Criminalistica0311 en

TO THE ATTENTION
OF THE MEMBERS OF ROMANIAN

FORENSIC ASSOCIATION
AND TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
On October 26th 27th 2011,
Romanian Forensic Association, in
cooperation with Forensic Science
Institute within General Inspectorate
of Romanian Police and with the
International
Agency
for
Crime
Prevention and Security Policies, will
organize, in Bucharest, the International
Symposium with the following topics:
1. New
techniques
and
dactiloscopic methods of person
identification;
2. New forensic techniques and
means used during the research on
crime scene.
We ask those who want to present
communications to send them until the
date of September 12th 2011, to the

following address: Romanian Forensic
Association, Dacia Avenue, nr. 55,
ap.1, Bucharest, 1st district, postal
code 010406, post office 22, or to
asociatiacriminalistilor@yahoo.com.
The
communications
will
be
presented in Romanian and in English
and shall not exceed 5-7 pages (A4). At
the end of each communication, it will
be presented the bibliography used.
For further details related to this
manifestation, call:
021.210.33.44 or 0740.060.696.
General Secretary - Manager
col. (r) prof. Vasile Lpdui
N ATENIA MEMBRILOR
ASOCIAIEI CRIMINALITILOR
DIN ROMNIA
I A CELOR INTERESAI
n zilele de 26 i 27 octombrie
2011, Asociaia Criminalitilor din
Romnia, n parteneriat cu Institutul
de Criminalistic din cadrul I.G.P.R. i
Agenia Internaional pentru Prevenirea
Criminalitii i Politici de Securitate,
va organiza, la Bucureti, Simpozionul
internaional cu urmtoarele teme:
1. Noi
tehnici
i
metode
dactiloscopice
de
identificare
a
persoanei;
2. Noi
tehnici
i
metode
criminalistice care se folosesc pe timpul
cercetrii la faa locului.
Cei care vor s prezinte comunicri,
i rugm s le trimit pn pe data de
12 septembrie 2011, la urmtoarea
adres: Asociaia Criminalitilor din

Romnia, Bdul Dacia, nr. 55, ap.1,
Bucureti, sector 1, cod potal 010406,
OP 22, sau pe asociatiacriminalistilor@
yahoo.com.
Comunicrile vor fi trimise n limba
romn i n limba englez i nu
trebuie s depeasc 5-7 pagini (A4).
La sfritul fiecrei comunicri se va
prezenta bibliografia folosit.
Alte date n legtur cu aceast
manifestare
se
pot
obine
la
telefoanele:
021.210.33.44 sau 0740.060.696.
Secretar general - administrator
col (r.) prof. Vasile Lpdui
Since March 2011 the Romanian Journal of Forensic Science

was passed in B+ Category by the National Board for Scientific Research
in the Higher Education (N.B.S.R.H.E.) - Code 687 (N.B.S.R.H.E.)
THE SCIENTIFIC BOARD
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pag.
693. LACK OF LIABILITY IN ADOPTING THE LAW DRAFT RELATED
TO EXERCISING THE PROFESSION OF PRIVATE FORENSIC EXPERT,
INCORPORATION, ORGANISATION AND OPERATION OF ROMANIAN COLLEGE
OF PRIVATE FORENSIC EXPERS
DAN VOINEA,
VASILE LPDUI
696. INTERPRETATION OF TRACES ON CRIME SCENE
VALENTIN SITARU,
BOGDAN GEORGESCU
VASILE LPDUI
701. THE SUCCESSION OF THE ASSOCIATION OF NECROPHAGOUS INSECTS
IN CASE OF SUSPICIOUS DEATH
LAVINIA PAUL
ANA-MARIA KRAPAL
ANA-MARIA PETRESCU
704. APPEARANCE AND EVOLUTION OF DACTILOSCOPY (I)
VASILE LPDUI
IONEL NECULA
MIHAI IVANICI
708. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMPUTER CRIMES INVESTIGATION
FROM THE CHILD PORNOGRAPHY CATEGORY
ADRIAN CRISTIAN MOISE
713. CERTITUDE OF FORENSIC EVIDENCE AND ITS CORRELATION
WITH ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS
MIRCEA FIERBINEANU
716. SIRCHIE IN VISIT AT ROMANIAN FORENSIC ASSOCIATION
RENATA-MINODORA WATSON
719. DIFFERENTIATION OF SCRIPTURAL MATERIALS SAMPLES
SUCH AS BALLPOINT INKS FOR PEN BY PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL METHODS
MARIA GEORGETA STOIAN
DANIELA LAURA FERARU
725. CAPITALIZATION OF PAINT TRACES
BY PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
GEORGETA ANDREESCU
ELENA GALAN
732. JUDICIAL PHOTO IN FORENSIC SCIENCE
RZVAN-NICU DOBRCEANU
737. MYSTERIOUS DISAPPEARANCES OF UNDERAGE CHILDREN
CRISTIAN-EDUARD TEFAN
740. MULTIMODAL BIOMETRICS: ENGINEERING,
INTIMACY AND SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE
ARDELEAN IONUT
Romanian Journal of Forensic Science was assessed

and classified by the National Board for Scientific
Research in the Higher Education (N.B.S.R.H.E.)
at the category B+ with the Cod 687 (N.B.S.R.H.E.)
The authors are liable for

the content of the articles
published.
Honorary Chairman:
Academician Marius SALA,
vice-chairman of the Romanian Academy
Chairman:
Univ. prof. Lazr CRJAN PhD, chairman of Romanian Forensic
Association, dean of the Faculty of Law within the Spiru Haret University;
Vice-chairmen:
Univ. lecturer Iancu TEFAN PhD,
Romanian University of Sciences and Arts Gheorghe Cristea;
Associate professor magistrate major general (r) Dan VOINEA PhD;
main vice-chairman of Romanian Forensic Association;
Police quaestor Gabriel RU, director of Forensic Science Institute
within General Inspectorate of Romanian Police;
Univ. prof. Petre BUNECI PhD, dean of the Faculty of Law
within the Ecological University;
Police quaestor Jnic ARION-IGNAU PhD, general manager
of Anti-Corruption General Directorate;
Associate professor chief commissary Constantin DUVAC PhD;
Police quaestor Vasile VIOREL PhD, director of General Directorate
of Bucharest Police;
Associate professor Gheorghe PESCU PhD,
Dimitrie Cantemir University;
Members:
Univ. prof. Tudorel BUTOI PhD, Spiru Haret University;
Univ. prof. habilitated dr. Mihail GHEORGHI,
Free International University of Moldova;
Associate professor Gheorghe GOLUBENCO PhD,
Free International University of Moldova;
LAZARENKO LINA, Forensic Science Institute of the Republic of Lithuania;
Eng. Ctlin GRIGORA Phd, professor at the University of Colorado
Denver, U.S.A.
Prof. Saverio FORTUNATO PhD, chairman of CSI-PERITI E CONSULENTI
FORENSI Firenze, Italy;
Vladislav YANEV, Institute of Forensic Science and Criminology
of Ministry of Interior Bulgaria;
Main police quaestor Aurel VLDULESCU PhD;
Univ. prof. Valentin IFTENIE PhD, National Institute
of Forensic Medicine Mina Minovici;
George BLAN PhD, Superior Council of Magistracy;
Eng. Mircea FIERBINEANU, judicial expert;
Division general (r) Gavril Dorelu RMUREAN,
member of Romanian Forensic Association;
Chief commissary ROMIC POTORAC,
deputy director of Forensic Science Institute;
Viorel-Gheorghe GAVRA, prime prosecutor of Prosecution Department
attached to Bihor Tribunal;
Chief commissary Crian-Mucenic LZUREANU,
manager of the Kennel Center, Sibiu;
Univ. lecturer Nicolae GROFU, Al. I. Cuza Police Academy;
Chief commissary Viorel COROIU, Al. I. Cuza Police Academy;
Univ. lecturer Pantelimon BOTIN, Titu Maiorescu University;
Univ. lecturer major general (r) Ioan HURDUBAIE, executive director
of the International Agency for Crime Prevention and Security Policies;
Univ. lecturer Gheorghe-Iulian IONIT PhD, Romanian-American
University Bucharest;
Chief commissary Georgeta STOIAN PhD, Forensic Science Institute
Chief commissary Octavian Conicescu PhD, Forensic Science Institute
Associate professor Nicolae VDUVA PhD, Romanian University
of Sciences and Arts Gheorghe Cristea;
Eng. Anca BLAN, general manager of the Chronos company;
Col. Vasile DOAN, prosecutor National Anticorruption Directorate;
Chief commissary Ionel NECULA, Forensic Science Institute;
Jurist Ciprian IONESCU, Romanian Commercial Bank;
Chief commissary Grigore PTRU, chief of the Forensic Science Service
of General Directorate of Bucharest Police;
Univ. lecturer Gabriela MATEI PhD, Ecological University;
Univ. lecturer Constantin DRGHICI PhD, Romanian University
of Sciences and Arts Gheorghe Cristea;
Univ. lecturer Florin BOBIN PhD, Spiru Haret University of Craiova;
Lawyer Adrian-Cristian MOISE PhD;
Cristian DUMITRESCU PhD, Romanian Commercial Bank;
Univ. lecturer Sorinel CRUU, Al. I. Cuza Police Academy.
Editor: Vasile LPDUI

Deputy managing editor: Nicolae GROFU
Editors: Cristian DIACONESCU, Nicolae SAVU, Stelua GREJDINOIU, Renata-Minodora WATSON
Mihaela Irina CONSTANTINESCU, Marin RUIU, Horaiu MNDESCU, Cristian DUMITRESCU
Translation: Rzvan DOBRCEANU, Renata Minodora WATSON
Treasurer: Mihai IVANICI
Editorial secretary general: Alexandru BARBU
Chairman of the Auditors Committee: economist COSTIC TNASE
Advertising and distribution: Liviu OPREA and Mihai IVANICI
Accountancy: ILEANA-CAMELIA GRIGORE
Phone: 021.210.33.44; 0721599552; E-mail: asociatiacriminalistilor@yahoo.com
Photo: Rzvan RIZEA, Emanuel APETREI and Mihai MRZA
The journal was founded in March 1999 by the prof. VASILE LPDUI
The journal was elaborated by Romanian Forensic Association and recognized by the Romanian Government as being of public
utility, by way of the Resolution no. 1240/2005; Certificate of Registration of the Legal Person without patrimonial purpose no. 17
from 26.02.2002, issued by the Court of Law of District no. 3, Bucharest; Authorization no. 44/PJ/2002, 80-3/12.997; fiscal code
no. 14523220; new account: 2511.E01.0.564199.0080.ROL.6;
IBAN code RO58RNCB0080005641990006 - B.C.R., Sala Palatului Branch, Bucharest; Certificate of Registration
of the Brand at O.S.I.M. no. 78602
www.asociatiacriminalistilor.ro; asociatiacriminalistilor@yahoo.com
Editor: Romanian Forensic Association,

Dacia Avenue no. 55, district 1, phone 021 210.33.44
Typography: Marius Rou
I.S.S.N. 2069-2617
10 RON
CUPRINS
Pag.
693. LIPS DE RSPUNDERE N ADOPTAREA PROIECTULUI DE LEGE
PRIVIND EXERCITAREA PROFESIEI DE EXPERT CRIMINALIST PRIVAT, NFIINAREA,
ORGANIZAREA I FUNCIONAREA COLEGIULUI EXPERILOR CRIMINALITI PRIVAI DIN ROMNIA
DAN VOINEA,
VASILE LPDUI
696. INTERPRETAREA URMELOR DE LA LOCUL FAPTEI
VALENTIN SITARU,
BOGDAN GEORGESCU
VASILE LPDUI
701. SUCCESIUNEA ASOCIAIEI DE INSECTE NECROFAGE
N CAZUL UNUI DECES SUSPECT
LAVINIA PAUL
ANA-MARIA KRAPAL
ANA-MARIA PETRESCU
704. APARIIA I EVOLUIA DACTILOSCOPIEI ( I )
VASILE LPDUI
IONEL NECULA
MIHAI IVANICI
708. PARTICULARITI ALE INVESTIGRII INFRACIUNILOR INFORMATICE DIN CATEGORIA PORNOGRAFIEI INFANTILE
ADRIAN CRISTIAN MOISE
713. CERTITUDINEA PROBELOR CRIMINALISTICE I CORELAREA LOR N ACCIDENTELE DE TRAFIC RUTIER
MIRCEA FIERBINEANU
716. COMPANIA SIRCHIE N VIZIT LA ASOCIAIA CRIMINALITILOR DIN ROMANIA
RENATA-MINODORA WATSON
719. DIFERENIEREA PROBELOR DE MATERIAL SCRIPTURAL DE TIPUL PASTELOR PENTRU PIX PRIN METODE FIZICOCHIMICE
DANIELA LAURA FERARU
725. VALORIFICAREA URMELOR I MICROURMELOR DE VOPSEA PRIN EXPERTIZE FIZICO-CHIMICE
GEORGETA ANDREESCU
ELENA GALAN
732. FOTOGRAFIA DIGITAL N CRIMINALISTIC
RZVAN-NICU DOBRCEANU
737. DISPARIIILE DE ORIGINE NECUNOSCUT ALE MINORILOR
CRISTIAN-EDUARD TEFAN
740. BIOMETRICA MULTIMOD : INGINERIE , INTIMITATE I ACCEPTAN SOCIAL
ARDELEAN IONUT
TO THE ATTENTION OF READERS

AND OF COLLABORATORS!
The next issue of the journal will come out on August

2011. Those who are interested to purchase our
publication could address the forensic services from
the inspectorates of county police and from the
Bucharest Municipality Police. The materials also
given to publication, accompanied by the necessary
illustrations, will be sent to the editorial office, also
through the forensic services, to Forensic Science
Institute of General Inspectorate of Romanian Police.
Theoretical and practical solutions are the

opinions of the authors of articles published
692
The printing approval was given by the editorial chief.

The persons interested could address
the editorial staff for the translation in English language
of each article.
TO THE ATTENTION
OF READERS
Romanian Journal of Forensic Science is available on
journals.indexcopernicus.com
INDEX COPERNICUS INTERNATIONAL
FORENSIC SCIENCE NO.3 (75), JUNE 2011, VOL. XI
Editorial
LACK OF LIABILITY IN ADOPTING THE LAW

DRAFT RELATED TO EXERCISING THE PROFESSION
OF PRIVATE FORENSIC EXPERT, INCORPORATION,
ORGANISATION AND OPERATION OF ROMANIAN
COLLEGE OF PRIVATE FORENSIC EXPERS
LIPS DE RSPUNDERE N ADOPTAREA
PROIECTULUI DE LEGE PRIVIND EXERCITAREA
PROFESIEI DE EXPERT CRIMINALIST PRIVAT,
NFIINAREA, ORGANIZAREA I FUNCIONAREA
COLEGIULUI EXPERILOR CRIMINALITI PRIVAI
DIN ROMNIA
Major General (ret.) Univ Reader. Ph.D. Dan VOINEA,
Vice-President of the Romanian Forensic Association
Col (ret.) Prof. Vasile LPDUI, General Secretary
of the Romanian Forensic Association
Abstract
In this article are presented some of the activities undertaken for the elaboration of
Law Draft related to exercising the profession of private forensic expert, the incorporation,
organisation and operation of Romanian College of Private Forensic Experts. There are
also emphasised the burdens occurred during the debate of it in Romanian Parliament.
Key words: law draft; liberalizing the activity of forensic expertise; Romanian College of
Private Experts; CEDO practice; Project of Lisbon; private forensic laboratories.
Rezumat
n acest articol sunt prezentate unele dintre activitile ntreprinse pentru elaborarea
Proiectului de Lege privind exercitarea profesiei de expert criminalist privat, nfiinarea,
organizarea i funcionarea Colegiului Experilor Criminaliti Privai din Romnia. Totodat,
sunt scose n eviden dificultile care au aprut pe parcursul discutrii lui n Parlamentul
Romniei.
Cuvinte cheie: Proiect de Lege; liberalizarea activitii de expertiz criminalistic;
Colegiul Experilor Criminaliti Privai din Romnia; practica CEDO; Tratatul de la Lisabona;
laboratoare de criminalistic private.
Since 1999, the Romanian Forensic Association has

made a study on the establishment in our country of the
independent forensic expert institution as it is the case
in all EU countries. Thus, the independent forensic
expert is the only authority which may be assigned the
task to counter-expertise a state expert case. As a
result, the Board of the Romanian Forensic Association
undertook a series of measures to deliver a draft law
to regulate the forensic expertise activity. Knowing our
intentions people from The National Institute of Forensic
Expertise (NIFE), the Ministry of Justice, have made a

draft emergency ordinance regarding the authorizing
of forensic experts, bill passed through Government,
becoming the Emergency Ordinance no. 75/2000,
subsequently amended by Law no. 488/2002. According
to that ordinance, the 2000 forensics working within the
Romanian Police were not considered experts, which
led us to intervene in order to introduce provisions in
the Law on the organization and functionning of the
Police, on the quality of the police forensic expert.
693
In January-October 2007, a team from the Dutch

Ministry of Justice carried out in Romania a project
entitled Strengthening the capacity of judicial expertise.
On this occasion there have been several meetings with
representatives of the Romanian Forensic Association, an
opportunity for us to get suggestions among other things on
the fundamental reorganization in Romania of the judicial
expert system, the compliance of the law on judicial experts
with the laws regulating forensic activity, the elimination of
state monopoly in the making expertise.
It is worth noticing that in the ex-communist countries
(Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary), there is this institution of
the independent expert while in some contries belonging to
the former Communist bloc and which are not EU members
(Russia, Moldova, etc.), the institution of the independent
expert is entitled private expert.
According to many laws in the EU countries, the expert
is considered to be the individual, who has expertise in a
particular field of science, technology or art, has no legal
interest regarding the matter analysed, is called by a
competent authority as an expert in the court, in order to
clarify issues related to their field of knowledge.
Meanwhile, several people have notified the Romanian
Forensic Association about some irregularities tackling
the forensic expertise provided by some experts in state
institutions. (For example, graphics expertise made by
chemical engineers or former engine drivers, etc.). The
Associations Board of Directors undertook the action of
drawing up a Bill for practicing the profession of private
forensic expert, the establishment, organization and
functioning of Romanian Forensic Experts Private College.
This project was submitted to the Judiciary Committee of
the Senate, where five of the senators (Mr. Toni Grebl,
Adrian Tutuianu, Gheorghe Marcu, Ioan Chelaru and Dan
Coman ova) agreed to stand for this bill because it was
topical. The Legislative Council also agreed with this bill,
then it was adopted by the Romanian Senate, under Article
75 (2) third sentence of the Constitution.
Note that, before its adoption, the draft law was sent to
the Ministry of Interior and Ministry of Justice. On the basis of
the reports of these ministries, the Romanian Government,
Prime - Ministers Chancellery, sent an opinion about the
bill signed by Mr. Emil Boc. Here are a few paragraphs from
this report ... In our opinion, to reform the current system
of forensic expertise is not necessary to promote a bill on
exercising the profession of private forensic expert, the
foundation, the organization and the functioning of the
Forensic Experts Private College in Romania. We believe
that for the purpose of reforming the system is sufiecient,
for regulatory unit, to amend the current legal framework,
namely Government Ordinance no.75/2000, and to create a
statute for authorized forensic experts to regulate the legality
and impartiality conditions to exercise the profession. In this
respect, we show that at this moment, is in advanced stage
of developing a draft law aimed at reforming the activity of
making forensic expertises in accordance with the objectives
that are included in The development strategy of Justice as
a public service... The Government does not support the
adoption of the draft law on exercising the profession of
private forensic expert, the foundation, the organization and
the functioning of the Forensic Experts Private College.
This bill was sent to the President of the Senate Chamber
of Deputies. After the project has passed through the
Committees of the Chamber of Deputies (some of them gave
a favorable notice, while others gave negative notice) was
subjected to the plenary, only Opposition MPs agreeing with
it, so this project was rejected by the coalition deputies. On
May 17, 2011 it was rejected by the Chamber of Deputies:
694
128 for, 142 against, 3 abstentions and 1 not voting - all

those present 274.
Later, The draft law amending and supplementing
Ordinance no.75/2000 for authorizing forensic experts
who may be recommended by the parties in carrying out
forensic examinations ... came to the Senate. This project
was approved by the Chamber of Deputies after that it
was submitted to the Senate. To clarify some issues raised
regarding the draft law of the Ministry of Justice, the Judiciary
Committee of the Senate has established a working group
between specialists of the Ministry of Justice and the
Romanian Forensic Association. During this meeting no
positive result was reached regarding the liberalization and
the foundation of the Forensic Experts Private College in
Romania.
Our observations were as follows, they were submitted
to the Judiciary Committee of the Senate:
1. To prepare a new bill that shall contain:
a section with general issues related to forensic
expertise;
a second section with the forensic expertise made by
state institutions;
The third section with the forensic expertise made by
private forensic experts.
In connection with the private forensic experts should
be provided in the bill that this activity is organized by the
Forensic Experts Private College in Romania and is not
subordinated to the Ministry of Justice.
The organization and the functioning of private forensic
laboratories shall be regulated by a Government Decision.
2. According to ECHR practice, the court should
decide on the competence of an expert, not MJ, MAI, RIS
or other structure of the executive power. In Mirilashvili
v. Rusia (no. 6293/04), the Strasbourg Court reiterated
that a judge is free to decide on the competence of an
expert witness appointed by the party.
3. Treaty of Lisbon.
Lisbon Treaty entered into force on December 1, 2009
and its consolidated form, namely Protocol. 3 on the Statute
of the Court of Justice of the European Union provides:
Title III. Procedure before the Court of Justice. Article
25.
The Court of Justice may at any time entrust any
individual, body, authority, comittee or other organisation it
chooses with the task of giving an expert opinion.
Title III. Procedure before the Court of Justice. Article
30.
Each Member State shall treat any breach of oath of a
witness or expert in the same way, as a crime had been
committed before a court with jurisdiction in civil matters.
By virtue of the Court of Justice, the Member State shall
prosecute the offender to the competent national court.
4. Art. 50 of the ICJ Statute: The Court may, at any
time, entrust any individual, body, bureau, commission,
or other organization that it may select, with the task of
carrying out an enquiry or giving an expert opinion
5. Codes of Criminal Procedure and Civil Procedure
in the EU Member States exclude any interference of
the executive power in authorizing independent experts
(see http://www.forensicav.ro/blogg.htm) and any state
monopoly in forensic examinations.
6. Accountant expert, technical expert, legal
medicine expert and forensic expert are not just
jobs but qualities stipulated by art. 2 of Government
Ordinance no. 75/2000 and art. 1 of Government
Ordinance no. 2 / 2000.
7. In 2001 and 2004, MJ organized at the request of
RIS exams for acquiring the status of authorized forensic
expert by active officers from RIS, although Article 1 of G.O.

no. 75/2000 expressly provides that authorized forensic
experts are required and recommended by the concerned
parties as their advisers. MJ had no legal basis to hold these
exams for RIS.
8. In 2005, there were some changes in Romanian
legislation. Thus, in criminal matters, according to art. IX-2
and X-2 of Title XVI of the Law. 247/2005, only NAD and
DIOCT can call private experts form the country or abroad,
not judges or parties (4) The technical-scientific findings and
expertises can be performed by other specialists or experts
from public or private institutions in Romanian or abroad,
organized according to the law, and by individual specialists
or experts approved or recognized by law. In civil matters,
according to art. I-10 (5) of Title II of Law no. 247/2005 (21).
To establish the ownership right the applicant may submit
beginnings of written statements, of authenticated witness
testimonies, extrajudicial expertises and any acts which,
combined, based on the presumption of existence of his
ownership on the property, at the date of the abusive taking
over.
Finally, according to art. 4 (5), Title XIII of Law 247/2005:
(5) extrajudicial expertises submitted by the parties in land
processes have the same evidential value as expertises
ordered by court, provided they are carried out by experts
authorized by the Ministry of Justice.
These legislative provisions are contradictory and the
principle of equal opportunity is violated. NAD and DIOCT
can call private experts form the country or abroad, but judges
or parties can not. Can also be noted that some forensic
expertises, such as graphics and technical documents,
have an advantage over other forensic expertises.
9. During 2000-2005, MJ, RIS, MAI, DIOCT, NAD did
not take any attitude towards legislative changes witch
advantages them and did not allow parties to defend
according to ECHR practice and to aspects of section 2-4,
namely the commitments assumed by Romania through
international treaties on the ECHR, the Treaty of Lisbon and
the International Court of Justice.
Now when it comes to reform the Romanian forensic
expertises by:
eliminating state monopoly;
complying with the principle of equal opportunities and
giving the parties the right to defend themselves according
to ECHR practice;
alignment to scientific and legislative realities of the
EU;
complying the commitments assumed by Romania
and implementing the principles laid down in Title III. art.
25 of the Treaty of Lisbon and art. 50 of the Statute of the
International Court of Justice we find out that exactly the
Ministry of Justice supports a bill that mixes their own experts
with those that are independent and still maintain the state
monopoly by founding the College of forensic expert as a
part of NIFE.
10. The bill initiated by the Romanian Forensic
Association includes reformative elements and the
independent forensic expert institution does not tackle the
activity of experts from NIFE (National Institute of Forensic
Expertise), MAI (Ministry of Administration and Interior)
, RIS (Romanian Intelligence Service), NAD (National
Anticorruption Directorate), DIOCT (Directorate for
Investigating Organized Crime and Terrorism )(which means
that, these state employees wages and status, etc. are not
affected) , which is why they have no right to interfere and
block real reform in this area.
11. GD. 459/2009 on the NIFE, which was initiated by
the MJ, was not subject to public debate, it was not posted
on Governments agenda, nor on the list of documents of the

Governments session. Thus, it is obvious that the internal
problems of MJ and NIFE, do not require a law, but a new
GD. Accordingly, the provisions of a legislative initiative
issued by the MJ regarding NIFE do not make sense.
12. It is mandatory that the GD. 652 regarding the
organization and functioning of MJ from the 27th of May
2009, should be amended and Art. 6.V.4 and V.5 should be
repealed. Currently, according to GD no. 652/2009: Art
6.the Ministry has the following main tasks:
V. in the organization, coordination and control of
some professions and related legal services:
4. coordinates, under the law, the activities of
authorizing and accounting forensic experts;
5. coordinates the activity of technical judicial
expertise from an administrative and methodological
perspective
The matters previously presented lead us to the following
ideas:
A democratic society completely rules out the possibility
for governments to interfere with the Courts activity and
to impose its lists of experts created by the Ministry of
Justice or other structures of executive power or the states
authorities.
MJ + RIS (Romanian Intelligence Service) + DIOCT
(Directorate for Investigating Organized Crime and Terrorism
) + NAD (National Anticorruption Directorate) should not rule
on issues related to independent expertise.
MJ + RIS (Romanian Intelligence Service) + DIOCT
(Directorate for Investigating Organized Crime and Terrorism
) + NAD (National Anticorruption Directorate) try blocking the
reform after years of enjoying monopoly without complaining
that the laws were improperly applied serving to their benefit
and the detriment of litigants.
Regarding the two bills, namely the one of the Romanian
Association of Forensic Experts and of the Ministry of
Justice, more comments have appeared in the media that
support the previously mentioned proposals. In this respect,
for example, in the newspaper The World of Justice, on
May 17, 2011, the journalists and A. Stancu and R. Savaliuc,
wrote an article entitled Experts from NIFE and RIS want to
authorize independent experts! To compensate the project
of the MJ, there is only one commendable project made by
the Romanian Association of Forensic Experts!
After presenting a series of arguments, the two journalists
concluded that Parliament should discuss the project of the
Romanian Association of Forensic Experts and not the one
of the Ministry of Justice, which should be returned to the
Government in order to issue a decision on NIFEs activity.
We hope that those entitled to make laws in Romania will
review the issues that we have notified.
References:
1. Legislative Council Opinion on the legislative
proposal regarding the establishment, organization and the
functioning of the College for the private forensic experts
in
Romania, no. 782/21.06.2010.
2. The report of the Romanian Government - Prime
Minister - terms of no. 2366/09.09.2010, entered the
Romanian Senate no. 550/29.09.2010.
3. the Senates address no. 1279 from 23.12.2010, to
the President of the Chamber of Deputies.
695
INTERPRETATION OF TRACES ON CRIME SCENE

INTERPRETAREA URMELOR
DE LA LOCUL FAPTEI
Police Commissioner Valentine SITARU,
forensic expert in GDBP
Prosecutor Alexandru Bogdan GEORGESCU,
Bucharest Tribunal Prosecutors Office
Col (ret.) Prof. Vasile LPDUI,
editor of the Romanian Journal of Forensic Science
Abstract
The article presents some issues related to the importance of interpretation of traces
on crime scene. It is emphasized the role and importance of the scientific means and
methods for the discovery, determination, interpretation and examination of traces and
material evidence in the identification of persons who created them in the crime field. All
theoretical issues are supported by the examinations performed during the investigation
of crime scene in a case of aggravated murder. That is the murder of Bogdan Dan, from
Bucharest.
Key words: interpretation of traces by forensic experts; the traces discovered inside
and outside the garden of the premise where the fact was committed; report of technicalscientific findings; observations of criminal body.
Rezumat
Articolul prezint unele aspecte privind importana interpretrii urmelor la locul faptei.
Sunt scoase n eviden rolul i importana mijloacelor i metodelor tiinifice n vederea
descoperirii, fixrii, interpretrii i examinrii urmelor i mijloacelor materiale de prob
pentru identificarea persoanelor care le-au creat n cmpul infracional. Toate problemele
teoretice sunt susinute cu examinrile fcute n cazul investigrii locului faptei ntr-un caz
de omor calificat. Este vorba de uciderea lui Bogdan Dan, din Bucureti.
Cuvinte cheie: Interpretarea urmelor de ctre criminaliti; urmele descoperite n interiorul
i exteriorul curii imobilului unde s-a produs fapta; raportul de constatare tehnico-tiinific;
aprecieri ale organului de urmrire penal.
1. Considerations regarding the interpretation

of the material traces in the investigation of violent
crimes
Studies and researches show us that, in almost all
countries, the number of violent crimes is constantly
increasing. Besides the existence of some biological
factors, that limit human ability to control violent impulses,
the studies performed show us that the social and
economic conditions have a decisive role in the process
of committing a crime. Conducive conditions to antisocial
manifestations, excesses of any kind and not ultimately,
violent manifestations, appear in a society with severe
contradictions, where the gap between rich and poor
is increasing, the insecurity, poverty, unemployment,
injustice, lack of culture and perspective, pursuit of easy
gain, false models are often present.
Due to a continue increase in crime rate and especially
in violent crimes, the investigation bodies - police and
prosecution - as the law institutions of the state, improve
their investigation procedures, using scientific means
and methods that prove guilt and punish the authors of
the criminal acts.
In this regard, the scientific means and methods used
for the discovery, fixation, examination and interpretation
of evidence, samples and material means of evidence
696
that serve to the identification of people who have

created or used them in a criminal context have an
important contribution. Thus, based on these activities,
it can be established the causal link between the act and
the person who committed it.
Regarding the interpretation of traces, it all starts
with the entrance of the inquiry team in the crime scene
area and then it continues in specialized laboratories.
Three steps can be distinguished in the process of traces
interpretation: individual interpretation; interpretation
in relation to other categories of collected traces and in
connection with the crime scene; traces interpretation,
correlated with the investigations performed .
The creative factor of the trace, type, nature and
formation of it, as well as other aspects revealed by the
crime scene, are examined in the crime field. The forensic
specialists draw conclusions referring to the number of
participants, input and output directions from the crime
field, persons data, sex, occupation of the criminal.
The interpretation of traces is the next step after
processing them in special laboratories (eg: hand traces,
traces of blood, saliva, sperm, hairs and other biological
categories of traces). Note that each category of traces
has a certain probative value.
Below, we will present the interpretation of the traces
found at the crime scene, in the case of first degree
murder of the victim called Dan Bogdan, in Bucharest.

2. The investigation of the crime scene
On the night of 16/17.07.2008, in the courtyard of a
building in Bucharest, serious injuries were caused to
the so-called Bogdan Dan by several hits with a hard
body (wooden bat) in vital body areas (head, chest and
abdomen). Bogdan Dan died being transported to a
hospital, despite all medical care.
Following the event, the crime scene was investigated
by a team composed of police officers from the Homicide
Department and Department of Forensic Science in
General Directorate of Bucharest Police, led by the
homicide prosecutor Alexandru Bogdan Georgescu. On
this occasion, the forensic experts found, fixed and picked
up more material traces of reddish brown color, with a
biological aspect. Thus, many blood traces were found
in the defendant courtyard, on a large area inside the
courtyard of the building (the blood traces were located
in different planes, both on foot and on different objects fence, floor, table, plants, garbage bin, etc .).
A chair, found near the table situated under the
canopy, with damages at the right armrest, was also
discovered at the crime scene investigation. This aspect,
in conjunction with the other traces found in this area and
with the general environment, has led to the hypothesis
that an altercation started in that place.
Given the results of the crime scene investigation,
the prosecutor concluded that a specialist opinion is
necessary to clarify the cause, ordering in this case the
performance of a technical-scientific report regarding
the interpretation of traces, with the objective: the
interpretation of material traces with a biological aspect,
of brown-red colour, discovered at the crime scene.
3. The interpretation of the material traces found
at the crime scene
To carry out the work ordered, forensic expert
Valentin Sitaru conducted a series of examinations and
measurements, on which occasion he found that:
In terms of material traces found on the outer wall of
the left gate for accessing the courtyard of the building,
it was concluded that
they were created by
Photo 1
two distinct actions of
Early
a persons left hand,
ago
on
the
direction
from top to bottom,
presumably by hand
deletion on a pole;
An accumulation
Area
of matter, with a flow accumulation
area at its base, that
can be explained
by the existence of
an injury at the ring
Finality
finger or by a large
ago
quantity of matter
accumulated on the
finger, can be seen in photo nr. 1, at
the A marked trace, in the ring finger
area.
The group of material traces found
in the area of the gates threshold,
marked 3, in photo nr. 2, consists of
three drops with diameters between
5 and 11mm, arranged as an isosceles triangle, whose

equal sides have the length of about 25cm, its base is
parallel to the axis of the gates poles and the top is
oriented towards the courtyard of the building.
After examining the traces shown in photo nr.2, it may
be supported the hypothesis that those were created
by a slow movement (trace marked with 1) from the
courtyard to outside, followed by a short stationary period
of their origin.
Photo 2
dle
spin
pole
C
No.
Diameter
Orientation
11 mm
~45 to the spindle poles
5 mm
vertical
10 mm
vertically
On the left door

pole, on its inside part
Photo 3
and on the blunt body
backing vertically on top
of it, there can be seen
multiple material traces
under spots shape, on
the top side.
Photo nr. 3-4. The
position of the blunt body
and the arrangement of
material traces on the
inside of the door pole
and of the canopy pole.
After
the blunt body
examination
of
the
material traces found
on the blunt body it
can be opined that they
tower
cab
were created by direct contact

with a living body, which suffered
damages that allowed bleeding.
Photo 4
697
The irregular shape and lack of minimal skin ridges

exclude the hypothesis that the traces have been created
by grasping the object with a blood dirty hand.
The material traces on the inside face of the gates
pole were probably created by splashing, given their very
small size and at least by two distinct movements of the
origin source.
the material traces found on the inside pole gate, joining

in the general dynamics of their creation.
The material traces found on the access driveway
inside the courtyard of the building, forming the group of
traces marked 4 in photo nr. 7, have diameters between
7-20 mm, some of them are dynamic, consisting in the
appearance of radial drops oriented in different directions,
namely towards the gateway of access, mostly the
rubbish bin in the courtyard, and less to the interior of the
courtyard, as well as drops that indicate the stop of the
origin source.
Photo 5
Photo 7
Photo nr. 7. The group of traces marked 4.
Photo nr. 5. The orientation of the drops on the inside

gates pole that allows the access in the courtyard of the
building.
The orientations analyze of the two groups of traces,
shown in Photo nr. 5., supports the hypothesis that the
traces were created by two distinct actions of the origin
source, namely:
one by a circular motion from left to right and from
top to bottom (fan shaped layout - red arrows);
the second one by a vertical movement from top to
bottom, vertical orientation of the drops (yellow arrows).
The material traces shown in Photo nr. 6, found on
the supporting pole of the canopy, retains the features of
The material trace marked 5 (Photo nr. 8 and 9),

found on the access driveway from the courtyard of the
building, at about 160 cm from the spindle gates poles,
near the first duct, has an irregular shape, with dimensions
of about 32 mm and it seems to be created by a curd or by
accumulation, as a result of the origin source stop, being
oriented towards the rubbish bin from the courtyard.
Photo 8
Photo 9
Photo 6
Photo nr.8-9. The material trace marked 5,

the appearance and its orientation.
The group of traces marked 6 (photo nr.
10 and 11) is placed at about 80 cm in front of
the garbage bin, located in the courtyard, with
continuation of the path trace towards the bin.
698
Photo 10
Photo 13
Photo nr. 10. The material traces placed in front of

the bin and their orientation.
After examining the material traces placed in front
of the bin, was found that the circled traces in red are
created by dripping from the point of origin, given their
disposal, the presence of satellites drops, placed radial
throughout their circumference. The traces in question
have circular form, with sizes between 5 to 19 mm.
The material traces marked with yellow have circular
shape, measuring about 5-9 mm in diameter, with satellite
drops oriented to the gateway of access in the courtyard
of the building, on the direction of the corners rubbish
bin.
bin
location
Photo11
Photo 14 Photo 15
Photo 12
indicates their formation by

dripping from lower height
(10-15 cm), by stopping of
the point of origin (photo nr.
12-17). Perhaps the victim
used the rubbish bin as a
point of support and rest.
C D
Photo 16
Photo 17
Photo nr. 13-17. The detail of the traces found on the

laterally right side of the bin.
The material traces shown in photo nr. 13-17 have an
oval form, elongated and were created by drops of blood
which felt under an angle of between 10 to 20 degrees
from the vertical plane of the bin, in correlation with the
material traces found on its cover (the arrows indicating
the direction of their movement).
The vegetation located in the courtyard of the building,
the ficus found in the area of the indicator marked 7, tab
7, Photo nr. 14 from the photo board that presents the
crime scene investigation, presents on the leaves material
traces both dynamic nature, under the form of flow and
drop, and static nature, which indicates on one hand the
passing of the source of origin over its, and on the other
hand the direct contact with such a source . As on soil,
in this area, there were found the same type of traces,
with general characteristics similar to the ones above, it
can be said that the source of origin of the material traces
found on the vegetation have common origin or they are
in directly causal with it
(Photo nr. 18 ).
Photo nr. 11. The detail of the material traces marked

with red in photo nr. 10.
The rubbish bin located in the courtyard of the
building, on the right side of the gateway that allows the
access to the courtyard, shows a group of material traces
on the cover, circular shaped, ranging in size from 1 to 4
mm, without satellite drops on the circumference, which
Photo 18
Photo nr. 18. The

details of the material
traces found on the
ficus in the courtyard
A group of material
traces, in drops form,
circular shape, ranging
in size 5 to 10mm,
some of them with
satellite drops on the
circumference
and
others with the drops
oriented in fan shape,
which indicates their
formation by dripping
from a medium height, about 150-170 cm, following the
movement and the stationary of the point of origin (photo
nr. 19.) can be found in the courtyard of the building, near
the canopy, where there is a table with several cups on it,
on the ground, in the area marked with 8.
699
Photo 19
Photo 22
Photo nr. 19 The material traces in drops form and

their orientation. Red arrows indicate the direction of
motion of the source of origin and the yellow arrows
indicates the drops formed by stopping of the source of
origin.
On the table top situated under the canopy, marked
with 9, is a group of material traces in drops form,
circular shape, ranging in size from 1 to 6 mm, without
satellite drops on the circumference. The small size and
lack of splash droplets forming satellites indicate their
formation by dripping from a small height, about 10-20
cm, due to the stationary of the point of origin.
Photo 20
Photo 21
Photo nr. 20-21. The table top situated under the

canopy and the detail of the drops found on it.
Corroborating this aspects with the fact that one of
the chairs at the table shows damage to the right armrest
(photo nr. 22.), it can be support the hypothesis that in
this area there has been an altercation earlier, after which
injuries could have been suffered, considered as points
of origin of the material traces found in the courtyard of
the building.
700
Photo nr. 22. The chair which has the right armrest
broken (indicated by the arrow).
Material traces, with general features similar to
the other material traces found in the courtyard, can be
discovered both on the ficus found in the courtyard, in
the area of cars access gate, under the canopy, and on
the ground.
A relevant hypothesis on how traces have been
created can not be issued without a material path trace
between the traces found on the ground , in the table area,
meaning on it, and the traces found on the ficus located
in the cars access gate, as well as their orientation.
After examining the material traces found during the
crime scene investigation in the case of first degree murder
committed on the victim BD, the following assumptions
on how traces have been created can be made :
The beginning of the examined material traces
can be considered as being in the table area from the
courtyard.
The path trace continues towards the central alley
and the bin in the courtyard, near which it seems that the
point of origin had stopped.
In the area situated in front of the access gate in
the building, the point of origin had an erratic movement,
towards the bin and the access gate in the building,
probably with the intention to leave the courtyard.
The disorderly appearance of the material traces
from this area, in conjunction with the blunt object found
near the access gates pole, with the eyeglass lens and
with the material traces found on the inside face of this
pole can be interpreted as the result of the action of
an external agent on the point of origin, which created
the instability of the point of origin on its trajectory or
the deviation of its trajectory because of its internal
conditions.
The abrupt ending of the path trace in front of the
access gate, the lack of such traces on the pavement or
roadway from the building area suggests that the point of
origin got in or has been got in a mean of transport, being
excluded its bringing in the buildings courtyard.
4. The appreciations of the investigation bodies.
The relevant interpretations and the conclusions of the
technical-scientific report for interpretation of the traces,
in conjunction with other evidence and material means of
evidence, allowed the establishment of the status quo for

the moment when the offence has been committed, the
mechanism of generating the traces and the dynamics of
the aggression carried out on the victim by the author.
Although the defendant sustained, in a false way, that
the victim was already assaulted when he came in his
courtyard, this version was disproved by the statements
of some witnesses and by the result of the technical scientific report for the interpretation of the blood traces
found at the crime scene from which it is clear that the path
trace begin from the inside of the courtyard and continues
towards the gateway. So this indicates the movement of
the victim (injured, bleeding) from inside the courtyard
towards the outdoor gate and not vice versa (the victim
attempting to leave the courtyard and its prevention by
the aggressor to leave the courtyard area). If the victim
was already assaulted before the defendant entered the
courtyard, on one hand the path trace of blood should be
directed from the gate to the inside of the courtyard and
on the other hand, those traces should be present on the
street too, from where the victim came; or such traces
never existed on the outside of the defendant courtyard.
The defendant sustained, in a false way, that he didnt
struck the victim with the bat, but only with his fists. This
statement is clearly disproved by the results of the DNA
genetic expertises and by the technical-scientific report
for the interpretation of the blood traces found at the
crime scene, the blood traces from the bat were created
by direct contact with a living body, which has caused
injuries that allow bleeding. Also, the defendant sustains
in a false way that the victim left alone his courtyard, after
that he catched him up and that the victim got in his car
by itself. So, after being assaulted by the defendant, the
victim didnt move outside the courtyard. According to
the same technical-scientific report, the sudden end of
the path trace in front of the access gate, the lack of such
traces on the pavement or roadway from the building
area suggests that the victim was forced to get in a mean
of transport in front of the gate. Also, the presence of the
blood traces (belonging to the victim) on the outside part
of the access gateways pole and their shape leads to the
conclusion that the victim - currently in a critical condition
leaned on the pole with the hand, while the defendant
was getting him into the car or tried to cling to the pole for
not allowing the defendant to get him into the car. There
is also the possibility that the defendant himself wiped his
hands dirty with the victims blood in this way.
In conclusion, it must be shown that the technicalscientific report was very useful in determining the state
of fact and in finding the truth because it allowed a
better corroboration of the evidence with the witnesses
statements and with the aspects set during the crime
scene investigation.
REFERENCES
1.
Practical treatise on criminology, Volume I,
Issue 1976, group of authors from the Institute of
Ciminalistic;
2. George Pescu interpretation of forensic traces at
the scene, National Publishing House, Bucharest, 2000;
3. Duvac Constantin Vasile Lpdui, violent crime,
Little Star Publishing, Bucharest, 2010;
4. Romanian Journal of Criminology, Collection 1999
- 2010, published by the Association of Criminology in
Romania;
5. Forensic investigation of crimes of violence
(Criminal Communications International Symposium,
held in Bucharest on 4 and 5 November 2008), Editor
Forensic Association of Romania, Bucharest, 2009.
THE SUCCESSION OF THE ASSOCIATION

OF NECROPHAGOUS INSECTS
IN CASE OF SUSPICIOUS DEATH
SUCCESIUNEA ASOCIAIEI DE INSECTE NECROFAGE
N CAZUL UNUI DECES SUSPECT
Biologist, PhD candidate, Lavinia PAUL
Member of the North American Forensic Entomology Association
Biologist, PhD candidate, Ana-Maria KRAPAL
Biologist, Master student, Ana-Maria PETRESCU
Abstract
Forensic entomology is primarily associated with death investigations, representing the
border where entomology and forensic sciences interfere. In our research we considered
the hypothesis of death by suspicious causes, using a fox (Vulpes vulpes) corpse exposed
outdoors. The research was conducted over two months, during this time the experiment
was monitored daily. We wanted to emphasize the role of necrophagous insects in
identifying post-mortem interval in case of suspicious death, and to characterize the insects
succession on the body depending on temperature and humidity, factors that can influence
the rate of succession and decomposition.
Key words: forensic entomology, suspicious death, necrophagous insects, post-mortem
interval.
701
Rezumat
Entomologia medico-legal sau judiciar este asociat n primul rnd cu investigaiile
criminalistice privind decesul unei persoane, reprezentnd grania unde entomologia i
criminalistica interfer. n cercetarea noastr am luat n calcul ipoteza unui deces suspect,
folosind cadavrul unui exemplar de vulpe (Vulpes vulpes), expus n aer liber. Cercetarea s-a
desfurat pe parcursul a dou luni, timp n care experimentul a fost monitorizat zilnic. Am
dorit s evideniem rolul insectelor necrofage n determinarea intervalului post-mortem n
cazul unui deces suspect, i s caracterizm succesiunea insectelor pe cadavru n funcie
de temperatur i umiditate, factori ce pot influena rata succesiunii i descompunerii.
Cuvinte cheie: entomologie medico-legal, deces suspect, insecte necrofage, interval
post-mortem.
Description of experiment:
As substrate a juvenile specimen of fox (Vulpes
vulpes) was used, which was found dead of unknown
causes, not of basic injuries or wounds. The
experiment was conducted in urban area - N44.45303,
E26.08459 at temperatures between 0 C - 21 C and
humidity of 30% -100%.(Figure 1)
Figure 1. Variation of temperature and humidity values

recorded during the experiment
of view, due to consistent time of arrival and colonization

of a body following death. They are most abundant in
early spring and autumn, when temperatures are around
13 C - 24 C. The development cycle takes about 18
days for Calliphora vicina species. Lucilia sp. begin their
life cycle by depositing eggs on corpses, in necrotic
tissue or in decomposing tissue, the development cycle
taking about 15 days. Beginning with the second week
Family Muscidae appeared, too, genus Muscina being
prevalent. The flies of this kind of genus were attracted
to decomposing organic matter and are usually found on
corpses, urine and faeces. The family Scathophagidae
was represented by Scathophaga stercoraria, a
catophagid species observed on the seventh day of the
experiment.
The second wave of scavenging insects was
represented by beetles, of Family Silphidae, the species
Thanatophilus rugosus. This species was present from
the third week until the seventh one. From the fourth
week the body was colonized by members of Family
Staphylinidae - Creophilus maxilosus species, followed
by genus Hister sp. - Family Histeridae. The last beetles
which colonized the body belonged to the Family
Dermestidae - genus Dermestes sp. (Figure 2)
The experiment was conducted in urban area,

characterized by rich vegetation cover, as well as trees
and shrubs (mainly specimens of wild chestnut, Aesculus
hyppocastanum, Tilia sp. and Fraxinus spp.). Also, in the
vicinity of present interest area, ornamental plants such
as tulips - Tulipa sp. and Narcissus sp. etc were grown.
This park area is surrounded by roads with heavy traffic.
At the beginning of the experiment, in March, in the
area analyzed only small plants were present, but in
large numbers, often forming a mat which maintained the
humidity of the vegetal land. By the end of observations,
trees and bushes leafed so that the area had several
shady spots.
The first wave of scavenging insects was represented
by flies (Diptera) who are the first insects colonizing a
body. The first was the Calliphoridae family, which includes
large flies, gray, black, purple, green or blue, often with
metallic reflections. They are oviparous. Adults are
coprophagous, saprophagous, luciferous, and larvae are
saprophagous, coprophagous, carnivorous, occasionally
stray. The family Calliphoridae was represented by:
Calliphora vicina from the second day of the experiment
until the eighth week and Lucilia sp. was present from the
second week to the eighth week. Calliphora vicina is one
of the most important species from the entomological point
702
Figure 2. Succesion of the association

of necrophagous insects
Stages of decomposition
In the first day of the experiment Vulpes vulpes
was in a state of rigor mortis; throughout the first day
were not observed scavenging insects.
Beginning with the end of the second week the
body began to swell, lesions were not observed on the
body surface; orifices of the mouth, nose, ears - had no
clumps of eggs, although the Calliphora vicina species
was present.
IVth Week
Vth Week
In the eighth day clumps of eggs were deposited for

the first time; this was due to the very low temperatures
and their fluctuations; the body splash and bubbles of
putrefaction were present.
At the end of the second week the body was in
an advanced state of abdominal decomposition, with the
detachment of fur.
VIth Week
In the fourth week, the decomposition process was

in an advanced stage, with the detachment of almost all
his body hair and epidermal tissue destruction, gaining a
slight skin mesh in places where there were masses of
larvae, the abdomen showing a small hole about 7 cm
distance from the anus; pestilential strong odour.
VIIth Week
In the fifth week the decaying state is more advanced,

with a pestilential strong odour and detachment of fur all
over his body; a dissection was performed after which we
found out that all organs were consumed.
Figure 3. Stages of the decomposing process
In the sixth week of the decomposition process was

almost ended, and during the seventh week the body was
dry, but continued to be visited by scavenging insects.
At the end of the experiment, the body was dry,
being attended by members of the Family Dermestidae.
Ist Week
IInd Week
IIIrd Week
Conclusions
After decease, as the cadaverous alterations occur,
different necrophagous insect species are attracted by
the substrate, laying eggs or larvae in order to feed. The
factors which influence the local entomological fauna
and the decay processes of the cadaver (city, village,
inside and outside of a household, season, climatic and
meteorologic data, cadavers volume, the conditions in
which the body is found: open air, buried, immersed) are
also involved in the variation of each time period in which
every group of insects is present.
The entomological and forensic importance of the
species Calliphora vicina is represented by the fact that it
is the first insect species that colonizes a cadaver, with a
capacity of detecting the pestilential odour from a distance
of 16 km. Staphylinids colonize the cadaver in late stages
of decomposition, while histerids colonize the cadaver in
the last stage of the decay. Dry cadavers, skins, pelts,
and tendons are preferred by dermestids, which are
unique in the Coleoptera order because they posses the
necessary enzymes to consume the keratine.
It is possible to identify the post-mortem interval by
knowing the composition of each group of insects and
the succession of faunistic associations due to the varied
ways of feeding offered by the insect preference for
different decomposition stages of a cadaver.
References
1.
Dr. Valetin Iftenie: Interferena Medicin LegalCriminalistic, Editura Era, Bucureti 2006
2.
Andy Z. Lehrer: Fauna Republicii Socialiste Romnia,
Insecta, Vol.XI, Fascicula 12 Diptera Familia Calliphoridae
703
APPEARANCE AND EVOLUTION

OF DACTILOSCOPY (I)
APARIIA I EVOLUIA DACTILOSCOPIEI (I)
col. (r) prof. Vasile Lpdui editor
chief commissary Ionel Necula forensic expert at Forensic Science Institute
of General Inspectorate of Romanian Police
chief commissary Mihai Ivanici - Forensic Science Institute of General
Inspectorate of Romanian Police
Abstract
Beginning with this article, we shall present some considerations related to the
appearance and evolution of dactiloscopy. The issues concerning identification of the
persons who committed anti-social acts and the victims of crimes were approached by a
range of specialists, the results of their studies and investigations being applied by police
bodies. Among all methods, the most successful one which is still applied currently is the
identification of person by fingerprints.
Key words: dactiloscopy; fingerprints; William J. Herschel; Henry Faulds; Francis Galton;
Scientific Congress of the countries in South America; identification offices.
Rezumat
ncepnd cu acest articol, vom prezenta unele consideraii referitoare la apariia i
evoluia dactiloscopiei. Despre problemele legate de identificarea persoanelor, care au
comis fapte antisociale i a victimelor infraciunilor, s-au preocupat o serie de specialiti,
rezultatele studiilor i cercetrilor au fost puse n practic de ctre organele de poliie. Dintre
toate metodele cea mai reuit, care i n prezent se aplic, este identificarea persoanei
dup amprentele digitale.
Cuvinte cheie: dactiloscopie; amprente digitale; William J. Herschel; Henry Faulds;
Francis Galton; Congresul tiinific al rilor din America de Sud; birourile de identificare.
Since antiquity, it has been searched an infallible

means, an irrecusably evidence which could
stigmatize the delinquent and which could allow the
identification of recidivist. Until the second half of 9th
century, police did not posses any weapon to serve
this purpose. In some countries (France, England,
Germany etc.), it was used the burning procedure
by which the criminals, thieves, forgers and other
delinquents were branded, impressing for life the
blemish of infamy. In the year 1832, in France, the
burning was definitively abolished.
The invariability of papillary drawings drew the
attention of several persons from different fields.
Therefore, certain Chinese manufacturers
of chinaware used to mark their works
with the personal drawing of wide left hand
thumb, inimitable imprint and impressed so
as it could last as long as the craft.
In the year 1823, Purkenje, professor of
physiology, submitted a communication to
Breslau University related to fingerprints,
but he wasnt paid the due attention.
On August 5th 1877, in Hooghey town,
the capital of administrative region with the
same name from India, a British officer, called
William J. Herschel, after an internship, sent
a letter to General Inspector of prisons from
Bengalia. In the letter, Herschel wrote: I
704
hereby send you a paper concerning the new method of

identification of persons. It consists in a print similar to
a seal of the right and middle fingers. When taking the
fingerprints, it may be used a coloured substance used as
well for seals. The procedure of taking such fingerprints
is more difficult than pressing a common seal against the
desk. I have tried this procedure with the prisoners, at civil
registry and on payment of pensions, I have performed
experiences several months and I didnt face any kind
of difficulty. Any person from our town, who demands
officially the issuance of a document, must agree to be
taken the fingerprints. Up to present, noone refused to
submit to this procedure. I think that if this method were
introduced universally, the deceits related to identity
would be suppressed once and for all. I
have drawn up, within 20 years, thousands
of records with fingerprints, therefore, I am
able to identify the persons in terms of these
fingerprints.
William J. Herschel
Indeed, 20 years had passed since the
day when Herschel had noticed for the first
time these strange traces left by dirty hands
on wood, glass or paper. They were imprints
formed of lines, arches, chains, vertebras.
In the year 1858, Herschel demanded
Indian Rajyadar Konai, a supplier of
construction materials for roads, to apply the print of

his right hand, blackened with seal ink, on the contract
concluded. That time, Herschel was not familiarized with
papillary linear draws. He wanted to scare the Indian
who, as other co-citizens, used to forget the stipulations
and the terms of delivery provided by contract, relying on
the fact that by such mysterious manipulation (applying
fingerprints on paper), he could determine him to
remember the obligations undertaken by contract.
Further on, Herschel began to study papillary draws.
He learned to recognize people by the image of their
fingers. In the meantime, he made another discovery:
the images of papillary lines on the top of mans finger
do not change, they are always the same, no matter if
the person gets old. This image represents a personal
sign which does not change, a visit card in terms of
which a person may be acknowledged even after death.
The creative spirit of Herschel began to see future
perspectives, which crossed the borders of India.
In conclusion, it must be kept in mind the fact that
the first systematic studies of fingerprints were made
by William Herschel from Civil Service of India who
introduced as well the dactyloscopic registration in
Hooghil district from Bengal.
A Scottish physician, called dr. Henry Faulds, in 1880,
submitted to British magazine Nature from London a
letter stating the following important communication: I
investigated in 1879 some prehistoric shards found in
Japan and I noticed fragments of fingerprints impressed
when the clay was soft. A comparison of these with
recent fingerprints determined me to study this issue
attentively.
Subsequently, he stated as well that the oldest original
of a Japonese palm print with clear papillary lines was
found in a temple from Kyoto. It was an application on
which one could see the entire hand of Goshiva emperor.
Until 1860, palm imprints were often encountered on
Japanese documents, both black and red.
In Japanese khans existed the custom to
hand over to clients the correspondence
arrived for them, against a receipt on which
fingerprint was applied. When Faulds was
professor at Tokio University, in Japan, the
people had the custom to decorate the gates
and doors of houses with red and white palm
prints.
In the letter sent to London magazine
Nature, Faulds confirmed that fingerprints
are invariable. Beginning with the year 1879,
Faulds collected several fingerprints and
studied the variety of papillary lines. Firstly,
he was interested in ethnological issues: if,
for instance, differences in terms of papillary
lines exist among peoples. Further on, he studied the
issue of heredity concerning papillary lines.
In the neighbourhood of his dwelling, one night, a
thief scaled a wall painted in white. Faulds noticed on the
wall a clearly visible fingerprint, left by the grimy fingers.
When he was analysing this fingerprint, he found out
that the author had been already arrested by police. He
demanded to be taken the fingerprints of the arrested
person. When he compared the draws of the fingerprints
on crime scene with those of the claimed thief, he noticed
that they were different. Since the fingerprints on the wall
belonged certainly to the thief (being determined as well
that he stumbled over a recipient with coal and he fell
down), Faulds declared that the person arrested was
not the thief. He was right. A few days later, the police
arrested the real thief. Faulds took the fingerprints of this

one too. They corresponded perfectly to the fingerprints
on such wall. The mind full of fantasy of Faulds wondered
immediately: what if the fingerprints of the author were
searched on each crime scene? Wouldnt it be possible
to discover thus the thieves and criminals?
The idea of Faulds had results. When another theft
was committed, Japanese police asked for his help. He
discovered on a glass the fingerprints belonging to an
entire hand. The fingerprints on the glass belonged to a
server who, after the comparisons made by Faulds, he
recognized his fact.
Faulds sent a letter with his experiences and the
conclusions drawn to the English magazine Nature. In
the contents, he states that the draws of papillary lines
do not change during life and
due to this reason, they may be
used for identification purposes
under better conditions than
photography.
The magazine Nature
published Faulds letter on
October 28th 1880.
William
Herschel
and
Faulds shared the same
idea of using fingerprints to
discover the criminals. They
wanted to bring a new means
of identification in Europe.
Studying the memories
of W. Herschel, Francis
Francis Galton
Galton resumed the study of
dactiloscopy and established
the characters of individuality of fingerprints draws,
providing as well a classification system for them. This
identification system, known as Galton Henry system
was used in England and North America and, with some
amendments made by Windt and Kodiceck,
it was used in Germany and Switzerland.
Juan Vucetich
Another person who approached the
problems of identification of criminals was
Juan Vucetich, officer at territorial Police
from Buenos Aires, Argentina (he was
original from Croatia and he was talented in
mathematics and statistics). He created for
himself a device for taking fingerprints. He
used it to take the fingerprints of all prisoners
who passed through the service managed
by him. He was preoccupied by the problem
of invariability of papillary lines, spending
a great deal of time at morgue, analysing the fingers of
corpses. The discovery made by Vucetick consisted in
that the papillary lines of the fingers of corpses studied
last in time, being preserved even thousands of years. On
September 1st 1892, he managed to clear up the basic
principles of practical classification and registration of
fingerprints.
Vucetich managed to discover the fourth basic forms,
corresponding to those set forth by Galton: 1) fingerprints
formed only of arches; 2) fingerprints with a triangle on
the right side; 3) fingerprints with a triangle on the left
side; 4) fingerprints with triangle on both side. For the
thumb, Vucetich marked the fourth forms of fingerprints
with the alphabetic letters (A, B, C, D) and the other
fingers, with figures.
705
If he took the fingerprints of a hand which had: on

thumb an arch, on forefinger a triangle on left, on middle
finger a triangle on right, on ring finger two triangles and
on little finger again an arch, then the characteristics of
digital images on this hand could have been noted with
A, 3, 2, 4, 1. The formula for all 10 fingers was twice
longer and for any case it is the following: A, 3, 2, 4, 1/C,
2, 2, 3, 3. Since for any finger four kinds of basic draws
were possible, Vucetich calculated the following total
figure of variations: 410 or 4.4.4.4.4.4.4.4.4.4., therefore
1.048.576 possibilities with proper formulas.
Vucetich obtained a box with compartments which
he ordered in terms of alphabetic letters and the figures
of formulas and characteristics. When, concerning a
prisoner, he wanted to find out whether his fingerprints
were taken before, he had to determine only the formula
for the ten fingers and to search for such compartment.
Vucetich was so overreached by his new passion that
he bought from his money the board for holding the
fingerprints, the registration records and card index
records, he had to sell many of his personal belongings to
gather the necessary money. The further extension of the
measured system, in terms of Bertillon method, so much
that he received the order to introduce it in the towns
of Dolores, Mercedes and Sierra Chica, was for him an
unpleasant duty, he was no longer interested since such
system was eloigning more and more of his heart.
His fingerprints collection was at the beginning so
small that it could be placed in 60 box compartments. As
the collection increased, he faced the same difficulties
as Galton. Therefore, he looked for
characteristic details to continue to
classify the fingerprints which belonged
to the same basic forms. During the
researches, he had the idea of counting
the papillary lines and thus he really
obtained possibilities of differentiation,
which were enough for the moment for
his card index.
On the day of July 8th 1892, the Police
Department of La Plata was announced
that in Necochea, a small town on the
coast of Atlantic, a double assassinate
was committed in a hut of poor people
from the border of the locality. The victims
were the two illegitimate children of the
named Francisca Rojas, day worker, 25
years old. The issue in fact, as it results
from the report of police commissary who
investigated the case, was the following:
on the late hours of the evening of June
29th, Francisca Rojas came, with the face
disfigured and with the hair torn, in the
hut of her neighbours, managing to utter
only some incoherent words: my
childrenwere killedthe children
Velasques.. The named person was
an older worker from a neighbouring farm,
being a kind of godfather for the children
of Rojas family. It seemed that he asked
Francisca to marry him. It was also said
about him that he is a good but reduced
man. The neighbour sent his son riding
to Necochea to inform the police commissary and he
took his wife and went to Rojas hut where he found the
children, a little boy of 6 years old and little girl of 4 years,
with the heads crushed, in a blood bath in the bed.
The commissary came immediately but he did not
706
waste time with the investigation of crime scene. He

did not look for any traces or the instrument of crime,
he tried first to speak with Francisca Rojas who was
rolling desperate on the ground. She said that Velasques
harassed her day and night with his love. Last time, she
explained him that she would never marry him. Then
Velasques became furious and declared that he would kill
everything she loved on the earth and with these words
he ran. When she returned from work in the evening, she
found the door of hut opened and in the bedroom the
two children killed. The commissary ordered the arrest
of Velasques even that night. He opposed resistance. He
declared that he did not even touch the children. It was
true that he was in love with Francisca, that he wanted
to marry her. It was true that he threatened her to kill
her children but he would never perform such threats.
The commissary ordered that Velasques were beaten
until he would admit the fact committed. Since he did
not confess not even after being abused, he was put in
chains, taken in the room where the children were dead
and left there for one night in such position so he could
see permanently the corpses.
The next morning, Velasques continued to deny,
thing done as well after 8 days of severe interrogations.
In the meantime, it was found out that a young lover of
Francisca Rojas declared on several occasions that he
would be disposed to marry the wild Francisca if it were
not those two children, which represented a burden. In
this case, the suspicion fell over the mother of children.
Therefore, during the night, the police commissary went
to Francisca hut, he knocked at the
window and cried with a reedy voice that
the spirits of revenge came to punish
her for killing her children. He played
the ghost role for hours, hoping that the
woman would be terrified, would get out
from the hut and would recognize the
fact committed. But it didnt happen.
At dawn, Francisca Rojas opened the
door. She was not intimidated by the
nigh ghost. The commissary beat her
but she continued to accuse Velasques
for the crime.
On July 8th 1892, the police inspector
Alvarez, from Police Department of La
Plata, went to Necochea to investigate
personally this case. The coincidence was
that Alvarez was one of the few people
interested in fingerprints experiences,
performed by Vucetich. He demanded
the latter several times the manner of
taking fingerprints. When he arrived at
the crime scene, he encountered there
a much more confused situation than
he expected. He established first that
Velasques could not have been at Rojas
hut when the crime was committed.
There was an alibi which Velasques, in
his dullness, did not even consider. Only
the mother was close to her children. But
could a mother be accused for killing her
own children without having against her
any evidence as insignificant as it be?
Alvarez entered the hut to try, although late, to find
some traces. He stood there several hours and checked
everything, being on the point of giving up the search
when, only for a second, a sun ray entered the window
and illuminated the door, half opened, of the bedroom.
Suddenly, Alvarez noticed on the doorcase a grey-brown

stain that made him remember the works of Vucetich.
The stain was obviously coming from a thumb covered
with blood. Alvarez looked for a saw and cut such
piece of wood, hurrying to arrive as soon as possible
to local commissary of police. The commissary on duty
looked at him full of surprise when he asked for a inkpad, he ordered to be brought Francisca Rojas before
him and he began pressing the thumbs of the woman
alternatively on the small cushions of ink-pad and on a
white paper. Afterwards, he began to study, with a loop,
these fingerprints and to compare them with the trace
encountered on door. Alvarez had no experience in
this kind of work however he realised that the bloody
fingerprint came from the thumb of the arrested woman.
He was so sure that he kept this piece of wood from
the door of her bedroom before her and forced her to
study her own fingerprints by loop. Then Francisca Rojas,
although she hadnt been influenced by the visit of night
ghost or by the thwack received, lost her temper. She
admitted that she had killed her children since they were
a hindering in the way of her marriage with the young
lover. Yes, she said, I killed my children with a rock. I
threw the rock in a fountain and I washed well my hands.
I forget however one thing: before washing my hands, I
touched the door of the bedroom.
Rojas case was one of small, minor dramas, passed
thousands times simultaneously in the entire world.
However, this case represented much more:
it was the first murder, cleared up by police with the
help of fingerprints, left by criminal on crime scene. When
Alvarez returned with his strange piece of wood in La
Plata, his report aroused sensation both at the Police
Department and in press. I do not even dare to believe
wrote Vucetich to a friend from Dolores that it is true.
Doubtlessly, my enemies would consider it a coincidence.
However, I hold a trump card and I hope that soon I will
be in the possession of more trump cards as this
He was right. Soon after this, he identified an unknown
suicide. After taking the fingerprints of the latter, he
established within five minutes, in his card index, that
the suicider was a recidivist whose fingerprints he had
taken several months before in the prison from Sierra
Chica. Soon after this, he managed to discover the
criminal Audiofrasio Gonzales who killed the dealer Don
Rivas from La Plata, behind the counter. The fingerprints
of Gonzales had remained on the counter. During the
same period of time, Vucetich identified, with the help of
fingerprints, during one day, 23 recidivists on whom the
bertillonage failed.
Now, it is time that Vucetich tries to convince his
superiors about the advantages of fingerprints system.
But, those times, people considered that everything
which came from Paris was perfect. This conception was
rooted as well in Argentinean police who considered that
no one was allowed to affect with any word the Parisian
conquests. Vucetich was drawing up report after report.
On his own, he printed the book entitled: General
training for anthropometric procedure and dactyloscopic
procedure. In this book, he proved a net superiority of
fingerprint compared to bertillonage. But in vain, in June
1893, the Police Department from La Plata forbade him
to continue the works concerning fingerprints. He was
ordered categorically: you should deal exclusively with
the technique of measurements, you are allowed to use
only this method in your researches! The disillusion of
Vucetich was so high and he was so sorrowful due to the
disagreement which surrounded him that he was taken
ill of duodenal ulcer, although he had been so healthy

until then.
He continued his researches related to fingerprints
clandestinely and under conditions highly depressive, he
wrote another book, entitled: Filiation systems (system
of acknowledgement of persons). His superiors accused
him of neglecting anthropometry. He was threatened
with dismissal. Vucetich had to sell his small personal
library to be able to print his new book. He believed
strongly in the justice of his cause. His firm confidence
was transmitted to his children and wife. When misery
affected their life and he did not have any money to buy
the strictly necessary food and clothes, he explained his
children: you shall see that people will bring me sacks
of money when my system begins to bring advantages to
all countries.
Four months later, Police Department of La Plata
had a new chief, Narciso Lozano. He allowed Vucetich
to continue his works related to dactiloscopy. In 1894,
the superiority of dactiloscopy over bertillonage was so
obvious that it should be acknowledged.
The first sign of such recognition was a decision of
the Chamber of Deputies from province Buenos Aires, on
June 22nd 1894, when a special fund amounting to 5000
golden pesos was approved, meant for personal needs
of Vucetich, amount with which he was compensated for
the expenses incurred for the elaboration of dactiloscopy.
Briefly after, the supporters of Bertillon managed to assert
again: by a resolution of Senate, they prevented the
payment of the approved amount to Vucetich. However,
within a year and a half, in June 1896, Argentinean police
removed from use the entire anthropometric procedure
and introduced instead dactiloscopy. By this, Argentina
became the first country in the world which used
fingerprints in police identification activity.
In 1901, after the fruitful continuation of researches in
the field of dactiloscopy, he had the honour to be sent as
police delegate from Buenos Aires to the 2nd Scientific
Congress of the countries in the South America, organised
in Montevideo. He spoke before the congress as a
representative of Argentina. Without fearing objections,
he stated: I can assure you that during all these years
of using anthropometric system, we werent able, despite
all efforts, to prove the identity of at least a single person.
There have always been encountered differences in the
measurements of the same person. This was the reason
which determined us to introduce fingerprints.
The taking of attitude in the Congress by Vucetich
determined all south-American states to introduce, one
after another, his system in the police equipment: in 1903
Brazil and Chile; in 1906 Bolivia; in 1908 Peru;
subsequently Paraguay and Uruguay.
Vucetich was the first person in the world who thought
to register and keep a record of the entire population with
the help of fingerprints. Fingerprints not only facilitated
the discovery of criminals thing possible only if the
criminal who left such trace had been registered before
but it should have a general signification: to contribute
to the identification of the victims of some catastrophes,
of unknown corpses, of injured persons. The fantasy
of Vucetich went further: he already thought much
before being knocked off in Europe the dream related
to international police collaboration of incorporating
some offices of intercontinental identification in North
America and Europe. These offices were to be placed at
the disposal of all police bodies in the world when they
had to search, beyond the national borders, criminals or
disappeared persons.
707
Bibliography
1.Trace which does not blot out, work performed for
the use of the staff of Ministry of Interior by Education
Department, 1968.
2.The Police Journal, Journal of Police Forces of
Empire, vol. XII, no. 1, January-March 1939, London.
3.Die Polizei, monthly journal, year 36, no. 1, 1939,
Berlin.
4.Police Criminelle Internationale, year II, no. 1,
Vienna
5.Police Parisienne, Journal of Parisian Police,

January, 1939, Paris
6.Dr. Eugen Bianu, Public order, 1938, professional
guide in police science, Bucharest
7.About fingerprints, Romania Police Journal, year I,
no. 3, March-April 1939, Bucharest
- to be continued -
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMPUTER

CRIMES INVESTIGATION FROM THE CHILD
PORNOGRAPHY CATEGORY
PARTICULARITI ALE INVESTIGRII INFRACIUNILOR
INFORMATICE DIN CATEGORIA PORNOGRAFIEI
INFANTILE
Adrian-Cristian MOISE, PhD
Lawyer Dolj Bar Association
adrian_moise82@yahoo.com
Abstract
The Internet represents the main instrument in the development of child pornography.
This paper presents several definitions of child pornography, the main locations where
digital evidence can be found in the case of the computer crimes from the child pornography
category, and also the steps that investigators should follow in order to locate digital
evidence. The electronic trace on the Internet as an evidence means is also analyzed,
as well as the techniques and the instruments that are used in order to discover the most
frequent activities on the Internet regarding child pornography..
Key words: child pornography; virtual child pornography; computer crimes; digital
evidence; the electronic trace.
Rezumat
Internetul reprezint instrumentul principal n dezvoltarea pornografiei infantile. Aceast
lucrare prezint mai multe definiii ale pornografiei infantile, principalele locuri n care se
gsesc probele digitale n cazul infraciunilor informatice din categoria pornografiei infantile,
precum i paii pe care investigatorii trebuie s-i urmeze pentru a localiza probele digitale.
De asemenea, se prezint i se analizeaz urma electronic pe Internet ca mijloc de prob
i tehnicile i instrumentele utilizate pentru a descoperi cele mai des ntlnite activiti pe
Internet n legtur cu pornografia infantil.
Cuvinte cheie: pornografie infantil, pornografie infantil virtual, infraciuni informatice,
probe digitale, urma electronic.
1. Introduction
In recent years, the Internet has become the
main instrument in the development of child
pornography1.
This development is determined by several
factors:
1. The Internet offers unique possibilities regarding
the dissemination of the pornographic materials content.
Thus, by making a file available in a system of file sharing
system, it can be downloaded by millions of users. As the
708
Internet determines the dissemination of files worldwide,

this will determine the increase in the number of potential
consumers, compared with the traditional methods of
dissemination.
2. The successful use of the web pages containing
pornographic materials is determined by the fact that
users consider they are more difficult to observe while
accessing online pornographic materials, compared with
the accessing of pornographic materials from a shop.
This situation represents an advantage for the carrying
on of the investigation process, because most users are

not aware that they can leave electronic traces while
surfing the Internet.
3. Criminals use more and more the encryption
technology in order to protect the content of their
messages, thus making the investigation process more
difficult.
4. The investigation and incrimination of child
pornography is hindered by the criminals ability to hide
their real identity.
Child pornography is defined as, an image that
depicts a clearly prepubescent human being in a sexually
explicit manner. 2
Child pornography is also defined as, any
representation, by whatever means, of a child engaged
in real or simulated explicit sexual activities or any
representation of the sexual parts of a child for primarily
sexual purposes. 3
Another definition of child pornography is the
following: child pornography shall mean pornographic
material that visually depicts or represents: (i) a real child
involved or engaged in sexually explicit conduct, including
lascivious exhibition of the genitals or the pubic area of a
child; or (ii) a real person appearing to be a child involved
or engaged in the conduct mentioned in (i); or (iii) realistic
images of a non-existent child involved or engaged in the
conduct mentioned in (i) 4.
Virtual child pornography represents a type of digital
forgery, in which the images seem to represent children
engaged in sexual activities, or who pose nude, but in
fact these images are digitally modified. It is very easy to
copy the digital image of a child in another digital image,
by superposing the face of the child over the body of
another minor, so that an illusion is created that the child
poses nude or is engaged in sexual activities.
Another type of virtual pornography implies virtual
communities in which people can chat and interact among
themselves, by using alter egos called avatars. Similarly
to the way in which a character moving in a video game
is used, virtual communities, such as Second Life
allow characters to engage in sexual activities among
themselves 5. This fact leads to the situation in which
some characters used avatars with the image of children
in order to engage in sexual activities, or sold them in
order to gain profit. These people also used this virtual
environment in order to contact other persons, so as to
be able to commercialize real child pornography 6.
In 1996, a federal judge, in The USA v. Dost, suggested
a way of assessing images in order to determine whether
the nude image of a child can be considered legal or
illegal. This method comprises the following criteria: 7
1. If the focal point was the childs genitalia or
pubic area
2. If the setting of the visual depiction was
sexually suggestive
3. If the child was in inappropriate attire or an
unnatural pose
4. If the child was fully, partially, or completely
nude
5. If the visual depiction suggested coyness or a
willingness to engage in sexual activity
6. If the visual depiction was intended or
designated to elicit a sexual response from the person
viewing it.
Although the list of these criteria is not comprehensive,
and other aspects of an image could also be relevant,
these criteria provide a good starting point in order to

determine whether an image is illegal.
At Cork University in Ireland, on the basis of a project
called COPINE (Combating Paedophile Information
Networks in Europe), a database regarding child
pornography was realized, which offers information
concerning the extent and nature of child pornography.
The researchers in this project realized a classification of
pornographic images, comprising five levels.
2. Locating digital evidence in the case of
the computer crimes from the child pornography
category
Digital evidence can be found in the following
places: 8
1. Computer Systems
The investigations in the field of child pornography
refer to images and video recordings that were created
by using a computer, or that were downloaded from
the Internet. For instance, a suspects computer might
contain files with child pornography, which were created
by using a scanner or a webcam, being possible to use
them in order to demonstrate that the suspect committed
the crime. These recordings demonstrate that the suspect
was alone with the child while the files were created. The
hash function value of these files may be used by the
investigator in order to search in a child pornography
database, so verify whether the investigated files were
also sent to other people 9. Webcams also allow criminals
to send the committed child abuse over the Internet in
real time.
The evidence connected to child pornography in
computer systems also comprise other types: financial
information on the commercial operations regarding
child pornography that can be found in spreadsheets;
information on crimes and victims that can be found in
the criminals personal log, or in the computer notebook
containing names of friends; e-mail communications;
online chat groups; the web browser history showing
that the criminal was interested in the service CUseeMe,
representing an online videoconference system, used by
the criminal to communicate with other persons on the
Internet.
Other important digital evidence in the computer
systems are the log files, representing recordings that
are used to determine who used a certain computer in
order to commit a crime.
The server represents a computer system that provides
certain services for other computers inside a network,
computers called clients. According to the provided
services, servers can be divided into: web servers;
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) servers; e-mail servers;
authentication servers. Web servers and FTP servers
may be used in order to disseminate illegal materials,
while e-mail servers may be used in order to share files,
and also for personal communications. Internet providers
use authentication servers in order to check passwords
and to record which user account was attributed to an IP
address in a certain specified period of time.
2. Incorporated computer systems, which
comprise a wide range of devices containing the
components of a computer, such as: mobile phones;
computerized notebooks; camcorders.
Webcams are used by criminals to produce and
distribute child pornography over the Internet. Some
webcams contain equipment that facilitates the transfer
709
of information over the Internet. Memory cards represent

the main source of digital data for webcams, containing
photographs or moving elements. It is important to the
investigator to get additional information such as, the
date and time of the system clock. If the IT system clock
is not accurate, then all the photos stored in the memory
card will have incorrect time and date recordings, and
will have to be corrected. The metadata (data concerning
data) regarding the files in the memory cards may be
useful to reconstruct the activities in the IT system. For
instance, the increase and modification of the folders
times may be used for the forensic investigation of the
stored data media and for the creation of the system
activities chronology.
Mobile phones and computerized notebooks comprise,
as digital evidence, calendars, notes, and certain devices
that can store data on removable memory cards. In
addition, these devices can take digital photos. Along
with verbal communication, mobile phones also allow
text, image and video communication. Mobile phones
can also access the Internet, allowing efficient data
exchange.
Criminals can use mobile phones to communicate with
their victims, to create and to exchange files containing
child pornography, and to access Internet services. These
devices contain different digital data that are useful for
child pornography investigations, comprising images,
color video clips, and communication fragments. Mobile
phones can store phone numbers indicating who the
criminal or the victim communicated with. The investigator
must be aware that the communications system to
which the mobile phone is connected may contain
evidence regarding the appealed numbers and the place
where the user was localized at a certain moment. But
investigators must take into account the fact that these
electronic devices can send data by using the infrared
or radio transmission (Bluetooth 10 it represents a set
of specifications based on radio waves, for a personal
wireless network). Investigators must understand the
way in which the data is stored in these devices, to allow
the retrieving of the hidden and deleted data. 11
3. Communication systems comprising: traditional
telephony systems, wireless telecommunications
systems, the Internet and networks in general.
Investigators must be able to follow the electronic trace
in order to find digital evidence regarding the Internet,
private networks and other commercial systems.
Understanding the involved technology will allow
investigators to recognize, collect, preserve and analyze
the data regarding network connected crimes. Criminals
tempt children and send child pornography files by
e-mail, instant messaging, sharing networks and peerto-peer folders, the IRC (Internet Relay Chat), and by
numerous other Internet services. When investigating
illegal Internet activities, investigators must realize a
direct real connection between people and the online
activities involving these people.
The digital evidence in the networks includes
authentication logs, network monitoring logs and network
traffic content. In order to understand how to collect
and interpret these sources of data, investigators must
discover network criminals and incriminate their criminal
activity. The e-mails and log files of the victims Internet
provider may constitute Internet data sources.
Investigators can localize the most important sources
of digital evidence in a network by taking the following
steps: 12
710
a. Determining the final points and intermediate

systems that the criminals network connections have
passed through (e.g. routers). These intermediate systems
may contain digital evidence that help determining the
criminal activity continuity. For instance, the log files of an
e-mail server used to send child pornography can provide
a complete image of the criminals criminal activity.
b. Searching for log files that provide a general
presentation of network activities, such as NetFlow logs
in routers, package logs in traffic monitoring systems,
and alert logs in intrusion detection systems.
c. Monitoring the suspects Internet activity by using
Caller ID systems authentication servers 13. In this
situation, investigators must decide whether real-time
network supervision is necessary in order to associate
an illegal activity with a person, a situation in which
an interception device should be set up, provided that
a necessary authorization is obtained, ordered by the
competent body.
Child exploitation may imply wireless networks in
several ways, including the exchange of child pornography
and the communication between criminals and victims.
Wireless networks allow mobile phones to access the
Internet and also, they allow computers to connect to the
Internet by using a mobile phone.
Wireless communication systems maintain log files
that may be useful in an investigation, such as, for
instance, the phone numbers that have been called from
a certain device, the beginning and end times of each call,
and also the approximate location of the mobile phone,
which can be established at the beginning or the end of
a call. These recordings are useful for reconstructing the
criminals and victims movements, by determining who
they have communicated with.
4. Peripheral devices
Child pornography criminals often use devices to
digitalize and multiply photos. A criminal can print photos
that s/he has downloaded from the Internet to have them
in a tangible form. Other criminals can convert a traditional
photo into a digital one by using a scanner, in order to
make it available on the Internet. In each presented
case, a digital trace will be created. Some printers and
photocopiers have internal memory containing copies
of all the data printed in the past. The printing of a file
creates electronic traces that can be retrieved from the
computer (printer spool files 14).
3. The electronic Internet trace as an evidence
means
When the Internet is used in order to ease the
committing of a child pornography crime, the associated
online activities can leave an electronic trace that may be
connected to the physical world activities. The electronic
traces such as the server and network inventory files go
beyond the criminals control, offering solid sources of
digital evidence to the investigator. Child pornography
investigators must know how to follow the electronic trace
to localize the criminal and to establish the continuity of
the crime.
3.1. Associating a crime to a criminal and crime
continuity
In order to establish a persons online activities,
investigators must firstly localize the computer that has
been used to commit the crime, and then determine
who used the computer at that moment. In addition,
investigators must establish a clear connection between
the online activities and the suspects computer, thus

establishing the crime continuity. For instance, we take
the case of a child pornography file that was downloaded
from an FTP Internet server by a dial-up connection (a
means of accessing the Internet by telephone lines). The
inventory files in the FTP server indicate the fact that the
file containing child pornography was downloaded at a
certain IP address. The Internet provider who is responsible
for this IP address checks the dial-up authentication
logs (TACACS 15 or RADIUS 16) to determine which user
account was attributed to the IP address at that moment.
The recording of the Internet providers client contains the
name and billing address of the account owner, providing
the investigator with a suspect. Internet providers have
inventory files with Automatic Number Identification
ANI, connecting the suspects home phone number to the
phone line. In addition, Internet providers have NetFlow
network inventory files from its routers, containing brief
information for each data package that is sent between
the suspects computer and the Internet.
An examination of the suspects computer reveals a
file with the same name and size, identical to those of
the file downloaded from the FTP server. The time and
date recordings of the incriminated files in the suspects
computer show the moment when the files were
downloaded. The computer modem recordings confirm
that it was connected to the Internet at that moment.
password before being attributed an Internet IP address.

Similarly, the subscribers using the cable modem have
usernames and passwords that their Internet providers
use to authenticate them. The authentication process
is generally conducted by the RADIUS or TACACS
servers, and the resulting inventory files can be used for
billing purposes or to determine who was responsible for
certain online activities. Some Internet providers maintain
Automatic Number Identification ANI- recordings for
security or billing purposes. These recordings are very
useful to the child pornography investigation, especially
when a criminal uses a stolen dial-up account. In such
cases, when the dial-up account owner is not involved,
then the ANI information can be used to determine the
phone number used to connect to the Internet. When
the account owner is involved, the ANI information can
be used to confirm the fact that the connections come
from the suspects residence. For further information
regarding the Internet providers obligations regarding
child pornography, there are also other approaches in the
specialized literature 17.
3.4. Discovering illegal Internet activities
In what follows, we will present techniques and
instruments used to discover the most frequent Internet
activities concerning child pornography.
3.2. The physical determination of contacts and

locations
Once the IP address of the suspects computer has
been determined, the next step is to establish the physical
address of the computer. Internet registrars attribute
IP addresses blocks to Internet providers, universities,
or to any other organization asking for them. Internet
registrars maintain online data bases, called Whois data
bases, where anyone can ask for contact information
about the organizations that are responsible for specific
IP addresses. The Whois data bases rarely contain
the name and address of a person using a received IP
address. The contact information usually refers to an
employee of the Internet provider, who can provide the
needed information to investigators. The Whois data
bases are grouped according to regions as follows:
The USA: http://whois.arin.net/whois/index.html
Europe: http://www.ripe.net/db/whois.html
Asia: http://whois.apnic.net/
Latin America: http://lacnic.net/cgi-bin/lacnic/

whois
Africa: http://www.afrinic.net/cgi-bin/whois
Some data bases comprise information only about
high-level domains, while other data bases contain
information about IP addresses. A comprehensive
Internet registrars list is available at InterNIC (http://www.
internic.net/whois.html ).
NetScanTools Pro is a Whois data bases research
instrument for the IP addresses and certain domains.
3.4.1. World Wide Web

In a case, investigators find a data basis in a suspects
computer, which contains details regarding certain
persons who paid for the service of child pornography
provision through a suspects website.
In other cases, when investigators find a web server
used to disseminate child pornography, they may find
in the log files of the web server only details about the
persons who accessed the pornographic materials.
When a person visits a webpage, the log file of the
web server provides the following information:
the Internet IP address that made the query to the
server;
the time and date when the webpage was
accessed;
the name of the file that was accessed on the
server;
the resulting HTTP (Hyper Text Transport Protocol)
code, according to the 2068 RFC 18 (Request for
Comments) protocol is: 200 to successfully access the
searched file; 404 when the file cannot be found;
the size of the file transferred from the web server to
the suspects computer.
Investigators must demonstrate the connection
between the log files of the server and the activities in
the suspects computer, thus establishing the crime
continuity. In order to incriminate the suspect, the file
containing child pornography and which is accessed from
the server must be found in the web browsers history
and in the cache files in the suspects computer.
3.3 Using the Internet providers inventory files

Internet providers can attribute different IP addresses
each time a client connects to the Internet (dynamic
IP address), or they can attribute a single IP address
to each client, irrespective of the number of times s/he
connects to the Internet (static IP address). Anyway, most
Internet providers maintain the inventory files that show
which client account was attributed to an IP address for a
determined period. For instance, when a dial-up account
is used for an Internet connection, the user must provide a
3.4.2. E-mail
Each e-mail message has a header containing
information about its origin and its receiver. If the message
passes through several e-mail servers during its route
from the source to the destination, then each server
ads its own Received header, allowing investigators to
establish the exact route of the message. Due to the fact
that the time and date recordings of the e-mail server,
which were added in the Received header by the e-mail
server, are credible, they can be used for calculating the
711
time incongruities in the senders computer, by comparing

them with the time and date recordings created by the
suspects computer when the e-mail was sent.
In the computer that was used to send an e-mail,
investigators should expect to find certain traces of
the message, such as a Sent file copy of the suspects
e-mail. When there is no trace in the suspects computer,
investigators can use the log files of the e-mail server
to establish the crime continuity. Each time when an
e-mail server sends or receives a message, it records
each event in a log file, by keeping information both
about the sender and the receiver. If investigators need
to demonstrate that a suspect received and downloaded
a certain message, then they must use the e-mail server
log files, which show the moment when the suspect
checked his/her e-mail.
3.4.3. File sharing
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) represents a kind of software used
to share files among several computers on the Internet
network. Although P2P is often used legally in order to
share music, videos, and other types of software, it is
also used in the field of child pornography. The most
frequent file sharing programs are the following: KaZaA,
Morpheus, Gnutella, FreeNet, WinMx, iMesh.
The KaZaA file sharing program may be used to
share several types of files, including video images.
Investigators may use the netstat control to see the active
connections between remote computers when files are
downloaded.
Once the computer has been taken in custody,
the crime continuity can be established by using the
information stored in the registers and files created by
the KaZaA application. There is also the KaZAlyser
investigation instrument, which is used to display IP
addresses and other details referring to file sharing.
The KaZaA file sharing has an important characteristic
for investigators, namely the file sharing is realized, as
much as possible, among computers from the same
region.
Note
1.
Krone, Tony (2004). A Typology of Online Child
Pornography Offending, Australian Institute of Criminology,
Trends & Issues in crime and criminal justice, No. 279, July
2004. Retrieved 13 August 2010 from http://www.aic.gov.
au/
documents/4/F/8/%7B4F8B4249-7BEE-4F57-B9ED993479D9196D%7Dtandi279.pdf.
2.
Mattei Ferraro, Monique; Casey, Eoghan (2005).
Investigating Child Exploitation and Pornography: The Internet,
The Law and Forensic Science, Burlington, Massachusetts:
Elsevier Academic Press, p.9.
3.
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights
of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child
pornography, adopted and opened for signature, ratification
and accession by General Assembly Resolution A/RES/54/263
of 25 May 2000, retrieved 14 August 2010 from http://www.
unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/3ae6b38bc.pdf.
4.
The Council of the European Union Framework
Decision 2004/68/JHA of 22 December 2003 on combating the
sexual exploitation of children and child pornography, Official
712
Journal of the European Union, 20.01.2004, retrieved 14 August

2010 from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?
uri=OJ:L:2004:013:0044:0048:EN:PDF
5.
Kleiman, Dave (2007). The Official CHFI Study Guide
(Exam 312-49) for Computer Hacking Forensics Investigators,
Burlington, Massachusetts: Syngress Publishing Inc., p. 755.
6.
Ibidem.
7.
Idem, pp. 752-753.
8.
Sheldon, Kerry; Howitt, Dennis (2007). Sex Offenders
and the Internet, Chichester, West Sussex, England: John Wiley
& Sons Ltd., pp 33-34.
9.
Taylor, Max; Quayle, Ethel (2003). Child Pornography.
An Internet Crime, New York: Taylor & Francis Group. Brunner
Routledge, pp.31-32.
10.
11. Henseler, Hans (2000). Computer Crime, in
Siegel, Jay A.; Saukko, Pekka J.; Knupfer, Geoffrey C. (eds.),
Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, London: Academic Press,
pp.403-408.
12.
McLean, John J. (2002). Homicide and Child
Pornography, in Casey, Eoghan (ed.), Handbook of Computer
Crime Investigation. Forensic Tools And Technology, London:
Academic Press, pp.369-370.
13.
Vasile, Sergiu Adrian (2008). Dicionar de informatic
aplicat i tehnologia informaiei, Craiova: Editura Sitech, p.
46.
14.
Van der Knijff, Ronald (2002). Embedded Systems
Analysis, in Casey, Eoghan (ed.), Handbook of Computer
Crime Investigation. Forensic Tools And Technology, London:
Academic Press, p.331.
15.
16. Also see U.S. Department of Justice. Office of Justice
Programs. National Institute of Justice (2007). Investigative
Uses of Technology: Devices, Tools, and Techniques,
Washington D.C., pp. 28-29. Retrieved 6 March 2010 from
http://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/alphaList.aspx?alpha=I
17.
Printer spool files represent files used to temporarily
store data in order to subsequently process it. Retrieved 18
July 2010 from http://www.computeruser.com/dictionary/spoolfile/
18.
Terminal Access Controller Access-Control System
(TACACS) represents a distance authentication protocol being
used to communicate with an authentication server usually
used in UNIX networks. Retrieved 18 July 2010 from http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TACACS
19.
Remote Authentication Dial In User Service
(RADIUS) is a networking protocol that provides centralized
Authentication, Authorization and Accounting management for
computers to connect and use a network service. Retrieved 18
July from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RADIUS
20.
Gercke, Marco (2009). Obligations of Internet
Service Providers with regard to child pornography: legal
issues, Council of Europe. Octopus Interface Conference
2009. Cooperation against Cybercrime, Strasbourg, France,
10-11 March 2009. Retrieved 18 July 2010 from http://www.
coe.int/t/dghl/cooperation/economiccrime/cybercrime/cy%20
activity%20interface %202009/IF_2009_presentations/default_
en.asp
21.
Request for Comments. Retrieved 19 July 2010 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments
CERTITUDE OF FORENSIC EVIDENCE AND ITS

CORRELATION WITH ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS
CERTITUDINEA PROBELOR CRIMINALISTICE
I CORELAREA LOR N ACCIDENTELE
DE TRAFIC RUTIER
Eng. Mircea FIERBINEANU
Judicial technical expert
Chairman of the Legal Commission
Romanian Forensic Association
E-mail: mircea_fierbinteanu@yahoo.com
Abstract
This topic represents a brief presentation of a wider scientific work which deals with
forensic evidence, the forensic material means of evidence and its correlation with traffic
road accidents, caused by guilt or other causes. The manner of approaching the topic
consists in the fact that the specificity of findings on crime scene of road traffic accidents
cannot be reconstituted since, on the way, everything is in movement and the traces may
be damaged very easy.
Key words: evidence, material traces, forensic science, correlation.
Rezumat
Tema de fa reprezint o prezentare succint a unei lucrri tiinifice mai extinse, ce
trateaz probele criminalistice, mijloacele materiale de prob criminalistice i corelarea lor
n accidentele de trafic rutier, produse din culp sau din alte cauze. Modalitatea de tratare
a problematici const n faptul c specificul constatrii la faa locului a accidentelor de
trafic rutier nu se poate reconstitui, deoarece pe drum, totul este n micare i urmele se
pot denatura uor.
Cuvinte cheie: probe, urme materiale, criminalistic, corelare.
From the practice of judicial expertises ordered by

the prosecution law-enforcement authorities, some
conclusions can be drawn. Conclusions without
which road traffic accidents may not be solved due
to the fact that are not taken into account all available
details of the crash scene. Consequently, during the
crime scene investigation for road traffic accidents,
it is imperative to carefully record any detail, even if
in those moments it seems trivial.
I. Traces and material means of evidence found at
the crash site and their types
In case of road traffic accidents, the most conclusive
evidence can be:
shards from lights and lamps;
peeling paint from the car body;
skin scraps or pieces of organic matter;
tufts of hair;
lacerations of cloths, buttons, buckles from the
victims clothing;
distance of the pedestrian throwing
shortening of a bike or motorcycle wheelbase;
residual penetration depth of a motorcycle in a car
body;
victims injuries;
victims injuries
deformations.
correlation
with
vehicle
1. Shards from lights and lamps

In road traffic accidents, especially when the author
leaves the site of the accident, inevitably vehicle
subassemblies which are composed of glass break into
pieces that can provide clues in terms of forensics. Thus
when only one headlight was broken due to the impact, it
can be located by simply studying the fragments, knowing
that by their construction headlights are asymmetrical,
standard and marked as follows:
Example:
SAM LIP 104-0193 KOREA

LH or: RH
HC / R
02
E13 17.5
3363
These marks are covered by Regulation no. A UN

ECE Uniform provisions concerning the approval of
motor vehicle headlamps emitting an asymmetrical beam
with incandescent bulbs of categories R2 and / or HS1.
713
By translating these symbols can be deduced that the

broken headlight comes from a vehicle manufactured in
Korea, has halogen bulbs (HC / R), is sealed with glue
(LIP), and if it bears LH sign is on the left and if it bears
RH sign is on the right side:
headlight on the right:
RH (right)
headlight on the left:
LH (left)
Restricting the circle of suspicious vehicles, step by
step we can find the vehicle in question and eventually
the driver who left the scene of the accident.
2. Peeling paint
statements, may complete the fi ndings regarding the

speed of the vehicle according to the following formula:
where:
= friction factor between the roadway and the
victims body;
m/sec2 g = 9.81;
S = the projection distance in meters;
= the angle between the horizontal and tangent
to the ballistic projected curve;
In this way, the speed of the vehicle in the moments
before the impact will be precisely determined.
When after a car crash are found traces of paint at the

crash scene due to the deformation of the car body, by
taking samples and submitting them to a chromatographic
device is easy to find the car that has an identical hue,
by comparing with the same device a sample taken from
the presumed car.
3. Scraps of skin or organic matter
When it is found that the victim has bruises by
skinning, it is possible that those parts of the vehicle
(especially the lower ones, when the victim was dragged)
have deposits of organic matter or waste of skin, which
by specific medical procedures can show that the vehicle
that caused the accident is bearing such marks.
4. Tufts of hair and lacerations of cloths, buttons,
buckles from the victims clothing.
This evidence comes specifically to elucidate the
perpetrator in an accident where has occurred dragging
or crossing over the victim, knowing that in the dovetailing
places under the vehicle can be found tufts of the victims
hair or textile parts, buttons, buckles from its clothing.
These assumptions that the victim was dragged or
trampled, must be linked to its specific injuries, consisting
of lacerations of internal organs, specific bruises, serious
fractures etc..
For example, in case of a road traffic accident in
which the victim was dragged and trampled by a Dacia
1310, certainly at the joint between the engine shield and
longerons, can be found tufts of the victims hair or textile
parts, buttons, buckles clothing from the victim.
where:
bouncing = jumps (rolling, jumping);
sliding = sliding;
end point = stopping point. 15
6. Examination of vehicle lamps
In car crash reconstruction, should be answered the
following question: In what position were switched the
headlights, taillights or brake lights? Depending on the
construction type, location in relation to the point of impact
and the condition of bulbs, can be drawn conclusions on
the switching state before impact.
Criteria for intact bulbs (which have not suffered
damage)
Spiral deformation
If there is a clear distortion of the filament, excluding
the action of a foreign body - in case of intact globe bulbs
of glass - then we can certaintly say that the light was
working (on) at the impact.
5. Distance of the pedestrian throwing (the

victim).
Specialized writings dealing with road traffic accidents
tackle this aspect of the dynamics of the accident
with great precision, specifi c ballistic evidence being
analyzed, such as:
the angle between the horizontal and the
tangent to the ballistic curve;
friction factor between the roadway and the
victims body;
gravitational acceleration;
speed of the vehicle at the moment of the
accident.
All these elements together with the distance of the
victims projection, which can be cleared from eye-witness
714
Filament deformation
of a H7 bulb
Deformation of the antiglare blinding toques

of a light bulb type H4
Picture 1 shows an H7 bulb with the filament strongly

deformed. On the right side, the filament coils have
a space between them, while on the left they are very
close. The initial longitudinal axis of the filament was
strongly deformed. To this condition can be certaintly
stated that during the fast acceleration the light was on.
Such a deformation, as shown in Picture 1 is impossible
to reach with a light bulb turned off.
Picture 2 shows the distorted cap of a H4 bulb. The

spire of the filament of the short range light, next to the
bulb holder, are spaced, the opposite ones are crammed
into one another. However, this example illustrates
the different reaction at high accelerations between a
tungsten filament (short range light) to a cold one (long
range light). While the filament of the long range light
remained undistorted, the deformation of the the short
range light filament is glaring.
7. Shortening the wheelbase of a bicycle or

motorcycle
Road traffic accidents in which have been involved a
vehicle and a cyclist/ motorcyclist, can be solved simply
by finding the speed at the moment of impact, whether
with on-site investigation are recorded the bicycle or
motorcycle deformations and especially the wheelbase
( distance between wheels) with particular attention to
measurement.
The smaller the filament deformation is, the less

certain we can say that the bulb was lit during the
impact. Switching state of the bulb being excluded from
the causes of the low filament deformation, attention
must be given to the headlight mounting system. If, for
example, the headlight has been weakened due to poor
fixation, or whether it is a bulb from the headlight of a
motorcycle, it is possible the deformation to have been
produced during normal driving due to shakings, before
the accident analysis.
It should be noted once again that in order to assess
the state of switching out of filament deformation, it is
necessary to know the initial position that it had. For
low power light bulbs, such as for brake lights or signal
lamps, the filament may show some distortion even in
new condition. The lesser is the lamp power, the bigger
should be the deformation of the filament in order to make
a reliable conclusion.
To P21W bulbs in cold condition (set off), no distortion
of the filament from the conducted acceleration tests was
found[M1]. Review and evaluation of several bulbs of
car accidents have shown that if any deformation of the
filament lamp was not observed it can not be said that
that it was running (on) during the impact. And when the
bulb is near to the point of impact the deformation of the
filament is not required (cold/ off); only acceleration is
not sufficient to cause deformation. But in any case we
can not conclude with: filament undistorted = light was
not lit.
Original wheelbase (A) will be extracted from the

experts database or the technical book of the bicycle
or motorcycle, the deformation wheelbase (sdef = A Adeformed) will be recorded in the minutes of the onsite investigation, together with the mass of the bike
or motorcycle and the forces of impact (determined
experimentally) will be included in the final formula of the
speed of impact, which is as follows:
where:
mb = mass of the rider in kg;
Fi = impact forces in kgf;
sdefi =residual deformation of the wheelbase;
8. Residual penetration depth in a car body
Residual depth of penetration in a car body, together
with the shortening of the wheelbase of a motorcycle in a
collision, can be important clues to elucidate the causes
that led to the road traffic accident, and the velocity of
the bike.
9. Victims injuries
P21 / 5 bulb, The 5W

filament highly deformed,
the 21W filament broken
The 5W filament deformed,

the 21 W filament
undistorted
Picture 5 P21 / 5 bulb,

the deformation of both
filaments
Pciture 6 The 5W filament

coiled on the stand
injuries caused by indirect impact, which determine

two types of injury:
excessive bending of the cervical, dorsal and lumbar
spine, with or without spinal injury;
visceral projection inside their cavities, realizing
injuries by the phenomenon of ricochet (dilaceration);
715
injuries by projecting, with or without crossing over;

occur due to body contact with the road and then roll.
10. Victims injuries correlation with vehicle

deformations
Through its impact points (steering vheel, board,

mirror, windshield, etc..), the vehicle acts as a hostile
environment for its occupants when a collision occurs.
Thus, are occurring damages to the axial organs of the
body, such as skull, spine and basin and secondary
lesions whose severity is lower,
of the limbs.
Based on the principle that both traces and material
means of evidence, and testimonials are elements that
lead to further investigation, the forensic expert must
guide by the principle that if he would be in a position
of the one that would investigate the prosecution, would
have done the same and crime scene investigation is
something that can not be repeated.
SIRCHIE IN VISIT AT ROMANIAN FORENSIC

ASSOCIATION
COMPANIA SIRCHIE N VIZIT LA ASOCIAIA
CRIMINALITILOR DIN ROMANIA
Jurist Renata Minodora WATSON
Abstract
For over 75 years and servicing well over 100 countries Sirchie has been the source for
criminal investigation products, custom vehicles and accredited training to the worldwide
law enforcement community. Combining first class customer service and adhering to
strict manufacturing quality standards enables Sirchie to support and assist a demanding
forensic market.
Key words: fiberglass brushes, master expert latent print kit, search all-purpose field kit,
krimesite direct view kit with black talon, the krimesite imager direct view kit, scan-n-find
imager.
Rezumat
Deservind mai mult de 75 de ani peste 100 de ri, Sirchie este o firm de referin
pentru produse necesare investigaiilor criminalistice, vehicule particularizate i pentru
instruire n aplicarea legilor comunitii. Combinnd serviciile de prim clas pentru clieni
cu aderarea la standarde de nalt calitate a produciei, Sirchie colaboreaz i sprijin
cererea pieei criminalistice.
Cuvinte cheie: pensule din fibr de sticl, trusa profesional pentru amprente latente,
trusa Search-All Purpose Field Kit, dispozitivul Krimesite cu vizor de corecie cu talon
negru, dispozitivul Krimesite cu vizor de corecie, dispozitivul de imagini Scan-N-Find.
716
Thursday, on April 7th 2011 at the Romanian

Forensic Association office, with the support of
Mr. forensic expert Petre Augustin, the adviser of
Interlegis Forensic S.R.L., took place a meeting with
Mr Rick Whittington, manager of sales department of
Sirchie company from U.S.A. who has presented the
technical means for forensic investigation produced
by this company.
At this meeting participated Mr. univ. prof. dr. Lazr
Crjan, president of Romanian Forensic Association, Mr.
associate prof. dr. Pescu Gheorghe, vice-president of
Romanian Forensic Association, Mr. (r ) col. prof. Vasile
Lpdui, general secretary of Romanian Forensic
Association and specialists of Forensic Service of General
Directorate of Bucharest Police, as well as members of
Romanian Forensic Association.
Following the presentations made by prof. Lpdui
related to the activity of association and the actions
undertaken to popularize the new means and techniques
of forensic investigation Mr. Rick Whittington presented
briefly the Sirchie companys activity.
Of Mr. Whittingtons showing the following were
apprehended:
The company was incorporated in 1927, being a
reference company for the products necessary for
forensic investigations. From the beginning the company
was specialized in the field of dactiloscopy and technical
means used to sample papillary traces up to the creation
of the automated fingerprint system.
In time, the companys activity has extended to the
creation of illuminated technical means at crime scene
to disacover fingerprints. The company has developed
a variety of Alternate Light Sources that are used to
identify many types of evidence that would otherwise go
undetected under standard lighting or daylight. Utilizing
a wide variety of available light generation such as
krypton, halogen, fluorescent, laser, and light emitting
diodes, along with highly specialized filter materials, the
company provides another valuable set of tools for the
crime scene investigator.
Sirchie is a comprehensive manufacturer and
distributor of crime scene investigation and forensic
evidence collection supplies. Sirchies offering extends
beyond fingerprint powders and brushes to include
forensic light sources, evidence drying cabinets and
forensic workstations, optical enhancement equipment,
narcotic and blood alcohol test kits, sexual assault and
DNA evidence collection kits, gunshot residue collection,
personal protection equipment and proprietary law
enforcement software. Sirchie also fabricates and
assembles vehicles as complete and fully interoperable
units. These vehicles can be equipped with auxiliary
lighting, satellite communications, telescopic video
cameras, broadcast TV dish antennas etc., so they can
respond to the most complex incident scenes. Remote
and extended operations can be handled easily and in
comfort as these mobile offices provide all the required
resources.
Sirchie is universally recognized as the leader in the
latent print development field. Latent print development
methods and resources have evolved greatly. These
are now a multitude of procedures and products which
employ both old and new technologies.
It offers a complete line of products for developing

and processing latent prints. These products include a
wide variety of regular and magnetic latent fingerprint
powders and applicators, as well as an exceptional line
of fluorescent latent powders. In addition, the company
offers a comprehensive line of latent print developing
reagents, including ninhydrine, silver nitrate, DFO and
cyanoacrylate (Super Glue). Properly lifting, transporting
and storing latent prints is as important as developing
them. It also offers a superior line of lifting tapes and
accessories to meet these requirements.
Products presented:
fiberglass brushes. These are unquestionably the
finest brushes available for developing latent fingerprints.
Thousands of specially selected fiberglass filaments form
a cloud-like, soft cluster powder that retains powder and
eliminates the constant powder replenishment required
by conventional brushes;
fiberglass mini light brushes. These feature a high
intensity LED white for the MLB100 and blue for the
MBLB100 for those situations requiring the use of
fluorescent powders. Both have push button and twist
cap ON/OFF activation, light-weight metal body and a
full-sized replaceable fiberglass brush head;
retractable fiberglass brushes (photo 1). This is an
excellent brush that features a fiberglass cluster cloud.
The cloud size may be controlled and incrementally
adjusted by moving the retracting shroud to adjust the
flair. The shroud protects the fiberglass cluster and
ensures unequalled protection from foreign particle
contamination, moisture and rough usage;
Foto 1
master expert latent print kit offers the crime scene
investigator all the methods of developing fingerprints
available at Sirchie. The components of this kit should
717
enable the user to accomplish successful latent fingerprint

development in the field or laboratory;
search all-purpose field kit (photo 2) is designed
to meet the high standards required by todays police
departments and contains all the necessary materials
for conducting investigations at the crime scene. A
cardholder is mounted on the outside. Well-designed
location of the contents permits the inclusion of materials
for taking, developing, lifting, identifying and preserving
evidence without a large case requirement. The carrying
case is built for rugged use;
Foto 2
krimesite direct view kit with black talon (photo 3) is

comprised of lightweight support structure engineered to
provide the correct lens-to-subject distance for viewing
and photography. The built-in-precision laser engraved
sliding photo evidence scale is easily positioned into or
out of the field-of-view, allowing the photograph to be

scaled 1-to-1 at a later time, as required. Dual 4-wat
short wave UV lamps (included) are attached to the fully
adjustable support/swing arms, providing the necessary
angle of incidence required for maximum contrast;
the krimesite imager direct view kit; from the
redesigned lightweight body, fashioned from a single
piece of extruded aluminum, to the superior 60 mm 4
element all quartz lens with dual filter slide assembly
the KSS60 sets a new standard for crime scene search
capability. The 60 mm UV lenses is Sirchies very finest,
which requires no add-on lens adapters for
close-up and distance viewing. Because of this
exceptional lens and filter combination, closeup, distance viewing, and photography can
be accomplished without ever changing the
mechanical configuration of the device. The
Direct View Kit comes with everything is needed
to search a crime scene for latent prints on nonporous surfaces;
scan-n-find imager (photo 4) . The Scan-NFind UV Imaging System simplifies the search for
latent evidence that could be easily overlooked.
With a variable focus wide-angle 30 mm UV
lens, it is capable of scanning a large area in a
short amount of time. In addition, the wide-field,
focusable eyepiece assures the elimination of
eyestrain.
Foto 4
The imagers light-weight body is constructed from
a single piece of extruded aluminum which features a
User-Facing Control Panel. The unit is powered by a
single CR 123 Lithium battery. The Laser Pointer, located
on the left hand side, is powered by two type L1154
batteries (included). The KSS8997 uses a high-quality
image intensifier tube and the UV filter provides peak
UV transmission at 254 nm. The unit may be mounted
on a tripod and it couples directly to the KSSDIG digital
camera system to help facilitate photography.
Mr. Rick Whittington presented as well other
technical means produced by Sirchie company ,
following that during the next symposium to take
place in October 2011, organized by Romanian
Forensic Association , to be set up an exhibition with
similar products.
Foto 3
718
DIFFERENTIATION OF SCRIPTURAL MATERIALS

SAMPLES SUCH AS BALLPOINT INKS FOR PEN BY
PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL METHODS
DIFERENIEREA PROBELOR DE MATERIAL
SCRIPTURAL DE TIPUL PASTELOR
PENTRU PIX PRIN METODE FIZICO-CHIMICE
Police Chief Commissioner Ph.D. Chemist Engineer Maria Georgeta STOIAN
Physicist-Chemist Daniela Laura FERARU
Forensic Science Institute
Physical-Chemical Examination Department
Abstract
Ballpoint inks containing the following major components: solvents (50%), dyes and
pigments (25%) and resins (25%). Ink analysis is currently limited to comparing the profile
of organic dyes/pigments. In order to establish correlations and possible discrimination of
writing inks and ballpoint inks, several kinds of blue ballpoint inks of different colors from
different manufacturers were selected on the Romanian market and have been studied by
different physical-chemical methods: written examination in infrared and ultraviolet light,
using the video spectral comparator VSC 5000, Raman spectrometry, infrared spectrometry
and thin layer chromatography.
Inks and ballpoint inks scriptural materials type can be differentiated by determining their
optical properties, by comparing the organic dyes/pigments profile; the most conclusive
results in their comparative examination are obtained by thin layer chromatography.
Chemical analysis involving destructive analysis, which must be approved by the judicial
body.
Key words: inks and ballpoint inks, physical-chemical examination, similarities/
differences
Rezumat
Cerneala pentru pixuri conine urmtorii compui majori: solveni (50%), colorani
i pigmeni (25%) i rini (25%). Analiza cernelurilor se limiteaz n mod curent la
compararea profilului coloranilor organici/pigmenilor. n vederea stabilirii unor corelaii
i posibiliti de discriminare a cernelurilor i pastelor de scris, cteva tipuri de paste de
pix de culoare albastr de diferite nuane, de la diferii productori, au fost selectate de
pe piaa romneasc i au fost studiate prin diferite metode fizico-chimice: examinarea
scrisului n lumin infraroie i ultraviolet, folosind comparatorul video spectral VSC 5000,
prin spectrometrie Raman, prin spectrometrie n infrarou i prin cromatografie pe strat
subire.
Materialele scripturale de tipul cernelurilor/pastelor pentru pix pot fi difereniate prin
determinarea proprietilor lor optice, prin compararea profilului coloranilor organici/
pigmenilor; prin cromatografie pe strat subire se obin cele mai concludente rezultate n
examinarea comparativ a acestora. Analizele chimice implic o analiz distructiv, care
trebuie s fie autorizat de ctre organul judiciar.
Cuvinte cheie: materiale scripturale de tipul cernelurilor sau pastelor pentru pixuri,
examinarea fizico-chimic, asemnri/deosebiri.
1. Introduction. Theoretical aspects.

Forensic examination of scriptural materials such
as inks provides for deep and multilateral analysis of
chemical and physical properties, applying a complex
of chemical and physical-chemical methods, aimed:
differentiating writing material, ink type determination,
establishing commonality of inks origin (comparative
research, identification to confirm whether or not two
documents were written by the same scriptural material),

identification and interpretation of the changes, deletions
and additions made in the case of documents and,
finally, restoring illegible texts. At the same time, great
importance is a thorough study of clues that show the
procedure of writing text, document storage conditions
etc., clues that have a particularly large role in the
comparative examination of inks.
719
Writing ink was used in Egypt for writing on papyrus.

These early inks were composed of a carbonaceous
compound base extracted from cephalopoda (e.g.
squids) or carbonized organic substances (in China).
Iron-gallotannate inks have been widely used since the
early 12th century. Vanadium salts and aniline used
in the late 19th century are no longer in common use.
Today, inks are mostly water-based (fountain pens, inkjet
printers) or glycol-based (ballpoint pens). The laser
printer process works with hot deposition on paper and
requires no solvent.
So, inks contain various dyes (acid, basic and direct),
solvents, volatile organic compounds and compounds
such as: glycerol, ethylene glycol, dextrin, phenol, organic
acids etc.
Ballpoint pens were developed in Europe in the 1930s
by Biro and commercially produced since 1944 in the
USA. Until the 1950s, the inks contained iron gallotannate
or washable dyes with oil-based solvents. Since 1950,
most inks are glycol-based and copper phthalocyanine
pigments were introduced in 1954.
Currently, the most common instruments for writing
on paper are ballpoint pens. To avoid slow drying and
broadening of written lines, smudging, and fading,
ballpoint inks have been developed as special mixtures
of glycol solvent, colouring agents (dyes and pigments),
anti-corrosives, waterproofing agents, coagulants,
oleophobic and other additives, which make inks a
closely-guarded industrial secret. Some manufacturers
make inks, some make ballpoint inks, some make both,
which further complicates an already dynamic and broad
market. Ballpoint ink is mainly manufactured in Japan,
Germany, the USA, and China.
Ballpoint ink contains the following major compounds:
solvents (50%), dyes and pigments (25%) and resins
(25%). Other ingredients are present in small quantities
and include lubricants, biocides, surfactants, corrosioninhibitors,
sequestrants,
shear-thinning
agents,
emulsifying agents, buffers and many other minor
additives to adjust pH, viscosity, polymerization and
prevent pen blockage or microbial growth in the ink.
The dyes and pigments are the colorant components
of ink contributing their colouring properties. Dyes are
coloured, ionic aromatic organic compounds; as such
they are based on the structure of the benzene molecule
that absorbs electromagnetic radiation in the ultraviolet
wavelength range (at about 200 nm). Dyes usually are
used as an aqueous solution, and may require a mordant
to improve the fastness (i.e. stability) on a substrate. In
contrast, pigments are insoluble and generally have no
affinity for the substrate. The dyes are mainly cationic
(or basic) dyes. The charge-carrying atom usually is
nitrogen and the charge may be localized or delocalized.
Anionic (or acid) dyes are also in ballpoint pens ink, but
less commonly.
Solvents, unlike the dyes are not meant to remain in
ink for years, being added in ink for two main reasons:
dilution of the colorant and its application on paper.
Glycol solvents are the solvents most commonly used in
ballpoint inks, as such that ink must be more viscous than
water. They allow the ink to stay fluid in the pen cartridge
but dry quickly on paper after application. Lubricants such
as oleic acid are added to permit the ball to rotate freely.
Several examples of typical solvents found in ballpoint
pens are: phenoxyethanol, phenoxyethoxiethanol,
720
dipropylene glycol, benzyl alcohol, butylene glycol,

phthalic anhydride, oleic acid and 2-pyrrolidone.
Resins are substances of relatively high molecular
weight synthesized by polymerization of monomers. They
are added to the ballpoint ink formulation for adjusting
the viscosity of the ink and increasing film strength and
lubricant qualities as the ink flows from the ball onto the
paper. Resins additionally create a bond between the
ink and papers while they polymerize during the drying
process. They are insoluble in water, but soluble in the
organic solvents contained in the ballpoint ink formulation.
Some examples of resins used are: ketone, sulfoamide,
maleic, xylene, alkyd, phenolic and rosin resins, ester
gums etc.
Differentiation of scriptural materials and establish the
type of ink is based on finding characteristic properties
caused by specific chemical composition. These
properties include: nature of the settlement on paper,
signs microstructure (indents), visible infrared crossing
level, solubility, and, finally, the presence of chemical
substances, characteristic for each material.
Based on these properties of scriptural materials,
forensic examination of them requires performing a
variety of analysis to determine the type of ink, when
there are sufficient quantities of material, especially in
order to determine the similarities or differences between
scriptural materials and their possible common origin.
Currently, the Forensic Science Institute, by the
Physical-Chemical Examination Department, has the
possibility of making comparisons between different
types of scriptural material, designed to highlight the
similarities or differences in composition between them.
Besides chemical expertise can be made on scriptural
materials of a document, that requires the destruction
of parts of it, but offers the most complete results, there
can only carry out non-destructive physical analysis,
namely comparative analysis of spectral characteristics
of scriptural materials, both in visible and ultraviolet and
infrared.
So far experts chemists make the following types
of physical-chemical analysis of scriptural materials
such as inks and ballpoint inks:
a). Microscopic examination of scriptural material, with
a stereomicroscope (magnification 25x), in daylight or
with a Leica MZ 16 stereomicroscope, in artificial light.
Characteristic to scriptural materials such as inks and
ballpoint inks is that in areas with scriptural deposits is
also visible the paper support (cellulose fibers).
b). Examination of the scriptural route by ultraviolet
and visible microspectrophotometry, in the 800-350 nm
wavelengths, by reflectance spectroscopy in the 340-1000
nm using a UV-VIS PC SPEC and written examinations
in different lighting conditions (infrared and ultraviolet
light, the transparency and incident light), using the video
spectral comparator VSC 5000.
From the study of obtained reflection spectra
conclusions can be drawn by similarity of nuances of color,
if analyzed routes have the maximum reflection peak at
the same wavelength, respectively by differentiation of
the nuances of color, if analyzed routes have different
allure of reflection spectra with maximum reflection
at different wavelengths. Using VSC 5000 can make

also the chromatic diagram, and color nuances can be
compared by their color coordinates.
Note that black ink can not be analyzed by this
method because it reflects the incident light and produce
no reflection spectra.
c). Raman spectrometric analysis. The analysis
is carried out with an apparatus FORAM 685-2, in the
spectral range 400-2000 cm-1, and by comparing
the spectra obtained, as with UV-Vis spectrometry,
conclusions can be drawn of similarity or difference of
nuances of color.
d). Solubility tests in water and in different solvents:
acetone, chloroform, alcohol, hydroalcoholic solution
(water/ethanol). Is found weaker or stronger staining
of water or solvents used, depending on the type of
scriptural material.
e). Analysis by thin layer chromatography.
Thin layer chromatography is a simple and convenient
method to separate the colors present in different types
of inks, the most common way of comparative analysis
of scriptural material when is accepted partial alteration
of documents. The method can also be very useful to
confirm or refute the presence of organic dyes, and to
determine whether scriptural material is composed of a
mixture of dyes.
f). Infrared spectrometric analysis to identify/compare
the scriptural material used to create scriptural routes.
The analysis is generally performed with an equipment
FTIR type Bruker Tensor 27 coupled with IR microscope
type Hyperion 2000, using a device ATR 20x diamond
crystal in the 4000-600 cm-1, resolution 4 cm-1.
It is important to note that a qualitative identification
by infrared spectrometry can be achieved only if the
expert has reliable information that would indicate that
the sample in question is unitary and it is not a mixture of
two or more substances (like inks). In other words, an IR
spectrum of a sample can be associated with a standard
spectrum from laboratory collection spectra only if the
sample is unitary from chemical point of view. Moreover,
for the beneficiary, in most cases, is sufficient formulation
that the samples are different or they have the same
chemical composition.
It should be noted however, that when two or more IR
spectra have the same configurations and relative reports
of intensity or significant differences, experts, in conjuction
with other tests such as thin layer chromatography
analysis, X-ray spectrometry analysis etc., can conclude
with certainty that the evidence, in terms of quality and
quantity, have the same chemical composition or on the
contrary, they differ.
It is often necessary to perform parallel analysis of
the unprinted/unwritten white areas of paper, because
in the IR spectrum of scriptural material such as inks
appear components that form paper (cellulose and
calcium carbonate), components to be subtracted
from the IR spectra of the analyzed scriptural material.
Where, outside of the cellulose and calcium carbonate
characteristic absorption bands, is not observed
other colors characteristic absorption bands, it can be
concluded that the analyzed scriptural material contains
the black carbon as pigment, which not produces infrared

absorption bands and generally can not be revealed by
physical analytical methods.
If the parallel analysis of paper and scriptural route by
infrared spectrometry shows that IR spectra of scriptural
material have additional absorption bands to the cellulose
and/or calcium carbonate spectra, can conclude that
there is a scriptural material containing organic dyes.
For example, if in the IR spectrum there are present two
absorption bands at about 1650 and 1540 cm-1, these
bands can be attributed to carbonyl groups, C=N bonds
or nitro groups, which are found in the composition of
organic dyes.
Also, when scriptural deposits are quantitative
sufficient, IR spectra may contain characteristic bands of
resins contained in the ballpoint inks.
g). Analysis by X-ray spectrometry. The analysis is
performed with an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer type
Eagle III, silicon-lithium detector, or a scanning electron
microscope (SEM) type Jeol JSM-6480 LV equipped with
an X-ray spectrometer type INCA x-Sight 7574 model, with
dispersion by energy (EDS), silicon-lithium detector, with
an acceleration voltage 20 kV, 30-200x magnification, 18
Pa pressure. X-ray spectra show elemental composition
of scriptural material, very useful in comparative analysis,
and when seeking evidence of pigments (inorganic) used
to make scriptural materials.
For example, if you want to confirm or refute the
use of inks based on iron, copper or containing certain
minerals should be sought to highlight the chemical
element (Fe, Cu and others). Analysis can be performed
on both samples as such (scriptural routes deposited on
document), and the residue obtained by evaporation to
dryness of the scriptural material extract.
And if X-ray spectrometry, it is often necessary to
perform parallel analysis of the unprinted/unwritten white
areas of paper, in order to assess whether differences
or similarities between scriptural material and paper
regarding the content of the searched chemical element.
Where it is found that the content is close to that of paper,
a possible hypothesis is removed ink containing such
pigment.
Note that, typically, in the elemental composition
of paper identifies majority silicon and aluminum with
small concentrations of sodium, magnesium, potassium,
calcium, chlorine, titanium, sulfur and iron.
h). Analysis by gas chromatography coupled with
mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The analysis is useful
when investigating VOC of examined inks, and can be
performed on both scriptural material extracts as such,
and if necessary, after derivatization. Note that this is not
a routine analysis, but by doing this can be determined
the solvents used in inks and ballpoint inks formulas
and also other substances such as fatty acids (myristic,
palmitic, oleic, stearic etc.), glycerol etc. These results,
combined with results from other methods of analysis,
characterized scriptural material composition.
Therefore, inks analysis is currently limited to
comparing the profile of organic dyes/pigments.
This paper focuses on study the possibility of
differentiation of scriptural material samples such as
writing inks and ballpoint inks by different physicalchemical methods.
721
2. Experimental part. Materials and methods.

Results and discussion.
For the study were analyzed 18 blue ballpoint inks
of different nuances from different manufacturers, sold
on the Romanian market, by examining the scriptural
material deposits madeby them in infrared and ultraviolet
light, using the video spectral comparator VSC 5000; by
Raman spectrometry using an apparatus FORAM 685-2,
in the spectral range 400-2000 cm-1, mediating acquisition
of 5 spectra; by infrared absorption spectrometry using
an equipment FTIR type Bruker Tensor 27 coupled with
IR microscope type Hyperion 2000, in the spectral range
4000-600 cm-1, resolution 4 cm-1 and by thin layer
chromatography.
Ballpoint inks and writen inks used, bought from the
Romanian market, were noted as follows: mark AIHAO
- A1 and A2 (ballpoint inks); A3 (gel); A4 and A5 (ink);
brand BIC - B1, B2, B3 and B4 ; brand LEGEND - L1;
brand SCHNEIDER - S1, S2 and S3; brand PARKER P1; brand Tratto - T1; mark LEDMED - M1, M2 and M3.
With these inks were made scriptural deposits on xerox
paper, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 4. IR spectra of scriptural deposits:

L1=P1T1; M1=M2

S1S2S3
Figure 1. Scriptural deposits with the 18 analyzed

ballpoint inks, viewed in daylight
Scriptural deposits were analyzed by transmission
infrared spectrometry; IR spectra obtained and the
similarities/differences between them are given in Figures
2-6.
B1 = B4 = S3 = T1
Figure 2. IR spectra of scriptural deposits: A1=A2,

A4=A5 i A3
Figure 3. IR spectra of scriptural deposits: B1=B4;

B2=B3
722
In IR spectra were found similarities between some

scriptural deposits, but that could come from resin
composition of ballpoint inks and not from the mixture
of dyes/pigments used in the formulation of scriptural
material.
Therefore, to assess the similarities/differences
between scriptural deposits, they were examined with
video spectral comparator VSC 5000 under the spot
light between 530 and 1000 nm, infrared light; images
of similarities/differences between them are given in
Figures 7 - 13.
Figure 7. View in the IR light
Figure 13.
Chromatic
diagram
Figure 8. View at 659 nm

Scriptural deposits were also analyzed by Raman
spectrometry; the spectra obtained are given in Figure
14. Note that scriptural deposits A3, B4, S1, S2, P1, T1,
M1, M2 and M3 could not be analyzed by this method
because they are not visible in the work domain of
FORAM equipment.
Figure 9. View at 663 nm
Figure 14. Raman spectra of scriptural deposits

A1, A2, A4, A5, B1, B2, B3, S3 i L1
Figure 10. View at 691nm
Figure 11. View at 720nm
Figure 12. Reflection spectra of the

18 analysed scriptural deposits
From the study of reflection spectra obtained with

video spectral comparator VSC 5000 and Raman spectra
was found that all scriptural deposits are different from
each other.
For confirmation, scriptural deposits were extracted
with methanol (A4 and A5 deposits were not solubilised in
any solvent) and analyzed by thin layer chromatography
on a stationary phase kieselgel G 60 (d=0.25 mm),
using many mobile phases. It was found that the best
chromatographic separations were obtained in the
developing system consisting of acetic acid: butanol:
ammonia (60:35:5).
In Figure 15 is shown the chromatographic plate
obtained in developing system
acetic
acid:ethanol:water (70:35:30) and in Figure 18 is shown
the chromatographic plate obtained in developing system
acetic acid:butanol:ammonia (60:35:5).
Also, in Figures 16 and 19 are presented the two
chromatographic plates viewed under spots light between
530 and 1000 infrared (VSC 5000) and in Figures 17 and
20 are presented the two chromatographic plates viewed
in ultraviolet light (VSC 5000).
Figure 15. The chromatographic plate obtained in

developing system acetic acid:ethanol:water (70:35:30)
723
Figure 16. The chromatographic plate viewed

under spots light between 530 and 1000 infrared
(VSC 5000)

in ultraviolet light (VSC 5000)
From the study of chromatographic plates was

found that the 18 analyzed scriptural materials such as
ballpoint inks have different chemical compositions and
also that by thin layer chromatography are obtained the
most conclusive results in a comparative examination of
scriptural materials such as ballpoint inks.
Figure 17. The chromatographic plate viewed in

ultraviolet light (VSC 5000)
Figure 18. The chromatographic plate obtained in

developing system acetic acid:butanol:ammonia
(60:35:5)

under spots light between 530 and 1000 infrared
(VSC 5000)
724
3. Conclusions
The future of physical-chemical examination
on scriptural material still remains to solve the two
main objectives, namely their identification and
comparison, for forensic purpose, based on both
qualitative and quantitative measurements, when
possible.
Scriptural materials such as inks/ballpoint
inks can be differentiated by determining their
optical properties by comparing the organic dyes/
pigments profile; the most conclusive results in their
comparative examination are obtained by thin layer
chromatography.
Chemical analysis involve destructive analysis,
which must be authorized by judicial authority, and
during examinations, justified by the use of several
types of methods (thin layer chromatography, UVVis microspectrophotometry, infrared spectrometry,
X-ray spectrometry, gas chromatography coupled
with mass spectrometry), can extend up to several
weeks.
Bibliography
1. Weyermann C., Mass spectrometric investigation of
the aging processes of ballpoint ink for the examination of
questioned documents, inaugural dissertation for the degree of
Doktor rer. nat. submitted to Justus-Liebig-University Giessen,
2005
2. Pearson G., The Chromatographic Analysis of Inks,
Enciclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, 247-295,
2002
3. Claybourn M., Ansell M., Using Raman Spectroscopy to
Solve Crime: Inks, Questioned Documents and Fraud, Science
&Justice 40 (4), 261-271, 2000
4. Ellen D., The Scientific Examination of Documents
- Methods and Techniques, Taylor &Francis Ldt., Forensic
Science Series, Salisbury, Wiltshire, 1997
5. Brunelle R. L., Reed R. W., Forensic Examination of
Ink and Paper, Charles C. Thomas Publisher Ltd., Springfield,
Illinois, 1984
CAPITALIZATION OF PAINT TRACES

BY PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
VALORIFICAREA URMELOR I MICROURMELOR DE
VOPSEA PRIN EXPERTIZE FIZICO-CHIMICE
Police Chief Commissioner Ph.D. Chemist Engineer Maria Georgeta STOIAN
Police Chief Commissioner Chemist Georgeta ANDREESCU
Police Deputy Commissioner Chemist Engineer Elena GALAN
Romanian Forensic Science Institute
Physical-Chemical Examination Department
Abstract
Paint traces found at the crime scene, on the road, on the motor vehicles or items of
clothing from the victims, on the objects used in committing the offense, on the walls, on
glass fragments, on the hair or nails etc., is relevant evidence which, through the range of
information offered is the fingerprint n starting the path to truth.
Particularly important in describing the characteristics of paint samples are appearance,
color, layering - the number, thickness and sequence of layers, the chemical composition
of the layers, the pigment/filler and the binder material. When possible, it can be also
compared the paint fragments between them.
The paper presents some criminal cases have involved the analysis of paint samples
that remained on the crime scene and were sent for examinations to forensic chemistry
laboratories of the Forensic Science Institute. In the examples presented, morphological
and physical-chemical examinations of paint samples had a decisive role in determining
guilt or innocence of suspects.
Key words: forensic chemistry, capitalization of paint traces, spectrometric methods,
physical-chemical characteristics.
Rezumat
Peliculele de vopsea descoperite la locul faptei, pe carosabil, pe autovehicule sau pe
obiectele de mbrcminte a victimelor, pe obiectele folosite n svrirea infraciunii, pe
perei, fragmente de sticl, pe pr sau unghii etc. reprezint probe relevante, care, prin
gama de informaii oferite, constituie amprenta de la care ncepe drumul spre aflarea
adevrului.
Caracteristicile deosebit de importante n descrierea probelor de vopsea sunt aspectul,
culoarea, stratificarea - numrul, grosimea i succesiunea straturilor, compoziia chimic
a straturilor, a pigmentului/materialului de umplutur i liantului. Cnd este posibil, se pot
compara i fragmentele ntre ele.
n lucrare sunt prezentate cteva dintre cauzele penale care au presupus analiza probelor
de vopsea care au rmas la faa locului i au fost trimise spre analiz n laboratoarele
de chimie judiciar ale Institutului de Criminalistic. n exemplele prezentate examinarea
morfologic i fizico-chimic a peliculelor i micropeliculelor de vopsea a avut un rol decisiv
n stabilirea vinoviei sau nevinoviei persoanelor suspecte.
Cuvinte cheie: chimia judiciar, valorificarea urmelor de vopsea, metode spectrometrice,
caracteristici fizico-chimice.
1. Introduction
Paint traces found at the crime scene, on the road, on
the motor vehicles or items of clothing from the victims, on
the objects used in committing the offense, on the walls,
on glass fragments, on the hair or nails etc., are relevant
evidence which, through the range of information offered
is the fingerprint starting the path to truth.
By definition, the paint is a coloring material used to
cover different surfaces - wood, metal, glass etc., having
a double role: to protect surface against the environment

influence and for decoration.
Paints are mixtures consisting of pigments, polymeric
binders (organic resins), inorganic fillers (eg. calcium
carbonate, barium sulfate) and various additives, all
dissolved or dispersed in a solvent (water or organic
solvents). Among them, the basic components are:
pigments, binder and solvent.
After the paint was applied to a surface, by drying
at normal or high temperature, it forming transparent or
opaque films. The solvent evaporates, leaving on the
725
surface the polymeric binder and pigments which were

suspended in it. Therefore, the infrared spectra of paints
have major bands of polymeric binder (alkyd, acrylic or
vinyl), but also significant intensity bands between 15001400 cm-1 and/or in lower region of 800 cm-1, which can
derived from calcium carbonate and titanium dioxide.
Paint can be evidence in a variety of circumstances,
both in solid form (chips, fragments, smears, spots etc.)
and liquid form.
Particularly important in describing the characteristics
of paint samples are appearance, color, layering the number, thickness and sequence of layers, the
chemical composition of the layers, the pigment/filler
and binder. When possible, it can be also compared the
paint fragments between them. This is important for the
elucidation of causes, such as:
a). Road accidents, including hit-and-run accidents chips or smears of paint can be found, for example, on
the road, on the vehicles used to escape/run, on the the
damaged objects (bicycles, motorcycles, crash barriers,
gates, trees) or on the victims who were injured, and
may be particularly useful for determining the dynamics
of the accident or simply identifying the involved vehicles.
Impact force causes the formation of smears and paint
chips on vehicles, which are important for the elucidation
of road accidents. Quality of paint samples depends on
factors such as weather, the speed at impact, friction
etc.
b). Burglary, robbery, theft - because evidence (paint
traces) that come from creative tool (crowbar, lever,
skeleton key, screwdriver, grinder, abrasive disc, ax,
metal bar etc.) can be transferred on the support material
(frames, door frames etc.) and/or vice versa.
c). Theft - when the support material (trees, machinery,
animals, birds etc.) was marked with paint.
d). Violent crime - for example, robbery with an object
covered with paint.
e). Destruction - graffiti on the walls of houses, on
public transport. In these cases, paint samples can be
fresh (wet) and can occur in both contact and contactless
transfers, such as drips, splashes or sprays.
Paint transfers can also occur and produce valuable
trace evidence even when painted surfaces are not
involved directly in the contact transfer. If the paint chips
is found, for example, in soil samples near the scene
of an offense (parking, shops, housing etc.), which are
taken by the offender on the soles of footwear items
and subsequently transferred to the vehicle used for
escape or even at own house. Usually this kind of trace is
accompanied by other traces: metal, building materials,
glass, vegetable etc., being complex mixtures, and it
becomes very persuasive evidence of association. Thus,
the presence of this kind of traces, in addition to serving
as an example of an association based on the comparison
of complex physical evidence mixtures, it serves as an
illustration of the complex nature and interdependence of
physical evidence.
Generally, for physical-chemical characterization
of paint samples, depending on their characteristics,
can be chosen a variety of combined techniques,
providing analysis and comparison of both the binders
and pigments/fillers, useful information for accurate
assessment of paint samples.
726
Next will be presented some criminal cases have

involved the analysis of paint samples that remained
on the crime scene and were sent for examinations to
forensic chemistry laboratories of the Forensic Science
Institute. In the examples presented, morphological
and physical-chemical examinations of paint samples
had a decisive role in determining guilt or innocence of
suspects.
2. Materials and methods
The main analytical tools and techniques used for
analysis and association of physical-chemical properties
of paint samples in question with comparison paint
sample, are:
stereomicroscope Carl Zeiss Jena (magnification
25x) in natural and artificial light;
microscope Hyperion 2000 coupled with an infrared
spectrophotometer Tensor 27 equipped with Golden Gate
device; infrared microscope Hyperion 2000 is fitted with
a device Micro-ATR-20x diamond crystal; analysis were
carried out usually in the spectral range 4000 - 400 cm-1,
resolution 4 cm-1;
system PC SPEC UV-VIS for reflection spectroscopic
analysis in ultraviolet and visible; analysis were carried
out usually in the range 340-1000 nm;
video spectral comparator VSC 5000 - Foster &
Freman, in the range 530-1000 nm;
X-ray fluorescence spectrometer type Eagle III
silicon-lithium detector; analysis were normally carried
out in vacuum, with a time constant of 17 s.
3. Results and discussion

A). To elucidate an hit-and-run accident were sent for
examinations to forensic chemistry laboratories yellow
traces collected on the adhesive film from the door of hit
car (sample 1 - Figure 1). The objective was to compare
these particles with yellow paint chips collected from
suspected car (sample 2 - Figure 2).
Figure 1. Sample 1
Figure 2.
Sample 2
By studying with the stereomicroscope have found

that:
- Sample 1 consists of very small chips of yellow paint
(sample 1A), very small chips of light beige paint (sample
1B) and very small gray particles soil-looking (sample
1C) - Figure 3;
- Sample 2 consists of chips of yellow paint, which
has a yellow layer, varnish (sample 2A), on which surface
stands very small particles of soil, and a light beige layer,
intermediate paint (sample 2B).
1A
Figure 5. IR spectra - samples 1A (a) and 2A (b)
1B
1C
Figure 3. Samples 1A, 1B i 1C

(yellow, beige and gray traces)
To meet the objective, sample 1 and sample 2
were subjected to a variety of examinations, which are
presented in Table 1.
Figure 6. IR spectra - samples 1B (a) and 2B (b)
Table 1. The results obtained by different methods

and analytical techniques
Methods of
examination
Sample 1
Sample 2
Reflectance
spectroscopy
- with VSC
5000
- Sample 1A have similar chromatic

coordinates with sample 2A (Figure 4)
- Sample 1B have similar chromatic
coordinates with sample 2B (Figure 4)
Infrared
spectrometry
- Sample 1A (a) spectrum is similar

with sample 2A (b) spectrum
(Figure 5)
- Sample 1B (a) spectrum is similar
with sample 2B (b) spectrum
(Figure 6)
X-ray
fluorescence
spectrometry
- Samples 1A and 2A contain: lead,

titanium (majority), calcium, silicon,
chromium, iron and zinc (Figure 7)
- Samples 1B and 2B contain: silicon,
titanium (majority), calcium, iron and
chromium (Figure 8)
a - Proba 1A
b - Proba 2A
Figure 7. X-ray spectra-samples 1A(a) and 2A(b)
a - Proba 1A
b - Proba 2A
Figure 4. Reflectance spectra of analyzed samples
Figure 8. X-ray spectra-samples 1B(a) and 2B(b)
727
Examinations performed could conclude that very

small chips of yellow paint and light beige paint collected
from the door of hit car (samples 1A and 1B) have the
same physical-chemical characteristics (nuance, binder
and elemental composition) to those of yellow and beige
paint chips collected from suspected car (samples 2A
and 2B).
B). In another case of a hit-and-run accident, in which
were involved two red cars, were sent for examination the
dark red dynamic traces collected by scraping from the
plastic casing of the mirror of the hit car (sample 2 - Figure
10), with the objective to be analyzed in comparison with
red paint chips collected from suspected car (sample 1
- Figure 9), respectively, with red paint chips collected
from the hit car (sample 3 - Figure 11).
Figure 9. Sample 1
Figure 10. Sample 2
To meet the objective, sample 1, 2 and 3 were

subjected to a variety of examinations, which are
presented in Table 2.
Figure 11. Sample 3
Table 2. The results obtained by different methods and analytical techniques

Methods of examination
Sample 1 (comparison)
- suspected car
Sample 2 (in question)

- hit car
Sample 3 (comparison)
- hit car
Stereomicroscope
examination
1. dark red layer, varnish

2. light gray layer of
intermediate paint
3. red layer of
intermediate paint
4. white layer of putty
Infrared spectrometry
(IR)
X-ray fluorescence
spectrometry
728
- Layer 1 spectrum:
acrylostyrenic resins
(Figure 12)
- Layers 2 and 4 spectra:
acrylic resins
- Layer 3 spectrum:
alkydic resins
- Layer 1 contain: Ti
(majority) and Si, Ca, Fe
and S, trace (Figure 13)
- Layer 2 contain: Ti, Ca
(majority), Si, Zn, Fe,
S -trace
- Layer 3 contain: Ti, Ca,
Fe, S (majority), Si,
Ba - trace
- Layer 4 contain: Ti, Si,
S, Ca (majority), Mg and
Fe - trace
Dark red dynamic

traces - paint looking
Dynamic traces spectrum:

acrylostyrenic resins
(Figure 12)
Dark red dynamic traces

contain: Ti (majority) and
Si, S, Ca and Fe, trace
(Figure 14)
1. layer of colorless,
transparent lacquer
2. red layer with
silvery pigments
3. olive-gray layer,
intermediate paint
- Layer 1 spectrum:
alkydic resins
- Layer 2 spectrum: acrylic
resins (Figure 12)
- Layer 3 spectrum:
alkydic resins
- Layer 1 contain S
- Layer 2 contain: Fe, Al,
Si, S, Ti (Figure 15)
- Layer 3 contain: Ca, Ti
(majority), Si, S, Fe
and Zn, trace
Examinations performed could conclude that dark red

dynamic traces collected by scraping from the plastic
casing of the mirror of the hit car (sample 2) have the
same physical-chemical characteristics (nuance, the
chemical composition of binder and pigment/filler) to
those of the dark red layer of paint chips collected from
suspected car (sample 1). They differ from red layer
with silvery pigments of paint chips collected from hit car
(sample 3).
Figure 12. IR spectra of dark red dynamic traces in

question / red layers of comparison paint chips
Figure 13. X-ray spectrum - layer 1 Sample 1
C). In case of burglary resulting in theft of the

cash (safe) inside a company, was made a circle of
suspects, suspicion that one of them transported
by his own car, the cash stolen. Forensic chemistry
laboratories received for examination, with the
objective to establish the similarity between samples,
the following:
Black paint chips detached from the cash housing
(sample 1, for comparison), on which surface stands
traces of brown and gray matter;
Chips of reddish brown paint detached from the
cash door (sample 2, for comparison), on which surface
stands very small traces of gray matter;
A tape with traces collected from left rear doorstep
of the vehicle suspected of being involved in burglary,
on which surface stands beige, gray, reddish brown and
black paint chips and very small paint chips - sample 3A
(in question);
A tape with traces collected from the left rear door,
the inside of the vehicle suspected of being involved in
burglary, on which surface stands black, gray and beige
paint chips and very small paint chips - sample 3B (in
question).
By studying with the stereomicroscope have
found that:
Sample 1 consists of black paint chips that presents
following traces (Figure 16): 1. black layer, varnish;
2. very small brown traces, putty; 3. very small gray
traces, intermediate paint; 4. metal trace, silvery;
Sample 2 consists of paint chips that presents the
following (Figure 17): 1. reddish brown layer, varnish;
2. reddish brown layer, putty; 3. red traces, putty; 4. very
small gray-oil traces, primer;
Figure 14. X-ray spectrum - Sample 2
Figure 16. Sample 1
Figure 15. X-ray spectrum - layer 2 - Sample 3
Figure 17. Sample 2
729
Sample 3A consists of a mixture of paint chips and

very small paint chips traces (Figure 18): 1. beige traces;
2. reddish brown traces and very small traces; 3. black
traces; 4. light gray traces; 5. gray-oil traces;
Sample 3B consists of a mixture of paint chips and
very small paint chips traces (Figure 19): 1. beige traces;
2. reddish brown traces and very small traces; 3. very
small black traces; 4. dark gray traces; 5. very small
gray-oil traces.
Figure 20. Reflectance spectra of traces, obtained

with PC SPEC UV-VIS
Figure 18. Sample 3A
Figure 19. Sample 3B

To meet the objective, sample 1, sample 2 and samples
3A and 3B were subjected to a variety of examinations,
which are presented in Table 3.
Figure 21. Reflectance spectra obtained

with VSC 5000
Table 3. The results obtained by different methods and analytical techniques

Methods of
examination
Spectroscopie
de reflexie - cu
PS SPEC UVVIS
Sample 1
Sample 3A (in question) Sample 3B (in question)
(comparison)
- left rear doorstep of
- left rear door of the
- the cash housing the suspected vehicle
suspected vehicle
- Reflectance spectrum of traces 2 from samples 3A and 3B is similar

with the spectrum of layer 2 from sample 2 (Figure 20)
- Reflectance spectrum of traces 2 from samples 3A and 3B differ from
the spectrum of very small traces 2 from sample 1 (Figure 20)
Spectroscopie
de reflexie - cu
VSC 5000
Spectrometrie n
infrarou
Spectrometrie
de fluorescen
de raze X
Sample 2
(comparison) the cash door
- Reflectance spectrum of traces 2 from samples 3A and 3B is similar

with the spectrum of very small traces 2 from sample 1 (Figure 21),
these having similar chromatic coordinates (Figure 22)
- IR spectrum of traces 3 from samples 3A i 3B differ from the spectrum
of layer 1 from sample 1 (Figure 23)
- IR spectrum of traces 2 from samples 3A and 3B is similar with the
spectrum of layer 2 from sample 2 (Figure 24)
- IR spectrum of traces 5 from samples 3A and 3B is similar with the
spectrum of very small traces 4 from sample 2 (Figure 25)
- Black layer 1
contain: Ca (maj.)
and trace of Ti and
Fe
- Very small black traces 3 from samples 3A and 3B

contain Cl; these differ from black layer 1 of sample 1
- Gray traces 5 from samples 3A and 3B and very small gray traces 3
from sample 2 contain: Ti (maj.), P, Zn and traces of Si, Ca, Sn, V, Fe
and Mn (Figure 26)
- Reddish brown layers 2 from samples 2, 3A and 3B contain: Ba, Si, Fe,
Ca and traces of Al and Zn (Figure 27)
730
Figure 22.
Chromatic
diagram
Figure 27. X-ray spectra of reddish brown traces and

very small traces from samples 2, 3A and 3B
Figure 23. IR spectra of black samples
Figure 24. IR spectra of reddish brown samples
Figure 25. IR spectra of gray samples
Figure 26.
X-ray spectra of
gray-oil traces
from samples
2, 3A and 3B
Examinations performed could draw the following

conclusions:
Reddish-brown very small traces, collected from left
rear doorstep and from the left rear door, the inside of the
vehicle suspected of being involved in burglary - samples
3A and 3B, present physical-chemical characteristics
(nuance and the chemical composition of binder and
pigment/filler) similar with those of reddish brown putty
layer of paint chips detached from the cash door - sample
2.
Gray-oil very small traces, collected from left rear
doorstep and from the left rear door, the inside of the
vehicle suspected of being involved in burglary - samples
3A and 3B, present physical-chemical characteristics
(nuance and the chemical composition of binder and
pigment/filler) similar with those of gray-oil very small
traces stands on the surface of paint chips detached from
the cash door - sample 2.
4. Conclusions
In forensic chemistry, examination, especially the
comparative one, of traces and very small traces of
paint have a special importance in determining the
circumstances in which there were various offenses
and involve a number of morphological and chemical
analysis, which make the forensic investigation
extremely laborious and difficult.
A defining contribution in the physical-chemical
examination of paint samples have spectrometric
methods, by linking/corroborating the results
obtained with these being possible association of
various traces and very small traces of paint and
establish links between them and the evidence which
allegedly originated (assign the trace to whole), and
also draw certain conclusions on paint samples in
judicial interest.
Bibliography
1.
Laboratory and Scientific Section United Nations
Office on Drugs and Crime Vienna, Crime Scene and Physical
Evidence Awareness for Non-Forensic Personnel, United
Nations, New York, 2009
2.
Kiely T. F., Forensic Evidence: Science and the
Criminal Law, ediia a II-a, Taylor and Francis Group, CRC
Press, 2006
3.
Bell S., Forensic Chemistry, Pearson, 2006
4.
Brettel T.A., Buttler J.M., Saferstein R., Anal. Chem,
77, 3839-3860, Forensic Science, 2005
5.
Caddy B., Forensic Examination of Glass and Paint,
Analysis and Interpretation, Taylor&Francis Forensic Science
Series, Ed. James Robertson, Forensic Sciences Division,
Australian Federal Police, London and New York, 2001
731
JUDICIAL PHOTO IN FORENSIC SCIENCE

FOTOGRAFIA DIGITAL
N CRIMINALISTIC
Forensic specialist Nicu Rzvan DOBRCEANU

Institute of Forensic Science, R.G.P.I.
Abstract
The author presents the stages of photographical art during time, from the image
discovered by Aristotel to nowadays digital images. Furthermore, parallel with the evolution
of foto tehnique, are showed its implications in forensics and in the act of justice.
Key words: digital foto, judiciary foto, pixels, resolution.
Rezumat
Autorul prezint etapele pe care arta fotografic le-a parcurs de-a lungul timpului, de
la imaginea descoperit de Aristotel la imaginile digitale din zilele noastre. Mai mult, odat
cu descrierea evoluiei tehnicii fotografice sunt prezentate implicaiile pe care aceasta le-a
avut, de-a lungul anilor, n criminalistic i, implicit, n actul de nfptuire a justiiei.
Cuvinte cheie: fotografie digital, fotografie judiciar, pixeli, rezoluie.
Greek philosopher Aristotle observed that the

light passing through a small hole in the wall is
forming the inverted image of an object. However,
this property of light has been used to build a camera
only around the year 1500 in Italy.
1. The first camera, called the camera obscura, was
actually a large box with a small opening on one side to
allow light to penetrate. On the box wall, as opposed to
one that is open, the light form an inverted image of the
scene outside.
The darkroom was sufficiently large as a man could fit
inside it and has been widely used by artists for sketches.
They sketch a picture inside the box, then they colored it.
Camera obscura could only project an image on a screen
or a sheet of paper. Therefore scientists have sought to
find a way to make the image permanent.
In 1727, German physicist Johann H. Schultze found
that silver salts become black in contact with light.
Only 50 years later, Swedish chemist Carl Scheele
demonstrated that changes caused by light to salts can
be made permanent by chemical treatment. However,
these findings were not used to getting up photography
until around the year 1830.
Meanwhile, a French inventor, Joseph Nicephore
Niepce, found a way to get a permanent image in the
camera obscura. In 1826, he covered a metal plate with
light sensitive chemicals, then he put the plate in the
darkroom for about 8 hours. The picture obtained, the
view from the window of Niepce, was the first photo in
the world. After 1830, Niepces technique was perfected
732
by French inventor Louis Daguerre. Daguerre exhibited

a copper plate covered with silver, he developed the
image with mercury vapors, then fixed it with salt. His
photo, called daguerreotype, required a relatively short
exposure of only 15 to 30 seconds.
In 1839, when Daguerre patented his process
of shooting, British inventor William H. Fox Talbot
announced that he invented the photographic paper.
This paper produces a negative, from where you could
get a positive image. Fox Talbots friend, the astronomer
Sir John Herschel, named this invention photography.
Herschel suggested using sodium thiosulphate as a fixing
agent. Both Daguerre and Talbot used this substance.
Fox Talbots on sheet copies, called talbotypes or
calotypes, were not as clear as dagherreotypes. But, the
process/ method of negative-positive had two important
advantages. Could have been obtained more copies with
a single exposure and the pictures could illustrate books,
newspapers or other printings.
In the fifth decade of the nineteenth century, photography
was technically much improved by introducing specialized
camera lens. Hungarian mathematician Josef M. Petzval
designed two types of camera lenses, namely one for
portrait and one for landscapes. Portrait lens allowed
more light to penetrate than the existing lens did, thereby
reducing exposure time to several minutes. The camera
lens for landscapes was providing more clarity to wider
range than it was possible before.
In the second half of the nineteenth century,
scientists have improved the photographic process and
have designed cameras. This progress has facilitated
photographers to experience the artistic possibilities of

photography.
In 1888, George Eastman, a manufacturer of dry
plates, has created Kodak cameras for mass production
and for amateurs use. Such a device was inexpensive
and easy to handle.
The Kodak system has also eliminated the need /
requirement / necessity for the photographer to process /
develop his own photos. Kodak used a roll of film coated
with gelatin with which could be made 100 frames. After
all the photograms were exposed, the camera with the film
inside had to be sent to one of Eastmans laboratories.
In the laboratory, the film was processed and copied, and
the camera was reloaded with film and returned to the
photographer. Kodak slogan was: You press the button,
we do the rest.
In the late nineteenth century, the existence of
cheap Kodak camera boosted the number of amateur
photographers. Previously, the photo was reserved for
those who knew how to use sophisticated equipment
and could afford to buy it. Now, almost anyone could take
pictures.
In the third and fourth decades of the twentieth
century, photography has suffered dramatic changes as
a result of spectacular / major developments. The first
step was the miniaturization of the camera, leading to 35
mm, and artificial light. Leica camera, released in 1924
in Germany, was small enough to enter in a pocket and
the photos obtained were clear and with details. Many
photographers took pictures with Leica without people
knowing that they were photographed. Flash light bulb
introduced in 1929 and electronic flash invented in 1931
have rapidly expanded the scope of the field.
Another important stage was that where photographs
sought new ways to get the photo. Hungarian Laszlo
Nagy Moholv and American Man Ray made pictures
without using the camera. They have placed objects
on photosensitive paper than they have exposed it
with a flash light. Other photographers have created
abstract compositions using X-ray exposure or multiple
exposures.
A technique called photo document developed in
the `30s of the twentieth century. During the Great
Depression, The Department for Agriculture has hired
photographers to photograph the living conditions in rural
areas of the United States. Leading photographers were
involved in this process such as Dorothea Lange and
Walker Evens. Their pictures show courage and also the
poverty farmers families live in.
Chromatic possibilities of color photography were not
exploited until the 70s of the twentieth century. Color
film was used by amateur photographers since it began
to be marketed, respectively in 1935. However, most
professional photographers continued to use almost
exclusively black/ white film. American photograpphers
Ernst Haas and Marie Photos Cosindas were among the
first professional photographers who have worked with
color photo.
Digital camera marks another milestone in the history
of photography. In 1972, Texas Instruments also made a
prototype device, but besides those that designed it, no
one saw it. On 24 August 1981, however, the Japanese
company Sony announced the birth of the first camera
on magnetic tape, Mavica. It was a camera that was not
using the classic film, but a disk of 8 grams and a diameter
of 4.5 cm, which could record 15 frames at a speed of 10

frames / second. Also, other companies such as Kodak,
Matsushita, Hitachi, Fuji, Polaroid, Copal, Sharp have
built such prototypes.
In 1984, at the Los Angeles Olympics, Canon
experience what is called Still Video System, the D
413. On June 18, 1987 Canon begin marketing the first
magnetic camera RC 701.
2. These few temporal remarks suggest the evolution
of the beginnings of classical picture for the next
developments to transform the classical cameras on
levels, which photograph pioneers probably had never
imagined.
Today, the photo is well defined both as art form and as
a key tool in communication and research. Photography
has become a tool of scientific work, with current and
worldwide use, has become common good, hobby, art
and, especially, a coordination in communication, without
which daily life would seem less expressive. Social
events, historical, scientific, notoriety have found their
expression in photography, furthermore, based on its
objective qualities of witness, justice has given the noble
quality of means of evidence.
Judicial photo must be mentioned here. It can be
defined as a system of special methods and techniques
of shooting, with applications in preventing and detecting
crime, in carrying out criminal activities, investigations
and surveillance operations, in making technical-scientific
findings and forensic expertise.
The emergence of forensic as a science has had an
initial technical and scientific support in the methods
of photography, although reality shows that the use of
photography by police outran her. Thus, if the process of
fixing photographic images is developed (in a form close
to modern photography) by Daguerre in 1839, Belgian
733
police began to use it in 1840, at the prison in Brussels.

Among the first legal services specialized in judicial
photography was the Police prefecture of Paris, founded
in 1872, whose work on adaptation the photographic
technique to a specific judicial line, will be perfected by
Alphonse Bertillon, after 1879.
Regarding photography adaptation to the judicial
specific, Romania was among the first European
countries, especially in identifying individuals using
personal description, the use of judicial photography was
reported since 1879, by a specialized directorate of the
city police.
Undeniable merit of initiation the first scientific rules
regarding judicial photography (especially in identifying
individuals by personal description) comes to Professor
Nicholas Minovici that in his Technical manual of forensic
medicine has reserved a chapter entitled Judicial
picture.
Since the inception of Forensic as an independent
science, expert authors, lawyers and practitioners have
stressed the usefulness of photography in the work of
judicial bodies.
A well-known forensic R.A. Reiss, stressed that:
Judicial photography is a legal document ... that will
truly reproduce the facts. It allows the magistrate in
charge of the investigation to have in front of his eyes, at
any time, the exact image of the place or places where
the crime was committed. The picture will be a kind of
artificial memory of the magistrate who is leading the
investigation.
Naturally, at that time were taken into consideration
only the advantages of judicial photography executed at
the crime scene or in similar circumstances. Were not
taken into account scientific examination photos of traces
and material evidence, which would greatly expand the
role and importance of judicial photo in the investigation
of offenses.
The role of judicial photo in the activity of the
prosecution and the court is now widely recognized
by professional authors and practitioners, because it
underlies most specific forensic activities, whether they
are carried out in the field or in a laboratory.
Judicial photo also serves as a means of fixing the
results of the crime scene research, besides the minutes
of the research, for fixing the results of criminal activities
(searches, reconstructions, presentations for recognition,
etc.). And not least to illustrate, as a demonstration,
expertise reports made by forensic experts.
Using judicial photography in the activity of investigation
bodies and the court has the following advantages:
Precision in fixing and rendering the image of the
crime scene, the traces of the crime, the results of various
forensic laboratory research, both in visible and invisible
radiation, and the results of criminal proceedings;
Objectivity in presenting data obtained through
forensic means, fixed with the operative photography of
the crime scene and of the offender;
The speed and relative simplicity of execution of the
photography, which allows speeding up the investigation
and operative resolution of the investigated case;
conclusive evidence of the photo (and video images)
is another advantage of this method to clarify many
criminal cases;
It can highlight the psychological impact that a judicial
photography can have not only over the defendant, but
734
also to the investigative bodies and the court.

Photographic processes used in forensic investigations
are not simply taking over the current photographic
techniques in order to apply them in criminal proceedings.
The diversity of situations faced by the judicial bodies, the
complexity of the crimes committed, the most unusual
situations that occur in forensic investigations, have
imposed a specific adaptation of photographic methods to
the needs of this research. Furthermore new techniques
of shooting were designed, appearing a new branch of
scientific photography, namely judicial photo divided into
two categories: operational judicial photo examination
judicial photo.
Judicial photography with operational nature performed at crime scene investigation or in similar
circumstances by the prosecution, primarily by the police,
is among the important processes of fixing the results
of research, representing a valuable auxiliary of the
minutes of research. In special cases, such as murder
or road, work, naval, air, fire, explosions accidents etc.
resulting in fatalities., crime scene investigation can not
be conceived without takeing photos, which are added to
filming or recording, which have become indispensable
in conditions of maximum efficiency for fixing the crime
scene results.
Operational judicial photo (fixing photo) is a complex
of methods, procedures and general shooting techniques
adapted to the specific needs of the prosecution
operational activities.
Given the importance of this kind of shooting, it is
strictly required to comply with the technical requirements
relating to obtaining quality images and the rules imposed
by the need to reflect the ambience of the scene, all
the circumstances, details or traces that may have a
particular significance in solving the case.
3. Operational judicial photo is performed through
a series of specific methods and procedures, which
require development of more accurate images, seen
as quickly as possible, which led to the development of
digital cameras and of images processing technologies.
Through digital technology, images can be transmitted
to distances, virtually unlimited, in order to reveal the
addressee issues to which he has no direct access.
Even more interesting is that companies that are
producing scanning equipment, now are also producing
digital cameras. These companies have implemented
advanced scan technologies into digital cameras. Many
digital cameras are actually scanners mounted into
cameras.
Lets say you want to take a picture and you want to
make a photographic report for a case. To do this, you
need the image represented in a language that computers
understand it - bits and bytes. The point is that the image
is just a long string of 1s and 0s that represent all the
small colored dots - or pixels - that fully form an image.
If you want to take a photo in this form, you have two
options:
You can take a picture using a conventional camera
with film, process the film chemically, print on photo
paper and then use a digital scanner to convert the image
(indicate the pattern of light as pixel values).
You can play directly on the computer the original
light that invades your subject, immediately the light
loosens in series of pixel values - in other words you can
use a digital camera.
Like most fundamental levels, everything is inside

the digital camera. Like a conventional camera, it has a
series of lenses that focus light to create the image of
a scene. But instead of focusing the light on a piece of
film it focuses the light on a semiconductor device that
records the light electronically. A computer then converts
electronic information into digital data. All the beauty and
interesting appearance of digital cameras is obtained as
a direct result of this process.
The difference between a camera and a film-based
camera is that a digital camera has no film. Instead of
a film it has a sensor that converts light into electrical
charges.
Although timeliness and flexibility of digital cameras
are so popular, there is one issue that was not mentioned.
This new technology allows you to explore creative
photography. In the 1870s when William Henry Jackson
was taking glass negatives, 20 x 24 cm, after him in
the west, on a mule, he was certainly hesitating before
taking a photo. Although we are not carrying heavy glass
negatives, we hesitate before taking a photo. We always
do mental calculations if it worths. In the subconscious
we make a list of costs, time, effort and so on. So we are
wasting time and the favorable image can not be made.
Surprisingly, Jackson had a big advantage: if an image did
not came out as desired, the glass plates were reused.
Digital photography not only eliminates the problem - if
the image is worthing or not to be retained - but allows
us to reuse the film whenever needed. You can be
surprised by the pictures taken when you are no longer
oppressed by inhibitions related to material costs.
Digital cameras are just one link along the chain that
leads from the original scene to the final image that will
be displayed or distributed. In fact, the digital camera is
not absolutely necessary in this chain. The key in digital
photography is a digital image made up of pixels. While
the camera captures digital pictures, you can scan slides,
negatives or paper to convert these traditional formats in
the same digital format.
Most digital cameras work about the same as traditional
devices, the difference being that instead of using a film,
images are captured and stored in the memory of the
digital camera, memory that can be incorporated into the
device or on a memory card.
The number of images that the memory of the device
or the memory card can store varies, depending on the
image quality and type (eg. black, color or sepia tones) or
the quality of the camera. New digital imaging technology
is developing rapidly, and storage capacity of megapixels are quickly available with each generation of digital
cameras.
Once captured, digital photography is already a
universal format, making it easy to share and use.
A photo taken on film is composed of many crystals
of silver, tiny light-sensitive chemical that is transformed,
so that the image is revealed on paper. A recorded digital
image is composed of numerous tiny pixels, sensitive to
the light that forms an image which can be viewed on the
screen of a computer or of a digital camera. Digital photos
are made up of tiny squares - picture elements - or just
pixels. Like the impressionists who painted wonderful
scenes consisting of small spots of paint, the computer
and the printer are using pixels to display and print
images. To achieve this, the computer divides the screen
or printed page into a network containing hundreds of
thousands and millions of pixels. The computer or the

printer are then using the values stored in the digital
photo file to specify the brightness and color of each pixel
of this network - a way of painting by numbers.
The quality of a digital image, whether printed or
displayed, largely depends on the number of pixels used
to create it (its resolution). More pixels add detail to the
image, edges are sharper and resolution is increased. If
you zoom in any digital image enough, pixels will start to
become visible - effect called pixelization. It is not very
different from traditional images, based on silver crystals,
where granules begin to be visible when the image is
enlarged beyond a certain limit.
The size of a digital photo can be specified in two
ways - by size in pixels or by the total number of pixels in
the image. For example, the same image can have 1600
x 1200 pixels (where x is pronounced by as in 1600
by 1200) or it can be said that the image contains 1.92
million pixels (1600 multiplied by 1200).
Digital and traditional cameras are very similar in
many aspects. The biggest difference consist in the way
the image is captured. With traditional film, the image
is captured on a silver-based support. With digital
cameras the image is captured on a solid device called
image sensor.
With the advent and improvement of digital cameras,
of image editing programs, of high performance printers
and of accessories of high professionalism why should
we use photographic film for taking pictures of subjects
that we want to photograph?
The advantages of images obtained with photographic
film have almost disappeared. Although the devices were
of a very good quality, with quality films, which had a
resolution that only recently, digital cameras exceeded,
these advantages have disappeared with the development
of technology and with the tightening competition on
the market of photo equipment. As disadvantages we
mention: cameras tend to be bulky, all photos on a film
must be developed, whether they have a good quality
or not; photos need to be processed (developed) before
they can be seen; their development is usually made by
someone else. To achieve it individualy it requires special
equipment and a darkroom; the image obtained may be
of a poor quality when using a film with poor results, or if
the exposure time was not properly set; a large number
of photos and negatives must be manually filed.
All the advantages of conventional photography have
been turned into advantages of digital photography over
time. The technique of digital photography has greatly
evolved in recent years especially due to some essential
elements of this type of photography, including:
cameras and accessories can be found anywhere;
is a growing technology that offers a multitude of
new elements;
outstanding quality and unparalleled realism of the
shots;
Digital photos are immortal, because of the electronic
storage medium, eliminating from the start the negative
and the paper or plastic support, used in traditional
photos, whose life, however good they may be, remains
limited in time;
can be replicated easily on any computer, even on
one without major claims, with costs much lower than
those for normal pictures and much faster;
small size digital cameras make them very useful,
735
easy to carry and handle;

You can instantly view the images in order to see if
you got what interests you, and also to remove photos
that you do not need;
can obtain high quality images printed on inexpensive
printers;
choose the quality and image size while shooting;
the images can be filed on your computer and can
be sent easily by e-mail, included in publications, web
pages or in DVDs;
photosensitive material is no longer used;
in relation to the requirements of the most demanding
situations, the current devices support a number of
pictures which permits the most complex activities to be
performed, practicaly the number of images is limited
only by the lifetime of the battery;
costs of image processing are much lower;
the sensitivity which can be set for digital cameras
allows a sufficiently broad range (eg. sensitivity can
be contained within ISO 50-6400) to cover situations
where conventional photography, requires a specialized
negative photosensitive material;
for certain categories of professional equipment
can be used classic camera lens, so that the cost of
purchasing can be reduced only to the cost of the device,
it is known that high performance lens are sometimes
more expensive than the actual camera;
photos can be seen immediately, either the
device has its own display, or even in the most difficult
locations, exists a computer to which the image can be
downloaded;
whether there is a portable computer, the whole lab
is reduced to the size of a phone book, even if we were
to also take into consideration a printer;
any photo, once made and viewed, immediately
allows the removal of errors or mishaps, because it can
be rebuilt within seconds;
the control over light or dark areas of the image
is relatively easy and with obvious effects of quality
improvement;
image processing is obviously simpler, faster and
more comfortable than with conventional photography;
transmission, distribution of photos is obviously
much simpler and easier;
Digital photos have virtually unlimited life;
Digital photography is absolutely green as long as
recycling of used specialized hardware technology is
envisaged;
As it is known in classical photography, maximum
performance levels were achieved by the devices with a
format of 6x6, 6x9 or larger.
Development of digital photography has not neglected
this sector in which, basically, is expressed, found and
recovered digital technology features of maximum
accuracy. This top segment offers the interested
professionals exceptional equipment, of course, with
prices for that edge.
For the CCDs format of 36 x 48 mm are offered
resolutions of 16 to 26 megapixels (for example, a CMOS
sensor 35.9 x 24.0 mm provides an effective resolution
of 24.5 MP and a maximum resolution of 6048 x 4032).
Photo files, obtained for a single image can be between
96-384 MB at 16 bit color depth in uncompressed format
(RAW - with maximum quality image, other formats -
736
JPEG, MOV etc. - compresses the primary image and

through compression the quality of the image is lost).
Using digital photography in forensics is not new, but
in conditions of extremely rapid evolution of technology
in the field, adequate information on the performance
enables the formulation of the best options according to
the requirements arising from practice.
We must note that technological progress requires
material sacrifices and in order to be able to cope with
daily confrontations, with the criminal environment, would
be desirable to be beneficiaries of these inventions, and
not those who are blamed for their use by criminals. In
this hard fight the photography, as I mentioned, has an
important role and we must not forget what Andreas
Feeviinger said:
To hold the attention of the viewer, a photo must
have something to communicate, to have a content,
to be informative, educational, interesting, funny or
mobilizing. Content can be embedded in images in an
almost unlimited variety. Refusing to look at the photos
that shock is the fear of looking reality in the face.
Some things must be faced, whether we like it or not. A
photograph of content is one of the most powerful tools
to awaken the public reaction.
References:
1.Alphonse Bertillon Lidentite judiciare, Paris,
1964;
2.Andreas Feeviinger Fotograful creator, Editura
Meridiane, Bucureti, 1996;
3.Botez Victor Fotografia n clubul artelor, Bucureti,
1994;
4.Camil Suciu Criminalistica, Editura Didactic i
Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1972;
5.Constantin Drghici Teza de doctorat Metode
i mijloace moderne de cercetare i identificare
criminalistic;
6.Constantinescu Dinu Teozer Fotografia - mijloc de
cunoatere, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti,
1980;
7.Emilian Stancu Criminalistica, vol. I, Editura
Actami, Bucureti, 1999;
8.Emilian Stancu Tratat de ciminalistic, Ediia a
V-a, Editura Universul Juridic, Bucureti, 2008;
9.Gabriela Sandu Tehnic i art fotografic,
curs predat la coala Naional de Studii Politice i
Administrative;
10.Juliane H. Newton The burden of visual truth,
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates;
11.Lucrare colectiv 150 years of Photojournalism;
12.Nicolae Ionescu Fotografia de semnalmente
n Romnia, n Culegerea coala romneasc de
criminalistic, Editura Ministerului de Interne, Bucureti,
1975;
13.Nicolae Tomescu Estetica imaginii fotografice,
Bucureti, Editura Tehnic, 1972;
14.Nicolae Tomescu Redarea micrii n fotografie,
Editura Tehnic, 1971;
15.P. F. Ceccaldi La criminalistique, Presses
Universitaires de France, Paris, 1962;
16.R. A. Reiss Manual pour le police scientifique,
Editura Felix Alcan Paris, 1911;
MYSTERIOUS DISAPPEARANCES
OF UNDERAGE CHILDREN
DISPARIIILE DE ORIGINE NECUNOSCUT
ALE MINORILOR
Univ. assistant Cristian-Eduard TEFAN, PhD
Al. I. Cuza Police Academy
Abstract
Pursuant to previous studies, where the author approached the phenomenon of
disappearance of underage children from the perspective of the activity of investigation
on crime scene and of that of identification of disappeared underage children through the
technique of digital aging of photo, in this study, the author presents the main particularities
of mysterious disappearances of underage children.
Key words: disappearance, underage child, mysterious.
Rezumat
Dup ce n studiile precedente, autorul a abordat fenomenul dispariiei minorilor din
perspectiva activitii de cercetare la faa locului i a celei de identificare a minorilor disprui
prin intermediul tehnicii de mbtrnire digital a fotografiei, n studiul de fa, autorul
descrie principalele particulariti ale dispariiilor de origine necunoscut ale minorilor.
Cuvinte cheie: dispariie, minor, necunoscut.
The disappearance of a minor is considered of

unknown origin, when the institutions involved in
solving the case does not have sufficient information
on the nature of extinction. These cases fall into the
category alarming disappearance, not knowing the
circumstances of the disappearance or where minors
are present. In general, the judiciary must answer the
following questions: a child left home voluntarily?
was the victim of a crime or an accident? Has
been lost, misplaced or suicide? Faced with these
problems, all the institutional actors involved should
focus in the early hours following the disappearance,
working effectively to solve the case1.
Unknown or undefined disappearances can be
classified according to the evolution of each case
(when new data and information obtained regarding the
circumstances of the disappearance), in one of the other
categories of deaths - or nealarmante alarming. Relevant
in this case the child is AB, aged 15, resident within the
locality Rotbav, Brasov county, whose disappearance
was brought before the police Brasov on 24 April 2007.
As the checks started, it was determined that it would
be out because of disagreements with parents, due to
a relationship of friendship that have approximately two
months, with a couple of Mures County, that called AF,
aged 27 years . The day the child disappeared, the man
said he intended it to go to his house, Mures County, to
escape the family discussions, leading it to do so by city
Rotbav station. Two days later, however, the young man
had changed her statement! Noting that police checks

have extended as far as he was concerned, he testified
that on April 22, 2007, on the Olt river, near a country road
linking villages and Feldioara Rotbav, had sex with minor
with its consent. Later, amid a spontaneous conflict, the
man said he strangled her and threw a minor in river.
As a result, police have started procedures to identify
the corpse, but at the same time, searches have continued
to identify the child. Thus, during the evening hours of
April 30, 2007, around 20.30, minor AB was detected on
the area municipality. Even if, initially, the teenager tried
to hide his true identity (being ashamed to his parents), it
was later determined that the missing children in Brasov
is the same with minor Prahovan detected by the police.
According to the child, A.F. It should be maintained in
sexual intercourse with her, but without his consent,
hit her and shoved her on the river Olt, but fell in the
water, managed to escape and to continue to go without
the young known. The minor has been entrusted to the
family, the public prosecutor attached to the Juvenile
and Family Court from taking legal action against Brasov
called AF 2.
In judicial practice, the disappearances of minors
are generally unknown causes (cases) long, whose
solutions can be to find children in two situations - living
or deceased. It is also possible to find missing children in
the position of persons with unknown identity or bodies
of unknown identity.
In Canada, the disappearance of unknown origin is
a term used by police when there is no previous record
737
on missing children, in situations where it has not ever

left home voluntarily, not lost nor bum disappearance
prior to referral. Moreover, the use of this phrase is used
when there is sufficient general information received the
referral stage, in order to fit into a particular category
disappearance 3.
The disappearance of the minor Madeleine McCann
from Great Britain, aged 4 years, 3 May 2007 while on
holiday with his parents in the resort of Praia da Luz
(Algarve region) in Portugal, is a typical Disappearance
of unknown origin. This is undoubtedly one of the most
popular girl in the world, his photo is posted on all sites
police and NGOs engaged in searching missing children,
hoping that some person might see or identify a thereby
helping the institutions involved in shaping it. Parents
have told police the child that the child disappeared from
the apartment located in the heart of Praia da Luz resort
while they were in a restaurant located at 120 meters
away, where dining. The initial investigation of the police
led to the hypothesis that the girl had been kidnapped,
the international media including parents telling the child
that have been at some point in the circle of suspects
of the police, but later was excluded. According to the
Portuguese media, the judicial police has currently two
major research directions of the minor extinction: a
kidnapping carried out by an international network of
pedophiles or kidnapping of a network of international
adoptions 4.
Also, the practice of other countries, showed that
police and is currently investigating deaths of unknown
origin products in 1980, children missing at that time
not find any so far. If they find in life, they would have at
the moment of adult age. Thus, illustrate some cases of
disappearances that took place in Switzerland with over
20 years ago 5:
On 22 September 1981, Peter Perjesy, a boy

aged 14 years and a half, disappeared at the end of a
tennis training camp conducted in schools located in
Wattwil SG. He left his training around 20.00 hours, not
found any so far.
On May 12, 1984, around 12:00, Peter Roth,

a minor aged 7 and a half years, returned from school,
and on the road to his parents home, located in Aachmli
Weiler, disappeared in unknown circumstances . The
boy was last seen near Winteler grocery store, where he
bought a bag of chips for him and a classmate. Empty
packaging chips that were found near a barn located
about 300 meters from his home. At that time he was
also offered a reward of 10,000 francs to the police any
useful information in order to find the child.
On May 3, 1986, around 08.00, Trittenbass Edith,

a girl aged 8 years, he left home for school located in the
town Wolfikon. Minor never never reached its destination,
disappearing in unknown circumstances. And this time
offered a reward of 20,000 francs to find the child, who
knows nothing about any so far.
At national level, the Romanian Police investigating
cases of disappearance of children of unknown origin,
which may be encountered two cases - deaths that have
been solved by the police or disappearances of minors,
they have not been found so far, search activity is taking
place and identifying them.
The category of unknown origin missing solved by the
police, pay attention present a case of disappearance of
a minor, occurred in 1992, the minor was found 15 years
738
later, in 2007 6. Thus, on 7 January 1992, called MR,

domiciled in Bucharest, sector 2, Section 7 Police noticed
the disappearance of his daughters home, the minor NS,
aged 6 years. Following checks carried out, it was found
that the child disappeared from the address (a radius of
property located on the 2nd of Capital) where he lived
undocumented along with his grandmother. On the day of
disappearance, the left concerned at this address, saying
that children play in the gate house, he goes to the park
in the Pearl Restaurant, District 2, located on Stefan cel
Mare Road intersection with Route Dorobanilor. Versions
of research followed by policemen involved in solving the
case, have considered the following aspects:
abduction of children by a person in the family

circle, for purposes of revenge;
sexual abuse of minor, it followed the kidnapping

or murder and hiding a corpse;
custody by the family, a person known to derive

material benefits;
The error minor outside known around the home,

followed by its finding by unknown persons who have
held it without notify police.
Minor was once wanted, search for its activities
being carried out continuously by the police, but are able
to identify 7. In June 2007, the Criminal Investigation
Department of the District 2 Police were notified about
the fact that the Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology
Cantacuzino, a person is hospitalized with unknown
identity, female, stating that called NS and parents
names not known, because it was found on the street,
when he was 7 years old, the family VE, domiciled in
Bucharest, sector 5, which took care of it. In order to
identify persons unknown identity, police workers have
contacted the family VE and other knowledge of that
family, who warn that, in 1992, and is located in the Pearl
restaurant, family children VE have been met and played
with a minor in question. On leaving the restaurant, the
minor told he wants to go with them because you lost
and not knowing where his parents, noting that is called
NS He took her to his home in District 5, without notice to
institutions. In further research, called N.S. (At its finding,
aged 23 years) has been entrusted to his father, who
took it at home, where they are today. At the same time,
so theres no doubt about the identity of the person, and
comparisons were made of DNA.
Another case of disappearing from the category
of unknown origin, widely publicized at the time of its
production is minor and the MMO, a student aged 17
years, residing in the city of Brasov, in April 2007 and
has posted Internet photos. Shortly after seeing these
pictures on the site, called NGI entourage appeared
minor It was made available to face, ensuring transport
by car, apparently based on a relationship of friendship.
This relationship helped her to know the minor, and the
appearance that her family would receive a substantial
amount of money in the trading of land. Called N.G.I.
to maintain this relationship by presenting a distorted
image in his part in all aspects: profession, income
sources, assets, activities. Following the discussions
that we had with minor NGI, presented his family that
holds the sum of 125,000 dwelling Ron, from the sale
of land. On August 30, 2007, the minor would have a
meeting with a friend (called AB) and to move together
in a guesthouse in the village of Bran, where NGI would
have reserved a room for them. Minor was not present
at the meeting set for 19.00, with an SMS asking for a

postponement 21.00. At this time, the minor was not
present at the venue. During this time, as dusk and did
not know anything about her daughter, her mother called
her, telling her that the minor is in front of the block and
enter the house, as they announced the mood goes from
parents. This was the last conversation with a minor who
has not reached home, having closed cell thereafter.
From the evidence given by prosecution, showed that on
the night of 30/31 August 2007, defendant NGI applied
within a few hours, the juvenile MMO, blows with a
knife and an ax in the head, chest and the final blow,
to cut the throat of the victims death occurred, with the
aim of the dispossessed located on it and also facilitate
penetration of the building where the victim lived, located
in the city of Brasov to steal an amount of 103.600
RON. After beating the victim, the defendant N.G.I. has
learned from the two mobile phones found on them, and
keys to the apartment where the victim lived, where he
stole an amount of 103.600 RON 8. Also, if the juvenile
committing murder, the defendant kept in touch by phone
with her parents, ensuring each time that their daughter
is OK, but is ashamed to come home (parents present
a defendant as the person who stole money from their
home). However, during September-December 2007,
defendant sent many SMS on mobile phones of the minor,
the written SMS its behalf, for you could mislead parents
about their daughters condition. Finally, parents have
realized that the juvenile SMS not sent their daughter, in
which case in October 2007, notified the police about the
disappearance of their daughter. It should be noted that
in this period the defendant was able to determine the
minors mother to give her three different times, the sum
of 4,000 Ron, under false grounds that the child would
need money to be able to return to family them. Minor
corpse M.M.O. was found by police about a year of its
disappearance, on 22 July 2008.
The missing category of unknown origin in the police
investigation, the missing children were found not far
below describe some cases that echoed heavily in the
media, is widely reflected.
One of the oldest cases of disappearance, nor so
far unresolved by the Romanian Police, LC refers to the
disappearance of the minor, produced in 1973. On 20
October 1973, child 4 years old, disappeared without
trace en route to 200 yards from the kindergarten back
home. After 37 years of disappearance, the family hopes
the boy, if alive, to keep the memories with them and give
them a sign. Currently, the missing person would have
41 years. According to fathers statement Disappeared,
courtesy of a high dignitary, was a classmate of this, he
succeeded in getting an ad in the newspaper: There
are no ads appear at the time of missing children in the
Socialist Republic of Romania. On television - in any
way. It was a rarity. Since we were not given any Militia
Act, over time. For them its an unsolved case, set apart
for us - a permanently open wound. Currently, file the
missing person is at the Criminal Investigation Service
of the Capital District 4. According to police involved in
solving the case, there were no people to be seen after
he left the child near his mother. No information on the
disappearance. Then were heard over 20 people, to no
avail. Consider that, after so long, its very hard to do
anything, but at the time the file was very well done 9.
In another case, on 14 November 1998, 22 policemen

from the Police Department in Bucharest, were asked by
the president of the tenants association of a block of flats
in Sector 6, to move against him, to tell them A case of
disappearance. In the place has gone a police squad that
made contact with the person concerned has notified that
a family living in blocks (family A) is in constant conflict
and make a scene as a whole and for several days the
children of this families have not been seen. Following
checks carried out at the family apartment A., a young
mother was found AC, aged 8 years and AI, 2 years old,
told police he did not know where the kids. Subsequently,
on 19 November 1998, at the Police Department was
presented called AP 22, father children, who complained
of the disappearance of his children at home. He said
that on 11 November 1998, after an argument with his
wife, left alone at home with her remaining children.
He also said that his wife is mentally ill and has had
several suicide attempts. At issue was made on-site
investigation, during which the flat young mother was
found unconscious on the bed with a tube of pills next to
her. Beside the bed where she lay unconscious, police
found a note left by her, saying that the AP raped his
daughter only two years and that the kidnapped children.
From the date of disappearance of minors 12 years have
passed, and police are currently carrying out activities to
identify the two missing children 10.
Also, in another case, on December 15, 2005,
Miercurea-Ciuc City Police were notified about the
disappearance of the minors home, aged 8 years. First
investigations carried out by the Harghita County Police
Inspectorate, it was clear that the child had disappeared
the same day, after emerging from a shop where he
purchases, a fact confirmed by the images recorded by
the camera fitted to the store (last image in the store
was recorded at 18.57 hours). The case was classified
as alarming disappearances, taking into account the fact
that prior to disappearance, the minor has not been away
from home without family knowledge. This disappearance
has been widely publicized police carrying out search
activities under the supervision of missing juvenile
prosecutors.
Cases of missing children in unknown
circumstances and the drama is still not found
their families, not knowing where children could
learn if they are alive or dead. Often, families
missing children and media have accused police
have not made every effort to search activity and
identification of the Disappeared, dealing with bias
some cases, the expense of others. We understand
in some degree the position of families missing
children in previous years, especially during periods
of time that the police lacked an efficient system
of searching missing children, but now we can not
agree with these accusations about police , whereas
in 2007 the Romanian Police has implemented a new
methodology domestic action line missing juveniles,
which were introduced after a previous analysis
based, including recommendations and suggestions
received from civil society and media .
739
Notes
1.
http://www.childfocus.be/uploads/documents/160548-child%20focus%2008%20ra%20fr%5B1%5D.pdf
2.
http://www.politiaromana.ro/relatii_publice/detalii.
aspx?id=4233
3.
Unknown number of missing registered in Canada
in 2008 a figure of 12,441 cases recorded an increase of 1225
compared to 2007 cases. Most cases involve children aged
between 14 and 17 years.
4.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disappearance_of_
Madeleine_McCann
5.
http://www.police.be.ch/site/fr/vermisst_soko
6.
The case was widely publicized in the media. See this
article A girl in Bucharest was found 16 years after disappearing,
published in the newspaper edition guardian of 7 February
2008 and the article disappeared in seven years, found at 23
with two Children published in the newspaper edition National
Journal of February 8, 2008. The case is detailed in detail
at http://www.ziare.com/Un_tata_si_a_gasit_fata_disparuta_
dupa_16_ani-234097.html
7.
According to the policemen involved in solving the
case, a minor living with parents on a street behind the Police
Department in July. With our childs semnalmentele got the

brush the entire area of responsibility. And not only because
the data were immediately sent to other county inspectorates.
Were on paper all the possible options, including that the girl
had been sold. Therefore, checks were made including the
Personal Data Records Service, Passport Service and the Civil
Status Officer for the municipality. All our efforts, however, have
tested negative, so that the child wanted was time. See this
article rediscovered after 16 years , published in the journal
Romanian Police nr.5/2008.
8.
Information contained in the indictment by the High
Court Prosecutors Office of Cassation and Justice Department
investigators and forensic, nr.1016/P/2008
9.
Ionela Gavriliu - Child disappeared 36 years ago,
article published in the newspaper edition National Journal
dated 19 March 2009. For more details on this event, see
website
http://www.jurnalul.ro/stire-special/copil-disparutacum-36-de-ani-501479.html
10. http://www.jurnalul.ro/?section=articol&screen=print&i
d=509499
MULTIMODAL BIOMETRICS: ENGINEERING,

INTIMACY AND SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE
BIOMETRICA MULTIMOD: INGINERIE, INTIMITATE
I ACCEPTAN SOCIAL
Police Inspector Eng. Ionut ARDELEAN

Department of Communications and IT, Maramures PI
Abstract
Recognition of biometric signals concerned the scientifically community for a number
of years. Taken into consideration are different physiological or behavioral characteristics
like fingerprints, iris, gait, face shape, veins etc. Of these, signal processing of fingerprints
for forensic purposes equally interests the judicial community. As a result of these efforts
scientific tools like AFIS appeared. The current trend is to perform recognition of individuals
using multiple biometrics or more instances of representation. Multiple biometrics has
emerged as a response to the needs of accuracy and increased reliability. Engineering
deals with issues such as design, functionality, fusion of information etc. There is another
problem that needs to be dealt with: the increased performance of biometric systems
raises fears related to the control of the use of these systems. Hence the need for legal
regulations.
Key words: unimodal vs multimodal, design, information, fusion, correlation,
acceptance.
740
Rezumat
Recunoaterea semnalelor biometrice preocup comunitatea tiinific de un numr de
ani. Se iau n considerare diferite caracteristici fiziologice sau de comportament precum
amprentele, irisul, mersul, forma feei, venele etc. Dintre acestea, prelucrarea semnalelor
provenite din amprente i intereseaz i pe criminaliti n aceeai msur. Din aceste
preocupri comune au rezultat unelte tiinifice precum AFIS-ul. Tendina actual este ns
de a efectua recunoateri de indivizi utiliznd mai multe biometrici sau mai multe instane
ale unei reprezentri. Biometrica multimod a aprut ca rspuns la nevoile de precizie i
siguran crescute. Ingineria se ocup de probleme precum design-ul, moduri de lucru,
fuziunea informaiei etc. Mai apare ns o problem : odat cu creterea performanelor
sistemelor biometrice apar temeri ale indivizilor legate de scparea de sub control a utilizrii
acestor sisteme. De aici apare nesitatea reglementrilor legale.
Cuvinte cheie: unimod vs. multimod, design, informaie, fuziune, corelarea informaiei,
acceptan.
Essentially, a biometric system is a patterns

recognition system of some physiological or
behavioral characteristics possessed by an
individual. The system can be based on a single
biometric feature or on multiple features (or multiple
samples of a feature) to obtain an identification.
A biometric system that uses only one biometric
feature is defined as being unimodal and a biometric
system that uses multiple features as a multimode
system.
The unimodal systems are usually more efficient
in terms of costs compared with the multimode
biometric systems. Of course, this is not necessarily
a rule because at least two reasons: the performances
may be unacceptable and they could miss the ability
to operate on large masses of population. Partially,
the two problems can be overcome by the multimode
systems. First, the identification based on multimode
biometric systems is, essentially, a matter of fusion,
using the information collected by multiple sensors
to reduce uncertainty, increase fault tolerance,
reduce noise, overcome the physical limits of the
sensors. The multimode approach may increase the
degree of confidence in the decision made. Although
one of the requirements of the biometric measures
asks that the multimode approach be possessed by
all individuals, that does not mean that it can be also
collectable / usable by a biometric system. Using the
multimode biometric systems, the resulted systems
will be applicable to large masses of population.
Finally, it should be noted that multimode biometric
systems are harder to deceive because the forgery of
more biometric measures that belong to an individual
is more difficult to achieve than the forgery of a single
measure.
The multimode biometric systems design will address
the following issues: what is the purpose of using the
multimode biometric systems; what is the modus operandi
used; which biometrics integrate; how many biometrics
would be sufficient?
Since the mass of population whom the system is
applicable and the robustness of the system depend,
mainly, on the characteristics of the biometrics selected,
the main problem is the integration of the individual
biometrics in the system in order to improve the systems

performances.
The performance relates mainly to the answering
speed and accuracy of the system. The accuracy
indicates the degree of confidence in the system, in his
power to differentiate between a genuine individual and
an impostor. The speed reports to the required time by the
system for performing the identification. The operating
speed can be improved through a correct incorporation
of the private biometrics in a system.
A biometric system can operate in two modes:
verification and identification.
If the systems are
multimode, the integration schemes of the biometrics
can differ according to the modus operandi. Since only
a one-to-one comparison is performed in a verification
system, the multimode biometrics cant really improve
the checking speed. Therefore, the integration of more
biometrics will aim to improve the accuracy of the system.
The block diagram of a system working in the verification
mode is as follows:
Figure 1. Block diagram of the systems working in
the verification mode
In a system working in the identification mode it

is necessary to perform a large number of processing
(checks or matching) to find an individual. A system with
high discriminatory power can improve the accuracy
of the identification, while a system that is efficient in
terms of computing power can improve the speed of
identification.
The block scheme of a system working in the
identification mode is:
741
Figure 2. Block diagram of the systems working in

the identification mode
What biometrics and how many of them will integrate

depend highly on the application chosen. It is difficult
to establish a systematic procedure to determine which
biometrics should be used. Intuitively, the greater the
number of the integrated biometrics is, the greater
the accuracy will be and also the system will be more
expensive.
The multimode biometrics
It appeared in response to the limitations of the
unimodal biometric systems. It is expected to be more
robust due to the presence of several steps (samples). It
addresses the problem of the non-universality and also it
introduces antispoofing measures.
Regarding the modus operandi, the following
considerations arise: in the serial way of working the output
of a biometric system is used to decrease the number
of possible identities when entering another biometric
system (essentially, is an indexing scheme); the parallel
mode requires simultaneous inputs, the convergence of
the system does not necessarily requires the presence
of all individual convergences. It is a way of working that
reduces the answering time. In the hierarchical mode the
classifiers combine in a tree structure.
The multimode biometric systems integrate the
information presented by multiple biometric indicators.
But the information it is combined at different levels.
a) the fusion at the level of the vectors extraction: the
data obtained from each biometric are used to calculate
a characteristic vector. If the features extracted from
a biometric indicator are in some degree independent
of those extracted from another, it is reasonable to
concatenate the two vectors in order to get a new one,
provided that in this way the two vectors should be in
the same metric. The new vector is larger, it represents
the identity in a new and most likely discriminatory form.
Techniques may be used to reduce the characteristics
represented by the vectors.
b) the fusion at the matching level: in practice, each
biometric produces a similarity score, it indicates the
level where the extracted vector certainly fits correctly.
The scores can be combined to verify a claimed identity.
There are used techniques such as weighted mediation
above the scores reported by each biometric, based on
the needs of each application separately.
c) the fusion at the decision level: each biometric
system in the composition of multimode biometric
system constructs its decision based on its own vector.
A scheme with a majority vote can be used to make the
final decision.
Integration at the extracted parameters level requires
an interaction of the input measurements, such a scheme
being called tightly coupled. The loosely coupled require
little or no interaction at all, the integration appears towards
742
the exit of the systems, each biometrics processing their

own entries from their own perspectives.
It is generally believed that a combinative scheme
applied as early as it can be in the recognition system
is more efficient because the characteristics of the
representation have a richer information content when
the actual processing goes on. Unfortunately, it is more
difficult to build a combinative scheme at the extracted
parameters level since the spaces where the vector are
defined may vary.
What fits?
Systems that operate in one of the following five
scenarios can be designed:
Figure 3. Working scenarios for multimode biometric
systems
1) multiple sensors. The Information obtained from

several sensors that analyze the same biometric are
combined.
2) Multiple biometrics. It may take more sensors, each
for a specific biometric. In this way systems accuracy
can be increased.
3) More units of the same biometric. There are
combined, for example, impressions of two or more
fingers, both irises of the person, etc.
4) multiple instances. Several instances of the same
biometric are combined.
5) More representations and comparison algorithms
of the same biometric. This involves combining various
approaches of the extraction and comparing biometrics
to get a recognition decision or an indexing scheme.
In scenario 1 more sensors are used for the same
biometric identifier, while scenario 2 uses multiple sensors
for multiple identifiers. An example of the first scenario
could be the use of more camcorders, arranged to take
the image of a human face in as many possible positions.
For scenario 2, the example could be a camcorder that
records an individuals facial features combined with
an optical sensor that registers the fingerprint. While
Scenario 1 combines information moderate independent,
scenarios 2 and 3 combine total independent or weakly
dependent information, which is expected to provide
greater gain in increasing the recognition accuracy.
This improvement has two disadvantages in terms of
the user, the one of being forced to provide more data
about itself and the other one of increasing the time of
purchase. In scenario 4, only one entry may be acquired
and compared with the database during the recognition;
alternatively, there can be made more acquisitions to
validate the comparison. Scenario 5 combines different

representations and different comparison algorithms to
improve the recognitions accuracy.
In terms of mathematics, scenarios 4 and 5 combine
strongly correlated information and it is expected that
minimum improvements of the recognitions accuracy to
be offered from the results of the schemes, but being more
oriented towards the cost-effectiveness than scenarios 2
and 3. Scenarios 4 and 5 are also more demanding in
terms of computing and storage resources required.
The privacy of the individual and the social
acceptance
The human factors dictate the success of a biometric
system in a very large extent. The ease and comfort
of human interaction contributes to its acceptance. For
example, if a biometric system is able to measure a
human feature without taking contact with the individual,
such as the face recognition systems, voice, iris, these
can be perceived as being more friendly and more
hygienic. In addition, biometric technologies that require
little participation from the user may be perceived as more
convenient. On the other hand, the systems that do not
require the users participation or those which succeed
in recognition without knowing the subject are seen as a
threat to privacy of many individuals.
Unfortunately, the recognition process itself
disseminate private information. For example, if a person
is identified every time he shops, the information about
the location and nature of purchases may be collected
and used for commercial purposes. The privacy problem
becomes more serious in case of biometric systems
because the analyzed physiological characteristics can
provide information about the health of individuals. The
retina, for example, provides information about diabetes
and blood pressure. Moreover, peoples fears and
concerns refer also to the fact that biometric identifiers
can be used to correlate information from multiple
databases of different computer systems belonging to
various institutions.
On the positive side of the situation, biometrics can be
used as some of the safest means of protecting privacy.
For example, if today is lost a credit card and it is found by
a malevolent person, at least the historical of the account
is compromised. But if that card could be used only by
the one who has provided accurate biometric data (the
legal owner), than the information contained would be
protected even in case of loss. To dispel fears about
the compromise of the personal privacy, more private
companies and government agencies give assurances
that the systems users and the information obtained
processing the biometric features remain private and
furthermore it will be used only for the purpose for which
the user expressed his agreement. In this case, legal
regulations that protect privacy appear necessary.
However, today, most multimodal biometric systems
do not store the direct collected physiological feature
in original form, but a representation in an encrypted
format. This is due to the presence of two factors: the
need that only authorized operators should have access
to information and the fact that systems do not work
directly with extracted features, but with mathematical
representations, vectors extracted in a certain way from
that representation. Practically, we speak of a double
encryption. First, how to extract the vector that represents
the biometric (usually, it is property of the one who makes
the processing and the algorithms are not public) and
secondly it can be performed an encryption of the data

that are subsequently stored.
Conclusions
Biometric refers to automatic recognition of an
individual based on its physiological features and / or
behavioral. The conventional methods based on what
it is known (a password) or what an individual has (a
key) cant provide an absolute identification of the
person because it is based on false representations
of the identity. It is then obvious that any system that
aims to ensure the reliable recognition of the person
must be based on a biometric component. This does
not mean that biometrics by themselves can make an
absolutely certain identification.
While some limitations of the biometric techniques
can be overcome by the developments of technology
and inspired design, it is important to understand that
there is no infallible persons recognition system.
Security is a risk management that identifies,
controls, eliminates or decrease uncertain events
that may affect the systems resources or valuable
information. The security level of a system depends
on the requirements of the application and on the
cost / benefits analyze.
There is a number of concerns raised over the
use of biometrics data. It is necessary to make a
compromise between security and privacy, but a
distinction can be made only through legislative
initiatives. Biometrics only offer tools for security,
their use for other purposes must be strictly
regulated.
During the maturation of biometric technology
there will exist a growing interaction between
technology, sales and applications market. The
interaction will be dictated by the value brought by
technology, the degree of users acceptance and
credibility of provided services. But it is clear that
the recognition of a person based on biometrics will
have a profound influence on daily life.
Bibliography
[1] L. OGorman, Fingerprint verification Overview of
Technologies, Elsevier Information Security Technical
Report, Vol 3, No. 1, 1998.
[2] L. OGorman, Fingerprint verification, Elsevier
Information Security Technical Report, Vol 3, No. 1,
1998.
[3] D. Malton, D. Maio, AK Jain, S. Prabhakar,
Handbook of Fingerprint Recognition, New York,
Springer-Verlag, 2003.
[4] AK Jain, A. Ross, S. Prabhakar, An Introduction
to Biometric Recognition, IEEE Transactions on Circuits
and Systems for Video Technology, vol 14, No 1, January
2004.
[5] L. Hong, AK Jain, Multimodal Biometrics, Asian
Conference on Computer Vision, Hong Kong, China
1998
[6] K. Uchida, Fingerprint Identification, NEC Journal
of Advanced Technology, Vol 2, No 1, 2005
[7] A. Ross, An Introduction to multibimetrics,
Proceedings of the 15-th European Signal Processing,
Poznan Conference (EUSIPCO) Poland, 2007.

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TO THE ATTENTION

OF THE MEMBERS OF ROMANIAN

date of September 12th 2011, to the

adres: Asociaia Criminalitilor din

Since March 2011 the Romanian Journal of Forensic Science

THE SCIENTIFIC BOARD

Romanian Journal of Forensic Science was assessed

The authors are liable for

Editor: Vasile LPDUI

Editor: Romanian Forensic Association,

TO THE ATTENTION OF READERS

The next issue of the journal will come out on August

Theoretical and practical solutions are the

The printing approval was given by the editorial chief.

FORENSIC SCIENCE NO.3 (75), JUNE 2011, VOL. XI

LACK OF LIABILITY IN ADOPTING THE LAW

Since 1999, the Romanian Forensic Association has

Expertise (NIFE), the Ministry of Justice, have made a

FORENSIC SCIENCE NO.3 (75), JUNE 2011, VOL. XI

In January-October 2007, a team from the Dutch

128 for, 142 against, 3 abstentions and 1 not voting - all

FORENSIC SCIENCE NO.3 (75), JUNE 2011, VOL. XI

expert by active officers from RIS, although Article 1 of G.O.

on Governments agenda, nor on the list of documents of the

FORENSIC SCIENCE NO.3 (75), JUNE 2011, VOL. XI

INTERPRETATION OF TRACES ON CRIME SCENE

1. Considerations regarding the interpretation

that serve to the identification of people who have

FORENSIC SCIENCE NO.3 (75), JUNE 2011, VOL. XI

murder of the victim called Dan Bogdan, in Bucharest.

5 and 11mm, arranged as an isosceles triangle, whose

~45 to the spindle poles

On the left door

FORENSIC SCIENCE NO.3 (75), JUNE 2011, VOL. XI

were created by direct contact

The irregular shape and lack of minimal skin ridges

the material traces found on the inside pole gate, joining

Photo nr. 7. The group of traces marked 4.

Photo nr. 5. The orientation of the drops on the inside

The material trace marked 5 (Photo nr. 8 and 9),

Photo nr.8-9. The material trace marked 5,

FORENSIC SCIENCE NO.3 (75), JUNE 2011, VOL. XI

Photo nr. 10. The material traces placed in front of

indicates their formation by

Photo nr. 13-17. The detail of the traces found on the

Photo nr. 11. The detail of the material traces marked

Photo nr. 18. The

FORENSIC SCIENCE NO.3 (75), JUNE 2011, VOL. XI

Photo nr. 19 The material traces in drops form and

Photo nr. 20-21. The table top situated under the

FORENSIC SCIENCE NO.3 (75), JUNE 2011, VOL. XI

evidence, allowed the establishment of the status quo for

THE SUCCESSION OF THE ASSOCIATION

FORENSIC SCIENCE NO.3 (75), JUNE 2011, VOL. XI

Figure 1. Variation of temperature and humidity values

of view, due to consistent time of arrival and colonization

The experiment was conducted in urban area,

Figure 2. Succesion of the association

FORENSIC SCIENCE NO.3 (75), JUNE 2011, VOL. XI

In the eighth day clumps of eggs were deposited for

In the fourth week, the decomposition process was

In the fifth week the decaying state is more advanced,

Figure 3. Stages of the decomposing process