UNIVERSITATEA BABEŞ-BOLYAI CLUJ-NAPOCA

FACULTATEA DE LITERE, DEPARTAMENTUL DE LIMBI

STRĂINE SPECIALIZATE

Study Pack for Students in Psychology and Education

Sciences, Semester 1, Modules 1 & 2

cameliateglas@gmail.com

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 1. Informaţii generale

1.1. Date de identificare a cursului

Date de contact ale titularului de curs:

Nume: Teglaş Camelia-Daniela Limba engleza-curs practic limbaj specializat

Birou: Cab.10, DLSS, Horea nr.7 LLU0011
Telefon: 0264/530724 Anul I, sem.1
E-mail: cameliateglas@gmail.com Curs obligatoriu
Consultaţii: marți 14-16

1.2. Condiţionări şi cunoştinţe prerechizite

Cursul este conditionat de deţinerea de cunoştinţe de limba engleză care situeaza studentul la nivel B1,
conform grilei de autoevaluare a Cadrului comun european de referinta a limbilor:
Trebuie avut în vedere faptul că înscrierea la examenul de licenţa la finalul ciclului bachelor este
conditionat de susţinerea şi promovarea unui test de competenţa lingvistică într-o limba de
circulaţie internaţională.

Nota Punctaj TCL in niveluri

10.00 Nivel C2
9.00 - 9.99 Nivel C1
7.00 - 8.99 Nivel B2
5.00 - 6.99 Nivel B1
3.00 - 4.99 Nivel A2
1.00 - 2.99 Nivel A1
0.00 - 0.99 ‒

1.3. Descrierea cursului

Este un curs cu obiective specifice care vizează achiziţia de cunoştinţe şi dezvoltarea deprinderilor de
limbă străină ca instrument de formare şi informare academică şi profesională. Tipologia
programului de învăţare are în vedere crearea unui profil de utilizator cu competenţe axate pe
studiul limbajelor de specialitate. În acest sens, studenţii îşi vor dezvolta capacitatea de
conştientizare a stării actuale a cunoştinţelor şi deprinderilor, se vor deprinde să-şi fixeze obiective
reale şi realiste, să-şi selecteze în mod autonom materialele şi să se autoevalueze.

1.4. Organizarea temelor în cadrul cursului

Suportul de curs este structurat în “units”, fiecare unitate fiind împărțită în secțiuni ce vizează
dezvoltarea celor patru competențe lingvistice: citire, scriere, vorbire, ascultare. Textele sunt alese
astfel încât să acopere domenii precum psihologia, pedagogia și psihopedagogia specială iar prin
intermediul activităților aferente fiecărei unități se au în vedere următoarele obiective:
- Cunoaşterea şi înţelegerea aprofundată a contextelor şi rolurilor, precum şi a conceptelor, metodelor
şi a discursului/limbajului specific diverselor situaţii de comunicare profesională în mediul academic
de limba engleză, cu accent pe situaţia retorică, formele de comunicare scrisă şi orală, etapele
procesului de scriere şi produsele scrisului academic, precum şi pe deontologia profesională.
- Transferul conceptelor învăţate în activităţi de receptare a textului scris şi de producere vizând
etapele procesului de scriere, organizarea şi dezvoltarea ideilor, structura textului şi strategiile de
comunicare verbală orală şi scrisă la standarde specifice limbii engleze specializate pentru discursul
ştiinţific.

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 - Elaborarea unor lucrări scrise şi prezentări orale originale care să utilizeze principiile şi tehnicile de
redactare consacrate în mediul academic, cu accent pe genurile predilecte din psihologie şi ştiinţele
educaţiei.
Modulul 1 își propune să operaționalizeze conceptul de limbă/ limbaj pentru scopuri specifice, să
abordeze tehnicile de citire specifice textului academic și să introducă, prin textele de specialitate,
noțiuni legate de psihologie, pedagogie, educație. În paralel se va urmări dezvoltarea vocabularului de
specialitate prin diverse tipuri de exerciții și a structurilor gramaticale specifice limbajului academic.
Bibliografia recomandată este:
Short, Jane, English for Psychology in Higher Education. Course Book, Reading, UK:
Garnet Education, 2010
Teglaș, Camelia, Study Pack for Students in Psychology and Education Sciences. 2019, Curs
elaborat în tehnologie ID, Universitatea Babeș-Bolyai din Cluj-Napoca
Teglaş, Camelia (coord.), Felea, Cristina, Mezei, Vlad, English B2 – C1, Social Sciences and
Sport, Seria Autodidact (coord. Liana Pop), Cluj, Ed. Echinox, 2009
Understanding Psychology. Vocabulary Activities, Columbus, Ohio: Glencoe, McGraw-Hill,
2008
https://www.ted.com

Modulul 2 abordează teme precum autismul, comunicarea, motivația, rolul emoțiilor în educație. O
atenție deosebită se acordă însușirii strategiilor de ascultare activă, de comunicare verbală și scrisă,
mai ales sub forma unui paragraf de opinie.
Short, Jane, English for Psychology in Higher Education. Course Book, Reading, UK:
Garnet Education, 2010
Prodromou, L., Grammar and Vocabulary for First Certificate, Longman, 2001
Teglaș, Camelia, Study Pack for Students in Psychology and Education Sciences. 2019, Curs
elaborat în tehnologie ID, Universitatea Babeș-Bolyai din Cluj-Napoca
Teglaş, Camelia (coord.), Felea, Cristina, Mezei, Vlad, English B2 – C1, Social Sciences and
Sport, Seria Autodidact (coord. Liana Pop), Cluj, Ed. Echinox, 2009
Understanding Psychology. Vocabulary Activities, Columbus, Ohio: Glencoe, McGraw-Hill,
2008
owl.english.purdue.edu/
https://www.ted.com

1.5. Formatul şi tipul activităţilor implicate de curs

Suportul de curs este organizat în două module, fiecare modul abordând mai multe teme. Parcurgerea
acestora va presupune studiu individual, dar şi întâlniri faţă în faţă. Dată fiind specificitatea acestui
curs, aceea de curs practic, un curs care îmbină cursurile teoretice și activitățile specifice seminariilor,
se încurajează discuțiile, participarea activă a studenților, interacțiunea.

Activitățile tutoriale (AT) sunt:

1. Placement Test; Introduction to ESP: The Academic Skills; Pedagogy in Nutshell; What
is Psychology? Brief History and The Branches of Psychology; Social Psychology. Human Relationships;
Cognitive Development; Thought and Language
2. Autism and Communication; Education; Education and media; Understanding Classroom
Difficulties; Memory; Motivation and Emotions; Revision

1.6. Materiale bibliografice

1. Short, Jane, English for Psychology in Higher Education. Course Book, Reading, UK: Garnet
Education, 2010
2. Prodromou, L., Grammar and Vocabulary for First Certificate, Longman, 2001
3. Teglaş, Camelia (coord.), Felea, Cristina, Mezei, Vlad, English B2 – C1, Social Sciences and Sport,
Seria Autodidact (coord. Liana Pop), Cluj, Ed. Echinox, 2009

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 4. Teglaș, Camelia, Study Pack for Students in Psychology and Education Sciences.
5. Understanding Psychology. Vocabulary Activities, Columbus, Ohio: Glencoe, McGraw-Hill, 2008
6. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Longman, 2003
7. http://granturi.ubbcluj.ro/autodidact
8.https://www.verywellmind.com
9. http://esl.about.com/c/ec/1.htm
10. owl.english.purdue.edu/
11. https://edarticle.com/
12. https://www.ted.com

1.7. Materiale şi instrumente necesare pentru curs

Derularea activităţilor prevăzute necesită accesul studenţilor la următoarele resurse:

- calculator conectat la internet (pentru a putea accesa bazele de date, cursurile online, platforma ID și
resursele electronice suplimentare)

1.8. Calendarul cursului

Pe parcursul semestrului sunt programate câte două întâlniri cu studenţii; ele vor fi organizate în
cadrul Facultății de Psihologie și Științe ale Educației, strada Sindicatelor nr. 7.
În cadrul acestor întâlniri se așteaptă din partea studenților disponibilitate pentru participare activă și
interactivă în activitatea didactică.
Datele celor două întâlniri sunt precizate în calendarul sintetic al disciplinei. În acelaşi calendar se
regăsesc şi termenele la care trebuie transmise lucrările de verificare aferente fiecărui modul.

Calendarul sintetic al disciplinei Modul Termen de predare Punctaj

Modalități de evaluare
Tema nr. 1 1 15 noiembrie 1p
Tema nr. 2 2 15 decembrie 1p
Examen 1, 2 Ianuarie, februarie 8p

1.9. Politica de evaluare şi notare

Evaluarea finală se va realiza astfel:

la finele semestrului 1:
- pe baza unui examen scris ( Reading Comprehension / Exercitiile de intelegere a textului vor
respecta tipologia celor din suportul de curs – gapped text, unfinished sentences, synonymy, true/false
statements, etc.) desfăşurat in sesiunea de examene. Nota finală se compune din:
a) punctajul obţinut la acest examen în proporţie de 80% (8puncte)
b) aprecierea realizării temelor pe parcurs – 20% (2 puncte, adică 1punct/lucrare)
Modulele 1 si 2 cuprind doua lucrări de verificare care vor fi transmise tutorelui la termenele precizate
în calendarul disciplinei. Aceste lucrări se regăsesc la sfârşitul fiecărui modul.

1.10. Elemente de deontologie academică

Cursul şi activităţile aferente lui (întâlnirile, examenul, discuţiile organizate direct sau pe forum)
încurajează interacţiunile şi comportamentele colegiale, corecte, fairplay, bazate pe respect reciproc şi
decenţă. Relaţiile dintre cadrul didactic şi studenţi vor fi de tip democratic, astfel încât ele să
favorizeze implicarea activă şi interactivă a studenţilor în activităţile educaţionale şi să asigure
premisele unei instruiri şi autoinstruiri eficiente.

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1.11. Studenţi cu dizabilităţi

Titularul cursului îşi exprima disponibilitatea, în limita constrângerilor tehnice si de timp, de a adapta
conţinutul şi metodelor de transmitere a informaţiilor precum şi modalităţile de evaluare (examen oral,
examen on line etc) în funcţie de tipul dizabilităţii cursantului. Altfel spus, avem în vedere, ca o
prioritate, facilitarea accesului egal al tuturor cursanţilor la activităţile didactice si de evaluare.

1.12. Strategii de studiu recomandate

Date fiind caracteristicile învăţământului la distanţă, se recomandă studenţilor o planificare riguroasă

a secvenţelor de studiu individual, coroborată cu secvenţe de dialog, mediate de reţeaua net, cu
tutorii si respectiv titularul de disciplina. Lectura fiecărui modul şi rezolvarea la timp a temelor
garantează nivele înalte de înţelegere a conţinutului tematic şi totodată sporesc şansele promovării cu
succes a acestei discipline.
Numărul de ore estimativ pentru parcurgerea modulelor este: pentru modulul 1 - 2 ore de teorie și 14
ore de activități practice; pentru modulul 2 - 2 ore de teorie și 14 ore de activități practice.

2. Suport de curs
Cursul este structurat pe 2 module care, la rândul lor sunt organizate în unități:

SEMESTER 1/ MODULE 1
Timp de studiu: (120' teorie, 840' practica)
Obiective: - Cunoaşterea şi înţelegerea aprofundată a contextelor şi rolurilor, precum şi a conceptelor,
metodelor şi a discursului/limbajului specific diverselor situaţii de comunicare profesională în mediul
academic de limba engleză, cu accent pe situaţia retorică, formele de comunicare scrisă şi orală,
etapele procesului de scriere şi produsele scrisului academic, precum şi pe deontologia profesională.
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 UNIT 1 - INTRODUCTION TO ESP: THE ACADEMIC SKILLS

English for Specific Purposes, or ESP, is the methodology of teaching English for
professionals in various fields, focusing on types of expressions, vocabulary, standard and
formal structures that will be used most of all in a specific field, etc. The most common ESP
is Business English; there are also e.g. English for law, English for medical purposes, English
for tourism, English for science purposes, etc.
(Source: https://www.quora.com/What-is-ESP "English-for-Specific-Purposes")

ACADEMIC SKILLS

Reading Writing Speaking

READING

Though reading is often considered a passive skill, research in the field of psycholinguistics has
demonstrated that it is actually a highly complex process of interaction between the reader and text.

For example, it has been shown that the reader does not decode the
text in his first language in an orderly, linear fashion, word after word, but rather his eyes move
rapidly over the page, going forward and backward as he perceives meaningful groups of words and
relates these to the non-verbal information at his disposal (that is, to his knowledge of the world and
topic of the written text), thereby deriving meaning from the text.
Reading thus can be seen as the processing of information. The reader brings to the text his own
store of information deriving from his native culture, education, personal experience, and, normally
some specific knowledge of the written text. At the same time, the reader possesses a linguistic
competence, including knowledge of words, of how these words are deployed according to the
linguistic system in order to form sentences, and the rhetorical pattern and linguistic conventions
which characterize different types of text.

Furthermore, in an ideal situation, the reader approaches a text with a genuine motivation to read and
a reading purpose. Whatever the text, he will also have some expectations or predictions regarding
its content and how the text is likely to be organized depending on its genre. As he reads, these
predictions are confirmed or not confirmed by the text. Depending of his reason for reading, he will
use one or more specific strategies.
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Reading strategies
When we read in our own language we use – often unconsciously – a variety of reading strategies and
techniques depending on the text and our reason for reading. There are four principal “styles” of
reading:
Skimming involves moving your eyes rapidly over the page or pages in order to get a general idea of
what the text is about, focusing on certain key words or phrases.
Scanning, instead, is a strategy we use when we seek specific pieces of information in a text, such as
names, dates, statistics, or whether a particular topic is treated. Here our expectations are heightened
by our awareness of certain lexical fields or other textural features which are likely to signal the
presence of the information we are looking for.
Intensive reading is the style we use when we wish to have a very clear and complete understanding
of the written text. This implies a careful de-codification of the writer’s discourse, usually with the aim
of comprehending not only the literal meaning of the text, but also the writer’s deeper purpose, his
position or other eventual text subtleties.
Extensive reading is the term we use to describe the strategies called into play when we read longer
texts either for pleasure or for information, and may involve all the strategies previously mentioned,
which the reader applies according to the individual text and his interest in its various parts.
Thus, the reading style we apply to any given text should be a function of the type and content of the
text on the one hand, and our reading purpose on the other. It is important to use these strategies
appropriately and flexibly: obviously not all texts need to be read intensively, though language
learners often apply only this strategy to texts in foreign languages. In reading English for academic
purposes, for example, it will often suffice to have a general idea of whether certain information is
contained in an article and, if so, where, so that it might be consulted at a later date. On the other hand,
information which is of interest may be located quickly and selected passages focused upon for the
purpose of extracting and annotating specific information.
(Source: Adapted from Jordan, R.R, Academic Writing Course, Longman Publishing Group, 2004)

The “word cloud” below contains the keywords of the text. Use them to write down the
main ideas.

WRITING

Without doubt, the single most important reason for assigning writing tasks in disciplinary courses is
to introduce students to the thinking and writing of that discipline. Even though students read
disciplinary texts and learn course material, until they practice the language of the discipline through
writing, they are less likely to learn that language thoroughly. [...] Such writing helps students to:
- integrate and analyze course content
- provide a field-wide context to course material
- practice thinking skills relevant to analyses in the discipline
- practice professional communication
- prepare for a range of careers in the field
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Types of writing:
- Project or lab notebook
- Progress report
- Research report
- Management plan
- Opinion paragraph/ Position paper
- Essay
- Casebook
- Review of literature
- Journal or professional article
- Project proposals
- Grant proposals
- Lab/field reports
(Source: Adapted from https://wac.colostate.edu/resources)

Motto: “If we were supposed to talk more than we listen, we would have two tongues and one ear.”
Mark Twain

LISTENING

Language learning depends on listening. Listening provides the aural input that serves as the basis for
language acquisition and enables learners to interact in spoken communication.

With the help of language instructors, students learn how they can adjust their listening behaviour to
deal with a variety of situations, types of input, and listening purposes, develop a set of listening
strategies and match appropriate strategies to each listening situation.

Listening Strategies
Listening strategies are techniques or activities that contribute directly to the comprehension and recall
of listening input. Listening strategies can be classified by how the listener processes the input.
Top-down strategies (listening for the main idea, predicting, drawing inferences, summarizing )
are listener based; the listener taps into background knowledge of the topic, the situation or context,
the type of text, and the language. This background knowledge activates a set of expectations that help
the listener to interpret what is heard and anticipate what will come next.
Bottom-up strategies (listening for specific details, recognizing cognates, recognizing word-order
patterns) are text based; the listener relies on the language in the message, that is, the combination of
sounds, words, and grammar that creates meaning.
Strategic listeners also use meta-cognitive strategies to plan, monitor, and evaluate their listening.
 They plan by deciding which listening strategies will serve best in a particular situation.
 They monitor their comprehension and the effectiveness of the selected strategies.
 They evaluate by determining whether they have achieved their listening comprehension goals and
whether the combination of listening strategies selected was an effective one.

SPEAKING

Academic speaking is similar in many ways to academic writing: it is linear, it is explicit, it has one
central point and it is presented in standard language. Academic spoken style is also similar in many
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ways in that it is formal, explicit, hedged, and responsible. However, it is less complex and objective
than written language.
Formal
In general this means that when you are speaking you should avoid colloquial words and expressions.
Explicit
It is the responsibility of the speaker in English to make it clear to the listener how various parts of the
talk are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words.
Precision
When speaking in an academic contexts, facts and figures are given precisely.
Hedged
In any kind of academic speaking you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a
particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in
different ways.
A technique common in certain kinds of speaking is known by linguists as a 'hedge'.
Responsible
In academic speaking you are responsible for demonstrating an understanding of the source text. You
must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any claims you
make.
Accuracy
Academic speaking uses vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have words with narrow specific
meanings. Linguistics distinguishes clearly between "phonetics" and "phonemics"; general English
does not.
Complex
Spoken language is less complex than written language. Spoken language has shorter words, it is
lexically less dense and it has a less varied vocabulary. It uses more verb-based phrases than noun-
based phrases. Spoken texts are longer and the language has less grammatical complexity, including
fewer subordinate clauses and more active verbs.
Objective
Spoken language in general has more words that refer to the speaker. This means that although the
main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to
make, it is not unusual to refer to yourself or your audience.
Planned
Formal academic spoken language is well planned. It usually takes place after research and evaluation,
according to a specific purpose and plan.
Organised
Formal academic speaking is well organised. It flows easily from one section to the next in a logical
fashion. A good place to start is the genre of your text. Once you have decided on the genre, the
structure is easily determined.
(Source: Adapted from http://www.uefap.com/speaking/spkframfeat.htm)

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 UNIT 2 - PEDAGOGY IN A NUTSHELL
1. Thoughts about pedagogy

Discuss the following quotations with a colleague. Do you agree / disagree with
them?

● “Now, it is the view of the Ministry that a theoretical knowledge will be more than sufficient to get
you through your examination, which, after all, is what school is all about.” (J.K. Rowling, Harry
Potter and the Order of the Phoenix)
● “The public has a distorted view of science because children are taught in school that science is a
collection of firmly established truths. In fact, science is not a collection of truths. It is a continuing
exploration of mysteries.” (Freeman Dyson)
● “Formal learning is like riding a bus: the driver decides where the bus is going; the passengers are
along for the ride. Informal learning is like riding a bike: the rider chooses the destination, the speed,
and the route.” (Jay Cross, Informal Learning: Rediscovering the Natural Pathways That Inspire
Innovation and Performance)
● “To reach a child's mind, first reach a child's heart.” (Edward Mooney, Jr.)
● “Not I, not anyone else can travel that road for you. You must travel it for yourself.” (Walt
Whitman, Song of Myself)

2. Discussion about role models

a. Below you find a list of famous teachers. Match the names with the
corresponding descriptions:

Emma Willard Jaime Escalante William McGuffey Maria Montessori Anne Sullivan

● A mere 20 years old when first employed to school a deaf and blind girl in 1887, this teacher was
blind for much of the first part of life. Educated at the Perkins School for the Blind in Boston, this
teacher had recovered part of the eyesight by the time this teacher travelled to Alabama to begin
working as Helen Keller’s governess (Hellen Keller was a successful and inspiring writer, lecturer,
and activist). Undoubtedly, this teacher’s own partial blindness gave insight into the little girl’s closed-
off world.
● One of the most innovative and influential educational philosophies of the 20th century was
developed and promoted by a teacher whose name has become emblematic of a certain style of
education, and whose name still lives on as a prominent type of school. Foremost among the theories
was the idea that children essentially teach themselves; the teacher’s primary responsibility is to create
the appropriate environment for learning. Given the ability to be mobile and learn from their
surroundings rather than being forced to sit still and be lectured to, most children flourished under this
system.
● This teacher was born in 1800 and was a precocious child, such an adept student, in fact, that began
to teach classes at the age of 14, paused the teaching career to attend college, and by age 26, had been
appointed Professor of Languages at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. The ideas about language
teaching were much admired by colleagues, and in 1835, through the intercession of a friend, was
asked to write a series of readers for the publisher Truman and Smith.
● There was a time when education, particularly university education, was considered the province of
men only. Young women were accorded only a certain amount of education. One teacher took
measures to remedy this situation. Born in Connecticut in 1787, displayed quick intelligence at an
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early age. By the age of 17, was a teacher at the academy. By age 19, was running the academy. After
an impassioned plea, the town of Troy, New York sponsored this teacher’s proposal, and the Troy
Female Seminary, the first higher education institution for women in America, opened in 1821,
lectured on women’s education in America and Europe, founded another all-women’s school in
Greece, and wrote geography and American history textbooks until death in 1870, was dubbed “the
Daughter of Democracy,” and indeed, did much to make America’s educational system more
democratic.
● The approach to classes was unorthodox; urged higher math on his students and concentrated on
challenging them rather than passing them through. At first, this tough, drill-sergeant style met
resistance from the student body as well as the administration, but as time passed, the approach began
to show results. The pet project, a calculus class meant to prepare students for the College Board’s AP
Calculus tests, began with a handful of students, but expanded over several years to include more and
more students who passed the test.
(Source: https://www.biography.com/news/famous-teachers-in-history)

b. Think about your school years so far. What kind of teachers have you had? Do
you have examples of teachers that had a great impact on you? Why / why not?

3. Listen to the audio file What is Pedagogy? | Definition of Pedagogy | Pedagogy

Definition ... https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HvV7yf5O-d0

and organize the main concepts related to Pedagogy in the diagram below:

8 2

7 3

Pedagogy

6 4

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UNIT 3 - WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? BRIEF HISTORY AND BRANCHES OF
PSYCHOLOGY
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

psychology (n.)
1650s, "study of the soul"
from Modern Latin psychologia, probably coined mid-16c. in Germany by Melanchthon from
Latinized form of Greek psykhe- "breath, spirit, soul"
(see psyche) + logia "study of" (see -logy).
Meaning "study of the mind" - first recorded in 1748, from Christian Wolff's "Psychologia empirica"
(1732);
main modern behavioural sense is from early 1890s.
(Source: Online Etymology Dictionary www.etymonline.com)

Fill in the diagram below with ten words you associate with "psychology".

10 2

9 3

8 4

7 5

READING ACTIVITIES:

While the subject of psychology in today’s modern world does reflect the discipline’s rich and colourful
history, its origins however differ quite considerably from the contemporary notions of the field. In order to fully
understand what psychology is all about, it is important to first go back into its history and explore its origins. How
did this discipline originate? When did it originate?
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 Contemporary psychology deals with a vast range of topics, while at the same time looks into human behavioural
patterns and mental processes from the cultural level to the neural level. Psychologists study all matters
pertaining to human mental issues that begin right from birth and continue up until the death of the person. So, by
gaining full understanding of the history of psychology, you will be able to better understand how the individual
topics are studied and what has been learnt so far.
Questions put forward during the Formation of Psychology
Right from the very beginning, the study of psychology has been faced with a number of difficult questions. The
first question of how is psychology defined established it as a separate science, separate from philosophy and
physiology. Other additional questions that psychologists were also faced with throughout the history of the
subject were: What issues and topics should the subject of psychology deal with? What methods of research
should be used when studying psychology? Should research be used in order to influence education, public
policy and other aspects of human behaviour? Is psychology a science? Should psychology focus on internal
mental processes or on observable behaviours?
The Emergence of Psychology: Physiology and Philosophy
While psychology did not really emerge as a separate science until the latter half of the 19th century, its initial
history can be traced right back to the ancient Greeks. During the 1600’s, the famous French philosopher, Rene
Descartes, introduced the concept of dualism, which stressed on the fact that the body and the mind were
basically two separate entities that interacted together to form the normal human experience. Many of the other
issues that are still debated by psychologists today, like relative contributions of nature vs. nurture, are deep
rooted in these early philosophical concepts. So why is psychology different from philosophy? While many of the
early philosophers relied heavily on methods like logic and observation, the psychologists of today tend to use
methods to study and come to conclusions about the human behaviour and thought. Physiology also made large
contributions towards the eventual emergence of psychology as a science. Early physiology research on
behaviour and brain had a very dramatic impact on psychology as it is today, ultimately leading to the application
of many scientific methodologies that study the human behaviour and thought.
Psychology as a Separate Scientific Discipline
During the mid 19th century, Wilhelm Wundt, a German physiologist started using scientific research methods to
look into reaction times. His works outlined many of the most important connections between physiology and
psychology. So what were Wundt’s views on psychology? He looked upon the subject as a study of the human
consciousness and even sought to apply certain experimental methods in order to study the internal mental
processes. While this process today is known as introspection and is considered to be highly unscientific and
unreliable, in those days it helped set the stage for all the future experimental methods. And although his
influence began to dwindle in the years to come, this impact on the subject is definitely unquestionable.

LANGUAGE FOCUS: Several verbs in the text above are written in italics. Organize them
in the table according to their tenses.

PRESENT SIMPLE
PAST SIMPLE
PRESENT PERFECT
PAST PERFECT

Academic textual functions, such as reporting, are signalled by characteristic language uses of tense and aspect. When
reporting findings or significant aspects of people’s work, we use The Present Simple. The Past Simple is used when
referring to the procedures used in individual studies.
Read the following excerpts from two research reports and fill in with the appropriate form of the
verb in brackets, according to the academic textual functions used in each of them.

Mood disorders (to affect _1) around forty four million Americans each year. The two most common mental disorders (to
be _2) depression and bipolar disease. There are several factors which researchers (to believe_3) contribute to mental
disorders. Some researchers (to think _4) that the most severe mood disorders (to be caused_5) by imbalances in the
brain’s chemical activity. Researchers also (to assume _6) the environment can play a part in mood disorders and it may
run in families. Some mood disorders (to prove _7) to be easier to diagnose due to the symptoms that the patient (to
display _8), while others may be a little more difficult and (to require_9) more testing due to the mood disorder going

13
unrecognized. The good news (to be_10) that with the proper medication and psychotherapy a person afflicted with a
mood disorder can go on and live a productive life.
(Source: Adapted from: http://www.freeonlineresearchpapers.com/diagnosing-mental-disorders)

1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10

The most famous experiment Milgram (to conduct _1) was also his most controversial. The issue (to deal _2) with the
people's right to know on what he/she is being studied. On the surface, the experiment (to look _3) legit and totally
scientific. Two people (to be brought _4) in at a time and each would draw from a hat. One would be the teacher, one the
learner. After going over exactly how the shock treatment (to work _5), the teacher (to go _6) to his control panel and the
learner (to be hooked up _7) to electrodes. The teacher would first read lists of paired words then (to ask _8) the learner
to pair up the now separated words. For each wrong answer the learner (to give _9), an increasing dose of electricity (to
be given _10).
(Source: Adapted from: http://www.free-researchpapers.com/dbs/b11/smu317.shtml)

1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10

Identify the tenses of the verbs underlined in the following fragment and match them to the uses
suggested in the table below:

The research of consciousness, or states of awareness, has provided numerous interesting and influential studies.
Sleep, dreams, and hypnosis are states of awareness that have intrigued psychologists because they relate to the
quality of psychological interaction with the environment. States of awareness change constantly, which produces
changes in behaviour. Studies in this area have made great contributions to the understanding of psychology.
Researchers pursuing answers about states of awareness discovered Rapid Eye Movement sleep and how it relates to
dreaming. Rosalind Cartwright, a leading researcher in this area, takes the study of consciousness to another level by
suggesting that people may be able to control what they dream about. Many psychologists have theorized about why
people dream. Sigmund Freud believed that dreams were windows to your unconscious; that your greatest unfulfilled
wishes and fears would be expressed symbolically in your dreams. Freud's view has been highly influential, and
psychotherapists still use dream interpretation during therapy.
(Source: Adapted from: http://www.free-researchpapers.com/dbs/b6/pnl224.shtml)

USE TENSE VERBS

Habitual activities - States
An action that was begun in the
past and continues into the
present/ An action that
happened in the unspecified
past/ A recent action that has a
present effect.
Actions that happened at a
defined moment in the past.

14
 Psychology is the study of the mind, along with such aspects of
mind as perception, cognition, emotion, and behaviour. In some ways, it has
only been around since the late 1800's, when people like Wilhelm Wundt,
William James, and Sigmund Freud separated it from its various mother
disciplines such as biology, philosophy, and medicine. But in other ways, it has
been around as long as human beings have been discussing human beings. I Specialist
suspect that cavemen and cavewomen probably sat around the fire talking about Vocabulary
the same things we do: How come their kids are weird, why can't men and behaviour
women get along better, what's with those folks from the next valley, how come cognition
old Zook hasn't been the same since that rock hit him, and what do dreams really discipline
mean.
emotion
Today, psychology tries to be a science. Science is the effort to study a subject
with an explicit promise to think as logically and stick to the empirical facts as
empirical
tightly as is humanly possible. Other sciences - chemistry, physics, biology, etc. experiment
- have had great success this way. Our cave-person ancestors would be lobotomize
astounded at our understanding of the world around us! But the subject matter of
psychology (and the other human sciences) is harder to pin down. We human
beings are not as cooperative as some green goo in a test tube! It is a nearly
impossible situation: To study the very thing that studies, to research the
researcher, to psychoanalyse the psychoanalyst.
So, as you will see, we still have a long way to go in psychology. We have a
large collection of theories about this part of being human or that part; we have a
lot of experiments and other studies about one particular detail of life or another;
we have many therapeutic techniques that sometimes work, and sometimes
don't. But there is a steady progress that is easy to see for those of us with, say, a mind
half century of life behind us. We are a bit like medicine in that regard: Don't perception
forget that it wasn't really that long ago when we didn't have vaccines for simple psychology
childhood diseases, or anaesthesia for operations; heart attacks and cancer were research
things people simply died of, as opposed to things that many people survive; and science
mental patients were people we just locked away or lobotomized! theory
Some day -- sooner rather than later, I think -- we will have the same kinds of
therapeutic
understanding of the human mind as we are quickly developing of the human
body. The nice thing is you and I can participate in this process!
techniques
Source: Adapted from: General Psychology by Dr. C. George Boeree Shippensburg University
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/genpsy.html Phrases
to be astounded at
to die of
to lock away
to pin down
to stick to

Unusual words
Zook
goo

15
VOCABULARY ACTIVITIES
Word charts, like the oval diagram below, help students condense and organize data about multiple traits, facts or
attributes associated to a single topic.

The following definitions, as they appear in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, fit the words
in the chart above. Match them with the words by writing the corresponding letter next to them, according to
the model.
Model: EMOTION = J. a strong human feeling such as love, hate or anger
A. the process of knowing, understanding, and learning something
B. an area of knowledge or teaching that is studied at a university
C. the thing that a person or an animal does
D. based on scientific testing or practical experience, not on ideas
E. a scientific test done to find out how something reacts under certain conditions, or to find out if a
particular idea is true; a process in which you test a new idea or method to see if it is useful or effective
F. serious study of a subject, in order to discover new facts or test new ideas
G. knowledge about the world, especially based on examining, testing, and proving facts
H. an idea or set of ideas that is intended to explain something about life or the world, especially an idea that
has not yet been proven to be true
I. to remove surgically part of someone’s brain in order to treat their mental problems
J. a strong human feeling such as love, hate or anger

16
BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is a huge topic and conveying the depth and breadth of the subject can be difficult. As a
result, a number of different fields of psychology have emerged to deal with specific subtopics within
the study of the mind, brain and behaviour.
The following are just some of the major fields of psychology.

LISTENING ACTIVITIES
1. Listen carefully to the lecture and complete the tree diagram below with other pieces of information
you consider relevant.

2. Listen again and fill in the gaps with the missing information.

1. Social psychology is applied in _______________ planning.

2. In the ______________ world, social psychologists carry out surveys.
3. Organizational psychology focuses on group ______________ and how people are motivated at
work.
4. Neuropsychology can have an _____________ in the commercial world.
5. Educational psychology is __________ linked to developmental psychology.
6. Personality psychology __________ on analyzing the behaviour of individuals.
7. Counsellors help healthy people to manage ____________ stressful situations.

17
 READING ACTIVITIES

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, according to psychologist Gordon Allport, is a discipline that uses

scientific methods "to understand and explain how the thought, feeling and behaviour of individuals
are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of other human beings" (1985).
Social psychology looks at a wide range of social topics, including group behaviour, social perception,
leadership, nonverbal behaviour, conformity, aggression, and prejudice. It is important to note that
social psychology is not just about looking at social influences. Social perception and social
interaction are also vital to understanding social behaviour. [...] Social psychology is often confused
with folk wisdom, personality psychology, and sociology. What makes social psychology different?
Unlike folk wisdom, which relies on anecdotal observations and subjective interpretation, social
psychology employs scientific methods and the empirical study of social phenomena.
Researchers do not just make guesses or assumptions about how people behave; they devise and carry
out experiments that help point out relationships between different variables.
While personality psychology focuses on individual traits, characteristics and thoughts, social
psychology is focused on situations. Social psychologists are interested in the impact that the social
environment and group interactions have on attitudes and behaviours.
Finally, it is important to distinguish between social psychology and sociology. While there are many
similarities between the two, sociology tends to looks at social behaviour and influences at a very
broad-based level. Sociologists are interested in the institutions and cultures that influence how people
behave. Psychologists instead focus on situational variables that affect social behaviour. While
psychology and sociology both study similar topics, they are looking at these topics from different
perspectives.
(Retrieved from: http://psychology.about.com/od/socialpsychology/f/socialpsych.htm)

NEUROPSYCHOLOGY studies the structure and function of the brain as they relate to specific
psychological processes and behaviours. It is an experimental field of psychology that aims to
understand how behaviour and cognition are influenced by brain functioning and is concerned with the
diagnosis and treatment of behavioural and cognitive effects of neurological disorders. Whereas
classical neurology focuses on the physiology of the nervous system and classical psychology is
largely divorced from it, neuropsychology seeks to discover how the brain correlates with the mind. It
thus shares concepts and concerns with neuropsychiatry and with behavioural neurology in general. It
is scientific in its approach, making use of neuroscience, and shares an information processing view of
the mind with cognitive psychology and cognitive science.
Neuropsychology is a relatively new discipline within the field of psychology. There is much debate
as to when societies started considering the functions of different organs. For many centuries, the brain
was thought useless, and was often discarded during burial processes and autopsies. As the field of
medicine developed its understanding of human anatomy and physiology different theories were
developed as to why the body functioned the way it did. Many times, bodily functions were
approached from a religious point of view and abnormalities were blamed on bad spirits and the gods.
The brain has not always been considered the centre of the functioning body. It has taken hundreds of
years to develop our understanding of the brain and how it affects our behaviours.
(Retrieved from: http://psychology.about.com)

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY is a scientific approach which aims to explain how children

and adults change over time.
A significant proportion of theories within this discipline focus upon development during childhood,
as this is the period during an individual's lifespan when the most change occurs.
Developmental psychologists study a wide range of theoretical areas, such as biological, social,
emotion, and cognitive processes. [...]To describe development it is necessary to focus both on typical

18
patterns of change (normative development) and on individual variations in patterns of change (i.e.
idiographic development).Normative development is typically viewed as a continual and cumulative
process. However, it should be noted that people can change if important aspects of one's life change.
This capacity for change is called plasticity.[...] When trying to explain development, it is important to
consider the relative contribution of both nature and nurture. Nature refers to the process of biological
maturation inheritance and maturation. Nurture refers to the impact of the environment, which
involves the process of learning through experiences.[...]Developmental psychology as a discipline did
not exist before the industrial revolution when the need for an educated workforce led to the social
construction of childhood as a distinct stage in a person's life. [...]However, the emergence of
developmental psychology as a specific discipline can be traced back to 1882 when Wilhelm Preyer (a
German physiologist) published a book entitled The Mind of the Child. [...] During the 1900s three key
figures have dominated the field with their extensive theories of human development, namely Jean
Piaget, Leg Vygotsky, and John Bowlby.
(Adapted from: McLeod, S. A. (2012). Developmental Psychology. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/developmental-
psychology.html)

PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY is one of the largest and most popular branches of psychology.
Psychologists strive to understand how personality develops as well as how it influences the way we
think and behave. This area of psychology seeks to understand personality and how it varies among
individuals as well as how people are similar in terms of personality.
While there is no single agreed upon definition of personality, it is often thought of as something that
arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life. It encompasses all of
the thoughts, behaviour patterns, and social attitudes that impact how we view ourselves and what we
believe about others and the world around us.
Understanding personality allows psychologists to predict how people will respond in certain
situations and the sorts of things they prefer and value.
In order to understand how researchers study personality psychology, it is important to become
familiar with some of the most influential personality theories, namely the trait theories, the
psychoanalytic theories and the humanistic theories.
Personality psychologists not only study how personality develops - they are also interested in various
problems that may arise. A personality disorder is a chronic and pervasive mental disorder that affects
thoughts, behaviours, and interpersonal functioning. The DSM-5 currently lists 10 different
personality disorders.
In order to study and measure personality, psychologists have developed a number of different
personality tests, assessments, and inventories. Many of these tests are widely used in a variety of
settings.
(Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/personalitydevelopment/p/personality.htm)

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY is concerned with the assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention
of mental disorders. While professionals in this field often work in medical settings, clinical
psychologists are not medical doctors and do not prescribe medications in most states.
Clinical psychologists often work in hospitals, private practice, or academic settings. Clinicians are
trained in a range of techniques and theoretical approaches. Some specialize in treating certain
psychological disorders, while others work with clients suffering from a wide variety of problems.
Clinical psychologists treat some of the most severe psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and
depression.
In addition to working with clients, clinical psychologists have to keep detailed records of client
assessment, diagnosis, therapeutic goals and treatment notes. These records help clinicians and clients
track progress and are often needed for billing and insurance purposes.
Counselling psychologists help people of all ages deal with emotional, social, developmental, and
other life concerns. These professionals use a variety of strategies to help people manage behavioural
issues, cope with stress, alleviate anxiety and distress, and deal with the issues associated with
psychological disorders.
(Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/psychologycareerprofiles/p/clinicalpsych.htm)

19
 UNIT 4 - SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

READING ACTIVITIES
Early Influences
Aristotle believed that humans were naturally sociable, a necessity which allows us to live together (an
individual centred approach), whilst Plato felt that the state controlled the individual and encouraged
social responsibility through social context (a socio-centred approach).
Hegel (1770–1831) introduced the concept that society has inevitable links with the development of
the social mind. This led to the idea of a group mind, important in the study of social psychology.
Lazarus & Steinthal wrote about Anglo-European influences in 1860. “Volkerpsychologie” emerged,
which focused on the idea of a collective mind. It emphasized the notion that personality develops
because of cultural and community influences, especially through language, which is both a social
product of the community as well as a means of encouraging particular social thought in the
individual. Therefore Wundt (1900–1920) encouraged the methodological study of language and its
influence on the social being.
Early Texts
Texts focusing on social psychology first emerged at the start of the 20th century. The first notable
book in English was published by McDougall in 1908 (An Introduction to Social Psychology), which
included chapters on emotion and sentiment, morality, character and religion, quite different to those
incorporated in the field today. He believed that social behaviour was innate/instinctive and therefore
individual, hence his choice of topics. This belief is not the principle upheld in modern social
psychology, however.
Allport’s work (1924) underpins current thinking to a greater degree, as he acknowledged that social
behaviour results from interactions between people. He also took a methodological approach,
discussing actual research and emphasizing that the field was one of a “science … which studies the
behaviour of the individual in so far as his behaviour stimulates other individuals, or is itself a reaction
to this behaviour” (1942: p. 12). His book also dealt with topics still evident today, such as emotion,
conformity and the effects of an audience on others.
The first handbook on social psychology was published by Murchison in 1935. Murphy & Murphy
(1931/37) produced a book summarizing the findings of 1,000 studies in social psychology. A text by
Klineberg (1940) looked at the interaction between social context and personality development by the
1950s a number of texts were available on the subject.
Early Experiments
There is some disagreement about the first true experiment, but the following are certainly among
some of the most important. Triplett (1898) applied the experimental method to investigate the
performance of cyclists and schoolchildren on how the presence of others influences overall
performance – thus how individual’s are affected and behave in the social context.
By 1935 the study of social norms had developed, looking at how individuals behave according to the
rules of society. This was conducted by Sherif (1935).
Lewin et al. then began experimental research into leadership and group processes by 1939, looking at
effective work ethics under different styles of leadership.
Later Developments
Much of the key research in social psychology developed following World War II, when people
became interested in the behaviour of individuals when grouped together and in social situations. Key
studies were carried out in several areas.
Some studies focused on how attitudes are formed, changed by the social context and measured to
ascertain whether change has occurred. Amongst some of the most famous work in social psychology
is that on obedience conducted by Milgram in his “electric shock” study, which looked at the role an

20
authority figure plays in shaping behaviour. Similarly, Zimbardo’s prison simulation notably
demonstrated conformity to given roles in the social world.
Wider topics then began to emerge, such as social perception, aggression, relationships, decision
making, pro social behaviour and attribution, many of which are central to today’s topics and will be
discussed throughout this website.
Thus the growth years of social psychology occurred during the decades following the 1940s.
(Adapted from: Social Psychology by Saul McLeod available at http://www.simplypsychology.org/social-psychology.html)

Social Psychology Key Figures

Gordon Allport
(1920) – Social Facilitation
Allport introduced the notion that the presence of others (the social group) can facilitate certain
behaviour. It was found that an audience would improve an actors’ performance in well learned/easy
tasks, but leads to a decrease in performance on newly learned/difficult tasks due to social inhibition.

Albert Bandura
(1963) - Social Learning Theory

Bandura introduced the notion that behaviour in the social world could be modelled. Three groups of
children watched a video where an adult was aggressive towards a ‘bobo doll’, and the adult was
either just seen to be doing this, was rewarded by another adult for their behaviour or were punished
for it. Children who had seen the adult rewarded were found to be more likely to copy such behaviour.

Leon Festinger
(1950) – Cognitive Dissonance

Festinger, Schacter and Black brought the idea that when we hold beliefs, attitudes or cognitions
which are different, then we experience dissonance – this is an inconsistency that causes discomfort.
We are motivated to reduce this by either changing one of our thoughts, beliefs or attitudes or

21
selectively attending to information which supports one of our beliefs and ignores the other (selective
exposure hypothesis).
Dissonance occurs when there are difficult choices or decisions, or when people participate in
behaviour that is contrary to their attitude. Dissonance is thus brought about by effort justification
(when aiming to reach a modest goal), induced compliance (when people are forced to comply
contrary to their attitude) and free choice (when weighing up decisions).

Henri Tajfel
(1971) – Social Identity Theory
When divided into artificial (minimal) groups, prejudice results simply from the awareness that there
is an “out-group” (the other group). When the boys were asked to allocate points to others (which
might be converted into rewards) who were either part of their own group or the out-group, they
displayed a strong in-group preference. That is, they allocated more points on the set task to boys who
they believed to be in the same group as themselves. This can be accounted for by Tajfel & Turner’s
social identity theory, which states that individuals need to maintain a positive sense of personal and
social identity: this is partly achieved by emphasizing the desirability of one’s own group, focusing on
distinctions between other “lesser” groups.

Bernard Weiner
(1986) – Attribution theory
Weiner was interested in the attributions made for experiences of success and failure and introduced
the idea that we look for explanations of behaviour in the social world. He believed that these were
made based on three areas: locus, which could be internal or external; stability, which is whether the
cause is stable or changes over time: and controllability.

Stanley Milgram
(1963) – Shock Experiment
Participants were told that they were taking part in a study on learning, but always acted as the teacher
when they were then responsible for going over paired associate learning tasks. When the learner (a

22
stooge) got the answer wrong, they were told by a scientist that they had to deliver an electric shock.
This did not actually happen, although the participant was unaware of this as they had themselves a
sample (real!) shock at the start of the experiment. They were encouraged to increase the voltage given
after each incorrect answer up to a maximum voltage, and it was found that all participants gave
shocks up to 300v, with 65 per cent reaching the highest level of 450v.
It seems that obedience is most likely to occur in an unfamiliar environment and in the presence of an
authority figure, especially when covert pressure is put upon people to obey. It is also possible that it
occurs because the participant felt that someone other than themselves was responsible for their
actions.

Philip Zimbardo
(1971) – Prison Study

Volunteers took part in a simulation where they were randomly assigned the role of a prisoner or
guard and taken to a converted university basement resembling a prison environment. There was some
basic loss of rights for the prisoners, who were unexpectedly arrested, given a uniform and an
identification number (they were therefore de-individuated).
The study showed that conformity to social roles occurred as part of the social interaction, as both
groups displayed more negative emotions and hostility and dehumanization became apparent.
Prisoners became passive, whilst the guards assumed an active, brutal and dominant role. Although
normative and informational social influence had a role to play here, de-individuation / the loss of a
sense of identity seemed most likely to lead to conformity.
Both this and Milgram’s study introduced the notion of social influence, and the ways in which this
could be observed/tested.
(Adapted from: Social Psychology by Saul McLeod available at http://www.simplypsychology.org/social-psychology.html)

READING ACTIVITIES
HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS People: Who Needs Them? by Gina Stepp

EXAMINING FRIENDSHIP AND OTHER SOCIAL BONDS.

People are social beings. It’s an innate trait, undeniable and inescapable, seated deep in the brain in a
pair of little almond-shaped structures called the amygdala. When these are missing, human beings
lose emotional feeling, recognition of the emotional significance of family and friends, and any
concept of a social world. They may isolate themselves, avoiding human contact; but there is no
loneliness, no sorrow, no tears, because they are unable to comprehend the magnitude of their loss.
In contrast, healthy human beings—amygdala intact—crave human companionship. As much as our
inner cowboy might like the idea of riding off alone into the sunset, real people cannot thrive that way
and will eventually, in actual practice, make a confidant of their horse, car or any other possible stand-
in for a companion. This is not breaking news, of course. Even before the human need for social
bonds was taken up for study by various sciences, it had long been recognized as a fundamental truth

23
by writers and other observers of human nature. And yet the implications of this truth may sometimes
pass unappreciated.
“No man is an island, entire of itself,” wrote English renaissance poet John Donne around 1624;
“every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main; if a clod be washed away by the sea, Europe
is the less, as well as if a promontory were, as well as if a manor of thy friends or of thine own were;
any man’s death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind; and therefore never send to know
for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.” A priest as well as a poet, Donne is likely to have read some
of the ancient Hebrew writings preserved in the Bible, such as these words attributed to King
Solomon: “Whoever isolates himself seeks his own desire; he breaks out against all sound judgment”
(Proverbs 18:1, English Standard Version).
Even in modern Western society, branded as individualistic to its core, the imperative of social
connection is acknowledged in cultural works of all kinds: “People who need people,” wrote lyricist
Bob Merrill in 1964, “are the luckiest people in the world.” The song went on to focus mainly on
romantic relationships. But while romantic partners certainly qualify as “people who need people,”
they are not by any means the only people who do. We are all in the same boat—whether single,
married, old, young, male, female; regardless of race, culture, or any other delineation—human social
interaction is key to our survival.
But what is “social connection” anyway? How many and what kinds are important?
Before addressing these questions, it will be useful to define terms and sweep down some of the
popular-psychology (pop-psych) cobwebs that may obscure the view when it comes to understanding
the importance of social relationships.

SOCIAL ANIMAL OR LONE RANGER?

The simple word social can evoke a variety of images. Social psychologists use the word to describe
humans as beings that live in an organized, interdependent society. The term social skills describes a
person’s ability to maintain cooperative interpersonal relationships of any kind, whether they are
extremely close bonds or more casual ones. Social bond often refers specifically to friendships, but
from a broader perspective it describes the connection between individuals and their society.
Colloquially, however, social may have an entirely different connotation. At “a social,” we may chat
with people about things that don’t really seem to matter, and in doing so we may judge the interaction
to be shallow, unnecessary, frivolous. We may see some people flitting from conversation to
conversation and label them “social butterflies,” unable to sustain deep relationships. Or we may see
others who prefer to sit on the sidelines; we call them “wallflowers” and assume they have negligible
social skills.
Stereotypes such as these are by-products of what may be one of the heaviest of the cobwebs that
obscure an accurate understanding of human relationships, one that has always been a hot topic on
pop-psych bookshelves: personality typing. Especially popular with the general public are the
concepts of extraversion and introversion. These constructs engender passionate debate, with some
books extolling the virtues of extraversion while others counter that introversion is the more
enlightened state. How accurate are such depictions, and where do they come from? Years and years
of research, right?
Certainly a great number of studies have focused on extraverts and introverts, but researchers do not
use these terms in the way most people do. What many journalists who report on such studies fail to
realize is that before individuals are accepted as research subjects, they must score either very high or
very low on psychological tests for extraversion or introversion. Curt and Anne Bartol, both respected
psychologists, professors and authors of multiple criminal psychology textbooks, explain that “usually,
two out of every three people will score in the ‘average’ range on the extraversion dimension,
thus disqualifying them from studies based on extraversion and introversion. Roughly 16 percent of
the population are extraverts, and another 16 percent introverts, and the remainder (68 percent)
are ambiverts” (Criminal Behaviour: A Psychosocial Approach, emphasis added). In other words,
studies comparing introverts and extraverts examine people who tend toward the extremes—a
minority of the population. It may be tempting to think of extraversion and introversion as two sides of
a coin—that each of us is either one or the other—but this is simply not the case. The concept should
instead be viewed as a scale or spectrum containing a generous (and generally preferable)
middle ground.
24
Where does the pop-psych concept of introversion and extraversion come from, then? While it has
morphed somewhat since its inception, this either-or view of personality was initially developed
by Carl Jung, who along with Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler is considered a father of modern
psychotherapy. To Jung the distinction was not about social inclinations, however. Rather it concerned
the direction in which one’s “psychic energy” flowed; introverts preferred to focus on such things as
their inner feelings, dreams and fantasies, while extraverts tended to focus on outward, tangible
realities—not just other people but things. Jung, who was undoubtedly intrigued by his own dreams
and visions, was also fascinated by mystical traditions—particularly those with heavy symbolism such
as Gnosticism, alchemy and Kabbalah. Shadows of these philosophies can be recognized in his views
on personality.
Following Jung’s typology to the letter, Katharine Cook Briggs (1875–1968), together with her
daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers (1897–1980), developed the now popular Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI). Although neither was a psychologist, both have been described as keen “observers of human
behaviour.” Katharine had studied personalities by reading various biographies, so when she came
across Jung’s book Psychological Types in the 1920s, it resonated with her at such a level that she
brought it to her daughter’s attention, and the two women were motivated to develop a personality test
based on its principles. In 1943 the first version of the MBTI was published, and Myers in particular
worked over the next few decades to refine the test items in hopes of helping ordinary people identify
their Jungian personality type.
While the MBTI is perhaps the most widely administered personality test in popular circles today, it is
not as extensively used by psychologists and clinicians. To some degree this is because it is designed
specifically to apply Jung’s theories of psychological types—an approach not widely followed by
today’s mental health practitioners. Questions are structured for only yes or no answers, with no
degrees of choice available. This is because Jungian theory and the MBTI assume that people gravitate
toward one pole or the other on personality measures.
In contrast, personality tests such as the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire or the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory gauge personality traits on continuums. Psychologists prefer these
tests over the MBTI because of their ability to measure what they purport to measure in mental health
assessments. And while many of these other tests also include scales to measure something called
“introversion” or “extraversion,” they do not use the terms in the Jungian sense.
With this background in mind as we explore the importance of social relationships, then, it seems that
the most helpful approach would be to avoid labelling ourselves and others with generally
misunderstood and misapplied terms such as these and to focus instead on the universally shared and
well-recognized human need to connect.
RECONSIDERING FRIENDSHIP
How important is our need for social bonds? So important that we come into the world with it, just as
we arrive with a need for food and water, clothing and shelter. If any of these requirements is missing,
we fail to thrive.
“Do not protect yourself by a fence, but rather by your friends.” (Czech proverb)
Naturally our first ties are typically with family members, but while these may be among our most
formative they are not the only relationships we will need over the course of our lives. Peer
relationships begin to have an influence on our development fairly early in childhood, and the pro-
social skills we develop during these years affect many measures of health and well-being in
adulthood. Studies across cultural contexts indicate that those who lack strong social networks are
more likely to succumb to (and have difficulty recovering from) mental and physical illness. As we
age, friends tend to outnumber family in these networks, giving them an ever more important role in
keeping us healthy.
But besides the benefits to physical, mental and emotional resilience conferred by a solid network of
supportive social bonds, friendships serve other important functions. In part, we learn about who we
are and who we hope to become through feedback from others. With some of these others, we will
have deep and lasting relationships. With some we’ll have more casual relationships. But the
importance of what we learn about ourselves from their feedback may have very little to do with the
perceived depth of the individual relationship. Even our most casual relationships are capable of

25
influencing us in surprisingly profound ways, as some researchers have found, and even in the Internet
age it seems that friendships remain very diverse and complex in the lives of most people.
In their effort to understand this complexity, British social researchers Liz Spencer and Ray Pahl
undertook a detailed analysis of the nature of friendship and its role in today’s society. Published in
2006 as Rethinking Friendship: Hidden Solidarities Today, the study mapped the “personal
communities” of men and women across different ages, life-course stages, and socio-economic and
ethnic backgrounds throughout Britain. The researchers looked for any existing patterns while also
observing the rich variety in the way people arrange their social worlds. Interestingly, rather than
bolstering fears that the Internet has weakened social ties and made face-to-face interaction obsolete,
they found that “there has not been a mass retreat from face-to-face sociability, and it seems that the
Internet is mainly used to complement and sustain existing relationships, rather than creating entirely
new personal networks.” In examining through in-depth interviews the kinds of relationships people
include in their personal communities, Spencer and Pahl observed that family and friends are not
necessarily distinct groups in the minds of most. Some friends may be valued as family, while some
family members may enjoy more of a friend-like status than others do. They also exposed a depth of
field in patterns of friend-making that makes it clear why terms such
as extraversion and introversion are woefully inadequate and even misleading when used to describe
human modes of social interaction.
“Without knowing something about the quality of different friendships, it is difficult to draw many
conclusions from the fact that some people include more than twenty friends [in their personal
community maps], others just one or two,” Spencer and Pahl observed. In fact, their study turned up at
least seven prominent forms of overall personal communities, eight types of friendships and four kinds
of friendship repertoires, a term intended to describe the roles people allow friends to play in their
personal community.
For instance, those with a basic friendship repertoire might look only to family members or a partner
for supportive, confiding relationships, or might prefer “to sort things out on their own.” They may
allow friends to play limited, casual roles, but they do not view friends as confidants or
support networks.
People with an intense repertoire define their personal community only by their closest, most complex
relationships. Their personal community map would not include any level of friendship beyond, for
instance, a best friend or soul mate-type friendship such as a partner or other important
family member.
In contrast, those with a focal repertoire would include both simple and complex friendships in their
personal community maps, although they would distinguish between a small core of soul mates or
confidants alongside a larger variety of associates and “fun” friends.
Last but by no means least (though they do not intend any of their categorizations to describe the full
limits of the nature of friendship) is what Spencer and Pahl term broad repertoires. Individuals with a
broad friendship repertoire would include both simple and complex friendships, much as those with a
focal repertoire might. However, their maps contain an even wider range of friendship types, including
representatives of almost all of the eight types of friends: associates, useful contacts, favour friends,
fun friends, helpmates, comforters, confidants and soul mates. “Friends play many different roles and
people with this kind of repertoire take their friendships very seriously,” observed Spencer and Pahl.
“They tend to appreciate the particular qualities of different kinds of friendship.”
While social commentators sometimes dismiss the importance of relationships based on sociability
and fun, Spencer and Pahl found that these relationships can be stress relievers, making important
contributions to emotional resilience. As one of their research subjects noted, “Because life is so
serious most of the time, … it is nice to meet people that you can relax with… . Nowadays everybody
works so hard and it’s so fast, that sometimes you just need to get away from it and have a really good
laugh together.”
This sentiment can actually claim empirical support, in the sense that persistently talking about a
problem (rumination) has been linked by researchers to unhappiness and even depression, and while it
can certainly help to share a problem with a friend, mulling over it incessantly has the opposite effect.
In addition to fuelling depression and impairing problem-solving abilities, rumination tends to wear
down the compassion of one’s social network, driving away even the closest of friends. Clearly,

26
considering this factor alone, it can be useful for a social support network to include some friends with
whom troubles can be shared and others who might serve as distractions.
Indeed, when Spencer and Pahl compared the results of mental-health and well-being measures to the
personal community structures of their subjects, they found some interesting patterns. Poor mental
health scores were clustered among those with very small personal communities as well as those
whose personal communities were fragile, whether due to family instability during childhood or
simply through failure to nurture friendships. Spencer and Pahl attribute this mental health pattern to
the fact that people with broader personal communities have a range of people to rely on for support.
On the other hand, people who have “all their eggs in one basket” are likely to find their entire world
rocked if their sole supportive relationship becomes unavailable.
Spencer and Pahl’s study is not simply one more proof that social relationships are essential to human
health. One of its most important contributions to our understanding of social bonds is the fact that our
connections are so richly diverse and our patterns of forming and maintaining them so individual that
labels such as “introvert” or “extravert,” or claims that the Internet spells the death of social
interaction, completely miss the point. As human beings, our need for social interaction is innate.
Introvert, extravert or ambivert, everybody needs a variety of bonds with other people in order to be
mentally, physically and emotionally healthy.
It would seem, then, that people who need people aren’t just the luckiest people in the world, or even
just the happiest people. They’re the only people. They are all of us.
(Adapted from: https://www.vision.org/visionmedia/social-relationships-introvert-vs-extrovert/50363.aspx)

VOCABULARY ACTIVITIES:
Choose the term from the list below that best completes each sentence. Write the correct term in the
space provided.

complementarity social psychology

ego-support value stimulation value
physical proximity utility value social cognition

1. An attraction between opposite types of people might develop due to the principle of
______________.
2. The field of _________________ studies how we perceive, store, and retrieve information about
social interactions.
3. The friends you study with have __________________because they help you to achieve your goal
of getting good grades.
4. The field of __________________studies how our thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and behaviours
are influenced by our interaction with others.
5. Your friend Margie is always there for you, in good times and bad. You appreciate Margie for her
_________________.
6. The closer the ____________________of two individuals, the more likely they are to become
friends.
7. A friend who is interesting or imaginative and who can introduce you to new ideas or experiences
has ________________________

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 UNIT 5 - COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

READING ACTIVITIES
Definition
Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem
solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood.
Description
It was once believed that infants lacked the ability to think or form complex ideas and remained
without cognition until they learned language. It is now known that babies are aware of their
surroundings and interested in exploration from the time they are born. From birth, babies begin to
actively learn. They gather, sort, and process information from around them, using the data to develop
perception and thinking skills.
Cognitive development refers to how a person perceives, thinks, and gains understanding of his or her
world through the interaction of genetic and learned factors. Among the areas of cognitive
development are information processing, intelligence , reasoning, language development , and
memory.
Historically, the cognitive development of children has been studied in a variety of ways. The oldest is
through intelligence tests, such as the widely used Stanford Binet Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test first
adopted for use in the United States by psychologist Lewis Terman (1877–1956) in 1916 from a
French model pioneered in 1905. IQ scoring is based on the concept of "mental age," according to
which the scores of a child of average intelligence match his or her age, while a gifted child's
performance is comparable to that of an older child, and a slow learner's scores are similar to those of
a younger child. IQ tests are widely used in the United States, but they have come under increasing
criticism for defining intelligence too narrowly and for being biased with regard to race and gender.
In contrast to the emphasis placed on a child's native abilities by intelligence testing, learning theory
grew out of work by behaviorist researchers such as John Watson (1878–1958) and B. F.
Skinner (1904–1990), who argued that children are completely malleable. Learning theory focuses on
the role of environmental factors in shaping the intelligence of children, especially on a child's ability
to learn by having certain behaviors rewarded and others discouraged.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
The most well-known and influential theory of cognitive development is that of French psychologist
Jean Piaget (1896–1980). Piaget's theory, first published in 1952, grew out of decades of extensive
observation of children, including his own, in their natural environments as opposed to the laboratory
experiments of the behaviorists. Although Piaget was interested in how children reacted to their
environment, he proposed a more active role for them than that suggested by learning theory. He
envisioned a child's knowledge as composed of schemas, basic units of knowledge used to organize
past experiences and serve as a basis for understanding new ones.
Schemas are continually being modified by two complementary processes that Piaget termed
assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation refers to the process of taking in new information by
incorporating it into an existing schema. In other words, people assimilate new experiences by relating
them to things they already know. On the other hand, accommodation is what happens when the
schema itself changes to accommodate new knowledge. According to Piaget, cognitive development
involves an ongoing attempt to achieve a balance between assimilation and accommodation that he
termed equilibration.
At the center of Piaget's theory is the principle that cognitive development occurs in a series of four
distinct, universal stages, each characterized by increasingly sophisticated and abstract levels of
thought. These stages always occur in the same order, and each builds on what was learned in the
previous stage. They are as follows:
Sensori-motor stage (infancy): In this period, which has six sub-stages, intelligence is demonstrated
through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited, but developing,
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because it is based on physical interactions and experiences. Children acquire object permanence at
about seven months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin
developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbolic (language) abilities are developed at the end of
this stage.
Pre-operational stage (toddlerhood and early childhood): In this period, which has two sub stages,
intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and
imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a non-logical, non-reversible manner. Egocentric
thinking predominates.
Concrete operational stage (elementary and early adolescence): In this stage, characterized by seven
types of conservation (number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, and volume), intelligence is
demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects.
Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Egocentric thought diminishes.
Formal operational stage (adolescence and adulthood): In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated
through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to
egocentric thought. Only 35 percent of high school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal
operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood.
The most significant alternative to the work of Piaget has been the information-processing approach,
which uses the computer as a model to provide new insight into how the human mind receives, stores,
retrieves, and uses information. Researchers using information-processing theory to study cognitive
development in children have focused on areas such as the gradual improvements in children's ability
to take in information and focus selectively on certain parts of it and their increasing attention spans
and capacity for memory storage. For example, researchers have found that the superior memory skills
of older children are due in part to memorization strategies, such as repeating items in order to
memorize them or dividing them into categories.
Infancy
As soon as they are born, infants begin learning to use their senses to explore the world around them.
Most newborns can focus on and follow moving objects, distinguish the pitch and volume of sound,
see all colors and distinguish their hue and brightness, and start anticipating events, such as sucking at
the sight of a nipple. By three months old, infants can recognize faces; imitate the facial expressions of
others, such as smiling and frowning; and respond to familiar sounds.
At six months of age, babies are just beginning to understand how the world around them works. They
imitate sounds, enjoy hearing their own voice, recognize parents, fear strangers, distinguish between
animate and inanimate objects, and base distance on the size of an object. They also realize that if they
drop an object, they can pick it up again. At four to seven months, babies can recognize their names.
By nine months, infants can imitate gestures and actions, experiment with the physical properties of
objects, understand simple words such as "no," and understand that an object still exists even when
they cannot see it. They also begin to test parental responses to their behavior, such as throwing food
on the floor. They remember the reaction and test the parents again to see if they get the same reaction.
At 12 months of age, babies can follow a fast moving object; can speak two to four words, including
"mama" and "papa"; imitate animal sounds; associate names with objects; develop attachments to
objects, such as a toy or blanket; and experience separation anxiety when away from their parents. By
18 months of age, babies are able to understand about 10–50 words; identify body parts; feel a sense
of ownership by using the word "my" with certain people or objects; and can follow directions that
involve two different tasks, such as picking up toys and putting them in a box.
Toddlerhood
Between 18 months to three years of age, toddlers have reached the "sensorimotor" stage of Piaget's
theory of cognitive development that involves rudimentary thought. For instance, they understand the
permanence of objects and people, visually follow the displacement of objects, and begin to use
instruments and tools. Toddlers start to strive for more independence, which can present challenges to
parents concerned for their safety . They also understand discipline and what behavior is appropriate
and inappropriate, and they understand the concepts of words like "please" and "thank you."
Two-year-olds should be able to understand 100 to 150 words and start adding about ten new words
per day. Toddlers also have a better understanding of emotions, such as love, trust, and fear. They
begin to understand some of the ordinary aspects of everyday life, such as shopping for food, telling
time, and being read to.
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Preschool
Preschoolers, ages three to six, should be at the "preoperational" stage of Piaget's cognitive
development theory, meaning they are using their imagery and memory skills. They should be
conditioned to learning and memorizing, and their view of the world is normally very self-centered.
Preschoolers usually have also developed their social interaction skills, such as playing and
cooperating with other children their own age. It is normal for preschoolers to test the limits of their
cognitive abilities, and they learn negative concepts and actions, such as talking back to adults, lying ,
and bullying. Other cognitive development in preschoolers are developing an increased attention span,
learning to read, and developing structured routines, such as doing household chores.
School age
Younger school-age children, six to 12 years old, should be at the "concrete operations" stage of
Piaget's cognitive development theory, characterized by the ability to use logical and coherent actions
in thinking and solving problems. They understand the concepts of permanence and conservation by
learning that volume, weight, and numbers may remain constant despite changes in outward
appearance. These children should be able to build on past experiences, using them to explain why
some things happen. Their attention span should increase with age, from being able to focus on a task
for about 15 minutes at age six to an hour by age nine.
Adolescents, ages 12 through 18, should be at the "formal operations" stage of Piaget's cognitive
development theory. It is characterized by an increased independence for thinking through problems
and situations. Adolescents should be able to understand pure abstractions, such as philosophy and
higher math concepts. During this age, children should be able to learn and apply general information
needed to adapt to specific situations. They should also be able to learn specific information and skills
necessary for an occupation. A major component of the passage through adolescence is a cognitive
transition. Compared to children, adolescents think in ways that are more advanced, more efficient,
and generally more complex. This ability can be seen in five ways.
First, during adolescence individuals become better able than children to think about what is possible,
instead of limiting their thought to what is real. Whereas children's thinking is oriented to the here and
now—that is, to things and events that they can observe directly—adolescents are able to consider
what they observe against a backdrop of what is possible; they can think hypothetically.
Second, during the passage into adolescence, individuals become better able to think about abstract
ideas. For example, adolescents find it easier than children to comprehend the sorts of higher-order,
abstract logic inherent in puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies. The adolescent's greater facility
with abstract thinking also permits the application of advanced reasoning and logical processes to
social and ideological matters. This is clearly seen in the adolescent's increased facility and interest in
thinking about interpersonal relationships, politics, philosophy, religion, and morality.
Third, during adolescence individuals begin thinking more often about the process of thinking itself, or
metacognition. As a result, adolescents may display increased introspection and self-consciousness.
Although improvements in metacognitive abilities provide important intellectual advantages, one
potentially negative byproduct of these advances is the tendency for adolescents to develop a sort of
egocentrism, or intense preoccupation with the self.
A fourth change in cognition is that thinking tends to become multidimensional, rather than limited to
a single issue. Whereas children tend to think about things one aspect at a time, adolescents can see
things through more complicated lenses. Adolescents describe themselves and others in more
differentiated and complicated terms and find it easier to look at problems from multiple perspectives.
Being able to understand that people's personalities are not one-sided or that social situations can have
different interpretations depending on one's point of view permits the adolescent to have far more
sophisticated and complicated relationships with other people.
Finally, adolescents are more likely than children to see things as relative, rather than absolute.
Children tend to see things in absolute terms—in black and white. Adolescents, in contrast, tend to see
things as relative. They are more likely to question others' assertions and less likely to accept facts as
absolute truths. This increase in relativism can be particularly exasperating to parents, who may feel
that their adolescent children question everything just for the sake of argument. Difficulties often arise,
for example, when adolescents begin seeing their parents' values as excessively relative.(Source: Adapted
from http://www.healthofchildren.com/C/Cognitive-Development.html)

30
LANGUAGE FOCUS: THE PASSIVE

FORMING THE PASSIVE

We form the passive using be in an appropriate tense or form + the past participle of a
transitive verb:
A small sum of money was stolen from the cash box.
They ought to have been punished more severely.
Having been beaten in the semi-final, she flew home the
next day.
• In spoken English, we sometimes use get instead of be in the passive:
They got told off for making so much noise.
However, get + -ed is more common with an active
meaning similar to 'become' in phrases like get dressed, get married, etc.

REASONS FOR USING THE PASSIVE

In English, the topic or subject matter is commonly at the beginning of the sentence, and
new information about the subject is normally at the end. In an active sentence, the
'agent' (the person or thing that performs the action) usually comes first and is the subject
of the sentence:

Subject (Agent) Action Result

Olympiakos scored the first goal.
This active sentence is principally about Olympiakos.
•In the passive, the result or thing affected by the action comes first and is the subject of
the sentence:
Subject (Result) Action Agent
The first goal was scored by Olympiakos.
This passive sentence is principally about the goal. We choose between active and passive
because of the topic we are talking about, especially when reporting information. An
English newspaper, assuming its readers are interested in the England football team,
makes the England team the topic. It is likely to report:
England have been beaten by Germany in a penalty shoot-out.
A German newspaper, more interested in their own national team, is likely to report:
Germany has beaten England in a penalty shoot-out.
(Source: Side, R. & Wellman, G. (2001), Grammar and Vocabulary for Cambridge Advanced and Proficiency. Longman

Finish each of the following sentences in such a way that it is as similar as possible to the
sentence before it.

a. The car completely destroyed my motorbike.

My motorbike ...............................................
b. The judge refused him permission to appeal against the decision.
He .................................................................
c. Blur have earned several million pounds from their new album.
Blur's new album .........................................
d. They suggested we try a new method of checking how much we were spending.
We ……………………………..

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Prepositions after Passives
There are only a few prepositions that can follow the passive verbs. The most common is by.
Other prepositions are with, and in. We use other prepositions when the meaning requires
them. e.g. Emphasis is placed on rote memorization.

Choose the preposition that best completes each sentence. Tick (√) the correct answer.

Model: Five in ten toddlers are not read ………. regularly.

a for b by c to √ d with

1. The argument is centred ………. whether or not to encourage children to learn through experience.
a on b towards c of d about
2. The essay must be divided ………. three parts: introduction, body and conclusion.
a to b for c into d with
3. My attention was drawn ………. the pale little boy in the corner.
a with b to c for d on
4. The reading test was prepared ………. great patience.
a by b with c for d from
5. A storm of criticism has been levelled ………. the board of the school.
a against b towards c by d for

Structures with get and have – passive patterns

The passive pattern means “arrange for somebody else to do something” e.g. I’ll get the book
brought to you, or “things that happen to you” e.g. She’s had her computer stolen.

Fill each blank with a suitable word or phrase.

a. The video machine is behaving strangely but we're __________________ fixed next week.
b. The lights keep flickering: we must ____________________ to look at the wiring for us.
c. Tom is not the easiest person to get on with; that's something you'll have ___________ to.
d. I ________________________________car broken into the other day and the radio stolen.
e. Elderly people can get _____________________ in by con men going from house to house.

Follow the link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IhcgYgx7aAA&vl=en

and watch Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development.

Listen carefully and write down the main ideas.

Use concepts related to Piaget's theory to write sentences of your own in the Passive
Voice.
Model: Our five senses are developed in the Sensori-Motor Stage.

32
 UNIT 6 - THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE

ACADEMIC SKILLS

The ability to summarise and paraphrase is an essential academic skill all students must develop.
What is a summary? A summary is a condensed version of the main ideas of all or part of a source written in your own
words.
Why do we write summaries? The goal of writing a summary is to offer as accurately as possible the full sense of the
original, but in a more condensed form.
How do we write summaries?

A. You are going to listen to a set of instructions for writing a good summary and then fill in the
blanks with the missing information. You will listen to the recording twice. 

Writing an effective summary requires that you:

Read with the Writer's Purpose in Mind
Read the article……… (1), making ………(2) notes or marks and looking only for what the ………(3) is
saying.
After you've finished………(4), write down in one ………(5) the point that is made about the subject. Then
look for the writer's ………(6) and underline it.

Underline with Summarizing in Mind

Once you clearly ………(7) the writer's major point (or purpose) for writing, read the article again.
Underline the ………(8) supporting the thesis; these should be words or phrases here and there rather than
complete sentences.
In addition, underline ………(9)transitional elements which show how parts are connected. Omit specific
details, examples, description, and ………(10) explanations.

Write, Revise, and Edit to Ensure the Accuracy and Correctness of Your Summary
Writing Your Summary
Now begin writing your summary. ………(11) with a sentence naming the writer and article title and
………(12) the essay's main idea. Then write your summary, omitting nothing important and striving for
overall ………(13) through appropriate transitions.
Be concise, using coordination and subordination to compress ideas.
Conclude with a final ……….(14) reflecting the significance of the article - not from your own point of view
but from the writer's.
Throughout the summary, do not ……(15) your own opinions or thoughts; instead summarise what the writer
has to say about the subject.

Revising Your Summary

After you've completed a draft, read your summary and check for ……….(16).
Keep in mind that a ………(17) should generally be no more than one-fourth the length of the original. If
your summary is too long, cut out words rather than ideas. Then look for non-………(18) information and
delete it.
Write another draft -- still a draft for revision - and ask someone to read it ………(19).

Editing Your Summary

Correct grammar, spelling, and ………(20) errors, looking particularly for those common in your writing.
Write a clean draft and proofread for copying errors.
(Source: Adapted from http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/aca)

33
 READING ACTIVITIES
Vygotsky on Language and Thought

Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) was a Russian psychologist whose

pioneering work focused on child development, and the connections between language development,
social learning and cognition. Vygotsky analyzes the way in which language acquisition shapes a
child’s growing cognitive capabilities

The young child takes the first step toward concept formation when he puts together a number of
objects in unorganised congeries, or ‘heaps’ … consisting of disparate objects, grouped together …
inherently unrelated objects linked by chance in the child’s perception. At that stage, word meaning
denotes nothing more to the child than a vague syncretic conglomeration of individual objects that
have somehow or other coalesced into an image in his mind … Many words have in part the same
meaning to the child and the adult, especially words referring to concrete objects in the child’s
habitual surroundings. The child’s and the adult meanings of a word often ‘meet’, as it were, in the
same concrete object, and this suffices to ensure mutual understanding.

The second major phase on the way to concept formation comprises many variations of what we shall
call thinking in complexes … In a complex, the bonds between its components are concrete and
factual rather than abstract and logical … [S]pontaneous complex formations make up the entire first
chapter of the developmental history of children’s words … [A] child’s use of ‘quah’ to designate first
a duck swimming on the pond, then any liquid, including the milk in his bottle; when he happens to
see a coin with an eagle on it, the coin is also called a ‘quah’, and then any round, coin-like object.
This is typical of a chain complex [one amongst a number of varieties of thinking in complexes]—
each new object included has some attribute in common with another element, but the attributes
undergo endless changes … [A]t the complex stage, word meanings as perceived by the child refer to
the same objects that the adult has in mind, which ensures understanding between child and adult, but
that child thinks the same thing in a different way, by means of different mental operations …
Complex thinking begins the unification of scattered impressions; by organising discrete elements into
groups, it creates the basis for later generalizations.

But the advanced concept presupposes more than unification. To form such a concept it is also
necessary to abstract, to single out elements, and to view the abstracted elements apart from the
totality of the concrete experience in which they are embedded … In the actual development of the
child’s thinking, the above-mentioned functions—generalization and abstraction—are closely
intertwined. The greatest difficulty of all is the application of the concept, finally grasped and
formulated at the abstract level, to new concrete situations that must be viewed in these abstract terms.

34
As we know from investigations of the process of concept formation, a concept is more than the sum
of certain associative bonds formed by memory, more than a mere mental habit; it is a complex and
genuine act of thought that cannot be taught by drilling but can be accomplished only when the child’s
mental development itself has reached the requisite level … The development of concepts, or word
meanings, presupposes the development of many intellectual functions: deliberate attention, logical
memory, abstraction, the ability to compare and to differentiate. These complex psychological
processes cannot be mastered through the initial learning alone.

[It] is precisely during early school age that the higher intellectual functions, whose main features are
reflective awareness and deliberate control, come to the fore in the developmental process …
Attention, previously involuntary, becomes voluntary and increasingly dependent on the child’s own
thinking; mechanical memory changes to logical memory guided by meaning, and can now be
deliberately used by the child. One might say that both attention and memory become ‘logical’ and
voluntary, since control of a function is the counterpart of one’s consciousness of it …

Practical experience … shows that direct teaching of concepts is impossible and fruitless. A teacher
who tries to do this usually accomplishes nothing but empty verbalism, a parrot-like repetition of
words by the child, simulating a knowledge of the corresponding concepts but actually covering up a
vacuum.
(Vygotsky, Lev. 1934 (1986). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.. pp.110–111, 112–113, 127, 126, 135,
136, 142, 149–150, 171, 173, 166–167, 150)
(Retrieved from: http://newlearningonline.com/new-learning/chapter-6/vygotsky-on-language-and-thought)

READING COMPREHENSION

Task 1: Which is the function of the text? Circle your option:

a) to criticize b) to inform c) to offer a personal opinion

Task 2: Write a short summary of each paragraph.

Paragraph 1

Paragraph 2

Paragraph 3

Paragraph 4

Paragraph 5

35
 TEMA 1, MODUL 1 - Assignment 1: Creative writing.

Instructions: The text should be around 200 words and it can focus on any type of
conflict ( excessive use of gadgets, unemployment, misconduct, etc.)

Write a story about the conflicts that exist in a fictitious family due to
generational identity. The family should be an “extended family” made up of
several generations.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
SEMESTER 1/ MODULE 2
Timp de studiu: (120' teorie, 840' practica)
Obiective:
Elaborarea unor lucrări scrise şi prezentări orale originale care să utilizeze principiile şi tehnicile de
redactare consacrate în mediul academic, cu accent pe genurile predilecte din psihologie şi ştiinţele
educaţiei.

36
 UNIT 7 - AUTISM AND COMMUNICATION

To effectively communicate, we must realize that we are all different in the way we perceive the world
and use this understanding as a guide in our communication with others. Anthony Robbins

Autism is a complex neurobiological disorder that typically lasts Specialist

throughout a person's lifetime. It is part of a group of disorders known as Vocabulary
autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Today, 1 in 150 individuals are
acquire
diagnosed with autism, making it more common than paediatric cancer,
communication
diabetes, and AIDS combined. It occurs in all racial, ethnic, and social impair
groups and is four times more likely to strike boys than girls. occur
phonology
Autism was first identified in 1943 by Dr. Leo Kanner of Johns Hopkins pragmatics
Hospital. At the same time, a German scientist, Dr. Hans Asperger, repetitive behaviour
described a milder form of the disorder that is now known as Asperger relate
Syndrome. These two disorders are listed in the DSM IV as two of the five rigid routines
developmental disorders that fall under the autism spectrum disorders. The semantics
others are Rett Syndrome, PDD-NOS, and Childhood Disintegrative spectrum
Disorder. All of these disorders are associated with rigid routines and strike
repetitive behaviours, such as obsessively arranging objects or following syntax
very specific routines, but the most important characteristic is that they vocalise
impair a person's ability to communicate and relate to others.
The capacity to acquire and use language is a key aspect that distinguishes Acronyms
humans from other organisms. Language acquisition starts in infancy and it AIDS
is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce ASD
and use words to understand and communicate. DSM
A child's acquisition of language can be broken down into different PDD-NOS
segments: phonology, which is a person's use of speech sounds; syntax - the
rules of grammar; semantics, which refers to a person's ability to Antonyms
understand and create the meaning of language; pragmatics - the ability to pair ≠ impair
use language for the purpose of communication. integrate ≠
Breaking down language into these different segments allows professionals disintegrate
to clarify to what extent and which aspects of the language and order ≠ disorder
communication of a child with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is
impaired. Compounds
Children with an ASD often fail to communicate using speech or any other eye-contact
type of language, for example eye-contact, hand gestures, body language. If lifetime
a child does not wish to communicate intentionally, they will not explore neurobiological
their ability to vocalise, learn new sounds or listen to the language spoken
Phrases
around them. This will ultimately result in a delay in their language
to break down into
acquisition. Without this means of communication, a child will find it
to fall under
difficult to express themselves. A child with an ASD may not see any
reason to communicate with other people and, consequently, without a Word family
reason there is no point in communicating or no need to communicate. integrate
Children with an ASD may also remove themselves from situations that integral
require communication, limiting their opportunities to communicate. integration
Without opportunities there cannot be a development in communication. integrative
Source: Adapted from http://www.autismspeaks.org/, http://www.nas.org.uk The National Autistic
Society – Speech and Language Therapy disintegrate

37
 SECTION I: Vocabulary Activities
A prefix is placed at the beginning of a word to modify or change its meaning. dis- shows an opposite
or negative and, in verbs, it shows the stopping or removing of a condition.

I. Add the prefix dis- to the following words. Use a dictionary to find their meaning.
Model:

appear disappear to become impossible to see

any longer
ability approval associate believe compose graceful integrate junction order
pleased qualify regard reputable satisfaction trust

…………………………………………………………………...............................................

II. Match the following words with the most suitable definition.
Model: 0. explore = K

0. explore = K A. to damage something or make it not as good as it

should be

1. capacity
B. someone’s ability to do something

C. to happen or exist in a particular place or situation

2. vocalize D. the process by which you gain knowledge or learn a

skill
3. delay
E. when something does not happen or start when it
should do
4. strike
F. to break up, or make something break up, into very
5. spectrum small pieces

6. occur G. to make a sound or sounds with your voice

7. disintegrate H. to damage or harm someone or something

8. routine 9. impair I. the usual order in which you do things, or the things
you regularly do

J. a complete range of opinions, people, situations, etc.

10. acquisition
going from one extreme to its opposite

K. to discuss or think about something carefully

38
III. Follow the link http://www.all-acronyms.com/ to find what these acronyms
stand for. Choose the ones that are the most suitable to the text above.

Model: ASD = autism spectrum disorders

AIDS =
CDD =
DSM =
PDD-NOS =

SECTION II: Language Focus

Reported Speech Other ways of reporting include using nouns such as: argument, assertion,
comment, denial, explanation, observation, remark, statement, etc.

A. The words in the following sentences have been jumbled. Rearrange them
within the first and last words given, in order to make coherent sentences. All
the sentences contain reporting nouns.

Charles Aussilloux, Professor of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the University of Montpellier,
and his team studied the patterns of autism in the population of Languedoc, France.
Below, there are reported some of the results of his research.

Model: was a to clearer of provide argument study major the picture

The major argument of the study was to provide a clearer picture of autism.

1. first his of that observations the was evolutions autistic of were persons
One ………………………………………………………………………………….……… different.
2. about remark the autistic possibility of to autonomously was people live
His …………………………………………………………………………………….. encouraging.
3. was great of comment the importance on the environmental influence
Of ……………………………………………………………………………………………. factors.
4. autism related the was important similarities statement to Asperger’s and between
Another ………………………………………………………………………………….. Syndrome.
5. of the emphasized major autistic role normal assertion the in contact development of human
Aussilloux’s …………………………………………………………………….……………. children.
(Source: Adapted from http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/8.30/helthrpt/stories/s21141.htm)

39
B. Complete the second sentence so that it has the similar meaning to the
first sentence, using the word given.

Model “You should focus more on the topic”, the teacher told me. advised
The teacher … advised me to focus … more on the topic.

1. “Reading more articles in a foreign language is good for you too”, she said. recommended
She ……………………………………………………………… more articles in a foreign language.
2.“You wrote a very good research report!” the professor told her. congratulated
The professor ……………… ………………………………………...…a very good research report.
3. “Don’t leave your room after dark. This is not a safe area”, our instructor told us. warned
Our instructor …………………………………………………………….....……our room after dark.
4. “If you copy the review, you will be accused of plagiarism”, said the lecturer. threatened
The lecturer …………………………………………………………………… if I copied the review.
5. “Don’t forget to bring your project”, my colleague told me. reminded
My colleague………………………………………………………………………….….. my project.

Follow the link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d4G0HTIUBlI

and listen carefully to the podcast What is autism?

Then write ten sentences of your own, using Reported Speech.

Model: The lecturer asserted that there were around 700,000 autistic people in the UK.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

40
 UNIT 8 - EDUCATION

READING ACTIVITIES
As we seek to refine and reform today’s system of education, we would do well to ask, “What is
education?” Our answers may provide insights that get to the heart of what matters for 21st century
children and adults alike.
It is important to step back from divisive debates on grades, standardized testing, and teacher
evaluation—and really look at the meaning of education. So I decided to do just that—to research the
answer to this straightforward, yet complex question. Looking for wisdom from some of the greatest
philosophers, poets, educators, historians, theologians, politicians, and world leaders, I found answers
that should not only exist in our history books, but also remain at the core of current education
dialogue.
As you read through the following quotes, you’ll discover common threads that unite the intellectual,
social, emotional, and physical aspects of education. For me, good education facilitates the
development of an internal compass that guides us through life.

Which quotes resonate most with you? What images of education come to your mind? How can we
best integrate the wisdom of the ages to address today’s most pressing education challenges?

What is Education? Answers from 5th Century BC to the 21st Century

The principle goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women who are capable of
doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have done. -- Jean Piaget, 1896-1980,
Swiss developmental psychologist, philosopher
An education isn't how much you have committed to memory, or even how much you know. It's being
able to differentiate between what you know and what you don't.-- Anatole France, 1844-1924, French
poet, novelist
Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world. -- Nelson Mandela,
1918-2013, South African President, philanthropist
The object of education is to teach us to love beauty. -- Plato, 424 – 348 BC, philosopher
mathematician
The function of education is to teach one to think intensively and to think critically. Intelligence plus
character - that is the goal of true education -- Martin Luther King, Jr., 1929-1968, pastor, activist,
humanitarian
Education is what remains after one has forgotten what one has learned in school. Albert Einstein,
1879-1955, physicist
It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it. --
Aristotle, 384-322 BC, Greek philosopher, scientist
Education is the power to think clearly, the power to act well in the world’s work, and the power to
appreciate life. -- Brigham Young, 1801-1877, religious leader
Real education should educate us out of self into something far finer – into a selflessness which links
us with all humanity. -- Nancy Astor, 1879-1964, American-born English politician and socialite
Education is not the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire. -- William Butler Yeats, 1865-1939,
Irish poet
Education is freedom. – Paulo Freire, 1921-1997, Brazilian educator, philosopher
Education is not preparation for life; education is life itself. -- John Dewey, 1859-1952, philosopher,
psychologist, education reformer
Education is the key to unlock the golden door of freedom.-- George Washington Carver, 1864-1943,
scientist, botanist, educator
Education is an admirable thing, but it is well to remember from time to time that nothing that is worth
knowing can be taught. – Oscar Wilde, 1854-1900, Irish writer, poet

41
The whole purpose of education is to turn mirrors into windows. -- Sydney J. Harris, 1917-1986,
journalist
Education's purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one. -- Malcolm Forbes, 1919-1990,
publisher, politician
No one has yet realized the wealth of sympathy, the kindness and generosity hidden in the soul of a
child. The effort of every true education should be to unlock that treasure. – Emma Goldman, 1869 –
1940, political activist, writer
Much education today is monumentally ineffective. All too often we are giving young people cut
flowers when we should be teaching them to grow their own plants. -- John W. Gardner, 1912-2002,
Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare under President Lyndon Johnson
Education is simply the soul of a society as it passes from one generation to another.-- Gilbert K.
Chesterton, 1874-1936, English writer, theologian, poet, philosopher
Education is the movement from darkness to light. -- Allan Bloom, 1930-1992, philosopher, classicist,
and academician
Education is learning what you didn't even know you didn't know. -- Daniel J. Boorstin, 1914-2004,
historian, professor, attorney
The aim of education is the knowledge, not of facts, but of values. -- William S. Burroughs, 1914-
1997, novelist, essayist, painter
The object of education is to prepare the young to educate themselves throughout their lives. -- Robert
M. Hutchins, 1899-1977, educational philosopher
Education is all a matter of building bridges. -- Ralph Ellison, 1914-1994, novelist, literary critic,
scholar
What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to the soul. -- Joseph Addison, 1672-1719,
English essayist, poet, playwright, politician
Education is the passport to the future, for tomorrow belongs to those who prepare for it today. --
Malcolm X, 1925-1965, minister and human rights activist
Education is the key to success in life, and teachers make a lasting impact in the lives of their students.
-- Solomon Ortiz, 1937-, former U.S. Representative-TX
The very spring and root of honesty and virtue lie in good education. -- Plutarch, 46-120AD, Greek
historian, biographer, essayist
Education is a shared commitment between dedicated teachers, motivated students and enthusiastic
parents with high expectations. Bob Beauprez, 1948-, former member of U.S. House of
Representatives-CO
The most influential of all educational factors is the conversation in a child’s home. – William
Temple, 1881-1944, English bishop, teacher
Education is the leading of human souls to what is best, and making what is best out of them. -- John
Ruskin, 1819-1900, English writer, art critic, philanthropist
Education levels the playing field, allowing everyone to compete. -- Joyce Meyer, 1943-, Christian
author and speaker
Education is what survives when what has been learned has been forgotten. – B.F. Skinner, 1904-
1990, psychologist, behaviourist, social philosopher
The great end of education is to discipline rather than to furnish the mind; to train it to the use of its
own powers rather than to fill it with the accumulation of others. – Tyron Edwards, 1809-1894,
theologian
Let us think of education as the means of developing our greatest abilities, because in each of us there
is a private hope and dream which, fulfilled, can be translated into benefit for everyone and greater
strength of the nation. -- John F. Kennedy, 1917-1963, 35th President of the United States
Education is like a lantern which lights your way in a dark alley. – Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan,
1918-2004, President of the United Arab Emirates for 33 years
When educating the minds of our youth, we must not forget to educate their hearts. -- Dalai Lama,
spiritual head of Tibetan Buddhism
Education is the ability to listen to almost anything without losing your temper or self-confidence. --
Robert Frost, 1874-1963, poet
The secret in education lies in respecting the student. -- Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803-1882, essayist,
lecturer, and poet
42
My mother said I must always be intolerant of ignorance, but understanding of illiteracy. That some
people, unable to go to school, were more educated and more intelligent than college professors. -
Maya Angelou, 1928-, author, poet
(https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/the-moment-youth/201405/what-is-education-insights-the-worlds-greatest-minds)

ACADEMIC WRITING

Opinion Paragraph

The opinion paragraph starts with a clear and original view point or attitude about a topic. Never use
expressions such as “In my opinion” or “I think”. You should directly start on with your opinion as it
is a truth. Instead of saying, “In my opinion life is worth living fully.” just write, “Life is worth living
fully.” Convincing as well as persuasive styles should be the most common throughout the whole
paragraph. An opinion without clear and vigorous arguments that support and sustain it is not at all
inspiring for the reader. You should also bear in mind that arguments are not new opinions, but only
an attempt to support the opinion with the most appropriate evidence. Therefore you should be careful
about the way the topic sentence is managed and reinforced through logical, resistant and easy to
assimilate supporting details, namely arguments. Examples are the most helpful tools to clarify and
back up your arguments. They should be positive statements aiming at bringing about the reader’s
involvement and understanding.
The concluding sentence, on the other hand, should not raise a new opinion or present an open
statement. It should be cautiously dealt with in order to echo the whole paragraph or at least to
paraphrase the topic sentence.

Figure 1
Retrieved from:
https://www.google.ro/url?sa=i&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjzuPXZ64_fAhWBEVAKHZAlBjAQMwhWKAQ
wBA&url=https%3A%2F%2Fslideplayer.com%2Fslide%2F3849228%2F&psig=AOvVaw33nWUhy8wUomuwvsfoD44t&ust=1544345032
975728&ictx=3&uact=3

43
 UNIT 9 - EDUCATION AND MEDIA

READING ACTIVITIES
Read carefully the following text and decide which of the headings below correspond to
the paragraphs numbered 1 - 6. In front of each paragraph there is a blue line on which
you have to write the correct letter.

A. Institutions communicate with D. Social media has gained credibility

students via YouTube and Facebook over the years as a trusted source of
information and platform where
organisations can interact with
audiences.

B. Learners can build social credibility E. Connecting with experts on topics

via social media

C. Enhanced Learning management F. It helps in Research process

systems

_____

1. We are seeing education institutions adapting these developments into their systems and relying on
group resources and mechanisms to improve the student life. The use of social media in education
provides students with the ability to get more useful information, to connect with learning groups and
other educational systems that make education convenient.
Social network tools afford students and institutions with multiple opportunities to improve learning
methods. Through these networks, you can incorporate social media plug-ins that enable sharing and
interaction. Students can benefit from online tutorials and resources that are shared through social
networks and LMS’s.
There is valuable knowledge to be gained through social media such as analytics and insights on
various topics or issues for study purposes. Social media is also a medium where students can
establish beneficial connections for their careers. As an educational institution, it is crucial to be active
in many social platforms possible, this helps create better student training strategies and shapes student
culture.

_____

2. The great thing about using social media is that you soon learn who the experts are in particular
fields and subjects. When you start following these experts you learn more and gain useful content
from them, this empowers you to produce great results.
Social media has the ability to broaden your perspective on various subjects and gives illuminating,
instant content that is new. You have the opportunity of engaging experts to get answers on topics that
you may need help in.

_____

44
3. Learning colleges have the ability to connect with students through social media networks such as
Facebook, Google Plus groups, and YouTube. These channels can be used to communicate campus
news, make announcements and provide students with useful information. This builds engagement
between the College and students which help tackle many student issues through the group
interactions.
Institutions can share supportive and positive posts that reach all students that are connected to the
networks and pages. You can initiate hash tags on social media to engage students and online
discussions that are helpful. Video is a prominent tool in social media trends that are effective and you
can use it to share useful videos that inspire students and help them in their course subjects. Through
social mediums such as YouTube, Facebook or Instagram live video the engagements between
students and the institution can be sustained. It is advisable to be selective about which social
platforms to use for the best practice.

_____

4. Social media offers audience and subject monitoring tools that are useful and it is one of the best
platforms to extract data. You can find out how the majority people feel about a particular topic or
how experts perceive and advice on specific issues.
This can help students compile and produce useful content for research. Whether students are working
on an assignment, working on a project or trying to gain more insight on a subject, some of the best
information and results can be extracted from social media.

_____

5. Learning management systems is a networking software that delivers educational programs and
gives institutions other administrative activities. Social media learning in LMS can include instant chat
functions, video, forums to share info and other lesson resources to help students.
Most LMS’s come with built in social media integration and this drives instant interaction between the
users and the system. The system strengthens student participation and makes team projects easy to
collaborate.
The system exists to tackle student and learning related issues to improve education schemes. It is
beneficial for institutions to use popular Learning management systems with social media
integration to have the best reach and effect through the system. Other social learning benefits are live
conferencing systems, webinar capability, share group reviews, blogs and much more.

_____

6. Building a brand through the social networks can help students build a portfolio for their career. The
platforms can be used to start sharing work while a student is still in the learning space. This is
beneficial to the launch of a student’s career it demonstrates the learning process has developed
through their social media.
By reflecting on educational background and gaining exposure on social media builds social
credibility and students come across as people who can offer their expertise in specified fields. This
prepares and positions your career to have social credibility.
As social networks interactions advance in education systems, social media will become the number
one means for solving education problems. The important benefit that networks build is the many
helpful and beneficial tools and access that make learning become a pleasant process. A digital
marketing qualification can inspire learners to know about the role of social media in education. This
can lead to various social media and marketing job paths.
(Source: Retrieved from https://www.lcibs.co.uk/the-role-of-social-media-in-education/)

45
 UNIT 10 - UNDERSTANDING CLASSROOM DIFFICULTIES

READING ACTIVITIES
Dealing With Difficult Students and Parents

Confronting difficult students in your class is not something that teachers look forward to but
it is a disruption that every educator will meet at some point during their career. And then
comes the possibility of difficult parents. Although these may be tough and sometimes
emotional situations to deal with, it is important to stay positive.
Although this may be hard to do at times, try not to take the child's disruptive behavior
personally. Remember that the child does not know you as a person, and is reacting the only
way that they know - childishly.
Controlling your emotions is an important part in dealing with disruptive children who
probably do not want to listen to an adult who is trying to reason with them. Avoid the urge to
get involved in a verbal battle with them. Instead, take the problem-solving approach, and stay
calm. Whenever possible, speak to the student privately away from their fellow peers, as there
may be more personal problems such as family issues that are causing the disruptive
behavior.
Focus working on solving the original problem, this will involve future disturbances from the
same cause. And usually, if the root of the problem is discovered and resolved, then the
student may offer an apology. Even if they don't, but their behavior improves, then this is still
good as they are back on the right track.
In order to attempt and maintain the class' attention, try introducing some hands-on methods
of learning such as educational printables or word searches that allow the children to get
involved with their learning instead of simply listening to you dictate notes. This gives them
something new and fresh to think about and it also keeps them alert and listening by changing
their learning routine.
Positive reinforcement is also a great behavior management tool to have up your sleeve.
Praise and reinforce the good behavior that you want in your class, and ignore the
inappropriate behavior you wish to dispel. But remember to specify why this behavior is good
and how it can help them and their fellow classmates. Praise regularly, but be honest.
Difficult and stubborn parents can be the bane of a teacher's life. Although the idea of
confronting them about a problem with their child might be terrifying, do not be afraid to
assert your authority. The first step is to make an impression. Behind your desk you should
display certificates of your achievements because whether people like to admit it or not, they
are impressed by qualifications. Remind them that this is your class/office and that you are in
charge.
While doing this, it is important to remain respectful. No matter how rude the parent may be,
you must remain calm as a cool response will neutralize a toxic statement. Listen attentively
to their side of the story and do not judge, accuse, argue or interrupt. Another highly effective
response to an angry statement is to simply not say a word. By replying, you are giving them
verbal satisfaction. If you ignore them, you are denying them the power, and plus nobody
likes to be ignored.
(Source: Adapted from http://www.teach-nology.com/tutorials/teaching/difficult.html)

46
LANGUAGE FOCUS

GERUNDS OR PRESENT PARTICIPLES?

We can use -ing forms (e.g. drinking, singing, smoking, running etc.) not only as verbs, but
also like adjectives, adverbs or nouns.
You are drinking too much these days. (Here the -ing form is part of the present continuous
verb.)
Barking dogs seldom bite. (Here the -ing form is used like an adjective. It modifies the noun
dogs.)
She ran out of the room crying. (Here the -ing form is used like an adverb.)
Smoking is injurious to health. (Here the -ing form is used like a noun.)

When -ing forms are used as verbs, adjectives or adverbs, they are called present participles.
Note that a present participle can refer to the present, past or future.

When -ing forms are used like nouns, they are called gerunds.

1. Point out the present participles (PP) and gerunds (G) in the following
sentences. Circle the correct variant.

1. He has ruined his lungs by smoking. PP/ G

2. Asking questions is easier than answering them. PP/ G
3. We saw a clown standing on his head. PP/ G
4. He hates spending money. PP/ G
5. Waving their hands, the spectators cheered the runners. PP/ G
6. We are fighting a losing battle. PP/ G
7. It is freezing cold. PP/ G
8. We are confident of winning the election. PP/ G
9. The boy cried thinking that he would be whipped. PP/ G
10. Can you teach me painting? PP/ G
(Source: Retrieved and adapted from https://www.englishgrammar.org/gerunds-present-participles/)

2. Study the words in italics in the text about Classroom difficulties and
decide whether they are present participles or gerunds, Write them in the
corresponding boxes.

PRESENT PARTICIPLES GERUNDS

47
 UNIT 11 - MEMORY

READING ACTIVITIES
Memory is the term given to the structures and processes involved in the storage and subsequent
retrieval of information.
Memory is essential to all our lives. Without a memory of the past we cannot operate in the present or
think about the future. We would not be able to remember what we did yesterday, what we have done
today or what we plan to do tomorrow. Without memory we could not learn anything.
Memory is involved in processing vast amounts of information. This information takes many different
forms, e.g. images, sounds or meaning.
For psychologists the term memory covers three important aspects of information processing:

1. Memory Encoding
When information comes into our memory system (from sensory input), it needs to be changed into a
form that the system can cope with, so that it can be stored. Think of this as similar to changing your
money into a different currency when you travel from one country to another. For example, a word
which is seen (in a book) may be stored if it is changed (encoded) into a sound or a meaning (i.e.
semantic processing).
There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed):
1. Visual (picture)
2. Acoustic (sound)
3. Semantic (meaning)
For example, how do you remember a telephone number you have looked up in the phone book? If
you can see it then you are using visual coding, but if you are repeating it to yourself you are using
acoustic coding (by sound).
Evidence suggests that the principle coding system in short term memory (STM) is acoustic coding.
When a person is presented with a list of numbers and letters, they will try to hold them in STM by
rehearsing them (verbally). Rehearsal is a verbal process regardless of whether the list of items is
presented acoustically (someone reads them out), or visually (on a sheet of paper).
The principle encoding system in long term memory (LTM) appears to be semantic coding (by
meaning). However, information in LTM can also be coded both visually and acoustically.

2. Memory Storage
This concerns the nature of memory stores, i.e. where the information is stored, how long the memory
lasts for (duration), how much can be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of information is
held. The way we store information affects the way we retrieve it. There has been a significant
amount of research regarding the differences between Short Term Memory (STM ) and Long Term
Memory (LTM).

48
 Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory. Miller (1956) put this idea
forward and he called it the magic number 7. He though that short-term memory capacity was 7 (plus
or minus 2) items because it only had a certain number of “slots” in which items could be stored.
However, Miller didn’t specify the amount of information that can be held in each slot. Indeed, if we
can “chunk” information together we can store a lot more information in our short-term memory. In
contrast the capacity of LTM is thought to be unlimited.
Information can only be stored for a brief duration in STM (0-30 seconds), but LTM can last a
lifetime.

3. Memory Retrieval
This refers to getting information out storage. If we can’t remember something, it may be because we
are unable to retrieve it. When we are asked to retrieve something from memory, the differences
between STM and LTM become very clear.
STM is stored and retrieved sequentially. For example, if a group of participants are given a list of
words to remember, and then asked to recall the fourth word on the list, participants go through the list
in the order they heard it in order to retrieve the information.
LTM is stored and retrieved by association. This is why you can remember what you went upstairs for
if you go back to the room where you first thought about it.
Organizing information can help retrieval. You can organize information in sequences (such as
alphabetically, by size or by time). Imagine a patient being discharged from hospital whose treatment
involved taking various pills at various times, changing their dressing and doing exercises. If the
doctor gives these instructions in the order which they must be carried out throughout the day (i.e. in
sequence of time), this will help the patient remember them.
(Source: Adapted from http://www.simplypsychology.org/memory.html)

VOCABULARY ACTIVITIES
Study the following extended definition of memory and notice the words marked in the text.
Memory, the ability to retain information or to recover information about previous experiences, is a
function of the brain. When we remember something, a process takes place in which our brains
recover and reconstruct information about things we've done or learned. There are two types of
memory: short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).
Short term is memory of recent knowledge and happenings, while long-term memory helps us recall
events and knowledge from our pasts.
(Source: Adapted from http://www.aarp.org/health/brain/works/what_is_memory.html)

Below is a list of words that collocate with memory ( e.g. short-term memory ). Discover which of the
following definitions can be matched with the words you formed.

1. A hypothesized memory system that 'holds' the input while an interpretation of it is associative
worked out.
2. The presumed neurological events responsible for any relatively permanent memory. declarative MEMORY
3. Material that has supposedly been brought back into conscious memory by the use of
various techniques such as hypnosis and suggestion. drum
4. Memory for the words themselves with their graphological and phonological features, not
their meanings. explicit
5. Memory for the source of a message - who said something rather than what was said.
6. Term used as a label for any memory system that is hypothesized to rest on the notion of false
an association.
7. Conscious memory, memory for material that one is aware of. lexical
8. A piece of laboratory equipment that presents a series of stimuli to a subject for memory
experiments. recovered
9. Conscious memory, memory that one can communicate to others.
10. Memory fore some event that in fact did not happen. source

(Source: Adapted from: Reber, A.S. The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology) trace

working

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 READING ACTIVITIES
Repressed Memories: Fact or Fiction?
In 1991, television comedian Roseanne alleged that her father had sexually molested her from infancy until she
was three years old. She asserted that the experience had been so horrific that she had somehow pushed the
memories from her conscious mind, and the images only returned 30 years later, when she entered therapy for
other emotional problems. Although Roseanne's was a sensational case because of her celebrity, in recent years
there has been a proliferation of similar cases in which adults purport to have recovered memories, often during
the course of psychotherapy, of traumatic sexual abuse during their childhoods. In the early 1990s, a Chicago
man accused a Roman Catholic cardinal of having abused him years earlier. The accuser reported that the
memories of this abuse had emerged in his psychotherapy. A few months later the accuser recanted his ac-
cusation and shared his realization with the media that the "memories" were false images that had emerged in his
therapy. The question of how to respond to reports of earlier abuse is one that perplexes the public and mental
health professionals alike. Indeed, there are many horrifying instances involving the exploitation, rape, and abuse
of children and other vulnerable individuals. For some of these people, the images of having been abused are so
painful that it is understandable that they push these thoughts from consciousness to the unconscious. When the
thoughts emerge into consciousness, the individual is likely to become alarmed and upset. Perhaps allegations
will be made and the matter will be brought to the attention of others, possibly in the form of legal accusations.
What do children remember from the earliest years of their lives? Freud suggested that children pass through a
period of infantile amnesia, during which they can recall few life events. More recently, researchers have
suggested that memory of early life events is difficult to verify. Yet, adults can sometimes recall fairly dramatic
events, such as hospitalizations and deaths that occurred prior to age two or three. There is even some evidence
that infants may be able to remember aspects of maternal speech and sequences of behaviour long before they
are able to conceptualize their lives in verbal terms. Although evidence has been contradictory, some in-
vestigators question if traumatic memories, such as those involving sexual molestation, might be deeply ingrained
in memory because of their emotional salience. Because of the verbal limitations of young children, such
memories might be retained in a different manner.
Although children may retain some early life events and recall them when they become adults, the accuracy of
these recovered or repressed memories remains in question. Memory researchers have established that
memories are not precise reproductions of past experience, like photographs or videos. Instead, they seem to be
influenced and modified by previous and subsequent events, feelings, thoughts, and interactions with other
people. Are memories of sexual abuse accurate recollections of past injustices, or are they so-called "false
memories" that bear little resemblance to past experience? The arguments are often controversial and highly
politicized. For too many years, reports of sexual abuse, particularly those presented by women, were regarded
as fantasy and were dismissed as symptoms of psychological problems. Such views have changed dramatically,
as society has become aware of the widespread problem of sexual abuse of children and with the development of
treatment models to help clients cope with psychological problems that are caused by such abuse. Many
therapists now accept their clients' reports of sexual abuse as fact, but the vagaries of human memory have led
researchers to question this acceptance and to decry therapists' use of questionable techniques that may
influence the experience and reporting of memories. It is certainly alarming to think that someone might be
erroneously accused, and perhaps prosecuted, for a false allegation of having sexually molested a child. Some
concerned spokespersons have banded together to combat inaccurate allegations of sexual abuse. The False
Memory Syndrome Foundation comprises concerned parents, clients, and researchers. In this group are parents
who believe that they were falsely accused of abuse, clients who contend that they were unduly influenced by
therapists' suggestions that they might have been sexually abused, and a sampling of like-minded researchers
who claim that many of these "memories" are unfounded. They suggest that mental health professionals have
gone from the extreme of doubting to the opposite extreme of the uncritical acceptance of reports of abuse. As
the issue of repressed memories has entered the mainstream media, many clients are wondering if they too
might have repressed memories of abuse. Prudent therapists are faced with a daunting challenge. Some
clinicians advocate the use of active techniques to recover repressed memories that may not yet have emerged
into consciousness. Others argue that memories of abuse should only become relevant when they spontaneously
emerge into consciousness. The reactions of therapists are tremendously influential in determining how these
concerns will be addressed and the extent to which they might escalate into disruptive concerns for the client. Of

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 primary importance is the need for the therapist to respond to clients who report repressed memories with con-
cern and understanding for the clients' feelings of vulnerability and victimization.

VOCABULARY ACTIVITIES
First decide what you think the following words (1-5) might mean with the help of context clues, then
match them with the definitions (a-e).
a. to state very firmly that you do not agree with
1. allege something

2. assert b. to claim to be or do something even if this is not true

3. dismiss c. to say publicly that you no longer have a political or

religious belief that you had before
4. purport
d. to say that something is true or that someone has
5. recant done something wrong although it has not been proven

e. to state firmly that something is true

ingrained vagaries [plural]

1 ingrained attitudes or behaviour are firmly established formal - unexpected changes in a situation or someone's
and therefore difficult to change behaviour, that you cannot control but which have an
ingrained in effect on your life
The idea of doing our duty is deeply ingrained in most vagaries of * the vagaries of the English weather
people.
2 ingrained dirt is under the surface of something and very
difficult to remove
salient decry
formal - the salient points or features of smth. are the most formal - to state publicly that you do not approve of
important or most noticeable parts of it something
the salient points of the report synonym condemn
salience noun [uncountable] Merkel decried the election results.
erroneous unduly
Erroneous ideas or information are wrong and based on formal - more than is normal or reasonable
facts that are not correct. unduly worried/concerned/anxious etc
erroneously adverb She doesn't seem unduly concerned about her exams.
Some parents attribute incorrect or erroneous motives, It didn't trouble me unduly.
desires or ideas to their children.
contend disruptive
1[intransitive] to compete against someone in order to gain causing problems and preventing something from
something continuing in its usual way
contend for disruptive to
Three armed groups are contending for power. Night work can be very disruptive to home life.
2[transitive] to argue or state that something is true Mike's parents thought I was a disruptive influence (a
contend that person who causes disruption).
Some astronomers contend that the universe may be Ways to handle disruptive pupils
younger than previously thought.
contend with something - phrasal verb
to have to deal with something difficult or unpleasant
The rescue team also had bad weather conditions to
contend with .
(Source: Richard P. Halgin and Susan Krauss Whitbourne, Abnormal Psychology: The Human Experience of Psychological Disorders)

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Unscramble the following vocabulary terms and enter the terms on the lines provided. Then
match each numbered term to the correct lettered definition by placing the number of the
term on the line to the right of the definitions.

1. ERTASOG A - the memory process of transforming information

so that the nervous system can process it ____
_______

2. NOCEDGNI B - the memory process by which information is

________ maintained over a period of time ____

3. ICGNHKUN C - the process of grouping items together so that

________ they are easier to remember ____

4. AEVRTILRE D - the storage and retrieval of information that has

_________ been learned or experienced ____

5. ROMEYM E - the memory process that involves obtaining

______ information that has been previously stored ____

(Source: Adapted from: Glencoe Understanding Psychology. Vocabulary Activities)

Follow the link https://www.ted.com/talks/elizabeth_loftus_the_fiction_of_memory to watch

Elizabeth Loftus' Ted Talk on How reliable is your memory and then write your own ideas
about false memories.

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 UNIT 12 - MOTIVATION AND EMOTIONS

READING ACTIVITIES
Ever wonder why some people seem to be very successful, highly motivated individuals? Where does
the energy, the drive, or the direction come from? Motivation is an area of psychology that has gotten
a great deal of attention, especially in the recent years. The reason is because we all want to be
successful, we all want direction and drive, and we all want to be seen as motivated.

What is Motivation?
Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.
Motivation is what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a
book to gain knowledge.

A Closer Look at Motivation

Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior. In
everyday usage, the term motivation is frequently used to describe why a person does something. For
example, you might say that a student is so motivated to get into a clinical psychology program that
she spends every night studying.
"The term motivation refers to factors that activate, direct, and sustain goal-directed behavior...
Motives are the 'whys' of behavior—the needs or wants that drive behavior and explain what we do.
We don't actually observe a motive; rather, we infer that one exists based on the behavior we
observe."(Nevid, 2013)
What exactly lies behind the motivations for why we act? Psychologists have proposed
different theories of motivation, including drive theory, instinct theory, and humanistic theory. The
reality is that there are many different forces that guide and direct our motivations.

Components of Motivation
Anyone who has ever had a goal (like wanting to lose 20 pounds or run a marathon) probably
immediately realizes that simply having the desire to accomplish something is not enough. Achieving
such a goal requires the ability to persist through obstacles and endurance to keep going in spite of
difficulties.
There are three major components to motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity.
Activation involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology class.
Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An example of
persistence would be taking more psychology courses in order to earn a degree although it requires a
significant investment of time, energy, and resources.
Intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one
student might coast by without much effort, while another student will study regularly, participate in
discussions, and take advantage of research opportunities outside of class. The first student lacks
intensity, while the second pursues his educational goals with greater intensity.

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation

Different types of motivation are frequently described as being either extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic
motivations are those that arise from outside of the individual and often involve rewards such as
trophies, money, social recognition, or praise. Intrinsic motivations are those that arise from within the
individual, such as doing a complicated crossword puzzle purely for the personal gratification of
solving a problem.
Understanding motivation is important in many areas of life, from parenting to the workplace. You
may want to set the best goals and establish the right reward systems to motivate others as well as
to increase your own motivation. Knowledge of motivating factors and manipulating them is used in

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marketing and other aspects of industrial psychology. It's an area where there are many myths and
everyone can benefit from knowing what works and what doesn't.
Theories of Motivation
Researchers have developed a number of theories to explain motivation. Each individual theory tends
to be rather limited in scope. However, by looking at the key ideas behind each theory, you can gain a
better understanding of motivation as a whole.
Motivation is the force that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It is what causes
us to take action, whether to grab a snack to reduce hunger or enroll in college to earn a degree. The
forces that lie beneath motivation can be biological, social, emotional, or cognitive in nature. Let's take
a look at each one.

Instinct Theory of Motivation

According to instinct theories, people are motivated to behave in certain ways because they are
evolutionarily programmed to do so. An example of this in the animal world is seasonal migration.
These animals do not learn to do this, it is instead an inborn pattern of behavior. Instincts motivation
some species to migrate at certain times each year.
William James created a list of human instincts that included such things as attachment, play, shame,
anger, fear, shyness, modesty, and love. The main problem with this theory is that it did not really
explain behavior, it just described it.
By the 1920s, instinct theories were pushed aside in favor of other motivational theories, but
contemporary evolutionary psychologists still study the influence of genetics and heredity on human
behavior.

Incentive Theory of Motivation

The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to do things because of external rewards. For
example, you might be motivated to go to work each day for the monetary reward of being paid.
Behavioral learning concepts such as association and reinforcement play an important role in this
theory of motivation.
This theory shares some similarities with the behaviorist concept of operant conditioning. In operant
conditioning, behaviors are learned by forming associations with outcomes. Reinforcement
strengthens a behavior while punishment weakens it.
While incentive theory is similar, it instead proposes that people intentionally pursue certain courses
of action in order to gain rewards. The greater the perceived rewards, the more strongly people are
motivated to pursue those reinforcements.

Drive Theory of Motivation

According to the drive theory of motivation, people are motivated to take certain actions in order to
reduce the internal tension that is caused by unmet needs. For example, you might be motivated to
drink a glass of water in order to reduce the internal state of thirst.
This theory is useful in explaining behaviors that have a strong biological component, such as hunger
or thirst. The problem with the drive theory of motivation is that these behaviors are not always
motivated purely by physiological needs. For example, people often eat even when they are not really
hungry.

Arousal Theory of Motivation

The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people take certain actions to either decrease or
increase levels of arousal.
When arousal levels get too low, for example, a person might watch an exciting movie or go for a jog.
When arousal levels get too high, on the other hand, a person would probably look for ways to relax
such as meditating or reading a book.
According to this theory, we are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, although this level
can vary based on the individual or the situation.

Humanistic Theory of Motivation

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Humanistic theories of motivation are based on the idea that people also have strong cognitive reasons
to perform various actions. This is famously illustrated in Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs,
which presents different motivations at different levels.
First, people are motivated to fulfill basic biological needs for food and shelter, as well as those of
safety, love, and esteem. Once the lower level needs have been met, the primary motivator becomes
the need for self-actualization, or the desire to fulfill one's individual potential.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

The expectancy theory of motivation suggests that when we are thinking about the future, we
formulate different expectations about what we think will happen. When we predict that there will
most likely be a positive outcome, we believe that we are able to make that possible future a reality.
This leads people to feel more motivated to pursue those likely outcomes.
The theory proposes that motivations consist of three key elements: valence, instrumentality, and
expectancy. Valence refers to the value people place on the potential outcome. Things that seem
unlikely to produce personal benefit have a low valence, while those that offer immediate personal
rewards have a higher valence.
Instrumentality refers to whether people believe that they have a role to play in the predicted outcome.
If the event seems random or outside of the individual's control, people will feel less motivated to
pursue that course of action. If the individual plays a major role in the success of the endeavor,
however, people will feel more instrumental in the process.
Expectancy is the belief that one has the capabilities to produce the outcome. If people feel like they
lack the skills or knowledge to achieve the desired outcome, they will be less motivated to try. People
who feel capable, on the other hand, will be more likely to try to reach that goal.
While no single theory can adequately explain all human motivation, looking at the individual theories
can offer a greater understanding of the forces that cause us to take action. In reality, there are likely
many different forces that interact to motivate behavior.
(Source: Adapted from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-motivation and http://allpsych.com/psychology101/motivation/)

Emotions and Types of Emotional Responses

Emotions seem to rule our daily lives. We make decisions based on whether we are happy, angry, sad,
bored, or frustrated. We choose activities and hobbies based on the emotions they incite.

What Exactly Is an Emotion?

According to the book, "Discovering Psychology," "An emotion is a complex psychological state that
involves three distinct components: a subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral
or expressive response."

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In addition to understanding exactly what emotions are, researchers have also tried to identify and
classify the different types of emotions. In 1972, psychologist Paul Eckman suggested that there
are six basic emotions that are universal throughout human cultures: fear, disgust, anger, surprise,
happiness, and sadness. In 1999, he expanded this list to include a number of other basic emotions,
including embarrassment, excitement, contempt, shame, pride, satisfaction, and amusement.
During the 1980s, Robert Plutchik introduced another emotion classification system known as the
"wheel of emotions." This model demonstrated how different emotions can be combined or mixed
together, much the way an artist mixes primary colors to create other colors. Plutchik suggested that
there are 8 primary emotional dimensions: happiness vs. sadness, anger vs. fear, trust vs. disgust, and
surprise vs. anticipation. These emotions can then be combined in a variety of ways. For example,
happiness and anticipation might combine to create excitement.
In order to better understand what emotions are, let's focus on their three key elements.

1. The Subjective Experience

While experts believe that there are a number of basic universal emotions that are experienced by
people all over the world regardless of background or culture, researchers also believe that
experiencing emotion can be highly subjective. While we might have broad labels for certain emotions
such as "angry," "sad," or "happy," your own unique experience of these emotions is probably much
more multi-dimensional. Consider anger. Is all anger the same? Your own experience might range
from mild annoyance to blinding rage.
Plus, we don't always experience pure forms of each emotion. Mixed emotions over different events or
situations in our lives are common. When faced with starting a new job, you might feel both excited
and nervous. Getting married or having a child might be marked by a wide variety of emotions ranging
from joy to anxiety. These emotions might occur simultaneously, or you might feel them one after
another.

2. The Physiological Response

If you've ever felt your stomach lurch from anxiety or your heart palpate with fear, then you realize
that emotions also cause strong physiological reactions. (Or, as in the Cannon-Bard theory of
emotion, we feel emotions and experience physiological reactions simultaneously.) Many of the
physical reactions you experience during an emotion, such as sweating palms, racing heartbeat, or
rapid breathing are controlled by the sympathetic nervous system, a branch of the autonomic nervous
system. The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary body responses, such as blood flow and
digestion. The sympathetic nervous system is charged with controlling the body's fight-or-flight
reactions. When facing a threat, these responses automatically prepare your body to flee from danger
or face the threat head-on.
While early studies of the physiology of emotion tended to focus on these autonomic responses, more
recent research has targeted the brain's role in emotions. Brain scans have shown that the amygdala,
part of the limbic system, plays an important role in emotion and fear in particular. The amygdala
itself is a tiny, almond-shaped structure that has been linked to motivational states such as hunger and
thirst as well as memory and emotion. Researchers have used brain imaging to show that when people
are shown threatening images, the amygdala becomes activated. Damage to the amygdala has also
been shown to impair the fear response.

3. The Behavioral Response

The final component is perhaps one that you are most familiar with—the actual expression of emotion.
We spend a significant amount of time interpreting the emotional expressions of the people around us.
Our ability to accurately understand these expressions is tied to what psychologists call emotional
intelligence, and these expressions play a major part in our overall body language. Researchers believe
that many expressions are universal, such as a smile indicating happiness or pleasure or a frown
indicating sadness or displeasure. Cultural rules also play an important role in how we express and
interpret emotions. In Japan, for example, people tend to mask displays of fear or disgust when the
authority figure is present.

Emotions vs. Moods

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In everyday language, people often use the terms "emotions" and "moods" interchangeably, but
psychologists actually make distinctions between the two. How do they differ? An emotion is
normally quite short-lived, but intense. Emotions are also likely to have a definite and identifiable
cause. For example, after disagreeing with a friend over politics, you might feel angry for a short
period of time. A mood, on the other hand, is usually much milder than an emotion, but longer-lasting.
In many cases, it can be difficult to identify the specific cause of a mood. For example, you might find
yourself feeling gloomy for several days without any clear, identifiable reason.
(Source: Adapted from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-are-emotions)

There are five theories which attempt to understand why we experience emotion.

James-Lange Theory
The James-Lange theory of emotion argues that an event causes physiological arousal first and then
we interpret this arousal. Only after our interpretation of the arousal can we experience emotion. If
the arousal is not noticed or is not given any thought, then we will not experience any emotion based
on this event.
EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to
tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. You notice these physiological changes and
interpret them as your body’s preparation for a fearful situation. You then experience fear.

EVENT → AROUSAL → INTERPRETATION → EMOTION

Cannon-Bard Theory
The Cannon-Bard theory argues that we experience physiological arousal and emotional at the same
time, but gives no attention to the role of thoughts or outward behavior.
EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to
tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. At the same time as these physiological changes
occur you also experience the emotion of fear.

EVENT → AROUSAL
→ EMOTION

Schachter-Singer Theory
According to this theory, an event causes physiological arousal first. You must then identify a reason
for this arousal and then you are able to experience and label the emotion.
EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to
tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. Upon noticing this arousal you realize that is
comes from the fact that you are walking down a dark alley by yourself. This behavior is dangerous and
therefore you feel the emotion of fear.
EVENT → AROUSAL → REASONING→ EMOTION

Lazarus Theory
Lazarus Theory states that a thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal. In other
words, you must first think about your situation before you can experience an emotion.
EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you think it
may be a mugger so you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens and at the same
time experience fear.

EVENT → THOUGHT → AROUSAL

→ EMOTION

Facial Feedback Theory

According to the facial feedback theory, emotion is the experience of changes in our facial muscles.
In other words, when we smile, we then experience pleasure, or happiness. When we frown, we then
experience sadness. it is the changes in our facial muscles that cue our brains and provide the basis of
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 our emotions. Just as there are an unlimited number of muscle configurations in our face, so to are
there a seemingly unlimited number of emotions.

EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and your eyes
widen, your teeth clench and your brain interprets these facial changes as the expression of fear. Therefore you
experience the emotion of fear.

EVENT → FACIAL CHANGES → EMOTIONS

(Source: Adapted from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/emotion/)

Follow the link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNY0AAUtH3g and listen

carefully to Emotions and the brain, then answer the following questions:

1. Which are the feelings that come first to our mind when we hear the word "emotion".
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...
2. Which is the role of chemical messages?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...
3. What is the name of the response in case of threat?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...
4. Which are the hormones that make us feel good?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...
5. What can help us understand and regulate behavior?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

VOCABULARY ACTIVITIES

When reporting emotions or impressions we may use certain adjectives.

Write some sentences describing emotions after you match the adjectives (A-F) with the
faces (1-6) Model: 6 – F

A. concerned; worried; alarmed; afraid;

uneasy

B. angry; infuriated; outraged; annoyed;

1 2 irritated

C. bored; uninterested; fed up; jaded

D. content; blissful; cheerful; joyful; delighted

3 4
E. depressed; miserable; unhappy;
disheartened

5 6 F. surprised; astonished; amazed; taken aback

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TEMA 2, MODUL 2 - Assignment 2: Opinion paragraph.

Instructions: Read again the guidelines given at page 38 in your Study Pack and

Write an opinion paragraph on the role of motivation in education

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 ENGLISH TEST/ SAMPLE

I. READING COMPREHENSION. Read the text below and solve the tasks that follow the
fragment.

Boys and girls react differently to stress

A study from Stanford University in the USA suggests that very stressful events affect the brains of boys and girls in
different ways. Researchers say that girls suffer more after traumatic events and are more likely to develop post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). They also say that because of this, girls and boys should be treated differently by
doctors during the recovery process from PTSD. Lead researcher Dr Megan Klabunde said: "It is important that people
who work with traumatised youth consider the sex differences. Our findings suggest it is possible that boys and girls
could exhibit different trauma symptoms and that they might benefit from different approaches to treatment." The
research focused on a part of the brain that deals with emotions and empathy, called the insula. The smaller the insula,
the more likely it is that someone will suffer from PTSD. Researchers discovered that the insula was particularly small in
girls who had gone through a traumatic event. It was larger than usual in boys who had experienced a distressing,
shocking or frightening event. Posttraumatic stress disorder is a mental disorder that can develop after traumatic events,
such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, or threats on a person's life. Symptoms may include disturbing or
suicidal thoughts, nightmares related to the events, and alterations to how a person thinks and feels.
(Sources: BBC.com / Stanford.edu / Wikipedia.org)

1. Find the suitable synonym for the words below. Write the corresponding letter next to each word.

Model: distressing = k a. disturbing

b. healing
1. study = c. report
2. affect = d. crashes
3. likely = e. probable
4. recover =y f. changes
5. treatment = g. therapy
6. deal with = h. influence
7. traumatic = i. evolve
8. develop = j. handle
9. collisions =
10. alteration = k. upsetting

2. Decide whether the following statements are true or false according to the text. Circle the correct version.
1) The research was from Oxford University in the UK. T/F
2) The research says girls are more likely to suffer from PTSD. T/F
3) Boys and girls should be treated differently for stress. T/F
4) Boys and girls show different symptoms when stressed. T/F
5) The research focused on a part of the brain that deals with trauma. T/F
6) A part of the brain called the insula was bigger in girls. T/F
7) PTSD is a physical disorder. T/F
8) Symptoms of PTSD include having suicidal thoughts. T/F

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