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Tiprit n Romnia
Psihologia Resurselor Umane
Volumul 4, nr. 2, 2006
CUPRINS
Editorial
Paul E. Spector
De ce ar trebui s ne intereseze problema stresului la locul de munc? 6
Studii i Cercetri
Horia D Pitariu, Edward L. Levine, Simona Muat, Dan Ispas 16
Validarea chestionarului de msurare a emoiilor ca stare i trstur (MEST- Ro) la baschetbaliste
Drago Iliescu, Florin Glin 27
Comportamentul de tip A analizat prin lentilele unui personolog
Vlad Tureanu 38
Relaia dintre patternul de comportament de tip A i stresul ocupaional. O analiz multidimensional detaliat
Laureniu Maricuoiu 46
Rspunsuri emoionale la mesajele de eroare generate de computer
George Ooiu 54
Relaia dintre componentele carcateristice mediului psihosocial al muncii i starea de sntate
Petru Lucian Cureu 59
Managementul diversitii n organizaii: exist o legtur ntre teoriile diversitii i practicile organizaionale?
Ioana David
Reprezentarea informaiilor mediatizate: modele propuse de mass-media versus modele personale 70
Psihologie Militar
Dorina Coldea 81
Analiza muncii: aplicaii n domeniul militar
Dorin Zgrean 87
Elaborarea unui sistem de instruire i evaluare a personalului militar care urmeaz s participe la misiuni
internaionale
Despre metod
Robert Balazsi - Compararea statistic a coeficienilor de corelaie 103
Figuri de psihologi
Legislaie
Recomandri privind coordonarea activitilor de supervizare n domeniul psihologiei muncii, transporturilor i
133
serviciilor
PETRU LUCIAN CUREU (2006). Group Composition and Effectiveness. Cluj Napoca: Editura ASCR
(Daniela Onac)
MARIUS MILCU (2006). Conflicte n grupuri i organizaii. Sibiu: Editura Universitii Lucian Blaga
(Roxana Capotescu)
MARIUS MILCU (2006). Divergene, tensiuni i conflicte: o analiz multidimensional. Sibiu: Editura Universitii
Lucian Blaga
(Camelia Rusu)
Informaii 138
3
Psihologia Resurselor Umane
Volume 4, nr. 2, 2006
CONTENT
Editorial
Paul E. Spector
Why Should We Care about Workplace Stress? 6
Studies and Research
Horia D Pitariu, Edward L. Levine, Simona Muat, Dan Ispas 16
Validation of the State Trait Emotion Measure (STEM) on Romanian Basketball Players
Drago Iliescu, Florin Glin 27
Type A Behavior through the Tainted Lenses of a Personologist
Vlad Tureanu 38
Relationship between the Type A Behavioral Pattern and Occupational Stress. A detailed multidimensional analysis
Laureniu Maricuoiu 46
Emotional Responses to Computer Error Messages
George Ooiu 54
The Relationship between Psychosocial Work Characteristics and Self Related Health
Petru Lucian Cureu 59
Managing Diversity in Organizations: Is there a Link between Diversity Theories and Organizational Practices?
Ioana David
Representations of media transmitted information: mass media proposed models vs. own models 70
Military Psychology
Dorina Coldea 81
Work Analysis: Applications in the Military Field
Dorin Zgrean 87
Elaborating a Training and Performance Appraisal System for Military Personnel that Are Going to Take Part in
International Missions
About Methods
Robert Balazsi Statistically Comparing Correlation Coefficients 103
Psychologists Figures
In Memoriam Alexandru Roca (1906 -1996) 129
In Memoriam Dumitru Salade (1915 - 2006)
131
PETRU LUCIAN CUREU (2006). Group Composition and Effectiveness. Cluj Napoca: ASCR Publishing House
(Daniela Onaca)
MARIUS MILCU (2006). Conflicts in Groups and Organizations. Sibiu: Editura Universitii Lucian Blaga
(Roxana Capotescu)
MARIUS MILCU (2006). Divergences, Tensions and Conflicts: a Multidimensional Analysis. Sibiu: Editura
Universitii Lucian Blaga
(Camelia Rusu)
Information 138
4
Psychologie des Ressources Humaines
Volume 4, nr. 2, 2006
CONTENU
ditorial
Paul E. Spector
Pourquoi sintresser de la problmatique du stress professionnel? 6
tudes et Investigations
Horia D Pitariu, Edward L. Levine, Simona Muat, Dan Ispas 16
Validation dune mesure des motions comme tat et trait (MEST- Ro) chez les basketbalistes
Drago Iliescu, Florin Glin 27
Le type A de comportement par les objectifs pourri dun personoloque
Vlad Tureanu 38
La relation entre le comportement de type A et le stress professionnel. Une analyse multidimensionnelle dtaille
Laureniu Maricuoiu 46
Rponse motionnelle aux messages derreur affiche par lordinateur
George Ooiu 54
Relation entre les caractristiques psychosociales du milieu du travail et la sant
Petru Lucian Cureu 59
Management de la diversit dans les organisations: Est-ce quil y a une liaison entre la thorie de la diversit et les
pratiques organisationnelles?
Ioana David 70
Reprsentations des informations mdiatiques: des modles propose de mass media vs des modles personnels
Psychologie Militaire
Dorina Coldea 81
Lanalyse du travail : applications dans le domaine militaire
Dorin Zgrean 87
Llaboration dun system de instruction et dvaluation du personnel militaire qui va participe aux missions a
ltranger
PRH Appliqu
Daniela Vercellino, Roxana Indre, Annemarie Birthler, Elena Cprar, Lavinia Fieroiu, Ramaiana Dijmrescu,
Corina Giurgi 106
Une nouvelle perspective dans ltude des fonctions du dpartement des ressources humaines
Roxana Indre 119
Lvaluation des postes. Le cas de lentreprise O&V
Critiques 134
PETRU LUCIAN CUREU (2006). Composition et efficacit des groups. Cluj Napoca: Maison ddition de ASCR
(Daniela Onac)
MARIUS MILCU (2006). Conflits dans les groups et les organisations. Sibiu: Maison ddition de lUniversit Lucian
Blaga
(Roxana Capotescu)
MARIUS MILCU (2006). Divergence, tensions et conflits: une analyse multidimensionnelle. Maison ddition de
lUniversit Lucian Blaga
(Camelia Rusu)
138
Informations
5
DE CE AR TREBUI S NE INTERESEZE Este recunoscut faptul c stresul la locul
PROBLEMA STRESULUI LA LOCUL DE de munc este un fenomen important nu doar
MUNC? pentru cercettori, ci i pentru manageri. Dei
sntatea i bunstarea oamenilor sunt de mult
timp subiecte de interes pentru psihologie i
Paul E. Spector1 domeniile conexe, studiul stresului ocupaional este
University of South Florida relativ recent. Cnd, n prima perioad a secolului
XX, cercettorii au nceput s aplice principiile
psihologiei n contextul muncii, principala
preocupare era nelegerea performanei n sarcin
i a factorilor care o influeneaz, n special n SUA
unde au fost derulate multe din primele studii. Acest
lucru a nsemnat acordarea unei atenii sporite
mijloacelor de a mbunti performana n munc a
angajailor mai degrab dect sntii i strii de
bine a acestora. Ca absolvent al unei universiti
americane la nceputul anilor 1970, am observat
clar faptul c accentul n cercetare era plasat
aproape n ntregime pe productivitatea angajailor
i am aflat curnd c, dac cineva vroia s studieze
aspecte legate de bunstarea angajailor, acestea
trebuiau relaionate cu ceva ce afecta n mod direct
eficiena organizaiei, cum ar fi performana n
munc sau fluctuaia de personal. Cercetrile erau
mai avansate n nordul Europei unde studiul
stresului ocupaional ncepuse s se dezvolte.
Ctre sfritul anilor 1980 studiul stresului
ocupaional a devenit o prioritate peste tot n lume,
inclusiv n Statele Unite. Acest lucru a reprezentat o
schimbare de perspectiv pentru cercettorii din
psihologie industrial-organizaional, psihologie
ocupaional, comportament organizaional, i
managementul resurselor umane, domenii n mod
deosebit interesate de gsirea unor moduri eficiente
de utilizare a resurselor umane n beneficiul
organizaiilor. A devenit recunoscut, de asemenea,
i faptul c sntatea i bunstarea acestor resurse
umane este de mare interes. Astzi exist jurnale
dedicate stresului ocupaional i subiectelor
relaionate, cum ar fi Journal of Occupational Health
Psychology sau Work and Stress. Conferina
internaional, Munc, Stres i Sntate a avut loc
n acest an (2006) n Statele Unite (Miami), iar
Academia European de Psihologie a Sntii
Ocupaionale i-a inut cea de-a 7-a conferin la
Dublin, Irlanda, n noiembrie, acelai an.
Avnd n vedere aceast activitate n
domeniu, este pe deplin justificat s ne ntrebm de
ce ar trebui cercettorii, practicienii i managerii s
fie interesai de problema stresului ocupaional.
Sunt trei motive pe care le voi discuta n acest eseu.
n primul rnd, este perspectiva umanist potrivit
creia, ntr-o societate civilizat, ar trebui s ne
pese tuturor de sntatea i bunstarea oamenilor.
1 Deoarece stresul la locul de munc afecteaz
Adresa de coresponden:
spector@shell.cas.usf.edu sntatea i starea de bine a angajailor, acest
6
Editorial
aspect trebuie s ne preocupe. n al doilea rnd, fizice, eventual chiar i boli grave. De asemenea,
exist abordarea pragmatic potrivit creia stresul pot apela la alcool sau alte substane pentru a face
ocupaional este relaionat cu performana n munc fa situaiei stresante, i dac fumeaz deja, poate
i alte lucruri care afecteaz eficiena n cadrul crete frecvena acestui comportament.
organizaiei. Exist efecte directe ale stresului Aceste constrngeri pot fi manifestri ale
ocupaional, acesta putnd interfera cu abilitatea unei stri precare de sntate i ale unui nivel
persoanei de a realiza sarcinile la locul de munc i sczut de bunstare, i multe din acestea pot fi
exist i efecte indirecte n sensul c stresul poate interrelaionate. Constrngerile psihologice sunt o
duce la probleme de sntate i bunstare care, la cauz a nefericirii i lipsei strii de bine psihologic.
rndul lor, pot cauza probleme organizaiei. n fine, Un argument uneori vehiculat este acela c
exist i Healthy Work Organization, HWO, idee organizaiile nu sunt responsabile pentru fericirea
potrivit creia sntatea angajailor i a organizaiei angajailor, deci nu ar trebui s existe aceast
sunt interconectate (Jaffe, 1995), deci nu poate fi preocupare n legtur cu problemele psihologice.
optimizat una fr cealalt. Astfel, nu e necesar s Oricum, Constrngerile psihologice pot contribui la
punem accentul fie pe sntatea angajailor, fie pe apariia problemelor fizice, din moment ce emoiile
eficiena organizaiei, ci mai degrab s ncurajm au att componente fiziologice ct i psihologice.
practici ce le susin pe ambele simultan. Expunerea pe termen lung la emoii negative poate
avea consecine fizice serioase, inclusiv apariia
Impactul stresului asupra angajailor unor boli de inim (Greenglass, 1996). Mai mult,
tipurile de comportamente la care apeleaz unele
Motivul umanist pentru a acorda atenie persoane pentru a face fa stresorilor de la locul de
stresului ocupaional se refer la faptul c acesta munc pot fi duntoare pentru sntate. Consumul
afecteaz negativ sntatea i bunstarea de alcool i alte substane n scop de relaxare poate
angajailor, ori acesta este un aspect care ar trebui duce la abuz de substane, iar creterea frecvenei
s preocupe pe oricine. Au fost derulate multe studii fumatului datorit stresului poate cauza boli de
asupra stresului ocupaional care dovedesc n mod inim i cancer.
clar existena unei legturi cu starea de sntate i Legtura dintre stresorii de la locul de
bunstarea. Condiiile de munc stresante sau munc i problemele ce pot aprea a fost stabilit n
stresorii de la locul de munc sunt de diverse urma unor sute de studii pe tem. Majoritatea
categorii. O parte sunt relaionate cu cerinele acestor studii utilizeaz chestionare n care
postului de munc, inclusiv numrul de ore de angajailor li se cere s indice nivelul de stres i
munc pe unitatea de timp (ex. zilnic sau problemele pe care le au. Unele colecteaz att
sptmnal), n timp ce altele se refer la date de la angajai ct i din alte surse, precum
dificultatea sarcinilor i volumul muncii. Ali stresori superiorii pentru a contracara biasrile ce apar n
se regsesc n mediul social i pot include raportrile oamenilor i care pot distorsiona relaiile
interaciuni abuzive sau neplcute crora angajaii dintre variabile. O posibilitate este aceea ca indivizii
trebuie uneori s le fac fa (de ex. batjocur sau s rspund negativ la toate ntrebrile i astfel s
hruire la locul de munc) sau conflicte raporteze un mediu de munc cu un nivel ridicat de
interpersonale. Sntatea i starea de bine pot fi stresori i un nivel ridicat de constrngeri (Watson,
clasificate n subtipuri la care se face referire prin Pennebaker & Folger, 1987). Un exemplu al
sintagmele de presiuni psihologice, fizice i abordrii mai multor surse de date poate fi gsit n
comportamentale. Constrngerile psihologice unul dintre studiile noastre (Spector, Dwyer & Jex,
reprezint reacii emoionale negative fa de locul 1988), n care angajailor li s-a solicitat s raporteze
de munc (de ex. furie sau anxietate) i atitudini stresorii la care sunt supui la locul de munc i
negative cum ar fi insatisfacia profesional. problemele pe care le au, iar superiorilor li s-a cerut
Constrngerile de ordin fizic implic att simptome de asemenea s raporteze stresorii la care sunt
pe termen scurt (de ex. ridicarea nivelului de expui angajaii. Astfel am avut confirmarea din
colesterol sau dureri de cap) ct i consecine pe partea superiorilor c stresorii la locul de munc
termen lung cum ar fi bolile de inim. Constrngerile exist i nu sunt doar rezultatul percepiei subiective
comportamentale reprezint reaciile oamenilor la a angajailor.
stresori, reacii precum consumul de alcool sau Unul din stresorii legai de cerinele
fumatul. Toate aceste probleme, n special cele de postului de munc inclus n studiul nostru a fost
ordin psihologic i comportamental, au fost asociate constrngerile organizaionale. Acestea sunt
cu existena unuia sau mai multor stresori la locul aspecte ale contextului muncii care ngreuneaz
de munc. Astfel, cei care sunt supui unui nivel ndeplinirea sarcinilor de ctre angajat, cum ar fi
nalt de stresori ar putea resimi frecvent emoii prezena echipamentului inadecvat sau instruirea
negative, un declin al plcerii de a lucra, simptome insuficient. Un altul a fost stresorul social
7
reprezentat de conflictul interpersonal, i anume, de la ceilali angajai care ar putea fi afectai. Dei nu
contradiciile i certurile cu colegii de munc. sunt formalizate n mod obligatoriu n reguli scrise,
Rezultatele au artat c att n ceea ce privete multe dintre companii au valori umaniste si se
raportrile angajailor, ct i ale superiorilor, asupra mndresc cu faptul de a fi menionai pe listele cu
constrngerilor la locul de munc, nivelurile ridicate cei mai buni angajatori ca de exemplu 100 dintre
ale acestui stresor aveau ca rezultat un nivel nalt cele mai bune companii pentru care poi lucra,
de psychological strain la nivel de anxietate, menionat n fiecare an de Fortune Magazine din
frustrare i intenii de a prsi locul de munc. USA i Topul celor mai buni 100 de angajatori din
Conflictul interpersonal raportat att de angajai ct Canada publicat de Mediacorp Canada. Asociaia
i de superiori a fost relaionat cu toate aceste Psihologilor Americani ofer premiul pentru un loc
constrngeri psihologice precum i cu o serie de de munc sntos pentru a oferi recunoatere
onstrngeri fizice legate de starea de sntate (de acelor companii care au practici n mod particular
ex. dureri de cap i probleme cu stomacul). favorizante pentru sntatea i starea de bine la
O problem cu acest mod de a studia locul de munc. Desigur c unele din motivele
stresul ocupaional, n care toate variabilele sunt pentru acest tip de recunoatere pot fi pragmatice
msurate la un anumit moment dat, este c nu deoarece aceasta contribuie la recrutarea i
putem afla cu certitudine dac stresorii de la locul meninerea la locul de munc a angajailor.
de munc au cauzat problemele sau invers. Este Multe ri au legi care precizeaz care este
posibil ca indivizii care au probleme s-i creeze ei nivelul maxim de risc pentru sntate permis la un
nii condiii de munc stresante. O persoan loc de munc. Dei multe dintre aceste legi se
frustrat la locul de munc, de exemplu, i poate refer n special la expunerea la condiii de munc
exprima aceste sentimente fa de colegi i astfel riscante, la elemente chimice cancerigene i la
poate intra n conflict cu ei. Astfel, frustrarea devine substane toxice unele dintre ele fac referire i la
cauza i nu efectul stresorului reprezentat de condiiile de munc extrem de stresante. n America
conflictul interpersonal. Exist studii care au folosit de Nord spre exemplu, exist legi mpotriva hruirii
metode mai elocvente pentru a demonstra faptul c sexuale care poate fi o surs de stres la locul de
stresorii la locul de munc au ntr-adevr un efect munc.
asupra constrngerilor ce pot aprea. Cercetri
derulate n Suedia, la Institutul Karolinska, Legtura ntre stres i eficiena n organizaie
Universitatea din Stockholm, ofer o legtur mai
clar ntre stresorii de la locul de munc i Perspectiva pragmatic este c stresul la
sntatea fizic. Unul dintre primele lor studii locul de munc afecteaz productivitatea prin cel
investiga nivelul adrenalinei un hormon asociat cu puin dou mecanisme. n primul rnd factorii de
emoiile i stresul - n secreia urinar pe parcursul stres pot reduce capacitatea individului de a realiza
unor perioade de program normal vs perioade de munca ntr-un mod eficient. Spre exemplu, dac o
munc suplimentar (vezi Frankenhaeuser, 1979). persoan este confruntat cu stresori puternici,
Acest studiu a artat n mod clar c nivelul acest lucru poate duce la creterea distractibilitii i
adrenalinei cretea n timpul perioadelor de munc oboselii care la rndul lor vor contribui la reducerea
peste program i revenea la normal cnd angajaii eficienei n munc. Proasta dispoziie la locul de
reveneau la programul obinuit, demonstrnd astfel munc poate constitui i ea un dezavantaj, ducnd
existena unei legturi n timp ntre cerinele muncii la o performan mai sczut i la creterea
i anumite rspunsuri fiziologice. Alte studii conduse conflictelor cu colaboratorii. n al doilea rnd, dac
de ei att n context de laborator ct i pe teren stresul la locul de munc duce la boal, acest lucru
arat modul n care adrenalina i ali hormoni sunt este probabil s aib ca rezultat o scdere a
secretai n snge ca rspuns la stres. productivitii din cauza creterii numrului de
Toate aceste cercetri indic o legtur absene, iar costurile mbolnvirii vor fi deseori
clar ntre stresorii de la locul de munc i suportate de companie prin creterea costurilor
sntatea i starea de bine a angajailor. Din pentru ajutorul de sntate.
perspectiv umanist cercettorii, practicienii i Un numr de cercettori au estimat
managerii sunt responsabili, din punct de vedere costurile stresului ocupaional cauzat att de
social, ca practicile i condiiile de la locul de munc mecanisme directe ct i indirecte. Cartwright i
s nu fie n detrimentul sntii i strii de bine a Cooper (1997) au sumarizat unele dintre aceste
angajailor. Pentru cercettori i practicieni acest costuri n Europa i USA. Ei precizeaz faptul c
lucru este codificat n standarde etice i coduri de stresul ocupaional cost organizaiile americane n
conduit care impun ca indivizii cu care colaboreaz jur de $150 miliarde pe an. n Regatul Unit mai mult
s nu fie pui n situaii riscante. Prin aceasta se de o cincime din absenele angajailor pot fi atribuite
face referire nu doar la participanii la cercetare ci i
8
Editorial
stresului iar n Norvegia costurile stresului se ridic climat organizaional suportiv pentru performan,
la peste 10% din produsul intern brut. minimizarea barierelor i utilizarea n mod eficient a
Studiile care analizeaz legtura direct resurselor umane. Sauter, Lim i Murphy (2006) au
dintre stresorii ocupaionali i performana n munc condus un studiu cu obiectivul de a identifica o list
a angajailor indic existena unei relaii, dar numai de practici organizaionale cu rol n constituirea unei
pentru unii dintre stresori. Jex (1997) a revizuit organizaii care promoveaz sntatea la locul de
acest domeniu i a indicat faptul c relaiile dintre munc prin asociere att cu eficiena
stresorii ocupaionali i performana n munc au organizaional ct i cu reducerea stresului. Acest
variat n funcie de tipul de stresori, astfel unii dintre tip de organizaie pune accent pe calitate,
acetia precum ambiguitatea de rol (nesigurana n investete n dezvoltarea angajailor, se angajeaz
legtur cu sarcinile de ndeplinit), au nregistrat n aciuni de planificare strategic, ofer salarizare
legturi mai puternice dect conflictul de rol (cerine i recompense corecte. n cadrul ei se menine un
la locul de munc aflate n competiie i care climat inovativ, cooperant, cu conflicte reduse i
interfereaz una cu alta). El a mai adugat faptul c spirit de echip al angajailor. Multe dintre aceste
atunci cnd performana este privit dintr-o activiti reprezint aspecte ale unui management
perspectiv mai larg ralaiile cu aceasta devin i eficient presupunnd accentuarea calitii i a
mai puternice. n mod specific stresorii ocupaionali inovaiilor. O astfel de organizaie poate fi
au fost relaionai cu comportamentul de munc caracterizat ca fiind bine condus i ca utiliznd
contraproductiv, acesta referindu-se la aciuni care ntr-un mod uman i eficient resursele umane.
duneaz organizaiei, ca de exemplu: ntrzierile, Dei exist studii care relaioneaz
stricarea echipamentului, realizarea muncii n mod condiiile particulare i practicile de la locul de
intenionat eronat i furtul de la locul de munc. munc cu variabile care afecteaz att sntatea
Organizaiile care ignor stresul angajailor ct i a organizaiei, puine studii le-au
ocupaional i au chiar practici de genul orarelor de analizat pe acestea mpreun. Un exemplu de
munc suprancrcate care l sporesc, risc s aib studiu care face acest lucru este studiul menionat
angajai a cror performan este slab deoarece anterior care a studiat performana n munc n
stresorii interfereaz cu performana sau fiindc relaie cu stresorii i problemele la locul de munc
angajaii sunt nemulumii i i reduc efortul. Astfel (Spector at.al 1998). Am descoperit c angajaii
de organizaii au angajai care absenteaz frecvent care percepeau existena unui control personal la
din cauza distresului emoional sau a bolii, costurile locul de munc raportau un nivel mai sczut al
acesteia din urm fiind asigurate de companie prin stresului psihologic (anxietate, frustrare i
intermediul ajutorului pentru sntate. n final, insatisfacie la locul de munc), iar supervizorii au
organizaiile din sectorul privat care i trateaz n raportat c aceti angajai au performane mai bune
mod adecvat angajaii pot beneficia de pe urma dect cei cu un nivel sczut al controlului perceput.
imaginii publice pozitive de natur s atrag clieni Constrngerile ridicate n cadrul organizaiei au fost
i astfel s creasc vnzrile. relaionate cu stres psihologic ridicat i performan
sczut n munc. Cu toate acestea studiul a luat n
Organizaii care promoveaz munca sntoas considerare nivelele individuale ale performanei n
munc care nu erau relaionate n mod direct cu
A existat n trecut grija c perspectivele eficiena organizaional general.
umaniste i cele pragmatice ar fi diametral opuse, Este important ca pe viitor studiile s
iar aciunile ntreprinse pentru a asigura starea de relaioneze stresorii ocupaionali att cu sntatea
bine ar fi n dauna productivitii. Spre exemplu, individual a angajailor ct i cu eficiena
cerinele de la locul de munc pot fi reduse prin organizaional. Astfel de cercetri ar fi utile pentru
limitarea orelor de munc sau scderea volumului identificarea condiiilor i practicilor de la locul de
de munc depus n aceste ore. Acest lucru ar munc n stare s amelioreze ambele aspecte
facilita munca angajailor, dar ar pune organizaia fie menionate mai sus fie prin reducerea stresorilor
n situaia de a avea prea puini angajai, munca ocupaionali fie prin a-i face mai uor de suportat.
necesar nefiind realizat, fie n situaia de a face Proiectarea unui cadru organizaional care s
noi angajri i a-i crete costurile alocate susin i s faciliteze eforturile angajailor de a-i
resurselor umane. realiza activitile de munc ar trebui s i
Ideea organizaiilor care promoveaz dovedeasc eficiena n crearea unor organizaii cu
sntatea la locul de munc presupune c starea condiii optime pentru sntate.
de bine organizaional i personal sunt
interconectate i c exist practici manageriale
eficiente care s le mbine pe cele dou. Astfel de
practici accentueaz eficiena prin crearea unui
9
Sumarizare i concluzii Bibliografie
Conexiunea dintre stresorii ocupaionali, Cartwright, S., & Cooper, C. L. (1997). Managing
sntatea i starea de bine a angajailor a fost bine workplace stress. Thousand Oaks, CA:
fundamentat de-a lungul deceniilor anterioare de Sage.
cercetare. Organizaiile nu pot s nege n Frankenhaeuser, M. (1979). Psychoneuroendocrine
continuare faptul c practicile care fac munca approaches to the study of emotion as
deosebit de stresant au ntr-adevr efecte negative related to stress and coping. Nebraska
asupra sntii i strii de bine a angajailor lor, Symposium on Motivation, 26, 123-161.
aa cum nu pot nici s pretind c acele efecte Greenglass, E. R. (1996). Anger suppression,
negative asupra angajailor nu s-ar repercuta i cynical distrust, and hostility: Implications
asupra organizaiei n sine. Aceasta nu trebuie s for coronary heart disease. In C. D.
fie interpretat ca o sugestie de a ndeprta cu totul Spielberger, I. G. Sarason, J. M. T.
stresorii din organizaie. Stresul este endemic Brebner, E. Greenglass, P. Laungani, & A.
pentru via, astfel nct ncercrile de a-l ndeprta M. ORoark (Eds.). Stress and Emotion:
n totalitate sunt nerealiste. Realist ar fi ns Anxiety, Anger, and Curiosity, (vol. 16, pp.
dezvoltarea unor modaliti de evitare a stresorilor 205-225). Washington, DC: Taylor &
excesivi i de management al stresului Francis.
organizaional. Jaffe, D. T. (1995). The healthy company: Research
Cercettorii trebuie s continue s studieze paradigms for personal and organizational
ci dintre stresorii ocupaionali din mediul de health. In S. L. Sauter & L. R. Murphy
munc i afecteaz pe angajai. Exist multe (Eds.). Organizational risk factors for job
informaii n acest domeniu, dar cunotinele stress (pp. 13-39). Washington, DC:
referitoare la diferitele tipuri i combinaii de factori American Psychological Association.
stresori importani sunt limitate. Majoritatea Jex, S. M. (1997). Stress and job performance:
cercetrilor pe tema stresului s-au limitat la un Theory, research, and implications for
numr relativ mic de stresori. Spre exemplu puine managerial practice. Thousand Oaks, CA:
studii s-au axat pe constrngerile organizaionale Sage.
sau pe stresorii sociali. De asemenea trebuie Sauter, S. L., Lim, S. Y., & Murphy, L. R. (1996).
realizate mai multe cercetri pe tema modului n Organizational health: A new paradigm for
care oamenii fac fa stresului fcnd referire la occupational stress research at NIOSH.
modalitile de coping att constructiv ct i Japanese Journal of Occupational Mental
distructiv. Aceasta poate duce la moduri mai Health, 4, 248-254.
eficiente de a-i educa pe oameni s fac fa ntr-un Spector, P. E., Dwyer, D. J., & Jex, S. M. (1988).
mod mai eficient stresului nu doar la locul de munc Relation of job stressors to affective,
ci i n afara lui. Din punct de vedere organizaional health, and performance outcomes: A
este important s se realizeze cercetri care s comparison of multiple data sources.
indice modalitile de management al stresului de la Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 11-19.
locul de munc. Organizaiile investesc mult n Watson, D. Pennebaker, J. W., & Folger, R. (1987).
managementul sarcinilor, dar i contextul n care Beyond negative affectivity: Measuring
sunt realizate acestea este important. Pentru unele stress and satisfaction in the workplace. In
meserii stresul ocupaional este inerent iar tehnicile J. M. Ivancevich & D. C. Ganster (Eds.).
adecvate de leadership vor merge departe pentru a- Job stress: From theory to suggestion (pp.
i ajuta pe aceti angajai s fac fa stresului care 141-157). New York: Haworth Press.
nu poate fi eliminat. Pe de alt parte stresorii pot fi
creai n mod neintenionat de supervizori i aceti
stresori inutili trebuie inui sub control. Practicile
care controleaz stresorii suplimentari sprijinindu-i
simultan pe angajai s fac fa stresorilor inereni
muncii lor au potenialul de a maximiza sntatea i
starea de bine att a angajailor ct i a organizaiei.
10
Editorial
WHY SHOULD WE CARE ABOUT There has been growing recognition that
WORKPLACE STRESS? stress in the workplace is an important
phenomenon, not only to researchers, but to
managers as well. Although concern with human
Paul E. Spector
1 health and well-being has had a long history in
University of South Florida psychology and related fields, the study of job stress
is fairly recent. As psychological researchers in the
th
early 20 century began applying their principles to
the workplace, the original focus was on
understanding task performance and things that
affected it, especially in the U.S. where much of the
early development occurred. This has meant paying
more attention to ways of enhancing employee job
performance than to their health and well-being. As
an American graduate student in the early 1970s, I
saw clearly that the emphasis was almost
completely on employee productivity, and I quickly
learned that if you studied something related to well-
being you had to tie it to something that directly
affected organizational effectiveness, like job
performance or turnover. Things were more
progressive at the time in northern Europe where
the emerging field of job stress was developing.
By the late 1980s the study of job stress
had become mainstream throughout the world, and
the U.S. was no exception. This represented a shift
in focus for organizational researchers in fields like
industrial/organizational psychology, occupational
psychology, organizational behavior, and human
resource management that have long held a strong
interest in finding more effective ways of utilizing
human resources to benefit organizations. It
became recognized that the health and well-being of
those human resources was of vital interest as well.
Today there are journals devoted to job stress and
related topics, such as Journal of Occupational
Health Psychology, and Work & Stress. The
international conference, Work, Stress, and Health
was held this year (2006) in the U.S. (Miami), and
the European Academy of Occupational Health
Psychology held its 7th conference in Dublin, Ireland
in November of the same year.
With all this activity, it is certainly
reasonable to ask why researchers, practitioners,
and managers should care about job stress. There
are three reasons that I will discuss in this essay.
First, theres the humanistic perspective that in
civilized society we should all care about the health
and well-being of people. Because stress in the
workplace affects employee health and well-being,
we need to be concerned about it. Second is the
pragmatic approach that job stress is related to
performance and things that affect organizational
effectiveness. There are direct effects in that job
1 stress can interfere with an individuals ability to
Corresponding address:
spector@shell.cas.usf.edu perform the job, and there are indirect effects in that
11
stress can lead to poor health and well-being, and physical as well as psychological components.
that can cause problems for organizations. Finally, Long-term exposure to negative emotions can
there is the healthy work organization, HWO, idea contribute to serious physical ailments, including
that employee health and organizational health are heart disease (Greenglass, 1996). Furthermore, the
interconnected (Jaffe, 1995), so one cannot sorts of behaviors individuals engage in to cope with
effectively maximize one without the other. Thus it job stressors can be detrimental to health. The use
isnt necessary to place emphasis on either of alcohol and other drugs to relax can lead to
employee health or organizational effectiveness, but substance abuse, and the increase in smoking
rather there are practices that will encourage both associated with stress can lead to heart disease and
simultaneously. cancer.
The link between job stressors and strains
The Impact of Stress on Employees has been clearly established in literally hundreds of
studies. The majority utilize surveys in which
The humanistic reason for paying attention employees are asked to indicate their levels of job
to job stress is that it adversely affects health and stressors and strains. Some collect data from both
well-being of employees, and this is something that employees and others, such as supervisors to get
should concern everyone. There have been many around the limitation that there are biases in
studies of job stress that clearly show a link with peoples reports that cause distortions in
health and well-being. Stressful job conditions, relationships among variables. One possibility is
termed job stressors, are of many varieties. Some that some individuals respond negatively to anything
relate to work demands and workloads, including asked, so they report that the environment is high
number of hours worked per unit of time (e.g., daily on stressors and that they experience high strains
or weekly), where others concern the difficulty and (Watson, Pennebaker & Folger, 1987). An example
volume of work. Other stressors are in the social of the multiple data source approach can be seen in
environment, and such social stressors can include one of our studies (Spector, Dwyer & Jex, 1988) in
the abusive and nasty encounters people which we asked employees to report on their job
sometimes must endure (e.g., bullying or mobbing stressors and strains, and asked their supervisors to
at work), or interpersonal conflicts with others. report on the employees job stressors, as well.
Health and well-being can be classified into types Thus we got corroboration from the supervisor that
referred to as psychological strains, physical strains, the stressors did exist in the work environment, and
and behavioral strains. Psychological strains are it wasnt just the idiosyncratic perception of the
negative emotional reactions to work (e.g., anger employee.
and anxiety), and negative attitudes such as job One of the demand stressors that were
dissatisfaction. Physical strains are both short-term included in our study was organizational constraints.
health symptoms (e.g., cholesterol levels or These are things in the work setting that make it
headaches) and long-term illness such as heart difficult for the individual to do their job tasks, such
disease. Behavioral strains are things people do in as inadequate equipment or insufficient training.
response to stressors, such as alcohol consumption The other was the social stressor of interpersonal
or smoking. All of these strains have been conflict that is, getting into arguments and fights with
associated with one or more stressors at work, coworkers. The results showed that for both
especially the psychological and behavioral strains. employee and supervisor reports of constraints,
Thus individuals who experience high levels of high levels of this job stressor resulted in high levels
stressors might experience frequent negative of the psychological strains of anxiety, frustration,
emotions, a decline in enjoyment of work, physical and turnover intentions (the plans people have for
symptoms, and eventually serious illness. They quitting the job). Interpersonal conflict reported by
might well turn to alcohol and other drugs to cope both employees and supervisors related to all of
with the adverse situation, and if they smoke, they these psychological strains, as well as the physical
may well increase the frequency. strains of health symptoms (e.g., headache and
Strains can be manifestations of ill-health stomach distress).
and poor well-being, and the various types of strains A problem with this approach to studying
are interlinked. Psychological strains are a source of job stress, where all variables are measured at one
unhappiness and poor psychological well-being. point in time, is that we cant be certain whether it is
One argument that is sometimes made is that the job stressor that caused the strain, or the
organizations arent responsible for employee reverse. Perhaps individuals who experience strains
happiness, so there shouldnt be concern with will create stressful conditions for themselves. A
psychological strain. However, psychological strain person who is feeling frustrated at work, for
can contribute to physical strain, as emotions have example, might express those feelings to coworkers
12
Editorial
and initiate conflict with them. Thus the frustration is The Connection between Stress and
the cause and not the effect of the interpersonal Organizational Effectiveness
conflict stressor. There are studies that have used
more conclusive methods to show that job stressors The pragmatic view is that job stress
do have effects on strains. Work done in Sweden at directly affects employee productivity through at
the Karolinska Institute, University of Stockholm, least two mechanisms. First stressors may reduce
provides a much clearer link between job stressors an individuals ability to do the job effectively. If
and physical health. One of their early studies someone is experiencing high levels of stressors,
looked at the urinary secretion of adrenaline, a for example, it might lead to distraction and fatigue
hormone associated with emotion and stress, during that reduces work efficiency. Bad moods at work
periods of regular versus overtime working hours can also be detrimental, leading to worse service
(see Frankenhaeuser, 1979). This study showed performance for boundary spanners (e.g.,
quite clearly that adrenaline levels went up during salespeople), and increased conflict with coworkers.
times of overtime work, and returned to baseline Second, if job stress leads to illness, this will likely
when employees returned to regular work lead to lowered productivity due to increased
schedules, thus demonstrating a link over time absence from work, and the costs of illness will
between work demands and physiological often be borne by the organization through higher
responses. Other studies they have conducted in health benefit costs.
both laboratory and field settings shows how A number of researchers have estimated
adrenaline and other hormones are secreted into the costs to business and society of job stress due
the bloodstream in response to stress. to both direct and indirect mechanisms. Cartwright
All of this research shows a clear link and Cooper (1997) summarized some of them, in
between job stressors and employee health and Europe and the U.S. They note the estimate that job
well-being. From a humanistic point of view, stress costs American organizations about $150
researchers, practitioners, and managers have billion/year. In the UK, more than one-fifth of
social responsibilities to be sure workplace employee absence is attributable to stress, and in
conditions and practices are not detrimental to Norway stress costs are more than 10% of the
health and well-being. For researchers and gross national product.
practitioners, this is often codified in ethical Studies of the direct connection between
standards and codes of conduct that state we job stressors and the job performance of employees
should not place individuals we work with at risk. shows a link, but only for some job stressors. Jex
This includes not only research participants but (1997) reviewed this area and showed that
others in the workplace we might affect. Although relationships between job stressors and job
not necessarily written into policies, many performance varied according to the type of
organizations have humanistic values and take stressor, with some stressors such as role ambiguity
pride in being named to lists of best employers, for (uncertainty about what one is supposed to do)
example, 100 Best Companies To Work For having larger relationships than others such as role
named each year by Fortune Magazine in the U.S. conflict (competing demands at work that interfere
and Canadas Top 100 Employers published by with one another). He further pointed out that when
Mediacorp Canada. The American Psychological one takes a broad view of performance,
Association gives Psychologically Healthy relationships may be even stronger. Specifically, job
Workplace Awards to recognize companies that stressors have been related to counterproductive
have practices particularly conducive to health and work behaviors which are acts that harm the
well-being. Of course, some of the motives for such organization, such as coming to work late,
recognitions might be pragmatic as this helps with damaging equipment, purposely doing work
recruitment and retention of employees. incorrectly, and theft.
Many countries also have laws governing Organizations that ignore job stress, and
how unhealthy a work setting can be. Although most even have practices that increase it such as overly
such laws govern exposure to dangerous working long work schedules, run the risk of having
conditions, carcinogenic chemicals, and toxic employees whose performance is poor because the
substances, some of those laws refer to overly job stressors interfere with performance, or because
stressful working conditions, as well. In North employees are angry and withhold their efforts.
America and elsewhere, for example, there are laws Such organizations also will likely have employees
against sexual harassment which can be a source who are absent more frequently due to emotional
of stress in the workplace. distress and physical illness, and the costs of such
illness might be paid by organizations through
health benefits. Finally, private-sector organizations
13
that treat employees well might benefit from having It is important for future studies to tie job
good public images with potential customers that stressors to both individual employee health and
can enhance sales. organizational effectiveness. Such research would
help identify workplace conditions and practices that
Healthy Work Organizations enhance both by either reducing job stressors or
making them easier to handle. Designing
There has been some concern in the past organizations to facilitate and support employee
that the humanistic and pragmatic positions are efforts to perform their job tasks should prove to be
diametrically opposed, and that things done to effective in creating healthy work organizations.
enhance well-being will necessarily be at the cost of
productivity. For example, work demands can be Summary and Conclusions
reduced by limiting working hours, or lowering the
volume of work during those working hours. This The connection between job stressors and
might make the job easier for employees, but leaves employee health and well-being has been well
the organization either short-staffed with needed established over the past few decades of research.
work not being done, or in a position of having to Organizations can no longer deny that their
hire more people and raising their human resource practices that make the job overly stressful have
costs. detrimental effects on their employees health and
The idea of the HWO, however, is that well being, nor can they pretend that those effects
organizational and personal well-being are on employees dont similarly have detrimental
interconnected, and that sound management effects on the organization itself. This isnt to
practices exist that jointly optimize both. Such suggest that stressors need to be removed from
practices emphasize efficiency by creating an organizations. Stress is something endemic to life,
organizational climate that is supportive of so goals to completely remove stressors are
performance, minimizes barriers, and makes unrealistic. What is realistic is developing ways to
effective and efficient use of human resources. avoid excessive stressors and to manage stressors
Sauter, Lim and Murphy (2006) conducted a study and strains that occur in organizations.
that identified a list of organizational practices that Researchers need to continue to study
contribute to an HWO by being associated with both precisely how stressors in the work environment
organizational effectiveness and reduced stress. affect employees. A great deal is known, but there
HWOs emphasize quality, invest in employee are still limits to knowledge about the various kinds
development, engage in strategic planning, and of stressors and combinations of stressors that are
provide fair pay and rewards. They maintain a important. Most stress research has been limited to
climate of innovation, cooperation, low conflict, and a fairly small number of stressors. For example,
a team spirit. Many of these activities are just there has been relatively little work done on
aspects of good management, such as emphasizing organizational constraints or social stressors. More
quality and innovating. One can characterize an work needs to be done on how people cope with
HWO as an organization that is well run and makes stressors at work in both constructive, and
efficient as well as humane use of human destructive ways. This might lead to more effective
resources. ways of training people to better handle stressors,
Although there are studies linking particular not only on the job, but off the job as well. From an
conditions and practices at work to variables that organizational point of view, research is needed on
affect both employee and organizational health, few how to manage stressors on the job. Organizations
studies have looked at both together. An example of spend a great deal of effort in managing tasks, but
one that did is our previously mentioned study that the context in which tasks are done is important as
studied job performance in addition to job stressors well. Some jobs are inherently stressful, and sound
and strains (Spector et al., 1988). We found that leadership techniques might go a long way in
employees who perceived high levels of personal helping employees cope with stressors that cannot
control at work reported less psychological strain be removed. On the other hand, many stressors are
(anxiety, frustration, and job dissatisfaction) and inadvertently created by supervisors, and these
their supervisors reported them to perform better unnecessary stressors need to be controlled.
than employees who reported low levels of control. Practices that control superfluous stressors while
High levels of organizational constraints related to supporting employees in dealing with inherent
high psychological strain and low job performance. stressors have the potential to jointly maximize both
However, this study looked at individual levels of job employee and organizational health and well-being.
performance that were not directly tied to overall
organizational effectiveness.
14
Editorial
15
VALIDAREA CHESTIONARULUI DE MSURARE A EMOIILOR CA STARE I TRSTUR
(MEST-Ro) LA BASCHETBALISTE
Horia D. Pitariu1
Universitatea Babe Bolyai, Cluj Napoca
Edward L. Levine
University of South Florida
Simona Muat
Universitatea Babe Bolyai, Cluj Napoca
Dan Ispas
University of South Florida
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to validate the Romanian version of State Trait Emotion Measure
(STEM - MEST-Ro) using a sample of 108 professional basketball female players. The results
show that MEST-Ro, developed originally in the US, showed satisfactory levels of reliability,
convergent, and criterion-related validity. Practical implications for basketball teams are
presented.
16
Studii i Cercetri
este duntor sau benefic. Acest aspect pozitive i negative (PANAS). PANAS este
presupune realizarea unei inferene ns un instrument dedicat unei investigaii cu
apreciative, cu alte cuvinte aptitudinea de a caracter general (context-free), nu unui cadru
emite judeci, de nvare din experien, de a specific cum este cel organizaional. Aceast
face distincii sensibile ntre ceea ce poate deficien, observat i la alte instrumente
distorsiona starea de bine a individului. similare i concretizat prin obinerea unor
n concepia lui Lazarus (1991), emoia distorsiuni ce influeneaz validitatea acestora,
este definit ca un proces. Procesele a fcut necesar proiectarea unor instrumente
emoionale se refer la faptul dac exist un specifice, adecvate cadrului de munc
coninut relaional dar i semnificativ din punct organizaional (Levine & Xu, 2005).
de vedere personal, o evaluare a beneficiului,
provocrii, ameninrii sau afectrii persoanei, Proiectarea STEM
potenialul de pregtire pentru aciune i Levine & Xu (2005) au proiectat STEM
schimbrile fiziologice (Lazarus, 1991, pp (State-Trait Emotion Measurement), un
822). Emoiile, sub aspect comportamental, instrument prin care au ncercat s elimine
sunt definite ca izbucniri cu intensitate mare, distorsiunile atribuite PANAS-ului, n sensul c
de scurt durat. Repetate cu o frecven mai acesta se dorete a fi destinat identificrii
mare, pot influena comportamentul emoiilor specifice cadrului organizaional. Mai
organizaional fiind considerate o variabil mult, autorii includ n acest instrument i
moderatoare ntre mediul muncii i dimensiunile de Stare (comportament
comportamentul individului, respectiv emoional caracteristic unui anumit moment,
rezultatele activitii de munc. Emoiile un comportament prezent) i Trstur
acioneaz, pozitiv sau negativ, att asupra (comportament emoional n general). n
performanei n munc, ct i asupra sntii accepiunea lui Ch. Spielberger, Starea
individului. Lord i Kanfer (2002) le acord o emoional poate fi definit ca o trire sau
calitate instrumental n interaciunile sociale condiie psihologic de moment marcat de
asupra postului de munc ocupat. sentimente subiective intense, de scurt
Exist mai multe clasificri ale durat. Trstura, ca dimensiune emoional,
emoiilor, dar cea mai obinuit se refer la este definit n termeni de nsuire de
dihotomia: (a) emoii pozitive (cele care rezult personalitate stabil, caracteristic unei
din obinerea unor beneficii) atingerea unui persoane (Pitariu & Iliescu, 2004).
obiectiv, fericire i bucurie, mndrie, Chestionarului de msurare a emoiilor
recunotin etc; (b) emoii negative (rezultate ca stare i trstur (MEST-Ro) a parcurs mai
din pierderi, stricciuni i ameninri) mnie, multe etape n procesul de proiectare. ntr-o
anxietate, team, vinovie, ruine, tristee, prim etap au fost selecionate din literatura
invidie, gelozie, dezgust etc. de specialitate mai multe tipuri de emoii, zece
De-a lungul timpului au fost dezvoltate pozitive i zece negative care au fost
numeroase modele i instrumente de considerate a fi relevante pentru activitatea de
investigare a emoiilor la locul de munc. De o munc (vigilen, mulumire, bucurie,
larg acceptare se bucur n prezent modelul afeciune, mndrie, furia, anxietatea, invidie,
lui Grandey (2000) privind solicitrile de vin/ ruine, tristee). Utiliznd rezultatele unor
exprimare i gestionare a emoiilor n contextul cercetri anterioare, definiii coninute n
activitilor de munc. Autoarea explic un dicionare explicative i sugestiile specialitilor,
cadru acional al emoiilor prin procesele de fiecare emoie a fost definit. Pentru o
suprafa (managementul expresiilor nelegere mai bun a semnificaiei fiecrei
observabile) i reglarea de profunzime emoii, acestea au fost completate cu exemple
(managementul emoiei propriu-zise). Astfel, specifice activitilor de munc. Astfel, a fost
se ofer o modalitate operaional de control al creat un cadru explicativ clar bazat pe sistemul
emoiilor la locul de munc (Capotescu, 2006). de evaluare specific scalelor cu ancore
n investigarea emoiilor specifice contextului comportamentale (SEAC) (Pitariu, 2000).
organizaional, de o acceptare larg s-au Acestea ofereau o posibilitate clar de
bucurat modelele bidimensionale. Astfel evaluare a fiecrei emoii. n final, fiecare
Russell (1979, 1980) consider emoiile ca emoie se putea evalua pe o scal de la 1 la
fiind interrelaionate, acest aspect fiind 10, att sub aspectul tririi emoionale ca
identificabil n termeni de valen i arousal. stare, (cum a expereniat respondentul emoia
Un model mai popular este ns acela al lui respectiv n ultimele zile, recent), ct i ca
Watson .a. (1988), Watson & Clark (1994) trstur (cum triete respondentul emoia
care a dus la dezvoltarea Listei de afecte respectiv, n general).
17
Obiectivul studiului prezent PANAS-X (Watson & Clark, 1994).
Studiul prezent a investigat utilitatea Pentru studiul de validare a STEM i MEST-Ro
STEM/MEST-Ro n msurarea emoiilor au fost selecionai 43 de itemi. Participanilor li
discrete ntr-o alt cultur, Romania i un lot se cerea s evalueze pe o scal Likert de la 1
specific compus din sportive de performan, la 5 msura n care ei au perceput emoia
juctoare de baschet. Demersul urmat a fost respectiv de-a lungul ultimelor sptmni
de traducere i adaptare a MEST la specificul (1=n foarte mic msur; 5=extrem de mult).
geografic i al populaiei care face obiectul Scalele Mndrie, Invidie i
investigaiei. n acest studiu va fi examinat Agreabilitate (Ahmed & Braithwaite, 2006;
validitatea incremental a MEST-Ro fa de Jehn, 1995; Liden & Maslyn, 1998; Vecchio,
PANAS i validitatea predictiv utiliznd ca i 2000) la fel ca i scalele PANAS-X, au fost
criterii comportamentul cetenesc, utilizate pentru realizarea validitii
comportamentul contraproductiv i satisfacia convergente cu STEM i MAST-Ro. Toi itemii
cu munca/ activitatea. Va fi examinat i relaia scalelor amintite au fost evaluai pe o scal
dintre MEST-Ro i diferite dimensiuni ale Likert de la 1 la 5 (1=n mod cert neadevrat
performanei n baschet. pentru mine; 5=extrem de adevrat pentru
mine). i n acest caz, participanii ofereau un
METODA rspuns legat de trirea respectiv n general
(Trstur) i n cea mai recent zi de munc
Participanii (Stare).
La acest studiu au participat 108 Inventarul de Personalitate Stare-
juctoare de baschet din liga profesionist a Trstur (STPI) (Spielberger, 1980). Acest
Romniei. Vrsta medie a oscilat ntre 14-35 inventar conine 80 itemi care evalueaz
ani (M = 19.4 ani; AS = 3.88). Participarea la starea i trstura pe variabilele: mnie,
antrenamente era 2-4 (M=2) ore zilnic anxietate, depresie i curiozitate. Cu excepia
(AS=.70). Experiena ca juctoare de baschet scalei de curiozitate, toate celelalte scale au
oscila ntre 1-23 ani (M=8.5, AS=3.93). fost utilizate pentru validarea convergent a
Vechimea n echip n momentul testrii a fost MEST-Ro. Itemii STPI sunt evaluai fiecare pe
n medie de 2.8 ani (AS=1.92), intervalul de o scal Likert de la 1 la 4 (1=deloc; 6=foarte
variaie fiind ntre 1-9 ani. n ceea ce privete mult).
minutele jucate pe meci, acestea erau n Inventarul de anxietate Stare-
medie de 23.18 (AS=11.93) ceea ce se Trstur (STAI) (Spielberger, Gorsuch &
distribuia pe o ntindere de 3-40 minute. Luschene, 1970; Spielberger, 1983). Acest
chestionar este utilizat n msurarea
Instrumente de msur tendinelor anxioase.
MEST-Ro. Acest chestionar pstreaz Satisfacia cu munca. Aceast scal a
cele cinci emoii pozitive i cinci emoii fost decupat din Occupational Stress
negative din STEM. Ele se refer la Indicator 2 (OSI - Williams, 1996). Scala este
urmtoarele variabile: mnie, anxietate, compus din 12 itemi, rspunsurile fiind date
tristee, invidie, vinovie/ ruine (afectivitate pe o scal Likert cu 6 puncte (1=foarte
negativ) i bucurie, afeciune, mndrie, nemulumit; 6=foarte mulumit). Aceast scal
mulumire vigilen/ energie (afectivitate are dou subscale: Munca n sine i
pozitiv). Participanilor li se cere s evalueze Organizaia este vorba de direcia dinspre
pe o scal de 10 puncte construit pe baza care vine mulumirea cu activitatea de munc.
unui principiu similar scalelor de evaluare cu Comportamentul cetenesc
ancore comportamentale (BARS) (Pitariu, organizaional (OCB) (Van Dyne & LePine,
2006), emoiile specifice pe care le-au trit ntr- 1998). Chestionarul conine 7 itemi pentru
un anumit moment (n cazul nostru al meciului variabila Ajutor i 6 pentru Exprimarea
de baschet) (Stare) i comportamentul pe care comportamentului. Fiecare item este evaluat
l au n general (Trstur). Fa de versiunea pe o scal de la 1 la 5 (1=n foarte mare
original, MEST-Ro a fost adaptat ca structur/ dezacord; 5=n acord puternic).
terminologie, activitii sportive de baschet, Comportamentul contraproductiv
aceste modificri au aprut cu o pondere mai (CWB) (Robinson & Bennett, 1995). Acest
mare la ancorele comportamentale (Ex. chestionar opereaz cu 19 itemi care msoar
Dezvoltarea unei tactici noi, de succes, de comportamentul contraproductiv. Evaluarea se
ctre echipa noastr). La aciunea de face pe o scal Likert de la 1 la 5.
traducere i adaptare au participat un grup de (1=niciodat; 5=n fiecare zi). Este evaluat
psihologi i specialiti n jocul de baschet. frecvena de angajare n comportament
18
Studii i Cercetri
contraproductiv, 7 itemi vizeaz CWB-ul mod obinuit, pentru culegerea datelor a fost
direcionat ctre alii i 12 itemi cel ndreptat utilizat perioada de cantonament a echipelor.
spre organizaie. Participanii au fost atenionai c datele vor fi
Criterii obiective. Am apelat la o serie utilizate exclusiv n scop de cercetare. Ca
de criterii obiective prin intermediul crora s-a operator a fost utilizat unul dintre autori, fost
putut efectua un calcul de corelaie predictiv juctor de baschet. n acest fel s-a realizat o
privitor la variabilele MEST-Ro. Aceste criterii cooperare superioar cu participanii la
se refereau la urmtoarele variabile: Puncte cercetare.
marcate, Recuperri de mingi, Pase decisive,
Mingi ctigate, Aruncri libere ratate, Aruncri REZULTATE
ratate, Mingi pierdute i Minute jucate.
Deoarece distribuia de frecven obinut era Statistici descriptive
una asimetric, pentru a realiza calculele de Tabelul 1 conine statisticile
corelaie necesare s-a procedat la descriptive pentru scorurile obinute la proba
logaritmarea performanelor obinute. Datele MEST-Ro. Comparativ cu datele lui Levin i Xu
respective au fost culese pe toat perioada (2005) s-a putut observa c la lotul
campionatului 2005-2006, ele fiind nregistrri juctoarelor de baschet MEST-Ro Afectivitatea
realizate la fiecare meci de baschet de ctre negativ, general i recent, este mai mare
antrenorii secunzi (fiecare echip a jucat (t=14.54, p<.01 i respectiv t=7.38, p<.01).
minimum 16 meciuri i maximum 25 de Este adevrat c aceste distorsiuni au aprut
meciuri, perioad n care s-au realizat i datorit faptului c lotul de romni era unul
nregistrri pentru fiecare juctoare n parte). selecionat juctoare de baschet examinate
n general n preajma sau dup competiie,
Procedura cnd parametri psihologici testai aveau valori
Investigarea s-a derulat pe grupe mici, mai ridicate.
cinci pn la zece juctoare de baschet. n
Tabelul 1
Statisticile descriptive ale scalelor MEST-Ro (N=108)
SCALA MEDIA AS
MEST-Ro Afectivitate pozitiv (recent-stare) 28.5 9.18
MEST-Ro Afectivitate pozitiv (general-trstur) 31.1 8.19
MEST-Ro Afectivitate negativ (recent-stare) 17.6 7.41
MEST-Ro Afectivitate negativ (general-trstur) 18.1 7.08
Bucurie (recent-stare) 5.87 2.24
Bucurie (general-trstur) 6.32 2.17
Anxietate (recent-stare) 3.66 1.80
Anxietate (general-trstur) 3.89 1.90
Mndrie (recent-stare) 5.51 2.44
Mndrie (general-trstur) 5.76 2.15
Tristee (recent-stare) 3.74 2.32
Tristee (general-trstur) 3.56 2.28
Vigilen (recent-stare) 5.74 2.43
Vigilen (general-trstur) 6.58 2.04
Furie (recent-stare) 4.39 2.55
Furie (general-trstur) 4.46 2.50
Afeciune (recent-stare) 5.95 2.40
Afeciune (general-trstur) 6.36 2.12
Invidie (recent-stare) 2.82 2.09
Invidie(general-trstur) 3.14 2.17
Mulumire (recent-stare) 5.44 2.24
Mulumire (general-trstur) 6.06 2.03
Vin/ruine (recent-stare) 3.02 2.18
Vin/ruine (general-trstur) 3.08 1.95
19
Consistena intern a MEST-Ro psihologice care pretind c msoar aceleai
MEST-Ro conine numai un singur dimensiuni. Este ceea ce a fost denumit i
item care reprezint fiecare emoie, deci nu s- validitate convergent i, respectiv,
au putut obine coeficieni de consisten discriminativ (Murphy & Davidshofer, 1991;
intern dect referitor la realizarea grupajului Trochim, 2001). D.T. Campbell i D.W. Fiske
de itemi pe cele dou tipuri de afectiviti, cea propun n contextul amintit o metod de lucru
pozitiv i negativ. bazat pe matricea multitrsturi-
Pentru MEST-Ro Afectivitate multimetode. Pe scurt, aceast metod se
pozitiv are coeficientul alpha de .84 (stare) i bazeaz pe valorile coeficienilor de corelaie
repectiv .83 pentru trstur. n ce privete liniar ntre diverse msurtori care utilizeaz
Afectivitatea negativ (stare), coeficientul acelai tip de constructe (Pitariu, 2000).
alpha este de .69, iar pentru trstur este de O prim observaie este c ntre
.66. Itemii din componena scalelor care MEST-Ro Afectivitate pozitiv i MEST-Ro -
reprezint emoiile negative nseamn c Afectivitate negativ, corelaia este
posed o varietate mai mare fiind i mai puin nesemnificativ (r = -.06) pentru Stare i
intercorelai. La rezultate similare au ajuns i respectiv (r =.02) pentru Trstur.
autorii STEM. Tabelul 2 ilustreaz relaiile
convergente ntre scalele MEST-Ro i alte
Validitatea convergent i divergent a scale similare. Am luat n considerare
MEST-Ro chestionarul PANAS-X, STPI, Scalele Mndrie,
Validitatea extern tim c se refer la Invidie i Agreabilitate i Chestionarul STAI.
calitatea testului de a se raporta ntr-o relaie
de consensualitate/divergen cu alte msuri
Tabelul 2
Coeficienii de validitate convergent
Scale MEST-Ro MEST-Ro MEST-Ro MEST-Ro
Afectivitate Afectivitate Afectivitate Afectivitate
pozitiv (stare) negativ (stare) pozitiv negativ
(trstur) (trstur)
PANAS-X - afectivitate pozitiv .43** .07 .40** .03
(trstur)
PANAS-X afectivitate negativ -.17 .38** -.17 .31**
(trstur)
PANAS-X fric -.21* .39** -.19* .31**
PANAS X ostilitate -.17 .36** -.13 .25*
PANAS X vin/ruine -.17 .35** -.22* .23*
PANAS X tristee -.11 .31** -.10 .24*
PANAS X bucurie .40** -.09 .34** -.08
PANAS X senintate .33** -.13 .32** -.07
20
Studii i Cercetri
21
Recuperri, Mingi ctigate, Aruncri libere Principalii indici statistici relativ la
ratate, Aruncri ratate, Mingi pierdute, Minute criteriile subiective rezultate din autoevaluri,
jucate. sunt prezentai n Tabelul 3.
Tabelul 3
Rezumatul statistic al datelor de criteriu
Exist unele deosebiri ntre rezultatele n Tabelul 4 sunt prezentate corelaiile dintre
oferite de lotul american i cel al variabilele MEST-Ro cu Comportamentul
baschetbalistelor. Astfel, comportamentul cetenesc organizaional (OCB),
contraproductiv al romncelor este mai mare Comportamentul contraproductiv n munc
dect cel obinut pe lotul american (Levine & (CWB) i Satisfacia cu munc (SM). De fapt,
Xu, 2005). O explicaie posibil ar putea fi ne ateptm ca emoiile pozitive s coreleze
aceea c lotul pe care l-am utilizat este pozitiv cu satisfacia cu activitatea prestat i
antrenat ntr-o activitate competitiv de cu comportamentul cetenesc, n timp ce
excepie care se distaneaz de condiiile emoiile negative ne ateptm s coreleze
specifice unei situaii obinuite de munc. pozitiv cu comportamentul contraproductiv.
Nivelul de agresivitate este n mod normal mai
crescut la juctoarele de baschet, la fel i alte
manifestri comportamentale emoionale.
Tabelul 4
Corelaii ntre criteriile rezultate din autoevaluri i variabilele MEST-Ro
22
Studii i Cercetri
Tabelul 5
Corelaiile dintre criteriile subiective i variabilele MEST-Ro
23
variabilele MEST-Ro. Am exclus dintre baschet ele primesc anumite conotaii care ar
variabilele luate n calcul pe acele variabile distorsiona semnificaia performanei n jocul
care au n vedere aspectele negative cum ar fi de baschet.
Aruncrile ratate, Mingile pierdute etc.,
aceasta deoarece n contextul jocului de
Tabelul 6
Corelaiile variabilelor MEST-Ro cu criteriile obiective de performan
Emoia ca stare
Bucuria .12 .12 .14 .14 .13
Mndria .15 .11 .09 .24* .17
Vigilena .13 .15 .11 .19* .17
Afeciunea .25** .24* .23* .30** .29**
Mulumirea .11 .10 .09 .19* .15
Anxietatea -.01 -.04 -.19 -.07 -.02
Tristeea .01 -.01 -.07 -.04 -.01
Furia .08 .05 -.08 .03 .04
Invidia -.10 -.13 -.15 -.20* -.12
Vina i ruinea .10 .08 .05 .04 .06
Emoia ca trstur
Bucuria .17 .10 .15 .26** .21*
Mndria .23* .16 .09 .29** .24*
Vigilena .24* .17 .19* .29** .25**
Afeciunea .29** .25** .16 .34** .34**
Mulumirea .25* .12 .19 .28** .25**
Anxietatea -.06 -.07 -.16 -.14 -.11
Tristeea .08 .06 .02 .04 .06
Furia .17 .21* -.02 .10 .15
Invidia -.06 -.08 -.24* -.14 -.06
Vina i ruinea -.05 -.00 -.01 -.03 -.02
MEST-Ro AN stare .06 .01 -.04 -.02 .09
MEST-Ro AN trstura .04 .02 -.02 -.01 .09
MEST-Ro AP stare .26** .22* .27** .29** .32**
MEST-Ro AP trstur .37** .29**. .26** .33** .41**
** corelaie semnificativ la p<.01
* corelaie semnificativ la p<.05
24
Studii i Cercetri
25
Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. University.
Journal of Personality and Social http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb
Psychology, 39, 1161-1178. Van Dyne, L. & LePine, J.A. (1998). Helping and
Spielberger, C.D., Gorsuch, R.L. & Lushene, R.E. voice extra-role behaviors: Evidence of
(1970). Manual for the State-TraitAnxiety construct and predictive validity. Academy of
Inventory. Palo Alto, California: Consulting Management Journal, 41, 108-119.
Psychologists Press. Vecchio, Robert P. (2000). Negative emotion in the
Spielberger, Ch (1980). STPI. (Material de la autor). workplace: Employee jealousy and envy.
Spielberger, C.D. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait International Journal of Stress Management,
Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Palo Alto, CA: 7, 161-179
Consulting Psychologists Press. Watson, D., Clark, L.A. & Tellegen, A. (1988).
Spielberger, C.D., Sydeman, S.J., Owen, A.E. & Development and validation of brief
Marsh, B.J. (1999). Measuring Anxiety and measures of positive and negative affect: The
Anger with the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory PANAS scale. Journal of Personality & Social
(STAI). In M.E. Maruish (Ed.), The Use of Psychology, 54(6), 1063-1070.
Psychological Testing for Treatment Planning Watson, D. & Clark, L.A. (1994). The PANAS-X:
and Outcomes Assessment, 2nd ed, pp. 993- Manual for the positive and negative affect
1021. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. schedule-Expanded Form. Iowa City:
tefnescu-Goang, Fl. (1912) . Experimentelle University of Iowa (updated 8/99).
Untersuchungen zur Gefhlsbeonnung der Williams, J.S. (1996). A critical review and further
Farben. Psychologische Studien. development of the Occupational Stress
Trokhim (2001). Trochim, W.M. (2004), Research Indicator. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, UMIST,
Methods Knowledge Base. Cornell UK.
ANEXA 1
Un exemplu din MEST-Ro. Scala a fost adaptat pentru sportivi.
BUCURIA
Bucuria este o emoie plcut. Aceasta apare atunci cnd noi sau persoanele cu care ne identificm fac
progrese spre atingerea unor obiective importante i cnd ne ateptm ca beneficiile s continue.
Exemple:
1. A ctiga un premiu binemeritat pentru o evoluie bun;
2. A primi o sarcin ce denot un prestigiu crescut din partea antrenorului;
3. A obine o mrire de salariu semnificativ pentru jocul excelent;
4. A primi o ofert avantajoas;
5. Dezvoltarea unei tactici noi, de succes, de ctre echipa noastr.
V rugm s ncercuii numrul corespunztor emoiei simite pe scala cu 10 puncte de mai jos (1=puin sau
deloc i 10= n foarte mare msur):
V rugm s ncercuii numrul corespunztor emoiei simite pe scala cu 10 puncte de mai jos (1=puin sau
deloc i 10= n foarte mare msur):
n general la antrenamente:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 /____/____/____/____/____/____/____/____/____/
/ / / /
Puin/Deloc Prietenos Bine dispus Fericit
26
Studii i Cercetri
Drago Iliescu1
D&D Research, Bucharest
Florin Glin
SNSPA, Bucharest
Abstract
The present study focuses on identifying personality variates of the TABP. The California
Psychological Inventory and the Survey of Work Styles were administered on a number of 53
salesmen, seeking to evaluate the way a personality measure would predict behavioral indicators
associated with TABP. The analysis suggests interesting correlational patterns and regression
analysis has shown the possibility of delineating regression equations predicting the Type A/B
distinction and five of the six behaviors associated with TABP, with percentages between 27%
and 54% of the concept variance.
27
Friedman & Rosenman (1959) are distribute more tasks towards them. The higher
credited with the paternity of the Type A work involvement and significantly higher
concept. In their observations on patients competitiveness of Type As makes them more
suffering from coronary heart disease they visible in the organization and leads to more
have noted and described the chronic need of favorable assessment of their person and
their patients to build ever more in ever less performance, which again leads to more
time, regardless of potential obstacles. Even complicated and more diversified tasks.
though initially theorized as a personality type,
the state of knowledge has rapidly evolved to Type vs. trait in TABP
todays stage where TABP is considered to be
a behavioral pattern, based on the systemic The type/trait discussion is still as hot
and synergistic functioning of at least three in contemporary psychology as it was 50 years
types of behaviors, namely (a) a set of beliefs back and is still more acute with regard to
about the own self and about the world in TABP. Strube (1989) builds a strong case in
general, (b) a set of values converging towards support of the type-theory for TABP, based not
a strong motivation to work hard and to only on the literature review but also on
succeed and (c) a typical lifestyle and statistical and empirical data. For example,
environment relation, based on even if they initially discuss also intermediary
competitiveness and a keen feeling for time A1, A2 and X classes between the A and B
pressure. While some authors extend these extremes, Friedman & Rosenman (1974) later
facets to as many as six different behaviors, state that less than 10% of the population may
others adopt a more holistic view, like Lazarus be included in these intermediary scales and
& Folkman (1984), who consider these three other authors either fail to prove the existence
behaviors to be facets of the same of a linear relationship between the intensity of
phenomenon, functioning in different life TABP and the severity of CHD (Ward,
contexts, but having a synergistic action in the Chesney, Swan, Black, Parker & Rosenman,
work environment (Cooper & Payner, 1990). 1985), or suggest that this inclusion may in fact
TABP has usually been be attributable to measurement errors rather
conceptualized as a psychological response to than undetermined behavioral preferences of
a challenging environment, even though very the subjects (Gangestad & Snyder, 2000). In
little attention has focused upon the way in face of the evidence that the Type A/ B
which this response is not only affected by the distinction is based on a difference in quality
environment, but also effects the environment and not intensity, the present study will discuss
on its part. Modern research suggests that the TABP as a class and not as a continuous
relationship between TABP and the work variable, even though some of the statistics
environment is much closer than traditionally employed will definitely be based on
considered, and that Type A employees could continuous scores of scales and subscales.
actually very well be contributing themselves to
the generation of a Type A work environment METHOD
(Cooper & Payne, 1990).
Kirmeyer & Briggers (1988) for Data was collected from a number of
example have run an observational and 53 salesmen, with help of two structured
prospective study upon police officers, which questionnaires, the CPI-260 (California
has shown that Type As differ from Type Bs Psychological Inventory, Gough, 2005) and the
in the work environment through the fact that SWS (Survey of Work Styles, Jackson & Gray,
they perceive the environment and climate as 1988, 1993). Personality traits assessed with
being more challenging and thus invest more the CPI were considered predictors in relation
time for professional obligations, take in a to TABP as assessed by the SWS. Regression
heavier workload, spend more time working analyses and the subsequent in-depth
and travel more on their job; subsequently they descriptive analysis focused on maximizing the
also feel to have less leisure time. predictive and descriptive value of the CPI in
As a result, Type As systematically the detection of TABP. For better prediction,
construct an occupational environment that we also included the organizational level in the
keeps them alert, under time pressure and regression analysis, where suited.
favors impatience. They initiate more work
activities, finalize more activities and tend to Participants
simultaneously address more tasks; the direct The current research was run on a
consequence of this is that supervisors tend to company active in the production and
28
Studii i Cercetri
distribution of fast moving consumer goods, the predictive validity of the scales
and has focused mainly on the sales tremendously;
department. As previously studied, c. The CPI is based on a scientific model
occupational stress is very salient in this type that exceeds trait theory; Goughs
of work environment, characterized by tight (1957, 1987) intention has never been
objectives and a chronic need for immediate to assess personality traits in the so
results. For example, a study by Srivastava & often criticized meaning of the term,
Sager (1999) has researched four personal but has focused on folk concepts, i.e.
characteristics which influence salespeople to on constructs used by people in daily
adopt either problem-centered or emotionally life for describing behavioral
derived coping strategies when confronted with tendencies;
stress, namely locus of control, social support, d. The CPI contains scales and
the wish for tenure in the present workplace dimensions (like the three-factor
and beliefs about ones own efficiency. model) that largely exceed the trait
A number of 60 salesmen were stage, being assimilated with lifestyles,
included in the study, 7 of them however values, and attitude systems.
refused participation. For all the other
participants questionnaires were deployed Survey of Work Styles (Jackson & Gray, 1988,
through self-administration, after thorough 1993)
instruction. The final set of subjects comprises The SWS is a 96 item
53 persons: 33 males aged 19 to 46 years multidimensional measure, aiming at
(M=32.00, =6.13) and 20 females aged 19 to assessing TABP. The measure has been
46 years (M=31.20, =4.03). developed through a classical psychometric
approach, based on concept analysis
Measures (Jackson, 1971, Wiggins, 1973). The SWS has
California Psychological Inventory, 260 items only lately been adapted and normed in
(Gough, 2005) Romania (Iliescu & nculescu, 2005;
The CPI-260 has been extensively nculescu & Iliescu, 2006), but has proven its
experimented and adapted to the Romanian qualities in many other studies. For example,
culture (Pitariu, 1981, 1983, 2000; Pitaru & Martin, Kuiper & Westra (1989) have found,
Albu, 1993; Pitariu & Iliescu, 2005; Pitariu, using the SWS, a consistent relationship
Iliescu, Tureanu & Pelea, 2006) and is between TABP, depressive states and
probably the most thoroughly researched dysfunctional attitudes and concluded that
personality measure in Romania, with TABP is a dysfunctional coping behavior, used
comprehensive norms on, gender, age groups by individuals in order to manage negative
and a large number of professions. attitudes related to self esteem, thus avoiding
The CPI measures 20 folk scales, depressive episodes. Kuiper, Martin & Olinger
grouped on 4 registers of personality (1993) have found in their research that scores
functioning (Social performance, Self- on the SWS are closely related to self esteem,
management, Motivations and thinking style, negative affectivity and negative attitudes
Personal characteristics, Work-related regarding own performance; somehow weaker
measures), as well as a variable number of 6- correlations were found with inefficient
20 secondary scales, built in the liberal adaptation strategies.
tradition of open-source assessment systems. The SWS measures not only TABP as
The CPI also condenses data from three a dichotomous Type A/B variable but also six
vector scales into a cuboid model of behaviors traditionally associated with TABP,
personality and lifestyles. namely impatience (IMP), Anger (ANG), Time
However the CPI-260 was preferred in urgency (TU), Work involvement (WI), Job
this study for a few practical reasons: dissatisfaction (JD), and Competitiveness
a. The CPI is a very complex and (COM).
comprehensive instrument, covering a The SWS has been preferred above
large number of personality traits, other, more established measures for the
grouped in a variety of dimensions; assessment of TABP, like the Jenkins Activity
b. The CPI is a very robust measure, with Survey and the Framingham Type A Scale, for
scales that are not only criterion a number of practical reasons:
validated, but most of the time a. The SWS is superior to both the
generated directly through an Jenkins Activity Survey and the
empirical procedure, which increases Framingham Type A Scale with regard
29
to its correlation to the Rosenman notable difference if for the Sn scale, which in
Structured Interview, which is arguably our sample is much more consistent with the
the most reliable and valid measure of male norms for Romania. Alpha coefficients
TABP (Byrne, Rosenman, Schiller, & have the same pattern of consistency. Pitariu
Chesney, 1985); the SWS is thus et al. (2006) have reported for the 20 folk
considering its criterion validity (power scales Alpha coefficients in the range of .59 to
of differentiation between Type A/B), .78, with a median of .69, whereas our data
and also other psychometric shows coefficients in the range .61 to .80, with
characteristics, like internal a median of .71.
consistency, a very robust measure Table 2 shows the same type of
(Jackson & Gray, 1988; Mavrogiannis, psychometric data for the Survey of Work
1986); Styles and supports the same conclusions as
b. The SWS is custom-tailored for usage for the California Psychological Inventory. The
in organizational settings, it does not SWS scores for the participants in this study
have the general outlook on TABP have comparable sizes and standard
other measures have but focuses on deviations as for the Romanian normative
behaviors, attitudes and preferences in sample, reported by Iliescu & nculescu
the work environment; (2005) for a sample of N=1500. Alpha
c. The SWS is the only one of the coefficients have been reported as ranging
established TABP measures that has between .64 and .72, with a median of .83,
been adapted, normed and whereas the present study exhibits Alphas in
researched in Romania. the range .62-.75, with a median of .81. One
notable difference is the slightly increased
Analysis average score for the general Type A scale,
which suggests a greater percentage of A
Both the California Psychological Type participants in our study, when compared
Inventory and the Survey of Work Styles have with Romanias general population.
been well received by the respondents and
have performed very well in the population of The main method of analysis
our study. Both are instruments that have been employed in this study was based on
extensively validated in the Romanian culture. judgmental and incremental inclusion of
The California Psychological Inventory personality variables into regression models
especially has a long-standing history of aimed at predicting either the dichotomous
interesting studies (Pitariu, 1981, 1995, 2000; distinction between Type A/ Type B behavior
Albu, 1994; Albu & Pitariu, 1991, 1994, 1999; pattern, or certain specific behavioral aspects
etc.). The SWS has been adapted only shortly of TABP.
in Romania, but has also been based on Even though, as shown earlier, we
extensive empirical research (Iliescu & strongly believe that TABP is in fact a
nculescu, 2006; nculescu & Iliescu, dichotomous variable, we have used
2006). continuous scores in its measurement as well
Table 1 comprises statistical data as in the subsequent analysis, mainly because
describing the performance of the California the aim of this study was to empirically
Psychological Inventory in the present study. discover interactions. Cohen & Cohen (1983)
Even a passing comparison of these scores state that statistical power associated with
with the scores reported repeatedly for the interaction effects is lower than that associated
Romanian population will show a consistent with principal effects; a regression analysis
pattern of good psychometric performance. For would thus ensure the larger statistical power,
example, when compared with the last even more important in face of the rather small
reported data for Romania (Pitariu et al., sample size. Moreover, it is clear that
2006), calculated for the Romanian normative dichotomizing a variable that has previously
sample (N=3200), all means and standard been measured as continuous would certainly
deviations are in the same range and in most mean a substantial decrease in statistical
cases averages do not cross more than .50 on power.
either side of the reported mean. The most
30
Studii i Cercetri
Table 1
Average raw scores, standard deviations and internal consistency coefficients for the CPI scales (N=53)
Scales Nr. Average raw scores Standard deviation Alpha coefficients
items Total Total Male Female Total
(N=53) (N=53) (N=33) (N=20) (N=53)
Folk scales
Do 36 21.62 5.86 .74 .75 .80
Cs 28 14.47 4.29 .66 .59 .64
Sy 32 16.44 4.29 .69 .68 .73
Sp 38 17.22 4.44 .62 .55 .68
Sa 28 14.75 3.93 .61 .61 .61
In 30 15.52 3.84 .75 .67 .67
Em 38 14.16 3.12 .64 .66 .65
Re 36 16.56 3.51 .71 .64 .68
So 46 21.61 5.20 .69 .78 .69
Sc 38 16.66 5.38 .84 .80 .78
Gi 40 15.41 5.38 .69 .76 .79
Cm 38 18.62 2.83 .69 .68 .71
Wb 38 14.54 4.05 .66 .78 .73
To 32 10.77 3.20 .71 .60 .69
Ac 38 21.91 5.14 .70 .68 .69
Ai 36 14.56 3.52 .70 .61 .74
Cf 42 20.43 4.46 .78 .77 .74
Is 28 13.02 3.19 .64 .69 .61
Fx 28 7.37 4.44 .76 .75 .72
Sn 32 12.98 3.53 .69 .71 .70
Vector scales
v.1 34 9.40 4.35 .84 .77 .78
v.2 36 14.38 4.15 .70 .67 .73
v.3 58 15.99 5.78 .85 .83 .83
Special scales
Mp 34 14.47 4.30 .67 .68 .84
Wo 40 16.19 4.50 .67 .72 .61
Ct 42 14.63 4.32 .73 .65 .78
Lp 70 25.04 6.26 .80 .77 .77
Ami 36 17.05 4.79 .59 .66 .76
Leo 42 17.84 3.53 .59 .58 .52
Tm 36 13.21 3.24 .76 .84 .80
B-Ms 54 26.02 6.82 .78 .83 .81
B-Fm 42 15.15 3.60 .70 .61 .63
Anx 22 4.78 1.85 .57 .55 .48
Nar 49 19.96 5.52 .72 .81 .73
D-SD 32 17.15 3.69 .53 .61 .57
D-AC 32 14.57 3.31 .45 .50 .47
FF 42 9.22 3.72 .58 .46 .58
Table 2
Average raw scores, standard deviations and internal consistency coefficients for the SWS scales (N=53)
Scales Nr. Average raw scores Standard deviation Alpha coefficients
items Total Total Male Female Total
(N=53) (N=53) (N=33) (N=20) (N=53)
IMP 16 44.99 7.17 .71 .73 .72
ANG 16 41.53 7.66 .81 .79 .80
WI 16 50.23 7.93 .75 .80 .78
TU 16 47.74 7.41 .59 .61 .62
JD 16 40.62 7.29 .70 .79 .77
COM 16 44.62 6.97 .69 .67 .69
Type A scale 35 106.17 9.86 .77 .68 .73
31
The judgmental and incremental TABP. Multicolinearity has forced us to
inclusion of personality variables into exclude them anyway, but another model of
regression models had as a main objective not prediction emerged (F(7,45) = 7.71, p<.001),
only the finding of regression models (factor one that explains 54% of the classifier scale
combinations) which were able to maximize variance:
the multiple determination coefficient, i.e. to
cover as large a part of the variance of the TABP = 168.13 1.97*BFm + 2.50*Anx
dependent variable, but also to find models 1.14*Nar 1.35*v.1 1.07*v.2 0.83*v.3 +
that suffer from no errors (Sava, 2004). Special 3.14*OccLev2.
care was given to the specificity error, meaning
that variables were included in the regression The regression equation is self-
model not only based on statistical criteria, but explaining, stating that the TABP is much more
also on the evidence suggested by the easily found in persons with a masculine
literature review, regarding the contribution of behavior (opposed to BFm), anxiety (Anx) and
specific dimensions to explaining the lower self-esteem (opposed to Nar),
dependent variable. Another aspect that extraversion (v.1), a tendency towards
received considerable attention was opposing or challenging social norms
multicolinearity. This has been a special (opposed to v.2) and with a weaker feeling of
concern in our study, as the independent self-actualization (opposed to v.3). Interesting
variables were measured based on an enough, but not at all unexpected, the higher
inventory with a holistic conception, with scales we go in the organizations hierarchy, the more
that sometimes strongly correlate with each probable we will encounter TABP.
other (sometimes as high as .80). Including It is probably interesting to mention
such strong intercorrelated variables in the that among all the Social performance scales
same regression model would invoke a type 2 of the CPI, Cs, Capacity for Status, has
error (Sava, 2004; Pedhazur, 1997). The registered the highest correlation with the Type
solution we opted for was based on the study A classifier scale of the SWS, even though this
of the correlation tables between the variables correlation is not significant. However, the
of every specific model and the subsequent three highest scorers on Cs in our sample are
termination of those predictors with the lowest also the three highest scorers on the Type A
correlation with the unexplained variance of classifier scale of the SWS, which is very
the criterion. This procedure is also done by consistent with the intent of the Cs scale,
the backward regression algorithm, but we namely assessing upward social mobility and
have intervened in the empirical selection of achievement orientation.
variables were the literature review was able to For the Impatience (IMP) dimension of the
fundament the preferential inclusion of a TABP, as assessed by the SWS, useful
certain predictor in the regression model. predictive indexes may be ascertained from
the CPI. As a general principle we mention that
CPI scales have a negative correlation with the
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION behavioral tendency towards impatience,
especially scales in the Self-Management
Table 3 presents the main correlations section of the CPI, namely Re, So, Sc, Gi, and
existing between the CPI and SWS scales. Wb and some of the supplementary scales,
In the SWS, the Type A classifier scale like BFm, DSd, but also the vector scales v.2
was built using an empiric strategy with items and v.3.
strongly correlated with the Rosenman Through backward regression we have
Structured Interview, with the specific objective however retained a model based on Wo, Ami,
of maximizing TABP detection in the same line BFm and DSd as being a good predictor of
as the Structured Interview. Indeed, in a study impatience as a TABP component, explaining
on 163 business managers, this scale 39% of its variance: F(4, 48) = 7.72, p<.001.
succeeded in correctly detecting the type of The regression equation is:
76% of participants (Jackson & Gray, 1988,
1993). This scale was very well detected by IMP = 73.92 + 1.3*Wo 1.04*Ami .61*BFm
the CPI. Scales in the Self-management area 1.14*DSd.
of the CPI, namely Re, So, Sc, Gi, Cm, and
Wb correlate negatively; however regression
analysis shows that these scales have a low 2
OccLev is the occupational level of the employee,
contribution at explaining the variance of ranked on four steps.
32
Studii i Cercetri
Table 3
Correlations between CPI-260 and SWS scales (N=53)
Type A/B
classifier IMP ANG WI TU JD COM
Social performance Do -.255 .369**
Cs .360**
Sy -.245 .423**
Sp .477***
Sa -.247 .393**
In .346**
Em
Self-management Re -.293** -.403** -.367**
So -.294* -.311* -.415** -.416**
Sc -.465*** -.390** -.513*** -.322*
Gi -.373** -.410** -.526*** .246 -.245
Cm .261
Wb -.268 -.342* -.377** -.323*
To
Motivations and thinking
style Ac -.324* -.395** .256 -.248
Ai
Cf -.283* .404**
Personal characteristics Is
Fx .410** .238
Sn -.255 -.255 -.251
Work-related Mp -.234 .271
Wo -.231 -.348*
Ct -.250 .349**
Lp .051 -.306* .240 -.323* .288**
Ami -.364** -.439** -.523***
Leo .339*
Extra scales Tm .260
BMs -.239 -.248 -.253 .316*
BFm -.489** -.343* -.288* -.270
Anx .227 .232
Nar .308* .265 .317*
DSd -.232 -.365** -.400** -.268
DAc
Hos
FF .279* .232
Vector scales v.1 -.338* -.488**
v.2 -.275* -.287* -.292* .308* -.447**
v.3 -.227 -.297* -.350*
All correlations marked with* are significant at p<.05, those marked as** are significant at p<.01, those marked
with*** are significant at p<.001 (bivariate). The unmarked correlations are significant at p<.05, univariate; empty
spaces show insignificant correlations.
The numerical relationship captured (reversed DSd) are more prone to feel
above states that persons characterized by impatience to such a degree as to be
high work ethics (Wo), but also by intolerant associated with TABP. This explanation is
and potentially polemic positions and consonant with the description given by
interpersonal relations (reversed Ami), by Jackson & Gray (1988) and by nculescu &
masculine, impulsive, energetic and stubborn Iliescu (2006), for the IMP scale: nervous,
attitudes (reversed BFm) and with less interest impulsive, egocentric, unrealistic in their
of behaving in a socially desirable manner
33
demands, rigid, authoritarian, indeed with high In conclusion, this is a model where a
expectations even from themselves. demographic component, the occupational
It is interesting that Anger (ANG) level, has the second large variance, after
scores show a high correlation with Impatience Flexibility (Fx). If we also take into
(IMP) scores on the SWS, and this also consideration the work involvement correlates
reflects upon the predicting CPI scales. The with age r(51)=.331, p<.01 and with the
predictive model obtained by stepwise second vector of the CPI, v.2, r(51)=.308,
regression explains 38% of the Anger p<.01, the image urges us to conclude that
dimension: F(4, 48) = 7.3, p<.001, and states higher-ranking persons with a lower flexibility
the following regression equation: (adjectival descriptions from the ACL also stay
in the area of seriousness, objective oriented,
ANG = 64 .45*Gi + 1.2*Wo 1.18*Ami responsible) and with a more acute fighter
.80*DSd. spirit (in movement, achievement oriented) are
more work-involved.
In conclusion, persons picturing Time urgency (TU) has very low
themselves as critical, stubborn, rebel correlations with CPI scale scores, and these
(reversed Gi), with strong protestant work couldnt be used as valid predictors of this
ethics (Wo), inclined towards intolerance and component of TABP. Significant univariate
interpersonal disputes (reversed Ami) and less correlations were found with Sn, suggesting
interested to behave in a socially desirable that, possibly, males tend to feel time urgency
manner (reversed DSd) are more likely to in a more acute manner.
exhibit Anger. These persons are described by CPI scale scores may also be used in
Jackson & Gray (1988) as being irascible, order to identify persons who are prone to feel
temperamental, combative and hostile. Indeed, Job Dissatisfaction (JD), the prediction model
low Amicability scores suggest this pattern, as included the v.2, So and Sa scales and
do low scores on the two social desirability explains 37% of the variance: F(3, 49) = 5.96,
scales (Gi and DSd). Also, it is worth p<.01, offering the following equation:
mentioning that one of the highest possible
correlations between ANG and CPI scales is JD = 61.23 0.32*Sa 0.44*So 0.57*v.2.
the one with Self-control (Sc), suggesting that
uncontrolled individuals get easier angry, but In conclusion, people inclined towards
also persist more in this angry state and take challenging social norms (reverse So and v.2)
more time to calm down. This also suggests a and with a general low self-acceptance are
close relationship between self-control and more inclined to feel job dissatisfaction.
impulsivity in the work environment and work Finally, Competitiveness (COM) as a
orientation. It is also interesting that Anger, as TABP dimension offers the basis for an
a component of the TABP in the workplace is interesting comment. First of all, we have to
so closely related to Work Orientation and this note that high and significant positive
suggests that, from this point of view, Anger is correlations are obvious for 6 of the 7 scales in
a behavior very specifically related to the Social Performance section of the CPI (Do,
workplace situations. Cs, Sy, Sp, Sa, and In); subsequently we have
Few of the positive correlations a negative correlation with the v.1 vector.
expected from the Work Involvement (Wo) Positive correlations appear further in relation
scale of the SWS and the Work-related with some of the work-related scales, like CT,
personality scales of the CPI where supported Lp and Leo, as well as with Cf, suggesting a
empirically. Only one scale, namely positive attitude towards the own intellectual
Leadership (Lp) correlated significantly, and efficiency. The Self-control scale of the CPI
only univariate. The regression analysis correlates negatively with Competitiveness and
explaining work involvement as a TABP the gender role pattern suggests a positive
dimension is thus the weakest of those correlation with BMs and negative correlations
discussed here, covering barely 29% of the with BFm and Sn, implying thus that males are
concept variance: F(3, 49) = 6.51, p<.001. But more competition oriented.
the variables included show a very interesting The prediction model has a higher
picture: coverage, of 47% of the variance of
Competitiveness, F(5, 47) = 5.57, p<.001; the
WI = 45.91 + .57*FF 1.01*Fx + regression equation states that:
2.07*OccLev.
34
Studii i Cercetri
COM = 50.52 - 1.3*v.1 1.1*Do + 0.58*Cf + Dissatisfaction and Work Involvement, the CPI
0.62*Sa + 0.82*Sy. scales offer explanation for a rather low total
variance. The most important thing is that the
The model includes social scales like CPI is able to correctly identify persons
Do, Sy and Sa, but also the first vector (v.1), belonging to Type A or Type B, when
as well as a social efficiency/conceptual considering a regression equation containing
fluency score, suggesting that competitive scales like BFm, Anx, Nar and the three vector
individuals have a positive and believing scales.
attitude towards their own capability of Some interesting lines for further study
intellectual functioning. It is, however, open up. The pattern of vector scales in the
interesting to note that Do has a high Type A/B distinction is to be considered,
participation in this prediction model with a because it suggests that Type A individuals
negative contribution, which at a first glance are to be found rather among those with low
would seem unusual. A careful analysis of the scores on all the three vector scales, which
equation shows, however, that we will would mean that norm-challenging extraverts
encounter a higher probability of a strongly with low self-actualization (low Gammas) are
competitive individual if he/she has a higher much more prone to exhibit the TABP. Indeed,
trust in his/her own conceptual fluency (Cf), our data suggests that, out of our sample of 53
and if he/she is more socially oriented (v.1), participants, 21 were identified as Type A
especially in participative relationships with individuals, and the 4 of them with the most
others (Sy), if he/she is more self-acceptant extreme Type A scores are all Gammas: two
(Sa). With all these constant, lower Do scores have a level 2 on the third vector scale, one is
will predict a higher competitiveness, which level 3 and one is level 4.
could be explained through the fact that, as Also, when taking into consideration
Gough (1987) and Megargee (1972) explicitly the correlational analysis at item level we
state, the Do scale of the CPI is a measure of found that strong relationships between certain
prosocial dominance, describing persons who items of the CPI and dimensions of the TABP
are wielding their influence by following emerge. Considering all this there is a strong
socially acceptable purposes and not only to possibility of building in a TABP scale in the
generate an increased self-esteem, as the CPI, in the same tradition the Em scale and
competitiveness dimension of TABP states some of the secondary scales where built.
(Jackson & Gray, 1988). As shown by Gough
& Bradley (1996) in his description of high vs.
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Pitariu, H. D., & Albu, M. (1993). Inventarul Blumenthal, J., & Whalen, R. E. (1980). Type
Psihologic California: Prezentare si rezultate A behavior, hostility, and coronary
experimentale. Revista de Psihologie, 39, atherosclerosis. Psychosomatic Medicine,
249-263. 42, 539-549.
Pitariu, H. D., & Hehn, H. (1980). Investigarea
personalitii cu ajutorul Inventarului
Psihologic California (CPI). Revista de
Psihologie, 26, 461-473.
Pitariu, H. D., & Iliescu, D. (2005). Inventarul
Psihologic California: CPI260-Ro. Psihologia
Resurselor Umane, 2, 40-49.
37
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TYPE-A BEHAVIORAL PATTERN AND OCCUPATIONAL STRESS. A
DETAILED MULTIDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Vlad Tureanu1
D&D Consultants, Bucharest
Abstract
Occupational health scholars have intensively speculated on the connection between occupational
stress and the Type-A Behavioral Pattern. A wide variety of models investigating the underlying
relationship between stressors, Type-A, ways of coping and stress symptoms have been tested and
data seems to support those that describe a more direct connection between the four. Romanian
adapted version of ASSET (A Shortened Stress Evaluation Tool, Cooper & Cartwright, 2002) has
been used to measure eight sources of occupational stress, and four dimensions considered to
rather be effects of work stress. The Romanian adapted version of SWS (Survey of Work Styles,
Jackson & Gray, 1988) was used to measure six dimensions of the TABP from an organizational
perspective. A set of N=109 valid parallel data was eventually analyzed searching for (a)
relationships between the work stress and TABP dimensions and (b) significant differences
between TABPs and TBBPs in terms of levels of work stress. Implications of the results are
discussed.
1
INTRODUCTION only partial aspects of the phenomenon. While
this helped distinguish between other types of
Human stress, present in the every day stress and the one emerging from the
life, seems to have considerable chances of individuals interaction with the organization, it
becoming the unfortunate celebrity of the provided a rather narrow explanative basis.
modern world. It has gained this status the Some definitions exclusively regarded work
very moment stress entered the pool of the stress as a complex environmental stimulus
10000 most used vocabulary words that affects the individual, while others
encountered in the communication of both regarded it as an individual response to certain
white and blue collars in the industrialized situational forces (Beehr & Franz, 1987). More
nations. Within this context, work or recent perspectives focusing on the dynamics
occupational stress is, across the globe, a of the work stress have defined it as an
central preoccupation, not only to the incompatibility, a lack of fit between the
individuals or organizations, but especially to individual and the work environment
government organisms striving to formally (Humphrey, 1998).
secure decent levels of work health. Therefore A formal and more specific approach (as
the efforts for thoroughly describing and provided by the US Department of Health and
explaining the phenomenon, initiated by Selye Human Services through its specialized
as early as 1926, in the beginning of his National Institution for Occupational Safety and
career, have nowadays given fruit to an Health) defines work stress as a harmful
important legacy of scientific work. This work physical and emotional response that occurs
comprises a number of theories and models when the requirements of the job do not match
trying to explain occupational stress and an the capabilities, resources, or needs of the
ever-growing yet heterogeneous group of case worker (NIOSH, 1999). The definition,
and experimental studies. developed under APA supervision, is actually
reflecting one of the most solid and modern
Work stress paradigms regarding work stress initially
formulated by Richard Lazarus. The
Initial efforts to formulate a definition of transactional model of work stress states that
work stress have been successful in covering the phenomenon occurs through a multi-stage
process: (a) through a first appraisal the
1
Adresa de coresponden: individual evaluates the stressor, namely what
vlad.tureanu@apio.ro the organization expects him to do and (b)
38
Studii i Cercetri
through the second appraisal the individual were: (a) the direct effects model stating that
assesses his/ her own ability to cope with the stressful events, Type-A and coping directly
stressor, namely to properly and efficiently influence symptoms as stated above, (b) the
respond to the organizational requests mediated effects model which assumes that
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). If, during both of stress not only directly determines functions
the two stages, the results are negative i.e. but also activates coping and in some cases
there is a lack of concordance between the Type-A which in turn influence symptoms and
work requests, the individual commitment to (c) the mediating mediated effect model states
the organization and the individual resources that Type-A mediates stressful events and
for actually performing the requested actions coping while the latter, in its turn mediates the
the person will suffer stress. As Cooper & relationship between stress and symptoms
Cartwright (2002, p.6) aptly put it stress is in which are also directly influenced by stress.
the eye of the beholder since a stressor has The accent is placed once again on the
to be perceived and recognized by the importance of understanding the workings of
individual as overwhelming their ability to cope, the Type-A Behavioral Pattern within the
to be felt as such. organizational context with both scholar and
While the framework provided by this consultant trying to get a better grasp on the
model is valuable through its work stress phenomenology. Significant
comprehensibility, it is in the same time attention has been paid to studies searching
challenging, for it reveals an important number for a connection between the presence of the
of elements and sequence of processes that TABP and isolated aspects of personal stress
lead to stress and its manifesting symptoms. (Kushnir & Melamed, 1991; Jamal, 1990) or
On one hand, the work stress phenomenology occupational stress in general (Evans &
depends on certain personality traits that in Palsane, 1987).
many cases moderate the relationship
between the individual and the organization. Type A
On the other hand, work stress appears
sometimes as a direct effect of certain Initially Type-A was theorized by its
organizational situations or events. Ways of authors as being a type of personality, formed
coping are determining the manner in which from several specific traits that were
the individual deals with organizational documented as being directly related to the
pressure, also being in the same time presence of the Coronary Heart Disease
dependent on the personality structure. The (Rosenman et al., 1975). During the past two
interaction of all the previous may produce the decades doctors have felt the need to re-
actual psychological and physiological work conceptualize the Type-A and focus more on
stress syndromes. its anger and hostility components so that it
These factors have been summarized would better predict the CHD (Rose, 1987).
into four general groups: (a) stressful situations Nevertheless, the initial definition treating
and events, (b) personality factors, (c) coping Type-A as a behavioral pattern characterized
and (d) symptoms of ill heart (Edwards, by vigorous verbal and psychomotor
Baglioni & Cooper, 1990). Observing actual mannerisms, a chronic sense of time urgency,
examples from case studies across a wide easily aroused anger and hostility, enhanced
range of organizations, one may notice that competitiveness, extreme impatience, and
there is evidence to support all kinds and aggressive achievement (Jenkins, Zyzanski, &
combinations of relationships between factors Rosenman, 1978) was borrowed by work
in the four categories. On the easier side psychologists and used in organizational
stressful events, coping methods and studies. Thus TABP describes persons living a
personality factors may directly influence general stressful lifestyle with a serious
stress symptoms (e.g. the first two by hostility tendency, hard-driving, and
increasing it and the third by decreasing it). continuously under time pressure.
Obviously things are far from being that simple In this general context the local
in most of the cases. Seven types of possible Romanian research focused on work stress
models of relationships (linear and non-linear) phenomenology has also gained weight in the
between the four have been formulated, with past decade. For example the relationship
the Type-A Behavioral Pattern chosen to between the TABP and work stress has been
represent the personality factors category. A investigated by Pitariu, Miclea & Munteanu in
multi-sample test of the seven alternative 1987 on female managers. Furthermore the
models has revealed data support for only actual relationship between the work and
three of them (Edwards et al., 1990). Those family environment was scrutinized in the effort
39
to formulate a model to contain not only pressure placed by both internal and external
organizational demands but also strains forces upon the employees for meeting strict
coming from family life (Pitariu et al., 2004). and (sometimes) unreasonable deadlines, (c)
Also, managers concern for the employees a constant organizational need to be extremely
well being is evermore serious and involve not flexible in terms of the competences,
only pure professionals within the HR and personnel and time allocated to each project
management consultancy areas, but also and (d) difficult management of a highly
academics specialized in the field. In the same sensitive relationship with exigent business
time important international psychometric partners. Needless to say, we expected these
instruments that may be used in the field have problems to be reflected by our measurements
been adapted and normed on Romanian not only when assessing stress, but also when
population. We consider that it is important to evaluating the Type-A / Type-B ratio for the
use every possible opportunity to analyze data employee work styles.
gathered from real life situations, in A paper and pencil version of the
organizations actually going through diagnosis questionnaires for both ASSET and SWS was
processes. In such a context we have obtained given to each of all 125 members of the
data allowing us to check if there is a organization.
relationship between aspects of work stress From various external reasons the final
and the characteristics specific to TABP. We valid set of parallel data consisted only of
have also checked if there is a difference in N=109 entries. From this sample 58 (53%)
work stress measurements between the high were females and 51 (47%) males. Average
Type A and Type B individuals. age of the participants: 29.7 years old
(=5.79). Marital status: 50 (46%) participants
METHOD were married, 32 (29%) are living with partner
and 27 are single (25%). Education level: 14
Participants (13%) high school graduate, 60 (55%)
Measures of stress and TABP were university graduate and 35 (32%) post
gathered from an organization, to which we will university graduate.
refer from now on as ALPHA, active within the
private sector activating in the Media & Measures
Communication industry. The data was A Shortened Stress Evaluation Tool (ASSET)
gathered during a more complex program of
organizational diagnosis, consisting of Occupational stress was measured with
longitudinal measurements on several the Romanian version of ASSET (A Shortened
organizational dimensions reaching over a Stress Evaluation Tool) developed by Cooper
time span of more than 3 years. Unfortunately & Cartwright in 2002. Worldwide, the
the most recent measurement is the only one instrument is used extensively by
for which we have gathered data with the two organizational consultants to measure stress
instruments; as a consequence, no time series and as a basis for the implementation of stress
are available. resilience techniques. The design of ASSET is
ALPHA is one of the top companies in based upon a theoretical model summarized in
this field and has grown rather explosively Figure 1. The model is different through the
during the last three years. Among the fact that it recognizes factors such as overall
elements specific to the industry where ALPHA job satisfaction and organizational commitment
functions we need to mention: (a) existence of as having a potential dual function, both as
very competitive work environment, both intra results and sources of stress (Cooper &
and extra organizational, (b) huge amounts of Cartwright, 2002).
Figure 1. Theoretical model founding the ASSET (From: Asset Management Guide, Cooper & Cartwright, 2002)
40
Studii i Cercetri
41
objectives is too dependent on others reach a personal psychological
doing their tasks in time. balance by projecting their own anger
Anger, describing the Type-A on others; this might be a
individuals propensity to become antagonized, phenomenon specific to the
emotionally excited, and feeling a rather strong organizational environment that tends
desire or intent to punish or seek revenge, to encourage constant challenging of
displays, among others, two interesting others ideas as a way of life.
significant correlations:
1. A negative relationship, r(107) = -.26, Not surprisingly, Work Involvement, the
p<0.01, with the perceived Type-A is getting too much involved in its work
commitment of the employee to the up to the level where social or other
organization, suggesting that low recreational activities are neglected. This
levels of personal involvement induced correlates, r(107) = .27, p<0.01, at a medium
by stress might also be associated but significant level with the perceived
with individuals that have a natural commitment of the employee towards the
tendency to seek animosity and organization as a work stress effect suggesting
confrontation. that individuals that are, by personality too
2. A surprisingly and fairly strong work involved will tend to show an increased
correlation, r(107) = .35, p<0.01, with perception of their own involvement in the
psychological wellbeing as an effect of organizational life when under the influence of
work stress might lead us to speculate other stressors.
that Type-A individuals with a
predisposition towards controversy
might actually use this behavior to
Table 1
Correlations between measured dimensions (N=109)
Work Time Job
Impatience Anger Competitiveness
involvement urgency dissatisfaction
Work relationships 0,541**
Work-life balance 0,288** 0,239* 0,417** 0,208* 0,216*
Overload 0,236* 0,190* 0,489** 0,371**
Job security 0,434**
Control 0,205* 0,188* 0,635**
Resources &
0,255** 0,221* 0,563**
communication
Pay & benefits 0,209* 0,208* 0,237* 0,488**
Aspects of the job 0,216* 0,235* 0,472**
Commitment of org. to
-0,245* -0,564**
emp.
Commitment of emp.
-0,265** 0,278** -0,400**
to org.
Psychological
0,315** 0,355** 0,233* 0,280** 0,217*
wellbeing
Physical health 0,214* 0,209*
** Correlation is significant at the p<0.01 level
* Correlation is significant at the p<0.05 level
Empty spaces show insignificant correlations
42
Studii i Cercetri
permanently prioritize work issues most of their focus on the feeling of lack of
over personal ones and in the same control over their own work environment, the
time be aware of that. latter being the strongest of all the elements
2. An even stronger positive and generating stress.
expected correlation, r(107) = .48, Competitiveness is defined as a Type-A
p<0.01, with Overload explains that tendency to struggle to defeat others in their
the personal style focused on strife for recognition, manifested even in
deadlines specific to these Type-As noncompetitive situations. We notice a single
will most probably act as an amplifier, significant correlation, though rather weak,
not only making the individual feel r(107) = .21, p<0.01 between competitiveness
more overloaded but also highly and work life balance indicating that individuals
stressed. with this pattern of behavior tend to be more
3. A rather weak but significant stressed, having the sense that the normal
correlation, r(107) = .28, p<0.01, also equilibrium between their work and family life
exists with the psychological has been spoiled.
wellbeing; we consider this result to be To see if there are any significant
highly specific to the organization we differences at sample level, between the
have measured where constant measurements of work stress dimensions for
pressure under deadlines is a way of Type-A and Type-B behavioral patterns we
life considered by many to be have compared the mean values for all of the
normality, thus not negatively affecting work stress scales specific to extreme Type As
the sense of personal psychological and Extreme Type-Bs (that is the first 25
comfort. individuals with the highest and the lowest
Type-A Job dissatisfaction is regarded SWS scores), performing t test to check for the
as the absence of a positive emotional state significance of the mean differences. The
resulting from the appraisal of ones job results are displayed in Table 2.
dimensions. Among these dimensions we The first conclusion to be drawn here is
mention satisfaction with the peers and that the smallest and not significant differences
coworkers professional and interpersonal that may be noticed between the two samples
competence, supervisory styles, physical exist in the cases of the Job security and Pay
working conditions, recognition or opportunities and benefits. In other words from a work stress
for promotion. Bearing that in mind, it is no perspective in the tested organization there
surprise that this dimension positively seems to be no difference between TABP and
correlates with all the measured work stressors TBBP individuals in terms of perceiving job
and most of the work stress effects. The security as a threatening issue affecting stress
strongest relationship, r(107) = .63, p<0.01, and in terms of satisfaction with the pay and
functions between Job dissatisfaction and benefits. Actually both those issues are clearly
Control dimensions. This suggests that Type- settled by the management periodically.
As that have a tendency to be discontent with
everything related to their job, actually have
Table 2
Differences between the stress levels of Type-A and Type-B (N=25)
TYPE A MEAN TYPE B MEAN MEANS DIFFERENCE
Work relationships 20,92 17,16 3,76**
Work-life balance 12,53 8,56 3,97**
Overload 12,53 8,68 3,85**
Job security 8,72 7,72 1,00
Control 12,08 10,16 1,92*
Resources & communication 10,17 7,92 2,25**
Pay & benefits 3,64 2,64 1,00
Aspects of the job 19,56 16,96 2,60**
Commitment of org. to emp. 22,44 25,56 -3,12**
Commitment of emp. to org. 18,17 19,88 -1,71*
Psychological wellbeing 22,75 15,52 7,23**
Physical health 12,58 9,84 2,74**
43
All other differences measured on constant and strong relationship between
stressor dimensions are not only significant but some of the Type-A dimensions like
provide solid base toward the conclusion that Impatience, Time Urgency, Job Dissatisfaction
Type-As tend to display more work stress than and most of the common stressors as well as,
Type-Bs. The highest difference between the and most important, Psychological wellbeing.
two groups has to be noted in the case of In the same time clear differences between
Psychological wellbeing. This means that work stress levels measured for Type-Bs and
Type-As tend to significantly have more Type-As are also revealed with the latter
problems along that line in a sense that (a) generally feeling higher levels of stress. Again
they not only perceive all other stressors at the strongest difference indicates
higher levels but (b) they even contribute, Psychological Wellbeing as being the Type-As
through their own behavioral style, to the weakest point.
amplification of those stressors. All those On the other hand, once again, we need
cause the Type-As to feel more psychological to underline that some of the observed
discomfort in front of work stress adversity as relationships seem to be rather peculiar and
compared to the Type-Bs. may only be explained through a rationale that
The negative differences observed for involves elements highly specific to this
the Attitude toward organization subscales organization, or in the best case to this domain
come to confirm that Type-Bs tend to be more of the private sector. That, combined with the
involved in their relationship with the rather small sample size seems to form an
organization and in the same time perceive the important obstacle stopping the generalization
organizational involvement towards them as of these results. Unlike TABP which is an
being higher than the Type-As. From this individual trait and therefore is generally not
reason the two perceptions have a higher dependent to the organizational environment,
chance to manifest as effects of work stress in many of the stress dimensions are highly
the case on Type-Bs rather than the Type-As. contextual being dependent on certain
organizational structures that often differ from
CONCLUSIONS one domain to other, or across industries.
Being restrained by both time and
From a general perspective the most financial resources we have not been able so
important conclusion to be drawn from the far to gather valid parallel sets of data similar
study is that some of the dimensions specific to the ones analyzed here but bigger in size
to TABP have a rather strong connection to and following a certain distribution of the
many of the occupational stress dimensions: organization across the entire range of
Time Urgency, Impatience and specially Job activities, sizes and ownership. Nevertheless
Dissatisfaction correlate strongly with stress we feel that this demarche is one of the
coming from Work relationships, Work-life necessary and, unfortunately, only possible
balance, Overload, Job security, Control, small steps that need to be taken for better
Resources & communication and Pay & understanding the stress arena and being able
benefits. On the other hand Anger correlates at some point to formulate a clear cut general
not with stressors but with dimensions usually model explaining all the intricate ties of the
considered to be effects of the stress like occupational stress.
Perceived involvement on both vectors of the
employee organization relationship and REFERENCES
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health. Beehr, T. A., & Franz, T. M. (1987). The current
In the same time Competitiveness and debate about the meaning of job stress. In J. M.
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little significant correlation with work stress from theory to suggestion. New York: Haworth
dimensions. Press.
An overlook of the data gathered and Cooper, C. L., & Cartwrigh, S. (2002). ASSET
analyzed here quickly pushes towards a rather Management Guide. Robertson Cooper Ltd.
dichotomist conclusion about the study. Edwards, J. R., Baglioni, A. J. Jr., & Cooper, C. L.
On one hand the results are useful in (1990). Stress, Type-A, Coping, and
reinforcing some of the ideas speculated and Psychological and Physiological Symptoms: A
tested in other demarches but with the Multi-Sample Test of Alternative Models.
perspective of modern new instruments like Human Relations, 43, 10, 919-956.
ASSET and SWS. There seems to be a
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Evans, G. W., Palsane, M. N., & Carrere S. (1987). Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress,
Type-A Behavior and Occupational Stress. appraisal and coping. New York: Springer.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Pitariu, H., Miclea, & M., Munteanu, I. (1987). Tipul
52, 5, 1002-1007. A de comportament i stresul profesional la
Humphrey, J.H. (1998). Job Stress. Needman personalul muncitor feminin cu funcii de
Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. conducere, Revista de Psihologie, 33, 4, 303-
Jackson, D. N., & Gray, A. M. (1993). Survey of 310.
Work Styles Manual. Research Edition II. Pitariu, H., Spector, P. , Poelmans, S., O'Driscoll,
London: Research Psychology Press. M., Cooper, C., Allen, T., Lapierre ,L., Sanchez
Jamal, M. (1987). Relationship of Job Stress and J., Pitariu, A. (2004). Conflictul munc-familie la
Type-A Behavior to Employees Job managerii din Romania. Un studiu corelaional,
Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, Psihologia Resurselor Umane, 2, 2, 16-23.
Psychosomatic Health Problems and Turnover Rosenman, R. H., Brand, R. J., Jenkins, C. D.,
Motivation. Human Relations, 43, 8, 727-738. Friedman, M., Straus, R., & Wurm, M. (1975).
NIOSH - Sauter, S., Murphy, L., Colligan, M., Hurrel, Coronary heart disease in the Western
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Tisdale, J. (1999). Stress at work. American Medical Association, 233, 872-877.
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/stresswk.html Rose, M. I. (1987). Type A Behavior Pattern: A
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Organizational Behavior, 12, 2, 155-169.
45
EMOTIONAL RESPONSE TO COMPUTER ERROR MESSAGES
1
Laureniu P. Maricuoiu
West University of Timioara
Motto:
Three things are certain: death, taxes and lost data.
Guess which has occurred.
(Japanese Error Message)
Abstract
This research is investigating the computer error messages as a source for the user's state
anxiety. Forty-six Psychology students were distributed in three experimental conditions: "neutral
message", "neutral error message" and "blaming error message". The dependent variable was
state anxiety, measured with a self-report questionnaire. Variables such as state anxiety and
"fake good" tendency were statistically controlled. Results showed that 18 to 21% of state anxiety
variance is generated by the error messages. Implications of the results and further developments
of the current study are discussed.
1
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND refers to the design elements of a user
interface that make this interface easy to use.
Within the last decade, the personal Van der Veer and van Vliet (2003) observed
computer has become an indispensable tool in that the user interface is usually designed after
the great majority of the human activities. With the main functions are defined by program
the implementation of such a complex tool, developers, and so the usability issue is
problems related to human-computer related only to the way the interface is
interaction became a focus for industrial designed.
psychologists as they tried to optimize this Recent research (Karat, Karat &
particular human-machine interaction. Ukeslon 2000; Kujala, Kauppinen and Rekola
Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) is 2001; Van der Veer & van Vliet, 2003) showed
a particular research domain focused on that the software developer's focus on the
improving the way humans interact with ergonomics of an interface solves only a part
computers. Within this domain, researchers of the usability issues. For example, Karat et
"are focused on the design of the computer al. (2000) suggests that designers should take
interface, on the evaluation and into account the user's cognitive
implementation of interactive computational characteristics, the nature of the task that is
systems and on the complex phenomenon that carried through the software program and the
occurs within this process" (Jurcu, 2003). All context in which the user achieves tasks and
of these aspects are concentrated in a goals. This new approach involves a far more
characteristic of the computer software named detailed analysis of the user and his/hers
usability. needs and leads to customized interfaces,
According to Maurer (2004), usability depending on the nature of the task and the
is an umbrella term that encompasses two context the user is working in.
main concepts: on one hand usability refers to Starting from the ideas promoted by
an attribute of the quality of a system (a usable Karat et al. (2000), Kujala, Kauppinen and
system is an intuitive, easy to use system), Rekola (2001) usability refers now to:
and on the other hand usability refers to a how the software responds to user
process or set of techniques used during the needs - this set of demands refers to
design and development of a software user problems and options, user tasks
application. From this perspective, usability and user environment;
how the software answers to
requirements - there are two main
1
Adresa de coresponden: types of requirements:
lmaricutoiu@socio.uvt.ro
46
Studii i Cercetri
a) user's requirements - are written apud. van der Veer & van Vliet, 2003) found
from the user's point of view and are out that 60% of software errors are caused by
referring to any function, constraint or usability errors, while only 15% are caused by
other property that can satisfy the functionality issues.
user's needs; User reactions to computer error were
b) technical requirements - describe analyzed by focusing on the way people adapt
how the product will be implemented. themselves to the new technology (Birdi,
This new point of view is a shift in the Pennington & Zapf 1997; Birdi & Zapf, 1997).
usability concept, from the strict cognitive Although Birdi, Pennington & Zapf (1997)
ergonomics framework to a wider needs based reported no significant differences between
perspective. Moreover, current research young and older users regarding the number of
interests are focused on developing and errors made, results reported by Birdi & Zapf
implementing adaptive interfaces (Alpert, (1997) showed that older users have stronger,
Karat, Karat, Brodie & Vergo, 2003) that can more negative emotional responses to error
offer only the information a particular user is messages than young users. Older users are
interested in. Although this technology is used also less likely to seek support by asking a co-
mainly in Web design, one can expect worker and rely mainly on written
adaptive desktop applications in the near documentation to solve the problem (Birdi &
future. Zapf, 1997).
An interesting perspective on the HCI The frequent occurrence of computer
is proposed by Van der Veer and van Vliet errors led to the development of various
(2003), who tried to re-define this interaction strategies for minimizing their effects. One of
by introducing three key concepts: user virtual the strategy consisted in developing computer
machine, user mental model and design software that can identify an error and then
model. The conceptual model is the explicit write an error report to the software developer.
model of the system, as it was conceived by The other strategy was focused on the user
the programmers and interface designers. The and consisted in developing specialized
user virtual machine is a construct that trainings on error management.
includes everything the user should know Error reports represent a very useful
about the system in order to use it (physical way to improve software applications:
appearance of the computer, style of developers usually use these feedbacks when
interaction, form and content of the information they try to improve the stability of an
exchange). The user virtual machine is a application. Seebach (2004) suggested that a
normative model that includes all the good error report should contain the answers
information the user should know about the for the following three questions: what the user
computer in order to have a high level of was doing, what the user thought it happened
performance when using the machine. The and what actually happened. The answers to
user virtual machine is different, depending on these questions allow the developers to
the job: a system administrator must know how reproduce the error (if they know what the user
to install different software applications, while was doing), to identify the problem and to
the statistician who uses the computer should solve it.
know how to use his statistical program. Error management trainings are using
According to Van der Veer and van Vliet errors as learning tools, through a trial-and-
(2003), when using a computer, the user has a error method: errors are a source of negative
mental model of the system being used, and feedback and have a positive and informative
the human plans actions and interprets system function in training (Heimbeck, Frese,
responses according to this mental model. The Sonnentag & Keith, 2003). Moreover, Frese et
main idea of this theory is that "one has to al. (1991) showed that using errors when
attune his mental model to the conceptual learning a computer program leads to better
model" (Van der Veer & van Vliet 2003). performance in nonspeed performance tests,
Computer error is an often incident in compared to the situation where the computer
human-computer interactions. According to program was learned without committing
Brodbeck, Zapf, Prumper & Frese (1993), errors.
there are two main types of errors: functionality Previous research on this topic, Birdi &
errors (generated by a mismatch between the Zapf (1997) conducted a field study using self-
work task and the computer) and usability report questionnaires and observational
errors (generated by a mismatch between the methods to investigate the relationship
user and the computer). Vinter et al. (1996, between the error and emotional response. In
47
this research, we approach the phenomenon weekly or daily use of computer for Web
through an experimental study conducted in browsing or text editing.
the Centre for Psychological Research and Measures
Studies from Timioara. Participants were told that the
In this study, we have taken into objective of the study is to evaluate the
account two main types of error that occur possibility of administrating the Raven
while using the computer: Progressive Matrixes general intelligence test
"blaming errors" - are computer error using the computer. This information was
messages that report a problem and transmitted in order to deceive the subjects on
indicate as a source of the error one of the main objective of the study.
the user's actions; The dependent variable of this
"neutral errors" - are error messages research is the subjects' score at the STAI X2
that report a problem, without questionnaire (state anxiety). According to the
revealing the potential source of the hypothesis we formulated, we expect to find a
error. significantly higher level of state anxiety at the
We are particularly interested in the subjects who received a "neutral error"
"neutral" error (system error) because it message and a "blaming error" message,
represents a particular type of error: it can't be compared with the subjects that received a
attributed to the user, the user has nothing to neutral message.
learn from it and it usually implies a general The experiment consisted in three
failure of the system being used. main steps: in the first step, subjects answered
A problem that is under-researched is a series of self-report measures that included:
how users who don't speak English react to A general survey that recorded the
computer errors. In their case, low proficiency frequency of the participant's
in English can be a moderator factor between interaction with the computer
the user and the computer. (measured on a 5 point anchor scale
ranging from 1-daily to 5-less than a
Objective and hypothesis few times a year) and the participant's
self-reported linguistic proficiency in
This study focuses on the emotional English, measured on a scale ranging
reactions of users to computer error from 1 to 10 (10 meaning excellent).
messages. Our main hypothesis are: The participants were asked to
evaluate their reading, writing and
H1: Neutral error messages will generate a speaking skills on this 1 to 10 scale
significantly higher level of anxiety, compared and the scores from these three
to a neutral message. ratings were cumulated in a more
general indicator of the self-reported
H2: Blaming error messages generate a linguistic proficiency in English;
significantly higher level of state anxiety, STAI X2 is a self-report questionnaire
compared to a neutral message. developed by Spielberger, Gorsuch &
Lushene in 1970 (apud. Pitariu 2003)
H3: High English proficiency will associate with that measures the anxiety as a trait;
a low level of state anxiety. Eysenck Personality Inventory (E.P.I.)
- was used to assess the participant's
H4: The time spent by the subjects for reading tendency to "fake good" using the L
the message will lead to an increase in state scale from this inventory.
anxiety.
The second step consisted in
METHOD answering a computer version of the Raven
Progressive Matrixes specially developed for
Participants this experiment, that had only the A and B
Forty six 2nd year students in series of the test. Although the Raven
Psychology participated as subjects in this Progressive Matrixes is administrated with a
study. The subjects were mainly female (80%) time limit of 30 minutes, subjects were
and were rewarded for the participation with 7 instructed that in this testing session the time
credits out of 100 in the Advanced Data limit does not exist because the researcher is
Analysis discipline. All subjects reported interested to see the time needed to complete
the entire test. Subjects were not informed that
48
Studii i Cercetri
they will complete only the A and B series of error ("One of your actions caused an
the test. In this step, subjects completed the unhandled exception and as a result
electronic version alone, in a room specially your computer will have to close"). The
reserved for this purpose. The computer messages generated by the
version had the following functions: application are presented in Table 1.
to record the answers given by the The message always appeared
subjects; between the A12 and B1 items of the
to generate a computer message, Raven Progressive Matrixes. Once the
depending on the experimental "OK" button was pushed, the message
condition. There were three types of did not re-appeared and the B1 item
messages: a neutral message appeared on the screen;
("Please adjust your time and date"), a to record the time spent by the
computer error message revealing a subjects between the moment the
neutral error ("Your computer has message appeared and the moment
encountered an unhandled exception they pushed the "Ok" button.
and needs to close") and computer
error message revealing a blaming
Table 1
Types of computer messages
Type of message Message graphics
Neutral message
The third step consisted in completing the subject's tendency to "fake good" -
State-Trait Anxiety Expression Inventory STAI previous research on Romanian
X1 developed by Spielberger, Gorsuch & subjects (Radulovici & Duma, 2001)
Lushene in 1970 (apud. Pitariu 2003), which is showed that this variable is usually
a self-report questionnaire that measures the positively associated with our
level of the anxiety as a state. dependent variable (state anxiety).
The causal relationship between the
computer message and the state of anxiety RESULTS
was studied while statistically controlling other
variables that may interfere between these two Hypothesis testing was conducted
elements: using ANCOVA technique, with State Anxiety
trait anxiety - measured with STAI X2, as dependent variable and experimental
trait anxiety refers to subject's general conditions as fixed factors. All other variables
inclination towards experiencing the discussed in the previous section were
state of anxiety; included as covariates. The results of the
ANCOVA analysis are presented in Table 2.
49
Table 2
Results of ANCOVA analysis (dependent variable: State anxiety)
Type III Sum Mean
Source df F Sig.
of Squares Square
Corrected Model 2667.485 6 444.581 18.577 <.001
Intercept 142.246 1 142.246 5.944 .019
Independent
Experimental condition 291.359 2 145.680 6.087 .005
variables
English proficiency 10.605 1 10.605 .443 .510
Covariates
Time spent for reading the message 168.081 1 168.081 7.023 .012
Controlled Trait anxiety 2012.911 1 2012.911 84.112 <.001
variables "Fake good" tendency 103.065 1 103.065 4.307 .045
Error 933.320 39 23.931
Total 44821.000 46
Corrected Total 3600.804 45
R Squared = .758 (Adjusted R Squared = .714)
Our first two hypothesizes stated that the state contrast analysis using the standardized
anxiety reported by our subjects will be higher simple contrast technique for comparing each
if they have encountered an error message, of the error message condition with the non-
compared with the state anxiety reported by error message condition (Table 3). We
the subjects that encountered a non-error preferred the contrast analysis to the post-hoc
message. After obtaining significant results in analysis because it allowed us to test specific
Table 1 for the experimental condition variable hypothesis (Sava, 2004).
(F(2,39) = 6.087, p = .005), we conducted a
Table 3
Contrast analysis results
"Neutral error" vs. "Neutral message" Contrast Estimate 8.426
Hypothesized Value 0
Difference (Estimate - Hypothesized) 8.426
Results of the contrast analysis confirmed both statistically controlled. The estimates of effect
our hypothesis, indicating that computer error size showed an r = .21 for the "neutral error"
messages generate a higher level of state message and an r = .18 for the "blaming error"
anxiety compared to a neutral message, even message.
when variables such as Trait Anxiety are
50
Studii i Cercetri
Figure 1. Graphic representation of the state anxiety level, on our three experimental conditions
Our third hypothesis stated that a high that indicate a usability issue ("blaming errors")
proficiency in English will associate with a low have almost the same impact as system
level of anxiety. We believed that a better errors. This result suggests that the theoretical
understanding of the message the computer is difference we imposed between these two
showing will be associated with lower levels of types of errors does not exist from a user's
anxiety. This relationship was not confirmed by point of view. An alternative explanation refers
the results presented in Table 2. to the fact that both error messages indicated
Our forth hypothesis stated that "The the same result: the immediate shutdown of
time spent by the subjects for reading the the system. It is possible that this unpleasant
message will lead to an increase in state result influenced our subjects' anxiety in both
anxiety". Although the main effect is conditions and the subtle difference between
statistically significant (F(1,39) = 7.023, p = system error and user error was not significant
.012), the direction of the relationship is not in this case.
positive (as hypothesized) but negative. This In our presentation of the theoretical
means that the less time our subjects spent background of this study, we observed the lack
reading the computer message, the higher the of research on the relationship between
state anxiety reported by them was. linguistic competencies and usability. Our
results showed that English proficiency is not
DISCUSSION associated with the emotional response to
error messages. We believe that this result can
Contrast analysis showed a significant admit three complementary explanations,
effect of the error messages on state anxiety. which should be tested in future studies:
This result sustains the thesis postulated by the first possible explanation for this
Keith (2005), stating that the effectiveness of result might be the fact that the state
error management training sessions are of anxiety is not related with the verbal
mediated by the individual's emotion control contents of the message, but with the
capabilities. If the error is responsible for 18- graphic elements that are associated
21% of the state anxiety variance while trait with it: error messages have different
anxiety is statistically controlled, then emotion graphics than information messages
control capabilities are crucial in finding the (see Table 3);
right approach in dealing with computer errors. the second alternative explanation is
These results also indicate that an the presence of the word "error" in the
error message is perceived by users as a blue bar of the window. This word is
potential threat to the possibility of continuing very similar with the Romanian
their tasks. An important finding is that errors "eroare" and therefore it should have
51
been correctly interpreted by all our task performance in the user interface",
subjects, regardless their English IEEE Conference on Systems, Man, and
proficiency level; Cybernetics 2000 (SMC 2000), IEEE, 757-
the third explanation starts from the 762.
usability model developed by Van der Birdi K., Zapf, D. (1997). "Age differences in
Veer and van Vliet (2003) and refers to reactions to errors in computer-based
the user's mental model: if the user's work", Behaviour and Information
mental model does not contain any Technology, 16(6), 309-319.
information related to error diagnosis, Birdi, K., Pennington, J., Zapf, D. (1997). "Ageing
then the user can't understand the and errors in computer/based work: An
meaning of the error message, observational field study", Journal of
although he/she can understand Occupational and Organizational
English. Psychology, 70, 35-47.
A surprising result was the negative, Brodbeck, F.C., Zapf, D., Prumper, J., Frese, M.
significant correlation between the time spent (1993). "Error handling in office work with
for reading the message and state anxiety. A computers: A filed study", Journal of
possible explanation for this unexpected result Occupational and Organizational
is that subjects that tried to remove the Psychology, 66, 303-317.
message as soon as possible (by clicking the Frese, M., Brodbeck, F., Heinbokel, T., Mooser, C.,
"OK" button) are more worried about a Schleiffenbaum, E., Thiemann, P. (1991).
possible negative outcome, simply because "Errors in Training Computer Skills: On the
they did not read the whole message. This Positive Function of Errors", Human-
finding is important, as understanding the Computer Interaction, 6, 77-93.
nature of the error is one of the first conditions Heimbeck, D., Frese, M., Sonnentag, S., Keith, N.
for learning how to solve errors or how to (2003). "Integrating errors into the training
recover from them (Seebach, 2004). process: the function of error management
Further research should focus on the instructions and the role of goal
cognitive effects of the error messages, as the orientation", Personnel Psychology, 56,
results reported by Bailey, Konstan & Carlis 333-361
(2000), McFarlane (1999, 2002), McFarlane & Jurcu, N. (2003). Psihologie inginereasc, Cluj
Latorella (2002) show that computer Napoca: UTPres.
interruptions have disruptive effects on Karat, J., Karat, C.M., Ukelson, J. (2000).
cognitive focusing. We believe that error "Affordances, Motivation, and the Design
messages can be considered as a combination of User Interfaces", Cummunications of the
between interruption and threat, so the effects ACM, 43(8), 49-51.
on the cognitive focusing should be major. Keith, N. (2005). Self-Regulatory Processes In Error
Also, emotions such as anger should be Management Training, Inaugural-
further investigated in relationship with the Dissertation zur Erlangung des
computer errors. Doktorgrades der Philosophie des
Another issue that needs to be further Fachbereiches 06 psychologie und
investigated is how these messages affect Sportwissenschaft der Justus-Liebig-
expert users. For example, it would be Universitt Gieen, Frankfurt.
interesting to see the results on a sample of Kujala, S., Kauppinen, M., Rekola, S. (2001).
programmers. A significant effect on this type "Bridging the Gap Between User Needs
of users can have important implications for and User Requirements", in Avouris, N.
the software development process, as and Fakotakis, N. (eds.) Advances in
accurate programming leads to the elimination Human-Computer Interaction I
of error messages. (Proceedings of the Panhellenic
Conference with International Participation
REFERENCES in Human-Computer Interaction PC-HCI
2001), Typorama Publications, 45-50.
Alpert, S., Karat, J., Karat, C.M., Brodie, C., Vergo, Maurer, D. (2004). What is usability?, Step Two
J.G. (2003). "User Attitudes Regarding a Designs Pty Ltd.
User-Adaptive eCommerce Web Site", McFarlane, D. C., (1999). "Coordinating the
User Modelling and User-Adapted interruption of people in human-computer
Interaction, 13, 373-396. interaction", Sasse, A. & Johnson, C.
Bailey, B. P., Konstan, J. A., Carlis, J. V. (2000). (Eds.), Proceedings of Human-Computer
"Measuring the effects of interruptions on
52
Studii i Cercetri
www.rtscluj.ro, info@rtscluj.ro
tel.fax: 0264 582276
TESTE DISPONIBILE
Matrici Progresive Raven Color (CPM) Evalueaz inteligena ntre 4-12 ani
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53
RELAIA DINTRE COMPONENTELE CARACTERISTICE MEDIULUI PSIHOSOCIAL AL MUNCII I
STAREA DE SNTATE
George Ooiu1
Aphorme, Cluj Napoca
Abstract
This study aims at examining the way in which the psychosocial factors, measured as effort,
reward, effort-reward imbalance and over commitment at work influence physical health and
more specifically, if the psychosocial components related to the job environment have a
significant impact on the evolution of the health status. Random samples of men and women
(N=100), reported their self rated health, and effort, reward, effort - reward imbalance and over
commitment at work. This study suggests that the effect of the psychosocial environment is not
confined to the Romanian population but more research on this topic is needed.
1
INTRODUCERE declaneaz emoii negative cu tendina de a
susine o activare autonom i
La locul de munc angajaii sunt neuroendocrin. Cu alte cuvinte, schimbul
expui la o palet larg de factori care le dintre angajat i angajator se bazeaz pe un
afecteaz activitatea. Printre acetia se contract incomplet care nu specific clar
numr: lumina, cldura, zgomotul, salariul, obligaiile i beneficiile. Acest model (Siegriest
modul de conducere, colegii cu care lucreaz, & Peter, 1999a) definete trei condiii care
responsabilitile postului de munc. Un rezult din combinaia de costuri ridicate/
anumit post de munc poate oferi condiii fizice beneficii sczute n cmpul muncii. Prima
neprielnice (un nivel termic ridicat al mediului presupune lipsa unei reciprociti ntre angajat
de munc), un salariu mic, cerinele postului i angajator. Aceasta este caracteristic unei
de munc s fie crescute, sau situaii n care angajatul nu are de ales pe
responsabilitile postului de munc s fie slab piaa muncii, abilitile i deprinderile sale, fiind
definite. n ultimele decenii se observ reduse. A doua condiie presupune alegerea
accentul pus pe studierea factorilor de ctre angajat a unei condiii nedrepte fa
psihosociali asociai mediului muncii, ca de el pentru o durat limitat de timp din
determinani ai sntii (Bobak et al., 2003). motive strategice (pentru a promova mai uor
Dou modele au oferit cadrul de n carier i a primi un salariu mai bun mai
cercetare pentru relaia dintre munc i trziu). A treia condiie este reprezentat de
sntate, mai exact influena factorilor nepotrivirea dintre efortul depus al angajatului
psihosociali asociai mediului muncii i i recompensa primit, datorat distorsionrii
sntatea. Acestea sunt: modelul solicitri - de ctre angajat a sarcinilor de munc
control deinut, Job Demand-Control (supraimplicare n munc). Toate aceste
dezvoltat de Karasek ntre anii 1979 i 1990, i situaii au efecte asupra sntii angajatului i
modelul dezechilibru efort-recompens Effort- strii sale de bine ( Siegriest, 2000).
Reward Imbalance Model dezvoltat de Modelul dezechilibrului efort-
Siegriest, n perioada 1996 - 1999 (Bosma et recompens a fost elaborat cu scopul: (1) de a
al. 1998; Marmot et al., 1999; Pikhart et al., identifica condiiile care favorizeaz violarea
2001). reciprocitii n viaa social, (2) de a explica
Studiul de fa a pornit n demersul influena acestora i (3) de a prezice efectele
su investigativ de la perspectiva oferit de negative asupra sntii cauzate de aceste
modelul lui Siegriest, dezechilibru efort- condiii (Siegriest 2002). Situaiile cel mai des
recompens (Siegriest, 2002), care pretinde c ntlnite, alese ca elemente relevante din
un nivel redus de reciprocitate ntre costuri i teorie, sunt cele care descriu modul n care se
beneficii (costuri ridicate/ beneficii sczute) realizeaz reciprocitatea n mediul muncii.
Munca este conceptualizat ca un schimb de
1
costuri i beneficii, cu rol important n
Adresa de coresponden: dezvoltarea individual (venit, statut,
george.otoiu@aphorme.ro
54
Studii i Cercetri
recunoatere, sntate). Costurile sunt privite format din 24 participani de sex masculin i 76
sub forma efortului depus la locul de munc, de sex feminin. Dintre acetia, 63 sunt
iar beneficiile sunt conceptualizate sub form cstorii, 25 sunt necstorii, iar 7 dintre ei
de: bani, recunoatere, oportuniti de sunt divorai, 3 locuiesc cu cineva i n 3
promovare ( Siegriest & Marmot, 2003). cazuri partenerul de via a decedat. n cazul
Mediul muncii studiat n aceast nivelului de colarizare majoritatea au studii
cercetare este reprezentat de nvmntul superioare (57 participani au 16 ani de
preuniversitar, perceput de populaia general colarizare, 19 participani au 17 ani de
ca fiind un mediu n care exist o diferen colarizare, 12 participani au studii
major ntre efortul depus la locul de munc i postuniversitare, iar 10 au doar studii
recompensa primit. Aceast cercetare a avut postliceale i un participant doar studii liceale).
loc la ncheierea anului colar 2004/ 2005, Un numr ridicat dintre participanii la acest
nainte de micrile sindicale din toamna studiu predau la ciclul gimnazial (51). La liceu
anului 2005. predau 36 dintre participani, iar 13 predau att
Pentru personalul din instituiile de la ciclul gimnazial ct i liceal. Vechimea n
nvmnt drepturile salariale se stabilesc cmpul muncii variaz ntre 0 i 39 ani.
conform prevederilor Legii nr. 128/1997 privind
Statutul personalului didactic, cu modificrile i Instrumente
completrile ulterioare. Prevederile legale Factorii psihosociali ai cmpului muncii
referitoare la salarizarea personalului didactic au fost msurai folosind Chestionarul
arat c valoarea salariului depinde mai mult dezechilibrului efort - recompens (Effort-
de vechime, calificri obinute i desfurarea Reward Imbalance Questionnaire). Acest
de activiti administrative, dect de calitile chestionar are n structura sa patru constructe:
pedagogice i de performanele privind efort, recompens, dezechilibru efort-
activitatea didactic. Creterile salariale se recompens i supraimplicare.
datoreaz nu att creterii salariului brut ci, Efortul extrinsec este msurat prin 5
mai cu seam, creterii sporurilor salariale. itemi care se refer la cerinele mediului muncii
Sporurile de care beneficiaz cadrele didactice (ERI1-ERI62). Rspunsul la aceste afirmaii se
sunt urmtoarele: indemnizaie pentru mediu face n dou trepte. Prima dat participanii
rural, spor vechime, salariul de merit, premiul sunt rugai s se pronune dac sunt, sau nu
anual, premiul lunar, gradaie de merit, spor de acord cu afirmaia (ea descrie o experien
titlu tiinific, spor pentru suprasolicitare tipic de munc). n pasul al doilea,
neuropsihic, indemnizaie pentru funcia de participanii care au rspuns afirmativ sunt
diriginte, spor de stabilitate, indemnizaie de rugai s se pronune n ce msur se simt
conducere, plata cu ora, cumul de funcii, stresai de aceast experien. Evaluarea se
prima de instalare de care beneficiaz un face n felul urmtor: (1) nu se aplic, (2) se
cadru didactic la angajarea ntr-o unitate de aplic, dar nu se simt stresai, (3) se aplic i
nvmnt conform Raportului de audit cu participanii se simt stresai de aceast
privire la performana sistemului de salarizare, experien, (4) se aplic i participanii se
ntocmit de Curtea de Conturi a Romniei consider stresai de experien, (5) se aplic
(2002). i participanii se consider foarte stresai de
Obiectivul acestei cercetri a fost de a experien. n final se calculeaz suma
observa dac exist un dezechilibru ntre evalurilor care poate lua valori ntre 5 i 25.
efortul depus la locul de munc i recompensa Cu ct scorul este mai mare cu att exist mai
primit n cadrul categoriei profesionale mult efort extrinsec la locul de munc raportat
reprezentate de profesorii din nvmntul de subiect.
preuniversitar i dac se poate vorbi despre Recompensa la locul de munc este
influena acestuia asupra evoluiei strii msurat prin 11 itemi (ERI7-ERI17). Acest
generale de sntate. construct are o structur compus din 3 factori
(Siegrist et al., 2004). Aspectele financiare i
METODOLOGIE cele legate de statut reprezint primul factor
(ERI11, ERI 14, ERI16-ERI17). Al doilea factor
Participani
n acest studiu s-a folosit un eantion 2
ERI s-a utilizat aceast prescurtare a
compus din 100 de persoane (N=100):
numelui chestionarului Effort Reward
profesori ncadrai n nvmntul
Imbalance pentru a putea indica itemii
preuniversitar din mediul urban, cu vrsta corespunztori fiecrui construct din structura
cuprins ntre 23 i 62 de ani. Eantionul este chestionarului
55
este reprezentat de reputaia i stima obinut care) n funcie de gender i rolul de gen ales,
la locul de munc (ERI17-ERI10, ERI15). Al vrst, statut socioeconomic i categoria
treilea factor (ERI12-ERI13) este securitatea ocupaional (Siegriest et al 2004).
locului de munc vzut ca o gratificare. Starea de sntate general a fost
Ultimele cercetri confirm aceast structur i evaluat printr-un singur item: "n general, ai
atrag atenia asupra importanei segmentrii putea spune c sntatea dumneavoastr din
acestei dimensiuni (van Vegchel, de Jonge, ultimele 12 luni a fost: 1=foarte bun/ bun;
Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2002). Evaluarea se face 2=nici bun nici rea; 3=precar/ foarte
analog cu efortul extrinsec, (1) nu se aplic, (2) proast; s-a operaionalizat starea de
se aplic, dar nu se simt stresai, (3) se aplic sntate general printr-un singur item pentru
i participanii se simt stresai de aceast a fi n concordan cu cercetrile efectuate cu
experien, (4) se aplic i participanii se scopul de a studia influena stresului
consider stresai de experien, (5) se aplic ocupaional asupra sntii, cercetri
i participanii se consider foarte stresai de realizate de ctre Siegrist i colaboratorii si.
experien. Un scor de 11 reprezint un nivel
ridicat de distres i o recompens sczut i Procedur
vice versa. Informaiile au fost colectate folosind
Dezechilibrul efort-recompens: chestionarul autoaplicat. Preliminar, s-a fcut
Pentru a realiza acest raport se trece scorul un instructaj cu participanii, n care s-a
obinut pentru dimensiunea efort la numrtor explicat importana completrii chestionarului
i scorul obinut pentru recompens la numitor, i modul de completare. Au fost aplicate 120
urmnd ca ulterior s fie nmulit cu un factor de chestionare, dintre care 100 au fost valide
de corecie pentru a ajusta numrul inegal de i s-au folosit la analiz. Restul de 20
itemi (Peter et al., 1998). chestionare au prezentat neclariti sau nu au
Supraimplicarea este msurat pe o fost completate n ntregime.
scal de tip Likert de 4 puncte (dezacord total,
dezacord, acord i acord total) i este REZULTATE
compus din 6 itemi (OC1-OC63). Itemul OC3
este codat invers. n cazul caracteristicilor mediului
Fidelitate. Consistena intern, psihosocial al muncii se observ c
respectiv coeficientul Alpha Cronbach calculat participanii depun un efort ridicat la locul de
n cercetrile anterioare s-a aflat n intervalul munc, media fiind de 15.63 (intervalul de
0.61-0.91 (efort 0.61-0.88; recompens 0.70- valori este de 6-30). n schimb, din punct de
0.91; supraimplicare (0.64-0.81) (Siegriest & vedere al modalitii de recompensare,
Peter, 1999b). n cazul de fa indicii de participanii sunt mulumii de mediul muncii,
consisten intern Alpha Cronbach sunt: considerndu-l gratificator, cu o singur
efort=0.77, recompens= 0.70 i supraimpli- excepie - grila de salarizare (asupra acestui
care n munc= 0.72. element vom reveni pe parcurs). Valoarea
Validitatea de construct a fost mediei este de 47.53, valoare ce presupune,
explorat folosind n paralel, n investigare, conform autorilor modelului, un nivel crescut
modelul cerine control (demand-control de distres. La efectuarea raportului efort-
model), elaborat de Karasek (Karasek et al, recompens s-a observat c participanii la
1979) i modelul dezechilibrului efort acest studiu nu se afl n grupul de risc
recompens (Siegriest 1996). A fost studiat crescut, media eantionului (0.18) fiind mai
asocierea dintre efortul la locul de munc i mic de 1, valoare ce discrimineaz ntre
cerinele locului de munc, i cea dintre grupurile cu risc crescut (valori >1) i grupuri
recompens i control. Corelaiile dintre efortul cu risc sczut (valori <=1). Din punct de
la locul de munc i cerinele locului de munc vedere al implicrii n munc s-a observat
au variat ntre r = 0.32 i r = 0.50. n cazul faptul c 35% dintre respondeni au fost de
relaiei dintre control i recompens, corelaia acord cu afirmaiile care presupuneau un nivel
a fost n jurul valorii de 0.20. Acest lucru crescut de implicare, ns media eantionului
evideniaz clar diferenierea constructelor este de 2.43. Acest rezultat indic un nivel
(Siegriest & Peter, 1999b). mediu de implicare n munc raportat de
Validitate discriminativ. Mai multe participani, nivel care nu le influeneaz starea
investigaii au descoperit diferene de sntate. Pentru acest construct se
semnificative (efort, recompens, supraimpli- utilizeaz i codarea dihotomic a
rspunsurilor (valorile de 1 i 2 devin 0, iar 3 i
3
OC se refer la dimensiunea over commitment
56
Studii i Cercetri
4 devin 1, valoarea 1 reprezint un grup de acest studiu nu se afl n grupul de risc pentru
risc pentru sntate) (Marmot et.al., 1999). evoluia strii de sntate; s-a observat un
Chiar dac n urma acestui studiu nivel crescut de distres fa de nivelul
participanii nu prezint un risc pentru salariului; 11% dintre participani raporteaz
sntate, s-a observat un nivel crescut de propria stare de sntate general ca fiind
distres fa de nivelul salariului. proast, precar.
Observnd aceste diferene, ne-am Rezultatele obinute nu sugereaz faptul
propus s analizm msura n care acestea c se poate vorbi despre condiiile
sunt semnificative din punct de vedere psihosociale asociate mediului muncii ca
statistic. S-a aplicat testul t pentru eantioane predictor asupra strii de sntate n cadrul
independente, pentru a vedea dac exist o acestei categorii profesionale. Acest lucru se
diferen semnificativ din punct de vedere poate datora mai multor factori. Unul dintre ei
statistic n funcie de vrsta participanilor. poate fi reprezentat de diferenele culturale. n
Pentru primul eantion am luat n considerare cadrul mai multor cercetri se sugereaz
intervalul de vrst cuprins ntre 20 i 29 de existena unor diferene ntre cercetrile
ani, iar pentru al doilea, intervalul de vrst efectuate n ri europene aflate n tranziie i
cuprins ntre 50 i 59 de ani. n urma aplicrii cele cu un context socio-economic stabil. Cu
testului t, avnd drept criteriu vrsta toate acestea, unele studii nu confirm aceste
participanilor, s-au observat diferene cercetri (Hasselhorn et al., 2004). Un alt
semnificative ntre eantioane, t(51) =2.05, p < factor ce poate contribui la obinerea acestor
.01. rezultate este caracterul subiectiv al cercetrii.
Considerm aceste rezultate fireti, Modul de msurare este propria apreciere a
datorit realitii sistemului de nvmnt participanilor asupra conceptelor investigate.
preuniversitar, n care salarizarea personalului n cazul analizrii rezultatelor obinute
didactic arat c scala de salarizare a acestora n literatura de specialitate, de ctre ali autori
depinde preponderent de o serie de aspecte se observ c rezultatele pozitive provin din
precum vechimea, calificrile obinute i studii prospective de mare amploare, precum
desfurarea de activiti administrative. studiul Whitehall II, n Marea Britanie (Bosma
Participanii la acest studiu aveau un salariu et al, 1997). Din punct de vedere metodologic
mai mare datorit vechimii n munc i multe dintre investigaii sunt trans-secionale,
diverselor sporuri obinute. Creterile salariale neoferind informaii despre cauzalitatea
se datoreaz nu att creterii salariului brut, ci relaiilor dintre caracteristicile muncii i starea
mai cu seam, creterii sporurilor de sntate (van Vegchel et al., 2005).
Chiar dac nu mai puin de jumtate n cazul cercetrii de fa, chiar dac
dintre respondeni se declar mulumii de la prima vedere nvmntul preuniversitar
starea general de sntate, nu s-a observat o pare un mediu n care exist un dezechilibru
asociere semnificativ ntre componentele ntre efortul depus la locul de munc i
mediului psihosocial al muncii i starea recompensa obinut, participanii la acest
general de sntate r(98) = .29, p < .01 care studiu tind s reduc aceast discrepan
s ndrepteasc continuarea demersului printr-o implicare direct proporional cu
analitic. Mai mult de jumtate dintre recompensa primit, considernd mediul
participanii la acest studiu i raporteaz muncii ca fiind stresant i supus unui consum
starea de sntate general ca fiind nici bun nervos ridicat i care predispune la plafonare.
nici rea (46%) i proast, precar (11%). Se reduce astfel riscul pentru dezvoltarea unor
Acest fenomen se poate datora pe de afeciuni somatice datorate stresului
o parte acumulrii de boli i simptome ocupaional.
insuficient tratate i de condiii nesntoase de Cazul particular reprezentat de nivelul
via (Bban 1998), dar nu neaprat de crescut de distres fa de nivelul salariului n
influena componentelor mediului psihosocial cazul cercetrii de fa poate fi explicat prin
al muncii. prisma recunoaterii ca recompens pentru
munca prestat doar a salariului i mai puin a
DISCUII I CONCLUZII altor recompense cum ar fi: recunoatere,
oportuniti de promovare, securitatea locului
Concluziile acestui studiu pot fi de munc, oportuniti de dezvoltare. Acest
sumarizate astfel: nu exist o asociere lucru se regsete i n cadrul altor categorii
semnificativ pozitiv ntre dezechilibrul efort- profesionale care sunt motivate doar de
recompens la locul de munc i starea de recompensele materiale sub form de bani
sntate general raportat; participanii la oferite de angajator.
57
Prevalena ridicat a stresului Marmot M. (2001). Psychosocial work
ocupaional n rndul angajailor, poate characteristics and self-rated health in four
conduce spre asocierea acestuia cu tulburri post-communist countries. Journal of
fizice i psihice. Organizaiile sunt afectate de Epidemiology and Community Health, 55,
aceste efecte asupra sntii, deoarece ele 624 - 630
se transpun n: absenteism, schimbare de Siegrist, J., & Peter, R., (1999a) The model of
carier, productivitate sczut etc. Scopul effort-reward imbalance. Short description
acestei cercetri a fost s investigheze msura of the model. Preluat de pe site-ul
n care exist un dezechilibru ntre efortul http://www.uni-
depus la locul de munc i recompensa duesseldorf.de/MedicalSociology/eri/theori
primit, care s aib repercusiuni asupra e/htm
sntii i a strii de bine a angajailor. Datele Siegrist, J., & Peter, R., (1999b) The model of
obinute nu confirm aceast ipotez. effort-reward imbalance. Statistical
Information., Preluat de pe site-ul
BIBLIOGRAFIE http://www.uni-
duesseldorf.de/MedicalSociology/eri-
Bban, A. (1998). Stres i personalitate. Cluj- save/statistical_information.htm
Napoca: Presa universitar clujean, Siegrist, J., (2002). Effort-reward imbalance at work
Bobak, M., Pikhart, H., Pajak, A., Malyutina, S., and health. n P. L. Perrewe & D. C.
Kubinova, R., Topor, R., Sebakova,H., Ganster (Ed.). Historical and current
Nikitin, Y., Marmot, M., (2003). perspectives on stress and health (pp 261
Psychosocial factors at work and 291), Amsterdam: JAI Elsevier.
depression in three countries of Central Siegrist, J., (2000). Place, social exchange and
and Eastern Europe, Social Science & health: proposed sociological framework,
Medicine, 1-13. Social Science & Medicine, 1283-1293
Bosma H., Marmot M.G., Hemingway H., Nicholson Siegrist, J., Marmot, M., (2003). Health inequalities
A.C., Brunner E., Stansfeld S.A., (1997). and the psychosocial environment two
Low job control and the risk of coronary scientific challenges, Social Science &
heart disease in the Whitehall II Medicine, 1-20
(prospective cohort) study, British Medicine Siegrist, J., Starke, D., Chandola, T., Godin, I.,
Journal, 314, 558-564. Marmot, M., Niedhammer, I., & Peter, R.
Bosma, H., Peter, R., Siegrist, J., & Marmot, M. (2004). The measurement of effortreward
(1998). Two alternative job stress models imbalance at work: European comparisons.
and the risk of coronary heart disease. Social Science & Medicine, 58, 1483
American Journal of Public Health, 88, 68- 1499.
74. van Vegchel, N., de Jonge, J., Bosma, H. &
Marmot M, Siegrist J. & Theorell T., & Feeney, A. Schaufeli, W., (2005) Reviewing the effort
(1999): Health and the psychosocial reward imbalance model: drawing up the
environment at work. n: Marmot & balance of 45 empirical studies, Social
Wilkinson (Ed). Social Determinants of Science & Medicine, 60, 11171131.
Health (pp 97-130). Oxford: Oxford van Vegchel, N., de Jonge, J., Bakker, A. B., &
University Press Schaufeli, W. B. (2002). Testing global and
Peter R., Alfredsson L., Hammar N., Siegrist J., specific indicators of rewards in the Effort
Theorell T. & Westerholm P. (1998) High Reward Imbalance Model: does it make
effort, low reward, and cardiovascular risk any difference? European Journal of Work
factors in employed Swedish men and and Organizational Psychology, 11 (4),
women: baseline results from the WOLF 403421.
Study. Journal of Epidemiological and
Community Health 52, 540-547.
Pikhart H., Bobak M., Siegrist J., Pajak A., Rywik S.,
Kyshegyi J., Gostautas A., Skodova Z. &
58
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Abstract
1
INTRODUCTION Apart from these external sources of
diversity, there are internal organizational
Workforce in contemporary strategic actions to increase diversity in order
organizations is becoming more and more to get a competitive advantage (Thomas & Ely,
diverse. There are several external sources for 1996). Contemporary organizations want to
organizational diversity. A first source of become competitive and in order to do so they
diversity is that in this globalization era, attract the best employees with various
organizations often operate in more than one backgrounds (e.g., expertise, education).
country and compete on several emerging Therefore, organizational diversity is
markets (Robinson & Dechant, 1997). Such a continuously increased both by external as
modern organization operating in several well as internal factors. Diversity is a
countries has to find effective integration fundamental form of organizational
mechanisms for the cultural and social differentiation (Scott, 2003); therefore
differentiation that exists among its employees. organizations have to find effective integration
A second source of diversity is represented by mechanisms and to rise to the challenge of
the complex societal dynamics and especially successfully managing diversity.
the accentuated immigration taking place in Robinson and Dechant (1996)
the United States of America (Portes, 1997; identified several business related reasons for
Robinson & Dechant, 1997) as well as in managing diversity. The first reason is related
Europe (Cureu, Stoop & Schalk, in press; to cost saving. Organizational diversity has
McLaren, 2003). In well developed countries, several negative consequences such as:
immigrants are therefore an ever increasing higher turnover and absenteeism rates, lower
source of differentiation within organizations. A employees satisfaction and motivation
third external source of diversity is the (Milliken & Martins, 1996), and a higher
continuous effort to legally ensure equality in number of lawsuits related to discrimination
rights among the employees of different (e.g., sexual harassment, racial discrimination)
backgrounds (Coil & Rice, 1993). These legal (Robinson & Dechant, 1996). Therefore,
efforts increase the access of minorities (e.g., organizations should effectively mange the
racial) or less represented social groups (e.g., negative consequences of diversity in order to
women, older employees) into different save costs. A second reason for managing
organizations. diversity is related to business growth.
Diversity has its positive effects and it helps
the organization to increase its marketplace
1
understanding, to be more creative and
Adresa de coresponden: innovative, to make better decisions and find
p.l.curseu@uvt.nl
59
better solutions to problems and at the same SOCIAL CATEGORIZATION THEORY AND
time to build effective inter-organizational THE DISCRIMINATION AND FAIRNESS
relationships in the global economy. PARADIGM
Consequently, due to its positive effects,
organizational diversity is a major driver of The first paradigm for managing
business growth and should be managed diversity in organizational settings described
properly. Finally, a third reason for by Thomas and Ely (1996) is the discrimination
implementing effective management practices and fairness paradigm. According to the
for diversity is the race for talent. authors, this is the dominant way of
Organizations nowadays want to attract, retain understanding and managing diversity.
and promote the best employees, and this Managers look at the diversity related issues
means that they have to look into different through the lenses of compliance to the legal
demographic groups. Excellence in human requirements for equal opportunity, fair
resource practices that create the best place to treatment at work, and unbiased selection and
work for these demographic groups (e.g., recruitment. A central managerial concern
women, racial minorities) creates a competitive according to this approach is to respect the
advantage in the race for talent (Robinson & legal requirements associated with the above
Dechant, 1996). mentioned issues, to make sure that the
There are several approaches in the company achieves its recruitment and
literature on diversity management practices in selection goals (e.g., in terms of number of
organizations (Maxwell, Blair & McDougall, disabled people and minority groups
2001; Thomas & Ely, 1996). The paper starts members). Usually, bureaucratic organizations
from the taxonomy of diversity management with tight control processes are prone to use
approaches proposed by Thomas and Ely this approach in managing diversity. These
(1996). They distinguish between three organizations tend to promote a fair treatment
paradigms for managing diversity in of their employees through top down directives
organizations: (1) the discrimination and and use mentoring and career development
fairness paradigm, (2) the access and programs in order to make the adaptation of
legitimacy paradigm and (3) the value in their employees smoother. Therefore, they
diversity paradigm. Abrahamson (1996) promote diversity, but often diversity comes
argued that there is a close relationship with a price and it contradicts the main
between management practices and scientific assumption on which this paradigm is based,
theoretical developments and the two co- namely that all people are equal. The
evolve in a close relationship. With respect to members of highly diverse organizational
diversity management practices, no clear groups are less satisfied, less committed to the
efforts were made to explore the extent to group and the probability of absenteeism and
which these approaches are related to the turnover is higher than in homogeneous
main theoretical trends in the organizational groups (Cureu, 2006; Jackson, Joshi &
diversity literature. The aim of this paper is to Erhardt, 2003; Milliken & Martins, 1996;
review the main approaches used by Williams & OReilly, 1998). Also, the
organizations to manage diversity and explore occurrence of interpersonal conflict is higher in
the extent to which these approaches are these heterogeneous groups due to social
related to the diversity theories advanced in categorization processes (Jackson, Joshi &
the scientific literature. It will be argued that the Erhardt, 2003; Jehn, Northcraft & Neale,
theoretical roots of managerial practices that 1999). In the discrimination and fairness
emerged from the discrimination and fairness paradigm, management interventions are also
paradigm are the theoretical propositions of targeted at reducing these negative effects of
social categorization theory. Another argument diversity. An illustrative example is the diversity
is that the practices associated with the access awareness training, which will be discussed
and legitimacy paradigm can be associated to later on. What is obvious in this approach of
the propositions of the similarity attraction diversity management is the emphasis on
theory. Finally, the closing argument is that the managerial actions that foster the equality and
newest approach in managing diversity (value fair treatment of employees. Even though in
in diversity) is rooted in the cognitive resource the more practical literature, this association
diversity theory. was not explicitly made (see for example
Maxwell, Blair & McDougall, 2001 and Thomas
& Ely, 1996), it is clear that all these measures
aim at reducing the negative effects of social
60
Studii i Cercetri
61
Hilton & Hippel, 1996). The above mentioned for managing diversity, the diversity awareness
elements should be combined with training should be a component of a more
opportunities for the group members to form general recruitment, development or promotion
an accurate impression about the other plan to be implemented in the organization.
members in the group. The group members The diversity awareness training will not be
should also explore the rewards of interacting effective if it is not directly tied to the business
with diverse others, like new ways of thinking, strategy and policies of the company. Third,
learning about others, combining different before conducting the training itself, a proper
perspectives on the problem. The training training needs assessment should be
should increase the group members conducted. A training needs analysis will help
awareness about the natural tendency to the employees to understand the value of
distance themselves from people who appear diversity awareness training and the trainers to
different and also increase the group tailor the training in order to achieve optimal
members awareness about the stereotypes results. Fourth, in order to obtain the best
is there any good evidence that the results, qualified diversity trainers should be
stereotypes are accurate? The increased used. Effective diversity awareness trainers
awareness on the use of stereotypes are expected to have sound professional and
increases the control over their automatic academic skills, as well as personal and
activation (see for details Hamilton & Sherman, interpersonal skills. Fifth, diversity awareness
1994; Hilton & Hippel, 1996). The trainees training is more effective if the attendance is
should be trained to avoid jumping to the mandatory and all employees with a stake on
conclusion that the different others will not like diversity are involved in the training. Finally,
you or judge you because you are different. A confidentiality should be guaranteed in order to
good solution is to stimulate the direct contact build trust, but at the same time, the training
between the group members, and the search should require accountability, especially
for communalities - this will (eventually) because it can require group members to have
decrease the perceived differences direct interpersonal contact with members of
(Robertson, Kulik & Pepper, 2001). However, other social and demographic groups (for more
intergroup contact should not be taken as a details see Koonce, 2001; Roberson, Kulik &
golden rule in diversity training, since the Pepper, 2001; Wentling & Palma-Rivas, 1999).
results concerning the advantages of diverse
training groups are mixed (Cureu, Stoop & THE SIMILARITY-ATTRACTION
Schalk, in press). Diverse training groups HYPOTHESIS AND THE ACCESS AND
(facilitating intergroup contact) are especially LEGITIMACY PARADIGM
effective when the organizations want to
change employee attitudes and the trainees The second paradigm for managing
have not been involved before in diversity diversity described by Thomas and Ely (1996)
related trainings (see for details Robertson, is the access and legitimacy paradigm. It
Kulik & Pepper, 2001). emerged in the competitive climate of the
Wentling and Palma-Rivas (1999), as 1980s and 1990s, when organizations had to
well as Koonce (2001) analyzed the expand their business and capture different
effectiveness of diversity awareness trainings market sectors. On the other hand, other
and they agreed that the most successful markets emerged in the global economy and
diversity awareness trainings share a few suddenly, in order to stay competitive,
characteristics. The first and most important organizations had to expand to these new
one refers to obtaining the commitment and emerging markets. However, the knowledge
support from top management. In order for the and expertise embedded in organizations was
diversity training to succeed, it is needed that not always sufficient to make the organization
the companys CEO and top management effective on the new market sectors.
would enunciate the importance of diversity as Therefore, new employees, usually with
a business value for the organization and extensive knowledge and expertise related to
communicate throughout the organization why the new market sector, had to be attracted in
the diversity training is offered. Second, the order to foster effectiveness. Thomas and Ely
diversity training should be embedded in a (1996) give the illustrative example of Access
larger organizational strategic plan and it Capital International (a US investment bank),
should be associated with other diversity which at the beginning of the 1980s expanded
management practices or initiatives. In line to the European markets. However, American
with the discrimination and fairness paradigm employees that were sent overseas were often
62
Studii i Cercetri
ignorant of local European cultures and so the interactions are more rewarding and desirable
company encountered great difficulties with (Horwitz, 2005; Williams & OReilly, 1998).
this expansion. As a consequence, the Similar individuals also seem to develop very
company started to hire Europeans that fast a shared language and manage to
attended American business schools and they communicate more effectively than dissimilar
ensured the success of ACI in Europe. The ones (Wiersma & Bantel, 1992).
newly hired people established firm As a conclusion, according to the
connections within the European banking similarity attraction hypothesis, organizational
industry, as well as strong interpersonal diversity increases the chances of the
connections with customers. In the American organization to be perceived as legitimate and
context, law firms often hire lawyers coming gain access in different market sectors through
from minority groups (e.g., Mexicans) in order the fact that employees share similar traits and
to gain access to these minority groups. experiences with the clients in a particular
Therefore, the second approach of managing market niche. However, the only diversity
diversity relies on attracting diverse people management practices according to the
with extensive knowledge and expertise about access and legitimacy approach are related
a particular market segment within the with attracting relevant employees for a
organization. In this instance, the motivation particular organizational goal. After the aim of
for diversity usually emerges from very the organization is attained, only scarce
immediate and often crisis-oriented needs for attention is paid to the real management of
access and legitimacy (Thomas & Ely, 1996, diversity. Employees might feel exploited and
p. 174). The best way in which access and organizations using this approach to managing
legitimacy is achieved is by selecting diversity have diversified only in those areas
employees that come from the market that interact with a particular market segment
segment targeted by the company. It is (Thomas & Ely, 1996).
therefore the similarity of employees with the
clients that ensures legitimacy and access. As COGNITIVE RESOURCE DIVERSITY
a theoretical background, the access and THEORY AND THE VALUE IN DIVERSITY
legitimacy paradigm is associated with the PARADIGM
similarity attraction hypothesis.
The similarity attraction hypothesis is The value in diversity paradigm is an
inspired both from the social network research approach for managing diversity that emerges
(Ibarra, 1992) and social psychological from the other two paradigms. Organizations
research on interpersonal attraction (Byrne, that initially used one of the two previously
1971). Social network analysis focuses on the discussed paradigms for managing diversity
exploration of the nature of relationships that realize their shortcomings and go a step
develop among the individuals and not on their further in trying to fully use the potential of
feelings, or on the way they process social diversity. For example, the American law firm
information. The similarity among individuals is that hired a Hispanic female in order to get
revealing for the pattern of interactions that will access to the Spanish communities of clients
occur among them. Similar individuals will might end up discovering that she can
have a tendency to interact more frequently contribute to the company much more than
and in a more positive fashion with each other that. Therefore, the organization might start to
than dissimilar ones. This general tendency of value the new perspectives and business
similar actors to develop stronger network ties ideas brought up by the new employee
was labeled in social networks literature as (Thomas & Ely, 1996). The very essence of
homophily (Ibarra, 1992). According to the the value in diversity paradigm and value in
interpersonal attraction theories, if individuals diversity theoretical hypothesis is that an
share several common characteristics (e.g., organization is stronger to the extent to which
belong to the same gender or racial group), it its staff is diversified. This paradigm holds
is very likely that they will be attracted to one especially for the cases in which the primary
another. As a consequence, they will develop task of the organization or the group is a
stronger interpersonal relationships and will cognitive one, or it heavily relies on information
collaborate better (Byrne, 1971; Berscheid & processing.
Walster, 1978). Individuals that are similar are An illustrative example of the value in
very likely to share common experiences and diversity paradigm at work is the case of the
values, to have the same expectations for SLICE (Simple Low-Cost Innovative Concept
social interaction, and therefore the social Engine) team created by Boeing-Rocketdyne
63
to design a new rocket engine (see for a organizational effectiveness and the
detailed case description Malhorta, Majchrzak, fundamental idea is that diverse employees
Carman & Lott, 2001). In the mid 1990s, will contribute with their various knowledge,
Boeing-Rocketdyne was facing a harsh expertise, skills and cognitions to a greater
competition on the extending market of rocket information richness within the organization
engines driven by the need for commercial and this will ultimately be translated into better
launches. Rocket engines had to be built decisions, more creative solutions and more
faster, cheaper, with fewer errors and with a effective plans or organizational actions
longer life time. Therefore, the objective of (Harrison & Klein, in press; Horwitz, 2005;
Boeing-Rocketdyne was to reduce the costs Jackson, Joshi and Erhardt, 2003; Mannix &
for building a rocket engine by 100 times, to Neale, 2005).
get it to the market 10 times faster and The roots of the cognitive resource
increase its life time with a factor of three. In diversity and value in diversity hypothesis are
order to produce the new design, Boeing- to be found in the systemic perspectives on
Rocketdyne created a highly diverse and groups and organizations. The law of requisite
differentiated virtual design team. The variety in systemic schools of thought states
members were the best performers in their that the strength of a social system depends
field in the world and they had the task to on the variety of its agents. The value in
design an engine that would fulfill all the above diversity hypothesis focuses first of all on the
mentioned criteria. Diversity however, came cognitive implications of diversity.
with a price and the members had to work Consequently, empirical support for this
together virtually because they were dispersed hypothesis was found especially in tasks that
in different geographical locations. An effective involve information processing (Ancona &
knowledge management system and a virtual Caldwell, 1992; De Dreu & West, 2001; Jehn,
communication tool had to be used in order to Northcraft, & Neale, 1999; Schruijer, &
make team interactions possible. Using a Mostert, 1997). This is the reason why the
three-folded management strategy based on value in diversity hypothesis is labeled the
strategy setting, technology use and information/decision-making perspective in two
continuous work restructuring, the of the most influential reviews on group
management in Boeing-Rocketdyne created diversity (Van Knippenberg, De Dreu &
the settings for a highly creative team. The Homan, 2004; Williams & OReilly, 1998).
results exceeded the expectations. The design
was ready in 10 months with no team member TENTATIVE CONCLUSIONS
spending more than 15% of his time on the
project, with a manufacturing cost reduction In order to answer the question raised
from an estimated 7 mil USD to 0.5 mil USD, in the title of this paper, we followed a strategy
and a first unit production cost reduction from suggested by Abrahamson (1996) to study
an estimated 4.5 mil USD to 47.000 USD. The management fashion. He argued that the use
new rocket engine design also was superior in of managerial practices follow a certain fashion
a technical sense: it was made of six major and there is a connection between how
components instead of 1200 (as it used to be fashionable a managerial practice is (how
for the previous engines) and with a predicted often it is used in organizations) and the
quality and safety level three times higher than literature published on theoretical aspects
the engines that were in use before (Malhorta related to that particular practice. Abrahamson
et al., 2001). This is an illustrative example of (1996) explored the match between the extent
how diversity can contribute to organizational to which the quality circles as managerial
effectiveness through the considerable variety practices (see total quality management
in cognitive resources brought into the practices) were used in organizations and the
organization by its members. The theoretical number of papers published in the literature on
perspective that covers these issues is the quality control (the print-media indicator).
cognitive resource diversity theory. Similar to Abrahamson (1996), in the present
According to Jackson, Joshi and study the ABI/Inform database was used to
Erhardt (2003), as well as to Mannix and Neale check for scientific papers published on the
(2005), this theoretical stream belongs to the three above described theoretical perspectives
optimistic view on the effects of diversity on on organizational diversity.
organizational performance. This theoretical
approach states that organizational diversity
mainly creates opportunities and benefits for
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Studii i Cercetri
30
Theoretical shape for the use of
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Legend: MP=managerial practices
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1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
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66
Studii i Cercetri
therefore the closest co-evolution with the appropriate one. Most of modern Romanian
scientific literature diversity. organizations are rather young and certainly
In conclusion, there is reasonable have limited experience in operating on a
evidence for a co-evolution between diversity global market, where diversity is an important
management practices and the scientific asset. Formed in a transition economy,
theories on diversity. However, the fit is not organizations have to face rapid economic,
absolute, suggesting that scientific theories are legal and political changes and they have to
only in part related to managerial practices. adapt to these external factors as well as
This does not suggest that theoretical possible in order to survive. If diversity is a
developments drive in any way the managerial competitive advantage in this particular context
practices. As mentioned by Abrahamson as well, this remains an open question.
(1996), the drivers of management fashion are Although diversity in terms of minority groups
to be found in societal and psychological (e.g., ethnic minorities) is an issue that could
factors rather than theoretical developments. draw the attention of Romanian organization
The managerial practices associated with the scholars, to my knowledge no attention has
discrimination and fairness and the value in been paid to this issue so far. Consistent
diversity paradigms seem to co-evolve in a research concerning gender diversity in
closer fit with the scientific theories of diversity. Romanian organizations is however available
However, it is more reasonable to assume that (see for example CPE, 2006; Cureu & Boro,
these practices were driven rather by the large 2004).
antidiscrimination movement that marked most In simulated personnel recruitment
western societies in the 1990s. The interest tasks, Cureu and Boro (2004) showed that
paid by the scientific literature to issues related women are still discriminated when applying
to stereotypes and discrimination can be for managerial positions. These results are
understood as a consequence of the same fully supported by the data reported by a
societal factors that drove the diversity survey conducted by CPE (2006). This survey
management practices. Also, the shape of the was conducted on 695 employees from 43
curve representing the extent to which organizations and showed that 19.83% of the
managerial practices related to access and men and 38.25% of the women believe that
legitimacy are used in modern organizations when a woman makes an application for a
only has a reduced fit with the histogram of the management position, she will be more
published papers on similarity and carefully assessed in comparison to a man. In
interpersonal attraction. This paradigm was general, women reported higher difficulties in
driven by the increased competitive pressure choosing a flexible working schedule, and
on organizations that expanded to different 64.23% of the respondents mentioned that
market sectors. The same pressure to stay or women have more difficulties compared to
become competitive pushed organizations men in their career development. Also, only
toward the third managerial approach to 50% of the companies had explicit sanctions
diversity. This perspective is however more concerning sexual harassment. However, 73%
closely associated to the theoretical of the managers reported that their company
developments in the literature on cognitive uses formal rules against gender based
resource diversity. It became nowadays discrimination in hiring and promotion (CPE,
common wisdom that a diverse workforce is 2006). When looking back at the way
not only inevitable but can (should) also be a employees perceive the situation, these seem
valuable asset for modern organizations. A rather a set of rules and regulations rather than
rather limited interest in diversity management actual managerial practices. To conclude,
is to be encountered in developing countries. although the first steps in diversity
Further on, we focus on the Romanian context management have been made in Romania,
in order to provide a short illustration. (organizations implemented formal rules
against discrimination based on gender), there
HOW DOES DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT is still a long way to go from the legitimacy and
WORK IN THE ROMANIAN CONTEXT? discrimination approach to the value in
diversity philosophy.
Probably the simplest answer to this
question is: it doesnt really work ...yet! Such a
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69
REPREZENTAREA INFORMAIILOR MEDIATIZATE: MODELE PROPUSE DE MASS-MEDIA VS.
MODELE PERSONALE
Ioana David1
UniversitateaBabe-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca
Abstract
The purpose of the present study is to analyze the way in which information transmitted through
mass media is being processed and the representations people make based on them. All this in
the context of a growing interest for the study of human behavior in a social context, for the study
of information processing by individuals and also by groups, and for the study of shared
representations and meanings. This article presents two studies, one on the simultaneous
processing of information, and one on multiple representations of the same piece of information.
The two studies comprised a sample of 138 participants that were asked to build conceptual maps
on different subjects of public interest. The conclusions reached represent an important starting
point for a further analysis of media transmitted information and the way it is being processed.
1
INTRODUCERE i produc anumite semnificaii. Desigur, aceste
cercetri se centreaz pe grupurile formale, n
Capacitatea minii umane de a se principal, care au ca scop rezolvarea de
adapta la nite realiti i de a construi realiti probleme, luarea de decizii.
a fost obiect de studiu pentru psihologie de la Tot de dat recent sunt i
nceputurile acestei tiine. Una dintre preocuprile psihologiei legate de explicarea
realitile contemporane la care trebuie s se comportamentului uman n context cultural
adapteze individul este mass-media. De fapt, (Cohen, 2001; Choi & Nisbett, 1998; Hong et
omul modern trebuie s construiasc nite al., 2003; Ji et al., 2000; Kanagawa et al.,
realiti personale (semnificaii) pentru a se 2001; Briley et al., 2000; Chiu et al., 2000;
putea adapta la aceast realitate care este Morris & Fu, 2001; Knoeles et al., 2001) i a
reprezentat de coninuturile mediatice. Prin modului n care interaciunile sociale creeaz
intermediul mijloacelor de comunicare n mas i menin o cultur, completnd astfel, cu o
avem acces la o serie de mesaje (inclusiv cele baz de date experimentale, empirice,
publicitare) care influeneaz perspectivele explicaiile aduse de-a lungul timpului de
asupra diverselor probleme pe care i le teoriile antropologice mai mult sau mai puin
formeaz fiecare individ. Cercetrile recente generaliste i generalizatoare.
din psihologia cognitiv (Hoshmand, 2005; n aceste condiii, ale creterii
Echterhoff, Higgins & Groll, 2005; Hermans, interesului pentru studierea comportamentului
2004; McAdams, 2001) ncep s aduc (de uman n context social, al mutrii accentului de
fapt s readuc Bruner, 1990) n discuie pe procesarea informaiei de ctre individ pe
problema semnificaiilor pe care le creeaz procesarea informaiei de ctre grupuri i
oamenii n urma interaciunilor cu mediul n construirea de semnificaii mprtite, al
care triesc i n urma interaciunilor dintre ei. omniprezenei mijloacelor de comunicare n
Teoria procesrii informaiilor este mas n viaa social i al coninuturilor mass-
reconsiderat i dezvoltat n vederea media n viaa personal este un demers util i
explicrii unor realiti sociale mai complexe, necesar, cel al abordrii unei problematici
nu doar a funcionrii individuale. Astfel, sunt puin studiate n momentul de fa (cu toate
tot mai multe cercetrile care privesc grupurile implicaiile evidente n viaa cotidian),
ca sisteme de procesare de informaii (Hinsz, problematic ce aparine domeniului
Tindale & Vollrath, 1997; Nonaka & Nishiguchi, psihologiei mass-media i anume: modalitatea
2001), sisteme ce exist ntr-un anumit context de procesare a informaiilor mediatizate i de
formare a reprezentrilor ca urmare a acestor
procesri.
1
Adresa de coresponden:
ioanadavid@yahoo.com
70
Studii i Cercetri
71
determinate de ctre mass-media 1. Prima grup (40 participani) a primit
influeneaz sistemul personal de sarcina, n prima etap, de a face hri
reprezentri al unui individ conceptuale pentru dou seturi de
concepte: primul set corupia n
Romnia, dezastrele naturale i
METOD
inundaiile din Romnia (aadar trei
hri) iar al doilea set: corupia n
Participani
Romnia (aa cum este prezentat de
n aceast cercetare au fost inclui un
mass-media), dezastrele naturale
numr de 77 participani (dintre care 51 femei)
(aa cum sunt prezentate de mass-
cu vrste cuprinse ntre 18 i 58 ani (vrsta
media) i inundaiile din Romnia
medie: 32 ani, abaterea standard: 11,55).
(aa cum sunt prezentate de mass-
Participanii au fost alei aleatoriu i i-au dat
media). n cea de-a doua etap
acordul de a participa la studiu.
participanii au avut de citit dou tiri.
n ceea ce privete studiile: unul dintre
n cea de-a treia etap au avut de
ei era absolvent de coal general, 37
recompletat cele dou seturi (de
absolveni liceu, 2 studii postliceale, 27 dintre
refcut cele ase hri conceptuale, cu
ei absolveni de facultate, 9 absolveni de
posibilitatea de a pstra hrile
studii postuniversitare, iar unul nu a declarat
originare sau de a le modifica dac i
ce studii are. Legat de ocupaiile participanilor:
cum consider de cuviin).
6 dintre acetia au fcut parte din categoria
2. A doua grup (37 participani) a avut
proprietari de firme sau manageri, 38 erau
ca sarcin n prima etap de a face
specialiti n diverse companii sau funcionari,
trei hri conceptuale: corupia n
4 erau omeri, 16 erau studeni iar 15 aveau
Romnia, dezastrele naturale i
alte ocupaii (cadre didactice, artiti, agricultori,
inundaiile din Romnia (aadar trei
etc.). 33 dintre participani erau cstorii, 2
hri). n a doua etap, au primit
divorai, 2 vduvi, 40 necstorii. n ceea ce
aceleai dou tiri pentru a le citi, iar
privete numrul membrilor de familie acesta
n a treia etap, au avut de
variaz de la 1 la 6, cei mai muli fcnd parte
recompletat setul de hri (cu
din familii cu 3 (20 dintre ei) sau 4 (24)
posibilitatea de a le pstra sau reface
membri. Participanii proveneau: 32 din judeul
pe cele din prima etap).
Slaj, 26 din judeul Cluj, 16 din judeul Bihor,
2 din judeul Mure i unul din judeul
Suceava. REZULTATE I DISCUII
72
Studii i Cercetri
modul n care am aplicat aceast metod n Romnia (aa cum este prezentat de mass-
vederea atingerii scopului propus. Aa cum am media)) sau etap (nainte de citirea celor
vzut, fiecare participant a avut de completat dou tiri sau dup citirea celor dou tiri n
hri pe trei teme (trei sau ase hri, n funcie ce fel informaiile din cele dou tiri sunt
de grup; n prima, respectiv cea de-a treia integrate n schemele participanilor).
etap). Aceste hri au fost comparate pentru Diferenele obinute la comparaiile n
fiecare participant n parte n vederea depistrii funcie de instruciune sunt prezentate n
modificrilor operate asupra lor. Ne-a interesat tabelul 1:
aadar dac aceste hri au fost modificate
sau nu, n funcie de instruciune de
exemplu: corupia n Romnia vs. corupia n
Tabelul 1
Diferene ntre hrile cum vd eu problema x vs. cum este prezentat n mass-media problema x
Prima etap A treia etap
1* 2** 3*** 1* 2** 3***
Chi-ptrat 22,500 25,600 22,500 32,400 32,400 28,900
Grade de libertate 1 1 1 1 1 1
Prag de semnificaie .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
*corupia n Romnia vs. corupia n Romnia (aa cum este prezentat de mass-media)
**dezastrele naturale vs. dezastrele naturale (aa cum sunt prezentate de mass-media)
***inundaiile din Romnia vs. inundaiile din Romnia (aa cum sunt prezentate de mass-media)
73
teama de politic, reprezentare. Discutm de mai multe
vorbrie goal, etc. reprezentri legate de aceeai problem, care
coexist n acelai timp, n acelai sistem de
Modelele personale (corupia) pe procesare a informaiei; reprezentri care se
care i le construiesc participanii n legtur influeneaz reciproc i influeneaz restul de
cu aceast tem sunt, ntr-o mare msur, reprezentri existente n sau produse de
rezultatul a ceea ce le este prezentat prin sistemul respectiv.
intermediul mijloacelor de comunicare n Revenind la cercetarea de fa, mai
mas. ns, nainte de a ajunge la aceste trebuie s menionm c analiznd
modele personale, sunt construite nite coninuturile hrilor, nu se constat diferene
modele intermediare referitoare la ce neleg n ceea ce privete tipul conceptelor prezente
ei din ce le este prezentat prin mijloacele de n hrile participanilor din prima i a doua
comunicare n mas (corupia n mass- grup. Astfel, nu sunt prezente deloc referiri la
media). Aadar atunci cnd spunem c un mass-media i influena, importana sau
sistem cognitiv poate s dein mai multe impactul ei n construirea unei imagini publice
modele referitoare la o tem, nu ne referim pe temele luate n studiu la participanii din cea
neaprat c aceste modele se afl la acelai de-a doua grup (care, aa cum am menionat
nivel de procesare al informaiei. Un model n subcapitolul referitor la procedura de lucru,
poate servi ca input pentru o procesare mai nu au primit dect instruciuni de a construi
adnc i pentru construirea altui model pe hri referitoare la corupia din Romnia,
aceeai tem. Acesta ar fi unul din motivele dezastrele naturale sau inundaiile din
pentru care un sistem cognitiv deine mai Romnia). Informaiile prezente n hrile lor
multe modele i mai multe reprezentri legate sunt de aceeai factur ca cele prezente n
de o anumit problem, n acelai timp. hrile de acelai fel ale primei grupe.
Procesarea informaiei (n special cnd este Un alt aspect urmrit a fost acela al
vorba de o realitate att de complex cum este modului n care este integrat informaia dintr-
cea mediatic, deci cnd vorbim de informaii o tire n modelul pe care l are un subiect pe o
sociale, cu caracter contextual, dup cum am anumit tem. Ne-a interesat aadar, dac se
mai menionat) se realizeaz ntr-o manier schimb sau nu acest model, n urma citirii
mai complex dect simpla preluare a unui unor tiri pe teme conexe. Rezultatele sunt
input i transformarea sa ntr-un output, ntr-o prezentate n tabelele urmtoare:
Tabelul 2
Frecvene observate referitoare la schimbarea hrilor n a treia etap fa de prima
1* 2 3 4 5 6
La fel 58 46 51 36 30 31
Modificat 19 31 26 4 10 9
Total 77 77 77 40 40 40
*1. corupia n Romnia
2. dezastrele naturale
3. inundaiile din Romnia
4. corupia n Romnia (aa cum este prezentat de mass-media)
5. dezastrele naturale (aa cum sunt prezentate de mass-media)
6. inundaiile din Romnia (aa cum sunt prezentate de mass-media)
Tabelul 3
Diferenele ntre prima i a treia etap n hrile construite
1* 2 3 4 5 6
Chi-ptrat 19,753 2,922 8,117 25,600 10,000 12,100
Grade de libertate 1 1 1 1 1 1
Prag de semnificaie .000 .087 .004 .000 .002 .001
*1. corupia n Romnia
2. dezastrele naturale
3. inundaiile din Romnia
4. corupia n Romnia (aa cum este prezentat de mass-media)
5. dezastrele naturale (aa cum sunt prezentate de mass-media)
6. inundaiile din Romnia (aa cum sunt prezentate de mass-media)
74
Studii i Cercetri
75
se confrunt indivizii se creeaz astfel de 3. marea corupie din Romnia aa cum
reprezentri multiple i msura n care un este perceput de Uniunea European
subiect de pres poate fi o realitate i poate Cerinele pentru cele trei situaii au
deveni o tem pentru reprezentrile deinute fost:
de sistemele cognitive individuale. n acest 1. Care considerai c este imaginea
sens vom apela din nou la metoda hrilor promovat de mass-media din Romnia n
conceptuale (descris n studiul anterior). legtur cu problema marii corupii n
Romnia? (v rugm s trecei cele mai
importante 10 aspecte)
Obiectivul studiului
2. Care considerai c este imaginea legat
Studierea felului n care existena unor
de marea corupie din Romnia, aa cum
modele jurnalistice diferite, pe aceeai tem,
este perceput ea de societatea
influeneaz modelele personale i determin
romneasc? (tot aa, v rugm s trecei
asimilarea lor la aceste modele personale
cele mai importante 10 aspecte)
3. Care considerai c este imaginea legat
METOD de marea corupie din Romnia, aa cum
este perceput ea de Uniunea
Participani European? (v rugm s trecei cele mai
n aceast cercetare au fost inclui un importante 10 aspecte)
numr de 61 participani, dintre care 40 femei; Participanilor li s-a solicitat s treac
cu vrste cuprinse ntre 18-60 de ani (vrsta cte zece aspecte la fiecare hart dar acest
medie: 29 ani; abaterea standard: 12). Ei au numr nu a fost strict, ei avnd posibilitatea s
fost selectai aleatoriu, exprimndu-i acordul se opreasc la mai puine concepte dac
de a participa la studiu. considerau c nu mai au ce scrie sau s
n ceea ce privete studiile: 29 erau depeasc acest numr, dac doreau.
absolveni liceu, 3 aveau studii postliceale, 9
dintre ei absolveni de facultate, 4
absolveni de studii postuniversitare, iar 6 nu REZULTATE I DISCUII
au declarat ce studii au. Legat de ocupaiile
participanilor: 10 dintre acetia au fcut parte n urma analizei protocoalelor
din categoria proprietari de firme sau participanilor au rezultat un numr de peste
manageri, 18 erau specialiti n diverse 1000 de concepte legate de subiectul marea
companii sau funcionari, 4 erau omeri, 13 corupie. Numrul total de concepte activate
erau studeni iar 18 aveau alte ocupaii (cadre de subiectul marea corupie din Romnia n
didactice, artiti, agricultori, etc.). 25 dintre mass-media a fost de 450, pentru cea de-a
participani erau cstorii, unul divorat, 31 doua hart 430, iar pentru felul n care vede
necstorii iar 5 nu au declarat starea civil. Uniunea European subiectul marii corupii din
n ceea ce privete numrul membrilor de Romnia s-au elaborat 380 concepte. Desigur
familie acesta variaz de la 1 la 9, cei mai c o parte dintre aceste concepte s-au regsit
muli fcnd parte din familii cu 2 (11 dintre ei) n toate cele trei hri (de exemplu: corupia la
sau 4 (16) membri. Participanii erau din Cluj nivelul clasei politice). Cu toate acestea foarte
Napoca, cu excepia a doi dintre ei: unul din puine dintre ele au fost menionate de mai
Media i unul din Bistria. mult de cinci persoane pentru o tem, un tip
de hart.
Instrumente i materiale Menionm c frecvena de apariie a
Au fost utilizate protocoale pentru conceptelor a fost numrat de ctre doi
rspunsul participanilor. evaluatori, n mod independent unul de
cellalt, identificndu-se toate conceptele care
Procedur au fost menionate de cel puin doi participani.
Participanii au avut de construit trei Prezentm n continuare acele
hri conceptuale pe temele: aspecte care au fost menionate de cel puin o
1. marea corupie din Romnia n mass- ptrime din persoanele participante la acest
media studiu.
2. marea corupie din Romnia aa cum
este perceput de societatea romneasc
76
Studii i Cercetri
Tabelul 4
Frecvenele (cele mai mari) observate pentru conceptele din prima hart
mass-media ofer mass-media muamalizeaz mass-media
prea puine informaii cazuri, prezint fals cazurile, corupia - subiect prezint domeniile
despre corupie, e prtinitoare, e corupt, pentru tirile de n care exist
prezint incomplet primeaz interesele scandal, de senzaie, corupie, demasc
fenomenul patronilor de pres pentru rating corupia
prezent 20 40 23 29
absent 41 21 38 32
Total 61 61 61 61
Tabelul 5
Diferene n prezena categoriilor primei hri
mass-media ofer mass-media
prea puine muamalizeaz cazuri, mass-media
informaii despre prezint fals cazurile, e corupia - subiect prezint domeniile
corupie, prezint prtinitoare, e corupt, pentru tirile de n care exist
incomplet primeaz interesele scandal, de senzaie, corupie, demasc
fenomenul patronilor de pres pentru rating corupia
Chi-ptrat 7,230 5,918 3,689 ,148
Prag de
.007 .015 .055 .701
semnificaie
Tabelul 6
Frecvenele (cele mai mari) observate pentru conceptele din cea de-a doua hart
Corupia este oamenii de rnd nu pot diferene ntre
banul face omniprezent, n toate face nimic pentru a clasele/pturile
legea, trebuie domeniile societii, la schimba situaia, exist dificil de sociale din cauza
s dai mit toate nivelurile i nu avem ce face nlturat corupiei
prezent 31 24 22 19 19
absent 30 37 39 42 42
Total 61 61 61 61 61
Tabelul 7
Diferene n prezena categoriilor n cea de-a doua hart
corupia este oamenii de rnd
omniprezent, n nu pot face nimic diferene ntre
banul face toate domeniile pentru a schimba clasele/pturile
legea, trebuie societii, la toate situaia, exist i sociale din cauza
s dai mit nivelurile nu avem ce face dificil de nlturat corupiei
Chi-ptrat ,016 2,770 4,738 8,672 8,672
Prag de
.898 .096 .030 .003 .003
semnificaie
Tabelul 8
Frecvenele (cele mai mari) observate pentru conceptele din cea de-a treia hart
corupia - o problem a imagine negativ a Romniei din corupia amenin integrarea n
Romniei cauza corupiei UE
prezent 19 15 22
absent 42 46 39
Total 61 61 61
Tabelul 9
Diferene n prezena categoriilor n cea de-a treia hart
corupia - o problem a imagine negativ a Romniei din corupia amenin
Romniei cauza corupiei integrarea n UE
Chi-ptrat 8,672 15,754 4,738
Prag de
.003 .000 .030
semnificaie
77
Aadar se poate observa c nici un problema corupiei, acelai subiect avnd
aspect (cu o singur excepie, la prima hart, toate aceste concepte integrate n
faptul c presa e corupt i prtinitoare, p<.05) reprezentarea sa referitoare la fenomenul
nu este menionat de ctre majoritatea marii corupii.
participanilor, ceea ce scoate n eviden
caracterul personal, idiosincratic al CONCLUZII
reprezentrilor pe care le au indivizii legate de
un astfel de subiect. Cu toate acestea se pot Aadar, rezultatele acestei cercetri
identifica anumite aspecte (puine la numr, demonstreaz faptul c o anumit problem
dup cum se poate constata) pe care le propus de mass-media, poate deveni una
menioneaz cel puin o ptrime din foarte real pentru indivizi, n legtur cu care
participanii chestionai, aspecte care probabil s proceseze o serie de informaii i s-i
sunt mai evidente, mai accentuate, n formeze diverse reprezentri, cu toate c i
contextul cultural romnesc. afecteaz mai mult sau mai puin n
Ceea ce se poate constata este faptul experienelor lor cotidiene. De asemenea, am
c aceste concepte, cel mai frecvent confirmat i teza noastr conform creia putem
menionate de participani, sunt diferite pentru s deinem mai multe reprezentri, n acelai
cele trei hri. Aadar, alte concepte sunt timp, n legtur cu o singur tem, iat, chiar
menionate cnd participanii trebuie s i atunci cnd aceast tem nu este legat n
prezinte marea corupie din punct de vedere mod nemijlocit de viaa noastr i de
al imaginii ei n mass-media; altceva este preocuprile noastre cotidiene.
menionat cnd trebuie s caracterizeze Desigur, se pune ntrebarea la ce
acelai fenomen, dar din punct de vedere al folosesc aceste reprezentri multiple legate
modului n care este perceput de societatea de un subiect, de o tem, de un concept.
romneasc (imagine care, de altfel, tot de Pentru ce un sistem cognitiv ar irosi energie
mass-media a fost construit n mare parte, ncercnd s-i formeze astfel de reprezentri
individul neputnd verifica direct cum vede multiple dac nu ar avea la ce s le utilizeze?
societatea romneasc fenomenul corupiei) Rspunsul la aceste ntrebri este acela c de
i o imagine diferit este prezentat atunci fapt sistemul cognitiv uman folosete aceste
cnd este vorba de a reliefa fenomenul din reprezentri pentru a se adapta la un mediu
punct de vedere al percepiei Uniunii Europene cultural complex, la nite interaciuni sociale
(i aceasta fiind, de altfel, tot o construcie diverse, n care nu este suficient un singur tip
mediatic; i aici individul neavnd informaii de reprezentare legat de un concept ci mai
directe despre cum vede Uniunea European degrab e nevoie de reprezentri multiple i
marea corupie din Romnia o parte dintre flexibile care s ajute la explicarea realitii i
ei chiar menionnd n hrile lor acest aspect: la rezolvarea eficient de probleme de ctre
avem informaii doar din mass-media despre individ. Un individ cu o singur reprezentare pe
prerea UE). i cu toate acestea, cu toate c, o anumit problem (de natur social,
practic toate cele trei imagini pe care le avem relaional, de interaciune inter-uman) nu ar
asupra unui fenomen precum marea corupie putea face fa complexitii mediului social n
n Romnia sunt construcii mediatice, care triete. Aceste reprezentri multiple pe
acestea nu sunt identice i nu vorbim de o care le deine l ajut s i explice situaiile
singur imagine atunci cnd vorbim de un sociale complexe, schimbrile de situaie,
singur individ care are aceast imagine (mai elementele noi care apar n astfel de situaii.
corect aceste imagini). Ba mai mult, apar Dac un sistem cognitiv (individ sau grup) ar
concepte specifice atunci cnd se vorbete de avea o singur reprezentare (legat de o
o anumit perspectiv (mass-media, tem) pe care s trebuiasc s o modifice de
societatea romneasc, UE), concepte care nu fiecare dat cnd apare o nou situaie sau o
se rentlnesc i n celelalte dou hri nou informaie ar consuma mult mai mult
propuse de fiecare subiect. Aadar, atunci energie; n vreme ce existena unor
cnd, de exemplu, societatea romneasc se reprezentri variate pe o anumit problem
gndete la corupie (harta doi) i se pare c permite adaptarea flexibil i ofer resurse
oricum banul face legea i dac vrei s multiple pentru interaciunile sociale.
trieti bine trebuie s dai mit, dar atunci
cnd e vorba de UE (harta trei din cercetarea
noastr) apare ideea conform creia corupia
stric imaginea Romniei i trebuie rezolvat
78
Studii i Cercetri
79
Linton, R. (1989). Conceptualizing feminism: Lucrare prezentat la Conferina Anual a
Clarifying social science concepts. Asociaiei de Evaluare American, Seattle,
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http://cmap.coginst.uwf.edu/info.
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expectations of inpatient mental health
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mapping to compare organizational visions
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80
Psihologie Militar
Dorina I. Coldea
SNSPA Bucureti
Abstract
Perhaps no other institution has been inextricably linked with the development of psychology as
the military, and especially the U.S. military services. These services were in the forefront of the
development of systematic task, job and occupational information and in the use of such
information in selection, classification, placement, training and performance appraisal. This article
tries to make some evaluations of the military occupational analysis and job analysis
methodologies, focused on the American developments.
81
personalului militar i mai puin pentru analiza Analiza muncii orientat pe sarcini
muncii, situaie care s-a schimbat odat cu aplicat n cadrul forelor militare americane i
ncetarea acestuia. a celor aliate (canadieni i australieni) i are
Astfel, n 1946, C.L. Shartle, originea n abordarea lui Flanagan. Analiza
coordonatorul Programului de Analiz ocupaional n domeniul militar se bazeaz tot
Ocupaional pn la nceperea celui de-al pe un model linear, cumulativ, n care
doilea rzboi mondial, a solicitat crearea unui performana general n munc este
centru naional pentru analiza muncii, considerat suma performanelor la anumite
considernd c, pentru obinerea unor sarcini. Att modelul lui Flanagan, ct i
informaii corespunztoare despre posturile de abordarea bazat pe sarcini folosit de
munc i pentru optimizarea utilizrii acestora, serviciile militare americane nu au un caracter
era necesar o abordare integrat, sistemic general, ele sunt orientate pe ocupaii,
(Mitchell & Driskill, 1996). deoarece fiecare specialitate, sau ocupaie,
n 1949, Departamentul Aprrii al prezint un set particular de sarcini, sau
SUA a solicitat iniierea unui studiu al crui activiti de munc.
obiectiv era determinarea celor mai potrivite
metodologii i tehnici de analiz a muncii i de METODE DE ANALIZ A MUNCII
evaluare a posturilor de munc pentru ORIENTATE PE POSTUL DE MUNC
domeniul militar, astfel nct posturile din
cadrul Forelor Terestre, Forelor Aeriene i Metodele orientate pe sarcini s-au
Forelor Navale s se poat raporta la o dovedit deosebit de utile pentru organizaiile
structur unic. militare. Pe baza informaiilor obinute de
Anii '50 aduc n atenia specialitilor acestea s-au putut identifica sarcinile realizate
metoda inventarelor de sarcini i tehnica de cei mai muli ocupani ai posturilor
incidentelor critice. La sfritul anului 1957, ncadrate ntr-o anumit specialitate militar.
comanda Forelor Aeriene ale SUA a ordonat Astfel de sarcini comune au prezentat interes
realizarea unui proiect de cercetare n cadrul ndeosebi din perspectiva programelor de
Laboratorului de Cercetare a Personalului iniiere i de formare a deprinderilor de baz.
(devenit astzi Directoratul pentru Resurse n ceea ce privete sarcinile realizate doar de
Umane al Laboratorului Armstrong), care s-a un segment din populaia ce acoper o
finalizat dup 10 ani, odat cu implementarea anumit specialitate militar, acestea au fost i
unui program operaional de analiz a muncii sunt pregtite n cadrul unor cursuri
pentru posturile existente n cadrul Forelor specializate sau la locul de munc.
Aeriene ale SUA. Acest program a inclus ntre metodele de analiz a muncii
forma iniial a programului CODAP orientate pe postul de munc cu un nivel
(Programul Comprehensiv de Analiz a ridicat de aplicabilitate n sistemele militare
Datelor Ocupaionale), un pachet de programe sunt: inventarele de sarcini, tehnica
computerizate folosit pentru procesarea, incidentelor critice i analiza funcional a
interpretarea i prezentarea unor seturi i muncii.
subseturi mari de date ocupaionale.
Implementarea sistemului CODAP n cadrul 1. Inventarele de sarcini
forelor armate a presupus ns muli ani de
cercetare (Mitchell, 1988). Prima utilizare a inventarelor de sarcini
n 1967, E.J. McCormick aprecia este semnalat la nceputul secolului, ns o
activitatea de pionierat a acestui laborator ca aplicare pe scar mare se va realiza abia n
fiind remarcabil, prin faptul c a dezvoltat i anii '50. Forma inventarului de sarcini cel mai
utilizat inventarele de sarcini, coninnd liste des folosit astzi este atribuit Forelor Aeriene
de sarcini specifice unui anumit domeniu ale SUA interesate s dezvolte metode de
profesional, ca mijloc de a culege informaii analiz care s ofere descrieri cantitative ale
despre posturile de munc chiar de la muncii, s poat fi aplicate direct ocupanilor
ocupanii acestora. Aceast tehnic, n postului, att pe eantioane mici, ct i mari, i
combinaie cu anumite proceduri statistice (pe s ofere posibilitatea de procesare electronic
care tot ei le-au dezvoltat), a fcut posibil a datelor. Pentru aceasta, Forele Aeriene
descrierea posturilor i exprimarea relaiei Americane au dezvoltat i implementat ntre
dintre ele n termeni cantitativi (Mitchell & anii '50 i '60 Programul CODAP.
Driskill, 1996). Analiza muncii orientat pe sarcini i-a
ctigat, ncetul cu ncetul, popularitatea n
82
Psihologie militar
cadrul serviciilor militare ale SUA i ale aliailor descrierea a 54.000 de posturi, a fost conceput
si (Mitchell, 1988). Aplicabilitatea ei s-a un sistem unic de clasificare a posturilor de
extins, ns, i la domeniul civil, viznd lumea munc cunoscut publicului sub denumirea
academic, organizaiile guvernamentale, cele "Dictionary of Occupational Titles" (DOT)
industriale i de afaceri. (Brannick & Levine, 2002).
La nceputul anilor '90 programul DOT este folosit, n prezent, n SUA, la
computerizat al sistemului CODAP a fost nivel guvernamental, n scop de selecie, dar i
actualizat i standardizat pentru toate serviciile pentru programele de orientare i pregtire
militare ale SUA. CODAP se poate profesional.
interconecta cu alte sisteme software; fiierele Ceea ce se reproeaz metodei DOT
CODAP pot fi extrase i transferate n este dificultatea n meninerea i actualizarea
programe statistice generale de genul SPSS i sistemului. n actualul context al dezvoltrilor
SAS. Pe lng sarcini pot fi i sunt procesate tehnologice, al schimbrilor frecvente care
n sistemul CODAP i alte tipuri de date (de apar pe piaa muncii,
ex. incidente critice, deprinderi i cunotine al dinamicii posturilor de munc i al
etc.) (Mitchell & Driskill, 1996). posibilitilor pe care calculatorul i internet-ul
le ofer pentru comunicarea n timp real,
2. Metoda incidentelor critice comunitatea de specialitate din SUA a ridicat
problema nlocuirii sistemului DOT cu o baz
n timpul celui de-al doilea rzboi de date computerizat, denumit O*NET.
mondial, n cadrul Programului de Psihologie
al Aviaiei, realizat de Forele Aeriene ale SUA METODE DE ANALIZ A MUNCII
a fost dezvoltat i folosit tehnica analizei ORIENTATE PE DEINTORUL POSTULUI
erorilor, care a permis ulterior, lui J.C. DE MUNC
Flanagan s formuleze i s dezvolte una din
cele mai eficiente metode de analiz a muncii: De-a lungul timpului au fost propuse
metoda incidentelor critice, des folosit n diferite modele pentru elaborarea profilului
construirea metodelor de evaluare psihologic al posturilor de munc. Plecnd de
profesional, fiind chiar favorizat fa de alte la profesiogramele lui M. Viteles, bazate pe
metode. evaluarea coninutului unor liste de aptitudini,
Institutul de Cercetri al Armatei SUA s-au dezvoltat i implementat alte 3 modele
pentru tiine Sociale i Comportamentale care s-au bucurat i se bucur de o mare
(ARI) a realizat pe parcursul a 12 ani (1982 - popularitate: Schema n 7 puncte a
1994) un program de evaluare i dezvoltare a profesorului Alec Roger (folosit n prezent de
procedurilor de selecie i repartizare pe post a ctre armata britanic), Schema n 5 puncte a
personalului militar american. n cadrul lui Munroe Frazer i modelul KSAO
Proiectului A pentru identificarea dimensiunilor (cunotine, deprinderi, aptitudini i alte
importante ale performanei n munc s-a caracteristici).
recurs, printre alte, la tehnica incidentelor Indiferent de modelul ales pentru
critice pentru toate specialitile militare aflate prezentarea cerinelor psihologice ale unui
n studiu. post de munc, culegerea datelor necesare
pentru completarea acestuia necesit
aplicarea unor metode i tehnici bine
3. Metoda DOT (Dictionary of documentate tiinific, printre care se numr:
Occupational Titles) Metoda Elementelor Muncii, Scalele de
evaluare a aptitudinilor necesare prestrii
n anii '30, n SUA existau numeroase activitilor specifice posturilor de munc;
agenii federale de angajare a forei de munc, Chestionarul de Analiz a Poziiei i Analiza
a cror misiune era de a gsi "omul potrivit cognitiv a sarcinii.
pentru locul potrivit". Ceea ce se reproa
acestor agenii era ns lipsa unui limbaj 1. Metoda Elementelor Postului (Job
comun n procesarea informaiilor de interes, Element Method - JEM)
aspect care a generat numeroase problemele
de comunicare ntre acestea i a ncetinit JEM este prima metod de analiz a
procesul de creare a unui sistem naional de muncii orientat pe deintorul postului.
repartizare a forei de munc. La sfritul Dezvoltat n 1950 de Ernest Primoff i
anului 1939, pornind de la analiza i membrii Comisiei Serviciului Civil din SUA,
83
actualul Oficiu de Resurse Umane, Oficiu de Avnd un caracter de generalitate mai
Cercetare i Dezvoltare a Personalului din ridicat, PAQ permite efectuarea de comparaii,
SUA. JEM este o metod de analiz a muncii fiind util din perspectiva seleciei personalului
orientat pe deintorul postului care se militar, mai precis a repartizrii pe specialiti
aseamn foarte mult cu metodele orientate al acestuia pentru c ofer posibilitatea
pe coninutul muncii, dat fiind faptul c este realizrii unor diferenieri la nivelul atributelor
interesat mai mult de comportamentele de solicitate de posturi diferite. Un element
munc i de rezultatele acestora dect de important oferit de PAQ l reprezint
trsturile abstracte. Pentru JEM elementele informaiile legate de mediul muncii, n special
acoper o varietate de comportamente, de de condiiile extreme (de ex. cldur, frig,
aspecte cognitive, psihomotorii i de obiceiuri deplasarea prin ap i scufundri la adncimi
de munc. Exemple de elemente specifice mari, parautarea, supravieuirea n condiii
unui militar de carier pot fi: s dispun de o extreme etc.) i informaiile despre
condiie fizic bun, s nu-i fie fric de arme, echipamentul solicitat pentru ndeplinirea
s aib o memorie bun, s cunoasc sarcinilor specifice (arme de foc, alupe,
regulamentele militare etc. tancuri, avioane etc.).
84
Psihologie militar
85
cercetarea legat de analiza muncii derulat n for Business, Industry and Government (Vol.
sistemele militare; cel puin 2 din celelalte, 2). New York: John Wiley
JEM i FJA au evoluat n cadrul ageniilor Mitchell, J. (1988). History of Job analysis in military
guvernamentale. Ali cercettori, spre exemplu organizations. In S. Gael (Ed.) & E.T.
Fleishman, au cochetat i cooperat cu sistemul Cornelius III, E. Levine & G. Salvendy
militar. Acesta este unul din motivele pentru (Assoc. Eds.). The Job Analysis Handbook
care se spune c, cel puin n SUA, o parte for Business, Industry and Government (Vol.
semnificativ din analiza muncii a fost realizat 1). New York: John Wiley
direct sau susinut indirect de serviciile Mitchell, J. & Driskill, W.E. (1996). Military Job
armate i de ageniile guvernamentale. Analysis: A Historical Perspective. Military
Psychology, 8, 119-142
CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
86
Psihologie Militar
Dorin Zgrean1
Universitatea Babe-Bolyai, Cluj Napoca
Abstract
Considering the new operational standards from military domain and the necessity for our army to
participate to international missions together with other NATO armies, this study aims to complete
the existing instructional and employee performance appraisal methods for the soldiers that are
participating to the international missions like peace support operations (PSO), missions that are the
most frequently performed by our troops in different conflicting area of the world.
Starting with work analysis and using the principles for Behavioral Observations Scale and
Summative Appraisals, it was elaborated training and personnel appraisal system for the soldiers
that are going to participate to the international missions.
As any other existing professional performance appraisal method, this appraisal system is affected
by the appraisal errors. Comparing this appraisal system with the other appraisal systems used in
this sector, we can sustain that the present system is better than others.
87
Obiectivul cercetrii n final este obinut o cot global prin
nsumarea valorilor categoriilor de rspunsuri
Studiul are n vedere uniti alese de ctre instructori. Aceast cot permite
profesionalizate care nu mai includ serviciul instructorilor ca la sfritul activitii s
militar obligatoriu i care particip la misiuni concluzioneze asupra performanelor
internaionale sub comand NATO (North persoanei sau subunitii evaluate, s
Atlantic Treaty Organisation), ONU evidenieze nivelul de performan atins sau
(Organizaia Naiunilor Unite), OSCE aspectele care trebuie mbuntite pn la
(Organisation for Security and Cooperation in evaluarea final.
Europe). Cealalt fi reprezint fia de
Lucrarea de fa i propune elaborarea evaluare final i este adaptat dup scala cu
unui sistem de instruire i evaluare care s observaii comportamentale (Pitariu, 2000,
respecte criteriile de analiz a muncii i n 2003, 2006) care utilizeaz seturi de
acelai timp s se plieze ct mai eficient pe comportamente specifice cerinelor unui loc de
specificul activitilor militare. De asemenea, munc grupate n jurul unor diferite dimensiuni
prin demonstrarea eficienei acestui sistem de ale muncii. n acest caz, evaluatorul este pus
instruire i evaluare, se dorete implementarea n situaia de a estima pe o scal de la 1 la 5
lui ca ghid de instruire i evaluare a (aproape deloc aproape complet), msura n
personalului militar participant la misiuni PSO care se manifest comportamentele respective
care s vin n sprijinul instructorilor din la persoana evaluat (Latham & Wexley, 1977;
centrele de pregtire i a comandanilor de 1981).
uniti/subuniti care organizeaz i conduc n procesul de analiz a muncii s-a
astfel de activiti. recurs la urmtoarele metode i tehnici:
1) Studiul documentelor organizaiei a
METODA constat n studiul legilor i
regulamentelor n vigoare care
Participani reglementeaz modul de desfurare
n cadrul acestui studiu a fost cuprins a aciunilor militare n anumite situaii
un numr de 513 militari (ofieri, subofieri, (de criz, de rzboi, de pace) precum
maitri militari, militari angajai pe baz de i a procedurilor de operare standard
contract) din cinci detaamente, prezeni ntr- (SOP) specifice fiecrui teatru de
un centru de instruire i evaluare n vederea operaii.
participrii la misiuni internaionale. 2) Intervievarea participanilor la misiuni
PSO.
Instrumente i procedur 3) Participarea efectiv la unele misiuni
Metoda de analiz a muncii cea mai PSO.
potrivit pentru prezentul studiu este cea n urma acestor analize, activitatea a
propus de Levin (1983) care const n fost descompus n componente ale muncii
generarea unei ierarhizri a componentelor conform procedurii de ierarhizare propus de
muncii astfel: ndatoriri/ responsabiliti, Levine (1983). Activitile rezultate n urma
sarcini, activiti, aciuni/elemente (Pitariu, acestei analize vor constitui practic, cadrul
2003, 2006). general de organizare i desfurare a
Componentele muncii rezultate n programului de instruire. Msura n care
urma acestei analize sunt utilizate la instruirea are sau nu succes depinde de
organizarea instruciei tactice din teren i la evalurile care se efectueaz pe parcursul
ntocmirea fielor de apreciere. n acest acesteia. De aceea, studiul de fa pune un
context sunt elaborate dou categorii de fie accent deosebit pe sistemul de evaluare care
de apreciere, una reprezint fia de este parte implicit a programului de instruire.
monitorizare a instruciei care se completeaz Avnd n vedere noile obiective ale
zilnic de instructorul care conduce activitatea organizaiei militare, cele de participare la
n teren i se bazeaz pe metoda evalurilor misiuni internaionale, n cadrul activitilor de
sumative (Pitariu, 2003, 2006) n care itemii instruire a personalului militar se impune
sunt dispui de-a lungul unei scale grafice, nsuirea de ctre acetia a unor cunotine
evaluatorul indicnd nivelul acordului cu specifice teatrului de operaii unde urmeaz s
descrierea pe care o conine itemul respectiv. participe precum i perfecionarea
Fiecare rspuns are o valoare numeric, deprinderilor n organizarea i desfurarea
cuprins ntre 5 (ntotdeauna) i 1 (niciodat). aciunilor de lupt conform procedurilor de
88
Psihologie militar
89
- armamentul se poart conform vor fi atribuite un punctaj n funcie de msura
SOP; n care au fost ndeplinite. Prin aceste descrieri
- pe timpul deplasrii convoiului, se reduce ntr-o anumit msur
elementele de siguran subiectivismul evaluatorului, acesta fiind pus n
dispuse pe camioane precum situaia s urmreasc i s aprecieze
i servanii de la armamentul elementele incluse n fi, nu ceea ce crede el
de pe tehnica blindat, vor c trebuie apreciat. Cu toate acestea, o doz
realiza un sector de observare important de subiectivism se menine n cazul
circular; atribuirii punctajului de ctre evaluator. Lipsa
- se respect distanele ntre de experien, de profesionalism sau lipsa unui
autovehicule pe timpul instructaj eficient al evaluatorului poate face
deplasrii (aproximativ 50m); loc erorilor de evaluare precum: efectul de
- cdt. pl/gr., conduce militarii din halo, eroarea indulgenei/severitii, eroarea
subordine folosind semne i tendinei centrale i a micorrii dispersiei,
semnale; eroarea evalurii logice, eroarea de contrast
- menine permanent legtura i similaritate (Pitariu, 2000).
radio cu cdt. convoiului. Metoda de instruire, dup care
soluionarea incidentelor aprute: activitatea practic din teren este organizat i
- comunic imediat despre desfurat, este cea de simulare i joc de rol
incident indicnd locaia prin care, pe baza informaiilor primite i n
exact; conformitate cu regulamentele militare, se
- apeleaz la tehnici de ncearc imitarea realitii din zonele de
negociere, somaii, folosind operaii unde militarii urmeaz s se depla-
expresii n limba local sau seze. Aceast instruire are un caracter flexibil
ntr-o limb de circulaie i depinde de specificitatea zonei n care
internaional; urmeaz s acioneze personalul participant.
- face uz de for conform De asemenea, prin evalurile zilnice efectuate
regulilor de angajare (ROE), de ctre instructori sau de comandanii de
dac este posibil prsete subuniti cu ajutorul fiei de monitorizare
zona n viteza cea mai mare; (Anexa 1) se imprim o direcie clar spre
- acord primul ajutor n caz de atingerea obiectivelor de instruire stabilite.
rniri att propriilor militari ct Itemii inclui n fia de monitorizare
i adversarilor, solicit reprezint aciunile rezultate n urma
MEDEVAC sau CASEVAC procesului de analiz a muncii. Pe timpul
(evacuare medical) dac este desfurrii exerciiului evaluatorul marcheaz
cazul. n tabel msura n care este sau nu de acord
ncheierea misiunii: cu ndeplinirea itemului corespunztor, iar la
- la destinaie, convoiul este final, n rubrica punctaj (Anexa 1), va trece
predat autoritilor; valoarea numeric a aprecierii fcute i va
- se deplaseaz la baz pe calcula totalul punctelor cumulate, care va
itinerarul stabilit; reflecta nivelul de realizare a obiectivelor de
- la intrarea n baz se descarc instruire. n situaia dat, punctajul total poate
armamentul la rastelul special avea o valoare ntre 28 i 140.
amenajat; Trebuie menionat faptul c
- cdt. pl/gr., ntocmete raportul majoritatea activitilor militare se apreciaz
de ndeplinire a misiunii. att prin acordarea de note de la 1 la 10 ct i
calificative de la nesatisfctor la foarte
Trebuie menionat faptul c datele bine. Pentru a transforma notele n calificative
rezultate ca urmare a procesului de analiz a se va folosi un tabel de coresponden not-
muncii prezentate mai sus, nu au un caracter calificativ (fig.1).
permanent, acestea suferind modificri
periodice n funcie de SOP-urile (procedurile 8,50 10 FB
de operare standard) fiecrei zone, de 7,00 8,49 B
schimbrile i de incidentele critice care apar 5,00 6,99 S
n teatrul de operaii. sub 5,00 NS
Aciunile descrise sunt componentele Figura 1. Coresponden not-calificativ
activitilor specifice fiecrei sarcini, crora le
90
Psihologie militar
91
sau fa de nota pe subunitate, ceea ce va metodologia de calculare a punctajului se
determina o departajare ntre unii militari foarte poate realiza foarte uor cu ajutorul
buni sau alii foarte slabi fr ns a afecta programului Microsoft Excel (respectnd
nota/calificativul subunitii (tab.3 din Anexa 2). aceeai procedur de calcul ca cea expus)
Totui, evaluatorul trebuie s fie atent la de ctre orice persoan care are cunotine
aceste notri i orice not individual diferit minime de utilizare a PC-ului.
de cea a subunitii trebuie s aib suportul
explicativ nregistrat n rubrica aspecte REZULTATE I DISCUII
pozitive/aspecte negative(tab.2 din Anexa 2).
Aprecierile consemnate n rubrica Pentru a putea realiza o paralel ntre
aspecte pozitive/aspecte negative pot oferi n cele dou sisteme de evaluare, n fig.2 este
acelai timp un suport n extragerea prezentat un fragment din scala de evaluare
concluziilor care trebuie menionate la bilanul utilizat naintea aplicrii noului sistem care
activitii de evaluare sau n actul de include fia de monitorizare construit dup
constatare care se ntocmete la ncheierea metoda evalurii sumative i respectiv
activitii, de ctre comisia de evaluare. S.E.P.T.T. construit dup principiile scalei cu
Un alt avantaj al S.E.P.T.T. este acela observaii comportamentale.
c se poate transpune pe format electronic iar
REALIZAT/
ACTIVITATEA DE VERIFICAT I APRECIAT
NEREALIZAT
Calificativ Observaii
Activitatea
Subiect Operaiuni de executat. DA NU
principal
Cunoaterea i aplicarea n raport
Activitatea cu procedurile de operare
comandantul standard a prevederilor
Activitatea ui de grup regulamentare privind
comandan ntrebuinarea subunitii n lupt
tului de Capacitatea nelegerea oportun a
grup de informaiilor primite
conducere a nsuirea probl. de cooperare
comandantul Modul de conducere a subunitii
ui de grup prin semne i semnale
Modul de executare a deplasrii
92
Psihologie militar
93
Detaamentul A Detaamentul B
100
200
80
60
100
40
20
Std. Dev = .37
Std. Dev = .19 Mean = 8.1
Mean = 8.00
0 N = 95.00
0 N = 164.00
7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
7.00 7.50 8.00 8.50 9.00
EVAL_ET
EVAL_ET
12
16
14 10
12
8
10
6
8
6 4
4
2 Std. Dev = .67
Std. Dev = .64
2 Mean = 7.80
Mean = 7.61
0 N = 95.00
0 N = 164.00
6.
6.
6.
6.
7.
7.
7.
7.
8.
8.
8.
8.
9.
13
38
63
88
13
38
63
88
13
38
63
88
13
6.
6.
6.
7.
7.
7.
7.
8.
8.
8.
8.
9.
9.
38
63
88
13
38
63
88
13
38
63
88
13
38
CMG
CMG
12
30
10
8
20
4
10
2
Std. Dev = .48
Std. Dev = .43
Mean = 8.87
Mean = 8.47
0 N = 95.00
0 N = 164.00
7.88 8.13 8.38 8.63 8.88 9.13 9.38 9.63 9.88
7.63 7.88 8.13 8.38 8.63 8.88 9.13 9.38 9.63 8.00 8.25 8.50 8.75 9.00 9.25 9.50 9.75 10.00
7.75 8.00 8.25 8.50 8.75 9.00 9.25 9.50 9.75
SEPT T
SEPTT
Detaamentul C
100 12 14
12
10
80
10
8
60 8
6
6
40
4 4
6.
7.
7.
7.
7.
8.
8.
8.
8.
9.
88
13
38
63
88
13
38
63
88
13
94
Psihologie militar
Prin inspectarea graficelor de mai jos n operaia de notare pe care o face este
se poate observa c pe coloana supus propriilor sale limite i imperfeciuni
corespunztoare vechiului sistem de evaluare, (Pitariu, 2000).
cele mai multe date sunt concentrate n jurul Una dintre erorile care pot s apar pe
mediei. Acest gen de distribuie poate sugera timpul desfurrii activitii de evaluare este
faptul c persoanele din cadrul subunitii nu efectul de halo. Avnd n vedere specificul
au fost repartizate aleator ci ar cuprinde numai misiunilor pe care urmeaz s le desfoare
indivizi cu capacitate medie, aspect mai puin subunitile evaluate n acest context, militarii
plauzibil deoarece, activitatea evaluat era o trebuie s cunoasc o limb strin de
activitate desfurat n teren. Astfel, chiar circulaie internaional. Cnd evaluatorul
daca majoritatea indivizilor ar avea o observ un militar care folosete foarte bine
capacitate medie, mediului ecologic n care expresii ntr-o limb strin, se ntmpl ca
sunt evaluai indivizii nu poate solicita abilitile acesta s-l evalueze pe individul respectiv prin
acestora n aa msur nct mai mult de 90% prisma acestui fapt. De asemenea, unii tind s
din efectiv s obin nota medie. Mai mult, se vad mai favorabil comportamentul unui ofier
poate constata ca rezultatele la testele (gril) fa de un subofier sau militar angajat prin
de cunotine militare generale obinute n simplul fapt ca are un statut superior celorlali.
acelai timp de ctre acelai eantion, Tot datorit acestor preconcepii ale
rezultate care nu reflect aprecierea evaluatorului se manifest i eroarea evalurii
evaluatorului ci o exprimare direct a logice. Astfel, persoana care evalueaz
cunotinelor celui evaluat, se apropie de o consider c este logic ca cineva care are o
distribuie normal. funcie i un grad mai mare s obin i o not
Se poate considera c n primul caz, mai mare.
eroarea se datoreaz fie instrumentului de Un alt tip de eroare este eroarea
evaluare, fie persoanei evaluatorului. Datorit indulgenei/severitii. Cel mai frecvent este
unui instrument de msur neriguros, ntlnit indulgena n evaluarea personalului
evaluatorul a comis eroarea tendinei centrale care urmeaz s participe la misiuni
i a micorrii dispersiei. internaionale. De exemplu, pn la acest
Faptul c eroarea se datoreaz modul de pregtire militarii mai trec prin cel
instrumentului de evaluare utilizat n acel puin dou etape de evaluare. Un rezultat
moment poate fi susinut de graficele de pe a nesatisfctor obinut n acest modul de ctre
treia coloan. Aici sunt prezentate datele un militar sau subunitate, poate pune la
obinute cu noul sistem creat de pe principii ndoial evalurile anterioare. Avnd n vedere
tiinifice (S.E.P.T.T.) care, prin construcia lui, c sistemul militar este un sistem n care
favorizeaz utilizarea ntregii game de note n comportamentul de conducere poate fi uneori
evaluarea indivizilor (de la 6 la 10). Astfel, autoritarist, acest rezultat poate crea o
datele obinute cu ajutorul S.E.P.T.T. se presiune de sus n jos pentru corectarea
ncadreaz, dup cum se poate observa, ntr-o acelui rezultat. Pentru a evita acest gen de
distribuie normal. Dei nici acest sistem nu situaii evaluatori tind s fie mai indulgeni cu
poate nltura n totalitate subiectivismul unii militari care nu sunt api s ndeplineasc
evaluatorului i erorile de msur totui, o cerinele impuse de sistemul de evaluare.
astfel de intervenie reprezint mai mult dect Aceast anomalie specific unui sistem
lipsa ei. Deci, se poate conchide c S.E.P.T.T. organizaional favorizeaz i eroarea tendinei
este superior vechiului sistem de evaluare att centrale i a micorrii dispersiei. n acest caz,
din punct de vedere metodologic i obiectiv ct evaluatorul gndete c nu este bine s
i din punct de vedere practic. acorde calificative mai slabe deoarece va
strni nemulumirea celor evaluai, dar nici nu
Erori posibile pe timpul evalurii, folosind va da calificative prea bune pentru ca nimeni
S.E.P.T.T. s nu-l poat acuza de favoritism i indulgen.
Pentru minimizarea acestor erori cea
Chiar dac diferenele dintre cele dou mai eficient i mai accesibil metod este
tipuri de scale de evaluare arat superioritatea instruirea evaluatorilor cu privire la existena
S.E.P.T.T., trebuie recunoscut faptul c lor. Chiar dac erorile nu pot fi reduse n
aprecierea personalului are la baz percepia totalitate, o contientizare a acestora de ctre
i filtrul persoanei care face evaluarea. Ea nu evaluatori poate spori obiectivitatea aprecierii
se poate desfura n afara contactului mai mult dect ar fi fcut-o fr cunotina lor.
nemijlocit cu cel evaluat, dar, orice evaluator
95
CONCLUZII interpretrii tiinifice a datelor, s-a dovedit a fi
cu mult mai eficient fa de cel anterior fapt ce
Aderarea rii noastre la structurile creeaz baza pentru implementarea acestuia
NATO a determinat modificri profunde n ca ghid de instruire i evaluare a personalului
sistemul organizaional militar. Pentru militar participant la misiuni PSO.
realizarea unui nivel optim de inter-
operabilitate cu celelalte armate NATO, au fost
elaborate o serie de proceduri standard de BIBLIOGRAFIE
operare, administrative si tehnice.
Un loc important n procesul de Bass, B. M. i Vaughan, J. A. (1973), Training in
optimizare a activitilor militare l ocup Industry: the Measurement of Learning.
instruirea i evaluarea personalului militar care Tavistock Publ., London.
urmeaz sa participe la misiuni internaionale. Cole, G.A. (1997). Personnel Management. Theory
th
n acest sens, plecnd de la principiile and Practice. (4 Edition). London: Letta
analizei muncii, a fost elaborat scala de Educational, Aldine Place.
evaluare a performanelor tactice n teren Cole, G.A. (1997). Managementul personalului,
(S.E.P.T.T.) i fia de monitorizare care, spre Editura CODECS, Bucureti.
deosebire de cele folosite anterior ofer un Guion, R.M. (1998). Assessment, measurement and
suport tiinific i n acelai timp acoper unele prediction for personnel decisions. New
cerine de ordin practic i metodologic care Jersey, London: Lawrence Erlbaum
pn acuma nu erau satisfcute. Associates, Publishers. Mahwah.
Un criteriu foarte important de care s-a Istrate, E., Vasiliu, V.E., Cimpoeru, I. (2003).
inut cont n elaborarea acestui sistem de Sistemul metodelor didactice n
evaluare a fost reducerea ct mai mult posibil nvmntul militar n Managementul
a subiectivismului evaluatorilor, aspect care n Resurselor Umane n Armata Romniei,
vechiul sistem utilizat nu era luat n editat de Direcia Management Resurse
considerare aproape deloc. Cu toate acestea, Umane, Bucureti.
nu se poate spune c S.E.P.T.T. reduce n Latham, G.P., Wexley, K.N. (1977). Behavioral
totalitate subiectivismul. Cele mai frecvente observation scales for performance
erori care pot s apar n acest context sunt appraisal purposes. Personnel
efectul de halo, eroarea indulgenei/severitii, Psychology, 30, 255-268.
eroarea tendinei centrale i a micorrii Latham, G.P., Wexley, K.N. (1981). Increasing
dispersiei, eroarea evalurii logice, eroarea productivity through performance
de contrast i similaritate. appraisal.Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
De asemenea, pentru ca sistemul de Levine, Ed.L. (1983). Everything you always wanted
evaluare propus s aib o validitate ecologic to know about job analysis. Tampa, Fl:
este necesar ca n permanen (cel puin la Mariner Publishing Company, Inc.
ase luni) s se primeasc informaii concrete Muchinsky, P.M. (2000), Training and
din zona de operaii, riguros structurate i development, in Psychology Applied to
respectnd principiile analizei muncii, avnd ca Work, Thomson Learning, Wadsworth.
scop redefinirea itemilor de evaluare n Neacu, I., (1990), Metode i tehnici de nvare
conformitate cu realitatea din zon. Dac acest eficiente, Editura Militar, Bucureti.
lucru nu se realizeaz, S.E.P.T.T. i fia de Palo, R. (2004), Pregtirea profesional: formare
monitorizare risc s evalueze aciuni care nu i dezvoltare. n: Bogathy, Z. (coord.)
mai au relevan n realitate. Manual de psihologia muncii i
O alt limit a S.E.P.T.T. poate fi organizaional, Editura POLIROM, Iai.
determinat de programul de pregtire care Pitariu, H.D. (2000). Managementul Resurselor
este precedent evalurii. Dac informaia Umane. Evaluarea performanelor
inclus n scala de evaluare este structurat profesionale.Editura All Beck, Bucureti.
pe baza analizei muncii atunci este absolut Pitariu, H.D. (2003), Psihologia muncii. Curs
necesar ca i programul de pregtire s se universitar, Cluj-Napoca.
elaboreze pe aceeai informaie structurat Pitariu, H.D. (2006). Proiectarea fielor de post,
dup aceleai principii i s se utilizeze fia de evaluarea posturilor de munc i a
monitorizare pentru a ghida instrucia. personalului un ghid practic pentru
n concluzie, sistemul de evaluare managerii de resurse umane (Ediia aII-a
elaborat pe baza principiilor de analiz a revizuit). Editura IRECSON, Bucureti.
muncii (S.E.P.T.T. i fia de evaluare), n urma
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Radu, I., Miclea, M., Albu, M., Neme, S., Schramm, W. (1962), Mass Comunication, n
Moldovan, O., Szamoskozi, . (1993). Annual Revue of Psychology, nr. 13, pag.
Metodologie psihologic i analiza datelor. 251 - 284.
Editura SINCRON, Cluj-Napoca. http://www.mae.ro/index.php?unde=doc&id=25437&
Sava, F. (2004). Analiza datelor n cercetarea idlnk=&cat=3
psihologic. Metode statistice http://www.presamil.ro/
complementare. Editura ASCR, Cluj http://www.mapn.ro/indexro.php
Napoca.
Anexa 1
97
7) fiecare militar i nsuete misiunea i trece la pregtirea materialelor
O O O O
O
n total dezacord n dezacord Nesigur De acord ntru totul
de acord
8) toi militarii sunt echipai conform strii de alert
O O O O
O
n total dezacord n dezacord Nesigur De acord ntru totul
de acord
9) comunic prin radio momentul n care este gata pentru nceperea deplasrii
O O O O
O
n total dezacord n dezacord Nesigur De acord ntru totul
de acord
10) se deplaseaz pe itinerarul stabilit folosind harta/crochiul
O O O O
O
n total dezacord n dezacord Nesigur De acord ntru totul
de acord
11) comunic prin radio cnd ajunge la locul de preluare a convoiului
O O O O
O
n total dezacord n dezacord Nesigur De acord ntru totul
de acord
12) cdt. gr./pl.(escortei) dispune autovehiculele n cadrul convoiului conform SOP
O O O O
O
n total dezacord n dezacord Nesigur De acord ntru totul
de acord
13) stabilete legtura radio cu cdt. convoiului
O O O O
O
n total dezacord n dezacord Nesigur De acord ntru totul
de acord
14) menine permanent legtura radio cu cda.Cp. comunicnd despre nceperea
deplasrii sau orice situaie nou aprut
O O O O
O
n total dezacord n dezacord Nesigur De acord ntru totul
de acord
15) militarii din gr.(Pl) realizeaz sigurana convoiului pe timpul staionrii sau
opririi convoiului n halte
O O O O
O
n total dezacord n dezacord Nesigur De acord ntru totul
de acord
16) armamentul se poart conform S.O.P.
O O O O
O
n total dezacord n dezacord Nesigur De acord ntru totul
de acord
98
Psihologie militar
99
27) la intrarea n baz se descarc armamentul la rastel
O O O O
O
n total dezacord n dezacord Nesigur De acord ntru totul
de acord
28) cdt.gr/pl, ntocmete raportul de ndeplinire a misiunii
O O O O
O
n total dezacord n dezacord Nesigur De acord ntru totul
de acord
TOTAL
Anexa 2
Acordarea punctelor:
pentru fiecare item evaluat, n funcie de modul de executare a aciunii, se va acorda un
punctaj de la 6 la 10, astfel:
Puncte
Nr Activiti
Aciunile evaluate acordate
crt specifice
6 7 8 9 10
- cdt.gr./pl., analizeaz ordinul de misiune, itinerarul de
x
deplasare, harta, crochiul;
- ia msuri de asigurare de lupt pe timpul deplasrii x
- stabilete sarcini clare pentru fiecare militar x
- stabilete asigurarea material care trebuie ridicat i
Primirea i x
tehnica n care se mbarc
1 pregtirea
- face precizri militarilor din gr/pl. cu privire la modul de
misiunii x
deplasare
- cdt.gr. verific legturile radio x
- fiecare militar i nsuete misiunea i trece la pregatirea
x
materialelor
- toi militarii sunt echipai conform strii de alert x
- comunic radio momentul n care este gata ptentru
x
nceperea deplasrii
- se deplaseaz pe itinerarul stabilit folosind harta/crochiul x
- comunic radio cnd ajunge la locul de preluare a
Deplasarea x
convoiului
la punctul
2 - cdt escortei dispune autovehiculelor n cadrul convoiului
de preluare x
conform SOP
a convoiului
- stabilete legtura radio cu comandantul convoiului x
- menine permanent legtura radio cu sala operativ
comunicnd despre nceperea deplasrii sau orice situaie x
nou aprut
Conducerea - militarii din pl./gr. realizeaz sigurana convoiului pe
3 x
i timpul staionrii sau opririi convoiului n halte
desfurare - armamentul se poart conform S.O.P. x
100
Psihologie militar
Puncte
Nr Activiti
Aciunile evaluate acordate
crt specifice
6 7 8 9 10
a activitii
- pe timpul deplasrii convoiului, elementele de siguran
dispuse pe camioane precum i servanii de la armamentul
x
de pe tehnica blindat, vor realiza un sector de observare
circular
- se respect distanele ntre autovehicule pe timpul
x
deplasrii
- cdt.pl. (gr), conduce militarii din grup folosind semne i
x
semnale
- menine legtur radio permanent cu cdt. convoiului x
- comunic imediat despre incident indicnd locaia exact
x
(G.L.)
- apeleaz la tehnici de negociere, somaii, folosind expresii
Soluionare x
n limba local sau ntr-o limb de circulaie
a
4 - face uz de for conform ROE, dac este posibil prsete
incidentelor x
zona n cea mai mare vitez
aprute
- acord primul ajutor n caz de rniri, att propriilor militari
ct i adversarilor, solicit MEDEVAC/ CASEVAC dac - - - - -
este cazul.
- la destinaie, convoiul este predat autoritilor x
- se deplaseaz la baz pe itinerarul stabilit x
ncheierea
5 - la intrarea n baz se descarc armamentul la rastelul
misiunii x
special amenajat
- cdt.pl.(gr) ntocmete raportul de ndeplinire a misiunii x
Punctaj total: 227 Nota pe subunitate (gr./pl.): 8,4 Calificativul subunitii: B
Punctele acordate se adun i se vor concretiza ntr-un punctaj total care se va trece n
partea de jos a fisei, la rubrica aferent. n exemplul prezentat, acesta este 227.
Punctajul total rezultat (227) se va transforma n not prin mprirea acestuia la numrul
de itemi evaluai (227: 27 = 8,4). Aceast not va reprezenta nota subunitii.
Nota la rndul ei se va transforma n calificativ al subunitii prin raportarea acesteia la
tabelul de coresponden not-calificativ (Tab.1). n acest exemplu, 8,4 se ncadreaz
la calificativul B.
101
Pentru ca totalul notelor atribuite fiecrui militar s se regseasc n nota pe
subunitate (8,4), se va proceda astfel:
- Se va pleca de la idea c fiecrui militar i revine un punctaj identic cu nota pe
SU. Ex. 8,4;
- Se va calcula un punctaj general prin cumularea notelor cuvenite pentru
fiecare militar. Ex. 8,4 (nota cuvenit identic cu cea a SU) x 28 (nr. de
militari din SU) = 235;
- Din acest total de 235 se vor scdea notele care au fost acordate cu ocazia
evidenierilor pozitive sau negative. Ex. 235 26 = 209 (26 a fost obinut din
adunarea celor trei note: 10, 9 i 7);
- Punctajul rmas dup efectuarea acestei scderi (209), se va mpri la ceilali
militari din SU care nu s-au remarcat n mod deosebit (negativ sau pozitiv). Ex.
209 : 25 = 8,36. Astfel, fiecare dintre ceilali militari din SU va primi nota 8,36.
Tabel cu personalul SU
Nr. Grad Numele i prenumele Funcia Nota
crt. final
1. 10
2. 8,36
3. 8,36
4. 8,36
5. 8,36
6. 9
7. 8,36
8. 8,36
9. 8,36
10. 8,36
11. 7
12. 8,36
.. .. . ..
27. 8,36
28. 8,36
ANEXA 3
Cdt. comandant
Cda.cp. comanda companiei
Cdt.gr. comandant de grupa
Cdt.pl. comandant de pluton
Cdt.cp. comandant de companie
G.L. grid location (coordonatele unui punct pe harta)
Mtr. mitraliera
MEDEVAC/CASEVAC evacuare medicala
ROE (rules of engagement) reguli de angajare a forei
SOP proceduri de operare standard
SU subunitate
102
Despre metod
DESPRE METOD
Compararea statistic a coeficienilor de corelaie
Robert Balazsi1
Universitatea Babe-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca
1
Alturi de cvasi experimente, studiile Ho:=0, compararea a doi coeficieni de
corelaionale reprezint poate cele mai corelaie obinui pe dou eantioane
frecvente tipuri de studii utilizate n cercetarea independente i compararea a doi coeficieni
aplicat. n condiii obinuite un astfel de de corelaie obinui pe eantioane
studiu presupune colectarea simultan a mai dependente.
multor date (ex. indici de stres, vechime la
locul de munc, anxietate, venit, numr de a. Verificarea unor ipoteze nule diferite de
absene, etc) i calcularea coeficienilor de Ho:=0
corelaie pentru a surprinde existena unor n demersul obinuit de verificare a Ho
eventuale asocieri a dou sau mai multor ceea ce intereseaz este dac n populaie
variabile msurate (Cohen, 2001). Aceste coeficientul de corelaie este diferit de 0 sau
demers pare a fi unul simplu i de obicei nici nu. Acest calcul se realizeaz pe baza formulei
nu ridic probleme pentru cercettori. n
cercetrile publicate, de obicei, sunt t = r*n-2/1-r, df=n-2
comunicate: procedura de colectare a datelor
(mai rar i indicii de consisten intern dei Rezultatul acestui calcul este afiat de
aceasta afecteaz valoarea coeficienilor de obicei de softurile statistice sub forma
corelaie, implicit concluziile studiului), probabilitii calculate n baza ipotezei nule,
valoarea coeficienilor de corelaie precum i Ho:=0. Dac valoarea acestei probabiliti
probabilitile calculate n baza ipotezei nule este mai mic dect cea setat (de obicei .05)
(Ho:=0) a coeficienilor r. atunci se conchide c probabilitatea, ca
Greeala metodologic apare atunci cnd valoarea calculat a lui r s aparin unei
concluziile studiului depesc acest nivel i distribuii caracterizate de =0, este neglijabil,
cercettorul trece la a discuta diferenele deci infirmm Ho.
existente ntre coeficienii de corelaie calculai S presupunem ns c scopul unui
pentru diferitele perechi de variabile (ex. cercettor este s verifice n ce msur s-a
corelaia ntre variabila X i Y este mai mare schimbat valoarea corelaiei existente ntre
dect cea existent ntre X i V), sau la a nivelul stresului ocupaional i numrul
compara valoarea coeficienilor de corelaie greelilor decizionale la manageri n ultimii
obinui n studiu, cu corelaiile obinute pentru zece ani. Avnd la ndemn un studiu care
aceleai dou variabile n alte studii. n arat c la nivelul populaiei aceast corelaie,
principiu efectuarea acestor comparaii nu este cu zece ani n urm, avea valoarea =.9,
o greeal n sine, eroarea apare atunci cnd cercettorul ncearc s compare valoarea
aceste comparaii nu implic un demers dat cu corelaia obinut n studiul propriu r=.6
inferenial, ci se rezum doar la unul pur pe un eantion de n=34. n acest caz obiectivul
intuitiv (n cercetarea autohton cel din urm cercettorului este de a verifica ipoteza nul
demers este mai frecvent). conform creia Ho:=.9.
n continuare vom trece la prezentarea Valorile posibile ale coeficientului de
demersului inferenial care permite efectuarea corelaie fluctueaz ntre valorile 1, ca urmare
comparaiilor menionate mai sus. Din moment a acestui fapt distribuia ipotezei nule Ho:=0
ce compararea corelaiilor este un demers este un simetric i va aproxima o distribuie
oarecum similar comparrii mediilor, n discuia normal cu att mai bine cu ct volumul
problemei vom respecta traseul didactic eantionului este mai mare.
parcurs n predarea demersului de comparare n cazul unei ipoteze nule Ho:=.6, valorile
a dou medii care, adaptat la corelaii, mai mari dect .6 se vor distribui pe o plaj de
presupune abordarea urmtoarelor probleme: valori mai restrns dect valorile mai mici, ca
verificarea unor ipoteze nule diferite de urmare distribuia va fi asimetric nclinat
spre stnga (Figura 1). Acesta este motivul
1 pentru care demersul inferenial trebuie
Adresa de coresponden: precedat de un proces de normalizare a
robertbalazsi@psychology.ro
103
distribuiei utiliznd formula de transformare z=zr - z/sdz2,
matematic a valorilor r n valori z.
Formula a fost elaborat de Fisher, unde zr i z sunt valorile transformate a
rezultatele acestei transformri nonlineare fiind coeficienilor de corelaie (r i ) i sdz este
trecute de obicei n anexele crilor de eroarea standard a distribuiei ipotetice a
specialitate. valorilor r, distribuie obinut prin selecia
aleatoare repetat a unui eantion de mrimea
z' = .5[ln(1+r) - ln(1-r)] n i calcularea repetat a valorii r. Calculul
erorii standard depinde doar de numrul
subiecilor din eantion sdz=1/n-3. Revenind
la datele problemei noastre sdz=.179, iar
valoarea lui z pentru aceast comparaie va fi
z=.693-1.472/.179 = -4.35, valoare mai mare
=0.0
dect -1.96, valoarea critic corespunztoare
=-0.6 pragului de .05 setat. Pe baza rezultatului
=0.6 putem afirma c puterea asocierii celor dou
variabile a devenit semnificativ mai slab pe
parcursul celor zece ani.
2
Este important s se pstreze distincia ntre valorile z care semnific
cote standard i valorile z care semnific valorile transformate, n baza
formulei oferite de Fisher, al coeficienilor de corelaie.
104
Despre metod
valoarea critic de 1.96, ceea ce nseamn c limite de ncredere care s indice o plaj de
nu exist diferene semnificative n ceea ce valori ntre care poate varia n populaie
privete nivelul corelaiei n cele dou valoarea coeficientului de corelaie, dar nu ne
populaii. permit nici procesri statistice (ex. compararea
statistic) asupra coeficienilor de corelaie.
c. Compararea a doi coeficieni de corelaia Poate aceasta este una din cauzele faptului c
obinui pe eantioane dependente. cercettorii deseori recurg la un demers intuitiv
n anumite situaii interesul cercettorului este atunci cnd doresc s efectueze aceste
de a compara coeficienii de corelaie calculai comparaii. Aa cum s-a artat n aceast
pe diferite perechi de variabile. S lucrare, compararea coeficienilor de corelaie
presupunem c n studiul menionat anterior, este un proces similar comparrii mediilor.
alturi de stresul ocupaional (notat cu x) i Neincluderea acestor operaii infereniale n
greelile manageriale (notat cu y) mai exist o pachetele statistice nu argumenteaz
variabil msurat, numrul angajailor avui nicidecum ignorarea lor n practica de
n subordine (notat cu z). Corelaiile calculate cercetare.
pentru cele trei variabile sunt: rxy=.45, rzy=.23 i
rxz=.34 pe un eantion de 40. n aceast BIBLIOGRAFIE
situaie cercettorul i poate propune s
compare coeficientul de corelaie calculat Cohen, J. & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple
pentru numrul angajailor i greeli (rzy) cu cel regression/correlation analysis foe the
behavioral sciences. London: Lawrence
calculat pentru numrul de angajai i numrul Elrbaum Associates
greelilor decizionale (rzy). n acest caz Cohen, H. B. (2001). Explaining psychological
transformarea Fisher nu se mai poate aplica, statistics. New York: John Willey & Sons
din moment ce toate msurtorile au fost Hays, W. (1963). Statistics for psychologists. New
efectuate pe acelai eantion. Asemenea York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston
testului t pentru eantioane dependente, Minium, E.W, King, B.M & Bear, G. (1993).
calculul trebuie s ia n considerare i faptul c Statistical reasoning in psychology. New
toate msurtorile au fost efectuate pe aceeai York: John Willey & Sons
subieci (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). Formula
utilizat n acest caz este
t=(rxy-rzy)(n-1)(1+rxz)/2(n-1/n-3)*|R| +(1-
rxz),
CONCLUZII
105
O NOU PERSPECTIV N ABORDAREA FUNCIILOR DEPARTAMENTULUI DE
RESURSE UMANE
Daniela Vercellino
Commodo, Cluj-Napoca
Roxana Indre1
Smart Training, Cluj-Napoca
Annemarie Birthler
Verweyen Consulting, Mnchen
Elena Cprar
Sales Consulting, Cluj-Napoca
Lavinia Fieroiu
CON-A, Sibiu
Ramaiana Dijmrescu
Cognitrom, Cluj-Napoca
Corina Giurgi
OMV Romania SRL, Cluj-Napoca
Abstract
Human resources management (HRM) becomes more and more present in today
organizational life. Nevertheless, HRM is still applied without any scientific foundation
and is still done by those who think that working in this field is to be done by those who
enjoy to work with people. Therefore, this series of articles The New Face of HRM
is trying to offer a modern perspective in dealing with HR related issues, HR functions
that are vital for any organization. The purpose of this series is to offer a scientific and
professional perspective regarding procedures that can and must be applied and
without considering it an exhaustive approach, it is meant to be a guide for a systematic
approach of the Human Resources Department.
106
Managementul Resurselor Umane n Practic
107
Obiectivele diagnozei organizaionale ar fi, prin acestea sunt obinute din mediul extern al
prisma ideii de mai sus, urmtoarele: organizaiei i reprezint informaia de intrare
s creasc eficiena organizaional, n sistemul cognitiv.
s ofere un feedback periodic asupra Output-urile specifice sunt
funcionrii sistemelor organizaionale, reprezentate de produse, idei, servicii, decizii,
s contribuie la soluionarea problemelor cunotine, etc. Output-urile sunt specifice
organizaionale i la schimbarea contextului organizaional. O parte dintre
organizaional. aceste outputuri sunt folosite n interiorul
organizaiei, iar o parte sunt transmise
Exist o serie de perspective teoretice de mediului. Msurarea productivitii i
abordare a diagnozei, fiecare avnd un anumit performanei la nivel organizaional evalueaz
grad de complexitate i urmrind anumite calitatea i cantitatea acestor produse. Alte
elemente. Niciuna dintre ele nu este suficient tipuri de produse organizaionale sunt produsul
pentru abordarea complex a mediului uman, care se constituie n comportamente
organizaional, iar n aceste condiii este precum absenteismul sau cooperarea i un tip
recomandat utilizarea mai multor perspective de produse subiective, precum satisfacia n
n cadrul procesului de diagnoz. Pe baza munc, motivaia etc. (Cureu, 2004).
acestor teorii s-au dezvoltat o serie de modele
mai specifice prin care se poate realiza Tehnici n aplicarea teoriei sistemelor
diagnoza. Mediul organizaional este diferit deschise la diagnoza organizaional
pentru fiecare companie n parte, astfel nct
este recomandabil adaptarea acestor 1. Analiza STEEP (STEEP Analysis)
modelele la compania n cauz. Abordarea sistemic poate servi ca
ghid, infrastructur, punctaj de idei, pentru
Care sunt perspectivele de studiu ale colectarea datelor preliminare despre
organizaiilor? organizaie. Atunci cnd se aplic aceast
tehnic, este necesar pentru consultani s
1. Organizaiile ca sisteme deschise, foloseasc schema organizaiei ca sistem
aplicnd n consecin modele mai mult sau deschis pentru a genera un punctaj de idei ct
mai puin particularizate ale teoriei generale a mai generos i mai detaliat privind toate
sistemelor (Katz & Kahn, 1978). punctele care pot fi de interes:
2. Organizaiile ca arene politice, subcomponente, dinamic, granie ale
tratnd relaiile ntre actorii organizaionali, fie sistemului etc. Cunotinele preliminare pentru
ei interni sau externi, drept fenomene realizarea acestui punctaj de idei ct mai
fundamentale arondate conceptelor de detaliat poate veni din discuii iniiale cu
presiune, schimb, negociere. membrii importani din organizaie, sau din
3. Perspectiva structural, foarte discuia iniial de contractare purtat cu
influent, dar din punct de vedere academic clientul. Apoi, punctajele sunt detaliate n
insuficient conturat (Harrison & Shirom, interviuri individuale sau workshopuri realizate
1999). Aceast din urm perspectiv este cu membrii organizaiei, n care acetia sunt
derivat din teoriile birocraiei, are o viziune rugai de exemplu s detalieze felul n care
funcional i arhitectural, i privete n organizaia i obine resursele din mediu, felul
consecin organizaiile drept instrumente care n care are loc feedback-ul n organizaie, pe
pot fi create sau modificate pentru a maximiza anumite procese etc. (Lenz & Engledow, 1986
capacitatea de atingere a unui scop. cit. n Iliescu. 2005). De asemenea, sunt utile
Perspectiva organizaiei ca i sistem informaiile despre condiiile fizice, geografice
deschis este cel mai des aplicat de ctre i instituionale, despre cele mai importante
consultani. Organizaiile pot fi privite drept operaii i fluxuri ale organizaiei i despre
sisteme care primesc input-uri din mediu, istoria organizaiei; n special, dac aceasta
proceseaz aceste input-uri i produc output- descrie dinamica de dezvoltare i ciclul de
uri. via n care se afl organizaia (Starbuck,
Input-urile specifice sunt constituite de 1976 cit. n Iliescu, 2005). Acronimul STEEP
resursele materiale necesare organizaiei, este o categorizare a dimensiunilor mediului
resursele financiare, resursele umane, dotrile extern al organizaiei, care sunt relevante
sau necesitile tehnice ale organizaiei, pentru analiz. Domeniile STEEP sunt: S-
cunotinele specifice domeniului de activitate social, T-tehnologic, E-economic, E-ecologic,
i autorizaiile legale de funcionare. Toate P-politic.
108
Managementul Resurselor Umane n Practic
Analiza STEEP se aplic pe trei interne i externe care ajut sau distrug
niveluri de profunzime temporal (a) trecut, (b) eficiena sistemului, sau care pot avea astfel
prezent i (c) viitor, astfel nct n cele din de evoluii n viitor.
urm rezult o diagram STEEP precum cea
prezentat n continuare. Puncte tari: Puncte slabe:
Ce tii s faci foarte Ce ai putea
Trecut Prezent Viitor bine? mbunti?
Social caracteristici Care sunt resursele Unde ai mai puine
Tehnologic ... tale unice? resurse dect alii?
Economic ... ... Care considera alii Care consider alii
Ecologic ... ca ar fi punctele c sunt punctele tale
Politic / ... tale forte? slabe?
Legal Oportuniti: Ameninri:
Ce oportuniti Ce aspecte ti-ar
Figura 1. Diagram STEEP bune poi fructifica? putea face ru?
De ce aspecte ai Ce face competiia?
a. Social caracteristicile contextului social putea profita? La ce ameninri te
n care exist i activeaz organizaia. Cum poi expun punctele tale
Caracteristicile demografice, nivelele de transforma slabe?
educaie i de alfabetizare, distribuia punctele tale tari n
geografic, mobilitatea populaiei, omajul, oportuniti?
componentele culturale, atitudinile
existente n societate, reprezentrile Figura 2. Foaie de lucru pentru analiza SWOT
sociale, religia, valorile, stilul de via al (sursa :
indivizilor, etc. http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_05.htm)
b. Tehnologic - componenta tehnologic a
mediului are un impact major nu doar Identificarea punctelor tari i a celor
asupra produciei, ci de asemenea, asupra slabe ale sistemului ajut consultantul s
aspectelor de dezvoltare strategic a descrie abilitile organizaiei de a rspunde la
organizaiei. ameninri i oportuniti. Punctele puternice
c. Economic - componenta economic a ale sistemului pot fi privite ca factori de succes,
mediului indic distribuia i modalitatea de caracteristici care contribuie la abilitatea
folosire a resurselor n societate. organizaiei de a atrage resurse, de a le
d. Ecologic - componenta ecologic este procesa eficient i de a le exporta coerent n
influenat la ora actual de acordarea mediu. Ele se pot, de asemenea, referi la
unei importane tot mai mari problemelor poteniale nespeculate nc ale organizaiei, fie
de climat global, efect de ser, poluare, ele resurse financiare, resurse tehnologice,
exploatarea pdurilor, reciclare etc. resurse umane sau pur i simplu future
e. Politic/ Legal - componenta politic a options, posibiliti de evoluie i de
mediului ine de atitudinea public i dezvoltare. Punctele slabe sunt fore interne
guvernamental cu privire la anumite ale sistemului sau caracteristici ale mediului
industrii i anumite practici de business, de extra-organizaional care conduc la ineficiena
eforturile de lobby ale anumitor grupuri de output-urilor, sau care blocheaz planurile de
interese, de platformele anumitor partide dezvoltare viitoare ale organizaiei. Pasul
politice etc. ulterior i ultim al analizei este desenarea
diagramei SWOT, care tinde s realizeze
2. Analiza SWOT creionarea strategiilor acionale prin
Aceasta const n examinarea compararea factorilor interni (puncte puternice
sistemului organizaional evaluat din punctul i slabe) cu cei externi (oportuniti i
de vedere a patru caracteristici cruciale ameninri). Matricea rezultat, este un
punctele puternice (strengths), punctele instrument de management puternic i relativ
slabe (weaknesses), oportunitile care uor de construit.
rezult din punctele puternice (opportunities) Analiza SWOT are marele avantaj de
i ameninrile care rezult din punctele slabe a fi uor de folosit, universal aplicabil i de a
(threats). n acest fel, analiza SWOT aplicat conduce cu rapiditate spre concluzii structurate
n diagnoza sistemic poate analiza forele privind ntrebrile i problemele strategice,
109
fundamentale, care se pun n cursul diagnozei, mai multe perechi de componente sau
cu privire la abilitatea organizaiei de a menine subcomponente ale sistemului.
sau de a obine pe viitor o poziie competitiv Evaluarea poate fi fcut centrat pe
n mediul n care acioneaz. anumite variabile definite analitic, aa
Limitrile ei sunt ns i ele importante cum ar fi de exemplu gradul de
i trebuie cunoscute de practicieni. incertitudine din mediul subsistemului
Categoriile cu care opereaz analiza (Harrison & Shirom, 1999) sau
SWOT sunt foarte largi. comportamentele de automonitorizare
Utilizatorii nu au la dispoziie formule (Shoemaker, 1995 cit. n Iliescu,
tehnice care s fac posibil 2005). Este, de asemenea, posibil ca
investigarea structurat n profunzime evaluarea s se fac inductiv, pe baza
a anumitor probleme, fiind obligai s fluxurilor informaionale, tehnologice,
se bazeze pe propria experien de feedback comunicaional sau
pentru a clarifica relaiile mai fine ntre culturale care exist ntre cele dou
componentele schemei. subsisteme pe care se centreaz
Generalizrile trebuie evitate pe ct analiza.
posibil n analiza SWOT. Limitele acestei analize sunt:
Nu exist precepte suficient de
3. Analiza interaciunilor i interdependenelor dezvoltate nici n literatura de
ntre nivele (Analysis of Level Dynamics specialitate i nici n practic,
O a treia posibilitate de utilizare a referitoare la tipurile de potrivire care
abordrii sistemice concentreaz investigaia sunt condiii necesare pentru eficiena
asupra interaciunilor ntre nivelele sistemului organizaional sau care induc forme
(level dynamics, Rashford & Coghlan, 1994 periculoase de ineficien.
cit. n Iliescu, 2005). Prin examinarea dinamicii Consultantul nu are un etalon care s
sistemice ntre nivele, se pot uneori descoperi evalueze numeric nivelul de
cauze ale comportamentelor ineficiente, care nepotrivire i rezultanta ineficient
nu sunt datorate strii unui subsistem, ci care generat de acest nivel. Majoritatea
in de influene transmise de la un sistem organizaiilor sunt ntr-o continu stare
global sau de la un subsistem de alt nivel. de schimbare, i este evident c nici
un subsistem organizaional nu se
4. Analiza potrivirilor / congruenelor n sistem modific la fel de rapid ca cellalt. n
(System Fit Analysis) consecin, avem ntotdeauna de-a
Conceptul de potrivire a fost iniial face cu o oarecare msur de
aplicat pentru evaluarea relaiei organizaiei cu nepotrivire, n orice organizaie care
mediul su, n acest caz potrivirea semnificnd nu se afl n stagnare (Weick, 1985
acea relaie n care caracteristicile interne ale cit. n Iliescu, 2005).
organizaiei sunt compatibile cu condiiile de Organizaiile pot suferi de prea mult
mediu. aliniament i prea mult potrivire, aa
Exist 2 posibiliti de abordare ale cum n mod evident sufer din cauza
acestei analize: unei lipse de potrivire. Organizaiile
Compararea absolut cu o structur mari, maturizate sunt deseori atrase
ideal - trateaz potrivirea din punct de aceast aliniere ntr-o capcan a
de vedere al conformitii succesului care le pune mai trziu n
caracteristicilor organizaiei cu o imposibilitatea de a se adapta
configuraie sau structur. n principiu, schimbrilor rapide de mediu.
aceast abordare l determin pe Managerii sunt tentai s ignore
consultant s se ntrebe dac modificrile, ori s le considere
organizaia are sau nu structura ori fluctuaii de scurt durat ce pot fi
configuraia pe care ar trebui s o tratate prin ignorare i care se vor
aib, i dac aceasta este una de rezolva i vor dispare n timp, n loc s
factur ideal. Comparaia se face ia msurile radicale ce se impun.
astfel cu un model tiinific
supraordonat. 4. Analiza diferenelor / incongruenelor din
Compararea relativ, punctual, ntre sistem (Gap Analysis)
subcomponentele sistemului - privete Exist de cele mai multe ori opinii
n profunzime potrivirile dintre una sau suficient de clar articulate din partea
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Managementul Resurselor Umane n Practic
111
responsabilitile fiecrui post i a integra corespunztoare postului pe care l va ocupa.
posturile de munc ntr-o structura care s n instruire este nevoie de informaii despre
serveasc pe deplin scopurilor sale, ct i cunotinele i abilitile pe care un angajat de
salariatului pentru a funciona adecvat n succes trebuie s le dein. Pentru designul
postul de munc. Dei este aparent o postului (job design) este necesar
procedur simpl i la ndemna oricui, dac identificarea percepiilor angajatului asupra
nu este realizat corect, dup metode i recompenselor intrinseci i extrinseci. Dei
proceduri tiinifice, analiza muncii risc s nu- exist suprapunere ntre aceste cerine diferite,
i aduc aportul ca aciune de baz a argumentele pentru a separa analiza muncii
departamentului de resurse umane. Este bine pentru diferite scopuri sunt de neles.
cunoscut faptul c analiza muncii constituie Orice manager trebuie s cunoasc
baza pentru majoritatea aciunilor de resurse numrul i tipul de posturi din organizaia pe
umane, deci eecul acesteia poate duce dup care o conduce, i caracteristicile acestora.
sine la eecul celorlalte aciuni de resurse Trebuie identificate cerinele pe care
umane. organizaia le are fa de posturile de munc
sub aspectul cerinelor fa de deintorul
La ce ne folosete analiza muncii? Sau la postului de munc i a obiectivelor i sarcinilor
ce ne folosete aceast activitate? solicitate acestora.
Postul de munc reprezint, pentru
Analiza activitii de munc ocup un fiecare poziie din structura organizatoric a
loc central n managementul personalului. unei companii o sum de responsabiliti
(Pitariu, 2006, p.13). Analiza muncii st la pentru munca prestat, asumarea diferitelor
baza majoritii aciunilor de personal realizate roluri din partea deintorului postului, punerea
ntr-o organizaie ceea ce i confer caracter n practic a aptitudinilor, deprinderilor de
de obligativitate. Smith & Robertson (1993) munc din partea deintorului.
susin ca cea mai important contribuie a Analiza muncii este, de fapt, procesul
analizei muncii se refer la: a) reorganizarea de colectare sistematic de date despre
forei de munc dintr-o companie, b) sarcinile aferente unui post de munc, dar i
structurarea mai raional a salariilor i c) despre cunotinele, deprinderile, aptitudinile i
identificarea trebuinelor de instruire. Pitariu alte particulariti ale muncii care atribuie unei
(2006) susine c analiza muncii este util i persoane calitatea de a ndeplini sarcinile
necesar i n aciuni precum: planificarea postului respectiv (Manolescu, 2003). Spector
resurselor umane (permite investigarea (2000) ofer o definiie succint acestui
necesarului de personal n viitor i calitile pe proces: Analiza muncii este o metod de
care acesta trebuie s le posede), recrutarea descriere a unui post de munc i a atributelor
i selecia profesional (permite identificarea umane necesare ocuprii postului respectiv.
specificaiilor candidailor la un post de O definiie mai detaliat este oferit de Cole
munc), proiectarea planurilor de carier (1997, cit. n Pitariu, 2006, p.15-16): Analiza
(permite determinarea cunotinelor, activitii de munc este procesul prin
deprinderilor i abilitilor necesare dezvoltrii intermediul cruia sunt studiate posturile de
carierei salariailor), proiectarea sistemelor de munc dintr-o organizaie cu scopul identificrii
evaluare a performanelor profesionale elementelor componente specifice ale
(permite identificarea criteriilor importante n acestora, adic a ndatoririlor angajatului pe
evaluare), managementul sntii i proteciei post, a responsabilitilor fa de produsele
muncii i interveniile ergonomice, (permite create, rezultatelor ateptate, sarcinilor majore,
identificarea i dezvoltarea condiiilor de relaiilor postului de munc cu altele din
munc adecvate), asigurarea legalitii n ierarhia organizaional etc.
cadrul muncii i prevenirea abuzurilor. Rezultatul analizei muncii se
Utilizarea diferit a datelor despre concretizeaz n ntocmirea fielor de post
ocupaii are nevoie de descrieri de post pentru fiecare poziie din organizaie. Pe baza
specializate. Evaluarea muncii necesit analizei posturilor de munc se construiete i
informaii care s permit deosebirea unui post organigrama companiei, cuprinznd ansamblul
de altul, de obicei din punct de vedere al posturilor din companie i funciile deinute de
activitilor de munc sau a caracteristicilor angajai. n scopul realizrii unor descrieri
angajatului. n recrutare i selecie sunt corecte ale posturilor de munc s-au creat
necesare informaii despre atributele umane dicionare care prezint succinte descrieri ale
pe care un angajat trebuie s le aib, profesiunilor existente. n statele Unite ale
112
Managementul Resurselor Umane n Practic
113
Astfel au putut fi nu doar elaborate mai diverse situaii i pot duce la obinerea
fiele de post, dar identificate i problemele n unei multitudini de informaii n timp relativ
cadrul fluxului de producie, problemele de scurt.
comunicare i astfel au putut fi propuse soluii
pentru optimizarea acestora. Analiza muncii axat pe ocupantul postului
Este de menionat, c dei eficiena de munc (job specification)
metodei este incontestabil, ea are un
dezavantaj major. Este consumatoare de timp. Cele mai cunoscute tehnicile de
Cu toate acestea recomandm aceast analiza a muncii axat pe ocupantului postului
metod mai ales n acele posturi n care sunt: analiza erorilor, metoda incidentelor
complexitatea este mare. Un exemplu care critice, analiza cognitiv a sarcinilor de munc,
susine aceast metod este prezentat chiar KSAO, Spector (2000) Kowledge, Skills,
de Landy (1989) care confruntndu-se cu un Ability Other personal characteristics, (Rogers
caz similar (era vorba de o Divizia de Pompieri seven point plan ) (Smith & Robertson,
din Los Angeles) a recurs la aceeai metod, 1993), metoda combinat de analiz a postului
i anume de a observa i nva munca C-JAM i metoda scurt / condensat a
pompierilor n viaa lor de zi cu zi, chiar i la analizei postului B-JAM. Exist i metode
stingerea incendiilor. computerizate de analiz a muncii cum ar fi:
TI/CODAP, Descriptions Now, FIPO, O*NET.
3. Tehnicile observaionale (Pitariu, 2006). n cele ce urmeaz le vom
Observarea posturilor de munc se trece n revist pe cele mai relevante, urmnd
poate realiza, de asemenea, n forme variate: s lsm la latitudinea specialitilor n resurse
observaia direct, observaia descriptiv umane, directorilor de resurse umane s
standardizat, observaia asistat, observaia aleag metoda care se potrivete cel mai bine
eantionat n ceea ce privete momentele n organizaia lor..
observrii. Este indicat s se apeleze la ghiduri
de observaie care s direcioneze analizarea 1. Analiza erorilor
activitilor de munc. n prezent tehnica Presupune evaluarea abaterilor
modern ofer o mulime de soluii de comportamentale i de procedur de la
nregistrare a datelor care faciliteaz i regulamentele de funcionare ale unui post.
prelucrarea acestora (camera video, aparatele Prin gsirea explicaiilor cauzale ale unor
foto). De asemenea, este indicat s se nonconcordane ntre sarcinile sau standardele
stabileasc momentele de observaie astfel de munc i activitatea prestat, pot fi
nct se surprind toate activitile desfurate identificate erorile ce au aprut n procesul de
ntr-un post de munc. Un dezavantaj al execuie. Erorile pot avea mai multe cauze:
acestor metode ar fi c poate antrena angajaii efectuarea incorect a unei aciuni sau
observai n comportamente artificiale. n astfel omiterea efecturii acesteia; efectuarea
de cazuri metodele observaionale pot aciunii ntr-o alt succesiune dect aceea
completa alte metode, pot ntregi setul de impus sau nencadrarea n timp a aciunii
informaii obinute prin alte metode. cerute. Prin analiza erorilor se poate face o
dubl descoperire: un aspect negativ (ceea ce
4. Tehnicile interogative nu a fost fcut, ceea ce a fost ratat) care ne
De asemenea, se pot utiliza ndreapt spre ceea ce trebuie fcut; i un
chestionare n care se impun ca elemente aspect pozitiv (ceea ce a fost efectuat)
eseniale activitile de munc, frecvena cu revelator al unui mecanism perturbant exterior
care sunt prestate i importana acestora bunul sarcinii (Faverge, Leplat & Guiguet, 1958).
mers al activitii. (Pitariu, 2006) Utilizarea informaiilor culese din analiza
Interviul este o metod des utilizat n erorilor presupune aplicarea unei strategii
procesul analizei muncii i poate lua mai multe metodologice difereniate n funcie de
forme n funcie de tehnicile utilizate. Se poate caracteristicile sistemului studiat. Astfel, studiul
apela la tehnica explicitrii provocate erorilor se poate face prin mijloace directe de
(observarea activitii angajatului i intervenie, cum este analiza comportamen-
interogarea asupra aciunilor pe care le tului n situaii simulate (Pitariu, 2003). Analiza
realizeaz), la tehnica intervievrii grupului sau erorilor care este cel mai indicat s fie utilizat
se poate realiza un interviu semistructurat cu n cazul profesiilor ce implic n majoritate
deintorii posturilor i superiorii acestora. munc intelectual sau munc automatizat.
Aceste tehnici interogative se pot utiliza n cele Aceasta poate oferi soluii pentru funcionarea
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Managementul Resurselor Umane n Practic
115
5. Rogers seven point plan (Planul n
apte puncte a lui Roger)
Tabelul 1
Planul n apte puncte al lui Roger (Smith & Robertson, 1993, 2003, p 40-41)
1.Caliti fizice Include sntatea, fora fizic, energie, aspectul fizic extern, exprimarea
verbal.
2. Nivelul de realizare Pregtirea colar i profesional, experien profesional, cursuri de
individual instruire absolvite, diplome, membru al unor asociaii profesionale, membru
al unor cluburi i societi, succese n competiii, ruta profesional (cariera).
3. Inteligena general Capacitatea de identificare a aspectelor cheie legate de rezolvarea unor
probleme, stabilirea unor conexiuni ntre acestea i utilizarea lor n inferene
predictive logice. Este important s se fac distincie ntre nivelul inteligenei
unui individ i ct din acesta este utilizat.
4. Aptitudini speciale Include diferite forme de raionament matematic, raionament verbal sau
spaial, mecanic, mnezic, aptitudinile muzicale, artistice, dexteritatea
manual.
5. Domenii de interes Mecanice, tiinifice, artistice, literare, practice, intelectuale etc., care ar
putea influena pozitiv munca.
6. Personalitatea Integrare social, temperament stabil, echilibrat, asertivitate, capacitatea de
operare n situaii de tensiune (dificile), independen, orientarea pe
experimentare etc.
7. Alte circumstane de interes Condiiile familiale, mobilitate facilitat de familie, suportul familial,
oportunitatea de a efectua ore de munc suplimentare.
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Managementul Resurselor Umane n Practic
117
indiferent de metoda utilizat. Nici o metod de Psychology. Journal of Applied Psychology,
analiz a muncii nu e superioar alteia; 82 (4), 467-477.
metoda devine foarte bun n momentul n McCormick, E.J. Janneret, P.M. i Mecham, P.R.
care e aleas corect n funcie de scopul (1989). Technical Manual for the Position
realizrii acestui proces i n cazul n care e Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) (Ed a II-a).
aplicat riguros. West Lafayette, Perdue Research
Numrul viitor va aduce n discuie Foundation
celelalte funcii din cadrul rolului de suport al Mesean, G.A. (2005) - Dreptul muncii. Contractul
departamentului de resurse umane, i anume: individual de munc, Cluj-Napoca: Editura
evaluarea posturilor, recrutarea i selecia Argonaut
personalului, integrarea noilor angajai i Montmollin, M. D. (1967). Les systemes Homme-
evaluarea performanelor profesionale. Machines, introduction a lergonomie. Paris:
PUF
BIBLIOGRAFIE Ombredane, A. & Faverge, J-M (1955). Lanalyse
du travail. Paris: PUF
Cureu, P. (2004). Curs Diagnoz Organizaional, Pitariu, H.D. (2003). Proiectarea fielor de post,
Cluj-Napoca: UniversitateaBabe-Bolyai evaluarea posturilor de munc i a
Faverge, J-M, Leplat, J. & Guiguet, B. personalului. Bucureti: Editura Irecson
(1958). Ladaptation de la machine a Pitariu, H.D. (2006). Proiectarea fielor de post,
lhomme. Paris : P.U.F. evaluarea posturilor de munc i a
Harrison, M., & Shirom, A., (1999), Organizational personalului. Ghid practic pentru managerii
Diagnosis and Assessment: Bridging Theory de resurse umane (Ed a II-a rev). Bucureti:
and Practice. London: Sage Publication, Inc Editura Irecson
Iliescu, D. (2005). Curs Diagnoz Organizaional Smith, M. & Robertson, I.T. (1993). The theory and
Narrative Approaches, coala Naional de practice of systematic personnel selection.
Studii Politice i Administrive (SNSPA), London: The MacMillan Press LTD
Facultatea de Comunicare David Ogilvy. Spector, P.E. (2000). Industrial and Organizational
Bucureti Psychology. Reaserch and Practice. NY:
Katz, D. & Kahn, R. (1978). The Social Psychology John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
of Organizations. New-Yprk: John Wiley http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_0
Landy, F. (1989). Psychology of Work Behavior (Ed 5.htm
a IV-a). Pacific Grove: Brooks/ Cole http://www.testcentral.ro
Publishing Company
Landy, F. (1997). Early Influences on the
Development of Industrial and Organizational
TESTE DISPONIBILE
Matrici Progresive Raven Color (CPM) Evalueaz inteligena ntre 4-12 ani
Matrici Progresive Raven Standard (SPM) Evalueaz inteligena ntre 6-80 ani
118
Managementul Resurselor Umane n Practic
Roxana Indre1
Smart Training
Abstract
The present study aims at drawing up a new salary plan for O&V, a retail sales company. This
new salary plan is meant to remove any kind of discrimination, feelings of inequity or lack of
satisfaction of the employees that might arise from a random salary assignment. This is possible
through a correct evaluation of the working positions within the company. The method applied for
the evaluation uses a point assigning system. The independent variable of the research is
represented by the value of the position as given by the points assigned, whereas the depending
variable is represented by the salary for each position. The relationship between the current
salary and the value of the position in points was established and classes of salary have been
drawn up based on the same method. Results show that some positions are not paid according
to their real value for the company, this leading to a need for increasing the salary, whereas for
the positions that are too well paid, the temporary stop of salary increase.
1
INTRODUCERE ale personalului muncitor, sunt centrate pe
problematica spinoas a salarizrii.
Codul muncii definete n articolul 10, Sentimentele de echitate vor fi nsoite
contractul individual de munc ca fiind acel i asociate cu stri de satisfacie, iar sentimen-
contract n temeiul cruia o persoan fizic, tele de inechitate, cu stri de insatisfacie.
denumit salariat, se oblig s presteze n multe organizaii sistemul de
munca pentru i sub autoritatea unui salarizare, care este de departe cel mai
angajator, persoan fizic sau juridic, n important factor motivator perntru angajai, nu
schimbul unei remuneraii denumite salariu. are la baz o politic salarial coerent, sau
(Mesean, 2005). un studiu sistematic al importanei posturilor
Organizaiile au deci, obiective, planuri pentru organizaie. Politica salarial, ns nu
strategice pe care le ndeplinesc prin se rezum exclusiv la acest aspect al
intermediul salariailor care ocup anumite importanei posturilor din organizaie i
posturi de munc, posturi ce presupun sarcini adaptarea recompenselor financiare acestor
i responsabiliti clar delimitate. La rndul lor, ierarhizri. O politic salarial coerent i
angajaii sunt ncadrai n organizaii pe echitabil impune i adaptarea la mediul
anumite posturi de munc, cu aptitudini inte- extern, al organizaiilor cu acelai domeniu de
lectuale, tsturi de personalitate, cunotine, activitate i cu posturi echivalente.
deprinderi i experien de munc pe care le
pun la dispoziia organizaiei spre ndeplinirea 1. Analiza muncii
scopurilor acesteia. Acetia au ns i
trebuine - n cea mai mare parte concretizate Procesul de evaluare a muncii ncepe
n bani - pe care se ateapt de la organizaia prin culegerea informaiilor despre ocupaii.
creia i ofer att de multe, s i le satisfac. Euarea asigurrii complete a informaiilor
Salariile constituie o problem despre ocupaii este unul dintre principalele
sensibil n negocierile dintre angajator i motive de eec ale acestui proces. Urmtorii
angajat. Pitariu (2003) consider c cele mai pai vor fi imposibil de urmat fr informaiile
multe conflicte de munc sunt generate de adecvate despre posturi.
problema complex a salariilor, i c Informaiile despre ocupaii se pot
majoritatea revendicrilor sindicale, implicit obine printr-un proces numit analiza muncii.
Scopul acestui proces este de a asigura toate
informaiile legate de post care sunt necesare.
Analiza muncii are multiple ntrebuinri.
1
Adresa de coresponden: Organizaiile utilizeaz datele obinute n urma
goinar@yahoo.co.uk
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acesteia n programe proprii precum recrutare, beneficii: de la diverse bonusuri fixe sau
selecie, plasament; planificare organizaional variabile pn la main i telefon, bonuri de
i designul posturilor, training, soluionarea mas sau asigurare medical.
plngerilor, dar i n evaluarea muncii i alte Variantele de compensare a
programe de compensare. angajailor pentru munca prestat sunt multiple
Evaluarea muncii reprezint principalul i trebuie realizat o distribuie echitabil a
beneficiu al analizei muncii. Deoarece acestor compensaii pe posturile de munc din
informaiile necesare pentru mai multe scopuri organizaie.
pot fi diferite, unele organizaii realizeaz un Teoria echitii este una din teoriile
studiu specific pentru fiecare dintre care au ncercat s descifreze mecanismul
ntrebuinrile analizei muncii. O alt abordare motivaional al indivizilor. Bazat pe teoria
const n obinerea ntregii informaii necesare disonanei cognitive a lui Festinger din 1957,
dintr-o dat. Utilizarea diferit a datelor despre teoria echitii susine c indivizii aflai ntr-o
ocupaii implic realizarea descrierilor de post situaie de munc, sau de alt natur,
specializate. Dei exist suprapunere ntre raporteaz intrrile la ieirile specifice situaiei
cerine diferite, argumentele pentru a separa n care se afl. Intrrile se refer la contribuia
analiza muncii pentru diferite scopuri sunt de perceput a persoanei la efectuarea sarcinilor
neles. de munc (experien, deprinderi, efort,
aptitudini). Rezultatele se refer la factorii pe
2. Evaluarea muncii sau evaluarea care persoana i percepe ca avnd o valoare
posturilor de munc personal (banii, bonusurile, promovarea).
Angajaii compar permanent intrrile cu
n timp ce prin analiza muncii se rezultatele sau ieirile proprii precum i cele
descrie postul de munc, evaluarea acestuia ale altora (Pitariu, 2006).
contribuie la dezvoltarea unui plan de Dac cineva estimeaz c tratamentul
comparare a posturilor n termenii pe care care i se aplic pentru contribuia sa este
organizaia i consider factori importani ai inechitabil, va lua msuri pentru a suprima
valorii postului. tensiunea generat de inechitate. Individul
Toate organizaiile i stabilesc planuri percepe situaia ca fiind echitabil atunci cnd
de obiective pe care i propun s le raportul retribuie-contribuie proprie este
ndeplineasc prin intermediul angajailor de similar cu al celorlali. Atunci cnd aceast
pe anumite posturi de munc. Aceste posturi egalitate nu se realizeaz, sau nu este
de munc descriu fiecare, cteva dintre perceput ca atare, apare o situaie de
obiectivele organizaiei i astfel, nsumate inechitate, ce duce la un sentiment de
contribuie la realizarea obiectivelor din planul insatsfacie.
strategic al organizaiei. n funcie de Pentru a reduce inechitatea, angajatul
obiectivele posturilor de munc, raportate la poate recurge la unele dintre urmtoarele
obiectivele generale ale organizaiei, postul soluii:
primete o valoare pentru acea organizaie. 1. modificarea cognitiv a ctigurilor sau
Organizaia nu este singura care are obiective a contribuiilor proprii;
de ndeplinit, ci angajatul, vine i el la locul de 2. modificarea cognitiv a ctigurilor sau
munc cu obiectivele i trebuinele sale. Banii, a contribuiilor celorlali;
bunurile i serviciile pe care organizaia i le 3. schimbarea grupului de referin;
ofer angajatului n schimbul ndeplinirii 4. modificarea contribuiei prin
obiectivelor postului pe care muncete diminuarea sau creterea acesteia;
alctuiesc sistemul de compensare al 5. solicitarea modificrii ctigurilor
angajailor. adresat angajatorului;
Cocheci (2005 a) susine c sistemele 6. abandonarea situaiei, prsirea
i politicile de compensare nu implic doar locului de munc.
salariul, ci i un pachet de compensaii i
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Managementul Resurselor Umane n Practic
Tabelul 1
Distribuia ponderilor pe nivele
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Tabelul 2
Punctajul fiecrui post de munc
Posturi/Nivele 1.DG 2.DE 3.SM 4.ST 5.Ca 6.Me 7.GM 8.V 9.RC 10.SD 11.AA 12.S 13. Co 14.CF 15.OC 16.IS 17.Ma
Deprinderi
colarizare 26.68 26.68 26.68 26.7 13.34 13.34 13.34 13.34 6.67 13.34 26.68 13.34 26.68 13.34 13.34 26.68 6.67
Experien 33.35 33.35 26.68 13.3 13.34 6.67 20.01 13.34 6.67 13.34 20.01 6.67 26.68 13.34 13.34 13.34 6.67
Iniiativ i
66.7 53.36 53.36 53.4 13.34 53.36 40.02 26.68 13.34 53.36 53.36 13.34 26.68 13.34 13.34 26.68 13.34
ingeniozitate
Efort
Cerine fizice 10 10 10 20 20 30 20 20 30 20 20 40 10 10 10 10 40
Cerine senzorio-
66.7 53.36 53.36 40 26.68 26.68 26.68 26.68 13.34 40.02 40.02 13.34 53.36 40.02 26.68 40.02 13.34
mentale
Responsabiliti
Echipamente sau
50 50 30 30 20 30 20 20 10 40 40 30 20 20 20 20 10
procedee
Materii sau
5.32 5.32 3.99 3.99 1.33 1.33 2.66 2.66 1.33 3.99 5.32 1.33 2.66 1.33 2.66 2.66 1.33
produse
Protecia altora 2.66 5.32 5.32 3.99 1.33 1.33 5.32 1.33 1.33 5.32 1.33 1.33 5.32 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33
Munca altora 6.65 5.32 3.99 2.66 1.33 1.33 2.66 1.33 1.33 2.66 1.33 1.33 2.66 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33
Condiii de munc
Condiii de munc 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 2.66
Riscuri
1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 6.65 1.33 2.66 1.33 1.33 2.66
imprevizibile
Punctaj total 270.7 245.4 216 197 114.7 168 156 130.7 89.33 197.35 213.37 130 176.7 118.02 104.68 144.7 99.33
2771.7
Tabelul 3
Ierarhia posturilor conform metodei evalurii posturilor pe puncte
Post de munc Punctaj pe post Puncte pe trepte Verificare
1. Director general 270.7 270.7 1307.481
2. Director economic 245.37 245.37 1185.1371
3. ef magazin 216.04 216.04 1043.4732
4. Agent achiziii 213.37 213.37 1030.5771
5. ef depozit 197.35 197.35 953.2005
6. ef tur 196.7 786.8 3800.244
7. Contabil 176.7 176.7 853.461
8. Mercantizor 168.03 336.06 1623.1698
9. Gestionar magazin 156.01 936.06 4521.1698
10. Inspector salarizare 144.7 144.7 698.901
11. Vnztor 130.68 522.72 2524.7376
12. ofer 129.99 129.99 627.8517
13. Casier firm 118.02 118.02 570.0366
14. Casier 114.68 1032.12 4985.1396
15. Operator calculator 104.68 104.68 505.6044
16. Manipulant 99.33 99.33 479.7639
17. Responsabil curenie 89.33 89.33 431.4639
Total 2771.68 5619.34 27141.41
124
Managementul Resurselor Umane n Practic
0 Maximul clasei
1600
89
99 33
10 33
11 .6 8
11 6 8
12 .0 2
13 .9 9
14 6 8
15 .7 0
16 .0 1
17 0 3
19 7 0
19 .7 0
21 .3 5
21 3 7
24 .0 4
27 .3 7
.
.
4
4.
8
9
0.
4
6
8.
6.
6
7
3.
6
5
0.
70
1400
Punctaj metoda evaluarii pe puncte
1200
Figura 3. Clase de salarizare
1000
Tabelul 4 prezint structura salarial
Salariul lunar - RON
800
pe clase de salarizare, clasa 1 corespunznd
celor mai valoroase posturi, iar nivelul 5 celor
600 mai neimportante posturi. Sunt trecute pe
coloane salariul mediu, cel minim i cel maxim
400 Rsq = 0.6803 pentru fiecare clas de salarizare. Ultima
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
coloan a tabelului reprezint intervalul de
Punctaj metoda evaluarii pe puncte cretere salarial dintre clase n funcie de
care este calculat salariul minim i maxim al
Figura 1. Analiza curbei salariilor fiecrei clase.
50
0 Rsq = 0.9240
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
125
Tabelul 4
Structura salarial pe clase
Punctaj minim- Distana de
Clasa Salariu mediu Salariu minim Salariu maxim
maxim cretere-RON
1 250-300 1307.481 1107.481 1507.481 200
2 200-250 1086.3958 911.3958 1261.3958 175
3 150-200 839.37465 689.37465 989.37465 150
4 100-150 583.0747588 458.0747588 708.0747588 125
5 50-100 455.6139 355.6139 555.6139 100
Tabelul 5
Repartizarea posturilor pe clase
Clasa Post de munc Salariu minim Salariul maxim
1 1. Director general 1107.481 1507.481
2 2. Director economic 911.3958 1261.3958
2 3. ef magazin 911.3958 1261.3958
2 4. Agent achiziii 911.3958 1261.3958
3 5. ef depozit 689.37465 989.37465
3 6. ef tur 689.37465 989.37465
3 7. Contabil 689.37465 989.37465
3 8. Mercantizor 689.37465 989.37465
3 9. Gestionar magazin 689.37465 989.37465
4 10. Inspector salarizare 458.0747588 708.0747588
4 11. Vnztor 458.0747588 708.0747588
4 12. ofer 458.0747588 708.0747588
4 13. Casier firm 458.0747588 708.0747588
4 14. Casier 458.0747588 708.0747588
4 15. Operator calculator 458.0747588 708.0747588
5 16. Manipulant 355.6139 555.6139
5 17. Responsabil curenie 355.6139 555.6139
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
Mean
400
Salariul minim al -
Clasa de salarizare
126
Managementul Resurselor Umane n Practic
127
cadrul firmei O&V este insuficient adaptat la n concluzie, se poate afirma c
valoarea postului. Astfel, s-a ajuns ca unele implementarea sistemului de salarizare pe
posturi s fie subpltite, iar altele suprapltite. clase poate duce la creterea satisfaciei i
Aceast situaie duce la nemulumiri ale sentimentelor de echitate n aceast firm i
angajailor, insatisfacie fa de modul n care poate constitui un valoros instrument de
sunt compensai. Perceperea unei motivare a angajailor.
supracompensri sau subcompensri duce la
sentimente de inechitate care, la rndul lor,
duc la aciuni de eliminare a acestei tensiuni, BIBLIOGRAFIE
aciuni ce pot fi uneori n avantajul firmei, dar
care de cele mai multe ori, duc la rezultate Cocheci, H. (2005a). Politicile de compensare si
contrare obiectivelor acesteia. beneficii. Preluat de pe http://www.hr-
Prin analizarea relaiei dintre salariul romania.ro/index.php?m=3&u=162&a=1527.
actual i valoarea posturilor de munc, s-a Cocheci, H. (2005b). Studiile salariale, instrumente
putut realiza un sistem de salarizare flexibil, moderne pentru practicile de resurse.
bazat pe clase de salarizare. Implementarea Preluat de pe http://www.hr-
acestui sistem de compensaii poate duce la romania.ro/index.php?m=3&u=162&a=1510.
creterea satisfaciei i a sentimentelor de Mesean, G. A. (2005). Dreptul muncii. Contractul
echitate ale angajailor fa de plat. Astfel individual de munc. Cluj-Napoca: Editura
poate fi facilitat apariia comportamentelor Argonaut, p. 18.
productive de munc i pot fi eliminate Pitariu, H. D. (2003). Proiectarea fielor de post,
eventualele discriminri bazate pe evaluri evaluarea posturilor de munc i a
subiective care, de altfel, sunt interzise i prin personalului. Ghid practic pentru manager.
legislaia din domeniul muncii. Bucureti: Editura Irecson, p.86.
O limit a studiului prezent poate fi Pitariu, H. D. (2006). Proiectarea fielor de post,
constituit de descrierile de post, care ar fi evaluarea posturilor de munc i a
putut fi realizate mai detaliat pentru a facilita personalului. Ghid practic pentru managerii
evaluarea mai precis a posturilor de munc de resurse umane (ed. a 2-a revs). Bucureti:
din firma O&V. Editura Irecson
Studiul de fa poate fi completat de
ctre un studiu de evaluare a salariilor pe plan
extern, local sau regional, care s ofere
informaii suplimentare. Organizaiile sunt
sisteme deschise care realizeaz un
permanent schimb de informaii cu mediul
extern, ceea ce face necesar adaptarea
acesteia la mediul n care funcioneaz.
De asemenea, realizarea unei evaluri
a muncii printr-o alt metod de evaluare
poate veni n completarea studiului realizat
pentru a furniza informaii despre validitatea
sistemului de de salarizare proiectat. Un astfel
de studiu poate aduce contribuii i la nivel
teoretic, nu doar practic, nivel la care s-a situat
obiectivul studiului de fa.
O alt direcie de investigare se poate
contura la nivelul coninutului sistemului de
compensare. Tendina actual remarcat pe
piaa muncii de elaborare a unor pachete
salariale este considerat deosebit de
motivant de ctre angajai. Prin oferirea unor
astfel de pachete salariale, n funcie de
trebuinele angajailor, firma poate ctiga n
ceea ce privete motivaia acestora pentru
munc i satisfacia cu locul de munc
prezent.
128
Figuri de psihologi
In Memoriam
ALEXANDRU ROCA
(1906 - 1996)
129
dezvoltarea substanial a psihologiei discuta pe diverse probleme tiinifice, dar sta
romneti. Discipol al lui tefnescu la uete, dup cum afirm cei care au avut
Goang, preia i continu interesul i privilegiul de a-l cunoate. Profesorul a fost un
angajamentul acestuia fa de psihologia om cruia i s-au adus multiple acuzaii, dar
experimental, dezvoltnd din ce n ce mai care nu s-a lsat influenat de acestea i i-a
mult acest domeniu i dobndind continuat traseul propriu, conform unor valori
recunoaterea cuvenit, att la nivel naional de la care nu s-a abtut. Un lucru este ns
ct i internaional. Mai mult, Profesorul a avut absolut cert, cei care i-au fost studeni i
o contribuie extrem de important n formarea colaboratori, care au avut prilejul de a-l
unei noi generaii care s continue aceast cunoate, att ct s-a putut, l pstreaz n
dezvoltare. memorie ca pe un om de o veritabil valoare.
Deinnd o serie de funcii importante Volumul publicat acum, la 100 de ani de la
de-a lungul timpului n cadrul universitii naterea sa i deja 10 ani de la trecerea
clujene, eful Catedrei de Psihologie (1949 - Profesorului n nefiin, este plin de astfel de
1977) sau Prorector al Universitii din Cluj mrturii. Fiecare l amintete n propriul su fel,
(1950 1960 i 1965 - 1967), membru n ca dascl, colaborator, om de tiin sau om
diferite asociaii naionale i internaionale, de famile.
Membru Titular al Academiei Romne, Despre Alexandru Roca se pot spune
Profesorul a ncercat s sprijine ct mai mult extrem de multe, mult prea multe pentru a fi
diferite proiecte i cercetri n domeniul notate n aceste pagini, despre valoare sa ca
psihologiei. De remarcat este faptul c nu s-a persoan i n egal msur despre valoarea
ndrjit s-i pstreze toate aceste funcii i sa ca om de tiin. Cel mai important lucru
disctinii, fiind mai degrab de prerea c este ns, ceea ce a lsat n urma sa - un
astfel de funcii atrag dup sine i o anumit colectiv de oameni pe care i-a format, pe care
rspundere ce presupune s tii s te retragi, i-a susinut i crora le-a insuflat propriul
pentru a-i promova pe cei mai tineri. angajament pentru tiin, i modul n care a
Alexandru Roca a fost cu siguran reuit s rmn n memoria acestora.
un om controversat. Profesorul, aa cum era
numit inclusiv de cei apropiai, a fost un om de
o sobrietate extrem, un om mai degrab
reinut, genul de persoan cu care se putea
130
Figuri de psihologi
In Memoriam
DUMITRU SALADE
(1915 - 2006)
131
interviuri, recenzii. Notm cteva titluri originile sale, traseul copilriei din satul natal,
semnificative: Daia Romn, farmecul amintirilor din ograda
- Preorientarea profesional a tineretului printeasc, pe care le-a evocat cu mult
1948 nostalgie. Implicat n muncile cmpului, i-a
- Pregtirea elevilor din clasele I-VIII gsit timp pentru a observa florile din grdin,
pentru alegerea profesiunii 1964 dar i mprejurimile satului, aezat pe o vale
- Contribuia familiei la Orientarea socio- mrginit de dealuri i mguri, cum ar spune
profesional a copiilor 1964 Blaga, de aici gustul pentru drumeie. D.
- Educaie prin art i literatur 1973 Salade, cum se tie, a fost un peregrin
(colaborare) neobosit i profesionist al drumurilor de munte,
- Dezbateri de didactic aplicat 1997 a tiut s guste farmecul naturii i al peisajului
(colaborare) ca i al relaiilor umane.
- Educaie i personalitate 1995 Unii dintre noi i amintesc cu plcere
- Dimensiuni ale educaiei 1998 serile de voie bun (de rs pn la lacrimi)
- nvmntul pe drumul spre mai bine petrecute cu dnsul, omul simplu, nesofisticat,
2000 dar imprevizibil i vesel. De altfel, nu numai cu
- Oameni ntre oameni 2002 ocazia meselor de convivi ci i n contactele
Multiplele intersectri, deosebit de cotidiene, D. Salade presra vorbe de duh,
utile, pe care prof. D. Salade le-a avut cu remarci care descreeau frunile, dezvluind o
colile tiinifice clujene, n special referitoare latur parc neateptat a personalitii proprii,
la istoria personal a unor figuri marcante ale latura tonic a firii sale n relaie cu alii,
Clujului universitar, au condus la elaborarea mrturie vie a ncrederii n oameni.
volumului memorialistic intitulat Portrete de Cu certitudine D. Salade reprezint
universitari clujeni (1997), oper care l pentru noi toi un model de mare relevan,
prezint pe prof. D. Salade, ca un martor att n plan pedagogic i psihologic, ct i n
privilegiat al personalitilor prezentate n plan uman. Domnia sa, prin atitudinea fa de
carte. A trit, a lucrat n apropierea lor, la oameni, prin echilibrul interior i prin
nceput ca student, apoi colaborator i cu cei competena profesional, a constituit i va
mai muli coleg. Cele zece portrete constitui un factor de coeziune n grupul
pedagogice cuprind trei personaliti (Florian pedagogilor, al psihologilor i al tuturor
tefnescu Goang, Onisifor Ghibu, Vladimir slujitorilor colii, ceea ce l-a plasat de mult n
Ghidionescu) din generaia fondatoare a rndul adevrailor mentori i creatori de
Universitii din Cluj (Universitatea Daciei coal tiinific.
Superioare), iar apte (Nicolae Mrgineanu,
Alexandru Roca, Liviu Rusu, Dimitrie Dumnezeu s-l odihneasc.
Todoran, Anatole Chircev, Beniamin Zorgo,
Nicolae Prvu), sunt personaliti din
generaiile care au urmat. Prof. Dr. Miron Ionescu
Gestul prin care a salvat pentru
memoria colectiv imaginea acestor dascli
ardeleni este un gest de fidelitate i preuire,
un gest de prietenie plin de noblee, de
statornicie a relaiilor interpersonale.
D. Salade, afirm profesorul i
prietenul su, Ioan Radu, poate sta cu egal
ndreptire alturi de cei zece universitari
clujeni, psihologi i pedagogi, evocai n filele
acelor descrieri, oameni aezai foarte serios i
temeinic s lucreze, care vedeau n activitatea
proprie nu doar o profesie, ci i o misiune
social i umanitar.
Ultima sa carte Pe crrile vieii
aprut n anul 2005, ne dezvluie perioada
copilriei i adolescenei, anii de liceu i de
facultate, anii de rzboi, etape urmate de
activitatea profesional-tiinific ce i-a adus
multe satisfacii. Aflm din paginile acestei
cri care este o proiecie autobiografic,
132
Legislaie n domeniul psihologiei
Supervizarea presupune:
Elaborarea unui plan de supervizare mpreun cu supervizorul
ntlniri periodice cu supervizorul n scop de instruire i ghidarea activitii
Discutarea unor proiecte precum:
o Validarea unei baterii de teste psihologice
o Sisteme de etalonare a probelor psihologice
o Gestiunea bazelor de date de personal examinat psihologic
o Proiectarea unei diagnoze organizaionale
o Construirea testelor i chestionarelor proprii de investigare
o Organizarea unei activiti de instruire profesional
o Implementarea unui sistem de evaluare a personalului dintr-o organizaie
133
Petru Lucian Cureu (2006). Group relaionat cu o performan perceput mai buna,
Composition and Effectiveness. Cluj-Napoca: dar aceast relaie este valabil doar atunci cnd
ASCR Press, (326 pag.) grupul este omogen pe aceast variabil. n ceea
ce privete extraversiunea, rezultatele sunt
De mult vreme munca n echipe sau inedite, subliniind superioritatea performanei
grupuri a devenit o realitate a vieii grupurilor omogene pe dimensiunea
organizaionale, indiferent de companie. Sarcini extraversiune fa de cele heterogene. De
complexe precum dezvoltarea de concepte, asemenea, se arat c nivelul ridicat de
soluii noi, luare de decizii, rezolvarea de extraversiune este relaionat cu un nivel mai
probleme sunt din ce n ce mai mult delegate mare de coeziune social n timp ce
grupurilor. Din aceast perspectiv nu poate fi contiinciozitatea este mai degrab relaionat cu
ignorat importana, att teoretic ct si practic, coeziunea relativ la sarcin iar aceasta din urm
a studiului grupurilor de lucru i al proceselor este relaionat mai puternic cu performana
care determina eficiena i performana acestora. grupului.
Cartea de fa este astfel proiectat Capitolul 3, Multidisciplinary Teams:
nct s ne ofere o aliniere la tendinele de Dynamics and Outcomes (Patricia Snell)
cercetare actuale n ceea ce privete grupurile analizeaz performanele echipelor
formale prin sublinierea unui element dovedit a fi multidisciplinare din perspectiva sistemelor
central n funcionarea acestora, i anume deschise. Autoarea pornete de la o revizuire a
compoziia sau diversitatea grupului. modelelor teoretice care explic performana
Primul capitol al crii, Group grupurilor precum i a caracteristicilor i
Composition: Theoretical and Methodological proceselor de grup pentru a propune un model
Consideration (P.L.Cureu) subliniaz tocmai general al eficienei grupurilor multidisciplinare pe
importana teoretic a studiului diversitii care l testeaz pe un eantion de 50 de echipe
grupurilor fcnd apel la principalele modele din domeniul consultanei. Dei eantionul s-a
teoretice care explic impactul compoziiei dovedit prea restrns pentru validarea modelului,
asupra performanei de grup. Locul i rolul studiul a permis extragerea ctorva concluzii cu
compoziiei grupului este analizat n primul rnd un puternic caracter practic. Astfel, atunci cnd
din perspectiva teoriei sistemelor deschise, ca se lucreaz cu echipe multidisciplinare trebuie s
variabil de input, i apoi prin prisma sistemelor inem cont de faptul c echipele cu un numr mai
adaptative complexe. Atenia autorului se mic de membri, conduse de un lider
centreaz ulterior pe problematica diversitii transformaional care s ntreasc procesele de
grupului care este analizat n primul rnd din coordonare, comunicare i planificare vor tinde
perspectiva teoriei diversitii resurselor s aib o eficien mai ridicat.
cognitive, apoi din perspectiva teoriei Margreet Assmann, n capitolul A Cross
categorizrii sociale i din cea a ipotezei atraciei Sectional Study of Diversity, Processes and
elementelor similare pentru a sublinia, n final Performance in Organizational Groups (Capitolul
beneficiile unor abordri integrative. Ultima parte 4) abordeaz relaia dintre diversitate i
a capitolului este dedicat diverselor modaliti performana grupului focalizndu-se pe rolul
de calcul al diversitii ca i caracteristic a moderator al proceselor de grup. La studiu au
grupului, modaliti ncadrate n abordarea participat 26 grupuri (207 participani) iar
multinivelar. rezultatele au artat c, per ansamblu,
Al doilea capitol, Deep Level Diversity in diversitatea grupului joac un rol negativ n
Work Groups: Relating Extraversion and performana grupului i, dei exist un efect
Conscientiousness to Work Group Performance pozitiv al proceselor de grup asupra
(Inge Wessel) comut atenia de pe considerarea performanei, acesta nu interacioneaz cu
diversitii n termeni de variabile de suprafa efectul diversitii. Un rol deosebit este atribuit
(vrst, sex, ras etc.) nspre variabilele de comunicrii n grupurile studiate care reprezint o
profunzime care nu au beneficiat de o atenie modalitate eficient de a rezolva posibilele
susinut din partea cercettorilor. Astfel, divergene.
autoarea examineaz relaia dintre dou trsturi Capitolul 5 The Influence of Group
de personalitate ale modelului Big Five, Diversity, Group Processes and Style of
contiinciozitate i extraversiune, i performana Leadership on Perceived Group Performance
grupului, lund n considerare i efectul mediator examineaz influena diversitii, a proceselor de
al coeziunii sociale i coeziunii axate pe sarcin. grup i stilului de conducere asupra performanei
Rezultatele indic faptul c o medie ridicat a percepute a grupului (Eveline M.C. Kienhuis)
grupului pe variabila contiinciozitate este propunnd un model conceptual axat pe atribute
134
Recenzii i note bibliografice
vizibile i mai puin vizibile ale diversitii, organizaional este analizat ca i fenomen tipic
procese de grup (coordonare i comunicare), de cogniie social mprtit, sunt discutate
conducere tranformaional i tranzacional i principalele metode de studiu al identitii
performan perceput. Acest model a fost testat organizaionale i a cogniiilor mprtite
pe 14 grupuri mari aparinnd unui parc. insistnd asupra validitii metodologiei Q ca
Atributele vizibile ale diversitii s-au dovedit a instrument de reprezentare i extragere a
avea un impact negativ, dei nesemnificativ, cogniiilor mprtite. n acest studiu s-a folosit
asupra performanei percepute, pe cnd cele mai sarcina de alctuire a hrilor conceptuale ca i
puin vizibile au un efect pozitiv. Efectul msur concurent pentru evaluarea validitii
proceselor de grup este i el pozitiv. n ceea ce metodei Q. Din pcate, datorit unor distorsiuni
privete efectul de moderare din partea stilurilor ale procedurii i eantionului mic nu s-au putut
de conducere rezultatele nu au fost clare i o extrage concluzii clare asupra acestei abordri
concluzie major nu poate fi extras de vreme ce de validare (Boro, 2006).
stilurile au fost puternic corelate n acest studiu. Capitolul 9 How Does it Work? The
Martijn G. W. F. Agterberg, n Capitolul 6 Effects of Group Diversity, Group Processes and
(The Effectiveness of Student Project Teams: An Leadership Style on Individual and Group
Open System Perspective) i orienteaz Outcomes (Pieter Schep) revine asupra unor
cercetarea asupra a 53 grupuri de studeni care relaii intens studiate i n capitolele anterioare,
au ca sarcin realizarea diferitelor proiecte. dar pune un accent nou pe performana
Punctul de plecare este teoria sistemelor individual perceput i satisfacia muncii n
deschise care st i la baza modelului conceptual studiul su asupra a 4 echipe dintr-o organizaie
al cercetrii. n acest model diversitatea nonguvernamental. Acest subiect al satisfaciei
constituie un antecedent care influeneaz muncii i rolul su n relaia dintre diversitate,
negativ calitatea lucrului n echip (procesele de stilul de conducere i performana individual
grup i strile emergente) precum i conflictul n este reluat i n ultimul capitol al crii, Capitolul
grup, n mod pozitiv (relaional i legat de 10, de ctre Jim Nicolaas Antonius Prince (Is Job
sarcin). Acestea, la rndul lor (mai puin Satisfaction the Bridge between The group
conflictul relaional), sunt ateptate s aib un Diversity, Leadership Style and Individual Job
impact direct asupra performanei grupului. Performance). n modelul pe care l propune Jim
Natura relaiei dintre diversitate i performan Prince satisfacia muncii este considerat i ca
este ns foarte complex, studiul de fa oferind variabil general, i operaionalizat n
suport att pentru un impact pozitiv ct i pentru satisfacie intrinsec i extrinsec, dar modelul
unul negativ, n funcie de natura sarcinii. Atunci propus nu este susinut de datele empirice. Cu
cnd complexitatea cognitiv i creativitatea sunt toate acestea, autorul poate susine concluzia
parte a sarcinii ele sunt favorizate de diversitate conform creia stilul de conducere
cognitiv i conflict relaionat cu sarcina. transformaional are cea mai puternic influen
Capitolul 7, Relationship Conflict and asupra satisfaciei cu munca precum i faptul c
Conflict Resolution Strategies in Multicultural satisfacia extrinsec are un efect negativ asupra
Teams, analizeaz conflictul relaional i strategii performanei individuale. Ipoteza punii de
de rezolvare a conflictului n echipe multiculturale legtur propus pentru satisfacia cu munca
(Gilberth G. Wernet) pornind de la ntrebarea necesit deci verificare suplimentar.
Cum fac fa echipele multiculturale conflictului Dincolo de actualitatea i importana
relaional?. Ceea ce aduce nou studiul de fa cercetrii fenomenelor asociate diversitii
este considerarea variabilelor colectivism vs. grupului ntr-o societate n care munca n echipe
individualism i efectul lor asupra strategiilor de multidisciplinare i multiculturale devine o
management al conflictul relaional. Dei multe realitate obinuit a activitii organizaionale,
rezultate nu s-au dovedit semnificative, ele ofer considerm c lucrarea de fa i aduce
multe direcii interesante de interpretare a contribuia i la un alt nivel. Reprezentnd un
diversitii echipelor multiculturale i strategiilor efort de ncurajare i implicare n cercetare a
de management al conflictului ale acestora. studenilor masteranzi din cadrul departamentului
Capitolul 8, Cognitive Diversity and de studii organizaionale a Universitii din
Group Dynamics (Smaranda Boro) reorienteaz Tilburg, Olanda (Cu excepia Capitolului 1 i 8,
atenia asupra diversitii n termeni de coninut i toate studiile aparin studenilor) aceast lucrare
structur a reprezentrilor cognitive deinute de stabilete un model i totodat un standard. Un
membrii grupului i efectul acesteia asupra model pentru profesori i modul n care acetia
rapiditii obinerii consensului, asupra strilor pot s i organizeze interaciunea cu studenii
emergente i eficienei grupului. Identitatea tranformndu-i din receptori n colaboratori, iar
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pentru acetia din urm un standard de calitate n teoretice relevante pentru dezvoltarea
abordarea lucrrilor i demersurilor tiinifice la metodologiilor de investigare a conflictelor.
acest nivel i totodat un imbold spre seriozitate Capitolul al doilea, Cauzalitatea
i dedicare. Cu toate contribuiile dar i limitrile conflictelor din grupuri (de munc) i organizaii
subliniate, aceast carte ar trebui s constituie n ofer o aprofundare a surselor dezacordurilor,
primul rnd o provocare pentru noi toi. tensiunilor i conflictelor. Autorul difereniaz
ntre factorii ce in de natura actorilor sociali i
Daniela Onac relaiile care se stabilesc ntre acetia i factorii
care in de structura grupului/ organizaiei.
n cadrul celui de-al treilea capitol,
Marius Milcu (2006). Conflicte n grupuri i Formal vs. informal n dinamica tensiunilor i
organizaii. Sibiu, Editura Universitii Lucian conflictelor: interaciune i aspecte calitative,
Blaga (182 p). autorul discut problematica reprezentrii
structurilor organizaionale, a activitii de
Conflictele aprute la diferite nivele - conducere i a politicii de formare profesional,
ntre indivizi, n cadrul grupurilor sau vzute ca poteniale surse de tensiune i conflict
organizaiilor - suscit att interesul n organizaii. Parcurgerea acestui capitol
teoreticienilor, ct i al actorilor sociali silii s contientizeaz cititorul asupra rolului
gestioneze zilnic astfel de situaii. Gestionarea reprezentrilor, stereotipurilor, credinelor i
eficient, sau mai puin eficient a conflictelor miturilor organizaionale i asupra consecinelor
poate determina efecte pozitive, benefice, sau, induse de acestea n cadrul organizaiilor.
dimpotriv, negative, distructive, la nivelul unei Partea a doua a lucrrii ncepe cu
organizaii. Acesta are uneori implicaii majore capitolul al patrulea, Proiectarea cercetrii
chiar la nivelul mediului social n care aceasta i conflictelor (designul experimental). Remarcm
desfoar activitatea. introducerea unui subcapitol care prezint
Conflicte n grupuri i organizaii de dificultile metodologice care trebuie luate n
Marius Milcu reprezint o continuare a activitii considerare n investigarea conflictelor i a unui
susinute de investigare a acestui domeniu subcapitol n care sunt discutate implicaiile etice
realizat de autor. ale cercetrii asupra tensiunilor i conflictelor,
Lucrarea este structurat pe dou pri: aspect ce ar trebui n mod prioritar s ghideze
prima parte este o prezentare teoretic a proiectarea cercetrilor ntr-un domeniu. Dei se
problematicii conflictului, particularizat la grupuri poate observa c Marius Milcu nu urmeaz
i organizaii, iar a doua parte cuprinde ntrutotul demersul consacrat de elaborare a
prezentarea unui demers experimental. prii metodologice a lucrrii, acest fapt poate fi
n ceea ce privete modalitatea de justificat prin intenia autorului de a detalia mai
prezentare a informaiei, remarcm c fiecare degrab didactic o serie de elemente care pot i
capitol ncepe cu o list de cuvinte i expresii trebuie avute n vedere n investigarea
cheie i o sintez a obiectivelor operaionale conflictelor. Din acest motiv, lucrarea este util
urmrite, care fac din lucrare un instrument util, celor aflai n etapa iniial de investigare a unor
cititorul putnd identifica rapid i cu uurin, aspecte relevante din acest domeniu.
aspectele relevante pentru investigarea Capitolul 5, Prelucrarea i interpretarea
conflictelor. Acelai rol l au i un index de autori, rezultatelor cercetrii i capitolul 6, Modificri
respectiv un index de subiecte, prezentate la survenite la nivelul sistemului de mentaliti,
sfritul lucrrii. Totodat, cititorii au posibilitatea ideologii, reprezentri, valori profesionale
s i verifice cunotinele, parcurgnd ntrebrile (S.M.I.R.V.p.) n cursul cercetrii prezint n
i exerciiile de autoevaluare care se regsesc n detaliu un demers experimental complex de
cadrul fiecrui capitol. abordare a conflictelor i negocierilor la nivel
Primul capitol, Definiii i tipologii ale organizaional, cercetrile efectuate fiind
conflictelor din grupuri i organizaii reprezint o amnunit descrise.
introducere n problematica vizat. Marius Milcu n baza rezultatelor obinute, n cadrul
prezint cteva perspective teoretice asupra capitolului 7, Consideraii finale: argument n
conflictelor, definiii i tipologii ale conflictelor. favoarea unei terapii sociale, Marius Milcu
Remarcm n mod deosebit faptul c tipologiile/ pledeaz pentru o abordare constructiv a
clasificrile prezentate sunt analizate din conflictelor, bazat pe stimularea schimbrii prin
perspectiva posibilitilor de valorificare, fiind manipularea diferenelor i opoziiilor din cadrul
puse la dispoziia cititorilor o serie de distincii grupurilor i organizaiilor, crescnd oportunitile
de evoluie a organizaiilor.
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Recenzii i note bibliografice
n concluzie, putem afirma c lucrarea ale organizaiilor. Implicaiile conflictelor, fie ele
ofer o serie de repere utile pentru nelegerea pozitive sau negative, sunt prezentate la nivel
stadiului actual n investigarea conflictelor n individual, de grup i organizaional.
grupuri i organizaii, ct i pentru desfurarea Capitolul al treilea intitulat Rspunsuri
cercetrilor viitoare n domeniu. Totodat, strategice la relaiile de putere prezint puterea
lucrarea lui Marius Milcu reuete s atrag ca fiind un concept relaional, dup care se trece
atenia cititorilor asupra necesitii exploatrii la prezentarea tipologiei puterii inndu-se cont
constructive a conflictelor, consecine inerente de sursa pe care aceasta o poate avea (putere
ale diferenelor ntre sistemele de reprezentri, de recompens, de coerciie, legitim, de
ideologii, credine i mentaliti ale actorilor referin, de competen, informaional).
sociali. Urmtorul aspect prezentat este rspunsul pe
care l pot avea subordonaii n cadrul unei relaii
Roxana Capotescu formale de exercitare a puterii: acordul exprimat
deschis, acordul cu solicitarea unor compensaii,
dezacordul exprimat deschis, dezacordul
Marius Milcu (2006). Divergene, tensiuni i neexprimat sau mascat i fenomenele colective
conflicte: o analiz multidimensional. Sibiu, observabile n acest caz. n finalul capitolului sunt
Editura Universitii L Blaga (151 p.) prezentate cteva aspecte dinamice care au n
vedere metode i strategii de reglare a
Divergenele, tensiunile i conflictele raporturilor de putere nesatisfctoare care
reprezint aspecte inerente ale interaciunii exist la un anumit moment.
sociale. Interesul fa de acestea este Capitolul patru ofer un model explicativ-
argumentat de impactul pe care l au la nivel de interpretativ al conflictului n grupuri i organizaii,
individ, grup i organizaie. prezentnd, ntr-o prim etap, comportamentele
Dac n cartea Psihologia relaiilor i strategiile de declanare a conflictelor, urmnd
interpersonale. Competiie i conflict (2005) ca apoi s treac la prezentarea sumar a
autorul i-a propus o analiz a rolului individului elementelor componente ale conflictelor i a
i a circumstanelor sociale n declanarea, modului de interaciune dintre aceste
dinamica i soluionarea conflictelor, aceast componente.
carte ofer o perspectiv multidimensional, Dei capitolul doi a prezentat consecinele
calitativ a divergenelor, tensiunilor i conflictelor negative ale conflictelor la nivel individual, de
la nivelul grupurilor i organizaiilor. Acest lucru grup i organizaional, se revine asupra acestor
se realizeaz lund n considerare aspectele consecine, dar din perspectiva modelului propus
formale i informale care guverneaz aceste n capitolul anterior. Astfel, este abordat
structuri. motivarea participanilor i atitudinile lor,
Cartea propune un model explicativ al percepia social, calitatea comunicrii,
conflictelor, iar abordarea autorului are ca i implicarea conducerii n declanarea i
element central conceptul de putere. managementul conflictelor.
Primul capitol ofer cteva informaii Cartea trateaz conflictul ca fenomen
generale referitoare la conflicte. Astfel, se face o benefic n istoria unei organizaii, cu toate c
trecere n revist a ctorva definiii ale acestea sunt ntotdeauna asociate cu
conflictelor, rolul conflictelor n viaa psihic i a disconfortul. Astfel, rolul conflictelor este acela de
unor aspecte legate de percepia conflictului. a elibera i direciona noi resurse individuale i
Capitolul doi prezint sursele sociale. Autorul propune n acest context o dubl
dezacordurilor i consecinelor negative i strategie managerial, una care s aib n
pozitive ale acestora n cadrul diferitelor tipuri de vedere controlul i stoparea declanrii unor
conflicte. Astfel, autorul ncepe cu conflictul n conflicte cu un potenial distructiv crescut i una
care este implicat o singur parte social, dup de amorsare a conflictelor cu potenial
care se trece la conflictul care implic cel puin constructiv.
dou pri sociale. n cadrul conflictului dintre Cartea este structurat sub forma unui
dou pri sociale se realizeaz o analiz mai material cu scop didactic, pentru fiecare capitol
detaliat n funcie de prile implicate: individ- fiind trecute cuvintele cheie, obiectivele
individ, individ-grup, individ-organizaie, grup- operaionale, iar la final, rezumatul urmat de
organizaie i conflictele dintre grupuri. Analiza exerciii de autoevaluare.
surselor de conflict se realizeaz inndu-se cont Camelia Rusu
de trsturile individuale n cazul n care sunt
implicai indivizi i de caracteristicile grupurilor i
137
A TREIA EDIIE A CONFERINEI ROCHI
Daniela Onac
Universitatea Babe-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca
138
Informaii
Ctlina Ciuce
Universitatea Babe- Bolyai, Cluj Napoca
Anul acesta, n perioada 7 -10 iulie, obiectiv, trasarea unui spaiu european de
Asociaia Internaional de Psihologia Muncii de cercetare; crearea unei formaiuni de cercettori
Limb Francez (Lassociation Internationale de la nivel european care s favorizeze i s
Psychologie du Travail de Langue Franaise - stimuleze mprtirea i schimburile continue de
AIPTLF) a organizat cel de al 14-lea congres de informaii; stimularea colaborrii dintre cercetare
psihologia muncii i dezvoltarea persoanelor i i practic, pentru ca cele dou s se dezvolte
organizaiilor, la Hammamet, Tunisia. reciproc.
Organizat pentru prima dat ntr-o ar n ceea ce privete desfurarea
african, congresul din acest an vine cu un scop efectiv a congresului, acesta a fost organizat
suplimentar prezentrii ultimelor studii i cercetri ntr-o serie de sesiuni de prezentare a studiilor i
realizate la nivel internaional n acest domeniu cercetrilor, tematica aleas fiind extrem de
susine preedintele congresului, domnul variat i incluznd probleme precum: sntatea
Noureddine Krids. Acest scop se refer la ocupaional i problematica stresului profesional
dezvoltarea att a psihologiei tunisiene n n general, identitate i cultur organizaional,
general, ct mai specific a domeniului psihologiei motivaie angajament i valori profesionale,
muncii, aflat deocamdat la nceput n aceast interculturalitate i diversitate n mediul
comunitate tiinific n care s-a introdus de organizaional, stiluri i direcii de conducere,
curnd studiul psihologiei muncii i problematica accidentelor de munc i a riscurilor
organizaionale. ocupaionale, ergonomie, selecie i recrutare de
n deschiderea congresului, Pierre personal etc.
Salengros de la Universitatea Liber din Din pcate, n ciuda participrii
Bruxelles, a realizat o trecere n revist a internaionale, nivelul tiinific al congresului nu s-
practicilor actuale din domeniul psihologiei a ridicat la standardele vizate. Fr a recurge la
muncii, n cadrul unei prezentri intitulat generalizri, nivelul lucrrilor nu a fost
sugestiv Psihologia muncii i dezvoltrii: o ntotdeauna cel al unui congres internaional, ci
chestiune de form sau o chestiune de dimpotriv, s-au prezentat studii cu minusuri
coninut?. Se atrage atenia n cadrul acestei serioase, mai ales la nivel metodologic i al
discuii asupra problemelor generate de o statisticilor aplicate. Dei pe lng prezentarea n
separare a metodelor tiinifice de coninuturile plen a lucrrilor a fost organizat i o seciune de
efective, mai ales n momentul n care metode de postere, interesul participanilor pentru aceasta a
analiz specifice i funcionale n cadrul anumitor fost ct se poate de limitat, aspect valabil i
comuniti sunt aplicate fr o adaptare pentru participarea general la seciunile de
prealabil n contexte diferite att la nivel cultural, lucrri. Este probabil uor de explicat acest
dar i la nivel de stadiu de dezvoltare i trebuine aspect n condiiile n care congresul s-a
specifice. desfurat n incinta unui hotel superb pe
Participarea internaional important a marginea mrii, iar bazarurile tunisiene situate n
constituit unul dintre punctele forte ale acestui vechile medine, ale Hammametului reprezint o
congres i a fcut oportun i, totodat posibil, concuren real pentru manifestrile tinifice.
trasarea unor direcii viitoare de dezvoltare la Dei un eveniment extrem de plcut din
nivelul comunitii tiinifice fracofone. Ideile i punct de vedere al interaciunii sociale, al
recomandrile pentru aciunile care trebuiesc posibilitilor de colaborare viitoare pe plan
implementate sunt urmtoarele: Crearea unor internaional i desfurat ntr-o locaie extrem de
reele europene pentru a realiza un schimb de fericit aleas, se pot nc face mbuntiri
informaii, idei de cercetare, dar i pentru a importante la nivel tiinific pentru ca acesta s
compara rezultate, sau a oferi instituiilor sugestii devin un adevrat congres internaional al
mai valide i cu un carcater mai general, n comunitii francofone, la standarde de cea mai
condiiile n care, Europa i stabilete ca nalt clas, aa cum ar merita.
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