31 1 Oltenia Studii Si Comunicari Stiintele Naturii Vol XXXI 1 2015

Muzeul Olteniei Craiova. Oltenia. Studii şi comunicări. Ştiinţele Naturii. Tom. 31, No.
1/2015 ISSN 1454-6914
CONTENTS / CUPRINS
I. GEOLOGY / GEOLOGIE
Ştefan NEGREANU - Granulometric and morphometric characteristics of ruditic and

arenaceous clasts from red quaternary deposits (Cetate area, Dolj County,
Romania) / Caractere morfometrice şi granulometrice pentru clastele ruditice
şi arenitice din depozitele cuaternare roşii (zona Cetate, județul Dolj,
România) ............................................................................................................. 9
Agim SHENJATARI, Irakli PRIFTI, Zeqir JAURRI - Geological structure and

biostratigraphy of Burreli Depression in Albanids / Structura geologică şi
biostratigrafia Depresiunii Burreli în Albanide ................................................... 16
Valentin PARASCHIV - New contributions to the Ciocadia Middle Miocene flora (part
four) / Noi contribuții la flora Miocenului mediu de la Ciocadia (partea a
patra) .................................................................................................................... 25
Aurelian POPESCU, Florina DIACONU - Mammuthus primigenius (Blumenbach,

1799) from Salcia (Mehedinți County, SW Romania) / Mammuthus
primigenius (Blumenbach, 1799) de la Salcia (jud. Mehedinți), SV României
.............................................................................................................................. 37
II. VEGETAL BIOLOGY / BIOLOGIE VEGETALĂ
Galina LUPAŞCU, Sofia GRIGORCEA, Nadejda MIHNEA - The influence of the

maternal factor on the effects of gene involved in the control of quantitative
characters in tomato / Influenţa factorului matern asupra efectelor genice
implicate în controlul unor caractere cantitative la tomate ................................. 43
Rodica CATANĂ, Irina HOLOBIUC - Direct somatic embryogenesis of the endemic

taxon Papaver alpinum L. ssp. Corona-sancti-stefani (Zapal.) Borza for
conservative purpose / Embriogeneza somatică directă la taxonul endemic
Papaver alpinum L. ssp. corona-sancti-stefani în scop conservative
.............................................................................................................................. 47
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Muzeul Olteniei Craiova. Oltenia. Studii şi comunicări. Ştiinţele Naturii. Tom. 31, No. 1/2015 ISSN 1454-6914
Nasko ILIEV, Lyubka VARBEVA - Factors affecting grafting of Acer pseudoplatanus

L. / Factorii care influenţează altoirea la Acer pseudoplatanus L.
.............................................................................................................................. 52
Cristian BANCIU, Diana CRISTIAN - Cryoconservation of Pseudevernia furfuracea L.

species and assessing the viability after thawing / Crioconservarea speciei
Pseudevernia furfuracea și evidenţierea viabilităţii după dezgheț
.............................................................................................................................. 57
Luminiţa ROMAN, Horațiu ROMAN, Anamaria HOSU, Cristiana VASILIU, Grigore

MIHĂESCU, Ilda CZOBOR - Eugenia caryophyllata Thunberg - a
miraculous herb / Eugenia cariophyllata Thunberg - o plantă miraculoasă
.............................................................................................................................. 61
III. ANIMAL BIOLOGY / BIOLOGIE ANIMALĂ
III.a. INVERTEBRATES VARIOUS / NEVERTEBRATE DIVERSE
Sára FERENŢI, Severus-Daniel COVACIU-MARCOV - Faunistic data upon the

terrestrial isopods (Crustacea, Isopoda, Oniscidea) from Crasna hills, North-
Western Romania / Date faunistice asupra izopodelor terestre (Crustacea,
Isopoda, Oniscidea) din zona Dealurilor Crasnei, nord-vestul României
.............................................................................................................................. 69
Gima LILA - Preliminary data regarding beetle parasite species collected from different
ecosystems met in Dolj County in 2009-2013 / Date preliminare privind specii
de paraziţi la coleoptere din diferite ecosisteme din judeţul Dolj colectate în
perioada 2009-2013 .............................................................................................. 75
Gavril Marius BERCHI, Cornelia CHIMIŞLIU - Aquatic and semiaquatic bugs

(Heteroptera: Nepomorpha, Gerromorpha) preserved in the Oltenia Museum
Craiova / Ploşniţe acvatice şi semiacvatice (Heteroptera: Nepomorpha,
Gerromorpha) conservate în Muzeul Olteniei Craiova ....................................... 83
Zbyšek ŠUSTEK - Periodic and non-periodic changes in Carabid communities from the
norway spruce forests of the High Tatra in the zone damaged by windstorms /
Schimbări periodice şi neperiodice în cenozele Carabidelor din molidişurile din
Tatra Înalta în zona de doborâturi de vânt ............................................................. 87
4
Mihaela ARINTON, Constantin CIORNEI - Data concerning the diversity of

Scarabeoid larvae (Coleoptera: Scarabeoidea: Dynastidae, Melolonthidae,
Cetoniidae and Lucanidae) in forest nurseries from Iaşi County, Romania /
Date privind diversitatea larvelor de scarabeoidee (Coleoptera: Scarabeoidea:
Dynastidae, Melolonthidae, Cetoniidae şi Lucanidae) în pepiniere din judeţul Iaşi,
România ............................................................................................................... 105
Mircea VARVARA - The variation of distribution of the relative abundance and

dominance of the families of epigeic Coleoptera (order Coleoptera) in wheat
fields, Brăila (Brăila County) and Moldova (Romania) 1977-2002 / Variaţia
distribuţiei abundenţei şi dominanţei relative a familiilor de coleoptere epigee
(ord. Coleoptera) în culturile de grâu, Brăila (judeţul Brăila) şi Moldova
(România), 1977-2002 .......................................................................................... 114
Nicolae LOTREAN, Minodora MANU - Coleopterans fauna (Insecta: Coleoptera) of the

Călimani National Park, Romania / Fauna de coleoptere (Insecta: Coleoptera)
din Parcul Naţional Călimani, România ................................................................ 130
III.b. VERTEBRATES / VERTEBRATE
Ionelia Claudia GOGA, Constanţa TÎMBURESCU, Doina CODREANU -

BĂLCESCU, Oana IONUŞ - The occurence of the ectoparasite Dactylogyrus
sp. (Platyhelminthes, Monogenea, Monopisthocotylea: Dactylogyridae) on
Cyprinidae fish Cyprinus carpio and Carassius gibelio from the small
reservoirs along the Preajba river - preliminary study / Prezenţa ectoparazitului
Dactylogyrus sp. (Platyhelminthes, Monogenea, Monopisthocotylea:
Dactylogyridae) la peşti din familia Cyprinidae (Cyprinus carpio şi Carassius
gibelio) din lacurile de pe cursul râului Preajba – studiu preliminar
.............................................................................................................................. 141
Aurelian Leonardo ILIE, Mariana MARINESCU - Data about the biology and the
ecology of the species Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldzky, 1838) in the area of
Tinca village (Bihor County, Romania) / Date asupra biologiei şi ecologiei
speciei Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldzky, 1838) în zona comunei Tinca (judeţul
Bihor, România) ................................................................................................... 149
Adrian MESTECĂNEANU, Radu GAVA - The avifauna from Vâlcele, Budeasa, Bascov,
Piteşti, and Goleşti dam reservoirs observed in the hiemal season (2013 and 2014) /
Avifauna lacurilor de acumulare Vâlcele, Budeasa, Bascov, Piteşti şi Goleşti
observată în sezonul hiemal (2013 şi 2014) .......................................................... 154
5
Nelli CEMÎRTAN, Andrei MUNTEANU, Victoria NISTREANU, Veaceslav SÎTNIC,

Alina LARION - Comparative analysis of male behaviour in two sibling
species Microtus arvalis Pall. and Microtus rossiaemeridionalis Ogn.
(Rodentia, Cricetidae) / Analiza comparativă a comportamentului masculilor
speciilor sible Microtus arvalis Pall. și Microtus rossiaemeridionalis Ogn.
(Rodenţia, Cricetidae) .......................................................................................... 166
IV. ECOLOGY - THE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION /

ECOLOGIE - PROTECŢIA MEDIULUI
Andreea Floriana MARINICĂ, Cornelia CHIMIŞLIU, Ion MARINICĂ - The warm

winter of 2014-2015 in South-Western Romania / Iarna caldă 2014-2015 în
sud-vestul României ............................................................................................. 173
Alina VLĂDUŢ - Bioclimatic stress within the Getic Subcarpathians / Stresul bioclimatic
în Subcarpații Getici ............................................................................................. 187
Magdalin Leonard DOROBĂŢ, Codruţa Mihaela DOBRESCU - Study regarding the

variation of two abiotic parameters (temperature and relative humidity) in the
areas with limestone scree in the Leaota Massive, 2014 / Studiu privind variaţia
a doi parametri abiotici (temperatura şi umiditatea relativă) în zone cu grohotiş
calcaros din Masivul Leaota, 2014 ........................................................................ 193
Gina Raluca KERKMANN - Diyadin (Agri Region, Turkey) - a poorly known thermal
ecosystem / Diyadin (Regiunea Agri, Turcia) – un ecosistem termal puţin
cunoscut ................................................................................................................ 199
Mirela MOLDOVEANU, Larisa FLORESCU, Laura PARPALĂ, Roxana COJOC,

Mădălin ENACHE - Romanian salt lakes: some physical-chemical features
and composition of biological communities / Lacuri sărate din România:
caracteristici fizico-chimice și compoziția comunităților biologice
.............................................................................................................................. 205
Gheorghiţa BRÎNZEA, Alina PĂUNESCU, Cristina Maria PONEPAL -

Bioaccumulation and effects of Zn, Mn and Dithane M45 on certain
lumbricidae species (Oligochaeta-Lumbricidae) / Bioacumularea și efectele Zn,
Mn conținut de Dithane M45 asupra unor specii de lumbricide (Oligochaeta-
Lumbricidae) ........................................................................................................ 213
Olivia CIOBOIU - Hydrobiological particularities of Maglavit lake (Romania) – the

place and role of gastropod populations / Particularități hidrobiologice ale
lacului Maglavit (România) – locul și rolul populațiilor de gastropode
.............................................................................................................................. 221
6
Alexandru-Ionuţ PETRIŞOR - Ecological model of Romanian research and education –

a systemic approach / Model ecologic al sistemului românesc de cercetare-
învăţământ – o abordare sistemică ......................................................................... 229
V. SCIENTIFIC REPORTS / RAPOARTE ŞTIINŢIFICE
Ilie Cătălin TELCEAN, István SAS-KOVÁCS, Severus-Daniel COVACIU-

MARCOV - Unusual altitude and habitat for the invasive fish Pseudorasbora
parva in the Vâlsan river basin, Romania / Altitudine și habitat neobișnuit
pentru specia de pește invaziv Pseudorasbora parva în bazinul râului Vâlsan,
România ............................................................................................................... 237
VI. REVIEWS / RECENZII
Gheorghe BREZEANU - Structures and functions of a plain hydrographic basin system.

Author Olivia Cioboiu (Review) / Structurile și funcțiile unui sistem bazinal
de câmpie. Autor Olivia Cioboiu (Recenzie) ...................................................... 241
VII. SCIENTIFIC ESSAYS / REFERATE ŞTIINŢIFICE
Anuwat RATTANACHAI, Sirichai KANLAYANARAT - Quality management in the

supply chain of baby corn in Thailand / Managementul calităţii în lanţul de
aprovizionare cu porumb baby în Tailanda ......................................................... 243
Marian-Traian GOMOIU - Applying Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) for

Good Environment State (GES) assessment at the Romanian Black Sea Coast /
Aplicarea Directivei-cadru privind Strategia Marină (MSFD) pentru evaluarea
Stării Bune a Ecosistemului (GES) la Coasta Românească a Mării Negre
.............................................................................................................................. 247
Petre NEACŞU, Olivia CIOBOIU - From the history of ecology (Note I) / Din istoricul
ecologiei (Nota I) ................................................................................................. 252
Dumitru MURARIU - Comments on the term of biological species / Comentarii asupra
termenului de specie biologică ............................................................................ 255
7
OLTENIA
STUDII ŞI COMUNICĂRI
ŞTIINŢELE NATURII
Oltenia Journal for Studies in Natural Sciences
(Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference of the Oltenia Museum)
Tom. XXXI, No. 1 / 2015
MUZEUL OLTENIEI CRAIOVA

Oltenia. Studii şi comunicări. Ştiinţele Naturii
ISSN 1454 – 6914
2015, Tom. 31, no. 1
Cover Image: The Building of the Section of Sciences of Nature of the Museum of Oltenia Craiova
Editor in Chief: Aurelian POPESCU - Craiova, Romania
Asociate Editor’s:
Olivia CIOBOIU Managing Editor:
Craiova, Romania Istvan SAS
Oradea, Romania
Claudia Ionelia GOGA
Craiova, Romania Tehnical Editor:
Daniela POPESCU
Gima LILA Craiova, Romania
Craiova, Romania Language Editor:
Alina VLĂDUŢ
Mirela Sabina RIDICHE Craiova, Romania
Craiova, Romania
Editorial Board:
Ionel ANDRIESCU Elena GAVRILESCU Gheorghe MUSTAŢĂ
Iaşi, Romania Craiova, Romania Iaşi, Romania
Gheorghe BENGA Pascal GODEFROIT Theodor NEAGU
Cluj-Napoca, Romania Bruxelles, Belgique Bucharest, Romania
Gheorghe BREZEANU Marian-Traian GOMOIU Dragoş NECULCE
Bucharest, Romania Constanţa, Romania Ottawa, Canada
Gulsah COBANOGLU Eugen GRĂDINARU Ştefan NEGREA
Istanbul, Turkey Bucharest, Romania Bucharest, Romania
Vlad CODREA Hans van ESSEN Gavril NEGREAN
Cluj-Napoca, Romania Leiden, Holland Bucharest, Romania
Doina CODREANU-BĂLCESCU Eugenia IAMANDEI Zenovia OLTEANU
Bucharest, Romania Bucharest, Romania Iași, Romania
Nicolae COMAN Stănilă IAMANDEI Mihai POPA
Cluj-Napoca, Romania Bucharest, Romania Bucharest, Romania
Gabriel CORNEANU Ivan ILIEV Ion STELEA
Craiova, Romania Sofia, Bulgaria Bucharest, Romania
Mihaela CORNEANU Sirichai KANLAYANARAT Mihai ȘARAMET
Timişoara, Romania Bangkok, Thailand Iași, Romania
Severus-Daniel COVACIU-MARCOV Andrei KISS Radu ŞUMALAN
Oradea, Romania Timişoara, Romania Timişoara, Romania
Constantin CRĂCIUN Lucian MATEI Zbysek ŠUSTEK
Bucharest, Romania Bucharest, Romania Bratislava, Slovacia
Valeriu DERJANSCHI Ciprian MÂNZU Constantin TOMA
Chişinău, Republic of Moldova Iaşi, Romania Iaşi, Romania
Alexander DERUNKOV Dan MUNTEANU Mircea VARVARA
Minsk, Belarus Cluj-Napoca, Romania Iaşi, Romania
Mădălin ENACHE Dumitru MURARIU Marton VENCZEL
Bucharest, Romania Bucharest, Romania Oradea, Romania
Journal coverage:
- Zoological Record (by Thomson Reuters, former ISI):
http://science.thomsonreuters.com/cgi-bin/jrnlst/jlresults.cgi?PC=MASTER&Word=oltenia
- CNCSIS (The National University Research Council, Romania) – „B+” category
- SCIPIO: http://scipio.ro/web/oltenia.-studii-si-comunicari.-stiintele-naturii
Available On-line:
Oltenia. Studii şi comunicări. Ştiinţele Naturii with full text articles available on-line: http://www.olteniastudii.3x.ro/
Publisher: Museum of Oltenia Craiova, Str. Popa Şapcă, No. 8 – 200 410, Craiova, Romania
Financial Support by: The Council of Dolj County, Romania
GRANULOMETRIC AND MORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS

OF RUDITIC AND ARENACEOUS CLASTS FROM RED QUATERNARY DEPOSITS
(CETATE AREA, DOLJ COUNTY, ROMANIA)
NEGREANU Ştefan
Abstract. The sampling area is located near the Dolj and Mehedinţi County border, about 10 km north of the Danube. The
Quaternary red deposits from Oltenia (SW of Romania) comprise loess, loess like deposits and gravels with red silty sand matrix.
This paper presents data concerning morphometry and granulometry of ruditic clasts by rock type and data about the granulometry of
subarenitic fraction, with a short description of the petrography of sands.
Keywords: Quaternary, loess like deposits, morphometry, granulometry, rudite, arenite.
Rezumat. Caractere morfometrice şi granulometrice pentru clastele ruditice şi arenitice din depozitele cuaternare
roşii (zona Cetate, județul Dolj, România). Zona din care au fost culese probele pentru analize se găseşte în apropierea limitei
dintre judeţele Dolj şi Mehedinţi la aproximaiv 10 km nord de Dunăre. Depozitele cuaternare, de culoare roşie din Oltenia (SV
României), cuprind depozite loessoide, loess-uri și pietrișuri cu matrice arenito-siltica. Lucrarea de faţă redă date referitoare la
caracterele morfometrice și granulometrice clastelor ruditice, luând în considerare petrografia acestora şi granulometria fracţiei
arenitice şi subarenitice, cu câteva detalii referitoare la petrografia nisipurilor.
Cuvinte cheie: Cuaternar, depozite loessoide, morfometrie, granulometrie, rudite, arenite.
INTRODUCTION
Starting from about 5.5 kilometres NW of Cetate settlement, on a sector approximately 4 kilometres long,
directed towards Obârşia de Câmp, there are to be noticed several quarries in which Pleistocene sand and gravel from
the upper terrace are exploited. According to the hydrogeological map, scale 1:100,000, sheet 40d Cujmir, they are
covered by loess-like deposits. Measured vertically, the walls of the deepest quarry display values between 25 and 30
meters. The largest part of the lithological succession is represented by alternating layers of sand and grey gravel. At
certain levels, the sands display oblique stratification and, in isolate cases, sand cementing appears, which leads to the
formation of 0.3 to 1 meters thick sandstone plates. At the upper part, on the first 1.5 – 2 meters, there are to be noticed
the soil horizons that are marked with “g” on Figure 1. Under them, there are located powdery-sandy deposits that
contributed to soil formation (“f”). Their thickness varies between 1 and 2.5 meters, sometimes even 3 meters. The
cause of this thickness variation is represented by the erosion surface, which pushed the soil horizons downwards, to the
detriment of the silty deposit.
The “e” level mainly consists of very fine and coarse gravels, the very coarse gravels accounting for the lowest
participation value. The red matrix of these gravels is made of sand and silt, with very low clay participation. The “d”
level, characterised by 1.5 – 2 meters thickness, consists of thin alternating layers of sand and coarse gravel, with
discontinuous red stripes. The “c”-type levels are made of very well separated, coarse gray sands, while the “b”-type
levels consist of coarse and very coarse gravels, mixed with gray sands. The “a” level is made of medium and fine
yellow-gray sand.
The samples were collected from the “e” level (Cetate 1 p.), from the base and from the middle segment of the
“f” level (Cetate 1 s.). Elements of gneiss, gabbros and andesites were identified in the gravel and white boulder
situated at different depths as compared to the red deposits from this point.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The researched literature indicates that, in order to obtain data related to gravel morphometry it is necessary to place
the clast with its maximum projection surface (ab plan) on a sheet of paper, to trace its outline and then to measure the
radiuses of the corners by using a template of concentric circles drawn on a transparent film (DOBKINS & FOLK 1970).
Another method implies the delineation of the contour of the clast placed on a glass surface located above a
light source situated in the focal point of a concave mirror (DUMITRIU et al, 2011).
The values of the radiuses, obtained by using the template of circles on the contour delineated by applying
Dumitriu’s method, were introduced in Excel files. In order to represent the position of the clasts in the Sneed & Folk
shape diagram, of the values corresponding to the Maximum Projection Sphericity (MPS, ΨP) and of the Oblate –
Prolate Index (OPI), there was used the Excel worksheet realised for this type of operations (GRAHAM & MIDGLEY,
2000). The granulometric measurements on the upper fine deposits and on the red matrix of the gravel were conducted
in the Sedimentology Laboratory of the University of Bucharest, by using a Partica LA-950 analyzer (Horiba). This
device can measure samples in liquid suspension within a granulometric interval of 0.01 μm – 3 mm. In order to obtain
9
NEGREANU Ştefan
a more accurate result, the measurements conducted through this method require that
the analysed sample be brought to a state of uniform suspension, following the
removal of the organic matter, of the carbonates or of other substances that lead to the
formation of mineral aggregates.
The procedure conducted for sample preparation, up to the application of the
disperser (inclusively), is the same as the one used in the X-ray diffraction analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Gravels
As it can be noticed in Table 1, of the entire volume of the gravels in the “e”
level, the very fine ones represent the highest part; together with the fine and medium
gravel, they account for about 70 percent of the total ruditic clasts.
Table 1. Volume percent values for the granulometric classes of gravel,
Cetate sampling point
Diameters 32-64 mm 16-32 mm 8-16 mm 4-8 mm 2-4 mm
Percent 11.43 22.09 15.89 14.44 36.12
The morphometric characteristics are presented only for the clasts that
display a diameter higher than 16 mm.
The morphology of the clasts takes into consideration all the surface
characteristics that are present in the case of a sedimentary particle. The processes
undergone by a clast (physical-chemical alteration under the influence of
environmental factors, erosion, and transportation type) leave their mark on them
under the form of fractures, abrasion surfaces and characteristic surface textures
(BENN & BALLANTYNE, 1993).
By studying these properties, together with the petrographic and the
granulometric analyses, important information can be obtained on the source area of
the sediments, on the transportation environment and on the sedimentation processes
(KRUMBEIN, 1941; PETTIJOHN, 1949).
The expression “particle (clast) morphology” comprises four main concepts
(FOLK, 1980), which are presented here in the descending sequence of their importance:
- shape
- contour (roundness, angularity)
- sphericity
- characteristics of the clast surface. In order to establish their value, several
parameters are to be measured; subsequently, only those parameters used in the
present study will be briefly presented.
Shape is defined as the property that addresses the relation among the
maximum, the minimum and the medium diameters of a clast (FOLK, 1980). By
considering the c/a ratio and the (a-b)/(a-c) ratio, both displaying values between 0
and 1, the Sneed & Folk ternary diagram for shape (Figure 2) separates 10 classes:
1. C-compact, 2. P-platy, 3. B-bladed, 4. E-elongated, 5. CP-compact-platy,
6. CB-compact-bladed, 7. CE-compact elongated, 8. VP-very platy, 9. VB-very
bladed and 10. VE-very elongated.
Following the examination with the mineralogy magnifying glass and based
on the observed features, the quartzite can be divided into several categories that
influence the shape.
Thus, in the case of certain quartzites, there can be seen quartz crystals with
sutural contacts, being probably formed through the metamorphosis of sedimentary
rocks. These are usually projected in the lamellar shape field.
In the same field, there are also situated quartzites that display lens like areas
(similar to feldspars porphyroclasts in augen gneisses), indicating the deformation
caused by a tectonic action; they could originate in gneiss or mica-schists. Figure 1. Lithological
The white, transparent, gray quartzites, or those consisting of white, gray or succession in the sand and
transparent areas, which pass from one to another gradually, without a clear limit, can be gravel quarries within the Cetate
meta-quartzites or they could even be, in fact, quartz deposed in cracks (vein quartz) or area and approximate location
derived from the weathering of granites with pegmatitic or porphyric structure. of the sampling site in Romania;
explanation of the notes in text.
10
Table 2. Proportion of shape classes for gravel, according to petrography, Cetate sampling point.
Shape classes, after Sneed and Folk
rock
C CP CB CE P B E VP VB VE
quartzite 0.8 3.2 8 5 14.3 27.8 15.9 5.6 16.7 3.2

sandstone 0 6.7 0 0 0 33.3 20 13.3 26.7 0
silicolite 8.3 0 8.3 0 8.3 8.3 25 0 33.3 8.3
These are often projected in the fields of the compact shape.

The influence of petrography on shape is easily seen on
sandstone, where, unlike in the case of quartzite, there are present
important parts of the clasts with very bladed and/or elongated shapes. The
bladed, elongated and very elongated shapes are the most common in the
case of sandstone.
In the case of the silicolite found at Cetate, the highest proportion
is accounted for by clasts with very bladed shape. As compared with other
sampling points, at Cetate, the platy and the very bladed clasts account for the
highest proportion.
OPI
In order to establish if the intermediary axis (b) is closer, in value,
to the maximum (a) or to the minimum (c) one, there was introduced a
new index, marked OPI - oblate prolate index (Dobkins & Folk, 1970),
which supplies more information on the shape of the particles
The following formula was used in order to compute OPI:
Figure 2. The Sneed & Folk ternary
OPI=10[(a-b)/(a-c)-0.5] :(c/a), equation (1) diagram for clast shape (GRAHAM &
MIDGLEY, 2000)
By replacing the letters that symbolise the three axes with values
corresponding to the clasts characterised by perfect blade ratio (i.e. the
intermediary axis is placed, in value, at equal distance from the maximum and from the minimum axes, b=c+(a-b)/2),
the 0 value is obtained for OPI (PYÖKÄRI, 1980).
The more accentuated the discoidal (i.e. oblate) character of the clasts, the lower will be the OPI negative
values; when the clasts are closer to the elongated cylindrical shape (i.e. prolate), the OPI values will be positive and
increasing (DOBKINS & FOLK 1970).
The analysis of Figure 3 and Table 3 shows the concentration of the OPI values in the interval comprised
between the isolines -5 and 5 (55%) in the case of quartzite, while in the case of sandstone, only three clasts are
excepted from the same interval.
Figure 3. Projections of the results of the measurements in the shape and OPI values fields:
quartzite (left) and sandstone (right), in the upper gravels from Cetate.
11
NEGREANU Ştefan
Table 3. Proportions of the OPI values, on rock type, in the case of the >16 mm gravel, Cetate area.
classes
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
rock type
quartzite 0.8 4 16 20.8 0 34.4 22.4 0.8 0.8
sandstone 4.7 0 23.8 23.8 0 23.8 14.3 9.5 0
silicolite 0 0 25 0 0 41.66 33.33 0 0
The contour (roundness, angularity) of the clast renders, by means of measured values or through visual
estimation, the extent to which the respective clast is characterised by sharp or rounded corners.
The chosen method for rendering the roundness of the particles measured in the present paper is that
introduced by WADDELL in 1932, i.e. the Waddell roundness, marked RW. The values corresponding the Waddell
roundness (RW) are obtained by dividing the sum of the radiuses of the circles that can be inscribed into the corners (r),
to the result of the multiplication between the total number of the corners (N) and the radius of the biggest circle that
can be inscribed to the measured clast (equation 2).
At Cetate, the silicolite characterised by sub-rounded and rounded contour display RW values almost entirely
comprised in the 0.35 - 0.6 interval, while in the case of sandstone, the value concentration interval is 0.4-0.8, and that
characteristic to quartzite is 0.4 - 0.7. Using the roundness classes associated to different Rw values by Krumbein, we have
established that most of the clasts are characterised by rounded and sub-rounded contour (Table 4).
r
RW = , equation (2)
NR
Table 4. Proportions of Wadell roundness classes, on rock type, Cetate sampling point.
very sub- sub- well-

rock angular rounded
angular angular rounded rounded
quartzite 0 0 8.06 33.06 47.58 11.29

sandstone 0 0 5.88 11.76 41.17 41.17
silicolite 0 0 10 40 50 0
The sphericity of a particle refers to the degree to which the shape of that particle is similar to a sphere; in
other words, it expresses the closeness in value of the three diameters a, b, c (FOLK, 1980).
Marked ΨP, the maximum projection sphericity is defined as the ratio between the maximum projection area
of a sphere that is equal in volume with the particle under study and the maximum projection area of the particle itself
(SNEED & FOLK, 1958).
Another notation for ΨP is MPS, the abbreviated form for Maximum Projection Sphericity.
The computation formula for ΨP is:
c2
ΨP= 3 , equation (3)
ab
At Cetate, ΨP displays values comprised between 0.35 and 0.87, most of them being concentrated in the 0.5-0.7
interval. The ΨP values for sandstone are concentrated in the 0.4-0.75 interval and for quartzite in the 0.4-0.8 interval, while
the silicolite sampled at Cetate display ΨP values between 0.4 and 0.9, their concentration interval being 0.4-0.6.
DOBKINS & FOLK (1970), show that in the case of the basalt gravel, as well as in that of the quartz gravel,
the 0.66 MPS value separates the littoral environment from the fluvial one. By projecting the MPS and OPI values on
the same graph, the aforementioned authors separate the fluvial depositional environment from the littoral one. Widera
2010, quoting STRATEN (1974) and GALE (1990), also includes in the category of gravels deposed in littoral
environment those that display MPS values comprised between 0.64 and 0.53, irrespective of their OPI value.
By applying the DOBKINS & FOLK method for the Cetate sampled quartzites, it can be noticed (Figure 4) the
almost equal distribution of the clasts theoretically formed in the fluvial environment (40) and in the littoral
environment (46). If the observations of Straten and Gale are also taken into consideration, another 23 clasts can be
regarded as being formed in the littoral environment, reaching, thus, a total of 69 clasts.
12
Ψρ
1
river
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
beach
quartzite
0
O PI
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Figure 4. Quartzite clasts, projected by taking into consideration MPS (vertical) and OPI
(horizontal). In blue: the MPS value of 0.65 (horizontal) and the OPI value of -1.5 (vertical)
Gravel petrography
Among the magmatic rocks, only one altered andesite clast was identified in all the ruditic clasts analysed; the
dimensions of the a/b/c axes were 22/20/15.
The metamorphic rocks through quartzite represent the main rock type encountered. The quartzites account for
a participation of more than 75 percent in the total gravel volume.
There was also identified a gneiss clast, but, as in the case of the andesite, it was much altered.
The sedimentary rocks hold a participation of about 23 percent in the total number of clasts; more precisely,
the sandstone and the micro-conglomerates represent 13.77 percent, while the silicolite account for 8.98 percent.
Clasts identified as sedimentary rocks:
- quartzitic sandstone (31/28/18); -gray-green sandstone (21/14/9); -quartzitic sandstone (28/12/11); -dark
quartzitic sandstone, the quartz(ite) clasts display smoky-gray colour (20/16/6); yellow quartzitic sandstone with
transparent quartz clasts (27/20/3); white quartzitic sandstone (20/10/9); gray sandstone made of coarse sand ~10
percent, the rest being represented by medium sand, (18/10/4); -gray-blackish fine sandstone (21/14/3); medium to fine
gray quartzitic sandstone (20/10/7); fine sandstone with white veins (20/13/3); medium gray quartzitic sandstone
(20/15/5); yellow fine sandstone (17/13/5); medium yellowy sandstone (27/19/7); medium-coarse light-grey sandstone
(21/13/4).
-micro-conglomerate with arenaceous yellow-reddish matrix and quartzite lithoclasts of 3 – 8 mm (25/15/3);
micro-conglomerate with quartzite lithoclasts of 3 – 8 mm (~25 percent) and arenaceous matrix made up of arenite with
a fine black matter, the latter representing about 40 percent of the total (25/18/8); micro-conglomerate with very coarse
sandstone matrix and elements of very fine gravel (~5 percent), (22/15/12).
-reddish silicolite (liver colour) (25/20/15); reddish silicolite with fine veins (24/17/5); -yellow silicolite
(28/13/6); finely veined, reddish silicolite (19/16/8); brown silicolite with circular formations, 20 mm (20/14/8); reddish
silicolite (23/11/7); yellow-brown silicolite (19/14/5); veined silicolite (22/14/7).
In all presented cases of silicolite, there are to be noticed fine circular or slightly ellipsoidal particles that
resemble fine, rounded sand. The highest proportion accounted for by such formations, observed with the mineralogical
magnifying glass (16x), was around 10 - 15 percent.
The circular formations within the thin sections observed at microscope proved to be tests of radiolarians.
Upper fine deposits and the red matrix of the sand

There was followed the proportion of the granulometric intervals corresponding to the lutites (<4μm), the very
fine (4-8 μm), fine (8-16 μm), medium (16-32 μm) and coarse (32-64) silt, the very fine (63-125 μm), fine (125-250
μm), medium (250-500 μm), coarse and very coarse (500 μm-2 mm) sand.
The granulometry measurements resulted, in average, in the values presented in Table 5.
By projecting these values in the Shepard granulometric diagram (Shepard 1954), which graphs the
proportions of sand, clay and silt, these upper red deposits can be identified as sandy silts and the matrix of the gravels
can be identified as silty sands.
In order to establish the mineralogical composition of the upper fine deposits, there were realised thin sections
on samples taken from these deposits.
Because of the friability of the rock, the sections could not be grind up to the optimal thickness for a
microscope analysis.
13
NEGREANU Ştefan
Nevertheless, on several sections, it was possible to identify the dominant presence of the quartz and,
secondarily, of the feldspar and the muscovite. The very high proportion of the quartz can be observed on the
microscope photos presented in Fig. 6.
Table 5. Percentage of loess deposits and of the matrix of the associated ruditic deposits, within the lutite – coarse sand interval (for
the projection of the values on Shepard’s diagram, see Figure 6.1)
granulometry lutite very fine fine silt medium coarse silt very fine fine sand medium coarse
silt silt sand sand sand
sampling point
3 Cetate p matrix 2.93 10.80 14.86 5.24 2.94 5.41 5.48 18.60 33.72
4 Cetate s. loess 8.25 12.38 17.14 9.35 7.17 14.67 15.21 3.60 12.24
At Cetate sampling point, around the clasts in the 35

upper fine deposits, there are to be noticed calcite outer
30
covers, this representing a characteristic of the loess
deposits (SMALLEY et al., 2011). However, the 25
granulometry of these deposits is different from what the 20

same author considers to be characteristic of loess. Thus, 15
the main granulometric fraction in the typical loess should
10
be the fine, medium and coarse silt (10 to 50 microns in
diameter), accounting for a participation of 40-70 percent. 5
At Cetate, this granulometric interval has a participation of 0
about 30 percent and the sand surpasses the maximum limit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
of 25 percent, its presence accounting for more than 45
Figure 5. Sand, silt and clay percent in gravel matrix-
percent (Fig. 5). continuous line and in fine red upper deposits-dashed line. 1.
In connection to the mineralogy, there is also to be clay; 2. vf silt; 3. f silt; 4. m silt; 5. c silt; 6. vf sand ; 7. f. sand;
mentioned the presence of certain black particles, with 8. m. sand; 9. c. sand (f-fine, m-medium, c-coarse, vf-very fine)
dimensions characteristic to the medium to fine sand, which
are present both in the red gravel matrix, as well as in the
loess deposits. The black colour could originate in the organic matter or in the manganese oxides and hydroxides, which
cover the arenaceous clasts.
Figure 6. Thin sections in the upper fine deposits from Cetate. Around the particles, there are to be noticed calcite outer
covers. Left with parallel nicols, right with crossed nicols; Q-quartz, Qit-quartzite lithoclast, M-muscovite.
CONCLUSIONS
From the petrographic viewpoint, the level of gravels generally included by their diameters in the very fine to
medium classes, which is located at Cetate, immediately under the red sandy silt level, is mainly composed of quartzites
(more than 75 percent); the next petrographic category is represented by sedimentary rocks, which account for
approximately 23 percent. The identified sedimentary rocks were sandstone, micro-conglomerates and silicolite
(radiolarite).
The quartzites mainly display B shape, but there also appear in approximately equal proportions quartzites of P
and E forms. The OPI values for quartzites that are comprised between 5 and -5 account for 55 percent. At Cetate, the
sandstone is characterised by ΨP values that are concentrated in the 0.4 - 0.75 interval, while the values for the quartzites
14
range between 0.4 and 0.8 and the silicolite display ΨP values between 0.4 and 0.9, the interval of concentration being
0.4 - 0.6.
The projection of the ΨP and OPI values on the same graph reveals the predominance of the gravels from the
littoral domain, 69, as compared to those from the fluvial domain, 40. This is possible following the remoulding of
certain initially littoral deposits that were subsequently mingled with fluvial deposits.
The upper sandy silts, located above the gravels, are composed of quartzite lithoclasts, fragments of quartz,
feldspar, calcite and, possibly, garnet. Calcite outer covers are formed around the sandy and silty particles. Although
this feature is also met in the case of loess, it is not enough to characterize them as such, because of the almost double
proportion of sand as compared to the maximum noticed in loess. This last feature justifies the use of the term loess-like
in the characterization of these deposits.
REFERENCES
BARNHISEL R. I. & BERTSCH P. M. 1989. Chlorites and hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite and smectite. In J. B.
Dixon & S. B. Weed (Eds.) Minerals in soil environments. 2nd ed. SSSA, Madison. Wisconsin: 729-788.
BENN D. I. & BALLANTYNE C. K. 1993. The description and representation of particle shape. Earth Surface
Processes and Landforms. 18: 665-672.
CARVER R. E. 1971. Procedures in sedimentary petrology. Wiley Interscience. New York. 653 pp.
DOBKINS J. E., FOLK R. L. 1970. Shape development on Tahiti-Nui. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology. 40: 1167-
1203.
DUMITRIU D., NICULITA M., CONDORACHI D. 2011. Downstream Variation in the Pebble Morphometry of the
Trotuş River, Eastern Carpathians (Romania). Forum geografic. Studii şi cercetări de geografie şi protecţia
mediului. 10(1): 78-90.
FOLK R. L., 1980. Petrology of sedimentary rocks. Hemphill Publishing Company. Austin. Texas: 183 pp.
GRAHAM D. J. & MIDGLEY N. G. 2000. Graphical representation of particle shape using triangular diagrams: an
Excel spreadsheet method. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 25(13): 1473-1477.
GHENEA C. & GHENEA ANA. 1981. România. Harta hidrogeologică scara 1:100 000, foaia 40d Cujmir. Institutul
de Geologie şi Geofizică. București.
KRUMBEIN W. C. 1941. The effects of abrasion on the size, shape, and roundness of rock fragments. Journal of
Geology: 482–520.
MAURI PYÖKÄRI. 1980. Shape development of trondhjemite pebbles and cobbles on shores in the southwestern
Finnish Archipelago. Géographie physique et Quaternaire. 34(3): 335-350.
PETTIJOHN F. J. 1949. Sedimentary rocks. Harper & Brothers. New York: 526 pp.
SHEPARD F. P. 1954. Nomenclature based on sand silt clay ratios. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology. 24:151-158.
SMALLEY I. J., MARKOVIC S. B., SVIRCEV Z. 2011. Loess is [almost totally formed by] the accumulation of dust.
Quaternary International. 240: 4-11.
SNEED E.D., FOLK, R.L., 1958. Pebbles in the lower Colorado River, Texas, study in particle morfogenesis. Journal
of Geology. 66(2): 114-150.
WADDELL H. 1932. Volume, shape, roundness of rock particles. Journal of Geology. 40: 443-451.
WIDERA M. 2010 The morphology of fossil pebbles as a tool for determining their transport processes (Kozmin South,
lignite open cast pit, Central Poland). Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae. 80: 315–325.
Negreanu Ştefan
University of Craiova, Department of Geography
E-mail: giurgiustefan@yahoo.com
Received: March 11, 2015

Accepted: August 20, 2015
15
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

OF BURRELI DEPRESSION IN ALBANIDS
SHENJATARI Agim, PRIFTI Irakli, JAURRI Zeqir
Abstract. Burreli Depression is part of the system of intermountain depressions in the Mirdita zone. This extends north-westwards
and originated in the Tortonian as a large intermontane lake basin. It stretches from Klosi town in the south to beyond Rresheni
town in the north and structurally is a syncline-like structure with gently dipping flanks. Generally, the molasse section of Burreli
Depression is 750 to 1150 m thick. The lithofacies are of lagoonal-lacustrine type. Based on the lithological facies and on the faunal
data, the molasse section of Burreli Depression is divided into two formations, both of Tortonian age. Among macrofauna fossils
there have been identified bivalves (Isocardia, Psilunio) and gastropods (Melanopsis, Bythinela, Mellania). According to the
lithological and faunal data, an alternation of lacustrine and colluvial environments has been concluded.
Keywords: Burreli Depression, Tortonian, molasse sedimentation, lithostratigraphy.
Abstract. Structura geologică şi biostratigrafia Depresiunii Burreli în Albanide. Depresiunea Burreli face parte din
sistemul intramontan de depresiuni din zona Mirdita. Aceasta se extinde spre nord-vest şi îşi are originea în Tortonian, când a
funcționat ca un bazin lacustru intramontan. Se extinde de la Klosi în sud până dincolo de oraşul Rresheni în nord şi, din punct de
vedere structural, este un sinclinal cu flancuri care înclină uşor. În general, secţiunea de molasă a Depresiunii Burreli are grosimi
cuprinse între 750 şi 1150 m. Litofaciesurile sunt de tip lagunar-lacustru. Pe baza faciesurilor litologice şi a datelor faunistice,
secţiunea de molasă a Depresiunii Burreli este împărţită în două formaţiuni, ambele de vârstă tortoniană. Între macrofosile au fost
identificate bivalve (Isocardia, Psilunio) şi gasteropode (Melanopsis, Bythinela, Mellania). Conform datelor litologice şi faunistice,
rezultă o alternanţă a mediilor lacustre şi coluviale.
Cuvinte cheie: Depresiunea Burreli, Tortonian, sedimentare de molasă, litostratigrafie.
INTRODUCTION
Burreli Depression is part of the intermountain depressions system in the Mirdita zone. Terrigenous deposits
like sandstones, argillites, clays, siltstones, sandstones, conglomerates, etc. are very developed (Figs. 1; 2).
According to their lithofacial data, the colour, the presence of horizons rich in macrofauna, the molasse
deposits of Burreli Depression are divided into two formations: “Gurra e Vogël-Rripë” (GVR) and “Burreli”
formations. GVR Formation extends over eroded volcanic rocks, while Burreli Formation is the youngest and lies upon
GVR Formation.
Based on the faunal data, GVR Formation is assigned to the Early Tortonian, while Burreli Formation to the
Late Tortonian. This dating is due to the existence of a horizon rich in macrofauna at the top of GVR Formation;
Burreli Formation, which lies immediately above the horizon rich in macrofauna, starts with brown gravel stones that
informally serves as the base of the Later Tortonian (SHENJATARI & JAURRI, 2000).
Based on the lithological and macrofauna data, also on the microscopic study of thin sections of different
lithofacies, the description of the two formations is given below in the paper.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The geological study is based on geological field surveys (geological surveying in standard scale 1: 25,000)
and the taxonomic identification of macrofossils. These determinations were carried out by Pashko P. (retired) and
Marku D. ( both of Institute of Geological Research, Tirana).
LITHOLOGICAL DATA
1. Gurra e Vogël-Rripë (GVR) Formation (Early Tortonian-N₁³t(1)).

It is characterized by a relatively vast extension and accentuated lithological changes. It is characteristic for the
lowest levels of Burreli Depression, having its full development in GVR region (Photo 1).
Three deposit types are part of this formation:
1.1. Breccia-conglomerate deposits;
1.2. Clay deposits;
1.3. Sandstone-Silstones-Conglomerate deposits.
1.1. Breccia-Conglomerate deposits. They lay transgressively over older formations of the basement and are
characterized by an accentuated change of their thickness. They are developed mainly in the northeastern part of the
depression, where they reach a thickness of 300 m, while toward the central and southern part they are reduced into a
narrow band with a thickness of 15-20 m.
16
SHENJATARI Agim PRIFTI Irakli JAURRI Zeqir
The breccia-conglomerate deposits in general are well cemented, have a mottled, light reddish colour that is
related to the presence of iron oxides and hydroxides (Photo 4).
The composition of the breccia-conglomerate deposits depends on the surrounding source rocks of the
depression. They are constituted of pebbles having different sizes, among which the size 5x10 cm is predominating, but
in the region Dukagjin-Shlli the sizes reach up 15x20 cm. In general, well-rounded quartz pebbles predominate, being
white, honey-like and dark grey in colour. Other pebbles are ultrabasic, basic, siliceous and, in smaller volume,
carbonate rocks (SHENJATARI & JAURRI, 2000).
1.2. Clayey deposits. Clayey deposits have a considerable extent; approximately, in entire basal part of the
Burreli Depression, they are accompanied by breccia conglomerate deposits. Its presence as an independent unit is
based mostly on the lithological features. It must be pointed out that, in some cases, this unit lies directly on the older
deposits, replacing the conglomerates. On the eastern flank of the Burreli Depression, in the contact with the ophiolitic
rocks, the clayey deposits show the following structural elements: dipping azimuth 230-260º and dipping angle 18-20º.
Its thickness varies from 4-5 m to 12 m. On the western flank of the syncline, their attitudes are: dipping azimuth 80-
100º and dipping angle 45-50º; thickness 25-50 m with ultrabasic breccia conglomerate intercalation (Photo 1).
In the periphery of the basin, we distinguish clays in the northern and central part and argillites in the southern part.
Clayey formation contains clay granules with dimensions below 0.01mm. Generally, the clays are bedded, and
they rarely form lens or bending. By microscopic studying, clay is presented as matrix. A distinct characteristic is the
presence of charophyta algae in the clayey groundmass in such quantity that one may speak of charophytic clays, which
denotes a lacustrine environment with high energy. Parts of the central canal of the charophyta algae are filled with
clayey material with hematite pigments.
The clastic material of the clays is constituted mostly by quartz, feldspar, micas and fragments from magmatic
rocks; quite often, chrome-spinel bearing rocks are present.
Dispersed organic matter, as well as organic and vegetal remains, is present also in the clayey deposits.
1.3. Sand-silt–conglomerate deposits. It has a relatively large extension and lies conformably over the clayey
and breccia-conglomerate deposits, at times with sharp or gradual transition, with reciprocal intercalations. A
characteristic feature of these deposits is the rhythmic deposition (Photo 2), which is an expression of independent
processes of sediment accumulation and their stratification, the distribution of canal network of the rivers, the
oscillation of the basin level, climatic pulsations, etc.
It must be pointed out that in the sandstones and siltstones, in particular in the last ones, macrofauna is present,
which in one case constitutes a reach horizon, 1.5-2m thick; although sometimes, it is reduced in lens or pockets, in
general, it preserves its thickness over wide surfaces. In the mineral constitution of the sandstones, we mention quartz,
feldspar and rocky fragments up to 0.01, 0.5 and 1.5mm, rarely more; they are oligomictic and polymictic; the cement
material is clayey, siliceous and carbonate; it often contains iron hydroxides.
Generally, siltstones are of the type of clayey siltstones. At times they are rich in siliciclastic material,
particularly quartz and feldspar, which at times reaches 30-40% of the general groundmass. From the microscopic study
it results that siltstones are constituted by fine grained material of the size 0.02-0.04mm, not perfectly rounded,
polymictic, at times with clasts 0.05-0.06mm. Clayey fraction are of montmorillonit type having scaly forms similar
with that of micas, and also a small percentage of chloritic material. Another characteristic is that in the groundmass
there are present charophyta algae, which are very compressed; some alga stalks are replaced by micro quartz. The
thickness of this formation reaches up to 850 m (SHENJATARI & JAURRI, 2000).
2. Burreli Formation (Late Tortonian-N₁³t(2)).

It has a considerable extension, in particular in the northern part of the Burreli Depression. It is present on the
west of the Burreli town, as well as at Baz, at Burgajet, Rremull and more in the north of Mirëdita. Molasse deposits of
the Burreli Formation lies on the sandstone-aleurite and conglomerate of GVR Formation. Based on the lithological
data, the respective deposits are divided into two groups:
2.1- Gravel-clay-conglomerates deposits;
2.2- Ultrabasic-basic cobble deposits.
2.1. Gravel-clayey conglomerate deposits. It has a considerable extension in the northern part of the Burreli
Depression and a less one in the southern part. They are clearly distinguished in the field by the light brown colour of
the gravels. In general, the Late Tortonian beds have a very rough surface contrasting with the underlying sky-blue
Early Tortonian siltstones. The conglomerates beds show a varying thickness of 4-6 m. Sandstones are represented by
more regular beds alternating with clay layers. Sandstone thickness varies from 1.5 to 4-6m.
Clays have a dark grey and homogeneous colour. In these deposits, there have been found concentrations of
macrofauna, which certify very well the Tortonian age.
2.2. Ultrabasic-basic cobble deposits. They characterize the uppermost part of the Tortonian over the eastern flank
and the southern part of the Burreli Depression. The weathering crust of the ultrabasic cobbles makes it easy distinguishable
during the field survey. The respective thickness varies from 6-10m up to 50-60m. It lies directly over the older deposits of
GRV Formation. The cobble deposits are related with alluvial-colluvial continental environment (Photo 3).
17
In the composition of these deposits take part coarse grained, cobble deposits transported by potent water
currents, with concentration in those parts where the topography was adequate. Sediment transportation was occurring
by the most highly kinetic energy for mechanic sedimentation accompanying, strong underwater impulses.
19004’ 20000’ 20009’

410 410
48’ N 48’
410 410
40’ 40’
3
N1 t (BF)
Photo 3
3
N1 t (GVR F)
о Photo1; 2
Photo 4 410
о 30’
410 410
28’ 0 28’
19 04’ 20000’ 20009’
Legend
N13t (BF) Molasse deposits
J3 Late Jurassic, Ophitic breccia
(Burreli Formation) Geological boundary
3
N1 t (GVR) Molasse deposits
γJ2 Jurassic volcanic rocks Base of Burreli Basin
(GVR Formation)
Pg1-2 Limestone and flysch
ϭJ2 Middle Jurassic, dunite Fault
Cr1-2 Cretaceous neritic sediment
ƛJ2 Middle Jurassic, harzburgite Overthrust
T3 –J1 Limestone
Figure1. Geological map of the Burreli Depression, 1/200,000 (VRANAJ et al., 2002).
18
Age
Ultrabasic boulder deposits.
Clay, silt and sandy layers
LATE TORTONIAN (N13t(2)
Burreli Formation
Breccia and conglomerate, yellow
200-300m
layers to light brown colour.
Fossil horizons
Clay layers
Siltstone layers
Gure e Vogel Ripe (GVR) Formation
EARLY TORTONIAN (N13t(1)
MIOCENE
Coal-bearing horizon
Sandstone and conglomerate,

subordinately gravel.
550-850m
Fossil horizons
Breccia-Conglomerate deposits
Ophiolitic complex and

T-J1-2
carbonate framework
Figure 2. Lithological column of the Burreli Depression.
19
Sandy-clay sediments serve as cement for gravels. Gravels dimensions vary from bigger gravel with
dimensions of 15x25cm to smaller gravel with dimensions of 2x3cm (Fig. 2). The thickness of the formation is up to
250 m (SHENJATARI & JAURRI, 2000).
AGE OF THE DEPOSITS IN BURRELI DEPRESSION
The previous authors that worked on the molasse deposits of the Burreli Depression have assigned them
different ages. Thus, authors of “Geological map of Albania” have considered them as being Pliocene (VRANAJ & al,
2002). LIKO (1960), who studied the north-western part of Burreli Depression - Skanderbeg Mountain and its
periphery, has considered them of Tortonian age (SHENJATARI & JAURRI, 2000).
Taking into account the above mentioned contradictions, we have paid special attention to collect fossils
(Photo 5). On the basis of the fossil study we may conclude as follows:
a. The flora and fauna distribution is more concentrated on the western flank of the depression; among the
plants, the caduceus trees dominate; the leaves are stamped in the siltite deposits. In general, carbonized twigs and
trunks are met; sometimes, they form authentic coal horizons along the periphery of the western depression flank.
b. The high distribution of the flora remains on the western flank, by its pigment, determined the green to dark
grey colour of the siltstones and clayey sandstones.
c. It is worth to point out the relation of the macrofauna association with the siltite deposits, in particular on
their top, as well as at the floor of the gravel sandstones. On the basis of some features, the fauna association related to
sandstones and conglomerates is considered as reworked.
d. In thin sections, it was observed the presence of Charophyta algae and a total missing of microfauna so
important for dating and biostratigraphical correlations. The presence of Charophyta denotes a shallow fresh-water
lacustrine environment.
From the study of macrofossils we can conclude that the fossil assemblage is indicative of brackish-water
deposits. Fauna is represented by a very small number of fossil genera. There is the general association of Isocardia
cor, Psilunio cf. otavus, P. trapesoidalis, P. odettus, Psilunio sp.; Melanopsis bouei rarispina, M. bouei trispina,
Bythinella cf. vitrellaeformis, Mellania escheri (PASHKO, 1968).
The middle and upper parts of the molasse section in the Burreli Depression yield Melanopsis bouei trispina,
Melanopsis bouei rarispina as well as Psilunia odettus and Psilunia trapesoidalis, etc., a number of these occurring also
in the Tortonian deposits of the Adriatic Basin. Consequently, the Burreli Depression molasse is assumed to be
Tortonian in age (MEÇO & ALAJ, 2000).
As it is evident, this association is characterized by two bivalve genera (Isocardia, Psilunio) and three
gastropods (Mellania, Melanopsis, Psilunio), both groups including nine species (Photos 5; 6).
As regards the age assignment, there are the following arguments:
1. The association Mellania - Mellanopsis - Psilunio is very similar to mollusc association of the Pannonian of
the Paratethys. According to the most recent correlation, the main part of the Pannonian is part of the Tortonian.
2. According to the data collected from the eastern Adriatic Basin, the association of Mellania - Melanopsis -
robust Unionids, which is very approximate to our association, is dated as Tortonian.
3. It is a well-known fact that in Manza coal bearing deposits (Durrës region), in Kërrabë (Tirana) and in Lushnje
region, Melanopsis bouei rarispina together with M. bouei trispina date the Tortonian age (GURI S., et al. 2002).
On the basis of the above mentioned arguments we are of the opinion that our fossil assemblage dates the
Tortonian age.
The high number of specimens, their relatively big size, species impoverishment, the relatively robust shells,
together with the characteristic association of Mellania-Melanopsis-Psilunio, proves delta brackish waters of a depth
between low and high tides, even below the low tide (10-20m). On the basis of all the above mentioned data, the age of
Burreli Depression sediments is no older then the Early Tortonian and no younger than the Late Tortonian.
SHORT DATA ABOUT GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
Sedimentary formations represented by clays, sandstones and conglomerates alternations, constitute the
principal lithological bulk of the Burreli Depression. The deposits are represented by undisturbed beds with
transgressive contacts over older deposits, namely of Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous ages. At times, depending on the
nature of the palaeotopographic features of underlying rocks, the contacts are of overlap type or sharp ones (Photo 6). It
is worth mentioning that the dipping angle of the Miocene deposits near the contact varies from 15-20ᴼ to 40-50º.
From the structural point of view, the terrigenous deposits of the depression form an asymmetric syncline, with
specific features in different sectors. Thus, on the eastern flak, they are in transgressive contact over ultrabasic rocks of
Bulqiza Massif, presents overlapped and uniform contact from the north to south, dipping westwards at an angle of 20-25º.
The western flank presents a different situation, as there are overlapped or sharp contacts, with dipping angles
of 20-25º, in particular cases up to 85-88ᴼ. The axis of the Burreli Depression follows the valley of the Mati River, with
a general north-south trend, but in the central and northern part of the depression it deviates westwards.
20
CONCLUSIONS
The studied region is part of the intermountain depression system with considerable development of
terrigenous sediments such as conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones, clays. The total thickness is from 750 to 1150 m.
On the basis of the lithological and facial data, the molasse deposits of the Burreli Depression are divided into
two formations: Gurra e Vogël - Rripë (GVR) Formation, Early Tortonian, and Burreli Formation, Late Tortonian.
The sediment infill of Burreli Depression lies transgressively, with overlapped or sharp contact, over the older
formations, always depending on the palaeotopography of the underlying rocks.
The two formations that constitute Burreli Depression build an asymmetric syncline like structure with
pericline closures toward south and north-northeast.
The age of the molasse deposits of the Burreli Depression is no older than the Early Tortonian and no younger
than the Late Tortonian.
REFERENCES
LIKO V. 1960. Ndërtimi gjeologjik dhe mineralet e dobishme te rajonit te maleve te Skënderbeut dhe periferisë se tije.
“Geological Setting and minerals of Skanderbeg region and the periphery of his own”. Scientific report
(unpublished). Archive of Albanian Geological Survey. Tiranë: 173 pp, 35 figures, 3 table.
PASHKO P. 1968. Molusqet e suitës se Burrelit “Molluscs of Burreli Formation”. Buletini i Shkencave Gjeologjike. 73-75.
MEÇO S. & ALAJ S. 2000. Geology of Albania. Gebruder Bornntraeger. Berlin, Stuttgart. 246 pp.
GURI S. , BONJAKU S., MUSKA K., RAKIPI N., MEÇAJ B., PRILLO S., TRIFONI E., RRAPAJ D. 2002. Studimi
tërësor i ultësirës pranë Adriatike përfshirë pjesën detare të saj deri tek mesorja e detit Adriatik “Thorough
study of Adriatic Depression including its maritime area to the medial its Adriatic sea”. Scientific report
(unpublished). Archive of “National Agency of Natural Resources”. Fer: 180 pp, 80 figures, 14 photos, 82
tables, 13 grafics.
SHENJATARI A. & JAURI Z. 2000. Kerkim- vleresimi ne shkallen 1:25 000 i ultesires se Burrelit dhe periferise se
saje”Search and evaluation at scale 1: 25,000 of Burreli basin and its periphery”. Scientific report
(unpublished). Archive of Albanian Geological Survey. Tiranë: 125 pp, 27 figures, 2 table.
VRANAJ A., MELO V., KODRA A., BAKALLI F., MEÇO S. 2002. Gjeologjia e Shqiperise, Stratigrafia,
Magmatizmi,Metamorfizmi, Tektonika dhe Evolucioni Paleogjeografik dhe Gjeodinamik. Archive of National
Agency of Natural Resources. Fier: 475 pp, 4 outside text graphics.
Agim Shenjatari, Zeqir Jaurri

Albanian Geological Survey
Department of Geology
Ruga e Kavajes, nr.153, Tiranë, Republic of Albania
E-mail: shenjatari@yahoo.com
Irakli Prifti
Polytechnic University of Albania
Faculty of Geology and Mining, Department of Scientific Earth
Rruga e Elbasanit, Tiranë, Republic of Albania
E-mail: irakliprifti@yahoo.com
Accepted: July 22, 2015
21
PLATE I
Sandstone–conglomerate horizon
Clayey deposits
Photo 1. Formation of “Gurra e Vogël - Rripa”, Gurra e Vogël village.
Sand-aleurite–conglomerate deposits
Clayey deposits
Photo 2. Formation of “Gurra e Vogël - Rripa”, Gurra e Vogël village.
Ultrabasic-basic cobble deposits
Gravel-clayey conglomerate deposits
Photo 3. Burreli Formation (N₁³t (2)). Ultrabasic-basic cobble deposits, northern part of the Burreli town.
22
PLATE II
Carbonate basement (T3-J1 )
Pebbles of Burreli Depression

Transgression base
Photo 4. Transgression base of the Burreli Depression in the southern part.
Photo 5. Psilunio trapesoidalis (1). Melanopsis bouei (8 specimens).
23
PLATE III
2
1
Photo 6. Melanopsis bouei rarispina, 27 specimens; Bythinella cf. vitrellaeformis, (1); Psilunio cf. otavus, (2).
24
NEW CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE CIOCADIA MIDDLE MIOCENE FLORA

(PART FOUR)
PARASCHIV Valentin
Abstract. Some taxa from the middle Miocene Ciocadia flora of the Oltenia province, Romania, including leaves and fruits, have
been systematically described in detail, or re-evaluated and updated in order to include modern taxonomic revisions on three
characteristic families, Betulaceae, Juglandaceae and Fabaceae. New leaf macroremains of Carpinus grandis Unger sensu Heer,
Engelhardia orsbergensis (Wessel & Weber) Jähnichen, Mai & Walther and Podocarpium podocarpum (Al. Braun in Buckland)
Herendeen, winged fruits of Carpinus betulus Linnaeus fossilis Engelhardt & Kinkelin, Carpinus neilreichii Kováts, Engelhardia
macroptera (Brongniart) Unger, and pods of Leguminocarpum regeli (Heer) Dotzler, are recorded and figured, and careful analytical
discussion has been made on the paleoecology, phytostratigraphy and occurrence in Romania.
Keywords: National Museum of Geology (NMG), plant megafossils, winged disseminules, venation patterns, insect damage types (DTs).
Rezumat. Noi contribuții la flora Miocenului mediu de la Ciocadia (partea a patra). Prezenta lucrare științifică
însumează studii sistematice asupra câtorva taxoni fosili din flora Miocenului mediu de la Ciocadia, situată în nordul Olteniei,
România. Astfel, au fost realizate descrieri detaliate dar și revizuiri sau reevaluări moderne ale unor specii de frunze și fructe fosile
emblematice pentru familiile Betulaceae, Juglandaceae și Fabaceae. Taxonii cercetați sunt Carpinus grandis Unger sensu Heer,
Engelhardia orsbergensis (Wessel & Weber) Jähnichen, Mai & Walther și Podocarpium podocarpum (Al. Braun in Buckland)
Herendeen (frunze fosile), Carpinus betulus Linnaeus fossilis Engelhardt & Kinkelin, Carpinus neilreichii Kováts și Engelhardia
macroptera (Brongniart) Unger (involucre fructifere) și păstăi de legume fosile aparținând speciei Leguminocarpum regeli (Heer)
Dotzler. Toate resturile paleobotanice au fost înregistrate în colecția MNG, figurate în prezenta lucrare și mai multe considerații
analitice au fost elaborate cu privire la paleoecologia, fitostratigrafia și distribuția acestora în România.
Cuvinte cheie: Muzeul Național de Geologie (MNG), plante fosile megascopice, structuri reproducătoare aripate, nervațiune foliară,
tipuri de distrugeri ale frunzelor de către insecte.
INTRODUCTION
A new study of the fossil leaves and fruits stored within the NMG Collections from the middle Miocene
section outcropping near Ciocadia village (Gorj County, Southern Carpathian Foredeep, SW Romania) is presented.
The aim of this new investigation is to characterize some fossil taxa and to interpret the flora and vegetation of Ciocadia
uplands during the Miocene time. The results of the research are partially summarized in the chapter ‘remarks and
discussions’, devoted to each analysed taxon, as well as generally in the conclusions chapter at the end of this paper. All
the specimens were collected by the author during the interval 2002 to present. The geologic framework of the region is
relatively well known, and was subject of many publications focused on regional stratigraphic relationships
(POPESCU, 1953; TUDOR, 1955; MARINESCU, 1969; ȚICLEANU, 1984; HUICĂ, 1994).
The present paper concerns both the examination of newly collected material from the Ciocadia Valley site,
and the revision of leaf and winged fruits taxa described in previous publications, according to the latest taxonomical
studies. The current revision is based on the original collection of fossil plant specimens housed within the collections
of the National Museum of Geology, Geological Institute of Romania, Bucharest, organized by the author of the
collections, specimen numbers and taxonomic names.
The observations over vein architecture (primary, secondary, tertiary and higher-order venation) were made
over a magnifying lens or by using light microscope. The morphological descriptions follow the schemes proposed by
DILCHER (1974), HICKEY (1979) and WING et al. (1999). Systematic organization and taxonomic terminology in
this article are based on the works of KUBITZKI (1993) and TAKHTAJAN (2009).
RESULTS IN SYSTEMATIC PALEOBOTANY
Order Betulales Bromhead 1838 (Corylales Dumortier 1829)

Family Betulaceae S. F. Gray 1821 nom. cons.
Genus Carpinus Linnaeus 1753
Carpinus grandis Unger 1850 sensu Heer 1856

Fig. 1a
25
PARASCHIV Valentin
1952 Carpinus grandis Unger 1850; Berger, p. 87, Pl. I, Figs. 19-22, 24-27, Pl. II, Fig. 23.
1990 Carpinus grandis Unger 1850 sensu Heer 1856; Givulescu, p. 66-67, Pl. XXVIII, Figs. 7-8; Pl. XXXVI, Fig. 2.
1994 Carpinus grandis Unger 1850 sensu Heer 1856; Belz & Mosbrugger, p. 90-92, Pl. VI, Fig. 1, Text-Fig. 36 (h-l)
Figure 1. Leaf and winged fruits of Betulaceae and Juglandaceae.

a - Carpinus grandis Unger sensu Heer. Scale bar, 10 mm; b - Carpinus betulus Linnaeus fossilis Engelhardt & Kinkelin. Scale bar,
10 mm; c - Carpinus neilreichii Kováts. Scale bar, 10 mm; d - Engelhardia macroptera (Brongniart) Unger. Scale bar, 20 mm.
Material. Incomplete simple lamina: BCI.0498.

Description. Leaf simple, without base or apex preserved, lamina possibly ovate ?20 mm long and ?20 mm
wide, slightly asymmetrical, margin finely double serrate (unequal teeth, small to moderate size), irregularly toothed,
apical sides of teeth deeply concave to flexuous, sinuses rounded (Urticoid-Hamamelid Tooth Type, KVAČEK et al.,
2011) to angular, basal sides of teeth flexuous to straight, and acute-spinose apices (with bristle tip reaching up to 0.1
cm long), teeth often slightly hook-shaped; vein spacing uniform, venation simple craspedodromous, with midrib
medium thick, straight, which gradually narrows to the apex, and is gently sinuate in the upper part of the lamina;
secondaries thin, pinnate, slightly bent distally (arciform) and curving towards the apex, varying steepness (alternate),
only 4 pairs preserved, simple, distributed regularly at intervals of 6-8 mm, ending in tooth tips or forked near the
margin, sending abmedial branches (veinlets) into the secondary teeth, the angle of secondaries with the primary vein is
about 30˚; tertiaries alternate percurrent, curved, rarely forked, perpendicular or oblique to the secondary veins; higher
order venation random to orthogonal; areoles perfect, quadrangular to polygonal.
Remarks and discussions. The figured specimen apparently preserves characters that can certainly be referred
to this taxon. It may belong to less natural species, due to the similar gross morphological and leaf anatomical
characters among species in Carpinus (KVAČEK & WALTHER, 1998). The double serrate leaf margin, number and
arrangement of secondary veins, mostly orthogonal reticulate higher-order venation and development of veinlets
(simple, exceptionally branched), but also the presence of areoles (mostly regularly orthogonal) are characteristics of
the genus Carpinus L. and differ from leaves of other genera of Betulaceae (WOROBIEC & SZYNKIEWICZ, 2007).
Only the carpological records allow to recognize several natural species in Carpinus. Common tree member of
the Arcto-Tertiary geoflora (and characteristic species of the late Tertiary Period, from Early Oligocene to the Late
Pliocene), Carpinus grandis survived in the mesic vegetation within the deciduous hard-wood riparian forests
26
(WALTHER & KVAČEK, 2007) of temperate and subtropical zones, and historically grew throughout Eurasia, but it
was also recorded in North America and Greenland. Its ecotype may be suitable also for streambanks and riverbanks,
bottomland forests, lower slopes, or maritime forests. Carpinus betulus L. is usually considered as the nearest living
relative. There are some authors that compared leaf remains of C. grandis with today living C. caucasica Grossheim
and C. orientalis Miller from section Eucarpinus (see WOROBIEC & SZYNKIEWICZ, 2007). C. betulus grows in a
wide area of Europe and in southwestern Asia, C. caucasica occurs in Caucasus, the Crimea, in the northern part of
Asia Minor and in North Iran, and C. orientalis is found in south-eastern Europe and Asia Minor.
Today, Carpinus is a genus of about 35 species, trees and shrubs, distributed in the northern temperate regions
of Europe, extending southward to SE Asia and Central America.
Two different species of Carpinus grow naturally in Romania, C. betulus and C. orientalis (SĂVULESCU et
al., 1952). C. betulus is a shade tolerant species, frost resistant, widely distributed on temperate broadleaf or mixed
deciduous oak forest (dominating, with a close, fairly low canopy, or admixted with Quercus robur Linnaeus, Tilia
tomentosa Moench, Acer campestre Linnaeus) and riparian forest as flood-plain vegetation, but also in the low
mountain area of mixed deciduous forests (with Quercus petraea (Mattuschka) Liebling, Fagus sylvatica Linnaeus,
Acer pseudoplatanus Linnaeus). C. orientalis (an east Mediterranean, Euxino-Hyrcanian element) requires open, sunny
habitats, where it grows in pure or mixed xero-thermophytic communities (plains, low hillocks vegetation), with tree
cover consisting of Fraxinus ornus Linnaeus, Cotinus coggygria Scopoli, Quercus pubescens Willdenow.
Occurrence of C. grandis leaves in the fossil floras of Romania: Oligocene-Valea Jiului (Zsil-Tales,
Petroșani), Hunedoara County (GIVULESCU, 1964a); Oligocene (Late Rupelian-Early Chattian)-Cornești-Aghireș,
Cluj County (PETRESCU et al., 1997); Late Oligocene-Surduc, Sălaj County (PETRESCU, 1967); Late Egerian-Coruș
II, Cluj District (ȚICLEANU & GIVULESCU, 1978); Sarmatian-Lapoș, Bacău County (BARBU, 1934); Sarmatian-
Șoldănești (Baia), Suceava County (BARBU 1934); Sarmatian-Rădășeni-Oprișeni, Suceava County (BARBU, 1934);
Sarmatian-Comănești, Bacău County (CIOCÂRDEL, 1943); Sarmatian-Borod, Bihor County (GIVULESCU, 1944);
Pannonian-Băile Homorod, Harghita County (ȚICLEANU et al., 1977); Maeotian-Bunești (Fălciu), Vaslui County
(BARBU 1934); Maeotian-Hârșova, Vaslui County (BARBU, 1934); Maeotian-Valea Rebricea, Vaslui County
(BARBU 1934); Middle Pontian (Portaferrian)-Valea Nochi Mică (Bazinul Lugojului), Timiș County (described as
Carpinus betulus Linnaeus, ȚICLEANU & PARASCHIV, 2001); Middle Pontian (Portaferrian)-Visag, Timiș County
(ȚICLEANU et al., 1975); Pontian-Borsec, Harghita County (POP, 1936); Pontian-Băița, Maramureș County
(GIVULESCU & RÜFFLE, 1971); Late Pontian (= Pannonian s.l. G/H)-Chiuzbaia, Maramureș County (GIVULESCU,
1990); Late Dacian (Early Pliocene)-Dedoviţa, Mehedinți County (ȚICLEANU et al., 1982).
Carpinus betulus Linnaeus 1753 fossilis Engelhardt & Kinkelin 1908

Fig. 1b
1991 Carpinus betulus Linnaeus; Roiron, p. 177, Figs. 2-14, Pl. II, Figs. 3-6, 8-9.
1997 Carpinus betulus Linnaeus 1753 fossilis Engelhardt & Kinkelin 1908; Hably & Kvaček, p. 30-31, Pl. XIII, Figs.
62, 64, 67.
2000 Carpinus betulus Linnaeus 1753 fossilis Engelhardt & Kinkelin 1908; Mai & Wähnert, p. 174, Pl. II, Figs. 1-2.
Material. Quasi-complete detached winged fruit (samara): BCI.0293.

Description. Detached leafy involucres (seed scales), asymmetric, rounded base or truncate, elongate trigonal
to ovate, up to 15 mm long and ?5 mm wide, with three lobes, but one lateral missing (the outer lobe), the central lobe is
much longer than the lateral lobes (inner and outer lobes, BORATYŃSKI et al., 2007); the lateral lobes are asymmetric
and inserted at angles of 30˚-40˚ to the median one; apices of all lobes attenuate-acute to rounded; entire-margined to
irregularly waved; venation actinodromous, one thick primary vein obvious in the central lobe, sinuate; there are present
also two lateral primaries running from the base to the marginal teeth of lateral lobes; few of the secondaries seen
forked, craspedodromous, irregularly spaced, moderate, relation to the midvein ca. 60 degrees on the middle portion,
mostly parallel to one other, course curved, ending in tertiaries and forming large loops; tertiary veins moderate to thin,
intercostal tertiaries thin, predominantly alternate percurrent, generally perpendicular to the midvein; quaternaries thin,
orthogonal, forming well developed areolations; a single nut present, possibly ovoid, small, at the basis of the winged
fruit; strong peduncle preserved (up to 4 mm long).
Remarks and discussions. The shape of the fruits is an important diagnostic feature for distinguishing
different types of fossil hornbeam. C. betulus fossilis is common in the Cainozoic floras of Europe, with maximum
development during the Late Miocene - the Late Pliocene. During the Pliocene C. betulus fossilis dominated the
deciduous broad-leaved forest-floras of the Central Paratethys areas, together with species of Fagus, Quercus and
Castanea. Connection of leaves with fruits together on the same twig has never been preserved, although some authors
(e.g. BERGER, 1953) attribute similar involucres to Carpinus grandis Unger sensu Heer. Such fruits are seen in section
Carpinus and the nearest extant species seems to be C. betulus Linnaeus (also known as common hornbeam, European
hornbeam), which in a wild state grows in Europe from Gothland southward, and extends also into West Asia.
27
PARASCHIV Valentin
Occurrence of C. betulus fossilis fruits in the fossil floras of Romania: Early Sarmatian (Volhynian)-Daia
(Daia Săsească, Thalheim), Sibiu County (assumed as Carpinus vera Andrae by ANDRAE, 1855); Early Sarmatian-
Morilor Valley, Mehedinți County (PARASCHIV, 2004); Middle Sarmatian (Basarabian)-Corni, Neamţ County
(assumed as Carpinus pyramidalis Gaudin, ȚICLEANU & MICU, 1979); Sarmatian (Basarabian-Chersonian)-Râmești
(Tănăseşti-Râmeşti), Vâlcea County (assumed as Carpinus ex gr. grandis Unger, ȚICLEANU, 1970); Middle Pontian
(Portaferrian)-Valea Nochi Mică (Bazinul Lugojului), Timiș County (ȚICLEANU & PARASCHIV, 2001); Middle
Pontian (Portaferrian)-Visag, Timiș County (assumed as Carpinus pyramidalis Gaudin, ȚICLEANU et al., 1975);
Pontian-Borsec, Harghita County (designated as C. grandis Unger aff. C. betulus Linnaeus, POP, 1936); Late Pontian
(= Pannonian s.l. G/H) Chiuzbaia, Maramureș County (GIVULESCU, 1963, 1990); Pliocene-Stoenești, Vâlcea County
(assumed as Carpinus sp. (aff. C. orientalis Miller) by BARBU, 1954); Late Dacian (Early Pliocene) - Dedoviţa,
Mehedinți County (described as Carpinus pyramidalis Gaudin, ȚICLEANU et al., 1982); Late Pliocene-Baraolt,
Covasna County (described as C. pyramidalis Gaudin, PETRESCU, 1969).
Carpinus neilreichii Kováts 1856

Fig. 1c
1958 Carpinus orientalis Miller; Grangeon 1958, p. 63-67, Pl. V, Figs. 14, 15, 16; Pl. VI, Fig. 15.
1997 Carpinus neilreichii Kováts 1856; Hably & Kvaček, p. 31, Pl. XIII, Figs. 65-66; Pl. XIV, Figs. 73, 75.
1998 Carpinus mediomontana Mai 1978; Kvaček & Walther, p. 10-11, Pl. IV, Fig. 15.
Material. Quasi-complete detached winged fruits (samaras): BCI.0333, BCI.0669.

Description. Fruit involucres, simple, with triangular asymmetric (or inequilateral rhomboid) membranous
lamina ?16-?31 mm long and ?10-?14 mm wide, base rounded, slightly cordate, extended with a short stalk, apex
acuminate; actinodromous venation, with 3-5 primary veins diverging radially, straight or sinuous (sigmoidal), from a
single point at the base of the involucres (however it seems that veins start from peduncle, or underneath seeds) and
running toward the margin, reaching it; the primary veins have one or more subsidiary radiations above the primary
one; secondaries numerous, thin, arranged parallel to one another, diverge from the primary at wide angles, some almost
perpendicular to the primary; tertiaries are alternate percurrent with regular polygonal reticulate venation; areolation is
well developed; margins serrate, coarsely toothed (irregularly developed marginal crenations), cuspidate or lobed; basal
sides of teeth concave to flexuous, the shape of the sinus of the teeth is angular and apical sides concave; a single nut
(ovoidal 3 mm long and 2 mm wide), or a visible scar in the place of its detachment at the base of the involucres is
present; very strong peduncle preserved (4-6 mm long), straight or bent sideways; leathery texture or parchment-like at
the base and membranous near the tip.
Remarks and discussions. Closely resembling fruits of this hornbeam species are known from the European
Early Oligocene-Late Pleistocene floras (BARRÓN, 1996) erroneously described as C. kisseri or C. tschonoskii (Hably
& Kvaček 1997). C. neilreichii is an accessory element in mesophytic forests dominated by Quercus kubinyii, Zelkova
zelkovifolia and Podocarpium podocarpum. They are similar to those of modern Carpinus orientalis Miller (C.
duinensis Scopoli, the Oriental Hornbeam) whose distribution extends from southern and central Europe (northeast Italy
and Sicily to the Balkans), Turkey (Asia Minor), Crimea, Caucasus and south of the Caspian Sea (northern Iran). C.
orientalis is a small deciduous tree or shrub, slow-growing, drought tolerant, which can dominate, as zonal element, the
submontane thermophilous deciduous forests of the sub-Mediterranean area. Also, it can be an important representative
of mixed deciduous forests (Fagus sylvatica, Carpinus orientalis, C. betula, Quercus spp.) that grow on mountain
slopes of the Rhodope Massifs in the central Balkan Peninsula (FUND, 2012). On dry southern slopes of the Greater
Caucasus Mountains, C. orientalis and Quercus spp. dominate the tree population (SCHMIDT, 2009). In the temperate
broadleaf and mixed Hyrcanian forests (N Iran, especially in north of Khorassan province and disjunctly in Semnan
province), natural populations of C. orientalis (shrublands) occur particularly on the high and middle altitude mountain
slopes (up to ca. 2400 m elevation) as rock cliff communities (RAZAZ, 2013).
Occurrence of C. neilreichii samaras in the fossil floras of Romania: Miocene-Slătioara, Vâlcea County
(designated to Carpinus sp. (aff. C. orientalis Miller) by BARBU, 1942); Middle Sarmatian (Basarabian)-Corni, Neamţ
County (assumed as Carpinus sp.? C. kisseri Berger, ȚICLEANU & MICU, 1979); Sarmatian-Porceni, Gorj County
(assumed as Carpinus sp. (aff. C. orientalis Miller) by BARBU 1954); Sarmatian-Săcel, Gorj County (assumed as
Carpinus sp. (aff. C. orientalis Miller) by BARBU, 1954); Early Pontian-Corniţel, Bihor County (attributed with
confer, GIVULESCU, 1957b); Pontian-Borsec, Harghita County (POP 1936); Late Pontian (= Pannonian s.l. G/H)
Chiuzbaia, Maramureș County (designated as C. sp. ex gr. C. orientalis Miller, GIVULESCU, 1964b, 1990); Pliocene-
Prisaca, Olt County (described as Carpinus sp., MARION & LAURENT, 1898); Late Pliocene-Baraolt, Covasna
County (described as C. kisseri Berger and C. orientalis Miller, PETRESCU, 1969).
Order Juglandales Dumortier 1829

Family Juglandaceae A. Richard 1818 ex Kunth 1824
Genus Engelhardia Leschenault 1825 ex Blume 1829
28
Engelhardia orsbergensis (Wessel & Weber 1856) Jähnichen, Mai & Walther 1977
Fig. 2a-d
1995 Engelhardia orsbergensis (Wessel & Weber 1856) Jähnichen, Mai & Walther 1977, Kovar-Eder, Hably & Derek,
p. 328, Pl. III, Fig. 12; Pl. VI, Fig. 7.
2004 Engelhardia orsbergensis (Wessel & Weber 1856) Jähnichen, Mai & Walther 1977; Jechorek & Kovar-Eder, p. 331-
332; Pl. I, Figs. 11-12.
2015 Engelhardia orsbergensis (Wessel & Weber 1856) Jähnichen, Mai & Walther 1977; Mantzouka, Kvaček,
Teodoridis, Utescher, Tsaparas & Karakitsios, p. 61-62, Figs. 5.12-5.13.
Material. Complete or incomplete leaflets: BCI.0151, BCI.0152a, BCI.0229, BCI.0304, BCI.0576.

Description. Isolated leaflets, lanceolate to narrow elliptic, falciform, asymmetric, variable size ?17 (?23, ?24, ?70)
mm long and 7.5-13 mm wide, with base asymmetrical, slightly rounded, acute or cuneate, apex acute when present, margin
toothed, serrate, teeth are small, variable (sometimes coarse), usually widely spaced, irregular, with apical sides straight,
concave to flexuous, teeth sinus angular, and basal sides of teeth straight to concave, their apical side is shorter than their basal
side; sharp (thorn-like) or blunt apices, directed obliquely upwards; in the lower part of leaflet the margin is entire; venation
semicraspedodromous, dense, midvein obvious, strong, sinuate, becoming gradually narrowed to the apex; secondaries
numerous, originating at an angle of 50-80˚, thin, alternate, regularly pinnately disposed, more or less parallel, course curved,
looping distally or run towards the margin and end in teeth apices; intersecondaries rare to common, parallel, thinner, arising
at nearly the same or higher angles than contiguous secondaries; tertiary veins percurrent; venation of higher orders regular
polygonal reticulate, areolation well developed; sessile or with rare petiolule (2 mm long) attached; texture coriaceous.
Remarks and discussions. Engelhardia remains (leaflets or fruits) are quite frequent and it is one of the most
characteristic elements of the Ciocadia paleoflora, but no complete composite leaf has been found until present. The apex is
fragmented in most of the specimens. E. orsbergensis is one of the most widespread species in the Tertiary floras of Europe
(HABLY 1994); it appears since the middle Eocene, is very frequent in the middle Miocene (SE and Central Europe) and rare
in the Pliocene when becomes extinct (KOVAR-EDER et al., 1995). In the Late Pontian deposits from Chiuzbaia it appears
for the last time in Romania, revealed by pollen analysis (GIVULESCU, 1990). It seems to be a thermophilous and
mesophytic element, although this palaeotropical relict species displays features more similar to xerophytic or to
sclerophyllous plants (HABLY 1986). It was mostly found associated with different species of Lauraceae in broadleaf forests
(subtropical laurisilvae). It prefers warm climate, disappearing gradually from European areas during climate deterioration.
The leaf records of this extinct representative of the Juglandaceae have been assigned to different taxonomic units: Protamyris
Unger, Palaeocarya Saporta emend. Manchester, Ilex Linnaeus, Banksia Linnaeus, Myrica Linnaeus, Rhus Linnaeus,
Sapindus Linnaeus or Hakea Schrader & J. C. Wendland (GIVULESCU, 1982, 1986). The fossil species apparently resemble
with the species Engelhardia roxburghiana Lindley ex Wallich (section Psilocarpeae Nagel emend. Leroy) from China and
Sumatra. A close relationship exists also with the Central American Oreomunnea mexicana Standley revealed by cuticular
studies (MANCHESTER 1987, GIVULESCU, 1994). Nowadays the endemic genus Engelhardia with 5 species of deciduous
and evergreen trees, is distributed in subtropical and tropical regions of south-eastern Asia (northern and eastern India to
eastern China, eastern Himalaya, Vietnam, Malaysia, Sumatra and Philippines). Engelhardia roxburghiana Lindley ex
Wallich is a shade-tolerant species of tropical monsoon lowland rainforest, which appears only in the broadleaved forest zones
(JUNYAN et al., 2014).
Occurrence of E. orsbergensis leaves in the fossil floras of Romania: Middle Oligocene-Suslănești, Argeș County
(described as Palaeocarya orsbergensis (Weber et Wessel) Jähnichen, Friedrich et Takács, GIVULESCU, 1989); Oligocene
(Late Rupelian-Early Chattian)-Cornești-Aghireș, Cluj County (PETRESCU et al., 1997); Late Oligocene-Early Miocene
Muereasca de Sus, Vâlcea County (designated as Juglans eloenoides Unger, BARBU 1936); Late Egerian-Coruș II, Cluj
District (described as Engelhardtia detecta Saporta, ȚICLEANU & GIVULESCU, 1978); Miocene-Slătioara, Vâlcea County
(designated to Sapindus pythii Unger by BARBU, 1954, ȚICLEANU & PARASCHIV, 2000); Early Sarmatian (Volhynian-
Early Basarabian)-Daia (Thalheim), Sibiu County (assumed as Engelhardtia detecta Saporta em. Kvaček, GIVULESCU,
1975); Early Sarmatian-Morilor Valley, Mehedinți County (PARASCHIV 2004); Sarmatian (Basarabian-Chersonian)-
Râmești (Tănăseşti-Râmeşti), Vâlcea County (assumed as Sapindus pythii Unger by BARBU 1954); Late Badenian-Pârlagele,
Mehedinți County (described as Myrica lignitum (Unger) Saporta (Fig. 2i) and Myrica longifolia (Unger) Saporta (Fig. 2e),
STANCU & ȚICLEANU, 1975); Pannonian B-C-Valea Neagră de Criș (Valea Crișului I & II), Bihor County (described as
Rhus prisca Ettingshausen, GIVULESCU, 1962); Early Pontian-Corniţel, Bihor County (attributed to Rhus juglandogene
Ettingshausen, GIVULESCU, 1957b).
Engelhardia macroptera (Brongniart 1828) Unger 1851

Fig. 1d
1866 Engelhardia macroptera (Brongniart 1828) Unger 1851; Unger, p. 52-53, Pl. XVI, Figs. 9-11.
1996 Engelhardia macroptera (Brongniart 1828) Unger 1851; Bůžek, Holý & Kvaček, p. 18-19, Pl. VII, Figs. 6-9.
2004 Engelhardia macroptera (Brongniart 1828) Unger 1851; Kovar-Eder, Kvaček & Ströbitzer-Hermann, p. 65, Pl.
VI, Figs. 8-9.
29
PARASCHIV Valentin
Material. Detached winged fruit: BCI.0132.

Description. Impression of an intact trialate fruit (deeply incised 3-lobed bract), large, with bracteoles fused in
a basal valve called ‘prophyllum’, lobes widely spread (43 mm wide between the extremities), with the angle between
the median and lateral wings being 50˚ to 60˚, sinuses correspondingly open, with depth of maximum 85% of the fruit,
acute at the angle, which is 6 mm from the extreme base of the specimen; central lobe much longer (49 mm long) than
laterals (28-29 mm long), thicker, almost equilateral, oblong-oblanceolate (spatulate) in outline, expanding gradually
from a basal width of 5.5 mm to a maximum width of 8.5 mm; lateral wings inequilateral, wide at the base and
gradually tapers to the apex (5-8 mm wide); apex rounded or retuse; our specimen excellently preserves the fine details
of the simple pinnate (weak brochidodromous) venation and three primary veins are visible, one median primary being
present in each wings; the primaries are relatively stout, sinuate, and with a slight attenuation to the tips of the wings,
the strong primary vein (midrib) is flanked by a pair of weaker ascending laterals connected with midrib by a series of
branching secondaries (obvious just in the first half of the lobes); secondaries numerous, thin, alternate, more or less
parallel, and branch from the midvein at a wide angle, curved upward and looping along the margin; tertiary very fine,
forming small arches and rectangular meshes (reticulate) within the spaces bounded by the secondaries; ‘prophyllum’
(the fourth lobe) rounded (as a distinct auriculae), up to 12 mm high with no detectable venation, that overlaps the other
three membranous lobes; margins entire throughout, slightly undulate; nutlet is median in respect to the wing and is
located at the base of the winged fruit (involucre base narrows around it); nutlet carbonified, spherical to
subrhomboidal, 6 mm diameter, equipped proximally with a rostrum; the inner structure of the seed is poorly
discernible due to advanced carbonization.
Remarks and discussions. Such kind of leafy bracts with well-developed prophyllum, in modern members of
these groups (section Engelhardieae Manning, modern Juglandaceae) and extrapolate for the past, serves to disseminate
the seeds by wind. E. macroptera was a warm-loving tree (thermophilous taxon), probably evergreen element. The
stratigraphic range for Europe begins with the middle Eocene and ends in the Pliocene. It was present in several types of
fossil vegetations, namely: mesophytic forest and deciduous forest of warm climate, subtropical-paratropical rain forest,
lauraceous forest. The tissue venation and nut morphology is similar to the extant genera Engelhardia Leschenault ex
Blume, Alfaropsis Iljinskaya and Oreomunnea Oersted, which are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions
of the Southern and Northern Hemispheres (MANCHESTER, 1987).
Occurrence of E. macroptera fruits in the fossil floras of Romania: Oligocene (Late Rupelian-Early
Chattian)-Cornești-Aghireș, Cluj County (PETRESCU et al., 1997); Late Oligocene-Early Miocene Muereasca de Sus,
Vâlcea County (assumed as Engelhardtia brongniarti Saporta and Engelhardtia producta Unger by BARBU, 1936);
Late Egerian-Coruș II, Cluj District (ȚICLEANU & GIVULESCU, 1978); Late Badenian-Early Sarmatian – Bobaița,
Mehedinți County (attributed to Engelhardtia brongniarti Saporta, GIVULESCU, 1957a); Early Sarmatian (Volhynian-
Early Basarabian) - Daia (Thalheim), Sibiu County (GIVULESCU, 1975); Early Sarmatian-Morilor Valley, Mehedinți
County (PARASCHIV, 2004); Early Sarmatian-Oaș (Racșa), Satu-Mare County (attributed to Engelhardtia brongniarti
Saporta, SAGATOVICI & ȚICLEANU, 1973); Sarmatian-Porceni, Gorj County (assumed as Engelhardtia schlickumi
Weyland by BARBU, 1954); Sarmatian-Pietrari (Pietrarii de Sus), Vâlcea County (described as Engelhardtia
schlickumi Weyland by BARBU, 1954); Early Pontian-Corniţel, Bihor County (attributed to Engelhardtia brongniarti
Saporta, GIVULESCU, 1957b).
Order Fabales Bromhead 1838

Family Fabaceae Lindley 1836 (= Family Leguminosae A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom. cons.)
Genus Podocarpium Al. Braun 1836 ex Stizenberger 1851
Podocarpium podocarpum (Al. Braun in Buckland 1836) Herendeen 1992

Fig. 2f
1992 Podogonium knorrii (Braun 1845) Heer 1859; Herendeen, p. 3-18, Figs. 12-20.
1996 Podocarpium podocarpum (Al. Braun 1836) Herendeen 1992; Bůžek, Holý & Z. Kvaček, p. 30, Pl. XX, Figs. 9-15.
2010 Podocarpium podocarpum (Al. Braun) Herendeen; Hably, Schweitzer & Szeberényi, p. 13-14, Photo 10.
Material. Complete leaflet: BCI.0287.
30
Figure 2. Leaflets and fruits of Juglandaceae and Fabaceae.

a-d - Engelhardia orsbergensis (Wessel & Weber) Jähnichen, Mai & Walther. Scale bars, 10 mm (a) or 20 mm (b-d); e, g -
Leguminocarpum regeli (Heer) Dotzler. Scale bars, 20 mm; f - Podocarpium podocarpum (Al. Braun in Buckland) Herendeen.
Scale bar, 20 mm.
Description. Impressions of detached leaflets, complete and fragments, medium to relatively large, up to 36
mm long and 13.5 mm wide (microphyll 1 to microphyll 2, WING et al., 1999), almost oblong, the widest a bit below
the middle, with margins entire, subparallel, slightly undulate in some specimens, approximately equilateral throughout,
about equally rounded at the apex and base (but also base can be convex), apical and basal angle obtuse; midvein
invariably stout and prominent in one-half of the lamina, straight, rarely curved distally and becomes gradually thinner
towards the top, secondaries and tertiaries very thin, dense, run nearly parallel, camptodrome, consisting of a series of
looped and anastomosed veins, rather inconspicuous, areolation of thin veinlets forming isodiametric polygonal meshes;
petiolule short and stout, 3.3 mm long and 1 mm wide, inflated at the base, slightly bent sideways; texture coriaceous.
The leaflet suffered damages caused by insects as a result of direct feeding on above-ground. Two insect
damage types (DTs) are obvious (see Fig. 2f) on the upper part of the lamina, hole feeding damage (DT02,
LABANDEIRA et al., 2007) as one irregular to circular perforation, 1-2 mm in diameter, which represent standard bite
mark, occurring on primary and secondary veins, and margin feeding type (DT15, LABANDEIRA et al., 2007) certified
by an incipient semicircular excision (about 1 mm in diameter), produced by chewing insects (possibly orthopterans or
weevils).
Remarks and discussions. Typical leguminous foliage, however its generic affinity is uncertain. Podocarpium
is a form genus with the natural affinities still dubious. Anyway the taxon is considered to represent deciduous woody
plants as an Arcto-Tertiary element. Leguminosae (including Podocarpium) is one of the most diversified groups,
mostly arboreal, of broad-leaved elements (KOVAR-EDER et al., 2006). In Europe, the maximal distribution of P.
podocarpum falls into the early-middle Miocene (KOVAR-EDER et al., 2004). This legume mostly inhabited gallery
forests under subtropical and warm-temperate climates or the plant was adapted to life in an almost dry (subxerophyte)
or physiologically dry habitat, e.g. moors, fens, sunny (southern) hill-sides (BŮŽEK et al., 1996). Accessory element of
31
PARASCHIV Valentin
the rich Miocene floras, P. podocarpum frequently accompanied dominant species, as Fagus silesiaca, Quercus
kubinyii, Engelhardia orsbergensis, Zelkova zelkovifolia in the Badenian and Sarmatian.
It is worth to mention that Podocarpium reacts to the feeding distress provoked by insects generating a necrotic
ring spot. Because the plant response to damage is dependent on the type of insect harming it, the first measure was to
repair damaged tissue sealing off the attacked area. In this manner, insects can cause damage resulting in tissue necrosis
(death of cell or tissues). Necrosis is rather a symptom of disease, because insects can serve as vectors of infections,
introducing disease to a plant after feeding on an infected plant.
Occurrence of P. podocarpum leaflets in the fossil floras of Romania: Middle Eocene-Gârbou, Cluj County
(assigned to Sophora cf. secundiflora DC., PETRESCU et al., 1976); Oligocene (Late Rupelian-Early Chattian)-
Cornești-Aghireș, Cluj County (described as Cassiophyllum berenices (Unger) Kräusel, PETRESCU et al., 1997); Late
Oligocene-Early Miocene Muereasca de Sus, Vâlcea County (assumed as Leguminosites sp., BARBU 1936);
Sarmatian-Porceni, Gorj County (assumed as Robinia affinis Marion & Laurent, MARION & LAURENT, 1898); Early
Sarmatian (Early Volhynian)-Deva, Hunedoara County (assumed as Gleditschia suevica Rüffle and Podogonium
lyellianum Heer, ȚICLEANU & ARTIN, 1982); Early Sarmatian-Tâmpa, Hunedoara County (described as
Leguminosites sp., BARBU 1932); Pannonian B-C-Valea Neagră de Criș (Valea Crișului I & II), Bihor County
(described as Leguminosen-Blatt, GIVULESCU, 1962); Early Pontian-Corniţel, Bihor County (attributed to cf. Sophora
bilinica Ettingshausen, GIVULESCU 1957b); Pontian-Borsec, Harghita County (assigned to Leguminosites sp., POP,
1936); Late Pontian (= Pannonian s.l. G/H)-Chiuzbaia, Maramureș County (GIVULESCU, 1990).
Genus Leguminocarpum Dotzler 1937
Leguminocarpum regeli (Heer 1859) Dotzler 1937

Fig. 2e, g
1859 Robinia regeli Heer; Heer, p. 99-100, Pl. 132, Figs. 34-41.
1937 Leguminocarpum regeli (Heer 1859) Dotzler; Dotzler, p. 42-43, Pl. V, Figs. 6-7.
2004 Leguminosites parschlugianus (Unger 1850) Kovar-Eder & Z. Kvaček 2004; Kovar-Eder, Kvaček
& Ströbitzer-Hermann, p. 74, Pl. IX, Figs. 6-7.
Material. Fragments or complete large pods: BCI.0541, BCI.0563.

Description. Compressed pods (fruits), lanceolate, curved (falcate) or quasi-linear in outline, ?23 to 54 mm
long and 9 to 10 mm wide, with two valves, glabrous, inflated; there are several seeds in a fruit, which is slightly arched
over the cavity and contained at least two seeds widely spaced, moniliformly disposed, and apparently transversely
elongate elliptical (ovoid or reniform) in outline, slightly crinkled, 5 mm long axis and 3.5 mm short axis; seeds
eccentrically arranged against pod walls, stand along the axis of the fruit (possibly because the seed was disturbed from
its loculus) and not greatly flattened during fossilization (carbonization) being much smaller than the seed cavity; the
outline of the pod is rounded to flattened where neighbouring seeds meet; the margins are thickened, with strong
obvious replum (but all the sutures are broad and strong), constricted medianly to 8.5 mm wide (diameter slightly
greater on the both sides of the middle of the pod, see Fig. 2e); the pods are rather gradually narrowed at both ends, with
bluntly pointed apex (beak-like structure) and almost complete base; the surface is finely cross (or intricately reticulate)
veined; the veins seems to start oblique from the sutures diverging rapidly in Y form; texture coriaceous, and no
peduncle preserved.
Remarks and discussions. There is no certainty regarding the true generic affinity of these pods, although the
shape, thickness, length or curve can be diagnostic for some taxa. They are named for their resemblance to the pods of
Legumes, fruits which are distinctive and the most ready resource by which to identify members of the Leguminosae
family. Leguminous fruits (pulses) of this kind were identified in Europe from the Late Oligocene until the Pliocene.
Leguminocarpum is a thermophilic element that was probably associated with subxeric woodland. The leguminosae
fruit, however, resemble modern pods produced by the representatives of the family of Fabaceae Mimosoideae (e.g.
Albizia, Acacia) or Papilionoideae (e.g. Robinia). The pods of Ciocadia flora were tardily or not at all dehiscent because
they still preserved seeds inside. In order to document the gross features of the fossil pods, the presence of thickened
pod walls can be explained as temporary reservoir of assimilates and other nutrients, protection measures for the seeds
during development, and source-sink pathway that delivers nutrients to the seed coat (WANG & GRUSAK, 2005).
Occurrence of Leguminocarpum regeli pods in the fossil floras of Romania: Oligocene (Late Rupelian-Early
Chattian)-Cornești-Aghireș, Cluj County (described as Leguminocarpum sp. aff. Caesalpinia sp., PETRESCU et al., 1997);
Late Egerian-Coruș II, Cluj District (described as Leguminocarpon sp., ȚICLEANU & GIVULESCU, 1978); Early Miocene-
Coruş, Cluj County (attributed to Leguminocarpon sp., GIVULESCU, 1969); Miocene-Slătioara, Vâlcea County (designated
Leguminosites trispermus Marion & Laurent, MARION & LAURENT, 1898); Badenian-Valea Glâmboaca, Vâlcea County
(assumed as pod of Cassia sp. by BARBU, 1954); Early Sarmatian-Morilor Valley, Mehedinți County (PARASCHIV, 2004);
Pannonian B-C - Valea Neagră de Criș (Valea Crișului I & II), Bihor County (described as Leguminosites sp., GIVULESCU,
1962); Early Pontian-Corniţel, Bihor County (attributed to Podogonium knorrii (Al. Braun) Heer, GIVULESCU, 1957b);
Pontian-Borsec, Harghita County (assigned to Leguminosites sp. or Podogonium knorrii (Al. Braun) Heer, POP, 1936).
32
CONCLUSIONS
The fossil flora from the Ciocadia Valley is well comparable to other middle Miocene assemblages from
Romania and Europe, thanks to the diversified local flora, species richness and considerable numbers of genera. Two
fossil-genera representing disarticulated fossil legume organs, Podocarpium and Leguminocarpum, are described for the
first time from this site. Multiple taxonomic relations are considered with emphasis on Carpinus, Engelhardia and
Leguminosae. The zonal- or intrazonal appearance of the vegetation shares miscellaneous characters, both in
physiognomy and composition, of mesic vegetation within the deciduous hard-wood riparian forests and subhumid
(subxeric woodland) thermophilic gallery forests, under subtropical and warm-temperate climates.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express all my gratitude to Dipl. Geologist Marian Constantin for his valuable help in the
matter of photographic illustrations. Appreciated are also the consultations, some times ago, on taxonomy, systematics
and relationships of the taxa studied with my colleagues, namely Dr. Zlatko Kvaček, Charles University in Prague, Dr.
Johanna Eder, Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart, and Dr. Lilla Hably, Magyar Természettudományi
Múzeum in Budapest. I wish to thank Prof. Dr. Eugen Grădinaru, University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geology and
Geophysics, and Dr. Stănilă Iamandei, Geological Institute of Romania, for their comments on the manuscript. Prof.
Alina Vlăduț is gratefully acknowledged for comments on the English text.
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Paraschiv Valentin
Geological Institute of Romania, National Museum of Geology,
Kiseleff Ave, No. 2, Sect. 1, 011345, Bucharest, ROMANIA,
E-mail: paleovaly@yahoo.com
Received: February 26, 2015

36
Mammuthus primigenius (BLUMENBACH, 1799)

FROM SALCIA (MEHEDINȚI COUNTY, SW ROMANIA)
POPESCU Aurelian, DIACONU Florina
Abstract. Following the excavations done in 1974 in a quarry near Salcia (Mehedinți County, south-western Romania), four
complete mammoth molars, as well as a molar fragment were discovered. The molars were curate at the Iron Gates Region Museum
from Drobeta Turnu Severin. They were firstly assigned to the steppe mammoth, Mammuthus trogontherii. Herein, these fossils have
been reassessed to the woolly mammoth, Mammuthus primigenius.
Keywords: steppe mammoth, woolly mammoth, Pleistocene, Oltenia, Romania.
Rezumat. Mammuthus primigenius (Blumenbach, 1799) de la Salcia (jud. Mehedinți), SV României. În urma
excavațiilor întreprinse în anul 1974 într-o carieră de pe raza localității Salcia (jud. Mehedinți, Sud-Vestul României), au fost
descoperiți patru molari întregi de mamut, precum și un fragment. Molarii au intrat în patrimoniul Muzeului Regiunii Porților de Fier
din Drobeta Turnu Severin, fiind atribuiți speciei Mammuthus trogontherii. În urma revizuirii întreprinse de autorii lucrării, molarii
au fost reconsiderați ca revenind speciei Mammuthus primigenius.
Cuvinte cheie: mamut de stepă, mamut lânos, Pleistocen, Oltenia, Romania.
INTRODUCTION
The village Salcia is located in SW Romania, in Mehedinți County (Fig. 1). From a geological viewpoint, this
locality belongs to the Wallachian Platform, namely to the last sedimentary megasequence, Middle Miocene (Badenian)
- Quaternary (MUTIHAC, 1990). Around Salcia, the prevailing exposed formations are the Holocene and Pleistocene
fluvial terraces, with clays, sands and gravels (Fig. 2).
Figure 1. Salcia on the map of Romania. Figure 2. Salcia on the Geological map of Romania, folio L-34-XXXV,
sc. 1:200000 (Geological Institute of Romania).
LEGEND: qh2 – Late Holocene (gravel, sand, clay); qh1 – Early Holocene
(gravel, sand, clay); qp33, qp32, qp31 – Late Pleistocene. (gravel, sand, loess-like
deposits); qp11 – Early Pleistocene (gravel, sand); p - Pontian (clay, marl, sand);
star - Salcia quarry.
In 1974, the workers from the quarry located near the village informed Mrs. Maria Bălăceanu, a teacher from
the local school, about the discovery of three mammoth molars. After her visit on the site, two more molars were found.
These teeth were kept in the local school for a while, before being sent with the help of professor Ion Stângă, a
curator by trade, to the Iron Gates Region Museum. There, these five molars were studied by Teodor Paveloiu, who
concluded that they had belonged to the steppe mammoth, Mammuthus trogontherii.
Herein, these fossils have been reassessed to the woolly mammoth, M. primigenius.
37
POPESCU Aurelian DIACONU Florina
The molars discovered at Salcia belong to the Natural Sciences Department in the Iron Gates Region Museum
(abbreviated: IGRM), with the following inventory numbers:
- M3 sin - inv. no. 22 (old inv. no. - 1420)
- m3dex - inv. no. 21 (old inv. no. - 1421)
- m2 sin - inv. no. 20 (old inv. no. - 1422)
- m1 sin - inv. no. 23 (old inv. no. - 1423)
- m? fragment - inv. no. 24 (old inv. no. - 1424)
The molars were measured (length, width, height), the lamellar frequency established, as well as the enamel
thickness, and calculation of the hypsodonty index and the length/width ratio. The measurements followed the methods
from MAGLIO (1973) and LISTER (1996). We used VAUFRAY (in PIVETEAU, 1958) for the species assignation.
Considering the fact that the molars were initially thought to belong to Mammuthus trogontherii, we compared
them to similar teeth as well as to the ones of the woolly mammoth.
Class Mammalia
Order Proboscidea ILLINGER 1811
Family Elephantidae GRAY 1821
Subfamily Mammuthinae SIMPSON 1845
Genus Mammuthus BURNETT 1830
Mammuthus primigenius (BLUMENBACH 1799)
We examined each molar separately in order to place a diagnosis. Molar sizes are expressed in millimetres.
M3 sin. - inv. no. 22/1420

(Pl. I, 1a-c)
Whole molar, all lamellae preserved, except for the first talon. The molar is almost wholly preserved, with the
exception of insignificant damage to the front talon, the sides and the roots, which miss. A thin layer of brown-yellow
(ochre) cement covers almost entirely the sides of the molar.
Table 1. Measurements of M. primigenius M3 sin from Salcia, and M3 sin of M. trogontherii from Nolhac
(MOL & LACOMBAT, 2009)
Salcia Nolhac
Catalogue number
M3 sin. 22/1420 M3 sin. 2008-10-2-NOL
Lamellar formula x19(1)x 19x
Number of lamellae in use 12 12
Maximum length of molar 251.9 355
Maximum occlusal length 192.9 202
Maximum width (measured at lamella ....) 97.4(VI) 118(VII)
Number of lamellae/10 cm (lamellar frequency) 8 6
Thickness of enamel 2.5 2.5
Maximum height of crown (measured at lamella ....) 146,5(XIV) 183
L/l 2.58
H/l 1.50
By examining the values in Table 1, we can see that the molar found at Salcia is relatively small, even for M.
primigenius, while the one from Nolhac is relatively larger, even for the M. trogontherii. The molar found at Salcia
could originate from a female mammoth, while the one from Nolhac - to a male. Although the difference in size
between the two molars could be attributed to sexual dimorphism, this would only in small part sustain the theory
according to which they had belonged to the same species (M. trogontherii). Attention should also be paid to the fact
that the M3 measurement values fit perfectly into the accepted parameters for the M. primigenius. The high lamellar
frequency (8), as well as the size values (Table 1), led to the conclusion that, undoubtedly, the M3 found at Salcia
belongs to the M. primigenius.
The left upper M3 found at Salcia and its state of wear can be placed in LAWS’ (1966) age group XXIII-
XXIV given 43 ± 2 AEY to 45 ± 2 AEY. The earliest possible age of death for the Salcia specimen would have been 41
and the latest, 47 African Elephant Years.
38
m3 dext. - inv. No. 21/1421

(Pl. I, 2a - c)
Whole molar, all lamellae preserved, except for the first one, only partially preserved. A thin layer of brown-
yellow (ochre) cement covers almost completely the sides of the molar. Roots are no longer present.
By examining the values in Table 2, we can see that they fit the accepted sizes for the M. primigenius. By
comparing the size of the Salcia molar to those of the Süsseborn specimens (LISTER et al., 2012), it is obvious that all
of the latter ones are larger, which is normal, considering the size difference between the two species. On this argument,
as well as the lamellar frequency of the Salcia m3 (7.5), we draw the conclusion that it belonged to the woolly
mammoth and not to the steppe mammoth.
Table 2. Measurements of M. primigenius m3 dext. from Salcia, and M. trogontherii m3 from Süssenborn
(LISTER et al., 2012).
Salcia
Süssenborn
Catalogue number m3 dext.
m3 M. trogontherii
21/1421
Lamellar formula 18x 17 - 21
Number of lamellae in use 13
Maximum length of molar 258.8 299 - 393; 341 ± 6.5; n = 17
Maximum occlusal length 181.2
Maximum width (measured at lamella ....) 95.9(IV) 83 - 118; 97.7 ± 2.0; n = 26
Number of lamellae at 10 cm interval (lamellar frequency) 7.5 4.45 - 6.84; 5.27 ± 0.10; n =
27
Thickness of enamel 2.2 2 - 3; 2.46 ± 0.05; n = 23
Maximum height of crown (measured at lamella ....) 111.9((XII) 134 - 160; 153.0 ± 3.9; n = 6
L/l 2.69
H/l 1.16
By examining the values in Table 2, we can see that they fit the accepted sizes for the M. primigenius. By
comparing the size of the Salcia molar to those of the Süsseborn specimens, it is obvious that all of the latter ones are
larger, which is normal, considering the size difference between the two species. On this argument, as well as the
lamellar frequency of the Salcia m3 (7.5), we draw the conclusion that it belonged to the woolly mammoth and not to
the steppe mammoth.
The m3 from Salcia and its state of wear can be placed in the Age group XXIII-XXIV given 43 ± 2 AEY to 45
± 2 AEY. The earliest possible age of death for the Salcia specimen would have been 41 and the latest, 47 African
Elephant Years.
m2-3? sin. – inv no. 20/1422

(Pl. I, 3a - c)
Whole molar, all lamellae preserved, except for the first talon, from which only a fragment remains. A thin
layer of brown-yellow (ochre) cement covers almost entirely the sides of the molar. Roots are no longer present.
Examining the molar size values (Table 3), one can see that it fits the normal parameters of a M. primigenius
m3 (PIVETEAU, 1958), except for the number of lamellae, too low for an m3. Its characteristics partially overlap with
those of a similar molar from the M. trogontherii, but the lamellar frequency - 8 for the Salcia m3 is much higher than
that of an M. trogonteherii’s, which is a maximum of 6.5. Keeping all this in mind, we conclude that this molar also
belongs to the woolly mammoth.
Table 3. Measurements of m2-3? sin. inv. no. 20/1422 of Salcia and m3 of M. primigenius and m3 M. trogontherii,
m2 and m3 M. primigenius of VAUFRAY, 1958.
Salcia m2-3? sin. m3 M. trogontherii m3 M. primigenius m2 M. primigenius
Catalogue number
20/1422 (PIVETEAU, 1958) (PIVETEAU, 1958) (PIVETEAU, 1958)
Lamellar formula x15x 13-21 18 - 24 14 - 18
Number of lamellae in use 12
Maximum length of molar 238.8 210 - 380 207 - 288 182 - 230
Maximum width (measured at 96.2 (VI) 82 - 110 65-100 73 - 90
lamella ….)
Number of lamellae at 10 cm 7.5 - 8 5 - 6.5 7.5 - 10 8 - 10
interval (lamellar frequency)
Thickness of enamel 2.35
Maximum height of crown 120.5 (XII)
(measured at lamella ….)
L/l 2.47 2.19 - 4.63 2.30 - 2.70 2.34 - 2.95
H/l 1.25
39
The lower left m2 of Salcia and its state of wear can be placed in the Age group XIV-XV given 22 ± 2 AEY to
24 ± 2 AEY. The earliest possible age of death of the Salcia specimen would have been 20 and the latest, 26 African
Elephant Years.
m1 sin., inv.no. 23/1423

(Pl. I, 4a - c)
Molar wholly preserved, with 10 lamellae, all in use, an anterior talon, three quarters of which are well
preserved and a posterior talon, mostly preserved. Roots are mostly well preserved, only a little damaged at the tips. The
white cement can be found between the lamellae (interlamellar space), but not on the lamellae.
The size values (Table 4) fit within the accepted parameters for a M. primigenius m1. We used for comparison
the measurement of m1 M. primigenius values for the Ilskaya 1 and 2 and Chokurcha.
Table 4. Measurements of m1 sin. inv. no. 23/1423 from Salcia and m1 of M. primigenius from Ilskaya 1 and 2 and Chokurcha11
(BARYSHNIKOV, 2003).
Salcia Ilskaya 1 and 2 Chokurcha 1
Catalogue number
m1 sin. 23/1423 m1 m1
Lamellar formula x10x
Number of lamellae in use 10 ˃ 10
Maximum length of molar 145.20
Maximum width (measured at lamella ....) 63.5(III) 56; 56-70; x = 61.2
Number of lamellae at 10 cm interval (Lamellar frequency) 7.5 10; 10 8 - 11
Thickness of enamel 1.9 1.1; 1.9 1.7 - 2.1
Maximum height of crown (measured at lamella ....) 69.8(X) 105; 81 100
L/l 2.28
H/l 0.90
The m1 from Salcia and its state of wear can be placed in the Age group XI given 15 ± 1 AEY. The earliest
possible age of death of the Salcia specimen would have been 14 and the latest, 16 African Elephant Years.
m? Fragment – inv.no. 24/1424

(Pl. I, 5a - c)
Fragment consisting of 4 lamellae probably originating from a lower molar.

Considering the conditions in which the fragment was discovered, the size of the lamellae, as well as the
lamellar frequency (the measurements were obviously extrapolated), we consider that it belongs to a lower m2-m3
Mammuthus primigenius.
CONCLUSIONS
The mammoth molars discovered in the quarry near Salcia are, all but one, whole and well preserved.
Although firstly assigned to M. trogontherii, following a careful examination, as well as measurements and
comparisons to similar pieces already described, they are reassessed to the woolly mammoth (M. primigenius).
Following the publication of the research concerning the Salcia molars, a new woolly mammoth locality is added for the
Pleistocene of Romania.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Mrs. Maria Bălaceanu for the precious information regarding the discovery of the molars, as
well as for her availability to accompany them to Salcia, in order to locate the quarry where the molars were discovered.
40
REFERENCES
BARYSHNIKOV G. 2003. Mammuthus primigenius from the Crimea and the Caucasus - in: Reumer, J. W. F. De Vos
J. & Mol D. (eds.) - Advances in mammoth research (Proceedings of the Second International Mammoth
Conference, Rotterdam, May 16-20, 1999). Deinsea 9: 41-56.
LAWS R. M. 1966. Age criteria for the African elephant, Loxodonta a. africana. East African Wildlife Journal. 4: 1-37.
LISTER A. M. 1996. Evolution and taxonomy of Eurasian mammoths. In: SHOSHANI J. & TASSY P. (Eds.), The
Proboscidea. Oxford University Press. Oxford: 203-213.
LISTER A., DIMITRIJEVIC V., MARKOVIC Z., KNEZEVIC S., MOL D. 2012. A skeleton of ‘steppe’ mammoth
(Mammuthus trogontherii (Pohlig)) from Drmno, near Kostolac, Serbia. Quaternary International. 276-277:
129-144.
MAGLIO V. J. 1973. Origin and evolution of the Elephantidae. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society.
New Series. The American Philosophical Society. Philadelphia. 63/3: 1-149.
MOL D. & LACOMBAT F. 2009. Mammuthus trogontherii (Pohlig, 1885), the steppe mammoth of Nolhac.
Preliminary report on a left and right upper M3, excavated at the ancient maar of Nolhac, Haute-Loire,
Auvergne, France. Quaternaire. 20(4): 569-574.
MUTIHAC V. 1990. Structura geologică a teritoriului României. Edit. Tehnică. Bucureşti. 418 pp.
VAUFRAY R. 1958. Proboscidiens. Étude systématique. In: Piveteau J. (ed.): Traité de paléontologie. Masson et Cie.
Paris. Tom VI, vol. 2: 203-295.
⃰ ⃰ ⃰ Geological map of Romania
Popescu Aurelian
Museum of Oltenia Craiova
Str. Popa Șapcă, nr. 8, 200422, Craiova, România
E-mail: aurelian_popescu@yahoo.fr
Diaconu Florina
Iron Gates Region Museum,
2nd Independenței Street, 220160 - Drobeta Turnu Severin
E-mail: florinadiaconu@yahoo.com

Accepted: June 22, 2015
41
PLATE I
Molars of Salcia
Photo. 1a. M3 22/1420 – buccal view. Photo. 1b. M3 22/1420 – occlusal view. Photo. 1c. M3 22/1420 – lingual view.
Photo. 2a. m3 21/1421 – buccal view. Photo. 2b. m3 21/1421 – occlusal view. Photo. 2c. m3 21/1421 – lingual view.
42
THE INFLUENCE OF THE MATERNAL FACTOR ON THE EFFECTS OF GENE

INVOLVED IN THE CONTROL OF QUANTITATIVE CHARACTERS IN TOMATO
LUPAŞCU Galina, GRIGORCEA Sofia, MIHNEA Nadejda
Abstract. According to contemporary bibliographical sources, the maternal factor has an important role in resetting the genetic formulas
underlying the phenotypic manifestation of quantitative characters, but the mechanisms of phenomenon, at the moment, are quite uncertain.
By researching the influence of the maternal factor on the effects of gene involved in the control and heritability of biological characters and
productivity of tomato it was found that the maternal factor strongly influenced the level, the orientation and the variance of gene effects
which control the quantitative characters of the tomato fruit. Changing the level of the heritability coefficient in a broad sense in reciprocal
crosses reveals the influence of the maternal factor on the rate of participation of the genotype in the formation of phenotype
quantitative character and its hereditary transmission capacity.
Keywords: maternal effect, tomato, epistasis, heritability.
Rezumat. Influenţa factorului matern asupra efectelor genice implicate în controlul unor caractere cantitative la
tomate. Conform surselor bibliografice contemporane, factorul matern deţine un rol important în resetarea formulelor genetice care
stau la baza manifestării fenotipice a caracterelor cantitative, însă mecanismele fenomenului, la moment, sunt destul de incerte. Prin
cercetarea influenţei factorului matern asupra efectelor genice implicate în controlul şi heritabilitatea unor caractere biologice şi de
productivitate la tomate s-a constatat că factorul matern a influenţat puternic nivelul, orientarea şi varianţa efectelor genice care
controlează caracterele cantitative ale fructului de tomate. Schimbarea nivelului coeficientului de heritabilitate în sens larg în
încrucişările reciproce, relevă influenţa factorului matern asupra ratei de participare a genotipului în formarea fenotipului caracterului
cantitativ şi capacităţii de transmitere ereditară a acestuia.
Cuvinte cheie: efect matern, tomate, epistazie, heritabilitate.
INTRODUCTION
The redistribution epigenetic of gene expression is manifested through various actions and interactions of gene
(HOLLAND, 2001). The epistasis or interaction between non-allelic genes has long been recognized as having
fundamental importance for the understanding of the structure and realization of the function of the genetic pathways
and evolutionary dynamics of complex genetic systems. The development of functional genomics and
the emergence of systemic concepts in biology, as well as the skills of determining the genetic basis of evolution
starting from specific molecular changes is a new approach to the importance of research of gene interactions
for genesis and functionality of a unified system of control of quantitative characters (PHILLIPS, 2008).
Underestimating these effects may lead to the simplification of the models of describing the heritability of complex
characters (CARLBORG & HALEY, 2004) and creating impediments in the efforts to detect loci quantitative
characters. Epistasis between the loci contributes significantly to the variance of quantitative characters, and, in
particular, to the determination of the genetic architecture of complex characters (COREŢCHI, 2013).
It is recognized that the level of variability of the phenotype can be caused not only by genotype and
the ambient environment, but also by maternal effects – particularly important for the evolution and adaptability of
organisms to environmental conditions.
Maternal effects can contribute considerably to increase the variance of several characters, in particular, if they
manifest the stages of early ontogenetic. Elucidating how the epistasis may result from maternal effects may contribute to
understanding the role of these gene effects in evolutionary processes. At the same time, mother- descendant interactions may
lead to the appearance of the epistasis in the genotype through various biochemical or physiological ways (WOLF, 2000).
The research goal was to elucidate the influence of the maternal factor on the effects of gene involved in the
formation and heritability of quantitative characters in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.).
Three combinations of reciprocal hybrids belonging to F1 and F2 generations, derivatives from 4 varieties of
tomatoes - Gloria, Jubiliar, Atlasnâi, Zastava were used as research material as they present many characters.
There were analysed the following biological indices: the number of seeds per fruit, fruit mass (g), fruit length
and diameter (mm), pericarp and mesocarp thickness (mm), number of seminal lodges, plant height (cm); of
productivity: mass (g) and number of fruit per plant.
The influence of the maternal factor was determined based on of reciprocity effect (re) according to the
formula proposed by the author (REINHOLD, 2002).
43
LUPAŞCU Galina GRIGORCEA Sofia MIHNEA Nadejda
The actions and interactions of gene were established and calculated by the model proposed by GAMBLE
(1962). The coefficient of heritability in broad sense (H) was established after Warner (BOROJEVIC, 1990). The
statistical processing of data was performed in STATISTICA 7 software package.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The research of the parental effects has demonstrated the differentiated contribution of maternal factors
depending on the character and combination. The most pronounced influence of the maternal form on the effects of
gene was manifested in the combination of Gloria x Jubiliar (G x J)/Jubiliar x Gloria (J x G) for the characters fruit
length (1), index fruit (2), pericarp thickness (3), number of seminal lodges (4), fruit mass (5) and number of fruit per
plant (6) (GRIGORCEA et al., 2014).
Choosing the variety Jubiliar as maternal form, with the above indices of the mentioned characters compared
with variety Gloria, contributed to the increase of the average in the population F2 Jubiliar x Gloria with 8.3; 4.6; 8.9;
7,7; 30.0 and 24.0%, respectively, for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 (Table 1).
Table 1. Phenotypic effects and genetic mechanisms of the combination Jubiliar x Gloria.
The report of means
No. Character Genetic mechanisms
F2 J x G/ F2 G x J, %
1 Fruit length 8 .3 Reorientation epistasis dd from negative to positive
2 Index fruit 4 .6 -“-
3 Pericarp thickness 8 .9 -“-
4 Number of seminal lodges 7 .7 Increasing the level of positive to the epistasis dd.
5 Fruit mass 30 .0 Increasing the level of positive to the epistasis ad;
Reorientation epistasis dd from negative to positive.
6 Number of fruit per plant 25 .0 Reorientation epistasis dd from negative to positive.
Thus, one of the important genetic mechanisms, which induces the increase or the decrease of the
quantitative characters – biological and productivity of tomatoes, consists in the influence of the maternal factor on
epistasis ad and/or dd involved in the control and heritability characters.
The calculation of the average gene effects for the combinations Gloria x Jubiliar, Gloria x Atlasnâi, Gloria x
Zastava (1 x 2) and Jubiliar x Gloria, Atlasnâi x Gloria, Zastava x Gloria (2 x 1) has shown that the direction of the
crossover strongly influenced the level, orientation and variance of gene effects, which controls the quantitative
characters of tomato fruit, less, however, being influenced the number of seminal lodges (Table 2).
Table 2. The influence of the maternal factor on the actions and interactions of gene
involved in controlling quantitative characters of tomato fruit.
Cross a d aa ad dd
Fruit mass
1x2 -26 .8 23 .4 -6 .2 203 .4 -16 .7
2x1 -5 .0 -112 .9 -104 .6 226 .8 46 .1
Pericarp thickness
1x2 -0 .5 3 .6 2 .9 16 .5 -8 .5
2x1 -0 .3 -6 .9 -7 .5 16 .7 8 .8
Mesocarp thickness
1x2 -5 .1 1 .31 -11 .1 118 .4 5 .0
2x1 -1 .5 -14 .1 -17 .2 122 .8 -0 .2
Number of seminal lodges
1x2 -0 .6 -1 .9 -1 .7 12 .3 3 .8
2x1 -0 .4 -6 .5 -4 .8 12 .5 6 .3
Number of seeds per fruit
1x2 -0 .3 10 .6 -27 .0 196 .3 -12 .0
2x1 42 .7 24 .3 24 .2 239 .3 -114 .0
Fruit length
1x2 6 .1 17 .3 17 .4 148 .9 -53 .9
2x1 -9 .0 -35 .4 -42 .1 133 .8 57 .8
Fruit diameter
1x2 -0 .6 -2 .2 -7 .6 147 .9 -4 .2
2x1 -1 .7 3 .1 -4 .9 146 .7 2 .9
Fruit index
1x2 0 .07 0 .16 0 .30 3 .01 -0 .76
2x1 -0 .20 -0 .71 -0 .66 2 .74 0 .90
From the practical point of view is important to elucidate the manner how the gene effects, particular or
in association, contribute to increase or diminution of the character of interest. Thus, it has been proceeded to cluster
analysis in order to determine the degree of association of the average character in F2 population with gene effects
involved in the formation of phenotype. Thus, according to the dendrogram of distribution, in all cases, the average F2
44
presented high associative connection with epistasis ad, and for such characters as number of seminal lodges, fruit
mass, number of fruit per plant – and with epistasis dd (Fig. 1), which reveals their major involvement in the formation
of the genetic potential to the population F2 (GRIGORCEA, 2014).
Ward`s method Ward`s method Ward`s method

Euclidean distances Euclidean distances Euclidean distances
1 1 1
5 5 5
2 2 2
3 6 3
4 3 4
6 4 6
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Linkage Distance Linkage Distance Linkage Distance
Fruit length Fruit diameter Fruit index
Ward`s method Ward`s method Ward`s method

Euclidean distances Euclidean distances Euclidean distances
1 1 1
5 5 5
2 6 2
3 2 3
4 3 4
6 4 6
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

Linkage Distance Linkage Distance Linkage Distance
Pericarp thickness Number of seminal lodges Number of seeds per fruit
Ward`s method Ward`s method

Euclidean distances Euclidean distances
1 1
5 5
6 6
2 2
3 3
4 4
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Linkage Distance Linkage Distance
Mass of fruit per plant Number of fruit per plant
Figure 1. The dendrogram of the distribution of the mean population F2 and gene effects involved
in the control of some quantitative characters of tomato
Legend: 1 – mean in population F2, 2 – a, 3 – d, 4 – aa, 5 – ad, 6 – dd
The influence of the maternal factor on the actions and interactions of gene was reflected on the capacity of
inheritance of characters (Table 3).
Values of heritability coefficient reveal that the phenomenon depends on the character, combination and
crossing direction. In all cases, the reciprocal crosses have determined changes in the level of heritability coefficient,
which reveals the importance of correct choice of components of hybridization as maternal or paternal form to
streamline donors of certain qualities.
Table 3. Heritability coefficient of tomato fruit characters on the reciprocal combinations.

Number Number of Number of
Fruit Pericarp Mesocarp Fruit Fruit
No. Combination of seminal seeds per fruit per
mass thickness thickness length diameter
lodges fruit plant
1 Gloria x Jubiliar 0 .50 0 .43 0 .17 0 .35 0 .43 0 .49 0 .66 0 .28
2 Jubiliar x Gloria 0 .65 -0 .21 0 .59 0 .87 0 .01 0 .64 0 .50 0 .26
3 Gloria x Atlasnâi 0 .61 -0 .19 0 .47 0 .25 0 .43 0 .65 0 .75 0 .31
4 Atlasnâi x Gloria 0 .63 -0 .05 0 .70 0 .36 0 .69 0 .17 0 .09 0 .61
5 Gloria x Zastava 0 .04 0 .24 0 .05 0 .12 -0 .04 0 .14 0 .36 0 .45
6 Zastava x Gloria 0 .26 0 .01 0 .24 0 .27 0 .33 0 .08 0 .49 0 .28
45
LUPAŞCU Galina GRIGORCEA Sofia MIHNEA Nadejda
Therefore, the maternal factor is involved in the control of the morphobiologic characters of fruit and
productivity elements by regulation/reset actions (additive, dominant) and interactions (additive x additive, additive x
dominant and dominant x dominant) gene (GRIGORCEA, 2014).
CONCLUSIONS
1. Based on reciprocal hybrids, it was found that maternal factors determine the level and direction ( +/-) of
gene effects involved in the control of biological characters and productivity of tomato, these effects depending largely
on the combination and character.
2. The basic genetic mechanisms of the influence of the maternal factor involved in the formation
of phenotypes with high indices in F2 segregating population consisted in the degree and mode of manifestation –
differentiated or associated gene interactions.
3. Changing the level of heritability coefficient in a broad sense in reciprocal crosses reveals the influence of
the maternal factor on the rate of participation of the genotype in the formation of phenotype quantitative character and
its hereditary transmission capacity.
REFERENCES
BOROJEVIC S. 1990. Principles and Methods of Plant Breeding. Edit. Academy-Verlag. Berlin. 368 pp.
CARLBORG Ö. & HALEY C. 2004. Epistasis: Too often neglected in complex trait studies? Nature Reviews Genetics.
5: 618-625.
COREŢCHI LIUBOV. 2013. Controlul genetic al interacţiunii culturilor leguminoase cu fitopatogenii. Chişinău. 47 pp.
GAMBLE E. E. 1962. Gene effects in corn (Zea mays L.). I. Separation and relative importance of gene effects for
yield. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 42: 339-348.
GRIGORCEA S. 2014. Influenţa factorului matern asupra rezistenţei la patogenii fungici şi elementelor de
productivitate la tomate (Solanum lycopersicum). Ph. D. Thesis, Institute of Genetics, Physiology and Plant
Protection of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova: Chişinău. 37 pp.
GRIGORCEA SOFIA, LUPASCU GALINA, MIHNEA NADEJDA. 2014. Maternal factor role in the genetic control
of some fruit characteristics and productivity of tomato plants. Collection of scientific papers “Vegetable
breeding and seed production“ Moscow. 2014. 234 pp. [In Russian].
HOLLAND J. B. 2001. Epistasis and plant breeding. Plant Breeding Reviews. U. S. Departament of Agriculture. Nord
Carolina State. 21: 27-92.
PHILLIPS P. C. 2008. Epistasis - the essential role of gene interactions in the structure and evolution of genetic systems.
Nature Reviews Genetics. https://scholar.google.com/citations? view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=
JbH6mVkAAAAJ&citation_for_view=JbH6mVkAAAAJ:9yKSN-GCB0IC. 9(11): 855-867. Accesed February, 2015.
REINHOLD K. 2002. Maternal effects and the evolution of behavioural and morphological characters: a literature
review indicates importance of extended maternal care. Journal of Heredity. 93(6): 400-405.
WOLF J. B. 2000. Gene interactions from maternal effects. Evolution. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11209768.
54(6): 1882-1898. (Accesed February, 2015).
Lupaşcu Galina, Grigorcea Sofia, Mihnea Nadejda

Institute of Genetics, Physiology and Plant Protection of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova
E-mail: galinalupascu@gmail.com; sofinel@mail.ru; mihneanadea@yahoo.com

Accepted: April 30, 2015
46
DIRECT SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS OF THE ENDEMIC TAXON Papaver alpinum L.

SSP. Corona-sancti-stefani (ZAPAL.) BORZA FOR CONSERVATIVE PURPOSE
CATANĂ Rodica, HOLOBIUC Irina
Abstract. A protocol for regeneration through direct somatic embryogenesis in the endemic taxon Papaver alpinum L. ssp. corona-
sancti-stefani (Zapal.) Borza was developed. Being both a rare and endemic plant species, this species requires a rescue action using
tissue cultures. The somatic embryogenesis was induced from leaf and root explants cultured on MS medium supplemented with
different concentrations of cytokinins (BA, kinetin), auxins (2.4-D and NAA) and supplementary additives (mannitol and sucrose).
After 90 days of culture at 25ºC, clusters of somatic embryos were obtained. Somatic embryos were developed on all tested media,
but the highest number (35 ± 2.43) was recorded on Murashige & Skoog medium supplemented with BA 1 mg/l, NAA 0.2 mg/l and
kinetin 1 mg/l. The somatic embryos were converted into plants by transferring on the same medium variant (added with plant
growth factors or mannitol) at 10°C. This is the first report of direct somatic embryogenesis in the case of P. corona-sancti-stefani.
Keywords: P. corona-sanct-stefani, somatic embryos, ex situ conservation, endemic.
Rezumat. Embriogeneza somatică directă la taxonul endemic Papaver alpinum L. ssp. corona-sancti-stefani în scop
conservativ. În cazul taxonului endemic Papaver alpinum L. ssp. corona-sancti-stefani a fost realizat un protocol de regenerare prin
embriogeneză somatică directă. Fiind o specie de plante rară şi endemică, necesită acţiuni de conservare utilizând tehnica culturilor de
ţesuturi. Embriogeneza somatică a fost indusă pornind de la explante reprezentate de fragmente de frunze şi rădăcini. Acestea au fost
cultivate pe mediu MS (Murashige & Skoog) suplimentat cu diferite concentraţii de citokinine (BA, Kinetin), auxine (2,4-D şi NAA) şi
aditivi suplimentari (manitol şi zaharoză). După 90 de zile de cultură la temperatura de 25°C, s-au obţinut clustere de embrioni somatici.
Embrionii somatici s-au dezvoltat pe toate variantele de medii testate, dar cel mai mare număr de embrioni (35 ± 2,43) a fost înregistrat pe
varianta de mediu suplimentat cu BAP 1 mg/l, ANA 0,2 mg/l şi kinetin 1mg/l. Embrionii somatici au putut fi convertiţi în plante prin
transferul lor pe aceeaşi variantă de mediu (adăugat cu factori de creştere sau manitol), dar la temperatura de 10°C. Acesta este primul raport
de embriogeneză somatică directă semnalat în cazul speciei endemice P. corona-sancti-stefani.
Cuvinte cheie: P. corona-sancti-stefani, embrioni somatici, conservare ex situ, endemit.
INTRODUCTION
Papaver alpinum L. ssp. corona-sancti-stefani (Zapal.) Borza (Papaveraceae family) is the unique representative of
the genus in the Romanian alpine vegetation and has an important role as pioneer plant in the substrate formation by fixing the
detritus (DIHORU & PÂRVU, 1987).
Being an endemic (CIOCĂRLAN, 2009) and rare (OLTEAN et al., 1994) plant species in S-E Carpathian
Mountains, it is necessary to adopt suitable rescue actions for the conservation programs (IŞIK, 2011), which can
involve both in situ and ex-situ conservation. A secure in situ conservation is the first requirement to preserve the
endangered plant species, but in the case of deterioration of the natural environment, the ex situ conservation is
recommended. The in vitro techniques play an important role in the ex situ conservation programs, being the most
efficient way to propagate a species without depleting wild resources (REED, 2011).
In vitro somatic embryogenesis as a plant regeneration way has the potential to produce a large number of
plantlets, which may be used for conservation programs, for the reintroduction in natural habitats, as well as for
utilization in basic research, etc.
In the present study, our aim was to develop a reliable protocol for in vitro regeneration of the endemic
Papaver alpinum L. ssp. corona-sancti-stefani (Zapal.) Borza through direct embryogenesis for conservative purpose.
Plant material comprised of mature seeds was collected from natural population from the northeast part of
Piatra Craiului (N: 45°31.307 E: 025°11.849), slope 60°, in the year 2007. The seeds were kept in a paper bag at the
room temperature.
Sterilization protocol: In the first step of the protocol, the seeds were washed with tap water for 2 hours and
surface-sterilized in 70 % ethanol for 30 seconds followed by 10 minutes immersion in a 0.01% HgCl2 and finally
washed three times with sterile distilled water.
A total of 100 seeds were checked for the germination capacity. The seeds were placed on the MS media
variant (MURASHIGE & SKOOG, 1962) added with 30g/l sucrose and B5 vitamins (GAMBORG et al., 1968), without
plant growth factors.
In vitro cultures were performed from the seedlings. The explants (leaves and root segments) were placed on
the MS media with 3% (w/v) sucrose supplemented with different concentrations of plant growth factors and additives
47
CATANĂ Rodica HOLOBIUC Irina
(Table 1). The media cultures were solidified with Plant agar (Duchefa) 0.8% (w/v) and the pH was adjusted to 5.8. The
photoperiod was 16h light/8h dark with light intensity of 27µmol*m-2*sec-1, at temperature 24±2°.
The mean number of somatic embryos/explant was used like parameter to quantify the regeneration efficiency.
Three replicates with 5 explants/Petri dish were cultured. One-way analysis of variance was used to calculate the
statistical significance (http://xltoolbox.sourceforge.net).
Table 1. The media variants tested in P. corona-sancti-stefani.
Media variants
MO M1 M2 M3 M4
Plant growth BA - 1 - - -
factors NAA - 0.2 - - -
(mg/L) 2.4 D - - 0.2 - -
KIN - 0.1 0.1 - -
Additives Mannitol - - - 30 -
(g/L) Sucrose - - - - 30
Legend: BA – N6-benzylaminopurine, NAA – α-naphthalene acetic acid, 2,4-D – 2,4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; Kin – kinetin.
RESULTS
The sterilization of seeds has an important role to ensure plant material for in vitro procedures. In our case, no
contamination was observed. Seeds started to germinate after 45 days but the germination rate was low (CATANĂ et
al., 2013).
As first response, the explants (leave and root fragments) started to become brown and degenerated. After 60
days early stages of somatic embryogenesis was detected (Fig. 1).
0.5 cm a b
Figure 1. Different early stages of somatic embryogenesis starting from roots as explant (a) and
embryos converted into plants (b) on the M1 variant (BA, NAA, kin) (Original photos).
The regenerants number/explant varied between 6 and 35 depending on the variant. The best result was
obtained on the MS supplemented with 1 mg/l BA, 1mg/l Kinetin and 0.2 mg/l NAA (M1 variant) (Table 2).
Table 2. Regeneration and embryo conversion on different media variant tested.

No. of regenerants % conversion of somatic Observations
/explant embryos into plants
M0 0a,d,g 39.13% Ensure somatic embryos germination
M1 35±2.43c,f,g 76.92% Somatic embryos are converted into plants; favour the rooting process
M2 Somatic embryogenesis occur with low rate, most of somatic embryos
25±3.14d,e,f 10%
failed to develop; low number of regenerants were obtained
M3 a,b,c Somatic embryogenesis was induced, underwent all stages germinated
30±1.38 60.86%
and converted into plants
M4 Somatic embryogenesis was induced, part of them were arrested in
5±1.01b,e 30%
early stages
Legend: *Values are represented as mean ± standard error (SE) of three independent replications. The values followed by the same superscript letters
are statistically different (P≤0.05) from each other (Tukey Comparisons Test).
All stages of somatic embryos (from globular to cotyledonary embryos) were observed on the surface of
explants (Fig. 3).
During the initial phases, the somatic embryos require a temperature of 24±2°C. The conversion was achieved by
subculture on the media variants with and without plant growth factors at 10°C. In the M0 (control) variant, embryos
conversion occurred but was comparatively slower than M1 variant (with plant growth factors). The M1 variant
(supplemented with BA, NAA and kinetin) sustained the induction, the development and the rooting of the embryos.
48
When the sucrose concentration was increased at 60g/l (M4 variant), the embryos were induced, but the mean
number was lower (5±1.014). The maintenance of the somatic embryos on the M4 variant (added with 60 g/l sucrose)
more than 60 days with two subcultures conducted to the degeneration of the embryos (Fig. 2).
1 cm
Figure 2. Somatic embryogenesis on the M4 medium variant (60g/l sucrose) (Original photos).
Adding 30g/l mannitol (M3 variant) a significantly increasing of the mean number of embryos/explant
compared with M4 variant supplemented with 60 g/l sucrose (Fig. 3) was observed. The embryos were developed on
the M3 variant were able to convert into plants.
0.5 a b
Figure 3. Direct somatic embryos induced on the M3 medium variant (30g/l mannitol): a) cluster of somatic embryos in different
stages of development, b) embryo in cotyledonary stage with supplementary embryos attached (Original photos).
The plants developed through somatic embryos conversion maintained at 24±2°C and 10°C for more than 90 days
showed some morphological differences concerning height, colour, root development and etiolating (Table 3, Fig. 4).
1 cm a 1 cm
b
Figure 4. In vitro regenerants of P. corona- sancti- stefani maintained on the medium variant with plant
growth factors at a) 25°C and b)10°C (Original photos).
Table 3. Morphological differences among the plants converted from somatic embryos
maintained at different temperature (10°C and 25°C).
10°C 25°C
Height 3 cm 0.7 - 2 cm
Colour green yellow pale
Root development yes no
Etiolation no yes
49
CATANĂ Rodica HOLOBIUC Irina
DISSCUSIONS
Most of the studies concerning in vitro culture in Papaver L. genus have been focused on the medicinal species
concerning the alkaloid biosynthesis. In vitro cultures were used to induced callus (SARIN, 2003; AVIJEET et al.,
2010; ZAKARIA et al., 2011; BONDARIAN et al., 2013), secondary somatic embryogenesis and shoot organogenesis
from primary somatic embryos (NESSLER, 1982; OVEČKA et al., 1996, 2000; YANG et al., 2010; PATHAK et al.,
2012). Concerning the endemic species, in vitro cultures were used in the case of glacial relict P. degenii (GORGOROV
et al., 2011), where plants cultivated on MS solid medium without plant growth factors had a propagation coefficient of
2.4 for four weeks of cultivation.
The embryogenic competence is expressed at the level of the cells, which are able to change their fate and to
have active divisions if they receive inductors for differentiation (FEHÉR, 2005). There are considered 2 categories of
somatic embryogenesis inductors: internal and/or external cellular levels of plant growth regulators and stress factors
(as physical or chemical - osmotic shock, culture medium dehydration, pH, heavy metal ions, heat or cold shock
treatments, hypoxia, antibiotics, ultraviolet radiation, wounding treatments) (ZAVATTIERI et al., 2010).
In the case of P. somniferum L., callus was obtained starting from seedlings hypocotyls in the presence of 0.25
mg/l kinetin and 2.0 mg/l NAA (NESSLER, 1982). The same combination of plant growth factors but in different
concentration was used for the induction of callus in P. somniferum ssp. album and P. orientale ssp. splendidissimum
(KASSEM & JACQUIN, 2001). In the case of P. nudicaule, an ornamental medicinal plant, a regeneration way through
somatic embryogenesis and secondary somatic embryogenesis on MS medium containing 1.0 mg/L NAA and 0.1 mg/L
BA starting from petiole explants was reported (YANG et al., 2010).
The maturation stage is considered a critical stage of somatic embryogenesis and depends on the presence of
specific plant growth regulators (MONDAL et al., 2002). As in our case, the embryos from different stages were
converted into plants on the same medium variant, the embryos of P. nudicaule germinated with high frequency on the
medium supplemented with BA and NAA (YANG et al., 2010).
Our results showed that mannitol and sucrose are able to induce somatic embryogenesis, but only mannitol can
sustain the development of the embryos. Similarly, mannitol was proved to induce somatic embryogenesis in some taxa
as Dianthus spiculifolius, D. tenuifolius, D. glacialis ssp gelidus (HOLOBIUC & CATANĂ, 2012), Gentiana lutea
(HOLOBIUC et al., 2010).
In our case, in the presence of 6% sucrose, somatic embryos were arrested in the early stages and they did not
evolve and was observed different stages of degradation (Fig. 2). The same results were obtained in the case of Papaver
somniferum ssp. album and P. orientale ssp. splendidissimum, where increased sucrose concentration did not allow the
development of somatic proembryos to somatic embryos (KASSEM & JACQUIN, 2001).
CONCLUSIONS
In the case of P. corona-sancti-stefani, a protocol of micropropagation through direct somatic embryogenesis

was established. As inductors of somatic embryogenesis in our case, there can be used plant growth factors (as BA,
NAA and kinetin) and also mannitol as stress factor. The maturation of the embryos was achieved in good conditions on
the medium variant with plant growth factors at 10°C.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was funded by the Romanian Academy through the research project RO1567-IBB07/2013. We
gratefully thank to Dr. Onete M. for the collection of the seeds.
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opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.). Industrial Crops and Products. Elsevier. Australia. 32(3): 668-670.
BONDARIAN F., TORABI S., OMIDI M., BAHREINI M. 2013. Study of callus induction and regeneration of
Papaver somniferum L. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. Elsevier. Australia. 24(1): S41.
CATANĂ RODICA, HOLOBIUC IRINA, MOLDOVEANU MIRELA. 2013. In vitro seed germination in three rare
taxa from the Romanian Carpathians Flora. Oltenia. Studii şi comunicări. Ştiinţele Naturii. Museum of Oltenia
Craiova, Romania. 29(1): 85-92.
CIOCARLAN V. 2009. Flora ilustrată a României. Edit. Ceres. Bucureşti. 176 pp.
DIHORU G. & PÂRVU C. 1987. Plante endemice in Flora Romaniei. Edit. Ceres. Bucureşti. 180 pp.
FEHÉR A. 2005. Why somatic plant cells start to form embryos? In: Somatic Embryogenesis. Plant Cell Monographs.
Springer. Berlin/Heidelberg. 2: 85-101.
GAMBORG O. L., MILLER R. A., OJIMA K. 1968. Nutrient requirements of suspension cultures of soybean root
cells. Experimental Cell Research. Elsevier. Australia. 50: 51–158.
50
GORGOROV R. N., YANKOVA E. P., BALDJIEV G. A., APOSTOLOVA I., YURUKOVA-GRANCHAROVA P. D.,
STANILOVA M. I. 2011. Reproductive capacity and in vitro cultivation of the glacial relict Papaver degenii
(Papaveraceae). Phytologia Balcanica. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.
Sofia. 17(3): 333 – 339.
HOLOBIUC IRINA & CATANĂ RODICA. 2012. Recurent somatic embryogenesis in long term cultures of Gentiana
lutea L. as a source for synthetic seed production for medium-term preservation. Archives of Biological
Sciences. Belgrade. 64(2): 809-817.
HOLOBIUC IRINA, MITOI MONICA, BLÎNDU RODICA, HELEPCIUC FLORENŢA. 2010. The establishment of
an in vitro gene bank in Dianthus spiculifolius Schur. and D. glacialis ssp. gelidus (Schott Nym. et Kotschy)
Tutin: II. Medium term cultures characterization in minimal growth conditions. Romanian Biotehnological
Letters. București. 15(2): 5111-5119.
IŞIK K. 2011. Rare and endemic species: why are they prone to extinction? Turkish Journal of Botany. 35: 411-417.
KASSEM M. A. & JACQUIN A. 2001. Somatic embryogenesis, rhizogenesis, and morphinan alkaloids production in
two species of opium poppy. Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology. Hindawi Publishing Corporation.
1(2): 70-78.
MONDAL T. K., BHATTACHARYA A., SOOD A., AHUJA P. S. 2002. Factors affecting germination and conversion
frequency of somatic embryos of tea [Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze]. Journal of Plant Physiology. Elsevier.
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MURASHIGE T. & SKOOG F. 1962. Revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco tissue cultures,
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NESSLER C. L. 1982. Somatic embryogenesis in the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, Physiologia Plantarum.
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OLTEAN M., NEGREAN G., POPESCU A., ROMAN N., DIHORU G., SANDA V., MIHAILESCU SIMONA. 1994.
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Institutul de Biologie Bucureşti. 52 pp.
OVEČKA M., BOBÁK M., ERDELSKY K., ŠAMAJ J., BLEHOVA A., KRISTIN J. 1996 Morphology and
conversion ability of somatic embryos in long-term embryogenic callus culture of Papaver somniferum.
Biologia. Springer Publishing. 51: 417-423.
OVEČKA M., BOBÁK M., ŠAMAJ J. 2000. A comparative structural analysis of direct and indirect shoot regeneration
of Papaver somniferum L. in vitro. Journal of Plant Physiology. Elsevier, Australia. 157(3): 281–289.
PATHAK S., BRIJ K. M., PRASHANT M., PRATIBHA M., VINOD K. J. et al. 2012. High frequency somatic
embryogenesis, regeneration and correlation of alkaloid biosynthesis with gene expression in Papaver
somniferum. Plant Growth Regulation. Springer Publishing. 68(1): 17-25.
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of Biotechnology. New Delhi. 2: 271-271.
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plant regeneration via somatic embryogenesis in Papaver nudicaule L., an ornamental medicinal plant. Plant
Biotechnology Reports. Elsevier. Australia. 4: 261–267.
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***. http://xltoolbox.sourceforge.net (Accessed October 25, 2014).
Catană Rodica Holobiuc Irina

Plant and Animal Cytobiology Department, Institute of Biology, Plant and Animal Cytobiology Department, Institute of Biology,
Bucharest of Romanian Academy, 296 Splaiul Independenței, Bucharest of Romanian Academy, 296 Splaiul Independenței,
060031 Bucharest, P.O. Box 56-53, Romania. 060031 Bucharest, P.O. Box 56-53, Romania.
E-mail: catanarodica@yahoo.com E-mail: irina.holobiuc@ibiol.ro

51
FACTORS AFFECTING GRAFTING OF Acer pseudoplatanus L.
ILIEV Nasko, VARBEVA Lyubka
Abstract. Grafting of Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) was performed on to rootstock of the same species. Two phonological
conditions of the rootstock were studied – dormant and active. Three methods were tested – chip budding, splice graft and cleft graft.
Criteria for evaluating the results were success rate, length of the shoots, number shoots and percentage of the shoots developed from
the buds applied. We recommend grafting on both “dormant” and “growing” rootstock by splice graft. The success rate in spring
(dormant rootstock) was 90.00 ± 10.75% and in summer (growing rootstock) - 85.00 ± 10.75%.
Keywords: sycamore maple, chip budding, cleft graft, splice graft.
Rezumat. Factorii care influenţează altoirea la Acer pseudoplatanus L. Altoirea la paltin (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) a fost
efectuată pe un portaltoi aparţinând aceleiaşi specii. Au fost analizate două condiţii fenologice ale portaltoiului – în stare latentă şi
activă. Au fost testate trei metode – chip budding, altoirea în despicătură şi altoirea sub scoarţă. Criteriile folosite în evaluarea
rezultatelor au fost rata de success, lungimea lăstarilor şi procentul lăstarilor dezvoltaţi din butaşii folosiţi. Recomandăm altoirea atât
pe material în stare latentă cât şi activă prin metoda altoire în despicătură. Rata de succes primăvara (portaltoi în stare latent) a fost de
90,00 ± 10,75% şi vara (portaltoi activ) de 85,00 ± 10,75%.
Cuvinte cheie: paltin, chip budding, altoirea în despicătură, altoirea sub scoarţă.
INTRODUCTION
Acer pseudoplatanus L. is a valuable species from economic point of view (PANDEVA, 2004), because of its
good adaptive ability in different soil conditions (DOBRINOV, 1982; JOYCE, 1998) and its ornamental qualities
(DIRR, 1998). Despite these facts though, it remain not enough investigated in order to improve its genetic variability
(PANDEVA, 2004; THOMPSON et al., 2001).
Vegetative propagation of selected individuals gives the opportunity for production of clones and potential for
productivity and value in crescent of the new plantations (THOMPSON et al., 2001).
The species in the genus Acer have been propagated by different methods: rooting of stem cuttings, grafting
(DIRR & HEUSER, 1987) and micropropagation (HARTMANN, 2010).
It is always preferable for vegetative propagation to be used matured genotypes, as their phenotypic expression
of genetic potential is already revealed (FRANCLET, 1980; ZOBEL, 1981). When the rooting of cuttings is difficult or
impossible, the method of grafting and budding is used for cloning valuable genotypes (BROSHTILOV, 2000).
KRÜSSMANN (1997) and HARTMANN et al. (2010) highlight on the fact, that the species of the genus can be
separate to two groups of interoperability – “milky” sap and “non-milky” sap groups. On that base Acer pseudoplatanus L. is
a suitable rootstock for A. heldreichii, A. trautvetteri and others. According to DIRR & HEUSER (1987) and BERTELS
(2012) Sycamore rootstock is used for grafting and budding of the same species. Most commonly 2 year old seedlings are
used as a rootstock (DIRR & HEUSER 1987; THOMPSON et al., 2001; GRBICH, 2004).
A prerequisite for the grafting success is the phonologic condition of the two components. SHMID (2002)
points out two optimum periods – from the end of winter to the beginning of spring and summer period (July, August),
after the end of growing and development of summer wood. For the winter/spring grafting, it is necessary the rootstock
to be active and the scions to be dormant.
HARTMANN et al. (2010) recommends the seeds of Acer pseudoplatanus to be sown in February straight in
containers, and to be grown until the second summer in them. After that, at the end of winter, the containers need to be
moved in greenhouse, where they get ready for grafting. Straight after the first signs of development they are ready for
grafting. The success rate reported is 85%.
In field conditions, budding close to the ground or at the height of the crown is common and takes place in
June, July or August. Handmade grafting via lateral adhesion in high humidity in greenhouse and under polythene takes
place either in early spring (February, March) of in August. The recommended temperatures are 17-18ºС of the soil and
15-20ºС of the air (BERTELS, 2012). The summer period is recommended also by GRBICH (2004).
According to DIRR & HEUSER (1987) though, Sycamore is grafted in January of February on bare-root
rootstocks. At this period both rootstock and scion are dormant. Chip budding needs to be used as a technique, because
it is difficult to separate the bark of the rootstock. Grafting is used as well – Splice graft or whip and tongue graft, side
graft (HARTMANN et al., 2010).
When budding species from Aceraceae family, it is important the rootstock not to be intensively growing,
because it may cause rejection of the bud. In the opposite case, when the budding takes place too early, the cut heels and
rejects the bud. In that case second budding can be done in the second half of August (KRÜSSMANN, 1997).
52
ILIEV Nasko VARBEVA Lyubka
THOMPSON et al. (2001) recommends cleft graft on dormant rootstock in February. The reported success rate is
73%. KRÜSSMANN (1997) recommends for all maples an early spring splice graft, in which it is important to have
buds from the rootstock and the scion opposite to each other on the two sides of the shoot. That helps to prevent drying.
The analysis of the published information shows that there are a lot of factors affecting the success of grafting of
Sycamore. The aim of this study is to find the most suitable period and method of grafting for the South-East European
region.
The grafting took place in the forest nursery of Vetren, owned by FS (forestry service) Maglij. The scions were taken
from one year old shoots of a 40 year old marked individual of Sycamore. Three different methods was used – chip budding
(Photo 1), splice graft (Photo 2) and cleft graft (Photo 3).
The optimum phonologic periods were tested:
- Summer grafting – August;
- Spring grafting on dormant rootstock – March;
The scions carried an exact number of buds for every method – chip budding (1), splice graft (3) and cleft graft (4).
The grafts ware wrapped with elastic ties.
Only one graft was made on a single rootstock. Every variant included 3 replications of 20 grafts.
Irrigation was provided daily for 1 hour by automatic drip irrigation system, with space between the drippers
of 33 cm and debit of 2 litres per hour.
During the whole vegetation period, all the upcoming shoots from the rootstock were regularly removed.
The results were evaluated after the end of the first vegetation period. Success rate (%), length of the terminal shoot,
number and percentage of the shoots developed per scion were the criteria evaluated. All results were analysed by analysis of
variance (ANOVA) and post hoc LSD test using SPSS 10.0 (SPSS for windows 1999). Percentage values were transformed
using arcsine square root (√p) (COMPTON, 1994) to normalize error distribution prior variance analysis.
RESULTS
The results show big potential of Sycamore for vegetative propagation by grafting in both phenologic periods,
if the required biological prerequisites are correctly followed (table 1).
Table 1. Effect of the period and the method of grafting on its success (%).
Method\Period Spring Summer
Chip budding 68.33 ± 10.75 а 65.00 ± 10.75 a
Splice graft 90.00 ± 10.75 b 85.00 ± 10.75 ab
Cleft graft 75.00 ± 10.75 ab 73.33 ± 10.75 ab
The means and standard error within a column followed by the same letter were not significantly different,
estimated by One-Way ANOVA followed by a post hoc LSD test at p≤0.05.
The method with the lowest success rate was chip budding 68.33±10.75 % (in spring) and 65.00±10.75 % (in
summer). These percentages though are statistically identical with the ones recorded for the splice and cleft grafting
with one exception (spring splice graft - 90.00 ± 10.75) (Table 1).
As the splice and cleft grafts considered, there was not a statistically significant difference between the success
rate of the two. In spring it was from 75.00 ± 10.75% (cleft graft) to 90.00 ± 10.75% (splice graft) and in summer –
from 73.33% ± 10.75 (cleft graft) to 85.00 ± 10.75% (splice graft) (Table 1).
Photo 1. Chip budding (original). Photo 2. Splice graft (original) . Photo 3. Cleft graft (original).
53
Comparing the two periods, for every method separately, did not allow an optimal period to be defined.
The success rate of grafting does not depend on the period (significance level of 0.710), on the method
(significance level of 0.269), neither on the combination of the two (significance level of 0.988) (Table 2).
Table 2. Significance of factors and their interaction on coalescence between scion and rootstock.
Factor df F Sig
Period 1 0.144 0.710
Method 3 1.457 0.269
Period x Method 2 0.012 0.988
From a producer’s point of view, it is important not only the successful coalescence between scion and
rootstock, but the following growth of the scion as well (Table 3).
The slowest growth was recorded when cleft and splice graft were used in spring – 13.81 ± 1.44 cm and 17.59
± 1.64 cm respectively, without a statistical difference between the two. The most intensive growth (37.87 ± 1.67 cm)
was recorded when cleft graft was done in summer. The other variants show such values of the mean growth that did
not allow us to define a preferable method of grafting for the induction of the most intensive and fastest growth. These
mean values vary from 25.24 ± 2.89 cm (spring chip budding) to 34.62 ± 3.19 cm (summer chip budding) (Table 3).
Table 3. Effect of the period and method of grafting on the length of the shoots.
Mean length of the shoots (cm)
Method
Spring Summer
Chip budding 25.24 ± 2.89 bc 34.62 ± 3.19 de
Splice graft 17.59 ± 1.64 a 29.32 ± 1.79 cd
Cleft graft 13.81 ± 1.44 a 37.87 ± 1.67 e
The mean length of the shoots depend on the period of grafting (significance level of 0.000) and the method
(significance level of 0.001) as well as on the combination of the two (significance level of 0.000) (Table 4).
Table 4. Significance of factors and their interaction on length of the shoots.

Factor df F Sig
Period 1 69.779 0.000
Method 3 5.517 0.001
Period x Method 2 9.049 0.000
Legend: R Squared = 0,166 (Adjusted R Squared = 0,159)
From the studied methods, chip budding registered the lowest number of shoots developed – 1.23 ± 0.19 (in
summer) and 1.33 ± 0.18 (in spring) (Table 5). This result is logical, because with the method of chip budding there is
only one bud applied per scion as opposite to minimum 3 with the other methods of grafting. Nevertheless the result
shows that more than one shoot was developed in some of the chip budded trees, which is indication of development of
dormant buds from the bud shield.
More shoots were developed when the method of splice graft was applied – from 2.51 ± 0.15 (in summer) to
2.69 ± 0.15 (in spring) (Table 5). As in case of this method every scion had 3 buds, it registers the highest result
(81.77±9.04 to 89.74±8.60) from the three methods (Table 5).
Most shoots developed when the method of cleft graft was used – from 3.19 ± 0.14 (in spring) to 3.43 ± 0.17
(in summer). In percents, it is from 79.83±8.21 to 85.63±9.80 (Table 5).
Though there was no difference from the statistical point of view between mean percentages of developed
buds at couple methods of grafting, there is a statistical difference between the grafting methods and budding.
Table 5. Effect of the period and method of grafting on the developed shoots.
Mean number of developed shoots Mean percentage of developed buds (%)
Method
Spring Summer Spring Summer
Chip budding 1.33 ± 0.18 a 1.23 ± 0.19 a 133.33 ± 10.79b 112.81±11.14b
Splice graft 2.69 ± 0.15 b 2.51 ± 0.15 b 89.74±8.60a 81.77±9.04a
Cleft graft 3.19 ± 0.14 c 3.43 ± 0.17 c 79.83±8.21a 85.63±9.80a
The method and the period of grafting have a statistically proven effect on the mean number of developed
shoots (significance level of 0.000). The number of the shoots depends on the interaction of the two as well with the
same significance level of 0.000 (Table 6).
54
ILIEV Nasko VARBEVA Lyubka
Table 6. Significance of factors and their interaction on mean number of shoots and percentage of developed buds.
Factor mean number of shoots percentage of developed buds
df F Sig df F Sig
Period 1 1532.419 0.000 1 0.298 0.585
Method 3 48.416 0.000 3 8.572 0.000
Period x Method 2 1.128 0.000 2 0.438 0.646
R Squared = 0.324 (Adjusted R Squared = 0.310). R Squared = 0.082 (Adjusted R Squared = 0.064).
The period did not affect the development of the buds (significance level of 0.585). On the contrary, the
method of grafting had a significant effect on the percentage of developed buds (significance level of 0.000). The
interaction between the two did not prove to be significant (significance level of 0.646) (Table 6).
DISCUSSION
Our results show that Sycamore is a species with high regenerative capability of its tissues. That fact explains the
diversity of recommendations about successful grafting procedures. As our results confirm successful coalescence between
the tissues is possible when grafting is made in spring period, as recommended by HARTMANN et al. (2010), DIRR &
HEUSER (1987), THOMPSON et al. (2001) and KRÜSSMANN (1997), as well as budding in summer (KRÜSSMANN
1997; BERTELS 2012; GRBICH 2004). Chip budding proved to be useful, also in spring. In our study, the separation of the
bark was not possible in both seasons, which makes the method of budding more favourable.
Our results show the possibility of successful splice and clef grafting in summer, which has not been reported
before in that season. The results confirm as well the recommendations of KRÜSSMANN (1997) and HARTMANN
(2010) for splice graft and THOMPSON et al. (2001) for cleft graft in spring.
The usage of two year old rootstock recommended by (DIRR & HEUSER 1987; THOMPSON et al., 2001;
GRBICH, 2004) was confirmed and it was indicated the possibility of using three year old rootstock.
CONCLUSIONS
For vegetative propagation of Sycamore, methods of chip budding, splice and cleft grafting can be successfully
applied. We recommend spring and summer splice grafting as the most appropriate method. The present study proves
the possibility of both grafting and budding in the two studied periods (spring and summer). These findings allow
significant widening of the available working period and free choice of transplanting material.
REFERENCES
BERTELS А. 2012. Propagation of woody species. Afforestation, cuttings and grafting. EH Dionis. Sofia. 130-131. [in
Bulgarian].
BROSHTILOV K. 2000. Propagation of broadleaf trees by cuttings. In: I. Iliev, P. Zhelev, I. Cvetkov, V. Giuleva, G.
Shmid. IPPS in Bulgaria – Fourth scientific conference, Propagation of Ornamental Plants. Balkan-press,
Sofia. 184–189. [in Bulgarian].
COMPTON M. E. 1994. Statistical methods suitable for the analysis of plan tissue culture data. Plant cell, Tissue and
Organ Culture. 37: 217-242.
DIRR A. M. 1998. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, ornamental characteristics, culture,
propagation and uses. Fift Edition. Stipes Publishing L. L. C. Champaign, Illinois. 43-44.
DIRR A. M. & C. HEUSER JR. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant propagation: From seed to tissue culture.
Varsity Press. Inc. Athens, Georgia. 86 pp.
DOBRINOV I., DOYKOV G., GAGOV V. 1982. Forest genetic fund. National Editorial House Zemizdat. Sofia. 122-
125. [in Bulgarian].
FRANCLET A. 1980. Rajeunissement et propagation vegetative des ligneux. Annales AFOCEL. 11-40.
GRBICH M. 2004. Vegetative propagation of ornamental trees and shrubs. University of Beograd. Beograd. 482 pp.
[in Serbian].
HARTMANN H. T., KESTER D. E., DAVIES F. E., GENEVE R. 2010. Propagation of Ornamental Trees, Shrubs,
and Woody Vines. In: Hatrmann & Kester’s Plant Propagation: Principles and Practices. Edit. Prentice Hall.
New York. 775 pp.
JOYCE P., HUSS J., MCCARTHY R., PFEIFER A., HENDRICK E. 1998. Growing broadleaves. Silvicultural guidelines
for ash, sycamore, wild cherry, beech and oak in Ireland. Edit. McDonald and Glennon. Dublin. 51-64.
KRÜSSMANN G. 1997. Ornamental nurseries. Propagation of broadleaves. Moira-3 LTD. Sofia. 5-11. [in Bulgarian].
PANDEVA D. 2004. Distribution and variability of species from genus Acer in Eleno-Tvurdishki part of Balkan
mountain. Ph. D. Thesis. University of Forestry. Sofia. 124 pp. [in Bulgarian].
SHMID H. 2002. Grafting of fruit trees and shrubs. EH Dionis. Sofia. 223 pp. [in Bulgarian].
55
THOMPSON D., HARRINGTON F., DOUGLAS G., HENNERTY M., NAKHSHAB N., LONG R. 2001. Vegetative
Propagation Techniques for Oak, Ash, Sycamore and Spruce. Edit. COFORD. Dublin. 16-28 pp.
ZOBEL B. 1981. Vegetative propagation in forest management operations. Procceedings of 16th South Forest Tree
Improvement Conference. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA: 149–159.
Nasko Iliev
University of Forestry, Bulgaria.
E-mail: ilievnasko@abv.bg
Lyubka Varbeva
University of Forestry, Bulgaria.
E-mail: lubka.varbeva@gmail.com

56
CRYOCONSERVATION OF Pseudevernia furfuracea L. SPECIES

AND ASSESSING THE VIABILITY AFTER THAWING
BANCIU Cristian, CRISTIAN Diana
Abstract. The present study concerns the viability assessment after revitalization of fragments of Pseudevernia furfuracea L. species
from Romania. After a pre-treatment with two cryoprotectants in different concentrations, the fern explants have been slowly cooled
and immersed in liquid nitrogen. Fluorescence microscopy images done on viability coloured sections revealed lichen survival.
Keywords: lichens, cryopreservation, fluorescence, viability.
Rezumat. Crioconservarea speciei Pseudevernia furfuracea și evidenţierea viabilităţii după dezgheț. Studiul de faţă
prezintă evaluarea viabilităţii speciei P. furfuracea din România. După un pretratament cu doi crioprotectori, la concentrații diferite,
explantele de lichen au fost congelate gradat şi imersate în azot lichid. Imaginile de microscopie prin fluorescenţă realizate la
preparate cu coloranţi de viabilitate au reliefat supravieţuirea indivizilor.
Cuvinte cheie: licheni, crioconservare, fluorescenţă, viabilitate.
INTRODUCTION
Lichens are a composite category of organisms that live all over the world, consisting in approximately 20 000
species. In Romania, there live 1700 lichen species, 4 of them being of European interest according to Habitat Directive
Annex IIb.
P. furfuracea (L.) Zopf belongs to the family of Parmeliaceae. The thallus of this species is characterized by a
dark gray, velvety upper face and blackish lower face, a special image that distinguishes it from the Evernia and
Ramalia species. It has been used to preserve the odour of species employed in embalming mummies in ancient Egypt.
Large amounts of P. furfuracea (1 900 t/years) are processed in the perfume industry (GUVENC et al., 2012).
In some experiments of the antifungal activity of the extracts of the P. furfuracea chemical races,
chloroatranorin and olivetoric acid showed remarkable antifungal activities (HAYRETTIN et al., 2006). It is also
proved to accumulate heavy metals being a good material for studying the bioaccumulation and for biomonitoring the
polluted areas (CANSARAN-DUMAN et al., 2009). The species is sensible to some air pollutants, researches indicating
DNA damage in the samples analyzed (ARAS et al., 2010). It was also used to study the effects of ultrastructural trace
elements (Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn) in field and in vitro treatments, proving to develop important changes making the species
tolerant to those elements (SORBO, 2011).
In the latest years the attention of the researchers for the antioxidant activity of the plants has increased
(HELEPCIUC et al., 2014) and even the lichens can be used as sources of antioxidant agents on species as P. furfuracea
and Platismatia glauca (MITROVIC et al., 2014). Other researches have revealed that P. furfuracea is a serious source
of natural products such phisodic acid, antranozin, oxiphisodic and virensic acids as bioactive compounds and
proteolitic enzymes with pharmacological and biotechnological research importance (KIRMIZIGUL et al., 2003;
PROSKA et al., 1994).
Cryopreservation is a time saving method to maintain the original variability of the germplasm for long and
very long time (from days to years and even hundreds of years) in independent conditions (PĂUNESCU, 2009).
Conservation strategies may be adapted by species specificity and considering other important factors such as
reproduction strategies (MANOLE, 2015). The results are a model for preserving other lichen species with ornamental,
pharmacological or conservative importance.
The material analysed is represented by fresh fragments of talus from P. furfuracea (Fig.2) from the natural habitat
(as seen as a fragment in Fig. 3) taken from coniferous woods of Picea abies from Bucegi mountains, Romania (from two
populations one from Sinaia and the second one from Baba Mare peak, Bușteni). It was maintained for one week at cold
(5oC). For cryoprotection a treatment was applied using a solution of liquid half mineral concentration MS medium
(MURASHIGE & SKOOG, 1962) supplemented with 6% (w/v) sucrose, and two versions of cryoprotectants: 5% Dimethyl
sulfoxide (DMSO) + 5% glycerol respectively 10% Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) + 10% glycerol, applied each for 30 minutes
to 10 samples of ferns (WITHERS & WILLIAMS, 1985). In the next stage the cryotubes containing 0.5 mL of solution and a
5 mm fragment of lichen material were inserted in the controlled cooling rate machine (from CryoLogic) using a
computerized program (CryoGenesys) as in the graphic from below (Fig. 1). The program consisted in several steps: cooling
with 2oC/min. to 0oC, then with 1oC/min. to -6oC, stopping at this temperature for ice nucleation process during 7 minutes,
cooling with 0.3oC/min. to -32oC and then with 0.5oC/min. to -42oC. After the cooling processes, the specimens have been
57
BANCIU Cristian CRISTIAN Diana
immersed in (LN) liquid nitrogen (at -196oC) for 24 hours. The thawing process took place rapidly in a water bath at 37oC
followed by storage in liquid MS medium supplemented as described above, without cryoprotectants (BANCIU et. al., 2013).
The viability test was performed by keeping the lichens for 5 minutes in fluorescein diacetate (FDA) in concentration of 0.1%
(w/v) at room temperature (REINERT & BAJAJ, 1977) and observing the sample on optical microscope Imager M1 from
Leica. During the reaction, only in the living cells, the FDA is hydrolysed to fluorescein (coloured in UV light) and malic acid
(PĂUNESCU, 2009).
Figure 1. Slow freezing temperature graphic (CryoGenesys 5). Y-temperature (oC), X-time (minutes);
red line-protocol parameters, green line-achieved parameters.
1 cm
Figure 2. Fragments of talus from Pseudevernia furfuracea (original).
The protocol used for lichen cryopreservation consisted in two treatments: a chemical one with two
cryoprotective solutions (DMSO and glycerol) and a thermal treatment by gradually cooling the specimens. The
program chosen allows the most important phenomena (the ice nucleation) to take part in the intercellular space
avoiding ice crystals to grow in the cells and break the cell membrane. In this way the cooling program allows the
extracellular water to ice, reducing the concentration of liquid phase and attracting the intracellular water outside the
cell by osmosis, which is replaced by cryoprotectants as DMSO and glycerol (BANCIU et al., 2013).
The lichen explants appeared grey-green coloured after thawing and were visualized on fluorescence
microscopy using 3 fluorochromes: DAPI (4’, 6-diamidino-2-phenylindole), GFP (green fluorescence protein) and
ROD (Rhodamine). The fluorescence reflected by the cells confirms their viability.
The algal cells from the symbiotic tissue appear viable being coloured with all fluorochromes.
In UV light, using GFP filter the algal cells are green coloured being visible active; this proves that these cells
have survived and the esterase from intracellular space hydrolysed FDA (Fig. 4).
In the figure 5, again the algal cells displayed in UV light using ROD as filter are intense red coloured,
revealing that internal organelles have survived with the help of cryoprotective agents.
58
The picture coloured in blue visualized by UV light using DAPI filter gives a general image on the viable
symbiotic tissue with the intensity on both algal cells and fungus filaments that are visible (Fig. 6).
Viability test of lichen specimens exposed to extreme cold conditions in LN at -196oC confirmed the capacity
of lichens to adapt to cold in experimental conditions, which is known from nature where lichens resist and grow in
arctic and alpine regions. Avoiding the intracellular ice crystal formation is the key factor in cells survival in
cryopreservation processes. The thawing procedure is also important due to the risk of repeating the same phenomena
during ice melting and water re-entering in the cells. If the thawing process is too slow the water has enough time to
form ice crystals in the vacuome and the cell membranes are broken (BANCIU et al., 2013).
Other authors used encapsulation method for cryopreservation of ferns (MIKUŁA et al., 2009) starting with
spores. In that conditions exposure to LN had even a stimulating role for the immature spores. We have used the slow
freezing procedure on lichens, due to low concentration of cryoprotectants (avoiding in this way cyto-toxicity of the
cytoplasm content) and less damaging treatment of the cells that avoids osmotic stress.
These results are a good start for long term conservation for a wide category of plant species threatened by
natural and anthropogenic factors, but also for special germplasm collections with economic importance.
CONCLUSIONS
The protocol established for extreme cold treatment for Pseudevernia furfuracea species was successful, after
thawing the explants maintaining the viability. It allows further experiments on other lichen species in the direction long
term conservation and pharmacological properties.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was conducted through the program Partnerships in Priority Domains-PNII, developed with the support
of MEN-UEFISCDI, project no. 273/2014 and project financed by the Romanian Academy no. RO1567-IBB06/2014.
Figure 3. Revitalised talus of lichens Figure 4. Revitalised talus in UV light visualized

in visible light (original). by GFP filter (original).
Figure 5. Revitalised talus in UV light Figure 6. Revitalised talus in UV light

visualized by Rhodamine filter (original). visualized by DAPI filter (original).
59
BANCIU Cristian CRISTIAN Diana
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GUVENC A., AKKOL ESRA KUPELI, SUNTAR I., KELES H., YILDIZ S., CALIS I. 2012. Biological activities of
Pseudevernia furfuracea (L.) Zopf. extracts and isolation of the active compounds. Journal of
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Atranorin, and Olivetoric Acid Constituents. Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung C. Edit. Max Planck Society.
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HELEPCIUC FLORENTA ELENA, MITOI MONICA ELENA, MANOLE - PĂUNESCU ANCA, ALDEA
FLORENTINA, BREZEANU AURELIA, CORNEA CALINA PETRUTA. 2014. Induction of plant
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KIRMIZIGUL S., KOZ M., ANIL H., ICLI S., ZEYBEK U. 2003. Isolation and structure elucidation of novel natural
products from Turkish lichens. Turkish Journal of Chemistry, Edited by Tubitak, Ankara, Turkey, 27 (4): 493–500.
MANOLE ANCA. 2015. First mature fruit description of Pietrosia laevitomentosa (Asteraceae) and its implications to
the taxonomic position of the genus Pietrosia. Phytotaxa, Edited by Magnolia Press, Auckland, New Zealand,
197(4): 282-290.
MIKUŁA ANA, JATA KARINA, RYBCZYŃSKI J. J. 2009. Cryopreservation strategies for Cyathea australis (R. Br.)
Domin. CryoLetters. Edited by CryoLetters LLP. Lewen. UK. 30(6): 429-439.
MITROVIĆ TATJANA, STAMENKOVIĆ SLAVISA, CVETKOVIĆ V., RADULOVIĆ N., MLADENOVIĆ M.,
STANKOVIĆ M., TOPUZOVIĆ MARINA, RADOJEVIĆ IVANA, STEFANOVIĆ OLGICA, VASIĆ SAVA,
ČOMIĆ LJIJANA. 2014. Platismatia glauca and Pseudevernia furfuracea lichens as sources of antioxidant,
antimicrobial and antibiofilm agents. EXCLI Journal. Edit. Leibniz Research Centre. Dortmund. 13: 938-953.
MURASHIGE T. & SKOOG F. 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassay with tobacco tissue cultures.
Physiologia Plantarum. Edited by Scandinavian Plant Physiology Society. Copenhagen, Denmark.15: 473-497.
PĂUNESCU ANCA. 2009. Biotechnology for endangered plant conservation: a critical overview. Romanian
Biotechnological Letters. Edit. Ars Docendi. București. 14: 4095-4103.
REINERT J. & BAJAJ Y. P. S. 1977. Applied and Fundamental Aspects of Plant Cell, Tissue, and Organ Culture. Edit.
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Banciu Cristian Cristian Diana

Institute of Biology, Romanian Academy, Bucharest. Institute of Biology, Romanian Academy, Bucharest.
E-mail: cristi.banciu@ibiol.ro E-mail: diana.cristian@ibiol.ro

60
Eugenia caryophyllata Thunberg - A MIRACULOUS HERB
ROMAN Luminiţa, ROMAN Horațiu, HOSU Anamaria, VASILIU Cristiana, MIHĂESCU Grigore, CZOBOR Ilda
Abstract. Eugenia caryophyllata Thunberg 1788 belongs to the family Myrtaceae, is an aromatic tree, originally from Indonesia used as a
condiment. Its antibacterial, antifungal and anthelmintic properties are known from ancient times. Despite the development of the
pharmaceutical industry, currently at least 30 000 people die every year in Europe due to infections caused by antibiotic-resistant
microorganisms: Staphylococcus aureus resistant to methicillin (MRSA), Staphylococcus aureus vancomycin-resistant (VRSA),
Entercoccus spp. vancomycin-resistant (VRE), Streptococcus pneumoniae penicillin-resistant (PRSP), Enterobacteriaceae (Escherichia coli,
Klebsiella pneumoniae) resistant to the third generation cephalosporins, Enterobacteriaceae (K. pneumoniae) carbapenems-resistant and non-
enteric bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) resistant to carbapenems. For almost every existing antibiotic, bacteria have developed a
resistance factor that protects them from the action. For each resistance factor, pharmaceutical companies have developed a stronger
antibiotic - until today. In the battle between bacteria and antibiotics the balance of victory begins to tilt toward these microorganisms. In
these circumstances, the return to traditional medicine seems to be the solution. In order to determine the antibacterial activity of the
compounds of Eugenia caryophyllata buds extract against bacteria isolated from nosocomial infections MDR (multiple drug resistant), we
used the disc-diffusion method and inoculation of 96-well plate BHI. Screening of genes coding β- lactam antibiotics resistance was
performed by PCR. The active compounds of the ethanol extracts and essential oil of Eugenia caryophyllata were determined by HPTLC,
respectively by GC-MS. Gram positive and Gram negative strains isolated from nosocomial infections showed genotypic resistance
characteristics to lactam antibiotics. Hydroalcoholic extracts and essential oil of E. caryophyllata were active against all MDR bacteria.
Eugenol is the main component of the extract of E. caryophyllata. In conclusion, the extracts of E. caryophyllata can successfully replace
antibiotics whose action against MDR bacteria proved to be ineffective.
Keywords: Eugenia caryophyllata, eugenol, MDR bacteria.
Rezumat. Eugenia cariophyllata Thunberg - o plantă miraculoasă. Eugenia caryophyllata Thunberg 1788, face parte din familie
Myrtaceae, este un arbore aromatic, original din Indonezia folosit ca şi condiment. Proprietăţiile sale antibacteriene, antifungice și
antihelmitice sunt cunoscute din antichitate. În ciuda dezvoltării industriei farmaceutice, în prezent, cel puţin 30 000 de oameni mor anual în
Europa datorită infecţiilor cauzate de microorganisme rezistente la antibiotice: Staphylococcus aureus rezistent la meticilină (MRSA),
Staphylococcus aureus rezistent la vancomicină (VRSA), Entercoccus spp. rezistente la vancomicină (VRE), Streptococcus pneumoniae
rezistent la penicilină (PRSP), enterobacterii (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae) rezistente la cefalosporine de generaţia a treia,
enterobacterii (K. pneumoniae) rezistente la carbapeneme, şi non-enterici (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) rezistente la carbapeneme. Pentru
aproape fiecare antibiotic existent în prezent, bacteriile au dezvoltat un factor de rezistenţă care le protejează de acţiunea sa. Pentru fiecare
factor de rezistenţă, companiile farmaceutice au dezvoltat un antibiotic mai puternic – până astăzi. În lupta dintre bacterii şi antibiotice,
balanţa victoriei începe să se încline către aceste microorganisme. În aceste condiţii, întoarcerea la medicina tradiţională pare a fi soluţia.
Pentru a determina activitatea antibacteriană a compuşilor din extract de muguri de Eugenia caryophyllata împotriva bacteriilor MDR izolate
din infecţii nosocomiale, am folosit metoda disc-difuzimetrică adaptată şi însămânţare în plăci cu 96 godeuri cu mediu BHI. Screening-ul
genelor codificatoare ale rezistenţei la antibioticele β- lactamice s-a realizat prin metoda PCR. Compuşii activi din extractele etanolice și ulei
esențial din Eugenia caryophyllata au fost determinaţi prin HPTLC respetiv, GC. Tulpinile Gram pozitive şi Gram negative izolate din
infecţii nosocomiale au prezentat caracteristicile genotipice de rezistenţă la antibioticele lactamice. Extractele hidroalcoolice şi uleiul volatil
din E. caryophyllata au avut activitate împotriva tuturor bacteriilor MDR. Eugenolul este componentul principal al extractului din E.
caryophyllata. În concluzie, extractele din E. caryophyllata pot înlocui cu succes antibioticele a căror acţiune împotriva unor bacterii MDR
s-a dovedit a fi ineficientă.
Cuvinte cheie: Eugenia caryophyllata, eugenol, bacterii MDR.
INTRODUCTION
The healing with medicinal plants is as old as mankind itself. The relationship between man and aromatic herbs
dates back to the distant past, as it results from different sources: written documents, preserved monuments, and even the
original drugs from plants (PETROVSKA, 2012). Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb, with EUCA15 symbol is a spice widely
praised for its antibacterial and antioxidant properties, used for centuries as a food preservative. Currently, many articles in
PubMed render the antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and anticarcinogenic activity of the extracts of E. caryophyllata buds
(clove). E. caryophyllata is an evergreen tree with a height of 10-20 m (TAJUDDIN et al., 2004). It is part of the Myrtaceae,
being indigenous in India, Indonesia, Zanzibar, Mauritius and Sri Lanka. Buds of this tree are currently marketed worldwide.
The production of flower buds begins 4 years after planting, being collected in the maturation phase before flowering
(CORTÉS-ROJAS, 2014).
The classes of compounds with antimicrobial activity obtained from the extracts of E. caryophyllata are secondary
metabolites derived from fundamental processes of photosynthesis, glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. Secondary metabolites in
general are not essential for growth, development and reproduction of an organism and are either the result of the body's
adaptation to external environmental factors or defense mechanisms against predator bodies, helping the survival of the
organism. The changes of the biosynthetic pathways may be due to natural causes (for example, viruses or environmental
changes), or unnatural causes (for example, chemical pollutants), in an effort to adapt to survive (DIAS, 2012). Plant extracts
have multiple action target in the microbial cell, which is an advantage of their use as antimicrobials, with synergistic or
61
ROMAN Luminiţa ROMAN Horațiu HOSU Anamaria VASILIU Cristiana MIHĂESCU Grigore CZOBOR Ilda
concerted activity of components - their antimicrobial activity, and not only as a result of the fact that they are
multicomponent systems. This pharmacologic synergistic or additive effect may be beneficial by eliminating the side effects
associated with the predominance of one of the xenobiotic compounds in the body.
This role of several chemicals to act synergistically or the additive myth originated in plant secondary compounds
involved in the defense for the survival of the species. For example, role-products in the defense of a mixture of chemicals that
have additive or synergistic effects on multiple target sites would not only ensure efficacy against a wide variety of herbivores
or pathogens, but would also reduce the chances of these bodies to develop and adapt their reactions. Although secondary
compounds may have a variety of functions in plants, it is likely that the functions can have an effect on the human body with
medicinal potential. For example, cytotoxicity secondary compounds involved in plant defense against microbial pathogens
could be useful as antimicrobial agents in humans (BRISKIN, 2000).
Ethanolic extracts and essential oil of clove have been shown to be an important source of phenolic compounds such
as flavonoids, hydroxybenzoic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid and hydroxyphenyl propene. Eugenol is the main bioactive
compound that was reported by different authors as having the largest activity (TAJUDDIN et al. 2004, JOSHI et al., 2010.
BHOWMIK et al., 2010). Tannins were reported in large quantities: phenolic acids (caffeic acid, ferulic, ellagic and salicylic
acid), gallic acid can be found in higher concentration. Flavonoids such as kaempferol, quercetin and its derivatives
(glycosylated) have also lower concentrations. Another important compound in the essential oil of clove found in
concentrations of up to 2.1% is α-humulen. Other volatile compounds present in low concentrations in the essential oil of
cloves are β-pinene, limonene, farnesol, benzaldehyde, 2-heptanone, and ethyl hexanoate (CORTÉS-ROJAS, 2014).
1. Preparation of the extract and analysis of the compounds

The buds of Eugenia caryophyllata were purchased in store. The ethanolic extract was prepared by macerating the
clove powder in 95% ethyl alcohol for 24 hours (1: 4 w / v), after which it was introduced into a rotary evaporator for 10-15
minutes and then the supernatant was purified by Whatman filter paper no. 41. The extract thus obtained was stored in an
amber glass container at 4̊ C. The analysis of the compounds of the ethanolic extracts was made using HPTLC (High
Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography method). Chemicals and reagents use: 2,2̓ azinobis (3- ethylbenzothiazoline- 6
sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS), ascorbic acid (vitamin C), gallic acid, Folin–Ciocalteu’s reagent, and sodium
persulfate (Na2S2O8) were purchased from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). Aluminium chloride (AlCl3), sodium acetate
(CH3COONa), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and methanol were obtained from Chimopar (Bucharest, Romania). All chemicals
and solvents were analytical grade. The absorbance measurements were performed using a T80+ UV/VIS Spectrophotometer
(PG-Instruments). Each experiment has been performed in triplicate. For antioxidant activity of extracts we performed the
following steps: the cationic radical ABTS+ was obtained from the reaction of 7 mmol/L ABTS diammonium salt solution
with 2.45 mmol/L Na2S2O8 solution mixed in 1:1 (v/v) ratio, incubated for 24 h at room temperature in the dark. Then, 0.5 mL
of appropriately diluted extract were added to 3 mL ABTS+• solution diluted to achieve an absorbance less than 0.800, and the
absorbance was measured at 734 nm, after 20 min. Calibration was performed using vitamin C as standard, in the
concentration range of 50–250 μg/ mL, following the same procedure.
The calibration curve was used to calculate antioxidant activity. For total phenolic content (TPC) determination, 1.5
mL of Folin–Ciocalteu reagent (0.2 mol/L) was added to 0.3 mL of plant extract appropriately diluted with distilled water.
The reaction mixture was allowed to react 5 min and then, 1.2 mL of 0.7 mol/L Na2CO3 was added. The results were read
using an absorbance spectrophotometry at 760 nm. A calibration curve was obtained using 0–100 mg gallic acid/mL and was
used to calculate the total phenolic content of the extracts. The total flavonoids content of extracts was determined by treating
0.5 mL of extract appropriately diluted with distilled water with 0.4 mL of 25 g/L AlCl3 solution, 0.5 mL of 100 g/L
CH3COONa solution and 4 mL distilled water. After 15 min, the absorbance of the mixture was measured at 430 nm and the
flavonoid content express in mg rutin/g of plant, was calculated using the calibration curve obtained in the 0–120 mg/mL
concentration range. The volatile oil of cloves was obtained by hydro distillation in a Clevenger-Neo for 4 h. The volatile oil
was dried with Na2SO4 and stored in a dark glass bottle at 4° C. Oil samples were diluted in dichloromethane (1/200) for the
analysis of the chemical compounds. To identify the compounds of the clove oil extract we used a GC-MS. The used gas
chromatograph was Fisons Instruments GC 8000 coupled with mass spectrometer ionization quadruple analyzer impact,
pattern MD 800. Ionization energy was 70 eV. Capillary column used was a fused silica column with 5% phenyl poly
(dimethylsiloxane) (SLB-5ms, 30m x 0,32mm id, film thickness of stationary phase 0.25μm). The operating conditions were:
split splitless injector (injection mode - split flow dividing ratio 1/30) to 280oC, ion source temperature 200oC and 280oC
interface; initial column temperature was 40° C scheduled as follows: 3 min at 40° C, 4° C / min up to 280˚C, isothermal
conditions (at 280˚C) for 20 min; the flow rate of the carrier gas (helium) was 2 ml / min; injected sample volume was 1 ml.
Data acquisition was performed with the software MassLab in Table 30-600 amu, with a scan rate of 1 scan / s. Identification
of the detected compounds was based on comparing their mass spectra with those in databases (NIST, WILEY). Relative
concentration of the compounds was calculated using the values chromatographic peak areas under the curves, without
applying correction factors.
2. Analysis of resistance factors MDR strains from nosocomial infections
Strains isolated from urogenital infections were from patients hospitalized at Theodor Burghele Hospital Bucharest.
Phenotypic resistance to antibiotics was determined by disk diffusion method. For the analysis of virulence factors we used
62
phenotypic tests that allow the detection of six extracellular virulence factors: hemolysis, caseinase, gelatinase and pore-
forming toxins: DN-ase, lipase and lecitinase. These extracellular proteins known as the invasins have a role in the
degradation of tissue and invasion. Highlighting these soluble factors of virulence was achieved by growing strains on culture
media and studying the specific detection of each type of virulence factor. β-lactamases are the most important enzymes that
confer antibacterial resistance. To identify genes β-lactam antibiotic resistance we used PCR method. Preparation of bacterial
DNA to screen for gene was made by the method of bacterial lysis. The strains were seeded on an agar plate and kept at 37 °
C for 24 hours. In the PCR tubes there were added 20 μl NaOH (0.05 M) and SDS (0.25%), which made suspensions of 1-5
colonies. The tubes bacterial suspensions were kept for 15 minutes at 95°C, after which there were added 180 ml extraction of
TE solution (10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8, 0.1 mM EDTA), followed by centrifugation at 13,000 rpm / min for 3 minutes. The
supernatant was recovered, and then stored in a refrigerator. The verification of the product obtained was carried out by
electrophoresis of 0.8% agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide 3.5μg / ml. Following observation of bacterial phenotypes
it was checked the existence of several genes commonly associated with the production of β-lactamases: countertop, blaCTX-M,
blaNDM, blaOXA, blaIMP. For the amplification of this gene, we used the primer sequences described in the literature.
Table 1. Sequences of the primers used in the PCR reaction.
3. Determination of antimicrobial activity of extracts of clove

The quantitative determination of antimicrobial activity and establishing the minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC) was made by the method of serial microdilution in a liquid medium BHI (Hearth Infusion Broth) in 96well plates
/ Ependorf tubes of 1.5ml (CHIFIRIUC et. Al., 2011). MCI was established macroscopically, as the last concentration at
which no growth of the microbial environment was observed and that the appearance of turbidity are read
spectrophotometrically to the absorbance at 620 nm. For the qualitative testing of the antimicrobial activity, there were
prepared microbial suspension adjusted to 1.5x108 CFU / mL of the 0.5 McFarland standard, 15-18 hour cultures grown
on solid medium (Sabouraud). Antimicrobial activity was determined by disc diffusion method adapted to standardized
control antimicrobial activity of antibiotics, CLSI, 2009. The microbial suspension, adjusted to 0.5 McFarland standard
in the cloth was seeded in the cloth agar Petri dishes which pipetted 10μL of the stock solution obtained of the plant
extract. The plates are incubated for 16-18 hours at 35 ± 2° C, with the lid down. Reading the results was done by
measuring the diameters of the zones of inhibition comparatively. The influence on the ability adhesion to the inert
substrate was quantified after the protocol quantitative analysis of the effect of antimicrobial, evaluating the biomass,
after fixation with methanol and staining with crystal violet.
The optical density was determined spectrophotometrically and the biological material resuspended at 490 nm
(NORUZI et. al., 2010). For determining the inhibitory activity of clove extracts against soluble virulence factors, the
strains were grown in increasing concentrations of stock solutions subinhibitory essential oil: DMSO (CMI / 2) and the
positive control (untreated strain) were used for seeding each medium with each specific culture for detecting soluble
virulence factor (hemolysins caseinase, lipase, lecithinase, gelatinase and DN-ase).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 2. From the analysis of the ethanol extract of cloves, HPTLC method has shown the following results:
It is a very remarkable antioxidant, so a gram of ethanol extract clove corresponds to 4160.87 g of vitamin C. It
is also important to note the high concentration of polyphenols (264.44 mg gallic acid / g herbs). However, the
concentration of flavonoids is almost insignificant. The concentration of polyphenolic compounds in herbs is coupled
with their antioxidant activity. Antioxidant properties are induced by redox activity and mechanisms of action such as:
free-radical scavenging activity, transition-metal-chelating activity and/or singlet-oxygen-quencing capacity.
Polyphenols have an important role in the stabilization of lipid peroxidation and inhibit various types of oxidative
63
enzymes. The relationship between total antioxidant activity and the phenolic content of a large number of spices has
not been investigated sufficiently. Many researchers have argued that the phenolic compounds in spices were
responsible for their antioxidant activity, but few could correlate these relations on the basis of statistical data (SHAN et
al., 2005; DE ROSA & CRUTCHLEY, 2002).
The oil obtained by hydrodistillation of cloves was intense yellow with characteristic aromatic and persistent
odour. The average yield clove oil extraction was 8.40%, the density was 1.055 (g/cm3) and the index of fraction was
1.535. In clove oil there were identified five compounds representing approximately 95.51% of the total. In diagram 1
are shown the major component is eugenol, present in an amount of 87%, followed by caryophyllene (4.87%), acetyl
eugenol (2.11%), β−pinene (1.021%) and hexadecanoic acid, octadecyl ester (0.51%).
Diagram 1. Chromatogram of the essential oil of clove: the abscissa is the last retention time (minutes) and the ordinate, the relative
abundance. Compounds are listed in order of elution: 1= eugenol, 2= caryophyllene, 3= acetyl eugenol, 4= β−pinene, 5=
hexadecanoic acid, octadecyl ester.
Eugenol or phenol, 2-methoxy-3-(2-propenyl) has the molecular formula C10H12O3 and a molecular weight of 164
201 Da. Eugenol is an aromatic compound, the ether-oxide group with methylenedioxy group attached to the benzene nucleus
in para-position to the allyl chain. Eugenol increased the permeability of the membrane; the deformation of macromolecules
in the membrane was verified by spectroscopy (DEVI et al., 2011). The compound is a very promising candidate for versatile
applications; eugenol possesses significant antioxidant and has also been used as a penetration enhancer (PRAMOD et al.
2010). Eugenol is also known for his property against microorganisms forming biofilms. Adherence of the microorganisms to
host cells and tissues is the first event required for initial colonization or establishment of infection. Moreover, the microbial
surface contact can trigger various cellular behaviours, including biofilm formation. Biofilms can be defined as irreversibly
surface-attached communities of cells (sessile cells) embedded in a self-produced exopolymeric matrix, displaying a
distinctive phenotype compared to their free-floating (planktonic cells) counterparts. Sessile cells are less susceptible to
medicaments. Biofilms are thereby difficult to eradicate (DE PAULA et. al., 2014, CHIFIRIUC et. al., 2011). Eugenol is polar
due to the acidic hidroxyl (OH) group, but acetyl-eugenol is not polar. As a result, they can be separated by extraction from a
5% aqueous NaOH solution. Acetyl-eugenol will dissolve in the organic CH2Cl2 layer, while eugenol remains in the aqueous
base layer as a phenoxide.
Caryophyllene is a bicyclic sesquiterpene, usually found as a mixture of isocaryophyllene (cis double bond isomer)
and α- humulen (obsolete name: α-caryophyllene), an open-ring isomer. Caryophyllene is considered to be a rare structure in
nature, a cyclobutane ring (GERTSCH et al., 2008) with molecular formula C15H24. CALLEJA et al., 2014, reported the
antimicrobial activity of caryophyllene. β-pinene, a monoterpene, is one of the two isomers of pinene; the other one is α-
pinene. It is soluble in alcohol but not in water. It smells of green wood. It is also known as 6,6-dimethyl-2-methylenebicyclo
[3.1.1] heptane. Bactericidal and bacteriostatic activity of β-pinene has been reported in many articles. β-pinene has a direct
effect on the respiratory system of fungi by inhibiting the efflux pump protons, K + and H + that are found in the mitochondrial
membrane, since the loss of respiratory control and the disintegration of organelles followed by an inhibition of breathing at
higher concentrations of terpenes . β− pinene has a preferential affinity for mitochondria (URIBE et al., 1985).
Acetyl-eugenol or phenol, 2-methoxy-4- (2-propenyl) - acetate has a molecular formula C12H14O3.
Hexadecanoic acid, octadecyl ester or cetyl palmitate is the ester derived from palmitic acid and cetyl alcohol.
Palmitic acid, in IUPAC nomenclature, is the most common fatty acid (saturated) found in animals, plants and
microorganisms. Hexadecanoic acid, octadecyl ester has a molecular formula C34H68O2.
Following the comments of phenotypic resistance to antibiotics by disc-diffusion method, 70% of strains were
resistant to extended spectrum β-lactams (ceftazidime, cefotaxime, aztreonam), 54% were resistant to clavulanic acid,
41% were resistant to carbapenems (meropenem, imipenem) and 39% were resistant to oxacillin.
64
The results of the analysis of soluble factors revealed the presence of exotoxins and pore-forming toxins. 7 strains
showed simultaneous four soluble virulence factors, 9 strains presented three virulence factors simultaneously and 12 showed
two virulence factors simultaneously. Of the 82 studied strains, following phenotypic tests for evidence of virulence factors,
56 strains showed proteases by testing simple agar medium with the addition of milk. The test was considered positive when
observed around colonies yellowish-white precipitate of calcium paracaseinase. In tis paper 20 strains of all studied strains
showed gelatinase on average egg yolk medium with added lecithin seed purified. In the case of positive reaction around the
bacterial colony emerged crop or a halo and / or opacified area. Clarification result from the release of more soluble lecithin of
lipid complex (presence of lecitinase). 18 strains showed lipase on agar medium with the addition of TWEEN 80 (sorbitol
monooleate). The presence of TWEEN-lipase crystals oleate led to the emergence Ca2+ insoluble (crystal formed between
fatty acids and the release of Ca2+ ions). Of the total studied strains, 17 strains showed hemolysins on agar medium with
addition of 5% sheep blood or rabbit blood (highlighting the presence of Kanagawa hemolysins). Viewing the occurrence of
areas of haemolysis around the colonies, as a transparent halo, the clear characteristic was β-haemolytic strains (which achieve
a complete haemolysis; the haemoglobin released from red blood cells by the action of α-hemolysins generates a green halo,
emphasizing partial degradation). Of the total strains, 16 strains showed DN-aze on agar medium with DNA with toluidine
blue. DNA hydrolysis was revealed by the appearance of a halo around the spot pink culture, environment while the rest
remained blue coloured. Of the 82 studied strains, 21 showed gelatinase nutrient agar medium with gelatine. After
precipitation around the colonies a halo appeared due to the hydrolysis of gelatine.
For screening the activity of oil clove against soluble virulence factors, the strains were seeded in BHI broth medium
with the addition of the clove oil extract diluted in DMSO (1: 2) as the minimum inhibitory. Thus, the obtained strains were
passaged in specific medium of virulence factors. The inhibitory effect of the extracts of clove against virulence factors has
been reported in a ratio of 100%. According to the assessment, the phenotypical resistance factor β-lactam antibiotics, there
have been selected primers for molecular screening of the major coding for the β-lactamase gene described in the literature as
being frequent (PATERSON & BONOMO, 2005, LIVERMORE, 1995). For β- extended spectrum lactamases in the case of
bacteria resistant to penicillins and cephalosporins there have been used blaCTX-M and blaTEM genes encoding for β-lactamases
CTX-M. and TEM. For metal-β- lactamase we used blaVIM, blaKPC and blaOXA-23 genes coding for VIM, KPC and OXA-23
carbapenemases (BUSH & JACOBY, 2010). Figure 1 shows the negative image of ethidium bromide-stained agarose gel of
the multiplex PCR assay of blaTEM-like and blaCTX-M-like for strains investigated.
Figure 1 Agarose gel electrophoresis by multiplex PCR amplification for simultaneous detection of blaTEM-like and blaCTX-M-like genes,
numbered lanes correspond to the following samples: top row(1-20): molecular weight markers Gene Ruler 3000bp (Fermentas)
(MGM), E.coli7, E.coli29, E.coli2R, E.coli13, E.coli3R, E.coli22, E.coli19, E. faecalis4, E. faecalis7R, E. faecalis2, E.coli28, E.coli1022,
E.coli36, E.coli12, E.coli1018, E.coli10101, E.coli11, E.coli33, E.coli17R; middle row (1-20): (MGM), E.coli24I, E.coli26, E.coli5, E.coli1138,
E.coli13R, E.coli32, E.coli102, E.coli0R, A. baumanni22R, E.coli16R, K. pneumoniae6R, K. pneumoniae3R, E.coli112937 K. pneumoniae2R K.
pneumoniae15R, K. pneumoniae20, E. faecalis41, K. pneumoniae19I, K. pneumoniae12R; bottom row: K. pneumoniae9III, E.coli81, K.
pneumoniae26I, Proteus miserabilis1I, K. pneumoniae14I, K. pneumoniae31I, E.coli1138, K. pneumoniae113740, K. pneumoniae10I,
E.coli5III, K. pneumoniaeKI, K. pneumoniaeK2, K. pneumoniaeK3, E.coliE1, E.coliE2, E.coliE3; (B): simultaneous detection of blaNDM-like
and blaOXA-48-like genes: (MGM), K. pneumoniae6I, K. pneumoniae14I, K. pneumoniae15I, K. pneumoniae19I, K. pneumoniae0.
65
Amplicon approx. 1080 bp corresponding blaTEM gene confirming the presence of β-lactamases TEM can be
observed in the wells 5, 7, 8, 9, 15, 16, 17 (in the top row), in the wells 7, 8, 18 (in the middle row) and the wells 4, 9,
11, 12 in the lower row (representing 26% of the 54 strains). Amplicons approx. 754 bp corresponding blaCTX-M gene
confirming the presence of β-lactamases CTX-M can be observed in the wells 2, 6, 14, 18, 20 (in the top row), in the
wells 4, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20 (in the middle row) and in the wells 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16 (in
bottom row). Molecular analysis showed that the 26% of strains showed the presence of β-lactamases TEM-type
compared with 48% of the strains showed β-lactamase CTX-M type. The multiplex PCR method did not reveal the
presence of blaVIM, blaIMP blaNDM and blaOXA-48 genes coding for VIM, IMP, NDM and OXA-48 carbapenemases. The
other amplicons are not detected although not ruling out nonspecific β-lactamase. The existence of these types of β-
lactamases confirms lactam antibiotics resistance to pathogens.
Qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of clove extracts
The qualitative testing by disc diffusion method Kirby-Bauer, adapter (CHIFIRIUC et al, 2011) emphasized
that hydroalcoholic extracts and essential oil of E. caryophyllata shoots had antimicrobial activity for all bacterial
strains from the collection achieved, quantified by the appearance of a zone of growth inhibition around the spot stock
solution deposited on the seeded agar medium as can be seen in the example from Figure 2.
Figure 2. Qualitative testing of susceptibility to volatile oil and ethanol extract of E. caryophyllata strains studied,
for example Pseudomonas. aeruginosa1III. (original).
Qualitative evaluation is an estimate, because it is not known the extent of absorption of the compound by the
medium. Quantitative determination of antimicrobial activity was performed by the technique of successive binary
microdilution in a liquid medium, which is a method of determining the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). The
assay was performed according to the method described by CHIFIRIUC et al., 2011. Out of stock solutions of the
compounds to be analysed there are performed micro binary successive dilutions in liquid BHI medium, distributed in
96-well plates. No dilutions were made in the wells treated for positive control (culture medium) and negative control
(the control microbial culture).
MIC values are between 7.8 and 62.5 μL/ mL for ethanolic extracts and essential oils of E. caryophyllata. In
Table 2, there are shown the MIC values for Gram negative strains from the collection of study. Considering some of
the compounds resulting from the secondary metabolism of plants, also have a protective role, for example against
phytopathogens, which are generally Gram-negative bacteria, we can make a correlation between these phytopathogenic
bacteria and pathogenic bacteria in humans. Thus, we could explain the action of active compounds from plants against
a broad spectrum of pathogens.
Table 2. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for the essential oil and
ethanolic extracts of E. caryophyllata against Gram negative bacteria.
66
CONCLUSIONS
Ethanolic extracts and the essential oil of clove can be used successfully for severe nosocomial infections, due
in particular to MDR Gram negative bacteria. Eugenol (the main component of E. caryophillata) and the concerted
action of the compounds resulting from secondary metabolism of E. caryophillata had through several targets inhibitory
action against Gram negative bacteria. The importance of isolating synthetic compounds in the extracts of cloves can be
materialized by obtaining of new drugs for treatment of infections caused by MDR bacteria. Promoting the use of plant
extracts is the main aim to eradicate microorganisms whose virulence is due to the abuse of drugs. The use of spices in
daily consumption, especially cloves, for a long-term therapy, will result in increased body immunity against pathogens.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENS
We express our gratitude to Professor Coordinator, Mihăescu Grigore, Mrs. Carmen Maria Chifiriuc director
of the Research Institute of the Faculty of Biology, Mrs. Dr. Camelia Tudor, head of the laboratory of Theodor
Burghele Hospital Bucharest.
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Roman Luminița1, Roman Horațiu2, Hosu Anamaria3, Vasiliu Cristiana4, Mihăescu Grigore1, Czobor Ilda1
1
Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest,
2
Faculty of Geology, University of Bucharest,
3
Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Babes Boliay Cluj,
4
Social worker, London
E-mail: luminitaroman9@yahoo.com, horace_the_horace@yahoo.com,
hosuanamaria@yahoo.com, grigoremihaescu2006@yahoo.com

Accepted: May 12, 2015
68
FAUNISTIC DATA UPON THE TERRESTRIAL ISOPODS (CRUSTACEA, ISOPODA,

ONISCIDEA) FROM CRASNA HILLS, NORTH-WESTERN ROMANIA
FERENŢI Sára, COVACIU-MARCOV Severus-Daniel
Abstract. Using the direct collecting method, we identified 21 terrestrial isopod species from Crasna Hills, three times more than it
was previously collected in the region with pitfall traps. This difference confirms the fact that for faunistic studies upon terrestrial
isopods, the direct method is the most suitable. The highest number of species populated especially natural, but also human modified
wet areas. Many species were exclusively identified in natural habitats, under natural shelters, thus being vulnerable to anthropogenic
activities. In some altered habitats, situated near natural areas and crossed by watercourses, isopod species linked to natural
unaffected habitats may be present, alongside synanthropic species.
Keywords: collecting methods, diversity, habitats, wet areas, altitude.
Rezumat. Date faunistice asupra izopodelor terestre (Crustacea, Isopoda, Oniscidea) din zona Dealurilor Crasnei,
nord-vestul României. Cu ajutorul metodei directe am colectat din zona Dealurilor Crasnei, 21 de specii de izopode terestre, de trei ori
mai multe decât au fost identificate anterior în regiune cu capcane Barber. Aceasta diferenţă confirmă faptul că, pentru izopodele terestre, cea
mai potrivită, în cazul studiilor faunistice, este metoda directă. Cel mai mare număr de specii au populat zone umede, în special naturale, dar
şi modificate antropic. Multe specii au fost identificate exclusiv în habitate naturale şi sub adăposturi naturale, fiind astfel vulnerabile la
activităţile antropice. În anumite habitate modificate antropic, situate in vecinatatea unor zone naturale şi străbătute de cursuri de apă, pot fi
prezente şi specii de izopode legate de habitate naturale, neafectate, alături de specii sinantrope.
Cuvinte cheie: metode de colectare, diversitate, habitate, zone umede, altitudine.
INTRODUCTION
Data upon the terrestrial isopods from Crasna Hills, to our knowledge, are brief. Thus, there is information
upon isopods from two localities in the region, where sampling was made quantitatively, with pitfall traps (FERENŢI et
al., 2012a). Also, in another study, a single species was mentioned in a locality from the region (TOMESCU et al.,
2015). Contrary to Crasna Hills, terrestrial isopods from other north-western Romanian zones, like Oaș area, were
intensely studied (see in: FERENŢI et al., 2013a). In the case of terrestrial isopods, quantitative studies seem to
underestimate the number of the species, which was higher when the direct collecting method was used (e.g. FERENŢI
et al., 2012b; IANC & FERENŢI, 2014). For example, in Carei Plain from north-western Romania, only 6 species were
collected with pitfall traps (TOMESCU et al., 2008), compared with the 15 species observed by the direct method
(FERENŢI et al., 2012b). Considering the fact that in Crasna Hills only one study was made with pitfall traps, in the
region a more diverse isopod fauna than it is known until now, was expected. Thus, we proposed to analyze the
terrestrial isopod fauna from Crasna Hills using the direct method, trying to establish its real composition.
The field study was made in the years 2011 and 2012, 2-3 years after the previous study realized in the region
with pitfall traps (FERENŢI et al., 2012a). Terrestrial isopods were collected directly with the hand or with tweezers
under different shelters from the region (natural or artificial shelters). For each collecting point we tried to allocate the
same interval (20-30 minutes). We did not collect the same sample number from each locality, depending on
possibilities. Thus, from some localities we managed to collect only one sample, but from other localities we collected
more than 10 samples. Even if we mainly tried to observe the terrestrial isopod fauna from natural areas in Crasna Hills,
in two cases we collected samples inside localities. In those localities we had known local peoples, thus having access
to some artificial habitats. Totally, we collected 30 samples from 17 localities in Crasna Hills region. The majority of
these localities are situated in Satu Mare County, only two being in Bihor County. In the case of each sample, we
noticed the habitat characteristics, but also the type of shelters under which we collected the isopods. Crasna Hills are
situated in north-western Romania, belonging to Crişanei Hills, hills situated in the north-western part of the Apuseni
Mountains (POSEA & BADEA, 1984). The region altitude is low, reaching a maximum of 334 m (TUFESCU, 1986),
but many time it descends below 200 m. The hills are crossed by wide and flat valleys, with wet areas. Crasna Hills
border in the north with Tăşnad Plain (POSEA & BADEA, 1984), their limit being clear, despite their little altitudinal
difference. The collected terrestrial isopods were conserved in alcohol and identified in the laboratory according to the
literature (e.g. RADU, 1983, 1985; SCHMIDT, 1997; FARKAS & VILISICS, 2013). After the species were
determined, we calculated their percentage abundance and frequency of occurrence. The diversity (SHANNON &
WIEVER, 1949) was calculated both totally and also in the case of each habitat type. For the similarity we used Jaccard
index, calculated with the software Past. 3 (HAMMER et al., 2001).
69
FERENŢI Sára COVACIU-MARCOV Severus-Daniel
RESULTS
In Crasna Hills region we collected 350 individuals, belonging to 21 terrestrial isopods species: Ligidium
hypnorum (Cuvier, 1792), L. germanicum Verhoeff, 1901, Hyloniscus transsilvanicus (Verhoeff, 1901), H. riparius (C.
Koch, 1838), Trichoniscus carpaticus Tăbăcaru, 1974, Androniscus roseus (C. Koch, 1838), Haplophthalmus danicus
Budde-Lund, 1880, H. mengii (Zaddach, 1844), Cylisticus convexus (De Geer, 1778), Porcellium collicola (Verhoeff,
1907), Protracheoniscus politus (C. Koch, 1841), Trachelipus difficilis (Radu, 1950), T. arcuatus (Budde-Lund, 1885),
T. rathkii (Brandt, 1833), T. nodulosus (C. Koch, 1838), T. ratzeburgii (Brandt, 1833), Porcellionides pruinosus
(Brandt, 1833), Porcellio scaber Latreille, 1804, P. spinicornis Say, 1818, Armadillidium vulgare (Latreille, 1804), A.
versicolor Stein, 1859. The highest percentage abundance was registered by H. riparius, followed by H. transsilvanicus
and A. vulgare (Table 1). The most frequent species in the region was A. vulgare, followed by H. riparius, T. nodulosus,
T. arcuatus and then H. transsilvanicus. The highest number of species / locality was 15, but it was registered only in
one locality. In 8 from the 17 investigated localities we collected only 3 terrestrial isopod species. In one locality we
found only one species. A number of 6 species was registered in only one locality. The highest species number (13
species) was registered in the moist areas neighbouring the natural streams from the region (Table 2). On the second
place considering the species number are found the swampy areas and wetland shores. Forest edges are on the last
place, with only one species.
Table 1. Terrestrial isopod species from Crasna Hills (Bh – Bihor County, Sm – Satu Mare County, Lh – L. hypnorum, Lh - L. germanicum,
Ht - H. transsilvanicus, Hr - H. riparius, Tc - T. carpaticus, Ar - A. roseus, Hd - H. danicus, Hm - H. mengii, Cc - C. convexus, Pcol - P.
collicola, Ppo - P. politus, Tdif - T. difficilis, Tarc - T. arcuatus, Trth - T. rathkii, Tn - T. nodulosus, Tratz - T. ratzeburgii, Ppr - P. pruinosus,
Psc. - P. scaber, Psp - P. spinicornis, Avu - A. vulgare, Ave - A. versicolor, N sp – number of species).
Locality / species Lh Lg Ht Hr Tc Ar Hd Hm Cc Pcol Ppo Tdif Tarc Trth Tn Tratz Ppr Psc Psp Avu Ave N sp
Boianu Mare (Bh) - - - x - - - - - - - - - x - - - - - - - 2
Viisoara (Bh) x - x x - - - - x x - x x - x - x x x x x 13
Becheni (Sm) - - - - x - x - - x - - - - - - - - - - - 3
Blaja (Sm) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x - 1
Cean (Sm) - - - - - - - - - - x - - - x x - - - - - 3
Cehalut (Sm) - - - x - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x - 2
Cheghea (Sm) - - - - - - - - - - - - x - x - - - - x - 3
Orbau (Sm) - - x - - - - - - - - - - x - - - - - x - 3
Pir (Sm) x x x x - - x x x x x - x - x x x x - x - 15
Piru Nou (Sm) - - - - - - - - - x - - x - - - - - - - x 3
Secheresa (Sm) - - x - - - - - - - - - x - - - - - - x - 3
Sacaseni (Sm) - - - x - - - - - - - - x - - x - - - - - 3
Sarauad (Sm) - - x x - x - - - x - - - - x - - - - - - 5
Sauca (Sm) - - x x - - - - - - - - x - x - - x - x x 7
Supuru de Jos (Sm) - - x - - - - - - - - - - - x - - - - - x 3
Supuru de Sus (Sm) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x x 2
Tasnad (Sm) - - - x - - - - - x - - x - x - - x - - x 6
Percentage
1.14 1.14 10.86 18.86 4.00 2.00 6.00 0.28 2.00 9.14 0.85 0.28 6.00 1.71 8.28 4.00 2.00 5.71 0.57 10.57 4.57
abundance (%)
Frequency of
11.70 5.88 41.18 47.06 5.88 5.88 11.76 5.88 11.76 35.29 11.76 5.88 47.06 11.76 47.06 17.65 11.76 23.53 5.88 52.94 35.29
occurrence (%)
The highest species number (14 species), was collected under fallen tree trunks and their barks; the lowest (only one
species) under agricultural residues (Table 3). Two species (P. pruinosus and P. spiniconis) were collected only under
artificial shelters, like rubble or agricultural residues. Unlike those, 10 from the 21 species found in the region were collected
only under natural shelters (Table 3). The diversity of terrestrial isopod fauna from Crasna Hills was H=2.63. The highest
diversity was registered on the banks of natural streams and the lowest on forest edges (Figure 1). In the case of similarity
between habitats (Fig. 2a), they group in different patterns. Thus, close to one another are the streams shores and the oak
forests. On another side, close to one another are also the artificial habitats, like cellars, roads edges or poplar plantations. The
terrestrial isopod fauna from swamps, road side ditches and distilleries are similar, as well as the one from pastures and forest
edges. In the case of species similarity (Fig. 2b), very close are the species L. germanicum and A. roseus, but also H. mengii,
L. hypnorum and T. difficilis. Close to one another are also the species C. convexus, P. pruinosus and P. spincornis.
70
DISCUSSION
With the help of the direct method, we managed to collect in Crasna Hills three times more terrestrial isopod species
than it was previously collected with pitfall traps (FERENŢI et al., 2012a). Thus, the region terrestrial isopod species list has
risen from 7 to 21. All species, captured previously with pitfall traps, (FERENŢI et al., 2012a) were also captured with the
direct method, alongside other 14 species in the region. Thus, the fact that the direct method is the most efficient one in
surprising the aspect and the diversity of terrestrial isopod fauna from a region is once again confirmed (e.g. VILISICS &
HORNUNG, 2009; FERENŢI et al., 2012b; IANC & FERENŢI, 2014). Differences between the species collected with pitfall
traps and with the direct method were observed in north-western Romania also in other invertebrates, like wolf spiders (SAS-
KOVÁCS & SAS-KOVÁCS, 2014). Nevertheless, in the case of wolf spiders, even if the species captured with the two
methods differ, the pitfall traps seem more efficient (SAS-KOVÁCS & SAS-KOVÁCS, 2014).
Table 2. Terrestrial isopod species distribution in the area habitat types (1-oak forest, 2-forest edge, 3-wetland, 4-stream, 5-pond, 6-
pasture, 7-cellar, 8-abandoned buildings, 9-roadside, 10-poplar plantation, 11-roadside canals, 12-traditional distilleries).
Species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 No. of habitats
L. hypnorum - - - - x - - - - - - - 1
L. germanicum - - - x - - - - - - - - 1
H. transsilvanicus x - x x x - x - - x x x 8
H. riparius x - x x - - x - - - x - 5
T. carpaticus - - x - - - - - - - - - 1
A. roseus - - - x - - - - - - - - 1
H. danicus - - x x - - - - - x - x 4
H. mengii - - - - x - - - - - - - 1
C. convexus - - - - - - x - x x - - 3
P. collicola x - x x x - - - - x x - 6
P. politus x - - x x - - - - - - - 3
T. difficilis - - - - x - - - - - - - 1
T. arcuatus x x x x x x - - - - - - 6
T. rathkii - - x x - - - - - - - - 2
T. nodulosus x - - x - x x x x x x x 9
T. ratzeburgii x - - x x - - - - x - - 4
P. pruinosus - - - x - - x x - x - - 4
P. scaber - - x - - - - x x x x x 6
P. spinicornis - - - - - - x - - - - - 1
A. vulgare x - x x x x x - x x x - 9
A. versicolor - - x - x - x - - - x x 5
TOTAL 8 1 10 13 10 3 8 3 4 9 7 5 12
Although the investigated region is represented by low altitude hills with a relatively uniform aspect, the
number of terrestrial isopod species is identical with the one registered in Padurea Craiului mountain from the Apuseni
Mountains, with higher altitudinal differences and more diverse habitats (IANC & FERENŢI, 2014). The resemblance
of the terrestrial isopod fauna from these two areas, probably a consequence of their appurtenance to the same
geographic unit, is also highlighted in the case of Trachelipus genus, represented in both areas by the same species.
The terrestrial isopod fauna from Crasna Hills resembles with the one from other regions from north-western
Romania (FERENŢI et al., 2012b, 2013a, b). In this region, there stands out the presence of the species L. germanicum,
L. hypnorum and H. transsilvanicus, considered mountain species (e.g. TOMESCU et al., 2011), at unusually low
altitudes, even in typically plain habitats. This is probably a particularity of the terrestrial isopod fauna from the north-
eastern sector of the Pannonic Plain, being observed both in north-western Romanian plains (FERENŢI et al., 2012b,
2013b), but also in Hungary (VILISICS & HORNUNG, 2010). These species are present even below 200 m altitude, at
the limit between hills and plain, but also in the vicinity of watercourses, which cross the hills. The situation is identical
with the previously mentioned one at the contact between Oas Mountains and the surrounding plains (FERENŢI et al.,
2013b). The resemblances between the distribution of some terrestrial isopods and some reptile species with similar
requirements (see in: FERENŢI et al., 2012b) is obvious also in Crasna Hills region. In this region there are also low
altitude Zootoca vivipara populations (COVACIU-MARCOV et al., 2008).
Alongside the above mentioned species, in Crasna Hills region T. carpaticus is also present. This species is
distributed only in Romania, in the Carpathian Mountains (e.g. RADU 1983; SCHMALFUSS, 2003), being
encountered in different mountain sectors from the country (e.g. GIURGINCĂ et al., 2006, 2014; IANC & FERENŢI,
2014). Recently, it was encountered in north-western Romania at the limit between mountains and plains (FERENŢI et
al., 2013b). In Crasna Hills area T. carpaticus is also present at low altitude, being found at 141 m in a wet area situated
near a small stream at the lower limit of the hills. The species presence in this region is probably a consequence of the
continuity between Crasna Hills and the Apuseni Mountains, where it is present (e.g. RADU, 1983).
In the studied region, the humid habitats shelter the highest number of terrestrial isopod species. The most favourable
for terrestrial isopods are the natural humid habitats, represented by small streams and swamps. Nevertheless, a high species
number is also present in human modified humid habitats, like ponds. Less species, but still important numerically, are present
71
in the road side ditches. Those ditches are more frequent at the edge between the hills and the plain, where they largely
replaced the natural wet areas, a fact also mentioned in other groups (COVACIU-MARCOV et al., 2008). Probably, in that
area, roadside ditches are the only habitats available for terrestrial isopods related to wet areas. In these habitats, there are
present even xerophilous species, like T. nodulosus (FARKAS, 2010), originating from open, affected areas, situated in their
vicinity. The importance of wet areas from north-western Romania for terrestrial isopods was previously indicated, these
being the region initial, natural habitats (FERENŢI et al., 2012b, 2013b).
Table 3. Distribution of the terrestrial isopod species in the area shelter types (1-fallen logs, 2-barks, 3-stones, 4-humid soil and
vegetation near waters, 5-rubble, 6-paperboards, 7-clothes, 8-agricultural residues).
Species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 No. of shelters
L. hypnorum - - - x - - - - 1
L. germanicum x - - - - - - - 1
H. transsilvanicus x - x x x - - - 4
H. riparius x x x x x x x - 7
T. carpaticus - - - x - - - - 1
A. roseus - - x - - - - - 1
H. danicus x - - x - - - - 2
H. mengii x - - - - - - - 1
C. convexus x - - - x - - - 2
P. collicola x - x x - x x - 5
P. politus x x - - - - - - 2
T. difficilis - - - x - - - - 1
T. arcuatus x - - x x - x - 4
T. rathkii x - - - - - - - 1
T. nodulosus x - x - x x x - 5
T. ratzeburgii x x - - - - x - 3
P. pruinosus - - - - x - - x 2
P. scaber x - - - x x - - 3
P. spinicornis - - - - x - - - 1
A. vulgare x x x x x - - - 5
A. versicolor - - x x x x x - 5
TOTAL 14 4 7 10 10 5 6 1 8
Figure 1. The diversity of the terrestrial isopod species in the region habitat types.
The high number of species encountered only in natural habitats and under natural shelters, highlight the high
percentage abundance of the species which are characteristic for natural areas of the region, which survive in Crasna
Hills area. These species seem to be sensitive to disturbance, inhabiting exclusively natural zones. Probably, their
territory occupied in the present is more reduced than the initial one. Even if they are well represented in the region yet,
their surviving in Crasna Hills depends on natural habitats` conservation. Even if some species tied to natural zones can
also use artificial shelters (FERENŢI et al., 2013a), this fact is not valid in all cases.
72
a b
Figure 2. Similarity between habitats (a) and terrestrial isopod species (b).
In north-western Romania forest plantations with allochthonous species shelter a very low number of terrestrial
isopod species (TOMESCU et al., 2008; FERENŢI et al., 2012b; IANC & FERENŢI, 2014). Nevertheless, in other
regions, in plantations, there was identified a relatively high number of terrestrial isopod species (e.g. FARKAS et al.,
2013; OTARTICS et al., 2014). In Crasna Hills region, at Pir, we found a poplar plantation, which diverges of the
northwestern country rule, presenting a high species richness. Alongside synanthropic species like P. pruinosus and P.
scaber (RADU, 1985) in that plantation there are also native species tied to wetlands, like H. transsilvanicus and P.
collicola (RADU, 1983, 1985) or sylvan species like T. ratzeburgi (e.g. TOMESCU et al., 2015). The presence of
synanthropic species is a consequence of the anthropogenic activities from the locality, they being identified under
agricultural wastes thrown in the plantation (corn stalks, rotting fruits). The species related to humid zones are a
consequence of a permanent stream which crosses the plantation, springing from a natural forest situated 3 km from the
plantation. In that forest the same species are present, which probably survived the clearcut and the plantation of poplars
here due to the stream. From the banks of the stream they could subsequently recolonize the plantation. As terrestrial
isopods from the region can survive in canals formed in the place of initial wetlands, just as they can use plantations
instead of native forests crossed by waters.
The high species richness from the poplar plantation may be due to the particular conditions which have
permitted the wetland species survive here, permitting in the same time the synanthropic species ingoing.
Approximately in the same category can fit the wine cellars of the zone, which offer conditions both for wetland
species, because of the coolness and moisture from them, but also synanthropic species, because of their lay in
localities. Surprising is the presence of P. spinicornis, previously mentioned in north-western Romania in a calcareous
gorge (IANC & FERENŢI, 2014), being tied to stony surfaces (VILISICS & HORNUNG, 2009). This habitat type
lacks completely from Crasna Hills zone, where the species shows up exclusively near cellars. In this case, because of
the lack of its habitat from the region, probably P. spinicornis, even if it is native in north-western Romania, was
introduced in Crasna Hills with the stones used for the construction of the cellars.
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FERENŢI Sára1, 2*, COVACIU-MARCOV Severus-Daniel1

1. University of Oradea, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology; 1, Universităţii, Oradea 410087, Romania
2. “Iosif Vulcan” National College, Jean Calvin str. No. 3, Oradea, Romania
E-mail: ferenti.sara@gmail.com

74
PRELIMINARY DATA REGARDING BEETLE PARASITE SPECIES

COLLECTED FROM DIFFERENT ECOSYSTEMS MET
IN DOLJ COUNTY IN 2009-2013
LILA Gima
Abstract. The research on the diversity of parasite and parasitoid beetles from Dolj County exposed in this paper were made between
2009 and 2013. The beetle biological material (296 specimens, 6 of which displaying various parasite forms) was collected from
aquatic (Obedin, Craioviţa Nouă Pool) and terrestrial (Bucovăţ, Secui, Park Romanescu) ecosystems. The hosts, from the systematic
viewpoint, belong to the order Coleoptera and 4 families: Cerambycidae, Scarabaeidae, Dynastiidae, Melolonthidae. The species on
which parasites were found are Cerambyxcerdo Linnaeus in 1758; Oryctesnasicornis Linnaeus in 1758; Pentodon idiota idiota
Herbst; Copris lunaris (Linnaeus 1758); Melolontha melolontha (Linnaeus 1758). The parasites and parasitoids identified from the
systematic viewpoint, are varied and grouped as follows: saprophytic fungi (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) of the genus
Beauveria (Beauveria bassiana) and genus Metarhizium (Metarhizium anisopliae); arachnids - Uropodoidea sp. (Mesostigmata:
Uropodoidea) and nematodes - Gordiussp. (Gordioidea: Gordiidae: Gordius). The dominant species was the fungus Beauveria bassiana
identified in Cerambyx cerdo, new for Romania in case of this species. In this paper we expose the results of research conducted in
two species of parasites (Beauveria bassiana identified in Cerambyx cerdo and Uropoda sp. to Copris lunaris); the other will be set
out in a forth coming paper.
Keywords: parasites, parasitoids, beetles, ecosystems.
Rezumat. Date preliminare privind specii de paraziţi la coleoptere din diferite ecosisteme din judeţul Dolj colectate în
perioada 2009-2013. Cercetările privind diversitatea paraziţilor şi parazitoizilor la coleoptere din judeţul Dolj expuse in lucrarea de faţă au
fost realizate între anii 2009 – 2013. Materialul biologic de coleoptere (296 exemplare din care 6 exemplare au diverse forme parazite) a fost
colectat din ecosisteme acvatice (Obedin, Balta Craioviţa Nouă) şi terestre (Bucovăţ, Secui, Parcul Nicolae Romanescu). Gazdele, din punct
de vedere sistematic, aparţin ordinului Coleoptera încadrandu-se în 4 familii: Cerambycidae, Scarabaeidae, Dynastidae, Melolonthidae.
Speciile pe care s-au găsit paraziţi sunt: Cerambyx cerdo Linnaeus, 1758; Oryctes nasicornis Linnaeus, 1758; Pentodon idiota idiota Herbst;
Copris lunaris (Linnaeus 1758); Melolontha melolontha (Linnaeus 1758). Paraziţii şi parazitoizii identificaţi în urma cercetărilor de
specialitate, din punct de vedere sistematic, sunt variaţi şi sunt încadraţi astfel: ciuperci saprofite (Ascomicete: Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae)
din genul Beauveria (Beauveria bassiana) şi genul Metarhizium (Metarhizium anisopliae); arahnide - Uropodoidea sp. (Mesostigmata:
Uropodoidea) şi nematode - Gordius sp. (Gordioidea: Gordiidae: Gordius). Specia dominantă este ciuperca Beauveria bassiana identificată
la Cerambyx cerdo, nouă pentru Romania la această specie. Această specie de ciupercă este destul de răspandită însă nu este menţionată
frecvent în lucrări de specialitate. În lucrarea de faţă vom expune reultatele cercetărilor efectuate la două specii de paraziţi (Beauveria
bassiana identificată la Cerambyx cerdo şi Uropoda sp. la Copris lunaris), celelalte urmand a fi expuse într-o lucrare viitoare.
Cuvinte cheie: paraziţi, parazitoizi, coleoptere, ecosisteme.
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this paper is to present some contributions to the knowledge of the diversity of parasites and
parasitoids, analyzing beetle species present in different types of ecosystems in Dolj County.
In recent decades, as a response to environmental issues such as climate changes, land use change or habitat
fragmentation intensified the concerns regarding species and spatial variability, especially in the light of the
delimitation of areas for conservation.In this context, insects undergo the complex action of ecological factors (climatic
factors, soil factorsand biotic) affecting biological cycles of insects, spread emergence of mass propagation or decrease
the number of the specimens of certain species, the emergence of new pests, etc.As a result, the number of beetle
specimens found in the studied ecosystems was low.
All the material found on land has been identified, analysed and then assessed the level of infestation.
The beetle biological material (296 specimens, were various parasitic forms) was collected from aquatic (Obedin
Pool, Craioviţa Nouă Pool) and terrestrial (Bucovăţ, Secui, Park Romanescu) ecosystems. The hosts, from the systematic view
point, belong to the order Coleoptera and 4 families: Cerambycidae, Scarabaeidae, Dynastiidae, Melolonthidae.
The parasites and parasitoids identified from the systematic view point, are varied and grouped as follows:
saprophytic fungi (Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae); arachnids - Uropodoidea sp. and nematodes – Gordius
sp. The dominant species was the fungus Beauveria bassiana identified in Cerambyx cerdo, new for Romania in case of this
species.
The material used in this paper consists in identifying, analyzing and researching a total of 296 specimens
found in the field, on which, there were identified five species of parasites/parasitoids.
The species of beetles are presented in systematic order according to the year they were collected and there are
mentioned the species of parasite and parasitoids identified for each of them.
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LILA Gima
The material from the aquatic ecosystem was collected from Obedin Pool, Craioviţa Noua Pool while the one
from the terrestrial ecosystem from Bucovăţ, Secui, Romanescu Park, between 2011 and 2013. Collections were made
at different times each year from April to September. Collection date is mentioned for each species. Moreover, for every
locality there are rendered the geographic coordinates, flora and fauna information. Collection methods were different
according to the analysed host species.
1. Collection methods for Cerambyx cerdo and Copris lunaris:
The insect was sampled from the ground with a pair of tweezers and put in a jar containing filter paper soaked
with alcohol. I took photos and transported the material to the Faculty of Biology, biology laboratory, where the
specialists took samples from the surface of the insect body. To analyze the fungi, it was used the solid media culture
method (the method of exhaustion and flooding method) and for mites, after taking photos, they were placed in a
solution of paraffin and sent to the expert for determination.
2. Collection and research methods for mites
The nests examined in this study were built in sandy soil, in an area where cattle used to rest and, thus, the
vegetation was damaged. The top soil was removed using a hoe to uncover the opening of the tunnel, which was of
about 2 cm in diameter. In case of Copris lunaris, th most of the tunnel passes in a short gallery of about 5 cm deep,
leading to the nest chamber. Each of the two examined nests contained one female that was stored in separate glass jars
at room temperature until they were transported and examined carefully under the microscope. Using tweezers, mites
were collected from C. lunaris females, more precisely from the feet and the ventral side of the abdomen.For
identification, the mites were prepared in paraffin.
To determine the collected material, there were used the works of PANIN (1957) and MEDVEDEV (1960),
the determination of the species of beetles being done by Mrs. Cornelia Chimişliu, PhD, in the entomology laboratory
of the Department of Natural Sciences Museum of Oltenia Craiova.The determination of the ascomycetes species was
made by Professor Ana Popa, PhD., Faculty of Medicine, microbiology laboratory. Some of the photos were made with
DMC-FZ62 Panasonic FullHD digital camera by Lila Gima and another category were made by Marilena Popescu -
chemist in the laboratory of Restoration - Oltenia Museum Craiova by means of the stereomicroscope OLYMPUS 3D.
The taxonomy and nomenclature of the identified species is made according to Fauna Europea.
RESULTS AND DISSCUTION
The analysed material is represented by 296 specimens of which 5 specimens had parasites. The material was
collected between 2011 and 2013 in the following locations: Bucovăţ Forest, Secui, Obedin, Craiova - Romanescu Park,
Craiova - Craioviţa Nouă Pool. There are rendered the collection sites, the species of collected beetles and the identified
parasites (Table 1).
Table 1. Material collected and their parasites.
No. Host Collection sites Date of collection Parasites
1 Copris lunaris (LINNAEUS 1758) Craiova – Craioviţa Nouă Pool May 09, 2011 Uropoda sp. (Copridis parasites)
2 Cerambyx cerdo LINNAEUS, 1758 Bucovăţ June 24, 2012 Beauveria bassiana
Host: Copris lunaris (Linnaeus 1758)

Parasite: Uropoda sp.
Collection site: Craiova – Craioviţa Nouă Pool
Date of collection: May 9, 2011
Figure 1. Craiova – Craioviţa Nouă Pool (surse Google maps).
76
Figure 2. Collection site: Craiova – Craioviţa Nouă Pool and Bucovăț locality.
Copris lunaris (Linnaeus 1758)

They are coprophagous, feeding on various mammalian excreta, mainly large herbivores.
Of Coprinae only Copris lunaris (Linnaeus, 1758) is spread throughout Central Europe. His behaviour in
nesting was described by several authors, including LENGERKEN (1952), TEICHERT (1960) ROMMEL (1967) and
KLEMPERER (1982a, b) in BAHRAMI et al., 2011.
The female excavates a room in cow dung and together with the male, fill it with fresh manure (Figure 1). These two
parent beetles bring with them a community of phoretic mites. Manure is shaped into a paste and left to ferment for a while.
The female shapes 4-8 brood pear-shaped balls and deposits one egg in a small hole on top of each ball.
The female, sometimes with the male, stays underground in the incubation chamber until descendants appear,
and protects the juveniles from larvae or pupae contained in the balls. Finally, the female leaves the nest underground
chamber with the juveniles. When a pair of C. lunaris builds a reproductive room, manure is clean and moist, and an
initial period of fermentation has to pass. Beetles then divide the mass of manure and shape four or five pear-shaped
balls, and the female lays egg in each. When brood balls are fully formed and the larva is developing, dung gradually
gets dry on the outside and is consumed inside by the larva; when the larva turns into pupa the nest is relatively dry. In
short, before the hatch of the adult specimen, the ball walls are so dry and hard that the migration of mites out of the
balls becomes impossible.
The penetration of the mites in the brood balls must start earlier, shortly after laying eggs and can only
continue until the walls get hard. The C. lunaris brood ball has a small area where the wall is thin and porous,
apparently to allow ventilation (KLEMPERER 1982a, b in BAHRAMI et al., 2011). It is not known if mites can pass
through the porous area, but the presence of different species of mites inside versus outside the ball, suggests that they
have a great ability to adapt. When pupae have completed their development, juvenile beetles and the female leave the
brood chamber.
A lot of researchers believe deuteronymph transport mites as drill. Drill (from the greek phoresis = to be worn
to be transported) is a method of spreading in the animal world by which individuals of a species less mobile are
transported long distances by representatives of other species, without the two bodies to have relationships parasitism.
This method is adopted by various animals who are looking for new food sources, or by parasites when looking for a
new host. Drilling may be temporary or permanent and widespread dust mite.
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LILA Gima
Figure 1. Female of Copris lunaris (original).
Uropodoidea (tortoise mites) associated with Copris lunaris dung beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)
(Arthropoda: Chelicerata: Arachnida: Acari: Parasitiformes: Mesostigmata: Monogynaspida: Uropodina)
Superfamily: Uropodoidea
It comprises over 30 families. Their systematics is uncertain.
Mites are an order of arachnids from the arthropod class. They are small organisms, sometimes microscopic;
the head, thorax and abdomen are generally undifferentiated, and the mouthparts (an elongated tube) are adapted to
chew, suck, sting. They live on plants, soil, water, dead or living animals. A large number of species are agricultural
pests, others are parasites of man and animals. Many mites, such as ticks, are transmitters of serious diseases as
relapsing fever, encephalitis in humans, piroplasmosis in animals, etc. (KONTSCHÁN, 2007). Many mites can be
vegetable or animal parasites or intermediate hosts (e.g. for tapeworms). Predatory mites are sometimes used in the
biological control of insect pests (e.g. Phytoseiulus persimilis against red spider).
The superfamily Uropodoidea or tortoise mites is represented by over 2,000 species described worldwide,
many of them in irregular habitats such as, nets, wood scraps and dung.
Phoresy (ability of mites to attach to the body of an insect) is therefore a prerequisite for their distribution
between these habitats. Their eating habits are little known, but usually they are considered to be omnivorous, feeding
on hyphae of fungi, slow moving prey, etc. The deutonymphs of certain species feed on nematodes and fungi, as well as
on the eggs and larvae of their hosts (BAHRAMI et al., 2011).
The most commonly encountered species of mites at Copris lunaris are Pelethiphis altocumulus, Macrocheles
copridis, Parasitus copridis, Uropoda copridis, Copriphis pterophilus and Hispanic onchodellus.
Many papers have been published on mesostigmatid mites that live in association with Copris species, but few
of the authors have paid special attention to the behavioural relationship between mites and their hosts. The mites have
developed different strategies for dispersal, as shown by their preferential attachment either to adults or their offspring
(BAHRAMI et al., 2011).
Of these, only Copridis parasitus is more abundant at adults compared to brood balls.
Phoresy (ability of the deutonymphs to attach to the host) of this type requires certain life behaviours and
adaptations to ensure that the mite dispersal phase is completed (Figures 2, 3, 4).
These adaptations have become particularly complex when associated with mite dung beetles subfamily Coprinae,
demonstrating a high level of parental brood care. The care to Coprinae juveniles by adults, especially females, offers mites
the rare opportunity to have access to both generations: parents and offsprings (BAHRAMI et al., 2011).
All specimens of this species were in the phoretic stage, deuteronymph. Interesting to note is the only known
female model Uropoda copridis initially found at a larva into a ball of Copris lunaris and described by MAŠÁN &
HALLIDAY, 2009. This suggests a different release strategy, and it seems that the deutonymph U. copridis is not
attached to the emerging individual until it leaves the brood ball.
The deutonymph U. copridis attaches to the host using an anal pedicel, as found in many species of Uropodina
(ATHIAS-BINCHE, 1984).
Parasitus copridis showed a strong preference for the parent beetles instead of brood balls.
This species of mitesis susceptible to feed on nematodes, tiny insect eggs, mites and others.
78
Figure 3. Deuteronymph fixed with the uropod from ventral abdomen (original).
Figure 2. Deuteronymph Uropoda sp. (original).
…
Figure 4. Deuteronymph fixed to the talus (a) and to the legs, in general (b) (original).
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LILA Gima
Host: Cerambyx cerdo Linnaeus

Parasites: Beauveria bassiana (Bals.-Crivat.) Vuill.
Collection site: Bucovăţ Forest
Collection date: June 24, 2012
Bucovăţ Forest is located in the central - north-eastern part of the Dolj County.
Bucovăţ Forestis located at the exit of Bucovăţ settlement and is situated in the western part of the Romanian
Plain, in the sector known as Oltenia plain. The forest is situated in the north-eastern extremity of Băileşti Plain at an altitude
of 83 m. The forest where we made the collection is made up of Turkey oak (Quercus cerris) and Hungarian oak (Quercus
frainetto), tall temperate tree species with strong, gnarled branches and a large and rich crown. (CĂLINESCU, 1969).
Collection was performed on June 24, 2014, I the afternoon, at 5.46 p.m. The temperature was 28°C, clear sky,
atmospheric pressure: 1017 hPa, humidity: 64%, precipitation: 0 mm, Dew Point: 16°C.
Cerambyx cerdo Linnaeus, 1758 (or great capricorn beetle) is one of the largest European beetles.
(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae: Cerambycinae: Cerambyx)
According to IUCN Status: endangered species.
Adults appear from May to June and are usually active at night. They feed on tree sap seepage through cracks
in the bark (BALACHOWSKY, 1962-1963). Their habitat is represented by old forests with deciduous species,
preferring especially those of oaks; sometimes it can be found in parks.The flight takes place from May to August
(PANIN & SĂVULESCU, 1961).
The species is included in the Annexes of the Bern Convention as a threatened and rare species. It is also
included in the Red Book of Moldova and Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus and the IUCN Red List.
The fungus Beauveria bassiana was identified on the collected specimen. After being collected from the body
with tweezers was placed in a glass Petri box and B. bassiana growing out on selective agar medium.
Beauveria bassiana (Bals.-Crivat.) Vuill.

(Sordariomycetes: Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae: Beauveria)
The first microorganism recognized as a pathogen fungus was Beauveria bassiana (Bass, 1835). The genus
Beauveria attacks all stages of all groups of insects. They were also occasionally found in wild rodent lungs and nasal
cavity of horses, humans and giant turtles. B. bassiana develops world wide, has one of the longest lists of hosts among
imperfect fungi and it appears in the soil as a ubiquitous saprophyte.
B. bassiana generally infects through the skin. B. bassiana eliminated mycotoxins such as beauvericin in culture
media. Toxic compounds rapidly weaken the insects after the invasion through hemolymph. The larvae, pupae and adults
derived from insects infected with Beauveria have white external mycelium and become conidia within one or two days after
their death (Figures 5a, b, c; 6).
........
Figure 6. Conidiogenous cells and conidia of Beauveria bassiana (original).
Figure 7. B. bassiana growing out on selective agar medium (original).
80
Figure 5 a, b, c. Beauveria bassiana to Cerambyx cerdo (original).
Geographic distribution and hosts

Beauveria bassiana occurs world wide. The hosts are mainly Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Homoptera. Some
of the most important economic insects that are susceptible to this fungus are Ostrinia nubilalis, Laspeyresia
pomonella, Popillia japonica, Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata. Host colonization occurs when the
fungus can overcome the immune defense mechanisms and invade the insect hemolymph.
When insects die, the fungus produces an antibiotic, oosporin, which will enable it to overcome the
competition of bacteria from the insect intestinal tract.Saprophytic phase is characterized by body mummification
transformed into sclerotia. The hyphae from across the skin prefer certain segments and then they are covered by a
white cottony-like mycelium, which will initiate the formation of conidia (SUSAN MAHR, 2010).
Beauveria is a cosmopolitan anamorphic genus, a facultative pathogen fungus of necrophagous arthropods. In
addition, Beauveria eliminated a diverse array of biologically active secondary metabolites that include pigments, non-
peptides and polyketides, peptidic antibiotics, synthesized nonribisomal peptides and other secreted metabolites
involved in the pathogenesis of insects and a virulence with industrial, pharmaceutical and agricultural potential (VEY
et al., 2001) in SUSAN MAHR, 2010.
CONCLUSIONS
The work joins the efforts of professionals who contribute to the knowledge of the entomofauna diversity. Of
the identified species of parasites, we published the results for two species we have studied more closely; further results
of the research on other parasites and their hosts will be published in anup coming paper.
Many different species of mites have developed different strategies for dispersal, as shown by their preferential
attachment to either the parental or progeny generations of beetles.
Beauveria bassiana fungus identified in Cerambyx cerdo is new for Romania in this species. Moreover, the
scientific research conducted in Copris nests, too, are the first reported in Romania.
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LILA Gima
The advantage of using B. bassiana against other microbial control agents consists in the broad-spectrum
activity and its virulence which allowed them to be used successfully in agricultural areas of the former USSR and
Eastern Europe. B. bassiana microfungus control agent is very interesting because it can infect the host through
ingestion or through simple contact, unlike other microbiological control agents (SUSAN MAHR, 2010).
B. bassiana can be mass produced at low cost and can be applied by conventional methods. It is not harmful to
vertebrates. In addition, they have a long environmental persistence of conidia, which can allow naturally certain
diseases such as enzootic or epizootic diseases (EFSA, 2012).
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thanks to Mrs. Prof. PhD. Doina Codreanu-Bălcescu, Mrs. Prof. PhD. Ana Popa, Mrs. Marilena Popescu,
Mrs. PhD. Cornelia Chimişliu for the your support and for material determination.
REFERENCES
BALACHOWSKY S. 1962 – 1963. -Entomologieappliquée à l’agriculture (traité). Famille des Cerambycidae, Coléoptère.
Masson § Cie, Paris. I: 394 – 434.
CĂLINESCU R. 1969. Biogeografia României, Editura Științifică, București;
EFSA JOURNAL. 2013. Conclusion on the peer review of the pesticide risk assessment of the active substances
Beauveria bassiana strains ATCC-74040 and GHA. EFSA Journal. European Food Safety Authority Contact.
Parma,Italy11(1):3031.44pp.doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3031.http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/3031.
htm. Encyclopedia of Life. (Accesed May 12, 2013).
BAHRAMI F., ARBABI M., VAFAEI SHOUSHTARI R., KAZEMI SH. 2011. Mesostigmatic Mites Associated with
Coleoptera and Biodiversity Calculation of These Mites Phoretic on Dung Beetles in Golestan Province (North
of Iran). Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research. IDOSI Publications. 9(3): 345-366. http://www.idosi.org/
mejsr/mejsr9(3)11/10.pdf. (Accesed May 12, 2013).
HURPIN B. 1962. Super – Fam. Scarabaeoidea. In S. Balachowsky.Entomologie appliquée à l’agriculture (traité). I.
Coléoptères. Masson § Cie, Paris. 2: 24 -204.
KONTSCHÁN J. 2007. Some new records of Uropodina mites (Acari: Mesostigmata) from Croatia, Serbia and
Montenegrowith descriptions of two new species. Annales historico-naturales Musei Nationalis Hungarici.
Budapest. 99: 177–188 pp. http://www.nhmus.hu/modules/Kiadvanyok/annales/kontschan2.pdf. (Accessed
March, 11, 2013).
LYN GANDHAM. 2012. Fungus, Beauveria bassiana being used to fight bed bugs http://www.moldbacteria.com/
/mold/fungus-beauveria-bassiana-being-used-to-fight-bed-bugs.html. (Accessed May 12, 2013).
MAŠÁN P. & HALLIDAY B. 2009. Mesostigmatid mites associated with the dung beetle Copris lunaris (Coleoptera:
Scarabaeidae). European Journal of Entomolog. 106(4): 545-550, http://www.eje.cz/artkey/eje-2009040011_
mesostigmatid_mites_associated_with_the_dung_beetle_copris_lunaris_coleoptera_scarabaeidae.php.
(Accesed: May 12, 2011).
PANIN S. 1957. Insecta. Coleoptera – Familia Scarabaidae). Edit. Academiei R. P. R. 10(4). 315 pp., 36 plş.
PANIN S. & SAVULESCU N. 1961. Insecta. Coleoptera – Familia Cerambicidae (croitori). Edit. Academiei R. P. R.
10(5): 70 - 509.
SUSAN MAHR. 2010. The Entomopathogen Beauveria bassiana. University of Wisconsin - Madison. 4(10).
http://www.entomology.wisc.edu/mbcn/kyf410.html. (Accessed May 12, 2013).
***. http://vremea.net/Vremea-in-Craiova-judetul-Dolj/prognoza-meteo-pe-5-si-7-zile (Accessed 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013).
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Lila Gima
Oltenia Museum Craiova, Natural Science Department,
Str. Popa Şapcă, No. 8, 200422 Romania.
E-mail: lilagima@yahoo.com

Accepted: September 2, 2015
82
AQUATIC AND SEMIAQUATIC BUGS (HETEROPTERA: NEPOMORPHA,

GERROMORPHA) PRESERVED IN THE OLTENIA MUSEUM CRAIOVA
BERCHI Gavril Marius, CHIMIŞLIU Cornelia
Abstract. The collection of aquatic and semiaquatic Heteroptera preserved in the Oltenia Museum Craiova is investigated. The
material is represented by 146 specimens belonging to 6 families, 9 genera and 11 species. Eight of the species are mentioned for the
first time in the fauna of Oltenia.
Keywords: aquatic bugs, museum collections, Notonecta, Velia, Romania, true bugs.
Rezumat. Ploşniţe acvatice şi semiacvatice (Heteroptera: Nepomorpha, Gerromorpha) conservate în Muzeul

Olteniei Craiova. Colecţia de Heteroptere acvatice şi semiacvatice conservate în Muzeul Olteniei Craiova este investigată.
Materialul reprezentat printr-un număr de 146 de exemplare aparţine la şase familii, nouă genuri şi 11 specii. Opt dintre specii sunt
semnalate pentru prima dată în fauna Olteniei.
Cuvinte cheie: ploşniţe acvatice, colecţii muzeale, Notonecta, Velia, România.
INTRODUCTION
Very little information has been published regarding aquatic and semiaquatic bugs (Heteroptera: Nepomorpha,
Gerromorpha) preserved in the Romanian museums. However, natural history museums preserve this kind of material
in small or large entomological collections, representing a valuable database for entomologists (SLATER, 1960;
KMENT & KOLÍNOVÁ, 2013).
In Romania, SINKIEWICZ (1964) presented data concerning A. L. Montandon’s collection preserved at the
„Grigore Antip” a Natural History Museum in Bucharest and SCHNEIDER (1973) has published a Catalogue of the
collections preserved in the Natural History Museum Sibiu. Heteropterous related material kept in these collections
partially reflects the fauna of the area it was collected from.
Oltenia is one of the Romanian historical provinces, being administratively formed by five counties: Dolj,
Gorj, Mehedinţi, Olt and Vâlcea. It is located between the Southern Carpathians at north and north-west, the Olt River
at east and the Danube at south and south-west. At present, water bug fauna of this region is little known compared to
Transilvania, Moldova or Dobrogea (PAINA, 1975; DAVIDEANU, 1999; ILIE, 2009; BERCHI, 2013).
The establishment of the entomological heritage of the Natural Sciences Department of the Oltenia Museum
Craiova has started in 1951. Nowadays, it exceeds 54,000 pieces and preserves species of at least 18 insect orders,
collected especially from Oltenia. The biggest percent is held by Coleoptera followed by Lepidoptera. Heteroptera,
including terrestrial species, it is also very well represented, but it has been not scientifically valued yet.
The purpose of this paper is to introduce in the scientific network the information regarding aquatic and
semiaquatic Heteroptera, collected along the years by various museum specialists of the Natural Sciences Department
of the Oltenia Museum Craiova.
The material examined is represented by 146 specimens of aquatic and semiaquatic Heteroptera, collected by
the department specialists during 1951-2013, in Oltenia.
To identify the specimens we used the work of the following authors: POISSON (1957), TAMANINI (1979),
JANSSON (1986), SOÓS et al. (2009). The systematic order and the nomenclature follow AUKEMA & RIEGER (1995).
For each species, the material examined has been recorded and the following information specified: location,
collecting dates, number of specimens and the collector. Locations are presented in alphabetical order, classified by
county; collecting information is organized chronologically.
Abbreviations of the collectors: E. B. = Elena Bazilescu, C. C. = Cornelia Chimişliu, I. F. = Ioan Firu, I. P. =
Irina Păunescu, P. Z. = Paul Zaharia.
Counties acronyms: DJ = Dolj, GJ = Gorj, MH = Mehedinţi, VL = Vâlcea.
RESULTS
Following processing of the material, 11 species were identified out of approximately 70 species mentioned
until now in Romania (PAINA, 1975; DAVIDEANU, 1999; ILIE & DAVIDEANU, 2002; BERCHI, 2011, 2013;
BERCHI et al., 2012). They belong to 6 families, 7 subfamilies and 9 genera.
The material was collected from 14 different sampling sites, in four counties of the region.
83
BERCHI Gavril Marius CHIMIŞLIU Cornelia
Sampling sites: Amărăştii de Jos (DJ), Bălăneşti (GJ), Bucovăţ (DJ), Cheile Sohodol (GJ), Crângu (VL),
Craiova (DJ), Desa (DJ), Guţu (MH), Leamna (DJ), Menţii din Faţă (MH), Podari (DJ), Poiana Mare (DJ), Secui (DJ),
Şimnic (DJ).
List of species:
Infraorder NEPOMORPHA Popov 1968
Family NEPIDAE Latreille 1802
Subfamily Nepinae Latreille 1802
Genus Nepa Linnaeus 1758
Nepa cinerea Linnaeus 1758
Material examined: DJ – Craiova, 14.VIII.1967, 2 specs., leg. P. Z.; Desa, 10.VIII.1981, 6 specs., leg. C. C.;
Secui, 26.IV.2008, 1 spec., leg. C. C.; MH – Menţii din Faţă, 22.III.1968, 1 spec., leg. P. Z.
Note. First record for Oltenia.
Subfamily Ranatrinae Douglas & Scott 1865

Genus Ranatra Fabricius 1790
Subgenus Ranatra s. str.
Ranatra (Ranatra) linearis (Linnaeus 1758)
Material examined: DJ – Desa, 10.VIII.1981, 1 spec., leg. C. C.
Family CORIXIDAE Leach 1815

Subfamily Corixinae Leach 1815
Genus Corixa Geoffroy 1762
Corixa punctata (Illiger 1807)
Material examined: DJ – Podari, 21.VII.1967, 1 spec., leg. P. Z.
Genus Sigara Fabricius 1775

Subgenus Pseudovermicorixa Jaczewski 1962
Sigara (Pseudovermicorixa) nigrolineata nigrolineata (Fieber 1848)
Material examined: GJ – Cheile Sohodol, 22.VII.1996, 3 specs., leg. C. C.
Family NAUCORIDAE Leach 1815

Subfamily Naucorinae Leach 1815
Genus Ilyocoris Stål 1861
Ilyocoris cimicoides cimicoides (Linnaeus 1758)
Material examined: DJ – Desa, 10.VIII.1981, 1 spec., leg. C. C.
Family NOTONECTIDAE Latreille 1802

Subfamily Notonectinae Latreille 1802
Genus Notonecta Linnaeus 1758
Subgenus Notonecta s. str.
Notonecta (Notonecta) glauca glauca Linnaeus 1758
Material examined: DJ – Bucovăţ, 12.VI.1980, 1 spec., leg. C. C.; Cheile Sohodol, 22.VII.1996 7 specs., leg. C.
C.; Desa 10.VIII.1981, 34 specs., leg. C. C.; Poiana Mare, 10.VIII.1981, 33 specs., leg. C. C.; Şimnic, 15.V.1980, 2 specs.,
leg. C. C.; GJ – Bălăneşti, 12.VII.1977, 2 specs., leg. E. B.; MH – Guţu, 5.IX.1967, 1 spec., leg. P. Z.
Notonecta (Notonecta) meridionalis Poisson 1926

Material examined: DJ – Cheile Sohodol, 22.VII.1996, 4 specs., leg. C. C.; MH – Guţu, 5.IX.1967, 2 specs.,
leg. P.Z.
Note. Second record for Oltenia. Third record in Romania (BERCHI, 2013; BERCHI et al., 2012).
Notonecta (Notonecta) viridis Delcourt 1909

Material examined: DJ – Amărăştii de Jos, 17.VII.1969, 1 spec., leg. I. P.; Cheile Sohodol, 22.VII.1996, 3
specs., leg. C. C.; Craiova, 10.VII.1951, 6 specs., leg. I. F.; Desa, 10.VIII.1981, 1 spec., leg. C. C.; Poiana Mare,
10.VIII.1981, 3 specs., leg. C. C.; MH – Guţu, 5.IX.1967, 17 specs., leg. P. Z.
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Infraorder GERROMORPHA Popov 1971

Family GERRIDAE Leach 1815
Subfamily Gerrinae Leach 1815
Genus Aquarius Schellenberg 1800
Aquarius paludum paludum (Fabricius 1794)
Material examined: DJ – Desa, 10.VIII.1981, 6 specs., leg. C. C.
Genus Gerris Fabricius 1794

Subgenus Gerris s. str.
Gerris (Gerris) thoracicus Schummel 1832
Material examined: DJ – Leamna, 21.VIII.1980, 1 spec., leg. C. C.
Family VELIIDAE Brullé 1836

Subfamily Veliinae Brullé 1836
Genus Velia Latreille 1804
Subgenus Plesiovelia Tamanini 1955
Velia (Plesiovelia) saulii Tamanini, 1947
Material examined: VL – Crîngu, 18.VI.1951, 6 specs., leg. I. F.
Note. First record for Oltenia. Third record in Romania (KECSKÉS, 1997; DAVIDEANU et al., 2000).
DISCUSSIONS
These are the first published data on aquatic and semiaquatic Heteroptera preserved in the Oltenia Museum Craiova
that certifies the presence of 11 species in the fauna of Oltenia. Regarding aquatic and semiaquatic Heteroptera fauna of this
region, by consulting the literature we found out references for 6 species of the group. Three of these species are also found in
the Oltenia Museum collections: Notonecta glauca glauca, N. meridionalis and N. viridis. The other three species are
Hesperocorixa sahlbergi Fieber 1848, Plea minutissima minutissima Leach 1817 and Velia currens Fabricius 1794
(HORVÁTH, 1877; 1897; KIS et al., 1974; PAINA, 1975). However, according to BERCHI & KMENT (in press.), V.
currens does not occur in Romania; all the old records of this species in Romania refer to other species. Therefore, it is
obvious that this area was neglected over time by entomologists, and further studies are necessary for an accurate evaluation
of the true water bug fauna of the region.
Except Notonecta meridionalis, most of the aquatic and semiaquatic Heteroptera preserved in the Oltenia Museum
Craiova are relatively common species in Romania (DAVIDEANU, 1999; BERCHI, 2013). N. meridionalis was recently
recorded for the first time in two localities in southern Romania: Sviniţa (Mehedinţi) (BERCHI et al., 2012) and Negreşti
(Argeş) (BERCHI, 2013). At present, V. saulii is known only from Crişana and Transilvania. It was recorded in Aleşd,
Drăgan’s Valley (Bihor) and Şaula (Cluj) (KECSKÉS, 1997), and also in Aiud (Alba) (DAVIDEANU et al., 2000). However,
data regarding Veliidae in Romania are few and problematic, but according to BERCHI & KMENT (in press.) among
Veliinae, V. saulii has the widest distribution in Romania and also in Europe (ANDERSEN, 1995).
CONCLUSIONS
Even if the data are few and they are obtained from scattered samples, they improve the knowledge of the
distribution of these insects in Romania. Given that so far only 6 species were known in this region, this paper might represent
a reference point for future research. Although species such as Notonecta meridionalis and Velia saulii were recently
mentioned in Romania (KECSKÉS, 1997; BERCHI et al., 2012) they existed since decades ago in the Oltenia Museum
collections. This highlights once again the importance of studying museum collections.
Currently, in the fauna of Oltenia, 14 species of aquatic and semiaquatic Heteroptera are known, most of them
being common.
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(Eds.) Catalogue of the Heteroptera of the Palaearctic Region. Enicocephalomorpha, Dipsocoromorpha,
Nepomorpha, Gerromorpha and Leptopodomorpha. The Netherlands Entomological Society. Amsterdam. 1:
17–114.
AUKEMA B. & RIEGER C. 1995. Catalogue of the Heteroptera of the Palaearctic Region. Volume 1.
Enicocephalomorpha, Dispocoromorpha, Nepomorpha, Gerromorpha and Leptopodomorpha. The Netherlands
Entomological Society. 222 pp.
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BERCHI Gavril Marius CHIMIŞLIU Cornelia
BERCHI G. M. 2011. First record of Anisops sardeus (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Notonectidae) in Romania. North-
Western Journal of Zoology. 7(2): 339-341.
BERCHI G. M. 2013. Checklist and distribution of the family Notonectidae in Romania, with the first record of
Notonecta maculata Fabricius, 1794 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Nepomorpha). Zootaxa. 3682(1): 121-132.
BERCHI G. M., KMENT P., PETROVICI MILCA. 2012. First record of the backswimmer Notonecta meridionalis
(Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Notonectidae) in Romania. Travaux du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle
“Grigore Antipa.” Bucharest. 55(2): 217-220.
BERCHI G. M. & KMENT P. (in press.) Review of the family Veliidae in Romania (Hemiptera: Heteroptera:
Gerromorpha). Zootaxa (accepted).
DAVIDEANU ANA. 1999. Contribuţii la studiul heteropterelor acvatice din România. Ph.D. Thesis, Alexandru Ioan
Cuza University of Iaşi. Romania. 250 pp.
DAVIDEANU ANA, KIS B., DAVIDEANU G. 2000. Aquatic Heteroptera, new species for Romanian fauna. Studii şi
cercetări. Biologie. Universitatea din Bacău. 5: 197-199.
HORVÁTH G. 1877. Magyarország vizenjáró poloskái. Természetrajzi Fűzetek. Budapest. 2(2-3): 126-137.
HORVÁTH G. 1897. Fauna Regni Hungariae, ordo Hemiptera. Budapest. 72 pp.
KECSKÉS A. 1997. Occurrence of amphibious bugs, water bugs and ground bugs in the catchment of the Crişul Alb,
Crişul Negru and Crişul Repede rivers. Tiscia monograph series. 2: 275-286.
KIS B., BOBÎRNAC B., MATEI IULIA. 1974. Contribuţii la cunoaşterea heteropterelor din zona subcarpatică a
Olteniei (Nota II). Studii şi cercetări. CCES al judeţului Olt. Slatina: 229-237.
KMENT P. & KOLÍNOVÁ ZDISLAVA. 2013. Catalogue of type specimens of true bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera)
deposited in the National Museum, Prague, Czech Republic. Acta Entomologica Musei Nationalis Pragae.
53(2): 821-890.
ILIE DANIELA MINODORA. 2009. Heteropterele acvatice şi semiacvatice (Heteroptera: Nepomorpha,
Gerromorpha) din bazinul mijlociu al Oltului. Edit. Altip. Alba Iulia. 279 pp.
ILIE DANIELA MINODORA & DAVIDEANU ANA 2002. The first record of Mesovelia vittigera Horváth 1895
(Heteroptera, Mesoveliidae) species in Romania and Moldavia Republic. In: Tomescu N. & Popa V. (Eds.)
Volum Omagial Vasile Radu. Presa Universitară Clujeană. Cluj-Napoca: 103-106.
JANSSON A. 1986. The Corixidae (Heteroptera) of Europe and some adjacent regions. Acta Entomologica Fennica.
47: 91-104.
PAINA M. I. 1975. Lista heteropterelor acvatice si semiacvatice (O. Heteroptera) din R. S. România. Nymphaea.
Muzeul Ţării Crişurilor. Oradea. 6: 99-115.
POISSON R. 1957. Hétéroptères aquatiques. Faune de France. Fédération Française des Sociétés de Sciences
Naturelles. Paris. 61. 263 pp.
SCHNEIDER E. 1973. Catalogul Heteropterelor din colecţiile Muzeului de Istorie Naturală din Sibiu II. Studii şi
comunicări - Ştiinţele Naturii. Muzeul Brukenthal. Sibiu. 18: 139-182.
SIENKIEWICZ I. 1964. The Catalogue of the “A. L. Montandon Collection” of Palaearctic Heteroptera preserved in
the “Grigore Antipa” Museum of Natural History, Bucharest. Întreprinderea Poligrafică „13 Decembrie 1918”
Bucureşti. 146 pp.
SLATER J. A. 1960. The Responsibilities of the Insect Taxonomist. Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America.
6(1): 17-19.
SOÓS N., BODA P., CSABAI Z. 2009. First confirmed occurrences of Notonecta maculata and N. meridionalis
(Heteroptera: Notonectidae) in Hungary with notes, maps, and a key to the Notonecta species of Hungary.
Folia Entomologica Hungarica. Budapest. 60: 67-78.
TAMANINI L. 1979. Guide per il riconoscimento delle specie animali delle acque interne italiane. 6. Eterotteri
acquatici (Heteroptera: Gerromorpha, Nepomorpha). Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche. Verona. 106 pp.
Berchi Gavril Marius

Babeş-Bolyai University
5-7 Clinicilor Street, RO-400015 Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
E-mail: marius@heteroptera.ro
Chimişliu Cornelia
Oltenia Museum Craiova,
8 Popa Şapcă Street, RO-200422 Craiova, Romania.
E-mail: chimisliu_cornelia@yahoo.com

86
PERIODIC AND NON-PERIODIC CHANGES IN CARABID COMMUNITIES

FROM THE NORWAY SPRUCE FORESTS OF THE HIGH TATRA
IN THE ZONE DAMAGED BY WINDSTORMS
ŠUSTEK Zbyšek
Abstract. The interrelationships between the succession of Carabid assemblages in the spruce forests of the High Tatra affected by
windstorms and the intensity of the damages were studied for the period 2007-2014. The assemblages were differentiated into four
groups, according to the degree of forest damaging and subsequent silvicultural intervention, into the assemblage (1) in the intact
stand, (2) in the site with fallen timber in situ, (3) in the sites with extracted timber and (4) in the additionally burned sites. The stand
damaging as such did not affect the proportion of all forest species, just the number of individuals declined here. On the contrary,
timber extracting led to the disappearance of two sensitive stenotopic forest species, favoured two tolerant species and, especially in
the burned sites, made possible invasions of expansive open landscape species. Later, the assemblages in the burned sites converged
to those in the unburned ones. In all of them a sigmoid-like course of restoration is observed. Independently on the restoration stage
of the assemblages and their present composition, the changes in the number of individuals and species were clearly correlated with
climatic fluctuations. In particular, they were sensitive to episodes of extreme drought that were followed by sudden the decline of
the number of species, individuals and biomass. On the contrary, after longer humid periods, they restored. These changes occurred
usually with a 1-2 -year lag after the respective climatic extreme. As these extremes occur with a considerable regularity, the
observed extremes of fluctuations of the coenotic parameters represent the variability limits of the Carabid assemblages in such
conditions. The Standardized Precipitation and Evapotranspiration Index was shown as a suitable means to explain and to predict
such changes for the period of 1-2 years. There was also observed spreading of three thermophilous forest species in some sites
suggesting the influence of warming. However, this interpretation is uncertain.
Keyword: Carabidae, succession, mountain fauna, spruce forests, climate, windstorms.
Rezumat. Schimbări periodice şi neperiodice în cenozele Carabidelor din molidişurile din Tatra Înalta în zona de
doborâturi de vânt. Relațiile între succesiunea cenozelor de Carabidele din molidişurile din zona de doborâturi de vânt episoade de secetă
şi intensitatea distrugerilor, au fost studiate în Tatra Înaltă în anii 2007-2014. Cenozele s-au diferenţiat în patru grupe: (1) din molidişul intact,
(2) din molidişul cu lemn lăsat pe loc, (3), din site-uri cu lemn extras şi (4) din site-uri cu lemn extras şi afectate ulterior de foc. Doborârea ca
atare n-a afectat proporţia reprezentării a tuturor speciilor de pădure, ci a redus numai numărul de indivizii. Spre deosebire, în site-ul cu
exploatarea lemnului doborât a exclus specii stenotope de pădure, a favorizat două specii mai tolerante şi a făcut posibilă invazia de specii
expansive ale peisajului deschis. Mai târziu, cenozele din site-uri afectate de foc convergeau la celecu lemn extras. Cursul restituirii are un
caracter sigmoid. Independent de stagiul restituirii cenozelor şi de compoziţia lor actuală, schimbarea numărului de specii şi indivizii este
strâns corelat cu fluctuaţiile climatice. În mod deosebit, cenozele erau sensibile la episoadele de secetă extremă, care au fost urmate de
scăderea bruscă a numărului speciilor şi indivizilor. Aceste schimbări au fost observate cu o întârziere de 1-2 ani după extremul climatic
respectiv. Deoarece aceste extreme se întâlnesc cu regularitate certă, extremele observate a fluctuaţiilor numărului de specii şi indivizii
reprezintă limitele variabilităţi cenozelor de Carabidae în condiţii montane. S-a arătat că Indicele standardizat al precipitaţiilor şi
evapotranspiraţiei este un instrument potrivit pentru explicarea acestor schimbări cenotice, precum şi pentru predicţia lor pentru o perioadă de
1-2 ani. În afară de asta, s-a observat răspândirea unor specii forestiere mai termofile, care implică influenţa încălzirii climatului. Dar
interpretarea ei este deocamdată incertă.
Cuvântele cheii: carabidele, succesiune, fauna montana, molidişuri, clima.
INTRODUCTION
The catastrophic windstorm in the High Tatra Mountains (West Carpathians) on November 19, 2004 and the
timber extraction from the damaged area and an extensive fire on a considerable part of in 2005 profoundly affected the
ecosystems on the southern slopes of this mountain range (FLEISCHER & HOMOLOVÁ, 2011). The impact on fauna
was studied on several groups, for example Collembola (URBANOVIČOVÁ et al., 2013). The Carabid assemblages in
this area showed two types of changes. The first type of changes was connected with the destruction of the stands, the
subsequent human activities in the damaged area and with the beginning of the restoration of the ecosystem (ŠUSTEK,
2007, 2008, 2013; ŠUSTEK & ČEJKA, 2009; ŠUSTEK & VIDO, 2012, 2013). The second type of changes was
common as for assemblages in intact stands as for those in differently damaged stands. They included simultaneous
declines or increases in the number of individuals, species and biomass in one-year samples. The monitoring undertaken
until 2011 suggested that they may have periodical character correlated with the occurrence of short termed drought
episodes (ŠUSTEK & VIDO, 2013).
The first aim of this paper is to describe all periodic and non-periodic changes observed in mountain Carabid
assemblages in 2007-20014 and linked to the occurrence of short-term drought episodes (WILWHITE, 2002). The
second aim is to test the suitability of two different length of the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index to
explain or even predict changes for about 1-2 years.
87
ŠUSTEK Zbyšek

Study Area
The investigations were carried out in six study plots representing an intact Norway spruce stand and a habitat
with fallen timber in situ, two habitats with extracted timber and two habitats with extracted timber additionally
damaged by a large scale fire by turn of July and August 2005. The plots were selected by the staff of the Investigation
Station of the High Tatra National Park (FLEISCHER & HOMOLOVÁ, 2011) to coordinate the international
investigations started after the windstorm. The sites (Table 1) are described according to the Zlatník´s
geobiocoenological system of classification of forests (RAUŠER & ZLATNÍK, 1966). It classifies similar forest
phytocoenoses into a group of geobiocoens and the groups of geobiocoens into a tridimensional system defined by nine
vegetation zones according to altitude and exposition climate (1 – oak forests, 2 – beech-oat, 3 – oak-beech, 4– beech, 5
– beech-fire, 6 – beech-fire-spruce, 7 – spruce, 8 – dwarf pine, 9 – grasslands), four trophic series (A – oligotrophic, B –
mesophilous, C – nitrophilous, D – calciphilous) and four hydric series (a xerophilous to periodically flooded).
Table 1. Survey of study plots in the area affected by the windstorm in the High Tatra on November 19, 2004.
Tatranská Tatranská Nový Tatranské Tatranské
Vyšné Hágy
Locality Lomnica, Polianka, Smokovec, Zruby Zruby
reference plot
Jamy, Danielov dom Vodný les lower plot upper plot
Locality REF NEXT EXTd EXTl FIRl FIRh
abbreviations
Geographical 49°07′17.5″N 49°09'33.7"N, 49°07′15.3″N 49°08'07.6"N, 49°07′49.3″N 49°08′02.7″N
coordinates 20°06′15.0″E 20°15'07.9" E 20°09′46.0″E 20°12'24.8" E 20°11′49.1″E 20°11′30.1″E
Altitude [m1 1233 1062 060 1022 1015 1095
Vegetation tier Spruce Spruce Spruce Spruce Spruce Spruce
Trophic series Acidophilous - Acidophilous- Acidophilous - Acidophilous - Acidophilous - Acidophilous -
mesophilous mesophilous mesophilous mesophilous mesophilous mesophilous
Group of Sorbi Sorbi Sorbi Sorbi Sorbi Sorbi
geobiocoens Piceeta Piceeta Piceeta Piceeta Piceeta Piceetum
Degree of Intact mature timber timber timber timer timber
damaging spruce forest in situ extracted, extracted, extracted, extracted,
unburned unburned burned burned
Data and methods

The occurrence of drought episodes is characterized by the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration
Index SPEI (VICENTE-SERRANO et al., 2010) calculated for the period 1960 – 2014 based on the data from the
meteorological station Tatranská Lomnica. SPEI is logically based on the calculation principle of the Standardized
Precipitation Index (MCKEE et al., 1993; HAYES, 1999). However the main advantage comparing to SPI is that SPEI
calculates the balance between precipitation and potential evapotranspiration. In 99%, SPEI values move within the
limits – 3 and + 3 and based on the cumulative probability distribution the concrete values can be interpreted by means
of table 2. The data are taken from ŠUSTEK et al. ,(in press).
Table 2. Cumulative probability distribution of the SPEI.
Values of SPEI Character of deviation Number of occurrence of situations within 100 years
≥ 2,0 Extremely humid 2.5

1.5 do 1.99 Very humid 5
1.0 do 1.49 Medium humid 10
-0.99 do 0.99 Close to normal 66
-1.0 do -1.49 Medium dry 10
-1.5 do 1.99 Very dry 5
≤ -2.0 Extremely dry 2.5
Thus, this interpretation indicates the significance of the drought episode that means a period with continuous
occurrence of negative values of SPEI.
For the purposes of our study, SPEI was calculated for 6- and 12-month for September. The reason to use the
6-month SPEI for September is that the growing season overlapping with the activity and reproduction period of
Carabids starts in mountain conditions of the High Tatra in mid-April and lasts to late September. Thus, the drought
episodes influence ground beetle assemblages just in this period. In addition, the previous paper of ŠUSTEK & VIDO
(2013) also implied this period as relevant in such a research. The 12-month SPEI has been also used because of the
missing knowledge regarding the influence of winter precipitation regime on spring ecological response of the spruce
ecosystem in the High Tatra Mountains.
These indices were cross-correlated (using the PAST program by HAMMER (2012)) with the zoocoenotic
parameters (number of individuals and number of species) of ground beetle assemblages on the localities described above.
88
The beetles were pitfall trapped. Six formalin traps, protected against rain, were exposed in each plot from the end of
May until early November 2007 – 2014 and emptied approximately monthly. The position of the traps did not change during
the whole study period. Only in the reference plot in Vyšné Hágy the trap line was to be shifted about 150 m eastwards,
because of the damaging of the stand by the windstorm in April 2014 and following extraction of the fallen timber. The
character of the new plot in the mature spruce stand is identical and the shift of the trap line has not influenced the results.
The scientific names of the species are adopted according to HŮRKA (1996). The habitat and humidity
preference of each species (Table 3) were characterized by semi-quantitative scales elaborated by ŠUSTEK (2004)
based on an extensive literature (BURMEISTER, 1939; DESENDER, 1986 a, b, c, d; FREUDE et al., 1976;
LINDROTH, 1949; SHAROVA, 1981; ŠUSTEK, 1984; THIELE, 1977) and on the author’s field experience. The
humidity scale is represented by eight degrees ranging from 1 to 8 (1 = extremely xerophilous species of steppe-like
habitats, 4 = mesohygrophilous, 8 = extremely hygrophilous species of riverbank or swampy habitats), while the habitat
preference by four degrees (1 = heliophilous species of open habitats, with discontinuous cover, 4 = stenotopic forest
species preferring shadowing by completely closed canopy). These values were used to calculate the humidity
preference and vegetation cover preference indices of Carabid assemblage. They were calculated as the average
preference of all species in one-year samples weighted by the number of individuals of each species as it is used in the
methods of direct ordination (POOLE, 1974). In the same way, the average lower and upper limit of vertical
distribution, its optimum and amplitude and difference between the upper limit and optimum were calculated. The
vertical distribution was characterized by the vegetation tiers according to ŠUSTEK (2000), who graphically
characterized the amplitude of the vertical distribution of species and optimum of their occurrence within this
amplitude. The optimum was characterized according to usual dominance position of a species taken in communities in
different natural or semi-natural ecosystems in Central Europe. In this study, the lower and upper limits of distribution
were expressed by the number of the respective vegetation tier (see above). Structural changes of assemblages are
quantified by two zoocoenotic parameters – number of species and cumulative number of individuals in one-year
catches. The ordination of the assemblages was carried out by non-parametric multidimensional scaling (NMS) using
the program PAST (HAMMER, 2012) and Horn´s index as a measure of proportional similarity.
In the investigation period, a material of 5,329 individuals belonging to 50 species was obtained in all study
plots (Table 4). They represent two sharply differing ecological groups – stenotopic forest species unable to fly and
requiring permanent shadowing by closed tree canopy and heliophilous mostly well flying species bound to non-forests,
natural and artificial ecosystems. Among them, 7-21 species were recorded in individual plots and years. Their number
was positively correlated (r = 0.3148) with the number of trapped individuals that fluctuated from 22 to 376. The higher
cumulative numbers of individuals resulted especially from the abundant occurrence of little species.
The periodic changes in the assemblages

The between-year changes of all three zoocoenotic parameters (Figs. 1-3) show a similar trend, independently
on the present degree of damaging of the assemblage. In 2008, they suddenly dropped deeply under the level of the
precedent year, but since 2009 they have gradually increased. The number of species and individuals culminated in
2010 or 2011. The extremely high values in 2011 in both burned plots are due to the invasion of the well flying Amara
nitida Sturm, 1825 (Table 4). In 2012, the values of both parameters deeply dropped again. The numbers of species and
individuals approximated their minimum of 2008.
In the next two years the numbers of species and individuals stabilized at the approximately the same level.
However, in individual plots they show moderately different directions. In the intact reference plot the number of
individuals continued to decrease, but in one of the burned plots FIREl it increased. The number of species also
moderately decreased on most plots, but it slightly increased in the burned plot FIREh (Table 4).
The figures 1 - 3 show that a sudden decline of the number of species and individuals and of the biomass of
Carabids follows after a longer occurrence of values of SPEI close to – 1.0 or lower (Figs. 4-5). On the contrary, a
longer occurrence of values around 0 already anticipated a moderate increase of both zoocoenotic parameters. After a
prolonged increase of SPEI to the level 1.0 to 2.0, a strong increase of both zoocoenotic parameters followed.
The fluctuations in the number of species and individuals are cross-correlated with the fluctuations in SPEI 6
and 12 in a very similar way and the maximums of the cross-correlation coefficients occur mostly with a 0-2-year lag
(Figs. 6 - 9).
From the viewpoint of prognosis of development of the production parameters of Carabid assemblages based
on climatic fluctuations it seems that, unlike the conclusion of ŠUSTEK & VIDO (2013), SPEI 12 followed by SPEI 6
display the highest indicative values. SLPEI 12 better characterizes long-termed tendencies, whereas fluctuations of
SPEI 6 (for example the sudden drop in mid-2011) can represent warning signals of later decline of the number of
individuals and species.
89
ŠUSTEK Zbyšek
Table 3. Scientific names of the species and their ecologic characteristics (vertical distribution in vegetation tiers: L – lower limit, OP
– optimum, U – upper limit, A – average, D – difference between upper and optimum; humidity requirements: scale 1-8 = strongly
xerophilous to strongly hygrophilous; vegetation cover: scale 1-4 = discontinuous herbage stratum, without wooden plants to
complete shadowing by trees; flying ability: F – flying species, N – non-flying species; B – biomass in grams).
Species Ecological property
L OP U A D HU VC FL B
Agonum micans (Nicolai, 1822) 1 2 6 5 4 7 2 F 0.0313
Agonum sexpunctatum (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 3 7 6 4 5 2 F 0.0350
Amara aenea (De Geer, 1774) 1 2 6 5 4 3 1 F 0.0413
Amara erratica (Duftschmidt, 1812) 5 7 9 4 2 3 1 F 0.0457
Amara eurynota (Panzer, 1797) 2 4 6 4 2 3 1 F 0.0444
Amara familiaris (Duftschmidt, 1812) 1 2 6 5 4 3 1 F 0.0413
Amara lunicollis Schiodte, 1837 2 4 6 4 2 3 1 F 0.0398
Amara nitida Sturm, 1825 1 2 5 4 3 3 1 F 0.1561
Amara ovata (Fabricius, 1792) 1 2 6 5 4 3 1 F 0. 213
Anisodactylus binotatus (Fabricius, 1792) 1 2 6 5 4 6 2 F 0.0457
Bembidion lampros (Herbst, 1784) 1 1.5 6 5 4.5 3 1 F 0.0172
Calathus metalicus Dejean, 1828 5 7 9 4 2 5 3 N 0.1411
Calathus micropterus Duftschmidt, 1812 3 5 7 4 2 3 3 N 0.0196
Carabus arvensis Herbst, 1784 3 5 7 4 2 5 2 N 1.1332
Carabus auronitens Fabricius, 1792 3 5.5 8 5 2.5 4 4 N 1.3251
Carabus coriaceus Linnaeus 1758 1 2 6 5 4 5 4 N 6.5950
Carabus glabratus Paykull, 1790 1 5.5 7 6 1.5 5 4 N 1.7415
Carabus hortensis Linnaeus, 1758 1 2 6 5 4 4 4 N 1.7800
Carabus linnei Dejean, 1826 3 5.5 8 5 2.5 5 4 N 1.0568
Carabus nemoralis O. F. Müller, 1764 1 2.5 6 5 3.5 4 4 N 1.7370
Carabus violaceus Linnaeus, 1758 1 5.5 8 7 2.5 5 4 N 1.7457
Cychrus caraboides (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 5.5 8 7 2.5 5 4 N 0.9256
Europhilus gracilipes Duftschmidt, 1812 1 3 7 6 4 5 2 F 0.0612
Harpalus affinis (Schrank, 1784) 1 1.5 6 5 4.5 3 4 F 0.1873
Harpalus distinguendus Duftschmidt, 1812 1 2 7 6 5 4 1 F 0.1761
Harpalus latus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 1.5 6 5 4.5 4 1 F 0.1561
Harpalus quadripunctatus (Dejean, 1829) 4 6 7 3 1 4 1 F 0.0956
Leistus piceus Frölich, 1799 4 6 8 4 2 5 4 N 0.0610
Leistus terminatus (Hellwig in Panzer, 1793) 3 6.5 8 5 1.5 5 4 N 0.0520
Loricera caerulescens (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 3 8 7 5 4 4 F 0.0428
Microlestes maurus (Sturm, 1827) 1 1 6 5 5 2 1 F 0.0072
Molops piceus (Panzer, 1793) 2 3 6 4 3 4 4 N 0.0443
Notiophilus biguttatus (Fabricius, 1779) 1 2 7 6 5 4 2 F 0.0240
Notiophilus palustris (Duftschmidt, 1812) 1 3 8 7 5 4 2 F 0.0241
Poecilus cupreus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 1.5 6 5 4.5 4 2 F 0.2710
Poecilus versicolor (Sturm, 1824) 2 4.5 6 4 1.5 4 2 F 0.2134
Pseudoophonus rufipes (De Geer, 1774) 1 1.5 6 5 4.5 4 1 F 0.4126
Pterostichus aethiops (Panzer, 1797) 5 6 8 3 2 5 1 N 0.0862
Pterostichus angustatus (Duftschmidt, 1812) 5 6 8 3 2 5 4 N 0.1832
Pterostichus burmeisteri (Heer, 1801) 3 4.5 7 4 2.5 5 4 N 0.1546
Pterostichus foveolatus Duftschmidt, 1812 3 5.5 8 5 2.5 5 4 N 0.2152
Pterostichus niger (Schaller, 1783) 1 1.5 6 5 4.5 6 4 F 1.0600
Pterostichus nigrita (Fabricius, 1792) 1 1.5 6 5 4.5 8 4 F 0.0812
Pterostichus oblongopunctatus (Fabricius, 1787) 1 3 6 5 3 5 4 F 0.1941
Pterostichus strenuus (Panzer, 1797) 1 2 6 5 4 7 4 F 0.0511
Pterostichus unctulatus Duftschmidt, 1812 4 6.5 8 4 1.5 5 4 N 0.0530
Trechus amplicollis Fairmair, 1859 4 5 7 3 2 5 2 N 0.0159
Trechus latus Puzeys, 1847 3 6.5 8 5 1.5 5 4 N 0.0248
Trechus striatulus Putzeys, 1847 3 6.5 9 6 2.5 5 4 N 0.0082
Trichotichnus laevicollis Duftschmidt, 1812 3 5.5 7 4 1.5 5 4 F 0.1431
90
Table 4 (part 1). Survey of the species and number of individuals caught in six study plots in the High Tatra in 2007-2014: reference
plot and plot with timber in situ (years marked just by the last digit).
Species Vyšné Hágy - REF Jamy - NEXT
7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4
A. micans
A. sexpunctatum
A. aenea
A. erratica 1 1
A. eurynota
A. familiaris
A. lunicollis
A. nitida
A. ovata
A. binotatus
B. lampros
C. metalicus 1
C. micropterus 9 12 10 13 1 2 4
C. arvensis 1
C. auronitens 18 1 6 10 16 2 1 1 3 9 3
C. coriaceus
C. glabratus 7 1 3 3 9 8 8 21 15 1 6 11 8 3 6 24
C. hortensis
C. linnei 17 2 8 14 15 2 1 11 25 2 3 8 2 1 1
C. nemoralis
C. violaceus 29 9 18 53 89 67 47 49 10 6 14 30 31 24 31 8
C. caraboides 8 2 3 4 4 1 3 3 3 3
E. gracilipes
H. affinis
H. distinguendus
H. latus
H. quadripunctatus 3 1 3 4
L. piceus 1
L. terminatus
L. caerulescens
M. maurus
M. piceus 7 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
N. biguttatus 4 2 2 1 1 1 1
N. palustris 1
P. cupreus
P. versicolor
P. rufipes
P. aethiops 3 1 1 3 9 4 1 1 9 1 4 11 5 1 2
P. angustatus
P. burmeisteri 17 5 13 25 25 17 14 16 5 10 14 5
P. foveolatus 44 9 25 57 94 12 6 4 4 1 2 9 2 2 2
P. niger
P. nigrita
P. oblongopuncatus 1 1 1 1
P. strenuus
P. unctulatus 208 35 159 186 47 27 13 8 25 8 16 29 8 7 1
T. amplicollis
T. latus
T. striatulus 8 2 1
T. laevicollis 1 2 3 1 1 3 2 1 6 4
Number of species 13 10 13 15 17 10 10 7 9 7 10 15 13 9 9 8
Number of individuals 372 77 251 376 328 143 93 96 106 24 56 125 80 51 54 46
The changes described above coincided with the course of changes of SPEI 6 and 12 (Figs. 4-5). In late 2006
and in 2007, there occurred a drought indicated by a sudden drop of these indices. SPEI 12 was low in 2007 and rarely
also in 2008. SPEI 6 continued to indicate short and often interrupted periods of moderate drought (0.0 to 0.5) also in
2009. In 2010, when the number of species and individuals started to increase, both indices (SPEI 6 and 12) also show
high values ranging from 1.0 to 2.0. The occurrence of high values of these indices is the more continuous; the longer
periods are represented by them (Figs. 4-5). SPEI 12 in 2012 declined to the interval 0.0 to – 1.0. Unlike SPEI 12, SPEI
6 in 2011 suddenly dropped in the second third of the year even to –1.0 to –1.5. This drop anticipated the strong decline
of the number of species and individuals and cumulative biomass in 2012 – 2014 (Figs. 1 - 3).
91
ŠUSTEK Zbyšek
Table 4 (part 2). Survey of the species and number of individuals caught in six study plots in the High Tatra in 2007-2014:
unburned plots with extracted timber (years marked by the last digit).
Species Danielov dom EXTd Vodný les EXTv
7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4
A. micans
A. sexpunctatum 1 1
A. aenea 2 2 5 2 1
A. erratica 102 12 26 18 7 5 14 9 12 8 2
A. eurynota 1 6 2 2 1 1
A. familiaris 3 1 1 1 1
A. lunicollis 1
A. nitida 23 22 1 1 2
A. ovata
A. binotatus 1 1
B. lampros 1 1
C. metalicus
C. micropterus
C. arvensis
C. auronitens 1 1 1 2 1
C. coriaceus 1 2 4 5 6 2
C. glabratus 47 1 11 35 5 54 34 5 1 3 2 13 18 35 23
C. hortensis 1 3 3 2
C. linnei 4 1
C. nemoralis 5 5 3 2
C. violaceus 40 18 23 36 78 62 23 23 3 7 4 15 34 12 19 32
C. caraboides 2 2 1 1 1
E. gracilipes
H. affinis 1 2
H. distinguendus 1
H. latus 1 2
H. quadripunct. 3 1 1 1
L. piceus
L. terminatus 1
L. caerulescens 1 1 5 1 2 1
M. maurus 1
M. piceus 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 11 6 4 2
N. biguttatus 1 5 2
N. palustris 1
P. cupreus 1 3 2 6 3 2 1 2 3
P. versicolor 7 4 5 1 3 4 1 1
P. rufipes 1 2 1 1 1
P. aethiops 1 4 11 2 1 1 2 1 3 5 8 7
P. angustatus 3 2
P. burmeisteri 2 1 2 1 2 5 2 4 3 3
P. foveolatus 1 1 2 4
P. niger 1 2 1
P. nigrita 2 3 1
P. oblongopunctatus 1 1 1 2
P. strenuus 1 1
P. unctulatus 28 1 9 15 3 1 2 4
T. amplicollis 4 2
T. latus 1
T. striatulus 1 3
T. laevicollis 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
92
Table 4 (part 3). Survey of the species and number of individuals caught in six study plots in the High Tatra in 2007-2014:
burned plots with extracted timber (years marked just by the last digit).
Species Tatranské Zruby lower FIRl Tatranské Zruby upper FIRh
7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4
A. micans 1
A. sexpunctatum 1 1 1
A. aenea 1 2 6 2 3 4 1 1
A. erratica 6 4 3 5 1 4 1 8 2 2 4 1 1 2
A. eurynota 21 1 6 1 2 3 1 2
A. familiaris 1 1 1 2
A. lunicollis 1
A. nitida 112 5 1 103 3
A. ovata 2
A. binotatus 2 1
B. lampros 26 1 4 1 4 9 3
C. metalicus
C. micropterus 1 1
C. arvensis
C. auronitens 1 1 2 3 1 1 3 1 1
C. coriaceus 1
C. glabratus 8 2 5 3 9 16 11 47 4 1 4 9 9 7 24
C. hortensis 1
C. linnei 7
C. nemoralis
C. violaceus 2 6 10 21 79 33 19 82 1 3 5 17 38 31 33 29
C.caraboides 1
E. gracilipes 2 1 3
H. affinis
H. distinguendus
H. latus 1
H. quadripunctus 2 2 1 1 2 1 1
L. piceus
L. terminatus
L. caerulescens 1 1 1
M. maurus 1 2 4 2 2
M. piceus 2 12 34 61 13 1 2 1 11 10 20 2
N. biguttatus 4 3 6 2 1 1
N. palustris 1 1
P. cupreus 17 21 25 9 4 1 1 5 8 13 8 3
P. versicolor 117 19 28 2 74 5 7 3
P. rufipes 1 2 1 2 1
P. aethiops 7 1 1
P. angustatus
P. burmeisteri 1 1 1 1 1
P. foveolatus 1 1 2 1 1
P. niger 3 16 8
P. nigrita
P. oblongopunctus 3 1
P. strenuus
P. unctulatus 1 2 7 8 2 6 1 1
T. amplicollis
T. latus
T. striatulus
T. laevicollis 2 1 1 2 1
93
ŠUSTEK Zbyšek
25
REF NEXT
EXTd EXTv
20 FIRl FIRu
15
Species
10
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
400
REF NEXT
350 EXTd EXTv
FIRl FIRh
300
250
Individuals
200
150
100
50
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Figures 1 - 3. Changes in the number of species (above) and individuals (in centre) and biomass (bellow) in six sites in the
High Tatra in 2007-2004 (for locality abbreviations see Table 1).
94
Figures 4 - 5. Changes in SPEI 6 (above) and SPEI 12 (bellow) in six sites in the High Tatra in 2007-2004
(after ŠUSTEK & VIDO, in press).
In 2012 and 2013, SPEI 6 and 12 declined approximately below the level of – 0.5, but SPEI 12 decreased to the level
of – 2.0. In 2014, these indices started to increase again, but SPEI 6 had increased already in spring, while both other indices
increased as late in the last third of 2014. This moderate increase coincides with the increase of the number of individuals and
biomass of Carabids in some plots in 2014 (Figs. 1-3). The comparison of the changes in the number of individuals and
species as biomass with the occurrence of drought periods indicated by SPEI index shows that the changes in both
zoocoenotic parameters mostly occur with an approximate delay of 1-2 years after extremely droughty or rainy years. With
this delay, the values of these parameters and SPEI show the highest cross-correlations (Figs. 6-9),
The similar, but slightly moderately phase-shifted course of fluctuation of the climatic factors and of both
zoocoenotic parameters in 2007–2012 raises the question of periodicity of climatic fluctuation and their influence on
animal communities. The changes of SPEI 6 and 12 (Figs. 10-11) calculated for the meteorological station Tatranská
Lomnica for 1961-2014 show that fluctuations of these indices in range of – 1.5 to + 1.5, or rarely even in the range of –
2.0 to + 2.0 occur regularly within 3-6 years, similarly as they did in the studied period 2007 – 2014. These fluctuations
are best explained by SPEI 6, while SPEI 12 covers them up. Therefore it can be concluded that the fluctuations of both
zoocoenotic parameters of the Carabid assemblages probably repeat with similar regularity during much longer time.
At the same time the observed maximum and minimal values of these two parameters probably represent limits
of variability of the Carabid assemblages in similar mountain ecosystems (Figs. 1-3). However, from the viewpoint of
zoocoenological classification the Carabid assemblages the found values can be indicative just for the assemblages in
the forests on oligotrophic acid crystalline substrates, while in the ecosystems on the polytrophic nitrogenous or basic
substrates, the extremes will be situated at a higher level (ŠUSTEK, 2009).
95
ŠUSTEK Zbyšek
Lag
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
1
0,8
REF NEXT
0,6 EXTd EXTv
FIRl FIRh
0,4
Crosscorrelation
0,2
-0,2
-0,4
-0,6
-0,8
-1
Lag
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
1
REF NEXT
0,8 EXTd EXTv
FIRl FIRh
0,6
0,4
Crosscorrelation
0,2
-0,2
-0,4
-0,6
-0,8
-1
Figures 6-7. Cross-correlations of the fluctuations of the number of Carabid species with SPEI 6 (above) and 12 (bellow).
The phase shift (lag) of the fluctuations in Carabid assemblages after the climatic fluctuations has two
different, but closely connected reasons. The shortage of humidity reduces the activity of all edaphic organisms. Thus, it
simultaneously reduces the momentary activity of adult Carabids and their chance to mate and lay eggs, as well as the
chance of adults and larvae to find enough prey, to complete the development and to survive. Therefore the effect of
drought is combined and occurs at several levels. The Carabids are monovoltine, with two principal reproduction types
in the Holarctic region.
96
Lag
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
1
0,8 REF NEXT

EXTd EXTv
0,6
FIRl FIRh
0,4
Crosscorrelation
0,2
-0,2
-0,4
-0,6
-0,8
-1
Lag
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
1
REF NEXT
0,8
EXTd EXTv
0,6 FIRl FIRh
0,4
Crosscorrelation
0,2
-0,2
-0,4
-0,6
-0,8
-1
Figures 8-9. Cross-correlations of the fluctuations of the number of Carabid individuals with SPEI 6 (above) and 12 (bellow).
The spring breeders mate and lay eggs in spring, and the new generation hibernates as pupae or adults, while the
summer breeders mate and lay eggs in late summer or early autumn, and the new generation hibernates as larvae (THIELE,
1975). There also exists a plastic reproduction type, but it is represented just by very few species, like Pterostichus melanarius
IIlliger, 1798. In lowlands, with long growing season, species of both reproduction types are represented in assemblages in an
approximately balanced proportion. Different timing of their reproduction reduces competition pressures of species and forms
clear seasonal aspects of Carabid assemblages in some ecosystems. In mountain conditions, the spring breeders predominate
97
ŠUSTEK Zbyšek
to effectively use the short growing season that can be even insufficient for the complete development of one generation.
Thus, the development of some species can be prolonged on two growing seasons and generations can overlap. Under such
circumstances, the extreme drought in a growing season or even in a short period can essentially inhibit the development of
the next generation, but with an impact visible as late as in the following growing season, if the beetles are monitored using
pitfall traps. From this point of view the extreme fluctuations of SPEI 6 like in summer 2012 can have a great predictive value.
On the contrary, the restoration of the decimated population will need a longer period of normal or increased humidity, as it
was observed in the years 2009 and 2010.
Figures 10-11. Long-termed fluctuations of SPEI 6 (above) and SPEI 12 (below) in the High Tatra in 1960 –2013
(according to ŠUSTEK & VIDO, in press).
Non periodic changes in the assemblages

The extreme drought or increased humidity doubtlessly influences the course of restoration of the assemblages in the
damaged area, but with their momentary composition and their direction of their succession (restoration) it has just a free
relationship. This process has a non-periodic character. It is clearly shown by the representation of species requiring
permanent shadowing (Fig. 12) and higher humidity (Fig. 13), as well as by the increase of the proportion of non-flying
species representing the more tolerant forest species, in particular Carabus violaceus, Carabus glabratus and, to certain
degree also Molops piceus (Tab. 5). In spite of the incidence of the periodic, climatically conditioned changes in the number
of species and individuals and in the cumulative biomass (Figs. 1-3), the representation of these three groups of species
increased as in all damaged plots with extracted timber and converged to their stable representation in the intact reference plot
(REF Vyšné Hágy) and in the damaged plot with fallen timber in situ (NEXT Jamy). In all three cases the growth has a
sigmoid character and the values asymptotically approximate to the level in the intact plot, irrespectively of the two periods of
extreme drought, which could only temporarily inhibit the restoration of the damaged ecosystems by reducing the number of
individuals and species.
98
4,5
4
Vegetation cover preference index
3,5
2,5
1,5 REF NEXT
1 EXTd EXTv
FIRl IRFh
0,5
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
4,5
Humidity preference index
REF NEXT EXTd

3,5
Extv FIRl FIRh
3
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Figures 12-13. Changes in the vegetation cover preference index (above) and the humidity preference index (bellow)
of Carabid assemblages in six sites in the High Tatra in 2007-2014.
The parameters of the vertical distribution of individual species (Figs. 15-19) changed in the period 2007-2014 as it
follows. The average lower limit (Fig. 15) continuously declined in all the study plots from the range of about 1.8-3.2 to
values bellow 2. Hence there increased the representation of species having lower limit of vertical distribution in the oak
vegetation tier. The average optimum of the vertical distribution (Fig. 16) was very stable in the intact reference plot (REF in
Vyšné Hágy) and in the plot with timber in situ (NEXT in Jamy), but in spite of it, it showed a moderate decline from 5.9 in
2007 to 5.6 in 2012-2014. At the same time, the average optimum strongly varied in other damaged plots, with a strong drop
in both burned plots in 2007-2009 and a continuous declining trend in EXTv, where it decreased from the initial values of 4.8
in 2007 to 1.6 and 2.7 in 2013 and 2014, respectively. In the case of the communities from the burned plots it was due to the
predominance of Poecilus cupreus, a typical species of the arable land in lowlands, while in EXTv to spreading and increasing
dominance of three species of lowland forests, Carabus coriaceus, Carabus nemortalis and Carabus hortensis (Table 4).
99
ŠUSTEK Zbyšek
100
Percentage of individuals non-flying species
90
80
70
60
50 REF NEXT
EXTd EXTv
40
FIR l FIR h
30
20
10
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Figure 14. Proportion of non-flying species in Carabid assemblages in six sites in the High Tatra in 2007-2014.
The average upper limit of the upper distribution (Fig. 17) was very stable in all plots. In the intact reference
plot (REF in Vyšné Hágy) and in the plot with timber in situ (NEXT in Jamy) it moderately fluctuated around the level
7.8, while around 6.5 in the burned lots and moderately increased in these plots in 2014. A visible decline from 7.5 to
6.3 occurred in EXTv (Vodný les) especially due to Carabus coriaceus, Carabus nemortalis and Carabus hortensis.
The stability of the values of the average upper limit results from the fact that all recorded species occurred here at their
upper limit of distribution amplitude or close to it (Table 2).
The average amplitude of the vertical distribution (Fig. 18) showed a stable level around the values 4.5 in all
plots in the period 2007 – 2009, but later on, there started a slight increasing trend to the values ranging from 5.1 to 6.2
in 2014. This increase represents other expression of the increasing representation of the species having their lower
limit of vertical distribution in the oak vegetation tier (Table 2).
The average difference between the upper limit of the vertical distribution and its optimum also shows stability
in all plots, but in the burned plots, the difference decreased from the initial values ranging from 3.8 to 4.0 to the values
close to 2.0. This is also just another expression of the strong changes in the representation of Poecilus cupreus, as
shown above in the case of average optimum.
In general, the shift in the representation of species with different amplitude of vertical distribution is best
shown by the lower limit (Fig. 15) and width of the distribution amplitude (Fig. 18).
The described changes might indicate a trend to warming in all, intact and damaged plots. However, in the
studied period, it is in contradiction to the average annual temperatures, which culminated in 2007, then declined to
2010 and again culminated in 2012 and then slightly decreased. At the same time, there was a culmination of humidity
in 2010, which was followed by a decline that reached even lower values than in 2007, which caused dramatic changes
in the Carabid communities in 2008-2009 (ŠUSTEK & VIDO, 2013). Thus, it seems that the humidity or durst have a
stronger effect on the structure of Carabid communities than the temperature. Of course, the species having its optimum
in lower vegetation tiers live in drier conditions as shown by ŠKVARENINA et al. (2002).
5
Difference between uper limit and optimum REF NEXT
4 EXTd EXTv
FIRl FIRu
3
1
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
100
7
Amplitude
6
4
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
6
Upper limit
5
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
2
Optimum
1
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
5
Lower limit
4
1
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Figures 15-19. Lower and upper limit of the vertical distribution of Carabids in nine vegetation tiers (ordinate), its optimum,
amplitude and difference between its upper limit and optimum in six sites in the High tatra in 2007 – 2014.
At the same time, the succession of Carabid assemblages in all damaged plots had a convergent character and
reducing differences between the assemblages from the burned plots and other plots with extracted timber. It was allowed by
the development of pioneer wooden vegetation and at least local shadowing, as well as by the change of herbage stratum due
to mowing the extensive stands of Chamerion angustifolium and its gradual replacing by the grassy stands (mostly
Calamagrostis spp.), as well as the gradual spreading of more tolerant forest Carabid species. This process is illustrated by the
ordination of one-year samples from all studied plots (Fig. 21). The first axis represents the gradient of shadowing and
damaging degree, respectively. The second axis shows the progress of succession from 2007 to 2014. At the beginning, the
communities on the burned plots differed from unburned plots with extracted timber by pulse-like invasions of the species
characteristic for arable land, especially by Poecilus cupres (later replaced by Poecilus versicolor (Sturm 1824),
Pseudophonus rufipes (De Geer, 1774) and several species of the genus Amara (Table 4). At the beginning, there also
occurred heliophilous species Microlestes minutus (Sturm, 1827) and Bembidion lampros (Herbst, 1784) that prefer sites with
discontinuous, patchy-like herbage vegetation. At the end of the investigation period, all assemblages from the plot with
extracted timber form a common cluster that shifts to the right side of the ordination space, towards to the assemblages from
the intact plot and the plot with timber in situ. However, the complete restoration of the assemblage in the damaged plots is
still a question of remote future. First of all, the stenotopic forest species Carabus linnei Dejean, 1826, C. auronitens
Fabricius, 1792, Cychrus caraboides (Linnaeus, 1758), Leistus piceus Frölich, 1799, Pterostichus unctulatus , P. burmeisteri,
P. foveolaus and Calathus micropterus miss or occur there only exceptionally. These species represent the specific component
of the assemblages in the intact reference plot. To certain degree, they also survive in the plot with timber in situ (Table 4).
101
ŠUSTEK Zbyšek
Figure 20. Spreading of the three species of the genus Carabus having occurrence optimum in lowlands in the
damaged plot EXTv at margin of Nový Smokovec in 2007-2014.
Figure 21. NMS ordination (Horn´s index) of one-years samples of Carabids in six sites in the windstorm area in the High Tatra in
2007-2014 (abbreviations H – reference plot in Vyšné Hágy [= REF]. J – plot with fallen timber in situ in Jamy [= NEXT]. D –
unburned plot with extracted timber near Danielov dom (=EXTd). V – unburned plot with extracted timber Vodný les Zd and Zh –
lower and upper burned plot with extracted timber in Tatranské zruby [= FIRl and FIRh). The arrows show the succession direction
of the assemblages in the burned plots. The first axis shows the damage degree, the second axis shows the direction.
of succession from 2007 towards 2014.
102
In the last years, there also appeared other trends in all assemblages – the penetrating (Carabus coriaceus,
Carabus hortensis, Carabus nemoralis) and increasing portion of species having the optimum of distribution in
highlands or lower limit of vertical distribution in lowlands (Carabus violaceus, Carabus glabratus). Thus, the
assemblage structure slowly shifts toward the assemblages that are characteristic to lower altitudes. However, the
interpretation of the spreading of Carabus coriaceus, Carabus hortensis and Carabus nemoralis is not simple, because
it started and furthermore is concentrated in the plot at the western margin of the Nový Smokovec town, where a
temperature island can occur and where Carabus coriaceus was observed one year before its recording in this plot.
Thus it is obvious, that three processes run simultaneously in the studied communities: (1) periodic changes
connected with the short-termed, more or less regularly occurring climatic fluctuations, (2) strong long-termed non-
periodic changes connected with the restoration of the more or less original state of the damaged communities and (3) a
relatively slight, but probably also long-termed changes resulting from the moderate warming of the climate.
Although the studied localities are situated in a 12 km long strip and the difference of altitude of the lowest and
highest plot is of approximately 250 m, the values of SPEI 6 and 12 calculated on the base of the data from a single
meteorological station (Tatranská Lomnica), situated at the eastern part of the study area, are sufficiently representative
for characterizing the climatic conditions for the existence of Carabid assemblages in the whole studied area.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author gratefully acknowledges the grant agency VEGA for the financial support by the grants 2/4068/04,
2/7079/27, 2/0140/10 and 2/0101/14, as well as to the Technical University at Zvolen for financial support by the
project DoVP 432/2014.
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Zbyšek Šustek
Institute of zoology of Slovak Academy of Sciences
Dúbravská cesta 9. 845 06 Bratislava. Slovakia.
E-mail: zbysek.sustek@savba.sk

104
DATA CONCERNING THE DIVERSITY OF SCARABEOID LARVAE

(COLEOPTERA: SCARABEOIDEA:
DYNASTIDAE, MELOLONTHIDAE, CETONIIDAE AND LUCANIDAE)
IN FOREST NURSERIES FROM IAŞI COUNTY, ROMANIA
ARINTON Mihaela, CIORNEI Constantin
Abstract. The researches regarding the diversity of scarabeoid larvae in the forest nurseries from Iaşi County were made in 2010. The
material (88 coleopterans) was collected from the soil (60 samples of 1 m x 1 m x 0.5 m); systematically, it belongs to four families:
Dynastidae, Melolonthidae, Cetoniidae and Lucanidae; four subfamilies: Dynastinae, Melolonthinae, Sericinae and Cetoniinae, 9 genera and
10 species. Melolontha melolontha (Linnaeus 1758). Pentodon sp., Amphimallon solstitiale (Linnaeus 1758) and Holochelus (Miltotrogus)
aequinoctialis (Herbst 1790) were eudominant species. The characteristic species identified for the studied forest nurseries were represented
by Pentodon sp., A. solstitiale and H. (M.) aequinoctialis. The largest number of species, individuals and the largest density of larvae were
registered in distric alluvial soil, at 46 m altitude. A high level of infestation was recorded for M. melolontha in Coasta Teiului forest nursery
(Paşcani Forest District). In the other forest nurseries (Galata, Pietrosu, Bivolari and Bodeşti), four species: Pentodon sp., A. solstitiale,
Holochelus (Miltotrogus) caucasicus (Gyllenyhal 1817) and H. (M.) aequinoctialis registered low levels of infestations.
Keywords: Scarabeoids, larvae, forest nurseries, Iaşi County.
Rezumat. Date privind diversitatea larvelor de scarabeoidee (Coleoptera: Scarabeoidea: Dynastidae, Melolonthidae,
Cetoniidae şi Lucanidae) în pepiniere din judeţul Iaşi, România. Cercetările privind diversitatea larvelor de scarabeoidee în
pepiniere din judeţul Iaşi au fost realizate în 2010. Din punct de vedere sistematic, cele 88 de coleoptere (insecte) colectate din 60 de sondaje
de sol aparţin la patru familii: Dynastidae, Melolonthidae, Cetoniidae and Lucanidae; patru subfamilii: Dynastinae, Melolonthinae, Sericinae
şi Cetoniinae, 9 genuri şi 10 specii. Analiza sinecologică a indicat 4 specii eudominante: Melolontha melolontha (Linnaeus 1758). Pentodon
sp., Amphimallon solstitiale (Linnaeus 1758) şi Holochelus (Miltotrogus) aequinoctialis (Herbst 1790); trei specii: Pentodon sp., A.
solstitiale şi H. (M.) aequinoctialis au fost identificate ca specii caracteristice pentru cele cinci pepiniere cercetate. Cel mai mare număr de
specii şi cele mai mari densităţi de coleoptere (insecte) s-au înregistrat în solul de tip aluviosol distric, la 46 m altitudine. Pentru pepiniera
Coasta Teiului rezultatele au indicat o infestare puternică cu M. melolontha. În cazul celorlalte specii dăunătoare s-au constatat grade scăzute
de infestare.
Cuvinte cheie: Scarabeoidee, larve, pepiniere, judeţul Iaşi.
INTRODUCTION
Since 2010, the authors were interested in studying the diversity of the scarabeoid larvae in forest nurseries from
Romania. Many scarabeoid larvae are root feeders – disturbing biotic agents. The researches regarding the occurrence of the
root feeders in the soil are important for forest management. It is necessary to mention that not all the scarabeoid species
identified in the samples from forest nurseries are disturbing biotic agents. The aim of this paper is to present the results of our
researches regarding the diversity of scarabeoid larvae and also the levels of infestation in forest nurseries from Iaşi County.
The material analysed in this paper was collected in 2010. Five forest nurseries were investigated: Galata (Ciurea
Forest District), Pietrosu (Dobrovăţ Forest District), Bivolari (Iaşi Forest District), Coasta Teiului (Paşcani Forest District) and
Bodeşti (Pădureni Forest District) – Fig. 1. All of them belong to the Romanian National Forest Administration, Iaşi Forest
Direction (Iaşi County). The characteristics of the five forest nurseries are presented in table 1.
For this study, the scarabeoid larvae were sampled from soil blocks of 1 x 1 x 0.5 m.
For analysing the data, it was necessary to establish the density of the insects (no. of individuals / m2).
In order to make a synecological analysis, some ecological indexes were calculated: abundance, frequency,
constancy, dominance and the ecological significance index (W) (VARVARA et al., 2001).
Also, for establishing the level of infestation, for all the species that were recorded, it was necessary to
calculate the average number of Melolontha melolontha (Linnaeus 1758) in the third larval instar, using the critical
number of larvae / m2 established for each species (SIMIONESCU et al., 2000 – Table 2).
Weighted average linkage method was used for hierarchical classifications of the species. The Bray-Curtis’
index was used for similarity measure. The calculations were carried out by the programs Past (HAMMER et al., 2001).
All the larvae have been preserved in alcohol. The material was identified using the keys by PANIN (1955,
1957) and KLAUSNITZER (1978). The taxonomy and nomenclature used in this paper is in accordance with Fauna
Europaea (http://www.faunaeur.org).
105
ARINTON Mihaela CIORNEI Constantin
Table 1. The characteristics of the five forest nurseries (Romanian National Forest Administration, Iaşi Direction).
Geographical coordinates
Type of station
Forest District
No. of samples
nursery
Forest
Altitude
No. Type of the soil
-m-
Latitude N Longitude E
1 Ciurea Galata 16 140 47º8’40.24” 27º32’58.83” 7420 typical eutricambosoil

2 Dobrovăţ Pietrosu 9 260 46º59’30” 27º40’56” 5153 mollic preluvisoil
3 Iaşi Bivolari 20 46 47º30’41” 27º27’2” 9613 dystric alluvial
4 Paşcani Coasta Teiului 10 350 47º17’32” 26º50’38” 6153 typical luvisol
5 Pădureni Bodeşti 5 200 46º55’38” 27º36’19” 7430 typical luvisol
Legend: type of station: 5153 – hilly, sessile oak forests with inferior productivity, brown, large edaphic, with Asarum-Stellaria
6153 – hilly, oak forest, with inferior-medium productivity, brown and grey, large edaphic
7420 – hilly, oak forest, brown, II with medium-inferior productivity
7430 – hilly, oak forest, with medium-inferior productivity, brown, large edaphic
9613 –forest-steppe, meadow poplar forest, with inferior-medium productivity, humiferous moderately alluvial, deep
phreatic wet, very briefly flooded
Table 2. The critical number of larvae for the scarabeoid species identified for the forest nurseries from Iaşi County
(SIMIONESCU et al., 2000).
Species
Pentodon sp.
No. Melolontha melolontha Amphimallon solstitiale (Linnaeus 1758)
(Linnaeus 1758) Holochelus (Miltotrogus) caucasicus (Gyllenyhal 1817)
Holochelus (Miltotrogus) aequinoctialis (Herbst 1790)
1 The larval instar L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3
2 The critical number of larvae / m2 5 3 1 10 6 3
The formula for calculating the average number
3 L1 x 1/5 + L2 x 1/3 + L3 L1 x 1/10 + L2 x 1/6 + L3 x 1/3
of M. melolontha (in the third larval instar
For studying the diversity of scarabeoids by analysing the populations of larvae present in the soil, 60 samples
from five forest nurseries were analysed. The coleopterological material (88 coleopterans) was studied for identifying
the species and the larval instar. Systematically, it belonged to four families: Dynastidae, Melolonthidae, Cetoniidae and
Lucanidae; four subfamilies: Dynastinae, Melolonthinae, Sericinae and Cetoniinae, 9 genera and 10 species (Table. 3).
According to the results presented in Table 3, M. melolontha was represented by the largest number of individuals –
21 larvae (10 samples) recorded only in Coasta Teiului (Paşcani). It was followed by three species recorded for Galata and
Bivolari forest nurseries (36 samples): Pentodon sp. (with 18 individuals), Amphimallon solstitiale (Linnaeus 1758) with 14
larvae and Holochelus (Miltotrogus) aequinoctialis (Herbst 1790) with 12 larvae (Fig. 2).
The largest number of individuals was recorded in the Bivolari forest nursery (Iaşi Forest District): 53 coleopterans
in 20 samples and Coasta Teiului forest nursery (Paşcani Forest District): 21 larvae in 10 samples.
The largest number of species was also registered for Bivolari forest nursery (8 species). Three species were
identified for Galata forest nursery. Only one species was identified for two forest nurseries: Pietrosu and Coasta Teiului.
Table 3. Survey of species, number of individuals and density of scarabeoid species identified for the forest nurseries from Iaşi County.
Coasta
No. Species Galata Pietrosu Bivolari Bodeşti Total
Teiului
Dynastidae / Dynastinae
1 Pentodon sp. The larval instar 2L2+ 1L3 2L1+ 5L2+ 5L3+ 2P+ 1A 2L1+ 7L2+ 6L3+ 2P+ 1A
2 Total individuals 3 15 18
3 Density (no. indiv. / m2) 0.19 0.75
Melolonthidae / Melolonthinae
4 M. melolontha The larval instar 21 L2 21 L2
5 Total individuals 21 21
6 Density (no. indiv. / m2) 2.1
7 A. solstitiale The larval instar 2 L2 1L1+ 11L2 1L1+ 13L2
10 H. (M.) caucasicus The larval instar 4 L1 4 L1
13 H.(M.) The larval instar 8 L2 1L1+ 1L2+ 2L3 1L1+ 9L2+ 2L3
14 aequinoctialis Total individuals 8 4 12
106
Melolonthidae / Sericinae
16 M. (M.) The larval instar 1L 1L
17 holosericea Total individuals 1 1
Cetoniidae / Cetoniinae
19 C. aurata The larval instar 1 L3 2 L3 3 L3
22 Protaetia sp. The larval instar 3 L3 3 L3
25 T. (E.) hirta The larval instar 1 L3 6 L3 7 L3
Lucanidae
28 L. cervus The larval instar 1L1+ 4L3 1L1+ 4L3
31 No. samples 16 9 20 10 5 60
32 No. species 3 1 8 1 2 10
33 No. individuals 13 1 48 21 5 88
34 Density / m2 0.81 0.11 2.4 2.1 1 1.47
Figure 2. Survey of species, the abundance of scarabeoid species identified in the forest nurseries from Iaşi County.
According to the data presented in Table 3, the distribution of the 10 scarabeoid species in the investigated
forest nurseries from Iaşi County is presented in Fig. 3. Comparing the densities of species, the results indicate that the
largest densities were registered for M. melolontha: 2.1 larvae / m2 for Coasta Teiului forest nursery, for Pentodon sp.:
0.75 individuals / m2 in Bodeşti forest nursery, for A. solstitiale: 0.6 larvae / m2 in Bivolari forest nursery and for
Protaetia sp.: 0.6 larvae / m2 in Bodeşti forest nursery (Fig. 3).
107
Figure 3. Survey of species, the density of scarabeoid species identified for the forest nurseries from Iaşi County.
For the synecological analysis, the authors used the densities data – Table 4. Thus, M. melolontha. Pentodon
sp., A. solstitiale and H. (M.) aequinoctialis are eudominant species. Other two species: Tropinota (Epicometis) hirta
(Poda 1761) and L. cervus are included in the dominant class. According to the same index, Holochelus (Miltotrogus)
caucasicus (Gyllenyhal 1817), Cetonia aurata (Linnaeus 1761) and Protaetia sp. are subdominant species. Only one
species is recedent – Maladera (Maladera) holosericea (Scopoli 1772).
Table 4. The synecological analysis for the scarabaeoid species, collected from forest nurseries (Iaşi County).
Coasta
No. Species Galata Pietrosu Bivolari Bodeşti A C D W
Teiului
1 M. melolontha 2.1 2.1 20 C1 23.81 D5 4.76 W3
2 Pentodon sp. 0.19 0.75 0.5 40 C2 20.41 D5 8.16 W4
3 A. solstitiale 0.12 0.6 0.39 40 C2 15.65 D5 6.26 W4
4 H.(M.) aequinoctialis 0.5 0.2 0.33 40 C2 13.61 D5 5.44 W4
5 T. (E.) hirta 0.11 0.3 0.24 40 C2 8.16 D4 3.26 W3
6 L. cervus 0.25 0.25 20 C1 5.44 D4 1.09 W3
7 H. (M.) caucasicus 0.2 0.2 20 C1 4.76 D3 0.95 W2
8 C. aurata 0.05 0.4 0.12 40 C2 3.40 D3 1.36 W3
9 Protaetia sp. 0.6 0.6 20 C1 3.40 D3 0.68 W2
10 M. (M.) holosericea 0.05 0.05 20 C1 1.36 D2 0.27 W2
The values of the ecological significance index (W) indicates that the ten scarabeoid species identified for the
forest nurseries from Iaşi County belonged to two groups: Pentodon sp., A. solstitiale and H.(M.) aequinoctialis – the
characteristic species, and the other seven species – accessory.
According to the cluster analyse (Fig. 4) M. melolontha appears separately from the rest of the species: it was
found only in Coasta Teiului forest nursery (no other species were collected in this forest nursery). Lucanus cervus
(Linnaeus 1758) and H. (M.) caucasicus form a subcluster (0.89 similarity) – these two species were collected only
from Bivolari forest nursery and their densities registered similar values (0.25 respectively 0.2 individuals / m2).
Another subcluster includes other two species: Pentodon sp. and A. solstitiale – 0.87 similarity: they were identified for
two forest nurseries: Galata and Bivolari (and also they registered similar densities). C. aurata and Protaetia sp. form a
subcluster (0.76 similarity): both of them were collected from Bodeşti forest nursery (similar densities: 0.4, respectively
0.6 individuals / m2), but Cetonia was also found in Bivolari forest nursery.
108
Figure 4. Hierarchical classification of the species collected from forest nurseries (Iaşi County), using Bray-Curtis’ index of similarity.
The largest number of species and individuals (8 species – 48 coleopterans (insects), and also the largest
density of larvae (2.4 individuals / m2) were in dystric alluvial soil (Bivolari forest nursery – Table 5).
The largest densities of the species in different types of soil were recorded as follows: M. melolontha – typical
luvisol, Pentodon sp. and A. solstitiale in dystric alluvial soil (Fig. 5).
Table 5. Survey of species, number of individuals and density of scarabeoid species identified for different types of soil from Iaşi County.
typical eutricambosoil mollic preluvisoil dystric alluvial typical luvisol
No. of samples
No. of samples
No. of samples
No. of samples
No. of indiv.
No. of indiv.
No. of indiv.
No. of indiv.
individuals
individuals
individuals
individuals
No. of
No. of
No. of
No. of
No. Species
/ m2
/ m2
/ m2
/ m2
1 Pentodon sp. 3 16 0.19 15 20 0.75
2 M. melolontha 21 15 1.4
3 A. solstitiale 2 16 0.12 12 20 0.6
4 H. (M.) caucasicus 4 20 0.2
5 H.(M.) aequinoctialis 8 16 0.5 4 20 0.2
6 M. (M.) holosericea 1 20 0.05
7 C. aurata 1 20 0.05 2 15 0.13
8 Protaetia sp. 3 15 0.2
9 T. (E.) hirta 1 9 0.11 6 20 0.3
10 L. cervus 5 20 0.25
Total 13 16 0.81 1 9 0.11 48 20 2.4 26 15 1.73
Figure 5. Survey of species, the density of scarabeoid species identified for different types of soil from Iaşi County.
As to the habitat types (Table 6), M. melolontha was found only in hilly region, oak forest, with inferior-
medium productivity (a high density: 2.1 individuals / m2); Pentodon sp. presented a high density (0.75 individuals /
m2) in, forest-steppe, meadow poplar forest, with inferior-medium productivity; A. solstitiale and Protaetia sp.
registered the same density (0.6 individuals / m2) in, forest-steppe, meadow poplar forest, with inferior-medium
productivity, respectively in hilly region, oak forest, with medium-inferior productivity, brown, large edaphic (Fig. 6).
109
Table 6. Survey of species, number of individuals and density of scarabeoid species in different habitats from Iaşi County.
7420 5153 9613 6153 7430
No. of individuals
No. of individuals
No. of individuals
No. of individuals
No. of individuals
No. of indiv. / m2
No. of indiv. / m2
No. of indiv. / m2
No. of indiv. / m2
No. of indiv. / m2
No. of samples
No. of samples
No. of samples
No. of samples
No. of samples
No. Species
1 Pentodon sp. 3 16 0.19 15 20 0.75

3 A. solstitiale 2 16 0.12 12 20 0.6
7 C. aurata 1 20 0.05 2 5 0.4
9 T. (E.) hirta 1 9 0.11 6 20 0.3
10 L. cervus 5 20 0.25
Total 13 16 0.81 1 9 0.11 48 20 2.4 21 10 2.1 5 5 1
Legend: 5153, 6153, 7420, 7430 and 9613 – according to table 1.
Figure 6. Survey of species, the density of scarabeoid species identified for different types of station from Iaşi County:
5153, 6153, 7420, 7430 and 9613 – according to table 1.
The forest nurseries are situated at different altitudes: Bivolari – 46 m; Galata – 140 m; Bodeşti – 200 m; Pietrosu –
260 m; Coasta Teiului – 350 m. The largest number of species and individuals were registered for 46 m altitude: Bivolari (Iaşi
Forest District) – eight species, respectively 48 insects (Table 7). Thus, M. melolontha was found only at 350 m altitude; H.
(M.) caucasicus, M. (M.) holosericea and L. cervus were found only in Bivolari forest nursery (46 m altitude); T. (E.) hirta
was collected from two forest nurseries, Bivolari (46 m altitude) and Pietrosu (260 m altitude) (Fig. 7).
Table 7. Survey of species, number of individuals and density of scarabeoid species found for different altitudes (Iaşi County).
0-100 m 100-200 m 200-300 m 300-400 m
No. of individuals
No. of individuals
No. of individuals
No. of individuals
No. of indiv. / m2
No. of indiv. / m2
No. of indiv. / m2
No. of indiv. / m2
No. of samples
No. of samples
No. of samples
No. of samples
No. Species
1 Pentodon sp. 15 20 0.75 3 21 0.14

3 A. solstitiale 12 20 0.6 2 21 0.1
7 C. aurata 1 20 0.05 2 21 0.1
9 T. (E.) hirta 6 20 0.3 1 9 0.11
10 L. cervus 5 20 0.25
Total 48 20 2.4 18 21 0.86 1 9 0.11 21 10 2.1
110
Figure 7. Survey of species, the density of scarabeoid larvae identified for different altitudes – Iaşi County.
Regarding the infestation of forest nurseries with disturbing biotic agents, M. melolontha was the only species
that recorded a high level of infestation for Coasta Teiului (Paşcani Forest Department). Three species: Pentodon sp. A.
solstitiale and H. (M.) aequinoctialis registered low levels of infestation in Galata and Bivolari forest nurseries; H. (M.)
caucasicus was found only in Bivolari forest nursery – low level of infestation (Table 8).
Table 8. The level of infestation with scarabeoid larvae in the studied forest nurseries from Iaşi County.
M. melolontha transformed
in the third larval instar -
(the average number of
No. of samples
Infestation
L 3 / m2 )
Forest Level of
No. Forest nursery Species Number of individuals
Department infestation
1 Pentodon sp. 2 L2+ 1 L3 16 0.04 L

2 Ciurea Galata A. solstitiale 2 L2 16 0.02 L
3 H. (M.) aequinoctialis 8 L2 16 0.08 L
4 Dobrovăţ Pietrosu T. (E.) hirta 1 L3 9 - -
5 Pentodon sp. 2L1+ 5L2+ 5L3+ 2P+ 1A 20 0.13 L
6 A. solstitiale 1L1+ 11L2 20 0.09 L
7 H. (M.) caucasicus 4 L1 20 0.02 L
8 H.(M.) aequinoctialis 1L1+ 1L2+ 2L3 20 0.05 L
Iaşi Bivolari
9 M. (M.) holosericea 1L 20 - -
10 C. aurata 1 L3 20 - -
11 T. (E.) hirta 6 L3 20 - -
12 L. cervus 1L1+ 4L3 20 - -
13 Paşcani Coasta Teiului M. melolontha 21 L2 10 0.7 H
14 C. aurata 2 L3 5 - -
Pădureni Bodeşti
15 Protaetia sp. 3 L3 5 - -
Legend: Level of infestation: L – low infestation; H – high infestation;
Observation: M. (M.) holosericea, C. aurata, Protaetia sp., T. (E.) hirta and L. cervus do not attack the roots of the plant (they are not disturbing biotic agents)
CONCLUSIONS
For studying the diversity of scarabeoid larvae in the forest nurseries, five forest nurseries from Iaşi County were
analysed in 2010 (60 soil samples).
Systematically, the biological material belonged to four families, four subfamilies 9 genera and 10 species.
The synecological analysis indicates that M. melolontha. Pentodon sp., A. solstitiale and H. (M.) aequinoctialis are
eudominant species; Pentodon sp., A. solstitiale and H. (M.) aequinoctialis are the characteristic species for the investigated
forest nurseries.
The cluster analyse reveals two subclusters with significant values of similarity index (they were collected from the
same forest nurseries and they also registered similar densities): L. cervus – H. (M.) caucasicus (0.89 similarity), respectively
Pentodon sp. – A. solstitiale (0.87 similarity).
111
The largest density of individuals was registered for dystric alluvial soil – Bivolari forest nursery, at 46 m altitude.
M. melolontha was the only species that recorded a high level of infestation for Coasta Teiului (Paşcani Forest
Department).
REFERENCES
HAMMER Ø., HARPER D. A. T., RYAN P. D. 2001. PAST: Paleontological Statistics Software Package for Education and
Data Analysis. Palaeontologia Electronica. 4(1): 9pp. http://palaeo-electronica.org/2001_1/past/issue1_01.htm.
(Accessed: April 2, 2015).
KLAUSNITZER B. 1978. Ordnung Coleoptera (Larven). Bestimmungs Bücher zur Bodenfauna Europas. Lieferung 10.
Akademie-Verlag. Berlin: 11, 15, 103-113.
PANIN S. 1955. Coleoptera. Familia Scarabaeidae. Fauna R.P.R. Edit. Academiei R. P. R. Bucureşti. 10(3): 35-50, 56-
79. Planşe: VI, VII.
PANIN S. 1957. Coleoptera. Familia Scarabaeidae. Fauna R.P.R. Edit. Academiei R. P. R. Bucureşti. 10(4): 234-238,
251-258, 273-301. Planşe: 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 31.
SIMIONESCU A., MIHALACHE GH., MIHALCIUC V., CIORNEI C-TIN., CHIRA D., OLENICI N., LUPU D.,
NEŢOIU C-TIN., VLĂDULEASA A., ILIESCU MARIA, VIŞOIU D., CHIRA FLORENTINA, RANG C.,
TĂUT I.,
MIHAI D. 2000.Protecţia pădurilor. Regia Naţională a Pădurilor. Edit. Muşatinii. Suceava: 30-50;
VARVARA M., ZAMFIRESCU ŞT., NEACŞU P. 2001. Lucrări practice de ecologie – manual. Edit. Universitstea
„Al. I. Cuza”. Iaşi: 100-113.
***. Fauna Europaea. Version 2.6.2, http://www.faunaeur.org. (Accessed: February 8, 2014).
***. https://www.google.ro/maps/place/Iaşi/. (Accessed: April 2, 2015).
Mihaela Arinton
“Ion Borcea” Natural Science Museum Complex of Bacău
Aleea Parcului, nr. 9, O.P. 1, C.P. 102, Bacău, Romania.
E-mail: mihaela_arinton@yahoo.com
Constantin Ciornei
Forest Research and Management Institute Bacău
Str. Ştefan cel Mare, nr. 28, Bacău, Romania.
E-mail: ciorneitinel@yahoo.com

112
Figure 1. The studied forest nurseries and the distribution of scarabeoid species (Iaşi County)
(the map: https://www.google.ro/maps/place/Iaşi/).
113
THE VARIATION OF DISTRIBUTION OF THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE

AND DOMINANCE OF THE FAMILIES OF EPIGEIC COLEOPTERA
(ORDER COLEOPTERA) IN WHEAT FIELDS, BRĂILA (BRĂILA COUNTY)
AND MOLDOVA (ROMANIA) 1977-2002
VARVARA Mircea
Abstract. This ample paper contains the original, synthetic results on numerical and percentage variation of the relative abundance
and dominance as well as the structure of classes of dominance in 16 families of epigenous coleopterans in wheat fields, Brăila and
Moldova (south, centre, north), 21 localities, 1977-2002. The material was collected by means of Barber pitfalls with preservative
liquid, 4% formalin solution, protected from rainfalls. Preponderantly, there were used 12-Barber pitfalls in every crop. The pitfalls
functioned in the field between 60 days and 103 days, on average, 81 days, from April 25 to September 3. In all, 26,755 individuals
of coleopterans were collected, belonging to 16 families. Concordantly with the total number of individuals collected, the families
rank as follows: 1. Carabidae, 13,664 individuals (51.07%), present in all localities (100%); 2. Tenebrionidae, 2591 (9.69%), 13
localities (61.90%); 3. Staphylinidae, 2366 (8.82%), 19 localities (90.48%); 4. Coccinellidae, 2134 (7.99%), 18 localities (85.71%);
5. Dermestidae 1659 (6.20%), 16 localities (76.19%); 6. Anthicidae 1147 (4.29%), 17 localities (80.95%); 7. Scarabaeidae, 672
(2.51%), 19 localities (90.48%); 8. Chrysomelidae, 531 (1.98%), 18 localities; (85.71%); 9. Silphidae 527 (1.97%), 11 localities
(52.38%), 10. Elateridae, 459 (1.72%), 20 localities (95.24%); 11. Curculionidae, 440 (1.64%), 21 localities; (100%);
12.Lathridiidae, 322 (1.20%), nine localities (42.86%); 13. Cantharidae, 130 (0.4.9%), 16 localities (76.19%); 14. Histeridae, 95
(0.36%) 6 localities (28.57%); 15. Meliridae, 10 (0.04%), 8 localities 38.10%); 16. Byrrhidae 8 (0.03%), 4 localities (19.05%).
Keywords: Moldova, wheat crop, families, epigenous coleopterans, relative abundance, dominance.
Rezumat. Variaţia distribuţiei abundenţei şi dominanţei relative a familiilor de coleoptere epigee (ord. Coleoptera) în
culturile de grâu, Brăila (judeţul Brăila) şi Moldova (România), 1977-2002. Lucrarea conţine rezultatele sintetice, originale
asupra variaţiei numerice şi procentuale a abundenţei relative şi dominanţei precum şi structura claselor de dominanţă la 16 familii de
coleoptere epigee din culturile de grâu, Brăila şi Moldova (sud, centru, nord), 21de localităţi, 1977-2002. Materialul a fost colectat prin
metoda capcanelor Barber, cu lichid conservant, soluţie de formol 4 %, protejate împotriva precipitaţiilor. Preponderent, s-au folosit câte 12
capcane Barber în fiecare cultură (Tabel 1). Capcanele au funcţionat în culturi, între 60 de zile şi 103 zile, în medie 81 de zile, de la 25 aprilie
- 3 septembrie. În total, au fost colectaţi 26.755 indivizi de coleoptere, aparţinând la 16 familii. Concordant cu numărul total de indivizi
colectati, familiile se ierarhizează, astfel: 1. Carabidae, 13,664 indivizi (51,07%), prezente în toate localităţile (100%); 2. Tenebrionidae,
2591 (9,69%), 13 localităţi (61,90%); 3. Staphylinidae, 2366 (8,82 %), 19 localităţi 90,48%); 4. Coccinellidae , 2134 (7,99% ), 18 localităţi
(85,71%); 5. Dermestidae 1659 (6,20%), 16 localităţi (76,19%); 6. Anthicidae 1147 (4,29% ), 17 localităţi (80,95%); 7. Scarabaeidae, 672
(2,51%), 19 localităţi (90,48%); 8. Chrysomelidae, 531 (1,98%), 18 localităţi; (85,71%); 9. Silphidae 527 (1,97%), 11 localităţi (52,38%);10.
Elateridae, 459 (1,72%), 20 localităţi (95,24%); 11. Curculionidae, 440 (1,64%), 21 localităţi; (100%); 12. Lathridiidae, 322 (1,20%), 9
localităţi (42,86%); 13. Cantharidae, 130 (0,4.9%), 16 localităţi (76,19%); 14. Histeridae, 95 (0,36%), 6 localităţi (28,57%); 15. Meliridae, 10
(0,04%), 8 localităţi (38,10%); 16. Byrrhidae, 8 (0,03 %), 4 localităţi (19,05%).
Cuvinte cheie: Moldova, cultura de grâu, familii, coleoptere epigee, abundenţa relativă, dominanţa.
INTRODUCTION
Wheat is the most important cultivated plant for human food because of the chemical composition of wheat
kernels. Wheat plants have a high ecological plasticity. In Moldova, there are two areas for the cultivation of wheat, a
favourable area (Iaşi, Vaslui, Galaţi counties) and a very favourable one (Botoşani County). Agricultural crops (clover,
alfalfa, wheat, corn, sunflower, beets, vines, etc.) through their activity during the vegetative activity, density, the
degree of shading of the soil surface, etc. influence the humidity at the soil surface and micro-currents, factors that
influence the activity of the epigeic arthropods, depending on their valences against moisture.
Papers on carabids in agro-ecosystems of Romania were published by: (ANDRIESCU et al., 1983; CÂRLAN &
VARVARA, 1998-1999; POPESCU & ZAMFIRESCU, 2004; TĂLMACIU, 1995; VARVARA et al., 1981, 1985, 1992,
1995; VARVARA & ANDRIESCU, 1986, 2003; VARVARA & BRUDEA, 1999; VARVARA, 2001, 2005, 2005a, 2008;
VARVARA & BULIMAR, 2002; VARVARA & ZAMFIRESCU, 2008), VARVARA & et al., 2012.; BANIŢĂ et al. (1994)
mention the species of carabids in wheat crops in Oltenia.
BICA (2005) presents the quantitative results on the family of Carabidae in Banat. MALSCHI (2000) mentions the
species of Carabidae in the cereal crops in the centre of Transylvania.
NECULISEANU (2003) (Republic of Moldova) published quantitative researches on carabids (1986-1988,
1989, 1992) in the wheat crops (etc.). DĂNILĂ (2005) published his results on the coenoses of carabids in wheat crops,
etc. in central and northern part of the Republic of Moldova.
114
VARVARA Mircea
The material collected is original, actually collected in the favourable season (May, June, July) continuously,
on average, 81 days for 11 years, 1977 - 2002. The presentation of the method of collecting answers at three questions:
Where, how, when?
The material was collected in Brăila, at points, Terrace, Salt Lake and Moldova, on the whole, 21 localities,
belonging to seven counties: Brăila, Galaţi, Vaslui, Vrancea, Iaşi, Bacău, Suceava, Botoşani (Moldova) (Table 1).
There was used the classic, standard, ecological method of Barber pitfalls. There were used mainly 12 pitfalls
in each locality and crop to collect all classes of dominance structure. There were used tin cans, 800 ml capacity, with a
height of 11 cm. and 8 cm. in diameter. Each pitfall was protected against rainfalls. The pitfalls were organized in four
rows, each row having three pitfalls. The distance between the lines and pitfalls was 5 m. The surface of capture was
300 square meters. There was used a 4% formalin solution as a preservative liquid.
The pitfalls functioned in crops, between 60 days and 103 days, on average, 81 days, from April 25 to
September 3, 1977-2002 (Table 1).
The purpose of this paper is the synthetic presentation of knowledge and distribution of abundance and the
hierarchy of the families of Coleoptera in the locality of Brăila (Brăila County) and Moldova in wheat crops, actually 11
seasons, 1977-2002.
Objectives of the paper:

1.Collecting of the material based on an optimum number of Barber pitfalls;
2.Analysis, identification and framing of the individuals of coleopterans in families: For scientific
identifications of the families, the taxonomic order of the families there was used the Opredelitel nasecomah
evropeiscoi ciasti SSR, Vol. II, KUHNTPAUL, Illustrierte Bestimmungs-Tabellen der Kafer Deutschlands, Stuttghart
1912, Vol. 1, Familien – Tabelle, pg. 7- 25, HARDE K., W, SEVERA, F. Der Kosmos – Kaferfurer, Stutgart, 1984, pg.
1- 321, colour album.
3.The drawing up of tables and graphs;
4 Synthesis of data for the establishment of abundance and the structure of the dominance classes.
Table 1. Localities, years and parameters of collecting of the epigeic Coleoptera in wheat crops, 1977 - 2002.
Crop, locality, county Year Exposition of traps Days Traps Coll. Sam.
No.
Wheat (sum ) 1,703 264 152 1,899
1 Brăila, Terasă (Brăila County) 1981 May 24 - September 3 103 12 6 72
2 Brăila, Terasă (Brăila C.) 1982 May 28 - August 30 95 12 9 108
3 Brăila, Terasă (Brăila C.) 1983 May 10 - July 20 71 12 7 84
4 Brăila, Terasă (Brăila C.) 1984 May 10 - July 11 63 12 6 72
5 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (Brăila C.) 1981 May 25 - July 15 52 12 7 84
6 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (Brăila C.) 1982 May 25 - July 15 52 12 7 84
7 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (Brăila C.) 1983 April 27 - July 12 77 12 7 84
8 Brăila Lacul Sărat (Brăila C.) 1984 May 8 - July 17 70 12 6 72
9 Vaslui (Vaslui C.) 1977 May 1 - July 20 80 12 8 96
10 Pufeşti (Vrancea C.) 1978 April 1 - July 30 121 12 8 96
11 Miroslava (Iaşi C.) 1981 May 1 - July 30 91 12 9 108
12 Hemeiuşi (Bacău C.) 1981 May 1 - August 29 110 12 12 144
13 Căbeşti (Bacău C.) 1983 May 1 - June 25 61 12 6 72
14 Corod (Galaţi C.) 1983 April 25 - July 23 89 12 9 108
15 Pogoneşti (Vaslui C.) 1983 April 25 - August 20 117 12 12 144
16 Pogana (Vaslui C.) 1989 Aprilie 24 -July 10 97 10 6 60
17 Zvoriştea (Suceava C.) 1993 April 25 - July 25 91 9 9 81
18 Letea (Bacău C.) 1996 May 1 - July 15 75 12 5 60
19 Chiriţa (Iaşi C.) 1999 May 1 - July 7 68 35 6 210
20 Sârbi (Botoşani C.) 1999 June 1 - July 30 60 6 4 24
21 Santa Mare (Botosani C.) 2002 May 1 - June 30 60 12 3 36
Average 81.10 12 7.24 90.43
RESULTS
As a result of the effort of collecting the material of epigeic arthropods, actually 11 seasons (1977 -2002) in
wheat crops, 21 localities , 264 Barber pitfalls (on average 12, limits 6-35), that functioned in the field 1.703 days (on
average, 81 days limits, 52 - 121 days), 152 collectings (on average 7, limits 3 - 12) and 1,899 analysed samples (on
average 90, limits 24 -144), there were collected and analysed 26.755 individuals of epigeic arthropods belonging to 16
families of Coleoptera (Table 2).
The number of individuals belonging to the families, the presence of the families in wheat crops, as well as the
structure of dominance within each family is variable in large limits as a result of the pedoclimatic conditions in the
respective localities and years (Tables 2, 3).
115
Table 2. Numerical and percentage variation of the individuals of the coleopteran families and of the collecting localities,
from Brăila and Moldova, 1977- 2002.
No. Families Individuals % Localities %
1 Carabidae 13,664 51.07 21 100
2 Tenebrionidae 2,591 9.69 13 61.90
3 Staphylinidae 2,366 8.82 19 90.48
4 Coccinellidae 2,134 7.99 18 85.71
5 Dermestidae 1,659 6.20 16 76.19
6 Anthicidae 1,147 4.29 17 80.95
7 Scarabaeidae 672 2.51 19 90.48
8 Chrysomelidae 531 1.98 18 85.71
9 Silphidae 527 1.97 11 52.38
10 Elateridae 459 1.72 20 95.24
11 Curculionidae 440 1.64 21 100
12 Lathridiidae 322 1.20 9 42.86
13 Cantharidae 130 0.49 16 76.19
14 Histeridae 95 0.36 6 28.57
15 Melyridae 10 0.04 8 38.10
16 Byrrhidae 8 0.03 4 19.05
Total 26,755 100.0
Table 3. Numerical and percentage variation of dominance structure of Coleoptera families and their presence
and absence in wheat crops, Brăila and Moldova, 1977- 2002.
No. Families I II III IV V Total % Abs. %
1 Carabidae - - - 1 20 21 100 - -
% - - - 4.76 95.23 - -
2 Tenebrionidae 2 3 3 1 4 13 61.90 8 38.10
% 15.38 23.08 23.08 7.69 30.77
3 Staphylinidae 3 1 7 2 6 19 90.48 2 9.52
% 15.79 5.26 36.84 10.53 31.58
4 Coccinellidae 4 - 6 3 5 18 85.71 3 14.29
% 22.22 - 33.33 16.67 27.78
5 Dermestidae 6 1 4 2 3 16 76.19 5 23.81
% 37.50 6.25 25.00 12.50 18.75
6 Anthicidae 5 1 6 1 4 17 80.95 4 19.05
% 29.41 5.88 35.29 5.88 23.53
7 Scarabaeidae 6 6 4 1 2 19 90.48 2 9.52
% 31.58 31.58 21.05 5.26 10.53
8 Chrysomellidae 6 3 5 4 - 18 85.71 3 14.29
% 33.33 16.67 27.78 22.22 -
9 Silphidae 8 - 2 - 1 11 52.38 10 47.62
% 72.73 - 18.18 - 9.09
10 Elateridae 8 2 7 3 - 20 95.24 1 4.76
% 40.00 10.00 35.00 15.00 -
11 Curculionidae 11 7 2 - 1 21 100 - -
% 52.38 33.33 9.52 - 4.76
12 Lathridiidae 4 2 1 1 1 9 42,86 12 57.14
% 44.44 22.22 11.11 11.11 11.11
13 Cantharidae 12 - 2 2 - 16 76.19 5 23.81
% 75.00 - 12.50 12.50 -
14 Histeridae 4 1 1 - - 6 28.57 15 71.43
% 66.67 16.67 16.67 - -
15 Melyridae 8 - - - - 8 38.10 13 61.90
% 100 - - - -
16 Byrrhidae 4 - - - - 4 19.05 17 80.95
% 100 - - - -
4.76-
Limits 2-12 1-7 1-7 1-4 1-20 4-21 1-17
80.95
Legend: I = subrecedent (below 1%); II = recedent (1.1 – 2%); III – subdominant (2.1 – 5%); IV = dominant (5.1 - 10%; V = eudominant (over 10.1%).
Abundance and dominance of the families showed a large variation from 8 individuals (Byrrhidae family)
(present only in four localities (19.05%) to 13.664 individuals (Carabidae family in all localities (100%).
Coleoptera belonging to the family Carabidae were found in all those 21 investigated localities (100%), with
an average of 650 individuals, with a variation in very broad limits, between 57 (6.40%) Căbeşti (1983, Bacău County
and 3,587 (96.95%, Salt Lake (1983, Brăila County) (Table 4).
116
VARVARA Mircea
Table 4. Distribution, variation of activity abundance (A) and dominance (D) of Carabidae family in the investigated
wheat crops, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
No. Locality and Year A D No. Locality, Year A D (%)
1 Brăila, Terasă (1981) 191 22,47 11 Miroslava (1981) 367 34.92
2 Brăila, Terasă (1982) 254 38.60 12 Hemeiuşi (1981) 1,119 55.56
3 Brăila, Terasă (1983) 343 34.37 13 Căbeşti (1983) 57 6.40
4 Brăila, Terasă (1984) 195 40.46 14 Corod (1983) 326 30.21
5 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1981) 269 28.99 15 Pogoneşti (1983) 465 16.72
6 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1982) 365 44.79 16 Pogana (1989) 247 15.91
7 Brăila, Lacul Sărat(1983) 3587 96.95 17 Zvoriştea (1993) 1,925 87.03
8 Brăila, Lacul Sărat(1984) 324 73.30 18 Letea (1996) 1,760 90.24
9 Vaslui (1977) 292 15.80 19 Chiriţa (1999) 330 22.62
10 Pufeşti (1978) 260 88.44 20 Sârbi (1999) 508 94.07
21 Santa Mare (2002) 480 57.69
Individuals 13,664
Average 650.67
Limits 57-3587
The dominance of the family Carabidae in localities and the respective years varied between 6.40% (dominant,
Căbeşti, 1983 (Bacău County) and 96.95% (eudominant, Salt Lake, Brăila County) (Table 5, Fig. 1).
Table 5 and Figure 1. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Carabidae family and their dominance
classes in wheat fields, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
Specification No. %
1 Presence in localities 21 100
2 Absence - _
Structure of dominance
3 Subrecedent below 1% - -
4 Recedent 1.1 - 2% - -
5 Subdominant 2.1 - 5% - -
6 Dominant 5.1- 10% 1 4.76
7 Eudominant over 10.1% 20 95.23
Total 21 99.99
Tenebrionidae family, second in the order of total abundance was found in 13 localities (61.90%), with an
average of 199 individuals, numerical and percentage variation ranging between one individual (0.19%, Sârbi 1999,
Botoşani County) and 762 individuals (27.40%, Pogoneşti (1983) Vaslui County) (Table 6).
Table 6. Distribution, variation of activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Tenebrionidae family in the investigated wheat
crops, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
No. Locality and Year A D Locality, Year A D
1 Brăila,Terasă (1981) 30 3.53 11 Miroslava (1981) - -
2 Brăila,Terasă (1982) - - 12 Hemeiuşi (1981) - -
3 Brăila,Terasă (1983) 10 1.00 13 Căbeşti (1983) 626 70.34
4 Brăila,Terasă (1984) 6 1.24 14 Corod (1983) 379 35.13
6 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1982) - - 16 Pogana (1989) 585 37.69
7 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1983) - - 17 Zvoriştea (1993) - -
8 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1984) - - 18 Letea (1996) - -
9 Vaslui (1977) 67 3.63 19 Chiriţa (1999) 19 1.30
10 Pufeşti (1978) 4 1.36 20 Sârbi (1999) 1 0.19
21 Santa Mare (2002) 72 8.65
Individuals 2,591
Average 199.31
Limits 1-762
The dominance of Tenebrionidae family varied between 0.19% (subrecedent, Sârbi 1999, Botoşani County)
and 27.40% (eudominant, Pogoneşti 1983, Vaslui County) (Table 7, Fig. 2).
117
Table 7 and Figure 2. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Tenebrionidae family and their dominance
classes in wheat fields, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
Specification No. %
1 Presence in localities 13 61.90
2 Absence 8 38.09
3 Subrecedent below 1% 2 15.38
4 Recedent 1.1 - 2% 3 23.08
5 Subdominant 2.1 -5% 3 23.08
6 Dominant 5.1 -10% 1 7.69
Total 13 100.0
Staphylinidae family occupies the 3rd position . It was found in 19 localities (90.48%), with an average of 124
individuals, the numerical variation varying between two individuals (Pufeşti, 1978, Vrancea County) and 743
individuals (Hemeiuşi 1981, Bacău County) (Table 8).
Table 8. Distribution, variation of activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Staphylinidae family in the investigated
No. Locality, Year A D (%) No Locality, Year A D (%)
1 Brăila, Terasă (1981) 307 36.12 11 Miroslava (1981) 66 6.28
2 Brăila, Terasă (1982) 32 4.86 12 Hemeiuşi (1981) 743 36.89
4 Brăila, Terasă (1984) 68 14.11 14 Corod (1983) - -
7 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1983) 15 0.41 17 Zvoriştea (1993) 101 4.57
8 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1984) 21 4.75 18 Letea (1996) 40 2.06
9 Vaslui (1977) 97 5.25 19 Chiriţa (1999) 281 19.26
10 Pufeşti (1978) 2 0.68 20 Sârbi (1999) - -
21 Santa Mare (2002) 22 2.64
Individuals 2,366
Average 124.53
Limits 2-743
The dominance of Staphilinidae family had limits of variation between 0.68% (subrecedent, Pufeşti 1978
(Vrancea County) and 36.89% (eudominant, Hemeiuşi, Bacău County (Table 9, Fig. 3).
Table 9 and Figure 3. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Staphylinidae family
and the structure of dominance classes in wheat fields, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
No. Specification No. %

2 Absence 2 9.52
3 Subrecedent, below 1 % 3 15.79
4 Recedent 1.1 -2% 1 5.26
5 Subdominant 2.1 - 5% 7 36.84
6 Dominante 5.1 - 10% 2 10.53
Total 19 100.0
Coccinellidae family occupies the 4th position . It was found in 18 localities (85.71%), with an average of 118
individuals; the numerical variation was between 5 individuals (Letea, 1996), Bacău County and 1.072 (1983, Pogoneşti
(Vaslui County) (Table 10).
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VARVARA Mircea
Table 10. Distribution, variation of the activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Coccinellidae family in the investigated
wheat fields, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
No. Locality, Year A D No. Locality, Year A D
1 Brăila, Terasă (1981) 94 11.06 11 Miroslava (1981) - -
5 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1981) 94 10.13 15 Pogoneşti (1983) 1,072 38.55
6 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1982) 40 4.91 16 Pogana (1989 - -
8 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1984) 23 5.20 18 Letea (1996 ) 5 0.26
9 Vaslui (1977) 367 19.86 19 Chiriţa (1999) 34 2.33
10 Pufeşti (1978) 10 3.40 20 Sârbi (1999) - -
21 Santa Mare (2002) 143 17.19
Total individuals 2,134
Average 118.56
Limits 5-367
The dominance limits of Coccinelidae family were between 0.26% (subrecedent, Letea 1996, (Bacău County)
and 38.55% (eudominant, Pogoneşti, Vaslui County) (Table 11, Fig. 4).
Table 11 and Figure 4. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Coccinellidae family and the structure of
dominance classes in wheat fields, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
Specification No. %
2 Absence 3 14.29
Recedent 1.12.% - -
5 Subdominant 2.1 - 5% 6 33.33
6 Dominant 5.1 - 10% 3 16.67
Total 18 100.0
Dermestidae family occupies the 5th position . It was found in 16 localities (76.19%), with an average of 103
individuals; the numerical and percentage variation was between one individual (0.12%, Brăila, Terrace 1981; ) one
individual (0.21%, Brăila, Terrace, 1984; one individual (0.11%) Brăila, Salt Lake, 1981) and 694 individuals
(37.55%), Vaslui, 1977 (Vaslui County) (Table 12).
Table 12. Distribution, variation of the activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Dermestidae family in the investigated
No. Locality and Year A D Locality, Year A D
2 Brăila, Terasă (1982) 55 8.36 12 Hemeiuşi (1981) - -
7 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1983) - - 17 Zvoriştea (1993) 19 0.86
8 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1984) - - 18 Letea (1996) 41 2.11
9 Vaslui (1977) 694 37.55 19 Chiriţa (1999) 33 2.26
10 Pufeşti (1978) - - 20 Sârbi (1999) 7 1.30
21 Santa Mare (2002) 20 2.40
Average 103.69
Limits 1-694
The dominance limits of Dermestidae family were comprised between 0.11% (subrecedent, Brăila, Salt Lake,
1981 (Brăila County) and 37.55%, (eudominant, Vaslui 1977, Vaslui County) (Table 13, Fig. 5).
119
Table 13 and Figure 5. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Dermestidae family and the structure of

2 Absence 5 23.81
4 Recedent 1.1- 2 1 6.25
5 Subdominant 2.1-5 4 25.00
6 Dominant 5.1 - 10 2 12.50
Total 16 100.0
Anthicidae family occupies the 6th position. It was found in 17 localities (80.95%), with an average of 67
individuals and limits between one individual (0.23%, subrecedent, Brăila, Salt Lake) an 31 (11.15% eudominant,
Pogoneşti 1983 Vaslui County) (Table 14).
Table 14. Distribution, variation of the activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Anthicidae family in the investigated wheat
fields, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
No. Locality, Year A D No. Locality , Year A D
2 Brăila, Terasă (1982) 163 24.77 12 Hemeiuşi (1981 - -
3 Brăila, Terasă (1983) 100 10.02 13 Căbeşti (1983 ) 37 4.16
4 Brăila, Terasă (1984) 17 3.53 14 Corod (1983 ) - -
7 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1983) 58 1.57 17 Zvoriştea (1993) - -
9 Vaslui (1977) 15 0.81 19 Chiriţa (1999) 6 0.41
10 Pufeşti (1978) - - 20 Sârbi (1999) 4 0.74
21 Santa Mare (2002) 52 6.25
Average 67
Limits 1-310
The dominance limits were between 0.23% (subrecedent, Salt Lake (1984), Brăila County and 11.15%,
eudominant, Pogoneşti, 1983 (Vaslui County) (Table 15, Fig. 6).
Table 15 and Figure 6. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Anthicidae family and the structure of

2 Absence 4 19.05
4 Recedent 1.1-2% 1 5.88
5 Subdominant 2.1 - 5% 6 35.29
6 Dominant 5.1 - 10% 1 5.88
Total 17
Scarabaeidae family occupies the 7th position. It was found in 19 localities (90.47 %), with an average of 35
individuals and limits between one individual (0.03 %, subrecedent, Brăila, Salt Lake, 1983, Brăila County) and 215
(14.74%, eudominant, Chiriţa, 1983, Iaşi County) (Table 16).
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VARVARA Mircea
Table 16. Distribution, variation of the activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Scarabaeidae family
in the investigated wheat fields , Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
7 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1983) 1 0.03 17 Zvoriştea (1993) - -
9 Vaslui (1977) 42 2.27 19 Chiriţa (1999) 215 14.74
10 Pufeşti (1978) 4 1.36 20 Sârbi (1999) - -
21 Santa Mare (2002) 2 0.24
Total individuals 672
Average 35.37
Limits 1-215
The dominance limits were between 0.03% (subrecedent, Salt Lake, 1983, Brăila County) and 14.74%
(eudominant, Chiriţa 1999, Iaşi County) (Table 17, Fig. 7).
Table 17 and Figure 7. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Scarabaeidae family
Specification No. %
No. Presence in localities 19 90.48
Absence 2 9.52
2 Recedent 1.1 - 2% 6 31.58
3 Subdominant 2.1 - 5% 4 21.05
4 Dominant 5.1 - 10% 1 5.26
Total 19 100.0
The next family, Chrysomelidae, totalized 531 individuals (1.98%), present in 18 crops (85.71%), with an
average of 29 individuals and limits between 3 individuals (0.68% subrecedent), Brăila, Salt Lake 1984, Brăila County
and 77 individuals (7.33%, dominant, Miroslava, 1981, Iaşi County) (Table 18).
Table 18. Distribution, variation of the activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Chrysomellidae family in the investigated
No. Locality, Year A D No. Locality and Year A D
4 Brăila, Terasă (1984) 20 4.15 14 Corod (1983) - -
7 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1983) - - 17 Zvorişte (1993) 12 0.54
9 Vaslui (1977) 18 0.97 19 Chiriţa (1999) 11 0.75
10 Pufeşti (1978) - - 20 Sârbi (1999) 12 2.22
21 Santa Mare (2002) 5 0.60
Average 29.50
Limits 3-77
Chrysomelidae family had limits of dominance between 0.68% (subrecedent, Salt Lake, 1984, Brăila County)
and 7.33% (dominant, Miroslava, 1981, Iaşi County).
The numerical and percentage variation of classes structure of dominance are rendered in Table 19 and Fig. 8.
121
Table 19 and Figure 8. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Chrysomellidae family and the structure
of dominance classes in wheat fields, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.

2 Absence 3 14.29
3 Structure of dominance
5 Recedent 1.1 - 2% 3 16.67
6 Subdominant 2.1 - 5% 5 27.78

7 Dominant 5.1 - 10% 4 22.22
8 Eudominant over 10.1% - -
Total 18 100.
Silphidae family, position 9, totalized 22 individuals (1.97%) with an average of 47 individuals, present only
in 11 localities (52.38%) and numerical and percentage limits between one individual (0.15% subrecedent, Brăila,
Terrace, (1982), Brăila County and 395 individuals (27.07%, eudominant, Chiriţa, 1999, Iaşi County).
Table 20. Distribution , variation of the activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Silphidae family in the investigated wheat
fields, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
3 Brăila, Terasă (1983) - - 13 Căbeşti (1983) - -
4 Brăila, Terasă (1984) - - 14 Corod (1983) - -
5 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1981) 2 0.22 15 Pogoneşti (1983) - -
9 Vaslui (1977) 70 3.79 19 Chiriţa (1999) 395 27.07
10 Pufeşti (1978) 2 0.68 20 Sârbi (1999) - -
21 Santa Mare (2002) - -
Average 47.91
Limits 1-395
The limits of dominance of Silphidae family varied between 0.15%, (subrecedent, Brăila, Terrace, 1982,
Brăila County) and 27.07% (eudominant, 1999, Iaşi County) (Table 21).
Table 21 and Figure 9. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Silphidae family and the structure of

2 Absence 10 47.62
4 Recedent 1.1 -2% - -
5 Subdominant 2.1 -5% 2 18.18
6 Dominant 5.1 -10% - -
Total 11 100.0
The next family, Elateridae, position 10, totalized 459 individuals, with an average of 22 individuals present in
20 crops (95.23%) and numerical limits ranging between one individual (0.19%), subrecedent, Sârbi, 1999, Botoşani
County) and 99 (9.42%, dominant, Miroslava, 1981, Iaşi County) (Table 22).
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VARVARA Mircea
Table 22 and Figure 10. Distribution, variation of the activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Elateridae family in the
investigated wheat fields, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
9 Vaslui (1977 ) 54 2.92 19 Chiriţa (1999) 5 0.34
10 Pufeşti (1978 ) 7 2.38 20 Sârbi (1999) 1 0.19
21 Santa Mare (2002) 21 2.52
Total Individuals 459
Average 22.95
Limits 1-99
Table 23 and Figure 10. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Elateridae family and the structure of

2 Absence 1 4.76
4 Recedent 1.1 - 2% 2 10.00
5 Subdominant 2.1 - 5% 7 35.00
6 Dominant 5.1 - 10% 3 15.00
7 Eudominant over 10% - -
Total 20 100.0
Curculionidae family totalized 440 individuals, with an average of 20, present in all the crops; the numerical
variation ranged between one individual (Sârbi, 1999 Botoşani County) and 178 individuals (Miroslava, 1981, Iaşi
County) (Table 24).
Table 24. Distribution, variation of the activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Curculionidae family in the investigated
Locality, Year A D No. Locality, Year A D
1 Brăila, Terasă (1981 ) 11 1.29 11 Miroslava (1981) 178 16.94
2 Brăila, Terasă (1982 ) 11 1.67 12 Hemeiuşi (1981) 3 0.15
3 Brăila, Terasă (1983 ) 3 0.30 13 Căbeşti (1983) 5 0.56
4 Brăila, Terasă (1984 ) 4 0.83 14 Corod (1983) 28 2.59
9 Vaslui (1977) 17 0.92 19 Chiriţa (1999) 67 4.59
10 Pufeşti (1978) 3 1.02 20 Sârbi (1999) 1 0.19
21 Santa Mare (2002) 7 0.84
Average 20.95
Limits 1-178
The dominance limits varied between 0.19 % (subrecedent, Sârbi, 1999, Botoşani County) and 16.94 %
(eudominant, Miroslava, 1981, Iaşi County) (Table 25, Fig. 11).
123
Table 25 and Figure 11. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Curculionidae family and the structure
of dominance classes in wheat fields, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
1 Presence in localities 21 100
2 Absence - -
3 Subrecedent, below 1% 11 52.38
4 Recedent 1.1 - 2% 7 33.33
5 Subdominant 2.1- 5% 2 9.52
6 Dominant 5.1- 10% - -
Total 21 99.99
Lathridiidae family occupies the 12th position , totalising 322 individuals, being present in 9 localities (42.
85%); it was registered an average of 35 individuals, with limits of the numerical variation between two individuals
(Letea, 1996, Bacău County and Chiriţa, 1999, Iaşi County) and 147 (Brăila, Salt Lake, 1982, Braila county) (Table 26).
Table 26. Distribution, variation of the activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Lathridiidae family in the investigated wheat
No. Locality Year A D No. Locality, Year A D
1 Brăila, Terasă (1981) - - 11 Miroslava (1981) 84 7.99
2 Brăila,Terasă (1982) 30 4.71 12 Hemeiuşi (1981) - -
3 Brăila,Terasă (1983) 16 1.60 13 Căbeşti (1983) - -
4 Brăila,Terasă (1984) - - 14 Corod (1983) - -
5 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1981) - - 15 Pogoneşti (1983) - -
6 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1982) 147 18.04 16 Pogana (1989) - -
9 Vaslui (1977) 28 1.52 19 Chiriţa (1999) 2 0.14
10 Pufeşti (1978) - - 20 Sârbi (1999) - -
21 Santa Mare (2002) - -
Average 35.78
Limits 2-147
The variation of dominance was between the limits of 0.10% subrecedent, Letea, 1996, Bacău County) and
18.04% (eudominant, Brăila, Salt Lake, 1982, Brăila County) (Table 27, Fig. 12).
Table 27 and Figure 12. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Lathridiidae family
2 Absence 12 57.14
4 Recedent 1.1 – 2% 2 22.22
5 Subdominant 2.1 – 5% 1 11.11
6 Dominant 5.1 – 10% 1 11.11
Total 9 99.99
Cantharidae family, position13, totalized 130 individuals, with an average of 8, and the numerical limits
between one individual (Brăila, Terrace, 1982, Braila, Terrace 1983) and 44 (Vaslui, 1977, Vaslui) (Table 28).
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VARVARA Mircea
Table 28. Distribution, variation of the activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Cantharidae family
in the investigated wheat crops, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
2 Brăila, Terasă (1982) 1 0.15 12 Hemeiuşi (1981 3 0.15
6 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1982) 6 0.74 16 Pogana (1989) - -
9 Vaslui (1977) 44 2.38 19 Chiriţa (1999) 6 0.41
10 Pufeşti (1978) 2 0.68 20 Sârbi (1999) - -
21 Santa Mare (2002) 7 0.84
Average 8.13
Limits 1-44
The numerical and percentage structure of variation of the dominance classes are rendered in table 29.
Table 29 and Figure 13. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Cantharidae family and the structure of
2 Absence 5 23.81
3 Subrecedent below 1 % 12 75.00
4 Recedent 1.1 - 2% - -
5 Subdominant 2.1 - 5 % 2 12.50
6 Dominant 5.1 - 10 % 2 12.50
7 Eudominant over 10.1 % - -
Total 16
Histeridae family, position 14, was collected only in six wheat crops (28.57%), Moldova, 95 individuals
(0.36%) with an average of 15 and numerical limits between one individual (Pogana, 1989, Vaslui county; 1 individual
(Santa Mare, Botoşani County) and 53 (Chiriţa 1999, Iaşi) (Table 30).
Table 30. Distribution, variation of the activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Histeridae
family in the investigated wheat crops, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
No. Locality and Year A D (%) No. Locality and Year A D (%)
1 Brăila, Terasă (1981) - - 11 Miroslava (1981) - -
2 Brăila, Terasă (1982) - - 12 Hemeiuşi (1981) 19 0.92
3 Brăila, Terasă (1983) - - 13 Căbeşti (1983) - -
4 Brăila, Terasă (1984) - - 14 Corod (1983) 18 1.67
7 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1983) - - 17 Zvoriştea (1993) - -
9 Vaslui (1977) -- - 19 Chiriţa (1999) 53 3.63
10 Pufeşti (1978) - - 20 Sârbi (1999) - -
21 Santa Mare (2002) 1 0.12
Average 15.83
Limits 1-53
The numerical structure of the dominant classes is rendered in Table 31 and Fig. 14.
125
Table 31 and Figure 14. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Histeridae family and the structure of
Absence 15 71.43
2
4 Recedent 1.1 - 2% 1 16.67
5 Subdominant 2.1 - 5% 1 16.67
6 Dominant 5.1 - 10% - -
Total 6 100.0
The penultimate of the 16 analysed families, rendered Table 32, is the Meliridae family, position 15, which
totalized 10 individuals (0.04%) (Table 32).
Table 32. Distribution, variation of the activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Meliridae family in the investigated wheat
No. Locality and Year A D (%) No. Locality and Year A D (%)
1 Brăila, Terasă (1981) 1 0.12 11 Miroslava (1981) - -
2 Brăila, Terasă (1982) - - 12 Hemeiuşi (1981) - -
3 Brăila, Terasă (1983) - - 13 Căbeşti (1983) 3 0.34
5 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1981) 1 0.11 15 Pogoneşti (1983) - -
6 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1982) - - 16 Pogana (1989) - -
8 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1984 ) - - 18 Letea ( 1996) 1 0.05
9 Vaslui (1977) 1 0.05 19 Chiriţa (1999) - -
10 Pufeşti (1978) - - 20 Sârbi (1999) - -
21 Santa Mare 2002) - -
Average 1.25
Limits 1-3
Table 33 and Figure 15. Numerical and percentage variation of the presence and absence of Meliridae family and the structure of
2 Absence 13 61.90
4 Recedent 1.1 - 2% - -
6 Dominant 5.1 - 10% - -
Total 8 38.10
The last family, position 16, is the Byrrhidae family, which totalized only 8 individuals (0.03%) present in only
four localities (19.05 %) (Table 34, 35, Fig. 16)).
Table 34. Distribution, variation of the activity abundance (A) and of dominance (D) of Byrrhidae family
in the investigated wheat crops, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
No Locality, Year A D No Locality, Year A D
1 Brăila, Terasă (1981 ) - - 11 Miroslava (1981) 3 0.29
2 Brăila, Terasă (1982) - - 12 Hemeiuşi (1981) 2 0.10
3 Brăila, Terasă (1983) - - 13 Căbeşti (1983) 2 0.22
4 Brăila, Terasă (1984) - - 14 Corod (1983) - -
6 Brăila, Lacul Sărat (1982) - - 16 Pogana (1989) - -
9 Vaslui (1977) - - 19 Chiriţa (1999) - -
10 Pufeşti (1978) - - 20 Sârbi (1999) - -
21 Santa Mare (2002) - -
Total individuals 8
Average 2
Limits 1-3
126
VARVARA Mircea
Table 35 and Figure 16. Numerical and percentage variation of presence and absence of Byrrhidae
family and the structure of dominance classes in wheat fields, Brăila and Moldova, 1977-2002.
2 Absence 17 80.95
3 Subrecedent below % 4 19.05
4 Recedent 1.1 - 2% - -
6 Dominant 5.1 - 10% - -
Total
DISCUSSIONS
Discussions make evident the generalizations and some interpretations of the results. The fundamental and
unique form of existence of life is the individual that carries all the general and particular characters, specific, from
kingdom to species (kingdom, class, order, family, genus, species). In the collected material, the order Coleoptera is
represented by 16 families (Table 2) in those 21 wheat crops, 1977-2002, Brăila County and seven counties in Moldova
(Galaţi, Vaslui, Vrancea, Iaşi, Bacău, Suceava, Botoşani). The presence of the families in wheat fields is variable. Only
two families (9.52%) are present in all those 21 investigated wheat crops: Carabidae family and Curculionidae family.
These families have different trophic characters: the epigeic carabids are the most zoophagous and Curculionidae
family is a phytophagous family. The other families were present between minimum four wheat crops, the Byrrhidae
family (19.05%) and maximum 20 wheat crops (the Elateridae family, 90.48%).
The relative abundance within the families is highly variable as a result of the variation of ecological factors:
food, soil moisture, temperature. The total number of individuals of Carabidae family, in the collected material,
represented 51%. Carabidae family is very well adapted to epigeic conditions in agricultural crops; other 8 families
totalize 46.81% (Tenebrionidae, 9.69%); Staphylinidae (8.82%); Coccinellidae (7.99%); Dermestidae (6.20%);
Anthicidae (4.29%); Scarabaeidae (2.51%); Chrysomelidae (1.98%); Silphidae (1.97%); Elateridae (1.72%) and
Curculionidae (1.64%).
Tenebrionidae and Dermerstidae families were not collected three years running (1982-1984) in the Salt Lake
stationary, Brăila, owing to weak salinated soil.
The variations of local conditions in the localities of wheat crops, Brăila and Moldova, (South, Central, North)
influenced the total number of individuals in the families of Coleoptera, causing that the same family to have asubrecedent
dominance in a locality and dominant or eudominant in other localities. The numerical limits of the families of subrecedent
Coleoptera were between two localities (9.52%) (Tenebrionidae, Terrace, 1983, (Brăila County) and Sârbi, 1999, (Botoşani
County) and 12 localities (75%). Cantharidae family was not collected in four localities (19.04%).
The limits of the recedent families were between one locality (4.76%) (Staphylinidae, (Căbeşti, 1983, Bacău
County); Dermestidae, (Sârbi, 1999, Botosani County); Anthicidae, (Brăila, Salt Lake, 1983); Histeridae, (Corod, 1983,
Galaţi County) and seven localities: Scarabaeidae, Brăila, Terrace, 1981; Brăila, Salt Lake, 1981; Pufeşti, 1978,
Vrancea County; Miroslava, 1981, Iaşi County; Hemeiuşi, 1981, Bacău County; Căbeşti, 1983, Bacău County; Corod
1983, Galaţi County).
The limits of the subdominant families were between one locality (4.76%), Lathridiidae family (Brăila,
Terrace, 1982), Histeridae (Chiriţa, 1999, Iaşi County) and seven localities (33,33%), the families Staphylinidae,
Elateridae (Brăila, Terrace, 1982, 1983; Salt Lake, 1982, 1984; Letea, 1996; Bacău, Zvoriştea 1993; Suceava County,
Santa Mare, 2002, (Botoşani). The factor that favoured Staphylinidae family to be subdominant in seven localities,
dominant in two localities and eudominant in six localities was the humidity of the soil.
Five families (31.25%) were dominant in each locality (Carabidae, Tenebrionidae, Anthicidae, Scarabaeidae,
Lathridiidae). Chrysomelidae family was dominant in four localities. Wheat crops with eudominant families were
between one locality (4.76%) and 20 localities (95.23%).
CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of those 26,755 individuals from 1,899 samples collected in 21 wheat crops, over a period of 11
seasons, 1977 - 2002, in Brăila and Moldova give us the opportunity to mention that the epigeic Coleoptera belongs to
16 families. The numerical and percentage presence of the families of Coleoptera in wheat crops varied among 4
localities (19.05%, ( Byrrhidae family) and 21 localities (100%), (Carabidae and Elateridae families).
The abundance and dominance of the families of Coleoptera within each wheat crop is highly variable
depending on the ecological characteristics determined by the geographical positions of wheat crops within the counties
of Moldova.
127
The number of individuals within the collected families varies greatly from one individual (Tenebrionidae,
Dermestidae, Anthicidae, Scarabaeidae, Elateridae, Curculionidae, Cantharidae, Histeridae, Melyridae and Byrrhidae)
to 3.587 individuals (Carabidae). Carabidae family manifested itself as dominant in one locality and as eudominant in
20 localities. As a result of the variations in the number of individuals in localities, six families had all the classes of
dominance (Tenebrionidae, Staphylinidae, Dermestidae, Anthicidae, Scarabaeidae, Lathridiidae). The families that do
not occur as recedent are: Coccinellidae, Silphidae, Cantharidae, Melyridae, Byrrhidae). Cantharidae, Histeridae did not
occur as eudominant.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The material used in this extensive paper was collected by the author from some localities, plus the help of
nine teachers of Biology in secondary education who collected material for obtaining the title of first degree teacher.
They fully respected the indications given by the author of this paper of synthesis. Our thanks for the effort and probity
of the collected material go to: Mărcuţă Costache, Proca Constanţa, Paşa Virginia, Antoniu Ion, Dascălu Alexandru,
Radu Stratia, Ştenţel Maria, Cercel Apostol Elena, Găluşcă Simona.
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(Coleoptera, Carabidae) in three types of Agricultural Ecosystems from Suceava County (Moldavia). Studii şi
Cercetări, Biologie. Universitatea Bacău. 10: 53-61.
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Carabidae) in the Ecosystem crop of sugar beet from Moldavia, 1981-2001. Lucrările Simpozionului
“Entomofagii şi rolul lor în păstrarea echilibrului natural“. Universitatea “Al. I. Cuza “. Iaşi: 175-192.
VARVARA M. & ZAMFIRESCU ŞT. 2008. Composition and the structure of Ecological Requirements of the Species
of Carabidae (Coleoptera, Carabidae) in the Maize Crop from Moldavia, 1984-2000. Oltenia. Studii şi
comunicări. Ştiinţele Naturii. Muzeul Olteniei Craiova. 24: 97-108.
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Varvara Mircea
University „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iaşi,
Str. Bulevardul Carol 1, No 11, Iaşi, Romania.
E-mail: mvarvara@uaic.ro

129
COLEOPTERANS FAUNA (INSECTA: COLEOPTERA) OF THE CĂLIMANI NATIONAL

PARK, ROMANIA
LOTREAN Nicolae, MANU Minodora
Abstract. In period May - October 2013, a faunistic, biogeographic and eco-geographic study was made on coleopterans fauna from the
Călimani National Park, from eight types of habitats: riparian areas, forest edge, mixed habitat between forest edge and riparian areas, forest,
wet meadows, swamp, alpine shrubs and mountain-subalpine meadows, located on altitudes between 796 m and 1800 m. In total, 132
coleopterans species were identified, grouped in 20 families. Dominant as number of individuals and species were the families: Carabidae,
Cerambycidae, Curculionidae and Chrysomelidae. Taking account of the zoogeographical characterization, the coleopteran fauna from the
Călimani National Park consists of 13 chorotypes. 81% of all species are represented in the following order: European-Siberian species
(28.79%), European-Asian ones (16.67%), Palearctic (14.39%), European (12.12%) and West Palearctic (9.09%). The eco-geographical
structure of the coleopterans fauna from the Călimani National Park is dominated by the arboreal species (approximately 80%) preferring
moist forests and meadows. The eremian and oreal species have equal shares, 9.85% each. Jaccard index values have shown the existence of
small similarities between the populations of coleopterans of the eight habitat types investigated. From the conservative point of view, two
species, Rosalia alpina (Linnaeus, 1758) and Carabus variolosus Fabricius, 1787, are protected at national and international level and the
other two species, Peltis grossa (Linnaeus, 1758) and Meloe rugosus Marsham, 1802, are considered rare for the Romanian fauna.
Keywords: coleopterans, Călimani National Park, Romania.
Rezumat. Fauna de coleoptere (Insecta: Coleoptera) din Parcul Naţional Călimani, România. În perioada mai - octombrie
2013, a fost realizat un studiu faunistic, zoogeografic şi ecogeografic asupra faunei de coleoptere din Parcul Naţional Călimani, în opt tipuri
de habitate: zonă ripariană, lizieră de pădure, habitat mixt între lizieră de pădure şi zonă ripariană, pădure, pajişte umedă, mlaştină, tufăriş
alpin şi pajişte montan-subalpină, situate la altitudini cuprinse între 796 m şi 1800 m. În total au fost identificate 132 de specii de coleoptere,
grupate în 20 de familii. Dominante, ca număr de indivizi şi specii, au fost familiile: Carabidae, Cerambycidae, Curculionidae şi
Chrysomelidae. Din punct de vedere zoogeografic, fauna de coleoptere din Parcul Naţional Călimani a fost încadrată în 13 corotipuri. 81%
dintre coleopterele identificate au fost grupate astfel: specii european-siberiene (28,79%), european-asiatice (16,67%), palearctice (14,39%),
europene (12,12%) şi vest palearctice (9,09%). Structura eco-geografică a faunei de coleoptere din Parcul Naţional Călimani a fost dominată
de speciile arboreale (aproximativ 80%), care preferă pădurile şi pajiştile umede. Speciile eremiale şi oreale au fost egal reprezentate, 9,85%
fiecare. Valorile indicelui Jaccard au arătat existența unor similarități mici între populațiile de coleoptere din cele 8 tipuri de habitate
investigate. Din punct de vedere conservativ două specii: Rosalia alpina (Linnaeus, 1758) și Carabus variolosus Fabricius, 1787, sunt
protejate la nivel național și international, iar alte două specii: Peltis grossa (Linnaeus, 1758) și Meloe rugosus Marsham, 1802, sunt
considerate rare pentru fauna României.
Cuvinte cheie: coleoptere, Parcul Național Călimani, România.
INTRODUCTION
The article may be included in the category of the papers generically called lists of species, research that aims
to supplement the existing data on the diversity of fauna from a particular region. Our methods of collecting were
focused primarily on obtaining qualitative data, in order to complete the data regarding the coleopterans fauna of the
Călimani National Park.
The Călimani National Park was established in 2000, having the aim to protect the biodiversity of the flora and
fauna as well as the geological and landscapes diversity. In accordance with the Urgent Decree no. 57/2007 concerning
the regime of natural protected areas, conservation of natural habitats, flora and fauna, the Călimani National Park
corresponds to the category II of the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
The Călimani National Park is located in the Călimani Mountains and includes the largest volcanic crater in
Romania (now inactive). The main element of the Călimani Mountains is represented by the caldera located in the north of the
mountain, with a diameter of about 10 km, formed through a collapse process, followed by erosion that have shaped the
current form of the massif. The horseshoe shape of the massif is made up of ridges, with altitudes of about 2,000 m, which is
the edge of the old caldera (Fig. 1). The Călimani National Park covers part of the massive Călimani from the Eastern
Carpathians, between 47°1'49.17'' - 47°14'51.70'' N and 25°0'19.92'' - 25°19'47.11'' E, with an area of 24,555.6 ha.
From the administrative point of view, this protected area is located on the territory of four counties: Suceava,
Mureş, Harghita and Bistriţa Năsăud, comprising the top area of Călimani massif, delimited to the east by Păltiniş,
Drăgoiasa, Bilbor and Secu depressions, to the north by Dorna depression and the Bârgăului Mountains, to the south by
the Mureş Gorges and to the west by the piedmont hills of Călimani, which make the transition to the eastern part of
Transylvania Plateau (according to the Management Plan of the Călimani National Park, 2008).
The study has been made in a cold and moderately dry, “Călimani-Rarău” type climate, with annual average
temperatures of 2.4-4.0 0C and precipitation of 579-1,653 mm, with a multi annual average of 1,022 mm (BÂNDIU &
DONIŢĂ, 1988; CENUŞĂ, 1992).
130
LOTREAN Nicolae MANU Minodora
In the park area, the dominant habitats

are spruce forests, rarely with admixed fir (43%)
or the mixed spruce, fir, beech forest (14%),
locally with admixing of Acer pseudoplatanus L.,
Acer platanoides L., Tilia cordata Mill. and
Fraxinus excelsior L. Very important in terms of
conservation are the habitats edified by: Pinus
mugo Turra (7%) and Rhododendron kotschyi
Simonkai syn. Rh. myrtifolium (5%). Other
habitats characteristic to the Călimani National
Park can be added: subalpine and alpine
meadows, shrubs with Alnus viridis (Chaix.) D.
C., Juniperus sibirica Burgsdorff shrubs, spruce
forests with Pinus cembra L., riparian areas,
mobile scree and cliff area. These cover a surface
between 5% and less than 1%.
The first data from the literature
included the entire range of the Carpathian
Mountains or areas with two or more
mountains, with references to the Călimani
Mountains. General lists of beetles reported Figure 1. Location of the Călimani National Park
species from Transylvania fauna, as well as data (adapted after http://bio.geoportal-mediu.ro and http://www.skyscrapercity.com).
from the Călimani Mountains or from the
adjacent areas (FRIVALDSZKY, 1880; SIEDLITZ, 1891; KUTHY, 1896; FLECK, 1904, 1905; HOLDHAUS &
DEUBEL, 1910; PETRI, 1912). In the same context, there can be mentioned the faunal lists with coleopterans from
Moldova (ŞTEFĂNESCU, 1885; HORMUZACHI, 1888, 1901, 1904; MONTANDON, 1908). In these lists, there are
mentioned coleopterans collected from the neighbour areas of the Călimani Mountains. These data allowed some
extrapolations related to the coleopterans fauna from Călimani massive.
After 1912, coleopterans, in the Călimani Mountains and surrounding areas, were studied sporadically by: PANIN,
1955; VARVARA, 2005; NIŢU, 2006, the Carabids were specially studied; by PANIN, 1957, Scarabaeids; by PANIN &
SĂVULESCU, 1961; SERAFIM, 2006, 2010; SERAFIM & MAICAN, 2011, Cerambycids; by RUICĂNESCU, 2002,
Buprestids; by RANG et al., 2005, Elaterids; by BÁLINT, 2011, Chrysomelids; by ZERCHE, 2007; PUTHZ, 2008; STAN,
2012, Staphylinids; by STAN, 2013, for the stag beetles (Lucanidae). In the Management Plan of the Călimani National Park,
there are mentioned only 36 species of beetles from 7 families, the majority belonging to the family Carabidae (Annex no. 8).
The coleopterans species were collected from May to October 2013 in 65 transects (length 200-500 m, width
50 m), using pitfall traps, mowing by entomological net or manually, directly on the substrate: on the soil, on and under
rocks and logs, on the herbaceous vegetation, the shrubs, on the bark of trees. For saproxylic species, in areas with dead
wood (fallen or standing trees, wood stacks), there were investigated the adequate micro-refuges, through removing the
bark on the trunks of dry trees and on logs.
We used both wet (with 4% formalin) and dray pitfall traps, in ratio to 2/3. The wet traps were emptied monthly,
while the dry traps daily. Five traps were installed in every 10 wooded or selvage locations, in a line, at 1-meter distances
to each other (Table 1).
Table 1. The types of the investigated habitats in the Călimani National Park.
Sum of the
No. of the group of
No. Habitat No. of the transect transects from Altitude (m) Altitude (m)
the pitfall traps
each habitat
1 R T6*, T11, T13, T14, T15, T16, T35 7 796-1400 m B5, B7, B9 1004, 993, 796
2 F-ed T19, T43, T45, T46, T47 5 902-1615 m
T7, T21, T23, T28, T36, T39, T40, T44, T49, T50,
3 F-ed + R 17 913-1,490 m B1 1400
T52, T53, T55, T60, T61, T63, T65
T5, T9, T10, T17, T18, T20, T22, T24, T25, T26,
1197, 1014,
4 F T27*, T29*, T31*, T32, T34*, T37*, T38, T41, 26 930-1,650 m B2, B4*, B6*, B10
1129, 1066
T51, T54, T56*, T57, T58, T59*, T62*, T64*
5 WM T4 1 1,100-1,200 m
6 AS T3 1 1,600-1,750 m
7 MSM T2, T8, T12, T33, T42, T48 6 1,101-1,800
8 Sw T1, T30 2 968-1,197 B3, B8 1197, 968
Legend: R – Riparian, F-ed – Forest edge, F-ed + R – Forest edge + Riparian, F – Forest, WM – Wet Meadows, AS – Alpine shrubs, MSM –
Mountain-Subalpine Meadows, Sw – Swamp; * – mixed forest, spruce and beech; T – transect; B – Barber (pitfall traps).
131
Eight habitat types were investigated: riparian (R), forest edge (F-ed), forest edge + riparian (F-ed + R), forest (F),
wet meadows (WM), swamp (Sw), alpine shrubs (AS), mainly composed from Pinus mugo and Rhododendron kotschyi and
mountain-subalpine meadows (MSM). The transects were established at various altitudes (between 796 meters and 1.800
meters), as well as the traps, noted from B1 to B10 (located between 796 meters and 1.400 meters) (Table 1).
The coleopterans classification was adopted after BOUCHARD et al., 2011. The zoogeographical
characterization of species was based on their natural distribution only, using the data from Fauna Europaea, Coleoptera
Poloniae and from the literature. The classification of chorotypes was made taking account of the researches made by
VIGNA-TAGLIANTI et al., 1999 and GORODKOV, 1984. We have not considered their introduction into other areas.
We collected 852 individuals belonging to 132 species and 20 families (Table 2).
The major part of the individuals is represented by Carabidae family (24.53%), followed by: Cerambycidae
(19.48%), Curculionidae (16.43%), Chrysomelidae (9.27%), Geotrupidae (8.10%) and Staphylinidae (5.63%). The
other families did not exceed 4% (Fig. 2).
In terms of species, the following families were the richest: Carabidae (23.48%), Cerambycidae (17.42%) and
Curculionidae (12.88%) followed by: Chrysomelidae (9.85%), Scarabaeidae (8.33%) and Staphylinidae (5.30%). The
rank of the first four families but the qualitative representation of Scarabaeidae was higher. Other families were
represented by less than 5% of the species (Fig. 2).
Table 2. List of species recorded in the Călimani National Park.
Eco-geographic
Zoogeographic
Sum (No. sp.)
No. Taxa Transect/traps
Order COLEOPTERA
Family CARABIDAE Latreille, 1802
Subfamily Nebriinae Laporte, 1834
1 Notiophilus biguttatus (Fabricius, 1779) T26 1 WPal.** Ar.
Subfamily Cicindelinae Latreille, 1802
2 Cicindela sylvicola Dejean, 1822 T35 1 Eu. Ar.
Subfamily Carabinae Latreille, 1802
3 Carabus arcensis Herbst, 1784* T3, T8, B4 3 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
4 Carabus auronitens escheri Palliardi, 1825* T7, T26, T27, T32, T40, T54, B2, B5, B7 17 Carpath. Ar.
5 Carabus cancellatus Illiger, 1798* T7, T32, T41, T61, B2, B3, B5, B7, B10 11 Eu.-Sib. Ar
6 Carabus coriaceus Linnaeus, 1758 B1, B2, B4, B5 9 Eu. Ar.
7 Carabus glabratus Paykull, 1790 T2, T8, B2, B3, B4 10 Eu.-Sib. Or.
8 Carabus granulatus Linnaeus, 1758 B5, B6 3 Eu.-As.** Ar
9 Carabus linnei Panzer, 1813* T3, T31, B3, B4, B5, B7 34 Cent.-East Eu. Ar
10 Carabus obsoletus Sturm, 1815* B4 1 Carpath. Or.
11 Carabus variolosus Fabricius, 1787 T30, B5 4 Cent.-Southeast Eu. Ar.
12 Carabus violaceus Linnaeus, 1758* T3, T43, T52, B2, B4, B5, B7 8 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
13 Cychrus caraboides (Linnaeus, 1758) T28, T51, B1, B2, B4, B5 9 Eu. Ar.
14 Cychrus semigranosus Palliardi, 1825 T57 1 Southeast. Eu. Ar.
Subfamily Trechinae Bonelli, 1810
15 Bembidion deletum Audinet-Serville, 1821 T20, T30, T38, T39, T50, B2, B3, B8 12 WPal. Ar.
16 Bembidion lampros (Herbst, 1784) T14, B5, B9 3 Pal.** Ar.
17 Bembidion striatum (Fabricius, 1792) T16, T49, T50 3 WPal. Er.
18 Bembidion tibiale (Duftschmid, 1812) T39, T40 2 Eu.-Ca. Ar.
19 Bembidion varicolor Fabricius,1803 T63, T65 2 Eu.-Ca. Ar.
20 Trechus pulchellus Putzeys, 1846 B4, B10 5 Cent.-East Eu. Ar.
Subfamily Harpalinae Bonelli, 1810
21 Agonum sexpunctatum (Linnaeus, 1758) T30, T39, T40, T53, B8 10 Eu.-As. Ar.
22 Poecilus cupreus (Linnaeus, 1758) T7, T13 2 Eu.-As. Ar.
23 Pterostichus anthracinus (Illiger, 1798) T14 1 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
24 Pterostichus foveolatus (Duftschmid, 1812) T9, B6 3 Carpath. Ar.
25 Pterostichus jurinei (Panzer, 1805) T7, T39, T40, T43, T44, B6 8 Eu. Or.
26 Pterostichus melanarius (Illiger, 1798) B5 1 Eu.-Sib.** Ar.
132
27 Pterostichus niger (Schaller, 1783) B1, B4, B5, B6, B9 25 Eu.-As.** Ar.
28 Pterostichus nigrita (Paykull, 1790) B3 1 Pal. Ar.
29 Pterostichus oblongopunctatus (Fabricius, 1787) B1, B4, B6, B10 9 Eu.-As. Ar.
30 Pterostichus pilosus (Host, 1789) T39, T40 3 Cent.-Eu. Ar.
31 Pterostichus unctulatus (Duftschmid, 1812) B2, B4, B6, B10 7 Eu. Ar.
Family DYTISCIDAE Leach, 1815
Subfamily Agabinae Thomson, 1867
32 Agabus guttatus (Paykull, 1798) T14 2 WPal. Ar.
Family LEIODIDAE Fleming, 1821
Subfamily Cholevinae Kirby, 1837
33 Catops tristis (Panzer, 1793) B4 5 Eu. Ar.
Family SILPHIDAE Latreille, 1806
Subfamily Silphinae Latreille, 1806
34 Phosphuga atrata (Linnaeus, 1758) T7, T48, T51, T61, B5 6 Eu.-As. Ar.
Subfamily Nicrophorinae Kirby, 1837
35 Nicrophorus vespillo Linnaeus, 1758 B1 1 Eu.-As.** Er.
Family STAPHYLINIDAE Latreille, 1802
Subfamily Tachyporinae Macleay, 1825
36 Bolitobius cingulatus Mannerheim, 1831 T18 1 Eu.-As.** Ar.
37 Tachinus pallipes (Gravenhorst, 1806) B1, B2, B3, B5 6 Eu.-Sib.** Ar.
Subfamily Steninae
38 Stenus obscuripes Ganglbauer, 1896* B4 1 Carpath. Ar.
Subfamily Staphylininae Latreille, 1802
39 Philonthus decorus (Gravenhorst, 1802) B4, B5 7 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
40 Quedius plagiatus Mannerheim, 1843 B2, B5 5 Eu.-Sib.** Ar.
41 Ocypus macrocephalus (Gravenhorst, 1802)* B3, B4, B5 26 Cent.-Eu. Ar.
42 Ocypus picipennis Fabricius, 1793* T43, B1 2 Eu.-As. Ar.
Family GEOTRUPIDAE Latreille, 1802
Subfamily Geotrupinae Latreille, 1802
T7, T8, T15, T17, T22, T23, T27, T28, T42,
43 Anoplotrupes stercorosus (Hartmann, 1791) 67 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
T54, T56, B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B7,B8
44 Trypocopris vernalis (Linnaeus, 1758) T42 2 Eu.-Ca. Er.
Family SCARABAEIDAE Latreille, 1802
Subfamily Aphodiinae Leach, 1815
45 Acrossus depressus (Kugelann 1792) T7 1 Eu.-As.** Ar.
46 Acrossus luridus (Fabricius, 1775) T7 3 Pal.** Er.
47 Acrossus rufipes (Linnaeus, 1758) T7 1 Pal.** Ar.
48 Agolius abdominalis (Bonelli 1812)* T42 1 Eu. Or.
49 Coprimorphus scrutator (Herbst, 1789) T42 2 Eu.-Ca. Er.
50 Teuchestes fossor (Linnaeus, 1758) T7 1 Pal.** Ar.
Subfamily Scarabaeinae Latreille, 1802
51 Onthophagus fracticornis (Preyssler, 1790) T50, T55 3 WPal. Er.
52 Onthophagus ovatus (Linnaeus, 1767) T2, T7, T42, B1, B4 8 Eu.-CAs. Er.
53 Onthophagus vacca Linnaeus, 1767 T26 2 WPal. Er.
Subfamily Cetoniinae Leach, 1815
54 Oxythyrea funesta Poda, 1761 T1, T15, T21, T28 4 WPal. Er.
55 Trichius fasciatus (Linnaeus, 1758) T15, T16, T21, T23, T26, T28, T49, T50 13 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
Family BUPRESTIDAE Leach, 1815
Subfamily Buprestinae Leach, 1815
56 Anthaxia quadripunctata (Linnaeus, 1758) T6, T11, T13, T16 6 Pal. Ar.
57 Dicerca alni (Fischer von Waldheim, 1824) T34 1 WPal. Er.
Subfamily Agrilinae Laporte, 1835
58 Agrilus viridis (Linnaeus, 1758) T13, T14, T16, T21 8 Pal. Ar.
Family BYRRHIDAE Latreille, 1804
Subfamily Byrrhinae Latreille, 1804
59 Byrrhus pilula (Linnaeus, 1758)* T22 2 Eu.-As.** Ar.
Family ELATERIDAE Leach, 1815
Subfamily Dendrometrinae Gistel, 1848
60 Athous subfuscus (O.F. Müller, 1764) T14, T50, T53 3 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
133
61 Ctenicera cuprea (Fabricius, 1781) T4, T14, T27, T33, T52 6 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
62 Hemicrepidius niger (Linnaeus, 1758) T7 1 Eu.-As.** Ar.
63 Selatosomus aeneus (Linnaeus, 1758) T2, T8, T13, T16, T28, T49 6 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
Subfamily Elaterinae Leach, 1815
64 Agriotes pilosellus (Schönherr, 1817) T13, T14, T16 4 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
65 Ampedus nigrinus (Herbst, 1784) T14 1 Eu.-As.** Ar.
Family LYCIDAE Laporte, 1836
Subfamily Dictyopterinae Houlbert, 1922
66 Pyropterus nigroruber (Degeer, 1774) T7 1 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
Subfamily Lycinae Laporte, 1836
67 Lygistopterus sanguineus (Linnaeus 1758) T7 1 Pal. Ar.
Family CANTHARIDAE Imhoff, 1856
Subfamily Cantharinae Imhoff, 1856
68 Cantharis nigricans (O. F. Müller, 1776) T6, T13, T16 4 Eu.-As.** Ar.
69 Rhagonycha fulva (Scopoli, 1763) T16, T21 3 Pal.** Ar.
Family TROGOSITIDAE Latreille, 1802
Subfamily Peltinae Latreille, 1806
70 Peltis grossa (Linnaeus 1758) T19 1 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
Family CLERIDAE Latreille, 1802
Subfamily Clerinae Latreille, 1802
71 Thanasimus formicarius (Linnaeus, 1758) T1, T29 2 Pal.** Ar.
72 Trichodes apiaries (Linnaeus, 1758) T4, T15, T16, T26, T28 11 Pal. Ar.
Family COCCINELLIDAE Latreille, 1807
Subfamily Coccinellinae Latreille, 1807
73 Calvia quatuordecimguttata (Linnaeus, 1758) T26 1 Hol. Ar.
74 Coccinella septempunctata Linnaeus, 1758) T13, T16, T21 6 Pal.** Ar.
75 Hippodamia variegata (Goeze, 1777) T44 2 Pal.** Ar.
76 Propylea quatuordecimpunctata (Linnaeus, 1758) T16, T21 2 Pal.** Ar.
Family TENEBRIONIDAE Latreille, 1802
Subfamily Lagriinae Latreille, 1825
77 Lagria hirta (Linnaeus, 1758) T13, T16, T22, T23, T26, T28, T38, T50, T60 14 Pal. Ar.
Family MELOIDAE Gyllenhal, 1810
Subfamily Meloinae Gyllenhal, 1810
78 Meloe rugosus Marsham, 1802 T8 1 Eu.-As. Ar.
79 Meloe violaceus Marsham, 1802 T8 1 Pal. Ar.
Family CERAMBYCIDAE Latreille, 1802
Subfamily Lepturinae Latreille, 1802
80 Anastrangalia dubia (Scopoli, 1763) T13, T14, T15, T16, T21, T26, T28 15 WPal. Or.
81 Evodinus clathratus (Fabricius, 1792) T8, T22 3 Eu. Or.
82 Gaurotes virginea (Linnaeus,1758) T13, T14, T15, T21, T22, T23, T26, T38, T49, T53 33 Eu.-Sib. Or.
83 Judolia sexmaculata (Linnaeus 1758) T13, T21, T26 4 Eu.-Sib.** Ar.
84 Lepturobosca virens (Linnaeus, 1758) T7, T14, T28 10 Eu.-Sib. Or.
85 Oxymirus cursor Linnaeus 1758 T20 1 Eu-Sib. Ar.
86 Pachyta quadrimaculata (Linnaeus, 1758) T1, T15, T21, T32, T55 9 Eu.-Sib. Or.
87 Pachytodes cerambyciformis (Schrank, 1781) T14, T15, T16, T23, T26, T28, T34 14 Eu.-Ca. Ar.
88 Paracorymbia maculicornis (De Geer, 1775) T16, T26, T56, T62 5 Eu. Ar.
89 Pidonia lurida (Fabricius, 1792) T17 1 Eu. Ar.
90 Pseudovadonia livida (Fabricius, 1776) T13, T15, T16, T21, T26 8 Eu.-As. Er.
91 Rhagium inquisitor (Linnaeus, 1758) T20, T27 2 Pal.** Or.
92 Rutpela maculata (Poda, 1761) T13, T14, T21, T26 5 Eu.-Cent. As Er.
93 Stictoleptura rubra (Linnaeus,1758) T13, T15, T23, T26, T28, T32, T51, T54 24 WPal.** Ar.
94 Stictoleptura scutellata (Fabricius, 1781) T14, T15, T26 10 WPal. Ar.
Subfamily Cerambycinae Latreille, 1802
95 Callidium violaceum (Linnaeus, 1758) T1 1 Eu.-Sib.** Ar.
96 Cyrtoclytus capra (Germar, 1824) T15, T16 2 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
97 Rosalia alpina (Linnaeus, 1758) T6, T27 2 Eu.-Ca. Ar.
Subfamily Lamiinae Latreille, 1825
98 Agapanthia villosoviridescens (De Geer, 1775) T21, T23 2 Eu.-Sib. Er.
99 Pogonocherus fasciculatus (Degeer, 1775) T6, T11, T22 3 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
134
100 Monochamus sartor (Fabricius, 1787) T6, T11, T15 5 Eu. Ar.
101 Monochamus sutor (Linnaeus, 1758) T1, T8, T11, T22 4 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
102 Tetropium castaneum (Linnaeus, 1758) T19, T27 3 Eu.-Sib. Or.
Family CHRYSOMELIDAE Latreille, 1802
Subfamily Chrysomelinae Latreille, 1802
103 Chrysolina carpathica (Fuss, 1856)* T3 1 Cent.-Southeast Eu. Or.
104 Chrysolina coerulans (Scriba, 1791) T6, T16, T21, T28, T36 8 Eu.-CAs. Ar.
105 Chrysolina fastuosa (Scopoli, 1763) T13, T21, T23, T26, T49, T52, T63 19 Eu.-Sib.** Ar.
106 Chrysolina graminis (Linnaeus, 1758) T15, T21 2 Eu.-As. Ar.
107 Chrysolina herbacea (Duftschmid, 1825) T11, T13, T14, T15, T16, T21, T23, T36, T52 18 Eu.-CAs. Ar.
108 Chrysolina polita (Linnaeus, 1758) T4, T11 2 Eu.-As. Ar.
109 Chrysolina varians (Schaller, 1783) T23, T28 2 WPal.** Ar.
110 Gastrophysa viridula (De Geer, 1775) T7, T28, 3 Eu.-As. Ar.
Subfamily Galerucinae Latreille, 1802
111 Agelastica alni (Linnaeus, 1758) T6, T11, T13, T14, T15, T16, T26, T28 11 Eu.-As.** Ar.
112 Batophila rubi (Paykull, 1799) T14, T16, T23, T28, T53 7 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
113 Derocrepis rufipes (Linnaeus 1761) T15, T16 3 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
114 Lochmaea caprea (Linnaeus, 1758) T49 2 Eu.-As.** Ar.
115 Luperus viridipennis Germar, 1824 T4 1 Eu.-CAs. Or.
Family CURCULIONIDAE Latreille, 1802
Subfamily Cossoninae Schönherr, 1825
116 Rhyncolus ater (Linnaeus, 1758) B3, B5 2 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
Subfamily Entiminae Schönherr, 1823
117 Otiorhynchus equestris (Richter 1820) B4, B5 3 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
118 Otiorhynchus coecus (Fabricius, 1775) T8, T13, T16, T23, T32, T55, B4 10 Eu. Ar.
119 Otiorhynchus pauxillus Rosenhauer, 1847 B1 2 Eu. Ar.
120 Otiorhynchus scaber (Linnaeus, 1758) B4, B5 8 Eu.** Ar.
121 Phyllobius argentatus (Linnaeus, 1758) T7 1 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
122 Phyllobius viridicollis (Fabricius, 1792) T43 2 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
123 Polydrusus formosus (Mayer 1779) T7 1 Eu.-Sib.** Ar.
Subfamily Molytinae Schönherr, 1823
124 Hylobius abietis (Linnaeus, 1758) T17, T20, T22, T27, T54, T65, B4, B5 17 Eu.-As. Ar.
125 Liparus glabrirostris (Küster, 1849) T13, T15, T16, T23, T28, T35 13 Eu. Ar.
126 Plinthus tischeri Germar 1824 B1, B2, B4, B5 6 Cent.-Eu. Ar.
Subfamily Scolytinae Latreille, 1804
127 Cryphalus abietis (Ratzeburg, 1837) T18, T19, T24, T45 5 Pal. Ar.
128 Dryocoetes autographus (Ratzeburg, 1837) T18, T24, T29, T58, T59 11 Hol. Ar.
129 Hylastes cunicularius Erichson, 1836 T12, T29, T58, B3 5 Pal. Ar.
130 Ips amitinus (Eichhoff, 1872) T18, T25, T29, T45, T46, T47 16 Eu. Ar.
T5, T9, T10, T12, T18, T19, T24, T29, T37,
131 Ips typographus (Linnaeus, 1758) 26 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
T45, T47, T59
132 Pityogenes chalcographus (Linnaeus, 1761) T12,T18, T19, T24, T25, T37, T47 12 Eu.-Sib. Ar.
Legend: * – species present in the management plan; ** – introduced species in Nearctic region; Hol – Holarctic, Pal – Palearctic, Eu.-As. –
European-Asian, WPal. – West Palearctic, Eu.-Sib. – European-Siberian, Eu.-CAs. – European-Central Asian, Eu.-Ca. – European-Caucasian, Eu. –
European, Cent.-Southeast Eu. – Central- Southeast European, Cent.-Eu. – Central- European, Cent.-East Eu. – Central- East European, Southeast Eu.
– Southeast European, Carpath. – Carpathian; Ar. – Arboreal, Er. – Eremian, Or. – Oreal, Ub. – Ubiquitous.
Most species (60.61%) were found in the contact zone between forest and riparian habitat (F-ed+R), followed by
those from the riparian (R) habitats and forest edge (F-ed) (46.97% and 40.91%, respectively). The forest habitat (F) and the
mountain-subalpine meadows (MSM) were poorer in species (28.03% and 10.61%, respectively). In swamp (Sw), wet
meadows (WM) and alpine shrubs (AS), there were recorded, less than 10% of the species (Fig. 3). The differences reflected
various conditions (exposition, humidity, temperature, altitude and vegetation) in each habitat, as well as the intensity of
sampling, that was lower in mountain-subalpine meadows habitat, swamp, wet meadows and alpine shrubs.
The coleopteran fauna of the Călimani National Park consists of 13 chorotypes represented in the following
order: European-Siberian species (28.79%), European-Asian ones (16.67%), Palearctic (14.39%), European (12.12%)
and West Palearctic (9.09%). The species of these five chorotypes represent 81% of all species. Other chorotypes were
represented by less than 5% (Fig. 4). Among the 132 species, 32 species (24%) are originally Palearctic, but have been
introduced to Nearctic.
The above data show that the coleopteran fauna of the Călimani National Park is dominated by widely spread
species. The percentage of the European-Siberian, European-Asian, Palearctic and West Palearctic species was 68.94%. This
135
Muzeul Oltenniei Craiova. Oltenia. Studiii şi comunicăări. Ştiinţele Naturii.
N Tom. 31, No. 1/20115 ISSN 1454-6914
indicates the occurrence, inn the perimeterr of the park, ofo a high num mber of speciess with mediumm or wide ecolo ogical valencee
that are relativvely common, with low speccificity for partticular habitatss.
Thee eco-geographhical structure of
o the coleopteeran fauna of the t Călimani National
N Park iis dominated by
b the arboreall
species (approoximately 80%%), preferring moist
m forests and
a meadows. They spread, during forest eexpansion, from m the arboreall
refuges, durinng the damp peeriod of the post-glacial (RUIICĂNESCU, 1997). 1
Thee eremian and oreal speciess have equal shares,
s 9.85% each (Fig. 5). The small number of oreaal species cann
be explainedd by the low sampling
s intennsity in the allpine and sub--alpine habitaats, but also byy biodiversity
y decline withh
increasing altitude.
Figure 2. Distribution
D of species
s and indiividuals amongg families. Figure
F 3. Distribbution of speciees among 8 hab
bitat types in
the Călimani National
N Park (A
AS – Alpine shrrubs, WM –
Wet
W Meadows, Sw S – Swamp, M MSM – Mountaain-Subalpine
Meadows, F – Forest, F-ed – Forest edge, R – Riparian,
d + R – Forest eedge + Riparian
F – ed n).
Figure 4. Distrribution of the identified

i speciies on zoogeogrraphical Figure
F 5. Distriibution of the iddentified speciees on eco-
groups (Holl – Holarctic, Paal – Palearctic, Eu.-As. – Euroopean- geographical groups
Asian, WPall. – West Palearrctic, Eu.-Sib. – European-Sibberian, (Ar. – Arboreal, Er. – Eremian, Or. – Oreal, Ub. – Ubiquitous).
Eu.-CAs. – European-Ceentral Asian, Euu.-Ca. – Europeean-
Caucasiann, Eu. – Europeaan, Cent.-Southheast Eu. – Centtral-
Southeast Euroopean, Cent.-Euu. – Central-Euuropean, Cent.-E East Eu.
– Central- East European, Southeast
S Eu. – Southeast Euroopean,
Carpathh. – Carpathian)).
Thee similarity beetween coleoppteran populaations from th

he investigateed habitats waas made using
g the Jaccardd
index (Fig. 6).
6 Low valuees of the sim milarity index, less than 50%, were obtaained for all ggroups. The wet
w grasslandd
showed highh faunal diffeerences in com
mparison withh the other habitats.
h A smmaller differennce was obtained betweenn
136
LO
OTREAN Niccolae MANU
M Minodora
coleopteran populations
p f
from forests, riparian
r areass and the commbination of the
t two habittats. The high hest values off
similarity weere obtained between
b riparrian areas andd mixed habitaat of riparian - forest edgee (42.31%). This
T similarityy
was expectedd, since the ripparian habitatt is situated cllose to the forrest (mixed orr spruce); it shhows that the characteristicc
riparian speccies (hygrophiilic beetles thaat inhabit onlyy wet river bannks) are unable to induce ddrastic faunal differences,
d iff
we make a comparison wiith the surrounnding forest (N NIŢU et al., 2008).
2 A low gradient of thhe similarity among
a studiedd
habitats was obtained, whiich increased from open areeas toward thee semi-open annd closed habbitats.
Sincce the family Carabidae waas best repressented (taking g into account the species ddiversity and the t numericall
abundance) we w tried to establish the sim milarity indexx between the structure of the
t carabids ppopulations an nd the altitudee
of the investiigated pitfall traps
t (quantitaative method)..
Thee Jaccard clustter analysis reevealed three differentiatedd groups, primmarily in term ms of habitat and
a secondaryy
depending onn altitude (Fig. 7).
Figure 6. Deendrogram of cllustering of habbitat depending on Figure 7. Dendrogram

D off clustering of aaltitudinal pitfalll traps sampless
coleopteerans fauna of the
t Călimani National
N Park. in thee Călimani Natiional Park.
Thee first group consists

c of carrabids present in moist locaations, as swaamps and ripaarian wetlandss areas, marshh
(Bembidion species).
s The seecond group inncludes comm mon species forr Alnus ripariann areas and few w pine forests located on thee
valleys (Caraabus cancellaatus, C. violacceus and C. auronitens). The T third grooup includes ccommon speccies for forestt
ecosystems (cconiferous andd mixed) and forf forest edgee plus riparian,, as carabids frrom the generaa Pterostichus and Carabus..
Our data show ws a weak diffferentiation of the carabids fauna,
fa taking in
nto account thee altitudinal grradient. The ressearch methodd
and the low difference
d betw
ween altitudess of the collectiion points hav
ve not allowed an accurate coomparison with h other studiess
done in the neeighbouring mountain
m massifs, as Rodnei Massif
M (NIŢU et al., 2008).
Fromm the conservvative point off view, we fouund two speciies protected by b the Europeean and nation nal legislation,,
Carabus varriolosus Fabriicius, 1787 annd Rosalia alpina a (Linnaeeus, 1758). Both
B species aare listed in Annex II andd
Annex IV off EU Council regulation
r 92//43/EEC, reviised in Annex x I of Resolution 6 (1998) oof the Bern Co onvention andd
in the nationaal legislation 57/20.06.2007
5 7.
Carrabus variolossus is a semii-aquatic woodland carabid d beetle, distrributed up to 1,500 m, resstricted to thee
fringes of strreams and to areas of highh soil moisturee, features thaat show a slight preference for sparse treee vegetation,,
with small oppen areas andd less acidic sooil. The speciees indicates th he undisturbedd wet areas inn the zone ranging from thee
beech-oak too Norway spruuce forests.
Rossalia alpina is classified as a priority speccies and enjoy ys protection Europe-wide.
E In Romania, its populationn
is in decline due to the destruction
d or fragmentation of the initiaal area due too timber explloitation durin ng the matingg
period. Thuss, the females lay eggs on timber
t that is rapidly hailedd from the staands. Thus thee larvae canno ot finish theirr
developmentt. Both speciess disappeared or became exxtremely rare in i western Euuropean countrries.
Ammong the rare coleopterans of the Romaanian fauna, we w can also mention
m Peltiss grossa (Lin nnaeus 1758),,
which is a reelict of virgin forest and Meloe
M rugosus Marsham, 1802, which devvelops in the nest of solitarry bees of thee
genera Halicctus, Andrenaa and Nomadaa. In Europe,, their populaations are in decline, due to the destruction of theirr
natural habitaats.
137
CONCLUSIONS
In eight types of habitats of the Călimani National Park, 132 species of 20 coleopterans families were recorded,
in the period May - October, 2013. Two species, Rosalia alpine (Linnaeus, 1758) and Carabus variolosus Fabricius,
1787, are protected at national and international level and the other two species, Peltis grossa (Linnaeus, 1758) and
Meloe rugosus Marsham, 1802, are considered rare for the Romanian fauna.
Taking into account the geographical distribution, the species with large areas, as European-Siberian,
European-Asian, Palearctic and West Palearctic, predominated in the studied material. They represent nearly 69% of the
recorded species. Most of them originated from the arboreal refuges, as shown by the dominance of arboreal elements,
representing almost 80% of recorded species.
The values of the Jaccard similarity index, smaller than 50%, reflect a low similarity of the coleopteran fauna from
the eight studied habitats types, indicating a high heterogeneity of the investigated coleopteran populations and of the
environmental conditions of the habitats. The same situation was observed in the case of the cluster analysis performed for the
carabids fauna from the 10 locations (sampling sites), where pitfall traps was placed. For this reason, the carabids fauna did
not reveal an exact ordering of the 10 sample stationeries in correlation with the altitudinal gradient.
Considering the size of the investigated area and the number of the studied habitats, the 132 species recorded
in the Călimani National Park represent only a small part of the local coleopteran fauna. For this reason we consider this
study as a preliminary one that must be continued.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was carried out in the framework of the RO1567-IBB01/2015 and POS MEDIU, code SMIS-
CNSR 36094 projects.
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Lotrean Nicolae
Argeş County Museum, Armand Călinescu, no. 44, code 110047,
Piteşti, Argeş, Romania.
E-mail: lotrean_n@yahoo.com
Manu Minodora
Romanian Academy, Institute of Biology, Department of Ecology, Taxonomy and Nature Conservation,
Str. Splaiul Independenţei, no. 296, P.O. Box 56-53, code 0603100 Bucharest, Romania.
E-mail: minodora_stanescu@yahoo.com

140
THE OCCURENCE OF THE ECTOPARASITE Dactylogyrus sp. (PLATYHELMINTHES,

MONOGENEA, MONOPISTHOCOTYLEA: DACTYLOGYRIDAE) ON CYPRINIDAE
FISH Cyprinus carpio AND Carassius gibelio FROM THE SMALL RESERVOIRS ALONG
THE PREAJBA RIVER - PRELIMINARY STUDY
GOGA Ionelia Claudia, TÎMBURESCU Constanţa,

CODREANU - BĂLCESCU Doina, IONUŞ Oana
Abstract. In the present study, it is presented the monogenean ectoparasite Dactylogyrus sp. discovered at two fish species belonging to the
Cyprinidae family, which were sampled from the ten reservoirs located along the Preajba Valley, the lower basin of the Jiu River. The
samples were obtained after examining 70 fish specimens. In case of 17 specimens belonging to the species Cyprinus carpio and Carassius
auratus gibelio, there was noticed the presence of 1-2 parasites at each host fish in the samples taken from the gills and fins.
Keywords: Monogenea, Dactylogyridae, Cyprinus carpio, Carassius auratus gibelio, the Preajba River.
Rezumat. Prezenţa ectoparazitului Dactylogyrus sp. (Platyhelminthes, Monogenea, Monopisthocotylea:

Dactylogyridae) la peşti din familia Cyprinidae (Cyprinus carpio şi Carassius gibelio) din lacurile de pe cursul
râului Preajba – studiu preliminar. În acest studiu este prezentat ectoparazitul monogeneu Dactylogyrus sp. prelevat de la
două specii de peşti aparţinând familiei Cyprinidae, din cele zece lacuri de pe cursul râului Preajba, situat în bazinul inferior al Jiului.
Probele au fost obţinute în urma examinării celor 70 de exemplare de peşti recoltaţi. La 17 dintre acestea, aparţinând speciilor
Cyprinus carpio şi Carassius auratus gibelio, în raclatele efectuate de pe branhii şi înotătoare s-a constatat prezenţa a câte 1-2
paraziţi, la fiecare din exemplarele de peşti – gazdă cercetaţi.
Cuvinte cheie: Monogenea, Dactylogyridae, Cyprinus carpio, Carassius auratus gibelio, râul Preajba.
INTRODUCTION
Monogeneans (platyhelminthes) have representatives in freshwater, brackish and marine habitats, parasitizing
cephalopods, fish, amphibians, reptiles and mammals (cetaceans). The vast majority are ectoparasites on the skin and/or
gills and fins of agnathan, cartilaginous and bony fish. In all cases they are attached to the surface of the host by a
characteristic adhesive apparatus positioned at the posterior end of the worm - opisthaptor (caudal disk), which is
specific to the species and provided with anchoring central hooks and lateral hooklets or adhesive pads (in
monopisthocotyleans), respectively hooks and suckers (in polyopisthocotyleans). The anterior end of the worm, as
prohaptor, can be provided with clamps (suckers, adhesive pads or adhesion gland) and cephalic openings
(MEHLHORN, 1998; WOO, 2006).
Usually, monogenean life cycle is direct (simple, without intermediate host), involving hermaphroditic adults,
oval eggs and larvae (oncomiracidium); the eggs fix on the fish tegument by a fixing appendix and after hatching, the
larva may remain attached to the fish body or actively pass to another fish. If it does not find another host, the larva can
swim for 24 hours and after that it dies (VULPE, 2007).
Due to their pathogenicity monogeneans are often economically important in aquaculture systems (e.g. Cyprinidae,
Asian herbivorous fish) and also in natural habitats (for example Acipenseridae and Salmonidae) (WOO, 2006; MUNTEANU
& BOGATU, 2008). MOLNAR (1983) reported the identification of two parasite monogenean species on the gills of
aquaculture eels: Pseudodactylogyrus anguillae Yin et Prostin, 1948 and P. bini Kikucki, 1929 (VULPE, 2007).
The lacustrine complex Preajba - Făcăi is located in Dolj County, 6 km southeast of Craiova, in Preajba and
Făcăi settlements. Designated a natural protected area of national interest (according to Law 5/2000), it is located on the
Preajba Valley and the Ciliboaica Valley, covering a total surface of 28 ha (Figs. 1, 2). The Preajba River represents the
main water stream the springs of which are in the neighbourhood of Cârcea settlement. The river receives Craiovița
canal 1,200 metres before the confluence with the Jiu River and succeeds to cross the left-side terraces of the Jiu on an
east-west direction (Fig. 1).
The identification and numbering of the reservoirs was made from upstream to downstream, based on the
orthophotoplans supplied by the Water Basin Administration Jiu using GIS techniques. Thus, this complex is made up
of 10 reservoirs (9, from I to IX, on the Preajba River, and one, number X, on its tributary, the Ciliboaica). The Preajba
River is a permanent river, with a constant flow, as the reservoirs communicate with each other on the principle of
communicating vessels through the spillways located in the dam body (IONUŞ et al., 2014) (Fig. 2).
141
GOGA Ionelia Claudia TÎMBURESCU Constanţa CODREANU - BĂLCESCU Doina IONUŞ Oana
Figure 1. The classification of the Preajba hydrographical basin at national and regional level (GIS processing
after the topographical map - 1:50,000 and the Atlas of Water Cadastre of Romania – 1992, after IONUŞ et al., 2014).
Although the status of protected area regulates human interference within the perimeter of the Preajba Valley, there
are many violations of these directives by the destruction of certain species habitats and the pollution of the aquatic ecosystem.
Figure 2. Location and numbering of the reservoirs located along the Preajba Valley
(GIS processing after the orthophotoplan, 1:5,000, 2009).
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The study was achieved during the summer of 2014, when there were taken 6 samples from the ten reservoirs
(GOGA, 2009, 2010; GOGA & TÎMBURESCU, 2011; GOGA & CODREANU-BĂLCESCU, 2011; GOGA, 2012;
GOGA & TÎMBURESCU, 2012, 2013, 2015; GOGA & CODREANU-BĂLCESCU, 2013; IONUŞ et al., 2014; GOGA
et al., 2014;).
There were caught 70 specimens of Cyprinidae belonging to the species Carassius auratus gibelio, Cyprinus
carpio and Abramis brama; we used rods and three monofilament nets, 100 m long and a mesh size of 4.5-6 cm. The
fish specimens were examined in the day they were caught in the parasitology laboratory of the Sanitary Veterinary
Direction Dolj, after spinalization. At two of the species, respectively Carassius auratus gibelio and Cyprinus carpio,
there were found lesions at the body surface and there were identified flat ectoparasite helminths. In order to diagnose
the material sampled from the lesions (gills, fins and tegument) from the parasitological point of view, there were made
fresh preparations (Figs. 3, 4); thus, the mucus was gently scrapped with a surgical knife, put into a drop of water on a
lamella and examined with the optic microscope Olimpus BX 43, camera lens 2x, 10x; ocular WHN 10x/22 (Fig. 5). As
the precise diagnosis cannot be established only by microscopic examination of the wounds where parasites were
identified, there were also examined the gills with lesions, the water used to clean the fish gills, fins and teguments with
the stereomicroscope Olympus SZX7 (2x, 3.2x camera lens; ocular WHSZ 10x/22), in a Petri dish.
Figure 3. Scraping of the gill mucus with the surgical knife, at the level of the haemorrhagic area,
at the species Carassius gibelio and Cyprinus carpio, for the fresh preparation. (original).
Figure 4. Scraping of the mucus from the caudal fin for the fresh preparation at the species Cyprinus carpio. (original).
143
Figure 5. Fresh slide-coverglass preparation obtained after the scraping of the mucus. (original).
The macroscopic examination emphasized the presence of an important amount of mucus and small parts with
haemorrhagic lesions in the gill cavity and on the caudal fin (Fig. 3) at the two species (Carassius auratus gibelio and
Cyprinus carpio), due to the mechanical and chemical action of the parasites. At a more detailed stereomicroscopic and
microscopic analysis, it was emphasized the presence of an ectoparasite worm, with a flatten dorso-ventral body. After
examining the 70 specimens sampled from the ten reservoirs, it was noticed the presence of 1-2 parasites per host at 17
specimens (about 30%), in the scraping taken from the gills and the caudal fin (Fig. 5). In the anterior part of the
platyhelminthes there are four cephalic contractile papillae with four dark-coloured pigmentation spots that represent
the prohaptor (Figs. 6, 7). The posterior part of the body functions as an attachment organ (opisthaptor) (Fig. 7), by
means of which it attaches to the host surface. It presents two large median chitinous hooks, sickle-shaped, joined by 1-
2 connection plates, as well as small hooks marginally disposed.
Figure 6. Dactylogyrus sp. visualisation of the cephalic pigmentation spots and of the two large median hooks (opisthaptor)
obtained from the gill scraping at the optic microscope Olimpus BX 43 (camera lens 10x; ocular WHN 10x/22). (original).
144
Figure 7. Dactylogyrus sp. visualisation of the gill scraping at the optical microscope Olimpus BX 43; there are emphasized
the anterior part of the worm (prohaptor) and the four pigmentation spots – fresh slide-coverglass preparation (original).
MUNTEANU & BOGATU (2008) estimates that the length of the body in case of the Dactylogyrus spp. may
reach up to 1 mm, while MEHLHORN (1998) indicates dimensions of 1.3 x 0.3 mm for Dactylogyrus vastator (a
widely spread parasite on carp gills).
The presence of the two median hooks at the opisthaptor level, as well as the four ocular spots at the anterior
end of the body, make us consider that the identified monogean plathelminth belongs to the genus Dactylogyrus
Diesing, 1850, Family Dactylogyridae, Order Monopisthocotylea; moreover, we have to take into account that, in
Romania, there are known only representatives of the genus Dactylogyrus for Dactylogyridae (ROMAN-CHIRIAC,
1960). Considering that the obtained microscopic images did not clearly emphasized other morphologic details, we
could not exactly identify the species of the genus Dactylogyrus detected in case of Cyprinus carpio and Carassius
auratus gibelio sampled from the Preajba Valley.
Dactylogyridae are parasites of freshwater teleost fish, especially gill ectoparasites of the fish belonging to the
family Cyprinidae, and they produce dactylogyrosis. In a recent study on monogenean fauna from the Wűrm River
(Bavaria, Germany), DZIKA et al. (2010) reported 13 monogenean ectoparasite species at 8 examined freshwater fish
species. It was emphasized the predominance of the genus Dactylogyrus Diesing, 1850, with 10 spp.
Many of the species belonging to the genus Dactylogyrus manifest parasitic specificity that may influence the
geographical distribution of the parasites according to that of the hosts. For example, D. crucifer, D. nanus, D.
amphibothrium are found only in Europe, while D. intermedius, D. borealis, D. phoxini are found in Eurasia and D.
wunderi, D. solidus, D. anchoratus are characteristic to Eurasia and North America. There are also some species that
have a discontinuous distribution, such as D. minutus and D. bicornis, which are found only in Europe and the Far East,
missing from the other parts of Asia.
As they attach to the host body through hooks, monogeans mainly exert a traumatic action upon fish and
secondly a spoliation action, as they feed on the mucus present on the body and on the blood from the gill capillaries.
These actions lead to haemorrhages at the level of the skin and gills, which exhaust the host and favour the development
of secondary infections. The species Dactylogyrus vastator and D. solidus, which affect the gills and fins of both the
wild carp and the carp bred in captivity, are extremely dangerous. The carp mortality provoked by these parasites can be
assessed in ponds or small enclosed basins. The sick fish swim slowly along the shores and they can be easily caught
even by hand. Sick fish stop feeding and the gills got covered by a thick mucus layer.
Although the Dactylogyrus sp. found by us at carp and Prussian carp in the reservoirs located along the Preajba
Valley was identified in summer and, in the respective area, intensive fishing has not been practiced for a long time,
dactylogyrosis evolved subclinically and it did not provoke mass mortality. Most of the collected host fish had hypoxia
145
marks. The literature in the field mentions that an infestation with 30 such ectoparasites per host may determine mass
mortality (RĂDULESCU et al., 1976).
The factors that may trigger the emergence of the parasitosis, taking into account that the reservoirs have not
been unclogged for 20 years, are – degradation of the water quality, oxygen deficiency due to eutrophication, deficient
food, and increase of the layer of organic substances resulted after the decomposition of the macrophytes that grow
excessively in the area.
Certain researchers mention that the abiotic factor (temperature) may have a major influence upon the
dynamics of the parasite population (PAPERNA, 1963a, 1963b) and the abundance of the species of Dactylogyrus is
much higher in case of mature fish as compared to the young specimens in many cases. As they have a reduced number
of hosts, in most of the cases, they do not cause pathogen problems in nature (KOSKIVAARA et al., 1991, 1992).
Among previous studies regarding the presence of Dactylogyridae ectoparasite monogeans at Cyprinidae in
Romania, we mention: N. Leon (in the period 1908-1911 in Iasi - D. auriculatus at bream); RĂDULESCU & VASILIU
(1944) – mentioned D. anchoratus on the gills at carp and Prussian carp in the ponds from Nucet, and, in 1947, they
studied the disappearance of the carp juveniles in the experimental ponds from Nucet due to a massive infestation with
D. vastator var. minor (both works quoted by ROMAN, 1953); the same authors reported the presence of D. minutus at
carp in Brateş Lake (1954). ROMAN (1955) determined many species of Dactylogyrus parasitizing the gills of the
common roach, barbel, common rudd, carp, ide, Prussian carp and common bream in the Danube (Călăraşi, Mila 23 and
Greaca); for the carp and Prussian carp, he mentions D. anchoratus for the Danube (Corabia, Călaraşi, Delta) and its
pools (Greaca, Bugeac, Oltina). The most important work is “Plathelminthes. Clasa Monogenoidea” from Fauna
României (ROMAN-CHIRIAC, 1960), where there are presented the main species of Dactylogyrus (34) that frequently
parasitize both wild cyprinids and the cyprinids bred in captivity. Among these, at Cyprinus carpio (wild and
aquaculture), Carassius carassius and C. auratus gibelio, there were registered seven species: D. anchoratus (Dujardin,
1845) at carp and Carassius carassius in the Danube, Brateş Lake, Nucet station, Razelm-Sinoe lacustrine complex; D.
formosus Kulwiec, 1927 at Carassius carassius and C. auratus gibelio, Greaca pool; D. intermedius Wegener, 1909 at
Carassius carassius and C. auratus gibelio in the Danube; D. minutus Kulwiec, 1927, at the wild and aquaculture carp
in Brates Lake; D. solidus Wegener, 1909, the wild and aquaculture carp in the Danube and many of its pools; D.
vastator Nybelin, 1924 at carp, Carassius carassius and C. auratus gibelio, Nucet Station, Delta and the pools of the
Danube, Comana pool; D. wegeneri Kulwiec, 1927, at Carassius carassius and C. auratus gibelio in the Danube, Brateş
Lake and Comana Pool.
SCHAPERCLAUS (1979, quoted by GHITTINO, 1985) mentions four pathogen species at carp: Dactylogyrus
vastator Nybelin,1924; D. extensus Mueller; D. minutus Kulwiec, 1927; D. anchoratus (Dujardin, 1845), and in the
monograph edited by WOO (2006), the first three aforementioned species are mentioned as being very important for the
parasitological pathology at carp and Prussian carp; there are also added four species of the genus Dactylogyrus
Diesing, 1850 (D. lamellatus, D. ctenopharingodoni, D. hypophthalmychthis, D. aristichthys), parasites of Asian origin
of the cyprinids, which were acclimatized in Romania as well, in aquaculture, (genera Ctenopharingodon,
Hypophthalmichthys, Aristichthys). MUNTEANU & BOGATU (2008) show that the Dactylogyrus species that
frequently parasitize cyprinids (wild and captivity) are D. vastator, D.extensus, D. hypophthalmychthis, D. aristichthys,
D. lamellatus, D. ctenopharingodonis. As well, in a reservoir on the lower Vistula River (Poland), MIERZEJEWSKA et
al. (2010) found one local monogenean Dactylogyrus sp. at a colonized asian fish Percottus glenii but also determined
non-indigenous monogean Gyrodactylus proterorhini, a possible case of parasitic specificity known among
monogenean ectoparasite and their host-fish.
CONCLUSIONS
Dactylogyrus sp. was sampled in summer at Carassius auratus gibelio and Cyprinus carpio, two species of
Cyprinids this ectoparasite monogenean genus manifests affinity for, being localized both at the level of the gills and
the caudal fin (at the species Cyprinus carpio).
The increased water temperature, the presence of macrophytes in excess, eutrophication process and the fact
that parasitized fish can easily penetrate downstream, swimming from one reservoir to another, through spillways, are
just some of the causes that may trigger the appearance and development of the parasite.
As in these reservoirs it is exclusively practiced rod fishing and only by amateur fishermen, the parasitosis
evolved subclinically, which can be a consequence of another massive infestation from the previous years, when fish
acquired over-invasional immunity that limit further invasions.
In order to treat the reservoirs affected by the disease the specialized literature recommends 0.5 mg/l of
Triclorfon solution.
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Goga Ionelia Claudia

The Oltenia Museum, Nature Sciences, Str. Popa Şapcă No.8, RO-200422, Craiova, Romania.
E-mail: ioneliagoga@yahoo.com
Codreanu - Bălcescu Doina

Institute of Biology of the Romanian Academy,
Str. Splaiul Independenţei No. 296, Bucharest, Romania.
E-mail: doina_cb@yahoo.co.uk
Tîmburescu Constanţa
L.S.V.S.A Sanitary Veterinary Direction Dolj, Craiova, Romania.
E-mail: ctimburescu@yahoo.co.uk
IONUȘ Oana
University of Craiova, Geography Department,
Street A. I. Cuza No.13, postal code 200585, Craiova, Romania.
E-mail: oana_ionus@yahoo.com

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DATA ABOUT THE BIOLOGY AND THE ECOLOGY

OF THE SPECIES Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldzky, 1838)
IN THE AREA OF TINCA VILLAGE (BIHOR COUNTY, ROMANIA)
ILIE Aurelian Leonardo, MARINESCU Mariana
Abstract. The paper presents the results of the researches performed by the authors between January 1, 2012 – December 31, 2014,
on the biology and the ecology of the species Streptopelia decaocto (Collared Doves), in the conditions of Tinca village. Breeding,
clutch size, behaviour, number of generations and food were studied. A complete clutch contains 2 eggs. This species has 1 – 6
generations per year. The food generally consists in vegetal produces.
Keywords: Streptopelia decaocto, Tinca village, breeding, clutch size, food.
Rezumat. Date asupra biologiei şi ecologiei speciei Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldzky, 1838) în zona comunei Tinca
(judeţul Bihor, România). Lucrarea prezintă rezultatele cercetărilor efectuate de autori în perioada 1 ianuarie 2012 – 31 decembrie
2014, asupra biologiei şi ecologiei speciei Streptopelia decaocto (Collared Doves) în condiţiile comunei Tinca. S-au cercetat reproducerea,
mărimea pontei, comportamentul, numărul generaţiilor şi hrana. O pontă completă conţine 2 ouă. Această specie are 1- 6 generaţii anuale,
iar hrana constă în general din produse vegetale.
Cuvinte cheie: Streptopelia decaocto, comuna Tinca, reproducere, mărimea pontei, hrană.
INTRODUCTION
The Collared Dove is a common bird in the human settlements from Tinca area.
Data regarding the biology and ecology of this species in different locations from Romania were published by
different authors (CĂLINESCU, 1933; RADU, 1984; MUNTEANU, 1970, 2000, 2012; CIOCHIA, 1992; ILIE, 2012,
2013; MESTECĂNEANU, 2011).
The presence of more and more numerous populations, its accentuated adaptation, the nesting and the climatic
modifications registered in the last years, all these determined the study of the biological and ecological aspects of this
species in the conditions of Tinca area.
Tinca locality is situated in the south-western part of Bihor county, at the contact between Miersig plain and
the Holod depression. The average altitude is 110 m, the climate is temperate-continental and the vegetation belongs to
the oak forest. The hydrographic system is represented by the Crişul Negru river.
MATERIAL AND METODS
The researches regarding the presence of the species in Tinca area began sporadically in the year 2000, then
investigations were systematically realized beginning with the year 2012 till 2014.
The observations were realized with the help of binoculars with specifications 8x25 and 20x50, being completed
with the direct observation, looking after breeding, food, behaviour and influence of air temperature on the biology of this
species. The observed nests were placed in different locations from Ilie A. L 's private farm, the farms of his neighbours, at
”Nicolae Jiga” Theoretical High School and in different locations from some streets from Tinca village.
The researches regarding the presence of the species in Tinca area began sporadically in the year 2000; then,
the investigations were systematically realized beginning with the year 2012 till 2014.
The observations were realized with the help of binoculars with specifications 8x25 and 20x50, being
completed with the direct observation, looking after breeding, food, behaviour and influence of air temperature on the
biology of this species. The observed nests were placed in different locations from Ilie A. L. 's private farm, the farms
of his neighbours, at ”Nicolae Jiga‟ Theoretical High School and in different locations from some streets from Tinca
village.
1. Breeding
With regard to breeding, we investigated the location of the nests, the material of construction, the size of
nests, the clutch size and the development of the nestlings.
The height of nests above the ground varied from 1.68 meters (one nest identified, on the branches of a cherry
tree) to 10-15 meters (the majority of nests) - Fig. 1
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ILIE Aurelian Leonardo MARINESCU Mariana
The nest is installed generally inside the human settlements, on trees (even conifers like pines), household annexes,
concrete pillars, different industrial and civilian buildings (sometimes in unexpected places), in parks, vine plants, cemeteries,
orchards, rarely outside the village (on the trees situated not further than 1 – 1.5 kilometres from the village).
The material of construction was extremely different: branches, wires or stems of some gramineae. The nest is
a simple platform, without lining and can be used by the same pair for several years (generally to 4 years) – Figs. 2, 5.
Figure 1. Nest of Collared Dove (original). Figure 2. Nest of Collared Dove (original).
The diameters of the nests are variable, from 10 to 15 cm. A complete clutch generally contains two eggs. The
young pairs can have a clutch with one egg. This rule is not always valid. Thus, in a nest installed on a concrete pillar
and observed during the year 2014, the first clutch contained one egg, the second, the third and the fourth contained 2
eggs and the fifth contained only one egg, although the pair was not young. Another reason that could limit the number
of eggs is probably the tight space where the nest is installed. Thus, at the nest observed in 2012, situated under eaves,
between a drain pipe and a wall of A.L Ilie's house, all the clutches had only one egg, despite the pair was not young.
An exceptional case, probably unmentioned until now in the scientific literature, indicates one clutch with three eggs.
The nest was observed on my vine arbour, on June 1, 2013.
The eggs are oval, smooth, with feeble lustre. The colour of the eggs is white (Fig. 3).
Figure 3. Egg of Collared Dove (original).
The size of the eggs was less variable. Measuring seven eggs, we obtained the following results: 31,8 x 23 mm; 31,9
x 23,1 mm; 32 x 23 mm; 31,7 x 22,9 mm; 32,2 x 23 mm; 32,1 x 23,1 mm; 31,9 x 22,9 mm (average 32 x 12 mm). During the
entire research period, all the yearly clutches of some breeding pairs were laid in the same nest. If some perturbations appear
(presence of some raptors, human activities, strong sounds), the pair leaves the nest. Thus, the nestlings of a nest situated in
my garden on a vine plant, in 2014, were hunted by a cat. After this event the pair left the nest.
The clutch sizes between 2012 and 2014 in Tinca area are rendered in Table 1.
Table 1. The clutch size of the Collared Doves in Tinca area, in the analyzed period.
Year Clutch I Clutch II Clutch III Clutch IV Clutch V Clutch VI
Nest Eggs Nest Eggs Nest Eggs Nest Eggs Nest Eggs Nest Eggs
number number number number number number number number number number number number
4 1 1 1 - 1 2 1 2 1 - 1
2012 7 2 8 2 8 2 6 2 6 2 3 2
3 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 - 1
7 2 6 2 8 2 8 2 8 2 4 2
2013
1 3 - - - - - - - - - -
4 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 - 1
2014
6 2 5 2 8 2 7 2 7 2 3 2
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Analysing the data rendered in the aforementioned table, we find that the yearly number of clutches is variable
(1 – 6), but generally the number of clutches is 5. At the last clutches (V and VII), the number of nests with one egg is
very small: 1- 2 (clutch VI). The absence of the nests with one egg within the clutch VI proves that only the mature and
prolific pairs could lay such clutch.
The early average of the number of eggs from all the clutches is rendered in Table 2.
Table 2. The yearly average of the number of eggs from all clutches of the Collared Doves
in Tinca area between 2012 and 2014.
Year Yearly average of the number of the eggs from all clutches
2012 7,08
2013 7,83
2014 7,25
Analysing Table 2 we notice the relatively high values in all analysed periods (7.08 -7.83), due to the high
number of the yearly clutches (Fig. 4).
8
7.8
7.6
7.4
7.2 yearly average
7
6.8
6.6
2012 2013 2014
Figure 4. The yearly average of the number of eggs from all clutches of the Collared Dove
pairs living in the analysed period in Tinca area.
This relatively high value could be an explanation of the extension of the specific distribution area, as well as
the high adaptability of the Collared Dove to the anthropogenic conditions.
The clutches- the first clutch is laid in the period: second decade of March (majority) - the first days of April.
Sometimes, when temperature is increased (over 140C), the first clutch is laid in the first decade of March (example –
March 9, 2013; March 8, 2014).
The hatching period generally lasts 14-15 days, generally 14 days, being realized both by the male and the female.
Data about the lay of the first clutch of the Collared Dove in Tinca area rendered in the following table (Table 3).
Table 3. The data of the laying of the first clutch by the Collared Dove in Tinca area in the analysed period.
Year Nest 1 Nest 2 Nest 3 Nest 4 Nest 5 Nest 6 Nest 7
2012 March 12 March 16 March 13 April 1 March 12 April 2 March 11
2013 March 8 March 14 March 19 March 30 March 15 March 13 March 10
2014 March 9 March 18 April 1 March 20 March 14 March 12 March 14
Explanation:
Nest 1, 2, 3 = nests situated on concrete pillars
Nest 4 = nest situated on vine plants
Nest 5, 6, 7 = nests situated on trees
The post-embryonic development lasts 13-15 days. The complete reproductive cycle lasts 45 days.
The nestlings are fed by both parents. After the departure of the nestlings from the nest, they remain for
another 3-5 days, in this neighbourhood being fed sporadically by the parents and their flights go on with difficulty and
on relatively short distances.
The second clutch is laid generally in the first half of May (Table 4).
Table 4. The data (May) of the second clutch laying of the Collared Dove in the analysed period in Tinca area.
2012 6 8 11 6 9 6 6
2013 8 10 9 8 7 7 9
2014 9 7 10 8 10 9 7
Under favourable conditions (low precipitations amounts, average temperatures), there can by registred even
six generations per year (Tables 5, 6, 7, 8 ). The third clutch is laid in the first half of June.
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ILIE Aurelian Leonardo MARINESCU Mariana
Table 5. The data (June) of the third clutch laying of the Collared Dove in the analysed period in Tinca area.
2012 9 8 11 8 10 7 9
2013 8 10 9 12 8 10 8
2014 10 7 10 9 9 8 10
The fourth clutch is laid in the first half of July.
Table 6. The data (July) of the fourth clutch laying of the Collared Dove in the analysed period in Tinca area.
2012 10 11 13 11 13 13 11
2013 9 9 12 14 10 11 10
2014 12 10 12 12 12 11 12
The fifth clutch is laid in the second half of August.
Table 7. The data (August) of the fifth clutch laying of the Collared Dove in the analysed period in Tinca area.
2012 17 18 19 17 19 18 17
2013 16 17 18 16 17 16 19
2014 19 17 18 19 16 18 17
The sixth clutch is rarer and is laid in the period: the last week of September - the first ten days of October.
Table 8. The data of the sixth clutch laying of the Collared Dove in the analysed period in Tinca area.
2012 - September 24 October 2 - - - October 1
2013 - - October 3 - September 26 - -
2014 October 1 - September 26 - - September 24
Under favourable conditions, the period of time between two reproductive cycles is very short (3 – 4 days).
The nestlings have a grey-yellow colour or even white – yellowish (Fig. 5).
Figure 5. Nestlings of the Collared Dove (original). Figure 6. A Collared Dove killed by goshawk (original).
In the analysed period we identified the harmful species which had access at the nests situated on trees or on
vines: the man and the cat. Other species hunt the adult birds: goshawk (Accipiter gentilis Linnaeus, 1758) - Fig. 6.
During the analysed period were observed some behaviour of the local birds. In September 1, 2012, A.L.Ilie
observed in his garden a behaviour named by this ‘pseudo-brooding’: one female sat on the turf in a position that was
the brooding, turning round on ground in the same place, as if it brooded, then tore to pieces some blades of grass and
arranged those as if she was building a nest. She stood still for some moments then the behaviour repeated. The
‘pseudo-brooding’ lasted for about 10 minutes and then the bird flew away. This behaviour was recurrent, in the same
place, on November 6, 2012, although the grass was wet and the temperature was relatively reduced (90 C).
During winter, when the weather conditions are favourable (low precipitation amounts, temperatures over 9-
130 C) there were observed copulations between male and female and songs of male. Example: December 3, 2012;
January 7, 2013; December 16, 2013; January 7, 2014. Often, during the brooding of the male, this one sings some
minutes. The song of the male can be heard during the entire year, irrespective of the weather conditions, but at the end
of autumn and in winter its intensity decreases, the song having other roles (the attraction of the female, the marking of
the territory, etc.).
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When the nestlings, ready for flight, are in the nest, the parents are together in neighbourhoods, made closet
and sometimes there were registered sexual copulations. Maybe this is the justification for the short time between the
flight of nestlings and the beginning of the next reproductive cycle (2 – 3 days).
In winter, this bird often shares in large groups, sometimes up to one hundred individuals. Example: December
3, 2014, on the telegraph wires (102 individuals).
CONCLUSIONS
The researches realized during the period 2012 – 2014 on the species Streptopelia decaocto Friv. emphasized
the following aspects:
- that species is very anthropophilic;
- it presents 1 – 6 generations per year depending on the prolificacy of the pair, the beginning of the first
brooding, the food availability, the weather conditions, the peace and quiet of the place where they live;
- generally, a complete clutch consists of 2 eggs, exceptionally 3 eggs;
- the length of brooding is 14-15 days;
- the post-embryonic development lasts 13-15 days;
- different behaviours were observed: ‘pseudo-brooding’, copulations during winter , the song of male
during his brooding.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to Mr. Academician Dan Munteanu, Romanian Academy, Nature Monuments Commission, for
his constructive comments, references and publishing advice.
REFERENCES
CĂLINESCU R. 1933. Turtur risorius în România. Buletinul Societăţii Naturaliştilor din România. Bucureşti. 4: 4-6.
CIOCHIA V. 1992. Păsările clocitoare din România. Edit. Ştiinţifică. Bucureşti. 386 pp.
ILIE A. L. 2012. Noutăţi faunistice, aspecte etologice şi fenologice ale faunei de vertebrate şi de insecte din zona Tinca (jud.
Bihor, România). Educaţia Omului de azi pentru ziua de mâine. Edit. Universității din Oradea. 9: 152-156.
ILIE A. L. 2013. New taxonomical, ecological and ethological data of the fauna of vertebrates and insects from Tinca area
(Bihor county, Romania). Educaţia Omului de azi pentru ziua de mâine. Edit. Universității Oradea. 10: 173-177.
MESTECĂNEANU A. 2011. Studiul complex (sistematic, biologic, ecologic, etologic şi de răspândire) privind fauna
de păsări (Aves) din bazinul Râul Doamnei-Argeş. Teză de doctorat. Universitatea Bucureşti. Facultatea de
Biologie. 682 pp.
MUNTEANU D. 1970. Expansiunea recentă a guguştiucului (Streptopelia decaocto) pe valea intramontană a Bistriţei
moldoveneşti. Lucrările Staţiunii de Cercetări Biologice, Geologice şi Geografice Stejarul. Universitatea „A.
I. Cuza” Iași. 3: 347-350.
MUNTEANU D. 2000. Avifauna bazinului montan al Bistriţei moldoveneşti. Edit. Alma Mater. Cluj-Napoca. 250 pp.
MUNTEANU D. 2012. Conspectul sistematic al avifaunei clocitoare din România. Edit. Alma Mater. Cluj-Napoca. 262 pp.
RADU D. 1984. Păsările în peisajele României. Edit. Sport-Turism. Bucureşti. 216 pp.
Ilie Aurelian Leonardo

”Nicolae Jiga” Theoretical High School Tinca,
Republicii Street, No. 36/A, county Bihor, Romania.
E-mail: aurelian_ilie@yahoo.fr
Marinescu Mariana
University of Oradea, Didactic Staff Training Departament (DTS),
University Street, No. 1, Oradea, Romania.
E-mail: marinescum54@yahoo.com

153
THE AVIFAUNA FROM VÂLCELE, BUDEASA, BASCOV, PITEŞTI, AND GOLEŞTI DAM
RESERVOIRS OBSERVED IN THE HIEMAL SEASON (2013 AND 2014)
MESTECĂNEANU Adrian, GAVA Radu
Abstract. In this paper there are rendered the results of the researches performed in the hiemal season (2013 and 2014) on the
avifauna from Vâlcele, Budeasa, Bascov, Piteşti, and Goleşti dam reservoirs from the Argeş River, included in ROSPA0062
„Lacurile de acumulare de pe Argeş”. The 64 observed species belong to 14 orders, Passeriformes being the richest (with 31 species).
The number of species and individuals depends on the local and regional weather conditions and the distribution on dam reservoirs
depends on the conditions of habitat and the anthropogenic factors. The Jaccard index illustrates that the biggest similarity was
between avicoenoses from Piteşti and Budeasa Dam Reservoirs and the Bray-Curtis index that the biggest similarity was between the
avicoenoses from Vâlcele and Budeasa Dam Reservoirs. By dominancy and Dzuba ecological significance index, 3 species (4.69% of
all) were eudominant species: Anas platyrhynchos, Aythya farina, and Larus ridibundus. The most individuals of Anas platyrhynchos
and Aythya ferina were counted on Goleşti Dam Reservoir and Larus ridibundus was the most abundant on Piteşti Dam Reservoir.
Anseriformes was the only overdominant order and, inside it, Anas platyrhynchos and Aythya ferina were the overdominant species.
Regarding the protection, 7 species: Gavia arctica, Phalacrocorax pygmeus, Egretta alba, Cygnus cygnus, Mergus albellus, Alcedo
atthis, and Picus canus, 10.93%, are in Annex I of the Birds Directive (2009/147/CE). Other considerations about the ecology and the
protection of the birds are made in the paper.
Keywords: ROSPA0062, birds, hiemal season, protection.
Rezumat. Avifauna lacurilor de acumulare Vâlcele, Budeasa, Bascov, Piteşti şi Goleşti observată în sezonul hiemal
(2013 şi 2014). În această lucrare sunt prezentate rezultatele cercetărilor efectuate în sezonul hiemal (2013 şi 2014) asupra avifaunei
lacurilor de acumulare Vâlcele, Budeasa, Bascov, Piteşti şi Goleşti de pe râul Argeş, cuprinse în ROSPA0062 „Lacurile de acumulare de
pe Argeş”. Cele 64 de specii observate aparţin la 14 ordine, Passeriformes fiind cel mai bogat (cu 31 de specii). Numărul de specii şi
exemplare depinde de condiţiile de vreme locale şi regionale, iar distribuţia pe lacurile de acumulare depinde de condiţiile de habitat şi de
factorii antropici. Indicele Jaccard arată că cea mai mare similaritate a fost între avicenozele lacurilor Piteşti şi Budeasa, iar indicele
Bray-Curtis, arată că cea mai mare similaritate a fost între avicenozele lacurilor Vâlcele şi Budeasa. După dominanţă şi indicele de
semnificaţie ecologică Dzuba, 3 specii (4,69% din total) au fost eudominante: Anas platyrhynchos, Aythya ferina şi Larus ridibundus.
Majoritatea exemplarelor de Anas platyrhynchos şi Aythya ferina au fost numărate pe lacul Goleşti, iar Larus ridibundus a fost cel mai
abundent pe lacul Piteşti. Anseriformes a fost singurul ordin supradominant, iar în interiorul său, Anas platyrhynchos şi Aythya ferina au
fost speciile supradominante. În ceea ce priveşte protecţia, 7 specii sunt în Anexa I a Directivei Păsări (2009/147/CE): Gavia arctica,
Phalacrocorax pygmeus, Egretta alba, Cygnus cygnus, Mergus albellus, Alcedo atthis și Picus canus, 10.93%. Alte consideraţii despre
ecologia şi protecţia păsărilor sunt făcute în lucrare.
Cuvinte cheie: ROSPA0062, păsări, sezonul hiemal, protecţie.
INTRODUCTION
The avifauna of the dam reservoirs from the upper and middle course of the Argeş River has been the subject of
many researches since the end of reservoirs construction (MĂTIEŞ, 1969; MUNTEANU & MĂTIEŞ, 1983). In the last two
decades, the study became more intense (CONETE et al., 2008; CONETE et al., 2011; GAVA, 1997; GAVA et al., 2004a;
GAVA et al., 2004b; GAVA et al., 2007; GAVA et al., 2011; MESTECĂNEANU et al., 2004; MESTECĂNEANU et
al., 2010; MESTECĂNEANU et al., 2013) and a part of the results was valued in a PhD thesis (CONETE, 2011). The
present paper shows some outcome of the last researches in the area. They continue the work that was started here by Mircea
Mătieș and show an image of the present day condition of birds.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The study was conducted on the dam reservoirs (from upstream to downstream): Vâlcele (408 ha), Budeasa (412
ha), Bascov (162 ha), Piteşti (122 ha), and Goleşti (649 ha). They are part of the series of reservoirs that was built on the upper
and middle course of the Argeş River starting with 1965 (Fig. 1). Currently, these dam reservoirs are included in the protected
area ROSPA0062 „Lacurile de acumulare de pe Argeş‟ and they are component of the Nature 2000 network. The area is
situated in the south of the Southern Carpathians between Cotmeana Platform, in the West, Argeş Platform, in the North,
Cândeşti Platform, in the East, and Piteşti High Plain (part of the Romanian Plain), in the South.
The vegetation of the dam reservoirs is influenced by the process of silting. It occupies surfaces that vary from
dam reservoir to dam reservoir and, generally, it is disposed in the upstream and in the median sections of each
reservoir, along its banks. It is typical of wetland areas, primarily with reed bed, bulrush, alder, and willow. The
neighbouring hills are covered with broad leaf forests (beech, hornbeam, diverse species of oak, etc.) and, rarely, with
artificial coniferous forests. Also, there are orchards. The meadows are covered with crops (cereals, fodder, green
goods, etc.). Generally, the settlements are placed at the foothills or in the meadows.
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MESTECĂNEANU Adrian GAVA Radu
The area belongs to the land of the continental climate with hilly characteristics. The average of the annual
temperature of the water changes between 6.4 0C, in the Argeş Gorges, and 9 0C, at Piteşti. In winters with accentuate
continental influence, in January, when it appears more intensely, the temperature decreases in the low areas below 0 0C
and the bridge of ice is formed (BARCO & NEDELCU, 1974).
As a technique of field work, the itinerary method was used and, where the field conditions were inadequate, it
was combined to one of the fixed point of observations. The study was carried in the hiemal season (February,
November, December 2013 and January 2014) and between 10 and 20 of every month one day field trip was performed
on all dam reservoirs. The same track on one bank of the dam reservoirs (the most favourable for the observation of
water birds) was used every time. Binoculars (10x50), a spotting scope (14-45x50) and a photo device (42x optical
zoom) were used.
The scientific nomenclature and classification of the birds are compatible with the Hamlin Guide (BRUUN et
al., 1999).
Vâlcele
Budeasa
Bascov
Piteşti
Goleşti
Figure 1. The map of the area (original) with the position of the reservoirs.
In the hiemal season (2013 and 2014), 64 bird species were observed on the dam reservoirs from the middle and
upper course of the Argeş River. They belong to 14 orders: Gaviiformes, Podicipediformes, Pelecaniformes, Ciconiiformes,
Anseriformes, Falconiformes, Galliformes, Gruiformes, Charadriiformes, Columbiformes, Strigiformes, Coraciiformes,
Piciformes and Passeriformes. Passeriformes was the richest (with 31 species) and it is followed by Anseriformes (with 13
species) and Charadriiformes (with 4 species). Gaviiformes, Galliformes, Gruiformes, Columbiformes, and Strigiformes were
the least represented (each with 1 species). The number of species varied between 31 (in December) and 46 (in November). In
February, 45 species and, in January, 38 species were registered. The number of individuals was the highest in February
(19,017 individuals). In December, it was registered the smallest number (6,571 individuals) and, in November and January,
numbers are a little bigger (11,568, respectively 10,529 individuals), (Table 1). Generally, these reflect the migratory
dynamics of the birds in relation with the local and regional weather conditions. However, we did not find a good correlation
between the number of species/number of individuals and the mean of the average temperature of the air registered at Piteşti
(cf. rp5.ru). It was: -0.43/-0.04 for the mean of the average temperatures of the air for 7 days before the days of observation, -
0.55/-0.04 for the mean of the average temperatures of the air for 14 days before the days of observation and -0.71/-0.15 for
the mean of the average temperatures of the air for 30 days before the days of observation. These show that: 1) regardless of
the period, the correlation between the number of species and mean of the average temperature of the air is better than the
correlation between the number of individuals and mean of the average temperature of the air; 2) in the considered periods,
155
there was an inverse rapport between the mean of the average temperatures of the air and the number of species/number of
individuals (that means that lower was the mean of the average temperatures higher was the number of species/number of
individuals, and inverse); 3) the variation in number and in strength of the species depends on the mean of the average
temperatures of the air on long previous period rather than on short previous period. For the temperatures of the air registered
in Piteşti in the days of observation (at 8:00), the correlation was -0.16/0.45 (weak/acceptable correlation: the decrease of the
temperature of the air determined a slight increase of the number of species/ the decrease of the temperature of the air
determined the decrease of the number of individuals). Consequently, the temperature of the air at the day of observations (at
8:00) did not have a significant influence on the presence of the species and their strengths. The influence would have been
bigger if the mean of the average temperatures of the air had determined the freezing of big surfaces of the dam reservoirs. At
the moment of observations, the ice covered only below 5% of surface of every dam reservoir, in January, and 5% of surface
of Piteşti Dam Reservoir and 30% of surface of Vâlcele Dam Reservoir, in February, in the rest of situations the surface of
water being free of ice. Other factors, represented by the anthropogenic pressure (the hunting, mainly on Vâlcele, Budeasa and
Goleşti Dam Reservoirs, fishing, mainly on Bascov dam reservoir, and the nautical sports performed on Bascov Dam
Reservoir and rarely on Piteşti Dam Reservoir) could be taken into consideration (CONETE, 2011).
The variation in number and strength of the species on every dam reservoir was rather similar to one at the general
level (Table 2). There are two exceptions: the Bascov Dam Reservoir and the Piteşti Dam Reservoir, where in December or
January were registered, comparatively, big numbers of species and strengths. They do not change the global situation, where
mainly Goleşti Dam Reservoir imposes the rule (with 60.93% of all species from the dam reservoirs and 48.23% of the 47,685
individuals that represent the total number of individuals for all dam reservoirs). Notable is the percentage distribution on
every dam reservoirs: the number of species and the number of individuals, generally, grows from upstream to downstream,
fact also observed on other dam reservoirs from our country and from the Argeş River, when the richest populations of aquatic
birds were recorded during passages and in winter time (MUNTEANU & MĂTIEŞ, 1983). Partially, it depends on the
surface of every dam reservoir (Vâlcele represents 23.27% of the total surface of the reservoirs, Budeasa, 23.50% of the total
surface, Bascov, 9.24% of the total surface, Piteşti, 6.95% of the total surface, and Goleşti, 37.02% of the total surface). The
correlation between the number of species and the surface was 0.37 (positive and acceptable correlation) and the correlation
between the number of individuals and the surface was 0.65 (positive and moderate correlation) (COLTON, 1974).
What with the ones above mentioned, regarding the ratio number of species/surface of dam reservoir, we state that
it grows also from upstream to downstream, the exception being Goleşti Dam Reservoir (Table 3). Regarding the ratio
number of individuals/surface of dam reservoir, we remark that there is not a clear relation between them: it grows from
upstream to downstream, except Bascov and Goleşti or Piteşti Dam Reservoirs. As we also saw in other paper (CONETE et
al., 2012a), from here, combined with the ones showed above, we draw the conclusion that despite of the vicinity of Piteşti,
Piteşti Dam Reservoir (situated upstream of Goleşti Dam Reservoir) is a preferred place for the birds.
Besides the anthropogenic factors, showed above, it results that in the general equation of the presence of the species
on the dam reservoirs, the position of every dam reservoir on the course of the Argeş River, in rapport with the Southern
Carpathians and the valleys of the neighbourhood rivers (including the Danube) is also important and has repercussions on the
species north-south or east-west migration, fact remarked in other occasions, too (CONETE et al., 2012b;
MESTECĂNEANU & GAVA, 2013). Actually, the presence of the mountainous barrier is the one that determined this type
of migration (MĂTIEŞ, 1969). The availability of the propitious habitats, which determine the trophic resources and the
places of shelter, is another major aspect. Habitats of wetlands are more representative on Bascov and Piteşti Dam Reservoirs.
These addictions were stated by other authors on diverse dam reservoirs from Romania, too (MUNTEANU, 2000;
MITRULY, 2002).
On the subject of the similarity between the avicoenoses from the dam reservoirs, by Jaccard index the biggest
similarity is between Piteşti and Budeasa (63.82%) and the smallest between Vâlcele and Bascov (20.93%), (Table 4,
Fig. 2). By Bray-Curtis index, the highest similarity was between Vâlcele and Budeasa (66.84%) and the lowest between
Goleşti and Bascov (5.04%), (Table 5, Fig. 3). The differences result from the fact that the Jaccard index is based only on
the presence/absence of the respective species in the samples and the Bray-Curtis index is based on the presence/absence of
the species in the samples and on their number of individuals.
Table 1. The occurrence in the hiemal season, some ecological indexes and the conservation status of the species.
Month
Absolute abundance
Class of dominancy
Class of constancy
index of ecological
Bonn Convention
Bern Convention
Birds Directive
Class of Dzuba
(2009/147/CE)
significance
November
December
February
January
No.
Species
I. Order Gaviiformes
1 Gavia arctica (Linnaeus, 1758)* + 3 C1 D1 W1 AI AII AII
II. Order Podicipediformes
2 Podiceps cristatus (Linnaeus, 1758)* + + + + 160 C4 D1 W2 AIII
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3 Tachybaptus ruficollis (Pallas, 1764)* + + + + 90 C4 D1 W2 AII

III. Order Pelecaniformes
4 Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnaeus, 1758)* + + + + 395 C4 D1 W2 AIII
5 Phalacrocorax pygmeus (Pallas, 1773)* + + + + 74 C4 D1 W2 AI AII AII

IV. Order Ciconiiformes
6 Egretta alba (Linnaeus, 1758)* + + + + 36 C4 D1 W1 AI AII AII
7 Ardea cinerea Linnaeus, 1758* + + + + 29 C4 D1 W1 AIII
V. Order Anseriformes
8 Cygnus olor (Gmelin, 1789)* + + + + 944 C4 D2 W3 AII/B AIII AII
9 Cygnus cygnus (Linnaeus, 1758)* + + 21 C2 D1 W1 AI AII AII
10 Anser albifrons (Scopoli, 1769)* + + 660 C2 D2 W2 AII/B, AIII/B AIII AII
11 Anas platyrhynchos Linnaeus, 1758* + + + + 16531 C4 D5 W5 AII/A, AIII/A AIII AII
12 Anas strepera Linnaeus, 1758* + + 22 C2 D1 W1 AII/A AIII AII
13 Anas penelope Linnaeus, 1758* + + + + 164 C4 D1 W2 AII/A, AIII/B AIII AII
14 Anas crecca Linnaeus, 1758* + + + + 2186 C4 D3 W3 AII/A, AIII/B AIII AII
15 Anas clypeata Linnaeus, 1758* + 3 C1 D1 W1 AII/A, AIII/B AIII AII
16 Tadorna tadorna (Linnaeus, 1758)* + + + 50 C3 D1 W1 AII AII
17 Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus, 1758)* + + + + 2708 C4 D4 W4 AII/A, AIII/B AIII AII
18 Aythya ferina (Linnaeus, 1758)* + + + + 6958 C4 D5 W5 AII/A, AIII/B AIII AII
19 Bucephala clangula (Linnaeus, 1758)* + + + + 469 C4 D1 W2 AII/B AIII AII
20 Mergus albellus (Linnaeus, 1758)* + + 7 C2 D1 W1 AI AII AII
VI. Order Falconiformes
21 Buteo buteo (Linnaeus, 1758) + + + + 12 C4 D1 W1 AII AII
22 Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus, 1758 + + 2 C2 D1 W1 AII AII
VII. Order Galliformes
23 Phasianus colchicus Linnaeus, 1758 + + + 10 C3 D1 W1 AII/A, AIII/A AIII
VIII. Order Gruiformes
24 Fulica atra Linnaeus, 1758* + + + + 3932 C4 D4 W4 AII/A, AIII/B AIII
IX. Order Charadriiformes
25 Tringa ochropus Linnaeus, 1758* + + + 5 C3 D1 W1 AII AII
26 Larus argentatus Pontoppidan, 1763* + + + + 1436 C4 D3 W3 AII/B AIII
27 Larus canus Linnaeus, 1758* + + + + 1997 C4 D3 W3 AII/B AIII
28 Larus ridibundus Linnaeus, 1766* + + + + 6598 C4 D5 W5 AII/B AIII
X. Order Columbiformes
29 Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldszky, 1838) + + 2 C2 D1 W1 AII/B AIII
XI. Order Strigiformes
30 Athene noctua (Scopoli, 1769) + 1 C1 D1 W1 AII
XII. Order Coraciiformes
31 Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus, 1758)* + 1 C1 D1 W1 AI AII
XIII. Order Piciformes
32 Picus canus Gmelin, 1788 + 1 C1 D1 W1 AI AII
33 Dendrocopos major (Linnaeus, 1758) + 2 C1 D1 W1 AII
XIV. Order Passeriformes
34 Galerida cristata (Linnaeus, 1758) + + 4 C2 D1 W1 AIII
35 Anthus spinoletta (Linnaeus, 1758) + + + 13 C3 D1 W1 AII
36 Anthus pratensis (Linnaeus, 1758) + 2 C1 D1 W1 AII
37 Motacilla cinerea Tunstall, 1771* + 1 C1 D1 W1 AII
38 Motacilla alba Linnaeus, 1758 + 2 C1 D1 W1 AII
39 Lanius excubitor Linnaeus, 1758 + 1 C1 D1 W1 AII
40 Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus, 1758 + 16 C1 D1 W1 AII/B
41 Garrulus glandarius (Linnaeus, 1758) + + 2 C2 D1 W1 AII/B
42 Pica pica (Linnaeus, 1758) + + + + 143 C4 D1 W2 AII/B
43 Corvus monedula Linnaeus, 1758 + + + + 788 C4 D2 W3 AII/B
157
44 Corvus frugilegus Linnaeus, 1758 + + + + 676 C4 D2 W3 AII/B

45 Corvus corone cornix Linnaeus, 1758 + + + + 9 C4 D1 W1 AII/B
46 Corvus corax Linnaeus, 1758 + + + + 31 C4 D1 W1 AIII
47 Troglodytes troglodytes (Linnaeus, 1758) + + 2 C2 D1 W1 AII
48 Prunella modularis (Linnaeus, 1758) + 1 C1 D1 W1 AII
49 Erithacus rubecula (Linnaeus, 1758) + + 2 C2 D1 W1 AII
50 Turdus merula Linnaeus, 1758 + + 2 C2 D1 W1 AII/B AIII
51 Parus caeruleus Linnaeus, 1758 + + + 23 C3 D1 W1 AII
52 Parus major Linnaeus, 1758 + + + 11 C3 D1 W1 AII
53 Remiz pendulinus (Linnaeus, 1758)* + 3 C1 D1 W1 AIII
54 Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758) + + 21 C2 D1 W1
55 Passer montanus (Linnaeus, 1758) + + + + 127 C4 D1 W2 AIII
56 Fringilla coelebs Linnaeus, 1758 + + + 38 C3 D1 W1 AIII
57 Coccothraustes coccothraustes (Linnaeus, 1758) + 1 C1 D1 W1 AII
58 Carduelis chloris (Linnaeus, 1758) + 8 C1 D1 W1 AII
59 Carduelis spinus (Linnaeus, 1758) + 7 C1 D1 W1 AII
60 Carduelis carduelis (Linnaeus, 1758) + + + + 28 C4 D1 W1 AII
61 Carduelis cannabina (Linnaeus, 1758) + + + 20 C3 D1 W1 AII
62 Emberiza schoeniclus (Linnaeus, 1758)* + + + 5 C3 D1 W1 AII
63 Miliaria calandra (Linnaeus, 1758) + + 14 C2 D1 W1 AIII
64 Emberiza citrinella Linnaeus, 1758 + + + + 175 C4 D1 W2 AII
Number of species 46 31 38 45
Number of individuals 11568 6571 10529 19017
Legend:
* - birds that depend on wetlands; + – presence; C1 – accidental species, C2 – accessory species, C3 – constant species, C4 – euconstant species; D1,
W1 – subrecedent species, D2, W2 – recedent species, D3, W3 – suddominant species, D4, W4 – dominant species, D5, W5 – eudominant species;
AI, AII, AIII – annexes of the Birds Directive, Bern Convention and, respectively, Bonn Convention, A, B – parts of the annexes.
Table 2. The distribution of species and strengths on dam reservoirs and months.
Dam reservoir Parameter November December January February All period Percents of total (%)
No. of species 25 18 15 18 33 51.56
Vâlcele
No. of individuals 1239 1218 990 1098 4545 9.53
No. of species 25 16 13 24 36 56.25
Budeasa
No. of species 8 10 10 7 19 29.68
Bascov
No. of species 23 17 30 24 41 64.06
Piteşti
No. of species 25 22 24 28 39 60.93
Goleşti
Table 3. The ratio number of species/surface and number of individuals/surface for every dam reservoir.
Dam reservoir Number of species/surface Number of individuals/surface
Vâlcele 0.08 11.13
Budeasa 0.09 18.85
Bascov 0.11 3.74
Piteşti 0.33 96.45
Goleşti 0.06 35.43
Table 4. The similarity matrix (by Jaccard) between the avicoenosis of the dam reservoirs.
Similarity Vâlcele Budeasa Bascov Piteşti Goleşti
Vâlcele * 43.75 20.93 29.82 41.17
Budeasa * * 37.50 63.82 56.25
Bascov * * * 33.33 34.88
Piteşti * * * * 50.94
Goleşti * * * * *
158
Taking into account only the species that depend on wetlands, there is an increase almost linear of the number of
species (the minimum being in November – 20 species and the maximum in February – 25 species). The number of
individuals varied by a concave line, with the minimum value in December (6,252 individuals) and the maximum value in
February (18,441 individuals). In the first case, the curve differs from that of the total number of species, thanks to the non-
aquatic or amphibious species, and, in the second case, the curve is almost similar, the importance of the number of
individuals of the other species being rather low (Fig. 4).
According to the constancy (Fig. 5), 26 species (40.63% of all) were euconstant species (Podiceps cristatus,
Tachybaptus ruficollis, Phalacrocorax carbo, P. pygmeus, Egretta alba, Ardea cinerea, Cygnus olor, Anas platyrhynchos, A.
penelope, A. crecca, Aythya fuligula, A. ferina, Bucephala clangula, Buteo buteo, Fulica atra, Larus argentatus
cachinnans/michahellis, L. canus, L. ridibundus, Pica pica, Corvus monedula, C. frugilegus, C. corone cornix, C. corax,
Passer montanus, Carduelis carduelis, and Emberiza citrinella), 16 species (25.00% of all) were accidental species (Gavia
arctica, Anas clypeata, Athene noctua, Alcedo atthis, Picus canus, Dendrocopos major, Anthus pratensis, Motacilla cinerea,
M. alba, Lanius excubitor, Sturnus vulgaris, Prunella modularis, Remiz pendulinus, Coccothraustes coccothraustes,
Carduelis chloris, and C. spinus), 13 species (20.31% of all) were accessory species (Cygnus cygnus, Anser albifrons, Anas
strepera, Mergus albellus, Falco tinnunculus, Streptopelia decaocto, Galerida cristata, Garrulus glandarius, Troglodytes
troglodytes, Erithacus rubecula, Turdus merula, Passer domesticus, and Miliaria calandra) and 9 species (14.06% of all)
were constant species (Tadorna tadorna, Phasianus colchicus, Tringa ochropus, Anthus spinoletta, Parus caeruleus, P.
major, Fringilla coelebs, Carduelis cannabina, and Emberiza schoeniclus).
Figure 2. The Jaccard Cluster Analysis (Single Link).
Table 5. The similarity matrix (by Bray-Curtis) between the avicoenosis of the dam reservoirs.
Similarity Vâlcele Budeasa Bascov Piteşti Goleşti
Vâlcele * 66.84 17.58 29.35 30.75
Budeasa * * 14.21 44.98 44.87
Bascov * * * 9.68 5.0413
Piteşti * * * * 38.73
Goleşti * * * * *
Depending on the dominancy (Fig. 6), 52 species (81.25% of all) were subrecedent species (Gavia arctica, Podiceps
cristatus, Tachybaptus ruficollis, Phalacrocorax carbo, P. pygmeus, Egretta alba, Ardea cinerea, Cygnus cygnus, Anas
strepera, A. penelope, A. clypeata, Tadorna tadorna, Bucephala clangula, Mergus albellus, Tringa ochropus, Alcedo atthis,
Motacilla cinerea, Remiz pendulinus, Emberiza schoeniclus etc.), 4 species (6.25% of all) were recedent species (Cygnus olor,
Anser albifrons, Corvus monedula and C. frugilegus), 3 species (4.69% of all) were subdominant species (Anas crecca, Larus
argentatus cachinnans/michahellis, and L. canus), 3 species (4.69% of all) were eudominant species (Anas platyrhynchos,
Aythya ferina, and Larus ridibundus), and 2 species (3.13% of all) were dominant species (Aythya fuligula and Fulica atra).
159
By Dzuba ecological significance index (Fig. 7), 43 species (67.19% of all) were subrecedent species (Gavia arctica,
Egretta alba, Ardea cinerea, Cygnus cygnus, Anas strepera, A. clypeata, Tadorna tadorna, Mergus albellus, Tringa ochropus,
Alcedo atthis, Motacilla cinerea, Remiz pendulinus, Emberiza schoeniclus etc.), 10 species (15.63% of all) were recedent
species (Tachybaptus ruficollis, Phalacrocorax carbo, P. pygmeus, Anser albifrons, Anas penelope, Bucephala clangula, Pica
pica, Passer montanus, and Emberiza citrinella), 6 species (9.38% of all) were subdominant species (Cygnus olor, Anas
crecca, Larus argentatus cachinnans/michahellis, L. canus, Corvus monedula, and C. frugilegus) 3 species (4.69% of all)
were eudominant species (Anas platyrhynchos, Aythya ferina, and Larus ridibundus) and 2 species (3.13%) were dominant
species (Aythya fuligula and Fulica atra).
Figure 3. The Bray-Curtis Cluster Analysis (Single Link).
30 20000
18441 18000
25 16000
20 21 25
23 14000
20
10546 12000
10246
15 10000
8000
10 6000
6252
5 4000
2000
0 0
November December January February
Species Individuals
Figure 4. The monthly variation of the number of the individuals

and of the number of species that depend on the wetlands.
The eudominant species evolved separately from the number of individuals point of view: if the strengths of Anas
platyrhynchos and Aythya ferina decreased from November to December and then increased from December to February, the
strength of Larus ridibundus increased from November to January and decreased from January to February. The minimum
values of the first were 1,807, respectively 333 individuals (in December) and the maximum values were 6,875, respectively
3,820, in February. The latter had the minimum value in November (1,002 individuals) and the maximum value in January
(2,868 individuals), (Fig. 8). Their number of individuals marks the general evolution of the number of individuals on the dam
reservoirs, together summing 30,087 individuals, which means 63.09% of all individuals. The fluctuations show the migratory
displacements of the respective species. Generally, the situation is similar on the dam reservoirs from our country: the
principal position in their avifauna is occupied by Anas platyrhynchos (MUNTEANU & MĂTIEŞ, 1983).
160
Regarding their distribution on the dam reservoirs, most individuals of Anas platyrhynchos and Aythya ferina
were counted on Goleşti Dam Reservoir (9,882, respectively 4,600 individuals). The least were registered on Bascov
Dam Reservoir (51, respectively 17 individuals). Larus ridibundus was the most abundant on Piteşti Dam Reservoir
(4,259 individuals). It was not noted on Vâlcele Dam Reservoir. The second place as number of individuals was:
Budeasa Dam Reservoir, for Anas platyrhynchos, Piteşti Dam Reservoir for Aythya ferina and Goleşti Dam Reservoir, for
Larus ridibundus (Fig. 9).
16; 25.00%
26; 40.63%
13; 20.31%
9; 14.06%
Accidental species (C1) Accessory species (C2)
Constant species (C3) Euconstant species (C4)
Figure 5. The species distribution according to the index of constancy.
2; 3.13% 3; 4.69%
3; 4.69%
4; 6.25%
52; 81.25%
Subrecedent species (D1) Recedent species (D2)

Subdominant species (D3) Dominant species (D4)
Eudominant species (D5)
Figure 6. The species distribution according to the index of dominancy.
2; 3.13% 3; 4.69%
6; 9.38%
10; 15.63%
43; 67.19%
Subrecedent species (W1) Recedent species (W2)

Subdominant species (W3) Dominant species (W4)
Eudominant species (W5)
Figure 7. The species distribution according to the index of Dzuba ecological significance.
Based on the index of relation, Anseriformes was the only overdominant order. It numbered 30,723
individuals. Chaardriiformes was the only dominant order, it numbering 10,036 individuals. Every other order was
complementary. The static axis (As) is 7.14 and the dominance axis (Ad) is 14.28 (Fig. 10).
Regarding the monthly dynamics of the orders, it is noticeable that Anseriformes was always overdominant. Its
importance decreases in December and January, when the Charadriiformes order is, on its turn, overdominant. In all the
161
months, there was not any dominant order. The other orders and Charadriiformes (only in November and February) were all
the time complementary. The static axis (As) is 7.14 and the dominance axis (Ad) is 14.28, too (Fig. 11).
The species situation for Anseriformes (the only overdominant order) is: Anas platyrhynchos and Aythya ferina –
overdominant species, A. fuligula – dominant species, Cygnus olor, C. cygnus, Anser albifrons, Anas strepera, A. penelope, A.
crecca, A. clypeata, Tadorna tadorna, Bucephala clangula and Mergus albellus – complementary species. The static axis (As)
is 7.69 and the dominance axis (Ad) is 15.38 (Fig. 12). Anas platyrhynchos numbered 16,531 individuals, Aythya ferina, 6,958
individuals and A. fuligula, 2,708 individuals.
8000
6875
7000
6000
4780
5000
4000
3069 3820
3000
1807 2868
2000
1556 1526 1202
1000
1002 1249
0 333
Anas platyrhynchos Aythya ferina Larus ridibundus
Figure 8. The monthly variation in number of the eudominant species.
12000
10000
8000 Anas platyrhynchos
6000 Aythya ferina
4000
Larus ridibundus
2000
0
Vâlcele
Bascov
Budeasa
Piteşti
Goleşti
Figure 9. The distribution of the strengths of the eudominant species on the dam reservoirs.
70
60
50
40
30
Ad
20
As
10
0
es
rs
es
es
es
de
rm
rm
m
m
or
or
or
fo
fo
rif
if
rii
i
er
ru
er
se
ad
th
G
ss
An
O
ar
Pa
Ch
Figure 10. The participation of the orders to the formation of the avicoenose.
Concerning the monthly dynamics of the species of Anseriformes (Fig. 13), we mention that Anas plathyrhynchos
was always the overdominant species. Aythya ferina was also overdominant species, but only in November, January and
February. Anser albifrons, in December, Anas crecca, in November, Aythya fuligula, in November and January, and A. ferina,
in December, were dominant species. In the rest of time, the species were complementary. The static axis (As) is 7.69 and the
dominance axis (Ad) is 15.38, too.
162
From the protection point of view (Table 1), 7 species (Gavia arctica, Phalacrocorax pygmeus, Egretta alba,
Cygnus cygnus, Mergus albellus, Alcedo atthis, and Picus canus, 10.93%) are in Annex I of the Birds Directive
(2009/147/CE), 31 species (Gavia arctica, Tachybaptus ruficollis, Phalacrocorax pygmeus, Egretta alba, Cygnus cygnus,
Tadorna tadorna, Mergus albellus, Buteo buteo, Falco tinnunculus, Tringa ochropus, Athene noctua, Alcedo atthis, Picus
canus, Dendrocopos major, Anthus spinoletta, Anthus pratensis, Motacilla cinerea, M. alba, Lanius excubitor, Troglodytes
troglodytes, Prunella modularis, Erithacus rubecula, Parus caeruleus, P. major, Coccothraustes coccothraustes,
Carduelis chloris, C. spinus, C. carduelis, C. cannabina, Emberiza schoeniclus, and E. citrinella, 48.43%) are in the
Annex II and 26 species (Podiceps cristatus, Phalacrocorax carbo, Ardea cinerea, Cygnus olor, Anser albifrons, Anas
platyrhynchos, A. strepera, A. penelope, A. crecca, A. clypeata, Aythya fuligula, A. ferina, Bucephala clangula, Phasianus
colchicus, Fulica atra, Larus cachinnans, L. canus, L. ridibundus, Streptopelia decaocto, Galerida cristata, Corvus corax,
Turdus merula, Remiz pendulinus, Passer montanus, Fringilla coelebs, and Miliaria calandra, 40.62%) in Annex III of the
Bern Convention and 19 species (Gavia arctica, Phalacrocorax pygmeus, Egretta alba, Cygnus olor, C. cygnus, Anser
albifrons, Anas platyrhynchos, A. strepera, A. penelope, A. crecca, A. clypeata, Tadorna tadorna, Aythya fuligula, A.
ferina, Bucephala clangula, Mergus albellus, Buteo buteo, Falco tinnunculus, and Tringa ochropus, 29.68%) are in Annex
II of the Bonn Convention. The species from Annex I of the Birds Directive shall be the subject of special conservation
measures concerning their habitat in order to ensure their survival and reproduction in their area of distribution (http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/). The species from Annex II of the Bern Convention are strictly protected species and species from Annex
III are protected species (http://conventions.coe.int/). The species from Annex II of the Bonn Convention are migratory
species, which have an unfavourable status of protection and that demand international agreements for their protection
(http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/).
80
70
60
Anseriformes
50 Gruiformes
40 Charadriiformes
30 Passeriformes
Ad Other orders
20
As
10
0
Figure 11. The monthly dynamics of the orders.
60
50
40
30
20
Ad
10 As
0
Anas Anas crecca Aythya fuligula Aythya ferina
platyrhynchos
Figure 12. The participation of the species to the formation of the Anseriformes coenose.
CONCLUSIONS
- During the hiemal period (February, November, December 2013 and January 2014), on the dam reservoirs Goleşti,
Piteşti, Bascov, Budeasa and Vâlcele, 64 bird species and 47,685 individuals were registered;
- The identified species belong to 14 orders Passeriformes being the richest (with 31 species);
- In February, it was registered the biggest number of species (45 species) and the highest number of individuals
(19,017 individuals);
163
70
60
50 Anser albifrons
40 Anas platyrhynchos
Anas crecca
30 Aythya fuligula
20 Aythya ferina
Ad
10
As
0
Figure 13. The monthly dynamics of the species of Anseriformes.
- Taking into account only the species that depend on wetlands, the maximum of the species number was also in
February (25 species) as well as the maximum of the number of individuals (18,441 individuals);
- As we expected, the migratory dynamics of the birds is in relation with the local and regional weather conditions and the
distribution on the dam reservoirs depends on the anthropogenic pressure (hunting, mainly on Vâlcele, Budeasa and Goleşti
Dam Reservoirs, fishing, mainly on Bascov Dam Reservoir, and the nautical sports performed on Bascov Dam Reservoir and
rarely on Piteşti Dam Reservoir), the surface of every dam reservoir, the position of each dam reservoir on the course of the
Argeş River, in rapport with the Southern Carpathians and the valleys of the neighbourhood rivers (including the Danube),
and the availability of the propitious habitats, which determine the trophic resources and shelters;
- The number of species and the number of individuals, generally, grows from upstream to downstream;
- Despite the vicinity with Piteşti, Piteşti Dam Reservoir is a place that the birds prefer;
- By Jaccard index the biggest similarity is between Piteşti and Budeasa (63.82%) and the smallest between Vâlcele and
Bascov (20.93%). By Bray-Curtis index, the highest similarity is between Vâlcele and Budeasa (66.84%) and the lowest
between Goleşti and Bascov (5.04%);
- According to the constancy, 26 species (40.63% of all) were euconstant species, 16 species (25.00% of all) were
accidental species, 13 species (20.31% of all) were accessory species and 9 species (14.06% of all) were constant species;
- Depending on the dominancy, 52 species (81.25% of all) were subrecedent species, 4 species (6.25% of all) were
recedent species, 3 species (4.69% of all) were subdominant species, 3 species (4.69% of all) were eudominant species,
and 2 species (3.13% of all) were dominant species;
- By Dzuba ecological significance index, 43 species (67.19% of all) were subrecedent species, 10 species (15.63% of
all) were recedent species, 6 species (9.38% of all) were subdominant species, 3 species (4.69% of all) were eudominant
species and 2 species (3.13%) were dominant species;
- The eudominant species were Anas platyrhynchos, Aythya ferina and Larus ridibundus. The maximum values of the
strengths were in February for A. platyrhynchos and A. ferina (6,875 individuals, respectively 3,820 individuals and in
November for L. ridibundus (1,002 individuals);
- The most individuals of Anas platyrhynchos and Aythya ferina were counted on Goleşti Dam Reservoir (9,882,
respectively 4,600 individuals) and the most numerous individuals of Larus ridibundus were counted on Piteşti Dam
Reservoir (4,259 individuals);
- In the hiemal period, Anseriformes was the only overdominant order; it was the overdominant order every month, too;
- In the same period, Anas platyrhynchos and Aythya ferina were the overdominant species inside the Anseriformes order;
- Anas plathyrhynchos was every month the overdominant species and Aythya ferina was the overdominant species in
November, January and February;
- 7 species (Gavia arctica, Phalacrocorax pygmeus, Egretta alba, Cygnus cygnus, Mergus albellus, Alcedo atthis, and
Picus canus, 10.93%) are in Annex I of the Birds Directive (2009/147/CE), 31 species are in Annex II and 26 species in
Annex III of the Bern Convention and 19 species are in Annex II of the Bonn Convention.
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CONETE DENISA, GAVA R., MESTECĂNEANU A 2008. Statutul de protecţie al păsărilor din zona lacurilor de
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Budeasa, Bascov, Piteşti and Goleşti from the Argeş River (January 2013). Scientific Papers. Current Trends
in Natural Sciences. University of Piteşti, Faculty of Sciences. 2(3): 51-58.
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Analele Banatului. Ştiinţele Naturii. Muzeul Banatului. Timişoara. 1: 217- 225.
***. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31982D0461. (Accessed: February 11, 2015).
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Mestecăneanu Adrian
The Argeş County Museum, Armand Călinescu, 44, 110047, Piteşti, Argeş, Romania.
E-mail: mestecaneanua@yahoo.com
Gava Radu
University of Piteşti, Târgu din Vale, 1, 110040, Piteşti, Argeş, Romania.
E-mail: gavaradu@yahoo.com

165
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MALE BEHAVIOUR IN TWO SIBLING SPECIES

Microtus arvalis Pall. AND Microtus rossiaemeridionalis Ogn. (RODENTIA, CRICETIDAE)
CEMÎRTAN Nelli, MUNTEANU Andrei,

NISTREANU Victoria, SÎTNIC Veaceslav, LARION Alina
Abstract. The analysis of open field and concurrent behaviour in males of Microtus arvalis and Microtus rossiaemeridionalis, inhabiting the
central part of the Republic of Moldova was performed. The behaviour of males in M. arvalis and M. rossiaemeridionalis is complex and has
intra- and interspecific patterns. Although the representatives of M. rossiaemeridionalis showed higher level of emotionality, this parameter
cannot be used as criteria for species diagnosis. In dyadic encounters the males of studied species showed various elements of trial,
aggressive, defensive, conflictual, friendly behaviour. Among the variety of behavioural reactions the most important are the elements
connected with agonistic interactions, because it is well known the role of aggression in the mechanisms of number regulation of small
mammal populations. It was established that the aggressiveness of intraspecific contacts had seasonal pattern and was higher than
intraspecific one. At the same time, the intraspecific aggressiveness of the males was species-specific.
Keywords: Sibling species, open field, latent period, exploratory behaviour, dyadic encounters, agonistic relations.
Rezumat. Analiza comparativă a comportamentului masculilor speciilor sible Microtus arvalis Pall. și Microtus
rossiaemeridionalis Ogn. (Rodenţia, Cricetidae). A fost efectuată analiza comportamentului în câmp deschis și a relațiilor de
concurență între masculii speciilor sible Microtus arvalis și Microtus rossiaemeridionalis, din zona centrală a Republicii Moldova.
Comportamentul masculilor speciilor studiate este complex si prezintă particularități intra- și interspecifice. Deși reprezentanții M.
rossiaemeridionalis au manifestat un grad mai înalt de emotivitate, acest parametru nu poate fi utilizat ca criteriu de identificare a
speciilor. În așezările în cuplu masculii au manifestat diverse elemente comportamentale: de familiarizare, agresivitate, apărare,
conflict, prietenoase. Printre varietatea de reacții etologice cele mai importante sunt elementele legate de interacțiunile antagoniste,
deoarece este bine cunoscut rolul agresivității în mecanismele de reglare numerică a populațiilor de mamifere mici. S-a stabilit că
agresivitatea în contactele intraspecifice prezintă variații sezoniere și a fost mai ridicată decât în contactele interspecifice. În același
timp, agresivitatea intraspecifică la masculi avea caracter specio-specific.
Cuvinte cheie: specii sible, câmp deschis, comportament de explorare, așezări în cuplu, relații antagoniste.
INTRODUCTION
The sibling species Microtus arvalis Pallas, 1778 and Microtus rossiaemeridionalis Ognev, 1924 are closely
related species externally indistinguishable, but genetically different (2n = 46 in M. arvalis and 2n = 54 in M.
rossiaemeridionalis). The species are abundant and widespread in the temperate zone of Eurasia with largely
overlapping ranges. Although, both species are extremely similar morphologically and ecologically and their
settlements can be very close to each other, they are reproductively isolated (MEYER et al., 1972, 1996; MALYGIN,
1983). These species cannot be identified by standard morphological methods used in zoology. For their exact
diagnosis molecular genetic methods and blood electrophoresis are used (MALYGIN, 1983; MEYER et al., 1996;
MUNTEANU et al., 1999).
The behaviour and relationships between closely related species, such as the sibling vole species, are of particular
interest, especially in terms of space use and maintenance of population structure (PANOV, 1975). The adaptive mechanisms
of the species ensure the integrity and stability of the populations in the changing environmental conditions and contribute to
the maintenance of a dynamic equilibrium between population and environment. The relatively stable existence of a
population in time and space is strongly conditioned by the ethological structure, especially by the distribution of individuals
and relationships between them (CHITTY, 1977; BUJALSKA & SAITOH, 2000).
In many studies marked differences in open-field behaviour were found between wild small rodents, but these
studies were conducted mainly on Apodemus and Mus genus species (DOICHEV, 1983; ATANASOV, 1983;
SOKOLOV et al., 1990; FRYNTA, 1992; SIMEONOVSKA-NIKOLOVA, 2000; TIKHONOVA et al., 2005;
MUNTEANU et al., 2009; LARION, 2011; CEMIRTAN et al., 2013, 2014 etc.). Only scarce data are available for the
comparison between sibling species M. arvalis and M. rossiaemeridionalis (MALYGIN, 1983; MUNTEANU &
CEMÎRTAN, 2005; ECCARD & HERDE, 2013; CEMÎRTAN et al., 2014). The studies demonstrated obvious
interspecific differences and also ecological correlates of this behaviour were found suggesting that open-field
behaviour reflects ecological and selective pressures. As to the relationships between the individuals, many researchers
consider intra- and interspecific competition among the most important factors determining the spatial distribution,
daily activity, reproductive success in vole species (SOKOLOV & KUZNETSOV, 1978; DIENSKE, 1979; MALYGIN,
1983; DE JONGE, 1983; ZORENKO, 1984; TIKHONOV et al., 2009; TIKHONOVA et al., 2003, 2006; etc.).
For the study, there were chosen the males, because they have larger home ranges (BARANOVSKII &
OHOTSKII, 1988), sometimes including several female’s home ranges (KASATKIN, 2002; GROMOV 2008),
therefore their spatial ability are greater than that of females (MALYGIN, 1983). The dispersal in voles is male-biased,
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CEMÎRTAN Nelli MUNTEANU Andrei NISTREANU Victoria SÎTNIC Veaceslav LARION Alina
because females benefit more than males from staying on their natal patch (GREENWOOD, 1980), while the males are
more active and mobile (DOBSON, 1982; PUSENIUS & VIITALA, 1993; GAUFFRE et al., 2009 etc.). The open-field
behaviour and the intra- and interspecific relations of the males in dyadic encounters was studied in order to emphasize
the behavioural traits of their identification, to elucidate the importance of exploratory behaviour and of intra- and
interspecific relations of the males in population functioning of the studied species.
The voles were collected from alfalfa crop (M. arvalis) and from the adjacent shelter belts (M. rossiaemeridionalis)
in the central part of the republic during the whole year. In open field tests, 89 adult males (61 of M. arvalis and 28 of M.
rossiaemeridionalis) were studied. The species identification was performed by blood electrophoresis method (MUNTEANU
et al., 1999). Before the experiments the voles were weighed, the mean weight of M. arvalis males was 19.98 ± 7.62 g and
that of M. rossiaemeridionalis was 20.5 ± 8.17 g. Each animal was individually tested for 15 min (five series of 3 min
intervals each) in the open field experiment (HUGHES, 1987). The experiments were performed in a Plexiglas box with the
dimensions 50 x 5 x 60 cm. The bottom was demarcated into 25 squares of equal dimensions (10 x 10cm) painted by dark
lines. Mice were tested during their active phase in the morning and in the evening. The data from the open field tests were
registered in protocols by shorthand. The following parameters were registered: latency period (time necessary for the animal
to enter from the portable cage into the open field), horizontal activity (number of crossed squares), vertical activity (included
the rear up on hind legs and jumps), grooming (self-cleaning), freezing (the animals stop moving and freeze usually in a
corner), emotionality (defecation and urination).
The agonistic behaviour was tested (GOLTSMAN et al., 1977) by dyadic encounters within a box made of
transparent Plexiglas (60 × 30 × 45 cm). The duration of every encounter was 15 min (three series of 5 min intervals
each). The encounters were conducted between 9:00 a.m. and 11:00 a.m. A total of 64 adult males (42 of M. arvalis and
22 of M. rossiaemeridionalis) participated in tests; 74 dyadic encounters were run: 32 male-male of M. arvalis, 19
male-male of M. rossiaemeridionalis and 23 male-male between the species. The following parameters were registered:
ratio of exploratory activity, number of contacts, type of contacts, number and ratio of agonistic contacts.
The statistical analysis and graphical representation was performed in Excel and Statistica programs, in comparison
between data series the Student test was used, in order to emphasize the significance between the studied species.

Open field test.
The latency period is the time that animal needs to overcome its fear and to enter in the open field from the
portable cage. Among the tested voles very suspicious individuals were registered, who did not leave the portable cage
within 10 minutes and were transferred in open field by the experimenter. More curious and fearless individuals left the
portable cage and entered in open field by themselves within 10 minutes period. The ratio of suspicious and fearless
individuals was slightly different: in M. arvalis – 9.7%, in M. rossiaemeridionalis – 14.3%. The mean value of latent
period in curious males of field vole constituted 86.6 ± 13.4 sec., and 84.54 ± 10.25 sec. in East European vole, the
differences between species being insignificant (p > 0.1).
Horizontal activity reflects the reaction of animal toward novelty, its ability to explore the environment and to
adapt to it. The behaviour of both species was similar: in the first three minutes, the animal activity was the highest,
toward the 6th minute it decreased significantly, and then the graduate decrease to the minimum values occurred (Fig.
1). Thus, the M. rossiaemeridionalis males reacted more actively toward novelty (the number of crossed squares in the
first 3 minutes was 161 ± 17.1 against 119.47 ± 9.35 in M. arvalis, р < 0.05) and adapted quicker to it (38.9±5.1 and
26.5±4.38, respectively in the last 3 minutes of the test). On the whole, the parameter values of the first minutes in open
field showed high level of animal emotional reaction to novelty and their decreasing proved the ability to overcome the
fear and adapt to new environment.
Figure 1. Horizontal activity of males in M. arvalis and M. rossiaemeridionalis during 15 minutes.
Vertical activity parameter was formed by two elements: rearing and jumping. The rearing activity was considered
as proper exploratory activity, while the jumping was considered as emotional reaction toward new environment. The highest
167
levels of exploratory activity were recorded in the first 3 minutes, then it graduate decreasing occurred and reached minimum
values in the last 3 minutes of the test (Fig. 2A). The dynamics and the values of the parameter were close in both species, as
well as the total activity. Therefore, we can assume that both species have similar potential of exploratory activity.
A B
Figure 2. Vertical activity of males in M. arvalis and M. rossiaemeridionalis during 15 minutes and total vertical activity
(A-rearing, B-jumping).
The vertical jumping on all 4 paws is an element particular for both species, but its values and dynamics was
species-specific (Fig. 2B): in M. arvalis during all 3 minute periods the number of jumps varied insignificantly and
were practically at the same level (5.97 ± 1.02 in the first 3 min. and 4.32 ± 0.99 in the last minutes). In M.
rossiaemeridionalis this parameter was similar in the first 9 min. (2.5 ± 0.77 in the first 3 min., 3.67 ± 0.95 on the 9th
min.), while on the 12th min. it raised to 10.5 ± 2.01, and at the end of the 15th min. it decreased to 3.5 ± 1.1. The
mentioned results allow to conclude that M. rossiaemeridionalis males are more emotional than M. arvalis.
The grooming in males of both species increased toward the end of test. In M. arvalis this parameter increased
from 10.32 ± 2.01 sec. to 49.03±5.38 sec. and in M. rossiaemeridionalis it increased from 5.5 ± 1.07 sec. to 50.67 ±
7.89 sec. (Fig. 3).
Figure 3. Grooming duration of males in M. arvalis and M. rossiaemeridionalis during 15 minutes.
Freezing is the period of voles’ inactivity and was measured in seconds. Usually, the dynamics of this
parameter is opposite to the dynamics of horizontal and vertical activities, thus with increasing of time spent in open
field chamber the duration of inactivity periods also increased. During the test in both species the duration of motor and
exploratory activities decreased and the freezing period increased, reaching maximum values in the last minutes of the
test. In males of both species the dynamics of this parameter was similar (Fig. 4).
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Figure 4. Freezing duration of males in M. arvalis and M. rossiaemeridionalis during 15 minutes.
Emotionality was calculated by counting the excrement and urination elements, thus establishing the vegetative
component of emotional reaction. The urination element is not very particular for the voles, while the defecation occurred
rather often at the majority of studied animals (Fig. 5). There were registered species-specific differences in this parameter: the
emotionality in M. arvalis males was significantly lower (р < 0.05) than in M. rossiaemeridionalis males.
Figure 5. Emotionality of males in M. arvalis and M. rossiaemeridionalis during 15 minutes.
Dyadic encounters.
Since it is known that the voles form mixed settlements and thus maintain reproductive isolation, it was
interesting to examine the nature of their interactions with each other. Using the method of dyadic encounters, we have
studied the behaviour of males in intraspecific and interspecific pairs. In these studies, stereotypic behaviour was
identified in voles, as well as their species-specific features.
In the first minutes of the test the voles began to explore the environment and in total amount of behavioural
reaction the orientation-exploratory activity occupied one of the first places (Table 1). It was expressed in the free
movement of animals within the camera and sniffing, sometimes licking the corners, touching, exploration of the walls
and of the floor. At the same time attempts of individuals to become familiar with each other occurred, and the initiative
of contact usually came from one of the partners. In such contacts different types of olfactory contact were observed:
naso-nasal, naso-lateral, naso-dorsal, naso-ventral. The contacts could end by an attack, fled of one of the partners,
mutual friendly contact and peaceful separation on opposite corners. Often passive staying of one or both animals at the
corners of the chamber was observed, peaceful sitting side by side, grooming, allogrooming, sometimes mutual or one
after another. During friendly contacts the animals crowded together in a corner, scrambled under or above each other,
climbed over each other, often changing places.
The most diverse elements were associated with agonistic interactions, including assault, fight, chase, escape
without attack and after it, pushing and boxing, aggressive stands, squeaks. In this group of interactions, there can be
also included the contact avoiding with the partner, visual pursuit after the actions of the partner from a corner, as well
as relations of domination and subordination, in which the subordinate animal lay on his back, to avoid the aggressive
contact with the dominant, bowed his head in front of him, let the dominant to climb on it, to sit on its back or to be
stomped etc. After the functional significance the described elements were combined in several behavioural groups:
trial, aggressive, protective, conflictual, friendly behaviour (CEMÎRTAN et al., 2011, 2012).
Trial behaviour was expressed in the initiation of the contact, various types of olfactory contacts, exploratory
behaviour.
Aggressive behaviour constituted 12-16% from the total amount of intraspecific contacts and about 10% from
the total amount of interspecific ones (Table 1) and included attacks, fights, chase that sometimes finished with winning
169
over the partner (it laid down on its back and the chase was over), occupation of the territory, aggressive stands. The
sequence and the set of antagonistic behaviour elements were varied: attack-fight-chase-winning; attack-aggressive
stand-boxing-fight; attack-fight-occupation; attack-aggressive stand-chase, etc.
Defensive behaviour: running before or after attack, boxing, watching the partner in order to maintain the safe
distance from it, pushing, squeak, freezing, subordination postures (lying on its back, head bowing in front of the partner).
Conflictual behaviour was expressed in ignoring the contact initiation, domination-subordination, grooming,
allogrooming. The contact ignoring was expressed in that one of the animals at the initiative of contact from the other,
continued to commit the same acts that occurred prior to this. At the superiority of one of the partners the relations of
domination-subordination were observe. In this case the subordinate animal allows be trampling by the dominant,
walking, sitting on itself, and when attempted to escape the dominant tried to keep the subordinate by force. We
distinguish these elements from the above mentioned subordinate postures that occur during the aggressive contacts.
Friendly behaviour is formed by the following elements: going after the partner, getting together, climbing
above, under, over the partner, allogrooming. Allogrooming was assigned, on the one hand, to conflictual behaviour,
because there might have occurred relations of domination-subordination, and sometimes even aggressive grooming
was observed: the dominant animal was biting while cleaning the subordinate. On the other hand, with equal partners
the allogrooming is an element of friendly behaviour. The grooming was assigned to conflictual behaviour because it
often represents a manifestation of shifted activity. At the same time it can be an element of comfortable behaviour.
Table 1. Dyadic encounters in males of sibling species M. arvalis and M. rossiaemeridionalis.

Parameter ♂vs♂ M. arvalis ♂vs♂ M. rossiaemeridionalis ♂M. arvalis vs ♂M. rossiaemeridionalis
No of voles 42 22 64
No of tests 32 19 23
Exploratory activity 43.17% 41.26% 36.22%
Mean no of contacts 12.4±2.79 16.7±3.26 9.8±3.69
Ratio of agonistic contacts 22.4% 23.7% 12.6%
All the mentioned elements occurred in every dyadic encounter. Among the variety of behavioural reactions
the elements associated with agonistic interactions are the most important, because it is known the role of aggression in
the mechanisms of regulation of small mammal populations (SHILOV, 1977; MANTEIFEL, 1987). We assumed the
implication of aggression in the mechanisms of maintaining the reproductive isolation in sibling species, therefore,
during the tests a special attention was given to the degree of aggression in contacts between the voles. Thus, in dyadic
encounters of M. arvalis males the highest level of agonistic contacts was registered in summer period (in 100% of pairs
the dominant individual was established), while in autumn the males of this species were less aggressive (only in 64%
of encounters the dominant was established, in the rest of the cases the relationships were peaceful and mutual). In
dyadic encounters between M. rossiaemeridionalis males higher level of concurrent relations was registered in
comparison to M. arvalis (in 100% of encounters the dominant individual was established, which was the heavier male).
The interspecific contacts of the males were characterized by lower level of aggressiveness than intraspecific ones. In
summer only in 60% of encounters the dominant was established and this usually was M. arvalis, while in autumn – in
50% and in majority of cases this was M. rossiaemeridionalis.
Thus, the aggressiveness of intraspecific contacts had seasonal pattern and was higher than intraspecific one.
At the same time, the intraspecific aggressiveness of the males was species-specific.
The study was performed under the fundamental research project 15.187.0211F.
CONCLUSIONS
The behaviour of males in M. arvalis and M. rossiaemeridionalis is complex and has intra- and interspecific
pattern. Although the representatives of M. rossiaemeridionalis showed higher level of emotionality, this parameter
cannot be used as criteria for species diagnosis.
In dyadic encounters the males of studied species showed various elements of trial, aggressive, defensive,
conflictual, friendly behaviour.
Among the variety of behavioural reactions the most important are the elements connected with agonistic
interactions, because it is well known the role of aggression in the mechanisms of number regulation of small mammal
populations. It was established that the aggressiveness of intraspecific contacts had seasonal pattern and was higher than
intraspecific one. At the same time, the intraspecific aggressiveness of the males was species-specific.
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172
THE WARM WINTER OF 2014-2015 IN SOUTH-WESTERN ROMANIA
MARINICĂ Andreea Floriana, CHIMIŞLIU Cornelia, MARINICĂ Ion
Abstract. The winter of 2014-2015, in the south-west of Romania, was warm, marked by 6 intervals of weather warming
(December 1-24, January 2-5, January 10-16, January 19-31, February 2-5 and February 19-28) which amounted 63 days (70.0% of
winter days), a heatwave (December 18-25), a positive thermal singularity (January 11), two frost waves: an intense one in the
interval December 28, 2014-January 2, 2015 and a moderate one in the interval January 6-9. The intervals of warm weather are called
“warm windows of winter” and are extremely good for biocoenoses, led to the restart of plant vegetation phases, feeding and revival
of hives of bees, birds and wild animals, a good mood of people, significant savings of heating costs, etc. Frost units were comprised
between 55.5 in Drobeta Turnu Severin and 148.7 in Voineasa with the seasonal mean for the entire region of Oltenia of 106.6
(excepting the mountainous area). Heat units were comprised between 133.8 in Voineasa and 288.0 in Drobeta Turnu Severin with
the seasonal mean for the entire region of Oltenia of 215.6 (excepting the mountainous area), being more than double than the frost
units. The units of agrometeorological frost have been insignificant. The highest quantities of precipitation were in December 2014
when there were floods and landslips. In Gorj County, landslips also registered in February (February 26). Humidity excess in ground
maintained during all winter. The paper is useful to master graduates, PhD candidates and in general to specialists interested in
climate evolution and climate changes.
Keywords: temperature monthly means, Hellmann criterion, phenomena of warm winter, vegetative processes.
Rezumat. Iarna caldă 2014-2015 în sud-vestul României. Iarna 2014-2015, în sud-vestul României, a fost caldă, marcată de 6
intervale de încălzire a vremii (1-24 decembrie, 2-5 ianuarie, 10-16 ianuarie, 19-31 ianuarie, 2-5 februarie și 19-28 februarie) care au
însumat 63 de zile (70,0% din zilele iernii), un val de căldură (18-25 decembrie), o singularitate termică pozitivă (11 ianuarie), două
valuri de frig: unul intens 28 decembrie 2014-2 ianuarie 2015 și unul moderat 6-9 ianuarie. Intervalele de vreme caldă se numesc
,,ferestrele calde ale iernii`` care sunt deosebit de benefice pentru biocenoze, determinând reluarea fazelor de vegetaţie la plante, hrănirea
şi revigorarea stupilor de albine, a păsărilor şi animalelor sălbatice, o stare bine la oameni, importante economii la cheltuielile de
încălzire etc. Unităţile de frig au fost cuprinse între 55,5 la Drobeta Turnu Severin şi 148,7 la Voineasa cu media anotimpuală pentru
întreaga regiune Oltenia (cu excepţia arealului de munte) de 106,6. Unităţile de căldură au fost cuprinse între 133,8 la Voineasa şi 288,0
la Drobeta Turnu Severin cu media media anotimpuală pentru întreaga regiune Oltenia (cu excepţia arealului de munte) de 215,6, find
ceva mai mult decât dublă faţă de unităţile de frig. Unităţile de ger agrometeorologic au fost nesemnificative. Cantităţile de precipitaţii
au fost cele mai mari în decembrie 2014 când s-au produs inundaţii şi alunecări de teren. Alunecări de teren în județul Gorj s-au
înregistrat și în februarie (26 februarie). În tot cursul iernii s-a menţinut excesul de umezeală în sol. Lucrarea este utilă masteranzilor,
doctoranzilor şi în general specialiştilor interesaţi de evoluţia climatului şi schimbările climatice.
Cuvinte cheie: medii lunare de temperatură, criteriul Hellmann, fenomene de iarnă caldă, procese vegetative.
INTRODUCTION
The year 2014 has been the warmest year since weather forecasts were made (1880) according to John Tucker,
climatologist at NASA. Record temperatures were registered on all continents: in Europe, Northern Africa, Western
United States and Eastern Russia. Australia has also confronted with a strong drought in 2014. According to BBC
publications and specialized analyses, practically, all the last 14 years, have been at their turn the warmest years of the
last centuries. The temperatures higher than those registered during the variation intervals of the last centuries cause the
increase in intensity and frequency of precipitation phenomena and have as natural consequence the rise of sea level,
which increases the frequency of intense storms and floods.
Global warming is the increase of the average amount of water vapour contained in the atmosphere as a result
of a higher temperature on earth and consequently extreme meteorological phenomena occurred more often. In
temperate areas, winters are rougher, summers more droughty, and temperature differences from one day to another can
be extremely high.
Although globally 2014 has been considered the warmest year since the beginning of systematic weather forecasts,
in Oltenia this year has been thermally normal and exceedingly rainy, being very similar to 2005, which was exceedingly
rainy, but exceeded it due to the amounts of precipitation registered. Globally, the first ten months of 2014, have been each of
them the warmest months registered on Earth since the beginning of weather forecasts in 1880 (NOAA), and October 2014
has been the 38th consecutive month of October during which the global temperature was higher than the average temperature
of the 20th century, reaching the value of 14.74°C. October 2014 has been the third consecutive month of 2014 with a record
global temperature and the fifth in the last six months which established this record.
In Oltenia, a long rainy period has begun after an exceedingly warmish and droughty summer (the summer of
2013), in September 2013, and the agricultural year of 2013-2014 has been the rainiest year ever registered in the south-
west of the country since 1960. Therefore, there has been marked an exceptional variability of daily, monthly seasonal
and annual quantities of precipitation. 2014 has been marked by many consecutive exceedingly rainy months, with a lot
of intervals of pouring rains. Rainy intervals were interrupted by two droughty months, February 2014, exceedingly
droughty, and November 2014 very droughty.
173
MARINICĂ Andreea Floriana CHIMIŞLIU Cornelia MARINICĂ Ion
During rainy years, in Oltenia, usually weather phenomena specific to winter appear early and sometimes
winters are rougher and longer. Although the early phenomena specific to winter were registered on October 25,
reaching after 102 years the climatic record of the first snow registered on October 25-27, 1912, the winter of 2014-
2015 was warm and rich in precipitation. October 25, 2014 has been the coldest day of October 25 in the Romanian
Plain since weather forecasts are made.
The analysis of climatic conditions in the south-west of Romania during the winter of 2014-2015 is a
continuation of some extended studies on climate variability (MARINICĂ, 2006; BOGDAN & MARINICĂ, 2009;
MARINICĂ & CHIMIŞLIU, 2008; MARINICĂ et al., 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013; MARINICĂ & MARINICĂ, 2012;
SANDU et al., 2010, 2012; BOGDAN et al., 2008, 2010).
We will further analyze the aspects of climate variability during the winter of 2014-2015, the effects on
bioclimate and the causes of their occurrence.
DATA AND METHODS
For this paper we analysed the results of the daily processing with special software from the weather forecast,
the data from Oltenia MRC1 Archive, the current maps from the operative activity, and those on the internet provided
by the analysis and forecast international centres and NAM Bucharest (National Administration of Meteorology). We
used the facilities provided by Office for drawing the tables and charts.
The paper analyses the climatic conditions during the winter of 2014-2015, on the basis of thermal and
pluviometric regime of December 2014, January and February 2015 and the overall thermal and pluviometric regime of
the winter of 2014-2015.
RESULTS
1a. Thermal regime of December 2014.
Monthly air temperature means were comprised between 0.5°C in Voineasa intramountainous depression and
3.3°C in the extreme west of the region in Drobeta Turnu Severin. Their deviations from the multiannual means
(calculated for the interval 1901-1990) were comprised between 0.8°C in Bechet in the extreme south of Oltenia and
2.4°C in Voineasa, which leads to the classification of pluviometric time type comprised between normal (N) in Oltenia
Plain at Bechet, Băileşti, Slatina and in the Getic Piedmont and warm in Mehedinţi Hills at Bâcleş, in the Subcarpathian
Depression at Polovragi, Voineasa and in the mountainous area at Obârşia Lotrului (Table 1).
Table 1. Air temperature regime in Oltenia and the minimum and maximum temperature values at ground surface in December 2014.
Crt. Air minT Air maxT Soil minT Soil maxT
Meteorological Station Hm N M ∆T=M-N CH
No. (°C) Data (°C) Date (°C) Data (°C) Date
1 Drobeta Turnu Severin 77 1.4 3.3 1.9 CL -10.2 31 18.0 24 -12.6 31 19.8 24
2 Calafat 66 1.0 2.2 1.2 CL -9.8 31 20.1 24 -3.1 31 13.2 24
3 Bechet 65 0.4 1.2 0.8 N -13.2 28 16.3 24 -12.0 31 17.1 24
4 Băileşti 56 0.4 1.3 0.9 N -16.5 30 16.8 24 -20.9 30 14.1 20
5 Caracal 112 -0.1 1.1 1.2 CL -13.2 30 16.4 24 -13.0 30 12.1 24
6 Craiova 190 0.1 1.1 1.0 CL -12.6 31 16.7 24 -17.6 30 18.0 24
7 Slatina 165 0.3 1.2 0.9 N -15.4 31 16.9 24 -16.4 31 10.7 24
8 Bâcleş 309 -0.4 1.7 2.1 C -11.8 30 14.9 24 - - - -
9 Târgu Logreşti 262 0.1 1.2 1.1 CL -21.1 31 16.9 24 -27.0 31 18.0 23
10 Drăgăşani 280 0.6 1.8 1.2 CL -11.8 31 17.9 23 -18.2 31 19.5 24
11 Apa Neagră 250 0.1 1.6 1.5 CL -25.0 30 18.2 24 -27.0 30 16.8 23
12 Târgu Jiu 210 0.1 1.5 1.4 CL -14.7 31 17.1 24 -21.2 30;31 18.0 23
13 Polovragi 546 0.1 2.1 2.0 C -14.7 31 17.9 24 -21.2 31 17.3 24
14 Râmnicu Vâlcea 243 0.5 2.3 1.8 CL -14.3 31 18.0 24 -16.8 31 15.5 23
15 Voineasa 587 -1.9 0.5 2.4 C -17.4 31 12.9 23 - - - -
16 Parâng 1585 -3.7 -2.7 1.0 CL -19.2 31 7.4 24 - - - -
17 Mean Oltenia - -0.1 1.3 1.4 CL -15.0 - 16.4 - -17.0 31 15.2 24
18 Obârşia Lotrului 1404 -4.9 -2.6 2.3 C -25.9 31 7.4 24 - - - -
19 Halânga 76 3.1 3.1 C -9.6 31 18.4 24 -9.3 31 22.0 24
(Source: processed data from Oltenia MRC archive)
Temperature general mean for the entire region of Oltenia was 1.3°C and its deviation from the multiannual
mean was of 1.4°C, which according to Hellmann criterion the month was warmish (WS) for the entire region.
The monthly minimum air temperature values were registered in the last three days of the month and were
comprised between -9.8°C registered on December 31 in south-west at Calafat and -25.0°C at Apa Neagră
Subcarpathian Depression, registered on January 30, and their mean for the entire region was -15.0°C. In the hilly area,
1
MRC = Meteorological Regional Center.
174
the minimum thermal value was -25.9°C registered at Obârşia Lotrului2 on December 3, being the absolute minimum
thermal value for this meteorological station and the minimum thermal value for the entire winter of 2014-2015, in the
mountainous area in the north of Oltenia. Therefore, we register a new climate record for the mountainous area. The
value of -25.0°C registered at Apa Neagră is the absolute minimum thermal value for this meteorological station, being
the lowest value of a complete range of data.
Frost units3 in December 2014 were insignificant and were registered in the intervals December 1-2, December
13-16 and December 27-31 and ranged between 15.4 in Drobeta Turnu Severin and 36.9 at Voineasa; in the
mountainous area, it ranged between 94.4 at Obârşia Lotrului and 97.3 at Parâng. These helped crops and, in general,
the vegetal cover to adapt to wintering conditions. Agrometeorological frost was insignificant and was sparsely
registered in the last two days of the month, and the sum of frost units was comprised between 0 in most part of the
region and 17.8 at Apa Neagră in the Subcarpathian Depression and in the mountainous area between 6.5 at Parâng and
12.5 at Obârşia Lotrului. Heat units (the sum of active daily average temperature means) highly exceeded frost units
and were comprised between 52.2 at Voineasa and 118.4 in Drobeta Turnu Severin, and in the mountainous area
between 8.8 at Obârşia Lotrului and 14.5 at Parâng, being a warm winter month. These helped to slow vegetative
processes at autumn crops, and, in general, the vegetal cover and biotic processes in biocoenoses4 to take place.
Monthly maximum temperature values were registered atypically in the last decade of the month (as well as
minimum temperature values) on December 23 and 24 and were comprised between 12.9°C at Voineasa and 20.1°C in
the extreme south-west of Calafat region, and their monthly mean for the entire region was 16.4°C.
Air temperature amplitude in December 2014 was of 46.0°C. All these show a great amplitude of air temperature.
The maximum value of 20.1°C registered at Calafat is the maximum temperature for the entire winter of 2014-2015.
Figure 1. Air temperature variation (the daily means, daily minimum and maximum temperatures mean) in December 2014.
The chart of air temperature variation in December 2014 presents a slightly decreasing tendency for daily
average and minimum values and a slightly increasing tendency for daily maximum temperature value (Fig. 1). For the
interval December 1-24, the tendency is increasing for all these parameters, and in the interval December 25-31, there
was a weather cooling, which continued in the first days of January, reaching cooling climax on January 1, 2015.
2
The mountainous meteorological station Obârşia Lotrului has a short range of data, is situated on the north-western side of the mountains and came
into operation in February 1976, and in 2011 became an autonomous station, functioning without personnel, and consequently, some data as for
example the type of precipitation, quantities of precipitation during cold season, etc. cannot be measured. As a result of its position on the north-
western side, it has much lower thermal regime than of Parâng, where the meteorological station is situated on the southern side.
3
The degree of winter bitterness in agrometeorology (winter type) classifies according to the sum of frost units ( differences between the daily
minimum temperature values <-15°C and the agroclimatic critical threshold of -15.0°C, in the interval December - February). Therefore, a frost unit
is the difference of 1°C between the critical threshold of -15.0°C and an air minimum thermal value ≤ -15°C (for example for T min = -16.0°C then
the difference -15.0°C - (-16.0°C) = 1, namely a frost unit, (SANDU et al, 2010).
Frost units for all the cold season is calculated as Σ of daily average temperatures <0°C, in November-March; A day of frost is the day in which the
average temperature is ≤ 0°C;) The active temperatures are those ≥0°C, and the temperature of the biological minimum is 0°C. A winter day is a day
in which air temperature is < 0°C. Heat units ( daily average temp ≥ 0°C), Active temperatures = are temperatures ≥0°C.
4
The term of biocoenosis (Greek koinosis– to share) is the supra individual level of organizing living matter and describes the totality of living,
vegetal (phytocoenosis) and animal (zoocoenosis) organisms, which interact with each other and live together in a habitat or a sector of biosphere
(biotope), forming a single whole and is in a dynamic balance dependent on that environment. It is characterized by a certain structure and functioning
given by the mode of matter, energy and information flow. The term of biocoenosis was proposed by Karl Möbius in 1877
(http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocenoz%C4%83).
175
The warmest interval in December was December 18-25, 2014, an interval in which a heat wave of winter was
actually registered, and the coldest was December 28-31.
The most intense cold wave in the winter of 2014-2015 was registered in the interval December 28, 2014-
January 2, 2015. The warmest day of December 2014 according to temperature means was on 23, when the mean for the
entire region was 8.7°C, and the coldest day was December 31 with the mean of -11.3°C. The number of days with
maximum temperatures ≤0°C (winter days) was comprised between 3 in Drobeta Turnu Severin, Caracal and Râmnicu
Vâlcea and 6 at Voineasa, and the mean for the entire region was of 5 winter days.
Only 4 days with frost5 were registered in the interval December 28-31 and only two days in which the
minimum temperature mean for the entire region dropped below -10.0°C (December 30-31). During an interval of 7
days (December 24-31) air temperature decreased from high to low temperatures, registering the maximum amplitude
of 46.0°C. At ground surface the minimum temperature values were registered in the last two days of the month and
were comprised between -27.0°C at Târgu Logreşti and -3.1°C at Calafat, and their mean for the entire region was -
17.0°C. The monthly maximum temperature values at ground surface were mostly registered on 23 and 24 and ranged
between 10.7°C and 19.8°C, and their mean for the entire region was 15.2°C.
1.b. Pluviometric regime of December 2014

In December 2014, the monthly quantities of precipitations were comprised between 96.8 l/m2 at Bechet in the
extreme south of the region and 218.0 l/m2 at Apa Neagră, and in the mountainous area at Parâng6 67.1 l/m2. The
quantity of 218.0 l/m2 registered at Apa Neagră is the third value in descending order of all range of data at this
meteorological station (Table 2).
Table 2. Quantities of precipitation (l/m2) registered in the winter of 2014-2015 (Σ), compared with normal values7.
Crt. Meteorological December 2014 January 2015 February 2015 Winter 2014-2015
Hm
No. Station ΣXII N Δ% CH ΣI N Δ% CH ΣII N Δ% CH ΣW N Δ% CH
Drobeta Turnu
1 77 119.5 61.2 95.3 ER 56.1 51.4 9.1 N 60.9 47.9 27.1 R 236.5 160.5 47.4 ER
Severin
2 Calafat 66 110.6 45.5 143.1 ER 31.5 40.4 -22.0 D 56.2 38.0 47.9 VR 198.3 123.9 60.0 ER
3 Bechet 65 96.8 36.3 166.7 ER 23.2 33.5 -30.7 VD 28.2 34.8 -19.0 LD 148.2 104.6 41.7 VR
4 Băileşti 56 125.6 46.8 168.4 ER 24.2 38.5 -37.1 VD 64.9 36.1 79.8 ER 214.7 121.4 76.9 ER
5 Caracal 112 130.9 39.5 231.4 ER 31.0 34.7 -10.7 LD 36.8 34.5 6.7 N 198.7 108.7 82.8 ER
6 Craiova 190 150.9 41.8 261.0 ER 37.5 37.5 0.0 N 43.1 30.4 41.8 VR 231.5 109.7 111.0 ER
7 Slatina 165 166.5 42.8 289.0 ER 37.5 36.0 4.2 N 40.3 38.4 4.9 N 244.3 117.2 108.4 ER
8 Bâcleş 309 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9 Tg. Logreşti 262 116.6 44.8 160.3 ER 36.2 35.9 0.8 N 32.6 41.0 -20.5 D 185.4 121.7 52.3 ER
10 Drăgăşani 280 139.9 44.6 213.7 ER 37.1 34.1 8.8 N 39.8 35.4 12.4 LR 216.8 114.1 90.0 ER
11 Apa Neagră 250 218.0 82.3 164.9 ER 88.8 70.9 25.2 R 89.7 66.4 35.1 VR 396.5 219.6 80.6 ER
12 Târgu Jiu 210 149.1 64.0 133.0 ER 60.3 53.9 11.9 LR 66.7 52.0 28.3 R 276.1 169.9 62.5 ER
13 Polovragi 546 106.3 56.1 89.5 ER 48.9 48.9 0.0 N 34.5 48.4 -28.7 D 189.7 153.4 23.7 ER
14 Râmnicu Vâlcea 243 113.0 46.2 144.6 ER 42.0 35.5 18.3 LR 37.5 38.4 -2.3 N 192.5 120.1 60.3 ER
15 Voineasa 587 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
16 Parâng 1585 67.1 54.6 22.9 R 95.8 57.7 66.0 ER 27.9 47.7 -41.5 VD 190.8 160.0 19.3 R
17 Mean Oltenia - 129.3 50.5 95.3 ER 46.4 43.5 6.8 N 47.1 42.1 11.8 LR 205.0 136.1 50.7 ER
18 Halânga 76 114.0 - - - 61.0 - - - 60.4 - - - 235.4 - - -
19 Obârşia Lotrului 1404 66.3 - - - - - - - 39.0 - - - 105.3 - - -
20 Petroşani 607 50.7 47.8 6.1 N 107.7 45.3 137.7 ER 32.1 46.4 -30.8 VD 190.5 139.5 36.6 VR
Monthly mean of precipitation calculated for the entire region was 129.3 l/m2 being the highest monthly mean
of all winter. The percentage deviations of monthly quantities of precipitation from the normal were comprised between
89.5% at Polovragi and 289.0% in Slatina, designating according to Hellmann criterion an exceedingly rainy month
(ER) in the entire Oltenia. An exception is the mountainous area where, at Parâng, the percentage deviation was of
22.9% designating a rainy month (R). In December three rainy intervals were registered: December 1-2, December 6-10
and December 26-28, amounting 10 days with significant precipitation, and the rainiest day was on December 9, 2014
with a general mean for the entire region of 27.4 l/m2. The maximum quantity of precipitation registered in 24 hours
was of 69.8 l/m2 in Sadu (Gorj County), registered on December 9, 2014.
The rain which started in the morning of December 26 turned into sleet in the evening and snowfall during the
night, and a consistent snow layer was formed, with a maximum thickness comprised between 2cm at Halânga and 44
5
From the point of view of weather forecast for people, the notion of “frost” (or frosty weather) means temperature values of ≤ -10°C. Therefore we
observe that frost defined by the terms of weather forecast (which are adapted to living organisms) is different from agrometeorological frost
(temperatures of ≤-15°C), plants being better adapted to climatic conditions (due to their cellular structure and specific biotic processes).
6
Parâng meteorological station, being located on the southern slopes of Parâng Mountain, closed to the northern limit of Gorj County, having a wide
range of data and being a station with personnel, has the most significant data for the mountainous area in the north of Oltenia, although it is situated
in Hunedoara County.
7
Voineasa and Bâcleş meteorological stations, since they have incomplete data, being autonomous, cannot be taken into consideration in calculating
the sum and monthly mean. The normal values were calculated for the interval 1901-1990.
176
cm at Drăgăşani on December 30 (Fig. 2). A thin, passing snow layer with a thickness up to 5 cm in some area was
formed also in the intervals December 2-4 and December 10-11. The number of days with snow layer was comprised
between 4 in Drobeta Turnu Severin and at Halânga and 8 at Apa Neagră and Drăgăşani, and their mean for the entire
region was of 6.4 days. In the mountainous area, the number of days with snow layer was 29, registered at Parâng.
Figure 2. Maximum snow layer in December 2014 (according to NAM Bucharest).
The most significant snowfalls in December were registered in the interval December 26-28.
The climatic phenomena registered in December 2014 were: drizzle, rain, sleet, snowfall, glazed frost, fog,
hoarfrost, and blizzard.
The number of days with drizzle was comprised between 1 at Bechet and 8 in Slatina and the mean for the
entire region was of 3.6 days.
The number of days with rain was comprised between 2 at Voineasa and 13 in Drobeta Turnu Severin, Calafat,
Băileşti and Târgu Jiu, and their mean for the entire region was of 9.3, being the highest mean of days with precipitation.
The number of days with sleet was comprised between 1 at Băileşti, Târgu Logreşti, Râmnicu Vâlcea and
Parâng and 4 at Caracal and Târgu Jiu, and their mean for the entire region was 2.5.
The total number of days with liquid precipitation (drizzle, rain and sleet) was comprised between 1 at Parâng
in the mountainous area and 22 in Târgu Jiu and their mean for the entire region was 13.3.
The total number of days with snowfall was comprised between 1 at Voineasa and 8 in Craiova, and in the
mountainous area there were 14 days at Parâng, their mean for the entire region being of 6.3. The total number of days
with precipitation was comprised between 15 in Râmnicu Vâlcea and Parâng and 30 in Slatina, and their mean for the
entire region was 19.6 days.
All these show a high number of days with precipitation, which caused a strong hydric stress to biocoenoses, vegetal
cover and crops, because of the excessive humidity in the ground that created water bogging on the ground, the rise of
underground water to surface, leading in some areas to plant suffocation and stop of some agricultural works specific to the
beginning of winter. Although winter climatic phenomena appeared early, on October 25, the intervals of warm weather led to
the predominance of liquid precipitation and the occurrence of snow layer beginning with December 27.
The duration of snow layer in December 2014 was comprised between 4 days in Drobeta Turnu Severin and at
Halânga and 8 days at Drăgăşani and Halânga with a mean of 6.4 days for the entire region.
Yellow code warnings have been remitted for abundant precipitation for the intervals: December 8, at 11 p.m.
– December 10, at 10 a.m., December 26, at 8 p.m. – 27 December.
2.a Thermal regime of January 2015
Monthly means of air temperature were comprised between -0.4°C in Voineasa intramountainous depression
(the only negative mean, excepting the mountainous area) and 2.1°C in Drobeta Turnu Severin, and their deviations
177
from the multiannual means were comprised between 2.6°C at Apa Neagră and 4.3°C at Voineasa. According to
Hellmann criterion these deviations classify January as a warm month in the entire region of Oltenia (Table 3).
Table 3. Air temperature regime in Oltenia and the minimum and maximum temperature values at ground surface in January 2015.
Crt. Meteorological Air minT Air maxT Soil minT Soil maxT
Hm N M ∆T=M-N CH
No. Station (°C) Data (°C) Data (°C) Data (°C) Data
1 Drobeta Turnu Severin 77 -1.1 2.1 3.2 W -13.9 1 17.4 11 -16.2 1 17.6 11
2 Calafat 66 -1.8 1.7 3.5 W -23.2 1 19.5 11 -9.9 2 16.8 11
3 Bechet 65 -2.2 0.6 2.8 W -25.1 1 19.4 11 -26.0 1;2 17.3 31
4 Băileşti 56 -2.3 1.0 3.3 W -21.0 1 18.0 11 -28.4 1 17.2 11
5 Caracal 112 -2.9 0.5 3.4 W -21.9 1 14.4 11 -22.6 1 17.0 31
6 Craiova 190 -2.6 0.7 3.3 W -19.0 1 16.8 11 -20.6 1;2 15.6 11
7 Slatina 165 -2.4 0.5 2.9 W -19.3 1 15.0 11 -20.1 1 10.3 31
8 Bâcleş 309 -3.0 0.8 3.8 W -15.6 1 14.9 11 - - - -
9 Tg. Logreşti 262 -2.7 0.5 3.2 W -23.4 1 14.8 11 -28.4 1 12.8 23
10 Drăgăşani 280 -2.2 1.3 3.5 W -13.9 1 15.6 11 -23.0 1 20.0 11
11 Apa Neagră 250 -2.6 0.0 2.6 W -29.8 1 16.7 11 -31.0 1 16.0 21
12 Târgu Jiu 210 -2.6 0.8 3.4 W -18.5 1 14.7 11 -22.2 1 10.4 31
13 Polovragi 546 -3.2 0.9 4.1 W -18.2 1 15.7 11 -25.8 1 17.4 21
14 Râmnicu Vâlcea 243 -2.2 1.4 3.6 W -16.0 1 16.6 11 -19.0 1 12.6 31
15 Voineasa 587 -4.7 -0.4 4.3 W -17.2 1 12.0 11 - - - -
16 Parâng 1585 -5.9 -3.3 2.6 W -19.1 7 9.8 11 - - - -
17 Mean Oltenia - -2.8 0.6 3.4 W -19.6 1 15.5 11 -22.1 1 13.4 31
18 Obârşia Lotrului 1404 -4.1 -4.1 -24.6 7 6.1 22 - - - -
19 Halânga 76 2 2 W -14.2 1 17 11 -12.8 2 17.4 31
Temperature general mean for the entire region of Oltenia was 0.6°C and its deviation from the multiannual
mean was of 3.4°C, which confirms the classification of warm month.
Monthly minimum air temperature values were registered in the morning of January 1 and were comprised
between -13.9°C registered at Drăgăşani and -29.8°C in the Subcarpathian Depression at Apa Neagră and their mean for
the entire region was -19.6°C. The value of -29.8°C is the second lowest value registered at this meteorological station
of all range of data. The minimum of -29.8°C registered in the Subcarpathian Depression at Apa Neagră is the thermal
minimum value of the winter of 2014-2015.
Maximum air temperature values were registered on January 11 and were comprised between 12.0°C at
Voineasa and 19.5°C at Calafat, and their mean for the entire region was 15.5°C. January 11 is a positive thermal
singularity of January, because the daily mean for the entire region of this day was 7.7°C, and on January 10, the mean
was 4.3°C and the maximum registered only 12.5°C at Calafat, and on January 12, the mean for the entire region was
3.0°C, and the maximum temperatures did not reach 9.0°C.
Heat units in January (the sum of active daily average temperature means) were comprised between 54 at
Voineasa and 90.3 in Drobeta Turnu Severin, with a mean for low area of 73.6, excepting the mountainous areas, and
exceeding frost units.
Frost units in January 2015 were comprised between 24.4 in Drobeta Turnu Severin and 70.8 at Halânga, and
in the mountainous area 124.1, with a mean for low areas (Oltenia excepting the mountainous area) of 47.6, which
designate a mild winter month.
Agrometeorological frost in January was insignificant and was registered in almost all region on January 1 and
sparsely on January 2, 6, 7, 8 and 9, and frost units were comprised between 0.6 at Bâcleş and 23.8 at Apa Neagră
Subcarpathian Depression, designating a warm month.
At ground surface, the minimum temperature values were registered on January 1 and 2 and were comprised
between -9.9°C, registered in the extreme south-west of Calafat region on January 2 and -31.0 at Apa Neagră on
January 1, and their mean was -22.1°C. These extremely low thermal means, which induce a bitter agrometeorological
frost at ground surface, were registered on a ground generally covered by a snow layer sufficiently thick in most part of
the region that ensured a good protection for crops and vegetal cover excepting a small area in the extreme west where
the snow layer was ≤ 10 cm (Drobeta Turnu Severin - Halânga), but here the frost was less intense than in the north and
east of the region. The minimum of -31.0°C at Apa Neagră registered on January 1, is the thermal minimum value of
the winter of 2014-2015 at ground surface.
The maximum temperature values at ground surface were registered on January 11, 21, 23 and 31 and were
comprised between 10.3°C in Slatina and 20.0°C at Drăgăşani, and their mean for the entire region of 13.4°C.
The chart of air temperature variation in January 2015 presents increasing tendencies for daily average,
minimum and maximum temperature values (Fig. 3).
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Figure 3. Air temperature variation (the daily means, daily minimum and maximum temperatures mean) in January 2015.
(Source: processed data from Oltenia MRC archive).
It is highlighted the cooling caused by the second moderate wave of this winter, which registered in the
interval January 6-9, when the minimum temperatures dropped below -15.0°C in some areas, (-18.6°C at Apa Neagră
on January 7). We notice three intervals of weather warming: January 2-5, January 10-16 and January 19-31.
2.b. Pluviometric regime of January 2015

Monthly quantities of precipitation were comprised between 23.2 l/m2 at Bechet and 88.8 l/m2 at Apa Neagră,
and the percentage deviations from the multiannual means were comprised between -37.1% in Oltenia Plain at Băileşti
and 25.2% at Apa Neagră, and in the mountainous area 66.0% at Parâng. These deviations led to classifications of the
pluviometric time type from very droughty (VD) in Oltenia Plain at Bechet and Băileşti and rainy (R) at Apa Neagră,
and in the mountainous area excessively rainy at Parâng (Table 2).
The general mean of precipitation for the entire region was 46.4 l/m2 and its percentage deviation from the
normal mean was 6.8%, which designates a normal pluviometric month on average.
The number of days with drizzle was comprised between 1 in Drobeta Turnu Severin and 4 in Craiova and at
Caracal.
The number of days with rain was comprised between 7 at Târgu Logreşti and 16 in Drobeta Turnu Severin,
the number of days with sleet was between 1 at Băileşti, Bechet, Polovragi and Slatina and 2 in Craiova, Râmnicu
Vâlcea, at Apa Neagră, Târgu Logreşti and Parâng.
The number of days with liquid precipitation (drizzle, rain and sleet) was comprised between 9 Râmnicu
Vâlcea Târgu Logreşti and 18 in Drobeta Turnu Severin and at Băileşti.
The number of days with snowfall was comprised between 1 at Bechet and Apa Neagră and 12 at Polovragi.
The total number of days with precipitation was comprised between 9 at Târgu Logreşti and 25 at Polovragi
with an average of 16.1 days and most of precipitation was weak. Until January 12 the snow layer melted as a
consequence of gradual warming, and its duration was comprised between one day at Halânga and 14 days at Târgu
Logreşti and Polovragi.
The maximum thickness of the snow layer in January was registered on January 1 (the frostiest day of winter)
and was comprised between 1 cm at Halânga in the extreme west and 35 cm at Drăgăşani.
3.a. Thermal regime of February 2015

The monthly average temperature values in the air were comprised between -0.7°C at Voineasa and 2.3°C in
Drobeta Turnu Severin and Râmnicu Vâlcea, and their deviations from the multiannual means were comprised between 0.7°C
at Calafat and Băileşti and 2.3°C in Râmnicu Vâlcea leading to thermal time type classifications from normal (N) at Calafat
and Băileşti in Oltenia Plain and at Obârşia Lotrului to warm (W) in the Olt Couloir at Caracal, Drăgăşani and in Râmnicu
Vâlcea and in Târgu Jiu Depression. On extended areas, the weather was warmish (WS) in February (Table 4).
Air temperature mean for the entire region was 0.9°C and the deviation from the normal was 1.7°C confirming
the classification of warmish weather (WS) on average for the entire region.
Most of the minimum air temperature values were registered in the interval February 10-12 and were
comprised between -7.6°C in Drobeta Turnu Severin and -18.2°C at Băileşti and in the mountainous area -19.9°C at
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Obârşia Lotrului, and their mean for the entire region was -12.0°C, being 3.0°C higher than the mean of December and
7.6°C than the mean of minimum temperature values of January, which shows that regarding the thermal regime of
nights February was warmer than January.
Table 4. Air temperature regime in Oltenia and the minimum and maximum temperature values at ground surface in February 2015.
Crt. Meteorological Air minT Air maxT Soil minT Soil maxT
Hm N M ∆T=M-N CH
No. Station (°C) Date (°C) Date (°C) Date (°C) Date
1 Drobeta Turnu Severin 77 0.9 2.3 1.4 WS -7.6 18 15.1 28 -10.2 11 22.4 28
2 Calafat 66 0.4 1.1 0.7 N -14.7 11 11.6 27 -15.8 11 17.7 26
3 Bechet 65 -0.1 1.7 1.8 WS -11.1 11 14.5 28 -9.5 13 19.5 28
4 Băileşti 56 -0.1 0.6 0.7 N -18.2 12 12.4 28 -21.0 11 20.6 28
5 Caracal 112 -0.7 1.4 2.1 W -13.0 11 13.4 28 -14.8 12 21.7 28
6 Craiova 190 -0.4 1.3 1.7 WS -11.6 11 13.8 28 -15.0 11 22.0 28
7 Slatina 165 -0.2 1.6 1.8 WS -12.5 11 14.2 28 -15.2 12 16.1 28
8 Bâcleş 309 -0.9 0.7 1.6 WS -10.3 11 13.3 28 - - - -
9 Tgârgu Logreşti 262 -0.7 1.0 1.7 WS -13.4 11 14.0 28 -14.0 11 19.0 21
10 Drăgăşani 280 -0.2 2.0 2.2 W -7.7 18 14.7 28 -11.2 18 20.5 28
11 Apa Neagră 250 -0.6 0.6 1.2 WS -15.5 11 15.5 28 -16.0 11 23.0 28
12 Târgu Jiu 210 -0.4 1.7 2.1 W -8.7 10 16.0 28 -12.2 10 22.2 28
13 Polovragi 546 -1.4 0.4 1.8 WS -12.6 18 13.5 28 -18.3 19 20.0 28
14 Râmnicu Vâlcea 243 0.0 2.3 2.3 W -9.2 10 16.4 28 -9.0 13 21.6 28
15 Voineasa 587 -2.5 -0.7 1.8 WS -11.9 18 14.7 28 - - - -
16 Parâng 1585 -5.6 -4.1 1.5 WS -14.5 10 5.9 27 - - - -
17 Mean Oltenia - -0.8 0.9 1.7 WS -12.0 - 13.7 -14.0 20.3 28
18 Obârşia Lotrului 1404 -5.5 -5.3 0.2 N -19.9 18 8.3 24 - - - -
19 Halânga 76 - 2.4 - - -8.3 18 15 28 -9.1 18 24.2 28
Air maximum temperature values were mostly registered in the interval February 26-28 and were comprised
between 11.6°C at Calafat and 16.4°C in Râmnicu Vâlcea, and their mean for the entire region was 13.7°C, being 2.7°C
lower than the maximum values of December 2014 and 1.8°C than the mean of January, which shows that in February
days were colder than in December and January.
Heat units were registered especially in the intervals February 1-6 and February 20-28 and ranged between
27.6 at Voineasa and 79.7 in Râmnicu Vâlcea with a mean for the entire region of 63.9, exceeding the frost units and
designating a warm winter month.
Frost units were registered especially in the interval February 7-19, in the interval February 20-28, because of the
weather warming no frost units were registered at any meteorological station. These were comprised between 15.7 in
Drobeta Turnu Severin and 51.0 at Băileşti, with a mean for low area of Oltenia of 30.6 designating a warm winter month.
Figure 4. Air temperature variation (the daily means, daily minimum and maximum temperatures mean) in February 2015.
(Source: processed data from Oltenia MRC archive).
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The chart of air temperature variation in February 2015 presents highly increasing tendencies for daily
average, minimum and maximum values (Fig. 4). In February we notice two weather warming intervals February 2-5
and February 19-28 and a cooling interval in the middle of the month, February 8-15.
The minimum temperature values at ground level were comprised between -9.0°C in Râmnicu Vâlcea and -
21.0°C at Băileşti, and their mean for the entire region was -14.0°C, 3.0°C higher than the mean corresponding to
December and 8.1°C than the mean of January.
The maximum temperature values at ground surface were comprised between 16.1°C in Slatina and 23.0°C at
Apa Neagră, and their mean for the entire region was of 20.3°C, 5.1°C higher than the mean corresponding to
December and 6.9°C than the mean of January. These temperature increases led to a slow continuation of vegetation
phases in some periods of time, and in the end of February, the buds of fruit trees had raised their diameter, and some
species of plants of the vegetal cover had a significant development.
3.b. Pluviometric regime of February 2015

Monthly quantities of precipitation were comprised between 28.2 l/m2 at Bechet in the extreme south and 89.7
2
l/m at Apa Neagră and their percentage deviations from the multiannual means were comprised between -28.7% at
Polovragi and 79.8% at Băileşti leading to classifications of pluviometric time type from droughty (D) at Polovragi and
Târgu Logreşti and exceedingly rainy at Băileşti, and in the mountainous area at Parâng very droughty (VD) (Table 2).
The quantities of precipitation mean for the entire region of Oltenia was 47.1 l/m2 and its percentage deviation
from the multiannual mean was 11.8%, which lead to the classification of little rainy month (LR) on average.
The number of days with drizzle was comprised between 1 at Târgu Logreşti, Drobeta Turnu Severin, Halânga
and Slatina and 4 at Băileşti and Caracal with a mean of 1.6.
The number of days with rain was comprised between 6 at Bechet and Târgu Logreşti and 12 in Târgu Jiu and
Drobeta Turnu Severin with a mean of 9.1.
The number of days with sleet was comprised between 1 at Bechet, Slatina, Caracal and in Râmnicu Vâlcea
and 4 at Târgu Logreşti and Apa Neagră.
The number of days with liquid precipitation (drizzle, rain and sleet) was comprised between 8 at Drăgăşani
and 17 at Băileşti with a mean of 12.6.
The number of days with snowfall was comprised between 3 at Bechet and in Drobeta Turnu Severin and 7 in
Râmnicu Vâlcea with a mean of 5.2.
The number of days with precipitation of all types was comprised between 13 at Bechet and 24 in Târgu Jiu
with a mean of 17.8.
The snow layer was registered in the interval February 7-18 and in the extreme west of the region in the
interval February 7-10. The maximum thickness of the snow layer was registered in the interval February 5-12 and was
comprised between 7 cm at Halânga and in Râmnicu Vâlcea and 25 cm at Calafat. The snow layer has slowly melted in
the interval February 11-18.
The number of days with snow layer (excepting the mountainous area) was comprised between 4 in Drobeta
Turnu Severin and Halânga and 17 at Apa Neagră, with a mean for the entire region of 10 days. In spite of these
apparently insignificant values, February was little rainy (LT) due to the fact that precipitation were weak in many days.
Usually, in February, there are registered the lowest quantities of precipitation within a year, being the most droughty
month of the year. But there are also some years, with a low frequency, when in February there are registered
exceptional quantities of precipitation.
4.a. Overall thermal regime of the winter of 2014-2015

Temperature seasonal means were comprised between -0.2°C at Voineasa and 2.6°C in Drobeta Turnu
Severin, and their deviations from the multiannual means were comprised between 1.7°C at Băileşti and Parâng and
2.8°C at Voineasa designating the classification of warm month (W) at all meteorological stations of Oltenia.
The average temperature of winter for the entire region was of 0.9°C with a deviation of 2.1°C from the normal
mean which confirms the classification of warm winter for the entire region (Table 5).
The winter of 2014 - 2015 was marked by 6 intervals of weather warming (December 1-24, January 2-5, January
10-16, January 19-31, February 2-5 and February 19-28), which amounted 63 days (70.0% of winter days), a heat wave
(February 18-25), a positive thermal singularity (January 11), two frost waves: an intense one in the interval December 28,
2014-January 2, 2015 and a moderate one on January 6-9. The intervals of warm weather are called “warm windows of
winter” and are extremely good for biocoenoses, led to the restart of plant vegetation phases, feeding and revival of hives of
bees, birds and wild animals, a good mood of people, significant savings of heating costs, etc.
Frost units were comprised between 55.5 in Drobeta Turnu Severin and 148.7 at Voineasa with a seasonal
mean for the entire region Oltenia (excepting the mountainous area) of 106.6.
Heat units were comprised between 133.8 at Voineasa and 288.0 in Drobeta Turnu Severin with a seasonal mean for
the entire region of Oltenia (excepting the mountainous area) of 215.6, being more than double than frost units.
The units of agrometeorological frost were insignificant. All these show that the winter of 2014-2015 was a
warm winter with a high thermal variability.
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4.b. Overall pluviometric regime of the winter of 2014-2015

The seasonal quantities of precipitation were comprised between 148.2 l/m2 at Bechet and 396.5 l/m2 at Apa
Neagră and their percentage deviations from the multiannual means were comprised between 23.7% at Polovragi and
111.0 l/m2 in Craiova designating the classification of pluviometric time type of excessively rainy winter (ER),
according to Hellmann criterion, at all meteorological stations in Oltenia.
Table 5. Overall average thermal characteristics of the winter of 2014-2015.

Crt. Staţia Tmed N Med Iarna
Hm ∆=Tmed-N CH
No. meteorologică Iarna 2014-2015
1 Drobeta Turnu Severin 77 0.4 2.6 2.2 W
2 Calafat 66 -0.1 1.7 1.8 W
3 Bechet 65 -0.6 1.2 1.8 W
4 Băileşti 56 -0.7 1.0 1.7 W
5 Caracal 112 -1.2 1.0 2.2 W
6 Craiova 190 -1.0 1.0 2.0 W
7 Slatina 165 -0.8 1.1 1.9 W
8 Bâcleş 309 -1.4 1.1 2.5 W
9 Târgu. Logreşti 262 -1.1 0.9 2.0 W
10 Drăgăşani 280 -0.6 1.7 2.3 W
11 Apa Neagră 250 -1.0 0.7 1.7 W
12 Târgu Jiu 210 -1.0 1.3 2.3 W
13 Polovragi 546 -1.5 1.1 2.6 W
14 Râmnicu Vâlcea 243 -0.6 2.0 2.6 W
15 Voineasa 587 -3.0 -0.2 2.8 W
16 Parâng 1585 -5.1 -3.4 1.7 W
17 Mean Oltenia - -1.2 0.9 2.1 W
18 Halânga 76 - 2.5 - -
19 Obârşia Lotrului 1404 -5.5 -4.0 1.5 W
The mountainous area is an exception, the winter being rainy (R) at Parâng.
The rainiest winter month was December, the extremely increased quantities of precipitation highly
contributing to the seasonal quantities of precipitation (Table 2).
DISCUSSIONS
For the interval December 8, 2014, 00 a.m. – December 9, 2014 6 a.m., the National Institute of Hydrology
(NIH) remitted a YELLOW CODE for floods: “On the rivers in the hydrographic basins: the Drincea, the Desnăţui
(Mehedinţi and Dolj counties), the Motru and some small streams of the Jiu in Gorj, Mehedinţi and Dolj counties, the
lower Jiu, the Motru confluence (Dolj County), streams of the lower Olt in Vâlcea, Gorj, Dolj and Olt Counties, the
Călmăţui, the upper Vedea upstream Văleni, Teleorman and on other small streams of the Vedea river (Olt, Argeş and
Teleorman Counties), the Râul Doamnei, the Neajlov, the Sabar and other small rivers in the middle and lower Argeş
basin (Argeş, Damboviţa, Giurgiu and Ilfov Counties).
ORANGE CODE: on the Neajlov River – sector Vadu Lat – Călugăreni (Giurgiu County) and on the
Teleorman locally upstream and downstream Teleorman hydrometric station (Teleorman County). Dangerous
hydrological phenomena can appear especially on the lower sectors of these rivers.
For the Jiu River a RED CODE for floods was remitted. Abundant precipitation with a pouring character
caused landslips in some area in Oltenia, and Păuşeşti-Măglaşi in Vâlcea County, 40 houses were in danger to fall.
There occurred a landslide on the hill were the houses were built, near the bank of the Olăneşti River. The proper
consolidation works performed in summer, when the first landslide occurred, were destroyed by water flowing on
hillsides. The village road was damaged, etc.
Synoptic causes of rainy intervals. The abundant precipitations were caused by the evolution of some strong
Mediterranean Cyclones, atmospheric fronts of which rich in humidity crossed the territory of our country.
For example, the synoptic situation on December 9, 2014, when the intensity of precipitation phenomena in
Oltenia was maximum. On December 9, 2014 at 12 UTC, at ground level above Europe, it could be observed a wide
anticyclone girdle formed between the Azores High (with central pressure values exceeding 1035 hPa, above the
Atlantic Ocean) and the East-European Anticyclone (with central pressure values exceeding 1050 hPa, above the
Russian Plain) (Fig. 6). In the Mediterranean Sea, the Mediterranean Cyclone was central located in the south of Greece
with central pressure values below 1005 hPa, formed of the altitude thalweg of Iceland Cyclone. The coupling of the
Mediterranean Cyclone with the anticyclone girdle located in north of Romania caused the advection of cold and moist
air above the Black Sea. On the altitude circulation, a mass of warm and moist air was advected above the
Mediterranean Sea, which caused an intense precipitation above Romania. The interaction of the atmospheric
circulation with the levelled forms of relief of Oltenia increased the intensity of rains due to the dynamic convection.
The East-European Cyclone created an effect of blockage above the Mediterranean Cyclone, which led to a slow
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evolution on its trajectory, and during 5 rainy days (December 6-10, 2014) the quantities of precipitation registered in
Oltenia were comprised between 42.0 l/m2 at Bechet in the extreme south and 96.4 l/m2 in the Getic Piedmont in Slatina
with a mean for the entire region of 59.3 l/m2 (116.2% of the normal mean). Compared to the monthly normal quantities
of precipitation, these amounts are percentages comprised between 53.5% at Parâng and 225.2% in Slatina, 92.3% of
measured quantities have been higher with 100% than the normal values.
Our observations on site led us to the conclusion that on agricultural fields where herbicides were used, ground
permeability highly changed (due to the soil change of chemistry), and the processes of rain water leakage under the form of
torrents did no longer occur, and the rain water was absorbed in the ground. Thus, the infiltration was not total and the water
remained impregnated in a ground layer of a considerable thickness (1-2 m). This phenomenon can cause water infiltration in
the basements of houses (if herbicides are used in courtyards) or can lead together with other favouring factor to landslides on
slope. Therefore, we consider that their use and batching must be done with a lot of caution.
Figure 6. Synoptic situation at ground level (pressure field), superposed on altitude baric topography at the level of 500 hPa
(geopotential field at the average height of 5000 m) and relative topography (TR 500/1000 hPa) on December 9, 2014 at 12 UTC.
We briefly analyze the synoptic situation on December 26, 2014 which caused abundant snowfalls in the last
part of December followed by the most intense wave of frost of the winter of 2014-2015 registered in the interval
December 28, 2014-January 2, 2015. On February 26, 2014, at 6 p.m. UTC, at ground level, the distribution of baric
centres of action of the atmosphere above Europe was the following: in the north of the continent the depression field of
Iceland Cyclones with many nuclei, in the Mediterranean Sea above the Balkan Peninsula and above the Black Sea
operated a Mediterranean Cyclone with values of the atmospheric pressure below 1005 hPa (Fig. 7). The Mediterranean
Cyclone was positioned at the southern periphery of the anticyclone girdle formed of the Azores High (with central
pressure value exceeding 1030 hPa, above the Atlantic Ocean and the Iberian Peninsula) and couple with the East
European one (with central pressure values exceeding 1025 hPa, above Minor Asia and the Russian Plain).
At the level of 500 hPa in the lower troposphere, above most part of Europe, the geopotential field presented a
wide thalweg extended towards the south of the Balkan Peninsula. In altitude, a strong advection of polar maritime
moist air (mP) came from the north of the Atlantic Ocean, and in the lower troposphere there was an advection of
maritime warm air above the Mediterranean Sea mixed with the moist and colder air above the Black Sea and in the
same time an advection of cold air from the north-east above the Russian Plain.
These multiple advections of moist air mixed with cold air transformed the precipitation in snowfall and
maintained the precipitation processes in our country during three days, which poorly continued up to the morning of
January 1, 2015.
The quantities of precipitation registered in the interval December 26-29, 2014 were comprised between 20.9
l/m2 at Polovragi and 49.9 l/m2 at Drăgăşani, with a mean of 30.3 l/m2 for the entire region and the maximum quantity
within 24 hours was of 34.8 l/m2 at Drăgăşani registered in the interval December 26, 8 p.m. December 27, 8 p.m..
These quantities of precipitation are percentage values comprised between 37.3% at Polovragi and 111.9% at
Drăgăşani, of multiannual normal means.
183
(geopotential field at the average height of 5000 m) and relative topography (TR 500/1000 hPa)
on December 26, 2014 at 6 p.m. UTC.
As a general conclusion we note that December 2014 was a warmish winter month, excessively rainy, marked
a winter heat wave, snowfalls in the last part of the month and an intense frost wave which reached its climax in the
morning of January 1. 2015, marking the frostiest New Year’s Eve in the last 50 years. December 2014 was a month
with a high climatic variability and represents an example of warmish winter month in which floods and a frost wave
were registered, causing an exceptional hydric and thermal stress to crops and in general to biocoenoses.
Synoptic causes of the frost wave in the interval 30 December 2014-2 January 2015. The most intense frost
wave of the winter of 2014-2015 was caused by a synoptic situation specific to these excessive cooling of air during
winter. The withdrawal of the Mediterranean Cyclone, which caused the snowfalls in the end of December, towards
south-east and the extension of the anticyclone girdle towards east and north, intensified the advection of cold air from
east and north in lower troposphere (Fig. 8).
(geopotential field at the average height of 5000 m) and relative topography (TR 500/1000 hPa) on January 1, 2015 at 00 UTC.
184
In altitude, at the level of 500 hPa a blocking circulation can be observed above the most extended part of Europe,
which caused an intense advection of extremely cold air from the Scandinavian Peninsula first towards the Russian Plain,
where it continued its cooling, and then, from north-east, it reached Oltenia going round the Carpathian Curvature.
In figure 9 we underlined this extremely cold advection with its nucleus of very cold air and closed isotherm of
-12.0°C and a secondary nucleus even colder with closed isotherm of -15.0°C above the Balkans and the Dinaric Alps.
Figure 9. Thermal field at the level of 850 hPa, above Europe, on January 1, 2015 at 00 UTC.
As a bioclimatic effect, it is important to mention that the warm weather of the winter 2014-2015 determined
the hatching of eggs of birds such as the Barbary dove or the wild pigeon. This situation favoured the development of
the chicks, such that they started flying in the beginning of March.
CONCLUSIONS
Although the winter of 2014-2015 has come after a normal and excessively rainy autumn, in which the
climatic phenomena specific to winter were registered very early (October 25) and then even from the first day of
December, weather warming, during a long period of time (December 4-25), led to a significant number of liquid
precipitation, minimum, average and maximum temperature values and to the classification of December as a warm
winter month. According to the deviations of monthly means from the normal, the warmest winter month was January
with an average deviation higher than 3.4°C, followed by December with a deviation of 1.4°C and February with 1.7°C.
The ground maintained unfrozen during long intervals of time, and the number of days with phenomena of frost-
thaw (by passing from day to night) was significant. There was warm weather for long intervals of time during winter and
there were registered 6 weather warming intervals (December 1-24, January 2-5, January 10-16, January 19-31, February 2-5
and February 19-28) which amounted 63 days (70.0% of winter days), a heat wave (December 18-25), a positive thermal
singularity (January 11), two frost waves: an intense one in the interval December 28, 2014- January 2, 2015 and a moderate
one January 6-9. The intervals of warm weather are called “warm windows of winter” and are extremely good for
biocoenoses, led to the restart of plant vegetation phases, feeding and revival of hives of bees, birds and wild animals, a good
mood of people, significant savings of heating costs, etc. Frost units were comprised between 55.5 in Drobeta Turnu Severin
and 148.7 at Voineasa with the seasonal mean for the entire region of Oltenia of 106.6 (excepting the mountainous area).
Heat units were comprised between 133.8 at Voineasa and 288.0 in Drobeta Turnu Severin with the seasonal
mean for the entire region of Oltenia of 215.6 (excepting the mountainous area), being more than double than frost units.
The units of agrometeorological frost have been insignificant. All these show that the winter of 2014-2015 was
a warm winter with a high thermal variability. For the entire winter the number of days with snow layer (excepting the
mountainous area) was comprised between 9 at Halânga in the extreme south of Oltenia and 35 at Polovragi in the area
of the Subcarpathian Depression with a mean of 25.6 for the entire region.
185
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biosphere. Oltenia. Studii şi comunicări. Ştiinţele Naturii. Muzeul Olteniei Craiova. 24: 221-229.
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in Oltenia and the thermal risk at low temperatures during the cold season. Oltenia. Studii şi comunicări.
Ştiinţele Naturii. Muzeul Olteniei Craiova. 26: 235-246.
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conditions characteristic to the winter 2010-2011 in Oltenia. Oltenia. Studii şi comunicări. Ştiinţele Naturii.
Muzeul Olteniei. Craiova. 27(1): 148-154.
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during 2011. Aerul şi apa componente ale mediului / Air and water components of the environment, Conferinţa 23-
24 martie 2012 Cluj Napoca. Edit. Presa Universitară Clujană, http: aerapa.conference.ubbcluj.ro/: 351-358.
(Accessed: March, 2014).
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conditions in Oltenia during the winter of 2011-2012. Oltenia. Studii şi comunicări. Ştiinţele Naturii. Muzeul
Olteniei. Craiova. 28(1): 149-160.
MARINICĂ ANDREEA FLORIANA, CHIMIŞLIU CORNELIA, MARINICĂ I. 2013. Considerations on the climatic
conditions in Oltenia during the warm winter of 2012-2013. Oltenia. Studii şi comunicări. Ştiinţele Naturii.
SANDU I., MATEESCU ELENA, VĂTĂMANU V. V. 2010. Schimbări climatice în România şi efectele asupra
agriculturii. Edit. Sitech. Craiova. 406 pp.
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Marinică Andreea Floriana

Bachelor of Sciences, Klimacampus, Hamburg, Germania.
E-mail: marinica.andreea@gmail.com
Chimişliu Cornelia
The Oltenia Museum Craiova,
Str. Popa Şapcă, No. 8, Craiova, Romania.
E-mail: chimisliuc@gmail.com;chimisliu_cornelia@yahoo.com
Marinică Ion
Regional Meteorological Centre Oltenia,
Str. Brestei, No. 3A, Craiova, Romania.
E-mail: ionmarinica@yahoo.com

186
BIOCLIMATIC STRESS WITHIN THE GETIC SUBCARPATHIANS
VLĂDUŢ Alina
Abstract. Weather greatly influences the state of comfort felt by a person. As all living beings, people also adapt in time to the climatic
conditions, but the variability or the increase or decrease tendency of certain parameters may induce a supplementary stress. In order to
highlight the favourability of the climate within the Getic Subcarpathians, there have been analysed certain bioclimatic indexes – skin stress
index, lung stress index, bioclimatic stress and temperature equivalent to the wind cooling power. In spite of certain differences mainly
imposed by local factors of influence, there is a great territorial homogeneity. Generally, climate is favourable to human activities all year
long, the Subcarpathian area being one of the less stressful in the country. Skin stress is reduced, half of the year displaying relaxing climatic
conditions. Hypotonic stress triggering thermolysis in summer is felt especially in July and August but only in the lower area, while
hypertonic stress inducing thermogenesis appears in the months of the cold season. However, the moderate values of the cooling power of
the wind, below 900 kcal/m2/h, indicate a minimum skin stress (+1). The temperature equivalent to the wind cooling power supports the
situation rendered by the previous index, the interval April – October displaying thermal comfort; only January, the month with the lowest
mean temperatures and moderate wind speeds, is characterized by the state of increased discomfort. Lung stress is also reduced, only
summer months, mainly July and August, being characterized by a moderate or increased lung stress (-2, -3). Consequently, the total
bioclimatic stress is low, the stimulation degree being 1, except for Polovragi, where the value is 2. Thus, the values of the total bioclimatic
stress index indicate that the region is highly favourable for human activities.
Keywords: Getic Subcarpathians, skin stress index, lung stress index, total bioclimatic stress, temperature equivalent to the wind
cooling power (Tpr).
Rezumat. Stresul bioclimatic în Subcarpații Getici. Vremea influențează în mare măsură starea de confort resimțită de o persoană.
Toate organismele, inclusiv oamenii, se adaptează în timp la condițiile climatice, dar variaţia sau tendințele de creștere și descreștere ale
anumitor parametri pot induce un stres suplimentar. Pentru a ilustra favorabilitatea climatului din Subcarpații Getici, au fost analizați anumiți
indici bioclimatici, precum indicele stresului cutanat, indicele stresului pulmonar, indicele bioclimatic total și temperatura echivalentă puterii
de răcire a vântului. În ciuda unor diferențe, în mare parte induse de factorii locali de influență, s-a constatat o omogenitate teritorială ridicată.
În general, climatul este favorabil desfășurării activităților pe tot parcursul anului, arealul subcarpatic fiind unul dintre cele mai puțin
stresante din țară. Stresul cutanat este redus, circa jumătate din an prezentând un climat relaxant din acest punct de vedere. Stresul hipotonic,
declanșator de termoliză pe timpul verii, se resimte mai ales în iulie și august, dar numai în arealele mai joase, în timp ce stresul hipertonic
care induce termogeneză apare în lunile semestrului rece. Cu toate acestea, valorile moderate ale puterii de răcire a vântului, sub 900
kcal/m2/h, indică un stres cutanat minim (+1). Temperatura echivalentă puterii de răcire a vântului susține imaginea redată de indicele
anterior, intervalul aprilie – octombrie fiind unul caracterizat de confort termic; doar ianuarie, luna cu cea mai redusă temperatură medie și
viteze moderate ale vântului, se caracterizează prin stare de disconfort mai accentuat. Stresul pulmonar este de asemenea redus, numai lunile
de vară, mai ales iulie și august, prezentând stres moderat sau ridicat (-2, -3). În consecință, stresul bioclimatic total este redus, gradul de
stimulare a climatului fiind 1, cu excepția stației Polovragi, unde valoarea este 2. Astfel, valorile indicelui de stres bioclimatic total susțin
favorabilitatea climatică a regiunii analizate pentru activitățile umane.
Cuvinte cheie: Subcarpaţii Getici, stres cutanat, stres pulmonar, stres bioclimatic total, temperatura echivalentă a puterii de răcire a
vântului (Tpr).
INTRODUCTION
The state of comfort or discomfort felt by a person, both physical and psychological, highly depends on weather
conditions. In certain situations, such as sudden increases or decreases, a meteorological parameter can become a stress factor
for the organism. The studies achieved so far indicate that the limits of the comfort state, especially of thermal comfort, are no
identical at global level, as organisms, including human beings, adapt to environmental conditions in time (TEODOREANU
& BUNESCU, 2007). The human body, which comes into contact directly with the environment through exposed skin, has to
permanently adapt to the external weather conditions. When adaptation or thermoregulation is necessary, there occurs either
thermogenesis or thermolysis according to the given conditions. In order to better emphasize and quantify the relation between
climate and human health, there have been elaborated numerous indices – bioclimatic indices, even if they are mainly based
on the same meteorological parameters, namely temperature, humidity and wind speed. Among these indices, we mention
Summer/Winter Scharlau index (1950), Summer SIMMER index (PEPI, 1987), the skin and lung stress (BEÇANCENOT,
1974), THI index (introduced by WMO), Physiologically Equivalent Temperature-PET (HÖPPE, 1999; MATZARAKIS et
al., 1999), etc. Bioclimatic indices were subject to different studies in Romania, as well. Summer and Winter Scharlau Index,
Wind Chill Index, Relative Strain Index were calculated for Moldova (IONAC, 2006), Dobrudja (IONAC & CIULACHE,
2007), the Equivalent Effective Temperature (EET) for the Black Sea Shore (IONAC, 2007), Wind Cooling Power for the
Danube Delta (IONAC & CIULACHE, 2004), THI was analysed for Moldova (LEONTIE et al, 2008), Oltenia Plain
(VLĂDUŢ, 2011), skin and lung stress for Suceava Plateau (TEODOREANU & MIHĂILĂ, 2012), tropical and combined
heat stress for the main cities from the Romanian Plain (MICU et al., 2013). Thus, bioclimatic resources are quite important in
relation with our wellbeing state.
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VLĂDUŢ Alina
The Getic Subcarpathians represent the hilly relief unit located between the Carpathian Mountains in the north
and the Getic Piedmont in the South. Due to the local factors of influence, such as location in the south-western part of
the country, proximity of the mountainous area, altitudinal range, exposure to certain air masses, etc., they display
certain climatic particularities in terms of temperature, humidity, wind and precipitation patterns. Climatic parameters
play an extremely important role for the state of comfort or discomfort experienced by the human body. The main
bioclimatic indexes were calculated based on mean monthly values of air temperature, vapour pressure, wind speed and
relative humidity. The data, obtained from four stations located in the area of interest, cover a mean period of forty
years (1971-2010) (Fig. 1, Table 1).
Figure 1. Location of the meteorological stations within the Getic Subcarpathians.
Table 1. Geographical coordinates of the considered meteorological stations.

No. Station Altitude (m) Latitude Longitude
1. Apa Neagră 258 44°53` 44°53`
2. Târgu Jiu 203 23°42` 23°42`
3. Polovragi 531 45°00` 45°00`
4. Râmnicu Vâlcea 237 22°52` 22°52`
The cooling power of wind represents the amount of heat (calories) a body at a temperature of 36.5°C loses per
cm2 per second. The formula of this index was initially proposed by Siple & Passel (1945) and then, in 1974,
BEÇANCENOT, based on the values of the cooling power of wind, introduced the skin stress index (Table 2). The
cooling power of wind was calculated according to the following formula:
P = (10 + 10.45 - v) x (33-t), where:
2
P - cooling power expressed in kcal/m /h;
v – wind speed (m/s);
t – air temperature (°C);
33-t - air temperature measured in the meteorological shelter reported to conventional threshold 33°C.
Table 2. The cooling power of wind (kcal/m2/h), skin stress index and its significance.
Cooling power
Stress skin index Type of stress
(kcal/m2/h)
0-149 (-2) hypotonic Stress induced by triggering thermolysis
in summer
150-299 (-1) hypotonic Stress induced by triggering thermolysis
in summer
300-599 0 relaxing Thermoregulation is not necessary
600-899 (+1) hypertonic Stress induced by triggering
thermogenesis in winter
>1500 (+4) hypertonic Stress induced by triggering
Source: BEÇANCENOT, 1974
Thus, there are three main types of time according to the values of the cooling power of wind:
0 – 299 – hypotonic index (characteristic in summer when thermolysis is triggered);
300 – 599 – relaxing index (optimum values of temperature and wind for the human body);
600 – 1500 – hypertonic index (characteristic in winter, when thermogenesis is triggered).
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Pulmonary stress index is based on water vapour pressure expressed in mb and it was introduced by
BEÇANCENOT (1974). The correlations are rendered in Table 3. When water vapour pressure is below 7.5 mb, the
stress is expressed by the tendency of dehydration or molecular concentration of the blood (usually in winter) and when
it is above 11.7 mb, the stress is manifested by the tendency of hydration and dilution of plasma (summer)
(TEODOREANU & MIHĂILĂ, 2012). The values between 7.5 and 11.6 mb indicate a balanced or equilibrated stress.
Table 3. Pulmonary stress index based on vapour pressure (mb).

Vapour pressure (mb) Pulmonary stress index Type of stress
0-4.0 (+2) Dehydrating, in winter
4.1-7.4 (+1) Dehydrating, in winter
7.5-11.6 0 Equilibrated
11.7-15.9 (-1) Hydrating, in summer
16-21.1 (-2) Hydrating, in summer
The total bioclimatic stress is calculated according to the formula:

TS = SS + PS (BEÇANCENOT, 1974; TEODOREANU, 2002)
Table 4. Stimulation degree of the climate according to the values of bioclimatic stress.
Sum of positive stress Stimulation degree
<5 0
5-10 1
10-15 2
15-20 3
20-25 4
>25 5
The temperature equivalent to the wind cooling power represents the effective temperature air would reach at
certain wind speeds. The formula is:
T pr = [33 + (Td – 33) x (0.474 + 0.454√v – 0.0454v)], where
Td = air temperature (measured at the dry bulb thermometer) in °C
v = wind speed in m/s
The physiological effects, depending on the intensity of the caloric losses experinced by a human body, are
rendered in Table 5.
Table 5. The cooling power of wind, temperature equivalent to the wind cooling power and their physiological effects.
Wind cooling power – Pr Temperature equivalent to the wind cooling power
Physiological effects
(W/m2) – Tpr (°C)
Pr = 200 – 400 Tpr > +10 Comfort
Pr = 400 – 600 +10 ≥ Tpr >-1 Slight discomfort
Pr = 600 – 800 -1 ≥ Tpr > -10 Increased discomfort
Pr = 800 – 1000 -10 ≥ Tpr >-18 Very cold
Pr = 1000 – 1 200 -18 ≥ Tpr >-29 Hypocaloric stress
Pr = 1200 – 1 400 -29 ≥ Tpr >-50 Risk of frostbite in case of prolonged
exposure
Pr > 1400 Tpr ≤-50 Risk of instantaneous frostbite
Source: TEODOREANU & MIHĂILĂ, 2012 apud. IONAC & CIULACHE, 2008
RESULTS
Thermoregulation is triggered by the hypothalamus when our body experiences a temperature increase or
decrease in order to maintain the inner temperature constant (36.5°C according to the majority of studies). In relation to
the external stressors, body temperature mainly depends on air temperature, humidity (water vapour pressure, relative
humidity) and wind speed. The favourability of the climatic conditions of a certain region for different activities is
better highlighted by bioclimatic indexes.
3.1 Skin stress index is emphasized by the values of the cooling power of the wind. The values indicating an
ideal climate from this point of view are between 300 and 600 kcal/m2/s, meaning thermoregulation is not necessary.
The area of the Getic Subcarpathians generally display favourable conditions determined by the ‘shelter’ effect
developed at the foot of the mountains – low wind speed and moderate temperatures during the year. According to the
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VLĂDUŢ Alina
mean monthly values, at least six months, generally during the warm half of the year, the climate is relaxing, triggering
no thermoregulation (Fig. 2).
The most favourable conditions are registered at the stations located closer to the mountains, namely Polovragi
and Apa Neagră, where all the values are above the threshold of 300 kcal/m2/s. Thus, starting with April till October,
the skin stress index is 0 at the aforementioned stations. In case of the other stations, the pattern is slightly different.
Thus, the period characterized by the 0 skin stress index is interrupted by a period marked by hypotonic stress (the
cooling power of wind is below 300 kcal/m2/s), overlapping the hottest part of the summer months. However, even if
thermolysis is triggered, the hypotonic stress is reduced, -1, which means that the human can easily lose heat. The
period characterized by a relaxing climate also starts earlier, by the end of March at Râmnicu Vâlcea and the beginning
of April at Târgu Jiu, and ends later in the first case (mid-November). In the months of the cold half of the year,
thermogenesis is necessary, within the entire studied region. The most stressful month is January, the values of the
cooling power of the wind being close to the upper threshold of 900 kcal/m2/s, but they correspond to a reduced
hypertonic stress of +1.
Râmnicu Vâlcea Polovragi
Hypertonic
stress Hypertonic Hypertonic
Relaxing Hs stress stress
Relaxing Relaxing
climate climate climate
Hypotonic
stress
Târgu Jiu Apa Neagră
Hypertonic Hypertonic Hypertonic Hypertonic

stress stress stress Relaxing stress
Relaxing Relaxing
climate climate climate
Hs
Figure 2. The cooling power of the wind and the skin stress index within the Getic Subcarpathians.
3.2 Temperature equivalent to the wind cooling power can be used to complete the general image
emphasized by the wind cooling power index. Thus, the values of index underline an increased territorial uniformity.
Comfort state, values of Tpr > +10°C, characterizes the interval April – October within the entire area of study.
November and December are months characterized by a slight discomfort, while January by increased discomfort.
However, the values of Tpr in January are close to the -1°C threshold, which means that the state of discomfort is not
that high (Table 6).
Table 6. Monthly average values of the temperature equivalent to the wind cooling power within the Getic Subcarpathians.
STATION J F M A M J J A S O N D
Râmnicu Vâlcea -1.095 1.021 5.764 11.739 17.015 20.34 19.74 19.27 16.44 10.86 5.36 0.86
Polovragi -1.47 -0.114 0.6 11.2 16.91 20.15 21.95 20.99 16.32 10.62 4.27 -0.23
Târgu Jiu -1.61 0.644 6.37 13.17 18.72 22.26 24.33 22.7 17.29 11.19 4.67 -0.15
Apa Neagră -2.163 -0.128 5.42 12.18 18.02 22.09 23.62 22 17 10.71 4.29 -0.56
Comfort Slight discomfort Increased discomfort
3.3 Lung stress index is obtained based on the water vapour pressure as a smooth respiratory exchange
depends on it (TEODOREANU, 2002). Thus, the values of the vapour pressure between 7.5 and 11.6 mb indicate a
balanced stress or no stress. The values below 7.5 mb stand for a dehydrating stress, mainly experienced during the cold
months of the year, when the drier air determines a dehydration of the mucosae, inclusively at pulmonary level. The
values above 11.7 mb, characteristic to the warmer months, determine the reverse phenomenon, namely hydration of the
mucosae. According to the mean monthly values of the water vapour pressure, the Getic Subcarpathians display an
190
increased similarity. Thus, a balanced stress is generally characteristic to spring and autumn months – April (also May
at Apa Neagră) and October and November (except for Polovragi where only October presents a balanced stress).
The highest number of months characterized by a balanced stress, 4, is registered in the west, while the lowest,
2, in the central-northern part of the studied region. Dehydrating stress is characteristic to the interval December –
March at Râmnicu Vâlcea and Târgu Jiu, corresponding to the 4th coldest months, while in the west, at Apa Neagră, the
interval overlaps only winter months. The highest number of months with dehydrating stress is registered at Polovragi,
the interval starting with November and ending with March. However, there are no differences in terms of stress
intensity, the values being similar in all the cases, +1.
The period with hydrating stress is common at all the stations, namely May – September, covering 5 months. In
this case, there are registered differences between months and stations. Thus, only May and September display a slight
hydrating stress, -1, at all the stations, as well as June, with the exception of Apa Neagră, where the stress is moderate. July
and August generally have a moderate hydrating stress, -2, except for the same station, Apa Neagră, where the stress is
increased, -3 (Fig. 4).
Apa Neagră Târgu Jiu
Polovragi Râmnicu Vâlcea
Hydrating stress Balanced stress Dehydrating stress

Figure 4. Lung stress index within the Getic Subcarpathians.
3.4 Total bioclimatic stress index is obtained by adding all the positive monthly values of both skin stress
index and lung stress index. This, according to the studies made for the Romanian territory, it displays the highest value
in the mountains (over 100) and the lowest (under 30), in the hilly area of the Subcarpathians (TEODOREANU, 2012).
In the region of the Getic Subcarpathians, this pattern is maintained, namely the values of this index are below 30. The
highest value is registered at Polovragi, 11 conventional units (stimulation degree 2), which corresponds to a moderate
stimulation degree of the climate, while at the rest of the stations, the stimulation degree is 1. The values of the total
bioclimatic stress index indicate that the region is highly favourable for human activities (Table 7).
Table 7. Total bioclimatic stress and the stimulation degree of the climate within the Getic Subcarpathians.
Sum of positive Stimulation degree of
Station Skin stress index Lung stress index
stress the climate
Râmnicu Vâlcea 4 4 8 1
Polovragi 6 5 11 2
Târgu Jiu 5 4 9 1
Apa Neagră 6 3 9 1
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VLĂDUŢ Alina
CONCLUSIONS
Compared to other hilly regions of the country, bioclimatic stress within the Getic Subcarpathians is reduced
due to the action of the local factors on the background of the general climatic factors. However, as the analysis was
based on mean values (temperature, wind speed, water vapour tension), there was emphasized only the average
situation. There are cases, when temperature increase or decrease for example, greatly reduce thermal comfort even in
this region, climate becoming a stressor for human heath state. Generally, the spring and autumn months are the least
stressful for the human body, referring both to skin and lung stress. With reference to the extreme seasons, winter and
summer, lung stress is more pronounced in summer (hydrating stress), especially at lower altitudes, compared to winter
when the stress is slight within the entire region. Skin stress is especially felt in the months of the cold season, but the
values indicate a slight hypertonic stress (+1). Hypotonic stress is registered only in July and August at lower altitudes.
The temperature equivalent to the wind cooling power also indicates a state of comfort from April till October.
November, December and February are months characterized by a slight discomfort, while January is classified as
month with increased discomfort, but the values of the index are close to the slight discomfort threshold. Consequently,
the stimulation degree of the climate is 1 except for Polovragi, the station located at the highest altitude, where the
stimulation degree is 2. The use of bioclimatic indexes enabled us to highlight a climate characterized by an increased
degree of favourability for human life and activities.
REFERENCES
BEÇANCENOT J. P. 1974. Premières données sur les stress bioclimatiques moyens en France. Annales de Géographie.
Paris. 83(459): 497-530.
HÖPPE P. 1999. The physiological equivalent temperature – a universal index for the biometeorological assessment of
the thermal environment. Internatinal Journal of Biometeorology. Springer. Berlin. 43: 71-75.
IONAC NICOLETA & CIULACHE S. 2004. Principalele caracteristici bioclimatice ale Deltei Dunării. Geographica
Timisiensis. West University of Timișoara. 13(1): 5-14.
IONAC NICOLETA. 2006. The Heat Stress in Moldavian Counties, Lucrările Seminarului Geografic “Dimitrie
Cantemir”. Edit. Universităţii “Al. I. Cuza” din Iaşi. 26: 53-60.
IONAC NICOLETA. 2007. Main Bioclimatic Characteristics of the Romanian Shore on the Black Sea. Analele
Universităţii Bucureşti, Seria Geografie. Edit. Universităţii Bucureşti: 5-16.
IONAC NICOLETA & CIULACHE S. 2007. The bioclimatic stress in Dobrudja. Present Environment and Sustainable
Development. University “Al. I. Cuza” Iași. 1: 160-178.
LEONTIE L., TIMOFTE A., BOSTAN DIANA CORINA, BOSTAN S. 2008. ITU – Temperature Humidity Index
between Comfort and Discomfort. Recorded Values in 2007 Summer for Moldavia Region. Present Environment
and Sustainable Development. University “Al. I. Cuza” Iași. 2: 267-271.
MATZARAKIS A., MAYER H., IZIOMON M. 1999. Heat stress in Greece. Applications of a universal thermal index:
physiological equivalent temperature. Internatinal Journal of Biometeorology. Springer. Berlin. 43: 76-84.
MICU DANA, HAVRIŞ LOREDANA, DRAGOTĂ CARMEN SOFIA 2013. Detection of Urban Summer Warming in
Temporal Change of Heat Stress-Related Indices in the Romanian Plain Region. Romanian Journal of
Geography / Revue Roumaine de Geographie. Romanian Academy of Bucharest. 57(2): 105-117.
PEPI W. J. 1987. The Summer Simmer Index. Weatherwise. WIT Press. London. 40(3): 1-247.
SCHARLAU K. 1950. Einführung eines Schwülemasstabes und Abgrenzungvon Schwülezonendurch sohygrothermen.
Erdkunde. Springer. Berlin. 4: 188–201.
TEODOREANU ELENA. 2002. Bioclimatologie umană. Edit. Academiei Bucureşti. 216 pp.
TEODOREANU ELENA & BUNESCU IULIA 2007. Thermal Comfort. Present Environment and Sustainable
Development. University “Al. I. Cuza” Iași. 1: 135-142.
TEODOREANU ELENA & MIHĂILĂ D. 2012. Is the Bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau Comfortable or
Uncomfortable? Analysis Based on Wind Cooling Power Index and Skin and Lung Stress Index. Present
Environment and Sustainable Development. Iași. 6(1): 229-251.
TEODOREANU ELENA. 2012. Some landmarks of the Danube Delta Bioclimate. Water resources and wetlands.
Conference Proceedings. Tulcea: 331-333.
VLĂDUŢ ALINA. 2011. Temperature – Humidity Index (THI) within the Oltenia Plain between 2000 and 2009. Forum
Geografic – Studii şi cercetări de geografie şi protecţia mediului. Edit. Universitaria Craiova 10(1): 149-156.
Vlăduţ Alina
University of Craiova, Geography Department,
Al. I.Cuza Str., No. 13, 200585 Craiova, Romania.
E-mail: vladut_alina2005@yahoo.com
192
STUDY REGARDING THE VARIATION OF TWO ABIOTIC PARAMETERS

(TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY) IN THE AREAS
WITH LIMESTONE SCREE IN THE LEAOTA MASSIVE, 2014
DOROBĂŢ Magdalin Leonard, DOBRESCU Codruţa Mihaela
Abstract. The study contains the partial results of permanent field registrations of the relative temperature and humidity, carried out between
October 5th and November 26th 2014, in two limestone scree areas in Leaota. The registrations have gathered the data at every two hours,
with abiotic parameters’ collecting equipment, installed in boreholes at 0.5 m, 0.75 m and 1 m depths. In Romania, no other monitoring with
permanent data registration at different scree depths was carried out, and less in the case of detritus. The data would be correlated to the
periodically collected wildlife data, as well as with same type registrations, from other crystalline schists and sandstones areas of the massive.
This paper is a part of a wider research context, which aims at determining the way in which the nature of the geological substratum in
Leaota Mountains influences the distribution and dynamics of some biocoenotic components, especially in the case of invertebrates.
Keywords: Leaota, scree, limestones, abiotic parameters, data-logger.
Rezumat. Studiu privind variaţia a doi parametri abiotici (temperatura şi umiditatea relativă) în zone cu grohotiş
calcaros din Masivul Leaota, 2014. Lucrarea conţine rezultate parţiale ale unor înregistrări permanente din teren a doi factori ecologici,
temperatură şi umiditate relativă, efectuate în intervalul 5 octombrie – 26 noiembrie 2014, în două zone cu grohotişuri calcaroase din Munţii
Leaota. Înregistrările au preluat date la fiecare două ore, pe toată perioada, cu aparate pentru colectarea parametrilor abiotici, instalate în
sondaje, la 3 adâncimi diferite: 0,5 m, 0,75 m şi 1 m. În România nu au mai fost efectuate monitorizări cu înregistrare permanentă a datelor la
adâncimi diferite, cu atât mai puţin în grohotişuri. Aceste date vor fi corelate cu elemente de faună colectate periodic, precum şi cu
înregistrări de acelaşi tip, din alte zone cu şisturi cristaline epimetamorfice şi gresii ale masivului. Lucrarea de faţă face parte dintr-un context
mai amplu din punct de vedere al cercetărilor, acestea propunându-şi să determine modul în care natura substratului geologic din Munţii
Leaota influenţează distribuţia şi dinamica unor componente biocenotice, în special nevertebrate.
Cuvinte cheie: Leaota, grohotiş, calcare, parametri abiotici, data-logger.
INTRODUCTION
From the geological perspective, Leaota Massive, though having a relatively reduced area, 336 square
kilometres (BADEA et al., 2001), displays a wide geological diversity, containing magmatic, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks in its structure.
This geological diversity has implications not only regarding the pedology, but also regarding the variation of
the ecological parameters, which are responsible for a wide biocoenotic diversity (NIŢU et al., 2010). From the
category of sedimentary rocks, limestone and sandstones are the ones covering most of the areas in the outcrops of the
massive (BĂLTEANU & ŞTEFĂNESCU, 1987). Limestone is mostly met in the northern side of the massive,
appearing on the surface of the slopes, the ones from the lower flow of Ghimbav, on the Cheii Valley and the Rudăriţa
Valley frequently forming screes at the base of the slopes, as a result of cryogenic disintegration (MURĂTOREANU,
2007; 2009). Sandstones are met in outcrops in the southern side of Leaota Massive.
Described for the first time by Juberthie, Delay and Bouillon in 1980, the superficial underground environment
is defined as being represented by the small areas that appear in the disintegration area of the rock, this environment
being located between the soil horizon crossed by the roots of the plants and the mother-rock (parental), which can be
limestone or other type (NAE, 2010). The superficial underground environment appears as a consequence of the
friability of the rocks, considering the fact that epimetamorphic crystalline schists and limestone display a high friability
degree. Leaota Massive displays large areas covered by superficial underground environment with various petrographic
components, especially as a result of the mechanical disintegration induced by gelivation. Such clast accumulations
appear on the slopes and at their basis, forming detritus. Generally, the superficial underground environment in the
detritus and especially the one in the limestone detritus represent the preferential habitat of a rich invertebrate wildlife,
which includes glacial relics and endemic species, insufficiently known until now (NIŢU et al., 2010).
The detritus communicates with the deep underground environment, namely with the caves, through deep
cracks of the parental rock. It is clearly different from the endogenous environment, which covers it through texture,
high porosity degree and wildlife (NAE, 2010). Thus, detritus functions as hideaway areas for different wildlife species,
depending on the season, and as well as passing bridges from the soil surface toward the deep underground environment
(caves). The ecological importance of detritus is highly significant from this perspective.
Studies in the area of Leaota Massive are pretty reduced and none has had a systematic approach, mostly based
on connections between the substrate and the wildlife and the flora. Due to this reason, individual researches in progress
try to fill a gap regarding this type of studies with an interdisciplinary future, making a comparison between the
limestone screes and the ones with epimetamorphic crystalline schists, from the perspective of the modifications of the
abiotic parameter values, then observing the relation between the variance of the relative humidity and the temperature
193
DOROBĂŢ Magdalin Leonard DOBRESCU Codruţa Mihaela
at different depths within the detritus with different substratum, on one side, and the distribution and the dynamics of
the invertebrate and micro-mammals wildlife on the other side.
Research in Leaota Massive is carried out in 6 stationeries set in screes from epimetamorphic crystalline
schists and limestone screes. One of the criteria at the basis of the choices was the one that these stationaries must be set
in areas where the geological substrate in naturally set, its displacement not resulting from human activities.
The present study regards the stations set in limestone screes.
Station 2 is set on a slope located at maximum 150 m from the right bank of the Ghimbav River (Fig. 2),
approximately 400 m upstream its gorges sector. The stationary was set in a limestone scree area, with a surface of
approximately 5,000 m2. Three surveys were carried out in this stationary: survey 1 was displayed at a depth of 1 m, in
a grassy scree, 883 m altitude, having the following GPS coordinates: N 45° 22´ 43.21”, E 25° 13´ 48.81”; survey 2 was
carried out in nude scree, at a depth of 0.75 m, 879 m altitude, with the following GPS coordinates: N 45° 22´ 43.5”, E
25° 13´ 49.01’’, and survey 3 was set in the forest at the base of the scree, at 0.5 m depth, 860 m altitude, with the
following GPS coordinates: N 45° 22´ 43.42”, E 25° 13´ 49.31”. The inclination of the slope is 42° and the slope
exposure is towards east.
Station 3 is set in a scree area on a limestone slope, on the right of the Rudăriţa creek and of the forest road
(Fig. 2), at 1 km upstream of the area where the Uluce Cave is set. The scree has a surface of approximately 4,000 m2,
with the inclination of the slope of 50°. We have also set 3 boreholes here, as it follows: borehole 1 at a depth of 1 m in
mobile, nude scree, at an altitude of 1,089 m, with the following GPS coordinates: N 45º 24´ 31.8”, E 25° 16´ 13.13”;
borehole 2 at a depth of 0.75 m, at an altitude of 1,079 m, in semi-fixed and grassy scree with the following GPS
coordinates: N 45º 24´ 31.2”, E 25° 16´ 12.13”and borehole 3 at a 0,5 m depth, in fixed screen, in forest area, at an
altitude of 1,081 m, with the following coordinates: N 45º 24´ 31.5”, E 25° 16´ 13.72”.
Barber traps were set in the stationaries, in the boreholes, in order to register the temperature (TºC) and relative
humidity (Ur) data. We also used DT 171 data-loggers, with continuous data reception. The data reporting period can be set,
thus we set the devise for collecting the ecological factors values from 2 to 2 hours. These were suspended, one by one in
PVC tubes, over the Barber trap, using a nylon wire, whose superior end is tied to the end of the PVC tube (Fig. 1) (NIŢU et
al., 2010).
Figure 2. Geological map of Leaota Mountains (MURĂTOREANU, 2009)

with the placement of the ecological stationaries.: 1. gravels, sands, sandy clays (Late Holocene); 2. Marne, silt, massive sandstones,
conglomerates (Vraconian - Cenomanian); 3. Sandstones coarse clay sandstones, conglomerates ofBucegi, limestone breccia (Albian); 4.Limestone,
dolomitic limestone and dolomite, radiolarians (Late Jurassic); 5. Marls, sandstones, conglomerates (Turonian - Senonian); 6. Leaota Series - phyllite,
schists with chlorite - sericite (Upper Proterozoic - Palaeozoic); 7. Cumpăna Series – metablastic migmatites (Late Anteproterozoic); 8. Granite
(Palaeozoic igneous); 9. magmatic metablastic; 10. Trough spindle; 11. Anticline spindle. (after Geological map 1: 200,000 – Braşov Sheets)
Placement of stationary 2 – Ghimbav; Placement of stationary 3 – Rudăriţa.
194
Figure 1. Abiotic parameters monitoring in the superficial underground environment (NIŢU et al., 2010).
The results of the monitoring of the abiotic factor for the limestone screes in Leaota Massive supposed the
centralization and interpretation of 618 pieces of data collected from each data-loggers that were set in the six
boreholes, which are displayed in figures 3 – 8.
The maxim temperature value, at 1 m depth, in borehole 2, Ghimbav station, was 11.8º C, registered between 2:00
and 10:00 a.m., on the 16th of October 2014, a single time, at 4:08 p.m., but we consider that the values is irrelevant due to the
fact that, at that hour, we took the Barber trap out of the borehole and we influenced the accuracy of the registration. Due to
this reason, we consider the maximum value of 10.3º C, from the 16th of October 2014, 10:08 p.m., preceded by the value of
10.2º C, registered on the 15th of October 2014, 10 p.m. and the 16th of October 8:08 p.m. and succeeded by the value of 10.1º
C, registered on the 17th of October 2014 between 12 a.m. and 6 a.m.
At a depth of 0.5 m, in borehole 3, the maximum value of the temperature reached 10.7º C, but it was
measured during different time periods: the 14th of October, 10:50 p.m. – the 15th of October 2014, 4:50 a.m., the 16th
of October, 10:50 p.m. – the 16th of October 2014, 6:50 a.m. and the 16th of October 2014, 10:50 p.m. – the 17th of
October 2014, 4:50 a.m. (Figs. 3, 4, 5).
At station 3 – Rudăriţa, at 1 m depth (Fig. 6), the maximum value of the temperature was 12.1º C, on the 16th
of October 4:25 p.m. Moreover, the temperature did not go below 11 ºC, from the 13th of October 2014, 10:25 p.m. to
the 18th of October 2014, 10:25 p.m.
At 0.75 m deep (Fig. 7), the borehole 2, registrations showed that the maximum temperature of 15.2 °C was
recorded on the 12th of October 2014, at 1:16 p.m. From the 13th of October, 11:16 a.m. to the 16th of October 2014,
5:16 p.m., the temperature did not go below 13ºC, reaching a maximum value of 13.7ºC.
In borehole 3, at 0.5 m deep (Fig. 8), the maximum temperature was 11.8º C, from the 16th of October 2014,
10:06 p.m. to the 17th of October 2014, 10:06 a.m. Also, from the 13th of October, 6:06 p.m. to the 18th of October 2014,
6:06 a.m., the temperature did not go below 11ºC.
Regarding the relative humidity, its values varied between 81% and 100% in the 6 boreholes.
Figure 3. T, RH parameters recording, in station 2 – Ghimbav, borehole 1 – 1 m.
195
Figure 4. T, RH parameters recording in station 2 – Ghimbav, borehole 2 – 0.75 m.
Figure 5. T, RH parameters recording in station 2 – Ghimbav, borehole 3 – 0.5 m.
Figure 6. T, RH parameters recordings in station 3 – Rudăriţa, borehole 1 – 1 m.

196
Figure 7. T, RH parameters recording in station 3 – Rudăriţa, borehole 2 – 0.75 m.
Figure 8. T, RH parameters recording in station 3 – Rudăriţa, borehole 3 – 0.5 m.
CONCLUSIONS
Temperature data registered in the boreholes in Ghimbav, but also in the ones in Rudăriţa show that the daily
temperature variation in all the boreholes, irrespective of their depth, is low. Moreover, it has been observed that, in the
case of longer time periods, even of several days, temperatures oscillate insignificantly, within less than 1 Celsius
degree. Most of the temperature maximum values were registered between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m.
These two conclusions can be explained through the temperature inertia of limestone, the temperature relief being a
slow process, during the night. No borehole has reported negative values of temperature, irrespective of the depth.
High values of the relative humidity were registered in all the studies limestone screes, on both slopes, in every
borehole, irrespective of their depth. The 100% value of the registered relative humidity can be explained by the
formation of sweat in the boreholes tubes and the influence exerted upon the humidity sensors of the
thermohygrometers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper of Magdalin Leonard Dorobăţ was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/138963 -
PERFORM, co-financed by the European Social Fund – Investing in People, within the Sectorial Operational
Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013.
197
REFERENCES
BADEA L., NICULESCU G., ROATĂ S., BUZA M., SANDU M. 2001. Unităţile de relief ale României. I. Carpaţii
Meridionali și Munţii Banatului. Edit. Ars Docendi. Bucureşti. 151 pp.
BĂLTEANU D. & ŞTEFĂNESCU IOANA. 1987. Geografia României, Carpaţii Românești și Depresiunea
Transilvaniei. Edit. Academiei R. S. R. București. 3: 185-191.
MURĂTOREANU G. 2007. Tipuri de Versanţi în Munţii Leaota. Revista Geografică. Analele Universității București.
13: 98-104.
MURĂTOREANU G. 2009. Munţii Leaota. Studiu de geomorfologie. Edit. Transversal. Târgovişte. 182 pp.
NAE A. I. 2010. Biospeleological Research in Piatra Craiului Mountains. Ph. D. Thesis, Speleological Institute of the
Romanian Academy. Bucharest. 304 pp.
NIŢU E., NAE A., GIURGINCA A., POPA I. 2010. Invertebrate communities from the mesovoid shallow substratum
of the Carpatho-Euxinic area: Eco-faunistic and zoogeographic analysis. Travaux de l’Institut de Spéologie
“Emile Racovitza”. Bucharest. 94: 41-79.
***. 1968. Harta Geologică 1: 200000. Foaia Braşov. Notă explicativă de D. Patrulius, R. Dimitrescu, N. Gherasi.
Bucureşti: 139 pp.
Dorobăţ Magdalin Leonard, Dobrescu Codruţa Mihaela

University of Pitești, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Natural Sciences,
Târgu din Vale Street, No. 1, Pitești, Romania.
E-mail: coltanabe@yahoo.com
E-mail: codrutza_dobrescu@yahoo.com

198
DIYADIN (AGRI REGION, TURKEY) - A POORLY KNOWN THERMAL ECOSYSTEM
KERKMANN Gina Raluca
Abstract. The thermal water ecosystem of Diyadin (Agri region) is poorly known in terms of biodiversity, as only few bacteria species were
identified and some of their specific enzymes were isolated. However, the geological structure of this old inactive volcanic zone as well as
the chemical composition of the thermal water characterized by therapeutic properties and temperatures up to 64°C were thoroughly studied.
Diyadin zone has been insufficiently capitalized from the tourist and industrial viewpoints so far, but the discovery of some gold deposits
seems to revitalize its economy. The present paper is the first one dedicated to the ciliates living in surface thermal waters; 9 species have
been identified till present. The data are preliminary and they will be completed with other data after the inventory of other protozoa and
metazoa species, which could represent new taxa or varieties of the species originating in the Murat River and adapted to the special abiotical
factors of this ecosystem.
Keywords: Diyadin, ciliates, gold deposit, tourism potential.
Rezumat. Diyadin (Regiunea Agri, Turcia) – un ecosistem termal puţin cunoscut. Ecosistemul apelor termale de la Diyadin
(zona Agri, Turcia) este puţin cunoscut din punctul de vedere al biodiversităţii, fiind identificate câteva specii de bacterii şi izolate enzime
specifice ale acestora; în compensaţie însă, structura geologică a acestei zone vulcanice inactive a fost relativ bine studiată ca şi compoziţia
chimică a apelor cu proprietăţi terapeutice şi temperaturi de până la 64°C. Zona, insuficient pusă în valoare din punct de vedere turistic şi
industrial, prezintă mai nou interes economic deosebit prin descoperirea unor zăcăminte aurifere. Lucrarea de faţă este prima dedicată
ciliatelor din sedimentele apelor termale de la suprafaţă, fiind identificate primele nouă forme; datele sunt preliminare urmând a fi completate
după inventarierea altor specii de protozoare şi metazoare care pot reprezenta specii noi pentru ştiinţă sau varietăţi ale unor specii posibil
provenite din Râul Murat şi adaptate la factorii abiotici speciali ai ecosistemului.
Cuvinte cheie: Diyadin, ciliate, depozit aurifer, potenţial turistic.
INTRODUCTION
Diyadin (Kürtçe: Giyadîn) is a district situated in the eastern part of Turkey (geographical province Dogu
Anadolu, (Fig. 1 – Map; Figs. 2-3a, b, c) in Agri region, only 7 kilometres from the town with the same name. Situated
at an altitude of 1,925 metres, it registered a total population of 45,395 inhabitants in 2013, which means 26,735
inhabitants more than in 1965, when the first official population census was made (Wikipedia, 2013; 2015).
Despite the reduced number of inhabitants, Diyadin started to present interest since 1998 due to its location
within an area with thermal waters; for us, the area is very important as it represents the place where the Murat River
springs from and it has interesting ecosystems.
We have not found many papers regarding the ecosystem of the thermal waters from Diyadin; however, there
were made some well-documented research studies about the geological structure of the area and the chemical
composition of thermal waters (ZAMAN et al., 1999; PASVANOGLU, 2013), as well as about some bacteria species
and the isolation of certain enzymes specific to their composition (BELDUZ et al., 2003; SANDALLI et al., 2008;
BEKLER et al., 2014). As there have not been found any information regarding the protozoa and metazoa biodiversity
in Diyadin area, we consider that our paper is original.
Geo-chemical characteristics.
The city is located within a former volcanic area; the history of the formation of these complex geological
structures is ancient, because Turkey is located along the Alpine Himalayan orogenic belt that formed parts of the
Tethys Ocean with grabens, faults, volcanoes and hydrothermal alteration zones that control its geothermal activity. The
continental crust of Turkey was broken up as the Anatolian subplate in Pliocene and has been displaced northwards
since Oligo-Miocene by the movement of the Arabian plate. The fragmentation allowed lava intrusion in Eastern
Anatolia and resulted in extensive volcanic activity and the formation of several stratovolcanoes including Agri
(Diyadin is situated in Agri region n.a.).
Diyadin geothermal area is located in a zone which is extensively affected by neotectonic movements. Several
strike – slip faults and tensional fractures developed in association with N-S regional compression.
The Diyadin lava is 20-30 m thick and is exposed along the Murat River. From the fissures of the volcanic
lava, there emerge thermal waters with temperatures varying between 30 and 64°C and a flow between 0.5 and 10 l/s
(PASVANOGLU, 2013).
The interest to study the region increased especially after 1999, when a team of geography professors from
Attatürk Üniversity of Erzurum started their researches revealing the first geological and chemical information.
The aforementioned work is remarkable due to the excellent maps of Diyadin area, rigorous description of the
geological substrate (result of the drillings) and complex tables about the chemical composition of the thermal water
(ZAMAN et al., 1999).
199
As a result of the scientific investigation, there were established four important categories of thermal waters; three of
them come from a depth between 2,049 to 1,946 meters, present a pH between 6.26 and 7.90 and temperatures values from 30
to 76°C. The fourth category is a cold stream coming from 1,925 meters deep, rich in HCO-3, Ca 2+ and Mg2+.
The thermal waters contain many chemical elements, but the highest concentrations are registered by Ca2+
(over 762 mg/L) and HCO3- over 2,013 mg/L. The gas composition of the thermal springs is mainly represented by
CO2, but, there are also present CH4, O2N2, C2H6 and H2S in smaller concentrations (PASVANOGLU, 2013).
A recent study emphasized the presence of gold into the sediments from the region; the concentration of gold
into the 699 analysed samples varied between 0.005 and 10.1 ppm (COLAKOGLU et al., 2011).
DIYADIN – REGION WITH INDUSTRIAL AND TURISTIC POTENTIAL
As a result of different researches regarding the chemical composition of Diyadin thermal waters and also due
to the touristic potential of the region – represented by natural landscapes less affected by anthropogenic influences - in
1998, the works for the thermal water catchment started.
In 1996, there were built the first open pools with thermal water for tourists using the water brought through
pipes from a depth of 25 meters (ZAMAN et al., 1999). Unfortunately, there were not made further investments to
extend the pools or to modernize them (Figs. 5; 6).
Today, the touristic investments in Diyadin thermal region are poor, only six hotels (two and three stars) each
of them having an accommodation capacity between 25 and 120 rooms. The reasons for the lack of serious investments
such as five stars hotels could be the poor infrastructure from the main road to Diyadin and present state of the pools
(they are old and need modernization), etc. (Figs. 5; 6) (Dyadinnet 2015).
The year 1998 marked the start of the activity of intensive geothermal exploitation of the region; the drillings
were coordinated by MTA (Directorate of Mineral research and Exploitation of Turkey); six drilling were made in order
to bring thermal water from 215 meters deep at a flow of 420 litre/sec.; today, only one source is functional transporting
the thermal water to the users through a 7 km long pipeline; the temperature of the water delivered to the users is 60°C.
In the same year, ten greenhouses were finished (30 meter length, 10 meter width); there was used the thermal
water from cold source, brought by the pumping system (Diyadin Jeotermal, 2015).
In 2001, it was built a factory for manufacturing liquefied CO2 and dry ice, having a daily production of 100
tons, by a common Turkish-German investment (PASVANOGLU, 2013).
The first phase consisted in a serious documentation study of the scientific papers dedicated to Diyadin thermal
ecosystem; then, it followed a field trip to the pools. Water is brought through pipes to the pools, which were built in 1996,
from the big spring situated 25 meters away; water is permanently discharged from the pools (see the original photos).
During the field trips from May 2014, 30 water and sediment samples were collected from the superficial zone
situated near the big thermal water spring (Figs. 2-6). The present data are preliminary; they will be completed by other
results obtained after studying the species of ciliates in detail, taking samples from different depths, the pools and the
discharge zone, establishing the complete list of metazoa and protozoa species living into sediments, etc.
The study of the ciliates from sediments is made using the same classical methods thoroughly described in other
scientific papers (KERKMANN et al., 2012); the examination was very difficult (in vivo and using vital coloration) because
they are active only at high temperatures (when samples were taken, the average temperature was of about 45 °C). A
temperature increase has as consequence a rapid transition of the species from the active to the cyst stage. For this reason, the
samples were maintained at a constant temperature during the examination with a hot plate (Fig. 7).
Till now, in the sediments of thermal waters from Diyadin, 9 ciliate forms were identified, 6 of them only to
gender. Three of the species are found on the list proposed by Kermann for the Murat River (Agri region)
(KERKMANN, 2014). The rest of the species must be very carefully examined in the future using DNA extraction
techniques in combination with argentic impregnation (DRAGESCO & DRAGESCO-KERNEIS, 1986); they could be
either new species or varieties of common cosmopolite species, having eurytherme valences. There follows a short
description of these species and their ecological characterization.
Colpoda cucullus (Muller 1773) Gmelin 1790
The species was very abundant in the collected samples, their length ranging between 40 and 120 µm,
complying with the limits quoted in the protistological literature (FOİSSNER et al., 1991). The species has cosmopolite
and eurytherme affinities (FOİSSNER et al., 1991); their main food consists in bacteria, flagellates and small algae
(FOİSSNER & BERGER, 1996).
The saprobity degree of an ecosystem indicated by this species varies according to different scientists: thus,
according to Detceheva’s saprobic system (DETCHEVA, 1983 in: FOİSSNER et al., 1991), Colpoda ccullus is oligo-beta-
saprobic but in Foissner’s system, the same species is poly-alpha mesosaprobic (FOİSSNER & BERGER, 1996). The species
200
is eurytherme resisting to temperatures between 0 and 25°C; the identification of the present species in samples with much
higher temperature values than those mentioned in the specialized literature may indicate a new variety of the same species
with thermophilic affinities; further genetic and protistological studies will confirm this hypothesis.
Colpoda cucullus presents an increased tolerance to high concentrations of calcium and magnesium
compounds (Ca2+ 12-65.7 mg/l; Mg2+ 6.1-15.6 mg/l), as well as to high concentrations of HCO3- ions (23.5-298.9 mg/l)
(DETCHEVA, 1983 in: FOISSNER et al., 1991). The values of the calcium and magnesium ions registered in case of
the Murat River (Diyadin area is directly connected to it), which are within the limits established for Colpoda cucullus
(Ca2+ 44.2 mg/l, Mg2+ 10.4 mg/l) (PASVANOGLU, 2013, table 1, p. 71) lead us to the hypothesis of a possible
migration of the species from the river towards the area of the thermal springs together with their adaptation to the
abiotic factors specific to this ecosystem.
It belongs to the BOD saprobic community (FOISSNER & BERGER, 1996), which indicates the influence of
the soil in this particular ecosystem, fact confirmed by the topography of the zone where the thermal facilities are
located, including the discharge points that emerge on the superficial soil layer (Fig. 7).
Colpoda steinii Maupas 1883
The length of the samples is between 10 and 60 µm (FOİSSNER & BERGER, 1996) and the samples taken
from the sediments from Diyadin area are within these limits. The species is found in water with pH between 4.8 and
5.0; it is eurytherme, 1.0-14.4°C, and tolerates the presence of hydrogen sulphide at concentrations between 0 and 0.5
mg/l (FOISSNER et al., 1991). The hypothesis of its migration from the Murat River and appearance of a variety is
maintained for this species too. The species is cosmopolite (FOISSNER et al., 1991), bacterivore, indicator of alpha to
polysaprobic zones and belongs to the BOD community (FOISSNER & BERGER, 1996) (Fig. 8).
Oxytricha saprobia Kahl 1932
The samples identified in Diyadin ecosystem had an average length of 100 µm, being consistent with the data
cited in protistological literature (FOISSNER et al., 1991, 291-293 pp.). The trophic base is represented by bacteria and
flagellates. Oxytricha saprobia represents a bioindicator of alpha to polysaprobic zone (FOİSSNER & BERGER, 1996).
Another two species belonging to this were identified; the investigations to establish exactly the diagnosis of the species
will be extended in the future.
Urotricha sp.
The number of the specimens belonging to this species was abundant in the examined samples (their length 60-
90 µm); the main food consists in bacteria, small algae and flagellates, but other species are predators. It indicates beta-
mesosaprobic zones and according to Foissner and Berger it belongs to OLI saprobic community (Oligotrichetea)
(FOISSNER & BERGER, 1996). It is an eurytherme species (0-25°C) and resists to variations of the pH between 6.8
and 8.2 (FOISSNER et al., 1991).
Stylonychia sp.
The specimens of this species had low abundance in the samples collected from Diyadin; their length varies
between 75 and 110 µm (the dates from the protistological literature are between 60 and 125 µm) (FOISSNER et al.,
1991). They can resist to temperatures of more than 20°C (FOISSNER et al., 1991), but, according to other authors,
temperature range is between 0 and 25°C (BICK, 1972). Their food diet is omnivore and they are indicators of alpha to
polysaprobic zones (FOİSSNER & BERGER, 1996) (Fig. 9).
Aspidisca sp.
The specimens of this species (without notable abundance) had a maximum length of 50 µm, complying with
data quoted in protistological books (BERGER et al., 1997, pp. 153-158). It is a cosmopolite species, indicating alpha to
polysaprobic degree; its food diet consists in bacteria (FOISSNER & BERGER, 1996).
Spathidium sp.
The abundant species of this genus present a length of 50-250 µm (DRAGESCO & DRAGESCO - KERNEIS,
1986). They are predators, bellowing to BOD saprobic community (FOISSNER & BERGER, 1996). Only few
specimens, with a length of 65-130 µm, were identified in our samples.
CONCLUSIONS
In the examined sediment samples (from the touristic zone) 9 ciliate forms were identified; they are
cosmopolite, eurytherme and six of them were determined only to genus.
Most of the forms are evolved ciliates, having the mouth ciliature very well differentiated from the body
ciliature and organized in complex structures; it is possible that this evolution degree induced their increased adaptative
flexibility ensuring their survival in this ecosystem characterized by specific values of the abiotic factors. The most
recent taxonomical classification of ciliates was extensively discussed in our last scientific paper about ciliates fauna of
the Murat River (KERKMANN, 2014).
The presence of three ciliates species on the list proposed by Kerkmann for the Murat River (Agri region)
(KERKMANN, 2014), as well as the close connection with the Murat River, which springs from Diyadin area, supports
the hypothesis of new species or of certain common species but with thermophile varieties. To confirm this hypothesis,
it is necessary to establish exactly the diagnosis through classical taxonomical methods (argentic impregnations) and
isolation of DNA from ciliates cultures.
201
Diyadin zone presents an increased geothermal, aeolian and touristic potential, which has not been properly
capitalized so far; from the biodiversity point of view, it is a vast research field for all the eventually interested scientists.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We express our sincere gratitude to the staff of Ağrı Ibrahim Çeçen University, especially to the Rector,
Professor Dr. Irfan Aslan, vice rectors Professor Dr. Yücel Ünal and Telat Yanık and the management team of the
Faculty of Arts and Science for their entire support to our research activity in the field of applied ecology.
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202
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Figure 1. Map of Agri region (Wikipedia, 2015). Figure 2. Diyadin landscape – volcanic rocks
and thermal spring (original photo).
a b c
Figure 3a. Details of a thermal spring Figures 3b, c. Diyadin landscape (19).
from Diyadin area (original photo).
Figure 4. Thermal spring emerging at the Figure 5. Swimming pool and the water Figure 6. Samples containing water and
surface (sulphur smell and very hot water) pipe from the source (see photo 1 and 2) sediments from Diyadin thermal springs
(original photo). (original photos). (45°C) (original photo).
203
Figure 7. Amoeba sp. Figure 8. Colpoda steinii Figure 9. Stylonychia sp.

(Diyadin, 35 µm length, original photo). (Diyadin, 55 µm length, original photo). (Diyadin, 110 µm length, original photo).
Kerkmann Gina Raluca

Agri Ibrahim Çeçen University,
Faculty of Arts and Science, Biology Department, Turkey.
E-mail: grkerkmann@agri,edu.tr

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ROMANIAN SALT LAKES: SOME PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL FEATURES

AND COMPOSITION OF BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES
MOLDOVEANU Mirela, FLORESCU Larisa, PARPALĂ Laura,

COJOC Roxana, ENACHE Mădălin
Abstract. The present paper deals with biological studies of natural salt lakes located in the Romanian plain. There were investigated for first
time the halophilic microorganisms (bacteria and archaea) and also phyto- and zooplankton species in relation with physical-chemical
parameters as control factors. The chemical composition of all tested lakes is marked by the abundant presence of chlorides (sodium,
magnesium, potassium) and also some relatively important concentrations of aluminium and strontium detected in the particular case of
Ocnele Mari. The biological diversity was represented by several types of archaea and halophilic bacterial species and some species of
cyanobacteria and diatoms. There were also identified ciliates, rotifers and copepods mainly in the samples taken from Amara and Balta
Albă. These lakes are considered hyposaline, because total chloride concentrations do not exceed 20 g L-1 and sodium appears to be absent.
The results revealed the presence of magnesium and calcium ions and a chloride content that influences the phytoplankton and zooplankton
diversity in these saline environments.
Keywords: salt lakes, halophilic archaea, plankton communities, saline ecosystems, salt biodiversity.
Rezumat. Lacuri sărate din România: caracteristici fizico-chimice și compoziția comunităților biologice. Lucrarea de față
abordează studii biologice în lacuri naturale sărate din Câmpia Română. Au fost investigate pentru prima dată microorganismele halofile
(bacterii și arhee), precum și speciile fitoplanctonice și zooplanctonice, în relație cu principalii factori de control fizici și chimici. Compoziția
chimică a lacurilor testate este caracterizată de prezența abundantă a clorurilor (sodiu, magneziu, potasiu). Au fost detectate, de asemenea,
concentrații importante de aluminiu și stronțiu (în special în cazul Ocnele Mari). Diversitatea biologică a fost reprezentată de câteva tipuri de
arhee și specii bacteriene halofile, precum și specii de cianobacterii și alge diatomee. În probele prelevate din ecosistemele Amara și Balta
Albă au fost identificate ciliate, rotifere și copepode. Aceste lacuri sunt considerate hiposaline, concentrația totală de cloruri nu depășește 20
g L-1 iar sodiul este absent. Rezultatele au relevat prezența ionilor de magneziu, calciu și a clorurilor, factori de control care influențează
diversitatea fitoplanctonului și a zooplanctonului în mediile saline studiate.
Cuvinte cheie: lacuri sărate, arhee halofile, comunități planctonice, ecosisteme saline, biodiversitate halofilă.
INTRODUCTION
Salt lakes attracted researchers in the last period as a spring of novel microorganisms capable to grow and
develop in extreme conditions, namely high ionic strength due to high salt content of water body of such environments.
Following this approach, more than 150 species of halophilic archaea distributed in 40 valid published genera were
found to populate saline and hypersaline environments (MINEGISHI, 2013; OREN, 2013). Regarded initially as low
diversity areas, saline lakes appear to harbour a rich endemic biological diversity represented by brine shrimp Artemia
salina (Linnaeus 1758), brine fly Ephydra, photosynthetic flagellates belonging to the genera Dunaliella, Asteromonas,
Synechococcus and a lot of prokaryotes either Bacteria or Archaea, which represent the predominant organisms
(VENTOSA et. al., 1998). The biodiversity of saline habitats, typical examples of extreme environments, is determined
by several physical-chemical parameters like the chloride content, salinity and iron content, temperature and oxygen
solubility, pH value (HAMMER, 1986; JAVOR, 1983; WILLIAMS, 1998). These parameters act as factors that can
control the diversity towards physiological mechanisms (WILLIAMS, 1998; OPREAN, 2008).
It is difficult to attribute a spectral characteristic of salinity for a salt lake in the absence of generally agreed
classification. On the base of their taste, the lakes are divided in fresh water lakes and salt lakes. The salinity of salt
lakes may be different; for example, in the case of Dead Sea the salinity is an average of 28%, while in Asal Lake from
Africa is 35% (OREN, 1993; 2002a). On the other hand, our previous work (ENACHE et al., 2008) revealed that some
salt lakes from Romania are characterized by salt concentrations varying from 6% (Techirghiol Lake) to 25% (Movila
Miresei; Ocnele Mari). In this frame, a classification would assign salt lakes with salt content over 3g L-1 as hyposaline,
over 20 g L-1as mezosaline and over 50 g L-1 as hypersaline (HAMMER, 1986).
The species richness in salt lakes decreases with the increasing of salinity (WILLIAMS, 1998). Thus, in the
range of salinity bellow 50 g L-1 there could be found vertebrates, invertebrates, angiosperms, macrophytes,
phytoplankton and prokaryotes. Over the salinity of 50 g/l, the vertebrates and angiosperms are not generally able to
survive. On the other hand, at a salt content over 120 g L-1, saline waters harbour only some invertebrates like
Dunaliella sp., sulphate reducing bacteria, cyanobacteria and archaea. At a salinity level between 170-220 g L-1,
sulphate reducing bacteria and cyanobacteria cannot not be found, and over 220 g L-1 the biodiversity is limited only to
Dunaliella sp. and archaea (ENACHE, 2011). In order to cope with high ionic strength from hypersaline and saline
environments, prokaryotes developed two strategies, namely “salt-in” and “compatible solutes” (OREN, 1999; 2002b).
In the first strategy the salts are accumulated in high concentrations inside cells to equivalate the osmolarity with
external environment. The enzymes and proteins present special adaptations i.e. the increasing of acidic amino-acid
205
MOLDOVEANU Mirela FLORESCU Larisa PARPALĂ Laura COJOC Roxana ENACHE Mădălin
residues to their surface (LANYI, 1974; GRAZIANO & MERLINO, 2014). The second strategy is based on the
synthesis or accumulation in the cell of some organic molecules named compatible solutes in order to face external
osmolarity (OREN, 1999).
The salt lakes are widely distributed in Romania, some of them being formed in the operating holes of former
salt exploitations or having a natural origin (GÂŞTESCU, 1971; ENACHE et al., 2012). Some salt lakes are very well
known from microbiological point of view (ŢUCULESCU, 1965) or, in the case of pelogenous lakes, by their use in the
therapy with sapropelic mud (BULGĂREANU, 1996). The study of IONESCU et al. (1998) revealed that in the case of
23 analysed karst and man-made salt lakes “high densities and occurrence frequencies characterize the most
representative species”. In their study, the authors noted the ecological conditions only for three species, namely
Amphora veneta (Kützing 1844), Artemia sp. and Stuckenia pectinata (Potamogeton pectinatus) (Börner 1912)
(IONESCU et al., 1998).
The present paper presents the biological studies of several salt lakes with natural genesis located in the
Romanian plain, being investigated for the first time the presence of halophilic microorganisms both bacteria and
archaea, phytoplankton and zooplankton species in relation with physical-chemical parameters as control factors.
Sampling sites. The water samples have been taken from several Romanian salt lakes as it follows: Amara, located
in Ialomiţa county, approximately 120 km south-east of Bucharest, Balta Albă (White Pool) located at the border between
Buzău and Brăila counties, approximately 150 km south-east of Bucharest, Movila Miresei (Bride’s Hill) located in Brăila
county, approximately 200 km south-east of Bucharest and Ocnele Mari area (High Salt Mines) in the area with the same
name located in the proximity of Râmnicu Vâlcea city, 180 km north-west of Bucharest. The samples have been taken in
summer and autumn period as it follows: the end of June 2013 (Amara sample 1) and the end of August 2013 (Amara sample
2); beginning of August 2013 – Ocnele Mari; beginning of September 2013 – samples from Balta Albă and Movila Miresei.
The physical aspect of the lakes was recorded using a digital camera Canon Power Shot model Pro 1.
Physical-chemical analysis of the water samples. The estimation of pH values, density and chloride content
has been performed following previously described protocols (ENACHE et al., 2000). The content in mono and divalent
cations or anions was determined using a Supermini X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (Rigaku Corporation, Japan),
following the semi quantitative method for light elements analysis in helium atmosphere. 10 ml of the surface water
sample were weighted and placed in the spectrometer. The percent of elements was transformed into mg/ml dates,
considering the weight of the sample (COJOC et al., 2013; NEAGU et al., 2014; PĂCEŞILĂ et al., 2014). The UV-VIS
investigations were performed using a Nano drop spectrophotometer conducted to record the absorbance and protein
content as mg/ml at 280 nm.
Isolation of halobacterial strains. The halobacterial strains were isolated from samples in a MH medium as
described in our previous works (COJOC et al., 2013; NEAGU et al., 2014; PĂCEŞILĂ et al., 2014). Briefly, 1 ml of
the sample was placed in a Petri dish and mixed with 30 ml of the autoclaved molten agar culture medium (cooled to
55-600C). After solidification, the plates were incubated at 370C and 280C for 7-10 days and after this period the
bacterial colonies were counted.
Phyto and zooplankton samples. The phytoplankton and zooplankton samples were taken on water column
with a Patalas Schindler plankton trap, filtered through plankton net mesh with 65µm Ø and preserved in 4%
formaldehyde. Species identification was made using a Zeiss inverted microscope according to the method described by
UTERMÖHL (1958) and specific taxonomic keys.
Amara and Balta Albă salt lakes are included in the European ecological network Natura 2000 for nature
conservation as part in ROSPA 0004 and 0065 and ROSCI005 sites. The recorded data revealed the salinity in
investigated lakes is due to the presence of chloride and sulphur salts with ions from alkaline and alkaline-earth groups.
Table 1 shows that potassium quantities varying from 0.5 mg mL-1 in Ocnele Mari to 12 mg mL-1 in Amara Lake were
present in all tested samples. Similarly, silica was present in a different content in all lakes. In Amara and Balta Albă
lakes the sodium was not identified. In opposition, concentrations of 25 mg mL-1 in Ocnele Mari and 18 mg mL-1 in
Movila Miresei lakes were recorded.
Various chloride concentrations were determined as showed in table 1 arguing to consider the investigated
lakes as hyposaline (Amara and Balta Albă) or hypersaline (Movila Miresei and Ocnele Mari). The water in Amara
Lake contained 21 mg mL-1 sulphur, Balta Albă 7 mg mL-1 and the remaining lakes (Movila Miresei and Ocnele Mari)
contained only traces. The samples taken from Amara and Ocnele Mari presented some magnesium content. The
absence of calcium ions was recorded only in Balta Albă. In the other lakes, the concentration of these ions was
recorded as 2 mg mL-1 in Amara, 0.1 mg mL-1 in Movila Miresei and 4 mg mL-1 in Ocnele Mari. Aluminium was
detected as trace element in all tested samples. Movila Miresei sample harboured phosphorus and bromide content.
Based on these results presented in table 1, salt lakes Amara and Balta Albă could be considered as hyposaline lakes
and Movila Miresei and Ocnele Marias hypersaline.
206
Table 1. The ionic composition and physical-chemical characteristics of the investigated surface water samples from hyposaline
and hypersaline lakes. The presence of fungi is marked by “+”.
Amara – Amara –
Balta Albă Movila Miresei Ocnele Mari
sample 1 sample 2
-1
K (mg mL ) 12 13 11 2 0.5
Si (mg mL-1) 0.04 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.6
S (mg mL-1) 21 21 7 7 0.4
Absorbance at 280 nm 0.18 0.18 0.17 2.6 0.05
Protein content (mg mL-1) 0.2 0.2 0.16 3 0.05
pH 8.6 8.7 9.2 8.9 6.7
Chloride content (g L) 17 15 13 80 252
Density (g mL-1 ) 1.01 1.01 1.02 1.1 1.2
Presence of fungi + + + + +
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1. The physical aspect of the investigated lakes recorded in photo images using a digital camera Canon Power Shot model Pro
1: Lake Movila Miresei (a); Lake Balta Albă (b); Lake Amara – Ialomiţa (c) (original).
The results recorded in table 1 showed a protein content of 0.05 mg mL-1 in Ocnele Mari, 0.16 mg mL-1 in
Balta Albă, 0.2 mg mL-1 in Amara salt lake, and 3 mg mL-1 in the hypersaline lake Movila Miresei. The values observed
for protein content are related with the absence of sodium ions (Amara and Balta Albă salt lakes – hyposaline lakes) and
a low level of chloride content around 15 g L-1. In the case of Movila Miresei and Ocnele Mari (hypersaline lakes) the
protein content is influenced by the presence of sodium ions and high values of chloride content - 80 and 252 gL-1,
207
respectively. Movila Miresei lake is characterized by a green (yellow-green) colour (Fig. 1) influenced by the intensity
of sun light. The presence of algae from Bacillariophyceae and Chlorophyceae contributed to this colour. The water
colour of the other lakes showed no particular aspect being transparent (Balta Albă and Ocnele Mari) or turbid, in case
of Amara, due to human impact by sapropelic mud exploitation and extensive touristic use.
The registered pH values varied from 6.7 in Ocnele Mari to 9.2 in Balta Albă salt lake. The physical-chemical data
presented in table 1 showed that Balta Albă salt lake harbours high salinity and alkalinity, which argue for considering this
lake to have polyextremophilic conditions. The values recorded for density are correlated with the chloride content (Table 1).
There were not observed any significant differences between hyposaline and hypersaline lakes.
The microbiological research revealed that all investigated lakes were inhabited by populations of halophilic
microorganisms, both bacteria and archaea. The sodium ions content in the culture medium influences the number of
total colony forming units (c. f. u.). By increasing sodium content, the number of c. f. u. decreased (Table 2).
Table 2. Distribution of colony forming units number (c. f. u.) in investigated salt lakes.
Strains growing in Strains growing in the
Total c. f. u. Selected Strains
Lakes the presence of bile presence of
number strains number producing H2S
salt chloramphenicol
Amara – sample 2 33x102 18 10 4 1
Balta Albă 43x102 7 4 1 3
Movila Miresei 70x102 10 8 0 7
Ocnele Mari 69 7 5 1 2
Amara hyposaline lake was characterized by a high number of c. f. u. and the absence of magnesium ions. The
hypersaline lakes Movila Miresei and Ocnele Mari are inhabited by a low number of microbial strains and characterized
by the presence of magnesium ions. A similar behaviour is observed in case of Balta Albă hyposaline lake in which
magnesium ions were not present. In spite of having different physical-chemical conditions, the obtained c. f. u. number
is close to previously reported data for several man-made salt lakes from Romania (ENACHE et al., 2008). Fungal
species belonging to Basipetospora or Walemia genera were observed and isolated from all lakes. Several numbers of
microbial strains were selected for further investigations, as showed in table 2. Data from table 2 revealed that
halophilic bacteria are abundant in the investigated lakes dominating the archaeal strains, both in hyposaline or
hypersaline lakes. Four strains isolated from Amara salt lake showed the capacity to grow both in the presence of
sodium deoxycholate and chloramphenicol.
The same behaviour was noted for one strain from Balta Albă and one from Ocnele Mari salt lakes. The
number of strains capable to produce hydrogen sulphide was significant in Movila Miresei. There is noted that such
kind of microbial strains is closely related to the mechanism of sapropelic mud formation (ŢUCULESCU, 1965). The
use of mud for treatment of various diseases constitutes the main economic value of salt lakes in Romania
(BULGĂREANU, 1996; ENACHE et al., 2012).
The investigation of phytoplankton taxonomical structure (Fig. 2) revealed a wide spectrum of cyanobacterial
species in Amara salt lake, characterized by the presence of magnesium and calcium ions, in Balta Albă being detected
only Merismopedia tennuissima (Lemmermann 1898) (Table 3a).
Table 3a. Phytoplankton diversity in investigated hyposaline and hypersaline environments.

Amara Balta Albă Movila Miresei
CYANOBACTERIA
Merismopedia tennuissima (Lemmermann 1898) - + -
Merismopedia sp. + - -
Oscillatoria chalybea F. K. Mertens in G. H. B. Jürgens, 1822 ex M. A. Gomont, 1892 + - -
Gloeocapsa sp. + - -
Chroococcus sp. + - -
Crucigenia sp. + - -
Microcystis sp. + - -
BACILLARIOPHYCEAE
Asterionella formosa (Hassall 1850) - + +
Melosira granulata var. angustissima (Otto Müller 1899) + + +
Navicula sp. + + -
Navicula cryptocephala (Kützing 1844) - + +
Nitzschia acicularis (Kützing) Kuntze 1898 + + -
Nitzschia vermicularis (Kützing) Hantzsch 1860 + - -
Nitzschia spectabilis (Ehrenberg) Ralfs 1861 + - -
Synedra ulna (Nitzsch) Ehrenberg 1832 + + -
Synedra acus Kützing 1844 - + -
Cymbella sp. - + +
Cocconeis placentula Ehrenberg 1838 - + +
Fragillaria sp. - - +
Cyclotella sp. + - -
CHLOROPHYCEAE
Pediastrumduplex Meyen 1829 - + +
208
Pediastrum simplex Meyen 1829 - + -

Pediastrum tetras (Ehrenberg) Ralfs 1845 - - +
Pediastrum sp. + - -
Scenedesmus sp. + + +
Scenedesmus ecornis (C.G. Ehrenberg ex J. Ralfs 1845) R.H. Chodat 1926 - + -
Scenedesmus quadricauda (Turp.) Brébisson - + -
Coelastrum microporum Nägeli in A.Braun 1855 - + -
Keratococcus raphidioides (Hansg.) Pascher 1915 - + -
Crucigenia sp. - + -
Tetraedron muticum (A.Braun) Hansgirg 1888 - + -
EUGLENOPHYCEAE
Phacus sp. + - -
The high salinity of Movila Miresei is reflected in the absence of cyanobacterial species. Diatoms were present
in all lakes with the higher richness in Balta Albă hyposaline lake where aluminium was detected in higher
concentrations than in the other lakes. A similar result was recorded in the case of green algal species (Table 3a).
Phacus sp. was observed only in Amara Lake. Due to the high chloride content in Ocnele Mari, no phytoplanktonic and
zooplanktonic species were recorded.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 2. Phyto- and zooplankton representative species detected in salt lakes: (a) Diaptomidae (Copepoda) – Amara; (b) Keratella
sp. (Rotifera) – Movila Miresei; (c) Epibiont ciliate on Moina salina – Balta Albă; (d) Diaptomidae (Copepoda) – Balta Albă;
(e) Pediastrum duplex and Merismopedia tennuissima – Balta Albă; (f) Artemia salina in Movila Miresei (original).
209
Among the investigated lakes, Amara presented the higher zooplanktonic richness (Table 3b), being
detected protist, rotifer and crustacean species. The distribution of zooplankton species was related to the chemical
composition of lakes, at high chloride content (Movila Miresei) being detected predominantly crustaceans and
cladocerans.
Table 3b. Zooplankton diversity in investigated saline and hypersaline environments.

Amara Balta Albă Movila Miresei
PROTOZOA
Protozoa g. sp. + + -
Flagelata + - -
Testacea + - -
Difflugia sp. + - -
CILIATA
Vorticella sp. + - -
ROTIFERA
Keratella sp. - - +
Cephalodella sp. + - -
Brachionus sp. + - -
Keratella cochlearis Gosse 1851 + - -
Keratella quadrata Mülle, 1786 + - -
Rotifera g. sp. + - -
CRUSTACEA
COPEPODA
Diaptomida
Arctodiaptomus salinus Dada, 1885 nauplia + + +
Arctodiaptomus salinus - copepodits + + -
Arctodiaptomus salinus adults + + +
Harpacticoida
Harpacticoida g. sp. - + -
CLADOCERA
Artemia salina Linnaeus 1758 - - +
Moina salina - + +
Bosmina sp. + - -
The lake Movila Miresei is characterized by the presence of sodium, bromide and phosphorous. On the other
hand, these species were observed in Balta Albă hyposaline lake characterized by the absence of sodium, magnesium
and calcium ions, the salinity of this lake being a consequence of the presence of sulphur salts. These data are
supported also by the relatively high numbers of halophilic microorganisms from this lake capable to produce
hydrogen sulphide (Table 2). In the case of phytoplankton, the species richness appears to be double than in the case
of zooplankton.
The salted environments investigated in this study are represented by salt lakes of natural origin located in the
southern region of Romania. The origin of the salt lakes Balta Albă and Amara is supposed to be a consequence of the
brackish sea evaporation (GÂŞTESCU, 1971). On the other hand, the salt lake from Ocnele Mari appears to have an
anthropogenic origin resulted from the exploitation of the salt deposit in the area.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the investigation from this work, the chemical composition of all tested areas resulted to be marked
by abundant presence of chlorides (sodium, magnesium, potassium) and some relatively important concentrations of
aluminium and strontium in the particular case of Ocnele Mari. Biological diversity was represented mostly by several
types of archaeal and halophilic bacterial species. Several species of Cyanobacteria, Bacillariophyta, Ciliata, Rotifera
and Copepoda were detected mainly in the samples taken from Amara and Balta Albă hyposaline lakes, where the total
chloride concentrations did not exceed 20 g L-1 and sodium appeared to be absent. The data from this study revealed
that the presence of magnesium and calcium ions and the chloride content have the role to control the phytoplankton
and zooplankton populations in these saline environments.
210
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was funded by the project no. RO1567-IBB05/2014 from the Institute of Biology Bucharest of the
Romanian Academy. Authors thank Stela Sofa for technical support.
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Moldoveanu Mirela
Institute of Biology Bucharest, Romanian Academy,
296 Splaiul Independenţei, 060031 Bucharest, P.O. Box 56-53, Romania.
E-mail: mirela.moldoveanu@ibiol.ro
212
BIOACCUMULATION AND EFFECTS OF Zn, Mn AND DITHANE M45

ON CERTAIN LUMBRICIDAE SPECIES (OLIGOCHAETA-LUMBRICIDAE)
BRÎNZEA Gheorghiţa, PĂUNESCU Alina, PONEPAL Cristina Maria
Abstract. The importance of earthworms in the ecosystem functioning has led to many studies on the impact of metals on them. This
study evaluates the effects of Zn, Mn and Dithane M45 fungicide on different species of earthworms sampled from maize cultivated
soils. There were approached: 1. survival rate (%) after applying toxic and correlations between survival rate and toxic
concentrations; 2. initial biomass (g) and biomass resulting from (g) intoxication; 3. bioaccumulation (ppm) of Zn and Mn by
earthworms. There were 5 experimental variants of 5 repetitions each. The concentrations of Zn and Mn were 250 mgkg-1/dry soil
(V1), 200 mgkg-1/ dry soil (V2), 150 mgkg-1/ dry soil (V3), 100 mgkg-1/ dry soil (V4), with the fifth as control variant (V5). Statistics
has revealed that survival rate for the highest concentration of Zn and Mn corresponding to V1, V2 and V3 concentrations, decreased
significantly compared to V5. Initial biomass for the 5 experimental variants ranged between 2.84 g - 4.23 g and after exposure to
toxic concentrations corresponding to V2, V3 and V4 variants it was significantly lower (p <0.05) compared to control variant (V5).
There was a significant positive correlation (Zn=R2=0.793; p<0.0001), (Mn=R2=0.971; p<0.0001) between Dithane M45
concentration used in the experimental variants and quantity of Zn and Mn bioaccumulated by earthworms. The study suggests that
increasing the concentration of Zn and Mn in the soil can be toxic to lumbricidae.
Keywords: Dithane M45, earthworms, survival, biomass, bioaccumulation.
Rezumat. Bioacumularea și efectele Zn, Mn conținut de Dithane M45 asupra unor specii de lumbricide (Oligochaeta-
Lumbricidae). Importanța râmelor în funcționarea ecosistemelor a dus la multe studii privind impactul metalelor asupra râmelor. Acest
studiu evaluează efectele Zn şi Mn conţinut de fungicidul Dithane M45, pe diferite specii de râme prelevate dintr-un teren cultivat cu
porumb. S-a analizat: 1. analiza ratei de supravieţuire (%) după aplicarea toxicului şi corelaţiile ce se stabilesc între rata de supravieţuire şi
concentraţiile de toxic; 2. analiza biomasei iniţiale (g) şi biomasei rezultate (g) după intoxicare; 3. analiza bioacumulării (ppm) cantităţii de
Zn şi Mn de către râme. S-a lucrat cu 5 variante experimentale a câte 5 repetiţii. Concentraţiile de Zn şi Mn au fost de 250 mgkg-1/sol uscat
(V1), 200 mgkg-1/ sol uscat (V2), 150 mgkg-1/ sol uscat (V3), 100 mgkg-1/sol uscat (V4), a 5-a variantă reprezentând varianta martor (V5).
Analiza statistică a datelor privind rata de supravieţuire a scos în evidenţă că, la concentraţia cea mai mare de Zn şi Mn corespunzătoare
concentraţiilor din V1,V2 și V3, se produce o scădere semnificativă a ratei de supravieţuire comparativ cu V5. Biomasa iniţială în cele 5
variante experimentale a fost cuprinsă între 2,84 g – 4,23 g, iar după expunerea la toxic în concentrațiile corespunzătoare variantelor V2, V3
şi V4 a fost semnificativ mai mică (p<0,05) faţă de varianta martor (V5). Între concentraţia de Dithane M45 folosită în variantele
experimentale şi cantitatea de Zn şi Mn bioacumulat de către râme s-a stabilit o corelaţie pozitivă semnificativă (Zn=R2=0,793; p<0,0001),
(Mn=R2=0,971; p<0,0001). Studiul sugerează că o creştere a concentraţiei de Zn şi Mn în sol, poate fi toxic pentru lumbricide.
Cuvinte cheie: Dithane M45, râme, supravieţuire, biomasă, bioacumulare.
INTRODUCTION
Soil is an important natural resource providing habitat and nutrients for plants, animals, soil organisms and
humans. However, human activities, industry and the use of synthetic products (pesticides, industrial waste) can lead to
urban and agricultural soil contamination with metals (McGRATH et al., 2001). Most pesticides are organic
compounds, some are inorganic or mineral compounds, and other pesticides contain Hg, Ca, Cu, Zn or heavy metals
(LAW et al., 1998).
Metals identified in the polluted environment include Cu, Cd, Pb, Cr, Ni, Mn, Hg and Zn. These metals come
mainly from endogenous sources and human activities (NRIAGU & PACYNA, 1988), leading to excessive metal in the
soil. Among these metals, Zn is an essential mineral for health. Zn deficiency can harm plants (BROADLEY et al.,
2007), animals (PRASAD, 2008), even humans. After iron (Fe), it is the only metal present in all classes of enzymes
(BROADLEY et al., 2007). Although zinc is essential for health, it can be harmful when excessive. Soils contaminated
with Zn may contain up to several grams of Zn / kg of dry soil. MA (1982) found that the level of zinc in Lumbricus
rubellus species was generally associated with zinc concentrations in the soil and correlated with zinc concentration in
soils with low pH. At lower pH, the soil absorbs less zinc, making it bioavailable to earthworms. LC50= 80 mg Zn kg-1
dry soil was reported for Eisenia foetida species (SHEPPARD et al., 1993).
Manganese (Mn) is the most abundant metal in the natural environment and an essential microelement for all
living systems. This metal is an essential cofactor to many classes of enzymes, such as oxidoreductases, transferases,
ligases, hydrolases (LAW, 1998). However, soil enrichment with manganese resulting from different activities
endangers terrestrial ecosystems (BORDEAN et al., 2014). Several studies have shown the harmful effects of exposure
to manganese by skin touch and / or by ingesting soil for a wide range of soil invertebrates. Manganese exists in the soil
in a number of oxidation states, i.e., 0, + 2, + 3, + 4, 6, 7 (POST, 1999). Research has focused on the toxic effects of
inorganic compounds containing Mn 2+, Mn 3+ and Mn 4+ ions because they are the most common forms in biological
systems (MILLALEO et al., 2010).
213
BRÎNZEA Gheorghiţa PĂUNESCU Alina PONEPAL Cristina Maria
Earthworms can colonize contaminated soils if climatic conditions, organic matter, soil texture and pH are
appropriate, so that, when organic matter is included in the contaminated soils, earthworms are likely to colonize,
resulting in changes in the soil chemical, biological and physical properties.
It was studied the impact of earthworms in terms of mobility and accessibility of metals and it was shown that
earthworms increase the mobility of metals in soil (MA, 1982). Recent experiments have identified that this may be due
to the impact of earthworms on organic matter degradation and subsequent release of organically bound elements that
dissolve organic acids, lower soil pH and lead to subsequent mobilization of potentially toxic elements (POST, 1999).
Bioaccumulation of metals by earthworms was associated with metal concentrations in soil (SANTORUFO et
al., 2012). Earthworms are widely used in ecotoxicological tests because they contribute to the decomposition of litter
and recycling of organic matter. Since they feed directly with decaying matter and fungi in soil, they provide faster
clues about changes in soils than other animals (COLE et al., 2001; DIDDEN & RÖMBKE, 2001). In addition, they are
suitable for ecotoxicity testing because they are easy to obtain in crops, have relatively short life cycles and are cost
effective (FOUNTAIN & HOPKIN, 2005; LOWE & BUTT, 2007).
The overall objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of zinc and manganese in Dithane M45, on
various species of earthworms sampled from maize cultivated soils.
The specific objectives pursued: 1. survival rate (%) after applying toxic and correlations between survival and
toxic concentrations; 2. initial biomass (g) and biomass resulting from (g) intoxication; 3. bioaccumulation (ppm) of Zn
and Mn by earthworms.
Collection and preservation of lumbricidae. Lumbricidae were sampled from maize cultivated soil, Dobrești,
Furești village, Argeș County, Cândeşti Piedmont, below the mixed deciduous forests. The geographical coordinates
are: (440 56’ 06”N; 250 06’ 28”E). Pedogenetic conditions described a glacis relief on the right side of Cârcinov River,
slightly inclined surface (10°), eastern exhibition and 327 m altitude. Groundwater, 5-10m in depth, had an overall good
drainage. Following the soil profile there were established five pedogenetic horizons (Apcol, AC, C1, C3, C4). The soil
formula was aluviosol coluvic- eutric on coluvo-proluvial deposits, loamy / sandy loam. Lumbricidae have been
sampled manually, (RAW, 1960), randomly on soil levels 30cm in depth, 25/25 cm control sample. To identify species,
earthworms were taken to the laboratory. They were measured up to species level using the stereomicroscope, the
Identification Manual Lumbricidae in Romania (POP, 1949) and A guide to the valid names of Lumbricidae
(Oligochaeta) (EASTON, 1983). Individual biomass of lumbricidae was determined by the analytical balance (g).
Preparation of the testing underlayer. The testing underlayer was prepared according to OECD 207/1984;
OECD (2004). Soil in the maize cultivated area was used as basic underlayer to test earthworms. The underlayer / soil
was air-dried, cleaned of gravel and large debris after sampling. Water content was determined by oven-drying at 105°C
for 8 hours. After determination of humidity the testing underlayer was filled with 1 litre of distilled water. The soil pH
= 6.0 was also measured.
Acclimatization. Experimental samples for acclimatization were prepared before applying the toxic. The
underlayer (soil) sampled from the maize cultivated area was introduced in 800 g glass jars. There were five
experimental variants V1, V2, V3, V4, V5. The fifth was the control variant. There were 5 repetitions for each
concentration. Before inoculation, earthworms were immersed into distilled water to remove excess soil on their body
surface, then they were placed on filter paper to remove the water. Individual biomass (g) on the analytical balance was
also determined. 10 individuals for each variant were introduced in concentrations. After all individuals had entered the
soil, samples were covered with previously drilled lids to let the air penetrate and to prevent water evaporation. Then
they were brought to the climate chamber for 7 days at a temperature of 20°C and constant humidity.
After acclimatization, the samples were removed to check the soil humidity, the survival rate was analysed,
and they were placed again in the pots with underlayer / soil. The fine toxic powder was applied over the soil surface.
The following toxic concentrations were used: V1= 250mgkg-1/dry soil, V2= 200mgkg-1/ dry soil, V3= 150mgkg-1/ dry
soil, V4=100mgkg-1/dry soil, with V5 as the control variant. Concentrations were determined according to specialized
studies starting from LC50 for lumbricidae. After applying the toxic, the samples were placed again in the climate
chamber at a temperature of 20°C with constant humidity for 30 days. Earthworms were not fed throughout the test.
After 30 days, earthworms were removed from the climate chamber and there were analysed: survival rate, individual
biomass and bioaccumulation of zinc and manganese.
Bioaccumulation. After completion of the test it was determined bioaccumulation of Zn and Mn Dithane M45
content by atomic emission spectrometry with inductively coupled plasma (ICP-AES). Variant Liberty 110
spectrometer was used for the quantitative determination of zinc and manganese. The instrument had a 40.68 MHz radio
frequency generator and 0.75m Czerny-Turner monochromator. The instrument operating parameters were: plasma
flow 12L / min, V-Groove nebulizer, rotation pump 15 rpm, 10 sec integration time and automatic background. The
reagents used for the mineralization of the samples were nitric acid (67% -75 ml), Merck hydrogen peroxide (15ml) and
distilled water to bring the 10 ml flasks to their volume, after the mineralization of the samples on the sand bath. To
calibrate the spectrometer there were used five reference solutions of various concentrations obtained by the dilution of
a multi-element standard solution (ICP-AES Etalon multi-element Merck IV solution) with a concentration of 1.000 mg
214
/ l. Dithane M45. According to Regulation (EU) no. 1907/2006, as amended by Regulation (EU) No. 453/2010 and
Regulation (EU) no. 1272/2008, Dithane M45 is contact fungicide containing 80% mancozeb. It is part of the fourth
group of toxicity, dithiocarbamate and thiuram derivatives with broad-spectrum action. It is the most used worldwide
fungicide approved to combat more than 400 diseases in more than 70 crops. By the multi-site action model (interrupts
enzymatic activity in 6 different points), it prevents resistance to pathogen.
Statistical analysis. Statistics of the results was made using SPSS 16 for Windows. For the analysed parameters
Duncan test was applied for analysis of variance and significance threshold p <0.05. It has been drawn the trend line
and the coefficient of determination calculated (RSquare) to illustrate the correlation between toxic concentrations in
the experimental variants and survival rate, the significant correlations between toxic concentrations and the amount of
Zn and Mn bioaccumulated by earthworms.
Species identified and used in the toxic test were: Octodrilus complanatus (Dugès 1828), Dendrobaena
octaedra (Savigny 1826), Octolasion lacteum (Őrley 1885), Lumbricus rubellus (Hoffmeister 1843), Dendrodrilus
rubidus rubidus (Savigny 1826), L. castaneus (Savigny 1826), L. terrestris (Savigny 1826). These belong to the three
ecological groups (epigeic, endogeic, anecic), each of them with an important role in the soil level they populate.
Epigeic species live in litter, consume considerable amounts of crude organic matter and have a wide range of
enzymatic capacities mainly from ingested microflora (CURRY & SCHMIDT, 2007). Endogeic species live in the soil.
They feed mainly on soil organic matter and dead roots. Living roots are rarely eaten by endogeic earthworms
(LAVELLE, 1983). Anecic species feed on plant debris, but live in underground galleries. The behaviour of these
species may vary depending on environmental conditions (EDWARDS & BOHLEN, 1996).
Survival. After the acclimatization period, the survival rate of samples was 100% in all experimental variants.
For the survival rate of individuals and body biomass change there are commonly used tests to determine the impact of
hazardous substances on lumbricidae. Survival analysis is needed to calculate LC50 i.e. to know if concentration of
pollutants causes mortality to 50% of individuals in the population exposed. This is characteristic of a species substance
with a determined exposure time.
Figure 1 shows the values of survival rate in experimental variants after applying the toxic (Dithane M45). Survival
values were 100% in control variant (V5) and V4 (100mgkg-1), so there were no significant differences. Therefore, the lowest
toxic concentration (100 mgkg-1) did not produce a significant change in the survival rate (p = 1). The survival rate in
concentrations of 250 mgKg-1 (V1), 200 mgKg-1 (V2) and 150 mgKg-1 (V3) showed a significant decrease, with average
values ranging from 68% (V1) -78% (V3) compared to control variant (V5-100%) (Table 1). Increasing concentration of
Dithane M45 in V1 (250 mgKg-1) caused a significant decrease in the survival percentage compared to V4, and V5.
Significant regressions between metal concentrations and survival rate were obtained by NAHMANI et al. (2007).
The correlation between survival rate of the 5 experimental variants and toxic concentrations (Fig. 2) indicated
a significant decrease in the survival rate of individuals with increased toxic concentration (R2=(0.646; p<0.0001).
However, in their findings, ADEOLA & HASSAN (2013) stated that growth and development of earthworms exposed
to contamination with various metals were more sensitive than survival.
Figure 1. Survival rate (%) of individuals exposed to intoxication with Dithane M45 in the 5 experimental variants
V1 (250 mg·Kg-1); V2 (200 mg·Kg-1); V3 (150 mg·Kg-1); V4 (100 mg·Kg-1); V5 (control variant).
Bars with the same letters are not significantly different at 5% level, according to Duncan’s multiple range test.
215
Figure 2. Correlation between survival rate of individuals (%), represented by the trend line in the 5 experimental variants exposed
to toxic action (Dithane M45): V1 (250 mg·Kg-1); V2 (200 mg·Kg-1); V3 (150 mg·Kg-1); V4 (100 mg·Kg-1); V5 (control variant).
Biomass. Biomass change is the difference between the initial and final weight of earthworms after exposure
to contaminants. Biomass change is more sensitive than ecological survival (MABOETA et al., 2004; PANDARD et al.,
2006; SANTORUFO et al., 2012).
Average values of initial biomass (Fig. 3) (before applying the toxic) in the experimental variants did not differ
significantly for variants V2, V3, V4 and V5 (p> 0.05). V1 biomass was significantly higher (4.23 g) than all the other
variants (p <0.05) (Table 1). Average values of initial biomass in the 5 experimental variants were between 2.84g-
4.23g (Table 1). Biomass determined after intoxication (Fig. 4) with Dithane M45, in the concentrations corresponding
to variants V2, V3 and V4 was significantly lower (p <0.05) compared to control variant (V5).
V1 biomass values (2.00g) were close to control variant (2.18g). Weight loss in earthworms intoxicated with
Dithane M45 did not exceed 20%. This decrease in biomass may have been due to the fact earthworms were not fed
during the test. This hypothesis corresponds to NAHMANI et al. (2007), who in their studies observed that individual
biomass decreased when no food was provided. HELLING et al. (2000) reported that earthworms receiving food once a
week during the toxicity test showed no weight loss in experimental variants.
SPURGEON et al. (2003) suggest that weight loss should be less than 15%. Also, GONZALO et al. (2013) in
their studies, noted that weight loss of earthworms intoxicated did not exceed 20%.
Figure 3. Biomass of individuals (g) in the 5 experimental variants before applying the toxic (Dithane M45).
Bars with the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level, according to Duncan’s multiple range test.
216
Figure 4. Biomass of individuals (g) in the 5 experimental variants after applying the toxic (Dithane M45).
Bars with the same letters are not significantly different at the 5% level, according to Duncan’s multiple range test.
Bioaccumulation. There was a significant positive correlation (R2= 0.793; p<0.0001) between concentration
of Dithane M45 used in experimental variants and Zn amount bioaccumulated by earthworms (Fig. 5). A significant
positive correlation was also recorded for Mn bioaccumulation (R2=0.971; p<0.0001) (Fig. 6). In general, earthworms
consume a large amount of soil to get their food during the digestive process that releases heavy metals in their free
forms in the intestinal lumen (SUTHAR et al., 2008). Metals are then absorbed by intestinal mucosa. Thus, earthworms
accumulate significant amounts of heavy metals in cells of the digestive canal (SUTHAR & SINGH, 2008).
Exposure to high levels of manganese, particularly in powder form leads to side effects (WALDBOH, 1978).
Interference with iron metabolism especially haemoglobin formation was one of the first toxic effects of manganese
(OTHMER, 1978). The largest amount of bioaccumulated Zn was observed in variant V1 = 1.333.47ppm, and the
lowest in variant V4 = 408.626ppm (Table 1). The same was observed for Mn bioaccumulation (V1 = 81.904ppm V4
39.598ppm), which showed that the highest concentration of Dithane M45 (250mgkg-1) caused higher bioaccumulation
in the tissues of earthworms.
Our results are in agreement with ENUNEKU & AYOBAHAN (2014) according to whom the highest metal
bioaccumulation in earthworms produced the highest concentration of the toxic. Similarly, the results of this study are in
agreement with HEIKENS et al. (2001) who studied the bioaccumulation of heavy metals in terrestrial invertebrates.
Bioaccumulation was also observed in control variants, Zn (V5 122.114ppm) and Mn (V5 14.854ppm) leading to the idea that
there were already traces of these elements in the underlayer used in the toxicity test. Several studies have demonstrated that
the adsorption of cationic metals like Cu, Ni, and Zn is influenced by soil pH, CEC, CaCO3, iron (Fe), manganese oxides
(Mn), clay and OM content MELLIS et al. (2004), ADHAMI et al. (2008). This is in agreement with HODGE et al. (2000),
REINECKE et al. (2002) who stated that earthworms can sometimes tolerate certain chemicals.
Figure 5. Trend line of Zn amount (ppm) bioaccumulated by earthworms depending

on Dithane M45 concentration (V1 =250 mg·Kg-1; V2 = 200 mg·Kg-1; V3 = 150 mg·Kg-1; V= 100mg·Kg-1; V5 = control variant).
217
Figure 6. Trend line of Mn amount (ppm) bioaccumulated by earthworms depending on Dithane M45 concentration
(V1 =250 mg·Kg-1; V2 = 200 mg·Kg-1; V3 = 150 mg·Kg-1; V= 100mg·Kg-1; V5 = control variant).
Table 1. Result of chronic toxicity bioassays (OECD 207).

Zn
Mn bioaccumulated in Initial Biomass
Variant Survival bioaccumulated
earthworms biomass after intoxication
(V1...5) in earthworms
(%) (ppm) (ppm) (g) (g)
V1 68±1.3b 81.904±1.2a 1333.47±55.1a 4.23±0.5a 2.00±0.4a
V2 76±8.9b 69.588±1.3b 605.97±1.9b 2.98±0.3b 1.44±0.3b
V3 78±8.3b 64.504±1.1c 542.749±8.7c 3.08±0.3b 1.32±0.1b
V4 100±0.0a 39.598±1.6d 408.626±12.1d 2.84±0.4b 1.37±0.2b
V5 100±0.0a 14.854±0.5e 122.114±1.7e 3.03±0.3b 2.18±0.5a
Notes: The values are mean of five replicates ± standard deviations. Values with different superscripts within the some column show significant
differences (p<0.05).
CONCLUSIONS
Statistics regarding survival rate revealed that the highest Zn and Mn concentrations corresponding to V1, V2,
V3, caused a significant decrease in survival rate compared to V5. Initial biomass in the 5 experimental variants ranged
between 2.84g - 4.23g and after exposure to toxic substance, in concentrations corresponding to variants V2, V3 and V4
it was significantly lower (p <0.05) compared to control variant (V5). There was a significantly positive correlation
(Zn=R2= 0.793; p<0.0001), (Mn=R2=0.971; p<0.0001) between Dithane M45 concentration in the experimental
variants and Zn and Mn amounts bioaccumulated by earthworms (R2 = 0.793 Zn; p <0.0001) (Mn = R2 = 0.971; p
<0.0001). The study suggests that increasing the concentration of Zn and Mn in the soil can be toxic to lumbricidae.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work of authors was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/138963 - PERFORM, co-
financed by the European Social Fund – Investing in People, within the Sectoral Operational Programme Human
Resources Development 2007-2013.
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Brînzea Gheorghiţa, Păunescu Alina, Ponepal Cristina Maria

University of Pitești, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Natural Sciences,
Pitești, Târgu din Vale Street, No. 1, Romania.
E-mail: georgeta_branzea@yahoo.com

220
HYDROBIOLOGICAL PARTICULARITIES OF MAGLAVIT LAKE (ROMANIA) –

THE PLACE AND ROLE OF GASTROPOD POPULATIONS
CIOBOIU Olivia
Abstract. The research on Maglavit Lake, which is located within the floodplain of the Danube, emphasized the water physical-
chemical characteristics, as well as the structure of planktonic and benthonic biocoenoses. The gastropod populations have an
important place due to their numerical and biomass density. There was also established the taxonomic structure, age structure and
distribution according to the benthal facies.
Keywords: Maglavit lake, biocoenoses, populations, Gastropods.
Rezumat. Particularități hidrobiologice ale lacului Maglavit (România) – locul și rolul populațiilor de gastropode.
Cercetările efectuate asupra lacului Maglavit din zona inundabilă a Dunării au pus în evidență caracteristicile fizico-chimice ale apei,
structura biocenozelor planctonice și bentonice. Populațiile de gastropode ocupă un loc important prin densitatea numerică și de
biomasă. S-au stabilit componența taxonomică, structura pe vârste și repartiția în funcție de faciesul bental.
Cuvinte cheie: lacul Maglavit, biocenoze, populații, gastropode.
INTRODUCTION
Within the floodplain of the Danube, between Cetate and Calafat settlements, on former meanders or branches
of the river, there formed certain lakes, such as: Fântâna Banului, Hunia, Maglavit, Golenți (Fig. 1). Within this sector,
the Danube was diked, but it represents an area that still preserves the biocoenotic structures specific to wetlands
(TOMESCU, 1998; PLENICEANU, 2003; BREZEANU et al., 2011).
Figure 1. The floodplain of the Danube in the sector Cetate – Calafat (according to MMDD).
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CIOBOIU Olivia
The research studies were performed between 2012 and 2014. There were taken samples in order to render the
physical-chemical characteristics of water and the planktonic and benthonic structures. There were collected 1,932
specimens of gastropods based on which the significant statistic parameters were determined (CIOBOIU, 2002; 2014).
Maglavit Lake, with a surface of 48 ha and a maximum depth 2.5 m, is located between the lakes Hunia and
Golenți. As compared to Maglavit Lake that still preserves its natural features, Hunia and Golenți lakes are used for
pisciculture. The lithological structure is made up of fluvial-lacustrine and loess-like deposits, characteristic to the
floodplain, aeolian sands covering the alluvial deposits.
Water chemistry is characteristic to eutrophic ecosystems. Based on the ionic balance and the content of
anions and cations, the water belongs to the bicarbonatate-sulphate-calcic-magnesium category, being characteristic to
the mixt stage of mineralization (Table 1).
Table 1. Water physical-chemical composition (average values).

Admitted
values
No. Analysed indicators Measured Ord. Analysis method Used equipments
values 161/2006 -
Quality
Class II
Concentration of hydrogen ions 7.2

1. 6.5 – 8.5 STAS 6325-75 pH-meter WTW 330i, series 08090178
(pH), unit. pH
2. Electric conductivity µS/cm, max. 1100 - STAS 7722-84

Cond WTW 340i, series 08082507
Total hardness, German degrees,
3. 27.50 - STAS 3026-76 -
max.
550 Analytic balance type KERN 770

4. Fixed residue, mg/dm3, min./max. 750 STAS 3638-76
Series 17308244
Spectrophotometer DR 2000, series no.

5. Ammonia (NH4), mg/dm3, max. 0.102 1.0 STAS 6328-85
930700025411
6. Calcium (Ca2+), mg/dm3, max. 55 100 STAS 3662-62 -
7. Magnesium (Mg), mg/dm3, max. 87 50 STAS 6674-77 -
Spectrophotometer Lovibond PC
8. Nitrites (NO2), mg/dm3, max. <0.01 0.1 Method 571
spectro Series 100510
Spectrophotometer DR 2000, series no.

9. Nitrates (NO3), (mg/dm3, max. 108 13 Method 355
930700025411
10. Chlorides (Cl), mg/dm3, max. 64 50 STAS 3049-86 -
Oxidizable organic substance 4.3

11. 25 STAS 3002-85 -
CCOCr (O2) mgO2/dm3,max
The pH values vary between 6.5 and 8.5 (slightly alkaline). The large amount of nitrates and nitrites is induced
by the nutrient input as mineral and organic fertilizers are intensively used in the neighbouring agricultural fields.
Among the cations, we mainly remark calcium (Ca2+) that originates in the sedimentary rocks found at the bottom of the
lake and in the treatments applied to the agricultural plots from the area (BUCURESCU et. al., 2008; CIOBOIU, 2014;
GAVRILESCU & BUZATU, 2014).
The structure of planktonic and benthonic biocoenoses. A general analysis of the biocoenotic structures
emphasizes that the lake belongs to the category of continental aquatic eutrophic ecosystems. This is a character specific to the
aquatic ecosystems from the floodplain of the Danube that present an increased degree of trophicity reflected by the
quantitative and qualitative composition of the planktonic and benthonic communities (BREZEANU, 1967).
222
There were identified the following species belonging to phytoplankton - Diatoma elongatum, Synedra acus, S.
ulna, Amphora ovalis, Ceratoneis arcus, Gyrosigma acuminatum, Scenedesmus quadricauda, Pediastrum duplex, P.
boryanum, with an average numerical density of 86 specimens / l (DINU & BREZEANU, 2014).
Besides the primary phytoplankton producers, macrophytes hold an important share of the biological
production within the studied ecosystem. About 25 % of the lake surface is covered by paludous macrophytes, which
mainly grow in shallow water (5 – 25 cm) at the end of the lake (Figs. 2, 3). At the same time, there should be added
that aquatic plants form abundant populations within the lake being directly fixed on the bottom, in the solid layer
(CIOBOIU, 2004; DIHORU & ARDELEAN, 2009). There were identified 34 species, among which we mention
Phragmites communis, Typha angustifolia, Scirpus lacustris, Mentha aquatica, Carex riparia, Lemna minor, Nuphar
luteum, Potamogeton crispus, P. natans, Myriophyllum spicatum (Table 2).
Table 2. Species of paludous and aquatic macrophytes.

SPECIES
PALUDOUS AQUATIC
Phragmites communis Trin. Lemna minor L.
Typha angustifolia L. Nimphaea alba L.
Typha latifolia L. Nuphar luteum L.
Scirpus lacustris L. Polygonium amphibium L.
Heleocharis palustris L. Potamogeton natans L.
Juncus effusus L. Potamogeton crispus L.
Mentha aquatica L. Potamogeton perfoliatus L.
Mentha longifolia L. Potamogeton pectinatus L.
Iris pseudacorus L. Salvinia natans L.
Carex riparia L. Stratiodes aloides L.
Carex hirta L. Schoenoplectus mucronatus L.
Ranunculus aquatilis L. Myriophyllum spicatum L.
Ranunculus repens L. Ceratophyllum submersum L.
Polygonium hydropiper L. Hydrocharis morsus-ranae L.
Pastinaca sativa L. Glyceria maxima L.
Vicia peregrina L. Rorripa amphibia L.
Equisetum arvense L.
Euphorbia palustris L.
Figures 2, 3. The end of the lake displaying a rich macrophyte vegetation (original).
The zooplankton is made up of the following groups: Ciliata, Rotifera, Cladocera, Copepoda (MOLDOVEANU &
FLORESCU, 2013).
The main groups of the zoobenthos are: Crustacea (Gammarus roeselli, Dikerogammarus bispinosus), Bivalvia
(Dreissena polymorpha, Anodonta cygnaea, Sphaerium riviculum, Unio pictorum), Gastropoda, Trichoptera (Hydropsyche
sp.). The average numerical density of the benthonic biocoenoses is 89 specimens / m2 (CIOBOIU, 2003; BREZEANU et al.,
2011). Within this biocoenotic structure, a special role is played by the gastropod populations due to their numerical and
biomass density (CIOBOIU, 2014).
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CIOBOIU Olivia
The structure of gastropod populations. The taxonomic structure of the gastropods from the studied
ecosystem is generally close to the distribution of this group within the floodplain of the Danube (GROSSU, 1993;
CIOBOIU 2002; 2008). Thus, the total number of identified species is 21 (Table 3).
Table 3. Gastropod species present in the lake.

CLASS GASTROPODA Cuvier 1798
SUBCLASS PROSOBRANCHIA Milne Edward 1848
ORDER ARCHAEOGASTROPODA (Thiele 1952)
Family Neritidae Rafinesque 1815 Theodoxus danubialis C. Pfeiffer 1828
Theodoxus fluviatilis Linnaeus 1758
ORDER MESOGASTROPODA (Thiele 1925)
Family Viviparidae Gray 1847 Viviparus acerosus Bourguignat 1870
Viviparus viviparus Linnaeus 1758
Family Valvatidae Thomson 1840 Valvata (Cincina) piscinalis O. F. Muller 1774
Family Lithoglyphidae Troschel 1857 Lithoglyphus naticoides C. Pfeiffer 1828
Family Bithyniidae Gray 1849 Bithynia tentaculata Linnaeus 1758
Family Thiaridae Troschel 1857 Esperiana esperi (Ferussac 1829)
Esperiana (Microcolpia) daudebardii acicularis Ferussac 1823
SUBCLASS PULMONATA Cuvier 1817
ORDER BASOMMATOPHORA A. Schmidt 1855
Family Physidae Fitzinger 1833 Physa fontinalis (Linnaeus 1758)
Physella (Costatella) acuta (Draparnaud 1805)
Family Lymnaeidae Rafinesque 1815 Lymnaea stagnalis (Linnaeus 1758)
Stagnicola palustris (O. F. Muller 1774)
Stagnicola corvus Gmelin 1788
Radix auricularia (Linnaeus 1758)
Radix ampla (Draparnaud 1805)
Radix balthica (Linnaeus 1758)
Galba truncatula (O. F. Muller 1774)
Family Planorbidae Rafinesque 1815 Planorbis planorbis (Linnaeus 1758)
Anisus (Anisus) spirorbis (Linnaeus 1758)
Planorbarius corneus (Linnaeus 1758)
With reference to the rapport between groups and species (Table 4; Fig. 4), it results that the family
Lymnaeidae is dominant in terms of number of species (7 species), followed by the family Planorbidae (3 species), the
lowest values being registered by the other families.
Table 4. Numerical and percentage distribution of species on families.

NUMBER OF
No. FAMILY %
SPECIES
1 Neritidae 2 9.52
2 Viviparidae 2 9.52
3 Valvatidae 1 4.76
4 Lithoglyphidae 1 4.76
5 Bithyniidae 1 4.76
6 Thiaridae 2 9.52
7 Physidae 2 9.52
8 Lymnaeidae 7 33.34
9 Planorbidae 3 14.30
Figure 4. Percentage of the gastropod families present in the lake.
224
As illustrated in Table 5, referring to the taxonomic composition according to the benthal facies, it results that
17 species were identified in the silty facies, 13 species in the detritic facies and 8 species in the sandy facies. It can be
noticed that the highest number of species populates the silty-detritic bottom near the shores of the lake, where water is
shallow (Fig. 5). These areas display the best feeding conditions. Gastropods find a rich source of food on the coarse
detritus, on the fallen leaves that are not putrefied but rich in periphyton, on the silt pellicle where organic substances
are abundant (NEGREA & NEGREA, 1975; RUSSEV, 1998; CIOBOIU, 2014).
The lowest diversity of species was registered in the areas where the bottom layer is predominantly sandy. Of
course, their distribution according to the characteristic facies is relative, as species belonging to a certain category may appear
(in a reduced number) in the other types of facies taking into account that there is a certain interference degree among the
typical categories of facies.
Table 5. Taxonomic composition according to the benthal facies.

BENTHAL FACIES
SPECIES
SANDY SILTY DETRITIC
Theodoxus danubialis + +
Theodoxus fluviatilis +
Viviparus acerosus + +
Viviparus viviparus + +
Valvata (Cincina) piscinalis + +
Lithoglyphus naticoides + +
Bithynia tentaculata +
Esperiana esperi + +
Esperiana (Microcolpia) daudebardii acicularis + + +
Physa fontinalis +
Physella (Costatella) acuta + +
Lymnaea stagnalis + +
Stagnicola palustris + +
Stagnicola corvus +
Radix auricularia + +
Radix ampla + +
Radix balthica + +
Galba truncatula + +
Planorbis planorbis + +
Anisus (A.) spirorbis +
Planorbarius corneus + +
Figure 5. The lake shore – areas preferred by gastropods (original).
Analysing the numerical and percentage rapport of the species (Table 6), it results that Lymnaea stagnalis,
Physella acuta, Planorbarius corneus, Viviparus acerosus, V. viviparus și Radix ampla present the highest frequency;
Theodoxus danubialis, Th. fluviatilis, Valvata piscinalis, Lithoglyphus naticoides, Bithynia tentaculata, Stagnicola
palustris, Radix auricularia, R. ampla, Physa fontinalis, Planorbis planorbis registered lower values, while Esperiana
esperi and Anisus spirorbis may be considered as accidental in the structure of the biocoenosis.
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CIOBOIU Olivia
Table 6. The numerical and percentage rapport of the identified species.

No. Species Number of specimens %
1 Lymnaea stagnalis 296 15.33
2 Physella (Costatella) acuta 290 15.01
3 Planorbarius corneus 273 14.13
4 Viviparus acerosus 184 9.52
5 Viviparus viviparus 172 8.90
6 Radix ampla 145 7.51
7 Radix auricularia 95 4.92
8 Radix balthica 93 4.81
9 Planorbis planorbis 69 3.57
10 Physa fontinalis 50 2.59
11 Stagnicola palustris 40 2.07
12 Lithoglyphus naticoides 39 2.02
13 Theodoxus danubialis 35 1.81
14 Bithynia tentaculata 31 1.60
15 Theodoxus fluviatilis 27 1.40
16 Esperiana (M.) daudebardii acicularis 26 1.35
17 Valvata (Cincina) piscinalis 20 1.04
18 Galba truncatula 17 0.88
19 Stagnicola corvus 16 0.83
20 Esperiana esperi 9 0.47
21 Anisus spirorbis 5 0.25
According to their dimensions, the gastropod species were classified in three groups: pre-reproductive,
reproductive and post-reproductive. Thus, there were measured the height (h) and width (w) of the shell.
According to the measurements, it resulted that the dimensions of the pre-reproductive specimens of the
species Theodoxus danubialis, Th. fluviatilis, Physa fontinalis, Physella acuta, Radix auricularia, R. ampla, R. balthica,
Valvata piscinalis, Galba truncatula, Planorbis planorbis vary between h = 0.1 and 8-9 mm; w = 0.1 and 2-8 mm, the
dimensions of the reproductive specimens between h = 5.1 and 8-18 mm; w = 1-18 mm, while for the post-reproductive
specimens the dimensions are h= 1.4-15 mm and w = 5-18 mm.
The dimensions of the other species vary as it follows: for pre-reproductive specimens h = 5-15 mm; w = 19-22 mm,
reproductive h = 10-42 mm; w = 15-40 mm, and post-reproductive h = 20-55 mm; w = more than 40 mm (Table 7).
Table 7. Dimensions for different age categories of the gastropod populations present in the lake.
BODY DIMENSIONS CHARACTERISTIC TO DIFFERENT AGE CATEGORIES
SPECIES (h, w = mm)
Pre-reproductive Reproductive Post-reproductive
Theodoxus danubialis h = 2-4; l = 7-8.5 h = 4.5-5; l = 9-10 h = > 5; l = > 10
Theodoxus fluviatilis h = 4-5; l = 5-6.5 h = 5.4-6; l = 7-9 h = > 6; l = > 9
Viviparus acerosus h = 10-20; l = 7-15 h = 20.1-40; l = 15.1-30 h = > 40; l = > 30
Viviparus viviparus h = 5-15; l = 3-10 h = 15.1-35; l = 10.1-25 h = > 35.1; l = > 25.1
Valvata (Cincina) piscinalis h = 1.5-5; l = 1-3 h = 5.1-8; l = 3.1-5 h = > 8; l = > 5
Lithoglyphus naticoides h = 6-7.5; l = 5-6.5 h = 8-9; l = 7-8.5 h = > 10; l = > 9
Bithynia tentaculata h = 8-9.5; l = 3-4.5 h = 10-11; l = 5-7 h = > 11; l = > 7
Esperiana esperi h = 11-14.5; l = 5-6.5 h = 15-20; l = 7-8 h = > 20; l = > 8
Esperiana (M.) daudebardii acicularis h = 14.5-16; l = 3-4.5 h = 17-20; l = 5-7 h = > 20; l = > 7
Physa fontinalis h = 0.1-5; l = 0.1-3 h = 5.1-9; l = 3.1-7.5 h = > 9; l = > 7.5
Physella (Costatella) acuta h = 0.1-5; l = 0.1-4 h = 5.1-11; l = 4.1-6 h = > 11.1; l = > 6.1
Lymnaea stagnalis h = 18-42; l = 9-22 h = 42.1-55; l = 18-22.1 h = > 55; l = > 22
Stagnicola palustris h = 0.1-15; l = 0.1-8 h = 15.1-28; l = 8.1-15 h = > 28; l = > 15
Stagnicola corvus h = 0.1-20; l = 0.1-10 h = 20.1-35; l = 10.1-18 h = > 35; l = > 18
Radix auricularia h = 0.1-15; l = 0.1-10 h = 15.1-21.1; l = 10.1-15 h = > 21; l = > 15
Radix ampla h = 0.1-5; l = 0.1-4 h = 5.1-11; l = 4.1-6 h = > 11.1;l = > 12
Radix balthica h = 0.1-15; l = 0.1-10 h = 15.1-20.9; l = 10.1-11.5 h = > 20; l = > 4
Galba truncatula h = 0.5-7; l = 0.8-3 h = 7-8; l = 3-4 h = > 8; l = > 4
Planorbis planorbis h = 0.1-1.5; l = 0.1-9 h = 1.6-3.5; l = 9.1-17 h = > 3.5; l = > 17
Anisus (A.) spirorbis h = 0.1-0.6; l = 0.1-2.5 h = 0.7-1.6; l = 2.6-5.5 h = > 1.4; l = > 5.5
Planorbarius corneus h = 5-10; l = 5-20 h = 11-14; l = 21-29 h = > 14; l = > 29
With regard to the distribution of species according to the age categories (Table 8), it can be noticed that in
case of most of the species, the reproductive and pre-reproductive age categories are dominant, which indicate the
numerical increase of the gastropod populations within Maglavit Lake. At the species Radix auricularia and Valvata
piscinalis, post-reproductive specimens predominate, while at the species Anisus spirorbis, the absence of post-
reproductive individuals illustrates a decrease of the population (BOTNARIUC & VĂDINEANU, 1982; CIOBOIU,
2002, 2014).
226
The share of young specimens (from the pre-reproductive category) as well as of mature specimens (736
respectively 1,046 specimens) is illustrative. This proves that the abiotic and biotic (food-related) environmental factors
are favourable for the development of the gastropod populations. It is also obvious that, in spite of the fact that the pre-
reproductive category predominates, the difference compared to the other groups (reproductive and senescent
specimens) is not increased, which underlines the balance between the different age categories, an essential factor for a
constant increase of the populations.
Table 8. Age distribution of the gastropod population (total and percentage value).
AGES
SPECIES
Pre-reproductive Reproductive Post-reproductive
Lymnaea stagnalis 100 13.58 % 176 16.82 % 20 13.33 %
Physella (Costatella) acuta 104 14.13 % 165 15.77 % 21 14.00 %
Planorbarius corneus 103 13.99 % 160 15.29 % 10 6.66 %
Viviparus acerosus 75 10.19 % 98 9.36 % 11 7.33 %
V. viviparus 70 9.51 % 90 8.60 % 12 8.00 %
Radix ampla 60 7.17 % 75 7.86 % 10 6.66 %
Radix auricularia 37 5.02 % 47 6.33 % 11 7.33 %
Radix balthica 40 5.43 % 50 6.75 % 3 2.00 %
Planorbis planorbis 25 3.39 % 40 4.82 % 4 2.06 %
Physa fontinalis 16 2.58 % 27 4.66 % 7 2.17 %
Stagnicola palustris 15 2.43 % 20 3.33 % 5 2.11 %
Lithoglyphus naticoides 15 2.43 % 16 3.03 % 8 2.19 %
Theodoxus danubialis 12 2.39 % 15 3.00 % 8 2.19 %
Bithynia tentaculata 10 2.13 % 16 3.03 % 5 2.11 %
Theodoxus fluviatilis 10 2.13 % 12 2.25 % 5 2.11 %
E. d. acicularis 11 2.27 % 12 2.25 % 3 2.00 %
Valvata piscinalis 7 1.64 % 9 1.94 % 4 2.01 %
Galba truncatula 11 2.27 % 5 0.52 % 1 0.09 %
Stagnicola corvus 10 2.13 % 5 0.52 % 1 0.09 %
Esperiana esperi 3 0.41 % 5 0.52 % 1 0.09 %
Anisus spirorbis 2 0.27 % 3 0.28 % - -
CONCLUSIONS
Taking into account the present state of the Danube within the territory of Romania, state induced by diking,
and the disappearance of the largest part of its natural floodplain, Maglavit Lake and the other neighbouring lacustrine
ecosystems represent an area that still preserves the specific biocoenotic structures. The presented data emphasize the
characteristics of such types of ecosystems pre-existent within the floodplain of the Danube, which greatly disappeared
because of the damming and diking works of the Romanian sector of the river. The gastropod populations represent a
group that characterizes and particularizes the functionality of these ecosystems that preceded the diking works. The
predominance of the specimens belonging to the reproductive and pre-reproductive categories at most of the species
highlights the upward tendency of the populations present in the lake.
REFERENCES
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BREZEANU GH. 1967. Lunca inundabilă a Dunării. In Limnologia sectorului românesc al Dunării – Studiu monografic.
Edit. Academiei R. S. R. Bucureşti: 375-390.
BREZEANU GH., CIOBOIU OLIVIA, ARDELEAN A. 2011. Ecologie acvatică. Vasile Goldiş University Press. Arad.
406 pp.
BUCURESCU MARIA, RĂDOANE MARIA, TEODOSIU POPESCU GABRIELA. 2008. Bazinul hidrografic Prut.
Diagnosticul stării ecologice a resursei naturale de apă. Edit. Universității ,,Ștefan cel Mare,,. Suceava. 260 pp.
CIOBOIU OLIVIA. 2002. Gastropoda Diversity within the Danube Alluvial Plain (700-800 Km). Limnological
Reports. Tulcea. 34: 269-275.
CIOBOIU OLIVIA. 2003. Zona inundabilă din sectorul Cetate – Dăbuleni (km Dunării 811 – 661), model pentru
reconstrucţia ecologică a regiunii inundabile a Dunării. Analele Universităţii Craiova. Seria Geografie. Edit.
Universitaria. Craiova: 28-38.
CIOBOIU OLIVIA. 2004. Flora and Fauna Diversity within the Oltenian Sector of the Danube Alluvial Plain (km 811 – 661).
Limnological Reports. Novi Sad. 35: 328-332.
CIOBOIU OLIVIA. 2008. The distribution of the gastropoda populations from the Danube and Danube Delta.
Verhandlungen des Internationalen Verein Limnologie. Stuttgart. 30(2): 295-296.
CIOBOIU OLIVIA. 2014. Structurile și funcțiile unui sistem bazinal de câmpie. Structura și producția populațiilor de
gastropode. Edit. Antheo. Craiova. 194 pp.
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DIHORU GH. & ARDELEAN G. 2009. Cartea roşie a plantelor vasculare din România. Edit. Academiei Române
Bucureşti. 630 pp.
DINU ALEXANDRA & BREZEANU GH. 2014. Preliminary studies on the structure and dynamics of the
phytoplankton in lake Golești (2006 – 2009). Oltenia. Studii şi comunicări. Ştiinţele Naturii. Muzeul Olteniei.
Craiova. 30(2): 192-197.
GAVRILESCU ELENA & BUZATU GILDA-DIANA. 2014. Elemente fundamentale de protecţia mediului. Edit.
Sitech. Craiova. 220 pp.
GROSSU AL. V. 1993. Compendiul gasteropodelor din România. Edit. Litera. Bucureşti. 525 pp.
MOLDOVEANU MIRELA & FLORESCU LARISA. 2013. Long-term analysis of cyanobacterial blooms in lake Roşu
(Danube Delta). Oltenia. Studii şi comunicări. Ştiinţele Naturii. Muzeul Olteniei. Craiova. 29(1): 252-260.
NEGREA ŞT. & NEGREA ALEXANDRINA. 1975. Ecologia populaţiilor de cladoceri şi gasteropode din zona
inundabilă a Dunării. Edit. Academiei R. S. R. Bucureşti. 175 pp.
PLENICEANU V. 2003. Lacuri şi zone umede. Edit. Universitaria Craiova. 207 pp.
RUSSEV B. 1998. Das Makrozoobenthos der Donau - Dynamik der Veranderungen durch anthropogenen Einflub
Plankton und Benthos der Donau Ergebnesse der Donau. Forschung Band. Osterreich. Viena. 4: 257-364.
TOMESCU VIORICA. 1998. Lunca Dunării – sectorul oltean. Edit. Sitech. Craiova. 209 pp.
Cioboiu Olivia
The Oltenia Museum, Craiova, Str. Popa Şapcă, No. 8, 200422, Craiova, Romania.
E-mail: oliviacioboiu@gmail.com; cioboiu.olivia@yahoo.com

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ECOLOGICAL MODEL OF ROMANIAN RESEARCH AND EDUCATION –

A SYSTEMIC APPROACH
PETRIŞOR Alexandru-Ionuţ
Abstract. The term “research ecosystem” seems to have been used extensively in the recent period. A review of its usage indicates
that professionals from the health system, information sciences, librarians and politicians have embraced it mostly. However, from
the standpoint of social/human ecology, it is legitimate to question its use. A literature review indicates that most of the people using
it simply adapted to the fashion and did not develop a model of the system; instead, they understand the web of relationships among
researchers and the publishing web (scientific production and citations). Starting from the Romanian example, this paper attempts to
use the principles of systemic ecology to develop a model of the “research ecosystem” as a subsystem of the socioeconomic system,
identifying the components and their relationships, but also the main functions: circulation of information and money, and self-
regulation, in the context of its dynamic.
Keywords: human ecology, social ecology, research ecosystem, systemic ecology, homomorphous model.
Rezumat. Model ecologic al sistemului românesc de cercetare-învăţământ – o abordare sistemică. Termenul „ecosistem
de cercetare” pare să fie utilizat din ce în ce mai mult în ultima vreme. O analiză a utilizării sale indică predilecţia celor din domeniul
medical, al tehnologiei informaţiei, al biblioteconomiei şi a politicienilor pentru folosirea sa. Totuşi, este legitim să ne punem
problema legitimităţii folosirii sale din punctul de vedere al ecologiei sociale/umane. O sinteză a literaturii de specialitate arată că cei
mai mulţi îl folosesc în virtutea modei, fără a avea un model clar al sistemului, axându-se doar asupra relaţiilor dintre cercetători şi
reţelei literaturii de specialitate (producţie ştiinţifică şi citări). Pornind de la exemplul României, acest articol îşi propune utilizarea
principiilor ecologiei pentru elaborarea unui model al „ecosistemului de cercetare” ca subsistem al sistemului socio-economic uman,
identificând componentele şi relaţiile dintre acestea, dar şi principalele funcţii – circuitul informaţiei şi banilor – în contextul
dinamicii sistemului.
Cuvinte cheie: ecologie umană, ecologie socială, ecosistem de cercetare, ecologie sistemică, model homomorf.
INTRODUCTION
Contemporary research involves more and more, to the extent of relying to the transfer of concepts and
methods between different disciplines, leading ultimately to the emergence of new ones, and even to complexity
sciences, such as Haken’s synergetics (PETRIŞOR, 2013b). Most authors consider that the cooperation between
different disciplines is a multi-staged process, starting with the multi-disciplinary approaches, when despite the transfers
disciplines speak as separate voices, then inter-disciplinary approaches unite them, and ultimately trans-disciplinary
approaches produce an unifying synthesis and lead to the emergence of new disciplines (BESSELAAR & HEIMERIKS,
2001; BRUUN et al., 2005; CHOI & PAK, 2006, 2007, 2008; LATTANZI, 1998; NICOLESCU, 2005; PETRIŞOR,
2013b; ZAMAN & GOSCHIN, 2010).
Such transfers were proven to be productive and useful, despite the fear of some disciplines (e.g., geography)
that they would result into the loss of their object of study (IANOŞ, 2000; PETRIŞOR, 2011). Among the disciplines
“exporting” most concepts to the other, ecology occupies perhaps one of the first places. Not only other sciences started
using the concepts and jargon of ecology, but even the pop culture; expressions like “food chain” or “bottom feeder”
extended their meaning to encompass any ranking system, respectively an irresponsible person who lives at the expense
of the others (MERRIAM-WEBSTER, 2014).
Among the disciplines benefitting upon such transfers, the first is economy. This should be no wonder at all,
provided that Haeckel’s definition of ecology builds up the new science on the same “οiκος” (HAECKEL, 1866). The
relationship between the two disciplines gave birth to ecological economics, discipline dealing with the relationship
between man-dominated and natural systems under the framework of sustainability (COSTANZA et al., 1991; HEZRI
& DOVERS, 2006), underlining the importance of natural systems for economy (TSCHIRHART, 2009), but also with
applying ecological models to the economic systems and economic models to the natural systems (COSTANZA et al.,
1991; TSCHIRHART, 2009). Out of the many concepts of ecology, trophic relationships were particularly attractive;
they were found similar to social networks (DE CARVALHO DUARTE, 2013), to the relationships between languages
(LAPONCE, 1993), to political relationships (CORNING, 1996), or to the interactions between different industrial
technologies (BALDWIN et al., 2004; LIWARSKA-BIZUKOJCA et al., 2009; SANDÉN & HILLMAN, 2011) or cities
(IANOŞ, 2000; IANOŞ & HELLER, 2006).
This research focuses on the emergence of a new concept – “the research ecosystem”. The underlying
hypothesis is that the new concept is more than a simple “trendy word”, and that despite its misunderstanding the
research, development and innovation system can be seen as a sub-system of the socio-economic system, and
consequently the application of the principles of social/human ecology can allow for sketching a structural and
functional model of it, preceding a homomorphous model.
229
RESEARCH ECOSYSTEM: TERM & CONCEPT – A LITERATURE REVIEW
Although the term “research ecosystem” seems to be used extensively, especially during the recent period, an
in-depth literature review indicates that there are differences between the disciplines using it in terms of intensity,
degree of conceptualization and understanding.
The concept is present in the political discourse regardless of the country (Romanian Ministry of National
Education, 2013; WILLETTS, 2012), and also in different disciplines: library science and scientometry (BRADBURY
& WEIGHTMAN, 2010; FENNER & LIN, 2014; GALLOWAY & PEASE, 2013; PULVERER, 2013), health care and
medicine (HAWKES, 2014; PARCIANELLO et al., 2013; LIM, 2014; POTKAR, 2014; ROSENBERG, 1999;
SULLIVAN et al., 2010; THOMPSON & MOSKOWITZ, 1997), information technology and science (HAAK et al.,
2012; KRESTYANINOVA & TAMMISTO, 2012; ÖSTERLE & OTTO, 2010; QUAGGIOTTO, 2008; SMITH et al.,
2011; SWAN, 2012; TICKELL, 2013), languages and literature (FLECKENSTEIN et al., 2008), music (DE ROURE,
2011), social sciences (JOHNSON, 2013), education sciences (SIDHU, 2009), or even generalizations beyond the
disciplinary boundaries (BOCCANFUSO, 2010; JANSSON & RYYNÄNEN, 2013; RAMANARAYANAN, 2010;
RODRIGO et al., 2013).
Nevertheless, few of these authors clearly define, or at least attempt to enumerate the components. Most of
them simply use the term “research ecosystem” – generalized or referring to a specific discipline (ROSENBERG, 1999;
THOMPSON & MOSKOWITZ, 1997) – or some similar terms: innovation ecosystem (ÖSTERLE & OTTO, 2010;
ROSENBERG, 1999); research and development ecosystem (HAAK et al., 2012), digital research ecosystem (DE
ROURE, 2011), or research, development and innovation ecosystem (Romanian Ministry of National Education, 2013).
The views are very unclear and diverse, sometimes less structured or explicit.
Despite the diversity, some trends can be distinguished; information scientists and librarians perceive the research
ecosystem mostly as a web of publications (FENNER & LIN, 2014; PULVERER, 2013; Romanian Ministry of National
Education, 2013; TICKELL, 2013) or publications and their citations (BRADBURY & WEIGHTMAN, 2010; GALLOWAY
& PEASE, 2013), underlining the importance of “taxonomy” introduced by unique identifiers, such as ORCID (Open
Researcher and Contributor ID) for tracking down the impact of individual or group research (BRADBURY &
WEIGHTMAN, 2010; GALLOWAY & PEASE, 2013), and metrics (e.g., impact factor) – PULVERER, 2013.
Other researchers focus on the collaborative relationships between researchers, and see the “research ecosystem” as a
collaborative web (FLECKENSTEIN et al., 2008; JANSSON & RYYNÄNEN, 2013; KRESTYANINOVA & TAMMISTO,
2012; LIM, 2014; QUAGGIOTTO, 2008; RODRIGO et al., 2013; Romanian Ministry of National Education, 2013; SMITH
et al., 2011; WILLETTS, 2012), eventually underlining the role of incubators in facilitating cooperation (RODRIGO et al.,
2013), or nexus of related studies (SWAN, 2012) or mapping them (QUAGGIOTTO, 2008).
For the very few to name components, opinions are in disagreement. For HAAK et al. (2012), the “research
ecosystem” is a digital web of information, consisting of inputs, outputs, activities, and external factors, and data (note
that the “black box” approach was obviously preferred by information sciences, since it is similar to the computer
programming concepts). Other components include research and technology (DE ROURE, 2011), conceptualizations,
data collection, coding, conclusions, and reporting (JOHNSON, 2013), lives of people who are part of it
(FLECKENSTEIN et al., 2008), players and interests (SULLIVAN et al., 2010) or accreditation (POTKAR, 2014). The
Romanian Ministry of National Education (2013) lists most components: program-related authorities, monitoring
committees, central government, European Commission, international organisms, national and international research
community, national and international evaluators, funding beneficiaries, national and international investors, civil
society and broader public.
In terms of controversies, for RAMANARAYANAN (2010), the “research ecosystem” is an undifferentiated
mix of components and outputs, namely education and research (particularly sponsored), theses, dissertations,
publications, courses; the importance of funding is also stressed out by ÖSTERLE & OTTO (2010), and raises the
question whether the economy or government, providing the funds, are part of the research ecosystem or not. On a
similar note, BOCCANFUSO (2010) includes universities and industry, SIDHU (2009), centres of excellence in
research, domestic industry and multinational corporations, and HAWKES (2014), government, charities, and industry;
it is interesting to see that the opinion of HAWKES (2014) is somehow different from the viewpoint of WILLETTS
(2012), who mentions charities, data and objects, research publishers, although both refer to the research system of the
United Kingdom. Another interesting aspect is that charities are seen as part of the research ecosystem only in the
United Kingdom (HAWKES, 2014; WILLETTS, 2012). In opposition to all these, the model of the triple helix
(ETZKOWITZ & LEYDESDORFF, 1996, 2000; JANSSON & RYYNÄNEN, 2013) distinguishes three separate
systems: state/government, research and education, economy/industry; innovation.
Another controversy is the typology. For information scientists (again) – but not only, the “research
ecosystem” is a digital ecosystem (since it is perceived as a literature or collaboration web only) – DE ROURE, 2011;
QUAGGIOTTO, 2008; SMITH et al., 2011; for others, it is a socio-technical ecosystem, part of the industrial
ecosystem – again, in contrast with the discussion from the previous paragraph (SULLIVAN et al., 2010).
Only few authors take the analogy even further. BUTLER (2013) discusses the concept of “predatory
journals”. ROSENBERG (1999) sees the “endangered physician-scientist” as a “lost species” in the nation’s medical
research ecosystem. PARCIANELLO et al. (2013) develop a systemic approach, consisting mostly of identifying the
230
structural elements (components and relationships) and apply it to intensive care units in order to ensure their
sustainability. Perhaps the most interesting and complete analogy is made by FLECKENSTEIN et al. (2008), who
analyze research and writing from the perspective of ecology, focusing on relationships; their analogy includes the
circulation of information, the self-regulatory processes, resilience and productivity, and importance of diversity.
RESEARCH ECOSYSTEM: TOWARDS A STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL MODEL
The previous literature review indicated that very few of the authors who used the term “research ecosystem”
had a clear ecological perspective of it. Most of them probably found its use “trendy” and in line with the new literature
and political language. In fact, the ecological perspective itself needs to be discussed further. The understanding of
ecology and ecosystems has evolved, although some people did not want to change; the original focus was on
components and relations both in Haeckel’s definition of ecology (HAECKEL, 1866): relations of the organism to the
environment including, in the broad sense, all the “conditions of existence”, and Tansley’s definition of the ecosystem
(TANSLEY, 1935): not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we
call the environment. Despite the evolution of ecology, many people remain tributary to the original definition, such as
ANDREWARTHA & BIRCH (1954), who simply add several functions of the ecosystems. However, ecology stepped
to a new era, when the systemic approach became a necessity; therefore, the structure, functions, and relationships with
the integrated subsystems and integrating supra-systems must be accounted for (PETRIŞOR, 2013a).
As it can be seen, for the vast majority of the authors analysed before – except for PARCIANELLO et al.
(2013) and FLECKENSTEIN et al. (2008) – the research ecosystem is seen from the standpoint of the original and
minimal perception of a system as components and relationships. In the following paragraphs, the principles of systemic
ecology are applied to describe the research ecosystem as a sub-system of the socio-economic system in terms of
structure, functions, dynamics, and relationship with other sub-systems of the socio-economic system.
Ranking in the ecological hierarchy. As stressed out before, the “research ecosystem” is part of the socio-
economic system, which is also coupled to the natural systems. Previous studies have showed that coupling results
basically in the addition of levels to the trophic scale: the natural scale includes mineral, vegetal, and animal trophy,
while the socio-economic system adds techno-trophy – economy, industry, and noo-trophy – knowledge, management
and other support processes, with resources and energy taken from the natural systems (IANOŞ, 2000; PETRIŞOR &
SÂRBU, 2010; PETRIŞOR, 2012). A similar model is proposed by MILLER (1978), who distinguished seven
organizational levels of the living world (including socio-economic systems): cell, organ, organism, group,
organization, society and the supra-national system. Although the first approach suggests that research is superior to
basic economic and industrial activities, it does not necessarily imply a different hierarchical position of the “research
ecosystem” compared to the “economic ecosystem”. In the model proposed in figure 1, all systems – research,
industry/economy, government, and society are equal in rank and overlap. This relationship is based on the triple helix
model proposed by ETZKOWITZ & LEYDESDORFF (1996, 2000).
With respect to the relationships between the “research and education ecosystem” – and its components – and
the other systems, the model shows that the research ecosystem provides knowledge transferred into products to the
industry, receiving funds from it for this purpose, and provides – along with the education ecosystem – knowledge and
expertise to the government (for the substantiation of public policies) and society. At the same time, the government
funds both education and research. Education is generating welfare (at least for the purpose of better salaries
proportional to the level of education, although this is not the only mechanism). An indirect mechanism relates research
to research via the industry – production of laboratory equipment and technology.
Structure and functions. Figure 1 displays the components and flows, using the symbols of homomorphous
models. The image displays stocking and circulation/transfer components; the flows consist of money and information
(knowledge). Some of the transfers are part of the cycles, while others can be seen as losses.
For example, predatory journals - term assigned to Jeffrey Beall (2008) – which have increased their effectives
significantly in 2012 exploit community by charging fees (BUTLER, 2013); while other mainstream journals do the
same (charging authors or readers), established authors consider a paper published in these journals “loss” due to their
lack of a competent peer-review system (in plain words, they are likely to publish anything as long as the author pays
the charges). The analogy can be continued with reference to the five stages of predation (ENDLER, 1986): detection,
identification, approach, subjugation, and consumption; “detection” consists of looking for potential victims among
authors who have published in other journals; “identification” consists of getting the full name and e-mail address (or
only the latest); the “approach” is a personalized or mass e-mail; “subjugation” consists of a multitude of approaches,
such as upraising the author or mimicking already established journals; “consumption” ends with receiving the author’s
money. The predation strategies are somehow similar to the ones in the biological realm.
Similarly, with respect to the research system, administration and management (dealing with the research
policies and management of research funds) are not directly productive and often seen by researchers as a burden; on
the other hand, they are socially efficient, as they absorb human resources and contribute to reducing unemployment.
231
Figure 1. Model of the Romanian research and education ecosystem, as a subsystem of the socioeconomic system.
The image shows related “ecosystems” (society, economy/industry, and administration/government, as in the model
of the “triple helix” – ETZKOWITZ & LEYDESDORFF, 2000). Zigzag arrows indicate “losses” (one-way transfers); hexagons
symbolize stocking compartments, and rectangles correspond to cycling/transfer compartments.
All arrows suggest the direction of information and money flows.
Figure 2. Dynamics of the Romanian education system (full line). Dotted arrows indicate the main attractors.
Figure 3. Dynamics of the Romanian research system (full line). Dotted arrows indicate the main attractors.
The relationship between the education and research components is somehow controversial. According to the
Romanian legislation, both educational and research activities are present in the “job description” of universities, while
research entities are confined to research. The recent trend can suggest an expansion of research in universities – i.e.,
the 2011 research-based classification of universities as (1) education-focused, (2) education and research or art, (3)
advanced research and education (Parliament of Romania, 2011).
An important stocking compartment is the scientific literature; its primary role is to stock knowledge, although
eventually knowledge is circulated (e.g., “old” theories and methods are re-discovered, sometimes after long periods).
However, the cryptic scientific jargon makes hard for the industry, government, or society to access the knowledge
directly. A special chapter – popularized literature – plays this role.
232
Dynamics and self-regulation. The two sub-systems – research and education – have different dynamics. As
it has been shown above, while the primary mission of universities is education, the 2011 changes indicated a clear shift
to research (Fig. 2). Additional pressures are exercised by the market, resulting into favouring some disciplines in the
detriment of the others. In a similar way, according to the triple helix model (ETZKOWITZ & LEYDESDORFF, 1996;
2000), government and economy/industry are potential attractors determining the dynamics of research. Nevertheless, it
has to be stressed out that research has basically three functions: scientific progress – basic research (“for the sake of
research” or to bypass technological blockages), economic development (attraction exercised by the industry), and
societal progress (and welfare) – DOS REMEDIOS, 2006; GODIN & DORE, 2005; Global Science Forum, 2014. These
pillars are represented in figure 3, showing the dynamics of research.
Although self-regulation is a function, it is discussed here, as the dynamics of the research and education
systems is influenced by other systems, and in this context the role of self-regulation is to preserve the homeostasis of
each component. For instance, given the additional research pressure exercised over the education system, not only
through the 2011 classification of universities, but especially through research-focused promotion criteria (based on the
number of high-level publications and, more recently, citations), the system tried to adapt by replacing quality with
quantity. For example, the 2005 criteria were amended in 2006 to introduce “equivalents”: a Thomson-ISI indexed
article was equalled to a certain number of papers published in nationally recognized journals, varying based on the
discipline. Similarly, the 2011 criteria accounting for publishing in top-rated journals were changed in 2012 to account
for publication of Thomson-ISI indexed articles, regardless of their metrics. All these examples show a certain
resistance to change of the research system, but also the fact that its equilibrium is dynamics.
It is also important to see that the laws of thermodynamics apply to the research ecosystem similar to the natural
ones, but with changed parameters. Ecosystems – natural or man-dominated – are dissipative structures, using energy to
increase their diversity and complexity, and have an anti-entropic behaviour; in particular humans tend to organize their
surrounding space (IANOŞ & HUMEAU, 2000). This is also obvious in the research ecosystem, where “complexity” and
“diversity” translate in the hierarchies and rankings (research, didactic), in the increased complexity of the publishing system
(e.g., peer review) or projects (including administrative, managerial, dissemination and financial components). In this case, the
direct information circuit (and, indirectly, the circuit of money) can be measured directly using Shannon-Wiener’s
informational entropy, accounting for the fact that the amount of information, in correlation with the informational energy
(directly) and informational entropy (inversely, because information is obtained from the production of entropy), measure the
complexity and inner organization (MARCUS, 2011). Moreover, all these imply that the “research ecosystem” is open and far
away from the thermodynamic equilibrium; therefore if the analogy with natural ecosystems is continued, entropy can be used
for measuring the inner organization (MARCUS, 2011).
Metrics. As it could be seen in the previous paragraph, the “ecology of research” measures the relationship
through a variety of metrics, looking at the productivity (scientific production, money transfer to/from economy), or its
impact (at the level of publications – impact factor, article influence score, or at the level of researchers and groups –
Hirsch index). Although the usage of research metrics is extensive, some people show that they have many
shortcomings; for example, if the economic value is accounted for, one must recall that scientific activities are not
directly-productive (CORLAN, 2005). On the other hand, if the metrics of the scientific production are used, one must
know that they are not necessarily objective and that their use resulted into unethical behaviour (LAWRENCE, 2007).
CONCLUSIONS
This research attempted to apply the principles of systemic ecology to develop a model of the “research ecosystem”
as a subsystem of the socioeconomic system, identifying the components and their relationships, but also the main functions.
The main components had different functions; research, education, and “parasitic” administrative infrastructure contribute to
cycling/transferring money and information to and from society, economy/industry and administration; publishing – including
the “predatory journals” – serves as a stock of information (and money). The dynamics of the research and education system
is influenced by its relationship with society, administration and industry; in the model of the “triple helix”, the last two and
research/education form a unit that fuels the knowledge-based economy. At the same time, the societal, economic and
scientific values of research play an important role in its dynamics.
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Petrişor Alexandru-Ionuţ
Department of Urban and Landscape Planning, School of Urban and Landscape Planning.
“Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urbanism
Str. Academiei. no. 18-20. sector 1. cod 010014. Bucharest. Romania.
National Institute for Research and Development in Constructions, Urbanism and Sustainable Spatial Development URBAN-INCERC
Şos. Pantelimon no. 266. sector 2. cod 021652. Bucharest. Romania.
E-mail: alexandru_petrisor@yahoo.com, Internet: www.environmetrics.ro
Received: January 10, 2015

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UNUSUAL ALTITUDE AND HABITAT FOR THE INVASIVE FISH

Pseudorasbora parva IN THE VÂLSAN RIVER BASIN, ROMANIA
TELCEAN Ilie Cătălin, SAS-KOVÁCS István, COVACIU-MARCOV Severus-Daniel
Abstract. In June 2014 we encountered the non-native invasive fish Pseudorasbora parva at 870 m altitude in the Romanian
Southern Carpathians. It occupies a pond surrounded by coniferous forest, in the upper basin of the Vâlsan River, where it was
probably introduced directly by people.
Keywords: altitude, barriers, habitats, introduction, danger.
Rezumat. Altitudine și habitat neobișnuit pentru specia de pește invaziv Pseudorasbora parva în bazinul râului Vâlsan,
România. În iunie 2014 am întâlnit peștele non-nativ invaziv Pseudorasbora parva la 870 m altitudine în Carpații Meridionali. Acesta a
ocupat o baltă înconjurată de pădure de conifere, în bazinul superior al râului Vâlsan, unde probabil a fost introdus direct de oameni.
Cuvinte cheie: altitudine, bariere, habitate, introducere, pericol.
Pseudorasbora parva (Temminck & Schlegel, 1846) is a non-native fish in Europe, which in the last years invaded
large areas on the continent (see in: COPP et al., 2005; GOZLAN et al., 2010). It seems that Romania is one of the first
countries where this species was recorded, being accidentally introduced alongside economically important fish
(BĂNĂRESCU, 1964). Afterwards, P. parva spread rapidly in the country, a lot of studies being realised upon it (see in:
GAVRILOAIE et al., 2008). In Romania, it populates stagnant or low flowing waters from plain and hilly areas (e.g.
BĂNĂRESCU, 1964; OŢEL, 2007). Such preferences were recorded in other regions too (e.g. COPP et al., 2005), including
its native area (e.g. FUKUDA et al., 2013). Nevertheless, in Romania, P. parva was sometimes encountered in higher areas,
but situated in large, flat, intermountain depressions, where it was introduced in fishponds (IMECS et al., 2014). On the
contrary, in June 2014, we accidentally found a P. parva population at 870 m altitude, in the upper hydrographical basin of the
Vâlsan River (Fig. 1), in southern Făgăraş Mountains. The topmouth gudgeons occupied a pond with a surface of
approximately 10 m², the water depth of maximum 1 m, with rocky substratum and reeds on the shores, situated in the Vâlsan
Glades. Between the pond and the Vâlsan River there are only 30 m of wet, flooded areas, filled by small springs. The shores
of the pond and the banks of the river are covered by spruce forests (Fig. 2). Alongside P. parva, Phoxinus phoxinus
(Linnaeus, 1758) was also present in the pond. Between Vâlsan Glades and the nearest downstream locality, there is an
approximately 10 km long and narrow gorge, the Vâlsan Gorge, covered with dense beech and spruce forests. The Glades are
used by tourists, being a small, flat area, situated near the river.
Figure 1. P. parva distribution locality in the Vâlsan River basin (■).
P. parva individuals were captured with a net used for frog capture, our objective being the green frogs, which
present particularities in the region (COVACIU-MARCOV et al., 2014). Initially, we captured by chance a fish alongside a
green frog. After that, we managed to capture other individuals. Even if beside the captured specimens we observed other
individuals in areas unreachable with our net, P. parva was clearly less numerous than the native species.
237
TELCEAN Ilie Cătălin SAS-KOVÁCS István COVACIU-MARCOV Severus-Daniel
Figure 2. P. parva`s habitat in Vâlsan Glades.
The altitude of P. parva population from Vâlsan Glades is unusual compared with the previous data from Romania
(OŢEL, 2007). Nevertheless, not only the altitude is surprising, but in the first place the aspect of the habitats and of the
surrounding areas. Thus, P. parva was recorded in Romania at a slightly lower altitude, but in fishponds from depression
areas, where it was introduced (IMECS et al., 2014). Also, it was encountered at high altitudes in other areas in Europe (e.g.
CIUTTI et al., 2014). Thus, in Vâlsan Glade alongside the altitude, the habitat characteristics, typical for mountain areas and
its isolation upstream Vâlsan Gorge, which acts as an ecological barrier, is surprising. In the gorge the river has a very fast
flow, steep slope, thus we can rule out P. parva natural distribution in Vâlsan Glades, as this species is negatively correlated
with the current velocity (ONIKURA & NAKAJIMA, 2013). However, this species was recorded in Romania also in the
Timiş River Gorge (BĂNĂDUC et al., 2013), but those gorges are much wider, much shorter and situated at only 300 m
altitude. To our best knowledge, P. parva was previously registered in the Vâlsan only once, approximately 15 km
downstream the gorges and the mountain sector (PERRIN et al., 1993). More recent studies mentioned the species only in the
Argeş River, downstream its confluence with the Vâlsan River (URECHE et al., 2007). Moreover, even in 2011, when we
searched for Romanichthys valsanicola Dumitrescu, Bănărescu & Stoica, 1957 downstream the gorges (TELCEAN et al.,
2011), we did not encounter P. parva. In the mountain sector, the Vâlsan River is not favourable for this species.
The natural spreading of P. parva in Vâlsan Glades through the hydrographical network is practically
impossible, the Vâlsan Gorge being an ecological barrier for this species. Thus, the only possible explanation for the
presence of this apparently isolated population seems to be the direct introduction by people. This is plausible, P. parva
being frequently unintentionally introduced (see in: GOZLAN et al., 2010), being recorded in areas where it seems
difficult to spread naturally (e.g. WILDEKAMP et al., 1997). Nevertheless, if usually P. parva was accidentally
introduced together with economically important fish (e.g. BĂNĂRESCU, 1964; GRABOWSKA et al., 2010), here this
fact is ruled out, because in the area there are not fishponds. Thus, in Vâlsan Glades, P. parva was intentionally
introduced, probably by tourists, from amusement, ornamental reasons, because even its use as living bait (OTEL,
2007) is less plausible. We cannot exclude its introduction by the local people, because on the ridge between the Vâlsan
and Argeş River basins there are some isolated ponds populated with Carassius carassius. Nevertheless, if C. carassius
is consumed by the local people, P. parva cannot have the same importance. However, once introduced in Vâlsan
Glades, P. parva seems to survive because it has remarkable plasticity and ecological flexibility (e.g. BEYER et al.,
2007; ZÁHORSKÁ & KOVÁČ, 2009; JARIĆ et al., 2014).
The Vâlsan River fish fauna is known in the first place due to the endemic species Romanichthys valsanicola,
which is present now only here (e.g. PERRIN et al., 1993; BĂNĂRESCU et al., 1995; TELCEAN et al., 2011). This
species is present downstream Vâlsan Gorge, its last recording date being May 2011 (TELCEAN et al., 2011). Even if
P. parva was encountered in the lower sectors of the Vâlsan River (PERRIN et al., 1993), in the last years in the river
only native species were observed (URECHE et al., 2007; TELCEAN, unpublished data). This fact indicates the
absence of appropriate studies upon the fish fauna from the Vâlsan River, and also the problem of the impact of
invasive fish species upon the native biodiversity. Even if that danger cannot be ignored, P. parva from Vâlsan Glade
seems to be isolated upstream the river sector populated by R. valsanicola and, it cannot reach that region because of
the river gorge. Nevertheless, once P. parva was introduced even in an isolated location, this fact can be repeated with
negative consequences for the native fauna, even if because of its ecological demands (e.g. OTEL, 2007) P. parva does
not seem capable to use the habitat of R. valsanicola. Much concerning seems to be the presence of P. parva in the
areas downstream the sector populated by R. valsanicola (PERRIN et al., 1993). Estimating the impact of P. parva upon
P. phoxinus is difficult, but once P. parva was eliminated from a region, the native fish evolve better (BRITTON et al.,
2009). The invasive potential of P. parva in the Vâlsan River can be accentuated if the river will be affected in the
238
future by hydro-ameliorative works. Especially, levelling and realising bottom sills can open huge opportunity for this
and other non-native species to colonize the river.
In conclusion, the presence of P. parva in Vâlsan Glades is probably a consequence of human introduction.
Nevertheless, the fact that it can survive at high altitudes in an unusual habitat indicates that the species can be capable
to colonize other sectors from the hydrographical basin.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Our study was made with the support of Freies Europa Weltanschauung Foundation, the custodian of the
Vâlsan River natural protected area, which we want to thank in this way.
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NOCITA A., POVZ M., POULET N., VIRBICKAS T., WOLTER C., SERHAN TARKAN A., TRICARICO E.,
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TELCEAN Ilie Cătălin SAS-KOVÁCS István COVACIU-MARCOV Severus-Daniel
OŢEL V. 2007. Atlasul Peştilor din Rezervaţia Biosferei Delta Dunării. Editura Centrul de Informare Tehnologica
Delta Dunării, Tulcea. 481 pp.
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1992, rivière Vîlsan, Roumanie). Revue Francaise d’Aquariologie. Cerce aquariophile, Nancy. 20(2): 37-42.
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valsanicola is still fighting! How can we help? North-Western Journal of Zoology. University of Oradea
Publishing House, Oradea. 7(2): 334-338.
URECHE D., BATTES K.W. & STOICA I. 2007. Ichthyofauna actual state in the upper and mid course of the river
Argeş hydrographical basin. Analele Ştiinţifice ale Universității ”Al. I. Cuza” Iaşi, sectia Biologie animală.
Universitatea Al. I. Cuza, Iasi. 53: 73-82.
WILDEKAMP R. H., VAN NEER W., KÜÇÜK F. & ÜNLÜSAYIN M. 1997. First record of the eastern Asiatic
gobionid fish Pseudorasbora parva from the Asiatic part of Turkey. Journal of Fish Biology. Wiley-
Blackwell, Hoboken. 51: 858-861.
ZÁHORSKÁ E. & KOVÁČ V. 2009. Reproductive parameters of invasive topmouth gudgeon Pseudorasbora parva
(Temminck and Schlegel, 1846) from Slovakia. Journal of Applied Ichthyology. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken.
25: 466-469.
TELCEAN Ilie Cătălin, SAS-KOVÁCS István, COVACIU-MARCOV Severus-Daniel*

University of Oradea, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology; 1, Universităţii, Oradea 410087, Romania
* Corresponding author`s e-mail: severcovaciu1@gmail.com

240
STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF A PLAIN HYDROGRAPHIC BASIN SYSTEM

AUTHOR OLIVIA CIOBOIU (REVIEW)
BREZEANU Gheorghe
Abstract. The work entitled Structures and functions of a plain hydrographic basin system is the result of a vast research
program developed in the period 1996 – 2014. The research studies aimed at the following objectives: knowing the ecological
features of the reservoirs, physical-geographical, morphological and hydrological structure of Preajba Valley reservoirs, chemical
and biocoenotic structure of the reservoirs (water chemistry, planktonic and benthonic communities), emphasizing the present state of
knowledge of gastropod biology (structure of freshwater gastropods, their distribution related to the zonality of the hydrographical
network of Romania), establishing the structure of the gastropod populations from Preajba Valley reservoirs (taxonomic structure,
spatial distribution, structure on age categories, structural biocoenotic indices and numerical variations of gastropod populations
during different seasonal stages), evaluation of biomass variations as a reference factor for gastropod production.
Keywords: basin system, gastropod populations, Oltenia Plain.
Rezumat. Structurile și funcțiile unui sistem bazinal de câmpie. Autor Olivia Cioboiu (Recenzie). Lucrarea
Structurile și funcțiile unui sistem bazinal de câmpie este rezultatul unui amplu program de cercetare efectuat în perioada 1996 –
2014. Cercetările au vizat următoarele obiective: cunoașterea particularităților ecologice ale lacurilor de baraj, structura fizico-
geografică, morfologică şi hidrologică a lacurilor de baraj Valea Preajba, structura chimică şi biocenotică a lacurilor (chimismul apei,
comunităţile planctonice şi bentonice), evidenţierea stadiului actual de cunoaştere a biologiei gastropodelor (structura gastropodelor
din apele continentale, distribuţia acestora în raport cu zonalitatea reţelei hidrografice de pe teritoriul României), stabilirea structurii
populaţiilor de gastropode din lacurile de baraj Valea Preajba (structura taxonomică, distribuţia spaţială, structura pe categorii de
vârstă, indicii structurali biocenotici şi variaţiile numerice ale populaţiilor de gastropode în diferite etape sezonale), evaluarea
variaţiilor biomasei, factor de referinţă a producţiei gastropodelor.
Cuvinte cheie: sistem bazinal, populații de gastropode, Câmpia Olteniei.
The author of the book, Dr. Olivia Cioboiu, has a long experience in the field of ecology and diversity of
aquatic ecosystems research.
The work entitled Structures and functions of a plain hydrographic basin system, published in 2014 at Antheo
Publishing House, Craiova, is the result of a research program regarding the ecology of continental aquatic ecosystems. As it
presents the results of the research made in the period 1996 – 2014, the work has a monographic character, which means it
brings an important contribution to defining the place and role of a plain hydrographic system, namely Preajba Valley small
reservoirs from Oltenia Plain. Structured in two parts and six chapters, the book has 194 pages.
In chapter 1 – Ecological features of the reservoirs – it is mentioned that the reservoirs are built along streams
or rivers for different purposes, such as hydroenergy, irrigations or water supply, as well as for the regulation of the
flow of rivers. It is underlined the rapport between a lake and a reservoir. There are also rendered the structural-
functional relations of a reservoir, mainly the geomorphologic, hydrologic and ecologic features of different reservoirs
located along the Olt Valley.
In chapter 2 – Physical-geographical, morphological and hydrological structure of Preajba Valley reservoirs
– it is emphasized that the area in question has not been adequately studied from the hydrobiological point of view;
thus, the landscape elements are described in the present book for the first time. It is also underlined that, within a small
area of no more than 30 km2, there is grouped a diversity of aquatic continental ecosystems: springs, streams, rivers,
reservoirs and swamps.
In chapter 3 – Chemical and biocoenotic structure of the reservoirs – there are emphasized the physical-
chemical characteristics of water, the structures of planktonic and benthonic populations. Referring to the chemical
features of the springs, it is underlined that they contain very small concentrations of nitrates and phosphates due to the
reduced influence of anthropogenic activities.
According to the content of anions and cations, the reservoirs located within the region of interest belong to the
bicarbonate-sulphate-calcic-magnesium category. It is also underlined that, in terms of quality standards for surface
waters, the small reservoirs located along the Preajba River belong to the 2nd quality category.
There are analysed and rendered the structural features of the phytoplankton and periphyton and, it is noticed
that, besides the primary phytoplankton and periphytic producers, the aquatic macrophytes hold an important share in
the biological production of the studied ecosystems.
With reference to the characteristics of the zooplankton, the author presents its taxonomic structure underlining
that there were identified 65 species. It is evaluated the numerical and biomass density of the zooplankton components.
The evaluation of the zoobenthos structures ends chapter 3 where it is emphasized that, in the studied
reservoirs, there are three main types of facies: sandy, silty and detritic. In the structure of the zoobenthos there were
identified 13 groups of invertebrates.
241
BREZEANU Gheorghe
The second part of the book, namely chapter 4 refers to the present stage of the knowledge of gastropods –
taxonomic, ecological and biogeographical considerations. In the first part of the chapter it is rendered a short history
of the research on gastropods from continental waters underlining the results obtained in Romania.
There are evaluated the gastropods from the continental waters of Romania, characterized by the presence of 107
species. It is analysed the distribution of gastropods according to the zonality of the hydrographical network, emphasized the
structure of gastropods from the Romanian sector of the Danube and rendered certain biogeographical considerations.
Chapter 5 deals with the gastropods from the small reservoirs Preajba Valley – population structure and
spatial distribution. There are established the structural biocoenotic indices and the numerical variations of the
gastropod populations during different seasonal stages.
In chapter 6 there are rendered the biomass variations as a reference factor for gastropod production. There
are analysed the seasonal variations and the biomass dynamics according to the numerical density and it is presented the
spatial distribution of the biomass and numerical density.
The tables, figures and graphs complete the analyses referring to the structures and functions of a plain
hydrographic system. The reference list contains 150 titles. The book also has an extended English abstract offering
information about all the six chapters (pp. 130-150).
The analysis of this work led us to the conclusion that the Preajba Valley basin represents a unique
geographical unit within the hydrographical network of Romania due to its structural-functional characteristics. It is
emphasized that the gastropod populations play an important role in the functioning of the studied habitats.
Brezeanu Gheorghe
The Romanian Academy, Institute of Biology,
Str. Splaiul Independenței No. 296, 060031, Bucharest, Romania.
E-mail: aurelia.brezeanu@ibiol.ro

242
QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN THE SUPPLY CHAIN OF BABY CORN IN THAILAND
RATTANACHAI Anuwat, KANLAYANARAT Sirichai
Abstract. Thailand is the main exporter of baby corn in the world. The production area is approximately 32,000 Hectares. The major
importers are the United States of America, Japan, the Netherlands and Taiwan. The demand of baby corn continues to increase. The
supply chain and logistics management is very important to maintain the quality and minimize the production cost of baby corn for
exporting. In this study, the key members of fresh baby corn supply chains in Kanchanaburi, Ratchaburi, and Nakhon Pathom
provinces of Thailand are growers, suppliers, packinghouse and consumers. The issue of baby corn supply chain management for
exporting are transportation time, dehusking process time, transportation temperature, storage temperature and also humidity. After
harvesting, baby corn must be transported to the packinghouse as soon as possible, then quickly dehusked by workers, packed and
kept in cold storage, after that transported to the airport. In the storage period, the temperature and relative humidity are important
factors to maintain baby corn qualities. Thus, the storage temperature and relative humidity were studied. It was found that baby corn
stored at 4°C at 90-95% RH showed the suitable conditions in reducing weight loss, respiration and in maintaining soluble solids,
external appearance including high acceptability for the customers. The storage life of baby corn kept at 4°C at 90-95% RH was 21
days. However, if baby corn was kept at 7°C at 90-95% RH, the storage life was only 18 days. At 25°C and 75-80% RH, the storage
life of baby corn was 7 days. Therefore, the cold chain is very important for prolonging the storage life of baby corn.
Keywords: baby corn, quality, supply chain.
Rezumat. Managementul calităţii în lanţul de aprovizionare cu porumb baby în Tailanda. Tailanda este principalul
exportator de porumb baby din lume. Suprafaţa de producţie este de aproximativ 32.000 ha. Cei mai mari importatori sunt Statele
Unite ale Americii, Japonia, Olanda și Taiwan. Cererea de porumb baby este în continuă creștere. Managementul lanţului de
aprovizionare şi logistic este foarte important pentru menţinerea calităţii şi minimizarea costurilor de producție a porumbului destinat
exportului. În acest studiu, membrii cheie în lanţul de aprovizionare cu porumb baby proaspăt în provinciile Kanchanaburi,
Ratchaburi şi Nakhon Pathom din Tailanda sunt cultivatorii, furnizorii, procesatorii şi consumatorii. Principalele probleme legate de
managementul lanţului de aprovizionare sunt timpul necesar transportului, procesului de depănuşare, temperatura în timpul
transportului, temperatura şi umiditatea din depozit. După recoltare, porumbul trebuie transportat pentru ambalare cât de rapid
posibil, apoi trebuie depănuşat rapid de către muncitori, ambalat şi păstrat la rece şi, apoi, transportat la aeroport. Pe durata
depozitării, temperatura şi umiditatea sunt factori foarte importanţi pentru menţinerea calităţilor porumbului. Au fost analizate
valorile de temperatură şi umezeală relativă. Astfel, s-a ajuns la concluzia că porumbul păstrat la o temperatură de 4°C şi o umezeală
relativă de 90-95% RH a indicat cele mai adecvate condiții în reducerea pierderii în greutate, respirație și în menținerea solidelor
solubile, inclusiv a aspectului exterior, un factor esenţial pentru clienţi. Durata de păstrare la o temperatură de 4°C şi o umezeală
relativă de 90-95% RH a fost de 21 zile. În cazul unei temperaturi de 7°C şi a unei umezeli de 90-95 % RH, durata de păstrare a fost
de numai 18 zile. La o temperatură de 25°C şi o umezeală relativă de 75-80% RH, durata de păstrare a fost de numai 7 zile. Astfel,
temperatura este foarte importantă pentru prelungirea duratei de păstrare a porumbului.
Cuvinte cheie: porumb baby, calitate, lanţ de aprovizionare.
Baby corn is the ear of maize (Zea mays L.) plant harvested young, especially before or just two or three days
after the silks has emerged but prior to fertilization. The dehusked ears can be eaten as vegetable. Baby corn provides
many food benefits to people. It is a good source of folate and vitamin B. It is also rich in several other nutrients such as
potassium, vitamin C and fibre (Food Market Exchange, 2003). Farmers can grow baby corn about four crops a year.
The main production areas of baby corn are Kanchanaburi, Ratchaburi and Nakhon Pathom provinces of Thailand.
Baby corn is an important commercial and export crop of Thailand which is the world's largest exporting
country. The major importers are the United States of America, Japan, Netherlands and Taiwan. Besides, Thailand also
exports baby corn to China, Australia, India and other countries.
The amount of baby corn export in 2009-2010 has been estimated at more than 33 million US dollars and the
demand of baby corn continuously increases (Office of Agriculture Economics, 2010). With a short period of
cultivation, only 45-60 days, farmers can reap the crop and fetch 12,500-18,750 Baht per ha. Moreover, there are few
pests to attack the plant. In addition, parts of baby corn plants such as tassel, young husk, silk and green stalk after
harvest can be used as fodder.
The quality of baby corn required by importers/customers refers to shape, size, freshness, limited chemical
residues and microorganism, etc. However, the growers’ lack of knowledge, low efficiency of management,
inappropriate transportation from farms to consumers, all cause produce deterioration leading to a lower price.
Therefore postharvest handling, supply chain and logistics management are very important to maintain the quality and
minimize losses of baby corn for export.
243
RATTANACHAI Anuwat KANLAYANARAT Sirichai
Quality of baby corn. In all classes, the minimum requirements of the quality of the baby cobs must be:
• whole;
• sound, produce affected by rotting or deterioration such as to make it unfit for consumption is excluded;
• clean, practically free of any visible foreign matter;
• free of damage caused by pests;
• free of abnormal external moisture;
• free of any foreign smell and/or taste;
• fresh in appearance;
• practically free of silk.
Note: The cut that is made on base of the cobs should be clean and well defined. A slight discolouration of the
cut surface due to storage is acceptable.
The cobs of baby corn are classified in three classes defined below:
1. "Extra" class
The cobs of baby corn in this class must be of superior quality, well-trimmed, free of husk, stalk and silk,
perfectly young cob. They must be free of defects, with the exception of very slight superficial defects, provided these
do not affect the general appearance of the produce, the quality, the keeping quality and presentation in the package.
2. Class I
The cobs of baby corn in this class must be of good quality, well-trimmed, free of husk and stalk. The
following slight defects may be allowed, provided these do not affect the general appearance of the produce, the quality,
the keeping quality and presentation in the package:
(1) slight defects in shape and colour;
(2) slight defects in irregular arrangement of undeveloped ovaries 1;
(3) slight defects on the surface such as rubbing, scratches or other mechanical damage. The total defect area
must not exceed 5% per cob;
(4) silk attached to and broken from the cob must be minimal without affecting the appearance of the baby
corn supplied to consumers.
3. Class II
This class includes the cobs of baby corn which do not qualify for inclusion in the higher classes, but satisfy
the minimum requirements specified. The following defects may be allowed, provided the cobs of baby corn retain their
essential characteristics as regards the quality, the keeping quality and presentation:
(1) defects in shape and colour;
(2) defects in irregular arrangement of undeveloped ovaries 1;
(3) defects on the surface due to rubbing, scratches or other mechanical damage. The total defect area must not
exceed 10% per cob;
(4) silk attached to and broken from the cob must be minimal without affecting the appearance of the baby
corn supplied to consumers. (National Bureau of Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards, 2007).
The quality provisions concerning sizing:
Size is determined by the length of the cobs of baby corn measured from the cut at the base to the tip in
accordance with the following:
Size Code 1: cob of baby corn length (cm) > 9.0 to 13.0
Size Code 2: cob of baby corn length (cm) > 7.0 to 9.0
Size Code 3: cob of baby corn length (cm) 4.0 to 9.0
For all sizes, the width must be 1.0 to 2.5 cm (measured at the widest part of the cob of baby corn) (National
Bureau of Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards, 2007).
Baby corn production. Baby corn is produced from regular corn plant. However most of the farmers use hybrid
seed from the company. Hybrid varieties are more popular than open pollinated varieties in most areas because of the
uniformity of cob size, cob height, plant height, flowering and silking date and maturity period. They produce higher and
better quality than opened pollinated one. Generally, production practices of baby corn are similar in many growing regions.
However, the farmers are not familiar with Good Agricultural Practices (GAP). Training is necessary when farmers want to
adopt GAP following the guideline of the Department of Agriculture and Department of Agricultural Extension, Ministry of
Agriculture and cooperatives, Thailand (Department of Agriculture, 2002 ).
When baby corn plants reach 38 days after planting, having 7 pairs of real leaves, musculine buds will come
out from clusters of young leaves. It is necessary to get rid of musculine buds. One hand holds a stalk, and the other
pluck out a young cluster of leaves surrounding the musculine buds. Plucking musculine buds prevents pollen mixing,
which leads to low quality of baby corn. Kernels will swell and become undesirable in the markets. In addition,
plucking of musculine buds quickens harvesting and increases productivity. Therefore, this technique should not be
overlooked. Baby corn can be harvested 3-4 days after the musculine bud plucking. (AIAMSAANG, 2009;
SAKHORNYEN, 2009; RATANACHAI, 2011).
Harvest baby corn. Baby corn generally matures very quickly, therefore the harvest of baby corn must be
planned carefully to avoid ending up with more mature corn ears. Baby corn is hand-picked as soon as the corn silk
244
emerges from the ear tips, a few days after. The most appropriate time for harvesting is when baby corn silk comes out
1-2 centimetres from the top end of ears, or when the plant is 45-50 days old. When possible, harvesting should be
carried out in the morning period, when the corn moisture content is highest and ambient temperatures are low. Reap
baby corn ears on top first, then those below. A baby corn produces 3-4 ears. Harvest crop every day in order to prevent
baby corn from being overripe (Food Market Exchange, 2003; AIAMSAANG, 2009; RATTANACHAI, 2011).
Timely harvesting is the most crucial thing in baby corn cultivation. The quality of the produce largely depends on
this stage of cultivation. Such as late harvests illustrated by too long silk coming out from ears result in too big baby corn size
undesirable to processing plants and traders. As for harvesting methods, farmers should twist of snap ears away. Next, put
them in containers like baskets, bags, sacks. The sacks of harvested baby corn should be transported to field
packinghouse/collecting place as quickly as possible, then keep on place with good ventilation and should not be piled up and
left for days. (Food Market Exchange, 2003; RATTANACHAI, 2011).
Postharvest handling of baby corn. After baby corn is harvested, it should be transported to shady placed or
collecting places having good ventilation (Department of Agriculture, 2002), because baby corn has very high rate of
respiration (Fig. 1). It should be husked right after harvest, if possible. Do not put baby corn directly on the ground or floor of
trucks. It is better to keep it in proper containers such as carton boxes, net plastic baskets facilitating ventilation (Department
of Agriculture, 2002).
140
Respiration rate
(mgCO2/kg.h)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
3 hrs 6 hrs 9 hrs 24 hrs
Times before husking (hrs)

Figure 1. Respiration rate of baby corn before husking.
In husking baby corn, split lengthwise ears, but try not to damage inner spikes. Next, thoroughly get rid of silk.
All tools used such as knives, containers must be clean. All tools and containers used from the harvesting stage to the
packaging stage need to be well cleaned in order to decrease the amount of microorganisms that can damage baby corn
produce. Baby corns are stored at 4°C for about 18 hours. Storage rooms can be cleaned with spraying of 1-2%
formaldehyde solution. Sodium hypochlorite is another alternative (RATTANACHAI, 2011)
Baby corn has to be fresh, the length of the cob is between 4 and 13 centimetres, the diameter is between 1
and 2.5 centimetres, straighten cob, kernels is good straight row kernel alignment, no bitten by insects. The kernels
should be yellow or cream. If the husk is removed from baby corn, the baby corn must not show any sign of cutting by
knife, damage and no silk attached. (National Bureau of Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards, 2007). The
process flow in packinghouse to prepare baby corn for exporting starts from sorting, sizing, grading, packing, etc. Then
baby corns are transported from packinghouse to the airport. The produces are stored at 5 °C, then transport by air to
many countries (RATTANACHAI, 2011).
Time schedule for the supply chain of baby corn. Time schedule of the supply chain of baby corn covers the
entire process, from farms to consumers (RATTANACHAI, 2011):
• Baby corn are harvested early in morning (06.00 to 08.00 a.m.) or 2 hours, then packed into sacks and placed
in the field (08.00 a.m.)
• Collector picks up baby corn from the field and transport it to the packinghouse (08.00 to 10.00 a.m.) or 2
hours. Temperature during transportation is approximately 27-32 degree C.
• Baby corn is sized, weighted in the packinghouse, then hushing (10.00 a.m. to 01.00 p.m.) or 3 hours.
• Baby corns are stored at 4°C (01.00 p.m. to 07.00 a.m.) or 18 hours.
• Process flow is started, sizing, grading, packing, etc. (07.00 a.m. to 3.00 p.m.) or 8 hours at 15-20 degree C.
245
RATTANACHAI Anuwat KANLAYANARAT Sirichai
• Baby corn are transported from packinghouse to the airport (03.00 p.m. to 05.00 p.m.) or 2 hours at 5°C. The
produces are stored at 5°C (05.00 p.m.to 10.35 p.m.) or 5 hours 35 minutes to Japan for the first flight, (05.00 p.m. to 11.50
p.m.) or 6 hours 50 minutes to Japan for the second flight in cargo.
• The produces are transported to partner countries. The first flight from Thailand to Japan time is 10.35 p.m. to
04.10 a.m., the second flight time is 11.50 p.m.to 05.25 a.m., or 5 hours 35 minutes.
• Baby corn is transported from distributors to supermarkets at 5°C, 6 hours.
• Summarising, the total time from baby corn field to consumer is 45 hours 35 minutes (for the first flight to
Japan), 47 hours 50 minutes (for the second flight to Japan).
Storage of baby corn. The storage temperature and relative humidity are important to maintain the quality and
storage life of baby corn. It was found that baby corn stored at 4°C under 90-95% RH showed the suitable condition to reduce
weight loss, respiration and in maintaining soluble solids, external appearance including high acceptability for the customers.
The storage life of baby corn kept at 4°C under 90-95% RH was 21 days. However if baby corn was kept at 7°C under 90-
95% RH, the storage life was only 18 days (Table 1; Fig. 2). At 25°C and 75-80% RH, the storage life of baby corn was 7
days (SAKHORNYEN, 2009). Therefore, the cold chain is very important for prolonging the storage life of baby corn.
Table 1. Respiration rate and weight loss of baby corn storage at 4, 7 and 25oC under 75 and 90% RH.
Treatments RH (%) Days of storage Weight loss (%) Respiration rate (mg CO2/ kg.h)
4 °C 90±5 21 2.05 31.63
7 °C 90±5 18 5.56 36.24
25 °C 75±5 7 10.58 135.12
Respiration rate (mgCO2/kg.h)
180
4 °C
150 7 °C
120 25 °C
90
60
30
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Days after storage
Figure 2. Respiration rate of baby corn during storage at 4, 7 and 25oC (ambient condition) for 21 days.
REFERENCES
AIAMSAANG R. 2009. Logistic cost Analysis of Fresh Baby Corn in Nakhon Pathom. Master Degree Thesis in
Postharvest Technology Program. King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi. Bangkok. 117 pp.
RATTANACHAI ANUWAT. 2011. Inbound Logistics Management of Fresh Baby Corn for Export. Doctor Degree Thesis
in Postharvest Technology Program. King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi. Bangkok. 142 pp.
SAKHORNYEN S. 2009. Postharvest Handling Systems on Quality of Baby Corn. Master Degree Thesis in Postharvest
Technology Program. King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi. Bangkok. 179 pp.
***. Department of Agriculture. 2002. Good Agricultural Practices of Baby Corn. GAP Guideline. Bangkok. 26 pp.
***. Food Market Exchange. 2003. Baby Corn. [Online], Available: https:
//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/whole_Foods_Market. (Accessed March 12, 2015).
***. National Bureau of Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards. 2007. Baby Corn, Thai Agricultural Standard.
Published in the Royal Gazette. London. 126(15D). 15 pp. (Accessed March 12, 2015).
***. Office of Agricultural Economics. 2010. Exporting and Importing Statistics, Thailand. [Online], Available:
http://www.oae.go.th/oae_report/export_import/export_result.php (Accessed (January 18, 2012).
Rattanachai Anuwat, Kanlayanarat Sirichai

Division of Postharvest Technology, King Kongkut's University of Technology Thonburi Thungkhru,
Bangkok 10140, Thailand.
E-mails: anuwat.phd@gmail.com; sirichai1076@hotmail.com

246
APPLYING MARINE STRATEGY FRAMEWORK DIRECTIVE (MSFD)

FOR GOOD ENVIRONMENT STATE (GES) ASSESSMENT
AT THE ROMANIAN BLACK SEA COAST
GOMOIU Marian-Traian
Abstract. The paper relates primarily to marine ecological issues; it is a brief overview of the EU Framework Directive on "Marine
Strategy" (MSFD). Although the paper deals with "marine" problems, the author presents information on "Marine Strategy" at a
meeting where there is a great variety of specialists with biological, ecological, environmental, nature protection concerns, just
having in view the broad theoretical and, especially, applied importance of this directive, which arouses such a general interest. The
Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) (EU, 2004; 2008) is a document of particular theoretical and especially practical
significance pursuing a comprehensive approach to the protection of marine biodiversity and minimizing pollution, while recognizing
the needs of society to benefit from marine resources and enable the sustainable use of these resources. MSFD practical applications
within EU FP7 PERSEUS project, the author being a member of the research team, refers to the identification, development and
promotion tools and methods to evaluate the environmental status along Europe's southern seas (the Mediterranean and Black Sea
basins), focusing on countries outside the EU and, if possible, finding ways to improve monitoring and evaluation methodology in
the future. The author considers that the results advocate the improvement of the monitoring system in the future by several actions,
among which: introduction of a preliminary phase of monitoring, providing greater cohesion and trust in the data obtained in future
GES evaluations; organizing better coordination, both at national and European level, enabling the inter-comparability of different
analyzed areas; providing similar facilities, equipment and standard methods to all Member States, which have to be subject for
periodical inter-calibrating and up-dating. In this presentation the author proposes several recommendations to improve future
assessments and possibilities of comparing GES results.
Keywords: Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) 2008/56/CE, descriptors, criteria, indicators Black Sea, Romanian Coast.
Rezumat. Aplicarea Directivei-cadru privind Strategia Marină (MSFD) pentru evaluarea Stării Bune a
Ecosistemului (GES) la Coasta Românească a Mării Negre. Lucrarea se referă, în primul rând, la problematica ecologică
marină, fiind o scurtă prezentare a Directivei-cadru UE privind „Strategia Marină” (MSFD). Deşi lucrarea se ocupă de probleme
„marine”, autorul prezintă informaţii privind ,,strategia pentru mediul marin” la o reuniune în care există o mare diversitate de
specialişti cu preocupări biologice, ecologice, de ocrotirea naturii, tocmai având în vedere larga importanţă teoretică şi, mai ales
practică, a acestei directive care stârneşte astfel un interes general. Directiva-cadru privind strategia pentru mediul marin (MSFD)
(UE, 2004; 2008) reprezintă un document de o însemnătate teoretică, dar mai ales practică, deosebită, care urmăreşte o abordare
cuprinzătoare privind protecţia biodiversităţii marine şi minimizarea poluării, în paralel cu recunoaşterea nevoilor societăţii de a
beneficia de resursele marine și care, în același timp, să permită utilizarea durabilă a acestor resurse. Aplicaţiile practice ale MSFD în
cadrul proiectului UE FP7 PERSEUS, în care autorul este membru al echipei de cercetare, se referă la identificarea, dezvoltarea şi
promovarea instrumentelor şi a metodelor de evaluare a stării ecologice de-a lungul mărilor sudice ale Europei (bazinele Mării
Mediterane şi Mării Negre), cu accent pe ţările din afara UE şi, dacă este posibil, găsirea căilor de a îmbunătăţi metodologia de
monitorizare şi evaluare în viitor. Autorul consideră că rezultatele susțin îmbunătățirea sistemului de monitorizare în viitor prin mai
multe acțiuni, printre care: introducerea unei faze preliminare a monitorizării, oferind o mai mare coeziune și încredere în datele
obținute în viitoarele evaluări GES; organizarea unei coordonări mai bune, la nivel național și european, care să permită inter-
comparabilitatea diferitelor domenii analizate; acordarea de facilități similare, echipamente și metode standard în toate statele
membre, care trebuie să fie supuse periodic inter-calibrării și modernizării. În această prezentare autorul propune mai multe
recomandări pentru îmbunătățirea evaluărilor viitoare și a posibilităților de comparare a rezultatelor GES.
Cuvinte cheie: Directiva-cadru privind Strategia pentru mediul marin (MSFD) 2008/56/CE, descriptori, criterii, indicatori Marea
Neagră, coasta românească.
The challenging aim of the European Union's Marine Strategy Framework Directive is to protect more
effectively the marine environment across Europe and to achieve Good Environmental Status of EU marine waters by
2020. The Directive defines Good Environmental Status (GES) as: “The environmental status of marine waters where
these provide ecologically diverse and dynamic oceans and seas which are clean, healthy and productive” Article 3.
GES means that the different uses made of the marine resources are conducted at a sustainable level, ensuring
their continuity for future generations.
In addition, GES means that:
• Ecosystems, including their hydro-morphological (i.e. the structure and evolution of the water resources),
physical and chemical conditions, are fully functioning and resilient to human-induced environmental change;
• The decline of biodiversity caused by human activities is prevented and biodiversity is protected;
• Human activities introducing substances and energy into the marine environment do not cause pollution
effects. Noise from human activities is compatible with the marine environment and its ecosystems.
Studies within the EU FP7 Project PERSEUS (Policy-oriented marine Environmental Research in the
Southern European Seas – SESs) are the first attempt on wide sea scale, in accordance with the principles and
objectives of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), 2008/56/EC, concerning the state of marine
247
ecosystems, their present situation, the working methods and the gaps in studies, aiming at the improvement of some
negative aspects.
Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) triggered a positive reaction from the marine scientific
community of researchers in EU countries, being a call to action (DE GROOT et al., 2010; FARMER et al., 2012;
OGUZ et al., 2012; GOMOIU et al., 2013; NAIR et al., 2014; O'HIGGINS et al., 2014).
What does a Marine Strategy include?
• The initial assessment of the current environmental status of national marine waters and the environmental
impact and socio-economic analysis of human activities in these waters;
• The determination of what GES means for national marine waters;
• The establishment of environmental targets and associated indicators to achieve GES by 2020;
• The establishment of a monitoring programme for the ongoing assessment and the regular update of targets;
• The development of a programme of measures designed to achieve or maintain GES by 2020;
• The review and preparation of the second cycle.
Assessing GES – Romania.
The main tasks with regard to the implementation of MSFD elements of PERSEUS Project are to identify,
develop and promote instruments and methods to assess the environmental status across the Mediterranean and the
Black Sea basins, with emphasis on non-EU countries. Based on results obtained in the EU FP7 project PERSEUS, a
research team involved in the work package on "Basin-wide application of MSFD implementation elements" made
an analysis of the reports submitted by the Member States (MS) on the initial assessment (IA) and the GES assessment,
mainly concluding: lack of regular monitoring; lack of adequate monitoring networks; lack of monitoring for special
purposes; national monitoring programs overlap leading to the waste of research efforts and, implicitly, to different
results which cannot be compared; lack of information on the extension of monitoring at spatial and temporal scale;
lack of data on the intensity and frequency of anthropic / environmental pressures and their impact on biodiversity.
The results explain some conclusions of the study, such as:
• The IA report and GES output are partially documented;
• Data are missing for a number of criteria → lack of operational methodological elements;
• Assessments are predominantly on sectors / species, considering products separately;
• A more comprehensive analysis is necessary in the near future;
• Absence of thresholds presentation → requires further development;
• Knowledge among countries are heterogeneous → the situation should be improved;
• WFD methodologies are prevalent (80%) → they should be recommended for larger use in non-EU countries;
• The most successful combinations of methodologies are those presented in the European Directives, Regional
Sea Conventions and the national methods → the methods should be recommended for general use;
• Methodologies are poorly harmonized, and thresholds, as a rule, are not available → need improving.
In full agreement with the MSFD provisions, the PERSEUS Project, based on EU Member States (MS)
Reports on the initial assessment (IA) and assessment of good ecological state (GES) in some basins of the SESs
system, completed the characterization of the 11 descriptors together with the presentation of the criteria and defining
indicators of the respective states.
The reports started from the situations and existing practices in various academic institutes, regardless of their
system to organize marine monitoring activities; in conclusion, the start did not have a common denominator.
The analysis of MSs reports revealed the knowledge level of GES, the methodologies used in different
countries and the recorded gaps.
Good Environmental Status (GES) results from the evaluation of the level and trends of ecological parameters
considered as descriptors and indicators under MSFD Annex I, within the monitoring programs at local, national,
regional levels, etc. GES cannot reflect the real situation in the study area unless the monitoring program has been
prepared strictly on the basis of preliminary studies on:
• Historical data monitoring in the area - lessons learned;
• Management schemes of areas under study;
• What to measure vs. what we can measure with the existing facilities;
• What are the most appropriate methods;
• How can we ensure that the designed monitoring program will accurately measure the changes occurring in the
system;
• Establishing the spatial model of the monitoring network to ensure that samples and measurements are
representative of the study area; how we can proceed:
■ Stations or polygons?
■ Regular network stations or at random?
■ Number of replicates?, etc.;
• Establishing a biological-taxonomic model of the representative monitoring program for the area under study.
248
Only on the basis of accurate, representative assessments, which follow the same methodology, comparisons
can be made concerning the state of ecosystems in different areas and the gaps in our knowledge can be bridged.
The main tasks with regard to the implementation of MSFD elements of PERSEUS Project are to identify,
develop and promote instruments and methods to assess the environmental status across the Mediterranean and the
Black Sea basins, with emphasis on non-EU countries. Based on results obtained in the EU FP7 project PERSEUS, a
research team involved in the work package on "Basin-wide application of MSFD implementation elements" made an
analysis of the reports submitted by the Member States (MS) on the initial assessment (IA) and the GES assessment,
mainly concluding: lack of regular monitoring; lack of adequate monitoring networks; lack of monitoring for special
purposes; national monitoring programs overlap leading to the waste of research efforts and, implicitly, to different
results which cannot be compared; lack of information on the extension of monitoring at spatial and temporal scale;
lack of data on the intensity and frequency of anthropic / environmental pressures and their impact on biodiversity.
Good Environmental Status is determined at the level of marine region or sub-region - in this case the
Black Sea, the North-West sector situated under the influence of the Danube River water discharge, as described in
Article 9, based on qualitative descriptors listed in Annex I, in accordance with Article 5 of the Marine Strategy
Framework Directive (MSFD) (2008/56/EC), (See APPENDIX).
Good Environmental Status as required by Directive was established on the basis of 11 qualitative descriptors
in Annex I of the MSFD.
Of the 11 descriptors, the Romanian report considered descriptor 1 (which is closely related to descriptors 4
and 6 and descriptors 5 and 8) to be representative of the Black Sea marine ecosystem as there are sufficient data sets
for determining GES.
For a detailed description of the 11 descriptors, 29 criteria and 56 indicators were established according to European
Commission Decision (EU/2010/477) on criteria and methodologies for determining good environmental status.
The report notes that, at present, there are very few assessment procedures and very few indicators of
Commission Decision 2010/477/EU in operation. Important procedures for assessing the environmental status have
been achieved in numerous directives such as: Water Framework Directive (WFD); Habitats Directive (HD) - Council
Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora or;
Convention for the Protection of the Black Sea (Bucharest Convention).
ANNEX I
Qualitative descriptors for determining good environmental status (referred to in Articles 3(5), 9(1), 9(3)
and 24) (THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION, 2008 -
DIRECTIVE 2008/56/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 17 June 2008
establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy (Marine Strategy
Framework Directive). (Text with EEA relevance). (5.6.2008 EN Official Journal of the European Union L 164/19).
1. Biological diversity is maintained. The quality and occurrence of habitats and the distribution and
abundance of species are in line with prevailing physiographic, geographic and climatic conditions.
2. Non-indigenous species introduced by human activities are at levels that do not adversely alter the
ecosystems.
3. Populations of all commercially exploited fish and shellfish are within safe biological limits, exhibiting
a population age and size distribution that is indicative of a healthy stock.
4. All elements of the marine food webs, to the extent that they are known, occur at normal abundance
and diversity and levels capable of ensuring the long-term abundance of the species and the retention of their full
reproductive capacity.
5. Human-induced eutrophication is minimised, especially adverse effects thereof, such as losses in
biodiversity, ecosystem degradation, harmful algae blooms and oxygen deficiency in bottom waters.
6. Sea-floor integrity is at a level that ensures that the structure and functions of the ecosystems are
safeguarded and benthic ecosystems, in particular, are not adversely affected.
7. Permanent alteration of hydrographical conditions does not adversely affect marine ecosystems.
8. Concentrations of contaminants are at levels not giving rise to pollution effects.
9. Contaminants in fish and other seafood for human consumption do not exceed levels established by
Community legislation or other relevant standards.
10. Properties and quantities of marine litter do not cause harm to the coastal and marine environment.
11. Introduction of energy, including underwater noise, is at levels that do not adversely affect the
marine environment.
To determine the characteristics of good environmental status in a marine region or subregion as provided for
in Article 9(1), Member States shall consider each of the qualitative descriptors listed in this Annex in order to identify
those descriptors which are to be used to determine good environmental status for that marine region or subregion.
A brief extract from the MSFD for Descriptor 1 - Biological diversity is presented below as an example.
249
ANNEX: CRITERIA AND METHODOLOGICAL STANDARDS FOR GOOD ENVIRONMENTAL

STATUS. PART B: Criteria for good environmental status relevant to the descriptors of Annex I to Directive
2008/56/EC
Criteria for good environmental status relevant to the descriptors of Annex I to Directive 2008/56/EC
Descriptor 1: Biological diversity is maintained. The quality and occurrence of habitats and the distribution and
abundance of species are in line with prevailing physiographic, geographic and climate conditions.
(THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION, 2010 - COMMISSION DECISION of 1 September 2010 on criteria and
methodological standards on good environmental status of marine waters (notified under document C 2010-5956) (Text
with EEA relevance) (2010/477/EU) L 232/14 EN Official Journal of the European Union 2.9.2010).
Species level
1.1. Species distribution
— Distributional range (1.1.1)
— Distributional pattern within the latter, where appropriate (1.1.2)
— Area covered by the species (for sessile/benthic species) (1.1.3)
1.2. Population size
— Population abundance and/or biomass, as appropriate (1.2.1)
1.3. Population condition
— Population demographic characteristics (e.g. body size or age class structure, sex ratio, fecundity rates,
survival/mortality rates) (1.3.1)
— Population genetic structure, where appropriate (1.3.2).
Habitat level
1.4. Habitat distribution
— Distributional range (1.4.1)
— Distributional pattern (1.4.2)
1.5. Habitat extent
— Habitat area (1.5.1)
— Habitat volume, where relevant (1.5.2)
1.6. Habitat condition
— Condition of the typical species and communities (1.6.1)
— Relative abundance and/or biomass, as appropriate (1.6.2)
— Physical, hydrological and chemical conditions (1.6.3).
Ecosystem level
1.7. Ecosystem structure
— Composition and relative proportions of ecosystem components (habitats and species) (1.7.1).
Long-term changes and trends of development of the state of ecosystems
To make a comparative analysis on long-term changes and trends of development of the state of ecosystems,
comparative population dynamics and reproductive habitats, as well as the economic implications of climate change is
necessary to give the most appropriate responses of a series to keep wondering, among which in particular:
• How will climate variability and change – for example changes in temperature, stratification, transport,
acidification–influence the seasonal cycle of primary productivity, trophic interactions and fluxes of carbon to the
benthos and the deep ocean?
• How will the ecosystem response to these changes differ across the basin and among the shelf seas?
• How are the populations of phytoplankton, zooplankton and higher trophic levels influenced by large-scale
ocean circulation and what is the influence of changes in atmospheric and oceanic climate on their population
dynamics?
• What are the feedbacks of changes in ecosystem structure and dynamics on climate signals?
• How do life-history strategies of target organisms, including vertical and horizontal migration, contribute to
observed population dynamics, community structure and biogeography?
• How are life-history strategies affected by climate variability?
• How will life history influence the response of key species and populations to anthropogenic climate change?
According to the preliminary conclusions of PERSEUS Project, the main important issues for the
Southern European Seas, particularly the Black Sea, are the issues hindering the progress towards a good status
of the marine environment:
● structural and functional consequences of ecological pressures during the last decades of the 20th Century;
● misunderstanding of the role of natural systems in providing people with services, resources and functions;
● scarcity of data and knowledge on the Social-Economic System based on marine interests;
● weak interest of stakeholders for marine issues;
● high costs for new marine technology used directly in the sea and laboratories – cost of equipment and its
maintenance, repair, and operations (including software).
Assessment of the ecosystems state at the NW Black Sea sector led to the conclusion that the most
important gaps in data acquisition and knowledge of the identified issues are:
250
● Inadequate programs of monitoring;

● Missing data and knowledge of ecosystems functioning and adaptation to changes;
● Heterogeneous information and lack of integrated, coherent, unitary and clear coordination and cooperation
among the organizations involved in marine management and research of marine space;
● Lack or scarcity of shallow-water observatories and instrumented buoys rationally dispersed in regional or
sub-regional areas, equipped with modern instruments and equipments (I. N. C. D. M. ,,Grigore Antipa”, 2012).
In view of the above, the specific actions necessary to tackle these issues could be summarized as:
● urgent measures for applying an adaptive management to increase the resilience of the ecosystems and to
diminish the vulnerability of biodiversity;
● necessity of participative approach with stakeholders – involvement of stakeholders in the understanding of
natural systems supporting their economic activity must be at the same level and intensity with their interest for
economic aspects;
● identification and obtaining adequate financial support for new R-D-I projects, including the improvement of
oceanic infrastructure;
● adopting the holistic research approaches of monitoring, assessment and management for the efficient
integration of the systems – study of the "system of systems".
REFERENCES
DE GROOT R. S., ALKEMADE R., BRAAT L., HEIN L., WILLEMEN L. 2010. Challenges in integrating the concept
of ecosystem services and values in landscape planning, management and decision making. Ecological
Complexity. Elsevier. London. 7: 260-272.
FARMER A., MEE L., LANGMEAD O., COOPER P., KANNEN A., KERSHAW P., CHERRIER V. 2012. The
Ecosystem Approach in Marine Management. EU FP7 KNOWSEAS Project. ISBN 0‐9529089‐5‐6. 16 pp.
http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/reform/docs/marinet_appendix_en.pdf (Accessed March 15, 2015).
GOMOIU M.-T. - Keynote Speaker, Contributors: BEGUN T., VASILIU D., TEACA A. 2013. Region: Black Sea.
Basin-wide promotion of MSFD principles. PERSEUS Umbrella Workshop, Barcelona 22-23 January 2013.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-06707-190354: 11-25. (Accessed: March 12, 2015).
NAIR R., MEDEOT-PETIHAKIS G., NITOUMAS M. 2014. Towards a Joint European Research Infrastructure
network for Coastal Observatories. Guidelines for Uncertainty. Joint European Research Infrastructure
network for Coastal Observatories. JERICO–WP5–D5.4–220214–V. 23 pp.
OGUZ T., AKOGLU E., SALIHOGLU B. 2012. Current state of overfishing and its regional differences in the Black
Sea. Ocean and Coastal Management. Society of Ecology. Sofia. 58: 47-56.
O'HIGGINS T., FARMER A., DASKALOV G., KNUDSEN S., MEE L. 2014. Achieving good environmental status in
the Black Sea: scale mismatches in environmental management. Ecology and Society. Scottish Association for
Marine Science. University in Bergen. 19(3): 3-54.
***. EU (European Commission). 2004. Guidance to the application of the ecosystem approach to management of
human activities. Report of the Working group on the Ecosystem Approach to Management. European
Commission, Directorate-General, Environment. Brussels. 135 pp.
***. EU (European Parliament and the Council of the European Union). 2008. DIRECTIVE 2008/56/EC OF THE
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 17 June 2008 establishing a framework for
community action in the field of marine environmental policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive). (Text
with EEA relevance) 5.6.2008 EN Official Journal of the European Union L. 164(19). 22 pp.
***. EU (European Commission). 2010. Commission decision of 1 September 2010 on criteria and methodological
standards on good environmental status of marine waters (notified under document C 2010-5956) (Text with
EEA relevance) (2010/477/EU) L. 232/14 EN Official Journal of the European Union 2.9.2010.
***. I. N. C. D. M. ,,Grigore Antipa”. 1012. Determinarea Stării Ecologice Bune pentru apele româneşti ale Mării
Negre. Document realizat în conformitate cu cerinţele Directivei 2008/56/CE a Parlamentului şi Consiliului
Europei. 85 pp.
***. THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION. 2008. Directiva
2008/56/CE a Parlamentului European şi a Consiliului din 17 iunie 2008 de instituire a unui cadru de acţiune
comunitară în domeniul politicii privind mediul marin (Directiva-cadru „Strategia pentru mediul marin”)
(Text cu relevanţă pentru SEE 25.6.2008 RO Jurnalul Oficial al Uniunii Europene L. 164(19). 115 pp.
Gomoiu Marian-Traian
The National Institute of Marine Geology and Geoecology - GeoEcoMar,
23 – 25 Dimitrie Onciul Street, 024053 Constanța, Romania.
E-mail: mtgomoiu@gmail.com

251
FROM THE HISTORY OF ECOLOGY (NOTE I)
NEACŞU Petre, CIOBOIU Olivia
Abstract. Ecology, during its development, knew many stages, starting with the empirical stage and ending with its establishment as
a science. In the present work, we will deal with the stage of accumulation of unwritten data and the stage of the first written
registrations of natural phenomena.
Keywords: history, ecological phenomenon, social life, ecological stage.
Rezumat. Din istoricul ecologiei (Nota I). Ecologia, în dezvoltarea sa, a trecut prin mai multe etape; de la etapa acumulărilor
empirice până la etapa constituirii ecologiei ca știință. În nota de față vom trata etapa acumulărilor datelor nescrise și etapa primelor
înregistrări scrise despre unele fenomene naturale.
Cuvinte cheie: istoric, fenomen ecologic, viață socială, etapă ecologică.
The development of ecology is closely linked to the needs of human economy, starting with the identification
of food sources to knowledge about the influence of the greenhouse effect and ozone layer upon life on the Earth.
During its evolution, ecology underwent the following stages:
- the stage of the accumulation of unwritten empirical data during the primitive commune;
- the stage of the first written registrations of ecological data, which includes the slavery epoch, the Middle
Ages and the Renaissance (the end of the 17th century);
- the stage of the development of certain ecology chapters in the works from other scientific fields (the 18th –
th
19 centuries);
- the stage of the appearance of ecology as a science (the beginning of the 19th century).
In this work, we shall analyse the first two stages.
The stage of the accumulation of unwritten empirical data that belongs to the primitive commune. It is the
longest stage, when people orally transmitted data about land cultivation, livestock, etc. The livelihood by means of hunting,
fishing, gathering fruit, leaves, roots of wild plants was based on the acquisition of ecological knowledge as well.
Thus, in order to hunt an animal, the primitive people had to know what its habitat was, when it fed, what it ate,
etc.; in order to pick up certain fruit, they had to know where the plat grew, when fruit became ripe, etc.
The stage of the first written registrations of ecological data includes the slavery epoch, the Middle Ages
and the Renaissance (the end of the 17th century).
1500 BC Santorin volcano erupts (HEINRICH & HERGT, 1993).
610 – 546 BC Anaximander, a representative of the Milesian School, considers that the first animals appeared
in the aquatic environment. Terrestrial animals come from aquatic animals as some of them left the sea and adapted to
the new land conditions. The change of the living environment also brought to the change of the anatomic-physiological
aspect. Anaximander made the first sundials and imagined the first geographic map of Ancient Greece (PÂRVU &
ARDELEAN, 1996).
484 – 415 BC Herodotus of Halikarnis makes a plastic description of the populations from the Mediterranean,
Caucasus and Scotland areas (LUCA, 1996).
460 – 375 BC, in the Ancient Greece, Hippocrates proves the role of environmental factors for human health
(NEACȘU, 1974).
428 – 400 BC Anaxagoras, a Greek philosopher, born at Clazomene (Asia Minor), considers the world in a
permanent movement. He issues the idea of the unity of the living world sustaining that plants and animals have
common functions such as breathing (PÂRVU & ARDELEAN, 1996).
384 – 322 BC Aristotle makes a first ecological classification of animals (according to their behaviour,
locomotion, living environment, etc.) (NEACȘU, 1974).
381 BC Aristotle makes the first observations regarding the influence of climate, soil and relief upon the
distribution of plants (PĂTROESCU, 1996).
371 BC after studying plants, Theophrastus groups them in trees, shrubs, lianas and grass (NEACȘU, 1974).
135 – 51 BC Posidonius, a stoic savant, considers that peoples, as well as animal and plant populations, cannot
thrive elsewhere but in their natural regions and, in new conditions, they lose their own characters and borrow those of
the new environment (LUCA, 1996).
79 BC Vesuvius volcano erupts (HEINRICH & HERGT, 1993).
In the 1st century BC, Lucretius composed poems rendering knowledge about the agriculture in the Roman
world of his times (NEACȘU, 1974).
In the 1st century AD, the biological fight is used in China for the first time; the lemon tree carnivorous ant
(Oecophylla murdina) was used to fight against parasite insects of the mandarin tree (ELTON, 1946).
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NEACŞU Petre CIOBOIU Olivia
304 AD it appears the text Plants and trees from the South where it is described the sale of the lemon tree
carnivorous ant in wicker baskets. This ant, bigger than the normal ant, does not harm the lemon tree but destroys the
insects that attack the leaves of lemon and mandarin trees (ELTON, 1946).
1130, the biological fight against insects was systematically used in China for the first time. A document from
this period indicates that small-sized insects provoked important damage to the mandarin and orange tree plantations in
Canton province. The author of this document explains the fact that there are numerous carnivorous ants that still live
and contributed to the destruction of the pest. These biological fight techniques were to be rediscovered in the Occident,
much later (DELAGE, 1991).
1529, king Sigismund of Poland imposes measures meant to protect the beaver as it was excessively hunted
(GÂRLEA, 1996).
1556 in China, there occurred an earthquake, which caused the death of more than 180,000 persons (CIOBOIU,
2005).
1558, O. Magnus describes the migration of the lemming from Norway (Lemnus sp.); he shows that these
predators migrate from time to time in huge flocks, which once in the proximity of water bodies throw themselves and
die (CIOBOIU, 2005).
1560, Gesner emphasizes the vertical zonation of the vegetation in the Alps (NEDELCU, 1996).
1561, Francis Bacon – an English savant and philosopher, glorifies the mankind kingdom that has to be made
up of scientists. He is against scholastics and a partisan of experimental methods (BOTNARIUC, 1961).
In 1600, one species disappeared every year; in 1900 – 4 species per year; 1985 – 1,000 species per year; 2010
– 15,000 species per year (FILIPPO, 2011).
1627 the aurochs (Bos primigenius) disappears; it is the ancestor of all domestic cattle from Asia Minor, North
Africa and Europe (NEACȘU, 1996).
1628 – 1703, John Ray, a diplomat from Oxford, is considered the greatest English naturalist before Charles
Darwin. He recognizes the existence of a set and durable order in nature without rejecting the obvious achievements of
change (BOTNARIUC, 1961).
1654 in Paris, it is published the work of the French traveller Jaques Gaffarel, entitled The underground world,
which describes, from the historical and philosophical point of view, the most beautiful and rare grottoes of the Earth, caves,
hollows, cellars, hidden corners and burrows, used by different animals and unknown peoples, precipices, gorges and
wonderful cracks from the mountains, memorable holes and famous mines, underground cities, crypts, well-known fountains,
water tanks and baths, in other words, the most famous and curious caverns and hollows (NEGREA, 1996).
1661 in London, it is presented the first written mention about the noxious consequences and the control
measures against the contamination of the air with smoke, as well as certain proposed remedies, in Evelin’s work – Soot
or the inconvenience of the air and smoke spread in London (NEACȘU, 1996).
1664, John Evelin publishes the work Silva or treaty on the forest trees, where the rational management of
forests is recommended (BOTNARIUC, 1961).
1665 in Amsterdam, it appears the work Mundus subteraneus written by the German Jesuit, Franciscan doctor
Athanasus Kircher. In the two volumes, there are gathered all the legends and known facts about caves, including the
ones mentioned by Gaffarel. Rare animals, fabulous or not, are described and drawn, most often with much fantasy
(NEGREA, 1996).
1670, Menzel creates the term of Plant Geography (NEDELCU, 1996).
1671 the Danish king Christian the 2nd forbids the exploitation of forests from southern Denmark (GÂRLEA, 1996).
1672, in the work De Draconum Carpathicorum cavernis, there are mentioned caves from Romania with
dragon bones, which, in fact, are bones of the cave bear (NEGREA, 1996).
1683 – 1757, Reaumur makes observations referring to the role of certain abiotic factors upon organisms
(BOTNARIUC, 1961).
1686, a postmaster discovers in an intermittent karst spring located between Postojna and Ljubljana (former
Yugoslavia), the first aquatic cave animal, a blind amphibian called olm, which will be described much later, in 1768,
by Laurenti under the name Proteus anguinus (NEGREA, 1996).
CONCLUSIONS
In the ecological stage belonging to the primitive commune, humankind tried to ensure survival by knowing
the food sources and the way of life of plants and animals, water sources and shelters, etc. The gather knowledge is
transmitted orally from one generation to the other.
The second stage of the ecological knowledge included the slavery epoch, the Middle Ages and the
Renaissance (the end of the 17th century). It is the period when different persons deal with sciences, even certain
ecological knowledge, emphasizing that plants, animals, certain physical, chemical and biological phenomena do not
occur randomly, but are conditioned and modified positively or negatively during time. These studies were written
down for future generations.
253
REFERENCES
BOTNARIUC N. 1961. Din istoria biologiei generale. Edit. Științifică. București. 757 pp.
CIOBOIU OLIVIA. 2005. Ecologia și protecția mediului. Edit. Sitech. Craiova. 195 pp.
DELAGE P. J. 1991. Une histoire de l'ecologie. Edit. La Decouverte. Paris. 285 pp.
ELTON CH. 1946. The ecology of animals. Edit. Methuen. London. 97 pp.
FILIPPO F. 2011. Le developpement durable. Edit. Breal. Paris. 125 pp.
GÂRLEA D. 1996. Ocrotirea naturii. In: Istoria biologiei în date. Edit. ALL. București: 650-663.
HEINRICH D. & HERGT M. 1993. Atlas de l'ecologie. Edit. La Pochotheque. Torino. 284 pp.
LUCA ELEONORA. 1996. Antropologie. In: Istoria biologiei în date. Edit. ALL. București: 607-649.
NEACȘU P. 1974. Ecologie generală. Centrul de multiplicare. Universitatea București. 128 pp.
NEACȘU P. 1996. Ecologie terestră. In: Istoria biologiei în date. Edit. ALL. București: 458-476.
NEDELCU G. 1996. Fitosociologie. In: Istoria biologiei în date. Edit. ALL. București: 225-249.
NEGREA ȘT. 1996. Biospeologie. In: Istoria biologiei în date. Edit. ALL. București: 477-494.
PĂTROESCU MARIA. 1996. Fitogeografie. In: Istoria biologiei în date. Edit. ALL. București: 250-267.
PÂRVU C. & ARDELEAN A. 1996. Figuri de biologi. In: Istoria biologiei în date. Edit. ALL. București: 687-758.
Neacşu Petre
University Bucharest, Faculty of Biology, str. Splaiul Independentei, No. 91-95, 76201, Bucharest, Romania.
E-mail: sandaneacsu15@yahoo.com
Cioboiu Olivia
The Oltenia Museum, Craiova, Str. Popa Şapcă, No. 8, 200422, Craiova, Romania.
E-mail: oliviacioboiu@gmail.com; cioboiu.olivia@yahoo.com

254
COMMENTS ON THE TERM OF BIOLOGICAL SPECIES
MURARIU Dumitru
Abstract. In scientific biological community there is a number of widespread misconceptions concerning the term species. The species as a
taxonomic category, defined by a concept, denotes the rank of a species taxon in the Linnaean hierarchy. The modern evolutionary synthesis
theory appeared to unify ideas on species from different biological specialities: genetics, cytology, systematics, botany, morphology, ecology
and palaeontology. This neo-Darwinian synthesis reconciled Mendelian genetics with the gradual evolution by means of natural selection
and explained changes in local populations as broad scale changes or macroevolution. Biological species reproduce isolatedly from each
other, which protects the integrity of their genotypes. Taking into consideration only the morphological difference is not an appropriate to
define species. Unequal rates of evolution of different characters and lack of information on the mating potential of isolated populations are
the major difficulties in the demarcation of species as taxa.
Keywords: biological species, evolution, philosophy of biology, concepts.
Rezumat. Comentarii asupra termenului de specie biologică. În comunitatea ştiinţifică biologică există unele concepţii
greşite asupra termenului de specie. Categoria taxonomică la nivel de specie este definită printr-un concept, care indică nivelul
taxonului specie în ierarhia Linéană. Moderna teorie sintetică evoluţionistă a apărut pentru unificarea ideilor asupra speciei, în
diferite specialităţi biologice: genetică, citologie, sistematică, botanică, morfologie, ecologie şi paleontologie. Această sinteză
neodarwinistă împacă genetica mendeliană cu evoluţia gradualistă, prin intermediul selecţiei naturale şi explică schimbările din
populaţiile locale ca modificări la o scară largă sau macroevoluţie. Speciile biologice sunt izolate reproductiv între ele şi această
izolare le conferă protecţia integrităţii genotipurilor lor. Definirea speciei nu mai este adecvată, dacă se bazează numai pe baza
diferenţelor morfologice. Ritmurile diferite ale evoluţiei diferitelor caractere şi lipsa informaţiilor asupra posibilelor încrucişări între
indivizi ai populaţiilor izolate sunt marile dificultăţi în separarea speciilor ca taxoni.
Cuvinte cheie: specia biologică, evoluţie, filosofie, concepţii.
INTRODUCTION
The term of species is perceived, influences and determines the specialists’ entire reporting manner to the
biological science and its current theories. A serious research in the natural history cannot exist without the specific
identification of the studied creatures (RACOVIŢĂ, 1926). MAYR (1957) and GRANT (1994) mentioned that a study
of the history of the species problem helps dispel some of the misconceptions.
The species is the principal unit of evolution and it is impossible to write about or to refer to evolution as well as
about almost any aspect of the philosophy of biology, without having a sound understanding of the meaning of biological
species. This article is: a concise overview of the philosophically important aspects of the problem of the "species".
DISCUSSIONS
Writing the first edition of Systema Naturae, LINNÉ (1735) introduced the binominal nomenclature for the
scientific names of the species. But maybe Buffon - the father of natural history, first used the term of species, attributed
to only plants and animals, and not to the inorganic Kingdom.
Some recent authors have dealt with the concept of species as if it were merely an arbitrary, man-made
concept. The term "species" refers to a concrete phenomenon of nature and this fact severely constrains the number and
kinds of possible definitions. After MAYR (1992), the word "species" is, like the words "planet" or "moon" - a
technical term for a concrete phenomenon. The meaning of the term "species" must be based on careful study of the
phenomenon of nature to which this term is applied. The conclusion that there are concrete describable objects in nature
which deserve to be called "species" is not unanimously accepted.
The evolutionists are always asking why, because they know that every being in the nature is the product of
evolution and must have had some selective significance in order to have evolved. What selection forces in nature
favour the origin and maintenance of species? The answer to this question becomes evident when one makes a certain
thought experiment.
MAYR (1949) wrote: "It is quite possible to think of a world in which species do not exist but are replaced by a
single reproductive community of individuals, each one different from every other one, and each one capable of reproducing
with those other individuals that are most similar to it. Each individual would then be the centre of a concentric series of
circles of genetically more and more unlike individuals. What would be the consequence of the continuous uninterrupted gene
flow through such a large system? In each generation certain individuals would have a selective advantage because they have
a gene complex that is specially adapted to a particular ecological situation. However, most of these favourable combinations
would be broken up by pairing with individuals with a gene complex adapted to a slightly different environment. In such a
system there is no defense against the destruction of superior gene combinations except the abandonment of sexual
reproduction. It is obvious that any system that prevents such unrestricted outcrossing is superior".
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MURARIU Dumitru
The segregation of the total genetic variability of nature into discrete packages, so called species, which are separated
from each other by reproductive barriers, prevents the production of too great a number of disharmonious incompatible gene
combinations. This is the basic biological meaning of species. MAYR (1969) considered that there are discontinuities between
sympatric species and genotypes are extremely complex epigenetic systems. Hybrids between species, particularly in animals,
are almost always of inferior viability and more extreme hybrids are usually even sterile.
DOBZHANSKY (1935) noticed that among the attributes members of a species share, the only ones that are of
crucial significance for the species definition are those which serve the biological purpose of the species - the protection
of a harmonious gene pool or isolating mechanisms. It is immaterial whether or not the term isolating mechanism was
well chosen, nor is it important whether one places the stress on the prevention of interbreeding with non-conspecific
individuals or the facilitation ("recognition") of breeding with conspecific individuals. The concept which we just are
developing is articulated in the so-called biological species definition given by MAYR (1942): "Species are groups of
interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups".
The isolating mechanism by which reproductive isolation is effected is represented by the properties of
individuals. Geographic isolation therefore does not qualify as an isolating mechanism. The populations of one species
are "reproductively isolated" from the populations of all other species. Typologically conceived, this would mean that
no individual of species A would ever hybridize with any individual of species B.
But botanists pointed out that this did not correctly describe many situations in nature. They discovered cases
of occasional (sometimes even rather frequent) hybridization between seemingly "good" sympatric species.
ANDERSON (1949) estimated that this was the normal situation with closely related sympatric species and
that through such "introgressive hybridization", either species would be enriched by genes from other species. Other
authors minimized the frequency of such hybridization and considered parallel variation in sympatric species as the
residues of ancestral polymorphisms. Recent molecular analysis has, however, confirmed the frequency of clandestine
introgression. However, if the two species continue their essential integrity, they will be treated as species, in spite of
the slight inefficiency of their isolating mechanisms.
It is known that a leakage of genes occurs among many good "reproductively isolated" species. Thus,
according to MAYR (1970), the isolating mechanisms prevent the interbreeding or fusion of populations. Thus,
isolating mechanisms do not always prevent the occasional interbreeding of non-conspecific individuals, but they
nevertheless prevent the complete fusion of such species populations.
MAYR (1988) demonstrated that behavioural isolating mechanisms can be acquired through a change of the
function of factors favouring sexual selection. The contingent nature of the acquisition of isolating mechanisms is documented
by their great diversity, resulting the genetic uniqueness of every individual of a sexually reproducing population.
Members of any species have in common many species-specific properties. This includes, in particular, the
isolating mechanisms but also many adaptations as are niche utilization and certain contingent. If one knew the genetic
basis of all the species specific characters, one might be able to give a genetic characterization of a species taxon.
The biological species concept is based on the recognition of properties of populations. It depends on the fact
of non-interbreeding with other populations. For this reason the concept is not applicable to organisms which do not
form sexual populations.
Therefore, the supporters of the biological species concept agree that this concept does not apply to asexual or
to uniparental organisms. Their genotype does not require any protection because it is not threatened by destruction
through outcrossing.
KITCHER (1989) observed difficulties for nonbiologists to understand differences between biological
populations and from classes of inanimate objects.
Only a small fraction of any biological population reproduces, because not every individual in a population
survives up to the reproductive age and reproduces successfully. This is true on the average for only two of the total
number of offspring of a prenatal pair in a sexually reproducing species. In most marine organisms, with their high
number of larvae, successful survival and reproduction is to a large extent a matter of chance, but most of the zygotes
have, at the moment of their formation, an equal probability of success.
The term "species" is applied to species taxa and to the concept of this category or of species. As a result, their
so-called species definition is nothing but a recipe for the demarcation of species taxa. This is, for instance, true for
most of the recent so-called phylogenetic species definitions.
The word taxon refers to a concrete zoological or botanical object consisting of a classifiable population or
group of populations of organisms.
The species category indicates the rank in the Linnaean hierarchy. This category is the class that contains all taxa of
species rank. It articulates the concept of the biological species and is defined by the species definition. The principal use of
the species definition is to facilitate a decision on the ranking of species level populations or an isolated population.
As long as the inventory taking of kinds of organisms was the primary concern of the students of species, the
typological species concept was a reasonably satisfactory concept. But when species were studied more carefully, all
sorts of properties were discovered that did not fit with a species concept that was strictly based on morphology. This
256
was particularly true for behavioural and ecological properties. Most damaging was the discovery of the unreliability of
the morphological characters for the recognition of biological species.
SIMPSON (1961) attempted to make evolution the basis of a species concept and mentioned: "An evolutionary
species is a lineage (an ancestral-descendant sequence of populations) evolving separately from others and with its own
unitary evolutionary role and tendencies". He replaced the clear-cut criterion (reproductive isolation) of the biological
species concept with such undefined vague terms as "maintains its identity”, "evolutionary tendencies" and "historical
fate". This concept is applicable only to monotypic species. Every geographical isolate would, by implication, have to
be treated as a different species. There are no empirical criteria by which either evolutionary tendency or historical fate
can be observed in a given fossil sample. The definition does not help in the lower or upper demarcation of
chronospecies, even though the main reason why the evolutionary species concept was apparently introduced, was in
order to deal with the time dimension, which is not considered in the non-dimensional biological species concept.
However, Simpson's definition is essentially an operational recipe for the demarcation of fossil species.
The so-called phylogenetic species concept is nothing more than the revival of a purely morphological species
concept (WHEELER, 1996). The so-called ecological species concept, based on the niche occupation of a species, is
for two reasons not workable: -.in almost all more widespread species there are local populations which differ in their
niche occupation; - an ecological species definition would require that these populations be called different species even
though, on the basis of all other criteria, it is obvious that they are not.
After MEYER (1990), more fatal for the ecological species concept are the trophic species (e.g. the classical
case of cichlids) which differentiate within a single set of offspring from the same parents. Finally, there are the
numerous cases (but none exhaustively analyzed) where two sympatric species seem to occupy the same niche, in
conflict with Gause's rule.
All this evidence shows not only how many difficulties an ecological species concept faces but also how
unable it is to answer the Darwinian why? question for the existence of species.
It is said that a population is called a species when it has acquired isolating mechanisms, protecting its gene
pool against its parental or a sister species. In other words, such a species is the product of the process of multiplication
of species. The palaeontologist encounters also cases where a phyletic lineage changes over time to such a degree that
sooner or later it is considered to be a different species. The occurrence of the origin of such phyletic species is usually
ignored when non-palaeontologists speak of speciation.
Phyletic evolution does not produce an additional entity, it merely modifies an existing one. Nevertheless, the
changes are sometimes sufficiently pronounced so that the palaeontologist gives a new species name to the modified phyletic
lineage. Such a new species differ usually only in size and proportions, but not in the acquisition of any notable innovations.
The phyletic speciation must be mentioned because it is what a palaeontologist usually seems to have in mind when he speaks
of speciation. It is for such species that SIMPSON (1961) proposed the evolutionary species definition.
In his discussion of the origin of species, HENNIG (1966) only considers the case of a phyletic lineage
splitting by dichopatric speciation into two daughter species. He considered both daughter species as new species.
Species taxa ordinarily have an extension in space (geography) and in time (history). They are composed of
local or temporally circumscribed populations which differ slightly from each other. The conspecific such populations
are combined into a polytypic species. The major species problem in species level taxonomy is to decide which local
populations to combine into polytypic species. During the period when the typological species concept was dominant,
almost any isolated population that differed by a morphological character was called a different species. Since the rise
of the biological species concept, the question is always asked whether or not such a population would interbreed with
other populations differing in space or time if they would meet in nature.
When two populations (in reproductive condition) meet at the same place at the same time, they either interbreed
because they are conspecific or they do not do so because they are different reproductive communities (different species). In
that case, their isolating mechanisms keep them apart. A geographically isolated population also has the isolating mechanisms
of the species to which it belongs, but they are “invisible” since they do not need to be activated.
Normally, speciation is a gradual populational phenomenon. Saltational speciation as in the case of'
allopolyploidy, seems to be virtually absent in most groups of sexually reproducing organisms.
An important clarification of the status of species was achieved when it was realized by some taxonomists, that
species taxa are not classes but particulars or "individuals" or biopopulations. Organisms that belong to sexually reproducing
species have two sets of characteristics: - those that serve as isolating mechanisms and are jointly responsible for the fact that
this population of individuals constitutes a biological species; - all other properties of the species.
Some evolutionary processes make the delimitation of species taxa from each other and the determination of
their rank often is very difficult. The most important is so-called mosaic evolution. This means that certain characters
may evolve much more readily than others. This results in a discord between the messages provided by various
characters. The reproductive isolation and morphological difference often do not evolve in parallel with each other. This
is why sibling species exist; they are reproductively isolated but morphologically indistinguishable. The basic problem
is an insufficiency of needed information to take decision about the status of isolated populations and sometimes must
be based on inference.
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CONCLUSIONS
- The definition of the biological species must be based on its biological significance, which is the maintenance
of the integrity of well balanced, harmonious gene pools.
- The actual demarcation of species taxa uses morphological, geographical, ecological, behavioural, and
molecular information to infer the rank of isolated populations.
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ANDERSON E. 1949. Introgressive Hybridization. New York. Wiley. 109 pp.

DOBZHANSKY TH. 1935. A Critique of the Species Concept in Biology. Philosophy of Science. DOI:
10.1086/286379. 2: 344-355 (Accessed: 18 March, 2015).
GRANT V. 1994. Evolution of the Species Concept. Biologisches Zentrablatt. Leipzig: Georg Thieme. 113: 401-415.
HENNIG W. 1966. Phylogenetic Systematics. Urbana. University of Illinois Press: 265 pp.
KITCHER P. 1989. Some Puzzles About Species. In Ruse M. (Ed.). What the Philosophy of Biology Is. Dordrecht.
Kluwer Academic Publications: 179 pp.
LINNÉ C. 1735. Systema naturae sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera & species.
Leiden: 1-12.
MAYR E. 1942. Systematics and the Origin of Species, from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist. Cambridge. Harvard
University Press. 372 pp.
MAYR E. 1949. Speciation and Systematics. In Jepsen G. L., Simpson G. G., and Mayr E. (Eds.) Genetics,
Paleontology, and Evolution. Princeton. Princeton University Press: 281-298.
MAYR E. 1957. Species Concepts and Definitions. In Mayr E. (Ed.). The Species Problem. American Association for
the Adavencement of Sciences (AAAS). Washington D. C. 50: 1-22.
MAYR E. 1969. Principles of Systematic Zoology. New York. Mcgraw-Hill. 434 pp.
MAYR E. 1970. Populations, Species, and Evolution. MA: Harvard University Press. Cambridge. 459 pp.
MAYR E. 1988. The Why and How of Species. Biology and Philosophy. Publisher Springer Netherlands. 3: 431-441.
MEYER A. 1990. Ecological and Evolutionary Aspects of the Trophic Polymorphism in Cichlasoma citrinellum (Pices:
Cichlidae). Biological Journal of Linnean Society. London. 39: 279-299.
MAYR E. 1992. The Principle of Divergence. Journal of the History of Biology. Publisher Springer Verlag. 25: 343-359.
MAYR E. 1996. What is a Species, and What is Not?. Phylosophy of Science. University of Chicago Press. 63: 269-277.
RACOVIŢĂ E. 1926. Evoluţia şi problemele ei. Biblioteca eugenică şi biopolitică a “Astrei”. Cluj-Napoca. 810 pp.
SIMPSON G. G. 1961. Principles of Animal Taxonomy. New York: Columbia University Press. 350 pp.
WHEELER Q. D. 1996. The Phylogenetic Species. Ithaca. Cornell University Press. 350 pp.
Murariu Dumitru
“Emil Racoviţă” Institute of Speology
Calea 13 Septembrie, No. 13, Sector 5, 050711 Bucharest, Romania
E-mail: dmurariu@antipa.ro

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31 1 Oltenia Studii Si Comunicari Stiintele Naturii Vol XXXI 1 2015

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31 1 Oltenia Studii Si Comunicari Stiintele Naturii Vol XXXI 1 2015

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Muzeul Olteniei Craiova. Oltenia. Studii şi comunicări. Ştiinţele Naturii. Tom. 31, No.

1/2015 ISSN 1454-6914

Ştefan NEGREANU - Granulometric and morphometric characteristics of ruditic and

Agim SHENJATARI, Irakli PRIFTI, Zeqir JAURRI - Geological structure and

Aurelian POPESCU, Florina DIACONU - Mammuthus primigenius (Blumenbach,

II. VEGETAL BIOLOGY / BIOLOGIE VEGETALĂ

Galina LUPAŞCU, Sofia GRIGORCEA, Nadejda MIHNEA - The influence of the

Rodica CATANĂ, Irina HOLOBIUC - Direct somatic embryogenesis of the endemic

Nasko ILIEV, Lyubka VARBEVA - Factors affecting grafting of Acer pseudoplatanus

Cristian BANCIU, Diana CRISTIAN - Cryoconservation of Pseudevernia furfuracea L.

Luminiţa ROMAN, Horațiu ROMAN, Anamaria HOSU, Cristiana VASILIU, Grigore

III. ANIMAL BIOLOGY / BIOLOGIE ANIMALĂ

III.a. INVERTEBRATES VARIOUS / NEVERTEBRATE DIVERSE

Sára FERENŢI, Severus-Daniel COVACIU-MARCOV - Faunistic data upon the

Gavril Marius BERCHI, Cornelia CHIMIŞLIU - Aquatic and semiaquatic bugs

Mihaela ARINTON, Constantin CIORNEI - Data concerning the diversity of

Mircea VARVARA - The variation of distribution of the relative abundance and

Nicolae LOTREAN, Minodora MANU - Coleopterans fauna (Insecta: Coleoptera) of the

III.b. VERTEBRATES / VERTEBRATE

Ionelia Claudia GOGA, Constanţa TÎMBURESCU, Doina CODREANU -

Nelli CEMÎRTAN, Andrei MUNTEANU, Victoria NISTREANU, Veaceslav SÎTNIC,

IV. ECOLOGY - THE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION /

Andreea Floriana MARINICĂ, Cornelia CHIMIŞLIU, Ion MARINICĂ - The warm

Magdalin Leonard DOROBĂŢ, Codruţa Mihaela DOBRESCU - Study regarding the

Mirela MOLDOVEANU, Larisa FLORESCU, Laura PARPALĂ, Roxana COJOC,

Gheorghiţa BRÎNZEA, Alina PĂUNESCU, Cristina Maria PONEPAL -

Olivia CIOBOIU - Hydrobiological particularities of Maglavit lake (Romania) – the

Alexandru-Ionuţ PETRIŞOR - Ecological model of Romanian research and education –

V. SCIENTIFIC REPORTS / RAPOARTE ŞTIINŢIFICE

Ilie Cătălin TELCEAN, István SAS-KOVÁCS, Severus-Daniel COVACIU-

VI. REVIEWS / RECENZII

Gheorghe BREZEANU - Structures and functions of a plain hydrographic basin system.

VII. SCIENTIFIC ESSAYS / REFERATE ŞTIINŢIFICE

Anuwat RATTANACHAI, Sirichai KANLAYANARAT - Quality management in the

Marian-Traian GOMOIU - Applying Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) for

(Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference of the Oltenia Museum)

Tom. XXXI, No. 1 / 2015

MUZEUL OLTENIEI CRAIOVA

Editor in Chief: Aurelian POPESCU - Craiova, Romania

GRANULOMETRIC AND MORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS

Keywords: Quaternary, loess like deposits, morphometry, granulometry, rudite, arenite.

Cuvinte cheie: Cuaternar, depozite loessoide, morfometrie, granulometrie, rudite, arenite.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

quartzite 0.8 3.2 8 5 14.3 27.8 15.9 5.6 16.7 3.2

These are often projected in the fields of the compact shape.

sandstone 4.7 0 23.8 23.8 0 23.8 14.3 9.5 0

silicolite 0 0 25 0 0 41.66 33.33 0 0

very sub- sub- well-

quartzite 0 0 8.06 33.06 47.58 11.29

Upper fine deposits and the red matrix of the sand

At Cetate sampling point, around the clasts in the 35

granulometry of these deposits is different from what the 20

Received: March 11, 2015

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

SHENJATARI Agim, PRIFTI Irakli, JAURRI Zeqir

Keywords: Burreli Depression, Tortonian, molasse sedimentation, lithostratigraphy.

Cuvinte cheie: Depresiunea Burreli, Tortonian, sedimentare de molasă, litostratigrafie.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

1. Gurra e Vogël-Rripë (GVR) Formation (Early Tortonian-N₁³t(1)).

2. Burreli Formation (Late Tortonian-N₁³t(2)).

19004’ 20000’ 20009’

Ultrabasic boulder deposits.