Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
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Astfel, structura ADN poate fi considerată ca un text scris într-un alfabet cu patru litere:
adenina (A), timina (T), guanina (G) şi citozina (C) în funcţie de baza azotată care intră
în structura nucleotidelor componente. Proteinele pot fi privite ca un text scris într-un
alfabet de 20 de litere care sunt cei 20 de aminoacizi din structura lanţului polipeptidic.
Înrudirea fiinţelor analizate este astfel reflectată de similitudinea secvenţelor
primare. Secvenţele primare ale acizilor nucleici şi proteinelor au fost accesibile după
secvenţializarea proteinelor şi după punerea la punct a metodei de amplificare PCR şi a
secvenţializării acizilor nucleici. Consecinţa implementării acestor tehnici a constituit-o
remanierea viziunii tradiţionale asupra clasificării organismelor. În ciuda problemelor pe
care le-a avut, filogenia moleculară a permis stimularea ştiinţelor taxonomice şi o mai
bună înţelegere a evoluţiei anumitor caractere morfologice ale organismelor. De altfel,
filogenia moleculară poate fi asociată şi cu domenii cum sunt medicina legală sau
testarea genetică.
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generale sunt Genbank, EMBL sau DDBJ care sunt proiecte internaţionale şi lideri în
domeniu:
EMBL (European Molecular Biology Library) deţinută de European Bioinformatics
Institute din Cambridge, UK (Stoesser et al. 2003)
GenBank deţinută de National Center for Biotechnology Information din
Maryland, USA (Benson et al. 2003);
DDBJ (DNA Databank of Japan) deţinută de National Institute of Genetics din
Mishima, Japonia (Miyazaki et al., 2003).
II.3.1.2. Baze de date specializate
II.3.1.3. Difuzia şi utilizarea băncilor de date
II.3.1.4. Interogarea bazelor de date
Există mai multe sisteme adaptate diferitelor tipuri de baze de date (EMBL,
GenBank, etc) care permit interogarea simultana a mai multor criterii simple. Pentru a
simplifica si sintetiza modalitatile de acces prin diferite programe informatice identificăm
patru categorii de comenzi posibile care să permita un acces usor: i) selecţia -
comanda care permite constituirea de liste de secvenţe care corespund sub-
ansamblelor băncilor. ii) definirea – comanda care permite caracterizarea cu mai multa
precizie a criteriilor de selecţie folosite. iii) informaţia – comanda care permite editarea
unei părţi a informaţiei în corelaţie cu secvenţele selecţionate; iv) gestiunea – conţine
comenzi care permit modificarea, extracţia sau suprimarea din lista de secvenţe deja
selectionate.
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reprezentată de un grup taxonomic care cuprinde un sinugur ancestru comun şi toţi
descendenţi acestuia. Nodurile externe reprezintă unităţiile taxonomice operationale –
OTU (Operational Taxonomic Unit), iar ramurile definesc relaţiile dintre taxe în termen
de descendenţă (fig.1). Nodurile interne reprezintă ancestorii ipotetici pentru fiecare
taxa.
Există mai multe tipuri de arbori (dendograme) conform metodelor după care au
fost construiţi: i) fenograma – o dendogramă obţinută prin metode de distanţă unde
relaţiile dintre taxoni exprimă gradele de similitudine globală; ii) cladograma – o
dendogramă exprimând relaţiile filogenetice dintre taxoni şi construita plecand de la
analiza cladistică; iii) filograma – o cladogramă dată de lungimea braţelor şi
proporţională cu numărul de schimbări evolutive.
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filogenii. Dacă două secvenţe dintr-o aliniere au un strămoş comun, diferenţele sunt
interpretate ca fiind mutaţii punctiforme sau ca locuri de inserţie sau deleţie. Dacă mai
multe secvenţe sunt aliniate, pe ultima linie se va situa secvenţa consens.
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identificarea celor mai conservate sub-regiuni între două secvenţe şi numai acestea
sunt aliniate.
b) Alinierea multiplă este o aliniere globală şi constă în alinierea a mai mult de
două secvenţe şi necesită timp de calcul şi un spaţiu de stocare exponenţial în funcţie
de marimea datelor.
Aliniamentele secvenţiale pot fi realizate într-o largă varietate de formate de
fişiere care depind de programul folosit: FASTA, GenBank, etc. Cu toate acestea în
laboratoarele de cercetare, utilizarea specifică a anumitor programe poate reduce
alegerea formatului.
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realizează în cunoştinţă de cauza; iii) eşantionarea este efectuată corect; iv) poziţiile
evoluează independent unele de altele.
Dacă se porneşte de la un aliniament optimal, există mai multe metode de
reconstrucţie pe care le putem diviza schematic în metode bazate pe distanţe şi metode
bazate pe analiza de caractere.
I. Metode bazate pe distanţe care demarează prin calcularea distanţelor de
editare aşa cum am explicat anterior, apoi utilizarea matricei triangulare de distanţă
pentru a reconstrui un arbore. În acest context, este importantă: i) alegerea unei bune
metode de calcul a distanţelor; ii) alegerea unei bune metode de reconstrucţie a
arborelui.
II. Metode bazate pe analiza de caractere – care lucrează direct cu secvenţele
aliniate şi încearcă să identifice un scenariu evolutiv care minimizează numărul total de
substituţii necesare pentru a trece de la o secvenţă la alta parcurgând arborele
filogenetic. Aceste metode au avantajul de a face apel la secvenţe ancestrale.
Dintre metodele bazate pe analiza de caractere cele mai utilizate sunt
parcinomia (parcinomy) şi probabilitatea maxima (maximum likelihood). Ambele
metode prezintă atât avantaje cât şi dezavantaje.
1. Probabilitatea maxima este adesea considerată ca fiind „cea mai bună
metodă” care ar putea conduce la construcţia unui arbore adevărat. Din păcate
calculele sunt extrem de lungi şi din acest motiv este destul de rar folosită pentru
evaluarea filogeniilor când se utilizeaza mai mult de o sută de secvenţe, mai ales cu
opţiunea G (aranjament global/global rearangements).
2. Parcinomia reprezintă pentru majoritatea utilizatorilor „metoda” folosită prin
excelenţă, deoarece este relativ rapidă ca timp de calcul şi poate fi aplicată pentru un
număr mare de date. De asemenea se poate realiza o analiză de încărcare (boostrap)
în timp rezonabil.
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pentru a furniza o distribuţie pentru care ipotezele trebuiesc testate. Curând, după
introducerea acestei metode Penny şi colab (1982, 1985) pun în discuţie aplicarea ei în
filogenie, iar Felsenstein (1985) propune bootstrapping, ca metodă de obţinere a
limitelor de acurateţe a arborilor filogenetici. Din 1985 metoda a devenit foarte utilizată
pentru construirea arborilor filogenetici. Pachetele software de programe filogenetice, ca
PHYLIP (Felsenstein) şi PAUP (Swofford, 2003) au încorporaţi altgoritmi de calcul
bootstrap. De obicei, arborii filogenetici sunt prezentaţi cu anumite valori asociate
nodurilor. Aceste valori se numesc valori bootstrap, procent bootstrap (BP) sau mai rar
întâlnit valori p-bootstrap şi reprezintă raportul procentual dintre numărul arborilor şi
numărul de replicate la nivelul fiecărei clade.
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IV.2. Cariotipare
Cariotipul poate fi un indice taxonomic folositor pentru speciile din aceeaşi
familie, fie in ceea ce priveste numărul de cromozomi (2n), fie ca număr şi morfologie a
braţelor cromozomale (NF) care pot fi considerate caractere conservative (Benazzi
1973).
Tehnica de cariotipare a fost realizată pentru următoarele specii de ciprinide:
Abramis bjoerka, Scardinius erythrophtalmus şi Barbus barbus.
Pentru obţinerea secvenţelor nucleotidice au fost utilizate următoarele
tehnici de biologie moleculară: 1) izolare ADN genomic din ţesut animal; 2)
amplificarea ADN prin PCR; 3) clonare moleculară a produşilor PCR, izolare şi
purificare ADN plasmidial; 4) secvenţiere ADN; 5) introducere secvente in bazele
de data GENOME DATA BASE; 6) prelucrare statistică şi aliniere secvenţe; 7)
construcţie arbori filogenetici.
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Concluzii
Topologia arborilor filogenetici obţinuţi pe baza secventelor din gena cox1
(exemplu arborele NJ, fig.3A) pentru un număr de zece specii de ciprinide (Carassius
auratus auratus, Rutilus rutilus, Barbus meridionalis, Tinca tinca, Hypophthalmichthys
molitrix, Arischthys nobilis, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Leuciscus borysthenicus celensis,
Leuciscus cephalus) este asemănătoare cu topologia arborilor filogenetici găsiţi în
literatura de specialitate.
Misgurnus fossilis
0
Rutilus rutilus
Barbus meridionalis
100.0
Tinca tinca
Barbus barbus
Arischthys nobilis
62.5
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
55.3
Cyprinus carpio
Ctenopharyngodon idella
A B Leuciscus cephalus
Figura 3. Arbore filogenetic construit prin metoda Neighbor-joining pe baza secveneţelor nucleotidice din
gena mitocondrială cox1 pentru zece specii de ciprinide (A) şi pentru douăsprezece specii de ciprinide
(B). Numerele indicate la nivelul nodurilor reprezinta valori bootstrap mai mari de 50%. Misgurnus fossilis
a fost folosit ca outgrop. Speciile a căror poziţionare este incorectă sunt subliniate (B).
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VII.1. Analiza fragmentelor din gena ARN16S după electroforeză în gel de agaroză
Primerii desemnaţi pentru gena ARN 16S au condus la amplificarea unui fragment
de 570 bp la speciile: Carassius auratus gibelio, Carassius auratus auratus,
Hypophtalmycthys molitrix, Arysthycthys nobilis, Leuciscus cephalus, Barbus barbus,
Tinca tinca, Rutilus rutilus, Gobio gobio, Scardinius erytrophtalmus, Phoxinus phoxinus,
Misgurnus fossilis.
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Misgurnus fossilis
Phoxinus phoxinus
Tinca tinca
100.0
Leuciscus cephalus
Gobio gobio
Scardinius erytrophtalmus
67.7
Rutilus rutilus
Ariscthys nobilis
100.0
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
Figura 4. Arbore filogenetic construit prin metoda Neighbor-joining pe baza secveneţelor nucleotidice din
gena mitocondrială ARN16S. Numerele indicate la nivelul nodurilor reprezinta valori bootstrap mai mari
de 50%. Misgurnus fossilis a fost folosit ca outgrop.
VII.4. Concluzii
Analiza filogenetică bazată pe secvenţa nucleotidica a genei mitocondriale
ARN16S de la speciile de ciprinide: Carassius auratus gibelio, Carassius auratus
auratus, Hypophtalmycthys molitrix, Arysthycthys nobilis, Leuciscus cephalus, Barbus
barbus, Tinca tinca, Rutilus rutilus, Gobio gobio, Scardinius erytrophtalmus şi Phoxinus
phoxinus a evidenţiat împărţirea în două grupuri a acestor specii: ciprinine şi leuciscine.
Grupul ciprinelor formează o cladă sperată în arborii obtinuti prin metodele NJ (fig.4) şi
ML şi cuprinde speciile: Carassius auratus auratus, Carassius auratus gibelio şi Barbus
barbus. Grupul leuciscinelor în arborii NJ şi ML cuprinde speciile: Hypophtalmycthys
molitrix, Arysthycthys nobilis, Leuciscus cephalus, Tinca tinca, Rutilus rutilus, Gobio
gobio, Scardinius erytrophtalmus şi Phoxinus phoxinus.
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VIII.4. Arbori filogenetici construiţi pe baza secvenţelor nucleotidice din gena citb
Arborii filogenetici obţinuţi au fost construiţi prin trei metode diferite: Neighbor-
Joining- NJ, Maximum Parsimony- MP (folosind opţiunea search heuristic) şi Maximum
Likelihood- ML (modelul HKY+Γ) pentru toţi cei patru markeri moleculari (cox1, cox2,
ARN16S şi citb). Pentru verificarea veridicităţii arborilor a fost utilizata metoda
bootstrap. Datorită numărului mare de date de analizat, programul PAUP v.4.0 beta 10
nu a permis aplicarea acestei metode pentru arborii construiţi prin Maximum Likelihood.
Speciile de cobitide desemnate ca grup de comparaţie au fost Misgurnus fossilis şi
Cobitis danubialis, cobitidele fiind specii apropiate de ciprinide.
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Misgurnus fossilis
Cobitidae
Cobitis danubialis
Tinca tinca
Tincinae
0 Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
100.0
Arysthycthys nobilis
Hypophthalmichthyinae
52.0
Barbus meridionalis
100.0
Barbinae
100.0
Gobio gobio
96.2
Gobioninae
Leuciscus cephalus
99.9
Leuciscus celensis
98.8
Ctenopharyngodon idella
Phoxinus phoxinus
99.6
87.2 Scardinius erytrophtalmus
Leuciscicinae
98.0
Abramis bjoerka
100.0
Abramis brama
Cyprinus carpio
71.6
Carassius carassius
Cyprininae
100.0
Carassius auratus auratus
Figura 5. Arbore filogenetic construit prin metoda Neighbor-joining pe baza secveneţelor nucleotidice din
gena mitocondrială citb. Numerele indicate la nivelul nodurilor reprezinta valori bootstrap mai mari de
50%. Misgurnus fossilis si Cobitis danubialis au fost folosite ca outgroup.
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VIII.5. Concluzii
Speciile de ciprinide analizate pe baza secvenţelor din gena cit b s-au grupat în 5
subfamilii distincte în toţi arborii construiţi de noi: Barbinae (Barbus meridionalis),
Cyprininae (Carassius sp., Cyprinus carpio), Leuciscinae (Leuciscus sp., Phoxinus
phoxinus, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Abramis sp., Scardinius erytrophtalmus, Tinca
tinca), Hypophthalmichthyinae (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Arischthys nobilis),
Gobioninae (Gobio gobio).
În acest studiu, speciile de ciprinide care au aparţinut aceluiaşi gen s-au ramificat
din acelaşi nod filogenetic (de exemplu Carassius, Abramis).
Specia Tinca tinca se desprinde ca linie parafiletică din grupul leuciscinelor.
Arborele filogenetic construit prin metoda ML pe baza secvenţelor din gena cit b are
topologia cea a arboriilor din literatura de specialitate.
CONCLUZII GENERALE
Speciile de ciprinide luate în studiu sunt foarte diversificate din punct de vedere
al caracterelor morfometrice, indivizii analizaţi provenind din populaţii diferite şi din
bazine acvatice diferite.
Cariotip
Cariotipurile ciprinidelor diploide sunt caracterizate prin cromozomi relativ mici cu
poziţiile centromerelor variind gradual din plan median până aproape terminal.
Majoritatea ciprinidelor analizate prezintă un cariotipuri asemnatoare bogate în
cromozomi m şi sm (Scardinius erythrophthalmus, Abramis bjoerka) care confirma
inrudirea speciilor in timp ce la Barbus barbus cariotipul speciei este foarte diferit in
concordanta cu pozitia evolutiva indepartata a acestuia.
Cox 1 si cox2
Topologia arborilor filogenetici obţinuţi pe baza secventelor din gena cox1 pentru
un număr de zece specii de ciprinide (Carassius auratus auratus, Rutilus rutilus, Barbus
meridionalis, Tinca tinca, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Arischthys nobilis,
Ctenopharyngodon idella, Leuciscus borysthenicus celensis, Leuciscus cephalus) este
asemănătoare cu topologia arborilor filogenetici prezentati în literatura de specialitate.
Includerea a două secvenţe din gena cox1 de la specii de ciprinide (Cyprinus
carpio şi Barbus barbus) alături de secvenţele primelor 10 specii de ciprinide a condus
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ARN 16S
Analiza filogenetică bazată pe secvenţa nucleotidica a genei mitocondriale
ARN16S de la speciile de ciprinide analizate a evidenţiat împărţirea acestora în două
grupuri: ciprinine şi leuciscine. In arborii obtinuti prin metodele NJ si ML grupul ciprinelor
formează o cladă sperată formata din 4 specii (Carassius auratus auratus, Carassius
auratus gibelio şi Barbus barbus) iar grupul leuciscinelor 8 specii (Hypophtalmycthys
molitrix, Arysthycthys nobilis, Leuciscus cephalus, Tinca tinca, Rutilus rutilus, Gobio
gobio, Scardinius erytrophtalmus şi Phoxinus phoxinus).
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Cit b
Specii le de ciprinide analizate pe baza secvenţelor din gena cit b s-au grupat în
5 subfamilii distincte în toţi arbori construiţi de noi: Barbinae (Barbus meridionalis),
Cyprininae (Carassius sp., Cyprinus carpio), Leuciscinae (Leuciscus sp., Phoxinus
phoxinus, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Abramis sp., Scardinius erytrophtalmus, Tinca
tinca), Hypophthalmichthyinae (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Arischthys nobilis),
Gobioninae (Gobio gobio).
În acest studiu, speciile de ciprinide care au aparţinut aceluiaşi gen s-au ramificat
din acelaşi nod filogenetic (de exemplu Carassius, Abramis).
Specia Tinca tinca se desprinde ca linie parafiletică din grupul leuciscinelor.
Arborele filogenetic construit prin metoda ML pe baza secvenţelor din gena cit b
are topologia cea a arboriilor din literatura de specialitate.
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