Kenneth S. Suslick describe a method of
determining temperatures based on the formation of plasmas. Using argon bubbles in sulfuric
acid, their data show the presence of ionized molecular oxygen O 2+, sulfur monoxide, and atomic
argon populating high-energy excited states, which confirms a hypothesis that the bubbles have a
hot plasma core.[50] The ionization and excitation energy of dioxygenyl cations, which they
observed, is 18 electronvolts. From this they conclude the core temperatures reach at least 20,000
Kelvin.[48]
Rayleigh-Plesset equation

The dynamics of the motion of the bubble is characterized to a first approximation by the
Rayleigh–Plesset equation (named after Lord Rayleigh and Milton Plesset):

This is an approximate equation that is derived from the incompressible Navier–Stokes

equations (written in spherical coordinate system) and describes the motion of the radius of the
bubble R as a function of time t. Here, μ is the viscosity, p the pressure, and γ the surface tension.
The over-dots represent time derivatives. This equation, though approximate, has been shown to
give good estimates on the motion of the bubble under the acoustically driven field except during
the final stages of collapse. Both simulation and experimental measurement show that during the
critical final stages of collapse, the bubble wall velocity exceeds the speed of sound of the gas
inside the bubble.[4] Thus a more detailed analysis of the bubble's motion is needed beyond
Rayleigh–Plesset to explore the additional energy focusing that an internally formed shock wave
might produce.
Mechanism of phenomenon
The mechanism of the phenomenon of sonoluminescence is unknown. Hypotheses include:
hotspot, bremsstrahlung radiation, collision-induced radiation andcorona discharges, nonclassical
light, proton tunneling, electrodynamic jets and fractoluminescent jets (now largely discredited
due to contrary experimental evidence).

From left to right: apparition of bubble, slow expansion, quick and sudden contraction, emission
of light

In 2002, M. Brenner, S. Hilgenfeldt, and D. Lohse published a 60-page review "Single bubble

sonoluminescence" (Reviews of Modern Physics 74, 425) that contains a detailed explanation of
the mechanism. An important factor is that the bubble contains mainly inert noble gas such as
argon or xenon (air contains about 1% argon, and the amount dissolved in water is too great; for
sonoluminescence to occur, the concentration must be reduced to 20–40% of its equilibrium
value) and varying amounts of water vapor. Chemical reactions cause nitrogen and oxygen to be
removed from the bubble after about one hundred expansion-collapse cycles. The bubble will
then begin to emit light "Evidence for Gas Exchange in Single-Bubble Sonoluminescence",
Matula and Crum, Phys. Rev. Lett. 80 (1998), 865-868). The light emission of highly compressed
noble gas is exploited technologically in the argon flash devices.
During bubble collapse, the inertia of the surrounding water causes high pressure and high
temperature, reaching around 10,000 Kelvin in the interior of the bubble, causing the ionization
of a small fraction of the noble gas present. The amount ionized is small enough for the bubble to
remain transparent, allowing volume emission; surface emission would produce more intense
light of longer duration, dependent on wavelength, contradicting experimental results. Electrons
from ionized atoms interact mainly with neutral atoms, causing thermal bremsstrahlung
radiation. As the wave hits a low energy trough, the pressure drops, allowing electrons
to recombine with atoms and light emission to cease due to this lack of free electrons. This
makes for a 160-picosecond light pulse for argon (even a small drop in temperature causes a
large drop in ionization, due to the large ionization energy relative to photon energy). This
description is simplified from the literature above, which details various steps of differing
duration from 15 microseconds (expansion) to 100 picoseconds (emission).
Computations based on the theory presented in the review produce radiation parameters
(intensity and duration time versus wavelength) that match experimental results] with errors no
larger than expected due to some simplifications (e.g., assuming a uniform temperature in the
entire bubble), so it seems the phenomenon of sonoluminescence is at least roughly explained,
although some details of the process remain obscure.
Any discussion of sonoluminescence must include a detailed analysis of metastability.
Sonoluminescence in this respect is what is physically termed a bounded phenomenon meaning
that the sonoluminescence exists in a bounded region of parameter space for the bubble; a
coupled magnetic field being one such parameter. The magnetic aspects of sonoluminescence are
very well documented.[52]

Supercavitation

Supercavitation is the use of cavitation effects to create a bubble of gas inside a liquid large

enough to encompass an object travelling through the liquid, greatly reducing the skin
friction drag on the object and enabling achievement of very high speeds. Current applications
are mainly limited to projectiles or very fasttorpedoes, and some propellers, but in principle the
technique could be extended to include entire vehicles.

Fig. An object (black) encounters a liquid (blue) at high speed. The fluid pressure behind the object is lowered

below the vapour pressure of the liquid, forming a bubble of vapour (a cavity) that encompasses the object .
In water, cavitation occurs when water pressure is lowered below the water's vapour pressure,
forming bubbles of vapour. That can happen when water is accelerated to high speeds as when
turning a sharp corner around a moving piece of metal such as a ship's propeller or a pump's
impeller. The greater the water depth (or pressure for a water pipe) at which the fluid
acceleration occurs, the lesser the tendency for cavitation because of the greater difference
between local pressure and vapour pressure. (The non-dimensional cavitation number is a
measure of the tendency for vapour pressure bubbles to form in a liquid, calculated as the
difference between local pressure and vapour pressure, divided by dynamic pressure.) Once the
flow slows down again, the water vapour will generally be reabsorbed into the liquid water. That
can be a problem for ship propellers if cavitation bubbles implode on the surface of the propeller,
each applying a small force that is concentrated in both location and time, causing damage.
A common occurrence of water vapour bubbles is observed in a pan of boiling water. In that case
the water pressure is not reduced, but rather, the vapour pressure of the water is increased by
means of heating. If the heat source is sufficient, the bubbles will detach from the bottom of the
pan and rise to the surface as steam. Otherwise if the pan is removed from the heat the bubbles
will be reabsorbed into the water as it cools, possibly causing pitting or spalling on the bottom of
the pan as the bubbles implode.
A supercavitating object is a high speed submerged object that is designed to initiate a cavitation
bubble at the nose which (either naturally or augmented with internally generated gas) extends
past the aft end of the object, substantially reducing the skin friction drag that would be present if
the sides of the object were in contact with the liquid in which the object is submerged. A key
feature of the supercavitating object is the nose, which may be shaped as a flat disk or cone, and
may be articulated, but which likely has a sharp edge around the perimeter behind which the
cavitation bubble forms.[1] The shape of the object aft of the nose will generally be slender in
order to stay within the limited diameter of the cavitation bubble. If the bubble is of insufficient
length to encompass the object, especially at slower speeds, the bubble can be enlarged and
extended by injection of high pressure gas near the object's nose.[66]
The great speed required for supercavitation to work can be achieved temporarily by a projectile
fired under water or by an airborne projectile impacting the water. Rocket propulsion can be used
for sustained operation, with the possibility of tapping high pressure gas to route to the object's
nose in order to enhance the cavitation bubble. An example of rocket propulsion is the
Russian VA-111 Shkval supercavitating torpedo.[67][68] In principle, maneuvering may be
achieved by various means such as drag fins that project through the bubble into the surrounding
liquid[69] , by tilting the nose of the object, by injecting gas asymmetrically near the nose in order
to distort the geometry of the cavity, by vectoring rocket thrust through gimbaling for a single
nozzle, or by differential thrust for multiple nozzles.[66]
Applications
In 1960, the USSR started developing a project under the codename "Шквал" (Squall) run by
NII-24 (Kiev) to develop a high-speed torpedo, an underwater rocket, four to five times faster
than traditional torpedoes capable of combating enemy submarines. Several models of the device
were made, the most successful – M-5 – was created by 1972. In 1972 to 1977, over 300 test
launches were made (95% of them on Issyk Kul lake), by 29 November 1972 VA-111
Shkval was put into service with mass production started in 1978.
In 2004, German weapons manufacturer Diehl BGT Defence announced their own
supercavitating torpedo, Barracuda, now officially named "Superkavitierender
Unterwasserlaufkörper" (English: "supercavitating underwater running body"). According to
Diehl, it reaches more than 400 km/h (250 m2h).[70]
In 1994, the United States Navy began developing a sea mine clearance system invented by C
Tech Defense Corporation, known as RAMICS (Rapid Airborne Mine Clearance System), based
on a supercavitating projectile stable in both air and water. These have been produced in 12.7
millimeters (0.50 in), 20 millimetres (0.79 in), and 30 millimetres (1.2 in) diameters.[71] The
terminal ballistic design of the projectile allowed it to cause explosive destruction of sea mines
as deep as 45 meters (148 ft) underwater with a single round.[72] In 2000, these projectiles were
used to successfully destroy a range of live underwater mines when fired from a hovering Sea
Cobra gunship at Aberdeen Proving Ground. RAMICS is currently] undergoing development
by Northrop Grumman for introduction into the fleet. The darts of German (Heckler & Koch
P11) and Russian underwater firearms,[73] and other similar weapons are also supercavitating.
In 2005, DARPA announced the 'Underwater Express program', a research and evaluation bid to
establish the potential of supercavitation. The program's ultimate goal is a new class of
underwater craft for littoral missions that can transport small groups of Navy personnel or
specialized military cargo at speeds up to 100 knots. The contracts were awarded to Northrop
Grumman and General Dynamics Electric Boat in late 2006.] In 2009, DARPA announced
progress via a new class of submarine.
The submarine's designer, Electric Boat, is working on a one-quarter scale model for sea trials
off the coast of Rhode Island. If the trials are successful, Electric Boat will begin production on a
full scale 100-foot submarine. Currently, the Navy's fastest submarine can only travel at 25 to 30
knots while submerged. But if everything goes according to plan, the Underwater Express will
speed along at 100 knots, allowing the delivery of men and materiel faster than ever."[74]
Iran claimed to have successfully tested its first supercavitation torpedo on 2 April and 3 April
2006. Some sources have speculated it is based on the Russian VA-111 Shkval supercavitation
torpedo, which travels at the same speed.[75] Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov denied
supplying Iran with the technology.[76]Iran called this weapon the Hoot (Whale).
A prototype named the Ghost, designed for stealth operations by Gregory Sancoff of Juliet
Marine Systems, uses supercavitation to propel itself atop two struts with sharpened edges. The
vessel rides smoothly in choppy water and has reached speeds of 29 knots.[77]

Fig. Artist rendering of a supercavitating propeller in action

The supercavitating propeller is a variant of a propeller for propulsion in water, where

supercavitation is actively employed to gain increased speed by reducing friction. They are being
used for military purposes and for high performance racing boats, as well as model racing boats.
The supercavitating propeller operates submerged with the entire diameter of the blade below the
water line. Its blades are wedge-shaped to force cavitation on the whole forward face, starting at
the leading edge, in order to reduce water skin friction. As the cavity collapses well behind the
blade, the supercavitating propeller avoids thespalling damage due to cavitation that is a problem
with conventional propellers.
In August 2014, professor of fluid machinery and engineering at the Harbin Institute of
Technology Li Fengchen claimed to have developed a way to create a supercavitating submarine
capable of traveling from Shanghai to San Francisco in only 100 minutes, a speed of up to
3,600 mph (3,100 kn; 5,800 km/h). Several problems exist in attempting to make such a
machine: the sub would need to already be moving fast enough to compress the air to enable
cavitation, difficult since they don't travel faster than 40 knots (46 m2h; 74 km/h); since
traditional propellers cannot touch the water, rockets had to be used to propel traditional
supercavitating watercraft, which in a full-size submarine could only propel it out to a distance of
40 mi (35 nmi; 64 km); and steering is virtually impossible since rudders would pop the
surrounding air bubble, or simply break off when suddenly encountering (the Juliet Marine
Ghost has its air bubble just around its propellers rather than the entire craft). Li claims to have
addressed these problems by using a liquid membrane on the hull to reduce friction so it reaches
cavitation speed, and steering by "fine-tuning" where the membrane coats the craft.[78][79][80]

 Supercavitating propeller
 Water hammer
 Water tunnel (hydrodynamic)
  Ultrasonic cavitation device

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Further reading

 For cavitation in plants, see Plant Physiology by Taiz and Zeiger.

 For cavitation in the engineering field, visit [1]
 Kornfelt, M.: "On the destructive action of cavitation," Journal of applied Physics No.15,
1944.
 For hydrodynamic cavitation in the ethanol field, visit [2] and Ethanol Producer
Magazine: "Tiny Bubbles to Make You Happy" [3]
 S. Barnett; Nonthermal issues: Cavitation—Its nature, detection and measurement;
Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology, Volume 24, Supplement 1, June 1998, Pages S11-
S21
 For Cavitation on tidal stream turbines, see 'Cavitation inception and simulation in blade
element momentum theory for modelling tidal stream turbines' [4].
 Cavitation and Bubbly Flows, Saint Anthony Falls Laboratory, University of Minnesota


 Fundamentals of Multiphase Flow by Christopher E. Brennen[dead link]
 van der Waals-type CFD Modeling of Cavitation
 Cavitation bubble in varying gravitational fields, jet-formation
 Cavitation limits the speed of dolphins
 Tiny Bubbles to Make You Happy

Euler number (physics)

The Euler number (Eu) is a dimensionless number used in fluid flow calculations. It expresses
the relationship between a local pressure drop e.g. over a restriction and the kinetic energy per
volume, and is used to characterize losses in the flow, where a perfect frictionless flow
corresponds to an Euler number of 1. The inverse of the Euler number is referred to as the
Ruark Number with the symbol Ru.
It is defined as

where

 is the density of the fluid.

 is the upstream pressure.
 is the downstream pressure.
 is a characteristic velocity of the flow.

The cavitation number has a similar structure, but a different meaning and use:

The Cavitation number (Ca) is a dimensionless number used in flow calculations. It expresses
the relationship between the difference of a local absolute pressure from the vapor pressure and
the kinetic energy per volume, and is used to characterize the potential of the flow to cavitate.

It is defined as

where

 is the density of the fluid.

 is the local pressure.
 is the vapor pressure of the fluid.
 is a characteristic velocity of the flow.

See also

 Reynolds number for use in flow analysis and similarity of flows

References
  Batchelor, G. K. (1967). An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-09817-3.

Erosion corrosion of copper water tubes

Erosion corrosion, also known as impingement damage, is the combined effect of corrosion and
erosion caused by rapid flowing turbulent water. It is probably the second most common cause of
copper tube failures behind Type 1 pitting which is also known as Cold Water Pitting of Copper
Tube.

Copper Water Tubes Copper tubes have been used to distribute drinking water within buildings
for many years, and hundreds of miles are installed throughout Europe every year. The long life
of copper when exposed to natural waters is a result of its thermodynamic stability, its high
resistance to reacting with the environment, and the formation of insoluble corrosion products
that insulate the metal from the environment. The corrosion rate of copper in most drinkable
waters is less than 2.5 µm/year, at this rate a 15 mm tube with a wall thickness of 0.7 mm would
last for about 280 years. In some soft waters the general corrosion rate may increase to
12.5 µm/year, but even at this rate it would take over 50 years to perforate the same tube.

Contents

1 Occurrence

2 Recommendations

3 See Also

4 External links
Occurrence

If the general water speed or the degree of local turbulence in an installation is high, the
protective film that would normally be formed on a copper tube as a result of slight initial
corrosion, may be torn off the surface locally, permitting further corrosion to take place at that
point. If this process continues it can produce deep localised attack of the type known as erosion-
corrosion or impingement damage. The actual attack on the metal is by the corrosive action of
the water to which it is exposed while the erosive factor is the mechanical removal of the
corrosion product from the surface.

Impingement attack produces highly characteristic water-swept pits, which are often horseshoe
shaped, or it can produce broader areas of attack. The leading edge of the pit is frequently
undercut by the swirling action of the water. Usually, the surface of the metal within the pits or
areas of attack is smooth and carries no substantial corrosion product. Erosion-corrosion is
known to occur in pumped-circulation hot water distribution systems, and even in cold water
distribution systems, if the water velocities are too high. The factors influencing the attack
include the chemical character of the water passing through the system, the temperature, the
average water velocity in the system and the presence of any local features likely to induce
turbulence in the water stream.

It is unusual for the general water velocity in a system to be so high that impingement attack
occurs throughout the whole of the copper pipework. More commonly, the velocity is just
sufficiently low for satisfactory protective films to be formed and to remain in position on most
of the system, with impingement damage more likely to occur where there is an abrupt change in
the direction of water flow giving rise to a high degree of turbulence, such as at tee pieces and
elbow fittings. It is not generally realised how great an effect small obstructions can have on the
flow pattern of water in a pipe-work system and the extent to which they can induce turbulence
and cause corrosion-erosion. For example, it is most important, as far as possible, to ensure that
copper tubes cut with a tube cutter are deburred before making the joint. Also a gap between the
tube end and the stop in the fitting, due to the tube not having been cut to the correct length and
fully inserted into the socket of the fitting, can also induce turbulence in the water stream.
Recommendations

The rate of impingement attack on copper also depends to some extent on the temperature of the
water. The maximum velocities for fresh waters at different temperatures recommended in
Sweden are given in the table below. These figures are for aerated waters of pH not less than
about 7.

Recommended Maximum Water Velocities at Different Temperatures for Copper (m/s)

10°C 50°C 70°C 90°C

For pipes that can be replaced: 4.0 3.0 2.5 2.0
For pipes that cannot be replaced: 2.0 1.5 1.3 1.0
For short connections to taps, etc.§: 16.0 12.0 10.0 8.0

§ These velocities give a risk of impingement attack and are acceptable only for small bore
connections to taps, flushing cisterns etc., through which water flow is intermittent.

BS 6700 gives the following maximum water velocities although it does note that these are
currently under investigation and the velocities specified will be amended if the results of this
investigation so require.

Water Temperature °C Maximum Water Velocity (m/s)

10 3.0
50 3.0
70 2.5
90 2.0

The minimum water speed at which copper pipes suffer impingement attack depends also to
some extent on water composition. Aggressive waters that tend to be cupro-solvent are the most
likely to give rise to impingement attack. Installations in large buildings where flow rates may be
high and water is in continuous circulation are much more susceptible to attack than ordinary
domestic installations. A high mineral content or a pH below 7 is likely to increase the
possibility of corrosion-erosion occurring while a positive Langelier Index and consequent
tendency to deposit a calcium carbonate scale is generally beneficial. The presence or absence of
colloidal organic matter is also probably of some importance.
Remedial measures for impingement attack include modifications to the system to reduce the
average water velocity, e.g. by using larger diameter tubes or, if appropriate, to lower the pump
speed, and/or to redesign the part of the installation concerned to eliminate the cause of local
turbulence, e.g. by using slow or swept bends and tee fittings rather than elbows and square tees.
It is important to minimise the possibility of any local turbulence occurring by ensuring that the
ends of tubes cut with a tube cutter are deburred and that the tubes are inserted fully to the stops
in the fitting before the joints are made, as referred to earlier in this section. In some cases, where
the above approaches are not possible, the length of copper tube affected can sometimes be
replaced by materials more resistant to corrosion-erosion, e.g. 90/10 copper-nickel (BS
Designation CN102) using appropriate fittings, or stainless steel to BS 4127:1994.

See Also

 Oxygenated treatment
 Flow-accelerated corrosion

Rayleigh–Plesset equation

The Rayleigh–Plesset equation is often applied to the study of cavitation bubbles, shown here
forming behind a propeller.
In fluid mechanics, the Rayleigh–Plesset equation is an ordinary differential equation which
governs the dynamics of a spherical bubble in an infinite body of liquid.[1][2] Its general form is
usually written as

where

is the pressure within the bubble, assumed to be uniform

is the external pressure infinitely far from the bubble

is the density of the surrounding liquid, assumed to be constant

is the radius of the bubble

is the kinematic viscosity of the surrounding liquid, assumed to be constant
is the surface tension of the bubble

Provided that is known and is given, the Rayleigh–Plesset equation can be used to

solve for the time-varying bubble radius .

The Rayleigh–Plesset equation is derived from the Navier–Stokes equations under the
assumption of spherical symmetry.[2] Neglecting surface tension and viscosity, the equation was
first derived by John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh in 1917. The equation was first applied to
traveling cavitation bubbles by Milton S. Plesset in 1949.[3]

Contents

1 Derivation

1.1 Mass conservation

1.2 Momentum conservation

1.3 Boundary conditions

 2 Solutions

3 References

Derivation

The Rayleigh–Plesset equation can be derived entirely from first principles using the bubble

radius as the dynamic parameter.[1] Consider a spherical bubble with time-dependent radius
, where is time. Assume that the bubble contains a homogeneously distributed vapor/gas with a

uniform temperate and pressure . Outside the bubble is an infinite domain of liquid
with constant density and dynamic viscosity . Let the temperature and pressure far from

the bubble be and . The temperature is assumed to be constant. At a radial

distance from the center of the bubble, the varying liquid properties are pressure ,

temperature , and radially outward velocity . Note that these liquid properties are

only defined outside the bubble, for .

Mass conservation

By conservation of mass, the inverse-square law requires that the radially outward velocity

must be inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the origin (the center of

the bubble).[3] Therefore, letting be some function of time,

In the case of zero mass transport across the bubble surface, the velocity at the interface must be

which gives that

In the case where mass transport occurs, the rate of mass increase inside the bubble is given by

with being the volume of the bubble. If is the velocity of the liquid relative to the bubble at
, then the mass entering the bubble is given by

with being the surface area of the bubble. Now by conservation of mass

, therefore . Hence

Therefore

In many cases, the liquid density is much greater than the vapor density, , so that

can be approximated by the original zero mass transfer form , so

that[3]

Momentum conservation
Assuming that the liquid is a Newtonian fluid, the Navier–Stokes equation in spherical
coordinates for motion in the radial direction gives

Substituting kinematic viscosity and rearranging gives

whereby substituting from mass conservation yields

Note that the viscous terms cancel during substitution. [3] Separating variables and integrating
from the bubble boundary to gives

Boundary conditions

Let be the normal stress in the liquid that points radially outward from the center of the
bubble. In spherical coordinates, for a fluid with constant density and constant viscosity,
Therefore at some small portion of the bubble surface, the net force per unit area acting on the
lamina is

where is the surface tension.[3] If there is no mass transfer across the boundary, then this force
per unit area must be zero, therefore

and so the result from momentum conservation becomes

wherby rearranging and letting gives the Rayleigh–Plesset equation[3]

Using dot notation to represent derivatives with respect to time, the Rayleigh–Plesset equation
can be more succinctly written as
 Solutions

Numerical integration of RP eq. including surface tension and viscosity terms. Initially at rest in
atmospheric pressure with R0=50 um, the bubble subjected to oscillatory pressure at its natural
frequency undergoes expansion and then collapses.
Numerical integration of RP eq. including surface tension and viscosity terms. Initially at rest in
atmospheric pressure with R0=50 um, the bubble subjected to pressure-drop undergoes
expansion and then collapses.

No analytical closed-form solution is known for the Rayleigh–Plesset equation. However,

numerical solutions to any accuracy can be easily obtained. In the special case, where surface
tension and viscosity are neglected, high-order analytical approximations are known.[4]

In the static case, the Rayleigh-Plesset equation simplifies, yielding to the Young-Laplace
equation:

When only infinitesimal periodic variations in the bubble radius and pressure are considered, the
RP equation also yields to the expression of the natural frequency of the bubble oscillation.

References

Jump up to: a b
1. ^ Leighton, T. G. (17 April 2007). Derivation of the Rayleigh–Plesset
equation in terms of volume. Southampton, UK: Institute of Sound and Vibration
Research.
2. ^ Jump up to: a b Lin, Hao; Brian D. Storey, Andrew J. Szeri (2002). "Inertially driven
inhomogeneities in violently collapsing bubbles: the validity of the Rayleigh–Plesset
equation". Journal of Fluid Mechanics 452. doi:10.1017/S0022112001006693.
ISSN 0022-1120.
Jump up to: a b c d e f
3. ^ Brennen, Christopher E. (1995). Cavitation and Bubble
Dynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509409-3.
4. Jump up ^ Obreschkow, D.; Bruderer M., Farhat, M. (5 June 2012). "Analytical
approximations for the collapse of an empty spherical bubble". Physical Review E.
 Sonoluminescence

Single-bubble sonoluminescence - A single, cavitating bubble.

Video of synthetic wound cavity collapsing creating sonoluminescence.

Long exposure image of multi-bubble sonoluminescence created by a high-intensity ultrasonic

horn immersed in a beaker of liquid
Sonoluminescence is the emission of short bursts of light from imploding bubbles in a liquid
when excited by sound.

Contents

 1 History
2 Properties
3 Rayleigh–Plesset equation
4 Mechanism of phenomenon
5 Other proposals
5.1 Quantum explanations
5.1.1 Nuclear reactions
6 Biological sonoluminescence
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References

History

The sonoluminescence effect was first discovered at the University of Cologne in 1934 as a
result of work on sonar.[citation needed] H. Frenzel and H. Schultes put an ultrasound transducer in a
tank of photographic developer fluid. They hoped to speed up the development process. Instead,
they noticed tiny dots on the film after developing and realized that the bubbles in the fluid were
emitting light with the ultrasound turned on.[citation needed] It was too difficult to analyze the effect in
early experiments because of the complex environment of a large number of short-lived bubbles.
(This experiment is also ascribed to N. Marinesco and J.J. Trillat in 1933, which also credits
them with independent discovery). This phenomenon is now referred to as multi-bubble
sonoluminescence (MBSL).

In 1989 an experimental advance was introduced by Felipe Gaitan and Lawrence Crum, who
produced stable single-bubble sonoluminescence (SBSL).[citation needed]
In SBSL, a single bubble
trapped in an acoustic standing wave emits a pulse of light with each compression of the bubble
within the standing wave. This technique allowed a more systematic study of the phenomenon,
because it isolated the complex effects into one stable, predictable bubble. It was realized that the
temperature inside the bubble was hot enough to melt steel.[citation needed]
Interest in
sonoluminescence was renewed when an inner temperature of such a bubble well above one
million kelvins was postulated.[citation needed] This temperature is thus far not conclusively proven;
rather, recent experiments conducted by the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign indicate
temperatures around 20000 K.[citation needed]

Properties

Sonoluminescence can occur when a sound wave of sufficient intensity induces a gaseous cavity
within a liquid to collapse quickly. This cavity may take the form of a pre-existing bubble, or
may be generated through a process known as cavitation. Sonoluminescence in the laboratory
can be made to be stable, so that a single bubble will expand and collapse over and over again in
a periodic fashion, emitting a burst of light each time it collapses. For this to occur, a standing
acoustic wave is set up within a liquid, and the bubble will sit at a pressure anti-node of the
standing wave. The frequencies of resonance depend on the shape and size of the container in
which the bubble is contained.

Some facts about sonoluminescence:

 The light flashes from the bubbles are extremely short—between 35 and a few hundred
picoseconds long—with peak intensities of the order of 1–10 mW.
 The bubbles are very small when they emit the light—about 1 micrometre in diameter—
depending on the ambient fluid (e.g., water) and the gas content of the bubble (e.g.,
atmospheric air).
 Single-bubble sonoluminescence pulses can have very stable periods and positions. In
fact, the frequency of light flashes can be more stable than the rated frequency stability of
the oscillator making the sound waves driving them. However, the stability analyses of
the bubble show that the bubble itself undergoes significant geometric instabilities, due
to, for example, the Bjerknes forces and Rayleigh–Taylor instabilities.
  The addition of a small amount of noble gas (such as helium, argon, or xenon) to the gas
in the bubble increases the intensity of the emitted light.

Spectral measurements have given bubble temperatures in the range from 2300 K to 5100 K, the
exact temperatures depending on experimental conditions including the composition of the liquid
and gas.[1] Detection of very high bubble temperatures by spectral methods is limited due to the
opacity of liquids to short wavelength light characteristic of very high temperatures.

Writing in Nature, chemists David J. Flannigan and Kenneth S. Suslick describe a method of
determining temperatures based on the formation of plasmas. Using argon bubbles in sulfuric
acid, their data show the presence of ionized molecular oxygen O 2+, sulfur monoxide, and atomic
argon populating high-energy excited states, which confirms a hypothesis that the bubbles have a
hot plasma core.[2] The ionization and excitation energy of dioxygenyl cations, which they
observed, is 18 electronvolts. From this they conclude the core temperatures reach at least 20,000
Kelvin.[3]

Rayleigh–Plesset equation

The dynamics of the motion of the bubble is characterized to a first approximation by the
Rayleigh-Plesset equation (named after Lord Rayleigh and Milton Plesset):

This is an approximate equation that is derived from the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations
(written in spherical coordinate system) and describes the motion of the radius of the bubble R as
a function of time t. Here, μ is the viscosity, p the pressure, and γ the surface tension. The over-
dots represent time derivatives. This equation, though approximate, has been shown to give good
estimates on the motion of the bubble under the acoustically driven field except during the final
stages of collapse. Both simulation and experimental measurement show that during the critical
final stages of collapse, the bubble wall velocity exceeds the speed of sound of the gas inside the
bubble.[4] Thus a more detailed analysis of the bubble's motion is needed beyond Rayleigh-
Plesset to explore the additional energy focusing that an internally formed shock wave might
produce.

Mechanism of phenomenon

The mechanism of the phenomenon of sonoluminescence remains unsettled. Hypotheses include:

hotspot, bremsstrahlung radiation, collision-induced radiation and corona discharges,
nonclassical light, proton tunneling, electrodynamic jets and fractoluminescent jets (now largely
discredited due to contrary experimental evidence).

Figure:From left to right: apparition of bubble, slow expansion, quick and sudden contraction,
emission of light

In 2002, M. Brenner, S. Hilgenfeldt, and D. Lohse published a 60-page review "Single bubble
sonoluminescence" (Reviews of Modern Physics 74, 425) that contains a detailed explanation of
the mechanism. An important factor is that the bubble contains mainly inert noble gas such as
argon or xenon (air contains about 1% argon, and the amount dissolved in water is too great; for
sonoluminescence to occur, the concentration must be reduced to 20–40% of its equilibrium
value) and varying amounts of water vapor. Chemical reactions cause nitrogen and oxygen to be
removed from the bubble after about one hundred expansion-collapse cycles. The bubble will
then begin to emit light "Evidence for Gas Exchange in Single-Bubble Sonoluminescence",
Matula and Crum, Phys. Rev. Lett. 80 (1998), 865-868). The light emission of highly compressed
noble gas is exploited technologically in the argon flash devices.

During bubble collapse, the inertia of the surrounding water causes high pressure and high
temperature, reaching around 10,000 kelvins in the interior of the bubble, causing the ionization
of a small fraction of the noble gas present. The amount ionized is small enough for the bubble to
remain transparent, allowing volume emission; surface emission would produce more intense
light of longer duration, dependent on wavelength, contradicting experimental results. Electrons
from ionized atoms interact mainly with neutral atoms, causing thermal bremsstrahlung
radiation. As the wave hits a low energy trough, the pressure drops, allowing electrons to
recombine with atoms and light emission to cease due to this lack of free electrons. This makes
for a 160-picosecond light pulse for argon (even a small drop in temperature causes a large drop
in ionization, due to the large ionization energy relative to photon energy). This description is
simplified from the literature above, which details various steps of differing duration from 15
microseconds (expansion) to 100 picoseconds (emission).

Computations based on the theory presented in the review produce radiation parameters
(intensity and duration time versus wavelength) that match experimental results with errors no
larger than expected due to some simplifications (e.g., assuming a uniform temperature in the
entire bubble), so it seems the phenomenon of sonoluminescence is at least roughly explained,
although some details of the process remain obscure.

Any discussion of sonoluminescence must include a detailed analysis of metastability.

Sonoluminescence in this respect is what is physically termed a bounded phenomenon meaning
that the sonoluminescence exists in a bounded region of parameter space for the bubble; a
coupled magnetic field being one such parameter. The magnetic aspects of sonoluminescence are
very well documented.[5]

Other proposals

Quantum explanations

An unusually exotic hypothesis of sonoluminescence, which has received much popular

attention, is the Casimir energy hypothesis suggested by noted physicist Julian Schwinger[6] and
more thoroughly considered in a paper by Claudia Eberlein[7] of the University of Sussex.
Eberlein's paper suggests that the light in sonoluminescence is generated by the vacuum within
the bubble in a process similar to Hawking radiation, the radiation generated at the event horizon
of black holes. According to this vacuum energy explanation, since quantum theory holds that
vacuum contains virtual particles, the rapidly moving interface between water and gas converts
virtual photons into real photons. This is related to the Unruh effect or the Casimir effect. If true,
sonoluminescence may be the first observable example of quantum vacuum radiation. The
argument has been made that sonoluminescence releases too large an amount of energy and
releases the energy on too short a time scale to be consistent with the vacuum energy
explanation,[8] although other credible sources argue the vacuum energy explanation might yet
prove to be correct.[9]

Nuclear reactions

Some have argued that the Rayleigh-Plesset equation described above is unreliable for predicting
bubble temperatures and that actual temperatures in sonoluminescing systems can be far higher
than 20,000 kelvins. Some research claims to have measured temperatures as high as 100,000
kelvins, and speculates temperatures could reach into the millions of kelvins.[10] Temperatures
this high could cause thermonuclear fusion. This possibility is sometimes referred to as bubble
fusion and is likened to the implosion design used in the fusion component of thermonuclear
weapons.

On January 27, 2006, researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute claimed to have produced
fusion in sonoluminescence experiments.[11][12]

Experiments in 2002 and 2005 by R. P. Taleyarkhan using deuterated acetone showed

measurements of tritium and neutron output consistent with fusion. However, the papers were
considered low quality and there were doubts cast by a report about the author's scientific
misconduct. This made the report lose credibility among the scientific community.[13][14][15]

Biological sonoluminescence

Pistol shrimp (also called snapping shrimp) produce a type of sonoluminescence from a
collapsing bubble caused by quickly snapping a specialized claw. The light produced is of lower
intensity than the light produced by typical sonoluminescence and is not visible to the naked eye.
The light and heat produced may have no direct significance, as it is the shockwave produced by
the rapidly collapsing bubble which these shrimp use to stun or kill prey. However, it is the first
known instance of an animal producing light by this effect and was whimsically dubbed
"shrimpoluminescence" upon its discovery in 2001.[16] It has subsequently been discovered that
another group of crustaceans, the mantis shrimp, contains species whose club-like forelimbs can
strike so quickly and with such force as to induce sonoluminescent cavitation bubbles upon
impact.[17]

Notes

1. Jump up ^ Didenko, Y.T.; McNamara, III, W.B.; Suslick, K.S. (January 2000).
"Effect of Noble Gases on Sonoluminescence Temperatures during Multibubble
Cavitation". Physical Review Letters 84 (4): 777–780. Bibcode:2000PhRvL..84..777D.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.777. PMID 11017370.
2. Jump up ^ David J. Flannigan and Kenneth S. Suslick (2005). "Plasma formation
and temperature measurement during single-bubble cavitation". Nature 434 (7029): 52–
55. Bibcode:2005Natur.434...52F. doi:10.1038/nature03361. PMID 15744295.
3. Jump up ^ "Temperature inside collapsing bubble four times that of sun |
Archives | News Bureau | University of Illinois". News.illinois.edu. 2005-02-03.
Retrieved 2012-11-14.
4. Jump up ^ Bradley P. Barber and Seth J. Putterman, "Light Scattering
Measurements of the Repetitive Supersonic Implosion of a Sonoluminescing Bubble,"
Phys Rev Lett 69, 3839-3842 (1992)
5. Jump up ^ "Sonoluminescence in High Magnetic Fields, J.B. Young, T.
Schiemedel and Woowan Kang" (Physical Review Letters 77, 4816)
6. Jump up ^ "Within article "Cold Fusion: A History of Mine"". Infinite-
energy.com. 1989-03-23. Retrieved 2012-11-14.
7. Jump up ^ Phys. Rev. Lett. 76, 3842 - 3845 (1996); http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-
ph/9506024v1
8. Jump up ^ K.A. Milton, “Dimensional and dynamical aspect of the Casimir
effect: understanding the reality and significance of vacuum energy”, hep-th/0009173
(2000) http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0009173
9. Jump up ^ S.Liberati, F.Belgiorno, Matt Visser, "Comment on ``Dimensional
and dynamical aspects of the Casimir effect: understanding the reality and significance of
vacuum energy", hep-th/0010140v1 (2000) http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0010140v1
 10. Jump up ^ Nature China (2008-10-15). "Sonoluminescence: Baking bubbles :
Article : Nature China". Nature.com. Retrieved 2012-11-14.
11. Jump up ^ "RPI: News & Events - New Sonofusion Experiment Produces
Results Without External Neutron Source". News.rpi.edu. 2006-01-27. Retrieved 2012-
11-14.
12. Jump up ^ "Using Sound Waves To Induce Nuclear Fusion With No External
Neutron Source". Sciencedaily.com. 2006-01-31. Retrieved 2012-11-14.
13. Jump up ^ Purdue physicist found guilty of misconduct, Los Angeles Times,
July 19, 2008, Thomas H. Maugh II
14. Jump up ^ Jayaraman, K. S. (2008). "Bubble fusion discoverer says his science
is vindicated". Nature India. doi:10.1038/nindia.2008.271.
15. Jump up ^ Press, Associated (August 27, 2008). "Purdue reprimands fusion
scientist for misconduct". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-12-28.
16. Jump up ^ Detlef Lohse, Barbara Schmitz and Michel Versluis (2001).
"Snapping shrimp make flashing bubbles". Nature 413 (6855): 477–478.
doi:10.1038/35097152. PMID 11586346.
17. Jump up ^ S. N. Patek and R. L. Caldwell (2005). "Extreme impact and
cavitation forces of a biological hammer: strike forces of the peacock mantis shrimp".
Journal of Experimental Biology 208 (Pt 19): 3655–3664. doi:10.1242/jeb.01831.
PMID 16169943.

References

 H. Frenzel and H. Schultes (1934). "Luminescenz im ultraschallbeschickten Wasser". Z.

Phys. Chem. B27: 421.
 Gaitan, D. F.; L. A. Crum, R. A. Roy, and C. C. Church (June 1992). "Sonoluminescence
and bubble dynamics for a single, stable, cavitation bubble". The Journal of the
Acoustical Society of America 91 (6): 3166–3183. Bibcode:1992ASAJ...91.3166G.
doi:10.1121/1.402855.
 Brenner, Michael P.; Hilgenfeldt, Sascha; Lohse, Detlef (2002-05-13). "Single bubble
sonoluminescence" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics (The American Physical Society)
 74 (2): 425–484. Bibcode:2002RvMP...74..425B. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.74.425.
Retrieved 2008-05-27.
 Taleyarkhan, R. P.; C. D. West, J. S. Cho, R. T. Lahey, Jr., R. Nigmatulin, and R. C.
Block (2002-03-08). "Evidence for Nuclear Emissions During Acoustic Cavitation".
Science 295 (1868). Bibcode:2002Sci...295.1868T. doi:10.1126/science.1067589.
PMID 11884748. ISSN 0036-8075. Retrieved 2007-05-13.
 Kenneth Chang (March 15, 2005). "Tiny Bubbles Implode With the Heat of a Star". New
York Times.
 John D. Wrbanek, et al.(2009): Investigating Sonoluminescence as a Means of Energy
Harvesting. pages 605–637, in: Marc G. Millis, Eric W. Davis: Frontiers of Propulsion
Science. American Inst. of Aeronautics & Astronautics, Reston, ISBN 1-56347-956-7,
Abstract NASA Technical Reports Server
 For a "How to" guide for student science projects see: Robert Hiller and Bradley Barber
(1995). "Producing Light from a Bubble of Air". Scientific American 272 (2): 96–98.
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0295-96.
 Tatrocki, Paweł (2006). "Difficulties in Sonoluminescence Theory Based on Quantum
Phenomenon of Vacuum Radiation". PHILICA.com. Article number 19. This article was
created in 1996 together with the alternative theory; both were seen by Ms Eberlein. It
contains many references to the crucial experimental results in this field.

 Buzzacchi, Matteo, E. Del Giudice, and G. Preparata, "Sonoluminescence Unveiled?"

Quantum Physics, abstract (quant-ph/9804006). Thursday, 2 April 1998 [ed. Single
Bubble Sonoluminescence (SBSL) phenomenology.]
 A how-to guide to setting up a sonoluminescence experiment
 Another detailed description of a sonoluminescence experiment
 A description of the effect and experiment, with a diagram of the apparatus
 An mpg video of the collapsing bubble (934 kB)
 Shrimpoluminescence
 Impulse Devices
 Applications of sonochemistry
 Sound waves size up sonoluminescence
  Sonoluminescence: Sound into light

Newer research papers largely ruling out the vacuum energy explanation

 quant-ph/9904013 S. Liberati, M. Visser, F. Belgiorno, D. Sciama: Sonoluminescence as

a QED vacuum effect
 hep-th/9811174 K. A. Milton: Sonoluminescence and the Dynamical Casimir Effect

Supercavitation

Figure: An object (black) encounters a liquid (blue) at high speed. The fluid pressure behind the
object is lowered below the vapour pressure of the liquid, forming a bubble of vapour (a cavity)
that encompasses the object.

Supercavitation is the use of cavitation effects to create a bubble of gas inside a liquid large
enough to encompass an object travelling through the liquid, greatly reducing the skin friction
drag on the object and enabling achievement of very high speeds. Current applications are
mainly limited to projectiles or very fast torpedoes, and some propellers, but in principle the
technique could be extended to include entire vehicles. This phenomenon can also be produced
by the very fast strike of the appendices of the crustacean mantis shrimp Odontodactylus
scyllarus, that uses it to attack and kill its prey.[1]

Contents

 1 Physical principle
2 Applications
3 Alleged applications
4 References
5 External links

Physical principle

In water, cavitation occurs when water pressure is lowered below the water's vapour pressure,
forming bubbles of vapour. That can happen when water is accelerated to high speeds as when
turning a sharp corner around a moving piece of metal such as a ship's propeller or a pump's
impeller. The greater the water depth (or pressure for a water pipe) at which the fluid
acceleration occurs, the lesser the tendency for cavitation because of the greater difference
between local pressure and vapour pressure. (The non-dimensional cavitation number is a
measure of the tendency for vapour pressure bubbles to form in a liquid, calculated as the
difference between local pressure and vapour pressure, divided by dynamic pressure.) Once the
flow slows down again, the water vapour will generally be reabsorbed into the liquid water. That
can be a problem for ship propellers if cavitation bubbles implode on the surface of the propeller,
each applying a small force that is concentrated in both location and time, causing damage. [citation
needed]

A common occurrence of water vapour bubbles is observed in a pan of boiling water. In that case
the water pressure is not reduced, but rather, the vapour pressure of the water is increased by
means of heating. If the heat source is sufficient, the bubbles will detach from the bottom of the
pan and rise to the surface as steam. Otherwise if the pan is removed from the heat the bubbles
will be reabsorbed into the water as it cools, possibly causing pitting or spalling on the bottom of
the pan as the bubbles implode.[citation needed]

A supercavitating object is a high speed submerged object that is designed to initiate a cavitation
bubble at the nose which (either naturally or augmented with internally-generated gas) extends
past the aft end of the object, substantially reducing the skin friction drag that would be present if
the sides of the object were in contact with the liquid in which the object is submerged. A key
feature of the supercavitating object is the nose, which may be shaped as a flat disk or cone, and
may be articulated, but which likely has a sharp edge around the perimeter behind which the
cavitation bubble forms.[2] The shape of the object aft of the nose will generally be slender in
order to stay within the limited diameter of the cavitation bubble. If the bubble is of insufficient
length to encompass the object, especially at slower speeds, the bubble can be enlarged and
extended by injection of high pressure gas near the object's nose.[2]

The great speed required for supercavitation to work can be achieved temporarily by a projectile
fired under water or by an airborne projectile impacting the water. Rocket propulsion can be used
for sustained operation, with the possibility of tapping high pressure gas to route to the object's
nose in order to enhance the cavitation bubble. An example of rocket propulsion is the Russian
Shkval supercavitating torpedo.[3][4] In principle, maneuvering may be achieved by various means
such as drag fins that project through the bubble into the surrounding liquid [5] (p. 22), by tilting
the nose of the object, by injecting gas asymmetrically near the nose in order to distort the
geometry of the cavity, by vectoring rocket thrust through gimbaling for a single nozzle, or by
differential thrust for multiple nozzles.[2]

Applications

In 1960, the USSR started developing a project under the codename "Шквал" (Squall) run by
NII-24 (Kiev) to develop a high-speed torpedo, an underwater rocket, four to five times faster
than traditional torpedoes capable of combating enemy submarines. Several models of the device
were made, the most successful – M-5 – was created by 1972. In 1972 to 1977, over 300 test
launches were made (95% of them on Issyk Kul lake), by 29 November 1972 VA-111 Shkval
was put into service with mass production started in 1978.

In 2004, German weapons manufacturer Diehl BGT Defence announced their own
supercavitating torpedo, Barracuda, now officially named "Superkavitierender
Unterwasserlaufkörper" or "supercavitating underwater running body" (English translation).
According to Diehl, it reaches more than 400 kilometres per hour (250 mph).[6]

In 1994, the US Navy began developing a sea mine clearance system invented by C Tech
Defense Corporation, known as RAMICS (Rapid Airborne Mine Clearance System), based on a
supercavitating projectile stable in both air and water. These have been produced in 12.7
millimeters (0.50 in), 20 millimetres (0.79 in), and 30 millimetres (1.2 in) diameters.[7] The
terminal ballistic design of the projectile allowed it to cause explosive destruction of sea mines
as deep as 45 meters (148 ft) underwater with a single round.[8] In 2000, these projectiles were
used to successfully destroy a range of live underwater mines when fired from a hovering Sea
Cobra gunship at Aberdeen Proving Grounds. RAMICS is currently[when?] undergoing
development by Northrop Grumman for introduction into the fleet. The darts of German
(Heckler & Koch P11) and Russian underwater firearms,[9] and other similar weapons are also
supercavitating.

In 2005, DARPA announced the 'Underwater Express program', a research and evaluation bid to
establish the potential of supercavitation. The program's ultimate goal is a new class of
underwater craft for littoral missions that can transport small groups of Navy personnel or
specialized military cargo at speeds up to 100 knots. The contracts were awarded to Northrop
Grumman and General Dynamics Electric Boat in late 2006.[citation needed]
In 2009, DARPA
announced progress via a new class of submarine.

The submarine's designer, Electric Boat, is working on a one-quarter scale model for sea trials
off the coast of Rhode Island. If the trials are successful, Electric Boat will begin production on a
full scale 100-foot submarine. Currently, the Navy's fastest submarine can only travel at 25 to 30
knots while submerged. But if everything goes according to plan, the Underwater Express will
speed along at 100 knots, allowing the delivery of men and materiel faster than ever."[10]

Iran claimed to have successfully tested its first supercavitation torpedo on 2 April and 3 April
2006. Some sources have speculated it is based on the Russian VA-111 Shkval supercavitation
torpedo, which travels at the same speed.[11] Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov denied
supplying Iran with the technology.[12] Iran called this weapon the Hoot (Whale).
 Figure: Artist rendering of a supercavitating propeller in function

The supercavitating propeller is a variant of a propeller for propulsion in water, where

supercavitation is actively employed to gain increased speed by reducing friction. They are being
used for military purposes and for high performance boat racing vessels as well as model boat
racing. The supercavitating propeller operates submerged with the entire diameter of the blade
below the water line. Its blades are wedge-shaped to force cavitation on the whole forward face,
starting at the leading edge, in order to reduce water skin friction. As the cavity collapses well
behind the blade, the supercavitating propeller avoids the spalling damage due to cavitation that
is a problem with conventional propellers.

Alleged applications

The Kursk submarine accident was rumored to have been due to a faulty Shkval torpedo, [13]
though later evidence points to a faulty 65-76 torpedo - see Kursk submarine disaster.

References

1. Jump up ^ Mantis shrimp

Jump up to: a b c
2. ^ Ashley, Steven (May 2001). "Warp Drive Underwater". Scientific
American: 70–79.
3. Jump up ^ http://www.articlesextra.com/supercavitation-torpedoes.htm
4. Jump up ^ http://www.periscope.ucg.com/mdb-
smpl/weapons/minetorp/torpedo/w0004768.shtml#pictures
5. Jump up ^
http://www.aem.umn.edu/research/supercavitation/documents/thesis_eric.pdf
6. Jump up ^ Diehl BGT Defence: Unterwasserlaufkörper
7. Jump up ^ RAMICS
8. Jump up ^ C Tech
9. Jump up ^ [1]
10. Jump up ^ http://www.popsci.com/military-aviation-amp-space/article/2009-
07/darpa-readies-ultra-fast-mini-sub
11. Jump up ^ [2] [3] [4]
12. Jump up ^ [5]
13. Jump up ^ Gertz, Bill (August 23, 2001). "Russian book sheds light on missile".
Washington Times. p. A.4.

 Office of Naval Research (2004, June 14). Mechanics and energy conversion: high-speed
(supercavitating) undersea weaponry (D&I). Retrieved April 12, 2006, from
http://www.onr.navy.mil/
 Savchenko Y. N. (n.d.). CAV 2001 - Forth Annual Symposium on Cavitation - California
Institute of Technology Retrieved April 9, 2006, from
http://cav2001.library.caltech.edu/159/00/Savchenko.pdf
 Hargrove, J. (2003). Supercavitation and aerospace technology in the development of
high-speed underwater vehicles. In 42nd AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit.
Texas A&M University.
 Kirschner et al. (2001, October) Supercavitation research and development. Undersea
Defense Technologies
 Miller, D. (1995). Supercavitation: going to war in a bubble. Jane's Intelligence Review.
Retrieved Apr 14, 2006, from http://www.janes.com/
 Graham-Rowe, & Duncan. (2000). Faster than a speeding bullet. NewScientist,
167(2248), 26-30.
 Tulin, M. P. (1963). Supercavitating flows - small perturbation theory. Laurel, Md,
Hydronautics Inc.

Supercavitating propeller

Figure: Artist rendering of a supercavitating propeller in function

The supercavitating propeller is a variant of a propeller for propulsion in water, where
supercavitation is actively employed to gain increased speed by reducing friction. They are being
used for military purposes and for high performance boat racing vessels as well as model boat
racing.

This article distinguishes a supercavitating propeller from a subcavitating propeller running

under supercavitating conditions. In general, subcavitating propellers become less efficient when
they are running under supercavitating conditions.

The supercavitating propeller operates submerged with the entire diameter of the blade below the
water line. Its blades are wedge-shaped to force cavitation at the leading edge and to avoid water
skin friction along the whole forward face. As the cavity collapses well behind the blade, the
supercavitating propeller avoids the spalling damage due to cavitation that is a problem with
conventional propellers.

An alternative to the supercavitating propeller is the surface piercing, or ventilated propeller.

These propellers are designed to intentionally cleave the water and entrain atmospheric air to fill
the void, which means that the resulting gas layer on the forward face of the propeller blade
consists of air instead of water vapour. Less energy is thus used, and the surface-piercing
propeller generally enjoys lower drag than the supercavitating principle. The surface-piercing
propeller also has wedge-shaped blades, and propellers may be designed that can operate in both
supercavitating and surface-piercing mode.

Supercavitating propellers were developed to usefulness for very fast military vessels by Vosper
& Company

The pioneer of this technology and other high speed offshore boating technologies was Albert
Hickman (1877–1957), early in the 20th century. His Sea Sled designs used a surface piercing
propeller.

References

 Damned by Faint Praise, article in Wooden Boat about Albert Hickman

  Albert Hickman biography

Water hammer

Water hammer (or, more generally, fluid hammer) is a pressure surge or wave caused when a
fluid (usually a liquid but sometimes also a gas) in motion is forced to stop or change direction
suddenly (momentum change). Water hammer commonly occurs when a valve closes suddenly
at an end of a pipeline system, and a pressure wave propagates in the pipe. It is also called
hydraulic shock.

This pressure wave can cause major problems, from noise and vibration to pipe collapse. It is
possible to reduce the effects of the water hammer pulses with accumulators, expansion tanks
and other features.

Rough calculations can be made either using the Joukowsky equation, [1] or more accurate ones
using the method of characteristics.

Contents

1 Cause and effect

1.1 Related phenomena

2 Water hammer during an explosion

3 Mitigating measures

4 The magnitude of the pulse

4.1 Instant valve closure; compressible fluid

4.1.1 Equation for wave speed

4.2 Slow valve closure; incompressible fluid

 5 Expression for the excess pressure due to water hammer

6 Dynamic equations

7 Column separation

8 Simulation software

9 Applications

10 History

11 See also

12 References

13 External links

Cause and effect

When a pipe is suddenly closed at the outlet (downstream), the mass of water before the closure
is still moving, thereby building up high pressure and a resulting shock wave. In domestic
plumbing this is experienced as a loud banging, resembling a hammering noise. Water hammer
can cause pipelines to break if the pressure is high enough. Air traps or stand pipes (open at the
top) are sometimes added as dampers to water systems to absorb the potentially damaging forces
caused by the moving water.

In hydroelectric generating stations, the water travelling along the tunnel or pipeline may be
prevented from entering a turbine by closing a valve. However, if, for example, there is 14 km of
tunnel of 7.7 m diameter, full of water travelling at 3.75 m/s,[2] that represents approximately
8000 Megajoules of kinetic energy that must be arrested. This arresting is frequently achieved by
a surge shaft[3] open at the top, into which the water flows; as the water rises up the shaft, its
kinetic energy is converted into potential energy, which decelerates the water in the tunnel. At
some HEP stations, what looks like a water tower is actually one of these devices, known in
these cases as a surge drum.
In the home, water hammer may occur when a dishwasher, washing machine, or toilet shuts off
water flow. The result may be heard as a loud bang, repetitive banging (as the shock wave travels
back and forth in the plumbing system), or as some shuddering.

On the other hand, when an upstream valve in a pipe closes, water downstream of the valve
attempts to continue flowing, creating a vacuum that may cause the pipe to collapse or implode.
This problem can be particularly acute if the pipe is on a downhill slope. To prevent this, air and
vacuum relief valves, or air vents, are installed just downstream of the valve to allow air to enter
the line for preventing this vacuum from occurring.

Other causes of water hammer are pump failure, and check valve slam (due to sudden
deceleration, a check valve may slam shut rapidly, depending on the dynamic characteristic of
the check valve and the mass of the water between a check valve and tank).

Related phenomena

Figure: Expansion joints on a steam line that have been destroyed by steam hammer

Steam distribution systems may also be vulnerable to a situation similar to water hammer, known
as steam hammer. In a steam system, water hammer most often occurs when some of the steam
condenses into water in a horizontal section of the steam piping. Subsequently, steam picks up
the water, forms a "slug" and hurls it at high velocity into a pipe fitting, creating a loud
hammering noise and greatly stressing the pipe. This condition is usually caused by a poor
condensate drainage strategy.

Where air filled traps are used, these eventually become depleted of their trapped air over a long
period of time through absorption into the water. This can be cured by shutting off the supply,
opening taps at the highest and lowest locations to drain the system (thereby restoring air to the
traps), and then closing the taps and re-opening the supply.

Water hammer during an explosion

When an explosion happens in an enclosed space, water hammer can cause the walls of the
container to deform. However, it can also impart momentum to the enclosure if it is free to move.
An underwater explosion in the SL-1 nuclear reactor vessel caused the water to accelerate
upwards through 0.76 m (2.5 ft) of air before it struck the vessel head at 49 m/s (160 ft/s) with a
pressure of 680 atm (69,000 kPa). This pressure wave caused the 12,000 kg (26,000 lb) steel
vessel to jump 2.77 m (9.1 ft) into the air before it dropped into its prior location.[4]

Mitigating measures

Water hammer has caused accidents and fatalities, but usually damage is limited to breakage of
pipes or appendages. An engineer should always assess the risk of a pipeline burst. Pipelines
transporting hazardous liquids or gases warrant special care in design, construction, and
operation. Hydroelectric power plants especially must be carefully designed and maintained
because the water hammer can cause water pipes to fail catastrophically.

The following characteristics may reduce or eliminate water hammer:

 Reduce the pressure of the water supply to the building by fitting a regulator.
 Lower fluid velocities. To keep water hammer low, pipe-sizing charts for some
applications recommend flow velocity at or below 1.5 m/s (4.9 ft/s)
 Fit slowly closing valves. Toilet fill valves are available in a quiet fill type that closes
quietly.
 High pipeline pressure rating (expensive).
 Good pipeline control (start-up and shut-down procedures).
 Water towers (used in many drinking water systems) help maintain steady flow rates and
trap large pressure fluctuations.
 Air vessels work in much the same way as water towers, but are pressurized. They
typically have an air cushion above the fluid level in the vessel, which may be regulated
or separated by a bladder. Sizes of air vessels may be up to hundreds of cubic meters on
large pipelines. They come in many shapes, sizes and configurations. Such vessels often
are called accumulators or expansion tanks.
 A hydropneumatic device similar in principle to a shock absorber called a 'Water
Hammer Arrestor' can be installed between the water pipe and the machine, to absorb the
shock and stop the banging.
 Air valves often remediate low pressures at high points in the pipeline. Though effective,
sometimes large numbers of air valves need be installed. These valves also allow air into
the system, which is often unwanted.
 Shorter branch pipe lengths.
 Shorter lengths of straight pipe, i.e. add elbows, expansion loops. Water hammer is
related to the speed of sound in the fluid, and elbows reduce the influences of pressure
waves.
 Arranging the larger piping in loops that supply shorter smaller run-out pipe branches.
With looped piping, lower velocity flows from both sides of a loop can serve a branch.
 Flywheel on pump.
 Pumping station bypass.
 Figure: Typical pressure wave caused by closing a valve in a pipeline

The magnitude of the pulse

One of the first to successfully investigate the water hammer problem was the Italian engineer
Lorenzo Allievi.

Water hammer can be analyzed by two different approaches—rigid column theory, which
ignores compressibility of the fluid and elasticity of the walls of the pipe, or by a full analysis
that includes elasticity. When the time it takes a valve to close is long compared to the
propagation time for a pressure wave to travel the length of the pipe, then rigid column theory is
appropriate; otherwise considering elasticity may be necessary. [5] Below are two approximations
for the peak pressure, one that considers elasticity, but assumes the valve closes instantaneously,
and a second that neglects elasticity but includes a finite time for the valve to close.

Instant valve closure; compressible fluid

The pressure profile of the water hammer pulse can be calculated from the Joukowsky equation
[6]

So for a valve closing instantaneously, the maximum magnitude of the water hammer pulse is:

where ΔP is the magnitude of the pressure wave (Pa), ρ is the density of the fluid (kgm−3), a0 is
the speed of sound in the fluid (ms −1), and Δv is the change in the fluid's velocity (ms −1). The
pulse comes about due to Newton's laws of motion and the continuity equation applied to the
deceleration of a fluid element.[7]

Equation for wave speed]

As the speed of sound in a fluid is the , the peak pressure depends on
the fluid compressibility if the valve is closed abruptly.

where

 a = wave speed
 K = bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid
 ρ = density of the fluid
 E = elastic modulus of the pipe
 D = internal pipe diameter
 t = pipe wall thickness
 c = dimensionless parameter due to system pipe-constraint condition on wave speed[7]
[page  needed]

Slow valve closure; incompressible fluid

When the valve is closed slowly compared to the transit time for a pressure wave to travel the
length of the pipe, the elasticity can be neglected, and the phenomenon can be described in terms
of inertance or rigid column theory:

Assuming constant deceleration of the water column (dv/dt = v/t), gives:

where:
  F = force, N
 m = mass of the fluid column, kg
 a = acceleration, m/s2
 P = pressure, Pa
 A = pipe cross section, m2
 ρ = fluid density, kg/m3
 L = pipe length, m
 v = fluid velocity, m/s
 t = valve closure time, s

The above formula becomes, for water and with imperial unit: P = 0.0135 V L/t. For practical
application, a safety factor of about 5 is recommended:

where P1 is the inlet pressure in psi, V is the flow velocity in ft/sec, t is the valve closing time in
seconds and L is the upstream pipe length in feet.[8]

Expression for the excess pressure due to water hammer

When a valve with a volumetric flow rate Q is closed, an excess pressure δP is created upstream
of the valve, whose value is given by the Joukowsky equation:

In this expression:[9]

 overpressurization δP is expressed in Pa;

 Q is the volumetric flow in m3/s;
 Zh is the hydraulic impedance, expressed in kg/m4/s.

The hydraulic impedance Zh of the pipeline determines the magnitude of the water hammer
pulse. It is itself defined by:
with:

 ρ the density of the liquid, expressed in kg/m3;

 A cross sectional area of the pipe, m2;
 Beff effective modulus of compressibility of the liquid in the pipe, expressed in Pa.

The latter follows from a series of hydraulic concepts:

 compressibility of the liquid, defined by its adiabatic compressibility modulus Bl,

resulting from the equation of state of the liquid generally available from thermodynamic
tables;
 the elasticity of the walls of the pipe, which defines a modulus of equivalent
compressibility Beq. In the case of a pipe of circular cross section whose thickness e is
small compared to the diameter D, the equivalent modulus of compressibility is given by

the following formula: ; in which E is the Young's modulus (in Pa) of the
material of the pipe;

 possibly compressibility Bg of gas dissolved in the liquid, defined by:

o γ being the ratio of specific heats of the gas
o α the rate of ventilation (the volume fraction of undissolved gas)
o and P the pressure (in Pa).

Thus, the effective compressibility modulus is:

As a result, we see that we can reduce the water hammer by:

  increasing the pipe diameter at constant flow, which reduces the inertia of the liquid
column;
 choosing to use a material with a reduced Young's modulus;
 introducing a device that increases the flexibility of the entire hydraulic system, such as a
hydraulic accumulator;
 where possible, increasing the percentage of undissolved air in the liquid.

Dynamic equations

The water hammer effect can be simulated by solving the following partial differential equations.

where V is the fluid velocity inside pipe, is the fluid density and is the equivalent bulk
modulus, f is the friction factor.

Column separation

Column separation is a phenomenon that can occur during a water-hammer event. If the pressure
in a pipeline drops rapidly to the vapor pressure of the liquid, the liquid vaporises and a "bubble"
of vapor forms in the pipeline. This is most likely to occur at specific locations such as closed
ends, high points or knees (changes in pipe slope). When the pressure later increases above the
vapor pressure of the liquid, the vapor in the bubble returns to a liquid state, which leaves a
vacuum in the space formerly occupied by the vapor. The liquid either side of the vacuum is then
accelerated into this space by the pressure difference. The collision of the two columns of liquid,
(or of one liquid column if at a closed end,) results in cavitation and causes a large and nearly
instantaneous rise in pressure. This pressure rise can damage hydraulic machinery, individual
pipes and supporting structures. Many repetitions of cavity formation and collapse may occur in
a single water-hammer event.[10]
Simulation software

[7]
Most water hammer software packages use the method of characteristics to solve the
differential equations involved. This method works well if the wave speed does not vary in time
due to either air or gas entrainment in a pipeline. The Wave Method (WM) is also used in
various software packages. WM lets operators analyze large networks efficiently. Many
commercial and non commercial packages are available.

Software packages vary in complexity, dependent on the processes modeled. The more
sophisticated packages may have any of the following features:

 Multiphase flow capabilities

 An algorithm for cavitation growth and collapse
 Unsteady friction - the pressure waves dampens as turbulence is generated and
due to variations in the flow velocity distribution
 Varying bulk modulus for higher pressures (water becomes less compressible)
 Fluid structure interaction - the pipeline reacts on the varying pressures and
causes pressure waves itself

APPLICATIONS

 THE WATER HAMMER PRINCIPLE can be used to create a simple water pump
called a hydraulic ram.
 Leaks can sometimes be detected using water hammer.
 Enclosed air pockets can be detected in pipelines.

History

Water hammer was exploited before there was even a word for it: Marcus Vitruvius Pollio
describes in the 1st century B.C.E the effect of water hammer in lead pipes and stone tubes of the
Roman public water supply.[11] In 1772, Englishman John Whitehurst built a hydraulic ram for a
home in Cheshire, England.[12] In 1796, French inventor Joseph Michel Montgolfier (1740–1810)
built a hydraulic ram for his paper mill in Voiron. [13] In French and Italian, the terms for "water
hammer" come from the hydraulic ram: coup de bélier (French) and colpo d’ariete (Italian) both
mean "blow of the ram".[14] As the 19th century witnessed the installation of municipal water
supplies, water hammer became a concern to civil engineers.[15] Water hammer also interested
physiologists who were studying the circulatory system.

The theory of water hammer began in 1883 with the work of German physiologist Johannes von
Kries (1853–1928), who was investigating the pulse in blood vessels. [16] However, his findings
went unnoticed by civil engineers.[17] Kries's findings were subsequently derived independently
in 1898 by the Russian fluid dynamicist Nikolay Yegorovich Zhukovsky (1847–1921),[18] in
1898 by the American civil engineer Joseph Palmer Frizell (1832–1910),[19] and in 1902 by the
Italian engineer Lorenzo Allievi (1856–1941).[20]

References

1. Jump up ^ Kay, Melvyn (2008). Practical Hydraulics (2nd ed.). Taylor &
Francis. ISBN 0-415-35115-4.
2. Jump up ^
http://communities.bentley.com/products/hydraulics___hydrology/f/5925/p/60896/14725
0.aspx#147250
3. Jump up ^ http://cr4.globalspec.com/thread/73646
4. Jump up ^ Flight Propulsion Laboratory Department, General Electric Company,
Idaho Falls, Idaho (November 21, 1962), Additional Analysis of the SL-1 Excursion:
Final Report of Progress July through October 1962, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Division of Technical Information, IDO-19313; also TM-62-11-707
5. Jump up ^ Bruce, S.; Larock, E.; Jeppson, R. W.; Watters, G. Z. (2000),
Hydraulics of Pipeline Systems, CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-1806-8
6. Jump up ^ Thorley, A. R. D. (2004), Fluid Transients in Pipelines (2nd ed.),
Professional Engineering Publishing, ISBN 0-79180210-8[page  needed]
7. ^ Jump up to: a b c Streeter, V. L.; Wylie, E. B. (1998), Fluid Mechanics (International
9th Revised ed.), McGraw-Hill Higher Education[page  needed]
8. Jump up ^ "Water Hammer & Pulsation"
9. Jump up ^ Faisandier, J., Hydraulic and Pneumatic Mechanisms, 8th edition,
Dunod, Paris, 1999 (ISBN 2100499483)
10. Jump up ^ Bergeron, L., 1950. Du Coup de Bélier en Hydraulique - Au Coup de
Foudre en Electricité. (Waterhammer in hydraulics and wave surges in electricity.) Paris:
Dunod (in French). (English translation by ASME Committee, New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 1961.)
11. Jump up ^ Ismaier, Andreas (2011), Untersuchung der fluiddynamischen
Wechselwirkung zwischen Druckstößen und Anlagenkomponenten in
Kreiselpumpensystemen [Investigation of the fluid dynamic interaction between system
components and pressure surges in centrifugal pumping systems], Schriftenreihe des
Lehrstuhls für Prozessmaschinen und Anlagentechnik, Universität Erlangen; Nürnberg
Lehrstuhl für Prozessmaschinen und Anlagentechnik (in German) 11, Shaker, ISBN 978-
3-8322-9779-4
12. Jump up ^ Whitehurst, John (1775), "Account of a machine for raising water,
executed at Oulton, in Cheshire, in 1772", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 65: 277–279 See also plate preceeding page 277.
13. Jump up ^ Montgolfier, J. M. de (1803), "Note sur le bélier hydraulique, et sur la
manière d’en calculer les effets" [Note on the hydraulic ram, and on the method of
calculating its effects], Journal des Mines (in French) 13 (73): 42–51
14. Jump up ^ Tijsseling, A. S.; Anderson, A. (2008), "Thomas Young's research on
fluid transients: 200 years on", Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on
Pressure Surges (Edinburgh, UK): 21–33 see page 22.
15. Jump up ^ See, for example:
 Ménabréa, L. F. (1858) "Note sur les effects de choc de l’eau dans les
conduites," (Note on the effects of water shocks in pipes), Comptes rendus, 47 :
221–224.
 Michaud, J. (1878) "Coups de bélier dans les conduites. Étude des moyens
employés pour en atténeur les effects" (Water hammer in pipes. Study of means
used to mitigate its effects), Bulletin de la Société Vaudoise des Ingénieurs et des
Architects, 4 (3,4) : 56–64, 65–77.
16. Jump up ^ See:
  J. von Kries (1883) "Ueber die Beziehungen zwischen Druck und
Geschwindigkeit, welche bei der Wellenbewegung in elastischen Schläuchen
bestehen" (On the relationship between pressure and velocity, which exist in
connection with wave motion in elastic tubing), Festschrift der 56. Versammlung
Deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte (Festschrift of the 56th Convention of German
Scientists and Physicians), (Tübingen, Germany: Akademische
Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1883), pages 67-88.
 J. von Kries, Studien zur Pulslehre (Studies in Pulse Science) (Tübingen,
Germany: Akademische Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1892).
17. Jump up ^ See:
 Arris S. Tijsseling and Alexander Anderson (2004) "A precursor in
waterhammer analysis – rediscovering Johannes von Kries," Proceedings of the
9th International Conference on Pressure Surges, Chester, UK, pages 739-751.
Available on-line at: Technical University of Eindhoven.
 Arris S. Tijsseling and Alexander Anderson (2007) "Johannes von Kries
and the history of water hammer," Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 133 (1) : 1-
8.
18. Jump up ^ See:
 Joukowsky, N. (1898). "Über den hydraulischen Stoss in
Wasserleitungsröhren" (On the hydraulic hammer in water supply pipes),
Mémoires de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St.-Pétersbourg (1900), series
8, 9 (5) : 1-71.
 Arris S. Tijsseling and Alexander Anderson, (2006) "The Joukowsky
equation for fluids and solids". Available on-line at: Technical University of
Eindhoven.
19. Jump up ^ See:
 Frizell, J.P. (1898) "Pressures resulting from changes of velocity of water
in pipes," Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 39 : 1-18.
 R. A. Hale (Sept. 1911) Obituary: "Joseph Palmer Frizell, M. Am. Soc. C.
E.," Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 73 : 501-503.
 20. Jump up ^ Allievi, L. (1902), "Teoria generale del moto perturbato dell'acqua nei
tubi in pressione (colpo d’ariete)" [General theory of the perturbed motion of water in
pipes under pressure (water hammer))], Annali della Società degli Ingegneri ed Architetti
Italiani (Annals of the Society of Italian Engineers and Architects) (in Italian) 17 (5):
285–325

Water tunnel (hydrodynamic)

Figure: Cavitation tunnel of the Versuchsanstalt für Wasserbau und Schiffbau in Berlin

A water tunnel is an experimental facility used for testing the hydrodynamic behavior of
submerged bodies in flowing water. It is very similar to a recirculating wind tunnel but with
water as the working fluid, and related phenomena are investigated, such as measuring the forces
on scale models of submarines or lift and drag on hydrofoils. Water tunnels are sometimes used
in place of wind tunnels to perform measurements because techniques like particle image
velocimetry (PIV) are easier to implement in water. For many cases as long as the Reynolds
number is equivalent, the results are valid, whether a submerged water vehicle model is tested in
air or an aerial vehicle is tested in water. For low Reynolds number flows, tunnels can be made
to run oil instead of water. The advantage is that the increased kinematic viscosity will allow the
flow to be a faster speed (and thus easier to maintain stably) for a lower Reynolds number.

Whereas in wind tunnels the driving force is usually sophisticated multiblade propellers with
adjustable blade pitch, in water and oil tunnels the fluid is circulated with pumps, effectively
using a net pressure head difference to move the fluid rather than imparting momentum on it
directly. Thus the return section of water and oil tunnels does not need any flow management;
typically it is just a pipe sized for the pump and desired flow speeds. The upstream section of a
water tunnels generally consists of a pipe (outlet from the pump) with several holes along its side
and with the end open followed by a series of coarse and fine screens to even the flow before the
contraction into the test section. Wind tunnels may also have screens before the contraction, but
in water tunnels they may be as fine as the screen used in window openings and screen doors.

Additionally, many water tunnels are sealed and can reduce or increase the internal static
pressure, to perform cavitation studies. These are referred to as cavitation tunnels.

Figure: Cavitating propeller model

Contents

1 Methods

2 List of Cavitation Tunnels (Water Tunnels)

2.1 Australia

2.2 Canada

2.3 France

2.4 Germany

2.5 India

2.6 Iran

2.7 Italy

2.8 The Netherlands

2.9 Norway

2.10 Spain

2.11 Serbia

2.12 Switzerland

2.13 Taiwan

2.14 United Kingdom

2.15 United States

3 References
Methods

Because it is a high-speed phenomenon, a special procedure is needed to visualize cavitation.

The propeller, attached to a dynamometer, is placed in the inflow, and its thrust and torque is
measured at different ratios of propeller speed (number of revolutions) to inflow velocity. A
stroboscope synchronized with the propeller speed "freezes" the cavitation bubble. By this, one
can observe if the propeller would be damaged by cavitation. To ensure similarity to the full-
scale propeller, the pressure is lowered, and the gas content of the water is controlled.

Often, a tunnel will be co-located with other experimental facilities at a Ship model basin.

List of Cavitation Tunnels (Water Tunnels)

Australia

 "Australian Maritime College". AMC[1]

Canada

 National Research Council—Institute for Ocean Technology Cavitation Tunnel,[2] St.

Johns, Newfoundland.

France

 "Tunnel de Cavitation" Ecole Navale,[3] Lanveoc

 "Grand Tunnel Hydrodynamique" Bassin d'Essais des Carènes,[4] Val de Reuil

Germany

 Multiple cavitation tunnels at the Versuchsanstalt für Wasserbau und Schiffbau,[5] Berlin
 Large Cavitation tunnel at Hamburg Ship Model Basin,[6] Hamburg
 Multiple cavitation tunnels at the Oskar von Miller Institut, [7] Technical University of
Munich

India
  Fluid Control Research Institute, Palakkad, Kerala.
 Cavitation Tunnel of the Naval Science and Technology Labs at Visakhapatnam.
 Indian Institute of Technology Madras.

Iran

 Applied Hydrodynamics Laboratory, Iran University of Science and Technology, [8]

Narmak, Tehran.
 Marine Engineering Laboratory, Sharif University of Technology, [9][10] Azadi Av.,
Tehran.

Italy

 Department of Naval Architecture, University of Genoa.

 INSEAN Cavitation facility, INSEAN (National Institute of Studies and Experiments in
Naval Architecture), Rome.

The Netherlands

 Large Cavitation Tunnel and High Speed Cavitation Tunnel at Maritime Research
Institute Netherlands in Wageningen

Norway

 Cavitation Lab NTNU, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology,

Trondheim

Spain

 CEHIPAR (Canal de Experiencias Hidrodinámicas de El Pardo), [4], El Pardo (Madrid),

Spain.

Serbia
  The Large Cavitation Tunnel at Military Technical Institute, Belgrade, Serbia

Switzerland

 High Speed Cavitation Tunnel at LMH: Lab. of Hydraulic Machines, EPFL: Ecole
Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, Switzerland

Taiwan

 The Large Cavitation Tunnel at National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan

United Kingdom

The Main Boiler House, home to the Emerson Cavitation Tunnel

 Emerson Cavitation Tunnel, University of Newcastle upon Tyne.[11]

United States

 The Garfield Thomas Water Tunnel The Pennsylvania State University,[12] State College,
PA
 The William B. Morgan Large Cavitation Channel,[13] Memphis, TN
 David Taylor Model Basin, Carderock Division of the Naval Surface Warfare Center

References

1. Jump up ^ Discover your future at AMC | AMC

2. Jump up ^ Cavitation Tunnel - NRC-IOT
 3. Jump up ^ Ecole Navale
4. Jump up ^ cadre
5. Jump up ^ http://www.tu-berlin.de/vws/w3vwsde/w3facide/w3faciuk.htm%7C
6. Jump up ^ HSVA - Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt
7. Jump up ^ http://www.wb.bv.tum.de/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=110&Itemid=92
8. Jump up ^ [1][dead link]
9. Jump up ^ [2][dead link]
10. Jump up ^ [3][dead link]
11. Jump up ^ http://www.ncl.ac.uk/marine/about/facilities/emerson.htm
12. Jump up ^ GTWT
13. Jump up ^ Large Cavitation Channel (LCC)

Ultrasonic cavitation device

Ultrasonic cavitation device is a surgical device using low frequency ultrasound energy to
dissect or fragment tissues with low fiber content. It is basically an ultrasound probe (acoustic
vibrator) combined with an aspirator device (suction). [1]

It is mainly used for tissues with high water content and low fiber content, like noncirrhotic liver
and pancreas. It has advantages of less blood loss, improved visibility and less collateral tissue
damage. It is used in number of surgical procedures such as resection of small endocrine
pancreatic tumours, partial nephrectomy, salvage splenectomy, head and neck procedures and
gynecological tumours.[1]

References
1. ^ Jump up to: a b Sabiston textbook of surgery : the biological basis of modern surgical
practice. (19th ed. ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders. 2012. p. 236. ISBN 978-1-
4377-1560-6.