Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
ROTARU VIOREL-HORAIU
BAZELE CONTABILITII
BAZELE
CONTABILITII
N CONFORMITATE CU
REGLEMENTRILE CONTABILE EUROPENE
I STANDARDELE INTERNAIONALE DE DE RAPORTARE
FINANCIAR
CUPRINS
CUVNT NAINTE....................................................................................................................... 11
CAPITOLUL 1 ISTORICUL I EVOLUIA CONTABILITII .......................... 13
1.1 SCURT PRIVIRE ISTORIC ASUPRA CONTABILITII ........................... 13
1.2. ETAPELE FORMRII I DEZVOLTRII CONTABILITII......................... 14
1.3. LOCUL CONTABILITII N ANSAMBLUL CUNOATERII
TIINIFICE............................................................................................................. 15
1.4. EXERCIII I PROBLEME .................................................................................... 19
CAPITOLUL 2 CONTABILITATEA COMPONENT A SISTEMULUI
INFORMAIONAL ECONOMIC ............................................................................... 20
2.1. LOCUL CONTABILITII N SISTEMUL TIINELOR ECONOMICE........ 20
2.2. EVIDENA ECONOMIC COMPONENT A SISTEMULUI
INFORMAIONAL ECONOMIC.......................................................................... 24
2.3. SARCINILE I FUNCIILE CONTABILITII SISTEME
DE CONTABILITATE............................................................................................. 26
2.4. UTILIZATORII INFORMAIEI CONTABILE .................................................... 31
2.5. REGLEMENTAREA CONTABILITII N ROMNIA................................... 33
2.6. EXERCIII I PROBLEME .................................................................................... 33
CAPITOLUL 3 OBIECTUL I METODA CONTABILITAII ............................... 35
3.1. TEORII I CONCEPII PRIVIND DEFINIIA I OBIECTUL
CONTABILITII ...................................................................................................35
3.2. OBIECTUL DE STUDIU AL CONTABILITII................................................ 38
3.2.l. Patrimoniul obiect de studiu al contabilitii .......................................... 38
3.2.2. Trsturile obiectului contabilitii ........................................................... 42
3.2.3. Sfera de aciune a obiectului contabilitii ................................................ 46
3.2.4. De la obiectul contabilitii la obiectivul contabilitii............................. 48
3.3. PROCESELE ECONOMICE I RELAIILE JURIDICE
ELEMENTE ALE OBIECTULUI CONTABILITII........................................ 50
3.3.l. Procesele economice................................................................................... 50
3.3.2. Relaiile juridice......................................................................................... 51
3.4 METODA I PRINCIPIILE CONTABILITII .................................................... 52
3.4.1. Noiunea i conceptul de metod ............................................................... 52
3.4.2. Principiile fundamentale ale contabilitii (general admise)................ 55
3.4.3. Procedeele metodei contabilitii .............................................................. 65
3.5. EXERCIIUL FINANCIAR CONTABIL............................................................ 71
3.6. SISTEMUL INFORMAIONAL CONTABIL ................................................... 71
3.7. EXERCIII I PROBLEME..................................................................................... 73
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CUVNT NAINTE
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CAPITOLUL 1
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disting mai multe etape ale acestui proces. Numrul lor este influenat de criteriul luat
drept baz de periodizare.
Profesorul francez Bernard Colasse, de exemplu, are n vedere urmtoarele:
perioada Evului Mediu pn la nceputul secolului al XIX-lea; secolul XIX i prima
jumtate a secolului XX; perioada contemporan.
n prima etap contabilitatea era aa cum s-a artat i mai nainte simpl.
nceputul celei de-a doua etape a fost n strns legtur cu dezvoltarea i extinderea
comerului i bncilor, ndeosebi n marile orae ale Italiei de Nord Florena, Genova i
Veneia ale cror bnci i ai cror negustori activau ns n toat zona Mediteranei i
chiar n Europa de Nord.
Cea de-a doua etap se caracterizeaz, ndeosebi, prin fundamentarea rspndirii i
consolidrii contabilitii n partid dubl, (perioad situat ntre 1494 i 1700), menit s
ndeplineasc un dublu RON: economic i administrativ. Pe de o parte, contabilitatea
trebuia s contribuie la amplificarea raionalizrii economice, prin gestionarea eficient a
patrimoniului. Pornind de la aceast relaie un cunoscut economist german, Werner
Sombart, ajungea chiar s afirme, n lucrarea sa Der modern Kapitalismus (1928,
ediia a II-a, p. 118), c nu se poate imagina capitalismul fr contabilitate n partid
dubl, acestea dou aflndu-se una fa de cealalt independente, ca form i coninut.
Chiar dac afirmaia este, desigur, o supralicitare i ea a format obiectul unor
analize critice cunoscute rmne valabil, dup prerea noastr, ideea potrivit creia
contabilitatea este menit s contribuie la realizarea raionalitii economice.
Cea de a treia etap, care cuprinde secolul XIX i prima jumtate a secolului XX, s-a
remarcat, ndeosebi prin urmtoarele:
a) consacrarea bilanului i contului de rezultate i creterea RONului contabilului n
raporturile dintre asociai, acionari i conducerea ntreprinderilor;
b) dezvoltarea contabilitii analitice i conturarea separaiunii ntre contabilitatea
general i contabilitatea analitic.
Ultima etap, care cuprinde perioada postbelic, este impregnat de dou trsturi,
care au marcat i marcheaz puternic evoluia contabilitii:
a) normarea, (normalizarea) i reglementarea contabilitii generale (despre care va fi
vorba ntr-un capitol viitor)
i
b) dezvoltarea cercetrii tiinifice n domeniul contabilitii.
Normarea i reglementarea i gsesc expresia n faptul c n cea mai mare parte a
rilor contabilitatea ntreprinderilor se sprijin pe o terminologie i pe reguli comune i
produce documente de sintez a cror prezentare este identic.
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CAPITOLUL 2
CONTABILITATEA COMPONENT A
SISTEMULUI INFORMAIONAL ECONOMIC
Contabilitatea este att o tiin, ct i un domeniu al practicii integrat n sistemul
informaional economic. n calitatea ei de component a sistemului informaional
economic, contabilitatea furnizeaz cea mai mare parte a informaiilor necesare pentru
luarea deciziilor la nivel micro i macroeconomic, pe termen scurt, mediu sau lung.
2.1. LOCUL
ECONOMICE
CONTABILITII
SISTEMUL
TIINELOR
Contabilitatea s-a nscut din necesitile practice ale activitii economice i s-a
dezvoltat o dat cu aceasta. n literatura contabil universal i autohton nu s-a ajuns,
mult vreme, la o prere unitar privind caracterul ei de tiin, tehnic sau art a
contabilitii. Unii autorii au considerat contabilitatea o art, deoarece apreciau c nu are
la baz norme i principii care s permit folosirea ei de ctre oricine i, ca urmare, numai
persoanele nzestrate cu anumite nsuiri pot ine i utiliza conturile. Dup alii (Andoyer,
Augspurg, G. Faure, Hgli, Laitner etc.), contabilitatea ar fi o tehnic, pentru c se ocup
de nregistrarea metodic a operaiilor economice n registre, de inerea de socoteli, de
conturi i calcule contabile neavnd o teorie care s-i defineasc obiectul, metoda de
cercetare i particularitile ei fa de alte tiine. Ambele concepii, potrivit crora
contabilitatea este considerat art sau tehnic se bazeaz pe empirism i sunt lipsite de
fundament tiinific*, ntruct contabilitatea ntrunete elementele constitutive ale tiinei.
Elementele definitorii, proprii oricrei tiine, deci i contabilitii, sunt: domeniul ce
formeaz obiectul de cercetare, metoda de cercetare folosit i utilitatea acesteia n viaa
economico-social. Contabilitatea are o terminologie, un obiect i metod proprie de
cercetare a obiectului, care i demonstreaz independena i particularitile ei fa de alte
tiine.
Obiectul de studiu al contabilitii avnd un caracter obiectiv a existat din
totdeauna, a evoluat treptat pe trsura evoluiei cantitative i calitative a activitii
economice, a succesiunii modurilor de producie. Contabilitatea studiaz latura
valoric a activitii economice la nivel micro i macro-economic, sub forma mijloacelor
materiale i bneti folosite de unitile patrimoniale n activitatea lor, proceselor
economice (aprovizionare, producie, desfacere), surselor de provenien a mijloacelor i
a rezultatelor activitii agenilor economici.
Caracterul tiinific al contabilitii se remarc i prin metod proprie de
cercetare, utiliznd procedee proprii (bilan, cont, balan de verificare) i procedee
comune i altor discipline (observaia, clasificarea, verificarea etc.)
Caracterul de tiin al contabilitii a fost artat nc din 1897 de ctre elveianul
Leo Gomberg, care n lucrarea La science de la comptabilit et son systeme scientifique
meniona: Contabilitatea ca tiin exact d nu numai toate mijloacele pentru a
raiona asupra activitii unei ntreprinderi, dar procur i mijloacele de a obine
* C.G. Demetrescu, Istoria contabilitii, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1972
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Ca disciplin tiinific, contabilitatea, component a sistemului tiinelor socialeconomice, se ocup de stabilirea principiilor, normelor, regulilor de prelucrare a datelor
contabile, de nregistrarea documentat, ordonat i metodic a operaiilor economice i
financiare privind micrile de valori materiale i bneti, procesele economice, sursele
de provenien a acestora, precum i de contRONul lor, n vederea caracterizrii
generalizate a situaiei economico-financiare i a determinrii rezultatelor obinute de
ctre unitile patrimoniale pe o anumit perioad de timp, utiliznd procedee proprii de
realizare a obiectului de studiu.
Contabilitatea, ca tiin, a descoperit i formulat principii de maxim generalitate,
cum sunt: principiul dublei reprezentri i a dublei nregistrri.
Ca tehnic contabil, contabilitatea cuprinde proceduri pentru aplicarea n practic a
principiilor i normelor stabilite de tiina contabilitii, utiliznd registre, conturi,
formulare etc., n vederea obinerii de informaii necesare lurii deciziilor, fiind o form a
evidenei economice.
Contabilitatea face parte din sistemul tiinelor economice. Preocupri pentru
caracterizarea sistemului tiinelor economice au existat i exist. Astfel, n cadrul
tiinelor economice, Enciclopedia Larousse include economia politic, economia
agricol, economia comercial i economia industrial, iar Marea Enciclopedie Francez
distinge n sistemul tiinelor economice urmtoarele ramuri: economia aplicat, ce
studiaz i descrie metodele de administrare a resurselor rare; teoria economic, care
cerceteaz schemele generale i uniforme de aciune economic; economia social sau
normativ, care studiaz regulile de utilizare a resurselor rare, care permit s se ating
obiectivele puse apriori.* n ara noastr, P.H. Suciu i G. Mladenatz** s-au ocupat de
evoluia tiinei economice i de sistemul ei. Mladenatz structureaz disciplinele care
privesc viaa economic n cinci grupe: Economia social general, Economia aplicat,
istoria economic, istoria ideilor economice i discipline ce se ocup de studiul economic
al ntreprinderilor, n care se ncadreaz i contabilitatea. ***
Sistemul tiinelor economice nu este ceva static, nchis, ci este un sistem dinamic
deschis n care modificrile se produc nentrerupt n funcie de progresul cunoaterii
tiinifice. Ca urmare, sistemul tiinelor economice a evoluat, putnd fi structurat pe trei
grupe de discipline (fig.1): tiine economice fundamentale, teoretico-aplicative i tiine
economice de grani. n aceast concepie de structurare a sistemului tiinelor,
contabilitatea face parte din tiinele economice fundamentale cu caracter funcional.
Conducerea i organizarea activitii economice la nivel micro- i macroeconomic
presupune cunoaterea permanent a strii i funcionrii tuturor elementelor componente
ale agenilor economici, integrai n ramuri i n ansamblul economiei naionale.
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1. Fundamentale
TIINE
ECONOMICE
2. Teoreticoaplicative
3. De grani
Micro i Macroeconomia
Istoria economic
Istoria doctrinelor economice
tiine funcionale:
Managementul
Contabilitatea
Prognoza
Statistica
- Economii speciale:
Ergonomia
Circulaia bneasc
Finane credit etc.,
- tiine economice de ramur:
Economia industriei
Economia comerului
Economia construciilor
Economia agriculturii
- tiina unitilor economice
- Economia mondial
- Sociologia economic
- Geografia economic
- Cibernetica economic
- Ecologia etc.
Fig. 1. Structura tiinelor economice
Principala funcie a conducerii o constituie luarea i fundamentarea deciziilor, pe
baza informaiilor furnizate de organele de execuie.
Informaia a existat n toate etapele istoriei i orice hotrre privind o aciune
omeneasc s-a sprijinit pe elemente de cunoatere.
n accepia general, informaia reprezint o comunicare, o tire despre o
persoan, obiect, un proces material, un fenomen etc. Deci, informaia este neleas ca o
cunoatere sau aciune de constatare, de punere la curent, de lmurire a unei probleme la
trecut, prezent sau viitor. Informaiile reprezint elemente noi n raport cu alte cunotine
prealabile, care constituie o noutate, prezint interes pentru primitor, sporindu-i gradul de
cunoatere despre procesele i fenomenele respective.
Informaiile fiind variate, se pot sistematiza dup diferite criterii.
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FUNCIILE CONTABILITII
n activitatea practic de conducere, contabilitatea ndeplinete o serie de funcii
importante, cum sunt:
Funcia de nregistrare (oglindire) const n capacitatea ei de a reflecta operativ,
precis i n complexitatea lor procesele i fenomenele economice ce apar n cadrul
unitilor patrimoniale, care se pot exprima valoric.
Funcia de informare (cunoatere) rezid n furnizarea de informaii asupra
structurii i dinamicii patrimoniului, a stadiului desfurrii proceselor economice i a
rezultatelor obinute, la sfritul unei perioade de gestiune n scopul fundamentrii
deciziilor. Din contabilitate rezult informaii exacte privind gospodrirea mijloacelor
materiale i bneti, volumul i dinamica produciei obinute, costurile de producie,
veniturile obinute, profitul sau pierderea etc. Aceast funcie reprezint o rezultant
direct a funciei de oglindire (nregistrare) a operaiilor economice i financiare prin
folosirea unor principii i reguli proprii, contabilitatea avnd RONul de instrument de
cunoatere a realitii.
Creterea eficienei funciei de informare este condiionat de folosirea pe scar larg
a mijloacelor de culegere i prelucrare automat a datelor n scopul obinerii de informaii
operative, rapide i de calitate, necesare lurii deciziilor la toate nivelurile conducerii.
Funcia de contRON gestionar este legat inseparabil de funcia de informare.
Ea const n verificarea cu ajutorul datelor contabile a modului de pstrare i utilizare a
valorilor materiale i bneti, de gospodrire a fondurilor verificarea gradului de
realizare a indicatorilor previzionai, a termenelor de achitare a datoriilor fa de teri i de
recuperare a drepturilor, contRONul respectrii disciplinei financiare etc.
Datele din contabilitate i documentele de eviden servesc ca mijloc de prob n
justiie pentru a dovedi realitatea unei operaii, rspunderea material, respectiv vinovia
sau nevinovia persoanelor care au participat la efectuarea ei.
De remarcat faptul c funcia de contRON gestionar nu se ntlnete la celelalte
forme ale evidenei economice.
Funcia previzional. Contabilitatea nu se limiteaz doar la oglindirea mersului
activitii agenilor economici, datele ei reprezentnd o surs exact i complet pentru
analiza economico-financiar a activitii i a stabilirii rezultatelor, dnd posibilitatea
descoperirii tendinelor viitoare a fenomenelor i proceselor economice, adic a
prevederii lor i a lurii deciziilor curente i de perspectiv. Datele ei servesc la
elaborarea Bugetului de Venituri i Cheltuieli al unitilor patrimoniale i a
fundamentrii programelor.
SISTEME DE CONTABILITATE
Evoluia contabilitii, ca tiin i practic, este caracterizat prin demersul continuu
de dezvoltare a bazei sale teoretice i de perfecionare a manierei de realizare. Au fost
create i adoptate sisteme de reprezentare a obiectului contabilitii, ct i diferite
concepii de organizare a sistemului conturilor.
Dup concepia de reprezentare a obiectului contabilitii, literatura i practica
contabil a creat mai multe sisteme de contabilitate: sistemul de contabilitate n partid
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Destinaia
Partida Casa
Originea
Partida Banca
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CAPITOLUL 3
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contabilitii tot ceea ce dup prerea negustorului i aparine pe lume, precum i toate
afacerile mari i mrunte n ordinea n care au avut loc. Dei este primul tratat de
contabilitate n partid dubl, Luca Paciolo nu-i revendic paternitatea acestui sistem, ci
doar descrie sistemul folosit de comercianii din Veneia i Florena.
n jurul obiectului contabilitii, n evoluia istoric, s-au purtat numeroase discuii i
controverse. Pornind de la definiia lui Luca Paciolo, s-au emis numeroase formulri prin
care s-a definit obiectul contabilitii, fr ca una din ele s se bucure de o adeziune
unanim, ca urmare a poziiei pe care s-au situat i a opticii adoptate de cercettori.
Ideile tratatului lui Luca Paciolo au influenat timp de peste trei secole lucrrile de
contabilitate ale autorilor din diferite ri ale Europei, prin care acetia demonstreaz
importana aplicrii principiilor contabilitii n toate domeniile vieii economice.
O serie de autori au considerat contabilitatea ca o ramur a matematicii, al crui
obiect l constituie studiul conturilor. Obiectul contabilitii nu poate fi studiul conturilor,
ci studierea materiei care se nregistreaz n conturi. Att contul, ct i sistemul de
conturi, sunt elemente ale metodei contabilitii. Ali autori au privit contabilitatea ca o
tiin a patrimoniului fundamentndu-i obiectul de pe poziii juridice, sau ca o tiin a
administraiei care studiaz faptele administrative n vederea sprijinirii conducerii pentru
atingerea scopurilor propuse. Astfel, n literatura contabil s-au conturat trei concepii
privind obiectul contabilitii: concepia administrativ, juridic i economic.
n concepia administrativ, care aparine colii italiene (E. Pisanti, G. Massa, V.
Gitti), obiectul contabilitii const n reflectarea i contRONul valoric al faptelor
administrative n vederea obinerii cu eforturi minime de efecte economice maxime.
Concepia juridic, dominat de coala german (Fr. Hgli, R. Reisch,
I.C.Kreibig) i preluat la noi n ar de profesorii G. Trancu Iai, S. Iacobescu, A.
Sorescu, consider obiectul contabilitii patrimoniul unei persoane fizice sau juridice,
privit din punct de vedere juridic, adic a drepturilor i obligaiilor pecuniare
(materiale) n corelaie cu obiectele (bunuri, valori) corespunztoare. n aceast
concepie, contabilitatea este tiina nregistrrii egalitilor de schimb din patrimoniul
unei persoane.*
Analiza critic a concepiei juridice relev pe de o parte faptul c ea restrnge raza de
aciune a obiectului contabilitii la sfera de schimb (circulaiei), iar pe de alt parte
aceasta nu caut s explice relaiile juridice de natura drepturilor i a obligaiilor pornind
de la fenomenele economice care le genereaz ci, invers, consider c activitatea
economic ar fi generat de relaiile juridice.
Concepia economic, care cunoate o larga rspndire n colile de contabilitate din
Europa (J.Fr. Schr, R.P. Coffy, E. Leautey, A. Guibbault, A. Gibert, I. Evian, C.
Panu, D. Voina), definete obiectul contabilitii ca circuit al capitalului privit sub
aspectul destinaiei lui (capital fix i capital circulant) i al modului de dobndire (capital
propriu, capital strin). Astfel, R.P. Coffy arat c n obiectul contabilitii intr
soluionarea urmtoarelor probleme: dat fiind un capital compus de o manier comun,
destinat a fi folosit n mod succesiv, total sau n parte, n diverse ntrebuinri i a suferi
din anumite cauze modificri n mrimea i natura lui, ea trebuie s urmreasc acest
capital n transformrile lui succesive la o epoc fixat dup voina, natura i poziia
fiecrei din prile sale, sporirile i reducerile pe care le-a suferit, s fac cunoscute
* S. Iacobescu i Al. Sorescu, Curs de contabilitate comercial general, Vol. II, Bucureti, 1928
p. 11.
36
cauzele acestor variaii i partea ce fiecare cauz a avut-o fie n efectul total, fie n fiecare
efect parial.*
n aceeai concepie, J.Fr. Schr consider ca obiect al contabilitii: micarea
capitalului individual, circuitul valoric i cantitativ al bunurilor unei ntreprinderi
individuale, precum i cheltuielile i veniturile acesteia.
Tradiii progresiste n definirea obiectului contabilitii au existat i la gnditori
romni. Astfel, I.C. Panu consider c obiectul contabilitii nu-l constituie simpla
nregistrare a operaiilor economice, ci cu ajutorul ei calculm dup anumite reguli i
forme mersul i rezultatul activitii economice a unui comerciant sau ntreprinderi.
Prof. D. Voina arat c obiectul contabilitii nu se las circumscris numai prin
circuitul micrilor de valori din exploatrile economice, ci el cuprinde i elemente pe
care le furnizeaz tipurile de organizaii care nu ndeplinesc funciuni de ordin
economic.
Prof. I. Evian preciza c nelesul care se d la noi i n Frana noiunii de
contabilitate, adic tehnica nregistrrilor duble, nu este cel just. Contabilitatea nu se
rezum numai la nregistrarea n conturi a operaiilor economice, ci obiectul ei se
ntregete cu calculaia costurilor, calculul comparativ (statistic) i calculul preliminar
(bugetar). Deci, ea asigur, pe lng nregistrarea operaiilor economice n conturi,
urmrirea permanent a ntregii activiti a ntreprinderii. Totodat, Evian este adeptul
ideii contabilitii ca un instrument util n realizarea unei activiti eficiente din punct de
vedere economic, denumit raionalism economic.
Exprimnd foarte clar aceast concepie, prin care se fundamenteaz i caracterul de
tiin a contabilitii, profesorul D. Voina sublinia: A vrea s fie bine reinut c
tiina contabilitii observ i studiaz micrile de valori provocate de fenomene
economice i de raporturi juridice, le reprezint cifric, cantitativ i valoric, printrun procedeu de calcul specific i stabilete rezultatul circuitului anterior acestor
micri de valori ntr-o perioad de timp determinat*. Prin teoria sa, D. Voina a
adus un argument important n situarea contabilitii n sistemul tiinelor economice i n
relevarea legturii ei cu teoria economic, prin cunoscuta formul: cine vrea s
gndeasc ca un contabil, trebuie s poat gndi economic.
Cunoaterea sistemului de contabilitate i mai ales a modului n care se realizeaz
nregistrrile este condiionat, pe de o parte, de nelegerea proceselor i fenomenelor
economice, a modificrilor pe care ele le aduc n realitatea economic, a legturilor pe
baza crora se produc aceste modificri. Pe de alt parte, cunoaterea i nelegerea
realitii economice i nsuirea metodei i principiilor contabilitii se sprijin pe
stpnirea conceptelor i principiilor de baz ale tiinei economice, ale teoriei
economice.
Fcnd parte din sistemul tiinelor economice, i bazndu-se pe conceptele i
metodologia acestora, contabilitatea se distinge, n acelai timp, prin metode i procedee
specifice i se bazeaz pe concepte proprii.
ntre conceptele de baz pe care le utilizeaz att tiina economic general
(ndeosebi economia politic), ct i contabilitatea, pe primul plan se afl cele de avere
avuie, capital, patrimoniu, resurse, cheltuieli, venituri, profit i pierdere, efecte de comer
.a.
* R.P. Coffy, Tableau Synoptique des principes gnraux de la tennue des livres parties doubles,
Ed. II, Paris, 1833.
* D. Voina, Contabilitate general, Braov. 1947.
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Error!
CONTABILITATEA
Teorie tiinific
Obiectul contabilitii
Concepii
Juridic
Economic
Financiar
38
Normalizare
Situaii financiare:
- bilan
- cont de profit i
pierere
- situaia fluxurilor
de trezorerie
- situaia
modificrilor
capitalului propriu
- politici contabile
i note explicative
Figura 2
Tehnic
Metoda contabilitii
Normalizare
Concepte
Principiile
fundamentale
Principiile care
vizeaz evaluarea
patrimoniului
Principiile care
vizeaz calitatea
informaiei
Norme contabile
Norme de audit
Contabilitatea
operaional
Contabilitatea
funcional
Procedee
Procedee generale,
comune tuturor
tiinelor
Procedee specifice
metodei contabilitii
Procedee ale metodei
contabilitii comune
i altor tiine
economice
* Sp. Iacobescu, Al. Sorescu, Curs de contabilitate comercial general, Biblioteca contabil,
ediia a II-a, vol. II, p. 12, Bucureti, 1928.
*
Ibidem.
39
PATRIMONIUL
Bunuri
economice
ca obiecte
de drepturi
i obligaii
E
V
A
L
U
A
B
I
L
E
N
B
A
N
I
PERSOANA
FIZIC
=
SAU
JURIDIC
E
V
A
L
U
A
B
I
L
E
N
B
A
N
I
Drepturi i
obligaii
40
atunci cnd se explic mecanismul partidei duble, se opereaz cu ecuaia avere = capital
(I.N. Evian, Contabilitate dubl, Bucureti, 1946), ambii termeni reprezentnd cele dou
laturi ale mijloacelor cu care este nzestrat ntreprinderea; sau avere = fonduri (V.M.
Ioachim, Tratat de contabilitate, vol. I, Bucureti, 1955), averea reprezentnd latura
economic a patrimoniului, iar fondurile, latura juridic a acestuia.
Categoriei economice de capital nu i s-a acordat prioritate, deoarece n definirea
acesteia exist i varianta potrivit creia capitalul este caracterizat ca un drept pecuniar,
relaie de proprietate ntre un individ sau grup de indivizi i valorile investite. Capitalul
nu nseamn bani, ci totalitatea drepturilor de proprietate asupra activelor investite sau
existente la un moment dat ntr-o ntreprindere. Aceste active pot fi: bani, maini,
echipamente, cldiri, materii i materiale, pmnt, hrtii de valoare, creane etc. Ecuaia
capital = active datorii este considerat ecuaia fundamental a economiei de pia, nu
numai a contabilitii.
Fa de interpretarea de mai sus, apreciem c prin sfera sa de cuprindere, capitalul
reprezint att valorile economice investite ct i relaiile de proprietate asupra acestor
valori.
Cu privire la categoria de resurse economice, ea este tot mai mult folosit n
prezentarea i explicarea mecanismului contabil; dar orice resurs atras n circuitul
economic, n msura n care este investit i folosit, devine capital, sau dac reprezint
obiect de drepturi i obligaii, se delimiteaz ca o component a patrimoniului.
Ca urmare a celor artate mai sus patrimoniul ca o categorie economic i juridic ce
omogenizeaz toate celelalte structuri, exprim att bunurile economice acumulate de o
persoan fizic sau juridic (averea, utilizarea resurselor), ct i drepturile i obligaiile
subiectului de drept (capital ca relaie de proprietate, proveniena resurselor). Totodat,
avem n vedere c nu orice patrimoniu se delimiteaz i formeaz obiect de studiu al
contabilitii. El devine obiect de studiu al contabilitii numai n msura n care valorile
economice separate patrimonial sunt investite, adic folosite n activitatea economic
pentru obinerea de bunuri materiale i servicii supuse tranzaciilor de vnzare-cumprare
sau n activitile administrative i cele social-culturale prin care se satisfac nevoi
concrete i raionale ale societii.
Generaliznd, se poate meniona c obiectul contabilitii este grefat pe un
patrimoniu ce cuprinde, din punct de vedere structural, att patrimoniul economic, ct i
cel juridic deoarece nu poate exista un patrimoniu economic fr un patrimoniu juridic
i nici unul juridic fr cel economic.
Contabilitatea, reflectnd patrimoniul unitilor, obiectul ei l constituie
evidena, calculaia i contRONul strii, micrii i transformrii mijloacelor
(bunurilor) economice ca urmare a proceselor economice n corelaie cu relaiile
juridice corespunztoare.
Starea mijloacelor economice (materiale i bneti) i a drepturilor i obligaiilor
arat mrimea lor la un moment dat.
Micarea i transformarea mijloacelor economice, a relaiilor juridice de natura
drepturilor i obligaiilor ultimele exprimnd sursele de dobndire (de formare) a
mijloacelor este condiionat de continuitatea procesului de producie, fiind abordat n
contabilitate prin prisma intrrilor i a ieirilor de mijloace, respectiv de surse, a
transformrii unor mijloace i surse aflate n altele, precum i de procesele economice
(aprovizionare, producie, desfacere) care transform intrrile n ieiri, modificnd starea
lor iniial.
41
Figura 3
Concepia juridic
(patrimonial)
Patrimoniul
Concepia economic
Concepia financiar
Capitalul
Resursele economice
Contabilitatea studiaz i
furnizeaz informaii n legtur
cu:
existena i starea
elementelor patrimoniale
micarea i transformarea
acestora
Contabilitatea studiaz i
furnizeaz informaii n legtur
cu:
existena i starea
capitalului
micarea i transformarea
acestuia
Contabilitatea studiaz i
furnizeaz informaii n legtur
cu:
existena i starea
resurselor economice
micarea i
transformarea acestora
Avere = Capital
Patrimoniul este studiat din diverse puncte de vedere. Specific pentru contabilitate
este faptul ca ea se delimiteaz ca disciplin specializat n reprezentarea i gestiunea*
patrimoniului i a afacerilor legate de patrimoniu. n aceast calitate, ea se ocup cu
evidena, calculul, analiza i contRONul n etalon monetar a valorilor separate
patrimonial.
Ca tiin a evidenei, contabilitatea ofer o teorie i metod privind nregistrarea
ntr-o anumit ordine i pe baza unor principii normative a circuitului valorilor economice
delimitate ca entitate patrimonial i pe o anumit perioad de gestiune. Fiind o tiin a
* Etimologic, termenul de gestiune provine de la latinescul gestio (onis), preluarea n limba
romn s-a produs de la cuvntul de origine francez gestion, prin care se desemneaz organizarea
administrrii unui anumit patrimoniu.
n terminologia juridic, accepia general a noiunii de gestiune este legat de totalitatea normelor
privitoare la conservarea, administrarea i dreptul de dispoziie asupra unui patrimoniu.
42
DE PROPRIETAR
OBLIGAII FA
DE TERI
43
OBLIGAIILE
- CU VALOARE
ECONOMIC
SITUAIA NET
= A
PATRIMONIULUI
OBLIGAIILE
= CU VALOARE
ECONOMIC
Sau
ACTIVUL
PATRIMONIULUI
SITUAIA NET A
PATRIMONIULUI
44
OBLIGAIILE
- CU VALOARE
ECONOMIC
CAPITALURI
PROPRII
APORTUL *
PROPRIETARULUI N
CURSUL
EXERCIIULUI
N
REZULTATUL
EXERCIIULUI
45
RESURSE FINANRI
Resurse permanente
( CAPITALURI PERMANENTE)
Resurse temporare
( DATORII PE TERMEN SCURT)
RESURSE
- TEMPORARE
46
47
48
49
JURIDICE
50
51
52
Figura 4
Normalizare
Procedee
Concepte
- contabilitatea
de angajament
- principiul
continuitii
activitii
- raionamentul
profesional
Principiile
fundamentale
-partidei duble
-nregistrarea
cronologic i
sistematic
-nreg. sintetic
i analitic
-centralizarea i
sintetizarea
informaiei
Principiile
care vizeaz
evaluarea
patrimoniului
-continuitatea
activitii
-permanena
metodelor
-prudena
-independena
exerciiului
-evaluarea
separat a elem. de
Activ / Pasiv
-intangibilitatea
-necompensarea
-prevalena
ec.asupra juridic.
-pragul de
semnificaie
Principiile
(caracteristicile)
care vizeaz
calitatea
informaiei
-inteligibilitatea
-relevana (pragul de
semnificaie)
-credibilitatea
(imaginea fidel,
prevalena
economicului asupra
juridicului,
neutralitatea,
prudena,
integralitatea)
Generale
Specifice
Comune
-observaia
-bilanul
documentarea
-raionamentul
-contul
-evaluarea
-balana de
verificare
-calculaia
-comparaia
-inventarierea
-clasficarea
-analiza
-sinteza
-comparabilitatea
ntr-o accepiune, general, metoda este o cale raional de urmat pentru atingerea
unui scop, iar procedeul este numai o manier de a atinge un scop. Fiecare tiin
folosete o singur metod de cercetare, n componena creia se cuprind mai multe
procedee. Circumscris la domeniul contabilitii, metoda acesteia cuprinde un ansamblu
de procedee aflate ntr-o strns corelaie i intercondiionare, ca un tot unitar, n vederea
stabilirii normelor i principiilor cu caracter special pe care se fundamenteaz
contabilitatea ca disciplin tiinific i cu ajutorul crora cerceteaz starea i micarea
elementelor patrimoniului unitilor economice i sociale, pentru a sesiza legturile dintre
ele, ca pe aceast baz s calculeze rezultatele finale i s analizeze i contRONeze
activitatea desfurat de unitile respective. Aceast caracteristic este valabil, n
primul rnd, pentru procedeele specifice economice i chiar procedeelor de cunoatere cu
caracter general folosite de toate tiinele. Deci, contabilitatea, ca disciplin tiinific, are
53
o singur metod de cercetare, care se compune ns din mai multe procedee tehnice de
lucru.
Dac obiectul de cercetare al fiecrei tiine determin latura concret a metodei sale
de cercetare, aceasta nseamn c i n cazul contabilitii, particularitile obiectului ei de
studiu i impun o metod proprie de cercetare ale celorlalte tiine economice. De
asemenea, metodele contabilitii, n elaborarea sa, a fost influenat i de metodele de
cercetare ale altor tiine cum ar fi matematica, logica, economia politic, tiinele
economice de ramur, cibernetica economic, etc., de la care a preluat i utilizeaz
diverse categorii i procedee.
La fel ca i celelalte tiine, i contabilitatea se bazeaz n cercetarea i studierea
obiectului su, n stabilirea principiilor tiinifice, ca i n realizarea funciilor sale de
eviden, calculaie, analiz i contRON, pe parcurgerea unor etape obligatorii pentru
oricare cercetare tiinific, i anume: determinarea obiectului cercetat, nregistrarea
diferitelor aspecte cu ajutorul unor tehnici variate, prelucrarea i interpretarea datelor
culese cu autorul unor procedee specifice.
Realizarea obiectului contabilitii, prin utilizarea judicioas a procedeelor tehnice
care intr n componena metodei, este condiionat de cunoaterea n prealabil, cu
exactitate, a caracteristicilor distinctive ale bunurilor economice i a surselor de
provenien a acestora, a proceselor economice interne, a influenelor reciproce dintre
acestea etc., precum i de asigurarea prealabil a unui cadru organizatoric adecvat.
Totodat, utilizarea ca un tot unitar a procedeelor metodei contabilitii, n
interdependena i condiionarea lor reciproc, este determinat de interdependena i
legturile reciproce dintre componentele patrimoniului (bunuri economice, procese
economice i surse de provenien) ca obiect al contabilitii, lucru ce rezult din
urmtoarele caracteristici: metoda contabilitii face posibil cuprinderea n sfera ei de
cercetare a tuturor elementelor patrimoniale, privite att din punct de vedere al destinaiei
lor economice, ct i din punct de vedere al provenienei, a cror existen i micare se
circumscrie, n expresie bneasc, la nivelul unui patrimoniu: ntre bunurile economice,
pe de o parte, i procesele economice transformatoare, pe de alt parte, reflectate de
metoda contabilitii, exist o interdependen i condiionare reciproc, n sensul c fr
existena bunurilor economice n-ar fi posibil desfurarea proceselor economice, iar fr
desfurarea proceselor economice, n-ar fi posibil reproducerea bunurilor economice;
aceeai interdependen i condiionare reciproc exist ntre procesele economice ca
momente distincte ale circuitului economic, care sunt reflectate i urmrite de
contabilitate cu ajutorul metodei sale n mod distinct, pe faze i n totalitatea lor, n sensul
c nu poate exista proces de desfacere, fr s existe proces de producie i aprovizionare
i desfacere .a.m.d.; de asemenea, exist interdependen i condiionare reciproc ntre
bunurile i procesele economice, pe de o parte, i sursele de provenien a acestora, pe de
alt parte, reflectate de procedeele metodei contabilitii, n sensul c orice modificare n
volumul i structura bunurilor i proceselor transformatoare determin, direct sau indirect,
o modificare n volumul i structura surselor de provenien; interdependena i
condiionarea reciproc dintre bunurile economice, procesele economice i sursele de
provenien ce formeaz obiectul contabilitii, determin la rndul lor legturi i
intercondiionri ntre procedeele metodei contabilitii n toate momentele satisfacerii
cerinelor acesteia.
Prin urmare, contabilitatea, ca orice disciplin tiinific, pentru realizarea obiectului
ei de studiu, are o metod proprie de cercetare fundamentat pe anumite legi, principii, ce
oglindesc particularitile i esena ei.
54
55
56
Activul
Pasivul
destinaia/alocarea/utilizarea
elementelor patrimoniale;
proveniena/finanarea/resursa
acelorai
Dac analizm patrimoniul n elemente.
mod static, n fiecare moment el ne apare n aceast
dubl ipostaz: ca existene economico-materiale sub form de materii prime, mrfuri,
disponibiliti bneti, pe de o parte i ca surse de provenien, care pot fi capital propriu
sau proprietatea firmei titulare a patrimoniului respectiv, sau surse mprumutate, sau
obligaii fa de furnizori, pe de alt parte.
Aceast dubl reprezentare se refer la aceeai realitate economic, privit ns din
dou puncte de vedere i i gsete concretizarea n egalitatea permanent ce trebuie s
existe ntre cele dou pri.
Cheltuieli
Venituri
Rezultate
57
sociale, privit ca un tot unitar, care, n contabilitate este reflectat i reprezentat sub
dublu aspect.
Ea poate fi redat sintetic sub forma unei ecuaii, prin egalitatea dintre cele dou
aspecte ale patrimoniului unitilor economice i sociale (bunuri economice = drepturi +
obligaii) sau valoarea mijloacelor economice valoarea surselor de provenien,
cunoscut sub denumirea de ecuaia dublei reprezentri.
Aceast dubl reprezentare a strii i micrii patrimoniului unitilor
economice i sociale a constituit din totdeauna trstura esenial, de baz,
care determin coninutul metodei contabilitii.
b) Principiul dublei nregistrri
Elementele patrimoniului unitilor economice i sociale se afl ntr-o continu
micare i transformare n fazele circuitului economic, rmnnd totui, ntr-un echilibru
permanent n cadrul unitii respective. Acest echilibru este evideniat n contabilitate
printr-o alt trstur specific metodei sale de lucru, i anume dubla nregistrare.
Dubla nregistrare este determinat, n primul rnd, de dubla reprezentare, prin
faptul c n timpul micrii i transformrii lor, elementele patrimoniului unitilor
economice i sociale nu nceteaz a fi privite sub dublul lor aspect al funcionalitii lor,
adic al destinaiei economice i al provenienei, respectiv al modului de dobndire,
aspecte care se reflect concomitent ca un raport de echivalen ntre doi termeni unul
care evideniaz bunurile economice, iar cel de-al doilea care exprim sursele de
finanare. Raportul de echivalen este prezent att n cazul mririi concomitente a
bunurilor i surselor, ct i n cel al micorrii lor.
n al doilea rnd, dubla nregistrare este determinat de faptul c micarea i
transformarea bunurilor economice n fazele circuitului economic genereaz operaii
economice i financiare de ieire dintr-o faz i de intrare n alta, de trecere dintr-un loc
de gestiune (de pstrare, de producie, de cheltuieli) n altul etc. Astfel, bunurile sub
form de materii prime i materiale consumabile se transform n semifabricate i
produse finite, care la rndul lor i schimb forma n disponibiliti bneti, care, de
asemenea, prin utilizarea lor mbrac forma de stocuri. n acest circuit n care
contabilitatea nregistreaz trecerea acelorai valori dintr-o stare sau form n alta,
reflectarea valorii economice respectiv se face de dou ori, deci, apare dubla nregistrare a
operaiunilor n cauz; n sensul c vechea faz, vechea form sau vechiul loc se transpun
n unul din termenii egalitii care polarizeaz ieirile, micorrile, iar nou faz, noua
form sau noul loc constituie cel de-al doilea termen al egalitii, care marcheaz intrrile,
creterile elementului sau fenomenul respectiv. Potrivit acestei trsturi a metodei
contabilitii, orice operaie economic n raport de efectul su este ncadrat i analizat
ca un raport de echivalen ntre destinaia i proveniena sa, ntre intrarea i ieirea sa,
ntre alocarea i finanarea sa etc.
Folosirea dublei nregistrri n contabilitate i d acesteia posibilitatea s reflecte n
dinamic, pe baza unui sistem coerent, cele dou aspecte ale dublei reprezentri a
patrimoniului unitilor economice i sociale. Pornind de la relaia general de echilibru
proprie dublei reprezentri, i anume: bunuri economice = drepturi + obligaii, prin
58
dubla nregistrare se creeaz cea de-a doua relaie specific acesteia, i anume: creterea
bunurilor economice + micorarea drepturilor i obligaiilor = creterea drepturilor i
obligaiilor + micorarea bunurilor economice, cunoscut sub denumirea de ecuaia
dublei nregistrri.
Dubla nregistrare constituie o continuare cu alte mijloace, respectiv cu ajutorul
conturilor, a tratrii operaiilor economico-financiare dup cerinele principiului dublei
reprezentri a elementelor de avere ale patrimoniului.
n situaia n care obiectul dublei reprezentri l constituie micrile individule de
valori economice, raportul de schimb este cel dintre debit i credit, ecuaia fiind de forma:
Debit
Credit
Mrfuri
Client
Furnizor
Moned
59
Contul Furnizori
Debit
Credit
+1.000
60
Situaia net a
patrimoniului la
N
Situaia net a
patrimoniului la
N 1
Capital propriu la
N 1
sau
Rezultatul
exerciiului N
Capital propriu la
N
* Oprea Clin, Mihai Ristea, Ilie Vduva, Horia Neamu, Bazele contabilitii, Ed. Didactic i
Pedagogic. 1995, p.2l-22.
61
62
63
64
deci sunt repartizate direct asupra rezultatului exerciiului. Este cazul cheltuielilor
generale de administraie, cheltuielilor de distribuie i costurilor de subactivitate.
Principiul prudenei implic faptul c bunurile care figureaz n activ (terenuri,
imobile, aciuni, stocuri, creane clieni) pot valora mai mult dect valoarea indicat n
bilan, dar n nici un caz nu pot valora mai puin.
d) Principiul importanei relative sau pragului de semnificaie impune ca
situaiile financiare s evidenieze toate operaiile economice i financiare, precum i
informaiile a cror importan poate afecta evalurile i deciziile. De exemplu, trecerea
n bilan la o valoare fix a acelor elemente reduse ca valoare care sunt n permanen
rennoite, iar valoarea lor nu variaz semnificativ de la un exerciiu financiar la altul. Aa
cum se afirm n contabilitatea american, un eveniment este considerat important atunci
cnd poate influena decizia celor care folosesc situaiile financiare, iar valoarea
informaiei depete sensibil costul prelucrrii i transmiterii acesteia. De asemenea,
potrivit principiului pragului de semnificaie, orice element care are o valoare
semnificativ trebuie prezentat separat n cadrul situaiilor financiare. Elementele cu
valori nesemnificative care au aceeai natur sau funcii similare vor fi nsumate, nefiind
necesar prezentarea lor separat.
e) Principiul necompensrii. Nici o compensare nu poate fi efectuat ntre posturile
de activ i de pasiv ale bilanului, sau ntre posturile de cheltuieli i de venituri ale
contului de rezultate. Este interzis, de exemplu de a compensa un sold bancar pozitiv cu o
pierdere dintr-un cont bancar deschis la o alt banc.
f) Principiul evalurii separate a elementelor de activ i de pasiv. n vederea
stabilirii sumei totale corespunztoare unei poziii din bilan, se va determina n prealabil
suma separat sau valoarea corespunztoare fiecrui element individual de activ sau de
pasiv.
Setul principiilor analizate mai sus se deschide i pentru altele, cum sunt:
intangibilitatea bilanului de deschidere n raport cu cel de nchidere; principiul
recunoaterii realizrii venitului n momentul transferului dreptului de proprietate;
principiul corespondenei cheltuielilor la venituri; principiul uniformitii documentelor
contabile de sintez; principiul obiectivitii i verificabilitii informaiei contabile;
principiul divulgrii integrale a informaiei i altele.
3.4.3. Procedeele metodei contabilitii
Principiile teoretice ale contabilitii i gsesc aplicare i concretizare n practica
social-economic, care face ca prin metod s se neleag att modul de a cerceta, de a
studia fenomenele ce intr n obiectul ei, ct i totalitatea procedeelor i instrumentelor
concrete utilizate pentru studierea practic a obiectului ei.
Procedeul nseamn mod sistematic de efectuare a unei lucrri, modalitate, manier,
fel de a proceda, iar instrumentul este un aparat, unealt cu ajutorul cruia se efectueaz
o anumit operaie. Deci, procedeul arat modalitatea, maniera, felul de a proceda pentru
atingerea unui scop, iar instrumentul constituie mijlocul concret de efectuare a lucrrilor
necesitate de un anumit procedeu.
n scopul realizrii obiectului contabilitii, metoda acesteia folosete o serie de
procedee care se mpart n:
procedee comune tuturor tiinelor;
procedee specifice metodei contabilitii;
procedee ale metodei contabilitii, comune i altor discipline economice.
65
66
67
68
Acest procedeu i gsete aplicarea cea mai larg n domeniul calculaiei costurilor
i rezultatelor. Noiunea de calculaie include toate formele de calcul, ncepnd cu simpla
calculare a datelor consemnate n documentele primare, continundu-se cu calculul
rulajelor, sumelor i soldurilor conturilor, cu calculul valorii elementelor patrimoniale
inventariate, a diferenelor de inventar i terminnd cu stabilirea costului produciei i
calculul rezultatelor finale, precum i a tuturor indicatorilor economico-financiari prin
care se apreciaz activitatea unitii economice sau sociale.
Pentru a cunoate situaia real a patrimoniului reflectat n contabilitate, trebuie s se
verifice existena faptic, direct a tuturor elementelor sale n scopul descoperirii
neconcordanelor dintre datele nregistrate n conturi i realitile de pe teren. n
continuare, elementele patrimoniale constatate faptic se evalueaz la valoarea actual sau
curent. n acest scop, contabilitatea se folosete de un alt procedeu, cunoscut sub
denumirea de inventariere. Pe baza constatrilor la care s-a ajuns n urma inventarierii se
fac rectificrile necesare n conturi, stabilindu-se concordana dintre datele rezultate din
conturi i cele constatate la faa locului prin operaia de inventariere. Prin compararea
valorii actuale cu cea din contabilitate se determin deprecierea elementelor patrimoniale
inventariate.
Dup cum se observ, ntre procedeele de lucru utilizate de metoda contabilitii
exist o strns corelaie a crei coloan vertebral este interdependena i condiionarea
reciproc dintre procedeele sale specifice, aa cum reiese din figura 5.
69
70
Fig.5. Schema corelaiei dintre procedeele metodei contabilitii
71
72
12) Potrivit Cadrului general IASB, un set complet de situaii financiare cuprinde:
a) bilan contabil i cont de profit i pierdere;
b) bilan contabil, cont de profit i pierdere, balan de verificare;
c) bilan contabil, cont de profit i pierdere, situaia capitalului propriu, situaia
fluxurilor de trezorerie, politici contabile i note explicative;
73
16) O cldire achiziionat cu 5.000 lei n urm cu 5 ani este acum complet amortizat.
Cldirea figureaz n bilan cu valoarea:
a) 5.000 lei;
b) 1.000 lei;
c) 0 lei;
d) nu mai figureaz n bilan.
Precizai principiul contabil care se aplic.
17) O societate prezint la nceputul anului 2006 creane clieni n sum de 2.000 lei. n
cursul anului ea cumpr pe credit comercial materii prime n valoare de 1.500 lei de
la o alt societate. O lun mai trziu ea vinde pe credit aceleiai societi produse
finite n sum de 2.500 lei. La finele anului 2006, n bilanul su contabil, creanele
clieni figureaz pentru suma de:
a) 3.000 lei;
b) 4.500 lei;
c) 1.000 lei;
d)
450 lei;
Precizai principiul contabil care se aplic.
74
b) 9 ani;
c) 8 ani;
d) 1 an;
Precizai principiul contabil care se aplic.
19) O societate vinde mrfuri clientului X pe data de 18 decembrie n sum de 5.000 lei.
Pe data de 23 decembrie ea ncaseaz de la client 3.600 lei, iar restul pe data de 3
februarie anul N+1. Veniturile generate de aceast operaie nregistrate n anul N
sunt:
a) 5.000 lei;
b)
500 lei;
c) 3.600 lei;
d) Veniturile vor fi nregistrate n anul N+1.
Precizai principiul contabil care se aplic.
20) Potrivit principiului costului istoric, costul de producie al unui stoc obinut din
producie proprie cu ciclu lung de fabricaie cuprinde obligatoriu:
a) costul de achiziie al materiilor prime i materialelor directe consumate,
celelalte cheltuieli directe de producie, cota cheltuielilor indirecte de
producie determinate raional ca fiind legate de fabricaia acestuia;
b) costurile directe de producie, costurile indirecte de producie, costurile de
distribuie;
c) costurile directe de producie, costurile indirecte de producie angajate,
cheltuielile generale de administraie;
d) costurile directe de producie, costurile indirecte de producie angajate,
costurile cu dobnzile;
21) n tabelul de mai jos, care reflect situaia patrimonial a unei societi s-au strecurat
cteva erori. Remediai aceste erori.
Mijloace economice + Drepturi
(Activ)
Materii prime
Construcii
Capital social
Furnizori
Surse de provenien
(Capital propriu + Datorii)
Numerar
Mijloace de transport
22) La nceputul anului valoarea activelor societii Activ S.A. era de 22.000 lei, iar
suma capitalurilor proprii, era de 11.000 lei. Pe parcursul anului activele au crescut cu
6.000 lei, iar datoriile s-au diminuat cu 1.000 lei. Care este valoarea capitalurilor
proprii ale companiei la sfritul anului ?
75
CAPITOLUL 4
n PASIV
originea, resursele (nete) sau de
unde provin aceste valori
76
n PASIV
PASIV(resurse)
FINANAREA investiiilor
- capitaluri proprii
- mprumuturi
ACTIVE DE EXPLOATARE
STOCURI
CREANE curente (clieni)
TREZORERIE
77
ACTIV (utilizri)
Imobilizri (nu devin
lichide dect n civa ani)1
Stocuri (devin lichide n
cteva luni sau zile
n funcie
de durata circuitului).
Creane cu o durat mai
mic de un an2
Trezorerie (Banca, casa)
Exigibilitate cresctoare
Lichiditate
PASIVUL clasific:
- modul de constituire a surselor de
finanare
- exigibilitatea surselor de finanare
2. RONul bilanului
RONul bilanului privete att cunoaterea contabil i realizarea obiectului
contabilitii, ct i practica evidenei contabile.
Pe planul cunoaterii contabile, bilanul are RON de a demonstra i realiza dubla
reprezentare. El ridic procesul de cunoatere la nivelul superior al sintetizrii i
generalizrii informaiilor. n acest fel se desprind interdependena i corelaiile care
caracterizeaz activitatea economic, precum i factorii de influen. Totodat, este
punctul de plecare pentru fundamentarea i cunoaterea regulilor de funcionare a
conturilor.
1
Prin integrarea amortismentelor n costuri recuperate din preurile de vnzare, deci din
ncasri. Vor fi nscrise n imobilizri valorile realizabile pe o perioad mai mare de un an.
2
Eventual subdivizate succesiv n: creane pe 6 luni; creane pe 3 luni; creane pe 1 lun; creane
neajunse la scaden.
3
Pe o perioad mai mare de 1 an.
4
Eventual subdivizate n: 6 luni; 3 luni; 1 lun; neajunse la scaden.
5
n principiu, pentru cteva sptmni sau luni.
78
79
Exerciiul
N-1
N
ACTIVE IMOBILIZATE
Imobilizri necorporale
Imobilizri corporale
Imobilizri financiare
ACTIVE CIRCULANTE
Stocuri
Alte active circulante
CONTURI DE
REGULARIZARE I
ASIMILATE
PRIME PRIVIND
RAMBURSAREA
OBLIGAIUNILOR
PASIV
Exerciiul
N-1
N
A. CAPITALURI PROPRII
I. Capitalul social sau contul
ntreprinztorului individual
II. Prime legate de capital
III. Rezerve de reevaluare
IV. Rezervele ntreprinderii
V. Rezultat raportat (+,-)
VI. Rezultatul exerciiului (+,-)
VII. Repartizarea profitului
VIII. Subvenii pentru investiii
B. PROVIZIOANE PENTRU
RISCURI I
CHELTUIELI
C. DATORII
D. CONTURI DE
REGULARIZARE I
ASIMILATE
80
BILAN
ncheiat la data.
SPECIFICAIA ELEMENTELOR
- SIMPLIFICAT Exerciiul
N
N+1
I
II
III
IV
ACTIVE IMOBILIZATE
ACTIVE CIRCULANTE (+)
ACTIVE DE REGULARIZARE (+)
(=) TOTAL ACTIV
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
81
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
82
MIJLOACE ECONOMICE
concrete, privite d.p.d.v. al
utilitii lor (REALITATEA
PATRIMONIULUI)
SURSE DE PROCURARE
A AVERII
(relaii de proprietate)
care transpuse n
BILAN
devin
ACTIV
PASIV
ACTIV
= RESURSE
PASIV
Astfel, se consider c prin bilan, capitalurile sunt prezentate att sub aspectul
originii lor, respectiv resursele (aporturi la capital, rezerve, datorii, profituri), ct i al
modului lor de utilizare concret (bunuri economice, creane).
Bilanul are deci dou pri, partea stng activ, care cuprinde componena
mijloacelor economice concrete, i partea dreapt pasiv, care oglindete sursele de
provenien a acestor mijloace. ntruct ntre totalul valorii mijloacelor economice i
totalul surselor de provenien a acestora trebuie s fie o egalitate perfect, rezult c ntre
valoarea activului i valoarea pasivului bilanului trebuie s existe o egalitate permanent.
Denumirile de activ i pasiv nu sunt convenionale, ci ele au la baz caracteristicile
mijloacelor i a surselor lor de constituire. Astfel, denumirea de activ provine de la
caracteristica mijloacelor economice de a se afla n continu micare i transformare n
cadrul circuitului economic, de a se identifica cu nsi activitatea unitii. Structura
mijloacelor economice din activul bilanului se modific n permanen datorit
operaiilor ocazionate de procesul de producie, unde i schimb forma, coninutul i
proprietile fizice sau chimice, precum i operaiile de vnzare a produselor i a
mrfurilor etc.
83
Spre deosebire de mijloacele economice din activ care se gsesc ntr-o continu
schimbare i transformare, n cadrul proceselor economice, sursele economice din pasivul
bilanului apar ca ceva static, ele nu-i schimb volumul i structura n mod independent,
ci modificrile sunt condiionate de micrile i transformrile mijloacelor economice din
activ. De la starea static, pasiv, a surselor, partea dreapt a bilanului a fost denumit
pasiv.
n cadrul activului sunt delimitate utilizri-permanente sau durabile de resurse sub forma
de bunuri de investiie, utilizri-temporare sau curente sub form de stocuri, creane, valori
mobiliare de plasament i disponibiliti, i utilizri, pierderi generate de o activitate
nerentabil privind consumarea resurselor. Pasivul prin structura sa delimiteaz cele trei
modaliti de formare a resurselor i anume: resurse permanente sau pe termen lung, furnizate
de proprietar (individual sau asociai), resurse temporare curente, asigurate de teri (furnizori,
bnci, obligatari) i resurse-rezultat, sub forma profiturilor realizate la sfritul fiecrui
exerciiu financiar.
Activul, prin componena sa, evideniaz destinaia i lichiditatea bunurilor
economice, iar pasivul reflect clasificarea surselor de finanare n funcie de modul lor
de constituire (surse proprii i surse strine) i exigibilitatea acestora. Schema adoptat n
acest scop se prezint astfel:
ACTIV
PASIV
1. Active imobilizate
1. Capitaluri proprii
1.1. Imobilizri necorporale
1.1. Capital
1.2. Imobilizri corporale
1.2. Rezerve
1.3. Imobilizri financiare
1.3. Rezultat (profitul cu +, iar pierderea cu -)
2. Active circulante
2. Provizioane pentru riscuri i cheltuieli
2.1. Stocuri i producie n curs de 3. Datorii
execuie
3.1. mprumuturi i datorii financiare
2.2. Creane
3.2. Alte datorii
2.3. Disponibiliti
4. Pasive de regularizare
3. Active de regularizare i
asimilate
Analizat prin prisma teoriei modelrii, bilanul contabil este simultan un model
structural i global, prin intermediul cruia se asigur o reprezentare a patrimoniului
pornind de la prile sale componente ctre caracteristicile de ansamblu. El grupeaz,
sistematizeaz i d expresie sintetic trsturilor comune i generale ale structurilor de
patrimoniu. Astfel, n cadrul bilanului, patrimoniul este evideniat prin prisma activului
i pasivului. n cadrul activului, elementele mulimii de activ sunt grupate n raport de
destinaia bunurilor economice utilizate i gradul lor de lichiditate n active imobilizate,
active circulante i active de regularizare i asimilate. La rndul lor, activele imobilizate
sunt difereniate n imobilizri necorporale, imobilizri corporale i imobilizri financiare.
Activele circulante sunt mprite n raport de forma pe care o mbrac n stocuri i
producie n curs de execuie, creane, plasamente i disponibiliti bneti. Ct privete
pasivul, elementele mulimii de pasiv sunt grupate n raport de cile de formare a surselor
de finanare, n capitaluri proprii, provizioane pentru riscuri i cheltuieli i pasive de
regularizare, precum i gradul lor de exigibilitate, permanente i curente.
84
85
ACTIVELE
Definire
Reprezint resurse
controlate de
ntreprindere ca
rezultat al unor
evenimente trecute
i de la care se
ateapt s
genereze beneficii
economice
viitoare.
Beneficiile
economice viitoare
ncorporate n
active reprezint
potenialul de a
contribui n mod
direct sau indirect
la fluxul de
numerar prin:
- Utilizarea pentru
prestarea de
servicii sau
producia de bunuri
destinate vnzrii;
- schimbul cu alte
active;
- utilizarea pentru
stingerea unei
datorii;
- repartizarea ctre
acionarii
ntreprinderii.
86
Lichiditatea
Vizeaz
capacitatea
fiecrui element de
activ de a parcurge
ntregul circuit de
exploatare pn la
transformarea lui
n bani.
Activele sunt
prezentate n
ordinea invers a
lichiditii:
Active
imobilizate
- imobilizri
necorporale
- imobilizri
corporale
- imobilizri
financiare
Active
circulante
- stocuri
- creane
- investiii
financiare pe
termen scurt
- disponibiliti
Active
rectificative i
de regularizare
87
88
89
90
91
92
PASIVELE
Capital propriu
Datorii
Exigibilitate
Definire
Reprezint
interesul
rezidual al
acionarilor in
activele unei
ntreprinderi
dup
deducerea
tuturor
datoriilor sale
Activ Capital
propriu
Datorii
Dimensiunea
capitalurilor
proprii
semnifica
poziia
financiara
care este data
de modul de
gestionare a
activelor si
datoriilor
Vizeaz
capacitatea
fiecrui
element de
pasiv de a
deveni scadent
la un anumit
termen.
Pasivele sunt
prezente in
ordinea
inverse a
exibilitatii:
- capitaluri
proprii;
- provizioane
pentru
riscuri si
cheltuieli;
- datorii mai
mari de un
an;
- datorii mai
mici de un
an;
- pasive de
regularizare
Definire
Reprezint
obligaia actuale
ce decurg din
evenimente
trecute si prin
decontarea
crora se
ateapt sa
rezulte o ieire
de resurse care
incorporeaz
beneficii
economice
Stingerea
obligaiei se face
prin:
- plata in
numerar;
- transfer de
active;
- prestare
servicii;
- nlocuirea cu
o alta
obligaie;
- transformare
a obligaiei
in capital
propriu;
- renunarea
de ctre
creditor;
Probabilitatea unei
ieiri de resurse,
purttoare de
beneficii economice
va rezulta din
lichidarea unei
obligaii prezente
Evaluarea
la care se
va realiza
aceasta
lichidare
poate fi
evaluata
in mod
credibil
Constatarea unei
datorii in bilan:
Este purttoare de
beneficii economice
viitoare?
Da
Constatarea
unui
activ
in bilan
Nu
Constatarea
unei cheltuieli
in contul de
profit si
pierdere
93
IV. Rezervele sunt surse constituite anual din profitul ntreprinderii, n limitele
prevzute de reglementrile n vigoare, de statutele societilor comerciale sau conform
deciziei adunrii generale a acionarilor sau asociailor. n structura lor se includ: rezerve
legale, rezerve statutare, rezerve pentru aciuni proprii i alte rezerve.
1. Rezervele legale se constituie din profitul brut sau din primele de capital, fiind
destinate protejrii capitalului.
2. Rezervele statutare se constituie anual din profitul net al ntreprinderilor,
conform prevederilor din statutul acestora.
3. Rezervele pentru aciuni proprii se constituie n situaia n care o societate pe
aciuni i-a rscumprat propriile aciuni, cu scopul de a-i menine nivelul capitalului
propriu.
4. Alte rezerve, neprevzute de lege sau statut, pot fi constituite din profitul net
potrivit hotrrii adunrii generale a acionarilor, cu respectarea prevederilor legale.
V. Rezultatul reportat reprezint rezultatul financiar sau partea din rezultat a crei
afectare financiar a fost amnat de adunarea general a acionarilor. Rezultatul reportat
poate fi pozitiv, cazul beneficiilor nerepartizate, sau negativ, adic pierderi constatate la
nchiderea exerciiilor anterioare, neacoperite nc din punct de vedere financiar.
VI. Rezultatul exerciiului poate fi favorabil, caz n care reprezint un profit i o
surs proprie de finanare pn n momentul repartizrii lui pe destinaiile legale sau
statutare sau poate fi nefavorabil, caz n care reprezint o pierdere ce trebuie acoperit. n
aceast ultim situaie, rezultatul este prezentat n bilan cu semnul minus, micornd
capitalul propriu.
B. PROVIZIOANELE PENTRU RISCURI I CHELTUIELI reprezint datorii
ale ntreprinderii care sunt constituite, de regul, la sfritul exerciiului.
Reglementrile introduse prin Programul de Dezvoltare a Contabilitii din Romnia
le definesc ca fiind datorii cu exigibilitate sau valoare incert. Recunoaterea
provizioanelor se face numai n mometul n care: (1) o ntreprindere are o obligaie
curent (legal sau implicit) generat de un eveniment anterior; (2) este probabil ca o
ieire de resurse care s afecteze beneficiile economice s fie necesar pentru a stinge
obligaia respectiv i (3) poate fi realizat o bun estimare a valorii obligaiei.
Diferena dintre provizioanele pentru riscuri i celelalte datorii ale ntreprinderii
const n incertitudinea care le afecteaz pe primele n ceea ce privete mrimea sau
scadena. Asemenea provizioane se constituie pentru cheltuieli care devin exigibile n
perioadele urmtoare (de exemplu, litigii, amenzi i penaliti, despgubiri, daune i alte
datorii incerte, cheltuieli legate de activitatea de service n perioada de garanie i alte
cheltuieli privind garania acordat clienilor, cheltuieli cu reparaiile capitale ealonate pe
mai multe perioade etc.).
C. DATORIILE (numite i capital strin) sunt sursele de finanare externe puse la
dispoziia ntreprinderii, fie de bnci sau alte instituii financiare, fie de furnizori, fie de
teri pentru care ntreprinderea trebuie s acorde o prestaie sau un echivalent valoric.
Reglementrile introduse prin Programul de Dezvoltare a Contabilitii din Romnia
clasific datoriile n datorii curente i datorii pe termen lung. O datorie curent este o
obligaie (1) ce se ateapt s fie achitat n cursul normal al ciclului de exploatare al
ntreprinderii; sau (2) este exigibil n termen de 12 luni de la data bilanului. Toate
celelalte datorii trebuie clasificate pe termen lung.
94
95
96
PASIV
Solduri iniiale
13.000
1.000
500
10
690
800
16.000
Denumirea
posturilor
Capital social
Furnizori
Creditori diveri
Asigurri sociale
Credite bancare
pe termen scurt
Solduri iniiale
TOTAL PASIV
16.000
13.500
700
900
400
500
Din acest bilan iniial se constat c totalul activului (A) este egal cu totalul
pasivului (P), adic se respect ecuaia dublei reprezentri (A = P).
97
Denumire
post
Echipamente
Materii prim
Produse fin.
Casa
Cont banc
Clieni
Total activ
ACTIV
Sold
Modificri
iniial
(+,-)
13.000
1.000
500
10
(+) 20
690
(-) 20
800
16.000
-
Solduri
finale
13.000
1.000
500
30
670
800
16.000
PASIV
Denumirea
Solduri Modificri
posturilor
iniiale
(+,-)
Capital social 13.500
700
Furnizori
900
Creditori div.
400
Asig. Sociale
Credite
500
bancare t. sc.
Total pasiv
16.000
-
Solduri
finale
13.500
700
900
400
500
16.000
* Din motive didactice, pentru vizualizarea modificrilor bilaniere se ntocmete, dup fiecare
tranzacie (tranzacia 1, 2, 3 i 4) cte un bilan. n practic, bilanul se ntocmete obligatoriu
anual i n alte situaii potrivit reglementrilor legale n vigoare i nu dup fiecare tranzacie,
eveniment sau operaie.
98
Tranzacia II. Se achit unui furnizor suma de 500 lei dintr-un credit bancar pe
termen scurt.n urma acestei tranzacii se produce o cretere n pasivul bilanului la
elementul Credite bancare pe termen scurt cu suma de 500 lei, i anume de la 500 lei la
1.000 lei, reprezentnd creterea datoriilor unitii fa de banc i, concomitent i cu
aceeai sum, o micorare tot a pasivului bilanului, la elementul Furnizori, i anume de
la 700 lei la 200 lei, care reprezint micorarea datoriilor fa de furnizorii si.
Bilanul ntocmit dupa efectuarea i nregistrarea acestei tranzacii se prezint n felul
urmtor:
Bilan contabil
ntocmit dup nregistrarea tranzaciei II
Denumire post
Echipamente
Materii prim
Produse fin.
Casa
Cont banc
Clieni
Total activ
ACTIV
Sold
Modificri
iniial
(+,-)
13.000
1.000
500
30
670
800
16.000
-
Solduri
finale
13.000
1.000
500
30
670
800
16.000
Denumirea
posturilor
Capital social
Furnizori
Creditori div.
Asig. Sociale
Credite
bancare t. sc.
Total pasiv
PASIV
Solduri
Modificri
iniiale
(+,-)
13.500
700
(-) 500
900
400
500
16.000
(+) 500
-
Solduri
finale
13.500
200
900
400
1.000
16.000
99
Bilan contabil
ntocmit dup nregistrarea tranzaciei III
Denumire post
Echipamente
Materii prim
Produse fin.
Casa
Cont banc
Clieni
Total activ
ACTIV
Sold
Modificri
iniial
(+,-)
13.000
1.000
(+) 300
500
30
670
800
16.000
(+) 300
Solduri
finale
13.000
1.300
500
30
670
800
16.300
Denumirea
posturilor
Capital social
Furnizori
Creditori div.
Asig. Sociale
Credite
bancare t. sc.
Total pasiv
PASIV
Solduri
Modificri
iniiale
(+,-)
13.500
200
(+) 300
900
400
1.000
16.000
(+) 500
(+) 300
Solduri
finale
13.500
500
900
400
1.000
16.300
100
Bilan contabil
ntocmit dup nregistrarea tranzaciei IV
Denumire post
Echipamente
Materii prim
Produse fin.
Casa
Cont banc
Clieni
Total activ
ACTIV
Sold
Modificri
iniial
(+,-)
13.000
1.300
500
30
670
(-) 200
800
16.000
(-) 200
Solduri
finale
13.000
1.300
500
30
470
800
16.100
Denumirea
posturilor
Capital social
Furnizori
Creditori div.
Asig. Sociale
Credite
bancare t. sc.
Total pasiv
PASIV
Solduri
Modificri
iniiale
(+,-)
13.500
500
900
400
(-) 200
1.000
16.000
(+) 500
(-) 200
Solduri
finale
13.500
500
900
200
1.000
16.100
Din acest bilan reiese c tranzacia nregistrat a produs modificri tot n ambele
pri ale acestuia, ca i n tranzacia precedent, adic att n activ, n structura bunurilor
economice, ct i n pasiv, n structura surselor de finanare, dar, n sensul scaderii,
concomitent i cu aceeai sum, a unui element de activ i a altuia de pasiv. n asemenea
condiii, totalul bilanului, adic al activului i pasivului, a sczut cu aceeai sum,
modificndu-se astfel i volumul elementelor patrimoniale, dar meninndu-se egalitatea
bilanier.
Dac la ecuaia dublei reprezentri stabilit dup nregistrarea tranzaciei III, se
introduc modificrile determinate de influena acestei tranzacii, pe care le notm cu v, se
constat c egalitatea bilanier se menine, aa cum rezult din ecuaia:
A v = P v,
de unde, dac se trece v ntr-o singur parte, rezult:
A v + v = P,
iar reducnd v cu +v, se ajunge tot la ecuaia dublei reprezentri, adic:
A = P.
nlocuind aceast ecuaie, datele din tranzacia IV, egalitatea bilanier se prezint
astfel:
16.300 AIII 200 Conturi curente la bnci = 16.300 PIII 200 Asigurri sociale,
deci 16.100 AIV = 16.100 PIV.
Din cele prezentate, reiese c orict de variate ar fi tranzaciile economice i
financiare sub aspectul naturii i coninutului lor economic, din punct de vedere al
tipurilor de modificri pe care le produc asupra activului i pasivului bilanului, ele se pot
grupa n patru categorii, i anume:
1. tranzacii economice i financiare care produc modificri numai n activul
bilanului, n sensul creterii unui element de activ i, concomitent i cu aceeai sum,
micorarea unui alt element de activ, totalul activului rmnnd neschimbat, egalitatea
bilanier meninndu-se (A + x x = P);
2. tranzacii economice i fiananciare care produc modificri numai n pasivul
bilanului, n sensul creterii unui element de pasiv, i concomitent i cu aceeai sum,
101
micorarea unui alt element de pasiv, totalul pasivului rmnnd neschimbat, egalitatea
bilanier menindu-se (A = P + y - y);
3. tranzacii economice i financiare care produc modificri n ambele pri ale
bilanului, n sensul creterii unui element de activ i, concomitent i cu aceeai sum,
creterea unui element de pasiv, totalul activului i pasivului crescnd cu suma respectiv,
egalitatea meninndu-se (A + z = P + z)
4. tranzacii economice i financiare care produc modificri n ambele pri ale
bilanului, n sensul micorrii unui element de activ i, concomitent i cu aceeai sum,
micorarea unui element de pasiv, totalul activului i pasivului micorndu-se cu suma
respectiv, egalitatea bilanier meninndu-se (A v = P - v).
Dup cum rezult din cele prezentate, indiferent de tipurile de modificri produse
asupra activului i pasivului unitii patrimoniale, egalitatea bilanier se menine
permanent. Aceasta, ntruct n cazul fiecrei tranzacii economice sau financiare s-a
produs, concomitent i cu aceeai sum, o dubl modificare i anume de sens contrar,
atunci cnd au fost influenate elementele din aceeai parte a bilanului i s-au anulat, sau
de acelai sens, n cazul n care au fost influenate elemente din ambele pri ale bilanului
i s-au adunat, respectiv sczut, din totalul bilanului.
Pentru a demonstra meninerea permanent a egalitii bilaniere, toate cele patru
tipuri de tranzacii economice i financiare exemplificate se vor prezenta ntr-o singur
schem care va cuprinde att bilanul contabil iniial, ct i modificrile i bilanul
contabil final:
Bilan contabil
final
Denumire post
Echipamente
Materii prim
Produse fin.
Casa
Cont banc
Clieni
Total activ
102
ACTIV
Sold
Modificri
iniial
(+,-)
13.000
1.000 (+)300 III
500
10
(+) 20 I
690
(-) 20 I
(-)200 IV
800
16.000
(+) 100
Solduri
finale
13.000
1.300
500
30
470
Denumirea
posturilor
Capital social
Furnizori
800
Credite
bancare t. sc.
Total pasiv
16.100
Creditori div.
Asig. Sociale
PASIV
Solduri
Modificri
iniiale
(+,-)
13.500
700
(-)500 II
(+) 300 III
900
400
(-) 200 IV
5.000
16.000
(+) 500 II
(+) 100
Solduri
finale
13.500
500
900
200
1.000
16.100
103
+A
(+A, -A)
4
(+D, +A)
5
(+C, +A)
1
-D
(-A, -D)
2
(+D, -D)
8
(+C, -D)
6
-C
(-A, -C)
9
(+D, -C)
3
(+C, -C)
7
104
105
106
Bilan iniial
ACTIV
Utilaje
Mrfuri
Clieni
Conturi la bnci
Casa
TOTAL
Solduri iniiale
2.500
500
400
900
700
5.000
PASIV
Capital social
Rezerve
Credite bancare
Furnizori
Asigurri sociale
TOTAL
Solduri iniiale
3.000
500
800
300
400
5.000
Solduri iniiale
2.500
500
400
900
700
5.000
Modificri +,-
PASIV
Capital social
Rezerve
Credite bancare
Furnizori
Asigurri sociale
TOTAL
Solduri iniiale
3.000
500
800
300
400
5.000
Modificri +,-
+ 600
- 600
-
Solduri finale
2.500
500
400
1.500
100
5.000
Solduri finale
3.000
500
800
300
400
5.000
107
500 lei
500 P1
5.000 P2
5.000 A2
300
capital
social
300
rezerve
Asta nseamn: A = P + x x
ntocmim n continuare bilanul nr. 2, pornind de la bilanul nr. 1 i nregistrm
modificrile la elementele de pasiv determinate de tranzacia 2.
108
Bilanul nr. 2
Solduri iniiale
2.500
500
400
1.500
100
5.000
ACTIV
Utilaje
Mrfuri
Clieni
Conturi la bnci
Casa
TOTAL
Modificri +,-
Solduri finale
2.500
500
400
1.500
100
5.000
Solduri iniiale
Modificri +,Solduri finale
PASIV
Capital social
3.000
+ 300
3.300
Rezerve
500
- 300
200
Credite bancare
800
800
Furnizori
300
300
Asigurri sociale
400
400
TOTAL
5.000
5.000
Atenie! Privii modificrile introduse att n ecuaia dublei reprezentri, ct i n
bilanul contabil nr. 2 determinate de tranzacia 2 i vei constata verificarea remarcilor
prezentate de tipul 2, 3, 4 i 5 de modificri bilaniere:
Modificri numai n pasiv: Capital social i Rezerve
Totalul pasivului rmne neschimbat:
P1 = 5.000 lei i P2 = 5.000 lei.
Egalitatea bilanier se pstreaz:
5.000 A2 = 5.000 P2
Tranzacia 3. ntreprinderea achiziioneaz mrfuri de la furnizori n valoare de 200
lei.
Analiza: aceast tranzacie determin modificri, dupa cum observai, n stocul de
mrfuri existent n ntreprindere (crete cu 200 lei) i n datoriile ntreprinderii fa de
furnizori (cresc cu 200 lei). Elementul Mrfuri este de activ i elementul Furnizori este de
pasiv. Se produc modificri att n structura activului i pasivului ct i n volumul
(totalul) activului i pasivului.
Introducem datele n tipul de ecuaie adecvat modificrilor determinate de tranzacia
3:
C+D
5.000 A2
200 P1
Mrfuri
5.000 P2
200
Furnizori
5.200 A3
5.200 P3
109
Asta nseamn: A + x = P + x
ntocmim n continuare bilanul nr. 3, pornind de la bilanul nr. 2 i nregistrm
modificrile la elementele de activ i pasiv determinate de tranzacia 3.
NU UITAI ! Soldurile finale din bilanul nr. 2 devin solduri iniiale pentru bilanul
nr. 3.
Bilanul nr. 3
ACTIV
Utilaje
Mrfuri
Clieni
Conturi la bnci
Casa
TOTAL
PASIV
Capital social
Rezerve
Credite bancare
Furnizori
Asigurri sociale
TOTAL
Solduri iniiale
2.500
500
400
1.500
100
5.000
Solduri iniiale
3.300
200
800
300
400
5.000
+ 200
Modificri +,-
+ 200
+ 200
Solduri finale
2.500
700
400
1.500
100
5.200
Solduri finale
3.300
200
800
500
400
5.200
110
5.200 A3 -
800
Conturi
la bnci
4.400 A4
C+D
= 5.200 P3
800
Credite
bancare
4.400 P4
Asta nseamn: A - x = P x
ntocmim n continuare bilanul nr. 4, pornind de la bilanul nr. 3. (V reamintii ?
Soldurile finale din bilanul 3 devin solduri iniiale pentru bilanul nr. 4) i nregistrm
modificrile la elementele de activ i pasiv determinate de tranzacia 4.
Bilan nr. 4
ACTIV
Utilaje
Mrfuri
Clieni
Conturi la bnci
Casa
TOTAL
Solduri iniiale
2.500
700
400
1.500
100
5.200
Modificri +,-
PASIV
Capital social
Rezerve
Credite bancare
Furnizori
Asigurri sociale
TOTAL
Solduri iniiale
3.300
200
800
500
400
5.200
Modificri +,-
- 800
- 800
- 800
- 800
Solduri finale
2.500
700
400
700
100
4.400
Solduri finale
3.300
200
500
400
4.400
111
112
CHELTUIELI
Definire
Constituie
diminuri
ale
beneficiilor
economice
nregistrate
pe
parcursul
perioadei contabile sub form de:
ieiri sau scderi ale valorii
activelor;
creteri ale datoriilor
care se concretizeaz n reduceri
ale capitalului propriu, altele
dect
cele
rezultate
din
distribuirea
acestora
ctre
acionari.
n categoria cheltuielilor intr:
cheltuieli care apar n cursul
activitilor curente (costul
vnzrilor,
salarii,
amortizare). Se regsesc sub
forma ieirilor sau scderii
de active (numerar, stocuri,
mijloace fixe).
pierderile,
pentru
c
genereaz diminuri de
beneficii
economice,
indiferent dac sun realizate
sau nu:
pierderi realizate: din
dezastre,
inundaii,
ieirea activelor pe
termen lung;
pierderi nerealizate:
din creterea cursului
de schimb valutar.
Modificarea
beneficiilor
economice
viitoare poate fi
evaluat credibil.
Bilan
1) Se constat o
datorie care nu d
natere la un activ
(nu este purttoare de
beneficii economice
viitoare)
2) Are loc o plat sau
diminuare de active
(o reducere a
beneficiilor
economice viitoare)
113
VENITURI
Definire
Constituie creteri ale beneficiilor
economice
nregistrate
pe
parcursul perioadei contabile sub
form de:
intrri sau creteri ale
valorii activelor;
descreteri ale datoriilor
care se concretizeaz n creteri
ale capitalului propriu, altele
dect cele rezultate din contribuii
ale acionarilor.
n categoria veniturilor intr:
venituri din activitile
curente
(din
vnzri,
comisioane,
dobnzi,
dividende, chirii, redevene).
Veniturile sunt utilizate
pentru achiziionare active
sau
creterea
valorii
activelor. Pot rezulta din
lichidarea datoriilor.
ctigurile,
pentru
c
reprezint
creteri
ale
beneficiilor economice:
ctiguri
realizate:
sume
din
ieirea
activelor imobilizate
pe termen mediu i
lung;
ctiguri nerealizate:
din creterea valorii
contabile a activelor pe
termen mediu i lung,
din
reevaluarea
titlurilor de plasament.
Ctigurile sunt prezentate de
regul la valoarea net, exclusiv
cheltuielile aferente.
Recunoaterea
unui venit
Bilan
1) Se constat o
cretere de active
(alta dect prin
reevaluare)
2) Se constat o
diminuare de datorii
care nu genereaz o
diminuare de active
(anulare provizioane
pentru garanii
acordate clienilor,
sconturi obinute de
la furnizori).
114
Modificarea
beneficiilor
economice
viitoare poate fi
evaluat credibil.
115
Niveluri:
DE EXPLOATARE
FINANCIAR
EXTRAORDINAR
GLOBAL
Cheltuieli de exploatare
(cumprri, remuneraii
personal, servicii primite,
impozite, amortismente)
Cheltuieli financiare
(dobnzi pltite, alte
cheltuieli financiare)
Cheltuieli extraordinare
Impozit pe profit
Cont de REZULTAT
Venituri din exploatare
(vnzri,
venituri
accesorii..)
Venituri
financiare
(dobnzi primite, alte
venituri financiare)
Venituri extraordinare
116
dup fiecare nivel de activitate. Pentru degajarea sa trebuie fcute calcule suplimentare n
afara contului.
Pentru a elimina limitele de mai sus s-a asimilat schema list a Contului de profit i
pierdere, care se prezint astfel:
CONTUL DE PROFIT I PIERDERE
INDICATORI
Venituri din exploatare (I)
(-) Cheltuieli de exploatare (II)
= Rezultatul din exploatare (I - II)
Profit sau
Pierdere
Venituri financiare (III)
(-) Cheltuieli financiare (IV)
= Rezultatul financiar (III - IV)
Profit sau
Pierdere
Rezultatul curent al exerciiului (I II + III - IV)
Profit sau
Pierdere
Venituri extraordinare (V)
(-) Cheltuieli extraordinare (VI)
= Rezultatul extraordinar al exerciiului (V - VI)
Profit sau
Pierdere
Impozitul pe profit (VII)
Exerciiul
Exerciiul
N-1
117
Exerciiul
N-1
Exerciiul
N
Exerciiul
N-1
Exerciiul
N
118
mii lei
Exerciiul curent
2
Rezultatul net sub form de profit i pierdere este reprezentat att n bilanul contabil
ct i n Contul de profit i pierdere, ecuaia care evideniaz aceast dubl ipostaz fiind:
119
BILAN I CONTUL
CONTUL DE REZULTATE
DE PROFIT I PIERDERE
Relaiile pe baza crora se calculeaz rezultatul n cadrul celor dou modele sunt:
a) n bilanul contabil,
Rezultatul
exerciiului
Situaia net
final a patrimoniului
la nchiderea
exerciiului
financiar N
Situaia net
iniial a
patrimoniului la
deschiderea
exerciiului
financiar N
Aportul
proprietarului
la capitalul
propriu n
exerciiul
N
Veniturile
realizate
ale
exerciiului N
Cheltuielile
exerciiului N
corespondente
veniturilor realizate
120
121
c) creane;
d) rezerve.
11. S se determine mrimea activelor imobilizate la o ntreprindere care prezint
urmtoarea situaie: mijloace fixe 1.500 lei, disponibil la banc 4.500 lei, mrfuri
750 lei, titluri de plasament 750 lei, clieni 6.000 lei.
a) 7.500 lei;
b) 6.750 lei;
c) 9.000 lei;
d) 1.500 lei;
12. Care din urmtoarele elemente nu fac parte din imobilizrile necorporale ?
a) capital social;
b) cheltuieli de constituire;
c) programe informatice;
d) fondul comercial.
13. Care din urmtoarele structuri nu fac parte din pasivul patrimoniului:
a) capital social;
b) cheltuieli de constituire;
c) rezultatul exerciiului;
d) rezerve.
14. Din categoria datorii sociale fac parte:
a) contribuia unitii la asigurrile sociale;
b) impozit pe salariu;
c) dividende de plat;
d) salarii datorate angajailor.
15. Din categoria datorii fiscale nu fac parte:
a) impozit pe salarii;
b) impozit pe profit;
c) contribuia unitii la fondul de omaj;
d) furnizori.
16. Precizai care operaie economico-financiar a fost ncadrat corect n cele patru
tipuri de modificri bilaniere:
a) ncorporarea n capitalul social a primelor legate de capital (modific structura
elementelor de pasiv);
b) creterea capitalului social cu rezervele destinate mririi acestuia (modific
volumul n sensul creterii);
c) nregistrarea subveniilor pentru investiii de primit (modific structura
elementelor de activ);
d) nregistrarea fondului comercial aportat la capitalul societii de ctre asociai
(modific structura elementelor de pasiv)
17. Care ecuaie bilanier este devrat pentru urmtoarea operaie economicofinanciar: Se majoreaz capitalul social prin ncorporarea de rezerve i prime
legate de capital
a) A + x x = P
b) A x = P x + x
122
c) A + x = P x
d) A = P + x x
18. n cadrul bilanului contabil din Romnia, clasificarea activelor i pasivelor se
face dup:
a) natura i destinaia activlor i pasivelor;
b) activele dup destinaie i lichiditate, pasivele dup originea i exigibilitatea
lor;
c) destinaia activelor i pasivelor;
d) natura juridic a activelor i pasivelor.
19. Una din diviziunile de mai jos nu figureaz n bilanul contabil adoptat n ara
noastr, ca poziie distinct:
a) amortizri i provizioane pentru deprecierea activelor;
b) capitaluri proprii;
c) conturi de regularizare i asimilate;
d) prime privind rambursarea obligaiunilor.
20. Care din grupele de bilan contabil enumerate mai jos cuprinde un singur post:
a) datorii;
b) capitaluri proprii;
c) prime privind rambursarea obligaiunilor;
d) active circulante.
21. Ecuaia fundamental a bilanului diferen este:
a) Activ = Situaia net + Datorii;
b) Activ Datorii = Situaia net;
c) Activ Drepturi = Obligaii;
d) Pasiv Drepturi = Bunuri economice.
123
CAPITOLUL 5
TEORIE I MODEL PRIVIND CONTUL
Mecanismul contabil: analiza, nregistrarea
i contRONul tranzaciilor (operaiilor) n conturi
5.1. NOIUNEA, NECESITATEA I CONINUTUL CONTULUI
Obiectul contabilitii circumscrie i urmrirea complet i nentrerupt a micrilor
i transformrilor elementelor patrimoniale ale unitilor economice i sociale n fazele
circuitului economic.
Procedeul bilan, aa cum s-a demonstrat, este sensibil la influenele tranzaciilor
economice. Dar, practic urmrirea complet i nentrerupt a modificrilor mijloacelor i
a surselor nu se poate realiza cu ajutorul procedeului bilan. ntocmirea unui nou bilan
dup fiecare tranzacie economic (sau dup un numr de operaii) ar fi un lucru foarte
greu de realizat, ca urmare a numrului mare de tranzacii economice care se produc
zilnic. Chiar dac s-ar ntocmi asemenea bilanuri, acestea ar indica existena mijloacelor
i a surselor la un moment dat, neartnd sub influena cror modificri s-a ajuns la
situaia respectiv. Or, contabilitatea trebuie s asigure nu numai cunoaterea elementelor
patrimoniale la un moment dat, ci i modificrile n sensul creterii i a micorrii
elementelor patrimoniale n decursul unei perioade de gestiune.
Din considerentele respective, contabilitatea a trebuit s recurg la un alt procedeu al
metodei sale de lucru, conceput special n acest scop, care s permit nregistrarea,
urmrirea i contRONul att a existentului, ct i ale modificrilor care s-au produs, zi de
zi, n decursul unei perioade de gestiune asupra elementelor patrimoniale de bunuri
economice i surse de finanare ale unitii patrimoniale. Acest procedeu poart
denumirea de cont i este cel mai reprezentativ dintre toate procedeele metodei
contabilitii, de la care deriv nsi denumirea ei. Cu ajutorul conturilor, contabilitatea
nregistreaz, urmrete i contRONeaz existentul i schimbrile fiecrui bun economic,
surse de finanare, precum i fazele fiecrui proces economic.
n esen, noiunea de cont nseamn socoteal scris, provenind de la cuvntul
compte din limba francez sau conto din limba italian, care are acelai neles.
n literatura francez, contul este definit ca un procedeu de clasificare funcional
care permite urmrirea evoluiei unui element particular al patrimoniului sau al unui
element al activitii asupra crora d o reprezentare numeric despre creteri i diminuri
n expresie monetar.
Legat de cont, prof. W. Sombart arat c istoricul contabilitii ar trebui s nceap
cu precizarea c la nceput a fost contul i c din cont s-a nscut contabilitatea.
nsi, denumirea de contabilitate deriv de la noiunea de cont, iar o serie de autori
au definit contabilitatea ca fiind tiina conturilor.
Pentru fiecare fel sau grup de mijloace economice, de surs, proces economic sau
faz a acestuia se deschide cte un cont.
nregistrarea prin cont a situaiei i micrii elementelor patrimoniale se face n
expresie valoric cu folosirea etalonului monetar, iar pentru bunurile materiale i a
124
etalonului natural. Definit prin aceast prism contul reprezint un model de eviden i
calcul n expresie valoric.
Pentru a delimita n timp situaia i micarea elementelor patrimoniale, nregistrarea
prin cont se efectueaz n ordine cronologic. Deci contul este un model de nregistrare
cronologic a micrii elementelor patrimoniale.
O alt trstur caracteristic contului este aceea c el reprezint un model de
individualizare i grupare a situaiei i micrii elementelor patrimoniale.
Individualizarea elementelor patrimoniale se face n funcie de trsturile lor specifice, iar
gruparea n raport de caracteristicile lor comune. n ceea ce privete mulimea
tranzaciilor economice i financiare, individualizarea i gruparea se fac n raport de
efectul acestora asupra elementelor patrimoniale modificate. Exemplu, cu ajutorul
contului Materii prime se evideniaz ntr-o form distinct sortimentele componente i
se grupeaz toate stocurile de materii prime existente n gestiunea unei ntreprinderi,
precum i operaiile economice privind intrrile i ieirile de materii prime din depozite.
O alt trstur specific contului este aceea c el constituie un model de
sistematizare a existenelor i a modificrilor de sens contrar intervenite n masa
elementelor patrimoniale nregistrate. Sistematizarea se face prin prisma strii iniiale, a
strii finale, respectiv a creterilor (+) i micorrilor (-) generate de tranzaciile
economice i financiare.
Spre deosebire de bilan, care reflect situaia tuturor elementelor patrimoniale la un
moment dat, avnd o sfer de cuprindere din punct de vedere al coninutului mai larg,
contul are o sfer mult mai restrns, referindu-se numai la unul din elementele
patrimoniale cuprinse n bilan. Din cont rezult att situaia la un moment dat, ct i
creterile i micorrile elementului a crui socoteal o ine. Contul are RONul nu numai
de a ine socoteala scris a unui mijloc, surs sau proces economic, ci i de ordonare i
sistematizare a informaiilor din contabilitate, potrivit principiilor specifice ei, avnd un
neles mai larg dect cea de calcul aritmetic. n fiecare cont se nregistreaz existentul de
mijloace i de surse de la nceputul perioadei de gestiune (existent iniial) preluat din
bilan i se continu cu nregistrarea, pe baza documentelor justificative, a modificrilor
mijloacelor i surselor (creteri i micorri) determinate de operaiile economice n
cursul perioadei respective. Pe baza datelor din fiecare cont se poate determina existentul
de la sfritul perioadei prin urmtorul calcul: existentul iniial + creterile - micorrile
= existentul de la sfritul perioadei.
n anumite perioade are loc generalizarea datelor din conturi (a existentului final) cu
ajutorul bilanului, n vederea oglindirii situaiei ntreprinderii n totalitatea ei. Deci, ntre
conturi i bilan exist o strns legtur, se pleac de la bilan i se ajunge prin
intermediul conturilor la un nou bilan.
LEGTURA CONT-BILAN LA NCEPUTUL EXERCIIULUI
n activul i pasivul bilanului iniial figureaz posturi bilaniere corespunztoare
celor dou pri componente ale bilanului crora le sunt ataate sume. Activul va
cuprinde posturile de activ a1, a2, ..., an cu sumele corespunztoare x'1, x'2, ..., x'n, iar
pasivul posturilor de pasiv p1, p2, ..., pn cu sumele corespunztoare x'1, x'2, ..., xn.
Posturile din bilan se reiau n contabilitate curent sub form de conturi. Astfel,
posturile de activ a1, a2, ..., an i posturile de pasiv p1, p2, ..., pn devin conturile a1, a2,
..., an i p1, p2, ..., pn.
n conturi se nscriu urmtoarele elemente:
125
starea iniial;
creterile (+);
diminurile (-).
Reprezentarea grafic a legturii dintre bilan i cont se prezint n fig. 11.
126
a
leg
turii
dint
re
bila
n i
cont
la
sfr
itul
exer
127
Funcia statistic const n faptul c din conturi rezult date statistice, cum sunt:
volumul mijloacelor economice, capitalul social subscris i nevrsat, costul produciei,
profitul obinut etc.
Funcia de calcul const n calculele efectuate n conturi n vederea stabilirii
micrilor i a existentului elementului respectiv i n aceea c unele conturi ajut la
calcularea preului de aprovizionare a materialelor cumprate, a costului efectiv al
produciei obinute n seciile de baz i auxiliare etc.
Funcia de contRON este exercitat de anumite conturi prin care se efectueaz
contRONul integritii patrimoniului, a costurilor efective de producie n comparaie cu
cele antecalculate etc.
Funcia de grupare este ndeplinit de toate conturile prin aceea c n ele se
nregistreaz mijloacele, sursele i procesele economice omogene. Astfel, operaiile cu
mijloacele fixe se grupeaz n contul Mijloace fixe, cele privind materialele n contul
Materiale etc.
Funcia de sistematizare este exercitat de fiecare cont prin oglindirea separat a
tranzaciilor economice ce produc creteri ale mijloacelor, surselor sau proceselor
economice, de acele tranzacii care determin micorarea acelorai elemente.
Funcia de generalizare este ndeplinit de conturile al cror coninut este de
acelai gen, care in evidena totalitii unor elemente care difer ca spe. Aceste elemente,
diferite ca spe, sunt oglindite fiecare n cte un cont, fiind reunite n totalitatea lor ntr-un
singur cont, care ndeplinete funcia de generalizare. De exemplu, producia terminat a unei
ntreprinderi este nregistrar n conturi separate pe feluri de produse i apoi generalizat ntr-un
cont unic Produse finite.
Funcia contabil a conturilor const n oglindirea, ntr-un anumit mod de
nregistrare n cadrul lor, a creterilor i micorrilor determinate de tranzaciile
economice i financiare cu elementele patrimoniale la care se refer, n raport cu
coninutul economic al conturilor respective. Deci, funcia contabil este determinat de
coninutul economic al conturilor i, n baza ei, se asigur exercitarea, de ctre acestea, a
tuturor celorlalte funcii enumerate mai sus.
128
Data nregistrrii indic momentul cnd a avut loc operaia economic sau
financiar care face obiectul reflectrii n cont. Ea se stabilete pe baza datei
documentului justificativ care a consemnat operaia i fundamenteaz nregistrarea n
cont, fiind definit de urmtoarele elemente: zi, lun, an.
n cele mai multe cazuri alturi de data producerii tranzaciei n cont se nscrie i
momentul cnd se face efectiv nregistrarea.
Explicaia contului constituie partea contului rezervat pentru prezentarea
coninutului tranzaciei nregistrate. Ea poate fi descriptiv i contabil. Descriptiv, n
cazul n care se folosete textul scris i documentul justificativ pentru a prezenta
coninutul tranzaciei economice sau financiare. n cele mai multe cazuri explicaia
descriptiv cuprinde numai denumirea, numrul i data documentului justificativ.
Explicaia contabil se realizeaz prin indicarea contului corespondent, n funcie de cel
de-al doilea element patrimonial influenat de modificarea tranzaciei economice sau
financiare. Exemplu, dac nregistrarea se face n contul i se menioneaz contul
corespondent j i invers.
Debitul i creditul sunt cele dou pri ale contului care definesc forma sa bilanier
i cu ajutorul crora se sistematizeaz modificrile de sens contrar, soldul iniial i cel
final.
Partea stng a oricrui cont este denumit debit, iar partea dreapt este denumit
credit.
Sumele trecute n partea stng sunt debitoare, iar cele din partea dreapt
creditoare. A debita un cont nseamn a nregistra o sum n partea stng a contului, iar
a credita un cont nseamn a nregistra o sum n partea dreapt. Acesta este singurul
sens dat n contabilitate verbelor a debita i a credita. Totui, n limbajul comun, aceste
verbe au alt sens. Credit are o conotaie favorabil, iar debit are o conotaie nefavorabil.
n contabilitate, ele nu presupun o judecat a valorii, nseamn pur i simplu dreapta i
stnga. Le abreviem, de regul, cu D i respectiv C.
Termenii de debit i de credit sunt de origine juridic. Astfel, debitul provine de la
noiunea de debitor care n cadrul unui raport patrimonial desemneaz persoana care
primete o valoare i urmeaz s acorde un echivalent valoric. n ceea ce privete creditul
deriv din noiunea de creditor care n cadrul raportului patrimonial indic persoana care
d o valoare i urmeaz s primeasc un echivalent valoric. Deci, orice valoare se mic
ntre un creditor care definete punctul de origine al acesteia i debitor care desemneaz
punctul de destinaie al valorii economice.
PUNCT DE ORIGINE
CREDITOR
Valoare economic n
PUNCT DE DESTINAIE
DEBITOR
129
finale de pasiv, iar creditul, partea dreapt a conturilor n care se nregistreaz existenele
iniiale i creterile de pasiv, micorrile i existenele finale de activ. Este definiia
invariant i complet a termenilor de debit i credit, cu care se opereaz ntr-o form
generalizat n teoria i practica de contabilitate.
Dac structurile de activ i de pasiv sunt interpretate prin prisma categoriilor
bipolare, utilizri i resurse, debitul conturilor nregistreaz creterile de utilizri i
micorrile de resurse, iar creditul micorrile de utilizri i creterile de resurse.
Termenii de debit i credit capt i o semnificaie concret n funcie de natura
elementului sau structurii de patrimoniu crora li s-a asociat contul ca model de eviden
i calcul. De exemplu debitul contului Materii prime evideniaz stocurile iniiale i
intrrile de materii prime, iar creditul ieirile i stocurile finale de materii prime.
Micarea sau rulajul contului reprezint totalul sumelor nregistrate succesiv n
cursul unei perioade de gestiune n debitul sau creditul contului ca urmare a creterilor i
micorrilor determinate de tranzacii (evenimente).
n raport cu cele dou pri ale contului, exist micarea debitoare sau rulajul
debitor i micarea creditoare sau rulajul creditor.
Rulajul debitor reprezint totalitatea nregistrrilor efectuate n debitul unui cont
ntr-o perioad de gestiune. Rulajul creditor reprezint totalitatea nregistrrilor
efectuate n creditul unui cont ntr-o perioad de gestiune. Le abreviem, de regul, cu RD
i respectiv RC.
Exemplu:
D
RD
531 Casa
200
50
75
25
350
RC
C
75
35
25
65
200
Prin nsumarea soldului iniial debitor i a rulajului debitor se obine totalul sumelor
debitoare, iar prin adunarea soldului iniial creditor i a rulajului creditor se stabilete
totalul sumelor creditoare. Dac un cont nu are sold iniial debitor, totalul sumelor
debitoare este egal cu micarea sau rulajul debitor, iar n situaia n care conturile nu au
sold iniial creditor, totalul sumelor creditoare este egal cu micarea sau rulajul creditor.
Soldul contului reprezint mrimea la un moment dat a elementului sau a structurii
de patrimoniu crora li s-a asociat contul ca model de eviden i calcul.
n principiu, soldul se calculeaz ca diferen ntre totalul sumelor debitoare i totalul
sumelor creditoare i invers. Prelund semnul totalului mai mare, soldul poate fi debitor
(abreviat cu SD) dac totalul sumelor debitoare este mai mare dect cel al sumelor
creditoare, sau creditor (abreviat cu SC) n situaia n care totalul sumelor creditoare este
mai mare dect cel al sumelor debitoare. Dac totalul sumelor debitoare ale unui cont este
egal cu totalul sumelor sale creditoare, contul nu are sold, fiind soldat sau balansat.
Sintetic, soldul contului se stabilete pe baza relaiilor:
1) TSD TSC = SD, cnd TSD > TSC;
2) TSC TSD = SC, cnd TSC > TSD;
3) TSD TSC = 0, cnd TSD = TSC.
Soldurile se stabilesc de regul, la sfritul perioadei de gestiune, reprezentnd
solduri finale care la nceputul perioadei urmtoare de gestiune apar ca solduri iniiale.
130
C
200
615
120
300
100
131
Data
Explicaia
2.04
Explicaia
Micri
Debit
Credit
800
-
200
174
-
Sold
800
600
774
615
Micri
Debit
Credit
600
-
159
Sold
759
120
300
639
339
300
100
-
239
539
132
Credit
Sume
800
1.100
1.900
100
2.000
Din contul Materii prime prezentat, rezult c soldul iniial debitor este de 500 lei,
rulajul debitor de 1.500 lei, totalul sumelor debitoare de 2.000 lei, rulajul creditor care
este acelai cu totalul sumelor creditoare de 1.900 lei, iar soldul final debitor de 100 lei i
s-a trecut pentru nchiderea contului pe partea de credit unde s-a adunat cu totalul sumelor
din aceast parte, obinndu-se un total de 2.000 lei, ct este i n debit.
Pe lng aceast form bilateral a contului, cu coloane separate n cele dou pri
ale sale pentru numrul curent, dat, explicaie i sum n activitatea practic mai exist i
alte forme, cum ar fi: forma unilateral, forma ah, forma contului cu duble valori i
altele.
Forma unilateral a contului se caracterizeaz prin aceea c ntr-o parte a sa
exist o singur serie de coloane pentru numrul curent, data i explicaia operaiei
economice sau financiare care se nregistreaz, indiferent dac sunt creteri sau micorri,
iar coloanele de sume debitoare, creditoare i de sold, sunt alturate. Modelul unei astfel
de forme a contului, cu redarea explicaiei contabile, se prezint n tabelul de mai jos:
Contul 301 Materii prime
Nr.
crt.
1
2
3
4
5
Data
Explicaia
3.1.2003
5.1.2003
6.1.2003
7.1.2003
9.1.2003
Sold iniial
Furnizori
Cheltuieli cu materii prime
Furnizori
Cheltuieli cu materiile prime
Sume
Debitoare Creditoare
600
800
900
1.100
Sold
500
1.100
300
1.200
100
133
Prin regulile de funcionare a conturilor se stabilete precis partea de debit sau credit
n care se nregistreaz existentul iniial (soldul), creterile i micorrilor produse de
tranzaciile economice asupra elementelor patrimoniale a crui socoteal o ine contul.
Pentru determinarea regulilor de funcionare a conturilor se pleac de la bilan,
deoarece bilanul constituie mijlocul de nfptuire a principiului dublei reprezentri a
averii ca element al patrimoniului, crend prin aceasta premisele aplicrii principiului
dublei nregistrri a operaiilor economice cu ajutorul conturilor. De asemenea, bilanul
are o strns legtur cu celelalte procedee ale metodei contabilitii, n special cu contul
legtur care se face n ambele sensuri: de la bilan la conturi la nceputul perioadelor
de gestiune i de la conturi la bilan la sfritul perioadelor de gestiune.
Dup cum s-a artat, pentru determinarea mrimii existentului de mijloace i surse, la
un moment dat, este necesar s se cunoasc alturi de modificrile produse de operaiile
economice n componena mijloacelor i a surselor lor n cursul unei perioade i
existentul mijloacelor i a surselor la nceputul perioadei respective.
Existenele iniiale sau soldul iniial se gsesc centralizate n bilan. n acest fel,
posturile de bilan devin conturi n contabilitatea curent. Pentru fiecare post din bilan se
deschide cte un cont, sau mai multe conturi, n funcie de natura postului. n ele se
nregistreaz soldul iniial din bilan i, n continuare, pe baz de documente, toate
tranzaciile economice ce au loc n cursul perioadei respective, stabilindu-se existentul la
finele perioadei. La finele perioadei, soldurile finale ale conturilor sunt generalizate cu
ajutorul bilanului deci servesc la ntocmirea unui nou bilan n vederea oglindirii
situaiei de ansamblu a ntreprinderii. Astfel, ntre cont i bilan exist o strns legtur
din ambele sensuri.
Trecnd la descompunerea bilanului n conturi, vom deschide dou feluri de conturi:
conturi de activ pentru posturile din activul bilanului i conturi de pasiv pentru posturile
din pasivul bilanului. Cele dou grupe de conturi, avnd coninut opus, au i funcie
contrar. Elementele de activ i de pasiv vor apare n conturile respective n aceeai parte
n care acestea figureaz n bilan. Astfel, existentul iniial din stnga bilanului (din activ)
se nscrie n stnga contului (n debit), iar existentul iniial de pasiv se trece n dreapta
contului (n credit), gsindu-se n aceeai parte a bilanului.
Se observ c sumele din activul bilanului au devenit existene sau solduri debitoare,
iar cele din pasiv solduri creditoare. Existnd egalitatea A = P, se menine i egalitatea dintre
suma soldurilor iniiale debitoare a conturilor de activ i suma soldurilor creditoare a
conturilor de pasiv, exprimat n relaia:
S S
id
ic
134
135
136
DEBIT
Conturile de pasiv
CREDIT
3. Se debiteaz cu scderile de activ (-)
1. ncep s funcioneze prin a se
credita
2. Se crediteaz cu:
a) existentul de pasiv (+)
b) sporirile de pasiv (+)
4. Au sold creditor (+) sau 0
Regulile de funcionare a conturilor pot fi ilustrate i astfel:
D
Conturile de activ C
Si(+)
Sfd()
D
Conturile de pasiv C
Si(+)
Sfc()
Deci, funcia conturilor de activ este diametral opus funciei conturilor de pasiv, ca
urmare a coninutului celor dou pri ale bilanului, activul i pasivul, opuse ntre ele, dar
strns legate de conturi, n sensul c toate conturile de activ reflect mijloacele
economice, iar conturile de pasiv reversul lor, adic sursele de provenien ale acestora.
Comparnd bilanul cu contul putem stabili asemnri i deosebiri. Att bilanul, ct
i contul sunt procedee i instrumente de lucru specifice metodei contabilitii. Posturile
de bilan i soldurile finale ale conturilor arat existentul la un moment dat de mijloace,
surse sau procese economice. Ambele cuprind dou pri distincte: activ-pasiv, respectiv
debit-credit.
Activul bilanului reflect totalitatea mijloacelor economice ale unei ntreprinderi, la
un moment dat, rezultate din soldurile debitoare ale conturilor de activ.
Pasivul bilanului oglindete totalitatea surselor de provenien ale mijloacelor
economice, la un moment dat, reflectate n soldurile creditoare ale conturilor de pasiv.
Spre deosebire de activul i pasivul bilanului, debitul unui cont cuprinde existena i
sporirile unui singur mijloc, sau proces economic, sau micorrile unei surse, iar creditul
contului oglindete existena i sporirile unei surse, sau micorrile unui mijloc sau proces
economic.
Bilanul constituie baza de stabilire a regulilor de funcionare a conturilor, iar
soldurile finale ale conturilor sunt generalizate n bilan. n comparaie cu bilanul, care
oglindete situaia mijloacelor, surselor i rezultatelor la un moment dat, contul reflect
existentul la nceputul perioadei, micorarea unui mijloc, surs sau proces economic n
cursul unei perioade, precum i situaia la un moment dat a elementului ce-l reprezint.
Bilanul apare ntotdeauna echilibrat, adic A = P, spre deosebire de cont care
funcioneaz atta timp ct are sold, deci este neechilibrat. Atunci cnd debitul unui cont
137
este egal cu creditul acestuia, contul se soldeaz, adic nu mai ndeplinete nici o
funciune.
Dup modul n care accept regulile de funcionare, conturile se mai mpart n:
conturi monofuncionale i bifuncionale.
Conturile monofuncionale sunt cele care funcioneaz numai dup regula
conturilor de activ sau regula conturilor de pasiv i prezint ntotdeauna la sfritul
perioadei de gestiune un singur fel de sold, fie debitor, fie creditor, fiind deci numai
conturi de activ, sau numai conturi de pasiv.
Conturile bifuncionale sunt acele conturi care opereaz, dup caz, fie cu regula
conturilor de activ, fie de pasiv i pot prezenta, la un moment dat, fie sold debitor, fie sold
creditor. Cu toate acestea, ele nu constituie o a treia grup de conturi, ci n funcie de
soldul pe care-l au la finele perioadei ele au caracterul de conturi de activ, dac au sold
debitor, sau conturi de pasiv dac au soldul final creditor.
5.4. DUBLA NREGISTRARE I
CORESPONDENA CONTURILOR
nregistrarea corect a tranzaciilor economice i financiare n conturi necesit
cunoaterea nu numai a regulilor de funcionare a conturilor, ci i a altor probleme
determinate de trsturile specifice ale metodei contabilitii, aa cum ar fi, spre exemplu,
dubla nregistrare i corespondena conturilor.
Reflectarea tranzaciilor economice i financiare cu ajutorul bilanului contabil s-a fcut
prin codificarea a cel puin dou posturi, fie din aceeai parte a bilanului, fie din ambele pri
ale acestuia, concomitent i cu aceeai sum. Cum posturilor din bilan le corespund n
contabilitatea curent conturile, aceasta nseamn c reflectarea operaiilor respective n
contabilitatea curent se va face cu ajutorul a cel puin dou conturi, fie de activ, fie de pasiv,
fie unul de activ i cellalt de pasiv. Deci, orice tranzacie economic sau financiar,
producnd o dubl modificare n bilan, se va reflecta n contabilitatea curent printr-o dubl
nregistrare n conturi, concomitent i cu aceeai sum.
Rezult c dubla nregistrare const n nregistrarea concomitent
(simultan) i cu aceeai sum a unei tranzacii economice sau financiare n
dou conturi i anume n debitul unui cont i n creditul celuilalt cont.
nregistrarea tuturor tranzaciilor economice i financiare n contabilitatea curent pe
baza dublei nregistrri, determin o legtur strns ntre conturile utilizate de aceasta,
reunindu-le pe toate ntr-un sistem coerent, astfel nct se creeaz posibilitatea reflectrii
integrale i ca un tot unitar a obiectului su de studiu. De asemenea, reflectarea tuturor
tranzaciilor economice i financiare n conturi, pe baza dublei nregistrri, d
posibilitatea verificrii exactitii nregistrrilor efectuate cu ajutorul balanelor de
verificare i pe aceast baz, asigur existena permanent a egalitii bilaniere. Ca
trstur de baz a metodei contabilitii, dubla nregistrare nu se mai ntlnete la nici
una din formele evidenei economice i nici la alte componente ale sistemului
informaional economic, motiv pentru care ea delimiteaz contabilitatea de toate acestea.
138
Legtura reciproc dintre debitul unui cont i creditul altui cont stabilit cu
ocazia nregistrrii tranzaciilor economice i financiare n contabilitatea
curent, pe baza dublei nregistrri, poart denumirea de corespondena
conturilor, iar conturile ntre care se stabilete o astfel de legtur se numesc
conturi corespondente.
Stabilirea corect a conturilor corespondente pentru tranzaciile economice i
financiare, care fac obiectul nregistrrilor n contabilitatea curent, prezint o importan
deosebit, ntruct din corespondena lor se poate deduce coninutul economic al fiecrei
operaii n parte, fr a mai apela la documentele justificative i, totodat, se asigur
ntocmirea unor bilanuri reale. n ara noastr, corespondena conturilor este stabilit n
mod unitar prin instruciunile de aplicare a planurilor de conturi, care i ele, sunt
elaborate n aceeai structur. Conturile corespondente se stabilesc pentru fiecare
tranzacie economic sau financiar n parte i se indic pe documentul justificativ al
operaiei respective.
n raport de modificrile pe care le produc tranzaciile economice i financiare n
bilan, corespondena conturilor se poate stabili fie numai ntre conturi de activ, cnd se
produc modificri numai n activul bilanului, fie numai ntre conturi de pasiv, cnd se
produc modificri numai n pasivul bilanului, fie ntre conturile de activ i cele de pasiv,
atunci cnd tranzacia economic sau financiar produce modificri concomitente i cu
aceeai sum n ambele pri ale bilanului.
Pentru a demonstra dubla nregistrare i corespondena conturilor se iau spre
exemplificare operaii economice care au ca efect toate cele patru tipuri de modificri
bilaniere, pornind de la situaia iniial din bilanul utilizat la explicarea regulilor de
funcionare a conturilor.
a. Exemplu de operaie economic ce provoac modificri numai n activul
bilanului: se ridic de la banc suma de 50 lei, necesar pentru efectuarea unor pli n
numerar.
Aceast tranzacie determin o cretere de activ la elementul Casa, reprezentnd
creterea numerarului din casieria unitii, care se nregistreaz, potrivit regulilor de
funcionare a conturilor, n debitul contului respectiv i concomitent, o micorare de activ
la elementul Conturi curente la bnci, care reprezint scderea disponibilitilor bneti
ale unitii patrimoniale, care se va oglindi, potrivit regulilor de funcionare a conturilor,
n creditul contului cu aceeai denumire, astfel:
DEBIT Casa
Sold iniial 50
Conturi curente
la bnci
50
CREDIT
DEBIT
139
CREDIT
Sold
iniial
200
Rezult c, n urma nregistrrii de mai sus, s-a stabilit coresponden ntre debitul
contului Furnizori i creditul contului Credite bancare pe termen scurt deci i n
acest caz exist o dubl nregistrare.
c. Exemplu de tranzacie economic care provoac modificri n ambele pri ale
bilanului, n sensul creterii: unitatea patrimonial a achiziionat un teren al crui pre de
achiziie este de 200 lei.
Aceast tranzacie determin o cretere de activ, la elementul Terenuri,
reprezentnd creterea contravalorii terenurilor aparinnd unitii patrimoniale, care se
va nregistra, potrivit regulilor de funcionare a conturilor, n debitul contului cu aceeai
nume i, totodat, o cretere de pasiv la elementul Furnizori de imobilizri,
reprezentnd creterea datoriilor comerciale ale unitii patrimoniale fa de acetia, care
se va reflecta, potrivit regulilor de funcionare a conturilor, n creditul contului
corespondent respectiv, astfel:
DEBIT Terenuri
Sold
iniial
1.200
Furnizori
imobilizri 200
140
CREDIT
DEBIT
Furnizori de
imobilizri
Sold iniial
Terenuri
CREDIT
500
200
Dup cum se observ, n aceast nregistrare s-a stabilit corespondena ntre debitul
contului Terenuri i creditul contului Furnizori de imobilizri, n care s-a nregistrat
aceeai sum, adic s-a efectuat o dubl nregistrare.
d. Exemplu de tranzacie economic ce provoac modificri n ambele pri ale
bilanului, n sensul scderii: se scoate din activ (se caseaz) un utilaj complet amortizat a
crui valoare de intrare este de 500 lei.
Tranzacia de scoatere din activ a unui utilaj determin o micorare de activ la
elementul Utilaje, reprezentnd micorarea valorii de intrare a utilajelor existente n
unitatea patrimonial, care se va reflecta n creditul contului respectiv, i, concomitent, o
scdere de pasiv la elementul Amortizri privind imobilizrile corporale, reprezentnd
scderea amortizrii imobilizrilor corporale ale unitii patrimoniale respective, care se
va nregistra, conform, regulilor de funcionare a conturilor, n debitul contului
corespondent cu aceeai. denumire, astfel:
DEBIT Utilaje
Sold
iniial 3.000
CREDIT
Amortizarea
imobilizrilor
corporale 500
i n acest caz s-a produs o dubl nregistrare, ntruct potrivit coninutului economic
al tranzaciei de mai sus s-a stabilit corespondena, ntre creditul contului Utilaje i
debitul contului Amortizri privind imobilizrile corporale fiind o nregistrare a
aceleiai sume de dou ori.
Pe baza acestor exemple se poate trage concluzia c orice tranzacie
economic sau financiar se reflect n contabilitatea curent, concomitent
i cu aceeai sum, n cel puin dou conturi corespondente i anume n
debitul unui cont i n creditul altui cont, adic se oglindete ntotdeauna pe
baza dublei nregistrri.
5.5. ANALIZA CONTABIL A OPERAIILOR ECONOMICE I
REFLECTAREA LOR N CONTABILITATE. FORMULA I ARTICOLUL
CONTABIL
n sens general, analiza reprezint o metod tiinific de cercetare a unui ntreg, a unui
fenomen, bazat pe descompunerea i examinarea fiecrui element component. Analiza este
folosit de toate tiinele, inclusiv de cele economice, pentru studierea fenomenelor ce intr
n obiectul lor de studiu.
nregistrarea corect a fiecrei tranzacii economice presupune determinarea n
prealabil, cu exactitate, a conturilor n care urmeaz a se nregistra tranzacia respectiv, a
poziiei lor n cadrul corespondenei conturilor, indicndu-se contul care se va debita i
cel care se va credita.
141
142
+ x
1.000
Acionari
1.000
Capital
143
C
1.000
Cont
creditor
Suma
144
401 Furnizori
1.300
500
800
D 401 Furnizori
C
500
800
371 Mrfuri
800
200
600
800
Sau
%
Creditori diveri
Credite bancare pe termen scurt
800
200
600
2. Un cont se debiteaz i dou sau mai multe conturi se crediteaz. Modelul este de
forma:
Cont
debitor
%
Conturi
creditoare
Suma
145
Furnizori
%
Conturi curente la bnci
Casa
100
70
30
%
Conturi curente la bnci
Casa
100
70
30
146
531 Casa
700
400
C
700
Stornarea.
nregistrrile contabile nu pot fi corectate prin tergerea sau tierea sumelor
nregistrate n conturi i nscrierea sumelor corecte. Un mod specific contabilitii de
corectare a erorilor intervenite la nregistrarea tranzaciilor n conturi este reprezentat de
operaiile de stornare. Astfel, formulele contabile de stornare (de corectare) pot fi:
1. formule contabile de stornare n negru,
2. formule contabile de stornare n rou.
1. Formalele contabile de stornare n negru constau n anularea nregistrrii
efectuate anterior greit, prin inversarea conturilor corespondente din formula contabil
respectiv i apoi ntocmirea i nregistrarea formulei contabile corecte.
Tranzacia 5. ntreprinderea se aprovizioneaz cu mrfuri n sum de 400 lei,
conform facturii furnizorului.
Analiza: Tranzacia determin creterea valorii stocului de mrfuri i, n acelai timp,
creterea obligaiilor fa de furnizor. Presupunem c la stabilirea formulei contabile
pentru nregistrarea tranzaciei 5 privind aprovizionarea cu mrfuri s-a utilizat contul 345
Produse finite, n locul contului 371 Mrfuri. Formula contabil nregistrat n mod
eronat:
aprovizionarea cu produse finite
345 Produse finite, A + D
401 Furnizori, P + C
345 Produse finite = 401 Furnizori 400 lei
Cum procedm pentru a anula formula contabil nregistrat eronat prin stornarea n
negru?
a) Mai nti se inverseaz conturile corespondente din formula contabil de mai sus.
401 Furnizor = 345 Produse finite 400 lei
Remarc: Prin nregistrarea formulei contabile de la pct. a) formula contabil de la
tranzacia 5 nregistrat anterior eronat se anuleaz.
b) formula contabil corect.
aprovizionarea de mrfuri
147
371 Mrfuri A + D
401 Furnizori P + C
371 Mrfuri = 401 Furnizori 400 lei
2. Formulele contabile de stornare n rou constau n anularea unei formule
contabile efectuate anterior greit prin ntocmirea i nregistrarea unei noi formule
contabile similar cu cea eronat, ns cu sumele nscrise n rou (sau n negru, dar
ncadrat n chenar). nscrierea unei sume n rou are semnificaia n contabilitate a unor
valori cu semnul -, avnd ca efect anularea sumei nscris anterior n mod eronat.
Se va lua acelai exemplu, tranzacia 5, de la stornarea n negru, cnd mrfurile
aprovizionate de la furnizor au fost eronat nregistrate ca produse finite prin formula
contabil:
345 Produse finite = 401 Furnizori 400 lei
Pentru corectarea erorii se procedeaz astfel:
a) Se ntocmete aceeai formul contabil, dar cu suma ncadrat n chenar
(nregistrare n rou).
345 Produse finite = 401 Furnizori 400 lei
Remarc: Prin nregistrarea formulei contabile de la pct. a) formula contabil de la
tranzacia 5, nregistrat anterior eronat, se anuleaz.
Se nregistreaz formula contabil corect:
aprovizionarea cu mrfuri
371 Mrfuri, A + D
401 Furnizori, P + C
371 Mrfuri = 401 Furnizori 400
Remarc. De menionat c, n ambele cazuri de stornare, negru sau rou, se ajunge la
acelai sold final n conturi, atingndu-se scopul propus de corectare a nregistrrilor
contabile eronate.
Stornarea n negru are dezavantajul fa de stornarea n rou c duce la: (1)
denaturarea rulajelor conturilor utilizate, pe care le mrete artificial cu sume care n
realitate nu corespund unor tranzacii, ci unor operaii de corectare; (2) stabilirea, n anumite
cazuri, a unor, corespondene ireale n conturi.
Observm la contul 345 Produse finite un rulaj debitor ce corespunde, de regul,
unor intrri de produse finite i rulaj creditor care exprim, n general, ieiri de produse
finite. Tranzacia 5, n realitate, nu are nici o intrare de produse finite i nici operaia nu a
determinat o ieire de produse finite. La contul 401 Furnizori, tranzacia 5 determin o
cretere a datoriilor fa de furnizor ca urmare a aprovizionrii de mrfuri, fr nici o
achitare a datoriei (operaia a), care s conduc la rulaje debitoare Pentru aceste motive
recomandm utilizarea stornrii n rou.
148
149
150
Data
1.I.
5.I.
10.I.
Explicaii
Sold iniial
Ieiri
Intrri
TOTAL
Sume
Debitoare Creditoare
300
110
60
360
110
Sold
300
190
250
250
Stoc
90
60
70
70
Debit
180
20
200
Valori
Credit
60
60
Sold
180
120
140
140
Valori
Credit
50
50
Sold
120
70
110
110
Debit
120
40
160
so
i 1
So ;
151
2) suma rulajelor debitoare ale conturilor analitice ale unui cont sintetic, n cazul de
fa Materii prime, trebuie s fie egal cu rulajul debitor al contului sintetic n
n
rd
i 1
Rd ;
3) suma rulajelor creditoare ale conturilor analitice ale unui cont sintetic, n exemplul
de fa Materii prime; trebuie s fie egal cu rulajul debitor al contului sintetic
n
rc
i 1
Rc ;
4) suma soldurilor finale ale conturilor analitice ale unui cont sintetic, n exemplul
dat Materii prime, trebuie s fie egal i de acelai sens (debitoare) cu soldul
final al contului sintetic de care aparin (140 lei + 110 lei = 250 lei),
n
adic
sf
i 1
Sf .
152
Grupa
2
3
A. Dup criteriul coninutului economic financiar
1. Conturi 1.1.
1.1.1.
201 Cheltuieli de constituire
de bilan
Conturi de Conturi de 203 Cheltuieli de dezvoltare
active
imobilizri 205 Concesiuni, brevete i valori
imobilizate necorp.
asimilate
207 Fond comercial
1.1.2.
211 Terenuri i amenajri terenuri
Conturi de 212 Construcii
imobilizri 213 Instalaii tehnice, mijloace de
corporale
transport, animale i plantaii
214 Mobilier, aparatur birotic,
echipamente de protecie a
valorilor umane i materiale i alte
active corporale
Funcia
contabil
4
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
153
1.2. Conturi
de active
1.3. Conturi
de capitaluri
proprii
1.4. Conturi
de provizioane
pentru riscuri
i cheltuieli
1.5. Conturi
de datorii
154
2
1.1.3.
Conturi de
imobilizri
financiare
3
261 Titluri de participare deinute la filiale din
cadrul grupului
262 Titluri de participare deinute la societi
din afara grupului
263 Imobilizri financiare sub form de
interese de participare
264 Titluri puse n echivalen
265 Alte titluri imobilizante
267 Creane imobilizate
1.2.1.
301 Materii prime
Conturi de 302 Materiale consumabile
stocuri
331 Produse n curs de execuie
345 Produse finite
371 Mrfuri
1.2.2.
411 Clieni
Conturi de 413 Efecte de primit de la clieni
creane
445 Subvenii
456 Decontri cu asociaii privind capitalul
461 Debitori diveri
1.2.3.
503 Aciuni
Conturi de 506 Obligaiuni
plasament i 511 Valori de ncasat
disponibilit 512 Conturi curente la bnci
i bneti
531 Casa
541 Acreditive
101 Capital social
104 Prime legate de capital
105 Rezerve din reevaluare
106 Rezerve
117 Rezultatul reportat
121 Rezultatul exerciiului
131 Subvenii pentru investiii
151 Provizioane pentru riscuri i cheltuieli
4
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
P
P
P
B
B
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
1
1.6. Conturi
de
regularizare
2
-
2.
2.1. Conturi
Conturi de cheltuieli
de
rezultate
(procese)
2.2. Conturi
de venituri
2.1.1.
Conturi de
cheltuieli de
exploatare
2.1.2.
Conturi de
cheltuieli
financiare
2.1.3.
Conturi de
cheltuieli
extraordinar
e
2.2.1.
Conturi de
venituri din
exploatare
3
471 Cheltuieli nregistrate n avans
472 Venituri nregistrate n avans
169
Prime
privind
rambursarea
obligaiunilor
280 Amortizri privind imobilizrile
necorporale
281 Amortizri privind imobilizrile
corporale
296 Provizioane pentru deprecierea
imobilizrilor financiare
391 Provizioane pentru deprecierea
materiilor prime
393 Provizioane pentru deprecierea
produciei n curs de execuie
394 Provizioane pentru deprecierea
produselor
397 Provizioane pentru deprecierea
mrfurilor
491 Provizioane pentru deprecierea
creanelor-clieni
496 Provizioane pentru deprecierea
creanelor-debitori diveri
590 Provizioane pentru deprecierea
titlurilor de plasament
601 Cheltuieli cu materiile prime
607 Cheltuieli privind mrfurile
611 Cheltuieli cu ntreinerea i
reparaiile
641
Cheltuieli
cu
remuneraiile
personalului
658 Alte cheltuieli de exploatare
681 Cheltuieli de exploatare privind
amortizrile l provizioanele
666 Cheltuieli privind dobnzile
667 Cheltuieli privind sconturile acordate
686
Cheltuieli
financiare
privind
amortizrile i provizioanele
671 Cheltuieli privind calamitile i alte
evenimente extraordinare
4
A
P
A
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
P
P
155
4. Conturi
de gestiune
(interne)
2
2.2.2.
Conturi de
venituri
financiare
2.2.3.
Conturi de
venituri
extraordinar
e
-
3.2. Conturi
de eviden
4.1. Conturi
de decontri
interne
4.3. Conturi
privind
producia
obinut
1. Conturi de
activ
2. Conturi de
pasiv
3. Conturi de
activ, pasiv
sau bifuncionale
156
3
766 Venituri din dobnzi
4
P
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
0
1
2
3
1.
C. Dup criteriul sferei de cuprindere
Conturi
Conturile menionate mai sus
sintetic
e
2.
2.1. Conturi
Conturi analitice
analitic valorice
e
2.2. Conturi
analitice
cantitativ
valorice
157
158
* Fondatorii I.A.S.C. au fost organizaiile contabile din Australia, Canada, Frana, Germania,
Japonia, Mexic, rile de Jos, Regatul Unit i Irlanda, Statele Unite ale Americii. n prezent,
organizaii profesionale din peste 50 de ri sunt membre ale I.A.S.C. Activitile profesionale
internaionale ale organizaiilor contabile sunt organizate de ctre Federaia Internaional a
Contabililor I.F.A.C. creat n anul 1977, care recunoate autonomia I.A.S.C. n stabilirea de
norme contabile internaionale i publicarea tuturor documentelor cu privire la probleme contabile
internaionale.
159
160
Pe cele dou circuite ale contabilitii dualiste, clasele de conturi se distribuie dup
cum urmeaz:
Circuitul contabilitii financiare
161
106
CAPITAL I REZERVE
Capital social
1011 Capital subscris i nevrsat
1012 Capital subscris vrsat
Rezerve
117
REZULTATUL REPORTAT
Rezultat reportat
GRUPA 10
101
GRUPA 11
(P)
(P)
(P)
REZULTATUL EXERCIIULUI
GRUPA 12
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
250
231
IMOBILIZRI N CURS
Imobilizri n curs necorporale
Imobilizri n curs corporale
(A)
(A)
261
262
263
264
265
267
IMOBILIZRI FINANCIARE
Titluri de participare deine la filiale din cadrul grupului
Titluri de participare deinute la societi din afara grupului
Imobilizri financiare sub form de interese de participare
Titluri puse n echivalen
Alte titluri imobilizate
Creane imobilizate
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
GRUPA 23
GRUPA 26
281
290
291
296
GRUPA 28
280
GRUPA 29
162
IMOBILIZRI NECORPORALE
Cheltuieli de constituire
Cheltuieli de dezvoltare
Concesiuni, brevete i alte drepturi i valori asimilate
Fond comercial
Alte imobilizri necorporale
IMOBILIZRI CORPORALE
Terenuri i amenajri de terenuri
Construcii
Instalaii tehnice, mijloace de transport, animale i plantaii
Mobilier, aparatur birotic, echipamente de protecie a valorilor
umane i materiale i alte active corporale
(P)
(P)
(P)
(P)
(P)
GRUPA 34
341
345
346
348
GRUPA 36
GRUPA 37
PRODUSE
Semifabricate
Produse finite
Produse reziduale
Diferene de pre la produse
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
ANIMALE
361 Animale i psri
368 Diferene de pre la animale i psri
(A)
(A)
MRFURI
371 Mrfuri
378 Diferene de pre la mrfuri
(A)
(A)
163
GRUPA 42
421
423
424
425
427
428
(P)
(P)
(A)
(P)
(P)
(P)
(A)
(P)
(B)
GRUPA 43
GRUPA 44
441
442
444
446
GRUPA 45
GRUPA 46
GRUPA 49
164
GRUP I ASOCIAI
451 Decontri n cadrul grupului
456 Decontri cu asociaii privind capitalul
457 Dividende de plat
DEBITORI I CREDITORI DIVERI
461 Debitori diveri
462 Creditori diveri
PROVIZIOANE PENTRU DEPRECIEREA CREANELOR
(P)
(B)
(P)
(P)
(B)
(A)
(P)
(A)
(P)
GRUPA 51
GRUPA 53
GRUPA 54
GRUPA 59
TITLURI DE PLASAMENT
502 Aciuni proprii
505 Obligaiuni emise i rscumprate
509 Vrsminte de efectuat pentru
financiare pe termen scurt
investiii
CONTURI LA BNCI
512 Conturi curente la bnci
5121 Conturi la bnci n lei
5124 Conturi la bnci n devize
5125 Sume n curs de decontare
519 Credite bancare pe termen scurt
5191 Credite bancare pe termen scurt
5198 Dobnzi aferente creditelor bancare pe
termen scurt
(A)
(A)
(P)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(P)
(P)
CASA
531 Casa
5311 Casa n lei
5314 Casa n devize
532 Alte valori
(A)
(A)
(A)
ACREDITIVE
541 Acreditive
(A)
(P)
(P)
165
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
CHELTUIELI CU LUCRRILE I
SERVICIILE EXECUTATE DE TERI
611 Cheltuieli cu ntreinerea i reparaiile
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
GRUPA 61
GRUPA 62
GRUPA 63
GRUPA 64
GRUPA 68
GRUPA 69
166
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(P)
(P)
(P)
(P)
(P)
(P)
(P)
(P)
VARIAIA STOCURILOR
711 Variaia stocurilor
GRUPA 72
721
722
GRUPA 78
781
786
(P)
(P)
(P)
(P)
GRUPA 89
BILAN
891 Bilan de deschidere
892 Bilan de nchidere
167
GRUPA 92
DECONTRI INTERNE
901 Decontri interne privind cheltuielile
902 Decontri interne privind producia obinut
903 Decontri interne privind diferenele de pre
CONTURI DE CALCULAIE
Cheltuielile activitii de baz
Cheltuielile activitii auxiliare
Cheltuieli comune ale seciei
Cheltuieli generale ale unitii
Cheltuieli de desfacere
COSTUL PRODUCIEI
931 Costul produciei obinute
933 Costul produciei n curs de execuie
921
922
923
924
925
GRUPA 93
531 Casa
Credit
Sold iniial
ncasarea
unei
sume de la un
client
98
300
11.05
ncasarea
unei
sume din vnzare
de mrfuri
Rulaj debitor
Total sume debitoare
700
16.05
3.05
7.05
168
Plata
unui
furnizor
28,1
Plata
unor
aparate
de
birotic
Rulaj creditor
Total sume creditoare
160
Descriere
A. nregistrarea simultan i cu aceeai sum a unei
operaii n debitul unui cont i n creditul alui cont.
B. Cercetarea operaiilor prin descompunerea lor n
elemente componente.
C. Prezint situaia la un moment dat a unui element
patrimonial.
D. Forma de prezentare grafic a raportului de
echivalen dintre conturile corespondente.
E. Arat modificrile elementelor patrimoniale.
F. Procedeu al metodei contabilitii prin care se
ntregistreaz sistematic, cronologic i n expresie
valoric elementele patrimoniale.
G. Numele celor dou pri opuse ale contului.
169
CAPITOLUL 6
DOCUMENTELE CONTABILE
6.1. NOIUNEA I IMPORTANA DOCUMENTELOR CONTABILE
Contabilitatea se caracterizeaz prin fundamentarea i justificarea tuturor datelor ei
pe baz de acte scrise prin care se consemneaz tranzaciile economice n momentul
efecturii lor. Dup consemnarea n acte, tranzaciile economice sunt nregistrate n
conturi, pe baza actelor scrise. Nici o tranzacie economic nu se poate nregistra n
contabilitate fr un act scris n care s fie consemnat operaia economic respectiv.
Documentele se ntocmesc att pentru tranzaciile economice care produc modificri ale
mijloacelor economice dintr-o unitate, ct i pentru a dovedi, la o anumit dat, existena
mijloacelor, surselor i a proceselor economice, angajarea i prezena la lucru a
personalului, volumul de munc depus i lucrrile efectuate n vederea salarizrii lui. Ele
servesc la stabilirea relaiilor dintre ntreprinderi sau dintre ntreprindere i angajaii ei
etc.
n funcie de coninutul i destinaia lor, documentele pot avea un RON diferit n
cadrul unitilor. Astfel, documentele n care sunt consemnate tranzacii economice i
financiare servesc ca baz pentru efectuarea nregistrrilor n contabilitate; alte
documente nu sunt legate direct de nregistrrile contabile, ele servesc prin datele lor la
ntocmirea unor documente care se nregistreaz n contabilitate (documente cumulative),
iar altele nu au nici o legtur cu nregistrrile contabile, fiind utilizate pentru necesiti
organizatorice-administrative. Dintre acestea, numai documentele care servesc direct sau
indirect pentru nregistrrile contabile constituie documente de eviden.
Documentele de eviden reprezint stadiul primar de oglindire a tranzaciilor
economice. De aceea, totalitatea documentelor folosite pentru consemnarea operaiilor
economice, n momentul producerii lor, sunt denumite i documente primare; ele sunt
denumite i documente de eviden primar, sau eviden primar. n realitate nu exist o
aa-zis eviden primar, ci numai documente primare a cror totalitate constituie
documentaia primar.
Documentele primare nu se pot confunda cu evidena tehnic-operativ, deoarece
aceasta nu se identific cu fiecare document n parte sau cu un grup de documente, ci
caracterul de eviden este dobndit dup un nceput de organizare i prelucrare a
documentelor primare. De exemplu, evidena operativ a executrii contractelor se
realizeaz pe baz de facturi fiscale, avize de expediie etc.
Prin intermediul documentelor, contabilitatea cuprinde ntreaga activitate a
ntreprinderilor, i anume: existena, micarea i modificarea mijloacelor economice i a
surselor lor, ntregul circuit economic, rezultatele finale ale activitii desfurate. Ele
leag organic toate formele evidenei economice constituind una din sursele de date.
Prezint importan pentru verificarea gestiunilor, deoarece cu ajutorul lor se stabilete
rspunderea persoanelor crora li se ncredineaz spre pstrare i folosire mijloacele
economice, justificndu-se existena i micarea acestora. Servesc ca baz pentru
efectuarea reviziilor, adic a constatrii lipsurilor, a cheltuielilor ilegale, a folosirii
neeconomicoase a mijloacelor economice, a respectrii disciplinei financiare i de
decontare. Prin intermediul lor se furnizeaz organelor de conducere informaii n vederea
conducerii operative a proceselor de producie, aprovizionrii tehnico-materiale i
170
171
172
173
174
poart rspunderea ntocmirii lor, data ntocmirii i termenul stabilit pentru predarea
documentelor, numrul de exemplare i destinaia acestora, precum i alte elemente care
se apreciaz ca necesare.
n cazul n care prelucrarea documentelor justificative se face de ctre unitile
prestatoare de servicii de informatic, n relaiile dintre aceste uniti i cele beneficiare
este necesar ca, pentru asigurarea nregistrrilor n contabilitate, s se respecte
urmtoarele reguli minimale:
documentele justificative s fie ntocmite corect i la timp de ctre unitile
beneficiare, care rspund de realitatea datelor nscrise n acestea;
documentele contabile, ntocmite de unitile de informatic pe baza documentelor
justificative trebuie predate unitilor beneficiare la termenele stabilite prin contractele
sau conveniile ncheiate, unitile de informatic rspunznd de corectitudinea prelucrrii
datelor;
unitile beneficiare trebuie s efectueze verificarea documentelor contabile obinute de
la unitile de informatic n sensul cuprinderii tuturor documentelor justificative i pentru
prelucrarea i nregistrarea datelor n contabilitate, registrele contabile i formularele comune
pe economie privind activitatea financiar i contabil pot fi adaptate n funcie de specificul
i necesitile persoanelor prevzute la art. 1 din Legea contabilitii nr. 82/1991, republicat,
cu condiia respectrii coninutului de informaii i a normelor de ntocmire i utilizare a
acestora.
Registrele contabile, altele dect cele obligatorii prevzute de art. 19 din Legea
contabilitii nr. 82/1991, republicat, editate cu ajutorul tehnicii de calcul, vor fi
numerotate, nuruite, parafate i nregistrate n evidena unitii.
Nentocmirea, ntocmirea eronat i/sau neutilizarea documentelor justificative i
financiar-contabile n conformitate cu normele metodologice se sancioneaz potrivit
dispoziiilor legale.
Lipsa documentelor care s ateste natura i proveniena bunurilor, att pe timpul
transportului, ct i la locurile de depozitare i vnzare, n momentul contRONului
efectuat de organele abilitate se sancioneaz potrivit legislaiei n vigoare cu amend i
confiscarea bunurilor respective, acestea fiind considerate bunuri fr documente
justificative de provenien.
6.2.2. Registrele contabile
Documentele de eviden contabil, denumite n activitatea practic registre de
contabilitate, au n general caracter obligatoriu pentru toate unitile patrimoniale i
asigur nregistrarea cronologic i sistematic a operaiilor consemnate n documentele
justificative. Ele se prezint sub forma unor registre sau foi volante i listri informatice
legate sub form de registru, cu coninut i forme adecvate scopului pentru care au fost
elaborate. Consemnrile n registre constituie fiierul de date pentru evidena contabil
curent, iar fiecare registru furnizeaz informaiile necesare pentru unul sau mai multe
elemente patrimoniale.
Registrele de contabilitate se utilizeaz n strict concordan cu destinaia acestora i
se prezint n mod ordonat i astfel completate nct s permit, n orice moment,
identificarea i contRONul operaiunilor contabile efectuate.
Registrele contabile, n funcie de destinaia sau scopul n care se folosesc, se pot
delimita n registre pentru evidena cronologic, registre pentru evidena sistematic
i registre combinate.
175
176
De reportat:
ntocmit,
Verificat,
14-1-1-A4
177
Verificat,
14-1-2-A4
178
179
**
180
imobilizri corporale;
active necorporale;
active financiare;
investiii financiare prin metoda punerii n echivalen;
creane privind impozitul amnat;
stocuri;
creane comerciale i de natur similar;
numerar i echivalente de numerar;
datorii comerciale i de natur similar;
datorii privind impozitul amnat;
provizioane;
datorii pe termen lung purttoare de dobnd;
interesul minoritar;
capital emis i rezerve.
IAS 1 nu prescrie ordinea sau formatul de prezentare al elementelor din bilan, cu
condiia ca elementele mai sus amintite s fie raportate.
Conform Ordinului ministrului finanelor publice nr. 1.752/2005 pentru aprobarea
Reglementrilor contabile armonizate cu Directiva a IV-a a Comunitii Economice
Europene i cu Standardele Internaionale de Contabilitate (la care vom face referire i n
continuare prin abreviaia OMF 1.752/2005), ntreprinderile din ara noastr cuprinse n
programul de armonizare contabil vor trebui s-i construiasc bilanul dup urmtorul
format (vertical).
BILAN ncheiat la data de 31 decembrie.....
A. ACTIVE IMOBILIZATE
I. IMOBILIZRI NECORPORALE
1. Cheltuieli de constituire
2. Cheltuieli de dezvoltare
3. Concesiuni, brevete, licene, mrci, drepturi i valori similare i alte imobiliare
necorporale
4. Fondul comercial
5. Avansuri i imobilizri necorporale n curs de execuie
II. IMOBILIZRI CORPORALE
1. Terenuri i construcii
2. Instalaii tehnice i maini
3. Alte instalaii, utilaje i mobilier
4. Avansuri i imobilizri corporale n curs de execuie
III. IMOBILIZRI FINANCIARE
1. Titluri de participare deinute la societile din cadrul grupului
2. Creane asupra societilor din cadrul grupului
3. Titluri sub form de interese de participare
4. Creane din interese de participare
5. Titluri deinute ca imobilizri
6. Alte creane.
7. Aciuni proprii
181
B. ACTIVE CIRCULANTE
I. STOCURI
1. Materii prime i materiale consumabile.
2. Producie n curs de execuie
3. Produse finite i mrfuri.
4. Avansuri pentru cumprri de stocuri
II. CREANE
1. Creane comerciale
2. Sume de ncasat de la societile din cadrul grupului
3. Sume de ncasat de la societile la care sunt deinute interese de participare
4. Alte creane
5. Creane privind capitalul subscris i nevrsat.
III. INVESTIII FINANCIARE PE TERMEN SCURT
1. Titluri de participare deinute la societile din cadrul grupului
2. Aciuni proprii
3. Alte investiii financiare pe termen scurt.
IV. CASA I CONTURI LA BNCI
C. CHELTUIELI N AVANS
D. DATORII CURENTE
l. mprumuturi din emisiuni de obligaiuni (separat cele n moned convertibil)
2. Sume datorate instituiilor de credit
3. Avansuri ncasate n contul comenzilor
4. Datorii comerciale
5. Efecte de comer de plat
6. Sume datorate societilor din cadrul grupului
7. Sume datorate privind interesele de participare
8. Alte datorii, inclusiv datorii fiscale i datorii pentru asigurrile sociale
E. ACTIVE / DATORII CIRCULANTE NETE
F. TOTAL ACTIVE MINUS DATORII CURENTE
G. DATORII PE TERMEN LUNG
1. mprumuturi din emisiuni de obligaiuni (separat cele n moned convertibil)
2. Sume datorate instituiilor de credit
3. Avansuri ncasate n contul comenzilor
4. Datorii comerciale
5. Efecte de comer de plat
6. Sume datorate societilor din cadrul grupului
7. Sume datorate privind interesele de participare
8. Alte datorii, inclusiv datorii fiscale i datorii pentru asigurrile sociale
H. PROVIZIOANE PENTRU RISCURI I CHELTUIELI
1. Provizioane pentru pensii i alte obligaii similare
2. Alte provizioane
I. VENITURI N AVANS
J. CAPITAL I REZERVE
182
I. CAPITAL SUBSCRIS
II. PRIME DE CAPITAL
III. REZERVE DIN REEVALUARE
IV. REZERVE
1. Rezerve legale
2. Rezerve pentru aciuni proprii
3. Rezerve statutare sau contractuale
4. Alte rezerve
V. REZULTAT REPORTAT
VI. REZULTATUL EXERCIIULUI FINANCIAR
B. Contul de profit i pierdere imaginea performanelor
ntreprinderii
Performanele (capacitatea de a genera profit) ntreprinderilor reprezint, o alt
dimensiune a interesului utilizatorilor de informaii financiare, reflectat n contul de
profit i pierdere. Performana sau nonperformana ntreprinderii reflect capacitatea de
a genera fluxuri viitoare de numerar (venituri realizate), prin utilizarea resurselor
existente (cheltuieli ale perioadei), precum i gradul de eficien n utilizarea de noi
resurse (profit sau pierdere).
Principiul prevalenei economicului asupra juridicului i face simit prezena i n
ceea ce privete recunoaterea cheltuielilor i veniturilor perioadei, evideniind preferina
pentru criteriul substan economic, care devanseaz ca importan ncadrarea
juridic.
Astfel, chiar dac nu exist documente recunoscute fiscal, un venit, respectiv o
cheltuial vor fi recunoscute dac au fost realizate n respectiva perioad de raportare i
au generat creteri, respectiv descreteri ale beneficiilor economice viitoare i au fost
rezonabil estimate. Sigur c intervin i efectele cumulate ale contabilitii de
angajamente, principiului conectrii cheltuielilor cu veniturile perioadei i
principiului independenei exerciiului.
n ceea ce privete clasificarea veniturilor i cheltuielilor n contul de profit i
pierdere, nici Cadrul general i nici IFRS 1 nu prevd un format prestabilit.
Anexa la IFRS 1 ilustreaz exemple cu privire la structurarea pe vertical, dup
natur i dup destinaie (funciune) a contului de profit i pierdere, fr s impun
aceste formate de prezentare. Facem precizarea c distincia ntre cele dou criterii de
clasificare se realizeaz numai la nivelul rezultatului din exploatare, structurarea
veniturilor i cheltuielilor financiare i a celor extraordinare fiind identic. Prin urmare,
prezentarea dup natur clasific cheltuielile dup natura economic (amortizare,
consum de materii prime, salarii etc.), fr s le aloce pe funciuni ale ntreprinderii, pe
cnd varianta dup destinaie clasific cheltuielile n funcie de locul / activitatea de
provenien (costul vnzrilor, cheltuieli de distribuie, cheltuieli de administraie
general).
De asemenea, paragraful 75 din IFRS 1 precizeaz categoriile generale de venituri,
cheltuieli i rezultate care trebuie neaprat prezentate:
183
veniturile;
rezultatele activitii de exploatare;
costurile de finanare;
partea din profit/pierdere aferent ntreprinderilor asociate i n participaie
(metoda punerii n echivalen);
cheltuielile cu impozitul pe profit;
profitul/pierderea din activiti curente;
elementele extraordinare;
interesul minoritar;
profitul net sau pierderea net a perioadei.
Directiva a IV-a are reglementri ceva mat stricte, n acest sens, lsnd ns
posibilitatea de opiune asupra celor 4 tipuri de formate prestabilite pentru contul de profit
i pierdere (formatele cont/tabel i list, respectiv dup natur i dup destinaie).
Conform OMF 1.752/2005 coninutul formularului de prezentare a contului de profit
i pierdere pentru ntreprinderile din ara noastr cuprinse n programul de armonizare, se
prezint astfel:
CONTUL DE PROFIT I PIERDERE
la data de 31 decembrie.....
1. Cifra de afaceri net
Producia vndut
Venituri din vnzarea mrfurilor
Venituri din subvenii de exploatare aferente cifrei de afaceri nete
2. Variaia stocurilor de produse finite, produse reziduale, semifabricate i
producie n curs de execuie
3. Producia imobilizat
4. Alte venituri din exploatare
VENITURI DIN EXPLOATARE TOTAL
5. a) Cheltuieli cu materiile prime i materialele consumabile
Alte cheltuieli materiale
b) Alte cheltuieli din afar
Cheltuieli privind mrfurile
6. Cheltuieli cu personalul
a) salarii
b) cheltuieli cu asigurrile i protecia social, cu menionarea separat a
celor referitoare la pensii,
7. a) Ajustarea valorii imobilizrilor corporale i necorporale
a.1.) cheltuieli
a 2.) venituri
b) Ajustarea valorii activelor circulante
b.1.) cheltuieli
b.2.) venituri
8. Alte cheltuieli din exploatare
8.1. Cheltuieli cu prestaiile externe
8.2. Cheltuieli cu alte impozite, taxe i vrsminte asimilate
184
185
186
Total
Creteri
Reduceri
Prin transfer Total
Prin
transfer
Sold
la
31 dec.
187
188
189
190
191
CONT DE
PROFIT I
PIERDERE la
sfritul per.
SITUAIA
FLUXURILOR
DE NUMERAR
la sfritul per.
NOTELE
EXPLICATIVE
la sfritul per.
SITUAIA
MODIFICRII
CAPITALURILOR
PROPRII
la sfritul per.
BILAN
la sfritul
perioadei
Legend
relaii principale
relaii secundare
Fig. 15. Legturile dintre documentele care compun situaiile financiare
Prin relaii principale am dorit s reprezentm relaiile de interdependen dintre
documentele de raportare principale (bilan, contul de profit i pierdere, situaia
modificrii capitalurilor proprii i situaia fluxurilor de numerar). Relaiile secundare se
refer la legturile dintre documentele principale i cele secundare (notele
explicative), generate de procedurile de detaliere i/sau completare. Am utilizat aceast
clasificare (principal secundar) doar n scop didactic, pentru relevana reprezentrii
grafice (Standardele Internaionale de Contabilitate pun semnul egalitii ntre toate
documentele care compun situaiile financiare, n ceea ce privete importana
informaional).
192
CAPITOLUL 7
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
CAPITOLUL 8
200
201
202
203
204
= 12.400 lei
= 10.000 lei
= 2.400 lei
12.400 lei
Capital subscris
nevrsat
Prime de emisiune
10.000 lei
2.400 lei
205
%
1.400 lei
Capital subscris vrsat 1.000 lei
Rezerve
400 lei
206
Rezervele sunt surse proprii create prin autofinanare, adic att prin repartizarea
unor cote pri din profitul obinut, ct i prin trecerea unor surse proprii cum sunt
primele de capital i rezervele din reevaluare, la rezerve, n scopul conservrii capitalului.
Se pot constitui mai multe feluri de rezerve: rezerve legale, rezerve statutare, rezerve
pentru aciuni proprii i alte rezerve.
Rezervele legale se constituie anual n conformitate cu prevederile legale, iar n caz
de diminuare se completeaz conform prevederilor legale. Sunt utilizate pentru acoperirea
pierderilor din exerciiul financiar.
Rezervele statutare sau contractuale se constituite anual din profitul net obinut
conform prevederilor din statutul societii i sunt utilizate, n special, pentru a fi
incorporate n capital.
Rezervele pentru aciuni proprii se constituite din profit atunci cnd o societate pe
aciuni i rscumpr aciunile aflate n circulaie. Constituirea lor are ca scop protecia
creditorilor, ale cror creane sunt asigurate prin pstrarea nivelului capitalului
ntreprinderii din momentul n care aceasta a intrat n relaii cu creditorii.
Alte rezerve sunt rezerve neprevzute de lege sau de statutul societii i se
constituite n mod facultativ din profitul net obinut. Aceste rezerve sunt utilizate pentru
acoperirea pierderilor, pentru creterea capitalului sau n alte scopuri, n conformitate cu
hotrrile adunrilor generale ale acionarilor sau asociailor.
Contul Rezerve este un cont de surse proprii cu funcie contabil de pasiv. Creditul
acestui cont reflect rezervele constituite. Debitul acestui cont reflect rezervele utilizate.
Soldul este creditor i reflect rezervele existente.
Contul sintetic de gradul I Rezerve funcioneaz desfurat pe conturi sintetice de
gradul II, deschise pe feluri de rezerve, astfel:
Rezerve legale
Rezerve pentru aciuni proprii
Rezerve statutare sau contractuale
Alte rezerve
Tranzacia 9. S.C. CONTAB S.A. constituite rezerve din profitul obinut n sum
de 4.500 lei.
Analiz: Repartizarea unei cote din profit determin majorarea elementului Repartizarea
profitului concomitent creterea elementului rezerve. Creterea de activ se nregistreaz n
207
Rezerve
4.500 lei
208
Sold la
1 ianuarie
1
881,75
Creteri
Reduceri
Total,
Prin
Total,
Prin
din care
transfer din care transfer
2
3
4
5
1.000
2
356
45,1969
351,9211
44
0,5520
10,8747
Sold la
31 decembrie
6
1881,75
356
89,1969
351,9211
9,4267
Element al capitalului
propriu
Sold creditor
Sold debitor
Rezultatul reportat
provenit din modificrile
politicilor contabile
Sold creditor
Sold debitor
Rezultat reportat provenit
din corectarea erorilor fundamentale
Sold creditor
Sold debitor
Rezultat reportat
reprezentnd surplusul
realizat din rezerve din
reevaluare
Rezultatul exerciiului
financiar
Sold creditor
Sold debitor
Sold la
1 ianuarie
Creteri
Total,
Prin
din care
transfer
Reduceri
Total,
Prin
din care transfer
Sold la
31 decembrie
1.900
1.900
Primele de
capital
Rezerve
legale
Alte
rezerve
209
Rezultatul
exerciiului
210
b. Decontri cu asociaii =
privind capitalul
c. Decontri cu asociaii =
privind capitalul
d. Decontri cu asociaii =
privind capitalul
Rezultatul reportat
e. Rezultatul reportat
b. Decontri cu asociaii
privind capitalul
19) Care este formula contabil corect de depunere ca aport n natur la societate
a unui autocamion?
a. Terenuri
b. Construcii
c. Decontri cu asociaii =
privind capitalul
211
d. Capital subscris
nevrsat
e. Mijloace de transport
=
=
b. Decontri cu asociaii =
privind capitalul
e. Capital subscris
nevrsat
b. Capital subscris
nevrsat
Prime de emisiune
c. Capital subscris
nevrsat
d. Prime de emisiune
e. Decontri cu asociaii =
privind capitalul
Prime de emisiune
22) Care este formula contabil corect de nregistrare a constituirii rezervelor din
profit?
a. Profit i pierdere
212
Rezerve
b. Rezerve
Profit i pierdere
c. Repartizarea profitului
Rezerve
d. Repartizarea profitului =
Profit i pierdere
e. Profit i pierdere
Repartizarea profitului
23) O societate comercial deine un capital social de 10.000 lei mprit n 100.000
de aciuni. AGA decide majorarea capitalului social datorit unui nou aport ce
const ntr-un utilaj n valoare de 5.000 lei i lichiditi 1.000 lei. Pentru acest
nou aport se emit 30.000 aciuni.
Care sunt nregistrrile contabile?
24) O societate comercial deine un capital social de 15.000 lei. Conducerea
societii decide reducerea capitalului n vederea acoperirii pierderii
nregistrate n valoare de 1.000 lei i datorit retragerii unui asociat cruia i se
restituie prin contul de la banc suma de 5.000 lei.
Care sunt nregistrrile contabile?
213
CAPITOLUL 9
Amorti zarea
Tipuri
214
215
Evaluarea
imobilizrilor
la data
inventarierii
216
217
218
Valoare
de intrare
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
Anuitate
2.500
2.500
2.500
2.500
Amortizare
Valoare
cumulat net contabil
2.500
7.500
5.000
5.000
7.500
2.500
10.000
0
219
Este metoda cel mai uor de utilizat i din acest motiv este adoptat
de multe ntreprinderi romneti. Trebuie amintit ns c aceast
ealonare uniform a valorii nu concord, de cele mai multe ori, cu
ritmul de uzur a unei imobilizri.
Amortizarea degresiv conduce la anuiti mai mari n primii ani
ai duratei de via util i mai mici n ultimii ani, cnd oricum cresc
cheltuielile de ntreinere ale mijloacelor fixe. Este deci o modalitate mai
apropiat de condiiile reale, dar care necesit un sistem de calcul mai
complex. Astfel, norma de amortizare se multiplic cu coeficieni
stabilii n funcie de durata de via util. O alt deosebire fa de
amortizarea linear este aceea c norma de amortizare multiplicat se
aplic la valoarea rmas de amortizat (valoarea net contabil).
Amortizarea accelerat presupune ca jumtate din valoarea
contabil a mijlocului fix s se includ n cheltuielile primului an de
funcionare, iar restul s se mpart n mod egal pe parcursul anilor de
funcionare rmai. De menionat c aplicarea acestei metode de
amortizare, propus de Consiliul de administraie al ntreprinderii,
necesit aprobarea Ministerului Finanelor. Aa cum sunt ele
reglementate i aplicate n prezent, metodele degresiv i accelerat sunt
puternic influenate de interese fiscale i, de aceea, tind s nu reflecte
realitatea economic a costurilor cu amortizarea.
220
Codul de
Denumirea
Locul
clasificare mijlocului fix i unde
caracteristici
se afl
tehnice
2
3
4
Alte
meniuni
5
Fia
mijlocului
fix
Grupa.....................
Codul
de clasificare...............
Data drii n folosin
Anul......................
Luna......................
Data amortizrii complete
Anul......................
Luna......................
Durata normal de
funciune......................
Cota de amortizare..........
Accesorii:
(verso)
Nr. de Document Operaiile care Buc. Debit Credit
inventar
(fel, nr. privesc micarea,
dat)
creterea sau
diminuarea valorii
mijlocului
Alte
documente
specifice
mijloacelor
fixe
Sold
221
222
Caracterizarea
conturilor
specifice
imobilizrilor
corporale
223
= Decontri cu
asociaii privind
capitalul
10.000 lei
224
Echipamente
tehnologice
1.500 lei
225
Prezentarea
imobilizrilor
n bilan
%
=
Mijloace
9.000 lei
Amortizri privind
de transport
1.000 lei
imobilizrile corporale
Cheltuieli privind
activele cedate i
8.000 lei
operaiunile de capital
Reamintim c n bilan activele sunt prezentate n ordinea invers
a lichiditii lor. Imobilizrile sunt mai greu transformabile n bani
(puin lichide), ele avnd durate de via util mai mari de un an.
Astfel, activele imobilizate se gsesc n partea superioar a activului
bilanului, mai precis pe primele poziii. Imobilizrile sunt nscrise n
bilan la cost sau la valoarea rezultat n urma reevalurii, din care se
deduc amortizrile i provizioanele (reducerile) pentru depreciere
constatate. Dei conturi de pasiv, conturile de amortizri i
provizioane apar n activ cu semnul minus, rectificnd valorile
imobilizrilor la care se refer. Dac n bilan sunt prezentate
principalele categorii de imobilizri la valoarea lor net n notele la
bilan se detaliaz evoluia acestor active n cursul exerciiului (sold
iniial, intrri, ieiri), precum i a amortizrii acestora.
226
Nota 1
Active imobilizate
Elemente de
active
Alte
imobilizri
Terenuri
Utilaje
Instalaii
tehnice i
maini
Alte
imobilizri
necorporale
Terenuri
Utilaje
Instalaii
tehnice i
maini
Sold
la 1
ianuarie
450.000
20.001,5
570.000
Valoarea brut
Creteri
Reduceri
400
560.019,5
15.050.000
Sold la
31
decembrie
400
980.019,4
100
20.001,5
14.101,5
300.000
5.320.000 3.500.000
5.900,5
100
20.001,5
5.400.000 2.200.800
6.699.200
227
228
229
CAPITOLUL 10
Evaluare
230
Documente
justificative
privind
stocurile
recunoaterii n contabilitate).
Cu ocazia primei recunoateri n contabilitate, stocurile
achiziionate cu titlu oneros (contra cost) sunt evaluate la cost de
achiziie, iar stocurile fabricate sunt evaluate la cost de producie.
Prin convenie, preul este expresia monetar a valorii unei
tranzacii, iar costul o sum de cheltuieli identificate, calculate sau
repartizate n raport cu un criteriu precizat, cunoscut, determinat.
Cu ocazia inventarierii generale, stocurile se evalueaz la
valoarea de pia.
n bilan stocurile sunt evaluate la minimum dintre cost i
valoarea de pia.
La vnzare sau consum, adic la ncetarea recunoaterii n
contabilitate, stocurile pot fi evaluate folosind una din urmtoarele
metode: primul intrat-primul ieit (FIFO), ultimul intrat-primul ieit
(LIFO), costul mediu ponderat (CMP).
Evidena analitic a stocurilor se poate ine cantitativ-valoric, pe
grupe i sortimente, operativ pe locuri sau centre de responsabilitate
sau global valoric n funcie de necesitile de informaii pentru
decizie i contRON.
Cumprarea i vnzarea se bazeaz pe transfer de proprietate,
fiind necesar consemnarea scris a unui contract ntre client i
furnizor. Stocurile cumprate sosesc la beneficiar mpreun cu
factura fiscal i avizul de nsoire a mrfurilor. Avizul nsoete
mrfurile pe timpul transportului, dac factura de livrare este
ntocmit ulterior. Primirea stocurilor se numete recepie, iar
inventarul faptic cantitativ i ndeplinirea condiiilor standard de
calitate se consemneaz n nota de intrare recepie (NIR). Dac se
constat diferene cantitative, calitative sau valorice, se ntocmete
nota de constatare diferene (NCD). Pentru stocurile respinse se
ntocmete proces verbal de custodie temporar, acestea fiind la
dispoziia furnizorului. Constatarea obinerii produciei finite are la
baz raportul de fabricaie, iar predarea la depozit i micarea
stocurilor operative ntre gestiuni se face cu bonul de predare
transfer restituire. Nota de comand servete pentru nregistrarea
comenzii ferme de stocuri din partea clienilor. Delegaia pentru
ridicare de mrfuri atest legal identitatea cumprtorului.
Dispoziia de livrare este dispoziia administrativ de a elibera
stocurile din depozit. Fia de magazie este documentul de eviden
cantitativ, cronologic a operaiilor de intrare i ieire i de
contRON operativ a concordanei dintre existentul de stocuri faptic
i scriptic, fiind deschis pentru fiecare fel de stoc.
Consumul tehnologic pentru fabricaie se consemneaz n bonul
de consum individual sau colectiv, n funcie de particularitile
stocurilor consumate.
231
232
1.000 lei
Materii prime
2.500 lei
233
2.000 lei
Materiale de
natura
obiectelor de
inventar
800 lei
234
MR x 100
= MB
100 MR
2/0,08 = 25
235
Furnizori
500 lei
cost de achiziie
marja comercial
pre de vnzare
=
%
Diferene de pre
la mrfuri
Furnizori
625 lei
125 lei
500 lei
236
= Mrfuri
300 lei.
Conturi de
stocuri
fabricate
Mrfuri
375 lei
300 lei
75 lei
237
238
500 lei
450 lei
300 lei
239
240
Diferene de pre la
produse finite
45 lei
Provizioane 20 lei
pentru
deprecierea
mrfurilor
241
242
CAPITOLUL 11
243
244
%
Venituri din vnzarea
produselor finite
TVA colectat
1.190 lei
1.000 lei
190 lei
Produse finite
700 lei
Clieni
190 lei
245
246
Furnizori
1.309 lei
1.100 lei
209 lei
1.309 lei
247
248
Personal
salarii
datorate
22.000 lei
249
se crediteaz.
Avansuri acordate
D Personal salarii-datorate
C
personalului
(1) 10.000
(3) 10.000
(3) 2.090
(2) 22.000
1.430
RC 22.000
220
3.000
1.500
10.000
RD 18.240
Sold
intermediar
3.760
Soldul intermediar reprezint restul de plat datorat
salariailor.
1.4. Plata salariilor
Analiza: Plata ctre salariai a lichidrii (chenzina a II-a)
determin micorarea numerarului din casieria ntreprinderii
(A-) i o scdere a datoriei fa de salariai pentru restul de
250
251
Conturi
curente la
bnci
Contribuia unitii la
asigurrile sociale
Contribuia
personalului pentru
pensia suplimentar
4.895 lei
4.345 lei
550 lei
252
2.970 lei
protecia social
Contribuia
angajatorului
pentru asigurrile
sociale de sntate 1.540 lei
Contribuia
angajailor pentru
asigurrile sociale
de sntate
1.430 lei
1.8. Plata asigurrilor sociale de sntate
Analiza: Decontarea contribuiei pentru asigurrile sociale
de sntate genereaz o scdere a disponibilitilor bneti (A-)
i o scdere a datoriilor legate de fondul de sntate (P-).
Contul Conturi curente la bnci se crediteaz i conturile
Contribuia angajatorului pentru asigurrile sociale de
sntate i Contribuia angajailor pentru asigurrile sociale
de sntate se debiteaz.
%
= Conturi curente
la bnci
Contribuia
angajatorului
pentru asigurrile
sociale de sntate
Contribuia
angajailor pentru
asigurrile sociale
de sntate
2.970 lei
1.540 lei
1.430 lei
253
500 lei
254
Taxa pe
valoarea
adugat
Impozitul pe =
Conturi curente la
500 lei
profit
bnci
Taxa pe valoarea adugat este un impozit indirect, ataat
consumului. Taxa pe valoarea adugat este aferent transferului de
proprietate asupra bunurilor, prestrilor de servicii i executrilor de
lucrri. Spre deosebire de impozitul pe profit care este un impozit
direct (afecteaz cheltuielile ntreprinderii i implicit profitul
acesteia), taxa pe valoarea adugat nu afecteaz cheltuielile sau
veniturile ntreprinderilor. Acestea fac doar oficiul de a plti sau de a
primi taxa pe valoarea adugat de la stat. Consumatorul final este
persoana care suport acest impozit. Cum se explic acest lucru? Un
angrosist cumpr bunuri, lucrri sau servicii de la furnizori,
contabiliznd separat costul bunului achiziionat de taxa pe valoarea
adugat aferent. La rndul su, el revinde bunurile unui client,
comerciant en detail, nregistrnd separat preul de vnzare (ca un
venit) de TVA aferent preului. Diferena ntre taxa primit de la
client (TVA colectat) i taxa pltit furnizorilor (TVA deductibil)
o pltete statului n cazul n care prima este mai mare sau o
primete de la stat n situaia invers.
n Romnia cota de TVA este de 19%, cu excepia operaiilor
de export care sunt impozabile cu cota zero. TVA se pltete lunar
pn la data de 25 a lunii urmtoare, dat dup care se percep
penalizri pentru ntrziere. TVA este nscris separat n factura
fiscal, pe baza facturilor se ntocmesc jurnalul de cumprri i
jurnalul de vnzri, documente ce stau la baza nregistrrii TVA n
contabilitate.
Contul cu ajutorul cruia se evideniaz taxa pe valoarea
adugat este contul sintetic de gradul I, Taxa pe valoarea
adugat, cont ce se desfoar pe mai multe sintetice de gradul II:
TVA de plat;
TVA de recuperat;
TVA deductibil;
TVA colectat;
TVA neexigibil.
Contul TVA deductibil este un cont de activ, de creane fiscale,
care se debiteaz cu taxa aferent cumprrilor de bunuri i servicii,
nscris n factura furnizorului. Se crediteaz la sfritul lunii cu
taxa colectat i cu taxa de recuperat dup caz. Nu prezint sold la
sfritul lunii.
Contul TVA colectat este un cont de pasiv, de datorii fiscale,
care se crediteaz cu taxa nscris n factura de vnzri de bunuri,
lucrri sau servicii. Se debiteaz la sfritul lunii cu taxa deductibil
i taxa de plat, dup caz. Nu prezint sold la sfritul lunii.
255
20
D TVA de plat
C
20
n cazul n care TVA deductibil este 120, iar TVA colectat este
90 lei, procedura de nchidere este:
%
=
TVA colectat
TVA de recuperat
256
D TVA deductibil C
120
90
D TVA colectat
C
90
90
30
D TVA de recuperat C
30
257
Datorii
diverse
1.190 lei
= Creditori diveri
550 lei
258
Conturi curente la
bnci
550 lei
11.7.
CREANELE
Creanele comerciale n valoare de 583.920,9 lei includ toate sumele rezultate din
relaiile de decontare ale S.C. CONTAB S.A. cu clienii i furnizorii debitori. Ele
cuprind: avansurile pltite furnizorilor, partea aferent lucrrilor i serviciilor de prestat;
creanele nete ale clienilor, ceri sau inceri; efectele de primit precum i creanele
rezultate din livrri sau prestri de servicii pentru care nu s-au ntocmit facturi.
Sumele de ncasat n cadrul grupului vizeaz relaia societii cu filialele sale. Ele se
prezint separat de celelalte creane.
Alte creane n sum de 1.392.253 lei sunt rezultate din relaia societii cu
personalul, cu statul (TVA de recuperat, impozite diverse de recuperat), cu debitorii
diveri.
Situaia datoriilor
Datorii
Sold la 31.XII
(col 2+3+4)
0
1
Total datorii
7.649.699,5
Sume
datorate
4.142.295,2
instituiilor de credit
Avansuri ncasate n
9.775,6
contul comenzilor
Datorii comerciale
1.203.474
Sume datorate n cadrul
159,4
grupului
Alte datorii
2.293.995,3
Termen de exigibilitate
Sub 1 an
1-5 ani Peste 5 ani
2
3
4
7.649.699,5
4.142.295,2
9.775,6
1.203.474
159,4 2.293.995,3
259
260
rulajul debitor al contului Diferene de pre la produse finite este 250 lei (n
rou).
261
CAPITOLUL 12
Structura
trezoreriei
262
0
319
319
700
1.700
1.381
263
= Decontri cu
asociaii privind
capitalul
1.000 lei
= Credite bancare pe
termen scurt
200 lei
264
%
595 lei
Venituri din servicii500 lei
prestate terilor
TVA colectat
95 lei
= Conturi curente
la bnci
1.000 lei
265
Furnizori
1.190 lei
1.000 lei
190 lei
Conturi curente la
bnci
1.190 lei
Concluzii.
n exemplele prezentate observm urmtoarele:
Plile nu sunt sinonime cu cheltuielile (tranzacia 4);
Cheltuielile genereaz pli (tranzacia 5.1. 5.2);
Cheltuielile nu genereaz pli (de exemplu capitolul 8,
tranzaciile 1.1, 2.1.).
Evidenierea tranzaciilor privind disponibilitile n numerar
se realizeaz prin contul Casa. Are funcie contabil de activ. n
debitul contului sunt evideniate intrrile de numerar, n casieria
ntreprinderii (ncasri de creane de la clieni sau debitori diveri;
depunerea aportului n numerar la capitalul social; ridicare de
disponibil din banc; ncasri ale chiriilor, valoarea mrfurilor
vndute etc.). n creditul contului sunt reflectate toate tranzaciile
ce genereaz ieiri de numerar (plata datoriilor fa de furnizori;
depunerea numerarului n contul curent de la banc; plata taxelor
pentru constituirea societii comerciale; plata chiriei datorate, a
despgubirilor, a amenzilor etc.). Soldul final al contului este
debitor, reprezentnd disponibilul existent n casieria
ntreprinderii la un moment dat. Contul sintetic de gradul I Casa
este detaliat n dou conturi sintetice de gradul II, Casa n lei i
Casa n valut.
Tranzaciile sunt contabilizate n lei sau n lei i devize, dup
caz. n cadrul contului Casa n valut sunt deschise analitice
266
Conturi curente la
bnci
1.000 lei
Viramente interne
1.000 lei
267
500 lei
268
269
Mod de
ntocmire
270
Bilan diferenial
Elemente bilaniere
Maini, utilaje i instalaii de
lucru
Amortizarea
instalaiilor
tehnice i mainilor
Mrfuri
Provizioane pentru deprecierea
mrfurilor
Clieni
Conturi curente la bnci
TOTAL ACTIV
Capital social
Rezerve legale
Rezultat reportat
Profit i pierdere
Credite bancare pe termen lung
i mediu
Furnizori
Impozit pe profit
TVA de plat
TOTAL PASIV
N-1
3.500
250
Variaia
(N N-1)
-1.001*
(350)
(50)
+(150)*
3.345
(100)
18.450
2.397,5
-1.500
-(100)
3.397,5
2.000
11.792,5
2.000
150
2.850
3000
0
2.397,5
7.225
13.467,5
2.000
150
585
412,5
1.200
-1.000
+5.225
16.750
0
0
+3.000**
-2.587,5**
+1.200
3.042,5
750
0
11.792,5
22.000
1.037,5
617,5
13.467,5
-8.425,1
+ 28,75**
+617,5
1.675
271
VENITURI
1.500 Venituri din vnzarea
mrfurilor
Venituri din vnzarea
900 activelor i din alte
operaiuni de capital
Venituri din anularea
deprecierii mrfurilor
250
2.000
1.250
100
287,5
REZULTAT
(PROFIT)
412,5
272
Numerar
Fluxuri de numerar din activiti de exploatare
Profitul nainte de impozitare i elemente extraordinare
Ajustri pentru:
Cheltuieli de exploatare privind amortizarea
imobilizrilor
Venituri din anularea deprecierii mrfurilor
Venituri din vnzarea activelor
Cheltuieli privind activele cedate
Profit din exploatare nainte de modificrile capitalului
activului circulant
Scderea stocurilor
Diminuare creane fa de clieni
Plata datoriilor fa de furnizori
Creterea datoriilor fa de stat (TVAcol )
Numerarul net provenit din activiti de exploatare
Fluxuri de numerar din activiti de investiie
ncasri din vnzarea de utilaje
Numerarul net provenit din activiti de investiie
Fluxuri de numerar din activiti de finanare
ncasri din mprumuturi pe termen lung
Numerarul net provenit din activiti de finanare
Creterea net de numerar i echivalente ale
numerarului
Numerar i echivalente de numerar la nceputul
perioadei
Numerar i echivalente de numerar la sfritul
perioadei
700
250
(100)
(1.250)
900
500
1.500
1.000
(842,5)
617,5
2.775
1.250
1.250
1.200
1.200
5.225
2.000
7.225
273
274
CAPITOLUL 13
275
276
277
1.400 lei
1.700 lei
278
1.200 lei
Produse finite
800 lei
279
Imobilizri
corporale n
curs
250 lei
280
= Venituri din
despgubiri,
amenzi, penaliti
80 lei
281
= Conturi curente la
bnci
1.100 lei
300 lei
282
Contribuia unitii
la asigurrile sociale
Contribuia unitii
la fondul de omaj
445 lei
395 lei
50 lei
283
Exemplu:
se nregistreaz amortizarea imobilizrilor corporale n valoare
de 1.900 lei.
Cheltuieli de
= Amortizri privind
1.900 lei
exploatare
imobilizrile
privind
corporale
amortizarea
imobilizrilor
se nregistreaz la sfritul exerciiului N provizioanele pentru
deprecierea stocurilor de materii prime n valoare de 200 lei.
Cheltuieli de
= Provizioane
200 lei
exploatare privind
pentru
provizioanele
deprecierea
pentru deprecierea
materiilor prime
activelor circulante
se nregistreaz un provizion aferent unui litigiu cu un client n
valoare de 280 lei.
Cheltuieli de
exploatare
privind
provizioanele
pentru riscuri i
cheltuieli
Provizioane pentru
riscuri i cheltuieli
280 lei
200 lei
284
Exemplu:
se vnd aciuni cumprate la preul de 100 lei la pre de vnzare
120 lei:
Conturi curente
la bnci
%
Aciuni
Ctiguri din investiii
financiare pe termen
scurt cedate
120 lei
100 lei
20 lei
10.000 lei
9.000 lei
1.000 lei
=
%
Conturi curente la bnci
Venituri din sconturi
obinute
1.000 lei
980 lei
20 lei
285
Venituri din
provizioane pentru
deprecierea
activelor circulante
600 lei
Aciuni
850 lei
800 lei
50 lei
286
Exemplu:
se achit datoria ctre furnizor, diferene nefavorabile de curs
valutar sunt de 200.000 lei.
%=
Conturi la bnci n
valut
Furnizori
Cheltuieli din
diferene de curs
valutar
4.000 lei
3.980 lei
20 lei
Conturi la bnci n
valut
100 lei
Clieni
190 lei
188,1 lei
1,9 lei
287
Provizioane
315 lei
pentru desfacerea
imobilizrilor
financiare
= Prime
privind
rambursarea
obligaiunilor
250 lei
288
Cheltuieli
=
privind
calamitile i
alte evenimente
similare
220 lei
Materii prime
Materiale de natura
obiectelor de inventor
140 lei
80 lei
Profit i pierdere
Conturi de cheltuieli
289
290
291
%
= Profit i pierdere
Venituri din vnzarea de
produse finite
Venituri din lucrri
executate i servicii prestate
Venituri din vnzarea
mrfurilor
Variaia stocurilor
Venituri din producia de
imobilizri corporale
Venituri din creane
reactivate i debitori diveri
Venituri din despgubiri,
amenzi i penaliti
Venituri din vnzarea
activelor i alte operaii de
capital
2) nchiderea conturilor de venituri financiare:
7.842,5 lei
%
= Profit i pierdere
Venituri din creane
imobilizate
Ctiguri din investiiile
financiare pe termen scurt
cedate
Venituri din diferene de
curs valutar
Venituri din dobnzi
1.920 lei
1.400 lei
1.100 lei
2.900 lei
912,5 lei
400 lei
250 lei
80 lei
80 lei
200 lei
20 lei
1.000 lei
80 lei
20 lei
600 lei
292
%
Cheltuieli cu materiile
prime
Cheltuieli cu materialele
consumabile
7.578 lei
80 lei
30 lei
720 lei
1.278 lei
80 lei
100 lei
30 lei
105 lei
2.000 lei
700 lei
55 lei
1.920 lei
200 lei
220 lei
%
Pierderi din creane legate
de participaie
Pierderi privind investiiile
financiare cedate pe termen
scurt
Cheltuieli din diferene de
curs valutar
Cheltuieli privind dobnzile
Cheltuieli privind sconturile
acordate
1.596,9 lei
310 lei
50 lei
120 lei
550 lei
1,9 lei
293
Cheltuieli financiare
privind provizioanele
pentru deprecierea
imobilizrilor financiare
Cheltuieli financiare
privind amortizarea
primelor de rambursare a
obligaiunilor
3.15 lei
250 lei
220 lei
R = Rezultat
curent
sau
Rezultatul
curent
= Rezultatul
exploatrii
= Venituri
financiare
Rezultatul = Venituri
extraordinar extraordinare
294
= 102,93 lei
Profit i pierdere
Venituri din
7.578 lei exploatare
Venituri
1.596,9 lei financiare
220 lei
102,9 lei
9.497,83 lei Rulaj creditor
264,67 lei
CREDIT
(venituri)
7.442,5 lei
1.920 lei
97 62,5 lei
295
Exerciiul
precedent
1
2.060.000
1609.117,5
Exerciiul
curent
2
2.370.622,4
19.766.512
801.832,5
120.000
687.285
450.882,5
22.9095
343.642,5
315.804,2
193.949,2
1.204.138,5
140.000
632.512,7
393.971,2
267.586,3
401.379,5
2.059.408,1
1.784.413,5
296
lucrrilor i serviciilor.
Cheltuielile activitii de baz, cheltuielile activitilor
auxiliare i cheltuielile indirecte de producie formeaz costul de
producie al produselor fabricate, lucrrilor executate i
serviciilor prestate. n tabelul de analiz, acest indicator se
regsete sub forma costului bunurilor vndute i al serviciilor
prestate. Acesta a crescut cu aproximativ trei milioane lei n
exerciiul curent fa de exerciiul precedent.
Dac din cifra de afaceri net (totalul venit din vnzri) se
deduce costul bunurilor vndute i al serviciilor prestate, se obine
rezultatul brut aferent cifrei de afaceri nete. Acesta a sczut n
exerciiul curent cu aproximativ 50 lei fa de cel al exerciiului
precedent datorat creterii doar cu un milion de lei a cifrei de
afaceri nete i creterii mai semnificative costului bunurilor vndute
i al serviciilor prestate.
Cheltuielile de desfacere i cheltuielile generale de
administraie, de regul, nu se includ n costul de producie,
excepie fcnd cazurile n care condiiile specifice de exploatare
justific acest lucru. Rezultatul din exploatare (profit) se obine prin
adugarea altor venituri din exploatare (variaia stocurilor, producia
efectuat n scopuri proprii i capitalizat) la rezultatul brut aferent
cifrei de afaceri nete i scderea cheltuielilor de desfacere i a celor
generale de administraie. Acest profit din exploatare din exerciiul
curent, de nou ori mai mare dect n exerciiul precedent, se
datoreaz tocmai soldului creditor al contului Variaia stocului, care
este de 2.059.408,1 lei n exerciiul curent, cheltuielile care se deduc
avnd aproximativ aceleai valori n cele dou exerciii.
297
298
CAPITOLUL 14
299
Sume
Debitoare
Creditoare
(utilizri)
(resurse)
A
B
Solduri
Debitoare
Creditoare
(utilizri)
(resurse)
C
D
300
301
302
simplificare, armonizate cu directivele europene, care se compun din bilan, cont de profit
i pierdere, politici contabile i note explicative.
Situaiile financiare anuale, pentru toate celelalte persoane cu excepia celor
menionate mai sus se compun din bilan i cont de profit i pierdere.
Societile comerciale ncadrate prin reglementri speciale n categoria
microntreprinderilor aplic reguli contabile specifice, aprobate prin ordin al ministrului
finanelor publice. Situaiile financiare anuale pentru microntreprinderi se compun din
bilan i cont de profit i pierdere.
Situaiile financiare anuale sunt nsoite n toate cazurile, de raportul
administratorilor.
1.2. Prezentarea situaiilor financiare adoptate n contabilitatea din Romnia.
A. BILANUL CONTABIL
Romnia, prin Ordinul nr. 1.752/2005 al ministrului finanelor publice pentru
aprobarea reglementrilor contabile armonizate cu Directiva a IV-a a Comunitilor
Economice Europene i Standardele de Contabilitate Internaionale a optat pentru schema
diferen sau list privind bilanul contabil.
Formatul cerut pentru bilan este urmtorul:
BILAN
A. Active imobilizate
I. Imobilizri necorporale
1. Cheltuieli de constituire (cnd reglementrile permit imobilizarea acestora)
2. Cheltuieli de dezvoltare (cnd reglementrile permit imobilizarea acestora)
3. Concesiuni, brevete, licene, mrci, drepturi i valori similare i alte
imobilizri necorporale dac au fost:
(a) achiziionate contra unei pli;
(b) create de societate, n cazul n care reglementrile permit nscrierea acestora
n active
4. Fondul comercial, n cazul n care a fost achiziionat
5. Avansuri i imobilizri necorporale n curs de execuie
II. Imobilizri corporale
1. Terenuri i construcii
2. Instalaii tehnice i maini
3. Alte instalaii, utilaje i mobilier
4. Avansuri i imobilizri corporale n curs
III. Imobilizri financiare
1. Titluri de participare deinute la societile din cadrul grupului
2. Creane asupra societilor din cadrul grupului, altele dect cele comerciale
3. Titluri sub form de interese de participare
4. Creane din interese de participare
5. Titluri deinute ca imobilizri
6. Alte creane
7. Aciuni proprii n msura n care legislaia naional permite nscrierea
acestora n bilan (cu indicarea n note a valorii nominale)
303
B. Active circulante
I. Stocuri
1. Materii prime i consumabile
2. Producia n curs de execuie
3. Produse finite i mrfuri
4. Avansuri pentru cumprri de stocuri
II. Creane
(Sumele ce trebuie s fie ncasate dup o perioad mai mare de un an trebuie s fie
prezentate separat pentru fiecare element)
1. Creane comerciale
2. Sume de ncasat de la societile din cadrul grupului
3. Sume de ncasat din interese de participare
4. Alte creane
5. Creane privind capitalul subscris i nevrsat
III. Investiii financiare pe termen scurt
1. Titluri de participare n societile din cadrul grupului f
2. Aciuni proprii, n msura n care legislaia naional permite nscrierea
acestora n bilan (cu indicarea n note a valorii nominale)
3. Alte investiii financiare pe termen scurt
IV. Casa, i conturi la bnci
C. Cheltuieli n avans
D. Datorii ce trebuie pltite ntr-o perioad de un an
1. mprumuturi din emisiunea de obligaiuni, prezentndu-se separat
mprumuturile n monede convertibile
2. Sume datorate instituiilor de credit
3. Avansuri ncasate n contul comenzilor, atta timp ct nu sunt prezentate
separat ca deduceri de stocuri
4. Datorii comerciale
5. Efecte de comer de pltit
6. Sume datorate societilor din cadrul grupului
7. Sume datorate privind interesele de participare
8. Alte datorii, inclusiv datorii fiscale i datorii pentru asigurrile sociale
E. Active circulante nete respectiv datorii curente nete
F. Total active minus datorii curente
G. Datorii ce trebuie pltite ntr-o perioad mai mare de un an
1. mprumuturi din emisiunea de obligaiuni, prezentndu-se separat
mprumuturile n monede convertibile,
2. Sume datorate instituiilor de credit
3. Avansuri ncasate n contul comenzilor, atta timp ct nu sunt prezentate
separat ca deduceri din stocuri
4. Datorii comerciale
5. Efecte de comer de pltit
6. Sume datorate societilor din cadrul grupului
7. Sume datorate privind interesele de participare
8. Alte datorii, inclusiv datorii fiscale i datorii pentru asigurrile sociale
H. Provizioane pentru riscuri i cheltuieli
1. Provizioane pentru pensii i alte obligai similare
304
305
- mii lei
Exerciiul Exerciiul
precedent curent
1
2
306
307
Sold la
1 ianuarie
1
Transferuri*)
n cont
Din cont
2
3
Sold la
31 decembrie
4=1+2-3
*)
Suma
Exerciiul
precedent
1
0
1. Cifra de afaceri net
2. Costul bunurilor vndute i serviciilor prestate (3+4+5)
3. Cheltuielile activitii de baz
4. Cheltuielile activitilor auxiliare
5. Cheltuielile indirecte de producie
6 Rezultatul brut aferent cifrei de afaceri nete (1-2)
6
308
Exerciiul
curent
2
7. Cheltuielile de desfacere
8. Cheltuieli generale de administraie
9. Alte venituri din exploatare
10. REZULTATUL DIN EXPLOATARE 6-7-8+9)
NOTA 5. SITUAIA CREANELOR I DATORIILOR
CREANE
0
DATORII*)
0
Sold la 31 decembrie
(col. 2+3)
1
Termen de lichiditate
Sub 1 an
Peste 1 an
2
3
Sold la 31 decembrie
(col. 2+3)
1
Termen de exigibilitate
Sub 1 an
1-5 ani
Peste 5 ani
2
3
4
*)
309
obligaiuni emise: tipul obligaiunilor emise; valoarea emis i suma primit pentru
fiecare tip de obligaiuni; obligaiuni emise de ntreprindere, deinute de o persoan
nominalizat sau mputernicit de aceasta: valoarea nominal; valoarea nregistrat n
momentul plii.
NOTA 8. INFORMAII PRIVIND SALARIAII, ADMINISTRATORII I
DIRECTORII
Se fac meniunile cu privire la:
salarizare, directori i administratori; obligaiile contractuale cu privire la plata
pensiilor ctre fotii directori i administratori; obligaia total pentru fiecare categorie;
valoarea avansurilor i creditelor acordate directorilor i administratorilor n timpul
exerciiului; rata dobnzii; principalele clauze ale creditului; suma rambursat pn la
acea dat; obligai viitoare de genul garanilor asumate de ntreprindere n numele
acestora;
salariai: numr mediu aferent exerciiului; numr mediu (fiecare categorie); salarii
pltite sau de pltit aferente exerciiului; cheltuieli cu asigurrile sociale; alte cheltuieli cu
contribuiile pentru pensii.
NOTA 9. EXEMPLE DE CALCUL I ANALIZ
A PRINCIPALILOR INDICATORI ECONOMICO-FINANCIARI
1. Indicatori de lichiditate
Indicatorul lichiditi curente =
(Indicatorul capitalului circulant)
Active curente
Datorii curente
x 100
x 100
unde:
Capital mprumutat = Credite peste 1 an
Capital angajat = Capital mprumutat + Capital propriu
Indicatorul privind acoperirea dobnzilor determin de cte ori societatea poate
achita cheltuielile cu dobnda. Cu ct valoarea indicatorului este mai mic, cu att poziia
societii este considerat mai riscant.
Profit naintea plii dobnzii i impozitului pe profit = Numr de ori
Cheltuieli cu dobnda
310
311
312
313
FACTURA
FISCAL
*0477549
Nr. Factur 210
Data (ziua, luna, anul)
1.12.2006
Nr. Aviz nsoire a mrfii
Seria
Cumprtor CONFEX
(den, forma juridic) S.A.
Nr. de nreg. Fiscal
1234567
Localitatea BUCURETI
Judeul
Contul 101708
Banca BCR
Nr.
crt.
Denumirea
UM Cantitatea Pre unitar
Valoarea
Valoarea
produselor sau
(fr TVA)
- lei TVA
serviciilor
- lei - lei 0
1
2
3
4
5(3 x 4)
6
1. Stof
M
20
100
2.000
38
2. Mtase
M
20
150
3.000
57
Contarea:
% = 401
301
4426
Semntura Date privind expediia
Total
i tampila
5.000
furnizorului, Numele delegatului:
Semntura
mijlocul de transport:
de primire
Expedierea s-a efectuat n prezena noastr
la data de
ora
Semnturile
314
595
500
95
95
Total
de plat
(col 5 + col 6)
595
Operaia 2
Furnizor: FURNITURI
(den., forma juridic) S.A.
Nr. Ord. Registru com.
Nr. de nreg. Fiscal
4536367
Localitatea BUCURETI
Judeul
Contul 1208194
Banca BRD
Cot TVA 19%
FACTURA
FISCAL
*0477549
Seria
Cumprtor CONFEX
(den, forma juridic) S.A.
Nr. de nreg. Fiscal
1234567
Localitatea BUCURETI
Judeul
Contul 101708
Banca BCR
Denumirea
UM Cantitatea Pre unitar
Valoarea
Valoarea
produselor sau
(fr TVA)
- lei TVA
serviciilor
- lei - lei 0
1
2
3
4
5(3 x 4)
6
1. Papiote a
Buc 50
0,6
30
5,7
2. Nasturi
Buc 900
0,3
270
51,3
Contarea:
% = 401
302
4426
Semntura Date privind expediia
Total
300
Numele delegatului:
Semntura
i tampila mijlocul de transport:
de primire
furnizorului, Expedierea s-a efectuat n prezena noastr
la data de
ora
Semnturile
357
300
57
57
Total
de plat
(col 5 + col 6)
357
315
Operaia 3
UNITATEA CONFEX
Produs, lucrare comanda
U O.P.P.A. Numr
Data
Cod Cod Nr. Comand
Nr.
D
docupre- priCod produs
Poz.
ment
dtor mitor
Z L A
1
2
3
4 5 6
7
8
9 10 11 12
13
60
10 12 05
nr. Denumirea
Cont
Cantitatea
Cod
U/M Cantitate
crt. materialelor
necesar
eliberat
(inclusiv sort,
marc, profil,
dimensiune)
Debitor Creditor
17 18 19
ntregi Z
14
15
16
21
1
2.
3.
4.
Stof
Mtase
Papiote a
Nasturi
Data i semntura,
316
600
600
601
601
301
301
302
302
ef compartiment,
m
m
Buc
Buc
Gestionar,
10
5
40
500
BON DE CONSUM
(colectiv)
Pre unitar
Lei
22
10
15
0,6
0,3
Primitor,
Valoarea
Lei
100
75
24
150
Operaia 4
ORDIN DE PLAT nr.
8 0
PLTII 4.000 LEI, ADIC
patrumii
PLTITOR
CONFEX4 000 000 LEI CTRE BENEFICIAR PRODCOM
S.A.
S.A.
N CONT
COD FISCAL 1234567
23011972
DIN CONT
PRIMIRE/ACCEPTARE LA ADRESA BANCA ION
101708
IR1AC
DE LA BANCA BCR
SEMNTURA
Contarea: 401= 5121 4.000
REPREZENTND plata
furnizorului PRODCOM
de materii prime
SEMNTURA DATA EMITERII
PLTITORULUI
12.12.2006
VEI PLTI NUMAI PRIN
LA DATA DE
Virament
12.12.2006
317
Operaia 5
Furnizor: PRODCOM
(den., forma juridic) S.A.
Nr. Ord. Registru com.
Nr. de nreg. Fiscal
5567993
Localitatea BUCURETI
Judeul
Contul 2345676
Banca BRCE
Cot TVA 19%
Seria
Cumprtor CONFEX
(den, forma juridic) S.A.
Nr. de nreg. Fiscal 1234567
Localitatea BUCURETI
Judeul
Contul 101708
Banca BCR
FACTURA
FISCAL
*0477549
Denumirea
produselor sau
serviciilor
0
1
1. Costume dam
2. Costume Brbai
UM Cantitatea
2
3
Buc. 5
Buc. 10
Pre unitar
(fr TVA)
- lei 4
2.500
1.500
Valoarea
- lei 5(3 x 4)
12.500
15.000
Valoarea TVA
- lei 6
2.375
2.850
Contarea:
% = 401 32.950
371
27.000
4426
5.225
Semntura
Date privind expediia
Total
i tampila
Numele delegatului:
27.000
furnizorului, mijlocul de transport:
Expedierea s-a efectuat n prezena Semntura
noastr la data de
de primire
ora
Semnturile
5.225
Total
de plat
(col 5 + col 6)
32.950
318
Operaia 6
Furnizor: PRODCOM
(den., forma juridic)
S.A.
Nr. Ord. Registru com.
Nr. de nreg. Fiscal
1234567
Localitatea BUCURETI
Judeul
Contul 101708
Banca BCR
Cot TVA 19%
Nr.
crt.
Denumirea
produselor sau
serviciilor
0
1
1. Costume dam
2. Costume brbai
FACTURA
FISCAL
*0477549
4
3.000
2.000
Seria
Cumprtor CONFEX
(den, forma juridic) S.A.
Nr. de nreg. Fiscal 8956743
Localitatea BUCURETI
Judeul
Contul 456734
Banca BCR
Valoarea
- lei 5(3 x 4)
9.000
16.000
Valoarea TVA
- lei 6
1.710
3.040
Contarea:
411 = % 29.750
707 25.000
4426 4.750
Semntura Date privind expediia
Total
25.000
4.750
Total
de plat
(col 5 + col 6)
29.750
319
Operaia 7
UNITATEA COFEX
Produs, lucrare comanda
U O.P.P.A. Numr
Data
Cod
Cod
Nr. Comand
Nr.
D
docupre- primitor
Cod produs
Poz.
ment
dator
Z L A
1
2
3
4 5 6
7
8
9 10 11 12
13
56 17 12 05
nr.
Denumirea
Cont
Cantitatea
Cod
U/M Cantitate
crt materialelor
necesar
eliberat
(inclusiv sort,
marc, profil,
dimensiune)
Debitor Creditor
17 18 19
ntregi Z
14
15
16
21
1. Sacouri
345
711
buc
15
2. Rochii
345
711
Buc 30
Data i semntura,
320
ef compartiment,
Gestionar,
BON DE PREDARE,
TRANSFER,
RESTITUIRE
Pre unitar
Valoarea
Lei
22
80
50
Lei
Primitor,
1.200
1.500
Operaia 8
Furnizor: CONFEX
(den., forma juridic) S.A.
Nr. Ord. Registru com.
Nr. de nreg. Fiscal
1234567
Localitatea BUCURETI
Judeul
Contul 101708
Banca BCR
Cota TVA 19%
FACTURA
FISCAL
*0477549
Seria
Cumprtor BUCUR
(den, forma juridic) S.A.
Nr. de nreg. Fiscal
2534765
Localitatea BUCURETI
Judeul
Contul 876403
Banca RELIGIILOR
Total
26.000
Numele delegatului:
Semntura
i tampila mijlocul de transport:
de primire
furnizorului, Expedierea s-a efectuat n prezena noastr
la data de
ora
Semnturile
30.940
26.000
4.970
4.940
Total
de plat
(col 5 + col 6)
30.940
321
Operaia 9
ORDIN DE PLAT NR.
treizecimii
PLTITOR BUCUR S.A.
1 5
101708
PRIMIRE/ACCEPTARE LA ADRESA BANCA BCR
Contarea: 5121= 411 30.000
SEMNTURA
REPREZENTND plata
furnizorului CONFEX de
materii prime
SEMNTURA
PLTITORULUI
LA DATA DE 22.12.2006
DATA EMITERII
22.12.2006
Operaia 10.
ORDIN DE PLAT NR.
1 6
PLTII 12.000 LEI, ADIC
dousprezecemii
PLTITOR CONFEX S.A. 12.000 LEI CTRE
BENEFICIAR ASIGURAREA
ASTRA
N CONT
COD FISCAL 1234567
456895
DIN CONT
PRIMIRE/ACCEPTARE LA ADRESA BANCA BCR
101708
DE LA BANCA BCR
Contarea: 471= 5121 12.000
SEMNTURA
REPREZENTND plata
asigurrii pe un an
322
SEMNTURA
PLTITORULUI
LA DATA DE 22.12.2006
DATA EMITERII
22.12.2006
Operaia 11
ORDIN DE PLAT NR.
3 0
PLTII 36.000 LEI, ADIC
treizeciiasemii
PLTITOR
PRODCONF36.000 LEI CTRE
BENEFICIAR CONFEX S.A:
S.A.
N CONT
COD FISCAL 4532678
101708
DIN CONT
PRIMIRE/ACCEPTARE LA ADRESA BANCA BCR
458701
DE LA BANCA BCR
Contarea: 5121= 472 36.000
SEMNTURA
REPREZENTND ncasarea
chiriei anuale
SEMNTURA
PLTITORULUI
LA DATA DE 22.12.2006
DATA EMITERII
22.12.2006
323
Operaia 12
Furnizor: AUTOCOM
(den., forma juridic) S.A.
Nr. Ord. Registru com.
Nr. de nreg. Fiscal
2364548
Localitatea BUCURETI
Judeul
Contul 904597
Banca BRD
Cota TVA 19%
FACTURA
FISCAL
*0477549
Seria
Cumprtor CONFEX
(den, forma juridic) S.A.
Nr. de nreg. Fiscal
1234567
Localitatea BUCURETI
Judeul
Contul 101708
BANCA BCR
Total
120.000
Numele delegatului:
Semntura
i tampila mijlocul de transport:
de primire
furnizorului, Expedierea s-a efectuat n prezena noastr
la data de
ora
Semnturile
324
22.800
Total
de plat
(col 5 + col 6)
142.800
Operaia 13
Unitatea
NOTA
CONFE
de
X
contabilitate
1
1
OP. PAD.
Nr. document
1
Simbolul conturilor
Debitor
Creditor
8
9
Nr
Explicaii
.
crt
.
1 Contractare credit 5 1 2 1
bancar pe
termen lung
ntocmit,
Verificat,
Data
Ziua Luna Anul
4
5
6
28
12 06
Suma
10
1 6 2
TOTAL
30.000
Nr.
poz.
3 0 0 0
325
Nr. Data
nreg. nreg.
1
1
2
1
10
4
5
12
15
16
17
19
22
10
22
11
23
12
25
13
28
14
31
TOTAL
326
Documentul
Explicaii
Simboluri
conturi
D
C
7
301
4426
302
4426
8
401
401
Sume
D
9
5000
950
3000
570
10
5950
3 570
601
301
1750
1750
602
302
1740
1740
401 5121
371 401
4426
411 707
4427
607 371
345 711
4000 4000
27000 32225
5225
29750 25000
4750
19500 19500
27000 27000
411
701
4427
711 345
5121 411
30940 26000
4940
18000 18000
30000 30000
471 5121
12000 12000
5121
472
2133
4426
5121
4427 4426
4424
36000 36000
9690 29545
19855
454270 454270
Debit
6
-
FI DE CONT
Contul Credite bancare pe termen lung
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
Coresp.
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
28
NC
1 Contractare
5121
credit
bancare pe
termen
lung
Total
Debit
7
40000
40000
7
30000
30000
6
5000
5000
8
C
9
40000
40000
Simbol Pg. 2
Cont
162
Credit
D/C
Sold
FI DE CONT
Contul Mijloace de transport
Simbol Pg. 1
Cont
1012
Credit
D/C
Sold
8
C
9
30000
30000
Simbol Pg. 3
Cont
2133
Credit
D/C
Sold
8
D
D
9
50000
170000
170000
Simbol Pg. 4
Cont
301
Credit
D/C
Sold
7
1750
1750
8
D
D
9
5000
3250
3250
327
FIA DE CONT
Contul Materiale consumabile
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
coresp.
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
5
Fact 400 Achiziie
401
10
BC 60 Consum
602
Total
Debit
6
3000
3000
FI DE CONT
Contul Produse finite
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
17 BPTR 56 Obinere din
711
producie
19
Fat 201 Vnzare
711
Total
Debit
6
27000
328
1740
1740
8
D
D
9
3000
1260
1260
Simbol Pg. 6.
Cont
345
Credit
D/C
Sold
8
D
9
27000
18000
18000
27000
9000
1 9000
Debit
Simbol Pg. 7
Cont
371
Credit
D/C
Sold
6
27000
8
D
D
9
27000
7500
7500
27000
19500
19500
Debit
Simbol Pg. 8
Cont
401
Credit
D/C
Sold
FI DE CONT
Contul Furnizori
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
1
BV
Sold iniial
1
Fact 210 Achiziie
301
Materii
prime
FI DE CONT
Contul Mrfuri
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
15 Fact 615 Achiziie
401
16 Fact 200 Vnzare
607
Total
Simbol Pg. 5
Cont
302
Credit
D/C
Sold
7
29000
5000
8
C
9
29000
12
15
OP 80
Plat
Fact 615 Achiziie
mrfuri
4426
302
4426
5121
371
570
C
C
C
38520
34520
61520
66745
66745
4000
5225
70745
Debit
Simbol Pg. 9
Cont
404
Credit
D/C
Sold
FI DE CONT
Contul Clieni
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
1
BV
Sold iniial
16 Fact 200 Vnzare
707
mrfuri
4427
19 Fact 201 Vnzare
701
produse
finite
4427
22
OP 15 ncasare
5121
Total
34950
27000
FI DE CONT
Contul Furnizori de imobilizri
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
25 Fact 600 Achiziie
2133
autoturism
4426
Total
4000
4426
Total
950
3000
Debit
6
4000
25000
7
120000
22800
142800
142800
142800
Simbol Pg. 10
Cont
411
Credit
D/C
Sold
4750
26000
4940
64690
30000
30000
8
D
9
4000
33750
D
D
64960
34690
34690
329
FI DE CONT
Contul TVA deductibil
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
1
Fact 210 Achiziie
401
materii
prime
5
Fact 400 Achiziie
401
materiale
consumabile
15 Fact 615 Achiziie
401
mrfuri
25 Fact 600 Achiziie
404
autoturism
31 Decont
Regularizare
4427
4424
Total
Debit
6
950
8
D
9
950
570
1520
5225
6475
22800
29545
29545
Debit
Simbol Pg. 12
Cont
4427
Credit
D/C
Sold
9690
9690
FIA DE CONT
Contul TVA de recuperat
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
31 Decont
Regularizare
4426
Total
330
9690
19855
29545
FIA DE CONT
Contul TVA colectat
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
16 Fact 200 Vnzare
411
mrfuri
19 Fact 201 Vnzare
411
produse
finite
31 Decont
Regularizare
4424
Total
Simbol Pg. 11
Cont
4426
Credit
D/C
Sold
Debit
6
19855
19855
7
4750
8
C
9
4750
4940
9690
9690
Simbol Pg. 13
Cont
4424
Credit
D/C
Sold
8
D
9
19855
19855
FIA DE CONT
Contul Cheltuieli n avans
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
22
OP 16
Plata
5121
asigurrii pe
un an
Total
Debit
6
12000
8
D
9
12000
12000
12000
Debit
Simbol Pg. 15
Cont
472
Credit
D/C
Sold
FIA DE CONT
Contul Venituri n avans
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
23
OP 30 ncasarea
5121
chiriei pe un
an
Total
Simbol Pg. 14
Cont
471
Credit
D/C
Sold
7
36000
8
C
36000
FIA DE CONT
Contul Conturi curente la bnci
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont Debit
l
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
BV
Sold iniial
15000
12
OP 80
Plat
401
furnizor
22
OP 15 ncasare
411
30000
client
22
OP 16
Plat
471
asigurare
anual
23
OP 30 ncasare
472
36000
chirie
anual
28
NC
1 Contractare
162
30000
credit
Total
111000
9
36000
36000
Simbol Pg. 16
Cont
5121
Credit
D/C
Sold
7
4000
12000
16000
8
D
D
9
15000
11000
41000
29000
-
65000
95000
95000
331
FI DE CONT
Contul Cheltuieli cu materii prime
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
10
BC 60 Consum
3 01
materii
prime
Total
Debit
6
1750
Debit
6
1740
Debit
6
19500
332
9
1750
1750
Simbol Pg. 18
Cont
602
Credit
D/C
Sold
8
D
Debit
6
9
1740
1740
Simbol Pg. 19
Cont
607
Credit
D/C
Sold
8
D
19500
FI DE CONT
Contul Venituri din vnzarea produselor finite
Data Documentul Explicaii Simbol cont
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
19 Fact 201 Vnzri
411
produse
finite
Total
8
D
1740
FI DE CONT
Contul Cheltuieli privind mrfurile
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
16 Fact 200 Vnzare
371
mrfuri
Total
1750
FI DE CONT
Contul Cheltuieli cu materialele consumabile
Data Documentu Explicaii Simbol cont
l
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
10
BC 60 Consum
302
materiale
consumabile
Total
Simbol Pg. 17
Cont
601
Credit
D/C
Sold
9
19500
19500
Simbol Pg. 20
Cont
701
Credit
D/C
Sold
7
26000
26000
8
C
9
26000
26000
FI DE CONT
Contul Venituri din vnzarea mrfurilor
Data Documentul Explicaii Simbol cont
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
16 Fact 200 Vnzare
411
mrfuri
Total
Debit
6
7
25000
8
C
25000
FI DE CONT
Contul Venituri din producia stocat
Data Documentul Explicaii Simbol cont
coresp
Felul Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
17 BPTR 56 Obinere
345
produse
finite
19 Fact 201 Vnzare
345
produse
finite
Total
Simbol Pg. 21
Cont
707
Credit
D/C
Sold
Debit
6
I 25000
Simbol Pg. 22
Cont
711
Credit
D/C
Sold
7
27000
18000
18000
9
25000
8
C
9
27000
9000
27000
9000
Balan de
verificare
Debit
1012
162
2133
281
301
302
345
371
401
404
411
4426
4427
4424
471
472
5121
170000
3250
1260
9000
7500
34690
Regularizri
Balan de
Cont de
Bilan
verificare
rezultate
rectificat
Credit Debit Credit Debit Credit Debit Credit Debit Credit
40000
40000
40000
30000
30000
30000
170000
170000
10000
10000
3250
3250
1260
1260
9000
9000
7500
7500
66745
66745
66745
142800
142800
142800
34690
34690
19855
12000
19855
36000 3000
95000
19855
110110
1000
33000
95000
33000
95000
333
601
602
607
613
681
701
706
707
711
Total
Profit
brut
Total
1750
1740
19500
1750
1740
19500
1000
10000
1000
10000
26000
3000
25000
9000
1750
1740
19500
1000
10000
26000
3000
25000
26000
3000
25000
9000
11400
0
334
31.12.2005 31.12.2006
150000
160000
-
150000
160000
150000
160000
-
nominale)
B. Active circulante
I. Stocuri
1. Materii prime i consumabile
2. Producia n curs de execuie
3. Produse finite i mrfuri
4. Avansuri pentru cumprri de stocuri
II. Creane
(Sumele ce trebuie s fie ncasate dup o perioad mai mare de
un an trebuie s fie prezentate separat pentru fiecare element)
1. Creane comerciale
2. Sume de ncasat de la societile din cadrul grupului
3. Sume de ncasat din interese de participare
4. Alte creane
5. Creane privind capitalul subscris i nevrsat
III. Investii financiare pe termen scurt
1. Titluri de participare n societile din cadrul grupului
2. Aciuni proprii, n msura n care legislaia naional
permite nscrierea acestora n bilan (cu indicarea n note a
valorii nominale)
3. Alte investiii financiare pe termen scurt
IV. Casa i conturi la bnci
C. Cheltuieli n avans
D. Datorii ce trebuie pltite ntr-o perioad de un an
1. mprumuturi din emisiunea de obligaiuni, prezentndu-se
separat mprumuturile n monede convertibile
2. Sume datorate instituiilor de credit
3. Avansuri ncasate n contul comenzilor, atta timp ct nu
sunt prezentate separat ca deduceri de stocuri
4. Datorii comerciale
5. Efecte de comer de pltit
6. Sume datorate societilor din cadrul grupului
7. Sume datorate privind interesele de participare
8. Alte datorii, inclusiv datorii fiscale i datorii pentru asigurrile
sociale
E. Active circulante nete respectiv datorii curente nete
F. Total active minus datorii curente
G. Datorii ce trebuie pltite ntr-o perioad mai mare de un an
1. mprumuturi din emisiunea de obligaiuni, prezentndu-se
separat mprumuturile n monede convertibile
2. Sume datorate instituiilor de credit
3. Avansuri ncasate n contul comenzilor, atta timp ct nu
sunt prezentate separat ca deduceri din stocuri
4. Datorii comerciale
5. Efecte de comer de pltit
6. Sume datorate societilor din cadrul grupului
7. Sume datorate privind interesele de participare
8. Alte datorii, inclusiv datorii fiscale i datorii pentru
130000
20000
2000
18000
170555
21010
4510
16500
30000
54545
20000
10000
34690
-
80000
10000
200000
-
95000
11009
209545
-
200000
209545
200000
90000
10000
209545
132010
30000
10000
-
30000
-
19855
335
asigurrile sociale
H. Provizioane pentru riscuri i cheltuieli
1. Provizioane pentru pensii i alte obligaii similare
2. Alte provizioane prevzute de IAS
1. Venituri n avans
J. Capital i rezerve
1. Capital subscris (prezentndu-se separat capitalul vrsat i cel
nevrsat)
II. Prime de capital
111. Rezerve din reevaluare
IV. Rezerve
1. Rezerve legate
2. Rezerve pentru aciuni proprii
3. Rezerve statutare sau contractuale
4. Alte rezerve
V. Rezultatul reportat
VI. Rezultatul exerciiului financiar
20000
60000
45000
33000
69010
40000
15000
29010
336
31.12.2005 31.12.2006
20000
5000
34500
9000
1000
-
3490
-
9000
15000
-
11000
29010
-
337
D. NOTELE EXPLICATIVE
NOTA 1. ACTIVE IMOBILIZATE
Valoarea contabil brut
Deprecieri***)
(amortizare i provizioane
Elemente Sold la Creteri Reduceri Sold la Sold la Deprecierea Reduceri Sold la
de
1
31
1
nregistrat Sau
31
active*) ianuari
decembrie ianuarie n cursul reluri
dee
exerciiucembrie
lui
0
1
2
3
4=1+2-3
5
6
7
8=5+67
170000
170000
10000
160000
Transferuri
in cont
Din cont
2
Sold la 31
decembrie
4=1+2-3
Suma
29010
14505
10000
4505
338
Exerciiul Exerciiul
precedent
curent
1
2
34500
14490
14490
20010
9000
29010
Sold la 31
decembrie
(col. 2 +3)
1
34690
19855
Sold la
31 decembrie
col. 2+3)
1
66754
142800
Termen de lichiditate
Sub 1 an
2
34690
19855
Sub 1 an
Peste 1 an
3
Termen de exigibilitate
1 -5 ani
Peste 5 ani
2
66754
142800
30000
= Active
curente Stocuri =
Datorii curente
= 170555
21010 = 0,71
209545
2. Indicatori de risc
Indicatorul
= Capital mprumutat x 100
gradului de ndatorare
Capital propriu
sau
Capital mprumutat x 100 = 30000 = 0,43
Capital angajat
69010
unde:
Capital mprumutat = Credite peste 1 an
Capital angajat = Capital mprumutat + Capital propriu
3. Indicatori ai profitabilitii indic eficienta ntreprinderii n realizarea de
profit din resursele disponibile.
339
340
CHAPTER 1
341
CHAPTER 2
342
- The definition of the method of research and of its proceedings, with a view to
the standards and general principles which must be based on a precise terminology,
identical to all the users of the accounting information.;
- The establishment of the RONe and the place it has in what concerns the sciences
and the economic accounting;
- The elaboration of the means of putting accounting into practice (documents,
registers, forms) in order to assure the comparing of the accounting information in time
and space.
Organized in each administrative institution, the applied accounting (as a main
instrument of knowledge administration and contRON of the patrimony and the given
results) has a series of specific tasks, among which we find:
- The supply with data and information necessary to elaborate the programs, where
it is essential the Budget of Income and Expenses;
- The chronological recording of the economic and financial transactions;
- The contRON of the patrimony operations, of the exactness of accounting data;
- Accounting has to contribute with data and information to the increasing of the
economic effectiveness, by using in a judicious way the production factors which have to
assure the retrieving of the expenses out of the income and the profit obtained;
- The supply with data and necessary information in order to regularly come up
with synthesis documents which constitute an image of the patrimony, of the financial
status and the results, so that these pieces of information should be used by all the users
when taking an economic decision.
In management, accounting has a lot of important functions, such as:
- the recording function;
- the informing function;
- the contRON and audit function;
- the forecasting function;
The main systems are those in simple and double entry, which are dominant in both
theory and practice:
Accounting in simple entry is called so because an economic transaction is registered
in one entry. For example, the entrance of a sum of money into pay office is registered at
the Pay office entry.
Accounting in double entry considers the representation of the economic transactions
by recording in two entries, at the same time, an entry which shows the origin and another
which indicates the destination.
The single and double circuits systems are created according to the concept of
organizing the accounts.
The accounting system with a single circuit (monist) organizes the accounts in only
one flux inside the economic circuit: capital-supply-manufacture-sale-accomplishment
both for the transactions regarding the relations with the third (the external functions) and
those regarding the internal administration (the internal functions).
The double circuit accounting system (dualist) organizes the accounts so to delimit,
in distinct circuits, those which have as an object the recording of the patrimony elements
and operations, which are related to the exchanges and the relations with the third, as well
as the financial results, and in a different circuit the accounts which record the internal
administrative operations, regarding the production, the costs and the profitability of the
products, work or services provided. Thus is formed the circuit of the financial or general
accounting and the circuit of the internal administrative accounting.
343
344
CHAPTER 3
345
means inside the economic process, the final result of these movements and
transformations, the juridical relations of a money-patrimony nature which generates
rights and obligations, mirrored in currency and sometimes in a quantitative way inside
the perimeter of the patrimony units.
A first ensemble of relations delimited and studied by the accounting subject is the
one created between the economic assets, as objects of rights and obligations, on one side,
the rights and obligations regarding these goods, on the other. The equation created thus
looks like this:
Economic assets = Rights + Obligations
Acting in the name of the society, the entrepreneurs do not hire their own patrimony,
but the one belonging to the society, the material responsibility coming to this one. As a
consequence, the entrepreneur has obligations towards the owners, and the equation of
the patrimony looks like this:
Economic assets = Obligations towards the owner + Obligations towards the
third
Interpreted according to the economic capital category, the exchange relations
studied by accounting represent the relations between the rights and money obligations,
on one side, and the economic assets invested and used inside an enterprise, on the other.
The money rights correspond to the own capital, the obligations of the foreign capital,
and the economic assets represent the way of investments and using of the capital. So, the
equation looks like this:
Economic assets = Own capital + Obligations
According to the previous exchange relations, accounting has the informational
capacity as to unveil the situation of the patrimony and to calculate the result. The
situation of the patrimony is described from the viewpoint of the property relations the
subject finds himself in, the equation looking like this:
The assets of the patrimony - Obligations with an economic value = Own capital
A second ensemble of exchange accounts represented and unveiled in accounting is
specific to the activities which produce qualitative and quantitative transformation in the
patrimony mass. The equilibrium created thus is an expression of the fact that any
developing activity is simultaneously consuming resources and producing results, and
informationally the cause of the result is unveiled. So, the equation of the result looks like
this:
Expenses Result = Income
By remitting the two equations, the one of the patrimony situation and result, there
can be written by the fundamental equality of accounting:
Assets Expenses = Liabilities + Income
The third ensemble of exchange relations studied in the accounting subject is the one
regarding the financial situation of the patrimony entity. To this purpose the economic
and financial transactions, which produce modifications in the patrimony are grouped like
this: investments, financing and runnings.
The subject of accounting stands for the evidence, calculus, analysis and contRON of
the exchange relations between the allocation and financing, destination and source,
utilization and re-production of the economic values separated in the patrimony, with the
unveiling of the net and financial situation of the patrimony, as well as that of the results
which have been obtained.
Accounting is organized inside each unit of the patrimony (autonomous
administrations or national companies, commercial societies, public institutions, co-
346
operative organizations and other units with a juridical personality) and of the natural and
legal persons which have commercial activities.
The patrimony units can be state property or private property, depending on the form
of property. The commercial societies, depending on the form of constitution and
functioning, can be of several types: in collective name, in simple limited partnership, in
shares limited partnership, on shares, and with limited liability.
While a countrys economy grows more and more complex, the interdependencies
between its structural variables increase, the action sphere of accounting spreads at a
macro-economic level. This is how the national accounting appears.
The fundamental objective of accounting, as social practice, is the supply of
information likely to assure a real image of the patrimony financial situation and results.
As the accounting standards become settled, meaning that they are imposed by legal
texts and other obligatory texts, the real image is defined in three terms: regularity,
honesty and fidelity.
Besides the fundamental objective, the real image subordinates a series of objectives
which are partial or derivative such as:
a. the observation and grouping of all the necessary information towards a
description of the real image of the patrimony, of the financial situation and the result.
b. the recording of the accounting data in order to be thought over and transmitted in
due time to the information consumers.
c. the accounting information must provide to the users and adequate, clear, correct
and complete description of the transactions, events and situations.
d. the providing of the comparison between information during the successive
exercises by permanently applying the rules, methods and proceedings.
Accounting, as any other scientific discipline, has its own method of research based
on certain laws, principles, which reflect its particularities and essence in order to
achieve its subject of study.
The fundamental principles of accounting
(generally admitted)
* The principles of recording the economic-financial transactions:
- the principle of continuous and complete recording;
- the principle of the uniformity of accounting recording
- the principle of the documentary initiation of the accounting recording
- the principle of accounting.
* The principles of the double entry:
- the principle of the double representation
- the principle of the double recording
- the principle of the double calculus of the accounting result
- the principle of chronological and systematic recording
- the principle of the analytical and synthetic recording
* The principles of observation:
- the principle of the entity
- the principle of the continuity in activity
- the principle of the independence of the exercise
- the principle of the permanence in method
- the principle of the intangibility of the balance sheet
* The principles of quantifying or measurement:
347
348
CHAPTER 4
349
The support or source of data for this type of balance sheet relies on the system of
accounts employed in the accountancy of the enterprise.
The synthetic and centralising balance it is drafted by centralizing the primary
balance sheets in national accounts and on the level of the economy. On this basis, the
synthetic balance sheet of the national economy is drawn up on the level of the Ministry
of Public Finance.
From the point of view of the drafting moment, we can distinguish:
- the initial or foundation balance it does not contain economic
results;
- the management or current balance (half-yearly, yearly);
- the final, liquidation or fusion balance.
Balancing structures regarding the patrimony
The balancing assets
The assets contain the economic goods or means that the enterprise disposes of. In
other words, the assets indicate the use of capital as durable goods, stocks, book debt
disposable funds and other values, and the liabilities indicate the origin of the capital. The
assets point out the destination and liquidity of the economic goods (the period of
transforming into money).
THE FIXED ASSETS also called real assets include all those economic values of
investment whose application and liquidity period is longer than one year. They form the
foundation and means of action of the enterprise. The fixed assets differentiate
themselves in three groups:
The intangible assets, also called invisible, consist of all those economic values of
investment which are not physically materialised in tangible goods:
The setting up expenses consist of expenses for the setting up, the development and
the merging of the enterprise, such as the expenses regarding the taxes and other fees for
registration and matriculation, expenses concerning the issuing and selling of shares,
marketing research expenses and advertising expenditure. All these expenses are
submitted to depreciation for five years at most.
The development expenses are represented by the expenses made for new
technologies, new products and, useful and efficient investments as against the future
activity of the enterprise. These expenses are generally depreciated in maximum five
years.
The franchises, the certificates, the licences, the brands, the rights and similar
values and other intangible assets contain all the expenses made for the purchasing of the
exploitation rights of a good, activity or a service, in case of the franchises, of a
certificate, of the know-how, of a licence, of a factory brand and other similar rights of
industrial and intellectual property. These expenses are depreciated all along the period
the enterprise has purchased the exploitation or utilisation right of such intangibles.
The stock trade characterizes the expenses made for the maintenance or development
of the enterprise activity potential, for example: the customers, the goodwill, the firm, the
market share, the corporate image, the competition and other commercial links. The size
of the stock trade is depreciated all along the period this one creates a plus value to the
buying enterprise.
350
The advance money and the intangible assets in course of completing are fixed
assets that have not been completed at the end of the financial exercise, including the
sums of money carried to the account of the intangible assets.
The (fixed) tangible assets occur under the form of goods with material contents
(tangible). The regulations introduced by The Development Programme of the Romanian
Accountancy define the tangible assets as being assets owned by an enterprise in order to
be used in goods production or services performance, with administrative purposes or to
be rented by thirds, assets that will be used for more exercises. The depreciable value is
systematically assigned to the serviceable life duration of the tangible asset, choosing a
depreciation method that should reflect the pace at which the economic profits are
consumed by the enterprise (the linear method, the gradual method, the method of the
production units). The serviceable life duration is either for the period of time the assets
are expected to be used by the enterprise; or the number of production units or similar
units that are expected to be obtained by the enterprise through the employment of the
assets. In the structure of the tangible assets we can include:
The lands and the lands lay out. The lands have unlimited serviceable duration, being
the only elements of the tangible assets that are not submitted to depreciation. In
exchange, the investments made to lay out the lands and other similar actions are
depreciated.
The constructions. The constructions are fixed means represented by buildings
purchased by thirds or from the personal production, which are submitted to depreciation,
because they have a limited serviceable duration. Although a building cannot be separated
from the land it uses, it is important that the lands and the constructions are emphasised
separately.
The technical installations and the machines are fixed means represented by
technological equipments (machines, equipments, and installations), devices and
measurement, contRON and adjusting installations, means of transport, animals and
plantations.
According to the legislation in our country, there are considered as fixed means the
single object or the group of objects that is used as such and fulfils cumulatively the
following conditions:
- it has a greater value than the limit imposed by law.
- it has a normal serviceable duration longer than year.
Other installations, equipments and furniture include the assets unspecified in the
above groups, such as: furniture, office apparatus, equipments for the protection of the
human and physical values and other tangible assets.
The advance money and the tangible assets in course of completing include the assets
that have not been completed for personal needs made by the enterprise or thirds,
including the sums of money carried to the account of the tangible assets.
The financial assets (also called long term financial investments) indicate the
financial values invested by the enterprise in the long term, under the form of titles and
financial debits, with the purpose of obtaining financial revenues under the form of
dividends or interests, by increasing the capitalised value or by cashing in on the
commercialisation of these investments.
The interests, the dues, the dividends, and the rents due to a financial asset are
generally considered revenues, which form the performance of the investment. In their
structure we can include:
351
The shares represent the rights under the form of other securities in the capital of
other enterprise, which provide for the holder enterprise the exercise of contRON,
respectively, a significant influence in the management of the securities issuing
enterprise. They can be also possessed for other strategic reasons.
Other fixed titles include securities, others than the mentioned categories that the
enterprise possesses and has not either the intention or the possibility to resell them.
The fixed debits represent the debits concerning shares, long-term loans, and
other fixed debits. The debits concerning shares are those debits of the enterprise formed
on the occasion of loaning to the enterprises where it owns shares. The long-term loans
are the sums given by the enterprise to the thirds by virtue of some contracts for which
the enterprise charges interest, according to the legal norms. In the category other fixed
debits we can include the guarantees and bails deposited by the enterprise to the thirds for
guaranteeing the good performance of some duties.
THE CURRENT ASSETS are the goods and values that are used for a short period
in the activity of the enterprise and, generally, take part in a single economic circuit,
permanently changing their shape.
The regulations introduced by The Development Programme of the Romanian
Accountancy define the current assets as a resource which is expected to be achieved or it
is owned for consumption or selling, during the normal operation course; or it is
possessed, mainly, with the purpose of commercialising or on short term and it is
expected to be achieved in 12 month-time from balance date; or it stands for cash or
equivalent cash whose utilisation is not restricted. In the structure of the current assets
there are included:
The stocks are the totality of goods and services within the enterprise owned either to
be sold as such or after their processing in the process of manufacture, or to be consumed
at their first use. The regulations from The International Accountancy Standards define
the stocks, as it follows: the assets owned in order to be sold during the normal carrying
out of the activity; during the production in view of selling or under the form of raw
materials, materials and other consumables that are going to be used in the process of
manufacture or for services performance. Within stocks we can include:
The raw materials intended to utilisation in the process of manufacture, they take part
directly in the product creation, being found in the end product entirely or partially, either
in the initial state or transformed.
The consumable materials (for example, auxiliary materials, fuels, packing materials,
spare parts, seeds and planting materials, fodders and other consumable materials) are
intended to utilisation in the process of manufacture and take part or help the process of
manufacture or of operation, without being found, as a rule, in the end product.
Materials of the inventory object kind represent goods with a value lower than the
limit stipulated by the law, to be considered fixed means, despite their serviceable
duration or with duration smaller than a year, no matter what value they have, as well as
the goods related to these ones (protective outfit, work equipment, special clothing,
mechanisms, devices, verifying punches, measurement and contRON instruments,
moulds for manufacturing some products and other similar objects).
The stocks at thirds consist of various goods similar to the stocks possessed by the
enterprise, but which are physically in the custody, processing or on consignment of the
thirds.
The packaging consists of the goods used with the purpose of protection during the
transport or storage of different assets.
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The production in course of completing represents the production which has not
covered all the stages of processing, stipulated by the industrial run, as well as the
products that have not been tested, and have not had the acceptance delivery test, or are
incomplete. There are also included the products and services in course of completing.
The end products and the commodities are goods represented by semi-manufactured
goods, end products, residual products, animals and commodities.
The semi-manufactured goods are products whose industrial run has ended in a
production stage (organisational segment) and which go on to the industrial run of other
production stages (organisational segment) or are delivered to the thirds.
The end products are the products which have covered all the production stages
stipulated by the industrial run of the enterprise, being stored in view of selling to thirds.
The residual products are the products resulting from the industrial run: rubbish
goods, recoverable materials, wastage.
The animals include animals, poultry born or young of any kind (calves, lambs, pigs,
colts and others), bred and employed for reproduction, animals and poultry fattened to
render profit, swarms of bees, as well as animals for the production of wool, milk and fur.
The commodities are those goods that have been bought by the enterprise in view of
reselling.
The advance money for buying stocks includes sums of money paid in advance to
suppliers on account of the provision of goods and services.
The debits (also called values in course of deduction) represent the values temporally
advanced by the enterprise to the thirds (natural or legal person) for which it is to receive
an equivalent (a sum of money or a service).
The natural and legal persons who have profited from an advance value, having to
give the corresponding equivalent are generically denominated debtors.
The debtors of the enterprise under the form of debits from selling goods and
performing services proper to the operation activity of the enterprise are delimited
through the structure of assimilated clients and accounts. In the organisation of debits we
can include:
The commercial debits are the most significant, being formed of the debits towards
clients and bill receivables.
The clients include the debits resulted from the sold goods, the fulfilled activities, the
performed services, whose equivalent value is going to be subsequently cashed up.
The bill receivables are negotiable titles under the form of bill of exchange,
promissory note, which certify the existence of a debit within the commercial relations
that is to be cashed up in the short run, usually up to 90 days.
The debits within the group are produced by the settling up relationship between the
parent company (an enterprise that has one or more subsidiaries) and its subsidiaries
(enterprises supervised by the parent society).
The debits from shares are the debits caused by the settling up relations of the
enterprise with associate enterprises (on which it is exerted a significant influence).
Other debits are represented by the debits caused by the settling up relations of the
enterprise with the personnel, the state budget, other public structures, the social
insurances, the social protection, various debtors, etc.
The debits concerning the subscribed and unpaid capital are represented by the debits
caused by the relations of the enterprise with its shareholders, referring to the authorized
share capital subscriptions effected and not deposited.
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The financial investments in the short run (also called investment titles or treasury
stock) consist of the financial values invested by the enterprise with the view of obtaining
a short - term revenue. In the structure of financial investments in the short run there are
included:
The personal shares are the shares temporally paid off with the view of distributing
them to the personnel or the thirds, regularising the market price or reducing the
authorized share capital.
Other financial investments include quoted and unquoted shares, issued, redeemable
stocks, quoted and unquoted bonds purchased by the enterprise with the view of obtaining
financial revenues in the short run.
The cash budget and the bank accounts consist of values that are effectively
materialised in money, the foreign currency liquidness being separated from the one in
RON. In the structure of the liquidness we can include:
The bank accounts refer to cheques to be cashed, RON liquidness and foreign
currency and sums to be settled up. The liquidness or the bank deposits can function as a
current account or as a deposit account.
The cash budget represents the money liquidness that is found at the pay office of the
enterprise in RON, foreign currency, or other values (fiscal stamps, postage-stamps,
tickets for treatment and holiday facilities, plane or railway tickets etc.).
The letters of credit are opened by the enterprise at banks and represent reserved
sums of money with the view of paying off some bonds towards suppliers of goods and
services according to the fulfilment of the conditions due to the letters of credit.
The treasury advance money is the sum transferred to banks or sums in cash, at the
disposal of the personnel or the thirds, legal or natural persons, with the view of making
some payments on behalf of the enterprise.
THE EXPENSES IN ADVANCE represent the values that ensure the allocation to
each financial exercise only of the expenses that are appropriate. In their structure we can
include the expenses registered in advance.
The expenses registered in advance are sums of money paid off during the current
exercise, but that refer to services that are going to be considered expenses (for example:
rent or the annual payments settled in advance).
The balancing liabilities
The accounting Romanian standards stipulate the following structure of the balancing
liabilities:
THE CAPITAL AND THE RESERVES (also called personal capital) represent
the fixed financial sources that an enterprise disposes of. Along with the long-term
credits, the personal capitals belong to the category of permanent capitals. In the structure
of personal capital, we can include:
The capital is represented by the contribution of money or money and kind of the
owners. The capital is differentiated in unpaid subscribed capital and paid subscribed
capital.
The unpaid subscribed capital is the capital that the owners have committed to
place at the disposal of the enterprise.
354
The paid subscribed capital is that part of the subscribed capital that has been,
physically, deposited by the owners at the disposal of the enterprise.
The capital is formed at the setting up of the enterprise, is modified along the
development of the activity, through capital increase or decrease, and it is settled at the
same time with the dissolvability of the enterprise. The initial value of the shares is called
nominal rated value.
The capital premiums are sources generated by operations of increasing the capital
through new share issue, merging or contribution in kind. The issue premiums and the
contribution ones are formed from the difference between the (higher) issue price of the
new shares and the (lower) nominal rated value of the shares. The new issued shares must
have the same nominal rated value, in order to grant the same rights to the shareholders.
The revaluation reserves represent the value plus created through the revaluation of
the fixed assets, as a difference between the (higher) value resulted from this operation
and the (lower) value registered in accounting of the assets elements. The revaluation
reserves thus created can be used for the increase of the capital or other fixed destinations
according to the regulations in force.
The reserves are sources formed yearly from the profit of the enterprise, within the
limits stipulated by the regulations in force, of the statute of the trading companies or
according to the decision of the general shareholders meeting, or associates meeting. In
their structure there are included:
The legal reserves are formed from the gross profit or from the capital premiums,
being destined to the protection of the capital.
The statutory reserves are formed yearly from the net profit of the enterprises,
according to the provisions from their statute.
The reserves for personal shares are constituted in the situation in which a joint-stock
company has recovered its own shares, with the purpose of maintaining the level of its
capital.
Other reserves, not stipulated by law or statute, can be formed from the net profit
according to the general shareholders meeting, respecting the legal provisions.
The reported result represents the financial result or the part of the result whose
financial allocation has been delayed by general shareholders meeting. The reported
result can be positive, the case of undivided profits, or negative, meaning losses found at
the end of the anterior exercises, financially uncovered yet.
The result of the exercise can be favourable, in which case it represents a profit and a
proper source of financing till the moment it is divided on the legal or statutory
destinations or it can be unfavourable, case in which it represents a loss that must be
covered. In the latter situation, the result is presented on the balance with minus,
decreasing the personal capital.
THE COMMISSIONS FOR RISKS AND EXPENSES are debts of the enterprise
that are usually formed at the end of the exercise.
The regulations introduced by The Development Programme of the Romanian
Accountancy define them as being debts with exigible character or uncertain value. The
recognition of the commissions is achieved only the moment: an enterprise has a current
liability (legal or implicit) caused by an anterior event; it is likely that a resources coming
out which affects the economic profits, should be necessary to pay off the respective
obligation and a good estimation of the value of the obligation can be attained.
The difference between the commissions for risks and the other debts of the
enterprise consists of the uncertainty that affects the first concerning the size or the date
355
of payment. Such commissions are formed for expenses that become exigible during the
following periods (for example, litigations, fines and penalties, compensations, damages
and other uncertain debts, expenses related to the service activity during the guarantee
period and other expenses regarding the guarantee conceded to the clients, the expenses
with capital repairs deferred on more periods.
THE DEBTS (also called foreign capital) are the foreign financial sources placed at
the disposal of the enterprise, either by banks or other financial institutions, either by
suppliers, or thirds to which the enterprise has to award a labour conscription or a value
equivalent.
The regulations introduced by The Development Programme of the Romanian
Accountancy classify the debt in current debt and long-term debts. A current debt is an
obligation that is expected to be paid off in the normal course of the operation cycle of the
enterprise; or it is exigible in a 12 month-period since the date of the balance. All the
other debts must be classified in the long run. In the structure of the debts we can include:
The loans and the assimilated debts represent the financial debts of the enterprise
regarding: loans from the obligation issue, banking credits in the long run received from
banks and other financial institutions.
The loans from the obligation issue represent financial sources in the long run
assured by the selling of negotiable credit titles to the public, usually through the agency
of financial institutions. These loans are divided in equal parts, called bonds,
reimbursable at the stated time or deferred and interest bearer.
The credits received from banks and other institutions include the long-term credits
and the short-term ones (treasury credits). These credits cause interests and are
guaranteed with the assets of the enterprise.
The commercial debts represent the debts of the enterprise created within the settling
up relations with the suppliers for goods purchasing, activities fulfilment and services
performance. In their structure we can include the suppliers and the bill payables.
The bill payables represent the value titles which certify the payment obligation of
the enterprise within the settling up relation with the suppliers.
The debts within the group are the debts owed to the societies within the group in the
settling up relations of the parent company with the subsidiaries.
The debts from shares represent the debts caused from the settling up relations of the
enterprise with the associates.
Other debts represent the fiscal, salaried, social debts of the enterprise towards the
state budget (taxes), towards the hired personnel (salaries and other assimilated rights),
towards the social insurances (the contribution to the social insurances), towards the
associates (reimbursement capital, payable dividends), towards various creditors.
THE REVENUES IN ADVANCE represent the values that assure the allocation for
each financial exercise only of the revenues that are appropriate. In their structure we can
include:
The subsidies for investments represent financial sources allocated from the state
budget or from other irredeemable sources that an enterprise benefits of, destined to
purchasing or producing equipment or other goods as the fixed assets, destined to longterm activities or to the covering of some expenses, such as investment.
The revenues registered in advance are the sums cashed during the exercise, in the
account of some services that are going to be performed during the following exercise,
when they will be considered revenues (for example, rents, annual payment settle din
advance).
356
The relation with the explanatory notes. In order to facilitate the reading of the
balance, the presented information is synthetic; for details the reader of the balance
should consult the explanatory notes of the financial situation. Without these details, the
economic reality of the enterprise cannot be pierced, we cannot know the composition of
the assets, debts and capitals or the risks assumed by the bord of the enterprise.
THE REGULARISATION VALUES represent either assets structures or liabilities
structures created by the stimulation of the expenses and the passiveness of the revenues.
There are in this situation the expenses and revenues found in advance (previously
registered) during the financial exercise, according to which it is directly reported to the
result of the following exercise, as well as the expenses made within the financial
exercise, but to be divided on several subsequent exercises.
The expenses found in advance by their nature, represent: the rents paid in advance,
the annual payments, the renting taxes, the insurance premiums and the interests paid in
advance.
The expenses to be divided on several exercises include: expenses for unpredictable
capital repairs, expenses for current repairs and technical supervision etc.
The revenues registered in advance include all the revenues resulting from the
advance cashing of some activities and services (rents, taxes, advance cashed interests).
In the category of the regularization assets are also to be found the differences from
the conversion in lei of the debts and debentures in foreign currency, as well as the bonds
reimbursement premium, etc.
Types of modifications regarding the assets and liabilities of the patrimonial unit
No matter how various could the economic and financial transactions be from the
point of view of their nature and economic content, from the point of view of the types of
modifications that they produce on the assets and liabilities of the balance, they can be
grouped in 4 categories, as following:
economic and financial transactions which produce modifications only in
the assets of the balance, i.e. the increase of an active element and, in the same time
and in the same amount, the decrease of another asset element, the total of the assets
remaining unchanged, the balance equality being maintained (A+x-x= P);
economic and financial transactions which produce modifications only to
the liabilities of the balance, i.e. the increase of a liabilities element, and in the same
time and in the same amount, the decrease of another liabilities element, the total of
the liabilities remaining unchanged, the balance equality being maintained (A=L+yy);
economic and financial transactions which produce modifications in both
parts of the balance, i.e. the increase of an asset element and in the same time and in
the same amount the increase of e liabilities element, the total of the assets and
liabilities remaining unchanged, the equality being maintained (A+z=L+z);
financial and economic transactions which produce modifications in both
parts of the balance, i. e. the decrease of an asset element and in the same time and in
the same amount the decrease of a liabilities element, the total of the assets and
liabilities remaining unchanged, the equality being maintained (A-v=L-v).
Regardless the type of modification produced over the assets and liabilities of the
patrimonial unit, the balance equality is permanently maintained. This happens because in
the case of each economic or financial transaction a double modification in the opposite
direction was produced in the same time and in the same amount, at the time when the
elements from the same part of the balance were influenced and cancelled, or in the same
357
direction in the case that elements from both parts of the balance were influenced and
added, respectively subtracted from the total of the balance.
Modeling the patrimony through the result account
The consume of resources and the results of the economic and social activities are
analyzed in accounting through the Result account or the Profit and loss account, showing
and explaining the results from the point of view of the balanced ratio between expenses
and income.
The expenses mean in value expression patrimonial reports regarding the usage of
resources within the activities unfolded by a patrimonial entity which have as effect the
decrease of the own capital.
The income represents patrimonial reports regarding the wealth obtained from its
activities by a patrimonial entity and from the property owned, which have as result the
increase of the own capital.
If one considers the IASC accounting frame, the definition of the above mentioned
structures is presented as it follows:
The expenses represent diminishing the economic benefits registered during the
accounting period as outputs or decreases of the value of the assets or increases of debt,
which result into a decrease of the own capital, others than those resulted from their
distribution to the shareholders;
The income represent increases of the economic benefits registered during the
accounting period as inputs or increases of the assets or decreases of the debts, which
result into increases of the own capital, others than those resulted from the contributions
of the shareholders.
The expenses and incomes represented in accounting can be grouped as following:
According to their nature:
358
The comparison, at the end of the accounting periods of incomes and expenses
according to the three above mentioned categories and at the global level leads to the
result which can be profit or loss.
According to the destination, the expenses and incomes are differentiated according
to the important functions of the enterprise: production, delivery, administration and
financial. Thus, the expenses are divided in: production expenses, general administration
expenses, delivery expenses, financial expenses and other expenses.
Regarding the income, considering their destination, they are grouped in income
from sales that can be found in the turnover, other income from operation, financial
income and extraordinary income.
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CHAPTER 5
360
the credit circulation. The debit circulation represents the total of the recordings made in the debit
of an account in an accounting period. The credit circulation represents the total recordings
made in the credit of an account in an accounting period.
Ex:
By adding the initial debit balance and the debit, circulation is obtained the total of
the debit sums, and by adding the initial credit balance and the credit circulation is
determined the total of the credit sums. If an account has no initial debit balance, the total
of the debit sums is equal with the debit movement or circulation, and in the situation
when the accounts do not have initial credit balance, the total of the credit sums is equal
with the credit movement or circulation.
The balance of account is the size at one certain moment of the patrimonial element or
structure to which the account was associated as model of record and calculus.
Mainly, the balance is calculated as difference between the total of the debit sums
and the total of the credit ones, and the other way around. Getting the sign of the bigger total,
the balance can be debit (abbreviated as DB) if the total of the debit sums is bigger than that of the
credit sums, or credit (abbreviated as CB) if the total of the credit sums is bigger than that of the
debit ones. If the total of the debit sums of an account is equal to the total of its credit
sums, the account has no balance, being paid off or balanced.
In brief, the balance of account is determined on the basis of these relations:
The balance are usually determined at the end of the accounting period, representing
final balances which appear at the beginning of the next accounting period as initial
balance.
Considering the moment when the balance is calculated, it can be initial, day or final.
The initial balance is the one from the beginning of the accounting period and is usually taken,
from the accounting balance of the past accounting year. The day balance is exactly
determined and is calculated as difference between the initial balance and, if the case, the
increases or minus the decreases of the patrimonial structure. The final balance is
calculated at the end of the accounting period, with the occasion of the accounting
procedures for closing the tax year. In addition, the final balance is calculated at the end of
every month with the occasion of drawing the balance of accounts and of some analysis and
reporting accounting and financial reports.
The opening of the account is done by taking, as initial balance, the existing assets
and liabilities. For the accounts which do not have initial balance the opening is done
with the occasion of the recording, as debit or credit, of the first economic or financial
operation. The closing of the account at the end of the period, usually of the year, when
the tax year is also closed, is done by passing the final balance in the part opposite to that
it came from, indicating the direction- debit or credit. Thus, the final debit balance is written
in the credit of the account, and the credit is written in the debit. By this is ensured the balance
relation characteristic to the account, i.e.:
a)
for the accounts with initial debit balance:
initial debit balance + debit circulation = credit circulation + final debit balance
b)
for the accounts with initial credit balance:
initial credit balance + credit circulation = debit circulation + final credit balance
The balance of an account represents the net sum of the account at the date when it is
calculated.
To exemplify the structure of the account, by rendering the accounting explanation, it is
supposed the situation from the 301 Raw materials account presented in the table below.
361
Debit
No.
Date
Credit
Explanation
Sums
Expenses
with
raw materials
Expenses
with
raw materials
Total credit sums
(circulation)
Final debit balance
Total
Circulation
Total debit
sums
From the presented Raw material account results that the initial debit balance is of
500 lei, the debit circulation is of 1,500, the total of the debit sums is of 200 lei, the credit
circulation is the same with the total of the credit sums of 1,900 lei, and the final debit
balance is of 100 lei and it was written for closing the account on the credit side where
was added with the total of the sums from there, obtaining a total of 200 lei, as in debit.
Apart from this bilateral form of the account, with separated columns in its two parts
for current number, date, explanation and sum, in practice also exist some other forms as:
the unilateral form, chess, the form of the account with double value, etc.
Rules for the functioning of the account
Rule for the functioning of the assets accounts: the assets accounts start functioning
by debiting. The existent or the initial balance is debited and with the ulterior increases of
the economic means and is credited with their decreases. Their balance can only be debit
or none.
Rule for the functioning of the liabilities accounts: the liabilities accounts start
functioning by credit. They are credited with the existent or with the ulterior increases of
sources and are debited with the decrease of the sources. They can only be credit or none.
The rules for the functioning of the accounts are presented, in brief, as it follows:
Debit
Assets accounts
Credit
1. they start functioning by debit
3. are credited with the assets decreases (-)
2. are debited with:
a) assets (+)
b) assets increases (+)
4. they have debit balance (+) or 0
Debit
Liabilities accounts
Credit
3. are debited with the assets decreases (-) 1. they start functioning by credit
2. are credited with:
a) liabilities (+)
b) liabilities increases (+)
4. they have credit balance (+) or 0
By the way in which they accept the rules for functioning, the accounts divide into:
362
Monofunctional accounts are those which only work by the rule of the assets or
liabilities account and have at the end of the accounting period one kind of balance, either
debit or credit, being only assets or liabilities accounts.
Bifunctional accounts are those accounts which operate, as it is the case, either
with the rule of the assets accounts or that of the liabilities accounts and may present at
one certain moment, either debit or credit balance. But they do not make a third group of
accounts, but according to the balance they have at the end of the accounting period are
considered to be assets accounts, if they have debit balance, or liabilities accounts if they
have final credit balance.
Double entry consists in simultaneous recording and with the same sum of an
economic or financial transaction in two accounts- that is in the debit of one account and
in the credit of another.
The reciprocal bond between the debit of an account and the credit of another,
established with the occasion of recording the financial and economic transactions in
current accounting, on the basis of the double entry, is named account correspondence,
and the accounts between which such correspondence is established are named
correspondent accounts.
Any economic or financial transaction is reflected in the current accounting, at the
same time and in the same amount, in at least two correspondent accounts, that is in the
debit of one account and in the credit of another, being always reflected on the basis of
the double entry.
The accounting analysis, the accounting formula and items
The accounting analysis of every economic transaction goes through the following stages:
1. determining the nature of the transaction, i.e. determining the content of the
operation that must be recorded in accounting;
2. determining the modifications in balance, i.e. determining the modifications that
are produced in the structure of the balance elements (which elements of assets and/or
liabilities are modified and in which respect).
3. Determining (identifying) the correspondent accounts where is about to be
recorded the transaction, according to the modified patrimonial elements. Through their
title and contents, the correspondent accounts reflect the modified assets and/or liabilities
elements.
4. The part of debit or credit of the correspondent accounts is determined by
applying the rules for the functioning of the accounts.
5. The accounting formula, respectively the drawing up of the accounting formula
(accounting equality), on the basis of the accounting analysis.
The final goal of the accounting analysis is the drawing up of the accounting formula,
on the basis of which the transactions are recorded in accounting.
The accounting formula expresses, in graphical form, the modifications which every
transaction determines on the basis of the double entry, in the form of a value equality.
The structure of the accounting formula is:
Correspondent accounts
The sign =
The sign %, used with the meaning of the following, when the accounting
formula enters correspondence with more than two accounts
363
The sums
401 Suppliers
1,300
500
800
D 401 Suppliers C
364
but framed). The writing of a sum in red means a - value in accounting, its effect being
that of canceling the previously mistaken sum.
The system of accounts and their classification
The accounts can be classified by the accounting function, the area and economic
contents.
By the accounting function, the accounts are classified into assets and liabilities
accounts, division determined by the two parts of the balance: assets and liabilities.
Within the two groups are also included the bifunctional accounts according to their
balance at a certain moment. The classification is important for the correct application of
the rules for the functioning of the accounts.
By the area, the accounts are divided in:
Synthetic accounts reflect the means, sources and economic processes, in value
expression, in homogenous groups or categories in respect to their content.
The analytical accounts are developers of the synthetic ones, reflecting the
component parts of the means, sources or economic processes.
By their contents (item which is registered in the account), the accounts are divided
in:
balance accounts, which are divided by their nature in: accounts of the
economic means; settlement accounts representing debt rights towards a third
party, accounts of the economic processes; accounts of the sources of the
economic means and processes.
Accounts of records and order.
In the two circuits of the dual accounting, the account classes are distributed
as it follows:
The circuit of financial accounting
The classes of balance accounts, by which is recorded the existence and
movement of the patrimonial elements and the balance is done: class 1capital accounts, class 2- immobilized assets accounts, class 3- stock and
current production accounts, class 4- third party accounts, class 5- treasury
accounts.
Classes of account which generate results: class 6- expenses accounts, class
7- income accounts.
General account plan
(brief version)
CLASS 1- CAPITAL ACCOUNTS
Group 10
Capital and reserves
101 share capital
1011 unpaid capital
1012 paid capital
106 reserves
Group 11 Reported result
117 reported result
Group 12 The result of the exercise
CLASS 2- IMMOBILIZED ACCOUNTS
Group 20
Non- corporal immobilization
201 constitution expenses
203 development expenses
(P)
(P)
(P)
(A)
(A)
365
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(L)
(L)
366
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
341
345
346
348
361
368
Semi-manufactured goods
Finite products
Residual products
Price differences for the products
ANIMALS
Animals and birds
Price differences for animals and birds
371
378
MERCHANDISE
Merchandise
Price differences for merchandise
GROUP 36
GROUP 37
GROUP 39
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
GROUP 40
401
404
411
GROUP 41
GROUP 42
421
423
424
425
427
428
GROUP 43
431
437
GROUP 44
(L)
(L)
(L)
(A)
(L)
367
441
442
444
446
GROUP 45
Income tax
Value added tax
Salary taxes
Other taxes, rates and assimilated payments
(L)
(L)
(L)
(L)
457
461
462
451
456
GROUP 46
GROUP 49
(A)
(A)
(L)
GROUP 50
502
505
509
GROUP 51
532
BANK ACCOUNTS
Current accounts in banks
5121 RON accounts in banks
5124 Foreign exchange currency accounts
in banks
5125 Sums to be discounted
Short term bank credits
5191 Short term bank credits
5198 Due interest for the short term
bank credits
CASH
Cash house
5311 RON cash house
5314 Foreign exchange currency cash house
Other securities
541
593
512
519
GROUP 53
531
GROUP 54
GROUP 59
368
INVESTMENT TITLES
Self-owned shares
Issued and redeemed bonds
Payments to be made for short term
financial investments
(A)
(A)
(L)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(L)
(L)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
596
(A)
(A)
GROUP 70
AND
SERVICES PERFORMANCE
Revenues from finite products sale
revenues from half-finished products sale
(L)
(L)
369
703
704
707
708
711
STOCKS DIVERSIFICATION
Stocks diversification
705
706
GROUP 71
GROUP 72
(L)
(L)
(L)
(L)
(L)
(L)
(L)
801
802
803
891
892
BALANCE
Opening balance
Closing balance
721
722
GROUP 78
781
786
GROUP 80
GROUP 89
CALCULATION ACCOUNTS
Expenses of the basic activities
Expenses of the auxiliary activities
Common expenses of the section
General expenses of the unit
Marketing expenses
GROUP 93
PRODUCTION COSTS
931
The costs of the obtained production
932
The costs of the under way production
The special accounts included in class 8 Specific accounts, which register the extrapatrimonial operations which sometimes can influence the patrimonys status, such as:
the offered agreements, the received agreements, fixed means rented, material values
received in custody as well as the balance of accounts when opened and closed.
921
922
923
924
925
370
CHAPTER 6
371
No
Rec.
Date
Document
(type, no,
date)
3
Carried forward:
Drafted,
Checked,
14-1-1-A4
THE INVENTORY is a compulsory accounting document which serves as the annual
registration and groups the result of the equity inventory and also as an evidence in litigations. It is
drafted in a copy after being numbered, cord-bound and stamped by the district fiscal authority. It
is accomplished at the beginning of the activity, by the end of the financial exercise or when the
activity stops without wipings and gaps according to the data given by the inventory documents
and the inventory minutes of the equity components through their division into accounts or
groups of accounts.
372
Company
Review of the
inventory
components
No
1
Accounting Inventory
value
value
2
A. FIXED ASSETS
1. Intangible assets
Checked,
14-1-2-A4
THE LEDGER
It is a compulsory accounting document which contains the movement and existence
of all the equity components at a given moment and also the accounts regrouping monthly
and systematically.
This is an accounting document of synthesis and systematization which contains the
symbol of the debit account and the corresponding credit accounts, the debit and credit
hauling time as well as the balance aacount for each month of the year. The ledger
contains a page for each synthetic account used by the company.
THE LEDGER
Company
ACCOUNT
Credit
January 1st
(year)
Debit
Account Journal
Account Journal
Account Journal
Account Journal
Account Journal
Account Journal
Account Journal
Account Journal
Account Journal
Account Journal
Account Journal
Account Journal
CORRESPONDING
CREDIT ACCOUNTS
Balance
Total hauling
time
Total credit
hauling time
MONTHS
January
February
March
Total the 1st
semester
April
May
373
June
Total the 2nd
+3rd semester
July
August
September
Total
I+II+III
semester
Octomber
November
December
General Total
(I+M)
The accounting documents of synthesis or the financial reports are made up of: the
Balance Sheet or the Equity Account, the Profit and Loss Account, the report of changes
in the owned capital, the report of the cash flows, accounting policies and explanatory
notes.
The objective of the financial reports is to continually give information about the
financial position, the achievements and changes of the financial position (its
achievements and changes) of the company, useful for taking the economic decisions.
This goal is achieved if the International Accounting Standards are applied properly and
given the necessary further information.
The financial reports are elaborated and given annually at least meeting the same
common needs of a lot of users.
The users of the financial reports are the current and prospective investors, the
employed staff, creditors, suppliers, customers, the Government and the public.
The concerned company by its managing board has the main responsibility to
elaborate and present its financial reports.
374
CHAPTER 7
375
Concerning the liabilities, the updated value of the future net cash inflows which are
expected to be necessary to pay off the obligations (bonds) appeared in the good
development of the activity.
The evaluation rules as a reference system to formulate the accounting
policies
Depending on the type of the equity components, the purpose of the changes in
the equity mass and the moment the evaluation is made there are recognized the
following and evaluation stages.
A. The entry evaluation based on the historical cost calculated according to the
documents in proof thus getting the statute of entry accounting value or the first recorded
value.
Specifically, the entry accounting value is identified to:
a. the utility value for the in kind goods (shares) which is earned by free title
or denotation. It is established according to the market price, to its utility for the
company, state and placement. Such a value is assimilated to the purchasing cost.
b. the purchasing cost for the goods earned by security. The purchasing cost is
made up of the buying price, unrecoverable taxes, transport expenses, supply and
other additional expenses for its utility and financial administration.
c. the production value or the production cost for the goods produced in the
equity unit. The production cost comprises the purchasing cost of the raw materials
and wasted materials, the other direct expenses as well as the quota of the indirect
expenses rationally attached to the good produced by the trading company.
In comparison to the three types of values presented above, the entry evaluation has
some particular cases. Thus, for the securities of participation, intangible fixed assets,
current assets, of placement the purchasing value or the purchasing cost is equal to the
buying price or determined by the terms of the contract. The fiscal expenses and other
ones are excluded, being directly registered in commissioning expenses of the exercise.
The debits and debts are evaluated at the nominal value equal to the liquidity sum or
liquidity equivalents which will be paid in their exchange.
Regarding the expenses and incomes, the accounting value is that associated to the to
the assets and liabilities being in correspondence with. Thus, the incomes are evaluated
depending on the case, at the same time as an increase in the asset (with the value of the
debit or liquidity on the account of the sales and the production cost of the stocks and
fixed assets) or as a decrease in the liability. The expenses are evaluated, depending on
the case, as an increase in the liability (in case of commitments) or as a decrease in the
asset (the stocked consumptions).
Concerning the goods registered in foreign currency, their value is converted in RON
at the daily exchange rate when the operation took place.
B. The out evaluation
When the goods are out of the equity or given for consumption they are evaluated at
their entry or accounting value. If the goods as stocks and identical securities have
different registration values and it doesnt exist the possibility to identify the registered
values, the out evaluation can be made, depending on the case, on the account of the
376
medium well-balanced cost following the method First in-First out or Last in-First out.
The decision is taken by the company, the selection criterion being its importance and
credible evaluation.
C. The inventory evaluation is based on the current value which acquires the statue
of inventory value and supposes the evaluation of the equity components when the
inventory takes place. The current value is established according to the utility of the good
in the economy of the company and the market price. In order to estimate this value there
are used the most adequate references as follows: the market prices, quotas, market
pricelist, specific prices.
The utility value of debentures and debts is established according to their likely value
of payment depending on the terms of the contract (interests and bank rates).
The necessity for evaluating the equity elements and the inventory value starts from
the reality according to which the in-value based on the origin cost has only a historical
value. Any significant change after the registration in the real value of goods tends to
make the origin cost deceiving by taking the decision.
D. The balance evaluation (at the accomplishment of the financial reports) is based
on the net accounting value calculated on the basis the accounting entry value diminished
by the depreciations. The result is the same even if the accounting in-value is compared to
the inventory value by keeping in evaluation the lowest value for the assets and the
greatest value for the liabilities.
In these conditions, concerning the assets, the over differences between the inventory
value and the accounting value are not registered in accounting keeping their in-value.
The under differences between the inventory value and the accounting value are
registered on account of the expenses by depreciations, concerning the depreciable assets
(because the depreciation is irreversible) and commissions for depreciations concerning
the non depreciable assets (because the depreciation is reversible).
For the liabilities the under differences between the inventory value and the
accounting value are not registered in accounting, keeping their entry value. The over
differences for the time being the solution is only theoretical not practical - are registered
in accounting on account of the expenses for commissions making for reversible
increases regarding the value of the liabilities, their value keeping the in-value too
maintaining.
Regarding the accounting policies it must be kept in mind the rule according to
which the methods of evaluation adopted by the financial activity as well as form a
financial activity to another.
377
CHAPTER 8
SC = No.S/P x N.V.
Where: SC social capital
No.A number of shears
No.SP - number of social shares/ parties
N.V. nominal value of the shares and social shares/parties.
Shares, as pieces of a companys capital have also a material owner, having the form
of securities. The stocks are securities which give to their owners (individuals or
corporate) the right to participate in capital-making of a trading capital. The individuals
that commit themselves to make the companys capital and also to buy its shares are
called shareholders. The buyer of the shares becomes co-owner of the concerned
company, his shares becoming property titles.
378
Subscribed not-paid
capital
50,000 lei
379
In kind deposit:
a building
20,000 lei : 5 lei/S = 4.000 S
a truck
5,000 lei : 5 lei/S = 1.000 S
TOTAL
25,000 lei
5.000 S
Analysis: The deposit of the in kind contributions determines the increase of the
tangible fixed assets, buildings and means of transport and the decrese of debenture upon
the upon the subscibers. The assets increase is registered in the debit account Buildings
and Means of transport and the assets decrease is registered in the credit account
Deductions with the shareholders regarding the capital.
The accounting formula is the following:
%
Buildings
Means of transport
25,000 lei
20,000 lei
5,000 lei
50,000 lei
380
Subscribed paid =
capital
10,000 RON
381
The accounts used are: Settlement of accounts with the partners regarding the
shared capital, assets account, which is debited with the increase of the respective debt,
which are estimated at around 12,400 RON. The second account is Subscribed unpaid
capital, liabilities account, which is debited with the increase of the capital at around
10,000 RON. The third account is Issue premiums, liability account, which is credited
with the increase of the issue premiums at around 2,400 RON.
Re-evaluation reserves are constituted when re-evaluating the tangible fixed
assets. They are determined as the difference between the re-evaluation value and the
accounting value of the respective goods.
Re-evaluation reserves account represents a self-source account which has the
liabilities accounting function and keeps the evidence of the differences when reevaluating the current assets. They are credited with the difference of the positive reevaluation that appeared when re-evaluating the tangible assets. They are debited with the
differences that appear in re-evaluation used to increase the capital. The credit balance
reflects the existing re-evaluation reserves.
Transaction 7: CONTAB Inc. finds, after re-evaluation, that the grounds with a value of
10,000 RON have in fact a value of 13,800 RON. The difference in value is registered.
Analysis: The re-evaluation of the grounds determines an increase of the Re-evaluation
reserves element (Liabilities +). The assets increase of 3,800 RON is registered in the
debit of the Grounds account, and the increase of the liabilities with 3,800 RON is
registered in the Re-evaluation reserves credit account.
Transaction 8: The re-evaluation reserves are used for an increase in the enterprises
capital.
Analysis: A capital increase determines a decrease of the reserves resulted from the reevaluation (L-) and an increase of the capital (L+). The accounts used are: Re-evaluation
reserves, liabilities account, which is debited with a liabilities decrease, and the
Subscribed paid capital, liabilities account, which is credited with a liabilities increase.
Reserves are sources created through self-financing, that means both by the
distribution of certain quota from the obtained profit, as well as by passing certain
resources, such as capital premiums and re-evaluation reserves to the reserves sector, in
order to preserve capital.
There are different types of reserves: legal reserves, statutory reserves, reserves
for personal actions and others.
Legal reserves are created annually according to the laws, and in the case of a
decrease, they should be filled according to the legal provisions. They are used to cover
losses of the financial activity.
Statutory or contract reserves are credited annually from the net profit obtained
according to the legal provisions of the articles of association and are used especially to
be incorporated in the capital.
Reserves for personal actions are constituted from the profit when a joint stock
company redeems the shares that circulate on the market. Their constitution has as a
382
target to protect creditors, whose debts are secured by preserving the capital level of the
enterprise from the moment the company started its relationship with the creditors.
Other reserves are those reserves unforeseen by law or the companys articles of
association and they are constituted optionally from the obtained net profit. These
reserves are used to cover losses, to rise capital or for any other scope, according to the
decisions of the shareholders meeting.
Transaction 9: CONTAB joint stock creates reserves from the profit obtained, around
4,500 RON.
Analysis: Distribution of the profit quota determines an increase of the Profit distribution
element at the same time with an increase of the element Reserves. The assets increase is
registered in the liabilities account Profit distribution and the liabilities increase is
registered in the Reserves account credit.
The accounting formula is:
Profit distribution
=
Reserves
4,500 RON
The results of the exercise can be profit or loss. The resulted loss will be covered
later, and that is why at the end of the year it is carried over the next year. The obtained
profit is distributed on legal and statutory destinations as follows:
for reserves;
to create the funds that the employee constitutes;
to cover losses of the previous year;
for the dividends to be paid;
other destinations.
If, at the end of the profit distribution on destinations, there are parts of the profit that
have not been distributed, it will be carried over the next year.
383
CHAPTER 9
384
Dr = 100/4 X 25%
The calculus of the depreciation annuity (A):
A = 25% x 10,000 = 2,500 RON
Phasing of the accounting value of the equipment along its life cycle is
synthesized in the following depreciation table with the following model:
Year
Entrance value
Annuity
2003
2004
2005
2006
10,000
10,000
10,000
10,000
2,500
2,500
2,500
2,500
Cumulated
depreciation
2,500
5,000
7,500
10,000
Net accounting
value
7,500
5,000
2,500
0
This is the easiest method to be used and that is why it is adopted by many
Romanian enterprises. We should remember that this uniform phasing of the value does
not correspond, most of the time, with the wear and tear rhythm of a fixed asset.
Digressive depreciation directs towards higher annuities during the first years of
the life cycle and smaller in the following years, when the maintenance charges of the
fixed assets are higher. That is why it is very close to the real conditions, but it requires a
more complex calculation system. So, the depreciation norm is multiplied with the values
established according to the life cycle. Another difference with the linear depreciation is
that the multiplied depreciation norm is applied to the value that remains to be liquidated
(the next accounting value).
Accelerated depreciation requires that half of the accounting value of the fixed
asset be included in the first year expenditures, the rest being equally shared along the
remaining functioning years. There should be mentioned that this method, proposed by
the Managing board of directors of the enterprise, be applied; it requires the approval; of
the Ministry of Finance. The digressive and accelerated depreciation, as they are
nowadays regulated and applied, are very much influenced by the financial interests, and
that is why they tend no longer to reflect the economic reality of the depreciation costs.
Fixed assets produce revenues along the whole life cycle, which is at least one
year. As a result of their long usage, as well as natural factors and technical progress, the
economic benefits associated to the fixed assets are wasted. The value of this
consumption is depreciation, which in fact represents the expenditure with trhe fixed
assets.
385
a) acquisition from suppliers presupposes the evaluation of the fixed asset at the
acquisition cost. The acquisition price is made up of the acquisition price of the respective
good (registered on the invoice, issued by the supplier), taxes which will never be
recovered (customs duties, excise transportation costs and possible assembly and put into
function costs of the respective asset).
b) contribution in kind to the companys capital or acquiring free of charge (for example
as a gift). In this situation, the tangible asset estimated according to the market price. The
range resulted from the evaluation is called utility value.
c) self-production: in this situation, the production cost is necessary. The production cost
includes direct expenditure plus indirect production costs, distributed rationally on the
manufactured produc6ts, performed proceedings and carried out services. Besides these
elements, there are some other costs included in the production costs of the fixed asset:
costs with the interest supplementary to the loans necessary for financing investments. No
matter the form it takes, the value established at the moment it was first recognized is
called entrance value or accounting value.
Evaluation of the assets at the stock-taking date:
The stock-taking date represents the moment a companys assets are measured
and expressed both as physical units of measure (piece, tone, meter, etc) and monetary
units. For the tangible assets subject to depreciation, the net accounting value should be
calculated, minus the entrance value, the depreciation calculated and registered until the
stock-taking moment. At the stock-taking date, the inventory value should be determined,
which means an actual value or a useful value for the asset.
Evaluation of the assets at the closing moment
The closing moment of the financial exercise is put into practice, from a financial
accounting pint of view, when the balance is created. In the balance, the entitys
elements are registered at the balance value. In order to determine it, the net accounting
value should be compared with the inventory value. The result of the comparison can lead
to:
Surplus of value, which, according to the principle of prudence, regarding the
assets, is not registered. In this situation, the balance value of the assets is equal
to the net accounting value.
Minus of value, which, according to the prudence principle is registered as a
depreciation supplement in the case of an irreversible depreciation (for example,
fixed assets that can not be used, proposed for annulment), or omissions (sales)
for depreciation, if the depreciation is irreversible (for example, their useless for
the unit at the stock-taking date).
386
Assets suppliers
800 RON
Settlement of accounts
with the partners regarding
the shared capital
10,000 RON
387
Transaction 3: Equipment with a total value of 5,800 RON is bought from the suppliers,
according to the invoice no 537/18.03.N.
Analysis: There takes place an increase of the equipment (A+), simultaneously with an
increase of the debts towards the assets suppliers (L+). The involved accounts are:
Technological equipment, assets account which is debited with the assets increase, and
Fixed assets suppliers, which is credited with the liabilities increase. The accounting
formula is:
Technological equipment
=
Fixed assets suppliers 5,800 RON
Expenditure regarding =
depreciation and
fixed assets
%
2,200 RON
Depreciation regarding
100 RON
intangible fixed assets
Depreciation regarding
tangible fixed assets
2,100 RON
Transaction 6: According to the writing off minute, dated 10.01.N+1, equipment will be
completely repaid, with an acquisition cost of 1,500 RON.
388
Analysis: Te operation will direct towards a decrease of the fixed assets of the enterprise
(A-), simultaneously with a decrease of the depreciation corresponding to the fixed assets
written off (L-). The accounts used are: Depreciation regarding tangible fixed assets,
liabilities account, credited with the depreciation decrease, and Technological equipment,
assets account, credited with the cost of the written off fixed means. The accounting
formula is:
Depreciation regarding =
Technological equipment
500 RON
tangible fixed assets
Transaction 7: An automobile, incompletely liquidated is sold. The sale price is 5,000
RON, the entrance value being 9,000 RON, the registered depreciation until the car is
sold being 1,000 RON.
Analysis: From an accounting point of view, any sale requires 2 operations:
7.1. The sale, which authorizes the creation of the sellers debts over the buyer (A+), at
the same time making evident the exploitation income regarding fixed assets sale (L+).
The transaction is made at the selling price. The accounts used are: Different debtors,
assets account which is debited with an increase of the debts towards buyers, and Income
from the assets sale and other capital operations, liabilities account which is credited
with an increase of the sales incomes. The accounting formula is:
Different debtors
=
Income from the assets sale
5,000 RON
and other capital operations
7.2. Discharging of the sold goods from the administration, has as a result a decrease
of the fixed assets cost (A-), of the due depreciation (L-) and registration as expenses of
the cost that was depreciated (A+). Removing fixed assets from the accounting evidence
has as a result a debit of the Depreciation regarding tangible fixed assets account and of
the Expenditure regarding the assigned assets and capital operations account, as well as
a credit of the Transportation means account. The accounting formula is:
%
Transportation means
9,000 RON
Depreciation regarding
tangible fixed assets
1,000 RON
Expenditure regarding
the assigned assets and
capital operations
8,000 RON
389
CHAPTER 10
390
(L+) on time, the Suppliers account, with the function of liabilities, is credited with the
acknowledgement of the commercial debt.
The accounting formula is:
Raw Materials =
Suppliers 1,500 RON
Transaction 2. On the basis of the subscription commitment, the partners contribute
to the capital, 1,000 RON, according to the reception minutes and the proof of the parties
quality certification.
Analysis: As a result of the in kind, the companys contRON over the stocks of raw
materials contributed by the partners (A+) is recognized; the Raw Materials account is
debited. Simultaneously, as a result of the formalities of subscribing to the capital, the
companys right to debt towards the partners (A-) is cancelled; the Settlements with the
partners regarding the capital account, as an assets account, is credited with the decrease
in the debt.
The accounting formula is:
Raw Materials = Settlements with the partners
regarding the capital
1,000 RON
391
Transaction 5. SDVs purchased from the suppliers for the amount of 2,000 RON are
received and the payment will be made later.
Analysis: The transaction leads to an increase in the stock of materials that are the
object of the inventory (A+); the Materials of the nature of inventory objects account is
debited. Simultaneously and with the same amount, the commercial debt to the suppliers
(L+) is acknowledged from the purchases; the Suppliers account, with the function of
liabilities, is credited with the debts increase.
The accounting formula is:
Materials of the nature= Suppliers
of inventory objects
2,000 RON
Materials of
800 RON
the nature of
inventory objects
Traders purchase the merchandise at the purchasing price and resell it at the selling
price. The difference between the selling price and the purchasing price is called
commercial margin.
Merchandise A has the purchasing price of 1 RON/item
It is sold at the selling price of 12,500 RON/item
The commercial margin is 0,25 RON = (1,25 1) RON
As a percentage, the input margin is:
0,25:1 = 0.25, that is 25% (gross margin GM)
The output margin is:
0,25 : 1,25 = 0.20 that is 20% (reduced margin RM).
The connection between these margins is made as follows:
GM x 100
= RM
GM + 100
2,5/0,125 = 20
392
RM x 100
= GM
100 RM
2/0,08 = 25
Let's take the example of merchandise type A, with the purchasing price of 1
RON/item, the margin of 0,25 RON/item, the selling price of 1,25 RON/item.
Transaction 7. A wholesaler receives 500 items from suppliers, on credit, at the
purchasing price of 500 x 1 = 500 RON.
Analysis: The stock of merchandise resulting from purchases is constituted (A+), and
the Merchandise account, with the function of assets, is debited. At the same time, the
commercial debt to the suppliers (L+) is acknowledged and the Suppliers account is
credited.
The accounting formula is:
Merchandise
Suppliers
500 RON
Transaction 8. In order to record the purchase according to the reception slip, the
retailer calculates and records the merchandise at the selling price:
500 x 1 = 500 RON
500 x 0,25 = 125 RON
500 x 1,25 = 625 RON
purchasing price
commercial margin
selling price
Analysis: The stock of merchandise is constituted at the selling price (A+), and the
Merchandise account is debited; the commercial margin from the purchases (L+) is
recorded and the Differences in merchandise prices account is credited. The commercial
debt to the suppliers (L+) is acknowledged from purchasing the merchandise at the
purchasing price and the Suppliers account is credited.
The accounting formula is:
Merchandise=
%
Differences in
merchandise prices
Suppliers
625 RON
125 RON
500 RON
Transaction 9. The wholesaler sells to a customer 300 items of type A, on the basis
of an invoice. 300 x 12,500 = 3,750,000 RON.
Analysis: The debt to the customer is created (A+), and the Customers account is
debited. The sale is the moment of acknowledging the operation expenses (L+), and the
Proceeds from selling the merchandise account is credited.
The accounting formula is:
Customers
Transaction 10. The purchasing cost for the merchandise that was sold is posted to
accounting records .By the wholesaler, 300 items x 1 RON = 300 RON.
393
Analysis: By selling the merchandise the operation expenses are acknowledged (A+)
at the level of the purchasing price for the merchandise that was sold, and the Expenses
on merchandise account is debited. The stock of merchandise is decreased (A-), and the
Merchandise account is credited.
The accounting formula is:
Expenses on merchandise =
Transaction 11. At the retailer's, where the merchandise was evaluated at the selling
price, the situation is:
300 x 1,25 = 375 RON
and the corresponding margin for the merchandise that was sold is:
375 x 20% = 75 RON,
that is 300 x 0,25 = 75 RON
Analysis: By selling the merchandise the operation expenses are acknowledged (A+)
at the level of the purchasing price of the merchandise that was sold, and the Expenses on
merchandise account is debited. The stock of merchandise is decreased (A-), and the
Merchandise account is credited. The commercial margin is rectified (L-) and the
Differences in merchandise prices account is debited.
The accounting formula is:
%
=
Expenses on merchandise
Differences in merchandise
prices
Merchandise
375 RON
300 RON
75 RON
394
Stocks variation account (L+) the expenses incurred in obtaining the finished articles are
acknowledged.
The accounting formula is:
Finished products = Stocks variation 500 RON
Transaction 12. According to the contract and invoice, the finished articles are sold
at the selling price of 450 RON.
Analysis: The debts to the customers increase (A+), and the Customers account, with
the accounting function of assets, is debited. As a consequence of the transaction, the
operation proceeds are acknowledged (L+), and the Proceeds from selling finished
articles account is credited. The accounting formula is:
Customers
450 RON
Transaction 13. The finished articles that are sold are posted to the accounting
records, at the standard cost of 300 RON.
Analysis: The expenses related to the production that was sold are acknowledged, the
Stocks variation account (L-) is debited. At the same time, the stock of finished articles is
decreased (A-), and the Finished articles account is credited.
The accounting formula is:
Stocks variation = Finished articles
300 RON
Transaction 14. At the end of the accounting period, the actual cost of manufacturing
the finished articles obtained in transaction 11 was calculated, amounting to 575 RON,
whereof an unfavourable difference in price results, amounting to 75 RON = (575 500).
Analysis: The Differences in finished articles prices account is debited with the
increase in the stock value (A+). Simultaneously, the surplus in expenses related to the
production obtained will be transferred to the balance sheet, and the Stocks variation
account is credited (L+).
The accounting formula is:
Difference in finished = Stocks variation 75 RON
articles prices
Transaction 15. The differences in prices related to the finished articles that are sold
are recorded. The coefficient of allotting the differences in price is calculated as follows
(the initial stock is void).
(SIC + RC) Differences in finished articles prices account
K =
(SID + RD) Finished articles account
395
K = 75/500 = 0.15
The differences in prices related to the finished articles that are sold are:
K x RC Finished articles account = 0.15 x 300 = 45 RON
Analysis: The surplus in the actual expenses related to the production that was sold is
acknowledged, the Stocks variation account is debited (L-). The calculated differences in
price (A-) are decreased, and the Differences in finished articles prices account is
credited.
The accounting formula is:
Stocks
=
variation
Transaction 16. The trading company DIETAS.A. has a stock of tea purchased for
the amount of 400 RON. At the end of the exercise, the market value of this stock is of
only 380 RON.
Analysis: The company acknowledges the loss resulting from the 20 RON decrease
in value under the form of operation expenses (A+); at the same time it creates a
commission (reduction) for depreciation (L+). The Operation expenses regarding the
provisions for the depreciation of current assets account, an assets account, is debited
with the increase in expenses, and the Provisions for merchandise depreciation account,
an assets rectifying account, with the accounting function of liabilities, is credited with
the decrease in the value of the stock of merchandise.
The accounting formula is:
Operation expenses
= Provisions 20 RON
regarding the
for
provisions for
merchandise
the depreciation of
depreciation
current assets
396
CHAPTER 11
397
Customers
190 RON
Commercial debts refer to the companys obligations to third parties, either natural
or legal persons, resulting form purchasing goods or using services. Commercial debts
fall into several categories, as follows:
debts to the suppliers of stocks, works and services;
debts to the suppliers of tangible and intangible assets;
debts for commercial papers.
These debts refer to the goods, works and services purchased by the company, for
instance, raw materials, materials, merchandise, repairs to durables, phone and postal
services, etc. Records of these debts are kept by means of the Suppliers account, which is
a liabilities account, of short-term commercial papers. It is credited with the nominal
value of the companys debt to the suppliers, a value which includes the purchasing cost
for the goods, works or services plus the related VAT. It is debited with the settlement of
the value of the goods, works or services. The balance of the account is of the credit type
and illustrates the value of the goods, works or services which were not settled. The
Suppliers account develops into analytics for every supplier.
398
Suppliers
1,309 RON
1,100 RON
209 RON
1,309 RON
In order to illustrate the fact of purchasing fixed assets, the Fixed assets suppliers
account is used and it functions similarly to the Suppliers account.
The debts for commercial papers are constituted in case the company pays a debt to
the suppliers through a promissory note or cheque, until the commercial paper is paid on
maturity. The accounts being used to illustrate these debts are: Outstanding commercial
papers and Outstanding commercial papers for fixed assets.
In order to achieve the company's objective, in addition to the material factors: fixed
assets mijloace fixe, stocks and money the labour factor is required. Labour is not a
storable resource, instead it is manifest as a factor of production. In order to reflect the
debits and debts related to the use of labour, the Personnel and assimilated accounts
group of accounts is used in accounting.
Transaction 1. During the current month, advances amounting to 10,000 RON were
paid to the employees. At the end of the accounting period the total debts to the
employees were calculated amounting to 22,000 RON, out of which the following were
retained:
- 9.5% contribution to the pension and social security fund;
- 6.5% contribution to the health insurance fund;
- 1% contribution to the unemployment insurance fund;
- 1,500 RON owed to third parties;
- 3,000 RON income tax;
399
Cash register
10,000 RON
400
18,240 RON
2,090 RON
1,430 RON
220 RON
3,000 RON
1,500 RON
10,000 RON
Advances to the
Employees outstanding
D
Salaries
C
(1)
10,000
Employees
(3) 10,000
C
(3) 2,090
1,430
220
3,000
1,500
(2) 22,000
RC 22,000
10,000
RD
18,240
Intermedi
ary
balance
3,760
The intermediary balance represents the remaining of the payments owed to the
employees.
1.4. Payment of the salaries
Analysis: The payment to the employees of wage leads to decreasing the amount of
cash in the companys cash register (A-) and a decrease in of the debt to the employees
for the remaining of the payment owed after the calculation of the retaining from salaries
(L-). The accounts being used are: Employees outstanding salaries, which records a
decrease and is debited; the Cash register account, an assets account, records a decrease
and is credited.
The accounting formula is:
Employees outstanding salaries = Cash register 3,760 RON
401
Current
bank
accounts
The companys contribution
to social insurance
The employees contribution
to the supplementary
pension
7,480 RON
5,390 RON
2,090 RON
2,970 RON
The employers
contribution
to health
insurance
1,540 RON
402
The employees
contribution to
health
insurance
1,430 RON
1.8. Payment of the health insurance
Analysis: The settlement of the contribution to the health insurance fund generates a
decrease in the money supply (A-) and in the debts related to the health insurance fund
(L-). The Current bank accounts account is credited and The employers contribution to
the health insurance fund and The employees contribution to the health insurance fund
accounts are debited.
%
= Current bank
accounts
2,970 RON
The employers
contribution
to the health
insurance fund
1,540RON
The employees
contribution
to the health
insurance fund
1,430 RON
The fiscal debits represent companys rights in connection with the state budget
referring to settlements amounting to more than the real value of the debts or debts that
the state must repay to the company, according to the current legislation. The category of
fiscal debits includes the VLUE ADDED TAX to be recovered from the state budget;
sums resulting from other taxes paid to the state budget at a higher level that the actual
one, etc.
Transaction 1. The company calculates the corporation tax amounting to 500 RON
and pays it the next month through the account available at the bank.
1.1. Outstanding corporation tax
Analysis: Recording the corporation tax leads to acknowledging the companys
expenses on corporation tax (A+) and increasing the debt to the state related to the
corporation tax (L+). The accounts being used are: Expenses on corporation tax, with the
accounting function of assets, records an increase and is debited; the Corporation tax
account, a liabilities account, records an increase and is credited.
The accounting formula is:
Expenses on
= Corporation tax 500 RON
corporation tax
1.2. Payment of the corporation tax
403
Analysis: The payment of the corporation tax to the state budget leads to a decrease
in the money supply in the companys bank account (A-) and to a decrease in the debt to
the state budget related to the corporation tax (L-). The accounts being used are: Current
bank accounts, an assets account which records a decrease and is credited; the
Corporation tax account, a liabilities account which records a decrease and is debited.
The accounting formula is:
Corporation tax =
Current bank accounts 500 RON
The value added tax is an indirect tax, attached to consumption. VAT is related to the
transfer of property over goods, services and works.
If the Collected VAT amounts to 1,000,000 RON and the Deductible VAT amounts to
800,000 RON, the closing procedure is:
Collected VAT
=
%
Deductible VAT
Outstanding VAT
100 RON
80 RON
20 RON
D Deductible VAT C
80
80
D Collected VAT
C
80
100
20
D Outstanding VAT
20
If the Deductible VAT amounts to 120 RON and the Collected VAT amounts to 900,000
RON, the closing procedure is:
%
Collected VAT
VAT to recover
D Deductible VAT C
120
90
Deductible VAT
120 RON
90 RON
30 RON
D Collected VAT
90
90
30
D VAT to recover C
404
30
In addition, by means of the Sundry debtors account the debits to third parties,
natural or legal persons that caused damage to the company, are highlighted. This account
is debited with the nominal value of the debit to sundry debtors (the nominal value
includes the selling price for the item, work or service to which the related VAT is
added). It is credited when cashing in the debit. The balance of the account is of the debit
type and it reflects the debits to the buyers of fixed assets or to other natural or legal
persons which caused damage to the company.
Transaction 1. The trading company CONTAB sells a piece of equipment at the
selling price of 1,000 RON, 19% VAT.
Analysis: The sale of the fixed assets leads to an increase in the debits (A+), to
acknowledging the operation income and to increasing the fiscal debt (L+). The Sundry
debtors account is debited with the increase in assets, the Proceeds from selling assets
and other capital operations account and the Collected VAT account are credited with the
increase in liabilities.
The accounting formula is:
Sundry debtors
1,190 RON
405
Sundry creditors
406
CHAPTER 12
Current bank
accounts
= Settlements with
1,000 RON
the partners
regarding the capital
407
Transaction 2. The trading company CONTAB receives a bank loan for a period
of 10 months amounting to 200 RON.
Analysis: Getting the loan leads to increasing the short-term debts (L+), at the same
time with increasing the money supply (A+). The Current bank accounts account is
debited with the increase in assets and the Short-term bank credits account is credited
with the increase in liabilities.
The accounting formula is:
Current bank
accounts
= Short-term
bank credits
200 RON
%
Proceeds from services
performed to
third parties
595 RON
500 RON
95 RON
408
Suppliers
1,190 RON
1,000 RON
190 RON
Transaction 6. The trading company CONTAB withdraws from the bank the sum
of 1,000 RON and deposits it in the company's cash register.
6.1. Withdrawing the cash from the account
Analysis: Withdrawing the cash from the bank account leads to a decrease in the
money supply at the bank (A-) and to transferring the amount to another treasury element
(A+). The accounts being used are: Current bank accounts, which is credited with the
decrease in the money supply and Internal transfers which is debited with the increase in
the amount being temporarily transferred.
The accounting formula is:
Internal
transfers
Current bank
accounts
1,000 RON
409
Analysis: Depositing the cash in the company cash register leads to transferring the
amount from the temporary treasury account (A-) and to increasing the cash (A+). The
accounts being used are: Internal transfers which is credited with the decrease of the
transferred amount and Cash register in RON which is debited with the increase in cash.
The accounting formula is:
Cash register in RON = Internal transfers
1,000 RON
Transaction 7. At the end of the same day, the trading company CONTAB
deposits at the bank the amount of 5000 resulting from various proceeds made in cash.
7.1. Taking the cash out of the cash register
Analysis: Taking the cash out of the cash register leads to decreasing the money
supply (A-) and to transferring the amount to another treasury account (A+). The
accounts being used are: Cash register in RON which is credited with the decrease in cash
and Internal transfers which is debited with the increase in the amount temporarily
transferred.
The accounting formula is:
Internal transfers =
410
CHAPTER 13
411
412
Technological equipment
= Tangible assets
800 RON
(machines, equipment)
being processed
The evaluation of the stored production and the production of fixed assets is
performed at the level of the manufacturing cost established in management accounting.
d. The revenues from operation subsidies represent the subsidies received by the company
to cover the loss resulting from differences in price for subsidised products, as well as
other subsidies from the state or other bodies.
e. Other operation revenues include revenues from reactivated debits and sundry debtors,
revenues from damages, fines, penalties, from donations and subsidies received, from
selling assets and other capital operations, from subsidies for investments, other revenues,
different from those presented above.
Example:
- revenues from reactivated debits are acknowledged:
Sundry debtors =
Revenues from reactivated 250 RON
debits and sundry debtors
- damages are received from another trading company:
Current bank accounts = Revenues from damages, fines, penalties
80 RON
- the sale of a fixed asset at the selling price of 800 RON is recorded:
Sundry debtors =
Revenues from selling
800 RON
assets and other capital operations
f. Revenues from commissions related to operation are formed by taking over (through
cancellation or decrease) the commissions for risks and expenses, for fixed assets
depreciation, for current assets depreciation. Revenues from the negative goodwill are
included.
1.2. Operation expenses
a. The expenses regarding the stocks include expenses regarding raw material
consumption, non-durables (auxiliary materials, fuel, packing materials, spare parts, etc),
consumption of materials of the inventory type of non-storable materials, electric power,
water, animal, birds, as well as the cost of the merchandise that was sold and packing
expenses.
The cost of the merchandise that was sold includes its purchasing price, supplementary
expenses (transport expenses, duties, and insurance premiums) and other non-deductible
taxes.
Example:
- raw materials amounting to 800 RON and non-durables amounting to 300 RON are
distributed for consumption
Expenses on raw materials = Raw materials 800 RON
Expenses on non-durables =Non-durables
300 RON
- the consumption of electric power from the supplier, amounting to 720 RON is
recorded:
Expense on electric power and water = Suppliers
720 RON
- the records of the merchandise sold at the recorded price of 1,200 RON are posted to the
ledger:
Expenses on merchandise = Merchandise
1,200 RON
413
b. The expenses on work and services performed by third parties include: expenses on
maintenance and repairs, royalties, hiring and renting, outstanding insurance premiums,
expenses on education and research as well as other services performed by third parties
(expenses on collaborators, commissions and fees, protocol expenses, advertising and
publicity, transport of goods and personnel, travel, temporary or permanent transfers,
postal expenses and telecommunication taxes, expenses on banking and similar services,
other services performed by third parties).
Example:
- recording a repair work performed by third parties, amounting to 800 RON.
Expenses on maintenance and repairs = Suppliers
800 RON
- payment of communication taxes amounting to 1,100 RON:
Postal expenses and = Current bank accounts
1,100 RON
telecommunication taxes
- payment of certain bank commissions amounting to 300 RON is recorded:
Expenses on commissions = Current bank accounts 300 RON
and fees
c. The expenses on other taxes and similar payments refer to expenses on taxes and other
payments incurred by the company (taxes on buildings, on using land, on means of
conveyance, etc.)
Example:
- the payment of the tax on buildings amounting to 850 RON and of the tax on means of
conveyance amounting to 200 RON from a treasury advance is recorded.
Expenses on other taxes
= Treasury advances
1,050 RON
And similar payments
d. The expenses on the employees refer to the expenses on salaries to the companys
employees and other expenses (the employers contribution) incurred by the company.
Example:
- the salaries owed to the companys employees, amounting to 2,000 RON, are recorded.
Expenses on salaries = Employees - 2,000 RON
owed to the employees
outstanding salaries
- the companys contribution to social security and protection is recorded (an average of
19.75% health insurance and 2.5% unemployment fund).
Expense on social
=
%
560 RON
Security and protection
The companys contribution
to social security
490 RON
The companys contribution
To the unemployment fund
70 RON
e. Other operation expenses include losses from debits and sundry debtors; damages,
fines and penalties; donations and subsidies that were granted; expenses on surrendered
assets and other capital operations; other operation expenses.
Example:
- fines amounting to 55 RON are paid from the cash register:
Damages, fines and penalties = Cash register in RON 55 RON
414
415
416
financial investments
50 RON
c. The expenses resulting from the differences in exchange rates are expenses related to
the negative differences associated with the foreign currency supply at the bank and in the
cash register, with the debits and debts in foreign currency when cashing them in.
Example:
- the debt to the supplier is paid, the negative differences in exchange rates are of 200,000
RON.
%=
Current bank accounts
4,000 RON
in foreign currency
Suppliers
3,980 RON
Expenses resulting form
the differences in
exchange rates
20 RON
- at the end of the year 200X, in the Current bank accounts in foreign currency account
there are 5,000$, whose equivalent in RON is 14,250 RON, that is an average exchange
rate of 2,85 RON/$. The exchange rate on December 31st is 2,83 RON/$, that is the
company records an expense resulting from the differences in exchange rates amounting
to 5,000$ x (2,85 2,83) RON/$ = 100 RON.
Expenses resulting from=
Current bank accounts 100 RON
the differences in
in foreign currency
exchange rates
d. Other financial expenses refer to: interests owed by the company regarding similar
loans and debts, debts related to shares and other loans, discounts granted to customers
and debtors, other financial expenses.
Example:
- the debts to be paid related to the loans for issuing bonds (300 RON) and to long-term
bank credits (250 RON) are recorded.
Expenses on interests =
%
500 RON
Interests related to loans
for issuing bonds
300 RON
Interests related to
long-term bank loans
250 RON
- cashing in a debit amounting to 190 RON before the deadline through the companys
cash register is recorded and a 1% discount is granted:
%
=
Customers
190 RON
Cash register
188.1 RON
Expenses regarding
the discounts granted
1.9 RON
e. Financial expenses regarding depreciations and commissions include commissions for
the depreciation of financial assets, of current assets, as well as the amounts representing
the depreciation of premiums for repaying the loans for issuing bonds.
Example:
- the creation of a commission for the depreciation of financial assets amounting to 315
RON is recorded:
417
418
The accounting profit is the net profit or the loss for a period before subtracting the
expenses on tax.
The taxable profit (fiscal loss) is the profit (loss) for the period of the exercise,
established according to rules set by the fiscal authority, based on which the corporate tax
is payable (recoverable).
In order to establish the taxable result, at the end of the exercise the result is
corrected (the balance of the profit and loss account) with a sum of deductible elements (
that reduce the taxable basis) and non-deductible ones (that are reintegrated in the basis
for taxation). The result calculated as such is the fiscal result.
Fiscal result =Result of the exercise + Non-deductible Fiscal
before taxation
expenses
deductions
The corporate tax quantum is currently 16%. The corporate tax is calculated every
month, accumulated from the beginning of the year, but it is paid every three months.
According to fiscal norms, expenses are deductible only if they are associated with
obtaining revenues or if they are considered deductible according to the current legal
provisions.
The following are non-deductible expenses:
- the corporate tax that is owed and the revenues obtained abroad;
- the fines and penalties owed to the Romanian or foreign authorities;
- the protocol expenses that exceed the limits stipulated in the annual budget law;
- the sums used to create, increase reserves and commissions over the legal limits;
- the expenses on temporary transfers and travel over the limits established by law;
- the sponsorship expenses that exceed the quantum established by law;
- the sums that exceed the limits of deductible expenses, according the annual
budget law.
In the category of fiscal deductions we mention only the dividends cashed in from a
Romanian or foreign legal person.
The accounting net result (the result of the exercise) is calculated by subtracting the
expenses on corporate tax from the accounting result before taxation, as follows:
The net result of = The result before The expense on
the exercise
taxation
corporate tax
Records of the expenses on corporate tax are kept by means of the Expenses on
corporate tax account. The records of the expenses on corporate tax owed by a company
are as follows:
Expenses on corporate tax = Corporate tax
The International Accounting Standard 12 Corporate tax accounting makes the
difference between the expenses on corporate tax and the corporate tax.
The expenses on corporate tax include the expenses on current tax and the expenses
on delayed tax. If the company makes a fiscal loss, we no longer record expenses on
corporate tax, but fiscal revenues, which comprise the revenue from the current tax and
the revenue from the delayed corporate tax.
419
The current tax is the value of the corporate tax to pay (or to recover if fiscal loss is
made) in comparison with the taxable revenue (fiscal loss) for a period of time. The
delayed tax appears as a consequence of the inconsistency between the fiscal result and
the accounting result.
Recording the delayed taxes is typical of accounting systems in countries where
accountancy is separate from taxation. Here, it is intended that, by means of financial
statements drafted at the end of the financial exercise, the real image of the equity and of
the results should be illustrated. Thus, the corporate tax is recorded as an expense even if
it is not equal to the tax owed to the state budget (the tax owed to the state budget is
established according to fiscal norms).
The expense on the corporation tax appears in the synthesis document the Profit and
loss account before the net result of the exercise. At the end of the financial exercise the
Expenses on corporation tax account is closed through the Profit and loss account.
The net accounting result represents the final balance of the Profit and loss account.
The credit balance of the account emphasizes the result under the form of the net profit,
and the debit balance emphasizes the result under the form of net loss. It is recorded on
the liabilities side of the account, in the structure of the companys own capitals. The
credit balance leads to an increase in the companys own capital created as a source of
finance, following the excess of revenues over expenses, while the debit balance appears
as a decrease in the companys own capitals (it expresses the economic values already
consumed, not recovered as a result of the excess of expenses over revenues). The net
result of the exercise is explained in the Profit and loss account, a part of the financial
records.
In what follows, we present an example of how to calculate the net result of the
exercise, together with the corresponding stages, based on accounting records previously
made:
1. closing the operation revenues accounts:
%
Revenues from selling finished articles
7,842.5 RON
1,400 RON
1,100 RON
2,900 RON
912.5 RON
400 RON
250 RON
80 RON
80 RON
420
1,920RON
200 RON
1,000 RON
80 RON
%
Expenses on raw materials
7,578 RON
80 RON
Expenses on non-durables
30 RON
Expenses on electric power and water
Expenses on merchandise
Expenses on maintenance and repairs
720 RON
1,278 RON
80 RON
100 RON
30 RON
105 RON
2,000 RON
700 RON
55 RON
421
%
Losses from debits related to shares
1,596.9 RON
310 RON
120 RON
550 RON
1.9 RON
220 RON
Expenses
= 9,762.5 9,394.9 =
= 367.6 RON
R =Current result
Or
Current result
= Operation result
Operation result
Financial result
422
+Financial result
- Extraordinary
expenses
= 1,920 1,596.9 =
= 23.1 RON
= 220 RON
(loss from the extraordinary
activity)
7. the basis for taxation is reintegrated from non-deductible elements amounting to 62.5
RON.
8. fiscal deductions are calculated. The legal reserve is envisaged and it is calculated as
follows: 5% X gross profit (the result before taxation) = 5% * 3,676,000 = 183,000 RON
9. the fiscal result (taxable profit) is established:
The result
(taxable)
+ Non-deductible
expenses
- Fiscal deductions
X 16%
= 411.7,2 X 16%
= 65.8752 RON
CREDIT
(revenues)
7,442.5 RON
1,920 RON
9,762.5 RON
The final credit balance of the Profit and loss account can be distributed as
follows: to create reserves, to the shareholders under the form of dividends, to reward the
employees. The undistributed result is carried forward to the next exercises. This
information is to be found in an annotation to financial records, called Profit distribution.
Example:
- the distribution of the profit made by the company is recorded, amounting to 2,646,000
RON, for the increase in the legal reserve and for dividends:
Profit distribution =
%
264.6 RON
Legal reserves
18.38 RON
Dividends to be paid 245.29 RON
423
CHAPTER 14
Settlements
Rectified trial
balance
Results
account
Balance sheet
Debit Credit Debit Credit Debit Credit Debit Credit Debit Credit
424
425
7. The companys own shares, if the national legislation allows recording them in
the balance sheet (indicating their nominal value)
B. Current assets
I. Stocks
1. Raw materials and non-durables
2. Production being processed
3. Finished articles and merchandise
4. Down payments for purchasing stocks
II. Debits
(The amounts that must be cashed in after a period longer than one year must be
presented separately for each element)
1. Commercial debits
2. Amounts to be cashed in from companies within the group
3. Amounts to be cashed in from shares
4. Other debits
5. Debits regarding the capital subscribed but not paid in
III. Short-term financial investments
1. Shares at companies within the group
2. The companys own shares, if the national legislation allows recording them in
the balance sheet (indicating their nominal value)
3. Other short-term financial investments
IV. The cash register and bank accounts
C. Advance expenses
D. Debts that must be paid within a year
1. Loans from the issued bonds, the loans in convertible currency are presented
separately
2. Amounts owed to credit institutions
3. Down payments cashed in for the orders, as long as they are not presented
separately as stock deductions
4. Commercial debts
5. Commercial papers to pay / Outstanding commercial papers
6. Amounts owed to companies within the group
7. Amounts owed in relation to shares
8. Other debts, including fiscal debts and debts for social security
E. Net current assets and net current debts
F. Total assets minus current debts
G. debts that must be paid within a period longer than one year
1. Loans from the issued bonds, the loans in convertible currency are presented
separately
2. Amount owed to credit institutions
3. Down payments cashed in for the orders, as long as they are not presented
separately as stock deductions
4. Commercial debts
5. Commercial papers to pay / Outstanding commercial papers
6. Amounts owed to companies within the group
7. Amounts owed in relation to shares
8. Other debts, including fiscal debts and debts for social security
426
427
- thousands RON
Previous
Current
exercise
exercise
428
429
For Expenses on development the reasons for the fixed assets and the justified
depreciation period will be presented.
**)
Its adjustments according to the applied accounting techniques are presented.
***)
The adjustments related to the previous records are presented.
NOTE 2. COMMISSIONS FOR RISKS AND EXPENSES
AND OTHER COMMISSIONS
The name of the
commission
Balance on
January 1
0
They are explained
Transfers*)
To the account
From the
account
2
3
Balance on
December 31
4=1+2-3
*)
Amount
The previous
exercise
1
0
1. The net turnover
2. The cost of the goods sold and the services performed (3+4+5)
3. Expenses on the basic activity
4. Expenses on auxiliary activities
5. Indirect production expenses
6 The gross result related to the gross turnover (1-2)
7. Expenses on selling
8. General overheads
9. Other operation revenues
10. THE OPERATION RESULT ( 6-7-8+9)
430
The current
exercise
2
Balance on December
31 (col. 2+3)
1
Balance on December
31 (col. 2+3)
1
Liquidity period
Less than 1 year
More than 1 year
2
3
Less than 1
year
2
Exigibility period
1-5 years
More than 5
years
3
4
*)
431
432
Average stock
x 365 days
Sales cost
Client- debits rotation speed: shows the companys efficiency in collecting its
debits. To this purpose, the number of days until the date the debtors pay their debts to the
company is calculated.
Average clients balance x 365 days
Turnover
An increase in the value of the index can point to problems with the contRON over
the credit granted to clients and, consequently, debits more difficult to cash in.
- Supplier-credits rotation speed: approximates the number of credit days the
company can obtain from its suppliers. Ideally, this should include only commercial
creditors.
Average suppliers balance
x 365 days
Goods purchased (no services)
where the sales cost or the turnover can be used to approximate the purchases.
- Fixed assets rotation speed evaluates the efficiency of fixed assets management
by examining the value of the turnover generated by a certain amount of fixed assets:
Fixed assets
Turnover
=
rotation speed
Fixed assets
Total assets
Turnover
=
rotation speed
Total assets
4. Profitability indices indicate the profitability of the company in making profit
from the existing resources.
Return on used capital represents the profit the company obtains from the money
invested in the business:
Profit before paying the interest and corporation tax
Used capital
where the used capital refers to the money invested by the company, both by the
shareholders and the long-term investors, and includes the companys own capital and the
long-term debts or the total assets minus the current debts.
Gross sales margin,
Gross sales profit x 100
Turnover
A decrease in the percentage may emphasize the fact that the company is not capable
of contRONling the manufacturing costs or of obtaining the optimal selling price.
5. Indices regarding the result per share are determined according to IAS 33
stipulations and have in view:
- The result per share: indicates the net profit assignable to common shares: number
of shares taken into account.
- The relationship between the market price of the share and the result per share.
NOTE 10. OTHER INFORMATION
1. Other information
a. Information regarding the company presentation: the headquarters, the legal form
of organization, the country of origin, the official headquarters address, etc.
433
b. Information regarding the relationships between the company and its branches,
associated companies or other companies where it has strategic shares: the name of the
companies, the country of origin, the address, etc.
c. The manner used to express in national currency the elements of equity, revenues
and expenses initially expressed in foreign currency.
d. Information referring to corporation tax: the relationship between the current and
the extraordinary activity, reconciling the result of the exercise with the fiscal result, as it
is presented in the income statement.
e, The turnover: presentation on economic sectors and types of markets.
f. The expenses on rents and installments paid within an operational leasing contract.
g. The fees paid to auditors.
2. Recording the balance operations
Balance operations were generally determined while filling in the spreadsheet,
because they are essential to drafting the financial statements. At that moment, the
balance operations could have been recorded in the Journal. Nevertheless, recording them
is postponed until the spreadsheet and the financial statements are drafted because it can
be performed at the same time with the closing operations. The information to be recoded
in the balance operations in the Journal can simply be copied from the spreadsheet, and
later on it is posted to the Ledger.
3. Recording the closing operations
The closing operations represent the records made in the Journal at the end of the
financial exercise. By means of these recordings, two objectives are envisaged: firstly, the
closing operations prepare the opening of the next financial exercise by balancing the
revenues and expenses accounts, and secondly, through the closing operations the
revenues and expenses in an exercise are summed up.
The necessary closing operations are: transferring the credit balances of the revenues
accounts to the Profit and loss account, transferring the debit balances of the expenses
accounts to the Profit and loss account, closing the Profit and loss account through the
Profit distribution account.
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
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