Universitatea POLITEHNICA Bucureti

Facultatea Ingineria i Managementul Sistemelor Tehnologice

Sprecializarea Ingineria i Managementul Sistemelor de Producie

CERCETRI PRIVIND IMPACTUL ASUPRA MEDIULUI

AL UTILIZRII APARATURII ELECTROCASNICE (EuP)
- METODOLOGIE DE EVALUARE I STUDIU DE CAZ -

Coordonatori: Conf. Dr. Ing. DOICIN CRISTIAN Univ. POLITEHNICA Bucureti

M. ENG. HEEJEONG YIM Universitatea Tehnic din Braunschweig
Institutul de Maini Unelte i Tehnologii de Producie (IWF)

Absolvent: TUDORAN FLAVIA TEODORA

Iunie 2006

Cuprins

1. Introducere

1.1
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.2

1
1
3

Life cycle thinking

Ce este life cycle thinking?
Necesitatea prosesului de life cycle thinking
Hri GIS i studii cantitative despre consumul de energie
i ap din gospodriile private
1.2.1 Vederi de ansamblu: hri ale consumului
1.2.2 Bilanul ecologic
1.2.3 Neighborhood consumption pattern
1.3
Consumul susinut
1.3.1 Ce reprezint consumul susinut
1.3.2 Societatea risipitoare i dezinteresat de deeurile rezultate
1.4
Eco-design i politica de produs
1.5
Reducerea cunsumului
1.6
Probleme importante analizate n acest studiu despre aparatura
electrocasnic din gospodriile particulare EUP

2. Stadiul actual (al cercetarilor) privind impactul asupra mediului

nconjurtor al aparaturii electrocasnice

8
10
12
13
14
15
17
18
19
21

24

2.1

Legislaie conex
2.1.1 Politica Integrat a Produselor (IPP)
2.1.2 Deeurile provenite din echipementele electrice i elecronice (WEEE)
2.2
Analiza ciclului de via (Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
2.2.1 Metode de analiz a ciclului de via
2.2.1.1 Analiza Ciclului de Via din punct de vedere ecologic (LCA)
2.2.1.2 Analiza ciclului de via din punct de vedere economic (LCC)

24
24
24
27
38
31
36

2.2.1.3 Evaluarea ciclului social de via (SLCA)

2.3
Costurile Ciclului de Via (LCC)

39

2.4

3.

Analiza Eco Eficienei

40
41

Methodology for EuPs

44

3.1
Identificarea scopului
3.1.1 Ipoteza
3.1.2 Unitile de comparaie
3.2
Metodologia general
3.2.1 Caracteristici funcionale
3.2.2 Consumul de energie
3.2.3 Consumul de ap
3.2.4 Managementul deeurilor
3.2.4.1 Potenialul de nclzire global (GWP)
3.2.4.2 Potenialul de subiere al stratului de ozon (Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP))

44
44
44
45
45
46
48
48
51
52

3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6

Ciclul de via al costurilor pentru produsele EuP (LCC- Life Cycle Costs for EuPs
Ratele de discount
Preul energiei
Preul apei
Analiza de Eco-Eficien
Comportamentul consumatorilor
Interpretation

53
53
53
55
56
60
60

4.

Studiu de caz

61

4.1
4.2
4.2 1
4.2.1.1
4.2.1.2
4.2.1.3
4.2.1.4
4.2.1.5
4.2.1.6
4.2.2
4.2.2.1
4.2.2.1.1
4.2.2.1.2
4.2.2.2
4.2.2.2.1
4.2.2.2.2
4.2.2.2.3
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2

Studii recente despre impactul asupra mediului al mainilor de splat

Impactul ciclului de via al mainii de splat
Impactul mainii de splat asupra mediului
Impactul asupra mediului, siguranei i sntii omului
Principalele categorii de impacturi asupra mediului
Care tip de detergent are cel mai mic impact asupra mediului
Evaluarea aspectelor de mediu utiliznd LCA
Metode de analiz a impactului asupra mediului n cazul mainilor de splat
Comportamentul ecologic al consumatorilor: aspecte generale,
particulare sau compensatorii
Metodologia utilizat n cazul mainilor de splat
Definirea ipotezei i a scopului
Scopul
Definirea funciei produsului
Limitele de comparaie
Inventarul ciclului de via (Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)
Cercetarea impactului ciclului de via
Costul ciclului de via (Life Cycle Costing (LCC))
Comportamentul consumatorilor scenariu real
Caracteristicile mainii de splat
Comportamentul consumatorilor

5. Resultate
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.1.5
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.3

Aspectele ecologice
Consumul de energie
Consumul de ap
Necesarul de detergent
Consumul total
Aspectele ecologice analizate cu ECO IT Software
Aspectele economice
Costul pentru energie
Costul pentru ap i tratamentul apei menajere
Costl pentru detergent
Costurile totale
Concluzii

61
61
62
63
64
65
68
68
69
71
71
72
72
73
85
85
86
87
92
92
95
102
104
109
115
115
117
119
120
122
123
123
124

6. Privire de ansamblu i concluzii generale

125

Referine

126

Abreviaii generale

CECED

Comitetul European al Productorilor de Aparatur Electrocasnic

European (Committee of Manufacturers of Domestic Equipment)

ct.

Euro-cent

DfE

Design cu profil ecologic (Design for the Environment)

ECCP

Programul de schimb al climatului European (European climate

Change Program)

EuP

Produse utilizatoare de energie (Energy Using Products)

EEA

Analiza de Eco-Eficien (Eco-Efficiency Analysis)

ISO 14040 ff.

Standarde Internaionale ISO 14040 i 14043 care descriu principiile

i propun minimul de cerine necesare studiilor cu ajutorul metodei
LCA

IPP

Politica Integrat a Produsului

KWh

kilowatt/or

LCA

Cercetarea Ciclului de Via (Life Cycle Assessment)

LCC

Ciclul de Via al Costurilor (Life Cycle Costing)

LCM

Managementul Ciclului de Via (Life Cycle Management)

WEEE

Directiva 2002/96/EC a Parlamentultui European i al Consiliului, 27

Ianuarie 2003 privind echipamentele electrice i electronice scoase din
uz - Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)

Abstract
The propose of this project is to measure environmental aspects of a household electronic
product, regarding all its life cycle. The project analyze previous studies and than conducts a
methodology to present the environmental impacts of a washing machine, especially in its Use
Phase which is the most significant.
The methodology is realized with Life Cycle Assessment help; all data for it are collected with a
questionnaire and are used results from four different consumers to have a relevant comparison of
consumers behavior.
The results of this study are presented in two ways with a comparative analysis and with Eco It
Software help.
This study is respecting all rules given by DIRECTIVE 2005/32/EC OF THE EUROPEAN
PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 6 July 2005

Keywords:
Analysis

Energy-Using-Products (EuP), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Eco-Efficiency

Abstract
Scopul acestui studiu este de a msura efectele ecologice i economice ale unui produs
electrocasnic, n toate etapele ciclului su de via. La nceput este fcut o scurt referire la
cercetrile deja existente i apoi este prezentat o metodologie care analizeaz efectele asupra
mediului nconjurtor i nu numai ale mainii de splat, n special n Etapa de Utilizare a produsului
unde aceste efecte au cea mai mare semnificaie.
Aceast analiz este realizat cu ajutorul metodei ecologice LCA, datele necesare fiind colectate
cu ajutorului unui chestionar.
Sunt utilizate rezultatele acestui chestionar n cazul a patru consumatori diferii.
Rezultateloe obinute sunt prezentate n dou moduri: cu ajutorul Excell i prin intermediul Eco-It
Software help.
Acest studui respect normele europene stabilite n Directiva European pentru produse
electronice - Directiva 2005/32/EC a Parlamentului European i a Consiliului, Iulie 2005.

Cuvinte cheie:

Produse care utilizeaz energie - Energy-Using-Products (EuPs), Cercetarea

Ciclului de Via - Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Analiza de Eco-Eficien.

1. Introduction

1. Introducere

Throughout
human
history,
but
especially during the last century, negative
impacts of human activities on the
environment, including plants, animals, and
the humankind itself have become apparent.
More recently, it has become obvious that the
uncontrolled depletion of resources and
emissions into air, water, and soil can no
longer be pursued. For this reason, the
different human activities and needs should be
analyzed and optimized with respect to
minimal environmental impacts because the
earth resources are limited.
One of these activities is the private
household activity. In a household are many
electronics which consume water and energy,
such as: vacuum, washing machine, dish
washer, microwave, refrigerator, computer,
T.V., radio.

De-a lungul istoriei, dar n special n timpul

ultimului secol, impactul negativ al activitilor
umane asupra mediului, incluznd plantele,
animalele i omenirea nsi a devenit tot mai
pronunat. n zilele noastre a devenit tot mai
clar c utilizarea necontrolat a resurselor,
emisiile n aer, ap i sol nu mai pot fi
acceptate. Din acest motiv, diferitele activiti
i necesiti umane trebuiesc cercetate i
analizate, pentru c resursele naturale sunt
limitate.
Una dintre aceste activiti este activitatea
din gospodriile private. ntr-o gospodrie se
afl multe produse electrocasnice care
consum ap i energie, cum ar fi: aspirator,
main de spalat, main de splat vase,
cuptor cu microunde, frigider, computer,
televizor sau radio.

1.1

Life cycle thinking

1.1

Life cycle thinking

1.1.1

What is life cycle thinking?

1.1.1

Ce este life cycle thinking?

Fiecare ciclu de via al unui produs,

proces sau activitate ncepe cu etapa de
extracie i procesare a materiei prime, urmat
de producie, transport i folosin i se
sfrete cu managementul de scoatere din
uz si reciclare. Fiecare dintre aceste etape ale
ciclului
de
via
consum
resurse
neregenerabile i genereaz un numr
inevitabil de impacte asupra mediului la
diferite nivele, cum ar fi: la nivel global
(nclzirea global i subierea stratului de
ozon), la nivel regional (aciditatea si
reducerea cantitii de oxigen din ruri, fumul
emanat) i nu n ultimul rnd la nivel local
(impaclul toxic i eco-toxic). Aceste impacturi
ale ciclului de via al produsului sunt redate
de Life Cycle Thinking prin: Cercetarea
Ciclului de Via (Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA)), Managementul Ciclului de Via (Life
Cycle Management (LCM)), Ciclul de Via al
Costurilor (Life Cycle Costing (LCC)), Design
pentru Mediu (Design for the Environment
(DfE)).
n timpul ntregului proces al ciclului de
via al produsului este necesar s se

Every life cycle of a product, process or

activity starts with the extraction and
processing of raw materials, followed by
manufacturing, transportation and use, and
ends with waste management including
recycling and final disposal. Each of these life
cycle stages consumes non-renewable energy
and resources and generates a certain
number of environmental impacts at different
levels such as: global (global warming, ozone
depletion),
regional
(acidification
and
eutrophication of rivers, smog) as well as local
(toxicological and eco-toxicological impacts).
Life cycle thinking addresses these life cyclegenerated impacts through the use of different
approaches aiming at minimizing them such
as: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Life Cycle
Management (LCM), Life Cycle Costing (LCC)
and Design for the Environment (DfE).
During the whole process of Life Cycle
of a product it is necessary to think at whole
aspects involved such as: use of energy, use
of materials starting with raw materials and
ending with use of water, land, fauna, etc. [1]
To analyze all these aspects are two inter-

gndeasc la toate aspectele cum ar fi:

cantitatea de energie folosit, cantitatea de
materiale folosite ncepnd cu materia prim
i sfrind cu utilizarea apei, pmntului,
faunei, etc. [1]

related techniques:
The product life cost. Which involves
totals capital cost, running costs, servicing and
maintenance, and eventually disposal. The
concept can be extended to cover the
products impact on the environment and/or
the energy involved in the activities,
remembering that all purchased materials will
have consumed energy at all stages from the
extraction of raw materials to final
manufacture.
The product life cycle approach,
which looks at the total interrelationship from
raw materials, through manufacture to the
product, throughout its use, and from disposal
through recycling to create new raw material.

Pentru a analiza toate aceste aspecte se

folosesc dou tehnici corelate:
Costul vieii produsului. Acesta
include costul de achiziie, costul de
utilizare, costul de ntreinere i service
i eventual costul de scoatere din uz i
reciclare. Acest concept poate fi extins
pentru a acoperi impactul produsului
asupra mediului i/sau al energiei
nglobate
n
aceste
activiti,
reamintind
c
toate
materialele
achiziionate vor fi consumat energie la
toate nivelurile de la extracia materiei
prime pn la producia final.
Concepia ciclului de via al
produsului,
care
privete
interrelaionarea total, plecnd de la
materia prim, trecnd prin etapa de
producie, uz i terminnd cu etapa de
scoatere din uz, reciclare i eventual
crearea de noi materii prime.

The case for increased product durability

needs to be understood in the context of a
trend associated with sustainable development
towards 'life cycle thinking' in product
development and public policy analysis,
sometimes described as a 'cradle to grave'
approach. This may be traced to four
developments.
First, during the 1990s, LCA (Life Cycle
Assessment) became increasingly popular as
a tool to estimate the environmental impact of
products, in part because of a need to
substantiate claims relating to eco-labelling
(Ayres, 1995; Lee, Callaghan and Allen,
1995). LCA quantifies the environmental
impacts of a product across successive
phases from initial resource extraction to final
disposal. Second, concern about waste has
led to the development of legislation based on
the principle of 'producer responsibility' (Lifset,
1993; Mayers and France, 1999). This
requires companies that might previously have
had little knowledge about their products after
the initial guarantee period to take a greater
interest throughout their life spans because
they are made responsible for end-of-life
disposal.
Third, the need to reduce environmental
impacts in affluent nations without reducing
the quality of life led researchers to
contemplate the possibility of increasing the
'service' provided by a particular product
during its life. Manufacturers began to review
the potential for leasing products rather than
selling them (Stahel and Jackson, 1993;
Oosterhuis et al 1996; White, Stoughton and
Feng, 1999; Cooper and Evans, 2000).

n cazul unei durabiliti crescute a

produsului este necesar s fie neles
contextul
unei
tendine
asociate
cu
dezvoltarea susinut fa de life cycle
thinking n dezvoltarea produsului i analiza
public, folosind uneori conceptul de analiz
din leagn n mormnt. Acestea pot fi
analizate n patru evenimente.
Primul, n timpul anilor 90, LCA (Life
Cycle Assessment) a devenit tot mai des
folosit ca o unealt de estimare a impactului
asupra mediului al produselor, pe de-o parte
datorit nevoi de a argumenta aceast
necesitate legat de eco-labelling (Ayres,
1995; Lee, Callaghan and Allen, 1995). LCA
cuantific impacturile produsului asupra
mediului traversnd faze succesive, pornind
de la extracia iniial a materiei prime pn la
scoaterea din uz a produsului. n al doilea
rnd, preocuparea fa de deeuri a condus la
dezvoltarea unei legislaii bazat pe principiul
grija productorului (Lifset, 1993; Mayers
and France, 1999). Aceasta impune
companiilor c trebuie s aib cunotin
despre produsele lor i dup perioada de
garanie, s fie interesai de ntreaga via a

Finally, evidence that many consumers are

unaware of the proportion of costs accounted
for during the use phase of appliances
(Kollman, 1992), coupled with criticism of the
cost of extended warranties (Office of Fair
Trading, 2002), raised interest in costs
incurred throughout the product life cycle
additional to the purchase price.
Life cycle thinking is essential in
confronting the throwaway society because it
deepens understanding of products beyond
the point of purchase. This is particularly
important in a marketing context. Significantly,
the need to address the whole life cycle of
products is now being recognised by
consumer behaviour specialists. Antonides
and van Raaj (1998) illustrate the distinction
between the product life-cycle and the
consumption life-cycle. The former, an
essential part of marketing theory, is
concerned with the introduction of a product
into the market, the development of sales, the
process of product improvement, and the
stage at which the product is removed from
the market. By contrast, the consumption lifecycle is concerned with pre-purchase activities
such as problem recognition and information
search, followed by purchase, use and
disposal. Understanding the life span of
products demands awareness of a complex
range of influences upon the product life-cycle
and the consumption life-cycle.

1.1.2

produselor pentru c ei se fac responsabili de

scoaterea din uz a produselor.
n al treilea rnd, nevoia de a reduce
impactul asupra mediului fr a reduce
calitatea vieii omului, i-au facut pe productori
s reflecteze asupra posibilitii de cretere a
perioadei de service de-a lungul ntregii viei a
produsului. Productorii au nceput s reia n
considerare posibilitatea de leasing a
produselor n locul vnzrii lor (Stahel and
Jackson, 1993; Oosterhuis et al 1996; White,
Stoughton and Feng, 1999; Cooper and
Evans, 2000).
n cele din urm, consumatorii nu cunosc
raportul dintre costurile de utilizare ale
aparatelor electrocasnice.
Life cycle thinking este esenial n aceast
problem pentru c ajut s fie neleas
mai bine importana produselor i dincolo
de costul de achiziie. Aceasta este
important n mod special pentru o
analiz de marketing. Foarte important
este s se acorde atenie i
comportamentilui consumatorilor n
ntreaga via a produselor.
n 1998 Antonides and van Raaj, au
evideniat diferena dintre ciclul de via al
produsului i ciclul de via al consumului. Cel
dinti termen, ciclul de via al produsului
consider c, o parte esenial a teoriei
marketing-ului este introducerea pe pia a
produsului, cercetarea vnzrilor, procesul de
mbuntire al produsului i etapa n care
produsul este scos de pe pia. n contrast,
ciclul de via al consumului este concentrat
pe activitile post-achiziie, cum ar fi
problemele de recunoatere i informare,
urmate de achiziie, utilizare i etapa de
scoatere din uz. nelegerea ntregi viei a unui
prudus presupune nelegerea att a vieii
produsului ct i a vieii consumului.

The need for life cycle thinking

1.1.2

It is necessary to think of the whole of the life

cycle of a product, because products may
have totally different environmental impacts
during different stages of their cycle. The
stages of a product life cycle are presented by
Life cycle thinking study. These stages are
presented in Fig.1.1.

Necesitatea procesului de life

cycle thinking

Este necesar s se gndeasc la ntregul

ciclu de via al produsului, deoarece
produsele pot avea diferite impacte asupra
mediului n timpul etapelor ciclului lor de via.
Etapele ciclului de via al produsului sunt
prezentate n studiul Life cycle thinking
aceste etape sunt prezentate n Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1

The life cycle of a product

In Fig. 1.1 are shown in five distinct

phases, all of which interact with the
environment. For most products, the period
of use is far longer than the other periods,
and there may also be periods of storage
and non-use between the stages shown.
Usually, but not always, these stages will be
environmentally benign.
To study all the impacts of a product
in the nature and in the human behavior, the
most tools is Life Cycle Analysis. This
important tool analyze whole period of
products life cycle. A system view, it looks at
all inputs to the system, and all outputs, at
all stages during the entire life cycle. It also
categorizes environmental impacts in terms
of the use of resources, the impact on
human health, and the consequences for
the wider world the so called ecological
consequences. [2]
Throughout human history, but
especially during the last century, negative
impacts of human activities on the
environment, including plants, animals, and
the humankind itself have become apparent.
More recently, it has become obvious that
the uncontrolled depletion of resources and
emissions into air, water, and soil can no
longer be pursued. For this reason, the
different human activities and needs should
be analyzed and optimized with respect to
minimal environmental impacts because the
earth resources are limited.
One of these activities is the private
household activity. In a household are many
electronics which consume water and

n Fig. 1.1 sunt prezentate cinci faze

diferite ale ciclului de via, toate interacionnd
cu mediul. Pentru cele mai multe produse,
perioada de utilizare este cea mai lung n
comparaie cu celelalte faze i pot exista i
etape de staionare i nefolosin ntre aceste
etape principale. De obicei, dar nu ntotdeauna
aceste etape nu au nici un impact asupra
mediului.
Pentru a studia toate aceste impacte
asupra mediului i a comportamentului uman,
este folosit metoda Analiza ciclului de via.
Aceast unealt analizeaz ntreaga perioad a
ciclului de via al produsului.O privire de
ansamblu arat toate intrrile i ieirile din
sistem la toate etapele ciclului de via. Aceast
metod clasific impactele asupra mediului n
termeni de utilizare a resurselor, impactul
asupra sntii umane i consecinele asupra
naturii, aa numitele consecine ecologice. [2]
Cercetrile de specialitate au artat c,
dintre toate activitile umane, activitatea
desfurat n gospodriile private este cea mai
mare consumatoare de ap i energie. Aceti
doi parametri definesc cel mai bine activiatea
din gospodriile private i depind direct de
comportamentul consumatorilor, cum ar fi:
programul folosit de maina de splattemperatura de splare aleas, cantitatea de
rufe splate i cantiatetea de detergent; s
asculte tirile la radio n timp ce gatesc
mncarea.
Pentru a avea o imagine general
asupra consumului de ap de ctre aparatele
electrocasnice, sunt prezentate rezultatele din
The annual water use study report realizat de

energy, such as: vacuum, washing machine,

dish washer, microwave,
refrigerator,
computer, T.V., radio.
The research studies have shown
that the household activity is one of the
biggest consumer of water and energy.
These two parameters define very well the
household consumption. These parameters
are related to the different consumers
behavior as: program settings for washing
machines temperature choice, washing
machine load and detergent dosage; to
listen news at radio while they are cooking
food.
To have an overview about the
household appliances water consumption,
including washing machines, are presented
the results of The annual water use study
report realized by Queensland Government
in October 2003.

Fig. 1.2

guvernul din Queensland in Octombrie 2003.

Research House White goods Annual Water Use 2003

In Fig. 1.2 is presented the indoor

water consumption and as it can be seen
the washing machine consumption is about
4% from whole water consumption in a
private household.
The dishwasher uses approximately
29L and the clothes washer uses 43L of
water per day respectively, which is
approximately 7% of the total water usage
of Research House. The wet areas such as
the shower and bathrooms used a total daily
average of 211L that equates to
approximately 18% of household water

n Fig. 1.2 este prezentat consumul de

ap, n care de exemplu maina de splat
consum 4% din total.
Maina de splat vase folosete 29L de
ap pe zi, n timp ce maina de splat rufe
folosete aproximativ 43L de ap pe zi ceea ce
reprezint n total 7% din consumul total de ap
din ntreaga gospodrie. Pentru du i toalet
se folosesc aproximativ 211L de ap pe zi ceea
ce reprezint aproximativ 18% din consumul
total de ap. Toaleta folosete aproximativ 116L
de ap pe zi ceea ce reprezint 10% din total.
ntr-un an, din total consumului de ap,

pentru gtit, curenie i apa de but se

folosete aproximativ 14% din total. Consumul
de ap cald zilnic este de 120 L de ap ceea
ce reprezint 11% din totalul consumului de
ap. [3]
Pentru maina de splat, consumul de
ap i energie s-a redus foarte mult n ultimii 20
de ani. Este foarte clar faptul c acest consum
depinde de programul de splare ales.
Directiva european cu privire la
consumul de ap The Water Regulations and
EU Directive 95/12/EC specific maximul de
consum de ap astfel: 27L de ap pentru 1kg
de rufe pentru mainile de splat cu ax
orizontal ceea ce reprezint 135L de ap
pentru un ciclu de splare, n comparaie cu
cele care consum cu 50L mai mul [4]
La conferina internaional Raportul
anual cu privire la consumul de ap din
Octombrie 2003, compania Bosch a prezentat
un raport general cu privire la consumul de ap
al mainilor de splat de-a lungul ntregului ciclu
de via de 20 de ani.
La fel de important este i consumul de
energie de-a lungul ntregului ciclu de via al
mainii de splat. n decursul ultimilor 20 de ani,
nalta tehnologie a fcut ca mainile de splat
s consume din ce n ce mai puin energie.
n Aprilie 1996, Comitetul European al
productorilor de aparatur electrocasnic (The
European Committee of Manufacturers of
Domestic Equipment (CECED)) a prezentat
Comisiei Europene un angajament cu privire la
reducerea consumului de energie. n principal,
acest angajament a fost luat cu privire la
reducerea consumului de energie al mainilor
de splat. Scopul acestui angajament a fost de
a reduce consumul de energie la mainile de
splat din gospodriile private cu pn la 20%
n perioada 1996-2000. n practic, aceasta
nseamn a ajunge la valoarea de 0.30 kWh/kg,
ceea ce nseamn o reducere de 0.24 kWh/kg
n 6 ani. Pentru a atinge scopul, diferite msuri
tehnice i economice au fost luate i au fost
clasificate n eluri nalte i eluri uor de
atins. [5]
Primele dou rapoarte anuale despre
situaiile din 1997 i 1998, au fost publicate de
ctre CECED n Iunie 1996 i Iunie !999. Al
treilea raport descrie cercetrile din 1999.
n raportul final CECED angajamentul
voluntar de reducere al consumului de energie
n cazul mainilor de spalat este indicat c
mainile de splat care folosesc programele A

consumption. Shower and bath usage has

been combined in line with the Brisbane
data. The toilets use an average of 116L a
day, which is approximately 10% of total
household water consumption.
Of the total water consumption for the year,
14% was used in cooking, cleaning and
drinking which includes the Zip hydro tap
(instant boiling and chilled filtered water
dispenser), which the tenants usage
averaged 9L a day. The hot water average
daily use in Research House for the year
was 129L a day or 11% of the total water
use. [3]
The energy and water efficiency
washing
machines
has
improved
significantly over the last 20 years.
Obviously water and energy use per cycle
depends on the program.
The Water Regulations and EU
Directive 95/12/EC specifies a maximum
water consumption of 27 liters per kilogram
of wash-load for horizontal axis clothes
washing machines. Thus a 5kg load would
use 135 liters compared with an increasingly
common 50 liters or less. [4]
At International Conference Annual
Water use study report in October 2003,
Bosch Company presented a general image
of washing machine water consumption
during a period 20 years.
The same importance as the water
consumption, has the energy consumption
of a washing machine during whole life
cycle. The high technology have enabled
designers to develop products with lower
and lower energy consumption in last 20
years.
In April 1996 the European
Committee of Manufacturers of Domestic
Equipment
(CECED)
presented
a
commitment about energy saving to the
European Commission. This Commitment
was made on behalf of the European
manufacturers
of
domestic
washing
machines and was aimed at a considerable
reduction of energy consumption of washing
machines.
The overall saving target of the
Commitment is to reduce the specific
energy consumption of domestic washing
machines by 20% in the period 1994 - 2000.
In practice, this means to bring the value of
0.30 kWh/kg down to 0.24 kWh/kg within 6

i B sunt cele pentru la care consumul de

energie este cel mai redus. Este important de
reinut c reducerea consumului de energie nu
a condus la o scdere a performanelor de
splare. [6]
Deoarece resursele naturale sunt
limitate, productorii ncearc s gasesc tot
mai multe ci de a reduce consumul de ap i
de energie, ntr-un cuvnt s reduc impactul
asupra mediului. Diferite cercetri au artat c,
dintre toate activitile omului, activitatea din
gospodriile private consum cea mai mult
energie i ap.
n cazul mainilor de splat, un alt
aspect important este consumul de detergent.
ntr-una dintre cercetrile fcute de compania
Bosch n anul 2004, s-a artat c acestea
afecteaz suprafa apelor municipale cel mai
mult n perioada de utilizare. La mijlocul
secolului XX, spunul surfactant anionic a fost
nlocuit cu surfactani sintetici non-degradabili
care au un coninut ridicat de tetra propilen
benzene (TPBS). Aceasta a dus la formarea
unor muni uriai de spum n multe ruri. [7]
De exemplu, n Germania, aceast
problem a fost rezolvat prin introducerea unei
legi a detergenilor, n 1961, care definea
principalele criterii de degradabilitate a
surfactanilor anionici folosii n detergenii de
rufe.
Conform acestei legi, TPBS a fost
nlocuit cu anionic surfactant linear alkyl
benzene sulphonate (LAS) sintetic degradabil.
Aceasta a condus la o reducere semnificativ a
concentraiei de surfactani de la nivelul apelor
municipale. [8]
Pentru a reui reducerea impactului
asupra mediului este necesar un consum
susinut.

years. To achieve this goal, a catalogue of

different technical and marketing related
measures was set up, specifying so-called,
hard targets and also soft targets. [5].
The first two annual reports about
the situation in 1997 in 1998 - were
published by CECED in June 1998 and
June 1999. This third report describes the
further developments in 1999.
Considerable contribution comes also from
the permanent improvement of machines
which are already rather energy efficient.
In the Final report of CECED
Voluntary Commitment on reducing energy
consumption
of
domestic
washing
machines have concluded that the
distribution of models has shifted clearly
towards the classes A and B indicating a
high degree of energy efficiency. It is
important to note that the improvement in
terms of energy consumption did not result
in a decrease of washing performance. [6]
Because the earth sources are
limited designers tried to find ways to
reduce the water and energy consumption,
in a word to reduce the environmental
impacts during last years. Different
researches have shown that from human
activity,
in
the
household
activity
consumption of energy and water have the
highest level.
Another very important aspect in
washing machine usage have detergents
damages.
At one of the ecological research
made at Bosch Company in 2004, the
conclusion was that
these effects
mainly occurred in surface waters below
municipal discharges, which show that the
use phase of these products is highly
relevant for the environmental performance
of this activity. In the middle of the 20th
Century, the formerly used anionic
surfactant soap was replaced by nondegradable synthetic surfactants, above all
the branched tetra propylene benzene
sulphonate (TPBS). This led to the
formation of huge mountains of foam in
many rivers[7]
For example in Germany, this
problem was solved by the passing of the
detergents law in 1961, which defined
minimum
criteria
for
the
primary
degradability of the anionic surfactants used

in laundry detergents.
Due to this law, TPBS was replaced
by the non-branched and therefore
degradable synthetic anionic surfactant
linear alkyl benzene sulphonate (LAS). This
led to a significant reduction of surfactant
concentrations in surface waters. [8]
It is necessary to have a sustainable
consumption to succeed in reducing the
environmental impacts.

1.2

GIS maps and qualitative

studies
combined
provide
knowledge of energy and water
consumption in households

1.2

Hri GIS i studii cantitative

despre consumul de energie i
ap din gospodriile private

Consumul de resurse din gospodriile

private poate fi vizualizat i analizat grafic
folosind
GIS
(Geographical
Information
System). Cercettorii danezi au realizat hri
GIS despre consum care acoper tot oraul
Aarhus. Aceste hri au la baz un sistem de
monitorizare numit eco-labelling, care este un
sistem de monitorizare a mediului care ia n
considerare att intrrile ct i ieirile de
energie i resurse folosite. n combinaie cu
hrile GIS i a condiiilor socio-economice i
fizice ale cldirilor, se poate analiza i
comportamentul uman cu privire la acest
consum.
Aceste studii au artat c statutul social al
diferitelor tipuri de locatari corespunde unui
anumit consum. i, de aceea consumul variaz
de la vecin la vecin. Oricum comportamentul i
inter-relaionarea dintre locatari nu permit a
nelege comportamentul actual cu privire la
consum din gospodriile private. Pentru o
negere mai bun a acestui aspect au fost
intervievate diferite familii. Acest mod de a
nelege a evideniat diferite stiluri de via n
diferite familii i diferite pri ale oraului. Aceste
studii calitative au artat c diferitele consumuri
din gospodriile private trebuiesc nelese ca
pri integrale a inter-relaionrii dintre
tehnologie i cultur n viaa de zi cu zi.
Cnd sunt considerate aspectele de mediu,
consumul de energie i ap din gospodri este
relevant n diferite studii, n Danemarca el
reprezentnd o treime din consumul total de
energie i ap (Danish Energy Statistic 2001)
Dar, atunci cnd, consumul de ap i de
energie este considerat n funcie de stilul de
via, se poate dovedi a nu fi cel mai bun mod

Household resource consumption

can
be
visualized
and
analyzed
geographically by using GIS (Geographical
Information System). Researchers at Danish
Building and Urban Research have among
others produced GIS consumption maps
covering the city of Aarhus. These
consumption maps are based on a
monitoring system called eco-accounting,
which is an environmental accounting
system that takes into account inputs and
outputs of energy and resources. Combined
with GIS maps of socio-economics and the
physical conditions of buildings, household
consumption patterns can be analyzed.
These studies showed that the social
status of the residents in each type of
neighborhood corresponds to their energy
consumption. And, that the consumption
varies widely from neighborhood to
neighborhood and within the neighborhood
as well. However, patterns and interrelations
do not provide us with an understanding of
the actual consumption behavior in
households. To attain this understanding
qualitative interviews from households in
selected neighborhoods have been used.
This way knowledge has been provided
about the use and meaning of home and
knowledge about different kinds of everyday
life as it is being lived in different parts of the
city and in different households. These
qualitative studies showed that different
household consumption have to be
understood as an integral part of the
interrelation between technology and culture

de analiz deoarece exist teorii despre stilul de

via orientat asupra comunicrii consumului,
ex. Cum s exprimi stilui de via,
Un nivel cert al consumului de energie,
indiferent dac este ridicat sau sczut, nu este o
cale de a exprima identitatea, doar pe seama
consumului. Aceasta nu nseamn c nivelul
ridicat sau sczut al consumului de energie se
confund cu stilul de via sau practicile de
consum
ntr-un
sens
sociologic
sau
antropologic. Acest studiu mpreun cu altele au
artat c, consumul de energie depinde de
mrimea, stilul i tipul de cas i n ce msur
sunt folosite aparatele electrocasnice. Toate
aceste aspecte sunt relevante n nelegerea
sociologic i antropologic a consumului.
O idee principal a acestui studiu este
de a combina diferite stiluri de via, consumul
de resurse i structura fizic din dou puncte de
vedere. ntr-o vedere de ansamblu, ideea de
consum individual este dependent de
aezarea goegrafic a oraului cu vizualizarea
consumului de energie i ap. Din acest punct
de vedere, structura fizic nseamn, totalitatea
construciilor n sens ecologic. ntr-o vedere mai
detaliat, analizele cantitative pentru fiecare
gospodrie au fost realizate n ideea de a
nelege cum casa, identitatea i consumul de
resurse se ntreptrund n fiecare dintre cazuri.
Din acest punct de vedere, gospodria
nseamn aparatele electrocasnice din ea.
Aceste dou perspective de analiz reprezint
dou strategii diferite.
n urmtoarele paragrafe sunt prezentate
exemple din aceste strategii.
n primul paragraf va fi introdus
noiunea de vedere de ansamblu cu ajutorul
hrilor GIS i este prezentat cum aceste hri
monitorizeaz acest sistem. n al doilea
paragraf sunt prezentate studiile calitalive
amanunite.

in everyday life.
When considering the environmental
aspects, it can be noted that the daily use of
energy
and water in households is highly relevant to
study, as one third of all energy in Denmark
is consumed directly in the households
(Danish Energy Statistic 2001) and more
than one third of all tap-water (Danish
Statistics 2001).
However, when considering the
lifestyle aspects consumption of energy and
water may not be the most relevant objects
for analysis, because theories on lifestyle
primarily focus on the communicative
aspects of consumption, i.e. how to express
lifestyle, group belonging and identity to
others or to yourself through daydreaming.
A certain level of energy consumption,
whether high or low, is not a way to express
identity or to stage dreams, for one reason
because it is a hidden consumption. This
does not mean that high or low levels of
energy consumption is not related to
lifestyle and consumption practices in the
sociological or anthropological sense of the
word. This and other studies have shown
that energy consumption i.e. relates to the
size, style and type of a house and to the
amount and use of appliances and that all
these aspect are highly relevant within a
sociological
and
anthropological
understanding of consumption.
A leading idea of this research is to
combine lifestyle, resource consumption
and physical structure from two points of
view. In a birds view, patterns of
consumption are seen by combining the
idea of the social geography of the city with
the visualization of the energy and water
consumption. From this point of view,
physical structure means, the built
environment. In a worms view, qualitative
analyses of individual households have
been performed in order to understand how
house, identity and resource consumption
are interconnected in each individual case.
From this point of view, physical structure
means the house with its appliances. Thus
far, the two perspectives constitute two
strategies.
In the following two sections are
presented examples of each of these
research strategies.

In the first section it will be introduced to

birds view, with the GIS- based maps, and
it is shown how these maps relate to a
monitoring system called eco-accounting. In
the second section, the qualitative studies of
the worms perspective are introduced
Consumption

1.2.1
Vederi de ansamblu: hri ale
consumului

Segregation is a main characteristic

of urban conglomeration. Citizens are
different and they become affiliated with
different social groups and subcultures,
each of them with their own favorite places
for living (Jensen and Bech-Danielsen
1999). Lifestyle more or less predestinates
the social membership and the acceptable
domains for daily life.
This has long since been established
by urban studies and can easily be
confirmed by statistics that take account of
for instance the personal income of housing
neighborhoods. By using GIS, the
segregation according to income can easily
be visualized. However, as will be described
later, not only wealth and goods make the
distinction.
And now this question: Will be
possible to represent social geography in
terms of statistics that address consumption
only? For consumption as a whole, this is
of course impossible. But, by meters placed
in the homes in order to read the amount of
heating, the amount of electricity, or the
amount of water delivered, these elements
of consumption can be emphasized by
means of GIS. Meters installed are of
course
for
individual
accounts.
Nevertheless, by using GIS access to these
meter readings can be transformed into a
map that shows the distribution of heat
consumption in the urban neighborhoods. At
DBUR consumption maps and other kind of
maps of the city of Aarhus have been
compiled into a GIS Atlas that shows how
statistics of buildings, socio-economics and
consumption can be visualized by means of
GIS (Jensen and Olsen, 2002). As a
research institute DBUR has access to a
personal data register in order to obtain
socio-economic data (the Danish CPR

Segregarea este caracteristica principal

a conglomerrilor urbane. Cetenii sunt diferii
i devin afiliai diferitelor grupuri sociale i
subculturale, fiecare dintre ele avnd locuri
preferate pentru a locui (Jensen and BechDanielsen 1999). Stilul de via este mai mult
sau mai puin predestinat membrilor grupului.
Aceasta s-a stabilit prin studii urbane i
poate fi uor confirmat de statisticile care
analizeaz populaia. Folosind hrile GIS,
segregarea poate fi pus uor n eviden.
Oricum, aa cum vom vedea mai departe nu
numai averea i poziia social fac diferena.
Acum se pune ntrebarea: Va fi posibil
reprezentarea geografiei sociale n termeni
statistici care s reprezinte doar consumul?
Pentru a reprezenta doar consumul, acest lucru
este imposibil.
Dar, din punct de vedere al consumului
de cldur, electricitate i ap distribuit, pot fi
instalate aparate de msur (contoare) i apoi
realizate hari GIS. Aceste contoare sunt
individuale. Cu ajutorul rezultatelor nregistrate
pot fi ntocmite hri care s prezinte consumul
de cldur, ap i electricitate n mediul urban.
Astfel de hri ale consumului au fost realizate
n oraul Aarhus i acestea prezint cum
cldirile, socio-economia i consumul pot fi
vizualizate cu ajutorul hrilor GIS (Jensen and
Olsen, 2002). Institutul DBUR a intrat n posesia
unor date confideniale n vederea obinerii
datelor socio-economice (registrul danez CPR
conine informaii despre venit, educaie, vrst,
naionalitate, etc. ale fiecrei persoane care
locuiete
n
Danemarca),
DBUR
are
deasemenea acces la registrul de date al
cldirilor, n vederea obinerii informaiilor
necesare despre cldirile din Aarhus (registrul
BBR din Danemarca conine informaii despre
anul construciei, marimea i tipul cldirii).
Departamentul tehnic din Aarhus a dat
publicitii o populaie de 280,000, 133,000 de

1.2.1

Birds
maps

eye

view:

10

cldiri, 70,000 m de cablu electric, 45,000 m de

conducte de nclzire i 53,000 m de conducte
de ap, date care au fost considerate n
vederea realizrii atlasului.
mprirea oraului Aarhus dup locuitori
are la baz structura fizic a orasului i anume:
vrsta locatarilor, poziionarea lor n ora,
diferenierea pe strzi, tipurile de cldiri i
spaiile verzi din zonele respective. Aceasta
poate fi vzut ca o mprire a oraului Aarhus.
O analiz a oraului Aarhus privind
locuitorii si este bazat pe structura fizic a
oraului, ex. vrsta vecinilor, locaia lor n cadrul
oraului, tipul de cldiri i localizarea spaiilor
verzi. Pe scurt, acesta poate fi privit ca o divizie
a oraului Aarhus n vecinti naturale
delimitate. Semnele de pe hart explic nivelul
de consum. n cazul oraului Aarhus a fost
posibil realizarea unei hri a consumului de
cldur datorit faptului c majoritatea
gospodriilor au surse de cldur proprii.

register contains information on income,

education, age, nationality etc. of every
person living in Denmark). DBUR has also
access to a building data register to obtain
information about buildings in Aarhus (the
Danish BBR register contains information on
building year, size and type of all building in
Denmark). Aarhus Technical Department
has
provided
the
meter
readings.
Information about 280,000 people, 133,000
buildings, 70,000 electric meters, 45,000
heating meters and 53,000 water meters
have been assemble in the data register to
support the atlas production.

Fig. 1.3
Examples of maps picked up from the Danish GIS atlas, one based on data
personal income, the other based data on household heat consumption

11

on

1.2.2

Eco-accounting

1.2.2 Bilanul ecologic

When studying the heat consumption

map, it is worth noting that the average heat
consumption is measured in heat units per
person instead of heat units per household.
This way of interpreting energy consumption
comes from the Danish eco-accounting
system, and in fact the GIS maps of
consumption can considered a visualization
of eco-accounting for a geographical area.
By benchmarking consumption as an
individual
rather
than
a
household
relationship, it is at the same time stressed
that consumption is about responsibility of
individuals. The same way of thinking is
known from the concept of The Ecological
Footprint and the concept of The Ecological
Rucksack.
As
measures,
environmental
accountings of this kind are meant to serve
as
environmental
indicators
and
documentation
of
environmental
improvements. In addition, they should
encourage the establishment of new
environmental improvements, and whenever
possible help promote environmentally
sound behavior. In any case, the
benchmarking system provides opportunities
for a dialogue with the citizens. It is the
overall requirement of sustainable urban
development and not least the reductions of
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions that have
caused the demand for the environmental
accounting.
In Denmark eco-accounting is a
widespread monitoring tool applied to the
infrastructure of all kinds of housing areas,
from single homes to large social housing
estates.
Moreover, it has been applied to the
infrastructure of schools and offices. A basic
assessment tool, based on an Excell
spreadsheet, is available on the homepage
of Danish Building and Urban Research.
The monitoring method can be seen as an
Environmental Accounting (EA) method, but
unlike the traditional EA, eco-accounting
calculates in substances (mass and energy
units) instead of finances (monetary units).
The assessment method addresses the
efficiency of a specific supply system and
moreover the efficiency of the supply system

Cnd este studiat harta consumului de

cldur, este costisitoare specificarea faptului
c, consumul de cldur este msurat n uniti
de cldur per persoan i uniti de cldur
pentru fiecare gospodrie n parte. Acest mod
de interpretare al consumului de energie vine de
la sistemul utilizat de Danemarca, i de fapt
hrile GIS pot viziualiza consumul pe diferite
zone geografice. Prin calcularea consumului n
mod individual i nu privit pe ansamblul
gospodriei, devine o activitate stresant atunci
cnd este privit n mod individual. Acelai mod
de gndire este ntlnit i n cazul conceptului
The Ecological Footprint i a conceptului The
Ecological Rucksack.
Ca msuri, determinarea cantitilor
consumate sunt utilizate pentru a servi la
calcularea indicatorilor de mediu i ca
documentaie necesar mbuntirilor din punct
de vedere ecologic. Ca urmare, ela ar trebui s
ncurajeze realizarea unor mbuntiri, i acolo
unde este posibil s ajute la promovarea
comportamentului ecologic.
n orice caz, sitemul de benchmarking
pune la dispoziie oportunitatea dialogului cu
lucuitorii. Aceasta este cerina general a
dezvoltrii urbane i nu n cele din urm
reducerea emisiilor de dioxid de carbon (CO2)
care au cauzat apariia determinrii efectelor
ecologice.
n Danemarca, bilanul ecologic este un
sistem de monitorizare larg rspndit aplicat
pentru toat infrastructura zonelor de locuine,
de la locuinele pentru o persoan pn la
locuinele sociale.
Mai mult dect att, acesta a fost aplicat
i n cazul infrastructurii de coli i birouri.
Aceasta este o metod de cercetare de baz,
care se bazeaz pe utilizarea Excell, i poate fi
accesat de pe pagina Locuine daneze i
studiile urbane.
Aceast metod de monitorizare poate fi
definit i ca o metod de Cercetare Ecologic
(Environmental Accounting (EA), dar n
comparaie cu metoda tradiional EA,
substanele ecologice contorizate (coninutul de
energie i materiale), cantitile de bani (uniti
monetare) sunt considerate. Metoda de
cercetare are aceasta eficien datorit unui
sistem specific utilizat i a comportamentului
consumatorilor ca parte a acestui sistem.

12

and consumer behavior as a whole. It is

based on the idea of assessing input and
output as known from the Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA). In eco-accounting like
financial accounting, all inputs and outputs
have to be balanced and there for taken into
account (according to the physical principle
of constancy of energy and substance).
However, practical use of the assessment
method is limited by those flows of fuels,
heat (district heating), electricity, water, and
waste that are connected to meters or
otherwise are measured

Fig. 1.4

1.2.3

Neighborhood
pattern

Acesta are la baz idea c toate caracteristicile

de intrare i ieire provin de la Analiza Ciclului
de Via (LCA). n monitorizarea ecologic ct i
cea financiar, toate intrrile i ieirile trebuie s
se afle ntr-o balan pentru a putea fi luate n
considerare (respectnd principiul fizic al
constanei energiei i substanei). n orice caz,
utilizarea practic a acestei metode de
cercetare este limitat la acele fluxuri de
combustibil, cldur (nclzirea pe cartiere),
electricitatea, apa i deeurile rezultate care
sunt msurate.

The principle of the double-entry eco-accounting

consumption

1.2.3 ablonul de consum al locuitorilor

(vecini)

From a researchers point of view,

GIS-visualized
eco-accounting
is
an
important access to understanding energy
consumption and household consumption
patterns as a whole. This became even more
visible when household consumption maps
were compared with socio-economic GIS
maps and GIS maps dealing with physical
conditions of buildings, still based on a
geographical division of the city into
neighborhoods.
Main findings of such analyses
confirm that the social status of the residents

Din punctul de vedere al unui studiu,

Hrile de consum GIS care prezint bilanul
ecologic este o analiz util pentru a nelege
consumul de energie dar i ntreg ablonul de
consum privit ca ntreg. Acesta devine mai
vizibil atunci cnd hrile consumului din
gospodriile private erau comparate cu hrile
GIS socio-economice i acele hri GIS care
prezint condiiile fizice ale cldirilor, care sunt
nc bazate pe divizia geografic a oraului
mprit pe locuitori.
Principalele realizri ale acestor tipuri de
analize confirm c statutul social al rezidenilor

13

din fiecare categorie de locuitori au un consum

corespunztor de energie. Cercetrile pun de
asemenea n eviden faptul c gospodriile
mici (cteva persoane) i locuinele mari (muli
metrii ptrai pentru fiecare persoan) au un
consum ridicat de cldur i electricitate. n
zonele rezideniale, media consumului de
cldur per persoan este de 200-300% mai
mare dect n cazul apartamentelor din blocuri
iar media consumului de electricitate per
persoan este cu 20-40 % dect n majoritatea
celorlalte categorii de locuine. Oricum, este de
asemenea remarcabil c i apartamentele din
blocuri au n medie acelai consum ca al
familiilor care locuiesc n case particulare. n
mod
surprinztor,
vrsta
cldirilor
i
caracteristicile
standarde
nu
afecteaz
consumul de cldur cu excepia zonelor cu
cldiri noi costruite dup ce Regulamentul
cldirilor daneze a intrat n vigoare n 1979
(Jensen and Gram-Hanssen, 2000). Consumul
variaz foarte mult de la locatar la locatar.
Aceast diferen este i mai mare pe msur
ce numrul locatarilor dintr-o locuin crete.

in each type of neighborhood corresponds to

their energy consumption. The analysis also
shows that small household (few persons
per household) and large dwellings (many
square meters per person) are closely
related to high heat and electricity
consumption. In affluent residential areas,
the average heat consumption per person is
200-300% higher than in apartment blocks
and the average electricity consumption per
person there is 20-40 % higher than in most
other neighborhoods. However, it is also
remarkable that often apartment blocks on
average consume as much heat per person
as
ordinary
single-family
houses.
Surprisingly, the age of a building, and thus
its technical
standard, does not greatly affect the heat
consumption except in neighborhoods with
new buildings constructed since the Danish
Building Regulations were tightened in 1979
(Jensen
and
Gram-Hanssen,
2000).
Consumption
varies
widely
from
neighborhood to neighborhood. However it
also
varies within the neighborhood. This
variation
is
of
cause
biggest
in
neighborhoods with big variations in house
sizes
1.3

Sustainable consumption

1.3

Sustainable
consumption
is
interpreted in many different ways but there
is a general consensus that for industrialized
countries, at least, it demands a reduction in
the throughput of resources. Progress
requires a shift from a linear economy to a
circular economy in order to reduce demand
for virgin material and energy inputs and cut
the amount of waste in need of disposal. [9]
McLaren, N. in his study Tomorrows
world calculate that in order to make
satisfactory progress towards a fair use of
'environmental space' (the earth's capacity to
support human activities) Britain should aim
to cut its consumption of steel, aluminum
and energy by over 80% by 2050, implying
cuts of at least 20% by 2010. For timber the
figures are 73% and 65% respectively, a
particularly dramatic short-term reduction.
Such calculations have prompted the current

Consumul susinut

Consumul susinut este interpretat n

diferite feluri, dar a fost stabilit un consens
general al rilor industrializate care presupune
o reducere a consumului de resurse. Progresul
necesit o schimare a economiei liniare ntr-una
circular n vederea reducerii consumului de
materii prime i a energiei i de a reduce
cantitatea de deeuri. [9]
McLaren, N. n studiul su Lumea de
mine a calculat c, pentru a face progrese
satisfctoare n utilizarea corect a spaiului
natural (capacitatea pamntului de a suporta
activitile umane) britanicii ar trebui s reduc
consumul de oel, aluminiu i energie cu peste
80% pn n 2050 i cu cel puin 20% pn n
2010. Consumul de cherestea trebuie redus cu
73% i respectiv 65%, ntr-un timp mai scurt.
Aceste calcule vin n ajutorul creterii
productivitii resurselor. [10]
Literatura mai recent referitoare la

14

interest
in
increased
'resource
productivity'.[10]
Much recent literature relating to
sustainability
utilities
this
contextual
framework. Some of it touches, though too
often lightly, upon the implications for
product life spans. Increased product life,
whether by greater intrinsic durability or
'product life extension' through repair, reuse
and upgrading, is one way to slow the
throughput of resources. Significantly,
product durability was a key theme in an
early contribution to the debate on
sustainable production and consumption by
the World Business Council for Sustainable
Development. [11]
von Weizscker, E. in Factor four,
is developing the 'Factor Four' concept,
argued that "durability is one of the most
obvious strategies for reducing waste and
increasing material productivity." [12]
Likewise, McLaren describes durability,
alongside reuse and recycling, as "critical in
increasing overall efficiency." Yet the twin
themes of product durability and product life
extension have attracted relatively little indepth research and whether the academic
research community regards them as central
or peripheral to sustainability discourse
remains somewhat unclear.

consumul susinut aprob aceast decizie.

Unele dintre aceste referine, n sens mai larg,
implic i durata de via a produsului. Viaa
mai lung a unui produs, chiar i prin
durabilitatea intrinsec ridicat sau extinderea
vieii produsului prin reparare, utilizare sau
mbuntire, reprezint o cale de reducere a
consumului
de
resurse.
Semnificativ,
durabilitatea produsului a fost un punct cheie n
contribuia
timpurie
privind
dezbaterea
produciei i a consumului susinut realizate de
the World Business Council for Sustainable
Development. [11]
von Weizscker, E. n Factor four,
dezvolt conceptul 'Factor Four, argumentnd
c "durabilitatea este una dintre cele mai clare
strategii de reducere a deeurilor i de cretere
a productivitii materialelor." [12] Likewise,
McLaren descrie durabilitatea, alturi de
reutilizare i reciclare, ca puncte critice de
cretere a eficienei globale. Deja, cele dou
concepte gemene durabilitatea produsului i
extinderea duratei de via au avut parte de un
numr de cercetri i comunitatea de cercetri
academice privete aceste dou concepte ca
fiind pricipalele aspecte nc neclare.

1.3.1

1.3.1

What is sustainable consumption

Inadequate understanding of issues

relating to product life has a practical
significance.
In a project co-ordinated by Consumers
International (1998), consumer organization
explored how to promote sustainable
consumption by improving their ability to
provide
environmental
information
to
consumers. Their report noted that they
focused mainly on the use phase of
appliances when giving buying advice and
concluded that they have not adequately
stressed the importance of considering all
aspects of a product's life cycle, including
reparability and the timing of replacements. It
recommended that, in order to give
consumers reasonable advice, they should
in future analyze the optimal life cycle of
appliances, explore the potential for

Ce reprezint consumul susinut

nelegerea greit a problemelor care

privesc viaa unui produs au i o semnificaie
practic.
ntr-un proiect coordonat de Consumers
International (1998), organizaia consumatorului
a explorat modalitatea de promovare a
consumului
susinut
prin
mbuntirea
capacitii
de
a
pune
la
dispoziia
consumatorilor informaiile ecologice utile.
Raportul acestora a pus n eviden faptul c,
accentul se bazeaz pe etapa de utilizare a
aparaturii electrocasnice, unde au realizat ca nu
au acordat suficient atenie etapei de sftuire a
cumprtorilor i nu au luat n considerare toate
etapele ciclului de via al produsului, care
includ reparaiile i timpul necesar nlocuirii
pieselor. Este recomandat ca, n loc de a da
sfaturi
considerabile
consumatorilor,
productorii ar trebui s optimizeze ciclulu de

15

via al aparaturii electrocasnice, s exploreze

potenialul de mbuntire a performanelor i
s acorde o atenie mai mare serviciilor
acordate dup etapa de vnzare a produsului.
Sunt prezentate diferite definiii ale
consumului susinut i una dintre acestea este
dat de ISO 14040 i este prezentat dup
cum urmeaz, consumul susinut este un
termen neles uor greit, n care politica de
"mediu&development" caut posibiliti de
reducere a presiunii asupra mediului, de
mbuntire a condiiilor sociale i mai mult
promoveaz egalitatea n ceea ce privete
alegerile consumatorilor. [13]
n sens general, dar i n sens ecologic
NGOs cum ar fi Green peace i World Wildlife
Fund, "amprenta ecologic" este o ide des
utilizat pentru a comunica legtura dintre
consumul personal i mediul nconjurtor.
Amprenta ecologic este un indicator al
resurselor necesar pentru a produce bunurile
consummate i de a absorbi sau neutraliza
substanele toxice emise. "Clean cloth" and "fair
trade" (i compania civic asociat acestor
termini) indic n mod similar conexiunea dintre
aspectele sociale i alegerea consumatorului.
O alt definiie a acestui concept este
dat de Compania Bosch a carei atenie se
bazeaz pe cercetarea efectelor negative
asupra mediului i a vieii n timpul ultimilor ani.
n opinia Companiei Bosch, consumul susinut
este o problem unde organizaiile civice i
politica productorilor par s fie departe de
comunitatea tiinific. n timp ce consumul
susinut a mers nainte pentru civa ani,
eforturile acestei cercetri au fost fragmentate,
mpiedicate de limite disciplinare i bariere de
limb, n lipsa conferinelor i ntlnirilor
tiinifice n care s se schimbe idei i rapoarte
ale cercetrilor. Acest trg a fost un nceput al
comunitii ciclului de via pentru a se
organiza, pentru a se adresa consumului
susinut i de a ncepe discuia cu acei oameni
de tiin care lucreaz n acest domeniu [14].
Privind importana dezvoltrii produselor
prietenoase, toate aceste cercetri trebuie s
includ toate etapele ciclului de via al
produsului, cercetrile ciclului de via pentru
consum susinut. Acesta se refer n primul
rand la ciclul de via al produselor.
The World Summit for Sustainable
Development, inut ntre 26 Aug - 4 Sept 2002
n Johannesburg, a pus consumul susinut pe
agenda global de politici a urmtorilor yece

upgrading and pay greater attention to aftersales services.

Several definitions about what means
sustainable consumption are given and one
of them can be found in ISO 14040 and it is
presented
as
follow,
"sustainable
consumption is an easily misunderstood
term, which the "environment &development"
policy community uses to point to the
possibility
of
reducing
environmental
pressures, improving social conditions, and
furthering international equity through
changes in consumer choices. [13]
In the general public, but also among
environmental NGOs such as Green peace
and World Wildlife Fund, the "ecological
footprint" is an idea that is often used to
communicate the connection between
personal consumption and the environment.
The ecological footprint is an indicator for
resources needed to produce the goods
consumed and absorb or neutralize the
emissions produced. "Clean cloth" and "fair
trade" (and the civic campaigns associated
with these terms) similarly indicate the
connection
between
social
issues
(sweatshop labor and terms of trade) and
consumer choice.
Another definition of this concept is
given by the Bosch Company which focused
its research on negative impacts to
environment and life during last years.
According to Bosch opinion, sustainable
consumption is a topic where civic
organizations and policy makers seem to be
far ahead of the scientific community. While
sustainable consumption research has been
going on for some years, the research efforts
have been fragmented, hampered by
disciplinary boundaries and language
barriers, in lack of scientific conferences and
meetings at which to exchange ideas and
report on research progress. This workshop
was a start for the "life cycle" community to
organize itself, to address sustainable
consumption, and to start talking to some of
those social scientists working in the
field.[14]
Regarding
to
importance
of
developing friendly products, all these
researches has to include all product life
cycle stages, and life-cycle approaches to
sustainable
consumption"
are
those
approaches based on the consideration of

16

life cycles. It primarily refers to the life cycle

of products.
The World Summit for Sustainable
Development, held 26 Aug - 4 Sept 2002 in
Johannesburg, put sustainable consumption
on the global policy agenda of the next ten
years. Under the heading of "changing
unsustainable patterns of consumption and
production," the world leaders call for
"fundamental changes in the way societies
produce and consume" of the Johannesburg
Plan of Implementation). They resolve to
"encourage and promote the development of
a 10-year framework of programmers in
support of regional and national initiatives to
accelerate the shift towards sustainable
consumption and production to promote
social and economic development within the
carrying capacity of ecosystems by
addressing and, where appropriate, declining
economic
growth
and
environmental
degradation ". [15]
Sustainable consumption has two distinct but
related aspects, products and lifestyles.
Improved products & services are those that
require less resources, cause less
emissions, and avoid unhealthy labor
conditions during their production, those that
use less energy or other inputs during their
use and are more easily recycled or
harmless when disposed.

ani. Sub numele de schimbnd modelul de

consum dezordonat i producia, conductorii
lumii cheam la modificri fundamentale ale
modului n care societatea produce i consum
ale the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation).
Ei se angajeaz s ncurajeze i s promoveze
dezvoltarea n 10 ani a unei liste de programe
care s sprijin iniiativele regionale i naionale
n vederea accelerrii dezvoltrii consumului i
a produciei susinute i de a promova
dezvoltarea economic i social respectnd
condiiile ecosistemelor prinn adresarea i acolo
unde este posibil interzicerea creterii
economice
prin
degradarea
mediului
nconjurtor " [15].
Consumul susinut are dou aspecte distincte
dar corelate, produsele i stilul de via.
Produsele mbuntite & serviciile sunt acelea
care cer un numr mai mic de resurse, emit mai
puine substane toxice i previn condiiile de
lucru nesntoase din timpul produciei lor, sunt
acelea care utilizeaz mai puin energie sau
alte resurse i sunt mai uor reciclate.

1.3.2

1.3.2

The
throwaway society
disinterest in waste

and

Municipal waste in industrialised

countries has generally increased at the
same
rate
as
economic
growth,
approximately 40% over the past thirty
years, and, so far, "the delinking of effluence
from affluence remains elusive" [16]. Today's
'throwaway society' is tolerated, if not
accepted. The concept has a history that can
be traced back at least 40 years to
publication of The Waste Makers written by
Packard in 1960. [17]
It is a term used frequently in popular
debate and is well known to the general
public and yet remarkably little attention has
been paid to it by the research community.
Such inadequacy reflects a general dearth of
research on waste, particularly among social

Societatea risipitoare i dezinteresat

de deeurile rezultate

Deeul municipal din rile industrializate

are o rata de cretere egal cu rata de cretere
a economiei, aproximativ 40% de-a lungul
ultimilor 30 de ani, i de aceea, "the delinking of
effluence from affluence remains elusive" [16].
n zilele noastre societatea risipitoare este
tolerat, dar nu acceptat. Conceptul are o
istorie care dureaz de 40 de ani i a fost
introdus n publicaia The Waste Makers de
Packard n 1960. [17]
Este un termen utilizat frecvent n
dezbaterile publice i este bine cunoscut de
publicul larg i nc i-a fost acordat o atenie
insuficient de ctre oamenii de tiin. Aceast
inadecvan reflect faptul c cercetrile despre
deeuri sunt scumpe. Cercetrile despre
deeuri s-au axat n ultimii ani pe ambalaj i

17

scientists. Waste research in recent years

has tended to focus on packaging and
recycling. These are important themes but
this limited approach is indicative of a wider
socio-political failing.
Modern politicians, operating in a
liberal culture and woefully failing to
distinguish improved human well-being from
a growth in affluence, are invariably positive
towards consumption in general and
consumer sovereignty in particular. They
thereby render themselves powerless to
challenge the throwaway mentality. To
choose to be irresponsible has somehow
become one of the consumers' 'rights'.
Within the academic community there
are a few noteworthy exceptions. There is a
fairly substantial body of literature on
consumer culture that seeks to explain why
people consume.
A small body of research on
'disposition behavior' seeks to explain why
people sense a need to replace products. In
general, however, the forces that drive our
throwaway culture are poorly understood.

reciclare. Acestea sunt teme importante dar

aceast concepie limitat indic un sentiment
socio-politic mai rspndit.
Politicienii moderni, care lucreaz ntr-o
cultur liberal au un sentiment trist de
difereniere a claselor sociale, de la cretere la
abunden, au n mod clar o influen pozitiv
asupra consumului n general i a suveranitii
consumatorului n particular. Acetia ncearc
s schimbe aceast mentalitate de resip. A
alege a fi iresponsabil a devenit oarecom unul
dintre drepturile consumatorilor.
n cadrul comunitii academice exist
cteva excepii. Exist suficient informaie n
cultura consumatorului care caut s explice de
ce oamenii consum.
O mic parte a cercetrilor despre
disposition behavior ncearc s explice de ce
oamenii au nevoie s nlocuiasc produsele. n
general, forele care conduc aceast cultur de
risip este neleas greit.

1.4

1.4 Eco-design i politica de produs

Eco-design and product policy

Until the middle of the 20th century

consumer durables were considered as
investments and it was assumed that they
were designed to last as long as possible.
Since then, planned obsolescence, a term
popularized by Packard (1960) as the
deliberate curtailment of a product's life
span, has become commonplace. Design
trends, whether design for environment
(DfE), eco-design or sustainable product
design, indicate a growing concern that
durability be considered alongside other
objectives. [21] At present, however, other
environmental impacts appear to be getting
more attention. In the report cited above
Consumers International (1998) observed
that although manufacturers have reduced
water-use and energy-use and increased the
proportion of recycled materials in their
products, many more improvements are still
possible, particularly in relation to durability.
One of the aims of integrated product policy
is to achieve a coherent approach to product
development. Promoting durability, it could

nainte de jumtatea secolului XX

consumul de lung durat era considerat o
investiie i a fost presupus c aceste produse
au fost fabricate pentru a rezista ct mai mult cu
putin. De atunci, devenit nvechit, termenul
introdus de Packard (1960) care descria durata
de via a unui produs, a deveit popular.
Tendinele de design, cum ar fi Design for
Environment
(DfE),
Eco-Design
sau
Sustainable Product Design, indic o cretere a
preocuprii asupra durabilitii produselor. [21]
n present, efectele asupra mediului capteaz
tot mai mult atenie. n raportul citat n cele ce
urmeaz Consumers International (1998) este
specificat faptul ca productorii au redus
consumul de ap i de energie i au crescut
procentul de reciclare al materialelor din
produsele lor, multe ale mbuntiri sunt nc
posibile, n mod special n legtur cu
durabilitatea produselor. Unul dintre scopurile
Politicii Integrate a Produsului este de a cerceta
dezvoltarea
produselor.
Promovnd
durabilitatea, n mod contrar, poate crete
consumul de energie. Acolo se pot ntlni efecte

18

argued, might increase energy consumption.

There may well be unavoidable trade-offs,
but it should be stressed that concern is
largely limited to a few types of product,
notably refrigeration equipment and vehicles.
Moreover, Heiskanen in Conditions for
Product Life Extension, in 1996, has
exposed a weakness in the argument for
replacing functional products for reasons of
energy efficiency. She notes that as long as
there is a constant rate of energy saving
innovation to delay replacement allows for
the purchase of even more energy-efficient
models. [22]

nedorite, si este ngrijortor faptul c va fi limitat

consumul la doar cteva tipuri de produse, cum
ar fi echipamentele de rcire i vehiculele. Mai
mult, Heiskanen n Condiii necesare extinderii
vieii produsului, n 1996, a pus n eviden
punctele slabe ale nlocuirii produselor
funcionale datorate eficienei consumului de
energie. Ea a evideniat faptul c, att timp ct
rata energiei economisite este constant,
procesul de nlocuire al produselor este mai rar
chiar i n cazul produselor cu un consum de
energie mai efficient [22].

1.5

1.5 Reducerea cunsumului

Slower consumption

Increasing resource productivity is

attractive to industry and government
because of its
association with eco-efficiency, using energy
and material efficiently in order to reduce
costs while reducing environmental
impacts. Technical efficiency in product
design, however, is not enough. It is also
important to slow down the rate at which raw
materials are transformed into products and
subsequently thrown away as waste, a
process has been described as 'slow
consumption'. [23]
In broadening interest in products
beyond the period from development and
sale, life cycle thinking demands an
understanding of 'product biographies': how
they are used - how carefully, how
intensively,
how
intimately.
Slow
consumption is a response to concern that
'life in the fast lane' is transient, unsatisfying
and ultimately counterproductive and that
many people feel trapped in the 'make, take
and throwaway' and 'work hard/play hard'
culture. Alternative lifestyles are possible.
Ever since the consumer boom in the 1960s
there has been a counterculture of people
seeking 'simpler' lifestyles, while in the
1990s such thinking was repackaged as
'downshifting'. Nonetheless the consumer
culture prevailed. The following three
examples may suggest that more substantial
change is afoot.
In the United States the Long Now
Foundation addresses attitudes to time and

Creterea
productivitii
resurselor
reprezint un punct de atracie pentru industrie
i guvern datorit asocierii acesteia cu termenul
de eco-eficien, eficiena utilizrii energiei i a
materialelor n vederea reducerii costurilor i a
impactului asupra mediului. De aceea, eficiena
tehnic n design-ul produsului nu este
suficient. Este de asemenea important
reducerea ratei consumului de materiale
transformate n produse finite i a cantitii de
resturi care rmn n procesul de producie,
procesul purtnd denumirea de consum
sczut [23].
n sens larg, perioada cuprins ntre
dezvoltarea produsului i vnzarea sa, gndirea
ciclului de via necesit o nelegere a
biografiei produsului, cum este utilizat cu
ct atenie, ct de des, ct de personal.
Consumul sczut este un rspuns al faptului c
viaa
n
linie
dreapteste
trectoare,
nesatisfctoare i nu n ultimul rnd
contraproductiv i de aceea muli se simt prini
n aceast cultur face, ia, arunc i
muncete din greu/joac greu. Exist
alternative ale acestui stil de via. ncepnd cu
boom-ul de consum din 1960 a nceput o
contracultur a oamenilor care s-au sturat de
rutin, n timp ce n 1990 aceast gndire a
fost nlocuit cu downshifting. n ambele
cazuri
cultura
consumului
a
prevalat.
Urmtoarele trei exemple pot sugera faptul c
schimbrile substaniale sunt pregtite.
n Statele Unite Fundaia Long Now se
adreseaz acestei atitudini n timp i este stul
s mai dezvolte instrumente care s ajute

19

oamenii n gndire, nelegere i acionare

responsabil pentru perioade mari de timp.
Conform lui Stewart Brand, unul dintre directori,
"Civilizaia tinde s acorde atenie patologic
mic. Tendina poate veni din accelerarea
dezvoltrii tehnologiei, orizont ngust de
dezvoltare al pieei economice, urmtoarele
alegeri democratice, sau direciile de dezvoltare
diferite. Toate aceste aspecte sunt n scdere.
Unele posibiliti de ajustare sunt necesare un
mecanism sau procedur care ncurajeaz
responsabilitatea pe termen lung , unde
noiunea de termen lung este msurat cel
puin n secole" [24].
Compania Long Now a nflorit datorit
ideii programatorului Daniel Hillis: "Cred c este
timpul s ncepem un proiect pe termen lung
care s ofere oamenilor posibilitatea de a gndi
cum s treac peste obstacele ntr-un timp ct
mai scurt. A dori s propun pentru aceasta un
ceas mecanic mare (metoda Stonehenge),
alimentat
cu
temperatura
sezonier
schimbtoare. Acesta ticie o dat pe an, sun
o dat ntr-un secol, cnt cucul o dat ntr-un
mileniu [25].
Planurile de organizare ale unui
asemenea ceas care va fi misterios de vizitat,
interesant de gandit despre, i suficient de
cunoscut pentru a deveni popular n discursuri.
Scopul este de a recondiiona modul n care
oamenii gandesc despre timp n acelai fel n
care fotografiile asupra mediului fcute din
spaiu nu specific exact ci oameni se ocup
de protecia mediului.
O alt iniiativ important este intitulat
ntotdeauna al vostru realizat de o echip de
designeri olandezi care au avut un interes
special
cu
influene
socio-culturale
i
psihologice despre durata de via a produsului.
ntotdeauna al vostru a fost fondat aproape cu
un deceniu n urm pentru a rspunde faptului
c multe produse de consum devin
indispensabile consumatorilor. Acesta se
adreseaz timpului de design, i acela de a
distrage atenia de la fabricarea propriu-zis a
produsului i livrarea produsului pe pia i de
implicaiile n sens larg ale consumului.
Identificnd importana consumatorului
n viaa unui produs, ntotdeauna al vostru a
luat aprarea design-ului extensiv, care
cuprinde nu numai crearea produsului dar i
ntreaga carier a utilizrii. Aceste cerine de
dezvoltare ale serviciilor i conceptelor pentru
comunicarea tacticilor viitoare care vor susine

is seeking to develop tools that will help

people in thinking, understanding and acting
responsibly over long periods. According to
Stewart Brand, one of its directors,
"Civilization is revving itself into a
pathologically short attention span. The trend
might be coming from the acceleration of
technology, the short-horizon perspective of
market driven economics, the next-election
perspective of democracies, or the
distractions of personal multi-tasking. All are
on the increase. Some sort of balancing
corrective to the short-sightedness is needed
- some mechanism or myth which
encourages the long view and the taking of
long-term responsibility, where 'long-term' is
measured at least in centuries". [24]
Long Now was sparked off by a idea
from computer scientist Daniel Hillis: "I think
it is time for us to start a long-term project
that gets people thinking past the mental
barrier of an ever-shortening future. I would
like to propose a large (think Stonehenge)
mechanical clock, powered by seasonal
temperature changes. It ticks once a year,
bongs once a century, and the cuckoo
comes out every millennium". [25]
The organization plans to create a
well-engineered clock that will be charismatic
to visit, interesting to think about, and
famous enough to become iconic in the
public discourse. The aim is to reframe the
way people think about time in the same way
that photographs of Earth from outer space
altered how many people thought about the
environment.
Another
important
initiative
is
Eternally Yours, a Netherlands-based
network of designers with a specialist
interest
in
the
socio-cultural
and
psychological influences upon product life
spans. Eternally Yours was formed almost a
decade ago in response to awareness that
many consumer products are discarded not
because they are worn out but because
people become fed up with them. It aims to
address the relevance of 'time in design',
seeking to divert attention away from
exclusive focus on the moment of product
realization or purchase to product 'careers'
and the wider cultural implications of
consumption.
Recognizing
the
impact
that
consumers have on product life, Eternally

20

Yours advocates 'extensive design', which

involves not only the creation of a product
but also its entire 'career of use'. This
requires the development of services and
concepts for future communication tactics
that will support products already sold.
Operating in a rather different context but
with clear parallels is Slow Food, a
movement of critics of the fast food culture
and those people "who are too impatient to
feel and taste, too greedy to remember what
they had just devoured". [26]
Slow Food, which boasts 65,000
members in 45 countries, has adopted a
snail as its symbol. Citing the 17th century
writings of Italian Francesco Angelita, who
believed all creatures to be God-sent
bearers of the divine message and
considered slowness an essential virtue, it
suggests that the snail is "of slow motion, to
educate us that being fast makes man
inconsiderate and foolish."

produsele deja vndute. Lucrnd ntr-un context

diferit dar dar cu paralele clare este Slow Food,
o companie care critic cultura fast-food i acele
persoane care sunt att de nerbdtoare s
simt i s guste, prea lacomi s i aminteasc
ceea ce tocmai au mncat [26].
Slow Food, care are n componen
65,000 de membrii n 45 de ri, a ales un
simbol care reprezint un melc. Citns scrierile
din secolul XVII ale scriitorului italian Francesco
Angelita care considera c toate creaturile sunt
un suport al mesajului divin i considera
ncetineala o virtute esenial, acesta sugereaz
c un melc este simbolul micrii ncete, pentru
a ne arta c graba stric treaba.

1.6

1.6 Probleme importante analizate n

acest studiu despre aparatura
electrocasnic
din
gospodriile
particulare - EUP

Important problems analyzed in

this study about household
appliances - EUP

In June 2005 European Parliament

and the Council have given The Directive
2005/32/EC in which established a
framework for the settings of ecodesign
requirements for energy using products.
European Union consider that
Energy Using Products (EuP) means
a product which, once placed on the market
and/or put into service, is dependent of
energy input (electricity, fossil fuels and
renewable energy sources) to work as
intended, or a product for the generation,
transfer and measurement of such energy,
included parts dependent on energy input
and intended to be incorporated in the
Directive which are placed on the market
and/or put into service as individual parts for
end users and of which the environmental
performances
can
be
assessed
independently.[27].
The way products are used also
significantly contributes to the overall
environmental impact of these products.
When choosing them, it is thus also
important to consider how it will be used. For

n Iunie 2005 Parlamentul Eurupean i

Consiliul au aprobat Diretiva 2005/32/EC n care
s-au stabilit normele ecologice n cazul
produselor consumatoare de energie.
Uniunea European cionsider c
Produsele Consumatoare de Energie (EuP)
reprezint un produs care, odat plasat pe
pia i/sau pus n serviciu, este dependent de
energie (electricitate, combustibil fosil, surse de
energie regenerabile) pentru a funciona
corespunztor, transferul sau cuantificarea
acestei energii, care include pri depndente de
energie i sunt ncorporate n cadrul acestei
Directive i pentru care performanele ecologice
pot i cercetate n mod independent [27].
Modul n care produsele sunt utilizate este
semnificativ n vederea cercetrii efectelor
ecologice ale produselor. Cnd acestea sunt
alese, este de asemenea important s fie luat n
considerare modul n care acesta va fi utilizat.
De aceea, n cazul aparatelor electronice, cel
mai mare impact asupra mediului este n etapa
de utilizare i este reprezentat de consumul de
energie.
(electricitate,
gaz).
n
cazul

21

detergenilor, efectul asupra mediului vine din

natura produsului i cantitatea n care acesta
este utilizat.
De-a lungul acestui studiu este analizat
activitatea uman, i n acest caz activitatea din
gospodriile private. Cercetrile au artat c
activitatea din gospodriile private este una
dintre cei mai mari consumatori de energie i
ap. ntr+o gospodrie sunt o sumedenie de
aparate electrocasnice care consum materii
prime, energie i ap, cum ar fi televizorul, DVD
Player, radio, aspiratorul, computer, maina de
splat, cuptorul cu microunde sau maina de
splat vase.
Principalele inte ale acestui studiu sunt:
1. De a prezenta aspectele ecologice
(materii prime, consumul de energie i
ap) i a celor ecologice (costurile) n
cazul
aparaturii
electrocasnicede+a
lungul ntregului ciclu de via.
4. De
a
analiza
comportamentul
consumatorilor..
5. De a compara diferite comportamente
ale consumatorilor cu ajutorul metodei
LCA i de avea o imagine general a
comportamentului diferiilor consumatori.
Etapele ciclului de via ale unui produs
sunt: extragerea materiei prime, producia,
etapa de utilizare, managementul deeurilor (reutilizare,
re-manufacturare,
reciclare)
i
deeurile finale.
Privind aspectele ecologice, etapa de
utilizare are cel mai mare impact i reprezeint
punctul cheie al ntregului ciclu de via.

instance, for electronic appliances, the main

impacts of the use phase relate to the
consumption of energy (electricity, gas). For
detergents, impacts come from the nature of
the products and the quantities used.
During this study is analyzed the human
activity, and in this case household activity.
The sciences researches showed that the
private household is one of the most
important categories of energy and water
consumption. In a household are a lot of
appliances witch consume raw materials,
energy and water such as: Television, DVD
Player, Radio, Vacuum, computer, washing
machine, microwave, dish washer
1. To present the ecological (raw
materials,
water
and
energy
consumption) and economical (costs)
impacts of a household appliance in
its entire life cycle.
2. To analyze the private household
behavior.
3. To compare the consumers behavior
with LCA tool help and to have an
overview
image
of
different
consumers behavior.
A product life cycle stages are: material
extraction,
material
processing,
manufacturing,
use
phase,
waste
management (re use, re manufacture,
recycling) and final disposal.
Regarding the environmental aspects,
use phase has the most important impacts
and is the key point of entire product life
cycle.

Principala contribuie la efectele ecologice o au:

The main contributors to the environmental

impact during the use stage are:

Consumul de energie
ntreinerea i curenia

Durata vieii unui produs este de asemenea

important.
Produsele electrice i electronice sunt
caracterizate de consumul de energie n etapa
de utilizare. Pentru multe produse consumul de
energie este considerat cel mai important
aspect n cazul generrii de efecte ecologice,
dar aceasta nu este o regul
Oricum, dac efectele ecologice sunt
cunoscute atunci reducerea consumului de
energie este un nceput foarte bun.
ntreinerea este legat de durata de via.
Cu ct sunt ntreinute mai bine cu att durata
de via este mai mare, i n general efectele

Energy consumption
Maintenance and cleaning

The lifetime of the product also

influences the impact.
Electrical and electronic products are
characterized by energy consumption in the
use stage. For many products the energy
consumption is by far the most important
contributor to the environmental impact, but
it is not necessarily so. However, if little is
known about the products and its
environmental
performance,
energy
reduction is a good start.

22

Maintenance is connected to lifetime.

The better the maintenance, the longer the
lifetime, and generally, the smaller the
environmental impact. Maintenance includes
repairing, changing parts, lubrication etc.
Cleaning must not be forgotten. Cleaning
can include cleaning agents with high
environmental impacts.
The lifetime of a product influences the use
of materials (which will be divided over the
lifetime in years), but usually it has no
influence on the energy consumption per
year. However, that energy consumption of
newer products is often lower due to
improved efficiency.
For electronic equipment, several
studies have shown that the energy
consumption
during
stand-by
is
considerable. Older equipment used to have
an on/off-switch, which would completely
disconnect the equipment from the mains.
Newer equipment stores information, is often
remote controlled, and must be able to react
immediately on external events. This makes
it mandatory, that the power supply is active
all the time, and consequently the efficiency
of this is extremely important.

asupra mediului sunt mai mici. ntreinerea

include, reparaii, schimbarea unor componente,
ungerea, etc. Faza de curare nu trebuie
omis.
Durata de via a produsului influeneaz
uzura materialelor (care vor fi mprite de-a
lungul vieii n ani), dar de obicei nu influeneaz
consumul anual de energie. De obicei,
consumul de energie este mai redus n cazul
produselor noi, datorit consumului mai eficient.
Pentru echipamentul electronic, cteva studii au
demonstrat c i consumul de energie din faza
de
stand-by
este
unul
considerabil.
Echipamentele mai vechi erau dotate de obicei
cu un buton on/off-switch, care deconecta n
mod complet echipamentul de la surs. Noile
echipamente
stocheaz
informaia,
o
controleaz, i trebuie s reacioneze imediat la
stimulii externi. n acest caz sursa este activ n
mod continuu i de aceea eficiena consumului
joac un rol foarte important.

23

2. State of the art

2.1

2. Stadiul actual (al cercetarilor)

privind impactul asupra mediului
nconjurtor
al
aparaturii
electrocasnice

Related legislations

European Directive for electronics

Directive 2005/32/EC of The European
Parliament and of The Council

2.1

Legislaie conex

Directiva European pentru produse

electronice
Directiva
2005/32/EC
a
Parlamentului European i a Consiliului

European Community gave several

roles which have to be followed by designers
to realize competitive products and
respecting environmental aspects.
In the article about electronics and
not only are used few keywords such as:
energy using product or EuP,
environmental
aspects,
environmental
impacts, life cycle, ecodesign, reuse,
recycling, energy recovery, hazardous
waste, improvement of the environmental
performance.
The Directive contains 27 Articles in
which are described the rules and normes
to be resprcted. At the beginning is
presented a general describtion of bariers
between European Community Member
States. This bariers can create a distort
competition in the Community and may
thus have a direct impact on the
establishment and functioning of the
internal market.[12] European Directive
The committee conclusion was that the
harmonization of national laws is the only
means to prevent such bariers to trade and
unfair competition.[27]
Energy using products (EuPs)
account for a large proportion of the
consumption of natural resources and
Energy in the Community. The have a lot of
important environmental impacts. It is
necessary to identity the the major sources
of negative impacts and avoiding transfer
of pollution.
The energy consumption can be
significant reduced, as suggested by the
Commision in its European Climate Change
Programme (ECCP). This is one of the
priorities
of
the
Sixth
Community
Environment Action Programme, laid down
by Decision No 1600/2002/EC of the
European Parliament and of the Council.
The action of energy saving should
be taken during the design phase of EuPs

Comunitatea European a elaborat o

serie de reguli ce trebuie respectate de ctre
designeri pentru a crea produse competitive i a
respecta normele de mediu.
n articolul despre produse electronice i
nu numai, sunt folosite unele cuvinte cheie,
precum: produs ce folosete energie sau EuP,
aspecte legate de mediu, impact asupra
mediului, ciclu de via, ecodesign, refolosire,
reciclare,
recuperarea
energiei,
deeuri
periculoase, mbuntirea performantei legate
de mediu.
Directiva conine 27 de Articole n care
sunt descrise normele i regulile ce trebuie
respectate. La nceput este prezentat o
descriere general a barierelor dintre statele
membre ale Comunitii Europene. Aceste
bariere pot crea a competiie distorsionat n
cadrul Comunitii i pot astfel avea un impact
direct asupra stabilizrii i funcionrii pieei
interne. [12]
Concluzia comitetului a fost aceea c
armonizarea legilor naionale este singura
metod prin care se pot elimina aceste bariere
ale comerului i ale competiiei neloiale.[27]
Produsele ce folosesc energie (EuPs)
sunt responsabile pentru o mare parte din
consumul de resurse naturale i energie n
Comunitate. Acestea au un important impact
asupra mediului. Este necesar identificarea
surselor majore de impct negativ i evitarea
transferului polurii.
Consumul de energie poate fi redus
semnificativ, aa cum este sugerat de Comisie
n Programul sau European de Schimbare a
Climatului (ECCP). Aceasta constituie una
dintre prioritile celui de-al aselea Program de
Aciune asupra Mediului al Comunitii, redactat
n Decizia Nr 1600/2002/EC a Parlamentului
European i a Consiliului.

24

Aciunea de economisire a energiei ar

trebui s fie ntreprins n cadrul fazei de design
a EuP-urilor, din moment ce se pare c
poluarea cauzat n cadrul ciclului de via al
unui produs este determinat la acel moment, i
majoritatea costurilor implicate sunt asignate
atunci.. [27]
Aceast directiv dorete s ating un
nivel de protecie nalt pentru mediu, reducnd
impactele poteniale ale EuP-urilor asupra
mediului, care vor fi n final n beneficiul
consumatorilor i al altor utilizatori. Directiva ar
trebui de asemenea s ncurajeze integrarea
ecodesignului in companiile mici i mijlocii
(SME-uri) i n firmele foarte mici. O asemenea
integrare ar putea fi facilitat de o larg
disponibilitate i un acces uor la informaii
legate
de posibilitatea de susinere a
produselor lor. Aplicarea riguroas a msurilor
implementate este necesar pentru a reduce
impactul asupra mediului a EuP acceptate i
pentru a asigura o competiie dreapt. [27]
n Jurnalul oficial al Uniunii Europene au
fost publicate nevoile pentru standarde pe piaa
intern ce trebuie armonizate la nivelul
Comunitii. Unul din rolurile principale ale
standardelor armonizate ar fi acela de a i ajuta
pe productori n aplicarea msurilor de
implementare adoptate n aceast Directiv.
Aceste standarde ar putea ajuta n
stabilirea de msuri i metode de testare, i ar
putea ghida productorii n stabilirea profilului
ecologic al produselor lor n concordan cu
cerinele msurii de implementare aplicabile.
[27]
Aceste standarde armonizate nu ar
trebui s constituie limite fixe pentru impacte
asupra mediului.
n ceea ce urmeaz este prezentat o
scurt descriere a celor mai importante articole
ale Directivei.
n Articolul 1 intitulat Obiectul n cauz
i scopul, Directiva stabilete o serie de
cerine ale Comunitii pentru produsele ce
folosesc energie i asigurarea circulaiei libere a
acestor produse n cadrul pieei interne.
Este interzis ca aceast Directiv s fie
aplicat n cazul transportului de persoane i
bunuri.
n Articolul 2 intitulat Definiii, sunt
prezentate semnificaiile termenilor folosii pe
parcursul ntregii Directive. Termenii importani
folosii sunt: product ce folosete energie EuP,
msuri de implementare, plasarea pe pia,

since it appears that the pollution caused

during a productslife cycle is determined at
that stage, and most of the costs involved
are commited then. [27]
This Directive wants to achieve a
high level of protection for the environment
by reducing the potential environmental
impacts of EuPs which will ultimately be
beneficial to consumers and other end
users. The Directive should also encourage
the integration of ecodesign in small and
mediumsized enterprises (SMEs) and very
small firms. Such integration could be
facilitated by wide availability of and easy
access to information relating to the
sustainability of their products. The rigurous
enforcement of implementing measures is
necessary to reduce the environmental
impact of regulated EuPs and to ensure fair
competition. [27]
In the Official Journal of the
European Union has been published the
needs of standards in the internal market
which have to be harmonized at Community
level. One of the main roles of harmonized
standards should be to help manufacturers
in applying the implementing measures
adopted in this Directive.
These standards could help in
establishing measuring and testing methods,
and
could
guide
manufacturers
in
establishing the ecological profile of their
products
in
accordance
with
the
requirements of the applicable implementing
measure.[27] These harmonized standards
should not be fix limits for emvironmental
impacts.
Next it is presented a short
description of the most important from
Directives Articles.
In Article 1 titled Subject metter
and scope the Directive established a
framework of Community requirements for
energy-using products and the ensurence of
free movement of those products whitin the
internal market.
This Directive is not aloud to be
applied in transport of persons and goods.
In Article 2 titled Definitions are
presented the important meaning of terms
used during the whole Directive. The
important terms used are: energy-using
product EuP, implementing measures,
pleacing on the market, product design,

25

design al produsului, aspect legat de mediu,

impact asupra mediului, profil ecologic,
recuperarea energiei, deeuri periculoase,
performan legat de mediu, mbuntire a
performanei legate de mediu, design, cerine
de ecodesignt, standard de armonizare.
n scopul definiiilor folosite n aceast
Directiv, este folositoare referina la standarde
internaionale relevante, cum este ISO 14040.
Unele din definiiile lor sunt prezentate aa cum
urmeaz i sunt adaptate din ISO 14040.
Aspect legat de mediu nseamn un
element sau o funcie al unui EuP care poate
interaciona cu mediul n cadrul ciclului su de
via .
Impact asupra mediului reprezint orice
schimbare ce are loc n mediu ca rezultat total
sau parial al unui EuP n cadrul ciclului su de
via.
Performan legat de mediu al unui
EuP nseamn rezultatele managementului
aspectelor legate de mediu al productorului
EuP-ului, dup cum se reflect din dosarul de
documentare.
mbuntirea performanei legate de
mediu reprezint procesul de mrire a
performanei legate de mediu al unui EuP pe
parcursul a generaii successive, nu simultan n
ceea ce privete produsul.
Standard de armonizare reprezint o
specificaie tehinc adoptat de un corp aflat
sub mandat al Comisiei, n acord cu procedura
specificat
n
Directiva
98/34/EC
a
Parlamentului European i a Consiliului din 22
Iunie 1998, viznd o procedur pentru
provizionarea de informaii n scopul de a stabili
o cerin european, a crei respectare nu este
obligatorie.
n Articolul 3 intitulat Plasarea pe pia
i/sau punerea n funciune sunt prezentate
cerinele principale pentru statele membre ce
trebuie s ia toate msurile necesare pentru a
se asigura c EuP-urile pot fi plasate pe pia
sau puse n funciune doar dac respect acele
msuri prezentate n Articolul 5 intitulat
Marcarea i declaraia de conformitate.
Msurile
importante
ce
trebuie
respectate sunt:

environmental
aspect,
environmental
impact,ecological profile,energy recovery,
hazardous
waste,
environmental
performance,
improvement
of
the
environmental
performance,
design,
ecodesign
requirement,
harmonized
standard.
For the purpose of definitions used in
this Directive it is useful to refer to relevant
international standards such as ISO 14040.
Some of their definitions are presented as
follows and are adapted from ISO 14040.
Environmental aspect means an
element or a function of an EuP that can
interact with the environment during its life
cycle.
Environmental impact means any
change are to the environment wholly or
partially resulting from an EuP during its life
cycle.
Environmental performance of an
EuP
means
the
results
of
the
manufacturers
management
of
the
environmental aspects of the EuP, as
reflected in its technical documentation file.
Improvement of the environmental
performance means the process of
enhancing the environmental performance of
an EuP over successive generations,
although not necessarily in respect of the
product simultaneously.
Harmonizes standard means a
technical specification adopted by a
recognized body under a mandate from the
Commission, in accordance with the
procedure laid in Directive 98/34/EC of the
European Parliament and the Council of 22
June 1998 laying down a procedure for the
provision of information in the purpose of
establishing a European requirement,
compliance with which is not compulsory
In Article 3 titled Placing on the
market and/or putting into service are
presented the main requests for member
states which have to take all appropriate
measures to ensure that EuPs may by
placed on the market or put into service only
if they comply with those measures
presented in Article 5 titled Marking and
declaration of conformity. The important
measures which have to be respected are:

Before EuPs are placed on the market or

put on the service have to be provided

26

nainte ca un EuP s fie plasat pe pia sau

pus n funciune, serviciul trebuie s fie
nsoit de o declaraie de conformitate CE ce
stipuleaz c produdul este n acord cu
prevederile relevante ale msurii de

with a CE declaration of conformity which

declares that the EuP complies with all
relevant provisions of the applicable
implementing measure.
The information have to be in one or
more
other
official
Community
language(s).

n Articolul 11 intitulat Cerine pentru

componente
i
subansambluri
este
prezentat
importana
msurilor
de
implementare ce conin informaii relevante
despre compoziia meterialelor folosite i a
compoziiei de energie, materiale i/sau resurse
ale componentelor sau subansamblurilor unui
EuP.
Un articol foarte important este Articolul 14
intitulat Informaii pentru consumator n care
Uniunea European stabilete faptul c toi
productorii trebuie s ofere informaii
consumatorului despre:
Rolul pe care acesta l poate juca n
folosirea susinut a produsului.
Profilul ecologic al produsului i beneficiile
ecodesign-ului.

In Article 11 titled Requirements for

components and sub-assemblies is
presented the importance of implementing
measures with relevant information on the
material composition and the composition of
energy, materials and/or resources of the
components or sub-assemblies of a EuP.
A very important article is Article 14 titled
Consumer information where the
European
Union
established
that
manufacturers shall provide consumers with:
The requisite information on the role that
can play in the sustainable use of the
product.
The ecological profile of the product and
the benefits of ecodesign.

ncuranjnd productorii s dezvolte

produse, avnd n minte impactul pe care
acestea le au asupra mediului n cadrul
ntregului lor ciclu de via, Comisia
implementeaz o Politic Integrat a Produselor
(IPP) i
accelereaz
micarea
spre
mbuntirea performanei de mediu a
produselor ce folosesc energie. Dup adoptarea
Directivei de ctre Consiliul i Parlamentul
European, Comisia, asistat de un Comitet, va fi
n msur s acioneze n concordan cu
msurile adoptate asupra unui anumit produs i
asupra aspectelor legate de mediu (cum ar fi
consumul de energie, generarea de deeuri,
consumul de ap, extinderea duratei de via)
dup evaluarea impactului i consultarea
intens a prilor interesate.

By encouraging manufacturers to
design products with the environmental
impacts in mind throughout their entire life
cycle, the Commission implements an
Integrated
Product
Policy
(IPP) and
accelerates the move towards improving the
environmental performance of energy-using
products. After adoption of the Directive by
the Council and the European Parliament,
the Commission, assisted by a Committee,
will be able to enact implementing measures
on specific products and environmental
aspects (such as energy consumption, waste
generation, water consumption, extension of
lifetime) after impact assessment and broad
consultation of interested parties.
2.1.1

implementare.
Informaia trebuie s fie n una sau mai
multe din limbile oficiale ale Comunitii.

2.1.1

Integrated Product Policy (IPP)

Politica Integrat a Produselor (IPP)

Toate produsele cauzeaz o degradare

a mediului ntr-o anumit manier, fie din
cauza produciei lor sau n momentul
distrugeri lor. Politica Integrat a Produselor
(IPP) caut s minimizeze aceste efecte,
studiind toate fazele ciclului de via al unui
produs i lund msuri acolo unde acestea
sunt cel mai eficiente..

All products cause environmental

degradation in some way, whether from
their manufacturing, use or disposal.
Integrated Product Policy (IPP) seeks to
minimise these by looking at all phases of
a products' life-cycle and taking action
where it is most effective.
The ecodesign of products is a

27

crucial factor in rhe Community strategy on

Integrated Product Policy. [27].
The life-cycle of a product is often
long and complicated. It covers all the
areas from the extraction of natural
resources,
through
their
design,
manufacture,
assembly,
marketing,
distribution, sale and use to their eventual
disposal as waste. At the same time it also
involves many different actors such as
designers, industry, marketing people,
retailers and consumers. IPP attempts to
stimulate each part of these individual
phases to improve their environmental
performance.
With so many different products and
actors there can not be one simple policy
measure for everything. Instead there is a
whole variety of tools - both voluntary and
mandatory - that can be used to achieve
this objective. These include measures
such as economic instruments, substance
bans, voluntary agreements, environmental
labelling and product design guidelines.
This policy initiative is expected to
increase the effectiveness and synergies of
other EU legislative acts and initiatives
concerning
environmental
aspects
of
products. Examples of related measures are
the Directives regulating the management of
waste from electrical and electronic
equipment (WEEE) and the use of certain
hazardous substances used in this
equipment (RoHS) as well as. [28]

Ecodesign-ul produselor este un factor

crucial n strategia Comunitii n Politica
Integrat a Produselor. [27].
Ciclul de via al unui produs este de
multe ori lung i complicat. Acesta acoper
toate ariile, de la extracia resurselor
naturale, n designul lor, n producere,
asamblare, marketing, distribuie, vnzare i
folosire pn la distrugerea lor i eventual
depozitarea lor ca deeuri. n acelai timp,
acest proces implic muli actori diferii,
precum designeri, industrie, personal de
marketing, vnztori i consumatori. IPP
ncearc s stimuleze fiecare din aceste faze
s i mbunteasc performana de mediu.
Cu att de multe produse i actori, nu
poate exista o singur msur politic pentru
tot. n schimb, exist o larg varietate de
instrumente, att voluntare ct i impuse,
care pot fi folosite pentru a atinge acest
obiectiv. Acestea includ msuri precum
instrumente economice, interzicerea folosirii
anumitor substane, etichetarea de mediu,
acorduri voluntare i indicaii pentru
dezvoltarea de produse.
Se ateapt ca aceast iniiativ de
politic s mreasc eficiena i sinergiile altor
acte legislative i iniiative ale UE ce privesc
aspecte legate de mediu ale produselor.
Exemple de msuri conexe sunt Directivele ce
reglementeaz
managementul
deeurilor
echipamentelor electrice i electronice (WEEE)
i utilizarea unor substane periculoase folosite
la aceste echipamente (RoHS). [28]

2.1.2

2.1.2

Waste Electrical and Electronic

Equipment (WEEE)

Directives
2002/95/EC
on
the
restriction of the use of certain hazardous
substances in electrical and electronic
equipment and 2002/96/EC on waste
electrical and electronic equipment are
designed to tackle the fast increasing waste
stream of electrical and electronic equipment
and
complements
European
Union
measures on landfill and incineration of
waste. Increased recycling of electrical and
electronic equipment will limit the total
quantity of waste going to final disposal.
Producers will be responsible for taking back
and recycling electrical and electronic

Deeurile
provenite
echipementele
electrice
elecronice (WEEE)

din
i

Directivele
2002/95/EC
asupra
restriciilor
folosirii
anumitor
substane
periculoase n echipamentele electronice i
electrice i 2002/96/EC asupra deeurilor
provenite din echipamentele electrice i
electronice sunt dezvoltate s prelucreze cel
mai mare flux de echipemente electrice i
electronice i complementeaz msurile
pentru ngropare i incinerare a deeurilor.
Reciclarea
crescut
a
echipamentelor
electrice i electronice va limita cantitatea
total de deeuri ce vor fi aruncate.
Productorii vor fi responsabili pentru

28

preluarea
i
reciclarea
echipamantelor
electrice i electronice. Acest fapt va
determina designul echipamentelor electrice i
electronice ntr-un mod mai efficient vis--vis
de mediu, ce va lua n calcul aspectele de
management al mediului n totalitate.
Consumatorii vor avea posibilitatea de a
returna echipamentele gratis. Pentru a preveni
generarea de deeuri periculoase, Directiva
2002/95/EC cere substituirea unor metale
grele (plumb, mercur i crom hexavalent) i a
(bifenili polibrominatai (PBB) sau eteri de
difenil polibrominai (PBDE)) n noile
echipamente electrice i electrocasnice ce vor
fi puse pe pia ncepnd cu 1 Iulie 2006.
Directivele legate de eficiena aparaturii
electrocasnice n ceea ce privete energia,
cum sunt Directiva de etichetare a energiei.
Directivele existente care conin cerine de
consum de energie minim vor fi considerate
ca implementnd aceast Directiv pentru
produsele ce sunt acoperite n cadrul ei n
ceea ce privete eficiena folosirii energiei n
timpul folosirii lor.
Produsele care au primit
ecoeticheta vor fi considerate ca respectnd
msurile de implementare, att timp ct ecoeticheta indeplinete cerinele msurii de
implementare, Dei nregistrarea EMAS n
sine nu ofer prezumia ndeplinirii acestor
msuri de catre produsele dezvoltate de
companie, companiile care sunt nregistrate
EMAS, nregistrare ce conine designul
produselor, pot folosi direct propriul sistem de
management al mediului pentru a demonstra
ca produsul lor respect msurile de
implementare aplicabile.

equipment. This will provide incentives to

design electrical and electronic equipment in
an environmentally more efficient way, which
takes waste management aspects fully into
account. Consumers will be able to return
their equipment free of charge. In order to
prevent the generation of hazardous waste,
Directive
2002/95/EC
requires
the
substitution of various heavy metals (lead,
mecury,
cadmium,
and
hexavalent
chromium) and brominated flame retardants
(polybrominated
biphenyls
(PBB)
or
polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE)) in
new electrical and electronic equipment put
on the market from 1 July 2006.
Directives related to the energy
efficiency of appliances such as the Energy
labeling Directive. Existing Directives on
minimum
energy
efficiency
requirements shall
be
considered
as
implementing this Directive for the products
that they cover with regard to energy
efficiency during use.
Products which have been awarded
the Eco-label will be considered as compliant
with the implementing measures in so far as
the Eco-label meets the requirements of the
implementing measure. Although the EMAS
registration on its own does not grant
presumption of compliance to the products
manufactured by the enterprise, enterprises
which have an EMAS registration, which
includes product design, may use directly
their environmental management system for
demonstrating that their product complies
with the applicable implementing measure.
Fig.
2.1
shows
a
Life-Cycle
Assessment of an appliance, in terms of the
energy and water used, of the contribution to
pollution of air and water, and of solid waste.
As we might expect, most of the
environmental impact is during use.
However, you might have predicted that
most of the solid waste impact would be the
two stages of delivery (when the packaging
is removed and disposed of) and eventual
end-of-life disposal. Whilst the solid waste
levels are indeed significantly higher than
other contributors at these stages, in fact
they total less than 15% of the solid waste
produced by the washing machine. Strange?
Just think of the many packets of washing
powder and other consumables that are

Fig. 2.1 prezint o Evaluarea a Ciclului

de Via al unui produs electrocasnic, n
termenii cantitilor de energie i ap folosite,
a contrubuiei la poluarea apei i aerului i a
deeurilor solide. Aa cum ne ateptam,
marea parte a impactului asupra mediului are
loc n timpul folosirii. Cu toate acestea, ai fi
putut prezice c majoritatea deeurilor vor fi
produse n cele dou stadii de livrare, (la
ndeprtarea
ambalajului
i
aruncarea
acestuia ) i eventual la aruncarea sa
definitiv. Dei nivelurile de deeuri solide la
aceste dou stadii sunt ntr-adevr ridicate, de
fapt ele compun mai puin de 15% din
cantitatea de deeuri solide produse de o
main de splat. Ciudat? Gndii-v doar la

29

thrown out during the machines life. This

illustrates how careful it must be to consider
every aspect of use, and to draw the system
boundary broadly enough to cover this. [29]

numrul de pachete de detergent i

consumabile care sunt aruncate n timpul vieii
unei maini de splat. Acest lucru
demonstreaz ct de mult atenie este
necesar pentru a considera fiecare aspect al
folosirii i a determina limitele sistemului ntrun interval destul de larg nct s includ
toate aceste aspecte.[29]

Fig. 2.1 LCA of a washing machine, source: Andrew Sweatman

Life-cycle assessment provides use with

information on environmental impact. An
extension of the analysis also allows us:

Evaluarea ciclului de via i ofer

consumatorului informaii asupra impactului
asupra mediului. O extensie a analizei ne
permite de asemenea:

to take account of the fact that

products
have
different
environmental impacts furniture
may deplete rainforest timber;
appliances have a major impact on
energy consumption
to determine where the greatest
benefit will be and so to prioritize the
environmental aspects of a product
that need to be improved [29]

Unfortunately, environmental design

guidelines can often be conflicting; the
increased re-flow temperatures involved in
using lead-free materials will substantially
increase the energy requirements of the

S luam n calcul faptul c produsele au

impacturi asupra mediului diferit mobila
poate duce la defriarea complet a
pdurilor; aparatele electrocasnice au un
impact major asupra consumului de
energie
S determinm unde ar fi cel mai mare
beneficiu, astfel nct s asignm
prioriti aspectelor legate de mediu ale
unui produs ce trebuie mbuntite. [29]

Din pcate, liniile generale de design

ecologic pot de multe ori s fie contradictorii;
temperaturile ridicate ce sunt implicate n
folosirea materialelor ce nu conin plumb vor da

30

process. In order to determine the best

environmental option, it needs a formal
process.
To analyze the environmental impacts it
is necessary to define two important
components: Life Cycle Assessment for
ecological aspects (raw materials, water,
energy) and Life Cycle Costing for
economical aspects (acquisition costs,
energy costs, raw materials costs, repair,
maintenance costs).
First
is
analyzed
Life
Cycle
Assessment.

natere la o cretere substanial a necesitii

de energie n process. Pentru a determina cea
mai bun optiune n ceea ce privete mediul,
analiza necesit un process formal.
Pentru a analiza impacturile asupra
mediului, este necesar definirea a dou
componente importanate: Evaluarea ciclului
de via pentru aspecte ecologice (materii
prime, ap, energie) i Costurile ciclului de
via pentru aspectele economice (costurile de
achiziie, costul energiei, costurile materiilor
prime, reparaii, costuri de ntreinere).
n prim faz este analizat Evaluarea
Ciclului de Via.

2.2

2.2

Life
(LCA)

Cycle

Assessment

A systematic set of procedures for

compiling and examining the inputs and
outputs of materials and energy and the
associated environmental impacts directly
attributable to the functioning of a product or
service system throughout its life cycle. [30]
In technical literature it can be found
different definitions regarding life cycle
assessment. The most important and
concrete definition is given by the
International Standardization Organization
(ISO 14040) and it is related as follow "Life
Cycle Assessment is a process to evaluate
the environmental burdens associated with a
product, process, or activity by identifying
and quantifying energy and materials used
and wastes released to the environment; to
assess the impact of those energy and
materials used and releases to the
environment; and to identify and evaluate
opportunities
to
affect
environmental
improvements. The assessment includes the
entire life cycle of the product, process or
activity, encompassing, extracting and
processing raw materials; manufacturing,
transportation and distribution; use, re-use,
maintenance; recycling, and final disposal".
[31]
A second important definition is given
by SETAC ( Society of Environmental
Toxicology and Chemistry) and it is related
as follow Life-cycle Assessments (LCAs)
involve
cradle-to-grave
analyses
of
production
systems
and
provide

Analiza ciclului de via (Life

Cycle Assessment (LCA))

Un set sistematic de proceduri i norme

pentru clasificarea i examinarea intrrilor i
ieirilor de materiale i energie, i impactul
direct asupra mediului al funcionrii produsului
sau serviciului de-a lungul ntregului ciclu de
via [30].
n literatura de specialitate, cea tehnic,
se gsesc diferite definiii privind analiza ciclului
de via. Cea mai important i complet
definiie este dat de Organizaia de Standarde
Internaionale (ISO 14040) i cuprinde. "Analiza
Ciclului de Via este un proces care evalueaz
sarcinile de mediu asociate unui produs, proces
sau activitate, prin identificarea i cuantificarea
energiei i materialelor folosite, i totalitatea
deeurilor degajate n mediul nconjurtor;
analizeaz impactul energiei i materialelor
folosite i identific i evalueaz posibilitile de
reducere a acestor aspecte negative. Analiza
include ntreg ciclul de via al unui produs,
proces sau activitate, plecnd de la extracia de
materii prime, producia, transportul i
distribuia, utilizarea, re-utilizarea, ntreinerea,
reciclarea i scoaterea din uz" [31].
A doua definiie important este dat de
SETAC ( Society of Environmental Toxicology
and Chemistry) i sun astfel Analiza ciclului de
via (Life-cycle Assessments (LCAs)) include
analize integrale ale sistemului de producie i
prevede evaluri detaliate ale tuturor intrrilor i
ieirilor de energie i a emisiilor toxice. Metoda
LCA poate fi costisitoare i consumatoare de
timp, de aceea utilizarea ei este limitat att
pentru sectorul privat ct i pentru cel public.

31

Tehnicile utilizate pentru a conduce procesele

de analiz LCA sunt necesare pentru a reduce
costurile i timpul implicat i de a ncuraja
utilizarea LCA de la nceputul procesului de
dezvoltare al unui produs sau serviciu [32].
Analiza ciclului de via este privit ca o
unealt suport de decizie pentru ambele politici,
de creare i industriale, n vederea cercetrii de
la nceput pn la sfrit a unui produs sau
proces. Trei fore conduc aceast evaluare.
Prima,
se
refer
la
reglementrile
guvernamentale care se ndreapt n direcia
contabilizrii ciclului de via, noiune potrivit
creia un productor trebuie s se concentreze
nu numai asupra impactului direct al procesului
de fabricare, dar i asupra impactului generat
de etapele vieii unui produs, materii prime,
etapa de utilizare, transport i scoatere din uz.
O a doua for este constituit de companii, ce
particip la intiative voluntare ce conin LCA i
componente nsoitoare ale produsului. Acestea
includ de exemplu, ISO 14000 i Asociaia
productorilor de produse chimice (The
Chemical
Manufacturer
Association's
Responsible Care Program), ambele cercetnd
posibiliti de mbuntire continue ale
sistemelor de management al mediului. A treia
for, mediul preferenial a aprut ca un criteriu
pentru ambele cazuri, piaa consumatorilor i
directivelor guvernamentale. mpreun aceste
dezvoltri au plasat LCA n rolul principal de
unealt de identificare a impactelor de la
nceput pn la sfrit att al produsului ct i
al materialelor din care acesta este fcut.
O alt definiie a LCA este dat de Prof.
Stamminger de la Universitatea din Bonn, n
articolul intitulat Date de la Watentest i
CECED, valori importante i cercetate i n
opinia sa impactele ciclului de via sau din
fa pn n mormnt (cradle-to-grave)" include
extragerea materiei prime, procesarea materiei
prime, crearea i fabricarea produsului,
transportul
i
distribuia
produsului
la
consumatori, utilizarea produsului de ctre
consummator i etapa de scoatere din uz i
eventuala reutilizare [33].
Analiza ciclului de via (LCA) este
folosit ca o unealt de cercetare a impactului
asupra mediului al produsului, procesului sau
activitii de-a lungul duratei de via, pornind
de la extracia materiei prime, urmat de
procesare, transport, utilizare i scoatere din uz.
Cu ceva tip n urm, aceasta era folosit pentru
a compara produsele, de exemplu era folosit

comprehensive evaluations of all upstream

and downstream energy inputs and
multimedia environmental emissions. LCAs
can be costly and time-consuming, thus
limiting their use as analysis techniques in
both the public and private sectors.
Streamlined techniques for conducting LCAs
are needed to lower the cost and time
involved with LCA and to encourage a
broader audience to begin using LCA. [32]
Life-cycle Assessment has emerged
as a valuable decision-support tool for both
policy makers and industry in assessing the
cradle-to-grave impacts of a product or
process. Three forces are driving this
evolution. First, government regulations are
moving in the direction of "life-cycle
accountability;"
the
notion
that
a
manufacturer is responsible not only for
direct production impacts, but also for
impacts associated with product inputs, use,
transport, and disposal. Second, business is
participating in voluntary initiatives which
contain LCA and product stewardship
components. These include, for example,
ISO 14000 and the Chemical Manufacturer
Association's Responsible Care Program,
both of which seek to foster continuous
improvement through better environmental
management systems. Third, environmental
"preferability" has emerged as a criterion in
both consumer markets and government
procurement guidelines. Together these
developments have placed LCA in a central
role as a tool for identifying cradle-to-grave
impacts both of products and the materials
from which they are made.
Another definition of life cycle assessment is
given by Prof. Stamminger from University of
Bonn, in his article titled Data from Stiftung
Watentest and CECED, mean and
extrapolated values and in his opinion the
"life-cycle" or "cradle-to-grave" impacts
include the extraction of raw materials; the
processing, manufacturing, and fabrication of
the product; the transportation or distribution
of the product to the consumer; the use of
the product by the consumer; and the
disposal or recovery of the product after its
useful life. [33]
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is used
as a tool to assess the environmental
impacts of a product, process or activity
throughout its life cycle; from the extraction

32

pentru a compara impactele asupra mediului a

unor produse scoase din uz sau refolosibile.
Astzi
aplicaiile
ei
includ
politici
guvernamentale, planuri strategice, marketing,
educaia
cosumatorului,
mbuntirea
procesului i a design-ului produsului. Este de
asemenea utilizat ca baz de analiz a
cercetrilor ecologice i programe de educare a
consumatorului din ntreaga lume [34].
n ceea ce privete compania Bosch,
este cunoscut faptul ca analiza ciclului de via
sau LCA poate fi definit ca un inventar
sistematic i o analiz a efectelor asupra
mediului cauzate de produse sau procese
pornind de la extracia materiei prime i
continund cu producia, utilizarea, etc. i
terminnd cu tratamentul deeurilor. Pentru
fiecare dintre aceste etape va fi realizat un
inventar al materialelor i energiei utilizate i a
emisiilor n mediul nconjurtor. Cu ajutorul
acestui inventar este realizat profilul ecologic,
ceea ce face posibil identificarea punctelor
slabe ale sistemului analizat. Aceste puncte
slabe
sunt
principalele
inte
pentru
mbuntirea sistemului din punct de vedere
ecologic [35].
Nu n cele din urm, n Institutul Flemish
de cercetare tehnologic, n studiul intitulat
Problemele mediului nconjurtor din economia
finlandez realizat n 2002, analiza ciclului de
via este o tehnic de cercetare a potenialelor
impacturi asupra mediului asociate produsului
prin mbinarea unui inventar al celor mai
importante efecte asupra mediului ale
produsului de-a lungul ntregului ciclu de via.
O analiz a ciclului de via va include faza de
definire a intei i a scopului, analiza de
inventar, evaluarea efectelor i interpretarea
rezultatelor [36].
Ideea pricipal a unei analize LCA este
de a dezvolta o evaluare competitiv lucrnd cu
uniti funcionale. Acestea sunt definite n
concordan cu scopul studiului. Acestea sunt
urmate de o comparaie realizat ntre diferite
alternative de produse i servicii care au
aceleai caracteristici funcionale privind
resursele utilizate i emisiile n mediu de-a
lungul ntregului ciclu de via. De aceea, LCA
nu este numai un instrument de analiza a
impactului asupra mediului al unui produs
specific. Pe baza acestui principiu, o
neconcordan ntre efectul prevzut de LCA i
unul real poate fi posibil [37].
Aceasta este datorit lipsei de informaie

of raw materials through to processing,

transport, use and disposal. In its early days
it was primarily used for product
comparisons, for example to compare the
environmental impacts of disposable and
reusable products. Today its applications
include
government
policy,
strategic
planning, marketing, consumer education,
process improvement and product design. It
is also used as the basis of eco-labeling and
consumer education programs throughout
the world [34].
Also regarding at Bosch Company, it is
considered that Life Cycle Assessment or
LCA can be defined as a systematic
inventory and analysis of the environmental
effect that is caused by a product or process
starting from the extraction of raw materials,
production, use, etc. up to the waste
treatment. For each of these steps there will
be made an inventory of the use of material
and energy and the emissions to the
environment. With this inventory an
environmental profile will be set up, which
makes it possible to identify the weak points
in the life cycle of the system studied. These
weak points are the focal points for
improving the system from an environmental
point of view [34].
Not in the last, in Flemish Institute for
Technological Research Environmental
loads of the Finnish Economy research
made in 2002, life cycle assessment is a
technique for assessing the potential
environmental impacts associated with a
product by compiling an inventory of relevant
environmental exchanges of the product
throughout its life cycle and evaluating the
potential environmental impacts associated
with those exchanges. A life cycle
assessment shall include the phases goal
and scope definition, inventory analysis,
impact assessment and interpretation of
results [36].
The basic idea of an LCA is to
perform a comparative assessment by
working with functional units. These are
defined according to the scope of the study.
It allows the comparison of different product
or service alternatives that fulfill the same
functional unit with respect to all resource
usages and emissions occurring throughout
the entire life cycle. Thus, LCA is not an
absolute assessment of environmental

33

impacts of a specific product system. Due to

this principle, a lack of accordance between
an impact predicted by an LCA and the one
actually being observable may occur. [37]
This is caused by the lack of
information regarding the time, duration, and
location of an emission analyzed in an LCA
[23]. Although many impacts only occur if
thresholds are being exceeded, most LCA
methods add all marginal emissions
regardless of whether thresholds are being
exceeded, which in turn may lead to
unrealistic outcomes. This approach is
known as the less-is better principle [24].
This approach is accepted, since LCA is
primarily a tool for resource conservation
and pollution prevention [38].
The framework within which life cycle
assessment is carried out is shown in Fig.
2.2 Two main activities are preceded by a
vitally important planning phase and followed
by extended interpretation, which will
normally involve checking the results both
against the initial goals and for selfconsistency.

Fig. 2.2

privind timpul, durata i locaia emisiilor n

mediu analizate de LCA [23]. Dei multe dintre
acestea sunt realizate doar din ntmplare,
multe dintre metodele LCA adaug aceste
cazuri extreme care pot conduce la rezultate
greite. Acest principiu este cunoscut sub
denumirea de principiul mai puin-mai bine
[24]. Acest principiu a fost acceptat, de cnd
LCA a fost considerat o unealt de conservare
a resurselor i de prevenire a polurii [38].
Aceast conjunctur n cadrul creia
analiza ciclului de via este purtat este
prezentat n Fig. 2.2 Dou activiti principale
sunt precedate de o faz vital de planificare,
urmat de etapa de interpretare, care include de
obicei verificarea rezultatelor obinute.

The Life Cycle Assessment framework

34

There are two main activities in an LCA:

Activitile principale ale LCA:

The inventory analysis step, which

describes the emissions that occur and the
materials and resources used during the life
of a product
The impact assessment step, which
looks at the impacts of emissions and use of
resources and raw materials on the
environment.

1. Goal and scope definition: the product

(s) or service (s) to be assessed are defined,
a functional basis for comparison is chosen
and the required level of detail is defined
The first stage in inventory analysis is to
define the product assembly. Typically this
will be broken down into a number of
different levels, first into subassemblies, and
then into the materials and processes. At the
end, we have a set of life cycle inventory
(LCI) results, known as an inventory table.
This is a list of all the raw material
extractions and emissions that occur in the
production of the assembly and the materials
and processes that link to it.

Etapa de analiz a inventarului, care

descrie totalitatea efectelor asupra
mediului i materialele i resursele
utilizate n timpul vieii produsului.
Etapa de evaluare a efectelor, care
privete impactul efectelor asupra
mediului, a resurselor i a materiei prime
utilizate

1. Definirea scopului i a ipotezei: sunt

definite produsele sau serviciile ce vor fi
cercetate, este aleas baza funcional de
comparaie i este definit nivelul de detaliere
cerut.
Primul pas n analiza de inventar este de a
defini ansamblul produs. n mod normal acesta
va fi mp[rit ntr-un numr de nivele, mai nti n
subansambluri, apoi n materiale i procese. La
final, avem la dispoziie un inventar al ciclului de
via (life cycle inventory (LCI)), cunoscut sub
denumirea de tabelul de inventar. Acesta este
o list a materialelor utilizate i a efectelor
asupra mediului rezultate n faza de producie.
2. Analiza inventarului: totalitatea materialelor
i a energiei utilizate, emisiile n atmosfer, ap
i sol i diferite categorii sunt cuantificate pentru
fiecare process, apoi sunt combinate n grafice
tip copac i correlate cu bazele funcionale.

2. Inventory analysis: the energy carriers

and raw materials used, the emissions to
atmosphere, water and soil, and different
types of land are quantified for each process,
then combined in the process flaw chart and
related to the functional basis.

3. Al treilea pas este de a transforma aceste

inventare n categorii de efecte. Acestea au
rolul de a simplifica informaia, transformnd
aceste date individuale ntr-un numr mai mic
de efecte asupra mediului nconjurtor. Acest
pas este denumit etapa de clasificare iar
rezultatul acestei analize este definirea modului
n care aceste efecte sunt generate.

3. The next stage is the conversion of these

inventory items into impact categories. This
simplifies the information, converting many
separate entries into a smaller number of
environmental impacts. This step is referred
to as characterization, and the output is an
analysis by subassembly of how the impact
is generated.

4. Interpretarea rezultatelor i necesitatea

gsirii unor posibiiti de reducere a efectelor
produsului sau serviciului asupra mediului
nconjurtor sau a sistemelor implicate.

4. Interpretation of the results the need and

opportunities to reduce the impact of the
product (s) or service (s) on the environment
are systematically evaluated.

Dup etapa de clasificare, toate categoriile

de efecte asupra mediului au fost clasificate n
proporie de 100% deci nu este uor de vzut
care pari ale produsului au cel mai mare impact
asupra mediului. Pentru a avea o imagine mai
concludent, este necesar o scar de msur
n care fiecare dintre aceste efecte s fie

After
characterization,
all
impact
category indicators have been scaled to
100%, so it is not easy to see which parts of
the product have the highest overall
environmental
impact.
For
a
more

35

coretate ntre ele, aceast procedur numinduse etapa de normaizare. Acele descrieri ale
cror efecte sunt cele mai mari, dar sunt mici
din punct de vedere relativ, nu spun nimic de
importana acestor efecte..
Chiar i n acest stadiu de analiz timpuriu,
s-au realizat un numr de presupuneri despre
afectele asupra mediului nconjurtor datorate
elementelor enumerate n inventarul ciclului de
via realizat. Cu att de muli factori de mediu
luai n considerare, i diferite importane
acordate acestor efecte, nu este ntmpltor
faptul c o parte dintre elementele din inventar
sunt folosite doar pentru a defini diferii
indicatori de impact asupra mediului i de a
normaliza aceste date obinute
Dup aceste definiii este clar faptul c
Analiza Ciclului de Via este cea mai
important unealt de analiz a impactului
asupra mediului a diferitelor produse i servicii
de-a lungul ciclului de via.
Dintre toate
produsele electronice, a fost aleas maina de
splat pentru a analiza aceste efecte asupra
mediului nconjurtor.

representative picture, we need to scale the

measurements so that they can be related to
each
other,
a
procedure
called
normalization. This reveals which effects
are large, and which are small in relative
terms, though says nothing about the relative
importance of these effects.
Even at this early stage, we have made a
number
of
assumptions
about
the
environmental impact of the items on the lifecycle inventory. With so many environmental
factors to consider, and different views on
their relative importance, it is not surprising
that a number of different models are used to
translate information from inventory to
impact category indicator and through to
normalised indicator result.
After these definitions it is clear that
Life Cycle Assessment is the most important
tool to analyse the environmental impacts of
a product regarding whole its life cycle
stages. From all the electronic products,
washing machine is the product chosen to
describe these environmental impacts.
The second component of the analysis is
Life Cycle Costing. All its meanings and
need in an analysis are presented in next
paragraph.
2.2.1

Life Cycle Methods

2.2.1

Metode de analiz a ciclului de via

Why life-cycle based?

Care este baza ciclului de via?

Any environmental, economic, or

social assessment method for products has
to take into
account the full life cycle from raw material
extraction, production to use and recycling or
waste disposal. In other words, a systems
approach has to be taken. Only in this way,
trade-offs can be recognized and avoided.
Life cyle thinking is the prerequisite of any
sound sustainability assessment. It does not
make any sense at all to improve
(environmentally, economically, or socially)
one part of the system in one country, in one
step of the life cycle, or in one environmental
compartment, if this "improvement" has
negative consequences for other parts of the
system which may out weight the
advantages achieved. Furthermore, the

Orice metod de analiz, ecologic,

economic, sau social, trebuie s in cont de
ntreg ciclul de via al produsului, pornind de la
extracia materiilor prime i continund cu etapa
de fabricare, utilizarea, etapa de reciclare i nu
n ultimul rnd etapa de scoatere din uz i
deeurile finale. Cu alte cuvinte, trebuie luat n
considerare un sistem de analiz. Numai n
acest fel, aceste aspecte pot fi identificate i
evitate. Gndirea ciclului de via este absolut
necesar n cazul oricrei analize. Nu are nici
un sens s mbuntim una dintre prle unui
produs (economic, ecologic sau social), doar
ntr-o singur etap a ciclului de via, sau n
unul dintre compartimentele analizate, dac
aceste mbuntiri au efecte negative asupra
altor pri ale sistemului care nu vor aduce
efectul scontat. Ulterior, aceste probleme nu

36

problems must not be shifted into the future

[39].
The second point is that life cycle
thinking is not enough, since in order to
estimate the magnitude of the trade-offs, the
instruments required have to be as
quantitative as possible. Since we are living
in a global economy (which from the
European perspective started in the 15th
century, not as recently as often claimed),
the system boundaries used in the methods
have to be global as well. In this context, the
life cycle initiative jointly launched by UNEP
and SETAC deserves high attention and
support [40].

mai pot fi rezolvate [39].

n al doilea rnd, gndirea ciclului de
via nu este suficient, pentru a estima
magnitudinea acestor efecte, instrumentele
utilizate trebuie s aib un aspect cantitativ.
Odat cu globalizarea economiei (care din
perspectiva Uniunii Europene a nceput n
secolul XV i nu att de recent pe ct se
spune), unitile de msur folosite de metode
trebuie s fie privite la nivel global. n acest
context, iniiativa analizei ciclului de via
lansate de UNEP i SETAC prezint un suport
i o atenie sporit [40].

2.2.1.1

2.2.1.1

Environmental
Assessment (LCA)

Life

Cycle

Analiza Ciclului de Via din punct

de vedere ecologic (LCA)

Analiza ciclului de via al produsului, cu

accentul pe consumul de energie, resurse i
tratamentul deeurilor a nceput n 1970 [41-43].
Aceasta se ntmpla n timpul perioadei Limite
de cretere, raport ctre clubul Roma [44] i
prima criz de petrol, dar i vulnerabilitatea
sistemului economic global. Douzeci de ani
mai trziu, LCA (acum n mod oficial purtnd
acest nume) a fost dezvoltat de ctre SETAC
[45, 46] i mai trziu a fost standardizat de ctre
Organizaia Internaional de Standarde (ISO
14040-43; TR 14047,49; TS 14048). Primul tur
a fost ncheiat [47] i LCA poate fi considerat
acum prima i singura metod internaional
standardizat
de
analiz
ecologic
a
produselor.
Cele mai importante principii ale LCA,
care mpreun difereniaz aceast metod de
altele sunt:
Analiza cuprinde tot, din fa pn n
mormnt,
Toate sursele de energie, utilizarea
resurselor i a pamntului, etc. i
potenialele impacte asupra mediului
nconjurtor,
corelate
cu
aceste
intervenii sunt privite ca uniti
funcionale i ca o masur cantitativ a
beneficiilor
ntregului
sistem
sau
sisteme,
LCA este n primul rnd o metod
comparativ (este de asemenea
comparat sistemul n cauz cu sistemul
de referin).

Product-related life cycle assessment

with an emphasis on energy, resources, and
waste started around 1970 [41-43]. It was
the time of "The Limits to Growth, a report to
the club of Rome" [44] and the first oil crisis
soon afterwards showed, if not the shortage
of oil, but the vulnerability of the global
economic system. Twenty years later, LCA
(now officially under this name) was
developed by SETAC [45,46] and later on
standardized
by
the
International
Standardisation Organisation (ISO 1404043; TR 14047,49; TS 14048). The first round
has been finished [47] and LCA can now be
considered to be the first and only
internationally standardized environmental
assessment method.
The basic principles of LCA, which
together distinguish this method from other
environmental assessment methods, are:
The analysis is conducted "from
cradle to grave"
All mass- and energy flows,
resource- and land-use, etc. and the
potential impacts connected with these
"interventions" are set in relation to a
"functional unit" as a quantitative measure of
the benefit of the system(s)
LCA is essentially a comparative
method (also improvements of one system
are compared to the status quo).
In short: two or more systems are

37

Pe scurt: dou sau mai multe sisteme

avnd la baz un beneficiu comun ntr-un mod
holistic. Avantajul (cel puin teoretic) al acestei
comparaii
este
reprezentat
parial
de
incertitudinea unde i cnd, mai exact unele
dintre aceste procese i efecte se petrec i care
ecosisteme sau ci oameni pot fi afectai i
dac acestea sunt sau nu depaite. Oricum,
importana caracteristicilor funcionale sunt de
obicei fixate n mod arbitrar n extreme largi, de
exemplu, limitele de comparaie pentru diferite
containere de buturi pot fi cuprinse ntre 1, 100
sau 1000 litrii (dar nu un botoia!). Ca o
consecin, totalotatea interveniilor nu au
puterea i concentraia necesare ca diferitele
concentraii i substane emise s nu poat fi
calculate. n mod complementar, ulilizarea altor
metode, nestandardizate (ex. Analiza de risc,
cantitatea de materiale i substane folosite)
sunt recomandate de dragul lurii unei decizii
[48].
Un avantaj al standardizrii este acela c,
LCA are o structur clar, care n mod esenial
se refer la SETAC [45], i n momentul de fa
este compus din urmtoarele patru componente
(ISO 14040): Definirea scopului i a ipotezei,
Analiza inventarului, Evaluarea efectelor i
Interpretarea
rezultatelor
(mbuntirea
evalurii formale [45]). Dac afirmaiile
comparative (sistemul A mai bun sau la fel ca
sistemul B) sunt fcute publice, "o reevaluare
critic este bine venit. (ISO 14040 7.3.3)
[49]. Acesta i multe alte obstacole au fost
construite n serii ISO de standarde LCA pentru
a preveni abuzul mai ales n cazul analizelor
LCA subiective. Ca o consecin a acestor
msuri preventive, un proces LCA complet a
devenit o procedur rspndit. Desigur,
procesul lung de nvare, poate fi mai important
dect rezultatele numerice, este mult mai
benefic, n comparaie cu unul rapid i greit.
Pe de alt parte, n faza de design, nu este prea
mult timp i de aceea metodele simplificate au
fost propuse i comparate una cu cealalt [50].
n "Design pentru mediu", a fost gsit o metod
de compromis, ntre o acoperire complet a
ciclului de via i timpul necesar pentru
colectarea datelor. Procesul actual de calculare
este realizat cu ajutorul softului LCA, care este
disponibil n zilele noastre.

compared on the basis of a common benefit

in a "holistic" way. The advantage of (at least
theoretical) completeness is partly set off by
the uncertainty where and when exactly
some of the processes, emissions, etc. occur
and which ecosystems or how many humans
may be harmed and whether or not
thresholds of effects are really surpassed.
Furthermore, the magnitude of the functional
unit is usually fixed arbitrarily in wide
margins; for instance, the functional unit for
comparing different containers for beverages
may be the filling of 1, 100 or 1000 liters (but
not 1 bottle or barrel!). As a consequence,
the absolute amounts of the "interventions"
have no meaning and concentrations of
emitted substances cannot be calculated.
The additional use of other, often
complimentary - albeit not standardized methods (e.g. risk assessment, material- and
substance flow analysis) has therefore been
recommended for the sake of decisionmaking [48].
One advantage of standardization is that
LCA has a clear structure, which essentially
goes back to SETAC [45], and now consists
of the following four components (ISO
14040): Goal and scope definition,
Inventory analysis, Impact assessment,
and Interpretation (formerly Improvement
assessment [45]). If comparative assertions
(system A better than or equal to system B)
are made available to the public, a "critical
review" is mandatory (ISO 14040 7.3.3)
[49]. This and many other "obstacles" were
built in the ISO-series of LCA standards in
order to prevent the misuse, especially by
false claims based on sloppy LCAs. As a
consequence of these preventive measures,
a full LCA to be used publicly has become a
somewhat lengthy procedure. Of course, the
learning process, which is perhaps more
important than the numerical results, is more
rewarding in a long and carefully conducted
LCA study compared to a "quick and dirty"
one. On the other hand, during the design
phase, there is not much time and therefore
simplified methods were proposed and also
compared with each other [50]. In "Design
for Environment", a compromise has to be
found between a reasonably comprehensive
coverage of the life cycle and the time
needed for data collection and modeling.
The actual calculation process is fast due to

38

the elaborate LCA

available nowadays.
2.2.1.2

software,

Economic
Life
Assessment (LCC)

which

is

2.2.1.2

Cycle

Analiza ciclului de via din punct

de vedere economic (LCC)

Partea economic a LCA este cunoscut

sub diferite nume, Costul Cicului de Via (Life
Cycle Costing (LCC)), Calculul Costului Total
(Full Cost Accounting (FCA)), Analiza Costului
Total (Total Cost Assessment (or Accounting)
(TCA))
[51-53].
De
asemenea
costul
convenional al produselor include aspectele
ciclului de via, de la costul materiilor prime i a
materialelor intermediare. Costurile incluse n
etapa de utilizare a produsului i etapa de
scoatere din uz, sau reciclarea nu sunt luate n
considerare (cu excepia produselor unde
productorul trebuie s i recupereze produsul
pentru colecatea deeurilor, ca n cazul
sistemului german "Green Dot"). Cele mai
importante diferene ntre calcului costului
convenional i LCC sau TCA sunt reprezentate
de calcului costurilor ascunse i a celor puin
tangibile, care include costurile de protecie
[51,54]. Desigur, aceste costuri sunt incluse i
n cazul calculului costului n mod convenional,
dar ele nu sunt atribuite n mod clar unui sistem
de produs specific. Ca n cazul LCA, aceast
atribuie clar a unui sistem de produs este
important pentru analiz n vederea estimrii
corecte a costurilor (LCC) intervenii ecologice
reale (LCA) pentru ca un produs s fie comparat
cu un altul care ndeplinete aceleai funcii sau
are aceleai beneficii.
White et al. definete Analiza Costului
Total n termen lung, evaluarea n mod total a
costurilor interne i a economiilor rezultate din
proiectele de prevenire a polurii i n cazul
altor proiecte ecologice adoptate de firm" [55].
n cazul acestei metode, chiar i beneficiile
economice ale msurilor de control ale polurii
sunt incluse, pe cnd n cazul calculului
convenional al costurilor, doar costul prevenirii
polurii este luat n considerare. Aceast luare
n considerare a beneficiilor constitue gndirea
ciclului de via. Termenul ciclul de via este
definit n alt fel de stiinele economice, purtnd
numele
consecinelor
de
dezvoltare
a
produsului producie - , marketing/vnzri sfritul vieii economice a produsului; aa cum
este specificat de Norris [56], acest ciclu de

The economic counterpart of LCA is

known under several names, as Life Cycle
Costing (LCC), Full Cost Accounting (FCA),
Total Cost Assessment (or Accounting)
(TCA) [51-53]. Also conventional cost
accounting of products includes life cycle
aspects, since the costs of raw- and
intermediate materials enter into the
calculation. Costs involved in the use of
products and in waste removal, or recycling
generally do not show up (with the exception
that in special cases the producer may have
to take-back the product or pay for the waste
collection, as in the case of the German
"Green Dot" system). The main difference
between conventional cost accounting and
LCC or TCA consists in accounting for
"hidden" or "less tangible" costs, including
costs for environmental protection [51,54]. Of
course, also these costs are included in
conventional cost accounting, mostly in the
form of overheads, but they are not
attributed clearly to a specific product
system. As in LCA, this clear attribution to a
product system is important for assessment
in order to estimate the true costs (LCC) or
true environmental interventions (LCA) of the
product (system) to be compared with
another one which fulfills the same function
or has the same benefit.
White et al. define Total Cost
Assessment
as
the
"long-term,
comprehensive analysis of the full range of
internal costs and savings resulting from
pollution prevention projects and other
environmental projects undertaken by a firm"
[55]. In this method, also the economic
benefits of pollution control measures are
included,
whereas
in
conventional
accounting only the costs of pollution
prevention would be taken into account. This
inclusion of positive trade-offs clearly
indicates life cycle thinking. The term "life
cycle", however, is often defined in another
way in the economic sciences, namely as
the sequence product development -

39

production - marketing/sale - end of

economic product live; as noted by Norris
[56], this economic "life cycle" may be even
shorter in some products than the physical
life cycle ("cradle-to-grave") used in LCA. In
a further step, even the external costs due to
environmental damages connected with the
products may be included [51,54]. These
costs are not incurred to the company, but
rather to society or even to future
generations. The quantification of these
costs is difficult, since it is often not clear,
which damages are - or will be in future connected to the interventions caused by a
product
system.
Furthermore,
some
damages (e.g. ethical and esthetical ones)
cannot be expressed in monetary terms or
even the attempt to monetarise sounds
clearly repulsive (what is the monetary value
of a human?). There is also the problem of
double counting if LCA and LCC is applied
and LCC includes external effects. In this
case, the external costs are expressed in
monetary units and in "environmental units",
i.e. in impact category indicator results
according to ISO 14042 or in "eco-points"
etc.

via economic poate fi mai scurt dect n cazul

ciclului de via fizic al unor produse (din fa
pn n mormnt) utilizat n cazul LCA. ntr-o
etap ulterioar, chiar i costurile externe ale
efectelor ecologice ale produselor pot fi luate n
considerare [51, 54]. Aceste costuri nu sunt
generate de companie, ci de societate i chiar
de generaiile viitoare. Cuantificarea acestor
costuri este dificil, chiar dac uneori nu este
clar care sunt pagubele sau - care vor fi n viitorcauzate de produsul n sine. De aceea, unele
pagube (ex. cele etice sau estetice) nu pot fi
exprimate n valori monetare (care este
valoarea bneasc a unui om?). n acest caz
este de asemenea o problem dubl dac LCA
and LCC sunt aplicate i LCC include efecte
externe. n acest caz, costurile externe sunt
exprimate n uniti monetare i n uniti
ecologice, ex. n cazul indicatorilor categoriilor
de impacturi rezultate n concordan cu ISO
14042 sau n eco-puncte.

2.2.1.3

2.2.1.3

Social Life Cycle Assessment

(SLCA)

Evaluarea ciclului social de via

(SLCA)

SLCA este metoda cea mai puin

dezvoltat legat de ciclul de via, indicnd o
lacun a cercetrii. O`Brian et al. descriu o
ncercare de a combina SLCA cu (E)LCA ntr-o
metod numit "Evaluarea social i ecologic
a ciclului de via" (SELCA) [55]. Este interesant
de notat faptul c scopul acestei integrri a fost
cuantificarea SLCA, n viziunea acestor autori,
este constituit din componentele "ncercarea
de definire a problemei", "Analiza datelor",
"Evaluarea procesului", "Evaluare", i "Aciune".
Analiza datelor este echivalent cu Analiza de
inventar, Evaluarea procesului cu Evaluarea
impactului. Dei pare dificil combinarea
conceptelor si datelor din arii att de diferite
cum sunt sociologia i tehnologia, acesta este
evident un proces ce merit ncercat. Este
necesar de menionat faptul c i "Analiza liniei
de producie" german, n principiu un LCA
primitiv, include componente de evaluare
economic i social. [56]

SLCA is the least developed life cycle

method, indicating a research gap. O`Brian
et al. described an attempt to combine SLCA
with (E)LCA to a method called "Social and
Environmental Life Cycle Assessment"
(SELCA) [55]. It is interesting to note that the
purpose of this integration was quantifying
sustainability. SLCA, according to these
authors, consists of the components
"Problem
definition
scoping",
"Data
analysis",
"Process
assessment",
"Evaluation", and "Action". Data analysis is
equivalent to Inventory analysis, Process
assessment to Impact assessment. Although
it seems difficult to combine concepts and
data from so different fields as sociology and
technology, it is clearly worth trying. It should
be mentioned that also the German "Product
Line Analysis", basically an early LCA,
includes economic and social assessment
components [56].

40

2.3

2.3

Life Cycle Costing (LCC)

Costurile Ciclului de Via (LCC)

The researchers from Oko Institut

consider that the economic analysis is
based on the method of a direct calculation
of actual costs. Different types of life cycle
costs are:

Cercettorii de la Oko Institut

consider c analiza economic se bazeaz
pe metoda calculrii directe a costurilor
efective. Diferitele tipuri de costuri ale ciclului
de via sunt:

acquisition costs (e.g. price for

appliances or machines),
costs for operating media (e.g. costs for
water, electricity),
costs of repair, maintenance or disposal.

Costurile de achiziie (e.g. preurile pentru

aparatura electrocasnic sau maini),
Costuri pentru materialele de operare (e.g.
costuri pentru ap, electricitate),
Costuri de reparare, ntreinere sau deeuri.
Costurile pentru investiiile auxiliare (e.g.
dobnzi) pot fi luate n considerare. Depinznd
de sistemul considerat, pot fi eliminate costuri
viitoare.
n general, costurile externe nu sunt
considerate. De obicei, costurile externe
reprezint o anumit problem legat de mediu.
La fel ca n analiza eco-eficienei, dac partea
legat de mediu este considerat de sine
stttoare, atunci se realizeaz o dubl luare n
considerare a acesteia. [8]

Auxiliary investment costs (e.g. interests)

can be taken into account. Depending on the
system under consideration future costs
might be discounted.
In general external costs are not
considered. Usually external costs represent
a certain environmental issue. As in the ecoefficiency analysis the environmental side is
regarded by itself this would mean a doublecounting of the environmental side. [8]
To analyze a product regarding
environmental aspects means to use life
cycle assessment for ecological aspects and
life cycle costs for economical aspects. To
have an easier work in this process can be
used Eco - Efficiency Analysis.
Eco-Efficiency Analysis involves in its steps
Life cycle assessment and Life cycle costing,
to have a general overview of environmental
aspects.

2.4

A analiza un produs n ceea ce privete

aspectele acestuia legate de mediu nseamn a
folosi evaluarea ciclului de via pentru
aspectele ecologice si a costurilor ciclului de
via pentru aspectele economice. Pentru a
uura munca n acest proces, se poate folosi
Analiza Eco - Eficienei.
Analiza Eco-Eficienei implic n paii si
evaluarea ciclului de via i a costurilor ciclului
de via, pentru a avea o perspectiv general
asupra aspectelor legate de mediu.
2.4

Eco Efficiency Analysis

Analiza Eco Eficienei

Analiza Eco-Eficienei conine doua pri:

analiza ecologic i economic i scopul su
principal n ultimii 10-15 ani n ceea ce privete
att mainile de splat ct i detergenii, de a
reduce consumul de energie i ap n cadrul
fazei de folosire de ctre consumatori a putut fi
realizat. Dei noi dezvoltri n chimia
detergenilor sau n tehnologia senzorilor la
mainile de splat pot duce la economisiri
adiionale, economiile viitoare n consumul de

Eco-Efficiency Analysis has two

different parts ecological and economical
analysis and the main scope of it during
the last 10 to 15 years of both washing
machines
and
detergents,
significant
reductions of energy and water consumption
during the use-phase of a washing machine
could
be
realized.
Although
new
developments in chemistry of detergents or
sensor technology in washing machines may

41

result in additional savings, future savings of

energy and water consumption might be
lower compared to the savings realized in
the past years [57] .
The eco-efficiency analysis of the koInstitut is a tool to assess different
alternatives to fulfill a defined consumer
need both under an environmental and
economic
perspective.
Eco-efficiency
therefore means the combined assessment
of environmental and economic impacts
under a life cycle perspective.
The eco-efficiency analysis is based
on the methodology of Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) according to ISO 14040
ff. (to assess the ecological aspects of
products and processes) and on a
calculation of the life cycle costs. Fig. 2.3
gives an overview of the steps.

energie i ap ar putea fi mai sczute n

comparaie cu economiile realizate n trecut.
[57]
Analiza eco-eficienei realizat de ko-Institut
este un instrument de evaluare a diferitelor
alternative
pentru
satisfacerea
nevoilor
consumatorilor att din perspectiva mediului ct
i din perspectiv economic. Eco-eficiena
nseamn astfel evaluarea combinat a
impacturilor legate de mediu i economice sub o
perspectiv a ciclului de via.
Aceast analiz a eco-eficieei este
bazat pe o metodologie de Evaluare a Ciclului
de via (LCA) n concordan cu ISO 14040 ff.
(de evaluare a aspectelor ecologice ale
produselor i proceselor) i la o calculare a
costurilor unui ciclu de via Fig. 2.3 ofer o
perspectiv asupra pailor ntreprini.

Definition of goal and scope of the study

Ecology
Life Cycle Inventory

Economical
Life Cycle Costs
Analysis

Life Cycle Impact

Assessment

LCA Results

Fig. 2.3

General proceeding of the eco-efficiency analysis

42

LCA results can be applied for:

Rezultate LCA pot fi aplicate pentru:

strategic decisions of manufacturers

information of the interested public
better
decision-making
for
product/production systems
identifies key impacts and life-cycle
stages of system
provides a basis for environmental
improvements of system
identifies trade offs
identifies information gaps

Almost all big and important companies

from whole company use LCA method to
develop new products are improving the
existing products in accordance with
respecting the environment and human life
and health.

Decizii strategice ale productorilor

Informarea publicului interesat
Luarea de decizii mai bune pentru sisteme
de produse/producie
Identificarea impacturilor cheie i stagiilor
din cadrul ciclului de via al unui sistem
Oferirea unei baze pentru mbuntirile
sistemului vis--vis de mediu
Identificarea beneficiilor
Identificarea lipsurilor de informaii

Aproape
toate
companiile
mari
i
impoartante folosesc metoda LCA pentru
dezvoltarea noilor produse i i mbuntesc
produsele existente n concordan cu
respectarea mediului, a vieii i sntii
oamenilor.

43

3.
3.1

Methodology for EuPs

3.

Identification of goal and scope

3.1.1 Goal
A life cycle assessment is the
assessment of the environmental impact a
product and in this case household
electronic products. or service throughout its
lifespan.
The goal of LCA is to compare the
environmental performance of products and
services to be able to choose the least
burdening one. The term 'life cycle' refers to
the notion that for a fair, holistic assessment
the raw material production, manufacture,
distribution, use and disposal including all
intervening transportation steps need to be
assessed. This is then the 'life cycle' of the
product. The concept can also be used to
optimize the environmental performance of a
single product (ecodesign) or to optimize the
environmental performance of a company.
The term 'Energy' is often used as an
analysis tool to determine embodied energy.
Common categories of assessed
damages are global warming (greenhouse
gases), acidification, summersmog, ozone
layer depletion, eutrophication, ecotoxic and
anthropotoxic pollutants.
The main goal of this king of studies
is to analyze the environmental aspects of a
product and in this case household
electronic products.
3.1.2

Metodologia
folosit
pentru produsele EuPs

3.1

Identificarea scopului

3.1.1

Ipoteza

Cercetarea unui ciclu de via reprezint

cercetarea impactului asupra mediului al unui
produs i n acest caz produdele electrocasnice.
Scopul analizei cu ajutorul LCA este de a
compara
performanele
ecologice
ale
produselor i serviciilor i de al alege pe cel mai
bun. Ciclu de via se refer la materia prim
folosit, producie, distribuie, folosin i
scoatere din uz, incluznd i toate etapele de
transport
intermediar
necesare.
Aceasta
reprezint ciclul de via al unui produs.
Conceptul poate fi de asemenea folosit pentru
optimizarea performanelor ecologice ale unui
singur produs (ecodesign) sau performanele
ecologice ale unei ntregi companii.
Aspectele ecologice de analiz sunt
reprezentate de: nclzirea global, reducerea
oxigenului din ap, subierea stratului de ozon,
poluanii ecotoxici i antropotoxici.
Scopul principal al acestui studiu este de a
analiza aspectele ecologice ale produselor
electrocasnice.

3.1.2

System boundaries

Unitile de comparaie

Unitile
de
comparaie
reprezint
interfaa dintre produs i utilizator. Acestea
trebuie s in seama de tot ciclul de via al
produsului, ncepnd cu extracia materiei
prime, urmt de producie, faza de utilizare,
scoaterea din uz care include i reciclarea,
reutilizarea i deeurile.
Pentru a compara rezultatele obinute
sunt necesare aceleai uniti de msur. n
legtur cu apectele ecologice, pentru a analiza
consumul de ap i de energie este necesar s
se cunoasc numrul de litrii de ap i numrul

System boundaries represent the

interface between user and product. These
have to regard all product life cycle starting
with raw material extraction, than production,
use phase and final disposal which include
recycling, re-use and final waste. To
compare the obtained results are necessary
the same units of comparison.
For the ecological aspects, to
analyze the energy and water consumption
in a household it is necessary to know the

44

de kWh consumai. De asemenea, pentru

analiz este necesar s se folosesc aceeai
perioad de timp (de obicei un an).
Pentru a analiza aspectele economice,
costurile, este necesar s se cunoasc:

number of liters consumed and the numbers

of kWh consumed. Also it is necessary to
make the analysis for the same period of
time (usually during a year).
For the economical aspects, costs, it
is necessary to know:

3.2

The acquisition cost for the EuP.

The maintenance costs for the EuP
The cost for electricity, (euro/kWh).
The cost for water, (eoro/m3).
The cost for the final disposal.

Methodological approach

3.2

Metodologia general

Metodologia
"Eco-design
of
EuP
methodology" contribuie la crearea unei
metodologii menit s analizeze produsele
consumatoare de energie i s stabileasc
criteriile de selecie a acestora (pentru care
msurile implementate pot fi luate n
considerare). Acest tip de metodologie va fi
aplicat produselor deja identificate ca avnd
importan n analiza impactului asupra mediului
sau a volumului de produse de pe piaa intern
n contextul cerinelor Comunitii Europene.

The
"Eco-design
of
EuP
methodology" aims to contribute to the
creation of a methodology allowing to
evaluate whether and to which extent
various energy-using products fulfil the
criteria established by the proposal for the
selection
of
products
(for
which
implementing
measures
might
be
considered). Such a methodology will be
applied to products that have already been
identified
as
relevant
for
certain
environmental aspects and/or the volume of
trade in the internal market in the context of
other Community initiatives or policies such
as the ECCP and the Eco-label.
3.2.1

Costul de achiziie pentru produsul EuP;

Costurile de ntreinere pentru prudusul
EuP;
Costul pentru electricitate (euro/kWh);
Costul pentru ap (euro/litru);
Costurile pentru deeuri.

3.2.1

Functional unit

Caracteristici funcionale

Caracteristicile funcionale sunt analizate

cu ajutorul standardului ISO 14040. Acestea se
refer nu numai la analizarea aspectele
ecologice.
La prima vedere, aspectele funcionale
sau performanele cuantificate ale unui produs
i sunt uor de neles. Oricine nelege c
frigiderul este pentru a conserva mncarea,
lampa pentru a lumina, maina de splat vase
pentru a spla. Sunt necesare cunotine
despre definirea condiiilor de testare,
standardelor
de
msurare,
clasificarea
produselor n diferite categorii, posibilitatea de a
fi reproduse cu acuratee, toleranele acceptate.
Toate acestea sunt de obicei aspecte
tehnice foarte detaliate, care de obicei sunt

The functional unit is analyze in

according to ISO 14040 standards. This
reference is related not only with
environmental analysis. At first sight, the
functional unit or quantified performance of a
product is easy to understand.Everyone
understand that a fridge should preserve
food, lamps should give light, dishwashers
should wash. It requires through knowledge
of the definition of test conditions,
measurements
standards,
functionally
different (sub) categories whith in a product
group,
reproducibility
and
accuracy,
acceptable tolerances. All these often hightly
technical items, which are usually the
outcome of years of study of tests by

45

memberrs of techical worhing groups in

standardisation body, can have significant
influence on the results.
In Table 3.1 are given some
examples of general terms.

definite dup ani de studii i teste realizate de

ctre membrii compartimentului tehnic i de
standarde i care pot influena n mod deosebit
rezultatele.
n Tabelul 3.1 sunt reprezentate cteva
exemple de astfel de caracteristici.

Table 3.1 Examples of Products and (simplified) Functional Parameters

Product
Heating appliance
Water heaters
Lamps
Refrigerators
Dishwashers
Display
PCs nand notebook
Circular pumps
Room air conditioner
Copiers

Functional parameters
KW nominal rating ( to be extended to part load)
Tapping pattern (s), new CEN ( Celemec Standards 2005 according to
Comission mandate
Lumen
Capacity in litres storage comportament at x grade C, with an ambient
temperature of 25 grade C
Capacity in numbers of settings, wash performance optically measured
Mega pixels
Duty cycle ( New Energy Star 2006)
Q-h curve, best efficiency- point Energy Label proposal 2004
KW cooling capacity
New Energy Star 2005 criteria imaging equipment (pages per minute)

It is determined that in a EuP analysis are

some important keywords: raw materials,
energy, water, recycling and waste. In nest
paragraphs are presented short descriptions
of them and their role in a product life.
During a product life are some
important components: energy consumption,
water consumption, waste management for
all stages (raw materials, production, use
and
final
disposal-regarding
waste
management). There aspects are described
as follows.
3.2.2

n analiza produselor EuP sunt utilizate cteva

cuvinte cheie: materii prime, energie, ap,
reciclare i deeuri. n paragrafele urmtoare
sunt prezentate scurte descrieri ale acestora i
a rolului lor n viaa unui produs.
n timpul vieii unui produs sunt cteva
componente importante: consumul de energie,
consumul de ap, managementul deeurilor.
Aceste aspecte sunt descrise dup cum
urmeaz.

Energy consumption

3.2.2

For an energy analysis, which is also

mirrored in the ISO 14040 standard on LCA,
are presented 3 different levels for the
energy consumption during the product life.
First level is the direct energy input
into the process. The second level is the
primary energy nedded to produce this direct
energy input (e.g. power plants)and the

Consumul de energie

Analizarea consumului de energie este

realizat cu ajutorul metodei LCA, iar rezultatele
sunt comparate cu standardul oferit de ISO
14040 Sunt prezentate trei niveluri diferite ale
consumului de energie n timpul vieii unui
produs.
Primul nivel reprezint cantitatea de
energie necesar procesului. Al doilea nivel

46

energy nedded to produce the raw and

auxiliary materials. At the third level there is
energy requirementof the capital goods.
The energy consumption has
different values dependents on product
life.As long the product life is, as better.[58]
With many EuP, this is different.
Expecially with longer EuP ( heating
appliances, water heaters, white goods) the
energy efficiency of the new models has
improved significantly over the old models.
So much that for the average new
refrigerator,
washing
machines
and
dishwasher is 30 40% more efficient than
the average new appliance 10 years
ago.[59]
And the best new white goods today
are some 50 70% more efficient with
energy resources than their average new
equivalent 10-15 years ago. This progress
became visible in the EUs energy balance
only very slowely, mainly because the
adoption of the new efficient appliances is
blocked by the long product life of the old
models in the market. [60]
In other words, for these EuP a
longer product life also taking into account
the impact of production and disposal-would
not be advantageous for the environment.
If the product has a different number
of users per product and goes for a possible
design-criterion. In theory, this makes sense
as most products are discarted long before
their techical product life and sharing a
product would increase the chance that the
real (economical) product life comes closer
to the technical life.Furthermore, using
robust and state-of-the-art machines at
maximum capacity would create a whole
new dimension to saving resources[61]
As indicated by KeKemna 1981, the
numbers of users per product N, could have
the same importance as the product life L in
describing the energy efficiency of a product
per functional unit Efunction (in MJ/year use).

este reprezentat de cantitatea de energie

necesar
pentru
asigurarea
funcionrii
produsului. i energia necesar producerii
materiei prime i a materialelor. Al treilea nivel
este ocupat de energia necesar bunurilor de
capital.
Consumul de energie are diferite valori
dependente de viaa produsului. Cu ct viaa
unui produs este mai lung, cu att mai bine.
[27]
Pentru multe produse EuP aceasta este
diferit, mai ales pentru acele produse cu via
mai lung (aparatele de nclzit, boilerele)
consumul de energie s-a redus semnificativ
pentru modelele noi fa de cele anterioare.
Consumul de energie s-a redus att de mult
nct pentru frigiderele noi , mainile de splat
noi consumul de energie este cu 30-40% mai
mic dect aceleai produse noi acum 10 ani.
[28]
Cele mai bune produse ecologice de astzi
sunt cu 60-70% mai bune dect aceleai
produse de acum 10-15 ani. Acest progres a
devenit vizibil n balana consumului de energie
a Uniunii Europene datorit vieii foarte lungi a
produselor deja existente pe pia.[29]
Cu alte cuvinte, pentru aceste produse
EuP, o via mai lung a acestora, genereaz
efecte
dezastruoase
asupra
mediului
nconjurtor, lund n considerare producia i
deeurile.
Este posibil ca un produs s aib un numr mai
mare de utilizatori. Aceasta face ca aspectele
vieii reale (economice) ale unui produs s fie
mai aproape de aspectele vieii tehnice a acelui
produs. Numrul de utilizatori N ai unui produs,
poate avea aceeai importan asupra vieii
produsului L, n descrierea consumului de
energie n decursul unui an (n MJ/an de
folosin).

Efunction = Eproduction + Euse + Edisposal Erecycling / LN

Where Eproduction , Euse , Edisposal are the energy
requirements of respectively producting,
using and disposal of the product and

(3.1)

Unde: Eproducie , Eutilizare , Edieuri reprezint

cerinele de energie respectiv, utilizare i
deeuri ale produsului, iar Ereciclare contitatea de

47

energie pentru reciclare (toate sunt calculate n

MJ).

Erecycling constitutes the energy credits for

recycling ( all in MJ).
3.2.3

3.2.3

Water consumption

Este foarte important de tiut c

nmomentul acual nu exist nici o lege sau
metodologie general acceptat care s se
ocupe de monitorizarea resurselor de ap tot
mai rare n general, acesta monitorizare poate
fi uor de fcut prin urmrirea facturii de ap.
Aceast contorizare a procesului apei din
consumul public care este dejectat, de obicei,
n sistemul de canalizare sau se evapor n aer.
De fapt, n Uniunea European, pentru multe
procese de analiz LCA acestea vor constitui
date importante.
Prebleme cauzate de insuficiena datelor
sunt i n cazul apei calde, pentru care, de
obicei este folosit ap rurilor din apropiere, iar
dup folosire se ntoarce n aceali ru dar
avnd o temperatur cu cteva grade mai mare.
Impactul polurii termale nu este nc bine
definit i de aceea multe surse de date pentru
LCA nu consider apa racit. n termeni
metodologici, asta nseamn c apa racit nu
are aceleai efecte asupra mediului ca apa
rezidual.
Ciclul de via al produsului este un proces
complex iar n timpul perioadei de utilizare i a
perioadei de scoatere din uz i deeul final
creaz multe probleme mediului nconjurtor.
Pentru toate produsele EuP aceste stricciuni
pe care le cauzeaz mediului sunt analizate n
etapa intitulat Managementul deeurilor.
Aceste stricciuni sunt: ap dejectat, emisiile
n aer i n ap.
Urmtorul paragraf prezint cerinele
Directivei Europene cu privire la stricciunile
aduse ntregului mediu nconjurtor (pmnt,
animale, plante, aer, ap) viaa i sntatea
uman deopotriv.

It is very important to know that now

is no legislation or generally accepted
methodology dealing with the accunting of
scarce water resources. In general, this
accounting could be straight forward,
because it seems easy enough to count the
water consumption bill.
This work just for process water from the
public grid that is used in a process and is
than ususlly disposed off through the
sewage system or as water vapour to air. In
fact most LCA-sources would provide these
data for sectors where is production in the
EU.
The problem of incomplette data also
accurs with cooling water, which often is
water from a nearby river that is used to cool
an oven or another process and than
returned-with a temperature a few degrees
higher to the same river.
The impact of this thermal
pollutionis not well defined and therefore
many LCA-data sources do not even
consider cooling water. In therms of
methodology it seems obvius that the
environment effect of this cooling water use
is different from the process water.
Product life cycle is a very complex process
and the during use phase and final disposal
are a lot of demages for the environment.
For all EuPs these demages are analyzed in
the stage titled Waste management . These
demages could be used water, emmissions
to air and emission to water.
Next paragraph presents what is the
European Directive meanaing of this
demages of the entire environment (earth,
animals, plants, air, water) and human life
and health also.
3.2.4

Consumul de ap

Waste management

3.2.4

The human duty is to protect the

Earth and the Life on it.
In European Union Directive it is a

Managementul deeurilor

Obligaia omului este de a proteja

Pmntul i viaa de pe el.
n Directiva Uniunii Europene exist un

48

capitol intitulat Directiva Deeurilor nr.

75/442/EEC care definete tipurile de deeuri.
De exemplu, Gjalt Huppen (CML) condider
faptul c deeurile nu trebuie s reprezinte o
categorie aparte a cercetrii aspectelor
ecologice din viaa unui produs, dar nu i de
capitolul emisiilor din tratamentul deeurilor.
Directiva
Deeurilor
nr.
75/442/EEC
folosete un nou concept numit deeuri
lichide.
Acestea includ deeurile ntmpltoare, n
special acelea provenite din emisiile din
combustii;deeurile lichide reprezint 90% din
totalul efectelor negative directe i indirecte
asupra mediului nconjurtor. [31]
Standardul ISO 14040 definete deeurile
ca fiind deeurile solide, ceea ce rmne dup
tratamentul final al deeurilor.
Scopul Uniunii Europene este de a reduce
concentraia de metal din ap cu 30-50%.
Cercettorii au demonstrat c ntr-o cantitate de
20 litrii de ap uzat se gsete 1 kg de cupru.
Metodologia de cercetare a impactului
asupra mediului a diferitelor produse, nglobate
n procesul de producie, distribuie, utilizare i
scoatere din uz sunt bazate pe:

different part titled Waste Directive

75/442/EEC that defines types of waste. For
instance, Gjalt Huppen (CML) argues that
waste should not be a separate category in
an environmental life cycle assessment, but
is superseded by the emissions of waste
treatment
A new concept it is used by the
general Waste Directive75/442/EEC, which
is called liquid waste. This include
hazardous waste, expecially those where
heat recovery occurs through combustion;
liquid waste include 90% direct and
indirect environmental effects.[62]
In ISO 14040 opinion waste means
the final solid waste, including that solid
waste that remains after treatment.
The EU goal is goal is to reduce the
concentration metal from water with 30-50%.
The researchers have shown that at 20 kg
of waste water is 1 kg of copper
The methodology for the assessment
of the environmental impacts of a product
through the unit processes involved in its
production, distribution, use and end-of-life is
a large extent already given by some
important boundary conditions related to:

The assessment
The ecodesign of EuP Directive and
The fact of this Directive

Cercetarea
Eco-design i Directiva European
Normele acestei directive

Cercetarea
Assignment
ntr-un document al Comisiei Eupene
sunt cercetai parametrii semnificativi
(resursele i emisiile) pentru toate stadiile
vieii produsului. Acestea sunt valori
cantitative ale diferitelor categorii de emisii
n ap cum ar fi: gazele provenite din efectul
de ser, agenii acidificatori (lipsa oxigenului
din ap i metalele grele).

In the tender document the

European
Commission
analizes
the
quantitative assessment of a number of
specific
parameters
(emissions
and
resources) for the stage of product-life. Are
quantitative values for clusters of emissions
to water such as greenhouse gases,
acidifying agents, heavy metals.

Directiva European privitoare la emisiile

n aer i ap

EU Directive for Point Source Emissions

Diectiva European pentru produsele EuP

are o influen clar asupra aspectelor de
mediu, sugernd c toate aceste aspecte sunt
poteniale
subecte
pentru
msurile
implementate.
Directiva european privind sursele de

The Ecodesign of EuP Directive itself

has a clear influence on environmental
issues, suggesting that all these aspects are
potential
subjects
for
implementing
measures.
The EU Directive for Point Source

49

Emissions is different for EU-legislation at

the next level i.e. the level where the EU
prescibes emission limit values for point
sources of emissions like large industrial
processes, waste incineration plants. All
these information are given by EPEREuropean Poluant Emission Register which
is the first European register of industrial
emissions into air and water.
Next are presented the parameters analyzed
in this step

emisii este diferit de cea privind valorile limit

pe care nu trebuie s le depeasc aceste
emisii cum ar fi procesele industriale i deeurile
provenite din arderea plantelor. Toate aceste
informaii sunt furnizate de ctre EPEREuropean Poluant Emission Register, care este
primul registru european privind emisiile
industriale n aer i ap.
n cele ce urmeaz sunt prezentai
parametrii analizai n aceast etap.

Parameters required

Parametrii analizai

The tender document and contract

specifies the identification of the following
parameters:

Documentul n cauz a identificat i

clasificat urmtorii parametrii:

Total Gross Energy Requirement, in

MJ primary;
Electricity, in MJ primary or kWh;
(for plastics only) Feedstock Energy,
in MJ primary
Process Water, in litre;
Cooling Water, in litre;
Hazardous Solid Waste, in g;
Non-Hazardous Waste, in g.

Parametrii descrii n cele ce urmeaz nu

necesit o clasificare anume, unitile rezultate
pot fi folosite n mod direct. Acestea sunt diferite
de emisiile n aer i ap.

The above parameters do not require an

aggregation to an environmental impact
category; the physical units can be used
directly. This is different for the emissions to
air and water.

(Emisiile n aer)

( Emission in air)

totalitatea necesarului de energie, n MJ;

electricitatea, n MJ sau kWh;
(doar pentru plastice) energia feedstock,
n MJ;
necesarul de ap, n litri;
apa rece, n litri;
deeurile solide necontrolate, n g;
deeurile solide, n g.

GWP, Global Warming Potential, in

CO2 equivalent;
ODP, Ozone Deplation Potential, in
CFC-11 equivalent;
AP, Acidification Potential, in SO2
equivqlent;
Heavy matels, Pb-equivqlent.

potenialul de nclzire global (GWP,

Global Warming Potential), n CO2
equivalent;
potenialul de subiere a stratului de
ozon (ODP, Ozone Deplation Potential)
n CFC-11 equivalent;
potenialul de reducere a oxigenului din
ap (AP, Acidification Potential), in SO2
equivqlent;
metalele grele, exprimat n cantitatea de
Pb.

( Emission in water)
(Emisiile n ap)

EUP, Eutrophication Potential, in PO4

or P2O5;
Heavy matels, Pb-equivqlent.

From all these parameters are analyzed

only Global Warming Potential (GWP) and
Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP).
doar

50

EUP, Eutrophication Potential, n PO4 or

P2O5;
metalele grele, exprimat n cantitatea de
Pb.
Dintre toi aceti parametrii sunt analizate
Potenialul de nclzire global i

Potenialul de reducere (subiere) al stratului de

ozon.
3.2.4.1

Global
(GWP)

Warming

3.2.4.1

Potential

Reprezentativ pentru potenialul de

nclzire global este calcularea cantitii de
dioxid de carbon i cantitatea de gaze care
creaz efectul de ser. Acestea trebuie s se
ncadreze ntre limitele impuse de IPCC InterGuvernamental Panel on Climate Change i
acceptate de Uniunea European.
Uniunea European accept urmtoare
list de gaze emise de ctre produsele EuP:

Representative for GWP is to

calculate the carbon dioxide equivalence and
removals by sinks of greenhouse gases shall
be those accepted by the IPCC Interguvernamental Panel on Climate Change
and agreed upon be the Conference of the
Parties.
The greenhouses mentioned for EuPs are:

Potenialul de nclzire global

(GWP)

Carbone dioxide (CO2)

Methane (CH4)
Nitrous oxide (NFCs)
Hydrofluoro carbons (HFCs)
Perfluoro carbons (PFCs)
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

Carbone dioxide (CO2)

Methane (CH4)
Nitrous oxide (NFCs)
Hyrofluoro carbons (HFCs)
Perfluoro carbons (PFCs)
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

Anthropogenic (human origin) emission

of CO2, CO, N2O, and CH4 occur also at
cement production and in some chemical
industries. SF6, PFCs are also known as :
fluorinated greenhouse gases[63]
These are weighting factors relating
to the gas emissions only. The emissions of
their production have to be added. This can
be done by adding o specific percentage or
by using for production specific emission
data.

Emisiile antropogenice (de origine

uman) de CO2, CO, N2O i CH4 se produc i la
fabricarea cimentului i n industria chimic.
Acetia sunt factori msurabili doar n cazul
gazelor care produc efectul de ser. Trebuie
adugate i emisiile produse n cadrul etapei de
producie. Aceasta poate fi realizat adugnd
un procent specific sau folosind date specifice
pentru etapa de producie.

3.2.4.2

3.2.4.2

Ozone
(ODP)

Depletion

Potential

The abatement of ozone depleting

substances provides the weighting factors.
The ozone depleting that have been phased
out according with Regulation (EC) No
2037/2000, following of the European
Council Substances that deplete the
ozone layer are:

Potenialul de subiere al stratului

de
ozon
(Ozone
Depletion
Potential (ODP))

Directiva Uniunii Europene-Regulation (EC)

No 2037/2000 intitulat Substanele toxice care
duc la reducerea stratului de ozon ia n
considerare urmtoarele substane:

Chlorofluorocarbons (group I, CFC11, 12, 113, 114, 115)

Other
fully
halogenated
chlorofluorocarbons (group II, CFC
13, 111, 112 and 211-217)

51

Chlorofluorocarbons (group I, CFC-11,

12, 113, 114, 115)
Other
fully
halogenated
chlorofluorocarbons (group II, CFC 13,
111, 112 and 211-217)
Carbon tetrachloride (group IV, CCl4)

Date cu privire la aceste substane sunt

culese de la etapa de producie, dar dup anul
2000, puine dintre aceste substane mai sunt
emise de ctre produsele fabricate. [33]

Carbon tetrachloride (group IV, CCl4)

The emissions data for various

depleting substances are collected from
materials production, but it appeared that in
all sources after 2000 there were very little of
these substances left. [64]
3.3

3.3

Life Cycle Costs for EuPs (LCC)

The Life Cycle Costs had been introduced in

analysis in 1980 in U.S.
This includes machine purchase price and
the running costs (energy, water, repairs,
etc.) discounted over the product life. For the
impact of the production and end-of-life
phase it is important to identify materials that
cause spike in the environmental profile
and what exactly is their technical meaning.
In the use phase would be items like an
energy balance identifying motor and heat
losses.
Regarding Financial Life Cycle
Costing the analysis doesnt stop to the
purchase price. At the very least should be a
breakdown of the product price in margins
for distribution, production, and taxes on the
hand and the estimated production costs on
the other hand. These margins should be fix
percentage from the purchase price.
Another costs are estimate of
average assembly costs to provide an
average cost picture that the stakeholders
would agree on. Furthermore, for completely
new components there are several rules-ofthumb to make product cost calculations.
The cost calculations have not to be
confidential.
The economical data for the average
EuP machines are:

Ciclul de via al costurilor pentru

produsele EuP (LCC- Life Cycle
Costs for EuPs)

Ciclul de via al costurilor (LCC) a fost

introdus n analiz n anul 1980 n Statele Unite.
Acesta include costul de achiziie i costul de
folosin i ntreinere (costurile cu energia, apa,
ntreinerea, etc.) adunate de-a lungul vieii
produsului. Pentru impactul produs de faza de
producie i cea de scoatere din uz, este
important de identificat materialele int care
produc impactul ecologic i care este
semnificaia lor tehnologic.
n cazul etapei de folosin, sunt
importante aspectele legate de balana de
energie analizate n cadrul pierderilor provenite
de la motor i de la sistemul de nclzire.
n ceea ce privete ciclul de via al
costurilor analiza nu de limiteaz doar la
interpretare preului de achiziie.Trebuiesc luate
n considerare anumite limete pentru costurile
cu distribuia, producia i taxele aferente pe deo parte, iar pe de alt parte costurile estimate
ale produciei. Aceste limite trebuiesc fixate ca
fiind un procent fix din preul de achiziie.
Alte costuri sunt estimate din costurile
medii de asamblare, pentru a oferi o imagie
medie a costurilor totale cu care distribuitorii s
fie de acord. Mai mult, pentru componentele
total noi exist cteva reguli ce trebuiesc
ndeplinite pentru calcularea costului de
producie.
Calcularea costurilor nu trebuie s fie
confideniale.
Datele economice necesare pentru cele
mai multe dintre produsele EuP sunt:

The consumer price of the product

The rates of the resources used, the
economic product life

All these inputs are needed to make a

comprehensive calculation of the Financial
Life Cycle Costs that serve to determine the
improvement potential at the so called
Least-Life Cycle Costs (LLCC).
The total costs of a EuP includes purchase
price, discount rates, energy prices, water

52

Preul pe care este dispus s l pltesc

consumatorul pentru produsul respectiv;
Cantitatea de resurse utilizate pentru
realizarea produsului respectiv, viaa
produsului din punct de vedere
economic.

prices, etc.
Toate aceste date de intrare sunt necesare
pentru realizarea unui calcul al ciclului de via
al costurilor. Calcularea acestor costuri este
necesar pentru determinarea potenialului de
mbuntire al produsului, aa numitul LeastLife Cycle Costs (LLCC).
Costul total pentru un produs EuP include
preul de achiziie, ratele de discount, preul
energiei, preul apei, etc.
3.3.1

Discount rates

3.3.1

Ratele de discount

As regards the discount rates, this

represent the difference between interest
and inflation, these will only be small
differences in the EU.
The official inflation rate is 2%
The interest rate (for consumer
loans) is 4%
This leads to a discount rate of 2%

Privind doar ratele de discount, acestea

reprezint diferena dintre interese i inflaie.
Pentru Uniunea European acestea au valori
mici.
n mod oficial rata inflaiei este de 2%.
Rata
intereselor
(pentru
mprumuturile
consumatorilor) are o valoare de 4%.
Aceasta conduce la o valoare a ratei de
discount de 2%.

3.3.2

3.3.2

Energy prices

Preul energiei

As for the electricity prices, Eurostat

Yearbook 2004 established the energy price
around 0,103 euro per kWh.
Most
Middle
European
consumers
associations, based on actual tariffs in
Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, find
significantly higher electricity prices between
0,16 euro to 0,18 euro per kWh.
For gas and oil prices there is less
differentiations in tariff-structure, but still
there can be wide disparities. The price is
0,045 euro per kWh for gas. [65]

Catalogul de standarde i preuri

Eurostat Yearbook 2004 a stabilit preul energiei
electrice ca fiind n jur de 0,103 euro pentru 1
kWh.
Majoritatea asociaiilor de consumatori din
Europa Central, bazate pe tarifele actuale din
Belgia, Olanda i Germania, considera ca este
important ca preul energiei electrice s varieze
ntre valorile 0,16 euro - 0,18 euro pentru 1
kWh.
Exist o mic diferen n structura
tarifelor pentru preurile la gazelle naturale i
petrol, dar oricum pot fi facute diferenieri
importante ntre aceste preuri. Preul pentru
gazele naturale este de 0,045 euro pentru 1
kWh. [34]

3.3.3

3.3.3

Water prices

For water prices are given by

Eurostat Yearbook 2004 vary between 1,09
euro per m3 and 1,92 euro per m3 for a
consumption of 46 m3/year in a household.

Preul apei

Catalogul de standarde i preuri

Eurostat Yearbook 2004 a stabilit preul apei la
valoarea de 1.09 euro pentru 1m3 de ap i 1.92
euro pentru 1m3 n cazul unui consum anual de

53

46 m3
ntr-o gospodrie privat. n cazul
diferitelor ri preul apei este diferit, dup cum
urmeaz:

For different countries the water price is:

For Dutch the water price is
between 2,09 euro and 3,32 euro/m3;
For Germany the water
price is 3,77 euro/m3;
For France the water price
is between 0,80 euro/m3 and 0,80 euro/m3;
For Italy the water price is 1
euro/m3. [65]
Combining the results from prices
and rates Life Cycle Costs can be defined for
the Standards.
The LCC analysis method uses a real
discount rate on the basis of data provided
from the European Central Bank and a
realistic lifetime for the EuP; it is based on
the sum of the variation in purchase price
(resulting from variations in industrial costs)
and in operating expenses, which result from
a different level of technical improvement
options, discounted over the lifetime of the
representative EuP. The operating expenses
cover primarily energy consumption , an
additional expenses in other resources, such
as (water or detergent).
Formula 3.2 represent the total Life
Cycle Cost.

n Olanda preul apei este

cuprins ntre 2.09 euro i 3.32
euro/m3;
n Germania preul apei este de
3,77 euro/m3;
n Frana preul apei este
cuprins ntre 0,80 euro/m3 and
0,80 euro/m3;
n Italia preul apei este de 1
euro/m3. [34]

n cadrul ciclului de via al costurilor pot

fi definite standarde pe baza rezultatelor
obinute n cadrul preurilor i al ratelor.
Metoda de analiz LCC utilizeaz rata
discount-urilor avnd la baz datele furnizate de
Banca European Central i o durat de via
real a produselor EuP, se calculeaz astfel :
suma dintre variaia preului de achiziie
(rezultat al variaiei costurilor din industrie) i a
costurilor de operare, care rezult din diferitele
variante ale nivelului de mbuntire tehnic,
obinute de-a lungul
duratei de via a
produselor EuP reprezentative. Costurile de
operare sunt alctuite n special din costul
energiei, la cere se adaug costuri suplimentare
cum ar fi costul apei sau al detergentului.
Formula 3.2 reprezint costul total al
ciclului de via:

LCC = PP + PWF * OE
Where: LCC Life Cycle Cost
PP purchase price
PWF Present Worth Factor
OE operating expense

(3.2)

Unde : LCC ( Life Cycle Cost) - costul total al

ciclului de via;
PP ( purchase price) - preul de achiziie;
PWF ( Present Worth Factor) - factor;
OE (operating expense) costurile de
operare

PWF = [1 1/(1 + r)N ]/r

Where: r the discount ( interest inflation )

rate

(3.3)

Where: r rata de discount (interese inflaie)

N durata de via a produsului

54

N product life
Ciclul de via al costurilor reprezint
ultima etap a analizei de mediu. Pentru a
combina toate aceste etape este folosit
Analiza de Eco - Eficien.

Life Cycle Cost represents the last

step in the environmental analysis. To
combine all these steps it is used EcoEfficiency Analysis which include all these
steps to create a general image of all
aspects.
3.4

Eco-Efficiency Analysis

3.4

In Fig. 3.1 are shown the inputs and outputs

for a general Eco-Efficiency analysis for
EuPs.

Analiza de Eco-Eficien

n Fig.3.1 sunt prezentate intrrile i

ieirile unei analize general de eco-eficien n
cazul produselor EuP.

Inputs

Outputs

Production phase
- raw materials (g)
- need of energy, water (kWh, liters)
- coss of raw materials, energy and
water (euro/kWh, euro/m3)
Use phase
- need of energy, water (kWh, liters)
- costs of energy and water
(euro/kWh, euro/m3)
- cost for maintenance, repair, replace
End-of- life phase
- waste management (recycling, reuse)
- afferent costs for final disposal

- consumers behavior
- emission to air and water

LCA Process

Results of LCA and

Interpretation

Fig. 3.1

Eco-Efficiency Analysis

55

The Eco-Efficiency Analysis gives a

complete image of the environmental
aspects for an EuP. The most important
environmental impacts are in the Use Phase
of a product where the consumption and
costs have the highest level.
In a product life, regarding consumption and
costs (maintenance, repair, costs for energy,
water, etc.) use phase represent 80%. So it
is absolutely necessary to give a bigger
importance to this phase.
Usually to analyze different
consumers pattern are used scenarios. In
this case these scenarios are regarding
different consumers behavior. For this, it is
used a questionnaire to collect the data from
consumers which is similar with different
scenarios.
To realize this study are interviewed a small
number of consumers (four) and than the
results can be generalized.

Analiza de Eco-Eficien red o imagine

complet a impactului asupra mediului pentru
un produs EuP. Cel mai ridicat impact asupra
mediului se realizeaz n Etapa de Utilizare.
Privind consumul i costurile (de
ntreinere, reparaii, costurile pentru energie,
ap, etc.), etapa de utilizare reprezint 80%.
Deci este absolut necesar s se acorde o
importan deosebit acestei etape.
Pentru a analiza comportamentul
consumatorilor
sunt
folosite
de
obicei
scenariile. n acest caz aceste scenarii sunt
bazate
pe
comportamentul
diferit
al
consumatorilor. Pentru aceasta este folosit un
chestionar n vederea colectrii datelor
necesare analizei.
Pentru a realiza acest studiu sunt
interrvievai un numr restrns de consumatori
(patru) iar apoi rezultatele pot fi generalizaze.

3.5

3.5

Consumer survey

The main theme of this study is to

analyze the consumer behavior. For this, it is
chosen the private household. In the private
household appliances are analyzed
To obtain the main data for this study
regarding consumer behavior is used a
questionnaire
Questionnaires are frequently used in
quantitative marketing research and social
research in general. They are a valuable
method of collecting a wide range of
information from a large number of
respondents.
Good
questionnaire
construction is critical to the success of a
survey. Inappropriate questions, incorrect
ordering of questions, incorrect scaling, or
bad questionnaire format can make the
survey valueless. A useful method for
checking a questionnaire for problems is to
pretest it. This usually involves giving it to a
small sample of respondents, then
interviewing the respondents to get their
impressions and to confirm that the
questions accurately captured their opinions.

Comportamentul consumatorilor

Principalul obiectiv al acestui studiu este

de a analiza comportamentul consumatorilor.
Pentru aceasta au fost aleas aparatura
electrocasnic din gospodria privat. Pentru a
abine datele necesare acestei analize a fost
folosit un chestionar.
Chestionarele sunt folosite de obicei n
cercetarile cantitative de marketing i pentru
cercetrile sociale. Acestea reprezint o metod
valoroas de colectare a unei game largi de
informaii de la un numr mare de participani la
analiz. Buna construcie a chestionarului
este foarte important n vederea atinerii
scopului propus. ntrebrile inadecvate, incorect
adresate, avnd o ordine greit sau un format
greit al chestionarului pot duce la scderea
valorii ntregii analize. O metod util pentru
verificarea chestionarului este
Aceasta
presupune distribuirea lui unui numr mic de
persoane, apoi intervievarea acestor persoane
pentru a afla opiniile lor i de a confirma dac
ntrebarile din chestionar satisfac cerinele
acestora.

56

a) Questionnaire construction issues

a) Pricipalele
chestionar

The wording must be kept simple : no

technical or specialized words. Use
short sentences. Writing style should
be conversational, yet concise and
accurate.
The meaning should be clear. Avoid
ambiguous words and equivocal
sentence structures. Avoid double
negatives. Even single negatives
should be reworded as positives.
Avoid biasing the responses. A
biased question or questionnaire
encourages respondents to answer
one way rather than another. Avoid
loaded questions.
Ask one question at a time. Avoid
complex questions. If more than one
question is hidden in a survey
question, the researcher will not
know which one the respondent is
answering.
Avoid personal or intimate questions.
Most people will not answer them.
Consider the respondents frame of
reference. What is their background,
and how will this effect their
interpretation of the questions? Do
respondents
have
enough
information or expertise to answer
the question?
Ask yourself if each question is really
necessary. Unneeded questions are
an expense to the researcher and an
unwelcome
imposition
on
the
respondents.
To
answer
this
question, you must consider the
objective(s) of the research.
Ask yourself what type of data
analysis techniques are available for
various kinds of questions. Will the
question provide you with the
statistical analysis that you want?
What type of content will responses
to the question yield? Will the
question responses provide facts,
beliefs, feelings, descriptions of past
behavior, or standards of action?
What type of scale, index, or typology
should be used?

57

aspecte

ale

unui

Trebuiesc folosite cuvinte simple, nu

trebuiesc folosite cuvinte tehnice sau
specifice. Propoziiile trebuiesc s fie
scurte. Stilul folosit trebuie sa fie
convenional, concis i exact.
nelesul trebuie s fie clar. Trebuie
evitate cuvintele i structurile cu neles
ambiguu, negaiile duble, chiar i
propoziiile simplu negative trebuiesc
reformulate pentru a avea neles pozitiv.
Trebuie evitate rspunsurile confuze. O
ntrebare confuz conduce la rspunsuri
neclare. Nu se folosesc ntrebri
ncrcate.
Nu se pun mai multe ntrebri n acelai
timp. ntrebrile trebuie s fie simple.
Dac ntr-o ntrebare cheie sunt incluse
mai multe ntrebri, cel care analizeaz
chestionarul nu va tii la cere dintre
ntrebri s-a rspuns.
Trebuiesc evitate ntrebrile personale
sau intime pentru c cei mai muli vor
evita s rspund la ele.
S considerm reperul de referin al
subiectului chestionarului. Care este
formaia lui i cum va afecta acest
aspect interpretarea pe care acesta o va
da intrebrilor puse? Au subiecii destule
informaii i calificare pentru a rspunde
intrebrilor?
Cercettorul trebuie s rspund singur
nti dac ntrebarea respectiv este
necesar
sau
nu.
ntrebrile
nefolositoare sunt o cheltuial n plus
pentru cercettor iar pentru persoana
intervievat reprezint un timp pierdut.
Trebuie analizate diferitele tehnici
folosite n alctuirea acestor ntrebri. Va
asigura respectiva ntrebare informaia
cutat?
Ce gam, indiciu sau tipologie trebuiesc
folosite?
Cum trebuie s arate ntrebrile n
pagin (sau pe ecranul calculatorului)?
Ce spaiu trebuie folosit? Cte culori se
folosesc? Trebuiesc folosite poze,
grafice sau alte forme grafice? Trebuie
s fie suficient colorate pentru a capta
atenia subiectului, dar nu ntr-atat nct
sa distrag atenia de la ntrebare.

How should the questions be

presented on the page (or computer
screen)? How much white space?
How many colours? Do you use
pictures, charts, or other graphics? It
should be colourful enough to gain
and maintain respondent interest, but
not so graphic as to distract from the
questions.
Should questions be open-ended or
should respondents answers be
limited to a fixed set of responses?
Should the questions be numbered?
Generally this is a good idea. .
Is the list of possible question
responses inclusive? The respondent
should not find themselves with no
category that fits their situation.

.
b) Types of questions

ntrebrile trebuie s fie de tipul nchisdeschis sau rspunsurile subiecilor s

fie limitate la un numr de cuvinte?
Ce categorie de ntrebri vor fi?
Este o idee bun ca ntrebrile s fie
numerotate.
Pot exista rspunsuri care s se exclud
reciproc? Rspunsul trebuie s se
ncadreze dect ntr-o singura categorie,
iar categoriile nu trebuie s se
suprapun

b) Tipuri de ntrebri
1. ntrebri particulare sunt acele ntrebri la
care subiectul d un raspuns particular, aceste
ntrebri nu se pun persoanelor care nu sunt n
masur s rspund ( de exemplu dac un
brbat a fost vreodat nsrcinat).

1. Contingency questions - A question

that is answered only if the
respondent
gives
a
particular
response to a previous question. This
avoids asking questions of people
that do not apply to them (for
example, asking men if they have
ever been pregnant).

2. ntrebri tip matrice categoriile cu rspuns

identice sunt mprite pe mai multe ntrebri.
ntrebrile sunt plasate una sub cealalt,
formnd o matrice cu mai multe categorii de
rspunsuri. Rspunsurile sunt n vrful matricii
iar lista de ntrebri n partea de jos. Acesta
este un mod eficient de utilizare al spaiului din
pagin i al timpului subiectului.

2. Matrix
questions
Identical
response categories are assigned to
multiple questions. The questions are
placed one under the other, forming a
matrix with response categories
along the top and a list of questions
down the side. This is an efficient use
of page space and respondents time.

3.
ntrebri gradate rspunsurile sunt
gradate (exemplu: data de apariie a unui
produs pe o scar de la 1 la 10, valoarea 10
fiind cea mai bun i cea mai cutat). Exemple
de tipuri de scri valorice sunt scala Likert, scala
diferenial semantic i scala gradat.

3. Scaled questions - Responses are

graded on a continuum (example :
rate the appearance of the product
on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being
the most preferred appearance).
Examples of types of scales include
the Likert scale, semantic differential
scale, and rank-order scale (See
scale for a complete list of scaling
techniques.).

4. ntrebrile tip gril rspunsurile subiecilor

sunt limitate la un numr fix de variante. Alte
tipuri de ntrebri gril includ:

4. Closed
ended
questions
Respondents answers are limited to
a fixed set of responses.
Most
scales are closed ended. Other types

ntrebri rspunsul subiecilor poate fi

da sau nu
Rspunsuri cu mai multe variante
subiectul are mai multe opiuni pentru a
alege

5. ntrebrile cu rspuns liber nu sunt

sugerate categorii sau opiuni de rspunsuri.

58

Subiectul d propriul rspuns fr a fi constrns

de un set fix de rspunsuri. Rspunsurile la
aceste ntrebri pot fi::

of closed ended questions include:

Dichotomous questions - The

respondent answers with a
yes or a no.
Multiple
choice
The
respondent has several option
from which to choose.

5. Open ended questions - No options

or
predefined
categories
are
suggested. The respondent supplies
their own answer without being
constrained by a fixed set of possible
responses. Examples of types of
open ended questions include:

Completely unstructured - For

example, What is your
opinion of questionnaires?
Word association - Words are
presented and the respondent
mentions the first word that
comes to mind.
Sentence
completion
Respondents complete an
incomplete sentence. For
example, The most important
consideration in my decision
to buy a new house is . . .
Story
completion
Respondents complete an
incomplete story.
Picture
completion
Respondents fill in an empty
conversation balloon.
Thematic apperception test Respondents
explain
a
picture or make up a story
about what they think is
happening in the picture

c) Succesiunea ntrebrilor

c) Question sequence

Complet nestructurate de exemplu

Care
este
opinia
ta
despre
chestionare?
Asociere de cuvinte cuvintele sunt
prezentate, iar subiectul alege primul
cuvnt care i vine n minte
Propoziii de completat subiectul
trebuie s completeze o propoziie
incomplet. De exemplu: Cel mai
important aspect n decizia mea de a
cumpra o cas nou este . . .
Completarea unei anumite situaii
subiectul trebuie s completeze o
situaie incomplet.
Completarea unei imagini subiectul
trebuie s completeze un spaiu liber al
conversaiei
Test tematic de percepie subiecii
trebuie s explice o poz sau s ii
imagineze o poveste pe baza imaginii pe
care o vd.

ntrebrile trebuie s se succead logic

Cercettorul trebuie s se asigure c
rspunsul unei ntrebari nu este
influenat de alte ntrebri
ntrebrile trebuie s se succead de la
cele mai generale la cele mai specifice
ntrebrile trebuie s se succead de la
cele mai puin precise la cele foarte
precise
ntrebrile trebuie s se succead de la
cele generale la cele la care este
exprimat opinia personal.

Aceasta teorie (se mai numete i teoria

sandwich) are trei etape: ntrebrile iniiale
trebuiesc selectate, apoi la pasul doi sunt toate
ntrebrile specifice produsului. La ultimul pas
sunt ntrebrile demografice.

Questions
should
flow
logically from one to the next.
The researcher must ensure
that the answer to a question
is not influenced by previous
questions.
Questions should flow from
the more general to the more
specific.
Questions should flow from

59

the least sensitive to the most

sensitive.
Questions should flow from
factual
and
behavioural
questions to attitudinal and
opinion questions.

According to the three stage theory (also

called the sandwich theory), initial
questions should be screening and rapport
questions. Then in the second stage you ask
all the product specific questions. In the last
stage you ask demographic questions.

3.6

Interpretation

3.6

The EuP and environment are parts

from the same system.

Interpretarea rezultatelor

Produsele EuP i mediul fac parte din

acelai sistem.
O analiz a acestui sistem trebuie s
identifice i s descrie sistemul de funcionare al
produsului; s identifice acele caracteristice ale
produsului care pot reduce impactul asupra
mediului i nu numai ale produsului ct i ale
ntregului sistem.
Avnd aceste date prevenite de la
diveri consumatori, poate fi realizat o
comparaie ntre comportamentul lor e se
poate
demonstra
care
dintre
ei
are
comportamentul cel mai prietenos fa de
ntregul sistem (mediu necesarul de energie,
ap, emisiile n aer i ap i aspectele
economice costurile pentru ntreaga via a
produsului).

A system analysis should identify and

describe the functional system to which the
product in question belongs and identify and
possibly quantify those product features that
can reduce the environmental impact not
only of the product but also of the system as
a whole.
Having these data collected from the
different consumers, can be realized a
comparison between their behavior and to
conclude who has the most friendly behavior
for the whole system (environment use of
water, energy, the emissions in air and water
and economical aspects the costs for
product lifetime).

60

4. Case study

4. Studiu de caz

4.1 Recent
studies
environmental
impacts
washing machine

about
of
a

4.1

One of the studies is Eco-Efficiency

Analysis of Washing machines-Life Cycle
Assessment and determination of optimal life
span-, Freiburg, November 2005. This study
is realized by Oko-Institut e.V. Institute
for Applied Ecology. The major tasks of
this study were as:

Studii recente despre impactul

asupra mediului al mainilor de
splat

Unul dintre studii este Analiza de EcoEficien a mainilor de splat Analiza

ciclului de via i determinarea duratei de via
optime-, Freiburg Octombrie 2005. Acest studiu
este realizat de ctre Oko-Institut e.V.Institutul de ecologie aplicat. Pricipalele
probleme analizate n cadrul acestui studiu sunt
urmtoarele:

1. update Life Cycle Assessment for

washing machines and compare with
results of previous LCA-studies,
2. compare the acquisition and use of a
washing machine with larger rated
capacity to the acquisition and use of
a washing machine with a rated
capacity of 5 kg under environmental
and economic aspects
3. calculate scenarios for the future
taking into account various possible
technological
and
behavioral
developments and conclude which
life span a washing machine of today
should have, achieving minimal
environmental impact and least life
cycle costs for the consumer,
4. analyze in terms of LCA the best
choice of washing-machines life
span by comparing the situation of 15
years in the past with today.

1. actualizarea cercetrilor asupra ciclului de

via al mainilor de splat i compararea
rezultatelor obinute cu cele obinute de alte
studii LCA.
2. compararea din punct de vedere al achiziiei
i al utilizrii mainilor de splat cu capacitate
de spalare mai mare de 5 kg cu aceleai
caracteristici ale mainilor de splat cu o
capacitate standard de 5 kg
sub aspect
ecologic i economic.
3. calcularea diferitelor scenarii cu privire la
stabilirea duratei optime de via i avnd un
impact minim asupra mediului i al ciclului de
via al costurilor pentru consumatori.
4. analizarea n termeni LCA cea mai bun
alegere a duratei de via a mainilor de splat
prin compararea situaiei de acum 15 ani cu cea
de astzi.
Pentru maina de splat poate fi analizat
impactul asupra mediului de-a lungul ntregii
durate de via.

For a washing machine can be assessed

the environmental impacts during its life
span. These impacts are regarding fauna,
plants, earth, air, water and human health.

4.2 Life Cycle Impact of a washing

machine

4.2

Impactul ciclului de via al

mainii de splat

4.2.1 Environmental
washing machine

4.2.1

Impactul mainii de splat asupra

mediului

Environmental

impacts

of

analysis

include

Analiza de mediu include consumul de

61

energie, consumul de ap i toate costurile

aferente pentru producie, utilizare i scoatere
din uz a mainii de splat. Exceptnd aceste
aspecte, snatatea i sigurana omului sunt
aspecte la fel de importante. Urmtorul paragraf
prezint cteva observaii despre sntatea
omului.

energy consumption, water consumption,

and all afferent costs to manufacture, use
and end of life of a washing machine. Beside
of these aspects, human health and safety
are important aspects also. Next paragraph
present some observation about human
health.

4.2.1.1

4.2.1.1

Environmental, Safety, & Health

Impacts

Impactul
asupra
mediului,
siguranei i sntii omului

Impactul asupra mediului, sntii i

siguranei umane este mai mare n cazul folosirii
procesului de curire cu substane lichide dect
n cazul procesului de curire traditional unde
nu se folosesc substane lichide (procesul de
curire uscat). Dac apa uzat din cadrul
procesului de curire cu substane lichide este
netratat i direct devrsat n lacuri, ruri sau
alte ape curgtoare poate afecta viaa acvatic.
n mod normal apa menajer este colectat ntrun sistem de canalizare i tratat nainte de a fi
deversat n vederea respectrii cerinelor
Actului Federal al Apelor Curate. Odat ce
aceste norme sunt respectate, riscurile asupra
vieii acvatice sunt minime. n acest caz,
potenialul impact asupra sntii i siguranei
umane sunt limitate doar la mici afeciuni ale
pielii i iritaii ale ochilor. Expunerea pielii i a
ochilor la agenii de curare pot fi minimalizate
prin respectarea unor proceduri operaionale
adecvate.
Procesul de curare cu substane
lichide nu produce deeuri toxice, emisii toxice
n aer, gaze cu efect de ser sau substane ce
duc la subierea stratului de ozon. Agenii de
nlbire sunt substane nedizolvabile i
biodegradabile, iar contactul cu ochii poate
genera iritaii. Deoarece sistemul KSL nu
genereaz deeuri toxice, pagubele generale
asociate cureniei cu substane lichide sunt
mult mai mici n comparaie cu cele generate
de procesul de curenie cu substane uscate.
n opinia companiei Bosch procesul
KSL consum cu peste 35% mai puin energie
dect n cazul cureniei tradiionale cu
substane uscate deoarece nu necesit ap
nclzit sau nclzire suplimentar necesar
procesului de uscare. Consumul de ap
(cuprins ntre 150 si 200 galoane de ap

The environmental, human health,

and human safety impacts resulting from the
wet cleaning process are less than the
impacts associated with the use of traditional
solvents. However, the volume of water used
for wet cleaning is greater than that required
for traditional dry cleaning processes. Wet
cleaning wastewater, if left untreated and
discharged directly into a lake, river, or
stream, could pose risks to aquatic life.
However, it is normally the case that such
wastewater is discharged into a public sewer
system and treated at the local publicly owned wastewater treatment facility in
accordance with Federal Clean Water Act
requirements.
Under
these
normal
circumstances, risks to aquatic life are
minimized. Potential human health and
safety impacts are essentially limited to
minor skin and eye irritation. Skin and eye
exposure to the cleaning agents can be
minimized through adherence to proper
operational procedures.
The wet cleaning process does not
produce hazardous wastes, hazardous air
emissions, greenhouse gases, or ozone
depleting substances. The spotter and four
cleaning agents are non solvent formulations
that are biodegradable and generally benign,
although eye contact should be avoided due
to potential irritation. Because the KSL
system does not generate hazardous waste,
the regulatory burden associated with wet
cleaning is much less than the regulatory
burden associated with traditional dry
cleaning processes.
In Bosch opinion the KSL process
consumes up to 35 percent less energy
compared to traditional solvent processing

62

necesare unei cantiti de 50 kg de rufe) este

acelai ca n cazul unui proces unde este
necesar i rcirea apei.
Al doilea aspect este legat de
prezentarea celor mai importante emisii ale
mainii de splat n aer, ap i sol. Toi aceti
parametrii sunt descrii n paragraful urmtor.

because it does not require heated water or

substantial heat for drying purposes. Water
consumption (150 to 200 gallons per 100-lb.
load) is about the same as that associated
with one process, which requires water for
cooling [66].
The second aspect is to present
which are the important impacts of a
washing machine in air, water and soil. All
these parameters are described in next
paragraph.
4.2.1.2

4.2.1.2

Determined environmental
impacts

de

Sunt identificate o serie de impacturi

asupra mediului pentru fiecare din etapele
ciclului de via al produsului. Acestea sunt.

A series of environmental impacts

were identified for each stage in the products
life cycle.
These included:

Impacturi determinate:
poluanii din aer
poluanii din ap
cantitatea de ap dejectat
deeuri solide
energia folosit
cantitatea de gaze cu efect de ser
emanate

Quantified Impacts
air pollutants
water pollutants
quantity of water discharged
solid waste
energy use
greenhouse gas emissions
Identified but not Quantified
hazardous
materials
produced.

Principalele
categorii
impacturi asupra mediului

or

Impacturi determinate dar nu clasificate:

cantitatea de materiale toxice folosite
sau produse

Laundry was selected to represent an

everyday, familiar activity at home. A threeperson family was assumed to do one wash
of laundry per day. Finnish families currently
wash their laundry almost on a daily basis:
25 washing machine cycles are run every
month, on an average. Of these washes, 55
% are cold (40C) and 35 % warm (60C),
while the remaining 10 % are either hotter or
colder. The LCA data are based on a
European study [67], case Sweden 1998.
The updated the data pertaining to
energy consumption at the use stage
and to waste water treatment to
correspond to Finnish conditions , and
based the calculations on a washing
temperature of 40C. The washing
machine performance data represent a
relatively new and energy-efficient
appliance with an energy-label class A.

Curtoria a fost selectat pentru a

reprezenta activitatea zilnic dintr-o familie. Este
presupus c o familie este format din trei
persoane i folosesc maina de spalat o date pe
zi.
Familiile finlandeze folosesc maina de
splat o dat pe zi: sunt folosite 25 de cicluri
de splare n medie n decursul unei luni. Dintre
acestea, 55% folosesc ap rece (40C) i 35%
folosesc ap cald (60C), n timp ce restul de
10 % sunt folosite att cu ap cald ct i rece.
Aceste date LCA sunt bazate pe studiul
european[37] cazul Suediei 1998.
Pentru situaia finlandez, actualizarea datelor
privind consumul de energie n etapele de
utilizare i tratament a apei dejectate s-a
realizat pentru o temperatur de splare de
40C. Datele privind performanele mainilor de
splat sunt reprezentate n cazul mainilor de
splat care aparin aparatelor electrocasnice din

used

63

From all the analyzed impacts, detergents

create the biggest damage. Thats why these
aspects need a special attention from
designers to find ways how to reduce these
damages. In next paragraph are presented
different types of detergents and analyzed
their impacts.

Clasa A de energie.
Dintre toate aspectele analizate, consumul de
detergent creaz cea mai mare neplcere. De
aceea aceste aspecte necesit o atenie sporit
din partea design-erilor pentru a gsi soluii de a
reduce aceste influene negative.
n paragraful urmtor sunt prezentate i
analizate diferite tipuri de detergeni.

4.2.1.3

4.2.1.3

Which laundry detergent has the

lowest potential impact

Care tip de detergent are cel mai

mic impact asupra mediului

During the last 15 year detergents

are changed, moving from the traditional
big-box laundry detergents, to the compact
versions, and the most recent innovation,
unit dose systems.
Earlier studies showed that when the
compact powders of 1998 were compared to
the regular powders of 1988, there was a
50% decrease in overall environmental
impact. The unit dose systems were
introduced in powdered tablets form in 1999,
and the liquid unit dose systems came onto
the market in 2001.
Even if these innovative products are
becoming a large part of people busy
lifestyle, there are still many questions about
these products.

De-a lungul ultimilor 15 ani detergenii au

suferit modificri, de la tradiionalele cutii mari
de detergent la tabletele de detergent i cea
mai recent inovaie, sistemele cu uniti de
dozare.
Studiile trecute au artat c, n urma
unei comparaii ntre detergentii pudr existeni
pe pia n 1988 i cei existeni pe pia n 1998,
efectele negative asupra mediului au sczut cu
50%. Sistmele cu uniti de dozare au fost
introduse n tabletele concentrate de detergent
din 1999, iar tipurile de detergeni lichizi au fost
introduse pe pia n 2001.
Chiar dac aceste produse inovatoare
sunt folosite din ce n ce mult de ctre
consumatori, exist totui multe ntrebri legate
de aceste produse.

But are other questions about detergents

like:
Are compact detergents still the best
option
from
an
environmental
perspective?
What about these new forms of
detergents like the liquid sachets and
tablets?
What impact do they have on the
environment compared to other
detergent types?

Cteva ntrebri legate de detergeni sunt :

Mai reprezint detergenii pudr cea
mai bun alegere din perspectiva
proteciei mediului?
Care este opinia despre noile forme de
detergeni: lichizi i tabletele de
detergent?
Ce impact au aceste tipuri de
detergeni n comparaie cu detergenii
clasici

Which detergent has the lowest potential

impact?

Care tip de detergent are cel mai mic impact

aupra mediului nconjurtor?

The environmental impact categories

selected are: acidification (production of acid
rain and its effects on lakes), aquatic toxicity,
eutrophication (over enrichment of nutrients
in lakes and rivers), human toxicity, climate
change, ozone depletion and the production
of smog.

Categoriile de impacturi asupra mediului

nconjurtor identificate sunt: concebtraia de
acizi (producerea de ploi acide i efectele
acesteia n lacuri), toxicitatea acvatic,
eutroficare (reducerea cantitii de oxigen din
lacuri i ruri, toxicitatea uman, schimbrile de
clim, reducerea stratului de ozon i producerea

64

For the eutrophication impact category, the

score is only driven by the release of organic
matters. None of laundry detergents on the
Western
European
market
contain
phosphate. Both powder and liquid compacts
use less detergent per wash than the other
forms of detergents and require less
packaging. Because they release a lower
number of chemicals into the environment,
they perform better in almost all impact
categories. Eutrophication is higher for liquid
detergents as they release a higher amount
of organic chemicals into the aquatic
environment. [68]

de fum.
n cazul impactului asupra oxigenului din
ape, rezultatele sunt date doar de materiile
organice. Nici unul dintre tipurile de detergeni
de rufe de pe piaa European de Vest nu
conine fosfai. Pentru un ciclu de splare, att
detergenii lichizi ct i cei pudr se folosesc n
cantiti mai mici dect alte forme de detergeni
iar cantitatea de ambalaje utilizate este mai
mic. Deci, aceste tipuri de detergeni degaj un
numr mai mic de substane chimice n mediul
nconjurtor. n cazul detergenilor lichizi
procesul de eutroficare este mai ridicat
deoarece degaj o cantitate mai mare de
substane organice n mediul acvatic [38].
O dat cu introducerea noilor tehnologii,
detergenii tradiionali au fost mbuntii foarte
mult, iar impactul lor asupra mediului a sczut
foarte mult.
n ultimii 15 ani toxicitatea acvativ a
fost cercetat foarte mult att pentru detergenii
lichizi ct i pentru cei pudr, ntre 1988 i 2001
i se observ o scdere evident a acestui
parametru.
Studiul LCA bazat pe un singur ciclu de
splare, a artat c nu sunt nbuntiri
importante ale aspectelor de mediu n cazul
noilor forme de detegeni, mai mult profilul lor de
mediu este foarte similar cu cel al detergenilor
din alte generaii. n orice caz, datorit
posibilitii de control a cantitii de detergent i
a concentraiei ridicate (50 ml dozaj n cazul
detergenilor lichizi) reprezint o oportunitate
important n vederea reducerii cantitii totale
de substane chimice folosite i a emisiilor
asociate procesului de splare. Aceasta
reprezint mai puine chimicale n mediul
nconjurtor. Aceste tipuri de detergeni
necesit un numr mai mare de ambalaje care
sa protejeze tabletele s nu se deterioreze
(topirea sau spargerea tabletelor). Oamenii de
tiin caut n continuare modaliti de
reducere a cantitii de ambalaje utilizate[39].

How do powder tablets and liquid unit

dose systems stack up?
With the introduction of new
technologies, traditional powders have
improved to such an extent, that the
difference in environmental impact between
the laundry detergents is now much smaller.
Aquatic toxicity for both liquids and
powders, it is analyzed during 15 years,
between 1988 and 2001 and is a clear
decrease of the regular powders of 1988 to
the regular powders of 2001.
The LCA based on one wash cycle,
showed that there are no significant
environmental benefits associated with these
new forms of detergents as their
environmental profiles are very similar.
However, unit dose systems, because they
allow for better control of dosage and are
more concentrated (only 50 ml for liquid-tab)
represents a great opportunity for reducing
the total chemical usage and emission
associated with the laundering process. This
means less chemicals released into the
environment. These forms however, still use
more packaging to protect the tablets and
sachets from breaking and leaking. Our
scientists continue to try to find new and
innovative
ways
to
further
reduce
packaging. [69]
4.2.1.4 Assessment
of
environmental
aspects using LCA

4.2.1.4

Life
Cycle
Assessment
(LCA)
compares the environmental profiles of 5

Evaluarea ciclului de via (Life Cycle

Assessment LCA) compar profilul de mediu a 5

65

Evaluarea aspectelor de mediu

utiliznd LCA

types of laundry detergents from the Ariel

brand marketed in 2001 in the United
Kingdom (regular powder, compact powder,
powder tablets, compact liquid, and liquid
unit dose systems or sachets), throughout
their entire life cycle (cradle to grave).
The life cycle stages analyzed are:
manufacturing of the ingredients, product
formulation, packaging, distribution from the
P&G plant to retailers, consumer use, and
disposal via the sewage water treatment
plant. For each detergent type it is chosen
the size and packaging with the largest
market share and considered one wash
cycle using recommended dosage.
The
short
answer
is
that
environmentally speaking, both the liquid
and powder compact detergents are still
better. It is a reduction on total energy
consumption, CO2 emission and solid waste
for compact powders and compact liquids.
This is because they use the least
amount of chemicals compared with todays
regular powders. However, even with the
differences founded, no detergent really
outperformed each other. [70]

Table 4.1
products

Comparison of the environmental impact categories of the various detergent

For 1 wash in UK

Regular
powder

Compact
powder

Powder
Tablet

Compact
Liquid

Liquid
Tablet

M
L
H

L
L
M

M
M
M

M
M
L

H
H
L

Recommanded
dosage
Pachaging
Energy, air/water
emission,
acidification,
climate change,
human toxicity
Aquatic toxicity
Eutrophication
Ozone deplation
Photochemical
smog

tipuri de detergeni de rufe produi de compania

Ariel n 2001 n Regatul Unit al Marii Britanii
(detergentul tradiional, detergentul pudr
compact, tabletele de detergent, detergentul
lichid, dozele de detergent lichid individuale) dea lungul ntregului ciclu de via (din faza de
producie pn n faza de deeu final).
Etapele ciclului de via analizate sunt
urmtoarele: producerea ingredientelor, crearea
compoziiei, ambalarea, distribuia de la fabrica
P&G ctre comerciani, consumul de ctre
utilizatori, colectarea deeurilor i tratamentul
apei dejectate. Pentru fiecare tip de detergent
este aleas o cantitate i un ambalaj cu cea mai
mare solicitare i dozajul folosit pentru un ciclu
de splare.
Considernd aspectele de mediu, o
concluzie imediata este c, detergenii lichizi i
cei sub form de pudr sunt cei mai buni. Exist
o reducere a consumului total de energie, a
cantittii de CO2 degajat i a deeurilor solide
n mediul nconjurtor.
Aceast concluzie provine din faptul c
aceste tipuri de detergeni folosesc o cantitate
mai mic de substane toxice.

H High impact
M Medium impact
L Low impact

66

H (High impact) impact ridicat

M (Medium impact) impact mediu
L (Low impact) impact sczut

The Table 4.1 allows a direct

comparison of the environmental impact
categories of the various detergent products.
It illustrates that within the powder category,
compact powder is the preferred detergent
type. None of the parameters were classified
to be of highest impact, but compared to the
other powdered detergents, it has the
highest number of low impact classification.
Compact liquid is for the same reason the
preferred detergent variant within the liquid
category.
Even
with
the
observed
differences, it should also be acknowledged
that there is no single detergent type clearly
outperforming all the others on all
parameters.

Tabelul 4.1 prezint o comparaie direct a

diferitelor categorii de impacturi asupra mediului
pentru diferite categorii de detergeni. Acesta
ilustreaz c detergenii solizi i cei sub form
de tablete sunt preferai de ctre consumatori.
Nici unul dintre parametrii alei pentru
comparaie nu prezint impacturi foarte ridicate
asupra mediului, dar n comparaie cu ali
detergeni, acesta are cel mai mare numr de
categorii de impacturi sczute asupra mediului.
n urma cercetrilor s-a determinat c
detergenii sub form de pudr sunt preferai
celor lichizi n ciuda diferenelor clasificate este
de observat c nu exist doar un singur tip de
detergent care s se ncadreze perfect n toi
parametrii de analiz.

Classification

Clasificare

The classification process is done in four

steps:
First, the highest and lowest value is
determined for each parameter.
Second, the middle value (MV) is
calculated by taking the average from both
values.
Third, a lower limit value (LLV) is
calculated as 80% of the MV. Similarly, a
higher limit value (HLV) is calculated by
adding 20% to the MV.
Fourth, all parameters are compared to
the LLV and HLV. Numbers equal or below
the LLV are classified as L, numbers equal
or greater than the HLV classified as H and
all other values are classified M. The
benefit of this presentation is that it is very
meticulous, since it takes only the extreme
values to calculate the MV, LLV and HLV. In
a table format, it allows for a quick evaluation
of strengths and weaknesses for each
parameter and product variant. For LCA
studies, this is extremely helpful given the
number of parameters and product variants.
However, the weakness of this presentation
is that results are transferred from a
continuous scale to a discrete system with 3
classes and working with an arbitrary cut-off
rule of 20% vs. the MV. As a consequence, it
is impossible to discriminate between large
and extremely large differences. [71]
Environmental impacts area analyzed
with different tools. Next paragraph
analyze these options.

Procesul de clasificare este realizat n

patru etape:
Primul: sunt determinate cea mai mic
i cea mai mare valoare a fiecrui
parametru.
Al doilea: valoarea medie (MV) este
calculat ca valoare medie a celor dou
valori extreme.
Al treilea: valoarea cea mai mic (lower
limit value (LLV)) este calculat ca fiind
80% din MV, n mod similar valoarea
cea mai nalt (higher limit value (HLV))
este calculat prin adugarea unui
procent de 20% din valoare MV.
Al patrulea: toi parametrii sunt
comparai cu valorile LLV i HLV.
Valorileegale sau mai mici dect LLV
sunt notate cu L, valorile egale sau
mai mari dect HLV sunt notate cu M.
Beneficiul acestei prezentri este, c
acest procedeu este foarte complex, de
vreme ce sunt luate n considerare doar
valorile extreme pentru a calcula valorile
MV, LLV i HLV. Evaluarea sub form
de tabel este o metod rapid
a
avantajelor i dezavantajelor fiecrui
parametru i variante de produs. Pentru
studiile LCA, acestea sunt extrem de
utile prezentnd numrul de parametrii
i variantele de produs. Oricum,
dezavantajul
acestei
prezentri
reprezint faptul c rezultatele sunt
transferate de la o scar continu la un
sistem de valori discrete cu trei clase

67

care lucreaz cu o marj de eroare de

20%. Ca o consecin, este extrem de
dificil de difereniat valorile mari de cele
extrem de mari [41]
Impactul asupra mediului este analizat prin
diferite metode. Urmtorul paragraf analizeaz
aceste opiuni.
4.2.1.5

4.2.1.5

Tools
of
Analysis
for
Environmental impacts of a
washing machine

Metode de analiz a impactului

asupra mediului n cazul mainilor
de splat

It is known that LCA tool is the mast

complex and complete tool to analyze the
environmental aspects of a product. But this
tool is not the only one which is used. In
The effect of compact formulations on the
environmental profile of northern European
granular laundry detergents study written by
prof. Saouter, E is shown that because of
the complex interactions along and between
the supply chains, it is clear that no single
tool will suffice to give a complete analysis of
the environmental impacts of providing this
service. Use of LCA for all three supply
chains is established, as is use of RA for
detergents. Understanding of consumer
behavior is also essential, for example in
whether recommended changes in washing
conditions are actually used, and in the
extent to which fashion or damage are the
prime determinants in the service life of
machines and fabrics. Possible future
developments in the provision of this service
may depend on social acceptability.
Therefore, this case will need to look beyond
conventional quantitative environmental
analytical tools [72].
One of the most important aspect in a
product life is consumers behavior (how
consumers are using the product). Thats
why all consumers have to know about what
role they play in a product life cycle.

Este cunoscut faptul c metoda LCA

este cea mai complex i complet metod de
analiz a impactului asupra mediului a unui
produs. Dar acest metod nu este singura
folosit. n studiul intitulat Efectul formulei
complete a profilului ecologic al detergenilor din
Nordul Europei scris de profesorul Saouter, E.
este prezentat faptul c datorit interaciunilor
complexe de-a lungul i n timpul procesului de
distribuire, nu este suficient o singur metod
de analiz a impactului asupra mediului.
Utilizarea metodei LCA pentru toate cele trei
cerine eseniale, ca i n cazul utilizrii metodei
LCA n cazul detergenilor. nelegerea
comportamentului consumatorilor este de
asemenea esenial, de exemplu n cazul
schimbrilor recomandate condiiilor de splare
i msura n care efectele negative ale mainilor
de splat sunt determinante n timpul perioadei
de utilizare. Posibile cercetri viitoare n privina
acestor servicii poate depinde de adaptabilitatea
social. De aceea, acest caz va necesita
utilizarea unor metode ecologice cantitative
convenionale [42].
Unul dintre cele mai importante aspecte
din viaa unui produs este comportamentul
consumatorilor (cum folosesc consumatorii
produsul). Din acest motiv toi consumatorii
trebuie s fie informai de importana rolului pe
care l joac n ciclul de via al unui produs.

4.2.1.6

4.2.1.6

Consumers'
Environmental
Behavior: Generalized, SectorBased, or Compensatory
The

means

applied

to

promote

Comportamentul
ecologic
al
consumatorilor: aspecte generale,
particulare sau compensatorii
Mijloacele folosite pentru promovarea

68

unui comportament ct mai ecologic al

consumatorilor trebuiesc analizate i evaluate.
Este studiat posibilitatea ca aciunile menite s
mbunteasc metodele de reciclare pot avea
consecine nedorite pentru alte domenii, diferite
de cercetarea comportamentului. Este analizat
relaia dintre comportamentul ecologic raportat
la fiecare persoan corespunztor mai mltor
domenii, cu o atenie sporit acordat ntrebrii
potrivit creia procesul de reciclare poate
dezvolta
un
comportament
ecologic
compensatoriu mai redus pentru alte activiti.
n acest sens sunt prezentate rezultatele unei
cercetri care include un numr de 1500 de
consumatori norvegieni. Nu a fost identificat nici
un comportament compensatoriu care s fie
tendenios. De aceea, cercetrile nu indic
faptul c introducerea acestor msuri sunt
menite s creasc adoptarea unei atitudini
compensatorii. n acelai timp, cercetrile
completeaz faptul c nu exist un
comportament
ecologic
general
ntre
consumatori. Pe de alt parte, asemnarea
dintre diferite comportamente crete atunci cnd
sunt asemnri ntre consumatori [43]
n acest capitol sunt prezentate toate
aspectele ecologice i economice care privesc
tot ciclul de via al unui produs. Diferite
companii au ncercat s dezvolte cercetri care
s analizeze aceste aspecte. n zilele noastre
aceste probleme ale mediului i proteciei
umane au devenit att de importante. De aceea
Comunitatea European a dat cteva reguli
generale n acest sens. Pe baza acestor norme
toate companiile trebuie s deyvolte produse
prietenoase. n urmtorul paragraf sunt
descrise cteva dintre aceste norme.
Pentru a evalua impactul mainilor de
splat este necesar s se dezvolte i s se
folosesc o anumit metodologie.

environmentally friendly behavior need to be

evaluated. It is studied the possibility that
actions meant to improve recycling may
have unintended consequences in fields
other than the target behavior. The relation
between
self-reported
environmental
behaviors in several sectors is studied, with
particular attention given to the question of
whether increased recycling may develop
into a compensatory behavior for less
environmentally friendly behavior elsewhere.
Results
from
a
survey,
including
approximately 1,500 Norwegian consumers,
are presented. No tendencies toward
compensatory behavior are detected.
Furthermore, the survey does not indicate
that the introduction of measures meant to
increase
recycling
brings
increased
attitudinal
support
for
compensatory
behavior. At the same time, the survey
supports the view that there is no "general"
environmental behavior among consumers.
On the other hand, the correlations between
different behaviors increase when the
behaviors in question become more similar.
[73].
In this chapter are presented all
ecological and economical aspects regarding
an entire product life cycle. Different
companies tried to develop researches to
assess these aspects. In our days this
problem of environment and human
protection became so important. Thats why
The European Community gives some
general roles about it.. Regarding to these
norms all companies have to develop
friendly
products.
Next
paragraph
describes some of these norms.
To assess the impacts of a washing
machine is necessary to develop and use a
methodology.
4.2.2
ines

4.2.2

Methodology for washing

Metodologia utilizat
mainilor de splat

cazul

Metodologia dezvoltat n acest studiu

este bazat pe activitatea din gospodriile
private. ntr-o gospodrie sunt multe aparate
electrocasnice care consum energie i ap,
cum ar fi: aspiratorul, maina de splat, maina
de splat vase, cuptorul cu microunde,
frigiderul, computerul, televizorul, aparatul radio.

The methodology developed in this

study is regarding private household activity.
In a household are many electronics which
consume water and energy, such as:
vacuum, washing machine, dish washer,
microwave, refrigerator,
computer, T.V.,
radio.

69

From all these appliances is chosen

washing
machine
to
analyze
the
environmental impacts (ecological and
economical) regarding whole product life
cycle
starting
with
raw
materials,
manufacturing, use phase and ending with
the end of life (recycling and disposal) phase
of it.
Washing machines are complex
products which have to be analyzed
regarding to all their life cycle stages. The
most important aspects which should be
included in this analysis are: energy
efficiency
class,
energy
consumption
(kWh/wash), washing performance, spinning
performance, spinning speed (r.p.m.),
capacity, kg dry cotton/wash, water
consumption (l/wash).
And the LCA results have to
conclude who of these private households
has the most friendly behavior.
All these economical and ecological
aspects are analyzed for all washing
machines stages: production, use phase,
end of life treatment.

Dintre toate aceste electrocasnice a fost

aleas maina de splat pentru a analiza
impactul asupra mediului (ecologic i economic)
privind ntregul ciclu de via al produsului
ncepnd cu materia prim, etapa de producie,
etapa de utilizare i etapa de scoatere din uz (
reciclare i deeuri).
Mainile de splat sunt produse
complexe care trebuiesc analizate n toate
etapele ciclului lor de via. Cele mai importante
aspecte care trebuie incluse n aceast analiz
sunt: clasa de eficien a energiei, consumul de
energie ( kWh/ciclu de splare), performanele
vitezei de rotaie, viteza de rotaie (r.p.m.),
capacitatea (nr. kg rufe uscate/ciclu de splare),
consumul de ap (l/ciclu de splare).
Rezultatele metodei LCA trebuie s
prezinte care dintre subieci are comportamentul
cel mai prietenos fa de mediu. Toate aceste
aspecte ecologice i economice sunt analizate
pentru urmtoarele etape ale ciclului de via al
mainii de splat: etapa de producie, etapa de
utilizare i etapa de scoatere din uz.

70

Fig. 4.1

A washing machine manufactured by Bosch Company

The main LCA stages are:

Principalele etape ale metodei LCA sunt:

To define the goal and scope of the

analysis

Ecological aspects:

Aspecte ecologice:

Life Cycle Inventory

Life Cycle Impact Assessment

Economical aspects

4.2.2.1.1

Inventarul ciclului de via

Evaluarea impactului ciclului de via

Aspecte economice:

Life Cycle Costs Analysis

4.2.2.1

Definirea ipotezei i scopului acestei

analize

Definition of goal ad scope

Goal

The goal of this study is to analyze

with LCA some of these characteristics, in

Analiza ciclului de via al costurilor

4.2.2.1

Definirea ipotezei i a scopului

4.2.2.1.1

Scopul

Scopul acestui studiu este de a analiza cu

ajutorul metodei LCA cteva dintre aceste

71

assumed different private household

behaviors regarding to economical and
environmental aspects involved in washing
machines usage.

4.2.2.1.2

caracteristici, din perspectiva unor

comportamente diferite n diferite gospodrii
private privind aspectele ecologice i
economice implicate n utilizarea mainii de
splat.

Definition of the function of the

product

4.2.2.1.2

Definirea funciei produsului

Principala
funcie
a
sistemului
considerat este definirea procesului de splare
a rufelor n gospodriile private [8].

The function of the system under

consideration is defined as washing of
clothes in private households . [8]
4.2.2.2 System boundaries

4.2.2.2

Limitele de comparaie

System boundaries represent the

interface between a product system and the
environment and other products.
A product system includes all of the
life cycle stages of a product, including raw
materials acquisition, production, use and
disposal. [74]
For this study is used one type of a
washing machine and its characteristics are
presented as follow. The characteristics are
presented for all Life-Cycle stages of the
washing machine.

Limitele de comparaie reprezint

interfaa ditre sistemul produs i mediu i
celelalte produse.
Un sistem produs cuprinde toate etapele
ciclului de via ale produsului, incluznd
materiile prime, achiziia , producia, etapa de
utilizare i etapa de scoatere din uz [44]
Pentru acest studiu este utilizat acelai
tip de main de splat iar caracteristicile ei
sunt prezentate dup cum urmeaz. Aceste
caracteristici sunt prezentate pentru toate
etapele ciclului de via ale mainii de splat.

Raw materials
Transportation
Production
Transportation
Consumer use

Waste water
treatment
Transportation

End-of-life
Waste and output resources
Fig. 4.2

Product Life-Cycle stages

72

The life cycle analysis is an

environmental analysis which include
ecological aspects and economical aspects.
For ecological aspects are two
stages of LCA Life cycle Inventory and Life
cycle
Impact
Assessment
and
for
economical aspects is life cycle Costs
Analysis.

Analiza ciclului de via este o analiz de

mediu care include aspecte ecologice i
aspecte economice.
n cadrul aspectelor ecologice sunt dou etape
ale metodei LCA Inventarierea ciclului de via
i Evaluarea impactului ciclului de via, iar
pentru aspectele economice - Analiza ciclului de
va a costurilor.

4.2.2.1.2

4.2.2.1.2

Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

The basis of any LCA study is the

creation of an inventory of the inputs and
outputs of most processes that occur during
the life cycle of a product. This includes the
production phase, distribution, use and final
disposal of the product.

Inventarul ciclului de via (Life

Cycle Inventory (LCI))

Baza oricrui studiu LCA este crearea

unui inventar ai intrrilor i ieirilor a toturor
proceselor care se desfoar n timpul ciclului
de via al unui produs. Acesta include faza de
producie, distribuie, utilizare i etapa de
scoatere din uz a produsului.

a) Production
a) Producia
The raw material used in washing
machines manufacturing are presented in
production phase a part of it.
The production phase is subdivided in
three parts:
upstream processes of materials
(material supply)
manufacturing
distribution [8]

n faza de producie a mainii de splat sunt

prezentate materiile prime utilizate.
Etapa de producie este subdivizat n trei
pari:
procesul de generare al materiilor prime
i materialelor
producia
distribuia [8].

Material composition and

processes for material supply

Materialele componente
generare al acestora

upstream

procesul

de

The washing machine analyzed in

this study is from medium price segment
class with average design. [7]
LCA data for materials may be generic data.
That applies for data for plastic (APME,
1993-1997), steel (IISI, 1998), copper data
(ICA, 1998), aluminum (EAA, 1996) and for
the counter weight where such is used . [74]

Maina de splat utilizat n acest studiu face

parte din clasa medie de preuri i un design nu
foarte complicat [7].
Datele LCA pentru materiale pot fi date
generice. Datele pentru materialele plastice
provin de la (APME, 1993-1997), oelul (IISI,
1998, alam (ICA, 1998), aluminiul (EAA,
1996) [44].

Where:

Unde:

APME - Association of Plastics

Manufacturers in Europe, APME,
Brussels 1993-1997.
ICA
International
Copper
Association, 1998.

73

APME - Association of Plastics

Manufacturers in Europe, APME,
Brussels
1993-1997
Asociaia
productorilor de materiale plastice din

EAA - European Aluminum Association,

EAA, Brussels 1996.

Table 4.2

Europa
ICA - International Copper Association,
1998 Asociaia internaional a alamei
EAA - European Aluminum Association,
EAA, Brussels 1996 Asociaia
european a aluminiului

Material composition of the analyzed washing machine

Material
Acryl-Butadien-Styrol (ABS)
Aluminum
Brass
Cable
Carbon 40%
Chipboard
Concrete
Cotton with phenolic binder
Electronic Components
Ethylen-Propylen-Copolymer (EPDM)
Glass
Grey cast iron
Polyacryl (PA)
Polyetylen (PE)
Polymethylmethacrylat (PMMA)
Polyoxymethylen (POM)
Polypropylen (PP)
PP 20% mineral filter
PP 40% mineral filter
Polystryrene (PS)
Steel
Other materials (not considered)
Subtotal machine
Wood

UNIT (g)
1.863
4.124
20
302
11.505
2.350
18.680
747
378
537
2.942
1.688
1.920
59
56
46
1.055
26.470
11.88
75.928
11.00

The materials need for manufacturing a

washing machine are presented in Table 4.1
and Table 4.2. The packaging material used
for the product for the transportation to the
user and the packaging materials for the
components from the suppliers to the factory
are included in the table also.

Materialele necesare procesului de producie al

unei maini de splat sunt prezentate in Tabelul
4.1 i Tabelul 4.2. Materialele folosite pentru
ambalarea produsului i cele necesare
transportului la consumator precum i
materialele necesare ambalrii componentelor
sunt de asemenea incluse n tabel.

74

Figura 4.3

Materialele folosite pentru o main de splat

n Figura 4.3 sunt prezentate toate

materialele necesare pentru o main de
splat exprimate n procente.
Datele despre materiile prime provi de la
diferite companii. Acestea sunt prezentate n
Tabelul 4.3.

Table 4.3

n Figura 4.3 sunt prezentate toate materialele

necesare pentru o main de splat exprimate
n procente.
Datele despre materiile prime provi de la diferite
companii. Acestea sunt prezentate n Tabelul
4.3.

Material composition of the analyzed washing machine (continuation)

Corrugated cardboard
Polystryrene (PS)
Shrinking foil (PE)
Polyacryl (PA)
Paper
Subtotal packaging
Sum total

1.300
500
200
100
150
3.350
79.278

All raw materials data are from different

sources. To have concentrate image of
these data they are presented in Table 4.4.

Datele despre materiile prime provin de la

diferite companii. Acestea sunt prezentate n
Tabelul 4.3.

Table 4.4
Overview of the data sources for the production of materials, energy and
transportation
Area
Metals
Plastics

Module
Production of the above listed metals
Processing of metals (e.g. casting)
Production of the above listed plastics
Processing of plastics (e.g. injection

75

Data source
Umberto 4.2
Umberto 4.2
Umberto 4.2
Umberto 4.2

Other materials

Energy
generation
Transport

molding, foil production)

Chipboard
Cotton
Electronic components and cables
Glass
Concrete
Packaging material
Energy grid Germany

Average truck

Fritsche et al.2003
Umberto 4.2
Umberto 4.2 and
GaBi 2001
Fritsche et al.2003
Fritsche et al.2003
Umberto 4.2
Enquete 2002: fuel
mix Fritsche et al.
2003: power plant
mix
Umberto 4.2

In Table 4.4 is presented a concrete image

of raw materials database sources.
For the manufacturing data are
from [AEG 2003]. Incorporated were data
for: energy demand, water demand and
waste generation.
The distribution was calculated according
with [AEG 2004]. For the whole distance
impacts were calculated on the basis of 50%
transport by truck (an average truck with
50% workload; one way full, home trip
empty) and 50% transport by train (electric
railway line). It is neglected that often a car is
used to transport the washing machine from
retailers to households. [8]

Table 4.5

Datele necesare etapei de producie provin

de la [AEG 2003]. Datele incluse sunt date
pentru: necesarul de energie, necesarul de ap
i deeurile generate.
Pentru distribuie datele sunt calculate n
conformitate cu [AEG 2004]. Distanele
necesare sunt calculate astfel: 50% transport cu
camionul (un drum complet, drumul de
ntoarcere se realizeaz fr ncrctur) i
50% transport cu trenul (linie de cale ferat
electric). Nu este luat n considerare
transportul mainii de splat de la distribuitor la
utilizator [8].

Assumption for distribution route

Distribution route
Average distance plant to central storehouses
Average distance central storehouses to retailer
Average distance retailer to households
Sum

In Table 4.5 are presented the distances

necessary to distribute the final product from
the storehouses to the final consumer and in
analyzed case the private household.

Distance
250
80
10
340

Unit
km
km
km
km

n Tabelul 4.5 este prezentat consumul de

energie i ap pentru diferite temperaturi de
splare. Aceste date provin de la Stamminger
2004.

76

b) Use Phase

b) Etapa de Utilizare

The Use Phase of a washing

machine is the most important of the entire
life cycle. In one hand, Use Phase is the
longest period of washing machines life and
in the other hand, the energy and water
consumption have the highest level.
The washing machine usage have
different environmental impacts depends on
consumers behavior - different washing
program settings (washing temperature, load
cycles, type of laundry, number of washing
cycles per month). All this parameters give a
different consumption behavior (water and
energy consumption which represent
ecological aspects, and costs
(usage,
maintenance) which represent economical
aspects.
In the next paragraphs are presented
few of these characteristics of washing
machines usage.

Etapa de Utilizare a mainilor de splat

este cea mai important a ntregului ciclu de
via a produsului. Pe de o parte, Etapa de
Utilizare este cea mai lung perioad a vieii
mainii de splat i pe de alt parte, consumul
de energie i ap au cel mai ridicat nivel.
Utilizarea mainii se splat au diferite
impacturi asupra mediului n funcie de
comportamentul consumatorului programele
de splare utilizate ( temperatura de splare
utilizat, cantitatea de rufe spalate, tipul de
lenjerie, numrul de cicluri de splare n
decursul unei luni). Toi aceti parametrii ofer
un comportament diferit al consumului
(consumul de energie i ap care reprezint
aspectele ecologice, iar costurile (de utilizare i
ntreinere) reprezint aspectele acologice.
n paragrafele urmtoare sunt prezentate
cteva dintre aceste caracteristici ale utilizrii
mainii de splat.

b1) Water and energy consumption of

fully loaded cycles

b1) Consumul de energie i ap pentru

cicluri de splare la capacitate maxim

The energy and water consumption

are assumed for a 5 kg washing machine. All
data used in this study are about current
water and energy consumption. [8]

Este utilizat comnsumul de energie i

ap n cazul mainilor de splat cu o capacitate
de splare de 5kg. Toate datele utilizate n
acest studiu sunt n cazul consumului de ap i
energie curent [8].

Table 4.6

Specific energy and water consumption of a washing machine in 2004

Year of manufacture
Energy consumption (kWh/kg)
30C
40C
60C
90C
Water consumption (liter/kg)

2004
0.07
0.11
0.20
0.32
9.7

Table 4.6 shown the specific energy and

water consumption in 2004 at different
temperatures. These data are from

n Tabelul 4.6 este calculat consumul minim de

energie pentru diferite temperaturi de splare cu
ajutorul parametrilor menionai, comparaie

77

Stamminger 2004.

ntre energia consumat de mainile de splat

din clasa mediecu energia necesar funcionrii
celor mai bune maini de splat de pe pia
[Stamminger 2004 a.] i sunt valabile pentru
mainile se splat cu o capacitate de splare de
5 kg [8].
Cu ajutorul acestor calcule consumul
minim viitor de energie se reduce cu 10-13%
dect n cazul mainilor de splat cele mai
performante (mainile de splat din Clasa A
2004). Consumul de energie al mainilor de
splat cu performane medii existente pe pia
n 2004 este cu puin mai ridicat dect n cazul
mainilor de splat cu performanele cele mai
ridicate [8]..

During a washing cycle energy is

needed for heating the water and certain
parts of the washing machine and for
mechanical action and pumping.
The energy needed for heating can be
approximately calculated with the mass and
heat capacity of the amount of water and the
other parts of the heated during a washing
cycle and the difference between initial and
the final temperature.

Table 4.7

Minimum energy consumption per cycle at different wash temperatures

Nominal temperature
Heating energy consumption
Mechanical energy consumption
Total
minimum
energy
consumption
A-class machine 2004
Fleet average 2004

30C
kWh/cycle
0.10

40C
kWh/cycle
0.28

60C
kWh/cycle
0.64

90C
kWh/cycle
1.15

0.19
0.29

0.19
0.47

0.19
0.83

0.19
1.34

0.32
0.33

0.52
0.54

0.95
0.98

1.54
1.59

Table 4.7
shows the calculated
minimum energy consumption for different
temperature with the above mentioned
parameters in comparison with the energy
consumption of the currently best available
machines and the current fleet average
[Stamminger 2004 a.] and are available for a
5 kg washing machine.[8]
With these calculations the future
minimum energy consumption turns out to
be 10 to 13% lower than that of the currently
best available machine (A-class machine
2004). The average energy consumption of
all machines in the market in 2004 (fleet
average 2004) is slightly higher than that of
the best available machines. [8]

n Tabelul 4.7 este prezentat consumul

de energie i ap pentru o viitoare main de
splat (consum minim de energie i ap pentru
ncrcare maxim a maimii de splat).
Valorile corespunztoare unor ncrcri
mai mici ale mainii de splat sunt calculate
conform urmtoarelor formule:
Cu ajutorul acestor calcule consumul
minim viitor de energie se reduce cu 10-13%
dect n cazul mainilor de splat cele mai
performante (mainile de splat din Clasa A
2004). Consumul de energie al mainilor de
splat cu performane medii existente pe pia
n 2004 este cu puin mai ridicat dect n cazul
mainilor de splat cu performanele cele mai
ridicate [8].

78

b2) Automatic load adjustment

b2) Setarea automat a capacitii de splare

At currently available washing

machines with automatic load adjustment the
water and energy consumption is assumed
to be reduced by 15% at a loading of a 60%.
Due to lower prices for modern
control systems it is expected that automatic
load
adjustment
can
be
improved
significantly within the next years. An almost
linear reduction of the water and energy
consumption values seems possible. [8]

n cazul mainilor de splat existente pe

pia, prevzute cu setare automat a
capacitii de splare automat, consumul de
ap i de energie este presupus a fi redus cu
15% pentru o ncrcare de 60% a mainii de
splat.
Datorit preului sczut al sistemelor de
control moderne este de ateptat ca ajustarea
automat a ncrcrii mainii s scad
semnificativ n urmtorii ani. n acest caz este
posibil o reducere liniar a consumului de
energie i ap [8].

Table 4.8

Water and energy consumption with future load adjustment system

Load

Unit

5 kg
(100%
full)

3.75 kg
(75%
full)

2.5 kg
(50% full)

1.5 kg
(25% full)

Water (suds)

Liter

11

8.5

Water (per
rising cycle)

Liter

6,25

4,5

3,1

Temp.
Total energy
consumption

kWh

30C

0.29

0.27

0.25

0.23

kWh

40C

0.47

0.41

0.35

0.30

kWh

60C

0.83

0.70

0.57

0.46

kWh

90C

1.34

1.10

0.87

0.68

Table 4.8 is shown the possible water and

energy consumption figures for a future 5 kg
washing machine (with minimum water and
energy consumption when fully loaded as
above calculated).
For full loading these are equal to those
calculated above. The figures for lower
loading are calculated according to the
following equation:

n Tabelul 4.8 este prezentat consumul

de energie i ap pentru o viitoare main de
splat (consum minim de energie i ap pentru
ncrcare maxim a maimii de splat).
Valorile corespunztoare unor ncrcri
mai mici ale mainii de splat sunt calculate
conform urmtoarelor formule:

amount of water (suds) = 1 L + (11 - 1 L)/5 kg load (kg)

amount of water (rising) =1 L + (8 - 1 L)/5 kg load (kg)

79

b3) Type of laundry and consumer

behavior in 2004

b3) Categorii de lucruri i comportamentul

consumatorului n 2004

The choice of the wash temperature

and the loading of washing cycles strongly
depend on the type of laundry in private
households.
From the composition of the laundry can be
assumed different type of washing cycles,
the use of the different washing
temperatures and the loading of the washing
machine.

Alegerea temperaturii de splare i a

ncrcturii sunt dependente de categoriile de
lucruri din gospodriile private.
Plecnd de la diferitele tipuri de materialele
splate pot fi presupuse diferite tipuri de cicluri
de splare, utiliznd temperaturi i ncrcturi
diferite ale mainii de splat.

Table 4.9
Cycle
type

Proportion and amount of laundry washed in different washing cycles types

Load

Proportion of
laundry

Annual amount of laundry

kg

kg

Household
with 3 people

Small
household

Large
household

90C, full

64

64

94

60C, full

34

240

64

356

40C, full

3.75

13

90

64

134

23

164

64

244

3.75

30

64

45

83

588

260

863

40C,

30C,
full
Subtotal

Table 4.10
Proportion and amount of laundry washed in different washing cycles types
(continuation)
Cycle type

Load

Proportion
of laundry

Annual amount of laundry

kg

Household
with 3
people

Small
household

Large
household

30C,

2.5

34

64

50

30C,

2.5

10

71

64

105

30C,<

14

64

21

Subtotal

17

119

192

176

Total

100

707

456

1048

80

Table 4.9 and Table 4.10 show the derived

proportion of laundry that is washed in
different washing cycle types in 2004.

Tabelul 4.9 i Tabelul 4.10 prezint diferite

proporii de splare a

b4) Load size indicator to measure the

size of the wash load: influence on
loading and dosage of detergent?

b4) Indicator de msur a ncrcrii mainii

de splat: ce influen au ncrctura i
dozajul detergentului

Load size indicators are already

realized in several washing machines. These
machines have an LCD-display where the
reached proportion of the recommended
load is indicated. In addition they also
indicate what this means for the dosage of
detergent ( in Germany this feature is called
Beladungserkennung
mit
Dosierempfehlung ).
Even though there is no consumer
research data on the influence of this feature
available to the authors, it can be assumed
that it has at least a positive influence on
loading as the users get a direct feedback on
their behavior. A possible influence on the
dosage of the detergents is not relevant for
this study, as the impacts connected with the
use of detergents are not considered.[6]
Another possibility is the combination of a
load size indicator with an automatic dosage
system
(ADS).
Both
appliance
manufacturers and detergent industry
consider a broad introduction of this
technology as very unlikely. [75]

Indicatorii de msur a cantitii de rufe

sunt deja utilizai n cazul unor maini de splat.
Aceste maini de splat au un displaz LCD
unde sunt afiate proporiile de ncarcare a
mainii de splat recomandate n mod opional
sunt afiate i dozajele de detergent
recomandate (n Germania acestea se numesc
Beladungserkennung mit Dosierempfehlung ).
Chiar dac nu exist pna n momentul
de fa date experimentale cu privire la
importana consumatorului, poate fi presupus
faptul c acesta are o influen pozitiv, iar
consumatorii sunt direct implicai n aceste
aspecte. O posibil influen a dozajului de
detergent nu este relevant pentru acest studiu,
de aceea aceste informaii cu privire la impactul
detergentului nu sunt luate n considerare [6]
O alt posibilitate este utilizarea unui sistem
combinat care s indice ncrctura optim i
cantitatea de detergent indicat. (sistemul
ADS). Privind ambele posibiliti designerii
consider aceste opiuni nefolositoare [45].

c) Scoaterea din uz

c) End-of-life

Calcularea etapei de scoatere din uz a

mainilor de splat se axeaz pe numrul de
credite care pot fi acordate materialelor din care
sunt fabricate mainile de splat. Impactul
scoaterii din uz este: redistribuia, deeul
acestea fiind neglijabile n comparaie cu
celelalte etape ale ciclului de via. O excepie o
pot constitui materialele reciclate.
n conformitate cu WEEE, care
definete cerinele pentru materialele reciclate,
proporia de materiale bio-reciclabile este de
75%. Numai materialele care se presupune a fi
reciclate sunt introduse n fia de date de
calculare a creditelor acordate: oel, metal,
cupru i aluminiu din categoria metalelor, i
ABS i carbonul din categoria materialelor
plastice. Creditele sunt acordate doar pentru
50% din aceste materiale avnd la baz

The calculation of the end of life

phase of the washing machines
concentrates on the credits that can be given
for material recycling. The impact of the endof-life phase redistribution, shredding,
landfill is negligible compared to the
impacts of other phases. This might not be
the case for eventual credits for recycling.
According to WEEE, which defines
the requirements for material recycling, the
proportion of white goods that has to be
recycled on a material recycling basis lies at
75 %. Only materials that supposedly can be
recycled are included into the balance-sheet
for calculation credits: steel, iron, copper,
and aluminum within the metal fraction, ABS
and Carboran in the plastic fraction. The

81

credits are given for only 50 % of these

materials on a basis of primary material
production. This approach reflects the fact
that the credits have to be equally allocated
to the first and the second life cycle of the
material in question. Besides that, the
approach also corresponds to the procedure
chosen in [UBA 2000]. [8]

producia de materii prime. Aceasta arat c

aceste credite trebuie s fie acordate n mod
egal pentru primul i al doilea ciclu de via al
materialelor luate n considerare. De asemenea,
studiul corespunde procedurii utilizate de [UBA
2000] [8].
n timpul etapei de scoatere din uz sunt
folosite energie i ap pentru a scoate din
folosin maina de splat, de a o dezasambla,
de a recicla o parte din materialele utilizate, de
a arde aceste materiale i de a le refolosi.
n paragrafele urmtoare sunt descrise
materialele reciclate i cantitile de energie i
ap consummate n aceast etap.a ciclului de
via al mainii de splat.

During the End-of-Life phase is used energy

and water to get out the washing machine
from usage, than to disassembly it, to
recycle a part from the raw materials used to
manufacture it, to fuse and re-use these
materials.
In the next paragraphs are described the
materials recycled and the energy and water
used for this step of the washing machine life
cycle.

c1) Coninutul de materiale care vor fi

reciclate

c1) The material content witch will be

recycled

n etapa de scoatere din uz sunt cteva

materiale care vor fi reciclate. Tabelul 4.10
prezint lista de materiale care sunt reciclate
dintr-o main de splat.

In the End-of-Life step are several materials

which will be recycled. Table 4.11 shows
the list of that recycled materials from the
washing machine

Table 4.11
Overview of the total material content in the analyzed washing machine that most
probably will be recycled
Material
ABS
Aluminum
Carbon
Copper
Iron
Steel

Amount of washing machine

g
1.860
4.120
11.500
750
1.920
26.470

Table 4.12 shows the list of that recycled

materials from the washing machine

Tabelul 4.12 prezint lista materialelor reciclate

de la o main de splat.

82

Table 4.12
Overview of the material content, for which credits are given on a basis of primary
material production for the analyzed washing machine
Material

ABS
Aluminium
Carboran
Copper

Amount in washing machine that is given credits

for
g
credited
698
1.545
4.313
281

Iron
Steel

720
9.926

c2) Energy and water supply

c2) Necesarul de energie i ap

The environmental impact for the supply of

water is calculated according to the demand
of electric energy for pumping and
processing. [76]

Impactul asuora mediului sunt calculate

n conformitate cu necesarul de energie pentru
pomparea apei i procesul de splare. [46].

Table 4.13

Overview of the demand of electronic energy for the supply of water

Unit

Demand of electric energy

Energy for pumps

kWh/m3

0.35

Water processing

kWh/m3

0.41

Sum

kWh/m3

0.76

4.2.2.1.3

Impact

4.2.2.1.3 Cercetarea impactului ciclului de

via

The impact assessment methodology is

based on the general phases of life cycle
impact assessment (LCIA): selection of
impact
categories,
classification,
characterization,
normalization
and
weighting [77].

Metodologia de cercetare a impactului are

la baz fazele generale ale ciclului de via (life
cycle impact assessment (LCIA)): categoriile de
impacturi, clasificarea lor, caracteristici, selecia
acestor categorii, normalizarea i ierarhizarea
lor. [37].

The selected impact categories and

contributing emissions were:

Categoriile de impacturi selectate i emisiile

generate:

Life
Cycle
Assessment

modificarea climei (CO2, N2O,

CH4),
2 aciditatea (SO2, NOx, NH=3)
cantitatea de ozon troposferic(NOx,
1

climate change (CO2, N2O, CH4),

acidification (SO2, NOx, NH=3)
tropospheric ozone formation (NOx,
VOC/HC, CH4)

83

terrestrial eutrophication (NOx, NH3)

aquatic eutrophication (NOx, NH3,
N(w), P(w)).

Table 4.14

4
5

VOC/HC, CH4)
eutropificarea terestr (NOx, NH3)
eutroficarea acvatic (NOx, NH3,
N(w), P(w)).

Washing machine emissions in water and air

Environmental load
Primary energy use
CH4
CO
CO2
N2O
NOx a
SOx b
VOC/HCc
N(w)d
P(w)e

Value
1443
Emissions to air
243
600
69270
21.9
208
82.4
150
Emissions to water
78.2
4.21

Unit
109 MJ
109 g
109 g
109 g
109 g
109 g
109 g
109 g
109 g
109 g

All the dates from the Table 4.14 are from

Environmental loads of the Finnish
Economy research made in 2002.
a calculated as NO2
b calculated as SO2
c calculated as non-methane C
d calculated as total N
e calculated as total P

Datele utilizate n Tabelul 4.13 provin de la

studiul Environmental loads of the Finnish
Economy realizat n 2002.
a calculat caNO2
b calculat ca SO2
c calculat ca non-metan C
d calculat ca totalul de N
e calculat ca totalul de P

Air emissions occur primarily during

the supplier and consumer use stages, are
proportionally higher during consumer use
and are directly correlated to energy
generation from fossil fuels. In countries that
derive most of their energy from nuclear or
hydro-energy, like France and Sweden, air
emissions such as CO2, SOx, NOx are
expected to be much lower.
For other air pollutants such as dust particles
and VOCs, he highest emissions are
reported at the supplier stage. For example,
in the case of citric acid 50% of dust particle
emissions are associated with the production
of the material.
Emissions to water have a totally
different profile. Their distribution among the
different stages is highly dependent on the
chemical considered. More than 98% of
BOD and COD emissions to water occur
during the disposal stage. This is not

Emisiile n aer sunt caracteristice n

principal etapelor de distribuie i folosin, sunt
n mod proporional mai mari n perioada de uz
i sunt corelate n mod direct de generarea
energiei din petrol. n rile unde energia
provine n primul rnd din energia nuclear sau
hidroenergia, cum ar fi Frana i Suedia, emisiile
n aersunt asteptate a avea valori mai mici.
n cazul altor poluani cum ar fi particulele de
praf i VOCs, cele mai mari valori sunt
nregistrate n etapa de utilizare. De exemplu, n
cazul acidului citric, 50% din particulele de praf
sunt emise n etapa de producie a materialului.
Poluarea apei are un profil total diferit.
Distribuia acestora printre diferite stadii ale vieii
produsului depinde foarte mult de compoziia
chimic. Mai mult de 98% din emisiile de BOD i
COD sunt generate n etapa de scoatere din uz.
Aceasta nu este ntmpltor deoarece aproape
100% din substanele chimice utilizate la

84

splare sunt deversate n ruri.

surprising, since almost 100% of the

chemicals
used during the wash are discharged to the
sewer.
These discharges represent a very
low percentage of the total BOD originally
present in the detergent, as a large fraction
(90% on average for BOD) is removed
during wastewater treatment. More than 96%
of metal emissions occur during the disposal
phase. Most of the discharged metal
(99.95%) is sodium, which is the counter-ion
for many detergent ingredients and is
discharged as a salt (sodium carbonate,
sodium silicate, sodium perborate, etc.) [78].
4.2.2.1.4

Acestea reprezint un procent foarte mic

din totalul de BOD provenit din detergeni, (ceea
ce reprezint n medie cam 90% din totalul de
BOD) i este ndeprtat n timpul procesului de
tratare al apelor uzate. Mai mult de 96% din
substanele metalice emise sunt realizate n
timpul etapei de scoatere din uz. Cea mai mare
parte a etalului degajat (99.95%) este sodiul,
care este o component important a majoritii
ingredientelor folosite la detergeni i este
degajat sub form de sare (carbonat de sodiu,
silicat de sodiu, perborat de sodiu, etc.) [38].

Life Cycle Costing (LCC)

4.2.2.1.4

Costul ciclului de via (Life Cycle

Costing (LCC))

The economic analysis is based on

the method of a direct calculation of actual
costs. Different types of life cycle costs are
acquisition costs (e.g. price for appliances or
machines), costs for operating media (e.g.
costs for water, electricity, detergents), cost
of repair, maintenance or disposal. Auxiliary
investment costs (e.g. interests) can be
taken into account. Depending on the
system under consideration future costs
might be discounted.
In general external costs are not considered.
Usually external costs represent a certain
environmental issue. As in the eco-efficiency
analysis the environmental side is regarded
by itself this would mean a double-counting
of the environmental side.[8]

Analiza economic este bazat pe

calculul direct al costurilor actuale. Diferite tipuri
de costuri sunt: costul de achiziie (preul pltit
pentru aparate sau maini), costuri de operare
(costul apei, costul energiei electrice, costul
detergenilor), costul cu reparaiile, ntreinere i
deeuri. Costurile auxiliare (investiiile) pot fi
luate n considerare. n funcie de sistemul
considerat, unele costuri viitoare pot fi reduse.
n general costurile externe nu sunt luate n
considerare. n general costurile externe
reprezint cu siguran un aspect de mediu.
Aa cum analiza de eco-eficien a mediului
este privit ca un ntreg separat privind mediul
nconjurtor, aa i aceasta lume reprezinta o
parte a mediului nconjurtor. [8].

4.3

4.3

The pattern consumption

real scenario

To compare different customer

behaviors, are assumed four different
program settings of washing machine usage
in private households of three people. To
realize the comparison between them, it is
necessary to use the same system
boundaries to have the same unit of
comparison.

Comportamentul consumatorilor
scenariu real

Pentru
a
acompara
diferite
comportamente ale consumatorilor, sunt
presupuse patru comportanente diferite privind
utilizarea mainii de splat n gospodriile
private formate din trei persoane. Pentru a
realiza aceast comparaie sunt folosite
aceleai caracteristici ale sistemului pentru a
avea aceleai uniti de msur..
Analiza este facut n cazul aspectelor
de mediu (ecologice i economice) iar calculele
sunt realizate pe o perioad de o lun.

The analysis is made for

environmental impacts (ecological and
economical aspects) and the calculations are

85

for a month.

Cei patru consumatori utilizeaz acelai

tip de main de splat dar programele pe care
ei le folosesc sunt diferite (temperaturi de
splare diferite, ncrcri diferite ale mainii de
splat, utilizarea unor dozaje diferite de
detergent).
n cele ce urmeaz sunt prezentate
carcteristicile
mainii
de
splat
i
comportamentul consumatorilor.

That four users or consumers have

the same type of washing machine and
different behaviors (program settingsdifferent temperatures of wash, different
amount of laundry, different detergent
dosage).
Fallow are presented the washing
machine characteristics and consumers
behavior.
4.3.1

Washing machine characteristics

4.3.1 Caracteristicile mainii de splat

The major task of this study is

analyze the consumption pattern of private
households of three people.

Principala tem a acestui studiu este de

a analiza comportamentul diferiilor consumatori
din gospodriile private. Este luat n considerare
cazul gospodriilor formate din trei persoane.
Analiza este facut n cazul aspectelor
ecologice i economice. Consumatorii utilizeaz
acelai tip de main de splat, fabricat de
compania Bosch n acelai an i care prezint
aceleai caracteristici funcionale..

The analysis is made for ecological

and economical aspects. They are using the
same washing machine, manufactured by
Bosch Company, in the same year and
having the same characteristics.

Table 4.15

Washing machine characteristics

Washing
machine
characteristics
Acquisition
costs (average
price) []
Load capacity
[kg]
Spin speed
[r.p.m.]

Customer A

Customer B

Customer C

Customer D

500
5
1100

In Table 4.15 is shown the washing

machine characteristics used by four
different households.

n Tabelul 4.14
sunt prezentate
caracteristicile mainiii de splat utilizate de cei
patru consumatori.
Necesarul de ap pentru procesul de
splare in sine este limitat la cantitatea de ap
care trebuie curat dup utilizare. Este
presupus faptul c tehnologia de splare
actual utilizeaz o cantitate de 11 litrii de ap
pentru un ciclu de splare n cazul mainilor de
splat cu o capacitate de 5 kg (1 litru de ap de
baz i 2 litrii de ap pentru fiecare kilogram de
rufe). Nivelul cel mai redus al necesarului de

The necessary of water used for the

washing process itself is physically limited
due to the water uptake of the clothes and
the fact that the dirt has to be removed by
the water. It is assumed that with current
machine technology the lowest water level
for the suds of a standard 5-kg machine
therefore is 11 liters in a fully loaded cotton
program (1 liter as basis amount and 2 liters

86

per kg laundry). As lowest amount of water

needed for each rinsing cycle 8 liters are
assumed. With three rinsing cycles per
washing cycle this results in 24 liters for
rinsing and 35 liters for the whole cycle.
These assumed data are from Oko Institut
e.V.

ap pentru fiecare ciclu de cltire este de 8 litrii

de ap. Pentru fiecare ciclu de splare sunt
necesare 3 cicluri de cltire care reprezint 24
litrii de ap i 35 litrii de ap pentru ntreg ciclul
de splare.
Aceste date sunt preluate de la Oko Institut e.V.

4.3.2

4.3.2 Comportamentul consumatorilor

Consumer behavior

Pentru
a
analiza
eco-aspectele
comportamentului consumatorilor vor fi utilizate
impactul
asupra
mediului
(aspecte
ecologice) i impactul economic

To analyze the eco-aspects of the

consumer behavior will be used
environmental (ecological) impacts and
economical impacts.

4.3.2.1

Eco-analysis
behavior

of

consumers

4.3.2.1

To have a relevant image about

different consumers pattern, is chosen a
questionnaire to collect all the necessary
information.

Eco-analiza
comportamentului
consumatorilor

Pentru a avea o imagine relevant a

diferitelor comportamente, este utilizat un
chestionar pentru a colecta datele necesare.
1. De cte ori folosii maina de splat n
decursul unei luni? (
) ori

1. How often do you use your washing

machine in a month? (
) times

2. Care este cantitate de lucruri pe care le

splai n decursul unei luni? (
) kg

2. What is your amount of dirty clothes per

month?
(
) kg

3. Utilizai n general ncrctura maxim a

mainii de splat pentru un ciclu de splare (5
kg de lucruri pentru un ciclu)?
(
) Da
(
) Nu

3. Generally do you use a full-loaded

washing cycle (5 kg dirty clothes per
washing cycle)?
(
) Yes
(
) No

4. Ct de plin utilizai maina de splat pentru

un ciclu de splare?
a) 100 % full (
) ori/lun
b) 75 % full (
) ori/lun
c) 50 % full (
) ori/lun
d) 25 % full (
) ori/lun

4. How full do you load the washing

machine?
a) 100 % full (
) times/month
b) 75 % full (
) times/month
c) 50 % full (
) times/month
d) 25 % full (
) times/month

5. Ce temperatur de splare folosii n mod

frecvent?
a)
30 grade C (
) ori/lun
b) 40 grade C
(
) ori/lun
c) 60 grade C
(
) ori/lun

5. At what temperature do you wash your

clothes usually?
a) 30 C
(
) times/month
b) 40 C
(
) times/month

87

c) 60 C
d) 90 C

(
(

d) 90 grade C

) times/month
) times/month

) ori/lun

6. Ce cantitate de detergent folosii pentru un

ciclu de splare?
e)
30 grade C (
) ml/lciclu
f) 40 grade C
(
) ml/lciclu
g) 60 grade C
(
) ml/lciclu
h) 90 grade C
(
) ml/lciclu

6. What detergent dosage for a washing

cycle do you use?
a) 30 C (
) ml/cycle
b) 40 C (
) ml/cycle
c) 60 C (
) ml/cycle
d) 90 C (
) ml/cycle
7. Regarding the need of fresh water and
energy for washing machine, what is your bill
for a month? (
) euro/month

7. Privind necesarul de ap i energie pentru

maina de splat, care este factura
dumneavoastr lunar?
(
)
euro/lun

8. Do you use a drying machine?

(
) Yes
(

8. Folosii usctorul de rufe?

(
) Da
(

) No

9.Care este costul procesului de uscare pentru

o lun?
(
) euro/month

9.What is the cost for drying per month?

(
) euro/month
For this, 4 different consumers have
been asked to answer at the questionnaire.
Their results are presented as follows:

Pentru obinerea acestor date au fost

chestionai 4 consumatori diferii.
Rezultatele obinute sunt prezentate n
cele ce urmeaz.

Consumer A:
-

) Nu

is using the washing

machine 8 times/month.
washing cycle loading: 6
washing cycles 100% fullloaded and 2 washing
cycles 75% full-loaded
washing temperature: 6
washing cycles at 30 C and
2 washing cycles at 90 C
detergent
dosage:
100
ml/cycle
detergent
dosage:
100
ml/cycle
drying
machine:
2
times/month
washing costs per month:
12 euro
drying costs per month: 2
euro

Consumator A:
-

folosete maina de splat de 8

ori/lun.
ncrctura ciclului de splare:
6 cicluri de splare 100%
ncrcate i 2 cicluri de splare
75% ncrcate
temperatura de splare: 6
cicluri de splare la 30 C i 2
cicluri de splare la 90 C
dozajul
detergentului:
100
ml/ciclu
usctorul de rufe: 2 ori/lun
costurile procesului de splare
pe lun: 12 euro
costurile procesului de uscare
pe lun: 2 euro

Consumator B:
Consumer B:
-

is using the washing

machine 8 times/month.

88

folosete maina de splat de 8

ori/lun.
ncrctura ciclului de splare:

washing cycle loading: 5

washing cycles 100% fullloaded, 2 washing cycles
75% full-loaded and 1
washing cycle 50% fullloaded
washing temperature: 5
washing cycles at 30 C, 2
washing cycles at 40 C and
1 washing cycles at 90 C
detergent
dosage:
100
ml/cycle at 30 C, 130 ml at
40 C and 200 ml at 90 C
drying
machine:
0
times/month
washing costs per month:
12 euro
drying costs per month: 0
euro

Consumator C:
-

Consumer C:
-

is using the washing

machine 8 times/month.
washing cycle loading: 4
washing cycle 100% fullloaded and 2 washing cycle
75% full-loaded and 2
washing cycle 50% fullloaded
washing temperature: 4
washing cycles at 40 C, 2
washing cycles at 60 C and
2 washing cycles at 90 C
detergent
dosage:
150
ml/cycle at 40 C and 60 C
and 200 ml/cycle at 90 C
drying
machine:
4
times/month
washing costs per month:
12 euro
drying costs per month: 4
euro

folosete maina de splat de 8

ori/lun.
ncrctura ciclului de splare:
4 cicluri de splare 100%
ncrcate, 2 cicluri de splare
75% ncrcate i 2 cicluri de
splare 50% ncrcate
temperatura de splare: 4
cicluri de splare la 40 C, 2
cicluri de splare la 60 C i 2
ciclu de splare la 90 C
dozajul
detergentului:
150
ml/ciclu la 40 C i la 40 C i
200 ml/ciclu la 90 C
usctorul de rufe: 4 ori/lun
costurile procesului de splare
pe lun: 12 euro
costurile procesului de uscare
pe lun: 4 euro

Consumator D:
-

Consumer D:
-

5 cicluri de splare 100%

ncrcate, 2 cicluri de splare
75% ncrcate i 1 cicluri de
splare 50% ncrcate
temperatura de splare: 5
cicluri de splare la 30 C, 2
cicluri de splare la 40 C i 1
ciclu de splare la 90 C
dozajul
detergentului:
100
ml/ciclu la 30 C, 130 ml/ciclu
la 40 C i 200 ml/ciclu la 90
C
usctorul de rufe: 2 ori/lun
costurile procesului de splare
pe lun: 12 euro
costurile procesului de uscare
pe lun: 0 euro

is using the washing

machine 8 times/month.
washing cycle loading: 8
washing cycles 100% fullloaded
washing temperature: 8
washing cycles at 40 C
detergent
dosage:
175

89

folosete maina de splat de 8

ori/lun.
ncrctura ciclului de splare:
8 cicluri de splare 100%
ncrcate
temperatura de splare: 8
cicluri de splare la 40 C
dozajul
detergentului:
175
ml/ciclu
usctorul de rufe: 6 ori/lun
costurile procesului de splare
pe lun: 12 euro

ml/cycle
drying
machine:
6
times/month
washing costs per month:
12 euro
drying costs per month: 12
euro

n Tabelul 4.15 i Tabelul 4.16 sunt prezentate

toate
informaiile
privind
comortamentul
consumatorilor.

In Table 4.16 and Table 4.17 are

presented all information regarding
consumers pattern.

Table 4.16

costurile procesului de uscare

pe lun: 12 euro

Consumers pattern
Number Washing loaded
of
100% 75% 50%
washing
full
full
full
cycles
per
month

25%
full

30C

40C

60C

90C

Drying
cycles
per
month

Washing temperature

Consumer A

Consumer B

Consumer C

Consumer D

Table 4.17

Consumers pattern (continuation)

Detergent dosage
ml/cycle
30C 40C 60C 90C

Consumer A

100

100

Consumer B

100

130

200

Consumer C

150

200

Consumer D

175

175

Costs for washing and drying cycles are

presented in Table 4.18.

Costurile pentru ciclul de splare i uscare sunt

prezentate n Tabelul 4.17.

90

Table 4.18

Costs
Cost for washing
process

Costs for drying in

a month

[euro/ month]

[euro/month]

Consumer A

12

Consumer B

12

Consumer C

12

Consumer D

12

The current average costs for fresh water

and waste water treatment are assumed to
be 4, - /m3. For all scenarios a future
increase by 2 % is assumed.

Media curent a costurilor pentru ap

i tratamentului necesar apei uzate este
presupus a fi 4, - /m3. Pentru toate posibilitile
este presupus o cretere de 2%.
Media curent a costurilor pentru energie
electriceste de 0,18 ct/kWh. Acest domeniu
este explorat cu atenie. [8].
Toate aceste costuri sunt calculate
pentru o perioad de o lun..
Costurile pentru reparaii nu sunt luate n
considerare. Costurile pentru deeuri sunt
incluse n costul menionat, dar n acest studiu
nu
sunt
folosite.
n
conformitate
cu
nplementarea normelor WEEE n viitor, acestea
se presupune a fi incluse n preul de achiziie.

The current average costs for electricity

are 0,18 ct/kWh. This development is further
extrapolated. [8]
All these costs are calculated for a
month.
Costs for interests are not considered, as
the costs are relatively small compared
to total household expenditures.
Costs for repairs are not considered.
Costs for disposal are currently included in
the general waste fee and therefore not
considered in this study. Through WEEE
implementation in the future they are
expected to be included in the purchase
price.

91

5. Results

5. Rezultate

The goal of this study is to analyze

the environmental impacts of a washing
machine. For this have been realized a
questionnaire to collect all data.
All private consumers households
are using the same washing machine
manufactured by Bosch in 2004. This
washing machine has a 5 kg loading
capacity.
Washing machine characteristics are:

Scopul acestui studiu este de analiza

impactul asupra mediului al mainilor de splat.
Pentru aceasta, a fost utilizat un chestionar n
vederea colectrii datelor necesare.
Toi consumatorii din gospodriile private
folosesc aceeai main de splat produs de
compania Bosch n 2004. Aceste maini de
splat au o capacitate de splare de 5 kg.
Caracteristicile mainii de splat sunt:
Capaciatea de splare: 5 kg
Viteza de rotaie: 1100 r.p.m.
Durata de via: 10 ani

Loading capacity: 5 kg
Spin speed: 1100 r.p.m.
Life span: 10 years

Analiza de mediu privete aspectele

ecologice i pe cele economice. Toate
calculele sunt fcute pentru aceeai perioad
de timp de 1 lun.

The environmental analysis are regarding

ecological aspects and economical
aspects. All analysis are made for the same
period of time 1 month.

5.1

Ecological aspects

5.1 Aspectele ecologice

For all four consumers the ecological

aspects are ENERGY, WATER AND
AMOUNT OF DETERGENT
used in a
month for washing their dirty clothes.
Each from all four consumers is using
washing machine 8 times per month. Each
of them use different temperatures.
These differences are presented in next
charts, Fig. 5.1, Fig. 5.2, Fig. 5.3 and Fig.
5.4.

Pentru toi cei patru consumatori aspectele

ecologice
sunt:
ENERGIA,
APA
I
CANTITATEA DE DETERGENT necesar
pentru splarea lucrurilor ntr-o lun.
Fiecare consumator utilizeaz maina de
splat de 8 ori pe lun la temperaturi de
splare diferite..
Aceste diferene sunt prezentate n graficele
urmtoare, Fig. 5.1, Fig. 5.2, Fig. 5.3 i Fig.
5.4.

92

8
6

6
5
4
3

2
1
0
30C

40C

60C

90C

Washing temperature

Fig. 5.1 Consumer A Washing times per month

8
7
Washing times/month

Washing times/month

6
5

4
3

1
0
30C

40C

60C

Washing temperature

Fig. 5.2 Consumer B Washing times per month

93

90C

Washing times/month

8
7
6
5

4
3
2

60C

90C

1
0
30C

40C

Washing temperature

Fig. 5.3 Consumer C Washing times per month

Washing times/month

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
30C

40C

60C

90C

Washing temperature

Fig. 5.4 Consumer D Washing times per month

94

5.1.1

Energy Consumption

5.1.1

In 2004 Bosch Companys products

consume the following amount of energy,
which is different for washing temperatures.
These consumptions are presented as
follows:

Consumul de energie

n anul 2004 produsele realizate de

compania Bosch, consumau pentru diferite
temperaturi de splare urmtarele cantiti de
energie electric:
30C 0.32 kWh/ciclu
40C 0.52 kWh/ciclu
60C 0.95 kWh/ciclu
90C 1.54 kWh/ciclu

30C 0.32 kWh/cycle

40C 0.52 kWh/cycle
60C 0.95 kWh/cycle
90C 1.54 kWh/cycle

n cele ce urmeaz este calculat necesarul

de enegie pentru fiecare dintre cei patru
consumatori.

Next is calculated energy consumption for

each consumer.

Consumatorul A
Consumer A
Consumatorul A utilizeaz 6 cicluri de
splare la 30C i 2 cicluri de splare la 90C.
La temperatura de splare de 30C, necesarul
de energie este de 0.32 kWh/kg i la
temperatura de splare de 90C, necesarul de
energie este de 1.54 kWh/kg.
n Formula 5.1 este prezentat
cantitatea de energie necesar unui ciclu de
splare la temperatura de 30C.

Consumer A is washing his dirty

clothes 6 times at 30C and 2 times at
90C. At 30C washing temperature, the
need of energy is 0.32 kWh/kg and at 90C
washing temperature, the need of energy is
1.54 kWh/kg.
In Formula 5.1 is represented the
amount of energy for 1 washing cycle, .at
30C.

E1 (A) = 0.32 kWh/kg*5 kg =1.6 kWh/cycle

Where: E1 (A) need of energy at 30C for

1 washing cycle
In Formula 5.2 is represented the
amount of energy for 1 washing cycle, .at
90C.

(5.1)

Unde: E1 (A) necesarul de energie la 30C

pentru 1 ciclu de splare
n Formula 5.2 este prezentat
cantitatea de energie necesar unui ciclu de
splare la temperatura de 90C.

E2 (A) = 1.54 kWh/kg*3.75 kg = 5.775 kWh/cycle

Where: E2 (A) need of energy at 90C for

1 washing cycle
Consumer A is using his washing
machine 6 times 100% full loaded and 2
times 75% full loaded. So the amount of
laundry in a month is presented in Formula
5.3.

(5.2)

Unde: E2 (A) necesarul de energie la 90C

pentru 1 ciclu de splare
Consumatorul A utilizeaz maina de
splat de 6 ori 100% ncrcat i de 2 ori 75%
ncrcat. Deci, cantitatea de lucruri pentru o
lun este prezentat n Formula 5.3.

95

L(A) = 6*5 kg + 2*3.75 kg = 37.5 kg

Where: L(A) the amount of laundry in a

month
100% full loaded 5 kg dirty
clothes/cycle
75% full loaded 3.75 kg dirty
clothes/cycle

(5.3)

Unde: L(A) cantitatea de lucruri dintr-o lun

100% ncrcat 5 kg lucruri/ciclu
75% ncrcat 3.75 kg lucruri/ciclu
Necesarul total de energie utilizat de
maina de splat n decursul unei luni este
calculat n Formula 5.4 i Formula 5.5.

The total amount of energy used for washing

machine during a month are calculated in
Formula 5.4 and Formula 5.5.

ET (A) = E1 (A)*6 cycles + E2 (A)*2 cycles

(5.4)

ET (A) = 1.6 kWh/cycle*6 cycles +5.775 kWh/cycle *2 cycles = 21.15 kWh/month (5.5)

Energy consumption [kWh/month]

Where: ET (A) total amount of energy used

for washing machine

Unde: ET (A) Cantitatea total de energie

folosit de maina de splat

25
20
15
10

11.55
9.6

5
0
30C

40C

60C

90C

Washing temperature

Fig. 5.5

Consumer A Energy consumption during a month

Consumer B

Consumatorul B

Consumer B is washing his dirty

clothes 5 times at 30C, 2 times at 40C
and 1 time at 90C. At 30C washing

Consumatorul A utilizeaz 5 cicluri de

splare la 30C, 2 cicluri de splare la 40C i
1 ciclu de splare la 90C. La temperatura de

96

temperature, the need of energy is 0.32

kWh/kg, at 40C washing temperature, the
need of energy is 0.52 kWh/kg and at 90C
washing temperature, the need of energy is
1.54 kWh/kg.

splare de 30C, necesarul de energie este de

0.32 kWh/kg, la temperatura de splare de
40C, necesarul de energie este de 0.52
kWh/kg i la temperatura de splare de 90C,
necesarul de energie este de 1.54 kWh/kg.
n Formula 5.6 este prezentat
cantitatea de energie necesar unui ciclu de
splare la temperatura de 30C.

In Formula 5.6 is represented the amount

of energy for 1 washing cycle, .at 30C.

E1 (B) = 0.32 kWh/kg*5 kg =1.6 kWh/cycle

(5.6)

Where: E1 (B) need of energy at 30C for

1 washing cycle

Unde: E1 (B) necesarul de energie la 30C

pentru 1 ciclu de splare

In Formula 5.7 is represented the amount of

energy for 1 washing cycle, .at 40C.

n Formula 5.7 este prezentat

cantitatea de energie necesar unui ciclu de
splare la temperatura de 40C.

E2 (B) = 0.52 kWh/kg*3.75 kg = 1.875 kWh/cycle

(5.7)

Where: E2 (B) need of energy at 40C for

1 washing cycle

Unde: E2 (B) necesarul de energie la 40C

pentru 1 ciclu de splare

In Formula 5.8 is represented the amount of

energy for 1 washing cycle, .at 90C.

n Formula 5.8 este prezentat

cantitatea de energie necesar unui ciclu de
splare la temperatura de 90C.

E3 (B) = 1.54 kWh/kg*2.5 kg = 3.85 kWh/cycle

(5.8)

Where: E3 (B) need of energy at 90C for

1 washing cycle

Unde: E3 (B) necesarul de energie la 90C

pentru 1 ciclu de splare

Consumer B is using his washing machine 5

times 100% full loaded, 2 times 75% full
loaded and at 1 time 50% full loaded. So
the amount of laundry in a month is
presented in Formula 5.9.

Consumatorul B utilizeaz maina de

splat de 5 ori 100% ncrcat, de 2 ori 75%
ncrcat i 1 dat 50% ncrcat. Deci,
cantitatea de lucruri pentru o lun este
prezentat n Formula 5.9.

L(B) = 5*5 kg + 2*3.75 kg + 1*2.5 kg = 35 kg

97

(5.9)

Where: L(B) the amount of laundry

month
100% full loaded 5 kg
clothes/cycle
75% full loaded 3.75 kg
clothes/cycle
50% full loaded 2.5 kg
clothes/cycle

in a

Unde: L(B) cantitatea de lucruri dintr-o lun

100% ncrcat 5 kg lucruri/ciclu
75% ncrcat 3.75 kg lucruri/ciclu
50% ncrcat 2.5 kg lucruri/ciclu

dirty
dirty

Necesarul total de energie utilizat de

maina de splat n decursul unei luni este
calculat n Formula 5.10 i Formula 5.11.

dirty

The total amount of energy used for washing

machine during a month are calculated in
Formula 5.10 and Formula 5.11.
ET (B) = E1 (B)*5 cycles + E2 (B)*2 cycles + E3 (B)*1 cycles

(5.10)

ET (B) = 1.6 kWh/cycle*5 cycles +1.875 kWh/cycle 2 cycles + 3.85*1 cycles

= 15.625 kWh /month
(5.11)

Energy consumption [kWh/month]

Where: ET (B) total amount of energy used

for washing machine

Unde: ET (B) Cantitatea total de energie

folosit de maina de splat

25
20
15
10

8
3.875

3.75

5
0
30C

40C

60C

90C

Washing temperature

Fig. 5.6

Consumer B Energy consumption during a month

Consumer C

Consumatorul C

Consumer C is washing his dirty

clothes 4 times at 40C, 2 times at 60C
and 2 times at 90C. At 40C washing
temperature, the need of energy is 0.52
kWh/kg, at 60C washing temperature, the
need of energy is 0.95 kWh/kg and at 90C

Consumatorul C utilizeaz 4 cicluri de

splare la 40C, 2 cicluri de splare la 60C i
2 ciclu de splare la 90C. La temperatura de
splare de 40C, necesarul de energie este de
0.52 kWh/kg, la temperatura de splare de
60C, necesarul de energie este de 0.95

98

washing temperature, the need of energy is

1.54 kWh/kg.

kWh/kg i la temperatura de splare de 90C,

necesarul de energie este de 1.54 kWh/kg.
n Formula 5.12 este prezentat
cantitatea de energie necesar unui ciclu de
splare la temperatura de 40C.

In Formula 5.12 is represented the amount

of energy for 1 washing cycle, .at 40C.

E1 (C) = 0.52 kWh/kg*5 kg =2.6 kWh/cycle

(5.12)

Where: E1 (C) need of energy at 40C for

1 washing cycle

Unde: E1 (C) necesarul de energie la 40C

pentru 1 ciclu de splare

In Formula 5.13 is represented the amount

of energy for 1 washing cycle, .at 60C.

n Formula 5.13 este prezentat

cantitatea de energie necesar unui ciclu de
splare la temperatura de 60C.

E2 (C) = 0.95 kWh/kg*3.75 kg = 3.562 kWh/cycle

(5.13)

Where: E2 (C) need of energy at 60C for

1 washing cycle

Unde: E2 (C) necesarul de energie la 60C

pentru 1 ciclu de splare

In Formula 5.14 is represented the amount

of energy for 1 washing cycle, .at 90C.

n Formula 5.14 este prezentat

cantitatea de energie necesar unui ciclu de
splare la temperatura de 90C.

E3 (C) = 1.54 kWh/kg*2.5 kg = 3.85 kWh/cycle

Consumer C is using his washing machine 4
times 100% full loaded, 2 times 75% full
loaded and at 2 time 50% full loaded. So
the amount of laundry in a month is
presented in Formula 5.15.

(5.14)

Unde: E2 (C) necesarul de energie la 60C

pentru 1 ciclu de splare
n Formula 5.14 este prezentat
cantitatea de energie necesar unui ciclu de
splare la temperatura de 90C.

L(C) = 4*5 kg + 2*3.75 kg + 2*2.5 kg = 32.5 kg

Where: L(C) the amount of laundry in a
month
100% full loaded 5 kg dirty
clothes/cycle
75% full loaded 3.75 kg dirty

(5.15)

Unde: L(C) cantitatea de lucruri dintr-o lun

100% ncrcat 5 kg lucruri/ciclu
75% ncrcat 3.75 kg lucruri/ciclu
50% ncrcat 2.5 kg lucruri/ciclu

99

clothes/cycle
50% full loaded 2.5 kg dirty
clothes/cycle

Necesarul total de energie utilizat de

maina de splat n decursul unei luni este
calculat n Formula 5.16 and Formula 5.17.

The total amount of energy used for washing

machine during a month are calculated in
Formula 5.16 and Formula 5.17.

ET (C) = E1 (C)*4 cycles + E2 (C)*2 cycles + E3 (B)*2 cycles

(5.16)

ET (C) = 2.6 kWh/cycle*4 cycles +3.562 kWh/cycle* 2 cycles + 3.85*2 cycles

= 25.224 kWh /month
(5.17)

Energy consumption [kWh/month]

Where: ET (C) total amount of energy used

for washing machine

Unde: ET (C) Cantitatea total de energie

folosit de maina de splat

25
20
15
10.4
10

7.124

7.7

60C

90C

5
0
30C

40C

Washing temperature

Fig. 5.7

Consumer C Energy consumption during a month

Consumer D

Consumatorul D

Consumer D is washing dirty clothes

8 times at 40C.
At 40C washing
temperature, the need of energy is 0.52
kWh/kg.

Consumatorul D utilizeaz 8 cicluri de

splare la 40C. La temperatura de splare de
40C, necesarul de energie este de 0.52
kWh/kg.
n Formula 5.18 este prezentat
cantitatea de energie necesar unui ciclu de
splare la temperatura de 40C.

In Formula 5.18 is represented the amount

of energy for 1 washing cycle, .at 40C.

100

E (D) = 0.52 kWh/kg*5 kg =2.6 kWh/cycle

Where: E (D) need of energy at 40C for 1

washing cycle

(5.18)

Unde: E (D) necesarul de energie la 40C

pentru 1 ciclu de splare

Consumer D is using his washing machine 8

times 100% full loaded. So the amount of
laundry in a month is presented in Formula
5.19.

Consumatorul D utilizeaz maina de

splat de 8 ori 100% ncrcat. Deci, cantitatea
de lucruri pentru o lun este prezentat n
Formula 5.19.

L(D) = 8*5 kg = 40 kg

Where: L(D) the amount of laundry in a

month
100% full loaded 5 kg dirty
clothes/cycle
75% full loaded 3.75 kg dirty
clothes/cycle
50% full loaded 2.5 kg dirty
clothes/cycle
The total amount of energy used for washing
machine during a month are calculated in
Formula 5.20.

(5.19)

Unde: L(C) cantitatea de lucruri dintr-o lun

100% ncrcat 5 kg lucruri/ciclu
Necesarul total de energie utilizat de
maina de splat n decursul unei luni este
calculat n Formula 5.20.

ET (D) = E (D)*8 cycles = 2.6 kWh/cycle*8 cycles = 20.8 kWh/month

Energy consumption [kWh/month]

Where: ET(D) total amount of energy used

for washing machine

Unde: ET (D) Cantitatea total de energie

folosit de maina de splat

25
20.8
20
15
10
5
0
30C

(5.20)

40C

60C

Washing temperature

101

90C

Fig. 5.8

Consumer D Energy consumption during a mont

Energy consumption [kWh/month]

In Fig. 5.9 is presented a

comparison
regarding
consumption during a month.

5.1.2

parallel
energy

n Fig. 5.9 este prezentat o comparaie

paralel privind consumul de energie n
decursul unei luni.

0%

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

24.80%

30.52%

0%

54.60%

24%
29.40%

100%

0%
45.40%

51.20%

Consumer A

Consumer B

40.28%
0%
Consumer C

30 degrees C

40 degrees C

Fig. 5.9

Energy consumption-parallel comparison

Water consumption

60 degrees C

0%
Consumer D

90 degrees C

5.1.2 Consumul de ap

Consumer A

Consumatorul A

For Bosch washing machines the water

need for 1 kg dirty laundry is 9.71 liters.
The amount of laundry during a month is
37.5 kg dirty laundry. So, the total water
consumption for consumer A is presented in
Formula 5.21.

n cazul mainilor de splat Bosch,

necesarul de ap pentru 1 kg de lucruri este
de 9.71 litrii.
Totalul de rufe pentru o lun este de 37.5 kg.
Deci, consumul total de ap n cazul
consumatorului A este prezentat n Formula
5.21.

WT (A) = 9.71 liters/kg*37.5 kg/month = 364,125 liters/month

(5.21)

Where: WT (A) total amount of water used

for washing machine

Unde: WT (A) cantitatea total de ap folosit

pentru maina de splat

Consumer B

Consumatorul B

For Bosch washing machines the water

102

cazul

mainilor

de

splat

Bosch,

need for 1 kg dirty laundry is 9.71 liters.

The amount of laundry during a month is 35
kg dirty laundry. So, the total water
consumption for consumer B is presented in
Formula 5.22.

necesarul de ap pentru 1 kg de lucruri este

de 9.71 litrii.
Totalul de rufe pentru o lun este de 35 kg.
Deci, consumul total de ap n cazul
consumatorului B este prezentat n Formula
5.22.

WT (B) = 9.71 liters/kg*35 kg/month = 339.5 liters/month

(5.22)

Where: WT (B) total amount of water used

for washing machine

Unde: WT (B) cantitatea total de ap folosit

pentru maina de splat

Consumer C

Consumatorul C

For Bosch washing machines the

water need for 1 kg dirty laundry is 9.71
liters.
The amount of laundry during a month is
32.5 kg dirty laundry. So, the total water
consumption for consumer C is presented in
Formula 5.23.

n cazul mainilor de splat Bosch,

necesarul de ap pentru 1 kg de lucruri este
de 9.71 litrii.
Totalul de rufe pentru o lun este de 32.5 kg.
Deci, consumul total de ap n cazul
consumatorului C este prezentat n Formula
5.23.

WT (C) = 9.71 liters/kg*32.5 kg/month = 315.25 liters/month

(5.23)

Where: WT (C) total amount of water used

for washing machine

Unde: WT (C) cantitatea total de ap folosit

pentru maina de splat

Consumer D

Consumatorul D

For Bosch washing machines the water

need for 1 kg dirty laundry is 9.71 liters.
The amount of laundry during a month is 40
kg dirty laundry. So, the total water
consumption for consumer D is presented in
Formula 5.24.

n cazul mainilor de splat Bosch,

necesarul de ap pentru 1 kg de lucruri este
de 9.71 litrii.
Totalul de rufe pentru o lun este de 40 kg.
Deci, consumul total de ap n cazul
consumatorului D este prezentat n Formula
5.24.

WT (D) = 9.71 liters/kg*40 kg/month = 388 liters/month

(5.24)

Where: WT (D) total amount of water used

for washing machine

Unde: WT (D) cantitatea total de ap folosit

pentru maina de splat

In Table 5.1 is presented the need of water

for washing machine, for all four consumers

n Tabelul 5.1 este prezentat necesarul de ap

pentru maina de splat, pentru toi cei patru

103

consumatori
Table 5.1

Water consumption during a month

Consumer A

Consumer B

Consumer C

Consumer D

364.125

339.5

315.25

388

Water
consumption
[liters/month]

Water consumption [liters/month]

450
400

388

364.125

339.5

350

315.25

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Consumer A

Fig.5.10
5.1.3

Consumer B

Consumer C

Consumer D

Water consumption-parallel comparison

Need of detergent

5.1.2

Necesarul de dedetergent

Consumer A

Consumatorul A

Consumer A is using 100 ml

detergent for 30C washing temperature
and 100 ml detergent for 90C washing
temperature.
In Formula 5.25 is presented the total
amount of detergent for a month.

Consumatorul A utilizeaz 100 ml

detergent pentru temperatura de splare de
30C i 100 ml detergent pentru temperatura
de splare de 90C .
n Formula 5.25 este prezentat necesarul total
de detergent pentru o lun.

DT (A) = 8*100 ml = 800 ml/month

Where: DT (A) total amount of detergent

(5.25)

Unde: DT (A) totalul de detergent

104

Detergent consumption
[ml/month]

1500
1250
1000
750
500

400

400

250
0
30C

40C

60C

90C

Washing temperature

Fig. 5.11

Consumer A Detergent consumption during a month

Consumer B

Consumatorul B

Consumer B is using 100 ml

detergent for 30C washing temperature,
130 ml detergent for 40C washing
temperature and 200 ml detergent for 90C
wash.
In Formula 5.26 is presented the total
amount of detergent for a month.

Consumatorul B utilizeaz 100 ml

detergent pentru temperatura de splare de
30C, 130 ml detergent pentru temperatura de
splare de 40C i 200 ml detergent pentru
temperatura de splare de 90C.
n Formula 5.26 este prezentat necesarul total
de detergent pentru o lun.

DT (B) = 5*100 ml + 2*130 ml + 1*200 ml = 960 ml/month

Detergent consumption [ml/month]

Where: DT (B) total amount of detergent

(5.27)

Unde: DT (B) totalul de detergent

1500
1250
1000
750
500

500
260

200

250
0
30C

40C

60C

Washing temperature

105

90C

Fig. 5.12

Consumer B Detergent consumption during a month

Consumatorul C

Consumer C

Consumatorul C utilizeaz 150 ml

detergent pentru temperatura de splare de
40C, 150 ml detergent pentru temperatura de
splare de 60C i 200 ml detergent pentru
temperatura de splare de 90C.
n Formula 5.27 este prezentat necesarul total
de detergent pentru o lun.

Consumer C is using 150 ml

detergent for 40C washing temperature,
150 ml detergent for 60C and 200 ml
detergent for 90C.
In Formula 5.28 is presented the total
amount of detergent for a month.

DT (C) = 6*150 ml + 2*200 ml = 1300 ml/month

Detergent consumption [ml/month]

Where: DT (C) total amount of detergent

(5.28)

Unde: DT (C) totalul de detergent

1500
1250
1000
750

600

500

300

400

250
0
30C

40C

60C

90C

Washing temperature

Fig. 5.13

Consumer C Detergent consumption during a month

Consumer D

Consumatorul D

Consumer D is using 175 ml

detergent for 40C washing temperature
In Formula 5.29 is presented the total
amount of detergent for a month.

Consumatorul D utilizeaz 175 ml

detergent pentru temperatura de splare de
40C.
n Formula 5.28 este prezentat necesarul total
de detergent pentru o lun.

DT (D) = 8 * 175 ml = 1400 ml/month

Where: DT (D) total amount of detergent

(5.29)

Unde: DT (D) totalul de detergent

106

Detergent consumption [ml/month]

1400

1500
1250
1000
750
500
250
0
30C

40C

60C

90C

Washing temperature

Fig. 5.14

5.1.4

Consumer D Detergent consumption during a month

Total consumption

5.1.3

In Table 5.2 is presented a general overview

regarding ecological aspects (energy
consumption, water consumption, detergent
consumption) during a month for all
consumers households.

Table 5.2
detergent)

Consumer A
Consumer B
Consumer C
Consumer D

Consumul total

n Tabelul 5.2 este prezentat o imagine

general privind aspectele ecologice
(consumul de energie, consumul de ap i
consumul de detergent) pe durata unei luni,
pentru toi cei patru consumatori, din
gospodria privat

Ecological aspects (energy consumption, water consumption and amount of

Energy
consumption
KWh/month
21.15
15.625
25.224
20.8

Water consumption
Liters/month

Detergent
ml/month

354.125
339.5
315.25
388

800
960
1300
1400

107

Ecologycal aspects-total
consumption in a month

1600
1200

960

1000

800

800
600
400
200

1400

1300

1400

364.1
21.15

339.5

315.3
25.224

15.625

388.0
20.8

0
Consumer A

Consumer B

Energy consumption [kWh/month]

Consumer C

Consumer D

Water consumption [liters/month]

Detergent consumption [ml/month]

Fig. 5.15

Economical aspects total consumption (during a month)-parallel comparison

To have a more relevant idea about

ecological aspects (energy consumption,
water consumption, detergent consumption)
it is necessary to have the total consumption
during whole year.

Pentru a avea o imagine mai clar despre

aspectele ecologice (consumul de energie,
consumul de ap i consumul de detergent),
este necesar a avea imaginea complet a
consumului pe durata ntregului an.

In Table 5.3 is presented the total

consumption of energy, water and
detergent for all four consumers during a
year

n Tabelul 5.3 este prezentat consumul total

de energie, ap i detergent, pentru cei patru
consumatori pentru ntreg anul.

Table 5.3

Consumer A
Consumer B
Consumer C
Consumer D

Total consumption during a year

Energy
consumption
KWh/year
253.8
187.5
302.6
249.6

Water consumption
Liters/year

Detergent
ml/year

4249.5
4074
3783
4656

9600
11520
15600
16800

108

18000
16000
14000

11520

12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000

16800

15600

9600

4249.5
253.8

4074

4656

3783
302.6

187.5

249.6

0
Consumer A

Consumer B

Consumer C

Energy consumption [kWh/year]

Consumer D

Water consumption [liters/year]

Detergent consumption [ml/year]

Fig. 5.16

5.1.5

Economical aspects total consumption (during a year)-parallel comparison

Ecological aspects analyzed with

ECO IT Software

5.1.4

cu ECO IT Software

To apply Design for

Environment, designers need a
yardstick to measure the
environmental performance of
a product. Most environmental
information is confusing and
often fragmented. With ECO-it you have a
tool to really measure and optimize the
environmental performance of products,
using a sound method.
ECO-it uses Eco-indicator scores to express
the environmental performance of a
product's life cycle as a single figure. These
scores are calculated using the Ecoindicator methodology. This method is
based on the principles of Life Cycle
Assessment.
For this environmental analysis, all
consumers are using the same model of
washing machine-Bosch. The product life
cycle is analyzed with Eco-Indicator 99
method.

Pentru a aplica Design-ul

pentru
Mediu
(Design
for
Environment),
designerii
au
nevoie de o sit pentru a msura
performanele ecologice ale unui
produs. Cele mai multe dintre
informaiile ecologice sunt neclare i deseori
fragmentate. Softul ECO-it este o unealt
important i bun de a msur i optimiza
performanele ecologice ale produselor,
utiliznd o metod sigur.
ECO-it utilizeaz rezultatelele Eco-indicatorilor
95 i 99, pentru a exprima performanele
ecologice ale ciclului de via al produselor
privite ca ntreg. Aceste scoruri sunt calculate
utiliznd Metodologia Eco-Indicator . Aceast
metod are la baz principiile Life Cycle
Assessment.
Pentru aceast analiz de mediu, toi
consumatorii utilizeaz acelai model de
main de splat.-Bosch. Ciclul de via al
produsului este analizat cu Metoda EcoIndicator 99.

This method presents, on a detailed way,

all important stages of a product (production,
use, disposal).

Aceast metod prezint, ntr-un mod

detaliat, toate etapele importante ale vieii unui
produs (producie, utilizare, scoatere din uz

109

In production phase are presented al

materials of a washing machine (name of the
material, amount of material used and EcoIndicator value for each material)
In use phase is presented only the
energy consumption during a year and the
Eco-Indicator value.
In disposal phase are presented the
percentages of municipal, recycling,
incineration and waste of each material used
for product manufacturing. Also, are
calculated the Eco-Indicator 99 values for
each material. For each of these steps are
presented suggestive charts to have a clear
view.

Fig. 5.17

(deeu).
n Faza de Producie sunt prezentate
materialele necesare construciei unei maini de
splat (numele materialului, cantitatea necesar
i valoarea Eco-Indicatorului pentru fiecare
material).
n Faza de scoatere din uz sunt prezentate
procentele de material care vor fi reciclate, arse,
reutilizate, pentru fiecare material utilizat n
etapa de fabricaie a produsului. De asemenea,
este calculat i valoarea Eco-Indicatorului 99
pentru fiecare material.
Pentru fiecare dintre aceste etape sunt
prezentate grafice sugestive, pentru a avea o
imagine mai clar.

Product life cycle

110

Fig. 5.18

Product life cycle Production Phase

111

Fig. 5.19

Product life cycle Use Phase

The results of Eco-Indicator 99 are

presented in Fig. 5.20, Fig. 5.21, Fig. 5.22
and Fig.5.23 for whole product life cycle.

Rezultatele Eco-Indicatorului 99 sunt prezentate

n Fig. 5.20, Fig. 5.21, Fig. 5.22 i Fig.5.23
pentru ntregul ciclu de via al produsului.

112

Fig. 5.20

Product life cycle Consumer A

Fig. 5.21

Product life cycle Consumer B

113

Fig. 5.22

Product life cycle Consumer C

Fig. 5.23

Product life cycle Consumer D

The # sign indicates that some Ecoindicators for the disposal phase are
missing. This is due to al limitation of the
Eco-indicator 99 database. It indicates that
this result may present an underestimation of

Semnul # indic faptul c unele valori ale

Eco-indicatorilor lipsesc pentru Etapa de
scoatere din uz. Aceasta este datorit faptului
c, baza de date cu ajutorul creia se

114

the indicator for the disposal phase.

Regarding Eco-Indicator results for
all consumers, it can be seen that the
differences are in the use phase. For
production and disposal phase, the results
are the same, because the washing machine
characteristics are the same for all of them.
Consumers have different behaviors
and from here the results are different.

5.2

Economical aspects

For all four consumers are calculated:

COSTS FOR ENERGY, COSTS FOR
FRESH WATER AND WASTE WATER
TREATMENT, COSTS FOR DETERGENT
in a month for washing their dirty clothes.

5.2.1

calculeaz Eco-indicatorul 99 este limitat.

Aceasta indic faptul c pot lipsi valori ale ecoIndocatorului 99 n cazul Etapei de scoatere din
uz
Privind
rezultatele
Eco-Indicatorilor
pentru toi cei patru consumatori, se poate
observa c diferenele apar n Etapa de
Utilizare. Pentru etapele de producie i de
scoatere din uz, rezultatele sunt aceleai,
deoarece caracteristicile mainii de splat sunt
aceleai pentru toi.
Consumatorii au comportament diferit i
de aici apar aceste diferene.

5.2 Acpectele economice

Pentru toi cei patru consumatori sunt
calculate: COSTURILE PENTRU ENERGIA
ELECTRIC, COSTURILE PENTRU AP I
TRATAMENTUL
APEI
DEJECTATE,
COSTURILE PENTRU DETERGENT necesare
splrii lucrurilor ntr-o lun.

Costs for energy

5.2.1

Costurile pentru energie

To analyze the energy costs are used

current prices for energy in Braunschweig,
Germany. Electricity costs are from BS
Energy Company.
The current average costs for
electricity are 0,15 euro/kWh.
All energy costs are calculated for
each consumer and at the end is realized a
comparison between them.

Pentru a calcula costurile energiei sunt

folosite preurile actuale ale energiei electrice n
Braunschweig, Germania. Datele sunt preluate
de la Compania BS Energy Company.
Media actual a costurilor pentru
energie sunt 0,15 euro/kWh.
Toate costurile cu energia sunt calculate
pentru fiecare consumator, iar apoi este
prezentat o comparaie ntre acetia.

Consumer A

Consumatorul A

Consumer A use 21.15 kWh in a month for

washing his clothes. In Formula 5.30 is
calculated the total cost for energy.

Consumatorul A folosete 21.15 kWh

ntr-o lun pentru a spla lucrurile. n Formula
5.29 este calculat costul total al energiei.

CE (A) = 21.15 kWh/month * 0.15 euro/kWh = 3.172 euro/month

Where: CE (A) costs for energy in a month

(5.30)

Unde: CE (A) costurile cu energia ntr-o lun

115

Consumer B

Consumatorul B

Consumer B use 15.625 kWh in a month for

washing his clothes. In Formula 5.31 is
calculated the total cost for energy.

Consumatorul B folosete 15.625 kWh

ntr-o lun pentru a spla lucrurile. n Formula
5.30 este calculat costul total al energiei.

CE (B) = 15.625 kWh/month * 0.15 euro/kWh = 2.343 euro/month

(5.31)

Where: CE (B) costs for energy in a month

Unde: CE (B) costurile cu energia ntr-o lun

Consumer C

Consumatorul C

Consumer C use 25.224 kWh in a month for

washing his clothes. In Formula 5.32 is
calculated the total cost for energy.

Consumatorul C folosete 25.224 kWh

ntr-o lun pentru a spla lucrurile. n Formula
5.31 este calculat costul total al energiei.

CE (B) = 15.625 kWh/month * 0.15 euro/kWh = 2.343 euro/month

(5.31)

Where: CE (B) costs for energy in a month

Unde: CE (B) costurile cu energia ntr-o lun

Consumer C

Consumatorul C

Consumer C use 25.224 kWh in a month for

washing his clothes. In Formula 5.32 is
calculated the total cost for energy.

Consumatorul C folosete 25.224 kWh

ntr-o lun pentru a spla lucrurile. n Formula
5.31 este calculat costul total al energiei.

CE (C) = 25.224 kWh/month * 0.15 ct/kWh = 3.783 euro/month

(5.32)

Where: CE (C) costs for energy in a month

Unde: CE (C) costurile cu energia ntr-o lun

Consumer D

Consumatorul D

Consumer D use 20.8 kWh in a month for

washing his clothes. In Formula 5.33 is
calculated the total cost for energy.

Consumatorul D folosete 20.8 kWh ntro lun pentru a spla lucrurile. n Formula 5.32
este calculat costul total al energiei.

CE (D) = 20.8 kWh/month * 0.15 euro/kWh = 3.12 euro/month

Where: CE (D) costs for energy in a month

(5.33)

Unde: CE (D) costurile cu energia ntr-o lun

n Fig. 5.24 sunt prezentate costurile totale cu
energia pentru toi cei patru consumatori.

116

In Fig. 5.24 are presented total energy

costs for all four consumers.

3.783

Energy costs [euro/month]

4
3.5

3.172

3.12

3
2.343

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Consumer A

Fig. 5.24

5.2.2

Consumer B

Consumer C

Consumer D

Total energy costs for a month

Costs for fresh water and waste

water treatment

To analyze the water costs are used

current
prices
for
fresh
water
in
Braunschweig
The current average costs for fresh
water and waste water treatment are
assumed to be
4, - /m3. The
For each consumer are calculated
costs for water.
Consumer A
Consumer A uses 364.125 liters of
fresh water for washing his dirty clothes
during whole month.
The total costs for water in a month are
calculated in Formula 5.34.

5.2.2

Costurile pentru ap i tratamentul

apei menajere

Pentru a calcula costul apei sunt utilizate

preurile actuale ale apei din Braunschweig.
Media actual a preului apei i
tratamentului necesar apei menajere este
presupus a fi 4 /m3.
Cosurile sunt calculate pentru fiecare
consumator n parte.
Consumatorul A
Consumatorul A utilizeaz 364.125 litrii
de ap pentru splarea lucrurilor n decursul
unei luni.
Costul total al apei ntr-o lun este
calculat n Formula 5.33.

CW (A) = 364.125 liters/month * 0.4 ct/liter = 145.65 ct/month

Where: CW (A) costs for water (fresh and

Unde:

117

(5.34)

CW (A) costurile totale pentru ap

waste) in a month;

(proaspt i menajer) n decursul unei luni.

Consumer B

Consumatorul B

Consumer A uses 339.5 liters of

fresh water for washing his dirty clothes
during whole month.
The total costs for water in a month are
calculated in Formula 5.35.

Consumatorul B utilizeaz 339.5 litrii de

ap pentru splarea lucrurilor n decursul unei
luni.
Costul total al apei ntr-o lun este
calculat n Formula 5.34.

CW (B) = 339.5 liters/month * 0.4 ct/liter = 135.8 ct /month

(5.35)

Where: CW (B) costs for water (fresh and

waste) in a month;

Unde: CW (B) costurile totale pentru ap

(proaspt i menajer) n decursul unei luni.

Consumer C

Consumatorul C

Consumer C uses 315.25 liters of

fresh water for washing his dirty clothes
during whole month.
The total costs for water in a month are
calculated in Formula 5.36.

Consumatorul C utilizeaz 315.25 litrii

de ap pentru splarea lucrurilor n decursul
unei luni.
Costul total al apei ntr-o lun este
calculat n Formula 5.35.

CW (C) = 315.25 liters/month * 0.4 ct/liter = 126.1 ct/month

(5.36)

Where: CW (C) costs for water (fresh and

waste) in a month;

Unde: CW (C) costurile totale pentru ap

(proaspt i menajer) n decursul unei luni.

Consumer D

Consumer D

Consumer D uses 388 liters of fresh

water for washing his dirty clothes during
whole month.
The total costs for water in a month are
calculated in Formula 5.37.

Consumatorul D utilizeaz 388litrii de

ap pentru splarea lucrurilor n decursul unei
luni.
Costul total al apei ntr-o lun este
calculat n Formula 5.36.

CW (D) = 388 liters/month * 0.4 ct/liter = 155.2 ct/month

(5.37)

Where: CW (D) costs for water (fresh and

waste) in a month;

Unde: CW (D) costurile totale pentru ap

(proaspt i menajer) n decursul unei luni.

In Fig. 5.25 are presented total water costs

for all four consumers.

n Fig. 5.25 sunt prezentate costurile totale ale

apei pentru cei patru consumatori.

118

Total costs for water [euro/month]

1.8
1.6

1.552

1.456

1.358

1.4

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Consumer A

Fig. 5.25

5.2.3

1.261

1.2

Consumer B

Consumer C

Consumer D

Total water costs for a month

Costs for detergent

5.2.3

Costul total al detergentului

To analyze the detergent costs are used

current
prices
for
detergents
in
Braunschweig
All four consumers are using the same
detergent, ARIEL. The price for one pack of
8 liters is 10 euro.

Pentru a calcula costul total al

detergentului sunt utilizate preurile actuale ale
detergenilor din Braunschweig.

Consumer A

Consumatorul A

Consumer A is using 800 ml of detergent for

washing his clothes in a month. In Formula
5.38 is calculated the detergent costs for a
month.

Consumatorul A utilizeaz 800 ml de

detergent de rufe ntr-o lun. n Formula 5.37
este calculat costul detergentului necesar
pentru o lun.

Toi cei patru consumatori utilizeaz acelai

tip de detergent, ARIEL. Preul unei sticle de
8 litrii este de 10 euro.

CD (A) = 800 ml/month * 0.00125 euro/ml = 1 euro/month

(5.38)

Consumer B

Consumatorul B

Consumer B is using 960 ml of detergent for

washing his clothes in a month. In Formula
5.39 is calculated the detergent costs for a
month.

Consumatorul B utilizeaz 960 ml de

detergent de rufe ntr-o lun. n Formula 5.38
este calculat costul detergentului necesar
pentru o lun.

CD (B) = 960 ml/month * 0.00125 euro/ml = 1.2 euro/month

119

(5.39)

Consumer C

Consumatorul C

Consumer C is using 1300 ml of detergent

for washing his clothes in a month. In
Formula 5.40 is calculated the detergent
costs for a month.

Consumatorul C utilizeaz 1300 ml de

detergent de rufe ntr-o lun. n Formula 5.39
este calculat costul detergentului necesar
pentru o lun.

CD (C) = 1300 ml/month * 0.00125 euro/ml = 1.625 euro/month

(5.40)

Consumer D

Consumatorul D

Consumer D is using 1400 ml of detergent

for washing his clothes in a month. In
Formula 5.41 is calculated the detergent
costs for a month.

Consumatorul D utilizeaz 1400 ml de

detergent de rufe ntr-o lun. n Formula 5.40
este calculat costul detergentului necesar
pentru o lun.

CD (D) = 1400 ml/month * 0.00125 euro/ml = 1.75 euro/month

In Fig. 5.26 are presented total detergent
costs for all four consumers.

n Fig. 5.26 sunt prezentate costurile totale

pentru detergent pentru toi cei patru
consumatori.

2
Detergent costs [euro/month]

(5.41)

1.8

1.625

1.75

1.6
1.4
1.2
1

1.2
1

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Consumer A

Fig. 5.26

5.2.4

Consumer B

Consumer C

Consumer D

Total detergent costs for a month

Total costs

Total costs is calculated with Formula 5.42.

5.2.4

Costurile totale

Costurile totale sunt calculate cu Formula 5.41

120

CT = CE + CW + CD

(5.42)

The total costs results for all four consumers

are presented in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3

Rezeltatele costurilor totale pentru cei patru

consumatori sunt prezentate n Tabelul 5.3.

Total costs (energy costs, water costs, detergent costs)

Energy
costs
[euro/month]
Water
costs
[euro/month]
Detergent costs
[euro/month]
Total
costs
[euro/month]

Consumer A

Consumer B

Consumer C

Consumer D

3.172

2.343

3.783

3.12

1.456

1.358

1.261

1.552

1.2

1.625

1.75

5.628

4.901

6.669

6.422

In Fig. 5.27 are presented total costs for all

four consumers

n Fig. 5.27 sunt prezentate costurile totale

pentru cei patru consumatori

8
6.669

Total costs [euro/month]

7
6

6.422

5.628
4.901

5
4
3
2
1
0
Consumer A

Fig. 5.27

Consumer B

Consumer C

Total costs for a month

121

Consumer D

Total costs - percentages

100%
90%
80%

18%

70%

26%

60%
50%

25%

27.00%

28%

24.00%

47.00%

49%

Consumer B

Consumer C

24%
19%

40%
30%

56.00%

20%
10%

57%

0%
Consumer A

Energy costs

Fig. 5.28

Water costs

Consumer D

Detergent costs

Total costs for a month percentages

122

In Fig. 5.28 it can be seen the

differences in percentages about total costs
for energy, water and detergent.

5.3

n Fig. 5.28 pot fi observate diferenele

exprimate n procente pentru costurile totale cu
energia, apa i detergentul

Conclusions

The main task of this

methodology
was
to
analyze
the
environmental impacts of a washing machine
during its life cycle in private household. To
realize this analysis was used LCA tool help
which is the most complex and complete
method to analyze environmental impacts of
a product. For that was analyzed four
different consumers behavior to see who of
them have the friendly environmental
behavior. Their environmental impact of
using washing machine was presented in
two ways of comparison. First, using Excell
comparison to calculate the total amount of
ecological and economical impacts and the
second way, using ECO IT Software help.
This software was used just for energy
consumption comparison.
As it is presented, the most
environmental impacts are in the Use Phase,
where the consumption of ecological
resources (energy, water, raw materials) and
economical resources (money) have the
highest level.
Regarding
ecological
aspects
consumer C has the highest influence for the
environment because he is using the most
quantity of resources.
The energy consumption is different
for different washing temperatures; for a
30C-washing
temperature
energy
consumption has a smaller value than for a
90C-washing temperature.
In April 1996 the European Committee of
Manufacturers of Domestic Equipment
(CECED) presented a commitment about
energy saving to the European Commission.
This Commitment was made on behalf of the
European manufacturers of domestic
washing machines and was aimed at a
considerable
reduction
of
energy
consumption of washing machines. By this,
the results of an intensive discussion
amongst manufacturers and between them
and the European Commission were put in a
written proposal. The market coverage of

5.3

Concluzii

Principalul obiectiv al acestei

metodologii a fost de a analiza impactul
ecologic al mainii de splat de-a lungul
ntregului ciclu de via n gospodria privat.
Pentru a realiza aceast analiz a fost folosit
metoda LCA care este cea mai complex i
complet metod de analiz a impactului
asupra mediului al unui produs. Pentru acesta
au fost analizate patru comportamente diferite
ale consumatorilor. Impactul utilizrii mainilor
de splat n gospodriile lor a fost prezentat n
dou moduri. Prima, utiliznd Excell pentru a
calcula totalul de efecte ecologice i economice
i a doua, utiliznd ECO IT Software. Acest
Software a fost utilizat doar pentru comparaia
consumului de energie din etapa de utilizare a
produsului.
Aa cum a fost prezentat, cele mai mari
efecte negative asupra mediului nconjurtor
sunt n Etapa de Utilizare a produsului, unde
consumul de resurse naturale (ecologice)
(materii prime, energie, ap) i resurse
economice (bani) au nivelul cel mai ridicat.
Privind
aspectele
ecologice
consumatorul C are cea mai mare influen
asupra mediului deoarece folosete cantitatea
cea mai mare de resurse.
Consumul de energie este diferit pentru
diferite temperaturi de splare, n cazul
temperaturii de 30C consumul de energie are
valoarea cea mai mic, iar n cazul temperaturii
de 90C consumul de energie are valoarea cea
mai mare.
n Aprilie 1996 Comitelul European al
Productorilor de Echipamente Electrocasnice
(CECED) o prezentat Comisiei Europene un
angajament despre economisirea energiei.
Acest angajament a fost fcut n colaborare cu
Productorii europeni de maini de splat de uz
casnic i a fost destinat reducerii consumului
de energie. De aceea, rezultatele unor discuii
intensive
ntre
productori
i
Comisia
European privind reducerea consumului de
energie, au constituit un obiectiv principal.
Productorii care au participat la discuii
reprezint 9% din totalul productorilor

123

participating manufacturers amounts to

almost 97% (assessment by GFK 1996). The
number of brands affected by the
Commitment is near to 250. The overall
saving target of the Commitment is to reduce
the specific energy consumption of domestic
washing machines by 20% in the period
1994 - 2000. In practice, this means to bring
the value of 0.30 kWh/kg down to 0.24
kWh/kg within 6 years.
Regarding the water consumption,
this is the same for all washing
temperatures. The quantity of waste water is
bigger with number of washing cycles.
Number of liters of water is the same for all
washing loadings (full-100%, full-75%,
full-50%, full-25%. To have the lowest
level possible of the water consumption, it is
necessary to use the washing machine at full
loaded capacity. The more washing cycles
will be full loaded, the less will be the
quantity of fresh water used.
The consumption of detergent is
different with washing temperature used. In
near future, designers from Bosch want to
develop new products which will be used
only at 20C-washing temperature, than
detergents have to have the same
performances
for
20C-washing
temperatures, than at
90C-washing
temperature. Their composition have to be
non-toxic for near rivers and sea, where the
waste water will return after use. In this way
the water pollution will have a lower level.
About economical aspects (costs for
energy, water and detergent) will be lower
with lower consumption.
So, if the washing machine will be
used
at
low
temperatures,
energy
consumption will have a small value; if the
washing machine is used at full capacity
than the number of washing cycles will be
smaller and in this case the water
consumption will be lower.
For all these the costs will decrease
and the money will be saved.

(cercetri GFK 1996). Numrul de mrci

productoare care au participat la dezbateri se
ridic la 250. Scopul principal al acestui
angajament este de a reduce consumul specific
de energie al mainilor de splat de uz casnic
cu 20% ntre 1994 - 2000. Practic, aceasta
nseamn a aduce consumul de energie la
valoarea de 0.30 kWh/kg cu 0.24 kWh/kg mai
mic n 6 ani.
Privind consumul de ap, acesta are
aceeai valoare n cazul tuturor temperaturilor
de splare utilizate. Cantitatea de ap dejectat
crete cu numrul de cicluri de splare utilizate.
Numrul de litrii de ap este acelai indiferent
de capacitatea de splare aleas. (complet100%, complet-75%, complet-50%,
complet-25%. Pentru a avea cel mai mic nivel al
consumului de ap, este necesar a fi utilizat
maina de splat la capacitate maxim. Cu ct
ciclurile de splare se vor apropia de
capacitatea maxim a mainii de splat, cu att
cantitatea de ap utilizat va fi mai mic.
Consumul de detergent difer n funcie
de temperature de splare aleas. n viitorul
apropiat,
designerii
companiei
Bosch,
intenioneaz s dezvolte noi produse care vor
fi utilizate doar la temperatura de splare de
20C, iar detergenii vor avea aceleai
performane de splare la temperature de 20C
ca la temperatura de splare de 90C.
Compoziia acestora nu va mai fi toxic pentru
rurile din apropiere, mri sau oceane, unde
apa dejctat va fi deversat dup utilizare. n
acest fel poluarea apei va avea cel mai mic
nivel.
Privind aspectele economice, (costul
energiei, apei i al detergentului) va fi mai mic
dac consumul se va reduce.
Deci, dac maina de splat va fi utiliza
programe de splare cu temperaturi sczute,
atunci consumul de energie va avea valori
sczute; dac maina de splat va ji utilizat la
capacitate maxim, atunci numrul de cicluri de
splare va fi mai mic iar consumul de ap va
avea i el valori mai mici.
Pentru toate acestea costurile vor
scdea iar banii vor fi economisii.

124

6. Conclusions and outlook

The main task of this study was to
analyze the environmental impacts of EuP
products in private households with LCA
tool. For this was realized a questionnaire to
collect all data needed.
The environmental impacts of a
electronic product are expressed with LCA
help. At the beginning are presented all
important steps from a product life cycle
raw materials, production, use phase, endof-life and final disposal. .
In practical part of this study are
analyzed environmental impacts of a
washing
machine
for
four
different
consumers behavior.
LCA tool is a complete environmental
analysis tool for all products and services
also. As it was used for a washing machine
case, as well it can be used for all household
appliances and will be found ways or ideas
how to reduce the environmental impacts of
them.

6. Privire de ansamblu i
concluzii generale
Scopul principal al acestui studiu a fost
de a analiza impactul asupra mediului
nconjurtor al produselor EuP din gospodriile
private cu ajutorul metodei LCA. Pentru aceasta
a fost realizat un chestionar n vederea
colectrii datelor necesare.
Efectele
ecologice ale
aparatelor
electrocasnice sunt exprimate n termenii
metodei LCA. La nceput sunt prezentate toate
etapele importante ale vieii unui produs
materii prime, etapa de producie, etapa de
utilizare, etapa de scoatere din uz i deeurile
finale.
n partea practic a acestui studiu este
analizat comportamentul consumatorilor. Sunt
luate n considerare patru cazuri diferite.
Metoda LCA este o metod complet de analiz
ecologic pentru toate produsele i serviciile
deopotriv. n acest caz, aceast metod a fost
utilizat pentru maina de splat, dar poate fi
folosit cu succes n cazul tuturor aparatelor
electrocasnice n vederea gsirii de idei i soluii
de reducere a efectelor negative asupra
mediului nconjurtor

125

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130

ANEX

22.7.2005

EN

Official Journal of the European Union

L 191/29

DIRECTIVE 2005/32/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL

of 6 July 2005
establishing a framework for the setting of ecodesign requirements for energy-using products and
amending Council Directive 92/42/EEC and Directives 96/57/EC and 2000/55/EC of the European
Parliament and of the Council

environmental impact of those products should be

encouraged, notably by identifying the major sources
of negative environmental impacts and avoiding transfer
of pollution, when this improvement does not entail
excessive costs.

THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE COUNCIL OF THE

EUROPEAN UNION,

Having regard to the Treaty establishing the European

Community, and in particular Article 95 thereof,

Having regard to the proposal from the Commission,

Having regard to the opinion of the European Economic and

Social Committee (1),
(3)

The ecodesign of products is a crucial factor in the

Community strategy on Integrated Product Policy. As a
preventive approach, designed to optimise the environmental performance of products, while maintaining their
functional qualities, it provides genuine new opportunities for manufacturers, for consumers and for society as
a whole.

(4)

Energy efficiency improvement with one of the

available options being more efficient end use of
electricity is regarded as contributing substantially
to the achievement of greenhouse gas emission targets in
the Community. Electricity demand is the fastest growing
energy end use category and is projected to grow within
the next 20 to 30 years, in the absence of any policy
action to counteract this trend. A significant reduction in
energy consumption as suggested by the Commission in
its European Climate Change Programme (ECCP) is
possible. Climate change is one of the priorities of the
Sixth Community Environment Action Programme, laid
down by Decision No 1600/2002/EC of the European
Parliament and of the Council (3). Energy saving is the
most cost-effective way to increase security of supply and
reduce import dependency. Therefore, substantial
demand side measures and targets should be adopted.

(3)

OJ L 242, 10.9.2002, p. 1.

Acting in accordance with the procedure laid down in

Article 251 of the Treaty (2),

Whereas:

(1)

The disparities between the laws or administrative

measures adopted by the Member States in relation to
the ecodesign of energy-using products can create
barriers to trade and distort competition in the
Community and may thus have a direct impact on the
establishment and functioning of the internal market.
The harmonisation of national laws is the only means to
prevent such barriers to trade and unfair competition.

(2)

Energy-using products (EuPs) account for a large

proportion of the consumption of natural resources
and energy in the Community. They also have a number
of other important environmental impacts. For the vast
majority of product categories available on the Community market, very different degrees of environmental
impact can be noted though they provide similar
functional performances. In the interest of sustainable
development, continuous improvement in the overall

(1)
(2)

OJ C 112, 30.4.2004, p. 25.

Opinion of the European Parliament of 20 April 2004 (OJ
C 104 E, 30.4.2004, p. 319), Council Common Position of
29 November 2004 (OJ C 38 E, 15.2.2005, p. 45), Position of
the European Parliament of 13 April 2005, and Council
Decision of 23 May 2005.

L 191/30
(5)

(6)

EN

Official Journal of the European Union

Action should be taken during the design phase of EuPs,

since it appears that the pollution caused during a
product's life cycle is determined at that stage, and most
of the costs involved are committed then.

A coherent framework for the application of Community

ecodesign requirements for EuPs should be established
with the aim of ensuring the free movement of those
products which comply and of improving their overall
environmental impact. Such Community requirements
should respect the principles of fair competition and
international trade.

22.7.2005

(11) The approach set out in the Green Paper on Integrated

Product Policy, which is a major innovative element of

the Sixth Community Environment Action Programme,
aims to reduce the environmental impacts of products
across the whole of their life cycle. Considering at the
design stage a product's environmental impact throughout its whole life cycle has a high potential to facilitate
environmental improvement in a cost-effective way.
There should be sufficient flexibility to enable this factor
to be integrated in product design whilst taking account
of technical, functional and economic considerations.

(12) Although a comprehensive approach to environmental

performance is desirable, greenhouse gas mitigation

through increased energy efficiency should be considered
a priority environmental goal pending the adoption of a
working plan.
(7)

Ecodesign requirements should be set bearing in mind

the goals and priorities of the Sixth Community
Environment Action Programme, including as appropriate applicable goals of the relevant thematic strategies
of that Programme.
(13) It may be necessary and justified to establish specific

(8)

This Directive seeks to achieve a high level of protection

for the environment by reducing the potential environmental impact of EuPs, which will ultimately be
beneficial to consumers and other end-users. Sustainable
development also requires proper consideration of the
health, social and economic impact of the measures
envisaged. Improving the energy efficiency of products
contributes to the security of the energy supply, which is
a precondition of sound economic activity and therefore
of sustainable development.

(9)

A Member State deeming it necessary to maintain

national provisions on grounds of major needs relating
to the protection of the environment, or to introduce
new ones based on new scientific evidence relating to the
protection of the environment on grounds of a problem
specific to that Member State arising after the adoption
of the applicable implementing measure, may do so
following the conditions laid down in Article 95(4), (5)
and (6) of the Treaty, that provides for a prior
notification to and approval from the Commission.

quantified ecodesign requirements for some products or

environmental aspects thereof in order to ensure that
their environmental impact is minimised. Given the
urgent need to contribute to the achievement of the
commitments in the framework of the Kyoto Protocol to
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), and without prejudice to the
integrated approach promoted in this Directive, some
priority should be given to those measures with a high
potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions at low
cost. Such measures can also contribute to a sustainable
use of resources and constitute a major contribution to
the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable
production and consumption agreed at the World
Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg
in September 2002.

(14) As a general principle, the energy consumption of EuPs

in stand-by or off-mode should be reduced to the

minimum necessary for their proper functioning.

(15) While the best-performing products or technologies

(10) In order to maximise the environmental benefits from

improved design it may be necessary to inform

consumers about the environmental characteristics and
performance of EuPs and to advise them about how to
use products in a manner which is environmentally
friendly.

available on the market, including on international

markets, should be taken as reference, the level of
ecodesign requirements should be established on the
basis of technical, economic and environmental analysis.
Flexibility in the method for establishing the level of
requirements can make swift improvement of environmental performance easier. Interested parties involved
should be consulted and cooperate actively in this
analysis. The setting of mandatory measures requires
proper consultation of the parties involved. Such

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consultation may highlight the need for a phased

introduction or transitional measures. The introduction
of interim targets increases the predictability of the
policy, allows for accommodating product development
cycles and facilitates long term planning for interested
parties.

L 191/31

(22) When preparing implementing measures and its working

plan the Commission should consult Member States'

representatives as well as interested parties concerned
with the product group, such as industry, including SMEs
and craft industry, trade unions, traders, retailers,
importers, environmental protection groups and consumer organisations.

(16) Priority should be given to alternative courses of action

such as self-regulation by the industry where such action

is likely to deliver the policy objectives faster or in a less
costly manner than mandatory requirements. Legislative
measures may be needed where market forces fail to
evolve in the right direction or at an acceptable speed.

(23) When preparing implementing measures, the Commis-

sion should also take due account of existing national

environmental legislation, in particular concerning toxic
substances, which Member States have indicated that
they consider should be preserved, without reducing the
existing and justified levels of protection in the Member
States.

(17) Self-regulation, including voluntary agreements offered

as unilateral commitments by industry, can provide for

quick progress due to rapid and cost-effective implementation, and allows for flexible and appropriate
adaptation to technological options and market sensitivities.
(24) Regard should be given to the modules and rules

intended for use in technical harmonisation Directives set

out in Council Decision 93/465/EEC of 22 July 1993
concerning the modules for the various phases of the
conformity assessment procedures and the rules for the
affixing and use of the CE conformity marking, which are
intended to be used in the technical harmonisation
directives (1).

(18) For the assessment of voluntary agreements or other self-

regulation measures presented as alternatives to implementing measures, information on at least the following
issues should be available: openness of participation,
added value, representativeness, quantified and staged
objectives, involvement of civil society, monitoring and
reporting, cost-effectiveness of administering a selfregulatory initiative, sustainability.

(25) Surveillance authorities should exchange information on

the measures envisaged within the scope of this Directive

with a view to improving surveillance of the market.
Such cooperation should make the utmost use of
electronic means of communication and relevant Community programmes. The exchange of information on
environmental life cycle performance and on the
achievements of design solutions should be facilitated.
The accumulation and dissemination of the body of
knowledge generated by the ecodesign efforts of
manufacturers is one of the crucial benefits of this
Directive.

(19) Chapter 6 of the Commission's Communication on

Environmental Agreements at Community level within

the Framework of the Action Plan on the Simplification
and Improvement of the Regulatory Environment could
provide useful guidance when assessing self-regulation by
industry in the context of this Directive.

(20) This Directive should also encourage the integration of

ecodesign in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)

and very small firms. Such integration could be facilitated
by wide availability of and easy access to information
relating to the sustainability of their products.
(26) A competent body is usually a public or private body,

designated by the public authorities, and presenting the

necessary guarantees for impartiality and availability of
technical expertise for carrying out verification of the
product with regard to its compliance with the applicable
implementing measures.

(21) EuPs complying with the ecodesign requirements laid

down in implementing measures to this Directive should

bear the CE marking and associated information, in
order to enable them to be placed on the internal market
and move freely. The rigorous enforcement of implementing measures is necessary to reduce the environmental impact of regulated EuPs and to ensure fair
competition.

(1)

OJ L 220, 30.8.1993, p. 23.

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Official Journal of the European Union

(27) Noting the importance of avoiding non-compliance,

22.7.2005

(33) This Directive is complementary to existing Community

instruments such as Council Directive 92/75/EEC of

22 September 1992 on the indication by labelling and
standard product information of the consumption of
energy and other resources by household appliances (3),
Regulation (EC) No 1980/2000 of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 17 July 2000 on a
revised Community eco-label award scheme (4), Regulation (EC) No 2422/2001 of the European Parliament and
of the Council of 6 November 2001 on a Community
energy efficiency labelling programme for office equipment (5), Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on waste
electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) (6), Directive
2002/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council of 27 January 2003 on the restriction of the use
of certain hazardous substances in electrical and
electronic equipment (7) and Council Directive 76/769/
EEC of 27 July 1976 on the approximation of the laws,
regulations and administrative provisions of the Member
States relating to restrictions on the marketing and use of
certain dangerous substances and preparations (8). Synergies between this Directive and the existing Community
instruments should contribute to increasing their
respective impacts and building coherent requirements
for manufacturers to apply.

Member States should ensure that the necessary means

are available for effective market surveillance.

(28) In respect of training and information on ecodesign for

SMEs, it may be appropriate to consider accompanying

activities.

(29) It is in the interest of the functioning of the internal

market to have standards which have been harmonised at

Community level. Once the reference to such a standard
has been published in the Official Journal of the European
Union, compliance with it should raise a presumption of
conformity with the corresponding requirements set out
in the implementing measure adopted on the basis of this
Directive, although other means of demonstrating such
conformity should be permitted.

(30) One of the main roles of harmonised standards should

be to help manufacturers in applying the implementing

measures adopted under this Directive. Such standards
could be essential in establishing measuring and testing
methods. In the case of generic ecodesign requirements
harmonised standards could contribute considerably to
guiding manufacturers in establishing the ecological
profile of their products in accordance with the
requirements of the applicable implementing measure.
These standards should clearly indicate the relationship
between their clauses and the requirements dealt with.
The purpose of harmonised standards should not be to
fix limits for environmental aspects.

(34) Since Council Directive 92/42/EEC of 21 May 1992 on

efficiency requirements for new hot-water boilers fired

with liquid or gaseous fuels (9), Directive 96/57/EC of the
European Parliament and of the Council of 3 September
1996 on energy efficiency requirements for household
electric refrigerators, freezers and combinations
thereof (10) and Directive 2000/55/EC of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on
energy efficiency requirements for ballasts for fluorescent
lighting (11) already contain provisions for the revision of
the energy efficiency requirements, they should be
integrated into the present framework.

(31) For the purpose of definitions used in this Directive it is

useful to refer to relevant international standards such as

ISO 14040.

(32) This Directive is in accordance with certain principles for

the implementation of the new approach as set out in the

Council Resolution of 7 May 1985 on a new approach to
technical harmonisation and standards (1) and of making
reference to harmonised European standards. The
Council Resolution of 28 October 1999 on the role of
standardisation in Europe (2) recommended that the
Commission should examine whether the New
Approach principle could be extended to sectors not
yet covered as a means of improving and simplifying
legislation wherever possible.

(3)

(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)

(9)

(1)
(2)

OJ C 136, 4.6.1985, p. 1.
OJ C 141, 19.5.2000, p. 1.

(10)
(11)

OJ L 297, 13.10.1992, p. 16. Directive as amended by

Regulation (EC) No 1882/2003 of the European Parliament
and of the Council (OJ L 284, 31.10.2003, p. 1).
OJ L 237, 21.9.2000, p. 1.
OJ L 332, 15.12.2001, p. 1.
OJ L 37, 13.2.2003, p. 24. Directive as amended by Directive
2003/108/EC (OJ L 345, 31.12.2003, p. 106).
OJ L 37, 13.2.2003, p. 19.
OJ L 262, 27.9.1976, p. 201. Directive as last amended by
Commission Directive 2004/98/EC (OJ L 305, 1.10.2004,
p. 63).
OJ L 167, 22.6.1992, p. 17. Directive as last amended by
Directive 2004/8/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council (OJ L 52, 21.2.2004, p. 50).
OJ L 236, 18.9.1996, p. 36.
OJ L 279, 1.11.2000, p. 33.

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(35) Directive 92/42/EEC provides for a star rating system

(40) It should be remembered that paragraph 34 of the

Interinstitutional agreement on better law-making (6)

states that the Council will encourage the Member States
to draw up, for themselves and in the interests of the
Community, their own tables which will, as far as
possible, illustrate the correlation between directives and
the transposition measures and to make them public.

intended to ascertain the energy performance of boilers.

Since Member States and the industry agree that the star
rating system has proved not to deliver the expected
result, Directive 92/42/EEC should be amended to open
the way for more effective schemes.

(36) The requirements laid down in Council Directive 78/170/

EEC of 13 February 1978 on the performance of heat

generators for space heating and the production of hot
water in new or existing non-industrial buildings and on
the insulation of heat and domestic hot-water distribution in new non-industrial buildings (1) have been
superseded by provisions of Directive 92/42/EEC,
Council Directive 90/396/EEC of 29 June 1990 on the
approximation of the laws of the Member States relating
to appliances burning gaseous fuels (2) and Directive
2002/91/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council of 16 December 2002 on the energy performance of buildings (3). Directive 78/170/EEC should
therefore be repealed.

L 191/33

(41) Since the objective of the proposed action, namely to

ensure the functioning of the internal market by

requiring products to reach an adequate level of
environmental performance, cannot be sufficiently
achieved by Member States acting alone and can
therefore, by reason of its scale and effects, be better
achieved at Community level, the Community may adopt
measures, in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity
as set out in Article 5 of the Treaty. In accordance with
the principle of proportionality, as set out in that Article,
this Directive does not go beyond what is necessary in
order to achieve this objective.

(42) The Committee of the Regions was consulted but did not

deliver an opinion,
(37) Council Directive 86/594/EEC of 1 December 1986 on

airborne noise emitted by household appliances (4) lays

down the conditions under which publication of
information on the noise emitted by such appliances
may be required by Member States, and defines a
procedure to determine the level of noise. For harmonisation purposes noise emissions should be included in
an integrated assessment of environmental performance.
Since this Directive provides for such an integrated
approach, Directive 86/594/EEC should be repealed.

(38) The measures necessary for the implementation of this

Directive should be adopted in accordance with Council

Decision 1999/468/EC of 28 June 1999 laying down the
procedures for the exercise of implementing powers
conferred on the Commission (5).

HAVE ADOPTED THIS DIRECTIVE:

Article 1

Subject matter and scope

1. This Directive establishes a framework for the setting of

Community ecodesign requirements for energy-using products with the aim of ensuring the free movement of those
products within the internal market.

(39) Member States should determine the penalties to be

2. This Directive provides for the setting of requirements

which the energy-using products covered by implementing
measures must fulfil in order for them to be placed on the
market and/or put into service. It contributes to sustainable
development by increasing energy efficiency and the level of
protection of the environment, while at the same time
increasing the security of the energy supply.

applied in the event of infringements of the national

provisions adopted pursuant to this Directive. Those
penalties should be effective, proportionate and dissuasive.

3. This Directive shall not apply to means of transport for

persons or goods.

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

OJ L 52, 23.2.1978, p. 32. Directive as amended by Directive

82/885/EEC (OJ L 378, 31.12.1982, p. 19).
OJ L 196, 26.7.1990, p. 15. Directive as amended by Directive
93/68/EEC (OJ L 220, 30.8.1993, p. 1).
OJ L 1, 4.1.2003, p. 65.
OJ L 344, 6.12.1986, p. 24. Directive as amended by Regulation
(EC) No 807/2003 (OJ L 122, 16.5.2003, p. 36).
OJ L 184, 17.7.1999, p. 23.

4. This Directive and the implementing measures adopted

pursuant to it shall be without prejudice to Community waste
management legislation and Community chemicals legislation,
including Community legislation on fluorinated greenhouse
gases.

(6)

OJ C 321, 31.12.2003, p. 1.

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Official Journal of the European Union

EN
Article 2

6.

Manufacturer means the natural or legal person who

manufactures EuPs covered by this Directive and is
responsible for their conformity with this Directive in
view of their being placed on the market and/or put into
service under the manufacturer's own name or trademark or for the manufacturer's own use. In the absence
of a manufacturer as defined in the first sentence or of an
importer as defined in point 8, any natural or legal
person who places on the market and/or puts into
service EuPs covered by this Directive shall be considered
a manufacturer;

7.

Authorised representative means any natural or legal

person established in the Community who has received a
written mandate from the manufacturer to perform on
his behalf all or part of the obligations and formalities
connected with this Directive;

8.

Importer means any natural or legal person established

in the Community who places a product from a third
country on the Community market in the course of his
business;

9.

Materials means all materials used during the life cycle

of an EuP;

Definitions

For the purposes of this Directive the following definitions

shall apply:

1.

2.

3.

Energy-using product or EuP means a product which,

once placed on the market and/or put into service, is
dependent on energy input (electricity, fossil fuels and
renewable energy sources) to work as intended, or a
product for the generation, transfer and measurement of
such energy, including parts dependent on energy input
and intended to be incorporated into an EuP covered by
this Directive which are placed on the market and/or put
into service as individual parts for end-users and of
which the environmental performance can be assessed
independently;

Components and sub-assemblies means parts intended

to be incorporated into EuPs, and which are not placed
on the market and/or put into service as individual parts
for end-users or the environmental performance of
which cannot be assessed independently;

Implementing measures means measures adopted

pursuant to this Directive laying down ecodesign
requirements for defined EuPs or for environmental
aspects thereof;

22.7.2005

10. Product design means the set of processes that transform legal, technical, safety, functional, market or other
requirements to be met by an EuP into the technical
specification for that EuP;

11. Environmental aspect means an element or function of

an EuP that can interact with the environment during its
life cycle;

12. Environmental impact means any change to the

environment wholly or partially resulting from an EuP
during its life cycle;
4.

5.

Placing on the market means making an EuP available

for the first time on the Community market with a view
to its distribution or use within the Community whether
for reward or free of charge and irrespective of the selling
technique;

13. Life cycle means the consecutive and interlinked stages

of an EuP from raw material use to final disposal;

Putting into service means the first use of an EuP for its
intended purpose by an end-user in the Community;

14. Reuse means any operation by which an EuP or its

components, having reached the end of their first use, are
used for the same purpose for which they were
conceived, including the continued use of an EuP which

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Official Journal of the European Union

L 191/35

is returned to a collection point, distributor, recycler or

manufacturer, as well as reuse of an EuP following
refurbishment;

necessarily in respect of all environmental aspects of the

product simultaneously;

15. Recycling means the reprocessing in a production

process of waste materials for the original purpose or
for other purposes but excluding energy recovery;

23. Ecodesign means the integration of environmental

aspects into product design with the aim of improving
the environmental performance of the EuP throughout
its whole life cycle;

16. Energy recovery means the use of combustible waste as

a means to generate energy through direct incineration
with or without other waste but with recovery of the
heat;

24. Ecodesign requirement means any requirement in

relation to an EuP, or the design of an EuP, intended to
improve its environmental performance, or any requirement for the supply of information with regard to the
environmental aspects of an EuP;

17. Recovery means any of the applicable operations

provided for in Annex II B to Council Directive 75/
442/EEC of 15 July 1975 on waste (1);

18. Waste means any substance or object in the categories

set out in Annex I to Directive 75/442/EEC which the
holder discards or intends or is required to discard;

19. Hazardous waste means any waste which is covered by

Article 1(4) of Council Directive 91/689/EEC of
12 December 1991 on hazardous waste (2);

20. Ecological profile means a description, in accordance

with the implementing measure applicable to the EuP, of
the inputs and outputs (such as materials, emissions and
waste) associated with an EuP throughout its life cycle
which are significant from the point of view of its
environmental impact and are expressed in physical
quantities that can be measured;

25. Generic ecodesign requirement means any ecodesign

requirement based on the ecological profile as a whole of
an EuP without set limit values for particular environmental aspects;

26. Specific ecodesign requirement means a quantified and

measurable ecodesign requirement relating to a particular
environmental aspect of an EuP, such as energy
consumption during use, calculated for a given unit of
output performance;

27. Harmonised standard means a technical specification

adopted by a recognised standards body under a mandate
from the Commission, in accordance with the procedure
laid down in Directive 98/34/EC of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 22 June 1998 laying
down a procedure for the provision of information in the
field of technical standards and regulations (3), for the
purpose of establishing a European requirement, compliance with which is not compulsory.

21. Environmental performance of an EuP means the results

of the manufacturer's management of the environmental
aspects of the EuP, as reflected in its technical
documentation file;

Article 3

Placing on the market and/or putting into service

22. Improvement of the environmental performance means
the process of enhancing the environmental performance
of an EuP over successive generations, although not

(1)
(2)

OJ L 194, 25.7.1975, p. 39. Directive as last amended by

Regulation (EC) No 1882/2003.
OJ L 377, 31.12.1991, p. 20. Directive as amended by Directive
94/31/EC (OJ L 168, 2.7.1994, p. 28).

1. Member States shall take all appropriate measures to

ensure that EuPs covered by implementing measures may be
placed on the market and/or put into service only if they

(3)

OJ L 204, 21.7.1998, p. 37. Directive as last amended by the

2003 Act of Accession.

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Official Journal of the European Union

EN

comply with those measures and bear the CE marking in

accordance with Article 5.

22.7.2005
Article 5

Marking and declaration of conformity

2. Member States shall designate the authorities responsible
for market surveillance. They shall arrange for such authorities
to have and use the necessary powers to take the appropriate
measures incumbent upon them under this Directive. Member
States shall define the tasks, powers and organisational
arrangements of the competent authorities which shall be
entitled:

(i)

to organise appropriate checks on EuP compliance, on an

adequate scale, and to oblige the manufacturer or its
authorised representative to recall non-compliant EuPs
from the market in accordance with Article 7;

(ii) to require the provision of all necessary information by

the parties concerned, as specified in implementing
measures;

(iii) to take samples of products and subject them to

compliance checks.

3. Member States shall keep the Commission informed

about the results of the market surveillance, and where
appropriate the Commission shall pass on such information
to the other Member States.

4. Member States shall ensure that consumers and other

interested parties are given an opportunity to submit
observations on product compliance to the competent
authorities.

Article 4

1. Before an EuP covered by implementing measures is

placed on the market and/or put into service, a CE conformity
marking shall be affixed and a declaration of conformity
issued whereby the manufacturer or its authorised representative ensures and declares that the EuP complies with all
relevant provisions of the applicable implementing measure.
2. The CE conformity marking consists of the initials CE as
shown in Annex III.

3. The declaration of conformity shall contain the elements

specified in Annex VI and shall refer to the appropriate
implementing measure.

4. The affixing of markings on an EuP which are likely to

mislead users as to the meaning or form of the CE marking
shall be prohibited.

5. Member States may require the information to be

supplied pursuant to Annex I, Part 2 to be in their official
language(s) when the EuP reaches the end-user.

Member States shall also authorise the provision of this

information in one or more other official Community
language(s).

When applying the first subparagraph, Member States shall

take into account in particular:

(a)

whether the information can be supplied by harmonised

symbols or recognised codes or other measures;

Responsibilities of the importer

(b) the type of user anticipated for the EuP and the nature of
the information which is to be provided.
Where the manufacturer is not established within the
Community and in the absence of an authorised representative, the obligation:

to ensure that the EuP placed on the market or put into

service complies with this Directive and the applicable
implementing measure,

to keep the declaration of conformity and the technical

documentation available,

shall lie with the importer.

Article 6

Free movement

1. Member States shall not prohibit, restrict or impede the

placing on the market and/or putting into service, within their
territories, on grounds of ecodesign requirements relating to
those ecodesign parameters referred to in Annex I, Part 1
which are covered by the applicable implementing measure, of
an EuP that complies with all the relevant provisions of the
applicable implementing measure and bears the CE marking in
accordance with Article 5.

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EN

2. Member States shall not prohibit, restrict or impede the

placing on the market and/or putting into service, within their
territories, of an EuP bearing the CE marking in accordance
with Article 5 on grounds of ecodesign requirements relating
to those ecodesign parameters referred to in Annex I, Part 1
for which the applicable implementing measure provides that
no ecodesign requirement is necessary.

3. Member States shall not prevent the display, for example

at trade fairs, exhibitions and demonstrations, of EuPs which
are not in conformity with the provisions of the applicable
implementing measure, provided that there is a visible
indication that they may not be placed on the market and/
or put into service until brought into conformity.

Article 7

L 191/37

3. The Member State shall immediately inform the Commission and the other Member States of any decision taken
pursuant to paragraph 1, indicating the reasons therefore, and,
in particular, whether non-compliance is due to:
(a)

failure to satisfy the requirements of the applicable

implementing measure;

(b) incorrect application of harmonised standards as referred

to in Article 10(2);
(c)

shortcomings in harmonised standards as referred to in

Article 10(2).

4. The Commission shall enter into consultation with the

parties concerned without delay and may draw upon technical
advice from independent external experts.

Safeguard clause

1. Where a Member State ascertains that an EuP bearing the

CE marking referred to in Article 5 and used in accordance
with its intended use does not comply with all the relevant
provisions of the applicable implementing measure, the
manufacturer or its authorised representative shall be obliged
to make the EuP comply with the provisions of the applicable
implementing measure and/or with the CE marking and to
end the infringement under conditions imposed by the
Member State.

Where there is sufficient evidence that an EuP might be noncompliant, the Member State shall take the necessary measures
which, depending on the gravity of the non-compliance, can
go as far as the prohibition of the placing on the market of the
EuP until compliance is established.

Where non-compliance continues, the Member State shall take

a decision restricting or prohibiting the placing on the market
and/or putting into service of the EuP in question or ensure
that it is withdrawn from the market.

In cases of prohibition or withdrawal from the market, the

Commission and the other Member States shall be immediately informed.

2. Any decision by a Member State pursuant to this

Directive which restricts or prohibits the placing on the
market and/or the putting into service of an EuP shall state the
grounds on which it is based.

Such decision shall be notified forthwith to the party

concerned, who shall at the same time be informed of the
legal remedies available under the laws in force in the Member
State concerned and of the time limits to which such remedies
are subject.

Following that consultation, the Commission shall immediately inform the Member State which took the decision and
the other Member States of its views.
Where the Commission considers that the decision is
unjustified, it shall immediately inform the Member States to
that effect.
5. Where the decision referred to in paragraph 1 is based on
a shortcoming in a harmonised standard, the Commission
shall immediately initiate the procedure set out in Article 10
(2), (3) and (4). The Commission shall at the same time inform
the Committee referred to in Article 19(1).
6. The Member States and the Commission shall take the
necessary measures to guarantee confidentiality with regard to
information provided during that procedure, where justified.
7. The decisions taken by Member States pursuant to this
Article shall be made public, in a transparent way.
8. The Commission's opinion on those decisions shall be
published in the Official Journal of the European Union.

Article 8
Conformity assessment
1. Before placing an EuP covered by implementing measures
on the market and/or putting such an EuP into service, the
manufacturer or its authorised representative shall ensure that
an assessment of the EuP's conformity with all the relevant
requirements of the applicable implementing measure is
carried out.

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Official Journal of the European Union

2. The conformity assessment procedures shall be specified

by the implementing measures and shall leave to manufacturers the choice between the internal design control set out in
Annex IV and the management system set out in Annex V.
When duly justified and proportionate to the risk, the
conformity assessment procedure shall be specified among
relevant modules as described in Decision 93/465/EEC.

22.7.2005
Article 9

Presumption of conformity

1. Member States shall regard an EuP bearing the CE

marking referred to in Article 5 as conforming to the relevant
provisions of the applicable implementing measure.
If a Member State has strong indications of probable noncompliance of an EuP, that Member State shall as soon as
possible publish a substantiated assessment of the EuP's
compliance which may be conducted by a competent body in
order to allow timely corrective action, if any.

If an EuP covered by implementing measures is designed by an

organisation registered in accordance with Regulation (EC)
No 761/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council
of 19 March 2001 allowing voluntary participation by
organisations in a Community eco-management and audit
scheme (EMAS) (1) and the design function is included within
the scope of that registration, the management system of that
organisation shall be presumed to comply with the requirements of Annex V to this Directive.

If an EuP covered by implementing measures is designed by an

organisation having a management system which includes the
product design function and which is implemented in
accordance with harmonised standards the reference numbers
of which have been published in the Official Journal of the
European Union, that management system shall be presumed to
comply with the corresponding requirements of Annex V.

2. Member States shall regard an EuP for which harmonised

standards have been applied, the reference numbers of which
have been published in the Official Journal of the European
Union, as conforming to all the relevant requirements of the
applicable implementing measure to which such standards
relate.

3. EuPs which have been awarded the Community eco-label

pursuant to Regulation (EC) No 1980/2000 shall be presumed
to comply with the ecodesign requirements of the applicable
implementing measure insofar as those requirements are met
by the eco-label.

4. For the purposes of the presumption of conformity in the

context of this Directive, the Commission, acting in
accordance with the procedure referred to in Article 19(2),
may decide that other eco-labels fulfil equivalent conditions to
the Community eco-label pursuant to Regulation (EC)
No 1980/2000. EuPs which have been awarded such other
eco-labels shall be presumed to comply with the ecodesign
requirements of the applicable implementing measure, insofar
as those requirements are met by that eco-label.

Article 10
3. After placing an EuP covered by implementing measures
on the market or putting it into service, the manufacturer or
its authorised representative shall keep relevant documents
relating to the conformity assessment performed and
declarations of conformity issued available for inspection by
Member States for a period of 10 years after the last of that
EuP has been manufactured.

The relevant documents shall be made available within 10

days upon receipt of a request by the competent authority of a
Member State.

4. Documents relating to the conformity assessment and

declaration of conformity referred to in Article 5 shall be
drawn up in one of the official languages of the Community.

(1)

OJ L 114, 24.4.2001, p. 1.

Harmonised standards

1. Member States shall, to the extent possible, ensure that

appropriate measures are taken to enable interested parties to
be consulted at national level on the process of preparing and
monitoring harmonised standards.

2. Where a Member State or the Commission considers that

harmonised standards the application of which is presumed to
satisfy specific provisions of an applicable implementing
measure do not entirely satisfy those provisions, the Member
State concerned or the Commission shall inform the Standing
Committee set up under Article 5 of Directive 98/34/EC to
that effect, giving the reasons. The Committee shall issue an
opinion as a matter of urgency.

3. In the light of that Committee's opinion, the Commission

shall decide to publish, not to publish, to publish with
restriction, to maintain or to withdraw the references to the
harmonised standards concerned in the Official Journal of the
European Union.

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4. The Commission shall inform the European standardisation body concerned and, if necessary, issue a new mandate
with a view to revision of the harmonised standards
concerned.

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2. Member States shall ensure, in particular by strengthening

support networks and structures, that they encourage SMEs
and very small firms to adopt an environmentally sound
approach as early as at the product design stage and to adapt
to future European legislation.

Article 11
Article 14
Requirements for components and sub-assemblies
Consumer information
Implementing measures may require manufacturers or their
authorised representatives placing components and subassemblies on the market and/or putting them into service
to provide the manufacturer of an EuP covered by
implementing measures with relevant information on the
material composition and the consumption of energy,
materials and/or resources of the components or subassemblies.

In accordance with the applicable implementing measure,

manufacturers shall ensure, in the form they deem appropriate, that consumers of EuPs are provided with:

the requisite information on the role that they can play in

the sustainable use of the product;

when required by the implementing measures, the

ecological profile of the product and the benefits of
ecodesign.

Article 12
Administrative cooperation and exchange of information
1. Member States shall ensure that appropriate measures are
taken in order to encourage the authorities responsible for
implementing this Directive to cooperate with each other and
provide each other and the Commission with information in
order to assist the operation of this Directive and in particular,
assist in the implementation of Article 7.
The administrative cooperation and exchange of information
shall take utmost advantage of electronic means of communication and may be supported by relevant Community
programmes.
Member States shall inform the Commission of the authorities
responsible for applying this Directive.
2. The precise nature and structure of the exchange of
information between the Commission and Member States
shall be decided in accordance with the procedure referred to
in Article 19(2).
3. The Commission shall take appropriate measures in order
to encourage and contribute to the cooperation between
Member States referred to in this Article.

Article 15
Implementing measures
1. When an EuP meets the criteria listed under paragraph 2,
it shall be covered by an implementing measure or by a selfregulation measure in accordance with paragraph 3(b). When
the Commission adopts implementing measures, it shall act in
accordance with the procedure referred to in Article 19(2).
2.

The criteria referred to in paragraph 1 are as follows:

(a)

the EuP shall represent a significant volume of sales and

trade, indicatively more than 200 000 units a year within
the Community according to most recently available
figures;

(b) the EuP shall, considering the quantities placed on the

market and/or put into service, have a significant
environmental impact within the Community, as specified in Community strategic priorities as set out in
Decision No 1600/2002/EC;

Article 13
(c)
Small and medium-sized enterprises
1. In the context of programmes from which SMEs and very
small firms can benefit, the Commission shall take into
account initiatives which help SMEs and very small firms to
integrate environmental aspects including energy efficiency
when designing their products.

the EuP shall present significant potential for improvement in terms of its environmental impact without
entailing excessive costs, taking into account in particular:

the absence of other relevant Community legislation

or failure of market forces to address the issue
properly;

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a wide disparity in the environmental performance

of EuPs available on the market with equivalent
functionality.

5. Implementing measures shall meet all the following

criteria:
(a)

3. In preparing a draft implementing measure the Commission shall take into account any views expressed by the
Committee referred to in Article 19(1) and shall further take
into account:

(a)

Community environmental priorities, such as those set

out in Decision No 1600/2002/EC or in the Commission's European Climate Change Programme (ECCP);

(b) relevant Community legislation and self-regulation, such

as voluntary agreements, which, following an assessment
in accordance with Article 17, are expected to achieve the
policy objectives more quickly or at lesser expense than
mandatory requirements.

22.7.2005

there shall be no significant negative impact on the

functionality of the product, from the perspective of the
user;

(b) health, safety and the environment shall not be adversely

affected;
(c)

there shall be no significant negative impact on

consumers in particular as regards the affordability and
the life-cycle cost of the product;

(d) there shall be no significant negative impact on industry's

competitiveness;
(e)

in principle, the setting of an ecodesign requirement shall

not have the consequence of imposing proprietary
technology on manufacturers;

4. In preparing a draft implementing measure the Commission shall:

(f)

no excessive administrative burden shall be imposed on

manufacturers.

(a)

6. Implementing measures shall lay down ecodesign requirements in accordance with Annex I and/or Annex II.

consider the life cycle of the EuP and all its significant
environmental aspects, inter alia, energy efficiency. The
depth of analysis of the environmental aspects and of the
feasibility of their improvement shall be proportionate to
their significance. The adoption of ecodesign requirements on the significant environmental aspects of an EuP
shall not be unduly delayed by uncertainties regarding
the other aspects;

(b) carry out an assessment, which will consider the impact

on environment, consumers and manufacturers, including SMEs, in terms of competitiveness including on
markets outside the Community, innovation, market
access and costs and benefits;

(c)

take into account existing national environmental

legislation that Member States consider relevant;

Specific ecodesign requirements shall be introduced for

selected environmental aspects which have a significant
environmental impact.
Implementing measures may also provide that no ecodesign
requirement is necessary for certain specified ecodesign
parameters referred to in Annex I, Part 1.
7. The requirements shall be formulated so as to ensure that
market surveillance authorities can verify the conformity of
the EuP with the requirements of the implementing measure.
The implementing measure shall specify whether verification
can be achieved directly on the EuP or on the basis of the
technical documentation.
8. Implementing measures shall include the elements listed
in Annex VII.

(d) carry out appropriate consultation with stakeholders;

(e)

(f)

prepare an explanatory memorandum of the draft

implementing measure based on the assessment referred
to in point (b);

set implementing date(s), any staged or transitional

measure or periods, taking into account in particular
possible impacts on SMEs or on specific product groups
manufactured primarily by SMEs.

9. Relevant studies and analyses used by the Commission in

preparing implementing measures should be made publicly
available, taking into account in particular easy access and use
by interested SMEs.
10. Where appropriate, an implementing measure laying
down ecodesign requirements shall be accompanied by
guidelines, to be adopted by the Commission in accordance
with Article 19(2), on the balancing of the various
environmental aspects; these guidelines will cover specificities
of the SMEs active in the product sector affected by the

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EN

implementing measure. If necessary and in accordance with

Article 13(1), further specialised material may be produced by
the Commission for facilitating implementation by SMEs.

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context of this Directive shall be assessed at least on the basis

of Annex VIII.

Article 18

Article 16

Consultation Forum

Working plan

The Commission shall ensure that in the conduct of its

activities it observes, in respect of each implementing measure,
a balanced participation of Member States' representatives and
all interested parties concerned with the product/product
group in question, such as industry, including SMEs and craft
industry, trade unions, traders, retailers, importers, environmental protection groups and consumer organisations. These
parties shall contribute, in particular, to defining and
reviewing implementing measures, to examining the effectiveness of the established market surveillance mechanisms,
and to assessing voluntary agreements and other selfregulation measures. These parties shall meet in a Consultation Forum. The rules of procedure of the Forum shall be
established by the Commission.

1. In accordance with the criteria set out in Article 15 and

having consulted the Consultation Forum referred to in
Article 18, the Commission shall not later than 6 July 2007
establish a working plan which shall be made publicly
available.

The working plan shall set out for the following three years an
indicative list of product groups which will be considered as
priorities for the adoption of implementing measures.

Article 19

The working plan shall be amended periodically by the

Commission after consultation with the Consultation Forum.

Committee procedure
2. However, during the transitional period, while the first
working plan referred to in paragraph 1 is being established,
and, in accordance with the procedure laid down in Article 19
(2) and the criteria set out in Article 15, and after consulting
the Consultation Forum, the Commission shall as appropriate
introduce by anticipation:

implementing measures starting with those products

which have been identified by the ECCP as offering a high
potential for cost-effective reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions, such as heating and water heating equipment,
electric motor systems, lighting in both the domestic and
tertiary sectors, domestic appliances, office equipment in
both the domestic and tertiary sectors, consumer
electronics and HVAC (heating ventilating air conditioning) systems;

a separate implementing measure reducing stand-by

losses for a group of products.

1. The Commission shall be assisted by a Committee.

2. Where reference is made to this paragraph, Articles 5 and

7 of Decision 1999/468/EC shall apply, having regard to the
provisions of Article 8 thereof.

The period laid down in Article 5(6) of Decision 1999/468/EC

shall be set at three months.

3.

The Committee shall adopt its Rules of Procedure.

Article 20

Article 17

Penalties

Self-regulation

The Member States shall determine the penalties applicable to

breaches of the national provisions adopted pursuant to this
Directive. The penalties shall be effective, proportionate and
dissuasive, taking into account the extent of non-compliance
and the number of units of non-complying products placed
on the Community market.

Voluntary agreements or other self-regulation measures

presented as alternatives to implementing measures in the

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Article 21

Amendments

3.

Article 6 shall be deleted;

2.

the following Article shall be inserted:

Article 10a

Article 9a

This Directive constitutes an implementing measure within

the meaning of Article 15 of Directive 2005/32/EC of the
European Parliament and of the Council of 6 July 2005
establishing a framework for the setting of ecodesign
requirements for energy-using products (*), with regard to
energy efficiency during use, in accordance with that Directive,
and may be amended or repealed in accordance with Article 19
(2) of Directive 2005/32/EC.

(*)
This Directive constitutes an implementing measure
within the meaning of Article 15 of Directive 2005/32/
EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of
6 July 2005 establishing a framework for the setting of
ecodesign requirements for energy-using products (*),
with regard to energy efficiency during use, in
accordance with that Directive, and may be amended
or repealed in accordance with Article 19(2) of Directive
2005/32/EC.

(*)

3.

OJ L 191, 22.7.2005, p. 29.

Directive 2000/55/EC is hereby amended as follows:

The following Article shall be inserted:

1. Directive 92/42/EEC is hereby amended as follows:

1.

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OJ L 191, 22.7.2005, p. 29.

Article 22

Repeals

Directives 78/170/EEC and 86/594/EEC are repealed. Member

States may continue to apply existing national measures
adopted under Directive 86/594/EEC until such time as
implementing measures for the products concerned are
adopted under this Directive.

Annex I, point 2, shall be deleted;

Article 23

4.

Annex II shall be deleted.

Review

2.

Directive 96/57/EC is hereby amended as follows:

The following Article shall be inserted:

Article 9a

This Directive constitutes an implementing measure within

the meaning of Article 15 of Directive 2005/32/EC of the
European Parliament and of the Council of 6 July 2005
establishing a framework for the setting of ecodesign
requirements for energy-using products (*) , with regard to
energy efficiency during use, in accordance with that Directive,
and may be amended or repealed in accordance with Article 19
(2) of Directive 2005/32/EC.

(*)

OJ L 191, 22.7.2005, p. 29.

Not later than 6 July 2010 the Commission shall review the
effectiveness of this Directive and of its implementing
measures, the threshold for implementing measures, market
surveillance mechanisms and any relevant self-regulation
stimulated, after consultation of the Consultation Forum
referred to in Article 18, and, as appropriate, present
proposals to the European Parliament and the Council for
amending this Directive.

Article 24

Confidentiality

Requirements relating to the supply of information referred to

in Article 11 and Annex I, Part 2, by the manufacturer and/or
its authorised representative shall be proportionate and shall
take into account the legitimate confidentiality of commercially sensitive information.

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Article 25
Implementation

1. Member States shall bring into force the laws, regulations

and administrative provisions necessary to comply with this
Directive before 11 August 2007.
They shall forthwith inform the Commission thereof.
When Member States adopt these measures, they shall contain
a reference to this Directive or shall be accompanied by such
reference on the occasion of their official publication. The
methods of making such reference shall be laid down by
Member States.

L 191/43

2. Member States shall communicate to the Commission the

text of the main provisions of national law which they adopt
in the field covered by this Directive.
Article 26
Entry into force
This Directive shall enter into force on the 20th day following
that of its publication in the Official Journal of the European
Union.
Article 27
Addressees
This Directive is addressed to the Member States.

Done at Strasbourg, 6 July 2005.

For the European Parliament

The President
J. BORRELL FONTELLES

For the Council

The President
J. STRAW

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ANNEX I

Method for setting generic Eco-design requirements

(referred to in Article 15)

Generic ecodesign requirements aim at improving the environmental performance of EuPs, focusing on significant
environmental aspects thereof without setting limit values. The method according to this Annex will be applied when
it is not appropriate to set limit values for the product group under examination. The Commission shall, when
preparing a draft implementing measure to be submitted to the Committee referred to in Article 19, identify
significant environmental aspects which shall be specified in the implementing measure.

In preparing implementing measures laying down generic ecodesign requirements pursuant to Article 15 the
Commission will identify, as appropriate to the EuP covered by the implementing measure, the relevant ecodesign
parameters from among those listed in Part 1, the information supply requirements from among those listed in Part 2
and the requirements for the manufacturer listed in Part 3.

Part 1. Ecodesign parameters for EuPs

1.1. In so far as they relate to product design, significant environmental aspects are identified with reference to the
following phases of the life cycle of the product:

(a)

raw material selection and use;

(b)

manufacturing;

(c)

packaging, transport, and distribution;

(d)

installation and maintenance;

(e)

use;

(f)

end-of-life, meaning the state of an EuP having reached the end of its first use until its final disposal.

1.2. For each phase, the following environmental aspects are to be assessed where relevant:

(a)

predicted consumption of materials, of energy and of other resources such as fresh water;

(b)

anticipated emissions to air, water or soil;

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(c)

anticipated pollution through physical effects such as noise, vibration, radiation, electromagnetic fields;

(d)

expected generation of waste material;

(e)

possibilities for reuse, recycling and recovery of materials and/or of energy, taking into account Directive
2002/96/EC.

1.3. In particular, the following parameters will be used, as appropriate, and supplemented by others, where
necessary, for evaluating the potential for improving the environmental aspects mentioned in the previous
paragraph:

(1)

(a)

weight and volume of the product;

(b)

use of materials issued from recycling activities;

(c)

consumption of energy, water and other resources throughout the life cycle;

(d)

use of substances classified as hazardous to health and/or the environment according to Council Directive
67/548/EEC of 27 June 1967 on the approximation of laws, regulations and administrative provisions
relating to the classification, packing and labelling of dangerous substances (1) and taking into account
legislation on the marketing and use of specific substances, such as Directives 76/769/EEC or 2002/95/EC;

(e)

quantity and nature of consumables needed for proper use and maintenance;

(f)

ease for reuse and recycling as expressed through: number of materials and components used, use of
standard components, time necessary for disassembly, complexity of tools necessary for disassembly, use
of component and material coding standards for the identification of components and materials suitable
for reuse and recycling (including marking of plastic parts in accordance with ISO standards), use of easily
recyclable materials, easy access to valuable and other recyclable components and materials; easy access to
components and materials containing hazardous substances;

(g)

incorporation of used components;

(h)

avoidance of technical solutions detrimental to reuse and recycling of components and whole appliances;

(i)

extension of lifetime as expressed through: minimum guaranteed lifetime, minimum time for availability
of spare parts, modularity, upgradeability, reparability;

(j)

amounts of waste generated and amounts of hazardous waste generated;

OJ 196, 16.8.1967, p. 1. Directive as last amended by Commission Directive 2004/73/EC (OJ L 152, 30.4.2004, p. 1).

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(k)

emissions to air (greenhouse gases, acidifying agents, volatile organic compounds, ozone depleting
substances, persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals, fine particulate and suspended particulate matter)
without prejudice to Directive 97/68/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December
1997 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to measures against the emission of
gaseous and particulate pollutants from internal combustion engines to be installed in non-road mobile
machinery (1);

(l)

emissions to water (heavy metals, substances with an adverse effect on the oxygen balance, persistent
organic pollutants);

(m) emissions to soil (especially leakage and spills of dangerous substances during the use phase of the
product, and the potential for leaching upon its disposal as waste).

Part 2. Requirements relating to the supply of information

Implementing measures may require information to be supplied by the manufacturer that may influence the way the
EuP is handled, used or recycled by parties other than the manufacturer. This information may include, where
applicable:

information from the designer relating to the manufacturing process;

information for consumers on the significant environmental characteristics and performance of a product,
accompanying the product when it is placed on the market to allow consumers to compare these aspects of the
products;

information for consumers on how to install, use and maintain the product in order to minimise its impact on
the environment and to ensure optimal life expectancy, as well as on how to return the product at end-of-life,
and, where appropriate, information on the period of availability of spare parts and the possibilities of
upgrading products;

information for treatment facilities concerning disassembly, recycling, or disposal at end-of-life.

Information should be given on the product itself wherever possible.

This information will take into account obligations under other Community legislation, such as Directive 2002/96/
EC.

Part 3. Requirements for the manufacturer

1.

Addressing the environmental aspects identified in the implementing measure as capable of being influenced in
a substantial manner through product design, manufacturers of EuPs will be required to perform an assessment
of the EuP model throughout its lifecycle, based upon realistic assumptions about normal conditions and
purposes of use. Other environmental aspects may be examined on a voluntary basis.

On the basis of this assessment manufacturers will establish the EuP's ecological profile. It will be based on
environmentally relevant product characteristics and inputs/outputs throughout the product life cycle expressed
in physical quantities that can be measured.

(1)

OJ L 59, 27.2.1998, p. 1. Directive as last amended by Directive 2004/26/EC (OJ L 146, 30.4.2004, p. 1).

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Manufacturers will make use of this assessment to evaluate alternative design solutions and the achieved
environmental performance of the product against benchmarks.

The benchmarks will be identified by the Commission in the implementing measure on the basis of information
gathered during the preparation of the measure.

The choice of a specific design solution will achieve a reasonable balance between the various environmental
aspects and between environmental aspects and other relevant considerations, such as safety and health,
technical requirements for functionality, quality, and performance, and economic aspects, including
manufacturing costs and marketability, while complying with all relevant legislation.

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ANNEX II

Method for setting specific ecodesign requirements

(referred to in Article 15)

Specific ecodesign requirements aim at improving a selected environmental aspect of the product. They may take the
form of requirements for reduced consumption of a given resource, such as a limit on the use of a resource in the
various stages of an EuP's life cycle, as appropriate (such as a limit on water consumption in the use phase or on the
quantities of a given material incorporated in the product or a requirement for minimum quantities of recycled
material).

In preparing implementing measures laying down specific ecodesign requirements pursuant to Article 15, the
Commission will identify, as appropriate to the EuP covered by the implementing measure, the relevant ecodesign
parameters from among those referred to in Annex I, Part 1, and set the levels of these requirements, in accordance
with the procedure referred to in Article 19(2), as follows:

1.

A technical, environmental and economic analysis will select a number of representative models of the EuP in
question on the market and identify the technical options for improving the environmental performance of the
product, keeping sight of the economic viability of the options and avoiding any significant loss of performance
or of usefulness for consumers.

The technical, environmental and economic analysis will also identify, for the environmental aspects under
consideration, the best-performing products and technology available on the market.

The performance of products available on international markets and benchmarks set in other countries'
legislation should be taken into consideration during the analysis as well as when setting requirements.

On the basis of this analysis and taking into account economic and technical feasibility as well as potential for
improvement, concrete measures are taken with a view to minimising the product's environmental impact.

Concerning energy consumption in use, the level of energy efficiency or consumption will be set aiming at the
life-cycle cost minimum to end-users for representative EuP models, taking into account the consequences on
other environmental aspects. The life-cycle cost analysis method uses a real discount rate on the basis of data
provided from the European Central Bank and a realistic lifetime for the EuP; it is based on the sum of the
variations in purchase price (resulting from the variations in industrial costs) and in operating expenses, which
result from the different levels of technical improvement options, discounted over the lifetime of the
representative EuP models considered. The operating expenses cover primarily energy consumption and
additional expenses in other resources (such as water or detergent).

A sensitivity analysis covering the relevant factors (such as the price of energy or other resource, the cost of raw
materials or production costs, discount rates) and, where appropriate, external environmental costs, including
avoided greenhouse gas emissions, will be carried out to check if there are significant changes and if the overall
conclusions are reliable. The requirement will be adapted accordingly.

A similar methodology could be applied to other resources such as water.

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Official Journal of the European Union

For the development of the technical, environmental and economic analyses, information available in the
framework of other Community activities could be used.

The same applies for information available from existing programmes applied in other parts of the world for
setting the specific ecodesign requirement of EuPs traded with the EU's economic partners.

3.

The date of entry into force of the requirement will take the redesign cycle for the product into account.

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ANNEX III

CE marking

(referred to in Article 5(2))

The CE marking must have a height of at least 5 mm. If the CE marking is reduced or enlarged the proportions given
in the above graduated drawing must be respected.

The CE marking must be affixed to the EuP. Where this is not possible, it must be affixed to the packaging and to the
accompanying documents.

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ANNEX IV

Internal design control

(referred to in Article 8)

1.

This Annex describes the procedure whereby the manufacturer or its authorised representative who carries out
the obligations laid down in point 2 of this Annex ensures and declares that the EuP satisfies the relevant
requirements of the applicable implementing measure. The declaration of conformity may cover one or more
products and must be kept by the manufacturer.

2.

A technical documentation file making possible an assessment of the conformity of the EuP with the
requirements of the applicable implementing measure will be compiled by the manufacturer.

The documentation will specify, in particular:

3.

(a)

a general description of the EuP and of its intended use;

(b)

the results of relevant environmental assessment studies carried out by the manufacturer, and/or
references to environmental assessment literature or case studies, which are used by the manufacturer in
evaluating, documenting and determining product design solutions;

(c)

the ecological profile, if required by the implementing measure;

(d)

elements of the product design specification relating to environmental design aspects of the product;

(e)

a list of the appropriate standards referred to in Article 10, applied in full or in part, and a description of
the solutions adopted to meet the requirements of the applicable implementing measure where the
standards referred to in Article 10 have not been applied or where these standards do not cover entirely
the requirements of the applicable implementing measure;

(f)

a copy of the information concerning the environmental design aspects of the product provided in
accordance with the requirements specified in Annex I, Part 2;

(g)

the results of measurements on the ecodesign requirements carried out, including details of the
conformity of these measurements as compared with the ecodesign requirements set out in the applicable
implementing measure.

The manufacturer must take all measures necessary to ensure that the product will be manufactured in
compliance with the design specifications referred to in point 2 and with the requirements of the measure which
apply to it.

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ANNEX V

Management system for assessing conformity

(referred to in Article 8)

1.

This Annex describes the procedure whereby the manufacturer who satisfies the obligations of point 2 of this
Annex ensures and declares that the EuP satisfies the requirements of the applicable implementing measure.
The declaration of conformity may cover one or more products and must be kept by the manufacturer.

2.

A management system may be used for the conformity assessment of an EuP provided that the manufacturer
implements the environmental elements specified in point 3 of this Annex.

3.

Environmental elements of the management system

This point specifies the elements of a management system and the procedures by which the manufacturer can
demonstrate that the EuP complies with the requirements of the applicable implementing measure.

3.1.

The environmental product performance policy

The manufacturer must be able to demonstrate conformity with the requirements of the applicable
implementing measure. The manufacturer must also be able to provide a framework for setting and reviewing
environmental product performance objectives and indicators with a view to improving the overall
environmental product performance.

All the measures adopted by the manufacturer to improve the overall environmental performance of and to
establish the ecological profile of an EuP, if required by the implementing measure, through design and
manufacturing, must be documented in a systematic and orderly manner in the form of written procedures
and instructions.

These procedures and instructions must contain, in particular, an adequate description of:

the list of documents that must be prepared to demonstrate the EuP's conformity, and if relevant
that have to be made available;

the environmental product performance objectives and indicators and the organisational structure,
responsibilities, powers of the management and allocation of resources with regard to their
implementation and maintenance;

the checks and tests to be carried out after manufacture to verify product performance against
environmental performance indicators;

procedures for controlling the required documentation and ensuring that it is kept up to date;

the method of verifying the implementation and effectiveness of the environmental elements of the
management system.

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3.2.

Planning

The manufacturer will establish and maintain

3.3.

(a)

procedures for establishing the ecological profile of the product;

(b)

environmental product performance objectives and indicators, which consider technological options
taking into account technical and economic requirements;

(c)

a programme for achieving these objectives.

Implementation and documentation

3.3.1. The documentation concerning the management system should cover the following, in particular:

(a)

responsibilities and authorities will be defined and documented in order to ensure effective
environmental product performance and reporting on its operation for review and improvement;

(b)

documents will be established indicating the design control and verification techniques implemented and
processes and systematic measures used when designing the product;

(c)

the manufacturer will establish and maintain information to describe the core environmental elements
of the management system and the procedures for controlling all documents required.

3.3.2. The documentation concerning the EuP will specify, in particular:

(a)

a general description of the EuP and of its intended use;

(b)

the results of relevant environmental assessment studies carried out by the manufacturer, and/or
references to environmental assessment literature or case studies, which are used by the manufacturer in
evaluating, documenting and determining product design solutions;

(c)

the ecological profile, if required by the implementing measure;

(d)

documents describing the results of measurements on the ecodesign requirements carried out including
details of the conformity of these measurements as compared with the ecodesign requirements set out in
the applicable implementing measure;

(e)

the manufacturer will establish specifications indicating, in particular, standards which have been
applied; where standards referred to in Article 10 are not applied or where they do not cover entirely the
requirements of the relevant implementing measure, the means used to ensure compliance;

(f)

a copy of the information concerning the environmental design aspects of the product provided in
accordance with the requirements specified in Annex I, Part 2.

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Checking and corrective action

(a)

the manufacturer must take all measures necessary to ensure that the EuP is manufactured in compliance
with its design specification and with the requirements of the implementing measure which applies to it;

(b)

the manufacturer will establish and maintain procedures to investigate and respond to non-conformity,
and implement changes in the documented procedures resulting from corrective action;

(c)

the manufacturer will carry out at least every three years a full internal audit of the management system
with regard to its environmental elements.

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Official Journal of the European Union

ANNEX VI

Declaration of conformity
(referred to in Article 5(3))

The EC declaration of conformity must contain the following elements:

1.

the name and address of the manufacturer or of its authorised representative;

2.

a description of the model sufficient for unambiguous identification;

3.

where appropriate, the references of the harmonised standards applied;

4.

where appropriate, the other technical standards and specifications used;

5.

where appropriate, the reference to other Community legislation providing for the affixing of the CE mark that
is applied;

6.

identification and signature of the person empowered to bind the manufacturer or its authorised representative.

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ANNEX VII
Contents of the implementing measures
(referred to in Article 15(8))

The implementing measure will specify, in particular:

1.

the exact definition of the type(s) of EuP(s) covered;

2.

the ecodesign requirement(s) for the EuP(s) covered, implementing date(s), staged or transitional measures or
periods;

in the case of generic ecodesign requirement(s), the relevant phases and aspects selected from those
mentioned in Annex I, points 1.1 and 1.2, accompanied by examples of parameters selected from those
mentioned in Annex I, point 1.3 as guidance when evaluating improvements regarding identified
environmental aspects;

in the case of specific ecodesign requirement(s), its (their) level(s);

3.

the ecodesign parameters referred to in Annex I, Part 1 relating to which no ecodesign requirement is necessary;

4.

the requirements on installation of the EuP where it has a direct relevance to the EuP's environmental
performance considered;

5.

the measurement standards and/or measurement methods to be used; when available, harmonised standards the
reference numbers of which have been published in the Official Journal of the European Union will be used;

6.

the details for conformity assessment under Decision 93/465/EEC;

where the module(s) to be applied is (are) different from Module A; the factors leading to the selection of
that specific procedure;

where relevant the criteria for approval and/or certification of the third parties;

where different modules are laid down in other CE requirements for the same EuP, the module defined in the
implementing measure will prevail for the requirement concerned;

7.

requirements on information to be provided by manufacturers notably on the elements of the technical

documentation which are needed for facilitating the checking of the compliance of the EuP with the
implementing measure;

8.

the duration of the transitional period during which Member States must permit the placing on the market and/
or putting into service of EuPs which comply with the regulations in force in their territory on the date of
adoption of the implementing measure;

9.

the date for the evaluation and possible revision of the implementing measure, taking into account speed of
technological progress.

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Official Journal of the European Union

ANNEX VIII

In addition to the basic legal requirement that self-regulatory initiatives shall comply with all provisions of the Treaty
(in particular internal market and competition rules), as well as with the international engagements of the
Community, including multilateral trade rules, the following non-exhaustive list of indicative criteria may be used to
evaluate the admissibility of self-regulatory initiatives as an alternative to an implementing measure in the context of
this Directive:

1.

Openness of participation

Self-regulatory initiatives shall be open to the participation of third country operators, both in the preparatory and in
the implementation phases.

2.

Added value

Self-regulatory initiatives shall deliver added value (more than business as usual) in terms of the improved overall
environmental performance of the EuP covered.

3.

Representativeness

Industry and their associations taking part in a self-regulatory action shall represent a large majority of the relevant
economic sector, with as few exceptions as possible. Care shall be taken to ensure respect for competition rules.

4.

Quantified and staged objectives

The objectives defined by the stakeholders shall be set in clear and unambiguous terms, starting from a well-defined
baseline. If the self-regulatory initiative covers a long time-span, interim targets shall be included. It must be possible
to monitor compliance with objectives and (interim) targets in an affordable and credible way using clear and reliable
indicators. Research information and scientific and technological background data shall facilitate the development of
these indicators.

5.

Involvement of civil society

With a view to ensuring transparency, self-regulatory initiatives shall be publicised, including through the use of the
Internet and other electronic means of disseminating information.

The same shall apply to interim and final monitoring reports. Stakeholders including Member States, industry,
environmental NGOs and consumers' associations shall be invited to comment on a self-regulatory initiative.

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Monitoring and reporting

Self-regulatory initiatives shall contain a well-designed monitoring system, with clearly identified responsibilities for
industry and independent inspectors. The Commission services, in partnership with the parties to the self-regulatory
initiative, shall be invited to monitor the achievement of the objectives.

The plan for monitoring and reporting shall be detailed, transparent and objective. It shall remain for the Commission
services, assisted by the Committee referred to in Article 19(1), to consider whether the objectives of the voluntary
agreement or other self-regulatory measures have been met.

7.

Cost-effectiveness of administering a self-regulatory initiative

The cost of administering self-regulatory initiatives, in particular as regards monitoring, shall not lead to a
disproportionate administrative burden, as compared to their objectives and to other available policy instruments.

8.

Sustainability

Self-regulatory initiatives shall respond to the policy objectives of this Directive including the integrated approach and
shall be consistent with the economic and social dimensions of sustainable development. The protection of
consumers' interests (health, quality of life and economic interests) shall be integrated.

9.

Incentive compatibility

Self-regulatory initiatives are unlikely to deliver the expected results if other factors and incentives market pressure,
taxes, and legislation at national level send contradictory signals to participants in the commitment. Policy
consistency is essential in this regard and shall be taken into consideration when assessing the effectiveness of the
initiative.

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