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NERVII CRANIENI
Ediţie bilingvă româno-engleză
EDITURA JUNIMEA
IAŞI – 2011
3
AUTORI
Şef lucrări Dr. Cristina Furnică Conf. Dr. Horaţiu Varlam
Catedra de Anatomie Catedra de Anatomie
Facultatea de Medicină Facultatea de Medicină
UMF „Gr. T. Popa” UMF „Gr. T. Popa”
Str. Universităţii, nr. 16, Iaşi Iaşi Str. Universităţii, nr. 16,
E-mail: cristinafurnica@yahoo.com E-mail: horatiuvarlam@yahoo.com
REFERENŢI ŞTIINŢIFICI
Prof. Dr. Petru Bordei Prof. Dr. Tiberiu Vlad
Catedra de Anatomie şi Catedra de Anatomie Artistică
Embriologie Facultatea de Arte Plastice,
Facultatea de Medicină Decorative şi Design
Universitatea “Ovidius”, Constanţa UA „G. Enescu”
Str. Sărărie nr. 189, Iaşi
ILUSTRAŢII tiberiuvlad@hotmail.com
Prof. Univ. Dr. Dan-Ştefan Antohe
Asist. Univ. Drd. Raluca Minea,
Catedra de Anatomie Artistică
Facultatea de Arte Plastice,
Decorative şi Design, Iaşi
Copyright 2011 All rights, including the rights of publication, distribution and sales, as well as the right to
translation, are reserved.
611.83
612.81
611.7
CUPRINS
Generalităţi
Sistemul nervos (systema nervosum) este alcătuit dintr-o parte centrală, sistemul nervos
central (systema nervosum centrale, pars centralis) sau nevraxul care are topografie
dorsoaxială şi este conţinut în cutia craniană şi în canalul rahidian şi dintr-o parte periferică,
sistemul nervos periferic (systema nervosum periphericum, pars peripherica) care
conectează sistemul nervos central cu efectorii somatici şi viscerali, cu telereceptorii şi cu
extero, proprio şi interoreceptorii. La rândul său, sistemul nervos peripheric este format din
nervii cranieni (nervi craniales), nervii spinali (nervi spinales) şi din sistemul nervos
autonom (divisio autonomica). Sistemul nervos autonom, care asigură funcţionalitatea
sistemelor viscerale, este un subiect de mare actualitate, neglijat sau tratat superficial de
curiculele academice, datorită, credem noi, complexităţii sale sporită zilnic de noi
descoperiri. Într-adevăr, dacă părţile simpatică (pars sympathica) şi parasimpatică (pars
parasympathica) ale sistemului nervos autonom sunt relative bine cunoscute din punct de
vedere strict anatomic, componentele sale plexuale intramurale (plexus viscerales et
ganglia visceralia) constituie azi domenii de frontieră în cercetarea neuroştiinţifică. Prin
corelarea studiilor moderne de neuroimunohistochimie cu cele de neurofarmacologie şi
farmacogenomică s-au obţinut rezultate spectaculoase privind stuctura şi funcţiile normale
dar şi patologice ale sistemelor nervoase intraparietale viscerale. Este suficient să amintim
cazul sistemului nervos enteric (SNE), care, deşi nu este nici măcar menţionat de ultima
ediţie a Terminologiei Anatomica (1998), are de două ori mai mulţi neuroni decât măduva
spinării şi este baza unei noi discipline clinice, Neurogastroenterologia. Din aceste motive
Sistemul Nervos Periferic este conceput în trei volume, respectiv Nervii cranieni, Nervii
spinali şi Sistemul nervos autonom.
Thomas Willis (1621- 1675).
11 Sistemul nervos periferic
NERVII CRANIENI
(NERVI CRANIALES)
Un studiu atent al istoriei anatomiei arată că nervii au fost printre structurile cele mai
greu de definit şi clasificat deşi, ca şi alte numeroase elemente anatomice, au fost cunoscuţi
încă din Antichitate.
Probabil, prima afirmaţie apropiată de adevăr privind nervii cranieni aparţine lui Alcmaeon
din Crotona (sec.V Î.C), elev al lui Pythagoras din Samos, care credea că aceştia transportă
informaţii (“spirit vital”) spre encefal.
Două secole mai târziu Herophilus din Chalcedonia (335-280 A.C.) fondatorul
Şcolii din Alexandria diferenţiază nervii senzitivi de cei motori iar colaboratorul său,
Erasistratus ( 304-250 AC), descrie diviziunile creierului.
După moartea lui Erasistratus progresele anatomiei sunt insignifiante şi obscure până
in secolul I D.C. când Rufus din Ephes (sec I), contemporan cu împăratul Traian, scrie “De
nominis partium corporis humani” în care descrie chiasma optică şi arată că, la animale,
compresiunea nervului recurent are ca efect pierderea vocii.
Spre sfârşitul secolului I, Marinus reia tradiţia alexandrină şi formează la Pergam o
şcoală strălucită ai cărei elevi se răspândesc în Europa antichităţii târzii. Opera anatomică a
lui Marinus, considerat de Galen “restauratorul” anatomiei, însumează 20 de volume.
Cel mai important reprezentant al acestei şcoli şi al primului mileniu a fost Galen
din Pergam (129-217 A.D.) a cărui operă anatomică “ De anatomicis administrationibus ” a
fost concepută în 15 volume dintre care primele 10 s-au păstrat în versiunea originală, în
limba greacă, iar ultimele 5 în traducerea în limba arabă, realizată de Nunain ibn Ishak (809-
873).
Planul general de organizare al lucrării, pe care îl redăm mai jos, este extrem de
interesant prin repartiţia pe volume a tematicii şi poate servi ca model pentru orice curriculum
sau tratat modern de anatomie:
Volumul I – Disecţia, generalităţi; anatomia muşchilor şi ligamentelor braţului.
Volumul II – Muşchii şi ligamentele gambei.
Volumul III – Nervii, venele şi arterele mâinii şi piciorului.
Volumul IV – Muşchii feţei, capului, gâtului şi umărului.
Volumul V – Muşchii toracelui, abdomenului, regiunii lombare şi ai coloanei vertebrale.
Volumul VI – Organele abdominale.
Volumul VII – Organele toracelui.
Volumul VIII – Alte organe ale toracelui
Volumul IX – Creierul.
Volumul X – Faţa, gura şi faringele.
Volumul XI – Laringele şi structurile asociate.
Volumul XII – Organele sexuale şi dezvoltarea fătului.
Nervi cranieni 12
Bulbul
olfactiv
Tractul
olfactiv
Chiasma şi N. optic
tractul optic
N. trohlear N. oculomotor
N. trigemen
N. abducens
N. facial
N. hipoglos N. cohleo-
vestibular
N. vag
Ganglionul
simpatic cervical
superior
nervului facial care-i poartă şi astăzi numele. A deosebit nervul facial de cel cochlear şi
nervul trochlear de abducens.
A B
mezoblastic” care, la adult, formează fosele trigeminală (V), geniculată (VII), pietroasă
(IX) şi incizura jugulară (X,XI) a părţii pietroase a osului temporal.
Nervul cranian branhiomeric astfel format, abordează arcul faringian prin baza
acestuia şi la nivelul extremităţii dorsale a şanţului faringian se împarte în două ramuri:
caudală, mai voluminoasă, mixtă care conţine toate fibrele motorii şi cea mai mare
parte a fibrelor senzitive ale nervului. Ea se numeşte ramură posttrematică deoarece
se dirijează în sens dorsoventral de-a lungul marginii craniale a arcului faringian (care
delimitează inferior şanţul faringian- trema) pe care îl inervează majoritar;
cranială, subţire, numai senzitivă, numită ramură pretrematică deoarece se
dirijează în sens dorsoventral de-a lungul marginii caudale a arcului faringian
supraiacent unde inervează teritorii cutanate restrânse.
3 2 1
4 3 2 1
5 4
6 5
6
7
7
VII V
IX Pr
Pp
A B
fibre eferente viscerale generale (general visceral efferent-GVE), care sunt fibre
preganglionare parasimpatice destinate teritoriilor viscerale ale capului şi feţei (glande şi
muşchii netezi ai pereţilor arteriali şi ai firelor de păr) şi viscerelor cervicotoraco-abdominale
care iau calea nervilor III, VII, IX şi X.
fibre aferente somatice speciale (special somatic afferent - SSA) care transportă de
la telereceptorii optic, cohlear şi vestibular informaţii specifice. Trebuie subliniat faptul că,
spre deosebire de nervul vestibulocohlear (VIII) care transportă informaţii primare, nervul
optic (II) transmite informaţii de ordinul III prelucrate în releele neuronale retiniene.
fibre aferente viscerale speciale (special visceral afferent - SVA) care transportă
informaţii provenite de sistemele receptore olfactiv (I) şi gustativ (VII,IX,X)
fibre eferente viscerale speciale (special visceral efferent - SVE) care sunt axoni ai
motoneuronilor din coloana motorie branhiomerică a rombencefalului ce iau calea nervilor
cranieni branhiomerici şi inervează muşchii derivaţi din arcurilor faringiene;
fibre eferente (centrifugale) ale sistemelor de retrocontrol olfactiv, optic, vestibular
şi cohlear.
Structura nervului cranian
Fibrele nervoase care intră în alcătuirea nervului cranian pot fi:
A alfa, sunt groase (15-20 μm), puternic mielinizate şi au viteză mare de
conducere (70-120 m/sec). Axoni aferenţi alfa conduc sensibilitatea epicritică
proprioceptivă provenită de la fusurile neuromusculare şi organele tendinoase
Golgi iar cei alfa eferenţi inervează muşchii striaţi;
A beta, sunt mai subţiri (în medie 8 μm) şi au viteză medie de conducere (30-70
m/sec). Axonii A beta sunt numai aferenţi şi conduc sensibilitatea epicritică
tactilă;
A gamma cu diametrul mediu de 5 μm şi viteză mică de conducere (15-30 m/sec)
sunt numai eferenţi şi inervează porţiunea contractilă a fusului neuromuscular;
A delta şi C sunt cele mai subţiri, slab mielinizate (A delta) sau amielinice (C), au
diametrul mediu de 3 μm şi conduc impulsurile sensibilităţii termice (A delta) şi
dureroase (C) cutanate cu 15-25 m/sec. Fibrele amielinice C formează mare
majoritate a eferenţelor pre şi postganglionare ale sistemului nervos autonom.
Formarea trunchiului nervului cranian
Intranevraxial, axonii care vor intra în alcătuirea unui nerv cranian sunt înveliţi în teci
mielinice de tip central formate de prelugirile oligodendrogliei. Fiecare oligodendrocit
asociază 3-6 axoni iar segmentul intracerebral al nervului se individualizează prin interrelaţii
directe cu structurile învecinate care menţin unitatea tronculară. La ieşirea din trunchiul
cerebral mielina centrală este înlocuită cu mielina periferică produsă de celule Schwann
(care lipsesc în SNC). Zona de tranziţie între mielina periferică şi cea centrală este razantă cu
suprafaţa trunchiului cerebral pentru nervii III, IV, VI şi VIII-XII. Teritoriul mielinic central
se prelungeşte extranevraxial cu 2-8 mm pe trunchiurilor nervilor trigemen şi facial iar axonii
nervilor olfactiv şi optic au numai teacă de mielină centrală, oligodendrocitară, ceea ce
confirmă odată mai mult că aceşti doi nervi sunt porţiuni exteriorizate ale telediencefalului.
La ieşirea din trunchiul cerebral pia mater pătrunde printre fascicolele axonale cu
intima piae în contact direct cu teaca de mielină şi formează teci endo, peri şi epineurale.
23 Sistemul nervos periferic
Membrana
Liliequist
A. cerebralis
posterior
N. oculomotorius
A. cerebellaris
anterior
A. vertebralis
Aici nervii cranieni se comportă diferit. La nivelul fosei cerebrale mijlocii nervii
oculomotor, trohlear, abducens şi trigemen cu ramurile sale perforează dura mater prin pori
durali bine individualizaţi şi pătrund în canalul dural. Între trunchiul nervos acoperit de pia
mater şi arahnoida care tapisează canalul dural se delimitează microcisterna perinervoasă
care se întinde pe toată lungimea canalului transdural.
La poarta de ieşire prin baza craniului cisterna perinervoasă se termină în fund de
sac, arachnoida continuându-se cu pia mater peritronculară iar dura mater cu periostul
exobazei.
În fosa cerebrală posterioară nervii cranieni facial, vestibulocohlear, glosofaringian,
vag, accesor şi hipoglos se grupează în trei pediculi care traversează unghiul pontocerebelos
şi abordează direct meatul acustic intern, foramenul jugular şi canalul hipoglosal iar
microcisternele perinervoase au aceeaşi lungime cu canalele respective. În concluzie
microcisternele perinervoase ale fosei cerebrale mijlocii sunt alcătuite din două segmente,
transdural şi transportal în timp ce cele ale fosei cerebrale posterioare prezintă numai
segmentul transportal.
Vascularizaţia nervului cranian este asigurată de artere de vecinătate de mic calibru
care formează pediculi arteriali segmentari. Arteriola segmentară abordează trunchiul
nervului cranian pe faţa cerebrală a perineuriului şi se împarte într-o ramura centrală şi alta
periferică. Fiecare din acestea pătrund prin tecile epi, peri şi endoneurale şi se
Nervi cranieni 24
posteromedial de nervul pietros mare şi lateral de linia care uneşte foramenul oval cu
hiatusul canalului nervului facial;
triunghiul posteromedial (Kawase) corespunde posterior labirintului cohlear şi
anteromedial segmentului pietros al arterei carotid interne. Este delimitat
anteromedial de marginea laterală a cavum-ului Meckeli şi a ganglionul Gasser,
lateral nervul pietros mare şi posterior de linia care uneşte hiatusul canalului nervului
facial cu porul dural al cavum-ului Meckeli. Limita posterioară poate fi extinsă până
la sinusul pietros superior situaţie în care aria delimitată devine romboidală;
triunghiul opticocarotidian corespunde arterei comunicante posterioare şi este
limitat anterolateral de segmentul preoptic al arterei cerebrale anterioare, anteromedial
de nervul optic şi posterior de artera carotid internă.
Triunghiurile fosei cerebrale posterioare:
triunghiul paraclival inferomedial corespunde procesului clinoid posterior şi este
limitat superior de linia care uneşte procesul clinoid posterior cu porul dural al
nervului trohlear, lateral de linia care uneşte porii durali ai nervilor trohlear şi
abducens iar medial de linia care uneşte porul dural al nervului abducens cu procesul
clinoid posterior;
triunghiul paraclival inferolateral corespunde porului trigeminal prin care nervul
trigemen intră în cavum Meckeli şi este limitat medial de linia care uneşte porii durali
ai nervilor trohlear şi abducens, superior de linia care uneşte porul dural al nervului
abducens cu punctul de confluenţă al venei pietroase superioare cu sinusul pietros
superior iar inferior linia care uneşte porul dural al nervului trohlear cu confluenţa
sinusul pietros superior şi vena pietroasă superioară.
CAPITOLUL 1
Thomas Willis, The smelling nerve or the first pair (D), 1649.
Nervi cranieni 29
Tractul
olfactiv lateral
Stratul granular
Stratul
celulelor mitrale
Strat plexiform
extern cu neuroni
cu tufă dendritică
Strat glomerular
cu neuroni orizontali
amacrini
Lamina cribrosa
cu fila olfactoria
Celulă bazală
Neuron
olfactiv
Celule de
susţinere
iar central de un conţinut neurolichidian alcătuit din fasciculul nervos învelit în pia
mater şi dintr-o peliculă subţire de lichid cefalorahidian;
posterior, şanţul chiasmatic şi tractul optic cu cisterna adiacentă.
Bulbus
olfactorius
Tractus
olfactorius
AaCA
Stria
olfactoria
lateralis
Substantia
perforata
anterior
Uncus
hypocampi
N. et chiasma
opticum
Bulbul olfactiv este o structură elipsoidală alungită lungă de aproximativ 10 mm, lată
de 4,5 mm şi groasă de 2,2-2,4 mm (fig.1.4). Pe secţiune transversală are formă ovalară
turtită sau reniformă cu faţa convexă ventral iar citoarhitectonic are structură laminară de tip
cortical, fiind format din:
stratul nervului olfactiv format din axonii neuronilor olfactivi care se intersectează
formând o reţea densă (fig. 1.2);
stratul glomerular, format din glomeruli olfactivi (aproximativ 8000 la adult) în
care axonii neuronilor olfactivi, dispuşi vertical, se ramifică în buchet şi stabilesc
sinapse cu dendritele apicale ramificate „în perie” ale celulelor mitrale, cu cele ale
celulelor cu tufă dendritică şi cu dendritele dispuse orizontal ale celulelor
periglomerulare;
stratul plexiform extern, format din arborizaţiile dendritice bazale ale neuronilor
olfactivi secundari (celulele mitrale şi cu tufă dendritică) şi ale neuronilor granulari
interni;
stratul neuronilor mitrali este format din corpurile neuronilor mitrali dispuse pe un
singur rând (fig. 1.2);
Nervi cranieni 33
stratul granular este format din corpurile celulele granulare interne, din colaterale
ale axonilor neuronilor olfactivi secundari precum şi din axonii eferenţi ai
sistemului olfactiv de retrocontrol;
stratul fibrelor olfactive care intră în alcătuirea tractul olfactiv.
1.4. Organizarea sinaptică a bulbului olfactiv
Bulbul olfactiv reprezintă prelungirea rostrală a rhinencefalului şi, în viaţa
embriofetală, are organizare de tip telencefalic cu o cavitate centrală, ventriculul olfactiv,
care dispare la adult fiind înlocuit cu centrul medular de substanţă albă care se continuă cu
tractul olfactiv. Bulbul olfactiv este alcătuit din neuroni olfactivi secundari şi din
interneuroni.
* *
*
Stria
olfactoria
intermedia
Tuberculum
olfactoriuma
Substantia N.opticus
perforata
anterior Chiasma
Uncus opticum
hypocampi
Tractus
opticus
Tuber
cinereum
Corpus
mamillaris
Tractul olfactiv începe la polul posterior al bulbului olfactiv sub forma unei benzi de
substanţă albă aplatizată dorsoventral, lungă de aproximativ 25 mm şi lată de 3 mm, care
prezintă o faţă dorsală convexă în raport cu şanţul orbital intern şi o faţă ventrală pe care se
găseşte un şanţ axial care îi conferă un aspect concav (fig. 1.6). În segmentul iniţial al
tractului olfactiv se găseşte nucleul olfactiv anterior format din neuroni de talie intermediară
Nervi cranieni 35
situată pe faţa caudomedială a bulbului olfactiv şi, ca şi acesta, are organizare laminară în
aceleaşi şase straturi.
Axonii celulelor mitrale formează tractul olfactiv accesor care se termină în nucleul
medial al amigdalei şi în nucleii patului striei terminale.
Cellulae
ethmoidales
posteriores
Fasciculi n.
A et n. nasales olfactorii
mediales
Lamina
perpendicularis
N. vomero-
nasalis
A et n. nasopalatini
Cartilago mediales
septi nasi
Vomer
Organum
vomeronasale
R. Descartes, 1637.
Nervi cranieni 41
2.1.Consideraţii generale
Nervul optic face parte din sistemul neurosenzorial vizual şi reprezintă segmentul căii
optice cuprins între polul posterior al globului ocular şi corpul geniculat lateral. Este
individualizat anatomic sub forma unui cordon de fibre nervoase mielinizate care traversează
succesiv orbita, canalul optic şi încrucişează faţa inferioară a mezencefalului în traiectul său
spre metencefal. Conexiunea sa evidentă cu globul ocular i-a determinat pe anatomiştii
Antichităţii să-l denumească nerv optic, dar organizarea sa funcţională a fost elucidată relativ
târziu. Descartes (1596-1650) a fost primul care a asociat structurile orbitale cu vederea
binoculară descriind inervaţia reciprocă a muşchilor extrinseci ai globului ocular, iar John
Taylor (1703–1772), cavaler francez, şarlatan medical şi oftalmologist ambulant, a
descoperit încrucişarea fibrelor nazale ale nervului optic la nivelul chiasmei optice (Oyster
pag. 221). Alături de această descoperire epocală dar întâmplătoare, John Taylor va rămâne în
istoria medicinii prin două eşecuri de răsunet, orbindu-i pe … Johann Sebastian Bach şi …
Georg Friedrich Haendel în urma unor repetate operaţii de cataractă (fig. 2.1).
Fig. 2.1. John Taylor (1703-1772), autorul primei descrieri a chiasmei optice.
“Le côté gauche & le droit de chaque oeil communiquent l'un avec l'autre”,
“ la moitié des fibres de l'autre, à l'endroit où ils se rencontrent dans la tête”.
Existenţa chiasmei optice interpusă între nervul optic propriu-zis şi tractul optic
impune descrierea succintă a căii optice extranevraxiale, a cărei organizare sinaptică, traiect
lung şi raporturi complicate interoculotalamice permit înţelegerea manifestărilor vizuale
ale lezării unuia din segmente sale.
2.2.Organizarea sinaptică a retinei
Retina reprezintă tunica internă a globului ocular care tapisează faţa profundă a tunicii
vasculare şi prezintă un segment anterior, iridian, un segment intermediar, ciliar şi un
42 Nervul optic
segment posterior, coroidian, retina propriu-zisă sau retina vizuală. Faţa profundă a retinei
vizuale, care are raporturi cu corpul vitros, prezintă repere funcţionale importante observabile
la examenul fundului de ochi.
Macula lutea reprezintă zona centrală, locul în care axul vizual întâlneşte retina. Are
forma unei arii circulare cu diametrul de aproximativ 5 mm şi prezintă în centru o depresiune
numită fovea centralis care are diametrul de 2,5 mm şi centrul său de asemenea deprimat,
numit foveola conţine numai celule cu conuri şi reprezintă zona de maximă acuitate vizuală.
Toate aceste structuri sunt numite în clinică „macula”.
Papila optică reprezintă locul prin care axonii neuronilor ganglionari retinieni
părăsesc retina şi este situată la 1,5 mm nazal (medial) faţă de macula lutea.
Ora serrata reprezintă limita anatomică între coroidă şi corpul ciliar şi limita
periferică a retinei funcţionale, nervoase, care se continuă cu retina ciliară, pigmentară.
Structura retinei
De la suprafaţă către profunzime, retina este alcătuită din 10 straturi diferenţiabile
histologic şi funcţional, care au fost descrise atât de Cajal cât şi de Golgi la sfârşitul secolului
XIX:
stratul celulelor pigmentare este situat la limita între retină şi coroidă şi prezintă o
faţă externă în raport cu stratul coriocapilar şi o faţă internă prevăzută microvili şi
indentaţii în care pătrund prelungirile celulelor cu conuri şi bastonaşe. Faţa externă a
celulelor pigmentare aderă ferm de coroidă dar conexiunile între ea şi stratul
fotoreceptor sunt laxe şi permit dezlipirea de retină care constă în detaşarea
straturilor neurale de epiteliul pigmentar şi acumularea de lichid în acest spaţiu care
reprezintă de fapt spaţiul dintre cele două lamine ale cupei optice primitive.
stratul conurilor şi bastonaşelor reprezintă partea fotoreceptoare a retinei şi este
alcătuit din segmentele externe ale celulelor fotoreceptoare care sunt inclavate în
epiteliul pigmentar. În cursul stimulării vizuale segmentele periferice ale conurilor şi
bastonaşelor se consumă în procesul fotoreceptor şi se refac în totalitate în 9-10 zile
bastonaşele de partea profundă a celulelor fotoreceptoare.
stratul nuclear extern este format din nucleii celulelor cu conuri şi bastonaşe şi din
prelungirile lor centrale.
stratul plexiform extern este alcătuit din sinapsele dintre celulele fotoreceptoare şi
axonii periferici ai neuronilor bipolari la care se adaugă prelungirile dendritice ale
celulelor orizontale.
stratul nuclear intern este format din corpurile neuronilor bipolari, ai neuronilor
amacrini şi a celulelor orizontale şi interplexiforme. Neuronii bipolari sunt consideraţi
protoneuronii căii optice.
stratul plexiform intern este alcătuit din sinapsele dintre neuronii bipolari şi neuronii
ganglionari care sunt asociate prin dendritele celulellor amacrine şi interplexiforme;
stratul neuronilor ganglionari care sunt consideraţi deutoneuronii căii optice;
stratul fibrelor nervului optic format din axonii neuronilor ganglionari care converg
spre papila nervului optic şi părăsesc globul ocular prin lamina cribrosa;
membrana limitantă internă formată din expansiunile celulelor nevroglice Müller.
Celulele neurogliale ale retinei sunt reprezentate de astrocite care au dispoziţie
Nervi cranieni 43
similară cu cele din substanţa cenuşie a creierului şi din celulele neurogliale radiale Müller
care interconectează stratul fibrelor nervului optic cu cel al celulelor fotoreceptoare.
Vascularizaţia retinei este asigurată de artera centrală a retinei, ramură a arterei
oftamice care pătrunde prin discul optic, se împarte într-o ramură superioară şi alta
inferioară. Fiecare dintre acestea emit ramuri nazale şi temporale care vascularizează
segmentar cadranele retiniene corespunzătoare sub formă de plexuri capilare care ajung
până la stratul nuclear intern.
2.3.Originea reală
Originea reală a fibrelor nervului optic se găseşte în stratul neuronilor ganglionari
ai retinei ai căror axoni converg spre papila nervului optic, străbat tunicile globului ocular şi
la nivelul laminei cribrosa, se mielinizează şi se asociază în fascicule care părăsesc polul
posterior al globului ocular sub forma unui cordon rotunjit, gros de 2 - 4,5 mm şi lung de 41-
44 mm dintre care 29-31 mm reprezintă segmentul orbital.
N. oculomotorius
Fisura orbitalis
ramus superior
superior
A. ophtalmica
Vagina externa
N. opticus et a.
centralis retinae Spatium
Anulus tendineus intervaginale
communis Vagina interna
N. oculomotorius
ramus superior N. abducens
Anulus Zinni
M. rectus
N. oculomotorius lateralis
ramus inferior
Din punct de vedere topografic, nervul optic poate fi împărţit într-un segment intraorbital
(pars orbitalis) şi altul intracranian (pars intracranialis):
segment intraorbital sau intraconal care ţine de la polul posterior al globului ocular
şi până la apertura anterioară a canalului optic (fig. 2.4). Acest segment, care prezintă
două sinozităţi cu radius mare, este situat în axul central al conului muşchilor drepţi
ai globului ocular, în grosimea corpului adipos retrobulbar. Aici nervul prezintă:
faţă superioară, încrucişată în sens lateromedial de artera oftalmică în
raport cu faţa inferioară a muşchiului drept superior;
faţă inferioară în raport cu vena oftalmică inferioară, feţele superioare ale
muşchilor drept inferior şi oblic inferior şi cu ramura terminală inferioară a
nervului oculomotor;
N. et a. cilliares N. et a. cilliares
breves laterales longes laterales
N. et a. Glandula
nasocilliaris lacrimalis
Vagina N. lacrimalis
externa Bulbus oculi
Spatium polus posterior
intervaginale
subarahnoidale Ansa orbitalis
A. centralis
retinae Ganglion
Vagina cilliare
interna Radices ganglii
N. trochlearis
V. ophtalmica V. ophtalmica
medialis superior lateralis superior
N. trochlearis N. supratrochlearis
N. supraorbitalis
N. nasocilliaris et
a. ethmoidalis
anterior M. levator
palpebrae superioris
M. rectus superior
M. obliquus V. ophtalmica
superior superior
N. et a. lacrimalis
N. abducens
M. rectus
medialis
M. rectus
lateralis
V. ophtalmica
inferior
N. oculomotorius N. et canalis
ramus inferior orbitalis
M. rectus inferior
A. centralis
retinae
N. opticus
Chiasma
opticum
Tractus
opticus
Corpus
geniculatum
laterale
2
1
3 4
4 *
A B
Thomas Willis, The moving Nerves of the Eye, the third pair, (1649).
Nervi cranieni 51
3.1.Consideraţii generale
Nervul oculomotor este cel mai voluminos nerv visuomotor şi inervează muşchii
extrinseci ai globului ocular drept superior, drept medial, drept inferior şi oblic inferior,
muşchii intrinseci ai globului ocular ciliari şi ai irisului şi muşchii pleoapelor levator
palpebral, tarsal superior şi tarsal inferior ipsilterali. Deşi în accepţia clasică fibrele nervului
oculomotor sunt în totalitate ipsilaterale, studii relativ recente (Oyster 1999) au demonstrat că
axonii subnucleului drept superior se decusează înainte de a părăsi trunchiul cerebral ceea
ce sugerează ideea interesantă că muşchii feţei superioare a globului ocular au inervaţie
controlaterală.
Organizarea funcţională a nervului oculomotor este unică deoarece este singurul nerv
cranian eferent somatic care conţine de la origine şi fibre preganglionare parasimpatice
(eferente viscerale). Mai mult, de-a lungul traiectului său prin sinusul cavernos, structura
nervului se îmbogăţeşte şi se diversifică deoarece primeşte fibre simpatice postganglionare
din plexul pericarotidian destinate muşchilor intrinseci ai globului ocular, fibre
parasimpatice postganglionare cu originea în ganglionul pterigopalatin destinate muşchilor
tarsali şi axonii aferenţi proprioceptivi proveniţi de la fusurile neuromusculare ale
muşchilor extrinseci din care majoritatea ajung în nucleul trigeminal mezencefalic prin
anastomozele cu nervul oftalmic iar restul pătrund în mezencefal împreună cu nervul
oculomotor. Din această perspectivă nervul oculomotor apare comparabil cu nervii micşti ai
arcurilor faringiene.
3.2.Originea reală
Originea reală a nervului se găseşte în nucleul nervului oculomotor (n. nervi
oculomotorii), o coloană neuronală verticală, înaltă de 10-12mm, situată în profunzimea
tegmentumului mezecefalic, sub planşeul apeductului cerebral, ventrolateral faţă substanţa
cenuşie periapeductală, inclus în faţa dorsală a fasciculului longitudinal medial. Nucleul este
format din două coloane laterală şi medială şi din nucleul median de convergenţă Perlia.
Coloana laterală este formată, în sens craniocaudal, din subnucleii levator palpebral, drept
superior, oblic inferior, drept medial şi drept inferior. Coloana medială sau nucleul Edinger-
Westphal este situată pe faţa medială a coloanei laterale în dreptul subnucleului muşchiului
levator palpebral. Nucleul de convergenţă Perlia este situat median, la acelaşi nivelul cu
nucleul muşchiului drept medial.
Aferenţele nucleului nervului oculomotor provin de la sistemul vizuomotor care
include:
căile reflexelor de acomodare, vergenţă şi stabilizare a privirii (direcţionarea axelor
oculare spre acelaşi obiect situat la distanţă variabilă – vederea binoculară);
căile voluntare ale versiei privirii prin sistemul sacadelor (schimbarea rapidă a
privirii de la un punct la altul);
52 Nervul oculomotor
căile voluntare ale urmăririi lente, fin gradate, a unui obiect în mişcare.
Aferenţele visuomotorii provin de la:
ariile vizuale corticale pe calea tractul corticobulbar controlateral (dar sunt
descrise şi fibre ipsilaterale);
coliculul superior pe calea tractului tectobulbar;
nucleul fastigial al cerebelului prin intermediul nucleului prepositus
hypoglossi;
nucleul vestibular medial prin fibre controlaterale excitatorii, glutamatergice;
nucleul vestibular superior prin fibre fibre ipsilaterale inhibitorii,
glicinergice;
ceilalţi nuclei oculomotori ai coloanei eferente somatice;
nucleii interstitialis rostralis, prepositus hypoglossi şi raphe pontis
interpositus care pe calea fasciculului longitudinal medial asociază în sens
facilitant sau inhibitor nucleii visuomotori ai trunchiului cerebral;
Commissura Substantia
posterior grisea centralis
Apertura rostralis
acqueducti cerebri
Nucl. n.
oculomotorii
Nucl. ruber
Substantia
nigra
N. oculomotorius
Chiasma
opticum
A. cerebralis
posterior
N. oculo-
motorius
A. cerebellaris
superior
A. basilaris
N. levator palpebrae
M. rectus superior superioris
N. trohlearis N. lacrimalis
M. obliquus
superior
V. oftalmica
N. et a. superior lateralis
nasocilliaris N. oculomotorius
r. superior
N. oculomotorius N. abducens
r. inferior M. rectus
M. rectus
lateralis
medialis
V. oftalmica M. rectus
inferior medialis inferior
N. infra-
orbitalis
B
B
4.1.Consideraţii generale
Nervul trohlear este exclusiv motor, alcătuit din fibre eferente somatice care
inervează muşchiul oblic superior al globului ocular. Numele său derivă de la trohlea
(hipomochlion) acestui muşchi dar în literatura franceză poate fi întâlnit sub denumirea
metaforică de nerv patetic care sugerează acţiunea muşchiul oblic superior (privirea patetică).
Este nervul cu cel mai lung traiect intracranian (aprox 75 mm) şi cel mai subţire fiind alcătuit
din aproximativ 2400 axoni la nivelul originii superficiale şi din aproximativ 3500 în orbită.
Această variaţie sugerează faptul că, cel puţin iniţial, axonii proprioceptivi aferenţi proveniţi
de la fusurile neuromusculare ale muşchiului oblic superior iau calea nervului trochlear şi
că, în traiectul său cavernos, nervul primeşte fibre simpatice postganglionare din plexul
pericarotidian.
N
*
Colicullus
inferior
Nervus
trohlearis
A B
N. trochlearis
A. cerebellaris
anterior inferior
Pons
Flocculus
feţele laterală şi superioară ale nervului oculomotor şi la nivelul porţii sinusale anterioare
(care corespunde fisurii orbitale superioare) este situat cel mai medial şi superior având
inferior nervii oculomotor şi abducens şi lateral nervul oftalmic care se împarte aici în
ramurile sale terminale.
În orbită, nervul trohlear pătrunde prin fisura orbitală superioară superomedial faţă de
tendonului comun al muşchilor globului ocular şi se plasează sub plafonul orbitar şi
periorbită, având lateral muşchiul levator palpebral. Nervul se inflectează apoi medial şi se
termină printr-un buchet de ramuri care abordează muşchiul oblic superior de-a lungul treimii
mijlocii a feţei sale superolaterale (oculare).
4.5. Cosideraţii anatomoclinice.
Leziunea nervului trohlear produce diplopie verticală sau diagonală,
exciclotorsiune (rotaţie laterală a globului ocular) şi strabism convergent la privirea în jos.
Pacientul cu paralizie unilaterală tipică a muşchiului oblic superior îşi înclină capul de partea
opusă muşchiului paretic – semnul Bielschowsky- pentru a orizontaliza axele globilor
oculari şi prezintă dificultăţi la citit şi la coborârea scărilor. Paraliziile congenitale ale
nervului trohlear sunt rare, familiale, autosomal dominante. Tipurile şi sediile lezionale ale
nervului trohlear sunt asemănătoare cu a celorlalţi nervi cranieni visuomotori exceptând
leziunile de trunchi cerebral. Când leziunea nucleară sau fasciculară este proximală faţă de
decusatio nervi trochlearis apare paralizia muşchiului oblic superior controlateral. Când
leziunea este distală faţă de decusaţie se produce paralizia ipsilaterală a muşchiului (fig. 4.4).
CAPITOLUL 5
A. cerebellaris
anterior inferior
N. trochlearis
Radix motoria
n. trigemini
Radix sensoria
n. trigemini
A. basilaris
A. cerebellaris
anterior inferior
Chiasma
opticum
Sinus
cavernosus
A. carotis
interna
Paries lateralis
s. cavernosi N. ophtalmicus
N. maxillaris
N. trochlearis
N. oculomotorius
A. meningea media
r. frontalis
Chiasma
opticum
A. carotis
interna Canalis duralis
Sinus n. ophtalmici
cavernosus Canalis duralis
Cavum et n. maxillaris
cisterna A. meningea
trigeminalis media
N. trigeminus Ganglion
pars triangularis semilunare
Lig. spheno-
petrosum inferius
Sinus Canalis duralis
petrosus n. mandibularis
inferior
N. trigeminus N. trigeminus
radix motoria pars compacta Sinus petrosus
Porus trigeminus superior
margine laterală de-a lungul căreia lamele superficială şi profundă ale cavum-ului se
reunesc şi se inseră pe conturul fosetei trigeminale.
5.5. Ganglionul trigeminal
Ganglionul trigeminal Gasser conţine neuronii aferenţi primari ai căror axoni
centrali vor forma rădăcina senzitivă a nervului trigemen. Este situat în cavum Meckeli, are
formă caracteristică de semilună turtită, mai efilată la extremităţi, îngustată între
emergenţele nervilor maxilar şi mandibular - isthmus ganglii – şi prezintă:
faţa profundă, încrucişată în sens mediolateral, de rădăcina motorie care ia calea
nervului mandibular;
faţă superficială, în raport cu faţa inferioară a lobului temporal prin intermediul
cavum-ului Meckeli;
margine anterolaterală, convexă atât mediolateral cât şi craniocaudal, de pe care
se desprind ramurile terminale ale nervului trigemen;
margine posteromedială este concavă atât mediolateral cât şi craniocaudal. Se
remarcă profunzimea concavităţii în sens craniocaudal care formează sinusul
ganglionului trigeminal (sinus ganglii), prin care ies axonii centrali ai rădăcinii
senzitive care vor forma pars triangularis;
extremitate anterosuperioară, medială, aderentă la sinusul cavernos prin tunelul
nervului oftalmic;
extremitate posteroinferioară, laterală, în raport cu foramen ovale.
Ganglionul trigeminal este alcătuit din neuroni pseudounipolari grupaţi în coloane
separate de fascicule de fibre nervoase şi din celule satelite care formează fiecărui corp
neuronal o capsulă subţire (fig. 5.3, 5.4). Dimensiunile corpurilor neuronale variază
proporţional cu grosimea axonilor, cei mai voluminoşi fiind neuronii Aβ. Fiecare neuron
gasserian emite o prelungire axonică care se bifurcă într-o ramură periferică ce intră în
alcătuirea uneia din ramurile terminale ale nervului trigemen şi alta centrală care fomează
rădăcina senzitivă (radix sensoria) a trunchiului nervului trigemen şi face sinapsă în unul
din releele pontobulbare.
5.6 Ramurile nervului trigemen.
5.6.1.Nervul oftalmic (n n. ophtalmicus)
5.6.1.1. Consideraţii generale
Nervul oftalmic V1, ramura terminală medială a nervului trigemen este cea mai puţin
voluminoasă şi, la origine, conţine numai fibre somatice senzitive provenite de la:
globul ocular şi anexele acestuia;
tegumentul feţei deasupra planului zigomato-orbital;
mucoasele părţii anterosuperioare a cavităţii nazale şi a joncţiunii pneumatizate
craniofaciale adiacnte;
meningele fosei craniene anterioare.
În traiectul său nervul primeşte numeroase anastomoze:
fibre somatice aferente ale sensibilităţii kinestezice provenite de la proprioreceptorii
muşchilor globului ocular şi de la alte structuri conjunctive organizate orbitare;
fibre eferente postganglionare simpatice destinate efectorilor automomi ai
teritoriului nervului oftalmic care provin din plexurile periarteriale carotidian şi
Nervi cranieni 73
meningeu mijlociu;
fibre eferente postganglionare parasimpatice din ganglionului pterigopalatin
destinate glandei lacrimale, glandelor mucoase, vaselor şi muşchilor netezi din
teritoriul oftalmic.
5.6.1.2.Origine şi traiect
Nervul oftalmic se desprinde din treimea medială a marginii convexe a ganglionului
trigeminal (fig. 5.4) sub forma unui cordon aplatizat, lung de aproximativ 2,5 cm care
părăseşte cavum Meckeli prin tunelul medial şi pătrunde în peretele lateral al sinusului
cavernos. Aici are superior nervii trohlear (IV) şi oculomotor (III) şi medial, în interiorul
sinusului, nervul abducens (VI) şi artera carotidă internă (fig. 5.3). În peretele lateral al
sinusului cavernos nervul oftalmic se dirijează superior şi anterior, încrucişează succesiv
feţele laterale ale nervilor oculomotor (III) şi trohlear (IV) şi înainte de a pătrunde în orbită
prin fisura orbitară superioară se împarte în ramurile sale: lacrimal, frontal şi nazociliar. În
traiectul său transcavernos nervul oftalmic primeşte multiple anastomoze fine de la nervii
oculomotori, de la plexul simpatic pericarotidian şi de la microganglionii parasimpatici ai
sinusului cavernos şi emite unica sa ramură colaterală, nervul tentorial (r. tentorius, r.
meningeus recurens Arnoldi) care inervează tentorium-ul cerebelli şi baza falx cerebri.
5.6.1.3.Ramurile terminale ale nervului oftalmic
Nervul lacrimal (n. lacrimalis) (fig. 5.5, 5.9), ramura terminală cea mai subţire a
nervului oftalmic primeşte în scurtul său traiect transcavernos o anastomoză de la nervul
trohlear şi pătrunde în orbită prin partea laterală a fisurii orbitale superioare. În vârful
orbitei este situat superolateral având inferior marginea superioară a muşchiului drept lateral
şi medial artera lacrimală şi se dirijează anterior, de-a lungul marginei superolaterale a
orbitei până la faţa posterioară a glandei lacrimale. Nervul lacrimal primeşte pe faţa
inferioară o anastomoză sub formă de ansă, concavă posterior, de la ramura
zigomaticotemporală al nervului maxilar care transportă fibrele parasimpatice
postganglionare secretomotorii lacrimale provenite de la ganglionul pterigopalatin se
termină şi se prin ramuri mediale pentru glanda lacrimală şi ramuri laterale care
perforează septul orbital şi se distribuie tegumentelor treimii laterale a pleoapei
superioare şi conjunctivei adiacente.
Nervul frontal (n. frontalis), ramura terminală cea mai voluminoasă a nervului
oftalmic pătrunde în orbită prin fisura orbitară superioară, superior faţă de tendonul inelar
(inelul lui Zinn) şi se dirijează posteroanterior, dispus între muşchiul levator palpebral şi
periorbită prin transparenţa căreia poate fi observat la disecţie. La jumătatea distanţei dintre
apexul şi baza orbitei se împarte într-o ramură medială subţire, nervul supratrohlear şi o
alta laterală mai groasă, nervul supraorbital.
Nervul supratrohlear (n. supratrohlearis), se îndreaptă anteromedial, trece superior
faţă de tendonul şi trohlea muşchiului oblic superior unde primeşte o anastomoză de la
ramura infratrohleară a nervului nazociliar şi împreună cu ramura frontală
(supratrohleară) a arterei supraorbitare perforează septul orbital superomedial faţă de
foramenul supraorbital şi se termină printr-un buchet de ramuri:
ascendente, frontale, care se inflectează cranial, încrucişează marginea orbitală şi
inervează tegumentele regiunii frontale;
74 Nervul trigemen
N. supraorbitalis
ramus medialis
N. supraorbitalis
N. supratrochlearis ramus lateralis N. lacrimalis
Tendo m.
obliquus
superior
Glandula lacrimalis
N. et a.
nasocilliaris
N. et a. A. lacrimalis
ethmoidalis
posterior
Ramus communicans
cum nervo zygomatico
M. rectus
M. rectus
superior
medialis
M. rectus
N. trochlearis
lateralis
N. frontalis
Vena ophtalmica
superior lateralis
nervul etmoidal posterior (n. ethmoidalis posterior) trece din orbită în fosa
olfactivă prin canalul etmoidal posterior şi se termină prin:
nervul sfenoetmoidal Luschka ce inervează sinusurile sfenoidal şi celule
etmoidale posterioare;
ramura meningeală anterioară (r. meningeus anterior) care inervează
cortul olfactiv, vârful falx cerebri şi meningele zonei adiacente a fosei
cerebrale anterioare;
5.6.1.4. Ganglionul ciliar (ganglion ciliare)
Ganglionul ciliar (fig.2.3) sau oftalmic aparţine sistemului nervos parasimpatic
extranevraxial şi este situat pe faţa laterală a nervului optic, la unirea treimii posterioare
cu cele două treimi posterioare. Are formă patrulateră sau stelată, aplatizată mediolateral
şi alungită anteroposterior, cu lungimea 1,5-4mm, lăţimea 1-3 mm şi grosimea 0,5-2mm.
Ganglionului i se descriu o faţa medială aderentă la nervul optic, faţa laterală în raport cu
corpul adipos retrobulbar, margine posterioară prin care primeşte aferenţele şi margine
anterioară unită prin eferenţe de polul posterior al globului ocular.
Aferenţele ganglionului ciliar provin de la:
nucleul Edinger-Westphall mezencefalic care conţine neuroni preganglionari
parasimpatici ai căror axoni care iau succesiv calea nervului oculomotor, a ramurii
sale inferioare şi a nervului muşchiului oblic inferior din care se desprinde
rădăcina parasimpatică a ganglionului ciliar (radix parasympathica) care îl
abordează prin unghiul posteroinferior şi face sinapsă cu neuronii postganglionari
locali. Axonii acestora formează nervii ciliari scurţi (nn. ciliares breves) care
asigură inervaţia parasimpatică a muşchilor ciliar şi ai irisului;
rădăcina senzitivă a ganglionului ciliar (radix sensoria) care conţine fibre
somatice aferente provenite de la structurile polului posterior al globului ocular pe
calea nervilor ciliari scurţi, traversează ganglionul ciliar şi se desprind la nivelul
unghiului său posterosuperior pentru a se alătura nervului nazociliar în vârful
orbitei, lateral faţă de nervul optic;
rădăcina simpatică a ganglionului ciliar (radix sympathica) care conţine axoni
simpatici postganglionari cu originea în ganglionul cervical superior care iau calea
plexului pericarotidian şi apoi a nervului nazociliar prin multiplele anastomoze
simpaticotrigeminale. Rădăcina simpatică abordează ganglionul ciliar pe marginea
sa posterioară, îl traversează fără sinapsă şi se alătură nervilor ciliari scurţi asigurând
inervaţia simpatică a muşchilor ciliar şi ai irisului;
Eferenţele ganglionului ciliar se desprind de pe marginea sa anterioară şi iau calea
nervilor ciliari scurţi care abordează polul posterior a globului ocular prin numeroase
orificii situate în jurul orificiului nervului optic. Nervii ciliari scurţi sunt structuri
heterogene din care numai axonii neuronilor parasimpatici postganglionari aparţin
ganglionului ciliar, restul fibrelor descrise având caracter de fibre de tranzit.
5.6.2. Nervul maxilar (n. maxillaris)
5.6.2.1.Consideraţii generale
Nervul maxilar V2, ramura terminală mijlocie a nervului trigemen, este considerat
din punct de vedere morfogenetic ramura pretrematică a nervului primului arc faringian
Nervi cranieni 77
iar din punct de vedere topografic, nervul fosei pterigopalatine. Are originea în treimea
centrală a marginii convexe a ganglionului trigeminal şi dimensiuni intermediare comparativ
cu cele ale nervilor oftalmic şi mandibular (fig.5.4). La origine, conţine numai fibre somatice
senzitive provenite de la:
tegumentul feţei cuprins între planurile zigomato-orbital şi maxilodentar;
mucoasele părţii posteroinferioare a cavităţii nazale şi sinusurilor paranazale;
meningele fosei craniene mijlocii.
În traiectul lor, nervul maxilar şi ramurile sale primesc numeroase anastomoze:
fibre somatice aferente ale sensibilităţii kinestezice de la muşchii expresiilor faciale;
fibre eferente postganglionare simpatice pentru efectorii automomi ai teritoriului
nervului maxilar;
fibre eferente postganglionare parasimpatice destinate glandei lacrimale, glandelor
mucoase nazale şi palatinale, vaselor şi muşchilor netezi din teritoriul oftalmic.
N. ethmoidalis N. ethmoidalis
N. infratrochlearis anterior posterior
N. opticus
N. nasocilliaris
N. suborbitalis
Rr. palpebrales
N. alveolaris superior
inferiores Radix sensoria et ggl.
Rr. nasales pterygopalatini
Rr. labiales
N. canalis pterygoidei
inferiores
Nn. palatini
N. alveolaris
major et minores
anterior
N. alveolaris medius
Plexus dentalis
superior anterior Plexus dentalis
Rr. gingivales superior posterior
superiores Rr. dentales
superiores
Rr. nasales
posteriores
superiores
laterales
N. nasalis externus
Ramurile ganglionare (radix sensoria ganglii pterygopalatini) sunt 2-3 filete scurte
care conectează nervul maxilar cu marginea superioară a ganglionul pterigopalatin situat
inferomedial (fig. 5.6). Ele conţin:
fibre transganglionare, axoni periferici ai neuronilor ganglionului Gasser care trec fără
sinapsă prin ganglionul pterigopalatin şi formează componenta somatică a eferenţelor
sale;
fibre parasimpatice postganglionare recurente care se reîntorc la trunchiul nervului
maxilar şi se distribuie structurilor autonome din teritoriul nervilor zigomatic şi
suborbital.
N.vomero-
nasalis
Rr. nasales
posteriores
superiores
N. naso-
palatinus
Organum
* vomeronasalis
Canalis
incisivus
Canalis N. naso-
incisivus palatinus
Glandula Rami N. et a.
lacrimalis glandulares lacrimalis
V. ophtalmica sup.
R. communicans
cum n. zygomatico
N. zygomaticus
V. ophtalmica inf.
N. suborbitalis
N. zygomatico-
facialis
ramuscule care se dirijează lateral şi inervează cele două treimi posterioare ale
cornetelor superior şi mijlociu şi mucoasele celulelor etmoidosfenoidale (fig. 5.7,
5.8);
nervii nazali superiori posteromediali (nn. nasales superiores posteromediales)
pătrund prin foramenul sfenopalatin în fosa nazală sub forma unui buchet de 2–3
ramuri inegale ca lungime care traversează în sens lateromedial extremitatea
posterioară a recesului sfenoetmoidal, inferior ostium-ului sinusului sfenoidal.
Ramurile scurte inervează mucoasa părţii posterioare a plafonului şi septului
nazal iar ramura cea mai lungă şi mai voluminoasă, nervul nazopalatin
(n.nasopalatinus) Scarpa, parcurge în sens anteroinferior septul nazal şi inervează
partea posteroinferioară a mucoasei septale şi zona posterioară a vestibulului
nazal (fig. 5.7, 5.8);
Nervul nazopalatin trece apoi prin canalul incisiv şi ajunge în cavitatea bucală unde
inervează treimea anterioară (în dreptul dinţilor incisivi) a mucoasei palatului dur cu
gingia adiacentă şi se termină anastomozându-se cu nervul palatin mare (fig. 5.8, 5.10).
Nn. palatines
minores
Canalis
palatinus major
N. palatinus
major
Rr. gingivalis
N. nasopalatinus
Canalis incisivus
nervul palatin mare (n. palatinus major), dispus în axul lung al fosei pterigopalatine,
se angajează prin canalul palatin mare, trece prin foramenul palatin mare în cavitatea
bucală şi, la limita dintre palatului dur şi palatul moale, se inflectează anterior prin
şanţul de pe feţele inferioare ale proceselor orizontal al osului palatin şi palatin al
maxilei şi se termină anastomozându-se cu nervului nazopalatin.
Nervul palatin mare inervează mucoasele şi glandele palatinală şi gingivală. În canalul
palatin mare dă ramurile nazale postero-inferioare (rr. nasales posteriores inferiores)
care trec prin lama verticală a osului palatin şi inervează zona posterioară a
meaturilor inferior şi mijlociu şi coada concăi nazale inferioare;
82 Nervul trigemen
nervii palatini mici (nn. palatini minores) sunt 2-4 ramuri subţiri care se angajează prin
canalul palatin mare, trece prin foraminele palatine accesorii şi se distribuie tonsilei
palatine (rr. tonsillares) şi ambelor suprafeţe palatului moale. Axonii aferenţi care
conduc informaţiile gustative de la nivelul mucoasei palatine iau calea nervilor palatini,
trec fără sinapsă prin ganglionul pterigopalatin şi ajung pe calea nervilor canalului
pterigoid şi pietros mare la ganglionul geniculat unde se găsesc protoneuronii căii.
Axonii centrali ai acestor neuroni ajung pe calea nervului intermediar în polul
superior al nucleului solitar (nucleul gustativ).
nervul faringian“Bill's
(n. pharyngeus)
bar”
Bock ia naştere din partea posterosuperioară a
ganglionului pterigopalatin, traversează în sens anteroposterior canalul palatovaginal şi
inervează mucoasa cavum-ului rinofaringian, a tubei auditive şi a sinusului sfenoidal.
Nervul zigomatic (n. zygomaticus) se desprinde din nervul maxilar sub foramenul
rotund, străbate inferolateral fosa pterigopalatină, pătrunde în orbită prin fisura orbitală
inferioară, urmează marginea inferolaterală a orbitei pâna la nivelul foramenului
zigomatico-orbital unde se împarte în (fig. 5.9):
nervul zigomaticotemporal (n. zygomaticotemporalis) care se angajează în
segmentul zigomaticotemporal al canalul osului zigomatic, ajunge în fosa
temporală, încrucişează superficial fasciculul anterior al muşchiului temporal şi
perforează fascia temporală la 2 cm deasupra arcului zigomatic, distribuindu-se
tegumentului zonei anterioare, retrozigomatice a regiunii temporale. Se
anastomozează cu nervii facial şi auriculotemporal.
nervul zigomaticofacial (n. zygomaticofacialis) care se angajează în segmentul
zigomaticofacial al canalul osului zigomatic, se exteriorizează pe faţa anterioară a
osului zigomatic, perforează fibrele periferice ale muşchiului orbicular al ochiului
şi inervează tegumentul pometului. Se anastomozează ramurile zigomatice ale
nervului facial şi palpebrale ale nervului suborbital.
anastomoza cu nervul lacrimal (ramus communicans cum nervo zygomatico)
conţine axonii eferenţi parasimpatici ai neuronilor postganglionari din ganglionul
pterigopalatin care asigură secreţia glandei lacrimale. De la origine nervul se
dirijează ascendent, descrie pe peretele lateral al orbitei o ansă concavă posterior
şi se anastomozează cu nervul lacrimal. Din convexitatea ansei se desprind mai
multe filete nervoase care inervează în glanda lacrimală.
Nervul infraorbital (n. infraorbitalis) se dirijează mai întâi mediolateral, paralel cu
marginea inferioară a fisurii orbitale inferioare, până la incizura suborbitală, apoi se
inflectează postero-anterior, pătrunde în orbită, urmează succesiv şanţul şi canalul
suborbital şi se termină la nivelul foramenului infraorbital printr-un buchet de ramuri:
ascendente, palpebrale (rr. palpebrales), care inervează tegumentul pleoapei
inferioare şi conjunctiva adiacentă;
descendente, labiale (rr. labiales), care se distribuie tegumentului buzei superioare
şi mucoasei vestibulare corespunzătoare;
mediale, nazale (rr. nasales), care inervează tegumentul aripei nasului;
laterale, zigomatice (rr. zygomatici), care se distribuie tegumentului părţii mediale a
regiunii zigomatice a cărei arie o împarte cu nervul zigomaticotemporal.
Nervi cranieni 83
N. temporalis N. pterygoideus
profundus posterior medialis
N. temporalis N. musculis tensoris
profundus anterior veli palatini
N. musculis
N. suborbitalis tensoris tympani
Ganglion N. auriculo-
pterygopalatinum temporalis
Nn. palatini major A. meningea
et minores media
N. chordae
N. buccalis tympani
N. alveolaris N. lingualis
inferior
posterolateral, spre foramenul spinos, unde prezintă o butonieră prin care trece
artera meningee mijlocie şi pătrunde în loja parotidiană;
în glanda parotidă se dirijează mediolateral, trece posterior faţă de mănunchiul
neurovascular principal (nervul facial, artera carotidă externă şi vena jugulară
externă) şi trece în regiunea maseterină, având inferior vasele maxilare, prin
butoniera retrocondiliană Juvara delimitată între colul mandibulei şi ligamentul
sfenomandibular (fig. 5.12).
în regiunea maseterină se inflectează ascedent prin prelungirea anterioară a
glandei parotide, trece între meatul auditiv extern şi faţa posterioară a articulaţiei
temporomandibulare, încrucişează rădăcina orizontală a procesului zigomatic la
0,5 cm anterior tragusului, având anterior vasele temporale superficiale;
N. et a. temporalis
profundus posterior
Fascia
temporalis
M. temporalis
N. et a.
temporalis
superficialis
M. masseter
Articulatio
temporo
mandibularis N. et a.
R. comunicans massetericus
cum nervo
faciale
Lig. spheno-
Ductus
mandibulare
parotideus
Glandula N. facialis
parotidea r. bucalis
N. facialis
r. marginalis
mandibulae
ramuri parotidiene (rr. parotidei) care conţin atât fibre senzitive cât şi fibre
postganglionare parasimpatice, secretomotorii pentru glanda parotidă;
ramuri auriculare anterioare (nn. auriculares anteriores), în număr de două,
inervează tegumentele tragusului şi porţiunii ascendente a helixului adiacent;
ramuri pentru meatul acustic extern (n. meatus acustici externus), traversează
inserţia cartilajului meatului auditiv extern pe marginea laterală a osului timpanal şi
se distribuie tegumentului peretelui anterior al meatului şi al cadranelor
anterioare ale membranei timpanice (rr. membranae tympani);
ramuri articulare (rr. articulares) destinate feţei posterioare a articulaţiei
temporomandibulare;
ramuri comunicante cu nervul facial (rr. communicantes cum nervo facialis),
multiple anastomoze subţiri care ar putea transporta informaţiile kinestezice de la
muşchii expresiilor faciale.
M. pterygoideus
medialis
Truncus anterior
N. masetericus n. mandibularis
Art. temporo-
mandibularis
Lig. spheno-
mandibularis
N. alveolaris
M. geniohyoideus N. lingualis inferior
Ganglion
submandibulare Foramen
mandibulae
M. pterygoideus
medialis
Nervul lingual se desprinde din trunchiul posterior imediat sub foramenul oval,
medial faţă de ligamentul inominat, având medial feţele laterale a muşchiului tensor al
vălului palatin şi a peretelui lateral al faringelui şi lateral feţele mediale a muşchiului
pterigoidian lateral şi a fasciei interpterigoidiene (fig. 5.13). Nervul lingual fuzionează
prin faţa sa posterioară cu nervul corzii timpanului şi se dirijează anteroinferior, descriind
o curbă cu concavitatea anteromedial până în loja sublinguală. În fosa infratemporală
nervul lingual perforează zona cribriformă a fasciei interpterigoidiene, încrucişează
marginea inferioară a muşchiului pterigoidian lateral şi trece între faţa medială a
ramurii verticale a mandibulei şi feţele laterale ale muşchiului pterigoidian medial şi ale
inserţiilor mandibulare ale muşchiului constrictor faringian superior şi rafeului
88 Nervul trigemen
A. et vv. linguales
Rr. terminales
n. lingualis
N. lingualis
Radix sensoria et
ganglion sublingualis
Glandula
sublingualis
Ductus glandulae
submandibularis
Caruncula
sublingualis
6.1.Consideraţii generale
Nervul abducens este exclusiv motor, alcătuit din fibre eferente somatice care
inervează muşchiul drept lateral al globului ocular.
6.2.Originea reală
Originea reală se găseşte în nucleul nervului abducens (n. nervi abducentis) care
este situat paramedian, in profunzimea tegmentumului pontin, la polul inferior al coloanei
eferente oculomotorii pontomezencefalice, ventral faţă de coliculul facial, inclavat în faţa
dorsolaterală a fasciculului median longitudinal. Nucleul este format din două populaţii
de neuroni multipolari care se deosebesc prin talie şi conexiuni:
neuroni radiculari, de talie mare, cholinergici, ai căror axoni intră în alcătuirea
nervului abducens şi se distribuie muşchiului drept lateral ;
neuroni internucleari, de talie intermediară, glutamatergici, care formează aşa
numitul nucleus paraabducens. Axoni acestora încrucişează linia mediană, se
inflectează ascendent, iau calea fascicului longitudinal medial şi stimulează
neuronii radiculari ai subgrupului nuclear al muşchiului drept medial
controlateral.
Aferenţele nucleului sunt asemănătoare cu cele ale nervului oculomotor şi provin de
l a:
ariile vizuale corticale, pe calea tractul corticobulbar sunt bilaterale şi se realizează
indirect, prin intermediul interneuronilor FR pontine;
coliculul superior pe calea tractului tectonuclear;
nucleul fastigial al cerebelului prin intermediul nucleului prepositus hypoglossi;
nucleii vestibulari medial şi superior ;
ceilalţi nuclei oculomotori ai coloanei eferente somatice;
nucleii formaţiei reticulate interstitialis rostralis, prepositus hypoglossi, raphe
pontis interpositus, reticularis pontis caudalis (facilitant) şi paragigantocelularis
medullaris;
nucleul interstiţial al lui Cajal care reprezintă integratorul neural al mişcărilor
conjugate ale globilor oculari.
6.3.Traiect intracerebral şi origine superficială
Axonii neuronilor radiculari părăsesc nucleul abducens prin partea sa medială, se
dirijează anteroinferior, trec între lemnicusul medial şi tractul tegmental central, lateral
faţă de corpul trapezoid şi se exteriorizează sub forma a 7-8 filete radiculare prin şanţul
bulbopontin, la 5-6 mm faţă de linia mediană şi de originea arterei bazilare, cranial faţă de
piramidele bulbare anterioare. Spre deosebire de originile celorlalţi nervi oculomotori ale
căror filete se reunesc rapid într-un trunchi unic, nervul abducens poate rămâne poliradicular
până la intrarea în sinusul cavernos (fig. 6.1).
6.4.Traiect periferic şi raporturi
În fosa cerebrală posterioară, nervul abducens, încrucişat inferior de artera
cerebeloasă anteroinferioară, se inflectează cranial prin cisterna pontină, între clivus şi
faţa ventrală a punţii de care este fixat prin trabeculele arahnoidiene ale membranei
96 Nervul abducens
Lilliequist. După un traiect de 12-15 mm perforează dura mater prin porus n. abducentis şi
pătrunde în canalul Dorello intre clivus şi sinusul petros inferior situate medial şi porul
trigeminal al cavum-ului Meckeli, situat lateral.
A. basilaris
N. abducens
A. cerebellaris
anterior inferior
A. vertebralis
A B Sinus C
Processus cavernosus
A. carotis
clinoideus
interna
posterior
Trabeculae
Dorsum fibrosae
sellae
Vagina fibrosa
Canalis n. abducentis
Dorello (Dorello)
Sulcus sinus Sinus
petrosi inferioris petrosus
inferior
N. trigeminus
radix sensoria
radix motoria
N. facialis
N. intermedius
N. g losso-
pharyngeus
N. vagus
pie t roas e a osului te mpo ra l, pe rpe ndic ula r pe a xa sa mare, t rece înt re la bi rint ul cohle ar,
s it ua t a nte rio r ş i ce l ve s tibula r, s it ua t pos te rio r, ş i se te r mină în fos a ge nic ulata. Cisterna
me at ul ui ac us tic i nte rn s e e xtinde în po rţi une a la bi rinti nă pâ nă la nive lul fos e i ge niculata
ast fe l încât ne rv ii fac ial, i nte rme dia r, gang lio nul ge nic ulat ş i o rigi ne a nervul pietros
mare sunt situaţi intracisternal. La acest nivel d ura mat er se co nt inuă c u pe r ios t ul
apeduc t ului ia r ara hno ida c u p ia mate r care înve leşte ne r vul fac ia l.
Sinus
cavernosus
Sinus petrosus
inferior
A. cerebellaris
anterior
inferior
Foramen glosso-
pharyngeus
“Bill's bar”
A. labirynthina
N. facialis et N. vestibularis Porus
intermedius superior Lig. jugulare foraminis
N. cohlearis N. vestibularis jugularis
inferior
Fosa geniculata este o d ilata ţ ie s it ua tă într e po rţi uni le labi ri nti nă ş i ti mpa nică a le
apeduc t ului Fa llop io, a nte ro me dial fa ţă de e mine ntia a rc uata. P la fo nul să u, de hisce nt în
16% d in ca zur i, pre zintă hiat us ul facia l, un or ific iu pr in care trec ne rv ul pie t ros ma re ş i
arte ra pietroasă superioară. Fosa conţine ganglionul geniculat (1,09 mm lungime, 0,6-0,8
mm grosime şi 0,76 mm lăţime) care are formă triunghiulară cu un unghi medial din care
începe nervul intermediar, unghi ante rolate ral din care ia naştere nervul pietros mare şi
unghi posterolateral care se continuă cu porţiunea timpanică a nervului facial.
În ansamblu, ganglionul geniculat coafează periferia genunchiului extern al
nervului facial accentuându-i angulaţia. Ganglionul este alcătuit din neuroni pseudounipolari
ai sensibilităţii viscerale generale (GVA) ai căror axoni periferici se alătură ne rvului facial
până la forame nul stilomastoidian şi pe calea nervului auricular posterior inervează
tegumentele retroauriculare şi zona Ramsay Hunt şi din neuroni pseudounipolari ai
sensibilităţii gustative (SVA) ai căror axoni periferici se alătură nervului corzii timpanului.
Ganglionul geniculat este traversat de axoni preganglionari parasimpatici cu
originea în nucleii lacrimal (care iau calea nervului pietros mare) şi salivator superior (care
se alătură nervului corzii timpanului) precum şi de fibre simpatice postganglionare care
provin din plexul arterei meningeale medii pe calea nervului pietros extern (fig. 7.3).
po rţ i une a ti mpa nică (i nte rt i mpa nola bi ri nt ică) ar e o lungime de 11- 13 mm,
Nervi cranien i 105
începe la nive lul fos e i ge nic ulata ş i d escr ie împre ună c u cea lab ir int ină un unghi
ascuţ it de apro ximat iv 300 numit ge nunc hiul e xte rn al ne rv ul ui fac ial
(geni cul um n. faci al i s) ( fig. 7.4 ). De la ace st nive l, aped uct ul se d ir ijea ză
pos te rio r ş i late ral în p la nul fe ţe i s upe rioa re a păr ţ ii p ietro ase a os ului te mpo ra l,
pa rale l c u axa s a ma re ş i trece între la bi ri nt ul ve s tibula r, s it ua t pos te ro me dial
ş i cavi tate a ti mpa nică s it ua tă a nte rolate ra l. Î n porţ iunea mij loc ie a s e gme nt ul
t impa nic aped uct ul Fa llop io pre zintă cea de a do ua î ng us ta re în „gâ t de s t ic lă ” ş i
apo i proe mi nă p e pere te le med ia l a l ca vităţ ii t impa nice între e mi ne nţa ca na l ul
se mic i rc ula r late ra l ş i niş a fe re s tre i ovale .
Geniculu m N. cohleo-
n. facialis N. facialis N. facialis vestibularis
N. petrosus
externus
Ganglion
geniculi
Nn. petrosi
major et
minor
A. carotis
interna
A B
În 14% d in ca zur i ca na lul e ste de his ce nt, s it uaţ ie în care ner vul fac ia l se găse şte
sub muco pe rios tul cavităţ ii t i mpa nice ş i are ra po rt uri di re cte cu tal pa s cări ţe i
ş i ar t ic ulaţ ia i nc udos tape dială. Pos te rio r faţă de proce s ul co hle ari fo rm,
proxi mal fa ţă de proce s ul pi ra mi da l ş i me dial fa ţă de a di tus a d a nt rum,
apeduc t ul s e inflec tea ză desce nde nt de scr iind un no u unghi, a l do ile a ge nunc hi
e xte rn sa u „cot ul ” ne rvul ui fac ial, de 95–1250 c u des c hider ea a ntero infer ior ş i se
cont inuă c u s e gme nt ul mas toi dia n.
po rţ i une a mas toi dia nă (i nte rti mpanicoa nt ra lă) es te cea ma i lungă, 10- 14 mm,
începe la te ral ş i pos te rio r fa ţă de proce s ul pi ra mi dal ş i s e d ir ij ea ză ve rt ica l
de s ce nde nt în gros imea pe re te lui ante rio r a l a nt rul ui mas toi dia n pâ nă la
fo ra me nul st ilo masto id ia n. Po rţ iune a prox i mală a aces t ui se gme nt se nume şte
pi ra mi da lă ş i acest nivel nervul facial emite ramura pentru muşchiul
stapedius. În porţiunea distală, mastoidiană propriu-zisă, ner vul fa c ia l e ste
106 Nervul facial
însoţ it de a rte ra s tilo mas toi dia nă ş i e mite ne rv ul co rzi i t i mpa nul ui ş i ra mura
comunica ntă c u ne rv ul vag.
se gme nt pa rot i dia n ca re tr ece s ucce s iv pr in:
pat rulate rul ne rv ul ui facia l de lim ita t s upe rio r de ba za cra niulu i la nive lul
fo ra me nului st ilo mas to id ia n, a nte rio r d e proc es ul st ilo id, pos te rio r de faţ a
anter io ară a p roces ului masto id iar i nfe rio r de b ur ta pos ter io ară a muşc hiulu i
digast r ic ş i muşc hiul s t ilo hio id ia n. Î n a r ia pat r ula ter ului ner vul fac ia l es te s it ua t
pro fund (25 mm faţă de te gume nt ul re troa ur ic ular), acoper it de pre lungire a
supe r ioa ră a gla nd e i paro t ide ş i trece în fos a ret ro ma nd ib ula ră pr in inters t iţ iul
st ilod igas tr ic;
fos a re tro mandi bula ră ( loj a parot id ia nă) unde ne r vul fa c ia l este s it uat într e
pla nurile s upe rfi cial ş i pro f und a le gla nde i paro t ide ş i fo r mea ză împre ună c u
arte ra ca roti dă e xte rnă ş i ve na jug ula ră e xte rnă, mă nunc hiul ne urovas cula r
pri nc i pal a l gl ande i pa rot i de . La ace st nive l ne r vul se inflec tea ză a nter ior ş i s e
împar te în două ra murile te rmi na le , s upe rio r ş i i nfe rio r care tr ec în re giune a
masete r ină împ re ună c u pre lungir ea a nte r ioa ră a gla nd e i paro t ide.
N. petrosus Ganglion
major N. petrosus geniculi N. facialis pars
minor tympanica
N. facialis pars
labyrinthica
N. vestibularis
superior
N. vestibularis
inferior
N. cohlearis
A. labyrinthina
Sinus N. intermedius
petrosus superior N. facialis
Condylus
temporalis
Condylus Sutura
mandibulae petrosquamosa
Tegmen
Iter chordae
anterius tympani
Sutura
Os tympanale petrotympanica
Canalis m.
tensosis tympani
Aditus ad
antrum
Tuba
auditiva
Processus
cochleariformis
R. tubalis
R. fenestrae
ovalis
Rr. carotico Iter chordae
tympanici posterius
R. fenestrae
rotunda
N. ty mpanicus Plexus
Jacobson tympanicus
M. occipitalis
M. frontalis
M. auricu laris
superior M. orbicularis
M. auricu laris oculi
M. levator anguli
anterior oris alae que nasi
M. auricu laris
posterior M. zygo maticus
R. zygo maticus major et minor
R. temporalis M. orbicularis oris
R. auricu laris M. buccinatorius
R. bucalis M. depressor
M. sternocleido- labii infero iris
mastoideus M. depressor
M. platysma anguli oris
R. cervicalis
R. cervico- R. marg inalis
facialis mandibulae
Vascularizaţia arterială a nervului facial are caracter segmentar şi, datorită lungimii
nervului, provine din surse foarte diverse. Astfel, la originea superficială, nervul este
vascularizat de ramurile circumferenţiale lungi ale arterelor vertebrală şi bazilară iar în
segmentul transcisternal de ramuri din artera cerebeloasă anteroinferioară.
În mea t ul ac ust ic inter n ş i în se gme nt ul lab ir int in vasc ular izaţ ia pro vine d in a rte ra
labi ri nti nă iar în s e gme nt ul t impa nic d in a rte ra pie troas ă ma re , ra mură d in se gme nt ul
lacera t a l arte re i caro ti de inte rne , arte ra ti mpa ni că s upe rioa ră, ra mură a arte re i
me ni nge e me dii ş i d in ple xul arte ria l ti mpa nic. Î n se gme nt ul t impa nic vasc ular izaţ ia este
as igura tă de artera stilomastoidiană, ramură a arterelor auriculară posterioară sau occipitală.
În traiectul său extracranian, nervul facial este vascularizat de ramuri provenite din arterele
Nervi cranien i 111
8. NERVUL VESTIBULOCOHLEAR
(N. VESTIBULOCOHLEARIS) (VIII)
împarte în nervul secular principal (n. saccularis) care inervează receptorii maculei
otolitice saculare şi nervul ampular posterior (n. ampularis posterior) care inervează
receptorii crestei ampulare a canalului semicircular posterior trecând prin foramen singulare
Morgagni.
Canalis
N. ampu laris semicircu laris
lateralis lateralis
Canalis
semicircu laris
superior Crus
commune
N. ampu laris
N. ampu laris posterior
superior
N. ampu laris
N. utriculo- posterior
saccularis
N. saccularis
N. utricularis
Ganglion
vestibulare
N. vestibularis
superior N. vestibularis
inferior
dispuse lateral şi cele ampulare, me dial. Fiecare axon se împarte într-o ramură ascendentă
şi alta descendentă şi se termină majoritar în complexul nuclear vestibular. Alte fibre
(puţine) ajung în cerebel pe calea pedunculului cerebelos inferior şi se termină ca fibre
musciforme ipsilaterale în nodulus, parafloculus şi lingula.
Complexul nuclear vestibular este situat în aria vestibulară a planşeului
ventriculului IV şi este format din nucleii vestibulari, superior, lateral, medial, infe rior,
interstiţial şi din grupele neuronale “X” şi “Y” diseminate in formaţia reticulată.
Flocculus
N. faciallis
N. intermedius
*
celulele ciliate externe. Axonul periferic al unui singur neuron de tip II se ramifică
şi inervează mai multe celule ciliate externe iar axonul central, subţire şi amielinic,
formează 5% din totalul fibrelor nervului cohlear.
8.2.3.Traiect şi origine superficială
Axonii centrali ai neuronilor din ganglionul Corti părăsesc canalul spiral prin canalele
axiale ale modiolului şi ajung în aria cohleară situată sub creasta falciformă în cadranul
anteroinferior al fundului meatului acustic intern, anterior ariei vestibulare inferioare.
Aici, axonii sunt solidarizaţi prin teci piale şi formează nervul cohlear care, ca şi nervul
vestibular, prezintă:
N. petrosus Ganglion
N. petrosus major geniculi
minor
N. facialis
Fossa
geniculata
Aqueductus
Fallopii Ganglion vestibulare
N. facialis pars superior
Ganglion vestibulare
N. cohlearis pars inferio r
N. vestibularis
superior
A. labyrinthina N. vestibularis
N. intermedius inferior
A. cerebellaris
anterior inferior
segment meatal, care ţine din fundul meatului acustic intern până la porul acustic
intern. În acest segment, nervul cohlear are lateral nervul vestibular, superior, nervul
intermediofacial şi inferior, arte ra labirintină împreună cu care formează
mănunchiul neurovascular al meatului acustic intern (fig. 8.3);
segment pontocerebelos care ţine de la porul acustic inte rn până la extre mitatea
laterală a şanţului bulbopontin unde se găseşte originea superficială prin care
pătrunde în trunchiul cerebral terminându-se în totalitate în nuclei cohleari ventral şi
dorsal ipsilaterali. În acest segment nervul străbate unghiul pontocerebelos având
anterior nervul inte rmediofacial şi artera cerebeloasă ante roinferioară iar
posterior lobulul floculus al cerebelului şi apertura laterală a ventricului IV prin
care herniază plexurile coroide (“coşul cu flori” al lui Boghdaleck) (fig. 8.4).
8.2.4.Nuclei cohleari şi calea acustică
La intrarea în trunchiul cerebral fiecare axon al nervului cohlear se împarte într-o
ramură descedentă care face sinapsă în partea anterioară a nucleului cohlear ventral şi o
alta ascedentă care face sinapsă în partea posterioară a nucleului cohlear ventral şi în
nucleul cohlear dorsal conform unei tonotopii precise, frecvenţele joase fiind reprezentate
lateral iar cele înalte, medial.
120 Nervul vestibulocohlear
A. cerebellaris
anterior inferior
A. vertebralis
Apertura lateralis et
plexus choroideus
ventriculi quart i
dorsală. Stria cohleară ventrală (stria cochlearis anterior) este alcătuită din axonii
neuronilor din nucleul cohlear ventral care încrucişează linia mediană şi fac sinapsă în
complexul olivar superior heterolateral, formând corpului trapezoid, cea mai
important comisură distală a căii auditive, a cărei faţă ventrală reprezintă limita
convenţională între basis-ul şi tegmentum- ul pontin. Axonii neuronilor din complexul
olivar superior se inflectează ascendent, intră în alcătuirea lemniscusului lateral
heterolateral şi ajung la corpul geniculat medial formând tractul binaural.
Stria cohleară interme diară (stria cochlearis intermedia) este alcătuită din axonii
neuronilor părţii posterioare a nucleului cohlear ventral şi ai nucleului cohlear dorsal, care
se încrucişează în partea central a tegmentum- ului pontin şi intră în alcătuirea le mniscusului
lateral heterolateral.
Stria cohleară dorsală (stria cochlearis posterior) este alcătuită din axonii
neuronilor din nucleul cohlear dorsal care se dirijează lateromedial sub ependimul
planşeului ventriculului IV, formând striile medulare (striae medulares ventriculi quarti)
care pătrund prin şanţul median şi se termină în formaţia reticulată bulbopontină.
8.2.5. Consideraţii anatomoclinice
Leziunile nervului cohlear pot fi localizate în unghiul pontocerebelos şi în meatul
acustic intern. Leziunile pot fi congenitale ca în aplazia Michel caracterizată prin lipsa totală
de dezvoltare a cohleei sau boala Mondini în care se dezvoltă numai jumătatea bazală a
cohleei sau câştigate care se caracterizează prin hipoacuzie de grade diferite până la cofoză
(surditate totală). Tulburările de auz pot fi unilaterale sau bilaterale şi se însoţesc de tinitus
la care se poate adăuga vertijul şi nistagmusul prin afectarea de vecinătate a nervului
vestibular.
CAPITOLUL 9
9. NERVUL GLOSOFARINGIAN
(N. GLOSSOPHARYNGEUS) (IX)
A. cerebelaris
anterior inferior
N. glossopharyngeus
N. vagus
N. accesorius
Flocculus
A B
Sinus petrosus
Porus superior
trigeminus Porus acusticus
internus
N. vagus et
Ganglion superius
ganglion superius
n. glossopharyngei
Lig. jugulare
Sinus petrosus
inferior N. accesorius
Sinus sigmoideus
N. hypoglossus
9.4.Traiect cervical
La ieşirea din foramenul jugular nervul glosofaringian, dispus iniţial posterior faţă de
artera carotidă internă, se dirijează caudal şi încrucişează faţa externă a arterei, având
posterolateral nervii vag şi accesor şi vena jugulară internă. Nervul îşi continua traiectul
anterior şi inferior, trece prin diafragma stiliană pe faţa laterală a muşchiului
stilofaringian (care este considerat muşchiul său satelit) apoi încrucişează în sens
lateromedial faţa anterioară a muşchiului şi se dispune pe faţa laterală a muşchiului
constrictor superior al faringelui. Nervul glosofaringian urmează acest traiect descendent
prin spaţiul paratubar şi paratonsilar până la faţa profundă a muşchiului stiloglos
împreună cu care se dirijează anterior şi se termină la nivelul bazei limbii prin ramuri care
se distribuie papilelor circumvalate, mucoaselor treimii posterioare a limbii, tonsilei
palatine, tubei auditive şi peretelui posterior al rinofaringelui.
9.5.Ganglionul otic (ganglion oticum)
Ganglionul otic conţine neuronii postganglionari parasimpatici care asigură
secreţia glandei parotide şi este ataşat funcţional nervului glosofaringian. Are aspectul
unui micronodul ovoidal, cu diametrul maxim de 3-4 mm, situat în fosa infratemporală
imediat sub foramenul oval, între feţele medială a nervului mandibular şi laterală a
muşchiului tensor al vălului palatin. Primeşte următoare aferenţe:
128 Nervul glosofaringian
Ganglion
superius Ganglion
superius
Ganglion
inferius N. vagus
Plexus N. facialis
caroticus M. digastricus
venter posterior
M. sternocleido-
mastoideus
N. glosso-
pharyngeus N. accesorius
Ganglion
inferius n. vagi
Rr. comunicantes
A. carotis cum n. vago
interna
R. comunicans cum
n. glossopharyngeo
A. carotis
externa
Truncus
R. sinus sympathicus
carotici cervicalis
Glomus
caroticus V. jugularis
interna
Plexus sinus
carotici
10.1.Consideraţii generale
Nervul vag este cel mai lung nerv cranian al cărui nume în limba latină-vagus-
înseamnă ca substantiv călător, rătăcitor şi se referă la extensia teritoriilor sale viscerale
cervicotoraco-abdominale (pneumogastric), iar ca adjectiv nedefinit, vag şi se referă la
pierderea identităţii dreapta/stânga a celor doi nervi sub pediculii pulmonari în plexul
periesofagian. Din punct de vedere anatomofuncţional este un nerv mixt, motor şi senzitiv
care inervează structurile derivate din ultimele două arcuri faringiene şi constituie
principala eferenţă a sistemului parasimpatic cranian.
Componenta motorie este alcătuită din:
fibrele eferente viscerale speciale (SVE) care se distribuie derivatelor
mezenchimului celui de al patrulea (muşchii faringelui) şi al şaselea arc faringian
(muşchii laringelui şi esofagului superior);
fibrele eferente viscerale generale (GVE) sunt axoni preganglionari parasimpatici
care se distribuie şi fac sinapse în sistemele microganglionare intraparietale ale
viscerelor toracoabdominale cu excepţia colonului stâng şi a organelor pelvine.
Componenta senzitivă conţine:
fibrele aferente viscerale generale (GVA) provenite de la tegumentulele
retroauriculare, ale meatului acustic extern şi feţei externe a timpanului;
fibrele aferente viscerale speciale (SVA) provenite de la receptorii gustativi din
mucoasele porţiunii verticale, faringiene a limbii şi feţei anterioare a epiglotei şi
chemoreceptoare şi baroreceptoare de la arcul aortic şi cele două atrii.
fibrele aferente viscerale generale (SVA) care sunt axoni aferenţi periferici ai
neuronilor din ganglionul inferior care au făcut sinapse cu neuronii senzitivi
organofugali ai plexurilor microganglionare intraparietale ale viscerelor
toracoabdominale şi culeg toate informaţiile privind sensibilitatea viscerală, cu
excepţia celor nociceptive.
10.2.Originea reală
Fibrele eferente viscerale speciale (SVE) au originea în nucleului ambiguu. Acesta
este o coloană neuronală situată în profunzimea formaţiei reticulate bulbare şi se întinde
între două planuri transversale, unul caudal trasat prin decusaţia lemniscală şi altul rostral
care corespunde treimii medii a complexului olivar inferior. Nucleul ambiguu este alcătuit:
parte dorsală sau nucleul ambiguu propriu zis care aparţine aparatului faringian
alcătuit din neuroni multipolari de talie mare cu aspect caracteristic de neuron
motor periferic dar, spre deosebire de neuronii similari ai cornului ventral medular,
axonul său nu prezintă colaterale recurente şi bucla inhibitorie Renshaw. În
secvenţă craniocaudală acest nucleu prezintă:
segment rostral, compact situat retrofacial, care inervează muşchiul
stilofaringian pe calea nervului glosofaringian şi muşchiului
cricotiroidian pe calea nervului laringeu superior;
segment intermediar, difuz, care inervează muşchii faringelui, ai
palatului moale şi ai esofagului superior;
134 Nervul vag
Rr. cardio
Truncus vagalis oesophagiales
anterior
R. hepaticus A. gastrica sinistra
Truncus vagalis R. gastrici
posterior anteriores
N. curvaturae
N. splahnicus minoris anterior
major Ganglion
Ganglion coeliacum
coeliacum dextrum sinistrum
A. lienalis
A. hepatica
R. gastrici
communis
posteriores
A. gastrica N. curvaturae
dextra minoris posterior
La stânga nervul vag trece prin inletul toracic între faţa anterioară a arterei
subclavii stângi şi faţa posterioară a venei brahiocefalice apoi încrucişează arcul aortic
anterior şi la stânga faţă de inserţia ligamentului arterial şi emite aici nervul recurent
stâng. Trece apoi în mediastinul posterior printr-un spaţiu celuloadipos de alunecare limitat
la dreapta de ligamentul arterial, superior de faţa inferioară a porţiunii orizontale a
arcului aortic şi inferior de faţa superioară a arterei pulmonare stângi; încrucişează feţele
posterioare ale arterei pulmonare şi bronhiei stângi şi ajunge pe marginea stângă a
esofagului subbronhic.
N. splahnicus Truncus vagalis
major dexter posterior
Ganglia phrenica N. splahnicus
major sinister
Ganglion
Ganglion
celiacum dextrum
celiacum sinistrum
Glandula Glandula
suprarenalis dextra suprarenalis sinistra
Ganglion Ganglion
aorticorenale dextrum aorticorenale sinistrum
Ganglion
A. mesenterica mesentericum superius
superior
Plexus aorticus
Ganglion
A. mesenterica mesentericum inferius
inferior
V. cava inferior Plexus hypogastricus
superior
Nervul laringeu extern (r.externus) are un traiect descendent de-a lungul inserţiei
tirocricoidiene a muşchiului constrictor inferior al faringelui până la nivelul tuberculului
tiroidian inferior unde se inflectează anteromedial, trece pe sub inserţia muşchiului
sternotiroidian şi inervează muşchiul cricotiroidian. Perforează apoi membrana
cricotiroidiană şi inervează mucoasele etajului supraglotic şi ale ventriculului laringian.
Pe tot traiectul său nervul este însoţit de artera laringiană inferioară, ramură a arterei
tiroidiană superioară şi venele comitante. Pe faţa anterioară a membranei, ramurile mediale
ale arterelor laringiene inferioare antimere se anastomozează formând o arcadă arterială
intercricotiroidiană.
Nervi cranieni 141
10.5.Consideraţii anatomoclinice
Reflexele vagale uzuale sunt tusea, voma, gag reflexul (retracţia limbii cu ridicarea
şi constricţia muşchilor faringieni care precede voma).
Leziunile supranucleare se asociază cu afectarea celorlalţi nervi cranieni ai fosei
posterioare. Leziunile unilaterale sunt de obicei asimptomatice iar leziunea bilaterală a
neuronilor centrali poate produce paralizie pseudobulbară.
Leziunile nucleare sau fasciculare izolate se identifică prin absenţa leziunilor
tracturilor corticobulbare şi a altor nervi cranieni, iar leziunile asociate se întâlnesc în
sindromul Avellis caracterizat prin hemiplegie laringiană asociată cu
hemipareză/hemihiperestezie.
Leziunile în foramenul jugular datorită unor tumori de glomus jugular şi alte
neoplazii sau de fracturile bazei craniului produc sindromul Vernet (sindromul foramenului
jugular) manifestat prin:
pareza muşchilor sternocleidomastoidian şi trapez;
disfonie;
disfagie;
pareza homolaterală a corzii vocale;
pierderea ipsilaterală a sensibilităţii treimii posterioare a limbii, palatului uvulei,
hipofaringelui şi laringelui;
pierderea sensibilităţii gustative la nivelul epiglotei;
Leziunile toracoabdominale sub emergenţa nervului laringeu recurent au doar
manifestări viscerale caracteristice denervării parasimpatice (tahicardie, bronhoconstricţie,
scăderea secreţiei gastrice acide).
CAPITOLUL 11
prin juxtapunere.
11.4.Traiect extracranian
La ieşirea din foramenul jugular nervul accesor se împarte în:
ramura medială, echivalentă cu rădăcina bulbară, care se uneşte cu nervul vag la
polul superior al ganglionului nodos. Ea conţine axonii eferenţi ai neuronilor din
nucleul ambiguu care vor inerva muşchii laringelui pe calea nervului recurent;
ramură laterală, echivalentă cu rădăcina spinală, care se orientează posterolateral,
trece anterior sau posterior faţă de vena jugulară internă, încrucişează posterior
diafragma muşchilor stilieni şi la 3-4 cm sub vârful procesului mastoid abordează
faţa profundă a muşchiului sternocleidomastoidian pe care o încrucişează în sens
caudolateral. La marginea laterală a muşchiului continuă direcţia caudolaterală,
traversează planul subaponevrotic profund al triunghiul laterocervical posterior
însoţit de lanţul limfonodular spinal şi se termină pe faţa profundă a părţii
cervicale a muşchiului trapez. Aici primeşte anastomoze din ansele C2 şi C3 ale
plexului cervical formând ansa lui Maubrac care conţine axonii aferenţi
proprioceptivi proveniţi de la muşchii sternocleidomastoidian şi trapez care ajung
pe această cale în laminele bazei cornului medular dorsal C2, C3.
11.5.Consideraţii anatomoclinice
Lezarea nervului accesor izolată sau în cadrul sindromului de foramen jugular se
referă numai la teritoriul motor al cotingentului spinal şi constă în pareza sau paralizia
muşchilor sternocleidomastoidian şi trapez.
Pareza muşchiului sternocleidomastoidian se manifestă prin hipotonie cu dificultatea
rotaţiei ipsilaterale a capului observabilă împotriva unei rezistenţe pasive. Pareza bilaterală
are drept rezultat executarea dificilă a flexiei capului.
Pareza muşchiului trapez se manifestă prin hipotonie, căderea umărului şi abducţie
dificilă a braţului la orizontală, mai ales împotriva unei rezistenţe pasive. Cele două treimi
inferioare ale muşchiului trapez nu sunt afectate deoarece sunt inervate de ramurile cervicale
şi toracale ale nervilor spinali.
CAPITOLUL 12
12.1.Consideraţii generale
Nervul hipoglos este un nerv motor care asigură inervaţia musculaturii somatice a
limbii care se dezvoltă din ultimele patru somite occipitale.
12.2.Originea reală
Originea reală a nervului hipoglos se găseşte în tegmentum-ul bulbar, sub planşeul
ventriculului IV, în aria trigonului hipoglosului, situat între trigonul vagal şi linia mediană.
Nucleul nervului hipoglos este dispus sub forma unei coloane verticale de neuroni multipolari
somatici, alungită craniocaudal (10-18 mm), care se întinde de la nivelul polului inferior al
olivei bulbare până în regiunea striilor medulare ale ventriculului IV. Coloana nucleară a
nervului hipoglos este organizată în următorii subnuclei:
ventromedial care inervează musculatura proprie a limbii;
ventrolateral care inervează muşchiul genioglos;
caudal care inervează muşchiul hioglos.
În jurul nucleului principal al nervului hipoglos se găsesc nucleii perihipoglosali reprezentaţi
de:
nucleus praepositus hypoglossi situat rostral, care continuă nucleul principal până la
polul caudal al nucleului abducens;
nucleus intercalatus situat dorsolateral, între nucleul principal şi nucleul dorsal al
vagului;
nucleul lui Roller, situat ventromedial, în formaţia reticulată.
Aferenţele nucleului nervului hipoglos provin de la:
scoarţa cerebrală, pe calea tractului corticonuclear, direct dar mai ales după sinapse
multiple în formaţia reticulată şi sunt responsabile de mişcările voluntare ale
limbii;
nucleii motori ai nervilor trigemen, glosofaringian şi vag, asociind mişcările limbii
cu cele masticatorii şi de deglutiţie;
alţi nuclei viscerali ai trunchiului cerebral: substanţa cenuşie periapeductală,
nucleul solitar, nucleul dorsal al vagului, ariile medulare dorsale;
formaţia reticulată a trunchiului cerebral prin fibre directe şi încrucişate.
12.3.Originea superficială şi traiect intracranian.
Axonii eferenţi periferici părăsesc nucleul nervului hipoglos prin faţa sa ventrală,
trec lateral faţă de lemniscusul median şi se exteriorizează prin şanţul preolivar sub forma
a 10-12 rădăcini (fig.12.1.). Acestea se dirijează ventolateral, fuzionează de obicei într-un
trunchi unic care trece anterior faţă de artera cerebeloasă posteroinferioară şi pătrunde
prin porul dural al nervului hipoglos în cisterna canalului condilian. În situaţia în care
există două trunchiuri radiculare artera cerebeloasă posteroinferioară trece printre acestea iar
canalul hipoglosal (condilian anterior) poate fi dublu.
12.4.Traiect extracranian
Nervul hipoglos iese din craniu prin canalul condilian anterior prin care trec şi
artera meningeală posterioară şi vena comitantă (vena condiliană anterioară) şi pătrunde
150 Nervul hipoglos
în spaţiul maxilovertebrofaringian.
Nervul, situat iniţial posteromedial faţă de mănunchiul neurovascular al gâtului, se
dirijează lateral şi caudal, încrucişează faţa anterioară a fasciei prevertebrale şi a
ganglionului simpatic cervical superior şi faţa posterioară a ganglionului nodos de care
poate adera parţial. Nervul hipoglos trece apoi printre artera carotidă internă şi nervul vag,
situaţi medial şi vena jugulară internă situată lateral, încrucişează faţa laterală a arterei
carotide externe sub originea arterei occipitale, traversează în sens lateromedial loja
vasculară a gâtului şi se dirijează anterior şi superior traversând planurile musculare ale
planşeului bucal. În aceste traiect nervul hipoglos participă la formarea următoarelor
triunghiuri:
A. basilaris
N. abducens
Fila radicularia
n. hypoglossi
A. cerebellaris
posterior inferior
A. et v. facialis
M. masseter
M.
M. digastricus
stylohyoideus
venter posterior M. digastricus
V. jugularis venter anterior
interna
N. hypoglossus
A. carotis N. hypoglossus
interna et v. commitans
A. carotis
externa Corpus ossis
Ansa hyoidei
cervicalis Mm.
A. et v. thyroidea infrahyoidei
superior
Trigonum N. et vasa Membrana Trigonum Trigonum
Farabeuf laryngei thyrohyoidea Béclard Pirogoff
superiores
THE PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
CRANIAL
NERVES
Junimea, 2011
ANATOMIA REDIVIVA
5
Introduction
The nervous system (systema nervosum) consists of a central division, the central
nervous system (systema nervosum centrale, pars centralis) or the nevrax that is located
dorsoaxially, contained in the brain box and in the vertebral canal and a peripheral one, the
periphe ral nervous system (systema nervosum periphericum, pars peripherica) that
connects the central nervous system with the somatic and autonomic effectors, with the
telereceptors and with the extero, proprio and interoreceptors.
The periphe ral ne rvous system consists of cranial nerves (nervi craniales), spinal
nerves (nervi spinales) and of the autonomic division (divisio autonomica). The autonomic
nervous system. that assures the functions of the visceral systems, is a very actual subject in
the current literature, that, unfortunately, misses from the most part of the academical
curricula due to its complexity continuously enriched by new discoveries. If its the
sympathetic (pars sympathetica) and parasympathetic (pars parasympathetica) parts are
relatively well known from the anatomical view point, the intramural plexuses (plexus
viscerales et ganglia visceralia) constitute today frontier domains of the neuroscientifical
research. The modern neuroimunohistochemistry studies, correlated with those of
neuropharmacology and pharmacogenomics, allowed to be obtained spectacular results
concerning the stucture and normal functions of the intraparietal visceral nervous systems.
The most eloquent exemple is represented by the enteric nervous system (ENS), which,
although consists of two times more neurons than the spinal cord, is not even mentioned in
the last edition of Terminologia Anatomica (1998), it represents the base of a new clinical
discipline, the neurogastroenterology.
For these reasons the current book concerning the Peripheral Nervous System is
structured into three volumes, the Cranial Nerves, the Spinal Nerves and the Autonomic
Nervous System.
156 The peripheral nervous system
A careful study of the anatomy history shows that the nerves were among the structures
most difficult to define and classify and, as many other anatomical elements, are known since
antiquity.
It is supposed that the first logical affirmation regarding the cranial nerves belongs to
Alcmaeon from Crotona (Sec.V B.C.), scholar of Pythagoras of Samos that believed that
the nerves transport information to the encephalon (“vital spirit”).
Two centuries later Herophilus from Chalcedonia (335-280 B.C.), the founder of the
Alexandria School, differentiates the sensitive nerves from the motor nerves, and his
coworker, Erasistratus (304-250 B.C.), describes the encephalon divisions.
After the death of Erasistratus the progress were insignificant and obscure until the first
century A.C. when Rufus from Ephes, contemporary of the Traian Emperor wrote “De
nominis partium corporis humani” where describes the optic chiasm and demonstrated that,
on animals, the compression of the recurrent nerve leads to the loss of the voice.
At the end of the first century Marinus resurrected the alexandrin tradition founding at
Pergam a highest value school whose pupils disseminate through out the Europe. Mariunus
anatomical work that was considered by Galen “the resurrector of the anatomy” consists of
twenty volumes!
The most important representative of the beginning of the first millennium was Galen
of Pergam (129-217), whose anatomical opera “De anatomicis administrationibus ” was
conceived in 15 volumes from which the first ten were preserved in the original greek version
and the last five in the arabian translation of Nunain ibn Ishak (809-873).
The general organization plane of Galen work that is reproduced bellow is very interesting by
the repartition of the anatomical thematics on the each volume and may subserve as a model
for any modern textbook of anatomy:
I-st volume – About dissection; the anatomy of the arm muscles and ligaments.
II-nd volume – The muscles and ligaments of the leg.
III-rd volume – The nerves, veins and arteries of hand and foot.
IV-th volume – The muscles of the face, head, neck and shoulder.
V-th volume – The muscles of the thorax, abdomen, lumbal region and spine.
VI-th volume – The abdominal organs.
VII-th volume – The thoracal organs.
VIII-th volume – Other thoracal organs.
IX-th volume – The brain.
X-th volume - The face, mouth and pharynx.
XI-th volume – The larynx and the associated structures.
The cranial nerves 157
brain from the base leaving a bundle of cords of the cranial nerves for the head and neck,
without their identification.
Realdo Colombo (1510-1559), is the successor of Vesalius at Padua and describes in
his book De re anatomica libri XV the clitoris, the pulmonary circulation, the dynamics of the
heart valves and the triangular fossa of the III cerebral ventricle. Colombo uses the traditional
Galen classification but adds the trochlear nerve as the 8 th pair and the abducens nerve as the
9th pair.
Gabriele Fallapio (1523-1562), professor in Padua and Ferrara, wrote Observationes
anatomicae where he describes the fallopian tubes and the other uterine annexes, the
transpetrosal channel of the facial nerve that bears his name and the chorda tympani nerve.
He distinguished the facial nerve from the cochlear nerve and the trochlear from the abducens
nerve.
Another great anatomist of the XVI century was Guido Guidi Florentino (1509-1569)
surnamed Vidus Vidius. Among his important contributions he describes the pterigoid canal
and the nerve that goes through (vidian). He draws correctly the origin of the trochlear nerve.
Constanzo Varolio (1543-1575) describes the intermediary segment of the brainstem
that he calls pons and part of the cranial nerves in his work with epistolary character “De
nervi opticis”.
The research of Eustachius, Colombo and Fallopio contributed to the individualization of the
trigeminal nerve and its separation of the trochlear and abducens nerves, but lacking an
adequate technique for fixation of the cadavers, the results of the dissections of these times
remain confuse and controversial.
Thomas Willis (1621-1675) professor at Oxford, publishes in 1644 De anatome
cerebri, work unanimously recognized in England and on the European continent where it is
promoted by Raymond Vieussens (1635-1715). Willis describes nine pairs of cranial nerves
among which six pairs are identical with the current ones, the seventh pair associates the
facial and vestibulocochlear nerves, the eighth pair the glossopharyngeal, vague and accesor
nerves and the ninth pair is represented by the hypoglossus nerve. This classification was
maintained in England until the end of the XIX-th century.
Govard Bidloo (1649-1713) Danish anatomist, expands Willis’s research and
describes eleven pairs, separating the glossopharyngeal, vague and accesory nerves.
Synthesizing the information becoming more and more rich in the XVII century, Samuel
Thomas von Sommering (1755-1830), in his doctoral thesis conducted by Carolus Samuel
Ande rsch (1732-1777) describes twelve pairs of cranial nerves as in our times, emphasizing
with gratitude the contribution of his mentor on the description of the glossopharyngeal
nerve.
In the XIX-th century Sommering classification is promoted by Johann Meckel
(1781-1833) the youngest , Joseph Hyrtl (1810-1894) and Nikolaus Rüdinger (1832-1896)
and it is adopted at the Congress of the German Society of Anatomy (Anatomische
Geselschaft) of Basel (1895) when was created Nomina Anatomica Basel (BNA).
could persist in adults the olfactory ventricle, the former lumen of the primitive neural
tube that;
lateral diencephalic prolongation, consisting of a free extremity, the optic cup,
contained in the orbital capsule, and the optic pedicle, a narrow segment that pierces
the apex of orbital capsule and connects the optic cup with the diencephalon. The
optic pedicle represents the primitive optic nerve.
The cochleovestibular capsule, located in intimate contact with the lateral wall of
the rhombencephalon, differentiate the haired cochlear and vestibular cells and the
rhombencephalic neural crests cells migrate intracapsulary and form the sustentacular cells
and the Corti and Scarpa ganglia.
The branchiometric cranial nerves belong to the pharyngeal apparatus, which is
a transient morphogenetic complex that evolutes between the 25 th -35th days of embryogenesis
and is found in all specimens of the Gnathostomata class. It forms the anterior intestine, most
of the head and neck structures and represents the cephalic solution of the craniocaudal
folding of the plane embryo.
The functional organization of the branchiometric cranial nerve should be
considered ontogenetically, from the view point of appearance and evolution of the human
pharyngeal apparatus, which is concomitantly with the progressive closing of the caudal
extremity of the anterior neuropore, the formation of the rhombencephalon and its
segmentation in the rhombomeres under the action of Hox genes. In the dorsal aspect of
the rhombencephalic primitive neural groove form the neural crests which, under the Hox
genes influence, recognize the dorsoventral identity of the rhombomere from where they
start to migrateas successive waves towards the primordia of the pharyngeal arches.
The migration and stocking of the neural crest cells in the pharyngeal arch takes
place under the fibroblastic growth factor (FGF) chemotactic influence and is guided by
ephrines and their receptors. The whole process of the pharyngeal arches and their
derivatives formation and maturation of is coordinated by the gene FGFR1 that is
located on the 12th position of the 8th chromosome short arm.
The structure of the pharyngeal arch
The pharyngeal apparatus is composed of modular structures named pharyngeal
arches that appear and develop in a craniocaudal sequence, grow posteroanteriorly and fuse
on the median ventral line. Their axial, endoblastic surface limits the initial, oropharyngeal
part of the anterior intestine and the peripheral, ectoblastic, surface, the face and the neck of
the embryo. The pharyngeal arches are separated by pharyngeal grooves also called
pharyngeal clefts or tremata (singular – trema), Greek word that meaning slit, cleft, narrow
space; for instance the tympanic and vestibular scalae of the cochlea communicate trough the
helicotrema, i.e. trema of cochlea. Each pharyngeal groove presents an internal, endoblastic
slope named pharyngeal pouch, and a peripheral ectoblastic slope, the pharyngeal groove
per se. By ecto/endoblastic apposition in the depth of the pharyngeal grooves are formed
pharyngeal me mbranes that are noticeable on coronal sections of the embryo cephalic
extremity. At the dorsal extremity of each pharyngeal groove the ectoblast proliferates and
forms the epibranchial (epipharyngeal) placodes with both neurogenic and
mesenchymeoformator potential.
From the anatomical view point each pharyngeal arch presents:
162 The peripheral nervous system
base, attached to the dorsal region of the cephalic extremity of the embryo;
free extremity, oriented ventral, that will fuse with the antimer pharyngeal arch;
axial face, endoblastic, that delimits the pharygeal lumen;
periphe ral face, ectoblastic, that participates in the formation of the cephalic
integument;
margins, cranial or post-tre matic and caudal or pre-trematic, that limit the
pharyngeal grooves;
cellular core, organized on two plans:
periphe ral, consisting of a unique layer of cells of the neural crests with caps ular
disposition. It proliferates axially and peripherally thickens by the successive
apposition of the most recent migrated neural crest cells;
central, mesenchymal, that resulting from the early differentiation of the peripheral
pluripotent layer, initially angio and neurogenetic, and later, skeleto and
musculogenetic. The angiogenetic material is organized as a network of endothelial
tubes that will fuse in a unique canal – the aortic arch – connecting the arterial
extremity of the cardiac loop – the aortic sac – with the dorsal aortae. The cellular
neurogenetic material forms together with that of the corresponding epibranchial
placode, the branchiome ric cranial nerve.
The formation of the the branchiome ric cranial nerve is a complex process
initiated concurrently intra and extranevraxially.
Intranevraxially, the neuroblastic material of the dorsal region of the
rhombencephalic basal plate dorsal region condenses caudocranially and forms the motor
branchiome ric column. Similarly, the neuroblastic material of the sulcus limitans ventral
slope forms the visceromotor column. In the next phase, the columns thus developed
segment transversally according to the rhombomeric model already established and form the
branchiomeric motor nuclei and the parasympathetic nuclei of the brainstem. The axons of
these neurons leave the rhombencephalon through the superficial origin of the corresponding
cranial nerve and directly synapse with the skeletal muscles developed from pharyngeal arch
mesenchyme or estabilish preganglionic synapses with the parasympathetic previsceral and
intramural neurons. Therefore, the motor component of the branchiometric nerve is mixed,
somatic and autonomic.
The nuclei of the sensitive branchiome ric column develop from the neuroblastic
material of the alar plate located on the dorsal slope of sulcus limitans.
Extranevraxially, the active neurogenetic zone is located at the dorsal extremity of
the pharyngeal groove where the ganglion of the branchiometric nerve is formed by the
fusion of the neurocristal material with the placodal one. It consists of pseudounipolar
neuroblasts whose peripheral axons are connected with the pharyngeal arch receptors from
the territory while the central axons enter the rhombencephalon through the superficial origin
of the corresponding cranial nerve and synapse with the nuclei of the sensitive branchiomeric
column. The primitive ganglion of the branchiomeric cranial nerve is situated on a
“mesoblastic bed” that in adult forms the trigeminal (V), geniculate (VII) and petrosal
fossae (IX) and the jugular notch (X, IX) of the petrosal part of the temporal bone. Thus
formed , the branchiometric cranial nerve penetrates the dorsal extremity of the pharyngeal
The cranial nerves 163
A alpha, (15-20µm), with thick myelin sheath and high conduction speed of 70-
120m/sec. The afferent alpha axons carry the epicritical proprioceptive sensibility from the
neuromuscular spindles and the Golgi tendineous organs and the alpha efferent fibers
innervate the skeletal muscles;
A beta, are thinner (approx 8µm), with 30-70m/sec conduction speed. The Aβ
axons are only afferent and carry the tactile epicritic sensitivity;
A gamma, with the diameter of 5µm and low conduction speed (15-30m/sec) are
only efferent and innervate the contractile portion of the neuromuscular spindles;
A delta and C are the thinnest and poorly myelinated ( Aδ) or amyelinic (C),
have 3µm diameter and carry the thermic (Aδ) and pain (C ) informations from
the skin with a speed of 15-25m/sec. The amyelinic C fibers form the majority of
the autonomic nervous system postganglionic efferences.
The formation of the cranial nerve trunk
Intranevraxially, the axons that compose a cranial nerve present a central type
myelin sheath, made of the oligodendroglia prolongations. Each oligodentrocyte associates 3-
6 axons and the intracerebral segment of the nerve is individualized by the direct
interrelationships with the neighboring structures that maintain the fascicular unity.
Extranevraxially, at the emergence from the brainstem, the central myelin sheath is
replaced by the periphe ral myelin produced by the Schwann cells (that are missing in the
CNS).
The transition zone between the central and peripheral myelin is tangential to the
surface of the brainstem for the IIIth , IVth , VIth and VIIIth -XIIth cranial nerves. The central
myelin territory is extended extranevraxially with 2-8mm on the trunks of the trigeminal and
facial nerves. The axons of the olfactory nerve and optic nerve have only centra l myelin
sheath confirming once more that these two nerves are exteriorized portions of
telediencephalon. Out of the brainstem pia mater penetrates among the axons with the intima
piae in direct contact with the myelin sheath. Pia mater forms the endo, peri and epineural
sheaths that have portvessel and mechanical roles, associating and solidarizing the nervous
fibers bundles as the intracranial trunks and the roots of the cranial nerves.
From their superficial origin the intracranial portion of the cranial nerve trunk
presents a first transcisternal segment that passes through the basal cisterns of the brainstem
and the Liliequist membrane, then directs towards the great portals of the skull base. Here the
cranial nerves behave differently.
At the middle cerebral fossa, the oculomotor, trochlear, abducens and trigeminal
nerves, perforate dura mater through a well individualized porus and enter the transdural
canal. Between the perineural pia mater and the arachnoida that coates the inner surface of
the dural canal it forms the pe rineural microcisterna that is continuous along the entire
transdural canal. At the portal where the canial nerve leaves the skull, the perineural cisterna
ends blindly by the continuation of the arachnoid with the perineural pia mater and of the
dura mater with the skull base periosteum.
In the posterior ce rebral fossa, the facial, vestibulocochlear, glossopharyngeal,
vagus, accesory and hypoglossal nerves group into three pedicules that traverse the
pontocerebellary angle and directs to the internal acoustic meatus, the jugular foramen and
166 The peripheral nervous system
the hypoglossal canal respectively. Here the transdural segment is absent and the perinervous
microcisterns have the same length as the corresponding canals. In conclusion, the
perinervous microcisterns of the middle cerebral fossa consists of two segments, transdural
and transportal, while the cisterns of the posterior cerebral fossa have only the transportal
segment.
The vascularization of the cranial nerve is assured by the small caliber neighboring
arteries, that form segmental arterial pedicles. The segmental artery approaches the trunk of
the cranial nerve through the perineurium of the cerebral face and divides into central and
peripheral branches. Each of them penetrates through the epi, peri and endoneural septa and
sheath and collateralizes in a reach microcirculatory network vasa nervorum. The segmental
arterial territories correspond to the topographic transcisternal, transdural and transportal
segments of the cranial nerve trunk. The cranial nerves blood supply is assured from three
pedicles according to their topography:
the superomedial pedicle, of the anterior cerebral fossa, consisting of the anterior
cerebral artery system that distributes to the transcisternal segments of the first
two cranial nerve pairs.
the infe rolate ral pedicle, of the middle cerebral fossa, assures the vascularization
of the IIIth , IVth , Vth and VIth nerves and consists of a late ral source - the
external carotid system - through its middle and accessory menigeal branches
and another one, medial - the internal carotid system - through the latero-
carotico-cavernous branches;
the inferior pedicle, of the posterior cerebral fossa, assures the vascularization of
the VIIth , VIIIth , IXth , Xth , XIth and XIIth nerves and consists of a lateral source -
the ascendant pharyngeal arte ry system - and a medial from the
vertebrobasilary system branches.
The functional analysis of these arterial sources pointed out that along the trunks of
the last ten cranial nerves estabilish anastomoses between the external and internal carotid
arterial systems thus explaining their implication in the vascular cerebral pathology.
The lesional topography of the of the cranial nerves overlaps on their normal
topography. So the lesions location could be:
intranevraxial :
supranuclear, involving the afferences and the efferences of the nuclei of the
brainstem at different strategic levels of the brain (crus cerebri, internal capsule)
or the neurons of the suprajacent relays;
nuclear, involving the motor and sensory nuclei of the brainstem;
fascicular, affecting the intracerebral postnuclear traject of the nerve.
extranevraxial, affecting the transcisternal, transdural, transportal segments or the
extracranial nerve traject.
With the diversification and improvement of the current neurosurgical techniques, and
especially with the emergence and development of endoscopic neurosurgery, the topographic
interrelations among the cranial nerves trunks are once again in the actua lity. With the
pioneering work of Parkinson, that demonstrated the utility of using the trunks of the cranial
nerves as landmarks for specifying and to delimit the approach routes for vasculonervous
The cranial nerves 167
formations at the base of the skull, many other neuroanatomists and neurosurgeons have
enriched the literature. To date there are described ten triangles of the cave rnous sinus or of
the middle and posterior cerebral fossae.
delimited anteromedially by the lateral margin of the cavum Mekeli and Gasser
ganglion, laterally by the greater petrosal nerve and posteriorly by the line that unites
the hiatus of the facial nerve canal with the dural pore of cavum Meckeli. The
posterior limit could be extended to the superior petrosal sinus, when the delimited
area becomes rhomboid;
the optico-carotid triangle corresponds to the posterior communicanting artery and
is limited anterolaterally by the preoptic segment of the anterior cerebral artery,
anteromedially by the optic nerve and posteriorly by the internal carotid artery.
The posterior cerebral fossa triangles:
the inferome dial paraclival triangle corresponds to the posterior clinoid process and
is limited superiorly by the line that unites the posterior clinoid process with the dural
pore of the trochlear nerve, laterally by the line that unites the dural poles of the
trochlear and abducens nerves, and medially by the line that unites the dural pore of
the abducens with the posterior clinoid process;
the inferolateral paraclival triangle corresponds to the trigeminal pore through
which the trigeminal nerve enters Meckeli cavum and is limited medially by the line
that unites the dural poles of the trochlear and abducens nerves, superiorly by t he line
that unites the dural pore of the abducens nerve with the superior petrosal vein and the
superior petrosal sinus confluence point and inferiorly by the line that unites this last
point with the dural pore of the trochlear nerve.
The cranial nerves 169
1.1.General considerations
The areas of the brain involved in reception, transmission and processing of the
olfactory information is called olfactory brain or rhinencephalon.The olfactory nerve is the
part of olfactory pathway that conducts the primary olfactory information from the peripheral
chemoreceptor neuron until the first processing relay from the olfactory bulb. The same
phenomenon , with minimal anatomical differences, appears in the optic, cochlear and
vestibular neurosensorial systems whose pathways present an extracerebral neuroreceptor
part and a central one, so it could be considered that the Ist, IInd and VIIIth cranial nerves
respect a common model of functional organization.
1.2.The olfactory epithelium
2
The olfactory epithelium occupies an area of 5 and is located on the roof of the
corresponding nasal fossa covering the cribriform plate, the medial wall of the superior nasal
concha and the superior third of the nasal septum. The olfactory epithelium consists of:
the superficial layer, consisting of an uniform film of mucus where the fixed
olfactory cili are enclaved. The mucus, secreted by the Bowman glands and the
supporting cells, has an ionic and molecular composition suitable for the odorant
substances solubilisation as well as the specialized binding proteins that assures the
persistence of the odorant;
the sensory olfactory epithelium is made of three cellular populations:
the olfactory neurons, that develop from the neuroectoblast of the primitive
olfactory placoda. They have a limited lifespan of 30-60 days and renew
continuously from the basal cells that have preserved the capacity of
multiplication and the neurogenetic potential. The olfactory neurons are
peripheral, functionally modified, bipolar nervous cells which don’t estabilish
neuroreceptor synapses, but present a button-like expanded apical pole that
reaches the olfactory mucous membrane surface. Form its convexity evolve 5-
20 thin protoplasmic prolongations called olfactory cilia that disperse and
form a dense network in the mucus film that covers the superficial, nasal
surface of the olfactory epithelium. The basal pole of the olfactory neuron
continues with an thin amyelinic axon that associate in the secondary fibers
bundles of 5-20 axons. The olfactory fibers bundles pass through the
cribriform plate and enter the ventral face of the olfactory bulb. Classically
there are described the medial fascicle that comes from the superior third of
the nasal septum and a lateral one that originates in the superior nasal concha.
All together these axons (fila olfactoria) forms the olfactory nerve which is a
short, poliradicular structure that extends from the basal membrane of the
sensory epithelium to the ventral face of the olfactory bulb.
the support cells are column shaped, occupy all the thickness of the olfactory
mucosa and present an apical pole with microvili that reaches the surface of
the olfactory epithelium, a deep pole in contact with the basal membrane, and
lateral faces that form with the corresponding olfactory neuron faces “tight”
170 The olfactory nerve
The olfactory bulb represents the rostral extension of rhinencephalon and during
embryonic life, has a telencephalic type organization with a central cavity –the olfactory
ventricle. In adults the ventricle disappears and is replaced by the medullary center of white
matter that continues with the olfactory tract. The olfactory bulb consists of secondary
olfactory neurons and of olfactory interneurons.
The secondary olfactory neurons are represented of mitral cells and tufed cells
with the same functional value and structure. They present an apical dendrite incorporated in
the olfactory glomerulus and basal dendrites involved in the multiple microcircuits of the
granular layer. The axons of these neurons form the output of the olfactory bulb and
participates to the formation of the lateral olfactory tract.
The olfactory interneurons are amacrine neurons (without axon) whose dendrites
conduce the nervous impulses bidirectionally. They are classified as superficial, the
periglomerular cells, and deep, the granular and agranular cells.
The periglomerular cells have the dendrite tree oriented horizontally, each cell
associating radial rows of 4-5 olfactory glomerulus. The anatomical disposition as well as the
GABAergic or dopaminergic neuromediation suggests that they contribute to the “surround
inhibition” where an excitation center “ON” is surrounded by an“OFF” halo of contrast
inhibition. When an olfactory stimulus reaches a glomerulus, it excites the apical dendrite of
the mitral cell that processes the signal and transmits it centripetally, but in the same time,
excites and the periglomerular cells, creating around an area of contrast inhibition exteded
radially to the 4-5 rows of glomeruli.
The granular cells are vertically oriented and present:
the apical dendrite expanded superficially, that establishes dendrodentritic
synapses with the mitral cells basal dendrites;
the distal dendrite that forms:
axodendritic synapses with the collaterals of the mitral neurons axons and
with the efferent axons from the olfactory retrocontrol system closing
negative feedback loops;
dendrodendritic synapses with the agranular cells.
The granular cells are represented by at least seven types of interneurons
disseminated among the granular neurons and implicated in various local microcircuitries.
Among these must be remarked the Blanes cells, GABAergic neurons that inhibit the
granular neurons and excite the mitral cells by “inhibitor inhibition”.
The olfactory tract continues posteriorly the olfactory bulb as a dorsoventrally
flattened ribbon of white substance, long of approximately 25mm and wide of 3mm. It
presents a dorsally convex face in relations with internal orbital sulcus of the brain orbital
lobe and the ventral concave face that presents an axially groove that separates the initial
parts of the olfactory striae. In the initial segment of the olfactory tract there are disseminated
neurons of intermediate size that form the anterior olfactory nucleus. They receive
collaterals from the mitral and tufted cells and its axons cross the median line in the anterior
most part of the rostral comisure and establish synapses with the neurons of the controlateral
anterior olfactory nucleus as well as with the controlateral olfactory glomeruli. The olfactory
tract also contains fibers of the olfactory pathway and fibers of the olfactory retrocontrol
system that originates in various areas of the rhinencephalon. The central extremity of the
172 The olfactory nerve
olfactory tract divides into medial and lateral olfactory striae that form together with the
optic tract and hypocampal uncus the anterior perforate space. The olfactory lateral stria
directs laterally towards the lateral olfactory area, and the medial one towards the septal
area and delimit in between them the olfactory trigone which presents centrally the
olfactory tubercle where ends the axial contingent of the olfactory tract called intermediary
olfactory stria. All these structures belong to the primary olfactory cortex which has a
trilaminar structure (archicortex) and receive afferences without thalamic relay. The
most part of the olfactory output takes the way of the lateral olfactory stria towards the
olfactory tubercle, the pyriform cortex, the anterior cortical nucleus of the amygdala, the
periamygdaloid cortex and the lateral entorhinal area. The olfactory tubercle, the nucleus
of the diagonal band of Broca, and the innominate substance (of Meynert) of the ventral
striatum contain small size neuronal aggregates called Calleja islands, that receive afferences
from the vomeronasal organ.
The primary olfactory areas sends:
retrograde efferences towards the anterior olfactory nucleus and the olfactory bulb
that form the retrocontrol olfactory system,
anterograde efferences towards hippocampus, the lateral hypothalamus, the
dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and through the latter one, to the insular and
orbitofrontal cortices. The thalamocortical relay confer to the olfactory sensations
the affective, emotional and behavioural nuances.
1.5.The accessory olfactory system
The accessory olfactory system is parallel with the primary olfactory system and
allows the pheromones detection. The pheromones are volatile chemical substances secreted
by the human body that defines the olfactory identity (written in the genome and as unique as
the fingerprints). It is demonstrated that the pheromone secretion starts immediately after the
birth and allows the mother to recognize the newborn, excepting the univiteline twins. The
chemical types of pheromones are different in men and women, and have an essential role in
the development of the libido (masculine or feminine type behavior and the sexual life),
defining the olfactory personality of the individual. In the literature is cited a letter from
Napoleon to Josephine where he asks her not to bath at least two weeks before his arrival so
he could detect the smell of her body!
Anatomically, the accessory olfactory system consists of the vomeronasal organ and
the terminal nerve.
The vomeronasal organ is a flattened tubular epithelial structure enclaved in the
mucoperiosteum of the nasal septum anteroinferior part, with the opening looking
anteroinferiorly. The medial wall of this pouch is made of a neurosensory epithelium
resembling the olfactory epithelium, but the neuroreceptor cells have microvili at the apical
pole. The axons of the chemoreceptor neurons of the vomeronasal organ form a unique
fascicle, the vomeronasal nerve that passes through the medial part of the cribriform plate
and ends in the accessory olfactory bulb. It looks as a minimal swelling situated on the
caudomedial face of the olfactory bulb and its efferences end in the medial nucleus of the
amygdala and in the bed nuclei of the stria terminalis.
The terminal nerve (the zero nerve) has the same structure as the mixed cranial
nerve and consists of:
The cranial nerves 173
2.1.General considerations
The optic nerve is part of the neurosensory visual system and represents the optic
pathway segment between the posterior pole of the ocular globe and the lateral geniculate
body. Anatomically, at the eyeball posterior pole, it individualized as a myelinated axons
cord that, in its way to metecephalon, passes successively through the orbit and optic canal
and crosses the inferior face of the mesencephalon. Its obvious connection with the posterior
face of the eyeball motivated the anatomists of the Antiquity period to call it the optic nerve,
but its functional organization was elucidated fairly late. Descartes (1596-1650) was the first
to associate the structures with the binocular vision, describing the reciprocated innervations
of the eyeball extrinsic muscles and John Taylor (1703-1772), French knight, medical
charlatan and itinerant ophthalmologist, discovered the crossing of the nasal fibers of the
optic nerve at the optic chiasm (Oyster p.221). Next to this totally hazardous great finding,
John Taylor remained in the history of medicine by two famous failures, blinding both
Johann Sebastian Bach and Georg Friedrich Händel during cataract surgery.
The existence of the optic chiasma interposed between the optic nerve and the optic
tract imposes the description of an extranevraxial optic pathway, whose synaptic
organization, long traject and complicated interoculometathalamic relationships allow the
understanding of the visual manifestations if its damage.
2.2.The synaptic organization of the retina
Retina is the deepest covering of the eyeball that coates the inner surface of uveal tract
and presents an anterior iridian segment, a intermediary cilliary segment and a posterior
choroid segment or the visual retina. The deep face of retina presents important functional
landmarks that could be observed during the ophtalmoscopy.
Macula lutea, the central area, where the visual axis meets the retina is circular
depression with diameter of 5mm and presents a depression in the middle, called fovea
centralis, with diameter of 2.5mm and in its center, also depressed, is called foveola and
contains only cone cells being the area of maximum visual acuity. All these structures are
clinically referred as “macula”.
Optic papilla is the place where the axons of the ganglionar neurons leave retina, and
it is located at 1.5mm nasal (medial) from macula lutea.
Ora serrata is the edge of the functional retina, and continues with the ciliary retina,
which is pigmentary.
The structure of retina
From depth to the surface, retina consists of 10 histological and functional
differentiated layers, that were described by Cajal and Golgi at the end of the XIXth century:
the pigment cells layer is located on inner surface of the choroid and presents an
external face firmly adherent to the choriocapillary layer and an internal face with
microvili and indentations where penetrate the peripheral segments of the cone and
rod cells. These connections are lax and permit retinal detachment between the
176 The optic nerve
neural layers and the pigmented epithelium and the accumulation of liquid in the
space (that represents the space between the two lamine of the primitive optic cup);
the cones and rods layer is the photoreceptor part of retina and consists of external
segments of photoreceptor cells enclaved in the pigment epithelium. During visual
stimulation the peripheral segments of the cone and rode cells are consumed in the
photoreceptor process and regenerate in an interval of 9-10 days;
the external limiting membrane separates the cones and rods from the deep part of
the photoreceptor cells;
the external nuclear layer represented by the central extensions containing the
nuclei of the cones and rods cells;
the external plexiform layer consisting of synapses between the photoreceptor cells
and the peripheral axons of the bipolar neurons connected by the dendrites of the
horizontal cells;
the internal nuclear layer formed by the bodies of the bipolar, amacrine,
horizontal and interplexiform neurons. The bipolar neurons are considered the
protoneurons of the optic pathway;
the internal plexiform layer consists of synapses between the bipolar and
ganglionic neurons, horizontally associated by the amacrine and interplexiform cells;
the ganglionic neurons layer considered the be the deutoneurons of the optic
pathway;
the optic nerve fibers layer made of by the ganglionic neurons axons that converge
towards the optic nerve papilla and leave the eyeball through the lamina cribrosa;
the internal limiting membrane made of the expansions of the Muller nevroglia.
The neuroglial cells of retina consist of astrocytes with the same disposition as in
the brain’s gray matter and of radial neuroglia (Muller) that interconnect all the retinal
layers from the optic nerve fibers until the photoreceptor cells.
The vascularization of the retina is assured by a branch of the ophthalmic artery, the
central artery of retina that enters the optic nerve in its intraconal part then the eyeball
through optic disc and divides into superior and inferior branches. Each of them divides
again into temporal and nasal branches which distributes to the retina as capillary plexuses
that reach the internal nuclear layer.
2.3.The real origin
The real origin of the optic nerve fibers is considered to be the retinal neurons of the
ganglionic layer whose axons converge towards the optic nerve papilla, pass through the
coverings of the eyeball at lamina cribrosa, myelinate and associate into fascicles that leave
the posterior pole of the eyeball as a rounded cord, 2-4.5 mm thick and 41-44 mm long from
which 29-31mm represented the orbital segment.
2.4.The optic nerve course
The optic nerve lasts from the posterior pole of the eyeball until the anterolateral
angle of the optic chiasm and is contained into the optic nerve cistern. This consists of:
the central axial content formed by the optic nerve fibers, coated at the periphery by
the pia mater that sends central septa solidarizing the nerve fibers into an unique
cord;
The cranial nerves 177
the peripheral container formed by the dura matter that is coated on its inner
surface by the arachnoid, continues anteriorly with the sclerotic and posteriorly fuses
with the optic canal periosteum.
Topographically, the optic nerve could be divided into:
the intraconal segment that expands from the posterior pole of the eyeball to the
anterior aperture of the optic canal. This segment, that presents two very large
radius flexures, is located in the axis of the eyeball recti muscles cone, in the
thickness of the corpus adiposum retrobulbare. The nerve presents:
superior face, crossed lateromedialy by the ophthalmic artery passing between the
nerve and the inferior face of the superior rectus muscle;
inferior face that has relations with the inferior ophthalmic vein, inferior
terminal branch of the oculomotor nerve and the superior faces of the inferior
rectus and inferior oblique muscles.
lateral face that has relations with the cilliary ganglion, short cilliary nerves
and arteries, the posterolateral long ciliary nerve and artery and the medial
face of the lateral rectus muscle;
medial face in relations with the short ciliary arteries, the medial long cilliary
nerve and artery and with the lateral face of the medial rectus muscle;
the intracanalicular segment, where the dural sheath adheres to the optic canal
periosteum. Extradurally, the ophthalmic artery is situated inferolaterally. At the optic
canal proximal orifice, the external dural sheath of the optic nerve continues with the
basal dura mater and with that of the cavernous sinus;
the clinocarotid segment, of approximately 1cm long, where the nerve progressivelly
flattens craniocaudally ending in the anterolateral angle of the optic chiasma. In the
clinocarotid segment the optic nerve is related laterally with the terminal segment of
the internal carotid artery, the origin of the ophthalmic artery and medially with the
origin of the anterior cerebral artery and with the anterior and middle clinoid
processes.
The optic chiasma, the median fusion zone of the optic nerves, is rectangular shaped
and dorsoventrally flattened, and presents:
superior face lying on the homonymous groove of the superior face of the sphenoid
bone;
inferior face in relations with the anterior cerebral artery and with Liliequist
membrane;
anterior margin in relations with the interhemispheric groove fissure and the anterior
communicanting artery;
posterior margin in relations with the anterior face of the tuberoinfunbdibular
region;
lateral margins that limit medially the anterior perforated space;
anterolateral angles where the optic nerves continue with the chiasma;
posterolateral angles that continue with the optic tract.
Functionally, the chiasma is the structure where the optic nerve fibers from the nasal
half of the retina decussate and enter the opposite optic tract.
178 The optic nerve
The optic tract represents the terminal extracerebral segment of the optic pathway
that lasts between the posterolateral angle of the chiasm and the lateral geniculate body.
Anatomically the optic tract presents:
the interpeducular segment that forms the posteromedial border of the anterior
perforated space and the anterolateral border of the optopedunculary space.
the pedunculogeniculate segment that crosses the anterior and lateral faces of
crus cerebri and ends at the lateral geniculate body.
The optic tract transports the visual information from the retina to:
the lateral geniculate body and the striate cortex where the visual information
becomes conscient – the retinogeniculate system;
the pretectal area via the retinopretectal tract that participates to the light
accommodation reflex;
the superior colliculus via the retinocolicular tract, responsible of the conjugate
movements of the eyeball and oculocephalogyrical reflexes;
the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus via the retinohypothalamic
tract that includes the visual information into the circadian rhythm and the
neuroendocrine functions.
The tertiary neuron of the optic pathway is situated in the lateral geniculate nucleus
that is retinotopical, laminary organized and consists of six lamina of gray mater from which
the laminae I, IV and VI receive information from the controlateral retina and the laminae
II, III and V from the ipsilateral retina. The tertiary neuron axons of the geniculate lateral
body form the geniculocalcarine tract (optic radiations) that directs towards the slopes of
the calcarine fissure , the areas V1 (17), V2 (18) and V3 (19) via two bundles:
the parieto-optical bundle carries the visual informations from the inferior retinal
fields and arrives directly on the superior slope of the calcarine fissure passing
through the white mater of the temporal lobe;
the temporo-optical bundle carries the visual informations from the superior retinal
fields and arrives on the inferior slope of the calcarine fissure following an indirect
way that crosses the floor of the lateral ventricle occipital horn as Meyer loop.
2.5. Anatomoclinical considerations
The symptoms of the optic system lesions:
hemianopsia, is the partial or total blindness, unilateral or bilateral of one half of the
retinal field. Hemianopsia could be:
absolute, for light, color and shape;
altitudinal, localized at the inferior or superior halfs of the visual field;
bilateral, affecting the half of the visual field of both eyes;
binasal or heteronymous hemianopsia when the defect is localized in the
nasal half of the visual field of both eyes;
bitemporal, or heteronym hemianopsia when the defect is localized in the
temporal half of the visual field of both eyes;
complete, that involves the whole half of a visual field;
congruent, homonymous hemianopsia where the visual field defects in both
eyes are symmetrical as position, shape and size;
The cranial nerves 179
on the mesencephalic wall of the lamina tecti cistern, in the interpeduculopeduncular triangle
(of Reil) area, fixed on its surface by a dense texture of arachnoid trabecules. From origin the
trochlear nerve directs laterally, enters the cisterna ambiens where it is crossed by the
collicular branch of the posterior cerebral artery and crosses mediolaterally the aria of the
interpeduncular triangle, arriving on the lateral face of crus cerebri. The trochlear nerve
crosses this face dorsoventrally, having superiorly the posterior cerebral artery and inferiorly
the superior cerebellar artery and passes through the tentorial notch having inferolaterally
the superior margin of the pons and the initial segment of the trigeminal nerve and
superomedially the abducens nerve, the anterior and posterior petroclinoid folds, and, in
supratentorial position, the uncus hypocampi. Here, the trochlear nerve engage in the groove
delimited between posterior and anterior petroclinoid folds, perforates the dura mater
medially from the cavum Meckeli and pierces together with its leptomeningeal sheath the
lateral wall of the cavernous sinus.
In the cavernous sinus the trochlear nerve penetrates through the posterior sinusal
portal, being situated the most laterally in the external sinusal wall, having superomedially
the oculomotor nerve, inferomedially the ophthalmic nerve (V1) and medially, inside the
sinus, the abducens nerve and the internal carotid artery. Laterally but extrasinusally is found
the maxillary nerve (V2), At this level the trochlear nerve directs superomedially and crosses
successively the lateral and superior faces of the oculomotor nerve and at the anterior
cavernous sinus portal (that corresponds to the superior orbital fissure) is located the most
medial and superior, having inferiorly the oculomotor and abducens nerves and lateraly the
ophthalmic nerve that divides in its terminal branches.
In the orbit, the trochlear nerve enters through the superior orbit fissure,
superomedially from the common tendon of the eyeball muscles and is placed on the medial
border of the levator palpebrae superioris muscle, under the periorbita and orbital roof. After
a short traject the nerve bends medially and ends as a boucquet of branches that approach the
superior oblique muscle along the middle third of its superolateral face.
4.5. Anatomoclinical considerations
The lesions of the trochlear nerve produce vertical diplopia or diagonal
excyclotorsion (lateral rotation of the eyeball) and convergent strabismus at downward
gaze. The patient with unilateral paralysis typical to the superior oblique muscle inclines the
head opposite to the paretic muscle ( Bielschowsky sign). These patients have difficulties to
read ad to go down steps.
The congenital paralysis of the trochlear nerve is rare, familial autosomal dominant.
The types and place of lesions of the trochlear nerve resemble to the other cranial nerves
excepting the lesions of the brainstem. When the lesion is nuclear or fascicular, proximally
to the decusatio nervi trochlearis, it is manifested as paralysis of the contralateral superior
oblique muscle. When the lesion is distal from the decussation, it produces the ipsilatral
paralysis of the muscle.
The cranial nerves 187
area tegmentalis lateralis, pars caudalis). Only few fibers synapse directly with
the masticatory motorneurons.
MA cells group located dorsolaterally from the pontine olivary nucleus that
generates the human type motor masticatory model.
The real origin of the sensory fibers is different, depending upon the peripheral
input quality. The somatic general afferent fibers (GSA) that carry the exteroceptive
protopathic (pressure, pain and thermal) and epicritic sensibility (fine, discriminatory,
tactile and pressure sensibility) from the head and face skin and mucosae, originate in the
pseudo-unipolar neurons of the Gasser ganglion. The afferent central axons of these neurons
constitute the main root sensitive (portio major) and form the peripheral input of the
principal and spinal trigeminal nuclei. These axons enter the brainstem through the lateral
part of the pons ventral face and behaves as follows:
the thick Aβ and γ fibers bifurcate into short ascendant branches that synapse
in the main pontine nucleus, and a long descendant branches that synapse in
different subdivisions of the spinal nucleus. The descendant fibers are disposed
around the ventromedial face of the spinal nucleus and form the spinal trigeminal
tract that descend caudally until the dorsolateral Lissauer tract of the first two
cervical spinal segments. It has a somatotopic organization, the fibers of the
ophthalmic division being located the most ventrally;
the thin C and δ fibers don’t bifurcate, bend caudally, enter the spinal
trigeminal tract and end in pars caudalis of the spinal nucleus where participate
to the formation of the trigeminal analgesic system.
The general somatic afferent fibers (GSA) that carry the kinesthesic sensibility
(teeth, periodontium, hard palate mucoperiosteum, masticatory and facial expression muscles,
extrinsic eyeball muscles, tendons, joint capsules and sclerocornea) are axons of the
mesencephalic nucleus pseudounipolar neurons. Leaving the nucleus, each of these axons
bifurcates into:
the peripheral branch that leaves the the pons via the motor root of the
trigeminal nerve and estabilish neuroreceptor synapses with the proprioreceptors;
the central branch that bends rostrally, enters the mesencephalic trigeminal
tract and synapses with the α-neurons of the masticatory nucleus closing bineuronal
masticatory reflexes.
The sensitive trigeminal nuclear column
The sensitive trigeminal column consists of principal pontine, spinal and
mesencephalic nuclei.
The principal pontine nucleus, located laterally from the entrance of the main root,
is relatively spherical shaped, with the caudal pole fused without limit of demarcation with
pars oralis of the spinal nucleus. It represents the first relay of trigeminal information
processing system, consists of ovoid small and middle size neurons and is somatotopically
organized with the ophthalmic neurons disposed ventrally, the maxilomandibular neurons
dorsally and the ones from the oral cavity dorsocaudally, expanded in the pars oralis of the
spinal nucleus.
The functional organization of the principal nucleus is similar with that of the
The cranial nerves 189
gracilis and cuneatus nuclei. Its efferences form the ventral trigeminothalamic tract that
decussate on the midline and forms the trigeminal lemniscus which is situated on the
posterior surface of the medial lemniscus and ends in the thalamic ventral posteromedial
nucleus (VPM). The axons of the thalamic neurons project in the inferior part of the
primary sensitive area (S1). The axons from the dorsocaudal part of the principal nucleus
remain homolaterally, bend ascendantly, form the dorsal trigeminothalamic tract and also
end in the ventral posteromedial nucleus (VPM) so that the oral cavity has bilateral
thalamocortical representation.
The spinal trigeminal nucleus, the largest of the trigeminal system,is located in the
medulla oblongata and, rostrocaudally, consists of three subdivisions:
subnucleus oralis (pars oralis) that fuses cranially with the main pontine nucleus and
expands caudally to the superior third of the inferior olivar nucleus;
subnucleus interpolaris (pars interpolaris) that fuses cranially with the oral
subnucleus and expands caudally until the level of the pyramidal decussation. The
oralis and interpolaris subnuclei are associated functionally to the principal pontine
nucleus and their axons enter the ventral trigemino-thalamic tract, synapse with the
VPM thalamic nucleus and project on the primary sensitive area S1.
subnucleus caudalis (pars caudalis) that expands caudally, from the pyramidal
decussation level to the C2 spinal segment where it continues with the substantia
gelatinosa of the dorsal horn. Like the spinal cord dorsal horn it is laminary organized
and receives the Aδ and C trigeminal afferences that synapse with the interneurons
of the trigeminal analgesic system (lamine I-IV). The efferences of these system
form the dorsal trigeminothalamic tract that crosses the midline, joins the
anterolateral spinothalamic pathway and synapse in the VMpo, ventroposterior
complex and intralaminary thalamic nuclei. The thalamic nuclei project on the
cortex of posterior insula and on the anterior part of gyrus cinguli. The caudal
trigeminal subnucleus receives afferences that belong to the central pain control
system:
the corticobulbar glutamatergic fibers (it is known that 60% of the
cortico-spinal pathway establish excitatory synapses with the interneurons
of sensitive structures from the brainstem and the spinal cord;
the opiodergic direct fibers from substantia grisea centralis that sinapse
on the lamina I neurons, and indirect fibers from the other
supramesencephalic centers as hypothalamus, amygdala, limbic and
insular cortex that via the descendant reticular formation of the
brainstem participate to the edification of the central pain control
system;
the serotoninergic rapheospinal fibers, from other raphe nuclei and
from the rostral ventromedial medulla.
the adrenergic fibers from the mesencephalic cells group A5, A6 and
A7, locus coeruleus and locus subcoeruleus.
Many neurons of the caudal subnucleus respond to cutaneous or tactile stimuli and
are excited by electrical, chemical or mechanical nociceptive stimuli from the cervicofacial
190 The trigeminal nerve
and tongue muscles, that indicates a convergence of the superficial and profound afferences
at the caudal subnucleus.
The mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus consists of primary pseudo unipolar
neurons (like that of the spinal ganglia) that forms a thin column located in the depth of the
mesencephalic tegmentum along the ventrolateral margin of the central periapeductal gray
matter. The pseudounipolar axons of these neurons divide into:
peripheral branches that leave the pons via the motor root of the trigeminal nerve
and estabilish neuroreceptor synapses with the proprioreceptors;
central branches that inflect rostrally, form the mesencephalic trigeminal tract and
synapses with the α-neurons of the masticatory nucleus, closing bineuronal
masticatory reflexes.
The mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus also contains bipolar and multipolar
neurons that connect it with the cerebellum and the reticular formation of the brainstem.
5.3. The superficial origin
The superficial origin of the trigeminal nerve is located on the lateral part of the pons
ventral face and represents the landmark of the conventional limit between pons and the
middle cerebral peduncle. It consists of two roots, one larger, principal (portio major)
located ventrocaudally that is sensitive (radix sensoria), and another one secondary (portio
minor), motor (radix motoria) located dorsorostrally. At the exit from the pons the
principal trigeminal root has a plurifascicular appearance, that preserves until the
trigeminal pore.
5.4.The peripheral course and relations
The trigeminal nerve is the shortest cranial nerve of approximately 12 mm, because
the transdural segment is incomplete, limited to the cavum Meckeli. The nerve lasts from the
superficial origin until the concave margin of the Gasser ganglion and has a transcisternal
segment, pars compacta, located infratenorially in the posterior cerebral fossa and a
transdural segment, pars triangularis, contained in cavum Meckeli.
Pars compacta sagittally disposed, is a fascicular cord shaped, ellipsoid on cross section. It
presents an anteromedial, pontine face, a posterolateral, cerebellar face, a superior
margin, crossed by the superior cerebellar artery that separates it from the trochlear nerve
and an inferior margin in rapport with the loop of the anteroinferior cerebellar artery.
From its origin, pars compacta directs ascendantly, mediolaterally, perforates the Liliequist
membrane, crosses the pontocerebellar cistern, inflects laterally, enters the trigeminal
pore and continues with pars triangularis until the concave border of the Gasser ganglion.
Pars triangularis , disposed horizontally, in the plane of petrosal part superior face,
is trapeziusoidal shaped and presents:
the superior face in relation with the hypocampal uncus through the superficial
lamina of the cavum;
the inferior face in relation, through the deep lamina of the cavum Meckeli, with the
abducens, greater and lesser petrosal nerves and with the intrapetrosal segment of
the internal carotid artery;
the medial margin in relation with the abducens nerve;
The cranial nerves 191
the lateral margin that participates in the formation of the posteromedial triangle
(Kawase);
the greater base that corresponds to the concave margin of the semilunar ganglion;
the lesser base that corresponds to the trigeminal pore.
Pars triangularis has a particular, false plexus aspect because the thin fasciculi of the
pars compacta dissociate, fan and intersect in various directions before to enter the hilus
ganglii.
The cavum Meckeli
The cavum Meckeli, the largest perineural cistern of the skull base, is a complex
meningeal structure of the middle cerebral fossa, consisting of a osteopahimeningeal
container and a neuroliquidian content.
The peripheral container consists of:
the osteofibrocartilaginous plane of the trigeminal ganglion region (regio ganglii
trigeminalis) that has a support role and is formed of:
the trigeminal fossette (impressio trigemini);
the carotic tegmen and,when it is absent (very frequent), the petrosphenoid
membrane (membrana petrosphenoidalis) that forms the superior wall of the
internal carotid transpetrosal canal and closes the internal foramen lacerum;
sphenoidal lingula and the inferior sphenopetrosal ligament.
the periosteopahimeningeal plane, the deep lamina of pahimenigeal splitting, that
presents:
the deep face, that closes superficially a narrow neurovascular compartment
containing the greater (VII) and the lesser (IX) petrosal nerves and the
branches of the middle and accessory meningeal arteries, the trigeminal
pore artery and the venous committant plexuses.
the superficial, arachnoid face that limits profoundly the trigeminal cistern
and is united to the deep face of the trigeminal ganglion through numerous
arachnoid trabecules.
the arachnoidodural plane that is three layered and presents:
the profound, arachnoid face, that closes superficially the trigeminal
cistern and is united to the superficial face of the trigeminal ganglia
through a dense network of arachnoid trabecules that make the
dissection very difficult;
the intermediary plane represented by the superficial splitting lamina of
dura mater;
the superficial, also arachnoid face related to the inferior face of the
temporal lobe.
Overall, the cavum Meckeli is trapeziusoid shaped and presents:
the lesser base oriented posteromedialy that corresponds to the trigeminal pore;
the greater base, oriented anterolaterally, that corresponds to the sphenoidal
margin of the foramen lacerum and sends toward the superior orbital fissure,
toward the foramen rotundum and foramen ovale, three dural tunnels that
192 The trigeminal nerve
contain the terminal branches of the trigeminal nerve and their adjacent
cisterns.
the medial margin that fuses with the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus;
the lateral margin along which the superficial and profound cavum laminae
reunite and insert on the contour of the trigeminal fossette.
5.5.The trigeminal ganglion
The trigeminal ganglion (semilunar, of Gasser), contains the primary afferent
neurons whose central axons will form the sensory root of the trigeminal nerve. It is
contained in the cavum Meckeli, is flattened crescent shaped , elongated and thiner at
extremities with a narrowing - isthmus ganglii – between the origins of the maxillary and
mandibular nerves. The ganglion presents:
the anterolateral face, convex mediolaterally and craniocaudally, from which
detach the terminal branches of the trigeminal nerve;
the posteromedial face is concave mediolaterally and craniocaudally. The
craniocaudal concavity is very deep and forms the sinus of the trigeminal
ganglion (sinus ganglii), through which exit the central axons of the sensitive
root and form pars triangularis;
the deep face, crossed mediolaterally by the motor root that takes the way of the
mandibular nerve;
the superficial face, is narrowed between the origins of the maxillary and
mandibular nerves forming isthmus ganglia and corresponds to the inferior face
of the temporal lobe;
the medial, anterosuperior extremity, adherent to the cavernous sinus by the
ophthalmic nerve dural tunnel;
the lateral, posteroinferior extremity that extends medially until the foramen
ovale;
Structurally, the trigeminal ganglion consists of pseudounipolar neurons grouped
in columns separated by axons bundles and of satellite cells that encapsulate each neuronal
soma.The size of the neuronal somata varies proportionally with the thickness of their
axons, the largest ones being the Aβ neurons. Each neuron of the Gasser ganglion emits a
short axon which bifurcates in a peripheral branch that takes the way of a terminal
trigeminal branch and another one central that forms the sensitive root (radix sensoria) of
the trigeminal nerve and synapses with the pontobulbar relays.
superomedially from the supraorbital foramen and ends through a bouquet of branches:
ascendant, frontal, that inflect cranially, cross the orbital margin and supply the skin
of the frontal region (forehead region);
descendant, palpebral, that inflect caudally and distribute to the skin and
conjunctive of the superior eyelid middle third.
The supraorbital nerve (n. supraorbitalis) together with supraorbital artery,
situated medially continues the posteroanterior direction of the frontal nerve between the
levator palpebrae muscle and the periorbit until the superior orbital margin, passes through
the supraorbital foramen/notch and divides in a medial and lateral branch. Each of them
end in a bouquet of small branches, ascendant, frontal, that innervate the skin of the region
up to the vertex and descendant, palebral, that innervate the skin and the adjacent
conjunctive of the middle third of the superior eyelid. The supraorbitar nerve emits many
thin twigs that pass through the minute foraminae of the supraorbital notch roof and
distributes to the frontal sinus mucosa.
The nasocilliar nerve (n. nasocilliaris), the medial terminal branch of the ophthalmic
nerve, has intermediate size compared to the frontal and lacrimal nerves. At origin it receives
an anastomosis from the pericarotic sympathetic plexus and enters the orbit through the
superior orbital fissure. Passes through the Zinn ring and arrives in the apex of the
muscular cone where occupies a central position in relations with:
medially, the optic nerve and the ophthalmic artery;
laterally, the trochlear nerve;
superiorly, the superior terminal branch of the oculomotor nerve;
inferiorly, the inferior terminal branch of the oculomotor nerve.
From this central, deep position, the nasocilliary nerve directs superomedially,
crosses the superior face the optic nerve and of the ophthalmic artery, leaves the muscular
cone between the superior oblique and rectus medialis muscles and applies on the medial wall
of the orbit. At the level of anterior ethmoidal foramen the nasocilliary nerve divides into
the infratrochlear and anterior ethmoidal terminal branches.
The anterior ethmoidal nerve (n. ethmoidalis anterior) directs medially, passes
through the anterior ethmoidal canal together with the anterior ethmoidal artery and arrives
subdurally in the olfactory fossa. Then, the anterior ethmoidal nerve follows the groove the
of lamina cribriformis lateral margin and passes through the ethmoidal foramen in the
anterior part of the nasal cavity roof where it divides in:
the medial branch (rr. nasales mediales) that directs anteroinferiorly and
innervates the anterosuperior third of the nasal septum;
the lateral branch (rr. nasales laterales), that crosses anteroinferiorly the
preturbinal area of the nasal fossa lateral wall and innervates the heads of the
middle and inferior conchae and the nasal vestibule.
the the external nasal nerve (n. nasalis externus) that passes through the notch
of the inferior margin of the nasal bone, between the latter and the lateral nasal
cartilage and innervates the skin of the ala nasi and the nasal lobule.
The infratrochlear nerve (n. infratrochlearis) continues the direction of the
nasocilliar nerve on the medial orbital wall, along the rectus medialis superior margin of
The cranial nerves 195
the sensitive root of the cilliary ganglion (radix sensoria) that contains somatic
afferent fibers from the posterior eyeball pole structures via the short cilliary nerves,
pass through the ganglion, detaches at its posterosuperior angle to join the nasocilliar
nerve at the top of the orbit, laterally to the optic nerve;
the sympathetic root of the cilliary ganglion (radix sympathetica) contains the
sympathetic postganglionic axons from the superior cervical ganglion, take the
way of the pericarotic plexus and then of the nasocilliary nerve via the multiple
sypathicotrigeminal anastomoses. The sympathetic root approaches the cilliary
ganglion at its posterior margin, traverses it without synapsis and joins the short
cilliary nerves supplying the sympathetic innervations of the iris and cilliary
muscles.
The efferences of the cilliary ganglion detach from its anterior margin and take the
way of the short cilliary nerves that enter the posterior pole of the eyeball through numerous
small foramina disposed “crown” like around the orifice for the optic nerve. The short
cilliary nerves are heterogenic structures from which only the axons of the postganglionic
parasympathetic neurons belong to the cilliar ganglion, the rest being transit fibers.
the endocranian segment, from the Gasser ganglion until the anterior orifice of the
canalis rotundum. In this segment the maxillary nerve leaves the cavum Meckeli
through the middle tunnel as a plexiform flattened ribbon, crosses the
posteroinferior part of the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus, becomes compact
passing through foramen rotundum and arrives at the posterior wall of
pterygopalatine fossa, superolaterally from the anterior aperture of the pterygoid
canal;
the pterygopalatine segment, that lasts from the anterior orifice of the canalis
rotundum until the inferior orbital fissure. Here, the maxillary nerve directs at first
anteroinferiorly, towards the orbital process of the palatine bone, then inflects
mediolaterally and follows the groove of the maxilla tuberosity, parallel with the
inferior margin of the inferior orbital fissure until the suborbital notch of this
margin;
the infraorbitosinusal segment, that lasts from the suborbital notch of the inferior
orbital fissure inferior margin to the anterior orifice of the suborbital canal. In this
segment the maxillary nerve becomes the infraorbital nerve, directs
posteroanteriorly through the groove, the suborbital canal and foramen and ends
as a bouquet of branches for the skin in the middle face part.
The second version, functional, claims that the trigeminal nerve distribution follows
an unique model of organization and each of the three branches passes through a major
portal of the skull base (superior orbital fissure, foramina round and oblong), penetrates in
the corresponding deep region of the face contacting cranial parasympathetic ganglia and
divides in 2-3 terminal branches. In this vision, that we will adopt here, the maxillary nerve
has only two endocranian and pterygopalatine topographic segments.
From the endocranian segment the nerve emits the meningeal collateral branch that
directs anterosuperiorly together with the anterior branch of the meningeal artery and
innervates the meninges of the middle temporal fossa.
In the pterygopalatine segment the nerve divides in its ganglionic, zygomatic and
suborbital terminal braches.
The ganglionic branches (radix sensoria ganglii pterygopalatini) consist of 2-3
short rootlets that connect the maxillary nerve with the superior margin of the pterygopalatine
ganglion. They contain:
transganglionic fibers, peripheral axons of the semilunar ganglion neurons that pass
without synapses through the pterygopalatine ganglion.
recurrent fibers, axons of local parasympathetic postganglionic neurons that return
to the maxillary nerve trunk and distribute to the autonomic structures of the
zygomatic and suborbital nerves territories.
5.7.3.The pterygopalatine ganglion (ganglion pterygopalatinum) Meckel, is the
largest ganglion of the cranial parasympathetic system and contains postganglionic
neurons that supply the lacrimal gland and the small glands of the nasal,
rhinopharyngeal and palatine mucosae. It is a micronodular formation (4mm thick),
crescent shaped, concave posteriorly, located in the anterior aperture of the
pterygoid canal on the posterior wall of the the pterygopalatine fossa,
198 The trigeminal nerve
inferomedially from the foramen rotundum and maxillary nerve and laterally form
the sphenopalatine foramen.
The afferences of the the pterygopalatine ganglion:
the motor root (radix parasympathetica) contains the efferent axons of the
preganglionic neurons from the pontine lacrimal nucleus that take successively the
way of the intermediary nerve (VII’) until the geniculate ganglion, then the via of
the greater petrosal and pterygoid canal nerves and synapse with the local
postganglionic neurons;
the sympathetic root (radix sympathetica) consists of the postganglionic axons of
the neurons from the superior cervical sympathetic ganglion that, via the internal
pericarotic plexus arrive at the level of the pterygoid canal posterior aperture. Here
they leave the plexus as the deep petrosal nerve, unite with the greater petrosal
nerve and form together the pterygoid canal nerve that follows the pterygoid canal
and ends in the pterygopalatine ganglion posterior extremity. The postganglionic
sympathetic fibers pass the ganglion without synapse and distribute to the all
maxillary nerve branches supplying the sympathetic effectors of the territory.
the sensory root (radix sensoria) consists of that afferent axons of the trigeminal
ganglion neurons which innervate the pharyngonasopalatine territory, pass
without synapse through the pterygopalatine ganglion and form the terminal
ganglionic branches of the maxillary nerve.
The efferences of the pterygopalatine ganglion:
the orbital branches (rr. orbitales) are 2-3 thin twigs that enter the orbit through the
medial extremity of the inferior orbital fissure, innervate the orbital muscle, pass
through the minute foramina the sphenoethmoidal suture and distributes to the
mucosa of the ethmoidomaxillary cells. In a modern vision the orbital branches
anastomose and form together with sympathetic and parasympathetic postganglionic
fibers for the lachrymal gland, the retro-orbital plexus.
the superior posterolateral nasal nerves (nn. nasales superiores posterolaterales)
enter through the sphenopalatine foramen into the nasal fossa as a bouquet of 6-10
branches direct laterally and innervate the posterior thirds of the superior and
middle conchae and the ethmoidosphenoidal cells;
the superior posteromedial nasal nerves (nn. nasales superiores posteromediales)
pass through the sphenopalatine foramen into the nasal fossa as 2-3 branches of
different length that cross lateromedially the posterior extremity of the
sphenoethmoidal recess, under the sphenoid sinus ostium. The short branches
innervate the mucosa of the nasal roof and nasal septum posterior part and the long
branch, the nasopalatine nerve (n. nasopalatinus) Scarpa, directs anteroinferiorly
under the mucoperiosteum of the nasal septum, passes through the incisive canal and
arrives on the hard palate where anastomoses with the greater palatine nerve. The
nasopalatine nerve innervates the posteroinferior part of the septal mucosa, the
posterior area of the nasal vestibule, the anterior third of the hard palate mucosa
with the adjacent gingiva.
The cranial nerves 199
the greater palatine nerve (n. palatinus major), disposed in the long axis of the
pterygopalatine fossa, passes through the greater palatine canal and foramen and
arrives in the posterolateral angle of the hard palate at the limit with the soft palate.
The nasopalatine nerve inflects anteriorly and follows the groove of the palatine bone
horizontal processes and of the maxilla palatine process and ends anastomosing
with the terminal branches of the nasopalatine nerve. The greater palatine nerve
innervates the superior gingiva and hard palate mucosae and the glands. In the
greater palatine canal the greater palatine nerve gives rise to the nasal
posteroinferior branches (rr. nasals posteriores inferiores) that perforate the
vertical lamina of the palatine bone and innervate the posterior areas of the
inferior and middle meatus and the tail of the inferior nasal concha.
the lesser palatine nerves (nn. palatini minores) are 2-4 thin branches that pass
successively through the greater palatine canal and through the accessory palatine
foramina and distribute to the palatine tonsil (rr. tonsillares)and to the both
surfaces of the soft palate and uvula. The afferent axons that carry the taste
information from the palatine mucosa take the way of the palatine nerves, pass
without synapse through the pterygopalatine ganglion and follow the pterygoid
canal and the greater petrosal nerves until the geniculate ganglion that contains the
protoneurons of the gustatory pathway. The central axons of these neurons reach
the solitary nucleus via the nervus intermedius.
the pharyngeal nerve (n. pharyngeus) Bock arises from the posterosuperior part of
the pterygopalatine ganglion, passes anteroposteriorly through the palatovaginal
canal and innervates the mucosae of the rhinopharynx cavum, of the auditory tube
and of the sphenoid sinus.
The zygomatic nerve (n. zygomaticus) detaches from the maxillary nerve under the
foramen routundum, crosses inferolaterally the pterygopalatine fossa, enters the orbit
through the inferior orbital fissure and follows the inferolateral margin of the orbit until
the zygomatico-orbital foramen where divides into:
the zygomaticotemporal nerve (n. zygomaticotemporalis) that engages through the
zygomaticotemporal arm of the zygomatic bone canal, arrives in the temporal
fossa, crosses superficially the anterior fascicles of the temporal muscle and
perforates the temporal fascia 2cm above the zygomatic arch, distributing to the
skin of the anterior, retrozygomatic zone, of the temporal region. It anastomoses
with the facial and auriculotemporal nerves.
the zygomaticofacial nerve (n. zygomaticofacialis) that engages through the
zygomaticofacial arm of the zygomatic bone canal, exteriorizes on the anterior
face of the zygomatic bone, perforates the peripheral fibers of the orbicularis oculi
muscle of the eye and innervates the skin of the zygomatic region. It anastomoses
with the zygomatic branches of the facial nerve and palpebral branches of the
suborbital nerve.
the anastomosis with the lacrimal nerve (ramus communicans cum nervo
zygomatico) contains the efferent parasympathetic axons of the postganglionic
lacrimal neurons of the pterygopalatine ganglion. The nerve describes on the
200 The trigeminal nerve
lateral wall of the orbit a posterior concave loop and anastomoses with the lacrimal
nerve. From the loop convexity detach many nervous fibers that innervate the lacrimal
gland.
The infraorbital nerve (n. infraorbitalis) directs mediolaterally, parallel with the
inferior margin of the inferior orbital fissure until the suborbital notch where inflects
posteroanteriorly, enters the orbit, follows successively the groove and the suborbital canal
and exits through infraorbital foramen gives rise to a bouquet of terminal branches:
ascending, palpebral (rr. palpebrales) that innervate the inferior eyelid and the
adjacent conjunctive;
descending, labial (rr. labiales), that distribute to the upper lip integumentum and
to the corresponding vestibular mucosa;
medial, nasal (rr. nasales), that innervate the ala nasi skin;
lateral, zygomatic (rr. zygomatici) that distributes to the skin of the zygomatic
region medial part.
nervii alveolari superiori (nn. alveolares superiores) se desprind la nivelul fosei
pterigopalatine şi în canalul infraorbital şi se individualizează în trei grupe:
The infraorbital nerve gives rise to the following collateral branches:
the meningeal nerve (n. meningeus) detaches from the initial, endocranial segment
of the maxillary nerve and directs anterosuperiorly together with the frontal branch
of the a middle meningeal artery and innervates the dura mater the middle
cranial fossa;
the superior alveolar nerves (nn. alveolares superiores) detach from the infraorbital
nerve in the pterygopalatine fossa and in the infraorbital canal and divide into
three groups:
the superior posterior alveolar branches (rr. alveolares superiores
posteriores), 2-3 branches that detach from the infraorbital nerve in the
inferior orbital fissure, pass through the alveolar foramina and the
corresponding alveolar canaliculi of the maxilla tuberosity and form, at the
periapical area, the posterior part of the superior dental plexus that
innervates the molar teeth, their periodontium and adjacent gingiva and the
mucosae of the bucal vestibulum and of the maxillary sinus posterolateral
wall.
the middle superior alveolar branch (r. alveolaris superioris medius)
detaches in the infraorbital groove and directs inferolaterally through the
middle alveolary canaliculus of the maxillary sinus lateral wall and at the
periapical area of the premolar teeth, ends as fine twigs that contribute to the
formation of the superior dental plexus middle part. It innervates the
superior premolar teeth, their periodontium and the adjacent gingiva and the
mucosae of the bucal vestibulum and of the maxillary sinus lateral wall.
the superoanterior alveolar branches (rr. alveolares superiores anteriores)
detach from the inferior face of the infraorbital nerve, in the infraorbital
canal terminal part, pass through the anterior alveolary canaliculus of the
maxillary sinus anterior wall and at the level of the periapical area forms
The cranial nerves 201
the superior dental plexus anterior part. It innervates the canine and
incisors teeth, their periodontium and the adjacent gingiva and the mucosae
of the bucal vestibulum and of the maxillary sinus anterior wall.
innervates the meninges of the middle cerebral fossa and the mucosa of the anterior
ethmoid cells.
the motor branch (n. pterygoideus medialis) innervates the medial pterygoid muscle
on its deep face, crosses without synapse the otic ganglion (radix sensoria ganglii
otici) and distributes to the tensor tympani muscle (n. musculi tensoris tympani) and
to the muscle tensor veli palatini (n. musculi tensoris veli palatini).
5.8.4.The terminal branches
The terminal branches of the mandibular nerve separate just bellow the foramen ovale
in an anterior trunk mostly motor, also called nervus masticatorius, and another one
posterior, mostly sensitive. The two trunks are separated by the superior margin of the
interpterygoid fascia formed by the Hyrtl innominate ligament.
The anterior trunk of the mandibular nerve, bends laterally, passes through the
porus crotaphitico buccinatorius of Hyrtl, limited between the innominate ligament and
the lateral margin of the foramen ovale, and divides into the following branches:
the buccal nerve (n. buccalis), the only sensitive branch of the anterior trunk,
passes in between the two heads of the lateral pterygoid muscle origin together
with the bucal vessels, directs anteriorly and inferior and crosses the deep face of the
temporal muscle tendon. Then, the nerve passes through the temporobuccinator
interstitium and arrives on the anterolateral face of the buccinator muscle where
receives an anastomosis from the facial nerve and divides into deep and superficial
branches. The deep branches perforate the buccinator muscle and innervate the
vestibular and gingival mucosae corresponding to the last two inferior molar
teeth and the superficial branches that innervate the skin of the suborbital region;
the masseteric muscle (n. massetericus) passes on the superior margin of the
lateral pterygoid muscle, directs laterally together with the masseteric vessels,
passes through the mandibular notch behind the temporal muscle tendon and divides
into two terminal branches, one muscular that approaches the masseter muscle on its
deep face and another one articular for the temporomandibular joint;
the temporal profound nerves (nn. temporales profundi) anterior and posterior
that cross successively, mediolaterally, the superior margin of the lateral pterygoid
muscle, the planum subtemporale and the sphenotemporal crest then inflect
ascendantly and arrives in the temporal fossa. Here they form together with the
homonymous vessels the deep anterior and posterior temporal neurovascular
bundles that approach the temporal muscle on its deep face.
the nerve of the lateral pterygoid muscle (n. pterygoideus lateralis) has a short
initial common traject with the buccal nerve and distributes to the both origin heads
of the lateral pterygoid muscle.
The posterior trunk of the mandibular nerve is larger, mostly sensitive, except the
mylohyoid nerve, and approaches the infratemporal fossa through the medial compartment of
the foramen ovale and divides into the auriculotemporal, lingual and inferior alveolar
terminal branches.
The auriculotemporal nerve (n. auriculotemporalis) arises from the posterior trunk
on the roof of the infratemporal fossa, medially from the innominate ligament, between
The cranial nerves 203
the lateral face of the tensor palatini veli muscle and medial face of the lateral pterygoid
muscle. From the origin it directs posterolaterally towards the spinous foramen where has
presents a split through which passes the middle menigeal artery, then bends laterally,
passes through the parotid gland behind the main neurovascular bundle (facial nerve,
external carotid artery, and the external jugular vein) and leaves the retromandibular fossa
through the retrocondylian buttonhole (boutoniére) of Juvara, delimited between the
mandibular col and the sphenomandibular ligament, having inferiorly the maxillary
vessels. It arrives in the masseteric region, inflecting ascendantly through the superior
extremity of the parotid gland, between the external auditory meatus and the posterior
face of the temporomandibular joint, crosses the horizontal root of the zygomatic process
at 0.5cm in front of tragus, having anteriorly the superficial temporal vessels and ends as
superficial frontal and temporal branches (rr. temporales superficiales). They follow the
superficial temporal artery terminal branches and innervate the skin of the anterior part
of the temporal region, in the area that grays first. This area represents a part of the face
preauricular integumentum, covered by the beard, that is translated ascendantly during
the transversal enlargement of the embryofetal skull due to the temporal lobe
development. The available left space in the posteroinferior angle of the masseteric
region is replaced by the cervical skin innervated by the auricular nerve (C2).
The auriculotemporal nerve emits the following collateral branches:
the parotid branches (rr. parotidei) that contain sensitive fibers as well as
postganglionic parasympathetic fibers for the parotid gland;
the anterior auricular branches (nn. auriculares anteriores), are two small twigs
that supply the teguments of tragus and the ascendant part of the adjacent helix;
the branch for the external acustic meatus (n. meatus acustici externus), crosses
the insertion of the external auditory meatus cartilage on the lateral margin of the
tympanic bone and distributes to the skin of the anterior wall of meatus and the
anterior quadrants of the tympanic membrane (rr. membranae tympani);
the articular branches (rr. articulares) for the posterior face of the
temporomandibular joint;
the communicanting branches with the facial nerve (rr. communicantes cum
nervo facialis), multiple small anastomoses with the facial nerve, possible carrying
kinethesic informations from the face muscles.
The lingual nerve detaches from the posterior trunk just bellow the foramen ovale,
medially from the innominate ligament. In the infratemporal fossa it is situated in between
the lateral faces of the tensor veli palatini muscle and of the pharynx lateral wall and the
medial faces of lateral pterygoid muscle and of the interpterygoid fascia and fuses
posteriorly with the corda tympani nerve. The nerve perforates the pars cribrosa of the
interpterygoid fascia at the inferior margin of the lateral pterygoid muscle, passes between
the medial face the vertical branch of the mandible and the lateral faces of the medial
pterygoid and superior pharyngeal constrictor muscles and of the pterygomandibular
raphe and enters the retromolar triangle. Bellow it, the inferior alveolar nerve, perforates
the sphenomandibular ligament and enters the inferior alveolar canal. From the
retromolar triangle the lingual nerve nerve directs anteriorly, on the floor of the bucal cavity
204 The trigeminal nerve
the corneal reflex, consists of blink and bilateral closing of the eyes and it is obtained
stimulating cornea with a fine wool tampon. The lesion of the ophthalmic nerve
(afferent arm of the reflex) determines the abolition of the reflex when is stimulated
cornea on the ipsilateral side, but it is maintained when the controlateral cornea is
stimulated, because the efferent arm of the reflex (the motor nucleus of the facial nerve
and the nerve motor root) is intact. At the patients with peripheral paralysis of facial
nerve the corneal sensibility is intact bilateral but the reflex don’t appear because the
afferent reflex arm is interrupted. Still, the corneal stimulation on the lesion part, could
trigger the reflex on the opposite side, the consensual response;
the lacrimal reflex consists of the lacrimal hypersecretion at tactile or nociceptive
stimulation of the eyeball anterior pole (cornea, conjunctive). The afferent arm of the
reflex is somatic, via the ophthalmic nerve and the parasympathetic efferent arm, has
the preganglionic neuron in the pontine lacrimal nucleus and the postganglionic neuron
in the pterygopalatin ganglion. The efferent postganglionic axon takes the way of the
orbital branch of the maxillary nerve and arrives at the lacrimal gland via the
orbitolacrimal anastomosis. The lacrimal reflex is accompanied consensually by
rhinorrhea (nasal hypersecretion);
the sneezing reflex is a complex reflex that consists of a deep inspiration followed by
an explosive expiration that appears at tactile and thermal stimulation of the nasal
mucosa. The afferent arm is represented by the branches of the maxillary nerve that
spread the impulses to the ambiguus nucleus, respiratory centers of the reticular
formation , the center of the phrenic nerve from the cervical spinal cord (C4) and the
neurons of the ventral horn that innervate the intercostals muscles;
the vomiting reflex, predominantly vagal, could be triggered and by the stimulation of
the buccal mucosa via the afferent arm of the mandibular nerve that carries the
impulses to the solitarius, ambiguus and dorsal motor vagal nuclei;
the masseteric reflex is obtained by percution of the middle area of the masseter
muscle and consists of the bilateral contraction of the masseter and temporal muscles.
It is a monsynaptic miotactic reflex whose afferent and efferent arms are represented
by the mandibular nerve and the reflex center is the pontine motor nucleus of the
trigeminal nerve.
5.10.Anatomoclinical considerations
The most frequent disorder of the trigeminal system is the trigeminal neuralgia or
the “painful tic of the face” (suicide disease, Fothergill disease, tic douloureux). The
disease is characterized by episodes of intense facial pain in the territory of one of the
trigeminal branches. The pain is triggered suddenly at simple touch of a skin area and varies
with remission times and intensifications. Among the trigeminal branches, the most affected
is the maxillary nerve, then the mandibular nerve, and rarely the ophthalmic nerve.
The trigeminal lesions localization could be:
supranuclear, unilateral, of central motor neuron type that produces the
unilateral paralysis of the masticator muscles with deviation of the mandible to the
lesion side or bilateral, that determine pseudobulbar palsy (spastic masticator
The cranial nerves 207
6.1.General considerations
The abducens nerve is exclusively motor and consists of efferent somatic fibers that
innervate the lateral rectus muscle of the eyeball.
6.2. The real origin
The real origin, the nucleus of the abducens nerve (n. nervi abducentis) is located
in the depth of paramedian pontine tegmentum, at the inferior pole of the efferent
oculomotor pontomesencephalic column, ventrally to the facial colliculus, enclaved in the
dorsolateral face of the median longitudinal fascicle. The nucleus has two populations of
multipolar neurons which differ by size and connections:
the radicular neurons, of large size, cholinergic, whose axons form the
abducens nerve and distribute to the lateral rectus muscle;
the internuclear neurons, of intermediary size, glutamatergic, that form the
paraabducens nucleus. Their axons cross the midline, inflect ascendantly and via
the medial longitudinal fascicle stimulate the radicular neurons of the of the
rectus medial muscle controlateral nuclear subgroup.
The afferences are similar with the ones of the oculomotor nerve and come from:
the cortical visual areas by the corticonuclear tract, are bilateral and
indirectly estabilished, via the interneurons of the controlateral pontine
reticular formation;
the superior colliculus via the tectonuclear tract;
the fastigial nucleus of cerebellum passig through the prepositus hypoglossi
nucleus;
the vestibular medial and superior nuclei;
other oculomotor nuclei of the efferent column somatic;
the nuclei of the reticular formation interstitialis rostralis, prepositus
hypoglossi, raphe pontis interpositus, reticularis pontis caudalis (facilitator)
and paragigantocelularis medullaris;
the interstitial nucleus of Cajal that represents the neural integrator of the
eyeballs conjugated movements.
6.3.The intracerebral traject and superficial origin
The radicular axons leave the abducens nucleus on its medial face and direct
anteroinferiorly, pass between the medial lemniscus and the central tegmental tract,
laterally from the trapeziusoid body, and emerges as 7-8 rootlets through the
medullopontine groove, 5-6 mm from the midline and from the origin of the basilary
artery, above the anterior medullary pyramids. Unlike the origin of other oculomotor nerves
whose fibers join quickly in a unique trunk, the abducens nerve could stay polyradicular up
to its entrance in the cavernous sinus.
6.4.The peripheral traject and relations
In the posterior cerebral fossa, the abducens nerve, crossed inferiorly by the
anteroinferior cerebellar artery, inflects cranially through the pontine cistern, between
clivus and the ventral face of the pons to whom it is fixed by the arachnoid trabecules of the
210 The abducens nerve
Liliequist membrane. After a 12-15mm traject it perforates dura mater - the porus nervi
abducentiss - between clivus and the inferior petrosal sinus, situated medially and the
trigeminal pore of Meckeli cavum , situated laterally and enters the Dorello canal. Here,
the abducens nerve directs superomedially and describes a first (posterior), inferiorly
concave curvature, corresponding to the superior margin of the petrosal part of the temporal
bone. It passes successively under the superior petrosal sinus and under the lateral
petroclynoid (Gruber), superior and inferior sphenopetrosal ligaments and under the
medial part of cavum Meckeli and enters the cavernous sinus directly or after a short
traject through the inferior petrosal sinus. It is remarkable that in this transdural traject the
abducens nerve is contained into the Dorello canal that has value of perineural cistern.
In the cavernous sinus the abducens nerve and its meningeal sheath directs
posteroanteriorly and crosses the lateral face of the vertical segment of the internal carotid
artery describing in the horizontal plane a second, anteromedially concave, curvature
(anterior). The nerve places itself inferolaterally from the horizontal segment of the artery
and its sheath and is anchored to the lateral face of the internal carotid and also to the
deep face of the lateral sinusal wall through the fibrous trabecules, with the portnerve and
portvessel roles, that contain minimal arterial branches (vasa nervorum) and sympathetic
postganglionic fibers that anastomose with nerves of the eyeball muscles.
In the orbit the abducens nerve enters through the medial extremity of the superior
orbital fissure and passes through the Zinn ring inferolaterally from the nasocilliar nerve,
between the superior and inferior terminal branches of the oculomotor nerve. After a short
posteroanterior traject the nerve divides in 3-4 thin terminal branches and approaches the
posterior half of the medial, ocular face of the lateral rectus muscle.
6.5. Anatomoclinical considerations
The peripheral lesion of the abducens nerve produces horizontal diplopia with
convergent strabismus.
The nuclear lesion induces diplopia with bilateral convergent strabismus due to
the anatomical organization of the abducens nerve nucleus whose fibers partially cross via the
interneurons of the medial longitudinal fascicle.
The fascicular lesions induce ipsilatral deficit of the eyeball abduction.
The lesions ventrocaudal pons affect the corticospinal tract and the abducens and
facial nerves fascicles induce controlateral hemiplegia, facial paralysis and ipsilateral
paralysis of the lateral rectus muscle – the Millard-Gubler syndrome. The Foville
syndrome has similar symptoms and also the paralysis of the conjugated movements of the
eyeball.
The abducens nerve lesion in the extracerebral segment, cavernous and orbital,
have the same causes as the for the other cranial nerves. The abducens traject through the
Dorello canal estabilish implicit relations with the petrosal part apex. Here the nerve
could be affected in apical petrosites when the paralysis of the abducens is associated with
treigeminal lesions the determin facial nevralgia and convergent ipsilateral strabismus.
The cranial nerves 211
7.1.General considerations
The facial nerve, also called interme diofacial to underline its biradicular
organization, is a mixed nerve, motor and sensitive, that innervates the structures derived
from the second pharyngeal arch.
The motor component consists of special efferent visceral fibers (SVE) that
distribute to the derivatives of the second pharyngeal arch mesenchyme (the facial
expression muscles, platysma, stapedius, stylohyoid and the posterior part of t he digastrics
muscle) and the general visceral efferent fibe rs (GVE), parasympathetic preganglionic
axons of the lacrimal and salivator superior pontine nuclei.
The sensitive component consists of the general visceral afferent fibers (GVA)
that have innervated integumentum of the pretrematic and posttrematic slopes of the first
ectopharyngeal groove and the special visceral afferent fibe rs (SVA), from the specific
taste receptors from the tongue two anterior thirds.
7.2.The real origin
The special visceral efferent fibers (SVE) originate in the pontine nucleus of the
facial nerve that consists predominantly of α-neurons but also γ-motor neurons that
innervate the contractile ends of the neuromuscular spindles of the facial expression
muscles. The nucleus is made of 4-5 subnuclei organized as a column in the inferior part of
ventrolateral pontine tegmentum, in the depth of the reticular formation, dorsally from
the superior olive nucleus and ventromedially from the trigeminal spinal nucleus.
Classically there are described the following subnuclei:
dorsomedial, that innervates the auricular muscles, the occipital and stapedius
muscle via the auricular and stapedius nerves;
ventrome dial, that innervates the muscle platysma via the ramus colli nerve;
intermediary, that innervates the periorbital muscles via the temporal and
zygomatic branches;
lateral, that innervates the perioral and buccinator muscles the via the buccal
branch.
The afferences of the facial nucleus are coming from:
the cerebral cortex:
the corticonuclear direct and heterolateral (crossed) fibe rs, from the
primary motor area (M1), from the dorsal (PMd) and ventral (PMv)
premotor areas and from the supple mentary motor area (SMA) that
synapse with the late ral subnucleus that innervates the perioral muscles;
the corticonuclear direct bilateral fibe rs, both crossed and ipsilateral
coming from the caudal (CPAc) and rostral (CPAr) cingular pre motor
areas that synapse in the inte rmediary subnucleus that innervates the
periorbital muscles. The bilate ral inne rvations from the cingular cortex
of the interme diary subnucleus is the anatomical base for which the
212 The facial nerve
The superficial origin, is located in the lateral part of the pontomedullary sulcus
(the supraolivary fosette), in the pontocerebellar angle limited between the ante rior face of
cerebellum and the posterior face of the petrous part of the temporal bone. Superiorly
there are found the pons and the middle cerebellar peduncle, inferiorly the biventer lobe
and me dially the inferior olive. The superficial origin of the facial nerve is biradicular with
a larger motor root, disposed ventrally and a lesser sensitive root (nervus intermedius
Wrisberg) situated dorsally, between the motor root and the suppeficial origin of the
vestibulocochlear nerve. The biradicular organization is preserved up to the external
geniculum of the Fallopio aqueduct.
7.4.The peripheral traject and relations
The facial nerve is the longest cranial nerve with exclusively cephalic distribution and
topographically presents:
the initial, transcisternal segment, long of 15.8 mm, situated in the basal cistern
of the posterior cerebral fossa, lasts from the superficial origin until the inte rnal
acoustic pore. In this first segment, the nerve pe rforates the Lilliequist
membrane and crosses in the mediolate ral and ante roposterior sense the
pontocerebellar angle having inferiorly the vestibulocochlear ne rve and the loop
of the anteroinferior cerebellar artery and superiorly the labyrinthine artery
and the trigeminal nerve;
the transmeatal segment, located into the internal acoustic meatus, long of
10mm, lasts from the internal acoustic pore until the meatal ape rture of the
Fallopio aqueduct. Here, the facial nerve is situated superiorly and the
cochleovestibular nerve together with the cochleovestibular anastomosis,
situated infe riorly are shaped as a groove where is contained the intermediary
nerve. The labyrinthine artery, situated on the floor of the meatus, crosses in the
mediolateral sense the infe rior face of the vestibulocochlear nerve. All these
elements, enveloped in their pia mater sheath, are contained into the inte rnal
acoustic meatus cistern (cisterna meatus acustici interni);
the transaqueductal segment is passes through the Fallopio aqueduct, the
longest (28-32mm) bone channel of the skull base that has relations with the
middle and inte rnal ear cavities and also contains the geniculate ganglion, the
initial part of the greater petrosal ne rve and the labyrynthine, supe rior
petrosal, superior tympanic and stylomastoid arte ries. The Fallopio aqueduct
has a particular “Z” shaped traject and presents:
the labyrinthine part (interlabyrynthic), long of 5-7 mm, begins in the
area facialis situated in the anterosuperior quadrant of the internal
acoustic meatus fundus, above the falciform crest and medially from
“Bill’s bar”. From the meatal orifice where the facial nerve is
characteristically narrowed as a “bottle neck”, the labyrinthine part
directs anterolaterally, in the plane of the petrosal part superior face,
perpendiculary on its long axis, passes between the cochlear labyrinth,
located anteriorly and the vestibular labyrinth, located posteriorly, and
ends in the geniculate fossa. The acoustic inte rnal meatus cistern
214 The facial nerve
prolongates into the labyrinthine part until the geniculate fossa so that the
facial nerve, intermediary nerve, the geniculate ganglion and the origin of
the greater petrosal nerve are located intracisternally. At this level the
dura mater continues with the periosteum of the aqueduct and the
arachnoid with the pia mate r that coates the facial nerve. The geniculate
fossa is a dilatation situated between the labyrynthine and tympanic
parts of the Fallopio aqueduct, anterome dially from the eminentia
arquata. Its roof is dehiscent in 16% of cases, and presents the facial
hiatus, an orifice through which pass the greater petrosal nerve and the
superior petrosal arte ry. The fossa contains the geniculate ganglion
(1.09mm length, 0.6-0.8mm thick, and 0.76mm width) that is triangular
shaped with a medial angle where starts the intermediary nerve, an
anterolateral angle where detaches the greater petrosal nerve and
posterolate ral angle that continues with the tympanic part of the facial
nerve. Overall, the geniculate ganglion coates the periphery of the
external knee of the facial nerve and increases its angulations. The
ganglion consists of pseudounipolar neurons of the general visceral
sensitivity (GVA) and of the taste sensibility (SVA). The GVA fibers
take successively the way of the facial nerve until the stylomastoid
forame n and of the posterior auricular nerve and innervate the
retroauricular and Hunt area integumentum while the SVA taste fibers,
the way of the corda tympani ne rve. The geniculate ganglion is traversed
by preganglionic parasympathetic axons from the superior lacrimal
nucleus (that take the way of the greater petrosal nerve) and from the
superior salivatory nucleus (that take the way of the corda tympani nerve)
as well as by the sympathetic postganglionic fibers that arise from the
middle meningeal artery plexus and form the external petrosal ne rve.
the tympanic part (inte rtympanolabyrynthic) is of 11-13mm long,
begins at the geniculate fossa and describes with the labyrinthine part a
sharp angle of 30° called the external knee of the facial nerve
(geniculum n. facialis). From the geniculum, the aqueduct directs
posterolaterally in the plane of the petrosal part superior face, parallel
with its long axis and passes between the vestibular labyrinth, situated
posteromedially and the tympanic cavity, located anterolaterally. In the
middle part of the tympanic segment, the Fallopio aqueduct has the
second narrowing in “bottle neck” and then proe mines on the medial
wall of the tympanic cavity, between the eminence of the late ral
semicircular canal and the fossa fenestrae ovalis. In 14% of cases the
canal is dehiscent and the facial nerve is found under the mucope riosteum
of the tympanic cavity, in direct relation with the stapedial plate and the
incudostapedial joint. Posteriorly from the cochlear process, distally from
the pyramid and medially from the aditus ad antrum, the aqueduct
inflects again, descendently, describing a new angle (second external
The cranial nerves 215
of:
preganglionic parasympathetic fibers from the superior salivatory nucleus
which take the way of the inte rmediary ne rve until the geniculate ganglion,
follows the facial nerve until the mastoid part, then the chorda tympani nerve
and finally, the lingual nerve until the submandibular ganglion.
taste fibers, peripheral axons of the neurons from the geniculate ganglion that
collect the informations from the specific receptors of two-third anterior of the
tongue mucosa.
The communicanting branch with the vagus nerve (r. communicans cum nervo
vago Arnold) arises from the facial ne rve mastoid part, crosses the base of the petrosal part
through the mastoid canal , passes through the mastoid foramen (ostium introitus
Cruveilher) into the jugular fossa and fuses with vagus nerve. It contains sensitive fibers that
innerve the skin of the posterior wall of the external auditory meatus and the adjacent
area of the tympanic me mbrane.
The communicanting branch with the glossopharyngian nerve (r. communicans
cum nervo glossopharyngeo Haller) detaches from the facial immediately under the
stylomastoid foramen, directs anteromedially, crosses the external face of the internal
jugular vein and ends in the superior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve.
The posterior auricular branch (r. auricularis posterior) arises 2-3 mm under the
stylomastoid orifice, into the quadrangle of the facial nerve. From the origin directs laterally,
crosses successively the anterior face of the digastrics muscle and the external face of the
mastoid process, then bends ascendantly, enters the cephaloauricular groove where ends
through a posterior branch that innervates the occipital muscle and another ante rior
branch, that innerves the posterior and superior auricular muscles and the short muscles
of the auricle posterior face. The anterior branch contains also sensitive vagus fibers that
innervate the skin of the external auditory meatus posterior wall and the adjacent tympanic
me mbrane.
The branch for the stylohyoid and digastric posterior belly muscles arises in the
facial nerve quadrangle, distally from the precedent branch, enters the stylodigastric
interstitium and divides into a lateral branch for the digastrics muscle posterior belly and
another one medial, for the stylohyoid muscle.
The lingual branch replaces sometimes the anastomosis with the glossopharyngeal
nerve; it is very rare and misses from the Terminologia Anatomica.
7.6.The terminal branches
The facial nerve ends in the central interstitium o f the parotid gland, on the lateral
face of the external jugular vein, by two terminal primary branches, superior or
temporofacial and inferior or cervicofacial. This dicothomy corresponds to the
somatotopical organization of the facial nerve motor nucleus. The temporofacial branch
contains the axons of the neurons from the dorsomedial and interme diary subnuclei that
receives afferences from the ipsilateral and heterolateral primary motor cortex and from the
motor cingular anterior areas. The cervicofacial branch contains the axons of the neurons
from the ventrome dial and late ral subnuclei that receives afferences only from the
heterolateral primary motor cortex.
218 The facial nerve
in the pontocerebellar angle and the internal acoustic meatus when the
compression, usually tumoral (acoustic neurinoma), determines periphe ral facial
paralysis with facial hemispasm, hyperacusia and loss of the taste sensibility in
two thirds anterior of the tongue. The concomitant involvment of the
acousticovestibular nerve leads to hypoacusia, ipsilateral tinnitus and vertiginous
syndrome. The neuralgia by He rpes Zoster of the intermediary nerve or of the
geniculate ganglion leads to paroxistic otalgia and characteristical skin eruption
in the Ramsay Hunt area.
in the Fallopio aqueduct and the parotid gland the facial nerve may be affected:
congenitally, Möbius syndrome characterized by loss of development of
the abducens and facial ne rves;
the Bell paralysis – idiopathic peripheral facial nerve paralysis with
facial hemispasm, hyperacusia and loss of taste sensibility in two-third
anterior of the tongue, obvious produced by Herpes simplex;
the Ramsay Hunt syndrome described above;
the “crocodile tears” syndrome characterized by epiphora due to the
ectropion of lower eyelid;
traumatically, accidentally or iatrogenic (surgery of the petrosal part or of
the parotid gland);
other causes, boreliosis (Lyme disesase), collgenoses, sarcoidoses,
Wegener granulomatosis.
The cranial nerves 221
The vestibulocochlear ne rve is a sensitive nerve that connects the receptors of the
inner ear with the brainstem corresponding nuclei. It forms from the transient adjoining
of the vestibular and auditory pathways during crossing the petrosal part of the temporal
bone and the pontoce rebellar angle. The vestibulocochlear nerve re mains inside the skull,
is totally intracisternal and consists of:
afferent fibers, which transmits the impulses from the specific receptors of the inner
ear to the brainstem and cerebellum. It is the only sensitive cranial nerve with the
peripheral protoneurons directly connected to the cerebellum (vestibular
component);
efferent fibers, of retrocontrol, which originate in different brainstem nuclei take
the way of the vestibulocochlear nerve until the peripheral receptors where estabilish:
direct, neuroreceptor synapses, with the bases of the external auditory
hair cells and with the type II vestibular hair cells;
postsynaptic, axoaxonic synapses with the basal axonal endings of the
internal auditory hair cells and with the axonal calyces of the type I
vestibular hair cells.
vestibulare) situated in the posteromedial quadrants of the internal acoustic meatus fundus. It
consists of a superior part (pars superior) and an inferior part (pars inferior), separated by
a shallow narrowing.
From the supe rior part of the ganglion detaches the s upe rior vestibular nerve that
divides into:
the utricular nerve (n. utricularis) that innervates the receptors from the
utricular otolitic macula;
the anterior ampular nerve (n. ampularis anterior) that innervates the receptors
of the superior semicircular canal ampular crest;
the lateral ampular nerve (n. ampularis lateralis) that innervates the receptors
of the of the lateral semicircular canal ampular crest;
the superior saccular nerve (n. saccularis superior) Voit, innervates the
receptors of the cranial most part of the saccular otolitic macula.
From the inferior part of the ganglion detaches the inferior vestibular nerve that
divides into the principal saccular nerve (n. saccularis) that innervates the receptors of the
saccular otolitic macula and the posterior ampular nerve (n. ampularis posterior) that
innervates the receptors of the posterior semicircular canal ampular crest passing through
forame n singulare Morgagni.
The Scarpa vestibular ganglion consists of two cells populations:
the type I neurons that innervates the type I hair cells, through a calyx shaped
periphe ral axon, that envelops the bases of the globular receptor cells;
the type II neurons neuroni whose peripheral axons bifurcate into bouton- like
swelled terminations that sinapse with the bases of type II hair cells.
The central axons of these neurons enter the brainstem through the superficial origin
situated between the inferior cerebellar peduncle and the trigeminal spinal tract and are
somatotopically organized, with macular fibers disposed laterally and the ampular ones,
medially. Each axon bifurcates into ascending and descending branches that terminate into
the vestibular nuclear complex. Only few fibers reach the cerebellum via the inferior
cerebellar peduncle and end as musciform ipsilate ral fibers in nodulus, parafloculus and
lingual lobules.
The vestibular nuclear complex is located in the vestibular area of the IVth
ventricle floor and consists of the superior, lateral, medial, inferior and interstitial
vestibular nuclei and of the “X” and “Y” neuronal groups disseminated in the reticulate
formation.
The vestibular nuclei receive afferences from:
the vestibular labyrinth via the vestibular nerve fibers that terminate in the all
vestibular nuclei except the lateral one;
the cerebellar vermis (B zone) through fibers that terminate into the late ral
nucleus;
the spinal cord through the collaterals of the dorsal spinocerebellar tract that
end in the inferior and late ral nuclei;
the commissural fibers from the pre positus hypoglossi nuclei that interconnect
in the double sense with all the vestibular nuclei;
The cranial nerves 223
the fibers from the oculomotor nuclei (III, IV, VI) via the me dial longitudinal
fascicle;
the parietoinsular, vestibular cerebral cortex.
The vestibular nuclei send efferences to:
the vestibular labyrinth, ipsi and heterolateral retrocontrol fibers that
originate in the medullary reticular formation situated on the medial face of the
medial vestibular nucleus;
cerebellum via direct fibers from the superior and inferior vestibular nuclei that
end as musciform fibers in the uvula, nodulus, flocculus and paraflocculus or
as climbing fibers after synapsis in the medial paraolive.
the spinal cord via the direct and crossed vestibulospinal tracts with the origin
into the lateral and medial vestibular nuclei;
the commissural fibe rs to the prepositus hypoglossi nuclei that interconnect in
double sense all the vestibular nuclei;
the oculomotor nuclei (III, IV, VI) via the medial longitudinal fascicle, closing
the trineuronal oculovestibular reflexes;
parietoinsular vestibular cerebral cortex by fibers which relay in the central
lateral and posterior lateroventral intralaminar thalamic nuclei.
8.1.4. Anatomoclinical considerations
The lesions of the vestibular nerve produce:
nystagmus, the oscillatory movements of the eyeball consisting of a slow and a
fast component. The direction of nystagmus is designed by the fast component
that “beats” towards the hypervalent labyrinth);
oscillopsia – sensation of oscillation of the objects in vue;
autonomic manifestations – nausea, vomiting, pallor, sweats, hypotension;
the vertigo – sensation of loss of the equilibrium in horizontal, vertical or
rotatory planes, induced by the vestibular labiyrinth lesion. The vertigo could be:
benign paroxistic by position, due to the lesions of the posterior
semicircular canal;
caused by infectious or inflammatory vestibular disorders;
of the Meniere disease characterized by vertigo, recurrent tinnitus
and hypoacusia for the low tonalities;
other causes of vertigo are the vestibular schwanoma,
perilymphatic fistula, hypoglycemia, hypotyroidis m, ototoxic
substances and sonor trauma.
neurons form the direct monoaural pathway that transports towards the infe rior
controlateral coliculus information about the intensity of the sounds.
the octopus neurons (onset neurons) with long, oligobranched dendrites that
receive a wide range of cochlear afferences and respond only at the onset of the
sound. Their axons synapse in the heterolateral ventral nucleus of the late ral
lemniscus whose output towards the inferior coliculus forms the indirect
monoaural pathway.
The dorsal cochlear nucleus, situated in the laterodorsal part of the pons tegmentum,
under the acoustic tubercle, presents a remarcable neuronal pleiomorphis m with
interneurons involved in local microcircuits that connects with the reticular formation and
pyramidal neurons that form the nucleus output to the inferior controlateral coliculus.
The efferences of the cochlear nuclei could be:
homolateral, that inflect ascendantly, synapse or do not synapse in the
homolateral nuclei of the trape ziusoid body, arrive via the lateral lemniscus to the
inferior ipsilateral coliculus, forming the monoaural pathway;
heterolate ral that form the ventral, intermediate and dorsal cohlear striae.
The ventral cohlear stria (stria cochlearis anterior) consist of the axons of the
ventral cohlear nucleus neurons that cross the midline forming the trape ziusoid body and
sinapse în the heterolateral supe rior olivary complex. The trapeziusoid body most
important distal comissure of the auditory pathway and its ventral face represents the
conventional limit between the basis and pontine tegmentum. The axons of the supe rior
olivary complex neurons inflect ascendantly, form the heterolateral late ral lemniscus and
relay in the medial geniculate body, forming the binaural pathway.
The interme diate cohlear stria (stria cochlearis intermedia) consists of the axons
from the part posterior of the ventral cohlear nucleus neurons and from dorsal cohlear
nucleus neurons that cross the central part of the pontine tegmentum and enter the
heterolateral lateral lemniscus.
The dorsal cohlear stria (stria cochlearis posterior) consists of the axons of the
dorsal cohlear nucleus neurons that direct lateromedially under the ependyma of the IVth
ventricle floor forming the medullary striae (striae medullares ventriculi quarti) that enter
the median sulcus and end in the pontomedullary reticular formation.
8.2.5. Anatomoclinical considerations
The lesion of the cochlear nerve could be localized in the pontocerebellar angle
and in the internal acoustic meatus. The lesions could be congenital, as in Michel aplasia,
characterized by total lack of cochlea development or in the Mondini disease, when only
the basal half of cochlea is developed. The acquire d lesions are characterized by hypoacusia
of different degrees to cophosis (total deafness). The hearing disturbances could be
unilateral or bilateral and could be accompanied by tinnitus and ve rtigo and nystagmus by
the neighboring involvement of the vestibular nerve.
The cranial nerves 227
9.1.General considerations
The glossopharyngeal is a mixed, motor and sensitive nerve that innervates the
structures derived from the third pharyngeal arch considered to be its posttrematic
branch.
It is the thinest of the four branchiomeric nerves (V, VII, IX, X), intimately correlated
with the vagus, with which has common me dullary nuclei, the same troncular
organization and similar functions. It consists of motor and sensitive components.
The motor component consists of efferent special visceral fibers (SVE) that
distribute to third pharyngeal arch mesenchyme derivatives (stylopharyngeal muscle)
and of general visceral efferent fibe rs (GVE), preganglionic parasympathetic axons of the
neurons of the me dullary salivary inferior nucleus that assures the secretion of the parotid
gland.
The sensitive component consists of:
the general somatic afferent fibers (GSA) that supply the external auditory
meatus and the external face of the tympanum integumentum;
the general visceral afferent fibe rs (GVA) that supply the mucosa of the tongue
posterior third, epiglottis, the palatine tonsil, the posterior wall of the
oropharyngeal isthmus and the auditory tube;
the special visceral afferent fibe rs (SVA) from the specific taste receptors of
the tongue posterior third, the che moreceptors of the carotid glomus and the
baroreceptors from the carotid sinus.
9.2.The real origin
The special visceral efferent fibers (SVE) originate in the ventrolateral part of the
nucleus ambiguus rostral pole. The nucleus ambiguus is a vertical neuronal column located
in the depth of the medullary reticular formation and lasts between a caudal plane traced
through lemniscal decussation and a rostral plane corresponding to the middle third of the
inferior olivary complex. The nucleus ambiguus consists of large size multipolar neurons
with characteristic appearance of peripheral motor neuron, that unlike similar neurons of
the ventral medullar horn, doesn’t have axonal recurrent collaterals and the inhibitory
Renshaw loop.
The general visceral efferent fibers (GVE) originate into the infe rior salivator
nucleus, structure imprecise delimited, located in the depth of the reticular formation,
rostrally from the dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve. The preganglionic parasympathetic
axons of the salivary nucleus take the way of tympanic nerve of Jacobson, pass through the
tympanic plexus and form the lesser petrosal nerve that leaves the tympanic cavity through
the hiatus of the tympanic tegmen, the middle cerebral fossa through the forame n ovale (or
through canaliculus innominatus ofArnold) and reach the otic ganglion. The axons of the
local postganglionic neurons distribute to the parotid gland via the auriculotemporal nerve.
The general somatic afferent fibers (GVA) originate into the superior ganglion of
228 The glossopharyngeal nerve
of the artery, having posterolaterally the vagus and accessory nerves and the internal
jugular vein. The nerve continues its anteroinferior traject, passes through the stylian
diaphragma on the lateral face of the stylopharyngeus muscle (that is considered its
satellite muscle) then crosses lateromedially the anterior face of the muscle and it is disposed
on the lateral face of the superior constrictor muscle of the pharynx. The
glossopharyngeal nerve follows its descending traject, through the paratubar and
paratonsilar space until the deep face of the styloglossus muscle together which directs
anteriorly and ends at the base of the tongue through branches that distribute to the
circumvallate papillae, the posterior third of the tongue, the palatine tonsil, the
auditory tube and the posterior wall of the rhynopharynx.
9.5.The otic ganglion (ganglion oticum)
The otic ganglion contains postganglionic parasympathetic neurons that assure the
secretion of the parotid gland and functionally is attached to the glossopharyngeal nerve. It
is an elongated micronodule, with 3-4 mm diameter, located into the infratemporal fossa,
bellow the foramen ovale, between the medial face of the mandibular nerve and the late ral
face of the tensor veli palatini muscle. It receives the following afferences:
the motor root (radix parasympathetica), made of by the efferent axons of the
preganglionic neurons from the medullary inferior salivary nucleus that follow
successively:
the glossopharyngeal nerve until the its inferior ganglion;
the tympanic nerve Jacobson that passes through the tympanic canal and
arrive in the tympanic cavity;
the tympanic plexus, located on the promontory, crossing it
caudocranially;
the lesser petrosal nerve that leaves the tympanic cavity through the hiatus
of the tympanic tegmen and arrives subdurally in the middle cerebral fossa.
Here, the nerve,situated on the superior face of the petrosal part of the temporal
bone, directs anteromedially, parallel with the lateral margin of the greter
petrosal nerve, crosses the deep face of cavum Meckeli and the s uperficial face
the petrosphenoidal membrane. The lesser petrosal nerve exits the skull
through the forame n ovale or through the innominate canal Arnold and ends at
the posterior pole of the otic ganglion where it synapse with the postganglionic
neurons. Their postganglionic axons distributes to the parotid gland via the
auriculote mporal nerve.
the sympathetic root (radix sympathetica) consists of efferent axons of the
postganglionic neurons of the superior sympathetic cervical ganglion that take
the way of the internal pe ricarotic plexus and enter the tympanic cavity through
its anterior wall as caroticotympanic nerves. Here they join the tympanic plexus,
then follow the lesser petrosal nerve until the otic ganglion, crosses it without
synapse and disseminate on the all mandibular nerve branches and distributes
to the smooth muscles of the hair and arteriolar walls and the glands of the
territory.
230 The glossopharyngeal nerve
the sensitive root (radix sensoria) branches from the mandibular nerve, crosses
without synapse the otic ganglion and distributes to the tensor tympani and the
tensor veli palatini muscles. The name of sensitive root, even classical, in
inadequate because its fibers are somatic motor.
The ganglion receives anastomoses from the chorda tympani nerve and from the
pterygopalatine ganglion that constitute the alternative taste pathways to overpass the
middle ear.
9.6.The collateral branches
The tympanic nerve (n.tympanicus) Jacobson, considered the pretre matic branch
of the glossopharyngeal nerve, arises from the anterolateral face of the inferior ganglion
and directs laterally through the groove of the intercaroticojugular crest. After a very short
(2-3mm) extracranial traject, the nerve together with the inferior tympanic artery passes
through the tympanic canal and arrives subpromontorially, in the tympanic cavity. Here it
divides in a bouquet of 2-6 terminal branches that anastomose on the promontory surface
with branches of the pericarotic and perime ningeal sympathetic plexuses forming
tympanic plexus. The latter is doubled by an arteriolar and capillary plexus that contains the
tympanic glomus.
The tympanic plexus emits:
the postganglionic sympathetic branches that form the deep petrosal nerve;
the sensitive branches for the mucosa of the tympanic cavity, auditory tube
and the mastoid cells;
the lesser petrosal nerve that form the motor root of the otic ganglion.
The carotic sinus nerve (r. sinus carotici) Hering, often polymicrofasciculary,
detaches from the glossopharyngeal nerve inferiorly from the jugular foramen and descends
along the internal carotid artery, until the carotid glomus and the carotid sinus wall. It
consists of pe ripheral affe rent axons of the neurons from the infe rior ganglion connected
with the che moreceptos of the carotic glomus and the baroreceptors from the carotic sinus
wall. It receives anastomoses from the vagus nerve and from the superior cervical
ganglion.
The pharyngeal branches (rr.pharyngei), 3-4 rami that detach from the
glossopharyngeal nerve between the styloglossus and superior constrictor of the pharynx
muscles craniocaudally sequenced and anastomoses with the pharyngeal branches of the
vagus nerve and of the cervical sympathetic forming the pharyngeal plexus. The pharyngeal
plexus forms by:
the vagus nerve motor fibe rs that distribute to the constrictor of the pharynx
muscles.
the glossopharyngeal nerve sensitive fibers that innervate the pharyngeal
mucosa;
the postganglia sympathetic nerve vascular fibe rs that distribute to the arterial
peripharyngeal plexus.
The muscular branches (r.musculi stilopharyngei) innervate the stylopharyngeus
muscle considered the satellite muscle of the glossopharyngeal nerve.
The tonsilar branches (rr. tonsillares) detach from the glossopharyngeal nerve in
The cranial nerves 231
the paratonsillar space where anastomoses with the posterior and middle palatine nerves
and form the tonsillar plexus (Andersch) from which arise the tonsillar, palatine and
pharyngeal branches.
9.7. The terminal branches
The terminal branches of the glossopharyngeal nerve distribute to the tongue (rr.
linguales).
Ariving at the tongue base, the glossopharyngeal nerve progressively decreases as size and
divides in two medial and late ral terminal branches. The two terminal branches divide into a
variable number of twigs that intermingle by plexiform anastomoses, forming the lingual
plexus that distributes to the mucosa of the tongue base at the lingual V and to the
circumvalate papillae.
9.8. Anatomoclinical considerations
The lesions of the glossopharyngeal nerve rarely isolated, usually associate with
affections of the jugular foramen nerves. The isolated lesions cause loss of taste sensibility
for bitter, ipsilateral anesthesia or hypoesthesia of the soft palate, pharynx and the
posterior part of the tongue. The palatine and the pharyngeal reflexes are diminishes or
abolished.
The cranial nerves 233
the inte rmediary segment, diffuse, that innervates the pharynx, soft
palate and esophagus muscles;
the caudal segment that innervates the other larynx muscles via the
inferior laryngeal ne rve (reccurent).
the external part belongs to the cranial parasympathetic system and consists of
preganglionic parasympathetic neurons whose axons sinapse in the heart parietal
nervous system (“heart brain”). The ambiguus nucleus containes all the heart
parasympathetic preganglionic neurons whose axons don’t synapse with a
postganglionic neuron but end as vagal afference of the heart local
microganglionic microcircuits.
The ambiguu nucleus receives afferences from:
the corticobulbar, direct and crossed fibers which voluntary control the
deglutition and the phonation;
the vocalization center from the pe riaqueductal gray that projects in the retro-
ambiguus nucleus which is connected with the motoneurons that innervate the
laryngeal and abdominal muscles implicated in vocalization;
the nucleus VOC, localized in the pontine reticular formation, dorsaly to superior
olive that is the generator of the human type vocal patte rn;
the solitary nucleus and the tegmental lateral area of the medullary reticular
formation.
The general visceral efferent fibe rs (GVE), except the cardiac ones, originate in the
dorsal vagus nucleus that is situated under the ventricle IVth floor, in the medial part of the
vagal trigonum (ala cinerea) between the solitary fascicle, laterally, and medially, the
hypoglossus nucleus from which is separated by the inte rcalated nucleus. The dorsal vagus
nucleus is the most important parasympathetic nucleus of the brainstem and consists of a
rostral parvocellular third, a midlle magnocellular third, and a mixed neuronal population
caudal third. Functionally 85% of the neurons of the dorsal nucleus are preganglionic
parasympathetic neurons whose axons synapses in the brochopulmonar and gastrointestinal
intraparietal nervous systems.
The other 15% ones that are interneurons which are connected with amygdala,
hypothalamus and the brainstem parasympathetic nuclei via the Schütz dorsal fascicle.
The dorsal vagus nucleus is also connected with the ambiguus and solitary nuclei, the
parabrachial nuclei and the Köllicke r-Fuse area. The axons of the dorsal nucleus neurons
direct ventrolaterally, pass through the spinal trigeminal nucleus and emerges through the
retroolivary groove as the rootlets of the vagus nerve.
The general somatic afferent fibers (GVA) from the retroauricular, external
acoustic meatus and external face of the tympan integumentum originate in the supe rior
ganglion (jugular), localized anteromedially from the jugular ligament, into the nervous
compartment (pars nervosa) of the jugular foramen. The central axons enter the medulla
through the retroolivary groove and participate to the formation of the spinal trigeminal
tract and synapse in the dorsal part of the trige minal spinal nucleus.
The general visceral afferent fibers (GVA) originate into the inferior ganglion that
is fusiform shaped, long of 1-2 cm and ove rpasses inferiorlly the jugular foramen arriving
The cranial nerves 235
vagus nerve crosses the inferior part of the pontoce rebellar angle, between flocculus and the
petroclival area, then engages into the vagal pore of the jugular foramen in the common
cistern with the accesory nerve that extends until the external contuor of the jugular foramen
(foramen jugulare externum). On the transjugular traject the vagus nerve presents the
jugular (ganglion superius) and nodose (ganglion inferius) ganglions, the latter extending
on the cervical traject of the nerve.
The extracranial traject of the vagus nerve could be divided into deep facial,
cervical, supe rior mediastinal, inferior mediastinal and abdominal segments.
In the deep facial segment (cervical superior) the vagus nerve is situated in the
maxilovertebropharyngeal space, limited posteriorly, by prevertebral fascia with the
superior ganglion of the cervical sympathetic chain, ante riorly, by the stylopharyngeal
lamina of the stylian diaphragma, medially, by the late ral wall of the rhinopharynx and the
corresponding retrovisceral septum and laterally, by the parotid fascia. Here, the vagus
nerve, contained in the vascular sheath of the neck, is situated in the angle between the
posterior faces of the internal carotid artery, me dially and internal jugular vein, laterally.
Below the jugular foramen, the vagus nerve is crossed posteriorly by the hypoglossal nerve
that adheres to the inferior ganglion and receives anastomoses from the glossopharyngeal,
hypoglossal, first two cervical nerves and the sympathetic superior ce rvical ganglion.
Distally from the inferior ganglion it fusses with the medial branch of the accessory nerve
that carries the efferent axons of the neurons of the ambiguus nucleus inferior pole that will
innervate the larynx muscles via the recurrent nerve.
In the cervical infe rior segment the vagus nerve maintains the posterior
intervenoarte rial position, but the vasculary sheath of the neck becomes more thick and
develops a sagittal septum (Lagenbeck) that divides it into a medial neuroarterial
compartment, that contains the primitive carotid arte ry and the vagus ne rve, and a late ral
venolymphatic compartment, that contains the internal jugular vein and the deep jugular
lymphonodular chain.
In the supe rior mediastinal segment the vagus nerves has different right/left
relations.
At the right side, the nerve passes through the thoracic inlet, crosses successively the
external face of the common carotid artery, the anterior face of the right subclavian
arte ry and the posterior face of the right venous angle. In the thymicovascular segment it
follows the posterior face of the superior cava vein, crosses posteriorly the azygos vein
and the left bronchus and arrives at the right margin of the interazygoaortic esophagus.
At the left side the nerve passes through the thoracic inlet between the anterior face of the
left subclavicular arte ry and the posterior face of the brahiocephalic vein, then crosses
anteriorly the aortic arch and laterally, the arterial ligament insertion and emits the left
recurrent nerve.
The left vagus nerve passes through the celluloadipose gliding space, limited at the
right side by the ductus artieriosus, superiorly by the infe rior face of the aortic arch and
inferiorly by the left pulmonary artery superior face and arrives into the posterior
mediastinum, on the left margin of the interazygoaortic esophagus, crossing the posterior
faces of the pulmonary artery and the left bronchus.
In the inferior mediastinum, each vagus nerves divides in 3-4 vertical branches with
238 The vagus nerve
terminal appearance. The vagus nerve branches on the anterior face of the esophagus, and
the right one, on the posterior face. Their fibers richly anastomose and form the
periesophageal plexus. Above the diaphragm muscle the plexus fibers reunite under the
periesophageal adventitia into the anterior and posterior trunks that pass into the abdomen
through the esophageal hiatus.
In the abdominal segment the vagus trunks divide into the terminal branches with different
right/left distribution and territories.
10.4.The collateral branches
The meningeal branch (r. meningeus) detaches from the vagus superior ganglion
and distributes to the dura mater of the posterior cranial fossa, around the foramen
magnum.
The auricular branch (r.auricularis) detaches from the superior vagus ganglion in
the jugular foramen, engages through ostium introitus from the lateral wall of the jugular
fossa in the mastoid cananiculus that opens into the mastoid segment of Fallopio aqueduct,
at 3-4 mm from the stylomastoid foramen. Here it joins the auricular branch of the facial
nerve and distributes to the retroauricular, external acoustic meatus posteroinferior wall
and to the adjacent part of the tympanic me mbrane integumentum.
The pharyngeal branch (r.pharyngeus) (1-3) detach from the inferior ganglion,
passes on the anterior face of the primitive carotid artery and participate to the formation of
the pharyngeal plexus (plexus pharyngeus) together with the glossopharyngeal nerve and
branches of the pericarotic sympathetic plexus. The vagus nerve innervate all the
pharyngeal muscles except the stylopharyngeus and the soft palate muscles except the the
tensor veli palatini.
The branches for the carotid glomus (r.sinus carotici) (GVE), variable as number,
arise from the inferior ganglion and participates to the formation of the carotic sinus plexus
together with the glomic branches of the glossopharyngeal ne rve and the pericarotic
sympathetic plexus.
The cardiac superior branches (rr. cardiaci cervicales superiores et inferiores)
arise from the inferior pole of the inferior ganglion and from the vagus nerve cervical trunk
and direct caudally on the anteroexternal face of the left common carotid artery or of the
brahiocephalic artery on the right side, and end in the anterior cardiac plexus.
The laryngeal supe rior ne rve (n. laryngeus superior) is considered the pretrematic
branch of the vagus nerve for the IVth pharyngeal arch. It originates from the inferior pole
of the infe rior ganglion and directs inferomedially, crosses the posterior face of the internal
carotid artery then the medial face of the external carotid artery below the origin of the
lingual artery and enters the visceral sheath of the neck. At the level of greater hyoid bone
horn divides into a superior sensitive branch, the internal laryngeal nerve, and another
one inferior, motor and sensitive, the external laryngeal nerve.
The internal laryngeal nerve (r.internus), accompanied by the superior laryngeal
vessels, directs anteromedially, crosses the external face of the tyrohyoid ligame nt and, half
distance between the hyoid bone greater horn and the superior margin of the thyroid
cartilage, perforates the thyrohyoid me mbrane and arrives in the pyriform sinus
submucosa where it determines the superior laryngeal nerve fold (plica nervi laryngei
superioris). The internal laryngeal nerve divides into:
The cranial nerves 239
the posteromedial face of the aortic arch passing between it and the lateral face of
the thoracic trachea, just above the bifurcation.
Along this periaortic traject, the recurrent nerve is situated in a gliding cellular
adipose tissue (Calori bursae) that facilitates the reciprocal aorticotracheal dynamics and
contains tracheobrochial lymph nodes whose intimate relations with the left recurrent
nerve (the ganglia of the recurrent loop of Rouviere) are involved in the mediastinal
pathology. In the upper mediastinum, the left recurrent nerve is disposed in the
tracheoesophageal angle, on the anterior face of the esophagus that, on the left side,
surpasses laterally the trachea. It emits segmentary branches for the both organs and
arrives at the neck where it has the same relations as the right recurrent nerve.
The anterior pulmonary branches (plexus pulmonalis anterior) detach from the
vagus nerve under the origin of the recurrent nerve and contribute to the formation of the
anterior pulmonary plexus.
The posterior pulmonary branches (plexus pulmonalis posterior) are numerous
twigs that detach from the vagus nerve on the posterior face of the pulmonary pedicle and
contributes to the formation of the posterior pulmonary plexus.
The esophageal branches (rr.oesophagei) supply the subbronchial esophagus and
detach from the pe riesophageal plexus and from the ante rior and posterior vagal trunks.
10.5.The terminal branches
The anterior vagus trunk (truncus vagalis anterior), after a short subserous traject
on the abdominal esophagus anterior face divides into:
the gastric branches (rr. gastrici anteriores), a bouquet of 5-6 twigs that distribute
to the anterior face of the stomach and condense along the lesser curvature forming
the anterior ne rve of Latarjet (n. curvaturae minoris anterior);
the hepatic branches (rr. hepatici anteriores), that pass through the pars condensa
sinistra of the lesser omentum and arrive in the liver hilus participating to the
hepatic plexus formation.
The posterior vagus trunk (truncus vagalis posterior) emits 5-6 twigs for the
stomach posterior face, forms along the lesser curvature the posterior nerve of Latarjet (n.
curvaturae minoris posterior) and passes under the parietal peritoneum of the bursa
omentalis into the celiac region where ends dividing into left and right branches that enter
the medial angles of the semilunar ganglions. Togheter with the greater splanchnic nerves and
with the semilunar ganglions the posterior vagus trunk branches form the classical described
ansae memorabiles of Wrisberg (right) and Laignel-Lavastine (left).
Bellow the gastrohepatic level the preganglionic fibers of the vagus nerve loose their
anatomical identity and via the celiac, superior and inferior mesenteric and aorticorenal
(rr. coeliaci, renales, etc) plexuses distributes to the local intraparietal nervous systems.
10.6. Anatomical considerations
The usual vagal reflexes are the coughing, vomiting and the gag reflex (the tongue
retraction with lifting and constriction of the pharyngeal muscles that precede vomiting).
The supranuclear lesions are usually associated with the involvement of the other
cranial nerves of the posterior fossa.
The unilateral lesions are usually asymptomatic and the bilateral lesions of the
The cranial nerves 241
11.1.General considerations
The accessory nerve is extremely short and results from the temporary adjoining of
the medullary (n. accessorius nervi vagi) and spinal roots (radix spinalis nervi accessorii)
during their passage through the jugular foramen. The accessory nerve can’t be considered
the nerve of the XIth pharyngeal arch, as is classically stated, because:
the nerve is individualized only in the jugular foramen;
are missing the affe rent post and pretre matic branches that define a pharyngeal
arch nerve;
the medullary root contains only efferent laryngeal fibe rs originating in the
ambiguus nucleus, therefore aberrant vagal fibers;
the spinal root contains only efferent fibe rs that originate in the C1 -C3 spinal cord
segments and inervate the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, which develop
from the occipital somites mesenchyme;
the intrarahidian and transoccipital traject of the spinal root could be associated
with the vertebral origin of the occipital bone periforaminal part;
the motor territories ale ne rvului accesor are different both as morphogenetical
origin and topography.
functionally, the medullary root of the accessory nerve could be considered its
phonatory component and the s pinal root, the oculocephalogyric component.
11.2. The real origin
The medullary root (radices craniales) originate in the inferior third of the
ambiguus nucleus, also named laryngeal nucleus, that contains the motor neurons whose
efferent axons innervate the laryngeal and levator veli palatini muscles.
The spinal root (radices spinales) originate in the C 1 -C3 central nuclear column of
the spinal cord that is coaxially with the motor nucleus of the phrenic nerve and contains
motor neurons whose efferent axons innervate the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
muscles.
11.3. The superficial origin
The medullary root leaves the brainstem through the retroolivary s ulcus as 4-5
rootlets below those of the vagus nerve, direct late rally and fuses by juxtaposition with the
spinal root in an apparently unique trunk located in the pontocerebellar angle, posteriorly
to the vagus nerve. In the jugular foramen, the medullary root sends to the jugular ganglion
an anastomosis that contains the efferent axons of the ambiguus nucleus neurons innervating
the levator veli palatini muscle.
The spinal root consists of 4-6 rootlets without segmentary organization, that leave
the late ral face of the spinal cord, dorsally from the denticulate ligament, inflects cranially
and unite in a unique trunk that ascends through the vertebral canal and foramen magnum
posterior from the vertebral artery. In the posterior cerebral fossa, the spinal root bends
laterally, fuses apparently, by juxtaposition, with the medullary root and pass together
244 The accessory nerve
12.1.General considerations
The hypoglossal nerve is a motor nerve that assures the innervations of the somatic
muscles of the tongue that derive from the last four occipital somitae.
12.2.The real origin
The real origin of the hypoglossal nerve is situated in the medullary tegmentum,
under the floor of the IVth ventricle, in the area of the hypoglossal trigonum, between the
vagal trigonum and the median line. The hypoglossal nerve nucleus is a craniocaudally
elongated (10-18 mm) vertical column that lasts from the inferior pole of the inferior olive
until the region of the striae medullares of the IVth ventricle. The nuclear column of the
hypoglossal nucleus consists of multipolar somatic neurons organized in the following
subnuclei:
ventromedial, that innervates the tongue muscles;
ventrolateral that innervates the genioglossus muscle;
caudal that innervates the hyoglossus muscle.
Around the principal nucleus of the hypoglossal nerve there are disposed the perihypoglossal
nuclei represented by:
nucleus praepositus hypoglossi located rostrally, that continues the principal
nucleus until the caudal pole of the abducens nucleus;
nucleus intercalatus located dorsolaterally, between the principal nucleus and
the dorsal vagus nucleus;
Roller nucleus, located ventromedially, in the reticular formation.
The hypoglossal nucleus receives afferences from:
the cerebral cortex, via the corticonuclear tract, directly, but mostly after
multiple synapses in the reticular formation that are responsible of the
voluntary movements of the tongue;
the motor nuclei of the trigeminal, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves,
associating the tongue motility with the mastication and deglutition
movements;
other visceral nuclei of the brainstem (periaqueductal gray, solitary nucleus,
dorsal vagus nucleus and the dorsal medullary areas);
the reticular formation of the brainstem through direct and crossed fibers.
12.3.The superficial origin and intracranial traject
The peripheral efferent axons leave the hypoglossal nucleus on its ventral face,
pass laterally from the medial lemniscus and emerge through the preolivary sulcus as 10-
12 rootlets. They direct ventrolaterally, fuse usually in a unique trunk that passes anteriorly
from the posteroinferior cerebellar artery and enters through dural pore of the hypoglossal
nerve in the cistern of the condylar canal. If there are two radicular hypoglossal trunks, the
posteroinferior cerebellar artery passes between them and the hypoglossal canal (condylar)
246 The hypoglossal nerve
could be double.
12.4. The extracranial traject
The hypoglossal nerve exits the skull through the anterior condylar canal together
with the posterior meningeal artery and the anterior condylar vein and enters the
maxilovertebropharyngeal space. The nerve, initially situated posteromedially from the
neck neurovascular bundle, directs laterocaudally, crosses the anterior face of the
prevertebral fascia and of the superior sympathetic cervical ganglion and the posterior
face of the nodose ganglion to which, sometimes, it is adherent. The hypoglossal nerve
passes between the internal carotid artery and the vagus nerve, located medially, and the
internal jugular vein, situated laterally, then crosses the lateral face of the external
carotid artery under the origin of the occipital artery and traverses lateromedially the
carotic trigone and traverses anterosuperiorly the muscular planes of the oral cavity floor.
In this traject the the hypoglossal nerve participates to the formation of the following
triangles:
the Farabeuf triangle, limited posteriorly by the internal jugular vein,
anteroinferiorly by the venous thyrolingopharyngofacial trunk and superiorly
by the hypoglossal nerve. In the area of Farabeuf triangle, the lingual and facial
arteries branch from the external carotid artery;
the Béclard triangle, limited posteriorly by the posterior margin of the
hyoglossus muscle, superiorly by the posterior belly of the digastric muscle,
inferiorly by the greater horn of the hyoid bone. In the triangle area pass
superficially the hypoglossal nerve and the superficial lingual vein and
profoundly, the lingual artery.
the Pirogoff triangle, limited inferiorly by the intermediary tendon of the
digastric muscle, superiorly by the hypoglossal nerve and anteriorly by the
posterior margin of the mylohyoid muscle. The floor of the triangle is formed by
the deep lamina of the investing fascia and the hyoglossus muscle. It is pierced
by the hiatus between the mylohyoid and hyoglossus muscles through which pass
from the submandibular region to the sublingual region the hypoglossal nerve,
the superficial lingual vein, the Wharton canal and the anterior prolongation
of the submandibular gland. In the sublingual region the hypoglossal nerve
passes between the genioglossus and hyoglossus muscles and ends distributing to
the tongue intrinsic muscles.
12.5.The collateral branches
Along its traject the hypoglossal nerve emits the following collateral branches:
the meningeal branch (rr.meningei) that arises in the hypoglossal canal, turns
back in the skull and innervates the diploia of the periforaminal part of the
occipital bone, the walls of the occipital and inferior petrosal sinuses and the
dura mater from the anterior region of the posterior cranial fossa.
the descendant branch (ramus descendens) detaches from the trunk of the
hypoglossal nerve where it crosses the occipital artery and directs caudally on
the anteromedial face of the internal jugular vein and, on the anterior face of
the vein, anastomoses with the descendant branch of the cervical plexus
The cranial nerves 247
forming the hypoglossal nerve loop (ansa cervicalis profunda inferior). The
loop branches contain fibers from the cervical plexus (C1, C2, C3) and innervate
the subhyoid muscles including the thyrohyoid and geniohyoid muscles, whose
branches appear as direct hypoglossal nerve branches;
the vascular branches (rr. vasculares), unique or multiple, join the nerve via the
anastomoses with the periarterial cervical sympathetic plexus and the vagus
nerves and distribute to the vessels that have relations with the hypoglossus
nerve.
12.6. Anatomoclinical considerations
The lesions of central motor neuron produce fasciculations of the tongue muscles
without atrophy of the involved side muscles and the tongue is deviated on the
controlateral side of the lesion.
The lesion of the inferior motor neuron produces paralysis of the tongue muscles
with secondary atrophy on the ipsilateral side of the lesion.
Nervi cranieni 249
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