UNIVERSITATEA BABEŞ-BOLYAI CLUJ

FACULTATEA DE LITERE

DEPARTAMENTUL DE LIMBI MODERNE SPECIALIZATE

ÎNVĂŢĂMÂNT LA DISTANŢĂ

English Language
for
Distance Learning in History
A Practical Course

Dorina Loghin

CLUJ, 2020

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I. Informații generale despre curs, seminar, lucrare practică sau laborator
Titlul disciplinei: Limba engleza pentru istorie IDD
Codul: HLX1106/HLX1206
Numărul de credite: 3
Locul de desfăşurare: Online – Microsoft Teams
Programarea în orar a activităților:
II. Informații despre titularul de curs, seminar, lucrare practică sau laborator
Nume, titlul ştiințific: lector. univ. dr. Dorina Loghin
Informații de contact (adresă e-mail, eventual nr. de telefon): dorinaloghin@hotmail.com

III. Descrierea disciplinei

Conținutul cursului: noțiuni introductive de morfologie si sintaxăprecum si de vocabular
specializat cuprins in textele propuse.
Obiective şi competențe: însuşirea informațiilor de bază de structură a limbii, in special de
morfologie si sintaxă; parcurgerea bibliografiei de bază referitoare la aceste aspecte; formarea
de abilități de comunicare, scrisă şi orală, prin producerea de text (screre si vorbire). Metode
utilizate la seminar: prelegere, discuții şi dialog liberi.

Bibliografia obligatorie:

Bentley, Jerry. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of World History, Oxford University Press.
(available in pdf format at reqiest)

Fuchs, Marjorie, Bonner, Margaret. (2004). Grammar express, Pearson Longman

Hall, Timothy, C. (2008). The complete Idiot’s Guide to World’s History, Alpha.

Loghin, D, Felea, C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.

Murphy R. (1989). Grammar in Use. Reference and Practice for Intermediate Students of
English. Cambridge University Press.

Suter, Joanne. (2002). Vocabulary History and Geography Words, Saddleback Educational
Publishing.

Vince, Michael (1998). Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan Heinemann

Vince, Michael (1994). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan Heinemann

Optional:

Frankopan, Peter. (2015). The Silk Roads. A New History of the World, Bloomsbury.

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UNITS

UNIT 1: The Verb and its forms

UNIT 2: Active – Passive

UNIT 3: Questions

UNIT 4: Modal Constructions

UNIT 5: Subordinate Clauses

UNIT 6: The Unreal Past

UNIT 7: Reported Speech

UNIT 8: Nouns and Determiners

Unit 9. Adverbs and Adjectives

Unit 10: The Academic Text

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 Unit 1

The verb and its forms

Objectives:
 understand and apply correctly the forms of the English tense system
 understand the relationship between chronological time and grammatical tense
 form correct communicative units in terms of tense blends
 use the correct adverbial specific to each tense

Key words:
 tense, aspect, adverbial

Contents:
 the present tenses
 the past tenses
 verb forms that express the future

Bibliography:
 Loghin, D, Felea,C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.
 Palmer, F., Robert. (1988) The English verb, Longman.
 Vince Michael (with Emerson, Paul). (2003) Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan.
 Vince, Michael (with Sutherland, Peter). (2003). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan
Publishers Limited.
 Uchiyama, Kent. (2006). English Verb Tenses: An informal reference for ESL students,
the good folks who teach them, and the idly curious.
 Murphy, Raymond (with Altman, Roann) (1989) Grammar in use. Reference and practice
for intermediate students of English, Cambridge University Press.

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 I. Timpul chronologic şi timpurile gramaticale Time and the Tense
System
The chronological distribution of actions and states
The constant change that we notice in and around us has materialized in a form of
expression that has generically been termed as ‘time.’ As we all know, time is an abstraction
that has a unanimously accepted conventional determination. We use time to express basic
orientation coordinates related to the spatial position we occupy successively during various
referential landmarks, such as a moment, a day, a week, a month, etc. In short we use time as
an explanatory basis for our existence.
In communication, we use tense structures in order to express the various relations
between our actions and states at various stages of our existence. The time-tense relationship
has various forms of representation. In English, the study of language revolves to a great
extent around this backbone configuration called tense.
In terms of aspect, we have Simple (Indefinite) tenses, Continuous (Progressive) tenses
and Perfect tenses (which can be, in turn, Simple or Continuous).
Thus, there are twelve tense forms:
The Present Tense Continuous, The Present Tense Simple, The Past Tense Continuous,
The Past Tense Simple, The Future Tense Simple, The Future Tense Continuous, The Future
Perfect Simple, The Future Perfect Continuous, The Present Perfect Simple, The Present
Perfect Continuous, The Past Perfect Simple, The Past Perfect Continuous, The Present
Perfect Continuous, The Past Perfect Simple, The Past Perfect Continuous
These are most of the time accompanied each by its corresponding adverbial form.

I.1. Exprimarea Timpului Prezent Expressing Present Time

Timp Construcţie Caracteristici Exemple Ortografiere

Tense Formation rules Features Examples Spelling rules
Prezentul Afirmativ - exprimă We spend our - verbele de persoana
Simplu Affirmative adevăruri holidays abroad a III-a singular
Present general-valabile I never leave primesc desinenţa de
Simple S + verb (all (adevăruri eterne, home late. pers./nr.
persons except rutine personale, She works hard. -s sau -es, pentru
IIIrd person legi al naturii, My train leavesat verbele care se
singular) legi consemnate 5.42 p.m. termină în -ch, -sh,-s,
S + verb+ -s (IIIrd ştiinţific), acţiuni Doesmy train -z, -x
person singular) generale, acţiuni leave at …? - verbele care se
repetate; I get up late at termină în consoană
Interogativ Este folosit weekends. + -y, la adăugarea - s,
Interrogative - în instrucţiuni Mary often drops schimbă -y în- ies
sau în by for a cup of - verbele care se
Do + S + verb? demonstraţii/ coffee. termină în vocală + -
(all persons prezentări; Do you ever yprimesc doar
except IIIrd - în titluri, watch the terminaţia–s.
person singular) comentarii (în Discovery - 3rd person singular
Does + S + verb? presă); Channel? verbs always get the -
(IIIrd person - ca timp narativ; The constitution s ending
singular) - pentru a descrie stipulates that - verbs ending in –o,-
sentimente; every citizen ch,-sh, -s, -z, -x get -
Negativ - ca mijloc de should vote. es
Negative exprimare a She feels like a verbs which end in

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Formule S + verb+ do viitorului fish in the pond. consonant t + -y,
adverbiale not/don’t (exprimă acţiuni The museum when receiving -s
Adverbial (all persons stabilite oficial). closes at 6 p.m. change -y → -ies
construction except IIIrd - este însoţit de Exposed verbs which end in
s person singular) adverbe şi aluminium alloys vowel +-y, only
S + verb + does locuţiuni corrode under the add –s
not/doesn’t adverbiale influence of
(IIIrd person specifice. oxygen and
singular) - expresses humidity.
general, habitual
and recurrent
truths, habitual
or repeated
actions,
- is also used in
giving
instructions,
directions or for
making
demonstrations;
- in headlines,
commentaries or
as a narrative
device;
- in describing
feelings;
- as a means of
expressing future
actions (official
actions).
- accompanying
adverbials:
in the afternoon/
evening/morning/
at noon/
(mid)night/ one
o’clock/
weekend, on
Monday /time,
often, sometimes,
usually, always,
never, as a rule.
Prezentul Afirmativ
Continuu Affirmative - exprimă acţiuni We are spending we double the
Present S + be + verb + care se petrec în our holiday consonant and add –
Continuous -ing (sau aproximativ) abroad. ing:
acest moment I am leaving for cut – cutting; run –
- expresses Sibiu. running; swim –
actions which are She is working swimming.
happening now hard. (now) - după –y, -w sau –x

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 Interogativ or around now se adaugă direct –ing
Interrogative - temporary Are you talking to after –y, -w or –y, we
be + S + verb + actions and me? simply add
-ing ? habits –ing:
- plans or Is the student mix – mixing; delay –
arrangements (as coming today? delaying, snow -
Negativ a means of snowing
Negative expressing future They are - la adăugarea -ing la
S + be + not + time) not/aren’t vb. terminate în –ie, -
verb + -ing - annoying habits listening! ie → -y
(+ always/ We are not/ aren’t when adding -ing to
forever/ travelling home. vbs. ending in
continually) - ie, –ie → –y
A: Are you busy? lie –lying, die-dying
B: At the moment
I’m working to
(right) now, at finish my project.
Formule the
adverbiale moment , this After a busy
Adverbial week, tonight, month, Julia is
construction this afternoon, resting this week.
s etc

I.2. Exprimarea Timpului Trecut Expressing Past Time: Past

Simple and Past Continuous, ‘used to’/’would’, Past Perfect Simple and
Past Perfect Continuous

TO BE
a. – present forms-+
b.
I am you/we/they are he/she/it is
c. – past forms:
Past Tense Simple
I/he/she/it was we/you/they were
Past Perfect Simple
I/he/she it/we/you/they had been
Used to be
I/he/she it/we/you/they used to be

În mod invariabil, verbele regulate primesc la forma de bază (rădăcina), terminaţia -ed, care
rămâne neschimbată la toate persoanele.
Regular verbs end invariably in -ed
Verbele neregulate îşi schimbă forma de bază, şi, prin urmare, trebuie învăţate ca atare. La
finalul oricărei gramatici sau dicţionar al limbii engleze există o listă cu verbele neregulate.
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Irregular verbs change their form and must be learnt as such. Any grammar or dictionary is
provided with a list of irregular verbs.

Timpul Caracteristici Construcţie Exemple Adverbe

Tense Features and Formation rules Examples Adverbials
meaning
Past Tense - păstrează în mod Affirmative: of Time and Place
Simple omogen, aceeaşi S + verb +-ed We met last year
formă pentru toate (for regular in Brussels. last year/month /
persoanele. verbs) week/yesterday, two
Exprimă S + 2nd from of The asked the years ago, at 2.30, in
- o acţiune începută verbs (Past tourists to check the park, in front of
şi încheiată în trecut; Tense) (for out before midday. the university, etc.
- o acţiune repetată irregular verbs)
în trecut (+ advebe Mary managed to subordinate clauses
de frecvenţă: often, Interrogative: get to the airport He liked listening to
rarely, seldom, (for all persons) by taking a music while (he was)
frequently, always, Did + S + verb? shortcut. working.
never, sometimes)
- este însoţit de Negative: What did you do I stopped reading
adverbe sau S + did when you found when/after/before
locuţiuni adverbiale not/didn’t + verb out about that they returned.
de timp şi loc sau de accident?
o propoziţie Ortografiere Mark told me to
subordonată care Spelling rules It’s a pity you hurryas I had to be
indică împrejurările - consoană finală didn’t buy the there in time.
în care a avut loc precedată de o book I mentioned
acţiunea. vocală scurtă şi last week. If she needed money,
- has the same form neaccentuată + - she tried to get it.
for all persons; it ed → dublarea She always visited
- expresses a consoanei finale all her relatives I always felt awful
completed past - consoană + -y when she came to talking/having to talk
action. + Romania. about that tragic
- is used together -ed → -ied accident.
with adverbials of - short and Didn’t you ever
time and/or place stressed vowel try to learn to
ora subordinate before final drive while you
clause to indicate consonant + -ed had the car?
the circumstances in → double final
which the action consonant Before I got
took place. stop → stopped married I
- expresses a permit sometimes/often
repeated past action →permitted spent my summers
(+ often, never, - consonant + -y at my
sometimes, rarely, + grandparents’
frequently, seldom, -ed → -ied cottage.
etc.) cry - cried
study - studied
Past Tense Exprimă Affirmative: At around 5.30 I Adverbials
Continuous - o acţiune care se Pentru was driving back for Past Continuous

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 afla în desfăşurare la persoanele I şi to Cluj. at the moment, at
un moment dat sau III sg 2.30, all that time,
pe o perioadă S + was /were + I saw Mary when that week(end), then,
limitată de timp verb + -ing she was getting off at the time
(acţiuni temporare); Pentru the car.
Expresses persoanele I pl;
- an action in II sg/pl; III pl A; What were you pentru acţiuni
progress at a certain S + were + verb doing when she simultane for
moment or during a + -ing called? simultaneous actions
limited period of B: I was (just)
time (temporary Interrogative: looking for my car while, when, as,
actions) Was/Were + S + keys. during which time
- with always/ verb + -ing? My music teacher
forever/ continually, was always falling
criticism of Negative: asleep during our
annoying habitual S + was/were + tutorials.
actions. not/wasn’t/were She was cooking
Acţiuni simultane n’t+ verb + -ing. dinner while he
Simultaneous was mending the
actions: car.
Past Continuous + She was cooking
Past Continuous dinner while he
Past Continuous + mended the car.
Past Tense
Past Tense + Past They were
Tense watching the film
Past Tense + Past when the doorbell
Continuous rang (incidental).
Acţiune în
desfăşurare şi
acţiune incidentă
Action in progress
and incidental
action
Would Used to + verbe de Afirmativ The
and acţiune şi verbe de Affirmative accommodation
Used to stare S + used used to be better
+ both state and to/would + verb last year.
action verbs They used
Would + exclusiv to/wouldexercise
verbe de acţiune more when they
+ only action verbs were younger.
- sunt forme
echivalente ale lui When we lived in
Past Simple folosite Andalusia we used
în contextele to/would visit
narative pentru places like
evitarea redundanţei. Córdoba or
- exprimă acţiuni sau Interogativ Málaga.
stări recurente în Interrogative

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 trecut, care s-au Did + S + use to
încheiat demult. + verb? Did you really
- are forms Would + S + useto like going
equivalent to Past verb? out every
Simple used in weekend?
narrative contexts in Negativ
order to avoid Negative
redundancy. S + did Didn’t your
- express repeated not/didn’t useto parents use to tell
events and actions in + verb you bedtime
the past, usually S + would stories when you
things that happened not/wouldn’t + were little?
a long time ago and verb My sister didn’t
are now finished. use to be like that,
picky and moody
as she is today.
Past Exprimă Afirmativ Your friends had until, before, after
Perfect - o acţiune încheiată Affirmative left the airport by
Simple înaintea unei acţiuni For all persons noon.
sau unui moment had + Past Your friends had
trecut. Participle left the airport by
- o acţiune the time you got
anterioară ce are S + had + Past there.
consecinţe asupra Participle (III
altei acţiuni trecute. form) When the
- succesiuni de secretary entered
acţiuni trecute în the office she
care Past Perfect e Interogativ found out that her
folosit ca marcă Interrogative boss had left.
temporală. Had + S + Past
- o relaţie cauzală Participle By weekend all
între două acţiuni the staff had
trecute. written their
- după conjuncţia proposals.
after şi înainte de
before, poate fi Negativ She had completed
înlocuit de Past Negative a cooking course
Tense. S + had before she found
- used for actions not/hadn’t + that job. / After
previous to and Past Participle she had completed
affecting a a cooking course,
nominated time in she found that job.
the past.
- expresses They ran home as
sequences of past it had already
actions with the past started to rain
perfect used as a heavily.
time marker.
- used to show
causal relationship

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 between past
actions.
- Past Tense can They had asked
replace it when several times
followed by after or whether there was
preceded by before. anyone on duty
-de obicei, acest that night.
timp se află în raport They had been
de variaţie liberă cu asking whether
Past Perfect Simple. ther was anyone
on duty that night.

Past - exprimă o acţiune Afirmativ George and Diana

Perfect care se afla în Affirmative had already been
Continuous desfăşurare de o For all persons living there for a
perioadă de timp had + been + month when the
până la un moment verb + -ing + Smiths moved
dat sau până când a (since/for) nextdoor.
intervenit o altă
acţiune. The two teams had
- usually this tense is Interogativ been fighting for
at free variation Interrogative the final goal for
with the Past Perfect Had + S + been already half an
Simple; + verb + -ing hour when the
- expresses an action referee gave the
which was in Negativ end-of-game
progress forsoem Negative signal
timeup to a given S + had
moment or until not/hadn’t +
another past action been + verb + -
occurs. ing

I. 2. 3 Prezentul PerfectThe Present Perfect

TO BE
I/we/you/they have been
He/she/it has been

Timpul Caracteristici Construcţie Exemple Adverbe

Tense Features Formation rules Examples Adverbials
Present - face legătura S +have/ has + Adverbials
Perfect Sinple dintre timpul trecut Past Participle so far, lately,
şi timpul prezent (IIIrd form) just, already,
(uneori şi viitor); yet, always,
- aruncând o privire Afirmativ I’ve been to many usually, never,
retrospectivă către Affirmative places and I’ve ever, seldom/

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trecut, ne I/we/you/they known a lot of rarely, often/
informează ce s-a have (‘ve) lived people (so far/up to frequently
petrecut pană în (irregular vb) now)
sau înainte de or with no
momentul present; He/she/it has (‘s) time
- exprimă o acţiune lived They’ve had this specification
sau o stare care (regular vb) car for a year (they
continuă încă; still have it). since
- exprimă Interogativ (beginning of
evenimente care Interrogative Diana has learned action) for
până acum au facut Have you lived? a lot of French so (duration of
(şi încă mai fac) Has he lived? far (she is still action)
parte din viaţa learning it).
noastră; Negativ
- acţiuni trecute cu Negative Have you ever
consecinţe/ efecte I have not lived visited Romania?
în present; He has not lived They’ve never seen
- exprimă ideea de Braşov.
acţiune încheiată,
mai ales atunci
când este însoţit de
o construcţie
adverbială
cantitativă
- relates past
actions and states
to the present. It I’ve (always) loved
looks back from the to sit in the garden
present into the in the long summer
past, and expresses evenings.
what has happened
before now. George has taken
- expresses an computer classes
action or state (he can operate it).
which began in the
past and continues She has (already)
to the present. corrected three
- expresses events papers.
that are up to now
part of our life. They’ve changed
- expressespast two trains to come
actions with a to Cluj.
result in the
present.
- expresses
completion of an
action when it is
followed by a
quantitative
marker.

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Present - exprimă acţiuni S + have/has + We’ve been
Perfect care au început şi been + verb+ - waiting for four
Continuous încă continuă (pe o ing days to get the
durată result!
nespecificată) Afirmativ since
- actions that Affirmative It’s been raining (beginning)
started in the past I/you/they have for days! /for (duration)
and are still going been walking
on (indefinitely) He/she/it has A: You look tired
beenwalking B: I am tired
Interogativ because I’ve been
Interrogative working hard.
Have you been
walking?
Has he been
walking?
Negativ
Negative
I’ve (have)not
been walking
He’s (has) not
been walking
În unele cazuri, diferenţa dintre cele două forme este I have worked here all my life/I’ve
insesizabilă. Pentru verbe care exprimă ideea de durată been working here all my life.
mare (work, wait, travel, learn, play), se preferă forma
continuă;cu verbe ca buy, die, take, shut, etc, şi care nu They’ve (already) been walking for
exprimă această idee, folosim mai degrabă Present a long time.
Perfect Simple.
- verbele de stare nu se folosesc la Present Perfect She’s passed the exam. I’ve been
Continuous. working/ trying so hard to finish in
Sometimes the difference between the two Present time.
Perfect forms is very slight
Present Perfect Continuous + verbs that express the idea
of long time; She’s understood you perfectly
Present Perfect Simple + state verbs well.
I. 2. 4. Exprimarea Timpului Viitor Expressing Future Time

TO BE
Future simple
I/we will/shall be
You/he/she/it/they will be
Future perfect
I/we will/shall have been
You/he/she/it/they will have been
‘Going to’future
I am going to be
He/she/it is going to be
We/you/they are going to be

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 Forma de Caracteristici Construcţie Exemple Adverbe
viitor Features and Formation Examples Adevrbials
Future form meaning rules
a. ‘will’ - consecinţă - If you wait too tomorrow,
Future consequence long, you’ll (will) next week,
- previziune get bored. (some time)
prediction - It will be fine later, on
- certitudine S+ shall/will + tomorrow. Friday, at
certainty short infinitive - This letter will be four o’clock,
- promisiune (+ adverbial for me. etc
promise of future time) - I’ll always stand
- avertisment by you.
warning - There won’t be too
- hotărâre much time left, so
determination we’d better hurry.
- I shall never
smoke.
b.Future - exprimă acţiuni Who knows what I in ten years’
Continuous viitoare văzute în will be doing time;
desfăşurare. S + will + be tomorrow this time? this time next
- expresses future + verb + -ing In a week’s time month; at 2
actions in + adverbial of they will be enjoying p.m.
progress future time every moment of
their holiday.
c. Future - la fel ca şi Past She will have by 4.30;
Perfect Perfect, exprimă leftbefore their by the time
(Simple or anterioritatea unei arrival at the hotel / shereturns; by
Continuous) acţiuni/stări by the time they get noon, by then,
viitoare faţă de o S+ will + to the hotel (va fi etc
altă acţiune have + Past plecat deja pe cand
viitoare, sau faţă Participle + ei vor ajunge (ajung)
de un moment adverbial of la hotel.
viitor. future time
De reţtinut: I’m afraid my
În subordonata colleagues will have
temporală (la fel been writing the test
ca si în cea for half an hour
Condiţonală), already by the time I
timpul e fie get to school.
Present Tense, fie
Present Perfect,
niciodată Future!
- like Past
Perfect, it
expresses
1.a future
action/state
completed before
another future
action or moment

14
 (Future Perfect
Simple), or
2. a future
action/state that
will already be in
progress for some
time by the time
another action
occurs, or before
a specified time
limit.
Note:
The tense in the
subordinate
clause is always
in the Present or
in the Present
Perfect and not
the Future!
d. Present - exprimă What are you - adverbe care
Continuous aranjamente sau doinglater? Are you indică viitorul
planuri personale. going out with the apropiat
- prezenţa group? adverbias
adverbului e indicating the
obligatorie. near future
- expresses S + be + verb tomorrow,
personal + next
arrangements, -ing + (week)end,
plans – always adverbial of today, in the
accompanied by a future time afternoon,
near future time on Friday,
expression. nextMonday.

e. Present - exprimă acţiuni The train leaves at

Simple sau demersuri 8.45 a.m. at 10 p.m
oficiale. S + short The library closes at
- expresses infinitive 10 p.m.
official actions.

f.‘Going to’ viitorul intenţiei Are you going to when the next
şi al predicţiei/ start or not? I’m train leaves
deducţiei logice. going to ask when
- the future of S + going to + the next train leaves.
intention and of short infinitive It’s not going to be
prediction/logical any better than it is soon
inference. now. Look! It’s
going to rain soon.
g. ‘be to’ Exprimă They are to arrive in in the
= urmează să - iminenţa unei the afternoon/in a afternoon/
acţiuni/stări. S + be to + moment. in a moment

15
 - un aranjament short infinitive
formal The team of workers
- expresses the are/is to sign the
imminence of an documents
action/state. tomorrow by 12
o’clock.
h. ‘be about S + be about The speaker is about
to’/ ‘be on the to + short to end the
point of’’/be infinitive presentation.
on the verge S + be/verb on The play is on the
of’ the point of starting.
= e pe punctul point/verge of She seems on the
de a/ e cât pe + -ing verge of breaking
ce să/ stă să participle out.
i. ‘be due to’+ - se referălaun S+ be due The group of
infinitive program/ orar to/at +verb students is due to
‘be due at’ deja stabilit. arrive at 8.30.
- refers to a Their plane is due at
scheduled time 15.15.
j. ‘be bound - exprimăacţiuni
to’ care se impun ca S + be bound The group leader is
obligatorii. to + verb bound to know the
- expresses details regarding
actions one their tour
expects to happen programme.
for sure

I. 3. Forme verbale simple şi continue – Verbe de stare şi verbe de acţiune

Simple and Progressive verb forms – Stative, dynamic, process verbs
Majoritatea verbelor pot avea atât aspect continuu cât şi simplu, exprimând, în funcţie de
context, o acţiune static-informativă, sau o acţiune dinamică.
Most verbs can take on either of the aspects, expressing, according to the context, a stative-
informative action, retrospectively, a dynamic-progressive one.
John lives in this house. (it is his permanent residence)
John is living in this house. (it is his temporary residence)
The stative form of the verb ‘lie’, means ‘be situated gepographicaly’ and its dynamic form
means ‘having a recumbent, horizontal position’
Forma statică a verbului lie înseamnă’ a fi situat geografic’, iar cea dinamică înseamnă ‘a sta
culcat’, ‘a se întinde’, ‘a zace’.
This country lies north of Spain.
He left the papers lying on the table.
Verbe care descriu evoluţia graduală a unui process Process verbs show gradation of a
process
grow,change, deteriorate, mature, narrow, widen, slow down., etc.
- verb de acţiune: dacă exprimă un proces.
- verb de stare: exprimă o stare
If it expresses a process, then the verb is an action verb. If it expresses a state, the verb is a
stative verb.
Verbe statice Stative verbs

16
 be, hate, like, love, need, belong, believe, cost, get, impress, know, reach, recognize, taste,
think/consider, understand. Verbele statice formează patru grupe, si anume:
Generally, stative verbs fall into the following four groups:

Tipul verbului Exemple Înţeles de bază = Înţeles schimbat =

Type of verb Examples stare proces/acţiune
Basic meaning = state Changed meaning =
process/action
1. Verbe care know, I think it will be a I am thinking of leaving.
exprimă o recognize, successful seminar. I am (seriously)
opinie sau un think/consider, (opinion) considering leaving.
proces mental imagine, I consider it would be He was forgetting/(again)
Verbs which impress, proper to wait. was remembering to walk.
express ideas or intend, mean, I dislike rudeness. (the process of
opinions or mind, They didn’t forget degradation or of recovery
mental perceive, about the documents. of an ability)
processes please, forget,
prefer,
presuppose,
realize, recall,
recognize,
regard,
remember,
suppose, think,
understand.
2. Verbe de be, belong to, We don’t have such a They are not having lunch
relaţie concern, lot of time. right now.
(relaţionale) consist of, The land belongs to
sau care contain, cost, nobody.
exprimă posesia depend on, I only own a bicyle. Today Susan is being very
Relational deserve, equal, Susan is (as a rule!) a nosy.
verbs, or verbs fit, have, discreet person.
which express include, This dress doesn’t fit
possession involve, lack, you at all. (is not your They are fitting the
matter, need, size) window frame for a new
owe, own, Our trip depends on window. (=adapting)
possess, the weather. Only you can help me; I
require, amdepending on you.
resemble.
3. Verbe see, hear, feel, This sandwich tases I am tasting the food.
senzoriale smell, taste, sour. It also smells (action)
Verbs related to sound odd. (characteristics) Before I taste it, I always
senses and The blouse feels rough smell the food.
perception against my skin. I am feeling the cloth to
(effect of perception) see if it’s smooth or rough.
She sees well with her She is seeing the eye
new glasses. doctor. tomorrow. (has an
(perception) appointment)
This song sounds Jane is no longer seeing

17
 familiar to me.(effect George. (she’s no longer
of perception) dating him)
This idea sounds She is seeing things
great! (imagining)
I hear you very well, They sonded a warning
don’t shout. (signalled)
(characteristic) They began hearing
I feel/ I am feeling voices (hallucinating).
better. (expression of a
state or of a condition)
4.Verbe care love, hate, The child astonished Sometimes, for the sake of
exprimă like, desire, everybody with the emphasis, we can say:
sentimente sau detest, dislike, precision in fortelling I’m simply loving being
trăiri believe, want, events. here! (I’m fully enjoying
Verbs wish, forgive, Believe it or not, I every single moment of
expressing guess, abhor, simply abhor speaking my stay here). Couldn’t
feelings and adore, about death. you see he was hating the
attitudes worship, I feel you are not conversation?
doubt, feel entirely right.
(presume),
wonder.

I.4. Expresii existenţiale Existential sentences

- au o structură gramaticală aparte şi exprimă existenţa reală sau imaginară a unui element
(fiinţă sau obiect). De asemenea, introduc o idee într-un discurs. An existential clause has a
distinctive grammatical structure and expresses the real or imagined existence of an item (a
person, place, or thing), asserting its existence or nonexistence. It introduces the item into a
discourse.
Subiectul propriu-zis (noţional) este diferit de subiectul gramatical (there), care se mai
numeşte şi pseudo-subiect.
a) there + be/exist/ seem/ appear
There is no place like home.
Who knows if there truly exists anyone named Wy.
Note!
There appears to be some uncorrected mistakes here. (the subject of ‘appears’ is ‘there’)
(Se pare că aici sunt cáteva greşeli necorectate.)
There appear to be some omitted mistakes. (the subject of ‘appear’ is ‘mistakes’) (some
mistakes appear to have been ommitted)
(Căteva greşeli par a fi fost omise/Se pare că unele greşeli au fost omise).

The notional subject (place, anyone) diffrs from the grammatical subject (there)
The existential there (also called dummy subject) is a device which empties the subject
position of semantic content.
It serves as the subject in infinitive phrases and infinitive a participle phrases, e.g.
We don’t allow thereto be any misunderstanding regarding the title of the article.
(Nu putem permite nici o confuzie în ceea ce priveşte titlul articolului)
There being no one to give us any relevant information, we left. (Nefiind nimeni care să ne
dea vreo informaţie relevantă, am plecat)
- with ‘to’ infinitives phrases:
There are still many good things to come.

18
Other components of existential sentences: (exist, come, go)
b) Sentences with pleonasticthere but with some verbs other than be.
There came another guardian all dressed in red and black.
There goes the woman with the child!
Don’t worry, there exit many other situations better than this.
c) there is vs. it is
There is a new film by Steven Spielberg coming soon. (existential) (există un film
nou de S.S)
It is his latest film. (it = the film - subject pronoun) (e cel mai recent film al său)

I. 5. Acordul subiectului cu verbul Subject+Verb Agreement

1. pronume la singular legate prin or/nor + verb la singular.
singular (pro)nouns connected by or or nor + singular verb.
Neither the horse nor the rider was hurt.
The red dress or the black blouse is in my handbag.
2. subiect compus ale cărui elemente sunt legate prin or/nor + verb la singular sau plural, în
funcţie de numărul elementului care îl urmează (singular sau plural).
compound subject whose elements are connected by or or nor + singular or plural verb
according to which element is closest to the verb.
The book or the pencils were on the desk.
The pencils or the book was on ther desk.
3. subiect compul + verb la plural: dacă elementele sale constitutive (substantive sau
pronume) sunt legate prin and.
compound subject + plural verb: if its consituent elements ((pro)nouns are connected by and
The envelopes, stamps and the pens were all scattered on desk
4. S + phrase + Verb
This tests, let alone the exams with the Dean, terrifies everybody.
Look! One of the footprints is visible.
Days which are foggy and cold seem awful to me.
5. Subiectule este exprimat printr-un pronume nehotărât
Indefinite pronouns as subjects + singular verbs: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each,
either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one,
other, somebody, someone, something
+ plural verbs : both, few, many, others, several
+ singular or plural verbs: all, any, more, most, none, some
Either situation leads to the same result.
Each of my friends thinks the same thing about bank loans.
Everybody hates being in debt.
6. unele substantive terminate în -s
some nouns ending in -s + singular verbs
news, phonetics, linguistics, shingles, mumps, measles, civics, mathematics, etc.
No news is good news.
- obiecte bipolare + verb la plural
a unit made of two parts + plural verbs
pincers, breeches, pliers, compasses, glasses, scissors, tweezers, trousers, shears, etc
These are not my glasses!
7. substantive colective
collective nouns
- când sunt văzute ca grup unitar, sunt singulare şi fac acord cu un verb la singular.
when seen as a group are considered singular and take a singular verb

19
family, government, clergy, board, group, team, committee, class, etc.
The cergy in our district has come to consacrate the new church.
Which board decides how to proceed?
The Johnes family is on holiday.
- când sunt vizate elementele grupului, acordul se face cu un verb la plural.
when the members of the group are pointed out, the nouns are considered plural and take a
plural verb.

I. 6. Formele verbale nepersonale (infinitivul, gerunziul, participiul)

Non-finite verb forms (infinitive, gerund and participle)
Infinitive
Simple to + verb to talk, to dance, to write

Continuous to + be + verb + -ing to be talking, to be dancing, to

be writing
Perfect to + have + been + Past Participle to have been talking, to have
writing/ to have been dancing
Passive Infinitive
Simple Passive Infinitives
to be +Past Participle (to be done)
to be + verb + -ing (to be doing)
Perfect Passive Infinitives
to have been + Past Participle (to have been done)
to have been + verb + -ing (to have been doing)

Participle
Present participle
(They are) finishing (their exam).
Past Participle
(They have/had) finished (their exam).
Formle participiale intră în alcătuirea anumitori timpuri verbale şi a unor forme adjectivale.
Ele sunt folosite şi pentru a scurta o frază.
Present participle, past (or perfect) participle are part of certain tenses and adjective forms.
Additional uses: to shorten sentences.

Gerund = the -ing form of a verb

going, talking, writing

Forma Caracteristici generale Construcţie Exemple

verbală General features Form Examples
nepredicativă
Form of non-
finite verb
INFINITIVE Utilizări Uses Types of infinitive She’s delightedto see
- intră în combinaţie cu Simple you
structuri ca: to + verb They promisednot to be
- we use infinitives in - used with verbs too late.
combination with such as: Mary hopedto pass her
structures such as: advise, agree, ask, exam.
(I’m) honoured/ delighted/ expect, intend,

20
pleased/ surprised + to
meet you
- pentru a exprima scopul:
- to express purpose
- exprimă o dorinţă
neîmplinită
- expresses an unfulfilled
wish
-exprimă un eveniment
trecut nerealizat.
- expresses an unreal past
event.
21
offer, plan,
pretend, hope,
promise, refuse,
try, want, would
like + ‘to’ Read the instruction to
infinitive be able to use this device
correctly.
She is here (because she
wishes) to learn a new
language.
They are believed tobe
working in Rome.
Their work seems to
have been advancing
Progressive rather slowly.
to + be + verb + - The children
ing could/may/must be
to + have + been + sleeping by now.
verb +
-ing Sarah would like to have
modal + be + verb gone to Bucureşti, too =
+ -ing Sarah would have liked
to go to Bucureşti, too.
(she did noy go)
Perfect The plane seems to have
- to + have + Past landed successfully.
Participle He pretended not to have
- modal + have + heard.
Past Participle
You should have arrived
- it is used with by now.
verbs such as: If I had ordered the
appear, happen, books, you would have
pretend, seem had them.
You should have told me
you were coming.
There are many more
problems still to be
solved.
The thief is rumoured to
have been caught.
Passive She toldmeto behere
to + be + Past before 9 o’clock.
Participle (passive: I was told to be
to + have + been + here….)

- îndeplineşte funcţie de
subiect sau complement al
unei propoziţii;
- urmează unele expresii
(infinitivul fără to);
- urmează unele verbe în
propozitţii interogative
(construcţii infinitivale);
- urmează unele adjective;
- urmează anumite
substantive de origine
verbală;
- functions as subject or
object of a clause
- follows certain
expressions (without to);
- follows certain verbs with
interrogatives (infinitive
constructions);
- after certain adjectives
and their comparisons ;
- after nouns deriving from
verbs;
22
Past Participle The policeman wavedthe
driverto pull left.(no
passive form!)
Compare:
Verb + (Pro)noun They expectto pass the
+ ‘to’Infinitive test (expectation about
remind, invite, themselves)
permit, allow, and
warn, ask, would They expectme/the
like, expect, invite, candidateto pass the test.
force, require, (expectation about
encourage, advise, someone else)
tell
+ someone + to do To read (subject) is to
know.
I don’t know what to do
(object).
It takes longer to take
this route.
We made a promise to
return safe.
My colleagues decided
to let me speak with the
manager.
My roommate always
tries to make everyone
do his way.
Omisia lui to
Omission of to
- când este urmat
de anumite verbe
- when it follows
certain verbs
feel, hear, help, let,
make, see, and
watch. We wanted to quickly
leave the room for fear
the gas device might go
off.
Split infinitive
GERUND - este o formă verbală în
-ing care îndeplineşte
funcţie morfologică de
substantiv şi sintactică de
subiect, complement
direct, nume predicativ si
parte dintr-o locuţiune
prepoziţională;
- însoţeşte anumite
adjective, verbe,
substantive, verbe cu
prepoziţie;
- it is a verb form in -ing
which functions as a noun,
having the syntactic role
of: subject, direct object,
subject complement, and
object of preposition.
- after certain adjectives
- after certain verbs
- after certain nouns
- verbs with prepositions
- ‘to’ (= preposition,
notinfinitive particle) +
Gerund
- not precedă un gerunziu
- not precedes a gerund
Verbe urmate de un
gerunziu
Verbs followed by a
gernund
avoid, consider (think
about),delay, discuss (talk
23
verb +- ing - subject
They enjoy staying here
(= they enjoy their stay
here)
Studying (= the study of)
biology is fun.
- direct object
She said she loved my
cooking.
- subject complement
David’s new way of
getting money became
gambling.
- object of preposition
His uncle blames her of
stealing.
They enjoy good
reading.
I(don’t) like working (=
the work) in large
groups.
I know the feling of
losing someone dear.
He’s afraid of making a
mistake
He’s fond of swimming
far from the shore.
We enjoy painting in
watercolour.
He is
committed/dedicatedto
working hard.
Notdoing anything
would be a big mistake.
The man avoided
answering.
We are seriously
considering moving.
 about), enjoy, keep(on),
mention, postpone(put off),
suggest, stop (stop
working)
look forward to + doing
something
Locuţiuni gerunziale
Gerundial phrases
- grupuri de cuvinte ce
conţin un gerunziu, un
substantiv sau un pronume.
group of words consisting
of a gerund and a noun or
a pronoun.
PARTICIPLE - se foloseşte pentru a
forma timpuri continue;
- are valoare de adjectiv;
- se foloseşte împreună cu
24
Compare:
Writing (subject) essays
is useful in language
study
They are writing
(present participle)
essays on various topics.
Welook forward to/are
looking/to meeting our
new colleagues.
This is writing (- adj.)
paper.
Mary talked
aboutleaving for Canada
soon.
He is in
chargeoforganizing the
trip.
Are you interested
injoining us?
She is usedtoworking
late.
I do not
objectto(their)postponing
the meeting.
I am already accustomed
tonot sleeping very
much.
Beating about the bush is
some politicians’
strategy. (subject)
I fear that they will
object to my leaving
today. (direct object)
One of our hobbies used
to be travelling to exotic
places. (subject
complement)
He was praised for
saving many people’s
life.(object of the
preposition for).
Type of Participle
Participiul I am listening!
Prezent Present
verbe senzoriale; Participle
- it is used to form Are you waiting for
progressive tenses (Present Ortografiere somebody?
Progressive); Spelling:
- as an adjective; -ie final se Did you notice her
- with verbs of the senses if transformă în -y leaving the office?
we do not want to - consoana finală
emphasise that the action după o vocală
was completed. scurtă şi
see, watch, notice, feel, accentuată se
smell, hear, find, listen to dublează
- final-iebecomes -
y
dye – dying ; lie –
lying
- final consonant
- se termină în -en, -d, -t, after short,
sau -n stressed vowel is The runningathlete is my
- end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or doubled brother (the athlete who
-n, as in the words asked, refer – referring; is running).
eaten, saved, dealt, and permit –
seen permitting Determined, the
- este forma a treia a customer walked asked
verbelor ce intră în to speak with the
alcătuirea timpurilor Participiul trecut manager.
perfecte, a diatezei pasive, Past Participle
a formelor adjectivaleşi I have/had read this
adverbiale. Ortografiere book.
- it is the third form of Spelling:
verbs used either to build - consonant + -y = The book, which is
up perfect -i: verywell-written, was
tenses(Present/Past/Future marry - married edited in Chicago.
Perfect Simple/Perfect - final consonant
Modals, etc), passive, after a short, They came invited by
adjective and adverbial stressed vowel: their cousins.
forms. permit→permitted He lay down reading.
- relaţionează (uneşte)
propoziţiile care au acelaşi
subiect, atunci când
acţiunea exprimată de
construcţia cu participiul
perfect s-a încheiat înainte Having read the
de începerea altei acţiuni. bibliography, they wrote
- exprimă o acţiune care se an article. (= They read
află în desfăşurare de câtva the bibliography and
timp, iar o alta începe. Participiu perfect wrote an article.)
- face parte din Perfect Participle
construcţiile active şi Having been looking for
pasive. active voice: a flat for a good while,
- joins clauses that have having + past he wanted to give up.(=

25
 the same subject when the
action expressed by the
perfect participle was
completed before the next
action begins.
- one action has been in
progress for some time,
and another action starts.
- it is used for active and
passive constructions.
Punctuaţia
Punctuation
În fraza relativă în cazul
în care subordonata este
înlocuită de o formă
gerunzială
In relative sentences – the
non-finite (gerund)
relative clause)
- se desparte de restul
propoziţiei prin virgulă
dacă:
- se află în poziţie iniţială
în propoziţie;
- se intercalează în
propoziţie ca informaţie
neesenţială;
- se află la finalul
propoziţiei şi este despărţit
de cuvântul pe care îl
modifică.
- a participial phrase is set
off with commas when it:
a) comes at the beginning
of a sentence
b) interrupts a sentence as
a nonessential element
c) comes at the end of a
sentence and is separated
from the word it modifies.
Comparing Gerunds and Participles
She stopped looking at their fighting for
survival. (gerund) (they were fighting)
She stopped looking at them, fighting for
survival (participle) (she was fighting)
Julia’s manouvering was despicable
(gerund) (her action was despicable.)
26
participle He had been looking for
passive voice: a flat for a good while
having been + past and he wanted to give
participle up.)
Having arrived at the
hotel, they checked in.
Having been
redecorated, the house
looked neat.
(On/Upon)Ending the
session, the reader left
the hall.
Working hard, they
succeeded in all their
endeavours.
The little boat, sailing
along the shore, was
tossed here and there by
the waves.
No boats built of wood
should be allowed in the
competition
The dresses made of silk
are for the show.
Your colleague looked at
me, confused and shy.
(he was, not I)
Many people often stop
before the shopwindow
reading their newspapers
or smoking.
Comparing Gerunds and Infinitives
- ambele au funcţie de substantiv
- both function as nouns
- verbe care cer un infinitiv
- verbs that take onlyinfinitives
agree, attempt, decide, expect, hesitate, hope,
intend, learn, need, neglect, plan, promise,
Julia, manouvering, was despicable.
(participle) (she was despicable acting like
that)
I was annoyed by their reading. (the(ir)
reading annoyed me me) (g)
I was annoyed by them, reading. (I was
annoyed by them while I was reading) (p)
- verbe de percepţie + participiu/infinitiv
scurt
- sense verbs + participle /bare infinitive
feel, hear, notice, observe, see, smell, watch.
We can see them swimming in the sea.
(continuous action)
We can see them swim in the sea.
(continuous action)
Mother noticed little John drawing on the
walls. (continuous action)
Mother noticed little John draw on the walls.
(occasional action)
- sensuri diferite
- different meanings
He stopped to listen. (in order to listen)
He stopped listening. (no longer listened)
propose, pretend, swear, want.
She said she needed/agreed/ planned/intended,
etc to stay (not staying) a little longer.
Why do you hesitate to sign (not signing)
these papers?
-verbe care cer un gerunziu
- verbs that take only gerunds
abandon, stop, finish, put off, admit,
appreciate, avoid, be/get accustomed to, be
fond of, enjoy, be/get used to, be/get through,
be/get tired of, can’t help, consider, delay,
deny, detest, dislike, give up, quit, risk, keep,
mind, miss, oppose, practice, postpone, recall,
recommend, regret, renounce, suggest,
tolerate.
I admitted leaving the door unlocked.
Try to get used to getting up earlier.
He delays giving a definite answer.
-verbe care se potrivesc cu ambele forme
- verbs that take gerunds or infinitives
begin, continue, hate, like, love, prefer,
remember, start, try.
The children like to play with our neighbours’
cat.
They like playing with it.
Please, don’t continue to write that report
because it’s already outdated.
Continue working like this and you’ll get
promoted.
It’s lucky they remembered to come today.
(they came)
Two meanings:
It’s lucky they remembered coming today.
(they remembered/recalled the fact that they
came)

Like doing ≠ would like to do

Like/love to/prefer to do/doing
- exprimă plăcerea/opțiunea preferențială a vorbitorului de a face ceva.
- expresses the fact that the speaker is attracted towardsand finds pleasure in an action or
state.
They like to spend their weekends in the mountains. (le place să/ preferă să…)
Youprefer spending yours at home.
Would like/love to
- exprimă dorinţa vorbitorului de a face ceva.
- expresses the speaker’s wish/desire to do something.
They would like to spend their weekends in the mountains. (le-ar place/ar dori să…)

27
Practice
Fill in the blanks with the right tense:

The Celtic tribes 1. …………… (occupy) the British Isles between the sixth and third
centuries B.C. They were good fighters, who 2. ……….. (fight) fiercely against their enemies.
Their strength 3. ………….. (lie) in their mastery of horseback riding. They surely 4.
…………. (not suceed) without these trusty animals, to whom they 5. ……… (grow) attached
long before they 6…………… (become) accomplished worriors.
Initially, they 6. ………… (to be) a pagan nation, but later converted to Christianity. It was
the Celtic missionaries who 7. ………….(spread) the Christian religion through Scotland and
England.
Their jewelry and illuminated manuscripts 8. …………… (speak) about their wonderful
craftsmanship.

Watch:
All tenseshttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=84jVz0D-KkY
Don’t make mistakes in Englishhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7q6YekNTwHA
Unit 2

Active – Passive

Objectives:
 understand and apply correctly the voice forms
 understand the subject-object relationship
 understandthe role of the agent and of the instrument

Key words:
 tense, voice phrase, passive, active

Contents:
 tenses that accept passivization
 tenses that cannot be made passive
 object and instrument
 verbs with 2 objects
 special passive cases
 modal constructions
 omission of agent

Bibliography:
 Loghin, D, Felea, C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.
 Palmer, F., Robert. (1988) The English verb, Longman.

28
 Vince Michael (with Emerson, Paul). (2003) Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan.
 Vince, Michael (with Sutherland, Peter). (2003). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan
Publishers Limited.
 Murphy, Raymond (with Altman, Roann) (1989) Grammar in use. Reference and practice
for intermediate students of English, Cambridge University Press.

Construcţii cu diateza pasivă Passive Constructions

a. Timpuri care pot fi pasivizate Tenses that accpt passiviztion

Present Tense Simple: be (present)+ Past Participle
The streets in our city are washed every morning and every night.
Present Continuous: be + being + Past Participle
Look! The streets are just being washed!
Present Perfect Simple: have + been+ Past Participle
Diana has been invited to the party.
Past Perfect Simple: had + been + Past Participle
I had been trained to attend patients long before I was accepted in that hospital.
‘will’ Future : will + Be + Past Participle
The parcel will be delivered tomorrow.
‘going to’Future: The painting is going to locked into a safe until further investigations.
Perfect Future: You will have received your scheduled programme by noon.
Simple Modal: Jenny must be informed, too.
Perfect Modal: Jenny must have been informed, too.
Passive + short/bare Infinitive: The bank is rumouredto close soon.
Passive + Progressive Infinitive: The bank is believedto be closing this week
Passive + Perfect Infinitive: The bank is rumouredto have been closed already.

b. Agent and instrument

with (instrument) vs. by (agent)
S + Passive Voice + by…(agent) + with… (instrument) (complement de agent; instrumental)
The mistake was made by Helen. (agent)
The window has been broken with a rod. (instrument)

c. Timpuri care nu pot fi pasivizate Tenses which do not take on a passive form

29
 arise, consist of, depend on, exist, fall, happen, lack (even if it takes a direct object) occur,
result from/in, rise.
În cazul în care verbul este urmat de un complement direct, el poate fi pasivizat. Dacă nu
există acest complement direct post-pus verbului, pasivizarea nu are loc.
If the verb can be followed by a direct, it can be made passive. However, if there is no direct
object to become the subject, the verb cannot be transformed to the passive.
Leaving England occurred to me many times.
* I was occurred to leaving England
d. Verbe cu două complementeVerbswith 2 objects
Dacă într-o propoziţie există două complemente, ordinea lor este persoană, obiect. În cazul
verbelor say, present, explain, describe, report, obiectul precedă persoana. Dacă obiectul este
exprimat printr-un pronume, acesta va fi situat după verb. Acest tip de verbe generează două
tipuri de passive, care au două complemente (direct şi indirect).
If there are two objects in a sentence, the normal word order is: person (p), thing (t). With
verbs such as say, present, explain, describe, report, the person comes after the thing. If the
thing is a pronoun, it stands behind the verb.
You should write your parents (p) a postcard (t) before you leave Paris.
(t) + ‘to’→ (p)
I explain this rule (o) to you (p).
Mary will present the new programming technique to the staff.
I must buy (verb) it (o) for my sister (p).
These verbs generate two kinds of passive sentences, the subject of each sentence with
indirect object and direct object respectively.
The organisers have offered the participants (indirect object) a set of useful
brochures (direct object).
a) The participants have been offered a set of useful brochures by the organisers.
b) A set of useful brochures have been offered (to) the participants by the organisers.

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

30
1. Present Simple
They always tell me to be careful. I amconstantlytold to be more careful.
2. Present Continuous The plan is being discussed.
They are discussing the plan.
3. Past Simple The museum wasn’t opened last year.
They didn’t open the museum last year.
4. Past Continuous The project was being amended by the
The Committee was amending the project. Committee.
5. will-Future
They will soon check my documents. My documents will soon be checked.
6. Future Perfect
They will have closed the office by the time we get By the time we get there the office will
there. have been closed.
7. Present Perfect Simple The new ordinance has been passed.
They have passed the new ordinance.
8. Modal Simple It can be easily done by any of us.
Any of us can easily do it. other modals
They nust be/have to be informed.
(obligation)

9. Modal Perfect I could have been told about the schedule

They could have told me about the schedule change.
change. I should have been warned.
They must have been informed
(supposition)

e. Cazuri speciale al Diatezei Pasive Special passive cases

Have something done (to you by somebody else than you)
She will have herclasses rescheduled next week.
(Se vor efectua schimbări în orarul ei săptămana viitoare.)
My boss has had his office redecorated. (Biroul şefului meu a fost redecorat)
Get something done
Spre deosebire de have something done, get something done presupune ideea că acţiunea
trebuie să aibă loc.
As compared to have something done, get something done is used where it is implied that an
action must be done.
Get your things done today!
Impersonal Passive (used in news)
It is said/rumoured/thought/considered + that + ….. (se zice/se zvoneşte/se crede/se consideră
că…)
Impersonal Passive
It is said that sometimes trains can arrive with great delays.
It is said/rumoured/thought/considered that Mary is/was the best candidate for the
job.
It was said that Mary was the best candidate for the post.
Passive + infinitive
S + is/was said/rumoured/thought/considered + to be/ to have been….(Se zice(…)/s-a zis
(…)că…)
Trains are saidto (be likely to) arrive sometimes with great delays.
Mary is said to be the best candidate for the job.(Se zice că Mary este…)

31
 Mary is saidto have been the best candidate for the job. (Se zice că Mary a fost/ar fi
fost…)
Mary was said to have been the best candidate for the job.(S-a zis că Mary a fost/ar
fi fost…)
f. Omisiunea agentului Omission of agent
- Agent neimportant Unimportant agent
John will be given all the instructions for the project.
- Agent necunoscut Unknown agent
She was attacked nor far from her house.
- Agent general Generalised agent
The merchandise is sent by road.
- Agent impersonal Impersonal agent
The new car protptype was put to test yesterday.
- Agent subînţeles/implicit Obvious agent

Application
In the following text, several verb constructions have been highlighted. They are in both the
active and the passive voice.

1. The onset
Passive and active predicates:

Civilizationis considered to have started(Present Passive: is considered + Perfect

Infinitive: to have started) in Mesopotamia, between the two rivers Euphrates and Tigris (in
modern day Iraq, Syria, Kuwait and Iran). It was the eastern part of the Fertile Crescent
(western part extending to the Nile valley in Egypt). The first “country” that started(Past
Tense Simple) civilization was Sumer, which lay (Past Tense of lie) in the southern part of
Mesopotamia, near the coast of the Persian Gulf.

All the earliest civilizations startedin great river valleys, like Sumer (Mesopotamia), Egypt
(Nile), China (Yangtze) and India (Ganges). This was because the land near the rivers was
easy to irrigate and became fertile for crops. People settleddown and abandonedthe hunter-
gatherer culture when they startedto harvest crops.This is calledthe agricultural revolution
and it was the beginning point of civilization, although it tooka long time, the agricultural
revolution in the Neolithic Stone Age 10 000 BC was long before the invention of writing
(and thus the beginning of history) at 3000 BC. It takes(Present Tense Simple: general
statement) time to develop a civilization though.

When people settled down, they formed villages and villages became towns and later cities.
When humans were still hunter-gatherers, they didn’t have(Past Tense Simple negative) time
to do much anything else than hunt and gather. When people started to sow/sowing(Infinitive
or Gerund after ‘start’) useful plan seeds, they suddenly had much more time to do anything
else than just watch(short infinitive, without ‘to’) the crops to grow. This hadlead (Past Perect
Tense Simple) to many great innovations, such as the wheel, and writing, whichwereboth
invented(Past Tense Passive) by the Sumerians.

Great innovations invented(Past Participle of the eliptical passive predication: the

relative ‘that/which’ and the auxiliary ‘were’ have been ommitted) in Mesopotamia

32
include: agriculture, irrigation, cities, the wheel, carts and chariots, the plow, sailing
ships, measuring of time, astronomy, astrology, maps, mathematics, cuneiform writing.
(source of the text and related references: https://www.quora.com/Where-did-the-first-
civilization-start)

2.Birth of glass
Passive constructions without agent

Fron a very early date the Egyptian potter had, as a side-line to his ordinary business,
prac¬ tised the making of vessels in glazed frit. Glaze had been known at the beginning of the
Dynastic Age and was applied to small objects (that had been) cut out of steatite or moulded
in frit (or siliceous paste) and soon vases were made in the same way; the technique spread
quickly, and beads of glazed frit occur fairly freely in Sumer in the Early Dynastic period.
The glaze, was, of course, glass, and about a dozen objects (nearly all small beads) (that are)
made of real glass can be assigned to relatively early times in Egypt to the Eleventh and
Twelfth Dynasties and in Mesopotamia to about 2100 BC and on the whole it seems that
Mesopotamia may here have been the first in the field, especially as an example of glass from
Eridu is a fair-sized lump, unshaped, a piece of the manufacturer's raw material. But shortly
before 1600 B.C. the discovery was made that slender rods of coloured glass, halfmelted,
could be twisted round a core into the form of a bottle, then […] re-heated so that the rods
should coalesce, and then […] polished; during the second stage the soft surface could be
“combed” so as to produce waves in the rods, thus variegating the pattern at the craftsman’s
pleasure; the result was a little polychrome vase, lustrous and semi-translucent, unlike
anything else known and certain to command a high price. (source: History of Mankind, The
Unesco Courrier nr.6, June 1963.

Note
-In the historical text, the predicates vary according to the time reference even though the
dominant form is the past tense simple. Some of the predicatve as well as some non-finite
constructions were highlighted here).
- “In history writing, the active voice is preferable to the passive voice. In the active voice, the
subject completes the action (e.g. “Hitler [the subject] initiated the Beer Hall putsch [the
action] to seize control of the Bavarian government”). In the passive voice, the action is
completed by the subject (“The Beer Hall putsch [the action] was initiated by Hitler [the
subject] to seize control of the Bavarian government”). The active voice also helps prevent
sentences from becoming long, wordy and unclear.”
(source: Writing a History Essay, https://alphahistory.com/writing-a-history-essay/)

Practice
Choose the appropriate construction to fill in the blanks
1. In the recent years, most of the exibits …………. to the museu by many collectore all
around the world.
a, have been donated b. were donated c. will have been donated d. have donated
2. The similarities between the two historical periods ………….. on account of the evidence..

33
a. should establish b. should have been established b. ought to be established d. must to
be established
3. No forensic certainties ………… so far.a. are reache b. have been reached c. have
reached g. were reached
4. The archeology department acknowledges that the tasks ………… with great success.
a. are fulfilled b. have been fulfilled c. will fulfil d. will have been fulfilled
5. The Ottoman Empire …………… most of the European countries,
a. says to sundue b. said to be subdued c. is said to was subdued d. is said to have subdued

6. It ………….. thata more detailed description of the artifact …………. in the additional
booklet.
a. is expected/ will be provided b. is expecting/to be provided c. has been expected/ would
be provided d. was expected/are to be provided
7. 9. The worior’s outfit …… so that it…… during the training and not durimng
tournements
a. has been designed/should be worn b. was designed/will have been worn c. was designed/
must be worn d. was designed/ could be worn

Watch!
Passive: when, why and how to use it,https://www.engvid.com/the-passive-when-why-and-
how-to-use-it/
Active and pasive infinitives, https://www.engvid.com/active-and-passive-infinitives/
Passive causative, https://www.engvid.com/english-grammar-passive-causative/

Unit3

Questions

34
Objectives:
 understandthe correct construction of interrogative sentences
 build up correct types of questions

Key words:
 question form, direct and indirect questions, answer questions, tag/disjunctive questions

Contents:
 word order in questions
 yes/no questions
 subject-object questions
 answer questions
 tag questions
 role of stress in questions

Bibliography:
 Loghin, D, Felea, C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.
 Palmer, F., Robert. (1988) The English verb, Longman.
 Vince Michael (with Emerson, Paul). (2003) Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan.
 Vince, Michael (with Sutherland, Peter). (2003). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan
Publishers Limited.
 Uchiyama, Kent. (2006). English Verb Tenses: An informal reference for ESL students,
the good folks who teach them, and the idly curious.
 Murphy, Raymond (with Altman, Roann) (1989) Grammar in use. Reference and practice
for intermediate students of English, Cambridge University Press.

Types of questions

1. Întrebări cu cuvinte care conţin grupul
wh
Wh questions
what; who; whose; which; where; when;
why; how; how + adjectiv/adverb ( how
Where is the station? (Close to the city
center.)
Who gave you this direction? (The dean’s
secretary.)
How can I get to the Library? (You’ll see the

35
much/ how far/ how fast) sign right away.)
Why were/are you late? (I missed the bus.)
When do I pay for the trip? (Even now if you
wish.)
Which does she prefer? (She is still
undecided.)
What were you doing at the time? (I was
looking for the hostel.)
Whose car are/were you washing? (My own.)
How long have you studied/ been studying?
(Not too long.)

2. Întrebări care cer răspunsuri de tipul Are you sitting comfortably?

da/nu Yes, I am/ No, I am not (I’m not).
Yes/no questions Did you see the presentation?
Pronumele interogative who şi what pot Yes, I did/ No, I didn’t (see the presentation)
îndeplini în frază atât rol de subiect (subject) Do you find the lecture interesting?
cât şi rol de complement (object). Yes, I do/ No, I don’t (find it interesting).
În cazul în care întrebarea vizează subiectul, Were you children sleeping when I rang?
nu se produce inversia subiectului cu Yes, they were/No, they weren’t (listening).
predicatul şi nici nu e nevoie de auxiliarul do. Have you been to the new theatre
În cazul în care întrebarea vizează performance?
complementul, e nevoie de inversie şi de Yes, I have/No, I haven’t.
auxiliar.
Who and what can function either as subject Who asks the candidate some questions?
or as object of the sentence. The committee asks the candidate some
In subject questions, there is no inversion questions? (the committee = subject)
and no do auxiliary, whereas in complement Who does the committee ask some questions?
question both the inversion and the The committee asks the candidate some
auxiliaries are required. question.
(the candidate = (direct) object)
Alte tipuri de construcţii interogative
Other types of interrogative constructions
3. Întrebări care vizează subiectul Întrebări care vizează complementul
Subject Questions Object Questions
Who makes the schedule? Who did she ask?
The boss does.She asked no one.
What did he buy?
He bought a book.
To/with whom did you speak?
I spoke to/with the secretary.
4. Întrebări descriptive: Cum e/ Cum What is your home town like?
sunt? It’s a nice, quiet, provincial town.
Descriptive questions: What….like? What are your room-mates like?
What is it/he like? = Describe it/him to me, They’re rather noisy, I’m afraid.
please. How is your friend now, after that nasty flu?
How is he? = What is the state of his health? She’s much better now, thank you.
5. Întrebări disjunctive Tag (Disjunctive) Mary is not your sister, is she?
questions This can’t be the question, can it?
- propoziţia interogativă –scurtă – apare doar She misunderstood it all, didn’t she?

36
la sfârşitul unui enunţ (afirmativ sau negativ), One/We would never do anything like that,
de care este despărţită prin virgulă; would they/we?
- dacă enunţul este afirmativ, întrebarea You should try again, should you not?
disjunctivă este negativă, şi invers dacă I am your friend, am I not?aren’t I?
enunţul este negativ, întrebarea disjunctivă They won’t be very late, will they?
este afirmativă (polaritate formală inversă)
- verifică dacă ceea ce credem este adevărat, A: We have to be there before 8, don’t we?
sau verifică ceva de care nu suntem siguri; B: Yes, we do./No, we don’t.
- uneori sunt folosite cu tentă sarcastică sau
pentru a întări o afirmaţie; We have to be there by 8, don’t we?↓ (of
- forma predicatului propoziţiei din course, we do)
disjunctivă este inversul formei predicatului
din propoziţia pe care o însoţeşte;
- doar când folosim o intonaţie ascendentă,
avem o întrebare reală;
- când folosim o intonaţie descendentă,
întrebarea este mai mult retorică. __________
- the short question is placed at the end of a
statement (affirmative or negative) from
which is separated by comma;
-- when the statement is affirmative, the tag
question will be negative and vice versa;
- are used to verify or check information that
we think is true or to check information that
we aren’t sure is true;
- we just use them for effect, when we are
trying to be sarcastic, or to make a strong
point;
-if the tag is a real question it has a rising
intonation.
6. Răspunsuri interogative Reply Questions A: They haven’t got money anymore.
- exprimă interes sau surpriză şi se pronunţă B: They don’t?
întotdeauna cu intonaţie ascendentă;
- întrebarea va avea întotdeauna acceaşi A: That isn’t the right way back.
formă ca şi enunţul iniţial (spre deosebire de B: Isn’t it?
întrebările disjunctive). (polaritate formală
identică) A: Didn’t you notice the lamp burning?
- are used to show interest or surprise; B: Was it?
- they always have a strong rising intonation;
- the question will always have the same form
with the initial statement.

Benjamin Bloom proposes the following types of questions based on six cognitive levels:

Knowledge (identification and recall of information): “Who, what, when, where, how …?;
“Describe …”
Comprehension (organization and selection of facts and ideas): “Retell …”; “Summarize …”
Application (use of facts, rules and principles): “How is … an example of …?”; “How is …
related to …?”; “Why is … significant?

37
Analysis (separation of a whole into component parts): “What are the parts or features of
…?”; “Classify … according to …”; “Outline/diagram …”; “How does … compare/contrast
with …?”; “What evidence can you list for …?”
Synthesis (combination of ideas to form a new whole): “What would you predict/infer from
…?”; “What ideas can you add to …?”; “How would you create/design a new …?”; “What
might happen if you combined …?”; “What solutions would you suggest for …?”
Evaluation(development of opinions, judgments, or decisions):“Do you agree …?”; “What do
you think about …?”; “What is the most important …?”; “Place the following in order of
priority …”; “How would you decide about …?”; “What criteria would you use to assess …?”
(source: https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/teaching-
tips/alternatives-lecturing/questions/asking-questions-six-types)

Application

Practice
Read the text below and ask relevat questions:
Ex. When were the the British Isles inhavited by speakers of Celtic languages?
Who inhabited the British Isles 2,000 years ago?

Two thousand years ago the British Isles were inhabited by speakers of Celtic
languages. These languages still survive in parts of Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and Brittany in
France. The Celts were conquered by the Romans, and from 43 BC to about AD 410 the areas
which are now England and Wales were part of the Roman Empire, and Latin was the
language of government. Between the fourth and seventh centuries A.D., the AngloSaxons
arrived from what is now northern Germany, Holland and Denmark, and occupied most of
England, and parts of southern Scotland. In some parts of Wales, Scotland and Ireland, people
still speak Celtic languages. The Anglo-Saxons spoke a Germanic language which forms the
basis of modern English. This language was modified by the arrival of Viking invaders in the
north and east of the country, who came from Norway and Denmark between the eighth and
eleventh centuries. These Scandinavian settlers spoke Old Norse, which is the parent language
of modern Danish. The mixing of the two languages greatly enriched the vocabulary of
English. By the middle of the tenth century England had become a unified country under one
king. In 1066 England was conquered by the French-speaking Normans, and French became
the language of government. For the next three hundred years three languages co-existed. The
aristocracy spoke French, the ordinary people spoke English, while Latin was used in the
church. Today English vocabulary is approximately half Germanic (from the Saxons and
Vikings) and half Romance (from French and Latin). There are however considerable
borrowings from other languages. (source: https://cribs.me/angliiskii-yazyk/english-language)

1……………………………………………………. ?
2……………………………………………………. ?
3. ……………………………………………………?
4. ……………………………………………………?
5. ……………………………………………………?
6. ……………………………………………………?

38
7. ……………………………………………………?
8. ……………………………………………………?

Answer the following questions:

1. Where did human civiliztion start?

……………………………………………
2. What is the oldest human civilization?
…………………………………………..
3. Who can be called ´the first monarch”?
…………………………………………..
4. What is the explanation of the ‘godly’attribute associated with the Egyptian kings?
Why werethey called ‘gods’?
……………………………………………………
5. Was there anything like ‘the first’ religion?
…………………………………………………….
6. Do all languages have a common root? Explain.
………………………………………………………..

Watch!
English question types, general, special, alternative, tag-questions
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZPJh0nXwQak

Unit 4

Modal Constructions

Objectives:
 understand and applying correctly the forms of the English modal constructions
 understand the difference between the modal forms (ability, obligation, advice,
interdiction, etc).
Key words:

39
 modal verbs, semi-auxiliary verbs, ability, oblicgation/lack of obligation, necesssity,
compulsion

Contents:
 ‘simple’modal constructions: present/futurereference
 perfect modals: past reference

Bibliography:
 Hall, Diane, Foley, Mark. (1998). Modal Verbs, ditorial, Stanley.
 Loghin, D, Felea, C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.
 Vince Michael (with Emerson, Paul). (2003) Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan.
 Vince, Michael (with Sutherland, Peter). (2003). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan
Publishers Limited.
 Murphy, Raymond (with Altman, Roann) (1989) Grammar in use. Reference and practice
for intermediate students of English, Cambridge University Press.

Construcţii cu verbele modaleModal Constructions

Notă:
Termenul de “modality” se referă la inflexiunile verbale care exprimă modul ţn care acţiunea
sau starea este percepută de către vorbitor.
Note:
The term “modality”refers to those verb inflections that express how the action or state is
perceived by the speaker (dictionary definition: www. the free dictionary online).

Verbele modale: can; could; may; might, must; have to; will; would; shall; should; ought to;
dare (to); need (to).

40
Verbele Modale sunt semi-auxiliare, deci se comportă altfel decât verbele obişnuite, adică, ţşi
formează interogativul şi negativul singure, fără a se ajuta de verbele auxiliare clasice be şi
do, nu primesc -s la persoana III sg.prezent şi nu au forme nepersonale (infinitiv, gerunziu).
(*I can to to).
Excepţie fac have to, need to, be bound to, be going to, la care se regăsesc toate aceste
trăsături şi care se numesc semi-modale. Aceste verbe au în cele mai multe cazuri dublu
înţeles.
De asemenea, majoritatea au o expresie sinonimică care să le înlocuiască în construcţiile în
care acestea sunt improprii.

Modal verbs are semi-auxiliary verbs, therefore they have other characteristics than notional
verbs, that is, they don’t take be or do to form the interrogative and the negative, nor do they
get an -s in the III person sg. Also, they do not have non-finite forms (gerund or infinitive).
Exceptions are have to,need to,be bound to,be going to, dare to, which are called semi-
modals. They generally carry two meanings and have a synonymous expression to replace
them in various situations where they are not fit.
I may go at last! (I am allowed to)
I may go today. (I will probably go).
They can swim (present) – They will be able to swim (future).
Toate construcţiile modale au două forme de bază:
All modal constructions can be found under two major forms:
A. Simple Modal constructions – referring to present or future situations.
B. Perfect Modal constructions – referring to past events
A. construcţiile modale simple, care se referă la situaţii prezente sau viitoare
Modal constructions thast refer to present or future actions
S + modal + short infinitive
Paul may be leaving on Monday (It is possible that Paul is leaving on Monday);
This book may be what I really need. (This book is likely to be what I really
need.)
B. construcţiile modale perfecte, care se referă la evenimente trecute
Modal constructions thast refer to past actions
S + modal + have + Past Participle (IIIrd form)
He should have arrived by now. (We expected him to arrive by now.)
The course must have started. (I am sure the course has already started.)

1. Can – Could
Verbul Forma Sens Exemple
modal alternativă Meaning Examples
Modal verb Substitute form
CAN 1. be able to - exprimă capacitatea fizică They can /are able to ski
sau mentală prezentă de a very well.
face ceva I could never/was never
- expresses ability to do able to learn lie.
something in the present

2. be likely/ - posibilitatea sau The temperature can

possible to presupunerea ca ceva să fie (sometimes) drop to – 35
(happen) sau să aibă loc. °C in these parts. (=it is
- possibility/ probability/ very likely/possible to get
conjecture or a that low) Can it really

41
 characteristic happen to me (Is it really
happening to me?)
3. can’t = it’s - imposibilitate este It can’t be true (it’s
impossible; it’s exprimată doar cu ajutorul impossible to be true)!
unlikey/ not likely formei negative. He can’t have said such a
- impossibility, only with thing!(It’s impossible/not
the negative form. likely that he said such a
thing.)
4. be permitted/ - permisiunea/ Can Susan come with us,
be allowed to încuviinţarea în prezent a too?
unei acţiuni. Yes, Susan can come with
- permission to do us.
something. in the present
5. would you…? - rugăminte, solicitare Can you help me, please?
- request
6. how about…? - propunere Can we better stay at home
- suggestion tonight?
1. was/were able - o însuşire/caracteristică I remember that ten years
to trecută ago they could speak
- past ability Spanish much better (…
were able to speak…).
2.was/were - permisiunea/ The students could finally
allowed to încuviinţarea unei acţiuni leave.
. în trecut
- past permission
COULD 3. it’s just not - imposibilitatea This is line 4, so this
possible/ it’s hard - impossibility couldn’t be the train to
to accept/believe Braşov.
4. why didn’t - reproş You could hurry up a bit!
you? - reproach She could have come in
time!
5. it is probable - presupunere This could be the right
that it happens/to - supposition, conjecture way.
happen; it is
quite likely
that…
6. - rugăminte, solicitare Could my sister stay, too,
politicoasă please?
- polite request
7. - adresare politicoasă Could you enter your
- polite requirement to do personal information here,
something please?

8. - ofertă de ajutor I could type the article for

- polite offer you.
9. - propunere Couldn’t/Could we better
- polite suggestion stay at home tonight?
10. - posibilitate It could sometimes rain
- possibility heavily in these parts.

42
2. May – Might
Verbul Forma Sens Exemple
modal alternativă Meaning Examples
Modal verb Substitute form
MAY be - exprimă You may not enter the building
allowed/permitted permisiunea/aprobarea de a face during conference hours.
ceva; forma negativă exprimă May I add something?
interdicţia de a face ceva Past form:
- expresses permission/consent They will not be/were not
for an action; the negative form allowed/ permitted to enter
expresses interdiction to an without a permit.
action

maybe/ probably - probabilitatea unei acţiuni - e He may be at home.

mai puternic decât might.
- probability of an action –
stronger than might
do you want me - propunere/ ofertă May I help you?
to? - polite offer

- probabilitatea (mai mică) unei Her neighbours might tell you

it is/was probable, acţiuni – e mai puţin puternic where she’s moved. (I am not
possible that/to decât may sure whether they know or
- likeliness of an action –less whether they are willing to tell
strong than may you.)
MIGHT Attending the class only might
have been enough to
understand the course.
- reproş You might at least stay until the
- reproach speech ends.
- acţiune ramasă ca ultimă, nu
tocmai placută,alternativă We’ve lost the document! We
- it also shows that the action is mightas well start it all over
seen as the last alternative left, again!
which the speaker resents doing.

3. Must – Have to
Verbul modal Forma alternativă Sens Exemple
Modal verb Substitute form Meaning Example
MUST be compulsory/ - exprimă obligativitatea Well, I really must
obligatory/mandatory (convingere personală, go now. (I know
nu constrangere) de a it’s the right thing
face ceva; to do)
- obligation ( personal The passengers
conviction rather than must first pass
imposition) through the
sanitary filter.
it’s sure/certain - certitudine This must be the
- certainty way to the hostel (I
am sure it is)

43

it’s very likely - posibilitatea
- possibility
it would be nice/ - sfat, recomandare
it is recommendable - advice,
recommendation
MUST NOT/ be interdicted/ - ca şi may, dar mai
MUSTN’T be puternic decât acesta,
forbidden/prohibited exprimă o interdicţie,
sau un reproş.
- similar tomay, it
expresses
interdiction/prohibition
to an action (in a
stronger way than may)
or reproach.
- obligativitate impusă
- external obligation,
it’s compulsory/ imposition
HAVE TO obligatory/mandatory
The train must have
already left the
station by now.
You must be
terribly happy!
She must have left
by now (yet I’m
not 100% sure).
You must attend
next years’
conference, too.
You mustn’t speak
to anyone like that!
The passengers
must not open their
safety belts unless
told to.
I have to open the
meeting today.
They had to run to
catch that bus.
The tutor will have
to give you the
right advice.

4. Shall – Should – Ought to

Verbul modal Forma alternativă Sens Exemple
Modal verb Substitute form Meaning Examples
SHALL be to - obligativitate All books shall be
puternică cu effect de returned in due time.
lege The citizens shall
- very strong (have to) pay their
obligation/ levies before the close
compulsion - stronger of the year (if they
than must; it is want to avoid being
sometimes followed by fined).
have to

Would you like me - ofertă de Shall I carry call the

to? ajutor/serviciu elevator?
- offer of help

be determined to - hotărârea de a face I shall (definitely)

ceva dublată de give up smoking.
certitudinea efectuării
acţiunii.

44
 - an action which the
speaker feels strong
for and is certain to
happen.
SHOULD it is advisable/ - sfat, recomandare, You should be careful
recommendable; uneori un reproş blând with your money (!)
it is met that… sau un sfat No one should judge
- advice, others.
recommendation,advic You should have
e, mild criticism completed your
studies before
applying for the job.
You should check the
electricity before you
go abroad.
I’m in two minds - indecizie Should I stay or
- hesitation should I leave?

- coincidenţa – It is really odd that

How exprimată cu ajutorul George should be
funny/strange/odd! unor expresii ca: it is here now!
strange/funny/odd that
- coincidence, when
doubled in meaning by
it is strange/funny/odd
that …
OUGHT TO - recomandare morală Laws ought to
= s-ar cădea, ar trebui be obeyed by every
să, ar fi bine să. citizen!
- moral/etical We ought to be caring
recommenadtion with the needy.

5. Need – Dare
Verbele need şi dare sunt folosite mai ales in propoziţii negative şi interrogative.
The verbs need and dare are mainly used in negative sentences and in questions.
NEED there is a/the need - necesitate în You need to ask the
for/to prezent/ viitor. physician for
it would be welcome - necessity in the another prescription
to present/future. because I’ve mislaid
it.
Need she really
speak like that?
TO NEED - nu este un verb My friend keep
modal, deci se saying he needs to
comportă la fel ca cut on his sweets as
orice verb noţional his blood sugar is
__________ (de ex. primeşte -s la too high.
persoana III sg,
afirmativ ) şi Do you need
exprimă ideea anything else, sir?

45
 necesităţii unei stări
sau unei acţiuni.
- it is not a modal
verb, it behaves like
any notional verb
(gets -s in III person
sg, etc.) and
expresses the
necessity of a state
or action.
NEEDN’T/ it’s not necessary/ - lipsa necesităţii You needn’t come to
DON’T/DOESN’T there is no need (prezent/viitor) work today. It’s
NEED TO for/to/ - lack of necessity in holiday.
don’t/doesn’t have the present/future. He doesn’t need to
to/ don’t/doesn’t check the text
need to anymore (someone
else already has)
NEEDN’T HAVE there was no need/ - lipsa necesităţii I told them they
DONE/ DIDN’T requirement to (trecut) needn’t have called
NEED TO – acţiune efectuată the ambulance as
deşi nu se cerea their mother was
efectuată already feeling
- lack of necessity in better.
the past – action
performed albeit not
necessary.
DIDN’T HAVE TO there was no - acţiune nenecesară Thank God we
need/requirement to şi neefectuată didn’t need to call
- action not the ambulance.
necessary and not Mother was already
performed either feeling better.
DARE/DARE TO - modal verb: - main verb + to Nobody dares to
have the courage to infinitive; defy our group
do something - (semi) modal verb leader’s authority.
+ bare infinitive
-regular verb: Do you still dare to
to challenge Also correct: argue with him?
I don’t dare ask. Maria hasn’t dared
to approach her boss
yet.

I see you daren’t

read your essay.
Dare we return
there?
I dare not enter the
classroom now.

6. Will – Would
Verbul modal Forma Sens Exemple

46
 Modal verb alternativă Meaning Examples
Substitute form
- promisiune I will write as soon as I
I promise to… - promise arrive. (I promise)
If you keep/ - hotărâre fermă If you will refuse to attend
insist on…. - stubborn the course, you’ll fail the
determination exam.
I’m sure it is… - deducţie logică This message will be for me.
- logical (I have been expecting it, so I
deduction, know)
prediction, I feel little John will get
assumption better.
Will you be so - dorinţă, Will you please park the car?
kind as solicitarea Will you leave me alone?
WILL to…/Could ajutorului, ordin
you….? - wish, request,
demand, order
I am available - decizie spontană A: I need someone to get the
and willing … - spontaneous book for me.
decision B: I will.

He does - deprinderi, I think John isn’t himself

nothing else uneori nowadays. He’ll lie in bed
dezaprobate sau for hours without hearing
chiar criticate when I call him.
- habits,
sometimes
criticised
may/ might/ - presupunere Phoning the station may
could/can - supposition – spare you the effort to go and
similarto ask yourself.
could/may/might/
can
May I ask you - dorinţă, cerere/ Would you do me a favour
to…?/ It solicitare – mai and drop this note at the
is/would it be politicos decât dean’s secretary, please?
WOULD possible fot you will
to…? - wish, request –
more polite than
will
used to - deprinderi în My colleagues would often
trecut visit me when I was in
- habits in the past hospital.

47
Application
Reading
As human society moves on, we may say that its individuals are likely to (= may be expected
to) become more and contemplative as to the extent of the impact of the past on the present
and future. One might(weak possibility) think that what is taking place now, or what could
(stronger possibility) take place in the future, is solely the effect of our past actions. That and
nothing else. Then we start fretting about the should haves and, mostly, of the should’t haves
(advice, recommendation). What we should have done and what we should not have. But
there is nothing we can(ability) possibly do anymore because by–gones must(strong advice,
almost an obligation), as a rule,remain by-gones. There is a good lesson we ought to (a
sensible attitude/strong recommendation) learn here: we could (possibility, alternative) learn
what mistakes we mustn’t (interdiction) repeat. For example, if we, at a certain point, failed a
moral test because of the joint pressure of a multitude of contex-related factors, now, based on
our present ability to evaluate things, we will hope to (promise to) remedy the damage made
by past wrongs. We truly daren’t think of the consequences of future mistakes. But then
again,would mankind not have really acted the way they did? Where would we be today had
we had a different past? We ought tonote that because of what our ancestors did, we are what
we are today.We have to (external obligation) put of with it whether we like it or not. After
all, the past is the past and we can only control things happening now.

Practise
Fill in the blanks with the correct modal construction.
can could shouldhave tomight must ought to be ablewould

1. The newly found relic …………… (only/be) included among the older displays after a proper
evsaluation.
2. The Chan ……… (know) when the Chinese army would attack since he was able to
predict their strategical moves so accurately.
3. In this way, the Chinese generals …… (be) to make better decisions before they
engaged in the battle.
4. This means that perhaps they ………….. (have) better counsellors.

48
 5. We keep hoping that an agreement …………… (be) reached between conflicting
parties with more flexibility and the ability to foreshadow disastrous consequences.
6. One …… (always/think) before acting.
7. How odd that we …………. (deal) with the same issue. Could it be mere coincidence?
8. The emperor was adamant. He ………….. (change) his mind however insistently he
was advised to.

Watch!
No more mistakes with modals! 3 easy rules (https://www.engvid.com/modals-3-easy-rules/)
English Modal Verbs can, could, may, might, https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=SaBH_huiJSM
No more mistakes with modals, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Dq7lEw7CKM
Modal Verbs – English Grammar&Conversaltion Lesson (all
modals)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZC710CZYv6k

Unit5

Subordinate Clauses

Objectives:
 understand and apply correctly the rule of subordination
 understandand apply correctly the rule of the sequence of tenses
 understand the role of the subordinating term
Key words:
 clause, main clause, subordinate clause, condition, purpose, result, reason, contrast

Contents:
 conditional sentences
49
 expressing purpose
 expressing result and reason
 expressing contrast
 noun clauses (subjective, predicative, direct object, prepositional, appositive
 Adjective (or Attributive) Clauses
 Adverbial Clauses of Time, of Place, of Purpose, of Reason, of Result, of Manner
(Comparison), of Cause and Effect, Conditional, of Concession (Contrast), Relative,
Participial

Bibliography:
 Loghin, D, Felea, C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.
 Murphy, Raymond (with Altman, Roann) (1989) Grammar in use. Reference and practice
for intermediate students of English, Cambridge University Press.
 Vince Michael (with Emerson, Paul). (2003) Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan.
 Vince, Michael (with Sutherland, Peter). (2003). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan
Publishers Limited.

Tipuri de propozitii subordonate Types of Subordinate Clauses

A. Fraza Condiţională Conditional Constructions

Acest tip de frază adverbială se structurează în jurul unei condiţii (conţinută în subordonata
condiţională) şi a rezultatului sau efectului acesteia (conţinut în propoziţia principală).
This kind of adverbial clause is structured around a condition (contained in the conditional
subordinate clause) and its result or effect (contained in the main clause)
Atenţie Note
if (dacă) ≠ even if(chiar dacă)
If she studies hard, she will pass the exam. (this is the requirement for his success)
Even if she studies hard, she won’t pass the exam. (she will fail to pass anyway).

În funcţie de felul condiţiei, se cunosc trei tipuride propoziţii condiţionale.

According to the kind of condition implied, there ar three types of conditional sentences.

50
Tipul I –al condiţiei reale (generală sau viitoare)
- exprimă o situaţie anticipată posibilă/foarte realizabilă. (Acest tip de condiţională este
identic ca structură cu subordonată temporală, introdusă de un adverb de timp: when, as soon
as, the moment, etc.)
If anything happens, I will stand by you.
If/When/As soon as/ The moment Mark comes, I will talk to him.
- mai exprimă o situaţie de tipul cauză-efect (în acest caz, avem Present Tense în propoziţia
principală şi tot Present Tense în propoziţia condiţională):
If you work, you have money, if you don’t work, you starve.
- în propoziţia principală avem, de regulă, Future Tense (uneori Present Tense sau un Modal),
iar în propoziţia condiţională avem Present Simple sau Continuous sau Present Perfect Tense.
- mai există şi aşa-numita condiţie ‘cauza-efect’ sau condiţie ‘zero’, atunci când în ambele
propoziţii ale frazei avem timpul prezent.

Type I Conditional – Probable Condition

- expresses a ‘factual’ or’ predictive’ condition based on situations that are always trueand
very likely to happen if a condition is met.
- this use is similar to, and can usually be repleaced by, a Time Clause using a time adverbial.
- we have Future/Present/Modal in the Main Clause and Present Simple/Present
Continuous/Present Perfect in theConditional Clause.
- the ‘zero’ conditional is formed with both clauses in the present tense.
If everybody arrives in time, we can leave.
Nobody will understand anything if you don’t explain the problem again.
I am leaving if you are leaving.
I will/can clean up if you have painted the kitchen.
If we boil the egg for 5 minutes, we get hard-boiled egg.

Tipul II –al condiţiei ipotetice, improbabile sau nereale

- exprimă situaţii ipotetice, imaginare sau chiar nereale ( pentru situaţiile nereale se foloseşte
forma were la toate persoanele).
În propoziţia principală avem Present Conditional (would + verb), iar în propoziţia
condiţională, Past Tense (sau Past Continuous).
Type II Conditional – Imporbable Condition
- expresses a hypothetical, improbable or unreal condition.This conditional provides an
imaginary result for a given situation (in case of unreral situations, we use were for all
persons).
If he had a student card, he would travel cheaper.
I wouldn’t jump to conclusions if I were him.
I would build a castel for you if I were the lamp spirit.
Tipul III – al condiţiei imposibile
- se referă doar la situaţii trecute, nerealizate. Poate fi privită, în unele cazuri, şi ca un
regret tardiv, exprimat foarte bine de constatarea consecinţei acestei neîmpliniri. Aceasta
nouă frază este introdusă de ‘but…’ iar predicatele din ambele propoziţii ale acesteia sunt
la Past Tense.

Type III – Unfulfilled, impossible condition

- refers only to past, unfulfilled situations, often referred to as the ‘late regrets’ because it
concerns only past situations with no perspectives of their being fulfilled.
The Dean would have reconsidered their proposal, if they had talked it over
with him.

51
(but/since they did not talk it over with the Dean, he did not reconsider the proposal.)
If Al Gore had been elected president, allwould have been different/ would now
be different.

Alte conjuncţii în afară de if care introduc Subordonata Condiţională

Other subordinating conjunctions
Whether or not
- indiferent de condiţiile propuse, rezultatul va fi acelaşi.
- whatever the condition, the result is the same.
Whether they have money or not/whether or not they have money, they are determined to
leave.
Unless – are aceeaşi valoare cu ‘if not’.
- se foloseşte doar în Condiţionalele de Tipul I
- expresses the idea of ’if not’ and is only used in the first conditional.
Unless she takes the pills, she won’t get any better. = If she doesn’t take the
pills, shewon’t get any better.
In case; In the event
- se folosesc atunci când nu ne aşteptăm ca un eveniment sa aibă loc. Ambele expresii se
folosesc în special pentru exprimarea evenimentelor viitoare.
- are used to express future events that we don’t expect to happen.
In case it rains, take the bus.
I'll be studying upstairs in the event he calls.
Only if
- înseamnă ‘doar în cazul în care, şi numai atunci’.
- dacă ‘only if’ se află la începutul propoziţiei, atunci trebuie să inversăm propozţia
principală.
- it means ‘ then and only then’/’only in that case’.
- when ‘only if’ begins the sentence you need to invert the main clause.
I will look over your essay only if you promise not to disturb me while I’m
reading it.
Only if the participants attend the entire section of the workshop will
certificates be released.
If only (!) (o falsă Condiţională) exprimă, de fapt, o dorinţă ipotetică, o intenţie prea puţin
realizabilă.
Propoziţia Principală se deduce din contextual semantic al ideii de dorinţă.
If only is a false Conditional, in fact, expressing a wish, a hypothetical desire or a hardly
accomplishable dream. The main clause is understood from the semantic context of the wish.
If only they were given the right directions ! (they would be able to reach the
hotel for the check in)
When = if
When (=if) unasked (if nobody asks me), I keep silent.
But for = if it wasn’t for/ if it hadn’t been for
If it wasn’t/hadn’t been for your help, we would now be bankrupt. = But for
your help, we would now be lost.
If it wasn’t for the car we would be late. = But for the car, we would be late.
If it hadn’t been for the sandwiches we would have starved. = But for the
sandwiches, we would have starved.
Suppose/ Imagine
Suppose no one showed up! (What if no one showed up?)
Imagine she would have won the pools. (What would have happened if she

52
had won the pools?)

Condiţionala de Tipul I (Condiţia Reală – cu referire la viitor sau la prezent) Type I

Conditional Clause
TYPE I Propoziţia Conjuncţia Propoziţia
Principală Conjunction Condiţională
Main Clause Conditional Clause
Îndeplinirea acţiunii FUTURE PRESENT
are un grad mare de You will get a room you check in in time.
certitudine -condiţie I’m going to miss the you don’t leave now.
posibilă. beginning
Probable, highly ‘GOING TO’
fulfillable condition You’ll be late FUTURE
-promise/prediction you’re not going to
if hurry.
PRESENT
- warning You won’t finish PRESENT
CONTINUOUS
The plant grows you are not working
- cause-effect faster.
MODAL it is watered
You can/mayleave regularly.

You can’t/won’t take

the exam you finish.
PRESENT
PERFECT
you haven’t written
the essay. (stress on
action completion)

Condiţionala de Tipul II (Condiţia ipotetică, improbabilă sau nereală)

Type II Conditional Clause
TYPE II Propoziţia Principală Conjuncţia Propoziţia
Main Clause Conjunction Condiţională
Conditional Clause
şansele ca PRESENT PRESENT
acţiunea să se CONDITIONAL you checked in in time.
realizeze sunt You would get a room
mai mici decât I were you/I were 18
în cazul I would try again again
condiţionalei de if (unreal, because I can
tipul I – never be you/ I’m no
condiţie longer 18)
probabilă
Improbable
condition, less PAST PAST
likely to be The plant grew it was watered
fulfilled regularly.
- hypothetical

53
condition
-unreal/absurd
condition
- past cause-
effect

Condiţionala de Tipul III (Condiţia imposibilă/nerealizată) Type III Conditional Clause

TYPE III Propoziţia Principală Conjuncţia Propoziţia
Main Clause Conjunction Condiţională
Conditional Clause
acţiunea nu a PAST CONDITIONAL
fost efectuată - PAST PERFECT
condiţie you had checked in in
imposibilă You would have got a time.
Impossibe room (but you did not check in
condition, not if in time, so/therefore/in
fulfilled conclusion/consequently,
sometimes you did not get a room)
called a ‘late
regret’ or a
‘wasted
opportunity’
(even if it is not
expressed, we
feel there is an
implied ‘but’)

Condiţionale mixte Mixed conditionals

II + III Mary would be a winner now if she had worked harder. (it is a IIIrd conditional
according to meaning, as it refers to the consequences of a past action uponthe present/future)
Inversiunea în propoziţia condiţională Inversion in Conditional Clauses
Se foloseşte cu scopul de a accentua condiţia.It is used for emphatic purposes.
Were she to come, I would talk to her. = If she were to come, I would talk to her.
Had we decided to leave sooner, we would have metTom at the airport. = If we had
decided to leave sooner, we would have met Tom at the airport.)

Alte moduri de a exprima o condiţie Other ways to express condition

a. Supposing
I might give Mina the book, supposing she drops by (which is quite unlikely)
b. If it weren’t/wasn’t for/ If it hadn’t been for= but for
Type IIIf it wasn’t for Michael, I would be lost! (dacă n-ar fi Michael, as fi pierdut(ă))
But for Michael, I would be lost!
Type IIIIf it hadn’t been for Michael, I would belost (NOW)./I would have been lost. (THEN)
(dacă n-ar fi fost Michael, as fi pierdută (acum)/as fi fost pierdută (atunci)
But for Michael, I would be lost (NOW) /I would have been lost. (THEN)
c. If so
Ken may refuse to substitute for me. If so, (= in this situation) I’ll have to find
someone else.
d. Should (= it is rather unlikely to happen)
If Ken should refuse to substitute for me, which I doubt it will happen, I’ll have to

54
find someone else.
(with inversion) Should Ken refuse to…, I’ll have to resort to someone else.
e. Happen to – expressing chance
Tell Ann I won’t be able to be there in time, if you (should) happen to see her.
f. When – expressing condition (also with temporal meaning)
When she has finished reading, she might want to write something.

B. Alte tipuri de propoziţii subordonate Other Types of Subordinate Clauses

1.Noun Clauses: Subjective, Predicative, Direct Object, Prepositional, Appositive
2.Adjective (or Attributive) Clauses
3.Adverbial Clauses of Time, of Place, of Purpose, of Reason, of Result, of Manner
(Comparison), of Cause and Effect,Conditionalof Concession (Contrast), Relative,
Participial

Tipul Caracteristici Exemple

propoziţiei Features
Type of clause
- elementele subordonatoare;
- funcţie de subiect;
- funcţie de nume predicativ;
- funcţie de subiect;
- funcţie de complement
direct;
- funcţie de complement
prepoziţional;
Noun Clause - propoziţia subiectivă
incorporată în propoziţia
adverbială;
- propoziţia subiectivă
incorporată în propoziţia
adjectivală;
- funcţie de apoziţie;
- dependent signals introduce
noun clauses: who, whom,
whose, which, that, if,
whether, what, when, where,
how, why
combinations with ever:
whoever, whatever,
whenever,wherever.
- fulfills the function of a
subject;
- fulfills the function of a
subject complement;
Examples
What Mary told us sounded
unbelievable (S).
The terrible part of the storyis
that the car was completelty
destroyed. (SC)
She never tells us where she
goes.(DO)
She said she wanted to be of
help for whoever needs it .
(object of preposition)
Even ifyou don’t deny what
you’ve said,it still doesn’t
make us appreciate you more.
Whoever accepts what we
offer is lucky.
I know (that) she is right.
I remember where I put the
book.

- fulfills the function of a

direct object;

55
 - it fulfills the function of the
object of a preposition;

- noun clause inside

anadverb clause;
noun clause inside
anadjective clause;

- appositve function
- the conjunction that before
a noun clause may be omitted
in some sentences
- sunt introduse de conjuncţii Presently the night wind died
subordonatoare; unele sunt out.
eliptice; The strom started almost
- modifică verbe, adjective, instantly.
Adverbial adverbe, infinitive, gerunzii, Where I live, everybody is
Clauses pariticipii, sau chiar fraza în used to this kind of weather.
care apar;
- ocupă diferite poziţii în Now there are a lot of job
frază. oportunities locally, too (=
- are introduced by where we live)
subordinating conjunctions.; Drive carefully (in order to
some adverb clauses may be avoid accidents)
elliptical. I won’t tell you anything
after, before, until, while, unless you promise to be
because, since, as, so that, in discreet.
order that, if, unless, whether,
though, although, even
though, where.
- may modify a verb, an
adjective, an adverb, an
infinitive, a gerund, a
participle, or even the rest of
the sentence in which it
appears.
- can take various positions in
a sentence.
Adverbial Characteristics Examples
Clauses of Time
- fac legatura dintre acţiunea John (had) made some phone
din subordonată cu cea din calls before he answered his e-
propoziţia principală; mails.
- sunt introduse de adverbe şi John answered his e-mails
locuţiuni adverbiale de timp talked to his secretary after he
care arată când are loc (had) made some phone calls.
acţiunea; John opened his mail box
- relate other actions to the when he made some phone
activity in the main clause. calls.
- are introduced by adverbs John opened his mail box

56
 of time which indicate the
time when something
happens.
such as before, after, while,
as soon as, by, when, as.
Adverbial
Clauses of Place - indică locul unde are loc
acţiunea.
– indicate the place where
something happens.
Adverbial - precizează scopul acţiunii
Clauses of din propoziţia independentă;
Purpose - state the purpose of the
action in the independent
clause;
- dintre toate conjuncţiile şi
locuţiunile conjuncţionale
subordonatoare, cea mai des
utilizată este infinivul lung (to additional explanations so that
infinitive); mai formale sunt
in order to/that, so as to, so,
so that (exprimă
intenţionalitate în efectuarea
acţiunii);
- conjuncţiile or the purpose cultural matters with a view to
of, with a view to, with the
intention of, with the
object/aim of; cer o
formă verbală în -ing;
- the to-infinitive is the most
common type of construction, late at the course.
but in formal writing, in order I will not walk to work today
to and so as to, so that or in
order that are preferred;
- the difference betweenso
57
while he made some phone
calls.
John had (already) made some
phone calls by the time he
started reading his e-mails.
John will have (already) made
some phone calls by the time
he checks his mail box.
I arrived where I was
appointed for the job
Nobody should work where
they are not rightfully
appreciated.
Wherever they choose to sit is
all right.
Go wherever you want, but
choose the place wisely.
You will find them waiting
exactly where they are now.
I accept tofollow you
wherever you decideto go.
I tried to buy the car to be able
to come into the city more
easily.
The report was written in
order to give a brief
presentation of the research
results.
The lecturer came up with
the students would be able
to/could get the
point more easily.
We offer new courses on
upgrading the general public’s
knowledge in the domain.
They know they must hurry a
bit lest they (should) arrive
for fear I would be late.
 and so thatis thatso
thatimplies that the cause was
deliberately done by someone
in order to get a specific
result;
- other ways of expressing
purpose are:
- lest and for fear + S +
should/would + short
infinitive
- for the purpose of, with a
view to, with the intention of,
with the object/aim of;
- with these phrases the verb
must be in the -ing form.
Adverbial - indică cauza pentru care are As I needed more information
Clauses of loc acţiunea; on the subject, I decided to
Reason - sunt introduse de enroll for an extra semester.
conjuncţiile because, as, They didn’t buy the house
since, when sau de locutiunile because it was too
prepoziţionale because of, şi deteriorated.
on account of. My room mate was unable to
- they say why something work on his project on
happens; account of a malfunction in
- are introduced by the the computer. (because the
conjunctionsbecause, as or computer malfunctioned.)
since, whenor the
prepositional phrasesbecause
ofandon account of.

Because They received a high mark on

- se poate construi cu diferite
timpuri gramaticale, în
funcţie de context.
- can be used with a variety of
tenses based on the time
relationship between the two
clauses.
As
- are acelaşi înţeles cu
because, dar are o valenţă
formală mai mare.
- means the same as because
but is used in more formal,
Adverbial writtenEnglish.
Clauses of As long as
Cause and - are acelaşi înţeles cu
Effect because, dar are o valenţă
informală, proprie englezei
vorbite.
their exam because they had
studied hard.
I’m studying hard because I
want to pass my
exam/because I know too
little.
As the test is difficult, you had
better get some sleep.
As long as nobody will be in
this house for a while, why
don’t you move in yourself?
Since his application was
rejected, he decided to apply
somehwere else.
It’s clear we shall have get up

58
 - means the same as because,
but it is more informal,
spoken English.
Since
- are acelaşi înţeles cu
because, dar are o valenţă
informală, specific englezei
vorbite. Since are şi
implicaţie semantică
temporală, însă because
indică doar cauza sau motivul
acţiunii.
- means the same as because;
- it tends to be used in
moreinformal spoken English;
however, the conjunction
since alsorefers to a period of
time, while because implies
only a cause or reason.
Due to the fact that
- means the same as because
but is generally used in very
formal, written English.
Inasamuch as
- means the same as because
and is used in very formal,
written English.
Adverbial - it is used with these words
Clauses of or expressions:
Contrast despite + noun/possessive
(Concession) adjective + gerund,
in spite of + noun/possessive
adjective+ gerund
(al)though, even if/though,
however, whoever (and the
rest of the words combined
with
–ever), yet, while, whereas, at
the same time, all the same,
or to inverted structures:
adj. + as + S + may/might
be/was
59
earlier since work starts at 8.
We will be staying for an
extra week due to the fact that
we haven not yet finished.
Inasmuch as the students had
succesfully completed their
exams, their parents rewarded
their efforts by giving them a
trip to Paris.
Although/even if/though we
are loaded with work, you can
take a few days’ leave.
You can leave for a few days
Although/even if/thoughwe are
loaded with work.
Despite the fact thatwe loaded
with work, you can take a few
days’ leave.
Despite our being loaded with
so much work, you can take a
few days’ leave.
In spite of our being loaded
with work, you can take a few
days’ leave. /In spite of the
fact that we are loaded with
work, you can take a few
days’ leave.
However loaded with work we
may be/are, you can leave all
the same.
Loaded with work as we
 are/as we may be, you can
(still) leave.
We are loaded with work
indeed, yet/but you can leave
anyway.
We are loaded with work, all
the same, you can leave.
We are loaded with work, yet
you can leave.
We are loaded with work; at
the same time you can leave
for a few days.
We are loaded with work;
nonetheless you can take a
few days’ leave.
- indică modul în care se The directions should be
efectuează acţiunea.; complied with as the
- toţi conectorii au acelaşi organizers indicated you to.
înţeles; Read the text aloud as if you
- comparaţia poare fi atât were an actor on stage.
reală cât şi ipotetică; Apply for that college as
- as poate fi conector though it was/were the
adverbial de timp, mod şi ultimate solution.
cauză. She looks at me as if it’s a
Adverbial - it tells us how to do joke. (it’s possible that it’s a
Clauses of something; joke.)
Manner - its connectors (all have the The child trembles as though
(Comparison) same meaning): as, as if, and he saw something terrible.
as though; Maybe he really saw
- the comparison can be something terrible.
either realistic ( normal He cries as though he were
tenses are used) or unrealistic stabbed.
(were and past tense are Nobody stabbed him.
used). He dances as if you were
Nureev.
Note that as can be an adverb He’s not Nureev.
clause connector of time,
manner and reason. As you refused to help me, I
asked someone else.. (reason)
We will keep you informed as
the decision is made. (time)
Behave as you were told to.
(manner)
Adverb Clauses - arată rezultatul unei acţiuni The lecture was boring and
of Result sau situaţii; irrelevant, so some of the
- sunt introduse de students began to fall asleep.
conjuncţiile so, so that, so… Peter was having problems
that, or such … that precum with mathematics, so he went
şi de alte cuvinte cu aceeaşi to see his tutor to ask for
valoare semantică: therefore, advice.

60
 thus, in consequence,
consequently, for this/that
reason, sau as a result sau
with the result that.
- indicates the result of an
action or situation;
- are introduced by
conjunctions such asso, so
that, so…that, or such …
thatand some other words
that have the same semantic
coverage, such as: therefore,
thus, in consequence,
consequently, for this/that
reason
- other ways of indicating the
result of an action or
situation areas a result or
with the result that.
- causal relations can be
expressed by -ing-clauses of
result.
Participial - sunt folosite după
Clauses construcţii substantivale
(Phrases) ( propoziţii relative
abreviate);
- în asociere cu anumite
conjuncţii şi prepoziţii, ele au
rol de propoziţii subordonate
propriu-zise, cu variate
conotaţii semantice, în special
temporale;
- pot înlocui o propoziţie
subordonată de scop;
- se folosesc în texte scrise,
pentru a include cât mai
multe informaţii în acceaşi
frază;
- dacă se foloseşte o
construcţie participială pentru
61
There were so many books on
the subject that Cindy didn’t
know where to begin.
There was such a lot of
material to cover that Ivan
found it difficult to keep up
with his studies.
The lecture was boring and
irrelevant, and as a result
some of the students began to
fall asleep.
The lecture was boring and
irrelevant, with the result that
some of the students began to
fall asleep. As a result can
also be used at the beginning
of a new sentence.
The lecture was boring and
irrelevant. As a result, some of
the students began to fall
asleep.
The government increased the
duty on wine. As a result,
there was a fall in demand.
The government increased the
duty on wine, resulting in a
fall in demand.
The man waiting (= who is
waiting) in front of the shop is
Jack.
While/On walking home, I
noticed smoke coming out of
a neighbouring house.
Upon opening the letter, a
$100 banknote fell out.
Irritated by the reply, I left.
The car is parked near the
hotel entrance. It’s Susan’s
car.
The car parked near the hotel
entrance is Susan’s car.
The girls is reading on a bench
a combina sau a scurta
subordonate, amblele
subordonate trebuie să aibă
acelaşi subiect.
- follow noun phrases (like
abbreviated relative clauses);
- following conjunctions and
prepositions they function as
finite subordinate clauses
(with various meanings, often
of time);
- replace a subordinate
clause of reason;
- are used in writing, in order
to include as much
information as possible in the
same sentence;
- if we use a participle
constructionto combine or
shorten clauses, both clauses
should have the same subject.
Participial Clauses with
different Subjects
- dacă propoziţia principală
conţine unul dintre
următoarele verbe: see,
notice, watch, smell, feel,
find, hear, listen to. În cazul
în care nu au același subiect,
sensul propoziției se
modifică.
- if the main clause contains
one of the following verbs:
see, notice, watch, smell, feel,
find, hear, listen to.
- apart from the exceptions
mentioned above, participle
clause and main clause
should have the same subject,
otherwise the sentences might
sound rather strange.
participial clauses and
adverbial clauses
- exprimă condiţia, motivul,
cauza, rezultatul.
- express condition, reason,
cause, result;
62
near the lake. She was my
student.
The girl reading on a bench
near the lake was my student.
I smelled them (namely, my
next door neighbours) cooking
roast.
Mary was writing an e-mail,
when her boss entered the
office.(correct)
Writing an e-mail, her boss
entered the office.(wrong)
Checked carefully, this
somposition could enter the
competition.
If you check this composition
carefully, it can enter the
competition. (Condition)
Having read the novel, I
can/could write my essay on
the suggested topic. (Reason)
Because I read the novel I
can/could write the essay on
the suggested topic.
Leaving the office, I went to
the supermarket. After I left
the office, I went to the
supermarket.
Leaving the office I’ll go to
the supermarket. After I leave
the office, I’ll go to the
supermarket
Come over after finishing your
work.
After having visited her
relatives, Mary returned
home.
Before leaving for Rome, I
 - se foloseşte pentru a face
referire atât la acţiuni trecute
cât şi prezente.
- it can be used both for past
and present reference.
- after, before, instead of, on,
when, while, without
+ Birthday”.
Participle (clause)
had to meet my coordinator.
Why aren’t you working
instead of hanging around all
day long?
On opening the front door,
their friends surprised them
with a cheerful “Happy
Don’t forget that when driving
you must not use you mobile
phone.
I could talk to your father
myself, without wanting to
offend you, of course.

Relative Clauses
Adjective Clauses - Caracteristici
The Relative Clause Features
- sunt propoziţii subordonate
introduse de pronume relative,
adverbe de timp şi de loc;
- dacă nu îndeplinesc funcţie de
subiect, aceste pronume pot fi
omise;
- propoziţiile relative conferă
fluenţă discursivă, permiţând
fuziunea mai multor propoziţii
într-o singură frază, dar şi pentru
a aduce informaţii suplimentare;
- who, that, which introduc atât
pronumele subiect cât şi
pronumele
complement;pronoumele relative
urmate de un verbsunt pronume
subiectivale. Prezenţa lor este
obligatorie. Dacă nu sunt urmate
de un verb ci de un substantive
sau un pronume, ele sunt
pronume complement. Acestea
pot fi omise în propoziţiile
relative restrictive(defining) ,
numite propoziţii de contact.
- adjective clauses are
dependent clauses introduced by
relative pronouns: who, whose,
whom, which, why (= for which
reason) that
- if it is not used as a subject, the
relative pronoun in an adjective
Exemple
Examples
Students who can develop
independent learning skills often
achieve good academic results.
There will be a new rule that
addresses immigrants who enter
the country after 2008.
A university is a place where
people pursue advanced
knowledge in specific academic
disciplines.
Anyone can tell the difference
between a public place or one in
which access is granted only by a
special permit or membership
card.
It was on the night when they
arrived.
This is the shelf where I left the
papers.
Tell them why (the reason why/for
which) we have to meet.
She asks for the file which
contains the addresses reference
information of the candidate.

63
 clause may sometimes be Ted was on the bus (which) I had
omitted. missed.
- a text gains in fluency and
avoids word redundancy if we
combine sentences with a
relative clause. The insertion of
additional information can also
be done in this way.
- who, which, thatintroduce both
the Subject and the Object
Pronoun; the relative pronouns
followed by a verbare subject
pronouns. They are must always
used. If they are not followed by
a verb (but by a noun or
pronoun), they are object
pronouns. Object pronouns can
be omitted in defining relative
clauses (called Contact
Clauses).
Restrictive/ - oferă detalii despre subiect; The questions (which ) we usually
Defining/ - nu se pun niciodată între avoid asking refer to personal
Identifying Relative virgule; matters.
Clauses - cel mai adesea se întâlnesc în A personal question is a question
definiţii; that we always avoid asking.
- propoziţiile de contact - o
propoziţie relativă fără pronume The policeman (who/whom) we
relativ; asked our way didn’t know
- dacă se foloseşte un pronume English.
specific în locul unuia
nespecific, propoziţia relativă
devine una nerestrictivă, şi se
impune prezenţa virgulelor
separatoare; Transportation (that is) arranged
- pentru a câştiga în concizie, se for conference members will be
reduce propoziţia restrictivă; paid for by the host country.
- participiile pot contrage The local members (who/whom)
propoziţiile relative; the president asked to supervise
- când subiectul este unul cu the proceedings of the conference
referinţă unică, restrictivele se are paid extra.
pot transforma în nerestrictive.
- give details about the subject; The lecturer who teaches
- it is never put between Portuguese is absent today = The
commas; lecturer teaching Portuguese is
- they are most often met in absent today.
definitions;
- Contact Clauses - a relative To be sure about the righ
clause without the relative departure hour, the receptionist
pronoun; phoned the railway station, which
- if instead of a nonspecific noun was very helpful for us all.

64
 is used a specific one instead,
the relative clause becomes
nonessential and thus requires
commas to separate it from the
rest of the sentence.
- to make the style more concise,
we reduce the defining relative.
The city where I graduated is a
well-known university centre in
Romania.
Sibiu, where I graduated, is a
well-known university centre in
Romania.

- Participles can contract relative

clauses:

- the Infinitive is used in

Relative Clauses

- they can change into a non-

restrictive relative clause when
the subject is with unique
reference.
Non-Restrictive/ - aduc informaţii adiţionale; Traffic wardens, who/whom we
Non-Defining/ Non- - sunt puse între virgule; usually ask for direction, are
Identifying Relative - that nu este admis în acest tip indispensable in crowded places.
Clauses de relative; My highschool friend Paul, who
- who şi whose se folosesc cu lives in France, was promoted in
referire la persone; April. (‘who lives in France’ is not
- which şi whose se folosesc essential, which means that I only
pentru obiecte; have one highschool friend, whose
- folosirea pronumelor name is Paul,and she does not
complement este obligatorie. need to be defined by the relative
- give additional information on clause)
something, but do not define it;
- are put between commas;
- that is not used in a non-
defining relative clauses;
- who and whose are used for
persons;
- which andwhose are used for
things.
- object pronouns must be used
here.
- unlike defining clauses, these
clauses cannot be reduced.

Conjuncţii subordonatoare care introduc Propoziţii Adverbiale

Subordinating Conjunctions Introducing Adverbial Clauses

65
 Temporală Cauzală Contrastivă Condiţională
Time Cause and Opposition Conditional
Effect
after, before, when, while, because, since, although, even if, only if, unless,
as, by the time (that), as as, as long as, so though, though, whether (or not), even if,
soon as, since, until, long as, due to whereas, while, providing (that), in case
whenever, the first time the fact that in spite of, (that), provided (that), in
(that), the next time (that), despite the event (that)
the last time (that), every
time (that)

Unit 6

The Unreal Past

Objectives:
 understand the similarities between the unreal past forms and the conditional sentences
 understand and applying correctly the unreal past structures
 express hope, regret, annoyiment by means the unreal past

Key words:
 tense, unreal tense, wish, it’s time, as if/though, I’d rather

Contents:
 as if/as though
 wish
 I’d prefer (it); I’d rather; It’s (high/about) time

Bibliography:
 Loghin, D, Felea, C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.
 Palmer, F., Robert. (1988) The English verb, Longman.
 Vince Michael (with Emerson, Paul). (2003) Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan.
 Vince, Michael (with Sutherland, Peter). (2003). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan
Publishers Limited.

66
 Murphy, Raymond (with Altman, Roann) (1989) Grammar in use. Reference and practice
for intermediate students of English, Cambridge University Press.

Construcţii cu: ‘wish’; it’s (high/about) time; I’d rather/sooner/better; I’d

prefer; as if/though
Unreal Past Constructions

1. As if /as though + past tenses

Timpul de Construcţie Situaţie reală Situaţie nereală
referire Form Real (implication) Unreal (implication)
Reference time
Referire la S + past tense She behaves as She behaves as if/though
prezent S + was (real)/were if/though she was she were the boss (she is
Present (unreal) the boss. (she is) – not)
reference we use a regular Mike speaks/sounds as
predicate. if/though he owned the
Mike speaks/sounds land. (he does not)
as if/though he we use the Subjunctive
owned the land. (he were for all persons.
owns it)
Referire la S + Past Perfect She behaved/ She behaved/ behaves as
trecut: - diferenţa dintre real behaves as if/though she had been the
Past reference şi nereal nu este if/though she had boss. (she wasn’t)
marcată gramatical; în been the boss. (she
ambele situaţii avem was)
Past Perfect.
- the distinction
between the Real and
the Unreal situation is

67
 not
markedgrammatically
; in both situations we
use the Past Perfect.

2. Wish
wish and hope+ verb Regrets about present Regrets about past
situation situation
Meaning ‘want’/’intend’ Ted wishes he had a car right I wish (now) I hadn’t
Whoever wishes to speak now (he doesn’t) tackled (before/then) this
first, is welcome to begin. I no longer wish I could be/ subject in the first place.
She doesn’t wish to see was/ were different. I wished (then) I hadn’t
anyone right now. -formal with Ist and IIIrd tackled (then) this subject in
- with will = ‘be willing to’ : persons sg) : the first place.
I wish you would stop I wish I were (subjunctive) The manager wishes
smoking in here! (you are somewhere else! (now)/wished (then) he had
annoyed about a habitual He wished he had not been hired more staff.
negative behaviour/action) here!
She says she hopes that
everything will come out Formulaic function
perfectly. I wish you all the best/many
The pilot always wishes the returns of the day!
passengers a safe and
pleasant flight, which means
that he hopes they will have a
safe and pleasant flight.
1. I’d prefer (it); I’d rather; It’s (high/about) time
I’d prefer/I’d prefer it; I’d rather it’s (high/about) time
- exprimă preferinţe personale preferences It’s (high/about) time + Past Tense
about oneself: - exprimă un îndemn/un reproş/un
would prefer to/ would rather do (I’d avertisment
prefer to do/I’d rather do something) an urge/ a reproach/ a warning – present
Maybe you’d prefer to wait here/you’d rather reference:
wait here. acţiunea ar fi trebuit să se fi desfăşurat
I’d prefer to listen to you (rather than (to) an action should already have taken place
someone else). I don’t believe you say it’s high time I was
- forme negative negative forms ready with all this work!
I’d rather not listen to someone else. The board decided (that) it was high time
I’d prefer not to work late tonight. they (had) started working on the new
- to express preferences: prefer to (do) or project.
prefer + verb in -ing - un reproş (referire la o situaţie trecută)
They say they prefer to study/studying about a reproach - past reference: It is/it was
this topic some other time. (high/about) time + Past Perfect
- prefer something to something else It’s/was high/about time Mark had taken on a
Many people prefer self-training to gym job.
training.
They prefer to train by themselves rather
than pay fortunes to personal trainers.
Preferences about someone else – present
reference: Past Tense is used

68
I’d rather + Past Tense/ would
I’d prefer it if + Past Tense/ would
I’d rather you wouldn’t/didn’t interrupt me!
I’d prefer it if you didn’t/wouldn’t interrupt
me so often!
Preferences about someone else – past
reference: Past Perfect is used
I’d prefer it if you hadn’t bought that car
(you did!)

Application
Complete the following sentencesn using an unreal past construction:

1. He wishes ……………….. (be thinner)

2. They look ……………………… (know) where the document is (they don’t know)
3. John would rather………… (study) more ancient scrolls in order to understand the
context of thaqt period.
4. It’s time they ……………….. (set off) on that journey of discovery.
5. I’d rather he ……………… (go) to the conference. He is unprepared.
6. Mary wished her colleague ………………. (interrupted) her when she presented the
poster.
7. The president sounds ……………… (he understood them.very well (he does).
8. They wished those mistakes…………………. (be/make) at all.

Watch!
I wish…. Subjunctive, https://www.engvid.com/wish-subjunctive/
The Unreal Past, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8k5w7sfshXE
Unreal Past, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QMAcLQ7joQo

69
Unit 7
Reported Speech

Objectives:
 form sentences in direct speech
 form sentences in indirect speech
 make correct sentence trnsformations from and into direct and indirect speeh
 recognize the structural difference between direct and indirect questions
 use the correct adverbs and pronouns specific to each type of sentence

Key words:
direct speech, indirect speech, reporting, reporting verbs

Contents:
 transformations
 word order
 reporting verbs
 passive and active
 modal constructions

Bibliography:
(2006). Reporting Talk, Holt, Elizabeth, Clift Rebecca eds. Cambridge University Press.
Loghin, D, Felea, C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.
Murphy, Raymond (with Altman, Roann) (1989) Grammar in use. Reference and practice for
intermediate
Vince Michael (with Emerson, Paul). (2003) Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan.
Vince, Michael (with Sutherland, Peter). (2003). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan
Publishers Limited.

70
Vorbirea Directă şi Indirectă Reported Speech

Cu ajutorul vorbirii indirecte, cuvintele unui vorbitor sunt preluate şi redate de către un alt
vorbitor. Astfel, se schimbă perspectiva (locul/poziţia/timpul/persoana) din care este emis un
enunţ.
In indirect speech, someone’s words are reported by someone else. A change of perspective
takes place: the place, position, time and speaking person are modified.

Transformări Transformations
Din punct de vedere semantic, timpul la care se face referire în vorbirea directă NU SE
SCHIMBĂ. Modificarea este doar una formală, pentru a se respecta legea concordanţei
timpurilordin limba engleză.
Semantically speaking, the reference time from the Direct Speech statement DOES NOT
CHANGE – the change is only a FORMAL change, to obey the SEQUENCE OF TENSES
law.
Pronumele Pronouns
personal pronounspossessive pronouns
I  he/she my  his, her, my
you  he/she/they your  his, her, my
he/she  I/he/she his, her  his, her
we  they our  their
they  they their  their

Construcţiile adverbiale de timp Adverbials of Time

yesterday  the day before
today  that day, yesterday, the day before
tomorrow  the next day
the day after tomorrow in two days
the day befire yesterday  two days before
last year, last month, last week  the year/month/week before
next week/month/year  the following week/month/year
this morning / afternoon / evening/night  that morning / afternoon / evening/ night
last week/month/year  the previous week/month/year
three days/weeks/months/years ago  three days/weeks/months/years before

71
Alte transformări Other changes
this  that
these  those
here  there

Timpurile gramaticale Tenses

La transformarea în vorbirea indirectă, de obicei forma timpului gramatical se schimbă, dacă
verbul din propoziţtia principală (verbul declarativ) este la trecut. Totuşi, prezentul se poate
păstra atunci când afirmaţia se bazează pe ideea unei situaţii la fel de valabile pentru timpul
afirmaţiei raportate ca şi pentru acela al afirmaţiei iniţiale.
When reporting speech the tenses usually change to a past form if the reporting verb (form
the main clause) is in the past. The present tense in reported speechis also accepted if
something is still true.
‘will’ future  future-in-the-past (would)
present tense  past tense
past tense/present perfect  past perfect
Modalele – rămân neschimbate, cu excepţia lui can, care la timpul trecut devine, în funcţie de
înţelesul cerut de context, could sau was able to.
Modals don’t change, except the Past Tense of can, which is eithercould and was able to.

Topica Word order

Propoziţiile interogative suferă în plus şi o modificare de topică la trecerea în vorbirea
indirectă.
Questions will also undergo a word order modification when changing into indirect
questions.
Vorbirea directă Vorbirea indirectă
Direct speech Indirect speech
Fără parafrazare Cu parafrazare
Without paraphrasing With paraphrasing
“She is my friend”, Ann Ann said/told us/me (that) she Ann
said was her friend. declared/admitted/insisted/let us
know that she/I was/is her friend.

“Come here right now!” He told him that/said (that) I She ordered me/her/him/us/them
(should) go there that very to go there that very
moment/immediately. moment/immediately.

“I can’t do it by myself." She told him/us (that) she She complained (that) she was
couldn’t/wasn’t able to do it by not able/couldn’t do it by herself
herself. She complained of not being able
to do it by herself.

“You should think it over, He said/told me (that) I should He advised me to think it over.
don’t you think so?” think it over.

“The session couldn’t have They said that the session They agreed/concluded that the
started.” couldn’t have started. session couldn’t have started.

72
 “What an incredible I/He said it was/is an incredible He exclaimed what an incredible
landscape!” landscape. landscape it is/was.

The woman/My uncle said I had The woman

How tall you’ve grown!” grown a lot. exclaimedadmiringly/remarked
that I had grown a lot.

“How old are you, where do
you live and how many
brothers and/or sisters do
you have?”
“Do you think you are
right?”
“Let’s go out
tonight.”/”How about going
out tonight?”
She asked me how old I am/was, She wanted to know how old I
where I live/lived and how many am/was, where I live/lived and
brothers and sisters I have/had. how many brothers and sisters I
have/had.
I asked (you/him) whether I wanted to know whether you/he
you/he thought he was right. thought he was right.
___________ They suggested going out that
night.
They proposed/suggested that we
should go out that night.

“Don’t look down or you’ll They said I/ we should not look They warned us not to look down
get dizzy!” down or else/for fear we so as not to get dizzy/or else I
could/might get dizzy. may/could get dizzy.

“I did not take anything He daid he did not take anything

from your desk.” from my desk. He denied having taken/taking
anything from my desk.

Verbe de declaraţie (declarative) Reporting verbs

With if/whether ask, know, remember, say, see

Peter asked whether/if anyone should leave
by the morning train.
With an object + long infinitive advise, ask, beg, command, forbid, instruct,
My parents advised me to stay in tonight. invite, teach, tell, warn

With that+(should) clauses or an - add, admit, agree, announce, answer, argue,

infinitive boast,
He added that all candidates (should) wear claim, comment, complain, confirm, consider,
suits and ties. deny, doubt, estimate, explain, fear, feel, insist,
The chairman expected everyone to be on mention, observe, persuade, propose, remark,
time. remember, repeat reply, report, reveal, say,
state, suggest, suppose, tell, think, understand,
warn.
- advise, beg, demand , insist, prefer, propose,
recommend, request, suggest.
- decide, expect, guarantee, hope, promise,
swear, threaten
With question words decide, describe, discover, discuss, explain,
He asked me how we could explain all that. forget, guess, imagine, know, learn, realise,

73
 I can’t say who could have imagined the remember, reveal
consequences. say, see, suggest, teach, tell, think, understand,
wonder.

In case of situations that are true in the moment of communication, the tense temains in the
present in the reported sentence.

Where do you live? He asked me where I live.

Useful hints: Reporting Verbs statements: announced, explained, exclaimed, noticed/

remarked/noted, added, statedquestions: nquired, wanted/wished to know,wondered

Application
Change the direct form into the indirect one using reporting verbs such as: explain,
insist, add, deny, turn down, urge, etc.
1. Don’t even think of trying to modify the data.
……………………………………………………..
2. Get ready. It’s time!
…………………………
3. I’m telling you that this did not happen. Trust me.
………………………………………………………
4. This is incredible! It is downright beyond imagination.
……………………………………………………………..
5. Can the scroll date back to the 8th century B.C.?
……………………………………………………………..
6. I didn’t assert this, no, not I.
……………………………………………………………….
7. Counsellor, please help us out of this quandary!
……………………………………………………………..
8. I cannot attend the meeting for I have another appointment. Anyway, thank you for asking
me.
……………………………………………………………………

Watch!
Grammar: reported speech, https://www.engvid.com/grammar-reported-speech-indirect-
speech/

74
Reportted speech -3 grammar rules, https://www.engvid.com/3-grammar-rules-for-
reported-speech/

Unit 8

Nouns and determiners

Objectives:
 recognize and use correctly various noun categories
 understand the function of nouns in sentences construction
 understand and apply correctly the subject- predicate agreement rule
 understand and apply correctly the singulariaand pluralia tantum
Key words:
 tense, aspect, phrase, passive, active, modality

Contents:
A. Nouns
 classification
 plural of nouns
 nouns with unique form
 possessive forms
 expressing quantity
 gender
B. Determiners
 the larticle
 other determiners

Bibliography:
 Loghin, D, Felea, C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.
 Palmer, F., Robert. (1988) The English verb, Longman.
 Vince Michael (with Emerson, Paul). (2003) Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan.
 Vince, Michael (with Sutherland, Peter). (2003). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan
Publishers Limited. .
 Murphy, Raymond (with Altman, Roann) (1989) Grammar in use. Reference and practice
for intermediate students of English, Cambridge University Press.

75
 A. Substantivul The Noun
În limba engleză, substantivele sunt marcate de categoria gramaticală de număr, caz şi gen.

1 Clasificarea substantivelor – reguli de bază Classification of nouns – basic rules

Substantive numărabile Countable Substantive nenumărabile (cantitative/de masă)
nouns Uncountable (mass) nouns
Individuale table, chair, boy, girl Concrete Concrete Exemple Examples
Individual Formă glass,
Colective Collective team, family, invariabilă bread, There is some meat left in
company, committee, la singular paper, the fridge.
board Invariable wine,
- denumesc elemente care, luate separat, se singular gold, All that glitters is not gold.
pot număra. form glass,
- sunt variabile, adică au formă atât la Singularia iron, Any welder should wear
singular cât şi la plural şi fac acord cu un tantum sand, goggles.
verb la singular, respectiv la plural. water
- sunt precedate de numerale sau de Formă clothes,
cuantificatori. invariabil marginalia
Are marked by the grammatical category ă la plural ,folks,
of number, case and gender. Invariable amends,
Denote items which, taken separately, can plural thanks,
be counted. form pair
Are variable, which means they can be Pluralia nouns:
used both in the singular and in the plural tantum pliers,
and agree with a singular, respectively breeches,
with a plural verb. glasses/
goggles,
trousers,
tights
scissors
overalls
pyjamas
Abstracte Abstract
Formă sympathy, Exemple Examples
invariabil beauty,
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 ă la nonsense, I can’t put up with all
singular informatio this nonsense.
Invariable n, wisdom,
singular patience, Beauty is in the eyes
form etc of the beholder.
Formă news
invariabil I have some good
ă la news regarding your
plural new job.
Invariable
plural
form
- denumesc noţiuni luate ca întreg;
- sunt invariabile fie la singular fie la plural şi se
acordă, după caz, fie cu un verb la singular, fie cu un
verb la plural;
- nu se cuantifică cu ajutorul numeralelor;
- se cuantifică cu: some, a lot/a great deal of, any, no,
a piece of, a heap of, a lump of, etc.
- unele pot fi şi numărabile, având un alt înţeles
paper (material) ≠ (a number of/several ) papers
(documents); bread (material) ≠ (several ) loaves
(pieces of bread)
Denote notions taken as a whole.
- are invariable, which means they can have either
singular or plural form and agree with a singular,
respectively a plural verb.
- don’t take numbers as cuantifiers but determiners
such as: some, a lot/a great deal of, any, no, a piece
of, a heap of, a lump of, etc.
- some can be both counts and uncounts,with a
different meaning.

2. Pluralul substantivului; Substantive cu plural regulat Plural of Nouns; Regular

plural nouns
Cele mai multe substantive au terminaţia -s.
- Most nouns end in -s.
table – tables; book – books; train – trains.

- Substantivele terminate în -y precedat de o consoană, -y dispare şi desinenţa finală va fi -ies

city – cities; duty – duties.
If the noun ends in -y preceded by a consonant, the -y is dropped and plural ending changes
to -ies.

- Substantivele terminate în -y precedat de o vocală primesc desinenţa finală -s

Nouns ending in -y preceded by a vowel, simply get an -s at the end.
day –days, toy – toys.

- Substantivele terminate în -ch,-sh, -s, -x, -z sau -zz, primesc desinenţa finală -es
Nouns ending in -ch, -sh, -s, -x, -z or -zz get -es

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bench – benches, dish – dishes, gas – gases, tax – taxes, fuzz - fuzzes

- Substantivele terminate în -o precedate de o vocală sau de o consoană primesc desinenţa

finală -s sau -es, sau le acceptă pe ambele.
Nouns ending in -o preceded by a vowel get -s or –es or accept both.
piano – pianos ; radio – radios ; potato – potatoes; tomato – tomatoes; echo – echoes; hero –
heroes
zero – zeros /zeroes; buffalo – buffalos/buffaloes; cargo – cargos/cargoes; mosquito –
mosquitos/mosquitoes, etc.

Pronunţia pluralului -s/-es Pronunciation of –s/-es plurals

Desinenţa -es pentru substantivele terminate în -ch, -sh, -s, -z, sau -x se pronunţă /iz/: box / -
boxes;
wish - wishes.
With nouns ending in -ch, -sh, -s, -z, or -x, the -es ending is pronounced /iz/: box / - boxes;
wish - wishes.

3. Substantive cu plural neregulat Irregular plural nouns

Schimbarea vocalei Schimbarea consoanei Substantive străine

interne finale Foreign nouns
Internal vowel change Final consonant change
man – men -f/-fe →-ves Unele dintre acestea au ambele forme
woman – women wife – wives; shelf – de plural, neregulat si regulat.
child – children shelves, Some have both regular and irregular
brother – brethren loaf – loaves plural forms.
(fraţi de ordin spiritual) - um → -a
brother – brothers Unele dintre acestea îşi bacterium – bacteriacorpus – corpora
(membri ai aceleiaşi păstrează şi forma de criterion – criteria
familii) plural regulat, altele au curriculum – curricula
tooth- teeth doar pluralul regulat. datum – data
foot – feet Some of these nouns have genus – genera
goose – geese two plural forms and medium – media
mouse – mice some take only the -s memorandum – memoranda
louse – lice ending. phenomenon – phenomena
ox – oxen stratum – strata
dwarf – dwarfs/dwarves, -a → -ae
- formă unică la hoof – hoofs/hooves nebula – nebulae antenna –
singular şi la plural antennae /antennas
same singular and belief – beliefs, chief – vertebra – vertebrae formula
plural form chiefs, cliff – clifs, proof - formulae/formulas
deer – deer proofs, - eau → -eaux
fish – fish/fishes roof – roofs, beau – beaux bureau –
(species of fish) bureaus/bureaux
fruit – fruit/fruits tableau –
(varieties of fruit) tableaux/tableaus - is → - es
means – means axis – axes
offspring – offspring analysis –analyses
series – series appendix – appendices
sheep – sheep basis – bases

78
species – species crisis – crises
vermin – vermin diagnosis – diagnoses
ellipsis – ellipses
hypothesis – hypotheses
oasis – oases
paralysis – paralyses
parenthesis – parentheses
thesis – theses matrix –
matrices/matrixes
synthesis – syntheses index –
indeces/indexes
-us → - i/-es
cactus – cacti
focus – foci/focuses
alumnus – alumni
radius – radii fungus –
fungi/funguses stimulus – stimuli
nucleus – nuclei/nucleuses
4. Substantive cu formă unică Nouns with unique form

Tipul Caracteristici Characteristics Exemple Examples

substantivului
Type of Noun
- au forme doar de singular; I use iron in my research.
- cu forme de plural, înţelesul lor se (material)
modifică; Today we use light and
- sunt atât concrete cât şi abstracte. sophisticated irons to press
- have only singular forms. our clothes. (device)
- with a plural form, their meaning changes;
- when they are referred to as items, they Sand is used in glass
refer to the object made of that material or industry. (material)
to an isolated unit. Deep in the sands of Tunis
Substantive concrete Concrete nouns you can find the wonderful
iron, tin, sand, coal, bread, cheese, wine, ‘Tunisian rose’. (the desert)
tea, water, fruit, money, hair, coffee, butter,
furniture, clothing. The news is not what we’ve
Substantive abstracte Abstract notions expected.
advice, information, knowledge, news, Your behaviouris is still a
Singularia weather, nonsense, behaviour, money, mystery to me.
tantum passion, love, hate, melancholy etc. Your phonetics are(is) as
(nenumărabile Denumiri de ramuri ale ştiinţei Sciences good as anybody else’s.
) in -ics
(uncountables) physics, mathematics, phonetics,linguistics I think darts is more
Jocuri Games enjoyable than cards.
billiards, bowls, cards, darts, dominoes,
draughts
- când au valoare atributivă, -s este omis
a darts board. The younger one gets
- when used attributively -s is omitted measles the easier one gets
Boli Illnesses over it.

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 measles, mumps, rickets, shingles
- acordul acestor substantive se face numai Coffee dregswere scattered
cu un verb la plural. all over the sink.
- these nouns agree only with a verb in the
plural.
annals, arms, ashes (=remains after burning ash = resudue after burning
or cremation), belongings, barracks, brains, ashes = ruins, bodily
clothes, contents, credentials, customs, data, remains
damages, dregs, earnings, fireworks, goods, bearing = behaviour; yield
grounds (= yard, evidence, justification, bearings = aspects of a
dregs), holidays, manners, media, odds, problem
outskirts, pains, particulars, premises, cost = price
quarters, remains, troops, spectacles costs = expenditure
(=glasses), resources, shortcomings,
surroundings, the Middle Ages, the tropics,
Pluralia valuables, whereabouts, wages, wits.
tantum - unele substantive au forme invariabile la My old binoculars are very
singular si la plural, intelesurile acestora heavy. but! I’ve bought a
fiind diferite. new pair of binoculars
- some nouns have different meanings in the which is probably lighter.
singular, respectively, in the plural.
custom ≠ customs; fund ≠ funds; ground ≠ Those overalls need urgent
grounds; honour ≠ honours; letter ≠ letters; washing.
minute ≠ minutes; premise ≠ premises;
regard ≠ regards; spirit ≠ spirits; term ≠
terms, etc.

Substantivele binare (formate din două

părţi considerate ca unitate) se comportă la
fel.
Summation plurals (made up of two parts
seen as a single unit) obey the same rule.
These are tools or instruments and some
articles of clothing.
binoculars, forceps, glasses, goggles, pliers,
pincers, scissors, tweezers
jeans, leggings, overalls, panties, pants ,
shoes, sandals, flip-flops, shorts, tights
La plural, substantivele atât nume cât şi
prenume, primesc desinenţa obişnuită, -s şi
sunt precedate de articolul hotărât the. Cele
care se termină în - ch, -sh, -x, -z, primesc
desinenţa -es. Excepţie fac numelei
terminate în -s care se pronunţă cu un [z ]
puternic, caz în care substantivul nu mai
primeşte terminaţie de plural;
When a family name (a proper noun) is You have invited all your
pluralized, we almost always simply add an relatives to the wedding,
-s, but when a proper noun ends in an -s including theMorgans, your
pronounced with a sonorous [z], no ending neighbours.

80
 is added in the plural. When a family name
ends in -s,- x,- ch, -sh, or -z, however, we I believe the Flanders (not
form the plural by adding the Flanderses) know about
Numele proprii -es; your arrival and will be
Proper names the Robins, the Bundys, the Bobbys, the waiting for you.
Marthas, the Joneses, the Knoxes, the
Welshes, the Valdezes, the Flanders, ther
Burgess Panasonic is the strongest
- în general, numele de organizaţii şi firme on the market.
sunt considerate forme de singular, fac
acord cu verbe la singular şi nu sunt MacDonalds introduces to
precedate de articolul hotărât the, decât all dairy products lovers
atunci când acesta face parte din numele MacJoghurt!
propriu-zis;
- numele de echipe sportive sunt forme de Seemingly, Universitatea
plural şi fac acord cu verbe la plural; are losing their chance to
- the names of firms, organizations, qualify in the League.
companies are considered singular nouns,
agree with a singular verb and are not
preceded by the definite article, the.
- the names of sports teams are treated as
plurals.
- cele mai multe dintre acestea primesc The few passers-by who
desinenţa -(e)s la nivelul cuvântuluide bază. chanced to be therestopped
Acesta este cuvântul care poartă încărcătura to admire the poster
semantică şi poate fi unul dintre elementele exhibition set up in the
cuvântului compus. Alteori, pluralizarea street.
apare la nivelul ambelor elemente ale
acestuia. Sunt şi cazuri în care se acceptă
două moduri de pluralizare, cu desinenţa fie Exigent housewives not
Pluralul la o bază, fie la alta. always make good mothers-
substantivelor - most compound nouns form their plurals in-law.
compuse by adding -s to the basis or the head , which
Plural of is the principal word in the compound;
compound there are cases, however, when The dancers had splendid
nouns pluralization happens with both elements of costumes and exquisite
the compound noun. heapieces.
mother-in-law – mothers-in-law; governor-
general – governors-general; passer-by – The seminar was held by
passers-by, three trainee-doctors intead
trainee-doctor – trainee-doctors of one.
racecar – racecars; housewife –housewives;
headpiece – headpieces The field was brightky
forget-me-not – forget-me-nots sprinkled with the red of the
woman-surgeon – women-surgeons; poppies and the blue of the
manservant – menservants forget-me-nots.
jack-in-the-box – jacks-in-the-box/jack-in-
the-boxes; head of state – heads of Surprises are colloquially
states/heads of state called Jack(s)-in-the
box(es).

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5. Formele posesive:‘s şi of (Cazul Genitiv) Possessive form: ‘s and of
- pentru persoane şi animale: ‘s
for people and animals: ‘s
the man’s briefcase, the cat’s cushion
- după substantive la singular şi unele substative la plural, atunci când acestea nu se termină în
-s.
for people and animalsafter singular nouns and plural nouns which do not end in -s
Jack’s opinion, the children’s room
- după substantive la plural terminate în -s, adaugăm -s’
after plural nouns ending in -s, we add-s’
the students’ dorm, my friends’ house
- când sunt două substantive, ‘s se adaugă celui de-al doilea substantiv, dacă este vorba
despre o posesie comună, sau după fiecare substantiv în parte, în caz de posesie individuală:
When there are two nouns, ‘s is added after the second noun in case of common possession,
or after each noun in case of individual possession.
John and Mary’s suggestion(s) but John’s and Mary’s suggestion(s)

6.Exprimarea cantităţii Expressing quantity

Tipuri de substantive Caracteristici Exemple

Types of nouns Features
- can be preceded by cardinal or
ordinal numbers and by
quantifiers.
a/one office –
two/several/more/many offices
În propoziţii afirmative
some/several/a lot of + substantiv
la plural
În propoziţii interogative
any + substantiv la plural
În propoziţii negative
any/no + substantiv la plural
In affirmative sentences
some/several/a lot of + plural
noun
some/several/ a lot of
students/groups
In interrogative sentences
any+ plural noun
any ideas; any performances
Examples
I’d like a box of chocolates,
please.
There are three streets
named ‘Leaf ‘in Boston.
Mary made
some/several/many
suggestions regarding the
project.
There are a lot of job
opportunities here.
John has a few problems
with his car
Lately, fewerand fewer
students have taken up
upgrading couses.
Do you/does she have any
other questions?

In negative sentences
negative verb +any + plural nouns
affirmative verb + no+ plural
nouns
any/no minutes (left)
Substantive Substantive colective
Nobody made any coments
about the missing file.
They foundnosolutions to
that test They didn’t findany
solutions to that test.

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numărabile (numărabile)
Countable nouns Collective nouns (countables)
Substantivele colective sunt
numarăbile, deci acceptă forma de
plural.
Collective nouns are count nouns,
which means they can be
pluralized.
arms, assembly, band, board,
cattle, committee, class, clergy, The committee votes last.
crowd, family, flock, group, heap, (the unit as a whole)/ The
herd, jury, kind, lot, majority, committee vote last. (each
number, police, poultry, public, member)
staff, swine, team, etc.
Acordul se face fie cu un verb la
singular, dacă referirea se face la The police have decided to
substantivul luat ca unitate, fie la refrain from making any
plural, dacă referirea se face la declaration.
elementele unităţii. Nobody denies the fact that
The noun agrees with a verb in the the police is a corrective
singular if the noun is seen as a instrument of the state.
unit or with a verb in the plural if
we refer to the individuals which The rich will never
make up that unit. understand the poor.
Substativele colective denumesc He moved to the Scottish
grupuri formate dintr elemente de Highlands.
acelaşi fel. Adjectivele şi
denumirile unor regiuni geografice
sunt precedate de articolul hotărât
the.
Collective nouns refer to groups
made up of similar individuals. If
they are adjectives or a region
name, the definite article the
precedes them.
the rich, the poor, the sick, the
Midlands, the Highlands.
- au doar forme de singular
- have only singular forms
advice/information/ weather/ She has some (new)
music/ money/ knowledge, etc information.
- sunt precedate de some în
propoziţii afirmative şi de any în Is there any good music
propoziţii interogative şi negative here?
care se acordă cu un verb la
singular. They haven’t got anymoney.
- sunt precedate şi de much/a lot
of, respectiv de a little + verb la All you need is a little food
singular and rest.
Uncounts are used with some in There isn’t much fun here.

83
 affirmative sentences and with any
in questions and negative It takes him a lot of courage
sentences, in which case they to practise this sport.
Substantive agree with a singular verb.
nenumărabile are also used with much /a lot of
Uncountable nouns and a little + a singular verb.
Cuantificarea substantivelor
cantitative Quantifiers
a piece of/an item of luggage/
furniture, an article of furniture, a They moved all that furniture
piece/word of advice, a piece of all by themself, item/piece by
information/ news, a kilo of item/piece.
potatoes, a carton of cakes, a
bottle/glass of milk, a glass/ drop/ After another round of
bucket/ gallon of water, a strip of applause, the actor left the
land, a bar of chocolate, a cake of stage.
soap, a slice/ loaf, piece/ morsel of
bread, a grain of rice, a slice of There was a thin film of oil
cake, a film of dust, a ray of hope, on the water.
a bolt of thunder, a flash of
lightning, a round of applause, a How many more sheets of
pint of beer, foot of wood, a pound paper do you need?
of rice, an ounce of courage, a
piece of music, a sum of money, a There is no single blade of
block of stone/ice, a heap/mound grass left after this year’s
of earth, a loaf of bread, a lump of terrible drought.
coal (sugar), a sheet of paper, a
sheaf of paper, a pile(heap) of
rubbish, a blade of grass, etc.

Note: some indicates the indefinite

amount: some water

7. Genul Substantivelor Gender of nouns

Majoritatea substantivelor din limba engleză, fie ca denumesc fiinţe uname sau animale,
nu prezintă marca categoriei gramaticale a genului. Acest lucru este mai evident în cazul
substantivelor care denumesc porfesii sau relaţii socio-umane, în aceste cazuri, genul
substantivului respectiv fiind dat de context. Există, totuşi, unele substantive nume de profesii
şi ranguri sociale unde genul este marcat lexical prin desinenţa -ess, care se adaugă pe forma
de masculin a substantivului pentru varianta de feminin a acestuia. Invers, de la forma de
feminin la cea de masculin se ajunge adăugând desinenţele -er şi -groom.
Most English nouns, whether they denote human beings or animal, are not marked by the
grammatical category of gender.
Thius is true with most professions or other social relations where the gender of the noun is
contextualised.
doctor, mechanic, teacher, professor, musician, shop-assistant ,accountant, dancer,
choreographer, director, novelist, author, playwright, cook, painter, referee, coach, trainer,
technician, friend, parent, visitor, guest, tourist, inhabitant, local, neighbour, foreigner, etc.

84
There are some nouns denoting professions and ranks when the distinction is marked lexically
by the ending – ess added to the noun root, which ismasculine to obtain the feminine of the
noun.
god – godess; emperor – empress; prince – princess; count – countess; duke – duchess; baron
– baroness; host – hostess; master – mistress; heir – heiress, waiter – waitress, etc
-er and -groomare two endings which are added to the feminine form of the noun.
widow – widower; bride – bridegroom
Cases when gender is lexically marked. With nouns denoting people.
man – woman; boy – girl; wife – husband; father – mother; (grand)son – (gran)daughter;
brother – sister; uncle – aunt; nephew – niece; king – queen, monk – nun; lord/gentleman –
lady, bachelor – spinster; bachelor – maid, wizard – witch; etc.
With nouns denoting animals, there is sometimes a neuter form, too, which fulfils a generic
function, and a form denoting the young of the animal.

adult young neuter-

generic
masculine feminine masculin neuter
e feminine fox
fox cub duck
vixen goose
drake duck duckling sheep
gander ____________ pig/swine
goose lamb deer
ram ewe
hogboar sow piglet
buck/stag roe _____________ horse
hound/dog cattle
bitch pup(py) goat
drone bee ass
stallion colt filly wolf/bear
mare calf heifer poultry
bull cow kid cat
billy goat
nanny goat donkey
jackass cub
jennyass
he-wolf/bear she- chicken
wolf/bear kitty
rooster/cock hen kitten
tom tibby

i. Determinanţii Determiners
Aşa cum le indică numele, determinanţii determină un substantiv; unii dintre aceştia a)
identifică un substantiv iar alţii b) ne dau informaţii cantitative despre substantivul respectiv .
Cei cu rol identificativ sunt articolele hotărat, nehotărât, posesiv şi demonstrativ. Dintre cei
care precizează amintim: one, once, three, three times, each, every, either, neither, few,
several, both, some, each, many, much, all, what, one, etc.

85
Unii determinanţi din categoria b) pot fi precedaţi de prepoziţia of: either/neither (of), which
(of), most (of).
În această categorie mai există 5 determinanţi care pot fi folosiţi împreună cu determinanţii
din grupa a). Aceştia sunt: many,most, little, least şi few.
His many ideas helped in the completion of the project. The three students who won the
scholarship are X, Y and Z.
Există unii determinanţi care nu se încadrează în nici una din cele două categorii, şi anume:
other, such, what (in exclamaţii), only.
His only good friend is George.
What a shame!
Their other problem is the lack of time.
Such a boring class!
Other şi such se pot folosi şi după unii determinanţi din grupul b).
Few other rules can be applied here. Several such reports have revealed the same mistake.
În răspunsurile scurte apare doar determinantul, substantivul subînţelegându-se.
A: Do you have some time for me?
B: Sorry, I don’t have any (time).
A: Have you seen any swans on this lake?
B: Many (swans).
A: Which do you choose?
B: This (one)

În capitolele anterioare au fost prezentate deja adjectivul demonstrativ (this, that, these, those)
şi adjectivul posesiv (my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their).
În afară de acestea, mai există adjectivele nehotărât şi negativ, adjectivul interogativ,
articolulşi numeralul.

1. Articolul The Article

Articolul face parte din grupul determinanţilor. Acesta precedă substantivul şi îl modifică în
funcţie de contextul situaţional în care este folosit. El nu este o categorie gramaticală de sine
stătătoare ci se foloseşte doar împreună cu substantivul pe care îl determină. Cele trei articole
din limba engleză sunt: articolul nehotărât, a/an, articolul hotărât, the, şi articolul zero.
Substantivele determinate de articolul nehotărat sunt utilizate pentru a face o referire
individuală, cele determinate de articolul hotărat exprimă o referire unică, iar cele determinate
de articolul zero exprimă o referire generică (în cazul substantivelor numărabile la plural, a
celor nenumărabile şi în cazul unor nume proprii).
Partof the larger group of determiners, the article precedes and modifies nouns. It does not
exist independently of the noun it determines. The three English articles are the definite
article, the, the indefinite article, a/an,and the zero article. Nouns determined by the indefinite
article are marked by a) individual reference whereas nouns derermined by the definite article
are marked by b) unique reference. Zero articleis used for c) generic referencewith countable
nouns in the plural and also withuncountable nounsor with some proper names.
a) I have found a note on my desk.
b) The note says that I should contact the project manager immediately.
c) Ø Lilies symbolise purity; Ø Coffee is a remedy against low blood pressure; Ø Italy is a
preserver of priceless artistic treasures.
When used with a singular noun, the definite articleand the indefinite articlecan also
expressgeneric reference.
a) A lily is a symbol of purity; b) The lily is a symbol of purity.

86
Tipul articolului Trăsături Utilizarea articolului
Type of article Characteristics Use of articles
1. Nehotărât: a + consonant - cu substantive care
a/an an + vowel denumesc o profesie;
- primă referire a thesis, an - când însoţeşte anumite
Indefinite a/an element, a doctor, formule de cantitate;
- first reference an agency - în exclamaţii, precedat
de what + substantiv
numărabil
- când precedă
substantive care
denumesc mări, râuri,
nume de hoteluri,
localuri, teatre, muzee,
ziare;
- când substantivul
denumeşte un concept
unic;
- referire generică: clasă/
specie/ regn; substantive
colective formate din the
+ adjective
- cu nume de persone,
denumiri geografice cu
referire specifică,
restrictivă
- with nouns denoting
professions
- with some expressions
of quantity
- in exclamations with
what + countable noun
2. Hotărât: the the + - before nouns denoting
- referinţă unică, consonant seas, rivers, hotels,
generică, referire the + vowel pubs, theatres,
antrerioară Reguli de museums, and
Definite: the pronunţare newspapers
- unique, generic, Pronunciation - with nouns that denote
prior reference rules a unique concept
the /ðə/ înaintea - for generic reference:
substantivelor care reference toclass/
încep cu o species; collective nouns
consoană; the /ði/ (the + adjective)
înaintea - with proper names (of
substantivelor care people, geographical
încep cu o vocală. names) to make a
the /ðə/ before specific/ restrictive
nouns which begin reference.
with a consonant;
the /ði/ before
87
Exemple
Examples
Mark is already a
college student.
a pair of shoes; a little
patience; a couple of
times; a few discretion;
a hundred/thousand;
once a week; forty
miles an hour
What an interesting
idea! What a pity! What
a terrible thing (to say-
happen)!
The Daily Telegraph,
The Thames, The
Pacific, The Andes, The
Mediteranean, The
Globe, The
Ambassador, “The
Eagle and the Child”;
the Sun, the Morning
Star, the Pope
The blue whale is on its
way to extinction.
The Germans are
precise and
hardworking.
The meek will inherit
the Earth.
The Venice I saw this
 nouns begin with a
vowel.
3. Omisiunea Sunt cazuri în care
articolului articolul este omis în
mod deliberat, din
Omission/Elypsis motive stilistice, ca de
of the Article exemplu, în: tiluri,
telegrame, note şi
anunţuri scurte, în
indicaţiile regizorale,
precum şi în textele
literare sau în licenţele
poetice.
For stylistic purposes,
the article is
deliberately left out in:
headlines, telegrams/
short notes, stage
directions, literary texts.
4. Zero article Se foloseşte înaintea:
- pluralelor sau
substantivele
nenumărabile, pentru o
referire generală
(generică);
- substantivelor ce
denumesc ţări, oraşe,
străzi, limbi,
naţionalităţi, feluri de
mâncare, reviste,
aeroporturi, gări.
- denumirilor de sporturi
şi discipline şcolare.
- structurilor de tipul
limbaj ştiinţific sau
proverbe;
- substantivelor nume de
membri ai familiei;
- substantivelor nume de
persoane cu sau fără
apoziţie
- substantivelor ce
denumesc momente al
88
summer is not the same
Venice I saw two years
ago.
This is the Mary Brown
whom I’ve just
mentioned.
Night train derrays
before Calcutta
(headline)
Minister arrives to noon
by 4.45 plane.
(telegram)
Postman delivers parcel
to buttler.(stage
direction)
Mary will buy bananas
as she doesn’t like
strawberries.
Coffee keeps you
awake.
We will soon enter
Braşov. Don’t buy
Vogue, buy
Cosmopolitan.
What beautiful weather!
Such relaxing music!
Winter is the season
when Sinaia is most
visited by tourists.
Scholars in oriental
religion should know a
little bit of Hindi or
Bengali.
I met one of my school
pals at Paddington
(station) who said he
worked not far from
Oxford Street.
Geography and
athletics are my son’s
favourites.
Father took baby
brother for a walk in the
park.
zilei, mese ale zilei, Professor Brown will
anotimpuri, nume de lecture tomorrow in
instituţii; Leeds.
- unor nume de boli
- unor construcţii Glass breaks when hit.
paralele. Familiarity breeds
It is used before: contempt.
- plural and uncountable
nouns for general Children can easily get
(generic) reference. scarlet fever from other
before countries, towns, children in kindergarten
streets, languages, or at school.
nationalities, magazines,
meals, airports, station;.
- names of sports and
ofacademic subjects; While in prison, the
volleyball, hockey, woman studied law
baseball, mathematics, hoping for a positive
history, computer solution to her case.
science;
- nouns used in scientific In his youth, he spent a
statements or proverbs; couple of years at sea as
- set phrases with no in command of a cruise
article:. ship.
on foot, in context, in
use, go to/be at school, She built her career step
- nouns denoting times by step working hand in
of the day: at hand with her husband.
noon/dawn/midnight; by
night/day, before The manager said he
noon/dinnertime won’t see anyone before
- in parallel lunch.
constructions:
hand in hand; bit by bit; I hate chateaubriand
step by step; face to but I love paella.
face; man to man; from
beginning to end/north
to south/right to left
- certain names of
institutions
- nouns denoting family
members;
- names of persons
preceded or not by a
given title;
- some names of
institutions: be/go to
school; go home; be at
home; go/be at sea; be
in/go to class; go to/be

89

2. Alţi determinanţi Other determiners
Tipul adjectivului
Type of adjective
Adjectivul nehotărât şi negativ
Indefinite and negative
adjective
Nehotărât Indefinite
each, all, none, every, either,
both, some, any
Negativ Negative
neither, no (not a)
in church/prison/bed; be
in/leave town
- seasons
in spring/summer,
autumn
-with meals
have/at/before/after
breakfast/tea/lunch
- names of illnesses
to suffer from/have
pneumonia; flu;
rheumatism; bronchitis
Caracteristici
Features
- fac o precizare globală sau
parţială cu privire la
substantivul determinat de
acestea.
- every = toţi/toate
- each = fiecare
- either =
fiecare/oricare/ambele din
două elemente
neither = nici unul nici
celălalt
- both = atât unul cât şi
celălalt
- all = toţi/toate elemente
împreună (mai multe de
două) sau la toată
cantitatea.
- none = nici unul/una din
doi/două sau nimic din tot.
- these adjectives refer
globally or partially to the
noun they determine.
- every = each and all
member
- each = one or two or
more taken separately
- either = the one or the
other/ any/ whichever of
them/ both elements
- neither = not one or the
other/not either.
- both = one and the other
(of two)
- all = the total number or
90
Exemple
Examples
There are some people
waiting outside.
I have some (more) time
left.
Do you need all these
books?
Ask each of those who were
present in the meeting.
Can I use any of these
application forms?
I’ve got no room /I haven’t
got any room in my car for
another bag.
I will take either of these
(two) boxes (whichever of
the two).
The are two aspects to be
considered here and either
is equally important. (both)
A: Which chapter will you
discuss, I or II ?
B: Either will do, I don’t
mind. (whichever)/
Neither. (not any)
There is no time left (not a
single minute)
Both these colurs equally
suit you.
It’s taking all our time to

Adjectivul interogativ
Interrogative adjective
who, who… to, whom,
which(of) , what, to whom,
whose, how much/many, how
long
amount prepare the article.
- none = not one, nobody, They appreciated none of
not at all your effort/ none of your
suggestions.
Aceste adjective se folosesc Whose car are you driving ?
la obţinerea de informaţii Who(m) has she invited to
referitoare la un obiect/o the wedding?
persoană/o noţiune. To whom are you writing?/
- whose se referă atât la Who are you writing to?
persoane cât ş.i la obiecte. What do you want to do
- which este folosit cu sens with another dishwahser?
selectiv. Which do you prefer (which
These adjectives are used to of these activities)?
obtain information about a Swimming, playing tennis
person/ an object/a notion. or horseriding?
- whose refers both to
people and object.
- which has a selective
meaning.

Application

Following are some important words that relate to history and geography.
canyon a long, narrow valley with high cliffs on each side, often with a stream running
through it
civil war war between sections or groups of people of the same nation
climate the average weather conditions in a certain region over a period of years
coast land along the sea
colonist one of a group of people who settle in a distant land, but remain under the rule of the
home country
czar the title of any of the former emperors of Russia
democracy government in which the people hold the ruling power empire a group of countries
or territories under the rule of one government or person
jungle a tropical land thickly covered with trees and other plants and usually filled with
animals
longitude distance measured in degrees east and west of an imaginary line running from the
North Pole to the South Pole
North Pole the spot that is farthest north on the Earth
patriot a person who shows great love and loyalty toward his or her own country
South Pole the spot that is farthest south on the Earth
prime meridian the imaginary line from which longitude is measured both east and west.
Located at 0° longitude, it passes through Greenwich, England.
regent a person chosen to rule while a king or queen is absent, sick, or too young to take the
throne
serfs farm workers who, almost like slaves, belong to a landowner
terrain ground or area of land

91
tyrant a cruel or unjust ruler who has complete power

Complete each sentence with a word from the glossary. Use the other words in the
sentence to help you decide which word to add. Check the dictionary definition if you’re
still not sure.
1. Year after year, the flowing river made the ____________________ deeper.
2. The ruler was a power-hungry ____________________ who demanded total control of his
people.
3. The rocky, uneven ____________________ made travel by vehicle impossible.
4. Because the new king was only 10 years old, a ____________________ would head the
government for several years.
5. When powerful families from two different regions claimed power,
____________________ broke out.
6. Around the whole Earth, there are 360° of ____________________.
7. The nobleman was a wealthy landowner who had many ____________________ farming
his lands.
(source: Joanne Suter, Vocabulary – history and geography words, Saddleback Educational
Pubishing)

Practice
Insert the correct word. Find the words in the text in italics.

Sparta and Athens

1. What Greek society is dedicated to war? ____________________________
2. Their leader: Pausanias. A ____________________ of Sparta, acting Commander-in-
Chief. Bearing down on them, the super power of the day, ____________________.
Sparta is just ____________________ square miles. The Persian Empire, more than a
____________________.
3. In Sparta, from the age of ____________________, boys are trained as warriors. At
____________________, they join Sparta’s army, the most fearsome, most disciplined
____________________ force on earth.
4. A Spartan life is a life filled with ______________
5. . Spartans are armed with the best weapons of the day, ____________________ and
____________________ of iron.
6. Within Greece, Sparta’s rival: ____________________. Also small, vulnerable. A city of
____________________, ____________________, and ____________________.
7. The small city-state of ____________________ faces a choice, submit to the Persian
Empire or fight for ____________________. An envoy of the Persian emperor Xerxes
offers the people of Athens a chance to ____________________ and avoid bloodshed.
The cost, their _____________
8. Who is the ordinary Athenian citizen that will become a military legend? ____________

(What Greek society is dedicated to war? Sparta Their leader: Pausanias. A prince of Sparta, acting
Commander-in-Chief. Bearing down on them, the super power of the day, Persia. Sparta is just 3,000 square
miles. The Persian Empire, more than a million. In Sparta, from the age of seven, boys are trained as warriors.
At eighteen, they join Sparta’s army, the most fearsome, most disciplined fighting force on earth. True or False.
A Spartan life is a life filled with luxury. Spartans are armed with the best weapons of the day, spears and
swords of iron. Within Greece, Sparta’s rival: Athens. Also small, vulnerable. A city of merchants, playwrights,
and farmers. The small city-state of Athens faces a choice, submit to the Persian Empire or fight for freedom. An
envoy of the Persian emperor Xerxes offers the people of Athens a chance to surrender and avoid bloodshed. The

92
cost, their freedom. Who is the ordinary Athenian citizen that will become a military legend? Sophanes. Political
decisions in Athens are made not by kings, but by its armed citizens, men like Sophacles. A new political system,
a legacy still shaping civilization today:
Democracy).(source<:https://leonardglobal.weebly.com/uploads/2/5/9/4/25948653/
mankind_episodes1_12__1_.pdf)

Some 500 years ago, there was no such thing as an accurate map of the world. How much do you know about the
Age of Exploration ?
Study the information in the chart. Then circle a letter to answer each question.
EXPLORERS OF THE NEW WORLD NAME NATIONALITY FLAG MAIN ACHIEVEMENT DATES John
Cabot Italian English North Atlantic voyager 1497 Pedro Cabral Portuguese Portuguese explored Brazil’s coast
1500–1501 Jacques Cartier French French sailed up St. Lawrence 1534–1536 River in Canada Christopher
Columbus Italian Spanish first European to reach 1492 New World Hernando Cortez Spanish Spanish conquered
Mexico 1519 Sir Francis Drake English English first Englishman to make 1577–1580 voyage around the world
Ferdinand Magellan Portuguese Portuguese led first voyage around 1519–1522 the world Francisco Pizarro
Spanish Spanish discovered Peru 1513

Watch!
Collective nouns, https://www.engvid.com/collective-nouns-in-english-how-to-talk-about-
groups-of-people-and-things/
Countable and Uncountable Nouns, https://www.engvid.com/english-resource/countable-
and-uncountable-nouns/

Unit 9

Adjectives and Adverbs

Objectives:
 determine the difference between and adjective and an adverb according to their function
 identify adjectives among other parts of speech

93
 identify adverbs among other parts of speech
 understand and apply correctly the various degrees of comparison
 understand and apply the function of adverbs as modifiers (time, place, manner, degree, frequency)
 apply the correct forms of adjectives and adverbs in writing
 learn about the position of adverbs and of adjectives in a sentence

Key words:
 adjective, adverb, degree, modifier, collocation

Contents:
 classification of adjectives
 adverb formation

Adjectivul şi adverbul Adjectives and Adverbs

a) Clasificarea adjectivelor Classification of adjectives
Rolul adjectivului este de a informa cu privire la substantivul pe care îl determină. Există
patru tipuri de adjective, şi anume, calificative (cele mai multe), demonstrative, pronominale
şi cantitative.
- îndeplinesc funcţie atributivă pe lângă substantive;
- pot fi determinate de un adverb cu funcţie emfatică (extremely, entirely, terribly, very, etc);
The novel was terribly boring.
His behaviour was regarded as entirely outfashioned.

94
- pot îndeplini funcţie de nume predicativ şi de element predicativ suplimentar;
- formează grade de comparaţie.
The function of an adjective is to inform about the noun it determines. There are four types of
adjectives: descriptive (the greatest majority), demonstrative, pronominal and of quanity.
- they occur in attributive position (premodifyiers) to a noun.
- can, in turn, be premodifyied by an intensifyier (extremely, terribly, very, etc).
- can be used as subject or object complements.
He was declared superintelligent by all who knew him. (object complement)
He looked superintelligent to everyone who saw him. (subject complement)
- have comparison degrees inflectionally (-er; the …-est) – short (monosyllabic and
bisyllabic) adjectives or by premodification. (more; the most) – long (polysyllabic) adjectives.
Tom is the youngest and the most hardworking of us all.
a) regular adjectives and adverbs: (mono-/bisyllabic or polysyllabic) quick, blue, fit,
comfortable, fast, correctly etc. b) irregural adjectives and adverbs: good,well, ill.,bad, far,
little, much, many, some.
b) Formarea şi clasificarea adverbelor Adverb formation and classification
- majoritatea adverbelor de mod şi unele adverbe care indică procese graduale se formează
dintr-un adjectiv la care se adaugă desinenţa –ly;
- sunt părţi de vorbire care informează referitor la o acţiune, o stare sau o calitate (indică
caracteristicile acestora);
- îndeplinesc funcţia sintactică de complement circumstanţial;
- urmează în propoziţie verbului pe care îl determină;
- formează grade de comparaţie;
- adverbele de mod sunt poziţionate după verb, sau după complementul direct sau indirect
- adverbele de loc sunt poziţionate după verb; cu verbele come, go, be, adevrbul este folosit în
scop emfatic şi este aşezat la începutul propoziţiei;
- adverbele de timp sunt poziţionate la începutul sau la sfârşitul propoziţiei. Dacă sunt timpuri
compuse, atunci locul lor este după auxiliar.
- unele adverbe de frecvenţă sunt flexibile ca poziţie, ele putând apărea în diferite locuri în
propoziţie. În propoziţiile interogative şi în construcţiile cu auxiliare, poziţia lor este după
auxiliar. Unele dintre ele nu se ascociază cu un verb la negativ.
- most adverbs of manner and some adverbs of degree are formed like this : adjective + -ly
rapid – rapidly; total – totally; clear – clearly
-y → -i gay - gaily ; merry – merrily; gaudy – gaudily (but: coy – colyly; shy – shyly)
- consonant + → - le: gentle – gently;ample – amply, etc.
- final –e is kept: fine – finely; tense – tensely; conclusive – conclusively; terse – tersely, etc.
(but: true – truly; due – duly).
- are morphological items which refer to an action, state or a quality (by describing them);
- syntactically, they are adverbials (of place, of time, of manner, etc);
- adverbs of manner come after the verb, or after the object if it is short;
They spoke to the shop-assistant calmly./They spoke calmly to the shop-
assistant.
We stronlgy tried to persuade them to try to get their examination again.
- adverbs of place come after the verb; emphatically, here/there +
be/go/come/away/down/off/round, etc.may begin the sentence:
Here is our train! Here comes our train! There goes the group!
- adverbs of time are placed at the beginning or at the end of the sentence; if there are
compound tenses, they come after the auxiliary.
We dined late/immediatel.(only at the end)
He came afterwards/then. Then/Afterwards he came.

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They will soon arrive/They will arrive soon/ Soon they will arrive.
She has been ill since she returned form the trip./Since she returned from the
trip, she has been ill.
I am still your friend. They still work on their project.
- some adverbs of frequency can be placed either at the beginning, after the subject or at the
end of the sentence. (always, sometimes, usually, often). Others, such as hardly, ever, never,
just, rarely, scarcely, barely, seldom, appear after the subjectand are not used with a negative
verb.
He has repeatedly asked (me) the time.
He has asked (me) the time repeatedly.
Sometimes we take long walks in the neighbouring wood.
We sometimes take long walks in the neighbouring wood.
We take long walks in the neighbouring wood sometimes.
Have you often been in such a situation?
We barely entered when dog started barking with joy.
- adverbs of degree are placed before the adjective or the other adverb they modify.
The cake is almost burnt, so take it out of the oven.
I didn’t walk quickly enough to catch upo with the rest.
This car is (by) far more expensive than the one we saw last week.
We nearly dropped dead when we heard the news.
- adjective şi adverbe cu aceeaşi formă
adjectives and adverbs with the same form
well, high, dead, straight, near, back, fast, far, enough, still, low, little, long, etc.
c) Tipuri de adverbe Types of adverbs
Of time: now, then, today, yet, already, then, still
Of frequency: seldom, always, hardly, scarcely, periodically, no sooner, never, ever,
sometimes, frequently, repeatedly
Of place: here, there, up, down, near(by), next to, anywhere, nowhere
Of degree: very, terribly, hardly, too, rather, quite, fairly, far, a little, a lot, very, so, too,
extremely, entirely, enough, barely, quite, etc.
Of manner: fast, quick, slowly, gladly, happily, hard, well, lazily, diligently, perhaps,
probably, definitely, likewise, otherwise, elsehow, anyway, anyhow, etc.
Relative-interrogative: where, when, why
Sentence adverbs: definitely, possibly, certainly, surely, evidently, actually, apparently,
possibly, presumably, seemingly, perhaps, obviously, etc.
Other adverbs: (un)fortunately, honestly, admittedly, (un)luckily,
Adverbials: by no means, on the spur of the moment, at once, in the nick of time, on no
account, hardly ever, now and then/again, from time to time, willy-nilly, by fits and starts,
back and forth, to and fro, once on a while, as a matter of fact, by the way, as a rule, yes (of
course), no, by no means, by all means, not at all, hardly so,

1. Formarea gradelor de comparaţie The Comparison Degrees

Gradul de Formă Caracteristici Exemple
comparatie Form Features Examples
Degree of
comparison
Pozitiv Adjective şi adverbe de - este forma de hard; hot; pretty; fast
Positive mod bază a (adjectives)
Adjectives and adverbs of adjectivelor şi a fast (adverb)
manner adverbelor;

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 mono- şi bisilabice - nu exprimă o important; sensational;
monosyllabic and comparaţie. tempermental (adjectives)
bisyllabic the base form of
the adjective or easily/gladly/beautifully
polisilabice adverb; it does (adverb)
polysyllabic not show
comparison.
Comparativ Comparaţia sintetică - realizează
Comparative pentru adjectivele şi comparaţia de
adverbele mono- şi superioritate
bisilabice compares by
Synthetic comparison expressing
formonosyllabic/bisyllabic superiority
adjectives and adverbs harder/hotter/prettier/faster
than
superiority
adjective + -er - realizează less hard/hot/prettyt/fast
comparaţia de than
inferiority inferioritate not so hard/hot/pretty/fast
less+ adjective + than compares by as
not so + adjective + as expressing
inferiority as hard/hot/pretty/fast as
equality
as + adjective + as - realizează
comparaţia de
Comparaţia analitică egalitate
pentru adjectivele compares by
polisilabice şi pentru expressing
adverbe equality
Analytic comparison
for polysyllabic adjectives
and for adverbs
superiority
more + adjective/adverb more important/sensational/
inferiority tempermental
less+ adjective/adverb + than(adjectives)
than more easily/gladly
not so + adjective/adverb (adverbs)
+ as
less important/sensational/
tempermental than
equality (adjectives)
as + adjective + as not so
important/sensational/
tempermental as
less gladly than (adverb)
not so gladly as

as important/sensational/
tempermental as

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 (adjective)
as gladly as (adverb)
Superlativul Adjectives - compară mai
relativ multe elemente (the) hardest/ hottest/
Relative the + adjective + indicându-l(e) prettiest/fastest
superlative -estfor mono and pe cele care sunt
bisyllabic adj deasupra tuturor
din punct de the most hard/hot/pretty
vedere al
comparaţiei .
(the) most important It is the form an
adjective or
adverb takes to
compare three
or more things
indicating the Due to the extraordinary
Superlativul very; extremely; terribly; element which is performance on stage, the
absolut indescribably; above all of debutant received terribly
Absolute astonishingly; them in quality. tempting several contract
superlative unbelievably, etc proposals.
- indică o
calitate sau o
proprietate
excepţională
fără a face o
comparaţie
propriu-zisă.
It stresses an
exceptional
property without
making a direct
comparison.
the
Adverbs fastest/earliest/hardest/latest
the + adverb + -est Sheila worked the hardest
(the)+ most +adverb of all and she deserves the
prize.
(the) most easily/gladly
I’ll most gladly help you.
This book was the most
easily written of the three
books she has published so
far.
Adjective compuse Compound Adjectives - sunt adjective I consider Adriana, my
calificative. colleague, the epitome of
adjective/adverb/noun/numeral + past - dintre toate the self-made person. (not
participle adjectivele ‘the selfest- made person’,
compuse, grade or ‘the most self-made
ill-meant/willed; well- known; heart-broken; de comparaţie person’)
far-fetched; tight-fisted; green-fingered; au doar acele My green-fingered aunt

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quick/short-sighted; three-sided; self-made, adjective spends most of her time
bad-tempered; short-sighted; black-eyed; compuse la care tending her garden.
fair-haired, wind-blown; home-made, half- cel puţin unul
cooked; underestimated, overrated, dintre Why don’t you try this
overloaded, second-class, etc elementele cu absolutely scrumptious
putere home-made pastry?
semantică este
adjectiv. I tried to book an economy
- are a variety of class ticket but they only
descriptive had business class ones left.
adjectives
- of all I saw it first, which makes
compound me quicker-sighted than
adjectives, only you.
the ones that
contain at least
one
semantically
strong adhective
have What a pity! The project
comparison was much more underrated
degrees. than we expected.
Comparaţia This lawyer is definitely the
sintetică most smooth-tongued
Synthetic person I’ve ever heard.
comparison
- când adjectivul
este elementul
forte al
combinaţiei şi
îşi păstrează
sensul
nemodificat.
Comparaţia
analitică
Anayitic
comparison
- când ambele
elemente
formează o
unitate omogenă
ca sens.
as cold as ice, as Although a great party fan,
good as new, as Brian always manages to
patient as Job, remain as sober as a judge.
Structuri comparative as drunk as a
Similes lord, as sober as I was told that mechanics
a judge, as busy and archaeology are as
as a bee, as pure different as chalk from
as snow, as cheese, but I wouldn’t be

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 precious as that sure, though
gold, as poor as
a church mouse,
as bright as day,
sa clear as
crystal, etc
Şiruri de - toate adjectivele precedă He was wearing a
adjective substantivele pe care le Genuine (opinion),
(Adjective determină, iar atunci când medium-large, rectangular,
multiple) există un şir de adjective 1940, Swiss, gold watch.
Sequence of calificative, ordinea este The bid was for an
adjectives următoarea. expensive, long,
(Multiple -all adjectives precede flamboyant, saffron,
adjectives) the nouns they determine Turkish, embroidered, silk
and if there are several shawl.
adjectives to describe a
noun, the order is the A too long and boring film!
following: A juicy, cold slice of
watermelon!
Opinion – Size – Shape
– Age – Color – Origin –
Material – Purpose

Formele neregulate ale adjectivelor şi adverbelor

Irregular Adjectives and Adverbs

Positive Comparative Superlative

good (adjective); well (adverb) better
the best (relative)

very/extremely good/well (absolute)

bad (adjective); ill/badly(adverbs) worse

the worst (relative)

very bad/badly/ill (absolute)

far further (in time)/farther (in space)

the furthest (relative)

very far (absolute)

little (countables)/ few (uncountables) less
the least/fewest (relative)

very little/few (absolute)

much (countables)/ many (uncountables) more

the most (relative)

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very much/many(absolute)

some (countables and uncountables) less/more the

least/fewest/most (relative)
very
little/few/much/many (absolute)

2 Forme adjectivale compuse: substativ + numeral Compound adjectives: noun +

numeral
În acest caz, substantivul este folosit doar la forma de singular.
The noun in the compound is always singular.
A four-mile journey; a fifty-dollar banknote, a three-piece suit
3. Indicarea direcţiei prin adverbe de loc Adverbs of place for giving directions
next to; at the corner of; continue straight ahead/to; across from; far from; go up the street; go
up the boulevard; go up the avenue; take the street/boulevard/ avenue; near to; turn
left/right/at the corner; cross the bridge/ the square; take the second street on the right, at the
end of the street.

Application

Abraham Lincoln and the Gettysburgh Address

The United States of America was still less than 100 years old when it was torn in two by the
Civil War. In 1861, bitter warfare broke out between the northern and southern states. The
war was a clash of different ways of thinking, different customs, and different ways of life. In
July of 1863, the tide of war turned in favor of the North. It was then that Union forces
defeated Confederate troops at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. During that three-day battle, the
loss of life on both sides was staggering! More than 23,000 Union soldiers died. About 28,451
men were lost from the Confederate ranks. On November 19 of the same year, ceremonies
were held to dedicate a cemetery on the Gettysburg battlefield. President Abraham Lincoln
was asked to say a few words. The president came prepared with a short speech written on the
back of an envelope. Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address” would become one of history’s most
powerful calls for democracy, equality, and freedom. Lincoln began his speech by saying,
“Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation,
conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.” He ended
with these words: “We here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this
nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the people, by
the people, and for the people shall not perish from the Earth.” The victory at Gettysburg and
Lincoln’s speech made a difference. His ringing declaration of democracy and equality
seemed to promise that the end of the war was near. But the bitter battles and bloodshed
continued until the Confederacy finally surrendered in 1865.

4 Must Know Types of adverbs and how to teach them

https://busyteacher.org/17847-4-must-know-types-of-adverbs-how-to-teach.html

101
Word Search
What five-letter adjective from the reading means “of or within a country or
government”? (Hint: It’s part of the name of a major U.S. war.) 1. c ____________________
2. What eleven-letter noun from the reading means “a public statement”?
____________________ 3. What eight-letter verb from the reading means “to open
something or some place with a formal ceremony”? ____________________
Understanding the speech
Circle a letter to show how each sentence should be completed.
1. Four score and seven would be a period of a. 27 years. b. 87 years. c. 107 years. d. 127
years.
2. When Lincoln refers to “our fathers,” he means a. the Union generals. c. Grandfather
Lincoln. b. all American fathers d. The founding fathers of and grandfathers. the United
States.
3. To “die in vain” means to: a. bleed to death. c. die uselessly, for no good cause. b. die
bravely. d. die in a bloody battlefield.
4. A government “of the people, by the people, for the people” could best be described as a: a.
dictatorship. b. monarchy. c. tyranny. d. democracy

Watch!
Advjectives and adverbs, https://www.engvid.com/english-grammar-adjectives-adverbs/
Noun, verb, adjective and adverb, https://www.engvid.com/basics-noun-verb-adjective-
adverb/
Words that belong together – adjective and adverb collocations,
https://www.engvid.com/words-that-belong-together-adverb-adjective-collocations-in-
english/
Articles (a,an,the) – Lessons 1-7 Rules for using articles
corectlyhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-zZau_dttRY

Unit 9

Redactarea textului Writing skils

Objectives:
 developing abilities related to text production: analysis synthesis, organization, evaluation.
referencing
 developing critical reading and writing skills
 understanding the differences between various esay types
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 understanding and applying the text features correctly: paragraph division, linkers,
punctuation
 acquring and enriching the appropriate academic vocabulary
Key words:
 essay, argumentation, description, summary, paraphrasing, quoting, coherence, cohesion,
referencing
Contents:
 structure and organization in academic texts
 referencing
 summarizing
 paraphrasing
 quoting
 linking words and phrases

Bibliography:

Bailey, Stephen. (2003). Academic Writing. A Practical Guide for Students, RoutlegeFalmer.
Duigu, Gabi. (2002). Essay writing for English Tests, Academic English Press.
Loghin, D, Felea, C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.
Vince Michael (with Emerson, Paul). (2003) Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan.
Vince, Michael (with Sutherland, Peter). (2003). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan
Publishers Limited.

Redactarea textului academic Academic writing

1. Introduction
Utilizarea registrului academic va conferi limbii o tentă formală, directă, exprimarea
câştigând în claritate. Ca o prerogativă necesară pentru operarea asupra unui text marcat de
acest registru este capacitatea de a identifica (la citire) şi de a aplica (la redactare) anumite
procedee stilistice, cum ar fi utilizarea la diatezei pasive în locul celei active şi
substantivizarea (preferinţa folosirii substantivelor în locul verbelor).
În acest sens, Centre for Independent Language Learning of Hong Kong propune urmatoarele:
- folosirea unui mai registru mai degrabă speculativ(susţinut de adverbe ca possibly,
probably) decât asertiv (în locul adverbelor always, every sunt recomandate often sau
many/much);

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 - utilizarea verbelor modale (may, might);
- de expresii ca: appears, seems to;
- recurgerea la un vocabular formal;
- înlocuirea pronumelor personale (you, we) cu pronume nehotărâte şi demonstrative sau
impersonale (one, there, it);
- evitarea întrebărilor retorice;
- evitarea contragerilor, a folosirii excesive sau incorecte a conectorilor (besides,
furthermore, moreover);
- folosirea unei structuri gramaticale corecte, a coeziunii textuale (a se opta pentru fraza
relativă);
- aplicarea corecta a referntelor (inreatextuale – cuvintre referețiatoare –și
bibliografice);
Using the academic register means achieving a formal, direct language and clear expression.
When approaching texts that use this register, one should equally be able to recognise (when
reading a text) and employ (when writing a text) certain stylistic ‘devices’ such asthe use of
the passive voice rather than the active and of nominalisation (nouns rather than verbs.)
Example:
The groups of researchers preferred an isolated venue (active voice) where they
could hold (verbalization) the conference on inter- and outerspace contact exploration.
An isolated venue was preferred by the groups of researcher (passive voice) for
the inter- and outerspace contact exploration (nominalisation)
Also, the Centre for Independent Language Learning of Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
suggests the following:
- the use of tentative rather than assertive language (possibly and probably in front of
verbs and nounphrases:This is possibly due to the use of …... or It will probably
result in:
- using the modal verbs may and might: This may bethe cause of …..
- using appears toand seems to: This appears tohave caused the extinction of … .
- avoiding always and every, and replacing them with often and many/much
- using formal vocabulary (employ rather than use)
- using more formal grammar, for example: - avoiding short, disconnected sentences
- avoiding the use of personal pronouns such as you and we to address the reader using
one, there, it as the subject of the statement:
One may rarely find a better facility than… .
There are some further issues to be discussed ... ;
It is highly convenient to...
- avoid the use of rhetorical questions : Can you imagine another means of reaching
the same result?
- avoiding the use of contractions such as won’t, didn’t, we’ll
- avoiding the overuse and misuse of certain logical connectors, especially besides,
furthermore andmoreover. besides is too informal, and both furthermore and
moreover mean that the following information is more important than the information
before, which is usually bad organisation. Use in addition or also instead
- ensuring that grammar is accurate, that ideas link together smoothly and that a full
range of grammatical structures is employed, such as relative clauses
- referencing correctly, in both in-text references and bibliographical references.

Structura și organizarea textului Structure and organization

Recomandări
a) organizați-vă idelile: subiectul ales, exprimarea și coerența ideilor;

104
 b) lucrarea propriu-zisă
c), d), e) planul argumentării (pentru a facilita persepctiva asupra ideilor conținute):
intrroducere, corpul textului, bazat pe dezvoltarea ideilor principale anunțate de o
propoziție cu valoare anticipatorie (topic sentence); coerență în succesiunea ideilor;
- aplicarea metoda raționamentului logic la construirea paragrafelor (logica inductivă,
deductivă)
Aspects to be taken into consideration:
a) organising our thoughts (what to write about and who is the reading target, how to express
our ideas, the proper sequencing of the ideas);
b) the thesis
c) sketching the argument facilitates visual exploration of the connections between ideas -
writing the introduction; production/construction of body paragraphs: writing the topic
sentence which asserts and controls its main idea;
d) outlining the argument - finding the best structure for our argument;
e) developing the argument (evidence; arrangement; coherence) - it develops the paragraph’s
idea fully facilitating the reader’s understanding of it.
- paragraphs are arranged differently for different purposes (e.g. chronologically for a
history paper, spatially for an art history presentation, or from the specific to the general in
sociology texts, etc.)
- the method of reasoning when constructing a paragraph:
- using inductive logic, that is, working from clues towards your conclusion, thus the evidence will
come early on in the paragraph, and the topic sentence will appear at the end;
- using deductive logic – the paragraph has the form of a syllogism;

1. Coerenţa Coherence
Relaţionarea corectă între subiectele gramaticale utilizarea corectă a elementelor de
tranziţie/legătură (conectorii); introducerea şi concluzia sintetizează şi conferă suportul
contextual al întregului text (al argumentului).
Introducerea
- suscită interesul anticipând şi indicând spre argumentul propriu-zis;
- defineşte succinct problema;
- declară tema lucrării (precizează poziţia autorului vis-à-vis de tema aleasă);
- oferă material pentru argumentare.
Concluzia
- nu presupune simpla rezumare a informaţiilor anterioare. Vizează argumentul accentuând
importanţa contribuţiei personale a autorului lucrării, una originală.
The proper relationship between the grammatical subjects as well as the correct use
oftransition markersmakes a paragraph coherent. Introductions and conclusions synthesize
and provide context for the entire argument.
The introduction
- stirs interest towards the subject by anticipating and pointing to the argument proper, which
is to be developed in a larger context;
- briefly defines the problem;
- declares the thesis (the writer’s position on the matter);
- provides background material important to the argument;
- defines the key terms used in the argument;
The conclusion
- is not meant to simply summarize the previous information. It points back to the argument by
emphasizing the importance of the author’s own contribution to it. Returning to the
background information stated in the introduction, the conclusion demonstrates the author’s

105
original contribution to that information. Also, how the argument has enriched and developed
the meaning of the key terms.
2. Utilizarea surselor Referencing
Orice informaţie, idee, sursă utilizată vor fi incorporate cu grijă în cuprinsul lucrării. Iată
câteva metode; citarea surselor, sintetizarea (alăturarea sumativă a informaţiilor culese din
diferite surse), parafrazarea (aceeaşi dimensiune cu cea a textului original) sau rezumarea
(dimensiunea mult redusă faţă de cea a textului original).
When writing, information, evidence and ideas, but must be incorporated into your work
carefully. Quoting, synthesising (summing up information from various sources),
paraphrasing (same length as the original) or summarising (the new text is shorter than its
original) are ways of referring to and including the works of others in your assignments.
Sources must be cited.
3. Rezumarea Summarising
Reprezintă un indiciu al gradului de înţelegere (receptare corectă) a textului propus. Utilizarea
intensă a acestui procedeu reprezintă una dintre metodele cele mai importante de lucru cu
textul academic, dacă nu chiar cea mai importantă dintre acestea.
- an indicator of the degree of one’s understanding of the proposed text. Used lavishly in
research activities, summarising is one of the most important academic skills, if not, indeed,
the most important one.
Metode in note-taking ,in writing abstracts, an aid in writing both introductions and
Applicatio conclusions, in data-collecting and collected information management, when
ns referring to original texts, in making frameworks (subject to further detailed
analysis), for brief proposals or progress reports.
It is a text-shortening operation to a maximum number of words/ a 10th of the
source text.
The gist of a (longer) text is preserved unaltered in its shortened version
without copying entire statements from the original text.

Etape - getting the text’s main subject or purpose, usually in one sentence
Steps - formulating the main ideas
- including them in brief paragraphs, each based on only one issue or topic.
- writing a paragraph to combine all the previous ideas/points.
- restoring the general idea (gist) concisely and accurately in the new shorter
text (the summary) without copying out parts of the original.
Sugestii - the layout should be easy to read, with spaces between each note
Some - always mention the source(s)
extra tips

Exemple Original text Summary

Examples Everyone hoped that the weeks of planning and A number of new
preparation would prove to be worthwhile. The summer attractions and
fete was the most important fund raising activity in the perfect weather
school calendar. Last year’s event had raised over $ 1500 conditions helped
which had been spent on improving the outside play area. make this year’s
This year, the organising committee had set an ambitious summer fete the
target of $1800 with the aim of purchasing much needed most successful
sports equipment for the school. ever. A record
Altogether fourty different stalls had been advertised. amount of $1900
There were a number of exciting new activities, including was raised. The
pony rides and a bouncy castle, both of which were to be proceeds will be

106
 introduced for the first time. It was hoped that they would used to buy new
be as popular as some of the most traditional stalls like sports equipment
the coconut shy and tambola. A large number of parents for the school.
and children had offered their help and the committee [38words]
was confident that this would be the most successful fund
raiser to date.
On the day of the fete the day was perfect. It was sunny,
but not too hot, and best of all, no rain had been forecast.
The new attractions went down very well. There seemed
to be a permanent queue of children waiting at the bouncy
castle. The committee was absolutely delighted when the
final takings were counted and announced as a record of $
1900, exceeding all expectations. Following such an
outstanding success, everyone agreed that it was worth all
hard work and effort.
(model worksheets:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/words/reading/summaris
ing/worksheet.shtml)
[237 words]

4. Parafrazarea Paraphrasing
Acest procedeu organizaţional serveşte la redarea cu propriile cuvinte a cuvintelor altei
persoane. Pentru realizarea unei bune parafrazări este important să schimbăm atât cuvintele
flosite de autor cât si ordinea ăn care acesta şi-a formulat ideile.
This procedure helps you to put someone elses’s ideas into your own words. Change both the
words and the structure and from the source text.
- atunci când schimbăm cuvintele (cu excepţia vocabularului strict ştiinţific-speacializat sau a
cuvintelor commune) se va recurge la sinonime. Sursa se va cita în mod obligatoriu.
- atunci când schimbăm structura textului original, se va începe de la un alt punt al
pasajului/paragrafului, orientându-vă către aspectul pe care doriţi să-l scoateţi dumneavoastră
în evidenţă.
- when changing words (except specialised vocabulary or common words), resort to
synonymy. The source is always cited.Notes may be taken while reading. Identifying the main
ideas is helpful to a good understanding of the source and for your own text’s organization.
- when changing the structure, begin by starting at a different place in the passage and/or
sentence(s), basing your choice on the focus of your paper. This will lead naturally to some
changes in wording”
(The Writing Center – The University of Wisconsin – Madison
http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/QPA_paraphrase2.html)
Examples offered by source: Academic writing: Reporting - paraphrase, summary &
synthesis (http://www.uefap.com/writing/report/repfram.htm)
It has long been known that Cairo is the most populous city on earth, but no-one knew exactly
how populous it was until last month.
Although Cairo has been the world’s most heavily populated city for many years, the
precise population was not known until four weeks ago)
Paul Ekman from the University of California has conducted a long series of
experiments on how nonverbal behaviour may reveal real inner states.
Paul Ekman who works at the University of California has performed a sequence of
investigations on the way nonverbal behaviour may disclose real internal conditions.
5. Citarea Quoting

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Când cităm un text, se va ţine cont în mod expres de referirea la sursa sa. Puneţi între
ghilimele partea citată şi leagaţi-o de ideea a dumneavoastră, cea care urmează a fi dezvoltată
ulterior. Menţionaţi neapărat autorul, lucrarea (şi paginile) de unde s-a extras citatul. Pentru
comentarii, clarificări sau corecturi, folosiţi paranteze patrate [sic = astfel, prin urmare].
Adesea, atât semnalarea, cât şi afirmaţia personală apar într-o singură frază introductivă.
Observaţi cum conectorii de tranziţie servesc şi la introducerea corectă a citatului în fraza
introductivă.
When citing (quoting) you must make careful reference to the source. Introduce the excerpt in
quotation marks and link it to your own idea, the one that is to be developed further on.Also,
mention the name of the author, the work (and page) from where the quotation was taken. For
comments, clarifications, or a corrections, square brackets - [sic = so/thus] - are used.
Often both the signal and the assertion appear in a single introductory statement, as in the
example below. Notice how a transitional phrase also serves to connect the quotation
smoothly to the introductory statement.
Example.
“Music and Autobiography (Leiris lyrique),” examines [signal] how Michel Leiris uses the
expressive dimension of the musical model and how he is “inspired by the expressive power
of song to develop a number of rhetorical devices helpful in achieving the type of
communication entière he seeks to integrate into his autobiographical texts” (p. xii).
Throughout his analysis of L’âge d'homme, La règle du jeu, Biffures, and other texts, Prieto
shows that “language tends to replace events as the object of autobiographical discourse” and
that Leiris “seeks to emphasize the definitive role of thought patterns in the determination of
subjective identity” (p. 143) [assertion] . Similar to Pinget’s “murmur” is Leiris’s notion of
“chant,” which is “to the intellect what song is to voice” (116). [connection] Leiris uses
language musically in that he subordinates denotation to patterns of relationships that are
unique to him (p. 153). The musical model serves here as the “best available metaphor” to
“promote the goal of intimate communication” (p. 152). (source : Pautrot, Jean-Louis,
Listening in: Music, Mind, and the Modernist Narrative in Comparative Literature, Fall 2004)

Conectori Linking words and phrases

Deşi unele dintre aceste cuvinte au mai fost incluse în câteva dintre capitolele anterioare sub
numele de conectori interpropoziţionali, ele îndeplinesc şi rol de conectori textuali
(interparagrafiali), leagând ideile sau argumentele din cadrul unui text.
Although some of these words have already been mentioned as sentence connectors, they can
also be used to develop coherence and achieve cohesion within a paragraph, that is linking
one idea / argument to another.
Type of connector Connecting word Example
Sequence first / firstly I shall have to make a
second / secondly rigorous plan regarding our
third / thirdly etc. enterprise.
next, last, finally Firstly/First(of all) we will
in addition, moreover sit down and find the best
further / furthermore strategy… .
another Next, we will appoint a
also secretary… Then, we’ll find a
manager…
Another step would be to…
Result in conclusion It wasn’t so late to start it all
to summarise over again. Therefore, we
so agreed to meet as soon as

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 as a result possible and …
hence As a result, we managed to
consequently get everything done in due
as a consequence (of) time.
therefore To summarise / In
thus conclusion, the merger turned
out to be a success.
Emphasis undoubtedly
indeed Their suggestion was
obviously admittedly unsubstantial
generally butMary will
admittedly undoubtedlycome up with a
in fact better one. In fact, we have
particularly / in particular always relied on her.
especially
clearly
importantly
Addition and Mary’s report turned out to
in addition /additionally/ be exactly what we had all
an additional point expected. In addition, she
furthermore offered to write one for the
also following session.
too
as well as
Reason due to Due to the board’s constant
because refusal to look into my
since proposals, I will not try again
as
because of
Example for These are not what we call
for example constructive contributions,
for instance such as, for instance, your
that is (ie) colleague’s.
such as I will have to take into
including account the needs of all our
namely members, including those of
their families’.
Comparison Similarity Aviary flu is not at all similar
similarly to any other viruses known so
likewise far.
also It likewise affects children
like and adults, men and women
just as alike.
just like A protection campaign for
similar to the population has already
same as began.
compare At the same time, a vaccine is
at the same time expected to be put to use
both soon.
also

109
 too
as well as
Difference (contrast)
(as ) compared to / with
… differs from
in contrast to/ in comparison
(to)
on the one hand/ on the other On the one hand, school
(hand) children will be inoculated
not only...but also with the latest vaccines on
while the market, and on the other,
but pregnant women will strictly
yet be monitored on weekly
still basis.
whereas
rather Whereas/ While children will
though be inoculated with the latest
although / even though vaccines on the market,
however nevertheless pregnant women, will strictly
nonetheless be monitored on weekly
contrary (to)/ in contrast basis.
conversely despite / in spite In spite of/despite/contrary
of the so far efforts, no definite
conclusion has been reached.

Comparing and Contrasting

The World Wars

Students of history often find charts helpful - especially for comparing and contrasting. Charts
can show you similarities and differences at a glance. The chart below compares and contrasts
World War I and World War II.

WORLD WAR I WORLD WAR II

1914–1918 1939–1945

Causes Growing power struggles erupt Aggressive dictators become

when Archduke Franz Ferdinand, powerful: Hitler (Nazi party,
heir to the throne of Germany), Tojo (Japan); German
AustriaHungary, is killed by a invasion of Poland; Germany’s Nazi
Serbian assassin campaign to kill all Jews

Alliances Central Powers: Germany, Axis nations: Germany, Japan, Italy

Austria-Hungary Allies: England, Allies: England, France, Russia,
France, Russia, Italy* (*Italy United States, and many smaller
joined the Allies in 1915) nations

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U.S. Involvement United States declares war April Japanese bomb Pearl Harbor; U.S.
6, 1917 declares war on Dec. 11, 1941

New Technology poison gas, fighter planes, tanks, submarines, atom bomb
trench warfare

Results An Allied victory! A peace treaty Allies are victorious! Victory in

drawn up in Versailles, and Europe (V-E Day) declared May 8,
France sets up the League of 1945. Japanese surrender on August
Nations to promote world peace. 15, 1945; United Nations set up as
peacekeeping organization

Analogies

Analogies are statements of relationship. To come up with the missing term, you must figure
out the relationship between the first two terms. Then complete each analogy with a term
from the reading that shows the same relationship.

1. Poison gas is to World War I as ______________ _____________ is to World War II. 2.

1914 is to World War I as ____________________ is to World War II. 3. League of Nations
is to World War I as _____________ ______________ is to World War II. 4. Mussolini is to
Italy as ____________________ is to Germany. 5. Central Powers are to World War I as
______________ ______________ are to World War II.

Connotations

Connotations are the feelings and ideas associated with a word. Find the word aggressive in
the reading. Then read the synonyms for aggressive listed below. Notice that some have
positive connotations and others suggest negative feelings. Put a + or – beside each synonym
to tell whether it is positive or negative.

1. _____ assertive

2. _____ bold

3. _____ combative

4. _____ militant

5. _____ determined

6. _____ pushy
(source: Joanne Suter, Vocabulary History and Geography Words, Saddleback Educational
Publishing)

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Application

Essay

Rating: 97

Technology has highly evolved over time. In fact, nowadays almost everybody has some sort of
machine at hand, be it computers, cars, or even washing machines. But although machinery was
devised to benefit mankind, it has also brought along many flaws to match. Firstly, when it comes to
technological equipment such as computers, disruption most often arises between the person using the
computer, and the household he or she is surrounded by, or living with. For example, many old family
traditions such as eating meals with your relatives at the dining table seldom take place now that one
of the family members might be too busy working on his Mac.laptop. Thus, family values and morals
have changed in order to adapt to this technological age. Secondly, having many kinds of machinery at
hand is not only destroying family traditions, but is also very harmful to our environment. Many
people are careless about allowing their car engines to run haphazardly, or leaving their laptops on for
long periods of time, however they do not seem aware of the fact that all this energy and electricity
consumption is dangerous to not only our local environment, but to the world as a whole.
Additionally, it is the over-usage of machinery, big or small that is bringing our society ever closer to
Global Warming, and we must stop. As I mentioned in my introduction, technological equipment was
never programmed to damage nature per se, but to help people all around the globe. Now that nuclear
families aren’t as closely intact compared to the 1950s or 1990s, technology has given us an
alternative method to keep in touch with our relatives thanks to computer applications such as Skype,
or even cell phone applications such as VIBER or WhatsApp. Machinery has most definitely done
wonders in our lives, and we as people should be grateful to easily possess cars, and/or phones when
poorer countries do not even have the chance to. However, with all the advantages machinery has
brought to us all, I personally believe that possessing too many cars or phones, or even consuming too
much of their energy and battery, is beginning to get out of hand and needs to be controlled.
Commentary
The writing prompt this test taker wrote on was:
Machines now play an important role in most people’s lives. Computers, cars, and household
machines (such as washing machines) have become very common. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of having so many machines in people’s lives? Use specific examples in your answer

This essay would be awarded a score of 97. It is a polished piece of writing that thoroughly develops
the topic of the prompt, far beyond the superficial level, and acknowledges its complexity. Syntactic
control is very strong in this essay. The writer demonstrates consistent control over complex and
varied syntactic structures, and the response is essentially error free. There is a wide range of
appropriately used vocabulary. The essay is also very cohesive. The writer builds the argument not
through a reliance simply on the use of mechanical transition markers, but in a much more
sophisticated way, developing each supporting point richly and connecting the ideas together so that
the essay reads smoothly. It is very easy for the reader to follow the development of the ideas in the

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text.(source: Sample essays and commentary,
https://michiganassessment.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/MELAB-SampleEssays-Commentary-
2013.pdf)

Practice
Write an essay on one of the foloowing topics:
Central Asian art: Its influence on contemporary art
The correlation between Greek culture & Roman culture
The correlation between history & culture on the example of Japan
The most effective military strategy of all times
How Genghis Khan conquered Persia
Martin Luther King’s protest against the Catholic Church
Aztec Empire and its architecture
(source: https://writemypaper4me.org/blog/research-topic)

Watch!
How to write a good essay, https://bowvalleycollege.libguides.com/essays;
How to write an argumentative essay,
https://www.privatewriting.com/blog/argumentative-essay
History Essays, https://www.ukessays.com/essays/history/
Watch!
How to write a good essay, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=liyFKUFCQno
Writing – Transition – in addition, moreover, furthermore, another
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IsDR3XEv50E
25 academic english words you should know/great for university, IELTS, and TOEFL,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BNL7qK09r7I
Power Writing – Write anything in English Easily (Essays, Emails, Letters, etc.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dT_D68RJ5T8

APPENDIX
Lista Verbelor Neregulate cel mai frecvent utilizate
List of most frequently used Irregular Verbs

Infinitive (base form) Past Simple Past Participle

be was/were been
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
begin began begun
build built built
burn burnt/burned burnt/burned

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buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamt/dreamed dreamt/dreamed
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feel felt felt
find found found
fly flew flown
forget forgot forgotten
get got got/gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
have had had
hear heard heard
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
learn learnt learnt
leave left left
lean leant leant
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay lain
light lit lit
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
pay paid paid
put put put
read read read
ring rang rung
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
sell sold sold
send sent sent

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show showed shown
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk/sunken
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
spend spent spent
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
swim swam swum
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
understand understood understood
wake woke woken
wear wore worn
weep wept wept
win won won
withdraw withdrew withdrawn
write wrote written

Some useful videos on history-related issues

Discover the History of English

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCJlefVpsvU
Important topics for history & culture for Mainshttps://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=pBNhhsvSowY
Eras of History
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q0hRyTLQioc
How the Normans changed the history of Europe, https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Owf5Uq4oFps
Ancient Worlds – The Minoans, https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=prwtx7C8hQU&itct=CA0QpDAYBSITCMLN2rOI8dgCFQzHfgodHTkE5jIHcmVsYXRl
ZEiggrruofjO7c8B&app=desktop
World War I – origins, events and consequences summarized on a
map,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SLj5r2nZHB8

RESEARCH HINTS

Summarizing
Summarizing is the first phase of the SCIM-C strategy and begins with having students
quickly examine the documentary aspects of the text, in order to find any information or
evidence that is explicitly available from the source. Within this phase students should

115
attempt to identify the source's subject, author, purpose, and audience, as well as the type of
historical source (e.g., letter, photograph, cartoon). In addition, the student should look for
key facts, dates, ideas, opinions, and perspectives that appear to be immediately apparent
within the source. The four analyzing questions associated with the summarizing phase
include:

    What type of historical document is the source?

    What specific information, details and/or perspectives does the source provide?

    What is the subject and/or purpose of the source?

    Who was the author and/or audience of the source

Contextualizing
Contextualizing begins the process of having students spend more time with the source in
order to explore the authentic aspects of the source in terms of locating the source within time
and space. The teacher needs to emphasize that it is important to recognize and understand
that archaic words and/or images from the period may be in a source. These words and/or
images may no longer be used today or they may be used differently, and these differences
should be noted and defined. In addition, the meanings, values, habits, and/or customs of the
period may be very different from those today. Ultimately, students and teachers must be
careful to avoid treating the source as a product of today as they pursue their guiding
historical question. The four analyzing questions associated with the contextualizing phase
include:

    When and where was the source produced?

    Why was the source produced?
    What was happening within the immediate and broader context at the time the source
was produced?
    What summarizing information can place the source in time and place?

Inferring is designed to provide students with the opportunity to revisit initial facts gleaned
from the source and to begin to read subtexts and make inferences based upon a developing
understanding of the context and continued examination of the source. In answering an
historical question and working with the primary source, sometimes the evidence is not
explicitly stated or obvious in the source, but rather, the evidence is hinted at within the
source and needs to be drawn out. The inferring stage provides room for students to explore
the source and examine the source's perspective in the light of the historical questions being
asked. The four analyzing questions associated with the inferring phase include:

    What is suggested by the source?

    What interpretations may be drawn from the source?

    What perspectives or points of view are indicated in the source?

    What inferences may be drawn from absences or omissions in the source?

Monitoring is the capstone stage in examining individual sources. Here students are expected
to question and reflect upon their initial assumptions in terms of the overall focus on the
historical questions being studied. This reflective monitoring is essential in making sure that

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students have asked the key questions from each of the previous phases. Such a process
requires students to examine the credibility and usefulness or significance of the source in
answering the historical questions at hand.

Ultimately, monitoring is about reflection, reflection upon the use of the SCIM-C strategy and
reflection upon the source itself. The SCIM-C strategy is recursive in nature and thus
revisiting phases and questions is essential as one begins to create an historical interpretation
of a source in light of one's historical questions. The four analyzing questions associated with
the monitoring phase include:

    What additional evidence beyond the source is necessary to answer the historical
question?

    What ideas, images, or terms need further defining from the source?

    How useful or significant is the source for its intended purpose in answering the
historical question?

    What questions from the previous stages need to be revisited in order to analyze the
source satisfactorily?

Corroborating only starts when students have analyzed a series of sources, and are ready to
extend and deepen their analysis through comparing the evidence gleaned from each source in
light of the guiding historical questions. What similarities and differences in ideas,
information, and perspectives exist between the analyzed sources? Students should also look
for gaps in their evidence that may hinder their interpretations and the answering of their
guiding historical questions. When they find contradictions between sources, they must
investigate further, including the checking of the credibility of the source. Once the sources
have been compared the student then begins to draw conclusions based upon the synthesis of
the evidence, and can begin to develop their own conclusions and historical interpretation.
The four analyzing questions associated with the corroborating phase include:

    What similarities and differences between the sources exist?

    What factors could account for these similarities and differences?

    What conclusions can be drawn from the accumulated interpretations?

    What additional information or sources are necessary to answer more fully the guiding
historical question?

(source: Teaching with primary sources, https://sites.google.com/site/tpsdiningwithwashington/scim-c

GLOSSARY
History words
History, like many disciplines, has its own distinctive forms and styles of writing. As well as learning
to think about the past, history students must also learn to write history in a clear and convincing

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manner. Those who are already strong writers will relish this challenge but others may find it
confronting. This page contains several lists of ‘history words’ to provide you with a head start in
writing history. You will encounter many of these words when reading history while others are useful
descriptive words you can use in your own writing. These lists are not comprehensive or exhaustive
but may prove useful for inexperienced writers. If you are new to history, or have difficulty finding the
right words, save or print off these lists and keep them to hand. If you would like to suggest words for
these lists, please make contact with your ideas.
Sections or groups in society
People who work in schools and universities, teaching or undertaking
academia research

agrarian People involved in producing crops and livestock through farming

People who possess noble titles and privileges, often with wealth and
aristocracy power

People involved in the manufacture or repair of items, such as

artisans mechanics

bourgeoisie People who own capital, such as land, factories and raw materials

As for bourgeoisie (above), people who own capital and the means of

capitalist production

People ordained by the church to carry out its functions, such as priests,

clergy monks and nuns

People involved in trade, such as importing and exporting, buying and

commercial selling

economic People, institutions and activities that produce society’s wants and needs

establishment The political, social and economic elites who wield power in a society

gender Refers to the rights, roles and conditions of men and women in a society

industrial The mass production of wants and needs, particularly on a large scale

intelligentsia People who develop ideas, theories and policies in a society

The social classes who own some property and enjoy safe and stable
middle class standards of living

military A state’s defence forces, such as the army, navy and air force

monarchy The institution of hereditary royalty, led by a king, queen or emperor

nobility People who possess noble titles, either from birth, royal grant or venality

People who work the land, usually as tenant farmers and often in
peasantry impoverished conditions

Intellectuals and writers who engage in critical study of society, beliefs

philosophes and ideas

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 The people, bodies and processes that govern and make decisions in a
political society

People who work for wages in a society, particularly in the industrial

proletariat sector

The areas of a nation outside major cities, such as lesser towns, rural
provincial areas or colonies

The upper levels of a society, such as royalty, aristocracy and the very
upper class wealthy

urban The people, actions and conditions in large cities

village A small agricultural community, usually in a rural area

working class The lower levels of society, whose members must work to survive

Political systems
Any political system where the ruler or government wields absolute
absolutism power

A political system that seeks to abolish the state and create a communal
anarchism society

A system where political power is concentrated in the hands of a single

autocracy person

An economic system where most companies, land and other resources

capitalism are privately owned

A system of claiming, settling, ruling and maintaining one or more

colonialism colonies (see imperialism)

A political-economic system with no state, minimal class differences

communism and economic equality

constitutional A political system with a monarch whose power is limited and shared
monarchy with the people

A political system where the government or parts of it are selected by

democracy the people

divine right A form of political authority where power is said to be ordained by God

A political system marked by authoritarian rule, nationalism, state and

fascism military power

A medieval socio-political system with a hierarchy of kings, lords,

feudalism knights and vassals

119
 A system where a powerful state conquers territories (colonies) for its
imperialism own gain

A system or world view based on material factors, inequalities of wealth

Marxism and class struggle

An economic system designed to increase national power by increasing

mercantilism wealth and trade

A system where military needs are prioritised and the military exerts
militarism political influence

An ideology urging loyalty to one’s own country; to put your country

nationalism first

A form of political authority where power is derived from the consent of

popular sovereignty the people

A system where the government rules in the interests of the workers or

socialism common people

A form of socialism where the workers collectively control their

syndicalism factories or workplaces

A system where government and laws are determined by religious

theocracy leaders and teachings

A political system where the power of the state often overrides the rights
totalitarianism of individuals

A system that provides necessities of life to the homeless, unemployed,

welfare state sick or elderly

Political concepts
A body of people, elected or appointed to form government or make
assembly decisions

A form of government where one person is responsible for decision

autocracy making

A document defining systems of government and the limits of

constitution government power

democracy A political system where government is formed by popular elections

The idea that governments and autocrats derive their power and
divine right authority from God

The process of voting to select others, usually to form a representative

elections government

120
 The branch of government responsible for leadership and day to day
executive decision making

A system responsible for leadership, making decisions and making laws

government in a society

A system of ideas and beliefs that shapes one’s views about politics and
ideology government

An assembly that exists to pass new laws or review, amend or abolish

legislature existing laws

An elected legislature from which an executive government is also

parliament formed

The involvement of ordinary people in selecting government and in

participation political discourse

The idea that governments derive their power and authority from the
popular sovereignty consent of the people

A political concept where some individuals act, speak or make decisions

representation on behalf of others

The supreme authority of a government, the basis for its power and
sovereignty autonomy

‘The state’ describes an organised society and the political system that
state governs it
Economic concepts
The resources needed to produce things, such as land, raw materials and
capital equipment

commerce The business of buying and selling, particularly on a large scale

Money owed to another party, usually because it has been previously

debt borrowed

deficit The shortfall that exists when spending is greater than income

Resources or goods sold and shipped to another country, which boosts

exports national income

Describes the sections of an economy concerned with managing money,

finance such as banking

Resources or goods bought and shipped in from another country,

imports depleting national income

The production of raw materials and manufactured goods within an

industry economy

inflation An increase in prices for goods and services, reducing the purchasing

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 power of money

The people who provide work to enable production or delivery of

labour services; the workers

French for “let it be”; an economy free of trade regulations, tariffs or

laissez-faire costs

manufacturing The process of making or producing goods, particularly on a large scale

The process of making things, particularly things that have additional

production value

Financial reward obtained from business or investment, where income

profit exceeds costs

Money received for normal activities, such as sales (business) or

revenue taxation (government)

Money collected from individuals and groups by the government to fund

taxation the state

trade The buying or selling of goods, usually in exchange for money

Words for describing historical cause

agitated aroused awakened brought about catalyst

developed deteriorated encouraged exacerbated fuelled

generated incited inflamed instigated kindled

led to long term motivated popularised propagandised

prompted promoted protested provoked radicalised

reformed rocked roused set off short term

solicited sparked spurred stimulated stirred up

transformed triggered urged whipped up worsened

Words for describing historical effect or consequence
boosted catastrophic consolidated crippled decimated

demoralised depleted disastrous disbanded disoriented

dispersed dissolved divided drained elevated

emboldened enriched exhausted fatigued hardened

122
 heartened improved inspired mobilised prospered

punished restored sapped scattered separated

stimulated strained strengthened stretched unified

united unsettled uplifted upset wearied

Words for describing historical continuity

blocked calmed censored clamped down concealed

conservative contained curbed deterred dispersed

froze halted held back limited mollified

pacified oppressed overpowered prohibited quashed

quelled reactionary regressed repressed resisted

restored restrained restricted smothered stabilised

stemmed stunted subdued suppressed wound back

Words for describing historical significance
adverse calamitous catastrophic destabilising destructive

devastating dire disastrous essential expedient

far reaching far sighted fateful forerunner ground breaking

healing important innovative meaningful modernising

negative ominous opportune profound pivotal

positive revolutionary ruinous serious shaking

shattering significant spear heading timely trail blazing

transforming tumultuous unsettling uprooting vital

Words for evaluating historical sources

balanced baseless biased convincing credible

deceptive dishonest distorted doubtful dubious

emotive exaggerated fallacious far fetched flawed

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 honest imbalanced impossible inflated limited

misleading one sided overwrought persuasive phoney

plausible propagandist realistic reasonable selective

sensationalist skewed sound spurious unrealistic

unreliable untenable useful valid vivid

Command words for history tasks and activities
analyse Examine and discuss the important structure or parts of something

Record written questions, comments or explanations on a document or

annotate visual source

annotated A list of books that contains a note about the content and usefulness of
bibliography each book

argue Present a case, to express and explain a particular reason or theory

Gather and record thoughts and ideas spontaneously, without sorting or

brainstorm evaluating them

Refer to an authority or trusted source, as evidence of your information

cite or idea

Examine two or more propositions and identify and discuss similarities

compare between them

A visual chart or diagram, using shapes and lines to organise and

concept map connect topics or ideas

The last paragraph in sustained writing, it restates the contention and

conclusion ’rounds off’ the text

Examine two or more propositions and identify and discuss differences

contrast between them

Analyse something and offer views and judgements about the merit or
critically analyse value of its parts

define Provide precise meanings and explanations about something

describe Provide a detailed and graphic account of something

Provide a balanced commentary about something, mentioning arguments

discuss for and against

Analyse something and form final conclusions about its value,

evaluate credibility or merit

explain Provide a clear, straightforward and detailed account of something

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 historiographical A task requiring discussion of historians and their interpretations of a
activity particular topic

Examine something to extract its meaning and express it in your own

interpret words

The first paragraph in sustained writing, offering a contention and an

introduction outline of the text

issue A topic or question that is open to discussion, debate or dispute

Provide clear reasons, grounds and evidence for a particular argument or

justify conclusion

outline Provide a basic overview of something, describing only its main features

To describe someone else’s words, statement or meaning, in your own

paraphrase words

Read or examine something and offer your own thoughts and

review judgements about it

Use phrases and sentences outlining the direction or structure your

signpost writing will take

Briefly describe the main points or attributes of something, without

summarise going into much detail

(source: History Words, https://alphahistory.com/history-words/)

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