Cuprins

Editorial Drago Iliescu De ce psihologii romni specializai n psihologia muncii i organizaional nu au opiuni. O critic adresat sistemului nostru de formare (romn) / 7 Drago Iliescu De ce psihologii romni specializai n psihologia muncii i organizaional nu au opiuni. O critic adresat sistemului nostru de formare (englez) / 11 Studii i cercetri Karin Proost, Adrana Pavlinsk, Elfi Baillien, Lieven Brebels, Anja Van den Broeck Intenia angajailor de a denuna neregulile din organizaie: Rolul corectitudinii i al identitii morale / 15 Anca Paveloni, Delia Vrg Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative / 28 Smaranda Boro, Petru L. Cureu Contientizarea emoional n grup n echipe mixte / 45 Marian Popa, Violeta Rotrescu, Coralia Sulea, Patricia Albulescu Scala de evaluare a conducerii toxice adaptare romneasc / 57 Mihaela Stoica, Adrian T. Brate Relaiile dintre rezilien, ataamentul fa de organizaie, sprijinul superiorilor i singurtatea la locul de munc ntr -o unitate medical / 71 Mirela Botezatu-Roianu Percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR, potrivirea persoan-organizaie i satisfacia n munc / 83 Cristina Mdlina Neaciu Predictori ai inteniei de pensionare anticipat i ai inteniei de a munci dup pensionare / 96 Recenzii Nastasia Slgean Chris Warhurst, Franoise Carr, Patricia Findlay, Chris Tilly, Are Bad Jobs Inevitable? Trends, Determinants and Responses to Job Quality in the Twenty-First Centrury, 2012, Editura Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, England, 280 p. / 107 Emma Revai Andr Iland, Work Life Balance - Learn to set Limits, 2013, Editura CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 116 p. / 108 Evenimente Andreea Butucescu A XIII-a Ediie a Conferinei Naionale de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional "Horia D. Pitariu", 26 27 aprilie, Braov / 110 Claudia Lenua Rus Congresul Asociaiei Europene de Psihologia Muncii i Organizaional, Imagineaz-i lumea viitoare: Cum vrem s muncim mine?, Ediia a-XVI-a, 22-25 Mai 2013, Munster, Germania / 112 Standarde de redactare Editorii Psihologia resurselor umane ghid pentru autori (romn) / 113 Psihologia resurselor umane ghid pentru autori (englez) / 117 Psihologia resurselor umane ghid pentru autori (francez) / 121

Summary

Editorial Drago Iliescu Why Romanian I/O psychologists are out of options. A critique to our maladapted formative system (romanian) / 7 Drago Iliescu Why Romanian I/O psychologists are out of options. A critique to our maladapted formative system (english) / 11 Study and research Karin Proost, Adrana Pavlinsk, Elfi Baillien, Lieven Brebels, Anja Van den Broeck Employees intention to blow the whistle: The role of fairness and moral identity / 15 Anca Paveloni, Delia Vrg The impact of cynicism and ethical intentions on organizational attitudes: work engagement, job satisfaction and organizaional citizenship behavior / 28 Smaranda Boro, Petru L. Cureu Would you like to talk about that? How and when group emotional awareness enhances effectiveness of gender diverse teams / 45 Marian Popa, Violeta Rotrescu, Coralia Sulea, Patricia Albulescu Toxic Leadership Scale- Romanian adaptation / 57 Mihaela Stoica, Adrian T. Brate Resilience, organizational commitment, supervisory support and loneliness at work in a medical unit / 71 Mirela Botezatu-Roianu Employees perceptions of HR practices, P-O fit and job satisfaction / 83 Cristina Mdlina Neaciu Predictors of early retirement thoughts and intent to work after retirement / 96 Reviews Nastasia Slgean Chris Warhurst, Franoise Carr, Patricia Findlay, Chris Tilly, Are Bad Jobs Inevitable? Trends, Determinants and Responses to Job Quality in the Twenty-First Centrury, 2012, Editura Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, England, 280 p. / 107 Emma Revai Andr Iland, Work Life Balance - Learn to set Limits, 2013, Editura CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 116 p. / 108 Scientific Events Andreea Butucescu A XIII-a Ediie a Conferinei Naionale de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional "Horia D. Pitariu", 26 27 aprilie, Braov / 110 Claudia Lenua Rus Congresul Asociaiei Europene de Psihologia Muncii i Organizaional, Imagineaz-i lumea viitoare: Cum vrem s muncim mine?, Ediia a-XVI-a, 22-25 Mai 2013, Munster, Germania / 112 Standards of publishing The Editors Human Resources Psychology guide for authors (romanian) / 113 Human Resources Psychology guide for authors (english) / 117 Human Resources Psychology guide for authors (french) / 121

Sommaire

Editorial Drago Iliescu Raison pour laquelle les psychologues roumains spcialiss dans la psychologie du travail et de l'organisation ont pas des options. Une analyse critique sur notre systme formelle (roumain) / 7 Drago Iliescu Raison pour laquelle les psychologues roumains spcialiss dans la psychologie du travail et de l'organisation ont pas des options. Une analyse critique sur notre systme formelle (english) / 11 Etudes et de recherches Karin Proost, Adrana Pavlinsk, Elfi Baillien, Lieven Brebels, Anja Van den Broeck Intention de dnonciation des irrgularits dans l'organisation: le rle de l'quit et de l'identit morale / 15 Anca Paveloni, Delia Vrg L'impact du cynisme et des intentions thiques sur les attitudes organisationnelles: engagement de travailler, satisfaction concernant le boulot et le comportement de citoyennet organisationnelle / 28 Smaranda Boro, Petru L. Cureu La conscience motionnelle de groupe dans l quipes mixtes / 45 Marian Popa, Violeta Rotrescu, Coralia Sulea, Patricia Albulescu chelle d'valuation du leadership toxique - l'adaptation roumaine / 57 Mihaela Stoica, Adrian T. Brate La relation entre la rsilience, l'engagement envers l'organisation, le soutien du suprieur et de la solitude au travail dan s un tablissement mdical / 71 Mirela Botezatu-Roianu La perception des employs sur les pratiques de GRH, l'ajustement P-O, et la satisfaction au travail / 83 Cristina Mdlina Neaciu Prdicteurs des penses de retraite anticipe et l'intention de travailler aprs la retraite / 96 Recension Nastasia Slgean Chris Warhurst, Franoise Carr, Patricia Findlay, Chris Tilly, Are Bad Jobs Inevitable? Trends, Determinants and Responses to Job Quality in the Twenty-First Centrury, 2012, Editura Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, England, 280 p. / 107 Emma Revai Andr Iland, Work Life Balance - Learn to set Limits, 2013, Editura CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 116 p. / 108 vnements scientifiques Andreea Butucescu A XIII-a Ediie a Conferinei Naionale de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional "Horia D. Pitariu", 26 27 aprilie, Braov / 110 Claudia Lenua Rus Congresul Asociaiei Europene de Psihologia Muncii i Organizaional, Imagineaz-i lumea viitoare: Cum vrem s muncim mine?, Ediia a-XVI-a, 22-25 Mai 2013, Munster, Germania / 112 Standardes de rdaction Les diteurs Psychologie des ressources humaines guide pour les auteurs (roumain) / 113 Psychologie des ressources humaines guide pour les auteurs (anglais) / 117 Psychologie des ressources humaines guide pour les auteurs (franais) / 121

De ce psihologii romni specializai n psihologia muncii i organizaional nu au opiuni. O critic adresat sistemului nostru de formare

Drago Iliescu1

Psihologii care lucrez n Romnia n aria psihologiei muncii, industriale i organizaionale sunt pltii foarte prost i se lupt att din punct de vedere personal ct i profesional cu o lips incredibil de opiuni. Din pcate acest adevr dureros a fost artat de studiul derulat de Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional cu mai puin de un an n urm (APIO, 2013). Studiul arat c majoritatea psihologilor activi n aria psihologiei muncii i organizaional (PMO) se lupt cu locuri de munc prost pltite, fcnd activiti slab calificate, fr viziune sau impact strategic i avnd perspective reduse sau chiar aproape absente de a crete ctre orice altceva. n acelai timp, o varietate de alte profesii ctig bani frumoi fcnd activiti profesionale pentru care psihologii ar trebui s aib prima opiune. Este datoria noastr s explorm aceast situaie i s o nelegem, pentru a putea s rsturnm pe viitor situaia n favoarea noastr. De ce se ntmpl acest lucru? De ce sunt psihologii activi n PMO att de radical de prost pltii n Romnia? Sunt convins c psihologii care lucreaz n alte arii sunt confruntai cu perspective cel puin la fel de sumbre, ns nu avem date empirice pentru a arta acest lucru. i apoi, chiar dac ar fi aa, acesta nu este un motiv pentru ca psihologii PMO s fie tot n aceeai situaie. La urma urmei, se presupune c noi suntem cei mai orientai ctre antreprenoriat, cei mai pregtii s lum n piept piaa i cei mai n form pentru a nelege cum putem face afacerile (de exemplu ale noastre, nu?) s creasc i s nfloreasc. Cci, din toi psihologii, noi suntem cei mai apropiai de mediul de business, chiar prin formarea noastr. Acest scurt editorial ofer o posibil explicaie pentru starea actual a lucrurilor. Este o critic fa de starea curent a educaiei profesionale, att academice, ct i alternative n PMO din Romnia. Suntem de prere c starea
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practicii reflect starea educaiei i c psihologii educai ntr-un anume spirit sunt rareori n stare (dup cum, desigur, vedem) s se desctueze de concepiile greite i s acioneze mpotriva cadrului n care au fost formai. n mod specific, subliniem i discutm dou mari probleme care privesc educaia n PMO n Romnia, la acest moment. n primul rnd, educaia n aceast arie este marcat puternic de profesori care nu sunt practicieni i care au vzut rareori (dac au vzut vreodat) o afacere (un client comercial) de aproape. Cel mai bun lucru pe care l pot spune unii dintre ei este faptul c au oferit consultan pentru vreun antreprenor local, cu 10 angajai, sau pentru vreo agenie prfuit de-a competitivului stat romn. i chiar i atunci, tot ce au fcut probabil a fost s administreze nite teste ilare, nvechite, msurnd vreunul din constructele expirate care se msurau n urm cu 50 de ani, cum ar fi atenia distributiv, personalitile accentuate sau alte asemenea. Este evident ntrebarea care urmeaz: cum putem crede c un astfel de profesor i poate arta unui student sau tnr psiholog care sunt deprinderile reale de consultan necesare la acest moment? Inexistena oportunitilor i inexistena perspectivelor pentru educator se transform n aceeai lips de oportuniti i perspective pentru student, desigur. n al doilea rnd, tematicile predate i discutate n PMO n Romnia sunt deseori de cele mai multe ori sau groaznic de nvechite, sau incredibil de puin importante pentru practica real. Vedem tematici care sunt predate astzi n universitile din Romnia sau n cursuri de formare i supervizare care erau interesante, poate, n urm cu 20 sau 30 de ani, cursuri care se concentreaz deseori pe fapte tiinifice care erau considerate adevruri prin anii 70, dar care ntre timp au fost ori dezvoltate ctre alte modele, ori invalidate de tiin. Nu vedem ca

coala Naional de Studii Politice i Administrative Adres de coresponden - dragos.iliescu@testcentral.ro

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vreuna din tematicile cu adevrat fierbini pentru PMO actual s fie predate studenilor. Ca efect, studenii nostri, care la urma urmei sunt viitorii notri colegi, viitorii psihologi specializai n PMO, nu sunt adaptai la nevoile clienilor lor viitori. Unii din ei e posibil s nvee cum s administreze nite teste uitate de timp (de obicei nclcnd drepturile intelectuale i comerciale chiar i atunci) dar nu neleg nevoile de nivel mai nalt ale clienilor lor. Dac am lua psihologul mediu cu specializarea PMO, existent astzi n Romnia i i-am citi o list de tematici fierbini din domeniul nostru de activitate, aa cum sunt aceste tematici definite de cercetrile curente i de prezentrile la conferine de top, este foarte posibil ca psihologul nostru s nu recunoasc mai mult de un sfert din aceste constructe i fenomene. Credem c aceasta este o problem serioas i c putem cel puin s artm ce este important astzi, n nevoi ale clienilor i n cercetarea academic. i apoi s ne ncredem n educatori (profesori i formatori) i n studeni, spernd ca ei s aibe spiritul necesar pentru a urma drumul ctre competen i dezvoltare profesional personal, dup ce acest drum este artat. Pentru nceput, haidei s ne concentrm pe nevoile clienilor. Desigur, educaia academic trebuie s acopere toate acele zone care i dau studentului o educaie general n temele PMO. ns, este clar c practicienii viitori nu vor fi pregtii pentru a se confrunta cu piaa muncii dac ei nu pot rezolva nevoile clienilor lor, iar ai nva ce este important pentru clieni pleac, de bun seam de la a ti noi nine ce este important pentru clieni. Studiul APIO (APIO, 2013) arat faptul c mai mult de jumtate din ceea ce face astzi un psiholog specializat n PMO este legat de o form sau alta de evaluare. Selecia de personal se bazeaz radical pe evaluare, dar la fel se bazeaz cea mai mare parte din interveniile de dezvoltare: buna practic spune c trebuie s evalum nainte i, pe ct posibil, i dup ce este implementat o iniiativ de training sau de coaching. Ei bine, care sunt nevoile clienilor notri legate de evaluare? Studiul SHL "2013 Global Assessment Trends Report" (GATR; Fallaw & Kantrowitz, 2013) ofer o descriere foarte coerent i la zi a rspunsului la aceast ntrebare. Studiul GATR este bazat pe rspunsuri colectate de la 592 de profesioniti de resurse umane de top din companii reprezentate n jurul lumii i este relevant i pentru Romnia,

deoarece, cel puin n companiile multinaionale, trendurile globale devin vizibile imediat i rareori se las ateptate mai mult de un an. De exemplu, prima concluzie cheie a acestui studiu interesant (p. 8) arat c aceste companii internaionale continu s se concentreze pe teme precum engagement i leadership. Cele dou prioriti de top n proiectele de HR are marilor companii sunt angajamentul forei de munc ("engaging the workforce") i dezvoltarea leaderilor ("developing leaders"). Ambele aceste orientri apar ca fiind importante pentru mai mult de jumtate din practicienii intervievai, iar aceasta s-ar putea traduce n faptul c, probabil, n jur de jumtate din companiile multinaionale active n Romnia (i probabil un procent comparativ al afacerilor indigene) vor avea bugete alocate pentru aceste activiti. Nu dorim s speculm la ct se ridic aceste bugete, dar cu siguran este vorba de muli bani, comparativ cu ct ctig n medie psihologii PMO din Romnia. Dar au psihologii notri acces la aceste bugete? Suntem din pcate, cu tristee o spunem, siguri de faptul c prea puini psihologi PMO cunosc suficient de multe despre teoriile legate de engagement i cunosc chiar mai puin despre practica evalurii i dezvoltrii acestui important fenomen, pentru a putea fi consultani credibili pentru companiile care au astfel de nevoi n Romnia. Aceast tem a devenit important n PMO, la nivel internaional, fiind relaionat cu diverse rezultate pozitive, individuale i organizaionale, precum performana n munc, progresul n carier, (lipsa) fluctuaiei de personal, (lipsa) absenteismului, (lipsa) devianei la locul de munc, motivaia, starea de bine emoional i fizic etc. Importana angajamentului i, n general, a atitudinilor la locul de munc este demonstrat i de volumul lucrrilor prezentate la conferina anual a SIOP (Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology), care a avut loc la Houston, Texas, n perioada 11-13 aprilie 2013. Dac vom consulta programul conferinei (http://www.siop.org/programsearch/Default.asp x?conid=7), vom observa c "Job Attitudes / Engagement" se plaseaz ca tematic pe al treilea loc n termenii numrului de prezentri admise - iar asta chiar nseamn ceva la o conferin de top, aa cum este conferina SIOP. nelegnd importana acestei tematici, Coralia Sulea i colegii ei de la Universitatea de Vest din Timioara au organizat n 2011 un

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important workshop internaional pe tematica psihologiei sntii la locul de munc (Occupational Health Psychology), cu un accent special pe angajamentul la locul de munc, printre altele. Detalii pot fi gsite pe site-ul manifestrii (http://occupationalhealthpsychology.wordpress. com/international-ohp-workshop), precum i n Romanian Journal of Applied Psychology, care a dedicat un numr special psihologiei sntii la locul de munc (Volumul 14, Numrul 1). Mai important, unul din cercettorii foarte importani ai acestui domeniu, profesorul Wilmar Schaufeli (Utrecht University, Olanda) a luat parte la acest workshop i chiar a revizitat Romnia un an mai trziu ca invitat i keynote speaker la Conferina Naional de Psihologia Muncii i Organizaional (APIO 2012, Timioara, 26-28 aprilie 2012). Ne-am fi ateptat ca prezena unei personaliti att de respectate s genereze o pleiad de cercetri pe aceast tem important i s vedem profesorii, cercettorii, studenii, practicienii srind de-a dreptul pe aceast tematic. Din pcate, nu am observat astfel de efecte n Romnia. Iar despre dezvoltarea leaderilor ... da, aceasta este de bun seam cea mai larg tematic n termeni de lucrri prezentate la conferina SIOP 2013. Leadershipul a generat, n mod constant, interes din partea practicienilor i a clienilor lor, iar cercettorii i universitile au ncercat s in pasul cu acest interes. Din pcate, universitile din Romnia nu au inut pasul, cci tematicile studiate n puinele cursuri n leadership oferite pentru studenii care se specializeaz n PMO sunt preponderent teoretice. Nici unul nu se centreaz, de exemplu, pe prezentarea unor instrumente consacrate pentru msurarea leadershipului, sau pe tehnici de dezvoltare a leadershipului. Managementul talentelor este unul din accentele cheie identificate de "Global Assessment Trends Report" - acesta arat interes n companiile multinaionale pentru a mbunti msurarea talentului (p. 15), cu aproape 75% din participani spunnd c vor modifica modul n care este msurat talentul n organizaiile lor, centrndu-se, se pare, pe utilizarea unor evaluri obiective a potenialului pentru rolurile critice. i totui, n Romnia nici un curs oferit n vreo universitate din Romnia nu atinge managementul talentelor. Studenii i practicienii nici mcar nu tiu ce este talentul: cum s defineasc, evalueze, identifice, dezvolte, rein

talentul? Ce instrumente s foloseasc sau ce variabile s msoare pentru a defini rezervorul de talent? Ce este un talent pipeline? Cum s evalueze rezervorul de talente pentru a estima promovabilitatea n programe de succesiune (succession planning)? Cum se relaioneaz evalurile tradiionale (precum abilitile cognitive sau personalitatea) cu evalurile mai moderne (precum testele de judecat situaional, simulrile i jocurile serioase)? Acesta este un minus semnificativ, care marcheaz un handicap pentru toi viitorii practicieni i care le nchide opiuni n relaiile lor cu viitori posibili clieni. Un alt rezultat cheie al GATR este accentul pus de specialitii din business pe legarea evalurii, att a celei fcute nainte de angajare (pre-hire), ct i a celei realizate dup angajare (post-hire), cu rezultatele de business. De exemplu, rezult din GATR c profesionitii din HR sunt mai tentai s lege evalurile realizate nainte de angajare de creterea productivitii, iar evalurile realizate dup angajare de creterea performanei (p. 20). Acesta este un rezultat important, pentru c ajut n faza de prezentare i vnzare a serviciilor, pentru psihologii care neleg econometrie. Avantajele financiare ale evalurilor realizate nainte de angajare (de exemplu screening sau evaluri comprehensive realizate cu scop de selecie) ar trebui prezentate n termenii avantajelor globale pentru business, cum ar fi o mai bun productivitate general, o consolidare a brandului de angajator, o mai mare eficien a investiiei bugetului de recrutare. Avantajele evalurilor realizate dup angajare (de exemplu evaluarea talentului, pentru diverse scopuri legate de dezvoltare) ar trebui prezentate n termenii unei performane crescute a persoanei pe care se centreaz evaluarea. ns atunci cnd ncercm s discutm astfel de lucruri evidente i comparativ simple cu un psiholog specializat n PMO, n Romnia, experiena noastr personal este c nu va nelege nici mcare ce nseamn aceste cuvinte. Nici un program academic din Romnia nu explic diferenele dintre evaluarea pre-hire i evaluarea post-hire. i nici unul nu explic modalitatea n care ar putea fi calculat valoarea financiar a unei evaluri. Credem c Lavinia nculescu a fcut un pas important pentru Romnia n aceast direcie, cu workshopul ei foarte apreciat pe tematica econometriei, inut la conferina APIO 2012 de la Timioara i in 2013, de la Braov. Este un nceput, unul pe care am dori s l vedem reprodus de programe

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academice, dar care nc nu a primit atenia pe care o merit. Dei nu se poate face mult cercetare pe aceast tem - aa cum demonstreaz i conferina SIOP, unde au existat puine prezentri pe aceast tem (HR Strategic / Utilitate) - credem c tema este de mare importan pentru practicieni, ea delimintnd simplii tehnicieni de consultanii care se pot poziiona ca parteneri strategici lng clienii lor, adugnd valoare afacerii acestora. n concluzie, am identificat trei teme importante, demonstrate a fi critice att de sondajele realizate n rndul marilor afaceri (adic a potenialilor clieni), ct i, cel puin n parte, de interesul comunitii academice de top. Acestea sunt tematici critice, fierbini i reprezint noile frontiere n PMO, att n cercetare, ct i n practic. Pentru unele din ele am putut vedea c un numr de oameni vizionari au artat deja drumul, n Romnia. Dar educaia academic nc nu a mbriat aceste teme. Aceasta este o trist realitate att pentru educaia formal, universitar, ct i pentru educaia informal, practic, din Romnia - i se reflect asupra calitii pe care o au practicienii formai de aceste sisteme: dezvoltm psihologi subeducai, fr opiuni n piaa muncii, care, n loc s se dezvolte ca personaliti, o s se zbat n mocirl ntreaga via aplicnd teste de auto i dnd avize de apt/inapt pe bani puini. Am vzut-o ntmplndu-se. nc o vedem ntmplndu-se. S sperm c nu o vom mai vedea ntmplndu-se n viitor. Credem c ar trebui s propunem i soluii pentru aceast situaie ngrijortoare dar, ca s fiu sincer, acestea sunt dificil de propus. Trebuie s recunosc faptul c la nceput am avut sperane mari de la ceea ce acum se numete formare paralel sau formare de practician, adic acea formare realizat sub avizul Colegiului Psihologilor. Aceast formare paralel nseamn n esen c tinerii psihologi care termin minimul educaiei academice necesare pentru a fi considerai psihologi (adic 3 ani de studiu n sistem Bologna) i care sunt stui de faptul c programele academice prin care chiar au trecut nu i nva suficiente lucruri practice, nu doresc s mai continue n acelai sistem neadaptat. n schimb, se nregimenteaz n programe care sunt prezentate deseori ca programe de master alternative sau programe formative. Nu ar trebui s ne amgim, ns: vedem ca formatori n

aceste programe aceiai psihologi neinformai, lipsii de succes profesional, sub-profesionalizai, precum vedem n general n profesia noastr. i, haidei s fim serioi, aceste programe alternative, botezate de master nu sunt nici alternative i nici de master. Nu sunt alternative pentru c sunt exact la fel de non-formative i de lipsite de succes ca i programele formale de care ar vrea s se disocieze. i nu sunt de master, pentru c diploma de master este o recunoatere academic formal, recunoscut de o autoritate a statului (Ministerul Educaiei n Romnia). Cred c pot spune fr a grei c aceste programe alternative nu sunt parte din soluie, ci parte din problem. Acesta este motivul pentru care nu m voi uita cu speran spre nici un fel de program, formal sau informal, ci ctre oameni. Dup cum spune proverbul nostru, omul sfinete locul i nu invers. Simt c studenii i tinerii psihologi sunt amgii de persoane - profesori sau formatori - care sunt ei nii lipsii de succes profesional. Eu unul a fi ngrijorat s am ca profesor sau supervizor un psiholog mai n vrst, cu specializarea n PMO, care dup 30 sau 40 de ani de practic ctig n continuare un salariu minimal i fac munc slab calificat, fr perspective strategice, pentru clieni minori. Cu siguran, aceasta nu este imaginea succesului. i ce ar putea un astfel de supervizor s l nvee pe un tnr psiholog? Pi, desigur, cum s munceasc pe un salariu minimal, fcnd munc slab calificat, fr perspective strategice, pentru clieni minori. Pentru c supervizorul nu are nici el nsui alt orizont. Dar avem n Romnia exemple frumoase de profesioniti tineri, cu succes demonstrat att local, ct i internaional. Aceste exemple de succes ar trebui celebrate: acetia sunt oamenii de la care noua generaie ar trebui s nvee. Colegii mei (mai) tineri: alegeiv modelele cu nelepciune, cci ele vor pune bazele nfloririi sau ofilirii voastre.

Referine
Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional (2013). Starea actual a psihologului specializat n psihologia muncii i organizaional, n Romnia. Bucureti: APIO Fallaw, S. S., & Kantrowitz, T. M. (2013). 2013 Global Assessment Trends Report. Alpharetta, Georgia: SHL Americas.

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Why Romanian I/O psychologists are out of options. A critique to our maladapted formative system

Drago Iliescu1

Psychologists working in Romania in the area of work, industrial and organizational psychology are seriously underpaid and struggle both personally and professionally with an incredible lack of options. This has been made sadly clear by the study run by the Romanian Association of Work and Industrial Psychology less than a year back (APIO, 2013). The study shows that most I/O psychologists struggle in low-pay jobs, doing menial activities without strategic outlook or impact, and having little or no prospects of growing to anywhere else. At the same time, various other professions earn good money doing professional activities to which psychologists should by any rights have a first call. It is our duty to explore this situation and its causes, in order to turn the tides in our favor. Why does this happen? Why are I/O psychologists so severely underpaid in Romania? I dare to say that psychologists working in other areas are faced with similarly bleak prospects, for example those active in educational or clinical psychology, but we do not have hard data to show this. And then, even if it would be so: this is not a motive for I/O psychologists to be bogged down, too. After all, we should be the most entrepreneurial thinking, the most prepared to face the market, the most ready to make a business (like, say, our own?) grow and flourish. We are, of course, the closest to the business environment. This short editorial offers a possible explanation to the current state of affairs. It is a critique to the current state of education in I/O psychology in Romania. We are of the opinion that the state of practice reflects the state of education, and that psychologists educated in a certain spirit are rarely able (as we certainly see) to shed their shackles and run against that spirit. Specifically, we see two main problems with education in I/O psychology in Romania.
1

First, education in this area is heavily marked by educators who are not practitioners, and who have rarely, if ever, seen a real business up close. The best some of them can say is that they consulted some local entrepreneur with a 10 employees headcount, and even then they probably run some tests on prospective employees, using outdated tests for whatever obsolete constructs were tested 50 years ago - like distributive attention, accented personalities or whatnot. Of course, how can such an educator show a student what real consulting skills are about? No opportunities and no perspectives for the educator reflects in the same lack for the student, of course. Second, the topics which are taught in I/O psychology in Romania are sometimes oftentimes - either seriously outdated or seriously unimportant for real practice. We see topics which are taught now, and which may have been hot between 20 and 30 years back, oftentimes focusing on "facts" which may have been considered true in the 70s, but have been either developed or utterly disproven by science since. We also do not see any of the hot topics in todays I/O psychology being taught to students. As an effect, our students, who are after all our future colleague I/O psychologists, are not adapted to the needs of their prospective clients. They know how to administer a bunch of outdated tests (usually infringing on copyrights even with those), and do not make sense of higher-order needs of their clients. If we would take the average I/O psychologist today and read out a list of hot topics in our realm, as shown by current published research or by conference presentations, it is quite possible that they would not recognize more than a quarter of those constructs or phenomena. We think that this is a serious matter and that the least we can do is show what is

National School of Political and Administrative Studies Corresponding address - dragos.iliescu@testcentral.ro

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important today, in client needs and academic research. And trust to both educators and students that they will have the spirit to follow the way to competence and self-improvement, once it is shown. We will for starters focus on the client's needs. Of course, academic education will need to cover all the bases and give students a general education on topics in I/O psychology. However, it is clear that future practitioners will not be prepared to face the labor market if they are not able to meet client needs, and teaching what is important to clients has to start from knowing what is important to clients. The APIO study (APIO, 2013) shows that more than half of what I/O psychologists to today is focused around some form of other of assessment. Selection relies heavily on assessment, but so does development: good practice is to assess before, and maybe even after one implements training or coaching initiatives. Well, what are the needs of clients when we look at assessment? SHL's "2013 Global Assessment Trends Report" (GATR; Fallaw & Kantrowitz, 2013) gives a very accurate and up-to-date picture to this question. The GATR is based on answers collected from 592 human resources professionals from companies headquartered throughout the world, and is relevant for Romania, too, because, at least in multinational companies, global trends are immediately visible and rarely lag behind more than one year. For example, the first key finding of this interesting study (p. 8) is that companies continue to focus on engagement and leadership. The two top priorities in HR projects are "engaging the workforce" and "developing leaders". Both these two foci are valid for more than half of the interviewed HR practitioners, and this would translate to the fact that probably around half of the multinational companies active in Romania (and possibly a comparative percent of Romanian businesses) will have budgets allocated for these activities. We do not want to speculate to how much such budgets would amount, but it sure is a hell of a lot of money, comparative to what I/O psychologists in Romania usually make. But do they have the capacity to access these funds? We are sadly sure that few I/O psychologists know enough about the theory of work engagement, and even less about the practice of assessing and developing work

engagement, in order to be credible consultants to companies who have such needs in Romania. Work engagement has become an important topic in work psychology, being related to positive individual and organizational outcomes such as performance, career progression, (lack of) voluntary turnover, (lack of) absenteeism, (lack of) workplace deviance, motivation, emotional and physical wellbeing and others. The importance of job engagement and job attitudes in general is also shown by the volume of papers presented at the 2013 Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) which was held in Houston, Texas, between April 11-13. If one consults the electronic conference program planner (http://www.siop.org/programsearch/Default.as px?conid=7), "Job Attitudes / Engagement" pops up as the third largest topic in terms of number of presentations - that really is something in such a top conference as SIOP. Understanding the importance of this topic, Coralia Sulea and her colleagues and the West University in Timisoara have organized in 2011 an important international workshop on Occupational Health Psychology, with a specific focus on work engagement, among others. Details can be found on their website (http://occupationalhealthpsychology.wordpress .com/international-ohp-workshop/), and in the Romanian Journal of Applied Psychology, which has hosted a special issue on occupational health psychology (Volume 14, Issue 1). Most important, one of the gurus on this topic, Professor Wilmar Schaufeli (Utrecht University, The Netherlands) took part in the workshop, and even came over again to visit Romania as a keynote speaker for the Romanian National Conference on Work and Organizational Psychology (APIO 2012, Timisoara, 26-28 April 2012). One would have expected the presence of such a highly esteemed figure to spark a host of research on this important topic, and to see academics, researchers and students jump this topic. Unfortunately, no such effects happened in Romania. As to "developing leaders"... well, this is of course the largest topic in terms of accepted papers at the 2013 SIOP. Leadership has sparked a constant interest for practitioners and their clients, and academia has kept pace with it. Unfortunately, not Romanian academia - the

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topics studied in the few courses offered for our I/O students on leadership are mainly theoretical. None focuses for example on established instruments for measuring leadership, or on techniques for developing leadership. "Talent management" is one of the key foci identified by the "Global Assessment Trends Report" - it shows in multinational businesses "a desire to improve talent measurement" (p. 15), with almost 75% of respondents stating that they will improve the way in which talent is measured in their organizations, focusing, it seems, on the use of objective assessments of potential for critical roles. Still no Romanian course in psychology even touches Talent Management. Students and practitioners do not even know what "talent" is: how to define, assess, identify, develop, and retain talent? What measures to use in order to define the talent pool? What a talent pipeline is? How to assess the talent pool? How traditional assessments (such as cognitive ability or personality) relate to more modern assessments, such as situational judgment tests, simulations and "serious games" etc.? This is a significant drawback, hampering our future practitioners and closing their options in their relationships with prospective clients. Another key finding of the GATR is the emphasis business people put on linking assessment (both pre-hire and post-hire) with business outcomes. For example, it seems from the GATR that HR professionals are more inclined to connect pre-hire assessment to increases in productivity, and post-hire assessment with improved performance (p. 20). This is an important finding, because it makes an important sales point for I/O psychologists who understand econometry: the financial advantages of pre-hire assessments (e.g. screening and comprehensive assessments for selection purposes) should be presented in terms of overall business advantages, such as better overall productivity, employer branding, or budget efficiency, whereas the financial advantages of post-hire assessments (e.g. talent assessments for developmental purposes) should be presented in terms of improved performance for the focal person. However, when discussing such obvious and comparatively simple points with I/O psychologists in Romania, our personal experience has been that they do not even understand what all these words are about. No

academic program explains pre-hire and posthire differences in assessment. And certainly none explains ways to compute the financial value of assessments. I believe that our colleague Lavinia nculescu has made a major move in this important direction, with her celebrated workshop on HR econometry held at the 2012 APIO conference in Timioara and at the 2013 APIO conference in Braov. It's a beginning, one which we would like to see reproduced by academic programs, but which as yet has not been given the attention it really deserves. While not much research can be done on this - as shown by the SIOP conference, where few presentations where held on this topic (Strategic HR/Utility) - we personally find this topic to be of tremendous importance for a practitioner, outlining the difference between mere technicians and consultants who can be partners who add business value to their clients. As a conclusion, we have identified three important topics, outlined both by surveys of important business (i.e. prospective clients) and, at least in part, by the interest of the top academic community, as critical, hot and the new frontier in I/O research and practice. For some of them we have had a few visionary people in Romania showing the way. But Academia has not yet formally embraced those topics. This is a pattern, sadly for Romanian formal academic and informal practical programs, which reflects on the quality of their output: undereducated psychologists, without options on the labor market, which, instead of developing as high flyers, will struggle in the bogs for a lifetime. Weve seen it happening. We still see it happening. Hopefully we wont see it happening anymore in the future. We should also propose solutions to this troublesome situation, but, frankly, these are difficult to advance. I have to acknowledge that in the beginning I have had high hopes from what they now call "parallel education", or "practitioner education". This means, in essence, that psychologists who finish the minimum requirement academic education in Romania (that's a BA, based on 3 years of study in the Bologna model), and are sick and tired of the fact that formal academic programs do not teach them anything about practice, will not follow such formal academic programs anymore. Instead, they enlist in programs which are oftentimes presented as "alternative master programs" or simply "formative programs". We

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should not delude ourselves, however: we see in these programs the same outdated, uninformed, underachieving, underprofessionalized psychologists posing as teachers, as we see in general in our profession. And, really, these "alternative" programs dubbed as "master programs" are neither alternative nor master programs. Not "alternative", because they are exactly as nonformative and underachieving as the formal programs they want to dissociate from. And not "master", because a master's diploma is a formal academic degree, certified by a state authority (the Ministry of Education). Certainly, I can say, these "alternative" programs are not part of the solution but part of the problem. I would therefore not look towards programs, formal or informal, but towards people. As the Romanian proverb goes, "places are made holy by people" and not the other way around. I feel that students and young psychologists are thoroughly misled by people professors or trainers - who are underachievers themselves. I for myself would be troubled to have as teacher or supervisor an older psychologist who after 30 or 40 years of

practice still work for a minimum salary, doing menial work for minor clients. This is certainly not a sign of achievement. And what will such a supervisor teach a young professional? Well, of course, how to work for a minimum salary, doing menial work for minor clients - because the supervisor himself has no other horizon. But we have in Romania beautiful examples of young professionals, achievers who have proven themselves locally and internationally. These examples of success should be celebrated: these are the people a new generation should learn from. My young(er) colleagues: pick your models wisely. Because they will set the stage for your Flourishing or Withering.

References
Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional (2013). Starea actual a psihologului specializat n psihologia muncii i organizaional, n Romnia. Bucharest: APIO Fallaw, S. S., & Kantrowitz, T. M. (2013). 2013 Global Assessment Trends Report. Alpharetta, Georgia: SHL Americas.

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Employees intention to blow the whistle: The role of fairness and moral identity

Karin Proost1, Adrana Pavlinsk2, Elfi Baillien3, Lieven Brebels4, Anja Van den Broeck5

Abstract
In this study we focused on key concepts moral identity and fairness in order to explain whistleblowing intention. We examined the relationship between intention to blow the whistle and moral identity, and explored the moderating effect of perceived supervisor procedural fairness in this relationship. Our results showed that employees (N = 278) with a strong moral identity were more likely to blow the whistle on wrongdoing of which they had become aware of, and employees who were low in moral identity were less likely to blow the whistle. Furthermore, we found that the impact of moral identity on the intention to blow the whistle is increased by high procedural fairness, and that low procedural fairness leaves this relationship insignificant. These findings represent new insights into the study of whistleblowing. Keywords: intention to whistleblow, moral identity, organizational justice

Resum
Dans cette tude, nous nous sommes concentrs sur des concepts que nous croyons importants afin dexpliquer les intentions de dnonciations, soit ceux didentit morale et d'quit. Nous avons examin la relation entre les intentions de dnonciations et lidentit morale, ainsi que leffet modrateur de la perception dquit procdurale du suprieur immdiat dans cette relation. Nos rsultats ont montr que les employs (N = 278) avec un score lev didentit morale taient plus susceptibles de dnoncer les actes rprhensibles dont ils avaient pris connaissance, et que les employs qui avaient un score faible didentit morale taient moins susceptibles de dnoncer ces mmes actes. En outre, nous avons constat que l'impact de l'identit morale sur l'intention de dnoncer est augment par une forte perception dquit procdurale; une faible perception dquit procdurale rend toutefois cette relation non significative. Ces rsultats jettent un clairage nouveau sur ltude de la dnonciation et ouvre la voie des perspectives novatrices sur ltude de ce phnomne. Mots cls: intention de dnonciation, identit morale, justice organisationnelle

Rezumat
n acest studiu ne-am concentrat pe concepte cheie - identitate moral i corectitudine - cu scopul de a explica intenia de a denuna neregulile din organizaie. Am examinat relaia dintre intenia de a denuna neregulile din organizaie i identitatea moral, precum i efectul de moderare al percepiei corectitudinii procedurale a sefului direct n aceast relaie. Rezultatele noastre au artat c n cazul angajailor (N = 278) cu un nivel nalt de identitate moral se ntlnete o probabilitate mai mare de a raporta din proprie iniiativ neregulile pe care le-au identificat, n timp ce acest lucru este mai puin probabil n cazul angajailor cu un nivel sczut de identitate moral. n plus, am constatat c impactul identitii morale asupra inteniei de a denuna neregulile este amplificat de un grad ridicat de corectitudine procedural, n timp ce un grad redus nu influeneaz semnificativ relaia. Aceste constatri aduc perspective noi n studiul inteniei de a denuna neregulile din organizaie. Cuvinte cheie: intenia de a denuna neregulile; identitate moral, corectitudine organizaional

1,2,3,4,5

KU Leuven and Faculty of Psychology, Open University of the Netherlands Corresponding address: Karin.proost@ou.nl 15

Employees intention to blow the whistle: The role of fairness and moral identity

Introduction
Dishonest practices within organizations exist in every form and every field, covertly or even publicly in the arrogance of power. According to the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE, 2012), the typical organization loses five percent of its revenues every year due to frauds committed within organizations, leading to more than $3.5 trillion of global fraud loss. This statistic clearly shows that organizations should put more effort into monitoring unethical practices within the organization in order to prevent such enormous losses. One way to do this is to encourage employees to reveal their suspicions before they become a serious issue leading to unpleasant consequences for the organization. Reporting unethical behavior generally known as whistleblowing - is important to avoid organizational wrongdoing. The phenomenon of whistleblowing has been defined in different ways. A quarter of a century ago, Near and Miceli (1985) defined whistleblowing as a disclosure by organization members (former or current) of illegal, immoral or illegitimate practices under the control of their employers, to persons or organizations that may be able to effect action (p. 4). It was also described as an act of dissidence (Elliston, 1982), a type of prosocial behavior (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986; Dozier & Miceli, 1985), a result of a process (Somers & Casal, 1994), a type of informing (Jubb, 1999), but generally, it was perceived as a process including several steps rather than an event (Dozier & Miceli, 1985; Jubb, 1999; Near & Miceli, 1985; Somers & Casal, 1994). Sexty (2011) defined whistleblowing as an act of voluntary disclosure of inappropriate behavior or decisions to persons in positions of authority in the organization (p.126). Several separate studies proved whistleblowing to be the most effective way of detecting dishonest practices in organizations (ACFE, 2012; Brown, Mazurski, & Olsen, 2008; PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2011). However, there still is a high percentage of cases where employees who observed misconducts, opt not to blow the whistle but to stand idly by or ignore them instead (Ethics Resource Center, 2012; Wortley, Cassematis, & Donkin, 2008). This study focuses on antecedents of employees intentions to blow the whistle.

Imagine a potential situation for whistleblowing: you unexpectedly disclose the data fudging of your colleague, and you feel that you should go and report it to the boss or management. Would you be likely to blow the whistle? You may deem it a moral duty or a display of loyalty towards your supervisor to blow the whistle (Beauchamp & Bowied, 1988). However, this is not always the case. The personal sense of moral duty or loyalty should be incorporated in the employees identity. The theory of identity-based motivation (Blasi, 1984; Oyserman, 2007) suggests that personal identities have an influence on judgment, decision-making and behavior of an individual. Therefore, we believe that besides variables such as loyalty (Corvino, 2002; Lewis, 2011; Varelius, 2009), altruism (Arnold & Ponemon, 1991; Vinten, 2000) or offered reward (Carson, Verdu, & Wokutch, 2007; Miceli & Near, 1985; Paul & Townsend, 1996), it is moral identity that plays an important role with respect to whistleblowing intention, since it can predict many types of morally relevant behavior (Aquino & Reed, 2002). The relationship between moral identity and intention to blow the whistle, however, has only received limited attention in the literature (Vadera, Aguilera, & Caza, 2009). Another aspect that is considered in this study is fairness. Cropanzano and Greenberg (1997) and Tyler (1988) pointed out the relevance of the concept of organizational fairness and showed that it is of decisive importance to employees that procedures that are followed when making organizational decisions are fair. Recent studies also showed a positive relationship between organizational fairness and whistleblowing (Goldman, 2001; Rothschild & Miethe, 1999; Seifert, 2006; Seifert, Sweeney, Joireman, & Thornton, 2010). In this study, we focus on perceived supervisor procedural fairness as procedures are often enacted by the supervisor. As such, this variable has been found to influence a range of employee attitudes and behaviors at the workplace (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001; Colquitt et al., 2001). We aim to find an answer to the question on how moral identity and procedural fairness affect employees intention to blow the whistle. Specifically, we suggest that moral identity is related to intention to blow the whistle but that this relationship is moderated by perceptions of supervisor procedural justice.

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Employees intention to blow the whistle: The role of fairness and moral identity

Intention to Blow the Whistle and Moral Identity

Employees are in a unique position to influence the occurrence of dishonest practices within organizations by blowing the whistle. In order to understand the complexity of whistleblowing, we distinguish between internal and external whistleblowing (Donkin, Smith, & Brown, 2008; Jubb, 1999; Dworkin & Baucus, 1998). The former reflects a situation in which the employee discovers or learns about inappropriate behavior of someone from within the organization and discloses that fact within the organization. The latter occurs when an employee becomes aware of information about the activities of the organization regarded as morally wrong, and decides to disclose it outside the organization by, for example, going public, informing the government or the mass media. Researchers argued that internal whistleblowing occurred more frequently than external whistleblowing (Brown, Latimer, McMillan, & Wheeler, 2008). With respect to employees who blow the whistle, a difference can be made between role and non-role reporters. Role reporters are employees whose job or organizational role anticipates reporting misconducts. Examples are internal auditors who disclose and formally report a questionable activity in accordance with standard procedures to the boss or top management, or supervisors who detect a wrongdoing made by an employee and formally pass it on to their own superior. Non-role reporters are those employees who report unethical practices without being obliged to do so. These employees are somehow motivated to blow the whistle and are regarded as actual whistleblowers (Brown, et al., 2008). In this study, we are only interested in internal whistleblowing by non-role reporters since it has been shown that this group of employees is in the best position to reduce the occurrence of unethical behaviors (Miceli & Near, 2005). Specifically, a study of ACFE (2006) showed that tips from employees was the most common mean to detect fraud within organizations. There are various organizational, personal and situational variables affecting individuals intention to blow the whistle. Three categories of antecedents of intentions to blow the whistle have been defined (King, 1999; Miceli & Near,

1988; Near & Miceli, 1985): organizational structure (e.g., power relations between the organization and employees who report the wrongdoing), personal characteristics of a whistleblower (e.g., motivation, the employees level of moral development), and the situational context (e.g., circumstances that surround the questionable activity). In their review article, Vadera et al. (2009) further classified all known variables into two groups, namely individual and situational antecedents of whistleblowing. They argued that besides individual variables such as age, gender, education, job satisfaction, or tenure, an identity focus might help to explicate the inconsistent findings within whistleblowing studies. According to the theory of identity-based motivation (McFerran, Aquino, & Duffy, 2010), the more central a particular identity is to the person, the more likely this identity is to influence thoughts, emotions and behavior (p. 40). An identity is a self-definition or a selfconception (Erikson, 1964). The focus in this study is on a persons moral identity that, similarly to other identities, may be related to certain views, attitudes and behaviors (Shih, Pittinsky, & Ambady, 1999). Moral identity has been specified as a type of self-regulatory mechanism motivating action that is moral (Blasi, 1980; Damon & Hart, 1992; Erikson, 1964; Hart, Atkins, & Ford, 1998). Based on these studies, Aquino and Reed (2002) developed the measure of moral identity, measuring nine properties associated with moral behavior (i.e., fair, honest, hardworking, kind, caring, generous, compassionate, friendly and helpful). According to this measure, a person is high on moral identity when centering his/her identity on moral virtues such as fairness, honesty, kindness, etc. Therefore, the notion of moral identity was redefined as a self-conception organized around a set of moral virtues (Aquino & Reed, 2002). Hardy (2006) empirically supported the idea that the centrality of moral virtues to a persons identity is a relevant source of motivation of moral behavior, as well as the fact that moral identity offers unrivalled information about moral functioning. It has been shown that moral identity is a predictor of different forms of moral behaviors such as volunteering, food donation, not lying to a job candidate during a salary negotiation, contribution to a public good or willingness to minimize harm (Aquino & Reed, 2002; Aquino,

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Employees intention to blow the whistle: The role of fairness and moral identity

Freeman, Reed, Lim, & Feips, 2009; Pratt, Hunsberger, Pancer, & Alisat, 2003; Reed & Aquino, 2003; Reynolds & Ceranic, 2007). The term moral or ethical behavior can relate to many kinds of behaviors. Reynolds and Ceranic (2007) defined moral behavior as behavior that is subject to (or judged according to) generally accepted moral norms of behavior and thus occurs within the context of larger social prescriptions (p. 1610). They further clarified that this broad definition explains behaviors that are opposite to moral norms and are normally considered to be immoral (e.g., when somebody lies, cheats or steals), as well as behaviors that touch or outreach some minimal moral standards and are typically deemed ethical (e.g., when somebody obeys the law or blows the whistle). A four-step model has been developed to enhance the understanding of the decisionmaking process leading to moral behavior (Rest, 1986). The first step is moral recognition: the awareness of the existence of an ethical problem, which requires people to recognize how behavior affects other people, identify possible courses of actions, and determine the consequences of each course of action. The second step is moral judgment in choosing among the action courses that were identified in the first step, that is the ability to base the decision on a moral ideal. The thirds step is moral intention: forming an intent to act morally. The last step is moral behavior: engaging in moral action (Rajeev, 2011). Zhang and colleagues (Zhang, Chiu, & Wei, 2008) applied this four-step model in the whistleblowing context and outlined a conceptual framework of the whistleblowing decision-making process consisting of the same four steps: recognition that wrongdoing is happening and that somebodys interests are being hurt, judgment that whistleblowing is the ideal moral option, formulating the intention to blow the whistle by means of balancing different values, and finally, implementation of the moral option into behavior blowing or not blowing the whistle. We believe that employees with different levels of moral identity might have different views on what is ethical or not. Provided that employees moral identity motivates moral behavior, which includes whistleblowing behavior, we believe that moral identity influences employees intention to blow the whistle. This line of research proposes that moral identity is likely to influence employees

intention to blow the whistle, hence employees high in moral identity will be more likely to blow the whistle and employees low in moral identity will be less likely to blow the whistle. As such, we formulated hypothesis 1: Hypothesis 1: Moral identity is positively related to the intention to blow the whistle.

The Role of Supervisor Procedural Fairness

When thinking of fairness, we generally refer to the idea that something is morally right. Already in 1979, it was claimed that fairness is a moral standard which applies to relations within the organization (Weinstein, 1979, p. 30). In his study on fairness, Mikula (1986) affirmed that most unfair events occur at the workplace. While unfair treatment induces tensions, marginality, negative work attitudes or disrespect, fair treatment induces respect and reciprocity in the form of pro-organizational behavior and stronger loyalty (Beugr, 1998; Parzefall, 2007; Tekleab, Takeuchi, & Taylor, 2005). Organizational fairness or an employees perception of and response to fairness at the workplace has been an important research topic in the study of organizational behavior (CohenCharash & Spector, 2001; Colquitt, Conlon, Wesson, Porter, & Ng, 2001; Nowakowski & Conlon, 2005). The notion of organizational fairness has also captured the attention of researchers dealing with whistleblowing (Bruns, Jackson, & Zhang, 2012; Goldman, 2001; Near & Miceli, 1985; Rothschild & Miethe, 1999; Seifert, 2006; Seifert et al., 2010) and was categorized as a situational antecedent of whistleblowing (Vadera et al., 2009). It has been argued that fairness perceptions play an important role since they are negatively related to external whistleblowing (Goldman, 2001), and they increase the internal whistleblowing intention (Seifert, 2006). Two general types of organizational fairness have been defined: distributive and procedural. Distributive fairness reflects the fairness in decision outcomes, e.g., the distribution of rewards in accordance with the effort invested, in comparison with others within the organization. Procedural fairness considers the perceived fairness of the processes by which outcomes are achieved (Adams, 1965; Leventhal, 1980). Thibaut and Walker (1975) pointed out that

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Employees intention to blow the whistle: The role of fairness and moral identity

employees evaluate procedures as fair when having a chance to voice their opinions and being treated with respect and dignity. Later findings showed that resource distribution was not always as critical to employees as the process of its allocation, since employees were more willing to accept negative outcomes when they perceived the procedures leading to these outcomes as fair (Lind & Tyler, 1988; Tyler, 1988). This argument was confirmed especially when a crisis was expected and the organization was striving to avoid negative outcomes such as organizational downsizing or reorganization (Brockner, 2006; Kernon & Hanges, 2002). Moreover, the authors of the fairness heuristic theory (van den Bos, Lind, Vermunt, & Wilke, 1997) argued that employees are usually not informed about the outcomes received by colleagues (e.g., employees are usually not informed about pay levels of colleagues) and therefore evaluate the fairness of outcomes through procedural fairness. Procedures within an organization are often enacted by the supervisor. Recent meta-analyses showed the important influence of supervisor procedural fairness on various employee attitudes and behaviors at the workplace (CohenCharash & Spector, 2001; Colquitt et al., 2001). Several studies showed that if a supervisor treats the employee in a procedurally fair manner, the employee considers the employer to be trustworthy (Konovsky, 2000; van den Bos, Wilke, Henk, & Lind, 1998). Other studies showed that fair procedural treatment was positively associated with employees satisfaction, their commitment to the organization (Cobb & Frey, 1996; Korsgaard, Schweiger & Sapienza, 1995) and engagement

in helpful behavior (Naumann & Bennett, 2000), and negatively associated with job insecurity (Loi, Lam, Chan, 2012). With regard to whistleblowing, it has been empirically supported that perceived procedural fairness was positively associated with the intention to blow the whistle (Victor et al., 1993). Aquino and colleagues (2007), however, showed that not all employees react equally strong to a (un)fair treatment and that specifically employees who are high on moral identity are more sensitive to a fair treatment, and therefore are more likely to adapt their workplace behavior accordingly. Especially when a person high on moral identity is treated unfairly, s/he will be motivated to behave less morally because of a need to restore a sense of balance (Folger, 2001; Skarlicky & Folger, 1997). Accordingly, we argue that employees act in accordance with their moral identity, especially when treated fairly by their supervisor. We assume that when they feel respected by their supervisor and they reveal someones wrongdoing, they are more likely to follow their own moral identity and blow the whistle. On the contrary, if their supervisor does not threat them in a fair manner, they are less likely to follow their own moral identity and to report the wrongdoing (see Figure 1 for a conceptual model of the proposed relationships). Hence, we formulated the second hypothesis: Hypothesis 2: Perceived supervisor procedural fairness moderates the relationship between moral identity and intention to blow the whistle, in the sense that the relationship will be stronger for employees with high perceived procedural fairness and weaker for those with low perceived procedural fairness.

predictor Moral identity

moderator

outcome Intention to blow the whistle

Supervisor procedural fairness

Figure 1: Conceptual framework of the moderating effect in the relationship between moral identity and intention to blow the whistle.
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Employees intention to blow the whistle: The role of fairness and moral identity

The Role of Supervisor Procedural Fairness

Dutch researchers (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2003) have generally agreed that workaholism can be either good or bad. Thus, in order to obtain a conceptual clarification, it has been suggested to replace the concept of good workaholism with that of engagement and the concept of bad workaholism with that of workaholism (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2003). Employees engaged in their activity work more intensely, are happy and absorbed in their tasks, and may seem a lot similar to the workaholics. However, in contrast to the latter, employees engaged in their activity work hard because they like it, or due to external factors such as financial rewards, career perspectives etc., and not because they are driven by an inner impulse they cannot resist (Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter, and Taris, 2008). Gorgievski and Bakker (2010) consider that both work engagement and workaholism refer to being passionate about work, the major difference between the two residing in the motivation that drives each of them. Thus, on one hand, there is the harmonious passion, when an individual is in control of the activities, and feels rewarded by his/her work. On the other hand, there is the obsessive passion, when an individual is controlled by his/her work and only thinks about avoiding guilt, frustration, and other negative emotions (Vallerand, 2008).

comprised 278 employees of various occupations and organizations in the private (47 %) and public (53 %) sector. The majority of employees were whitecollar workers (77 %), while 71 % had a university degree. 67 % of the participants were female and 33 % were male, and their average age was 31.43 (SD = 10.04). Participants employed in their company for five years or less made up 67 % of the sample, 33 % worked for the company more than five years.
Measures Intention to blow the whistle. Intention to blow the whistle was measured by using a scenario developed by Zhang et al. (2008), in which an employee observes a colleagues wrongdoing and reports it, i.e. blows the whistle. Four items were formulated, answered on a 7point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (= strongly disagree) to 7 (= strongly agree). After a careful reading of the scenario, participants were asked to respond to the questions with respect to reflection of their believes about the whistleblowing action of the employee (i.e., whether it was wise and sensible what the employee did), and behavioral intention (i.e., whether they would advise him to do so, and whether they would act in the same way if they were in the same situation). The reason for asking them to imagine the behavioral intention of their peers was to avoid any social desirability response bias that could occur (Watkins & Cheung, 1995). Cronbachs alpha for this scale was .94. Supervisor procedural fairness. Supervisor procedural fairness was measured with a seven-item scale adapted from Colquitt (2001). Items referred to the procedures that the supervisor used to base important decisions on. Participants indicated on a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = not at all, 5 = completely) their level of agreement on particular procedural fairness items. A sample item is To what extent were you able to express your views and feelings during these procedures?. Cronbachs alpha for this scale was .84. Moral identity. In order to measure moral identity, participants were provided with a list of nine traits defining a moral person (Aquino & Reed, 2002), and asked to take some time to picture such person in their mind. Adapted ten scale items with the answers given on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree,

Method
Participants and Procedure An anonymous online questionnaire was administered to employees in organizations in the Slovak Republic between March and August 2012. Since all the items were initially formulated in English, we used the translation back-translation method (Brislin, 1968) to translate them into Slovak. The survey was distributed to employees who were asked to spread it further in their organization through various methods (e.g., word-of-mouth, social and media networks such as Facebook, e-mails, Network Slovakia). Data collection was part of a larger survey on work-related behavior and feelings. Participants were asked to fill in the questionnaire, consisting of several parts measuring supervisor procedural fairness, intentions to blow the whistle and moral identity, as well as biographical questions. The sample
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Employees intention to blow the whistle: The role of fairness and moral identity

7 = strongly agree) were presented to the participants, who indicated for each of the items the extent to which it applied to them. A sample item is It would make me feel good to be a person who has these characteristics. Cronbachs alpha for this scale was .79. Control variables. Since it has been suggested that the intention to blow the whistle may be influenced by gender (Mesmer-Magnus & Viswesvaran, 2005; Miceli & Near, 1984; Seifert, 2006; Wortley et al., 2008), the sector employees work for (i.e., public versus private sector, see Rothschild & Miethe, 1999) and whether they work as blue-collars or whitecollars (Masser & Brown, 1996), we controlled for gender (0 = male, 1 = female), the sector the employee worked for (0 = public, 1 = private), and occupational status (0 = blue-collar worker, 1 = white-collar worker).

Analysis
Data gathered from respondents were analyzed with SPSS. We tested our hypotheses with moderated hierarchical regression analysis. The control variables were entered in the first step, followed by moral identity and supervisor procedural fairness in the second step and the interaction term between moral identity and procedural justice in the third step. Variables were standardized before creating the interaction term (Aiken & West, 1991).

Results
Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics and the intercorrelations between the variables used in this study.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between the variables in this study
1. Gender 2. Sector 3. Occupational status 4. Moral identity 5. Supervisor procedural justice 6. Intention to blow the whistle +: p < .06; *: p < .05; **: p < .01 M 1.33 1.53 1.77 4.79 3.37 5.29 SD .47 .50 .42 .84 .69 1.46 2 -.10 3 .01 .13* 4 -.16** -.11 .11 5 .03 -.06 .15* .07 6 -.05 .03 -.07 .11+ -.01

The results of the regression analysis are reported in Table 2. Hypothesis 1 stated that intention to blow the whistle was positively related to moral identity. This hypothesis was supported by the data. We found a significant

positive relationship between these two variables, although the amount of variance explained in the dependent variable by moral identity was not significant.

Table 2. Results of the moderated hierarchical regression analysis for intention to blow the whistle.
Predictors Step 1 Gender -.05 Sector .03 Occupational status -.08 Moral identity (MI) Supervisor procedural fairness (SPF) MI x SPF R .01 R adjusted -.00 R change .01 F change .80 Df 1 3 Df 2 274 Note. All entries are standardized regression coefficients. *: p < .05. Step 2 -.02 .05 -.09 .13* -.01 .02 .01 .01 2.04 2 272 Step 3 -.02 .05 -.09 .11 -.00 .12* .04 .02 .02 4.01* 1 271

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Employees intention to blow the whistle: The role of fairness and moral identity

In line with the second hypothesis suggesting that perceived supervisor procedural fairness had a moderating effect on the relationship between intention to blow the whistle and moral identity, a significant interaction was found between procedural fairness and moral identity on the intention to blow the whistle. Subsequent simple slopes analyses (Aiken & West, 1991) supported this

hypothesis (see Figure 2) and showed that when procedural fairness was high, moral identity was significantly positively related to intention to blow the whistle, = .22, t = 2.84, p < .01. However, when perceived procedural fairness was low, this relationship was clearly weaker and insignificant, = .01, t = .06, p = .95. None of the control variables had a significant relationship with the dependent variable.

Figure 2: The relationship between moral identity and intention to blow the whistle as a function of procedural fairness.

Discussion
Main Findings and Theoretical Implications The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of moral identity and perceptions of fairness in relation to whistleblowing intention. We examined the relationship between moral identity and intention to blow the whistle and the moderating effect of supervisor procedural fairness on this relationship. Our objective was to find out whether employees who were high on moral identity were more likely to blow the whistle, and whether the opposite was true for employees who were low on moral identity. We also considered supervisor procedural fairness as a moderator that could make this relationship stronger or weaker. The results showed that employees

intention to blow the whistle was positively related to their moral identity in the sense that the likelihood of engagement in whistleblowing was higher for those who were high on moral identity while those who were low on moral identity were less likely to engage in whistleblowing. This relationship, however, needs to be interpreted with caution as the model for main effects was not significant. Furthermore, the data showed that this relationship was qualified by an interaction between moral identity and supervisor procedural fairness on intention to blow the whistle. Specifically, it was found that high procedural fairness strengthened the relationship between moral identity and intention to blow the whistle in the sense that employees acted in accordance with their moral identity, only if they were treated fairly by their supervisor. Hence, employees who believed to be treated unfairly

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Employees intention to blow the whistle: The role of fairness and moral identity

did not follow their own moral identity and were less likely to blow the whistle. These findings point out that supervisor procedural fairness can play a role in influencing employees to follow or not to follow their moral identity and to protect the welfare of the company. These findings are in line with prior studies on moral or ethical behavior (Aquino & Reed, 2002; Aquino et al., 2009; Pratt et al., 2003; Reed & Aquino, 2003; Reynolds & Ceranic, 2007) that demonstrated that moral behavior is affected by moral identity. An important contribution of this study to the literature on whistleblowing is that these findings provide empirical support for the conceptual notion given by Vadera and colleagues (2009) that the moral identity perspective might help to understand the whistleblowing process and explain whistleblowing behavior. We showed that moral identity, in combination with fairness, plays an important role with respect to whistleblowing intention. As such, it may be considered an individual-level variable influencing the intention to blow the whistle. We also enriched the whistleblowing literature by showing that supervisor procedural fairness affected the relationship between moral identity and whistleblowing intention. This study supported the moderating role of supervisor procedural fairness on the whistleblowing decision-making process, and adds to the studies of organizational fairness examining the moderating role of this type of fairness on various relationships (Brockner & Wiesenfeld, 1996; Greenberg, 2004; Konovsky, 2000; Skarlicki & Folger, 1997).

Study Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

The first limitation of this study is the crosssectional design that was used, which makes it difficult to detect causal or reversed relationships. However, our theorizing and emerging hypotheses have followed as closely as possible the existing literature, which increases our confidence that the results accurately reflect how our constructs relate to each other. Further studies in the field of whistleblowing could benefit from using a longitudinal design, following changes over the course of time. Second, the sample for this study consisted of Slovak employees. This might have influenced our results because Vogel (1992)

argued that whistleblowing is particularly affected by cultural context, as perceptions of what is right, wrong, fair, moral and loyal may vary in different countries. The third limitation is that we measured the intention to blow the whistle, not the actual behavior. We chose to measure whistleblowing in this way in order to minimize social desirable responding. Based on the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), we considered whistleblowing intention to be a good predictor of a whistleblowing action and hence a proper variable for our research. According to this theory, actual behavior can be well predicted by behavioral intentions. Behavioral intention was described as a probability that a person assigns to the likelihood that a certain behavioral option will be selected (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1972; Hunt & Vitell, 1986). Accordingly, intention to blow the whistle (i.e., the dependent variable of this research) is understood as the individuals probability of actually engaging in whistleblowing behaviour (Chiu, 2002, p. 582). Later empirical research proved Ajzens theory to be also valid for explaining the intention to blow the whistle (Park & Blenkinsopp, 2009). Many studies on whistleblowing (Barnett, Bass, & Brown, 1996; Chiu, 2003; Keil, Tiwana, Sainsbury, & Sneha, 2010; Taylor & Curtis, 2010; Victor, Trevino, & Shapiro, 1993; Zhang et al., 2008) studied the intention to blow the whistle because it is practically very difficult to conduct a study on unethical behavior through observation inside the organization. The fact that we studied intention and not behavior might also explain the relatively weak relationship that was found between moral identity and intention to blow the whistle. According to Vadera et al. (2009), moral identity may serve as a proximal variable to actual whistle-blowing but as a distal variable to intentions to whistleblowing. This suggests that the relationship between moral identity and actual whistleblowing might be stronger than the relationships observed in this study. Also the interaction effect between moral identity and procedural justice on whistleblowing intentions was relatively small in size. However, interactions are often small in size and therefore are hard to detect in field studies due to methodological and statistical reasons (Aguinis, Beaty, Boik, & Pierce, 2005; McClelland & Judd, 1993). Hence, since interaction effects are suppressed in these

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Employees intention to blow the whistle: The role of fairness and moral identity

designs, it is important to consider interaction effects with such small effect sizes (Evans, 1985). Finally, we measured moral identity in this study as an individual difference variable, suggesting that it has a constant and predictable relationship to whistle-blowing. Vadera et al. (2009) argued for a more dynamic approach that takes into account how moral identity is formed and exerts its influence as a function of environmental pressures or societal roles that the individual is in at a certain moment in time. Future research could benefit from taking into account how other identities (i.e., colleague, employer, etc.) interact with a salient moral identity in making the decision to blow the whistle or not.

Practical Implications
The results of study have implications for building and implementing effective whistleblowing mechanisms for internal control within organizations, as well as for updating whistleblowing policies to protect employees that decided to blow the whistle on frauds or wrongdoings occurring within the organization. Our findings could help supervisor and managers of organizations to understand the importance of fair procedural treatment of employees. The concept of procedural fairness is important to a successful organization. Our finding is based on the employee's perspective on the process, and we maintain that it is the behavior of the supervisor (and the working conditions he is creating), in combination with the employees moral identity, that relates to whether or not employees will be likely to blow the whistle. This insight is important for organizations to eliminate illegal and unethical practices.

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Vadera, A. K., Aguilera, R. V., & Caza, B. B. (2009). Making sense of whistle-blowings antecedents: Learning from research on identity and ethics programs. Business Ethics Quarterly, 19, 553-589. van den Bos, K., Vermunt, R., & Wilke, H. (1997). Procedural and distributive justice: What is fair depends more on what comes first that what comes next. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 95-104. van den Bos, K., Wilke, H., Henk, A. M., & Lind, E. A. (1998). When do we need procedural fairness? The role of trust in authority. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1449-1458. Varelius, J. (2009). Is whistle-blowing compatible with employee loyalty? Journal of Business Ethics, 85, 263-275. Victor, B., Trevino, L. K., & Shapiro, D. L. (1993). Whistleblowing on unethical behavior: The influence of justice evaluations and social context factors. Journal of Business Ethics, 12, 253-263. Vogel, D. (1992). The globalization of business ethics: Why America remains distinctive. California Management Review, 36, 30-49. Vinten, G. (2000). Whisteblowing towards quality. The TQM Magazine, 12, 166-171. Watkins, D., & Cheung, S. (1995). Culture, gender, and response bias: An analysis of responses to the Self-Description Questionnaire. Journal of CrossCultural Psychology, 26, 490-504. Weinstein, D. (1979). Bureaucratic opposition: Challenging abuses at the workplace. New York, NY: Pergamon. Wortley, R., Cassematis, P., & Donkin, M. (2008). Who blows the whistle, who doesnt and why? In A. J. Brown (Ed.), Whistleblowing in the Australian public sector: Enhancing the theory and practice of internal witness management in public sector organizations (pp. 53-82). Canberra: ANU E Press. Retrieved from http://epress.anu.edu.au/wpcontent/uploads/2011/02/whole_book3.pdf Zhang, J., Chiu, R., & Wei, L.-Q. (2008). On whistleblowing judgment and intention: The roles of positive mood and organizational ethical culture. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 24, 627-649.

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Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative

Anca Paveloni1, Delia Vrg2

Abstract
This study aimed to determine the impact of personal cynicism, organizational cynicism and ethical intentions on work engagement, job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior. Hierarchical regression analysis on a sample of 116 Romanian employees (67% women) from different organizations provides strong empirical evidence for the assumptions of this study. Thus, the results revealed that organizational cynicism and ethical intentions predict in a large extent work engagement (vigor, dedication and absorption), job satisfaction and organizational and interpersonal citizenship behavior. Instead results couldnt establish a connection between personal cynicism and work engagement, job satisfaction respectively organizational citizenship behavior. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Keywords: organizational cynicism, ethical intentions, work engagement, job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior

Rsum
Cette tude visait dterminer l'impact de cynisme individuel, le cynisme organisationnel et les intentions thiques sur l'engagement de travailler, la satisfaction concernant le boulot et le comportement de citoyennet organisationnelle. L'analyse par rgression hirarchique effectue sur un chantillon de 116 salaris Roumains (67% femmes) provenant dorganisations varies fournit une vidence empirique solide pour les hypothses du cette tude. Ainsi, les rsultats ont rvl que le cynisme organisationnel et les intentions thiques prdisent dans une large mesure l'engagement de travailler (vigueur, le dvouement et labsorption), la satisfaction concernant le boulot et le comportement de citoyennet organisationnelle et interpersonnelle. Cependant, nous n'avons pas pu tablir une connexion entre le cynisme individuel et l'engagement de travailler, la satisfaction concernant l e boulot et le comportement de citoyennet organisationnelle. Des implications thoriques et pratiques sont discutes. Mots-cls: cynisme organisationnel, intentions thiques, l'engagement de travailler, satisfaction concernant le boulot, comportement de citoyennet organisationnelle

Rezumat
Acest studiu are ca scop identificarea impactului cinismului ca trstur a personalitii, a cinismului organizaional i inteniilor etice asupra implicrii n munc, a satisfaciei n munc i a manifestrii comportamentelor civic-participative. Analiza de regresie ierarhic asupra unui eantion format din 116 angajai romni (67% femei) din diferite organizaii ofer dovezi empirice puternice ce susin ipotezele acestui studiu. Astfel, rezultatele relev c cinismul organizaional i inteniile etice prezic, ntr-o mare msur, implicarea n munc (vigoare, dedicare i absorbie), satisfacia n munc, precum i comportamentele civic-participative, la nivel interpersonal i organizaional. n schimb, nu s-a putut stabili o legtur ntre cinismul, ca trstur a personalitii i implicare n munc, satisfacie n munc, respectiv comportamentul civic-participativ. Implicaiile teoretice i practice ale studiului sunt discutate. Cuvinte cheie: cinism organizaional, intenii etice, implicare n munc, satisfacie n munc, comportament civic-participativ
1,2

Departamentul de Psihologie, Universitatea de Vest din Timioara. Adres de coresponden: anca.paveloni@gmail.com

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Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative

Introducere
Multe dintre problemele vieii noastre de zi cu zi sunt un produs al cinismului, neles drept manipulare, egoism i imoralitate. Extins de la politicieni i jurnaliti la toate ramurile profesionale, cinismul conduce la o delegitimare total prin nencredere. Dei apare prima dat n filosofia anticilor, conceptul de cinism a atras atenia cercettorilor abia n ultimele dou decade ale secolului XX, fiind conceptualizat sub forme diferite: fie ca trstur stabil de personalitate (Greenglass & Julkunen, 1989; Barefoot, Dodge, Peterson, Dahlstrom, & Williams, 1989) fie ca atitudine de auto-aprare ce poate fi supus schimbrii (Dean, Brandes, & Dharwadkar, 1998; Kanter & Mirvis, 1989; Andersson & Bateman, 1997). Cercetrile din domeniul psihologiei organizaionale susin faptul c, de obicei, cinismul este precedat de ateptri nemplinite n ceea ce privete onestitatea, corectitudinea i dreptatea n societate sau la locul de munc, precum i experiena unui tratament nerespectuos sau incorect din partea oamenilor, organizaiilor sau instituiilor (Evans, Goodman, & Davis, 2011; Ince & Turan 2011; zler & Atalay, 2011; Arabaci, 2010). Consecinele cinismului includ n primul rnd diferite forme de dezangajare psihologic i detaare fa de organizaie, precum i de alienare, nsoit de stim de sine sczut. Cinismul, nsoit de cele mai multe ori de suspiciune poate proteja oamenii de a fi dezamgii sau nelai, ns de asemenea poate reduce satisfacia vieii indivizilor. Pn n prezent, cele mai multe studii au fost efectuate pentru a pune n legtur cinismul organizaional cu diferite atitudini la locul de munc, cum sunt: satisfacia (Abraham, 2000; Arabaci, 2010), angajamentul organizaional (Ince & Turan, 2011), percepiile la locul de munc (Dhar, 2009) sau diferite tipuri de comportamente organizaionale (Evans, Goodman, & Davis, 2011). Avnd n vedere complexitatea conceptului de cinism i efectele produse de acesta n mediul organizaional, considerm c este necesar implicarea unui set mai mare de variabile n studierea acestui fenomen, n vederea identificrii efectelor produse la nivel cognitiv, atitudinal i comportamental. Prin urmare, n cadrul studiului, ne-am propus introducerea att a unor predictori personali, ca inteniile etice i cinismul, ct i a unui predictor organizaional,

reprezentat de cinismul organizational, pentru a evidenia relaia acestora cu implicarea, satisfacia n munc i manifestarea comportamentelor civic-participative ale angajailor.
Cinismul aspect personal i organizaional Cinismul este obiectul a diferite discipline din domeniul tiinelor sociale (filosofie, tiine politice, sociologie i psihologie), fiecare explicnd din perspective diferite rolul su n cadrul proceselor sociale. n viaa de zi cu zi este utilizat ca sinonimul sinceritii n discurs i al curajului de a-i susine poziia. Andersson i Bateman (1997, apud Nair & Kamalanabahn, 2010) au descris cinismul ca fiind o atitudine de dezamgire n ceea ce privete societatea i instituiile nsoit de nencredere n ceilali. Dei cinismul a fost descris i ca trstur de personalitate, utilizarea sa cea mai rspndit a fost cea de atitudine fa de o entitate, organizaie sau societate, n general. Potrivit lui Brandes (1997, apud Ince & Turan, 2011), definiia psihologic a cinismului presupune existena unor idei pesimiste n ceea ce privete viitorul i ateptrile proprii nerealizate i, de asemenea, credina c ceilali au un nivel crescut al egoismului, nu sunt loiali i de ncredere. Graham (1993, apud Ice & Turan, 2011) a scos n eviden o serie de trsturi de personalitate specifice persoanelor cinice: percepia celorlali ca fiind mincinoi, egoiti i dezinteresai, suspiciune n ceea ce privete motivele celorlali, precauie i nencredere n relaii, comportamente ostile i opresive, resentimente la cerinele impuse de ceilali, lipsa agreabilitii. Principala convingere legat de cinism este aceea c principii ca onestitatea, dreptatea i sinceritatea sunt sacrificate n avantajul intereselor individuale. Cinismul are semnificaii apropiate cu concepte precum scepticismul, necredina, nencrederea, pesimismul, negarea ns, n interpretarea modern, este asociat cu termeni precum capriciu, pretenie, criticism (Ozler & Atalay, 2012). Literatura de specialitate propune cinci mari domenii n ceea ce privete conceptualizarea termenului. Dean, Brandes i Dharwakdar (1998) le definesc astfel: centrarea asupra personalitii, adica tendina stabil de a-i percepe pe ceilali negativ, avnd o atitudine ostil, caracterizat de o puternic nencredere n ceilali, bazat pe generalizri de tipul lumea e plin de oameni necinstii, egoiti i indifereni. Apoi, centrarea

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Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative

pe societate / instituii (apare n urma experienelor nclcrii contractelor sociale existente ntre individ i societate/instituii/organizaii), centrarea pe angajat (apare n urma nclcrilor repetate ale contractului psihologic, ce in de caracteristicile mediului de afaceri, caracteristicile organizaiei i natura muncii), centrarea pe profesie (caracterizat de indiferen, separare, insensibilitate i lipsa de compasiune, reprezentnd o strategie de adaptare n lipsa unor competene, ceea ce duce la exprimarea afectiv i cognitiv defectuoas, mai ales n relaia cu clienii) iar, n cele din urm, centrarea pe schimbarea organizaional (cinismul este asociat cu pierderea ncrederii n schimbare i n liderii care efectueaz aceast schimbare datorit, n primul rnd, ncercrilor euate din trecut de a instala schimbrile) (Dean, Brandes, & Dharwakdar, 1998). Cele cinci tipuri de focalizri sunt vzute ca tipuri diferite de cinism (Ozler & Atalay, 2012). Conform lui Dean i colab. (1998), cinismul, de asemenea, cuprinde trei dimensiuni: dimensiunea cognitiv (convingerea c persoanele sau organizaiile sunt lipsite de onestitate), dimensiunea afectiv ce se refer la reaciile emoionale manifestate ca urmare a convingerilor existente i dimensiunea comportamental reprezentat de tendinele comportamentale negative ca urmare a umilinelor percepute (Dean i colab., 1998). n cadrul studiului de fa am dorit investigarea a dou tipuri de cinism, i anume: cinismul organizaional, neles ca fiind o atitudine negativ fa de organizaia angajatoare i cinismul ca trstur de personalitate, conceptualizat ca o form nnscut, stabil, care reflect o percepie general negativ asupra comportamentului uman. Acesta din urm este caracterizat de dispre, neascultare, nesupunere i de puine legturi interpersonale. Persoanele care prezint aceast trstur de personalitate prezin o adnc nencredere n ceilali, bazat pe generalizarea pripit conform creia lumea este plin de oameni necinstii, incoreci, nepstori i egoiti, care sunt incapabili de a se face plcui n interaciunile sociale. Aceast atitudine d natere la o serie de emoii negative, cum sunt: furia, nverunarea, resentimentele i manipularea (dei aceasta este lipsit de o agresiune exterioar vizibil). Conform lui Abraham (2000, apud Nair & Kamalanabahn, 2010), cinicii tind s devin oportuniti n ncercarea de a-i promova interesele pe termen

scurt. Cinismul, n general, se bazeaz pe convingerea c ceilali se angajeaz n comportamente imorale n mod repetat, acesta devenind un mod de supravieuire. Cercetrile lui Smith, Pope, Sanders, Allred i OKeffe (1988, apud James, 2005) au pus n legtur cinismul cu furia, amrciunea i resentimentele, indivizii cinici find susceptibili de a vedea lumea ca o lupt ce necesit vigilen crescut, iar ceilali fiind obiecte ce pot fi manipulate n care nu poti avea ncredere. De asemenea, cinicii experimenteaz adesea conflicte interpersonale n viaa de zi cu zi, avnd puine reele sociale satisfctoare. Apoi, concluziile au indicat faptul c subiecii ce prezint cinism ca trstur de personalitate raporteaz schimbri mici n reelele sociale, schimbri negative n modul de via i suport social sczut. n plus, cinicii au raportat niveluri ridicate ale conflictelor familiale, sugernd faptul c familiile acestora nu sunt percepute ca fiind o surs de sprijin, ci mai degrab o surs de stres. n cele din urm, nivelul ridicat de cinism a fost asociat cu un nivel crescut al stresului la locul de munc. Concret, cinismul afecteaz relaiile ce implic supraveghere, colaborare i subordonare. Stresul experimentat n acest domeniu nu a fost asociat cu sarcina n sine, ci a fost considerat a fi rezultatul percepiei negative a motivaiei i intenilor celorlali. Astfel, la locul de munc i n alte domenii ale vieii, cinismul este asociat cu un nivel ridicat de stres i cu puine resurse sociale. Lepore (1995, apud James, 2005), studiind interaciunile sociale ale persoanelor cinice, a constatat c acestea nu rspund pozitiv la ajutorul social i, de cele mai multe ori, nu beneficiaz de sprijin social din partea celorlali. Cinismul a fost asociat negativ cu disponibilitatea de suport social perceput, magnitudinea acestei asocieri fiind mai puternic n cazul femeilor dect n cazul brbailor. Luate mpreun, aceste studii arat c cincismul are efecte diferite asupra proceselor multidimensionale de suport social. Cinismul organizaional apare atunci cnd angajaii cred n lipsa de onestitate a organizaiei. Cu alte cuvinte, exist o percepie asupra lipsei de moralitate i dreptate la nivel organizaional, realizndu-se o nclcare a ateptrilor i a ncrederii angajatului n organizaie. De cele mai multe ori, cinismul organizaional apare ca rezultat al experienelor din cadrul companiei. James (2005) descrie conceptul de cinism organizaional ca un rspuns la experienele

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Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative

sociale i personale i, nu n ultimul rnd, ca rspuns la factorii de mediu. De asemenea, cinismul organizaional a fost pus n legtur cu atitudinile fa de organizaie aprute n urma comportamentelor, credinelor i afectelor negative ale angajatului. Concepia adoptat n aceast lucrare n ceea ce privete cinismul organizaional este cea multidimensional, ce cuprinde cele trei componente: convingeri, afecte, comportamente, toate acestea trei variind de la pozitiv la negativ. O ipotez a acestei defininii este aceea c organizaia poate fi obiectul unei atitudini, ipotez susinut de numeroase studii privind angajamentul organizaional, identitatea organizaional (Dean, et al., 1998). Dei percepiile ocazionale cu privire la lipsa de integritate a practicilor organizaionale pot fi atribuite persoanelor implicate, percepiile asupra frecvenei acestor comportamente pot fi mai degrab atribuite caracteristicilor organizaionale (Dutton, Dukerich, & Harquail, 1994, apud Dean et al., 1998). Mai mult de att, percepiile pe care se bazeaz atitudinile cinice se refer la politicile i procesele organizaionale care sunt dificil a fi legate de anumite persoane specifice din cadrul organizailor. Astfel, conceptualizarea cinismului organizaional s-a realizat sub forma unei atitudini, compus din convingeri, afecte i tendine comportamentale. Astfel, acest construct devine multidimensional: oamenii sunt considerai cinici n ceea ce privete organizaia lor n msura n care acetia dein anumite convingeri cu privire la lipsa de integritate a organizaiei, experimenteaz anumite tipuri de afecte fa de organizaie i afieaz anumite tendine comportamentale ndreptate spre organizaie.
Inteniile etice O atenie deosebit n cadrul studiului am acordat comportamentului etic. Dezbaterile n rndul cercettorilor se refer la indentificarea aspectelor ce stau n spatele comportamentelor neetice, mai exact dac acestea sunt atribuite merelor stricate caracteristicilor personale, sau mai degrab coului nepotrivit variabile organizaionale sau situaionale care declaneaz abaterile. Cauza acestuia nu este lipsa de inteligen, ci mai degrab lipsa de nelepciune sau virtute (Giacalone, 2004, apud Nair & Kamalanabahn, 2010) i acordarea unei valori prea mari aciunii, fr a ine seam de efectele produse. Evaluarea moral a unui act poate fi un

factor de descurajare a comportamentului lipsit de etic, iar percepia negativ asupra rezultatelor diminueaz ansele de dezvoltare a acestor comportamente. Un aspect interesant poate fi faptul c, n cadrul organizaiilor, acest tip de comportament este ncurajat mai ales de angajaii din poziii de conducere (Smith, Simpson, & Huang, 2007, apud Nair & Kamalanabahn, 2010), prin intermediul reelelor sociale de la locul de munc, furniznd constrngeri i oportuniti care, n combinaie cu caracteristicile personale i problemele date de contextul organizaional, ajut la dezvoltarea comportamentelor lipsite de etic. Astfel, att factorii personali, ct i contextul organizaional prezic comportamentele neetice. Comportamentul lipsit de etic este definit ca un comportament care aduce prejudicii i care din punct de vedere moral sau ilegal nu este acceptat de societate (Ugwu, 2011). Prin aceast definiie, minciuna, corupia, nelciunea, furtul, divulgarea secretelor oficiale sau agresivitatea interpersonal ar fi exemple de astfel de comportamente. n msura n care valorile i atitudinile indivizilor variaz, ne putem atepta la diferite interpretri a ceea ce e etic sau neetic. n practic, comportamentul etic este ceea ce e acceptat ca fiind corect sau bun spre deosebire de greit sau ru, care corespund comportamentului neetic, n contextul codului moral al fiecrei organizaii. Calitatea de etic sau neetic este subiectiv i dependent de modul n care aciunile i consecinele sunt percepute. Aceasta se modific, de asemenea, n funcie de o serie de factori demografici, cum ar fi: cultura, religia, mediul social, naionalitatea. Considernd mediul organizaional din perspectiva acestor aspecte, este puin probabil ca angajaii s aib o nelegere comun a eticii sau s respecte un set unic de standarde etice (Withanage, 2010). Este dificil de identificat multitudinea de factori determinani ai comportamentelor neetice din contextul muncii i, de asemenea, este incorect asocierea comportamentului lipsit de etic cu un singur factor. Muli cercettori au ncercat s izoleze toate variabilele care inhib sau faciliteaz acest tip de comportament, acest lucru contribuind la gestionarea mai bun a problemelor viitoare ce apar. Aceti factori au fost clasificai n trei categorii (Ugwu, 2011): variabile individuale (nevoi, dorine, ateptri, valori culturale, experiene personale, background); practicile organizaionale (de

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exemplu, atunci cnd angajatorii nu reuesc s plteasc lucrtorilor drepturile cuvenite, angajaii se simt ndreptii s desfoare comportamente neetice n cadrul organizaiei); factorii de mediu (spre exemplu, reglementrile legale, valorile sociale). Pe lng aceti trei factori, putem aduga i observarea comportamentului neetic al celorlali. Acesta poate nfluena comportamentul observatorilor prin expunerea la lipsa de onestitate a celorlali, indivizii pot s i minimizeze estimarea riscurilor de a fi prini asupra faptului. Observarea comportamentelor neetice ale celorlali poate modifica credinele n ceea ce privete propria onestitate. Cercetrile au demonstrat c atunci cnd clasificarea unui anumit comportament este neclar, oamenii au tendina de a clasifica comportamentul ca fiind pozitiv, evitnd afectarea imaginii de sine (Gino, Ayal, & Ariely, 2009). Numeroi cercettori (Ugwu, 2009; Aquino & Reed, 2002; Summer, Welsh, & Gubman, 2000) au studiat predictorii comportamentului neetic la locul de munc, indicnd c vrsta, identitatea moral, numrul de membri ai familiei, practicile organizaionale formale i informale sunt factori care influeneaz conduita etic. Dar, unul dintre cei mai puternici factori identificai a fost prezena stimulentelor n ceea ce privete comportamentul lipsit de etic, care duc la dileme etice n procesul de luare a unor decizii. Astfel, un angajat cu standarde morale sczute va cdea n capcana comportamentului lipsit de etic, prin anticiparea recompenselor i a stimulentelor din partea superiorilor.
Implicarea n munc Khan (1990, apud Field & Buitendach, 2011), primul autor care a introdus acest concept, vede implicarea n munc ca fiind valorificarea fiecrui membru al organizaiei i a contribuiei acestuia, specificnd faptul c angajaii implicai se exprim din punct de vedere fizic, cognitiv i emoional n ceea ce privete performanele. Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma i Bakker (2002) definesc implicarea n munc ca o stare pozitiv afectivmotivaional de mplinire. Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter i Taris (2008) consider implicarea n munc ca starea afectiv-motivaional pozitiv, legat de starea de bine la locul de munc, caracterizat prin vigoare, druire i absorbie. Angajaii implicai sunt entuziasmai i energici fiind deplin cufundai n munca lor n aa msur

nct timpul pare s treac mai repede atunci cnd acetia i desfoar activitatea (Field & Buitendach, 2011). n ceea ce privete antecedentele implicrii n munc, acestea sunt asociate unor caracteristici motivaionale ce includ: autonomia, varietatea sarcinilor, semnificaia sarcinii, feedback-ul, rezolvarea de probleme, complexitatea sarcinilor. Aceste caracteristici motiveaz angajaii prin generarea unor sentimente de nsemntate i responsabilitate, precum i cunotine despre rezultate (Hackman & Oldham, 1976, apud Christian, Garza & Slaughter, 2011). Rezultatele cercetrilor anterioare arat c angajaii care au resurse ce le faciliteaz realizarea sarcinilor vor investi mai mult energie i resurse personale la locul de munc (Bakker, van Emmerik & Euwema, 2006; Salanova, Agut, & Peiro, 2005). Kahn (1990) a raportat faptul c implicarea crete atunci cnd munca include interaciuni ridicate cu colegii. Interaciunile sociale motiveaz angajaii prin creterea semnificaiei i percepia siguranei la locul de munc. Consecinele posibile ale implicrii n munc se refer la atitudini pozitive fa de locul de munc, sntarea angajailor; comportamente extra-rol, cum ar fi: comportamentul civicparticipativ sau performana crescut, angajament crescut fa de organizaie, climat pozitiv (Shimazu, Schaufeli, Miyanaka, & Iwata, 2010). Hassan i Ahmed (2011) au artat c ncrederea interpersonal i climatul etic prezic implicarea n munc a angajailor, n cadrul angajailor din sistemul economic. Prin urmare, presupunem c att cinismul, ct i inteniile neetice vor fi corelate negativ cu implicarea n munc a angajailor.
Satisfacia n munc Una din definiiile date acestui construct de Locke (1976, apud Susanj & Jakopec, 2012) implic un afect pozitiv rezultat din evaluarea locului de munc sau a experienelor de munc. La fel ca n cazul tuturor atitudinilor, satisfacia n munc este compus din componente afective, cognitive i comportamentale care implic percepiile, convingerile, opiniile i ateptrile individului n ceea ce privete organizaia, rspunsul global pozitiv sau negativ al unui individ fa de organizaie iar, n cele din urm, nclinaia persoanei de a se comporta ntr-un anumit fel (Susanj & Jakopec, 2012). Moorman (1993, apud Zhu, 2013) a punctat clar mai trziu: din perspectiv afectiv, satisfacia n munc

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Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative

reprezint o evaluare afectiv pozitiv global, din perspectiv cognitiv ns, satisfacia n munc presupune o evaluare logic a condiiilor de munc. Cercetrile n domeniul cinismului organizaional arat c acesta este corelat negativ cu satisfacia n munc i, de asemenea, cinismul ca trstur de personalitate, cinismul social i cinismul datorat schimbrii induc insatisfacie n munc. Smith, Pope, Sanders, Allred i OKeefe (1988, apud James, 2005) au artat c indivizii ce au ca trstur de personalitate cinismul gsesc aspectele interpersonale ale muncii lor ca fiind o surs de stres. Afectele negative ndreptate asupra superiorilor, colegilor i subordonailor i mpiedic s se bazeze pe suportul reelei sociale, care se presupune c este cea mai bun piedic n faa stresului organizaional. Astfel, privirea de ansamblu negativ asupra lumii se extinde i asupra locului de munc, ducnd la insatisfacie n ceea ce privete sarcinile, colegii, recompensele, promovrile etc. Pentru cinicii organizaionali, dezamgirea dat de mediul organizaional poate induce ngrijorare i suspiciune, conducnd la redirecionarea ateniei ctre aspectele negative ale muncii. Lawler (1994, apud. Abraham, 2000) a demonstrat c insatisfacia n munc apare atunci cnd rezultatele obinute sunt mai sczute dect cele ateptate. Cnd rezultatele obinute sunt nsoite de sentimente de nedreptire, de evaluare greit, de lipsa condiiilor care permit efectuarea sarcinilor, de nevoia de a fi inautentic, resentimente fa de job, acestea se manifest sub forma insatisfaciei n munc. Bedeian (2007) a propus un model teoretic cauzal ce postuleaz faptul c cinismul organizaional are un efect direct asupra identificrii cu organizaia, care la rndul su este legat de angajamentul afectiv fa de organizaie. Relaia dintre climatul etic i satisfacia n munc ar putea fi explicat de doi factori. n primul rnd, climatul etic poate ajuta angajatul s evite implicarea n comportamente lipsite de etic, cum sunt: neltoriile, constrngerile, care vor afecta n cele din urm nivelul de stres al angajatului. n al doilea rnd, climatul etic este semnificativ legat de orientarea spre ceilali, care n timp sporete capacitatea de a dezvolta relaii pe termen lung cu acetia. Atunci cnd relaiile sunt deschise i autentice i nivelul de stres este sczut, angajaii sunt mai fericii i satisfcui de locul de munc (Jaramillo, Mulki, & Solomon, 2006).

Climatul etic reflectat n practicile, procedurile, normele i valorile organizaiei reduc riscul de a efectua aciuni neetice i de a nclca ateptrile organizaiei, asigurnd un sentiment de confort personal i securitate att pentru angajaii companiei, ct i pentru clieni. Cercetrile indic faptul c inteniile etice au un efect pozitiv asupra satisfaciei profesionale a angajailor, fiind corelate n mod pozitiv cu aceasta (Mulki, Jaramillo, & Locander, 2006).
Comportamentul civic-organizaional Comportamentul civic-organizaional este caracterizat de implicarea voluntar a indivizilor n activiti extra-rol care ajut organizaia, dincolo de sarcinile de serviciu, fiind privit ca un factor ce contribuie la eficacitatea organizaiei (Organ, 1990, apud Jordan, Schraeder, Feild, & Armenakis, 2007). Teoreticienii din domeniul organizaional au difereniat ntre diferite inte ale comportamentului civic-participativ (e.g. McNeely & Meglino, 1994; Williams & Anderson, 1991). Concret, Williams i Anderson (1991, apud Turnley & Feldman, 2003) au fcut o distincie ntre comportamentele civicparticipative de care beneficiaz organizaia (OCB-O) i comportamentele de care beneficiaz anumite persoane din cadrul organizaiei, n special colegii de munc (OCB-I). Spre exemplu, printre comportamentele civic-participative ndreptate spre organizaie se numr aciuni, cum ar fi: aderarea la normele informale ce au ca scop meninerea ordinii n cadrul organizaiei (cum ar fi, pauze mai scurte). Comportamentele civice centrate spre sprijinul oferit anumitor indivizi particulari includ activiti ca ajutarea colegilor care au lipsit un timp ndelungat, sau a celor care au sarcini de lucru dificile. Cteva cercetri asupra comportamentului civic-participativ au constatat o legtur ntre acesta i cinism (Anderson & Bateman, 1997; Van Dyne, Graham, & Dienesch, 1994), acesta din urm fiind o atitudine omniprezent n cadrul organizaiilor, ce poate influena comportamentele orientate spre organizaie. Aa cum am artat anterior, cinismul nu implic doar convingeri privind gradul de integritate al organizaiei i reacii emoionale fa de angajator, ci i tendine comportamentale. Organizaia fiind principalul beneficiar al comportamentelor civic-participative, cinismul organizaional este, cel mai probabil, asociat negativ cu comportamente ale angajailor care

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Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative

cresc eficacitatea organizaiei. Potrivit cu Ajzen (1991, apud Evans, Goodman, & Davis, 2011), comportamentele de care beneficiaz organizaia ar fi incompatibile cu convingerile i afectele asociate cu cinsmul organizaional. Comportamentele civic-organizaionale trec dincolo de cerinele specifice locului de munc, find desfurate n mod voluntar, fr a atepta recompense materiale sau sociale (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986, apud Abraham, 2000), fiind un comportament oferit n schimbul compensaiilor adecvate i a tratamentului echitabil perceput de angajat (de exemplu: mentorat pentru angajai noi, angajarea ntr-un program intensiv de auto-dezvoltare etc). Acest tip de comportamente se ncheie brusc atunci cnd nclcrile contractului psihologic din partea organizaiei sunt percepute acut de ctre angajat, ncrederea se erodeaz, lsnd loc pentru apariia cinismului.
Cercetri anterioare asupra relaiei dintre conceptele studiate n ceea ce privete cinismul, acesta a fost studiat att separat, ct i n legtur cu alte constructe. Abraham (2000) a realizat un studiu asupra diferitelor tipuri de cinism care se pot dezvolta la locul de munc, ncercnd s pun n eviden urmrile afective ale acestora. Astfel, cinismul societal, al angajatului i cel datorat schimbrilor organizaionale au fost atribuite nclcrii contractului psihologic, cinismul legat de munc a fost atribuit epuizrii iar cinismul, ca trstur de personalitate, se datoreaz unei ostiliti nnscute. Autorul a surprins i cteva dintre consecinele cinismului. Astfel, cinismul datorat schimbrii poate induce insatisfacie i nstrinare iar cinismul angajatului duce la scderea angajamentului organizaional. Cinismul ca trstur i cel legat de munc sunt relaionate cu comportamente civic-participative sczute. ntr-un studiu realizat n 2010, Nair i Kamalanabhan au utilizat cteva scenarii pentru a identifica dac atitudinile cinice prezic inteniile etice ale unor manageri atunci cnd acetia se confrunt cu dileme etice, studiul lor confirmnd aceast legtur. De asemenea, s-a pus n eviden rolul moderator al nivelului managerial n ceea ce privete relaia dintre cinism i inteniile etice (Nair & Kamalanabhan, 2010). Arabaci (2010) i Delken (2004) au stabilit o legtur ntre nivelul de cinism organizaional i satisfacia n munc, lund n considerare cteva variabile demografice. Ince i

Turan (2011) nu au reuit s s stabileasc o legtur ntre nivelul de cinism organizaional i variabilele demografice, ca: gen, statut marital, vrst etc., ns au obinut o legtur semnificativ ntre nivelul de cinism i angajamentul organizaional. Potrivit lui Albrecht (2002, apud Apaydin, 2012), structura birocratic a organizaiilor publice duce la cinism. Mirvis i Kenter (1991, apud Apaydin, 2012) exprim faptul c 48% dintre angajai experimenteaz cinismul organizaional, acesta devenind treptat un fenomen rspndit n ntreaga lume. Evans, Goodman i Davis (2011) au realizat o cercetare asupra comportamentelor civicparticipative i cinismului organizaional, artnd c cinismul organizaional este corelat negativ cu comportamentele civic-participative i pozitiv cu comportamentele deviante. Jordan, Schraeder, Feild i Armenakis (2007), ntr-un studiu asupra comportamentului civicorganizaional, au artat faptul c cinismul organizaional coreleaz negativ cu dimensiunea altruism al OCB, relaia dintre aceste dou constructe fiind mai puternic cnd nivelul de suport organizaional perceput este mai crescut. n cele menionate pn acum, s-a realizat o sintez a literaturii de specialitate ce a ncercat evidenierea rolului cinismului i a inteniilor etice n cadrul proceselor organizaionale. Unul dintre neajunsurile acestor studii poate fi considerat faptul c nu s-au inclus mai multe categorii de variabile n cadrul aceluiai studiu, autorii tratndu-le separat pe fiecare dintre acestea, fr a corela anumite dimensiuni individuale i organizaionale n explicarea atitudinilor i comportamentelor organizaionale. De asemenea, s-a constatat c literatura de specialitate este limitat n ceea ce privete impactul comportamentului etic asupra implicrii i satisfaciei n munc. Prin urmare, n lucrarea de fa principalul scop este de a identifica i de a evalua unele dintre variabilele personale i organizaionale implicate n dezvoltarea unor atitudini i comportamente pozitive la locul de munc. n acest sens, am propus includerea att a factorilor personali, reprezentai de cinism i intenii etice, ct i a factorului organizaional, reprezentat de cinism organizaional, identificnd rolul lor att asupra implicrii si satisfaciei n munc, ct i asupra comportamentelor civic-participative. Astfel, cercetarea de fa este un studiu transversal, urmrind relaiile de covariere dintre

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Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative

variabilele studiate, precum i identificarea i msurarea valorii predictive a variabilelor personale i organizaionale asupra implicrii n munc, satisfaciei i comportamentului civic organizaional. Obiectivele principale ale lucrrii sunt reprezentate de: Identificarea i evaluarea relaiilor dintre inteniile etice ale angajailor, cinismul i implicarea n munc a acestora: H 1.a.: Inteniile etice ale angajailor vor fi relaionate pozitiv cu implicarea n munc a acestora. H 1.b.: Cinismul organizaional al angajailor va fi relaionat negativ cu implicarea n munc a acestora. H 1.c.: Cinismul ca trstur de personalitate va fi relaionat negativ cu implicarea n munc a angajailor. Identificarea i evaluarea relaiilor dintre inteniile etice ale angajailor, cinismul i satisfacia n munc a acestora: H 2.a.: Inteniile etice ale angajailor vor fi relaionate pozitiv cu satisfacia n munc a acestora. H 2.b.: Cinismul organizaional al angajailor va fi relaionat negativ cu satisfacia n munc a acestora. H 2.c.: Cinismul ca trstur de personalitate va fi relaionat negativ cu satisfacia n munc a angajailor. Identificarea i evaluarea relaiilor dintre inteniile etice ale angajailor, cinismul i comportamentele civic-participative ale acestora: H 3.a.: Inteniile etice ale angajailor vor fi relaionate pozitiv cu comportamentele civicparticipative ale acestora. H 3.b.: Cinismul organizaional al angajailor va fi relaionat negativ cu comportamentele civic-participative ale acestora. H 3.c.: Cinismul ca trstur de personalitate va fi relaionat negativ cu comportamentele civicparticipative ale angajailor.

acetia provenind att din mediul rural ct i din mediul urban. Criteriul de eligibilitate pentru ca participanii s fie inclui n studiu a fost ca acetia s dein un loc de munc n prezent. De asemenea, cei care au completat superficial sau incomplet probele au fost exclui din studiu. Domeniul de activitate n care participanii activeaz nu a fost un criteriu pentru acest studiu, 22% dintre subieci aparinnd mediului public iar 78% mediului privat. n ceea ce privete specializarea profesional a participanilor, 26% dintre acetia sunt muncitori (30 participani), 17% lucreaz n domeniul vnzrilor (20 participani), 16% n domeniul administrativ (19 participani), 15% n domeniul psiho-social (17 participani), 10% n educaie (12 participani), 8% n domeniul economic (9 participani) iar 8% n domeniul tehnic (9 participani). Vechimea n munc a subiecilor variaz de la 2 luni la 43 de ani, cu o medie de 11 ani. n ceea ce privete gradul de colarizare al subiecilor, toi au absolvit liceul, 45% dintre acetia au terminat o facultate iar 10% au studii postuniversitare. Procedura de selectare a participanilor a fost una bazat pe convenien, n baza unui anun electronic.
Instrumente

Metod
Participani n cadrul cercetrii de fa este implicat un lot format dintr-un numr de 116 participani dintre care: 78 de gen feminin i 38 de gen masculin, cu vrsta cuprins ntre 22 i 61 de ani,

n vederea atingerii scopului propus de aceast cercetare s-au utilizat urmtoarele probe psihologice: Pentru investigarea inteniilor etice s-au utilizat 5 scenarii dezvoltate de ctre Fritzsche i Becker n 1984, iar apoi de Nair i Kamalanabhan (2010), fiind extrase din cri ce privesc etica n afaceri. Cele cinci scenarii utilizate n studiu au fost traduse din limba englez i modificate pentru a le face relevante pentru contextul romnesc ( Cronbach = .74). Ele prezint o gam larg de probleme etice: constrngere i control (Scenariul 1 prezint o persoan din exterior care prin utilizarea ameninrii i a presiunii ncearc s influeneze decizia managementului), conflict de interese (Scenariul 2 prezint situaia n care propriul interes poate pune n pericol interesele companiei), probleme legate de mediul de munc (Scenariul 3 prezint un caz n care conservarea i protejarea mediului este abandonat n favoarea propriilor interese economice), paternalism (Scenariul 4 implic o alegere ntre respectul pentru autonomia individual i riscurile pentru umanitate) i

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Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative

integritate personal (Scenariul 5). Participanii au fost rugai s indice alternativa lor preferat de aciune, pe o scal Likert n 5 trepte care surprinde cea mai etic (5) i cea mai puin etic (1) decizie. n cadrul studiului am explicat inteniilor etice ale subiecilor cu ajutorul unei probe care presupune auto-raportare, dei comportamentul real poate fi evaluat ca etic sau lipsit de etic doar dac acesta este desfurat. Cu toate acestea, conform teoriei comportamentelor planificate (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980), nu exist o diferen semnificativ ntre intenie i decizia efectiv de comportament. Cinismul ca trstur de personalitate a fost investigat cu o prob compus din 15 itemi (e.g. Cnd cineva mi face o favoare, tiu c va atepta s i-o returnez.), dezvoltat de ctre Turner i Valentine (2001) iar cinismul organizaional a fost msurat cu ajutorul chestionarului dezvoltat de ctre Eaton i Struthers (2002) care curpinde 9 itemi (e.g. Cred c n cadrul companiei mele nu se respect promisiunile.). Sarcina subiecilor a fost de a-i exprima acordul sau dezacordul n legatur cu fiecare afirmaie pe o scal Likert n 5 trepte unde 1= dezacord total, iar 5= acord total. Coeficienii de consisten intern sunt .90 pentru cinsmul ca trstur i .92 pentru cinismul organizaional, pe eantionul studiat. Pentru a msura satisfacia n munc a fost utilizat o prob elaborat de ctre Brayfield i Rothe (1951) ce msoar constructul global i cuprinde 5 itemi ce permit rspunsuri pe o scal likert n 7 trepte unde 1 semnific dezacord puternic iar 7 acord puternic (e.g. M simt destul de mulumit() cu slujba pe care o am.). Coeficientul de consisten intern al probei este de .80 pe eantionul studiat. Implicarea n munc a fost msurat folosind Scala Utrecht a implicrii n munc cu 9 itemi (UWES 9; Schaufeli, Bakker, & Salanova, 2006) ce cuprinde trei dimensiuni: vigoare (3 itemi; e.g. La locul de munc, simt c explodez de energie), dedicare (3 itemi; e.g. Sunt entuziasmat() de locul meu de munc) i absorbie (3 itemi; e.g. Sunt foarte implicat() n munca mea). Scala a fost adaptat n Romnia de ctre Vrg, Zaboril, Sulea i Maricuoiu (2009), fiind considerat un instrument valid i cu coeficieni de consisten intern variind ntre .73 i .89. Pe eantionul studiat, coeficientul de consisten intern al probei este .92 (.89 pentru vigoare, .87 pentru dedicare i .73 pentru absorbie).

Pentru evaluarea comportamentelelor civicparticipative s-a utilizat scala de auto-raportare adaptat de Lee i Allen (2002) ce cuprinde 16 itemi. Ne-am ateptat ca acest prob s diferenieze comportamentele civice orientate spre organizaie (8 itemi, e.g. Apr organizaia atunci cnd ali angajai o critic) de comportamentele civic-participative interpersonale (8 itemi, e.g. i ajut pe colegii mei care absenteaz). Rspunsurile la cei 16 itemi au fost cotate pe o scal Likert n 5 trepte (1-niciodat, 5-ntotdeauna). Coeficienii de consisten intern pentru cele dou scale sunt .88 pentru OCB-I i .90 pentru OCB-O pentru eantionul studiat.
Procedur Subiecilor li s-a precizat faptul c trebuie s completeze un set de chestionare prin care li se vor investiga atitudinile i inteniile comportamentale la locul de munc. Acetia au fost ncurajai s completeze fiecare prob, rspunznd n concordan cu ceea ce simt n momentul respectiv. De asemenea, s-a ncercat eliminarea variabilelor strine care ar fi putut interveni n cercetare, cum sunt: variaile de zgomot, de lumin etc. Subiecii au fost informai n legtur cu confidenialitatea datelor furnizate, acetia completnd un formular de consimire. Instrumentele de evaluare a dimensiunilor psihologice prezentate au fost aplicate individual, pe parcursul a ase sptmni. Marea majoritate a participanilor a completat probele online iar 25 dintre subieci au primit probele n format creion - hrtie. Instructajul a fost identic pentru toi subiecii, realizndu-se la nceputul testrii, dup care subiecii aveau posibilitatea de a adresa ntrebri n cazul nenelegerii sarcinilor. Pentru fiecare prob e existat un instructaj specific, fie verbal, fie scris. Timpul estimat de lucru este de 15 minute. Participanii au completat toate probele prezentate n aceeai sesiune de lucru.

Rezultate
n vederea prelucrrii datelor culese de la cei 116 participani ai studiului s-a utilizat pachetul de baze de date SPSS 17.0, n care au fost introduse cotele brute pentru a fi prelucrate i analizate. n Tabelul 1 sunt prezentate media, abaterea standard, consistena intern i corelaiile

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Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative

stabilite ntre variabilele introduse n studiu. Astfel, putem observa c cinismul organizaional se asociaz semnificativ dar negativ cu inteniile etice (r = -.22, p < .05), cu cele trei dimensiuni ale implicrii n munc: vigoare (r = -.50, p < .001), dedicaie (r = -.53, p < .001), absorbie

(r = -.46, p < .001), de asemenea cu satisfacia n munc (r = -.53, p < .001) i cu cele dou dimensiuni ale comportamentlui civicparticipativ: OCB interpersonal (r = -.269, p < .001) i OCB organizaional (r = -.45, p < .001).

Tabelul 1. Medii, abateri standard, coeficieni alpha Cronbach i coeficieni de corelaie ntre variabile Variabile 1.Cinism organizaional 2. Cinism ca trstur 3. Intenii etice 4. Implicare n munc 5.Vigoare 6. Dedicaie 7. Absorbie 8. Satisfacie n munc 9. OCB-I 10. OCB-O M SD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 22.34 7.72 (.92) 53.78 10.66 .24** (.90) 21.91 3.44 -.22* .12 (.74) 39.74 11.09 -.55** .01 .47** (.92) 12.97 4.18 -.50** .04 .46** .91** 13.00 4.58 -.53** .04 .43** .93** (.89) 13.77 3.52 -.46** -.08 .38** .85** .79** (.87) 25.25 5.52 -.53** -.06 .18* .71** .65** .70** (.73) 45.50 7.52 -.26** .06 .28** .53** .66** .74** .51** (.80) (.88) 45.73 7.90 -.45** .04 .24** .65** .42** .48** .57** .43** .74** (.90) .55** .64** .57** .58**

N = 116, **p <. 001, *p < .05

n schimb, dup cum se poate observa din Tabelul 1, cinismul ca trstur de personalitate nu se asociaz semnificativ cu niciuna din variabilele luate n calcul, valorile coeficienilor de corelaie fiind unele sczute (p > .05). n ceea ce privete asocierea dintre intenii etice i implicare n munc, aceasta este una puternic semnificativ i pozitiv, pentru toate cele trei dimensiuni ale implicrii: vigoare (r = .46, p < .001), dedicaie (r = .43, p < .001), ct i absorbie (r = .38, p < .001). Inteniile etice sunt asociate semnificativ pozitiv cu satisfacia n munc (r = .18, p < .05) i cu cele dou dimensiuni ale comportamentului civic participativ: OCB-I (r = .28, p < .001) i OCB-O (r = .24, p < .001). Prin urmare, cinismul organizaional, respectiv inteniile etice se asociaz cu implicarea n munc, la nivel global dar i cu cele trei dimensiuni ale sale. De asemenea, acestea se asociaz i cu satisfacia n munc i manifestarea comportamentelor civice interpersonale i organizaionale. Asocierea dintre cinismul organizaional i satisfacia n munc (r = -.53, p < .001) este puternic negativ i, de asemenea, asocierea dintre cinismul organizaional i cele trei faete ale implicrii n munc. Pe cnd, asocierea dintre implicare n munc i intenii etice este una puternic pozitiv. n acest studiu s-a urmrit s se gseasc rspunsul la ntrebarea dac cinsimul considerat

pe de-o parte, aspect personal iar, pe de alt parte, aspect organizaional, i inteniile etice prezic implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc, respectiv comportamentele civice interpersonale i organizaionale. Prin urmare, am rulat dou analize de regresie multiliniare ierarhice, unde implicarea n munc, satisfacia i comportamentele civice-participatice au fost tratate ca variabile dependente. Pentru cele trei variabile dependente am parcurs acelai algoritm: n primul pas, am introdus doua variabile demografice (vrst i tipul organizaiei). Dup ce am controlat influena variabilelor vrst i tipul organizaiei (organizaie public, organizaie privat), am introdus variabilele implicare n munc (vigoare, absorbie, dedicare), satisfacie n munc i comportamente civic-participatice interpersonale i organizaionale. n ceea ce privete implicarea n munc, am tratat att constructul global, ct i fiecare dimensiune component separat (vigoare, dedicaie, absorbie), ca variabil dependent (vezi Tabelul 2). Astfel, dintre variabilele demografice, vrsta reprezint un predictor semnificativ al implicrii n munc ( = .38, p < .001), contribuind la variana rezultatelor ntr-un procent de 13%. n pasul doi, analiza de regresie arat c implicarea n munc, ca i construct global, este prezis semnificativ de cinismul organizaional ( = -.50, p < .001), fiind
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Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative

n relaie negativ cu acesta, n timp ce, cinismul ca trstur nu reprezint un predictor important al implicrii n munc. De asemenea, rezultatele obinute arat c implicarea este prezis semnificativ de ctre inteniile etice ( = .27,

p < .01). Putem observa n Tabelul 2 c cinismul organizaional i inteniile etice au contribuit la variana implicrii n munc ntr-un procent de 46% (p <. 001).

Tabelul 2. Analizele de regresie ierarhic care prezic implicarea n munc (vigoare, dedicaie i absorbie), satisfacia i comportamentele civic-participative (OCB-I i OCB-O)

N = 116, ***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05

Vigoarea, ca i component a implicrii, este prezis semnificativ de vrst, ca variabil demografic ( = .36, p < .001), aceasta contribuind la variana vigorii ntr-un procent de 12%. n pasul doi, vigoarea este prezis de cinismul organizaional ( = -.45, p < .001), fiind n relaie negativ cu aceasta; i, de asemenea, de ctre inteniile etice ( = .28, p < .01). n schimb, cinismul ca trstur nu a contribuit la variana rezultatelor, nefiind un predictor semnificativ pentru vigoare. n cazul dedicrii, se poate observa n Tabelul 2 c, variabila demografic vrsta prezice semnificativ dedicarea ( = .38, p < .001), nfluennd variana acesteia cu 13%. n pasul doi cinismul organizaional i inteniile etice au contribuit la variana rezultatelor, astfel 42% (p <. 001) din variana dedicrii poate fi explicat de cinismul organizaional i de inteniile etice. Cinismul organizaional ( = .50, p < .001) prezice dedicaia, relaia dintre variabile fiind una puternic negativ, iar inteniile etice sunt, de asemenea, un predictor important al dedicrii ( = .23, p < .01), relaia dintre variabile fiind una pozitiv. Nici n acest caz cinismul, ca trstur de personalitate, nu s-a dovedit a fi un predictor important al dedicrii. La fel ca n cazurile precedente, i n cazul absorbiei, vrsta prezice semnificativ absorbia
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( = .28, p < .01), nfluennd variana acesteia cu 7%. n pasul doi al regresiei, rezultatele arat c cinismul organizaional i inteniile etice au contribuit la variana absorbiei ntr-un procent de 28%, (p < .001). Cinismul organizaional este un predictor important al absorbiei ( = -.38, p < .001), relaia fiind una negativ, iar inteniile etice prezic n mod semnificativ absorbia ( = .28, p < .05), asociindu-se n mod pozitiv cu aceasta. Datele obinute arat c cinismul ca trstur de personalitate nu reprezint un predictor semnificativ al absorbiei. Prin urmare, rezultatele studiului aduc dovezi empirice n sprijinul ipotezelor H 1.a. i H 1.b., ce afirm c inteniile etice i cinismul organizaional prezic implicarea n munc. n schimb, datele obinute nu susin ipoteza H 1.c, astfel nu am putut stabili o legtur ntre cinismul, ca trstur, i implicarea n munc. n ceea ce privete satisfacia, variabilele demografice nu au contribuit semnificativ la variana rezultatelor. n pasul doi, inteniile etice i cinismul, ca trstur de personalitate, nu au contribuit la dispersia rezultatelor, nefiind predictori semificativ ai satisfaciei n munc (vezi Tabelul 2). n schimb, cinismul organizaional este un predictor semnificativ i se ascociaz n sens negativ cu satisfacia ( = -.53, p <.001). Astfel, satisfacia n munc

Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative

este explicat n proporie de 28% de ctre cinismul organizaional. Datele obinute n urma analizei sprijin ipoteza H 2.b., ns nu avem dovezi empirice care c acorde suport pentru ipotezele H 2.a. i H 2.c, astfel nu exist o asociere pozitiv ntre inteniile etice i satisfacia n munc, respectiv o asociere negativ ntre cinism ca trstur i satisfacie n munc. n cazul comportamentelor civicparticipative, acestea au fost tratate ca variabile dependente separate (OCB-Interpersonale, OCBOrganizaionale) (vezi Tabelul 2). Prin urmare, n pasul unu, comportamentele civiceparticipative interpersonale sunt prezise semnificativ de variabila demografic vrst ( = .32, p < .001), care explic un procent de 9% (p < .01) din variana rezultatelor. n pasul doi, OCB-I este prezis semnificativ de ctre cinismul organizaional, cu care se asociaz n sens negativ ( = -.23, p < .05), i care explic un procent de 14% din variana rezultatelor. Variabilele cinism ca trstur i intenii etice nu a contribuit la variana comportamentelor civice interpersonale. Pentru comportamentele civice organizaionale, vrsta ca variabil demografic prezice semnificativ OCB-O ( = .30, p < .05), contribuind ntr-un procent de 9% (p < .01) la variana rezultatelor. n pasul doi, cinismul organizaional a contribuit la variana rezultatelor, n proporie de aproximativ 25% (p < .001). Cinismul organizaional prezice semnificativ OCB-O, cu care se asociaz n sens negativ ( = -.45, p < .01). Variabilele cinism, ca trstur a personalitii, i inteniile etice nu au contribuit n mod semnificativ la dispersia rezultatelor. Aceste rezultate aduc dovezi empirice ce sprijin ipoteza H 3.b.. Rezultatele nu sprijin ipoteza H 3.a. i H 3.c., cinismul ca trstur de personalitate i inteniile etice, nefiind predictori semnificativi pentru comportamentele civic-particpative n cazul eantionului studiat.

Discuii
Scopul lucrrii a fost de a identifica msura n care variabilele personale i organizaionale sunt implicate n dezvoltarea unor atitudini i comportamente pozitive la locul de munc. n acest sens, am analizat cinismul i inteniile etice, pentru a vedea rolul acestora asupra implicrii,

satisfaciei n munc i a dezvoltrii comportamentelor civice participative. De asemenea, am abordat cinismul din dubl perspectiv: individual i organizaional pentru a pune n eviden efectele difereniate pe care aceste dou tipuri le au asupra atitudinilor organizaionale. Rezultatele obinute confirm ateptrile noastre, astfel c, cinismul organizaional i inteniile etice sunt predictori importani ai atitudinilor i comportamentelor organizaionale pozitive. Prin urmare, putem afirma c obiectivele studiului au fost atinse. Rezultatele studiului nostru relev faptul c cinismul organizaional este un predictor pentru implicarea n munc, dar i pentru fiecare dintre dimensiunile sale: vigoare, dedicare i absorbie. Astfel, cu ct cinismul organizaional al angajatului este mai ridicat, cu att acesta va fi mai puin implicat la locul de munc. Implicarea n munc este asociat, de obicei, cu un volum ridicat de munc, cu autonomie i control crescut, cu recompense i recunoastere adecvat a muncii, un mediu suportiv de munc, sentimente de echitate i justiie (Saks, 2006). n cazul cinicilor organizaionali, percepia acestora asupra proceselor organizaionale este una negativ, ei au o ncredere sczut n organizaia angajatoare, considernd c aceasta este interesat doar de propriul profit. Prin urmare, angajaii nu numai c dezvolt afecte negative la adresa organizaiei, ci convingerile lor vor avea efecte negative asupra muncii n general, asupra superiorilor i colegilor, ct i asupra mediului de munc (de exemplu: volumul de munc poate scdea, dedicarea i efortul depus vor fi mai mici). O evaluare pozitiv a experienelor organizaionale, neregsit n cazul angajailor cinici, s-a dovedit a fi o condiie esenial pentru a spori implicarea angajailor la locul de munc. Schaufeli i Bakker (2004) explic acest lucru din prisma faptului c atunci cnd angajaii cred c organizaia lor este preocupat de bunstarea lor i de ndeplinirea obligaiilor fa de ei, acetia sunt mai motivai n a-i indeplini, la rndul lor, obligaiile fa de aceasta i, astfel, vor deveni mai implicate n munc. Rezultate asemntoare au obinut Frank, Finegar i Taylor (2004), artnd c factorii care influeneaz n ceea mai mare msura implicarea n munc sunt evaluarea pozitiv a corectitidinii i preocuprile fa de angajai, nsoit de o ncredere crescut n organizaie, aspecte ce lipsesc n cazul angajailor cinici. Lipsa de ncredere n organizaie i sentimentele negative asociate contribuie la

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Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative

dezvoltarea unor atitudini negative. Conform literaturii de specialitate din domeniul cinismului, experienele negative i atitudinile pesimiste pot duce la apariia credinelor, atitudinilor i comportamentelor cinice, care se asociaz cu o implicare sczut n munc (Dean i colab., 1998). De asemenea, rezultatele studiului nostru sugereaz c inteniile etice ale angajailor prezic implicarea n munc n cazul eantionului studiat. Astfel, angajaii caracterizai de un comportament organizaional etic sunt mai implicai la locul de munc. Rezultate asemntoare au fost obinute de ctre Hassan i Ahmed (2011), care au artat c angajaii sunt mai implicai n munc atunci cnd i dezvolt un nivel crescut al simului etic i al convingerii c practicile organizaionale sunt transparente. O posibil explicaie a acestui fapt ar fi aceea c observarea sau chiar practicarea unui comportament neetic are capacitatea de a demotiva i de a scdea ncrederea angajatului n compania angajatoare i n practicile organizaionale. Acest lucru contribuie la scderea implicrii n munc la nivelul dedicrii, absorbiei i vitalitii i, de asemenea, la neimplicarea angajailor n comportamente voluntare n favoarea organizaiei. Pe de alt parte, o ncredere crescut n etica orgnizaiei, o cunoatere a comportamentelor pe care organizaia le consider etice i percepia siguranei oferite duce la internalizarea acestor comportamente iar urmarea acestui fapt este o implicare crescut. Contrar rezultatelor obinute, cercetrile lui Evans, Goodman i Davis (2011) au aratat c percepia corectitudinii practicilor organizaionale este asociat cu comportamentele civice organizaionale. Sistemul individual de valori, practicile organizaionale i mediul extern sunt factori ce pot influena comportamentul etic ale angajailor i, prin intermediul acestuia, comportamentele civic participative ale indivizilor (Ugwu, 2011). De asemenea, Trevino, Butterfield i McCabe (1998) au artat c un climat organizaional etic este principalul predictor al manifestrii inteniilor etice, angajaii ce dezvolt un comportament etic fiind mai implicai n munc, mai angajai fa de organizaie i, astfel, mai predispui n a manifesta comportamente civic participative. Valorile individuale n ceea ce privete comportamentul etic, cultura i climatul organizaional etic sau un mediu extern care promoveaz acest tip de comportament conduc la internalizarea standardelor etice nalte, ofer direcie, motiveaz prin generarea unor

sentimente de responsabilitate, formnd astfel atitudini i comportamente benefice organizaiei. Ne-am propus, de asemenea, s stabilim o legtur ntre cinism considerat aspect al personalitii i comportamentul civicparticipativ, ct i ntre cinismul organizaional i manifestarea comportamentelor civicparticipative. Rezultatele obinute nu au fost semnificative n ceea ce privete prima relaie, n schimb datele au confirmat faptul c un nivel sczut al cinismului organizaional prezice manifestarea comportamentelor civic participative att la nivel organizaional, ct i la nivel interpersonal. n explicarea acestor rezultate ar trebui s inem cont de faptul c cinismul personal reprezint acea tendin de a percepe lumea ntr-un mod negativ, caracterizat de o atitudine ostil i de nencredere n ceilali, ceea ce duce la relaii interpersonale puine i la o neimplicare permanent att n mediul organizaional, ct i n cel social sau familial. Pe de alt parte, cinismul organizaional reprezint o atitudine negativ fa de organizaie datorit experienelor anterioare negative din cadrul acesteia, datorit nemplinirii ateptrilor sau a nclcrii drepturilor. Acest lucru face ca angajatul s dezvolte sentimente negative, de dispre, neascultare la adresa organizaiei, a conductorilor acesteia i chiar la adresa colegilor. Prin urmare, angajatul nu este motivat s se implice n comportamente voluntare benefice organizaiei i angajailor acesteia, care apar n contextul satisfacerii ateptrilor. De asemenea, o condiie important pentru apariia conportamentelor civic organizaionale o reprezint devotamentul fa de organizaie (Katz, 1964, apud Huang, You, & Tsai, 2012) care, n cazul angajailor caracterizai de cinism organizaional, lipsete. Anderson i Bateman (1997), precum i Van Dyne, Graham i Dienesch (1994) au stabilit o legtur negativ ntre cinismul organizaional i comportamentele civic participative, artnd c cinismul, ca atitudine omniprezent n cadrul organizaiilor, influeneaz comportamentele orientate spre organizaie. Deoarece cinismul nu implic doar convingeri privind gradul de integritate al organizaiei i reacii emoionale fa de angajator ci i tendine comportamentale, cinismul organizaional are capacitatea de a reduce comportamentele extra-rol ale angajailor care cresc eficacitatea organizaiei. Potrivit lui Evans, Goodman i Davis (2011), comportamentele de care beneficiaz organizaia

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Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative

sunt incompatibile cu convingerile i afectele asociate cu cinsmul organizaional. n plus, este puin probabil ca un angajat cinic, care se ateapt la abuzuri din partea organizaiei, s se angajeze n comportamente de care beneficiaz ntregul colectiv organizaional. Contrar rezultatelor nesemnificative obinute ntre cinismul ca dimensiune a personalitii i comportamentele civic organizaionale n cadrul prezentului studiu, Abraham (2000), n studiul su asupra diferitelor tipuri de cinism care se pot dezvolta la locul de munc, arat c cinismul ca trstur este relaionat cu comportamente civic organizaionale sczute. Autorul atribuie acest lucru faptului c motivul principal al comportamentelor extra-rol este cel de a lua contact cu alte persoane, iar cinicii resping relaiile interpersonale, prin urmare acetia vor evita tocmai comportamentele civic-participative interpersonale. Rezultatele studiului nostru nu au identificat variabilele cinism personal i intenii etice ca fiind predictori ai satisfaciei n munc. n schimb, acestea confirm faptul c cinismul organizaional influeneaz satisfacia n munc, n sensul n care cinismul organizaional ridicat duce la o satisfacie sczut n munc, n timp ce lipsa acestuia contribuie la creterea satisfaciei. Aceste rezultate sunt susinute de studiile lui Arabaci (2010), care a artat c cinismul organizaional induce insatisfacie n munc n cazul persoanelor cu o vechime crescut n munc, evideniind totodat c majoritatea angajailor prezint niveluri moderate de cinism organizaional. O posibil explicaie a acestui fapt ar fi aceea c, n cazul cinicilor, privirea de ansamblu negativ asupra lumii se extinde i asupra locului de munc, ducnd la insatisfacie n ceea ce privete sarcinile, colegii, recompensele, promovrile etc. Pentru cinicii organizaionali, dezamgirea dat de mediul organizaional poate induce ngrijorare i suspiciune, conducnd la redirecionarea ateniei ctre aspectele negative ale muncii. Lawler (1994, apud. Abraham, 2000) argumenteaz c insatisfacia n munc apare cnd rezultatele obinute sunt mai sczute dect cele ateptate. Cnd rezultatele obinute sunt nsoite de sentimente de nedreptire, de evaluare greit, de lipsa condiiilor care permit efectuarea sarcinilor, de nevoia de a fi inautentic, resentimente fa de job, acestea se manifest sub forma insatisfaciei n munc. Acest decalaj ntre rezultatele obinute i cele ateptate este relevant, n special n cazul cinismului organizaional, unde

ateptrile ridicate ale unor schimbri miraculoase devin un mit, n faa realitii ce nu presupune nicio schimbare. Prin urmare, putem spune c cinismul organizaional este unul dintre predictorii ce influeneaz ntr-o mare msur satisfacia n munc, ceea ce necesit meninerea unui nivel sczut al acestuia n cadrul organizaiei. De asemenea, n cazul cinicilor organizaionali, aspectele interpersonale ale muncii lor reprezint o surs de stres i insatisfacie. Afectele negative ndreptate asupra superiorilor, colegilor i subordonailor mpiedic angajaii s beneficieze de suportul reelei sociale, care reprezint cea mai bun piedic n faa stresului organizaional (Smith, Organ & Near, 1983, apud Abraham, 2000). Abraham (2000), msurnd legtura dintre cinismul organizaional i satisfacia n munc, angajamentul organizaional, nstrinarea i comportamentul civic oargnizaional n cazul angajailor din diferite domenii de activitate, arat c cinismul organizaional explic 65% din satisfacia n munc, 54% din angajamentul organizaional i 42% din nstrinare fa de organizaie. Rezultatele studiului nostru au identificat variabila demorgrafic vrst ca fiind predictor semnificativ pentru implicare n munc i comportament civic-participativ, n schimb nu i pentru satisfacie n munc. Tipul organizaiei nu a fost un predictor semnificativ pentru nici una din variabilele criteriu. Acest lucru este in concordan cu alte studii (Ugwu, 2009; Aquino & Reed, 2002; Summer et al., 2000) care au identificat vrsta ca fiind un predictor semnificativ al implicrii n munc i al comportamentelor civic-participative, n sensul n care implicarea n munc i comportamentele civice-participative cresc odat cu vrsta. Spre deosebire de cercetrile anterioare, care au ncercat stabilirea unor legturi ntre cinism i diferite constructe organizaionale strict pentru anumite domenii de activitate (de exemplu sntate sau vnzri) sau niveluri organizaionale (de exemplu, nivel managerial), prin acest studiu am propus, pe lng cinismul organizaional, integrarea unor variabile de personale, ca: inteniile comportamentale etice i cinismul ca trstur, pentru a vedea msura n care acestea explic implicarea, satisfacia n munc, i comportamentele civic-participative n cazul unui eantion eterogen, format din persoane cu vrste i experiene organizaionale diferite. Rezultatele obinute sunt n concordan cu modelele teoretice interpretative din domeniul atitudinilor

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i comportamentelor organizaionale, acestea reuind s explice ntr-o mare msur rezultatele obinute.

Limite i sugestii de abordri viitoare

Asemeni tuturor studiilor, i aceast cercetare prezint cteva limite ce ar trebui luate n considerare. n primul rnd, o limit principal a studiului o poate reprezenta faptul c datele au fost colectate utiliznd doar chestionare ce presupun auto-raportare. Acest fapt implic o dezirabilitate social crescut a rspunsurilor, aspect ce poate distorsiona rezultatele n sensul obinerii unui nivel mediu sczut al cinismului i intenii comportamentale etice ridicate. Studii viitoare ar putea include metodologii diferite de msurare a comportamentului etic, spre exemplu studii experimentale, care pot indentifica intr-un mod acurat inteniile etice ale angajailor, pentru a continua nelegerea modului n care acesta poate influena atitudinile organizaionale. n al doilea rnd, rezultatele obinute n cadrul acestui studiu se rezum la contextul social i organizaional romnesc. De aceea, pentru a generaliza rezultatele obinute, este necesar replicarea studiului n diferite culturi organizaionale, putndu-se identifica astfel pattern-uri comportamentale organizaionale specifice fiecrui cadru social i organizaional. n al treilea rnd, studiul este unul corelaional i nu ne ofer indicii solide pentru a susine cauzalitatea relaiilor dintre variabilele predictor i criteriu. De aceea, studiile viitoare pot lua n calcul realizarea unui studiu care ar putea ajuta la generalizarea rezultatelor i la identificarea cu certitudine a relaiilor cauzale ntre variabilele investigate, cum ar fi relaia cauzal dintre implicare i cinism organizaional. n plus, n acest studiu nu s-a inut cont de influenele din afara organizaiei, i anume de impactul vieii familiale asupra angajatului. Studierea relaiei dintre familie i organizaie, n special aspecte legate de rolul resurselor familiale n creterea implicrii n munc, a satisfaciei i reducerea cinismului pot fi direcii viitoare de cercetare, n explicarea relaiei dintre cinismul organizaional i implicarea n munc, respectiv satisfacia n munc. Mrimea efectului n cazul ctorva relaii de interes a fost relativ mic. Acest lucru sugereaz existena unor variabile moderatoare sau mediatoare al relaiilor dintre cinism i

comportamentele civic - participative sau dintre inteniile etice i implicarea n munc, cum ar fi, spre exemplu, justeea organizaional perceput. Din pcate, nu au fost colectate date n ceea ce privete posibili mediatori sau moderatori, deoarece astfel de ipoteze au depit domeniul de aplicare al acestui studiu. Astfel, studiile viitoare pot ine cont de existena acestor variabile pentru a le msura impactul asupra proceselor i performanei organizaionale.

Implicaii practice
Lsnd la o parte aceste limite, putem spune c rezultatele obinute pot prezenta implicaii practice n ceea ce privete creterea implicrii, satisfaciei n munc i dezvoltarea comportamentelor civic-participative, prin scoaterea n eviden a importanei cinismului organizaional i inteniilor etice. Astfel, ca implicaie practic direct, organizaia poate ine cont de inteniile etice ale angajailor, pentru a implementa modaliti de cretere i dezvoltare a acestora iar, n cele din urm, att organizaia, ct i angajatul vor beneficia de o mbuntire a strii de bine i, implicit, la o cretere a performanei n munc. De asemenea, organizaiile trebuie s identifice nivelul cinismului organzaional al angajailor, pentru a gsi modaliti de reducere a acestuia i de cretere a ncrederii angajailor, ceea ce se asociaz cu creterea implicrii n munc, cu satisfacie n munc i cu stri pozitive legate de munc. n concluzie, acest studiu arat c este esenial ca organizaiile s reduc nivelul de cinism organizaional, deoarece acesta poate determina angajaii s dezvolte atitudini, afecte i comportamente negative, orientate mpotriva organizaiei i, prin urmare, va scdea gradul de satisfacie i implicare n munc, alturi de comportamentele civic-participative, afectnd deopotriv performana ntregii organizaii.

Bibliografie
Abraham, R. (2000). Organizational Cynicism: Bases and Consequences. Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs, 126, 269-292. Andersson, L. M., & Bateman, T. S. (1997). Cynicism in the workplace: Some causes and effects. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 449-469. Apaydin, C. (2012). Relationship between workplace bullying and organizational cynicism in Turkish

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Impactul cinismului i al inteniilor etice asupra atitudinilor organizaionale: implicarea n munc, satisfacia n munc i comportamentele civic-participative

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Would you like to talk about that? How and when group emotional awareness enhances effectiveness of gender diverse teams

Smaranda Boro1, Petru L. Cureu2

Abstract
The aim of this paper is to explore the moderating role of group emotional awareness and diversity beliefs in the relationship between gender diversity and group effectiveness. In study 1 (cross-sectional survey in 31 organizational teams), the interaction effect between diversity and awareness suggests that awareness contributes to a larger extent to team effectiveness in gender homogenous rather than heterogeneous teams. Considering the moderating role of diversity beliefs for the outcomes of diversity, in study 2 (an experimental study on 21 student project teams) we look at the interaction of diversity beliefs and group emotional awareness. Results suggest that a positive framing of diversity has the strongest positive impact on effectiveness. However, group emotional awareness cancels the negative framing effect of diversity on effectiveness. Our data gives evidence for the existence of an affective, rather than cognitive path to reaping the benefits of gender diversity without paying the price elicited by categorization. Keywords: Group emotional awareness, gender diversity, diversity beliefs

Rsum
Le but de cet article est d'explorer le rle modrateur de la conscience motionnelle de groupe et des croyances sur la diversit dans la relation entre la mixit des sexes et l'efficacit du groupe. Dans la premire 'tude (une tude transversale dans 31 quipes), l'effet d'interaction entre la diversit et la sensibilisation suggre que la sensibilisation contribue plus l'efficacit des l'quipes homognes contre celle des quipes htrognes. Considrant le rle modrateur des croyances en matire de diversit pour les consquences de la diversit, nous examinons dans la deuxime tude (une tude exprimentale sur 21 quipes de projets d'tudiants) l'interaction des croyances sur la diversit et la conscience motionnelle du groupe. Les rsultats suggrent qu'un cadrage positif de la diversit a l' impact positif le plus fort sur l'efficacit. Par contre, la conscience motionnelle de groupe annule l'effet de cadrage ngatif de la diversit sur l'efficacit. Nos donnes prouvent l'existence d'une route affective, en plus de celle cognitive rcolter les bnfices de la diversit des sexes sans en payer le prix donne par la catgorisation. Mots-cls: conscience motionnelle de groupe, diversit de sexe, croyances sur la diversit

Rezumat
Scopul acestui articol este de a explora rolul moderator al contientizrii emoionale n grup i credinelor despre valoarea-n-diversitate n relaia dintre de diversitatea de gen n grup i eficiena grupului. n Studiul 1 (studiu de teren transversal n 31 de echipe organizaionale), efectul de interaciune dintre diversitate i contientizarea emoional sugereaz c gradul de contientizare emoional n grup contribuie ntr-o msur mai mare la eficacitatea echipei, mai degrab n echipele omogene dect n cele eterogene n ceea ce privete genul. Avnd n vedere rolul moderator al credinelor n diversitate pentru eficacitatea grupurilor, n studiul 2 (un studiu experimental realizat cu 21 de echipe de proiect studeneti), ne uitm la interaciunea dintre convingerile despre valoarea-n-diversitate i contientizarea emoional n grup. Rezultatele sugereaz c o viziune pozitiv despre diversitate are cel mai puternic impact pozitiv asupra eficacitii echipelor eterogene. Cu toate acestea, contientizarea emoional n grup anuleaz efectul unor convingeri negative despre diversitate asupra eficacitii. Datele noastre ofer dovezi pentru existena unei ci alternative afective, n vederea culegerii fructelor diversitii de gen, fr a suferi consecinele negative ale proceselor de categorizare n aceste echipe. Cuvinte cheie: Contientizarea emoional n grup, diversitate de gen, convingeri despre diversitate
1

Vlerick Business School; Corresponding address: smaranda.boros@vlerick.com 2 Tilburg University 45

Would you like to talk about that? How and when group emotional awareness enhances effectiveness of gender diverse teams

Introduction
What drives teams to success is as old a question as the mammoth hunt. When hominids formed the first interdependent, goal-oriented gathering, they set the scene for all the teamwork effectiveness puzzles that research still tries to disentangle. While most teamwork models (e.g. Hackman, 1987) recognize that task processes affect team effectiveness, recently the focus has shifted towards social capital as a core facilitator in the emergence of effective task processes and member engagement in them (Druskat & Kayes, 2000; Druskat & Wolff, 1999). Developing social capital requires group members to feel they are a trusted and integral part of the group (Druskat & Wolff, 1999), because working together implies not only cognitive, but largely affective processes and exchanges that take place between the group members. Collective emotions emerge from interpersonal interactions and shape group dynamics and effectiveness. Therefore, in order to build social capital, the group must tend both to individual members needs and emotions and regulate these emotions (so as to induce desirable member behaviours and attitudes), as well as become aware of group-level emotion and regulate it (Druskat & Wolff, 1999). This is especially important in nowadays organizations, where the overall diversity of teams introduces more complexity in interpersonal relations. Across a plethora of diversity studies (Brouwer & Boro, 2010; Christian, Porter & Moffitt, 2006; Jehn & Bezrukova, 2004; Wang, Davidson, Yakushko, Bilestein Savoy, Tan, & Bleier, 2003), interpersonal understanding and perspective taking (the two core competencies related to group emotional awareness) have been emerging as core predictors of successfully managing diversity in teams and organizations. Group diversity is particularly important for the emotional dynamics of groups, as individual differences associated with group members different backgrounds in diverse groups (e.g. gender differences) impact on the emotion expression and recognition. However, the question that emerges in this context is what happens when emotional awareness points to a categorical difference in team diversity? For instance, we harbour stereotypes about cold or warm nations (Northern vs Latin cultures), stereotypes about women being more emotional while men being more rational. When the salient diversity (i.e.
46

gender) entails stereotypes about emotionality, is it possible that an increased emotional awareness would hinder the task-related processes of the group and relocate more resources to dealing with these differences? The categorizationelaboration model (Van Knippenberg, De Dreu & Homan, 2004) contends that this resource reallocation would hinder performance, by reducing the time and resources the group has to focus on the task. However, group emotional awareness has repeatedly proved its facilitating role in team effectiveness (Druskat, Sala & Mount, 2006). Considering these two competing views, we propose that group emotional awareness will have a more limited positive effect in heterogeneous teams compared to homogenous ones, because of the extra resources the groups needs to invest in creating explicit coordination strategies, instead of relying on implicit ones. Furthermore, in the second study we elaborate further on this mechanism and look more indepth into the diversity concept, by focusing not only on diversity itself (as we do in Study 1), but on the diversity beliefs groups have and what role will group emotional awareness play for the groups performance, depending on these beliefs.
So what is group emotional awareness?... Group emotional awareness is the ability of a team to generate a shared set of norms that shape how members perceive and understand their own emotions and those exhibited by other members and individuals outside of the team (Druskat & Druskat, 2006; Druskat & Wolff, 2001). Teams that foster emotional awareness report less conflict, increased cohesion and performance (Rapisarda, 2002). Appraising the various emotions occurring in the team and understanding their full meaning allows team members to recognize in time the downward emotional spirals of conflict and act to prevent their potential damage (Yang & Mossholder, 2004). Furthermore, when conflict occurs, these teams are more successful in comprehending the emotions arising from it (Ayoko, Callan & Hrtel, 2008), and hence not giving way to the misattributions that lead to the escalation and transformation of conflict (Simons & Peterson, 2001). In general, the existence of group norms that facilitate effective recognition and understanding of emotions are beneficial for performance

Would you like to talk about that? How and when group emotional awareness enhances effectiveness of gender diverse teams

because they prevent the negative emotionality and process losses in groups (Cureu, Boro & Oerlemans, 2012). However, looking at group emotional awareness from the perspective of social categorization literature (Van Knippenberg, De Dreu & Homan, 2004), a different question is raised: how does group emotional awareness impact team performance in groups where emotional processing is a salient difference across members? Will group emotional awareness maintain its positive effects, and if so, under what conditions?
...and how does emotional awareness operate in gender diverse teams? Previous research pointed towards both positive and negative implications of gender diversity both for team dynamics and effectiveness (Bowers, Pharmer & Salas, 2000; Cureu, Schruijer and Boro, 2007; Fenwick & Neal, 2001; Lee & Farh, 2004). However, the focus in diversity research has moved from a black or white approach to a quest for factors and conditions that can make diversity beneficial or detrimental. Most of these factors so far (e.g. reflexivity West & Sacramento, 2006; diversity beliefs - van Dick, van Knippenberg, Hgele, Guillaume & Brodbeck, 2008), pertain to the cognitive realm. Recently though, a stream of research has started to also look at the affective dimension of team diversity, and capitalized on concepts such as psychological safety (Dollard & Bakker, 2010), trust (Fay, Borrill, Amir, Haward & West, 2006) and empathy (Pendry, Driscoll & Field, 2007). For gender diversity, emotional climate and processes are a core area of investigation, as previous research systematically points towards gender differences in emotional experience (Wegge, van Dick, Fisher, West & Dawson, 2006), as well as emotional expression, awareness and regulation (Ciarrochi, Caputi & Mayer, 2003). Furthermore, emotionality is one of the core dimensions of gender stereotyping, with women being considered more emotional than men (Barrett & Bliss-Moreau, 2009). Based on real or stereotypical gender differences in the processing of emotions, gender diverse teams cannot draw as easily on shared mental models regarding affective processes as homogenous teams can (Rico, SanchezManzanares, Gil & Gibson, 2008). Diversity with respect to knowledge that is relevant for the purpose of a task or team has been

acknowledged to affect the capacity of members to develop a team shared mental model. As such, diverse teams take longer and encounter frequent difficulties in integrating their different knowledge stores to reach a consensus and solve problems because of misperceptions, poor mutual understanding, and inhibited information sharing (e.g. Argote & McGrath, 1993; Gruenfeld et al., 1996; Jackson et al., 2003). [...] all these factors together will make the formation of shared and accurate TSMs more complicated and time consuming for knowledge-diverse teams (Rico et al, 2008: 172). Emotional processing is a special type of knowledge needed when working in teams. Drawing from Rico et al. (2008), we infer that gender diverse teams do not have (or believe not to have) a common understanding on how to deal with the acknowledged emotions occurring during teamwork. This then requires more communication and explicit coordination processes, instead of implicit ones (Espinosa, Lerch & Kraut, 2002), which in turn reflect on a teams effectiveness in an interdependent task (since the team must invest more time and effort to coordinate, which takes away from the limited resources a team has to focus on the task itself). Hence, the existing and perceived differences in dealing with emotions can lead to impairment in implicit coordination processes, and subsequently to a poorer performance. This is in line with the predictions of the categorizationelaboration model (Van Knippenberg et al, 2004). The model posits that diversity has positive effects on performance when it brings about information elaboration (i.e. the exchange and integration of task relevant information). At the same time, diversity may be detrimental to performance to the extent that it engenders us-them distinctions (social categorization) and intergroup biases, because these processes interrupt the elaboration exchange, discussion, and integration of taskrelevant information, with further negative impact on performance (Van Knippenberg et al, 2004). Gender is a relevant categorization criterion for emotional processing. Hence, the categorization-elaboration model would then predict that higher group emotional awareness enhances gender categorization salience, to the possible detriment of teamwork investment. In other words, in gender heterogeneous groups, where gender categorization salience is naturally present, emotional awareness is expected to further enhance it and shift the groups focus to dealing with differences. All along, homogenous
47

Would you like to talk about that? How and when group emotional awareness enhances effectiveness of gender diverse teams

groups would use the same attribute (i.e. group emotional awareness) to enhance their work together and make the task-related processes smoother. To conclude, group emotional awareness has systematically proven to enhance teamwork quality (Druskat & Wolff, 2001), which subsequently impacts team effectiveness (West & Sacramento, 2006). However, social categorization models predict that its positive effects would be stronger in gender homogeneous rather than heterogeneous groups. Study 1 tests the following hypothesis in a crosssectional survey in organizational settings. Hypothesis 1: Group emotional awareness will be positively related to team effectiveness, but more so in gender homogenous, rather than gender heterogeneous teams.

Study 1
Participants and procedure One hundred and sixty one participants divided over 37 teams and across four Dutch organizations (45.9% TNT; 27% DSM; 13.5% Ernst & Young; 13.5% Palet) participated in the survey. 17 teams were homogeneous (i.e., male or female only) and 20 were heterogeneous (comprising both men and women) with respect to gender. Overall, the average age in the research sample is 39.33 (SD=10.93, min.=18, Max.=61), the average team size 5.52 (SD=2.92, min.=2, Max.=13), and 41% of the participants were male. The four organizations (chosen because their team-based structure-i.e., most of their work organized in team projects) were invited through an official letter to participate in the survey. Once the agreement was given, the research assistant, together with the representatives from the organizations, chose the teams who are eligible to participate in the survey. The definition used for this selection was: real groups of at least three people who perform joint tasks in the organizational context. Upon selection, team members received the questionnaires to have them filled in at work and put them in a drop-box at the end of the day. Responses were then aggregated at team level, by computing the mean score (Barsade & Gibson, 2012).

Measures Team effectiveness. Aligning with Hackman (1987), we see team effectiveness as a composite measure of team performance, viability and satisfaction. We hence used the corresponding scale (i.e., Team Effectiveness Scale) developed by Whelan (2007) for organizational settings. The questionnaire consists of 23 items (9 for performance, 9 for viability and 5 for satisfaction), measured on a five-step Likert scale and Cronbachs alpha is .96. Examples of items are: My team meets its financial and work activity goals to deliver value for money services and Clients of my team are satisfied with the service provided by team members for team performance, Individuals of the team are satisfied with the chances they have to accomplish new things working on this team and Individuals of the team are generally satisfied to be working in this team for satisfaction, and Staff training and development needs are systematically identified, resourced and made available to all members of the team and Team members are willing to be flexible and perform other roles and jobs within the team for viability. Group emotional awareness. For group emotional awareness, we used an instrument (Boro & Cureu, 2011) based on Druskat and Wolffs (2001) conceptualization of group emotional awareness. The scale consists of six items, measured on a five-step Likert scale (1 to 5) and Cronbachs alpha is .68. Examples of items are: We could tell how everyone felt by listening to the tone of our voices., and Most of the time, we had a good sense of how each group member felt, even if they did not express it in words.

Results
The results presented in the correlation table indicate that because of the high correlation between the three effectiveness sub-scales and the theoretical conceptualization of team effectiveness as a three-faceted global construct it suffices to use team effectiveness in general in the data analysis, given also the very similar correlations between the three dimensions and the composite score with both group emotional awareness and gender diversity. Therefore, we only focused on the global scale in our further analyses.

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Would you like to talk about that? How and when group emotional awareness enhances effectiveness of gender diverse teams

Team gender diversity. We computed team gender diversity as a dichotomous variable, with gender homogenous teams labelled as 0, and gender heterogeneous ones as 1.

Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for the scales used in Study 1.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for variables employed in Study 1

Mean Gender diversity Team Effectiveness Team Satisfaction Team Performance Team Viability Emotional Awareness .30 3.62 1.49 1.49 1.54 3.28 Std. Deviation .30 .41 .51 .51 .51 .28 Gender Team Team diversity Effectiveness Satisfaction -.20 -.106 .80** Team Emotional Team PerforAwarenes Viability mance s -.06 -.06 -.03 .78** .68** .76** .79** .68** .57** .48** .48** .53** -

We used simple linear regression to test our first hypothesis. In block one, we introduced gender diversity and group emotional awareness, and in block two the interaction effect. Our data indicated indeed an interaction effect between group emotional awareness and team gender diversity upon team effectiveness (see Table 2 for detailed results and an overview of the standardized coefficients). As expected, gender homogenous teams benefit to a larger extent from the positive effect of group emotional awareness than gender heterogeneous teams (see Figure 1 for a graphic representation of this effect). While group emotional awareness is beneficial for both types of teams, homogenous teams simply profit more from it. A plausible

explanation of this interaction effect between gender diversity and group emotional awareness is that emotional awareness enhances the salience of social categorization processes (inherent in gender heterogeneous groups) and thus induces process losses and a decrease of group effectiveness. In order to further explore this plausible mechanism, we have conducted an experimental study in which, in gender diverse groups, we manipulated both the diversity beliefs of group members (to check the effects of social categorization more clearly) and emotional awareness.

Table 2. Two-way interaction between team gender diversity (dummy) and group emotional awareness (centred) for team effectiveness in Study 1
Team effectiveness Model /Step 1 2 1 Gender diversity- GD -.13 -.13 Group emotional awareness- GEA .20*** .81*** 2 2 way interaction GDxGEA -.34* F change 9.02*** 3.06* R .35 .40 AdjR .31 .35 Legend: *p<.10; **p<.01, ***p<.001

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Would you like to talk about that? How and when group emotional awareness enhances effectiveness of gender diverse teams

Figure 1. Plot of the two-way interaction between team gender diversity and group emotional awareness for team effectiveness in Study 1

Study 2
A second look at diversity The findings of Study 1 showed that gender homogenous teams reap the benefits of emotional awareness without having to pay the price diverse teams pay: the salience of gender, and implicitly emotional differences within the team, and the possible difficulty in dealing with these differences, reflected in team effectiveness. But what happens if the negative effects of categorization are counteracted by value-indiversity beliefs in a heterogeneous team? Can then group emotional awareness increase its positive impact on team effectiveness? According to van Knippenberg et al (2004), positive diversity beliefs (i.e., team members beliefs that diversity is good for achieving the teams aims) are associated with positive responses rather than the negative effects of social categorization processes when team diversity is subjectively salient. In other words, positive diversity beliefs increase team effectiveness in heterogeneous teams. Therefore, a number of organizational interventions are now targeted to creating a culture of diversity and stimulating people in seeing the benefits of working in diverse teams (Curtis & Dreachslin, 2008). However, despite such interventions, team members can still harbour negative diversity beliefs and prefer working with similar others, because the process of working together in homogenous groups is less demanding. We contend that by focusing team members on

reciprocal understanding and perspective taking, we create more empathy in the group (Kelly & Barsade, 2001), which will facilitate the teamwork processes and improve effectiveness. In other words, we suggest that group emotional awareness norms offer an alternative, emotional route (as opposed to cognitive interventions, which try to modify the content of stereotypes and diversity beliefs) to counteracting the negative consequences of categorization processes in diverse groups and thus facilitating effectiveness in diverse teams. Hence, in our second study, we explore the interaction effect between diversity beliefs and group emotional awareness on team effectiveness, and propose that: Hypothesis 2: Emotional awareness interacts with diversity beliefs in such a way that emotional awareness cancels the disruptive effect of negative diversity beliefs on team effectiveness.

Design We used a 2x2 experimental design, manipulating both diversity beliefs (by framing team diversity as either beneficial or detrimental for the task at hand) and group emotional awareness norms (with or without).

Participants One hundred and twenty six students (aged 20-35, M=23.5, SD=2.39; 61 males and 62

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Would you like to talk about that? How and when group emotional awareness enhances effectiveness of gender diverse teams

females) participated in 21 teams composed of 47 members in a classroom activity. Ten teams were in the emotional awareness condition, and eleven teams served as control (i.e., no emotional awareness manipulation). Only five of our teams were homogenous teams, and they were spread across all four experimental conditions.

Procedure The 21 student groups were split in four experimental conditions. They had to work together on a diversity case study for two hours. At the beginning of the task, they received the experimental manipulations as part of their case study instructions. For group emotional awareness, the manipulation consisted of six norms they needed to take into account to maximize their teamwork. Normative interventions are effective ways of changing the pattern of interpersonal interactions within groups (Cureu & Schruijer, 2012). The norms used here were based on Druskat and Wolffs conceptualization of group emotional awareness (2001) and are clustered in two dimensions: interpersonal understanding and perspective taking. For this manipulation, the control groups only received the instructions for the task they needed to work on, without the awareness manipulation. Based on Druskat and Wolffs (2001) theorizing, the experimental groups received the following instruction as part of the general instructions for the case study they needed to work on: Read carefully the following information before you start: Working in diverse groups requires heightened empathic abilities from group members. This ensures possibility of expression from all group members, and, more importantly, the recognition of these responses. Being able to decipher your own and other peoples emotions is an important part of sensitivity awareness trainings. Therefore, your performance will benefit if you implement the following strategies in your teamwork: 1. Have a check in at the beginning of the meeting that is, ask how everyone is doing. 2. Assume that undesirable behaviour takes place for a reason. Find out what that reason is. Ask questions and listen. Avoid negative

attributions. 3. As the work proceeds, tell your teammates what you are thinking and how you are feeling about the process. 4. When you make decisions, ask whether everyone agrees with the decision. 5. Question the quickness of taking a decision. 6. Ask quiet members what they think. The first three items of the instructions were reflecting interpersonal understanding, whereas the latter three, perspective taking. Manipulation check. At the end of the task students responded to three items assessing group emotional awareness. The items for the manipulation check were: We knew how everyone felt just by looking at each other.; We could tell how everyone felt by listening to the tone of our voices., and Most of the time, we had a good sense of how each group member felt, even if they did not express it in words. The Cronbachs alpha for this scale was .65. Groups in the emotional awareness condition (means= 3.53, SD=.32) had a higher self-report of group emotional awareness (t-test=3.82, sig=.06) than control groups (i.e., without the awareness manipulation: means= 3.28, SD=.25). For diversity beliefs framing, a public announcement was made at the beginning of the exercise, informing them that based on previous experience, being in a gender diverse team is beneficial or detrimental to the task. This manipulation is based on van Knippenberg, Haslam and Platows (2007) own experimental manipulation of diversity beliefs. Manipulation check. For diversity beliefs framing, students had to first respond to a written question when they started to work. The question asked whether having a diverse group was beneficial/detrimental/irrelevant for the task. Only one student did not check according to the manipulation given, and we excluded him from the sample. Groups in each experimental condition worked in different rooms, in order to avoid the spill-over effects of the manipulations. At the end of the two-hour tasks students were peerevaluated on the solution to the case-study (the measure of team effectiveness). The controlled design in study 2 use of external evaluators for team performance were meant to complement the limits of the cross-sectional, self-report design in Study 1.

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Would you like to talk about that? How and when group emotional awareness enhances effectiveness of gender diverse teams

Performance evaluation: peer and supervisor evaluations. After an hour, all teams had to present their solution for the case study to their colleagues and the course supervisor (who is one of the authors). Independently, each other team and the professor assessed each presented solution upon three dimensions: practical relevance/impact, theoretical accuracy in the reasoning behind, creativity. These evaluations (given on a 1-10 scale) were the result of team consensus and they were given in writing at the end of the presentations. Following the evaluation on the three dimensions, students had to average their grades into one final grade. The evaluation of performance is the mean evaluation of all the peer team evaluations and the course supervisor.

Results
A two-way ANOVA was conducted to test for performance differences among the four experimental conditions, given by the combination of the diversity frame and emotional awareness manipulations. In this analysis, we controlled for actual gender diversity (which had a significant impact on performance: F (1, 16) = 4.94, p<.05). There was a significant interaction between group emotional awareness and diversity beliefs at p=.10: F (1, 16)=.27, p<.10. Simple main effects indicated that overall, teams with group emotional awareness norms (M=6.97, SD=.30) performed no different than teams without emotional awareness norms (M=7.09, SD=.37): F (1, 16) =.001, p=>.10. However, teams with positive diversity beliefs (M=.71, SD=.29) performed better than teams with negative diversity beliefs (M=6.86, SD=.36): F (1, 16)=.39, p<.05 (see Figure 2 for a graphic representation of these effects).

Figure 2. ANOVA plots for the performance of teams under the framing of diversity and group emotional awareness manipulations in Study 2 awareness norms condition (M = 7.32, 95% CI [7.06, 7.57]), p<.05. No significant differences were found between the conditions diversity is beneficial and group emotional awareness norms (M = 6.97, 95% CI [6.77, 7.17]) and diversity is detrimental and group emotional awareness norms (M = 6.98, 95% CI [5.64,

Multiple comparisons of the four groups indicate that the groups in the condition diversity is detrimental and without group emotional awareness norms (M = 6.79, 95% CI [6.54, 7.12]) had a significantly lower performance than the ones in the diversity is beneficial and without group emotional
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Would you like to talk about that? How and when group emotional awareness enhances effectiveness of gender diverse teams

8.31]). In other words, both the groups that do or do not have diversity beliefs have similar performances, provided they share group emotional awareness norms.

General discussion
The results obtained both in organizational as well as experimental settings support the usefulness of fostering group emotional awareness and specify conditions for its utility. First, our findings show that gender homogenous teams benefit more from it as compared to gender heterogeneous teams. Our evidence shows that there are instances when group emotional awareness in diverse teams can indeed focus the attention and resources of the team on the affective dynamics experienced, to the detriment of focusing on the task processes. With this finding, we align to previous researches who confirm that working in homogenous teams is easier than working in diverse ones (Roberge & van Dick, 2010) However, starting from these findings, we went beyond looking only at actual diversity, and tried to explain the impact of group emotional awareness in gender diverse teams by also taking into account the diversity beliefs of teams. We hence found out that although group emotional awareness does not improve the effectiveness of diverse teams that hold positive diversity beliefs, it can cancel the disruptive effects of negative diversity beliefs. In the following lines, we explore possible mechanisms for these findings. Resource allocation theory posits that we have a finite resource pool (Kahneman, 1973; Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989) from which group processes draw. Emotionally aware groups automatically allocate resources for the identification and appraisal of emotions generated by group interactions. Homogenous groups however, are then able to deal with them while using less attention and energetic resources because same gender members are likely to share norms for emotional expression and communication (Brescoll & Uhlmann, 2008). They do so via implicit coordination processes, which imply the existence of a shared mental model on dealing with emotions (Espinosa, Lerch & Kraut, 2004). These models form with more difficulty in diverse, as opposed to homogenous teams (Rico et al, 2008), because of gender stereotypes on differences in emotional

experience and expression. The salience of gender categorization, along with gender stereotyping on emotionality, makes the awareness of emotional dynamics more difficult to tackle. While homogenous groups can coordinate this process implicitly, diverse groups might need to coordinate explicitly via communication processes (Espinosa, Lerch & Kraut, 2004). Hence, they need to tackle issues in a systematic, as opposed to automatic, manner. Thus, they block a larger share of their energetic and time resources, in the detriment of working on the task at hand, which reflects on decreased effectiveness (all conditions being equal). This is why homogenous teams benefit more from group emotional awareness than heterogeneous ones (as shown in Study 1). This finding aligns with previous research on highly aware teams of novices, which, lacking intervention (i.e., regulatory) skills (Elfenbein, 2006), are blocked by the realization of their emotional dynamics and do not know what to do about it. In the same study, it was suggested that more mature teams, who also have regulatory processes in place, benefit tremendously from awareness processes. In other words, our results point to the fact that awareness is only as useful as the skills of dealing with the newlyunderstood situation go. The question raised then for future research is: what happens if teams would build from the start norms regarding the regulation of group emotions? How would group emotional awareness impact then heterogeneous (and homogeneous) groups? Our second study looked more in-depth at the added value of group emotional awareness for diverse teams, depending on their diversity beliefs. As our results in Study 2 indicate, although group emotional awareness does not improve the effectiveness of diverse teams that hold positive diversity beliefs, group emotional awareness can in fact compensate for the lack of value-in-diversity beliefs in a team (or, extrapolating, in an organization). Most stereotypes people hold are implicit and acting in an automatic fashion (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). Given this proposition, part of the cognitive interventions on stimulating a diversity climate are doomed to fail (Pendry et al, 2007). However, our results indicate that when we should fail to create a pro-diversity climate in teams through direct cognitive interventions, we can still intervene by offering group emotional awareness norms. Rather than tackling the

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Would you like to talk about that? How and when group emotional awareness enhances effectiveness of gender diverse teams

categorization issue, these norms focus on the affective side of interpersonal interaction. Research on exposure to individuals of a negatively stereotyped category indicated that we end up accepting the individual, without changing our opinion on the category (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). Group emotional awareness norms use this existing mechanism in order to bring about the same positive effects as diversity beliefs, but by using the affective, rather than the cognitive path to change.

Limitations and future directions

Next to its contributions, our study has several limitations: The first study is based on a cross sectional design and although gender diversity is a group design feature (unlikely to be influenced by the other measurements), we cannot draw clear causal inferences based on the first study. This limitation is partly addressed in the second experimental study. The limit of the second study, in this respect, is that the pool of participants we had access to for the experimental manipulation limited us in working with mainly diverse groups. Therefore, we could not replicate the results of the homogenousheterogeneous comparison of study 1 in study 2, before building further on the diversity-beliefs arguments. Second, in the first study data for both independent and dependent variables were collected from the same source therefore this study is susceptible to the common method bias. In line with Evans (1985) we can argue that because we are testing an interaction effect the common method bias is less of a problem for our design. Furthermore, in order to maintain a straightforward design, the first study does not take into account other moderators of diversity indicated by extant literature. We also tried to compensate for this limitation in the multiple data-source design used in study 2. Another limitation of this research is the fact that we did not assess directly team shared mental models or implicit coordination processes in either of the two studies. However, the present research aligns with existing models of implicit team coordination and adds to the affective dimension of these models (Espinosa et al, 2004; Fiore & Salas, 2004; Rico et al, 2008), and our results open future venues for research aimed at investigated these mechanisms more in depth.

For instance, a point to be raised for future research regards the fact that the detrimental short-term effects of group emotional awareness in diverse teams might unfold in different ways in the longer run. Previous research (Cureu, Boro & Oerlemans, 2012; Druskat & Wolff, 2007) has already pointed to the differential effects of emotional awareness and regulation processes in short-term as opposed to long-term groups. Team implicit coordination theorizing also points to the fact that initial costs diverse teams bear might in time bring them benefits in the complexity of their shared mental model, reflecting hence upon their performance (Rico et al, 2008). Therefore, the exploration of groups having a longer tenure will bring valuable perspectives on these mechanisms.

Limitations and future directions

In answer to our initial question, we found no negative consequences of group emotional awareness, but different instances that make its positive impact more or less prominent. Since it is a group trait that requires energetic and time resources, it is important to know when to capitalize on emotional awareness norms in teams and when its superfluous to do so. Second, we find that group emotional awareness might be a precious, and insufficiently tapped yet, resource to deal with implicit stereotypes in diverse teams.

Practitioner points
Group emotional awareness is most effective in gender homogenous teams, because they deal with the acknowledged emotions in a more automatic manner, hence without interfering with work processes. When fostering group emotional awareness in gender diverse teams, make sure they also build emotion regulation norms upfront, so that being aware of the emotional dynamics would not block task processes. When running diversity awareness trainings in your organizations or your teams, remember to add group emotional awareness interventions to the traditional methods (which target cognitive modifications). This way, you would have two routes for targeting the desired change. Implementing group

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emotional awareness norms can counteract the impact of negative beliefs about diversity, by helping team members to see people instead of categories. It is an alternative type of intervention aimed at maximizing the benefits of gender diversity. Note: At the time of conducting this research, Smaranda Boro and Petru L. Cureu were working within the Department of Organisation Studies, Tilburg University, The Netherlands. Currently Smaranda Boro is working within the Area People and Organisation, Vlerick Business School, Belgium. The authors thank Rachelle op Heij for her contribution in the data collection process in Study 1. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Smaranda Boro, Vlerick Business School, Avenue du Boulevard 21, PO Box 23, 1210 Bruxelles, Belgium (e-mail: smaranda.boros@vlerick.com).

References
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Scala de evaluare a conducerii toxice adaptare romneasc

Marian Popa1, Violeta Rotrescu2, Coralia Sulea3, Patricia Albulescu4

Abstract
The current study aims at developing a Romanian version of the Toxic Leadership Scale (TLS) (Schmidt, 2008), based on a five dimensions model: abusive leadership, authoritarian leadership, narcissism, self-promotion and unpredictability. The data were collected from a sample of 352 participants, based on the snowball technique. The analyses offered information about reliability, construct and criterion validity. Each scale dimension showed good reliability (between .82 and .90), and also the global scale had good reliability (.95). The construct validity was analyzed by looking at the negative correlations of the TLS with the scores of the Romanian versions of two scales, Leader Member Exchange (rmean =-.52) and Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (rmean=-.46), and also with a sexual harassment scale (rmean =-.37). The exploratory factor analysis on the Romanian scale items showed a four latent factors model that explained 58.43% of the total variance: self-promotion, abusive leadership, unpredictability and authoritarianism. The criterion validity was indicated by the correlations with the satisfaction with the supervisor scale (between .47 and .56 for each of the 5 subscales and the TLS global score). Also we observed significant statistical differences, with above average effect sizes, between the participants with high turnover intent when compared with those with lower intent. Keywords: toxic leadership, job satisfaction, validity fidelity, scale adaptation

Rsum
La recherche vise raliser une version roumaine du questionnaire Toxic Leadership Scale (Schmidt, 2008), bas sur un modle compos de cinq dimensions: leadership abusif, leadership autoritaire, narcissisme, promotion de soi et imprvisibilit. Nous avons ajout aussi lchelle harclement sexuel. Les donnes recueillies sur un chantillon de 352 sujets, compose par la technique de boule de neige, ont t soumis une srie d'analyses visant la fidlit, la validit de construit et la validit de critre. Les calculs de fidlit ont montr un bon niveau de Cronbach alpha coefficients pour chaque dimension (entre .82 et .90) et le score global (.95). La validit de construit a t test par des corrlations ngatives avec les versions roumaines de deux barmes appliqus en parallle, Leader Member Exchange (rmdium =-.52) et le questionnaire sur le Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (rmdium=-.46) et aussi, avec un questionnaire de harclement sexuel (rmdium =.37). L'analyse factorielle exploratoire sur la version Roumaine du questionnaire a soutenu un modle quatre facteurs expliquant 58,43% de la variabilit totale: gocentrique, conduite abusive, l'imprvisibilit et l'autoritarisme. La validit de critre a t dmontr par des corrlations avec satisfaction de la chef (entre .47 et .56 pour chacune des cinq sous-chelles et le score global). En outre, des diffrences statistiquement significatives ont t obtenues et surtout les tailles d'effet moyennes entre le groupe de sujets qui ont t penss pour changer d'emploi et ceux qui n'ont pas envisag cette option. Mots-cls: leadership toxique, la satisfaction au travail, validit, fidlit, adaptation du questionnaire

Rezumat
Cercetarea are drept scop realizarea unei versiuni romneti a chestionarului Toxic Leadership Scale (Schmidt, 2008), bazat pe un model compus din 5 dimensiuni: conducere abuziv, conducere autoritar, narcisism, auto-promovare i imprevizibilitate. Datele recoltate pe un eantion de 352 subieci, constituit prin tehnica snowball, au fost supuse unei serii de analize care au vizat fidelitatea, validitatea de construct i
1,2

Univesitatea din Bucureti Adres de coresponden: marian.popa@fpse.unibuc.ro 3,4 Universitatea de Vest din Timioara 57

Scala de evaluare a conducerii toxice adaptare romneasc

validitatea de criteriu. Calculele de fidelitate au artat un nivel bun al coeficienilor Cronbach alfa pentru fiecare dimensiune (ntre .82 i .90) i pentru scorul global (.95). Validitatea de construct a fost probat prin corelaiile negative cu versiunile romneti a dou scale, aplicate n paralel: Leader Member Exchange (rmediu=-.52), Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (rmediu =-.46), precum i cu o scal de hruire sexual la locul de munc (rmediu =-.37). Analiza factorial exploratorie efectuat pe itemii scalei romneti a susinut un model cu patru factori care explic 58.43% din variabilitatea total: centrare pe sine, conducere abuziv, imprevizibilitate i autoritarism. Validitatea de criteriu a fost evideniat prin corelaiile cu satisfacia fa de ef (ntre .47 i .56, pentru fiecare din cele 5 subscale i scorul global). De asemenea, au fost obinute diferene statistic semnificative, cu mrimi ale efectului peste medie, ntre grupul subiecilor care s-au gndit s schimbe locul de munc i cei care nu au luat n considerarea aceast opiune. Cuvinte cheie: conducere toxic, satisfacie n munc, validitate, fidelitate, adaptare scal

Introducere
Viziunea negativ asupra comportamentului de conducere poate fi inclus n fenomenul denumit generic partea ntunecat a comportamentului organizaional (Griffin & O'Leary-Kelly, 2004). n abordrile tradiionale, liderii sunt analizai dintr-o perspectiv pozitiv, n care accentul este pus pe trsturi, comportamente sau contexte situaionale care asigur succesul conducerii. Totui, n realitatea organizaional angajaii se confrunt adesea cu efi dificili, care au un impact negativ, att asupra climatului ct i asupra performanei. ntr-un volum de referin privind conducerea toxic, Kellerman (2004) apreciaz c abordarea conducerii dintr-o perspectiv exclusiv pozitiv are cel puin trei dezavantaje majore: creeaz confuzie (liderii sunt exponenii puterii, iar majoritatea oamenilor tind s aib mai degrab o prere negativ despre persoanele aflate n poziie de putere); induce n eroare (toate definiiile leadershipului sunt neutre din punct de vedere valoric, dei liderii din viaa real sunt ntotdeauna buni sau ri); este contraproductiv (dei este normal s ne dorim conductori buni, gsirea i promovarea lor nu pot fi cu adevrat eficiente atta timp ct nu sunt analizai i cei ri). Conceptul de sindrom al efului toxic a aprut pentru prima dat n mediul virtual (Whicker, 1996), dar el se refer la o realitate care a fost abordat n literatura de specialitate sub diverse alte forme. Astfel, Kets de Vries i Miller (1985) au semnalat efectul negativ al narcisismului, ca trstur de personalitate, asupra comportamentului liderilor. Ali autori au legat narcisismul de conducerea carismatic i au semnalat posibile efecte negative ale charismei asupra performanei de conducere (O'Connor, Mumford, Clifton, Gessner, & Connelly, 1995;

Sankowsky, 1995). La rndul lui, Ashforth (1994) vorbete de liderul tiranic, care i exercit n mod discreionar i arbitrar puterea, cu un ego excesiv i supra-evaluativ, lipsit de consideraie i jignitor n relaiile cu subordonaii, descurajator fa de iniiativele acestora i conflictual. O alt abordare uzual se refer la conducerea distructiv. Revista Leadership Quarterly a dedicat n anul 2007 un ntreg numr acestui subiect. Einarsen, Aasland i Skogstad (2007, p. 207) definesc comportamentul de conducere distructiv ca fiind un comportament sistematic i repetat care ncalc interesele legitime ale organizaiei, prin subminarea i/sau sabotarea obiectivelor organizaiei, sarcinilor, resurselor, precum i eficiena i/sau motivarea, starea de bine sau satisfacia subordonailor lor. n acest tablou sunt incluse conduitele abuzive de tip verbal sau fizic, orientarea excesiv pe autopromovare, asumarea unui statut de impunitate pentru actele sale i blocarea oricrei tentative de schimbare a situaiei. Autorii propun i o clasificare format din trei tipuri: liderul tiranic (i asum obiectivele organizaiei, dar le atinge prin manipularea i umilirea subordonailor), liderul deviant (se angajeaz n activiti antiorganizaionale) i liderul suportiv-neloial (se angajeaz n relaii de complicitate cu subordonaii, mpotriva intereselor organizaiei). Goldman (2009) dedic un ntreg volum analizei relaiei dintre liderul distructiv i organizaia disfuncional. n fine, alte abordri fac referire la conducerea abuziv (engl. abusive leadership), care se manifest prin comportamente ostile sau agresive, sub diverse forme, verbale sau fizice (Tepper, 2000, 2007). Indiferent de eticheta utilizat, toate abordrile sugereaz c este vorba de un construct multidimensional. Diferenele apar doar n accentul care se pune pe una sau alta

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dintre componente asupra fenomenului conducerii negative. ntr-un articol despre partea ntunecat a conducerii (engl. dark side of leadership), Conger (1990) identifica trei aspecte care pot avea efecte negative n exercitarea conducerii: o viziune strategic contraproductiv (de ex., discordana dintre aspiraiile personale i obiectivele organizaiei), deficiene de comunicare i management al impresiei (comunicare superficial, promovarea unei imagini greite) i practici de conducere (intoleran la iniiative, agresivitate etc.). Ali autori pun accentul pe trsturi de personalitate ca narcisismul (Kets de Vries & Miller, 1985; Whicker 1996) sau agresivitatea (Ferris, Zinko, Brouer, Buckley, & Harvey, 2007). Abordnd o perspectiv sistemic i folosind drept exemplu cariera liderului cubanez Fidel Castro, Padilla, Hogan i Kaiser (2007) definesc conducerea distructiv ca fiind expresia unui triunghi toxic compus din: caracteristici negative ale liderului, subordonai permisivi i mediu organizaional favorizant. n acest context, apariia conceptului de lider toxic (engl. toxic leadership) vine s amplifice oarecum lipsa de consisten a definiiilor existente i este legitim s ne punem ntrebarea dac noiunile de conducere distructiv, tiranic, abuziv, disfuncional i toxic acoper aceeai realitate. Mai nti de toate se cuvine s punctm faptul c expresia conducere toxic face carier cu precdere n cercurile de management, mai mult dect n literatura tiinific din domeniul psihologiei industrial-organizaionale. Asocierea caracteristicii de toxicitate cu actul de conducere pare s fie mai penetrabil sub aspect publicistic i, implicit, s creasc interesul pentru aceast realitate. Trecnd n revist cteva dintre definiiile conducerii toxice, vom putea constata att suprapunerile, ct i diferenele fa de definiiile evocate mai sus. Astfel, Lipmani Blumen (2004, 2005) consider c leadership-ul toxic se refer la comportamente distructive i caracteristici personale ale liderilor, accentund faptul c acestea provoac prejudicii grave i de durat att celor care accept, ct i celor care nu accept s fie condui, dar i organizaiei. Referindu-se n mod explicit la mediul militar, Reed (2004, 2010) consider c principala deficien a conductorului toxic se regsete n planul relaiilor umane, un astfel de lider fiind o otrav pentru unitatea pe care o conduce.

Acesta este, de regul, plin de sine, abuziv, distructiv n raport cu relaiile interpersonale i indiferent la climatul din unitatea pe care o conduce. Schmidt (2008) consider c leadershipul toxic se definete printr-o combinaie specific de comportamente negative din care fac parte: manifestarea unor emoii extreme i impredictibile; absena inteligenei emoionale; lipsa sensibilitii culturale i interpersonale; motivarea orientat aproape exclusiv pe propriile interese; influenarea negativ a celorlali (de exemplu, hruire, antaj, ridiculizare etc.). Krasikova (2011) i fundamenteaz definiia pe ceea ce consider a fi cele dou manifestri eseniale ale conducerii toxice: obiective distructive i aciuni distructive. n opinia ei, avem de-a face cu o conducere distructiv atunci cnd liderul urmrete n mod intenionat obiective care contravin intereselor legitime ale organizaiei sau subordonailor ori utilizeaz un stil de conducere care le aduce prejudicii acestora, indiferent de modul de justificare a acestor prejudicii. n spiritul acestei definiii, conducerea toxic include i manifestrile deliberate care intr sub incidena legii: furtul, corupia, vnzarea secretelor, sabotajul sau trdarea. Aceeai autoare definete trei elemente cheie ale sindromului conducerii toxice: indiferena i lipsa de preocupare pentru confortul psihic al subordonailor; trsturi de personalitate i caracteristici relaionale care afecteaz negativ climatul organizaional; inducerea n rndul subordonailor a convingerii c acioneaz exclusiv n numele interesului personal (Krasikova, op. cit). Dac analizm toate aceste definiii, ajungem la concluzia c toxicitatea conducerii este un fenomen complex, de natur individual, relaional i contextual. Dei punctul central l constituie comportamentul liderului, exercitat n mod contient i deliberat, evoluia spre starea de toxicitate are loc doar n contextul unui rspuns tolerant din partea subordonailor i pe fondul unui mediu organizaional permisiv. Avnd n vedere specificul extrem al manifestrilor toxice de conducere ne putem atepta ca acestea s fie mai puin frecvente. Totui, nu putem ignora faptul c liderul toxic induce team, iar aceasta blocheaz transparena, transformnd mediul respectiv ntr-o oal sub presiune, care nu las s se vad ce este cu adevrat nuntrul ei. Acest raionament este cu att mai adevrat n organizaiile cu structuri autoritare (armat, poliie etc.). Un studiu cu

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privire la prevalena tipurilor de conducere toxic n armata norvegian, efectuat de Aasland, Skogstad, Notelaers, Nielsen i Einarsen (2010), a condus la concluzia c frecvena comportamentelor toxice n actul de comand nu este o anomalie. Practic, utiliznd dou metode de evaluare, conducerea toxic a fost detectat ntr-un procent de 33,5%, respectiv 61%. Pe primul loc s-a poziionat stilul pasiv laissez faire, urmat de stilul neloial insensibil i de cel deviant. O alt concluzie a acestui studiu este c la aceiai comandani se pot ntlni att comportamente de conducere constructive, ct i distructive. Un amplu sondaj de opinie efectuat n rndul militarilor americani a indicat c mai mult de 80% dintre acetia au observat manifestri specifice conducerii toxice la comandanii lor n ultimul an, iar 20% au afirmat c ei nii sunt subordonaii direci ai unor astfel de comandani (Jaffe, 2011; Tan & Gould, 2011). Efectele conducerii toxice sunt foarte variate i pot fi clasificate n trei mari categorii: efecte asupra subordonailor (comportamentele liderului afecteaz ncrederea, starea de bine i eficiena individual, precum i relaiile interpersonale), efecte asupra organizaiei (comportamentele liderului afecteaz prestigiul i performana organizaiei) i efecte cumulate (Popa, 2012). De cele mai multe ori conducerea toxic exercit o presiune puternic asupra subordonailor, acetia trebuind s aleag dac se conformeaz i rmn n organizaie sau o prsesc. Jaffe (2011) observ c rmnerea i acceptarea mediului toxic nseamn de cele mai multe ori asumarea unei stri de resemnare, reducerea nivelului de ateptri i a motivaiei, asumarea unei atitudini de supravieuire, bazat pe un conformism pasiv i sperana c situaia se va modifica dup ce liderul respectiv va fi nlocuit sau promovat. Din pcate, acest mecanism induce un proces ciclic de autoperpetuare a conducerii toxice care poate afecta sever moralul i eficiena organizaiei. Un studiu efectuat de Pfister (2011) n rndul participanilor la un curs multinaional organizat de Colegiul Naional de Aprare din Elveia, a indicat existena unei corelaii pozitive ntre conducerea toxic i stresul emoional (.59), precum i corelaii negative cu ncrederea n comandani (-.42) i cu motivaia (-.66).

Obiectivul cercetrii
Beneficiind de acordul autorului, ne-am propus ca obiectiv general realizarea unei versiuni romneti a scalei Toxic Leadership (TLS). Obiectivele specifice au vizat traducerea i adaptarea itemilor, analiza de fidelitate a scalei TLS i subscalelor acesteia, evaluarea validitii de construct i a validitii de criteriu pe eantionul romnesc.

Metoda
Participani Cercetarea s-a desfurat pe un eantion de 352 de subieci, dintre care 114 brbai, cu vrste cuprinse ntre 22 i 66 de ani (m=40.07, ab.std.=11.42) i 235 femei, cu vrste cuprinse ntre 19 i 63 de ani (m=37.16, ab.std.=10.06). Pentru constituirea eantionului am utilizat tehnica snowball. Practic, ntr-o prim etap, chestionarul a fost aplicat pe studenii de la cteva programe de master, din cadrul facultilor de psihologie de la Universitatea din Bucureti i Universitatea de Vest din Timioara. Condiia de includere a fost aceea de a avea un loc de munc de cel puin un an. Ulterior, studeni voluntari, de la ciclul de master sau de licen, au primit cte trei chestionare pentru a le aplica unor persoane din anturaj, de preferin prini sau rude apropiate, cu experien de munc. Am insistat pe cerina ca persoanele investigate s se afle ntr-o relaie apropiat cu studenii pentru a favoriza o asumare responsabil n completarea chestionarului, dat fiind numrul mare de itemi. Avnd n vedere modul de constituire a eantionului, compoziia profesional a acestuia este extrem de eterogen.

Metode Toxic Leadership Scale, elaborat de Schmidt (2008), este un chestionar multidimensional cu rspunsuri de tip Lickert, cotate pe 6 niveluri (1=foarte mic msur; 6=foarte mare msur). Dimensiunile scalei au fost alese pe baza unei analize calitative extensive a literaturii tiinifice i unei serii de focus-grupuri. n urma acestui proces au fost generai 105 itemi, care au fost repartizai prin tehnica Q-Sort n cinci categorii distincte, corespunztoare dimensiunilor stabilite anterior. Mai departe, toi aceti itemi au fost aplicai pe un eantion de subieci. n urma unei analize factoriale exploratorii, autorul a selecionat n

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total 30 de itemi, repartizai n urmtoarele cinci dimensiuni: - auto-promovare (5 itemi - exemple: i nvinovete subordonaii ca s scape basma curat; Caut n mod constant s i se recunoasc meritele personale de ctre superiorul su) - conducere abuziv (7 itemi - exemple: Comunic n mod agresiv cu subordonaii; i umilete subordonaii n faa altora) - imprevizibilitate (7 itemi - exemple: i modific frecvent cerinele fa de subordonai; Climatul la locul de munc este marcat de starea lui de spirit) - narcisism (5 itemi - exemple: Are impresia c totul i se cuvine; Crede despre sine c este o persoan cu caliti speciale) - conducere autoritar (6 itemi - exemple: Are un comportament dominator fa de subordonai; Impune subordonailor s se supun total cerinelor sale). Att cele cinci subscale, ct i indicele global de toxicitate a conducerii au fost supuse analizei de fidelitate. Pentru evaluarea validitii de construct, au fost aplicate concomitent dou scale: Leader Member Exchange (LMX), care evalueaz gradul n care liderii manifest respect i ncredere fa de subordonai (Dansereau, Graen, & Haga, 1975; Scandura & Graen, 1984; Scandura, 1994) i Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), care msoar diverse aspecte ale conducerii transformaionaltranzacionale (Avolio & Bass, apud Schmidt, 2008; Muenjohn & Armstrong, 2008). Pentru evaluarea validitii de criteriu, chestionarul a cuprins un item cu rspuns binar (DA/NU) pentru intenia prsirii locului de munc i o scal de evaluare a satisfaciei n munc format din patru itemi (postul de munc, colegi, ef i salariu), cu rspuns de tip Lickert pe 7 niveluri de cotare (1=foarte nesatisfcut; 7=foarte satisfcut). Rezultatele obinute pe eantionul american vor fi prezentate comparativ cu eantionul nostru, n seciunea rezultate. Studiul nostru este n bun msur o replic a studiului efectuat de Schmidt (2008) pentru realizarea scalei TL pe populaia american. n acest scop, am utilizat ntregul set de 105 itemi dezvoltai de autor i nu doar cei 30 de itemi selectai n versiunea final a scalei americane. Dei a presupus un volum mai mare de munc, am considerat c aceast soluie ne ofer a asigurare de risc pentru cazul n care unii dintre itemii originali nu ar funciona adecvat pe populaia romneasc.

Pentru obinerea versiunii romneti a scalei TLS, toi cei 105 itemi selectai iniial de autor au fost supui unui proces laborios de traducere i adaptare. Pornind de la o traducere iniial, am realizat o serie succesiv de analize de coninut pentru fiecare item, n cadrul colectivului de autori, pn am ajuns la un consens cu privire la forma final a tuturor itemilor. n paralel cu scala TLS, am supus aceluiai proces de adaptare i cele dou scale utilizate de Smith (op. cit.) ca suport pentru analiza validitii de construct divergent, ambele msurnd dintr-o perspectiv pozitiv relaia dintre efi i subordonai: LMX (7 itemi, cu rspuns de tip Lickert pe 7 niveluri) i MLQ (45 itemi cu rspuns de tip Lickert, pe 5 niveluri). Alturi de aceste dou scale, am adugat i o scal de hruire sexual la locul de munc, compus din 7 itemi, cu rspunsuri de tip Lickert pe 5 niveluri, cu scopul de a investiga validitatea de construct dintr-o perspectiv convergent.

Rezultate
Analiza preliminar a datelor n aceast etap am verificat corectitudinea datelor i am analizat valorile lips. Pe ansamblul ntregii baze de date am identificat un procent de 0.39% valori lips, pe care l-am apreciat ca fiind foarte mic. Ca urmare, n cazul variabilelor cu rspuns cantitativ, am procedat la nlocuirea valorilor lips cu mediile variabilelor respective. Analiza comparativ a rezultatelor pentru baza de date cu valori lips i cea cu valorile lips nlocuite arat rezultate practic identice. Tabelul 1 sintetizeaz principalii indicatori statistici descriptivi ai scorurilor obinute cu scalele menionate mai sus. Principalul obiectiv al acestei analize const n verificarea condiiilor impuse de utilizarea testelor parametrice, n principal normalitatea distribuiilor. Pragurile de semnificaie ale testului Shapiro-Wilk nu susin ipoteza normalitii, dar acest fapt este uzual, avnd n vedere faptul c acest test este recunoscut ca avnd o putere ridicat, fiind foarte sensibil chiar i la abateri mici de la normalitate (Razali & Wah, 2010). Analiznd valorile indicatorilor de asimetrie i boltire n conformitate cu pragurile propuse de Blanca, Arnau, Lpez-Montiel, Bono, i Bendayan (2013), putem constata c cele mai multe dintre acestea se plaseaz n categoria devierilor

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uoare (.26-.75), singura scal pentru care aceti indicatori intr n zona de abatere moderat fiind scala hruire sexual. n concluzie, avnd n vedere volumul

relativ ridicat al eantionului i abaterile relativ mici de la parametrii distribuiei normale, ne-am asumat condiia de normalitate impus de testele parametrice.

Tabelul 1. Statistici descriptive (N=352)

Media Valoare Er.std. 4.03 .06 3.75 .06 3.97 .06 4.50 .07 4.20 .06 4.12 .06 2.78 .02 3.71 .08 3.98 .06 2.05 .05 Ab. std. 1.29 1.29 1.22 1.32 1.23 1.14 .53 1.49 1.13 1.02 Skewness -.52 -.22 -.60 -.80 -.63 -.67 .41 .25 -.12 1.25 Kurtosis -.65 -.99 -.36 -.31 -.49 -.43 -.01 -.77 .04 1.42 Shapiro-Wilk p<.0005 p<.0005 p<.0005 p<.0005 p<.0005 p<.0005 p=.001 p<.0005 p=.01 p<.0005

Auto-Promovare Conducere abuziv Imprevizibilitate Narcisism Conducere autoritar Scor global TLS MLQ LMX Satisfacie n munc Hruire sexual

Analiza de fidelitate Fidelitatea este una dintre calitile cruciale ale unei scale, deoarece reprezint un indicator esenial al erorii de msurare i are un impact direct asupra validitii. n condiiile n care am avut o singur aplicare, forma cea mai accesibil de fidelitate este consistena intern, bazat pe corelaia inter-itemi. Am utilizat coeficientul mediu de corelaie intra-clas, echivalent al coeficientului Cronbach alfa. Avantajul acestei soluii este acela c, atunci cnd este calculat cu SPSS obinem i limitele intervalului de ncredere, care sunt insistent recomandate de muli autori (Duhachek & Iacobucci, 2004; Gliem & Gliem, 2003; Knapp, 2013; Koning & Franses, 2003). Indicii de consisten intern pe care i-am obinut au fost de nivel ridicat, similari cu cei calculai pe eantionul american. Singura excepie a constitut-o scala conducere autoritar, al crui indice Cronbach alfa a atins o valoare modest (.64), aflat la limita acceptabilitii. Corelaiile celor 6 itemi cu scala nu au depit valoarea .36, plasndu-se chiar sub pragul .10 n cazul a doi dintre acetia: Controleaz modul n care subordonaii i ndeplinesc sarcinile i Se implic n toate deciziile, chiar dac sunt importante sau nu. Dat fiind coninutul explicit al itemilor, este greu de presupus c problema a aprut ca urmare a

unei imperfeciuni de traducere. Cel mai probabil este vorba de o diferen cultural. Comparativ cu angajaii americani, cei din Romnia par s nu aprecieze drept toxic tendina efilor de a controla modul n care i fac treaba. Am soluionat problema prin refacerea acestei subscale cu ajutorul celor 14 itemi de baz ai dimensiunii conducere autoritar. n final, am selectat o configuraie de 6 itemi pentru care valoarea Cronbach alfa a atins un nivel comparativ cu al celorlalte subscale (vezi tabelul 2). Coeficienii de consisten intern pentru scalele destinate analizei de validitate sunt prezentai n tabelul 3. n acest caz, singura situaie problematic o consemnm pentru scala de satisfacie n munc, format doar din patru itemi. Dei relativ sczut (.61), nivelul fidelitii poate fi acceptat ca mulumitor, dac avem n vedere c aceast scal este compus doar din 4 itemi, care sunt i foarte eterogeni, fiecare item referindu-se la surse divergente de satisfacie: eful, colegii, salariul, postul. De altfel, intenia autorului scalei TLS a fost ca acestea s fie utilizate ca scale cu un singur item n procedura de validare de criteriu.

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Tabelul 2. Coeficienii Cronbach alfa pentru subscalele TLS i scorul global

Nr. itemi 5 7 7 5 6 30 Eantion romnesc (N=352) Alfa .82 .88 .89 .90 .88 .95 95%CI .78-.84 .85-.89 .87-.90 .88-.91 .86-.90 .94-.95 Eantion american (N=216) alfa .91 .93 .92 .88 .89 .97 95%CI .88-.92 .91-.94 .90-.93 .85-.90 .86-.91 .96-.97

Scala

Auto-promovare Conducere abuziv Imprevizibilitate Narcisism Conducere autoritar Scor global TLS

Tabelul 3. Coeficienii de fidelitate ai scalelor de validare

Eantion romnesc Alfa MLQ LMX Satisfacie n munc Hruire sexual .90 .91 .61 .85 95% CI .89-.92 .90-.92 .54-.68 .82-.87 Eantion american alfa .77 .93 95% CI .72-.81 .91-.94 -

Validitatea de construct Presupunerea fundamental pe care se ntemeiaz construcia i utilizarea unei scale este aceea c scorul rezultat descrie construct care are semnificaia psihologic atribuit, n cazul nostru, toxicitatea conducerii. Evaluarea validitii de construct este o sarcin dificil i complex, care nu poate fi niciodat considerat suficient sau ncheiat. Ea se bazeaz pe o acumulare continu de dovezi i argumente care pot fi uneori i discordante. n sprijinul validitii de construct pot fi aduse dovezi calitative i indicatori cantitativi, fr s existe totui un indicator cantitativ unic, dedicat (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955). Cel mai puternic argument calitativ n favoarea validitii de construct al scalei TLS i subscalelor sale, const n nsui procesul de fundamentare teoretic i de generare a itemilor. Utilizarea focus grupului pentru identificarea dimensiunilor, precum i a tehnicii Q-Sort pentru clasificarea itemilor, pot fi considerate dovezi concludente n sprijinul validitii de construct. Argumentaia cantitativ, la rndul ei, poate fi constituit pe baza unor dovezi variate. Un prim argument, dintre cele mai simple, poate fi considerat asimetria sistematic negativ a distribuiilor subscalelor i scalei TLS n

ansamblul ei. Instructajul chestionarului cuprinde cerina ca subiecii s rspund la itemi avnd drept reper cel mai dificil ef pe care l-au avut vreodat. Ca urmare, este normal s ne ateptm ca rspunsurile s se concentreze pe valorile mari ale scalei, ceea ce conduce firesc la o asimetrie negativ a scorurilor. Avnd dovada unei asimetrii negative sistematice, putem considera c subiecii s-au referit cu adevrat la efi cu manifestri negative ale comportamentului de conducere. Un al doilea argument cantitativ n sprijinul validitii de construct pot fi considerate nsei valorile ridicate ale coeficienilor de consisten intern Cronbach alfa (Bagozzi, Yi, & Phillips, 1991; Clark, & Watson, 1995; Cook, & Beckman, 2006). Consistena intern reprezint, cu anumite limite, gradul de concentrare a constructului cu itemii care l compun, iar acest aspect reprezint un argument util, chiar dac insuficient, pentru validitatea de construct. O problem care trebuie avut n vedere este aceea a dimensionalitii. Aa cum tim, coeficientul Cronbach alfa nu este un indicator precis al unidimensionalitii (Cortina, 1993; Schmitt, 1996; . Tan, 2009), ci estimeaz mai ales concentraia primului factor (Cronbach, 1951). n cazul nostru, conducerea toxic este un construct compus din cinci dimensiuni, care se
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doresc a fi distincte. Ca urmare, ne-am pus problema unidimensionalitii doar pentru cele cinci subscale TLS. Analiza factorial a acestora a generat pentru fiecare dintre ele doar cte un singur factor, ceea ce reprezint, alturi de nivelul relativ ridicat al indicilor Cronbach alfa, un argument cantitativ suplimentar n sprijinul validitii de construct. n ce privete scorul global al scalei TLS, acesta este prin definiie un construct multidimensional, a crui validitate de construct impune o perspectiv factorial. n ciuda tentaiei de a utiliza analiza factorial de confirmare, am urmat recomandarea fcut de Byrne (2001, p. 99), care consider c Aplicarea analizei factoriale de confirmare pe instrumente aflate n etapele iniiale de dezvoltare reprezint o serioas eroare de utilizare a acestei strategii analitice. Prin testarea validitii structurii factoriale a unui chestionar, cercettorul caut s determine msura n care fiecare item alocat unui anumit factor i aparine acestuia cu adevrat. n general, subscalele unui instrument de msur sunt considerate a reprezenta factorii, iar ca urmare, toi itemii unei anumite subscale este de

ateptat s ncarce factorii n care au fost inclui. n consecin, am procedat la o analiz exploratorie a structurii factoriale n care am inclus toi cei 30 de itemi ai versiunii romneti a scalei TLS. Avnd n vedere c obiectivul nostru este adaptarea scalei, acest demers nu poate viza dect identificarea structurii teoretice latente care explic variabilitatea rspunsurilor la itemii scalei, i nu reconfigurarea dimensiunilor sau a componenei acestora. Rezultatele pe care le vom prezenta mai jos au fost obinute cu metoda principal axis factoring i tehnica de rotaie ortogonal Varimax. Aa cum se tie, aceast tehnic impune restricia de generare a unor factori ortogonali. Dei cele cinci dimensiuni prezint corelaii consistente ntre ele (vezi tabelul 4), ceea ce ar fi sugerat utilizarea unei rotaii oblice, am preferat s reinem o soluie factorial cu rotaie ortogonal, deoarece scopul nostru a fost acela de a explora existena unei structuri factoriale ideale, cu factori necorelai, care s ne permit identificarea componentelor definitorii ale constructului conducerii toxice.

Tabelul 4. Intercorelaiile scalelor TLS pe eantionul romnesc (sub diagonal) i american (deasupra diagonalei)
1 2 3 4 5 6 Scale Auto-Promovare Conducere abuziv Imprevizibilitate Narcisism Conducere autoritar Scor global TLS 1 1 .75 .72 .82 .76 .90 2 .83 1 .75 .69 .80 .89 3 .73 .81 1 .74 .77 .88 4 .75 .70 .69 1 .77 .90 5 .79 .80 .76 .73 1 .91 6 .91 .93 .90 .84 .91 1

De altfel, n opinia noastr, prima opiune n alegerea tehnicii de rotaie pentru analiza factorial exploratorie ar trebui s fie rotaia ortogonal, rotaia oblic fiind recomandabil mai ales dac nu se obine o soluie ortogonal interpretabil. n cazul nostru, reinerea soluiei bazat pe rotaia ortogonal a fost justificat i de constatarea c, aplicnd alte tehnici factoriale, inclusiv cu rotaie oblic, am obinut o soluii factoriale similare. Acest fapt confirm concluzia unor autori care consider c analiza factorial produce rezultate similare, indiferent de diferitele metode de extragere a factorilor i de tipurile de rotaie utilizate (Guadagnoli &

Velicer, 1988; Snook & Gorsuch, 1989; Watson et al., apud Clark & Watson, 1994). n urma explorrii factoriale a versiunii romneti a scalei TLS am reinut o soluie interpretabil cu patru factori, uor diferit de structura celor cinci factori propui de autorul scalei. mpreun, aceti patru factori, reinui pe baza valorilor eigenvalue i a graficului screeplot, acoper 58.43% din variaia total a rspunsurilor, i i-am identificat dup cum urmeaz: - Factorul 1 (18.15%; eigenvalue=15.37), pe care l-am identificat sub denumirea centrare pe sine, este ncrcat cu un mix de itemi ai

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dimensiunilor narcisism i autopromovare. Acest factor, constituit prin combinaia dintre imaginea de sine pozitiv i ambiia de promovare, definete aspectul principal al conducerii toxice. n esen, liderul toxic este caracterizat de ceea ce am putea numi narcisism cu propensiune de promovare ierarhic. - Factorul 2 (14.51%, eigenvalue=1.49), identificat sub eticheta comportament abuziv, este ncrcat cu itemii aparinnd dimensiunii comportament abuziv. Acest factor atribuie conducerii toxice caracteristica de a iei din normele uzuale, scrise sau nescrise, sub aspectul atitudinilor i comportamentelor n raport cu subordonaii. - Factorul 3 (14.22%, eigenvalue=1.24), identificat sub eticheta imprevizibilitate, este ncrcat cu itemi aparinnd dimensiunii omonime a scalei TLS originale. Coninutul acestui factor sugereaz c liderul toxic este o persoan capricioas i instabil, cu un efect de contagiune emoional asupra subordonailor. - Factorul 4 (11.53%, eigenvalue=0.93), identificat sub eticheta autoritarism, este ncrcat cu itemii aparinnd dimensiunii

comportament autoritar. Acest factor scoate n eviden faptul c liderilor toxici li se atribuie un comportament rigid n aplicarea reglementrilor, tendine spre abuz normativ i control excesiv. Al treilea argument cantitativ n favoarea validitii de construct l reprezint coeficienii de corelaie care probeaz convergena cu constructe similare sau corelaiile care pun n eviden divergena cu scale care msoar constructe diferite. n studiul nostru, au fost aplicate, n paralel cu scala TLS, scalele Leader Member Exchange (LMX), Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), care evalueaz calitatea relaiei de conducere din perspectiv pozitiv, ceea ce le recomand pentru evaluarea validitii de construct divergente. Am utilizat, de asemenea o scal de hruire sexual (HS), care vizeaz un aspect negativ al relaiei ef-subordonat. Avnd n vedere semnificaia scalelor de validare, constructul conducerii toxice se poate considera validat dac are corelaii negative cu scalele LMX i MLQ, i corelaii pozitive cu scala de hruire sexual (vezi tabelul 5).

Tabelul 5. Corelaiile dintre scalele TLS cu scalele de validare LMX, MLQ i HS, comparativ pentru eantionul romnesc i american
Scale Auto-Promovare Conducere abuziv Imprevizibilitate Narcisism Conducere autoritar Scor global TLS rm Eantion romnesc LMX MLQ HS -.54 -.46 .37 -.58 -.49 .49 -.46 -.39 .37 -.48 -.36 .30 -.54 -.44 .34 -.71 -.47 .41 -.52 -.42 .37 Eantion american LMX MLQ -.74 -.67 -.72 -.63 -.64 -.58 -.58 -.49 -.71 -.66 -.76 -.68 -.69 -.62

1 2 3 4 5 6

Note: - Toate corelaiile sunt semnificative statistic, la un p<0.0005 - Pe linia rm se afl corelaiile medii ale subscalelor TLS (fr scorul global TLS) cu scalele de validare

Corelaiile din tabelul 5 pot fi analizate din mai multe perspective: - n primul rnd, constatm corelaii sistematic negative i de mrime moderat, ntre scalele TLS, inclusiv scorul global TLS, cu scalele LMX i MLQ. Semnul negativ al corelaiilor este concordant cu faptul c cele

dou scale de validare msoar aspecte pozitive ale comportamentului de conducere. Aceste rezultatele reprezint un argument n sprijinul validitii de construct. - n al doilea rnd, putem lua n considerare diferena dintre corelaiile convergente (media coeficienilor de corelaie
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Scala de evaluare a conducerii toxice adaptare romneasc

dintre subscalele TLS) i corelaiile divergente (media corelaiilor scalelor TLS cu scalele LMX i MLQ). Validitatea de construct a scalei TLS ar fi confirmat de o corelaie medie convergent mai mare i statistic semnificativ diferit fa de corelaia medie divergent. Argumentul n favoarea acestui raionament este dat de faptul c dac scalele TLS ar msura un construct perfect similar cu scalele LMX, MLQ, atunci mediile corelaiilor convergente i divergente ar fi identice. Evident, n acest caz lum n considerare valoarea absolut a corelaiilor, nu i semnul lor. Efectund calculele, am obinut o corelaie convergent (intrascal) medie rCON=.75 i o corelaie divergent (extrascal) medie rDIV=.48. Testul diferenei dintre aceti doi coeficieni medii are valoarea z=3.71, care corespunde unui prag de semnificaie p=0.0002. Acest rezultat susine concluzia c TLS are o contribuie unic, diferit de celelalte dou scale,

n msurarea comportamentului de conducere. - n al treilea rnd, constatm corelaii sistematic pozitive ntre subscalele TLS i scorul global TLS cu scala HS, care reprezint, de asemenea un argument n favoarea validitii de construct. Dintre toate corelaiile TLS cu HS, valoarea cea mai mare o are conducerea abuziv, ceea ce susine ipoteza c hruirea sexual poate fi considerat drept o component a conducerii toxice.

Validitatea de criteriu Pentru testarea validitii de criteriu am utilizat, n primul rnd, un set de patru itemi care evalueaz satisfacia n munc, pe o scal de la 1 (n foarte mic msur) la 7 (n foarte mare msur) (vezi tabelul 6).

Tabelul 6. Corelaiile scalelor TLS cu satisfacia n munc

Satisfacia n raport cu: Postul Colegii eful Salariul Scor global satisfacie -.35** (-.49) -.35** (-.47) -.32** (-.43) -.28** (-.37) -.34** (-.46) -.37**(-.48)

Auto-promovare -.20** -.05 -.52** -.16* Conducere abuziv -.20** -.08 -.53** -.14** ** ** Imprevizibilitate -.22 -.05 -.47 -.12** Narcisism -.19** -.01 -.48** -.08 ** Conducere autoritar -.20 -.04 -.52** -.14** Scor global TLS -.22** -.05 -.56** -.14** Not: *p<0.01; *p<0.05 ntre paranteze sunt coeficienii de corelaie corectai pentru atenuarea de fidelitate

Rezultatele confirm relaia negativ dintre indicatorii toxicitii conducerii i satisfacia n munc. O dovad convingtoare a validitii de criteriu este faptul c cele mai mari corelaii sunt cu satisfacia fa de ef. n acelai timp, toate scalele TLS au corelaii statistic nesemnificative cu satisfacia n raport cu colegii. Corelaii statistic semnificative, dar mici sau foarte mici, au rezultat n raport cu postul i salariul. n ce privete indicele global de satisfacie, calculat pe baza tuturor celor patru itemi, corelaiile sunt modeste i din cauza coeficientului de fidelitate relativ sczut, motiv pentru care am inclus ntre paranteze valorile corectate pentru atenuarea de fidelitate. Dac de referim doar la scorul global TLS, observm c acesta are valoarea cea mai ridicat n raport cu eful (-.56), comparativ cu
66

ceilali itemi de satisfacie. O a doua validare de criteriu a fost efectuat n raport cu itemul binar (DA/NU) care exprim intenia de prsire a postului de munc (vezi tabelul 7), ipoteza fiind aceea c subiecii care au declarat c s-au gndit s prseasc locul de munc vor obine scoruri mai mari la scalele TLS. Rezultatele confirm ipoteza c nivelul perceput de toxicitate a conducerii este mai mare la grupul subiecilor care au luat n considerare schimbarea locului de munc. Practic, toate scalele dau diferene statistic semnificative ntre cele dou grupuri de intenie, iar mrimea efectului, evaluat cu indicele d Cohen, are valori peste medie.

Scala de evaluare a conducerii toxice adaptare romneasc

Tabelul 7. Diferenele dintre medii, ntre cei care s-au gndit/nu s-au gndit s schimbe locul de munc
DA (n=249) m Auto-Promovare Conducere abuziv Imprevizibilitate Narcisism Conducere autoritar Scor global TLS 4.21 3.96 4.35 4.69 4.39 4.32 ab.st. 1.20 1.23 1.13 1.19 1.16 1.04 NU (n=103) M 3.60 3.23 3.60 4.03 3.75 3.64 ab.st. 1.39 1.30 1.28 1.49 1.30 1.24 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 p d 0.48 0.58 0.64 0.51 0.53 0.62 Effect size 95% CI .25-.72 .35-.84 .40-.87 .28-.75 .30-.76 .38-.85

Pentru a vedea dac intenia de prsire a locului de munc are legtur cu toxicitatea conducerii, am testat un model de moderare a relaiei dintre indicele global de toxicitate i intenia de prsire a locului de munc, avnd ca moderator satisfacia fata de ef. n acest scop am efectuat un test ANOVA factorial, avnd ca variabil dependent indicele de toxicitate a conducerii. Interaciunea factorilor intenia de prsire a locului de munc i satisfacia fa de ef s-a dovedit statistic semnificativ (F=3.06, df=7, p=.01; partial eta squared=.053, observed power=.90). Rezultatul,

ilustrat n figura 1, indic faptul c la valorile ridicate ale satisfaciei fa de ef, nivelul toxicitii este apreciat mai ridicat de ctre cei care au intenionat s schimbe locul de munc, dect cei care nu au intenionat acest lucru. Figura 1 ilustreaz faptul c mediile la toxicitate pentru cei care au rspuns DA sunt diferite fa de cei care au rspuns NU, la nivelurile peste medie ale satisfaciei fa de ef. n concluzie, putem aprecia c intenia de schimbare a locului de munc are o legtur specific cu toxicitatea conducerii, relativ independent de satisfacia fa de ef.

Figura 1. Variaia scorului TLS n funcie de intenia de schimbare a locului de munc, mediat de satisfacia fa de ef

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Scala de evaluare a conducerii toxice adaptare romneasc

Concluzii
Cercetarea noastr i-a atins scopul de a obine o versiune romneasc a Toxic Leadership Scale elaborat de Schmidt (2008). Am optat pentru o soluie metodologic ct mai apropiat de metodologia urmat de autor, pentru a putea beneficia de comparabilitatea rezultatelor. Dat fiind deficitul de fidelitate al versiunii romneti, pentru scala conducere autoritar, am apelat la itemii elaborai de autor care nu au fost inclui n subscala iniial. Valorile fidelitii pentru subscalele TLS i indicele global al acesteia s-au ridicat la niveluri similare cu cele de pe eantionul american. Am adus cteva argumente consistente cu privire la validitatea de construct. Cel mai important dintre acestea const n corelaiile sistematic negative i cu o mrime a efectului satisfctoare, pe care scalele TLS le-au obinut cu dou scale care evalueaz comportamentul de conducere din perspectiv pozitiv (Leader Member Exchange i Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire). De asemenea, am probat validitatea de construct n raport cu o scal de hruire sexual la locul de munc. n urma unei serii de analize factoriale exploratorii, am identificat o structur cu patru factori ortogonali pe care i-am identificat astfel: centrare pe sine (compus n mare msur din itemi ai scalelor originale promovare de sine i narcisism), comportament abuziv (ncrcat cu itemi ai scalelor originale comportament abuziv i comportament autoritar), imprevizibilitate (ncrcat cu precdere cu itemi ai scalei originale omonime) i comportament autoritar (ncrcat preponderent cu itemi ai scalei originale omonime). n total, aceti patru factori acoper 58.43% din variabilitatea total a rspunsurilor. Singura diferen care trebuie menionat fa de modelul celor cinci dimensiuni propus de autorul scalei TLS, const n faptul c datele noastre sugereaz combinarea ntr-un singur factor a dimensiunilor autopromovare i narcisism. Acest lucru rmne n concordan cu definiia propus de Schmidt (2008, p. 57) conform creia liderii toxici sunt persoane narcisiste, orientate spre promovarea de sine (ambele caracteristici fiind expresia unei centrri pe sine, concretizat printr-o motivare focalizat pe propriile interese n.n.), care se angajeaz n comportamente imprevizibile de tip abuziv i autoritar.

Rezultatele obinute de noi aduc argumente i n favoarea validitii de criteriu, prin raportarea scalelor TLS la o serie de indicatori ai satisfaciei profesionale. n acest sens, cea mai convingtoare este seria de corelaii sistematic negative, care depesc de regul nivelul -0.5, cu satisfacia fa de ef. De asemenea, am obinut dovezi statistice pentru un nivel mai ridicat al scorurilor la scalele TLS, n cazul subiecilor care i-au declarat intenia de prsire a locului de munc, comparativ cu cei care nu iau declarat aceast intenie. Realizarea unei versiuni romneti a scalei de evaluare a conducerii toxice este doar un punct de plecare pentru investigarea acestui fenomen. Se impune continuarea cercetrilor pentru multiplicarea dovezilor n sprijinul validitii de construct i al validitii de criteriu. De asemenea, rmne deschis discuia cu privire la relaia dintre perspectiva pozitiv a comportamentului de conducere i perspectiva sa negativ. Cu alte cuvinte, putem vorbi de dou componente distincte sau de extreme ale unei dimensiuni unice? Nivelul corelaiilor pe care leam obinut ntre scalele TLS cu LMX i MLQ, indic un procent de aproximativ 25% de variabilitate comun, ceea ce sugereaz mai degrab concluzia unor dimensiuni distincte. Totui, subiectul trebuie cercetat n continuare. Aa cum se impune obinerea unei imagini realiste cu privire la frecvena acestui fenomen n mediul organizaional, la factorii favorizani i la modalitile de control ale acestuia. Adevrata provocare ns, va consta n abordarea conducerii toxice n mediul real, sincron cu manifestarea acestuia, spre deosebire de abordarea retrospectiv, caracteristic cercetrii noastre. Soluia pe care o vedem posibil este mai degrab abordarea fenomenului conducerii toxice dect diagnosticarea individual a liderilor toxici. n opinia noastr, promovarea la nivelul managementului organizaional a acestui concept poate fi de natur s aduc mai mult realism cu privire la evaluarea performanei de conducere. Prin creterea vizibilitii conceptului de conducere toxic n mediul organizaional, a caracteristicilor definitorii ale acestuia, ne putem atepta, nu doar la amplificarea mecanismelor de blocare a acestui tip de comportamente, dar i la stimularea unor reacii de auto-control din partea liderilor vulnerabili.

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Scala de evaluare a conducerii toxice adaptare romneasc

Not despre autori

Marian Popa, Departamentul de Psihologie, Facultatea de Psihologie i tiinele Educaiei. Violeta Rotrescu, Departamentul de Psihologie, Facultatea de Psihologie i tiinele Educaiei, Univesitatea din Bucureti. Coralia Sulea, Departamentul de Psihologie, Facultatea de Sociologie i Psihologie, Universitatea de Vest din Timioara (Contribuie susinut prin grantul Autoritii Naionale Romne pentru Cercetare tiinific, CNCS-UEFISCDI, proiect nr. PN-II-RU-PD2011-3-0162.) Patricia Albulescu, Departamentul de Psihologie, Facultatea de Sociologie i Psihologie, Universitatea de Vest din Timioara.

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Relaiile dintre rezilien, ataamentul fa de organizaie, sprijinul superiorilor i singurtatea la locul de munc ntr-o unitate medical

Mihaela Stoica1, Adrian T. Brate2

Abstract
Objectives: This study is an investigation into the mechanisms that intervene in the relationship between resilience, organizational commitment (attachment to the organization), supervisory support and loneliness at the workplace (LW) in a medical unit. Method: the 138 employees (80.4 % of female) of the medical unit completed the instruments; they answered the demographic questionnaire and the interview that examined the relationship with the supervisory support. We aimed to identify whether resilience and organizational commitment are predictors for loneliness at workplace and to examine differences in loneliness scores reported by employees who feel supported by their supervisors and those who do not feel supported. Results: The resilience and the attachment to the organization are predictors for loneliness at work; the employees who receive the support of superiors have lower LW scores than those who lack the support offered by superiors. Conclusions, discussion and application: The results of the study suggest the specific elements and strategies of the medical unit for the development of intervention. Keywords: loneliness at the workplace, resilience, organizational commitment, supervisory support

Rsum
Objectifs: Dans cette tude, nous avons examin les mcanismes impliqus dans la relation entre la rsilience, l'engagement envers l'organisation, le soutien du suprieur et la solitude au travail (LW) dans un tablissement mdical. Mthodologie: Les 138 participants (80,4 % des femmes) dans un tablissement mdical ont complt lchelle, ont rpondu au questionnaire dmographique et l'interview qui a examin le soutien du (des) suprieur (s). Nous avons cherch dterminer si la rsilience et l'engagement sont des facteurs prdictifs de la solitude au travail et aussi d'examiner les diffrences entre les scores de la solitude dclars par les employs qui se sentent soutenus par leurs suprieurs et ceux qui ne se sentent pas soutenus. Rsultats: La rsilience et l'engagement de l'organisation sont des facteurs prdictifs de LW, les employs qui sont soutenus par des cadres suprieurs ont obtenu des scores plus faibles pour la solitude au travail que ceux qui ne se sentent pas soutenus par leur hirarchie. Conclusions, discussions et applications: Les rsultats de l'tude suggrent lments mdicaux spcifiques et des stratgies pour le cours de lintervention. Mots-cls: la solitude au travail, la rsilience, le soutien du suprieur, l'engagement envers l'organisation

Rezumat
Obiective: n acest studiu am examinat mecanismele care intervin n relaia dintre rezilien, ataamentul fa de organizaie, sprijinul superiorilor i singurtatea la locul de munc (LW) ntr-o unitate medical. Metodologie: Cei 138 de participanti (80.4% de gen feminin) dintr-o unitate medical au completat scalele, au rspuns la chestionarul demografic i la interviul care a examinat sprijinul superiorilor. Ne-am propus s identificm dac reziliena i ataamentul sunt predictori pentru singurtatea la locul de munc i s examinm diferenele dintre scorurile la singurtate raportate de angajaii care se simt sprijinii de superiori i cei care nu se simt sprijinii. Rezultate: Reziliena i ataamentul fa de organizaie sunt predictori pentru LW, angajaii care sunt sprijinii de superiori au scoruri mai mici la singuratatea de la locul de munc dect cei care nu se simt
1

Spitalul de Pneumoftiziologie, Sibiu Adres de coresponden: psy.mihaela@yahoo.com 2 Universitatea Lucian Blaga din Sibiu Adres de coresponden: adrian.brate@ulbsibiu.ro 71

Relaiile dintre rezilien, ataamentul fa de organizaie, sprijinul superiorilor i singurtatea la locul de munc ntr-o unitate medical

sprijinii de superiori. Concluzii, discuii i aplicaii: Rezultatele studiului sugereaz elemente i strategii specifice unitii medicale, pentru dezvoltarea interveniilor. Cuvinte cheie: singurtatea la locul de munc, reziliena, sprijinul superiorilor, ataamentul fa de organizaie

Introducere
n mediul organizaional, tot mai muli manageri se simt singuri la locul de munc iar aceast singurtate le afecteaz n mod negativ propria performan. Pentru a se reduce singurtatea i pentru a preveni apariia depresiei la locul de munc specialitii recomand dezvoltarea unei culturi organizaionale care s ncurajeze o comunicare mai deschis i care s favorizeze dezvoltarea rezilienei emoionale (Douglas, 2012). Reziliena descrie abilitatea indiviziilor de a se adapta la diferite condiii adverse, n acelai timp pstrndu-i sensul, echilibrul i starea de bine mental i fizic (Sergeant & Laws-Chapman, 2012). Singurtatea reprezint echivalentul social al durerii, setei sau foamei fizice: durerea de a fi deconectat social, respectiv setea i foamea de a avea relaii sociale motivate i ntreinerea acestor relaii pentru supravieuirea speciei (Cacioppo, Hawkley, Ernst, Burleson, Berntson, Nouriani & Spiegel, 2006; Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2009). Dar, dei la nivelul organizaiilor tot mai muli manageri se simt singuri (Saporito, 2012; RHR International CEO Snapshot Survey, 2012), studiile ne arat c singurtatea este perceput de angajai, indiferent de nivelul ocupat n ierarhia organizaiei, i are efecte att asupra fiecrui angajat, meninnd ridicat nivelul de cortizol, chiar i n zilele libere, la persoanele care se simt LW i au probleme legate de locul de munc (Hisayoshi, Akira & Toyojiro, 2011), fiind un predictor semnificativ pentru hipertensiunea arterial (Hawkley, Masi, Berry & Cacioppo, 2006) i pentru simptomele depresive (Cacioppo, Hughes, Waite, Hawkley & Thisted, 2006), ct i asupra organizaiei ca un ntreg, influennd performana angajailor (Stoica & Brate, 2010; Ozcelik & Barsade, 2011). Cu toate c singurtatea ine de condiia uman, fiind considerat o problem personal, n perioada actual, managerii au neles c este i o problem a organizaiei (Ozcelik & Barsade, 2011). Singurtatea la locul de munc (engl. loneliness at work - LW) este n atenia

specialitilor strini de civa ani (Wright, 2005; 2012; Ozcelik & Barsade, 2011; Hisayoshi et al., 2011) dar, n organizaiile din Romnia, au fost derulate relativ puine studii care au urmrit LW (Stoica & Brate, 2010; 2011; 2012), acestea analiznd relaia dintre LW i ataamentul organizaional (Stoica & Brate, 2010; 2011), LW i sprijinul superiorilor (Stoica & Brate, 2010; 2011), LW i nivelul ocupat n ierarhia organizaional (Stoica & Brate, 2012). Utilitatea acestei cercetri vine din faptul c analizeaz relaia dintre rezilien, ataamentul organizaional, sprijinul superiorilor i LW, propunndu-i s identifice resurse pentru a reduce nivelul de LW. Studiile susin c scorurile sczute la LW presupun un ataament organizaional crescut (Lindorf, 2001; Wright, 2005; 2012) i un nivel crescut al performanei angajatului (Stoica & Brate, 2010; Ozcelik & Barsade, 2011), iar fiecare manager i dorete acest lucru n organizaia sa.
Singurtate la locul de munc n legatur cu conceptul de singurtate, teoria lui Weiss (1973) propune perspectiva multidimensional a singurtii. Astfel, singurtatea este de natur emoional i/sau social. n singurtatea social, mediul social este perceput ca fiind nepotrivit iar singurtatea emoional provine din lipsa unor relaii apropiate, de familie. Singurtatea poate s apar ca urmare a deficitelor relaionale i teoria sugereaz ideea conform creia relaiile interpersonale asigur anumite provizii. Aceste provizii sunt reprezentate de securitate din care fac parte: ataamentul, hrnirea emoional i cluzirea emoional. Nevoia de ataament se satisface n cadrul relaiilor romantice sau a celor de prietenie strns. Un alt factor hrnitor al relaiilor este afilierea, iar absena ei conduce la singurtate social. Nesatisfacerea acestor nevoi de ataament i de afiliere la locul de munc duce la apariia singurtii emoionale i sociale la loc de munc.

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Tot Weiss (1973) vorbete despre integrarea social, reasigurarea valorii i sentimentul alianei pline de ncredere. Astfel, integrarea social se constituie pe o reea comun unde persoanele schimb relaii, mprtesc informaii i experiene. Reasigurarea valorii se concentreaz pe competena individual ntr-un rol social i este specific unei relaii la locul de munc. Sentimentul unei aliane de ncredere este dat de combaterea sentimentelor de vulnerabilitate i de abandon. Cnd nevoia de securitate nu este satisfcut, apare singurtatea emoional. Dac lipsesc ocaziile pentru comportamentul hrnitor emoional, atunci apare sentimentul de neimportan existenial, lipsa de sprijin i asistare conduce la apariia sentimentelor de singurtate i anxietate. Nesatisfacerea nevoilor de afiliere duce la singurtate social i, implicit, la absena integrrii ntr-o reea social. Singurtatea social e caracterizat prin plictiseal, marginalizare i lips de perspectiv. Aadar, cele dou tipuri de singurtate difer ca i fenomene, dar i din punct de vedere al remedierii lor. Pentru tratarea singurtii emoionale, Weiss sugereaz formarea unei relaii care s satisfac nevoia de ataament, iar pentru singurtatea social sugereaz intrarea ntr-un cerc de relaii de prietenie care s asigure integrarea social. Persoanele care au starea de singurtate ca i trstur se resemneaz cu gndul c sunt singuri i nu mai fac nimic pentru a depi aceast stare, pe cnd persoanele care au singurtatea ca i stare sunt mult mai optimiti n legtur cu situaia lor i dezvolt strategii de coping efective pentru a depi gndurile legate de singurtate (Shaver, Furman & Buhrmester, 1985). Optimismul face parte din resursele de rezisten care permit oamenilor s depeasc dificultile (Carver, Scheier & Segerstromc, 2010). Astfel c, rezumnd argumentele specialitilor, lipsa ataamentului, a suportului social, a optimismului i, implicit, a rezilienei favorizeaz apariia sentimentului de singurtate att n general, ct i la locul de munc n special.
Singurtatea la locul de munc Singurtatea la locul de munc (LW, Wright, Burt & Strongman, 2006) poate s apar sub forma distresului determinat de perceperea unor

slabe relaii interpersonale n mediul de lucru (Wright et al., 2006). Discrepana negativ ntre relaiile reale i cele dorite la locul de munc i incapacitatea de a corecta acest dezechilibru poate genera sentimentul de singurtate la locul de munc (Wright et al., 2006). Singurtatea i organizaia sunt fenomene complexe. Complexitatea mediului organizaional poate s determine apariia sentimentelor de singurtate la nivelul individului ce face parte din organizaie. Prin definiie, singurtatea este o experien ce apare datorit deficitelor sociale implicate n mediul social. Ca i n cazul modelului tranzacional al stresului ocupaional descris de Lazarus i Folkman (1984), singurtatea la locul de munc probabil c este experimentat ca o tranzacie ntre persoan i mediul ei de lucru (Wright, 2012). Pn acum, cercetrile au urmrit caracteristicile personale care pot s conduc la singurtate iar de acum sunt necesare cercetri suplimentare care s analizeze motivele contextuale, care pot provoca sau agrava starea de singurtate la locul de munc i pentru a nelege mai bine interaciunea dintre angajat i mediul lui de lucru. Cox (1993), influenat de teoria lui Lazarus i a colegilor si, a conceptualizat stresul occupaional ca pe o tranzacie ntre individ i mediu, un fenomen de percepie influenat ciclic de mecanisme de feedback din mediul extern al individului. El descrie experiena stresului ca i contientizarea dificultii de a face fa unor aspecte legate de munc. Dac singurtatea la locul de munc este starea psihic dat de discrepana ntre percepia individului asupra relaiilor interpersonale i relaiile sale reale, atunci acest fenomen va fi influenat de procesele cognitive i reaciile emoionale care susin interaciunile individului n mediul su de lucru. Singurtatea la locul de munc se refer la lipsa relaiilor strnse, de calitate, la locul de munc (Wright, 2005) i poate s fie declanat de un climat organizaional care ncurajeaz individualismul combinat cu tendina individual de a evita momentele de socializare (Wright, 2005). Atunci cnd vorbim despre singurtatea n mediul muncii sau la locul de munc (LW), tim c ea denatureaz cogniia social i influeneaz comportamentul interpersonal, crescnd astfel pe de o parte ostilitatea, negativismul, strile depresive, anxietatea iar, pe de alt parte, diminund capacitatea de cooperare (Wright, 2012).

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Legat de relaia LW cu organizaia i procesele din cadrul ei, studiile arat c LW influeneaz performana angajailor (Stoica & Brate, 2010; Ozcelik & Barsade, 2011), angajamentul fa de organizaie (Carmeli, 2009, apud Ozcelik & Barsade, 2011) i menine ridicat nivelul de cortizol chiar i n zilele libere la persoanele care se simt LW i au probleme legate de locul de munc (Hisayoshi et al., 2011). Singurtatea are efecte negative att la nivelul organizaiei, dar i la nivelul persoanei angajate. n cercetrile publicate anterior s-a susinut c singurtatea este un predictor semnificativ pentru hipertensiunea arterial (Hawkley et al., 2006), este asociat cu scderea sistemului imunitar (Pressman, Cohen, Miller, Barkin, Rabin & Treanor, 2005), este predictor pentru simptomele depresive (Cacioppo et al., 2006), pentru declinul cognitiv i demen (Wilson et al., 2007; Cacioppo, Hawkley & Preacher, 2010). Dac ne ntrebm cnd anume apare, de obicei, starea de singurtate, rspunsul este surprinztor. Se pare c este o experien ntlnit pe parcursul ntregii viei: 80% dintre tinerii sub 18 ani i 40% dintre adulii care au peste 65 ani au raportat c s-au simit singuri cel puin o dat n via (Berguno, Leroux, McAinsh & Shaikh, 2004; Pinquart & Sorensen, 2001; Weeks, 1994 apud Cacioppo et al., 2010). Harris Interactive Service Bureau a utilizat CEO Snapshot Survey i au raportat n ianuarie 2012 rezultatele studiului efectuat online n perioada octombrie-noiembrie 2011, la care au participat 83 de efi de birou din SUA. Potrivit acestui raport 50% dintre efii de birou se simt singuri la locul de munc, iar dintre acetia 61% cred c izolarea de restul colegilor le afecteaz propria performan. De asemnea, 70 % din cei ce raporteaz scoruri mari la singurtate cred c aceasta le afecteaz n mod negativ abilitatea de a-i face foarte bine treaba la locul de munc. Jumtate dintre managerii care au rspuns la chestionar au estimat c majoritatea celorlali lideri experimenteaz aceleai sentimente de singurtate (RHR International CEO Snapshot Survey, 2012). Aceste sentimente de LW nu sunt specifice doar directorilor, ele afecteaz orice individ care primete o form de autoritate (Saporito, 2012). Specialitii recomand dezvoltarea unei culturi organizaionale care s ncurajeze o comunicare mai deschis i care s favorizeze dezvoltarea rezilienei emoionale

pentru a preveni apariia depresiei la locul de munc (Douglas, 2012).

Reziliena emoional Reziliena emoional reprezint capacitatea de a se redresa, de a-i reveni atunci cnd se confrunt cu probleme, adversiti sau conflicte (Luthans, 2002a); nu trebuie s te nati cu ea, este o capacitate ce se poate construi i care duce la progres i la creterea responsabilitii (Youssef & Luthans, 2007). Studiile au evideniat faptul c nivelul de rezilien este predictor pentru singurtatea copiilor (Nian & Liu, 2009), joac un rol important n prevenirea apariiei singurtii la persoanele vrstnice (Lou & Ng, 2012) i poate s reduc singurtatea i depresia de la locul de munc (Douglas, 2012). Reziliena reprezint alturi de optimism, autoeficacitate i speran, elemente ale capitalului psihologic (valoarea resurselor umane) i sunt stri psihologice unice, msurabile, care se pot dezvolta i care au impact asupra performanei n munc (Rus, 2012). Adesea, n literatura de specialitate, ca variabile ale resurselor de rezisten sunt descrise optimismul i derivatele acestuia (cum ar fi sperana sau auto-eficacitatea), pentru c ele reprezint prezena acelor proprieti motivaionale, care permit oamenilor s reziste n faa dificultilor. Ele s-au dovedit a fi foarte utile n a face predicii asupra comportamentelor, reaciilor emoionale, tendinelor de coping, adaptarea adecvat la situaii dificile n via (Carver et al., 2010). Singurtatea la locul de munc i sprijinul superiorilor Lipsa sprijinului oferit de superiori este un predictor semnificativ puternic pentru apariia LW (Greenhaus, Parasuraman & Wormley, 1990). Superiorii au un rol clar stabilit la locul de munc, iar aciunile lor pot s influeneze starea de bine a angajailor: cnd superiorul previne suprancrcarea cu sarcini a angajatului, prin coordonarea i planificarea activitilor atunci se reduce presiunea psihologic a angajailor (Gilbreath, 2001). De asemenea, dac superiorul i susine angajatul n demersurile sale, atunci se mbuntete starea de bine psihologic a angajatului, se protejeaz angajatul de tensiune, depresie i epuizarea emoional (Gilbreath, 2001). Lipsa sprijinului oferit de colegii de

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munc este, de asemenea, un puternic predictor pentru apariia singurtii de la locul de munc (Rook, 1988).
Singurtatea la locul de munc i ataamentul organizaional Sprijinul social real oferit de managerii i colegii de la locul de munc poate determina apariia sentimentului de ncredere i de ataament organizaional, iar dac sprijinul social primit la locul de munc este slab poate deveni o surs important de stres, ce poate genera sentimente de izolare i singurtate (Pfeifer & Veiga, 1999). Ataamentul crescut fa de organizaie este considerat cel mai bun predictor pentru a reduce singurtatea la locul de munc (Wright, 2005). De asemenea, interaciunea social ce are loc ntre colegi, angajai i superiori este foarte important pentru succesul organizaiei (Pfeifer & Veiga, 1999). Managerii care nu se simt sprijinii cnd se afl sub presiunea stresorilor de la locul de munc se pot simi singuri n poziia lor executiv (Lindorf, 2001 cit. n Wright, 2012).

consimmntul informat i nu au primit recompense.

Procedur S-a cerut acordul instituiei pentru a obine permisiunea s se realizeze studiul. Au participat toi angajaii organizaiei i nu a mai fost necesar o eantionare a subiecilor. Persoanele care au participat la cercetare au fost ntrebate dac accept acest lucru, dac vor s rspund la ntrebrile ctorva teste legate de cercetarea pentru lucrarea de disertaie i nu au primit recompense. Fiecare angajat a primit personal setul de teste in plicuri, le-am predat fiecruia n funcie de schimbul n care lucra i le-am recuperat personal de la fiecare angajat n zilele urmtoare. Angajaii i-au completat testele dup preferine: n tura de noapte, de gard sau acas. ntreaga procedur a durat 1 lun pentru c unii angajai se aflau n concediu de odihn, concediu maternal sau zile libere i am ateptat revenirea lor la locul de munc.

Obiectivul de cercetare
Studiul are obiectivul exprorator de a identifica relaiile dintre variabilele reprezentate de rezilien, sprijinul superiorilor, ataamentul organizaional i starea de singurtate resimit la locul de munc de angajaii unei uniti medicale.

Metodologia cercetrii
Datele fac parte dintr-un studiu mai amplu, derulat n perioada 26 aprilie 27 mai 2010, ce a urmrit relaia dintre singurtatea la locul de munc, performan, diferenele individuale i caracterisiticile organizaionale, dintr-o unitate medical (Stoica & Brate, 2010).
Participani Au fost inclui 138 de angajai, dintre care 80.4% de gen feminin, 19.6% de gen masculin. Vrsta medie a fost de 38.29 ani, cu o abatere standard de 9.67 i cu vrsta cuprins ntre 22 i 58 de ani. Dintre participani, 22.5% au fost manageri. Au participat toi angajaii ce i-au dat

Instrumente Pentru acest studiu am utilizat: Scala Singurtatea la locul de munc (LW, Wright et al., 2006). Itemii au fost de tipul: Adesea m simt abandonat de ctre colegii mei cnd sunt sub presiune la serviciu i msurai pe o scal Likert cu 7 trepte de la 1 care nseamn total dezacord pn la 7 care nseamn cu fermitate de acord. Alpha Cronbach pentru acest instrument utilizat n acest studiu este .92 pe eantionul studiat. Interviu cu 3 ntrebri pentru a identifica msura n care angajaii percep existena sprijinului superiorilor la locul de munc (itemi din Job Diagnostic Survey, Hackman & Oldham,1980 cit. n Seok & Jung, 2007) care se refer la sprijinul superiorilor la locul de munc: de exemplu Primeti respect i tratament corect de la eful tu? i pot s rspund cu da, nu tiu sau nu. Pentru c nu aveam acceptul autorilor s folosim chestionarul am ntocmit un interviu structurat din itemii acestuia iar rspunsurile primite ne-au ajutat s mprim participanii n trei grupe n funcie de msura n care percep existena sprijinului superiorilor: da sunt mulumii de sprijinul primit de la superiori, nu - sunt nemuumii de sprijinul oferit de superiori i nu tiu - sunt indifereni fa de sprijinul oferit de superiori.

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Chestionarul demografic: participanii au completat date despre vrsta, genul, nivelul ocupat n ierarhia organizaional i vechimea n organizaie. Din Indicatorul de Management al Presiunii (PMI, Williams & Cooper, 1998; Brate, 2004) am utilizat itemii pentru angajamentul organizaional (ce msoar ct de ataat este de locul su de munc i n ce mod munca sa crete calitatea vieii. Itemii au fost de tipul: M implic puternic n organizaia pentru care lucrez i msurai pe o scal Likert cu 6 trepte de la 1 care nseamn n mod foarte sigur nu este o surs, pn la 6 care nseamn n mod foarte sigur este o surs. Alpha Cronbach pentru aceast subscal este .70 pe eantionul studiat. Am mai utilizat itemii pentru rezilien (ce msoar abilitatea de a se ajusta rapid dup nereuite sau probleme). Itemii au fost de tipul: Cnd presiunea ncepe s creasc la locul de munc, putei gsi suficiente resurse i rezerve

de energie pe care s le utilizai atunci cnd e nevoie s v lansai n aciune? i msurai pe o scal Likert cu 6 trepte de la 1 care nseamn n mod foarte sigur nu este o surs, pn la 6 care nseamn n mod foarte sigur este o surs. Alpha Cronbach pentru aceast subscal este .67 pe eantionul studiat.

Rezultate
n Tabelul 1 se prezint indicatorii centrali la variabilele LW, ataamentul organizaional i rezilien, ce relev o distribuie unimodal, simetric i mezocurtic. Avnd n vedere aceste elemente, se poate considera c scorurile obinute de cei 138 de subieci se distribuie normal i aceste variabile suport proceduri parametrice de analiz statistic (Sava, 2004).

Tabelul 1. Indicatorii tendinei centrale pentru variabilele LW, ataamentul fa de organizaie i reziliena emoional.
Indice de asimetrie Variabile Ataamentul fa de organizaie Reziliena LW Media 19.65 14.71 53.5 Mediana 20 14 54 Modul 20 14 53 Ab.standard Valoare Std.Error 5.05 4.10 19.09 -.12 -.29 .40 .20 .20 .20 Indice de boltire Valoare Std.Error .00 -.08 .18 .41 .41 .41

Efectund corelaia dintre LW si reziliena emoional, LW i ataamentul organizaional, am identificat o asociere negativ semnificativ ntre reziliena emoional i LW (r = - .30, DF = 136, p < .01) i o asociere negativ semnificativ ntre ataamentul organizaional i LW (r = - .40, DF = 136, p < .01 ). n unitatea medical angajaii cu un nivel ridicat al LW au un nivel sczut al ataamentului organizaional i o rezisten emoional sczut (vezi Tabelul 2). Mrimea Tabelul 2. Corelaiile ntre variabilele studiului

efectului (r2 = .16) pentru relaia dintre ataamentul organizaional i LW are semnificaie statistic, dar mai ales practic pentru 16% din angajai (dac se crete ataamentul organizaional se pot scdea scorurile la LW); iar mrimea efectului (r2 = .09) pentru relaia dintre reziliena emoional i LW evideniaz o legtur semnificativ statistic i practic (pentru 9% din angajaii spitalului dac se crete reziliena emoional scad scorurile la LW).

Ataamentul fa de organizaie Ataamentul fa de organizaie Reziliena LW 1 .31 -.40

Reziliena 1 -.30

LW

N = 138. Toi coeficienii de corelaie sunt semnificativi la p <.01

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Din analiza de regresie liniar am identificat reziliena emoional i ataamentul ataamentul organizaional, ca fiind poteniali predictorii pentru LW. Tabelul 3 prezint rezultatele analizei de regresie liniar care au evideniat c variabila reziliena emoional este potenial

predictor negativ pentru LW (F = 13.58 , p< .01) iar ataamentul organizaional este un potenial predictor negativ puternic pentru LW (F = 26.18, p< .01); R2 explicnd 16% i respectiv 9% din variana LW).

Tabelul 3. Analiza de regresie liniar viznd estimarea LW pe baza predictorilor studiului (n = 138)
Variabile Reziliena Ataamentul fa de organizaie R2 .09 .16 R2 ajustat .08 .15 F 13.58 26.18 Sig. .000 .000 B -.07 -.08 -.30 -.40 t 3.68 5.11 Sig. .000 .000

n continuare, am efectuat analiza de regresie multiliniar simultan ntre reziliena emoional i ataamentul organizaional pentru a prezice LW. n Tabelul 4 potenialii predictori ataamentul organizaional i reziliena inclui n analiza de regresie conduc la un model de regresie semnificativ statistic (F= 16.37; p < .01) care este capabil s explice 44 % din evoluia dispersiei LW. Astfel c, n aceast unitate medical, reziliena (emoional) i ataamentul organizaional pot prezice singurtatea la locul de munc i sunt variabile la nivelul crora psihologul din organizaie poate s intervin pentru a preveni sau reduce apariia LW.

Analiza de regresie simultan ne ajut s putem realiza o singur ecuaie de regresie: Z LW= (-34)*Z nivelul ataamentului organizaional + (-19)*nivelul rezilienei emoionale Pe baza acestei ecuaii, putem estima scorurile la LW pe care le vor avea alte persoane cu caracteristici similare angajailor testai (Sava, 2004) ce pot fi evaluai n condiiile seleciei de personal.

Tabelul 4. Analiza de regresie multiliniar simultan ntre reziliena emoional i angajamentul fa de organizaie pentru a prezice LW (n=138)
Variabile Ataament fa de organizaie + rezilien Ataament fa de organizaie Reziliena R2 .195 R2 ajustat .183 F 16.37 Sig. .000 -1.28 -.90 -.34 -.19 - 4.18 - 2.38 .000 .019 B t Sig.

n cadrul studiului, am comparat relaia dintre sprijinul oferit de superiori i LW. Analiza de varian unifactorial pentru scoruri necorelate a demonstrat producerea unui efect general semnificativ al calitii sprijinului oferit de superiori: F (2, 135) = 19.03, p< .01. Pentru c F este semnificativ statistic i ne indic existena unor diferene ntre grupele cercetrii am utilizat comparaii post hoc ale scorurilor raportate la LW de grupul angajailor, care se simt sprijinii de superiori, fa de cei care nu se

simt sprijinii i de cei care sunt neutri (vezi Tabelul 5). Testul Levene este nesemnificativ statistic, dispersiile sunt considerate a fi egale, iar numrul de subieci din fiecare grup este profund inegal (45, 15 i 78). n aceste condiii, pentru comparaiile post hoc testul Hochberg GT2 este cea mai potrivit procedur de calcul a diferenelor specifice dintre cele 3 grupe (pentru detalii, vezi Sava, 2004). Prin metoda testului Hochberg GT2 de analiz a intervalului s-a descoperit c grupul nemulumit era diferit de
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grupul neutru i de grupul satisfcut. Aadar, LW este mai mare pentru angajaii care simt lipsa sprijinului oferit de superiori (Hochberg GT2 = -20.51, p < .01) n comparaie cu scorurile la singurtate pentru angajaii care sunt satisfcui (Hochberg GT2 = 18.70, p= .01) sau neutri (Hochberg GT2 = 20.51, p < .01) fa de sprijinul oferit de superiori (pentru detalii, vezi Sava, 2004). Pentru relaia dintre lipsa sprijinului

oferit de superiori i LW, coeficientul de determinare r 2 = 0.21 apreciaz c 21 % din dispersia celor 2 variabile are o evoluie comun. ntre LW i lipsa sprijinului oferit de superiori este un efect puternic cu semnificaie statistic i practic: pentru 21 de angajai din 100 de cazuri prezena sprijinului oferit de superiori poate scdea LW.

Tabelul 5. Rezultatele ANOVA utilizate pentru a vedea dac exist diferene semnificative ntre scorurile la LW raportate de cele 3 grupe i rezultatele testelor post-hoc utilizate pentru a vedea cum difer grupele ntre ele.
n Nemulumit Neutru Satisfcut Nemulumit vs neutru Nemulumit vs satisfcut ntre grupuri LW 1.74* 19.03** 45 15 78 20.51** 18.70** Levene F Hochberg GT2

Not. *p=.ns., **p<.01; Nemulumit = grupul nemulumit de sprijinul oferit de superiori. Neutru = grupul indiferent fa de sprijinul oferit de superiori. Satisfcut = grupul mulumit de sprijinul oferit de superiori. Nemulumit vs neutru= comparaie ntre scorurile la LW pentru grupurile nemulumite i grupurile indiferente. Nemulumit vs satisfcut = comparaie ntre scorurile la LW pentru grupurile nemulumite si grupurile mulumite de sprijinul oferit de superiori.

Discuii
Studiul prezentat n acest articol a urmrit perceperea singurtii la locul de munc, n relaie cu reziliena (emoional), sprijinul superiorilor i ataamentul organizaional la 138 de angajai ai unei uniti medicale. Analizarea acestor relaii este important pentru c evideniaz variabilele la nivelul crora psihologul poate interveni n unitatea medical pentru a reduce riscul apariiei singurtii la locul de munc (LW) i pentru a crete calitatea vieii angajailor, reuind s reduc absenteismul (Wright, 2005; 2012) i s creasc performana la locul de munc (Stoica & Brate, 2010; Ozcelik & Barsade, 2011). Cu toate c singurtatea este un fenomen real al societii (Ernst & Cacioppo, 1999), singurtatea la locul de munc (loneliness at work, Wright, 2005) este un concept care este mai puin studiat n Romnia.

Acest studiu evideniaz c, pentru o organizaie cu profil medical din Romania, ataamentul organizaional explic 16.1 % din variaiile LW. Ataamentul organizaional este considerat cel mai bun predictor pentru LW (Wright, 2005) i acest ataament poate s fie construit cu sprijinul efilor i al angajailor cu vechime n organizaie (n conformitate i cu Wright, 2005; Sergeant & Laws-Chapman, 2012). n studiul nostru, LW este mai mare pentru angajaii care simt lipsa sprijinului oferit de superiori dect pentru angajaii care sunt multumii sau sunt indifereni fa de sprijinul primit de la superiori. Rezultatele studiului nostru sunt conforme cu alte studii (Rook, 1988; Greenhaus et al., 1990) i relev faptul c suportul oferit de superiori este un predictor semnificativ puternic pentru LW. Mai departe, putem continua raionamentul, acesta poate proteja angajatul de tensiune, depresie, epuizarea emoional (cf. Gilbreath, 2001).

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Rezultatele studiului au artat c, pentru angajaii acestei uniti medicale, reziliena este un potenial predictor semnificativ pentru singurtatea la locul de munc, explicnd 9 % din variana LW. Dezvoltarea rezilienei emoionale prin cursuri specifice este important pentru toate persoanele, indiferent unde lucreaz ea fiind necesar pentru succesul personal i pentru starea de bine fizic i psihic pe termen lung (Sergeant & Laws-Chapman, 2012). La locul de munc, crearea unei culturi organizaionale care s ncurajeze o comunicare mai deschis poate s favorizeze dezvoltarea rezilienei emoionale i se previne astfel apariia depresiei la locul de munc (Douglas, 2012). Organizaia nsi poate s favorizeze apariia singurtii la locul de munc prin inducerea unei atmosfere pline de suspiciune i team n care angajaii ajung s se simt nstrinai unii de ceilali (Wright, 2012). Slater (1976) a descris modelul organizaiilor private care promovau individualismul, succesul personal i stimulau competiia i independena angajailor. Doar c acestea sunt mpotriva necesitii umane de baz de a aparine cuiva, de a aparine comunitii sau altor persoane (Lawrence & Nohria, 2002). Dezvoltarea unor relaii sociale la locul de munc nu este un proces facil, pentru c depind de caracteristicile personale, de structura organizaiei i de tranzacia ce se stabilete ntre cele dou (Hazan & Shaver, 1990). n plus, rolul pe care-l joac managerii n organizaie n unele cazuri i oblig s pstreze o distan social i profesional fa de subordonai i aceast distan poate s determine i ea apariia LW (Wright, 2012).

noi direcii pentru cei care studiaz singurtatea la locul de munc n Romnia, n/la diverse tipuri de organizaii, niveluri ierarhice i categorii socio-profesionale.

Aplicaii i intervenii
Dezvoltnd reziliena emoional, se creeaz un mediu de munc sntos, se reduce absenteismul, se mbuntete munca n echip i crete moralul echipei (Sergeant & LawsChapman, 2012). O resurs pentru rezilina emoional este reprezentat de optimism. Creterea optimismului angajailor poate s conduc la creterea performanei, iar creterea performanei reprezint o adevrat provocare pentru toi managerii. Dezvoltarea unei culturi organizaionale optimiste la locul de munc poate s creasc starea de bine a angajailor i s le creasc optimismul i performana (Medlin, Green & Gaither, 2010). Un exemplu de bun practic n vederea formrii rezilienei emoionale este reprezentat de programele desfurate la Londra. Astfel, asistenii medicali din Serviciul Naional de Sntate Britanic (NHS) sunt ndrumai s participe la cursuri pentru dezvoltarea rezilienei emoionale (Sergeant & Laws-Chapman, 2012). La aceste workshop-uri specialiti folosesc exerciii, precum crearea alegerilor alternative: vreau s-l fac... pentru c; sau exerciii pentru rememorarea sentimentelor simite n cea mai bun zi i cu repetarea zilnic a exerciiului. Tot zilnic sunt instruii s discute despre care sunt dorinele lor: mi doresc s fac acest lucru foarte bine i m ajut planificare i organizarea lucrurilor i nu despre ce se urte: ursc schimbrile n ultimul minut (Sergeant & Laws-Chapman, 2012) n vederea formrii rezilienei emoionale, psihologul poate s construiasc programe de training i, n cadrul acestor programe, s instruiasc asistentele cu vechime n organizaie s sprijine asistentele nou-venite. Dac sunt sprijinii de asistenii medicali cu experien, angajaii noi pot s i dezvolte abilitile necesare pentru a identifica declanatorii (engl. the triggers) negativi ale situaiilor stresante de la locul de munc care le cauzeaz distres i mecanisme de coping defectuoase. Astfel susinute, asistentele nou-angajate pot s i dezvolte ataamentul fa de organizaie, reducndu-se astfel sentimentul de izolare, pot s

Limitele studiului
Exist posibilitatea ca participanii s nu rspund sincer la itemii testului, singurtatea este considerat un stigmat echivalent cu eecul pe plan social (Cacioppo, Hawkley & Preacher, 2010). Rezultatele cercetrii sunt valabile doar pentru angajaii acelui spital, exist probabilitatea ca n alte organizaii scorurile la variabila singurtate s fie diferite. Datele sunt valide pentru participanii la studiu i trebuie interpretate cu atenie pn la apariia altor studii. Dei exist aceste limite, studiul deschide

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identifice valorile proprii i cele comune i pot s nvee s aprecieze i munca celorlai membri din echip. n aceste condiii, angajaii noi pot s nvee s aprecieze i s respecte nevoile i valorile celorlali, s i formeze abilitile necesare pentru a comunica eficient cu ceilali, s i mbunteasc relaia cu pacienii i colegii i s fie mult mai ateni la mediul de lucru i s scad astfel numrul infeciilor nosocomiale (Sergeant & Laws-Chapman, 2012). Cnd superiorii ofer feedback persoanelor care se simt singure, trebuie s in cont i de pattern-ul individului singur, caracterizat ca nencreztor, plin de team fa de evaluarea negativ, anxios (Cacioppo et al., 2006; Ernst & Cacioppo, 1999; Cacioppo, Hawkley & Preacher, 2010). Caracteristicile persoanei singure sunt legate de deficiene de atenie, cognitive, afective i comportamentale, care conduc spre mbolnviri i moarte (n unele cazuri) i au efect asupra mecanismelor genetice, neuronale i hormonale implicate n ceea ce nseamn s fii om (Cacioppo et al., 2010). De asemenea, cnd ofer feedback, superiorul ar fi util s in cont de faptul c, n situaiile cnd participanii la dialog au statut inegal, comunicarea nu este reciproc (de exemplu sunt cazuri n care un subaltern se deschide mai greu n procesul de comunicare fa de managerul lui) (Earle, Giuliano & Archer, 1983 apud Wright, 2012). Principalele tipuri de intervenii se refer la: dezvoltarea abilitilor sociale, furnizarea de sprijin social, dezvoltarea oportunitilor pentru interaciunea social, abordarea cogniiilor sociale dezadaptative (n conformitate i cu Cacioppo et al., 2010). La locul de munc trebuie s acceptm c singurtatea este o emoie i s o ascultm (Ozcelik & Barsade, 2011). S te simi singur la locul de munc ntre o mulime de colegi este epuizant iar organizarea de petreceri n cadrul firmei nu le ajut pe persoanele singure (Ozcelik & Barsade, 2011). Colegii care se simt singuri pot s fie ajutai dac sunt implicai n discuii, dac se cer informaii legate despre un proiect, dac sunt invitai la o cafea. Se pare c pauzele de cafea i discuiile, care au loc la locul de munc pot s stimuleze unitatea echipei i s cresc randamentul la locul de munc (Wright, 2012). Managerii trebuie s se asigure c echipele lor i membrii echipelor lor au relaii interpersonale unii cu alii i sunt conectai ntre

ei. Este un mecanism care funcioneaz (Ozcelik & Barsade, 2011 apud Korkki, 2012). Persoana care se simte singur este hipervigilent la ameninrile sociale, care exercit o influen puternic asupra percepiei, cogniiei i comportamentului. n acest context, singurtatea poate s fie diminuat reducnd/ eliminnd cogniiile i percepiile incorecte, iraionale sau contraproductive (de exemplu prin tehnici raional-emotive), care favorizeaz focalizarea ateniei cu precdere asupra aspectelor sociale negative, care apar n mediu (Cacioppo et al., 2010). n concluzie, studiul de fa a evideniat variabile pe care psihologul dintr-o organizaie cu specific medical din Romnia le poate utiliza ca resurse n construirea programelor de training necesare gestionrii singurtii la locul de munc (LW). Astfel c, sprijinul superiorilor este un element care poate crete sentimentul de ataament organizaional, iar existena acestuia reduce LW; reziliena emoional i ataamentul organizaional sunt elemente care pot s scad riscul apariiei LW i de un real ajutor sunt angajaii cu vechime n organizaie care, prin sprijinul lor direct acordat celor noi-venii, pot s construiasc o echip puternic i s reduc sentimentul de singurtate resimit la angajarea ntr-un nou loc de munc. n mediul organizaional, lipsa sprijinului supervizorului i a sprijinului echipei de la locul de munc sunt un predictor mai bun pentru singurtate, dect lipsa sprijinului oferit n afara locului de munc (Wright, 2012). Astfel, exist posibilitatea s se instaleze n mod diferit singurtatea la locul de munc i singurtatea n general, iar acest lucru poate fi cercetat n studiile viitoare. Singurtatea la locul de munc rmne n atenia specialitilor (Wright, 2012; Korkki, 2012; Ozcelik & Barsade, 2011) i n urmtorii ani, cercettorii vor ncearca, n continuare, s explice mecanismele ei (Cacioppo et al., 2010) i s construiasc programe de intervenie i prevenie (Sergeant & Laws-Chapman, 2012), pentru a crete calitatea vieii angajatului, pentru a reduce absenteismul pe motiv de boal i pentru a crete performana. Cu toate c, n Romnia, relativ puine studii au urmrit acest fenomen n organizaii diferite, considerm pe viitor de interes domeniul gestionrii singurtii la locul de munc, pentru efectele, aplicaiile i implicaiile sale practice.

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Percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR, potrivirea persoan-organizaie i satisfacia n munc

Mirela Botezatu-Roianu1

Abstract
This paper is based on the general assumption that human resource management practices can play an important role in matching people with the organisations and the jobs they work in. Also, high-performance HRM practices can have an influence upon employees outputs. The aim of this study is to investigate, on one hand, the relations between employees perceptions of HR practices and P-O fit, and on the other hand, between employees perceptions of HR practices with work engagement and job satisfaction. For collecting the data were used questionnaires. Results from a sample of 52 employees (67,3% women) support correlations between perceived HR practices and P-O fit, work engagement and job satisfaction. In plus, results support a mediating role of P-O fit in the relationship between perceived HR practices and job satisfaction. The results of this study emphasizes the importance of HRM practices in work engagement, job satisfaction and P-O fit. Keywords: HRM practices; P-O fit, job satisfaction, work engagement

Rsum
L'tude est base sur l'hypothse que les pratiques de gestion des ressources humaines peuvent jouer un rle important dans l'ajustement des personnes avec les organisations et les emplois qu'ils travaillent. Aussi, les pratiques de GRH haut rendement peuvent avoir une influence sur les sorties des employs. Le but de cette tude est d'examiner, d'une part, les relations entre la perception des employs sur les pratiques de GRH et l'ajustement P-O, et d'autre part, entre la perception des employs sur les pratiques de GRH et l'engagement de travail et la satisfaction au travail. Pour la collecte des donnes questionnaires ont t utiliss. Les rsultats d'un chantillon de 52 employs (67,3% femmes) soutiennent les corrlations entre la perception des employs sur les pratiques de GRH et l'ajustement P-O, l'engagement de travail et aussi la satisfaction au travail. En plus, les rsultats confirment le rle mdiateur que l'ajustement P-O a dans la relation entre la perception des employs sur les pratiques de GRH et la satisfaction au travail. Les rsultats de cette tude soulignent l'importance des pratiques de GRH dans l'engagement de travail, la satisfaction au travail et l'ajustement P-O. Mots-cls: pratiques de GRH; l'ajustement P-O, la satisfaction au travail, l'engagement de travail

Rezumat
Aceast lucrare pleac de la premisa c practicile de HR joac un rol important n a potrivi candidaii cu organizaia i cu postul pentru care aplic i c o percepie a angajailor asupra acestor practici ca fiind de nalt calitate influeneaz output-urile angajailor. Obiectivul acestei lucrri este de a studia ce relaii exist ntre percepiile angajailor asupra practicilor de HR, potrivirea persoan-organizaie, pe de o parte, i implicarea i satisfacia n munc, pe de alt parte. Pentru colectarea datelor s-au folosit probe de tip chestionar aplicate pe un eantion de 52 de angajai (67,3% femei). S-au identificat corelaii pozitive ntre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR i potrivirea P-O, implicarea n munc, respectiv satisfacia n munc. De asemenea, s-a constatat c potrivirea P-O mediaz relaia dintre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR i satisfacia n munc. Descoperirile studiului pun n lumin importana practicilor HR vis-a-vis de implicarea i satisfacia n munc i potrivirea P-O. Cuvinte cheie: practici HR, potrivirea P-O, satisfacia n munc, implicarea n munc

Departamentul de Psihologie, Universitatea de Vest din Timioara Adresa de coresponden: botezatu_mirela@yahoo.com 83

Percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR, potrivirea persoan-organizaie i satisfacia n munc

Introducere
Lucrarea de fa a luat natere din dorina de a studia legturile existente ntre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de management al resurselor umane, potrivirea persoan-organizaie i satisfacia, respectiv implicarea n munc. n aceast lucrare, funciunea de resurse umane sau de HR apare din perspectiva rolului de partener de afaceri, deoarece ne propunem s accentum rolul practicilor de management al resurselor umane n funcionarea organizaiilor. n acest rol, departamentul HR implementeaz i utilizeaz practici de management al resurselor umane i servicii care susin modelul de afaceri al organizaiei i ndeplinesc cererile managerilor i ale angajailor. Obiectivul principal al acestei lucrri este de a studia ce relaii exist ntre percepiile angajailor asupra practicilor de resurse umane, potrivirea persoan-organizaie, pe de o parte, i implicarea i satisfacia n munc, pe de alt parte. Premisa de la care s-a pornit este aceea c practicile de resurse umane joac un rol important n a potrivi candidaii cu organizaia i cu postul pentru care aplic i c o percepie a angajailor asupra acestor practici ca fiind de nalt calitate influeneaz output-urile angajailor.

Practicile de management al resurselor umane Practicile de management al resurselor umane sunt acele practici organizaionale care consolideaz competenele angajailor, angajamentul organizaional i cultura organizaional. Aceste practici pot lua forma unor sisteme, procese, activiti, norme, reguli, obiceiuri comportamentale acceptate sau ateptate i, mai pe scurt, sunt modaliti n care se fac lucrurile. Practicile de resurse umane contribuie la eficacitatea organizaional i trebuie s fie identificate i implementate ntr-un mod eficient, cu costuri reduse, i s fie revizuite din cnd n cnd tocmai pentru a crete aceast eficacitate. Practicile de resurse umane includ: planificarea, recrutarea, selecia i integrarea resurselor umane, trainingul i dezvoltarea profesional, evaluarea performanelor, planificarea carierei, oferirea de beneficii, recompense i recunoatere, norme de siguran i sntate n munc, politici de promovare, transfer i prsire a companiei (Verma, Malhorta, & Bedi, 2012 ).

Percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de resurse umane (de la recrutare i selecie la dezvoltare profesional) are un rol important n privina output-urilor angajailor, precum satisfacia n munc, implicarea n munc, angajamentul organizaional. Prin practicile de resurse umane se comunic informaii despre organizaie angajailor actuali sau poteniali. Dup Ryan & Ployhart (2000), cercetrile privind percepiile candidailor referitoare la procesele de recrutare i selecie sunt foarte importante deoarece aceste percepii influeneaz modul n care candidatul privete organizaia, decizia de a se altura organizaiei i alte comportamente ulterioare. Aceste atitudini i comportamente pot lua multe forme. De exemplu, candidaii care gsesc anumite aspecte ale procesului de selecie ca fiind invazive, privesc compania ca pe o opiune mai puin atrgtoare n procesul de cutare a unei slujbe. Astfel, pstrarea unei imagini pozitive despre companie pe parcursul procesului de selecie este foarte important. Candidaii care au reacii negative i pot descuraja pe ali candidai s lucreze n acea companie i dac simt c nu au fost tratai corect exist foarte puine anse ca ei s aplice din nou la acea companie ori s cumpere produsele acelei companii (Hausknecht, Day, & Thomas, 2004). Celani, DeutschSalamon & Singh (2008) dezvolt un model referitor att la dreptatea organizaional ct i la ncrederea candidailor n organizaie, pentru a nelege mai bine reaciile candidailor pe parcursul procesului de selecie. Modelul evideniaz faptul c ncrederea n organizaie poate avea un rol critic privind reaciile candidailor pe parcursul procesului de selecie. Astfel, aplicanii particip la procesul de selecie avnd un anumit nivel iniial de ncredere n organizaie. Acest nivel iniial de ncredere influeneaz n mod semnificativ reaciile candidailor. Persoanele care au un nivel iniial de ncredere mai ridicat pot trece mai uor cu vederea anumite greeli observate n procesul de selecie, i astfel percep organizaia ca fiind foarte corect. Pe de alt parte, dac exist greeli majore care s indice faptul c organizaia nu trateaz candidaii n mod corect, persoanele cu un nivel iniial de ncredere mai ridicat sunt mult mai dezamgite i resimt ntr-un mod accentuat nedreptatea organizaional.

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Potrivirea Persoan-Organizaie/ Persoan-Post Practicile de management al resurselor umane au un rol foarte important n a potrivi oamenii cu organizaia i cu postul pentru care acetia aplic. Practicile de management al resurselor umane pot crete nivelul de potrivire dintre persoan i organizaie i persoan i post prin comunicarea continu a valorilor i caracteristicilor firmei i a cererilor i ateptrilor angajailor, i prin oferirea de resurse necesare pentru a schimba sau crete nivelul de cunotine i abiliti (Boon, Den Hartoga, Boselieb, & Paauweb, 2011). Potrivirea persoan-mediu descrie potrivirea dintre o persoan i anumite tipuri de medii organizaionale. Boon i colab. (2011) arat c practicile de management al resurselor umane folosite mai ales n procesele de selecie, training, dezvoltare profesional i compensaii contribuie la stabilirea i ntrirea potrivirii dintre angajai i post sau organizaie. Aceast potrivire aduce beneficii att indivizilor ct i organizaiilor pentru c influeneaz atitudinile i comportamentele angajailor. Potrivirea persoan-organizaie se refer la potrivirea dintre o persoan i principalele atribute ale organizaiei i potrivirea persoanpost se refer la potrivirea dintre o persoan i cerinele unei slujbe. Kristoff (1996, apud Carless, 2005) definete potrivirea persoanorganizaie ca fiind compatibilitatea dintre persoan i organizaie care se ntmpl atunci cnd (a) cel puin una dintre entiti ofer celeilalte ceea ce are nevoie, sau (b) au caracteristici fundamentale asemntoare sau (c) ambele. Pornind de la aceast definiie putem diferenia ntre potrivirea complementar i cea suplimentar. Potrivirea complementar se ntmpl atunci cnd o persoan rspunde nevoilor organizaiei sau organizaia rspunde nevoilor persoanei. Cable & Edwards (2004) arat c acest lucru nseamn c un angajat are anumite abiliti de care organizaia are nevoie sau c organizaia ofer anumite recompense de care angajatul are nevoie. Potrivirea suplimentar exist atunci cnd o persoan i o organizaie au caracteristici asemntoare. O bun potrivire dintre persoan i organizaie duce la o eficacitate de lung durat, iar persoanele care nu se potrivesc cu organizaia tind s o prseasc mult mai repede. Edwards (1991, apud Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman & Johnson, 2005) conceptualizeaz

potrivirea persoan-post n dou feluri: n primul rnd, se refer la potrivirea cereri-abiliti, n care cunotinele, abilitile i comportamentele angajatului corespund cerinelor postului iar, n al doilea rnd, potrivirea persoan-post exist atunci cnd nevoile, dorinele sau preferinele angajatului sunt satisfcute de slujba pe care o are. Kristof-Brown i colab. (2005) au artat c exist legturi ntre potrivirea persoanorganizaie, persoan-post i diferite output-uri organizaionale. Astfel, potrivirea persoan-post coreleaz puternic cu satisfacia n munc, angajamentul organizaional i cu intenia de a prsi organizaia, i coreleaz moderat cu identificarea cu organizaia i performana organizaional. Potrivirea persoan-organizaie coreleaz puternic cu satisfacia n munc i angajamentul organizaional i moderat cu intenia de a prsi organizaia i performana contextual. Van Vuuren, Veldkamp, Jong & Seydel (2007, apud Biswas & Bhatnagar, 2013) au aratat c studiul potrivirii persoanorganizaie este important deoarece indic modul n care angajaii dezvolt un sim al comunalitii i urmresc obiectivele organizaiei. Acest lucru duce la o nelegere mai clar a scopului slujbei i crete gradul de efort investit n ndeplinirea sarcinilor de lucru. Angajaii i ndeplinesc ndatoririle legate de rol la un nivel crescut de performan cnd percep o potrivire ntre ei i organizaie (Arthur, Bell, Villado & Doverspike, 2006).
Implicarea n munc Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter & Taris (2008) au artat c implicarea n munc este o stare de bine, o stare pozitiv de mplinire, caracterizat de energie, vigoare, i dedicaie. Vigoarea se caracterizeaz prin niveluri ridicate de energie i vioiciune n timpul lucrului, disponibilitatea de a investi efort n munc i perseveren n faa obstacolelor. A fi dedicat muncii presupune a fi puternic implicat n activitate i a te simi important, entuziasmat, inspirat i mndru. Implicarea presupune o concentrare total i o cufundare fericit n munc. Implicarea n munc presupune un nalt nivel de energie i o puternic identificare psihologic cu munca, pn la acel nivel la care postul devine elementul central n definirea identitii cuiva. Studiile anterioare au demonstrat c exist o corelaie pozitiv ntre anumite caracteristici ale slujbei i implicarea n

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munc. Aceste caracteristici sunt: sprijinul din partea colegilor i supervizorilor, feedback-ul vis-a-vis de performan, varietatea abilitilor utilizate, autonomia i oportunitile de a nva (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008; Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007 apud Bakker et al., 2008). Angajaii care au un nivel crescut de implicare n munc experimenteaz i un nivel crescut de satisfacie n munc, n special cu referire la coninutul muncii pe care l gsesc intrinsec satisfctor i se simt puternic legai de organizaie, existnd astfel mai puine anse ca acetia s prseasc organizaia (Mohr & Zoghi, 2008; Biswas, 2009). Implicarea n munc, msura n care indivizii se identific cu posturile lor i le consider semnificative pentru cine sunt ei, constituie cheia pentru efortul individual, motivaie, performan i satisfacie. Astfel, organizaiile pot promova acest aspect prin selectarea celor mai potrivii oameni, printr-un climat adecvat i practici de management al resurselor umane care s susin implicarea n munc a angajailor. Aceste practici pot fi cheia unui avantaj competitiv.
Satisfacia n munc Satisfacia n munc este o stare emoional plcut sau pozitiv care rezult din aprecierea slujbei sau anumitor aspecte ale slujbei de ctre individ (Rogelberg, 2007, p. 406). Aceast definiie face referire att la reaciile afective ale persoanei fa de slujba sa (sentimentele sale), ct i la evalurile cognitive asupra slujbei (gndurile sale). Satisfacia n munc poate fi resimit la nivele diferite: exist o satisfacie general i o satisfacie de faet, i este un rezultat al percepiilor i emoiilor cuiva referitoare la slujba sa, pe cnd implicarea n munc are legtur cu coninutul intrinsec al muncii (Alarcon & Lyons, 2011). Conform lui Rogelberg (2007), natura muncii influeneaz cel mai mult satisfacia angajailor, ns exist i ali factori precum expunerea la hruire sexual i nedreptatea organizaional, oportunitile de dezvoltare a carierei, constrngeri care diminueaz performana (de exemplu, echipament care nu funcioneaz bine), claritatea rolurilor, conflictele de rol, echilibrul munc-viat personal, caracteristicile slujbei la nivel de grup (de exemplu, ct control are echipa) i la nivel organizaional (legate de cultura

organizaional), temperamentul i personalitatea. Dup cum arat Autry i Daugherty (2003), satisfacia n munc influeneaz gradul de implicare al angajailor n cadrul companiei. Atunci cnd angajaii sunt satisfcui, sunt mult mai dispui s ntreprind aciuni prin care s se dezvolte sau prin care s-i mbunteasc mediul de lucru. De asemenea, depun mai mult efort n exercitarea sarcinilor, ncercnd s i mbunteasc performanele i dau dovad de comportamente altruiste care mbuntesc climatul organizaional. Angajaii care nu sunt satisfcui n munc sunt mai predispui s ntrzie la lucru, s absenteze ori s prseasc organizaia.

Studiul actual Practicile de resurse umane comunic mesaje angajailor. Pentru a fi eficiente, aceste mesaje, prin coninutul lor trebuie s fie clare, coerente i consistente (Bowen & Ostroff, 2004). Decizia de a se altura unei companii poate fi influenat de percepia asupra potrivirii persoan-organizaie, n mod indirect, prin intermediul atraciei resimite. De exemplu, atracia i decizia candidailor de a se altura unei companii depinde de percepia format pe parcursul procesului de selecie vis-a-vis de gradul de potrivire cu caracteristicile acelei companii (Cable & Judge, 1996, Judge & Cable, 1997, apud Carless, 2005). Indivizii se simt mult mai atrai de organizaii cu care mprtesc caracteristici comune, precum valorile (Schneider, Goldstein, & Smith, 1995, apud Boon et al., 2011), iar intervievatorii iau n considerare n procesul de selecie potrivirea candidatului cu organizaia (Kristof-Brown, 2000). Unele companii folosesc proceduri de selecie i dezvoltare a angajailor bazate pe valorile companiei respective pentru a angaja i integra candidaii care se potrivesc culturii organizaionale (Boon, Boselie, Paauwe, & Den Hartog, 2007). Dup angajare, att procesul de socializare ajut la ntrirea potrivirii dintre persoan i organizaie (Cable & Parsons, 2001, Tae-Yeol, Cable, & Sang-Pyo, 2005), ct i oferirea de traininguri i posibilitii de dezvoltare profesional (Lee & Bruvold, 2003). Organizaiile folosesc practici de evaluare a performanelor i recompensare a angajailor pentru a ncuraja anumite comportamente pe care i le doresc din partea acestora, i astfel a ntri legtura dintre persoan i organizaie

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(Boon et al., 2007). Astfel, toate aceste practici de resurse umane contribuie mpreun la stabilirea relaiei dintre persoan i organizaie. Urmnd aceleai raionamente, prima ipotez a cercetrii este formulat astfel: I 1. Cu ct percepia asupra practicilor de HR este mai bun, cu att potrivirea P-O va fi mai mare. Este important ca funciunea HR s implementeze i s aplice practici care s dezvolte implicarea n munc a angajailor, prin atragerea i reinerea talentelor, echilibrul muncvia personal, mprtirea de informaii, recompense i recunotere, deoarece, dup cum menioneaz Bakker i colab. (2008), angajaii cu un nivel ridicat de implicare n munc au performane mai ridicate pentru c au adesea emoii pozitive, precum fericire, bucurie i entuziasm; starea lor de sntate fizic i psihic este mai bun; i creeaz singuri resurse, de exemplu, sprijin din partea celorlali; i i determin i pe ceilali s se implice mai mult n munca proprie. Implementarea acestor practici se poate ntmpla printr-un proces de recrutare i selecie obiectiv, n care s se in cont de potrivirea persoan-post, deoarece indivizii care percep o compatibilitate crescut ntre cerinele postului i competenele proprii vor fi mai predispui s realizeze sarcinile la un nalt nivel de performan (Caldwell & OReilly, 1990; Greenberg, 2002, apud Erdogan & Bauer, 2005). Acetia vor fi mult mai dornici s se implice n munc dect indivizii care simt c cerinele postului fie le depesc, fie le subestimeaz capacitile. De asemenea, trebuie s se in cont n procesul de selecie de potrivirea dintre persoan i rolul pe care i-l va asuma n companie. Aceast potrivire, prin care indivizii i pot exprima valorile i credinele, este asociat cu implicarea n munc care devine mult mai semnificativ (May, Gilson & Harter, 2004). O munc semnificativ i inteligibil i mputernicirea angajailor faciliteaz creterea motivaiei i a dezvoltrii profesionale (Spreitzer, Kizilos, & Nason, 1997, apud May et al., 2004). Lund n considerare studiile pe tema aceasta, cea de-a doua ipotez este formulat astfel: I 2. Cu ct percepia asupra practicilor de HR este mai bun, cu att implicarea n munc va fi mai mare. Rolul practicilor de resurse umane este de a influena atitudinile i comportamentele

angajailor n direcia dorit de companie, astfel nct s existe efecte pozitive asupra output-urilor angajailor. S-a demonstrat c exist legturi ntre justeea organizaional i satisfacia n munc (Celani et al., 2008; Thomas & Nagalingappa, 2012; Suanj & Jakopec, 2012). Petrescu & Simmons (2008) au studiat relaia dintre practicile de management al resurselor umane i satisfacia general n munc respectiv satisfacia privind plata. Au descoperit c mai multe practici de resurse umane contribuie la creterea satisfaciei generale a angajailor i a celei legate de plat. Practicile de HR, luate n mod individual, au un rol funcional (evaluare, training etc), dar luate mpreun pot ndeplini un rol noninstrumental, reflectnd i ntrind climatul organizaional (Bowen & Ostroff, 2004). Reaciile angajailor fa de practicile de resurse umane, atunci cnd sunt pozitive, duc la comportamente mai bune i mbuntirea performanelor (Kinnie, Hutchinson, Purcell, Rayton & Swart, 2005). Practicile de resurse umane de nalt performan au rolul de a atrage i a reine talente, de a pregti indivizii pentru ndeplinirea unor roluri provocatoare, de a ajuta la dezvoltarea abilitilor i competenelor acestora i de a crete productivitatea i profitul companiei. De asemenea, prin intermediul practicilor de resurse umane trebuie s se asigure satisfacia angajailor deoarece angajaii satisfcui pot contribui n foarte mare msur la ndeplinirea obiectivelor organizaionale. Beneficiile i investiiile n dezvoltarea angajailor, un salariu mai mare, mai mult libertate i securitatea slujbei pe lng un control redus asupra angajailor duc la creterea gradului de satisfacie n munc (Verma et al., 2012). innd cont de cercetrile n domeniu, cea de-a treia ipotez este formulat n acest sens: I 3. Cu ct percepia asupra practicilor de HR este mai bun, cu att satisfacia n munc va fi mai mare. Unul din scopurile practicilor de resurse umane este s asigure potrivirea angajailor cu organizaia n care intr, aadar, efectul percepiilor acestor practici asupra output-urilor angajailor, precum satisfacia n munc, poate fi mediat de potrivirea persoan-organizaie. Indivizii se simt mult mai atrai de organizaiile cu care mprtesc caracteristici comune, iar organizaia, prin practicile de resurse umane, are rolul de a atrage i a pstra angajaii cei mai potrivii. Un grad ridicat de potrivire dintre

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persoan i organizaie este asociat cu output-uri pozitive precum satisfacia n munc, deoarece nevoile indivizilor sunt mplinite i/sau indivizii lucreaz cu alii care au caracteristici similare, pe cnd incompatibilitatea duce de obicei la rezultate negative (Taris & Feij, 2001). Westerman & Cyr (2004) arat c exist corelaii ntre compatibilitatea dintre valorile persoaneivalorile organizaiei respectiv compatibilitatea individ-mediu de lucru i satisfacia n munc. De asemenea, Amos & Weathington (2008) demonstreaz c exist asocieri pozitive ntre compatibilitatea valorilor angajat-organizaie i satisfacia n munc, respectiv angajamentul organizaional. Aadar, este de ateptat ca relaia dintre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de resurse umane i satisfacia n munc s fie mediat de potrivirea persoan-organizaie. innd cont de acest lucru, cea de-a patra ipotez este formulat astfel: I 4. Potrivirea P-O mediaz relaia dintre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR i satisfacia n munc.

Designul cercetrii Modelul cercetrii este unul nonexperimental, corelaional i i propune s verifice relaiile dintre urmtoarele variabile: percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de resurse umane, satisfacia n munc, implicarea n munc i potrivirea persoan-organizaie.

Instrumentele de cercetare Pentru cercetarea n cauz, a fost utilizat metoda anchetei pe baz de chestionar, aplicnd urmtoarele instrumente:

Metod
Procedur i participani Studiul de fa a fost realizat n cadrul a dou companii: o companie multinaional cu profil industrial i o companie mic cu profil IT, unde am aplicat o serie de chestionare. n compania multinaional, chestionarele au fost distribuite prin intermediul team-leaderului, instructajul aferent acestora subliniind caracterul voluntar al activitii precum i confidenialitatea datelor, iar n cealalt companie, distribuirea chestionarelor s-a fcut online, cu ajutorul aplicaiei Google Forms, participanii fiind rugai s acceseze un link unde se regseau instrumentele alturi de instructajul aferent fiecruia. Directorul companiei a trimis un email n sistemul intranet, motivndu-i pe angajai s completeze chestionarele, specificnd c participarea este voluntar i anonim. Prin urmare, eantionul de convenien este format din 52 de subieci, toi desfurndu-i activitatea n sectorul privat. Dintre acetia, 67.3% sunt femei cu vrsta cuprins ntre 22 i 51 de ani i 32.7% sunt brbai cu vrsta cuprins ntre 22 i 35 de ani, 9.6% sunt cstorii i 90.4 % necstorii, 5.8% au studii medii i 94.2% au studii superioare.

I. Scala de msurare a percepiei asupra practicilor de resurse umane (Perceived HR practices) care a fost construit de Boon, Den Hartoga, Boselieb & Paauweb (2011). Aceast scal conine 38 de itemi i cuprinde apte subscale, astfel: 1. Participare/ autonomie/ job design - 9 itemi (de exemplu: Organizaia (mi) ofer munc diversificat i inteligibil) (coeficientul Cronbach Alpha = .90 pe eantionul studiat). 2. Recrutare/selecie - 2 itemi (de exemplu: Organizaia (mi) ofer selecie critic/obiectiv a noilor angajai) (coeficientul Cronbach Alpha = .84 pe eantionul studiat). 3. Training/dezvoltare profesional- 9 itemi (de exemplu: Organizaia (mi) ofer posibilitatea de a participa la traininguri, cursuri i workshopuri) (coeficientul Cronbach Alpha = .89 pe eantionul studiat). 4. Sigurana slujbei- 2 itemi (de exemplu: Organizaia (mi) ofer sigurana c mi voi pstra slujba) (coeficientul Cronbach Alpha = .86 pe eantionul studiat). 5. Munca n echip/ autonomie- 4 itemi (de exemplu: Organizaia (mi) ofer posibilitatea de a lucra n echip) (coeficientul Cronbach Alpha = .78 pe eantionul studiat). 6. Evaluarea performanelor/ recompense - 8 itemi (de exemplu: Organizaia (mi) ofer aprecieri corecte ale performanei mele) (coeficientul Cronbach Alpha = .85 pe eantionul studiat). 7. Echilibrul munc-via personal- 4 itemi (de exemplu: Organizaia (mi) ofer ore de lucru flexibile (coeficientul Cronbach Alpha= .74 pe eantionul studiat). Cele apte subscale includ 12 practici de resurse umane care sunt folosite frecvent n literatura de specialitate. Pentru a msura percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de resurse

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umane, subiecilor li s-a cerut s indice pentru fiecare item msura n care cred c organizaia le ofer o anumit practic HR (Organizaia mi ofer...), pe o scala Likert de 5 trepte, de la (1) n foarte mic msur la (5) - n foarte mare msur. Scorurile ridicate indic faptul c angajaii au o prere foarte bun despre practicile de resurse umane din compania respectiv. Coeficientul Cronbach Alpha pentru aceast scal, pe eantionul studiat, este de .94. II. Scala pentru percepia angajailor asupra potrivirii cu organizaia (PersonOrganization fit), construit de Cable & Judge (1996), cuprinde 3 itemi i rspunsurile sunt oferite pe o scal Likert de 5 trepte, unde (1) nseamn deloc i (5) - n totalitate. Exemplu de item: n ce msur simi c valorile tale se potrivesc cu aceast organizaie i cu actualii angajai din aceast organizaie? Scorurile ridicate indic o compatibilitate ridicat ntre persoan i organizaie. Coeficientul Cronbach Alpha pentru aceast scal, pe eantionul studiat, este de .89. III. Implicarea n munc a fost evaluat cu ajutorul scalei create de Schaufeli & Bakker (2003). Scala, versiunea scurt, (Utrecht Work Engagement Scale9 [UWES-9]) conine 9 itemi. Aceast scal a fost validat pe populaia romneasc de Vrg, Zaboril, Maricuoiu & Sulea (2009). Scala are urmtoarele trei subscale: vigoare (Ex: La locul de munc simt c explodez de energie), (coeficientul Cronbach Alpha= .88 pe eantionul studiat), dedicare (Ex: Sunt entuziasmat/ de locul meu de munc), (coeficientul Cronbach Alpha= .86 pe eantionul studiat) i absorbie (Ex: M simt fericit/ cnd lucrez intens), (coeficientul Cronbach Alpha= .83 pe eantionul studiat). Cele 9 afirmaii se refer la cum se simt angajaii la locul de munc. Acetia trebuie s indice pe o scal Likert de 6 puncte, de la (0) - niciodat la (6) - zilnic, dac au avut vreodat sentimentele respective fa de locul de munc, i dac da, cu ce frecven. Scorurile ridicate indic o implicare n munc crescut. Coeficientul Cronbach Alpha pentru aceast scal, pe eantionul studiat, este de .91. IV. Satisfacia n munc a fost evaluat cu scala Michigan Organizational Asessment Questionnaire construit de Camman, Fishman, Jenkins & Klesh (1979). Scala are 3 itemi la care participanii au rspuns pe o scal cu 7 puncte, de la (1) - dezacord total la (7) - acord total). Exemplu de item: n general, mi place s lucrez aici. Scorurile ridicate indic o

satisfacie crescut. Coeficientul Cronbach Alpha pentru aceast scal, pe eantionul studiat, este de .86.

Rezultate
Tabelul 1 prezint media, abaterea standard, consistena intern, dar i corelaiile stabilite ntre variabilele introduse n studiu. Dup cum se poate observa din Tabelul 1, percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de resurse umane se asociaz semnificativ i pozitiv cu potrivirea P-O (r = .62, p < .01), dar i dimensiunile scalei de msurare a percepiei asupra practicilor de resurse umane se asociaz semnificativ i pozitiv cu potrivirea P-O: Participare/ autonomie/ job design (r = .60, p < .01), Recrutare/selecie (r = .60, p < .01), Training/ dezvoltare profesional (r = .57, p < .01), Munc n echip/ autonomie (r = .52, p < .01), Evaluarea performanelor/ recompense (r = .39, p < .01). Aceste rezultate susin Ipoteza 1. Percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de resurse umane se asociaz semnificativ i pozitiv cu implicarea n munc (r = .62, p < .01), dar i dimensiunile scalei de msurare a percepiei asupra practicilor de resurse umane se asociaz semnificativ i pozitiv cu implicarea n munc: Participare/ autonomie/ job design (r = .56, p < .01), Recrutare/selecie (r = .62, p < .01), Training/ dezvoltare profesional (r = .60, p < .01), Munc n echip/ autonomie (r = .49, p < .01), Evaluarea performanelor/ recompense (r = .41, p < .01), Echilibrul munc-via personal (r = .74, p< .01 ). Astfel, avem dovezi empirice ce susin Ipoteza 2. Percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de resurse umane coreleaz semnificativ i pozitiv cu satisfacia n munc (r = .59, p < .01), dar i dimensiunile scalei de msurare a percepiei asupra practicilor de resurse umane coreleaz semnificativ i pozitiv cu satisfacia n munc: Participare/ autonomie/ job design (r = .63, p < .01 ), Recrutare/selecie (r = .51, p < .01), Training/ dezvoltare profesional (r = .52, p < .01), Sigurana slujbei (r = .41, p < .01), Munc n echip/ autonomie (r = .41, p < .01). Rezultatele susin Ipoteza 3. Potrivirea P-O se asociaz semnificativ i pozitiv cu satisfacia n munc (r = .63, p< .01).

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Tabelul 1. Medii, abateri standard, coeficieni alpha Cronbach i coeficieni de corelaie ntre variabile
Variabile 1. Percepia asupra practicilor de HR 2. Participare/autonomie/ job design 3. Recrutare/selecie M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 132.33 24.27 (0.94)

31.56 7.23 .83** (0.90)

6.52

2.17 .64** .64** (0.84)

4. Training/dezvoltare profesional 5. Sigurana slujbei

31.98 8.14 .79** .57** .45** (0.89)

6.73

2.35 .65** .59** .45** .49** (0.86)

6. Munc n echip/ autonomie 16.79 2.78 .50** .39** .48** .36** 0.31 (0.78)

7. Evaluarea performanelor/recompense 8. Echilibrul munc-via personal 9. Potrivirea PersoanOrganizaie 10. Implicarea n munc

25.69 6.90 .73** .45** .45** .58** .51** 0.34

(0.85)

13.98 3.90 .38** 0.41

.28** 0.11

0.02 0.12

0.06

(0.74)

11.10 2.58 .62** .60** .60** .57** 0.34 .52** .39** 0.32 (0.89)

10.00 10.70 .62** .56** .62** .60** 0.28 .49** .41** 0.29 .74** (0.91)

11. Satisfacia n munc

17.22 3.50 .59** .63** .51** .52** .41** .41** 0.33

0.24 .63** .70** (0.86)

Ipoteza, conform creia Potrivirea P-O mediaz relaia dintre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR i satisfacia n munc, a fost susinut de rezultatele obinute. Pentru testarea acestei ipoteze a fost utilizat regresia ierarhic. Variabila independent este percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR, variabila mediatoare este potrivirea P-O i variabila dependent este satisfacia n munc. Pentru a efectua analiza de mediere, am urmat modelul lui Baron i Kenny (1986) n 4 pai. Astfel, urmtoarele condiii trebuie ndeplinite:

I. Existena unei corelaii ntre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR i potrivirea P-O. II. Existena unei corelaii ntre potrivirea PO i satisfacia n munc. III. Existena unei corelaii ntre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR i satisfacia n munc IV. Relaia dintre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR i satisfacia n munc, n contextul introducerii variabilei mediatoare, potrivirea P-O, dei rmne semnificativ

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statistic, scade semnificativ n intensitate, avnd loc o mediere parial, sau devine nesemnificativ statistic, avnd loc o mediere total. Condiiile medierii au fost ndeplinite, astfel: I. n primul pas al analizei de mediere am utilizat regresia liniar pentru a testa relaia dintre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR i potrivirea P-O. Conform Tabelului 2, exist o relaie semnificativ statistic ntre percepia asupra practicilor de HR i potrivirea P-O (= 0.62, t= 5,67, R2= 0.39, p= .00 < .01). Percepia asupra practicilor de HR explic 39.2 % din variaia gradului de potrivire P-O. II. n al doilea pas al analizei de mediere am utilizat regresia liniar pentru a testa relaia dintre potrivirea P-O i satisfacia n munc. Conform tabelului 2, exist o relaie semnificativ statistic ntre potrivirea P-O i satisfacia n munc (= 0.63, t= 5.80, R2= 0.40, p= .00 < .01). Potrivirea P-O explic 40.2 % din variaia gradului de satisfacie n munc. III. n al treilea pas al analizei de mediere am utilizat regresia liniar pentru a testa relaia

dintre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR i satisfacia n munc. Conform tabelului 2, exist o relaie semnificativ statistic ntre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR i satisfacia n munc (= 0.59, t= 5.19, R2= 0.35, p= .00 < .01). Percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR explic 35.1 % din variaia gradului de satisfacie n munc. IV. n al patrulea pas al analizei de mediere am utilizat regresia ierarhic pentru a testa relaia dintre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR i satisfacia n munc n contextul introducerii variabilei mediatoare, potrivirea P-O. Conform tabelului 2, relaia dintre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR i satisfacia n munc devine nesemnificativ statistic atunci cnd introduc variabila potrivirea P-O, beta scznd de la 0.59 la 0.32 (= 0.32, t= 2.39, R2= 0.46, p= .02 > .01), ceea ce nseamn c exist un efect de mediere total. Introducnd potrivirea P-O n al patrulea pas al ecuaiei de regresie ierarhic, R2 crete de la 0.35 la 0.46 (R2= 0,11).

Tabelul 2. Testarea rolului mediator al potrivirii P-O n relaia dintre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR i satisfacia n munc.
Pasul 1 Pasul 2 Pasul 3 Pasul 4 P_HR i P-O P-O i S P_HR i S P_HR, P-O, i S 0.62 0.63 0.59 0.32 T 5.67** 5.80** 5,19** 2.39 R 0.39 0.4 0.35 0.46

Not: **p < .01; P_HR= percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR; P-O= potrivirea Persoan-Organizaie; S = satisfacia n munc

Astfel, avem dovezi empirice care susin Ipoteza 4 ce prevede c potrivirea P-O mediaz relaia dintre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de HR i satisfacia n munc.

Discuii
Scopul acestui studiu a fost s cerceteze relaiile dintre percepiile angajailor asupra practicilor de resurse umane, potrivirea persoan-organizaie, pe de o parte, i implicarea i satisfacia n munc, pe de alt parte. De asemenea, a fost testat rolul mediator al potrivirii persoan-organizaie n relaia dintre percepia

angajailor asupra practicilor de resurse umane i satisfacia n munc. S-au gsit relaii semnificative statistic, iar datele au susinut ipotezele formulate. Percepia angajailor asupra urmtoarelor practici de resurse umane a corelat pozitiv cu potrivirea P-O: participare/ autonomie/ job design; recrutare/selecie; training/ dezvoltare profesional; munc n echip/ autonomie; evaluarea performanelor/ recompense. Acest lucru nseamn c, cu ct practicile de resurse umane se desfoar la un nalt nivel de performan, cu att gradul de compatibilitate dintre angajai i companie va fi mai ridicat. Acest lucru implic faptul c, cu ct un angajat
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simte c este mai potrivit cu postul i cu organizaia, cu att rezultatele muncii sale vor fi mai bune. Gradul de potrivire dintre persoan i organizaie are impact asupra candidailor, precum i asupra specialitilor n recrutare i a angajailor, influennd atitudinile, deciziile i comportamentele acestora. Managerii care doresc s profite din plin de beneficiile acestei potriviri, trebuie s promoveze o cultur organizaional puternic, evideniind obiectivele i valorile organizaiei i contribuiile acesteia referitoare la carierele angajailor. De asemenea, trebuie s ncurajeze implementarea i utilizarea de practici de resurse umane de nalt performan, nefiind suficient o simpl ndoctrinare a angajailor cu valorile companiei. Gradul de potrivire dintre persoan i organizaie poate fi crescut prin mbuntirea anumitor caracteristici ale slujbei, precum nivelul de autonomie i participare, prin recrutarea i selecia celui mai potrivit candidat, prin oferirea de trainiguri i posibilitii de a lucra n echip i recunoaterea meritelor acesteia, printr-un sistem de evaluare a performanelor corect i recompensare pe msur. Selectarea angajailor ale cror personaliti sunt compatibile cu organizaia i cultura acesteia creeaz o for de munc flexibil, ceea ce duce la o adaptare mai uoar n condiiile apariiei schimbrilor. Angajaii pot percepe o compatibilitate nalt ntre ei i slujbele lor, dar pot s nu fie compatibili cu organizaia, s nu mprteasc valorile acesteia, i invers. Astfel, dac angajaii se simt compatibili ntr-o mic msur cu organizaia, oferirea de programe de training i poate ajuta pe acetia s cunoasc valorile companiei, ce i ajut s se identifice cu acestea, astfel nct s nu i mai doreasc s parseasc compania (Chang, Chi, & Chuang, 2010). Pentru a maximiza beneficiile i minimiza costurile, companiile trebuie sa utilizeze un set de practici de management al resurselor umane care s asigure selectarea celor mai potrivii candidai att cu postul, ct i cu organizaia. n acest proces, accentul trebuie s cad asupra acestei potriviri. De asemenea, angajaii i ntresc aceast relaie de compatibilitate dac primesc sprijin n procesul socializrii pe parcursul integrrii n organizaie. Pentru a facilita aceast socializare, se pot crea programe de training prin care angajaii mai experimentai s le explice noilor venii tot ceea ce au nevoie s tie referitor la cultura i climatul organizaional. Pe lng aceste traininguri sociale, participarea angajailor

la traininguri prin care li se ofer ansa de a se dezvolta profesional reduce gradul perceput de incompatibilitate cu firma i gradul de insatisfacie la locul de munc. De asemenea, o evaluare corect a performanelor scade gradul de frustrare i duce la o mai bun nelegere asupra a ceea ce se cere de la angajat. Percepia angajailor asupra urmtoarelor practici de resurse umane a corelat pozitiv cu implicarea n munc: participare/autonomie/job design; recrutare/selecie; training/ dezvoltare profesional; munc n echip/ autonomie; evaluarea performanelor/ recompense; echilibrul munc-via personal. Astfel, cu ct angajaii sunt mai nemulumii de procesele de resurse umane, cu att vor fi mai puin implicai n munca lor, fapt ce va duce la comportamente de retragere i contraproductive. Aceast lips de implicare va duce i la o lips de satisfacie n munc. Implicarea n munc presupune i o identificare cu slujba. Astfel, rezultatele muncii devin foarte importante. Aceste rezultate sunt apreciate printr-un proces de evaluare a performanelor. Cu ct acest proces se va desfura la un nalt nivel de performan, cu att angajaii vor fi mai implicai n munc, deoarece vor primi feedback-ul de care au nevoie referitor la calitatea muncii lor i le vor fi recunoscute meritele. Angajaii implicai n munca lor muncesc cu pasiune i se simt profund conectai cu firma n care lucreaz, astfel reacioneaz intens la modul n care compania i trateaz. De exemplu, dac organizaia i ia angajamentul s se ocupe de creterea i dezvoltarea personal i profesional a angajailor, acetia se vor simi ndatorai i astfel vor fi mult mai dispui s depun eforturi pentru a crete eficacitatea organizaional. Implicarea n munc are efecte pozitive asupra output-urilor organizaionale, astfel, n loc s se cheltuie resurse pentru obinerea i mbuntirea anumitor atitudini i stri motivaionale, aceste resurse se pot investi n practici de resurse umane care s contribuie la implicarea angajailor n munca lor. Percepia angajailor asupra urmtoarelor practici de resurse umane s-a asociat pozitiv cu satisfacia n munc: participare/autonomie/job design; recrutare/selecie; training/ dezvoltare profesional; sigurana slujbei; munc n echip/ autonomie. Acest lucru nseamn c, cu ct angajaii sunt mai nemulumii de procesele de resurse umane, cu att vor fi mai puin satisfcui de munca lor. Astfel, prin mbuntirea acestor procese se poate obine o cretere a gradului de

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satisfacie n munc. O modalitate ar fi implicarea angajailor n sisteme de lucru flexibile, unde exist o autonomie crescut vis-avis de modul de efectuare a sarcinilor i implicarea acestora n sarcini de echip. n plus, dezvoltarea profesional va crete satisfacia n munc a angajailor prin creterea controlului asupra propriilor cariere, prin sentimentul c sunt valorizai att n interiorul, ct i in exteriorul organizaiei, prin sentimente pozitive fa de un angajator cruia i pas de angajaii si. Oportunitile i beneficiile oferite de ctre companie duc la percepia angajailor c nevoile lor sunt satisfcute. Aceste rezultate sunt n concordan cu rezultatele obinute de ali cercettori precum Verma i colab. (2012) care au demonstrat c exist o corelaie ntre percepia asupra practicilor de resurse umane i satisfacia n munc i c aceste percepii difer n funcie de genul persoanei; Jha & Bhattacharyya (2012) au demonstrat c exist corelaii pozitive ntre practicile de recrutare i selecie, precum oferirea de informaii relevante despre post, proceduri de selecie adecvate, planificarea resurselor umane, i satisfacia angajailor. De asemenea, s-a confirmat rolul mediator al potrivirii persoan-organizaie n relaia dintre percepia angajailor asupra practicilor de resurse umane i satisfacia n munc. Acest rezultat se afl n concordan cu rezultatele obinute de ali cercettori (Boon i colab., 2011). S-a constatat un efect de mediere total. Acest lucru implic faptul c practicile de management al resurselor umane i ajut pe angajai s simt c rspund nevoilor organizaiei i c organizaia rspunde nevoilor acestora i c personalitatea, atitudinile i valorile lor sunt compatibile cu valorile, obiectivele, structurile, procesele i cultura organizaiei. Acest lucru duce, la rndul su, la creterea gradului de satisfacie n munc. Studierea potrivirii persoan-organizaie ajut la o mai bun nelegere a consecinelor pe care le au percepiile angajailor asupra practicilor de resurse umane. Aceste percepii se asociaz cu atitudinile angajailor i cu sentimentul de compatibilitate cu organizaia. Astfel, pe baza rezultatelor obinute, putem concluziona c obiectivele studiului au fost ndeplinite.

Limitele studiului i direcii viitoare de cercetare

Studiul de fa are anumite limite. n primul rnd, numrul redus de subieci constituie un dezavantaj al studiului. n al doilea rnd, fiind un studiu transversal, nu pot fi testate relaii cauzale. De asemenea, aspectele studiate au fost msurate prin chestionare de tip auto-raportare, fapt ce poate duce la creterea riscului de dezirabilitate social a rspunsurilor. Ca direcie de cercetare viitoare, se poate studia rolul moderator al potrivirii PersoanOrganizaie i Persoan-Post n relaia dintre percepia asupra practicilor de HR i diferite alte output-uri organizaionale (cum ar fi, intenia de a prsi organizaia). De asemenea, se pot studia relaiile cauzale dintre variabilele din prezentul studiu, prin proiectarea unor studii longitudinale, pe un numr mai mare de participani.

Implicaii practice
Studiul cuprinde concepte i investigheaz relaii de interes actual pentru mediul organizaional. Studiul percepiilor angajailor asupra practicilor de resurse umane ajut la descoperirea anumitor consecine ale acestor percepii i la prevenirea unor comportamente care nu sunt de dorit ntr-o organizaie i au rolul de a mbunti eficacitatea organizaional i, astfel, de a spori productivitatea. Un sistem de practici de resurse umane de nalt performan trebuie s: se asigure c angajaii au abilitile i competenele necesare pentru a realiza cu succes sarcinile de lucru, s dezvolte motivaia angajailor i s ofere angajailor ansa de a participa, de a se implica. Pe lng selecie, training, evaluarea performanelor, acest sistem trebuie s includ recompense pentru performan, practici de implicare a angajailor, grupuri de rezolvare de probleme, munca n echip, accesul la informaii. Conform lui Jiang, Lepak, Hu & Baer (2012), utilizarea practicilor de resurse umane care dezvolt cunotinele i abilitile angajailor, cresc motivaia i ofer ansa de a-i aduce contribuia personal este asociat cu output-uri pozitive precum un mai mare angajament organizaional, o mai mic fluctuaie de personal, o cretere a productivitii i a satisfaciei n munc. Este important s fie studiate relaiile dintre practicile HR i output-urile angajailor deoarece

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practicile HR constituie coloana vertebral a unei organizaii, iar calitatea acestora are legtur cu atitudinile i comportamentele angajailor care, la rndul lor, au legtur cu eficacitatea i performana organizaional. Prin aceste practici se asigur selectarea celui mai bun candidat, care s se potriveasc cu organizaia n care intr i cu postul pe care l va ocupa. Odat intrat n organizaie, practicile de resurse umane l susin n procesul de integrare pentru a grbi i facilita acomodarea i adaptarea n vederea obinerii unor rezultate ct mai bune n cel mai scurt timp posibil; practicile de resurse umane contribuie la o evaluare corect i adecvat a performanelor urmat de feedback, pentru a afla unde s se investeasc n vederea mbuntirii acestora; de asemenea, funciunea HR poate s implementeze sisteme de plat i recompense care s i motiveze pe angajai. Toate acestea, dar nu numai, contribuie la creterea gradului de satisfacie i implicare n munc a angajailor, care vor contribui la dezvoltarea i profitabilitatea companiei. Prin intermediul practicilor de resurse umane se poate crete nivelul de potrivire dintre persoanorganizaie i persoan-post, comunicnd n mod constant angajailor valorile i caracteristicile organizaiei i ceea ce se cere i se ateapt de la acetia, i prin oferirea resurselor care s modifice ori s dezvolte cunotinele i abilitile angajailor. Astfel, oferind angajailor un sistem de practici de management al resurselor umane de nalt performan va duce la creterea potrivirii dintre persoan-organizaie i persoanpost pentru a duce la o mai bun eficacitate i performan organizaional, firma recuperndui investiia n procesele de resurse umane prin rezultatele obinute de angajai. Pentru ca firmele s beneficieze ntr-adevr de pe urma practicilor de management al resurselor umane, trebuie s acorde importan gradului de potrivire dintre persoan i organizaie pe parcursul procesului de selecie. Not: Mulumiri d-nei prof. Conf. univ. dr. Delia Vrg pentru sprijinul acordat.

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Carless, S. A. (2005). Personjob fit versus person organization fit as predictors of organizational attraction and job acceptance intentions: A longitudinal study. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78, 411429. Celani, A., Deutsch-Salamon, S., & Singh, P. (2008). In justice we trust: A model of the role of trust in the organization in applicant reactions to the selection process. Human Resource Management Review, 18, 6376. Chang, H. T., Chi, N. W., & Chuang, A. (2010). Exploring the moderating roles of perceived personjob fit and personorganisation fit on the relationship between training investment and knowledge workers turnover intentions. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 59, 566 593. Erdogan, B., & Bauer, T. N. (2005). Enhancing career benefits of employee proactive personality: The role of fit with jobs and organizations. Personnel Psychology, 58, 859-891. Hausknecht, J. P., Day, D. V., & Thomas, S. C. (2004). Applicant reactions to selection procedures: An updated model and meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 57, 639683. Jha, S., & Bhattacharyya, S. S. (2012). Study of perceived recruitment practices and their relationships to job satisfaction. Synergy, 10, 63-76. Jiang, K., Lepak, D. P, Hu, J., & Baer, J. C. (2012). How does human resource management influence organizational outcomes? A meta-analytic investigation of mediating mechanisms. Academy of Management Journal, 55, 1264-1294. Kinnie, N., Hutchinson, S., Purcell, J., Rayton, B. & Swart, J. (2005). Satisfaction with HR practices and commitment to the organisation: why one size does not fit all. Human Resource Management Journal, 15, 9-29. Kristof-Brown, A. L. (2000). Perceived applicant fit: distinguishing between recruiters perceptions of person-job and person-organization fit. Personnel Psychology, 53, 643-671. Kristof-Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D., & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences of individuals fit at work: a meta-analysis of person-job, personorganization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58, 281342. Lee, C.H., & Bruvold, N. T. (2003). Creating value for employees: investment in employee development. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14, 981-1000. May, D. R., Gilson, R. L., & Harter, L. M. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77, 1137. Mohr, R. D., & Zoghi, C. (2008). High-involvement work design and job satisfaction. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 61, 275-296.

Ordiz-Fuertes, M., & Fernandez-Sanchez, E. (2003). High-involvement practices in human resource management: concept and factors that motivate their adoption. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14, 511-529. Petrescu, A. I., & Simmons, R. (2008), Human Resource Management Practices and Workers Job Satisfaction. International Journal of Manpower, 29, 651-667. Rogelberg, S.G. (2007). Encyclopedia of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications. Ryan, A. M., & Ployhart, R. E. (2000). Applicant perceptions of selection procedures and decisions: A critical review and agenda for the future. Journal of Management, 26, 565606. Schaufeli, W.B., & Bakker, A.B. (2003). UWESUtrecht Work Engagement Scale: test manual. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, Utrecht University. Suanj, Z., & Jakopec, A. (2012). Fairness perceptions and job satisfaction as mediators of the relationship between leadership style and organizational commitment. Psychological Topics, 21, 509-526. Tae-Yeol, K., Cable, D. M., & Sang-Pyo, K. (2005). Socialization tactics, employee proactivity, and person-organization fit. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 232-241. Taris, R., & Feij, J. A. (2001). Longitudinal examination of the relationship between suppliesvalues fit and work outcomes. Applied psychology: An International Review, 50, 52-80 Thomas, P., & Nagalingappa, G. (2012). Consequences of perceived organisational justice: an empirical study of white-collar employees. Researchers World: Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce, 3, 54-63. Verma, A., Malhorta, M., & Bedi, M. (2012). Exploring the relationship between HR practices and job satisfaction across selected IT companies. IUP Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11, 7-22. Vrg, D., Zaboril, C., Sulea, C., Maricuoiu, L.P., (2009). Adaptarea n limba romn a Scalei Utrecht de msurare a implicrii n munc: examinarea validitii i a fidelitii [Romanian adaptation of Utrecht Work Engagement Scale: examining validity and fidelity]. Psihologia Resurselor Umane [Human Resources Psychology], 7, 58-74 Westerman, J. W., & Cyr, L. A. (2004). An Integrative Analysis of PersonOrganization Fit Theories. Internationl Journal of Selection and Assessment, 12, 252-261.

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Predictors of early retirement thoughts and intent to work after retirement

Cristina Mdlina Neaciu1

Abstract
The purpose of the paper was to see if job demands, job resources as well as self-efficacy can be successfully used as predictors for the up mentioned intentions. Data was collected from both blue collar and white - collar types of work. Questionnaires were applied to a sample of 64 employees. The hypotheses were tested by conducting a multiple hierarchical regression for both dependent variables. Results show that type of work was the only significant predictor in determining the intent to retire early or not. Additionally, psychological job demands as well as education level have been shown to significantly predict the intent to work after retirement. The results highlight key aspects that both employer and employee should take into consideration when creating strategies for retirement. In doing so, we will be creating a much safer environment in which employees can tackle this important milestone without increasing their changes of stress and/or other negative outcomes. Keywords: job demands, job resources, self-efficacy, early retirement intent, intent to work after retirement

Rsum
Le but de cette tude tait d'examiner le rle des exigences psychologiques et physiques; et l'auto-efficacit par rapport l'intention de la retraite anticipe, ou l'intention de travailler aprs la retraite. Collecte des donnes et des questionnaires ont t appliqus un chantillon 64 par les employs dans diverses industries. Les hypothses ont t testes en ralisant deux rgressions hirarchiques pour chacune des variables dpendantes. Les rsultats montrent que le type de travail effectu (bleu / cols blancs) est un prdicteur important des intentions de retraite anticipe. Aussi, si ils ont l'intention de continuer travailler aprs la retraite, les exigences psychologiques du travail et le niveau d'ducation ont t trouvs comme prdicteurs statistiquement significatifs. Auto-efficacit n'a pas t identifie comme un facteur prdictif dans tous les cas. Les rsultats mettent en vidence les questions importantes que nous, devraient tre considr la fois employeur et les employs lors de la cration de stratgies pour la retraite. On peut donc fournir un meilleur soutien aux futurs retraits dans cette priode de transition, rduisant ainsi les consquences ngatives qui peuvent se produire la fois sur le plan physique, mais aussi psychologique. Mots-cls: exigences physiques, les exigences psychologiques, l'auto-efficacit, la retraite anticipe, la retraite

Rezumat
Scopul acestei lucrri a fost investigarea rolului solicitrilor psihologice i fizice, precum si a auto-eficienei n relaia cu intenia de pensionare anticipat, respectiv cu intenia de a munci dup pensionare. Pentru colectarea datelor s-au aplicat chestionare pe un eantion de 64 de angajai, din diverse sectoare. Ipotezele au fost testate prin realizarea a dou regresii ierarhice, pentru fiecare dintre variabilele dependente. Rezultatele relev faptul c tipul de munc realizat (functionari i muncitori) este un predictor important al inteniei de pensionare anticipat. De asemenea, n cazul inteniei de a continua munca i dup pensionare, cerinele psihologice ale postului, ct i nivelul de educaie au fost gsii ca predictori semnificativi statistici. Auto-eficiena nu a fost identificat ca predictor n nici unul dintre cazuri. Rezultatele pun n eviden aspecte importante care considerm c ar trebui s fie luate n considerare att de angajator, ct i de angajai atunci cnd se creeaz strategii pentru pensionare. Se poate, aadar, oferi un sprijin mai bun viitorilor pensionari n aceast perioad de tranziie, reducnd astfel rezultatele negative ce pot aprea att la nivelul fizic, dar i psihologic. Cuvinte cheie: solicitri fizice, solicitri psihologice, auto-eficien, pensionare anticipat, pensionare
1

West University from Timisoara, M.A. corresponding address: cristinaneacsiu@yahoo.com 96

Predictors of early retirement thoughts and intent to work after retirement

Introduction
Every individual in his/her professional life will have to face retirement. For many, retirement poses an additional question: should they retire early/ continue to work after retirement. Although the entire phenomenon is yet to be fully understood, early retirement is a sub-topic that in our view is even more important because it can lead to a lack of skilled employees. Early retirement has an economic impact on society as well as the individual. As previous research has shown, there are an increased number of individuals, whom once retired, live close to the poverty line. Therefore, the overall well-being of the individual is threatened. Furthermore, for many (early retirement) is seen as an exit from society, a withdrawal. Taking these into consideration, the question that arises is why do individuals choose to retire early or to continue to work after retirement. Because there are several known predictors of retirement such as health, education, care-giver status, and spouse status in the statistical analysis they were controlled to see if there are additional specific work characteristics that can lead to the same outcome. Similar to previous retirement research, the theoretical framework is based on the Job Demand-Resources model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2003; Bakker & Schaufeli, 2000). Therefore, physical and psychological job demands; co-worker support and decision authority were tested to see if they can predict early retirement intent and the intent to work after retirement. In the following pages an explanation is given to why these particular demands and resources were chosen. Finally, we questioned whether personal resources would be able to predict the same outcome. There is some evidence to support the role of personal resources in continuing to work after retirement. As such we wanted to see if in the cultural context of Romania this would still be a valid relationship. The study is based on the responses of 65 Romanian employees with ages varying from 40 to 60 from blue and white collar type jobs. Based on the data at hand, the results obtained are similar to other studies. We were able to support only part of our hypothesis. However, we want to emphasize that the results obtained are specific to the particularities of the

moment of the data gathering. Because retirement is highly influenced by economical and societal issues, it is very possible that given a change (e.g. legislature) the results would differ.

(Early) Retirement and work after retirement The decision to retire has been attributed to 1) health issues; 2) spouse employment (Webley, Burgoyne, Lea, & Young, 2001); 3) care-giver reasons. Individual reasons for why individuals chose to stop working prior to the legal retirement age have yet to be firmly established. An additional aspect that makes the overall understanding more complex, is the decision made by some individuals to continue to work after retirement, or enter in bridge employment. Because there are slight differences between bridge-employment and work after employment we have chosen to focus solely on the latter. The reasoning is also based on the fact that bridgeemployment is an uncommon practice in our country more so than working after-retirement. Another important aspect when dealing with retirement is that various fields have contributed to its explanation. In other words, there are several fields that played a role in the research of retirement (economic, sociology, psychology etc.). In the field of psychology, retirement has been frequently framed in the terms of various perspectives: life-course perspective, continuity theory, and role theory. Retirement research is a relatively new phenomenon. Even more so, the current view we have on retirement is, again, new in comparison to other work-related issues. Historically, humans worked or continued to work, until they were no longer physically able to do so (Shultz & Wang, 2012). Evidently, this is no longer the case, but if current demographical trends keep persisting (e.g. low birth rates), certain countries will be forced to increase retirement age in order to be able to support local economy. So far we have not offered a definition of retirement. This is due to the fact that to date, it is a difficult term to define. Although certain definitions do exists, they fail to be universally accepted. In addition, defining retirement is also dependent on the legislation that exist in a country. The same applies for both early retirement and work after retirement. The simplest way to define retirement is to see it as

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Predictors of early retirement thoughts and intent to work after retirement

the end of work after a career of full-time jobs, (Wang, 2012). However, this definition does not explain what happens to the individual prior to retirement. Or even the impact it might have on his/her work life. Feldman (1994) asserted that, employees close to retirement will behaviorally withdraw from work (Feldman, 1994; Shultz & Wang, 2011). Therefore rather than employing an incomplete definition, we are focusing on certain characteristics of retirement. More specifically, for this research we are using the conceptualization of retirement as a behavior. We are also defining retirement as a longitudinal process, that takes into account different work characteristics before making the actual decision. We will detail each characteristic. Ekerdt (2010) stressed that retirement has been conceptualized in two discrete ways. The first, is a focus on retirement behavior, more specifically the withdrawal from the labor force. This perspective includes the form and timing of this behavior (Wang, 2012). The second conceptualization, focuses on the outcomes of retirement. This includes economic, psychosocial and health experiences that occur post retirement (Wang, 2012). Furthermore, based on the literature review, we have treated retirement as a process, rather than a one-time decision-making event. Accepting retirement as a process means to understand it as the sum of retirement characteristics which are embedded in the decision. Another option would have been to see it as a one-time decision, based on the current events in that individuals life. Each view has its strong points and its weaknesses, and in our view aspects can overlap. As stated previously, the paper design is based on conceptualizing retirement as a decision-making process. This way of viewing retirement emphasizes the psychological underpinnings that impact retirement as a motivated choice behavior (Shultz & Wang, 2011). This concept assumes that when workers do decide to retire, they will decrease their psychological commitment to work. When the decision to retire has been made, the employees work activities should begin to decline over time while other life activities should increase. Of course that this path is not identical to all individuals and not all of those who will retire will be successful at accomplishing this important transition. Mauno, Ruokolainen, & Kinnunen (2012) suggest that because we see

people today retiring at much earlier ages than just a half century ago, it may be particular relevant to conceptualize retirement as a decision-making process. Therefore, there are valid, theoretical reasons for why we have chosen to use this perspective. This paper will use early retirement and working after retirement intentions to mirror the actual decision. This aspect is not without basis. Prothero and Beach (1984), Ilmarinen (1999), and Beehr, Glazer, Nielson, and Farmer (2000) have all shown that the intent is a powerful indicator of an actual event. Early retirement is a form of job withdrawal and has been defined as leaving a position or career path of long duration, before the age of 65 years (Hanisch & Hulin 1990; 1991; Feldman, 1994).

Early Retirement in Romania As stated previously, labor laws make it more difficult for researchers to compare results and even generalize them. In Romania, early retirement can be given within 5 years to full retirement for those who have completed payments, or if they have managed to exceed the payment for full retirement up to eight years in advance. Special cases represent the military, police workers, penitentiary workers as well as those who have lived for at least 30 years in highly polluted areas (e.g. Baia Mare, Zlatna) (Codul Muncii, 2013). In this study, there are no special cases represented in the sample. According to the newest changes in Romanian legislation, both men and women will have to pay their contributions for 35 years. However, due to the fact that the retirement age for women has changed, this will eventually lead to smaller pensions in comparison to the male population.

Job Demands-Resources model and retirement Early retirement phenomenon is associated with the changing demands of work. Job characteristics are associated with retirement behavior due to their susceptibility to be modified via work design or counseling programs. Job characteristics can be used to alter the behavior linked to retirement. Therefore, in lines with the proposed design of the study, the JDR model fits perfectly.

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Work characteristics such as job demand and job resources have been based on what has been done in previous retirement research (Feldman, 1994; Adams & Beehr, 1998; Elovainio, Forma, Kivimki, Sinervo, Sutinen & Laine, 2005; Shultz & Wang, 2008; 2011; Schreurs et. al., 2011; Wang, 2012; Burke et. al, 2013). As it can be seen from the literature, the model is a very frequent in retirement research. However, there is still a lack of consensus when it comes to predictors of early retirement (Schultz, 2003; von Bonsdorff, 2009). Firstly, the reason for selecting job demands is based on the idea that older workers are more resistant to change and less capable of adapting to an increasing workload (Pienta, 2003). Job demands are the physical, psychological, social or organizational aspects of a job that require the individual to exert sustained effort (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001). When looking at a broad view of work, the theory suggests that the main characteristic of todays work environment is increased workload. Furthermore, it has been stated that older employees can experience less stress at work because they have a wider range of coping mechanism compared to younger employees and thus experience less stress at work. On the other hand, Mauno, Ruokolainen, & Kinnunen (2012) also suggest that older employees experience positive emotions more frequently and deeper than younger ones. However, one must ask oneself if this enjoyment of work is stil extant when thoughts of early retirement occur. The question at hand is if in the current context, are job demands more taxing for older employees, or, on the contrary are they successfully dealt with, as a result of numerous years of experience? Secondly, empirical data shows that workload contributes to the workers decision to retire early (Andrews, Manthorpe, Watson, 2005, Luce, Van Zwanenberg, Firth-Cozens, Tinwell, 2002). Job resources are those physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of the job that aid the employee to achieve goals, reduce job demands and associated physiological and psychological costs; stimulates personal growth, learning and development (Schreurs, De Cuyper, Notelaers, De Witte, 2011; Demerouti et. al., 2001). The selection of decision authority and social support is based on several reasons. First, they are the basis for most job

characteristics models in work and organizational psychology (Schreurs et. al., 2011). Second, co-worker support has numerous proven, positive outcomes in the domain of work. Lastly, based on the previous work of Elovainio et. al. (2005), there is some support to the idea that social support contributes to early retirement decisions. Those, the job demand-resource model has been chosen because of the relationship between: a) demands and resources and b) strain and motivation and c) withdrawal (Schreurs et. al., 2011). Since for many, retirement is seen as withdrawal from the organization and social life, there is room to question if there is a much more direct connection between the model and retirement.

Hypothesis H1a: Physical demands will be associated with early retirement thoughts. H1b: Physical demands will be associated with intent to work after retirement.

H2a: Psychological demands will be associated with early retirement thoughts. H2b: Psychological demands will be associated with intent to work after retirement. H3a: Co-worker support will be associated with early retirement thoughts and will show unique, incremental validity over job demands. H3b: Decision authority will be associated with early retirement thoughts and will show unique, incremental validity over job demands. H3c: Co-worker support will be associated with intent to work after retirement and will show unique, incremental validity over job demands. H3d: Decision authority will be associated with intent to work after retirement and will show unique, incremental validity over job demands. H4a: Self-efficacy will be associated with early retirement thoughts and will show unique, incremental validity over job resources. H4b: Self-efficacy will be associated with intent to work after retirement and will show unique, incremental validity over job resources. The hypothesis were tested using a hierarchical regression. The first block of predictors were personal demographics (n=7), the second block were job demands (n=2); the

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third block job resources (n=2) and lastly, personal resources (n=1). This sequence is similar to previous retirement research (Burke, Dolan, & Fiksenbaum, 2013). The analysis controlled for demographic variables as we wanted to see if the particular job characteristics could be used to predict early retirement or work after retirement. As stated previously, there have been successful reports of demographic and health variables as predictors of retirement (von Bonsdorff, 2009). The question at hand is whether something in the job itself can determine an individual to retire early and/or consider to work after retirement. Or, its about personal factors involved in these decisions.

Method
Procedure and Participants The study was conducted among Romanian workers both blue and white collar; with ages 40 (M=52.75, SD=6.06, min= 40, max= 60). This age selection follows the pattern of previous studies on intent to retire (Bouman et. al., 2008; Elovainio et. al., 2003, 2005; Schreurs et. al., 2011). The questionnaires were sent to 4 companies both private and state owned. The testing has been done individually in a paper and pencil format. Confidentiality and anonymity of responses were assured. The sample had been equally divided (N = 65), 50% respondents were women. The entire sample was comprised of individuals who had full-time jobs. Also, 79.7% of the respondents were married; 17.2% were not married/divorced and 3.1% widowers. 65% of the respondents had their spouses employed (working) while only 12.5% had retired spouses; the rest of 21.9% had no spouse to report of. More than half of the respondents (60.9%) reported that they are currently taking care of a family member (child, parent, other), and only 39.1% had no dependents to support.

Measures The job demands and resources were measured via the Job Content Questionnaire (Karasek, Brisson, Kawakami & Bongers, Amick 1998). It is an instrument that has a version which has been successfully used in Romania. In this particular case, we have used Breslins (1970) standard procedure of translation and retroversion.
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The job demands was measured using the scale from the Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ). Job demands are divided into two parts: Psychological and Physical Job Demands. The Psychological Job Demands contains 5 items (e.g. My job requires working very fast) scored on a four-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). The Cronbachs alpha was computed at .65 on our sample. Physical Job Demands were measured with 5 items (My job requires me to lift heavy loads), scored on a four-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree. (4). The Cronbachs alpha for Physical Job Demands was computed at .94 on our sample. Job resources, more specifically decision authority and social support (co-worker support), were measured with scales from the Job Content Questionnaire (Karasek, et al., 1998). Decision authority was measured with a 3 item scale (e.g. My job allows me to make a lot of decisions on my own), scored on a four point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). Cronbachs Alpha for decision authority was calculated at .82 on our sample. Co-worker support was measured with four items, scored on a four-point Likert scale. Possible answers ranged from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). Example of item: People I work with are competent in doing their job. Cronbachs Alpha was computed to .65 on our sample. Self-efficacy was measured with The General Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). It is an instrument that has already been translated and verified on a Romanian population. An example of item is I can usually handle whatever comes my way. The Cronbachs alpha was calculated to .82 on our sample. The items are scored on a four-item Likert scale, which ranges from not at all true (1) to exactly true (4). Early retirement intent was measured with questions, previously used by Elovaino et.al. (2005) and Schreurs et. al. (2010). The first question, reflects the expectations of the respondent. The thoughts were measured with two items scored on a four point Likert scale ranging from never (1) to always (2). An example of item is: I intend to quit working before I am 65 (men)/ 63 (women). The Cronbachs alpha for this scale was calculated to

Predictors of early retirement thoughts and intent to work after retirement

.67 on our sample. The questions reflect the expectations of the respondent and they are widely used in retirement studies. Intent to work after retirement was measured through one question: Have you considered the possibility of working after the official age of retirement?. The question was scored on a four-point Likert scale, ranging from never (1) to always (4). This particular question was previously used in Schreurs et. al (2010) retirement study.

demands (r = -.49, p <.01). Neither decision authority, nor self-efficacy have been significantly correlated with WAR. Early retirement intent (ERI) correlated with psychological job demands (r =.45, p <.01), and whit physical job demands (r =-.55, p < .01). Coworker support however was found to be positively and significantly correlated with retirement intent (r = .43, p < .01)

Analyses We have conducted two multi-liniar hierarchical regressions analysis. One for intent to retire early, respectively intent to work after retirement. Both cases followed the same procedure: in the first model we have included the socio-demographical variables (age, gender, education, etc.). After controlling for these variables (as per the reasoning offered earlier), we have introduced job demands (physical and psychological). In the third step, we have introduced job resources (co-worker support and decision authority). In the fourth step, we have added self-efficacy (personal resources).

Results
Preliminary analysis Table 1 presents the mean, standard deviation, internal consistency and correlations between the variables used in the present study. Work after retirement (WAR) correlated significantly with psychological job demands (r = -.51, p <.01), as well as with physical job

Hypothesis Testing Table 2 presents all of the steps of the hierarchical regressions. In the first model, only type of employment (blue /white-collar jobs) has made a significant contribution p < .05) with values equal to -.73 (step 2); -.67 (step 3), -.68 (step 4). In the first step, the variables explained 33% of the variance in ERI. After the inclusion of job demands (step 2), the entire new model, explained for 34% variance in ERI (R2 = .06, p >.05) but the difference was not significant. In this model, psychological demands are statistically significant and it is negatively correlated with ERI ( = -.33 p <.01). After the inclusion of job resources, the model explained for 34% of variance in the dependent variable (R2 = .04, p >.05). Lastly, in step four, self-efficacy has been added which explained for 38% of variance in early retirement intent (R2 = .009, p >.05). In all of the steps, there has been no significant contribution, as indicated by the Sig. F change value (.78; .16; .39). However, the model 1 as a whole is statistically significant. The only significant variable was type of work. In conclusion, H1a, H2a, H3a, H3b and H4a werent supported by results for ERI.

Table 1. Mean, standard deviation, alpha Cronbach and corelation coeficients between the variables
Variables 1.Work after retirement 2.Retirement Intent 3.Psychological J.D. 4. Physical J.D. 5. Decision authority 6.Coworker support 7.Self-efficacy M 2.18 1.45 50.18 11.03 31.62 10.42 30.81 SD 1.09 5. 4.81 3.47 5.46 2.28 4.23 1. (1.0) -.30** -.51** -.49** .24 .33** .02 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7..

(.67) .45** .55** .08 .43** .10

(.65) 4.33** -.12 -.34** -.02

(.94) -.33** -.19 .04 (.82) .12 .17

(.65) -.32**

(.82)

N = 64, * p < .05; **p < .01

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Predictors of early retirement thoughts and intent to work after retirement

In the hierarchical analysis for WAR, in all the steps, education played a significant role ( = .63, p < .001). In the first step of the regression, the variables entered explained for 43% of the variance in intent to work after retirement. In the second step, the new model, explained 49% of the variance in the dependent variable (R2=.63, p <.05) and the model was significant. Education level was a variable that was statistically

significant and which correlated positively with early retirement intent ( = .51 p < .01). After the inclusion of job resources, the new model explained for 50% of variability in intent to retire early. Yet, again education ( = .48, p <.001) and psychological job demands ( = -.33, p < .01) are statistically significant; however, the model had no statistical significance.

Table 2. Hierarchical Regression analysis which predict intention to retire early and work after retirement
Independent variables Step 1 Type of employment Age Gender Marital status Spouse employment status Caretaker Level of education F R2 Adjusted R2 Step 2 Physical Job demands Psychological Job demands F R2 Adjusted R2 Step 3 Co-worker support Decision authority F R Adjusted R2 Step 4 Self-Efficacy F R Adjusted R N = 64; Statistical significance: *p < .05; **p < .01. -.68** .09 -.11 -.19 .05 -.13 .14 4.04 .33 .25 .01 -.10 -.17 3.11** .34 .23 .04 -.24 -.05 2.97** .38 .25 .01 -.11 2.77** .39 .25 .09 4.46** .51 .39 .03 .12 4.84** .50 .40 .01 -.09 -.33* 5.85** .49 .41 .01 Dependent variables Early retirement Intent R .34** .02 .03 .04 .10 .00 .05 .64** 6.08** .43 .36 .06* Work after retirement R .43**

In step four, we have included self-efficacy. The model explained for 51% of variability, but it was not statistically significant (R2 = .06,
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p > .05). In this case, education ( = .50, p <.05) and psychological job demands ( = -.32, p < .05) were again statistically significant. As

Predictors of early retirement thoughts and intent to work after retirement

we can see from the hierarchical regressions, level of education has been statistically significant, and positively related with ERI. Psychological job demands are another statistically significant variable, but they correlated negatively with the dependent variable. As such, only H1b was supported more specifically, psychological job demands are a predictor for work after retirement. Nether H2b, H3c, H3d, nor H4b were supported by results. As one of our reviewers suggests, selfefficacy can be construed as a buffer and as such its importance my vary in the model. As such as we conducted another regression but found no statistical significance for self-efficacy even when introduced in the first step.

Discussion
As in previous research, some evidence has been brought to support the idea that employee intentions of early retirement can be understood along insights from the Job Demand-Resources model. We have found that job type is a predictor of early retirement thoughts. Subsequently none of our hypothesis have been fully supported. Neither job resources, demands, nor personal resources, have been found to predict WAR or ERI. We have found that the only connection to the job characteristics, which can be used to predict such a behavior is the job type. Finding that is consistent with previous research (Schreurs et. al., 2011). Neither self-efficacy, nor gender, have been found to successfully predict intent to retire early or work after retirement. From the other existing variables that we have used, education and job type were more frequently seen as important variables. The results also show that education is a potential predictor of WAR. A possible explanation is that, perhaps those with higher levels of education: a) better understand the job market and financial situation that awaits them after retirement and b) those with higher education all have white-collar jobs. Perhaps these are more suitable for a prolonged career, more so than blue-collar type jobs. A third explanation can be attributed to recovery time. Since white collar workers, are required to do less physical activity, they might require less time to recover from their

activity (especially in an aged population). Psychological job demands and the relationship they have with intention to work after retirement, can be understood, from the examination of the core aspect of the phenomenon. For many, retirement is seen as a withdrawal from society (e.g. become less active in society/social interactions). Retirement theories also suggest, that early retirement is connected with increased psychological job demands primarily due to the fact that there are less and less physical job types. From what we can see from the data gathered here and from the existing literature, there are certain reasons for entering retirement that exceed both financial and health characteristics. There are some indications that job characteristics play a role but taken individually (as we have done in this paper), they are not sufficient to successfully predict early retirement intentions or work after retirement. For example, most peoples, take the decision to retire on purely pragmatic decisions: financial and/ or health resources. These two are considered by many to be paramount in the decision process for both outcomes. A paper done by Schmitt, Coyle, Rauschenberger & White (1979, cit. in Lachman, 2002) suggest that job-oriented variables account for less variance in retirement, than financial concerns. From what we have obtained, this statement is still accurate. We did not find any of the job-oriented variables except for psychological job demands to be significant. Blekesaune & Solem (2005) made a similar assertion. They stated that physical job demands are not generally associated with early retirement thoughts. A potential explanation for this phenomenon is the actual perception of the demand. In other words, because the individuals have spent most of their adult life in a particular job (specific behavior for the baby-boomer generation) they have developed certain coping strategies that diminish the overall demands of their particular jobs. The reason of concern that arises from this is what happens if an individual does not develop such strategies. A new trend in employee behavior is the so called hoboeffect. How will these young individuals, who jump from job to job, be able to handle later in their life the demands of their work? In our study, self-efficacy, as a personal resource, was not found to be a predictor for the

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dependent variables that were analyzed. To begin with there are few studies that have tried to connect personal resources with retirement. A possible reason is that since the retirement decision is based mostly on economical/ health factors, personal resources play an insignificant role. On the other hand, some studies show, that only self-efficacy has been linked to work after retirement (Kubicek, Korunka, Raymo, Hoonakker, 2011). We reiterate, however, that few other studies have tried to make such a connection. Therefore, this is both a unique factor to our study and also a limitation. It is unique in the sense that we have tried to offer a more general and complex view of the phenomenon, however due to the lack of previous research, there is not sufficient theoretical data to back up all the decision and connections that have been made. Lastly, retirement research hinges on what the labour laws permit. As such, we need to take into consideration the context of research. There is no denying that the labor law encouraged and promoted early retirement. As such, for many it can be seen as a cultural norm, rather than something that is based on specific reasons. Early retirement was sought after for it promised financial gain. Subsequently, in our country, work after retirement has been seen as an oxymoronic concept. As stated previously, the sample is part of the so called baby-boom generation - that is characterized by spending ones entire career life in one organization or in one position. This is even more adequate for Romanian workers. Such a stationary work-life, only offers supplementary support for our explanation of developing coping mechanisms that palliate some of the burdens of the job. One of the things that retirement research wishes to emphasize is that, once the large body of individuals that formed the baby boom generation will stop working, there will be a significant shortage of employees. Here is where the concept of work after retirement receives more importance. With a fleeing working force and an aging population countries such as Romania are facing a serious employee crisis.

Limitations
The limitations for this study come from various sources. One such a limitation can come from the understanding of blue-and white collar

type jobs. Similar to other studies, we have relied on a rather blunt differentiation between the two different job types. Schreurs et.al. (2011), Demerouti et. al. (2009), have both suggested that a more attentive understanding of job types is required. Perhaps a much more clustered view is appropriate than such global generalizations of jobs. Another limitation is relying only on the JDR model. Perhaps if we were to analyze retirement through the lenses of the conservation of resource theory, we would have seen different relationships, other variables that could have played a more significant role. Furthermore, not having a cross-national unity of retirement, makes the comparison between studies difficult. It is also difficult to create a benchmark for future research. In these lines, perhaps it would be better suited for future research to use a longitudinal study, or even EMA to try to pinpoint when the actual decision to retire interferes with job aspects. We would also like to add that a limitation is the sample size. Creating a study that incorporates a large sample should be the next logical step for future research. This also creates an issue with the generalizability of the study. Since we are dealing with a topic that is very difficult to be generalized from country to country, increasing the sample size would reduce some of the additional factors that make research papers applicable to others. Additionally, the samples have not been randomly selected from the entire population, and although all the respondents came from different organization types and from different fields this can still be construed as a lack of diversity that could lead to a better generalizability of the data. Moreover, we have measured retirement intention. Perhaps it will be more useful for future research to see the degree of prediction in the case of early retirement intent and work after retirement. In other words, although previous studies have mentioned that retirement intention will lead in most cases to that behavior, it would be extremely beneficial for both organizations and researchers to test this match-up. Lastly, although we wanted to focus specifically on work characteristics, adding into the instruments measures for financial and health well-being could only increase the validity of the research. Future research should also be concerned with the design of more reliable retirement scales.

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Future directions
Even though there may be several limitations, there are also certain factors that need to be addressed. First, it is to our knowledge the first paper in Romania to deal with the retirement issue. It is also the first attempt to link the behaviors to work related characteristics in our context. As stated previously, the paper adds to the few other studies that used both the JDR and self-efficacy as potential predictors of early retirement intent and work after retirement. As such, a future direction is to continue to research this phenomenon. However, the findings that have been presented here or in other papers, should not be viewed as guarantees for organizations to act upon. In other words, if an organization decides to increase psychological job demands that does not offer a guarantee that employees will remain longer in their organization. However, workplaces should be changed to better accommodate the needs of older worker. Employees can continuously be instructed on labor laws and directed to make the adequate decisions not rely only on what has been done so far. Ilmarinen (2006) suggests a treble step program that can be implemented in organizations. First managers and supervisors need to become more aware of age related issues; second, changes need to be made to the nature of work life; third, changes should be made to enhance overall health of older employees. An additional strong point of retirement research in general is that it can help prevent unnecessary early retirement.

decisions (Kubicek, Korunka, Raymo, Hoonakker, 2011) The purpose of this paper was to verify whether we can predict early retirement intent and work after retirement. We have been able to partially support only one hypothesis. Additionally research is still needed before any firm conclusions can be drawn. Retirement is an issue that is not specific to just one culture or that is prevalent in certain countries. It is similar to a pandemic situation which would eventually lead to high financial strains for younger employees and a lack of highly skilled workers.

References
Adams, G., A., Beehr, T., A. (1998). Turnover and retirement: A comparison of their similarities and differences. Personnel Psychology, 51, 643-665. Andrews, J., Manthorpe, J., & Watson, R. (2005). Employment transitions for older nurses: a qualitative study. Journal of Advanced Nursing 51, 298-306 Bakker A., B., Demerouti, E. (2007) The Job Demands-Resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22, 309328. Bakker, A.B., Schaufeli, W.B. (2000), Burnout contagion processes among teachers, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, pp. 2289-308. Bakker, A.B., Demerouti, E., Schaufeli, W.B. (2003a), Dual processes at work in a call centre:an application of the Job Demands-Resources model, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 12, pp. 393-417 Beehr, T.A, Glazer, S., Nielson, N.L., Farmer, S.J. (2000). Work and nonwork predictors of employees retirement ages. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 57, 206225. Blekesaune, M., Solem, P., E., (2005). Working conditions and early retirement: A prospective study of retirement behavior. Research on Aging, 27(1), 3-30. Brislin, R., W., (1980). Transaltion and content analysis of oral and written materials. In H.C. Triandis and J.W. Berry (eds). Handbook of crosscultural psychology (vol.2). Boston: Ally and Bacon, 297-318 Burke, R., Dolan, S., & Fiksenbaum, L. (2013). Predictors of the decision to retire among nurses in Spain. International Journal Of Nursing, 1(2), 25-32. Retrieved from http://ijnonline.com/index.php/ijn/article/view/56 Demerouti, E., Bakker, A.,B., Nachreiner, F., Shaufeli, W.,B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 499-512 Elovaino, M., Froma, P., Kivimki T., S., Sutinen, R., Laine, M. (2005). Job demands and job control as

Conclusions
Retirement is now starting to be understood as an additional step in an employees career (Shultz & Wang, 2011). Strategies that are currently being developed, encourage employees to extend their working activity and to share their experience with younger workers. For example, bridge employment, is not only a method that can be used to postpone workers quitting the workforce, but it can be viewed as a method to increase the quality of life for individuals (especially women). The key to capitalizing on this resource is to understand older workers work-retirement

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correlates of early retirement thoughts in Finnish social and health are employees. Work & Stress, 19, 84-92. Feldman, C., D. (1994). The decision to retire early: a review and conceptualization. Academy of Management Review, 19, 285-311. Feldman, D., C., Beehr, T., A. (2011). A three-phase model of retirement decision making. American Psychologist. Advance online publication. Doi:10.1037/a0022153. Hanisch, K., A., Hulin, C., L. (1990). Job attitudes and organizational withdrawal: An examination of retirement and other withdrawal behaviors. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 37, 60-78 Ilmarinen, J. (1999). Aging workers. Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 58, 546-552 Ilmarinen, J. (2006). Towards a longer work life Ageing and the quality of work life in the European Union. Helsinki: Finnish Institute of Occupational Health. Karasek, R., Brisson, C., Kawakami, N., Houtman, P, Bongers, Amick, B. (1998). The Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ): An Instrument for Internationally Comparative Assessement of Psychosocial Job Characteristics. Journal of ccupational Health Psychology, 3, 322-355 Kubicek, B.., Korunka, C., Raymo, J.,M., Hoonakker, C.(2011). Psychological Well-Being in Retirement: The Effects of Personal and Gendered Contextual Resources, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16, 230-246 Lachman, M. (2002). Handbook of Midlife Development. The definitive resource on midlife development, John Wiley& Sons, East Sussex Luce, A., Van Zwanenberg, T., Firth-Cozens, J., & Tinwell, C. (2002). What might encourage later retirement among general practitioners? Journal of Management in Medicine (16): 303-310 Mauno,S., Ruokolainen, M., Kinnunen, U. (2012). Does aging make employees more resilient to job stress? Age as a moderator in job stressor-wellbeing relationship in three Finish occupational samples. Aging Mental Health, 17, 411-422.

Pienta. A., M. (2003). An analysis of husbands and wives retirement behavior. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 22, 340-358. Prothero, J., Beach, L., R. (1984). Retirement decisions: Expectations, intention, and action. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 14, 162-174 Salonen, P.H., Arola, H., Nygard, C., H., Huhtala, H. (2008). Long-term associations of stress and chronic diseases in ageing and retired employees. Psychology, health & Medicine, January, 13, 5562. Schreurs, B., Cuyper, N., van Emmerik, I.,J., H., Notelaers, G., de Witte, H. (2011). Job demands and resources and their association with early retirement intentions through recovery need and work enjoyment. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 37(2), 1-11 Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized self-efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston (Eds.), Measures in health psychology: A users portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 3537). Windsor, United Kingdom: NFER-NELSON Shultz, K.,S., Wang, M. (2011). Psychological Perspectives on the Changing Nature of Retirement. American Psychologist, 66, 170-179 DOI:10. 1037/a0022411 von Bonsdorff, M.,E. (2009). Intentions of Early Retirement and continuing to work among middleaged and older employees (Dissertation Thesis), Jyvskyl Studies in Business and Economics, Jyvskyl University Printing House, Jyvskyl, 1-89, ISBN 978-951-39-3673-0 Wang, M. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Retirement. Oxford University Press, New York Webley, P., Burgoyne, C., Lea, S., Young, B. (2001). The economic Psychology of Everyday Life (International Series in Social Psychology), Psychology Press, Hove

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Chris Warhurst, Franoise Carr, Patricia Findlay, Chris Tilly Are Bad Jobs Inevitable? Trends, Determinants and Responses to Job Quality in the Twenty-First Centrury 2012, Editura Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, England, 280 p.

Unul din subiectele care se afl momentan n atenia cercettorilor este calitatea muncii sau de ce anumite posturi sunt mai bune dect altele, precum i ce fel de politici influeneaz apariia acestora. Cartea coordonat de Warhurst, Carr, Findlay i Tilly (2012) i focalizeaz atenia asupra acestui subiect important, prin ilustrarea studiilor empirice din domeniu pentru a crea o perspectiv de ansamblu asupra conceptului de calitate a muncii. Din punct de vedere al organizrii interne, acest volum este foarte bine structurat i, aa cum am menionat anterior, folosete suficient de multe studii pentru a fundamenta ideea c citirea acestei cri poate fi considerat echivalent cu parcurgerea literaturii de specialitate din domeniu care, dei nu poate fi considerat exhaustiv, cu siguran este solid. Valoarea adugat a acestei cri poate fi dedus i din prestigiul profesional al autorilor care s-au ocupat de editarea volumului. Acetia creeaz o adevrat echip interdisciplinar de profesioniti care abordeaz subiectul n cauz din diferite perspective, specifice domeniului lor de activitate. Folosind un limbaj accesibil specialitilor, autorii descriu i explic numeroii factori implicai n determinarea calitii muncii n diferite contexte: de la strategiile naionale, pn la politicile organizaionale. Acest fapt este vizibil nc din introducere, capitol n care editorii furnizeaz un cadru general pentru analiza factorilor care modeleaz calitatea locurilor de munc i trec n revist argumentele i concluziile fiecrui capitol cuprins n volum. n plus, autorii prezint apte scenarii care ar putea explica situaia calitii locurilor de munc, dezvluind trei tendine care au influenat-o negativ. Argumentele aduse sunt bine fundamentate prin dovezi empirice, iar autorii arat c principalii vinovai pentru declinul calitii locurilor de munc sunt: politicile guvernamentale, strategiile de reducere a costurilor din cadrul companiilor i competitivitatea salariilor la nivel internaional. Mai mult, autorii nu doar constat situaia actual, ci ofer i soluii pentru o posibil reducere a discrepanelor dintre joburi. De asemenea, devine evident faptul c o subtem a

acestui volum este explicarea motivului pentru care, aparent, slujbele rele se nmulesc n multe din rile dezvoltate. Volumul este structurat n 3 pri. Firul comun al primei pri este nelegerea i analizarea calitii postului din perspective comparative: primul capitol (scris de Anton, Fernandez-Macias i Munoz de Bustillo) descrie situaia din Uniunea European, comparnd incidena i caracteristicile joburilor proaste, din punct de vedere calitativ, din 24 de ri, printre care i Romnia i Bulgaria; autorul celui de-al doilea capitol, Osterman, i concentreaz atenia asupra situaiei din SUA, n timp ce cel de-al treilea capitol, scris de Pocok i Skinner, caut s identifice ce determin calitatea muncii n Australia, folosind analize comparative la nivel naional. Ceea ce este important de notat este determinarea cu care Osterman ncearc s spulbere miturile privind calitatea joburilor din SUA, precum ideea cum c, ndat ce economia se va redresa, aceast problem va disprea, aceeai atitudine fiind gsit i la autorii celorlalte capitole. Cea de-a doua parte a crii furnizeaz o colecie de studii de caz care examineaz motivele pentru care calitatea unui job este mai bun sau mai rea pentru posturile din aceeai industrie. Pe lng cele trei capitole ce analizeaz situaia curent n industria automobil din Suedia, SUA i Mexic, aceast parte cuprinde i un capitol care i focalizeaz atenia asupra calitii posturilor din sectorul comercial al Statelor Unite (autorii fiind Lambert i Henly). Un punct important l reprezint i calitatea posturilor din domeniul sntii, analizate n capitolele ase i zece, din SUA i respectiv Marea Britanie, focusul fiind pe joburile de frontier- tehnicieni, recepioneri, operatori sau persoane implicate n serviciile de curenie. Sub microscop este pus i calitatea muncii din call-centerele din Mexic, autorul capitolului zece, Galvan, notnd faptul c, dei exist multe cercetri empirice pe acest domeniu, expectanele angajailor sunt rar adresate n cadrul analizelor. Galvan ncearc s ndrepte acest fapt prin intermediul studiilor realizate de ctre acesta, studii cuprinse n cadrul capitolului. Ultima parte, i poate cea mai interesant, se concentreaz asupra rolului pe care statul l are n asigurarea i implementarea practicilor care influeneaz calitatea postului. Aa cum puncteaz i coordonatorii crii, standardele minime stabilite de ctre stat sunt, n general,

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concepute pentru a satisface majoritatea angajatorilor i astfel, uneori, nu sunt suficiente pentru angajai. n cadrul acestei ultime pri sunt descrise problemele care reies din reglementrile i standardele care fie nu sunt bine stabilite, fie nu sunt implementate corespunztor. De exemplu, capitolul 13 trateaz motivele pentru care anumii angajatori ncalc legislaia privind standardele de munc n SUA, dar i ct de rspndite sunt aceste evenimente. De asemenea, n aceast parte sunt descrise i msurile pe care autoritile locale i naionale le pot lua pentru a reglementa i ameliora calitatea posturilor, fiind descris succesul pe care rile scandinave le-au avut n a reduce inegalitatea posturilor. Acest volum se evideniaz prin argumentele pe care le propune, prin dovezile pe care le ofer pentru a susine aceste argumente i prin faptul c nu i focuseaz atenia asupra unei singure regiuni, artnd c problema calitii slujbei este una global, care necesit atenia corespunztoare. Are bad jobs inevitable? Trends, Determinants and Responses to Job Quality in the Twenty-First Centrury este o carte important n dezbaterea asupra calitii posturilor, oferind explicaii clare i fundamentate pentru apariia i rspndirea fenomenului, furniznd totodat i soluii pentru aceast problem. n final, revenim la ntrebarea: sunt joburile rele inevitabile? Rspunsul care poate fi dedus din parcurgerea cri este Nu.. Prin strategiile sugerate de ctre autori, prin politicile organizaionale descrise i, mai ales, prin msurile pe care autoritile locale i naionale le pot pune n aplicare, joburile slabe din punct de vedere calitativ i pot diminua rspndirea sau pot fi chiar eliminate. Adevrata ntrebare este: va dori cineva s le implementeze? Nastasia Slgean Departamentul de Psihologie Universitatea de Vest, Timioara

Andr Iland Work Life Balance - Learn to set Limits 2013, Editura CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 116 p.

n contextul schimbrilor despre ce nseamn viaa de cuplu, familie, amplificarea activitii profesionale din ultimele ase decenii, accentul pe consumatorism, obinerea de bunuri materiale sau accederea la un statut social ridicat, Andr Iland abordeaz direct un subiect sensibil i ct se poate de actual. Nevoia reechilibrrii balanei dintre viaa personal i profesional apare ca urmare a modificrii rolurilor din societate, a crizei economice i dificultii de a obine sau pstra un loc de munc. n acelai timp, ne este propus o readucere n prim plan a nevoilor personale pentru a gestiona mai bine stresul i a obine performan pe termen lung n cadru profesional. Iland Business Publishing s-a specializat in domeniul ghidurilor de referin, avnd ca public int cititorii n cutare de informaii practice pentru a-i mbunti evoluia profesional, financiar i n alte arii business. Scopul explicit al editurii este de a livra cri bine scrise, uor de urmrit, ns totui suficient de cuprinztoare pentru a informa, sftui i educa despre subiectul propus. Ct despre autor, la o prim cutare pe motorul de cutare Google nu gsim multe informaii, ns dac accesm Amazon.com (surs de cri n format electronic pentru dispozitive mobile, de exemplu tablete Kindle si versiuni tiprite), descoperim crile lui publicate la aceeai editur, cu titluri precum Reading the Signs - Negotiations and Body Language in the Business Place, Soft Skills - Be professionally proactive, Time Management: Getting more things done in less time. Spre deosebire de celelalte lucrri ale sale, acum vedem latura profesional ntr-o perspectiv mai ampl i ncurajeaz introspecia ctre nevoile umane de recuperare dup munc, timp petrecut cu ceilali semnificativi i cu sine. Dei o carte gndit pentru a motiva, scopul declarat este de a mbunati echilibrul dintre viaa profesional i cea de dup serviciu, printr-o analiz a strii actuale a cititorului i pai concrei pentru a schimba lucrurile, dramatiznd uneori pentru a spori impactul. Materialul este structurat n 11 seciuni de coninut, pe care le vom trece n revist. Echilibrul munc via personal: diagnoza. nainte de a intra n subiect, autorul ne

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propune o autoevaluare cu ajutorul unei scale de 10 itemi cu rspunsuri dihotomice (da/nu). Este menit a fi i un motivator pentru introspecie, respectiv de a strni curiozitatea pentru a descoperi coninutul ulterior. Cum i afecteaz dezechilibrul viaa, cu doua sub-seciuni: efectele fizice si emoionale ale stresului. Ca efecte fizice, sunt punctate: oboseala cronic, tulburrile cardiace, scderea imunitii generale a organismului, afeciuni ale sistemului digestiv, tulburri de somn, tulburri ale aparatului reproductor, apariia semnelor de mbtrnire. Dac vorbim despre impactul afectiv, sunt abordate: depresia, variaiile frecvente de dispoziie, atacurile de panic, nervozitatea, tulburrile de memorie i concentrare, creterea abuzului de substane stimulente (de exemplu: cofein, nicotin etc.). Efectele stresului asupra relaiilor: cteva consecine probabile ale nclinrii marcate ctre profesional, n detrimentul timpului necesar pentru sine i latura social. Vorbim despre aspecte precum certuri repetate, furie manifestat n trafic, afectarea activitilor desfaurate, apariia conflictelor la locul de munc, a ncheierii relaiilor mai apropiate, schimbri frecvente ale locului de munc. Eti dedicat sau dependent de munca ta? Un capitol ce direcioneaz ctre introspecie, coninnd o scurt introducere i o scal mprit in aspecte ce in de persoana cititorului n context casnic, profesional i personal. Sunt intuite cauze ale potenialei dependene de munc, printre care: satisfacia personal, beneficiile financiare, recunoaterea social, identificarea cu profesia (ca rspuns la ntrebarea Cine sunt eu?), familia proiectat. Care parte conduce: munca sau casa? Revendic-i spaiul i timpul. nva s pui limite. Sunt oferite doua idei de exerciii practice, apoi se propune setarea de obiective specifice, msurabile, acionabile, realiste si delimitate n timp i treptat atenia este orientat ctre prezent. Zece mituri care funcioneaz mpotriva ta. Exemple: succesul nseamn s fii cel mai bun multitask-er, dac nu te-ai nscut creativ, nu poi fi niciodat sau munca peste program nseamn mai mult treab terminat, sau serviciul este mereu pe primul plan i are loc o repoziionare: eu --> viaa personal --> locul de munc, primele dou avnd rol esenial pentru ndeplinirea celui de-al treilea element.

Zece idei pentru a-i mbunti productivitatea, printre care i a fi la curent cu cele mai noi tehnologii, n termeni de aplicaii software, i autoorganizarea. Exerciii dup trezire: pentru energia optim, de la nceputul zilei, plus necesitatea micului dejun luat zilnic. Meditaia ca instrument mpotriva stresului ca metod de redobndire a controlului. Focusul este pe centrarea pe prezent, nu viitor i nu trecut. A fi pe de-a ntregul contient de contextul actual i gsirea linitei interioare, sunt prezentate ca fiind eseniale gestionarii stresului, descris ca o stare n care mintea i/sau corpul trebuie s gestioneze cerine exigente att din mediul extern, ct i cel intern. (pp. 98). Meditaia personal este prezentat ca fiind cea mai bun metod de ameliorare a strilor generate de contexte stresante. ase pai mici pentru a-i optimiza eficiena: din nou, atenia ne este orientat ctre prezent. i pe bun dreptate. De pild: pentru cea mai bun performan, nu te mai gndi la ea, cnd te simi copleit() de perspectiva viitorului, contientizeaza-i respiraia, mbrieaz problema, nu fugi de ea etc. Douzeci de idei pentru echilibrul dintre munc i via personal. Pe final sunt oferite cteva recomandri practice pentru a susine efortul cititorului de a reechilibra planurile (ex.: rmi realist n privina propriilor capaciti, pstreaz viaa personal separat de cea profesional, exprim ct mai mult o atitudine pozitiv, f ce i place, asigur-te c locul tu de munc este comod (ergonomic), nva s spui nu Dei un punct slab este lipsa referinelor bibliografice care s susin afirmaiile din lucrare i ar fi fost cel puin util o revizuire din perspectiva corecturii textului, cartea lui Andre Iland i atinge scopul, cu att mai mult cu ct este scris ntr-un mod prietenos oricrei categorii de cititor adult. Iar viziunea integrat (fizic, psihic, social), atitudinea empatic sugerat i recomandrile nu pot dect s fie de ajutor celor care sunt decii s obin echilibrul munc-via personal.

Emma Revai Departamentul de Psihologie Universitatea de Vest, Timioara

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A XIII-a Ediie a Conferinei Naionale de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional "Horia D. Pitariu", 26 27 aprilie, Braov

Andreea Butucescu1

Conferina Naional de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional "Horia D. Pitariu" organizat de Asociaia de Psihologie IndustrialOrganizaional (APIO), la Braov, n perioada 26 27 aprilie, a reunit n cea de-a XIII-a ediie, specialiti n psihologia muncii, psihologie organizaional, precum i n managementul resurselor umane. Conferina a avut loc cu sprijinul organizatoric al Asociaiei Psihologilor Braoveni, reprezentat prin domnul psiholog dr. Doru Dima. Conferina s-a bucurat, ca n fiecare an, de o participare selectiv naional ce a depit 100 de persoane. Pe parcursul celor 2 zile, participanii au avut prilejul s prezinte sau s audieze lucrri pe seciuni, s se inscrie la workshop-uri, simpozioane, sesiuni plenare i intervenii de tip state of the art. ncepnd cu cea de-a XI-a ediie, Conferina Naional de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional a iniiat i dezvoltat n conferinele organizate ulterior, interveniile de tip state of the art pentru evidenierea unor tematici cheie i cu impact, ce au cunoscut o dezvoltare deosebit i care au suscitat un interes crescut n ultimii ani n domeniul psihologiei organizaionale. Interveniile de tip state of the art sunt susinute pe trei categorii: Early Career Contribution, Middle Career Contribution i Established Professional. La categoria Early Career Contribution, Laureniu P. Maricuoiu lector univ. dr. al Departamentului de Psihologie din cadrul Universitii de Vest din Timioara, prin lucrarea Facem ce tim, dar... tim ce facem? ..., a propus o trecere n revist a antecedentelor i consecinelor burnout-ului ocupaional, relaionarea cu diverse forme de intervenie i evaluarea eficienei acestora. Pentru categoria Mid-career contribution, Doru Dima a prezentat lucrarea Positive emotions as a key performance indicator for
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success a new approach of positive psychology, o abordare pozitiv a muncii n organizaii, plecnd de la modelul PERMA al lui Martin Seligman. La categoria Established Professional, atenia participanilor s-a ndreptat asupra interveniei susinute de ctre Sntion Filaret, cu tema Liderul ntre certitudini (?) i provocri (!), un model explicativ al eficienei liderului, indiferent de nivelul ierarhic i de organizaie, o dezbatere despre efectele variabile de personalitate asupra eficienei conducerii i alte aspecte importante. Ediia de anul acesta a avut privilegiul de a gzdui prezentarea pe tema Insecuritatea la locul de munc: Retrospectiva i viitorul unui fenomen actual susinut de invitatul special, o personalitate marcant a psihologiei europene, Hans de Witte, profesor de psihologia muncii n cadrul Departamentului de Psihologie al Universitii din Leuven, Belgia i membru al grupului de crecetare n domeniul Psihologiei Muncii, Organizaionale i de Personal (WOPP). Ediia din acest an a cuprins i dou simpozioane specializate. Primul simpozion, moderat de Claudia Rus i Florina Spnu (Universitatea Babe-Bolyai, Cluj Napoca) a fost focalizat pe investigarea din perspective diferite a dinamicii i eficacitii echipelor n context ocupaional si educaional. Corina Ilin i Zoltan Bogathy (Universitatea de Vest, Timioara) au ales n cadrul simpozionului pe care l-au moderat, o tem inedit pentru psihologia romneasc, anume, impactul organizaiilor asupra sustenabilitii mediului. Cu siguran, cel mai emoionant moment a fost acela al decernrii premiului Horia D. Pitariu pentru cea mai bun lucrare publicat. Anul acesta premiul a fost oferit tnrului cercettor Paul Srbescu de la Universitatea de Vest din Timioara, pentru cercetarea sa privind ofatul agresiv. Astfel, premiul Horia D. Pitariu, nmnat ca n fiecare an de doamna

Asociaia de Psihologie Industial-Organizaional, Bucureti Adresa de coresponden: andreea.butucescu@gmail.com 110

A XIII-a Ediie a Conferinei Naionale de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional "Horia D. Pitariu", 26 27 aprilie, Braov

Ana Pitariu, se duce pentru a doua oar ctre catedra Departamentului de Psihologie al Universitii de Vest din Timioara. Conferina a constituit si un prilej pentru Adunarea General a Membrilor APIO (organul de conducere al APIO) de a efectua modificri de statut i organizri interne. Pentru mai multe detalii privind noua conducere a Asociaiei accesai pagina de internet www.apio.ro, seciunea Conducerea APIO. Cu aceast ocazie, noul comitet director al APIO a fcut o trecere n revist a proiectelor pe care i le propune i la care sunt invitai s participe toi membrii APIO i nu numai.

n concluzie, au fost dou zile pline de entuziasm tiinific i de preuire pentru cel care a fost Horia D. Pitariu, mentorul formator al acelora care ne sunt astzi mentori. Mulumim pe aceast cale comitetului local de organizare i salutm iniiativa domnului prof. univ. dr. Ticu Constantin, de a prilejui un nou moment de coeziune ntre practicieni, studeni i cercettori, cu ocazia urmtoarei Ediii a conferinei, n primvara lui 2014, la Iai. V ateptm cu mare bucurie s gsim mpreun dovezi tiintifice pentru temele de interes din psihologia muncii i organizational!

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Congresul Asociaiei Europene de Psihologia Muncii i Organizaional Imagineaz-i lumea viitoare: Cum vrem s muncim mine? Ediia a-XVI-a 22-25 Mai 2013, Munster, Germania

Claudia Lenua Rus1

Lume, lume i iar lume trei zile ncnttoare nvluite n tiin, mare forfot, muli profesioniti dornici de cunoatere i discuii nesfrite despre cercetri, organizaii, cursuri, n slile cldirilor pline de istorie care au gzduit activitile derulate n cadrul Congresului Asociaiei Europene de Psihologia Muncii i Organizaional, ediia a-XVI-a. Anunat printr-o strategie de promovare perfect i mult mai cordial dect ne-au obinuit deja organizatorii conferinelor EAWOP, acest eveniment de referin pentru domeniul psihologiei muncii i organizaionale din Europa, precum i la nivel internaional, a avut loc n perioada 22-25 mai 2013, la Munster, n Germania. Grandoarea i calitatea evenimentului a fost asigurat de doi constitueni germani ai Asociaiei EAWOP, i anume: Departamentul de Psihologia muncii, organizaional i business a Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Psychologie i Departamentul de Psihologia Business din cadrul Berufsverband Deutscher Psychologinnen und Psychologen e.V. n tendin cu schimbrile i presiunile din domeniul muncii, tema acestui eveniment a fost: Imagineaz-i lumea viitoare: Cum vrem s muncim mine?. Dei prea c invit comunitatea academic i cea a practicienilor la dorine i modaliti de lucru care nu vor obine prea devreme suport empiric i organizaional, aceast conferin a constituit o excelent oportunitate de a genera idei noi i inovatoare privind modul n care putem stpni cu miestrie multiplele provocri pe care le ntlnim i le vom ntlni n munca noastr. Pe viitor, va trebui s bifm n agendele noastre de lucru, fie de cercettor, practician sau ambele, rezolvarea problemelor generate de globalizarea i digitalizarea proceselor economice, programul de munc flexibil cu parteneri aflai la mare distan de organizaia pentru care lucreaz, schimbrile demografice, turbulenele
1

financiare i responsabilitatea social a organizaiilor fa de comunitile n care exist. Conferina a stimulat nu doar discutarea acestor provocri, gsirea unor soluii, ci a contribuit i la naterea sau ntrirea curajului de a implementa noi soluii n organizaiile din care facem parte. Prin multiplele i variatele simpozioane, keynote-uri, workshop-uri i ntlniri cu practicienii organizate n cadrul conferinei, aproximativ 1200 de participani din ntreaga lume au adus contribuii n arii precum: schimbarea relaiilor de angajare, sntate i intervenii, recrutarea i selecia personalului, conducere i management, schimbare i dezvoltare organizaional, tehnologa la locul de munc i sistemul om-main, macroergonomie i designul muncii, structur cultur i climat organizaional, emoii la locul de munc, comportamentul consumatorului, psihologie economic, starea de bine a angajailor, program de munc i interfaa munc-familie, managementul resurselor umane, medii de lucru i organizaii sustenabile, aspecte ale pieei muncii, siguran ocupaional i organizaional, comportament organizaional, echipe i grupuri de munc, cercetare i metodologie, antreprenoriat i auto-angajare. Acest eveniment a fost unul re-creativ pentru participani, oferindu-le noi idei de a fi activi n profesia lor i narmndu-i cu dorina de a cerceta i de a face ct de bine putem ceea ce putem face pentru locul nostru de munc i pentru organizaiile noastre. Prin calitatea activitilor desfurate au fost stabilite standarde i mai nalte pentru cea de-a-XVII-a ediie a Congresului EAWOP care va avea loc n 20-22 mai 2015, n Oslo, Norvegia i va fi dedicat Conducerii respectuoase i eficace managementului oamenilor i organizaiilor n timpuri turbulente (http://www.eawop2015.org/).

Universitatea Babe-Bolyai Cluj-Napoca ClaudiaRus@psychology.ro 112

PSIHOLOGIA RESURSELOR UMANE GHID PENTRU AUTORI

Acest document reprezint Ghidul pentru Autori. Cuprinde instruciuni privind formatul i limbajul care trebuie utilizat pentru manuscrisele trimise la revista Psihologia Resurselor Umane. De asemenea, acest document poate fi gsit i pe site-ul Asociaiei de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional (www.apio.ro). Acest Ghid Pentru Autori este alctuit dup Manual de Publicat APA, Ediia a-VI-a.

1. Titlu Un titlu trebuie s fie o precizare concis a temei principale a lucrrii i s permit identificarea aspectelor teoretice sau a variabilelor examinate i a relaiei dintre ele. Titlul trebuie s fie redactat cu litere mari i mici (sentence case), s fie centrat n raport cu marginile paginii i poziionat n partea superioar a acesteia. 2. Numele autorului i afilierea (afilierile) instituionale Numele autorului va fi prezentat n urmtoarea form: Primul prenume, iniialele altor prenume i numele de familie. Afilierea instituional trebuie s reflecte instituia/locaia cu care a fost asociat autorul n momentul derulrii cercetrii. Dac un autor nu are afiliere instituional, trebuie specificate oraul i ara de reziden sub numele autorului. Afilierea instituional ar trebui centrat sub numele autorului, n rndul urmtor. 3. Nota despre autor Aceast seciune include urmtoarele: - Primul paragraf trebuie s includ afilierea departamental la momentul cercetrii pentru toi autorii, dup urmtorul model: numele autorului, exact cum apare la seciunea anterioar, virgul, numele departamentului, virgul, numele universitii, punct i virgul, numele urmtorului autor .a.m.d. iar la sfrit se adaug un punct. - Al doilea paragraf trebuie s includ schimbrile privind afilierea autorului, survenite dup realizarea cercetrii, dup urmtorul model: [numele autorului] este acum la [afilierea]. - Al treilea paragraf trebuie s includ mulumiri (numai pentru sprijinul financiar din granturi sau de alt tip, orice alte nelegeri speciale privind drepturile de autor, mulumiri pentru sprijin personal) i

Trimiterea i formatul manuscrisului

Toate manuscrisele pentru revista Psihologia Resurselor Umane trebuie trimise la urmtoarea adres de e-mail: revista@apio.ro. Pentru redactarea manuscrisului v rugm s utilizai fontul Times New Roman 12, spaierea de 1.5 i setrile paginii A4. Fiecare pagin va fi numerotat n colul drept de sus. Marginea de sus i de pe lateral trebuie s aib cel puin 2.5.cm sau 1 inch. Un exemplu complet de manuscris poate fi gsit n Manual de Publicat APA, Ediia a-VI-a.

Publicaii
Lucrrile acceptare sunt re-editate. Autorii trebuie s revizuiasc i s fac corecturi n noua lucrare editat. Editorul revistei Psihologia Resurselor Umane va contacta autorul corespondent, dup ce n prealabil lucrarea a fost acceptat pentru a fi inclus ntr-un numr al revistei. Dac lucrarea dumneavoastr a fost acceptat, v rugm s anunai editorul n ceea ce privete schimbrile datelor dumneavoastr de contact sau absenele ndelungate.

Pagina copert
Prima pagin a manuscrisului trebuie s includ urmtoarele informaii:

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circumstane speciale (care trebuie prezentate naintea mulumirilor). - Al patrulea paragraf trebuie s includ informaii despre autorul de contact: adresa potal i o adres de e-mail. Nota despre autor va fi plasat n pagina de titlu, dup titlu, autori i afiliere. Sintagma Nota despre autor va fi poziionat centrat. Fiecare paragraf va fi scris separat. Nota despre autor nu este numerotat sau citat n text.

cercetrile anterioare i cercetarea propus. - Precizarea fiecrei ipoteze formulate i oferirea unui argument teoretic privind modul n care a fost desprins din teorie sau conectat logic cu studiile anterioare.

Metod
Aceast seciune descrie detaliat cum a fost realizat studiul, incluznd i definiiile conceptuale i operaionale ale variabilelor utilizate n studiu. Autorul ar trebui s includ: - Descrierea eantionului, prin descrierea caracteristicilor majore ale acestuia, n special a caracteristicilor care pot conta n interpretarea rezultatelor. - Procedura de eantionare, prin descrierea modalitii de selecie a participanilor: metoda de eantionare, procentul celor care au fost contactai i au participant la cercetare, numrul participanilor care s-au oferit s participe la cercetare etc. - Mrimea eantionului, putere i precizie. - Msurtorile prin descrierea metodelor utilizate pentru a colecta datele i a mbogi calitatea msurtorilor. - Designul de cercetare. - Manipulri experimentale sau proceduri. - Descrierea sarcinilor.

Pagina de rezumat
Rezumatul (abstract) i titlul lucrrii sunt plasate pe pagina 2. Rezumatul nu trebuie s depeasc 150 de cuvinte. Eticheta Rezumat trebuie s apar cu litere mari i mici, centrat, n partea de sus a paginii. Rezumatul trebuie s aib un singur paragraf, adic s fie redactat fr alineate. Autorul va propune i un titlu scurt. Rezumatul va fi scris n limba Englez, Francez i Romn. Este necesar s fie incluse 3-5 cuvinte cheie dup fiecare rezumat, n cele trei limbi.

Paginile textului principal

n pregtirea manuscrisului, autorul va ncepe cu o introducere care va fi plasat pe pagina 3. Titlul manuscrisului va fi scris cu litere mari i litere mici, centrat n partea de sus a paginii i urmat de coninutul textului lucrrii. Seciunile urmtoare ale lucrrii vor fi prezentate fr spaii libere. Cnd ncepe o nou seciune, aceasta nu trebuie poziionat pe o pagin nou. Aceast parte a lucrrii trebuie s includ: - Prezentarea problemei. Aceast seciune prezint problema specific care va fi investigat i descrie strategia de cercetare. Aceast seciune nu trebuie etichetat ca Introducere. - Explorarea importanei problemei. Aceast seciune prezint motivul pentru care problema necesit o nou cercetare. Autorul va prezenta aceast problem n funcie de tipul de cercetare (studiu empiric, review sistematic i meta-analiz, lucrare metodologic sau studiu de caz). - Descrierea literaturii relevante i evidenierea continuitii logice ntre

Rezultate
Aceast seciune sumarizeaz datele colectate i analiza datelor realizat pentru a testa ipotezele propuse. Autorul trebuie s raporteze analiza datelor ct mai detaliat, astfel nct s permit justificarea concluziilor. Pentru mai multe informaii, autorul va consulta Manualul APA, Ediia a-VI-a.

Discuii
Aceast seciune evalueaz i interpreteaz implicaiile rezultatelor, autorii fcnd referire la ipotezele propuse. Autorul va examina, interpreta, cataloga rezultatele i va face inferene pe baza lor. Autorul va insista pe consecinele teoretice sau practice ale rezultatelor obinute. De asemenea, trebuie prezentate limitele studiului i ale direciilor viitoare de cercetare.

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Bibliografie
Referinele sunt citrile n ordinea alfabetic de la sfritul lucrrii. Aceast list trebuie s includ toate lucrrile citate n cadrul manuscrisului. Referinele trebuie scrise dup urmtorul model:
1. Reviste (exemple selective)
Autor, A.A, Autor, B. B., & Autor, C.C. (an). Titlul articolului. Titlul Jurnalului, xx, pp-pp. doi: xx.xxxxxxxxxx Autor, A.A., Autor, B.B., Autor, C.C., Autor, D.D., Autor, E.E., Autor, F.F., Autor, Y.Y. (an). Titlul articolului. Titlul Jurnalului, xx, pp-pp. doi: xx.xxxxxxxxxx Autor, A.A, Autor, B. B., & Autor, C.C. (an). Titlul articolului. Titlul Jurnalului, xx, pp-pp. Autor, A.A., & Autor, B.B. (in press). Titlul articolului. Titlul Jurnalului. Retrieved from http://cogprints.org/5780/1/ECSRAP.F07.pdf

Pentru o descriere detaliat a procedurii privind citarea altor tipuri de lucrri dect cele listate anterior, autorii vor consulta Manualul APA, Ediia a-VI-a.

Note de subsol
Notele de subsol sunt utilizate pentru a oferi informaii suplimentare sau pentru a confirma statutul drepturilor de autor.

Anexe
Anexele manuscrisului (etichetate ANEXA 1, ANEXA 2 etc.) conin materiale suplimentare fa de coninutul lucrrii, cum ar fi informaii legate de proceduri metodologice lungi, calcule etc.

2. Cri
Autor, A.A. (an). Titlul lucrrii. Locaie: Editur. Autor, A.A. (an). Titlul lucrrii. Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxx Autor, A.A. (an). Titlul lucrrii. doi: xxxxx Editor, A.A. (Ed.) (an). Titlul lucrrii. Locaie: Editur.

Tabele i figuri
Autorul trebuie s numeroteze toate tabelele i figurile cu cifre arabe, n ordinea n care au fost menionate pentru prima dat n textul manuscrisului, indiferent dac o discuie mai detaliat a tabelului sau figurii este prezent ulterior n text. Autorul ar trebui s le eticheteze Tabelul 1, Tabelul 2 .a.m.d. sau Figura 1, Figura 2 .a.m.d.. Prezentai prima dat toate tabelele, ulterior figurile. Plasai tabelele i figurile dup anexele de la sfritul manuscrisului i indicai poziia fiecruia/fiecreia n text astfel: -----------------------------------Inserai Tabelul 1 aici -----------------------------------Fiecare tabel sau figur trebuie s aib o propoziie de introducere n text. Formatul acceptat este cel standard (canonic). Fiecare tabel trebuie s raporteze un singur tip de analiz (care trebuie s fie identificat din denumirea tabelului) i fiecare coloan i rnd trebuie s conin sun singur tip de date.

3. Capitole din cri (exemple selective)

Autor, A.A., & Autor, B.B. (an). Titlul capitolului. In A. Editorul, B. Editorul, & C. Editorul (Eds.), Titlul crii (pp. xxx-xxx). Locaie: Editur. Autor, A.A, & Autor, B.B. (an). Titlul capitolului. In A. Editorul, B. Editorul, & C. Editorul (Eds.), Titlul crii (pp. xxx-xxx). Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxx Autor, A.A., & Autor, B.B. (an). Titlul capitolului. In A. Editorul, B. Editorul, & C. Editorul (Eds.), Titlul crii (pp. xxx-xxx). Locaie: Editur. doi: xxxxxxxx.

4. Conferine i simpozioane (exemple selective)

Contributor, A.A., Contributor, B.B., Contributor, C.C., & Contributor, D.D. (an, lun). Titlul lucrrii. In E.E. Chairperson (Chair), Titlul simpozionului. Symposium conducted at the meeting of [Numele Organizaiei], Locaia. Presenter, A.A. (an, lun). Titlul lucrrii sau posterului. Paper or poster session presented at the meeting of [Numele Organizaiei], Locaie.

5. Lucrri nepublicate (exemple selective)

Author, A.A. (an). Titlul manuscrisului. Unpublished manuscript [or "Manuscript submitted for publication," or "Manuscript in preparation"].

Citri
Este important ca autorul s menioneze fiecare lucrare citat n manuscris n seciunea Bibliografie. Autorii pot cita n text astfel:
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1. Un singur autor Numele i anul: S-a artat c X este asociat cu Y (Autor, an) Numai anul: Autorul (an) a artat c .. 2. Doi autori sau mai muli autori Cnd o lucrare are doi autori, autorul trebuie s citeze numele ambilor autori ori de cte ori apare referina n text. Cnd o lucrare are trei, patru sau cinci autori, autorul trebuie s citeze toi autorii prima dat. n citrile ulterioare va fi inclus numele primului autor urmat de sintagma et al. (fr Italic i cu un punct dup al.) i anul apariiei lucrrii. 3. Dou sau mai multe lucrri citate Autorul trebuie s ordoneze citrile n ordine alfabetic. Dou sau mai multe lucrri ale aceluiai autor (sau ale aceluiai grup de autori) publicate n acelai an vor fi marcate prin adugarea unui a, b .a.m.d. dup anul publicrii. 4. Lucrri fr autor identificat sau Autor anonim Cnd o lucrare nu are un autor identificat, autorul trebuie s citeze n text titlul lucrrii i anul. Se va poziiona ntre ghilimele titlul articolului, capitolului sau a paginii web i se va

marca cu Italic numele revistei, crii, brourii sau a raportului: privind angajamentul organizaional (Study Report, 2011) cartea Corelate motivaionale (2011)
5. Numrul paginilor n citri Pentru a cita o parte specific dintr-o anumit surs, autorul trebuie s indice pagina, capitolul, figura, tabelul sau formula. ntotdeauna va fi menionat numrul paginii: (Johnny, 2011, p. 13) 6. Sursele secundare Cnd sursele originale nu sunt disponibile n format fizic, autorul trebuie s menioneze a doua surs in lista bibliografic iar n text s menioneze lucrarea original i s citeze sursa secundar: raportul elaborat de Minnie (citat n Smith, 2011).

V mulumim pentru atenia acordat instruciunilor specificate n acest ghid va uura munca celor implicai n publicarea acestei reviste. Editorii

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HUMAN RESOURCES PSYCHOLOGY GUIDE FOR AUTHORS

This document represents the Guide for Authors. It covers the format and language to be used for manuscripts submitted to Human Resources Psychology. Also, this document can be found on the webpage of the Romanian Association of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (www.apio.ro). This Guide for Authors follows the 6th APA Publication Manual.

or theoretical issues under investigation and the relationship between them. It should be typed in sentence case, centered between left and right margins, and positioned in the upper half of the page.
2. Author name(s) and institutional affiliation(s) Author name(s) will be presented in the following form: first name, middle initial(s), and last name. Institutional affiliation should reflect the institution/location where the author(s) were when the research was conducted. When an author has no institutional affiliation, the city and state of residence below the authors name should be specified. The institutional affiliation should be centered under the author's name, on the next line. 3. Authors note This section should include the following: First paragraph should include the departmental affiliations at the time of the study for all authors as follows: name of the author as it appears in the byline, comma, department name, comma, university name, semicolon, next author name, and so on, and end with a period. Second paragraph should include any changes in author affiliation subsequent to the time of the study as follows: [authors name] is now at [affiliation]. Third paragraph should include acknowledgments (only for grants or other financial support, any special agreements concerning authorship, thanks for personal assistance) and special circumstances (disclose them before the acknowledgements in this paragraph). Fourth paragraph should include information about the person to contact in terms of mailing address and e-mail.

Manuscript Submission and Format

All manuscripts for the journal Human Resources Psychology should be submitted to the following e-mail address: revista@apio.ro. To edit the manuscript please use Times New Roman 12-point type, 1.5 line spacing and the A4 page setting. Each page will be numbered in the upper right corner. The top and side margins should be left of at least one inch or 2.54 cm. A full example of a manuscript can be found in the 6th APA Publication Manual.

Publications
Accepted papers are copy-edited and retyped. Authors have to review edits and proofread their work. The editor of Human Resources Psychology will contact the corresponding author after the editor assigns your work to an issue. If your work is accepted, please keep the editor informed of changes in your contact information and of long absences.

Front Page
The first page of the manuscript should include the following information:
1. Title The title should be a concise statement of the main topic and should identify the variables

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Place the author note on the title page, below the title, byline, and affiliation. Center the label Author Note. Start each paragraph of the note with an indent, and type separate paragraphs for the authors' names and current affiliations, changes in affiliations, acknowledgments, and special circumstances, if any, along with the person to contact. The author note is not numbered or cited in the text.

was derived from theory or is logically connected to previous data and argumentation.

Method
This section describes in detail how the study was conducted, including conceptual and operational definitions of the variables used in the study. Authors should include the following: - Sample description, by describing the main characteristics with particular emphasis on characteristics that may have bearing on the interpretation of results. - Sampling procedure by describing the procedures for selecting participants in terms of sampling method, the percentage of the sample approached that participated, the number of participants who selected themselves into the sample. - Sample size, power and precision. - Measures and covariates by describing the methods used to collect data and to enhance the quality of the measurements. - Research design. - Experimental manipulations or procedures. - Task description.

Abstract Page
The abstract as well as the title of the work go on page 2. The abstract should be no longer than 150 words. The label Abstract should appear in sentence case, centered, at the top of the page. Type the abstract itself as a single paragraph without paragraph indentation. Place a running head (short title). The abstract will be written in English, France and Romanian. It is necessary to include 3-5 key words after each abstract, in all these three languages.

Main body text pages

In preparing your manuscript, begin the introduction on page 3. Type the title of the manuscript in sentence case centered at the top of the page, and then type the text. The remaining sections of the article follow each other without a break; do not start a new page when a new heading occurs. This section should include the following: - Introduction of the problem. This section will present the specific problem under the study and describe the research strategy. There is no need to label this section as Introduction. - Explore importance of the problem. This section states why the problem deserves new research. State explicitly this problem according to the type of the study (empirical study, literature review and meta-analysis, methodological paper and case study). - Describe relevant scholarship by discussing the relevant related literature and demonstrating the logical continuity between previous and present work. - State each tested hypothesis clearly and provide a theoretical argument for how it

Results
This section summarizes the collected data and the analysis performed on the data to test the proposed hypotheses. Report the data analysis in sufficient detail to justify your conclusions. For more information please consult the 6th APA Publication Manual.

Discussion
This section evaluates and interprets the implications of the results, especially with respect to original hypotheses. Examine, interpret, and qualify the results and draw inferences and conclusions from them. Emphasize any theoretical or practical consequences of the results. Also, the limits of the study and possible future studies can be considered in this section.

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References
References are your entries in the alphabetical list at the end of your article or research note. This list should include all the works you have cited throughout the manuscript. The references should be formatted as follows:
1. Periodicals (selective examples)
Author, A.A, Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, xx, pp-pp. doi: xx.xxxxxxxxxx Author, A. A., Author, B. B., Author, C. C., Author, D. D., Author, E. E., Author, F.F., Author, Y.Y. (year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, xx, pppp. doi: xx.xxxxxxxxxx Author, A.A, Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, xx, pp-pp. Author, A.A., & Author, B.B. (in press). Title of article. Title of Periodical. Retrieved from http://cogprints.org/5780/1/ECSRAP.F07.pdf

5. Unpublished works (selective examples)

Author, A.A. (Year). Title of manuscript. Unpublished manuscript [or "Manuscript submitted for publication," or "Manuscript in preparation"].

For a detailed description of the procedure related to the citation of other types of work than those listed above, consult the 6th APA Publication Manual.

Footnotes
Footnotes are used to provide additional content or to acknowledge copyright permission status.

Appendices
The appendices of the manuscript (labeled APPENDIX A, APPENDIX B etc.) contain materials that supplements article content such as lengthy methodological procedures, calculations of measures, scales etc.

2. Books
Author, A. A. (year). Title of work. Location: Publisher. Author, A. A. (year). Title of work. Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxx Author, A. A. (year). Title of work. doi: xxxxx Editor, A. A. (Ed.) (year). Title of work. Location: Publisher.

Tables and Figures

3. For chapters in a book or entry in a reference book (selective example)
Author, A.A., & Author, B.B. (year). Title of chapter or entry. In A. Editor, B. Editor, & C. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx-xxx). Location: Publisher. Author, A.A, &Author, B.B. (year). Title of chapter or entry. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx-xxx). Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxx Author, A.A., & Author, B.B. (year). Title of chapter or entry. In A. Editor, B. Editor, & C. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx-xxx). Location: Publisher. doi: xxxxxxxx

The author should number all tables and figures with Arabic numerals in the order in which they are first mentioned in the text, regardless of whether a more detailed discussion of the table or figure occurs later in the paper. The author should label them as Table 1, Table 2, and so on or Figure 1, Figure 2, and so on. List all tables first followed by figures. Place tables and figures after appendices at the end of the manuscript, and indicate the position of each in the text as follows: -----------------------------------Insert Table 1 about here -----------------------------------Each table or figure needs an introductory sentence in your text. The format agreed is the standard (canonical) one. Each table should report one type of analysis (which is identified in the title), and each vertical column and horizontal row should contain only one type of data.

4. Meeting and symposia (selective examples)

Contributor, A.A., Contributor, B.B., Contributor, C.C., & Contributor, D.D. (Year, Month). Title of contribution. In E.E. Chairperson (Chair), Title of symposium. Symposium conducted at the meeting of Organization Name, Location. Presenter, A. A. (Year, Month). Title of paper or poster. Paper or poster session presented at the meeting of Organization Name, Location.

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Citation
It is important to put in the Reference section every work you have cited throughout the manuscript. The author can cite in-text as follows:
1. One author Name and year: It has been found that X is associated with Y (Author, year) Year only: Author (year) has found that 2. Two authors When a work has two authors, the author should cite both names every time the reference occurs in the text. When a work has three, four, or five authors, you should cite all authors the first time the reference occurs but in the subsequent citations, include only the surname of the first author followed by et al., (not Italicized and with a period after al.) and the year. 3. Two or more cited works The author should order citations alphabetically. Designate two or more works by one author (or by an identical group of authors) published in the same year by adding a, b, and so forth, after the year. 4. Works with no identified author or with an Anonymus author When a work has no identified author, the

author should cite in text the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title) and the year. Use double quotation marks around the title of an article, a chapter, or a web page and italicize the title of a periodical, a book, a brochure, or a report: on organizational commitment (Study Report, 2011) the book Motivational Outcomes (2011)
5. Page numbers in citations To cite a specific part of a source, the author should indicate the page, chapter, figure, table, or equation at the appropriate point in text. Always give page numbers for quotations. (Johnny, 2011, p. 13) 6. Secondary sources When the original work is out of print, unavailable through usual sources, the author should give the secondary source in the reference list and in the text you should name the original work and give a citation for the secondary source Minnies report (as cited in Smith, 2011).

Thank you for paying attention to the conventions outlined in this guide it will help the work of everyone involved in the publication of this journal. The Editors

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PSYCHOLOGIE DES RESSOURCES HUMAINES GUIDE POUR LES AUTEURS

Ce document reprsente le Guide pour les auteurs. Il couvre le format et la langue utiliser pour les manuscrits soumis la Psychologie des Ressources Humaines. Ce Guide pour les auteurs suit le Manuel de Publication APA, 6me dition.

questions thoriques de lenqute et la relation entre eux. Il doit tre dactylographi en lettres majuscules et minuscules, centr entre les marges de la page et positionn dans la moiti suprieure de la page.
2. Nom de lauteur(s) et affiliation(s) institutionnelle(s) Nom de lauteur(s) sera prsent sous la forme suivante: prnom, initiale(s) des autres prnoms et le nome. Laffiliation institutionnelle doit reflter linstitution / lemplacement o lauteur(s) a t quand la recherche a t mene. Quand un auteur na aucune affiliation institutionnelle, la ville et ltat de rsidence dessous le nom de lauteur doit tre indiqu. Laffiliation institutionnelle doit tre centre sous le nom de lauteur, sur la ligne suivante. 3. Note de lauteur Cette section doit inclure les lments suivants: - Premier paragraphe doit inclure laffiliation(s) au dpartement au moment de ltude pour tous les auteurs comme suit: nom de lauteur tel quil apparat dans la ligne, une virgule, nom du dpartement, une virgule, le nom de luniversit, pointvirgule, nom de lauteur suivant, et ainsi de suite, et se termine par un point. - Deuxime paragraphe doit inclure tous les changements dans les affiliations de lauteur la suite de lpoque de ltude comme suit: [nom de lauteur] est maintenant [affiliation]. - Le troisime paragraphe doit inclure des remerciements (uniquement pour les subventions ou autres aides financires, des accords spciaux concernant les droites dauteur, merci pour laide personnel) et des circonstances particulires (les divulguer avant que les remerciements dans ce paragraphe).

Soumission de manuscrit et Format

Tous les manuscrits pour la revue de Psychologie des Ressources Humaines doivent tre soumis la suivante adresse de-mail: revista@apio.ro. Pour diter le manuscrit sil vous plat utiliser Times New Roman de 12 points, interligne 1,5 et la mise en page A4. Chaque page sera numrote dans le coin suprieur droit. Les marges suprieures et latrales doivent tre laisses au moins 1inch ou 2.54 cm. Un exemple complet dun manuscrit peut tre trouv dans le Manuel de Publication APA, 6me dition.

Publications
Les articles accepts sont copis-dits et retaps. Les auteurs ont examiner les modifications et relire leurs travaux. Lditeur de la revue Psychologie des Ressources Humaines va contacter lauteur correspondant aprs lditeur assigne son travail un numro de la revue. Si votre travail est accept, sil vous plat garder lditeur inform des changements dans votre information de contact et les longues absences.

Premire page
La premire page du manuscrit doit comporter les informations suivantes:
1. Titre Un titre doit tre un nonc concis du sujet principal et doit identifier les variables ou les

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- Le quatrime paragraphe doit inclure des informations sur la personne contacter en prcisant ladresse postale et de-mail. Placez la note de lauteur sur la page de titre, en dessous du titre, nome de lauteur et laffiliation, et centrez ltiquette Note de lauteur. Commencez chaque paragraphe de la note avec un retrait et ditez des paragraphes distincts pour les noms des auteurs et les affiliations actuelles, les changements dans les affiliations, les remerciements, et des circonstances particulires (sil y a unes), avec la personne contacter. La note de lauteur nest pas numrote ou cite dans le texte.

une mta-analyse, tude mthodologique et tude de cas). - Dcrivez la thorie pertinente en discutant de la littrature pertinente lie et en dmontrant la continuit logique entre les travaux antrieurs et prsents - Etat chaque hypothse teste clairement et fournissez un argument thorique pour la faon dont elle est drive de la thorie ou est logiquement lie des donnes antrieures et argumentation.

Mthode
Cette section dcrit en dtail comment ltude a t mene en prcisant les dfinitions conceptuelles et oprationnelles des variables utilises dans ltude. Les auteurs doivent inclure les lments suivants: - Caractristiques de lchantillon en dcrivant ses caractristiques majeures avec un accent particulier sur les caractristiques qui peuvent avoir une incidence sur linterprtation des rsultats - La procdure dchantillonnage en dcrivant les procdures de slection des participants en termes de mthode dchantillonnage, le pourcentage de lchantillon approch qui a particip, le nombre de participants qui sa lui-mme slectionn dans lchantillon - La taille de lchantillon, la puissance et la prcision - Les mesures et covariables en dcrivant les mthodes utilises pour recueillir des donnes et amliorer la qualit des mesures - La conception de la recherche - Les manipulations exprimentales ou les procdures - La description des tches

Page du rsum
Le rsum ainsi que le titre vont sur la page 2. Le rsum ne doit pas dpasser 150 mots. Ltiquette Rsumdoit apparatre en lettres majuscules et minuscules, centre, en haut de la page. Editez le rsum lui-mme comme un seul paragraphe, sans retrait de paragraphe. Placez un titre courant (titre abrg). Le rsum sera crit en Anglais, France et Roumaine. Il est ncessaire dinclure 3-5 mots cls aprs chaque rsum, dans ces langues.

Pages principales du texte

Dans la prparation de votre manuscrit, commencez lintroduction la page 3. Editez le titre du manuscrit en lettres majuscules et minuscules, centrez-le en haut de la page, puis tapez le texte. Les autres sections de larticle se succdent sans interruption, ne commencez pas une nouvelle page lorsque survient une nouvelle rubrique. Cette section doit inclure les lments suivants: - Introduction du problme. Cette section prsente le problme spcifique sous linvestigation et dcrie la stratgie de recherche. Il nest pas ncessaire dtiqueter cette section Introduction. - Explorez limportance du problme. Cette section stipule pourquoi le problme mrite de nouvelles recherches. Explicitez ce problme en fonction du type de ltude (tude empirique, revue de la littrature et

Rsultats
Cette section rsume les donnes recueillies et lanalyse effectue sur les donnes pour tester les hypothses proposes. Signaler lanalyse des donnes de faon suffisamment dtaille pour justifier vos conclusions. Pour plus dinformations sil vous plat consulter le Manuel de Publication APA, 6me dition.

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Discussion
Cette section value et interprte les implications des rsultats, surtout en ce qui concerne les hypothses originales. Examinez, interprtez, qualifiez les rsultats et tirez des infrences et des conclusions. Insistez sur les consquences thoriques ou pratiques de ces rsultats. En outre, les limites de ltude et les tudes futures doivent tre considres dans cette section.

4. Runion et de symposium (exemples slectives)

Contributeur, A.A., Contributeur, B.B., Contributeur, C.C., & Contributeur, D.D. (anne, mois). Titre de la contribution. In E.E. Chairmen (Chair), Titre du symposium. Symposium conducted at the meeting of [nome de lorganization], Lieu. Prsentateur, A.A. (anne, mois). Titre de la communication ou un poster. Paper or poster session presented at the meeting of [nome de lorganization], Lieu.

5. Les uvres non publies (exemples slectives)

Auteur, A.A. (anne). Titre du manuscrit. Unpublished manuscript [or "Manuscript submitted for publication," or "Manuscript in preparation"].

Rfrences / Bibliographie
Les rfrences sont les entres dans la liste alphabtique la fin de larticle ou note de recherche. Cette liste doit inclure tous les travaux qui ont t cits tout au long du manuscrit. Les rfrences doivent tre formates comme suit:
1. Priodiques (exemples slectives)
Auteur, A.A., Auteur, B.B., & Auteur, C.C. (anne). Titre de larticle. Titre du priodique, xx, pp-pp. doi: xx.xxxxxxxxxx Auteur, A.A., Auteur, B.B., Auteur, C.C., Auteur, D.D., Auteur, E.E., Auteur, F.F., Auteur, Y.Y. (anne). Titre de larticle. Titre du priodique, xx, pp-pp. doi: xx.xxxxxxxxxx Auteur, A.A, Auteur, B.B., & Auteur, C.C. (anne). Titre de larticle. Titre du priodique, xx, pp-pp. Auteur, A.A., & Auteur, B.B. (in press). Titre de larticle. Titre du priodique. Retrieved from http://cogprints.org/5780/1/ECSRAP.F07.pdf

Pour une description dtaille de la procdure lie la citation des autres types de travaux que ceux numrs ci-dessus, consulter le Manuel de Publication APA, 6me dition.

Notes
Les notes sont utilises pour fournir un contenu supplmentaire ou pour reconnatre le statut dautorisation de droits dauteur.

Annexes
Les annexes du manuscrit (tiquetes ANNEXE A, ANNEXE B, etc.) contiennent des matriaux qui compltent le contenu de larticle tels que les longues procdures mthodologiques, les calculs de mesures, les chelles etc.

2. Livres
Auteur, A.A. (anne). Titre de luvre. Lieu: Editeur. Auteur, A.A. (anne). Titre de luvre. Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxx Auteur, A.A. (anne). Titre de luvre. doi: xxxxx Editeur, A.A. (d.) (anne). Titre de luvre. Lieu: Editeur.

Tableaux et figures
Lauteur doit numroter tous les tables et les figures en chiffres arabes dans lordre dans laquelle elles sont cites dans le texte, indpendamment si une discussion plus dtaille du tableau ou de la figure se produit plus tard dans le document. Lauteur doit les tiqueter comme le Tableau 1, Tableau 2, et ainsi de suite ou de la Figure 1, Figure 2, et ainsi de suite. Liste toutes les tables en premier, suivi par des figures. Liez les tableaux et les figures aprs annexes la fin du manuscrit, et indiquez la position de chacun dans le texte comme suit:

3. Pour les chapitres dun livre ou une inscription dans un livre de rfrence (exemples slectives)
Auteur, A.A., & Auteur, B.B. (anne). Titre du chapitre ou de lentre. In A. diteur, B. Editor, & C. Editeur (Eds.), Titre du livre (pp. xxx-xxx). Lieu: Editeur. Auteur, A.A., & Auteur, B.B. (anne). Titre du chapitre ou de lentre. In A. diteur, B. Editor, & C. Editeur (Eds.), Titre du livre (pp. xxx-xxx). Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxx Auteur, A.A., & Auteur, B.B. (anne). Titre du chapitre ou de lentre. In A. diteur, B. Editor, & C. Editeur (Eds.), Titre du livre (pp. xxx-xxx). Lieu: Editeur. doi: xxxxxxxx

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-----------------------------------Insert Table 1 about here -----------------------------------Chaque tableau ou figure a besoin dune phrase dintroduction dans votre texte. Le format accept est le standard (canonique). Chaque tableau doit dclarer un type danalyse (qui est identifie dans le titre) et chaque colonne verticale et range horizontale doit contenir quun seul type de donnes.

Citation
Il est important de mettre dans la section Rfrences tous les travaux qui ont t cits tout au long du manuscrit. Lauteur peut citer dans le texte comme suit:
1. Un auteur Nom dauteur et anne: Il a t constat que X est associ Y (Auteur, anne) Anne seulement: Auteur (anne) a constat que . 2. Deux auteurs Quand un travail a deux auteurs, lauteur doit citer deux noms chaque fois que se trouve le renvoi dans le texte. Quand une uvre a trois, quatre ou cinq auteurs, vous devriez citer tous les auteurs la premire fois le renvoi, mais dans les citations suivantes, ne devriez pas inclure que le nom du premier auteur suivi de et al. (pas en italique et avec un point aprs al.) et lanne. 3. Deux ou plusieurs travaux cits Lauteur doit ordonner citations par ordre alphabtique. Lauteur doit dsigner deux ou plusieurs uvres dun auteur (ou par un groupe identique dauteurs) publies dans la mme anne en ajoutant une lettre a , b et ainsi de suite, aprs lanne de publication.

4. Travail avec aucun auteur identifi ou avec un auteur Anonymus Quand une uvre na pas un auteur identifi, lauteur doit citer dans le texte les premiers mots de lentre de la liste de rfrence (gnralement le titre) et lanne.Utilisez des guillemets doubles autour du titre dun article, un chapitre ou une page web et en italique le titre dun priodique, un livre, une brochure ou un rapport: sur lengagement organisationnel (Rapport dtude, 2011) le livre Les rsultats de motivation (2011) 5. Les numros de page dans les citations Pour citer une partie spcifique dune source, lauteur doit indiquer la page, le chapitre, la figure, le tableau ou lquation lendroit appropri dans le texte. Toujours donnez les numros de pages pour les citations. (Johnny, 2011, p. 13) 6. Les sources secondaires Lorsque luvre originale est puise, indisponible par des sources habituelles, lauteur doit donner la source secondaire dans la liste de rfrences et, dans le texte, il doit donner le nom de luvre originale et la citation de la source secondaire : le rapport de Minnie (as cited in Smith, 2011).

Merci pour lattention porte aux conventions dcrites dans ce guide - il aidera le travail de toutes les personnes impliques dans la publication de ce journal. Les diteurs

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