Vizual

Structura generala a ochiului:

-ochiul=organ inalt specializat pentru perceperea formei, luminii si culorii
-localizat in cavitati protectoare - orbite. Fiecare ochi contine o capsula care ii mentine forma, un
sistem de lentile si celule fotosensibile, plus numeroase celule care proceseaza informatia
luminoasa. Aceste informatii pleaca spre creier prin nervul optic.
Straturi:
1. Sclera - stratul extern; alcatuit din tes. con dens, opac., albicios
-sclera interna e adiacenta coroidei. contine numeroase tiupuri de fibre si celule
conunctive !inclusiv macrofage si melanocite"
-anterior, sclera e modificata =# corneea, transparenta, prin care razele
luminoase aung in ochi
-sclera da rigiditatea ochiului; onctiunea dintre sclera si cornee se numeste
limbus
-in partea post - tranzitie intre sclera si dura mater !la emergenta n. optic"
$. Uvea !stratul vascular" - consta din % parti:
a) o parte intens prigmentata - coroida !contine numeroase vase de sange - rol
nutritiv pentru retina si restul ochiului"
-impartita in mai multe straturi: lamina supracoroida cu melanocite, stratul
vascular, stratul vascular, stratul coriocapilar si mb limitanta transparenta !a lui
&ruch"
-lamina supracoroida este alc. din fb fine de colagen, retea de fb elastice,
fibroblaste si numeroase melanocite
-stratul vascular - vase de sange medii si mare; intre vasele sangvine exista tes.
con lax cu melanocite care dau culoarea inchisa a stratului
-stratul coriocapilar - retea de capilare cu lumen larg
-mb. limitanta transparenta : separa coroida de retina; este adiacenta celulelor
epiteliale pigmentate din retina;
b) corpul ciliar - triunghiular; alc. din m. ciliar si procesele ciliar.
-fb din m. ciliar au dispozitie radiala, circulara si longitudinala
-extensiile plicaturate si inalt vascularizate ale corpului ciliar se
ataseaza de lentile prin ligamentul suspensor ' fb. zonulare.
(ontractia m. ciliar reduce tensiunea din acestea - modificarea
convergentei sistemului
c)iris - partea colorata a ochiului; fb musculare netede cu dispozitie circulara si
radiala modifica diametrul pupilei
%. Retina - aflata cel mai la interior; %') posterior este fotosensibila
-alcatuita din celule fotorecept cu con si bastonas si diversi interneuroni.
-se termina in regiunea anterioara a ochiului numita ora serrata !partea non-
fotosensibila a retinei"
-aceasta regiune se va continua spre anterior, captusind partea interna a corpului
ciliar si regiunea posterioara a irisului
Camerele ochiului:
a" anterioara - intre cornee, iris, sistem de lentile
b" posterioara - spatiu mic situat intre iris, proces ciliar , fibre zonulare si sistemul lenticular
c"camera vitroasa- spatiu mai mare, situat posterior de sistemul lenticular si fibrele zonulare,
inconurat de retina
(amerele ant. si post. sunt umplute cu un lichid apos - umoarea apoasa; lichidul e produs in mod
continuu de procesul ciliar !localiz. in spatele irisului". *+chidul circula dinspre camera post. spre
cea ant., unde e absorbit de vene
-(amera vitroasa - umpluta cu o substanta gelatinoasa numita umoarea vitroasa
Elementele fotosensibile
,etina fotosensibila contine numeroase tipuri de celule asezate pe mai multe straturi. Aceste
celule raspund la stimulii luminosi, producand impulsuri care parasesc ochiul prin axonii acestor
celule ce se vor grupa formand nervul optic.
,egiunea posterioara a ochiului contine si o zona pigmentata in galben numita macula lutea, in
centrul acesteia fiind o depresiune - fovea. Aceasta nu are celule cu bastonas sau vase de
sange, dar are concentratia maxima de celule cu conuri.
Retina
-retina fotosensibila contine % tipuri de neuroni, impartiti in mai multe straturi:
-celule fotosensibile cu con si bastonas
-celule bipolare
-celule ganglionare
(elulele fotosensibile fac sinapsa cu celulele bipolare, care vor face sinapsa apoi cu celulele
ganglionare.
Axonii acestor celule se vor uni la nivelul papilei optice =# nervul opptic; papila optica se mai
numeste si pata oarba din cauza ca zona nu contine celule fotosensibile.
-celulele fotosensibile sunt adiacente stratului coroid, asadar lumina trebuie sa strabata intai
celulele bipolare si ganglionare.
-stratul pigmentar al coroidei absoarbe lumina si previne reflectarea acesteia
-traturi:
-cel mai extern: celule epiteliale pigmentate - tes. ep. simplu cuboidal cu granule de melanina
-urmeaza stratul de celule fotosensibile - adiacent mb limitante externe formate de procesele
ceulelor neurogliale - celulele .uller !cu umlaut"
-strat nuclear extern - contine nucleii celulelor cu con si bastonas si procesele externe ale cel.
.uller
-strat plexiform extern - axonii cel. cu cno si abstonas, sinapsele lor cu cel bipolare plus cel.
orizontale ce fac leg cel. cu con si bastonas cu cel. ganglionare;
-strat nuclear intern: nucleii cel. bipolare, orizontale, amacrine, .uller
-plexiform intern - axonii cel. bipolare fac sinapsa cu cel. amacrine si ganglionare
-stratul cel. ganglionare - contine corpul cel. ganglionare si cel. neurogliale. /endritele cel. ggl
fac sinapse in stratul plexiform intern.
-stratul nervului optic - axonii cel ggl si fb interne ale cel .uller care vor forma mb. limitanta
interna
-vasele sangvine aung pana in stratul nuclear intern.
(elulele cu con si bastonas:
-bastonas - foarte sensibile la lumina - functioneaza cel mai bine in conditii de lumina scazuta
!apus, noaptea". in intuneric, pigmentul numit rodopsina se sintetizeaza sis e acumuleaza si
celulele cu abstonas.
-conuri - raspund cel mai bine la lumina puternica. ,aspund la albastru, rosu si verde. (ontin
iodopsine.
(ornea:
-struct groasa, transparenta, avasculara a ochiului.
suprafata anterioara este acoperita de 01-23, alcatuit din 4 sau mai multe straturi de celule.
-stratul bazal este alcatuit din celule columnare, ce stau pe o .& numita membrana limitanta
anterioara !a lui &o5man".
-stroma corneei !substantia propria" formeaza corpul corneii - alc. din fb. paralele de colagen si
fibroblaste aplatizate
-mb. limitanta posterioara !a lui /escemet" este o .& groasa localizata in portiunea posterioara
a stromei corneei
-partea posterioara a corneei care are contact cu camera ant. a ochiului este acoperita de
endoteliul corneei, epiteliu simplu paviment.
Auditiv
-sistemul auditiv - compus din % parti: urechea externa, milocie si interna
urechea-organ specializat ce contine structuri responsabile pentru producerea senzatiei auditive,
a echilibrului si a mentinerii echilibrului
6rechea externa
-auriculul ' pinna urechii externe 7culege7 undele sonore si le directioneaza prin canalul auditiv
extern spre membrana timpanica
6rechea milocie
-camera mica, umpluta cu aer, numita cavitatea timpanica
-localizata in stanca osului temporal
-mb. timpanica separa urechea externa de cea milocie
-in ea se afla % oase mici: ciocan, nicovala, scarita; tot aici se gasestie si trompa lui 0ustachio,
prin care comunica cu nazofaringele.
-aceasta cale de comunicare permite echilibrarea presiunilor dintre cele $ fete ale timpanului
6rechea interna
-organ specializat pentru a 7primi si trnsmite sunetul7 !auz" = cohlee
-cohleea efectueaza $ rasuciri si umatate in urul unui ax osos numit modiolus
-in interior, cohleea este impartita in % canale:
a" scala vestibulara
b" scala timpanica
c" ductul cohlear
-inf interiorul ducturlui cohlear- organul lui (orti - alcatuit din celule senzoriale !hair cells" si
diferite celule de sustinere ce raspund la diferite frecvente ale sunetului.
-stimulul se propaga prin nervul cohlear spre creier
Functia vestibulara
-realizata de utricula, sacula si canalele semicriculare
6rechea interna:
-in modiola se afla ganglionii spirali, compusi din numerosi neuroni biploari ' senzitivi
-dendritele acestor axoni se extind si inerveaza celulele paroase !hair cells" ce sunt localizate in
organul lui (orti.
-axonii acestor celule se unesc si formeaza nervul cohlear.
*abiritnul osos este impartit in $ de spirala osoasa si mb bazilara; spirala osoasa se proiecteaza
de pe modiola pana la 1'$ a lumenului, de unde se continua cu mb bazilara. Aceasta se va
insera pe lig. spiral, o ingrosare a tes. con. din periostul peretelui canalului cohlear.
-scala vestibulara si scala timpanica comunica in varf prin helicotrema
-mb vestibulara ,eissner separa ductul vestibular de cel cohlear si formeaza tavanul ductului
cohlear.
-se ataseaza de lig. spiral
-organul lui (orti contine cel. senzoriale cu par si se afla pe mb bazala, deasupra lor fiind mb
tectoria
1eretele ext al ductului cohlear - regiune vasculara numita stria vascularis, acoprita de ep.
pavimentos stratificat. Acest epiteliu contine o retea capilara formata din vasele de sg din lig
spiral.
*ig spiral contine fb de colagen, fibroblaste pigmentate si numeroase vase de sange.
-tavanul canalului cohlear - format de mb vestibulara - f subtire - separa ductul cohlear de cel
vestibular
-mb vestibulara se intinde de la lig. spiral la lama osoasa spirala, langa limbul spiral
-limbul spiral = masa ingrosata de periost din lama osoasa spirala. Acesta este acoperit de tes.
ep. columnar simplu, care initial este sustinut de o extensie a lamei osoase spirale, iar apoi
formeaza mb tectoria.
.b bazilara este alc din tes. con lax vascularizat care formeaza peretele inf al ductului cohlear.
8rganul lui (orti se gaseste pe fb din mb bazala si este alc din:
outter hair cells
ceule de sustinere
associated inner spiral tunnel !9"
tunel intern
Fb aferente ale n. cohlear ce vin din cel. bipolare ale ggl. spiral trec prin lama osoasa spirala si
fac sinapsa cu outter hair cells.
6reche, :un;eira
0ars: <he =estibuloauditor> ->stem
<he functions of the ear are related to both maintaining e;uilibrium and hearing. 0ars consist of
three maor parts !Figure $%?$1": the external ear, 5hich receives sound 5aves; the middle ear,
in 5hich sound 5aves are transmitted from air to fluids of the internal ear via a set of small
bones; and the internal ear, in 5hich these fluid movements are transduced to nerve impulses
that pass via the acoustic nerve to the (2-. +n addition to the auditor> organ, the internal ear
also contains the vestibular organ 5hich allo5s the bod> to maintain e;uilibrium.
.aor divisions of the ear.
<he external, middle, and internal regions of the right ear are sho5n here, 5ith the maor
structures of each region.
0xternal 0ar
<he auricle, or pinna !*. pinna, 5ing" is an irregular, funnel-shaped plate of elastic cartilage,
covered b> tightl> adherent s@in, 5hich directs sound 5aves into the ear.
<he 5aves enter the external acoustic meatus !*. meatus, passage", a canal extending from the
lateral surface of the head. +t is lined 5ith stratified s;uamous epithelium continuous 5ith the s@in
of the auricle and near its opening hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and modified apocrine s5eat
glands called ceruminous glands are found in the submucosa . (erumen is the oil> or 5ax>,
>ello5ish material resulting from secretions of the sebaceous and ceruminous glands. +t contains
various proteins, saturated fatt> acids, and sloughed @eratinoc>tes and has protective,
antimicrobial properties. <he 5all of the external auditor> meatus is supported b> elastic cartilage
in its outer third, 5hile the temporal bone encloses the inner part .

0xternal acoustic meatus.
<he external acoustic meatus leads from the opening in the auricle to the t>mpanic membrane
!eardrum". <his section of the 5all in the outer third of the acoustic meatus sho5s the lining of
s@in containing small hair follicles !F", sebaceous glands !-A", and modified apocrine s5eat
glands called ceruminous glands !(A". -ecretions from these t5o glands form a >ello5ish, oil>
or 5ax> product called cerumen !(", 5hich contains antimicrobial factors that help ma@e the
meatus uninviting for microorganisms.

Across the deep end of the external acoustic meatus lies an epithelial sheet called the t>mpanic
membrane or eardrum. +ts external side is covered 5ith epidermis and its inner surface is
covered 5ith simple cuboidal epithelium continuous 5ith the lining of the t>mpanic cavit> in the
middle ear !see belo5". &et5een the t5o epithelial coverings is a thin sheet of fibrous connective
tissue la>er composed of collagen, elastic fibers and fibroblasts. =ibrations of the t>mpanic
membrane produced b> sound 5aves transmit sound 5ave energ> to the middle and inner ear
!Figure $%?$1".
.iddle 0ar
<he middle ear contains the air-filled t>mpanic cavit>, an irregular space that lies 5ithin the
temporal bone bet5een the t>mpanic membrane and the bon> surface of the internal ear !Figure
$%?$1". Anteriorl> this cavit> communicates 5ith the phar>nx via the auditor> tube !0ustachian or
phar>ngot>mpanic tube" and posteriorl> 5ith the smaller, air-filled mastoid cavities of the
temporal bone. <he t>mpanic cavit> is lined mainl> 5ith simple cuboidal epithelium resting on a
thin lamina propria that is strongl> adherent to periosteum. 2ear the auditor> tube, this simple
epithelium is graduall> replaced b> the ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium lining the
tube. Although the 5alls of the tube are usuall> collapsed, it opens during the s5allo5ing
process, 5hich serves to balance the air pressure in the middle ear 5ith atmospheric pressure.
+n the medial bon> 5all of the middle ear are t5o membrane-covered regions devoid of bone: the
oval and round 5indo5s.
<he t>mpanic membrane is connected to the oval 5indo5 b> a series of three small bones, the
auditor> ossicles, 5hich transmit the mechanical vibrations of the t>mpanic membrane to the
internal ear. <he ossicles are named the malleus, incus, and stapes, the *atin 5ords respectivel>
for 7hammer,7 7anvil,7 and 7stirrup,7 5hich reflect each boneBs general shape. <he malleus is
attached to connective tissue of the t>mpanic membrane and the stapes to that of the membrane
in the oval 5indo5. <he ossicles articulate at s>novial oints, 5hich along 5ith periosteum are
completel> covered 5ith simple s;uamous epithelium. <5o small s@eletal muscles insert into the
malleus and stapes, restricting movement of the ossicles and helping to protect the internal ear
from extremel> loud noises.
+nternal 0ar
<he internal ear is located completel> 5ithin the temporal bone, 5here an intricate set of
interconnected spaces, the bon> lab>rinth, houses a set of continuous fluid-filled, epithelium-
lined tubes and chambers that ma@e up the smaller membranous lab>rinth !Figure $%?$1". <he
membranous lab>rinth is derived from an ectodermal vesicle, the otoc>st, 5hich invaginates into
the subacent connective tissue during the fourth 5ee@ of embr>onic development, loses contact
5ith the surface ectoderm, and becomes embedded in the rudiments of the future temporal
bone. /uring this process, the otic vesicle changes shape, giving rise to t5o maor divisions of
the membranous lab>rinth:
C the vestibular lab>rinth, 5hich mediates the sense of e;uilibrium and consists of t5o
connected sacs !the utricle and the saccule" and three semicircular ducts arising from the utricle,
and
C the cochlear lab>rinth, 5hich provides for hearing and contains the cochlear duct
connected to the saccule.
+n each of these structures the epithelial lining contains large areas of columnar sensor>
mechanoreceptors called hair cells in specialized regions:
C t5o maculae of the utricle and saccule,
C three cristae ampullaris in the enlarged ampullar> regions of each semicircular duct, and
C the long spiral organ of (orti in the cochlear duct.
<he bon> lab>rinth has an irregular central cavit>, the vestibule, 5here the saccule and the utricle
are located. &ehind this, three osseous semicircular canals enclose the semicircular ducts. 8n
the other side of the vestibule, the cochlea !*. cochlea, snail, scre5" contains the cochlear duct.
<he cochlea is about %4 mm in length and ma@es t5o-and-one-half turns around a bon> core
called the modiolus. <he modiolus contains blood vessels and surrounds the cell bodies and
processes of the acoustic branch of the eighth cranial nerve in the large spiral or cochlear
ganglion.
<he internal region of the ear is composed of a cavit> in the temporal bone, the bon> lab>rinth,
5hich houses a fluid-filled membranous lab>rinth. <he membranous lab>rinth includes the
vestibular organs for the sense of e;uilibrium and balance !the saccule, utricle, and semicircular
ducts" and the cochlea for the sense of hearing.

All regions of the bon> lab>rinth are filled 5ith peril>mph, 5hich is similar in ionic composition to
cerebrospinal fluid and the extracellular fluid of other tissues, but contains little protein. 1eril>mph
emerges from the microvasculature of the periosteum and is drained b> a peril>mphatic duct into
the adoining subarachnoid space. <his fluid suspends and supports the closed membranous
lab>rinth, protecting it from the hard 5all of the bon> lab>rinth. <he membranous lab>rinth is filled
5ith endol>mph, 5hich also contains fe5 proteins and is further characterized b> a high
potassium !14D m." and lo5 sodium !1E m." content, similar to that of intracellular fluid.
0ndol>mph is generated largel> b> capillaries in the stria vascularis in the 5all of the cochlear
duct and is drained from the vestibule into venous sinuses of the dura mater b> the small
endol>mphatic duct.
(ochlear /uct and Auditor> Functions
<he cochlear duct, a part of the membranous lab>rinth connected to the saccule, is highl>
specialized as a sound receptor. +t is about %4 mm long, coiled t5o and one-half times, and is
surrounded b> specialized peril>mphatic spaces. Fhen observed in sections, the cochlea
appears to contain three spaces: the scala vestibuli, the middle cochlear duct !or scala media",
and the scala t>mpani. <he cochlear duct contains endol>mph and ends at the apex of the
cochlea. <he other t5o spaces contain peril>mph and are in realit> one long tube, beginning at
the oval 5indo5 and ending at the round 5indo5 <he> communicate at the apex of the cochlea
via an opening @no5n as the helicotrema.
(ochlea and spiral organ.
<he auditor> portion of the inner ear, the cochlea, has a snail-li@e spiral shape in both its bon>
and membranous lab>rinths. 0ndol>mph is produced in the stria vascularis, a capillar>-rich area
of the periosteum associated 5ith the epithelial lining of the 5all. <he micrograph sho5s
important features, including the basilar membrane !&." on 5hich the spiral organ rests and the
tectorial membrane !<." 5hich extends from cells of the spiral limbus !-*" and contacts the
stereocilia of the inner !+G(" and outer hair cells !8G(". -everal t>pes of supporting cells are
also present, including inner phalangeal !+1" and outer phalangeal cells !81", 5hich are
intimatel> associated 5ith the hair cells and contribute to the tight epithelium separating
endol>mph from peril>mph in the scala t>mpani. 8ther supporting cells form various structural
features of the organ important for converting vibrations into subtle stimuli to the hair cells. <hese
include the inner !+1(" and outer pillar cells !81(" 5hich surround a space called the inner
tunnel !+<" and other supporting cells !-(" 5hich border the outer tunnel !8<". Afferent nerve
fibers from the hair cells comprise the cochlear nerve !(2", a branch of the eighth cranial nerve.

Along its length, the cochlear duct is separated from the scala vestibuli b> the vestibular
membrane. <his ver> thin structure consists of a basement membrane 5ith simple s;uamous
epithelium on each side: one mesothelium facing the scala vestibuli and the other part of the
cochlear ductBs lining. (ells of both la>ers have extensive tight unctions that help preserve the
ver> high ionic gradients across this membrane bet5een endol>mph and peril>mph.

(ochlear duct and spiral ganglion.
<he spiral organ !-8" is located on the basal 5all of the cochlear duct !(/". <his duct is filled
5ith endol>mph produced in the stria vascularis !-<=", an unusual association bet5een the
columnar epithelial cells 5hich have numerous basal infoldings and the capillaries in the
periosteum of the bone !&". 8n either side of the cochlear duct are the scala vestibuli !-=" and
scala t>mpani !-<", 5hich are filled 5ith peril>mph and are continuous at the apex of the
cochlea. (ell bodies of bipolar neurons in the spiral ganglion !-A" send dendrites to the hair cells
of the spiral organ and axons to the cochlear nuclei of the (2-.
+n the lateral 5all of the cochlear duct is the stria vascularis, a uni;ue epithelium responsible for
production and maintenance of the endol>mph for the entire membranous lab>rinth. <he stria
vascularis encloses a net5or@ of capillaries and consists of cells 5ith man> deep basal infoldings
of their plasma membranes, 5here numerous mitochondria are located. Fluid and 3H ions
pumped from the capillaries b> these epithelial cells are released in the cochlear duct as
endol>mph.
+n the 5all that separates the cochlear duct from the scala t>mpani is the complex structure
called the spiral organ !organ of (orti" 5hich contains special auditor> receptors in the form of
hair cells that respond to different sound fre;uencies. <he spiral organ rests on a thic@ basal
laminaIthe basilar membrane. <5o maor t>pes of hair cells are present !Figure $%?$J". 8uter
hair cells !8G(" occur in three ro5s near the oval 5indo5, increasing to five ro5s near the apex
of the cochlea. <here is a single ro5 of inner hair cells !+G(". <he latter have one linear arra> of
short stereocilia, 5hile 8G( each have a curved ro5 of longer stereocilia. 2o @inocilium is
present on cochlear hair cells, allo5ing s>mmetr> on the cells that is important for their role in
sensor> transduction.
-tereocilia of cochlear hair cells.
<he tips of the tallest stereocilia of the 8G( are embedded in the tectorial membrane, an
acellular la>er extending over the spiral organ from the modiolus. <he tectorial membrane
consists of fine bundles of collagen !t>pes ++, =, +K, and K+", associated proteogl>cans and other
proteins and is formed during the embr>onic period from secretions of cells that come to line the
adacent region called the spiral limbus.
&oth outer and inner hair cells have afferent and efferent nerve endings, 5ith +G( much more
heavil> innervated. <he cell bodies of the afferent bipolar neurons are located in a bon> core of
the modiolus and constitute the spiral ganglion.
<5o maor t>pes of columnar supporting cells are associated 5ith the hair cells of the spiral
organ. 1illar cells are stiffened b> bundles of @eratin and outline a triangular, tunnel-li@e space
bet5een the outer and inner hair cellsIanother structure important in sound transduction.
1halangeal cells intimatel> surround and directl> support both inner and outer hair cells, almost
completel> enclosing each +G( but onl> the basal ends of the 8G(.
-tereocilia of cochlear hair cells detect movements of the spiral organ. -ound 5aves collected b>
the auricle of the external ear cause the t>mpanic membrane to vibrate, 5hich causes movement
of the ossicles in the middle ear. <he large size of the t>mpanic membrane compared to the oval
5indo5 and the mechanical properties of the ossicle chain connecting these t5o membranes
allo5 for optimal transfer of energ> bet5een air and peril>mph, from sound 5aves to vibrations of
tissues and fluid-filled chambers.