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BIBLIOGRAFIE
1.
P.G.
Barash,
B.F.
Cullen,
R.K.
Stoeling
-‐Handbook
of
Clinical
Anesthesia,
Lippincott
Williams&Wilkins,
2000
2.
G.
Edward,
E.
Morgan,
M.S.
Mikhail,
M.J.
Murray
-‐Clinical
Anesthesiology,
Appleton&Lange,
2001
3.
W.E.
Hurford,
M.T.
Ballin,
J.K.
Davidson,
K.
Haspel,
C.E.
Rosow
-‐Clinical
Anesthesia
Procedures
of
the
Massachusetts
General
Hospital
4.
E.
Proca,
G.
Litarczec
-‐Terapia
pre-‐
şi
postoperatorie
a
bolnavului
chirurgical,
Tratatul
de
patologie
chirurgicală,
Ed.
Med.,
Buc.,
1999
5.
J.M.
Civetta
-‐Critical
Care,
R.W.
Taylor,
R.R.
Kirby
6.
R.S.
Irwin,
J.M.
Rippe
-‐Irwin
and
Rippet’s
Intensive
Care
Medicine,
Lippincott
Williams&Wilkins,
2002
4
Variabilitatea durerii
Teoria portii
- informatia senzitiva de la periferie este trasnportata la nivelul MS prin fibre
cu diam ↑ (presiune, atingere, vibratii) sau cu diam ↓ (durere, To)
- lez produce initial o durere ascutita "prima durere" prin fibre cu diam ↑ care
sunt localizate la nivelul leziunii si care produc retragerea
- "second pain" – profunda este transmisa prin fibrele ce diam ↓ dupa cateva
sec si este mai prelungita
- amandoua aceste tipuri de fibre au in sinapse din cornul dorsal al MS (subst
gelatinoasa)
- trasnmisia este modificata prin interneuronii inhibitori care sunt cuplati on de
fibrele groase si off de fibrele subtiri
5
2.
Tehnici
de
analgezie
folosite
in
terapia
durerii
acute
si
cronice
Selecţia analgeticelor pt analgezie postoperatorie
Paracetamolul determină o analgezie postoperatorie bună. Doza totală nu
trebuie să depăşească 4 g/24 ore. Combinaţia paracetamolului cu opioide
(codeină, tramadol) poate fi o opţiune pentru tratarea durerii postoperatorii
severe. Paracetamol inhibă mai ales ciclooxigenazele din sistemul nervos
central neavând, practic, efecte pe agregarea plachetară sau sângerare, fără
efecte adverse gastrointestinale, profil de siguranţă la nivel renal şi hepatic,
nu afectează vindecarea plăgii sau a osului, are puţine interacţiuni
medicamentoase şi contraindicaţii.
Paracetamol i.v. (Perfalgan®) are acţiune analgetică imediată, echivalentă
cu ceilalţi inhibitori de ciclooxigenază şi este la fel de eficient ca morfina 10
mg i.m., uşor de administrat (perfuzie i.v.), bine tolerat şi are cost redus. Spre
deosebire de alţi inhibitori de ciclooxigenază disponibili sub formă injectabilă
ca prodrog (metamizol - Algocalmin, parecoxib - Dynastat), Perfalgan conţine
substanţa activă cu efect analgetic imediat, foarte util pentru durerea acută.
Ca şi în cazul celorlalte analgetice, trebuie administrat la intervale regulate (4-
6 ore) pentru o bună analgezie.
NSAIDs (antiinflamatoare nesterodiene, inhibitori neselectivi de
ciclooxigenază) produc analgezie comparabilă cu paracetamolul, au avantajul
faţă de opioide că nu produc sedare şi depresie respiratorie, dar efectul
analgetic se „plafonează” la doze mari. Toate NSAIDs cresc riscul
complicaţiilor gastrointestinale şi renale la vârstnici.
Cum excreţia renală scade cu vârsta, timpul de înjumătăţire devine mai
lung. NSAIDs pot afecta funcţia renală prin scăderea filtrării glomerulare
datorită diminuării PGs, deci dozele trebuie reduse şi sunt contraindicate la
pacienţii vârstnici cu deshidratare, probleme renale preexistente, ciroză,
insuficienţă cardiacă.
Ketorolac poate fi o bună alegere pentru analgezia postoperatorie Doza
totală pe 24 ore să nu depăşească 120 mg în administrare de maxim 5 zile.
Atenţie la riscul sângerării perioperatorii.
Coxibii (inhibitori selectivi COX-2) au o eficacitate analgetică
comparabilă cu NSAIDs. Ca şi NSAIDs pot produce efecte adverse
cardiovasculare (HTA, AVC, IM) şi afectează funcţia renală. Pentru aceste
efecte, dintre coxibi, au fost retrase de pe piaţă rofecoxib şi valdecoxib deşi
toţi NSAIDs prezintă un oarecare risc în acest sens, riscul crescut cu
creşterea dozei şi cu durata tratamentului.
Parecoxib (Dynastat®) este bine tolerat, doza normală la adult 20 mg la 6-
12 ore, maxim 80 mg/24 ore. Debutul acţiunii este întârziat de metabolizarea
parecoxibului, prodrog, la produsul activ (valdecoxib).
Opioidele
7
- dihidrocodeina
2. NSAID
3. AD3C
- potenteaza serotonina si NA din creier
Amitriptilina
4. Anticonvulsivante
- carbamazepina
- fenitoin
- gabapentin
5. Steroizi
6. Capsaicina
7. Blocaj nervos – anest locale, alcoolizari, ag neurolitici, ↓ act simpatica
8. Stimulare – TENS, masaj, epidural, acupunctura
9. Manipulare - yoga
10. Fizioterapie
11. Psihoterapie
- naturale
- semisintetice
- sintetice
dinorfina
oxicodon
δ analgezie leuenkefaline
epileptogen β endorfine
comportament
σ disforie pentazocina
halucinatii nalorfina
stim resp ketamina
Biotransformare
- hepatica
- remifentanyl – esteraze plasmatice
Excretie
- renala
- morfina – excretata 5-10 % nemodificata → IRen ↑ Δt actiunee
- metabolitul morfinei – morfina 6 glucuronid – mai potent decat morfina + ii
scade eliminare in IRen
- normeperidina – se acumuleaza in IRen → ef excitator asupra SNC cu act
mioclonica si convulsii reersate de naloxona
- fentanyl – peak sec la 4 ore de la adm → circ enterohepatica
- sulfentanyl – excretat in urina + bila
Efecte opioide
- SNC - analgezie
- sedare
- euforie, addictie
- greata, voma
- mioza
- ↓ RR – frecventa mai mult decat profunzimea
- ↓ raspunsul la CO2
- depresie centru vasomotor
- ↓ CMRO2, ↓ CBF, ↓ PIC
- EEG – ef minime, fentanyl la doze ↑ → convulsii
- Resp - deprima ventilatia
- ↑ prag apneic + ↓ drive-ul hipoxic
- pot det rigiditate perete toracic
- antitusiv
- bronhospasm – meperidna, morfina elib histamine
- CV - VD periferica
- bradicardie prin stimulare vagala - morfina, fentanyl, sulfentanyl,
alfentanyl
- meperidina ↑ AV
- HTA intraop – meperidina + morfina
- GI - ↓ peristaltica: constipatie + intarziere golire gastrica
10
! Meperidina + IMAO
- stop respirator
- HTA/hTA
- coma
- hiperpirexie
Endogeni
- Dimorfina
- Enkefaline
- Endorfine
Agonisti – antagonisti
- Nalorfina
- Butorfanol
- Pentazocina
Agonisti partiali
NALBUFINA
- antagonist µ + partial agonist k
- similar potenta + timp act morfina
TRAMADOL
- agonist µ + inh recaptarea NA + inhiba eliberarea 5HT
- IV 1/10 potenta morfina
- 1-2 mg/kg
Antagonisti puri
NALOXONA
- init IV adult 0,1 – 0,4 mg
- act in 60 sec, durata 30-45 min
- ef limitate pe agonisti partiali
4. Analgetice/antiiinflamatorii nonsteroidiene
Ef PG:
6. mediaza inflamatia
7. mediaza nociceptia in SNC
8. protejeaza integritatea mucoasei gastrice
9. mentine fluxul sg renal
10. det agregare plachetara
11. vindecare os
KETOROLAC
- inh nonspecific COX
- ef analgezic predominant
- adm IM, IV, OR
- IV 10 mg / OR 30 mg – maxim 90 mg/zi pt 2 zile
- eficace dupa chir ortopedica
- evitat in sangerari, adm alte NSAID, adm anticoagulante
PARECOXIB
- inh selectiv COX 2
- ef ↓ pe GI si Tr
- 40 mg init, apoi 20-40 mg la 6 -12 ore max 80 mg/zi
PARACETAMOL IV
dozare h mg
SALICILATI
Asp 2-3 0.5-1 500-1000 4 3600-6000
PAMINOFENOLI
Acetaminofen 1-4 0.5 500-1000 4 1200-4000
Ac PROPIONIC
Ibuprofen 1.8 0.5 400 4-6 3200
Naproxen 12-15 1 250-500 12 1500
INDOLI
Indometacid 4 0.5 25-50 8-12 150-200
Ketorolac 4-6 0.5-1 10 4-6 40
NSAIDs
După leziunea tisulară acută (tăiere sau strivire tegument) componente
celulare (adenozină, ATP, 5HT, HA, BK) au acces la fluidele extracelulare.
Macrofagele activate de leziune şi celulele sistemului imun invadează ţesutul
lezat şi încearcă să înlăture detritusurile celulare şi să prevină/combată orice
invazie a microorganismelor. Activarea celulelor imune duce la activarea
fosfolipazei A2 (PLA2) şi la formare de eicosanoide (metaboliţi ai acidului
arahidonic cum sunt prostaglaandinele - PGs) care sunt eliberate în spaţiul
extracelular, sensibilizează nervii nociceptivi din ţesuturile afectate la compuşi
cum sunt HA şi BK. Stimularea acestor aferenţe accentuează perceperea
durerii.
Unul dintre obiectivele suprimării durerii este stoparea producerii de PGs
de către sistemul imun cu corticoizi de exemplu. În afara corticoizilor, un alt
grup de compuşi afectează stimularea aferenţelor nociceptive, compuşi
cunoscuţi ca antiinflamatoare nesteroidiene (NSAIDs).
Mecanisme de acţiune
NSAIDs suprimă formarea de PGs din acid arahidonic şi, astfel, opreşte
sensibilizarea pe care o produc aceste lipide asupra receptorilor. Dintre toate
NSAIDs aspirina (acid acetilsalicilic) este cea mai cunoscută.
Aspirina inhibă COX, enzima responsabilă de sintez PGs şi
tromboxanilor din acid arahidonic. Aspirina produce o acetilare ireversibilă a
enzimei astfel încât recuperarea necesară sintezei de enzimă durează câteva
zile. Alte NSAIDs au o acţiune permanentă. Inhibarea COX produsă de
13
Paracetamol
Deşi paracetamol (acetaminofen) are are unele dintre proprietăţile
farmacologice ale NSAIDs clasice, prezintă mici diferenţe care îl clasează
separat. Paracetamol prezintă excelente proprietăţi analgetice şi antipiretice
(ca NSAIDs) dar are efect antiinflamator doar la doze foarte mari. În ceea ce
priveşte efectele adverse, paracetamol practic nu produce efecte adverse GI,
nu inhbiă funţia plachetară, dar poate avea efecte asupra fluxului renal, în
anumite circumstanţe.
Indicaţii
Durere postoperatorie, dismenoree, durere dentară, febră şI durerea din
artropatii.
Mod de acţiune. S-a demonstrat inhibarea sintezei de PGs în unele ţesuturi
prin inhibarea COX-3 şi, doar minimal, a COX-1.
Interacţiuni cu răşini schimbătoare de ioni, anticoagulante, metoclopramid.
Efecte adverse: rash cutanat, tulburări hematologice, pancreatită acută,
afectare hepatică. Paracetamol este bine tolerat la doze terapeutice, dar este
hepatotoxic la doze mari (10-15 g). toxicitatea hepatică este produsă de
generarea, după dehidroxilare, unui metabolit extrem de reactiv. În caz de
supradozare, în condiţiile depleţiei de glutation cauzată de metabolizarea
17
Somn lent
- 80% din timpul total
- unde δ – lente, 1-3 Hz
- non-REM
- criterii EEG – 4 stadii
I = ritmul α dispare cu intermitenta
II = fara α, unde si fusuri ce survin in rafale
III = unda δ si fusuri
IV = exclusiv unde δ
- tonus muscular ↓
- ROT ↓
- FR, AV
- mioza
- GO – miscari lente pendulare
- determinat de ↓/abolirea tonusului formatiunii reticulate ponto-mezencefalice
Mediatori
- Serotonina – rol in aparitia somnului lent
- Adrenalina – ar putea fi mediator care stim SRAA → trezire
6.
Substante
sedative
si
amnestice
si
hipnotice
Anestezice intravenoase
Barbituricele
Structură chimică
Activitatea hipnotică este indusă moleculei de acid barbituric de aditia unui
lanţ lateral, în special în poziţia 5, mai ales dacă unul din el este ramificat.
Lungimea lanţului lateral influenţează potenţa şi durata de acţiune a
derivaţiilor barbiturici. Lanţul lateral mai scurt al thiopenalului determină
creşterea potenţei. Înlocuirea unui atom de oxigen cu un atom de sulf
produce un barbituric cu o instalare a efectului mai rapidă şi o durată mai
scurtă de acţiune. Metilarea acidului barbituric în pozitia 1 determină o
instalare rapidă şi durată scurtă de acţiune, dar creşte şi incidenţa efectelor
excitatorii. Orice modificare chimică care creşte lipofilicitatea unui barbituric
hipnotic de obicei creşte potenţa şi scurtează durata de instalare a efectului,
dar în acelaşi timp ii scurtează durata de acţiune.
De asemenea stereoizomeria are un rol important, – izomerul levo al
pentobarbitalului, secobarbitalului, thiopentalului şi tiamilalui este aproape de
două ori mai puternic decât isomerul dextro in ciuda accesului lor similar la
SNC farmacocineticii identice. Aceste barbiturice se găsesc ca amestec
racemic. Grupul fenol – proprietati anticonvulsivante
Thipental alcalin – pH>10
Mecanisme de acţiune
Situsul de acţiune cel mai probabil al barbituricelor este receptorul GABAA.
Receptorul GABAa este un complex oligomeric constituit din 5 subunităţi
proteice (2alfa, 2 beta şi una gama) care se asamblează pentru a forma un
canal de clor situsuri pt GABA, barbiturice, steroizi, benzodiazepine şi
picrotoxin. Activarea de GABAa creşte conductanţa clorului prin canal,
determină hiperpolarizare şi reduce excitabilitatea membranei postsinaptice.
Barbituricele acţionează prin mimarea, dar şi creşterea activităţii receptorului
GABAA. Barbituricele prin legare de receptor scad rata de disociaţie a GABA
de pe receptor şi cresc durata deschiderii canalului de clor. Barbituricele
activează direct canalele de clor şi in absenţa GABA. Efectul de creştere a
acţiunii GABA poate fi responsabil pentru efectul sedativ hipnotic, in timp ce
efectul GABA mimetic, la concentraţii mai mari, poate fi responsabil de
anestezia barbiturică.
Sinteza mec:
- deprima SRA (sist reticular ascendent)
- afecteaza preferential trasnm siaptica
- ↓ act Ach
- ↑ act GABA
Distribuţie
După administrare intravenoasă tiopentalul ajunge rapid în sângele central şi
este distribuit la nivele tisulare în concordanţă cu rata de perfuzie, afinitatea
pentru medicament a ţesutului şi concentraţia relativă de thiopental în tesut şi
sânge. Tesuturile intens perfuzate şi de volum mic cum ar fi creierul se
echilibrează rapid cu concentraţiile iniţiale mari de tiopental determinând
inducţia anesteziei. Concentraţiile mari de thiopental din ţesuturile intens
perfuzate scad apoi rapid prin redistribuţia medicamentului spre muşchi.
Barbituricele au efect maxim în aproximativ un minut. Deoarece se
redistribuţiei rapide din creieir spre alte ţesuturi, durata efectului dozei de
22
inducţiei este de 5-8 minute. Ţesutul lipidic are o afinitătei mare pentru
tiopental, dar il absoarbe treptat datorită perfuziei proaste. Eliminarea
ireversibilă a thiopentalului este relativ lentă. Clereance mic al thiopentalului
este o reflectare a ratei de extracţie hepatice scăzute datorată legării
importante de proteinele.
Tiopental Metohexital
Vc (L/kg) 0,38 0,35
Vdss (l•kg-1) 2.5 2.2
Distribution 2–4 5–6
half-life (min)
Elimination 11 4
Half-life (h)
Rata hepatică 0,15 0,50
de extraţie
Legarea de 85 85
proteine (%)
Clearance 3.4 11
(ml/kg/min)
Doze mai mari sunt recomandate pentru copii 5-6 mg/kg, iar copii mici 7-8
mg/kg.
Scăderea dozei de barbituric este detemirnată de premedicaţie
(benzodiazepine, opioide, α2agonişti), vârstnici (30-35%), gravide (18%) şi de
asemenea în anemie severă, arsuri, malutriţie, neoplasme, uremie, colita
ulcerativă, ocluziii intestinale, hipotermina, insuficienţa cardiacă,intoxicatie
acută cu alcool.
Variabilitatea răspunsului la dozele de inducţie nu este datorată diferenţelor în
Vdss, clerance sau a timpului de înjumătăţie (t1/2β) deoarece aceste
afectează minim concentraţia plasmatică a medicamentului. Diferenţele în
necesarul de doze este datorat farmacodinamicii alterate sau distribuţiei
23
SNC
Barbituricele produc o depresie a EEG legată de doză. Paternul de unde alfa
de la pacientul treaz progresează la EEG cu unde cu amplitudine mare şi
frecvenţă lentă, unde delta şi teta, pâna la burst supresion şi EEG plat. EEG
plat poate fi menţinut cu PEV continuă cu 4 mg/kg/oră de tiopental.
Barbituricele produc o scădere dependentă a CMRO2 care ajunge la 55% la
doya de barbituric ce determină EEG plat. In plus barbituricel determină şi o
reducere în pararel a FSC şi PIC.
Thiopentalul are efect anticonvulsivant. Metohexitalul poate determina
convulsii după doze mari si prezintă o incidentă crescută a convulsiilor
postoperatorie după administrare în PEV continuă.
Tiopental produce un efect negativ asupra amplitudinii potenţialelor evocate
motor. Tiopental şi propofol deprimă amplitudinea potenţialelor evocate motor
într-un grad mai mare decât etomidate şi metohexital.
Barbituricele scad presiunea intraoculară cu aproximativ 40% după doza de
inducţie.
Efectul neuroprotectiv
Efectul neuroprotectiv se datorează mai multor mecanismele printre care se
numără: supresia transmisiei excitatorii prin interferarea cu sistemul oxid nitric
– GMPc (barbituricele inhibă acţiunea NO, sau activează NO în muschiul
neted vascular), blocarea NMDA şi AMPA, fenomenul de inverse steal care
determină vasoconstricţia in zonele sănătoase cu distributia săngelui sper
zonele cerebrale ischemice, scăderea PIC şi cresterea PPC.
Respirator
Inducţia cu barbiturice produce depresia centrului respirator, depresie a cărei
durată şi instalare depinde de doză, rata de injectare, tipul şi doza de
premedicaţie. Deşi efectul are durată doar de câteva minute, răspunsul la
hipercapnie şi hipoxie este deprimat mult mai mult timp. Barbituricele scad
clerance-ul mucociliar. Incidenţa hipersalivaţiei şi a bronhospasmului sau
laringospasmului sunt rare, ele pot fi folosite la pacineţii cu astm, dar nu
produc brohodilataţie – thiopental elibereaza histamine
Cardiovascular
Efectele cardiovasculare ale barbituricelor includ scăderea debitului cardiac, a
presiunii arteriale sistemice şi a rezistenţei vasculare periferice. Efectul
deprimant al thiopentalului asupra debitului cardiac este datorat scăderii
întoarcerii venoase determinată de venodilataţia periferică dar şi unui efect
direct de deprimare a cordului (nu in măsura deprimării deteminate de volatile)
care creşte în importanţă în prezenţa hipovolmiei sau a unei afectări
miocardice. Thipental inhibă contractilitatea mai mult decât midazolamul ,
etomidatul, propofolul şi ketamina. Mecanismul posibil ar fi interferenţa cu
transportul de calciu în celula miocardică şi/sau alterarea mecanismului
oxidului nitric.
Barbituricele cresc frecvenţa cardiacă (metohexitalul mai mult ca thiopentalul),
şi determină creşterea consumului de oxigen miocardiac. Diferenaţa în oxigen
arteriovenoasă coronariană rămâne normală când presiunea aortică este
25
Alte efecte
Tiopental scade diureza deoarece scade fluxul sanguin renal prin
vasoconstricţia arterei renale şi determină o scădere a ratei de filtrare
glomerulară. Alte efecte ale barbituricelor sunt creşterea glicemiei şi creşterea
concentraţia de cortizol plasmatic.
Tiopental nu modifică tonusul uterului gravid şi nu afecteză fătul (decât la
doze de 6-8 mg/kg). Condiţiile neonale sunt mai bune după inducţie cu
thiopental decât după midayolam.
Hepatic: ↓ FSH, in adm cronica determina inductie enzimatica. Poate det
crize de porfirie.
Eliberare de histamină
Cu excepţia etomidatului toţi agenţii de inducţie IV sunt alergeni şi determină
eliberare de histamină. (Mecanismele includ : activarea directă a celulelor
mastoride. activarea clasică a comlementului după o expunere preexistentă şi
formare de anticorpi, activarea complementului pe calea laternă fără expunere
prealalbilă la antigen, reacţii antigen-anticorp, reacţii anafilactoide).
După administrarea de thiopental nivelul plasmatic de histamină creşte de
aproximativ 350 ori şi scade la normal după aproximativ 10 minute. Rash
tranzitor poate fi asociat cu administrarea de barbiturice, reacţiile anafilactoide
sunt foarte rare.
Interacţiuni medicamentoase
Daca sunt administrate împreună cu alte medicamente ce determină depresia
SNC (etanol, antihistamine, isoniazid, IMAO, metilfenidat) determină creşterea
depresiei SNC. Administraera de aminofilin reduce durata şi profunzsimea
sedării cu tiopental.
Barbituricele folosite pe termen lung induc enzimele microzomale hepatice
care acclereayă metabolismul si celorlalte medicamente metab de P450.
Barbituricele pot precipita atacuri acute de profirie datorită sintezei de acid
delta aminolevulinic.
Nu există antagonistm specific pentru barbiturice.
Rectal 3
suppository
BZD
Mecanisme de acţiune
BZD sunt agonişti ai receptorului BZD. Rec BZD este parte a rec GABAA.
care este format din 3 subunităţi proteice α,β şi γ aranjate ca un complex
pentameric. Situsul BZD este localizat pe subunitatea α2. Rec BZD leagă 3
tipuri de liganzi agonişti, antagonişti şi agonişti inversi. Ordinea afinităţiii
pentru receptorul BZD (a potenţei) este lorazepam >midazolam > diazepam.
Midazolam este de aprox 3-6 ori mai potent ca diazepamul, iar lorazepam de
5-10 ori.
Acţiunile anxiolitică, anticonvulsivantă şi relaxantă musculară sunt mediate de
GABAa. Efectele hipnotice sunt mediate în altă parte, se pare prin alterarea
potenţialului dependent de influxul de calciu.
Farmacocinetica
BZD folosite în anestezie au durata de acţiune scurtă - midazolam,
intermediară -lorazepam şi lungă -diazepam în concondanţă cu metabolismul
şi clearance plasmatic. Instalarea efectului BZD depinde de solubilitatea în
lipide a medicamentului. Midazolamul şi Diazepamul au o instalare mai rapidă
(30-60sec) decât lorazepamul (60-120 sec). Timpul de înjumătăţire la echilibru
al midazolamului între concentraţia plasmatică şi EEG este de aproximativ 2-3
miute şi nu este afectat de creşterea în vârstă. Este de 2 ori mai lung decât
cel al diazepamului, dar midazolamul este de 6 ori mai potent. Durata
efectului depinde de solubilitatea în lipide şi de concentraţia sanguină.
Redistribuţia mai rapidă a midazolamului şi diazepamului comparate cu
lorazepam (probabil datorită solubilităţii în lipide scăzute) determină durata
scurtă de acţiune a lor.
Legarea de proteine şi volumul de distribuţie nu sunt mult diferite printre BZD,
dar clerancele este. Datorită diferenţelor în clerance aceste medicamente au
o curbă de eliminare plasmatică diferită. Eliminarea BZD se bazează pe un
model cu două sau trei compartimente.
Terminarea acţiunii BZD rezultă primar din redistribuţia din SNC spre alte
ţesuturi. După administrare de lungă durată nivelele sanguine de midazolam
vor scădea mai rapid decât nivele altor medicamente datorită clerancelui
hepatic crescut.
Factori care influenţează farmacocinetica sunt vărsta, obezitatea, sexul, rasa,
inducţia enzimatică, bolile hepatice şi renale. Diazepam este în particular
sensibil la creşterea în vârstă – tinde să reducă clerance-ul pt diazepam mult
mai semnificativ decât cel pentru midazolam şi lorazepam. La obezi volumul
27
Metabolism
Biotransformarea benzodiazepinelor are loc în ficat, cele 2 căi principale de
metabolizare implicând fie oxidare microzomală hepatică (N-alkilare sau
hidroxilare alifatică) sau glucuronid conjugare. Inelul imidazolic al
midazolamului este oxidat rapid de ficat, mai rapid decât orice alt inel
benzodiazepinic. Aceasta este importantă pentru clerance – ul hepatic mare
al midazolamului comparat cu diazepam. Vărsta scade creşte clerancele
midazolamului, iar fumatul şi consumul de alcool scad clerancele
midazolamului. Midazolam este metabolizat la hidroximidazolam care este
activ şi se poate acumula în administrări prelungite. Are potenţă de 20-30%
din potenţa midazazolamului şi este excretat prin urină în cantitate importantă
determinând sedare profundă la pacienţii cu IRA.
Diazepamul are 2 metaboliţi activi oxazepam şi desmetildiazepam, ambii
prelungind efectul diazepamului. Lorazepam are 5 metaboliţi.
Efecte BZD
Benzodiazepine au efecte hipnotice, sedative, anxiolitice, amnezice,
anticonvulsivante şi relaxante musculare central.
Efecte SNC
Benzodiazepinele reduc în manieră doză depenetă CMRO2 şi fluxul sanguin
cerebral. De asemena Benzodiazepinele cresc pragul de declanşare al
convulsiilor şi au un efect protectiv împotriva hipoxiei cerebrale (diazepam <
midazolam < fenobarbital). Protecţia oferită de midazolam este superioară
celei determinate de diazepam, dar mai mică decât cea determinată de
fenobarbital.
Efecte
Respiratorii
BZD determină, în funcţie de doză, depresie centrală a ventilaţiei pulmonare.
Depresia respiratorie este mai mare la administrarea de midazolam decât de
diayepam. Viteza de administrare a medicamentului determină rapiditatea
atingerii vărfului maxim la depresiei reapiratorii.
Depresia respiratorie determinată de midazolam este mai pronunţată şi de
durată mai lungă la pacinţii cu BPOC, şi durata depresiei ventilaţiei este mai
lungă cu midazolam decât cu thiopental. Midazolamul deprimă în funcţie de
doză răspnsul la CO2.
Cardiovasculare
Au efecte hemodinamice minime administrate singure. Efectul hemodinamic
este o reducere uşoară a tensiunii arteriale rezultată din scăderea rezistenţei
vasculare sistemice. BZD prezervă homeostazia mecanismele reflexe.
28
Doze
Midazolam este de ales pentru inducţie. deoarece are o instalare mai rapidă a
efectului comparativ cu diazepamul - efectul maxim atins în 2-3 minute de la
administrare - dar mai lent faţă de tiopental. Factorii care influenţează
rapiditatea instalării acţiunii midazolamului sunt viteza injectării, premedicaţia,
vârsta, gradul ASA, medicamentele injectate concomitent.
Terminarea efectului este rezultatul redistribuţiei medicamentului din creier
spre alte ţesuturi mai puţin perfuzate. După doza de inducţie la tineri trezirea
apare în aprox 17 minute. Perioada de amnezie după doza de anestezie este
de 1-2 ore. Midazolamul scade necesarul de opioide şi MAC-ul pentru volatile.
Recuperarea este similară pentru diazepam şi midazolam datorită
redistribuţiei initiale similare. Administrarea prelungită determină acumularea
medicamentului datorită , în cazul midazolamului a unei concentraţii
importante de metabolit activ.
Menţinere 0.05 mg/kg prn 0.1 mg/kg prn 0.02 mg/kg prn
0.25-1.0 µg/kg/min
Flumazemil
cardiace, nici la pacinţii cu boală cardiacă. Are efect minim asupra SNC în
absenţa benzodiazepinelor şi nu are influenţe asupra MAC-ului volatilelor.
Propofol
Este cel mai nou anestezic intravenos, este un alkilfenol - 2.3 diizopropofol.
Este insolubil în apă şi foarte solubil în lipide.
Propofolul acţiuonează prin influenţarea funcţiei subunităţii β1 a receptorului
GABAA cu creşterea transminsiei inhibitorii şi prin inhibarea receptorului
NMDA.
Farmacocinetică şi metabolism
Propofolul se distribuie după un model cu 2 sau 3 compartimente. După
administrarea bolus nivelul general de propofol scade rapid ca rezultat al
redistribuţiei şi eliminării. Timpul de înjumătăţire iniţial la distribuţie este de 2-8
minute.
Efecte SNC
Efectul primar este hipnotic. Actiunea hipnotică a propofolului pare să se
respecte corelaţia celorlalte anestezice generale dintre liposolubilitate şi
potenţă. Instalarea hipnozei are loc rapid cu un peak la 90-100 secunde.
Durata hipnozei este între 5-10 minute după doza de 2-2,5 mg/kg. Vărsta
afectează ED95, fiind maxim la 2 ani şi scăzând apoi cu creşterea în vârstă.
La doze subhipnotice propofol are acţiune de sedare şi amnezie. De asemena
produce o stare de bine general, pot apare halucinaţii, fantezii sexuale,
opistotonus.
Poate determina toleranţă după administrarea de propofol în anestezii
repetate sau perfuzii prelungite. De asemeena poate determina adicţie.
Propofol scade PIC la pacienţii cu PIC normală sau crescută. Reacticvtitatea
cerebrală la CO2 şi autoreglarea sunt păstrate.
Scade presiunea de perfuzie cerebrală.
Reduce CMRO2 cu 36%
Are efecte protective cerebrale după injurie ischemică acută în acelazi grad cu
tiopentalul sau halotanul. Efectul poate fi datorat atenuării mdificărilor în
adenozin trifosfat, calciu , sodiu şi potasiu determnate de injurua hipoxică.
Reduce presiunea intraoculară cu 30-40%.
30
Efecte respiratorii
Efectele respiratorii sunt similare celor determinate de barbiturice. Apneea
apare după doza de inducţie, incidenţa şi durata acesteia depinzând de doză,
viteza de injectare şi premedicaţia concomitentă. Instalarea apneii este de
obicei precedată de reducere marcată a volumului tidal şi tahipnee. răspunsul
ventilator la CO2 este scăzut. Propofol deprimă şi răspunsul ventilator la
hipoxie.
Propofol induce brohodilataţie la pacienţii cu BPOC , dar nu este aşa de
eficient ca halotanul.
Efecte cardiovasculare
Cel mai important efect este scăderea tensiunii arteriale determinată de
vasodilataţia şi de depresia miocardică, efect care pare a fi depedendent de
doză. Efectul vasodilatator pare a fi datorat reducerii activităţii simpatice şi
unui efect direct asupra mobilizării calciului intracelular din fibra musculară
netedă.
De asemenea reduce volumul bătaie, indexul cardiac, debitul cardiac,
rezistenţa vasculară sistemică. La pacienţii cu boli valvulare determină
reducerea presiunii în artera pulmonară.
Reduce consumul de oxigen miocardic.
Scade presarcina şi postsarcina.
Frecvenţa cardiacă nu se modifică semnificativ – propofol afectează funcţia
baroreceptorilor prin asta reducând răspunsul prin tahicardie la hipotensiune.
NU are efect direct pe funcţia nodului sinoatrial sau asupra conducerii şi a
nodului atrioventricular.
Alte efecte
NU potenţează blocarea neuromusculară. Nu trigerizează hipertermia malignă
– cel mai bun în acest caz.
Emulsia lipidă poate determina agregarea trombocitelor.Pot apare reactii
anfilactice la solvent.
Nu eliberează histamină.
Are efecte antiemetice la doze subhipnotice. De asemena scade pruritul
colestatic şi cel produs de opiacee.
Scade chemotaxia PMN. Are proprietăţi antioxidante ărin fixarea radicalilor
liberi..
Solventul propofolului este un excelent mediu de cultură.
Doze
Dozele de inducţie variază între 1-2,5 mg/kg., iar premedicaţia cu opioide sau
benzodiazpine şi vârsta trebuie să scadă doza.
Etomidat
Farmacocinetică
Cinetica etomidatului este descrisă de un model cu 3 compartimente. T iniţial
de înjumătăţire la distribuţie al etomidatului este de 2,7 minute, timpul de
înjumătăţire la redistribuţie este de 29 minute şi timpul de injumătăţire pt
eliminare între 2,9-3 ore. Clerance-ul hepatic este mare (18-25 l/min) cu o rată
de extracţie heaptică de 0,5:0,9. De aceea medicamentele care afectează
fluxul sanguin hepatic alterează eliminarea etomidatului. Redistribuţia este
mecanismul dispariţiei efectului etomidatului, iar disfuncţia heapticîă nu
alterează semnificativ recuperarea. Etomidat are o legare de proteinele
plasmatice de 75%. La pacienţii cu ciroză volumul de distribuţie se dublează
în timp ce clearance-ul este normal rezultând o eliminare de două mai rapidă.
Este metabolizat în ficat primar prin hidroliza esterilor la acidul carboxilic al
etomidatului (metabolit major) sau prin N-dealkilare. Principalul metabolit este
inactiv. 2% din medicament este excretat nemodificat, restul fiind excretaţi ca
metaboliţi de rinichi (85% ) şi bilă (13%).
Efecte SNC
Acţiunea primară la nivelul SNC este hipnoza. Etomidatul nu are activitate
analgetică. Nivelele plasmatice necesare pentru menţinerea anesteziei sunt
de aproximativ 300-500 nm/ml.
Doza de inducţie reduce CBF (cu 34%) şi CMRO2 (cu 45%) fără a altera
presiunea arterială medie. De aceea presiunea de perfuzie cerebrală este
menţinută constantă sau crescută. Produce modificări EEG similar
barbituricelor (se pare că creşte activitatea EEG în situsurile epileptogene).
Scade PIC cu până la 50% şi menţine scăderea PIC in perioada imediat
postintubaţie. Pentru a menţine efectele etomidat asupra PIC este necesară o
perfuzie cu 60 µg/kg/min.
Scade presiunea intraoculară. etomidat preyintă o incidenţă crescută a
mişcărilor mioclonice. Determină o scădere doză-dependentă a latenţei şi a
amplitudinii poteţialele evocate somatosenzorial. Det PONV.
32
Cardiovascular
Efect minim. Doza de inducţie nu determină modificări ale alurii ventriculare,
presiunii arteriale medii, presiunii în artera pulmonară, presiuni venoase
centrale, indexului cardiac sau rezistenţei vasculare sistemice.
Doze mari (0,45 mg/kg) sunt necesare pentru a produce la pacientii cu boală
mitrală sau aortică o scădere a tensiunii arteriale. Etomidat scade consumul
de oxigen miocardic şi creşte saturaţia sangelui coronar.
Nu are efecte simpatomimetice şi pe funcţia baroreceptorilor
Endocrine
Etomidat determină supresie adrencorticală prin inhibiţia reversibilă
dependentă de doză a enzimei 11βhidroxilaza care converteşte 11-
deoxicortizol la cortizol şi a unui efect minor asupra enzimei 17αhidroxilaza.
Creşte ACTH. Blocarea acestor enzime pare să fie legată de radicalul liber
imidazol al etomindatului ce leagă citocromul P450. Determină inhibiţia
resintezei de acid ascorbic necesar pentru sinteza de steroizi. Suplimentarea
cu vit c readuce la normal depozitele de cortizol după folosirea de eetomidate.
Efecte minime apar şi după doza de inducţie (până la 1 oră postop). Pentru
acest motiv etomidat nu este recomandat pentru sedare prelungită în terapie
intensivă.
Alte efecte
Etomidat poate determina greaţă, vomă, durere la injectare, mişcări
mioclonice, sughiţ. Creşte blocarea instituită de blocanţii neuromusculari. Nu
afectează funcţia hepatică. Inhibă sinteza de acid aminolevulinic – dar se pare
că nu induce atacuri de profirie. Solventul (propilen glicol) poate produce
hemoliză
Doze
Doza de inducţie este redusă de premedicaţia cu opioide , benzodiazepine
sau barbiturice. Instalarea anesteziei după doza de inducere este rapidă,
echivalentă ca timp cu cea de la tiopental. Durata de anestezie după bolus
este legată liniar de doză – fiecare 0,1 mg/kg administrate aduc 100 secunde
de somn. Dozele repetate de etomidat , fie bolus sau PEV prelungesc durata
de hipnoză. Inducţia intrarectală la copii se obţine cu 6,5 mg/kg şi hipnoza
apare în 4 minute. Concentraţia plasmatică necesară pentru hipnoză este de
300-500 ng/ml.
Se folosesc 2 sau 3 stadii de infuie
3. iniţial 100 µg/kg/min pt 10 min urmate de 10 µg/kg/min
4. initial 100 µg/kg/min pt 3 min urmate de 20 µg/kg/min pt 27 min
apoi 10 µg/kg/min
Infuzia trebuie oprită cu 10 minute înaintea trezirii.
Etomidat se utilizează la pacienţii cu boală cardiovasculară, căi aeriene
reactive sau hipertensiune intracraniană. Nu este recomandat pentru sedare
prelungită datorită inhibiţiei sintezei hormonilor cortisteroizi şi
mineralocorticoizi
33
Ketamina
Distribuţie şi metabolism
Este de 5-10 ori mai solubilă în lipide ca thiopentalul. Marea solubilitate a
ketaminei este reflectată de volumul de distribuţie mare. Distribuţia în plasmă
respectă un model cu două compartimente. Clerance-ul este de asemenea
mare, ceea ce este improtant pentru relativul timp de injumătăţire scurt de 2-3
ore.
Este metabolizată de enzimele microzomale hepatice. Calea majoră implică
N-demetilare cu formarea de norketamină care este apoi hidroxilată la
hidroxinorketamină. Aceşti produşi sunt conjugaţi la compuşi solubili în apă şi
apoi eliminaţi urinari. Norketamina se pare că are aproximativ 20-30% din
activitatea ketaminei.
Mecanisme acţiune
Blocarea situsului activ al fenciclidinei la nivelul receptorului NMDA mediaza
efectele anesteyice ale ketaminei ca si unele din efectele analgetice.
Enantiomerul S are activitate pe receptorul opioid k, determinând o parte din
efectele analgetice. iar Interacţiunea cu receptorul opioid σ poate explica
reacţiile disforice de la trezire. de asemena ketamina poate interacţiona cu
receptorii muscarinici, seroroninici.
Efecte SNC
Nu există aminitiri despre actul operator, dar amnesia nu este un efect
proeminent.
Analgezia apare la nivele considerabil mai mici decât cele necesare pentru
pierderea conştinţei. Nivelul plasmatic minim pentru pragul dureros este de
0,1g/ml.
Ketamina trece BHE rapid şi de aceea are o instalare a acţiunii în 30 secunde
de la administrare. efectul maxim apare în aproximativ 1 minut. După
administrarea de ketamină apare midriază,nistagmus, lacrimaţiesalivaţie,
creşterea tonusului muscular.
Ketamina creşte fluxul sanguin cerebral şi presiunea intracraniană. Are efect
excitator al SNC care poate fi detectat pe EEG - dezvoltă activitate cu unde
teta şi activitate petit mal in hipocamp. Creşte CMRO2. Răspunsul
cerebrovascular la CO2 este păstrat cu ketamină. Ketamina creşte presiunea
intraoculară şi paote declanşa convulsii.
La trezire poate determina coşmaruri, experienţe extracorporale. iluzii, euforie,
confuzie, frică. Acestea apar în prima oră de la trezire. – se pare datorită
inhibitiei nucleilor de releu vizuali şi auditivi. Factorii care afectează incidenţa
reactiilor de trezire sunt vârsta, doza, sexul , ssuceptibilitatea fiziologică şi
medicamentele administrate în paralel. Midazolamul şi diazepamul pot reduce
reacţiile determinate de ketamină.
Efecte respiratorii
La nivelul aparatului respirator ketamina are efecte minime. Nu alterază
răspunsul ventilator la hipercapnie, determină o scădere tranzitorie a minut
ventilaţiei după admistrarea bolus a dozei anestezice . Un important efect este
relaxarea musculaturii bronşice. Ketamina nu determină eliberare de
histamină. . Creşte secreţie salivară, în special la copii.
Efecte cardiovasculare
Ketamina stimulează sistemul cardiovascular cu creşterea tensiuunii arteriale,
alurii ventriculare şi a debitului cardiac. Acelaşi efecte le are şi enatiomerul S
singur. Efectele hemodinamice sunt asociate cu creşterea consumului de
oxigen miocardic. Modificările hemodinamice nu sunt legate de doza de
ketamină, o a doua doză produce efecte hemodinamice mai mici decât ale
primei doze. La pacienţii cu boli cardiac congenitale ketamina nu modifică
direcţia şuntului. La pacienţii cu hipertensiune pulmonară pare să crească
presiunea în artera pulmonară. Are un efect depresant miocardic intrinsec prin
acţionare pe curenţii ionici miocardici, efect care este contracarat de
răspunsul mediat simpatic al ketaminei care ăl depăsşte.
Doze
Nivele plasmatice minime de 0,6-2 µg/kg sunt minime pentru anestezia
generală, dar copii pot avea nivele plasmatice mai mari (0,8-4 µg/kg). Durata
anesteziei cu ketamină după o admnistrare unică este de 10-15 minute şi
orietarea persoanei în timp şi spaţiu apare în 15-30 miunte. Enantiomerul S
permite o recuperare mai rapidă.
Durata anesteziei cu ketamină este determinată de doză şi de administrarea
concomitentă de alte medicamente
Pacienţii cu ASA IV cu boli respiratorii şi cardiovasculare sunt candidaţii
majori la administrarea de ketamină – pacienţii cu boală bronhospastică, pat
hemodinamic compromis de hipovolemie sau cardiomiopatie, traumatisme,
soc septic. Alte boli cardiace: tamponadă, pericardite restrictive, boli
congenitale . In combinaţie cu BZD şi opioide poate fi folosită in PEV continuă
la pacinţii cu boli valvulare sau ischemice cardiace.
Inducţia anesteziei
0.5-2 mg/kg IV
4-6 mg/kg IV
Menţinerea anesteziei
0.5-1 mg/kg IV prn cu 50% N2O
15-45 µg/kg/min IV cu 50-70% N2O
30-90 µg/kg/min IV fără N2O
Sedare şi analgezie
0.2-0.8 mg/kg IV
2-4 mg/kg IM
Contraindicaţii
Ketamina este contraindicată pacienţii cu mase intracraniene datorită creşterii
presiuni intracraniene, pacienţii cu boală cardiacă ischemică datorită creşterei
consumului de oxigen miocardic, pacienţii cu anevrisme datorită creşterii
presiunii arteriale, pacienţii cu boli psihice
Modificări de distribuţie scade lean body mass, scade apă totală, creşte
grăsimea, scade albumina, creşte glicopoteina acidă
Modificări de metabolism hepatic scade masa hapatică, scade fluxul
sanguin hepatic, scade activitatea sistemului oxidativ microzomal.
Modificări al excreţiei renale scade rata de filtrare glomerulară, scade
capacitatea de concentrare, scade secreţia tubulară
In plus faţă de acestwea apare o scădere a volumului plasmatic şi a activităţiii
barororeptorilor cu creşterea susceptibilităţii la efectul hipotensiv şi bradicardic
al aenstezicelor. Toate acestea impun scăderea doyei de anesteyic la
pacientul vârstnic.
Raport Doza de
feto-placentar inducţie (mg/kg)
Tiopental 0,7-1 4
Ketamina 1 1
Etomidat 0,58 0,2-0,3
Propofol 0,7 2,5
N2O 0,8
Halotan 0,8
Droperidol
Mecanism de act
- antagonist rec dopa
- interfera cu transmiterea S, NA, GABA
- α blocant periferic
Structura – butirofenona (haloperidol)
- metabolizat hepatic
Efecte
- CV - ↓ TA prin VD periferica (αblocare), ↑ QT (la QT>440ms nu se adm),
torsada vf
- resp – stimuleaza
- cerebral - ↓ FSC, ↓ PIC prin VC cerebrala, nu modif EEG
- antiemetic
- f rar r extrapiramidale
CI – in feocromocitom (elib CA din SR), Parkinson
Barbiturates
Thiopental
Thiamylal
Methohexital 0
Benzodiazepines
Diazepam 0/ 0
Lorazepam 0/ 0
Midazolam 0
Opioids
Meperidine — —
Morphine — —
Fentanyl 0
Sufentanil 0
Alfentanil 0
Remifentanil 0
Ketamine
Etomidate 0 0
Propofol 0 0
Droperidol 0 0 0
MAC Bar = MAC necesar pentru a bloca răspunsul adrenergic la stimuli noxici
38
Factori farmacologici
- Administrarea acută de alcool
- Ketamina
- Pancuronium
- Fizostigmina
- Neostigmina
- Lidocaina
- Opioide
- Barbiturice
- Diazepam
- Hidroxizina
- α-2 agonişti
- Litiu
Mecanisme de actiune
bune pot fi obţinute atunci când octanol sau lecitină sunt folosite ca model de
solvent.
Regula Meyer Overtone postuelază că numărul de molecule dizolvate la locul
de acţiune al anestezicului şi nu tipul de molecule prezente determină
anestezie, deci 0,5 MAC dintr-un agent şi 0,5 MAC din alt agent ar trebui să
aibă acelaşi efect ca 1MAC din oricare din ei.
Absorbtie si distributie
De aceea dacă solubilitatea este mică (ca în cazul oxigenului) dacă debitul
cardiac se apropie de 0 (stop cardiac) sau dacă diferenţa venoasă devine
irelevantă (ca în anesteziile de foarte lungă durată). Absorbţia este minimă şi
Fa/Fi va egala 1.
Anestezic Blood: Brain: Liver: Kidney: Muscle: Fat: Oil: Rubber: Other
inhalator Gas Blood Blood Sânge Blood Blood Gas Gas
Enfluran 1.91 1.4 2.1 1.7 36 98.5 74 Polivinil:gaz 120
Halotan 2.54 1.9 2.1 1,2 3.4 51 224 120 Poliethilene:gaz 26.3
Calce:gaz 1
Isofluran 1.46 1.6 1.8 1,2 2.9 45 90.8 62 Polietilene:gas 2
Polivinil:gas 110
Metoxifluran 12 2.0 1.9 0,9 1.3 49 970 630
B. Debitul cardiac
DC influenţează absorbţia şi de aceea P alveolară prin transferul de mai mult
sau mai puţin anestezic din alveole. O creştere a DC determină o absorbţie
mai rapidă, astfel încât rata creşterii P alveolare şi a inducţiei este încetinită.
O scădere a DC accelează rata de creştere a PA datorită faptului că este o
absorbţie mai mică care să se opună influxului.
Ca şi ventilaţia alveolară modificările de DC influenţează cel mai mult rata de
creştere a P alveolare a unui anestezic solubil. Ca resultat modificările de DC
exercită o mică influenţă asupra ratei de creştere a P alveolare a protoxidului.
În contrast dublarea DC va creşte absorbţia anestezicelor solubile din alveolă
încetinind rata de creştere a P alveolare.
Anestezicele volatile care deprimă DC pot exercita un feedback pozitiv care
contrastează cu feedback-ul negativ al respiraţiei spontane exercitate de
aceste volatile.
Distribuţia debitului cardiac va infleunţa rata de creştere a Palveolare.
C. Gradientul alveolo-venos
Diferenţa alveolo-venoasă reflectă absorbţia tisulară de anestezic. Absorţia
tisulară afectează absorbţia de câtre plămâni prin controlarea ratei de creştere
a presiunii partiale mixtă venoasă (Pv) a anestezicului. Presiunea alveolară
egalează presiunea arterială la pacineţii normali care nu au bariere pentru
difuzia anestezicului şi care nu au anomalii de ventilaţie perfuzie.
Factori care determină fracţia de anesteyic eliminat din sânge traversând un
ţesut este paralel cu acei factori care determină absorbţia la nivel pulmonar:
solubilitate tisulară, flux sanguin tisular, diferenţă de presiune partială
arterială-ţesut. Un volum mare de distribuţie are 2 implicaţii: capacitatea mare
a ţesutului creşte transferul anestezicului dinsânge spre ţesut şi necesită mai
mult timp pentru a umplerea unui ţesut cu capacitate mare.
Grupuri de ţesuturi
Putem grupa ţesuturile în funcţie de caracteristicile de perfuzie şi solubilitate
70ml/100ml/ţesut/min– grupul bogat în vase – creier, patul splahnic, rinichi şi
glandele endocrine – reprezintă 10% din greutatea corporală şi primesc 75%
46
din debitul cardiac. Vor primii largi cantităţi de anestezic în primele minute de
anesteziei datorită perfuziei crescute. Se produce echilibrare rapidă datorită
volumului mic de ţesut. Timpul de injumătăţire a echilibrării ( timpul la care
pres partială a anestezicului în VRG egalează jumătate din sângele arterial)
variază de la 1 minut pt protoxid la 2 minute pt halotan. VRG ajunge la
echilibru în 4-8 minute.
Muşchi şi piele – determină absorbţia după primele 8 minute. Perfuzia scăzută
(2mlsg/100mltesut/min) Timpul de echilibrare este de 20-25min (protoxid)
până la 70-80minute pt sevo sau haloten.
Grăsimea – ocupă 1/5 din corp la individ normal – flux sanguin 400ml/min -
are afinitate mare pt anestezic. Timpul pentru echilibrare variază între 70-80
minute pt protoxid până la 30ore pt sevofluran
Ţesutul slab vascularizat – tendoane, ligamente, cartilaj – nu participă la
absorbţie datorită slabei irigări.
Un model cu 5 compartimente ar explica cel mai bine comportamentul
farmacocinetic al volatilelor. 4 compartimente sunt plămânii, VRG, muschii şi
grăsimea. Mai există un compartiment aditional cu timp de injumătăţire de
aprox 100 minute (intre muschi şi grăsime) – absorbtia de grăsimea bine
perfuzată cum ar fi cea din măduva osoasă, grăsimea perirenală, pericardiacă,
mezenter, oment, derm şi subcutan
Raportul FA/Fi
Aşa cum s-a văzut ventilaţia, solubilitatea şi distribuţia sângelui au toate
impact asupra presiunii parţiale alveolare.
Creşterea iniţială a raportului Falveolară/Finspirată este rapidă pt toţi agenţii,
în ciuda solubilităţii fiecăruia. Rapiditatea aceasta se datorează absenţei unei
diferenţe alveolo-venoase a anestezicului şi, deci absenţei absorbţiei, în
primul moment al inducţiei. Acumularea de anestezic în alveole va produce o
creştere progresivă a presiunii partiale alveolovenoase care determină
creşterea absorbţiei, şi se opune efectului ventilaţiei de a creşte concentraţia
alveolară mai sus. O solubilitate mare determină o absorbţie mai mare pentru
o diferentă de presiune alveolovenouasă dată.
Fa/Fi continuă să crească, deşi la rate mai mici decât în primele minute.
Această creştere rezultă din scăderea progresivă a absorbţiei determinată de
VRG.
In concluzie sunt 3 vârfuri primul careapare în primele 2 min , apoi cel de-al
doilea la 8 min datorita VRG, si cel de-al 3 lea după câteva ore după
echilibrarea cu muşchi
Efectul concentraţiei
Concentraţia gazului inspirat influenţează concentraţia alveolară şi rata la
care aceea concentraţie poate fi obţinută. Creşterea concentraţiei inspiratorii
accelerează rata de creştere. La concentraţie inspiratorie de 100% rata este f
rapidă deoarece este determinată doar de rata cu care ventilaţia spală gazul
în plămâni. La un procent de 100% in inspir absorbţia anestezicului crează un
vid care trage gazul inapoi în trahee. Acest inspir aditional înlocuieste gazul
absorbit. Deoarece concentraţia gazului de înlocuire este 100% absorbtia nu
poate modifica concentraţia alveolară. Aceasta explica de ce creşterea
protoxidului este mai rapidă ca a desfluranului în ciuda coeficietului sânge/gaz
egal.
47
Eliminare
Hipoxia de difuzie
Hipoxia de difuziune este un fenomen care apare atunci când administrarea
de protoxid este întreruptă brusc, conducând la reversia gradientelor de
presiune parţială astfel încât protoxidul părăseşte sângele pentru a intra în
alveole. Acest iniţial eflux NO2 de volum mare poate să dilueze presiunea
alveolară a O2 astfel încât presiunea arterială a O2 scade. In plus la diluarea
oxigenului alveolar determinată de protoxid, apare şi o diluare a CO2 alveolar
care scade stimulul către centrul respirator. Acestă scădere a stimulului
respirator exagerează impactul asupra PaO al efluxului de protoxid. Efluxul de
48
protoxid în alveolă este maxim în primele 1-5 minute după întreruprea gazului
la sfărsitul anesteziei.
Efecte SNC
Protoxidul
NU are un efect considerabil hemodinamic la pacintul normal. La pacientii cu
boală cardiac, mai ales in combinaţie cu opioidele determină hipotensiune şi
scăderea debitului cardiac.Efectele pe vascularizaţia pulmonară ale N2O sunt
variabile. La pacienţii cu presiune arterială pulmonară crescută, aceasta o
poate creşte şi mai mult.
Aritmiile pot apare la 60% sau mai mult din pacienţiii sub anestezie.
Susceptibilitatea cordului la efectele aritmice ale epinefrinei diferă printre
anestezice. Halotanul sensibilizează cel mai mult cordul la efectul adrenalinei.
Sensibilitatea la epinefrină nu este influenţată de doza de anesteyic. Copii
sunt mai puţin susceptibili decât adulţii la aritmiii ventriculare datorate
epinefrinei în timpul anesteyiei cu halotan.
Printre factori ce favoriyeayă apariţia aritmiilor este hipercapnia (pragul
PaCO2 pentru aritmii este peste 80 mmHG - In timpul chirurgiei acest prag
scade semnificativ). Toleranţa pentru CO2 este mai mare atunci când N2O
este adăgat la halotan.
Sunt favorizare aritmii atriale şi ventriculare
La nivel hepatic volatilele scad fluxul la nivelul venei porte, fluxul în artera
hepatică este crescut de isofluran şi scăzut de halotan şi scad clearance-ul
hepatic – halotanul inhibă procesul de oxidare hepatică.
52
Alte efecte
Sistem imun produc (mai ales N2O) produc inhibiţia chemotaxiei PMN, nu au
efecte bacteriostatice la cocentraţii clinice, produc inhibiţia replicării virale
(pentru virusul gripal) la doye clinice – inhibiţia sinteyei ADN
Metabolism
format prin oxidare este acidul trifluoroacetic şi bromide (deprimant SNC). Prin
reducere formează 2 metaboliti volatili 1,1difluro2cloretilen CDE şi
111trifluoro2cloroetilen CTE)
Isofluran este cel puţin metabolizat, in afară de desfluran. Se metabolizează
prin oxidare de citocromul P450aproximativ 0,2% din isofluranul absorbit.
Sevofluranul se metabolizează prin oxidare între1 - 5% . Sevofluranul
reactioneayă cu calcea deterinând doi produşi pentaisopropenil fluoroetil eter
(compus A) şi Compus B. Compusul A este produsul major de metaboliyare si
este toxic renal.
Enfluran este metaboliyat lent, iniţial prin oxidare.
Desfluranul se metaboliyeayă similar isofluranului. Desfluranul reactioneaza
cu calcea producand monoxid de carbon.
Anestezic Metabolizat %
Metoxifluran 40–50
Halotan 15–20
Sevofluran 3
Enfluran 2
Isofluran 0.2
Desfluran 0.02
Toxicitate
N2O
Proprietati:
- fara miros
- fara culoare
- neinflamabil
- neexplozibil
- poate sustine combustia
- este gaz la temp camerei
- lichid sub presiune
- ieftin
- MAC = 105
- coef sg/gaz = 0.47
- coef grasime/sg= 2,3
Contraindicatii:
- difuzeaza in cavitati cu aer mai rapid decat trece N2 in sange. Coeficientul
de partiţie N2O sânge:gas (0,46) este de aprox 34 ori mai mare decât pentru
azot (0,014). Acestă diferenţă de solubilitate determină trecerea de către
protoxid din sânge în cavităţi umplute cu aer de 34 ori mai rapid decât poate
azotul să parăsească cavitatea şi să intre în sânge. Ca rezultat al acestui
transfer preferenţial al protoxidului volumul sau presiunea cavităţii umplute cu
aer creşte. Magnitudiena creşterii de volum sau presiune este influenţată de
presiunea parţială a protoxidului, fluxul sanguin în cavitate şi durata
administrării de protoxid. Inhalarea de protoxid dublează volumul
pneumotoraxului în aproximativ 10 minute. Volumul aerului intestinal creşte
mai lent. Protoxidul difuzează în urechea medie şi presiunea din urechea
medie poate creşte dacă patenţa tubului lui eustachio este compromisă –
poate apare ruptura mb timpanice. De asemeena poate dubla sau chiar tripla
volumul balonaşului sondei IOT.
- NU se adm in PnTX, penumoencefal, embolie gazoasa, ocluzie acuta, chist
pulmonar, grefa
- HTP
- ! hipovolemie, soc, MSOF, CAD
Interactiuni medic:
- frecvent utilizat cu alt anestezic mai potent
- adaos N2O → ↓ necesarul altui inhalator
- ef de gaz secund (↑FIO2 cu ↓ N2O → ↑ anestezic inhalator secundar
datorita sensibilitatii relative a N2O si O2 in anestezicul volatil lichid)
Halotan
- neinflamabil
- neexploziv
- ieftin
- alcal halogenat
56
Biotransformare
- metab 15-20% prin:
- oxidare hepatica in Cit P450 → ac triflor acetic (TFA) + bromide
- reducere (in abs O2) – produsi finali de metab hepatotoxici
Toxicitate
Hepatita halotanica
- f rara 1:35.000
- fact de risc: multiple expuneri anestezice la intervalel scurte, femei, obezi,
predispozitie familiala
- semne: ↑ TGP, ↑ TGO, ↑ Br, encefalopatie
- mec - hipoxia → metaboliti reactivi
- mec imun → ↑ eozinofile, rash, fb, Ac care se leaga de suprafata
hepatocitului expus anterior la halotan
Contraindicatii:
57
Interactiuni med:
- β blocante, bloc de Ca → acc ef inotrop –
- AD3C, IMAO, miofilin, catecoli exogeni → aritmii
- inductia enzimatica (fenitoin) → ii ↑ metabolizarea
Enfluran
- miros dulce, eteric
- neinflamabil
- eter halogenat
- MAC = 1,7
- coef sg/gaz = 1,9
- coef grasime/gaz = 36
CV: - ↓ TA, ↓↓ DC, ↑ AV, ↓ RVS
- ↓ consumul de O miocaridc
- aritmogen – sensiblitate la CA- 4,5γ/kg A
Resp: - ↑ FR, ↓ Vt, ↓ Vm
- ↑↑ PaCO2 de repaus
- ↓ rasp la hipercapnie
- drive hipoxic abolit
- bronhodilatatie
- ↓ Cl mucociliar
SNC: - ↑ FSC, ↑ PIC, ↓ CMRO2
- convulsii + la MAC >2/stimuli auditivi
N-MM: - relaxeaza mm scheletica
- potenteaza blocul nmm
Renal: - ↓ FSR, ↓ RFG, ↓ DU
Hepatic: - ↓ FS hepatic
Biotransformare
- metabolizare 2-5%
-F
Toxicitate
- deflorinare mai mica → 10MAC ore → F < 40µmol/l → ↓ usor capacitatea de
concentrare
- lez hepatice rar
Contraindic:
- de evitat la pac cu patologie renala preexistenta
- Nu in b convulsivante
- precautii la pac cu HTIC, instab hemodinamica, HT maligna
58
Interactiuni medic:
- HIN – induce defluorinare la acetilatorii rapizi
- AD care ↑ rata de acetilare hepatica
- potenteaza blocul n-mm
Isofluran
- miros eteric, neinflaambil
- izomer al enfluranului
- MAC = 1.2
- coef sg/gaz = 1.4
- coef grasime/gaz = 45
CV: - ↓ TA, ↑ AV – AV ↑ brusc la ↑ brusca a conc de ISO
- nu modif DC
- vasodilatatie coronariana in terittoriile sanatoase → furt?
- ↓↓ RVS
- sensiblitate la CA- 4,5γ/kg A
- nu infl barorec
Resp: - ↑ FR, ↓ Vt, ↓↓ Vm
- ↑ PaCO2 de repaus
- ↓ raspunsul la hipoxie
- ↓ curba de raspuns la hipercapnie
- bronhodilatatie desi irita caile aeriene superioare
SNC: - > 1 MAC →↑ FScerebral + ↑ PIC
- ↓↓ CMRO2 – 2 MAC silentio EEG
- ↓ convulsiile
N-mm: - ↑ fluxul sg spre mm scheletica
- relax musc scheletica
- potenteaza blocul nmm
Renal: - ↓ FSR, ↓ RFG, ↓ DU
Hepatic: - ↓ FS hepatic, ↓ FS portal, teste fct hepatice minim afectate
Biotransformare
- metabolizare 0.2%
-F
- TFA
Toxicitate:
- ± ↑ conc F dar nefrotoxicitatea este f improbabila chiar in prezenta
reductorilor enzimatici
- > 24 ore ISO 0.1-0.6% → F= 15-50µmol/l → fara afectare renala
- lez hepatica improbabila
Contraindic:
- hipovolemicii pot tolera prost ↓ TA (vasodilatatie)
Interactiuni medic:
- potenteaza blocul nmm
- epinefrina 4.5 γ/kg
Desfluran
59
Biotransformare
- metabolizare 0.1%
- TFA <<
-F
- pierdere cutanata nesemnif
- degradare in absorbanti CO2 desicati → nivele semnificative de CO (sem
minimalizeaza prin folosirea CaOH
Contraindic:
- hipovolemie
- HT maligna
- HTIC
Interactiuni medic:
- potenteaza blocul nmm = ISO
- epinefrina 4.5 γ/kg
Sevofluran
- excelent la inductie - ↑ rapid conc alveolara + neintepator
- Δt trezire = ½ ISO
- MAC = 2
- coef sg/gaz = 0.65
- coef grasime/gaz = 48
CV: - ↓ TA, nu modif AV
60
Biotransformare
- metabolizare 2-3 %
- HFIP → urina
-F
Toxicitate
- F potential nefrotoxic (leziune tubular)
- soda-lime → degradeaza Sevo la Compusul A care e toxic renal la conc =
50-100 ppm. Conc compus A creste cu low flow, ↑ To gaz, BaoH uscat, conc ↑
de anestezic
- metale/impuritati in echipamente → degradare la HF → arsuri muc
respiratorie
Contraindic:
- de evitat la pac cu afectiuni renale preexistente
- nu se utilizeaza cu flux de gaze proaspete < 2l
- hipovolemie severa
- HT maligna
- HIC
Interactiuni medic:
- potenteaza blocul nmm = ISO
- nu sensibilizeaza cordul
Xenon
- unul din ultimile produse introduse în anestezia inhalatorie.
- coef sg:gas mai mic ca N2O = 0,14
- MAC = 70%.
- nu se metabolizează în organism,
- are o inducţie rapidă
- are efecte analgetice, antiinflamatorii şi neuroprotective.
- interacţiuni sistemice, pulmonare şi hemodinamice minime
- atenuează creşterea plasmatică de epinefrină şi cortizol asociate cu actul
chirurgical.
- eficient în mai ales în administrare low flow datorită costului important al
produsului.
61
Solubilitatea
Solubilitatea inhalatoarelor în sânge sau ţesut este indicat de coeficientul de
partiţie. Un ceoficient de partiţie este rata de distribuţie care descrie cum
inhalatorul este distribuit între două faye la echilibru (presiunea parţială egală
în ambele faye). De exemplu un coeficient sânge:gay de partiţie de 2
înseamnă că concnetraţia inhalatorului este 2 în sânge şi 1 în gasul alveolar
atunci când presiunea parţială a anesteyicului în aceste două faye este
identică. Coeficienţii de partiţie sunt dependenţi de temperatură astfel că
solubilitatea unui gay în lichid este crescută atunci când temperatura lichidului
creşte.
Coeficientul de partiţie sânge : gay
Rata de creştere a PA relativ la constanta PI este legată de ceoficientul de
partiţie sânge :gay al inhalatorului. Bayat pe coef de partiţie sânge:gay,
inhalatoarele sunt caracteriyate ca solubile, intermediar solubile şi slab
solubile. Sângele poate fi considerat un reyervor farmacologic inactiv , a cărei
mărime este determinată de solubilitatea anesteyicului în sânge. Atunci când
coef sânge :gay este mare o cantitate mare de anesteyic poate fi diyolvată în
sânge înainte ca Pa să echilibreye PA. De exemplu, solubilitatea mare a
metoxifluranului în sânge încetineşte rata la care PA şşi Pa cresc relativ la PI
şi inducţia anesteyiei este lentă. Impactul solubilităţii crescute în sânge asupra
ratei de creştere a PA poate fi compensat prin creşterea PI. Atunci când
solubilitatea este mică, cum ar fi protoxid sau desfluran, cantităţi minime de
inhalator trebuie diyolvate înainte de atingera echilibrului, de aceea rata de
creştere a PA şi Pa şi înducţia anesteyiei sunt rapide.
De exemplu inhalarea de protoxid sau desfluran pentru 10 minute determină
PA mai mare cu 80% decât PI. Asociat cu acestă creşter rapidă a PA a
protoxidului este absorbţia a mai mulţi litrii (până la 10 în primele 5-10 min) din
acest gay, reflectând administrarea sa comună la concentraţii inhalatori de 60-
70%. Aceast volum crescut absorbit este responsabil de câteva efecte unice
ale protoxidului atunci când este administrat în preyena volatilelor sau a
cavităţilor conţinând aer.
Pierderea percutană de inhalator apare dar este prea mică pentru a influenţa
rata de creştere a PA. Cu excepţia metoxifluranului magnitudinea
64
Debitul cardiac
DC influenţaeyă absorbţia şi de aceea PA prin cărarea a mai mult sau mai
puţin anesteyic din alveole. O creştere a DC determină o absorbţie mai rapidă,
65
MAC
Drug With With % N2O
Oxygen N2O
Enflurane 1.7 0.60 70
Halothane 0.77 0.29 66
Isoflurane 1.15 0.50 70
Methoxyflurane 0.16 0.07 56
Nitrous oxide 104
Sevoflurane 1.71 0.66 64
Desflurane 6.0 2.83 60
Acetilcolinesteraza
Hidroliza
Ach ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Acetat + colina
DMB
- structura asem cu Ach, agonisti ai rec Ach
- Sch = 2 molec Ach
- 2 faze de bloc
- faza I - se leaga de rec nicotinic generand potential de actiune
muscular dar nu sunt metab de acetilcolinesteraza determinand in acest fel o
depolarizare prelungita a JNM → relax mm (canalele de Na se inchid si nu se
deschid decat dupa repolarizare). Nu are fade, nu are stim postetanica
69
NDMB
- se leaga de rec nicotinic dar nu pot modifica rec pt generarea potentialului
de actiune → doar previn legarea Ach de rec
- blocarea rec apare la legarea doar de 1 singura subunit α
- antagonisti competitivi ai rec Ach
Interfera cu JNM:
- anest inhalatorii
- ketamina
- opioidele
- cocaina
- chinidina
- unele ATB
- neostigmina
Reversie bloc
- DMB nu sunt metabolizate de aceticolinesteraza → difuzeaza de la nivelul
mb si sunt hidrolizati in plasma si ficat de pseudocolinesteraza = colinesteraza
nespecifica = plasmatica= butiril colinesterza
15.
Substante
cu
actiune
relaxanta
utilizate
in
anestezie
(curare
depolarizante
si
nondepolarizante)
- solubilitate in lipide ↓
- doza 1-1.5 mg/kg – copii doze ↑
- Δt instalare = 30-60 sec, Δt act = 10 min
- Δt act ↑ - doza mare
- metab anormala - hT0
- nivele ↓ de pseudocolinesteraza – cancer
mamar, sarcina, b hepatice, insuf renala
Deficit de pseudocolinesteraza
1. normozigoti – enz suficienta pt metabolizarea SCo in 4-6 min
2. heterozigoti atipici – nivel ↓ de enzima, metab SCo in 10-20 min
3. homozigoti atipici – def marcata, afinitate ↓ pt Sch, metab SCh in 2 h
→ suport ventilator
Dibucaina – inh pseudocolinesteraza
- N 80%
- atipica 20 %
- heterozigoti atipici 40-60%
Dibucaine number = procentul de pseudocolinesteraza inhibata, proportional
cu fct colinesterazei si independent de cant de enzima
Determinarea de pseudocolinesteraza
- cantitativ – dozare – u/l
- calitativ – nr dibucaina
Interactiuni medic:
Anticonvulsivante ? – Fenitoin,
carbamazepine,
primidone, sodium
valproate
Antiaritmice + + Quinidine, blocanti
canale calciu
Inhibitori colinesteraza + – Neostigmina,
piridostigmina
Dantrolene ? +
Anestezice volatile + +
Ketamina ? +
Anestezice locale + + Doar la doze mari
Litiu + ? Prelungeste onset si
durata de act a Sch
Sulfat Mg + + La dozele folosite in
preeclampsie si
eclampsie
Efecte adv
NDMB
- 2 clase
- steroizi – vagolitici
- benzilquinolone – elib histamina
Caracteristici farmacologice:
-ED95= doza efectiva la 95 dinindivizi
1xED95 sau 2xED95 = IOT
- priming dose = 10-15% din doza de IOT adm cu 5 min inaninte de inductia
cu NDMB - ↓ timpul pana la IOT
- prevenire fasciculatii – 10-15% din doza de IOT cu 5 min inainte de adm Sch
- mentin relaxarea
- volatilele ↓ necesarul de NDMB cu ~ 15%
Desfluran> Sevofluran> Iso + Enfluran > Halotan > N2O
pancuronium > vecuronium + atracurium
- potentare NDMB – mivacurium + pancuronium
- ef sec autonomice
- tobocurarina – blocheaza gg autonom → blocheaza rasp simpatic al
cordului → bradicardie
- pancuronium + gallamina – blocheaza n X in nodul sinoatrial →
tahicardie
- eliberare histmina
- atracurium 5xED95
- mivacurium
- clearance hepatic
- pancuronium + vecuronium – metab hepatic
- vecuronium + rocuronium – excretie biliara
- excretie renala: doxacurium, pancuronium, vecuronium, piperacuronium
Alte caract
- temperatura – hipotermia ↑ blocarea prin ↓ metabolizarii (Atr, Cisatr, M) +
↑ excretiei (P+V)
- pH – AcR potenteaza
- hipoK, hipoCa – potenteaza
- hipoMg – potenteaza prin competitie cu Ca
- hiperCa – impredictibila
- varsta – nn sensibilitate ↑ la NDMB dat imaturitatii JNM
- grupele mm react diferit la relaxare – timp ↑ pt instalare mm glotei
0
dependenta de pH si T → Doza mentinere: mg/kgc/ora se poate acumula → ef
degradare Hoffmann 0,15-1,2 mg/kg PEV excitant SNC → conv
- hidroliza enzimatica a sau - ef ↑↑↑ de hT
o
Vecuronium - aminosteroid ED95 50γ/kg 20-30 min 30-40 min 0.08-0.15 0.01-0.04 - nu elib histamine
- captarea hepatica ↓ nivelul 4,5 min rata mg/kg mg/kg la 20-30 - nu are ef CV
plasmatic recuperarii min - det bradic frecv la
- metabolit activ 10-20 min 0.75-0.1 inductie
- excretie primara biliara, mg/kg/h - 33% elim urinar
secundara renala nemodifcat
- la adm prelungite si IRen - ef vagolitic 20x mai slab
acumulare de metabolit ca pancuronium
3hidroxi
Rocuronium - aminosteroid ED95 0.3-0.4 20-30 min rata ED95x2 - nu are ef CV
- durata intermediara de act mg/kg recuperarii - nu elib histamina
- instalare bloc in 1,5-2,4 min 1,5-2,4 min 20 min - doze ↑ → ↑ AV,↓ TA
- preluare hepatica – excretie - debut rapid al act
biliara si renala Doza metinere:
- onset ~ Sch 0,15- 0,2 mg/kg
sau
30-50 mg/h
Rapacuronium - aminosteroid - avantaj – reversie rapida
- efecte pulmonare + elib
histamina
ED50 ED95
mg/kg µmol/kg
74
-‐
dozele
↑
de
inh
de
colinesteraze
pot
potenta
blocul
neuromm
-‐
neostigmina
si
piridostigmina
au
si
actiuni
pe
pseudocolinesteraze
-‐
edrofoniu
nu
are
ef
pe
pseudocolinesteraze
Neostigmina
- insolubile in lipide → nu trece BHE
- max 0,08 mg/kg ~ 5 mg
- ef max la 10 min, durata actiune aprox 1h
- copii + varstnici mai sensibili
Atropina 0.4 mg
Piridostigmin 0.1–0.4 mg/kg Glicopirolat 0.05 mg
Edrofonium 0.5–1 mg/kg Atropine 0.014 mg
Fizostigmina 0.01–0.03 mg/kg de obicei nu este NA
necesar
Piridostigmina
76
Edrofoniu
- 0,5-1 mg/kg
Enlon-plus = Edrofoniu + Atropina
- instalare 1-2 min, Δt actiune ~ 1 h
Fizostigmina
- solubila in lipide → trece BHE → ef cerebrale (singura)
- 0.01 – 0.03 mg/kg
- utilizare ↓ pt reversie bloc
- utila pt ↓ frison postop
- antag partial depresie resp morfina
- adductor police recupereaza fct mai tardiv decat diafragm, orbicular ochi,
adductor laringe
18. Droguri si boli care interfereaza cu actiunea relaxantelor musculare
Deficit de pseudocolinesteraza
4. normozigoti – enz suficienta pt metabolizarea SCo in 4-6 min
5. heterozigoti atipici – nivel ↓ de enzima, metab SCo in 10-20 min
6. homozigoti atipici – def marcata, afinitate ↓ pt Sch, metab SCh in 2 h
→ suport ventilator
Dibucaina – inh pseudocolinesteraza
- N 80%
- atipica 20 %
- heterozigoti atipici 40-60%
Dibucaine number = procentul de pseudocolinesteraza inhibata, proportional
cu fct colinesterazei si independent de cant de enzima
Determinarea de pseudocolinesteraza
- cantitativ – dozare – u/l
- calitativ – nr dibucaina
81
Interactiuni medicamentoase:
- doze mici antagonizeaza faza I de bloc al Sch prin ocuparea rec Acg
si prevenirea depolarizarii
- exc: pancuronium - ↑ Sch prin inhibarea pseudocolinesterazei
Anticolinergice
Rec muscarinici
- M1 neuronal
- M2 cardiac
- M3 glande
Atropina
- amestec racemic
- ipatropriu bromide - derivat de atropina
- adm cu atentie in - hipertrofie prostata
- glaucom cu unghi inchis
- obstr vezica urinara
- Δt actiune = 30 min
Scopolamina
- IM
- rau de miscare
Glicopirolat
- doza = ¼ doza atropina
- nu trece BHE
85
- Δt actiune >2-4 h
Sd anticolinergic central
= modif SNC de la inconstienta la halucinatii
- agitatie, delir, gura uscata, tahicardie, atropine flush, atropine fever
- potenteaza efectele sec anticolinergice:
- AD3C
- antihistaminele
- antipsihoticele
- antidot = inh de coliesteraza
Sistemul adrenergic
Receptori
- α - α1A, α1B, α1D
- postsinaptici
- contractie mm
- midriaza (dilatatie pupilara datorita contractiei mm radial al ochiului),
bronhoconstrictie, vasoconstrictie (cel mai imp efect: det ↑ RVS, ↑ postsarcina
VS, ↑ TA), contractura uterina, contractie sfinctere in tract gastroint si
genitourinar
- efect inotrop poziti si cronotrop negativ usor
- inh secr insulina si lipoliza
- α2 A, α2B, α2C
- presinaptic
- inh elib de NA din neuron
- sedare
- inh simpatic central → vasodilatatie + hTA
- β - β1
- postsinaptic
- cronotrop, ↑ conducerea, ↑ inotropism
- β2
- postsinaptic
- relax mm neteda → bronhodilatatie, vasodilatatie, relaxare uter,
vezica, intestin
- stimuleaza glicogenoliza, glucogenoliza, lipoliza, elib de insulina
- introd K in cel → hipokalemie, aritmii
- β3
- in vezica urinara, creier
- lipoliza, termogeneza
Agonisti adrenergici
Fenilefrina +++ + + 0 0 0
Metildopa + + 0 0 0 0
Clonidina + ++ 0 0 0 0
Dexmedetomidina + +++ 0 0 0 0
87
Adrenalina ++ ++ +++ ++ 0 0
Efedrina ++ ? ++ + 0 0
Fenoldopam 0 0 0 0 +++ 0
Noradrenalina ++ ++ ++ 0 0 0
Terbutalina 0 0 + +++ 0 0
Adrenalina /
Efedrina
Fenoldopam / 0
Noradrenalina / 0
Dopamina / 0
Dopexamina / / 0
Isoproterenol /
Dobutamina 0
Fenilefrina
- vasoconstrictie periferica cu ↑ RVS
- bradicardie reflexa
- tahifilaxie
- 50-100 γ (0.5-1γ/kg bolus + 0.25-1γ/kg/min pev cont
Metildopa
- α2agonist, analog de levodopa
- ↓ eliberare de NA + ↓ tonus S → ↓ RVS → ↓ TA
- HTA gravide
Clonidina
88
- α2 agonist
Dexmetomidina
- ef sedative
- afinitate m ↓ α2
- ↓ necesarul de volatile
Adrenalina
- ↑ CO, ↑ contractilitatea, ↑ consumul de O2, ↓ AV
- ↓ fluxul sg splahnic + renal
- VD in mm scheletici → ↓ TAD
- bronhodilatatie
- complicatii: hemoragii cerebrale, aritmii ventriculare, ischemie coronariana
- principalul trat in soc anafilactic, FiV
- doze 2-20γ/min
Noradrenalina
- α1 stimulant fara act β2 → VC arteriala si venoasa, ↑ TA dar fara ↑ CO
- 2-20 γ/min
- indic: soc refractat pt mentinere perfuzie
Efedrina
- ↑TA, ↑ AV, ↑ CO, ↑ contractilitatea
- bronhodilatatie
- Δtactiune m ↑ + stim SNC
- indic: vasopresor in anestezie
- doza: 2,5-10mg bolus
Dopamina
→ < 2 γ/kg/min – ef dopa DA1 – VD vase renale, ↑ Dz
→ 2-10 γ/kg/min – β1 stimulare - ↑ contractilitatea, ↑ AV, ↑ CO
→ 10-20 γ/kg/min - ↑ RVS
→ > 20 γ/kg/min – ef asem NA
Isoprotenerol
- agonist β pur
- ↑ AV, ↑ CO, ↑ contractilitatea, ↓ RVS, ↓ TAD
89
Dobutamina
- β1 selectiv
- 2-20 γ/kg/min
Dopexamina
- analog structural dopamina, dar cu efecte β1(antiaritmogenic) si α
- 0.5 γ/kg/min → 6 γ/kg/min
Fenoldopam
- selectiv DA1 agonist, fara ef β sau α
- 0.1 µg/kg/min ce poate fi ↑ la 15-20 min
Antagonisti adrenergici
Drug 1 2 1 2
Prazosin – 0 0 0
Phenoxybenzamine – – 0 0
Phentolamine – – 0 0
Labetalol – 0 – –
Metoprolol 0 0 – –
Esmolol 0 0 – –
Propranolol 0 0 – –
Atenolol + 0 0 0 6–7
Esmolol + 0 0 0 –1/4
Labetalol 0 + + 4
Metoprolol + 0 0 + 3–4
Propranolol 0 0 + 4–6
Blocanti α
Fentolamina
- blocare reversibila a rec α
- hTA + tahicardie reflexa
- hTA posturala
- indic in feocromocitom, elib excesiva de CA
- doza: iv bolus 1-5 mg sau pev cont
90
Blocanti mixti
Labetolol
- blocheaza α1, β1, β2 (ratie blocare α:β = 1:7)
- ↓ TA, fara a ↑ AV sau a ↓ CO
- ef max la 5 min de la adm
- ef adv: IVS, bronhospasm, HTA paradoxala
- doza 0.1 – 0.25 µg/kg adm iv in 2 min urmat de bolus 0.25-0.5 µg/kg la 10
min sau pev cont 2 mg/min
- Δt actiune 5 h → nu e rec pt pev prelungite
Blocanti β
Acebutolol + 2–4 h + +
Atenolol ++ 5–9 h
Betaxlol ++ 14–22 h
Esmolol ++ 9 min
Metoprolol ++ 3–4 h ±
Bisoprolol + 9–12 h
Oxprenolol 1–2 h + +
Alprenolol 2–3 h + +
Pindolol 3–4 h ++ ±
Penbutolol 5h + +
Carteolol 6h +
Labetalol 4–8 h + ±
Propranolol 3–6 h ++
Timolol 3–5 h
1
Sotalol 5–13 h
Nadolol 10–24 h
Carvedilol 6–8 h + ±
91
Esmolol
- β1 agonist selectiv
- ↓ AV si mult mai putin ↓ TA
- la doze mici cardioselectiv, la doze ↑ inh si β2 din mm neteda bronsica si
vasculara
- durata de act ↓ - Δt elim 9 min
- metab prin hidroliza de esteraza eritrocitara
- CI la pac cu AV↓, bloc AV gr II/III, soc cardiogen
- bolus 0.2-0.5 mg/kg iv pt ef de scuta dur
- pt ef de lunga durata bolus 0.5mg/kg + pev cont 50 µg/kg/min (poate fi ↑
pana la 200 µg/kg/min
Propranolol
- blocheaza nonselectiv β1 + β2
- ↓ TA prin ↓ contractilitate miocardica, ↓ AV, ↓ elib de renina
- ↓ CO si cerere de O2 miocardica
- indic in ischemie mioc datorata ↑ TA si AV
- blocheaza ef β in tireotoxicoza + feocromocitom
- ef sec bronhospasm, ICC, bradicardie, BAV, accentueaza depresie mioc
indusa de anest volatile
- intrerupere trat – la 24-48 ore HTA, tahicardie, angina (upregulation - ↑ nr -
rec β1)
- metab hepatic, Δt elim = 10 min
- doza 0.5-1 mg bolus pana la 0.15mg/kg
Feocromocitom
= tum vasc a tes cromafin ce produce si secreta NA + A
- dg - ac vanilmandelic urinar ↑
- NA, A, metanefrine urinare ↑
- fenoxibenzamina
- intraop – iv fentolamina, labetalol
- evitare: - Sch → fasciculatii → ↑ Pintraabd → elib CA
- medic asoc cu elib de histamina
- halotan – sensibizeaza cord la CA
- ketamina – Smimetic
- anticolinergice – imbalanta S autonom
- pancuroniu
- droperidol
An
e
is
added
to
the
status
number
to
designate
an
emergency
operation.
An
organ
donor
is
usually
designated
as
Class
6.
7.
Describe
the
two
key
features
of
the
airway
examination
The
mental
space
is
the
distance
from
the
thyroid
cartilage
to
the
inside
of
the
mentum,
measured
while
the
patient
sits
with
the
neck
in
the
sniff
position.
The
oropharynx
is
examined
with
the
patient
in
the
sitting
position,
with
the
neck
extended,
tongue
out,
and
phonating.
8.
Outline
the
Mallampati
classification
The
four
classes
of
patients,
originally
described
by
Mallampati,
are
grouped
according
to
visualized
structures
(Fig.
17-‐1).
1. Class
I:
Soft
palate,
fauces,
uvula,
anterior
and
posterior
tonsillar
pillars
2. Class
II:
Soft
palate,
fauces,
uvula
3. Class
III:
Soft
palate,
base
of
uvula
4. Class
IV:
Soft
palate
only
94
Figure
17-‐1
Mallampati
classification
of
the
oropharynx.
9.
Why
is
the
Mallampati
classification
significant?
Mallampati
found
a
correlation
between
higher
oropharyngeal
class
and
decreased
glottic
exposure
at
laryngoscopy.
A
higher
oropharyngeal
class
combined
with
a
mental
space
<
2
fingerbreadths
may
better
predict
increased
difficulty
with
intubation.
Other
features
on
examination
that
increase
the
likelihood
of
difficult
intubation
include
diminished
neck
extension,
decreased
tissue
compliance,
large
tongue,
overbite,
large
teeth,
narrow
high-‐arched
palate,
decreased
temporomandibular
joint
mobility,
and
short
thick
neck.
10.
How
long
should
a
patient
fast
before
surgery?
Current
guidelines
for
healthy
adults
with
no
risk
factors
for
aspiration
include
no
solid
food
for
a
minimum
of
6
hours,
clear
liquids
up
to
2
hours
prior
to
an
elective
procedure,
and
oral
preoperative
medications
up
to
1-‐2
hours
before
anesthesia
with
sips
of
water.
page
116
page
117
Current
fasting
guidelines
for
pediatric
patients
are
as
follows:
clear
liquids
up
to
2
hours
preoperatively,
breast
milk
up
to
4
hours
preoperatively,
and
solid
foods,
including
nonhuman
milk
and
formula,
up
to
6
hours
preoperatively.
11.
Which
patients
are
at
higher
risk
for
aspiration?
Patients
with
any
degree
of
gastrointestinal
obstruction,
a
history
of
gastroesophageal
reflux,
diabetes
mellitus
(e.g.,
gastroparesis),
recent
solid-‐food
intake,
abdominal
distention
(e.g.,
obesity,
ascites),
pregnancy,
depressed
consciousness,
or
recent
opioid
administration
(decreased
gastric
emptying)
are
at
higher
risk.
In
addition,
naso-‐oropharyngeal
or
upper
gastrointestinal
bleeding,
airway
trauma,
and
emergency
surgery
are
high-‐risk
settings.
12.
What
are
the
appropriate
preoperative
laboratory
tests?
Which
patients
should
have
an
electrocardiogram?
Chest
radiography?
No
evidence
supports
the
use
of
routine
laboratory
testing.
Rather,
there
is
support
for
the
use
of
selected
laboratory
analysis
based
on
the
patient's
preoperative
95
history,
physical
examination,
and
proposed
surgical
procedure.
(Table
17-‐1).
Unless
there
has
been
an
intervening
change
in
status,
electrocardiogram
and
chest
radiograph
obtained
within
6
months
of
the
procedure
need
not
be
repeated.
Likewise,
chemistries
and
hemoglobin/hematocrit
values
obtained
within
1
month
are
acceptable
in
the
stable
situation.
Coagulation
studies
should
be
no
more
than
1
week
old.
Table
17-‐1.
APPROPRIATE
PREOPERATIVE
LABORATORY
TESTS
BASED
ON
PATIENT
HISTORY
AND
PHYSICAL
EXAMINATION*
Test
Indications
Electrocardiogram
Cardiac
and
circulatory
disease,
respiratory
disease,
advanced
age†
Chest
radiograph
Chronic
lung
disease,
history
of
congestive
heart
disease
Pulmonary
function
tests,
including
blood
Reactive
airway
disease,
chronic
lung
gas
analysis
and
spirometry
disease,
restrictive
lung
disease
(e.g.,
scoliosis)
Hemoglobin/hematocrit
Advanced
age,†
anemia,
bleeding
disorders,
other
hematologic
disorders
Coagulation
studies
Bleeding
disorders,
liver
dysfunction,
anticoagulants
+ + -‐
Serum
chemistries
(Na ,
K ,
Cl ,
CO2,
Endocrine
disorders,
medications,
renal
glucose)
dysfunction
Pregnancy
test
Uncertain
pregnancy
history,
history
suggestive
of
current
pregnancy
*At
least
50%
of
the
task
force
experts
agreed
that
the
listed
tests
were
beneficial
when
used
selectively.
Because
of
a
lack
of
solid
evidence
in
the
literature,
these
indications
are
somewhat
broad
and
vague
and
limit
the
clinical
utility
of
the
guidelines.
†
The
definition
of
advanced
age
is
vague
and
should
be
considered
in
the
context
of
that
patient's
overall
health.
13.
What
is
the
generally
accepted
minimum
hematocrit
for
elective
surgery?
page
117
page
118
There
is
no
specific
minimum;
it
depends
on
the
clinical
setting.
Screening
baseline
hemoglobins
for
surgeries
without
significant
blood
loss
do
not
add
any
value
to
estimations
of
perioperative
risk
or
adverse
outcomes.
The
potential
blood
loss
and
O2
demands
associated
with
the
proposed
surgical
procedure
must
be
considered
as
well
as
patients'
medical
conditions
that
may
place
them
at
increased
risk
for
ischemia,
including
coronary
atherosclerosis,
cerebral
insufficiency,
or
renovascular
disease.
Patients
with
advanced
pulmonary
disease
also
tolerate
anemia
poorly.
Elderly
patients
with
anemia
often
have
a
poorer
functional
status,
longer
96
1. Those
cases
that
need
more
information
or
expertise
to
establish
or
quantify
a
diagnosis
that
has
implications
for
anesthetic
management.
An
example
is
asking
a
cardiologist
to
evaluate
a
50-‐year-‐old
man
with
recent
onset
of
exertional
chest
pain.
2. Patients
in
whom
the
diagnosis
is
known,
but
further
evaluation
and
treatment
are
needed
to
optimize
their
medical
condition
prior
to
surgery.
Referring
patients
with
poorly
controlled
diabetes,
hypertension,
or
asthma
to
an
internist
are
examples.
16.
What
benefits
and
risks
are
associated
with
preoperative
cigarette
cessation?
How
long
before
surgery
must
the
patient
quit
to
realize
these
benefits?
Carbon
monoxide
(CO)
from
cigarette
smoking
diminishes
oxygen
delivery
to
tissues.
Nicotine
increases
heart
rate
and
can
cause
peripheral
vasoconstriction.
Within
12-‐
24
hours
of
discontinuing
cigarettes,
CO
and
nicotine
levels
return
to
normal.
Bronchociliary
function
improves
within
2-‐3
days
of
cessation,
and
sputum
volume
decreases
to
normal
levels
within
about
2
weeks.
However,
there
may
not
be
a
significant
decrease
in
postoperative
respiratory
morbidity
until
after
6-‐8
weeks
of
abstinence.
Following
cessation,
some
smokers
will
have
an
initial
increase
in
sputum
production,
and
others
may
have
new
onset
or
exacerbation
of
existing
reactive
airways
disease.
Although
the
risk
of
arterial
thrombosis
decreases
with
cessation,
there
may
be
an
increased
risk
of
deep
venous
thrombosis.
There
are
also
possible
short-‐term
negative
effects
including
the
irritability
and
anxiety
associated
with
nicotine
withdrawal.
17.
What
are
current
guidelines
for
perioperative
cardiac
evaluation
for
the
patient
scheduled
for
noncardiac
surgery?
In
addition
to
identifying
the
presence
of
disease,
it
is
necessary
to
typify
its
severity,
stability,
and
prior
treatment.
Other
factors
important
in
determining
cardiac
risk
97
18.
In
the
evaluation
of
a
patient's
coagulation
status,
what
are
the
key
features
in
the
history?
The
anesthesiologist
should
always
ask
about
abnormal
bleeding
or
bruising,
medical
conditions
or
medications
associated
with
increased
bleeding
(including
herbal
medications
such
as
gingko,
ginseng,
garlic),
family
history
of
excessive
bleeding,
or
unusual
bleeding
with
prior
surgery.
If
there
is
a
positive
response
to
any
of
these,
further
questioning
is
indicated:
Is
there
epistaxis,
hematuria,
or
menorrhagia?
Hematuria
may
also
occur
with
a
coagulopathy.
Gingival
bleeding
could
be
due
to
primary
gum
disease,
uremia,
or
thrombocytopenia.
Petechiae
suggest
quantitative
or
qualitative
platelet
abnormalities
or
impaired
vascular
integrity.
Gastrointestinal
bleeding
may
be
due
to
abnormal
primary
hemostasis,
coagulopathy,
or
fibrinolysis.
A
history
of
severe,
life-‐
threatening
bleeding,
bleeding
into
deep
tissue
planes,
muscles,
or
the
retroperitoneal
space,
and,
especially,
spontaneous
ecchymoses
or
hemarthrosis
98
usually
are
due
to
a
defect
in
the
coagulation
pathway.
Initial
bleeding
that
stops
and
then
spontaneously
recurs
also
suggests
a
coagulopathy.
19.
What
constitutes
the
basic
laboratory
evaluation
of
coagulation
status?
The
basic
laboratory
evaluation
includes
platelet
count,
bleeding
time,
prothrombin
time
(PT),
partial
thromboplastin
time
(PTT),
and
thrombin
time.
The
minimal
number
of
normally
functioning
platelets
to
prevent
surgical
bleeding
is
50,000/mm3.
It
is
important
to
note
that
both
the
PT
and
PTT
require
about
a
60-‐
80%
loss
of
coagulation
activity
before
becoming
abnormal,
but
patients
with
smaller
decreases
in
function
can
still
have
significant
surgical
bleeding.
Therefore,
the
history
is
still
very
important.
Clasificarea NYHA
I B cardiaca fara limitare a activitatii fizice
II B cardiaca cu limitare usoara a activitatii fizice, asimp la repaus, la act fizica
dispnee, palpitatii
III B cardiaca cu limitare severa a act fizice, asimp la repaus, la act fizica
usoara oboseala, dispnee, palpitatii
IV B cardiaca limitand orice activitate fizica, simptomatica la repaus
Medicamente antihipertensive
- multe din medic antiHTA si antipsihotice act prin afectare
- stocarii
- preluarii
- metabolismului
- eliberarii
neurotransmitatorilor din neuronul sinaptic
Rezerpina
- depletizare granule NA, A si dopa din creier + periferic
- vasopresoarele indirecte (efedrina, metaremiol) ce act prin ↑ eliberarii de
CA devin ineficiente
- det un raspuns exacerbat cu HTA, tahicardie la doze uzuale de amine
simpatomimetice directe → hTA, bradicardia det de rezerpina trebuie tratate
cu doze titrate de vasoconstrictoare directe
β blocante - Propranorol
- postop pev cnt 3 mg/h pt a se evita stimularea simpatica peroperator si sd
de sevraj
- nu afecteaza necesarul anestezic
- efectele hTA si bradicardie sunt aditive cu anestezia
- ↓ TA prin ↓ contracturii miocaridce , ↓ AV, ↓ secretia de renina → pt a
invinge acest blocaj sunt necesare cant ↑ de β stimulante
α blocante – Prazosin
100
α2 stimulant
- stim rec α2 de la nivel central → vasodilatatie
- Clonidina – t1/2 = 12-24 ore
- pt a evita criza HTA de sevraj la clonidina – patch preop care ↓↓ raspunusl
simpaticomimetic perioperator,
- teoretic adm de butirofenon (droperidol) poate precipita o criza HTA, practic
nu s-a raportat nici un caz
- ↓ necesarul anestezic cu 10-20%
- previne rigiditatea indusa de opioizi
- efect analgetic
Diuretice
Tiazidice
- det alcaloza hipocloremica, hipoK, Hiperglicemie, HiperCa, Hiperuricemie
- prelungesc blocada nm
De ansa
- prelungesc blocada nm
Econ de K
- HiperK, hipoNa, ginecomastie, impotenta
Vasodilatatoare directe
Hidralaziana
- sd lupus like (uneori cu afectare de rec)
- congestie nazala, cefalee, ICC, angina
Minoxidil – nu ap r adv
Blocante de Ca
- inhiba fluxul de Ca trasnmembranar in mm cardiac si vascular
- ↓ AV, ↓ contractilitatea miocardica, ↓ velocitatea de conducere, dilata
coronarele, arteriolele cerebrale, sistemice
- Verapamil/diltizem + β blocante → risc ↑ de bloc AV
- nifedipina + anest inh, opioizi → ef aditive pe ↓ SVR, ↓ TA, ↓
contractilitatea
- verapamil + anest inh, N2O, opioizi → efecte aditive pe ↑ timp de conducere
AV, ↓ SVR, ↓ TA, ↓ contractilitatea
- verapamil ↓ necesarul anestezic cu 25%
- potenteaza curarele depolarizante + nondepolarizante
- distrofia mm Duchene → precipita IRA
- pot fi folositi si pt trat vasospasmului cerebral, bronhospasm, tulb de
coagulare preop
- sunt inalt legate de prot → pot dislocui alte medic de pe prot (lidocaina,
bupivacaina, DZP, propranorol, disopiramida)
- intraanestezic – se va titra efectul anest inh si opioizi, hTA poate fi tratata cu
Ca iv, in schim ef electrofiziologice necesita doze f mari de β agonisti
Antipsihotice
101
IMAO
- se leaga ireversibil de MAO → ↑↑ nivelul intraneuronal de amine
neurotransmitatori (serotonina, NA, A, octapamian)
- ef: antidepresiv, antiHTA, ↑ enz hepatice, antinarcoleptic, intarzie debutul
Parkinson
- IMAO ar trebui oprite cu 2-3 S inaintea oricarei interventii chirurgicale
→ instabilitate hemodianmica
→ + narcotice/ + simpaticomimetice indirecte → convulsii, coma hiperpirexica
AD3C
- amitriptilina, imipramina, nortriptilina, doxepin, fluoxetin (Prozac)
- blocheaza preluarea neurotransmitatorilor → acute release in adm cronica ↓
depozitele de CA
- r adv - ~ atropina – gura ucata, delir, tahicardie, retentie urinara
- modif ECG – modif unda T, alungire complex QRS, bloc de ramura,
tulb de conducere, contr ventriculare premature
- aritmiile pot fi tratate cu succes cu ajutorul fizostigminei
- interactioneaza cu halotan, pancuroniu → aritmii ventriculare fatale
- blocheaza efectul antiHTA al guanidinei, guanfacineni (care act prin
depletizare rezerve de CA de la nivel SNC
Fenotiazine, Butirofenone
- act prin blocarea rec dopaminergici
- det diferite grade de stimulare PS
- blocheaza rec α adrenergici
- ef: - sedare, depresie, efecte antihistaminice, anitiemetice, hipotermie
- fenotiazine: hTA ortostatice, modif ECG (prelungire interval QT si PR,
aplatizare unda T, depresie segm ST, extrasistole V, torsada de vf
- ↓ prag convulsii (de evitat la epileptici)
Carbonat de litiu
- litiu ↓ eliberarea de neurotrasnmitatori central si periferic
- potenteaza blocada nm
- ↓ necesarul de anestezie deoarece blocheaza elib de NA, A, dopamina
Amfetamina, cocaina
- det eliberarea acuta de NA, A, dopamina
- in adm cronica ↓ depozitele de la niv term nervoase
Concluzie
- medic care ↑ eliberarea centrala α adrenergica: ↑ necesarul aenstezic
- medic care ↓ eliberarea centrala α adrenergica: ↓ necesarul aenstezic
- drogurile ce actioneaza numai la nivelul rec β nu afect anestezia
Simpaticomimetice
- Terbutalina, Teofilina – adm la pac cu astm bronsic
- Halotan → sensibilizeaza miocardul la act CA exogene
102
Alte medic
Antiaritmice
- Disopiramida (antiadrenergic)
- excretata renal, bolile hepatice ↑ t1/2
- efecte anticolinergice: tahicardie, psihoza, retentie urina
- Bretilium
- blocheaza elib CA: trat cronic → hipersensibilitate la ag vasopresori
- Chinidina
- se excreta renal
- are efecte vagolitice ce pot det bloc AV
- se asoc cu discrazia sg/tulb gastro-int
- Amiodarona
- intraanestezic produce HTA, bradicardie, CO↓
- det neuropatie periferica
- marea majoritate a antiaritmicelor potenteaza blocul musc nondepolarizant
ATB
- singurele ATB ce nu influenteaza blocul nm – penicilina G, cefalosporinele
- inductia enzimatica det de unele ATB ↑ metab enfluran, isofluran
- izoniazida – induce enzimele microzomale responsabile de metab
enfluranului, ↑ frecv leziunilor renale flourinduse de enfluran
Digitala
- risc ↑ de toxicitate in asoc cu hipoK
- este de evitat deoarece conc de K variaza larg intraop dat shift-urilor de
lichide, tulb echil acido-bazic, trat adjuvante
- aritmiile intraop det de toxicitatea digitalica sunt dificil de diferentiat de alte
aritmii
Medicatia pt glaucom
- 2 organofosfati ce inhiba colinesteraza serica
- evitarea adm de Sch + anest locale tip aminoesteri pt metab carora este
necesara colinesteraza
Mg
- trat eclampsie
103
Antidiabetice orale
Insulina
IEC
Anticoagulante, antiagregante
Palvix
Ticlopidina
Aspirina
Warfarina, acetocumarol
Inh IIIb/IIa
ASA
ASA I = pacient sanatos fara procese patologice organice sau psihologice,
Procesul patologic pt care se operreaza este localizat fara manifestari
sistemice
ASA II = Boala sisitemica usoara/moderata determinata de boala chirurgicala
sau de alt proces patologic care nu limiteaza activitatea pacientului (automat
varsta >80 ani)
ASA III = Boala sistemica severa care determina limitarea activitatii
ASA IV = Boala sistemica severa care este amennintatoare de viata
104
CAPACITATEA FUNCTIONALA
Este un indice prognostic al evenimentelor cardiace posibile.
Poate fi exprimata in nivele echivalente metabolice, !MET corespunde
consumului de O2 a unei persoane de 70 kg si 40 ani in repaus si este de
3,5ml/kg/min.
CF este evaluata dintr-un istoric al activitatilor zilnice si este clasificata ca:
Excelenta >7 METs
Moderata 4-7 METs
Slaba <4METs
Necunoscuta.
Necesarul energetic estimat pt diferite activitati
1-4METs – activitati fiziologice
4-7 – activitati moderate
>7 activitati intense
ALGORITM
DE
EVALUARE
CARDIACA
PREOPERATORIE
106
Pentru evaluarea cardiaca preoperatorie prima intrebare care se pune este cit
de urgenta este interventia chirurgicala insa indiferent de statusul cardiac op
va fi efectuata iar evaluarea cardiaca si stratificarea riscului se fac de obicei
postoperator in urgente.
Pt op planificate se pune intrebarea daca bv a avut sau nu revascularizare
coronariana in ultimii 5 ani?
Daca s-a facut revascularizare si pacientul este capabil sa de effort adica are
o capacitate functionala > 7 MET , se va efectua interventia chirurgicala
In cazul in care pacientul nu a beneficiat de revascularizare sau daca a
devenit simptomatic in ciuda revascularizarii va fi indrumat pentru efectuarea
unor teste cardiace noninvazive:
-EKG
-echocardiografie
-scintigrafie
Daca la testele noninvazive cardiace avem rezultate care arata un risc scazut
iar manifestarile clinice sunt nemodificate se trece la efectuarea interventiei
chirurgicale.
In prezenta unui risc crescut dupa efectuarea testelor noninvazive trebuie luati
in considerare factorii clinici ai pacientului.
In prezenta unor factori clinici majori interventia chirurgicala va fi aminata si se
va lua in considerare efectuarea unei coronarografii.
In cazul unor factori clinici intermediari sau minori managementul
perioperator va depinde de capacitatea functionala a pacientului si de tipul
interventiei chirurgicale la care urmeaza sa fie supus.
In prezenta unor factori clinici intermediari , a unei capacitati functionale
proaste , sub 4 MET, si/sau a unei interventii chirurgicale cu risc crescut se va
face un test aditional noninvaziv
Daca capacitatea de efort este intermediara , 4-7MET sau buna >7 MET, iar
operatia are un risc intermediar sau scazut se va efectua interventia.
In acelasi timp daca rezultatele testelor aditionale noninvazive sunt irelevante
interventia poate fi efectuata iar daca sunt patologice bv va fi supus unei
coronarografii.
In prezenta unor factori clinici minori periop interv poate fi efectuata fara teste
cardiace aditionale in urmatoarele circumstante:
1. capacitate functionala scazuta dar risc operator scazut sau intermediar
2. capacitate functionala buna si risc operator intermediar
Testele cardiace aditionale vor fi facute numai daca rezultatul lor vor modifica
in vreun fel managementul perioperator.
La pacientii cu fact clinici de risc intermediari se va avea in vedere si
capacitatea functionala a bv si riscul asociat interv chirurgicale.
Astfel asocierea unei capacitati functionale proaste si a unor fact de risc
chirurgicali mari se vor efectua teste noninvazive cardiace care daca arata un
risc minim ne da dreptul ca efectuam interv chirurgica. Iar daca arata risc
mare tb sa indrumam pacientul pt efectuarea unei coronarografii in functie de
care se va lua decizia adecvata.
Daca capacitatea functionala a pacientului este moderata sau buna >4MET,
iar riscul chirurgical este mare se vor efectua teste nonivazive si se va urma
calea precedenta .
Daca riscul chirurgical este intermediar sau mic se va putea efectua
interv chirurgicala iar postop se vs face o stratificare a riscului.
107
SCOP
- premedicatia se refera la administrarea anumitor medicamente preoperator
cu scop sedativ si analgeti
2. Amnezie
Benzodiazepine Midazolam IM 0.07-0.15 mg/kg
SL 0.1 mg/kg
Intranazal 0.2-0.3 mg/kg
Lorazepam
3. Antiemetic
Metoclopramid OR 10 mg
IV
Antagonisti rec serotonina 5-HT3 Odansetron OR 4-8mg
IV
Dexametazona
4. Antiacid
Citrat de Sodiu OR 30 ml
Inhibitori rec H2 Ranitidina OR 150 mg preop + postop
Inhibitori pompa H+ Omeprazol OR 40 mg preop 3-4 h
Metoclopramid OR 10 mg preop
5. Antiautonomice
Anticolinergice Atropina
Glicopirolat
- scad salivatia
- scad efectele vagolitice cardiace
Antisimpaticomimetice β blocanti
6. Analgezice – preemtive analgezia
NSAID - Paracetamol
Morfinice
108
Avantaje Dezavantaje
LMA - lasa miinile anest libere - mai invaziva
vs - etanseaza m bine - risc mai ↑ de trauma cai aeriene
109
masca faciala - mai usor de mentinut caile - sedare mai profunda pt insotitori
aeriene deschise - nec mobilitatea TMJ
-protejeaza impotr - CI multiple
secretiilor
- m putina trauma pt n
facial + ochi
- m putina poluare in sala
op
LMA - m putin invaziva - ↑ riscul de aspiratie suc gastric
vs - utila in IOT dificile - mai putin safe in poz prona
sonda traheala - m putina trauma dinti + -limiteaza PPV max
laringe - cai aeriene mai putin securizate
- nu necesita relaxare mm - risc ↑ poluare + scapare gaze
- nu exista risc IOT esofag - det distensie gastrica
sau bronsic
6. Combitube
- 2 tuburi unite, fiecare cu conector separat
→ tub scurt deschis la capat
→ tub lung cu cap distal ocluzionat + gauri laterale pt iesire aer
- 2 balonase
→ 100 ml b distal
→ 15 ml β proximal
7. Intubatie endotraheala
- sonda traheala fara balonas la copii pt a ↓ lez traheii + laringospasm
- 2 tipuri de balonas
→ P ↑ + V ↓ → lez mai ↑ pe mucoasa
→ P ↓ + V ↑ → ↑ risc aspiratie, extubare spontana, insertie mai dificila,
lez de mucoasa m ↓
- pres in balonas depinde de
- volumul de inflatie
- diametru balonas / trahee
- pres intratoracica
- complianta balonas
- pres balonas poate ↑ in timpul anesteziei ← difuzie N2O
- indic: - obstr cai aerine
- managementul secretiilor
- protectie cai aeriene
- conc ↑ O2, VM, anestezie
IOT INT
Indicatii - cai resp urgenta - intub electiva
- dific tehnice - suspiciuni lez coloana
- suspiciuni lez coloana cervicala cervicala
Avantaje - tub larg cu Raw ↓ - traum oral, maxilar
- aspirare secretii m buna - igiena orala m buna
- m putin traumatogene - comunicare cu pac m
- usor de inserat buna
Dezavanataje - m putin confortabil pt pacient - m dificil de plasat
110
Complicatii:
- In timpul IOT - voma cu posibiliatatea aspiratiei
- trauma: laringe, faringe, trahee, dinti, dislocare mandibula,
disectie retrofaringiana
- bradicardie det de stimulare vagala
- hipoxemie det de procedura prelungita, hipercapnie
- aritmii cardiace, HTA
- ↑ PIC, ↑ p intraoculara
- laringospasm
- intubare bronhie dreapta
- intubare esofag
- balonas in laringe
- Dupa IOT - malpozitie (prea sus/jos)
- intubatie in dreapta
- necroza/leziune trahee/laringe
- edem faringian
- lez de decubit a sondei in gura, buze
- obstructie tub cu ventilatie inadecvata
- pierderea integritatii balonasului
- extubare
- aspirare
- otite, sinuzite
- Dupa extubare: - spasm/ edem laringian
- dilatare / stenoza/ malacie trahee
- granulom laringeal/traheal
111
- stenoza laringiana
- pareza corzi vocale
- EPA de pres neg
- prognatie
- limba ↑
- palat curbat
- gat scurt
- incisivi proeminenti
8. Traheostomia
- inel traheal 2-5
- indicatii: - management secretii pt perioada lunga de timp
- ↓ spatiului mort si a Raw
- protectie cai aeriene pt aspiratie
- obstructie cai aeriene sup ce impiedica ETT
- VM prelungita
- evaluare la 7 zile de la IOT si daca se considera m mult de inca 7 zile de VM
→ traheostomie
TT: - cu balonas
- fara balonas – nu aspira, au fct glotica, pt copii
- lumen dublu – igiena mai buna
- metal tubes – cronic – jackson tube – nu se adpteaza la VM
- speaking valves
- canule fenestrate
- butoane de traheostomie: Kistner, Olympic
Balonas sonda
C/T = presiunea dintre balonas si peretele traheal = cuff to traheal wall
Terapia cu O2
Indicatii
- corectia hipoxemiei
- imbunatatirea oxigenarii la pac cu capacitate de trasnport O ↓
- resorbtie de aer in cav corpului
Sisteme de adm O2
1. Sist low-flow
- canula nazala – FiO2 = 0.24 -0.44
- maxim 6 l/min
- masca O simpla - maxim10 l/min
- FiO2 = 0.4 – 0.6
- masca de rerespirare – adaugarea unui rezervor de O2
- FiO2 = 0.6 – 0.8
- masca non-rerespirare – FiO2 0.8-0.9
2. Sisteme High-flow
- masca Venturi – principiu Bernoulli
- sist de aerosili de volume mari
Aerosoli
Avantaje: - doze m mici fata de adm IV
- ef terapeutic mai rapid datorita aplicarii directe
- tehnica adm mai simpla
- ef sistemice ↓
Fact determinanti: - dimensiunea particulelor
- cantitatea produsa
- caracterul cailor aeriene (diam, geometrie)
- pattern-ul ventilator
→ flux 6l/min
→ doza initiala dubla, apoi titrata
→ Vt 8-12 ml/kg
→ SIMV sau A/C
Monitorizarea pacietului:
Standard pt monit anesteziei de baza
I. personal dedicat aflat in permanenta in sala op
II - oxigenare – gaz inspirat + oxig sg
- ventilatie
- circulatie
- temperatura
Esentiale:
1. EKG
- toti pac, fara contraindic
- DII – depisteaza cel mai bine aritmiile (cel mai bun electrod esofag) +
ischemia perete inf
115
2. TA noninvaziv
- 40 % circumferinta brat
TAS + 2 × TAD
MAP =
3
- metode:
- palpare
- doppler
- auscultatie
- oscilometrie
- pletismografie
3. Pulsoximatrie - SpO2
- nu exista contraindicatii
- oxiHb/heoxiHb → absorb la diferite λ
A - normal
I= sp mort
II= sp mort + aer alveolar
III= platou alveolar
B – BPOC – nu apare paltou
C – ef resp spontana la pac curarizat
D – valva expir incompleta / absorbant CO2 ineficient
E – vava inspir incompleta
Disponibile:
1. Stimulator nerv periferic
2. T0
- nu exista contraindic
metode: timpan, nazofaringe, esofag, vezica, rect, piele
- hT0 = T0<300C
- frison - ↑ consumul de O2 x5 – meperindine 25 mg
Efecte hT0
- aritmii + ischemie miocardica
- ↑ RVS
- curba SaO2/Hb la stg
- catabolism proteic
- status mental alterat
- I Renala
- ↓ metab medicamente
- ↓ vindecare plagi
117
- ↑ incidenta infectiilor
Aditionale:
1. TA invaziv
- canulare arteriala
- inidic: - hTA – chir vasculara, cord, torace, neurochir, mad spinarii
- anticipare pierderi ↑ de sg
- disfct severa de organ
- necesitate monitorizare frecv de EAB
- a. radiala (test Allen pt evaluare circ existenta circ ulnara), ulnara, brahiala,
femurala, dorsala pic, axilara
- complicatii:
- sangerare
- hematom
- vasospasm
- leziune nerv
- infectie
- injurie intraarteriala
- tromboza arteriala
- embolizare aer/trombi
- necroza piele
2. Dz
- 1ml/kg/h
- cateter Foley
3. CVC
- indic: - monitorizare PVC
- adm de fluide pt trat hipovolemie
- adm de nutritie parenterala/subst caustice
- aspiratie emboli aer
- inserite lectrozi pacemaker
- acces vascualar la pac fara pat venos periferic
- CI: - tumoare AD
- endocardita valva tricuspida
- v basilica, jug ext, jug int, subclavie, fenurala
- complicatii:
- infectie
- trombi/ embolism asoc
- aritmii
- hematom
- pntx, hemotx, chilotx, hidrotx
- perforatie cord
- tamponada cardiaca
- trauma nervi/artere
118
- tromboza
4. Swan - Gantz
- monitorizare pres AP
- estimare DC
- metinere max 72 ore
CI relative:
- BRS complet
- WPW
- b Ebstein
Indicatii
- b cardiaca - b coronara cu disfc VS / IMA recent
- b valvulara
- IC - cardiomiopatie, tamponada, cord pulmonar
- b pulmonara - IResp acuta – ARDS
- BPOC sever
- management fluide - soc
- IRA
- arsuri severe
- pancreatita hemoragica
- proceduri chir specifice
- pericardectomii
- clampare Ao (AnAo)
- craniotomii in poz sezanda
- sunt portal sistemic
- trasnplant ficat
- obstretica cu risc ↑
- toxemie severa
- ruptura placenta
Incidente Swan:
- acces venos:
- punctie arteriala
- sangerare la locul de pct
- neuropatie postmanevra
- pntx
- embolism aer
- cateterizare
- aritmii minore
- aritmii severe – TV, FiV
- ↑ minora a InsufTr
- BRD
- BRS complet ( la pac cu BRS ant)
- prezenta cateter
- ruptura pulmonara
- culturi pozitive vf cateter
- sepsis legat de prez cateter
- tromboflebite
- tromboza venoasa
- infarct pulm
119
- tromb mural
- endocardia
- deces
CO
CI = ≥ 2.8-3.6 l/min/m2
Suprafata
CO
SV= ×1000
AV
SV
SI = = 20-65 ml/batai/m2
Suprafata
MAP − PVC
SVR = × 80 = 770-1500 dynes/sec/cm2
CO
MPAP − PAWP
PVR = × 80 = 20-120 dynes/sec/cm2
CO
Presiuni:
AD = 0-8 mmHg
VD = 15-30/0 mmHg
Ap = 15-30/0
PAWP = 5-15
Metode det CO
- termodilutie → curba termodilutie
- filament termic
- injectare apa rece
- dilutie colorant
- ultrasonografie
- principiul Fick
5. EEG
120
6. Potentiale evocate
- indic in chirurgia asociata cu lez neurologice – Nch, chir aorta tor-
abdominala
27.
Tehnici
de
anestezie
intravenoasa
(inductie,
mentinere,
trezire,
combinatii
de
substante
anestezice,
si
modalitati
de
administrare)
TIVA
=
total
intravvenos
anesthesia
-‐
medicament
indicat:
-‐
rapid
elim/metab
la
subst
inactive
pt
a
prevenii
acumularea
sau
efectul
prelungit,
fara
efecte
sec
-‐
propofol
cel
mai
folosit
-‐
ketamina
-‐
recuperare
dificila
-‐
etomidat
–
supesie
steroizi
TIVA
propofol
-‐doza
inductie
+
bolusuri
+
DDiprifusor
–
TCI
=
target
controlled
infusion
+
opioide
–
fentanyl
–
bolus
sau
remifentanil
–
PEV
cony
Avantaje
TIVA
8. evitare
ef
toxic
al
anestezicelor
inhalatorii
9. evitare
probleme
legate
de
N2O
10. o
calitate
mai
buna
a
recuperarii
11. beneficiu
in
NCH
12. ↓
poluare
Dezavantaje
TIVE
13. abord
venos
securizat
14. risc
trezire
daca
↓
conc
de
anestezic
15. cost
crescut
pompe
16. hTA
profunda
121
Până
nu
de
mult
anestezicile
intravenoase
s-‐au
administrat
în
bolusuri
intermitente.
În
acest
fel
se
obţineau
diferenţe
foarte
mari
în
concentraţia
plasmatică
a
drogului
administrat
cu
nivele
prea
mari
după
bolusuri
care
apoi
scădeau
rapid
până
la
nivelele
subanestezice
necesitând
un
nou
bolus
Folosind
infuzia
continuuă
de
anestezice
se
poate
obţine
un
nivel
terapeutic
constant
al
drogului
pe
tot
parcursul
intervenţiei
chirurgicale.
Prin
metoda
CACI(TCI)se
obtine
cel
mai
constant
nivel.
Avantajele
teoretice
ale
infuziei
continuue
faţă
de
administrarea
intermitentă
în
bolusuri:
1. mai
puţine
perioade
de
slab
control
anestezic
2. reducerea
cantităţii
totale
de
anestezic
3. stabilitate
hemodinamica
mai
buna
4. recuperarea
postanestezică
mai
rapidă
5. scade
depresia
respiratorie
si
necesarul
de
antagonisti
6. analgazie
mai
buna
in
postoperator
Având
în
vedere
aceste
consideraţii
farmacodinamice
care
este
concentraţia
plasmatică
necesară
pentru
a
obţine
un
anumit
efect?
Pentru
a
rezolva
această
problemă
s-‐au
făcut
eforturi
considerabile
pentru
a
găsi
un
echivalent
al
MAC-‐ului
pentru
anestezicile
intravenoase.
Iniţial
a
fost
definit
MIR
(minimum
infusion
rate)
drept
rata
minimă
necesară
pentru
a
preveni
un
răspuns
somatic
la
incizie
chirurgicală
la
50%
dintre
pacienţi.
Această
abordare
simplistă
ignoră
acumularea
drogului
în
plasmă
care
se
produce
în
mod
obligatoriu
în
funcţie
de
timpul
infuziei
intravenoase
–
din
această
cauză
s-‐a
dezvoltat
conceptul
C50.
C50
=
concentraţia
care
produce
50%
din
efectul
maxim
posibil.
Există
multe
feluri
în
care
ne
putem
gândi
la
C50.
De
exemplu
poate
fi
concentraţia
drogului
care
previne
răspunsul
(mişcări,
HTA,
etc...)
la
un
stimul
particular
(incizie,
intubaţie,
etc...)
la
50%
din
pacienţi.
C50
pt
pierderea
C50
pt
incizie
la
piele
Drog
C50
pt
depresie
EEG
cunostintei
nedureroasa
Tiopental
8-‐16
35-‐40
15-‐20
Fentanil
-‐
4-‐6
6-‐10
Alfentanil
-‐
200-‐300
500-‐600
Aceste
valori
sunt
foarte
importante
pentru
că
sunt
orientative
pentru
TCI.
C50
referindu-‐se
la
lipsa
de
răspuns
la
50%
din
pacienţi
poate
exprima
în
faptul
că
ceilalţi
50%
pot
avea
un
răspuns
atunci
când
drogul
atinge
această
122
Pentru
chirurgia
cardiacă
dozele
sunt
similare
dar
opioidul
e
în
cantitate
mult
mai
mare.
DROPERIDOL.NLA.
Efecte:-‐detasare,sedare
-‐pain
free
state
-‐insensibilitate
la
durere
-‐antiemeza
Avantaj:nu
elibereaza
histamina
NLA=TRANCHILIZANT
MAJOR
+
OPIOID
+
N2O
Doza
intubatie=25-‐100µg/kg
Opioid:alfentanil:
10µg/kg+1,5µg/kg/min
(awake
craniotomy)
fentanil:3-‐5µg/kg+0,05µg/kg/min
Indicatii
NLA:Alternativa
anestezica
la
polialergici
Proceduri
neurodiagnostice
Awake
craniotomy
S-‐a
folosit
si
in
:chirurgie
generala,neurochirurgie
,ch.cardiaca.
CI:-‐IMAO
-‐Abuz
alcool
-‐Parkinson
OPIOIZII
Nu
toţi
opioizii
sunt
potriviţi
pentru
TIVA.
Drogul
ideal
pentru
această
aplicaţie
trebuie
să
aibă
o
farmacocinetică
care
să-‐i
asigure
o
instalare
rapidă
şi
o
eliminare
la
fel
de
rapidă.
Toţi
opioizii
se
corelează
negativ
cu
vârsta.
Alfentanilul
şi
mai
ales
remifentanilul
sunt
cele
mai
potrivite.
Datorita
indexului
terapeutic
mare
opioizii
permit
administrarea
unui
bolus
initial
mare
care
sa
produca
o
cp.
care
sa
fie
suficienta
pentru
aproape
toti
stimulii.Aceasta
poate
insa
conduce
la
depresie
respiratorie
postoperatorie
.
De
aceea
este
de
preferat
adminisrarea
unui
bolus
urmat
de
infuzie.
FENTANIL
SUFENTANIL
ALFENTANIL
RENIFENTANIL
Ch.cardiaca
15-‐30
5-‐10
400-‐800
Ch.mare
4-‐10
1-‐3
200-‐400
2-‐4
Ch.mica
3-‐6
0,25-‐1
50-‐200
1-‐3
Vent.spont
1-‐3
≤0,4
≤200
0,3-‐0,6
130
Ulterior
s-‐au
folosit
doze
totale
mai
mari
până
la
162
µg/kg
(Wynands
et
al
1983).
Opioidul
poate
fi
administrat
fie
ca
doză
unică
fie
ca
doză
iniţială
urmată
de
infuzie.
Ca
doză
unică
iniţială
a
fost
folosit
într-‐o
varietate
de
formule.
De
ex.:
60
µg/kg
(Bovill
1980)
sau
75
µg/kg
(Hug
1982).
În
felul
acesta
concentraţia
fentanylului
iniţial
foarte
mare,
scădea
ajungând
la
sfârşitul
etapei
de
by-‐pass
cardio
pulmonar
(CEC)
la
10
ng/ml
concentraţie
la
care
riscul
de
trezire
este
destul
de
mare.
Pentru
a
evita
acest
neajuns
în
1979
Lunn
a
sugerat
tehnica
administrării
în
bolus
iniţial
de
50
µg/kg
urmată
de
infuzie
0,5
µg/kg/min
rezultând
o
concentraţie
plasmatică
în
jur
de
15÷18
ng/ml
pe
tot
parcursul
anesteziei.
Această
tehnică,
cu
mici
variaţii
se
foloseşte
şi
astăzi.
Nu
exista
nici
un
beneficiu
in
a
administra
bolusuri
initiale
mai
mari
de
30-‐
40µg/kg(care
produc
cp=20-‐30ng/ml)
Morgan
(2001)
propune:
DÎ
=
15÷40
µg/kg
pentru
inducţie
Menţinerea
=
fie
continuuă
0,3÷1
µg/kg/min
fie
în
bolusuri
3÷5
µg/kg
la
nevoie.
Cu
o
doză
totală
=
50÷100
µg/kg.
Schema
Hall(modificata
Wagner)=
2
perfuzii
simultane
cu
Fentanyl
:
Prima
-‐
2,4µg/kg/min
20
min
Cealalta-‐0,3µg/kg/min
→cp=20-‐27ng/ml
Pentru
sufentanyl:
DÎ=5÷10(20)
µg/kg
DM=0,075
µg/kg/min
Doza
totala=15-‐30µg/kg
Dozele
mari
de
fentanyl
sau
sufentanyl
administrate
singure
sunt
în
general
asociate
cu
depresie
miocardică
minimă
şi
mare
stabilitate
hemodinamică.
Dacă
însă
sunt
combinate
cu
doze
mici
de
agenţi
intravenoşi
(benzodiazepine
sau
barbiturice)
se
poate
produce
hipotensiune
prin
vasodilataţie
sau
cardiodepresie.
Dozele
mari
de
alfentanyl
deşi
au
fost
folosite
în
trecut
(De
Lange
et
al)
nu
se
mai
folosesc
deoarece
nu
asigură
suficientă
stabilitate
hemodinamică
iar
costul
este
mult
mai
mare.
Experienţa
cu
remifentanil
este
limitată.
Tehnica
analgetică
pură
în
doze
mari
este
rar
folosită
pentru
că
are
două
mari
dezavantaje:
1.
Riscul
trezirii
pacientului
în
timpul
operaţiei.
Au
fost
semnalate
numeroase
cazuri
de
trezire
în
timpul
operaţiei.
134
Au
existat
controverse
dacă
opioizii
sunt
sau
nu
anestezice.
Deşi
administraţi
în
doze
mari
produc
stare
de
inconştienţă
există
evidenţe
experimentale
că
aceasta
este
diferită
de
anestezia
produsă
de
anestezicele
clasice.
2.
Depresia
respiratorie
postoperatorie
prelungită.
Conceptul
de
FAST
TRACKING
(detubare
precoce
–
asta
însemnând
în
primele
8
ore
postoperator)
a
căpătat
în
ultima
perioadă
o
importanţă
din
ce
în
ce
mai
mare.
(Pentru
sufentanyl
recuperarea
este
în
general
mai
rapidă
decât
cu
fentanil.)
3.
În
plus
se
pot
produce
bradicardie
extremă
şi
rigiditate
musculară.
Aceasta
din
urmă
este
contrabalansată
de
administrare
de
musculorelaxanţi.
MUSCULORELAXANTELE
folosite
sunt:
Pentru
intubaţie
se
foloseşte
de
obicei
un
nedopolarizant.
Succinilcolina
se
foloseşte
doar
dacă
este
suspectată
o
intubaţie
dificila..
Cele
mai
folosite
sunt
ROCURONIUL
şi
VECURONIUL
(deşi
vecuroniul
a
fost
raportat
a
potenţa
bradicardia).
Pancuroniul
poate
fi
o
bună
alegere
pentru
a
contrabalansa
bradicardia.
Pipecuronium
poate
fi
de
asemenea
folosit.
FOLOSIREA
OPIOIDULUI
ÎN
COMBINAŢIE
CU
HIPNOTIC:
Midazolamul
–
ca
singur
agent
de
inducţie
oferă
o
bună
stabilitate
hemodinamică.
Dacă
însă
este
combinat
cu
doze
mari
de
fentanyl
produce
hipotensiune
şi
depresie
miocardică.
Acest
efect
poate
fi
limitat
prin
administrarea
prudentă
şi
titrată
(Raza
et
all
1984).
Dozele
folosite
de
PERSSON
et
al
1988
pentru
obţinerea
cp
=
300÷500
ng/ml
au
fost:
Bolus
iniţial
0,3
mg/kg
în
10minute
apoi
infuzie
continuuă
0,15
mg/kg/oră.
Etomidatul
–
INDUCŢIE
–
0,15
mg/kg
MENŢINERE
–
20
µg/kg/min
(ODURO
ET
ALL
1983).
Propofolul
–
Pentru
inducţie
folosirea
propofolului
este
riscantă
putând
produce
scăderi
de
tensiune
importante
periculoase
pentru
coronarieni.
Propofolul
poate
fi
însă
folosit
pentru
menţinerea
anesteziei.
Tehnica
propusă
de
Russell
et
all
1989:
INDUCŢIE
–
MIDOZALAM
+
FENTANYL
(doze
moderate)
MENŢINERE
–
PROPOFOL
iniţial
10
mg/kg/oră
apoi
titrat
către
3÷6
mg/kg/oră.
135
Combinat
cu
doze
moderate
de
fentanyl
propofolul
în
infuzie
continuuă
este
asociat
cu
o
bună
stabilitate
hemodinamică
în
chirurgia
cardiacă.
Combinaţia
ketamina
+
midozalam
este
asociată
de
asemenea
cu
o
hemodinamică
stabilă.
Cele
două
au
profile
farmacocinetice
similare
şi
pot
fi
amestecate
împreună
în
aceeaşi
seringă
în
proporţie
de
20:1(Morgan
2001).
Pentru
inducţie
–
KETAMINA
1÷2
mg/kg
SLOW
BOLUS
MIDAZOLAM
0,5÷1
mg/kg
SLOW
BOLUS
(±propofol)
MENŢINEREA
–
KETAMINA
1,4
mg/kg/oră
MIDAZOLAM
0,07
mg/kg/oră
Această
tehnică
este
utilă
în
special
la
pacienţii
cu
funcţie
ventriculară
proastă.
Tiopentalul
–
nu
se
mai
foloseşte
în
chirurgia
cardiacă.
El
a
fost
folosit
în
unele
tehnici
de
infuzie
cu
descreştere
exponenţială
(Morgan
et
all
1989)
TIVA
ÎN
NEUROCHIRURGIE
Anestezicul
ideal
pentru
chirurgia
intracraniană
trebuie
să
reducă
presiunea
intracraniană
(ICP),
volumul
cerebral,
şi
rata
metabolismului
cerebral
(CMRO2)
oferind
protecţie
împotriva
leziunilor
ischemice
cerebrale.
Din
acest
punct
de
vedere
unele
hipnotice
intravenoase
(barbiturice,
etomidat,
propofol)
sunt
superioare
volatilelor
care
produc
vasodilataţie
şi
creşterea
presiunii
intracraniene.
În
1972
HUNTER
a
fost
primul
care
a
descris
folosirea
tiopentalului
şi
metohexitalului
pentru
menţinerea
anesteziei
în
neurochirurgie.
Etomidatul
a
fost
de
asemenea
folosit
până
la
descoperirea
efectelor
sale
adrenocorticale.
Odată
cu
introducerea
propofolului
s-‐au
eliminat
neajunsurile
provocate
prin
menţinerea
anesteziei
cu
tiopental.
Pentru
că
neurochirurgilor
le
place
ca
pacienţii
lor
să
se
trezească
repede
pentru
a
le
evalua
statusul
neurologic.
Midozalamul
nu
a
fost
folosit
în
tehnici
TIVA
în
neurochirurgie
tot
datorită
CS
½
mare.
Ketamina
mai
mult
sau
mai
puţin
surprinzător
a
fost
folosită
în
anestezia
din
neurochirurgie
(Barker).
Nu
este
recomandabil.
Ketamina
produce
creşterea
CBF
şi
ICP
şi
CMRO2
de
aceea
ea
a
fost
asociată
cu
midozalam
şi
xilină.
Xilină
1,5
mg/kg
reduce
ICP
la
pacienţii
cu
TCC
şi
previne
creşterea
ICP
la
intubaţia
pacienţilor
cu
tumori
cerebrale
(Bedford
et
al
1980).
TIVA
are
avantajul
suplimentar
că
evită
administrarea
de
protoxid
care
este
vasodilatator
cerebral
şi
stimulant
cerebral.
TIVA
poate
fi
folosită
pentru
orice
procedură
neurochirurgicală
dar
prezintă
avantaje
în
special
în
caz
de
–
TCC
ac
-‐
Mase
intracraniene
masive
–
tumori
-‐
hematoame
136
Dintre
opioizi
cel
mai
recomandabil
este
fentanylul
care
este
şi
cel
mai
studiat.
Dozele
totale
folosite
sunt
în
jur
de
5÷6
µg/kg.
Alfentanilul
este
o
alternativă
pentru
fentanyl
dar
există
studii
care
îl
încriminează
a
creşte
ICP
şi
CBF.
Sufentanilul
de
asemenea
este
un
vasodilatator
cerebral
(Marx
et
al
1988).
Practic
Premedicaţie
–
ORAL
–
diazepam
10
mg
cu
o
oră
înainte
INDUCŢIE
–
FENTANYL
2,5
µg/kg
-‐
PROPOFOL
1,5÷2,5
mg/kg
-‐
ATRACURIUM
0,5
mg/kg.
MENŢINERE
–
PROPOFOL
12
mg/kg/oră
redus
treptat
până
la
6
mg/kg/oră.
Ultimele
15
minute
3mg/kg/oră.
-‐
Bolusuri
suplimentare
de
Fentanyl
(funcţie
de
TA)
până
la
0,5÷0,6
µg/kg
doză
totală
(rar
este
necesar
mai
mult)
-‐
ATRACURIUM
Bolusuri
sau
infuzie
continuuă.
Propofolul
se
întrerupe
la
ultimul
fir
la
piele.
Dacă
folosim
alfentanilul
–
DÎ
=
15÷30
µg/kg
în
5
minute
INFUZIE
=
0,5÷1
µg/kg/min.
Se
întrerupe
cu
30
minute
înainte
de
sfârţitul
operaţiei.
TIVA
ÎN
PEDIATRIE
TIVA
este
încă
destul
de
puţin
folosită
în
chirurgia
pediatrică.
Anestezicele
nonvolatile
la
copil:
-‐
Barbituricele
şi
opioizii
sunt
mai
potente
la
nou
născut
şi
copilul
mic
(probabil
datorită
permeabilităţii
crescute
a
barierei
hematoencefalice
şi
a
capacităţii
metabolice
scăzute.
-‐
Prin
contrast
par
a
fi
mai
rezistenţi
la
acţiunea
Ketaminei
(calea
citocromului
P450
devine
matură
la
vârsta
de
o
lună)
-‐
Copiii
au
rate
de
biotransformare
şi
eliminare
mai
mari
datorită
fluxului
hepatic
mărit.
-‐
Clereace-‐ul
sufentanilului,
alfentanilului
şi
probabil
al
fentanylului
este
mai
mare
la
copil.
-‐
Propofolul
–
datorită
volumului
de
distribuţie
mai
mare
şi
clereance-‐ul
mărit,
copiii
au
nevoie
de
rate
de
infuzie
mai
mari
pentru
menţinerea
anesteziei
-‐
150÷250
µg/kg/min.
Musculorelaxantele
Succinilcolina
–
copiii
sunt
mai
susceptibili
decât
adulţii
la
hiperpotasemie
,
rabdiomioliză,
aritmii
cardiace,
mioglobinurie,
spasm
maseterin
şi
hipertemie
malignă.
De
asemenea
sunt
mai
expuşi
la
bradicardie
şi
stop-‐cardiac.
Totdeauna
se
asociază
atropina.
De
aceea
folosirea
succinilcolinei
este
contraindicată
din
principiu.
Doza=
2
mg/kg/intravenos
137
2. dacă
timp
de
30
de
minute
pacientul
nu
mai
acţionează
asupra
butonului
cp
scade
cu
0,1
µg/ml.
Cu
această
metodă
s-‐a
obţinut
analgezie
VAS
≤
30
cu
cp
în
jur
de
2
µg/ml
fără
desaturare
(SaO2
>
95%)
sau
bradipnee
(FR
>
9).
SEDAREA
CONTROLATĂ
DE
PACIENT
(PACIENT
MONITORED
SEDATION)
În
acelaşi
mod
pacientul
poate
fi
implicat
în
manipularea
sedării.
(MASTRONARDI
1988)
Pentru
propofol:
TARGET
=
1
µg/ml.
a.
Pacientul
poate
creşte
nivelul
plasmatic
cu
0,2
µg/ml
prin
apăsarea
unui
buton
care
apoi
se
blochează
pentru
2
minute.
b.
Dacă
timp
de
20
de
minute
pacientul
nu
mai
acţionează
butonul
se
produce
o
scădere
automată
cu
0,2
µg/ml
Cp
medie
pentru
obţinere
unei
sedări
suficiente
a
fost
de
0,8÷0,9
µg/ml.
Fără
hipoxemie
sau
hipo
TA.
Pentru
midazolam
studiile
au
arătat
o
variabilitate
mult
prea
mare
a
răspunsului
pentru
a
fi
folosit
în
acest
mod.
MĂSURAREA
PERFORMANŢEI
TCI
Performanţa
unui
sistem
TCI
poate
fi
analizată
dacă
ne
referim
la
acurateţea
producerii
unei
anumite
concentraţii
plasmatice,
sau
astfel
spus
la
diferenţa
dintre
concentraţiile
plasmatice
propuse
(TARGET)
şi
cele
realizate.
Această
diferenţă
se
defineşte
ca
eroare
de
performanţă
(PERFORMANCE
ERROR)
MEDIA
OVER
SHOOT-‐urilor
(depăşirea
concentraţiilor)
şi
UNDER
SHOOT-‐urilor
=
MEDIAN
PERFORMANCE
ERROR
(MDPE)
MEDIA
ABSOLUTE
PERFORMANCE
ERROR
(MDAPE)
MDAPE
=
0
înseamnă
performanţă
perfectă
MDAPE
=
20
înseamnă
că
50%
din
determinări
se
încadrează
în
valoarea
TARGET
±20%
MDAPE
=
15
înseamnă
că
50%
din
determinări
se
încadrează
în
valoarea
TARGET
±15%
etc.
MDAPE
=15
este
o
performanţă
excelentă
şi
a
fost
obţinută
de
dispozitivul
lui
CRANKSHAW
pentru
alfentanil.
Care
nu
este
bazat
pe
un
model
farmacocinetic
ci
pe
o
serie
de
rate
de
infuzie
preprogramate
(fixe)
pentru
a
se
obţine
o
anumită
concentraţie
plasmatică.
Dezavantajul
acestui
aparat
este
că
nu
permite
resetarea
cp
sau
intervale
variabile
de
timp
în
cursul
operaţiei.
Majoritatea
TCI
bazate
pe
modele
farmacologice
au
MDAPE
între
20÷30.
144
SEVOFLURAN
3
L/min
13
1
L/min
4,5
DESFLURAN
3
L/min
20
1
L/min
6
ISOFLURAN
3L
/min
2
1L
/min
0,7
Cu
toate
acestea
TIVA
rămâne
în
competiţie
şi
constituie
o
alternativă
viabilă.
Blocantele
neuromusculare
în
TIVA
Regimul
de
administrare
a
blocantelor
neuromusculare
nu
diferă
în
TIVA
faţă
de
anestezia
balansata
cu
volatil.
Blocantele
neuromusculare
nu
intervin
în
nici
un
fel
în
obţinerea
stării
de
anestezie.
Ele
produc
pur
şi
simplu
relaxare
musculară.
Această
relaxare
musculară
poate
să
fie
sau
să
nu
fie
necesară
în
TIVA.
Pentru
cazurile
în
care
profunzimea
anesteziei
nu
este
monitorizată
prin
BIS
folosirea
blocantului
neuromuscular
prezintă
riscul
de
a
nu
detecta
momentele
de
superficializare
a
anesteziei
sau
de
trezire
a
pacientului
şi
care
de
multe
ori
se
traduc
prin
mişcarea
acestuia.
Evident
acest
risc
există
şi
în
anestezia
inhalatorie
nemonitorizată.
Corelaţia
însă
între
concentraţia
volatilului
administrat
şi
starea
de
anestezie
este
mai
bună
decât
în
cazul
TIVA.
În
plus
propofolul
oferă
un
grad
de
relaxare
musculare.
Pentru
operaţiile
mari
care
necesită
anestezie
profundă
se
impune
administrarea
blocantelor
neuromusculare.
Dacă
se
doreşte
administrarea
în
infuzie
continuuă,
este
de
preferat
un
drog
cu
farmacocinetică
ultrarapidă
de
genul
mivacurium
pentru
care
reversarea
blocului
nu
este
o
problemă.
Dacă
însă
se
folosesc
alte
blocante
neuromusculare
chiar
din
cele
cu
timp
de
acţiune
intermediară
administrarea
în
infuzie
continuuă
prezintă
riscul
acumulării
cu
repercursiuni
nedorite
asupra
duratei
timpului
de
recuperare.
.
Long
acting
ED95(mg/kg)
Intubatie(mg/kg)
Infuzie(γ/kg/min)
Bolusuri(mg/kg)
Pancuronium
0,07
0,08-‐0,12
NU
0,02
Intermediar
Atracurium
0,23
0,5-‐0,6
4-‐12
0,1
Cisatracurium
0,05
0,15-‐0,2
1-‐2
0,02
Vecuronium
0,05
0,1-‐0,2
0,2-‐8
0,02
Rocuronium
0,3
0,6-‐1
9-‐12
0,1
Short
acting
Mivacurium
0,08
0,2
3-‐15
0,05
147
Când
pacientul
a
atins
un
plan
profund
de
anestezie
se
tentează
intubaţia
pe
ventilaţie
spontană
cu
manevră
Sellick
(compresie
pe
cricoid).
Tehnicile
de
inducţie
descrise
sunt
orientative.
Există
o
multitudine
de
variaţii
descrise
în
literatură
privind
drogurile
folosite
şi
dozele
folosite
în
încercarea
de
a
obţine
o
inducţie
cât
mai
rapidă
cu
efecte
cardiovasculare
cât
mai
reduse.
Astfel
pentru
tehnicile
combinate
poate
fi
folosit
în
funcţie
de
circumstanţe
orice
hipnotic
intravenos
în
afară
de
tiopental
(propofol,
etomidat,
ketamină,
benzodiazepină)
sau
alt
opioid
(sufenta,
alfenta
sau
remifenta).
Doze
mici
de
midazolam
(0,05÷0,1
mg/kg)
intravenos
pot
fi
folosite
înaintea
începerii
inducţiei
cu
barbituric
sau
cu
alt
agent
intravenos
pentru
a
micşora
dozele
şi
a
obţine
o
bună
stabilitate
hemodinamică
(coinducţie).
MENŢINEREA
ANESTEZIEI
După
stabilizarea
căii
aeriene
concentraţia
volatilului
este
redusă
la
1÷1,5
MAC
şi
fluxul
la
2÷3
l/min
(N2O
66%
în
O2).
Fluxul
de
gaze
după
inducţie
va
fi
scăzut
de
regulă
la
valori
mai
mici
astfel
încât
pierderile
să
fie
minime
(aparatele
performante
permit
menţinerea
anesteziei
în
sistem
low
flow).
Concentraţia
anestezicului
administrat
se
va
reduce
la
valori
apropiate
de
1
MAC
sau
chiar
mai
puţin
în
cazul
folosirii
protoxidului
de
azot
şi
va
fi
ajustat
permanent
în
funcţie
de
reacţia
vegetativă
la
stimuli
dureroşi
şi
de
nivelul
parametrilor
hemodinamici.
În
acest
proces
TA
şi
AV
sunt
principalii
indicatori.
Dacă
se
foloseşte
BIS
valoarea
trebuie
să
fie
la
nivelul
unei
anestezii
profunde(40-‐60).
Menţinerea
se
poate
realiza
cu
volatil
singur
(VIMA)
sau
în
combinaţie
cu
adjuvanţi
(opioid,
musculorelaxant,
etc.)(an.
balansata).
Există
o
serie
de
situaţii
în
care
alegerea
unui
anumit
volatil
pentru
menţinere
este
indicată.
De
exemplu
efectul
predominant
vasodilatator
al
isofluranului
sau
enfluranului
poate
fi
avantajos
în
scăderea
tensiunii
arteriale
sau
la
obţinerea
unei
hipotensiuni
arteriale
deliberate.
Toate
volatilele
potente
sunt
bronhodilatatoare
fiind
indicate
la
pacienţii
cu
bronhospasm
(în
acest
caz
sevofluranul
este
cea
mai
bună
alegere
deşi
halotanul
poate
fi
folosit
cu
succes
dacă
nu
are
C.I.).
Volatilele
produc
ele
însele
un
grad
de
relaxare
şi
potenţează
efectul
blocantelor
neuromusculare.
Gradul
de
relaxare
depinde
de
anestezicul
volatil
folosit
(de
exemplu
enfuranul
produce
o
potenţare
mai
mare
a
vecuronium
decât
isofluranul
sau
halotanul).
Deşi
mecanismul
potenţării
nu
este
deplin
clarificat
se
pare
că
se
datorează
unui
efect
post
sinaptic
la
nivelul
joncţiunii
neuromusculare.
Din
acest
motiv
dozele
de
musculo
relaxant
trebuie
scăzute.
Regimul
de
administrare
a
opioidului
variază
în
funcţie
de
intensitatea
stimulilor
dureroşi
şi
nu
diferă
de
cea
din
tehnicile
TIVA.
Pe
parcursul
anesteziei
concentraţia
inspiratorie
a
volatilului
se
ajustează
în
funcţie
de
necesităţi
pentru
a
menţine
un
nivel
optim
al
profunzimii
anesteziei
(se
urmăresc
TA
şi
AV).
153
TREZIREA
DIN
ANESTEZIE
Este
foarte
previzibilă
după
anestezia
inhalatorie.
Scăderea
FA
după
oprirea
volatilului
depinde
de:
-‐solubilitatea
anestezicului
-‐ventilaţia
alveolară
-‐durata
anesteziei
-‐fluxul
sangvin
cerebral
şi
în
celelalte
organe.
Pentru
operaţii
scurte
viteza
recuperării
este
puţin
dependentă
de
solubilitatea
anesteziei.
Recuperarea
după
sevofluran
sau
desfluran
se
produce
de
două
ori
mai
repede
decât
după
halotan
sau
isofluran.
Stoelting
a
definit
MAC
awake
=
concentraţia
maximă
alveolară
a
volatilului
la
care
pacienţii
deschid
ochii
la
comandă:
HALOTAN
=
0,52÷0,59%
(funcţie
de
studiu)
DESFL
=
0,53
SEVO
=
0,33
ISO
=
0,25÷0,33
(funcţie
de
studiu)
ENFLURAN
=
0,27
S-‐au
făcut
o
serie
de
studii
privind
timpul
în
care
se
atinge
MAC
awake
în
funcţie
de
valoarea
MAC
de
pornire
(la
oprirea
administrării
de
volatil):
STUDIU
I
pentru
1
MAC
pornirea:
HALOTAN
=
9±4
min
(?)
ISOFL
=
15±3
min
STUDIU
II
pentru
0,65
MAC
ISOFL/DESFL
+
N2O
60%
ISO
=
14±3
min
DESFL
=
8
min
STUDIU
III
pentru
1,25
MAC
ISOFL/DESFL
ISO
=
16±4
min
DESFL
=
9
min
În
general
timpii
de
revenire
sunt:
ISOFL
=
15÷20
min
DESFL
=
8÷9
min
SEVOFL
=
8÷9
min
HALOTAN
=
20
min
(30
min)
Observaţie:
HIPERVENTILAŢIA
cu
fluxuri
mari
poate
produce
o
scădere
mai
rapidă
a
nivelelor
alveolare
de
anestezic
dar
un
pa
CO2
scăzut
va
scădea
fluxul
sangvin
cerebral
crescând
timpul
de
extragere
a
anestezicului
din
creier.
Volatilele
ca
parte
a
anesteziei
balansate
154
Termenul
de
anestezie
balansată
a
fost
definit
de
LUNDY
în
1925
şi
se
referă
la
tehnica
administrării
anesteziei
folosind
o
asociere
de
substanţe
care
să
asigure
fiecare
în
parte
(preponderent
dar
nu
exclusiv)
dezideratele
anesteziei
generale:
-‐analgezie
-‐
amnezia
-‐relaxare
musculară
-‐blocarea
reflexelor
vegetative
cu
mentinerea
homeostaziei
Această
asociere
permite
administrarrea
lor
în
doze
relativ
mici.
Opusul
ei
sunt
tehnicile
care
încearcă
să
obţină
anestezie
completă
prin
administrarea
unei
singure
substanţe
într-‐o
doză
foarte
mare
(analgetica
pură,
Vima
etc.).
Multă
vreme
protoxidul
de
azot
a
fost
folosit
în
anestezia
balansată
drept
element
central.
O
nouă
eră
a
anesteziei
balansate
a
început
odată
cu
introducerea
morfinei
de
către
Lowenstein
în
anestezia
cardiovasculară
opioidul
devenind
drogul
favorit
la
pacienţii
cu
boli
cardiovasculare
grave.
Volatilul
poate
fi
folosit
ca
un
adjuvant
în
tehnicile
balansate
cu
element
central:
opioidul,
caz
în
care
contribuie
la
menţinerea
hipnozei
(cu
sau
fără
ajutorul
unui
hipnotic
intravenos)
precum
şi
la
scăderea
TA
şi
suprimarea
reflexelor
vegetative
(chirurgia
cardio-‐vasculară).
Schemă
BUBENEK
(revista
Română
de
ATI
nr.10/2002)
pentru
operaţie
de
revascularizaţie
miocardică.
INDUCŢIE
FENTANYL
7
µg/kg
MIDOZALAM
0,1
mg/kg
ATRACURIUM
0,6
mg/kg
MENŢINERE
PROPOFOL
4÷8
mg/kg/oră
pre
CEC
3
mg/kg/oră
POST
CEC
ATRACURIUM
0,4
mg/kg/oră
pre
CEC
3
mg/kg/oră
POST
CEC
ISOFLURAN
–
adjuvant
pentru
hipnoză.
Această
tehnică
a
permis
detubarea
precoce
pe
masa
de
operaţie.
Sau
poate
să
reprezinte
componenta
majoră
a
tehnicii
balansate,
opioidul
fiind
folosit
pentru
scăderea
AV
şi
benzodiazepina
pentru
amnezie.
Combinaţia
sevofluranului
cu
un
opioid
(fentanyl
sau
remifentanyl)
furnizează
o
foarte
bună
anestezie
balansată
la
o
concentraţie
alveolară
de
1,5÷2%
(Torri
2002).
Volatilul
şi
neurochirurgia
Rezultatele
experimentale
demonstrează
că
volatilele
pot
fi
folosite
în
neurochirurgie
cu
precauţiile
de
riguare.
Isofluranul
oferă
condiţiile
cele
mai
favorabile.
El
păstrează
răspunsul
vascular
la
CO2,
scade
consumul
cerebral
de
O2
şi
are
cea
mai
scăzută
influenţă
asupra
fluxului
sangvin
cerebral.
Prin
contrast
protoxidul
de
azot
creşte
presiunea
intracraniană
prin
creşterea
fluxului
sangvin
cerebral
şi
administrarea
sa
nu
este
de
dorit
în
neurochirurgie.
ANALGEZIA
INHALATORIE
155
S-‐a
folosit
în
trecut
pentru
analgezie
la
naştere,
în
prezent
nu
se
mai
foloseşte
pentru
că
prezintă
risc
crescut
de
sindrom
de
aspiraţie.
Această
tehnică
folosea
doze
subanestezice
de
volatil
sau
N2O.
CONCENTRAŢII
în
O2:
-‐N2O
50%
-‐ISOFLURAN
0,7%
-‐ENFLURAN
1%
Pacienta
putea
să
şi
le
administreze
singură
cu
ajutorul
unui
aparat
special.
În
mod
ideal
pacientul
rămâne
treaz,
cu
reflexe
laringiene
păstrate,
fără
durere
şi
cooperant.
Există
însă
riscul
supradozării.
Tehnica
mai
este
folosită
în
stomatologie
cu
administrare
pe
mască
nazală.
Analgezie
este
obţinută
suplimentar
prin
anestezie
locală:
-‐pentru
obstetrică
–
bloc
de
nerv
pudendal
-‐pentre
stomatologie
–
blocarea
ramurilor
corespunzătoare
din
trigemen.
Anestezia
inhalatorie
în
ambulator
Necesită
inducţie
rapidă
şi
trezire
rapidă.
Anestezice
ideale:
-‐sevofluran
-‐desfluran
(pentru
desfluran
se
poate
folosi
inducţia
intravenoasă
având
în
vedere
efectul
iritativ
laringian)
Dar
şi
ENFLURANUL
(solubilitate
intermediară)
Halotanul
se
poate
de
asemenea
folosi
atât
pentru
inducţie
cât
şi
pentru
menţinere
având
în
vedere
că
după
intervenţiile
de
scurtă
durată
trezirea
se
face
destul
de
repede.
Anestezice
în
obstetrică
(cezariană)
Toate
volatilele
scad
contractilitatea
uterină
în
manieră
dose-‐dependent.
Substanţial
la
1
MAC
dar
destul
de
puţin
la
0,5
MAC
De
aceea
după
scoaterea
placentei
este
de
recomandat
scăderea
dozelor
de
volatil
la
0,5÷0,75
MAC
cu
atât
mai
mult
cu
cât
gravida
e
mai
sensibilă
la
acţiunea
anestezicului
volatil.
Protoxidul
poate
fi
folosit
fără
probleme.
Anestezia
inhalatorie
în
pediatrie
Anestezicele
volatile
sunt
foarte
importante
în
pediatrie.
Halotanul
a
fost
şi
probabil
că
rămâne
pentru
mulţi
(d.c.e.)
preferat
în
ciuda
solubilităţii
relativ
mari.
Mai
nou
sevofluranul
aduce
calităţi
superioare
şi
produce
efecte
adverse
mai
puţine.
Captarea
şi
distribuţia
volatilului
diferă
la
copii
faţă
de
adulţi.
La
copii
solubilitatea
volatilului
este
invers
proporţională
cu
vârsta.
Captarea
unor
volatile
cu
solubilitate
mare
cum
este
halotanul
se
produce
mai
repede
la
copii
decât
la
adult.
156
Ventilaţia
alveolară
este
mai
mare
iar
CRF
este
net
scăzută
raportat
la
ventilaţia
alveolară
(5/1
copii;
1,5/1
la
adulţi)
Rata
de
echilibru
FA/Fi
e
mai
scăzută
ca
la
adult
datorită
D.C.
crescut.
Totuşi
inducţia
se
produce
mai
repede
decât
la
adult.
Valorile
MAC
sunt
importante
în
pediatrie.
Agent
Nn
6
L
Copil
mic
Adult
Halotan
0,87
1,1-‐1,2
0,87
0,75
Sevo
3,2
3,2
2,5
2
Iso
1,6
1,8-‐1,9
1,3-‐1,6
1,2
Des
8-‐9
9-‐10
7-‐8
6
(Morgan
2001
pg855)
MAC
CREŞTE
PROGRESIV
şi
e
maxim
la
copii
de
6
luni
după
care
valorile
încep
să
se
reducă.
Prematurii
şi
nou
născuţii
au
un
MAC
mai
mic.
Protoxidul
de
azot
are
un
efect
important
de
reducere
a
MAC.
La
o
concentraţie
de
60%
s-‐au
descris
reduceri
de
până
la
50%
a
MAC
pentru
halotan
şi
sevofluran.
Volatilele
deprimă
ventilaţia
într-‐o
manieră
dose
dependent
(atât
VT
cât
şi
MV)
prin
mecanism
central
dar
şi
periferic
(intercostal
şi
periferic).
Efectele
cardiovasculare
sunt
importante
în
cazul
folosirii
halotanului.
El
produce
depresie
miocardică
şi
bradicardie
ceea
ce
scade
debitul
cardiac
şi
poate
conduce
la
hipotensiuni
severe.
De
aceea
se
face
totdeauna
premedicaţie
cu
atropină.
Sevofluranul
deprimă
mai
puţin
miocardul
şi
bradicardia
e
mai
puţin
severă.
El
are
de
asemenea
o
farmacocinetică
mai
bună
oferind
o
inducţie
mai
rapidă
dar
poate
da
agitaţie
postoperatorie.
În
plus
eliberează
ioni
de
fluor
dar
nefrotoxicitatea
pare
să
fie
neglijabilă
la
copii
(problema
compusului
A
nu
se
pune
atâta
vreme
cât
nu
se
folosesc
sisteme
low
flow
la
copii).
Desfluranul
are
de
asemenea
o
farmacocinetică
rapidă
dar
este
INTERZIS
în
inducţia
la
copil
pentru
că
este
iritant
pentru
CAS
şi
are
un
miros
înţepător;
60%
dintre
copii
au
prezentat
complicaţii
în
timpul
inducţiei
tuse,
oprirea
respiraţiei,
laringospasm.
Desfluranul
poate
fi
folosit
pentru
menţinere
după
inducţie
intravenoasă.
Isofluranul
a
fost
asociat
de
asemenea
cu
iritaţia
CAS
şi
are
un
miros
neplăcut.
Practic:
Premedicaţia
este
foarte
importantă.
Midozalam
0,3÷0,5
mg/kg
(oral
sau
inhanazal)
Atropină
0,02
mg/kg
Monitorizarea
–
În
afară
de
monitorizarea
standard
monitorizarea
temperaturii
este
obligatorie
datorită
riscului
mare
de
hipertermie
malignă.
INDUCŢIA
INHALATORIE
Este
uşoară
la
copiii
care
au
fost
sedaţi
preoperator.
Până
la
50%
din
inducţiile
la
copii
se
fac
pe
cale
inhalatorie.
Motivul
este
frica
de
ace
a
copiilor
care
devin
necooperanţi.
Există
mai
multe
studii
care
au
demonstrat
o
anxietate
semnificativ
scăzută
la
inducţia
pe
mască
faţă
de
cea
intravenoasă.
157
Tehnica
Low
flow
adică
furnizarea
volatilului
în
circuitul
anestezic
cu
un
flux
de
gaze
proaspete
cât
mai
redus
are
în
primul
rând
raţiuni
economice.
Fluxul
de
gaze
prospete
folosit
în
low
flow
este
mult
scăzut
sub
valoarea
minut
volumului.
Valoarea
fluxului
de
la
care
putem
vorbi
despre
low
flow
este
diferită
la
diverşi
autori.
Astfel:
Foldes
1934
–
LOW
FLOW
=
1
l/min
Virtue
1974
–
MINIMAL
FLOW
=
0,5
l/min
Baker
sugerează
următoarea
clasificare:
METABOLIC
FLOW
~
250
ml/min
MINIMAL
FLOW
=
250÷500
ml/min
LOW
FLOW
=
500÷1000
ml/min
MEDIUM
FLOW
=
1÷2
l/min
HIGH
FLOW
=
2÷4
l/min
VERY
HIGH
FLOW
=
>4
l/min
Prof
EGER
Il
propune
pentru
definirea
low
flow
jumătate
din
valoarea
minut
volumului
(care
este
de
regulă
3
l/min)
şi
termenul
de
anestezie
în
circuit
închis
pentru
fluxuri
în
jur
de
200
ml
(suficient
doar
pentru
a
furniza
necesităţile
bazale
de
O2)
(în
Miller
2001).
În
continuare
voi
folosi
definiţia
lui
Foldes
şi
Virtue
(low
flow
=
1
l/min,
minimal
flow
0,5
l/min).
Furnizarea
unui
flux
scăzut
de
gaze
proaspete
înseamnă
folosirea
circuitului
anestezic
în
regim
de
reinhalare;
în
consecinţă
concentraţia
gazului
inspirat
(Fi)
este
mai
mică
decât
cea
a
gazului
furnizat
de
maşină
(FD).
Fi
este
influenţată
de:
-‐concentraţia
furnizată
(FD)
-‐scăderea
anestezicului
în
gazele
reinhalate
prin
captarea
de
către
pacient
-‐necesitatea
echilibrării
concentraţiilor
Solubilitatea
am
văzut
că
influenţează
raportul
FA/Fi
când
se
folosesc
rate
mari
de
flux
cu
un
anestezic
cu
solubilitate
scăzută
Fi
se
apropie
de
FA
FA
se
apropie
de
FD
→
Fi
se
apropie
de
FD
Dar
fluxurile
mici
introduc
caracteristici
noi.
În
acest
caz
Fi
nu
se
mai
apropie
de
FD.
Cu
cât
este
mai
mică
rata
de
flux
cu
atât
mai
mare
impactul
reinhalării.
Pentru
anestezice
cu
solubilitate
mare
(halotan)
FD
poate
să
fie
de
4÷8
ori
mai
mare
decât
Fi
la
o
ventilaţie
alveolară
de
4
l/min
şi
o
rată
de
influx
de
0,5÷1
l/min.
Dacă
însă
solubilitatea
se
apropie
de
0
(desfluran).
Raportul
Fi/FD
se
apropie
în
mod
sensibil
de
1.
Scăderea
ratei
de
flux
influenţează
minimal
acest
raport.
Având
în
vedere
aceste
considerente
cei
mai
mulţi
anestezişti
pentru
a
avea
un
control
mai
bun
al
nivelului
anesteziei
preferă
fluxurile
mari
(2÷4
l/min).
85÷90%
din
anesteziile
inhalatorii
se
administrează
folosind
rate
mari
de
flux.
159
Pentru
a
administra
anestezie
în
sistem
low
flow
sunt
necesare
câteva
condiţii:
1.Monitorizarea
profunzimii
anesteziei
şi
a
concentraţiei
end
tidal
a
anestezicului.
2.Folosirea
unor
anestezice
cu
solubilitate
scăzută.
3.Maşini
de
furnizarea
anesteziei
adecvate
-‐fără
pierderi
din
circuit
-‐flowmetere
calibrate
-‐dotate
cu
–sisteme
fresh
gas
decoupling
-‐rezervor
pentru
gazul
anestezic
(gazul
proaspăt
este
introdus
în
circuit
doar
în
expir)
Este
de
asemenea
obligatorie
monitorizarea:
-‐SaO2
şi
FiO2
-‐capnografie
(ETCO2)
-‐Presiunea
în
circuit
şi
MV.
Dacă
aceste
cerinţe
sunt
îndeplinite
nu
trebuie
să
existe
reţineri
în
a
folosi
LOW
FLOW.
Avantajele
folosirii
LOW
FLOW:
1.Cost
redus
–
pentru
halotan
şi
isofluran
economia
făcută
nu
este
importantă
(0,5÷1$/h)
-‐
dar
pentru
sevofluran
şi
desfluran
DA:
HIGH
FLOW
–
SEVO
=
13
$/h
-‐DESFL
=
20
$/h.
LOW
FLOW
=
4÷5
$/h
2.Conservarea
căldurii
şi
umidităţii
în
circuit
–
contracarează
hipotermia
postoperatorie
şi
tulburările
datorate
ventilaţiei
cu
aer
uscat:
-‐depresie
mucociliară
-‐infecţii
-‐tulburarea
schimburilor
gazoase
3.Scade
poluarea
în
sala
de
operaţie
4.Scade
poluarea
în
mediu:
Protoxidul
intervine
în
scăderea
stratului
de
ozon
prin
eliberarea
de
oxid
nitric.
(volatilele
de
asemenea
prin
eliberarea
atomilor
de
clor)
În
absenţa
analizoarelor
pentru
concentraţia
end
tidal
a
anestezicului
(volatil
şi
N2O)
este
greu
de
apreciat
concentraţia
alveolară
a
anestezicului
pe
baza
setărilor
vaporizorului.
După
cum
am
văzut
corelaţia
este
foarte
scăzută
în
regim
low
flow
chiar
pentru
anestezice
cu
solubilitate
intermediară
cum
este
isofloranul.
Cea
mai
proastă
corelaţie
(Fi/FD)
se
găseşte:
1.Precoce
în
anestezia
cu
orice
agent
2.Tardiv
pentru
minimal
flow
sau
sisteme
închise
3.Tardiv
în
anestezia
cu
agenţi
mai
solubili
(isofloran)
chiar
la
fluxuri
mai
mari.
Notă.
Chiar
pentru
anestezice
cu
solubilitate
mică
(Sevo.,
Desfl.)
la
30÷60
min
de
la
începutul
anesteziei
FD/FA
=
1,2
(+20%)
chiar
la
fluxuri
de
1÷2
litri.
160
preferat
eliminând
practic
ceea
ce
este
de
fapt
o
a
doua
inducţie
în
momentul
în
care
introducem
volatilul.
Inducţia
se
face
cu
fluxuri
mari
6
l/min.
Fie
cu
O2
100%,
fie
cu
amestec
de
protoxid
66%
(O2
2l
+
Protoxid
4l)
De
preferat
un
volatil
cu
solubilitate
scăzută
(cu
rată
mare
de
creştere
FA/Fi
cum
se
vede
în
grafic;
SEVOFLURANUL
=
ideal).
Pentru
volatilele
mai
solubile
se
vor
folosi
doze
over
pressure.
MENŢINEREA:
FAZA
INIŢIALĂ
(Flux
mare)
urmată
de
FAZA
de
LOW
FLOW
FAZA
INIŢIALĂ
(10÷20
min)
–
FLUX
MARE
(4÷4,5
l/min)
de
exemplu
O2
1,4l
+
N2O
3l
Se
setează
vaporizorul
în
funcţie
de
necesităţile
individuale
de
exemplu:
ISO/HALOTAN
1÷1,5%
ENFL
2÷2,5%
SEVO
2÷2,5%
Aeastă
perioadă
corespunzătoare
perioadei
de
captare
mare
este
necesară
pentru
egalizarea
presiunilor
parţiale
şi
stabilizarea
rapoartelor
FA/Fi
precum
şi
pentru
denitrogenare
(dacă
nu
s-‐a
făcut
înaintea
inducţiei).
Durata
pentru
LOW
FLOW
10
minute
După
care
fluxul
Fazei
de
flux
mare
Pentru
MINIMAL
FLOW
15÷20
minute
poate
fi
scăzut
Atenţie!
Dacă
reducerea
fluxului
se
face
prea
devreme
se
poate
produce
un
dezechilibru
între
volumul
introdus
(gaz
proaspăt)
şi
volumul
captat
şi
pierdut
prin
scurgeri
din
circuit.
Durata
acestei
faze
de
flux
mare
poate
fi
redusă
prin:
-‐accelerarea
denitrogenării
(fluxuri
foarte
mari
iniţial
8÷12
l)
-‐alegerea
unui
anestezic
cu
solubilitate
scăzută
-‐concentraţii
crescute
ale
volatilului
-‐reducerea
fluxului
în
trepte:
-‐după
5
min
la
2
l
-‐după
10
min
la
1
l
-‐după
15
min
la
0,5
l.
Oricum
la
sfârşitul
acestei
perioade
fluxul
poate
fi
redus
la
1
l/min
pentru
LOW
FLOW
0,5
l/min
pentru
MINIMAL
FLOW
Având
grijă
să
păstrăm
proporţia
O2/protoxid
şi
să
nu
scădem
fluxul
de
O2
sub
250
ml/min.
După
setarea
oxigenului
care
necesită
o
atenţie
deosebită
voi
reveni.
Din
acest
moment
începe
perioada
de
LOW/MINIMAL
FLOW.
Setarea
vaporizorului
în
perioada
de
LOW
FLOW.
Odată
cu
scăderea
fluxului
s-‐a
observat
o
scădere
a
raportului
FA/Fi.
Această
scădere
devine
evidentă
la
fluxuri
sub
0,8
l/min
şi
este
mai
pronunţată
pentru
volatilele
de
solubilitate
medie
–
mare.
Scăderea
se
produce
doar
la
începutul
acestei
perioade
la
fluxuri
≈
1
l/min.
Pentru
desfluran
şi
sevofluran
scăderea
este
mai
puţin
evidentă.
162
timp
10
min
40
min
MINIMAL
Flux
4,5
0,5
0,5
0,5
FLOW
Conc
1,3
0,3
2,5
2
timp
10
min
40
min
60
min
ISO
FLURAN
Flux
4,5
1
1
LOW
FLOW
Conc
1,5
2
1,5
timp
10
min
40
min
Flux
4,5
0,5
MINIMAL
FLOW
Conc
1,5
2,5
timp
10
min
Setarea
vaporizorului
se
realizează
în
funcţie
de
concentraţia
end
tidal
a
volatilului
(în
general
1
MAC)
MODIFICAREA
PROFUNZIMII
ANESTEZIEI
Ţinând
cont
de
raportul
FD/Fi
(discutat
mai
devreme)
şi
constantele
de
timp
dacă
avem
nevoie
la
un
moment
dat
există
2
soluţii:
1.Fie
folosirea
unui
anestezic
intravenos
163
2.Fie
creşterea
fluxului
la
4÷6
l/min
şi
creşterea
concentraţiei
volatilului
(FD)
(în
aceste
condiţii
modificarea
dorită
se
produce
în
aproximativ
4
minute).
Aceste
modificări
se
produc
cu
o
întârziere
semnificativă
care
trebuie
luată
în
calcul.
CONSTANTA
DE
TIMP
Reprezintă
timpul
în
care
schimbările
în
compoziţia
gazului
proaspăt
(FD)
conduc
la
schimbări
corespunzătoare
în
compoziţia
gazului
din
sistemul
anestezic.
Acest
TIMP
este
calculat
prin
FORMULA
CON
WAY:
T
=
VS/(VFg-‐VU)
VS
=
volumul
sistemului
(volumul
circuitului
+
volumul
plămânului)
VFg
=
fluxul
de
gaz
proaspăt
(l/min)
VU
=
captarea
gazului
(l/min)
Pentru
VS
=
7,5
l
(5
l
(circuitul)
+
2,5
l
(plămânii))
VU
=
0,35
l/min
Avem:
Flux
de
gaz
proaspăt
CONSTANTA
DE
TIMP
(TTIME)
8
l/min
40
sec
4
l/min
2
min
2
l/min
4,5
min
1
l/min
11,5
min
0,5
l/min
50
min
După:
1xTTIME
concentraţia
anestezicului
în
SISTEM
(Fi)
=
63%
2xTTIME
concentraţia
anestezicului
în
SISTEM
(Fi)
=
86,5%
3xTTIME
concentraţia
anestezicului
în
SISTEM
(Fi)
=
95%
Ca
valoare
numerică
TTIME
descrie
viteza
de
wash-‐in
şi
weash-‐out
(spălare).
2xTTIME
expiră
mai
exact
timpul
în
care
se
produce
o
modificare
semnificativă.
Crescând
fluxul
scădem
constanta
de
timp.
Pentru
scăderea
profunzimii
anesteziei
de
asemenea
va
fi
crescut
fluxul
şi
scăzută
setarea
concentraţiei
pe
vaporizor
(FD).
PROBLEMA
HIPOXEMIEI
(valabil
când
se
administrează
combinaţii
O2
+
protoxid
(sau
aer)).
Fi
O2
va
fi
monitorizat
obligatoriu
în
anestezia
LOW
FLOW.
Pentru
anestezia
cu
fluxuri
mari
Fi
O2
este
egală
cu
%
furnizat
de
aparat.
Pe
parcursul
anesteziei
low
flow
datorită
reinhalării
se
produce
o
diferenţă
între
Fi
O2
şi
concentraţia
O2
furnizat
în
aerul
proaspăt.
Astfel
Fi
O2
va
fi
mai
mic
decât
concentraţia
de
O2
setată
pe
aparat
cu
atât
mai
mult
cu
cât
fluxul
e
mai
mic
(deci
reinhalarea
mai
mare).
Concentraţia
de
O2
în
aerul
exhalat
(care
se
va
amesteca
cu
aerul
proaspăt)
este
dependentă
de
doi
factori:
1.Consumul
de
O2
al
pacientului.
Consumul
creşte
în
funcţie
de
greutate
şi
factori
metabolici.
Ne
vom
aştepta
ca
un
pacient
obez
la
care
nu
s-‐a
calculat
bine
consumul
de
O2
să
facă
hipoxemie.
164
Deşi
se
poate
folosi
şi
în
intervenţiile
scurte
anestezia
în
sistem
low
flow
se
pretează
în
special
pentru
anesteziile
de
lungă
durată
(peste
3
ore)
unde
îşi
găseşte
justificarea
economică.
Sevofluranul
şi
desfluranul
au
câteva
avantaje
importante
dar
nu
sunt
volatilele
ideale.
Pentru
sevofluran
produsul
A
limitează
folosirea
în
rate
de
flux
economice
low/minimal
flow.
Desfluranul
este
avantajos
pentru
low/minimal
flow
(ceea
ce
compensează
din
preţul
crescut
–
aproape
dublu
faţă
de
sevofluran)
dar
este
iritant
pentru
CAS
ceea
ce
limitează
folosirea
în
inducţia
inhalatorie.
Totuşi
cu
unele
precauţii
cu
premedicaţie
cu
morfină
poate
fi
folosit
chiar
şi
în
inducţie
la
adult.
La
copii
este
interzis
în
inducţie.
În
plus
eliberează
catecoli
la
dozele
de
1
MAC.
DOZE
DESFLURAN
(dozele
recomandate
de
producător):
Dosage
desflurane
The
minimum
alveolar
concentration
(MAC)
is
age
specific
as
follows:
INDUCŢIE
–
o
concentraţie
de
4÷11%
produce
anestezie
chirurgicală
în
2÷4
minute.
(concentraţii
de
până
la
15%
au
fost
folosite
în
trialuri
clinice.)
MENŢINERE
-‐
2÷6%
cu
protoxid
-‐
2,5÷8%
cu
O2
100%
(sau
O2+aer)
168
DOZE
SEVOFLURAN
INDUCŢIE
–
8%
-‐
produce
anestezie
chirurgicală
în
mai
puţin
de
2
minute.
(concentraţii
de
până
la
12%
au
fost
folosite
în
trialuri
clinice.)
MENŢINERE
–
0,5÷3%La
bătrâni
dozele
vor
fi
scăzute.
Problema
protoxidului
de
azot
În
condiţiile
introduceri
anestezicelor
cu
farmacocinetică
rapidă
se
ridică
întrebarea
dacă
protoxidul
de
azot
mai
are
sau
nu
un
rol
în
anestezia
inhalatorie.
Iată
câteva
argumente
care
pledează
împotriva
folosirii
protoxidului
de
azot
concomitent
cu
anestezice
cum
ar
fi
sevofluranul
sau
desfluranul:
1.Anestezicele
moderne
permit
o
inducţie
foarte
rapidă
(efectul
celui
de
al
doilea
gaz
este
neglijabil).
2.Profunzimea
anesteziei
poate
fi
uşor
controlată
fără
ajutorul
protoxidului
de
azot.
3.Protoxidul
produce
o
scădere
a
contractilităţii
miocardice
cu
30%.
4.Protoxidul
creşte
rezistenţa
vasculară
pulmonară.
5.Protoxidul
creşte
atât
fluxul
sanguin
cerebral
cât
şi
presiunea
intracraniană.
6.Protoxidul
scade
consumul
de
oxigen
la
pacienţii
cu
boli
coronariene
sau
hipovolemici.
7.Asociat
cu
anestezicele
halogenate
nu
schimbă
în
mod
semnificativ
stabilitatea
cardiovasculară.
ANESTEZIA
ÎN
CIRCUIT
ÎNCHIS(closed
circuit
anaesthesia)
169
Este
o
metodă
extremă
de
administrare
a
anesteziei.
Ea
este
considerată
cea
mai
eficientă
metodă
de
a
aplica
anestezia
inhalatorie
şi
constă
în
administrarea
deliberată
a
unui
flux
de
gaze
proaspete
de
200÷250
ml/min.
Putem
vorbi
de
circuit
închis
doar
dacă
în
fiecare
moment
în
cursul
anesteziei
volumul
gazului
proaspăt
este
egal
cu
cantitatea
de
gaz
preluată
de
pacient.
Dacă
s-‐ar
folosi
protoxid
de
azot
drept
carrier
cinetica
acestuia
ar
complica
foarte
mult
calculele.
Astfel
pentru
a
urmări
exact
captarea
ar
fi
nevoie
de
o
adaptare
continuuă
a
fluxului
de
gaz
proaspăt,
ceea
ce
ar
fi
posibil
doar
cu
dispozitive
electronice
sofisticate
gen
closed
loop
feed
back.
Dacă
însă
se
exclude
protoxidul
şi
este
folosit
drept
carrier
doar
oxigenul,
captarea
acestuia
este
mult
mai
previzibilă
şi
rămâne
constantă
pe
parcursul
anesteziei.
Anestezicul
volatil
joacă
un
rol
neglijabil
în
captarea
totală.
Astfel
în
practică
fluxul
de
gaz
proaspăt
este
redus
la
cantitatea
de
O2
preluată
de
pacient
care
poate
fi
calculată
cu
formula
Brody
şi
care
este
în
jur
de
250
ml/min
pentru
un
adult.
Tehnica
administrării
anesteziei
în
circuit
închis
nu
diferă
de
cea
din
minimal
flow.
Astfel
se
aplică
o
fază
iniţială
de
high
flow
de
10
minute
după
care
fluxul
poate
fi
redus
la
0,25
ml/min.
SCHEMĂ
GENERALĂ
HIGH
FLOW
-‐4
l/min
=
3
l
aer
+
1
l
O2
(sau
4
l
O2)
-‐vaporizor
setat
pentru:
ISOFLURAN
2,5%
SEVO
3,5%
DESFLURAN
6%
După
10
minute
fluxul
se
reduce
la
0,25
l/min
O2
100%.
SETARE
VAPORIZOR
pe
timpul
menţinerii
–ISO
5%
-‐SEVO
8%
-‐DESFL
10%
Cele
mai
potrivite
pentru
acest
tip
de
anestezie
sunt
sevo
şi
mai
ales
desfluranul.
Când
se
foloseşte
isofluranul
la
fluxuri
atât
de
mici
vaporizorul
nu
poate
menţine
o
concentraţie
în
aerul
inspirat
de
1,2%
chiar
dacă
este
setat
la
maximum
(5%).
Administrarea
anestezicului
se
poate
face
prin
infuzia
lichidului
anestezic
direct
în
circuit
fie
continuu
fie
în
bolusuri(solutie
pt
anestezicele
mai
solubile).
Administrarea
continuuă
necesită
o
pompă
şi
o
soluţie
elegantă
este
folosirea
unui
computer
pentru
a
scădea
progresiv
rata
de
infuzie.
Volumul
de
lichid
care
trebuie
injectat
în
fiecare
moment
poate
fi
calculat
folosind
formule
şi
nomograme.
(NOMOGRAME
LOWE)
Injectarea
în
bolusuri
este
mult
mai
simplă
dar
are
dezavantaje:
1.CONCENTRAŢIA
în
circuit
oscilează
2.Este
o
muncă
suplimentară
destul
de
tracasantă
pentru
anestezist.
Metoda
injectării
nu
se
poate
aplica
pentru
desfluran
care
fierbe
la
temperatura
camerei
(22,8°C).
170
O
soluţie
alternativă
fiind
vaporizorul
TEC
cu
by
pass
variabil
care
este
capabil
să
elibereze
o
gamă
largă
de
concentraţii
la
fluxuri
foarte
mici
(200
ml/h).
O
dificultate
majoră
asociată
cu
anestezia
în
circuit
închis
este
controlul
concentraţiilor.
Există
o
diferenţă
enormă
între
FD
şi
FA
chiar
şi
pentru
desfluran.
Deşi
fascinantă
metoda
circuitului
închis
complică
mult
prea
mult
lucrurile
pentru
a
fi
acceptată
cu
uşurinţă
în
practică.
VIMA
VOLATIL
INDUCTION
AND
MANTAINANCE
OF
ANAESTHESIA
Simplitatea
folosirii
unui
singur
drog
anestezic
pentru
a
obţine
toate
componentele
anesteziei
este
atractivă
dar
pentru
a
obţine
acest
deziderat
este
nevoie
de
nivele
de
anestezie
profundă.
Când
spunem
VIMA
spunem
sevofluran(desi
se
poate
face
si
cu
iso
sau
enfluran)
Introducerea
acestui
volatil
a
făcut
să
renască
ideea
de
anestezie
totală
inhalatorie.
Sevofluranul
are
o
serie
de
avantaje
clinice
comparativ
cu
celelalte
anestezice
volatile:
Are
un
miros
plăcut
este
noniritativ
are
solubilitate
scăzută
şi
un
MAC
relativ
mic.
În
felul
acesta
facilitează
o
inducţie
rapidă,
oferă
un
control
precis
asupra
profunzimii
anesteziei
şi
o
trezire
rapidă
din
anestezie
(5÷15
minute).
De
asemenea
oferă
o
bună
stabilitate
cardiovasculară.
În
plus
s-‐a
dovedit
a
avea
efecte
citoprotective
neuronale
(prin
întârzierea
depolarizării
mediate
de
glutamat
şi
inhibiţia
NMDA)
şi
se
pare
că
este
şi
cardio
protectiv
de
asemenea,
protejează
cordul
împotriva
leziunilor
de
reperfuzie,
efect
benefic
pe
circulaţia
colaterală
etc.
VIMA
este
indicată
în
special
în
intervenţii
de
durată
scurtă
(30÷120
minute)
care
nu
sunt
asociate
cu
stimuli
dureroşi
foarte
puternici:
-‐cistoscopii
-‐investigaţii
ginecologice
-‐intervenţii
ginecologice
puţin
dureroase
-‐prostatectomii
transureterale
-‐rezecţii
transureterale
de
tumori
de
vezică
-‐mamoplastii
-‐ligaturi
de
varice
-‐artroscopii,
intervenţii
de
chirurgie
plastică
Se
pretează
foarte
bine
la
anestezia
în
ambulator
ESTE
indicată
la
pacienţii
ASA
I-‐III
CONTRAINDICAŢII
-‐Istorie
familială
sau
răspuns
neobişnuit
la
halogenate
-‐Antecedente
patologice:
-‐psihiatrice
-‐neurologice
171
-‐hepatobiliare
-‐renale
(creatinină
>
1,5
mg
%)
Tehnică:
Inducţie
1.Tehnica
cu
volume
TIDAL
şi
concentraţii
mari
(8%
SEVOFLURAN)
Această
tehnică
e
mai
bună
pentru
sevofluran
decât
cea
cu
creştere
treptată
a
dozelor
care
prelungeşte
prea
mult
inducţia
şi
poate
conduce
la
apariţia
mai
frecventă
a
tusei
şi
agitaţiei
(30%).
2.Tehnica
Single
Breath
8%
SEVO.
La
bătrâni
se
va
folosi
concentraţia
de
4%.
Concentraţia
sevofluranului
se
reduce
imediat
după
obţinerea
unui
nivel
de
anestezie
corespunzător
(minimal
level)
Există
3
posibilităţi:
1.Pacientul
să
rămână
în
respiraţia
spontană
pe
mască
=
concentraţia
se
reduce
la
2%
2.Masca
laringiană
=
concentraţia
se
va
reduce
la
3÷4%
până
se
relaxează
musculatura
maseterină.
După
inserţia
măştii
concentraţia
se
reduce
la
2%.
3.Pentru
intubaţie
=
după
obţinerea
nivelului
minim
de
anestezie
se
scade
concentraţia
la
3÷4%
şi
se
asistă
pacientul
cu
această
concentraţie
încă
5÷6
minute
după
care
se
intubează
şi
se
scade
concentraţia
la
2%.
MENŢINEREA
a)–
flux
2
l/min
(cu
N2O
60%
în
O2)
-‐setare
sevofluran
1÷3%.
b)low
flow-‐
setare
sevofluran
3-‐4,5%(ETsevo=1,5-‐2%)
În
funcţie
de
stimulii
dureroşi
pot
fi
necesare
la
un
moment
dat
suplimente
analgetice
intravenoase
ceea
ce
transformă
practic
VIMA
într-‐o
anestezie
balansată.
Iniţial
se
încearcă
creşterea
concentraţiei
de
sevofluran
cu
0,2÷0,6%(pt.
low
flow
cu
1,5-‐2%).
Dacă
nu
se
reuşeşte
astfel
se
recurge
la
opioid
fentanyl
2µg/kg.
Rezultatele
studiilor
privind
VIMA
sunt
contradictorii.
Pe
de
o
parte
există
voci
care
susţin
că
sevofluranul
poate
fi
folosit
în
VIMA
inclusiv
în
intervenţii
mai
laborioase
(CAGB
–
prof.
HARMER
–
WALES
2000).
În
neurochirurgie
şi
chiar
în
operaţii
de
lungă
durată
(>3
ore).
Există
însă
şi
studii
care
indică
deficienţele
VIMA
cum
ar
fi:
-‐analgezie
insuficientă
-‐efecte
adverse
neurologice
la
doze
mari
în
special
la
copii.
(hiperemie
cerebrală
în
inducţie)
(IWASACHI,
NOMOTO
2003)
S-‐au
făcut
foarte
multe
studii
comparative
VIMA-‐TIVA,
de
fapt
între
sevofluran
şi
propofol.
Majoritatea
studiilor
concluzionează
că
nu
există
diferenţe
majore
între
cele
două
metode.
Totuşi
s-‐a
observat
că
inducţia
este
mai
rapidă
cu
propofol,
dar
propofolul
se
asociază
de
două
ori
mai
mult
cu
trezire
(mişcarea
pacientului)
pe
parcursul
anesteziei.
172
29.
Aparatul
de
anestezie
(masina
de
gaze,
sisteme
anestezice,
vaporizoare)
Masuri de siguranta
PNGV = piped medical gas and vacum
- iesire tuburi specific confectionat pt fiecare tip gaz
- gaze P = 400 kPa
- perete → ap de anestezie cu tuburi flexibile specific colorate ce se ataseaza
de perete prin iesiri specifice
- cilindrii colorati separat in functie de continut (rezerva daca cedeaza reteaua
centrala)
- O2 si N2O sunt legate a i nu poate fi livrat mai putin de 25% oxigen
- daca CO2 este controlat fluxul este limitat la 500 ml/min
- sistem de `flush` )2 pt adm O2 100% in circuit
- exista alarma sonora pt ↓ O2
- exista valve `non return` care blocheaza fluxul de intoarcere pt a minimaliza
ef presiunii asupra flowmetru si vaporizor
- ! valvele de elib de presiune sunt pt protectia echipamentului nu si a
pacientului
O2 - rezervoare cu O2 la -1800C
- bancuri de cilindrii
- butelii de rezerva la ap de anestezie
N2O - bancuri + butelii la aparat
- la temp camerei → lichid
Aer - compresor + cilindru
- uscat + filtrat
- 400 kPa pt aparat + 700 kPa pt ap medicala
Vacum - cel putin 400 mmHg
- filtru bacterian
Ap anestezie
Vaporizor
- produce vapori saturati dintr-un rezervor de anestezic lichid
- conc finala de anestezic este controlata prin varierea proportiei de gaz ce
trece prin vaporizor
- T0 vaporizor este compensata spre a tine cont de pierderile de caldura ce
determina racirea si scad vaporizarea anestezicului
Sisteme de respirat
- mixtura de gaze si vapori trece din ap anest la pac printr-un circuit anestezic
sau sist de resp anest.
- Componente:
- conexiune cu fresh gas input (FGI)
- balon rezervor (2l) – este si sistem de siguranta ( se umfla daca apar
presiuni ↑)
- valva expiratorie ajustabila
4. Circuite Mapleson A B C D E
- tuburi cu diam ↑ ( 22 mm)
- fresh gas inlet = FGI – in functie de poz lui diferite circuite
- valva pt ajustare pres in circ = pop-off valve
- balon rezervor – 2-3 l – are 3 faze de umplere
- nu exista absorber CO2 – elim CO2 prin valva pop off
- avantaje: usoare, cost ↓, simple
- dezav: flux ↑ de gaze, poluare sala op, pierdere anestezic, pierdere caldura
si umiditate
Required Fresh Gas Flows
Mapleso Other Configuration Spontaneous Controlled Comments
n Class Names
174
E Ayre's T- The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open
the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then 2–3 x minute
open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then
3x Exhalation tubing should
piece insert it again.
ventilation minute ventilation provide a larger volume
(I:E =1:2) than tidal volume to
prevent rebreathing.
Scavenging is difficult.
- gazele expirate in loc sa fie eliberate in atm trec prin absorber (calcee) – o
mixtura de CaOH, NaOH, KOH – pt a elimina chimic CO2
- la mixtura rerespirata de pacient se adauga suplimentar O2 + vapori
anestezici, fluxul fiind min 0,5 l/min
- control bun al profunzimii aneteziei
- eliminare usoara anestezic
Dezav:
- dimensiuni ↑
- portabilitate ↓
- complexitate ↑
- rezistenta ↑
- dific ↑ de a prezice conc gazelor inspirate inn timpul low flow
ventilator's
spill
valve
is
closed
during
inspiration,
fresh
gas
flow
from
the
machine's
common
gas
outlet
normally
contributes
to
the
tidal
volume
delivered
to
the
patient.
For
example,
if
the
fresh
gas
flow
is
6
L/min,
the
I:E
ratio
is
1:2,
and
the
respiratory
rate
is
10
breaths/min,
each
tidal
volume
will
include
an
extra
200
mL
in
addition
to
the
ventilator's
output:
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then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.
Thus,
increasing
fresh
gas
flow
increases
tidal
volume,
minute
ventilation,
and
peak
inspiratory
pressure.
To
avoid
problems
with
ventilator-‐fresh
gas
flow
coupling,
airway
pressure
and
exhaled
tidal
volume
must
be
monitored
closely
and
excessive
fresh
gas
flows
must
be
avoided.
malfunction,
fresh
gas
flow
coupling
(above),
or
activation
of
the
oxygen
flush
during
the
inspiratory
phase
of
the
ventilator.
Use
of
the
oxygen
flush
valve
during
the
inspiratory
cycle
of
a
ventilator
must
be
avoided
because
the
ventilator
spill
valve
will
be
closed
and
the
APL
valve
is
excluded;
the
surge
of
oxygen
(600–1200
mL/s)
and
circuit
pressure
will
be
transferred
to
the
patient's
lungs.
In
addition
to
a
high-‐pressure
alarm,
all
ventilators
have
a
built-‐in
automatic
or
APL
valve.
The
mechanism
of
pressure
limiting
may
be
as
simple
as
a
threshold
valve
that
opens
at
a
certain
pressure
or
electronic
sensing
that
abruptly
terminates
the
ventilator
inspiratory
phase.
Large
discrepancies
between
the
set
and
actual
tidal
volume
that
the
patient
not
be
receives
are
often
observed
in
the
operating
room
during
volume
control
ventilation.
Causes
include
breathing
circuit
compliance,
gas
compression,
ventilator-‐fresh
gas
flow
coupling
(above),
and
leaks
in
the
anesthesia
machine,
the
breathing
circuit,
or
the
patient's
airway.
The
compliance
for
standard
adult
breathing
circuits
is
about
5
mL/cm
H2O.
Thus,
if
peak
inspiratory
pressure
is
20
cm
H2O,
about
100
mL
of
set
tidal
volume
is
lost
to
expanding
the
circuit.
For
this
reason
breathing
circuits
for
pediatric
patients
are
designed
to
be
much
stiffer,
with
compliances
as
small
as
1.5–2.5
mL/cm
H2O.
Compression
losses,
normally
about
3%,
are
due
to
gas
compression
within
the
ventilator
bellows
and
may
be
dependent
on
breathing
circuit
volume.
Thus
if
tidal
volume
is
500
mL
another
15
mL
of
the
set
tidal
gas
may
be
lost.
Gas
sampling
for
capnography
and
anesthetic
gas
measurements
represents
additional
losses
in
the
form
of
gas
leaks
unless
the
sampled
gas
is
returned
to
the
breathing
circuit,
as
occurs
in
some
machines.
Several
mechanisms
have
been
built
into
newer
anesthesia
machines
to
reduce
tidal
volume
discrepancies.
During
the
initial
electronic
self-‐checkout,
some
machines
measure
total
system
compliance
and
subsequently
use
this
measurement
to
adjust
the
excursion
of
the
ventilator
bellows
or
piston;
leaks
may
also
be
measured
but
are
usually
not
compensated.
The
actual
method
of
tidal
volume
compensation
or
modulation
varies
according
to
manufacturer
and
model.
In
one
design
(Datex-‐Ohmeda
Aestiva/5),
a
flow
sensor
measures
the
tidal
volume
delivered
at
the
inspiratory
valve
for
the
first
few
breaths
and
adjusts
subsequent
metered
178
drive
gas
flow
volumes
to
compensate
for
tidal
volume
losses
(feedback
adjustment).
Another
design
(Datex-‐Ohmeda/5
ADU)
continually
measures
fresh
gas
and
vaporizer
flow
and
subtracts
this
amount
from
the
metered
drive
gas
flow
(preemptive
adjustment).
Alternately,
machines
that
use
electronic
control
of
gas
flow
can
decouple
fresh
gas
flow
from
the
tidal
volume
by
delivery
of
fresh
gas
flow
only
during
exhalation
(Draeger
Julian).
Lastly,
the
inspiratory
phase
of
the
ventilator-‐fresh
gas
flow
may
be
diverted
through
a
decoupling
valve
into
the
breathing
bag,
which
is
excluded
from
the
circle
system
during
ventilation
(Draeger
Fabius
GS
and
Narkomed
6400).
During
exhalation
the
decoupling
valve
opens,
allowing
the
fresh
gas
that
was
temporarily
stored
in
the
bag
to
enter
the
breathing
circuit.
Risc ↑ de aspiratie:
- Golire gastrica intarziata
- trauma recenta
- ileus
- gravida
- alcool, opiode, anticolinergice
- neuropatie autonoma (DZ)
- Reflex gastro-esofagian
- hernie hiatala
- obezitate
- copii
179
Stopul cardiac poate apare in situatia CVCI, iar in timpul stopului cardiac
(cand nu exista flux pulmonar) PETCO2 scade la 0. De aceea in timpul stopului
cardiac capnografia nu poate fi folosita pentru a confirma intubatia traheala.
Daca ETT nu se poate vizualiza trecand de corzile vocale (chiar cand
apasand partea faringiana a ETT posterior fapt care impinge laringele
posterior) iar cu un fibroscop nu se poate vizualiza rapid intubarea traheei,
atunci nici o metoda sigura pentru a confirma intubatia traheei nu exista (toate
celelalte metode pot determina aparitia de erori). Totusi, EDD (aparat de
detectie esofagiana) a fost introdus recent ca o metoda aproape sigura pentru
detectarea intubatiei traheale/esofagiene. Daca ETT este in esofag, balonul
initial deprimat al EDD nu se expansioneaza imediat, iar daca ETT este in
trahee, EDD initial deprimat se expansioneaza imediat. Singurele conditii fals
negative de intubatie traheala sunt: colabarea traheei, mase/ fluide ce
obstrueaza traheea, ETT obstruat, bronhospasm sever si volum pulmonar
foarte mic. Singura situatie (teoretic) fals pozitiva pentru intubatie (ETT in
esofag) apare cand un gaz umple esofagul.
VII. OP|IUNI PENTRU SITUA|IA CVCI
acceptat faptul că condiţiile de intubare sunt mai bune cu propofol unele studii
au arătat că thiopental mai curând decât propofol în combinaţie cu alfentanil
poate determina condiţii de intubare mai favorabile. Totuşi condiţiile sunt mai
eficiente cu o combinaţie de thiopental, alfentanil şi succinilcolină. De aceea o
doză mică de alfentanil fără lidocaină poate să nu fie recomandată pt
inducerea rapidă fără folosirea unui relaxant muscular.
Doza de propofol folosită la inducţie poate fi scăzută dacă doza de
alfentanil este crescută; totuşi un asemenea protocol poate determina efecte
secundare hemodinamice, cum ar fi bradicardia şi hipotensiunea. Condiţiile de
intubare nu au fost diferite la folosirea propofolului 2,0 mg/kg cu alfentanil 40
µg/kg şi lidocaină 1 mg/kg comparat cu thiopental 4 mg/kg şi succinilcolină 1
mg/kg. Totuşi presiunea arterială scade semnificativ comparat cu valorile de
la preinducţie şi rămâne scăzută chiar după intubaţie. Folosind etomidate 0,3
mg/kg în loc de propofol cu aceiaşi doză de alfentanil şi lidocaină condiţiile de
intubaţie sunt comparabile dar cu o mai mică scădere a presiunii arteriale.
Intubarea traheală a fost încercată la 90 sec după injectarea anestezicului
ceea ce poate fi prea lent pt o inducţie rapidă. Creşterea dozei de alfentanil la
50 µg/kg cu propofol 2 mg/kg asigură condiţii acceptabile de intubaţie la
pacienţii premedicaţi chiar fără lidocaină dar determină o scădere cu 30% a
presiunii arteriale medii. Acestă tehnică poate deaceea să nu fie adecvată pt
persoanele în vârstă sau la pacienţii hipovolemici sau la cei cu afecşiuni
cardiovasculare sau cerebrovasculare.
Remifentanil este un opioid nou cu un timp de instalare rapid şi cu
durată scurtă de viaţă şi la care, în contrast cu alfentanil, timpul de recuperare
nu este influenţat major de doză. De aceea avantajele clinice ale
remifentanilului în inducţia rapidă sunt evidente. Un studiu recent a comparat
condiţiile de intubare la 60 sec şi efectele hemodinamice după propofol 2,5
mg/kg precedat de remifentanil 3-4 µg/kg după premedicaţie cu diazepam.
Toţi pacienţii au primit atropină 0,01 mg/kg imediat după inducţia anesteziei.
Frecvenţa condiţiilor excelente de intubaţie a fost semnificativ mai mare la
pacienţii ce au primit remifentanil 4 µg/kg comparat cu alfentanil (55 vs 20%).
Totuşi mulţi pacienţi au prezentat mişcări. În ciuda folosirii atropinei alura
ventriculară a rămas mai scăzută după intubaţie traheală decât după inducţie
dar nici un pacient nu a manifestat semne de rigiditate indusă de opioid,
probabil datorită ratei scăzute de injectare a opioidelor, premedicaţiei cu
benzodiazepine şi administrării de propofol imediat după opioide. În alt studiu
rata condiţiilor excelente de intubaţie a fost între 95 şi 100% după propofol 2,0
mg/kg şi remifentanil 3 sau 4 µg/kg. Diferenţa poate fi datorată administrării
remifentanilului în infuzie lentă de peste 90 sec, propofolul fiind injectat în 5
sec în loc de 20 sec şi laringoscopia fiind efectuată la 90 sec după propofol în
acest ultim studiu. Totuşi aceasta nu reprezintă o inducţie rapidă adevărată şi
scorul de intubare folosit a fost diferit. Durata apneii a fost mai mică de 5 min
indiferent de doza de remifentanil folosită fiind comparabilă cu cea a
succinilcolinei.
Nu este surprinzător faptul că condiţiile de intubaţie la 60 de sec după
propofol nu sunt întodeauna excelente sau acceptabile. Timpul de
înjumătăţire al propofolului este de aproximativ 2,7 min concetraţia efectivă la
60 de sec va fi de 4 µg/ml sau mai puţin, fiind inadecvată pt a obţine
profunzimea anesteziei adecvată unor condiţii clinice de intubaţie
corespunzătoare la toţi pacienţii. Pare logic recomandarea premedicaţiei cu
188
muşchiului esofagian inferior este crescut în funcţie sau mai mult decât
presiunea intragastrică. În general regurgitarea nu este aşteptată să apară
înainte de creşterea presiunii intragastrice peste 28 mmH2O. Totuşi la unele
grupuri de pacienţi (femei gravide, pacienţi cu ascită, obstrucţii de intestin sau
hernie hiatală şi vârstnici) competenţa sfincterului esofagian inferior poate fi
diminuată şi regurgitarea conţinutului gastric după succinilcolină poate fi o
posibilitate distinctă. Precurarizarea pt a preveni fasciculaţiile sau folosirea
relaxanţilor nondepolaizanţi sunt măsuri de precauţie la aceşti pacienţi.
Ocazional defasciculaţia ca şi priming doses de relaxanţi musculari
nondepolarizanţi pot influenţa semnificativ funcţia neuromusculară la pacienţii
sensibili, în particular la vârstinici.Studii recente pe voluntari umani indică că o
raţie TOF < 0,9 care este obţinută la indivizii sensibili după priming doses
poate slăbii funcţia muşchiului laringian şi mecanismele de protecţie ale călor
aeriene.
Durata scurtă de acţiune a succinilcolinei la majoritatea pacienţilor este
considerată a fi unicul avantaj, notabil în acele situaţii rare a unei intubaţii
dificile neaşteptate. Totuşi în asemenea situaţii hipoxia nu poate fi prevenită
prin aşteptarea reapariţiei ventilaţiei spontane dar trebuie prevenită prin
inserarea precoce a măştii laringiene sau alte măsuri care sunt recomandate
în algoritmii de intubaţie dificilă. În plus un model matematic a arătat că
desaturarea critică a hemoglobinei (mai jos de 80 %) apare înainte ca funcţia
musculară să se recupereze complet după succinilcolină,în particular la
pacienţii cu rezerve de oxigen reduse cum ar fi obezitatea morbidă, copii şi
pacienţii critici.
Relaxanţii
musculari
nondepolarizanţi
cu
timp
de
instalare
a
acţiunii
intermediar
pt
inducţia
rapidă
Atracurium şi vecuronium au fost primii relaxanţi musculari nondepolarizanţi
cu durată intermediară de acţiune. Instlarea efectului a de două ori ED95 a
acestor compuşi a fost totuşi prea lentă pt a fi potrivită pt inducere rapidă.
Căutatea de alternative de relaxante nondepolarizante în locul succinilcolinei
a condus la 3 tehnici distincte de folosire a atracurium:
1. folosirea dozelor mari;
2. principiul priming doses;
3. principiul timing.
chiar provoca aspiraîie. Priming dose nu este o abordare sigură mai ales la
vârstnici.
Principiul
timing
Această tehnică constă într-o singură administrare în bolus de relaxant
muscular urmată de agenţi de inducţie imediat ce pacientul se plânge de
slăbiciune. Pacientul poate recunoaşte slăbiciunea musculară şi scăderea
amplitudinii respiraţiilor daca hipnoticul nu este injectat la momentul optim sau
dacă acesul venos este pierdut. Principiul timing a fost aplicat cu succes pt a
obţine condiţii bune de intubaţie cu atracurium, vecuronium şi mai recent cu
rocuronium.
Relaxanţi
musculari
nondepolarizanţi
cu
timp
rapid
de
instalare
a
acţiunii
pt
inducerea
rapidă
Rocuronium
Rocuronium
a
fost
primul
blocat
neuromuscular
nondepolarizant
cu
durată
rapidă
de
instalare
(1-‐2
min).
Instalarea
blocului
la
muşchiul
adductor
al
policelui
după
administrarea
de
rocuronium
este
de
2,5
ori
mai
rapidă
decât
după
o
doză
echipotentă
de
vecuronium
sau
atracurium.
În
cazuri
elective
condiţii
bune
sau
excelente
de
intubaţie
sunt
obţinute
la
60-‐90
sec
după
administrarea
de
rocuronium
0,6
mg/kg
(2xED95)
în
condiţii
variate
la
adult.
Muşchiul adductor al laringelui şi diafragmul sunt mult mai rezistente la
efectle rocuronium decât adductor al policelui. Chiar atunci când sunt
administrate în doze mari timpul de instalare al rocuroniului la nivelul
muşchiului laringian este mai lent decât al succinilcolinei. Deci atunci când
rocuronium este folosit în inducţia clasică rapidă la nivele relativ uşor plate ale
anesteziei semne de bloc incomplet la nivelul corzilor vocale sunt observate
mai frecvent decât după succinilcolină.
Un chestionar recent a arătat că majoritatea (97%) din anesteziştii din
obstretică din UK nu folosesc opioide (nici chiar în doze mici) ca parte a
inducţiei rapide în cazuri elective de operaţie cezariană. La pacientele ce
suferă o intervenţie cezariană doza de thiopental a trebuit crescută de la 4
mg/kg la 6 mg/kg şi intubaţia a fost începută la 80 în loc de 60 secunde pt a
obţine condiţii bune sau excelente de intubaţie la 90% din pacienţi după
rocuronium 0,6 mg/kg. Când anestezia este indusă cu thiopental singur la
adulţi nepremedicaţi condiţiile de intubare produse de rocuronium 0,6 mg/kg
sunt de fapt mai puşin favorabile decât cele produse de succinilcoliniă.
O tehnică anestezică ce include un opioid poate de aceea fi esenţială
atunci când folosim rocuronium 0,6 mg/kg pt a obţine condiţii bune de
intuibaţie în 60 de secunde. În plus nu există dovezi că condiţii satisfăcătoare
de intubaţie după rocuronium 0,6 mg/kg pot fi obţinute rapid după propofol
sau ketamină decât după thiopental sau etomidate. După rocuronium 0,6
mg/kg condiţii satisfăcătoare de intubaţie se pot aştepta la 90% din pacienţi în
61 sec şi 101 sec respectiv folosind propofol 2,5 mg/kg sau thipental 5 mg/kg.
Rocuronium ≥ 1 mg/kg trebuiesc administrate pt a facilita intubaţia traheală în
clasica inducţie rapidă la adult, folosind anestezie relativ uşoară fără opioid
sau doar cu doze mici de opioid (de exemplu fentanil 1-2 µg/kg). Dozele de
rocuronium pînă la 2 mg au fost administrate în inducţia rapidă fără efecte
cardiovasculare semnificative.
Dacă rocuronium este o alternativă potrivită pt succinilcolină în inducţia
rapidă este încă o problemă în dezbatere datorită în principal duratei lungi de
194
Complicatii postop:
1. Hipoxemia
- cea mai importanta complicatie
- cianoza ap la PaO2<55 mmHg, SpO285%
Factori
- Hipoxemia alveolara
- obstructie cai aeriene
196
2. hTA
- Hipovolemie
- ↓ perfuzie periferica
- tahicardie
- hTA
- Dz < 0,5 ml/kg/h
- trat: O2, cristaloide, coloide, sg, oprire hemoragie
- ↓ contractii mioc
- cel m frecv b ischemica
- clinic: ↓ perf periferica, tahic, tahipnee, distensie jugularem creptatii,
tuse productive
- trat: poz sezanda, O2 100%, monit EKG, TA, SpO2
- test umplere
- Vasodilatatie
- anest epid/IT
- chirurgie prostata
- trat: cristaloide, coloide, vasopresori
- Aritmii cardiace
- frecv la pac cu hipoxie, hipovolemie, hipercarbie, hipotermie, sepsis, b
cardiaca, anom electrolitice, hipo/hiperK, hipoCa, modif acidobazice, inotropi,
antiaritmice, bronhodilatatoare
- tahic sinusala → durere, hipovolemie
- O2, incalzire, anagezie, fluide
- daca persista – doza ↓ de β blocant
- tahic supraventric – FiA
- AV 100-150/min → cardioversie + amiodarona 300mg IV intr-o h
- AV < 100 → amiodarona 300mg IV intr-o h
- bradicardie sinusala
- doza inadecvata de anticolinergice
- aspiratie excesiva
- tractiune viscere
- extindere bloc IT/epidural
- IMA
- β blocanti pre/postoperator
→ O2, Atropina
197
3. HTA
- Durere
- Hipoxemie
- Hipercapnie
- Confuzie/delir
- Hipoermie
→ VD, β blocant, O2, incalzire, analgezie
Analgezie postoperatorie:
1. Evaluare durere acuta
→ Fara - ↓ dozei, trecere pe analgezic m slab
→ Usoara – continuare trat cu reevaluare
→ Moderata – continuare tratament, adaugare analgezie simpla (paracetamol,
NSAID)
→ Severa - ↑ dozei de opioid/incepere opioid, adaugare tehnica alternativa
(epidurala)
Pt prevenire supradozare
4. doza bolus si perf de baza este prestabilita de medic
5. urmatoare doza nu poate fi adm decat dupa o perioada fixa
6. cant totala de medic pe o perioada e limitata
Avanaje PCA:
14. flexibilitate ↑ analgezie ce se muleaza pe perceptia pac asupra durerii
15. ↓ munca personal medical
16. elim inj IM
17. nivele plasmatice adecvate
Dezav PCA:
18. echip greu de obtinut + intretinut
19. necesita intelegerea sistemului de catre pacient
20. pacient fizic integru pt a declansa PCA
21. varstnici – intelegere ↓
22. potential de supradozare daca e incorect programat
Urgente perioperatorii
1. Reactii la medicamente
- 1:10000 r. severe
- m frecv femei
Clinic: - hTA
- bronhospasm
- flush
- hipoxemie
- urticarie
- angioedem
- prurit, greata, voma
200
3. Esec IOT
A. Chirurgie de urgenta – stomac plin, inductie rapida, preoxigenare, presiune
cricoid, Sch
- ajutor
- mentinere pres cricoid
- O2 100% pe masca
- vantilat usor pt ↓ distensie gastrica
- ventilatie dificila → ↓ presiune cricoid
- oxigenare + ventilatie bune
→ chir esentiala – continu aanest cu inhalatoare, mentiinere cai
aeriene cu LMA, Combitube
→ chir neesent – recuperare cu mentinerea oxigenarii
IOT esent pt chir → golire stomac + bronhoscopie
B. Chirurgie electiva –stomac gol
- O pe masca si ventilatie buna
→ IOT esential – bronhoscopie cu IOT / ventilatiei si recuperare
→ IOAT neesentiala – LMA, Combitube, anest regionala
- cianoza
- bradicardie, hTA, aritmii
- coma, epuizare
Trat imediat:
- flux ↑ O2
- β2 agonist in doze ↑ nebulizare
- Salbutamol 5 mg
- Terbutalina 10 mg
- bromura ipatropiu 0,5 mg nebulizare
- prednison 40-50 mg OR sau HHC 100mg IV
Monitorizare:
- PEF
- SpO2
- EAB
- RxCP
203
Ulterior
→ imbunatatire - O terapie
- HHC 100mg la 6 ore sau 40-50 mg OR
- salbutamil + ipatropiu la 4-6 h nebulizat
→ agravare - O terapie
- nebulizare la 15-30 min cu ↑ dozelor
- ipatropiu 0,5 mg la 4-6 ore
- sulfat de Mg 1,2 – 2gIV PEV lenta
- β agonist IV sau miofilin
- IOT + VM
6. Pntx in tensiune
- ! adm N2O
- oprire adm N2O
- O2
- ac in sp 2 IC pe linia medioclaviculara
- drenaj sp 5 IC pe linia medioclaviculara
7. hTA severa
→ ↓DC - hipovolemie
- pozitie
- obstructie mecanica (emboli)
- ↓ contractilitatea miocardului
- modif AV
→ ↓ RVS - ↓ tonus simpatic
- sepsis
- anestezice
- lez coloana spinala (>T5 → bradicardie)
- eliberare histamina
8. Hipertermia maligna
↑ ca la bupivacaina
ROPI 3 mg/kg pana Similar la conc ↓ bloc m putin
VACAINA la 200 mg intens fata de
bupivacaina
EMLA
- mixtura entactica de xilina+pilocaina
- anest de supraf in 60 min
Ametop
- 4% amethocaina
- similar EMLA
Adrenalina
- ↓ rata de absorbtie anest locale
- ↓ toxicitate anest locale
- extinde durata de actiune a anest locale
1: 80.000 sau 1:200.000
- niciodata la extremitati → ichemie
36.
Tehnici
de
anestezie
regionala
(anestezia
locala,
anestezia
regionala
intravenoasa,
blocaje
de
nervi
periferici)
Infiltratiile
- xilina 0,5 % pt proceduri scurte
CI bloc periferic
- pacient necooperant
- diateza hemoragica
- infectie
- toxicitate anestezic local
- neuropatie periferica
Axilar
- tipuri de abordare bloc axilar
- transarterial
- parestezie
- stimulator nerv
- ultrasunete
- infiltrare perivascualra
Interscalenic
Infraclavicular
Supraclavicular
MIidhumeral
CI epidurala + IT
- hipovolemia
- DC ↓, fix – StAo, St Mi severa
- sepsis cutanat local
- coagulopatie
- ↑ pres intracraniene
- alergie cunoscuta la anestezice locale
- pac necooperant
- b concomitenta SNC
- anestezie spinala ant/anomalii de coloana
39.
Complicatiile
locale,
focale,
regionale
si
sistemice
ale
tehnicilor
de
anestezie
regionala
- analgezie
- hidratare OR/IV
- cafeina
- epidural blood patch – 10-15 ml sg autolog
Complicatii cateter:
- trauma – dur spate, punctie dura
- lez nerv – MS, radacian, sd coada cal
- sangerare – hematom intraspinal/epidural
- deplasare – anestezie inadecvata, bloc subdural, bloc arahnoidian, injectare
intravasculara
- rupere cateter + retentinare
- arahnoidita
- meningita
- abces epidural
Toxicitate
- sistemica
- sd neurologice tranzitorii
- sd coada cal
Toxicitate:
Datorita - absorbtiei rapide a unei doze normal safe
- injectare IV
- supradozare
Usoare + initiale - parestezii circumorale + limba
- perturbari vizuale
- incoerenta
- hTa
- bradicardie
Severe + tardive - convulsii urmate de coma
- depresie respiratorie
- colaps CV
40. Anestezia regionala la copii (indicatii, tehnicii, incidente, si accidente specifice)
43. Anestezia in chirurgia de urgenta (soc stomac plin, hemoragie etc)
Raport Doza de
feto-placentar inducţie (mg/kg)
Tiopental 0,7-1 4
Ketamina 1 1
Etomidat 0,58 0,2-0,3
Propofol 0,7 2,5
N2O 0,8
Halotan 0,8
Entitati
1. Hipertensiunea gestationala = Cresterea TA>140/90 mm Hg
diagnosticata prima data dupa 20 de saptamani de sarcina si neacompaniata
de proteinurie
2. Preeclampsia = TA>140/90 mm Hg nou aparuta si proteinurie (>0,3
g/24h) dupa 20 de saptamani de sarcina la femei anterior normotensive
3. Eclampsia = Preeclampsie + convulsii
209
Preeclampsia
= b multisistem caracterizata prin HTA sistemica si proteinurie
= placenta anormala reprezinta patogenia centrala
= disfunctia endoteliala
- precede HTA si este responsabila pt modificarile din diverse organe
- peroxidarea necontrolata a lipidelor si deportarea membranei
sincitiotrofoblastului mediaza disfunctia endoteliala
= apare activarea Nf si Tr
Criterii minime:
HTA = TAs > 140 mmHg
TAd > 90 mmHg in a doua parte a sarcinii
PROTEINURIE > 300 mg/24h sau ≥1+ dipstick
Criterii certe: - TA>160/110 mm Hg
- proteinurie 2 g/24h sau ≥ 2+ dipstick
- creatinina serica >1,2 mg/dl
- trombocite<100000/mm3 - ↑ LDH (hemoliza microangiopatica)
- ↑ TGO,TGP
- persistenta durerilor de cap, tulburari vizuale
- persistenta durerilor epigastrice / hipocondru dr.
Incidenta
- 5% din femeile gravide
- predominant primipare in trim III
- asociata cu: - sarcina multifetala
- hidrops
- HTA cronica
210
- b renala coexistenta
- DZ
- talasemie
- incompatibilitate Rh
- istoric familiar de PE
- mola hidatiforma
- 25% din decesele la gravida sunt legate de HTA
Fiziopatologie:
1. Factori genetici
- disfunctie a adaptarii normale imunologice la prezenta unui Ag strain (Fatul)
- argumante - m frecv asoc cu mola hidatiforma
- poate apare la multipare ce schimba partenerul
- diferenta etnice ale incidentei
- asoc cu unele tipuri de HLA
- gena T 255 estrogen-relatedangiotensin creste incidenta PE
2. Invazia trofoblastica anormala si patologia placentei
- placenta = patogenia centrala
- trat PE = scoatere placenta
- ↓ perfuziei uteroplacentara
- PE – migrarea trofoblastului endovascular si in vazia este limitata la
segmentul decidual al a spiralate ( normal si segmentul miometric) → a
spiralate raman musculare → ↓ fluxul uteroplacentar
- alte leziuni: incarcarea cu lipide a celulelor intimei, necroza peretelui vasului,
ocluzia luminala cu fibrina
3. Disfunctia endoteliala
- markeri ai lez endoteliale: fibronectina, fact von Willebrand, trombomodulina,
activatorul plasminogenului tip 1
- disfunctia endoteliala apare in : a spiralate ale placentei, rinichi, ficat, vase
ombilicale, creier
211
4. Activarea Tr si Nf
Etape fiziopatologice
- Vasospasm
- Activarea sistemului coagularii
- Stress oxidativ
- Raspuns inflamator crescut
- Ischemie
Clinic
Renal: - Proteinurie
- GFR ↓
- Creatinina pl. ↑
- Endotelita glomerulocapilara
- IRA - necroza tubulara ac.
- necroza corticala
Cerebral: - Encefalopatie HT
- Ischemie si infarct
- Vasospasm
- Edem
- Convulsii
Pulmonar: - EPA
- ARDS
Hematologic: - Trombocitopenia izolata apare in 18% din cazuri
<100000/mm3 – severa
Cauze: - activarea plachetara
212
- agregare
- hemoliza microangiopatica
- CID - 11% in PE/E
-Abruptio placentae - subst. procoagulante
- subst. tromboplastinlike
- Monitorizare:- D dimeri, TAT, PAI 1 ↑
- fibrinogen, AT ↓
Tratament
- tratamentul HTA severe
- profilaxie convulsii de preferat cu MgSO4
- anestezia epidurala de preferat daca nu exista coagulopoatie
- singurul tratament eficient - nasterea (cea mai efic vaginala)
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Screening:
- monitorizare TA
- orar: glicemie, creatinina, K
- ! ↑ ALT (disfunctie hepatica) si clonus (neuro)
- FO – hemoragii retina
- coagulare : timp trombina , D dimeri
- Hb – hemoliza
- SpO2 – EPA
- US – circulatie materno fetala, fat
Controlul TA
- obiective TAM < 125 mmHg, TAD < 110 mmHg
Hidralazina:
- Cel mai folosit antihipertensiv
- ↑ DC → ↑ FS renal si placentar
- Efect direct de relaxare a musculaturii netede arteriolare
213
Nitroprusiat de sodiu
- Mecanism actiune: - dilatarea vaselor sangvine de rezistenta si
capacitanta
- Doza 30 - 500µg/min.
- ! hipotensiune, intoxicatie cu cianid
Nitroglicerina
Labetalol
- α1 – β blocant
- VD arteriolara fara tahicardie seminificative
- efect benefic pe ,aturarea pulmonara fetala
- fara efecte adverse pe FS retroplacentar
- Doza: - 20mg repetat la 15 - 30 min pana l a80 mg.
- ! - poate det bronhospasm
- ! - poate masca simptome de hipoglicemie
Nifedipina
- 10 mg OR
- inhiba fluxl de Ca intracelular prin can lente de Ca
- det VD si ↓ RVS
Clonidina
- Actioneaza la nivel central prin stimulare α adrenergica
- Efecte adverse - hipotensiune posturala
-retentie de sodiu
-criza hipertensiva la oprirea brusca
Diuretice
- Contraindicate
- Administrate doar pentru tratamentul EPA
Metildopa
- Utilizata in tratamentul cronic
- Actiune centrala prin stimularea Rc α adrenergici
- Actiune periferica inhiba dopa-decarboxilaza
214
Profilaxie convulsii
- balanta Mg vs Fenitoin – de preferat Mg
Sulfatul de magneziu
- Blocheaza rec NMDA neuronali
- Efect inhibitor la nivel jonctiune neuromusculara
- Creste sinteza de prostaciclina endoteliala
- Efect relaxant pe musculatura neteda uterina si vasculara
- Potenteaza relaxantele musculare
- Doza:- de incarcare 4-6 g iv in 20 de min.
- de intretinere 2 g/h pev continua
- Nivel terapeutic: 4 – 8 mg/dl
2 - 2,5 mg/dl in insuficienta renala
>8 mg/dl disparitia reflexului patelar
>12 mg/dl respiratie deprimata
- Ca gluconic 1g iv
- stop adm. MgSO4
>15 mg/dl oprire cardiaca
- mentinere trat 24 ore dupa ultima convulsie
- primul semn de toxicitate pierderea reflexelor osteotendinoase
- monitorizare trat : reflex patelar si SpO2
- convulsii recurente MgSO4 + Tiopental + Diazepam → IOT + VM IPPV
Anestezia in preeclampsie/eclampsie
Anestezia locoregionala
- De electie in preeclampsie
- de preferat anestezia epidurala pt cezariana nu rahianest (poate det hTA
severa)
- Opioizi si anestezice locale – adm. continua
- Hidratare 1-2 ml/kgc RL (monitorizare PVC)
- CI trombocitopenie <100000/mm3
- Hipotensiune → monitorizare fetala
- Bupivacaine 0,5%
- Ropivacaine 1% + Fentanyl 50µg
Anestezia generala
Indicatii: - paciente ce refuza an. locoregionala
- stenoza aortica
215
- hipertensiune pulmonara
- hemoragie / sepsis
Probleme: - intubatie dificila → sonda de intubatie mai mica
- risc de aspiratie
- raspuns presor exagerat la laringoscopie
- prevenire salt hipertensiv la intubatie si detubare
- coagulare afectata larigoscopie → sangerare
Inductie: - Thiopental 3 – 5 mg/kgc
- Succinilcolina 1 – 1,5 mg/kgc (MgSO4 atenueaza fasciculatiile)
Mentinere: - doza scazuta de an. volatile
- opioizi
Particularitati Eclampsie
- convulsiile apar dat VC cerebrale localizate si hipoxiei
- principii tratamentŞ nasterea, controlul convulsiilor, trat HTA, corectare
hipoxie
- poate apare pana la 10 zile dupa nastre
- DD: encefalite, meningite, sevraj, modif metabolice, intraogen (xilina, oxiton,
fluide ↑)
Complicatii
- CID - hematomul hepatic este o complicatie rara
- tratamentul trombocitopeniei doar la Tr < 50000
- PPC pt coagulopatie
- scop trat : normalizare PT, PTT, fbgen > 1g/dl
- HELLP
- Hemoliza + Elevate Liver enzymes + Low Platelets
- poate apare frecvent i nabsenta preeclampsiei
- 2 clase de severitate in fct de nr de Tr - cls 1 < 50.000
- cls 2 50.000-100.000
- clinic: greata, dur epigastrice/hipocondrul drept, edem, cefalee , HTA
- apare anemie hemolitica microangiopatica (schizocite pe frotiu sg
periferic)
- ficat: hemoragie periportala, necroza focala de parenchim, hemoragie
subcapsulara, ruptura hepatica
- nn din gravide cu hellp au leucopenie si trombocitopenie
- lab: frotiu sg perif, LDH, bilirubina, TGO, TGP, Tr, PDF, AT III,
Fibrinogen
- trat: nastere preferabil vaginal, HELLP persistent (>48 ore dupa
nastere)
- plasmafereza, steroizi ante+postpartum (dexametazona S24-37),
monitorizare balanta lichide, transfuzii PPC, Tr
- daca cezariana se prefera incizie mediana pt evaluare hematom
hepatic
- IRA
- EPA
- tranzitoriu - orbire
- AVC
- ARDS
- Deces -! in resuscitare uterul spre stanga
216
CID Gravida
Cauze: - embolie lichid amniotic
- ruptura placenta
- preeclampsie/eclampsie
- HELLP
- sd de retard fetal
- retinere de prod de conceptie
- avort
- ginecologice: - cancer ovarian, uterin, san
- sd paraneoplazice Fiziopatologie:
1. activare procoagulanti
2. activare fibrinoliza
3. inhibarea consumului
4. dovezi biochimice de insuf /disfunctie de organ
Teste lab:
- PT
- PTT
- Fibrinogen
- ATIII
- Fibrinopeptida A
- D Dimeri
- PDF 1+2
- proteina precursoare a trombinei
- trombocite
Preanestezie
1. Starea de constienta GCS
- se poate deteriora f rapid
- alterare → tuse inadecvata, aport hidric inadecvat
2. Ex neurologic complet
- evidentiere HTIC - cefalee + varsaturi
- HTA ± bradicardie
- ± deviere GO
- ! trat edem cerebral secundar tumori cerebrale cu dexametazona
→hiperglicemie, glicozurie, HDS, tulb hidroelectrolitice, ↑ risc infectii
3. Manifestari sistemice
- ↑ PIC → HTA+bradicardie
217
Premedicatia
- opioide + scopolomina de evitat deoarece altereaza st de constienta +
deprima resp
- butirofenone – droperidol , haloperidol
- benzodiazepine – rol amnestic
- anticolinergice – dezav ↑ vascozitatea secretiilor
- β blocante - pt a prevenii reactii hemodinamice cu ↑ PIC la IOT
Inductia
- thiopental cel mai utilizat, asigura ↓ PIC si atenueaza rasp la IOT
- xilina – pt atenuare rasp la IOT
- metohexital – de evitat la epileptici, procese inloc de spatiu → conv
- ketamina – de evitat - ↑ PIC
- propofol – in bolus hTA cu ↓ PPC mai ales la cei cu tumori
- succinilcolina - ↑ PIC, dar ramane deelectie pt urgente/stomac plin
- atracutrium sau vecuronium cele mai folosite
- hiperventilatie pt a evita hipercapnia
- IOT doar la relaxare completa, de preferat tuburi armate datorita pozitiei
Pozitionare
- caracteristici - camp operator accesibil
- sa nu impiedice drenaj cerebral
- regiunile supuse la presiuni sa fie protejata
- cap ridicat la 150
- pozitie f stabila
- decubit ventral
! - extensie excesiva mb si gat
- ischemie retina prin compresie GO
- alte regiuni: axile, sani, crete iliace,vase inghinale, penis, genuchi
- cap ridicat → risc de embolie gazoasa
- decubit dorsal
- decubit lateral
- pozitie sezanda
Mentinere
- AG volatile + IV
- N2O + isofluran - nu sunt ideale dar se utilizeaza (pot ↑ PIC prin
vasodilatatie)
- halotan de evitat - ↑ FSC chiar in prezenta hiperventilatiei
- dezav volatile: trezire lenta + ↑ PIC → evitare pana la deschidere dura
- N2O – ef stimulator cerebral si vasodil – de evitat daca exista risc embolie
/colectii aeriene intracraniene
- AG IV – trezire rapida + efecte cerebrale favorabile
218
Monitorizare
1. parametrii ventilatori – MV,, Pinsp, FR
2. Endt CO2, FiO2, SaO2, PaCO2, PaO2
3. ECG →modif AV, ritm, morfologie QRS
4. TA noninvaziv/invaziv (in poz sezanda sau in chir neurovasculara)
5. PVC – apreciere hidratare/medic vasoactive/aspirare aer AD in caz de
embolie
6. Eco doppler / TEE – embolie aer
7. PAP – estimeaza vol emboliei gazoase
8. monit bloc neuromuscular
9. Dz orar
10. To centrala + htermie usoara 34-36oC
11. SvjugO2 + diferenta a-v continut O2 cerebral (5-7 ml/dl - >9 = ischemie
cererbala globala; < 4 = hiperemie cerebrala) dar reflecta modificarile globale
12. monit noninvaziva a elib O2 la nivel cererbal → spectroscopie infrarosu
13. eco doppler trasncranian ; monit FSC in diferite arii cerebrale + decelare
spasm arterial
14. EEG – FSC brusc inadecvat → ↓ amplitudinea undelor + ↑ activitatea de
tip β si apoi δ (influentat si de volatile, opioide)
15. Potentiale evocate
- somatosenzoriale – 100 socuri el mici N tibial post/ n median, sezori pe
craniu + vert 2 cervicala →monit op MS, supratentorial, fosa post. Timp de
conducere central normal = 5,2 ms (↑ in hemoragia subarahnoidiana si revine
cu ameliorarea + ↑ in lezarea nerv intraop)
- auditive - 2000 mici pocnituri CAE – senzori mastoida + mediocraniu →
monit neurinom acustic + carotide
- vizuale - 100 flash luminoase → n optic, chiasma optica, hipofiza,
meningeom aripa sfenoid
219
46.
Anestezia
la
bolnavul
cu
suferinte
cardiace
(coronian,
valvular,
cu
tulburari
de
ritm
si
conducere,
cu
insuficienta
cardiaca
etc)
BOALA
CARDIACA
ISCHEMICA
SI
CHIRURGIA
NON
–CARDIACA
-prezenta la 30% din bv supusi interventiilor chirurgicale non cardiacein SUA.
-manifestarile cele mai frecvente ale BCI sunt angina pectorala cu toate
formele ei, infarctul miocardic si moartea subita cardiaca consecinta a
aritmiilor care apar in cadrul BCI.
-aritmiile aparute la pac cu BCI reprezinta principala cauza de moarte subita.
ANGINA PECTORALA
Angina pectorala apare ca o consecinta a alterarii balantei dintre oferta si
consumul miocardic de oxigen la nivel miocardic.
Managementul intraoperator
Obiective:
-trebuie mentinut un control hemodinamic
-tb prevenita aparitia ischemiei miocardice
-mentinerea in conditii optime a balantei aport/.consum de oxigen prin
evitarea tahicardiei, a HTA, a stimularii simpatice, a hipotensiunii, a
hipoxemiei.
Tahicardia poate produce mai fregvent ischemie decit HTA in special la o AV
ce depaseste 110 bat/ min, cind av este sub 110 bat/min ischemia mioc este
rara si daca apare este nelegata de BCI.
Ischemia aparuta in conditii de tahicardie se produce prin scaderea timpului
de perfuzie miocardica datorita scaderii duratei diastolei .
-se va evita intraoperator hiperventilatia si hipocapnia ce determina
consecutiv vasoconstrictie.
Monitorizarea intraoperatorie
1.EKG:
1. Atentie la modif segm ST, supra sau subdenivelare >1mm.
2. DII si V5 releva cele mai multe modif ale segm ST.
1. DII-lez ale coronarei dr.
2. V5 lez pe descendenta anterioara
1. DII, DIII, AVF – lez ale coronarei dr
2. DI, AVL – lez ale arterei coronare circumflexe care iriga peretele leteral
al VS.
3. V3 –V5 –lez ale descendentei stg-peretele anterolateral al VS.
3.Echocardiografia transesofagiana
La bv care ezv ischemie miocardica modificarile de cinetica ventr. Apar ininte
ca modificarile ischemice sa fie evidente pe EKG.
Totusi modificari de cinetica a VS pot apare si in hipovolemia acuta, la pac cu
IVS coexistenta sau la cresterea acuta de postsarcina.
Inductia
anestezica
1. Ketamina este CI.
1. IOT prin laringoscopie directa facilitata de adm unui relaxant muscular
depolarizant, trebuie sa fie cit mai scurta <15 sec,
222
Mentinerea anesteziei
La pacientii cu functie a VS normala tahicardia si HTA sunt raspunsuri
probabile la diferiti stimuli in acest caz este utila depresia miocardica
controlata prin adm de ag volatili.
Ag volatili vor putea fi folositi singuri sau in asociere cu protoxid de azot.
sau/si cu opioid.
Ag volatil are atit ef benefic prin scaderea necesarului de O2 al miocardului cit
si efect nedorit prin scadetea TA si implicit scaderea perfuziei coronariene.
La pacientul cu IVS ca anestezic de mentinere se prefera opioidele
Se pot folosi doze mari de opioid iar daca opioidul nu asigura amnezie
adecvata se poate adauga protoxid , benzodiazepinesi volatil in doze mici.
Anestezia regionala.
1. Se poate efectua atit rahianestezie cit si tehnici combinate rahi-peri
anestezie
2. In cazul anesteziei regionale tb amendata orice scadere cu mai mult de
20% a TA
Tb facuta o repletie volemica adecvata prin adm de sol cristaloide, coloide.
mentinerea unui status normovolemic si amendarea rapida a scaderilor
tensionale pt a nu scadea perf, coronariana.
BOLNAVII HIPERTENSIVI SI CHIRURGIA NON-CARDIACA
RELATIA TA – VOLEMIE
Cresterea acuta a TA depinde de interactiunea a 3 sist de control:
-sist nervos simpatic
-sist renina angiotensina – aldosteron
-vasopresina
Sist nervos simpatic este de obicei activat de stimuli nociceptivi in cadrul
anesteziei de manevra de intubatie etc.
223
Sist R-Ag II este activate de scaderea umplerii venoase prin urmare in starile
hipovolemice sau in cadrul anesteziei generale sau spinale prin efectul
vasodilatator pe vasele de capacitanta.
Activarea SRA depinde de volumul sanguine efectiv.
La pac normovolemic TA este mentinuta fara activarea SRA, la pac
hipovolemic insa, TA este mentinuta prin 2 actiuni ale Ag II:
-vasoconstrictia pe vasele de rezistenta si capacitanta.
-prin refacerea volumulyui circulant.
La pac. Hipertensiv tratat cu IEC sau inhibitor de receptor de enzima
deconversie TA devine dependenta de volum deoarece nu mai exista
macanismele fiziologice care contracareaza hipovolemia (SRA).
La acesti bv scaderea intoarcerii venoase interfera marcat cu debitul bataie
determinind aparitia hipotensiunii
Ag II este principalul stimul pt aldosteron determinind cresterea volemiei prin
cresterea retentiei de Na.
PREOPERATOR
Se mai pun intrebari in legatura cu oprirea sau nu a medicatiei antiH.
Pacientul preoperator tb sa fie normotensiv deoarece s-a obs ca incidenta
hipotensiunii si a ischemiei miocardice pe EKG este crescuta la pacientii care
ramin hipertensivi inainte de inductia anestezica, nu s-a obs insa o crestere a
incidentei complicatiilor cardiovasculare la pacientii hipertensivi care au suferit
o operatie programata.
Terapia antihipertensiva
Un motiv de a continua medicatia antiH in perioada periop. este ef de
rebound care poate apare dupa intreruperea acestei medicatii.
AntiH care actineaza independent de SNVegetativ nu se asociaza cu rebound
la intreruperea tratamentului. Ex IEC, insa clonidna sau βblocantele se
asociaza cu ef de rebound la intreruperea tratam, din acest motiv se va
continua medicatia antiH la acesti bv.
Trebuie subliniat faptul ca la bv cu IRC are loc acumularea IEC mai ales a
enalaprilului si a lisinoprilului astfel are loc o blocare mai prelungita a sist
renina-Ag cu toate consecintele ce deriva de aici.
In cazul pac tratati pe termen lung cu IEC si la care nu s-au oprit preoperator
a fost obs o scdere a efectului agonistilor simpatici.
In acest caz tratamentul hipotensiunii trebuie facut prin activarea celorlalte
sist presoare care nu au fost inactivate - in principal sist vasopresinei-
terlipresina este un analog sintetic al vasopresinei, dupa adm este lent
convertit la lizin-vasopresina producind vasoconstrictie prelungita arteriolara
si venoasa, fara afectarea functiei VS.
Adm de terlipresina are effect preelungit si potenteaza efectul catecolaminelor
endogene.
In cazul adm de inhibitor de receptor de Ag II episoadele de hipotensiune
care apar la inductia anestezica sunt mult mai fregvente comparative cu IEc
iar raspunsul presor la adm de vasopresoare conventionale este mult mai mic
sau chiar inexistent.
INDUCTIA
Dupa cum se stie in momentul inductiei poate apare un episode de
hipotensiune acest lucru insa este mult mai frecvent la un pacient hipertensiv
in momentul inductiei. Aceasta reflecta vasodilatatia periferica in prezenta
unui volum intravascular scazut si de asemenea hipotensiunea apare la
pacientii la care nu s-a oprit tratam cu IEC.
Inductia se poate face cu anestezicele iv uzuale cu exceptia ketaminei care
are un efect presor pronuntat.
Un puternic stimul nociceptiv care provoaca salturi tensionale la inductie este
laringoscopia directa, in acest moment TA poate creste chiar si la pacientii
care au primit medicatie antiH preoperator.
Cresterea exagerata a TA determina aparitia ischemiei miocardice prin
cresterea pres diastolice intracavitare in VS presiune care comprima
arterele coronare in portiunea subendocardica.
Din acest motiv este necesar sa selectam bv cu risc crescut de ischemie pt a
creste conc de anestezic sau pt a adauga un opioid potent inainte de
laringoscopie.
Opioidul va fi adm in asa fel incit ef de virf sa fie in momentul executarii
laringoscopiei si intubatiei.
In acest sens alfentanylui siremifentanylul au un timp de actiune mai rapid
decit fentanilul si sulfentanylul.
In ceea ce priveste inductia cu ag volatilieste necesara o conc de 1,5 MAC pt
blocarea raspunsului simpatic, acest deziderat putind fi atins cu ag volatili mai
putin solubili cum ar fi sevofluranul in comparative cu ag mai solubili ca
izofluranul.
Durata laringoscopiei este f importanta trebuind sa fie cit mai limitata.
De asemenea adm topica de Xilina 2mg/kgc inainte de intubatie poate atenua
raspunsul presor.
Daca laringoscopia depaseste 15 sec se recomanda adm de:
-nitroprusiat de sodiu1-2microg/kgc iv.
-esmolol 100-200 mg iv cu 15 sec inainte de inductie avind avantajul
ca va scadea atit AV cit si TA.
225
MENTINEREA ANESTEZIEI
Obiectiv: minimalizarea fluctuatiilor tensionale.
In acest sens pt mentinere sunt preferate anestezicele volatile care permit o
ajustare rapid
Isofluranul si sevofluranul produc o scadere dependenta de doza a TA
sistemice reflectind scaderea RVS si mai putin depresia miocardica si
scaderea concomitenta a DC.
Intre sevo si izofluran este preferat sevo datorita solubilitatii mai mici permitind
astfel modificari mai rapide ale conc alveolare
Tehnica protoxid-opioid este acceptata insa se poate folosi si ag volatile in
conc mai mici atunci apar cresteri nedorite ale TA sau cind stimulul
chirurgical este mai intens.
Hipotensiunea intraop. Tb tratata prin:
-reducerea conc de volatile
-adm de coloide si cristaloide
-adm de simpaticomimetice
POSTOPERATOR
Aparitia HTA necesita tratam prompt pt a scadea riscul dev aparitie a
ischemiei miocardice a aritmiilor, insuf cardiace, si singerarii postop.
Daca HTA persista in ciuda asigurarii analgeziei este necesara adm unui
vasodilatator - hidralazina2,5-10mg iv la 10-20 min sau labetalol 0,1-
0,5mg/kgc.
ANESTEZIA REGIONALA
Tehnicile anesteziei regionale pot fi folosite la pacientul hipertensiv , blocul
simpatic produs de acest tip de anestezie evita cresterile tensionale care ar fi
putut fi produse de stimulul chirurgical.
Desigur poate fi folosita oricare dintre tehniciL
-anestezia rahidiana
-anestezia peridurala
-anestezia combinata rahi-peri aceasta din urma asigurind si un bun
comfort postoperator prin asigurarea analgeziei peridurale continue.
-anestezia combinata generala + peridurala In cadrul acestei anestezii
analgezia fiind asigurata prin peridurala.
Desigur in toate aceste tehnici trebuie asigurat un status volemic adecvat
stiind faptul ca de obicei pacientii hipertensivi prezinta deseori omhipovolemie
marcata in ciuda unor valori tensionale peste limita superioara a normalului.
O alta tehnica de anestezie regionala care poate fi folosita mai ales la
pacientul virstnic la care doza anestezicului local trebuie f bine titrata pt a nu
determina prabusirea RVS este anesezia spinala continua .
INSUFICIENTA CARDIACA
= stare patologica care rezulta din alterarea relatiei functionale dintre cord si
circulatia periferica, practicapare o perfuzie inadecvata tisulara initial la effort
apoi si in repaus.
Cauza principala este alterarea capacitatii coedului de a se umple sau goli.
Aceste disfunctii afecteaza atit cordul dr cit si pe cel stg insa initial disfunctiile
apar pe inima stg, de obicei nu este o regula.
Disfunctia diastolica a VS
- reprezentata de scaderea compliantei VS, se manifesta prin alterarea
umplerii VS in diastola
- prevalenta disfunctiei diastolice este dependenta de virsta crescind
de la 15% la tineri, sub 45 ani pina la, 35% la adultii peste 65 ani.
In disfunctia diastolica datorita scaderii compliantei VS nu se poate umple
normal in diastola la pres de umplere diastolice normale
Factorii care predispun la scaderea distensibilitatii miocardice sunt:
-edemul miocardic
-fibroza miocardica
-hipertrofia miocardica
-virsta pac.
-cresterea postsarcinii VS.
BCI , HTA si StAo sunt cele mai frecv cauze de disfunctie diastolica a VS.
PARAMETRII PERFORMANTEI VENTRICULARE
In ICC congestiva parametrii hemodinamici care sunt alterati sun in principal
DC si implicit FE a VS si de asemenea are loc o crestere importanta a pres
enddiastolice a VS.
DEBITUL CARDIAC = Volum bataie x alura ventriculara.
STATUSUL INOTROP
1. descrie practic velocitatea contractiei dezv de miocard
2. Cind avem un inotropism crescut ca in prezenta catecolaminelor avem
o velocitate mare a contractiei si invers scade contractia scade si
velocitatea contractiei ca in IC.
3. Dintre drogurile anestezice ag volatili afecteaza velocitatea contractiei
acest sfect fiind aditiv scaderii velocitatii contractiei in cadrul IC.
4. In practica clinica rata cresterii pres intraventriculare DP/Dt este
similara Vmax si este utilizata pt a aprecia statusul inotrop al cordului.
5. ICC este asociata cu depletia catecolaminelor miocardice avind loc
astfel o scadere consecutiva de contractilitate miocardica.
6. Mai rau in contrast cu depletia catecolaminelor miocardice conc
plasmatica si urinara a catecolaminelor este crescuta determinind o
serie de efecte pe care le vom vedea in slidul urmator.
228
ALURA VENTRICULARA
La un coed normal timpul de umplere ventriculara depinde foarte mult de AV,
la un cord insuficient modificarile AV in sensul cresterii ei se asociaza cu
scaderea SV si scaderea DC prin scaderea diastolei si a timpului de umolere
ventr.
In ICC cu DC scazut SV este relativ fix deoarece orice crestere a DC este
dependenta de AV.
In IC tahicardia care apare reflecta activare SN simpatic.
Preventia EPA:
- scaderea presiunii in capilarul pulmonar prin reducerea returului venos.
- scaderea postsarcinii, pt a scadea efortul VS.
- imbunatatirea contractilitatii miocardice.
- prevenirea aparitiei aritmiilor cardiace.
TRATAMENTUL IC
Obiective pe termen scurt:
-reducerea simptomatologiei congestiei circulatorii
-cresterea perfuziei tisulare.
Trat farmacologic:
-in cazul aparitiei aritmiilor cardiace cu exceptia FV nu se recomanda
adm de antiaritmice , se prefera defibrilarea electrica.
-IEC sunt adm pe termen lung in IC. Enalaprilul adm la pac cu FE
scazuta chiar si in absenta semnelor clinice de ICC.
Ameliorarea simptomatologiri si cresterea tolerantei la effort poate necesita
doze mai mari de IEC decit dozele uzuale.
-diureticele: amelioreaza congestia circulatorie, scad pres diastolica
atriala si ventr. Si stresul diaastolic din peretele VS, si previne distensia
cardiaca perssistenta care interfera cu perfuzia coronariana subendocardica.
-sub vasodilatatoare: scad rezistenta la ejectia VS si cresc capacitanta
venoasa,la pac cu VS dilatat cresc SV si scad presiunea de umplere
ventriculara.
-adm de digitala: creste inotropismul si scade activ SN simpatic si a sist
R-Ag-aldosteron, si de asemenea restabileste efectul inhibitor al
baroreceptorilor cardiaci.
-adm profilactica de digitala la pac care urmeaza sa fie supusi interv
chirurgicale este controversata, dezavantajul major al acestei adm este
fereastra mica dintre doza terapeutica si cea toxica.
In ciuda acestui dezavantaj pac cu rezerve cardiace limitate pot beneficia de
adm de digoxin preoperator, astfel adm de digitala in doze bine divizate 0,75
mg per os in ziua dinaintea op si 0,25 mg inainte de inductia anestezica scade
incidenta fibrilatiei atriale la pac virstnic.
Digoxinul adm profilactic scade disfunctia cardiaca la bv cu ischemie
miocardica recuperat din anestezie.
Prin urmare la pacienti selectionati beneficiile adm de digoxin depasesc
riscurile potentiale, de fapt nu exista date care sa sustina intreruperea
digoxinului preoperator in soecial daca a fost adm pt controlul AV.
ANESTEZIA IN PREZENTA IC
- ketamina este utila in inductie
230
ANESTEZIA REGIONALA
- acceptata intrucit scaderea moderata a RVS secundara blocajului simpatic
permite cresterea DC la bv cu IC.
- totusi scaderea RVS nu este predictibila si usor de controlat.
STENOZA AORTICA
231
ANESTEZIA
Obiectivele sunt similare cu cele din alte boli stenotice cardiace:
- fregventa cardiaca normal scazuta
- mentinerea ritmului sinusal
- presarcina adecvata
- RVS normal crescuta
Controlul AV este principalul scop pt a asigura suficient timp de umplere
ventriculara iar daca este posibil este de dorit mentinerea RS.
Intraoperator aparitia tahicardiei sau a FiA cu AV rapida necesita tratament
agresiv cu β blocante, verapamil s a.
In FA poate beneficia de cardioversie imediata daca FA este recent instalata
iar cardioversia nu este contraindicata (tromb in AS,imagine de contrast
spontan in AS).
In cadrul anesteziei generale trebuie ca atit presarcina cit si postsarcina sa fie
tinute la limita superioara a normalului. Deoarece presarcina inalta ajuta la
umplerea ventriculara prin valva stenotica iar postsarcina crescuta este
necesara deoarece cordul nu poate creste DC daca RVS este redusa.
Prin urmare pierderile de volum necesita o repletie rapida iar vasodilatatoarele
trebuiesc utilizate cu precautie sau evitate.
In stadiile tardive ale bolii functia VS devine importanta si trebuie monitorizata
PVC si pres in AP intrucit trebuie evitata orice crestere de pres in AP.
233
Inductia:
- agenti de inductie iv cu exceptia ketaminei care este CI.
Mentinerea anesteziei:
- se vor utiliza medicamente care modifica minim AV, RV sistemica si
pulmonara si nsa nu scada marcat contractilitatea.
Aceste obiective pot fi atinse folosind protoxid opioid si doze reduse de volatil.
Protoxidul desi produce vasocomstrictie pulmonara este totusi utilizat
deoarece dimensiunea acestor modificari nu justifica evitarea acestuia insa in
HTP severs protoxidul nu va fi utilizat. Se vor folosi relaxante musculare cu
minim efect pe AV, nu se va folosi pancuroniu deoarece creste AV.
Anestezia superficiala si stimulul chirurghical pot conduce la cresterea TA
determinind astfel scaderea DC Prin cresterea RVS., in acest caz se va adm
nitroprusiat care este util in cresterea SV in conditiile unei HTP severe sau
cind St coexista cu insuficienta mitrala.
Obiective anestezie:
-frecventa cardiaca normala
-mentinerea ritmului sinusal
-incarcare volemica adecvata
-RVS la limita superioara a normalului.
-scaderea contractilitatii ventriculare.
INSUFICIENTA AORTICA
- regurgitarea singelui in diastola din Ao in VS producind incarcarea de vol a
VS.
Aceasta incarcare de volum nu depinde numai de deschiderea v aortice ci si
de gradientul de pres dintre Ao si VS si de asemenea de durata regurgitarii
care este direct proportionala cu durata diastolei.
In
insuf
Ao
acuta
cordul
nu
are
timp
sa
se
adaptezela
supraincarcarea
de
volum
si
dezvolta
rapid
fen
de
IC
(o
lez
de
temut
care
produce
insuf
Ao
acuta
este
disectia
acuta
de
Ao
cu
insuf
Ao
functionala,
lez
care
necesita
de
urgenta
tratam
chirurgical).
Obiective
- frecventa cardiaca crescuta
- umplere volemica normala
- rezistente vasculare sistemice scazute
- mentinerea contractilitatii
Managementul intraoperator
234
INSUFICIENTA
MITRALA
- reprezentata printr-un grad de regurgitare in timpul sistolei ventriculare prin
valva mitrala incompetenta, acest lucru datorindu-se rupturii de
cordaje,rupturii de ms papilar,dilatarii inelului mitral.
Cea mai fregventa cauze de insuf mitrala este ischemia miocardica sau
infarctul de miocard (> 40% din bv cu IMA posteroseptal) - pres insuf mitrala
acuta.
Regurgitarea mitrala produce o incarcare de volum a VS dar in acelasi timp
se produce si o dilatatie cronica a As acesta din urma devenind foarte
compliant, lucru care in mare masura ajuta la protejarea capilarului pulmonar
de o presiune crescuta.
Pe curba de pres/vol nu apare o faza izovolumetrica a contractiei ventriculare
deoarece peste 50% din vol VS poate fi ejectat in As ininte de deschiderea
sigmoidelor aortice. Acest mecanism reduce postsarcina Vs si caurmare
apare numai o hipertrofie moderata a VS in aceasta leziune valvulara.
DA NU
Boli valvulare
A= F / (CxV)
A = aria valvei
C = const
V = velocitate
F = fluxul aortic valvular = (CO/per de ejectie sistolica) x HR
StAo
3 etiologii majore
- malformatii congenitale – tineri, valva bicuspida cea mai frecv → are tend la
calcifiere precoce
- b reumatica valvulara – Mi
- degenerescenta/calcificarea valvei aortice N - calcificare senila-mortalitate↑
Diag
- ECG - hipertrofie VS cu anomalii de repolarizare
- RxCP - calcificari
- ecografia
- cateterizare cardiaca – LVEDP ↑, apasat ↓ DC, ↓ fractia de ejectia
Tratament
1. Chirurgie
A. instalare simptomatologie criterii de interv chir
B. Dezvoltare fen de IC
CMH
Etiologie
- b genetica a m cardiac
= hipertrofie miocardica disproportionata fata de stresul hemodinamic
- obstructie dionamica la ejectie S
- disfunctie diastolica VS
- poate mima StAo
Clinic
- angina la exercitiu
- dispnee
- oboseala
- sincopa
- tahicardie
- FiA
- pierdere brusca sg → EPA/colaps
Diagnostic
- ECG – anomalii ST si T, hipertrofie VS, Q ↑ in inf si lat,
- RxCP – cord ↑
- Eco cord – diagnostic definitiv (sept > 20 mm), miscare ant sistolica a valvei
mitrale, inchidere prematura Ao, IMi
Tratament
!EPA - initial diuretice, dar ↓ excesiva a presarcinii poate accentua gradientul
ejectiei VS
- β agonisti – CI – determina ischemie, ↑ gradientul, precipita aritmii
- digitala – evitata – doar pt tratarea FiA
- β blocanti - la pac cu EPA, trat de inceput
239
IAo
Etiologie
- valvulari: RAA, endocardita infectioasa, trauma, valva bicuspida, mixom
- dilatare bulb Ao – disectie Ao, HTA, b congenitala (Marfan), artrite
seronegative, RAA, sifilis
Diagnostic
IAo acuta - ECG N
- Rx - EPA
- ecografie
- TEE – in caz de suspiciune endocardita sau disectie Ao
- cateterizare cardiaca – PAWP ↑, HTP, SV N/↑
Tratament
- EPA fulminant - diuretic de ansa
- inotrop – valoare ↓ - cord de obicei hiperdinamic
- vasopresori – CI - ↑ RVP si ↑ regurgitarea
- balon contrapulsatie – absolut CI
240
StMi
Etiologie
- RAA – principala cauza, degenerare progresiva
- calcificare – varstnici, IRC
Clinic
- asimptomatic ani
- simpt init la exercitiu
- VS de dimensiuni N
Diagnostic
- ECG - dilatare AS
- FiA
- Rx - dilatare AS
- AP proeminente, VD ↑
- Eco – doming – caracteristic pt StMi
- Cateterizare cardiaca pt verificare severitate
- presiune AS prin punctie transseptala
- PCWP – supraestimeaza valoarea PAS
Tratament
- EPA – diuretice - ↓ congestia pulmonara
- FiA – control AV: digoxin + β blocant + Ca blocant
- esmolol/diltiazem IV preferat
- ritm sinusal – β blocanti
- anticoagulant pt prevenire TEP – INR = 2-3
- Chirurgical – la instalarea simptomatologiei
- comisurotomie
- inlocuire valva mitrala
- comisurotomie cu cateter pecutan – RAA
CI: - IMi severa
- tromb AS
- morfologie de valva nefavoabila
- St mitrala usoara
IMi
Etiologie
241
Clinic
- IMi cronica: simpt ap dupa ap insuf de VS → simpt de DC↓, congestie
pulmonara, FiA
- IMi acuta: EPA, DC ↓, simpt ischemica (de obicei etiologia IMi acuta este
IMA)
Tratament
- ↓ postsarcinii: VD + CPAP noninvaziv
- TA ↓ - dobutamina
- diuretice
- digoxin – in disfct VS + FiA
- reducere cronica a postsarcinii: ACEIs
- Chirurgie - urgente: ruptura de mm papilar, ruptura cordaje, IMi traumatica,
IMi severa asociata cu endocardita
- IMi cronica – cand devine simptomatica sau la asimpt cu FEVS
< 50%, ap HTP, endsistolic volum index > 50ml/m2
→ reparare valva
→ inlocuire valva
Valve prostetice
Valve:
- mecanice – material sintetic
- biologice – valve aortice porcine / valve pericard bovin
Biologice:
- risc ↓ trombembolism – anticoagulare doar in primele luni
- durabilitate ↓: calcificare, fibrozam degenerare ( mai ales la tineri si la cei cu
alterari metab Ca)
- la 15 ani 50% din valve sunt defecte
Mecanice
- incid m mare a TEP Mi>Ao
- poate fi intrerupt regimul anticoagulant cateva zile preoperator fara risc –
inlocuit cu LMWH/FH postop pt INR 2,5-3,5
→ tromboza in sp la valvele tricuspide
→ endocardita precoce (in primele 60 z) sau tardiva
- profilaxie ATB: dentist, bronhoscopie, endoscopie, cateterizare vez urinara,
incizie/drenaj tesut, nastere vaginala – Amoxicilina/ Cefalosporina/
Vancomicina + Gentamicina
242
ENDOCARDITA
Prognostic prost
- Staf auriu – distruge valva complet
- valva mitrala
- IC severa
- soc, MODS
- emboli artere mari
- formare de abcese miocard
Profilaxie ATB
- extratii dentare
- chir periodontala
- proc GI joase
- proc geintourinare
Anevrisme micotice
= dilatari anevrismale ale arterelor deteminate de infectia peretelui vasului
- frecvent la pacienti cu endocardita – extindere bacterii din lumen la perete +
embolizare vasa vasorum
- apare dupa bacteriemie tranzitorie cu insamantare pe o a mare anterior
lezata – placa de aterom aorta
- frecv a femurala
- aceiasi ag ce determina endocardita
Clinic:
- intracranian cel mai frecv – asimp in absenta rupturii → hemoragie
intracerebrala
- manifestari in functie de organ
Dg:
- CT cererbal + angiografie
- abd: febra persistenta, bacteriemie, CT, arteriografie
Trat
- intracranian – clipare anverism periferic / anevrisme profunde ATB 4-6 S sau
2-4 S dupa interv chir
- abdominal – chirurgie cu rezectie AAo
Sepsis postangina
= bacteriemie datorata anaerobilor ce complica faringite
- invazie bacteriana a mucoasei faringe posterior cu extensia tromboflebitei
supurative in v jugulara
- clinic: febra, frison, durere gat, icter
- diagnostic: CT – tromboflebita v jugulara interna
→ Fusobacterium
→ Bacteroides
- trat: ATB antianaerobi 4S sau 10 z dupa rezolutie semne, chirurgie cu drenaj
Pileflebite
= tromboza septica a v porte si rr ei
- complicatie rara a supuratiilor abdominale
3 faze: 1. sm + simpt abdominale
2. bacteremie portala cu invazie si tromboza VP
3. formare de abcese in ficat
- dg: - CT, transaminaze ↑, bacteriemie inconstant
→ E colli
→ Klebsiella
→ Enterobacter
→ anaerobi: Bacteroides, Fusobacterii, peptostreptococ
- trat: ATB preluingita, drenaj chirurgical
→ Stafilococ epidermidis
→ Stafilococ aureus
→ gram negativi
Infectie pacemaker
Pacemaker:
- trasnvenoase si epicardice temporare cu generatoare externe
→management CVC
- trasnvenoase si epicardice permanente
→ Stafilococ epidermidis
→ Stafilococ aureus
→ Stafilococ auriu
→ E colli, Pseudomonas, Proteus
- ATB 6-8 S
DISECTIA DE AORTA
- incidenta 10-20/1.000.000
- mortalitatea la 3 luni fara tratament 85-90%
Patogenie
- ant → anevrism disecant
- hematom care separa intima si p intena a mediei de p ext a mediei si stratul
adventitial → sangele invadeaza media formand un lumen fals + se poate
rupe in pericard (tamponada) sau in pleura (hemotorax) + ocluzie rr aortice
sau prolaps valva Ao sau IAo
- ruptura apare prin
- slabire perete Ao – degenerare medie(necroza, sd Marfan, sd Enlers-
daulos, ectazie anuloaortica, v bicuspida Ao, leziune iatrogena
- stres al peretelui →↑ tensiunea perete → disectie
Clasificare
Timp: - acuta < 2 S
- cronica > 2 S
Localizare: - A – Ao ascendenta
- B – Ao descendenta (sub a subclavie stg)
A - risc m ↑ de moarte subita
- 65% din disectii
- comlicatii: tamponada, IAo severa, tromboza coronara in sp pe a
coronara dr
B: - trat conservator
Hematom intramural Ao
- hemoragie in perete Ao cu rupere intima
- DD: disectia de Ao
- 80% se rezolva intr-un, dar poate ramana anevrism sacular
- complicatie la pacienti cu diam Ao > 45 m
Clinic
- A - suflu nou de IAo
247
Paraclinic
- leucocitoza usoara
- EKG – hipertrofie VS datorata HTAcr, ischemie acuta
- RxCp – mediastin largit
- RMN – sensibil, dar dureaza ↑↑
- eco – TEE
- angiografie
Monitorizare
- TA invaziv, CVC, Dz, param hemodinamici si ischemia de organ
Tratament
1. Control TA
Mecanism Doza
Labetalol - blocare α1β1 β2 1. Bolus 0.25 ng/kg in 2
- ↓ RVP fara a ↑ AV min se poate repeta la 10
- act in 5-10 min min
- Δt1/2 = 5-8 ore 2. PEV cont 1-2 mg/min
Esmolol - β blocare – selectiv β1 1. Bolus 500 γ/kg in 1
- ↓ AV + contractilitate min
- act 2 min 2. PEV cont 25-200
- Δt1/2 9-10 min γ/kg/min
Nitroprusiat - relaxare mm neteda perete PEV cont 0.5-8 γ/kg/min
vascular
- ↓ RVP si presarcina
- act 1-2min
- Δt1/2 3-4 min
Propranorol - blocant β Bolus 1-3 mg in 2-3 min,
- ↓ contractilitatea miocardului si se poate repetala 2-3 min
RVP
- act 1-2 min
- Δt1/2 2-3 h
Trimetafan - blocant gg autonomic PEV cont 3-4 mg/min
- relaxeaza direct mm neted
vascular
248
- ↓ RVP
2. Analgezie
3. Chirurgical
- complicatii chirurgicale: IMA, sd debit cardiac ↓ ( TAS <() mmHg cu PCWP↑),
aritmii, sangerare, complicatii respiratorii, AVC, IRA
- Factori de risc care tin de interventia chirurgicala - cel mai important factor
predictiv al riscului aparitiei complic postop este locul inciziei. Riscul creste pe
masura ce incizia se apropie de diafragm
- interventiile chirurgicale de etaj abdominal superior ;
- interventiile de chirurgie toracica (in particular rezectiile pulmonare
totale sau partiale);
- pozitiile prelungite de litotomie, decubit lateral si Trendelenburg;
- chirurgia in urgenta.
Anamneza
- Pacient fumator (peste 10 tigari pe zi, de mai mult de 10 ani);
- Tuse cronica, productiva, mai mult de trei luni pe an, mai mult de doi ani
consecutiv;
- Dispneea de effort, de repaus, agravarea ei in timp, determinarea modificarii
stilului de viata;
250
Examenul clinic
- Atitudine (respira linistit, culcat sau cu greutate, in sezut, folosind
musculatura respiratorie auxiliara)
- Vorbire (tradeaza dispneea)
- Coloratia tegumentelor
- Ampliatia excursiilor costale
- Asimetrii sau deformari ale cutiei toracice
- Obezitatea sau abdomenul marit de volum
- Jugularele turgescente
- Prezenta si calitatea edemelor la membrele inferioare
- auscultatie: - Raportul inspir/expir
- Prezenta ralurilor bronsice
- Prezenta ralurilor alveolare
- Frecatura pleurala
- Cord : Z II intarit in focarul P,
Examene paraclinice
- Rx cord/pulmon
- EKG
- Determinari ale gazelor sangvine (totusi de obicei pulsoximetria este
suficienta);
- Explorarea functionala respiratorie :
- spirometria;
- testul de efort (Vo2);
- scintigrama V/Q;
- explorarea pulmonara regionala (bronhospirometria, ventilatie
in poz. laterala)
Masuratorile spirometrice
- se indica efectuarea lor de rutina preoperator la toti pacientii candidati la
rezectii pulmonare;
- sunt utile la pacientii candidati la chirurgie abdominala superioara care se
prezinta cu simptomatologie sugestiva : tuse, dispnee, intoleranta la efort;
- masurarea inainte si dupa administrarea de bronhodilatator (agonisti
selectivi B2) cuantifica gradul de reversibilitate al obstructiei bronsice.
251
Testul de efort
- permite aprecierea interactiunii cord-pulmon;
- util mai ales inaintea rezectiilor pulmonare
- cresterea presiunii sistolice in artera pulmonara in timpul probei de efort este
de prognostic nefavorabil si se coreleaza cu abilitatea pacientului de a
supravietui unei rezectii pulmonare;
- masurarea consumului maxim de O2 (VO2max) - <60% v.p. se asociaza cu
prognostic nefavorabil)
angina 1
INTRAANESTEZIC
Mecanismele aparitiei hipercapniei intraanestezic
- calcia saturata;
- hipoventilatia;
- hiperproductie (febra, frison, hipertiroidism);
- ventilatia de spatiu mort.
ANESTEZIA IN BPOC
Factori de gravitate
- tahipneea;
- efortul respirator marcat (tradat prin vorbire sacadata);
- cianoza tegumentelor si mucoaselor;
- semnele decompensarii cordului drept (jugulare turgescente, edeme
periferice, congestie hepatica);
- PaO2<60 in aer atmosferic, PaCO2>45;
- FEV1<70% si FEV1/FVC<65% din val.predictiva
La acesti pacienti, o incizie supraombilicala este aproape intotdeauna
asociata cu
insuficienta respiratorie postoperatorie si necesitate de ventilatie mecanica.
Postoperator
Cheia profilaxiei complicatiilor pulmonare postoperatorii este :
- instituirea precoce a terapiei respiratori
- mobilizarea precoce;
- evitarea sedarii acestor bolnavi.
Terapia respiratorie :
- oxigenoterapie;
- toaleta secretiilor bronsice (tapotaj, tuse comandata, drenaj postural);
- manevre de reexpansiune alveolara (deep-br. exercises, incentive
spirometry, CPAP pe masca faciala, nasal BiPAP);
- nebulizari cu bronhodilatatoare.
Evaluarea preoperatorie
Scopul evaluarii - determinarea tipului de AB si a severitatii acestuia. Se
urmaresc :
- varsta debutului;
- factorii declansatori, alergii cunoscute;
- prezenta simptomatologiei la momentul consultului (factor de gravitate) :
wheezing, tuse
- prezenta sputei (!aspectul mucopurulent impune instituirea tratamentului AB
preoperator)
- medicatia curenta a pacientului - nu trebuie intrerupta
Medicatia preoperatorie
- foarte importanta este continuarea medicatiei bronhodilatatoare pe care
pacientul o lua acasa
257
Premedicatia
- Atentie la antagonistii RecH2 (antisecretoriile)
RecH2 - mediaza bronhodilatatia
RecH1 - mediaza bronhoconstrictia
- Atentie la aspirina si alte AINS care pot declansa reactii alergice
Anestezia
De fiecare data cand este posibil se prefera anestezia locoregionala pentru ca
evita instrumentarea cailor aeriene.
PRECAUTII:
- atentie la manifestarile alergice legate de anestezicul local (esterii au ca
metabolit acidul p-NH2-benzoic)
- anestezia cu nivele inalte (toracic superior) teoretic determina blocaj
simpatic la nivel pulmonar cu aparitia bronhospasmului (practic nu se intampla
asa) si bloc motor la nivelul mm respiratorii
Anestezia generala
- tinta conducerii AG este prevenirea aparitiei bronhospasmului la intubatie
sau intraoperator;
- este bine sa se evite substantele care produc eliberare de Histamina
(Morfina, Thiopentalul, Atracurium - in bolusuri mari);
- anestezicele volatile sunt toate bronhodilatatoare potente;
- masca laringiana se asociaza mai rar cu aparitia bronhospasmului
comparativ cu sonda IOT
Anestezicele intravenoase
- Propofolul si Etomidatul par a fi asociate cu frecventa cea mai mica a
aparitiei BS (! Proteina din ou, metabisulfitul - alergeni) ;
- Ketamina prin efect S-mimetic determina relaxarea musculaturii netede
bronsice si scaderea rezistentei in caile aeriene;
- Thiopentalul este mai frecvent asociat cu aparitia bronhospasmului
(stimuleaza descarcarea Hist.);
- Opioidele : Morfina in doze mari (adm. bolus) descarca Histamina; Fentanyl-
ul mult mai putin.
258
Blocantele neuromusculare
- Succinil-cholina - fara probleme
- non-depolarizantele care determina descarcare de Histamina (compusii de
tip benzil-izochinolinic) sunt (teoretic) de evitat : Atracurium, Mivacurium;
practic este nevoie de doze f.mari (5XED95) pentru a observa un efect clinic;
- inhibitorii de colinesteraza pot precipita bronhospasmul prin +RecM2
postganglionari; este preferata asteptarea recuperarii sub monitorizarea
blocului neuromuscular.
Extubarea
Preferabil sa se faca inainte de trezirea completa la pacientul cu
hiperreactivitate a cailor aeriene; eventual sub perfuzie continua de Lidocaina
1 - 3 mg/kc/h
Caracteristici generale
- scaderea proportionala a tuturor volumelor pulmonare (important: RV,
FRC,VT);
- rapid shallow breathing pattern;
- scaderea ventilatiei alveolare;
- scaderea capacitatii de difuziune a gazelor; retentie cronica de CO2 si
hipoxemie;
- hipertensiune pulmonara si CPC;
- scaderea eficientei drenarii secretiilor, atelectazii, pneumonie;
- scaderea compliantei sistemului TP (pana la 20ml/cmH2O);
Evaluarea preoperatorie
- Aprecierea severitatii bolii :
- clinic (dispnee de effort)
260
Criterii de sevrare de VM
- CV > 15ml/kc
- A-aDO2 <350mmHg la FiO2=1
- PaO2 > 60mmHg la FiO2 <50
- Pinsp.max.> -20cmH2O (la ocluzia cailor aeriene)
- pH arterial normal
- frecventa respiratorie <20/min.
- Vd/Vt <0.6
Definitie:
G > 200% din G.ideala
BMI > 40
Caracteristic:
- sindrom de hipoventilatie (Pickwick), hipoxemie si hipercapnie cronica;
- scaderea volumelor pulmonare FVC, FRC, TLC, ERV (forced-vital, functional
residual, total lung, expiratory reserve);
- reducerea compliantei sistemului toraco-pulmonar (sindrom restrictiv -
intereseaza mai ales tesutul p.);
- cresterea rezistentei in caile aeriene secundara reducerii volumului pulmonar
Management
1. Preoperator
Evaluare
- status fizic general (b pulm, cardiace, neurol)
- spirometrie
- RxCP
- gaze arteriale
263
- intrerupere fumat
- tratarea oricarei componente reversibile (ATB, bronhodil, corticosteroizi)
- amanarea interventiilor elective daca functia pulm se poate imbunatatii
- educare pt resp profunde postop
- strategii de pain management postop
Plan anestezic/chirurgical
- anest regionala ideala pt controlul durerii
- interv chir cat mai scurta
- folosirea tehniciilor laparoscopice
2. Intraoperator
- masca laringiana in sp la cei cu bronhospasm
- ! la relax mm cu durata lunga de actiune
- folosirea anest locale pt infiltrarea campului op
- hidratarea adecvata pt a permite mobilizarea secretiilor
- VM – manevre de recrutare pt a mentine un SpO adecvat
- FiO2 scazut pt a reduce atelectazia de resorbtie
- hipercapnie permisiva, evitarea volumelor mari (barotrauma, volutrauma)
3. Postoperator
- mentinerea IOT pana la reversia completa a blocului neuromuscular
- terapie multimodala: NSAID, anestg locala pt analgezie
- terapie postop resp
- mobilizare rapida
- continuare hidratare adecvata pt mobilizare secretii
BRONHOSPASMUL
FIZIOPATOLOGIA BRONHOSPASMULUI
- Conceptul conform caruia contractia muschiului neted este cauza cresterii
rezistentei cailor aeriene la pacientii cu cai aeriene reactive este mult
simplificat. În timp ce un raspuns bronhoconstrictor exagerat la un factor
declansator este caracteristic pentru astm, cresterea reactiei la factorii
declansatori consta intr-un raspuns complex incluzand edem al cailor
respiratorii, cresterea secretiilor, si contractia muscului neted. Studiul
calibrului cailor aeriene la pacienti cu astm in stare foarte grava (aproape de
moarte) a aratat un marcat edem al submucoasei, iar studiile recente au
demonstrat ca inflamatia este prezenta chiar la pacientii cu astm usor. Lavajul
bronhoalveolar a demonstrat de asemenea o crestere a celulelor inflamatorii
de la nivel pulmonar la pacientii cu astm. Peter Barnes, un promitator
cercetator in domeniul astmului, chiar a sugerat sa redefinim astmul clinic ca
obstructie aeriana ce cedeaza la glucocorticoizi. Din momentul in care ce
calibrul cailor aeriene este redus de o asemenea inflamatie, datorita
constrictiei sau secretiilor poate determina cresterea marcata a rezistentei. În
plus, hiperreactivitatea bronsica pare sa fie crescuta de inflamatia cailor
aeriene.
264
MEDICATIE
1. Agonistii ß-adrenergici
Agonisti ß-adrenergici au fost traditional considerati principalul tratament acut
si cronic al pacientilor cu reactivitate a cailor aeriene usoara sau moderata.
Siguranta lor este in general subestimata de anestezisti datorita anecdotelor
despre cresterea incidentei mortilor in UK dupa administrarea de isuprel
inhalator. Este clar ca medicamentele existente actual sunt foarte sigure in
administrare acuta. Agonisti ß-adrenergici administrati inhalator, incluzand
albuterol, terbutaline, fenoterol, pirbuterol si salmeterol au gradul de marime
LD50 mai mare decat dozele lor terapeutice. Raman controverse
semnificative privind existenta efectelor negative ale folosirii cronice ale
agonistilor ß-adrenergici in special ale medicamentelor cu potenta ridicata
cum ar fi fenoterol. Recent, cativa clinicieni au inceput sa foloseasca
corticosteroizi inhalatori ca prima linie de terapie, cu agonistii ß-adrenergici
rezervati pentru folosirea PRN.
2. Teofilina
Desi teofilina are actiune bronhodilatatoare, nu aduce imbunatatiri
suplimentare la efectele agonistilor ß-adrenergici in cazurile acute. Interesante
sunt demonstratiile cu caini in care amiofilina nu a determinat bronhodilatatie
la cainii anesteziati cu halotan atunci cand bronhospasmul a fost provocat de
histamina. Rolul sau primar pare sa fie profilaxia atacurilor acute la astmaticii
cronici si preventia episoadelor nocturne de bronhospasm. La pacientii cu
boala pulmonara cronica efectele sale asupra clerance-lui mucociliar si
contractiei diafragmatice pot contribui la imbunatatirea starii clinice. Efectele
toxice sunt observate la nivele sub nivelele necesare pentru efectele maxime
terapeutice. Teofilina pare de asemena sa creasca incidenta aritmiei in timpul
inductiei anestezice cu halotan, desi efecte similare nu sunt observate la
sevoflurane sau isoflurane.
3. Corticosteroizi
Cresterea reactivitatii cailor aeriene, la fel ca in boala inflamatorie, a condus la
o apreciere mai mare a importantei steroizilor in controlul incidentei atacurilor
si in tratarea atacurilor acute. Studii recente indica faptul ca durata efectelor
terautice este de cateva ore, determinand ca steroizii sa fie folositori ca
medicatie preoperatorie la pacientii cu astm moderat sau sever si cu istoric de
necesar (consum) de steroizi in trecut. O singura zi in care se administreaza
doze mari de steroizi nu afecteaza semnificativ vindecarea plagii. În fata unui
pacient cu weezing, programat pentru interventie chirurgicala, o terapie cu
steroizi timp de o saptamana (sau saptamani) inainte de operatie poate fi
folositore. Preocuparea legata de faptul ca steroizi vor creste rata problemelor
legate de plaga operatorie sau infectiile asociate nu este fondata. Un studiu
recent al astmaticilor tratati preoperator cu steroizi nu a descoperit nici o
265
OPRIREA FUMATULUI
Parerea ca oprirea fumatului inainte de operatie este benefica, este numai
partial adevarata. Studiile indica faptul ca oprirea fumatului pe termen scurt
aduce putine beneficii reale, mai multe saptamani de oprire a fumatului fiind
necesare inainte ca pacientii sa beneficieze de aceasta.
ALEGEREA ANESTEZIEI
A. ANESTEZIA REGIONALA
Din moment ce intubatia traheala reprezinta factorul declansator major al
weezing-ului in timpul anesteziei, orice masura pentru evitarea intubatiei este
folositoare. Shnider si Papper au descoperit ca 6,4% din pacientii astmatici
dezvolta weezing in timpul anesteziei generale dupa intubatie, desi mai putin
de 2% au dezvoltat weezing in timpul AG fara intubatie sau in timpul AR. O
critica adusa blocului neuraxial la pacientii cu boala bronhospastica este
aceea ca este posibil ca un bloc inalt sa scada puterea muschilor respiratori
accesori. Schimbarea majora a functiei pulmonare, observata la blocurile
spinale inalte, este o reduce medie de 48% a volumului expirator de rezerva
care se traduce clinic prin tuse. La pacientii cu bronsita cronica sau infectie
curenta de cai aeriene superioare aceasta poate fi o problema, dar pentru
majoritatea pacientilor cu cai aeriene reactive, AR este ideala. Probleme
privind blocul inalt ce conduce la blocarea simpaticului si consecutiv la
bronhospasm par de asemenea a fi nefondate. Un studiu efectuat la pacienti
cu astm nu a demonstrat existenta de diferente intre pacientii cu anestezie
epidurala inalta (T2-T4) si cei cu anestezie generala la care s-a administrat
ketamina/isofluran. Un studiu, pe voluntari cu reactivitate bronsica
documentata, a aratat ca anestezia epidurala inalta nu altereaza rezistenta
cailor aeriane si atenueaza raspunsul la acetilcolina inhalatorie. Atenuarea
raspunsului poate fi datorata absortiei sistemice a anestezicului local, mai
curand decat orice efect direct al anesteziei epidurale. Doua studii publicate in
ultimii ani in Japonia au descoperit amandoua o incidenta scazuta a atacurilor
de astm la anestezia epidurala fata de AG. Totusi, este important de notat ca
in cateva cazuri in ASA Close Claim Study pacientii au primit anestezie
266
B. AGENTII DE INDUCTIE
1. Thiopentalul
Thiopentalul nu induce bronhospasm, totusi datorita faptului ca el asigura
doar o mica parte a anesteziei, intubatia traheala in timpul anesteziei cu
thiopental singur poate declansa bronhospasm. Experimental, pe cai aeriene
izolate de oaie, thiopental determina contractia traheei si relaxarea bronhiilor.
2. Ketamina
Ketamina produce relaxarea muschiului neted atat direct cat si prin eliberarea
de catecolamine. La pacientul cu weezing este agentul de inductie preferat,
frecvent usurand situatia.
3. Lidocaina
Lidocaina previne reflexele bronhoconstrictoare si are o toxicitate scazuta la
doze de 1,5 mg/kg administrata la 3 minute inainte de intubatie. Spray-ul cu
lidocaina administrat direct poate declansa reactii ale cailor aeriene si trebuie
evitat in favoarea administrarii intravenoase.
4.Propofol
Administrarea la astmatici a 2,5 mg/kg propofol in timpul inductiei determina o
incidenta semnificativ scazuta a weezing-ului dupa intubatie traheala, atunci
cand este comparat cu administrarea la inductie de 6 mg/kg thiamylal sau de
o doza echivalenta de methohexital. Un studiu al spitalului nostru a gasit ca la
pacienti, administrarea de propofol la inductia anesteziei determina scaderea
rezistentei cailor respiratorii dupa intubarea traheala, mai mult decat
thiopental sau etomidat.
C. AGENTII INHALATORI
Studiile mai vechi ale lui Hirshman efectuate pe caini cu bronhospasm indus
de antigene ascaridiene au demonstrat ca halotanul si isofluranul au fost in
mod egal eficiente in reducerea bronhospasmului. Totusi, un studiu mai
recent la caini cu bronhospasm indus de histamina a demonstrat ca la o doza
mai mica decat 1,7 MAC halotan este un mai bun agent bronhodilatator decat
isofluran. În plus, in timpul inductiei pe masca, un nivel mai scazut de halotan
determina scaderea incidentei tusei. Din moment ce tusea poate determina
bronhospasm, multi anestezisti inca prefera halotan ca agent dupa o doza
initiala de medicatie intravenoasa. Sevoflurane in experientele preliminare din
spitalul nostru sugereaza ca este o alege excelenta pentru pacientul cu cai
aeriene reactive.
RASPUNSUL LA CRIZA
B. ANESTEZIA PROFUNDA
Chiar cand exista o scadere a presiunii sanguine, o anestezie mai profunda
este folositoare, in special pentru ca poate scadea presiunea intratoracica si
imbunatatii intoarcerea venoasa. Paralizia va scadea impedanta respiratori.
Dovezi experimentale sugereaza faptul ca halotanul poate fi o alegere mai
buna decat isofluranul, in special la nivele scazute ale MAC.
268
D. KETAMINA
O doza crescuta de ketamina poate un mod rapid de mentinere a presiunii
arteriale, asigurarea unei anestezii rapide si profunde si evitarea problemelor
legate de administrarea unui anestezic inhalator la un pacient cu o ventilatie
proasta.
48. Anestezia la bolnavul cu suferinte renale, endocrine, hepatice, hematologice
RENAL
ENDOCRIN
Feocromocitom
= tum vasc a tes cromafin ce produce si secreta NA + A
- dg - ac vanilmandelic urinar ↑
- NA, A, metanefrine urinare ↑
- fenoxibenzamina
- intraop – iv fentolamina, labetalol
- evitare: - Sch → fasciculatii → ↑ Pintraabd → elib CA
- medic asoc cu elib de histamina
- halotan – sensibizeaza cord la CA
- ketamina – Smimetic
- anticolinergice – imbalanta S autonom
- pancuroniu
- droperidol
HEMATOLOGIC
FICAT
Evaluare risc operator :
Child-Pugh Score 1 2 3
Bilirubina (totala) µmol/l <34 34-50 >50
(mg/dL) (<2) (2-3) (>3)
Albumina serica g/L >35 28-35 <28
INR <1.7 1.71-2.20 > 2.20
Ascita Nu Supresata cu medicatie Refractara
Encefalopatie hepatica Nu Grad I-II (Supresata cu Grade III-IV (Refractara)
medicatie )
Clase A = 5-6 Supravietuire15-20
B = 7-9 Candidat pt transplant
C = 9-15 Supravietuire 1-3 luni
Clase A = 5-6 Mortalitate perioperatorie 0-10 %
B = 7-9 Mortalitate perioperatorie 4-31 %
C = 9-15 Mortalitate perioperatorie 19-76 %
Anestezice iv
- injectarea unei sg doze de anestezic (cu exc ketamina)→alterare minima in
conc plasmatica a medic
- opioizi - spasm sfincter Oddi (!colangiografie) → trat: naloxona, atropina,
NTG
- vol de distributie const, ↓ metabolismul → clearance plasmatic ↑
- legarea de prot a medic este alterata suplimentar de bilirubina ↑
- BZD ↑↑ fractia libera → ↑↑ efectul
- tiopental – clearance palsmatic + volum de distribuite nemodificat → nu se
prelungeste durata de actiune
- fractie de extractie hepatica ↑
- ↑ fractiei libere a medic → ↑ activitatea in inductie → ↑ incidenta
reactiilor nedorite in inductie
- curare → fractie nonionizata ↑ → ↑ vol de distributie → rezist la doza din
inductie
- ↓ PCE → rar semnif cl cu prel ef Sch
Inductia
- de ob crush induction – cu protectie gastrica ant
- se poate folosi orice medic utilizat de obicei cu dif ca doza trebuie titrata
atent pana la obtinere ef scontat
- se pot utiliza curare depolarizante
- se pot utiliza cur nondepol – adesea doza de inductie trebuie ↑ pt a
compensa ↑ vol de distributie ↑, este de dorit titrarea ef cu neurostim
Mentinerea
- evitarea hipoxiei celulare hepatice ce se paote realiza la 4 nivele
1. hipoxemie hipoxica (FiO2 ↓, hipoventilatie)
2.. hipoxemie anemica
3. hipoxemie circulatorie
- colaps sist CO↓, TA ↓
- ↓ FSH – manipulare ficat, subst vasoconstr endogene (SRAA, SNS,
ADH)
4. rar hipoxemie histotonica prin interferarea anestezicului cu transp de electr
la nivel celular
271
Regula principala
- mentinerea ventilatiei adecvate
- metinerea functiei cardiovasc adecvate → DC, vol sg, pres periferica
3 probe martor:
a) Martor autolog – Et pac + ser pac , urmareste daca b are/nu autoAc;
pozitivitatea reactiei (observarea aglutinarii) sugereaza prezenta
autoanticorpilor activi la To laboratorului (autoAc la rece); martorul negativ
confirma absenta acestor autoAc
b) Martor heterelog (ALLO) → Et O test + ser pac; pozitivarea r arata ca
pacientul are Ac antieritrocitari impotriva altor Ag decat Ag A,B; valideaza
metoda Simonin
c) Martor AB – Et pac + ser AB→ pot apare fenomene de falsa aglutinare, fen
de rulouri (hematii aglutinate in fisicuri); apare in special in MM (determinarea
grupului trebuie realizata prin metoda serica) si valideaza metoda BV
Determinarea Rh
Sist Rh – antigene Cc Ee
Se determina prezenta factorului D – prezent la 75% din populatie → Rh +
Ser anti D + ser pac → aglutinare Rh +
→ nonaglutinare Rh -
ABO - RH
→ Et p
+ AcαA
+ AcαB
Ser p + Et AgA
+ Et AgB
→ Et p + AcαD
Ser p + Et D+
Crossmatching → Etd + Ser p
273
Probe de compatibilitate:
Majora
- se efectueaza intre serul primitorului – eritrocitele donatorului
- dinamica
- evita conflictul Ag-Ac ce paote avea loc in org primitorului cu unitatea care
se transfuzeaza
Pt efectuare: plasma de la primitor recoltata pe anticoagulant sau ser nu mai
vechi de 24 ore
Pt fiecare transfuzie la interval de 3-5 zile este necesara o plasma proaspata
de la pacient pt a surprinde aparitia Ac de imunizare sau ↑ titrului unor Ac deja
existenti si stimulati de transf care se efectueaza
Se efectueaza:
1. La 37oC pt Ac de tip imun completi/incompleti/la cald
2. La 22oC pt Ac iregulari naturali/la rece
2 tehnici - enzimatica
- test Coombs indirect (ser antiglobulinc)
1. ser pac + sg donator + 1 pic papaina
2. ser pac + sg donator
Lipsa aglutinare = compatibilitate
False reactii
- pozitive +
- dupa PEv cu subst macromoleculare → depozitare in fisicuri a
eritrocitelor care apar ca aglutinare
- hiperγglobulinemii: BW, MM, CH → depozitare in fisicuri a Et. Se
dilueaza serul pac ½ → 1/5 si determinarea se face cu acest ser diluat
- tulb de coag cu TC ↑↑↑: fibrina sechestreaza Et → falsa r de
aglutinare, se aduga putina trombina in eprubeta
- anemiile hemolitice autoimune
In urgenta
274
Minora
Alt ABO donor fat de Ag primitor
- fara imp in c% limitate (400 ml)
- diluati in plasma primitorului
- absorbiti de elementele plasmei si celulele endoteliale ale vaselor sg
- F imp si periculos - Donator O periculos
- Transfuzii masive
Obiective terapeutice:
1. restabilirea volumului de sg circulant
2. restabilirea capacitatii de trasnport a O si a perfuziei tisulare
3. prevenirea afect metabolice/complicatiilor (coagulopatii, acidoza, ↓ To)
precum si SRIS postresuscitare
Obtinerea componentelor
Sange total centrifugare → MER (Ht 70%)
→ plasma imbogatita in tromboxcite – centrifugare
→ Masa troambocitara
→ PPC - utilizata pt a obtine albumina 5%
- colect fractiuni proteice insolubile la 0oC – CPP = FVIII,
FvW, fibrinogen, fibronectina
1. Sange integral
- eritrocite + proteine plasmatice + factori de coagulare
- 510 ml
- Ht 35-45%
2. MER
- Et fara plasma
- 250 ml
- Ht 60-75
- 1 u MER ↑ Hb cu 1 g/dl si Ht cu 2-3%
Indicatii - restabilirea capacitatii de trasnport a O2
- O2 marea majoritate circula legat de Hb, o micaparte este dizolvat in plasma
- P50 = pres partiala a O2 la care SaO2=50%, este o masura a afinitatii O2 =
26 mmHg
- febra, acidoza, 2,3 DPG ↑ → ↓ afinitatea Hb pt O2 → ↑ eliberarea O2 la
tesuturi in cond de cerere ↑
CaO2 =
Valoarea optima a Ht
- dpdv reologic Ht~30% → cea mai buna preop intre capacitatea de transport
a O2 si fluxul sg legat de vascozitate
275
Depozitare
- sg proaspat cald restabileste cel mai eficeitn masa eritrocitare, volumul
plasmatic, Tr, fact de coag
- se stocheaza la 4oC
- anticoagulare se realizeaza cu CPD (citrat, fosfat, dextroza) + ADSOL (CPD
+adenina, glucoza, manitol, NaCl)
3. MER deleucocitiza
- 300 ml
- Ht 50-70%
- Lc inlaturate prin filtre de celuloza
Indicatii - pacienti cu r febrile repetate posttransfuzionale,
- pacienti cu risc ↑ de transmitere a unor infectii virale asoc transfuziilor
– femei gavide, imunodeprimati, prematuri
Avantaje: - ↓ riscul de supresie imuna + ↓ riscul de transmitere a unor infectii
virale
4. Concentrat trombocitar
- 50 -60 ml (55x109 Tr)
- 4 unitati → ↑ cu 30-40.000 mm3 Tr
- se poate obtine de la mai multi donatori/PPC centrif → PP inbog → MTr/de
un sg donator → centrifugare → sunt pastrate Tr si returnate restul elem
- nr Tr pe 1 u intre 4x1010 – 15x1010
Indicatii:
- nr Tr 50.000-60.000 este bine tolerat de tineri, nu se recomanda transf de
MTr daca nu se preconizeaza interv chir
- ≤ 20.000/mm3 → MTr oricum
- pac cu Tr<50.000 si programat pt interv chir/catetere → transf MTr
- interv chir in sp mici (ochi, creier) → Tr > 100.000
- politrauma la Tr<75-80.000
- hipotermie, acidoza, hemodilutie → se altereaza fct plachetara si fact de
coagulare → tranf + corect acidoza metabolica + incalzire pacient
5. PPC
- plasma separata de la un singur donator si congelata la – 18oC 6 ore
- 200-250 ml
- fact de coagulare N cu exceptia FVIII
- F VIII 70%
Indicatii:
-inlocuirea deficitelor izolate de factori de coag (II, V, VIII, IX, X, XI)
- trat supradozajului cu anticumarinice
- sursa de ATIII in deficit ATIII
- PTT
- coagulopatia din transfuzii masive (>vol sg total in cteva ore)
6.Crioprecipitat
- din PPC a > 10 donatori → risc crescut de infectare
- cant ↑ de FVIII, fibrinogen, fibronectina
- 1 u CPP = 100 U FVIII + 250 mg fibrinogen
1u FVIII = cant de FVIII ce se gaseste in 1 ml de plasma
- 1 u CPP ↑ activ FVIII cu 2 % → se rec adm a 8-10u CPP
- inclazit la 37oC se inactiveaza FVIII
Indicatii:
- hipofibrinogemie (fbgen<100 mg/dl)
- hemofilia A
- b v Willebrand
PERFLUROCARBONATI (PFC)
1. hidrocarburi maxim fluorinate
2. au o solobilitate mare în gaz sunt biologic inerti, nemiscibili în apa,
3. emulsiile apoase de PFC pot absorbii, transporta si elibera oxigen si
CO2 deci pot fi folosite ca alternativa la hemoglobina
4. Perflunafene (perfluorodecalin) are capacitate de transport a O2 de 30x
mai crescuta ca H2O la 370 C si atunci cand este echilibrat cu aer
poate disocia 10 ml O2/dl (1/2 din capacitatea sangelui)
5. PFC sunt excretati primar respirator, dar se pot distribui si tisular în
special în reticulul endoplasmic
6. Fluosol-DA (perfluafene + perfluamine – perflourotripropilamina)
emulsifiat cu surfactant Plutonmic F-68 pt a avea dimensiunea picaturii
stabila de 0.2 µm. Se pare ca nu are toxicitate renala si asupra reticului
endotelial asociat altor dimensiuni sau compusi de surfactant
7. vascozitatea emulsiei 20% este mai scazuta decat a sangelui si are
dimensiune mai scazuta decat eritrocitul deci permite ajungerea la
tesuturile ischemice mai bine decat sangele. E aprobat pt folosire în
angioplastia coronara percutana transluminala. Alte actiuni potentiale:
sensibilizarea tumorilor maligne hipoxice înainte de radio si chimio
terapie, scaderea leziunii de reperfuzie dupa ischemie/infarct (ex IMA)
8. limitele actule ale solutiilor ca expander plasmatic sunt puterea
emulsiei si toxicitatea surfactantului
Hemoglobina
9. disociere 2,3 DAG determina formarea de catre hemoglobina de
monomeri care sunt toxici (determina leziuni reanle. HTA)
10. monomeri + piridoxin fosfat/dextran determina cresterea dimensiunii cu
cresterea timpului de viata. Eventual polimerizarea solutiei de
hemoglobina bovina + 2,3 DAG + Cl- pt a mentine forma tetramerica
Aspecte tehnice
- MER poate fi diluat cu SF 0.9% pt o adm mai rapida
277
COMPLICATII TRANSFUZII
1. Reactii de incompatibilitate
→ r. majore hemolitice – prin incompatibilitate majora de gr ABO
- clinic: frison, febra, dureri lombare, toracice, tahicardie, hTA, microhemoragii
difuze, Hburie
- trat: - oprire adm sg
- trat asociat al socului
- confirmarea incompatibilitatii trasn prin test COMBS DIRECT
- monit Hb sg + urina, monit fct renala
→ r posttransfuzionala nonhemolitica febrile – apar ca urmare a r Ag-Ac la
leucocitele din sg transfuzat, pot fi inlaturate prin adm de sg deleucocitizat
2. Transmiterea de b infectioase
- cel m frecvent VHC – dozeaza AcαVHC
- VHB – AcαVHB, AgHBs, AcαHBc
- HIV – αHIV1, αHIV2
- HTLV
- sifilis
3. Imunosupresia
- obs la pac cu trasnplant renal ce au primit trasnf sg in preoperator au
prezentat o suprav mai buna a grefei → potential rol imunosupresiv al trasnf
sg
- ARDS indus de trasnfuzii masive prin embolizarea de microagregate in
circulatia pulmonara/ transf de Ac leucocitari
Monitorizarea transfuziei
Pac candidati la trasnf masive trebuie identificati rapid pin
- modif fiziopat (hTA persist, recurenta)
- soc clinic mai putin sver + marker traumatic major (fract bazin,
hematom retroperitoneal)
Monit clinica/lab:
- Ht, PT, aPTT, Tr
- electroliti – Ca
- To, acidoza
Deoarece prelungirea timpilor de coagulare apare cand activitatea F coag ↓ <
20 trebuie monit atent aparitia: sg microvasculare chirurgicale, situsurilor IV,
rani, plagi
COAGULOPATIA POSTTRANSFUZIONALA
- mare majoritate a pac cu trauma severa (cap, ficat) prez coagulopatiei de la
internare; cel mai frecv se datoreaza eliberarii tromboplastinei tisulare din
aceste tesuturi
- trauma cerebrala GCS <6 → 80% dezv CID; GCS≤3-4 → 100% CID
279
Avantaje
- se realizeaza o economie de sg (1/3)
- se asigura efectuarea interv chir in conditiile unei penurii de sg
- ↓ costul interv chir
- se asigura o minima securitate trasnfuzionala – trasnmiterea bolilor
infectioase, evitare conflicte imune
- asigurarea interv chir chiar pt grupe rare de sg
- realizaeza o stimulare imunologica
CI absolute
- refuzul pacientului
- varsta < 3 ani/↑↑
- vene greu abordabile
- boli maligne
- hemopatii maligne
- insuf medulara
- Hb<11g/dl, Ht < 34%
- anomalii ale coagularii
- HTA in tratament
- IRen
- focare de infectie in desfasurare
- boli de piele
CI relative
- varsta <5-6 ani
- greutate < 30 kg
- anemia temporara
- sarcina
- stari febrile
Tehnici
1. Donare preoperatorie si predepozitare sg 4 S preoperator
280
- hipoxia cerebrala
- coagulopatia dilutionala
Hipermetabolismul
- caracteristica RĂSPUNSULUI METABOLIC la injurie este accelerarea
metabolismului întregului organism.
3 faze
1. “EBB Phase” (REFLUX) -24-48h
2. “Flow Phase” (FLUX) - 5-7 zile
3. Metabolism normal
Faza “EBB”
1. faza “de şoc sau de resuscitare”
2. transport de oxigen inadecvat la nivel tisular
3. tendinţă la hipotermie
4. activarea SNS şi a axei hipotalamo-hipofizo-adrenergică
5. tendinţă la creşterea glucozei, cu excepţia copiilor (depozitele hepatice
de glicogen sunt rapid epuizate)
6. nivele serice de insulină subnormal
Faza “FLOW”
1. faza “postresuscitare”
2. începe la şfârşitul primei săptămâni
3. debitul cardiac creşte, cu normo/hipervolemie
4. flux sanguin regional (rinichi, ficat) crescut
5. creşte metabolismul de repaus (accentuat în caz de stress chirugical
sau infecţie)
6. scăderea în greutate începe să devină evidentă, deşi poate fi mascată
(mai ales la vârstnici) de scăderea excreţiei de Na+ şi apă
7. consumul de oxigen tinde să rămână în platou în săptămâna a 2-a de
la injurie
8. creşte eliminarea urinară de azot, sulfaţi, fosfaţi = manifestare a
creşterii catabolismului proteinelor musculare şi nu ca o consecinţă a
resorbţiei ţesutului lezat/necrotic
9. glicemia este normală/crescută, cu intoleranţă la carbohidraţii exogeni
à “diabetul de injurie” (Black, 1982)
10. scade ţesutul adipos, prin oxidare şi mobilizare
Metabolismul proteic
1. catabolismul muscular scheletic este neomogen
2. depinde de compoziţia biochimică (multe proteine contractile – actină,
miozină) şi de funcţia fiziologică (activitate intermitentă sau continuă)
3. inactivitatea musculară favorizează catabolismul (40% din pierderile
urinare de azot se datorează atrofiei musculare)
4. contracţiile musculare active, chiar şi cele pasive (exerciţii, terapie
fizică) limitează pierderile de azot la pacientul critic
Glutamina
= aminoacid nonesenţial
1. important pentru diviziunea şi diferenţierea celulară la nivelul
enterocitelor intestinale; menţine funcţionalitatea mucoasei intestinale
şi previne translocaţia bacteriană
2. important pentru toate tipurile celualre cu proliferare rapidă: măduvă
osoasă, celule imune, celule de la nivelul plăgilor, etc
3. precursor al producţiei de NH3 în rinichi (rol în excreţia acizilor)
4. rol în gluconeogeneză prin conversia la intermediari ai ciclului Krebs
5. determinant al ratei catabolismului proteic şi al sintezei proteice
284
Metabolismul carbohidraţilor
1. “diabetul de injurie” à hiperglicemie, intoleranţă la glucoza exogenă
2. White et al, 1987 – model septic – statusul hiperglicemic se datorează:
1. rezistenţei la insulină;
2. creşterea producţiei hepatice de glucoză;
3. creşterea utilizării periferice de glucoză;
4. creşterea lipolizei.
1. în faza “flow”:
1. stimularea producţiei hepatice de glucoză (Kinney – răspuns
“adaptativ”)
1. glucoza este substrat pentru
1. sinteza glicoproteinelor de fază acută
2. sinteza de glicozaminoglicani şi fibroblaşti din
structura ţesutului conjunctiv
3. alte tipuri celulare implicate în vindecarea plăgilor
2. dublarea ratei de oxidare a glucozei
1. “reciclare” – prin oxidare se formează lactat care cu
aminoacizi (alanina) reconstituie glucoza
1. creşterea producţiei de glucoză se corelează la pacienţii critici cu
creşterea VO2, deci cu severitatea injuriei
1. traumă şi sepsis - producţia hepatică a glucozei a crescut de 6 ori mai
mult decât la cei doar cu traumă
2. gluconeogeneza responsabilă de producţie hepatică de glucoză:
1. 93% - sepsis+traumă
2. 87% - o singură injurie
3. 46% - sănătoşi
Metabolismul lipidic
Caracteristici hipermetabolice la bolnavul critic
1. chiar în prezenţa unor cantităţi crescute de glucoză, lipidele constituie
sursa energetică principală pentur majoritatea ţesuturilor, cu excepţia
eritrocitelor şi a creierului
1. acizii graşi liberi încep să crească în “flow phase” – ziua 8-14
postinjurie
1. lipoliza se corelează cu:
1. severitatea injuriei
2. nivele circulante de catecolamine
3. nivelele de glucagon şi cortizon în anumite condiţii
1. insulina – stimulează lipogeneza prin preluarea de către ţesutul adipos
a glucozei şi a acizilor graşi liberi
Activarea neuro-endocrină
Creşte concentraţia de hormoni contrareglatori (catabolici) – cortizol,
glucagon şi catecolamine (adrenalină şi noradrenalină)
1. Catecolaminele – rol în hipermetabolism
1. turnover catecolamine şi hipermetabolismul sunt scăzute prin a
şi b blocare
2. insulina (a stimulare â, b agonişti â)
Adrenalina à b-efecte ⇒ scade cantitatea de glucoză eliberată
prin stimulare insulinică şi creşte preluarea de glucoză de către ţesuturi
STH
1. are secreţie fazică, cu variaţii diurne (la om sănătos)
2. nivel crescut în sepsis
3. variaţii diurne pierdute
Calcitonina
1. creşte în sepsis
2. vasodilatator, inotrop pozitiv şi cronotrop
Procalcitonina
1. aminoacid ce nu e precursor al calcitoninei
286
2. la om sănătos = â
3. endotoxina = á
4. nu este eliberat de virusuri, alergie, inflamaţie non-bacteriană
5. diferenţiază sepsis de SIRS – marker de severitate
Hormonul de crestere GH ↑
4 catabolism persistent - ↓ sinteza proteica
- depletia celulara de proteine vitale
- ↑ morbiditatea/mortalitatea
287
IGF1 ↓ (imunostimulator)
IGF1: - stimuleaza preluarea si oxidarea glucozei
- ↑ sinteza lipidelor
- formarea osoasa
- ↑ sinteza proteica, ↑ sinteza mielinei
- imbunatateste FSR
- imbunatateste contractilitatea miocardului
- imbunatateste fct celulelor imune
- imbunatateste suprav neuronala
- inhiba oxidarea lisiei
- ↓ catab proteica
- ↑ preluarea glucozei la arsi
Prolactina ↓ (imonostimulator)
- secretata de hipofiza ant in ritm circadian, pulsatil + limfocite
- secretia ↑ : adm de antagonisti dopaminergici haloperidol,
metoclopramid
↓: dopamina, opioizi, glucocorticoizi
→ prolactina poseda act importanta asupra sistemului imun (celule B,T, Mf)
Hipoprolactinemia (prin hipofizectomii, utiliz de agonisti dopa)
- ↓ formarea de Ac
- inhiba reactia de hipersensibilitate intarziata
288
Hormoni sexuali ↓
- estrogen
- progesteron
- DHEAS
→ in boli critice → supresia axei gonadale → ↓ LH, FSH, estrogeni,
testosteron, DHEAS
→ dopamina ↓ si ami mult productia hormonala
→ shift al h sex pe glucocroticoizi
DHEAS
- ↑ productia ILK-2
- ↑ citotoxicitatea cel T
- antagonizeaza ef supresive ale glucocorticoizilor pe proliferarea Lf
Androgenii si progesteronul
- atenueaza rasp imun → interfera cu maturarea LfB↓, ↑ fct LfTs
Estrogenii
- ↑↑ rasp imun
- ↑ fct LfB
- ↓ LfTs
- faciliteaza maturarea LfTh
- stim fct si maturarea macrofagului
Hormonii tiroidieni ↓
TSH → ↑ raspunsul proliferativ al LfT/B la mitogeni + ↑ productia de Ac
ILK1, ILK6, TNFα, IFNγ → ↓ TSH → ↓ T3, T4
ILK2 → ↑ TSH
Nivele ↓ T3/T4 in timpul bolilr critica → prognostic rezervat
→ hormonii tiroidieni regleaza centrii resp si moduleaza raspunusl ventilator la
hipoxie si hipercapnie, desi corectarea niv h tiroidieni imbunatateste statusul
respirator la pac hipotir nu imbun performanta resp la pac eutiroidian cu insuf
resp
Glucocorticoizi
- patol critica → ACTH, cortizol ↑ - se coreleaza negativ cu suprav
Glucocorticoizii:
- deprima fct imuna → inhiba f B/T, inhiba Mf, inhiba Nf
- ↓ eliberarea ILK1 si TNFα din Mf
- ↓ elib de IFNγ si ILK2 din LfT
- blocheaza act inflamatorie a ILK1
- ↓ productia ILK2 si proliferarea Lf
- imbunatateste prognosticul la pac cu insuf adrenala
- recom in stadiul fibroprolif al ARSD
- agent imunosupresiv intr-o serie de patol inflam
289
Dopamina
- 2-5 γ/kg → nivele plasm de 100-1000 → secr endogena
- nu traverseaza bariera hemato0encefalica, totusi exista rec dopa2 accesibili
la niv hipofizei ant + eminenta hipotalamica mediana
- suprimarea secr majoritatii hormonilor hipofizari ant → ↑ raportul hormoni
imunosupresivi/h imunostim, deprimare imunitate
- rec dopa2 la nivelul leucocitar → ↓ cAMP intracelular → ↑ prod de rad liberi
in PMN, ↑ sinteza IFNγ de MF, ↑ proliferarea Lf induse de mitogeni
Inhibitori de fosfodiesterazxa
- ↑ nivelul intraleucocitari al cAMP efecte similare cu cele ale ag β2
- ↓ elib TNFα din monocit/Mf alveolar
- ↓ elib de IFNγ si ILK1 (in socul endotoximic)
- ↓ capacitatea de fagocitoza/bactericida a PMN/Mf
- ↓ elib rad liberi din Mf
- ↓ rasp proliferativ al LfT la mitogeni
- ↓ activitatea citotoxica a celulelor NK
- ↑ productia ILK6, ILK10
↑ nivelul cAMP intracelular → inhiba expresia moleculelor de adeziune
celulara endoteliala mediate de citokine
Orientari terapeutice
- blocada mediatorilor antiinflamatori
- Ac monoclonali anti – LIPID A
- Ac. monoclonali anti - CD – 14
- Ac. anti - TNF
- receptori solubili pentru TNF
- IL – ra
- antagonisti de receptor PAF
- antagonisti receptor LT
- inhibitori de LO
- PgE1 lipozomala incapsulata
- PgI2 aerosoli
- hemofiltrare
- terapie antiadeziva
- Ac. monoclonali ICAM , E – sel , CD – 18
- imunomodulare
- dieta
- Factori de stimulare coloniala Gr - Mf
- interferon
- corticosteroizi
- pentoxifilin
- antagonism complement - inhibitori , Ac neutralizanti
- blocada mecanismelor procoagulante
- r TFPI
- F VII activat – inactivat
- AT III
- proteina C
- antioxidanti
- inhibitia FN – Kb
- expresia pe suprafata monocitelor a HLA – DR
- in CARS < 30 % - ter. imunostimulatoare
- endotelial cell replacement therapy
- hemangioblast - cel stem hematologica
- cel precursor endoteliala
Imunoterapie
Cant adm =
291
Plasmafereza
= inlaturarea plasmei din org + reinfuzia celulelor + adm fluid de substitutie
- indic: - PTT
- sd Guillain Barre
- miastenia gravis
- macroglobulinemia Waldenstrom
- sd Good Pasteur
- complic: cele mai severe legate de cateter – infectii, hemoragii
- lich de subst: - PPC in PTT
- albumina 5% + fluide izotonice in b neurologice
- volumul infuzat = vol sg x (1-Ht)
unde vol sg = G (kg) x 70 ml
Imunoterapii majore
- medic imunosupresive
- corticosteroizi
- chimioter citotoxica
- metotrexat
- ciclosporina, azathioprina
- medic imunomodulatoare levamisol
- Ac: - Ig, Ig umane hiperimune
- ser snimal hiperimun
- globuline antimiocitice
- OKT3
- Fab fragm antidigoxin
- ec pt integrine antiplachetare
- citokine si fact de crestere
- IL2 → cancer
- TNFα → cancer, hepatite
- IFNγ → granulomatoza, dif infectii
292
Strategii anticitokine
- corticosteroizi → ↓ productia de IL1 si TNFα
- pentoxifilin → ↓ productia de TNFα
- TGFβ, IL6, IL10 → ↓ inductia TNF, IL1
- ICE-i (inh conversie enzimatica: enzima de conversie activeaza IL1
- Ac anti TNF → eficienti cand se adm inainte de sepsis/ 30 min dupa
- IL1Ra - singurul antagonist coompetitiv natural descris
- eficient si adm si dupa debutul sepsisului
- 2 mg/kg/h iv pev cont 72 h → ↓ Mo cu 6%
- rec solubil pt TNF = TNF binding protein (TBP)
- 2 tipuri de rec: TBP1, TBP2
- RTNF se gasesc in aproape toate tipurile de celule
- rec solubil pt IL1 – rec tip 1 (LfT, fibroblast) si tip 2 (LfB, monocit)
- L-NMMA – LNmonomeltil arginina = substrat inactiv pt NOS
- Ac antirec CSF
- GM-CSF = granulocit – Mf CSF
- produs de LfT, Mf, Ma, fibroblast
- stimuleaza diferentierea + maturarea precursorilor mieloizi
- stim fct celulelor mieloide mature – eozinofile, neutrofile, monicite
- ter in anemia aplastica, transplant mad osoasa, mielodisplazii, LAm
Citokine antiinflamatorii
- IL6 - unul dintre cei mai importanti markeri citokinici ai rasp inflamtor la om
- endotoxina + IL1 + TNF α → stim monocit, Mf, cel endoteliala,
fibroblast, keratocit, cel T → ↑ sinteza IL6
- induce febra si ↑ reactantilor de faza acuta
- stimuleaza productia de cortizol
- ↓ productia de IL1, TGFα
- stim activarea si proliferarea Lf B si T
- faciliteaza productia de IgG din LfB
293
- TGFβ
- IL1Ra – eliberat din monocit, macrofag, fibroblast
- inhiba specific efectele IL1, inclusiv SIRS dat endotoxinei
Nivelul citokinelor antiinflamatorii este un marker mai bun al act inflam decat
cel al citokinelor proinflamatorii
PAF
- efectele LPS si PAF sunt similare
- este implicat in inflaamtie, ischemie, soc
- cantit de PAf ce induce socul este de 500-1000 x < LPS → indica faptul ca
endotoxina isi exercita efectele prin elib de PAF
- elib de Mf. Nf, cel endoteliala, Tr
- produce: hTA, HTP, vasoconstr coronariana, ↑ permeabilitatea capilara,
agregare trombocitara, bronhoconstrictie, ↓ nr Tr
Procalcitonina ( pct )
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294
Fiziopatologie
- corpul uman raspunde la hemoragia acuta prin activare urmatoarelor
sisteme fiziologice majore: hematologic, cardiovascular, renal, neuroendocrin
Hematologic
- activarea cascadei coagularii si contractura vaselor lezate (prinintermediul
elib locale de TxA2)
- activare plachetara si formarea de cheag imatur la niv sursei de sangerare
- vasele lezate expun colagen care det depozitarea de fibrina si stabilizarea
cheagului
- este nevoie de aprox 24 ore pt maturarea cheag
Cardiovascular
- ↑ AV, ↑ contractilitate miocardica, vasoconstrictie periferica (sec elib de NA
si ↓ tonusului bazal vagal)
- centralizare circulatie
Renal
- ↑ secretiei de renina → ATII → vasoconstr mm neted arteriolar, stim secr de
aldosteron cu ↑ reabs de Na si de apa de la niv renal
Neuroendocrin
- ↑ eliberare ADH ca raspuns la ↓ TA si la ↓ conc de Na
- ADH det ↑ reabs de apa si sare de la niv tubului distal, duct colector si ansa
henle
Clinic
- istoric – det cauzei
- slabiciune, confuzie, letargie, modif status mental
- monitorizare sm vitale
- durerea poate indica sediu
- HDS – hematemeza, melena,
- istoric de ingestie alcool, NSAID, coagulopatii
- in sfera ginecologica daca este sursa de sg – ultima menstruatie, sarcini
ectopice, sangerari vaginale, test sarcina
Clase hemoragie:
Cls I: - pierderi 0-15% volum sg
- in abs complicatiilor doar tahicardie minima
- fara modif TA, frecv resp
- o intarziere in umplerea capilara de aprox 3 sec coresp unei pierderi
de volum de aporx 10%
Cls II: - pierdere 15-30% volum sg
- tahicardie (AV>100/min), tahipnee, intarziere umplere capilara, piele
rece + umeda, anxietate usoara
- ↑ nivele de CA ceea ce det ↑ RVP si ↑ TAD
Cls III: - pierdere 30-40% volum sg
- tahicardie si tahipnee marcata, ↓ TAS, oligurie, modificari
semnificative ale statusului mental (confuzie, agitatie)
- la pac fara alte leziuni pierderea peste 30-40% din vol sg determina ↓
TAS
- maj necesita trasnfuzii sg
Cls IV: - pierdere > 40% din volumul sg
- tahicardie marcata, ↓ TAS, TAD↓↓, Dz↓↓, coma
- pierdere de sg amenintatoare de viata
Diagnostic Diferential
- Abruptio Placentae
- Placenta Previa
- sarcina ectopica
- hemoragie postpartum
- trauma gravida
- Aneurism Abdominal
- Aneurism Toracic
- Fractura Femur
- Fractura Pelvis
- ulcer peptic asu gastritaGastritis and Peptic Ulcer Disease
296
- soc hemoragic
- soc hipovolemic
- toxicitate fier
- sangerari gastrointestinale
- trauma penetranta
Paraclinic
- HLG, ionograma, uree, creatinina, glicemie, PT, APPT, EAB, sumar urina,
test sarcina
- grup sanguin
Tratament
Prespital
- transport rapid
- presiune directa pe vasele sg ce exteriozeaza
- imobilizare col cervicala
- ABC
- linie IV + fluide IV
- MAST ? = military antishock trousers – nu mai sunt rec
Spital:
3 scopuri trat:
1. Maximizare adm de oxigen
- oxigenoterapie
- trat cauze pulm – pntx
- suport ventilator
- cateter venos cu lumen larg
- linie arteriala pt monit TA si Eab
- lichide 1-2 l bolus initial cu revaluare dupa si adm sg
- daca pac muribund cu hTA marcata – sg O de la inceput
- imbunatatire circ: ridicare picioare, poz trendelenburg nerec (risc aspiratie),
poz gravida pe p stg
- autotransfuzie (hemotx)
2. Controlul pierderii de sg
- interv chir
- tractiune fracturi
- HDS – vasopresina iv, blocanti H2, somatostatin, octrotid, sonda
Sengstaken-Blakemore
- toate cauzele ginecologice necesita trat chirurgical
3. Repletia volemica agresiva
297
Complicatii
- sechele neurologice
- IMA
- deces
!
- varstnicii au toleranta ↓ pt hipovolemie
- prevenire hipotermie ce apare in adm ↑ de fluide (artimii, coagulopatii)
- pac cu βblocanti, Ca blocanti, pacemaker – nu react cu tahicardie la
hipovolemie
- coagulopatia ap la pac resuscitati cu cant ↑ de lichide prin dilutie plachete si
fact de coagulare → adm de Tr + PPC
- hTA – TAS < 90 mmHg pt o durata de cel putin 30 min = persistenta dupa
corectia cond extracardiace (hipovolemie, hipoxemie, tulb metabolice = EAB+
electroliti, aritmii)
- index debit cardiac = CI < 2,2 l/min/m2
- PAWP > 15 mmHg
- sm de hipoperfuzie tisulara: oligurie, confuzie, vasoconstr perif, cianoza
Fiziopatologie
298
CO=SVxHR
SV depinde de:
1. Presarcina
3. Contractilitate
- depind de nr sediilor ocntractile, generat de F, activ prininflux Ca
- ↑ F contractila → ↑ v de scurtare fibre + ↑ SV → ↑ FE + ↓ VES (end diastolic)
- ↑ contactilitatea
→ stim simpatica (CA endo/exogene)
→ tahicardie moderata
→ imbunatatirea oxigenarii miocardice
299
4. Ritmul cardiac
- ↑ AV → det ↑ contractilitatii miocardice prin ↑ influxului de Ca prin sarcolema
(ef Bowlitch)
- ↑ AV exagerat (>150/min) → ↓ perioadele diastolice → limiteaza/anuleaza
cresterea CO (prin ↓ umplerii V + ↓ pev coronariene)
- insuf de pompa → ↓ CO → ↓ pev organe + tesuturi
- ↓ pev coronariana → ↓ capacietatea contractila + relaxarea
miocardica → tulb ritm + conducere → accentueaza ↓ CO
Mecanisme compensatorii
- incearca mentinerea CO si pev tisulare adecvatte
- pe termen scurt eficiente, pe termen lung det modif patologice nedorite
Etiologie
I IMA
1. IMA cu pierdere > 40% din masa fct a VS/VD
2. complicatii mecanice acute ale IMA – IMi acuta, DSV, ruptura de perete
liber
3. complic mecanice tardive → anevrism
4. IMA cu tulb de ritm, hipo/hipervolemie
II Fact mecanici obstructivi/compresivi
- valvulopatia StAo, StMi, IMi, IAo acuta
2. Mixom, trom intracavitar
3. EP acuta masiva
4. Colmatari de proteze
5. Tamponada cardiaca
III. Afectiuni cu disfct miocardica grava
- cardiomiopatie, miocardite, contuzii miocardice
IV Transplant cardiac
300
IMA
IMA VD
→ dg clinic
→ insoteste in prop de 50% IMA inf
- hTA + turgescenta jugulare, s Kussmaull
- ECG deriv drepte(V3R-V5R), ↑ ST > 1mm (sensib 70%)
- ecocord: dilatatie VD + tulb de motilitate
- angiografie radionuclid – tulb de motilitate, ↓ FE (sensib 90%)
- hemodinamic ↑ PAD, ↑ PTD-VD, ↓ PAP, ↓ DC
- rezistenta la umplere = aspect de √ al curbei dep diatolica (~
pericardita constrictiva, tamponada, CMP restrictiva)
- frecv se asociaza cu tulb de ritm, tulb de conducere
→ tratament
- asigurarea suport circulator
- expansiune volemica (mentinerea pres de umplere)
- Dobutamina (inotrop + vasodilatator) → in principal ↑ contractilitatea
VS ameliorand fct sistolica a VD
- conversia FiA
- digitala este controversata chiar in prezenta FiA
301
NU se adm: - nitrat
- vasodilatatoare
- diuretice
Defecte mecanice
IMi ac
- afectare: → inel – dilatare, calcifiere, Marfan
→ valva - endocardita
→ cordaje – endocardita, mixom, Marfan
→ muschi papilari – ischemie, disfct /ruptura
Ruptura valva:
- rar
- in ziua 305 de la debut IMA
- clinic suflu redus, descrescendo, intins la baza, iradiat spre gat
- ecocord: AV + VS de dimens normale, FE ↑ = status
hiperdinamic, valva Mi prolabeaza in AS, doppler – cuantifica IM, exclude
suntul intracardiac
- sn – unda v ↑
DSV
- z 3-5 dupa IMA
- rar 0.5-2%
- irigat de ramuri septale perforate din descendenta ant
- prabusire hemodinamica
- suflu sistolo-diastolic (dat gradientului de pres dintre cei 2 ventriculi)
- eco 2D, Doppler, ecocontrast → sunt intracardiac
- Swan - ↑ oxigenarii cu 10% in V fata de AD, abs undei v pe traseu wedge
- trat: IABD, chir
Ruptura perete , tamponada
- ~8 % (1/3 in primele 24 ore) → peak z 5-7
- VS in zona border de tes normal-tes infarctizat
- asoc frecv cu ↑ incidentei rupturii – tromboliza + corticosteroizii
- det frecv disociatie electromec → deces
- tamponada - eco – lichid in pericard + colaps VD in diastola + deplasarea
septului in inspir
- egalizare PAD = PVD = PAPdiast= Wp
- trat - pericardiocenteza
- suport presiune
- chir
- NU diuretic, morfina, NTG, hemodializa → ↓ tonusul venos ce mentine
returul venos → ↓↓ DC
- trebuie realizata repletie volemica agresiva pt ment presarcinii
Anevrism VS
- 15% din IMA
- clinc: tulb de ritm, embolie, disfct sistolica
- ECG – supradenivelare de ST persistenta in abs miscarilor enzimatice
- ecocord
- angiografie → distensie paradoxala in sistola
- trat – rezectie + grea
St Ao
302
IAo
- etiologie: endocardita, dehiscenta acuta a protezei valvulare, disectie de Ao
- ↓↓ SV, ↑ VTDVS, ↑ PAOP, ↑ PAP
- sm fizice ↓ sau absente
- IAo severa – urgenta chirurgical
- trat medical - ↓ postsarcina – nitroprusiat
- suport inotrop in scopul ment unei pev perif adecvata + PAOP
15-18 mmHg
- IABC = CI
Cardiomiopatia hipertrofica
- VS noncompliant → tulb de relaxare
- obstructie dinamica la flux
- pac dependenti de presarcina + de sistola atriala pt umplerea ventriculara
- ↓ presarcinii → soc cardiogen
- adm de inotrop este CI deoarece ↑ contractilitatea VS deja hipercontractat:
accent miscarea sistolica ant a v mitrale, ↑ obstructia dinamica la flux, ↑ cant
de sg regurgitat → ↓ suplimetar DC, ↑ consumul miocardic de O, comprima
vasele coronare cu ↓ perf coronare→soc
- trat: - restabilirea vol sg circulant prin corectarea deficitului lichidian
- restabilirea ritmului sinusal prin cardioversie. ↓ AV
- ↓ contractilitatii cu β blocante
Embolia pulmonara
- ↑ acuta a pres in cav drepte
- dialtatie acuta cavit drepte
- ↓ presarcina VS
- miscare paradoxala a SIV
- dg: ecocord (miscare paradoxala de sept)
- trat: - rtPA + UHT sau numai UHT
- repletie volemica
- suport inotrop
Tratament
Scop
1. optimizarea pres de umplere
2. optimizare postsarcina
3. ↑ contractilitatii: inotrop + si amaeliorare raport cerere/oferta
Urmarire clinica
- status mental
- jugulare
- raluri
- zg cardiace, sufluri
- oligurie
- ECG
- RxCP
- EAB
- ecocord
I. Limitare infarct
- nitrati
- β blocanti
- blocanti Ca
- antioxidanti (scavenger RO-)
- GI K
- hialuronidaza
- IEC
- tromboliza
- heparina
- PTCA
- bypass coronarian de urgenta
Nitrati
- mecanism a+v dilatatie
- modif metab prostacicliina
- topic, Sl, oral
- venodilatator → ↓ Rv → ↓ Wp → ↓ vol VS → amelioreaza pev
subendocardica + stresul la perete
- ↓ RV sistemica → ↓ impedanta la ejectia VS
- coronarodilatator → ↑ fluxul de sg coronarian
304
Blocanti de Ca
- ↓ RVS →↓ consumul de O2
- ↑ fluxul sanguin coronarian
- beneficiu nedeterminat in ↓ marimii infarctului → nu sunt indicate in trat IMA
(Nifdipin, Verapamil)
- Diltiazem – ar fi benefic in IMA nonQ, ↑ Mo la pac cu iMA + cong pulm → CI
in ac caz
β blocanti
- conotropi -, inotropi - → ↓ consumul de O
- antiagregant
- ↓ HVS
- antiaritmic - ↓ riscul de moarte subita prin ↑ pragului de FiV
- metoprolol. atenolol - ↓ dimensiune IMA, ↓ riscul de moarte subita, ↓
mortalitatea
Antioxidanti
- SOD
- caalaza
GI K
- ↓ marimea infarctului prin tulb ale metab AGL
→ 300 g glucoza
50 u Insulina
80 mEq K
1 l H2O → 1,5 ml/kg/h
- amelioreaza mortalitatea, amelioreaza FE, ↓ mortlaitatea
Hialuronidaza
- activitate antiinflamatoare
- moduleaza raspunsul imun asociat IMA
IEC
- ↓ evol spre ICC in IMA ant cu FE < 40%
Tromboliza
- rtPA
- Streptokinaza
- mai efic in socul cardiogen daca se adm intracoronarian
- adm iv → mortalitatea ramane ↓ deoarece:
- DC e ↓ → pev coronara ↓ → ↓ oferta de trombolitic in cheag
- acidoza lactica → modif conv plasminogenului → pplasmina → ↓ liza
cheagului
- incapacitatea de a mentine potenta vasculara dupa tromboliza –
instabilitatehemod, hTA persistenta, supradenivelare ST persistenta, ↑ CK →
PTCA/by-pass coronarian
305
PTCA/by-pass coronarian
- indic soc cardiogen ce nu raspune la repletie + inotrop
- daca se face dupa tromboliza risc ↑ de hemoragie intima/medie/adventice pe
coronare, transformare IMA ischemic → IMA hemoragic
IABP
- diastola → balon inflat → ↑ pev coronara (↑ p in diastola)
- sistola → balon deflat → ↓ postsarcina → ↑ DC, ↑FE, ↓ consumul de O2, ↓
tensiunea la perete
+ tromboliza nu creste suprav, dar risc ↑ de comlic hemoragice
+ bypass ↑ suprav
- in hTA efci slaba
- ± utilizare inotrp in DSV, IMi ac
- nu beneficiaza batrani, v vasc perif severa, IMA > 40 %
LAVD
Dobutamina
- actioneaza direct
- stim β1 – miocard, NSA, NAV
- stim β2 – arteriodilatatie → ↓ RVS, pulmonar → bronhodialtatie
NA
- stim α+β → ↑ consumul de O2, redistribuie fluxul sg → oligurie, azotemie,
tulburari de ritm
Isoprotenerol
- stim β1 – cronotrop + , inotrp +
- stim β2 → ↓↓ RVS
- dar creste consumul de O2 → relatie detrimentiala
→ se indica numai in bradiartimii
Digitala
- controversata in socul cardiogen ± FiA
- actiuni: inotrop +, ↓ conducerea AV, ↓ tonusul simpatic periferic, ↑ vag,
reseteaza sensibilitate barorec, Naureza (± dat ↑ DC)
Inhibitori de fosfodiesteraza
- inotropi + vasodilatatori → ↑ DC, ↑ SV, ↓ PTD
- cronotrp + → ↑ moderat AV
306
Glucagon
- mec de actiune: ↑ glicogenoliza. ↑ lipoliza, ↑ cetogeneza
- det ↑ DC, ↓ RVP, consumul de O ↑ mai putin decat NA
- are avantajul ca nu actiuoneaza pe rec β pt act inotrop +
- indic: lipsa de raspuns la alti agenti
- r adv: tulb de ritm
- 4-6 mg iv → 44-12 mg/ora
SOC ANAFILACTIC
Fiziopatologie
- Instalare rapida a cresterii secretiilor de la niv mucoaselor,
- ↑ tonusului mm bronsice,
- ↓ tonus m neted vascular,
- ↑ permeabilitatii capilare.
Aceste ef sunt produse prin eliberarea de mediatori – histmaina, leucotriena
C4, prostaglandina D2, triptaza.
In forma clasica eliberarea de mediatori apare cand antigenul (alergenul) se
leafa de IgE specifice atasate de bazofilele si cel mastoide sensibilizate
anterior. Mediatorii sunt eliberati aproape imediat cand se leaga antigenul.
In r anafilactoidaexpunerea la o sunst determina eliberarea directa de
mediatori, un proces care nu este mediat de IgE. Cresterea secretiilor
mucoase si cresterea tonusului mm bronsice, ca si edem al cailor aeriene
307
Cauze comune:
- ATB parenterale (in sp penicilinele si NSAID),
- subst de contrast – pretrat cu antihistamine si corticosteroizi si folosirea de
agenti LWM ↓ rata r anafilactoide
- ciupitura de insecta
- anumite alimente (alune, peste, scoici).
Clinic
- istoric sugestiv
- urticarie, eritem, prurit, angioedem
- congestie nazala, tuse, senz de sufocare, stridor, weezing, edem buze +
limba
- hiperemie conjuctiva oculara
- dispnee, hipoxie
- hTA, tahicardie sau bradicardie in r severe
- simpt abdominala, greata, voma, diaree
Diagnostic Diferential
- Angioedem
- AnxietateAstm
- Corpi straini
- EpiglotiteIMA
- Embolism pulmonar
- Intoxicatii
- Urticarie
Paraclinic
- dg nu se pune pe teste de lab ci pe istoric + clinica
- triptaza elib de cel mastoide in ambele tipuri de reactii - vf la 1 ora de la
instalare simpt
- monitorizare CV + pulsoximetrie
- teste de sensibilitate la peniciline/cefalosporine
- test iv cu 0.001 mg din medic ales – la 10 min se ↑ doza 0.001-0.005-
0.01-0.05-0.1-0.5-1-10-50-100mg- doza completa cu observarea pac
Regimuri de desensibilizare
- efic pt ATB – dureaza aprox 6 ore → inef in urgenta
308
Tratament
- O2
- monitorizare CV
- acces iv
- asigurare cai aeriene la pac cu edem sau bronhospasm
- β-agonisti inhalator
- fluide - de preferat cristaloizi - volume mari la hipotensivi
- corticosteroizi
- miofilin - in cazurile cu bronhospasm
- antihistamine - blocanti H1 - difenilhidramina - se cont 2-3 zile dupa episodul
acut
- blocanti H2 - cimetidina - nu se considera prima linie de terapie
- efedrina - pac βblocati pot sa nu raspunda → glucagon
- nu se adm la alergii usoare, doar cand exista soc, obstr cai aeriene,
bronhospasm
- adm de obicei IM/SC
- soc refractar - pev cont
SOC NEUROGEN
Clinic
- hTA, bradicardie,
- extremitati calde si uscae
- VD periferica
- umplere venoaza
- poikilotermie
- priapism dat stim SNPS
- ↓ DC (in lez cervicale si toracice)
Tratament
- poz Trendelenburg
- volume mari de fluide pot fi necesare pt a restaura fct hemodinamica
- inotropi
- vasopresori
- atropina
Etiologie
- distructie adrenala masiva
- hemoragie, anticoagulare, coaguopatie, postop
- tromboza venelor adrenale dupa truamtism lombar, microangiopatie
trombotica (CID, )
- tumori metastatice
- sepsis – meningococ, pseudomonas
- adrenalite autoimune: idiopatic, sd insuficientei poliglandulare
- inf granulomatoase: BK, histoplasmoza, fungi
- HIV
- medic: supresie adrenala (corticoizi, megestal, acetat metoxiprogesteron),
inh sintezei de cortizol (ketoconazol, etomidat), degradare accelerata cortizol
(fenitoin, rifampicina, barbiturice)
310
Clinic:
- soc: hipovolemic + distribuitiv, disproportionat fata de gravitatea b acute si
refractar la fluide si vasopresor pana cand nu se substituie hormonal
- gastroint: greata, varsaturi, anorexie, dur abd
- SNC: letargie, confuzie, coma
- fb, hiperemie mucoase, hieprpigmentare (in insuf adrenala primala)
- gl SR marite/calcificate pe CT
- lab: ↓ Na, ↑ K (↓ aldosteron), ↑ uree, ↑ creatinina, ↓ glu, ↑ Ca, ↑eozinofile
Dg:
1. Stimulare cu doze mari ACTH 250 µg iv
- cortizol ≥ 18-21 µg/dl bazal sau la 1 h de la injectare → excludere
insuficienta adrenala → cronica, severa
- criteriile pot lipsi partial sau insuf este recent instalata, mai ales la pac critici
2. Insuf adrenala relativa: dozare de nivel cortizol
- la pac cu b critice (in sp soc septic) paote aaprea insuf adrenala relativa ce
contribuie la hipotensiune
Nivel cortizol → < 15 µg/dl → clar anormal la pac critici
→ 15-34 µg/dl → stimulare ACTH → raspuns incremental
→ > 34 µg/dl → suficient
- utilizeaza init dexametazona → nu interfera cu testul de stimlare ACTH
3. Nivelul de ACTH
- pt a determina boala primara (ACTH>>N) de cea secundara sau tertiara
(ACTH↓ sau N)
Etape Trat:
1. Resuscitare volemica
- 30-50% din volumul intravascular normal, tipic 2-3 l SF titrat fct de PVC?EPA,
- repeltie glucoza, K
2. Determinare nivel bazal cortizol + ACTH
3. Dexametazona
- 4 mg iv la 6-8 ore pt a restabilii tonusul vasc
4. Test stimulare ACTH
5. HHC
- 50-100 mg la 6-8 ore
- ↓ gradual cu 50% pe zi de dupa stabilizare
- repletia separata de mineralocorticoizi de obicei nu este necesara
- flucrotizon se adauga cand doza de HHC < 100 mg/zi
6. Identificare + trat b precipitanta
7. Daca insuf este primara → repletie cronica
→ HHC 20-30 mg/zi in 2 prize
311
Teste pt dg ICSR
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Criterii sepsis sever = sepsis + disfct de organ indusa de sepsis sau hipoxie
tisulara
- hTA indusa de sepsis
- hiperlactacidemie
- oligurie acuta Dz < 0.5 ml/kg pt 2 ore in ciuda adm adecvate de lich
- ALI PaO2/FiO2 < 250 in abs penumoniei ca sursa de infectie
- ALI PaO2/FiO2 < 200 in prezenta penumoniei ca sursa de infectie
- creatinina > 2 mg/dl
- bilirubina > 2 mg/dl
- Tr < 100.000
- coagulopatie INR > 1.5
B. Diagnostic
C. Tratamentul ATB
- cand se foloseste terapie ATB empirica pt pac cu sepsis sever tebuie folosita
terapie combinata pt >3-5 zile. Dez-escaladarea la monoterapie trebuie facuta
dupa cunoastere profil germene implicat
4. - durata terapiei tipic 7-10 zile, durata mai ↑ pt pac cu raspuns clinic lent,
situsuri de infectie nedrenabile, deficite imunologice (neutropenici)
D. Controlul sursei
2.- se incearca interventia cel mai putin invaziva (ex: drenare percutana mai
curand decat chirrurgicala a abceselor)
F. Terapia cu fluide
2. - target PVC ≥ 8 mmHg (12 la pac ventilat mecanic), dar terapia cu lichide
este necesara si duap atingerea acestui target
F. Vasopresori
F. Inotropi
1. Se recomanda administrarea dobutamina in prezenta disfct miocardice
sugerata de presiuni de umplere ↑ si CO ↓
2. Nu se rec ↑ indexului cardiac la valori supranormale
- dobutamina este inotropul de prima intentie la pac cu suspiciune de CO↓ in
prezenta pres de umplere in VS adecvate si TA adecvata
- pac cu sepsis ce raman hTA dupa resuscitare cu fluide pot avea CO N/↓/↑ →
se rec combinare inotrop+vasopresor: dobutamina + NA/dopamina
H. Corticosteroizi
316
Blood
pressure
and
oxygenation
should
be
monitored
and
recruitment
discontinued
if
deterioration
in
these
variables
is
observed.
A
PEEP
>5
cm
H20
is
usually
required
to
avoid
lung
collapse.[155]
1.
We
suggest
prone
positioning
in
ARDS
patients
requiring
potentially
injurious
levels
of
Fio2
or
plateau
pressure
who
are
not
at
high
risk
for
adverse
consequences
of
positional
changes
in
facilities
that
have
experience
with
such
practices
(grade
2C).
Rationale.
Several
small
studies
and
one
larger
study
have
shown
that
a
majority
of
patients
with
ALI/ARDS
respond
to
the
prone
position
with
improved
oxygenation.[156-‐159]
One
large
multicenter
trial
of
prone
positioning
for
approximately
7
hrs/day
did
not
show
improvement
in
mortality
rates
in
patients
with
ALI/ARDS;
however,
a
post
hoc
analysis
suggested
improvement
in
those
patients
with
the
most
severe
hypoxemia
by
Pao2/Fio2
ratio,
in
those
exposed
to
high
tidal
volumes,
and
in
those
who
improved
CO2
exchange
as
a
result
of
proning.[159]
A
second
large
trial
of
prone
positioning,
conducted
for
an
average
of
approximately
8
hrs/day
for
4
days
in
adults
with
hypoxemic
respiratory
failure
of
low-‐moderate
acuity,
confirmed
improvement
in
oxygenation
but
also
failed
to
show
a
survival
advantage.[160]
However,
a
randomized
study
that
extended
the
length
of
time
for
proning
each
day
to
a
mean
of
17
hrs
for
a
mean
of
10
days
supported
benefit
of
proning,
with
randomization
to
supine
position
an
independent
risk
factor
for
mortality
by
multivariate
analysis.[161]
Prone
positioning
may
be
associated
with
potentially
life-‐threatening
complications,
including
accidental
dislodgment
of
the
endotracheal
tube
and
central
venous
catheters,
but
these
complications
can
usually
be
avoided
with
proper
precautions.
318
6a.
Unless
contraindicated,
we
recommend
that
mechanically
ventilated
patients
be
maintained
with
the
head
of
the
bed
elevated
to
limit
aspiration
risk
and
to
prevent
the
development
of
ventilator-‐associated
pneumonia
(grade
1B).
6b. We suggest that the head of bed be elevated approximately 30-‐45° (grade 2C).
Rationale.
The
semirecumbent
position
has
been
demonstrated
to
decrease
the
incidence
of
ventilator-‐associated
pneumonia
(VAP).[162]
Enteral
feeding
increased
the
risk
of
developing
VAP;
50%
of
the
patients
who
were
fed
enterally
in
the
supine
position
developed
VAP.[163]
However,
the
bed
position
was
only
monitored
once
a
day,
and
patients
who
did
not
achieve
the
desired
bed
elevation
were
not
included
in
the
analysis.[163]
A
recent
study
did
not
show
a
difference
in
incidence
of
VAP
between
patients
maintained
in
supine
and
semirecumbent
positions.[164]
In
this
study,
patients
in
the
semirecumbent
position
did
not
consistently
achieve
the
desired
head
of
the
bed
elevation,
and
the
head
of
bed
elevation
in
the
supine
group
approached
that
of
the
semirecumbent
group
by
day
7.[164]
When
necessary,
patients
may
be
laid
flat
for
procedures,
hemodynamic
measurements,
and
during
episodes
of
hypotension.
Patients
should
not
be
fed
enterally
with
the
head
of
the
bed
at
0°.
1.
We
suggest
that
noninvasive
mask
ventilation
(NIV)
only
be
considered
in
that
minority
of
ALI/ARDS
patients
with
mild-‐moderate
hypoxemic
respiratory
failure
(responsive
to
relatively
low
levels
of
pressure
support
and
PEEP)
with
stable
hemodynamics
who
can
be
made
comfortable
and
are
easily
arousable;
who
are
able
to
protect
the
airway
and
spontaneously
clear
the
airway
of
secretions;
and
who
are
anticipated
to
recover
rapidly
from
the
precipitating
insult.
A
low
threshold
for
airway
intubation
should
be
maintained
(grade
2B).
Rationale.
Obviating
the
need
for
airway
intubation
confers
multiple
advantages:
better
communication,
lower
incidence
of
infection,
reduced
requirements
for
sedation.
Two
RCTs
demonstrate
improved
outcome
with
the
use
of
NIV
when
it
can
be
employed
successfully.[162,165]
Unfortunately,
only
a
small
percentage
of
patients
with
life-‐threatening
hypoxemia
can
be
managed
in
this
way.
1.
We
recommend
that
a
weaning
protocol
be
in
place
and
that
mechanically
ventilated
patients
with
severe
sepsis
undergo
spontaneous
breathing
trials
regularly
to
evaluate
the
ability
to
discontinue
mechanical
ventilation
when
they
satisfy
the
following
criteria:
a)
They
are
arousable;
b)
they
are
hemodynamically
stable
(without
vasopressor
agents);
c)
they
have
no
new
potentially
serious
conditions;
d)
they
have
low
ventilatory
and
end-‐expiratory
pressure
requirements;
and
e)
their
Fio2
requirements
could
be
safely
delivered
with
a
face
mask
or
nasal
cannula.
If
the
spontaneous
breathing
trial
is
successful,
consideration
should
be
given
for
extubation
(Appendix
E).
Spontaneous
breathing
trial
options
include
a
low
level
of
pressure
support,
continuous
positive
airway
pressure
(~5
cm
H2O),
or
a
T-‐piece
(grade
1A).
Rationale.
Recent
studies
demonstrate
that
daily
spontaneous
breathing
trials
in
appropriately
selected
patients
reduce
the
duration
of
mechanical
ventilation.[166-‐169]
319
Successful
completion
of
spontaneous
breathing
trials
leads
to
a
high
likelihood
of
successful
discontinuation
of
mechanical
ventilation.
1.
We
recommend
against
the
routine
use
of
the
pulmonary
artery
catheter
for
patients
with
ALI/ARDS
(grade
1A).
Rationale.
While
insertion
of
a
pulmonary
artery
catheter
may
provide
useful
information
on
a
patient's
volume
status
and
cardiac
function,
potential
benefits
of
such
information
may
be
confounded
by
differences
in
interpretation
of
results,[170-‐
172]
lack
of
correlation
of
pulmonary
artery
occlusion
pressures
with
clinical
response,[173]
and
absence
of
a
proven
strategy
to
use
catheter
results
to
improve
patient
outcomes.[174]
Two
multicenter
randomized
trials,
one
in
patients
with
shock
or
acute
lung
injury[175]
and
one
in
patients
with
acute
lung
injury,[176]
failed
to
show
benefit
with
the
routine
use
of
pulmonary
artery
catheters
in
patients
with
acute
lung
injury.
In
addition,
other
studies
in
different
types
of
critically
ill
patients
have
failed
to
show
definitive
benefit
with
routine
use
of
the
pulmonary
artery
catheter.[177-‐179]
Well-‐selected
patients
remain
appropriate
candidates
for
pulmonary
artery
catheter
insertion
when
the
answers
to
important
management
decisions
depend
on
information
only
obtainable
from
direct
measurements
made
within
the
pulmonary
artery.
1.
To
decrease
days
of
mechanical
ventilation
and
ICU
length
of
stay
we
recommend
a
conservative
fluid
strategy
for
patients
with
established
acute
lung
injury
who
do
not
have
evidence
of
tissue
hypoperfusion
(grade
1C).
Rationale.
Mechanisms
for
the
development
of
pulmonary
edema
in
patients
with
acute
lung
injury
include
increased
capillary
permeability,
increased
hydrostatic
pressure,
and
decreased
oncotic
pressure.[180,181]
Small
prospective
studies
in
patients
with
critical
illness
and
acute
lung
injury
have
suggested
that
less
weight
gain
is
associated
with
improved
oxygenation[182]
and
fewer
days
of
mechanical
ventilation.[183,184]
Use
of
a
fluid-‐conservative
strategy
directed
at
minimizing
fluid
infusion
and
weight
gain
in
patients
with
acute
lung
injury
based
on
either
a
central
venous
catheter
or
a
pulmonary
artery
catheter
along
with
clinical
variables
to
guide
treatment
strategies
led
to
fewer
days
of
mechanical
ventilation
and
reduced
length
of
ICU
stay
without
altering
the
incidence
of
renal
failure
or
mortality
rates.[185]
Of
note,
this
strategy
was
only
used
in
patients
with
established
acute
lung
injury,
some
of
whom
had
shock
present.
Active
attempts
to
reduce
fluid
volume
were
conducted
only
during
periods
free
from
shock.
1.
We
recommend
sedation
protocols
with
a
sedation
goal
when
sedation
of
critically
ill
mechanically
ventilated
patients
with
sepsis
is
required
(grade
1B).
Rationale.
A
growing
body
of
evidence
indicates
that
the
use
of
protocols
for
sedation
of
critically
ill
ventilated
patients
can
reduce
the
duration
of
mechanical
ventilation
and
ICU
and
hospital
length
of
stay.[186-‐188]
A
randomized,
controlled
320
clinical
trial
found
that
protocol
use
reduced
duration
of
mechanical
ventilation,
lengths
of
stay,
and
tracheostomy
rates.[186]
1.
We
recommend
intermittent
bolus
sedation
or
continuous
infusion
sedation
to
predetermined
end
points
(e.g.,
sedation
scales)
with
daily
interruption/lightening
of
continuous
infusion
sedation
with
awakening
and
retitration
if
necessary
for
sedation
administration
to
septic
mechanically
ventilated
patients
(grade
1B).
Rationale.
Although
not
specifically
studied
in
patients
with
sepsis,
the
administration
of
intermittent
sedation,
daily
interruption,
and
retitration
or
systemic
titration
to
a
predefined
end
point
have
been
demonstrated
to
decrease
the
duration
of
mechanical
ventilation.[186,189,190]
Patients
receiving
neuromuscular
blocking
agents
(NMBAs)
must
be
individually
assessed
regarding
discontinuation
of
sedative
drugs
because
neuromuscular
blocking
drugs
must
also
be
discontinued
in
that
situation.
The
use
of
intermittent
vs.
continuous
methods
for
the
delivery
of
sedation
in
critically
ill
patients
has
been
examined.
An
observational
study
of
mechanically
ventilated
patients
showed
that
patients
receiving
continuous
sedation
had
significantly
longer
durations
of
mechanical
ventilation
and
ICU
and
hospital
length
of
stay.[191]
duration
of
mechanical
ventilation
and
ICU
stay,
better
assessment
of
neurologic
function,
and
reduced
costs.
1.
We
recommend
that
NMBAs
be
avoided
if
possible
in
the
septic
patient
due
to
the
risk
of
prolonged
neuromuscular
blockade
following
discontinuation.
If
NMBAs
must
be
maintained,
either
intermittent
bolus
as
required
or
continuous
infusion
with
monitoring
the
depth
of
blockade
with
train-‐of-‐four
monitoring
should
be
used
(grade
1B).
Rationale.
Although
NMBAs
are
often
administered
to
critically
ill
patients,
their
role
in
the
ICU
is
not
well
defined.
No
evidence
exists
that
maintaining
neuromuscular
blockade
in
this
patient
population
reduces
mortality
or
major
morbidity.
In
addition,
no
studies
have
been
published
that
specifically
address
the
use
of
NMBAs
in
septic
patients.
The
most
common
indication
for
NMBA
use
in
the
ICU
is
to
facilitate
mechanical
ventilation.[194]
When
appropriately
used,
NMBAs
may
improve
chest
wall
compliance,
prevent
respiratory
dyssynchrony,
and
reduce
peak
airway
pressures.[195]
Muscle
paralysis
may
also
reduce
oxygen
consumption
by
decreasing
the
work
of
breathing
and
respiratory
muscle
blood
flow.[196]
However,
a
randomized,
placebo-‐controlled
clinical
trial
in
patients
with
severe
sepsis
demonstrated
that
oxygen
delivery,
oxygen
consumption,
and
gastric
intramucosal
pH
were
not
improved
during
profound
neuromuscular
blockade.[197]
An
association
between
NMBA
use
and
myopathies
and
neuropathies
has
been
suggested
by
case
studies
and
prospective
observational
studies
in
the
critical
care
population.[195,198-‐201]
The
mechanisms
by
which
NMBAs
produced
or
contribute
to
myopathies
and
neuropathies
in
critically
ill
patients
are
presently
unknown.
There
appears
to
be
an
added
association
with
the
concurrent
use
of
NMBAs
and
steroids.
Although
no
studies
exist
specific
to
the
septic
patient
population,
it
seems
clinically
prudent
based
on
existent
knowledge
that
NMBAs
not
be
administered
unless
there
is
a
clear
indication
for
neuromuscular
blockade
that
cannot
be
safely
achieved
with
appropriate
sedation
and
analgesia.[195]
Only
one
prospective,
randomized
clinical
trial
has
evaluated
peripheral
nerve
stimulation
vs.
standard
clinical
assessment
in
ICU
patients.
Rudis
et
al.[202]
randomized
77
critically
ill
patients
requiring
neuromuscular
blockade
in
the
ICU
to
receive
dosing
of
vecuronium
based
on
train-‐of-‐four
stimulation
or
clinical
assessment
(control).
The
peripheral
nerve
stimulation
group
received
less
drug
and
recovered
neuromuscular
function
and
spontaneous
ventilation
faster
than
the
control
group.
Nonrandomized
observational
studies
have
suggested
that
peripheral
nerve
monitoring
reduces
or
has
no
effect
on
clinical
recovery
from
NMBAs
in
the
ICU.[203,204]
(reduced
total
dose
of
NMBAs
and
shorter
intubation
times)
also
may
exist,
although
this
has
not
been
studied
formally.
C. Controlul glicemiei
1.
We
recommend
that
following
initial
stabilization,
patients
with
severe
sepsis
and
hyperglycemia
who
are
admitted
to
the
ICU
receive
intravenous
insulin
therapy
to
reduce
blood
glucose
levels
(grade
1B).
2.
We
suggest
use
of
a
validated
protocol
for
insulin
dose
adjustments
and
targeting
glucose
levels
to
the
<150
mg/dL
range
(grade
2C).
3.
We
recommend
that
all
patients
receiving
intravenous
insulin
receive
a
glucose
calorie
source
and
that
blood
glucose
values
be
monitored
every
1-‐2
hrs
until
glucose
values
and
insulin
infusion
rates
are
stable
and
then
every
4
hrs
thereafter
(grade
1C).
4.
We
recommend
that
low
glucose
levels
obtained
with
point-‐of-‐care
testing
of
capillary
blood
be
interpreted
with
caution,
as
such
measurements
may
overestimate
arterial
blood
or
plasma
glucose
values
(grade
1B).
Rationale.
The
consensus
on
glucose
control
in
severe
sepsis
was
achieved
at
the
first
committee
meeting
and
subsequently
approved
by
the
entire
committee.
(Appendix
G
presents
the
committee
vote.)
One
large
randomized
single-‐center
trial
in
a
predominantly
cardiac
surgical
ICU
demonstrated
a
reduction
in
ICU
mortality
with
intensive
intravenous
insulin
(Leuven
protocol)
targeting
blood
glucose
to
80-‐
110
mg/dL
(for
all
patients,
a
relative
43%
and
absolute
3.4%
mortality
reduction;
for
those
with
>5
days
in
the
ICU,
a
48%
relative
and
9.6%
absolute
mortality
reduction).[205]
A
reduction
in
organ
dysfunction
and
ICU
length
of
stay
(LOS)
(from
a
median
of
15
to
12
days)
was
also
observed
in
the
subset
with
ICU
LOS
>5
days.
A
second
randomized
trial
of
intensive
insulin
therapy
using
the
Leuven
protocol
enrolled
medical
ICU
patients
with
an
anticipated
ICU
LOS
of
>3
days
in
three
medical
ICUs.[206]
Overall
mortality
was
not
reduced,
but
ICU
and
hospital
LOS
were
reduced
associated
with
earlier
weaning
from
mechanical
ventilation
and
less
acute
kidney
injury.
In
patients
with
a
medical
ICU
LOS
>3
days,
hospital
mortality
was
reduced
with
intensive
insulin
therapy
(43%
vs.
52.5%;
p
=
.009).
However,
investigators
were
unsuccessful
in
predicting
ICU
LOS,
and
433
patients
(36%)
had
an
ICU
LOS
of
<3
days.
Furthermore,
use
of
the
Leuven
protocol
in
the
medical
ICU
resulted
in
a
nearly
three-‐fold
higher
rate
of
hypoglycemia
than
in
the
original
experience
(18%
vs.
6.2%
of
patients).[205,206]
One
large
before-‐and-‐after
observational
trial
showed
a
29%
relative
and
6.1%
absolute
reduction
in
mortality
and
a
10.8%
reduction
in
median
ICU
LOS.[207]
In
a
subgroup
of
53
patients
with
septic
shock,
there
was
an
absolute
mortality
reduction
of
27%
and
a
relative
reduction
of
45%
(p
=
.02).
Two
additional
observational
studies
reported
an
association
of
mean
glucose
levels
with
reductions
in
mortality,
polyneuropathy,
acute
renal
failure,
nosocomial
bacteremia,
and
number
of
323
transfusions,
and
they
suggested
that
a
glucose
threshold
for
improved
mortality
lies
somewhere
between
145
and
180
mg/dL.[208,209]
However,
a
large
observational
study
(n
=
7,049)
suggested
that
both
a
lower
mean
glucose
and
less
variation
of
blood
glucose
may
be
important.[210]
A
meta-‐analysis
of
35
trials
on
insulin
therapy
in
critically
ill
patients,
including
12
randomized
trials,
demonstrated
a
15%
reduction
in
short-‐term
mortality
(relative
risk
0.85,
95%
confidence
interval
0.75-‐0.97)
but
did
not
include
any
studies
of
insulin
therapy
in
medical
ICUs.[211]
Two
additional
multicenter
RCTs
of
intensive
insulin
therapy,
one
focusing
on
patients
with
severe
sepsis
(VISEP)
and
the
second
on
medical
and
surgical
ICU
patients,
failed
to
demonstrate
improvement
in
mortality
but
are
not
yet
published.[212,213]
Both
were
stopped
earlier
than
planned
because
of
high
rates
of
hypoglycemia
and
adverse
events
in
the
intensive
insulin
groups.
A
large
RCT
that
is
planned
to
compare
targeting
80-‐110
mg/dL
(4.5-‐6.0
mmol/L)
vs.
140-‐180
mg/dL
(8-‐
10
mmol/L)
and
recruit
>6,000
patients
(Normoglycemia
in
Intensive
Care
Evaluation
and
Survival
Using
Glucose
Algorithm
Regulation,
or
NICE-‐SUGAR)
is
ongoing.[214]
Several
factors
may
affect
the
accuracy
and
reproducibility
of
point-‐of-‐care
testing
of
blood
capillary
blood
glucose,
including
the
type
and
model
of
the
device
used,
user
expertise,
and
patient
factors,
including
hematocrit
(false
elevation
with
anemia),
Pao2,
and
drugs.[215]
One
report
showed
overestimation
of
arterial
plasma
glucose
values
by
capillary
point-‐of-‐care
testing
sufficient
to
result
in
different
protocol-‐
specified
insulin
dose
titration.
The
disagreement
between
protocol-‐recommended
insulin
doses
was
largest
when
glucose
values
were
low.[216]
A
recent
review
of
12
published
insulin
infusion
protocols
for
critically
ill
patients
showed
wide
variability
in
insulin
dose
recommendations
and
variable
glucose
control
during
simulation.[217]
This
lack
of
consensus
about
optimal
dosing
of
intravenous
insulin
may
reflect
variability
in
patient
factors
(severity
of
illness,
surgical
vs.
medical
settings)
or
practice
patterns
(e.g.,
approaches
to
feeding,
intravenous
dextrose)
in
the
environments
in
which
these
protocols
were
developed
and
tested.
Alternatively,
some
protocols
may
be
more
effective
than
others.
This
conclusion
is
supported
by
the
wide
variability
in
hypoglycemia
rates
reported
with
protocols.[205-‐207,212,213]
Thus,
the
use
of
a
validated
and
safe
intensive
insulin
protocol
is
important
not
only
for
clinical
care
but
also
for
the
conduct
of
clinical
trials
to
avoid
hypoglycemia,
adverse
events,
and
premature
termination
of
these
trials
before
the
efficacy
signal,
if
any,
can
be
determined.
The
finding
of
reduced
morbidity
and
mortality
within
the
longer
ICU
length
of
stay
subsets
along
with
acceptable
cost
weighed
heavily
on
our
recommendation
to
attempt
glucose
control
after
initial
stabilization
of
the
patient
with
hyperglycemia
and
severe
sepsis.
However,
the
mortality
benefit
and
safety
of
intensive
insulin
therapy
(goal
to
normalize
blood
glucose)
have
been
questioned
by
two
recent
trials,
and
we
recommend
maintaining
glucose
levels
<150
mg/dL
until
recent
and
ongoing
trials
are
published
or
completed.
Further
study
of
protocols
that
have
been
validated
to
be
safe
and
effective
for
controlling
blood
glucose
concentrations
and
blood
glucose
variation
in
the
severe
sepsis
population
is
needed.
324
2.
We
suggest
the
use
of
continuous
therapies
to
facilitate
management
of
fluid
balance
in
hemodynamically
unstable
septic
patients
(grade
2D).
Concerning
the
hemodynamic
tolerance
of
each
method,
no
current
evidence
exists
to
support
a
better
tolerance
with
continuous
treatments.
Only
two
prospective
studies[230,233]
have
reported
a
better
hemodynamic
tolerance
with
continuous
treatment,
with
no
improvement
in
regional
perfusion[233]
and
no
survival
benefit.[230]
Four
other
prospective
studies
did
not
find
any
significant
difference
in
mean
arterial
pressure
or
drop
in
systolic
pressure
between
the
two
methods.[229,231,232,234]
Concerning
fluid
balance
management,
two
studies
reported
a
significant
improvement
in
goal
achievement
with
continuous
methods.[228,230]
In
summary,
current
evidence
is
insufficient
to
draw
strong
conclusions
regarding
the
mode
of
replacement
therapy
for
acute
renal
failure
in
septic
patients.
Four
randomized
controlled
trials
have
addressed
whether
the
dose
of
continuous
renal
replacement
affects
outcomes
in
patients
with
acute
renal
failure.[235-‐238]
Three
found
improved
mortality
in
patients
receiving
higher
doses
of
renal
replacement,[235,237,238]
while
one[236]
did
not.
None
of
these
trials
was
conducted
specifically
in
patients
with
sepsis.
Although
the
weight
of
current
evidence
suggests
that
higher
doses
of
renal
replacement
may
be
associated
with
improved
outcomes,
325
these
results
may
not
be
easily
generalizable.
The
results
of
two
very
large
multicenter
randomized
trials
comparing
the
dose
of
renal
replacement
(ATN
in
the
United
States
and
RENAL
in
Australia
and
New
Zealand)
will
be
available
in
2008
and
will
greatly
inform
practice.
1.
We
recommend
against
the
use
of
sodium
bicarbonate
therapy
for
the
purpose
of
improving
hemodynamics
or
reducing
vasopressor
requirements
in
patients
with
hypoperfusion-‐induced
lactic
acidemia
with
pH
≥7.15
(grade
1B).
Rationale.
No
evidence
supports
the
use
of
bicarbonate
therapy
in
the
treatment
of
hypoperfusion-‐induced
lactic
acidemia
associated
with
sepsis.
Two
randomized,
blinded,
crossover
studies
that
compared
equimolar
saline
and
bicarbonate
in
patients
with
lactic
acidosis
failed
to
reveal
any
difference
in
hemodynamic
variables
or
vasopressor
requirements.[239,240]
The
number
of
patients
with
pH
<7.15
in
these
studies
was
small.
Bicarbonate
administration
has
been
associated
with
sodium
and
fluid
overload,
an
increase
in
lactate
and
Pco2,
and
a
decrease
in
serum
ionized
calcium,
but
the
relevance
of
these
variables
to
outcome
is
uncertain.
The
effect
of
bicarbonate
administration
on
hemodynamics
and
vasopressor
requirements
at
lower
pH
as
well
as
the
effect
on
clinical
outcomes
at
any
pH
is
unknown.
No
studies
have
examined
the
effect
of
bicarbonate
administration
on
outcomes.
1.
We
recommend
that
patients
with
severe
sepsis
receive
deep
vein
thrombosis
(DVT)
prophylaxis
with
either
a)
low-‐dose
unfractionated
heparin
(UFH)
administered
twice
or
three
times
per
day;
or
b)
daily
low-‐molecular
weight
heparin
(LMWH)
unless
there
are
contraindications
(i.e.,
thrombocytopenia,
severe
coagulopathy,
active
bleeding,
recent
intracerebral
hemorrhage)
(grade
1A).
2.
We
recommend
that
septic
patients
who
have
a
contraindication
for
heparin
use
receive
mechanical
prophylactic
device,
such
as
graduated
compression
stockings
or
intermittent
compression
devices,
unless
contraindicated
(grade
1A).
3.
We
suggest
that
in
very
high-‐risk
patients,
such
as
those
who
have
severe
sepsis
and
history
of
DVT,
trauma,
or
orthopedic
surgery,
a
combination
of
pharmacologic
and
mechanical
therapy
be
used
unless
contraindicated
or
not
practical
(grade
2C).
4.
We
suggest
that
in
patients
at
very
high
risk,
LMWH
be
used
rather
than
UFH
as
LMWH
is
proven
superior
in
other
high-‐risk
patients
(grade
2C).
Rationale.
ICU
patients
are
at
risk
for
DVT.[241]
Significant
evidence
exists
for
benefit
of
DVT
prophylaxis
in
ICU
patients
in
general.
No
reasons
suggest
that
severe
sepsis
patients
would
be
different
from
the
general
patient
population.
Nine
randomized
placebo-‐controlled
clinical
trials
of
DVT
prophylaxis
in
general
populations
of
acutely
ill
patients
exist.[242-‐250]
All
nine
trials
showed
reduction
in
DVT
326
or
pulmonary
embolism.
The
prevalence
of
infection/sepsis
was
17%
in
all
studies
in
which
this
was
ascertainable,
with
a
52%
prevalence
of
infection/sepsis
patients
in
the
study
that
included
ICU
patients
only.
Benefit
of
DVT
prophylaxis
is
also
supported
by
meta-‐analyses.[251,252]
With
that
in
mind,
DVT
prophylaxis
would
appear
to
have
a
high
grade
for
quality
of
evidence
(A).
Because
the
risk
of
administration
to
the
patient
is
small,
the
gravity
of
the
potential
result
of
not
administering
is
great,
and
the
cost
is
low,
the
grading
of
the
strength
of
the
recommendation
is
strong.
The
evidence
supports
equivalency
of
LMWH
and
UFH
in
general
medical
populations.
A
recent
meta-‐analysis
comparing
UFH
twice
daily
and
three
times
daily
demonstrated
that
UFH
three
times
daily
produced
better
efficacy
and
twice
daily
produced
less
bleeding.[253]
Practitioners
should
use
underlying
risk
for
VTE
and
bleeding
to
individualize
choice
of
twice
daily
vs.
three
times
daily.
The
cost
of
LMWH
is
greater
and
the
frequency
of
injection
is
less.
UFH
is
preferred
over
LMWH
in
patients
with
moderate
to
severe
renal
dysfunction.
1.
We
recommend
that
stress
ulcer
prophylaxis
using
H2
blocker
(grade
1A)
or
proton
pump
inhibitor
(grade
1B)
be
given
to
patients
with
severe
sepsis
to
prevent
upper
gastrointestinal
(GI)
bleed.
The
benefit
of
prevention
of
upper
GI
bleed
must
be
weighed
against
the
potential
effect
of
an
increased
stomach
pH
on
development
of
ventilator-‐associated
pneumonia.
Rationale.
Although
no
study
has
been
performed
specifically
in
patients
with
severe
sepsis,
trials
confirming
the
benefit
of
stress
ulcer
prophylaxis
in
reducing
upper
GI
bleeds
in
general
ICU
populations
would
suggest
that
20%
to
25%
of
patients
enrolled
in
these
types
of
trials
have
sepsis.[260-‐263]
This
benefit
should
be
applicable
to
patients
with
severe
sepsis
and
septic
shock.
In
addition,
the
conditions
shown
to
benefit
from
stress
ulcer
prophylaxis
(coagulopathy,
mechanical
ventilation,
hypotension)
are
frequently
present
in
patients
with
severe
sepsis
and
septic
shock.[264,265]
Although
there
are
individual
trials
that
have
not
shown
benefit
from
stress
ulcer
prophylaxis,
numerous
trials
and
a
meta-‐analysis
show
reduction
in
clinically
significant
upper
GI
bleeding,
which
we
consider
significant
even
in
the
absence
of
proven
mortality
benefit.[266-‐269]
The
benefit
of
prevention
of
upper
GI
bleed
must
be
weighed
against
the
potential
effect
of
increased
stomach
pH
on
greater
incidence
of
ventilator-‐associated
pneumonia.[270]
Those
severe
sepsis
patients
with
the
greatest
risk
of
upper
GI
bleeding
are
likely
to
benefit
most
from
stress
ulcer
prophylaxis.
The
rationale
for
preferring
suppression
of
acid
production
over
sulcrafate
was
based
on
327
the
study
of
1,200
patients
by
Cook
et
al.[271,272]
comparing
H2
blockers
and
sulcrafate
and
a
meta-‐analysis.
Two
studies
support
equivalency
between
H2
blockers
and
proton
pump
inhibitors.
One
study
included
very
ill
ICU
patients;
the
second
study
was
larger
and
demonstrated
noninferiority
of
omeprazole
suspension
for
clinically
significant
stress
ulcer
bleeding.[273,274]
No
data
relating
to
utility
of
enteral
feeding
in
stress
ulcer
prophylaxis
exist.
Patients
should
be
periodically
evaluated
for
continued
need
for
prophylaxis.
The
guidelines
group
was
evenly
split
on
the
issue
of
SDD,
with
equal
numbers
weakly
in
favor
and
against
recommending
the
use
of
SDD
(Appendix
H).
The
committee
therefore
chose
not
to
make
a
recommendation
for
the
use
of
SDD
specifically
in
severe
sepsis
at
this
time.
The
final
consensus
on
use
of
SDD
in
severe
sepsis
was
achieved
at
the
last
nominal
committee
meeting
and
subsequently
approved
by
the
entire
committee
(Appendix
H
provides
the
committee
vote).
1.
We
recommend
that
advance
care
planning,
including
the
communication
of
likely
outcomes
and
realistic
goals
of
treatment,
be
discussed
with
patients
and
families
(grade
1D).
Rationale.
Decisions
for
less
aggressive
support
or
withdrawal
of
support
may
be
in
the
patient's
best
interest.[294-‐296]
Too
frequently,
inadequate
physician/family
communication
characterizes
end-‐of-‐life
care
in
the
ICU.
The
level
of
life
support
given
to
ICU
patients
may
not
be
consistent
with
their
wishes.
Early
and
frequent
caregiver
discussions
with
patients
who
face
death
in
the
ICU
and
with
their
loved
ones
may
facilitate
appropriate
application
and
withdrawal
of
life-‐sustaining
therapies.
A
recent
RCT
demonstrated
reduction
of
anxiety
and
depression
in
family
328
members
when
end-‐of-‐life
meetings
were
carefully
planned
and
conducted,
included
advance
care
planning,
and
provided
relevant
information
about
diagnosis,
prognosis,
and
treatment.[297]
While
sepsis
in
children
is
a
major
cause
of
mortality,
the
overall
mortality
from
severe
sepsis
in
children
is
much
lower
that
that
in
adults,
estimated
at
about
10%.[298]
The
definitions
for
severe
sepsis
and
septic
shock
in
children
are
similar
but
not
identical
to
the
definitions
in
adults.[299]
In
addition
to
age-‐appropriate
differences
in
vital
signs,
the
definition
of
systemic
inflammatory
response
syndrome
requires
the
presence
of
either
temperature
or
leukocyte
abnormalities.
The
presence
of
severe
sepsis
requires
sepsis
plus
cardiovascular
dysfunction
or
ARDS
or
two
or
more
other
organ
dysfunctions.[299]
A. Antibiotics
1.
We
recommend
that
antibiotics
be
administered
within
1
hr
of
the
identification
of
severe
sepsis,
after
appropriate
cultures
have
been
obtained
(grade
1D).
Early antibiotic therapy is as critical for children with severe sepsis as it is for adults.
B. Mechanical Ventilation
No graded recommendations.
Due
to
low
functional
residual
capacity,
young
infants
and
neonates
with
severe
sepsis
may
require
early
intubation.[300]
Drugs
used
for
intubation
have
important
side
effects
in
these
patients;
for
example,
concerns
have
been
raised
about
the
safety
of
using
etomidate
in
children
with
meningococcal
sepsis
because
of
adrenal
suppression
effect.[301]
The
principles
of
lung-‐protective
strategies
are
applied
to
children
as
they
are
to
adults.
C. Fluid Resuscitation
1.
We
suggest
that
initial
resuscitation
begin
with
infusion
of
crystalloids
with
boluses
of
20
mL/kg
over
5-‐10
mins,
titrated
to
clinical
monitors
of
cardiac
output,
including
heart
rate,
urine
output,
capillary
refill,
and
level
of
consciousness
(grade
2C).
Intravenous
access
for
fluid
resuscitation
and
inotrope/vasopressor
infusion
is
more
difficult
to
attain
in
children
than
in
adults.
The
American
Heart
Association
and
the
American
Academy
of
Pediatrics
have
developed
pediatric
advanced
life
support
guidelines
for
emergency
establishment
of
intravascular
support
encouraging
early
intraosseous
access.[302]
On
the
basis
of
a
number
of
studies,
it
is
accepted
that
aggressive
fluid
resuscitation
with
crystalloids
or
colloids
is
of
fundamental
importance
to
survival
of
septic
shock
in
children.[303-‐308]
Three
randomized
controlled
trials
compared
the
use
of
colloid
to
crystalloid
resuscitation
in
children
329
with
dengue
shock.[303,307,308]
No
difference
in
mortality
between
colloid
or
crystalloid
resuscitation
was
shown.
Children
normally
have
a
lower
blood
pressure
than
adults,
and
fall
in
blood
pressure
can
be
prevented
by
vasoconstriction
and
increasing
heart
rate.
Therefore,
blood
pressure
by
itself
is
not
a
reliable
end
point
for
assessing
the
adequacy
of
resuscitation.
However,
once
hypotension
occurs,
cardiovascular
collapse
may
soon
follow.
Hepatomegaly
occurs
in
children
who
are
fluid
overloaded
and
can
be
a
helpful
sign
of
adequacy
of
fluid
resuscitation.
Large
fluid
deficits
typically
exist,
and
initial
volume
resuscitation
usually
requires
40-‐60
mL/kg
but
can
be
much
higher.[304-‐
308]
However,
the
rate
of
fluid
administration
should
be
reduced
substantially
when
there
are
(clinical)
signs
of
adequate
cardiac
filling
without
hemodynamic
improvement.
1.
We
suggest
dopamine
as
the
first
choice
of
support
for
the
pediatric
patient
with
hypotension
refractory
to
fluid
resuscitation
(grade
2C).
In
the
initial
resuscitation
phase,
vasopressor
therapy
may
be
required
to
sustain
perfusion
pressure,
even
when
hypovolemia
has
not
yet
been
resolved.
Children
with
severe
sepsis
can
present
with
low
cardiac
output
and
high
systemic
vascular
resistance,
high
cardiac
output
and
low
systemic
vascular
resistance,
or
low
cardiac
output
and
low
systemic
vascular
resistance
shock.
At
various
stages
of
sepsis
or
the
treatment
thereof,
a
child
may
move
from
one
hemodynamic
state
to
another.
Vasopressor
or
inotrope
therapy
should
be
used
according
to
the
clinical
state
of
the
child.
1.
We
suggest
that
patients
with
low
cardiac
output
and
elevated
systemic
vascular
resistance
states
(cool
extremities,
prolonged
capillary
refill,
decreased
urine
output
but
normal
blood
pressure
following
fluid
resuscitation)
be
given
dobutamine
(grade
2C).
The
choice
of
vasoactive
agent
is
determined
by
the
clinical
examination.
For
the
child
with
a
persistent
low
cardiac
output
state
with
high
systemic
vascular
resistance
despite
fluid
resuscitation
and
inotropic
support,
vasodilator
therapy
may
reverse
shock.[310]
When
pediatric
patients
remain
in
a
normotensive
low
cardiac
output
and
high
vascular
resistance
state
despite
epinephrine
and
vasodilator
therapy,
the
use
of
a
phosphodiesterase
inhibitor
may
be
considered.[311-‐313]
In
the
case
of
extremely
low
systemic
vascular
resistance
despite
the
use
of
norepinephrine,
vasopressin
use
has
been
described
in
a
number
of
case
reports.
There
is
no
clear
evidence
for
the
use
of
vasopressin
in
pediatric
sepsis.[314,315]
We
suggest
that
the
therapeutic
end
points
of
resuscitation
of
septic
shock
be
normalization
of
the
heart
rate,
capillary
refill
of
<2
secs,
normal
pulses
with
no
differential
between
peripheral
and
central
pulses,
warm
extremities,
urine
output
>1
mL
•
kg-‐1
•
hr-‐1,
and
normal
mental
status[290]
(grade
2C).
Capillary
refill
may
be
less
reliable
in
a
cold
environment.
Other
end
points
that
have
been
widely
used
in
adults
and
may
logically
apply
to
children
include
decreased
lactate
and
improved
base
deficit,
Scvo2
≥70%
or
SV□o2
≥65%,
central
venous
pressure
of
8-‐12
mm
Hg,
or
other
methods
to
analyze
cardiac
filling.
Optimizing
preload
optimizes
cardiac
index.
In
terms
of
identifying
acceptable
cardiac
output
in
children
with
systemic
arterial
hypoxemia,
such
as
cyanotic
congenital
heart
disease
or
severe
pulmonary
disease,
arterial-‐venous
oxygen
content
difference
is
a
better
marker
than
mixed
venous
hemoglobin
saturation
with
oxygen.
As
noted
previously,
blood
pressure
by
itself
is
not
a
reliable
end
point
for
resuscitation.
If
a
thermodilution
catheter
is
used,
therapeutic
end
points
are
cardiac
index
>3.3
and
<6.0
L
•
min-‐1
•
m-‐2
with
normal
coronary
perfusion
pressure
(mean
arterial
pressure
minus
central
venous
pressure)
for
age.[290]
Using
clinical
end
points,
such
as
reversal
of
hypotension
and
restoration
of
capillary
refill,
for
initial
resuscitation
at
the
community
hospital
level
before
transfer
to
a
tertiary
center
was
associated
with
significantly
improved
survival
rates
in
children
with
septic
shock.[305]
Development
of
a
transport
system
including
publicizing
to
local
hospitals
and
transport
with
mobile
intensive
care
services
significantly
decreased
the
case
fatality
rate
from
meningococcal
disease
in
the
United
Kingdom.[316]
Figure
1
shows
a
flow
diagram
summarizing
an
approach
to
pediatric
septic
shock.[317]
Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Approach
to
pediatric
shock.
*Normalization
of
blood
pressure
and
tissue
perfusion;
**hypotension,
abnormal
capillary
refill
or
extremity
coolness.
PALS,
Pediatric
Advanced
Life
Support;
PICU,
pediatric
intensive
care
unit;
CI,
cardiac
index;
ECMO,
extracorporeal
membrane
oxygenation.
G.
Steroids
331
1.
We
suggest
that
hydrocortisone
therapy
be
reserved
for
use
in
children
with
catecholamine
resistance
and
suspected
or
proven
adrenal
insufficiency
(grade
2C).
Patients
at
risk
for
adrenal
insufficiency
include
children
with
severe
septic
shock
and
purpura,[318,319]
children
who
have
previously
received
steroid
therapies
for
chronic
illness,
and
children
with
pituitary
or
adrenal
abnormalities.
Children
who
have
clear
risk
factors
for
adrenal
insufficiency
should
be
treated
with
stress-‐dose
steroids
(hydrocortisone
50
mg/m2/24
hrs).
Adrenal
insufficiency
in
pediatric
severe
sepsis
is
associated
with
a
poor
prognosis.[320]
No
strict
definitions
exist,
but
absolute
adrenal
insufficiency
in
the
case
of
catecholamine-‐resistant
septic
shock
is
assumed
at
a
random
total
cortisol
concentration
<18
µg/dL
(496
nmol/L).
A
post
30-‐
or
60-‐min
ACTH
stimulation
test
increase
in
cortisol
of
≤9
µg/dL
(248
mmol/L)
has
been
used
to
define
relative
adrenal
insufficiency.
The
treatment
of
relative
adrenal
insufficiency
in
children
with
septic
shock
is
controversial.
A
retrospective
study
from
a
large
administrative
database
recently
reported
that
the
use
of
any
corticosteroids
in
children
with
severe
sepsis
was
associated
with
increased
mortality
(odds
ratio
1.9,
95%
confidence
interval
1.7-‐2.2).[321]
While
steroids
may
have
been
given
preferentially
to
more
severely
ill
children,
the
use
of
steroids
was
an
independent
predictor
of
mortality
in
multivariable
analysis.[321]
Given
the
lack
of
data
in
children
and
potential
risk,
steroids
should
not
be
used
in
children
who
do
not
meet
minimal
criteria
for
adrenal
insufficiency.
A
randomized,
controlled
trial
in
children
with
septic
shock
is
very
much
needed.
1. We recommend against the use rhAPC in children (grade 1B).
Protein
C
concentrations
in
children
reach
adult
values
at
the
age
of
3
yrs.
This
might
indicate
that
the
importance
of
protein
C
supplementation
either
as
protein
C
concentrate
or
as
rhAPC
is
even
greater
in
young
children
than
in
adults.[322]
There
has
been
one
dose-‐finding,
randomized,
placebo-‐controlled
study
performed
using
protein
C
concentrate.
This
study
was
not
powered
to
show
an
effect
on
mortality
rate
but
did
show
a
positive
effect
on
sepsis-‐induced
coagulation
disturbances.[323]
An
RCT
of
rhAPC
in
pediatric
severe
sepsis
patients
was
stopped
by
recommendation
of
the
Data
Monitoring
Committee
for
futility
after
enrollment
of
399
patients:
28-‐
day
all
cause
mortality
was
18%
placebo
group
vs.
17%
APC
group.
Major
amputations
occurred
in
3%
of
the
placebo
group
vs.
2%
in
the
APC
group.[324]
Due
to
the
increased
risk
of
bleeding
(7%
vs.
6%
in
the
pediatric
trial)
and
lack
of
proof
of
efficacy,
rhAPC
is
not
recommended
for
use
in
children.
I. DVT Prophylaxis
1.
We
suggest
the
use
of
DVT
prophylaxis
in
postpubertal
children
with
severe
sepsis
(grade
2C).
332
Most
DVTs
in
young
children
are
associated
with
central
venous
catheters.
Femoral
venous
catheters
are
commonly
used
in
children,
and
central
venous
catheter-‐
associated
DVTs
occur
in
approximately
25%
of
children
with
a
femoral
central
venous
catheter.
Heparin-‐bonded
catheters
may
decrease
the
risk
of
catheter-‐
associated
DVT
and
should
be
considered
for
use
in
children
with
severe
sepsis.[325,326]
No
data
on
the
efficacy
of
UFH
or
LMWH
prophylaxis
to
prevent
catheter-‐related
DVT
in
children
in
the
ICU
exist.
No graded recommendations.
Studies
have
shown
that
the
rate
of
clinically
important
gastrointestinal
bleeding
in
children
occurs
at
rates
similar
to
adults.[327,328]
As
in
adults,
coagulopathy
and
mechanical
ventilation
are
risk
factors
for
clinically
important
gastrointestinal
bleeding.
Stress
ulcer
prophylaxis
strategy
is
commonly
used
in
mechanically
ventilated
children,
usually
with
H2
blockers.
Its
effect
is
not
known.
No graded recommendations.
Continuous
veno-‐venous
hemofiltration
(CVVH)
may
be
clinically
useful
in
children
with
anuria/severe
oliguria
and
fluid
overload,
but
no
large
RCTs
have
been
performed
comparing
CVVH
with
intermittent
dialysis.
A
retrospective
study
of
113
critically
ill
children
reported
that
children
with
less
fluid
overload
before
CVVH
had
better
survival,
especially
in
those
children
with
dysfunction
of
three
or
more
organs.[329]
CVVH
or
other
renal
replacement
therapy
should
be
instituted
in
children
with
anuria/severe
oliguria
before
significant
fluid
overload
occurs.
L. Glycemic Control
No graded recommendations.
In
general,
infants
are
at
risk
for
developing
hypoglycemia
when
they
depend
on
intravenous
fluids.
This
means
that
a
glucose
intake
of
4-‐6
mg
•
kg-‐1
•
min-‐1
or
maintenance
fluid
intake
with
glucose
10%/NaCl-‐containing
solution
is
advised.
Associations
have
been
reported
between
hyperglycemia
and
an
increased
risk
of
death
and
longer
length
of
stay.[330]
A
recent
retrospective
pediatric
ICU
study
reported
associations
of
hyperglycemia,
hypoglycemia,
and
glucose
variability
with
length
of
stay
and
mortality
rates.[331]
No
studies
in
pediatric
patients
(without
diabetes
mellitus)
analyzing
the
effect
of
strict
glycemic
control
using
insulin
exist.
In
adults,
the
recommendation
is
to
maintain
serum
glucose
<150
mg/dL.
Insulin
therapy
to
avoid
long
periods
of
hyperglycemia
seems
sensible
in
children
as
well,
but
the
optimal
goal
glucose
is
not
known.
However,
continuous
insulin
therapy
should
only
be
conducted
with
frequent
glucose
monitoring
in
view
of
the
risks
for
hypoglycemia.
333
M. Sedation/Analgesia
1.
We
recommend
sedation
protocols
with
a
sedation
goal
when
sedation
of
critically
ill
mechanically
ventilated
patients
with
sepsis
is
required
(grade
1D).
Appropriate
sedation
and
analgesia
are
the
standard
of
care
for
children
who
are
mechanically
ventilated.
Although
there
are
no
data
supporting
any
particular
drugs
or
regimens,
it
should
be
noted
that
propofol
should
not
be
used
for
long-‐term
sedation
in
children
because
of
the
reported
association
with
fatal
metabolic
acidosis.[332,333]
N. Blood Products
No graded recommendations.
The
optimal
hemoglobin
for
a
critically
ill
child
with
severe
sepsis
is
not
known.
A
recent
multicenter
trial
reported
similar
outcomes
in
stable
critically
ill
children
managed
with
a
transfusion
threshold
of
7
g/dL
compared
with
those
managed
with
a
transfusion
threshold
of
9.5
g/dL.[334]
Whether
a
lower
transfusion
trigger
is
safe
or
appropriate
in
the
initial
resuscitation
of
septic
shock
has
not
been
determined.
O. Intravenous Immunoglobulin
1.
We
suggest
that
immunoglobulin
be
considered
in
children
with
severe
sepsis
(grade
2C).
1.
We
suggest
that
use
of
ECMO
be
limited
to
refractory
pediatric
septic
shock
and/or
respiratory
failure
that
cannot
be
supported
by
conventional
therapies
(grade
2C).
ECMO
has
been
used
in
septic
shock
in
children,
but
its
impact
is
not
clear.
Survival
from
refractory
shock
or
respiratory
failure
associated
with
sepsis
is
80%
in
neonates
and
50%
in
children.
In
one
study
analyzing
12
patients
with
meningococcal
sepsis
in
ECMO,
eight
of
the
12
patients
survived,
with
six
leading
functionally
normal
lives
at
a
median
of
1
yr
(range,
4
months
to
4
yrs)
of
follow-‐up.
Children
with
sepsis
on
ECMO
do
not
perform
worse
than
children
without
sepsis
at
long-‐term
follow-‐
up.[336,337]
334
Although
the
pediatric
considerations
section
of
this
article
offers
important
information
to
the
practicing
pediatric
clinician
for
the
management
of
critically
ill
children
with
sepsis,
the
reader
is
referred
to
the
reference
list
for
more
in-‐depth
descriptions
of
appropriate
management
of
pediatric
septic
patients.
Although
this
document
is
static,
the
optimum
treatment
of
severe
sepsis
and
septic
shock
is
a
dynamic
and
evolving
process.
New
interventions
will
be
proven
and,
as
stated
in
the
current
recommendations,
established
interventions
may
need
modification.
This
publication
represents
an
ongoing
process.
The
Surviving
Sepsis
Campaign
and
the
consensus
committee
members
are
committed
to
updating
the
guidelines
regularly
as
new
interventions
are
tested
and
published.
Tranfuzie daca:
- INR 1,7 - 2
- Fibrinogen < 0,5 g/dl
- Tr < 50x103/l
Na K Cl Ca HCO3 pH Osm
mmol/l
Hartman 131 5 112 4 29 6,5 281
NaCl 0,9% 154 0 154 0 0 5,5 300
G 5% 0 0 0 0 0 4,1 278
Hemacel 145 5 145 6,2 0 7,3 350
Gelofusine 154 0,4 125 0,4 0 7,4 465
Albumina 130 -160 2 120 0 0 7,4 270 –
300
HAES 154 0 154 0 0 5,5 310
Dextran
Expandarea iniţială a volumului plasmatic obţinută cu dextrani este
bună datorită capacităţii mari de legare a apei de aproximativ 20-25 ml-kg
dextran. Persistenţa intravasculară depinde de preparatul de dextran.
Moleculele mici de dextran sunt relativ rapid eliminate în urină în timp ce cele
mari (>55000 daltoni) rămân în compartimentul intravascular şi susţin volumul
plasmatic pt o perioadă mai prelungită de timp. Preparatele de dextran 70 6%
şi dextran 60 3% par amândouă valoroase pt tratamentului şocului decât
preparatul dextran 40 10% datorită unui mai eficient efect de suport a
volumului intravascular şi o persistenţă intravasculară mai de durată a
preparatelor cu masă moleculară mai mare.
Dextran a arătat că modulează influenţele mediate de monocite asupra
imunocompetenţei şi a hipercoagulabilităţii. Efectul antitrombotic al dextran
este probabil semnificativ important pt prevenţia unei activări a sistemului în
cascadă mai extinsă la pacienţii cu trauma hipovolemică şi pacienţii septici. În
plus, sarcina suprafeţei endoteliale a capilarelor este alterată de dextran şi va
apare ca rezultat reducerea de dextran a interacţiei celule endoteliale-celule
sanguine ceea ce poate explica o semnificativă creştere a refluxului
microvascular şi îmbunătăţirea metabolismului tisular atunci când dextran este
folosit pt resuscitarea şocului. Totuşi trebuie avut în vedere că dextran
mediază modularea sistemului hemostazic dependent de doză. Efectul
benefic al dextranului în hipercoagularea indusă de şoc poate la o infuzie
iniţială mai mare de 1,5 g/kgc include un risc de reducere a competenţei
hemostatice şi creşterea sângerării. De aceea doza de dextran pt resuscitarea
iniţială a şocului trebuie să nu depăşească 1,5 g/kgc.
Este bine cunoscut că perfuzia cu dextran poate fi asociată cu reacţii
de hipersensibilitate. Totuşi este posibil prin preinjectare de dextran 1 sa
338
62. Droguri cu actiune cardiotonica si vasoactiva utilizate in starile de soc
Anticolinergice
341
Rec muscarinici
- M1 neuronal
- M2 cardiac
- M3 glande
Atropina
- amestec racemic
- ipatropriu bromide - derivat de atropina
- adm cu atentie in - hipertrofie prostata
- glaucom cu unghi inchis
- obstr vezica urinara
- Δt actiune = 30 min
Scopolamina
- IM
- rau de miscare
Glicopirolat
- doza = ¼ doza atropina
- nu trece BHE
- Δt actiune >2-4 h
Agonisti adrenergici
342
Fenilefrina +++ + + 0 0 0
Metildopa + + 0 0 0 0
Clonidina + ++ 0 0 0 0
Dexmedetomidina + +++ 0 0 0 0
Adrenalina ++ ++ +++ ++ 0 0
Efedrina ++ ? ++ + 0 0
Fenoldopam 0 0 0 0 +++ 0
Noradrenalina ++ ++ ++ 0 0 0
Terbutalina 0 0 + +++ 0 0
Adrenalina /
Efedrina
Fenoldopam / 0
Noradrenalina / 0
Dopamina / 0
Dopexamina / / 0
Isoproterenol /
Dobutamina 0
Fenilefrina
- vasoconstrictie periferica cu ↑ RVS
- bradicardie reflexa
- tahifilaxie
343
Metildopa
- α2agonist, analog de levodopa
- ↓ eliberare de NA + ↓ tonus S → ↓ RVS → ↓ TA
- HTA gravide
Clonidina
- α2 agonist
Desmetomidina
- ef sedative
- afinitate m ↓ α2
- ↓ necesarul de volatile
Adrenalina
- ↑ CO, ↑ contractilitatea, ↑ consumul de O2, ↓ AV
- ↓ fluxul sg splahnic + renal
- VD in mm scheletici → ↓ TAD
- bronhodilatatie
- complicatii: hemoragii cerebrale, aritmii ventriculare, ischemie coronariana
- principalul trat in soc anafilactic, FiV
- doze 2-20γ/min
Noradrenalina
- α1 stimulant fara act β2 → VC arteriala si venoasa, ↑ TA dar fara ↑ CO
- 2-20 γ/min
- indic: soc refractat pt mentinere perfuzie
Efedrina
- ↑TA, ↑ AV, ↑ CO, ↑ contractilitatea
- bronhodilatatie
- Δtactiune m ↑ + stim SNC
- indic: vasopresor in anestezie
- doza: 2,5-10mg bolus
Dopamina
→ < 2 γ/kg/min – ef dopa DA1 – VD vase renale, ↑ Dz
344
Isoprotenerol
- agonist β pur
- ↑ AV, ↑ CO, ↑ contractilitatea, ↓ RVS, ↓ TAD
Dobutamina
- β1 selectiv
- 2-20 γ/kg/min
Dopexamina
- analog structural dopamina, dar cu efecte β1(antiaritmogenic) si α
- 0.5 γ/kg/min → 6 γ/kg/min
Fenoldopam
- selectiv DA1 agonist, fara ef β sau α
- 0.1 µg/kg/min ce poate fi ↑ la 15-20 min
Antagonisti adrenergici
Drug 1 2 1 2
Prazosin – 0 0 0
Phenoxybenzamine – – 0 0
Phentolamine – – 0 0
Labetalol – 0 – –
Metoprolol 0 0 – –
Esmolol 0 0 – –
Propranolol 0 0 – –
Atenolol + 0 0 0 6–7
Esmolol + 0 0 0 –1/4
Labetalol 0 + + 4
Metoprolol + 0 0 + 3–4
Propranolol 0 0 + 4–6
345
Blocanti α
Fentolamina
- blocare reversibila a rec α
- hTA + tahicardie reflexa
- hTA posturala
- indic in feocromocitom, elib excesiva de CA
- doza: iv bolus 1-5 mg sau pev cont
Blocanti mixti
Labetolol
- blocheaza α1, β1, β2 (ratie blocare α:β = 1:7)
- ↓ TA, fara a ↑ AV sau a ↓ CO
- ef max la 5 min de la adm
- ef adv: IVS, bronhospasm, HTA paradoxala
- doza 0.1 – 0.25 µg/kg adm iv in 2 min urmat de bolus 0.25-0.5 µg/kg la 10
min sau pev cont 2 mg/min
- Δt actiune 5 h → nu e rec pt pev prelungite
Blocanti β
Esmolol
- β1 agonist selectiv
- ↓ AV si mult mai putin ↓ TA
- la doze mici cardioselectiv, la doze ↑ inh si β2 din mm neteda bronsica si
vasculara
- durata de act ↓ - Δt elim 9 min
- metab prin hidroliza de esteraza eritrocitara
- CI la pac cu AV↓, bloc AV gr II/III, soc cardiogen
- bolus 0.2-0.5 mg/kg iv pt ef de scuta dur
- pt ef de lunga durata bolus 0.5mg/kg + pev cont 50 µg/kg/min (poate fi ↑
pana la 200 µg/kg/min
Proranolol
- blocheaza nonselectiv β1 + β2
- ↓ TA prin ↓ contractilitate miocardica, ↓ AV, ↓ elib de renina
- ↓ CO si cerere de O2 miocardica
- indic in ischemie mioc datorata ↑ TA si AV
- blocheaza ef β in tireotoxicoza + feocromocitom
- ef sec bronhospasm, ICC, bradicardie, BAV, accentueaza depresie mioc
indusa de anest volatile
346
Agenti hipotensivi
Nitroprusiat de Na
- relaxant mm art + venos ← NO
- 0.5-10γ/kg/mi
→ cianHb (meth+CN) → toxicitate acuta: AcM, aritmii, ↑ continutul venos in
O2 (inabilitate de a utiliza O2)
→ tahifilaxie
- fen de furt la nivel coronar
- aboleste autoreglarea cererbala → ↑ PIC
- dilata vasele pulm → previne vasoconstr pulm hipoxica
NTG
- relaxant venos>arterial
- adm iv, sl, transdermic
- risc methHb
- reduce necesarul miocardic de oxigen si ↑ aprovizionarea mioc cu O2 prin:
- ↓ intoarcerea venoasa si presarcina → ↓ Penddiastolica ventric
- redistribuie fluxul sg coronar spre zonele ischemice din subendocard
- ↓ spasm coronar
- ↓ agregare plachetara
Hidralazina
- 5-20 mg iv - dur 2-4 h
- pev 0.25-1.5 γ/kg/min
- HTA gravide
Adenozina
- ↓ TA, ↓ conducerea AV (↑ interv PR)
- ↓ RVpulm, ↑ suntul intrapulm, ↓ SaO2
- vasocoantr renala
- adm iv pt TPSV → FiA
Fenoldopam
- VD prin stim rec dopa D1
- ↓ TA , ↑ AV, ↑ P intraoculara
- instalare ef in~ 15min
Nifedipine 10 mg
5–10 4 h
(sublingual)
min
5–15 mg/h
hTA controlata
= ↓ electiva a TA – avantaj minimalizare pierderi de sg
- pozitionare – ridicare plaga
- ventilatie - ↑ Ptoracica
- medic hTA – volatile, blocanti Ca, vasodilatatoare perif, antag S NTG,
inh angiotensina
- bloc epidural
348
- CI - anemie severa
- hipovolemie
- b CV aterosclerotica
- glaucom necontrolat
- complicatii - tromboza cerebrala
- hemiplegie
- necroza tubulara acuta
- IMA
- necroza hepatica
- stop cardiac
- nivel inf - tineri pot tolera MAP ~50-60 mmHg
- HTA cronica – 20-30% din nivelul de baza
- monitorizare in timpul hTA controlate
- TA invaziv
- ECG
- Dz
- PVC
63.
Sindromul
de
disfunctii
organice
multiple
(cauze,
mediatori,
efecte
la
nivelul
sistemelor
de
organe)
MODS = prezenţa unei alterări funcţionale organice la un pacient cu boală
acută la care homeostazia nu poate fi menţinută fără intervenţie
PIRO =
P – predispoziţie la sepsis
I – infecţia ca şi cauză fiziologică de sepsis
R – răspunsul la infecţie
O – insuficienţă organică
Epidemiologie
1. În SUA, MODS se dezvoltă la 15% din totalul admisiilor în STI
2. Mortalitatea prin MODS:
- 30 – 100% (Rippe, 2003)
- 50 – 70% (J.L. Vincent, Refresher ICU 2004)
3. În populaţia cu risc crescut, frecvenţa MODS este similară în întreaga
lume.
4. În SUA, MODS se dezvoltă la 15% din totalul admisiilor în STI
Mortalitate MODS:
- creşte cu numărul de organe implicate
Nr disfunctii Mortalitatea
in fct de nr
disfct
0 0.8%
1 6.8%
349
2 26.2%
3 48.5%
4 68.8%
5 83.3%
- creşte cu durata
- creşte cu tipul disfuncţiei:
- respiratorie - > 50 % mortalitate MODS (Goris, 1985; Fulkerson,
1996)
- renală – creşterea mortalităţii de 10 ori la pacienţii cu IRA faţă de cei
fără IRA în cadrul MODS (Levy, 1996)
Clasificare şi stadializare
- Early MOF – 72 h de la insulta iniţială
- Late MOF – 6-8 zile după injurie, cu patogenie predominant infecţioasă
Cardiovascular 1. AV ≤ 54/minut
(unu/mai multe) 2. TAM ≤ 49 mmHg (TAS ≤ 60 mmHg)
3. tahicardie ventriculară/fibrilaţie
ventriculară
4. pH seric ≤ 7,24 cu PaCO2 ≤ 40
mmHg
351
Scoruri:
- APACHE – Acute Physiological and Chronic Health Evaluation
- SAPS – Simplified Acquired Physiological Score
- MPM – Mortality Probability Model
- MODS – Multiple Organ Dysfunction System
- SOFA – Sepsis – related Organ Failure Assessment
- LODS – Logistic Organ Dysfunction System
Scor
MODS
0
1
2
3
4
PaO2/
FiO2
>300
226-‐300
151-‐ 76-‐150
≤75
225
352
asistatã)
Oxigenare
A-‐a
DO2
sau
a
PaO2
(mmHg)
≥500
350-‐499
200-‐349
<200
1. FiO≥0,5:
PO2>70
PO261-‐70
PO255-‐60
PO2<55
se
înregistrea
zã
A-‐a
DO2
2. FiO<0,5:
se
înregistrea
zã
numai
PaO2
pH
arterial
≥7,7
7,6-‐7,69
7,5-‐7,59
7,33-‐7,49
7,25-‐7,32
7,15-‐7,24
<7,15
Sodiu
seric
(mmol/L)
≥180
160-‐179
155-‐159
150-‐154
130-‐149
120-‐129
111-‐119
≤110
353
Cauze de mods:
Obişnuite
- Sepsis
- Trauma
- Aspiraţie de conţinut gastric
- Pancreatită acută
- Arsuri
- Şoc de diverse etiologii (în general, deficite de perfuzie generalizate)
- Endocardita infecţioasă
- Vasculite sistemice
- Poliarterita nodoasă
- Granulomatoza Wegener
- Boli de colagen
- LES
- Status postoperator în chirurgia cardiovasculară (valvulari, disecţie/ruptură
aortă)
- Status postoperator în chirurgia abdominală (malignităţi gastro-intestinale,
boli inflamatorii gastro-intestinale
Mai puţin obişnuite
- TBC diseminat
- Sd. antifosfolipidic
354
Factori de risc
Rippe, 2003
1. Severitatea bolii
2. Vârstă > 65 ani
3. Deficit DO2 persistent după resuscitarea şocului circulator
4. Focar de ţesut devitalizat
5. Traumă severă
6. Operaţii majore
7. Insuficienţă hepatică, în stadiul terminal
Hall, 1997
APACHE II ≥ 20, APACHE III > 30 – la admisie
Vârsta > 55 la traumatizaţi
Sepsis/infecţie – la admisie
Hipotensiune > 24h de la admisie
Clampare aortă > 1,5h (by-pass cardio-pulmonar)
Abuz cronic de alcool
Fiziopatologie
- Dezvoltarea MODS depinde de echilibrul injurie - răspuns individual
Mecanisme fiziopatogenice
1. Ipoteza intestinală – intestinul “motorul” MODS
Studii clinice ce susţin ipoteza intestinală:
- Doig – relaţie excelentă între creşterea permeabilităţii intestinale la
admisia în STI şi apariţia ulterioară a MODS
- O’Boyle – 15% dintre pacienţii cu laparatomie au avut translocaţie
bacteriană şi un risc semnificativ crescut pentru complicaţii septice şi
MODS
- Marik – la pacienţii septici pH-ul intramucos gastric scăzut a fost asociat
cu apariţia MODS
- Kirton – după injurie traumatică, insuficienta resuscitare splanhnică nu a
normalizat pH-ul intramucos gastric şi a crescut incidenţa MODS
- Mythen & Webb – intraoperator (chirurgie majoră), un pH intramucos
scăzut a fost asociat cu dezvoltarea ulterioară a MODS
a. Tonometria gastro-intestinală
Sensibilitatea tractului gastro-intestinal la hipoxie:
- injuria vililor intestinali – 20 minute
- distrucţia vililor – 60 minute
- gangrenă transmurală – 8-12 ore
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Microvascularizatia sublinguala
c. Metabolismul lignocainei
- test al funcţiei hepatice
- limitat de dependenţa sa faţă de fluxul sanguin variabil
- nu se poate efectua la patul bolnavului
- interpretări greşite ale perfuziei splanhnice prin interferenţă cu droguri
(analgetice, sedative, antibiotice, antiacizi) şi cu variabile de laborator
(hiperbilirubinemia)
- doar experimental
c. O2ER
- Distribuţia regională a DO2 este vitală: dacă pielea şi muşchii primesc
fluxuri mari de sânge, dar teritoriul splanhnic nu, intestinul devine hipoxic
în pofida ofertei global mărite.
- Microcirculaţia, difuzia celulară şi factorii celulari influenţează statusul
oxigenării celulare, măsurătorile globale pot eşua în identificarea
hipoxemiei tisulare locale.
- DO2 supranormal nu poate compensa problemele de difuziune dintre
capilar şi celulă, nici insuficienţa metabolică din interiorul celulei.
- Când estimăm relaţia DO2/VO2 trebuie utilizate măsurători directe pentru
a evita erorile datorate calculului matematic.
- Strategiile de a reduce rata metabolică pentru a îmbunătăţii oxigenarea
tisulară trebuie luate în considerare.
4. Ipoteza integrată
Sistemul cardiovascular
1. Hipotensiune
1. prin hipovolemie, alterarea tonusului vascular, disfuncţie
miocardică
2. compensator à tahicardie
2. Hipovolemie - prin pierderi lichidiene
1. ABSOLUTE
1. prin endoteliu
2. prin creşterea permeabilităţii membranare
3. aport scăzut
4. pierderi renale crescute
5. vărsături, diaree
6. pierderi insensibile prin febră
2. RELATIVE
1. mărirea compartimentului vascular, datorită:
1. NO
2. IL-1
3. PG
1. PAF
3. Edeme
1. creşterea permeabilităţii vasculare
2. scăderea albuminemiei
Depresia miocardică
1. cu debit cardiac â/N/á
2. SIRS modifică proprietăţile elastice ale ventricului stâng à
scade complianţa distolică şi limitează aplicare legii Frank-Starling pentru
îmbunătăţirea debitului cardiac prin creşterea presarcinii
3. disfuncţia ventricului drept se produce în paralel cu cea a
ventriculului stâng, existând o interdependenţă: disfuncţia ventriculului drept
limitează presarcina ventriculului stâng
360
Disfuncţie hematologică
a. Leucocitele
1. leucocitoză cu neutrofilie
2. ocazional, creştere extremă, de peste 50x109/L (reacţie
leucemoidă – creşte vâscozitatea sangvină)
3. mecanismul:
1. demarginaţie
2. creşterea eliberării din măduva osoasă
3. creşterea producţiei
4. deplasare la stânga a formulei leucocitare - număr mare de
forme mieloide, prin creşterea producţiei şi mobilizarea rapidă din măduva
osoasă
5. neutropenia este specifică mai ales copiilor
1. epuizarea precursorilor din măduva osoasă
2. oprirea maturării liniei granulocitare
3. inegalitatea dintre extravazare şi producţie
361
b. Eritrocitele
1. pierderea deformabilităţii - se pare că sunt implicate ROS
derivate din leucocite şi ţesuturile ischemice - creşte timpul de circulaţie şi
reduce fluxul sanguin, ceea ce are impact negativ asupra distribuţiei
oxigenului, contribuind la MODS
2. stimularea agregării eritrocitare, cu creşterea ratei de
sedimentare
3. creşterea distrucţiei - hemoglobină liberă - corelată cu
accentuarea mortalităţii în timpul endotoxemiei (haptoglobina leagă Hb liberă,
protejând gazda)
c. Trombocite
Iniţial trombocitoza, apoi, trombocitopenia
Trombocitopenia
1. incidenţa ei este de peste 20% pentru admisiile cazurilor
medicale în terapie intensivă şi 35% pentru cele chirurgicale
2. este predictor de mortalitate
3. anticorpi antiplachetari nonspecifici sunt detectaţi la mai mult de
30% din pacienţi
Renal
Cauze
1. hipotensiune
2. ischemie
3. toxine
→ distrugerea celulelor tubulare formare de cilindrii →obstrucţie, scade
filtrarea glomerulară
Mecanism
362
Gastro-intestinal
1. hipoperfuzie splahnică
1. scade motilitatea tubului digestiv à ILEUS
2. ulceraţii
3. alterarea funcţiei barierei mucoase à TRANSLOCAŢIE
BACTERIANĂ
2. disfuncţie hepatică
1. scăderea fosfatazei alcaline
2. scăderea transaminazelor
3. hipoalbuminemie
1. rata de sinteză alterată
2. TNFa şi IL-6 reduc rata de transcripţie genetică şi sinteza
4. hepatita ischemică a fost raportată în şocul septic (cauza,
probabil NO)
3. colecistita acalculoasă
1. infrecvent
2. probabil subdiagnosticată
3. mai ales după traumă şi chirurgie biliară
Respirator
- ALI/ARDS
363
A. TERAPIA ANTIINFLAMATORIE
1. Inactivarea citokinelor
- insucces; beneficii clinice nesatisfăcătoare
explicaţia: inhibarea unei singure citokine dintr-o „cascadă” inflamatorie nu
blochează răspunsul inflamator, inhibarea unui proces dintr-un lanţ poate
avea efecte neaşteptate asupra celorlalte; uneori poate fi dăunător
- cei mai studiaţi: sTNFR şi anticorpi monoclonali anti TNFa
- antagonişti ai receptorilor IL-1, anti-bradikinină, antagonişti ai receptorilor
PAF nou, în studiu experimental: FR167653 = supresor al producţiei de TNFa
şi IL-1
2 .Hemofiltrarea
1. teoretic, strategie de îndepărtare a mediatorilor inflamatori din circulaţie
364
3. Antagonizarea complementului
1. Ac anti-C5a:
1. efect protectiv împotriva ALI indus de LPS (endotoxină)
2. previne neutropenia şi apoptoza induse de C5a
3. scade incidenţa bacteriemiei
4. îmbunătăţeşte supravieţuirea la primate
2. rămâne de dovedit utilitatea clinică (trialuri)
4. Terapia anti-endotoxinică
1. cu Ac monoclonali
2. au arătat scăderea incidenţei MODS
3. încă în studiu
5. AINS
1. inhibitori de ciclo-oxigenază şi prostanoizi (Ibuprofen); reduc producţia
de TxA2, prostaciclină, PGE2
2. au eşuat în a scădea rata de mortalitate
6. Corticosteroizi
7. Antioxidanţi
a. Inhibitori de NOS
- faza a III-a a trialului pentru NMMA (NG-monometil.arginină) -
1999 - a fost oprită atunci când rapoartele au demonstrat creşterea ratei de
mortalitate
- evidenţă că inhibarea izoformelor NOS constitutive (neuronale,
endoteliale) este nefavorabilă în sepsis şi MODS
c. Seleniu
1. deficitul său a fost raportat la peste 40% dintre pacienţii critici şi este
corelat cu mortalitatea
2. suplimentarea îmbunătăţeşte câteva funcţii ale celulelor
imunocompetente:
1. fagocitoza
2. activitatea celulelor natural killer
3. proliferarea limfocitelor T
4. sinteza Ig
3. Angstwurm şi colab.(1998) – studiu prospectiv, randomizat –
îmbunătăţirea evoluţiei clinice a pacienţilor cu SIRS care au primit
seleniu
8. Imunomodulaţia
- pentru faza tardivă de evoluţie, să stimuleze imunitatea înnăscută:
- interferon-7 (activator de macrofag)
- IL-12 (stimulant imun şi Th1 inducer)
366
Imunoglobulinele
- efecte benefice mai ales în:
- sepsis postoperator
- şoc septic cu endotoxemie
- sdr. septic la pacienţi cu leucemie neutropenică
- copii cu sepsis meningococic fulminant
- şoc toxic streptococic
- scopul administrării este atingerea limitei superioare a normalului şi chiar
depăşirea ei
9. Prostaciclina
- inhibitor al agregării plachetare
- inodilatator
- reduce aderarea PMN la endoteliu şi interacţiunea lor cu trombocitele
- reduce eliberarea de TNFa din monocitele LPS-stimulate
- creşte sinteza de IL-10 (antiinflamator)
- Iloprost, 1ng/Kg/min, îmbunătăţeşte semnificativ indexul perfuziei splanhnice
şi funcţia hepatică
Concentrate de AT III
- îmbunătăţirea supravieţuirii la 90 de zile
TFPI recombinant
Target:
- PVC = 8-12 mmHg (12-15 la pacientul ventilat)
- PAM ≥ 65 mmHg
- Diureză ≥ 0,5 ml/kg/oră
- SvO2 sau saturaţia venoasă centrală ScvO2(VCS) ≥ 70%
2. Terapie cu fluide
1. nu sunt evidenţe pentru a favoriza un anumit tip de fluid
2. pentru acelaşi “end-point” cristaloizii:
1. volum de distribuţie mai mare
2. necesită o cantitate mai mare de lichid
3. produc edeme mai frecvent
3. nu se poate aprecia necesarul cu raport I/O
1. suspiciunea de hipovolemie à în primele 24 ore – 500-1000 ml
cristaloizi sau 300-500 ml coloizi în 30 miunte şi repetare în
funcţie de răspuns (á TA, diureză) şi toleranţă (semne de
hipervolemie)
3. Vasopresori
1. se administrează în hipotensiune chiar dacă resuscitarea lichidiană
este în curs şi hipovolemia nu a fost încă corectată
4. Inotropi
Dobutamina = primul drog ales în caz de DC â + presiune de umplere
a ventriculului stâng adecvată
1. dacă PAM â - se asociază vasopresor noradrenalina/Dopamina
2. nu este recemandată administrarea arbritară pentru a creşte
indexul cardiac (Gattinoni L., NEJM, 1995)
6. Hemodializa
1. hemodializa intermitentă este mai greu tolerată de pacienţii instabili
2. hemodializa continuă oferă un management mai bun al balanţei
hidroelectrolitice
7. Administrarea de bicarbonat
1. două studii ce au comparat administrarea de soluţie salină vs
bicarbonat la pacienţi cu pH ≥ 7,13-7,15 nu au demonstrat existenţa
unor diferenţe ai parametrilor hemodinamici sau a necesarului de
vasopresor
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12. ATB
1. intravenos
2. început în prima oră de recunoaştere a sepsisului sever
3. iniţial empirică
4. reevaluare la 48 şi 72 ore
5. durata tipic 7-10 zile
6. ghidaj clinic al răspunsului
7. fără confirmare de laborator oprire promtă pentru scădere dezvoltării
patogenilor rezistenţi sau a suprainfecţiilor
D. ANESTEZIA ÎN MODS
Intervenţii programate:
1. schimbarea meşelor
2. lavaj şi second-look al abdomenului septic
3. stabilizarea fracturilor
4. traheotomia
5. jejunotomia de alimentaţie
6. excluderea fistulelor traheoesofagiene sau bronhopleurale
Consideraţii preoperatorii
1. de obicei prezintă ileus à risc de aspiraţie în perioperator;
2. majoritatea fiind intubaţi sau traheostomizaţi, nu necesită oprirea
alimentaţiei enterale cu 6 ore înainte de intervenţie;
3. TPN continuă à risc de hipoglicemie la oprirea bruscă a nutriţiei;
4. se recomandă montarea unui cateter intraarterial pentru monitorizare
intraoperatorie şi a unui abord venos central (în caz că nu există),
opţional cateter Swan-Ganz;
5. cea mai bună metodă pentru asistarea intraoperatorie a contractilităţii
miocardice şi a volemiei este ecografia transesofagiană;
6. intervenţia chirurgicală nu trebuie amânată în caz de valori scăzute ale
Hb, însă trebuie să ne asigurăm de disponibilitatea produşilor de sânge.
Majoritatea pacienţilor din terapie intensivă se situează la niveluri ale
Hb de 7-8g/dl şi chiar pacienţii cardiaci tolerează valori de 9-10g/dl.
Aceasta pentru că scăderea de viscozitate determină scăderea
postsarcinii, a întoarcerii venoase şi astfel, îmbunătăţirea debitului
cardiac. Nu se cunoaşte nivelul la care un pacient critic trebuie
transfuzat. Transfuzia ar fi necesară dacă nivelul scăzut de Hb ar fi
asociat cu:
1. PVC foarte scăzut,
2. acidoză lactică persistentă,
3. SvO2 scăzut,
- PCO2 în mucoasa gastrică crescut.
Intraoperator
1. în general anestezie generală
2. nu există tehnici specifice de inducţie şi menţinere la pacienţii septici
sau/şi cu MODS
3. mai importantă decât alegerea drogului este alegerea dozei, care
trebuie scăzută
1. circulaţie hiperdinamică (sepsis sever);
2. volum de distribuţie alterat;
3. concentraţie de albumină scăzută.
4. sepsis-ul este asociat cu scăderea necesarului anestezic
Inducţia
371
Etomidatul
1. efecte deprimante cardiace relativ minore, se recomandă la pacienţii
instabili hemodinamic
2. s-a observat că utilizarea repetată şi prelungită determină supresie
adrenocorticală, ba chiar o scădere a sintezei steroidiene după o
singură doză
3. ar trebui evitată folosirea sa la pacienţi cunoscuţi cu insuficienţă
adrenală
Ketamina
1. alegere pentru pacienţii instabili hemodinamic
2. menţine tonusul simpatic
3. evită o scădere bruscă a SVR
4. efect benefic prin supresia producţiei de citokine proinflamatorii (nu se
cunoaşte relevanţa clinică a acestui efect)
Propofolul
1. inhibă NOS
2. creşte nivelul de TNFa
3. depresie miocardică importantă
4. este de evitat
Succinilcolina
1. folosire controversată
2. mediatorii din MODS pot induce receptori extrajoncţionali
3. risc de hiperkaliemie (sepsis, arsură, traumă, insuficienţă renală etc.)
à riscul descărcărilor de K+ ale Lysthenonului este teoretic la pacienţii
cu sepsis intraabdominal prelungit ( Baxter F., Can. J. Anaesthesia, 1997 )
1. raport risc – beneficiu înainte de administrare
Menţinerea
Volatile à cu excepţia Enfluranului
Relaxanţii musculari:
1. Pancuronium - menţine activitatea simpatică
2. Atracurium şi Cisatracrium - nu necesită o funcţie hepatică sau
renală bună pentru metabolizare
3. Vecuronium şi Rocuronium -cei mai stabili din punct de vedere
cardiac
Opiozii:
1. Morfina
1. funcţie renală sau/şi hepatică adecvată pentru
metabolizare şi excreţie
2. predispune la instabilitate hemodinamică
3. prudenţă în utilizarea ei intraoperatorie
372
Postoperator
- chiar dacă funcţia respiratorie nu este afectată, se recomandă ventilaţia
mecanică dacă instabilitatea hemodinamică persistă sau necesită în
continuare suport inotrop
67.
Antibioterapia
Antibioticele
→ timp dependente - β lactamidele
- macrolidele
→ Cpl x 2-4 MIC → imunocompromisi ½ Δt
→ imunocompromisi Δt 100%
→ concentratie dependente
Gram negativi AUC/MIC90 >125
Cmax/MIC90 > 8-10
AUC = Cpl x t
Inanitia:
In cursul perioadelor de inannitie cand prin oprirea aportului alimentar apare
un dezechilibru intre necesar si aport, pentru o vreme balanta energetica este
mentinuta prin mobilizarea depozitelro tisulare. Sunt mobilizate depozitele
hepatice si musculare de glicogen, iar apoi ac grasi sin depozitele de
trigliceride ale adipocitelor – ac grasi sunt utilizati ca sursa alternativa de
energie pt celulele care pot oxida lipoide. Dupa epuizzarea depozitelro
celulare de glicogen (in 24-48 ore), daca inanitia ocntinua glucoza este
375
Inanitia simpla sau marasmica este rezultatil incetarii partiale sau totale a
aportului de energie. Organismul adapteaza la inanitie prin utilizare rezerve de
grasime si proteine si prin mecanisme care reduc consumul energetic si
conserva proteinele.
Inanitia prelungita (> 72 ore). Dupa 72 ore nivelul insulinei scade in continuare,
glicogenul este consumat si glucoza este obtinuta din gluconeogeneza.
Deoarece ac grasi nu pot fi convertiti la glucoza, gluconeogeneza desfasurata
in ficat si rinici depinde de continua aprovizionare cu aminoacizi precursori de
la muschi, cu glicerol de la tesutul adipos si de lactatul format in mm prin
glicoliza anaeroba. In cadrul gluconeogenezei din aa lantul de carbon
urmeaza calea gluconeogenetica si gruparea amino este convertita la uree si
excretata ducand la un bilant azotat negativ si o pierdere de pana la 75 g de
proteine (300 g muschi) zilnic. Acest proces este incetinit si proteinele sunt
conservate in doua feluri: prin micsorarea ratei metabolice cu 10-15 % si prin
reducerea cererii de glucoza cand creierul (care consuma 20% din totalul
enegetic) se adapteaza folosind cetone ca substrat energetic.
Accentuarea β oxidarii ac grasi pe durata inanitiei si diminuarea oxidarii
glucozei duce la cresterea productiei hepatice de corpi cetonici (acetona,
acetoacetat, βhidroxibutirat) care pot fi utilizati si ca sursa de energie de catre
SNC si mm. Aceasta adaptare a creierului (utilizare cetone in loc de glucoza)
duce la o reducere de 2/3 a catabolismului proteinelor musculare pentru
gluconeogeneza.
Pe masura ce sunt utilizate sursele endogene de energie se modifica
considerabil compozitia corpului: scade gerutatea corporala, masa de grasime
376
Consecintele malnutritie
- toate organele, cu exceptia creierului, prezinta o reducere a masei.
- Stresul accentueaza catabolismul muscular pentru eliberarea de aminoacizi
pentru gluconeogeneza si pentru sinteza de proteine vitale (anticorpi,
regenerarea plagilor). In cele din urma sunt catabolizate si proteinele din
viscere ceea ce conduce la reducerea capacitatii lor de a rezista la stres si
impiedica raspunsul imun si rezistenta la infectii.
- Slabiciunea musculaturii respiratorii si compromiterea imunitatii conduce la
aparitia complicatiilor infectioase respiratorii. Doar cu infometare
supravietuirea este posibila 2-3 luni, dar cand se asoc cu stres si alte afectiuni
supravietuirea este mult scurtata.
- scad stocurile de glicogen, ATP si creatinfosfat musculare.
- Scaderea fosforului, Mg, Ca si a K antreneaya diminuarea contractilitatii si
fortei musculare. Metabolismul este diminuat (scade consumul de O2 si
productia de CO2), hipercatabolismul agravand aceasta stare.
- deficitul de vit (B1, B12..), Ca, fosfat duce la afectarea functiei cerebrale.
- Pierderea de masa miocardica, proportionala cu pierderea in gerutate, duce
la ↓ DC, bradicardie , hTA. Deficitul de B12 produce insuf cardiaca, iar tulb
electrolitice aritmii.
Activitatea centrilor resp este deprimata , dimnueaza sinteza de surfactant,
deficitul de Cu, Fe, Se, Zn, vit C si Educ la alterarea sist antioxidant pulmonar
si la ↓ activitatii antiproteazelor
- afectarea ventilatiei prin ↓ masei diafragmului si ↓ tonusului mm respiratori
- atrofia cel intestinale, ↓ absorbtia lipidelor, a dizaharidelor si a glucozei, ↓
secretia gastrica si pancreatica
- afectarea functiei de bariera a tubului digestiv
- aparitia hipotermiei
- alterare functie imuna mediata celular (↓ limfocite, ↓ proliferarea limfocitelor
T) si umorala (↓ IgA, ↓ complement seric0, atrofie timus
- intarzie cicatricizare plagi
Teste antropometrice
1. Pierderea de greutate in ultimile 6 luni si
- 5 % din greutate în 30 zile şi a 10% în 6 luni
- pierderea de greutate 15% to 20% - malnutritie calorica moderata, > 20%
malnutritie calorica severa.
Teste imunologice
1. Teste cutanate de reactivitate intarziata - antigene oreion, streptokinase-
streptodornase, Candida, si Trichophyton – arata alterarea raspunsului imun
2. Limfocite < 1000/mmm3 (1200-2000 = depletie nutritionala moderata, < 800
= deficit nutritional sever)
3. Sensibilitatea la dinitroclorbenzen
4. Raspunsul limfoblastic
379
Teste laborator
1. Albumina serica (42± 2 g/l) – predictor bun al riscului chirurgical, reflecta
severitatea bolii si nu malnutritia
- Δt1/2 = 18 zile
- ↓ prot plasmatice cu 1 g = pierdere 300 g proteine tisulare
2. Prealbumina (310±35 mg/dl)
- Δt1/2 = 2 zile
3. Transferina (2.8±0.3g/dl), capacitatea totala de legare a Fe
- trasnferina Δt1/2 = 7 zile
4. Proteina ce leaga retinol (protein binding retinol) (62±7 mg/dl
5. Creatinina
- creatinina serica - reflecta functia renala, dar si masa musculara
- indexul creatinina–greutate = creatinina excreatata pe 24 ore/excretia
asteptata in functie de sex si greutate – predictor sensibil al LBM cand functia
renala este normala (dieta, trauma, infectia, varsta, exercitiile fizice, stresul
afecteaza excretia de creatinina)
- index creatinina serica/inaltime = 100x creatinina urinara/talie – estimeaza
masa musculara
- excretia de creatinina – predictor bun al LBM
6. Bilantul azotat
- aport azot – eliminari urinare de azot
- uree urinara = 4/5 azot aliminat
7. HLG cu formula leucocitara si frotiu sg periferic
8. Glicemia
9. Electroliti – Na , K, Mg, Ca , Cl, fosfat, bicarbonat
10. Conc. proteine totale
11. Uree sg
12. Trigliceride, colesterol, ac grasi
13. Fibronectina
14. Oligoelemente
Corpii cetonici:
- acetona
- acetoacetat
- β hidroxibutirat
380
1. Estimare simpla
35kcal/kg/zi
sau
1 kcal/kg/h cu ajustare: pentru femei se scad 5-10%, se adauga coef fct
activitate si stres
2. Calorimetria directa
3. Calorimetrie indirecta - masurare VO2 si VCO2, pierderi urinare N2
- se refera la consumul de O2 in conditii metabolice bazale de repaus fizic si
psihic complete, pe nemancate la o To apropiata de confortul termic
1 l O2 consumat = 4.8 Kcal = echivalentul energetic al O2
DER = (3,94 x VO2 + 1.11 x VCO2) x 1.44
Lipide
- 25% din greutatea corporala, 40% din necesarul energetic zilnic
381
Proteine
- 1 g proteine = 4.3 kcal
- 1 g muschi (75% apa) = 1 kcal
- necesar zilnic 1,2-1,5 g/kg/zi.
- 1 g N2 = 6.25 g proteine
- aa esentiali: valina, leucina, izoleucina, lizina, fenilalanina, treonina, triptofan
- aa conditionat esentiali: metionina, arginina, histidina
- aa neesentiali: glicina, alanina, serina, cisteina, aspartat, glutamat,
hidrolizina, cistina, tirozina, prolina, hidroxiprolina
- aa cu lanturi ramificate: valina, izoleucina, leucina (BCAA)
- cheltuiala endogena de N = 40-50 mg/kg/zi (2 mg/kcal) reprezentata de
transaminari si formarea de uree, creatinina si ac uric
- enteral se adm produse ce contin aa sau polipeptide mici care sa nu
necesite digestie laborioasa
- reducerea proteinelor la uree>100 mg per dL sau cand cresterea uremiei
determina encefalopatie.
Glutamina
- cea mai mare cantitate produssain mm scheletici si tes gras
- poate fi transformata in glucoza, sursa de glucide ce nu necesita insulina
- principala sursa energetica pt limfocite si macrofage,
- sursa de energie pt rinichi si epiteliul intestinal
- precursor de glutation
- importanta pt recupararea postoperatorie – promoveaza anabolismul,
- impiedica ef catabolizant al glucocorticoizilor
- la pac critic devine aa conditionat esential – creste preluarea sa de catre
rinichi, cel imune si mucoasa intestinala
Arginina
- ↓ incidenta imbolnavirilor
- stim secretia de GH si somatomedina (impreuna cu ornitina)
- modulator al sistemului imun
- grabeste procesul de refacere
- induce eliberarea de somatotropina (GH) si prolactina din hipofiza
- ↑ elib de insulina din pancreas, glucagon somatostatina, polipeptid
pancreatic si catecolamine
- potenteaza producerea de IGF1
383
Cisteina
- poate fi produs din metionina si serina
- din el se produce taurina, precursor de glutation
- NACC – ef antioxidant
Cistina – antioxidant
Taurina
- sintetizata de metionina si cisteina
- rol in metabolism + crestere musculara
- sustine ef glutamina
- ef similar insulina: ↓ nivelul glicemiei si stimulind utilizarea sa in celule, stiim
anabolism proteic
Fenilalanina – se sint NA
BCAA
- esentiali
- pot fi utilizati de mm ca sursa de energie
- pot sa stim direct sinteza de proteine
- cresc secretia de Gh si pot oprii catabolismul proteic
Bilant azot
- rezuma metabolismul proteic global
= diferenta dintre aport si eliminari de N
MICRONUTRIENTI SI LICHIDE
Secretie Na K Cl
Saliva 44 20
Gastrica 70-120 10 100
Intestin subtire 110-120 5-10 105
Bila 140 5 100
Pancreas 140 5 75
Diaree 56 21 55
385
Bilant hidroelectrolitic
- intrari: aport hidric + apa endogena
- iesiri: 17 ml/kg (12 ml/kg pierderi insensibile + 2 ml/kg scau) + diureza
Necesar
- 25-35 mL de lichide/kg/zi
- suplimetari 500-700 ml pt fiec grad temp peste N
- 1.5 mEq Na/zi
- 0.7 mEq K/zi
Vitamine liposolubile
1.Vit A – β carotenul (provitamina A) este transf in vit A in ficat
- participa la sinteza Ig
- stim sist imun
- protejeaza mcoasele
- necesar 3000-5000U/zi
2. Vit C = ac ascorbic
- ef antioxidant
- stim sist imun (cresterea LTso LB)
- activeaza sisteme enzimatice ,
- accelereaza vindecarea plagilor, regenerarea tesuturilor
- faciliteaza absorbtia Fe
- stim maturare eritrocite
- necesar 0.3-2 g/zi
3. Vit D
- asig echilibru fosfo-calcic
- necesar 200-400 u/zi
4. Vit E
- protejeaza vit A si ac grasi nesaturati de oxidare prevenind ateroscleroza
- antioxidant
- protejeaza miocardul post infarct, accelereaza vindecare plagilor
- armonizeaza sist imun
- necesar 50-600 u/zi
Vitamine hidrosolubile
1. Vit B1 = tiamina
- rol in metab glucidic
- absolut necesara pt functionarea mm si SNC
- deficit: disfct cardiaca, encefalopatie metabolica, ac lactica, neuropatie
periferica
- necesar 2-5 mg/zi
2. Vit B2 = riboflavina
- fixeaza Fe in hem
- rol in sinteza proteinelor si in catabolismul lipidic si glucidic
- necesar = 2 – 55 mg/zi
386
Minerale
Fe
- sinteza hemului din hemoglobina si mioglobina si a citocromilor
- stim imunitatea, ajuta regenerarea epidermului
necesar 2,5-10 mg/zi
Ca
- functionare ap CV
- Ca det absorbtia Fe, rol in trasnmitere impulsuri nervoase si in contractia
musculara
- necesar = 800-1200 mg
Mg
- SNC + mm
- rol in metab glucidic, lipidic, proteine, ac nucleici, vitamine
- necesar 0.05 – 0.1 g
Zn
- controleaza act metabolice, activitate enzime
- mentine integritate celulara
- sint proteine si ac nucleici
- accelereaza vindecare plagi, metinere echil acido bazic, sinteza insulina
387
- necesar = 15 mg/zi
Cr, vanadiu
- metab lipidic, proteine, glucide
- necesar 15-20 µg/kg
Cobalt – eritropoeza
Cu – inglobare Fe in Hem, necesar 0.5-2 mg/zi
I – fct gl tiroida, necesar = 0.15 mg
Mn – activitate enzime gastrice , necesar 0.1-5 mg/zi
Mo – metab glucidic si lipidic, elim toxine, necesar 10-150 µg/zi
Se – antioxidant, fct secretorie pancreas, necesar 0.07-0.2 mg/zi
P – constituent compusi energetici (ATP, CP), sisteme tampon, oase, necesar
0.8-1.5 mg/zi
Fibrele dietetice
→ polizaharide: celuloza, hemiceluloza A si B (solubile)
→ lignina (insolubila)
→ oligozaharide: inulina, fructooligozaharide = FOS, glucooligozaharide =
GOS (solubile)
Probiotice
= suplimente alimentare cu microorganisme active metabolic care
influenteaza benefic organismul gazda prin imbunatatirea echilibrului
microbian intestinal
- flora benefica: bifidobacterii, lactobacterii, E coli Nissle, Saccharomyces
- adera la suprafata luminala a epit intestinal scazand supraf de atasare pt
bacterii patogene
- sint subst antimicrobiene, stim cresterea cel epiteliale, stim secretia de IgA,
fagocitoza si producerea de mucus
Prebioticele = fibre ingerate si proteine complexe, cel mucoase, mucus,
secretii gastro-intestinale, bacterii, fermenti metabolizati de bacterii care sustin
flora probiotica. Bifidofibrele = carbohidrati greu digerabili care stimuleaza
cresterea bifidobact si lactobacililor. Glutamina prebiotic la limita- stim dezv
epiteliului intestinal si favorizeaza absorbti nutrientilor.
Sinbioticele = amestecuri probiotice si prebiotice care influenteaza benefic
organismul prin implamtarea microorgaismelor in tubul digestiv.
Carnitina
= βhidroxi- γ-trimetilaminobutirat
- se gaseste in mitocondrii, 95% in miocard si mm
- sintetizata hepatic si renal din lizina si metionina
- depozitata in tes muscular
- rol in metabolismul energetic – transport ac grasi cu lant lung (>8 at C) prin
mb mitocondriala interna pt a fi metabolizati
- stabilizare mb celulare
- faciliteaza metabolismul aerob al carbohidratilor
Antioxidanti
Vit A – βcaroten
Vit E
Seleniu
Glutation
Zinc
NACC
Taurina
Acid α lipoic (AAL)
RUTE DE ALIMENTATIE
NUTRITIA ENTERALA
= aportul nutritional complet la nivel enteral pe sonda nazo-enterala sau
stoma si/sau completarea ratiei alimentare pentru sustinerea nevoilor
metabolice crescute.
Contraindicatii:
- afectiuni digestive cu varsaturi incoercibile
- obstructii gastrointestinale
- hemoragii gastrointestinale masive
- intestin nefunctional
- relativ: sd diareic, sd malabsorbtie, sepsisul inttraabdominal, pancreatita
severa complicata, fistulele enterocutanate cu debit mare
Avantaje:
- este calea fiziologica de adm a alimentelor
389
- nutrientii adm enteral ajung intii la ficat unde sunt metabolizati corespunzator
si apoi circula catre tesuturi
- reduce infectile
- prezerva integritatea intestinului ca bariera si ca functie imuna.
- mentine profil hormonal normal
- cost scazut
- mentine structura si functia mucoasei enterale
- ↓ translocatia bacteriana
- reduce atrofia vilozitatilor intestinale
- impiedica aparitia ulcerului de stres
- evita riscurile canularii venoase, nu necesita sterilizare
Cai de administrare:
- sonda nazogastrica
- sonda nazoduodenala
- sonda nazojejunala
- gastrostoma chirurgicala
- gastrostoma endoscopica percutana (PEG)
- jejunostoma
- esofaostoma
Este de preferat. Se initiaza cst se poate de repede dupa resuscitarea
pacientului (pacient stabil hemodinamic).
1. aspiratul gastric trebuie verificat orar – volum > 150ml determina
modificarea ratei de infuzie, suplimentarea alimentatiei enterale sau
nutritie intestinala.
2. Atonia gastrica sau ileus colonic – agenti promotilitate ca eritromicina,
metoclopramid
3. Nutritia dinolo de pilor nu necesita prezenta sunetelor intestinale, pasaj
de gaze
4. Diareee sau distensia addominala determina reevaluare
5. se poate adm
- continuu – dupa testare toleranta si cu infizomat 24 ore
cu minim 2 pauze de 30 min (4-6 pauze cu masurare aspirat gastric - <
150 ml/zi.). Avantaje: toleranta digestiva buna, risc ↓ diaree, absorbtia mai
buna. Dezav: mai dificil de realizat controlul glicemiei la diabetici, cost ↑
- bolusuri – 4 bolusuri la interval de 5-6 ore (max 300 ml
la adult). Cerificare aspirat gastric zilnic (<150 ml/zi). Avantaje: ieftin, se
paote contiinua schema de insulino-terapie la diabetici. Dezav: risc mai ↑
de diare, varsaturi, constipatie, se poate folosii doar pe cale gastrica
- intermitenta – 16 ore/zi continuu cu pauza 8 ore
(nocturna)
Dezav: toleranta redusa datorita osmolaritatii mari, necesita adm continua
Complicatii:
- pneumotorax,
- malpozitie,
- aspiratie,
- greata, voma,
- perturbari motilice gastreointestinale,
- diaree (>4 scaune moi/zi), sd malbsorbtie
- deshidratare,
- anormalitatii elictrolitice,
390
- infectii
- leziuni de decubit ale sondei
- hiperglicemie prin controlul prost al ratei de adm
NUTRITIE PARENTERALA
Indicata la toti pacientii care necesita suport nutritional iar tractul digestiv nu
este disponibil sau trebuie pus in repaus.
Creste riscul de complicatii infectioase. Formule de nutritie nu sunt la fel de
complete ca pentru nutritia enterala.
Contraindicatii:
- lipsa unui abord venos adecvat
- restrictiile lichidiene severe
- intoleranta severa la glucoza
- insuficienta hepatica severa
Avantaje:
- control precis asupra cantitatii de nutrieti adm
- utilizarea formulelor cu osmolaritate ridicata
- toata cant adm ajunge la celule
- scurteaza intervalul in care se incepe suportul nutritional
- asigura suport nutritional complet
- evita aspiratia, diareea
Dezav:
- abord venos central pt sol cu osm ridicata
- scumpe
- adm nutrientilor se face nefiziologic cu suntarea tubului digestiv, metab
hepatic si intestinal
- favorizeaza atrofia muc intestinale
- risc crescut de infectii
- risc de complic metabolice
Complicatii:
- pneumotorax,
- malpozitie de cateter,
- infectii,
- intoleranta la substrat
- tulburari hidroelectrolitice
- tromboza vena centrala.
IMUNONUTRITIA
= nutrienti nu doar pt nutritie dar si pt scopuri farmacoterapeutice
= sustine si potenteaza functia imuna la pacientul critic
Arginina
- aa esential
- ef timotrofic, ef benefice in trauma, sepsis, cancer
- stim proliferarea limfocitelor T
- aminoacid care participa la sinteza de oxid nitric, sinteza ureii, proliferare
limfocite, imbunatateste imunitatea celulara si ↑ vindecare plagi
Glutamina
- 61% din masa musculara
- solutiile de aminoacizi nu contin glutamina deoarece este instabil.a in solutii
apoase
391
Ac eicosapentaenoic = EPA
- inhiba agregarea plachetara , ↓ reactivitatea vasculara
- ↓ prod de TxB2 si prostanoizi
Ac dihomo γ linoleic = DHLA
- produce TxA1 cu ef proagregant slab
MOINTORIZARE NUTRITIE
- zilnic: greutate, bilant lichide, glicemie (initial la 4 ore), uree, creatinina,
electroliti
- saptamanal: albumina serica, teste hepatice, coagulare, colesterol si TG
- examinare loc insertie cateter pt nutritie parenterala + toaleta zilnica
392
NUTRITIA IN B HEPATICE
- hipoglicemie + pattern anormal al aa serici
- proteine 0.5 g/kg/zi
- suplimentare cu BCAA (leucina, valina, izoleucina – nu necesita metab
hepatica) pt a ↓ riscul aparitiei encefalopatiei
- cant ↓ de aa aromatici, metionina
- marire aport caloric la cirotici
NUTRITIA IN B RENALE
- pac cu IRA este frecv catabolic, malnutritia fiind frecv intalnita
- se adm 1-1,2 g proteine/kg G ideala
NUTRTIA POSTOPERATORIE
NUTRITIA IN B RESPIRATORII
393
70.
Tehnici
folosite
in
medicina
de
urgenta
(mijloace
de
transport
medicalizat
al
unui
bolnav
critic,
evaluarea
primara
a
unui
bolnavcritic
in
afara
spitalului,
analgezia
si
sedarea
bolnavilor
critici
pe
parcursul
unui
transport
medicalizat,
tehnici
de
abord
al
cailor
aeriene
si
de
ventilatie
artificiala
71.
Evaluarea
primara
si
resuscitarea
unui
politraumatism
(in
afara
spitsului
si
la
sosirea
in
spital)
Introduction
The
initial
evaluation
of
a
person
who
is
injured
critically
from
multiple
traumas
is
a
challenging
task,
and
every
minute
can
make
the
difference
between
life
and
death.
Over
the
past
50
years,
assessment
of
trauma
patients
has
evolved
because
of
an
improved
understanding
of
the
distribution
of
mortality
and
the
mechanisms
that
contribute
to
morbidity
and
mortality
in
trauma.
Mortality
can
be
grouped
into
immediate,
early,
and
late
deaths.
Immediate
deaths
are
caused
by
a
fatal
disruption
of
the
great
vessels,
heart,
and
lungs
or
a
major
disruption
of
body
cavities.1
Immediate
mortality
occurs
at
the
scene
of
injury
(see
Media
file
1).
Early
deaths
may
occur
anytime
from
minutes
to
hours
after
the
injury.
These
patients
frequently
arrive
at
a
hospital
prior
to
death,
which
usually
occurs
because
of
a
cardiovascular
and/or
pulmonary
collapse.
Late
trauma
mortality
peaks
from
days
to
weeks
after
the
injury
and
is
primarily
due
to
sepsis
and
multiple
organ
failure.
Organized
systems
for
trauma
care
are
focused
on
the
salvage
of
a
patient
from
early
trauma
mortality,
while
critical
care
is
designed
to
avert
late
trauma
mortality.2
Early
trauma
deaths
result
from
failed
oxygenation
of
the
vital
organs,
massive
central
nervous
system
injury,
or
both.
The
mechanisms
of
failed
tissue
oxygenation
394
Surgeons'
recognition
of
these
patterns
led
to
the
development
of
the
advanced
trauma
life
support
(ATLS)
approach
by
the
AmericanCollege
of
Surgeons.3,4
ATLS
is
the
standard
of
care
for
trauma
patients,
and
it
is
built
around
a
standardized
protocol
for
patient
evaluation.
This
protocol
ensures
that
the
most
immediate
life-‐
threatening
conditions
are
actively
identified
and
addressed
in
the
order
of
their
risk
potential.
The
objectives
of
the
initial
evaluation
of
the
trauma
patient
are
as
follows:
(1)
to
stabilize
the
trauma
patient,
(2)
to
identify
life-‐threatening
injuries
and
to
initiate
adequate
supportive
therapy,
and
(3)
to
efficiently
and
rapidly
organize
either
definitive
therapy
or
transfer
to
a
facility
that
provides
definitive
therapy.
For
excellent
patient
education
resources,
visit
eMedicine's
Skin,
Hair,
and
Nails
Center.
Also,
see
eMedicine's
patient
education
article
Bruises.
When
performing
a
triage
with
patients
having
different
types
of
injuries,
the
priorities
of
the
primary
survey
(see
Initial
Assessment)
help
to
determine
precedence
(eg,
a
patient
with
an
obstructed
airway
receives
greater
priority
for
initial
attention
than
a
relatively
stable
patient
with
a
traumatic
amputation).
In
trauma
centers,
a
team
of
providers
evaluates
patients
who
are
critically
injured
and
simultaneously
performs
diagnostic
procedures
(see
Media
file
2).
This
parallel
processing
approach
can
dramatically
reduce
the
time
required
to
assess
and
stabilize
a
patient
with
multiple
injuries.6
The
team
approach
to
trauma
is
resource
intensive;
however,
the
available
personnel
and
resources
can
become
overwhelmed
quickly
in
nonhospital
settings,
in
smaller
institutions,
and
in
mass
casualty
situations.
Under
these
conditions,
additional
factors
affect
the
triage
process,
including
the
number
and
skill
levels
of
available
providers,
the
available
equipment,
and
the
provider's
estimate
of
the
clinical
probability
of
each
patient's
survival.
The
triage
objective
becomes
how
to
maximize
the
number
of
patients
who
are
salvaged
under
the
prevailing
conditions.
This
process
can
result
in
bypassing
seriously
injured
patients
until
less
critical
395
patients
have
been
stabilized.
Triage
under
conditions
of
limited
resources
is
difficult.7
Regardless
of
the
clinical
setting,
the
care
team
should
be
organized
prior
to
patient
arrival.
Leadership
and
unity
of
command
are
essential
for
directing
a
rapid
and
efficient
workup.
In
larger
institutions
with
dedicated
trauma
services,
general
surgeons
form
the
core
of
the
trauma
team
in
close
cooperation
with
the
emergency
department
staff.
A
physician
from
either
service
who
is
experienced
in
the
care
of
trauma
patients
serves
as
the
team
leader
and
directs
evaluation
and
resuscitation.
Additional
physicians
or
midlevel
providers
are
responsible
for
managing
the
airway,
conducting
the
primary
and
secondary
surveys,
and
performing
other
procedures
as
needed.
Nurses
and
technicians
monitor
vital
signs,
gain
intravenous
(IV)
access,
and
obtain
blood
samples.
Respiratory
therapists
and
radiology
technologists
also
should
be
present.
As
consultants,
neurosurgeons
and
orthopedic
surgeons
must
be
available
immediately
to
the
trauma
team.
Early
consultation
with
a
neurosurgeon
is
mandatory
when
significant
central
nervous
system
injury
is
present.
Specific
procedures
performed
by
both
neurosurgeons
and
orthopedists
can
be
lifesaving.
Initial
Assessment
The
initial
evaluation
follows
a
protocol
of
primary
survey,
resuscitation,
secondary
survey,
and
either
definitive
treatment
or
transfer
to
an
appropriate
trauma
center
for
definitive
care.
This
approach
is
the
heart
of
the
ATLS
system,
which
is
designed
to
identify
life-‐threatening
injuries
and
to
initiate
stabilizing
treatment
in
a
rapidly
efficient
manner.
Absolute
diagnostic
certainty
is
not
required
to
treat
critical
clinical
conditions
identified
early
in
the
process.
When
resources
are
limited
(eg,
one
clinician),
do
not
perform
subsequent
steps
in
the
primary
survey
until
after
addressing
life-‐threatening
conditions
in
the
earlier
steps.
Primary survey
The
steps
of
the
primary
survey
are
encapsulated
by
the
mnemonic
ABCDE
(airway,
breathing,
circulation/hemorrhage,
disability,
and
exposure/environment).
The
airway
is
the
first
priority.
Assess
it
by
determining
the
ability
of
air
to
pass
unobstructed
into
the
lungs.
Critical
findings
include
obstruction
of
the
airway
due
to
direct
injury,
edema,
or
foreign
bodies
and
the
inability
to
protect
the
airway
because
of
a
depressed
level
of
consciousness
(see
Media
file
3).
Treatment
simply
may
be
secretion
control
with
suctioning
or
may
require
endotracheal
intubation
or
placement
of
a
surgical
airway
(eg,
cricothyroidotomy,
emergent
tracheostomy).8
Next,
evaluate
the
breathing
to
determine
patient
ability
to
ventilate
and
oxygenate.
Critical
findings
include
the
absence
of
spontaneous
ventilation,
absent
or
asymmetric
breath
sounds
(consistent
with
either
pneumothorax
or
endotracheal
tube
malposition),
dyspnea,
hyperresonance
or
dullness
to
chest
percussion
(suggesting
tension
pneumothorax
or
hemothorax),
and
gross
chest
wall
instability
396
or
defects
that
compromise
ventilation
(eg,
flail
chest,
sucking
chest
wound).
Treat
pneumothorax,
hemothorax,
tension
pneumothorax,
and
sucking
chest
wounds
with
a
tube
thoracostomy.
Initial
treatment
for
a
flail
chest
is
mechanical
ventilation,
which
frequently
is
required
for
other
injuries.
Determine
the
disability
of
the
patient
by
performing
gross
mental
status
and
motor
examinations.
Determine
whether
a
serious
head
or
spinal
cord
injury
exists.
Assess
the
gross
mental
status
using
the
Glasgow
Coma
Scale.
Examine
the
pupils
for
size,
symmetry,
and
reactiveness
to
light.
Obtain
an
early
assessment
of
spinal
cord
injury
by
observing
spontaneous
movement
of
the
extremities
and
spontaneous
respiratory
effort.
Pupillary
asymmetry
or
dilation,
impaired
or
absent
light
reflexes,
and
hemiplegia
or
weakness
suggest
impending
herniation
of
the
cerebrum
through
the
tentorial
incisura
due
to
an
expanding
intracranial
mass
or
diffuse
cerebral
edema.10
These
findings
indicate
the
need
for
emergency
treatment
of
intracranial
hypertension,
including
administration
of
IV
mannitol,
hypertonic
saline,
sedatives,
and
paralytics,
after
the
establishment
of
a
definitive
airway.
Urgent
neurosurgical
consultation
is
mandatory.
In
the
absence
of
a
depressed
level
of
consciousness,
paraplegia
or
quadriplegia
indicates
spinal
cord
injury.
Possibility
of
a
spinal
cord
injury
requires
full
spinal
precautions
and
administration
of
IV
corticosteroids,
if
within
8
hours
of
injury.11,12
In
some
circles,
this
standard
is
controversial.13
If
inspiratory
efforts
are
weak
or
when
a
high
cervical
cord
lesion
is
suspected,
perform
an
endotracheal
intubation.
The
final
step
in
the
primary
survey
includes
patient
exposure
and
control
of
the
immediate
environment.
Completely
remove
patient
clothes
for
a
thorough
physical
examination.
Simultaneously,
initiate
treatment
to
prevent
hypothermia,
a
condition
that
is
frequently
iatrogenic
in
the
exposed
patient
in
an
air-‐conditioned
emergency
department.
Treat
prophylactically
with
the
administration
of
warmed
IV
fluids,
blankets,
heat
lamps,
and
warmed
air-‐circulating
blankets
as
needed.
Other procedures
Perform
several
monitoring
and
diagnostic
adjuncts
in
concert
with
the
primary
survey.
Place
ECG
and
ventilatory
monitoring
leads,
and
start
continuous
pulse
oximetry
as
soon
as
possible.
Monitors
provide
data
that
are
critical
to
guiding
resuscitation.
Once
the
airway
is
secured,
perform
a
gastric
intubation
to
397
decompress
the
stomach
and
to
lessen
the
likelihood
of
aspiration
of
gastric
contents.
During
the
resuscitation
phase,
insert
a
Foley
catheter
to
facilitate
measuring
the
response
to
fluid
resuscitation.
Placement
of
a
Foley
catheter
is
contraindicated
if
urethral
injury
is
evident.
Signs
of
urethral
injury
include
blood
at
the
meatus,
ecchymosis
in
the
scrotum
or
labium
majora,
or
a
high-‐riding
prostate,
which
can
be
identified
during
a
rectal
examination.
Any
of
these
findings
mandate
a
retrograde
urethrogram
to
exclude
urethral
injury
prior
to
bladder
catheterization.
During
the
primary
survey,
when
making
diagnoses
and
performing
interventions,
continue
until
the
patient
condition
is
stabilized,
the
diagnostic
workup
is
complete,
and
resuscitative
procedures
and
surgeries
are
complete.
This
ongoing
effort
involves
monitoring
patient
vital
signs,
protecting
the
airway
with
assisted
ventilation
and
oxygenation
as
required,
and
providing
resuscitation
with
IV
fluids
and
blood
products.
Patients
with
multiple
trauma
may
require
several
liters
of
crystalloid
over
the
first
24
hours
to
sustain
intravascular
volume,
tissue
and
vital
organ
perfusion,
and
urine
output.
Administer
blood
for
hypovolemia,
which
is
unresponsive
to
crystalloid
bolus.
If
ongoing
blood
loss
is
not
controlled
by
direct
pressure
and
transfusion
with
blood
or
blood
products,
surgery
is
required
to
attain
hemostasis.
The
endpoints
of
resuscitation
are
normal
vital
signs,
absence
of
blood
loss,
adequate
urine
output
(0.5-‐1
cc/kg/h),
and
no
evidence
of
end-‐organ
dysfunction.
Parameters,
such
as
blood
lactate
levels
and
base
deficit
on
an
arterial
blood
gas,
may
be
helpful
with
patients
who
are
severely
injured.14
Secondary survey
Formally
begin
this
survey
after
completing
the
primary
survey
and
after
starting
the
resuscitation
phase.
At
this
time,
identify
all
injuries
by
conducting
a
thorough
head-‐
to-‐toe
examination.
Review
the
patient's
vital
signs,
and
perform
a
quick
repeat
of
the
primary
survey
to
assess
patient
response
to
the
resuscitation
effort
and
to
identify
any
deterioration.
Then,
review
the
patient's
history,
including
reports
from
prehospital
personnel
and
from
family
members
or
other
victims.
If
the
patient
is
awake,
collect
critical
data,
including
preexisting
medical
problems,
current
medications
and
allergies,
tetanus
immunization
status,
time
of
last
meal,
and
events
surrounding
the
injury.
These
data
assist
with
focusing
the
secondary
survey
by
identifying
the
mechanism
of
injury,
the
likelihood
of
cold
or
heat
injury,
and
the
patient's
general
physiologic
status.
398
The dictum "fingers or tubes in every orifice" guides this examination.
Examine
each
region
of
the
body
for
signs
of
injury,
bony
instability,
and
tenderness
to
palpation.
Evaluate
the
head
and
face
for
maxillofacial
fractures
(see
Media
file
4),
ocular
injury,
and
an
open
or
closed
head
injury,
including
a
basilar
skull
fracture.
Perform
a
detailed
cranial
nerve
examination
as
part
of
a
thorough
neurologic
evaluation.
Inspect
the
neck
anteriorly
for
evidence
of
airway
or
great
vessel
injury,
and
palpate
posteriorly
for
bony
abnormality
or
tenderness
suggestive
of
cervical
spine
injury.
In
patients
with
blunt
trauma
and
patients
with
an
unknown
mechanism
of
injury
(eg,
"found
down"),
observe
full
spine
precautions
until
injury
to
the
spinal
column
is
excluded.
Chest examination
Palpate
the
chest
wall
for
tenderness,
instability,
or
crepitation,
followed
by
auscultation
of
the
lungs
and
heart.
In
the
patient
with
penetrating
trauma,
perform
a
thorough
search
for
additional
entry
or
exit
wounds,
including
examining
the
axillae
and
back.
Assess
chest
tubes
for
output
and
air
leaks,
and
use
the
portable
chest
x-‐ray
to
evaluate
for
bony
abnormalities,
persistent
pneumothorax,
evidence
of
mediastinal
injury,
and
placement
of
tubes
and
lines.
Inspect
the
abdomen
for
distension
or
other
evidence
suggesting
gross
intra-‐
abdominal
bleeding
or
injury.
Palpate
the
iliac
crests
once
for
instability
to
detect
significant
pelvic
fractures.
Use
a
portable
anteroposterior
(AP)
radiograph
to
aid
in
detecting
these
fractures.
If
a
fracture
is
diagnosed,
avoid
additional
manipulation
of
the
pelvis
to
prevent
exacerbation
of
pelvic
bleeding,
which
is
notoriously
difficult
to
control.15,16
399
Inspect
for
evidence
of
bleeding
(ecchymosis)
on
the
perineum,
gross
blood
on
the
vaginal
and
rectal
examinations,
and
urethral
injury,
followed
by
placement
of
a
Foley
catheter.
In patients with a suspected spinal cord injury, record the anal sphincter motor tone.
Extremity evaluation
In
this
evaluation,
identify
long
bone
fractures
that
require
stabilization,
may
cause
vascular
compromise,
and
show
evidence
of
a
major
nerve
injury.
Perform plain x-‐ray films to identify deformity, tenderness, or instability.
Conduct
temporary
splint
stabilization
prior
to
moving
the
patient
from
the
emergency
department.
Immediately
act
on
any
evidence
of
vascular
compromise,
since
ischemic
injury
to
an
extremity
can
become
irreversible
in
hours.
Neurologic examination
The
elements
of
the
neurologic
examination
frequently
are
completed
during
the
regional
portions
of
the
secondary
survey;
however,
include
a
formal
assessment
of
the
spine
to
complete
the
neurologic
assessment.
Log roll the patient with an inline stabilization of the head and neck.
Inspect
the
entire
spine
from
the
occiput
to
the
sacrum
for
bony
abnormalities,
deformities,
and
tenderness.
At
the
same
time,
perform
a
detailed
survey
of
the
back
to
identify
penetrating
injuries,
ecchymoses,
or
other
injuries.
Back
injuries
frequently
are
missed.
Vital signs
An
abundance
of
standard
vital
sign
data
guides
the
evaluation
of
the
injured
patient.
The
Committee
on
Trauma
for
the
American
College
of
Surgeons
has
long
published
categories
of
shock
that
allow
the
clinician
to
predict
the
likelihood
of
significant
blood
loss
and
to
anticipate
the
type
and
amount
of
fluid
requirements.3
The
shock
classification,
as
shown
in
the
Table
below,
allows
the
clinician
to
characterize
the
patient's
response
to
injury,
as
blood
loss
associated
with
injury
progresses,
mental
status
deteriorates,
heart
rate
increases,
blood
pressure
falls,
and
oliguria
is
apparent.3
The
patient
with
persistent
vital
sign
evaluation
suggesting
hypotension
is
at
significant
risk
for
loss
of
30-‐40%
of
blood
volume
on
presentation.
400
Table.
Estimated
Fluid
and
Blood
Losses
Based
on
Patient's
Initial
Presentation3
Class
I
Class
II
Class
III
Class
IV
Blood
Loss
(mL)
Up
to
750
750-‐1500
1500-‐2000
>2000
Blood
Loss
(%
blood
Up
to
15%
15-‐30%
30-‐40%
>40%
volume)
Pulse
Rate
<100
>100
>120
>140
Blood
Pressure
Normal
Normal
Decreased
Decreased
Pulse
Pressure
(mm
Normal
or
Decreased
Decreased
Decreased
Hg)
increased
Respiratory
Rate
14-‐20
20-‐30
30-‐40
>35
Urine
Output
(mL/h)
>30
20-‐30
5-‐15
Negligible
Slightly
anxious
Mildly
Anxious,
Confused,
CNS/Mental
Status
anxious
confused
lethargic
Fluid
Replacement
Crystalloid
Crystalloid
Crystalloid
and
Crystalloid
and
(3:1
rule)
blood
blood
Intriguing,
early
preclinical
work
suggests
that
more
sophisticated
evaluation
of
vital
signs
may
allow
prediction
of
patient
decompensation
before
changes
in
traditional
vital
sign
patterns,
as
described
above.
Multiple
groups
report
that
reduction
in
heart
rate
variability
measured
during
the
initial
hours
in
the
hospital
reflects
deterioration
of
autonomic
nervous
system
function
and
loss
of
physiologic
reserve.17,18,19,20,21
In
initial
clinical
data,
loss
of
heart
rate
variability
outperforms
other
factors
predicting
mortality,
such
as
age,
injury
severity,
transfusion
requirements,
and
severe
traumatic
brain
injury.
Because
the
predictive
effect
of
low
heart
rate
variability
remains
incompletely
characterized
and
most
teams
lack
the
sophistication
to
make
heart
variability
measurements,
investigational
characterization
of
this
autonomic
dysfunction
in
the
face
of
injury
continues.
Anteroposterior radiographs
The
AP
chest
radiograph
is
the
most
common
imaging
study
performed
on
trauma
patients
(see
Media
file
5).
It
can
be
easily
obtained
during
the
resuscitation
phase,
401
and
it
provides
information
on
the
presence
of
a
hemothorax,
pneumothorax,
or
pulmonary
contusion.
The
AP
chest
radiograph
also
aids
in
the
placement
of
chest
and
endotracheal
tubes,
which
are
critical
to
the
resuscitation
effort
and
the
primary
survey.
For
patients
with
blunt
trauma,
a
portable
AP
pelvis
film
can
easily
be
obtained
during
the
resuscitation
phase.
This
film
can
help
confirm
the
presence
of
significant
pelvic
fractures,
which
are
often
the
sites
of
hemorrhage
that
require
external
fixation
and/or
angiographic
embolization
for
control
(see
Media
file
6).
The
focused
abdominal
sonogram
for
trauma
(FAST)
complements
the
portable
chest
and
pelvis
films.22
A
trauma
clinician
who
has
been
formally
trained
in
the
technique
quickly
and
easily
performs
this
portable
ultrasound
examination
in
the
trauma
resuscitation
room.
It
is
used
solely
to
identify
free
fluid
in
the
peritoneal
cavity.22
Because
of
its
speed,
sensitivity,
and
noninvasive
character,
FAST
largely
has
supplanted
diagnostic
peritoneal
lavage
for
rapid
assessment
of
unstable
trauma
patients.
This
technique
requires
a
major
commitment
to
attain
proficiency;
therefore,
it
is
not
frequently
used
outside
of
major
trauma
centers.
Generally,
do
not
perform
diagnostic
studies
if
the
capability
to
act
on
the
information
gained
is
not
immediately
present.
For
example,
patients
with
blunt
trauma
initially
transported
to
small
rural
emergency
departments
frequently
have
indications
for
FAST
or
CT
scans.
If
an
appropriately
trained
surgeon
is
not
present
in
the
institution,
then
these
studies
are
of
questionable
value,
since
they
may
delay
the
transfer
of
the
patient
to
a
trauma
center.
Consequently,
stage
imaging
studies
and
prioritize
them
based
on
patient
stability,
the
practical
utility
of
the
data
to
be
obtained,
and
the
imperative
need
for
early
transfer
to
obtain
definitive
care.
CT scan
The
CT
scan
is
the
definitive
radiographic
study
in
most
patients
with
trauma.
CT
imaging
of
the
abdomen,
pelvis,
chest,
and
head
is
the
most
sensitive
and
accurate
noninvasive
diagnostic
tool
for
identifying
soft
tissue
injury
(see
Media
file
7).
Obtain
a
CT
scan
of
the
head
to
identify
intracranial
bleeding
and
to
guide
neurosurgical
intervention
(see
Media
file
8).23
Obtain
a
head
CT
scan
for
trauma
without
IV
contrast,
and
perform
it
first
when
indicated,
prior
to
the
injection
of
an
IV
contrast
for
abdominal
and
pelvic
scans.
Many
centers
scan
the
cervical
spine
at
the
same
setting
in
patients
receiving
CT
evaluation
of
the
head.
Obtain
a
CT
scan
of
the
chest
to
evaluate
mediastinal
injuries.24
CT
scanning
is
replacing
aortography
as
the
state-‐of-‐the-‐art
study
for
imaging
mediastinal
vascular
structures,
particularly
the
aorta.25
CT
scanning
is
also
more
sensitive
than
AP
chest
radiography
in
the
detection
of
pneumothorax,
rib
fractures,
pulmonary
contusion,
and
hydrothorax.
For
most
patients
with
trauma,
CT
scans
of
the
head,
chest,
402
abdomen,
and
pelvis
are
sufficient
to
guide
operative
and
nonoperative
management
of
injuries
in
their
respective
regions
of
the
body.26
CT
scans
of
the
abdomen
and
pelvis
usually
are
performed
together,
using
both
IV
and
oral
contrast.27
Use
this
study
to
identify
injuries
to
abdominal
and
pelvic
organs
and
to
identify
bleeding
in
the
retroperitoneum
and
pelvis.
As
the
quality
of
CT
scans
continues
to
increase,
the
role
of
angiography
continues
to
focus
to
a
greater
degree
on
interventions
rather
than
on
diagnosis.28
A
growing
volume
of
data
supports
the
aggressive
use
of
CT
scanning
in
the
evaluation
of
blunt
trauma.29,30
For
example,
abdominal
injury
becomes
more
likely
with
velocity
changes
of
greater
than
20
km/h.
Extremes
of
age
or
extremity,
head,
or
spine
injuries
are
predictive
of
abdominal
trauma
as
well.
The
absence
of
coincident
injury
decreases
the
risk
of
abdominal
injury.31
A
recent
review
of
aortic
injuries
reveals
an
increased
risk
with
lateral
impacts
and
lack
of
seatbelt
use.
Associated
injuries
were
poor
predictors.32
Several
recent
reports
from
major
trauma
centers
emphasize
the
value
of
CT
scanning
to
evaluate
penetrating
torso
injuries.
Patients
requiring
hospitalization
or
extended
periods
of
observation
in
the
emergency
department
may
now
be
sent
home
with
a
late
generation
CT
scan
that
demonstrates
the
benign
track
of
a
bullet
wound
or
stabbing
injury.33,34,35,36
With
increasing
resolution,
even
small
bowel
and
mesenteric
injuries
are
now
readily
identified.
These
injuries
were
previously
difficult
to
detect
and
can
be
a
source
of
late
morbidity
for
patients.37
A
practice
of
early
comprehensive
multislice
CT
is
rapidly
evolving
in
urban
trauma
centers.
This
use
of
advanced
CT
technology
leads
to
a
more
accurate
and
faster
diagnosis
with
a
reduction
in
resource
utilization.
Whether
increasing
radiation
exposure
with
the
use
of
advanced
CT
technology
will
become
a
clinical
and
social
issue
is
unclear.
Spine
evaluation
CT
scanning
is
replacing
plain
radiographs
in
many
patients
being
evaluated
for
spine
trauma.38,39
Current
scanners
offer
the
capability
to
reconstruct
spine
images
at
the
same
time
that
scans
are
obtained
of
the
chest,
abdomen,
and
pelvis.40
Many
clinicians
will
scan
the
cervical
spine
in
patients
with
other
indications
for
scans
of
the
head
or
the
head
and
torso.
Orthopedic
and
neurosurgical
consultants
are
making
increased
use
of
CT
in
evaluation
of
the
spine.
Obtain
plain
x-‐ray
films
of
the
spine
in
patients
with
high-‐energy
blunt
trauma
and
in
other
trauma
patients
with
known
or
suspected
neurologic
deficits
if
CT
scanning
is
unavailable
or
if
a
complimentary
image
is
desired.41
403
For
patients
with
a
low
likelihood
of
spinal
injury,
defer
most
or
all
of
the
spinal
radiograph
series
until
the
resuscitation
phase
is
well
underway
and,
if
necessary,
after
performing
a
lifesaving
emergent
laparotomy,
craniotomy,
or
other
operations.
The
Advanced
Trauma
Life
Support
curriculum
points
out
that,
with
identification
of
a
cervical
spine
fracture,
the
likelihood
of
another
break
in
the
spinal
column
is
10%.
Controversy
exists
whether
complete
CT
imaging
is
sufficient
to
rule
out
cervical
spine
injury.
If
the
patient
cannot
cooperate
with
a
physical
examination
to
allow
an
assessment
of
ligamentous
stability,
many
centers
will
perform
MRI
to
rule
out
ligamentous
injury
of
the
cervical
spine,
even
if
high-‐quality,
multislice,
multidetector
CT
images
fail
to
identify
this
injury.
For
patients
with
a
neurologic
deficit
but
negative
plain
films
and
CT
scans
(formerly
called
spinal
cord
injury
without
radiographic
abnormality),
conduct
an
MRI
of
the
spinal
column
and
nerve
roots.
An
MRI
is
the
most
sensitive
method
for
detecting
this
type
of
soft
tissue
injury,
although
its
use
is
limited
in
the
acute
evaluation
of
the
vast
majority
of
spinal
column
injuries.42
Angiography
Angiography
can
be
both
a
diagnostic
procedure
and
a
therapeutic
procedure,
and
it
is
valuable
in
selected
trauma
patients.
The
most
common
indications
for
emergent
angiography
in
trauma
are
to
exclude
disruption
of
the
thoracic
aorta43
and
to
identify
and
control
arterial
bleeding
from
pelvic
fractures
or
in
the
retroperitoneum.
Contemplate
emergent
thoracic
aortic
angiography
when
plain
x-‐ray
films
or
a
CT
scan
of
the
chest
reveals
evidence
of
possible
mediastinal
bleeding.
In
these
cases,
angiography
is
the
historical
standard
for
diagnosis
and
operative
planning.44
With
suspected
bleeding
in
the
retroperitoneum
and
pelvis,
an
angiographic
embolization
often
is
quicker
and
safer
than
surgical
approaches
in
these
difficult
difficult-‐to-‐
access
areas;
however,
this
is
only
true
with
arterial
bleeding,
while
the
more
common
case
of
venous
bleeding
remains
a
difficult
management
problem.45
Angiography
also
facilitates
nonoperative
management
of
injury
to
the
liver,
spleen,
and
kidney
following
blunt
trauma.
Specific
criteria
for
angiography
and
embolization
have
not
been
agreed
upon.46
A
CT
scan
of
the
abdomen
with
intravenous
contrast
frequently
demonstrates
areas
of
active
bleeding,
which
may
be
targeted
by
the
interventional
radiologist
in
the
patient
who
is
sufficiently
stable
to
tolerate
the
time
delay
required
to
obtain
angiography
and
organ-‐specific
embolization
of
bleeding
points.
404
The
most
important
lab
study
is
the
type
and
crossmatch,
which
often
can
be
completed
within
20
minutes
of
receipt
of
the
blood
sample.
Arterial
blood
gases
are
also
useful
in
the
initial
assessment
period,
although
their
use
for
serial
monitoring
has
declined
since
the
introduction
of
continuous
pulse
oximetry.
A
baseline
hemoglobin
or
hematocrit
determination
is
useful
on
arrival,
with
the
understanding
that
in
acute
hemorrhage,
a
fall
in
hematocrit
may
not
be
apparent
until
autogenous
mobilization
of
extravascular
fluid
or
administration
of
IV
resuscitation
fluids
commences.
A
dipstick
urinalysis
is
useful
to
exclude
occult
hematuria.
Urine
screens
for
drugs
of
abuse
commonly
are
ordered
in
trauma
centers.
For
similar
reasons,
check
blood
alcohol
and
glucose
levels
to
identify
correctable
causes
of
a
decreased
level
of
consciousness.
A
recent
review
from
the
data
of
the
National
Trauma
Data
Bank
of
the
United
States
reveals
a
disturbing
decline
in
substance
use
screening,
despite
the
importance
of
substance
use
as
a
contribution
to
injury.47
Early
hyperglycemia
has
been
linked
to
an
increased
risk
of
infectious
complications
and
mortality
after
injury.48
For
most
trauma
patients,
serum
electrolytes,
coagulation
parameters,
cell
blood
counts,
and
other
common
laboratory
studies
are
less
useful
during
the
first
1-‐2
hours
than
they
are
after
stabilization
and
resuscitation.
Special
Injuries
The
foregoing
discussion
is
applicable
to
most
trauma
patients
with
either
blunt
trauma
or
penetrating
trauma;
however,
patients
with
burns,
cold
injuries,
and
electrical
injuries
have
special
considerations
that
must
be
addressed
during
the
initial
assessment
and
resuscitation.
Burns
An
early
imperative
is
to
stop
the
burning
process,
especially
in
the
case
of
chemical
burns,
in
which
the
continued
contact
of
the
agent
with
the
patient's
skin
may
not
be
readily
apparent.
This
process
may
require
repeated
testing
of
the
patient's
skin,
specific
chemical
neutralization,
and
extensive
lavage
of
the
affected
areas.
If
full
thickness
burns
of
an
extremity
or
the
thorax
are
suspected,
escharotomies
may
be
required
to
prevent
compartment
syndrome
and
impaired
ventilation,
respectively.49
If
the
clinical
history
or
the
physical
examination
suggests
that
upper
airway
burns
or
inhalation
injury
may
be
present,
then
early
intubation
and
mechanical
ventilation
are
indicated.
405
Finally,
patients
with
large
burns
require
large
volumes
of
IV
crystalloid
resuscitation
fluids.
While
this
resuscitation
can
be
delayed
briefly
while
performing
lifesaving
interventions,
early
commencement
is
beneficial.
Cold injuries
The
dominant
imperative
is
rapid
rewarming,
particularly
in
the
case
of
systemic
hypothermia,
but
it
is
equally
applicable
to
cold
injuries
to
the
extremities
(eg,
frostbite).50
While
mild
hypothermia
is
managed
as
described
above
for
the
primary
survey
(see
Primary
survey
in
Initial
Assessment),
treat
severe
cold
injuries
with
immersion
in
water
warmed
to
40°C.
Administer
IV
fluids
only
as
indicated,
based
on
the
patient's
physiologic
status
(not
on
the
wound
size).
In
the
case
of
severe
hypothermia
with
cardiac
arrest
and/or
apnea,
do
not
stop
resuscitation
efforts
until
the
patient's
body
is
rewarmed
thoroughly.51
Although
sometimes
considered
as
burn
injuries,
high-‐voltage
electrical
injuries
(eg,
lightning
strikes,
power
lines)
present
a
different
set
of
problems.50
First,
much
of
the
tissue
injury
from
electrical
injuries
may
not
be
apparent
on
physical
examination.
Massive
myonecrosis
and
damage
to
both
soft
tissue
and
bone
may
be
concealed
beneath
normal-‐appearing
skin
between
the
entrance
and
exit
wounds;
therefore,
maintain
a
low
threshold
for
measurement
of
compartment
pressures
and
performance
of
decompressive
fasciotomies.
Carefully
and
continuously
monitor
the
urine
output
for
evidence
of
myoglobinuria,
which
can
lead
to
acute
renal
failure
if
untreated.
Likewise,
provide
continual
cardiac
monitoring
to
the
patient
because
of
the
risks
of
direct
myocardial
injury
and
hyperkalemia
arising
from
myonecrosis.
Nevertheless,
the
survey
may
miss
injuries,
especially
in
seriously
injured
patients
who
require
intensive
resuscitative
and/or
surgical
procedures
to
stabilize.
This
tendency
is
exacerbated
by
the
focused
priorities
of
the
primary
survey
and
resuscitation
phase.
A
simple
remedy
for
this
problem
is
frequent
and
thorough
reassessment.
Perform
a
formal
tertiary
survey
within
18-‐36
hours
after
admission.
It
406
consists
of
a
thorough
head-‐to-‐toe
examination
in
conjunction
with
a
review
of
all
laboratory
data
and
imaging
studies
obtained
since
admission.
While
the
tertiary
survey
does
not
reduce
the
incidence
of
injuries
missed
during
the
primary
and
secondary
surveys,
it
decreases
their
morbidity
and
mortality
by
earlier
identification
and
treatment.
A
difficult
aspect
of
treating
multiple
trauma
patients
is
prioritizing
between
competing
injuries
in
the
same
patient.
The
3
examples
that
follow
illustrate
clinical
dilemmas
in
decision
making
faced
by
surgeons
caring
for
trauma
victims.
Patient 1
A
relatively
straightforward
example
is
an
individual
with
a
posterior
dislocation
of
the
knee
joint
and
concomitant
vascular
compromise
below
the
knee.
In
this
case,
the
competing
interests
are
the
orthopedic
repair
of
the
knee
joint
versus
the
repair
of
damaged
vessels,
presumably
including
the
popliteal
artery.
Although
a
disrupted
knee
joint
is
clearly
an
urgent
problem,
especially
if
the
joint
space
is
open,
the
short
viability
of
a
devascularized
limb
(3-‐4
h)
and
the
increasing
risk
of
compartment
syndrome
with
increasing
time
of
ischemia
are
the
paramount
issues.
Therefore,
vascular
repair
usually
is
performed
first,
followed
by
the
orthopedic
repair.
Patient 2
A
more
difficult
dilemma
occurs
in
the
unstable
hypotensive
patient
with
abdominal
and
head
injures.
The
need
for
operative
exploration
and
control
of
abdominal
hemorrhage
must
be
balanced
against
the
need
for
a
head
CT
scan
to
identify
and
localize
potentially
fatal
intracranial
mass
lesions
for
neurosurgical
drainage.
A
rule
of
thumb
in
situations
such
as
these
is
that
blunt
head
trauma
alone
usually
does
not
cause
hypotension,
and
hypovolemia
is
the
probable
culprit.
Preserving
the
blood
pressure
and
cerebral
perfusion
is
essential
to
prevent
secondary
brain
injury;
thus,
measures
to
control
hypotension
and
intra-‐abdominal
bleeding
often
are
prioritized
earlier
than
head
injuries,
which
are
prognostically
more
serious.
Patient 3
A
final
example
lies
in
the
timing
of
operative
versus
angiographic
treatment
of
blunt
pelvic
trauma
with
known
or
suspected
hemorrhage
from
pelvic
fractures.
The
safety
and
efficacy
of
angiographic
embolization
must
be
balanced
against
the
knowledge
that
most
causes
of
pelvic
hemorrhage
are
venous
in
origin
and,
therefore,
are
not
amenable
to
angiographic
embolization.
Furthermore,
the
resuscitation
of
the
unstable
patient
is
much
more
difficult
in
the
angiography
suite
than
in
the
ICU.
No
simple
rules
apply,
and
only
the
good
judgment
of
the
senior
clinician
responsible
for
the
patient
can
identify
the
best
approach
in
each
case.
Introduction
Trauma
has
been
dubbed
the
forgotten
epidemic
and
the
neglected
disease
of
modern
society.
Trauma
annually
impacts
hundreds
of
thousands
of
individuals
and
costs
billions
of
dollars
in
direct
expenditures
and
indirect
losses.
Trauma
care
has
improved
over
the
past
20
years,
largely
from
improvements
in
trauma
systems,
assessment,
triage,
resuscitation,
and
emergency
care.
However,
an
Institute
of
Medicine
report
identified
a
US
crisis
in
access
and
distribution
to
emergency
care
that
may
impact
trauma
system
efficiency
and
effectiveness.
Similarly,
a
predicted
deficit
in
critical
care
practitioners
may
similarly
degrade
the
post-‐emergency
department
care
of
the
critically
injured
patient.
The
American
College
of
Surgeons
Committee
on
Trauma
(ACS-‐COT)
and
the
American
Association
for
the
Surgery
of
Trauma
(AAST)
acute
care
surgery
initiative
is
designed
to
integrate
trauma,
emergency
general
surgery,
and
surgical
critical
care
and
to
bolster
new
trainee
interest
in
this
field.
Its
impact
on
postinjury
care
is
unclear
as
beta
sites
are
now
being
recruited.
Work
must
still
be
done
to
continuously
improve
trauma
care
nationally,
regionally,
and
institutionally,
and
the
ACS-‐COT
applies
rigorous
standards
to
performance
improvement
prior
to
verifying
US
trauma
centers.
For
this
improvement
to
occur,
the
ongoing
application
of
the
unique
principles
and
practice
of
intensive
care
medicine
is
necessary.
Trauma
Systems
Patient
outcomes
after
major
trauma
have
improved
in
regions
where
comprehensive
trauma
systems
have
evolved.
Crucial
components
of
such
a
system
should
include
a
coordinated
approach
to
both
prehospital
care
and
hospital
care
and
to
training
providers
in
both
areas.
Paramedics
and
medical
staff
should
be
provided
with
a
clear
and
objective
framework
for
assessing
patients,
establishing
and
engaging
treatment
protocols,
following
triage
guidelines,
engaging
in
transportation
and
communication
protocols,
and
implementing
ongoing
performance
improvement
programs.
It
is
essential
to
recognize
that
care
of
the
significantly
injured
patient
is
critical
care
in
that
critical
care
is
a
concept,
not
a
408
location.
Triage
The
most
seriously
injured
patients
must
be
identified
in
the
field
and
safely
transported
to
a
designated
trauma
center
where
appropriate
care
is
immediately
available.
This
is
the
principle
of
triage
and
is
subject
to
both
under-‐triage
and
over-‐
triage.
Clearly,
from
a
patient-‐centered
view,
over-‐triage
is
preferable,
but,
from
a
system
perspective,
over-‐triage
may
be
problematic
in
an
overcrowded
and
oversubscribed
emergency
department.
Trauma
scoring
Trauma
scoring
systems
describe
injury
severity
and
correlate
with
survival
probability.
Various
systems
facilitate
the
prediction
of
patient
outcomes
and
the
evaluation
of
aspects
of
care.
The
scoring
systems
vary
widely,
with
some
relying
on
physiologic
scores
(eg,
Glasgow
Coma
Scale
[GCS]
score,
Revised
Trauma
Score),
and
others
relying
on
descriptors
of
anatomic
injury
(eg,
Abbreviated
Injury
Score,
Injury
Severity
Score).
No
universally
accepted
scoring
system
has
been
developed,
and
each
system
contains
unique
limitations.
This
limitation
has
resulted
in
the
use
of
a
number
of
such
systems
in
different
centers
around
the
world.
Initial
Assessment
Principles
involved
in
the
initial
assessment
of
a
patient
with
major
trauma
are
those
outlined
by
the
AmericanCollege
of
Surgeons
(ACS)
in
their
Advanced
Trauma
Life
Support
(ATLS)
guidelines
or
those
of
the
AustralasianCollege
of
Surgeons
in
the
Early
Management
of
Severe
Trauma
guidelines.
The
principles
involved
consist
of
(1)
preparation
and
transport;
(2)
primary
survey
and
resuscitation,
including
monitoring,
urinary
and
nasogastric
tube
insertion,
and
radiography;
(3)
secondary
survey,
including
special
investigations,
such
as
CT
scanning
or
angiography;
(4)
ongoing
reevaluation;
and
(5)
definitive
care.
Preparation
and
communication
Trauma-‐receiving
hospitals
should
receive
advance
communication
from
emergency
medical
services
care
providers
about
the
impending
arrival
of
seriously
injured
patients.
The
patient's
mechanism
of
injury,
vital
signs,
field
interventions,
and
overall
status
should
be
communicated.
This
allows
for
the
in-‐house
trauma
team
to
be
called
and
for
the
emergency
department
staff
to
make
appropriate
preparations.
The
trauma
team
members
vary
based
on
world
geography
but
incorporate
many
similar
elements,
including
representation
from
emergency
medicine,
trauma,
critical
care,
with
or
without
anesthesia,
nursing,
respiratory
therapy,
blood
bank,
radiology,
social
services,
and
registration.
A
team
leader
is
identified,
and
it
is
the
409
team
leader's
responsibility
to
ensure
that
the
resuscitation
proceeds
in
an
organized
and
efficient
manner
through
the
diagnostic
and
therapeutic
protocols.
Additional
consultants
may
be
engaged
in
response
to
specific
injuries.
In
addition
to
this
team,
many
trauma
centers
also
have
a
trauma
care
coordinator
(usually
a
nurse),
who
follows
the
patient
through
his
or
her
hospital
course.
On
the
patient's
arrival,
a
concise
transfer
of
the
patient
from
the
paramedics
should
occur.
One
person
should
be
talking,
while
everyone
else
is
listening;
this
is
crucial
information
for
the
whole
team.
In
many
trauma
centers,
the
team
leader
is
a
senior
or
chief
resident
in
surgery
or
emergency
medicine,
with
close
supervision
from
appropriate
attending
staff.
Increasingly,
mid-‐level
practitioners
(eg,
physician
associates,
nurse
practitioners)
may
serve
in
this
role
as
well.
Most
trauma
centers
use
a
system
of
prehospital
triage
that
characterizes
patients
into
those
with
physiologic
derangements
and
those
who
have
a
suggestive
mechanism
of
injury.
Those
patients
with
obvious
derangements
should
prompt
a
full
team
response,
while
patients
with
less
injury
may
be
cared
for
by
a
modified
team
complement.
Primary
survey
The
primary
survey
aims
to
identify
and
treat
immediately
life-‐threatening
injuries
relying
on
the
ABCDE
system.
This
system
comprises
airway
control
with
stabilization
of
the
cervical
spine,
breathing
(work
and
efficacy),
circulation
including
the
control
of
external
hemorrhage,
disability
or
neurologic
status,
and
exposure
or
undressing
of
the
patient
while
also
protecting
the
patient
from
hypothermia.
These
elements
are
explored
below.
Airway
with
control
of
the
cervical
spine
Airway
assessment
should
proceed
while
maintaining
the
cervical
spine
in
a
neutral
position.
The
latter
is
achieved
by
using
a
rigid
cervical
immobilization
collar.
Airway
clearance
maneuvers
are
extensively
described
elsewhere
and
are
not
reviewed
in
this
article.
When
the
airway
is
in
jeopardy,
or
when
the
GCS
score
is
less
than
8,
an
artificial
airway
is
essential.
Airway
control
is
commonly
achieved
by
means
of
rapid-‐
sequence
orotracheal
intubation
(OETT)
performed
with
in-‐line
stabilization
of
the
cervical
spine.
Correct
placement
of
the
endotracheal
tube
is
confirmed
(1)
by
the
aid
of
an
end-‐tidal
carbon
dioxide
monitoring
device,
(2)
by
observation
of
the
tube
passing
through
the
vocal
cords,
and
(3)
by
auscultation
of
the
chest.
Several
well-‐defined
options
for
achieving
airway
control
must
be
established
in
the
event
that
OETT
placement
is
not
able
to
be
achieved.
These
options
include
laryngeal
mask
airway
(LMA),
intubating
LMA,
fiberoptic
intubation,
percutaneous
cricothyroidotomy,
and
surgical
cricothyroidotomy
(tracheostomy
in
children).
Tracheal
inspection
is
essential
to
determine
if
there
is
peritracheal
crepitus
or
410
deviation
from
the
midline
indicating
potential
direct
airway
injury
or
intrathoracic
pulmonary
or
major
vascular
injury.
Breathing
One
must
next
assess
the
adequacy
of
gas
exchange.
This
is
most
readily
accomplished
by
visual
inspection
of
thoracic
cage
movement,
palpation
of
the
thoracic
cage
movement,
and
auscultation
of
gas
entry.
One
is
assessing
for
inequalities
from
one
side
to
the
other,
crepitus,
and
local
movement
asymmetry
as
in
paradoxic
thoracic
cage
movement
in
flail
chest.
One
is
also
evaluating
for
signs
of
impending
respiratory
failure,
such
as
uncoordinated
thoracic
cage
and
abdominal
wall
movement,
accessory
muscle
use,
and
stridor.
Inadequate
ventilation
may
result
in
hypoxemia,
hypercarbia,
cyanosis,
depressed
level
of
consciousness,
bradycardia,
tachycardia,
hypertension,
or
hypotension.
As
a
general
rule,
until
stability
has
been
assured,
administer
high-‐flow
oxygen
by
mask
to
all
patients
to
abrogate
the
potential
for
hypoxemia.
Classic
signs
of
a
tension
pneumothorax,
hemothorax,
or
combined
hemopneumothorax
include
tracheal
deviation,
jugular
vein
distension,
hypoxia,
tachycardia,
and
hypotension.
Intrathoracic
tension
physiology
is
a
clinical
diagnosis
and
requires
immediate
decompression.
This
is
initially
commonly
accomplished
with
a
14-‐gauge
catheter-‐over-‐needle
assembly
placed
in
the
second
intercostal
space
(ICS)
midclavicular
line
(MCL).
Patients
treated
in
this
way
should
have
a
tube
thoracostomy
placed
to
manage
simple
pneumothorax
and
to
evacuate
thoracic
cavity
blood
when
present.
Life-‐threatening
hemorrhage
identified
when
placing
a
tube
thoracostomy
may
be
managed
with
a
resuscitative
thoracostomy.
Circulation
and
hemorrhage
control
Emergent
treatment
of
patients
with
exsanguinating
hemorrhage
or
shock
can
be
life-‐saving.
This
assessment
includes
identifying
and
managing
rapid
external
hemorrhage.
This
can
often
be
achieved
with
a
simple
pressure
dressing,
but
surgical
intervention
may
be
required.
As
more
experience
is
gained
with
procoagulant
dressings
(used
principally
by
the
military),
external
hemorrhage
control
may
gain
pharmacologic
support
embedded
in
dressings.
Shock
in
trauma
patients,
defined
as
inadequate
organ
perfusion
and
tissue
oxygenation,
is
most
commonly
caused
by
hemorrhage
leading
to
hypovolemia,
but
many
other
causes
are
readily
identified,
including
cardiac
tamponade,
tension
pneumothorax
or
hemothorax,
and
spinal
cord
injury.
Signs
of
shock
include
tachypnea,
tachycardia,
decreased
pulse
pressure,
hypotension,
pallor,
delayed
capillary
refill,
oliguria,
and
a
depressed
level
of
consciousness.
In
patients
with
hypovolemia,
the
neck
veins
may
be
flat.
A
normal
mental
status
generally
implies
an
adequate
cerebral
perfusion
pressure,
while
diminished
mentation
may
be
associated
with
shock
with
or
without
intracranial
trauma.
411
ATLS
readily
identifies
4
different
classes
of
shock.
Class
I
and
II
shock
generally
does
not
need
red
cell
mass
restoration
and
is
well
managed
with
asanguineous
fluids
for
plasma
volume
expansion.
Hypotension
and
disordered
mentation
generally
indicate
at
least
class
III
shock
and
should
prompt
plasma
volume
expansion
and
red
cell
mass
repletion
if
the
hypotension
fails
to
resolve
after
an
initial
2000-‐cc
crystalloid
bolus,
according
to
ATLS.
A
systematic
approach
for
detecting
the
source
of
hypovolemic
shock
should
consider
5
sources
of
ongoing
hemorrhage,
as
follows:
(1)
external
(eg,
from
the
scalp,
skin,
or
nose),
(2)
pleural
cavities,
(3)
peritoneal
cavity,
(4)
pelvis/retroperitoneum,
and
(5)
long-‐bone
fracture.
Fracture
alignment
and
stabilization
is
essential
in
limiting
blood
loss.
Pelvic
fractures
may
be
initially
stabilized
with
a
pelvic
binder
or
a
wrapped
sheet
secured
with
a
towel
clip
as
a
means
of
reducing
pelvic
volume
to
limit
hemorrhage.
Disability
During
the
acute
resuscitation
period,
a
brief
assessment
of
neurologic
status
should
be
performed.
This
assessment
should
include
the
patient's
posture
(ie,
any
asymmetry,
decerebrate
or
decorticate
posturing),
pupil
asymmetry,
pupillary
response
to
light,
and
a
global
assessment
of
patient
responsiveness.
A
recommended
system
is
the
AVPU
method,
as
follows:
A
=
Patient
is
awake,
alert,
and
appropriate;
V
=
Patient
responds
to
voice;
P
=
Patient
responds
to
pain;
U
=
Patient
is
unresponsive.
A
complementary
assessment
using
the
GCS
should
be
made
at
this
time,
during
the
secondary
survey,
and
at
any
time
that
the
patient's
mental
status
appears
to
change.
A
more
detailed
assessment
of
the
patient's
neurologic
status
is
to
be
made
during
the
secondary
survey.
Exposure
Patients
should
be
completely
disrobed
during
the
initial
assessment
and
the
subsequent
secondary
survey.
This
helps
ensure
that
significant
injuries
are
not
missed.
At
the
same
time,
efforts
to
prevent
significant
hypothermia,
using
a
warm
ambient
room
(28-‐30°C),
overhead
heating,
and
warmed
IV
fluids,
should
be
instituted.
The
patient's
temperature
should
be
measured
on
arrival
at
the
emergency
department,
and
strenuous
efforts
should
be
made
to
avoid
significant
hypothermia
during
resuscitation
and
therapeutic
intervention.
Ancillary
monitors
Urinary
drainage
catheters
are
commonly
placed
to
assess
for
genitourinary
system
hemorrhage
and
to
monitor
urine
flow.
Precautions
to
avoid
urethral
injury
should
be
taken
for
patients
with
pelvic
trauma
and
for
those
who
have
blood
at
the
urethral
meatus.
Digital
rectal
examination
to
identify
a
high-‐riding
prostate
should
precede
catheter
insertion.
Abnormal
findings
from
the
rectal
examination
or
412
concern
as
to
the
continuity
of
the
urethra
should
prompt
a
retrograde
urethrocystogram
to
identify
a
urethral
injury.
If
identified,
a
suprapubic
catheter
should
be
inserted,
and
a
urologist
should
be
consulted.
Gastric
drainage
tubes
should
be
orally
inserted
into
all
major
trauma
patients
requiring
endotracheal
intubation.
Even
in
the
absence
of
brain
injury,
oral
gastric
tube
insertion
is
preferred
to
decrease
the
likelihood
of
sinusitis
from
drainage
pathway
obstruction.
Children,
in
particular,
are
prone
to
gastric
dilatation,
which
can
significantly
impair
their
respiration
and
lead
to
hemodynamic
compromise.
Immediate
decompression
may
be
life-‐saving.
Ongoing
monitoring
of
pulse
rate,
blood
pressure,
respiratory
rate,
oxygen
saturation,
and
temperature
is
a
standard
of
care
in
the
US.
Radiology
Initial
imaging
in
the
resuscitation
room
should
be
limited
to
a
portable
anteroposterior
(AP)
chest
radiograph
plus
an
AP
pelvic
image
if
the
patient
was
involved
in
a
high-‐speed
motor
vehicle
collision
or
a
fall
from
a
height.
Prior
recommendations
for
lateral
cervical
radiography
have
been
supplanted
by
routine
pan-‐cervical
imaging
with
image
reformation
using
CT
scanning,
especially
if
the
patient
will
undergo
a
brain
CT
scan.
Definitive
clearing
of
the
neck
is
managed
in
different
ways
in
different
institutions,
but
certain
common
features
are
identified.
Patients
with
a
clear
sensorium
and
no
distracting
injuries
may
be
clinically
cleared
if
there
is
no
neck
pain
on
palpation
and
active
flexion/extension/rotation.
Patients
with
a
normal
CT
scan
but
an
abnormal
mental
status
should
remain
in
a
rigid
cervical
immobilization
device
until
they
may
participate
in
a
physical
examination
or
they
undergo
early
(<72
h
postinjury)
MRI
to
detect
the
presence
of
ligamentous
injury.
Chest
radiographs
should
be
assessed
for
the
position
of
tubes
and
lines,
the
presence
of
treatable
life-‐threatening
conditions,
including
space-‐occupying
lesions,
mediastinal
widening,
lung
parenchymal
injuries,
and
injuries
to
the
thoracic
cage
or
vertebral
column.
A
high-‐energy
pelvic
fracture
identified
on
physical
examination
or
pelvis
film
may
substantially
contribute
to
shock.
Persistent
hypotension
suggests
the
need
for
early
operative
external
stabilization,
operative
extraperitoneal
pelvic
packing,
or
angioembolization.
Technique
selection
depends
on
the
facility's
resources
and
practitioner
skill
set.
Secondary
survey
The
secondary
survey
follows
in
the
wake
of
correction
of
immediately
life-‐
threatening
injury
and
completion
of
the
primary
survey.
Thus,
the
secondary
survey
may
not
occur
until
after
an
emergency
operation
has
been
completed.
The
secondary
survey
includes
a
detailed
history,
complete
physical
examination,
413
dependence
on
user
skill
set,
problematic
probe
insertion
in
patients
requiring
cervical
immobilization,
and
blind
spots
at
the
aortic
arch.
Abdomen
Inspect,
percuss,
palpate,
and
auscultate
the
abdomen,
noting
tenderness
and
examining
for
fullness,
rigidity,
guarding,
or
an
obvious
bruit
(rare).
Remember
that
blood
is
not
always
a
peritoneal
irritant,
and
hemoperitoneum
may
occur
without
obvious
external
signs.
Inspection
of
the
abdomen
may
be
confounded
by
distracting
injuries
and
impaired
consciousness
from
TBI,
intoxicants,
or
prescription
medications.
FAST
scans
are
routine
in
most
emergency
departments
and
serve
to
establish
the
presence
or
absence
of
fluid
in
4
distinct
domains:
pericardium,
right
upper
quadrant,
left
upper
quadrant,
and
pelvis.
Diagnostic
peritoneal
lavage
is
now
rarely
used.
Extended
FAST
scanning
may
also
interrogate
the
thoracic
cavity
for
evidence
of
pneumothorax.
The
practitioner
should
be
aware
that
FAST
scanning
is
not
organ-‐
based
imaging,
and
FAST
scanning
should
not
be
used
to
establish
the
presence
or
absence
of
solid
organ
injury.
Hemodynamically
acceptable
patients
with
a
positive
FAST
scan
generally
undergo
CT
scanning
to
establish
the
source
of
presumed
hemorrhage.
Patients
with
a
positive
FAST
scan
who
are
unstable
generally
proceed
to
operative
intervention
in
the
emergency
department
(cardiac
tamponade)
or
the
operating
room
(intraperitoneal
hemorrhage).
FAST
scanning
does
not
evaluate
the
retroperitoneum,
and
a
normal
FAST
scan
may
coexist
with
substantial
retroperitoneal
hemorrhage.
Also,
a
positive
FAST
scan
may
indicate
ascites
instead
of
blood,
especially
in
those
with
renal
or
hepatic
impairment.
Limbs
Inspect,
palpate,
and
move
the
limbs
to
determine
their
anatomic
and
functional
integrity.
Pay
attention
to
the
adequacy
of
the
peripheral
circulation
and
integrity
of
the
nerve
supply.
Arterial
insufficiency
in
patients
with
a
displaced
fracture
or
dislocation
requires
immediate
treatment,
generally
fracture
reduction
and/or
joint
relocation.
Pulse
inequality
should
be
assessed
by
means
of
an
ankle-‐brachial
index
with
diagnostic
intervention
reserved
for
those
with
an
absolute
ABI
difference
of
0.2
or
greater
from
one
side
to
the
other.
Liberal
use
of
diagnostic
plain
radiography
is
essential
in
excluding
extremity
fracture
in
patients
with
mixed
mechanisms
of
injury
and
in
those
who
cannot
participate
in
an
examination
because
of
significant
TBI,
intoxicants,
or
other
causes.
Log
roll
The
log
roll
refers
to
the
slow
controlled
turning
of
the
patient
to
each
side
to
assess
the
dependent
part
of
the
supine
trauma
patient.
Care
must
be
taken
to
avoid
secondary
injury
from
an
as-‐yet
undiagnosed
unstable
fracture.
This
examination
concentrates
on
the
back
of
the
head,
neck,
back,
and
buttocks,
and
it
includes
a
415
rectal
examination.
The
log
roll
also
provides
a
convenient
time
to
remove
the
long
immobilization
board.
The
board
has
not
been
shown
to
prevent
injury
in
the
presence
of
an
unstable
vertebral
fracture,
but
it
is
highly
correlated
with
pressure
ulceration
in
patients
who
remain
on
the
board
for
prolonged
periods
of
time
(ie,
until
diagnostic
intervention
is
complete).
This
procedure
should
be
carried
out
by
at
least
4
people.
The
first
person
stabilizes
the
head
and
neck,
the
second
and
third
persons
turn
the
patient,
and
the
fourth
person
examines
the
patient's
dorsum
and
performs
the
digital
rectal
examination.
At
the
completion
of
the
examination,
and
if
the
patient
is
not
on
an
x-‐
ray
film
bearing
stretcher,
the
chest
x-‐ray
plate
is
readily
positioned
behind
the
patient.
Spine
imaging
most
commonly
proceeds
as
part
of
the
CT
scan
using
reformatted
images.
This
technique
has
been
demonstrated
to
have
equal,
and
in
some
studies
superior,
efficacy
to
AP
and
lateral
thoraco-‐lumber
spine
imaging
for
fracture
identification.
Reevaluation
During
the
secondary
survey,
the
ABCDE
system
should
be
used
to
constantly
reevaluate
the
patient,
and
an
ongoing
diagnostic
and
therapeutic
plan
should
be
revised,
as
indicated,
by
the
patient's
response
to
intervention
and
diagnostic
test
results.
The
initial
management
and
injury
identification
detailed
above
initiates
multiple
pathways
for
the
trauma
patient
that
may
lead
to
discharge
home,
transfer
to
a
specialty
facility
(ie,
burn
center),
hospital
admission
(general
ward,
step-‐down
unit
[intermediate
dependency
unit],
ICU
[high
dependency
unit]),
operating
room,
or
angiography
suite.
The
specific
management
is
beyond
the
scope
of
this
article,
but
management
of
the
injured
patient
is
often
collaborative
because
of
the
nature
of
the
injury
complex,
as
well
as
manpower
limitations.
With
the
rise
of
acute
care
surgery,
as
promulgated
by
the
American
College
of
Surgeons
Committee
on
Trauma
and
the
American
Association
for
the
Surgery
of
416
Trauma,
the
trauma
surgeon
increasingly
covers
trauma,
surgical
critical
care,
and
emergency
general
surgery.
Therefore,
the
emergency
medicine
practitioner
who
is
resident
in
the
emergency
department
needs
to
assume
a
larger
role
in
the
management
of
trauma
patients
who
are
awaiting
a
destination
bed
for
ongoing
management.
Generation
of
jointly
agreed
upon
guidelines
for
management
is
essential
in
ensuring
smooth,
high-‐quality
care
for
the
injured
patient.
Often,
subspecialty
input
is
of
significant
benefit
in
guideline
generation
(ie,
management
and
clearance
of
the
cervical
spine).
Additionally,
several
guidelines
have
been
generated
by
the
Eastern
Association
for
the
Surgery
of
Trauma
(EAST;
www.east.org)
that
address
injured
patient
management
in
general
as
well
as
with
regard
to
specific
injury
complexes.
Neurologic
Injury
Traumatic
brain
injury
(TBI)
occurs
commonly
in
the
setting
of
major
trauma
and
significantly
contributes
to
poor
outcomes.
Despite
advances
in
all
aspects
of
trauma
care,
severe
TBI
carries
a
mortality
rate
of
approximately
30%.
Conservative
estimates
place
the
incidence
of
TBI
at
200
cases
per
100,000
patients.
Outcome
prediction
is
usually
straightforward
in
those
with
minimal
injury
as
well
as
in
those
with
severe
injury.
Prediction
is
difficult
for
those
with
moderate
and
severe
injury
but
not
unsurvivable
injury
patterns.
Survivors
of
severe
and
moderately
severe
head
injuries
are
likely
to
be
left
with
some
degree
of
disability.
These
disabilities
may
vary
from
subtle
changes
in
behavior,
including
depression
or
loss
of
independence
and
earning
power,
to
major
cognitive,
sensory,
or
motor
deficits.
Some
patients
unfortunately
progress
to
or
never
awaken
from
a
chronic
vegetative
state.
It
is
in
these
patients
that
end-‐of-‐life
discussions
to
establish
a
goal
of
therapy
are
perhaps
most
useful.
Quite
often,
consultation
with
an
ethics
team
or
a
palliative
care
team
is
helpful
for
both
the
critical
care
team
and
the
family.
Treatment
principles
The
principles
of
treatment
of
a
patient
with
TBI
apply
equally
at
the
time
of
initial
assessment
as
they
do
during
ongoing
inpatient
care.
These
principles
are
aimed
at
417
preventing
secondary
brain
injury.
Secondary
brain
injuries
include
but
are
not
limited
to
hypotension,
hypoxemia,
hypercarbia,
fever,
seizure,
uncontrolled
hyperglycemia
leading
to
cerebral
hyperglycosis,
acidosis,
severe
alkalosis,
and
hyperthermia.
Sound
prehospital
care
has
a
significant
impact
on
patient
outcome.
This
involves
adequate
oxygenation
and
ventilation
and
the
maintenance
of
an
adequate
cerebral
perfusion
pressure
as
measures
to
avoid
secondary
brain
injury.
Primary
brain
injury
occurs
at
the
time
of
the
trauma
and
is
not
modifiable
by
the
practitioner.
Secondary
brain
damage
is
different
from
secondary
brain
injury.
Secondary
brain
damage
is
the
term
applied
to
the
apoptosis
that
is
identified
in
the
injured
but
not
irreparably
damaged
cells
after
a
primary
brain
injury.
Thus,
the
practitioner
is
limited
at
present
to
avoiding
secondary
brain
injury
as
the
others
are
not
subject
to
control.
Prehospital assessment
The
initial
assessment
is
the
same
as
for
any
trauma
patient.
Immediate
protection
from
secondary
injury
by
avoiding
hypoxia
and
hypotension
and
by
preventing
hypercarbia
improves
patient
outcome.
Early
airway
control
in
patients
with
a
clinically
significant
depressed
level
of
consciousness
(GCS
score
of
8
or
acute
decreased
in
GCS
score
by
2)
is
essential
in
supporting
outcomes
and
in
avoiding
secondary
brain
injury.
Hospital
assessment
Hospital
assessment
involves
the
history
of
trauma,
physical
examination,
evaluation
of
posture
and
pupillary
responses,
and
additional
investigations.
The
history
of
trauma
is
gained
from
the
patient,
witnesses
at
the
scene,
attending
ambulance
staff,
and
knowledge
of
the
mechanism
of
injury.
The
severity
of
the
injury
is
defined
by
carefully
examining
the
patient's
mental
status
by
using
the
GCS
score,
posture,
and
pupillary
responses.
The
GCS
score
quantifies
the
patient's
neurologic
status
and
enables
the
rapid
and
uniform
communication
of
the
initial
assessment
of
the
patient's
possible
neurologic
injury.
The
GCS
score
is
a
familiar
descriptor
used
in
the
emergency
department.
It
is
derived
from
observation
and
responses
to
eye
opening,
best
motor
responses,
and
best
verbal
responses
(see
the
Table
below).
In
the
absence
of
confounding
factors,
such
as
illicit
and
prescription
drugs
and
alcohol
use,
a
low
GCS
score
is
a
strong
predictor
of
a
poor
prognosis.
Of
the
3
parameters
assessed
following
injury,
the
best
motor
response
elicited
appears
to
be
the
most
accurate
prognostic
indicator.
A
GCS
score
of
3-‐8
indicates
a
severe
head
injury,
whereas
a
GCS
score
of
14-‐15
is
mild.
A
GCS
score
of
15
is
normal.
A
GCS
score
of
8
defines
coma.
418
GCS Score
Assess
the
patient's
posture
and
pupillary
response.
In
patients
who
are
comatose,
note
any
decerebrate
or
decorticate
posture
and
pupillary
responses
to
light
(normal
response
is
constriction).
Operative
versus
nonoperative
treatment
in
the
setting
of
head
trauma
Typical
indications
for
operative
intervention
are
as
follows:
(1)
extra-‐axial
collections
with
mass
effect,
(2)
significant
mass
effect
from
contusion
or
hemorrhage
resulting
in
a
shift
of
intracranial
structures,
(3)
penetrating
head
injury
with
necrotic
foreign
body
tracks,
(4)
removal
of
a
foreign
body
if
it
compromises
neurologic
function,
and
(5)
significantly
depressed
(>1
cm)
skull
fractures.
Nonoperative
or
medical
therapies
are
aimed
at
avoiding
secondary
brain
injury.
The
2
major
management
philosophies
following
TBI
are
as
follows:
ICP
management
versus
cerebral
perfusion
pressure
(CPP)
management.
The
ICP
management
theorists
argue
that
all
efforts
should
be
made
to
keep
the
ICP
at
less
than
20
mm
Hg.
The
CPP
proponents
argue
that
the
ICP
may
be
greater
than
20
mm
Hg
if
the
CPP
is
greater
than
60
mm
Hg.
CPP
can
be
estimated
by
subtracting
the
ICP
from
the
mean
arterial
pressure
(MAP).
It
is
likely
that
both
schools
of
thought
have
merit,
and
the
optimal
strategy
is
a
combination
of
both.
Major
management
techniques
used
in
the
ICU
are
described
below.
419
1. PO2
of
greater
than
100
Torr
to
avoid
cerebral
tissue
hypoxia
2. PCO2
of
35-‐40
Torr
to
avoid
cerebral
hyperemia
or
excessive
vasoconstriction
and
induction
of
cerebral
ischemia
3. Maintenance
of
a
neutral
cervical
spine
position
to
avoid
impairment
of
cerebral
venous
drainage
4. Avoidance
of
jugular
venous
lines
on
the
ipsilateral
side
of
a
brain
injury
5. Drainage
of
CSF
with
an
external
ventricular
drainage
(EVD)
catheter
when
the
ICP
is
greater
than
20
mm
Hg
6. Isovolemic
dehydration
for
patients
with
cerebral
edema
and
a
high
ICP
7. Avoidance
of
any
unnecessary
glucose
for
the
first
48
hours
after
injury
8. Avoidance
of
hyposmolarity
to
prevent
increasing
cerebral
edema
Controversy
surrounds
nursing
patients
in
the
head-‐of-‐bed
up
position,
as
this
may
decrease
cerebral
oxygen
delivery.
Mannitol
is
generally
avoided
in
the
patient
without
cerebral
edema
because
of
the
risk
of
hypovolemia
from
excessive
intravascular
volume
loss.
The
use
of
craniectomy
is
controversial
in
the
management
of
cerebral
edema.
Interrogate
for
intra-‐abdominal
hypertension
in
the
patient
with
intractably
elevated
ICP,
as
there
are
reports
of
successful
management
with
abdominal
decompression.
ICP
can
be
measured
by
various
routes
and
devices;
however,
the
criterion
standard
is
considered
to
be
a
fluid-‐coupled
ventriculostomy
catheter
inserted
into
a
lateral
ventricle
(normal
ICP
<15
mm
Hg).
Other
devices
may
be
placed
into
the
brain
parenchyma,
such
as
the
fiberoptically
tipped
parenchymal
pressure
monitoring
catheter.
Some
of
these
devices
are
also
coupled
with
a
tissue
oximeter
probe
to
measure
cerebral
parenchymal
tissue
oxygen
tension.
Their
use
in
enhancing
outcome
is
not
yet
clear.
Moreover,
these
devices
do
not
afford
the
ability
to
remove
CSF
as
part
of
the
treatment
for
elevations
in
ICP.
Acutely
injured
patients
without
acute
lung
injury
(ALI)
or
acute
respiratory
distress
syndrome
(ARDS)
do
not
need
to
be
managed
along
a
specific
ventilatory
pathway,
but
all
means
of
mechanical
ventilation
should
ensure
that
lung
injury
is
not
initiated.
This
means
specifying
PEEP,
flow
rate,
and
waveform,
and
assessing
the
resultant
peak
and
plateau
pressures
for
each
patient.
An
initial
ABG
is
ideal
to
assess
whether
the
targeted
minute
ventilation
was
correct
with
regard
to
CO2
clearance.
Avoid
establishing
a
“one
ventilator
prescription
fits
all”
method
of
managing
acute
respiratory
failure
(ie,
AC
14,
VT
700,
100%,+
5
for
all),
as
ventilator
prescription,
like
fluid
prescription,
should
be
individualized
to
optimize
pulmonary
dynamics.
Similarly,
each
clinician
should
have
a
well-‐designed
rescue
plan
for
patients
who
are
unable
to
be
adequately
oxygenated
on
their
initial
ventilator
mode
once
the
settings
have
been
optimized.
Available
options
include
pressure
control
ventilation,
airway
pressure
release
ventilation,
high
frequency
oscillation
ventilation,
and
prone
positioning
in
conjunction
with
volume
cycled/pressure
cycled/APRV
modes.
No
single
mode
has
demonstrated
superiority
with
regard
to
outcome,
but
certain
modes
offer
unique
advantages
versus
other
modes.
The
author
prefers
APRV,
as
it
is
a
modified
form
of
CPAP
that
allows
for
spontaneous
breathing
at
2
different
pressure
levels,
affords
for
reduced
sedation,
and
has
been
demonstrated
to
enhance
cardiac
performance
and
to
abrogate
basilar
consolidation.
The
interested
reader
is
referred
to
established
works
describing
this
mode
in
detail.
The
established
trauma
patient
may
develop
respiratory
failure
in-‐house
from
pulmonary
embolism
or
pulmonary
sepsis,
and
the
clinician
should
be
keenly
aware
of
the
timing
of
acute
respiratory
failure
to
structure
an
appropriate
differential
diagnosis.
The
longer
a
patient
is
mechanically
ventilated,
the
greater
is
the
likelihood
that
the
patient
will
develop
ventilator
associated
pneumonia
(VAP).
VAP
reduction
bundles
have
demonstrated
efficacy
in
reducing
VAP
incidence
and
include
head-‐of-‐bed
elevation
of
greater
than
30
degrees,
oral
hygiene
measures,
spontaneous
breathing
trials
to
assess
liberation
from
mechanical
ventilation
readiness
(if
not
contraindicated),
infection
control
practice
adherence,
and,
promisingly,
silver
impregnated
endotracheal
tubes
to
address
biofilm-‐related
promotion
of
tracheal
colonization
leading
to
infection.
influences
prevalence
rates
for
MRSA,
VRE,
and
ESBL
producing
gram-‐negative
rods.
Acute
respiratory
failure
is
often
a
prelude
to
other
organ
failures
in
the
critically
injured
patient.
The
criteria
are
known
as
the
RIFLE
criteria
(R
=
Risk,
I
=
Injury,
F
=
Failure,
L
=
Loss,
E
=
End-‐stage
renal
disease).
Importantly,
the
RIFLE
criteria
also
correlate
rather
closely
with
mortality
in
hospitalized
patients.
The
most
recent
ADQI
Consensus
Conference
(ADQI
5)
specifically
addressed
whether
fluid
therapy
created
or
mitigated
the
risk
for
acute
kidney
injury
(AKI).
AKI,
like
the
remainder
of
the
RIFLE
definitions,
weds
a
period
of
oliguria
with
a
measurable
but
small
increase
in
serum
creatinine
concentration.
Larger
increases
and
more
persistent
oliguria
define
acute
renal
failure.
ADQI
5
identified
that
the
most
consistent
risk
factor
for
AKI
is
a
period
of
hypoperfusion
and
that
there
is
some
animal
data
and
lesser
human
data
that
hyperchloremia
plays
a
role
in
AKI
initiation
when
plasma
volume
expansion
is
used
to
treat
hypovolemia.
Other
important
causes
of
acute
kidney
injury
and
acute
renal
failure
(ARF)
and
progression
along
the
RIFLE
pathway
include
radiocontrast
nephropathy
and
rhabdomyolysis.
Radiocontrast
nephropathy
(RCN)
appears
to
be
an
issue
in
discrete
patient
populations.
Risk
factors
include
preexisting
chronic
kidney
disease,
hypovolemia,
hypotension,
diabetes,
and
iodinated
contrast
exposure
dose.
Trauma
patients
receiving
multiple
diagnostic
studies
are
at
particular
risk
for
RCN
because
of
repeated
iodinated
contrast
material
exposure;
for
example,
an
initial
CT
scan,
a
carotid/vertebral
CT
angiogram,
and
then
perhaps
a
traditional
celiac
angiogram
for
angioembolization,
all
within
a
24-‐hour
period.
Prophylactic
regimens
have
explored
plasma
volume
expansion
with
a
variety
of
fluids
and
electrolyte
compositions,
most
recently
NaHCO3
based
solutions,
coupled
with
N
-‐acetyl
cysteine
(NAC)
plus
ascorbic
acid.
The
most
robust
data
support
the
use
of
NaHCO3
(D5
W+150
mEq/L
NaHCO3)
plasma
volume
expansion
prior
to
and
following
radiocontrast
material
administration.
It
is
unclear
whether
the
effect
is
unique
to
bicarbonate
as
an
anion,
to
the
simple
abrogation
of
HCMA
when
present,
or
to
an
absolute
or
relative
reduction
in
chloride
concentration.
At
present,
no
convincing
data
support
the
use
of
NAC
or
vitamin
C.
There
is
no
role
for
mannitol
in
RCN
prevention,
and
mannitol
may
be
injurious
by
inducing
dehydration
and
a
hyperosmolar
state.
No
outcome
benefit
has
been
identified
for
prophylactic
dialysis
for
RCN
prevention.
422
Trauma
patients
are
also
at
risk
for
rhabdomyolysis
following
various
injuries,
most
notably
a
crush
injury,
and
oxygenated
reperfusion
of
a
limb
with
more
than
6
hours
of
warm
ischemia
time.
The
current
recommendation
is
vigorous
plasma
volume
expansion
to
establish
urine
flows
of
approximately
1.5
cc/kg
body
weight
(BW)
per
hour.
Patients
who
received
aggressive,
early
therapy
had
lesser
degrees
of
renal
injury
than
those
receiving
lesser
amounts
of
fluid
therapy.
If
a
patient
is
able
to
achieve
the
above
urine
output
target,
then
urinary
alkalinization
is
unnecessary
and
will
not
confer
an
outcome
advantage.
Patients
who
cannot
reach
the
target
may
benefit
from
alkalinization
using
NaHCO3.
At
present,
there
is
no
evidence-‐based
role
for
mannitol
in
managing
rhabdomyolysis,
and
there
is
evidence
of
potential
harm
from
inducing
hyperosmolarity.
Avoidance
of
inducing
HCMA
is
a
supportive
goal
based
on
experimental
data
identifying
that
hyperchloremia
can
decrease
renal
blood
flow
and
glomerular
filtration
rate
in
an
independent
fashion.
It
is
likely
that
a
more
precise
understanding
of
AKI/ARF
and
progression
of
renal
disease
will
await
large-‐scale
studies
of
the
natural
history
of
renal
biomarkers
in
serum
(cystatin)
and
urine
(kidney
injury
marker-‐1,
N
-‐acetyl-‐b-‐D
glucosaminidase
[tubular
damage],
glutathione
transferase-‐a
[proximal
tubular
damage],
and
neutrophil
gelatinase-‐associated
lipocalin
[putative
indicator
of
renal
ischemia]).
At
present,
no
consensus
exists
as
to
how
to
diagnose
adrenal
insufficiency
(absolute
cortisol
level
vs
stimulation
test
vs
clinical
scenario
without
testing),
as
to
how
to
treat
(glucocorticoid
alone
vs
the
addition
of
mineralocorticoid),
or
as
to
how
to
423
terminate
therapy
once
it
is
initiated
(abrupt
cessation
at
7
d
vs
taper
over
a
total
of
10-‐14
d).
Glycemic
control
failure
Hyperglycemia
may
be
considered
another
endocrine
system
failure
in
that
the
native
system
is
unable
to
meet
the
demands
placed
upon
it
in
those
without
preexisting
diabetes.
Current
data
support
glycemic
control
by
a
continuous
infusion
of
insulin
in
patients
requiring
mechanical
ventilation
as
a
means
of
improving
sepsis
relevant
as
well
as
other
outcomes.
The
target
range
is
currently
unclear
and
spans
110-‐150
mg/dL.
Increasing
data
documents
the
deleterious
effects
of
hypoglycemia,
in
particular
in
those
with
TBI,
when
engaging
in
tight
glycemic
control
(intensive
insulin
therapy;
IIT).
It
is
currently
unclear
if
the
benefits
ascribed
to
tight
glycemic
control
are
time
limited
(ie,
only
realized
over
the
first
2-‐7
d)
or
whether
benefits
accrue
over
prolonged
periods
(ie,
the
ventilated
patient
spending
3
mo
in
the
ICU).
Anemia/bone
marrow
failure
Injured
patients
may
commonly
develop
anemia
as
a
result
of
external
losses
(eg,
scene
hemorrhage,
intraoperative
losses),
underproduction,
and
excessive
blood
sampling.
Hemolysis
is
a
much
less
common
cause
of
anemia
following
injury.
It
is
clear
that
patients
who
are
bleeding
should
be
transfused
with
packed
red
blood
cells
for
restoration
of
red
cell
mass
and
with
fresh
frozen
plasma,
as
required,
for
coagulopathy
correction.
The
optimal
target
hemoglobin
level
has
yet
to
be
established.
Current
evidence
documents
that
a
hemoglobin
level
of
7
g/dL
may
be
safely
maintained
in
the
critically
ill
without
untoward
effects
on
mortality
or
cardiac
appropriate
outcome
variables
compared
to
a
hemoglobin
level
of
9
g/dL.
The
reader
should
note
that
these
studies
excluded
patients
with
active
myocardial
ischemia,
but
they
did
include
patients
with
known
coronary
artery
disease.
It
is
clear
that
red
blood
cell
transfusion
is
associated
with
unfavorable
immunomodulation,
especially
with
older
banked
blood,
and
it
has
been
strongly
correlated
with
an
increased
risk
of
infection
and
ALI.
While
most
of
the
blood
in
the
United
States
is
leukoreduced,
it
is
not
WBC
free.
The
absolute
impact
of
leukoreduction
is
less
clear
than
one
might
like
but
has
become
established
as
a
standard.
All
blood
transfused
in
the
European
Union
is
leukoreduced
by
law.
Anemia
management
with
erythropoiesis
stimulating
agents
(ESAs)
has
drawn
intense
scrutiny
and
criticism,
polarizing
clinicians
and
patients.
The
latest
trial
of
ESAs
in
trauma
patients
(EPO
III)
noted
a
significant
improvement
in
trauma
patient
survival
when
treated
with
erythropoietin.
It
appeared
that
the
effect
was
separate
and
distinct
from
the
hematinic
effect
of
the
delivered
erythropoietin
dose.
This
suggests
another
mechanism
of
action
for
erythropoietin
that
merits
investigation.
Nonetheless,
EPO
therapy
is
not
inexpensive
and
has
not
been
universally
adopted
mainly
based
on
cost
analysis.
Skin
failure
424
Patients
in
the
ICU
after
major
trauma
are
often
total
body
water
and
salt
overloaded.
They
may
or
may
not
have
concomitant
intravascular
volume
overload;
hypovolemia
commonly
coexists
with
total
body
water
and
salt
excess.
In
this
set
of
patients
in
particular,
one
finds
an
increased
risk
of
pressure
ulceration.
Despite
routine
turning
and
repositioning,
patients
may
develop
pressure
ulceration.
None
of
the
pressure
ulceration
risk
scoring
systems
were
developed
to
address
this
unique
patient
population.
Rather,
the
scales
were
developed
for
general
ward
patients
and
have
thus
been
applied
to
a
patient
population
in
which
they
were
not
originally
validated.
Therefore,
it
is
not
uncommon
to
identify
patients
with
a
lower
score
who
nonetheless
develops
an
"unanticipated"
ulcer.
Rigid
cervical
immobilization
devices
and
TLSO
braces
present
another
significant
risk
for
pressure
ulceration
in
the
trauma
patient.
Thus,
early
clearance
of
the
cervical
spine,
when
feasible,
is
an
optimal
manner
in
which
to
reduce
ulceration.
Careful
attention
to
TLSO
brace
fit
is
essential,
as
many
patients
undergo
significant
body
habitus
alteration
with
large
changes
in
total
body
fluid
(acutely)
or
total
body
mass
(more
slowly,
especially
after
a
major
septic
episode).
First,
patients
with
hemorrhagic
shock
will
lose
clotting
factors.
This
loss
will
be
further
compounded
by
plasma
volume
expansion
leading
to
dilution
of
clotting
factors.
Second,
hypothermia
impairs
the
enzyme
kinetics
of
the
serine
based
proteases.
(Clotting
factors
are
enzymes.)
Major
efforts
are
devoted
to
the
maintenance
of
intraoperative
normothermia,
and
normothermia
has
been
associated
with
reductions
in
surgical
site
infection.
Third,
acidosis
also
impairs
the
enzyme
kinetics
of
those
same
proteases.
Surgical
hemorrhage
should
be
differentiated
from
microvascular
hemorrhage.
Surgical
bleeding
requires
a
physical
repair
to
correct.
Microvascular
hemorrhage
requires
restoration
of
clotting
factors,
correction
of
hypothermia,
correction
of
clotting
cofactors
(eg,
calcium,
magnesium,
oxygen),
abrogation
of
thrombocytopenia,
and
correction
of
acidosis.
Microvascular
hemorrhage
control
also
commonly
requires
cavity
packing
and
is
further
augmented
by
procoagulants,
like
recombinant
activated
factor
VII
(rfVIIa).
The
reader
should
note
that
different
doses
have
demonstrated
efficacy
for
different
conditions.
There
is
no
single
agreed
upon
dose
to
be
used
for
trauma-‐associated
hemorrhage.
Moreover,
since
rfVIIa
has
a
half-‐life
of
approximately
2.5
hours,
it
is
unclear
whether
patients
should
be
routinely
redosed
or
await
a
clearly
defined
need.
425
Also,
the
discordance
between
correction
of
PT
and
aPTT
and
the
clinical
resolution
of
hemorrhage
is
not
an
infrequent
report.
Nonetheless,
rfVIIa
has
become
an
integral
part
of
the
massive
transfusion
protocols
at
many
trauma
centers.
With
massive
transfusion,
the
trauma
patient
is
at
risk
for
alloimmunization,
major
and
minor
histocompatibility
reaction,
hemolysis,
and,
with
transfusion
of
fresh
frozen
plasma,
transfusion-‐associated
lung
injury
(TRALI).
TRALI
requires
supportive
care
and
does
not
respond
to
steroids
or
antibiotics.
Sepsis
Sepsis
is
a
ubiquitous
condition
throughout
ICUs
worldwide.
Trauma
patients
are
no
different
than
other
patients
with
regard
to
sepsis
management,
source
control,
adherence
to
sepsis
bundles,
and
outcome,
with
one
exception.
In
the
immediate
peri-‐injury
period,
and
particularly
with
major
solid
organ
injury
(AAST
Grade
III
and
greater)
or
with
intraaxial
or
extraaxial
central
nervous
system
injury,
the
use
of
activated
protein
C
is
problematic.
The
major
limitation
of
activated
protein
C
is
hemorrhage
risk.
The
individual
practitioner
must
weigh
the
risk
of
hemorrhage
based
on
the
time
postinjury
compared
to
the
benefit
of
activated
protein
C.
Attention
should
be
paid
to
antibiotic
selection
in
that
patients
hospitalized
for
more
than
4
days,
especially
in
an
ICU,
should
be
covered
for
nosocomial
pathogens
according
to
the
local
antibiogram
instead
of
community
acquired
pathogens.
As
hospital
acquired,
health
care
associated,
or
ventilator
associated
pneumonia
is
a
common
infection
leading
to
sepsis
in
trauma
patients,
one
should
address
the
diagnosis
using
bronchoscopy
and
bronchoalveolar
lavage
instead
of
the
traditional
4
criteria
(ie,
fever,
leukocytosis,
bronchorrhea,
and
radiographic
infiltrate).
An
invasive
approach
has
been
demonstrated
to
be
more
sensitive,
more
specific,
and
more
accurate
leading
to
confidence
in
the
diagnosis
of
“no
pneumonia”
and
reductions
in
total
care
cost
and
the
incidence
of
multidrug
resistant
infection.
The
Surviving
Sepsis
Campaign
has
made
a
number
of
recommendations
for
best
practices
in
ICUs
to
avoid
and
manage
sepsis.
These
recommendations
are
conveniently
grouped
into
time-‐sensitive
bundles.
Importantly,
these
recommendations
address
timely
antibiotic
administration,
appropriate
cultures,
goal-‐directed
fluid
administration,
glycemic
control,
head-‐of-‐bed
elevation,
oral
hygiene,
and
regular
reassessment
of
the
appropriateness
of
weaning,
as
well
as
the
appropriate
use
of
activated
protein
C.
Adherence
to
the
bundles
is
less
than
uniform,
but
adherence
is
strongly
associated
with
enhanced
survival
from
sepsis.
catheter,
many
companies
developed
less
invasive
monitoring
techniques
that
have
shifted
monitoring
attention
from
a
pressure-‐based
system
to
a
flow-‐based
system.
Examples
include
the
LiDCO
and
PICCO
systems
with
routine
monitoring
of
stroke
volume.
In
fact,
anesthesia
guidelines
in
the
United
Kingdom
require
start
and
end
of
case
monitoring
and
recording
of
stroke
volume
in
operating
room
cases
requiring
monitoring.
Similar
extensions
to
the
ICU
or
high-‐dependency
unit
are
anticipated.
Accordingly,
these
techniques
allow
one
to
determine
the
point
at
which
additional
plasma
volume
expansion
will
not
lead
to
a
further
increase
in
cardiac
performance
(ie,
no
further
volume
recruitable
cardiac
performance).
When
plasma
volume
expansion
proceeds,
despite
no
increase
in
flow-‐based
parameters,
edema
is
a
predictable
result.
In
multiple
venues
(eg,
colon,
biliary
surgery),
excess
fluid
administration
has
been
associated
with
increased
postoperative
pain,
weight
gain,
lung
injury,
ICU
and
ventilator
length
of
stay,
postoperative
nausea
and
vomiting,
diplopia,
skin
bullae,
diuretic
use,
and
fluid
and
electrolyte
abnormalities.
One
study
demonstrated
a
reduced
incidence
of
intraabdominal
hypertension
when
using
colloids
instead
of
crystalloid
fluids
for
plasma
volume
expansion.
The
reduced
intraabdominal
hypertension
was
ascribed
to
a
reduced
total
fluid
need
based
on
the
increased
efficacy
of
colloids
compared
to
crystalloids.
The
earlier
the
patient’s
abdomen
is
closed,
the
less
the
ICU
length
of
stay
and
accrued
risk
for
complications.
Previously,
patients
with
open
abdomens
were
routinely
heavily
sedated
and
neuromuscularly
blocked.
Currently,
sedation
without
neuromuscular
blockade
is
the
norm
and
avoids
prolonged
neuromuscular
blockade
syndrome
and
a
host
of
other
well-‐documented
complications.
Vacuum-‐assisted
closure
(VAC;
KCI
Corporation)
and
the
Wittmann
patch
are
2
techniques
that
are
useful
to
help
achieve
primary
fascial
closure.
For
those
who
are
not
able
to
be
closed,
either
Vicryl
mesh
(2
thicknesses)
with
an
overlying
split-‐
thickness
skin
graft
or
skin
flaps
will
achieve
a
temporary
closure
that
leaves
the
patient
with
a
planned
giant
ventral
hernia.
A
waiting
period
of
6-‐12
months
is
generally
undertaken
prior
to
reconstruction.
Alternatively,
abdominal
wall
closure
with
AlloDerm
(human
acellular
dermis;
LifeCell
Corporation)
has
been
increasingly
used
as
a
regenerative
matrix.
Mixed
results
were
initially
achieved
because
of
improper
placement
techniques
and
improper
tensioning.
Currently,
underlay
techniques
and
proper
tensioning
guidelines
have
helped
make
this
a
successful
strategy
for
abdominal
wall
reconstruction,
both
acutely
and
in
those
with
a
planned
giant
ventral
hernia.
Many
other
options
exist,
including
permanent
meshes
and
component
separation
of
parts
techniques.
In
the
late
1990s,
the
distinct
entity
of
hyperchloremic
metabolic
acidosis
(HCMA)
was
identified
as
a
consequence
of
plasma
volume
expansion
with
solutions
rich
in
chloride
relative
to
human
plasma.
Acute
sequelae
include
the
need
for
increased
minute
ventilation
to
buffer
the
induced
acidosis,
immune
activation,
altered
intracellular
communication,
induction
of
a
cytokine
storm,
RBC
swelling,
and
induced
coagulopathy.
Increasingly
commonly,
buffering
of
HCMA
occurs
by
using
a
nonchloride
maintenance
fluid,
such
as
D5
W+75
mEq
NaHCO3/L
at
a
body
weight
calculated
maintenance
rate.
One
review
noted
that
there
is
a
discrete
and
increased
mortality
associated
with
HCMA
that
is
different
from
the
mortality
rate
for
lactic
acidosis.
Currently,
the
best
available
data
establish
that
resolution
of
lactic
acidosis
correlates
closely
with
survival.
It
is
also
clear
that
many
trauma
patients
have
an
elevated
lactate
level
without
an
explainable
acid-‐base
abnormality.
These
patients
have
hyperlactatemia,
not
lactic
acidosis.
The
elevated
lactate
level
is
related
to
increased
endogenous
catecholamines
that
increased
carbon
moiety
flux
through
the
glycolytic
cascade
producing
lactate
and
pyruvate
in
a
normal
ratio.
No
pH
changes
accrue,
but
the
lactate
level
is
readily
measurable.
The
major
error
stems
from
believing
that
the
elevated
lactate
represents
hypoperfusion
and
providing
additional
plasma
volume
expansion.
The
end
result
is
to
increase
plasma
chloride
428
The
Trauma
Score
assesses
key
physiologic
parameters
after
injury
to
help
in
the
triaging
of
patients.
Parameters:
(1)
respiratory
rate
(2)
respiratory
expansion
(3)
systolic
blood
pressure
(4)
capillary
return
(5)
Glasgow
Coma
Score
(GCS)
Parameter
Finding
Points
respiratory
rate
>=
36
per
minute
2
25-‐35
per
minute
3
10-‐24
per
minute
4
0-‐9
per
minute
1
absent
0
respiratory
expansion
normal
1
shallow
0
retractive
0
systolic
blood
pressure
>=
90
mm
Hg
4
70-‐89
mm
Hg
3
429
1. Input
1. Anatomical scoring systems
1. Abbreviated injury score
2. Injury severity score
2. Physiological scoring systems
1. Glasgow coma scale
2. Trauma score
3. Revised trauma score
4. TRISS methodology
2. Treatment
1. Individual patient
2. System of patient care
3. Outcome
1. Morbidity
2. Mortality
st
General 1 1 degree burns
rd
General 3 50% 3 degree burns
Chest 3 Haemothorax
1. Highest score, indicating the most severe injury, for each region is selected.
2. Ranked from the highest to lowest value.
3. Three highest values are then used to calculate the injury severity score.
431
2 2
Injury severity score = (highest region score) + (second highest region score) +
2
(third highest region score)
1. Minimum score: 0
2. Maximum score: 75
3. Mortality rate increases with score and age
Nil 0
Glasgow Coma
13-15 4
Score
9-12 3
6-8 2
4-5 1
2 0
Revised trauma score = (points for respiratory rate) + (points for systolic blood
pressure) +(points for Glasgow coma score)
TRISS methodology
Components
Limitations
1. Some researchers have found problems with the accuracy of the TRISS
method.
2. May be necessary to develop different coefficients for different populations
of patients
Published:
08/16/2006
433
Epidemiology
Head
injuries
represent
2%
to
3%
of
all-‐cause
deaths
and
26%
to
68%
of
trauma-‐
related
deaths.[1-‐5,
7]
Mortality
following
severe
head
injuries
may
be
as
high
as
30%
to
50%
and
is
predicted
by
the
initial
Glasgow
Coma
Scale
(GCS),
older
age,
hypotension,
the
development
of
secondary
injuries/insults,
and
the
depth
and
duration
of
coma.[4,5,
7-‐9]
Among
survivors,
neurologic
impairment
is
unfortunately
common
and
the
socioeconomic
consequences
related
to
prolonged
hospitalizations,
need
for
rehabilitation,
and
permanent
disabilities
are
tremendous.[8,10]
Blunt Trauma
The
majority
of
head
injuries
occur
as
a
result
of
blunt
trauma
(falls,
assault,
motor
vehicle
collisions,
etc).[4,5,8,11]
A
sudden
acceleration/deceleration
injury
pattern
produces
shearing
forces
within
the
cerebral
parenchyma,
which
can
result
in
contusions,
axonal
injuries,
or
hemorrhagic
lesions.
Contusions
often
develop
adjacent
to
the
site
of
injury
(coup
contusion)
as
the
brain
accelerates
against
the
fixed
skull,
resulting
in
disruption
of
the
underlying
cerebral
parenchyma
and
blood
vessels.
This
is
followed
by
a
sudden
deceleration
and
subsequent
recoil
of
the
brain,
resulting
in
contralateral
lesions
(countercoup
contusion).
Penetrating Injuries
Mild
concussions,
often
resulting
from
falls
or
blunt
trauma,
are
the
most
common
head
injury
and
are
caused
by
sudden
deceleration
of
the
brain
against
the
fixed
skull.[11]
Mild
concussions
are
not
associated
with
underlying
parenchymal
damage
or
long-‐term
sequelae.
More
significant
concussions,
however,
may
cause
a
postconcussion
syndrome
that
is
manifested
by
amnesia,
impaired
memory,
light-‐
headedness,
vertigo,
depression,
and
chronic
headaches.
More
serious
closed
head
injuries
may
produce
cerebral
contusions
(as
above)
that
can
be
complicated
by
cerebral
edema
and
increased
intracranial
pressure
(ICP).
Intracranial Hemorrhage
Intracranial
bleeding
may
result
from
blunt
trauma,
falls,
or
penetrating
injuries
and
may
be
associated
with
skull
fractures
or
concomitant
parenchymal
contusions.
Enlarging
hematomas
may
produce
a
masslike
effect
and
compress
the
adjacent
vascular
structures
resulting
in
further
ischemic
insults
or
distort
surrounding
brain
tissue
causing
increased
ICP
and
further
neurologic
deterioration.
Intracranial
hemorrhages
are
intra-‐axial
or
extra-‐axial.
Intra-‐axial
injuries
occur
within
the
brain
(intraparenchymal
and
intraventricular
hemorrhages).
No
specific
management
is
required,
and
efforts
should
be
directed
to
prevent
or
reduce
secondary
injuries.
Extra-‐axial,
however,
occur
between
the
brain
and
skull
(subdural,
epidural,
and
subarachnoid
hemorrhages)
and
represent
true
surgical
emergencies.
Rapid
evacuation
of
the
blood
collection
through
a
burr
hole
or
craniotomy
is
often
required
and
is
directed
by
the
size,
location,
evolution,
or
degree
of
neurologic
impairment.
Types
of
injuries
include
the
following.
Epidural
hematoma:
Lacerations
of
the
middle
meningeal
artery
cause
bleeding
between
the
skull
and
dura
mater
and
appear
as
a
lens-‐shaped
blood
collection
with
a
convex
medial
border.
Patients
may
present
with
a
brief
lucent
interval
followed
by
loss
of
consciousness.
Epidural
hematomas
are
potentially
very
serious
and
require
emergent
evacuation
because
arterial
bleeding
may
rapidly
accumulate,
leading
to
increased
ICP
and
compression
of
the
surrounding
structures.
Epidural
hematomas
carry
a
15%
to
20%
mortality
rate.[13]
Subdural
hematoma:
Sudden
deceleration
injuries
result
in
tearing
of
the
bridging
veins
in
the
subdural
space
causing
bleeding
between
the
dura
and
arachnoid
mater.
Radiographically,
these
appear
as
crescent-‐shaped
"lentiform"
blood
collections
with
a
concave
medial
border.
These
injuries
are
often
associated
with
underlying
cerebral
contusions
and
may
lead
to
increased
ICP,
uncal
herniations,
focal
neurologic
deficits,
and
death.[14]
Small
subdurals
may
be
clinically
followed,
but
larger
or
evolving
hemorrhages
are
associated
with
increased
mortality
and
require
urgent
surgical
evacuation.
Subarachnoid
hemorrhage
(SAH):
Trauma
is
the
most
common
cause
of
SAH
(ie,
bleeding
between
the
arachnoid
and
pia
mater).
SAH
can
lead
to
death
or
severe
disability,
even
if
recognized
and
treated
early.
Severe
headaches,
mental
status
435
depression,
and
focal
deficits
are
common.
SAH
from
traumatic
or
preexisting
aneurysms
require
surgical
clipping
or
intravascular
coiling.[15]
Thirty
percent
to
50%
develop
cerebral
vasospasm,
which
may
cause
further
ischemic
injuries.[16]
Because
of
the
high
prevalence
of
vasospasms,
serial
monitoring
with
transcranial
Doppler
or
angiography
is
recommended.
Treatment
involves
maintenance
of
intravascular
volume
(hypervolemia),
mean
arterial
pressure
(MAP)
to
ensure
adequate
cerebral
perfusion
pressure
(CPP;
hypertension),
and
hemodilution
("triple
H"
therapy).[17]
Nimodipine
does
not
reduce
the
incidence
or
severity
of
vasospasm
but
has
been
shown
to
improve
outcomes
and
is
recommended.[18]
Diffuse
axonal
injury
results
from
deceleration
and
shearing
between
the
different
densities
of
gray
and
white
matter
with
resultant
axonal
injury.
Axonal
edema
and
degeneration
may
continue
for
the
first
2
weeks
following
injury.
Diffuse
axonal
injury
is
suggested
by
an
immediate
loss
of
consciousness
followed
by
persistent
neurovegetation.
Clinical
symptoms
are
disproportionate
to
radiographic
findings.
Commonly,
neuroimaging
may
be
normal
on
presentation
with
delayed
development
of
edema,
atrophy,
and
small
petechial
hemorrhages
at
the
gray-‐white
junction.
Treatment
is
supportive
with
an
emphasis
on
prevention
of
secondary
injuries.
The
prognosis
is
poor,
with
the
majority
experiencing
a
persistent
neurovegetative
state.
Intracranial Hypertension
Intracranial
hypertension
(ICH)
is
an
unfortunate
consequence
of
severe
head
injuries.
As
explained
by
the
Monro-‐Kellie
hypothesis,
the
skull
is
a
fixed
volume
containing
blood,
cerebrospinal
fluid
(CSF),
and
brain
tissue.[19]
Because
the
skull
is
unable
to
expand,
increases
in
one
of
these
components
must
be
balanced
by
removal
of
another,
otherwise
elevations
in
ICP
occur.
Injury-‐induced
edema,
hyperemia,
and
hemorrhage
disrupt
this
balance,
causing
ICH.
ICH,
in
turn,
reduces
cerebral
blood
flow
(CBF)
with
subsequent
ischemic
insults.
Measuring
ICP
has
been
shown
to
improve
survival
in
patients
with
ICH.[20]
Currently,
accurate
monitoring
requires
invasive
devices.
Parenchymal
pressure
monitors
(eg,
Camino
or
Codman)
measure
ICP
via
a
fiber-‐optic
monitor
placed
in
the
subarachnoid
space.
Intraventricular
catheters
placed
via
ventriculostomy
allow
for
both
measurements
of
ICP
and
drainage
of
CSF.
This
device
offers
a
therapeutic
advantage
over
subarachnoid
monitors
but
carries
a
higher
incidence
of
infection.[20]
CBF
is
maintained
through
adequate
CPP,
which
is
determined
by
the
mean
systemic
arterial
pressure
minus
ICP
(CPP
=
MAP
-‐
ICP).
In
the
uninjured
brain,
CPP
is
maintained
over
a
wide
range
of
systemic
blood
pressures
(approximately
50-‐150
mm
Hg)
to
ensure
the
adequate
delivery
of
oxygenated
blood
to
the
cerebral
parenchyma.
Systemic
hypotension
or
relative
hypotension
(insufficient
to
maintain
adequate
CPP
due
to
increased
ICP)
leads
to
poor
cerebral
perfusion
and
ischemic
insults
and
worse
outcomes.
In
head
injuries
associated
with
ICH,
the
CPP
should
be
436
maintained
above
60
mm
Hg.[21,22]
However,
CPP
may
be
nonuniform
with
variable
CBF
to
areas
of
injury.
Given
this,
and
to
allow
for
variability
in
MAP,
most
clinicians
try
to
maintain
the
CPP
above
70
mm
Hg.[21,22]
Once
identified,
ICH
must
be
aggressively
treated
with
immediate
interventions
aimed
at
lowering
ICP
and
increasing
CPP.
Sustained
ICP
≥
20
mm
Hg
for
more
than
10
minutes
is
associated
with
poor
outcomes,
and
treatment
is
recommended.[20-‐22]
Interventions
include:
2. Maintenance
of
adequate
CPP[21-‐23,
25]:
Every
attempt
should
be
made
to
optimize
CPP.
This
is
accomplished
by
reducing
the
ICP
and
ensuring
adequate
MAP.
MAP
should
be
maintained
at
a
level
resulting
in
a
CPP
>
60-‐
70
mm
Hg
with
intravascular
volume
resuscitation
and,
if
needed,
vasopressor
support.
Aggressive
control
of
MAP
has
been
shown
to
improve
outcomes.
5. Sedation/analgesia[21-‐23,
25,30]:
Pain
and
agitation
increase
ICP
and
should
be
avoided.
Benzodiazepines
and
propofol
have
the
added
benefit
of
increasing
the
seizure
threshold.
The
short
half-‐life
of
propofol
facilitates
serial
437
neurologic
exams
and
is
the
preferred
agent.
However,
excessive
sedation
and
analgesia
may
mask
exam
findings
and
prolong
the
course
of
mechanical
ventilation.
8. Barbiturate
coma[34]:
Barbiturates
are
less
effective
than
mannitol
at
lowering
ICP
and
have
unproven
benefits.
They
may
cause
hypotension
and
pupillary
dilation,
which
can
confuse
the
neurologic
exam.
They
may
be
considered
in
refractory
cases
or
in
those
with
uncontrolled
seizures.
9. Postural
drainage:
To
facilitate
venous
return,
the
head
of
bed
should
be
elevated
at
30°
and
neck
maintained
in
a
midline
position.
Intrajugular
central
lines
and
improperly
positioned
C-‐collars
may
impede
venous
drainage
and
should
be
avoided
when
possible.
10. Glycemic
control[35]:
Hyperglycemia
has
an
adverse
effect
on
outcomes
in
severely
head-‐injured
patients
and
should
be
aggressively
avoided.
11. CSF
drainage[19,36]:
As
above,
removal
of
CSF
through
an
intraventricular
catheter
reduces
ICP.
Drainage
should
be
continued
to
maintained
the
ICP
between
5
mm
Hg
and
15
mm
Hg.
12. Craniectomy[37]:
Although
drastic,
bone
and
potentially
brain
removal
are
extremely
effective
in
reducing
ICP.
In
our
unpublished
experience,
craniectomy
greatly
facilitates
ICP
management
and
may
improve
outcomes
and
is
recommended
if
other
therapies
are
not
effective.
One
of
the
primary
goals
in
the
management
of
the
head-‐injured
patient
is
prevention
of
secondary
injuries
and
insults.
These
phenomena
are,
unfortunately,
common
and
often
contribute
to
morbidity
and
mortality.[25]
Ischemia
Ischemia
may
result
from
the
primary
injury
or
be
the
consequence
of
ICH
or
reduced
CBF.
Vasospasm,
hemorrhage,
and
edema
may
impair
adequate
blood
flow.
438
Prevention
of
secondary
hypoxic
injuries
or
minimizing
the
extent
of
the
primary
ischemic
region
may
improve
outcomes.[22]
Infection
CNS
infections
are
a
common
cause
of
morbidity
and
mortality
in
head-‐injured
patients.
As
mentioned,
penetrating
lesions
represent
a
significant
risk,
especially
with
disruption
of
the
dural
integrity.[11]
Brain
abscesses,
meningitis,
or
ventriculitis
may
occur
as
a
consequence
of
blood
collections
or
invasive
ICP
monitors.
CNS
infections
may
also
result
from
systemic
infections
related
to
prolonged
intensive
care
unit
care,
which
is
common
to
these
injuries.
CNS
infections
represent
an
often
devastating
complication
because
they
are
often
difficult
to
treat,
add
further
insult
to
the
already
damaged
parenchyma,
and
may
further
impair
adequate
CBF
due
to
systemic
hypotension.
Stress Gastritis
Mechanical
ventilation
requirements
and
ICH
are
associated
with
an
increased
incidence
of
stress
gastritis
and
ulcers.[38]
Prophylaxis
is
recommended
but
must
be
weighed
against
the
increased
risk
for
pneumonia.
Venothromboemboli
Prolonged
hospitalization
and
immobility
are
well-‐established
risk
factors
for
the
development
of
deep
venous
thrombosis
and
subsequent
pulmonary
emboli.[39]
However,
the
benefits
of
preventive
anticoagulation
must
be
balanced
with
the
risk
of
intracranial
bleeding.
Similar
to
other
trauma
centers,
our
protocol,
which
employs
sequential
compressive
devices
initially
with
the
addition
of
low-‐molecular-‐
weight
heparin
48-‐72
hours
after
injury
in
the
absence
of
ongoing
bleeding,
has
not
resulted
in
further
hemorrhagic
complications.
Seizures
Seizures
are
not
uncommon
consequences
of
head
injuries
and
may
result
in
further
neurologic
impairment.[40]
Seizure
prophylaxis,
often
with
phenytoin,
is
commonly
used
despite
little
data
showing
its
benefit.
Per
our
protocol,
seizure
prophylaxis
is
given
for
1
week
in
the
absence
of
seizures
and
for
3-‐6
months
if
seizure
activity
is
noted.
Prophylactic
therapy
may
reduce
the
incidence
of
seizures
in
the
immediate
postinjury
period
but
may
not
prevent
long-‐term
seizure
disorders,
and
its
use
must
be
balanced
with
adverse
effects
on
cognition
associated
with
phenytoin.[41]
Malnutrition
Electrolyte Disturbances
Normal
homeostasis
may
be
impaired
following
head
injuries,
with
altered
sodium
regulation
being
the
most
common
and
significant
abnormality.
Prompt
recognition
and
restoration
of
normal
serum
sodium
is
imperative
to
prevent
osmotic
gradients
and
further
cerebral
edema.
Cerebral
salt
wasting
presents
with
hyponatremia
due
to
impaired
reabsorption
of
sodium.[43]
Diabetes
insipidus
presents
with
a
contraction
hypernatremia
and
hyperosmolarity
resulting
from
large
amounts
of
free
water
loss
as
dilute
urine.
The
resulting
intravascular
volume
depletion
may
impair
CBF,
and
the
serum
hyperosmolarity
may
cause
further
fluid
shifts
in
the
brain
parenchyma.[44]
This
consequence
typically
signals
underlying
ICH
and
is
often
a
preterminal
event.
TCC
Principii tratament
5. Management si protectie cai aeriene
6. Ventilatie controlata pt a avea CO2 dorit
7. intrerventie chirurgicala precoce (4 ore) dupa injurie
8. mentinere flux sg cerebral
9. tratarea ICP ↑
10. evaluare modificari sistemice
Trauma MS
Metilprednison 30 mg/kg prima ora apoi 5,4 mg/kg 23 ore in primele 8 ore de
la leziune
Criza Epilepsie
11. Diazepam 0,1 mg/kg bolus + <2 mg/min
12. Fenitoin 20 mg/kg <50 mg/min
13. Fenobarbital 20 mg/kg <100mg/min
441
Resuscitare:
Formule hidratare arsi
PARKLAND 4 ml/kg/%TBSA
BROOKE 2 ml/kg/%TBSA
Fact de prognostic
3 majori: - extinderea arsurilor
- varsta
- prezenta / absenta lez de inhalare
- ↑ supravietuirii prin resuscitare lichidiana adecvata, terapie ATB topica,
excizie precoce, grafting, suport nutritional
- principala cauza de deces: complicatiile infectioase - pneumonia incidenta
mai mare decat infectarea arsurilor propriu zise
Agenti antimicrobieni
Initial
- asigure cai aeriene
- inceperea resuscitarii
- evaluare lez asociate
- trat propriu-zis al arsurilor: spalre, indepartare necroze, debridare
Suspiciune inhalare
- pacient cu status mental afectat
- trauma
- arsuri ce s-au produs in spatii inchise
- 30% din cei cu lez de inhalare → spatii deschise → nu exclude afect pulm
- cel mai sensib semn: arsurile faciale
- alte sm sugestive: inflamatia mucoasei ror-faringe, stridor, wheezing, raluri,
ardere piramida nazala, raguseala
- sputa cu reziduri carbonizate = inhalare
Confirmare – bronhoscopie → eritem sau ulceratii ale trahei
Leziuni de inhalare - cai aeriene sup
- cai aeriene inf
- ambele
- EAB + RxCP normale la internare → rol scazur
- grade mici de edem cai aeriene – aer uminidficat + adrenalina
- management CR inf = integral suportiv, trat EPA + pneumonie
- ATB + corticoterapie profilactice – nu si-au dovedit eficienta
444
Intoxicatia cu CO
- CO afinitate de 20x mai mare → ↓ capacitatea de transport a O2 → hipoxie
tisulara
- clinic: - SNC: confuzie, agitatie, pierdere constienta
- cord: depresie miocardica
- sm clasic – cherry red lips
- confirmare: EAB cu detectare carboxiHb
- Trat: - O2 100% pe masca/IOT inceput de la locul incidentului
- O2 hiperbar – accelereaza eliminarea
- alte: convulsii, injurie pulmonara, afect imnitate
- pulsoximetria ineficienta in detectare CO – poate arata nivele fals ↑↑
Escarotomia
- sub escara arsura grad3 apare edem → ↑ p venoasa → afectare perfuzie
tisulara
- indicatie – eco doppler- absenta /diminuarea fluxului pulsatil in arcul palmar
asu in terit a tibiale post
- la pat, fara anestezie
Solutii de acoperire
- cand arsurile sunt extensive zonele de al donator limitate → alte materiale
biologice
- allogrfe, xenogrefe (porc), homogrefe (cadavre)
- analogi de piele pe baza de colagen, CEA cu keratinocite
Arsuri chimice
- injurii provocate de energia termica produsa de acizii/bazele tari la reactia cu
tes
- spalare abundenta – indepartare agent – acizi 30-60 min irigatie cu apa,
bazele au afinitate tisulara mare lavaj ore
- fosfor alb – particulele restante se pot aprinde la contact → CuSO4
impiedica aprinderea (Cu absorbit poate produce hemoliza + IRA) –
identificare cu lumina UV
- pulberile se indep prin periere
Arsuri electrice
- injurie prin conversia curentului electric in caldura
- efectul depinde de voltaj, tip curent (alternativ/continuu), locul actiunii si
durata contactului
- curent alternativ mai periculos dat ef tetanic → potential stop cardiac
- lez cutanate – locul de intrare + loc iesire
- frecv subestimat necesarul de fluide (si arsuri interne)
- rabdomioliza cu risc de IRA – Dz orara 70-100 ml/h la adult + de considerat
alcalinizare pt a prevenii precipitare mioglobina in tubi
- injurii profuunde → sd de compartiment → fasciotomii
- consecinte sistemice – pattern bifazic – initial hipofunctie, tardiv hiperfunctie
Complicatii:
- pneumnonia
- ulcer Curling (ulcer stres stomac + duoden)
- colecistita acalculoase
- sepsis
75. Oprirea circulatorie (cauze, forme, bazic si advanced life support)
INNECUL
= cauza de deces secundara asfixiei prin imersie in lichid sau care apare in
primele 24 ore de al imersie
= proces datorat imersiei intr-un mediu lichidian orin care rezulta o disfunctie
respiratorie primara
446
Tratament
1. Masuri generale:
- ! boli asociate (IMA, aritmii, convulsii, hemoragie subarahnoidiana) si
consum de droguri, alcool
- leziuni SNC si MS
2. Management ICU
- indicatie admisie: insuficienta respiratorie, stop cardiac, aritmii, alterarea
starii de constienta
- clinic: cianoza, tahicardie, h/HTA, hT0, dispnee cu sputa rozata, raluri difuze,
weezing
- laborator: acidoza metabolica (lactat↑), hipoxemie, electroliti in gen N, frecv
hipoglicemie, hemoliza, rabdomioliza
- EKG – aritmii, ischemie
- RxCP – infiltrate difuze bilateral
3. Managment respirator
- Atelectazie, EPA , ARDS, corpi straini (bronhoscopie), bronhospasm
- PEEP f important
- ventilatie protectiva cu volume mici
- poarta de intrare pt bacterii → pneumonie la 2-7 zile ( frecv Klebsiella,
Pseudomonas, E colli, Proteus, Stafilococ, Candida, Aspergilius)
- ATB profilactica nu imbunatateste supravietuirea
447
4. Resuscitarea cerebrala
- leziunea cerebrala e influentata de varsta, temperatura apei, timpul de
submersie, leziuni coeexistente, b preexistente
Categorii:
A = constient recuperare completa
B = stuporos
C = comatos C1 Decorticat
C2 Decerebrat
C3 Flacid
HYPER : hiperhidratare
hiperpirexie
hiperexcitabilitate
hiperrigiditate
→ diureza osmotica
→ hiperventilatie
→ coma barbiturica
→ relaxante musculare
→ hipotermie
→ evitare corticozi sistemici
5. Lavajul pulmonar terapeutic
- innec controlat – in fibroza chistica, proteoliza alveolara pulmonara
- complicatii – inundare plaman controlat, hipoxemie, hidropneumotorax,
pneumonie
Fiziopatologie:
- electroni ce urmeaza o cale anormala prin organism → leziune/deces prin
depolarizare mm/neuroni → ritm electric anormal creier, cord + arsuri electrice
int sau ext prin caldura sau porare (gaurire mb cel)
- creier (voltaj ↑/↓) – pierdere constienta prin depolarizare neuroni
- AC produce FiV → calea de trecere implica toracele (brat → brat, brat→
picior, cap→ picior/brat)
- se produce mionecroza, mioglobinemie, mioglobinurie
- se produc arsuri electrice ce det distrugerea unei cantitati masive de tesut
- arsurile termice prin `electrical flashes` sunt considerate injurii electrice desi
nu implica un circuit prin organism
Fulgere:
- supravietuire < 5%, frecv insotite de stop cardiac
- in caz de stop cardiac CPR prelungita poate reusii dar ↑ probabilitatea de lez
cerebrale definitive
Voltaj ↓:
448
Voltaj ↑:
- > 600 V
- in gen nu fac stop cardiac, dar au lez extensive (arsuri), mioglobinurie, aritmii
Lab:
- HLG
- electroliti
- creatinina
- sumar urina
- Ck
- mioglobina urinara + serica
- RxCP – trauma torace, dispnee, CPR
- Eco/CT – susp lez interne
- ECG – daca apar aritmii sau voltaj ↑ → monitorizare cont
- EEG
Tratament
- protectie cai aeriene, oxigenoterapie
- hidratare IV – folosire reguli pac cu arsura obisnuita
- trat edem cerebral
- diuretic (mioglobinurie → necroza tubulara acuta) manitol + furosemid
- fasciotomie – arsuri externe cu voltaj ↑
ANATOMIE
Functie ap resp
14. aprovizionare celule cu O2
15. eliminare produsi de metabolism – CO2
1. Pasaj nazal
- functie olfactiva
- incalzeste, filtreaza, umidifica aer inspirat
- inalveola aer 100% saturat cu vapori de apa
- in VM aceste functii sunt ocolite
2. Sinusuri
- camere de rezonanta
- paranazale – frontal, etmoidal, sfenoid, maxilar → sinuzite
- mastoide → mastoidita
3. Faringe
- de la cav nazala pana le diviziunea spre larigesi esofag
- 3 diviziuni - nazofaringe: tub eustachio + adenoide
- orofaringe
- hipofaringe = p laringiana
4. Laringe
- corzi vocale → fonatie
- sfincter → rol in prevenirea aspiratiei
- cartilaje - tiroid
- aritenoid
- cricoid
Glota= spatiul dintre corzile vocale
1. Traheea
- anterior cartilaj
- posterior m neted
2. Bronhii
- m neted + catilaj dar circular
- bronhia dreapta - mai verticala → risc mai ↑ de aspiratie
- 3 bronhii lobare: sup, mijl, inf
- bronhia stanga - 2 bronhii lobare: sup, inf
3. Bronhiole terminale
- 1-16 = zona conductionala
- broniolele nu au cartilaj, doar fibre elastice + mm neted
- se mentin deschise prin tractiunea exercitata de fortele elastice ale tesutului
pulmonar → sunt susceptibile la bronhospasm
450
4. Alveole
= 5 mm distanta = 3000 ml
Cel alveolara tip I – epiteliu scuoamos intr-un singur strat celular care fac
schimburi gazoase si previn transudarea lichidelor in alveole
- sensibile la O2 + agenti inhalatori
Cel alveolara tip II – produce surfactant
Macrofagele alveolare – indep resturi celulare, fagociteaza particule straine
Surfactant
16. previne colapsul bronsiolelor + alveolelor in special in expir prin ↓
tensiunii superficiale
17. ↑ complianta pulmonara → ↓ work of breathing
18. sangele trece rpin capilar in aprox ½ sec dar schimbul gazos are loc la
traversarea doar a ¼ din distanta
INERVATIE
- PS – n X – stimulare prin iritare laringiana → bronhoconstrictie in principal a
cailor mici
- S – β – stimulare → bronhodilatatie
VASCULARIZATIE
→ bronsica – a bronsice (2% din DC)
→ pulmonara – a pulmonare – pereti f subtiri cu f putin m neted
LIMFATICE
- reabsoarbe excesul de fluide din sp interstitial pulmonar, peribronsic, pleural
451
PLAMANII
→ drept - 55% din functia pulm
- lobi: sup, mijl, inf
→ stang - lobi sup (p inf lob sup = lingula), inf
PLEURA + SP PLEURAL
→ viscerala – nu are inervatie
→ parietala - rec pt durere
- cel pleurale produc o solutie aprox 10 ml care lubrefiaza suprafta pleurala,
dezvolta tensiunea superficiala ce mentine pleurele lipite si previne colapsul
pulmonar
- sp intrapleural = p = - 5 mmHg
- pleura stg-dr – complet separate
CUTIA TORACICA
- col vert
- stern
- coaste (24)
MM RESP
→ Diafragmul - n frenic C3-C5
- p centrala fibroasa = tendon central
- atasat – proces xifoid, ultimele 6 coastte, coloana vertebrala
- 70% din Vt
→ mm intercostali externi – n intercostali T1-12
→ mm accesori - m scalen – C4-8
- m trapez – C3-4, n XI
- scm - C2-3, n XI
→ mm intercostali interni
→ mm abdominali T7-12, L1
- oblic int + ext
- drept abd
- transvers abd
MECANISME PROTECTIVE
- Tusea – stim mecanici, chimici, fizici init tusea prin mecanism colinergic
vagal reflex – rec in CRS
- Stranut – stim rec V + I
- Clearance – ul mucociliar
CONTROLUL VENTILATIEI
-primar controlata prin stimuli chimici in centrii reglatori din tr cerebral
Controlul voluntar
- cortex motor: lob frontal, aria limbica
- este limitat controlul cortical asupra celorlalti centrii respiratori
Controlul hormonal
- resp controlata primar prin mecnism de feedback ce implica stimuli chimici
ce actioneaza pe chemorec in tr cerebral + periferic
Chemorec centrali: - in bulb – influentat de conc de H (pH) a LCR
- PaCO2 – determina ↑ maximala a conc H in LCR
deoarece nu exista buffer proreina
- ↑ conc H → ↑ profunzimii si frecv respiratiei
- nu raspund la PaO2
453
Reflexe mecanice
Rec de intindere
- localizati in m neted bronsic
- stim prin hiperinflatia plamannului → n X → centru respirator → ↑ timp
expirator → limiteaza inflatia = Reflex de inflatie Hearing Brener
Rec de iritatie
- intre cel epiteliale
- mediat de n X: bronhocontrictie, ↑ frecv respiratorie
Rec J
- in perete alveolar langa capilare
= rec juxtacapilari
- inervati de n X → resp superf pana la apnee
- stimul – lich in alveole
Alti receptori:
- Propioreceptori din articulatii
- frecv rec din mm intercostali + diafragm
- rec durerii, temp
- barorec aortici + carotidieni
FIZIOLOGIE
VENTILATIA
pulmonara, ↑ in I der
fluxul de aer in plamani
E – preoces pasiv
- ap dat reculului elastic al plamanului
- ↑ negativitatii Ppl determina fluxul de aer in plamani si promoveaza
intoarcerea venoasa in inima dreapta
- ventilatia cu presiune pozitiva → pres toracica devine pozitiva → afecteaza
distributia gazelor, tulburari hemodinamice (prin ↓ presarcinii inimii drepte)
SPIROMETRIE
IC = capacitatea inspiratorie
= IRV + VT
= volumul maxim care poate fii inspirat dupa un expir fortat
= mai fidel ca IRV
VC = capacitate vitala
= IRV + VT + ERV
= volumul de gaz expirat dupa un inspir profund
= indicator al sevrarii de VM
1. COMPLIANTA
- masurarea distensibilitatii tesutului pulmonar
- elasticitatea tes pulmonar este primar determinata de compozitia interstitiala
in elastina si fibre de colagen
456
Complianta statica
Pplatou
- pauza inspiratorie de 2 sec la inceputul inspirului ( in aceste conditii nu
exista flux de gaze in plamani)
- reflecta P dat fortelor elastice de intoarcere asupra volumului de gaze din
plaman fara a masura P datorata fluxului de gaze
- cand se masoara P platou PEEP-ul trebuie retras
- fara IOT – prin masurarea P pleurale care reflecta P alveolara cu ajutorul
unui balon esofagian
Complianta dinamica
Cdyb ↓: - ↓ C pulmonara
- ↑ rezistenta
2. REZISTENTA
- masurarea opozitiei la lfuxul de gaze ce trece prin caile aeriene
- 2 tipuri:
457
→ flux laminar – P ↓
→ flux turbulent – flux ↑ + Raw ↑
→ flux tranzitional – mixt
3. CONSTANTA DE TIMP
Time constant = R x C
4. WORK OF BREATHING
LM = F x d = P x V
PERFUZIA
Z1 458
PA>Pa>Pv
↑
- distributia perfuziei nu este
Z2 uniforma in plamani datorita a 2 factori
distanta
- pres arteriala,
Pa>PA>Pvvenoasa, alveolara
- pres gravitationala
- distributia sg depinde de pozitia corpului
- ortostatism – distributie
Z1 mai mare in baze flux sg →
- decubit dorsal - distributie
Pa>Pv>P A
mai mare in z post
- decubit lateral - distributie mai mare in plamanul dependent
WEST
VASOCONSTRICTIA HIPOXICA
- raspunsul la modificarile tensiunii gazelor respiratorii
- modif PO2 si PCO2 opuse efectelor circ sistemice
→ ↑ PO2 → dilatare vase pulmonare
→ ↓ PO2 → vasoconstrictie pulmonara → = vasoconstrictie pulmonara
hipoxica
→ ↑ PVR → ↑ lucru mecanic inima dreapta
VC in arii cu PO2↓ → dirijeaza sg spre alveole oxigenate → adapteaza
perfuzia la ariile pulmonare mai bine ventilate → imbunatateste schimbul
gazos
↑ PVR ↓ PVR
PO2 ↓ in alveole O2
Hipercapnie Hipocapnia
Acidoza Alcaloza
Hipotermia Agonisti β adrenergici
Stim simpatica Izoprotenerol
Agonisti α adrenergici Dobuamina
NA Nitroprusiat de Na
↑ fluxului sanguin NTG
↑ P cai aeriene PGE1
embolism pulmonat Teofilina
ATIII
DIFUZIA
= miscarea moleculelor de gaz din arii cu pres partiala ↑ in arii cu pres partiala
↓
- forta ce conduce moleculele este gradientul de pres de-a lungul mb alveolo-
capilare
VENOS ARTERIAL
Pv O2 = 40 mmHg Pa O2 = 95 mmHg
PvCO2 = 46 mmHg PaCO2 = 40 mmHg
pH = 7,36 pH = 7,4
SvO2 = 65% SaO2 = 95%
ALVEOLA
PAO2 = 100 mmHg
PACO2 = 40 mmHg
PN2= 573 mmHg
PH2O = 47 mmHg
TRAHEAL
PO2 = 150 mmHg
PCO2 = 0.3 mmHg
PN2 = 563 mmHg
PH2O = 47 mmHg
INSPIR
O2 20% = 159 mmHg
CO2 0.03% = 0.3 mmHg
N2 79% = 600 mmHg
H2O 0.5% = 4-5.7 mmHg
Sangele oxigenat ajunge in inima stg unde se amesteca cu sangele venos din
circ bronsica neoxigenat → ↓ PaO2 fata de PAO2 = gradient alveolao-arterial
(A-a) = sunt anatomic = 10 mmHg
→ Ventilatie alveolara V
→ Flux sg pulmonar Q
- raportul determina compozitia gazelor ce parasesc plamanul
Ideal V/Q = 1 , dar ventilatia si perfuzia nu sunt distribuite uniform in plaman
Pintrapleurala: - 10 cmH2O la vf
- 2 cmH2O la baza
→ apex – ventil mai ↑ V/Q = 3
→ baze – perf mai ↑ V?Q = 0,6
Ventilatia alveolara – 4 l/min → V/Q = 7/5 = 0.8 global, pe tot plamnul
CO = 5 l/min
Inegalitate V/Q
1. Sunt
- ap cand sg intra in circulatia arteriala fara a perfuza ariile ventilate ale
plamanului
2. Spatiul mort
- ventilatie prezenta, dar alveola prost perfuzata
= ventilatie de sp mort → ↑ PCO2
Sp mort: - anatomic - cant de aer din caile aeriene
- 2 ml/kg = 150 ml
- fiziologic - ventilatie N, dar perfuzie inadecvata
Cauze: -embolie pulmonara
- ↓ perf pulm (CO↓, HTP acuta)
- VM cu Vt↑ sau P↑ ce supradimensioneaza alveola → pres
alv>pres capilara
- CID
2. Raport PaO2/FiO2
- N = 550 pt FiO2 = 1
40
5
20
20 40 60 80 100 600
PaO2 mmHg
↑ afinitatea ↓ afinitatea
-↓H -↑H
- ↓ 2,3 DPG - ↑ 2,3 DPG
- ↓ To - ↑ To
- istoric de b pulmonara
- fumator > 20 pachete ani
- rezectie mediastin anterior
TLC 600
VC 4700 RV 1300
IC 3500 FRC 2500
IRV 3000 TV ERV 1200 RV 1300
500
465
B pulmonare obstructive
- astm, bronsita cronica, emfizem, fibroza cistica, bronsiolita
- ↓ fluxul expirator si implica caile aeriene distal de carina
- FEV1 ↓, FEV1/FVC ↓,
- FEF25-75↓ - prezice colaps cai aeriene mici - indicator sensibil al
obstr cai aeriene precoce
- FVC N/↓
B pulmonare restrictive
- configuratie anormala cutie toracica, slabiciune mm resp, pierdere
spatiu alveolar (fibroza pulmonara, pneumonie), inlocuire sp pulm de b ale
pleurei (lichid, tumori)
- ↓ volumele - TLV, VC
- fluxurile de aer pot fi normale sau ↑
Criterii
ale
functiei
pulmonare
ce
sugereaza
cresterea
riscului
pt
chirrugia
toracica
si
abdominala
Abdominal Toracic
FVC <70%
prezis <70%
prezis
sau
<1.7
L
FEV1 <70%
prezis <2
L
-‐
pneumonectomy.
<1
L
-‐
lobectomy.
<0.6
L
-‐
Segmentectomie.
FEV1/FVC <65% <35%
MVV <50%
prezis <50%
prezis
sau
<28
L/min
RV <47%
prezis
DLCO <50%
VO2 <15
mL/kg/min
Published: 05/06/2009
Abstract
Introduction
The
American
Thoracic
Society
and
Infectious
Diseases
Society
of
America
recommend
empirical
treatment
with
broad-‐spectrum
antibiotic
therapy
targeted
against
multidrug-‐resistant
pathogens,
including
methicillin-‐resistant
Staphylococcus
aureus
(MRSA),
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa,
and
other
resistant
gram-‐negative
bacilli
in
patients
with
proven
or
suspected
healthcare-‐associated
pneumonia
(HCAP).
Choice
of
empirical
therapy
may
include
vancomycin
or
linezolid
plus
an
antipseudomonal
cephalosporin,
carbapenem,
ß-‐lactam/ß-‐lactamase
inhibitor,
and/or
a
fluoroquinolone
or
aminoglycoside.[1]
Despite
the
breadth
of
available
antibiotics
for
the
treatment
of
HCAP,
clinical
failures
due
to
the
development
of
resistance,
intolerance
due
to
adverse
effects,
or
reduced
penetration
at
the
site
of
infection
still
occur.
Several
alternatives
for
the
treatment
of
HCAP
are
under
investigation
or
are
newly
approved
by
the
U.S.
Food
and
Drug
Administration
(FDA).
The
mechanism
of
action,
spectrum
of
activity
relating
to
HCAP
pathogens,
pharmacokinetics
and
dosing,
adverse
effects,
and
clinical
efficacy
of
these
compounds
are
reviewed.
Doripenem
468
Doripenem
is
a
new
parenteral
carbapenem
that
has
bactericidal
activity
against
many
gram-‐positive
and
gram-‐negative
aerobic
organisms
encountered
in
patients
with
HCAP.
Data
from
in
vitro
evaluations
suggest
gram-‐positive
activity
similar
to
imipenem,
including
methicillin-‐sensitive
S.
aureus
(MSSA)
and
Streptococcus
pneumoniae.
Like
imipenem,
doripenem
is
inactive
against
MRSA.[2]
Doripenem
has
in
vitro
activity
against
a
broad
scope
of
gram-‐negative
HCAP
pathogens
that
is
similar
in
nature
to
meropenem.
Importantly,
doripenem
demonstrates
potent
bactericidal
activity
against
P.
aeruginosa
and
often
retains
activity
against
isolates
resistant
to
imipenem
and
meropenem.[3]
The
high
binding
affinity
of
doripenem
to
PBP-‐2
and
-‐3
is
felt
to
enhance
its
activity
against
drug-‐resistant
P.
aeruginosa.
[4]
Doripenem
has
in
vitro
activity
similar
to
imipenem
against
wild-‐type
isolates
of
Acinetobacter
baumannii.
[3]
Doripenem,
like
other
carbapenems,
is
stable
to
the
extended-‐spectrum
ß-‐lactamases
(ESBLs)
produced
by
Escherichia
coli
and
Klebsiella
species.[5]
In
addition,
doripenem
is
stable
to
AmpC
ß-‐lactamases
and
does
not
select
for
AmpC-‐derepressed
mutants
from
inducible
populations
of
organisms,
including
Enterobacter
species,
Serratia
species,
and
Citrobacter
fruendii.
[5]
Doripenem
also
has
activity
against
other
pathogens
associated
with
HCAP,
including
non-‐AmpC
ß-‐lactamase
producing
Enterobacteriaceae
and
Haemophilus
influenzae.
[2,6]
Although
doripenem
is
stable
against
many
ß-‐lactamases,
it
is
vulnerable
to
certain
acquired
ß-‐lactamases,
including
the
class
B
metallo-‐ß-‐lactamases
produced
by
some
P.
aeruginosa
isolates
and
carbapenemases
produced
by
some
Enterobacteriaceae
and
Acinetobacter
species.[5,7]
Additionally,
P.
aeruginosa
isolates
that
do
not
possess
the
porin
OprD
have
increased
minimum
inhibitory
concentration
(MIC)
values
for
doripenem.
Fortunately,
pseudomonal
resistance
to
doripenem
requires
multiple
resistance
mechanisms
to
be
present;
typically,
loss
of
membrane
permeability
combined
with
functioning
AmpC
ß-‐lactamases
or
overexpression
of
multidrug
efflux
pumps.[7]
The
propensity
to
select
for
resistant
P.
aeruginosa
mutants
in
vitro
was
lower
for
doripenem
than
for
the
other
carbapenems.[8]
The
volume
of
distribution
for
doripenem
is
17
L,
approximating
extracellular
fluid
volume,
and
the
protein
binding
(8.9%)
is
comparable
to
meropenem
(2%).
Doripenem
distributes
to
many
body
fluids
and
tissues,
including
peritoneal
fluid
and
bile;
distribution
into
lung
epithelial
lining
fluid
is
unknown.[9]
The
estimated
elimination
half-‐life
of
doripenem
is
~0.95
hour,
and
75%
of
the
drug
is
excreted
unchanged
in
the
urine.[10]
In
subjects
with
renal
impairment,
drug
exposure
was
increased,
necessitating
reduced
dosing.[11]
the
duration
of
the
infusion
without
increasing
the
total
daily
dose
increased
the
likelihood
of
achieving
the
target
PK-‐PD
parameter.
Doripenem
has
low
affinity
for
the
γ-‐aminobutyric
acid
(GABA)
receptor
compared
with
other
carbapenems
and
produced
no
convulsive
activity
in
preclinical
animal
studies.[12]
However,
seizures
were
reported
in
1.1
to
1.3%
of
patients
in
clinical
trials.
Allergic
reactions
ranging
in
severity
from
rash
and
urticaria
to
anaphylaxis
and
severe
hypersensitivity
have
occurred
with
doripenem.
Doripenem
received
FDA
approval
based
on
data
from
clinical
trials
demonstrating
noninferiority
to
levofloxacin
for
the
treatment
of
complicated
urinary
tract
infections
and
meropenem
for
intraabdominal
infections.[13-‐15]
Additionally,
recent
studies
evaluated
doripenem
for
the
treatment
of
hospital-‐acquired
pneumonia
(HAP).
The
first
randomized,
open-‐labeled,
phase
III
trial
compared
doripenem
to
piperacillin/tazobactam
for
the
treatment
of
nosocomial
or
early-‐onset
(<
5
days)
ventilator-‐associated
pneumonia
(VAP).[16]
Patients
were
randomized
to
receive
doripenem
500
mg
IV
every
8
hours
as
a
1-‐hour
infusion
or
piperacillin/tazobactam
4.5
g
IV
every
6
hours
as
a
30-‐minute
infusion.
Step-‐down
therapy
to
oral
levofloxacin
was
allowed
after
≥
72
hours
of
study
drug,
for
a
complete
treatment
course
of
7
to
14
days.
The
clinical
cure
rates
in
the
clinically
evaluable
(CE)
population
were
81.3%
(109/134)
and
79.8%
(95/119)
and
in
the
clinical
modified
intention-‐to-‐treat
(cMITT)
population
were
69.5%
(148/213)
and
64.1%
(134/209)
in
the
doripenem
and
piperacillin/tazobactam
arm,
respectively
(p
=
NS).
Overall
microbiological
cure
rates
were
84.5%
for
doripenem
and
80.7%
for
piperacillin/tazobactam.
A
second
randomized,
open-‐labeled,
phase
III
trial
in
patients
solely
with
VAP
compared
doripenem
to
imipenem.[17]
In
this
trial,
patients
received
doripenem
500
mg
IV
every
8
hours
as
4-‐hour
extended
infusion
or
imipenem
500
mg
IV
every
6
hours
or
1000
mg
IV
every
8
hours
as
standard
infusions
for
7
to
14
days.
The
clinical
cure
rates
were
68.3%
for
doripenem
versus
64.2%
for
imipenem
and
59.0%
for
doripenem
versus
57.8%
for
imipenem
in
the
CE
and
cMITT
populations,
respectively.
Doripenem
met
the
predefined
criteria
for
noninferiority
to
imipenem
for
the
treatment
of
VAP.
In
a
subgroup
analysis
of
patients
with
P.
aeruginosa,
there
was
a
nonstatistically
significant
trend
toward
higher
clinical
cure
rates
with
doripenem
80.0%
versus
imipenem
42.9%.
The
broad
gram-‐positive
and
gram-‐negative
activity,
in
addition
to
supportive
clinical
trial
data,
gives
doripenem
appeal
as
a
first-‐line
empirical
agent
in
combination
with
an
anti-‐
MRSA
drug
for
HCAP.
Alternatively,
doripenem
could
be
reserved
for
HCAP
caused
by
resistant
gram-‐negative
organisms,
including
P.
aeruginosa.
The
optimal
dosing
strategy
for
doripenem
in
the
treatment
of
HCAP
remains
to
be
determined.
Ceftobiprole
Like
other
ß-‐lactam
antibiotics,
ceftobiprole
prevents
cell
wall
formation
by
binding
to
and
inhibiting
penicillin
binding
protein
(PBPs).
However,
ceftobiprole
is
structurally
engineered
to
allow
binding
to
PBP-‐2a
expressed
by
the
mecA
cassette
in
MRSA
isolates,
which
typically
confers
ß-‐lactam
resistance.[18]
As
a
result,
ceftobiprole
has
bactericidal
activity
against
methicillin-‐sensitive
and
-‐resistant
S.
aureus.
[19]
Ceftobiprole
is
also
active
in
vitro
against
vancomycin-‐intermediate
S.
aureus
(VISA)
and
vancomycin-‐resistant
S.
aureus
(VRSA).[20]
The
strong
binding
affinity
of
ceftobiprole
to
PBP-‐2x
provides
enhanced
activity
against
penicillin-‐
sensitive
and
-‐resistant
S.
pneumoniae
and
other
streptococci.[21]
The
development
of
ceftobiprole
resistance
in
S.
aureus
was
reported
in
a
low
frequency
in
early
in
vitro
single-‐passage
studies;
however,
in
serial-‐passage
studies
with
a
high
inoculum
of
organism,
resistance
to
ceftobiprole
mediated
by
mutations
in
PBP-‐2a
has
been
observed.[22]
The
implications
of
in
vitro
generated
resistance
are
unclear
in
the
clinical
setting.
Ceftobiprole
was
generally
safe
and
well
tolerated
in
clinical
studies.
Frequently
reported
adverse
effects
included
taste
disturbances,
nausea,
and
vomiting.
There
was
no
difference
in
ceftobiprole's
effect
on
the
QTc
interval
compared
with
placebo.[26]
Ceftobiprole
has
completed
two
phase
III
investigations
for
the
treatment
of
cSSSIs
demonstrating
efficacy
and
noninferiority
to
vancomycin.[27,28]
Ceftobiprole
500
mg
IV
every
8
hours
as
a
2-‐hour
infusion
was
also
compared
with
ceftriaxone
with
or
without
linezolid
for
the
treatment
of
CAP
in
patients
requiring
hospitalization.[29]
The
clinical
cure
rates
in
the
clinically
evaluable
population
with
moderate-‐severe
diseases
were
87%
for
ceftobiprole
and
88%
for
ceftriaxone
±
linezolid.
For
the
treatment
of
HAP,
a
recently
completed
trial
randomized
patients
to
receive
ceftobiprole
500
mg
IV
every
8
hours
as
a
2-‐hour
infusion
or
ceftazidime
plus
linezolid
for
a
total
of
7
to
14
days.[30]
The
primary
end
point
of
clinical
cure
was
reached
in
69%
of
the
ceftobiprole
arm
and
72%
of
the
combination
therapy
arm,
which
met
the
predefined
criteria
for
noninferiority.
This
trial
included
a
subgroup
analysis
of
patients
with
VAP
in
which
the
clinical
cure
rates
were
lower
with
ceftobiprole
and
noninferiority
could
not
be
established;
further
analysis
of
this
subset
of
patients
is
ongoing.
Ceftaroline
Like
ceftobiprole,
ceftaroline
inhibits
bacterial
cell
wall
synthesis
and
has
enhanced
binding
affinity
for
PBP-‐2a
resulting
in
anti-‐MRSA
activity.
Ceftaroline
possesses
potent
bactericidal
activity
against
many
staphylococci,
including
both
MSSA
and
MRSA.[31,32]
In
addition,
ceftaroline
retains
activity
against
S.
aureus
with
heterointermediate
resistance
to
vancomycin
(hVISA)
and
VISA.[31,33]
Ceftaroline
is
active
against
S.
pneumoniae,
including
penicillin-‐intermediate
and
-‐resistant
strains.[31]
Using
single-‐step
and
multistep
passages,
no
resistant
mutants
were
selected
with
ceftaroline
in
staphylococci,
pneumococci,
or
H.
influenzae.
[32]
In
contrast,
resistant
mutants
of
E.
cloacae
and
E.
coli
were
readily
selected
with
phenotypes
of
AmpC-‐
derepressed
and
TEM
ß-‐lactamase
producers,
respectively.[32]
In
human
plasma
the
prodrug
ceftaroline
acetate
rapidly
undergoes
hydrolysis
to
the
active
compound
ceftaroline.
Ceftaroline
has
limited
protein
binding
(1
to
19%)
and
achieved
good
lung
penetration
(~40%)
in
a
rabbit
model.[34,35]
The
major
route
of
elimination
is
renal
excretion
and
the
average
t
½
is
2.6
hour.[36]
In
patients
with
mild
renal
impairment,
no
dose
adjustment
is
necessary;
however,
further
study
is
required
to
determine
the
appropriate
dosage
adjustment
for
moderate
and
severe
renal
disease.[37]
The
PK-‐PD
profile
of
ceftaroline
is
similar
to
that
for
ceftobiprole
and
the
other
cephalosporins.[38]
In
animal
models,
dosages
mimicking
a
human
dose
of
600
mg
every
12
hours
achieved
the
target
PK-‐PD
parameters
for
maximal
efficacy
for
most
organisms
and
validated
the
use
of
this
dosing
strategy
in
further
research.[38]
Ceftaroline
demonstrated
similar
clinical
cure
rates
to
vancomycin
±
aztreonam
in
a
phase
II
study
for
the
treatment
of
cSSSIs.[39]
Phase
III
studies
for
the
treatment
of
community-‐acquired
pneumonia
and
cSSSIs
are
currently
under
way.
Iclaprim
Iclaprim
has
in
vitro
activity
against
S.
aureus,
including
methicillin-‐resistant
strains,
and
a
single
VRSA
strain.[42,43]
Against
penicillin-‐sensitive
and
penicillin-‐resistant
pneumococci,
iclaprim
demonstrates
more
potent
activity
than
trimethoprim.[39,44]
Iclaprim
is
also
active
against
trimethoprim-‐resistant
staphylococci
and
pneumococci.[44]
Iclaprim
is
active
against
the
respiratory
pathogens
H.
influenzae
and
Moraxella
catarrhalis.
[45]
Unlike
trimethoprim,
iclaprim
exhibits
activity
against
the
intracellular
pathogen
C.
pneumoniae.
[46]
In
addition,
iclaprim
is
active
against
the
atypical
pathogen
Legionella
pneumophila.
[47]
The
activity
of
iclaprim
against
Enterobacteriaceae
is
generally
comparable
to
trimethoprim.[45]
Iclaprim
is
not
active
against
P.
aeruginosa
isolates
and
displays
variable
activity
against
Acinetobacter
spp.
and
S.
maltophilia.
[45]
Although
iclaprim
exhibits
significant
in
vitro
synergy
in
473
combination
with
sulfonamides,
it
is
currently
being
developed
as
monotherapy
due
to
its
potent
intrinsic
activity.[48]
Compared
with
trimethoprim,
iclaprim
has
a
low
propensity
for
the
development
of
resistance
in
S.
aureus.
[49]
Serial
passage
experiments
suggest
an
unstable
resistance
mechanism
for
iclaprim
compared
with
the
DHFR
gene
mutation
for
trimethoprim.
Iclaprim
displays
linear
pharmacokinetics.
The
protein
binding
of
iclaprim
is
92
to
94%
and
the
half-‐life
is
2
to
4
hours.[49,50]
In
a
pulmonary
distribution
study,
iclaprim
concentrations
in
the
epithelial
lining
fluid,
alveolar
macrophages,
and
bronchial
mucosa
exceeded
the
MIC90
for
MRSA,
S.
pneumoniae,
and
C.
pneumoniae
for
up
to
7
hours.[50]
These
data
suggest
iclaprim
achieves
the
necessary
respiratory
concentrations
to
be
efficacious
for
the
treatment
of
pneumonia.
An
oral
formulation
of
iclaprim
recently
completed
phase
I
clinical
studies
demonstrating
a
bioavailability
of
~40%
for
both
a
solution
and
capsule
formulation.[51]
To
date,
there
are
no
published
reports
analyzing
the
pharmacodynamics
of
iclaprim.
Iclaprim's
effect
on
the
QTc
interval
was
assessed
in
a
phase
II
trial
for
cSSSIs.[52]
In
this
study,
the
mean
maximal
prolongation
of
the
QTc
was
6.3
millisecond
for
iclaprim
and
1.2
millisecond
for
linezolid.
In
the
iclaprim
arm
only
one
patient
showed
a
QTc
interval
exceeding
500
millisecond,
and
two
patients
experienced
an
increase
>
60
millisecond
from
baseline.
There
were
no
cardiac
events
attributable
to
QTc
prolongation.
A
new
drug
application
(NDA)
for
iclaprim
in
the
treatment
of
cSSSIs
was
submitted
to
the
FDA
based
on
data
from
two
phase
III
studies
(ASSIST-‐1
and
-‐2)
demonstrating
iclaprim
0.8
mg/kg
every
12
hours
was
noninferior
to
linezolid.[53]
A
phase
II
trial
of
iclaprim
for
the
treatment
of
HAP,
VAP,
or
HCAP
suspected
or
confirmed
to
be
due
to
gram-‐positive
organisms
is
currently
recruiting.
The
trial
is
designed
to
assess
the
safety
and
efficacy
of
two
different
dosages
of
iclaprim
compared
with
vancomycin
in
a
randomized,
double-‐blinded
fashion.
Early
preclinical
data
suggest
iclaprim
may
have
a
role
in
the
treatment
of
HCAP
due
to
gram-‐positive
pathogens,
and
clinical
trials
are
under
way.
With
an
oral
formulation
of
iclaprim
in
phase
II
of
clinical
development,
the
option
of
an
IV
to
PO
switch
would
be
appealing.
Dalbavancin
resistant.[55]
Against
S.
aureus
with
reduced
susceptibility
to
vancomycin
and
linezolid,
dalbavancin
generally
retains
activity;
however,
MIC
values
are
elevated.[55,56]
The
increased
potency
of
dalbavancin
against
staphylococci,
especially
coagulase-‐negative
staphylococci,
is
due
to
the
monoamide
substituent
at
the
peptide
carboxy
group.[54]
Dalbavancin
exhibits
bactericidal
activity
against
pneumococci,
regardless
of
penicillin
sensitivity.[54]
Dalbavancin
has
a
low
propensity
for
in
vitro
resistance
development
in
staphylococci
compared
with
the
other
glycopeptides.[54]
Direct
selection
of
single-‐
step
high-‐level
resistance
was
not
observed
during
in
vitro
experiments.
In
serial
passage
studies,
the
dalbavancin
MICs
increased
twofold
in
S.
aureus
compared
with
four-‐
and
eightfold
for
vancomycin
and
teicoplanin.
A
unique
attribute
of
dalbavancin
is
its
long
half-‐life
of
123
to
210
hours,
which
supports
a
once-‐weekly
dosing
regimen.[57]
Steady-‐state
concentrations
are
generally
achieved
in
2
to
3
days
following
administration.
Single
doses
≥
500
mg
provided
plasma
concentrations
above
the
minimum
bactericidal
level
for
MRSA
for
at
least
7
days.
Approximately
one
third
of
dalbavancin
is
excreted
unchanged
in
the
urine,
suggesting
nonrenal
routes
of
elimination.
No
dosage
adjustment
is
required
for
patients
with
mild
to
moderate
renal
impairment;
however,
those
with
severe
renal
disease
may
require
an
adjustment
to
avoid
increased
drug
exposure.[58,59]
The
area
under
the
time
curve
(AUC):MIC
and
maximum
concentration
(Cmax):MIC
ratios
were
the
PK-‐PD
indices
that
best
predicted
dalbavancin
activity
against
S.
aureus
and
S.
pneumoniae
in
the
neutropenic
murine
thigh
infection
model.[60]
An
in
vitro
pharmacokinetic
system
predicted
free
drug
AUC24:MIC
value
of
200
to
300
to
be
the
best
PK-‐PD
target
for
patients
with
moderate
to
severe
infections.[60]
Dalbavancin
appears
to
be
safe
and
well
tolerated
by
patients
in
clinical
studies.
The
most
commonly
reported
adverse
events
included
pyrexia,
headache,
and
gastrointestinal
symptoms.
No
auditory
or
vestibular
toxicity,
or
"red
man"
syndrome
was
observed
in
study
subjects.
Dalbavancin
has
been
shown
to
be
devoid
of
major
ecologic
effects
on
normal
intestinal
microflora.[61]
Dalbavancin
achieved
noninferiority
to
linezolid
for
the
treatment
of
cSSSIs
in
a
phase
III
trial
and
was
similar
to
vancomycin
in
a
phase
II
study
of
the
treatment
of
catheter-‐related
bloodstream
infections.[62,63]
There
are
no
clinical
studies
published
to
date
evaluating
dalbavancin
for
the
treatment
of
HCAP.
However,
its
broad
spectrum
of
gram-‐positive
activity,
including
MRSA,
makes
it
an
option
for
further
investigation.
Although
dalbavancin
is
widely
distributed
in
rat
lung
tissue,
the
penetration
into
the
epithelial
lining
fluid
in
humans
is
unknown.[64]
Without
preclinical
pharmacokinetic,
animal
model,
or
clinical
data,
the
role
of
dalbavancin
for
the
treatment
of
HCAP
is
unknown.
Telavancin
475
The
selection
of
spontaneous
mutants
resistant
to
high
levels
of
telavancin
has
not
occurred
in
in
vitro
testing.[68]
In
addition,
serial
passage
experiments
with
telavancin
failed
to
produce
any
resistant
mutants
of
S.
aureus.
The
effect
of
telavancin
(7.5
mg/kg
and
15
mg/kg
doses)
on
the
QTc
interval
was
assessed
in
160
healthy
subjects.[72]
Telavancin
produced
statistically
significant
prolongations
in
the
QTc
interval
compared
with
placebo,
but
no
subjects
experienced
a
QTc
>
500
millisecond
nor
were
any
adverse
cardiovascular
events
observed.
In
phase
II
clinical
trials,
the
mean
QTc
prolongation
in
the
telavancin
groups
was
6.4
to
12.5
millisecond.
Reported
adverse
events
from
clinical
trials
include
taste
disturbances,
nausea,
headache,
and
insomnia.
Two
phase
III
studies
(ATLAS-‐I
and
-‐II)
demonstrated
noninferiority
to
vancomycin
for
the
treatment
of
cSSSIs.[73]
In
addition,
two
phase
III,
randomized,
double-‐blind
trials
(ATTAIN-‐1
and
-‐2)
investigating
telavancin
for
the
treatment
of
HAP
are
completed.[74]
In
these
studies,
1503
patients
with
HAP
or
VAP
due
to
gram-‐positive
pathogens
were
randomized
to
receive
telavancin
10
mg/kg
every
24
hours
or
vancomycin
1
g
every
12
hours
for
a
total
of
7
to
21
days.
Concomitant
treatment
with
gram-‐negative
antibiotics
was
allowed
for
polymicrobial
infections.
Telavancin
was
noninferior
to
vancomycin
in
a
combined
analysis
of
the
primary
efficacy
outcome
of
clinical
cure,
82.7%
versus
80.9%.
For
patients
with
MRSA
infections,
the
cure
rates
were
82%
for
telavancin
versus
74%
for
vancomycin.
In
a
subgroup
analysis
of
patients
with
VAP,
there
was
a
trend
toward
higher
clinical
cure
rates
476
with
telavancin
compared
with
vancomycin,
80.3%
versus
67.8%.
The
potent
activity
of
telavancin
against
gram-‐positive
organisms
including
MRSA
in
addition
to
the
preliminary
clinical
trial
results
in
the
treatment
of
HCAP
due
to
gram-‐positive
organisms
are
promising.
Oritavancin
Oritavancin
is
a
third
glycopeptide
in
clinical
development.
In
addition
to
inhibiting
peptidoglycan
synthesis,
a
second
recently
identified
mechanism,
involves
the
rapid
disruption
of
both
membrane
potential
and
permeability.[75]
These
combined
activities
provide
oritavancin
with
potent
activity
against
a
wide
spectrum
of
gram-‐
positive
organisms.
Oritavancin
demonstrates
activity
against
both
MSSA
and
MRSA.[76]
Importantly,
oritavancin
possesses
activity
against
VISA
and
VRSA
isolates.[77]
Oritavancin
has
bactericidal
activity
against
pneumococci,
irrespective
of
the
degree
of
penicillin
resistance.[76]
Resistance
studies
with
vancomycin-‐
susceptible
and
nonsusceptible
S.
aureus
suggest
the
resistance
potential
for
oritavancin
is
low.[78]
The
high
intracellular
accumulation
of
oritavancin
was
shown
in
vitro
to
cause
alterations
in
animal
lysosome
activity
suggesting
oritavancin
has
the
potential
to
cause
a
mixed-‐lipid
storage
disorder;
however,
the
clinical
significance
to
humans
is
unknown.[82]
Other
adverse
effects
reported
include
transient
elevations
in
hepatic
transaminases
and
injection
site
reactions.
Oritavancin
was
compared
with
vancomycin
in
a
phase
II
study
for
S.
aureus
bacteremia
and
displayed
noninferiority
to
vancomycin/cephalexin
for
the
treatment
of
cSSSIs.[83,84]
Although
preclinical
studies
show
distribution
into
pulmonary
tissue
comparable
to
vancomycin,
there
are
no
studies
evaluating
oritavancin's
safety
and
efficacy
for
the
treatment
of
pneumonia.
Activity
against
MRSA
and
S.
aureus
with
reduced
susceptibility
to
vancomycin,
along
with
the
intrapulmonary
concentrations
of
oritavancin,
lend
support
to
the
further
investigation
of
oritavancin
for
the
treatment
of
pneumonia.
Conclusions
477
With
the
addition
of
these
investigational
and
newly
approved
compounds
to
the
antimicrobial
armamentarium
(Table
1),
deciding
the
optimal
role
of
each
agent
in
the
treatment
of
HCAP
is
important.
With
its
broad
spectrum
of
activity
and
supportive
clinical
trial
results
doripenem
will
likely
become
a
new
option
for
the
treatment
of
HCAP.
The
optimal
dose
and
role
as
an
empirical
agent
or
definitive
therapy
for
resistant
gram-‐negative
organisms
is
debatable.
Ceftobiprole
is
the
first
cephalosporin
to
possess
MRSA
activity
in
addition
to
antipseudomonal
activity,
affording
it
the
potential
for
empirical
monotherapy
for
HCAP.
Clinical
trials
for
the
treatment
of
both
CAP
and
HAP
have
recently
been
completed,
and
full
publication
of
the
results,
including
details
regarding
the
subgroup
analysis
of
patients
with
VAP,
are
eagerly
anticipated.
Although
ceftaroline
possesses
anti-‐MRSA
activity,
its
narrow
gram-‐negative
spectrum
and
lack
of
pseudomonal
coverage
will
limit
its
use.
The
DHFR
inhibitor
iclaprim
is
currently
being
investigated
for
HAP,
VAP,
and
HCAP
due
to
gram-‐positive
pathogens,
including
MRSA,
because
of
its
in
vitro
activity
and
pharmacokinetic
profile.
These
early
clinical
studies
will
help
determine
the
safety
and
efficacy
of
iclaprim
and
its
future
role.
Many
questions
regarding
the
lung
penetration,
safety,
and
efficacy
of
the
long-‐acting
dalbavancin
remain
unanswered,
and
no
conclusion
regarding
its
role
in
the
treatment
of
HCAP
can
be
made
at
this
time.
Telavancin
is
a
lipoglycopeptide
with
more
promising
potential
for
HCAP.
The
potent
activity
and
noninferiority
clinical
trial
data
suggest
telavancin
may
potentially
be
an
alternative
to
vancomycin
or
linezolid
as
empirical
treatment
for
gram-‐positive
HCAP.
Oritavancin
has
the
infrastructure
of
intrapulmonary
distribution
and
potent
MRSA
activity
for
future
study
for
the
treatment
of
respiratory
tract
infections.
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
Table 1. Spectrum of Activity of New Antibiotics for HCAP
producers
Acinetobacter
±
-‐
-‐
±
-‐
-‐
-‐
spp.
Stenotrophom -‐
-‐
-‐
±
-‐
-‐
-‐
onas
maltophilia
Other
pathogens
of
interest
Enterococcus
±
±
-‐
±
+
+
+
faecalis
Enterococcus
-‐
-‐
-‐
±
±
+
+
faecium
Streptococcus
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
pneumoniae
Gram
+
+
+
+
-‐
+
+
+
Anaerobes
Gram
-‐
+
-‐
-‐
-‐
-‐
-‐
-‐
Anaerobes
U,
=
unknown.
±
=
in
vitro
results
conflicting,
clinical
utility
unclear.
Gram-‐positive
anaerobes
including
Peptostreptococcus
spp.,
Proprionibacterium
spp.
Gram-‐negative
anaerobes
including
Bacteroides
fragilis,
Prevotella
spp.
ESBL
=
extended-‐spectrum
ß-‐lactamases
(ESBLs);
HCAP
=
healthcare-‐associated
pneumonia;
hVISA
=
heterointermediate
resistance
to
vancomycin
S.
aureus;
MRSA
=
methicillin-‐resistant
Staphylococcus
aureus;
MSSA
=
methicillin-‐sensitive
Staphylococcus
aureus;
VISA
=
vancomycin-‐intermediate
Staphylococcus
aureus;
VRSA
=
vancomycin-‐resistant
Staphylococcus
aureus.
www.medscape.com
Published: 05/14/2009
Abstract
Community-‐acquired
pneumonia
(CAP)
is
a
common
and
serious
problem
in
the
United
States,
and
the
sixth
leading
cause
of
death
in
those
over
age
65.
Not
only
has
short-‐term
mortality
been
evaluated,
but
1-‐year
mortality
may
be
as
high
as
40%
in
Medicare
patients
who
have
been
admitted
to
the
hospital
with
CAP.
In
the
United
States,
guidelines
for
CAP
management
have
been
available
since
1993,
with
the
most
recent
version
published
in
2007
as
a
joint
effort
of
the
Infectious
Diseases
Society
of
America
and
the
American
Thoracic
Society.
The
current
U.S.
guidelines
take
into
consideration
unique
bacteriologic
patterns
in
the
United
States,
particularly
focusing
on
the
role
of
drug-‐resistant
pneumococcus,
atypical
pathogens,
and
methicillin-‐resistant
Staphylococcus
aureus,
which
explains
why
U.S.
recommendations
for
therapy
differ
from
those
in
Europe
and
the
United
Kingdom.
Notable
differences
in
the
U.S.
approach
to
CAP
compared
with
elsewhere
include
not
only
a
unique
set
of
bacteriologic
considerations
and
therapy
recommendations
that
follow
these
concerns
but
also
a
different
approach
to
assessing
severity
of
illness
and
recommended
diagnostic
testing,
as
well
as
the
inclusion
of
performance
measures
to
optimize
disease
management.
Compared
with
European
and
British
guidelines,
the
U.S.
therapy
of
CAP
has
a
greater
emphasis
on
the
role
of
atypical
pathogens,
a
more
defined
role
for
fluoroquinolones
as
first-‐line
therapy,
less
reliance
on
oral
therapy
for
hospitalized
patients,
and
less
regard
for
the
value
of
certain
ß-‐lactam
agents.
Introduction
In
2004,
pneumonia,
along
with
influenza,
was
the
eighth
leading
cause
of
death
in
the
United
States,
the
sixth
leading
cause
of
death
in
those
over
age
65,
and
the
number
one
cause
of
death
from
infectious
diseases.[2]
In
the
United
States,
patients
480
with
CAP
are
primarily
managed
out
of
the
hospital,
but
those
admitted
to
the
hospital
consume
the
greatest
proportion
of
economic
resources.
In
a
study
using
insurance
and
Medicare
data
from
1994,
investigators
found
that
over
5.6
million
people
were
diagnosed
with
CAP
in
the
United
States,
but
the
majority,
4.6
million,
were
treated
out
of
the
hospital.[3]
Data
from
2005
showed
that
there
were
1.3
million
hospitalizations
for
pneumonia
in
the
United
States,
more
females
than
males,
and
~60%
of
those
who
were
hospitalized
were
over
the
age
of
65.[2]
The
cost
of
care
for
patients
with
CAP
in
the
United
States
was
been
estimated
to
be
over
$40
billion
in
2005,
including
both
direct
and
indirect
costs.[2]
The
elderly
account
for
a
disproportionate
amount
of
this
cost,
largely
because
they
often
require
inpatient
treatment,
reflecting
their
high
frequency
of
comorbid
illness.
Although
those
over
age
65
account
for
only
about
one
third
of
all
cases
of
CAP,
they
are
responsible
for
60%
of
those
hospitalized
with
CAP.
Thus,
in
one
study,
the
elderly
were
responsible
for
more
than
half
of
all
costs
for
this
illness.[3]
In
this
country,
many
elderly
individuals
live
in
nursing
homes
or
come
into
frequent
contact
with
the
healthcare
environment
(dialysis,
home
infusion
therapy,
repeated
hospitalization),
and
when
these
individuals
develop
pneumonia,
they
are
now
classified
as
having
healthcare-‐
associated
pneumonia
(HCAP)
and
have
a
unique
approach
to
therapy
that
was
not
included
in
the
current
American
CAP
guidelines.[4]
The
reported
mortality
of
CAP
varies
with
the
population
being
evaluated,
ranging
from
less
than
5%
among
outpatients,
to
approximately
12%
among
all
hospitalized
CAP
patients,
but
rising
to
over
30%
among
those
admitted
to
the
intensive
care
unit
(ICU).[5]
The
elderly
have
both
an
increased
incidence
of
pneumonia
and
an
increased
mortality,
compared
with
younger
populations.
In
a
large,
1-‐year,
community-‐based
study
in
a
single
county
in
Ohio,
the
overall
incidence
of
CAP
was
266.8
cases
per
100,000,
but
those
aged
18
to
44
had
an
incidence
of
92
cases
per
100,000
population,
compared
with
a
rate
of
1014
cases
per
100,000
in
those
over
age
65.[6]
The
mortality
of
CAP
was
8.8%
overall
but
was
only
4.5%
in
those
aged
18
to
44
years,
compared
with
12.5%
in
those
over
age
65.
Recently,
a
Medicare-‐based
study
in
the
United
States
highlighted
not
only
the
short-‐term
but
also
the
long-‐term
mortality
impact
of
CAP
in
older
individuals.[7]
In
that
study
over
150,000
Medicare
patients
admitted
to
the
hospital
for
CAP
were
compared
with
Medicare
patients
admitted
to
the
hospital
for
other
diagnoses,
with
five
controls
for
each
pneumonia
patient.
The
CAP
patients
had
a
higher
inpatient
mortality
than
the
controls
and
also
a
higher
1-‐
year
mortality
rate.
In
fact,
whereas
the
in-‐hospital
mortality
rate
for
CAP
patients
was
11%,
at
1
year,
these
Medicare
patients
had
a
>
40%
mortality
rate.[7]
Atypical Pathogens
One
of
the
major
differences
between
U.S.
and
European
CAP
management
is
the
recommendation
in
U.S.
guidelines
that
all
patients
receive
empirical
therapy
not
only
for
pneumococcus
but
also
for
atypical
pathogens,
which
include
Legionella
pneumophila,
Chlamydophila
pneumoniae,
and
Mycoplasma
pneumoniae.
The
frequency
of
these
organisms
as
CAP
pathogens
has
varied
in
studies,
with
recent
481
data
from
North
America
and
elsewhere
suggesting
that
they
may
be
present
in
up
to
60%
of
CAP
episodes,
and
that
they
can
serve
as
co-‐pathogens,
along
with
bacteria,
in
up
to
40%
of
patients.[6,8,9]
When
mixed
infection
is
present,
particularly
with
C.
pneumoniae
and
pneumococcus,
it
may
lead
to
a
more
complex
course
of
illness
and
a
longer
length
of
stay
than
if
a
single
pathogen
is
responsible.
In
patients
with
severe
CAP,
atypical
pathogens
can
be
present
in
almost
25%
of
all
patients,
but
the
responsible
organism
may
vary
over
time.
In
one
series,
Legionella
was
the
most
common
atypical
pathogen
leading
to
severe
CAP,
but
in
the
same
hospital
a
decade
later,
it
had
been
replaced
by
Mycoplasma
and
Chlamydophila
infection.[10]
Whereas
atypical
pathogens
have
been
thought
to
be
most
common
in
young
and
healthy
individuals,
the
population
study
from
Ohio
mentioned
earlier
showed
that
they
are
present
in
patients
of
all
ages,
including
the
elderly,
and
even
those
in
nursing
homes.[6]
The
importance
of
atypical
pathogens
has
been
suggested
by
several
studies
of
inpatients
from
the
United
States,
including
those
with
bacteremic
pneumococcal
pneumonia,
showing
a
mortality
benefit
from
therapies
that
include
a
macrolide
or
quinolone,
agents
that
would
be
active
against
these
organisms.[11-‐16]
In
one
study,
the
benefit
of
adding
a
macrolide
only
applied
if
it
was
added
to
a
cephalosporin
but
not
if
it
was
added
to
a
ß-‐lactam/ß-‐lactamase
inhibitor
combination.[11]
Most
of
the
data
on
this
issue
have
come
from
studies
of
Medicare
patients,
but
at
least
one
large
study
included
nearly
15,000
patients
less
than
age
65
and
reached
the
same
conclusions.[12]
Atypical
organism
pneumonia
may
not
be
a
constant
phenomenon,
and
the
frequency
of
infection
may
vary
over
the
course
of
time
and
with
geography.
In
one
study
of
Medicare
patients
evaluated
over
3
calendar
years,
the
benefit
of
providing
empirical
therapy
directed
at
atypical
pathogens
was
variable,
being
more
important
in
some
years
than
in
others.[17]
Differing
views
about
the
importance
of
atypical
pathogens
have
led
to
disparate
recommendations
about
whether
they
should
be
covered
by
empirical
therapy,
with
U.S.
guidelines
recommending
routine
need
for
therapy,
whereas
a
different
view
applies,
particularly
in
the
British
Thoracic
Society
guidelines.[18]
Pneumococcus
In
the
United
States,
there
are
several
considerations
for
pneumococcus
that
differ
from
thinking
elsewhere.
First,
although
as
many
as
40%
of
pneumococci
may
be
penicillin
resistant
in
this
country,
current
levels
of
resistance
are
relatively
low,
and
resistance
rarely
leads
to
an
adverse
clinical
outcome.[19]
In
addition,
unlike
the
situation
in
many
countries
in
Europe,
macrolide
resistance
is
more
often
efflux
mediated
than
ribosomal
mediated,
and
thus
macrolide
resistance
is
at
a
lower
level
in
the
United
States
than
in
Europe.[20]
This
explains
why
U.S.
guidelines
allow
some
select
patient
populations
(young,
no
cardiopulmonary
comorbidity,
no
recent
antibiotic
therapy,
no
recent
hospitalization)
to
still
receive
macrolide
monotherapy.
Finally,
several
studies,
some
from
North
America,
have
shown
that
if
pneumococcal
bacteremia
is
present,
dual
initial
therapy
is
associated
with
a
reduced
mortality
compared
with
single-‐agent
therapy.[13-‐16]
482
Drug-‐resistant
Streptococcus
pneumoniae.
In
the
United
States,
a
large
number
of
penicillin-‐resistant
organisms
are
of
the
"intermediate"
type
and
are
not
highly
resistant.
Recently,
the
U.S.
definitions
of
resistance
have
changed
for
nonmeningeal
infection,
with
"sensitive"
being
defined
by
a
penicillin
minimum
inhibitory
concentration
(MIC)
≤
2
mg/L,
intermediate
as
an
MIC
of
4
mg/L,
and
resistant
as
an
MIC
≥
8
mg/L.[21]
Although
the
clinical
impact
of
resistance
on
outcomes
such
as
mortality
has
been
hard
to
show
using
older
definitions,
with
the
new
definitions
of
resistance,
very
few
pathogens
will
be
defined
as
resistant,
but
those
that
are
may
affect
outcome.
In
fact,
one
large
study
in
this
country
of
5837
patients
with
invasive
pneumococcal
infection
found
that
when
those
who
did
not
die
in
the
first
4
days
were
excluded,
penicillin
resistance
did
not
increase
mortality
unless
organisms
had
a
penicillin
MIC
of
≥
4.0
or
a
cefotaxime
MIC
of
≥
2.0,
both
of
which
were
exceedingly
uncommon.[19]
In
early
studies,
resistance
was
defined
as
intermediate
with
a
penicillin
MIC
of
0.1
to
1.0
mg/L,
and
high-‐level
resistance
as
an
MIC
of
at
least
2
mg/L.
Using
these
definitions,
there
was
no
impact
of
resistance
on
mortality
in
the
mid-‐1990s,
especially
after
adjusting
for
severity
of
illness,
but
later
studies
have
shown
that
higher
levels
of
resistance
can
affect
outcomes
such
as
mortality
and
the
development
of
suppurative
complications
such
as
empyema.[22,23]
In
a
group
of
patients
with
pneumococcal
bacteremia,
of
which
more
than
half
were
positive
for
human
immunodeficiency
virus
(HIV),
organisms
with
an
MIC
of
at
least
2
mg/L
were
associated
with
mortality.[24]
In
another
U.S.
study
using
both
a
cohort
and
matched
control
methods,
severity
of
illness,
and
not
resistance
or
accuracy
of
therapy,
was
found
to
be
the
most
important
predictor
of
mortality.[25]
Resistance
of
pneumococcus
has
even
been
reported
to
the
quinolones,
which
are
ordinarily
a
reliable
class
of
antibiotics
for
these
organisms.
In
general,
one
important
risk
factor
for
resistance
is
repeated
use
of
a
given
agent
in
the
same
patient.
In
fact,
in
one
North
American
study,
pneumococcal
resistance
to
ß-‐lactams
483
(penicillins
and
cephalosporins),
macrolides,
and
quinolones
was
more
likely
if
a
patient
had
received
the
same
agent
in
the
past
3
months.[28]
With
these
data
in
mind,
new
U.S.
guidelines
have
suggested
that
CAP
patients
not
receive
the
same
antibiotic
as
in
the
recent
past,
with
the
cutoff
of
defining
this
time
interval
as
being
within
the
past
3
months.
Need
For
Dual
Therapy
of
Pneumococcal
Bacteremia.
In
several
retrospective
studies,
most
from
North
America,
the
use
of
dual
therapy
for
pneumococcal
bacteremia
has
been
associated
with
a
lower
mortality
than
therapies
with
a
single
agent.[13-‐16]
One
of
the
earliest
studies
came
from
West
Virginia,
and
evaluated
a
20-‐
year
experience
with
pneumococcal
bacteremia
and
included
328
adults,
with
the
group
as
a
whole
having
a
mortality
rate
of
20.3%.
However,
those
older
than
age
50
who
were
treated
with
a
macrolide
combined
with
a
penicillin
or
cephalosporin
had
the
lowest
case
fatality
rate
-‐-‐
only
6%.[14]
Waterer
and
colleagues
from
Tennessee
conducted
a
retrospective
review
of
225
patients
with
pneumococcal
bacteremia
and
observed
that
99
received
single
effective
therapy,
102
received
dual
effective
therapy,
and
24
received
more
than
dual
effective
therapy.[15]
Even
though
multiple
drugs
were
given
to
sicker
patients
as
reflected
by
Acute
Physiology
and
Chronic
Health
Evaluation
(APACHE)
score
and
the
pneumonia
severity
index,
the
odds
ratio
for
death
was
threefold
higher
for
those
who
received
single
effective
therapy.
Those
who
got
dually
effective
therapy
generally
received
a
ß-‐lactam
plus
either
a
macrolide
or
quinolone.
The
mechanism
for
benefit
of
combination
therapy
remained
unclear
from
the
data
analysis,
with
possibilities
being
atypical
pathogen
coverage
in
the
setting
of
coinfection,
synergistic
effects
of
the
two
drugs,
or
an
antiinflammatory
effect
of
macrolide
therapy.
Three
other
studies
have
also
shown
the
benefit
of
combination
therapy
for
pneumococcal
bacteremia.[13]
In
one
study
that
retrospectively
analyzed
prospectively
collected
data
from
a
multicenter
study,
combination
therapy
had
no
impact
on
the
mortality
rate
of
the
844
patients
with
pneumococcal
bacteremia.
However,
when
the
94
critically
ill
patients
were
examined,
combination
therapy
dramatically
reduced
mortality
from
55.3
to
23.4%.[16]
When
combination
therapy
was
used,
it
was
almost
always
with
a
ß-‐lactam,
but
the
second
agents
included
macrolides,
aminoglycosides,
vancomycin,
a
quinolone,
trimethoprim-‐sulfa,
chloramphenicol,
or
even
a
second
ß-‐lactam.
Other
studies
from
outside
the
United
States
have
reported
similar
findings.[13,29]
The
problem
with
all
of
these
studies
is
that
they
were
retrospective
analyses,
and
there
was
no
existing
protocol
for
when
to
use
dual
therapy.
In
addition,
the
implications
for
continued
therapy
once
blood
culture
results
are
known
is
unclear
because
the
studies
only
looked
at
outcomes
in
relation
to
initial
empirical
therapy.
In
the
United
States,
some
patients
with
CAP
have
been
affected
by
a
severe
necrotizing
bilateral
pneumonia
caused
by
community-‐acquired
methicillin-‐resistant
Staphylococcus
aureus
(CA-‐MRSA),
a
pathogen
that
seems
more
common
in
the
United
States
than
in
Europe.
Although
this
pathogen
has
primarily
caused
skin
and
484
soft
tissue
infections,
it
can
also
cause
severe
CAP.
CA-‐MRSA
is
a
clonal
disease,
emanating
from
the
USA
300
clone
of
S.
aureus
and
is
clinically
and
bacteriologically
different
from
the
strains
of
MRSA
that
cause
nosocomial
pneumonia.[30]
In
addition,
it
can
infect
previously
healthy
individuals,
and
the
classic
clinical
presentation
of
this
pathogen
causing
CAP
is
as
a
complication
of
a
preceding
viral
or
influenza
infection.
The
illness
is
characterized
by
a
severe,
bilateral,
necrotizing
pneumonia,
which
may
be
related
to
staphylococcal
virulence
factors
such
as
the
Panton-‐Valentine
leukocidin
(PVL).
Because
the
pathogenesis
of
pneumonia
due
to
this
organism
may
be
related
to
toxin
production
by
the
bacteria,
therapy
may
need
to
involve
both
an
antibacterial
agent
and
an
antitoxin-‐producing
agent.[30]
The
frequency
of
this
illness
is
still
relatively
low,
but
it
does
occur
sporadically,
with
certain
geographic
areas
having
a
high
frequency,
especially
during
influenza
season.
In
the
latest
IDSA/ATS
CAP
guidelines,
there
was
a
recommendation
to
consider
this
pathogen
in
patients
with
severe
CAP
and
a
compatible
clinical
picture,
but
there
was
no
recommendation
to
routinely
cover
this
organism
for
all
ICU-‐admitted
patients.
The
role
of
this
organism
may
expand
in
future
years
in
the
United
States,
but
its
role
in
Europe
is
yet
to
be
determined.
The
two
best-‐studied
and
most
widely
used
prediction
rules
for
pneumonia
severity
are
the
pneumonia
severity
index
(PSI),
which
was
developed
by
investigators
in
the
United
States,
and
the
CURB-‐65
rule,
a
prognostic
score
developed
by
the
British
Thoracic
Society
using
confusion,
blood
urea
nitrogen,
respiratory
rate,
blood
pressure
and
age
≥
65.[31,32]
Although
some
have
suggested
that
the
former
approach
is
an
American
one,
and
the
latter
not,
current
guidelines
in
the
United
States
recognize
the
important
role
and
validity
of
both
approaches
for
assessing
patient
prognosis
and
for
guiding
in
the
site
of
care
decision
(care
at
home,
admission,
or
ICU
care).[33]
The
PSI
uses
multiple
demographic
and
historical
findings,
physical
findings,
and
laboratory
data,
each
assigned
a
point
score,
and
the
total
score
is
used
to
categorize
patients
into
one
of
five
classes,
each
with
a
different
risk
of
death.
This
tool
was
developed
to
define
mortality
risk
but
has
been
applied
with
variable
success
in
predicting
site
of
care.
It
is
limited
by
its
complexity
and
its
failure
to
always
recognize
the
most
severely
ill
patients,
especially
if
they
do
not
have
underlying
comorbid
illness.[33]
The
CURB-‐65
rule
is
simpler,
using
only
five
assessments:
confusion
(due
to
the
pneumonia),
blood
urea
nitrogen
>
7
mmol/L,
respiratory
rate
≥
30
/min,
blood
pressure
of
<
90
mm
Hg
systolic
or
≤
60
mm
diastolic,
and
age
≥
65
years.
Each
of
the
five
criteria
receives
1
point,
and
the
score
falls
between
0
and
5,
with
mortality
risk
rising
with
the
score.[32]
In
recent
studies,
both
tools
have
worked
equally
well
to
identify
patients
at
low
risk
of
dying,
but
the
CURB-‐65
has
been
more
discriminating
in
recognizing
patients
who
need
ICU
care
(score
of
at
least
3)
and
who
have
the
highest
risk
of
death.[33,34]
On
the
other
hand,
the
CURB-‐65
does
not
specifically
account
for
patients
with
decompensated
chronic
illness
that
results
from
the
presence
of
CAP.
Neither
prediction
models
includes
"social
factors,"
and
clearly
these
issues
need
to
be
included
in
patient
assessment,
paying
attention
to
whether
485
the
patient
has
a
stable
home
environment
for
outpatient
care,
an
ability
to
take
oral
medications,
the
absence
of
acute
alcohol
or
drug
intoxication,
and
stability
of
other
acute
and
chronic
medical
problems.
There
is
no
specific
rule
for
who
should
be
admitted
to
the
ICU,
but
in
the
current
U.S.
guidelines,
criteria
for
ICU
admit
include
the
presence
of
one
of
two
major
criteria
or
three
of
several
minor
criteria.[1]
The
major
criteria
are
need
for
mechanical
ventilation
and
septic
shock.
The
minor
criteria
are
PaO2:FiO2
ratio
<
250,
respiratory
rate
>
30/minute,
confusion,
multilobar
infiltrates,
systolic
BP
<
90
mm
Hg
despite
aggressive
fluid
resuscitation,
BUN
>
20
mg/dL,
leucopenia
(<
4000
cells/mm3),
thrombocytopenia
(<
100,000
cells/mm3),
and
hypothermia
(<
36°C).
Other
findings
in
severe
pneumonia
are
hyponatremia
(<
130
mEq/L)
and
an
arterial
pH
<
7.3,
the
latter
being
one
of
the
most
important
indicators
of
need
for
ICU
admission.
In
the
current
U.S.
CAP
guidelines,
there
is
limited
diagnostic
testing
recommended
for
outpatients,
but
for
all
patients,
a
chest
radiograph
should
be
used
to
establish
the
presence
of
pneumonia,
and
every
effort
should
be
made
to
obtain
this
test,
even
in
outpatients.
In
addition,
for
all
patients,
the
history
should
focus
on
epidemiological
clues
that
could
alter
empirical
therapy
by
increasing
the
suspicion
of
infection
with
specific
pathogens.
Sputum
Gram
stain
and
culture
should
be
done
prior
to
therapy,
but
only
if
the
sputum
is
of
good
quality
and
can
be
rapidly
transported
to
a
microbiology
laboratory.
For
those
with
severe
CAP,
blood
cultures
should
be
done,
but
blood
cultures
should
not
be
collected
routinely
for
patients
who
are
not
severely
ill.
However,
they
should
be
considered
for
those
with
cavitary
infiltrates,
leucopenia,
active
alcohol
abuse,
chronic
liver
disease,
severe
chronic
obstructive
pulmonary
disease
(COPD),
asplenia,
and
pleural
effusion.
Finally,
those
with
severe
illness
and
those
who
have
failed
outpatient
therapy
should
have
Legionella
and
pneumococcal
urinary
antigen
testing,
and
if
intubated,
an
endotracheal
aspirate
should
be
sent
for
culture.
Routine
serum
serologic
testing
is
not
recommended.[1]
The
recommendations
of
European
guidelines
are
similar,
with
the
exception
of
the
recommendation
to
do
blood
cultures
in
all
hospitalized
patients
in
the
European
Respiratory
Society
guideline.[35]
In
addition,
guidelines
outside
of
the
United
States
place
importance
in
results
of
C-‐reactive
protein
measurements
to
guide
the
decision
about
whether
to
treat
with
antibiotics.
The
recommendation
to
limit
the
use
of
blood
cultures
is
based
on
a
large
Medicare
study
of
13,043
patients,
which
showed
that
it
was
possible
to
define
risk
factors
for
a
true
positive
blood
culture,
and
that
blood
cultures
should
only
be
drawn
in
patients
with
multiple
risks,
to
prevent
the
drawing
of
samples
from
patients
whose
incidence
of
false-‐positive
results
exceeded
the
incidence
of
true
positives.[36]
These
risks
for
a
positive
blood
culture
were
absence
of
prior
antibiotics,
comorbid
liver
disease,
systolic
BP
<
90
mm
Hg,
fever
<
35°
or
>
40°C,
pulse
>
125/min,
BUN
>
30
mg/dL,
serum
sodium
<
130,
WBC
<
5000
or
>
20,000
mm3.
Patients
with
0
or
1
risks
had
an
incidence
of
true-‐positive
results
of
5%
or
less,
whereas
those
with
2
risks
had
486
an
incidence
of
16%
true
positives.
Prior
antibiotic
therapy
can
reduce
the
yield
of
both
blood
cultures
and
sputum
culture.
The
current
IDSA/ATS
guidelines
for
CAP
divide
patients
into
three
groups:
outpatients,
those
admitted
to
the
hospital
but
not
the
ICU,
and
those
admitted
to
the
ICU.
For
each
group
of
patients,
there
is
a
list
of
likely
pathogens,
and
the
initial
empirical
therapy
is
chosen
with
these
organisms
in
mind
(Table
1).
If
a
specific
pathogen
is
subsequently
identified
by
diagnostic
testing,
then
therapy
can
be
focused.
In
this
scheme,
it
is
also
important
to
identify
patients
with
healthcare-‐
associated
pneumonia
(HCAP),
and
to
exclude
them
from
CAP
management
because
these
patients
require
their
own
management
approach,
with
some
needing
therapy
similar
to
CAP,
whereas
others
require
therapy
that
is
similar
to
that
for
nosocomial
pneumonia.[4]
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
1. S.
pneumoniae,
M.
pneumoniae,
C.
pneumoniae
(alone
or
as
mixed
infection),
H.
influenzae,
respiratory
viruses,
others
(Legionella
spp.,
M.
tuberculosis,
endemic
fungi)
1. All
of
the
above
plus
DRSP,
enteric
gram-‐negatives,
and
possibly
anaerobes
(with
aspiration)
1. All
of
the
above,
but
DRSP
and
enteric
gram-‐negatives
are
not
likely
487
Severe
CAP,
with
Risks
for
P.
aeruginosa;
or
Healthcare-‐associated
Pneumonia
with
Resistance
Risk
Factors
a
In
order
of
decreasing
frequency.
In
choosing
empirical
therapy
of
CAP,
certain
principles
should
guide
therapy,
but
in
North
America,
these
principles
are
not
the
same
as
those
used
in
parts
of
Europe
and
the
United
Kingdom.[1,18,35,37]
The
principles
that
apply
to
empirical
therapy
in
U.S.
guidelines
are
to
give
the
first
dose
of
therapy
rapidly
and
before
the
patient
leaves
the
emergency
department;
all
patients
should
be
treated
for
atypical
pathogens
and
pneumococcus,
plus
other
pathogens
based
on
risk
factors;
monotherapy
with
macrolides
can
be
used
but
should
be
limited
to
selected
inpatients
and
outpatients
with
no
cardiopulmonary
disease
or
recent
antibiotic
therapy;
antipseudomonal
therapy
should
only
be
used
for
patients
with
pseudomonal
risk
factors;
MRSA
therapy
(vancomycin/
linezolid)
should
be
used
cautiously;
and
no
ICU-‐admitted
CAP
patient
should
receive
monotherapy.
The
greatest
differences
from
European
guidelines
are
the
recommendation
for
routine
atypical
pathogen
coverage
in
North
America,
and
a
trend
to
use
penicillins
and
to
avoid
quinolones
in
the
United
Kingdom.[37]
In
addition,
macrolide
monotherapy
is
recommended
more
widely
in
the
United
States
than
in
Europe.
These
national
differences
reflect
variability
in
the
frequency
of
atypical
pathogens
and
of
drug-‐
resistant
Streptococcus
pneumoniae
(DRSP)
in
different
countries
(Table
2).
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
2. Oral therapy should rarely be used at the time of admission
6. Selected patients with severe CAP require empirical therapy for MRSA
8. HCAP
should
be
separated
from
CAP,
especially
in
those
with
pseudomonal
risk
factors
For
the
non-‐ICU
inpatient,
therapy
could
be
with
an
intravenous
macrolide
(azithromycin)
alone,
provided
that
the
patient
has
no
underlying
cardiopulmonary
disease,
and
no
risk
factors
for
infection
with
DRSP,
enteric
gram-‐negatives,
or
anaerobes.
However,
very
few
patients
of
this
type
are
admitted
to
the
hospital,
and
this
regimen
is
rarely
used,
although
its
efficacy
has
been
documented
in
this
population.[27]
The
majority
of
inpatients
will
have
cardiopulmonary
disease
or
other
risks
for
DRSP,
and
sometimes
gram-‐negatives,
and
they
should
be
treated
with
either
a
selected
intravenous
ß-‐lactam
(cefotaxime,
ceftriaxone,
ampicillin/sulbactam,
or
ertapenem)
combined
with
a
macrolide
or
doxycycline,
or
alternatively
they
can
receive
monotherapy
with
an
intravenous
antipneumococcal
489
quinolone
(levofloxacin
or
moxifloxacin).[1]
In
U.S.
guidelines,
cefuroxime
is
not
a
recommended
intravenous
ß-‐lactam
choice
because
of
concerns
of
failure
in
the
setting
of
in
vitro
resistance.
This
is
not
a
concern
in
guidelines
outside
the
United
States.
The
antipneumococcal
quinolones
are
being
widely
used
in
North
America,
possibly
in
situations
where
they
are
not
needed.
Quinolones
have
become
popular
because
as
a
single
drug
given
once
daily
it
is
possible
to
cover
pneumococcus
(including
DRSP),
gram-‐negatives,
and
atypical
pathogens.
Quinolones
penetrate
well
into
respiratory
secretions
and
are
highly
bioavailable,
achieving
the
same
serum
levels
with
oral
or
intravenous
therapy.
These
agents
can
be
ranked
from
most
to
least
active
(as
defined
by
minimum
inhibitory
concentration)
as
gemifloxacin
(available
only
in
oral
form),
moxifloxacin,
and
levofloxacin,
and
the
current
guidelines
suggest
that
there
may
be
a
lower
likelihood
of
both
clinical
failures
and
the
induction
of
pneumococcal
resistance,
if
the
more
active
quinolone
agents
are
used
in
place
of
the
less
active
agents[1]
Although
oral
agents,
particularly
quinolones,
may
be
as
effective
as
intravenous
quinolones
for
admitted
patients
with
moderately
severe
illness,
in
North
America
most
admitted
patients
receive
initial
therapy
intravenously,
with
switch
to
oral
therapy
once
the
patient
shows
a
good
clinical
response.
In
European
and
British
guidelines,
oral
therapy
is
used
more
often
for
hospitalized
patients
who
are
not
severely
ill.
In
the
ICU
population,
all
individuals
should
be
treated
for
DRSP
and
atypical
pathogens,
but
only
those
with
appropriate
risk
factors
(corticosteroids,
broad
spectrum
antibiotics
for
more
than
1
week
in
the
past
month,
malnutrition,
or
structural
lung
disease
such
as
bronchiectasis)
should
have
coverage
for
Pseudomonas
aeruginosa.
In
addition,
no
ICU-‐admitted
patient
should
receive
monotherapy
with
any
agent,
including
a
quinolone.
Limited
data
comparing
quinolone
monotherapy
to
combination
therapy
in
severely
ill
patients
have
shown
that
monotherapy
(with
levofloxacin)
may
not
be
as
effective
as
combination
therapy
for
patients
in
shock
and
for
those
treated
with
mechanical
ventilation.[38]
In
addition,
in
one
study
of
patients
with
more
severe
illness
(PSI
class
V),
quinolone
monotherapy
had
twice
as
high
a
mortality
as
the
use
of
a
ß-‐lactam/macrolide
combination.[39]
For
patients
without
pseudomonal
risk
factors,
therapy
should
be
with
a
selected
intravenous
ß-‐lactam
(cefotaxime,
ceftriaxone,
or
ampicillin/sulbactam),
combined
with
either
an
intravenous
macrolide
or
an
intravenous
quinolone
(levofloxacin
or
moxifloxacin).
For
patients
with
pseudomonal
risk
factors,
therapy
can
be
with
a
two-‐drug
regimen,
using
an
antipseudomonal
ß-‐
lactam
(cefepime,
imipenem,
meropenem,
piperacillin/tazobactam)
plus
ciprofloxacin
or
high-‐dose
levofloxacin
(750
mg
daily
if
normal
renal
function),
or
alternatively,
with
a
three-‐drug
regimen,
using
an
antipseudomonal
ß-‐lactam
plus
an
aminoglycoside
plus
either
an
intravenous
nonpseudomonal
quinolone
or
macrolide.
There
are
no
good
studies
of
severe
CAP
regimens
in
patients
who
are
penicillin
allergic,
but
the
general
recommendation
for
severe
CAP
without
pseudomonal
risks
is
to
use
aztreonam
plus
an
antipneumococcal
quinolone.
If
pseudomonal
risks
are
present,
then
the
same
severe
CAP
regimens
as
described
earlier
should
be
used,
replacing
the
antipseudomonal
ß-‐lactam
with
aztreonam.
490
In
addition
to
the
therapy
regimens
discussed,
some
patients
with
severe
CAP,
particularly
after
an
episode
of
influenza,
need
added
coverage
for
S.
aureus,
including
MRSA.
However,
not
all
patients
with
severe
CAP
require
this
therapy,
but
most
experts
recommend
that
this
organism
be
targeted
empirically
in
patients
with
severe,
necrotizing
CAP,
following
a
viral
illness,
particularly
influenza.
Optimal
therapy
has
not
been
defined,
and
vancomycin
alone
may
not
be
sufficient
and
has
led
to
clinical
failure,
presumably
because
it
is
not
active
against
the
PVL
toxin
that
accompanies
community-‐acquired
MRSA.
For
that
reason,
it
may
be
necessary
to
add
clindamycin
to
vancomycin
or
to
use
linezolid
(with
rifampin
in
severe
illness)
because
both
of
these
latter
agents
can
inhibit
toxin
production.[30]
The
current
guidelines
do
not
offer
a
specific
recommendation
on
the
need
for
antitoxin
agents
if
community-‐acquired
MRSA
is
being
treated.
This
organism
is
not
common
in
Europe,
and
it
is
not
included
in
severe
CAP
recommendations
from
those
countries.
Patients
with
HCAP
are
a
heterogeneous
group,
with
some
at
risk
for
multidrug-‐
resistant
(MDR)
gram-‐negatives
and
MRSA,
and
others
not,
with
the
risks
for
drug-‐
resistant
pathogens
in
this
population,
including
recent
antibiotic
therapy
and
poor
functional
status,
as
well
as
severe
illness.[4]
There
is
no
consensus
on
the
best
therapy
of
HCAP,
but
probably
given
the
heterogeneity
of
the
population
and
the
variable
frequency
of
risks
for
drug-‐resistant
organisms,
therapy
should
be
individualized.[4]
Although
the
concept
of
HCAP
is
new
and
evolving,
patients
from
nursing
homes,
those
who
have
recently
been
hospitalized,
and
those
from
dialysis
centers
are
not
separated
from
CAP
patients
in
the
approach
to
therapy
that
is
outlined
in
European
and
British
guidelines.
Performance Measures
In
the
United
States,
a
recent
development
has
been
the
promotion
of
publicly
reported
performance
measures
for
hospitalized
patients,
intended
to
assure
a
minimum
standard
of
care.
The
latest
IDSA/ATS
guidelines
have
addressed
these
performance
measures,
endorsing
some
but
rejecting
others,
particularly
the
standard
related
to
the
timing
of
antibiotic
administration.[1]
For
patients
with
CAP,
Medicare
(Center
for
Medicare
Services,
CMS)
has
developed
a
set
of
"core
measures"
that
are
collected
for
every
hospital
and
reported
on
the
Hospital
Compare
Web
site,
with
the
implication
that
hospitals
with
the
best
performance
are
providing
the
highest
level
of
care
(Table
3).
The
core
measures
include
timely
administration
of
antibiotics,
measurement
of
oxygenation,
selection
of
the
correct
antibiotics
in
the
hospital
and
in
the
ICU,
collection
of
blood
cultures
in
seriously
ill
patients
prior
to
antibiotic
administration,
provision
of
smoking
cessation
advice,
and
offering
of
pneumococcal
and
influenza
vaccines
to
at-‐risk
individuals.[1]
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
1. First dose of antibiotics within 6 hours of arrival at hospital
1. Non-‐ICU
2. ICU
5. Blood cultures within 24 hours for all patients admitted to ICU
7. Evaluation
of
need
and
offering
of
pneumococcal
and
influenza
vaccines
to
all
appropriate
candidatesa
This
approach
has
led
to
a
variety
of
adverse,
unintended
consequences,
best
illustrated
by
the
previous
standard
of
requiring
all
patients
to
receive
their
first
dose
of
antibiotics
within
4
hours
of
arrival
to
the
hospital,
a
standard
that
has
now
been
modified
to
extend
to
6
hours.
Although
retrospectively
collected
data
have
shown
a
lower
mortality
for
patients
given
therapy
within
4
hours
compared
with
those
given
therapy
later,
the
explanation
may
not
be
timely
administration
alone.[40]
It
is
possible
that
delay
in
therapy
may
be
a
surrogate
marker
for
patients
with
diagnostic
uncertainty
and
of
patients
with
impaired
host
responses
who
have
indistinct
clinical
presentations
and
thus
are
not
easily
recognized
as
having
pneumonia.[41]
In
addition,
when
hospitals
have
increased
the
number
of
patients
getting
early
antibiotics,
in
an
effort
to
comply
with
core
measures,
there
have
been
some
data
to
suggest
that
there
are
more
patients
who
are
given
timely
therapy
who
do
not
actually
have
pneumonia,
than
in
the
period
before
such
an
effort
at
timely
therapy
was
made.[42]
In
addition,
some
of
the
patients
given
this
timely
therapy,
and
who
do
not
have
pneumonia,
have
developed
antibiotic
complications
such
as
antibiotic-‐associated
colitis.[43]
Although
the
standard
for
pneumococcal
vaccination
seems
appropriate,
when
the
vaccine
has
been
used
in
children
it
has
led
to
unintended
consequences,
some
useful,
and
some
not.
Initially,
widespread
use
of
the
seven-‐valent
conjugate
vaccine
in
children
led
to
"herd
immunity"
in
the
older
caregivers
of
vaccinated
children,
492
with
a
decline
in
the
frequency
of
infection
by
vaccinated
strains.[44]
However,
more
recently,
in
the
children
who
have
been
vaccinated,
there
has
been
an
emergence
of
"replacement
strains,"
with
infection
being
caused
by
pneumococcal
strains
that
are
not
included
in
the
vaccine,
some
of
which
lead
to
necrotizing
pneumonia.
One
recent
study
has
shown
that
the
use
of
the
vaccine
has
led
to
vaccinated
patients
having
a
higher
frequency
of
necrotizing
pneumonia
than
prior
to
the
widespread
use
of
vaccination,
with
most
of
the
necrotizing
pneumonias
being
caused
by
nonvaccine
strains.[45]
Guidelines
outside
the
United
States
have
not
formally
included
performance
measures,
and
the
value
of
these
standards
needs
careful
consideration.
The
2007
U.S.
guidelines
endorse
four
performance
measures,
which
do
not
include
all
of
the
Medicare
core
measures.[1]
These
are
use
of
empirical
therapy
that
is
consistent
with
guideline
recommendations
because
these
therapies
have
been
shown
to
reduce
cost,
length
of
stay,
and
mortality;
giving
the
first
dose
of
therapy
in
the
emergency
department,
after
establishing
the
diagnosis
of
CAP,
but
there
is
no
endorsement
of
a
specific
time
period
for
administration;
collecting
data
about
CAP
mortality
and
the
need
for
ICU
transfer
after
admission
to
a
medical
ward;
determining
how
many
at-‐
risk
patients
receive
pneumococcal
and
influenza
vaccine.
81. Injuria pulmonara acuta (ALI) -‐ Sindromul de detresa respiratorie acuta (ARDS)
ARDS
- caracterizat prin apariţia de reacţii imunologice ce conduc la leziuni alveolare
difuze tromboze microvasculare pulmonare, agregare de celule inflamatorii,
stagnarea fluxului sanguin pulmonar cu creşterea permeabilităţii capilare +
hipertensiune pulmonară + apă extravasculară în exces
Definiţie
1971
- dispnee
- tahipnee
- cianoză refractară la administrarea de oxien
- scăderea complianţei pulmonare
- infiltrat difuz pe Rx
- atelectazii + hemoragii + edem pulmonar + membrane hialine
1988
Scală cu 4 puncte
1. nivelul de PEEP
2. raportul PaO2/FiO2
3. complianţa statică
4. gradul de infiltrat pe Rx
493
1994
5. ALI raportul PaO2/FiO2 < 300
6. ARDS raportul PaO2/FiO2 < 200
+
7. instalare acută
8. infiltrat bilateral pe Rx
9. presiune de wedge<18
Histologic
10. iniţial edem (lichid de edem f bogat în proteine) cu presiune scăzută
(Pwg < 18) apoi colaps alveolar şi consolidare cu proliferare fibroblaste
şi depozite de colagen
Faza exudativă 0-72 h
11. iniţial se distrug pneumocitele tip I
12. leziunea alveolară este mai importantă ca cea endotelială
13. apare acumulare de lichid în interstiţiu şi în alveole
Faza de proliferare iniţială < 7 zile
14. apare proliferare celule tip II
15. se formează membrane hialine din proteinele plasmatice + detritusuri
celulare + fibrină + surfactant
16. proliferează fibroblastele, leucocitele
17. apar leziunile capilarelor pulmonare
18. microatelectazii + colabare alveole
Faza de proliferare tardivă 7- 10 zile
19. fibroză la nivelul ductelor şi alveolelor
20. consolidare
Etiologie
- frecvent: - infecţii pulmonare
- aspiraţie (pH<5)
- contuzie pulmonară
- innec
- inhalare de toxice
- indirect: - sd septic
- traume severe nontoracice
- transfuzii multiple
- bypass CP
- abuz droguri (cocaina, heroina)
Clinic:
494
Scor ARDS
Rx fără consolidare 0
consolidare 1 cadran 1
consolidare 2 cadrane 2
consolidare 3 cadran 3
consolidare 4 cadran 4
PEEP ≤5 0
6–8 1
9 – 11 2
12 – 14 3
≥ 15 4
Complianţă ≥ 80 0
60 – 79 1
40 – 59 2
20 – 39 3
≤ 20 4
PaO2/FiO2 > 300 0
225 – 299 1
175 – 224 2
100 – 175 3
< 100 4
Fiziopatologie
1. surfactant este secretat de celulele de tip II (in ARDS apar anomalii
cantitative şi calitative) are rol de a scădea tensiunea superficială şi de
a menţine alveola deschisă
Diferenţa între ventilaţie şi perfuzie este unul din indicii importanţi din
ARDS. La nivel pulmonar, regiunile cu raport normal ventilaţie / perfuzie (V/Q)
coexistă împreună cu regiuni care au rapoarte mici sau mari ale V/Q. O
proporţie mare a regiunilor pumonare pare ventilată la radiografia de torace şi
tomografie nu este perfuzată de loc sau slabconstituind spaţiu mort alveolar.
În acelaşi timp o bună parte a zonelor neventilate continuă să fie perfuzate
datorită insuficienţei vasoconstricţiei vasculare pulmonare (HPV), un reflex
care pare să limiteze fluxul pulmonar sanguin perfuzând slab psaţiile alveolare
495
oxigenate. Volume tidale mari şi consecutiv presiuni mari în căile aeriene sunt
necesare pt a menţine PaCO2 normal în faţa creşterii spaţilui mort alveolar.
Hipertensiunea pulmonară acută este frecvent observată la pacienţi cu
ARDS. Este rezultat al vasoconstricţiei pulmonare caracterizând stadiile
iniţiale ale ARDS şi remodelarea alveolară a vasculaturii pulmonare observate
în stadile finale ale bolii. În schimb, vasoconstricţia pulmonară poate fi datorită
vasoconstricţiei pulmonare reflexe sau mediatorilor chimici cum ar fi
tromboxam A2 şi factorul de activare plachetară. Remodelarea anatomică
cuprinde hipertrofie musculară, microtromboză, fibroză şi distrucţia vaselor
pulmonare.
Teoretic, constricţia selectivă a vaselor pulmonare la nivelor zonelor
neventilate sau dilataţia selectivă a vaselor în zonele ventilate trebuie să
scadă diferenţa V/Q. Administrarea de vasoconstrictori pulmonari selectivi şi
vasodilatatori pt a obţine obiectivele de mai sus formează baya abordării
farmacologice a hipoxemiei. Aceste medicamente vasoactive trebuie să aibă
un efet predominant asupra circulaţiei pulmonare şi efecte minime sau nicci
un efct asupra circulaţiei sistemice. NO şi prostaciclina în doye mici
administrată pe cale inhalatorie produce vasodilataţie pulmonară la nivelul
regiunilor pulmonare ventilate. Almitrine şi diclofenac (inhibitori de COX)
acţioneayă prin îmbunătăţirea vasoconstricţiei polmonare hipoxice reflexă în
regiunile neventilate.
2.
Tratament
1. Măsuri generale
1. Fluide - restricţie
2. Nuriţie : - bogată în proteine şi lipide
1. carbohidraţi puţini (CO2 mare)
2. în principal enterală pt a împiedica translocaţia
3. cu arginină, RNA, omega 3
2. Ventilaţie mecanică
presiune de deschidere
alveole
normal 0
colaps în caile aeriene mici 10 - 20
colaps alveole 20 - 30
consolidare ∞
Abordări PEEP
Conceptul open lung
13. PEEP este de la început setat la 2 cmH2O superior LIP (8-15 cmH2O)
14. LIP se determină curbă constriută prin creşterea vt de la 100 la 1000
notând presiunea după pauya inspiratorie la PEEP 0 )
15. curbă de la PEEP 10 la 15 iar PEEP ideal este cel la care nu există LIP
16. iniţial PEEP mediu 17 cmH2O
Conceptul least PEEP
17. PEEP crescut brusc la 15 şi FiO2 la 1 cu monitorizare SpO2
(hipotensiune rardatorită creşteri lente a presiunii pleurale) apoi după
ce SpO2 este 90% FiO2 se scade treptat la 0.6, după care se scade
PEEP cu 2.5 cmH2O la 15 minute mentinându-se SpO2>90%.
Almitrine şi diclofenac
4. ECMO/EC CO2R
5. Ventilatie cu lichide
6. Surfactant
Aspiratia pulmonara
Sd de aspiratie:
- Sd Medelson
- Aspiratia de corpi straini
- Pneumonia bacterina + abcesul pulmonar
- pneumonia chimica
- pneumonia recurenta
- fiboza cronica interstitiala
- bronsiectaziile
- pneumonia cu mycobacterii
- traheobronsita
- innecul
Protocol diagnostic:
1. Istoric
2. Examen clinic
498
3. RxCP
4. Endoscopie pt evaluare inghitit
5. Studii CRI: ex sputa, LBA, periaj bronsic, biopsie pulmonara
6. Studii GI sup: bariu, endoscopie, motilitate gastrica, scintiscan, monit pH
gastric/24 ore
7. Monitorizare aspiratie la pacientii hraniti enteral
Sd Medelson
= ARDS determinat de inflamarea parenchimului pulmonar cauzata de
aspirarea unui volum mare de continut gastric
- trat - VM
- corticoizi parenteral – nici un beneficiu
- ATB doar daca se complica cu infectie
Respiratory
Failure
Ata
Murat
Kaynar,
MD,
Assistant
Professor,
Departments
of
Critical
Care
Medicine
and
Anesthesiology,
University
of
Pittsburgh
School
of
Medicine
Sat
Sharma,
MD,
FRCPC,
Professor
and
Head,
Division
of
Pulmonary
Medicine,
Department
of
Internal
Medicine,
University
of
Manitoba;
Site
Director,
Respiratory
Medicine,
St
Boniface
General
Hospital
Introduction
Background
Respiratory
failure
is
a
syndrome
in
which
the
respiratory
system
fails
in
one
or
both
of
its
gas
exchange
functions:
oxygenation
and
carbon
dioxide
elimination.
In
499
practice,
respiratory
failure
is
defined
as
a
PaO2
value
of
less
than
60
mm
Hg
while
breathing
air
or
a
PaCO2
of
more
than
50
mm
Hg.
Furthermore,
respiratory
failure
may
be
acute
or
chronic.
Although
acute
respiratory
failure
is
characterized
by
life-‐
threatening
derangements
in
arterial
blood
gases
and
acid-‐base
status,
the
manifestations
of
chronic
respiratory
failure
are
less
dramatic
and
may
not
be
as
readily
apparent.
Bilateral
airspace
infiltrates
on
chest
radiograph
film
secondary
to
acute
respiratory
distress
syndrome
that
resulted
in
respiratory
failure.
Respiratory
failure
may
be
classified
as
hypoxemic
or
hypercapnic
and
may
be
either
acute
or
chronic.
Hypoxemic
respiratory
failure
(type
I)
is
characterized
by
a
PaO2
of
less
than
60
mm
Hg
with
a
normal
or
low
PaCO2.
This
is
the
most
common
form
of
respiratory
failure,
and
it
can
be
associated
with
virtually
all
acute
diseases
of
the
lung,
which
generally
500
involve
fluid
filling
or
collapse
of
alveolar
units.
Some
examples
of
type
I
respiratory
failure
are
cardiogenic
or
noncardiogenic
pulmonary
edema,
pneumonia,
and
pulmonary
hemorrhage.
Hypercapnic
respiratory
failure
(type
II)
is
characterized
by
a
PaCO2
of
more
than
50
mm
Hg.
Hypoxemia
is
common
in
patients
with
hypercapnic
respiratory
failure
who
are
breathing
room
air.
The
pH
depends
on
the
level
of
bicarbonate,
which,
in
turn,
is
dependent
on
the
duration
of
hypercapnia.
Common
etiologies
include
drug
overdose,
neuromuscular
disease,
chest
wall
abnormalities,
and
severe
airway
disorders
(eg,
asthma,
chronic
obstructive
pulmonary
disease
[COPD]).
Acute
hypercapnic
respiratory
failure
develops
over
minutes
to
hours;
therefore,
pH
is
less
than
7.3.
Chronic
respiratory
failure
develops
over
several
days
or
longer,
allowing
time
for
renal
compensation
and
an
increase
in
bicarbonate
concentration.
Therefore,
the
pH
usually
is
only
slightly
decreased.
The
distinction
between
acute
and
chronic
hypoxemic
respiratory
failure
cannot
readily
be
made
on
the
basis
of
arterial
blood
gases.
The
clinical
markers
of
chronic
hypoxemia,
such
as
polycythemia
or
cor
pulmonale,
suggest
a
long-‐standing
disorder.
Pathophysiology
Respiratory
failure
can
arise
from
an
abnormality
in
any
of
the
components
of
the
respiratory
system,
including
the
airways,
alveoli,
CNS,
peripheral
nervous
system,
respiratory
muscles,
and
chest
wall.
Patients
who
have
hypoperfusion
secondary
to
cardiogenic,
hypovolemic,
or
septic
shock
often
present
with
respiratory
failure.
The
pathophysiologic
mechanisms
that
account
for
the
hypoxemia
observed
in
a
wide
variety
of
diseases
are
ventilation-‐perfusion
(V/Q)
mismatch
and
shunt.
These
2
mechanisms
lead
to
widening
of
the
alveolar-‐arterial
oxygen
difference,
which
normally
is
less
than
15
mm
Hg.
With
V/Q
mismatch,
the
areas
of
low
ventilation
relative
to
perfusion
(low
V/Q
units)
contribute
to
hypoxemia.
An
intrapulmonary
or
intracardiac
shunt
causes
mixed
venous
(deoxygenated)
blood
to
bypass
ventilated
alveoli
and
results
in
venous
admixture.
The
distinction
between
V/Q
mismatch
and
shunt
can
be
made
by
assessing
the
response
to
oxygen
supplementation
or
calculating
the
shunt
fraction
following
inhalation
of
100%
oxygen.
In
most
patients
with
hypoxemic
respiratory
failure,
these
2
mechanisms
coexist.
At
a
constant
rate
of
carbon
dioxide
production,
PaCO2
is
determined
by
the
level
of
alveolar
ventilation
(Va),
in
which
VCO2
is
ventilation
of
carbon
dioxide
and
K
is
a
constant
value
(0.863).
501
(Va = K x VCO2)/PaCO2
A
decrease
in
alveolar
ventilation
can
result
from
a
reduction
in
overall
(minute)
ventilation
or
an
increase
in
the
proportion
of
dead
space
ventilation.
A
reduction
in
minute
ventilation
is
observed
primarily
in
the
setting
of
neuromuscular
disorders
and
CNS
depression.
In
pure
hypercapnic
respiratory
failure,
the
hypoxemia
is
easily
corrected
with
oxygen
therapy.
Ventilatory
capacity
is
the
maximal
spontaneous
ventilation
that
can
be
maintained
without
development
of
respiratory
muscle
fatigue.
Ventilatory
demand
is
the
spontaneous
minute
ventilation
that
results
in
a
stable
PaCO2.
Normally,
ventilatory
capacity
greatly
exceeds
ventilatory
demand.
Respiratory
failure
may
result
from
either
a
reduction
in
ventilatory
capacity
or
an
increase
in
ventilatory
demand
(or
both).
Ventilatory
capacity
can
be
decreased
by
a
disease
process
involving
any
of
the
functional
components
of
the
respiratory
system
and
its
controller.
Ventilatory
demand
is
augmented
by
an
increase
in
minute
ventilation
and/or
an
increase
in
the
work
of
breathing.
The
act
of
respiration
engages
3
processes:
(1)
transfer
of
oxygen
across
the
alveolus,
(2)
transport
of
oxygen
to
the
tissues,
and
(3)
removal
of
carbon
dioxide
from
blood
into
the
alveolus
and
then
into
the
environment.
Respiratory
failure
may
occur
from
malfunctioning
of
any
of
these
processes.
In
order
to
understand
the
pathophysiologic
basis
of
acute
respiratory
failure,
an
understanding
of
pulmonary
gas
exchange
is
essential.
Respiration
primarily
occurs
at
the
alveolar
capillary
units
of
the
lungs,
where
exchange
of
oxygen
and
carbon
dioxide
between
alveolar
gas
and
blood
takes
place.
Following
diffusion
into
the
blood,
the
oxygen
molecules
reversibly
bind
to
the
hemoglobin.
Each
molecule
of
hemoglobin
contains
4
sites
for
combination
with
molecular
oxygen,
1
g
of
hemoglobin
combines
with
a
maximum
of
1.36
mL
of
oxygen.
The
quantity
of
oxygen
combined
with
hemoglobin
depends
on
the
level
of
blood
PaO2.
This
relationship,
expressed
as
the
oxygen
hemoglobin
dissociation
curve,
is
not
linear
but
has
a
sigmoid-‐shaped
curve
with
a
steep
slope
between
a
PaO2
of
10
and
50
mm
Hg
and
a
flat
portion
above
a
PaO2
of
70
mm
Hg.
The
carbon
dioxide
is
transported
in
3
main
forms:
(1)
in
simple
solution,
(2)
as
bicarbonate,
and
(3)
combined
with
protein
of
hemoglobin
as
a
carbamino
compound.
During
ideal
gas
exchange,
blood
flow
and
ventilation
would
perfectly
match
each
other,
resulting
in
no
alveolar-‐arterial
PO2
difference.
However,
even
in
normal
lungs,
not
all
alveoli
are
ventilated
and
perfused
perfectly.
For
a
given
perfusion,
some
alveoli
are
underventilated
while
others
are
overventilated.
Similarly,
for
known
502
alveolar
ventilation,
some
units
are
underperfused
while
others
are
overperfused.
The
optimally
ventilated
alveoli
that
are
not
perfused
well
are
called
high
V/Q
units
(acting
like
dead
space),
and
alveoli
that
are
optimally
perfused
but
not
adequately
ventilated
are
called
low
V/Q
units
(acting
like
a
shunt).
Alveolar ventilation
At
steady
state,
the
rate
of
carbon
dioxide
production
by
the
tissues
is
constant
and
equals
the
rate
of
carbon
dioxide
elimination
by
the
lung.
This
relationship
is
expressed
as
PaCO2
=
VCO2
x
0.862/Va.
This
relationship
signifies
whether
the
alveolar
ventilation
is
adequate
for
metabolic
needs
of
the
body.
The
efficiency
of
lungs
at
carrying
out
of
respiration
can
be
further
evaluated
by
measuring
alveolar-‐to-‐arterial
PaO2
difference.
This
difference
is
calculated
by
the
following
equation:
For
the
above
equation,
PA
O2
=
alveolar
PO2,
FIO2
=
fractional
concentration
of
oxygen
in
inspired
gas,
PB
=
barometric
pressure,
PH2
O
=
water
vapor
pressure
at
37°C,
PA
CO2
=
alveolar
PCO2,
assumed
to
be
equal
to
arterial
PCO2,
and
R
=
respiratory
exchange
ratio.
R
depends
on
oxygen
consumption
and
carbon
dioxide
production.
At
rest,
VCO2/VO2
is
approximately
0.8.
Even
normal
lungs
have
some
degree
of
V/Q
mismatching
and
a
small
quantity
of
right-‐to-‐left
shunt,
alveolar
PO2
is
slightly
higher
than
arterial
PO2.
However,
an
increase
in
alveolar-‐to-‐arterial
PO2
above
15-‐20
mm
Hg
indicates
pulmonary
disease
as
the
cause
of
hypoxemia.
Hypoventilation,
V/Q
mismatch,
and
shunt
are
the
most
common
pathophysiologic
causes
of
acute
respiratory
failure.
These
are
described
in
the
following
paragraphs.
Hypoventilation
Hyperventilation
is
an
uncommon
cause
of
respiratory
failure
and
usually
occurs
from
depression
of
the
CNS
from
drugs
or
neuromuscular
diseases
affecting
respiratory
muscles.
Hypoventilation
is
characterized
by
hypercapnia
and
hypoxemia.
The
relationship
between
PaCO2
and
alveolar
ventilation
is
hyperbolic.
As
ventilation
decreases
below
4-‐6
L/min,
PaCO2
rises
precipitously.
Hypoventilation
can
be
differentiated
from
other
causes
of
hypoxemia
by
the
presence
of
a
normal
alveolar-‐
arterial
PO2
gradient.
V/Q mismatch
V/Q
mismatch
is
the
most
common
cause
of
hypoxemia.
V/Q
units
may
vary
from
low
to
high
ratios
in
the
presence
of
a
disease
process.
The
low
V/Q
units
contribute
503
to
hypoxemia
and
hypercapnia
in
contrast
to
high
V/Q
units,
which
waste
ventilation
but
do
not
affect
gas
exchange
unless
quite
severe.
The
low
V/Q
ratio
may
occur
either
from
a
decrease
in
ventilation
secondary
to
airway
or
interstitial
lung
disease
or
from
overperfusion
in
the
presence
of
normal
ventilation.
The
overperfusion
may
occur
in
case
of
pulmonary
embolism,
where
the
blood
is
diverted
to
normally
ventilated
units
from
regions
of
lungs
that
have
blood
flow
obstruction
secondary
to
embolism.
Administration
of
100%
oxygen
eliminates
all
of
the
low
V/Q
units,
thus
leading
to
correction
of
hypoxemia.
Hypoxemia
increases
minute
ventilation
by
chemoreceptor
stimulation,
but
the
PaCO2
level
generally
is
not
affected.
Shunt
Shunt
is
defined
as
the
persistence
of
hypoxemia
despite
100%
oxygen
inhalation.
The
deoxygenated
blood
(mixed
venous
blood)
bypasses
the
ventilated
alveoli
and
mixes
with
oxygenated
blood
that
has
flowed
through
the
ventilated
alveoli,
consequently
leading
to
a
reduction
in
arterial
blood
content.
The
shunt
is
calculated
by
the
following
equation:
QS/QT
is
the
shunt
fraction,
CCO2
(capillary
oxygen
content)
is
calculated
from
ideal
alveolar
PO2,
CaO2
(arterial
oxygen
content)
is
derived
from
PaO2
using
the
oxygen
dissociation
curve,
and
CVO2
(mixed
venous
oxygen
content)
can
be
assumed
or
measured
by
drawing
mixed
venous
blood
from
pulmonary
arterial
catheter.
Anatomical
shunt
exists
in
normal
lungs
because
of
the
bronchial
and
thebesian
circulations,
accounting
for
2-‐3%
of
shunt.
A
normal
right-‐to-‐left
shunt
may
occur
from
atrial
septal
defect,
ventricular
septal
defect,
patent
ductus
arteriosus,
or
arteriovenous
malformation
in
the
lung.
Shunt
as
a
cause
of
hypoxemia
is
observed
primarily
in
pneumonia,
atelectasis,
and
severe
pulmonary
edema
of
either
cardiac
or
noncardiac
origin.
Hypercapnia
generally
does
not
develop
unless
the
shunt
is
excessive
(>60%).
When
compared
with
V/Q
mismatch,
hypoxemia
produced
by
shunt
is
difficult
to
correct
by
oxygen
administration.
Frequency
United States
Respiratory
failure
is
a
syndrome
rather
than
a
single
disease
process,
and
the
overall
frequency
of
respiratory
failure
is
not
well
known.
The
estimates
for
individual
diseases
mentioned
here
can
be
found
in
the
appropriate
eMedicine
article.
Mortality/Morbidity
The
mortality
rate
associated
with
respiratory
failure
varies
according
to
the
etiology.
For
acute
respiratory
distress
syndrome,
the
mortality
rate
is
approximately
45%
in
most
studies;
this
percentage
has
not
changed
over
the
years.
1,
2
Acute
exacerbation
504
of
COPD
carries
a
mortality
rate
of
approximately
30%.
The
mortality
rates
for
other
causative
disease
processes
have
not
been
well
described.
Race
The
relation
between
acute
respiratory
failure
and
race
is
still
debated.
A
recent
work
by
Khan
et
al
suggested
that
no
differences
in
mortality
exist
in
patients
of
Asian
and
Native
Indian
descent
with
acute
critical
illness
after
adjusting
for
differences
in
case
mix.3
Moss
and
Mannino,
in
a
2002
manuscript,
showed
worse
outcome
for
African-‐Americans
suffering
from
acute
respiratory
distress
syndrome
(ARDS)
as
compared
with
whites
when
adjusted
for
case
mix.4
As
more
prospective
association
studies
are
performed,
we
will
have
a
better
knowledge
of
the
impact
of
race
on
the
outcome
of
respiratory
failure.
Clinical
History
The
diagnosis
of
acute
or
chronic
respiratory
failure
begins
with
clinical
suspicion
of
its
presence.
Confirmation
of
the
diagnosis
is
based
on
arterial
blood
gas
analysis.
Evaluation
of
an
underlying
cause
must
be
initiated
early,
frequently
in
the
presence
of
concurrent
treatment
for
acute
respiratory
failure.
1. The
cause
of
respiratory
failure
is
often
evident
after
a
careful
history
and
physical
examination.
1. Cardiogenic
pulmonary
edema
usually
develops
in
the
context
of
a
history
of
left
ventricular
dysfunction
or
valvular
heart
disease.
2. A
history
of
previous
cardiac
disease,
recent
symptoms
of
chest
pain,
paroxysmal
nocturnal
dyspnea,
and
orthopnea
suggest
cardiogenic
pulmonary
edema.
3. Noncardiogenic
edema
(eg,
acute
respiratory
distress
syndrome
[ARDS])
occurs
in
typical
clinical
contexts
such
as
sepsis,
trauma,
aspiration,
pneumonia,
pancreatitis,
drug
toxicity,
and
multiple
transfusions.
Physical
The
signs
and
symptoms
of
acute
respiratory
failure
reflect
the
underlying
disease
process
and
the
associated
hypoxemia
or
hypercapnia.
Localized
pulmonary
findings
reflecting
the
acute
cause
of
hypoxemia,
such
as
pneumonia,
pulmonary
edema,
asthma,
or
COPD,
may
be
readily
apparent.
In
patients
with
acute
respiratory
distress
syndrome
(ARDS),
the
manifestations
may
be
remote
from
the
thorax,
such
as
abdominal
pain
or
long-‐bone
fracture.
Neurological
manifestations
include
restlessness,
anxiety,
confusion,
seizures,
or
coma.
505
1. Asterixis
may
be
observed
with
severe
hypercapnia.
Tachycardia
and
a
variety
of
arrhythmias
may
result
from
hypoxemia
and
acidosis.
2. Once
respiratory
failure
is
suspected
on
clinical
grounds,
arterial
blood
gas
analysis
should
be
performed
to
confirm
the
diagnosis
and
to
assist
in
the
distinction
between
acute
and
chronic
forms.
This
helps
assess
the
severity
of
respiratory
failure
and
also
helps
guide
management.
3. Cyanosis,
a
bluish
color
of
skin
and
mucous
membranes,
indicates
hypoxemia.
Visible
cyanosis
typically
is
present
when
the
concentration
of
deoxygenated
hemoglobin
in
the
capillaries
or
tissues
is
at
least
5
g/dL.
4. Dyspnea,
an
uncomfortable
sensation
of
breathing,
often
accompanies
respiratory
failure.
Excessive
respiratory
effort,
vagal
receptors,
and
chemical
stimuli
(hypoxemia
and/or
hypercapnia)
all
may
contribute
to
the
sensation
of
dyspnea.
5. Both
confusion
and
somnolence
may
occur
in
respiratory
failure.
Myoclonus
and
seizures
may
occur
with
severe
hypoxemia.
Polycythemia
is
a
complication
of
long-‐standing
hypoxemia.
6. Pulmonary
hypertension
frequently
is
present
in
chronic
respiratory
failure.
Alveolar
hypoxemia
potentiated
by
hypercapnia
causes
pulmonary
arteriolar
constriction.
If
chronic,
this
is
accompanied
by
hypertrophy
and
hyperplasia
of
the
affected
smooth
muscles
and
narrowing
of
the
pulmonary
arterial
bed.
The
increased
pulmonary
vascular
resistance
increases
afterload
of
the
right
ventricle,
which
may
induce
right
ventricular
failure.
This,
in
turn,
causes
enlargement
of
the
liver
and
peripheral
edema.
The
entire
sequence
is
known
as
cor
pulmonale.
7. Criteria
for
the
diagnosis
of
acute
respiratory
distress
syndrome
1. Clinical
presentation
-‐
Tachypnea
and
dyspnea;
crackles
upon
auscultation
2. Clinical
setting
-‐
Direct
insult
(aspiration)
or
systemic
process
causing
lung
injury
(sepsis)
3. Radiologic
appearance
-‐
Three-‐quadrant
or
4-‐quadrant
alveolar
flooding
4. Lung
mechanics
-‐
Diminished
compliance
(<40
mL/cm
water)
5. Gas
exchange
-‐
Severe
hypoxia
refractory
to
oxygen
therapy
(PaO2/FIO2
<200)
6. Normal
pulmonary
vascular
properties
-‐
Pulmonary
capillary
wedge
pressure
of
less
than
18
mm
Hg
Causes
These
diseases
can
be
grouped
according
to
the
primary
abnormality
and
the
individual
components
of
the
respiratory
system,
as
follows:
6. Polyneuropathy
7. Poliomyelitis
8. Primary
muscle
disorders
9. Porphyria
10. Cervical
cordotomy
11. Head
and
cervical
cord
injury
12. Primary
alveolar
hypoventilation
13. Obesity
hypoventilation
syndrome
14. Pulmonary
edema
15. Adult
respiratory
distress
syndrome
16. Myxedema
17. Tetanus
Differential
Diagnoses
Acute
Respiratory
Distress
Syndrome
Pneumonia,
Viral
Apnea,
Sleep
Pneumothorax
Asthma
Pulmonary
Edema,
Cardiogenic
Atelectasis
Pulmonary
Edema,
Neurogenic
Cardiogenic
Shock
Pulmonary
Embolism
Cardiomyopathy,
Diabetic
Heart
Pulmonary
Fibrosis,
Idiopathic
Disease
Cardiomyopathy,
Dilated
Pulmonary
Fibrosis,
Interstitial
(Nonidiopathic)
Cardiomyopathy,
Hypertrophic
Pulmonary
Hypertension,
Primary
Cor
Pulmonale
Pulmonary
Hypertension,
Secondary
Cyanosis
Respiratory
Acidosis
Diaphragmatic
Paralysis
Restrictive
Lung
Disease
Emphysema
Shock,
Distributive
Myocardial
Infarction
Ventilation,
Mechanical
Myocardial
Ischemia
Ventilation,
Noninvasive
Pneumonia,
Aspiration
Pneumonia,
Bacterial
Pneumonia,
Community-‐Acquired
Workup
Laboratory
Studies
1. Respiratory
failure
may
be
associated
with
a
variety
of
clinical
manifestations.
However,
these
are
nonspecific,
and
very
significant
respiratory
failure
may
be
present
without
dramatic
signs
or
symptoms.
This
emphasizes
the
importance
of
measuring
arterial
blood
gases
in
all
patients
who
are
seriously
ill
or
in
whom
respiratory
failure
is
suspected.
508
2. A
complete
blood
count
may
indicate
anemia,
which
can
contribute
to
tissue
hypoxia,
whereas
polycythemia
may
indicate
chronic
hypoxemic
respiratory
failure.
3. A
chemistry
panel
may
be
helpful
in
the
evaluation
and
management
of
a
patient
in
respiratory
failure.
Abnormalities
in
renal
and
hepatic
function
may
either
provide
clues
to
the
etiology
of
respiratory
failure
or
alert
the
clinician
to
complications
associated
with
respiratory
failure.
Abnormalities
in
electrolytes
such
as
potassium,
magnesium,
and
phosphate
may
aggravate
respiratory
failure
and
other
organ
function.
4. Measuring
serum
creatine
kinase
with
fractionation
and
troponin
I
helps
exclude
recent
myocardial
infarction
in
a
patient
with
respiratory
failure.
An
elevated
creatine
kinase
with
a
normal
troponin
I
may
indicate
myositis,
which
occasionally
can
cause
respiratory
failure.
5. In
chronic
hypercapnic
respiratory
failure,
serum
thyroid-‐stimulating
hormone
should
be
measured
to
evaluate
the
possibility
of
hypothyroidism,
a
potentially
reversible
cause
of
respiratory
failure.
Imaging Studies
1. Chest
radiograph
1. Chest
radiography
is
essential
because
it
frequently
reveals
the
cause
of
respiratory
failure.
However,
distinguishing
between
cardiogenic
and
noncardiogenic
pulmonary
edema
often
is
difficult.
2. Increased
heart
size,
vascular
redistribution,
peribronchial
cuffing,
pleural
effusions,
septal
lines,
and
perihilar
bat-‐wing
distribution
of
infiltrates
suggest
hydrostatic
edema;
the
lack
of
these
findings
suggests
acute
respiratory
distress
syndrome
(ARDS).
2. Echocardiography
1. Echocardiography
need
not
be
performed
routinely
in
all
patients
with
respiratory
failure.
However,
it
is
a
useful
test
when
a
cardiac
cause
of
acute
respiratory
failure
is
suspected.
2. The
findings
of
left
ventricular
dilatation,
regional
or
global
wall
motion
abnormalities,
or
severe
mitral
regurgitation
support
the
diagnosis
of
cardiogenic
pulmonary
edema.
3. A
normal
heart
size
and
normal
systolic
and
diastolic
function
in
a
patient
with
pulmonary
edema
would
suggest
acute
respiratory
distress
syndrome
(ARDS).
4. Echocardiography
provides
an
estimate
of
right
ventricular
function
and
pulmonary
artery
pressure
in
patients
with
chronic
hypercapnic
respiratory
failure.
Other Tests
1. Patients
with
acute
respiratory
failure
generally
are
unable
to
perform
pulmonary
function
tests
(PFTs).
However,
PFTs
are
useful
in
the
evaluation
of
chronic
respiratory
failure.
509
1. Normal
values
of
forced
expiratory
volume
in
one
second
(FEV1)
and
forced
vital
capacity
(FVC)
suggest
a
disturbance
in
respiratory
control.
2. A
decrease
in
FEV1
-‐to-‐FVC
ratio
indicates
airflow
obstruction,
whereas
a
reduction
in
both
the
FEV1
and
FVC
and
maintenance
of
the
FEV1
-‐to-‐FVC
ratio
suggest
restrictive
lung
disease.
3. Respiratory
failure
is
uncommon
in
obstructive
diseases
when
the
FEV1
is
greater
than
1
L
and
in
restrictive
diseases
when
the
FVC
is
more
than
1
L.
2. An
ECG
should
be
performed
to
evaluate
the
possibility
of
a
cardiovascular
cause
of
respiratory
failure;
it
also
may
detect
dysrhythmias
resulting
from
severe
hypoxemia
and/or
acidosis.
Procedures
Treatment
Medical
Care
Hypoxemia
is
the
major
immediate
threat
to
organ
function.
Therefore,
the
first
objective
in
the
management
of
respiratory
failure
is
to
reverse
and/or
prevent
tissue
hypoxia.
Hypercapnia
unaccompanied
by
hypoxemia
generally
is
well
tolerated
and
probably
is
not
a
threat
to
organ
function
unless
accompanied
by
severe
acidosis.
Many
experts
believe
that
hypercapnia
should
be
tolerated
until
the
arterial
blood
pH
falls
below
7.2.
Appropriate
management
of
the
underlying
disease
obviously
is
an
important
component
in
the
management
of
respiratory
failure.
A
patient
with
acute
respiratory
failure
generally
should
be
admitted
to
a
respiratory
care
or
intensive
care
unit.
Most
patients
with
chronic
respiratory
failure
can
be
treated
at
home
with
oxygen
supplementation
and/or
ventilatory
assist
devices
along
with
therapy
for
their
underlying
disease.
1. Airway
management
1. Assurance
of
an
adequate
airway
is
vital
in
a
patient
with
acute
respiratory
distress.
510
not
suitable
for
use
in
modern
critical
care
units.
Positive-‐pressure
ventilation
can
be
achieved
by
an
endotracheal
or
tracheostomy
tube
or
noninvasively
through
a
nasal
mask
or
face
mask.
2. Controlled
versus
patient-‐initiated
(ie,
assisted):
Ventilatory
assistance
can
be
controlled
(AC)
or
patient-‐initiated.
In
controlled
modes
of
ventilation,
the
ventilator
delivers
assistance
independent
of
the
patient's
own
spontaneous
inspiratory
efforts.
In
contrast,
during
patient-‐initiated
modes
of
ventilation,
the
ventilator
delivers
assistance
in
response
to
the
patient's
own
inspiratory
efforts.
The
patient's
inspiratory
efforts
can
be
sensed
either
by
pressure
or
flow-‐
triggering
mechanisms
(see
Triggering
mechanism,
below).
3. Pressure-‐targeted
versus
volume-‐targeted:
During
positive-‐pressure
ventilation,
either
pressure
or
volume
may
be
set
as
the
independent
variable.
In
volume-‐targeted
(or
volume
preset)
ventilation,
tidal
volume
is
the
independent
variable
set
by
the
physician
and/or
respiratory
therapist,
and
airway
pressure
is
the
dependent
variable.
In
volume-‐targeted
ventilation,
airway
pressure
is
a
function
of
the
set
tidal
volume
and
inspiratory
flow
rate,
the
patient's
respiratory
mechanics
(compliance
and
resistance),
and
the
patient's
respiratory
muscle
activity.
In
pressure-‐targeted
(or
pressure
preset)
ventilation,
airway
pressure
is
the
independent
variable
and
tidal
volume
is
the
dependent
variable.
The
tidal
volume
during
pressure-‐targeted
ventilation
is
a
complex
function
of
inspiratory
time,
the
patient's
respiratory
mechanics,
and
the
patient's
own
respiratory
muscle
activity.
6. Interface
between
patient
and
ventilator
(mask
vs
endotracheal
intubation)
1. Mechanical
ventilation
requires
an
interface
between
the
patient
and
the
ventilator.
In
the
past,
this
invariably
occurred
through
an
endotracheal
or
tracheostomy
tube,
but
in
recent
years,
an
increasing
trend
has
occurred
towards
noninvasive
ventilation,
which
can
be
accomplished
by
the
use
of
either
a
full
face
mask
(covering
both
the
nose
and
mouth)
or
a
nasal
mask
(see
Noninvasive
ventilatory
support,
below).5
2. Care
of
an
endotracheal
tube
includes
correct
placement
of
the
tube,
maintenance
of
proper
cuff
pressure,
and
suctioning
to
maintain
a
patent
airway.
3. Following
intubation,
the
position
of
the
tube
in
the
airway
(rather
than
esophagus)
should
be
confirmed
by
auscultation
of
the
chest
and,
ideally,
by
a
carbon
dioxide
detector.
As
a
general
rule,
the
endotracheal
tube
should
be
inserted
to
an
average
depth
of
23
cm
in
men
and
21
cm
in
women
(measured
at
the
incisor).
Confirming
proper
placement
of
the
endotracheal
tube
with
a
chest
radiograph
is
recommended.
4. The
tube
should
be
secured
to
prevent
accidental
extubation
or
migration
into
the
mainstem
bronchus,
and
the
endotracheal
tube
cuff
pressure
should
be
monitored
periodically.
The
pressure
in
the
cuff
generally
should
not
exceed
25
mm
Hg.
512
lower
respiratory
rates
(eg,
8-‐12
breaths
per
min)
with
a
high
inspiratory
flow
rate.
4. In
the
absence
of
hypoxia,
hypercapnia
generally
is
well
tolerated
in
most
patients.
Even
marked
levels
of
hypercapnia
are
preferable
to
attempts
to
normalize
the
PCO2,
which
could
lead
to
dangerous
levels
of
hyperinflation.
5. Patients
often
require
large
amounts
of
sedation
and
occasionally
paralysis
until
the
bronchoconstriction
and
airway
inflammation
have
improved.
6. If
a
decision
is
made
to
measure
trapped-‐gas
volume
(VEI),
as
recommended
by
some
investigators,
an
attempt
should
be
made
to
keep
it
below
20
mL/kg.
The
routine
measurement
of
VEI
is
not
recommended
because
measurement
of
plateau
pressure
and
auto-‐PEEP
provide
similar
information
and
are
much
easier
to
perform.
7. Patients
with
COPD
have
expiratory
flow
limitation
and
are
prone
to
the
development
of
dynamic
hyperinflation.
Here
again,
the
goal
of
mechanical
ventilation
is
to
unload
the
respiratory
muscles
while
minimizing
the
degree
of
hyperinflation.
The
use
of
extrinsic
PEEP
may
be
considered
in
spontaneously
breathing
patients
in
order
to
reduce
the
work
of
breathing
and
to
facilitate
triggering
of
the
ventilator.
Care
must
be
exercised
to
avoid
causing
further
hyperinflation,
and
the
set
level
of
PEEP
should
always
be
less
than
the
level
of
auto-‐PEEP.
13. Facilitating
patient-‐ventilator
synchrony
1. During
mechanical
ventilation,
many
patients
sometimes
experience
asynchrony
between
their
own
spontaneous
respiratory
efforts
and
the
pattern
of
ventilation
imposed
by
the
ventilator.
This
can
occur
with
both
controlled
and
patient-‐initiated
modes
of
ventilation.
2. In
order
to
achieve
synchrony,
the
ventilator
must
not
only
sense
and
respond
quickly
to
the
onset
of
the
patient's
inspiratory
efforts,
it
also
must
terminate
the
inspiratory
phase
when
the
patient's
"respiratory
clock"
switches
to
expiration.
Asynchronous
interactions,
commonly
referred
to
as
"fighting
the
ventilator,"
may
occur
when
ventilator
breaths
and
patient
efforts
are
out
of
phase.
This
may
lead
to
excessive
work
of
breathing,
increased
respiratory
muscle
oxygen
consumption,
and
decreased
patient
comfort.
3. Patient-‐ventilator
asynchrony
should
be
minimized,
and
a
variety
of
ways
is
available
to
achieve
this.
Modern
ventilators
are
equipped
with
significantly
better
valve
characteristics
compared
to
older-‐
generation
ventilators.
Flow-‐triggering
(with
a
continuous
flow
rate)
appears
to
be
more
sensitive
and
more
responsive
to
patient's
spontaneous
inspiratory
efforts.
4. Patient-‐ventilator
asynchrony
often
occurs
in
the
presence
of
auto-‐
PEEP.
Auto-‐PEEP
creates
an
inspiratory
threshold
load
and
thereby
518
decreases
the
effective
trigger
sensitivity.
This
may
be
partially
offset
by
the
application
of
external
PEEP.
5. Sometimes,
additional
sedation
may
be
necessary
to
achieve
adequate
patient-‐ventilator
synchrony.
14. Noninvasive
ventilatory
support
1. The
application
of
ventilatory
support
through
a
nasal
or
full
face
mask
in
lieu
of
ETT
is
being
used
increasingly
for
patients
with
acute
or
chronic
respiratory
failure.
2. Noninvasive
ventilation
should
be
considered
in
patients
with
mild-‐to-‐
moderate
acute
respiratory
failure.
The
patient
should
have
an
intact
airway,
airway-‐protective
reflexes,
and
be
alert
enough
to
follow
commands.
3. In
clinical
trials,
noninvasive
positive-‐pressure
ventilation
(NPPV)
has
proven
beneficial
in
acute
exacerbations
of
COPD
and
asthma,
decompensated
CHF
with
mild-‐to-‐moderate
pulmonary
edema,
and
pulmonary
edema
from
hypervolemia.
Reports
conflict
regarding
its
efficacy
in
acute
hypoxemia
due
to
other
causes
(eg,
pneumonia).
A
variety
of
methods
and
systems
are
available
for
delivering
noninvasive
ventilatory
support.
4. The
benefits
of
NPPV
depend
on
the
underlying
cause
of
respiratory
failure.
In
acute
exacerbations
of
obstructive
lung
disease,
NPPV
decreases
PaCO2
by
unloading
the
respiratory
muscles
and
supplementing
alveolar
ventilation.
The
results
of
several
clinical
trials
support
the
use
of
NPPV
in
this
setting.
5. In
a
large
randomized
trial
comparing
NPPV
with
a
standard
ICU
approach,
the
use
of
NPPV
was
shown
to
reduce
complications,
duration
of
ICU
stay,
and
mortality.6
In
patients
in
whom
NPPV
failed,
mortality
rates
were
similar
to
the
intubated
group
(25%
vs
30%).
6. Plant
and
colleagues
recently
published
the
largest
prospective
randomized
study
comparing
NPPV
with
standard
treatment
in
patients
with
COPD
exacerbation.
NPPV
was
administered
on
the
ward;
the
nurses
were
trained
for
8
hours
in
the
preceding
3
months.
Treatment
failed
in
significantly
more
patients
in
the
control
group
(27%
vs
15%),
and
in-‐hospital
mortality
rates
were
significantly
reduced
by
NPPV
(20%
to
10%).
7. In
addition,
3
Italian
cohort
studies
with
historical
or
matched
control
groups
have
suggested
that
long-‐term
outcome
of
patients
treated
with
NPPV
is
better
than
that
of
patients
treated
with
medical
therapy
and/or
endotracheal
intubation.
8. In
acute
hypoxemic
respiratory
failure,
NPPV
also
helps
maintain
an
adequate
PaO2
until
the
patient
improves.
9. In
cardiogenic
pulmonary
edema,
NPPV
improves
oxygenation,
reduces
work
of
breathing,
and
may
increase
cardiac
output.
10. When
applied
continuously
to
patients
with
chronic
ventilatory
failure,
NPPV
provides
sufficient
oxygenation
and/or
carbon
dioxide
elimination
to
sustain
life
by
reversing
or
preventing
atelectasis
and/or
resting
the
respiratory
muscles.
519
Consultations
1. Consultation
with
a
pulmonary
specialist
and
an
intensivist
are
often
required.
2. Patients
with
acute
respiratory
failure
or
exacerbations
of
chronic
respiratory
failure
need
to
be
admitted
to
the
intensive
care
unit
for
ventilatory
support.
Activity
521
Patients
generally
are
prescribed
bed
rest
during
early
phases
of
respiratory
failure
management.
However,
ambulation
as
soon
as
possible
helps
ventilate
atelectatic
areas
of
the
lung.
Medication
The
pharmacotherapy
of
cardiogenic
pulmonary
edema
and
acute
exacerbations
of
COPD
is
discussed
here.
The
goals
of
therapy
in
cardiogenic
pulmonary
edema
are
to
achieve
a
pulmonary
capillary
wedge
pressure
of
15-‐18
mm
Hg
and
a
cardiac
index
greater
than
2.2
L/min/m2,
while
maintaining
adequate
blood
pressure
and
organ
perfusion.
These
goals
may
need
to
be
modified
for
some
patients.
Diuretics,
nitrates,
analgesics,
and
inotropics
are
used
in
the
treatment
of
acute
pulmonary
edema.
Diuretics
First-‐line
therapy
generally
includes
a
loop
diuretic
such
as
furosemide,
which
inhibits
sodium
chloride
reabsorption
in
the
ascending
loop
of
Henle.
Furosemide (Lasix)
Administer
loop
diuretics
IV
because
this
allows
for
both
superior
potency
and
a
higher
peak
concentration
despite
increased
incidence
of
adverse
effects,
particularly
ototoxicity.
Dosing
Adult
10-‐20
mg
IV
for
patients
symptomatic
with
CHF
not
already
using
diuretics
40-‐80
mg
IV
for
patients
already
using
diuretics
80-‐120
mg
IV
for
patients
whose
symptoms
are
refractory
to
initial
dose
after
1
h
of
administration
or
who
have
significant
renal
insufficiency
Higher
doses
and
more
rapid
redosing
may
be
appropriate
for
patients
in
severe
distress
Pediatric
Not established
Interactions
Auditory
toxicity
appears
to
be
increased
with
concurrent
use
of
aminoglycoside
and
furosemide;
hearing
loss
of
varying
degrees
may
occur
Anticoagulant
activity
of
warfarin
may
be
enhanced
when
taken
concurrently
Increased
plasma
lithium
levels
and
toxicity
are
possible
when
taken
concurrently
Contraindications
Precautions
Pregnancy
C
-‐
Fetal
risk
revealed
in
studies
in
animals
but
not
established
or
not
studied
in
humans;
may
use
if
benefits
outweigh
risk
to
fetus
Precautions
Has
been
used
as
adjunctive
therapy
in
patients
initially
refractory
to
furosemide.
Has
been
demonstrated
to
be
synergistic
with
loop
diuretics
in
treating
refractory
patients
and
causes
a
greater
loss
of
potassium.
Potent
loop
diuretic
that
sometimes
is
used
in
combination
with
Lasix
for
more
aggressive
diuresis.
Also
used
in
patients
with
a
degree
of
renal
dysfunction
for
initiating
diuresis.
Dosing
Adult
Pediatric
Not established
Interactions
Contraindications
Precautions
Pregnancy
D -‐ Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Exercise
caution
with
hepatic
and
renal
disease,
diabetes
mellitus,
gout,
and
systemic
lupus
erythematosus
Nitrates
These
agents
reduce
myocardial
oxygen
demand
by
lowering
preload
and
afterload.
In
severely
hypertensive
patients,
nitroprusside
causes
more
arterial
dilatation
than
nitroglycerin.
Nevertheless,
due
to
the
possibility
of
thiocyanate
toxicity
and
the
coronary
steal
phenomenon
associated
with
nitroprusside,
IV
nitroglycerin
may
be
the
initial
therapy
of
choice
for
afterload
reduction.
SL
nitroglycerin
and
Nitrospray
are
particularly
useful
in
the
patient
who
presents
with
acute
pulmonary
edema
with
a
systolic
blood
pressure
of
at
least
100
mm
Hg.
Similar
to
SL,
onset
of
Nitrospray
is
1-‐3
min,
with
a
half-‐life
of
5
min.
Administration
of
Nitrospray
may
be
easier,
and
it
can
be
stored
for
as
long
as
4
y.
One
study
demonstrated
significant
and
rapid
hemodynamic
improvement
in
20
patients
with
pulmonary
edema
who
were
given
Nitrospray.
Topical
nitrate
therapy
is
reasonable
in
a
patient
presenting
with
class
I-‐II
CHF.
However,
in
patients
with
more
severe
signs
of
heart
failure
or
pulmonary
edema,
IV
nitroglycerin
is
preferred
because
it
is
easier
to
monitor
hemodynamics
and
absorption,
particularly
in
patients
with
diaphoresis.
Oral
nitrates,
due
to
delayed
absorption,
play
little
role
in
the
management
of
acute
pulmonary
edema.
Dosing
Adult
524
Nitrospray:
1
puff
(0.4
mg)
equivalent
to
a
single
1/150
SL;
may
repeat
q3-‐5min
as
hemodynamics
permit,
not
to
exceed
1.2
mg
Ointment:
Apply
1-‐2
inches
of
nitropaste
to
chest
wall
Injection:
Start
at
20
mcg/min
IV
and
titrate
to
effect
in
5-‐
to
10-‐mcg
increments
q3-‐
5min
Pediatric
Not established
Interactions
Contraindications
Precautions
Pregnancy
C
-‐
Fetal
risk
revealed
in
studies
in
animals
but
not
established
or
not
studied
in
humans;
may
use
if
benefits
outweigh
risk
to
fetus
Precautions
Caution in coronary artery disease and low systolic blood pressure
Produces
vasodilation
of
venous
and
arterial
circulation.
At
higher
dosages,
may
exacerbate
myocardial
ischemia
by
increasing
heart
rate.
Easily
titratable.
Dosing
Adult
10-‐15
mcg/min
IV;
titrate
to
effective
dose
range
of
30-‐50
mcg/min
and
a
systolic
blood
pressure
of
at
least
90
mm
Hg
Pediatric
525
Not established
Interactions
Patients
receiving
other
hypertensive
therapy
may
be
more
sensitive
to
sodium
nitroprusside
Contraindications
Precautions
Pregnancy
C
-‐
Fetal
risk
revealed
in
studies
in
animals
but
not
established
or
not
studied
in
humans;
may
use
if
benefits
outweigh
risk
to
fetus
Precautions
Exercise
caution
with
increased
intracranial
pressure,
hepatic
failure,
severe
renal
impairment,
and
hypothyroidism
In
renal
or
hepatic
insufficiency,
levels
may
increase
and
can
cause
cyanide
toxicity
Has
potent
effects
on
blood
pressure
(use
only
in
those
patients
with
mean
arterial
pressures
>70
mm
Hg)
Analgesics
Morphine
IV
is
an
excellent
adjunct
in
the
management
of
acute
pulmonary
edema.
In
addition
to
being
both
an
anxiolytic
and
an
analgesic,
its
most
important
effect
is
venodilation,
which
reduces
preload.
Also
causes
arterial
dilatation,
which
reduces
systemic
vascular
resistance
and
may
increase
cardiac
output.
DOC
for
narcotic
analgesia
due
to
reliable
and
predictable
effects,
safety
profile,
and
ease
of
reversibility
with
naloxone.
Morphine
sulfate
administered
IV
may
be
dosed
in
a
number
of
ways
and
commonly
is
titrated
until
desired
effect
is
obtained.
Dosing
Adult
526
2-‐5
mg
and
repeated
q10-‐15min
IV
unless
respiratory
rate
is
<20
breaths
per
min
or
systolic
blood
pressure
is
<100
mm
Hg
Pediatric
Not established
Interactions
Contraindications
Precautions
Pregnancy
C
-‐
Fetal
risk
revealed
in
studies
in
animals
but
not
established
or
not
studied
in
humans;
may
use
if
benefits
outweigh
risk
to
fetus
Precautions
Exercise
caution
with
atrial
flutter
and
other
supraventricular
tachycardias;
morphine
has
vagolytic
action
and
may
increase
the
ventricular
response
rate;
due
to
addictive
nature,
abuse
also
is
a
possibility,
although
this
is
not
a
significant
concern
in
a
critically
ill
patient
Inotropics
Dopamine
(Intropin)
527
Dosing
Adult
5
mcg/kg/min
IV
and
increase
at
increments
of
5
mcg/kg/min
IV
to
dose
of
20
mcg/kg/min
Pediatric
Not established
Interactions
Contraindications
Precautions
Pregnancy
C
-‐
Fetal
risk
revealed
in
studies
in
animals
but
not
established
or
not
studied
in
humans;
may
use
if
benefits
outweigh
risk
to
fetus
Precautions
Closely
monitor
urine
flow,
cardiac
output,
pulmonary
wedge
pressure,
and
blood
pressure
during
infusion;
prior
to
infusion,
correct
hypovolemia
with
either
whole
blood
or
plasma,
as
indicated;
monitoring
of
central
venous
pressure
or
left
ventricular
filling
pressure
may
be
helpful
in
detecting
and
treating
hypovolemia
Norepinephrine (Levophed)
systemic
blood
pressure
and
cardiac
output.
Adjust
and
maintain
infusion
to
stabilize
blood
pressure
(eg,
80-‐100
mm
Hg
systolic)
sufficiently
to
perfuse
vital
organs.
Dosing
Adult
0.05-‐2
mcg/kg/min
IV
titrated
according
to
hemodynamic
response
not
to
exceed
10
mcg/kg/min
Pediatric
0.05-‐0.1
mcg/kg/min
IV
titrated
according
to
hemodynamic
response;
not
to
exceed
1-‐2
mcg/kg/min
Interactions
Atropine
sulfate
may
enhance
the
pressor
response
of
norepinephrine
by
blocking
the
reflex
bradycardia
caused
by
norepinephrine;
effects
increase
when
administered
concurrently
with
tricyclic
antidepressants,
MAOIs,
antihistamines,
guanethidine,
methyldopa,
and
ergot
alkaloids
Contraindications
Precautions
Pregnancy
D -‐ Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus
Precautions
Dobutamine (Dobutrex)
Produces
vasodilation
and
increases
inotropic
state.
At
higher
dosages,
may
cause
increased
heart
rate,
thus
exacerbating
myocardial
ischemia.
Strong
inotropic
agent
with
minimal
chronotropic
effect
and
no
vasoconstriction.
Dosing
529
Adult
2.5 mcg/kg/min IV initially; generally therapeutic in the range of 10-‐40 mcg/kg/min
Pediatric
Not established
Interactions
Contraindications
Precautions
Pregnancy
C
-‐
Fetal
risk
revealed
in
studies
in
animals
but
not
established
or
not
studied
in
humans;
may
use
if
benefits
outweigh
risk
to
fetus
Precautions
Following an MI, use dobutamine with caution; correct hypovolemia before using
Bronchodilators
These
agents
are
an
important
component
of
treatment
in
respiratory
failure
caused
by
obstructive
lung
disease.
These
agents
act
to
decrease
muscle
tone
in
both
small
and
large
airways
in
the
lungs.
This
category
includes
beta-‐adrenergics,
methylxanthines,
and
anticholinergics.
Acts
directly
on
beta2-‐receptors
to
relax
bronchial
smooth
muscle,
relieving
bronchospasm
and
reducing
airway
resistance.
Dosing
Adult
0.25
mg
(0.25
cc
of
1-‐mg/mL
concentration)
SC;
not
to
exceed
0.5
mg
SC
q4h
530
Pediatric
Not established
Interactions
Contraindications
Precautions
Pregnancy
B
-‐
Fetal
risk
not
confirmed
in
studies
in
humans
but
has
been
shown
in
some
studies
in
animals
Precautions
Caution
in
coronary
disease;
through
intracellular
shifts,
may
decrease
serum
potassium
levels,
which
can
produce
adverse
cardiovascular
effects;
however,
decrease
usually
is
transient
and
may
not
require
supplementation
Albuterol (Proventil)
Beta-‐agonist
useful
in
the
treatment
of
bronchospasm.
Selectively
stimulate
beta2-‐
adrenergic
receptors
of
the
lungs.
Bronchodilation
results
from
relaxation
of
bronchial
smooth
muscle,
which
relieves
bronchospasm
and
reduces
airway
resistance.
Dosing
Adult
5
mg/mL
of
solution
for
nebulization,
usually
mixed
as
0.5-‐1
cc
with
2.5
cc
of
water
and
nebulized
prn
in
acute
setting
Pediatric
531
Not established
Interactions
Contraindications
Precautions
Pregnancy
C
-‐
Fetal
risk
revealed
in
studies
in
animals
but
not
established
or
not
studied
in
humans;
may
use
if
benefits
outweigh
risk
to
fetus
Precautions
Has
a
number
of
physiological
effects,
including
increases
in
collateral
ventilation,
respiratory
muscle
function,
mucociliary
clearance,
and
central
respiratory
drive.
Partially
acts
by
inhibiting
phosphodiesterase,
elevating
cellular
cyclic
AMP
levels,
or
antagonizing
adenosine
receptors
in
the
bronchi,
resulting
in
relaxation
of
smooth
muscle.
However,
clinical
efficacy
is
controversial,
especially
in
the
acute
setting.
Dosing
Adult
Pediatric
Not established
Interactions
532
Contraindications
Precautions
Pregnancy
C
-‐
Fetal
risk
revealed
in
studies
in
animals
but
not
established
or
not
studied
in
humans;
may
use
if
benefits
outweigh
risk
to
fetus
Precautions
Anticholinergic
medication
that
appears
to
inhibit
vagally
mediated
reflexes
by
antagonizing
action
of
acetylcholine,
specifically
with
the
muscarinic
receptor
on
bronchial
smooth
muscle.
Vagal
tone
can
be
significantly
increased
in
COPD;
therefore,
this
can
have
a
profound
effect.
Dose
can
be
combined
with
a
beta-‐
agonist
because
ipratropium
may
require
20
min
to
begin
having
an
effect.
Dosing
Adult
Pediatric
Not established
Interactions
533
Albuterol
and
ipratropium
together
are
more
efficacious
than
either
one
alone
Drugs
with
anticholinergic
properties
(eg,
dronabinol)
may
increase
toxicity
Contraindications
Documented hypersensitivity
Precautions
Pregnancy
B
-‐
Fetal
risk
not
confirmed
in
studies
in
humans
but
has
been
shown
in
some
studies
in
animals
Precautions
Not
indicated
for
initial
treatment
of
acute
episodes
of
bronchospasm;
caution
in
narrow-‐angle
glaucoma,
prostatic
hypertrophy,
and
bladder
neck
obstruction
Corticosteroids
Have
been
shown
to
be
effective
in
accelerating
recovery
from
acute
COPD
exacerbations
and
are
an
important
anti-‐inflammatory
therapy
in
asthma.
Although
they
may
not
make
a
clinical
difference
in
the
ED,
they
have
some
effect
6-‐8
h
into
therapy;
therefore,
early
dosing
is
critical.
Usually
given
IV
in
ED
for
initiation
of
corticosteroid
therapy,
although
PO
should
theoretically
be
equally
efficacious.
Dosing
Adult
Pediatric
Not established
Interactions
phenytoin,
and
rifampin
also
may
increase
metabolism
of
glucocorticoids;
therefore,
consider
increasing
maintenance
dose;
monitor
patients
for
hypokalemia
with
concurrent
use
of
diuretics
Contraindications
Precautions
Pregnancy
C
-‐
Fetal
risk
revealed
in
studies
in
animals
but
not
established
or
not
studied
in
humans;
may
use
if
benefits
outweigh
risk
to
fetus
Precautions
Follow-‐up
Complications
1. Pulmonary
1. Common
pulmonary
complications
of
acute
respiratory
failure
include
pulmonary
embolism,
barotrauma,
pulmonary
fibrosis,
and
complications
secondary
to
the
use
of
mechanical
devices.
2. Patients
are
also
prone
to
develop
nosocomial
pneumonia.
3. Regular
assessment
should
be
performed
by
periodic
radiographic
chest
monitoring.
4. Pulmonary
fibrosis
may
follow
acute
lung
injury
associated
with
acute
respiratory
distress
syndrome
(ARDS).
5. High
oxygen
concentrations
and
the
use
of
large
tidal
volumes
may
worsen
acute
lung
injury.
2. Cardiovascular
1. Common
cardiovascular
complications
in
patients
with
acute
respiratory
failure
include
hypotension,
reduced
cardiac
output,
arrhythmia,
pericarditis,
and
acute
myocardial
infarction.
2. These
complications
may
be
related
to
the
underlying
disease
process,
mechanical
ventilation,
or
the
use
of
pulmonary
artery
catheters.
3. Gastrointestinal
1. The
major
gastrointestinal
complications
associated
with
acute
respiratory
failure
are
hemorrhage,
gastric
distention,
ileus,
diarrhea,
and
pneumoperitoneum.
535
2. Stress
ulceration
is
common
in
patients
with
acute
respiratory
failure;
the
incidence
can
be
reduced
by
routine
use
of
antisecretory
agents
or
mucosal
protectants.
4. Infectious
1. Nosocomial
infections,
such
as
pneumonia,
urinary
tract
infections,
and
catheter-‐related
sepsis,
are
frequent
complications
of
acute
respiratory
failure.
2. These
usually
occur
with
the
use
of
mechanical
devices.
3. The
incidence
of
nosocomial
pneumonia
is
high
and
associated
with
significant
mortality.
5. Renal
1. Acute
renal
failure
and
abnormalities
of
electrolytes
and
acid-‐base
homeostasis
are
common
in
critically
ill
patients
with
respiratory
failure.
2. The
development
of
acute
renal
failure
in
a
patient
with
acute
respiratory
failure
carries
a
poor
prognosis
and
high
mortality.
The
most
common
mechanisms
of
renal
failure
in
this
setting
are
renal
hypoperfusion
and
the
use
of
nephrotoxic
drugs
(including
radiographic
contrast
material).
6. Nutritional
1. These
include
malnutrition
and
its
effects
on
respiratory
performance
and
complications
related
to
administration
of
enteral
or
parenteral
nutrition.
2. Complications
associated
with
nasogastric
tubes,
such
as
abdominal
distention
and
diarrhea,
also
may
occur.
3. Complications
of
parenteral
nutrition
may
be
mechanical
due
to
catheter
insertion,
infectious,
or
metabolic
(eg,
hypoglycemia,
electrolyte
imbalance).
Prognosis
1. The
mortality
rate
for
acute
respiratory
distress
syndrome
(ARDS)
is
approximately
40%.
Younger
patients
(<60
y)
have
better
survival
rates
than
older
patients.
Approximately
two
thirds
of
patients
who
survive
an
episode
of
acute
respiratory
distress
syndrome
(ARDS)
manifest
some
impairment
of
pulmonary
function
1
or
more
years
after
recovery.
2. Significant
mortality
also
occurs
in
patients
admitted
with
hypercapnic
respiratory
failure.
This
is
because
these
patients
have
a
chronic
respiratory
disorder
and
other
comorbidities
such
as
cardiopulmonary,
renal,
hepatic,
or
neurologic
disease.
These
patients
also
may
have
poor
nutritional
status.
For
patients
with
COPD
and
acute
respiratory
failure,
the
overall
mortality
rate
has
declined
from
approximately
26%
to
10%.
Patient Education
For
excellent
patient
education
resources,
visit
eMedicine's
Lung
and
Airway
Center.
Also,
see
eMedicine's
patient
education
article
Acute
Respiratory
Distress
Syndrome.
536
Miscellaneous
Medicolegal
Pitfalls
1. Risks
of
oxygen
therapy
are
oxygen
toxicity
and
carbon
dioxide
narcosis.
Pulmonary
oxygen
toxicity
rarely
occurs
when
an
FiO2
of
less
than
0.6
is
used;
therefore,
an
attempt
to
lower
the
inspired
oxygen
concentration
to
this
level
should
be
made
in
critically
ill
patients.
2. Carbon
dioxide
narcosis
occasionally
occurs
when
some
patients
with
hypercapnia
are
given
oxygen
to
breathe.
PaCO2
increases
sharply
and
progressively
with
severe
respiratory
acidosis,
somnolence,
and
coma.
The
mechanism
is
primarily
the
reversal
of
pulmonary
vasoconstriction
and
the
increase
in
dead
space
ventilation.
3. Respiratory
failure
is
a
common
and
a
life-‐threatening
condition
that
demands
prompt
diagnosis
and
assessment
and
appropriate
management.
4. Failure
to
visualize
an
obvious
abnormality
on
chest
radiographs
in
hypoxemic
respiratory
failure
suggests
the
possibility
of
right-‐to-‐left
shunting.
5. The
vast
majority
of
patients
in
acute
respiratory
failure
due
to
cardiogenic
pulmonary
edema
respond
to
measures
to
reduce
preload
and
afterload.
6. Those
with
acute
respiratory
distress
syndrome
(ARDS)
require
early
elective
intubation
because
the
duration
of
respiratory
failure
is
longer.
7. Hypercapnic
respiratory
failure
occurs
secondary
to
a
variety
of
causes,
including
an
increased
respiratory
muscle
load,
impaired
neuromuscular
function,
or
decreased
respiratory
drive
caused
by
CNS
depression.
Clasificare COPD
Stadiu
0 la risc Spirometrie N
Simptomatologie cronica
( tuse, sputa)
I COPD FEV1/FVC <70%
usoara FEV1 ≥ 80%
± simp cronica
II COPD FEV1/FVC < 70%
moderata 30% ≤ FEV1 ≥ 80%
± simp cronica
IIA 50% ≤ FEV1 ≥ 80%
IIB 30% ≤ FEV1 ≥ 50%
III COPD FEV1/FVC < 70%
severa FEV1 < 30% sau
FEV1 < 50% + sm de
insuf resp/IVD
537
Published: 09/03/2008
Introduction
Asthma
is
a
disease
of
predominantly
reversible
airway
obstruction
characterized
by
a
triad
of
bronchial
smooth
muscle
contraction,
airway
inflammation,
and
increased
secretions;
it
is
a
major
health
problem
for
all
age
groups.
For
the
majority,
control
of
asthma
symptoms
is
readily
achieved;
however,
in
a
small
minority,
asthma
may
cause
death.
Although
the
mortality
rate
for
asthma
in
those
aged
less
than
65
yrs
is
now
falling,
there
remain
around
1400
asthma
deaths
in
the
UK
each
year
(http://www.laia.ac.uk/kf_asthma_03.htm).
Most
of
these
occur
in
the
pre-‐hospital
setting
and,
in
retrospect,
the
majority
is
considered
potentially
preventable.
Factors
associated
with
asthma
death
include
disease
severity,
inadequate
treatment,
inadequate
monitoring,
the
under
use
of
written
asthma
management
plans
and
adverse
psychosocial
and
behavioural
factors
(www.sign.ac.uk/guidelines/fulltext/63/index.html).
Levels
of
severity
of
acute
asthma
exacerbations
have
been
defined.
The
features
of
acute
severe,
life-‐threatening,
and
near
fatal
asthma
are
listed
in
Table
1
.
Of
note,
patients
with
life-‐threatening
asthma
may
not
appear
distressed
and
might
only
display
one
of
the
features
listed.
Life-‐threatening
asthma
tends
to
occur
as
two
sub-‐
types.[1]
Most
commonly,
there
is
a
history
of
progressive
worsening
of
symptoms
over
several
days;
the
majority
of
patients
in
this
group
report
nocturnal
dyspnoea
in
the
previous
three
nights.
As
a
result
of
greater
bronchial
inflammation
and
mucous
538
secretion,
this
group
(occurring
more
frequently
in
females)
tends
to
respond
more
slowly
to
treatment.
In
contrast,
a
smaller
sub-‐group,
more
frequently
male,
presents
with
a
rapidly
progressive
condition
with
highly
reactive
airways.
These
patients
have
intense
bronchospasm
that
often
responds
more
rapidly
to
bronchodilator
therapy.
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
Near
fatal
asthma
Raised
Paco2
and/or
requiring
mechanical
ventilation
with
raised
inflation
pressures
Life-‐threatening
Any
one
of
the
following
in
a
patient
with
severe
asthma
asthma
PEF
<33%
best
or
predicted
SpO2
<
92%
PaO2
<
8
kPa
Normal
PaCO2
(4.6-‐6.0
kPa)
Silent
chest
Cyanosis
Feeble
respiratory
effort
Bradycardia
Dysrrhythmia
Hypotension
Exhaustion
Confusion
Coma
Acute
severe
Any
one
of:
asthma
PEF
33-‐50%
best
or
predicted
Respiratory
rate
≥
25
min-‐1
Heart
rate
≥
110
min-‐1
Inability
to
complete
sentences
in
one
breath
In
February
2003,
The
British
Thoracic
Society
together
with
the
Scottish
Intercollegiate
Guidelines
Network
published
guidelines
on
the
management
of
asthma
(http://www.brit-‐thoracic.org.uk/asthma-‐guideline-‐download.html).
They
were
updated
in
November
2007.
In
common
with
other
recommendations,
these
give
guidance
only
up
to
the
commencement
of
intensive
care.
Evidence
for
therapies
in
intensive
care
from
randomized
controlled
trials
remains
sparse.
539
Ongoing
management
of
life-‐threatening
episodes
(Figure
1)
is
often
difficult
with
rapid
and
dynamic
changes
in
physiology.
Complications
of
treatment
are
frequent.
Figure
1.
Management
of
acute
severe
asthma
in
adults.
Pathophysiology
The
pathophysiological
feature
of
life-‐threatening
asthma
is
gas
trapping
with
dynamic
hyperinflation
and
the
generation
of
intrinsic
positive
end-‐expiratory
pressure
(PEEPi).
This
arises
due
to
disproportionate
increases
in
resistance
to
expiratory
gas
flow,
rapid
respiratory
rates,
changes
in
pulmonary
elastic
recoil,
and
asynchronous
respiratory
muscle
activity.
The
consequences
include
impaired
gas
exchange,
increased
work
of
breathing
with
respiratory
muscle
fatigue,
and
540
increased
risk
of
barotrauma.
Hyperinflation
may
be
so
severe
that
lung
volumes
approach
total
lung
capacity.
Diaphragmatic
flattening
at
such
volumes
reduces
the
efficiency
of
ventilation
as
inspiration
becomes
primarily
by
intercostal
muscles
rather
than
the
diaphragm.
Together,
these
factors
reduce
CO2
elimination
while
increasing
production.
At
a
point,
production
will
match
and
then
exceed
rate
of
elimination
progressing
to
respiratory
failure
when
there
is
inadequate
alveolar
ventilation.
In
addition,
airway
closure
causes
mismatches
in
ventilation-‐perfusion
leading
to
hypoxaemia.
Initial Management
A
rapid
ABC
assessment
should
be
undertaken
and
actioned.
Many
patients
will
be
hypoxaemic,
hypovolaemic,
acidotic,
and
hypokalaemic.
Oxygen.
Patients
with
acute
severe
asthma
are
hypoxaemic.
This
should
be
corrected
urgently
with
high
concentrations
of
inspired
oxygen
aiming
to
achieve
oxygen
saturations
>92%.
A
FiO2
of
0.4-‐0.6
is
often
sufficient
but,
in
general,
start
high
and
then
titrate
the
FiO2
down.
It
is
important
to
note
that
asphyxia
remains
the
most
common
mechanism
of
death
in
severe
asthma
and
should
never
be
underestimated.
Nebulized
β2
Agonists.
Short-‐acting
β2-‐agonists
(e.g.
salbutamol)
should
be
given
repeatedly
in
5
mg
doses
or
by
continuous
nebulization
at
10
mg
h-‐1
driven
by
oxygen.
Importantly,
duration
of
activity
and
effectiveness
are
inversely
related
to
severity
of
asthma;
continuous
administration
is
more
efficacious
in
severe
asthma.
However,
even
under
ideal
circumstances
only
10%
of
the
nebulized
drug
will
reach
the
bronchioles.[2]
Administration
should
continue
until
there
is
a
significant
clinical
response
or
serious
side
effects
occur,
these
include
tachycardia,
arrhythmias,
tremor,
hypokalaemia,
and
hyperglycaemia.
Inhaled
longer
acting
β2-‐agonists
have
no
role
in
management
of
acute
severe
asthma
and
may
increase
mortality
in
this
setting.
Nebulized
Ipratropium
Bromide.
This
should
be
added
to
nebulized
β2
agonists
treatment
for
all
patients
with
life-‐threatening
asthma
(500
µg
4
hourly)
as
it
has
been
shown
to
produce
significantly
greater
bronchodilation
than
β2
agonists
alone.
Side
effects
are
minimal.
Steroids.
Systemic
steroids
in
adequate
doses
should
be
given
to
all
patients
with
life-‐threatening
asthma,
as
early
as
possible
in
the
episode
as
this
may
improve
541
survival.
Steroid
tablets
(prednisolone
40-‐50
mg
daily)
have
been
shown
to
be
as
efficacious
as
intravenous
steroids
in
acute
severe
asthma,
provided
tablets
can
be
swallowed
and
retained.
If
in
any
doubt,
the
intravenous
route
should
be
used
(hydrocortisone
200
mg
stat
followed
by
100
mg
6
hourly).
Inhaled/nebulized
steroids
do
not
provide
additional
benefit.
Intravenous
Bronchodilators.
Parenteral
β2
agonists,
in
addition
to
nebulized
β2
agonists,
should
be
considered
in
ventilated
patients
and
those
with
life-‐threatening
asthma;
intravenous
salbutamol
(5-‐20
µg
min-‐1)
or
terbutaline
(0.05
µg
kg-‐1
min-‐1)
should
be
titrated
to
response.
Lactic
acidosis
will
develop
in
70%
of
patients
after
2-‐
4
h
therapy,
requiring
careful
monitoring
with
subsequent
reduction
or
cessation
of
therapy.
In
extremis,
salbutamol
100-‐300
µg
can
be
given
as
an
intravenous
bolus
or
via
an
endotracheal
tube.
Epinephrine.
The
additional
use
of
epinephrine
(adrenaline)
should
be
considered
in
patients
not
responding
adequately
to
the
measures
outlined
above
via
the
subcutaneous
(0.3-‐0.4
ml
1:1000
every
20
min
for
three
doses),
nebulized
(2-‐4
ml
of
1%
solution
hourly)
or,
in
extremis,
the
intravenous
route
(0.2-‐1
mg
as
a
bolus
followed
by
1-‐20
µg
min-‐1).
Mechanical Ventilation
Who
Should
Be
Intubated,
and
When
and
How
Should
Mechanical
Ventilation
Be
Initiated?
The
initiation
of
invasive
ventilation
in
life-‐threatening
asthma
is
a
bedside
clinical
decision
based
on
an
assessment
of
the
balance
of
risks
and
benefits.
It
can
be
life
saving,
but
has
a
higher
incidence
of
complications
relative
to
other
causes
of
respiratory
failure.
Absolute
indications
are
coma,
respiratory
or
cardiac
arrest
and
severe
refractory
hypoxaemia.
Relative
indications
include
an
adverse
trajectory
of
response
to
initial
management,
fatigue
and
somnolence,
cardiovascular
542
compromise,
and
the
development
of
a
pneumothorax.
Prior
to
initiation,
vigilant
observation
is
mandatory
as
fatal
apnoea
can
occur
suddenly
and
unexpectedly.[3]
Hypercapnia
per
se
is
not
an
indication
for
mechanical
ventilation.
What
Are
the
Initial
Goals
of
Mechanical
Ventilation
and
How
Are
They
Achieved?
The
initial
goals
of
mechanical
ventilation
are
to
correct
hypoxaemia,
reduce
dynamic
hyperinflation
and
to
buy
time
for
medical
management
to
work.
Adequate
sedation
is
vital
and
typically
would
be
morphine
and
midazolam
with
ketamine.
Morphine
has
a
potential
for
histamine
release
so
is
avoided
by
some.
Propofol
and
fentanyl,
and
ketamine
plus
midazolam
alone
are
alternatives.
The
attraction
of
ketamine
(0.5-‐2
mg
kg-‐1
h-‐1)
is
its
action
as
a
direct
bronchodilator.
Evidence
of
benefit
is
equivocal;
use
maybe
limited
by
its
effects
on
respiratory
tract
secretions
and
its
sympathomimetic
properties
in
a
patient
already
in
a
heightened
sympathetic
state.
Initial
neuromuscular
blockade
is
often
required.
Rocuronium
or
pancuronium
is
the
agents
of
choice.
Atracurium
is
associated
with
histamine
release.
Some
concern
has
been
raised
over
the
relative
likelihood
of
developing
a
neuromyopathy
with
vecuronium
in
this
setting
(high-‐dose
steroids,
mechanical
ventilation,
and
severe
543
asthma),
though
the
evidence
is
limited.
The
use
of
neuromuscular
blockade
should
be
discontinued
as
soon
as
possible.
Initial
ventilator
settings
should
adopt
relatively
low
rates
(12-‐14
breaths
min-‐1),
tidal
volumes
of
4-‐8
ml
kg-‐1,
FiO2
sufficient
to
maintain
adequate
oxygen
saturations
(>92%),
relatively
long-‐expiratory
times
(I:E
1:4)
and
little
or
no
PEEP
(<5
cm
H2O).
If
using
volume
controlled
ventilation,
appropriate
goals
would
be
to
achieve
a
P
plat
<35
cm
H2O
with
pH
>
7.2.
If
P
plat
>
35
cm
H2O,
minute
ventilation
should
be
reduced
(V
t
and/or
rate),
if
pH
<
7.2
and
P
plat
<
30
cm
H2O,
minute
ventilation
should
be
increased
(rate),
if
pH
<
7.2
and
P
plat
>
35
cm
H2O
no
change
may
be
appropriate.
This
guidance
principally
derives
from
Tuxen
and
Lane's[7]
observations
of
volume
controlled
ventilation
in
asthma,
namely
that
minute
ventilation
is
the
most
important
determinant
of
hyperinflation
(inspiratory
flow
and
shape
of
pressure
wave-‐form
being
of
much
lesser
importance),
and
that
while
increased-‐expiratory
times
are
beneficial,
the
effect
of
increases
above
3-‐4
s
are
minimal.
In
addition,
the
role
of
PEEPe
to
counter
PEEPi
in
controlled
mechanical
ventilation
has
no
rationale,
although
recently
potentially
beneficial
effects
of
PEEPe
have
been
reported
in
'obstructive
lung
disease'
(as
opposed
to
asthma)
suggesting
that
a
trial
of
variable
PEEPe
may
be
required
in
some
cases.[5]
Achieving
the
goals
of
a
pH
>
7.2
with
a
P
plat
<
35
cm
H2O
will
often
not
be
possible
and
requires
ongoing
clinical
assessment.
High
airway
pressures
should
prompt
the
exclusion
of
endobronchial
intubation
and
pneumothorax,
along
with
the
re-‐
evaluation
of
the
adequacy
of
sedation.
Plateau
airway
and
end-‐expiratory
pressures
generally
reflect
the
degree
of
gas
trapping
in
severe
asthma;
in
addition,
total
exhaled
volume
during
an
apnoea
for
20-‐60s
gives
a
measure
of
the
degree
of
hyperinflation.[6]
Not
all
airways
remain
patent
throughout
expiration,
any
measurement
will
tend
to
be
an
underestimate
and
clinical
assessment
remains
vital.
Of
note,
barotrauma
in
the
mechanically
ventilated
asthmatic
including
the
risk
of
pneumothorax
is
proportional
to
end
inspiratory
lung
volume.
effects.
The
exception
is
in
those
with
cerebral
anoxia
secondary
to
a
respiratory
arrest.
Control
of
intracranial
pressure
requires
management
of
hypercarbia;
urgent
consideration
should
be
given
to
extra
corporeal
CO2
removal
in
these
circumstances
(see
later).
Where
respiratory
acidosis
is
extreme
and
its
ventilatory
management
impossible,
buffering
can
be
considered
acutely.
Tromethamine
(THAM)
has
some
theoretical
advantages
over
bicarbonate.
Use
with
either
agent
is
usually
complicated
by
metabolic
alkalosis
on
resolution
of
the
acute
bronchospastic
episode.
Measures
to
limit
CO2
production,
such
as
anti-‐pyretics
and/or
active
cooling,
should
be
considered
as
adjuncts
or
alternatives.
Ongoing
Ventilatory
Management.
The
use
of
neuromuscular
blockade
and
deep
sedation
should
be
discontinued
as
soon
as
the
clinical
situation
allows
and
the
return
to
spontaneous
ventilation
should
be
achieved
as
soon
as
is
practical.
During
this
process,
patient
ventilator
interactions
become
more
important
and
the
use
of
PEEPe
and
the
selection
of
appropriate
trigger
sensitivities
assume
important
roles
in
reducing
the
work
of
breathing.
The
ventilator
care
bundle
approach
should
be
considered
and,
if
not
already
involved,
advice
from
a
respiratory
physician
should
be
sought
with
a
view
to
planning
the
patient's
ongoing
management
in
hospital
and
in
the
community.
Extra-‐corporeal
Support.
Case
reports
of
the
use
of
extra-‐corporeal
membrane
oxygenation
in
life-‐threatening
asthma
suggest
that
this
may
be
successful,
but
its
limited
availability
and
the
risk
profile
limit
its
applicability.
In
contrast,
the
development
of
less
complex
systems
of
extra-‐pulmonary
gas
exchange
that
facilitate
CO2
clearance
(e.g.
Novalung)
brings
extra-‐corporeal
CO2
removal
(ECCO2R)
within
bounds.
Their
use
should
be
considered
particularly
where
the
control
of
hypercarbia
is
imperative.
Bronchoscopy.
Bronchoscopy
has
a
limited
role
in
managing
patients
with
persistent
shunt
consequent
to
mucus
plugging.
Lavage
of
the
obstructed
lung
segments
and
the
removal
of
mucus
plugs
may
reduce
the
duration
of
ventilation,
but
is
often
complicated
by
bronchospasm.
In
general,
patience
and
persistence
with
standard
545
therapies
and
meticulous
attention
to
the
hydration
and
humidification
are
as
effective.
Antibiotics.
The
majority
of
episodes
of
acute
severe
asthma
that
has
an
infective
precipitant
follow
a
viral
infection.
The
routine
use
of
antibiotics
in
life-‐threatening
asthma
has
no
rationale
and
they
should
be
considered
only
in
selected
cases.
Non-‐Invasive
Ventilation.
Although
there
is
a
sound
evidence
for
the
use
of
non-‐
invasive
ventilation
(NIV)
in
acute
exacerbations
of
chronic
obstructive
lung
disease,
its
use
in
asthma
is
controversial.
Objective
evidence
of
benefit
is
very
limited;
a
recent
Cochrane
review[7]
could
only
find
one
well-‐conducted
prospective,
randomized
trial
of
just
30
patients
that
showed
improvements
in
the
respiratory
rates
in
asthmatics
with
mild
to
moderate
exacerbations
when
NIV
was
added
to
the
standard
medical
care.
Currently,
the
use
of
NIV
in
even
mild
to
moderate
exacerbations
of
asthma
cannot
be
recommended
outside
the
randomized
controlled
trials.
NIV
has
no
role
in
the
management
of
life-‐threatening
exacerbations
of
asthma.
Heliox.
Heliox
(oxygen
in
helium)
reduces
the
density
of
the
gas
mix
to
improve
turbulent
gas
flow.
Use
has
been
reported
in
less
severe
acute
exacerbations
of
asthma
where,
in
spontaneously
breathing
patients,
it
may
reduce
the
work
of
breathing.
This
use
is
not,
however,
supported
by
an
evidence
base
and
its
utility
is
further
limited
by
a
maximum
oxygen
fraction
of
0.4
making
it
unsuitable
for
those
with
life-‐threatening
asthma.
Use
of
heliox
with
a
mechanical
ventilator
is
complex,
requiring
the
recalibration
of
the
pneumotachographs
and
the
use
of
density
independent
spirometry
of
exhaled
gas
flows.
Monoclonal
Anti-‐IgE
Antibodies.
Omalizumab
is
thought
to
be
effective
at
reducing
the
number
and
possibly
the
severity
of
acute
exacerbations
of
asthma
in
adults
with
moderate
to
severe
allergic
asthma
that
is
inadequately
controlled
by
inhaled
steroids.
It
is
a
preventative
measure
and
has
no
role
in
the
management
of
acute
life-‐threatening
episodes.
2. Always
be
wary
of
normocapnia
and
consider
it
in
clinical
context;
it
may
be
a
sign
of
patient
deterioration
or
exhaustion.
4. The
safety
of
permissive
hypercapnia
is
well
established.
Striving
for
normocapnia
is
likely
to
produce
significant
morbidity.
546
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
References
1. Wasserfallen
JB,
Schaller
MD,
Feihl
F,
Perret
CH.
Am
Rev
Respir
Dis
(1990)
142:108-‐11.
2. Tuxen
D,
Leong
T.
Acute
severe
asthma.
In:
Oh's
Intensive
Care
Manual.—
Bersten
A,
Soni
N,
eds.
(2003)
London:
Butterworth
Heinemann.
3. Davidson
C,
Treacher
D.
Respiratory
Critical
Care.
(2002)
Arnold.
4. Tuxen
D,
Leong
T.
The
effects
of
ventilatory
pattern
on
hyperinflation,
airway
pressures,
and
circulation
in
mechanical
ventilation
of
patients
with
severe
air-‐flow
obstruction.
Am
Rev
Respir
Dis
(1987)
142:872-‐9.
5. Guerin
C,
Milic-‐Emili
J,
Fournier
G.
Intensive
Care
Med
(2000)
26:1207-‐14.
6. Stather
DR,
Stewart
TE.
Clinical
review:
mechanical
ventilation
in
severe
asthma.
Crit
Care
(2005)
9:581-‐7.
7. Ram
FSF,
Wellington
SR,
Rowe
B,
Wedzicha
JA.
Non-‐invasive
positive
ventilation
for
treatment
of
respiratory
failure
due
to
severe
acute
exacerbations
of
asthma.
Cochrane
Database
Syst
Rev
(2005)
ArtNo.:CD004360.
DOI:
10.1002/14651858.CD004360.pub3.
[CLOSE WINDOW]
→ Respiratii adanci
→ Incentive Spiromatry
→ Pozitii si Mobilizare
→ IPPB = Intermittent Positive Pressure Breathing
- pres pozitiva in instpir
- indicata pt reversia atelectaziei in inspir profund
- in respiratie spontana
CI - pntx nedrenat
- chirurgie pulmoanra/trahee
- instabilitate hemodinamica
- necooperant
- P ~ 15-20
- sensitiv 1-2 cmH2O
- la 2 ore
- < 20 min
Complicatii: - hiperventilatie
- hipotensiune
- disconfort
- inf nosocomiale
547
- secretii mobilizare
- pntx/pnmediastin
→ CPAP noninveziv
- in expir
- I: - hipoxemie dat atelectaziei
- CI: chirurgie traheala/esofagiana recenta
- dezavantaj: - insuflare gatrica
- disconfort, eritem
- claustrofobie
- ↓ DC + hTA
- retentie CO2 (↑ sp mort)
- pntx
- alte indicatii - BPOC
- ALI
- EPA
- Imunocompromisi
- chirurgie pulm
- pn comunitara
- insuf resp postdetubare
- weaning
- pacient ce nu trebuie intubat
- criza de astm bronsic
→ CPAP prin IOT cu valva de PEEP
- recrutare alveolara + ↓ atelectaziei
- 2,5 – 12,5 cmH2O
→ IPPB
Indicatii majore
1. Insuficienta respiratorie acuta
- PaO2 < 60 mmHg sub FiO2 < 0.5
- PaCO2 > 50 mmHg cu pH < 7,25
- frecv ↑
- Vt ↓
- travaliu respirator ↑
- dispnee
Faze ventilator: -I
- I – E changeover
-E
- E – I changeover
1. Faza I
- P in alveole, cai aeriene si pleura devin + (exact opusul resp spontane)
3. Faza E
- variabila de baza – P
- expira pasiv la o P de baza controlata
P = Patm
= PEEP → imbunatateste FRC prin recrutare alveolara
Expiratory retard - ↑ rezistenta la flux in expir prevenind colabare cai aeriene,
asigura expir complet
Setari ventilator
1. FiO2
- daca este necesat FiO2>0.6 → luat in considerare PEEP
- 20 min dupa modif, apoi EAB
2. Vt
- 10-15 cc/kg – volume mai mari fata de respiratia spontana pt a prevenii
colapsul alveolar
- atelectazii la cei care resp constant fara resp adanci intermitente →
ventilator cu aplic intermitenta de sigh = Vt + ½ Vt
Vt ↓ - bronhospasm
- complianta ↓
- ARDS (Vt ↑ det maldistribuite)
3. Frecventa
- 10-20 bpm
MV= Frecv x Vt
1. Pressure – trigger
- setari sensibiliate = cant de P ce ↓ sub linia de baza pe care pac
trebuie sa o dezvolta in circuitul ventilatorului pt a initia fluxul de gaze
- 2 cmH2O m putin de end expiratory pressure
→ senzitivitate ↑ → ↓ efortul pac de a triggeriza aparartul - ! autociclarea
→ sensibilitatea ↓ → effort m ↑ pt a initia resp → ↑ travaliul respirator
1. Flow – trigger
2. base flow
3. flow sensitivity – cat din fluxul expirator trebuie scazut de pacient pt a
determina ventilatorul sa elibereze gaze proaspete
4. = 0,7 – 2 l/min
5. cat m ↓, dar ap autociclarea
6. fluxul + sensib trebuiesc ↑ daca se foloseste PEEP
550
Rata fluxului
= viteza cu care Vt este furnizat
- l/min
- 40-60 l/min
→ > 60 l/min → ↓Ti → util BPOC, dar ↑ PIP si fluxul devine mai turbulent
→ 20-50 l/min → ↑ Ti, flux mai laminar, imbunatateste distributia gazelor
FLOW WAVES
- patrat – vf fluxului este furnizat imediat la inceputul inspirului si terminat
abrupt la sf expir – este cel mai folosit
- sinusoid - accelerat si oprit gradat – poate creste PIP, mimeaza ventilatia
spontana
- ascendent
- descendent – imbunatateste distributia gazelor alveolare, ↓ SM, ↓ PIP, ↑
tensiunea arteriala in O2
Sigh = suspin
- N 10/min
- contracareaza inchiderea cailor aeriene mici ce apare daca Vt este constant
PEEP
- aplicarea unui presiuni astfel incat la sf expirului presiunea in caile aeriene
nu ajunge niciodata la 0
- 5 – 20 cmH2O
→ recrutarea alveola atelectatice
→ redistributie apa pulmonara
→ ↓ suntul intrapulmonar, ↓ distanta de difuziune pt O2, ↑ capacietatea
reziduala functionala, ↑ C
→ imbunatateste oxigenarea
! - ↓ DC → ↓ O2 tisular
MODURI VENTILATORII
Ventilatia
1. Generare inspir – factor de control
552
Moduri ventilatorii
- Conventionale - control in volum: IPPV
- control in pres: PSV, SIMV, BIPAP
- asistat in presiune CPAP
- Mixte SIMV, BIPAP
- Duale
- Adaptative: ASV, PAV, NAVA
- Aditive
Alternative:
- VAPS – volume assured pressure suport
- PRVC – pressure regulated volum control
- APV – adaptativ pressure ventilation
- PAV – proportional asisted ventilation
- NAVA
- ASV – adaptive suport ventilation
- Biologically variable (fractal) ventilation
APRV + + + +
PSV/ASB
VAPS + + + + +
PRVC + + +
VSV + + +
ASV + + + + + +
PAV + + + +
SIMV+ASB + + + + + + + +
PSIMV+ASB + + + + + +
PSIMV+ASB+APV + + + + + + +
PCMV+APC + + +
1. 2.
Фmax= flux max inspirator I:E
Pmax= pres max Pmax= pres max
Pplat= pres platou Pplat= pres platou
Pmedie= pres medie Pmedie= pres medie
Tip = timp insp presional Tis = timp de insuflatie
Tis = timp de insuflatie
Variabile dependente
control asistare
Фmax= flux max inspirator I:E
Pmax= pres max Pmax= pres max
Pplat= pres platou Pplat= pres platou
Pmedie= pres medie Pmedie= pres medie
Tip = timp insp presional Tis = timp de insuflatie
Tis = timp de insuflatie
Variabile dependente
Vt
Tip = timp insp presional
Фmax= flux max inspirator
555
Cel
mai
frecvent
mecanism
al
esecului
sevrarii
este
insuficienta
pompei
respiratorii,
produsa
de
un
dezechilibru
intre
capacitate
si
cereri.
Mai
rar,
insuccesul
sevrarii
apare
din
cauza
disfunctiei
cardiovasculare,
hipoxemiei
sau
dependentei
psihologice
de
ventilator.
560
In
timpul
unui
trial
de
sevrare
care
esueaza,
apare
de
obicei
acidoza
respiratorie,
ceea
ce
ridica
posibilitatea
ca
drive-‐ului
centrilor
respiratori
sa
fie
scazut.
Aceasta
poate
apare
in
sedare,
hipnoza,
hipotiroidism,etc.Totusi,
indicii
de
drive,
cum
ar
fi
presiunea
de
ocluzie
a
cailor
aeriene
in
0,1
secunde
(P
0,1)
sau
fluxul
inspirator
mediu
(VT/TI)
sint
de
obicei
peste
normal
la
astfel
de
pacienti.
Mai
mult,
a
fost
observata
o
crestere
a
VT/TI
cind
apare
hipoventilatie
alveolara
severa
in
timpul
unui
trial
de
sevrare
fara
succes.
Astfel
ca
este
indoielnic
ca
debitul
neadecvat
al
centrilor
respiratori
sa
fie
responsabil
pentru
esecul
sevrarii
la
majoritatea
pacientilor
Disfunctia
nervului
frenic
trebuie
sa
fie
suspectata
la
pacientii
care
au
suferit
o
operatie
de
bypass
coronarian,
daca
sevrarea
se
dovedeste
dificila
in
perioada
postoperatorie.
Mai
multe
grupe
de
cercetatori,
au
gasit
paralizie
hemidiafragmatica
la
10%
dintre
acesti
pacienti,
in
special
dupa
grefa
arterei
mamare
interne.
Majoritatea
leziunilor
sint
datorate
hipotermiei
prin
racire
topica
si
sint
mai
frecvente
cind
nu
se
foloseste
un
cimp
de
izolare
a
pericardului
in
timpul
operatiei.
Disfunctia
nervului
frenic
a
fost
raportata
si
dupa
transplantul
pulmonar
si
in
interventiile
neurochirurgicale
la
nivelul
coloanei
vertebrale
cervicale.
Paralizia
diafragmatica
unilaterala
este
rareori
amenintatoare
de
viata
dar
poate
face
dificila
sevrarea
in
primele
zile
dupa
operatie.
Un
numar
mic
de
pacienti
dezvolta
paralizie
diafragmatica
bilaterala
ducind
la
dependenta
de
ventilator
prelungita.
4. Hipoxemie
5. Disfunctie cardiovasculara
6. Disfunctie de organ cu “efect de furt”
7. Malnutritie
8. Tulburari electrolitice
9. Tulburari acidobazice
10. Tulburari endocrine
11. Neuro / miopatie indusa medicamentos
12. Oboseala musculaturii respiratorii
13. Atrofie de repaus sau leziuni musculare
B.
Supraincarcarea
pompei
muschilor
respiratori
1. Necesitati ventilatorii crescute
1. Productie crescuta de CO2 (febra, sepsis, acidoza metab)
2. Ventilatie crescuta a spatiului mort
3. Drive respirator crescut neadecvat (anxietate, durere)
2. Lucru mecanic crescut
1. Sarcina rezistiva crescuta (bronhospasm, secretii in exces,
rezistenta impusa)
2. Sarcina elastica pulmonara / a peretelui toracic crescuta (edem
pulmonar, hiperinflatie, fibroza pulmonara, distensie abdominala,
obezitate, trauma perete toracic, deformitati toracice)
3. PEEPi crescut
C.
Combinatie
a
celor
doi
factori
3.
Disfunctia
cardiovasculara
4.
Factorii
psihologici
Este
extrem
de
dificil
de
masurat
consumul
de
O2
al
muschilor
respiratori
(costurile
respiratorii
de
O2).
In
loc
de
acesta
se
masoara:
•travaliul
respirator
(WOB)
–
dar
lucrul
mecanic
poate
subestima
substantial
substantial
consumul
de
O2
de
catre
muschii
respiiratori
•produsul
presiune
–
timp
(PTP)
–
se
coreleaza
mai
bine
cu
consumul
de
O2
al
muschilor
respiratori
decit
lucrul
mecanic
-‐
la
sfirsitul
trialului
este
crescut
la
cei
care
au
esuat,
indicind
un
consum
energetic
crescut.
Daca
transportul
O2
nu
este
adecvat,
poate
sa
nu
intruneasca
necesitatile
crescute
ale
muschilor
respiratori
si
poate
apare
boseala
musculara
•indexul
tensiune-‐timp
(TTI)
–
cuantifica
magnitudinea
si
durata
contractiei
m.m.respiratori
si
pare
sa
fie
cel
mai
bun
pentru
evaluarea
riscului
de
aparitie
a
oboselii
musculare.
Din
studiile
efectuate
s-‐a
stabilit
un
prag
de
0,15,
valoare
peste
care
apare
oboseala
musculara.
Oboseala
musculara
poate
produce
distructie
musculara
severa
si
singura
cale
de
recuperare
din
acest
tip
de
oboseala
este
repausul
muschilor
respiratori.
PARAMETRII DE SEVRARE
FUNCTIA NEUROMUSCULARA
Capacitatea muschilor respiratori de a lucra impotriva sarcinilor mecanice si
metabolice depinde de functia neuromusculara intacta – de la centrul de
control bulbar, la maduva spinarii nervii frenici si muschii respiratori.
Parametrii de sevrare pot masura functia neuromusculara la mai multe niveluri.
Paramertii care indica o functie slaba pot sugera un posibil esec al sevrarii,
dar functia normala nu prevede neaparat succesul, in special daca se
insoteste de sarcini excesive.
pentru
muschii
respiratori.
La
pacientii
cu
rezerva
cardiopulmonara
la
limita,
sevrarea
poate
necesita
atit
de
mult
dintr-‐un
DO2
atit
de
limitat,
incit
sa
determine
“furt”
din
fluxul
sangvin
al
altor
tesuturi
si
organe.
Aparitia
acidozei
intramucosale
gastrice
in
timpul
sevrarii
poate
identifica
acesti
pacienti.
pHi
(pH-‐ul
intramucosal)
gastric
nu
se
modifica
in
timpul
sevrarii
la
pacientii
care
au
reusit,
dar
a
scazut
la
cei
care
au
esuat.
Aceasta
tehnica
trebuie
sa
fie
studiata
prospectiv
in
continuare.
INDICI INTEGRATIVI
1. CROP (complianta, rata, oxigenare, presiune inspiratorie)
-‐
este
un
indice
care
integreaza
masuratorile
compliantei
dinamice
a
sistemului
respirator
(Cdyn),
frecventa
respiratorie
spontana,
rapartul
dintre
oxigenarea
arteriala
si
oxigenarea
alveolara
(PaO2/PAO2)
si
presiunea
inspiratorie
maxima
(Pimax),
prin
ecuatia:
CROP
=
Cdyn
x
Pimax
x
(PaO2/PAO2)/frecventa
Yang
si
Tobin
au
gasit
ca
un
CROP
≥
13
are
o
sensibilitate
de
0,81,
specificitate
de
0,57
si
o
valoare
predictiva
pozitiva
de
0,70.
Totusi
CROP
este
dificil
de
folosit
in
practica
clinica,
necesitind
masurarea
a
5
variabile,
si
nu
este
practic,
cind
avem
la
dispozitie
o
alternativa
mult
mai
simpla
si
cu
o
acuratete
mai
mare.
fluxul
sursei
de
gaze
in
ramul
inspirator
trebuie
sa
fi
cel
putin
dublu
fata
de
minut
volumul
spontan
al
pacientului,
pentru
a
intruni
rata
fluxului
inspirator
de
virf
a
pacientului,
si
ramului
expirator
trebuie
sa
i
se
ataseze
o
extensie
pentru
a
preveni
antrenarea
aerului
atmosferic.
In
timpul
unui
trial
de
respiratie
spontana,
statusul
clinic
al
pacientului
trebuie
atent
monitorizat
de
catre
medic
si
asistenta.
Daca
la
examinarea
clinica
apar
semne
de
deteriorare
trialul
se
opreste
si
este
reinstituita
ventilatia
mecanica
pentru
cel
putin
24
de
ore.
Motivul
pentru
care
aceasta
se
realizeaza
doar
o
data
pe
zi
este
ca
muschii
respiratori
necesita
o
perioada
de
repaus
prelungita
pentru
a
se
recupera
dintr-‐un
efort
stressant.
Numerosi
pacienti,
in
special
cei
care
primesc
suport
ventilator
pentru
perioade
scurte,
pot
fi
detubati
fara
trialuri
de
sevrare
prelungite.
Dupa
cum
s-‐a
aratat
in
studiile
lui
Esteban,
Ely,
Brochard
si
colab.,
majoritatea
pacientilor
tolereaza
fara
nici
o
dificultate
prima
tentativa
de
intrerupere
a
suportului
ventilator.
In
fiecare
dintre
aceste
studii,
pacientii
au
fost
observati
pe
o
perioada
de
2
ore
de
respiratie
spontana
si
au
fost
detubati
daca
au
ramas
fara
suferinta
respiratorie.
VENTILATIA
MANDATORIE
INTERMITENTA
Pacientii
care
primesc
ventilatie
mandatorie
intermitenta
(IMV)
pot
respira
spontan
si
primi
periodic
respiratii
cu
presiune
pozitiva
cu
un
volum
si
o
frecventa
presetate
din
ventilator.
Cind
pacientul
este
pregatit
pentru
sevrare,
frecventa
IMV
este
redusa
treptat,
de
obicei
cu
1
–
3
respiratii
pe
minut
la
ficare
treapta.
Daca
pacientul
nu
prezinta
deteriorare,
frecventa
IMV
se
reduce
pas
cu
pas
pina
se
atinge
o
frecventa
IMV
aproape
de
zero.
La
pacientii
care
primesc
IMV,
s-‐a
presupus
ca
efortul
pacientului
se
reduce
proportional
cu
numarul
de
respiratii
oferite
de
ventilator.
Totusi,
unele
studii
au
aratat
ca
o
scadere
a
ratei
IMV
este
insotita
de
o
crestere
a
efortului
pacientului
nu
numai
in
timpul
respiratiilor
spontane,
dar
si
al
respiratiilor
asistate.
Observatia
ca
indexul
tensiune-‐timp
este
de
obicei
deasupra
pragului
oboselii
atit
pentru
respiratia
spontana,
cit
si
pentru
cea
asistata,
sugereaza
ca
practica
obisnuita
de
utilizare
a
nivelelor
scazute
de
IMV
poate
ingreuna
recuperarea
satisfacatoare
din
oboseala
muschilor
respiratori
si
in
consecinta
poate
intirzia
timpul
pina
la
detubare.
Prin
comparatie,
Leung
si
colab.
au
demonstrat
ca
produsul
presiune-‐timp
a
fost
redus
intr-‐o
masura
mai
mare
in
timpul
ventilatiei
assist-‐
control
decit
in
timpul
IMV;
de
asemenea,
cind
a
fost
exprimat
in
procente
din
nivelul
maxim
de
suport,
cercetatorii
din
urma
nu
au
gasit
nici
o
diferenta
intre
gradul
de
reducere
a
sarcinii
intre
suportul
in
presiune
si
IMV.
VENTILATIA
CU
SUPORT
IN
PRESIUNE
PSV
este
considerata
de
unii
mai
confortabila
decit
modurile
ventilatorii
conventionale
deoarece
pacientii
isi
pot
controla
profunzimea,
lungimea
si
profilul
fluxului
fiecarei
respiratii.
Inainte
se
credea
ca
PSV
poate
fi
util
pentru
“compensarea”
sarcinii
rezistive
legata
de
sonda
de
intubatie
in
timpul
trialurilor
de
sevrare.
Totusi,
Straus
si
colab.
au
demonstrat
ca
travaliul
respirator
in
timpul
trialurilor
de
respiratie
spontana
si
respectiv
cel
dupa
detubare
erau
practic
identice;
in
consecinta
PSV
nu
trebuie
aplicat
in
acest
scop.
Sevrarea
din
PSV
poate
fi
realizata
prin
scaderea
569
gradata
a
nivelului
PSV
in
trepte
de
cite
3
–
6
cm
H2O
in
functie
de
toleranta
pacientului,
si
detubarea
poate
fi
realizata
la
un
nivel
PSV
de
5
cm
H2O.
COMPARATIE
INTRE
METODELE
DE
DESPRINDERE
DE
VENTILATA
MECANICA
Brochard
and
colab.
au
fost
primii
care
au
realizat
un
trial
controlat
randomizat
foarte
atent
al
diferitelor
tehnici
de
sevrare.
PSV
a
fost
superior
rezultatelor
combinate
ale
sevrarii
cu
tub
in
T
si
IMV,
ducind
la
o
durata
de
sevrare
mai
scurta
si
o
perioada
mai
scurta
de
sedere
in
STI;
in
acest
studiu,
PSV
nu
a
dus
la
o
sevrare
mai
rapida
decit
in
trialurile
numai
cu
tub
in
T.
Esteban
si
colab.
au
condus
un
studiu
comparativ
prospectiv
randomizat
a
patru
strategii
de
sevrare
implicind
130
de
pacienti
care
au
fost
ventilati
in
medie
7,5
zile
si
care
nu
au
raspuns
la
un
trial
initial
de
respiratie
spontana.
Timpul
pina
la
detubarea
cu
succes
a
fost
mai
mic
(3
zile)
in
grupurile
la
care
au
fost
realizate
trialuri
de
sevrare
cu
respiratie
spontana
fie
o
data
pe
zi,
fie
intermitent
(multiple)
zilnic,
decit
in
grupurile
randomizate
fie
cu
IMV
(5
zile)
sau
PSV
(4
zile).
Desi
concluziile
au
diferit,
studiile
realizate
de
Esteban
si
respectiv
Brochard
pot
fi
privite
ca
fiind
complementare
prin
aceea
ca
ambele
au
demonstrat
ca
pasii
sevrarii
depind
de
maniera
in
care
este
aplicata
tehnica;
de
asemenea,
ambele
studii
au
fost
de
acord
ca
IMV
este
metoda
de
sevrare
cea
mai
putin
eficienta.
Introspectia
cistigata
din
aceste
studii
a
fost
extinsa
intr-‐un
studiu
controlat
randomizat
de
catre
Ely
si
colab.
care
au
investigat
daca
indicii
prospectivi
combinati
cu
un
trial
de
respiratie
spontana
ar
grabi
pasii
spre
sevrare.
Pacientilor
li
s-‐a
realizat
in
fiecare
dimineata
un
screening
pentru
5
factori:
PaO2/FiO2
>
200;
PEEP
<
sau
egal
cu
5
cm
H2O;
f/VT
in
jur
de
105
respiratii
/min
per
litru;
tuse
prezenta
la
aspiratie;
si
absenta
sedarii
sau
a
administrarii
agentilor
vasopresori.
Studiu
Ely
si
colab.:
CRITERII
PENTRU
INITIEREA
UNUI
TRIAL
DE
RESPIRATIE
SPONTANA
Screening-‐ul
zilnic
(inca
de
la
instituirea
ventilatiei
mecanice)
al
functiei
respiratorii
a
pacientilor
ventilati
mecanic
urmat
de
trialuri
de
ventilatie
spontana
inainte
de
extubare,
poate
reduce
durata
ventilatiei
mecanice.
El
propune
5
criterii
simple
pentru
initierea
unui
trial
de
sevrare:
1. PaO2/FiO2>200
2. PEEP<5
cm
H2O
3. Reflexe
adecvate
ale
cailor
aeriene
4. Raport
f/VT<105
bpm/I
5. Fara
suport
vasopresor
si
fara
sedare
Pacientii
care
intrunesc
aceste
criterii
vor
urma
un
trial
de
respiratie
spontana
cu
durata
de
2h.
CRITERIILE PENTRU TOLERAREA TRIALURILOR DE SEVRARE
1.
Oxigenarea
(PaO2≥60
mmHg
sau
SaO2≥90%
sau
FiO2≤0,4
–
0,5)
2.
Ventilatia
(PaCO2↑≤10
mmHg
sau
pH
↓≤0,10)
3.
T.A.
(TAS≥90
sau
≤180
mmHg;
↑
sau
↓
≤
20%)
4.
A.V.(≥50
sau
≤140
batai/min;
↑sau↓≤20%)
570
anduranta,
de
joasa
intensitate
cum
ar
fi
in
respiratia
linistita,
au
o
capacitate
oxidativa
mare,
si
sint
specializate
pentru
energia
aeroba.
Totusi,
daca
sint
supuse
unei
activitati
submaximale
sustinute,
fibrele
lente
sint
deasemenea
primele
care
isi
epuizeaza
rezervele
de
glicogen
si
prezinta
oboseala.
Fibrele
tip
II
(rapide)
au
un
reticul
sarcoplasmic
mai
extins;
astfel
calciul
poate
fi
rapid
eliberat
si
preluat,
permitind
o
contractie
rapida.
Ele
ating
tensiunea
de
virf
intr-‐un
timp
foarte
scurt,
si
cind
este
necesara
o
activitate
respiratorie
de
intensitate
mai
mare,
cum
ar
fi
tusea
puternica,
sistemul
nervos
central
recruteaza
fibrele
rapide
pentru
ca
ele
sint
adaptate
pentru
forta.
Totusi,
spre
deosebire
de
fibrele
lente,
ele
au
capacitate
oxidativa
redusa
si
sint
foarte
susceptibile
la
oboseala
cind
sint
activate
repetat.
FIZIOLOGIA
EXERCITIULUI
FIZIC
APLICATA
LA
ANTRENAMENTUL
MUSCHILOR
RESPIRATORI
Dupa
cum
bine
stim,
simpla
folosire
a
musculaturii
noastre
nu
inseamna
exercitiu
fizic
chiar
daca
previne
atrofia
de
repaus.
Pentru
a
reantrena
muschii
respiratori,
trebuie
conceput
un
plan
de
antrenament
fizic,
cu
componente
de
antrenare
a
andurantei
si
a
fortei.
Un
efect
de
antrenare
poate
fi
obtinut
numai
daca
este
aplicata
muschilor
respiratori
o
sarcina
suficienta,
in
termeni
de
intensitate,
durata
si
frecventa.
Durata
perioadei
de
exercitii
se
bazeaza
pe
toleranta
pacientului
si
prevenirea
oboselii.
Scopul
unui
program
destinat
readucerii
in
forma
a
muschilor
respiratori
este
o
imbunatatire
a
performantei
musculare,
evidentiata
prin
capacitatea
de
a
sustine
respiratia
spontana
pentru
perioade
din
ce
in
ce
mai
lungi.
Forta
musculara
este
capacitatea
de
a
dezvolta
forta
impotriva
rezistentei
intr-‐o
singura
contractie.
Forta
musculara
este
dezvoltata
atunci
cind
este
aplicat
un
exercitiu
rezistiv
sau
izometric.
Imbunatatirea
fortei
este
obtinuta
prin
scurte
activitati
intense
sau
repetitii
rare
ale
unui
stimul
de
intensitate
mare,
cum
ar
fi
trialurile
de
respiratie
spontana
sau
cu
tub
in
T
la
pacientul
aflat
in
proces
de
sevrare.
Acest
tip
“in
forta”
de
activitate
musculara
produce
cresterea
dimensiunilor
muschilor
(hipertrofie).
Fibrele
musculare
individuale
(sarcomerele)
cresc
in
diametru,
rezervele
lor
nutritive
cresc,
si
chiar
le
poate
creste
numarul
de
mitocondrii.
Cresc
atit
puterea
lor
motrice
cit
si
mecanismele
lor
nutritive
pentru
a
sustine
o
putere
motrice
crescuta.
Imbunatatirea
fortei
muschilor
respiratori
se
obtine
cu
travaliu
cu
presiune
mare
si
volum
redus.
Travaliul
cu
presiuni
mari
necesita
cai
aeriene
largi
si
modificari
mari
ale
presiunii
intrapleurale
pentru
a
realiza
modificari
minime
de
volum
in
plamini.
Deasemenea
el
necesita
cheltuieli
energetice
mari.
Cind
travaliul
cu
presiune
mare
este
aplicat
persoanelor
cu
functie
pulmonara
normala,
acestea
pot
fi
capabile
sa
genereze
suficienta
energie
pentru
a
realiza
volume
adecvate.
Totusi,
persoanele
cu
compliante
sau
rezistente
anormale
sau
care
respira
printr-‐un
circuit
ventilator
cu
rezistenta
crescuta,
pot
fi
coplesite
de
cantitatea
de
energie
necesara
pentru
a
sustine
ventilatia
si
obosesc.
In
aceste
conditii,
devine
necesara
limitarea
duratei
perioadelor
de
exercitii
sau
implementarea
de
strategii
destinate
scadderii
travaliului
respirator.
Anduranta
este
capacitatea
de
a
efectua
exercitii
fizice
pentru
perioade
prelungite
inainte
de
aparitia
oboselii.
Imbunatatirea
andurantei
este
obtinuta
prin
numeroase
repetari
ale
unei
activitati
de
intensitate
scazuta,
cum
ar
fi
folosirea
unui
mod
ventilator
cu
suport
in
presiune
la
pacientul
in
proces
de
sevrare.
Aceasta
574
activitate
musculara
mai
putin
intensa
sustinuta
pentru
perioade
lungi
promoveaza
anduranta
musculara,
nu
hipertrofia.
Ea
promoveaza
stimularea
mitocondriala
si
creste
enzimele
oxidative,
mioglobina,
si
chiar
numarul
de
capilare
sangvine
pentru
a
sustine
cresterea
preluarii
de
oxigen
si
a
metabolismului
muscular.
Anduranta
este
promovata
prin
exercitiu
usor
si
prelungit.
Specific
musculaturii
respiratorie,
ea
este
obtinuta
cu
travaliu
cu
presiune
scazuta
si
volum
mare.
Cele
trei
principii
de
baza
ale
antrenarii
muschilor
scheletici
sint
suprasarcina,
specificitatea
si
reversibilitatea.
Suprasarcina
inseamna
ca
muschii
trebuie
solicitati
pina
la
limita
capacitatii
lor
astfel
incit
sa
le
creasca
dimensiunile
si
abilitatea
functionala.
Specificitatea
inseamna
ca
antrenarea
trebuie
sa
fie
aplicata
specific
caracteristicilor
functionale
ale
muschiului,
adica
anduranta
versus
forta.
Reversibilitatea
implica
faptul
ca
daca
antrenamentul
inceteaza,
capacitatea
de
performanta
a
muschiului
va
scadea
treptat.
OBOSEALA
MUSCHILOR
RESPIRATORI
In
timpul
sevrarii,
oboseala
provocata
de
travaliul
excesiv
trebuie
evitata.
Oboseala
musculara
reprezinta
incapacitatea
muschiului
de
a
continua
sa
dezvolte
o
forta
suficienta
pentru
a
realiza
o
anumita
sarcina
particulara.
Oboseala
este
reversibila
prin
repaus.
Oboseala
muschilor
respiratori
duce
la
incapacitatea
muschilor
respiratori
de
a
continua
sa
dezvolte
suficiente
schimbari
de
presiune
pentru
a
mentine
o
ventilatie
alveolara
adecvata.
Prevenirea
oboselii
musculare
necesita
mentinerea
unui
echilibru
intre
factorii
de
cerere
si
oferta
care
afecteaza
muschii
respiratori.
Factorii
de
cerere
includ
travaliul
respirator
si
intensitatea
contractiilor
musculare,
in
timp
ce
factorii
de
cerere
includ
stocurile
si
utilizarea
substraturilor
energetice
necesare,
cum
ar
fi
fluxul
sangvin
muscular,
continutul
de
oxigen
din
singe,
statusul
nutritional
general,
rezervele
de
glicogen
si
capacitatea
muschilor
de
a
utiliza
energie
(mediul
metabolic).
Oboseala
muschilor
respiratori
se
poate
manifesta
in
urmatoarele
conditii:
1. Scaderea
fortei
musculare
din
cauza
factorilor
care
afecteaza
functia
neuromusculara.
Cauzele
pot
include
deficiente
ale
contractilitatii
ca
o
consecinta
a
atrofiei
(celulele
musculare
devin
mai
mici),
sau
ca
o
consecinta
a
pierderii
de
masa
musculara,
ca
in
malnutritie.
Bolile
neuromusculare
cum
ar
fi
miastenia
gravis
intra
in
aceasta
categorie
de
conditii
care
duc
la
slabiciune
musculara,
contribuind
astfel
la
aparitia
oboselii
musculaturii
respiratorii.
2. O
crestere
a
cererii
de
energie
care
depaseste
capacitatea
de
a
produce
travaliu.
Astfel
de
dezechilibre
apar
cu
cresterea
rezistentei
in
caile
aeriene,
scaderea
compliantei
pulmonare,
hipoxemie
si
cresterea
volumului
sau
presiunii
abdominale.
3. Un
dezechilibru
intre
oferta
si
cererea
de
energie.
O
reducere
a
ofertei
de
energie
catre
muschi
apare
in
timpul
hipoxemiei,
anemiei,
scaderii
debitului
cardiac,
hipofosfatemiei,
dezechilibrelor
electrolitice
(in
special
sodiul,
potasiul
si
clorul),
si
inanitiei.
Fluxul
sangvin
diafragmatic
scade
in
conditiile
unui
debit
cardiac
scazut
si
cind
contractia
diafragmatica
este
foarte
intensa.
Necesitatile
energetice
crescute
ale
muschilor
aflati
in
travaliu,
pot
ddeasemenea
duce
la
depletia
rezervelor
musculare
de
energie,
glicogen,
si
575
adenozin
trifosfat
(ATP).
O
astfel
de
depletie
s-‐a
dovedit
ca
se
asociaza
cu
oboseala
musculara.
4. Acumularea
de
produsi
finali
de
metabolism
care
inhiba
sau
reduc
contractia
musculara.
Acumularea
de
produsi
toxici
pentru
contractia
musculara,
in
special
acid
lactic,
contribuie
si
mai
mult
la
aparitia
oboselii
musculare.
La
un
pH
mai
scazut
este
nevoie
de
o
cantitate
mai
mare
de
calciu
pentru
a
produce
o
anumita
tensiune
in
muschi,
iar
cantitatea
crescuta
de
ioni
de
hidrogen
exercita
un
efect
negativ
direct
asupra
procesului
contractil.
SEMNELE
CLINICE
ALE
OBOSELII
MUSCULARE
*pattern
respirator
disfunctional:
-‐tahipnee
-‐respiratie
superficiala
-‐minut
volum
(VE)
>
10
l/min
(dar
in
ciuda
VE
crescut,ventilatia
alveolara
este
scazuta
deoarece
majoritatea
fluxului
inspirator
crescut
ventileaza
spatiul
mort
anatomic)
*apoi,
pe
masura
ce
bolnavul
continua
sa
respire
in
conditii
de
oboseala
a
muschilor
respiratori,
apar:
-‐bradipnee
-‐apnee
centrala
*semne
clinice
aditionale
care
pot
indica
oboseala
muschilor
respiratori:
-‐alternanta
respiratorie
(alternanta
intre
respiratia
toracica
si
cea
abdominala)
-‐asincronia
(diferenta
intrre
frecventa
miscarilor
cutiei
toracice
si
cele
ale
abdomenului)
-‐respiratia
abdominala
paradoxala
(retractia
abdominala
in
timpul
inspirului
si
expansiune
in
expir)
care
indica
o
contractie
anormala
a
diafragmului
Aceste
semne
clinice
de
mecanica
anormala
a
respiratiei
preced
o
crestere
a
PaCO2;
astfel
cresterea
PaCO2
este
un
semn
tardiv
al
disfunctiei
musculare.
Totusi,
studiile
efectuate
in
continuare
au
aratat
ca
miscari
anormale
ale
cutiei
toracice
si
abdomenului
se
intilnesc
atit
la
pacientii
care
au
putut
fi
sevrati
cu
succes,
cit
si
la
cei
la
care
sevrarea
a
esuat.
Deoarece
exista
o
suprapunere
importanta
intre
cele
doua
grupuri,
miscarile
toraco-‐abdominale
anormale
nu
sint
un
bun
indicator
al
oboselii
musculare
sau
al
esecului
sevrarii.
Cauze
aditionale
de
asincronie
toraco-‐abdominala:
-‐
obstructia
partiala
/
completa
a
cailor
aeriene
-‐
eliminarea
incompleta
a
anestezicului
volatil
(reduce
selectiv
miscarile
cutiei
toracice)
-‐
bloc
neuromuscular
rezidual
Cind
pacientii
prezinta
slabiciune
musculara,
antrenarea
nusculaturii
respiratorii
este
utila.
Daca
insa
cauza
slabiciunii
musculare
este
oboseala
musculaturii
respiratorii,
este
necesar
repausul,
nu
antrenamentul.
FIZIOPATOLOGIA
INSUFICIENTEI
RESPIRATORII
ASOCIATA
CU
SEVRAREA
(MANCEBO)
9.1.
Introducere
In
general,
esecul
sevrarii
este
legat
de
:
576
Tabel
9.3.
Sarcina
muschilor
respiratori
si
raportul
frecventa
respiratorie
/
volum
tidal
in
timpul
trialurilor
de
sevrare
esuate
si
respectiv
reusite
Vassilakopoulos
Capdevila
si
colab.
si
colab.
PEEPi
(cm
H2O)
Esec
6,1±2,5
Na
Succes
3,9±2,7
Na
Rmax
(cm
H2O/l/s)
Esec
14,1±4,9
Na
Succes
11,2±4,0
Na
PI
(cm
H2O)
Esec
22,3±1,3
28,1±9,1
Succes
17,9±1,5
19,7±5,5
PImax
(cmH2O)
Esec
48,4±13,3
47,7±13,7
Succes
57,6±14,6
54,0±15,4
PI/PImax
(cm
H2O)
Esec
0,46±0,1
0,59±0,7
Succes
0,31±0,1
0,36±0,4
TTI
(PI/PImax
xTi/Ttot)
Esec
0,16±0,03
0,34±0,20
Succes
0,10±0,02
0,10±0,10
F/VT
(min/l)
Esec
98±38
93±30
succes
62±21
56±21
PEEPi=presiunea
pozitiva
end
expiratorie
intrinseca,
Rmax=rezistenta
maxima
a
sistemului
respirator,
PI=presiunea
medie
in
caile
aeriene,
PI/PImax=raportul
intre
presiunea
medie
in
caile
aeriene
si
presiunea
maxima
in
caile
aeriene,
TTI=indexul
tensiune-‐timp,
f/VT=raportul
dintre
frecventa
respiratorie
si
volulmul
tidal.
Na=nu
sint
date
disponibile.
9.2.1.
SARCINA
MUSCHILOR
RESPIRATORI
Ambele
studii
de
mai
sus
au
demonstrat
clar
ca
determinantii
majori
ai
esecului
sevrarii
sint
sarcina
excesiva
a
muschilor
respiratori,
impreuna
cu
o
scadere
a
capacitatii
lor.
O
scadere
a
sarcinii
impuse
muschilor
respiratori,
o
reducere
a
necesitatilor
energetice
si
un
pattern
respirator
mai
eficient
au
condus
la
succesul
sevrarii.
La
pacientii
cu
BPOC
la
care
sevrarea
a
esuat,
o
mare
parte
din
efortul
578
muscular
inspirator
era
folosit
pentru
invingerea
atit
a
PEEPi
(20%),
cit
si
a
sarcinii
rezistive
(42%),
si
intr-‐o
mai
mica
masura
pentru
invingerea
sarcinii
elastice
non-‐
PEEPi.
Similar,
la
pacientii
cu
ARDS,
au
contribuit
la
travaliul
respirator
total
PEEPi
(19%)
si
sarcina
rezistiva
(55%).
A
fost
deja
demonstrata
rezistenta
crescuta
la
flux
la
pacientii
cu
ARDS,aceasta
datorindu-‐se
mai
degraba
volumului
pulmonar
scazut
si
posibil
scaderii
proportiei
volumului
pulmonar
ventilat
decit
ingustarii
cailor
aeriene.
9.2.2.
CAPACITATEA
MUSCHILOR
RESPIRATORI
Este
important
sa
se
raspunda
la
urmatoarele
intrebari:
Contribuie
scaderea
drive-‐ului
neuromuscular
central
la
scaderea
capacitatii
neuromusculare?
Concluziile
studiilor
Jubran
si
Tobin
(1997)
–
pe
17
pacienti
cu
BPOC,
la
care
s-‐au
masurat
presiunile
esofagiene
inspiratorii
(Pes)
–
si
respectiv
Capdevila
si
colab.
(1998)
–
pe
11
pacienti
la
care
s-‐a
masurat
P0,1
–
au
fost
concordante:
se
pare
ca
pentru
majoritatea
pacientilor
la
care
sevrarea
a
esuat,
capacitatea
redusa
a
muschilor
respiratori
nu
rezulta
din
deprimarea
dive-‐ului
neuromuscular
central.
Contribuie
disfunctia
nervului
frenic
la
scaderea
capacitatii
neuromusculare?
Din
ultimele
studii,
Sander
si
colab.
(1999)
–
studiu
retrospectiv
–
si
respectiv
Leijten
si
colab.
(1996)
–
studiu
prospectiv
–
a
reiesit
ca
scaderea
capacitatii
muschilor
respiratori
nu
pare
sa
se
datoreze
disfunctiei
nervului
frenic.
Cresterea
TTI
pina
la
pragul
critic
indica
oboseala
muschilor
respiratori?
Oboseala
muschilor
respiratori
este
definita
ca
o
stare
in
care
muschii
respiratori
sint
incapabili
sa
dezvolte
forta
si
/
sau
velocitate
in
conditiile
unei
activitati
impotriva
unei
sarcini,
si
ea
este
reversibila
prin
repaus.
S-‐au
descris
doua
tipuri
de
oboseala
contractila:
oboseala
la
frecvente
inalte
si
oboseala
la
frecvente
joase.
Oboseala
la
frecvente
inalte
reprezinta
scaderea
fortei
contractile
a
unui
muschi
la
stimularea
cu
frecvente
de
50-‐100
Hz
si
apare
rapid
dupa
expunerea
la
o
sarcina
foarte
mare.
Dupa
indepartarea
sarcinii,
capacitatea
muschilor
de
a
genera
forta
se
recupereaza
rapid.
Se
crede
ca
oboseala
la
frecvente
rapide
este
rezultatul
acumularii
intracelulare
de
ioni
de
hidrogen,
fosfat
anorganic
si
modificarii
concentratiilor
calciului
in
reticulul
endoplasmic
sau
tubii
T
care
pot
interfera
cu
propagarea
potentialului
de
actiune.
Oboseala
la
frecvente
joase
apare
dupa
expunerea
pentru
o
perioada
prelungita
la
o
sarcina
scazuta.
Frecventa
descarcarilor
motoneuronilor
intercostali
parasternali
si
scaleni
in
timpul
respiratiei
normale
este
de
7-‐14
Hz
la
pacientii
sanatosi
si
8-‐19
Hz
la
cei
cu
BPOC
(Gandevia
si
colab.
1996).
Similar,
frecventa
descarcarilor
motoneuronilor
frenici
este
de
9-‐12
Hz
la
pacientii
sanatosi
si
de
14-‐22
Hz
la
cei
cu
BPOC
(De
Troyer
si
colab.1997).
Aparita
oboselii
musculare
la
frecvente
joase
necesita
o
perioada
mai
lunga
pentru
recuperare,
mai
mult
de
24
ore
(Laghi
si
colab.
1995).
Se
crede
ca
acest
tip
de
oboseala
musculara
este
rezultatul
leziunilor
induse
de
sarcina,
care
la
rindul
lor
ar
putea
fi
mediate
prin
productia
de
radicali
liberi
de
oxigen
(Anzueto
si
colab.
1994),
prin
disruptia
mecanica
a
sarcolemei
si
/
sau
reticulului
endoplasmic,
cu
intrarea
consecutiva
a
calciului
in
citoplasma,
activarea
enzimelor
proteolitice
care
degradeaza
membrana
fosfolipidica
si
proteinele
miofilamentelor
(Armstrong
si
colab.
1991).
Indiferent
de
mecanism,
sarcini
chiar
modeste
ale
muschilor
respiratori,
comparabile
cu
acelea
de
la
pacientii
cu
boala
pulmonara
obstructiva
severa,
pot
induce
deteeriorari
musculare
substantiale
(Zhu
si
579
colab.
1997).Totusi,
desi
este
tentant
sa
speculam
ca
in
diafragm
apar
leziuni
induse
de
sarcina
si
ca
ele
sint
asociate
cu
dificultati
in
sevrare,
dovezile
inca
lipsesc.
Indicele
tensiune-‐timp
(TTI)
a
fost
propus
ca
o
alternativa
la
produsul
presiune-‐timp
pentru
cuantificarea
magnitudinii
si
duratei
contractiilor
musculare.
Unii
autori
au
gasit
pragul
critic
al
TTI,
deasupra
caruia
apare
oboselala
musculara
avind
o
valoare
de
0,15
(Bellemare
&
Grassino
1982),
altii
0,33
(Capdevila
si
colab.).
TTI
deasupra
pragului
critic
ar
indica
oboseala
muschilor
respiratori.
Totusi
TTI
are
limite
si
nu
poate
fi
inca
acceptat
c
o
dovada
definitiva
a
oboselii.
Oboseala
de
tip
“frecventa
joasa”
a
musculaturii
respiratorii
poate
fi
responsabila
de
scaderea
capacitatii
neuromusculare
la
pacientii
care
nu
au
putut
fi
sevrati.
9.3.
PATTEREN-‐UL
RESPIRATOR
RAPID
SI
SUPERFICIAL
IN
TIMPUL
ESECULUI
SEVRARII
Majoritatea
pacientilor
la
care
sevrarea
a
esuat
prezentau
imediat
dupa
deconectarea
de
ventilator
un
pattern
respirator
rapid
si
superficial,
iar
raportul
frecventa
respiratorie
/
volum
tidal
(f/VT)
a
fost
folosit
ca
cel
mai
simplu
indice
pentru
predictia
rezultatelor
sevrarii.
Respiratia
rapida
si
superficiala
nu
reprezinta
o
strategie
de
evitare
a
oboselii
musculare,
existind
o
slaba
corelatie
intre
f/VT
si
TTI
(Jubran
si
Tobin
1997).
Deasemenea,
se
pare
ca
respiratia
rapida
si
superficiala
nu
este
nici
o
manifestare
a
oboselii
musculare.
Mecanismul
fiziopatologic
responsabil
pentru
pattern-‐ul
respirator
rapid
si
superficial
este
necunoscut;
poate
fi
rezultatul
sarcinii
mecanice
crescute,
stimularii
chemoreceptorilor,
volumelor
pulmonare
crescute,
reflexelor
cu
origine
in
plamini
si
muschii
respiratori,
alterarii
descarcarilor
motoneuronilor
respiratori,
resimtirii
efortului
respirator
de
catre
pacienti,
sau
influentelor
corticale.
Consecintele
pattern-‐ului
respirator
rapid
si
superficial
sint:
scaderea
volumului
tidal
produce
o
crestere
a
spatiului
mort
fiziologic,
ducind
la
cresterea
PaCO2;
cresterea
frecventei
respiratorii
este
asociata
cu
o
scadere
a
timpului
expirator
care
la
rindul
lui,
lasa
un
timp
insuficient
plaminilor
sa
elimine
aerul,
ducind
la
hiperinflatie
si
aparitia
PEEPi.
Respiratia
rapida
si
superficiala
si
PEEPi
ambele
pot
duce
la
cresterea
travaliului
respirator.
Daca
acesta
mai
departe
duce
la
oboseala
musculara
trebuie
sa
fie
studiat
in
continuare.
In
concluzie,
mecanismul
insuficientei
respiratorii
asociata
cu
sevrarea
este
dezechilibrul
intre
sarcina
muschilor
respiratori
si
capacitatea
neuromusculara
respiratorie.
Scaderea
capacitatii
muschilor
respiratori
poate
fi
datorata
oboselii
muschilor
respiratori.
Inca
nu
exista
o
metoda
practica
si
fidela
de
detectare
a
oboselii
muschilor
respiratori
la
pacientii
critici,
dar
cu
posibilitatea
stimularii
magnetice
a
nervului
frenic,
realilzarea
unei
asemenea
metode
poate
sa
nu
fie
prea
departe.
INTERACTIUNILE
CARDIOPULMONARE
SI
SCHIMBURILE
GAZOASE
IN
TIMPUL
SEVRARII
DE
VENTILATIA
MECANICA
Sevrarea
de
ventilatia
mecanica
reprezinta
o
perioada
critica
in
evolutia
pacientilor
internati
in
STI.
In
succesul
sevrarii
este
implicata
rezolvarea
a
doua
importante
probleme
care
privesc
functia
pulmonara.
Intii,
la
inceputul
respiratiei
spontane
este
necesara
o
mai
mare
activitate
a
muschior
respiratori,
crescind
astfel
580
necesarul
metabolic
al
organismului
(cresc
consumul
de
O2
si
productia
de
CO2)
care
trebuie
compensat
printr-‐o
eficienta
crescuta
a
plaminilor
in
realizarea
schimburilor
gazoase.
In
al
doilea
rind,
modificarile
ventilatorii
si
hemodinamice
care
insotesc
trecerea
de
la
ventilatia
mecanica
la
respiratia
spontana
lasa
loc
unei
profunde
remodelari
a
interctiunilor
intre
factorii
intra-‐
si
extrapulmonari
care
determina
presiunile
partiale
ale
gazelor
respiratorii
in
singele
arterial.
11.2
FACTORII
CARE
DETERMINA
PaO2
Spre
deosebire
de
parerile
mai
traditionale,
mecanismele
hipoxemiei
sint
acum
clasificate
in
intrapulmonare
si
extrapulmonare
(Tabel
11.1.).
Folosirea
tehnicii
eliminarii
multiple
a
gazului
inert
(MIGET
=
multiple
inert
gas
elimination
tehnique)
pentru
evaluarea
factorilor
intrapulmonari
ai
schimburilor
gazoase
anormale
reprezinta
o
descoperire
conceptuala
majora
pentru
intelegerea
fiziopatologiei
bolilor
pulmonare.
MIGET
are
trei
avantaje
majore:
a)
estimeaza
pattern-‐ul
fluxului
sangvin
pulmonar
si
al
ventilatiei
alveolare
si
calculeaza
discordanta
dintre
ventilatie
si
perfuzie;
b)
separa
diferenta
alveolo
–
arteriala
a
PO2
in
componentele
:
sunt,
inegalitate
VA/Q
si
limitarea
difuziei
O2
c)
separa
si
imparte
proportional
oxigenarea
arteriala
in
componente
intrapulmonara
si
extrapulmonara
De
o
mare
importanta
este
posibilitatea
de
a
realiza
masuratori
la
orice
nivel
al
fractiei
inspiratorii
de
oxigen
(FiO2)
fara
a
perturba
tonusul
vascular
si
al
peretelui
bronsic,
deoarece
nu
este
necesara
modificarea
FiO2.
Tabel
11.1.
Factorii
care
determina
hipoxemia
arteriala
Intrapulmonari
Extrapulmonari
Tulburari
VA/Q
Majori:
↓
ventilatiei
alveolare
Suntul
↓
debitului
cardiac
Limitarea
difuziunii
O2
↓
PiO2
↑
consumului
de
O2
Secundari:
↓
P50
↓
Hb
↑
pH
VA/Q
=
raportul
ventilatie
–
perfuzie;
Hb
=
concentratia
hemoglobinei;
P50=
PO2
corespunzatoare
unei
SO2
de
50%.
FACTORII
INTRAPULMONARI
581
Tulburarea
raportului
VA/Q
–
cauza
cea
mai
importanta
de
hipoxemie
la
marea
majoritate
a
bolnavilor
in
timpul
sevrarii
de
ventilatia
mecanica
-‐
principalul
mecanism
al
hipoxemiei
la
pacientii
cu
insuficienta
respiratorie
secundara
exacerbarilor
in
bolile
pulmonare
obstructive
(BPOC,
astm
bronsic)
pe
toata
perioada
exacerbarii.
Cresterea
suntului
intrapulmonar
(perfuzia
unitatilor
alveolare
neventilate,
cu
VA/Q
=
0)
–
rol
secundar
si
minor
ca
mecanism
al
hipoxemiei
la
inceputul
exaceerbarilor
BPOC
din
cauza
obstructiei
cailor
aeriene
periferice
provocata
de
retentia
de
mucus
si
dopuri
cu
insuficienta
compensare
prin
ventilatie
colaterala
-‐
niciodata
>
10%
din
debitul
cardiac
-‐
chiar
in
ARDS,
in
care
cresterea
suntului
intrapulmonar
este
mecanismul
major
al
hipoxemiei
arteriale,
acest
mecanism
nu
joaca
un
rol
vital
in
timpul
sevrarii
de
ventilatia
mecanica
-‐
ocazional,
redeschiderea
foramen
ovale
asociata
cu
cresteri
abrupte
ale
hipertensiunii
pulmonare
cronice
poate
provoca
hipoxemie
secundara
suntului
in
timpul
exacerbarilor
acute
ale
bolii,
dar
aceasta
este
rara
in
timpul
sevrarii
Limitarea
difuziunii
O2
–
neglijabila
in
timpul
sevrarii
FACTORII
EXTRAPULMONARI
Ventilatia
alveolara
–considerata
un
factor
extrapulmonar
pentru
ca
ea
este
determinata
de:
-‐
VT
-‐
spatiul
mort
fiziologic
-‐
FR,
modulata
in
parte
de
mecanismele
de
control
al
ventilatiei
-‐
efectele
ventilatiei
alveolare
asupra
gazelor
respiratorii
din
singele
arterial:
*Cind
VA/Q
sint
normale:↑
PaO2
↓
PaCO2
Fara
modificari
semnificative
ale
CaO2,
datorita
curbei
de
disociere
a
hemoglobinei
*Cind
VA/Q
sint
modificate
sever,
cresterea
ventilatiei
alveolare
este
mai
eficienta
in
scaderea
PaCO2
decit
in
cresterea
PaO2
FiO2
-‐
↑FiO2
are
un
mare
impact
asupra
PaO2
si
CaO2
in
tulburarile
distributieiVA/Q
caracterizate
prin
cresterea
perfuziei
in
zone
cu
VA/Q
<
1
(intre
0,01
–
1)
-‐
cind
VA/Q
este
normal,
↑FiO2
e
asociata
cu
↑PaO2,
dar
datorita
curbei
de
disociere
a
oxihemoglobinei,
impactul
asupra
CaO2
este
minim
-‐
cind
hipoxemia
este
produsa
de
o
crestere
a
suntului
intrapulmonar
(VA/Q=0,
ca
in
ARDS),
↑FiO2
nu
este
asociata
cu
o
crestere
semnificativa
a
PaO2
DC
-‐
poate
influenta
oxigenarea
arteriala
prin
3
mecanisme:
1°)
Cel
mai
important
se
datoreaza
relatiei
intre
DC
si
CvO2
corespunzator
principiului
Fick:
VO2
=
DC
x
(CaO2
–
CvO2).
Daca
necesitatile
metabolice
ramin
constante,
o
scadere
a
DC
va
fi
insotita
de
o
crestere
a
extractiei
de
O2
in
periferie
582
pentru
a
mentine
un
VO2
constant;
astfel,
CvO2
si
PvO2
(in
singele
venos
amestecat)
vor
scadea,
iar
PvO2
este
un
important
determinant
al
oxigenarii
arteriale
2°)
In
acele
conditii
(emfizem
pulmonar,
fibroza
pulmonara)
in
care
cresterea
DC
(ex.
in
timpul
efortului
fizic)
nu
este
insotita
de
o
recrutare
eficienta
de
capilare
pulmonare,
timpul
de
tranzit
al
eritrocitelor
prin
capilarul
pulmonar
va
scadea,
facilitind
astfel
intr-‐un
parenchim
pulmonar
afectat
hipoxemia
datorita
limitarii
difuziunii
alveolo-‐capilare
a
O2
.
3°)
Redistributia
intrapulmonara
a
fluxului
de
singe
in
asocierea
dintre
DC
crescut
si
suntul
pulmonar
Modificarile
VO2
pot
modula
PaO2
prin
relatia
Fick
intre
CvO2
si
PvO2.
PaO2
este
mai
putin
sensibil
la
modificarile
VO2
in
tulburarile
care
produc
predominent
cresteri
ale
suntului
intrapulmonar
(ex.
ARDS)
decit
in
cele
care
produc
alterari
ale
VA/Q
cu
cresterea
perfuziei
la
nivelul
unitatilor
alveolare
cu
raport
VA/Q
scazut
(ex.
BPOC).
Efectele
cresterii
ventilatiei
alveolare
asupra
oxigenarii
arteriale
VA/Q
=1
(normal)
VA/Q
<1
(alterat)
↑PaO2
↑↔
↓PaCO2
↓PaCO2
↔CaO2
Efectele
cresterii
FiO2
asupra
oxigenarii
arteriale
VA/Q
=
1
(normal)
0
<
VA/Q
<1
VA/Q
=
0
(sunt,
ex.ARDS)
↑PaO2
↑PaO2
↔↑PaO2
↔CaO2
↑CaO2
↔↑CaO2
11.3
FACTORII
CARE
DETERMINA
PaCO2
Factorii
care
determina
hipercapnie
Intrapulmonari
Extrapulmonari
Alterari
ale
VA/Q
↓ventilatiei
alveolare
Modificarile
echilibrului
acidobazic
↑productiei
de
CO2
(VCO2)
FACTORII
EXTRAPULMONARI
Scaderea
ventilatiei
alveolare
–
trebuie
avute
in
vedere
tulburarile
mecanicii
ventilatorii
care
duc
la
oboseala
muschilor
respiratori:
583
FACTORI
REVERSIBILI
CARE
POT
CONTRIBUI
LA
INSUFICIENTA
VENTILATORIE
SI
CORECTIA
LOR
PENTRU
GRABIREA
RECUPERARII
PACIENTULUI
REDUCEREA
SARCINII
RESPIRATORII
Rezistenta
-‐
Bronhodilatatoare
inhalatorii
-‐
Corticosteroizi
-‐
Indepartarea
secretiilor
in
exces
-‐
Tratamentul
obstructiei
cailor
aeriene
superioare
586
pulmonare
cronice,
presiunea
pleurala
medie
este
frecvent
mai
mica
decit
normal
la
pacientii
care
realizeaza
efort
respirator
in
respiratie
spontana,
in
ciuda
air
traping-‐
ului.
Astfel,
hiperinflatia
dinamica
nu
implica
in
mod
necesar
o
presiune
medie
intratoracica
(intrapleurala)
crescuta
sau
o
scadere
a
intoarcerii
venoase.
Contractia
musculaturii
expiratorii
poate
mentine
pozitiva
presiunea
intrapleurala
chiar
pina
la
sfirsitul
expirului,
producind
presiuni
pozitive
intrapleurala
si
alveolara
fara
hiperinflatie
dinamica
si
fara
consecintele
negative
ale
acesteia.
In
cazul
unei
ventilatii
foarte
crescute,
in
circuitul
respirator
poate
apare
o
rezistenta
expiratorie
substantiala
in
special
la
nivelul
sondei
de
intubatie
si
a
valvei
de
expir
a
ventilatorului
(la
ventilatoarele
fara
valva
de
expir
activa).
Desi
inovatiile
tehnice
recente
au
redus
aceasta
rezistenta
impusa,
circuitele
ventilatorii
sint
inca
imperfecte.
Desi
PEEPi
a
fost
descris
si
in
alte
situatii
clinice
(cum
ar
fi
ARDS)
si
poate
apare
de
cite
ori
minut-‐volumul
este
foarte
mare,
hiperinflatia
dinamica
apare
cel
mai
frecvent
in
timpul
obstructiei
severe.
In
aceasta
situatie,
rezistenta
expiratorie
este
adesea
de
citeva
ori
mai
mare
decit
rezistenta
inspiratorie,
in
special
la
sfirsitul
expirului.
Rezistenta
expiratorie
este
frecvent
atit
de
mare
incit
limitarea
fluxului
expirator
apare
in
timpul
expirului
tidal.
PEEPi
poate
exista
fara
hiperinflatie
dinamica
cind
fluxul
end-‐expirator
este
dirijat
de
musculatura
expiratorie,
si
fara
limitarea
fluxului
in
timpul
expirului
tidal,
in
ciuda
bolii
cailor
aeriene.
Totusi,
cel
mai
frecvent,
PEEPi
este
asociat
atit
cu
hiperinflatia
dinamica,
cit
si
cu
limitarea
fluxului
tidal.
Hiperinflatia
pulmonara
disproportionata
fata
de
PEEPi
masurabil,
apare
de
obicei
la
pacientii
cu
o
atit
de
severa
obstructie
a
fluxului,
incit
caile
aeriene
care
deservesc
zonele
pulmonare
cele
mai
compromise
se
inchid
complet
in
cursul
expirului.
Fara
indoiala,
acest
comportament
de
“valva-‐
ventil”
explica,
cel
putin
partial,
hiperinflatia
care
nu
poate
fi
explicata
prin
nivelele
de
PEEPi
inregistrate
in
timpul
status
astmaticus
si
acutizarilor
BPOC.
Desi
frecvent
este
uniform
repartizata,
inchiderea
cailor
aeriene
este
probabil
prevalenta
in
regiunile
dependente
pulmonare.
Astfel,
desi
clinicianul
masoara
numai
o
valoare
care
reprezinta
media
contributiilor
tuturor
cailor
aeriene
deschise,
nivelele
PEEPi
variaza
foarte
mult
intre
diferite
zone
pulmonare
la
pacientii
cu
boala
obstructiva
“difuza”.
Consecintele
fiziopatologice
ale
PEEPi
si
raspunsul
la
PEEP-‐ul
adaugat
de
clinician
depind
de
tipul
de
obstructie.
Daca
hiperinflatia
pulmonara
produce
cresteri
ale
presiunii
medii
intratoracice
importante
d.p.d.v.
hemodinamic,
depinde
de
activitatea
muschilor
respiratori
ai
pacientului.
CONSECINTELE
PEEPi
SECHELE
CARDIOVASCULARE
Consecintele
hemodinamice
observate
la
pacientii
cu
hiperinflatie
pasiva
sint
cele
are
au
adus
pentru
prima
data
in
atentie
fenomenul
PEEPi.
Intr-‐adevar,
impactul
negativ
al
PEEPi
asupra
debitului
cardiac
este
cel
mai
mare
atunci
cind
efortul
respirator
spontan
este
minim
sau
absent.
Supradistensia
alveolara
creste
postsarcina
ventriculului
drept,
si
cind
distensia
apare
fara
efort
muscular
viguros,
presiunea
pleurala
medie
creste,
opunindu-‐se
intoarcerii
venoase.
PAOP
transmurala,
588
ca
o
masura
a
presiunii
de
umplere
a
ventriculului
sting,
scade
pe
masura
ce
PEEPi
apare
in
conditii
pasive.
Modificarile
conditiilor
umplerii
cardiace
explica
aparitia
frecventa
a
hipotensiunii
cind
pacientii
cu
air
trapping
aflati
in
respiratie
spontana
sint
sedati,
intubati
si
ventilati
mecanic.
Presiunea
medie
intratoracica
creste
pe
masura
ce
ventilatia
spontana
a
pacientilor
inceteaza.
(Hipotensiunea
este
improbabila
cind
respiratia
spontana
continua
dupa
intubatie,
chiar
cind
aceasta
respiratie
este
asistata
de
ventilator.)
Respiratia
spontana
viguroasa
produce
atit
scaderea
presiunii
medii
intratoracice
cit
si
cresterea
presiunii
intraabdominale
in
timpul
expirului,
mentinind
astfel
diferenta
de
presiune
ce
favorizeaza
intoarcerea
venoasa.
Debitul
cardiac
este
mentinut
la
un
nivel
relativ
crescut
datorita
stress-‐ului
si
travaliului
respirator
adaugat.
Mai
mult,
presiunea
intratoracica
redusa
creste
postsarcina
ventriculului
sting
si
accentueaza
tendinta
la
edem
pulmonar,
un
factor
important
la
pacientii
deja
predispusi
la
insuficienta
cardiaca
congestiva.
La
pacientii
cu
obstructie
severa,
respiratia
spontana
necesita
cresterea
debitului
cardiac,
creste
necesarul
de
oxigen
si
predispune
la
edem
pulmonar.
TRAVALIUL
RESPIRATOR
Hiperinflatia
dinamica
creste
necesarul
de
O2
al
muschilor
respiratori
in
timpul
respiratiei
spontane
si
creste
presiunile
de
ventilatie
necesare
in
timpul
respiratiilor
asistate.
La
initierea
unei
respiratii,
pacientul
cu
hiperinflatie
pulmonara
intimpina
o
sarcina
inspiratorie
prag
care
trebuie
contrabalansata
inainte
ca
inspirul
sa
poata
incepe.
In
timpul
ciclurilor
respiratorii
asistate
de
ventilator,
PEEPi
scade
sensibilitatea
de
triggerizare
efectiva,
iar
in
respiratie
spontana
PEEPi
adaauga
o
componenta
“elastica
reziduala”
la
componentele
“tidal
elastica”
si
“frictionala”
ale
travaliului
respirator.
Hiperinflatia
deasemenea
compromite
pompa
ventilatorie
care
trebuie
sa
faca
fata
unei
asemenea
suprasarcini
crescute.
Actionind
dintr-‐o
pozitie
de
hiperinflatie,
fibrele
muschilor
inspiratori
scurtate
au
o
pesarcina
insuficienta
pentru
a
genera
o
tensiune
maxima.
Cutia
toracica
hiperdestinsa
are
un
recul
spre
interior
(opunindu-‐se
expansiunii)
pe
tot
parcursul
inspirului
tidal,
si
nu
spre
exterior
(cum
este
normal)
pentru
a
favoriza
expansiunea
pulmonara.
Coastele
orizontallizate
isi
pierd
actiunea
lor
normala,
compromitind
si
mai
mult
eficienta
contractiei
musculare.
Cu
timpul,
remodelarea
fibrelor
musculare
diafragmatice
ajuta
la
recapatarea
presarcinii
eficiente,
dar
acest
proces
decurge
lent.
Mai
mult,
diafragmul
aplatizat
este
dezavantajat
geometric.
In
fine,
hiperinflatia
ingusteaza
sau
inchide
“zona
de
apozitie”
cu
peretele
toracic,
care
in
mod
normal
ajuta
la
expansiunea
ultimelor
coaste
in
timpul
inspirului.
Din
toate
aceste
motive,
hiperinflatia
dinamica
poate
dezechilibra
relatia
sarcina-‐capacitate.
INFLUENTA
PEEP
ASUPRA
HIPERINFLATIEI
DINAMICE
SI
PEEPi
Cind
PEEP
este
adaugat
deliberat,
hiperinflatia
poate
sa
se
inrautateasca
sau
nu
in
functie
de
mecanismul
generarii
PEEPi.
PEEP-‐ul
adaugat
la
un
pacient
cu
hiperinflatie
dinamica
fara
activitate
a
musculaturii
expiratorii
sau
limitare
de
flux
va
creste
si
mai
mult
volumul
pulmonar
crescind
sarcina
si
compromitind
pompa
respiratorie.
Pentru
unii
pacienti,
totusi,
PEEP
sau
CPAP
ofera
un
contraresort
589
impotriva
caruia
muschii
expiratori
stocheaza
energie
elastica
pentru
a
o
elibera
in
timpul
inspirului
timpuriu
permitind
“divizarea
travaliului”
intre
grupurile
musculare
inspiratorii
si
expiratorii.
Daca
minut
ventilatia
nu
se
modifica,
acest
mecanism
de
divizare
a
travaliului
devine
ineficient
in
prezenta
limitarii
fluxului
tidal
pentru
ca
efortul
expirator
exacerbeaza
obstructia
si
nu
ajuta
decompresiunea.
In
aceasta
situatie,
adaugind
un
PEEP
mai
mic
decit
nivelul
original
al
PEEPi
ingusteaza
diferenta
dintre
presiunea
in
caile
aeriene
la
sfirsitul
expirului
si
presiunea
alveolara,
crescind
putin
presiunea
alveolara,
sau
deloc.
Common
protocol
for
daily
spontaneous
breathing
trials
(SBT)
agreed
upon
by
the
Partnership
for
Excellence
in
Critical
Care
in
Miami:
590
Indicatii nn:
- sd aspratie meconiu
- HTP
- sepsis sau pneumonie
- b mb hialine
- hernie diafragmatica congenitala
VA – EMCO
- dreneaza sg venos prin canula plasata in AD
- retur sange oxigenat in sist arterial – a carotida comuna
- ofera suport circulator mecanic 80-150 ml/kg/min
- tot CO2 produs e metabolizat si eliminat
- dezav: ligaturare la nivelul a carotide dr, risc de embolie aerica, ↑
postsarcina VS
VV-EMCO
- canulare vv jugulare , femurale
- prezerva a carotide
- mentinere flux arterial normal, pulsatil
- perfuzeaza plamanii cu sg oxigenat
Echipament
- pompa roller ocluziva
- unitatea pompei
- monitor de retur venos
- unitate de incalzire
- membrana (membrane mounting board)
- oxigen blender
- rezerva CO2 (CO2 tank)
- monitor flux O2/CO2 (flowmeters)
- masurare temp
- masurare SO2
592
Sangele este drenat din AD intr0un mic rezervor distensibil (venos), previne
presiunea negativa directa de aspirare aplicata direvt in AD. Daca returul
venos ↓ → rezervorul intra in colaps si se opreste pompa. Dupa ce sangele
paraseste rezervorul intra o pompa ce ofera forta de miscare a sangelui prin
membrana oxigenatoare. Gazele traverseaza mb → ↑ PO2 si se inlatura CO2.
Sangele este incalzit la temp corpului si ajunge in AD (VV-ECMO), arcul Ao
(VA-ECMO). Exista o punte inre canula arteriala si venoasa ce asigura
circulatia extracorporeala cand canulele sunt clampate.
Canulare vasculara
1. - v jug int + a carotida comuna in VA-ECMO
- un drenaj venos sendar se plaseaza in bulbul jugular pt a asigura un drenaj
aditional si previne hipertensiunea venoasa cerebrala
2. nn VV ECMO – cateter dublu lumen 14 F in AD pe calea VJI. Portiunea de
retur "arterial" a canulei se pozitioneaza astfel incat sa incurajeje fluxul prin
valva tricuspida si sa minimalizeze recircularea in AD. Poate fi folsit un drenaj
venos suplimetar
3. VA/VV ECMO la copii mari/adulti – similar nn
- canule percutane comerciale
- in functie de marime pacient si regimurile in fluxuri estimate → cai
jugulare/femurala sau ambele femurale
- VA la pacienti mari → a femurala comuna poate fi folosit in locul carotidei
Complicatii
- sangerare
- coagulopatie
- crize convulsive
- hemoragie intracraniana
- deficite neuropsihice
Indicatii
NN
593
IO ≥ 40 pt 4 ore
IO > 25 pt o periodade 12-24 ore
Adult:
- Insuf resp primara reversibila
- soc cardiogen reversibil
- fara contraindic datorate coagulopatie
Excludere:
- G<2000g
- < 34S
- hemoragie intraventriculara
- deficit neurologic sever
- b cardiaca cianogena incompatibila cu supravietuirea
Excludere adult:
- b letala ireversibila
- b sistemice severe (cancer diseminat, imunosupresive)
- lez cerebrala ireversibila
- relative: sangerare
Hipersodemie
- Na N → Diabet insipid central
→ Diabet insipid nefrogen
- Na ↓ → digestiv – diaree – Naurinar <10
→ renal – diureza osmotica – Naurinar >20
- Na ↑ → solutii hipertone
→ hiperaldosteronism primar
→ sd Cushing
Hiposodemie
- Na N → SIADH
→ hipocorticism
→ hipotiroida
- Na ↓ → digestiv – diaree, voma
→ renal - diuretice,
- nefropatii cu pierdere de sare,
- hipoaldosteronism
- Na ↑ → Insuf cardiaca
→ Ciroza hepatica
→ sd nefrotic
SIADH
ECHILIBRUL ACIDO-BAZIC
Acidoze cu AG↑
- apar cand acizii organici se acumuleaza in palsma
- acidoza lactica
- fiecare molec doneaza un H si se titreaza cu 1 anion HCO3
- lactatul = anion nemasurat (nuapare in calculul AG), cresterea sa det
o ↑ aparenta a AG
- lactat > 4 mmoli/l = dg de acidoza lactica
- cetoacizi (diabey, alcool, cetoza de foame)
- acizi din insuf renala – grup heterogen de deseuri acide organice ce se
acumuleaza in statusul uremic
- intoxicatii - in sp alcooli: metanol, isopropanol, etilenglicol
- GAP osmolar este prezent in acest caz
Acidoze cu AG N = hipercloremice
- ↓ HCO3 plasmatic este insotita de ↑ Cl
- supraincarcarea HCl - colestiramina – schimb intraintestinal Cl pt HCO3
- alim parenteala – incarcare cu HCl exogen
- pierdere de HCO3 - acidoza tubulara renala tip 2 (ATR2) – reabsorbtie
inadecvata HCO3 in TCP
- diaree – pierderi intestinale de HCO3
- retentie H - ATR 1 – insuf pompei de H din TCD
- ATR 4 – hipoaldosterolenism – prod amoniu netamponati
Substitutie Cl/HCO3
- incarcare exogena Cl – expandare volemica SF, nutritie parenterala total
- pierdere HCO3 intestin/renal - ATR 2
- retentie H – ATR 1
Clinic:
- resp Kussmaul
- hTA, hipovolemie – prezente des in acidoza severe
- HK - cand e prezenta reflecte efluxul de K din celula in timp ce H intra
595
Compensarea respiratorie
- cauzata de stimulare chimica a centriloor resp
- pt a determina compensarea gradul asteptat:
Trat
- trat cauzei generatoare
- suplimentarea cu HCO3 numai daca pH<7.20 sau HCO3<12 mEq/l (chiar in
aceste ocnd poate sa nu fie util fara corectare cauza)
- cand AlcM se suprapune peste AcM, PaCO2 este mai mic decat ne-am fi
asteptat in cazul unei compensari respiratorii simple, pH este mult mai
aproape de N
ΔAG
AcM + AlcM ~N ~N ~N ΔHCO3<ΔAG
compound ↓↓ ↓↓↓ ↓↓↓ ΔHCO3<ΔAG
AcM
AlcR + AcM ↓↓↓ ↓↓ ~N -
Alcaloza clor-responsiva
- rapid tratabila prin repletie cu sol Cl (SF0.9%) mai ales cand problema
cauzala a fost tratata
1. Diuretice
- diuretice de ansa si tiazidele act elim de Na din segm cel mai distal al
nefronului unde are loc schimb Na/H. In prezenta aldosteronului, stimulat de
diuretic, acest schimb este potentat. Ionul de H pierdut este excretat
preferential cu Cl. Daca rat diuretic este oprit se rezlva si alcaloza cu reechi
Na, K, Cl
2. Varsatura + aspiratul gastric
- sucul gastric este bogat in H, Cl. Pierderea acestuia duce la ↑ HCO3 direct.
In plus prezenta H in dd stimuleaza secretia pancreatica de HCO3 in intestin
3. Alcaloza posthipercapnica
- un exces tranzitor de HCO3 dupa rezolutia AcR compensate. Nivelele de
HCO3 ↑ in hipercapnia prelungita, cand aceasta se rezolva excesul de HCO3
se elimina urinar. Pana cand acest proces devine complet exista un status de
alcaloza metab
Trat
- rar urgenta, doar cand depaseste pH7,55
- repeltie volemica cu SF 0,9% deoarece coexista des cu hipovolemia
- corectare deficit de K existent la maj pac
- daca persista varsaturi → bloc H2 (↓ secretia gastrica)
- alte optiuni
- acetazolamida 250 mg IV/OR 1-4x/zi
- HCl 0.1N in caz de alcaloza severa – se adm doar pe vena centrala
cu rata de max 100mEq/6ore
- amoniu si arginina
- alcaloza severa + IRen → dializa cu sol bogate in clor
Trat
- adm KCl este in general necesara
- trat definitv = trat cauzei
Clinic
- alcaloza este relativ fara sm clinice
- spasme mm, parestezii, slabiciune mm – frecv asociate diselectrolitemiilor
90. Insuficienta renala acuta (prerenala, renala intrinseca, postrenala -‐ obstructiva)
UAG = Na + K + Cl
- negativ → secretie ↑ de NH4Cl – pierderi extrarenale de HCO3
- pozitiv → secretie ↓ de NH4Cl – acidoza renala tubulara
July
23,
2009
—
A
new
laboratory
test
for
urine
neutrophil
gelatinase–associated
lipocalin
(NGAL)
helps
predict
whether
patients
in
intensive
care
will
develop
acute
kidney
injury
(AKI),
according
to
the
results
of
a
study
reported
online
July
23
in
the
Journal
of
the
American
Society
of
Nephrology.
"As
a
stand-‐alone
marker,
urine
NGAL
performed
moderately
well
in
predicting
ongoing
and
subsequent
AKI,"
senior
author
T.
Alp
Ikizler,
MD,
from
Vanderbilt
University
Medical
Center
in
Nashville,
Tennessee,
said
in
a
news
release.
A
second
study
in
the
Journal
of
the
American
Society
of
Nephrology
showed
that
urine
NGAL
may
also
be
a
useful
diagnostic
marker
for
HIV-‐associated
nephropathy
(HIVAN),
which
occurs
primarily
in
black
Americans
and
black
Africans.
598
"NGAL
was
very
specifically
expressed
in
renal
cysts
—
generating
the
new
idea
that
NGAL
may
control
the
development
of
cysts
in
[HIVAN],"
wrote
senior
author
Jonathan
Barasch,
MD,
PhD,
from
Columbia
University
in
New
York
City.
"We
and
Prasad
Devarajan,
MD,
identified
NGAL
in
the
kidney
10
years
ago
and
its
translation
into
a
clinical
entity
in
such
a
short
time
is
quite
a
story.
Almost
every
paper
is
positive
for
the
association
of
NGAL
and
renal
dysfunction/disease."
The
Vanderbilt
study
of
intensive
care
unit
(ICU)
patients
prospectively
evaluated
a
heterogeneous
population
of
451
critically
ill
adults,
of
whom
64
(14%)
developed
AKI
within
24
hours
of
enrollment
and
86
(19%)
developed
AKI
within
48
hours
of
enrollment.
Compared
with
those
who
did
not
develop
AKI
within
48
hours,
those
who
did
had
higher
median
urine
NGAL
at
enrollment
(190
vs
57
ng/mg
creatinine;
P
<
.001).
For
the
relationship
between
urine
NGAL
level
and
development
of
AKI
within
24
hours
and
48
hours,
the
areas
under
the
receiver
operating
characteristic
curves
were
0.71
(95%
confidence
interval
[CI],
0.63
–
0.78)
and
0.64
(95%
CI,
0.57
–
0.71),
respectively.
The
increase
in
urine
NGAL
in
patients
who
later
developed
AKI
occurred
before
any
change
in
serum
creatinine
level,
which
is
typically
used
to
diagnose
AKI.
After
adjustment
for
age,
serum
creatinine
level
closest
to
enrollment,
illness
severity,
sepsis,
and
ICU
location,
urine
NGAL
remained
independently
associated
with
the
development
of
AKI.
However,
adjusted
urine
NGAL
only
marginally
improved
the
predictive
performance
of
the
clinical
model
alone.
Urine
NGAL
was
an
independent
predictor
of
severe
AKI
during
hospitalization,
according
to
the
results
of
a
Cox
proportional
hazards
model
using
time
to
first
dialysis,
adjusted
for
Acute
Physiology
and
Chronic
Health
Evaluation
II
score
(hazard
ratio,
2.60;
95%
CI,
1.55
–
4.35).
Limitations
of
this
study
include
a
lack
of
data
on
incidence
of
death
or
need
for
dialysis,
lack
of
data
regarding
renal
function
at
baseline,
and
prediction
models
based
on
a
single
assessment
of
urine
NGAL.
In
addition,
creatinine
measurements
were
made
based
on
clinical
decision-‐making
and
were
not
protocol-‐driven.
Compared
with
HIV-‐positive
and
HIV-‐negative
patients
who
had
other
forms
of
chronic
kidney
disease,
expression
of
urinary
NGAL
was
much
higher
in
patients
with
biopsy-‐proven
HIVAN.
An
HIV-‐transgenic
mouse
model
of
HIVAN
showed
an
abundance
of
NGAL
mRNA
in
dilated,
microcystic
segments
of
the
nephron,
which
are
characteristic
features
of
HIVAN.
In
contrast,
urinary
NGAL
was
not
associated
with
proteinuria
in
human
or
mouse
models.
"These
data
show
that
marked
upregulation
of
NGAL
accompanies
HIVAN
and
support
further
study
of
[urine
NGAL]
levels
in
large
cohorts
to
aid
in
the
noninvasive
diagnosis
of
HIVAN
and
screen
for
HIVAN-‐related
tubular
damage,"
the
study
authors
write.
Limitations of the human component of the study included small sample size.
"If
our
results
are
confirmed,
measuring
urine
NGAL
might
help
triage
patients
into
different
risk
categories,"
Dr.
Barasch
concludes.
The
Vanderbilt
ICU
study
was
supported
by
the
National
Heart,
Lung
and
Blood
Institute
from
the
National
Institute
of
Diabetes,
Digestive
and
Kidney
Diseases,
and
a
Clinical
Translational
Science
Award
from
the
National
Center
for
Research
Resources.
One
of
the
study
authors
was
partially
supported
by
the
National
Kidney
Foundation
Research
Fellowship
Award
and
the
Vanderbilt
Mentored
Clinical
Research
Scholar
Program.
The
HIV
study
was
supported
by
grants
from
the
Emerald
Foundation,
the
March
of
Dimes,
and
the
National
Institute
of
Diabetes,
Digestive
and
Kidney
Diseases.
Columbia
University
and
Cincinnati
Children's
Hospital
Medical
Center
received
licensing
fees
from
Biosite
and
Abbott
Diagnostics.
The
collection
of
patient
specimens
was
supported
by
the
National
Institutes
of
Health
and
by
the
Clinical
Research
Center
of
the
Mount
Sinai
School
of
Medicine.
The
study
authors
have
disclosed
no
relevant
financial
relationships.
91. Insuficienta renala cronica (probleme de anestezie si terapie intensiva)
Indicatii absolute
- situatii amenintatoare de viata legate de diselectrolitemii (HK, acidoza)
- supraincarcarea cu lichide si aparitia oliguriei/anuriei (ICC + hipoxie)
- supradoze potential letale (Li, teofilina, acetaminofen)
- complicatii severe dat uremiei (efuziune pericardica, modif status mental)
Indicatii relative:
- supraincarcarea cu fluide
- uremia cu BUN > 100mg/dl
- disfct palchetara clinica datorata uremiei
- hipo/hipercalcmeia, hiper MG, hiperuricemia
Dif HF – HD:
HF= pierderea de plasma prin proces de convectie de-a lungul unei mb f
permeabile. Substitutia renal, definita ca clearence de solutii si corectia
electrolitilor, apare in HF prin pierderea de lichid si inlocuirea plasmei cu o
solutiie cu conc corecta de electroliti.
HD = foloseste fluxul contracurent pt a ajusta conc electrolitilor din plasma
prin trecerea plasmei in contracurent cu o solutie de dializat ce contine
eletrolit variati.
Scop - clearance
- compensarea acidozei
- eliminare fluide - daca tolereaza statusul hemodinamic al pac
CVVH = plasma filtrata → waste, soltia deinlocuire aleasa de medic
CVVHD = dializat (solutii tampon: lactat, bicarbonat, acetat) cu flux const →
clearance aditional
Anticoagulare in dializa
- sg in contact cu o supraf nonbiol → activeaza cascada coagularii
- se poate face fara anticoag dar apar cheaguri mai ales la lumenul de acces
al cateterului, hemofiltru, rampa venoasa a circuitului
- anticoag previne formarea cheagurilor in cicuit s filtru si maximizeaza
capacitatea de clearence a mb
- anticoag nu se adm sistemic, ci in prefiltru, desi maj ramane in filtru poate
trece si in circ venos si ajunge la pacient
- UHT bolus/pev cont in refiltru 5-10u/kg/ora (ACT>50%N)
- UHT prefiltru + protamina postfiltru (1 mg protamina = 100 u heparina) –
cand este necesara o anticoag mai agresiva
- LMWH
- citrat trisodic - la pac la care se contraindica heparinarea (trombocitopenia in
dusa de heaprina) - postfiltru PEV cu Ca pt a reversa efectele si minimaliza
hCa
- prostaciclina (hTA sistemica)
- spalare frecv a liniilor de circuit
- Metronidazol
- Amikacin
- Mioglobina
- Hemoglobina
- clearence medic pe timpul CRT este dificil de prezis datorita interactiunilor
aditionale cu clearance hepatic, perfuzi ehepatica, legare de proteine
- rec: doza initiala se calculeaza plecand de la premiza ca pac are un
clearance la creatinina de 14 ml/min (care se obtine prin CVVH cu o rata de
filtrare de 20l/zi) apoi se verifica nivelul plasmatic pt a ghida dozajul
Rol IHD
- dezav: determina perioade de hTA, supraincarcare volemica intermitenta,
clearance solviti rpaid si se depaseste trasnp acestora din ICF→ECF (edem
cerebral), complicatii mai multe
- avantaje: removal pt solviti mici si fluide mai ↑ decat CRRT
Ultrafiltrarea (PUF)
- indicata cand se doreste inlaturarea diin circulatie a lichidelor, nu exista lfux
de dializat prin dializor, lich fiind indep prin aplicarea unei p neg trasnmb
(convectie). Se pot extrage 4-6l in 3-4 ore la pac stabil hemodinamic,
- indic: ICC rezistenta la diuretic, sd nefrotic ci PU severa si anasarca, pac cu
truma/postchir cu repletie volemica agresiva si care nu rasp la diuretic
Hemoperfuzia
- indic intox acuta, insuf hepatica
- expunere sg la un filtru ce contine particule de carbune activat care
absoarbe o gama larga de particule
Nutritia
- se prefera nutritia enterala – o cant mai mica de fluide comp cu nutritia
parenterala, inlatura risc bacteriemie, metine integritate muc intestinala,
disponibile formule cu cant ↓ de electroliti
- nutrtia parenterala – adm de aa esentiali
- se recom la pac dializat proteine 1.2 g/kc/zi si necesar energetic 25-35
kcal/kg/zi cu cresterea valorii daca pac prezinta sepsis/MSOF
- hemodinamica intraoperatorie
- complicatii tehnice
- reject
- imunosupresia
- reactii adverse medicamentoase
- recurenta bolii
Infectiile la transplantati
- cele amenintatoare de viata – sunt mai probabile in primele 6 luni de la
operatie
- in aceasta periaoda este prezenta o imunosupresie maximala
- expunere lal germeni nosocomiali + graft-versus-host-disease (GVHD)
- bacterii (G+/G-), fungi (Candida + Aspergilus), virusuri (CMV de la grefa sau
produsi de sg), protozoare, paraziti, mycobacterii
Strategii profilactice
- Biseptol – doze ↓, timp ↑ - eficient pe Pneumocistis carinii
- Ganciclovir, aciclovir – in perioadele de imunosupresie ↑ - EBV si CMV
605
Masuri preventive
- minimalizarea imunosupresiei
- evita IOT prelungit
- evita cateterizarea
- corecteaza malnutritia
Imunosupresia
- combinatii → ↑ imunosupresia + ↓ ef adverse
1. Ciclosporiina + Tacrolimus (FK506) – inh de calciuneurina
- cel target specifica = limfocit T (cel imuna principal responsabila de reject) →
protocoale curente de imunosupresie
- T poate fi inceput perioperator si mentinut pe termen lung oral
- ambele sunt nefrotoxice
- alte efecte adverse: hipertensiune, hiperK, hiperglicmeie, neurotoxiciitate,
hiperuricemie
2. Agenti antilimfocitari (OKT3, ATG) – act pe cel T, dar se adm doar IV
- uzual se adreseaza trat rejectului acut rezistent la steroizi
- pot fi folosite la pac cu IRA postop pt intreruperea Ciclofosfamidei
- trat repetat periculos
3. Agenti antimetabolici – Nicofenolat, Azathioprina
- inhiba sinteza ADN/ARN si asfel blocheaza proliferarea limfocitara
- doza trebuie redusa in caz de leucopenie, trombocitopenie, anemie
4. Corticosteroizi
- imunosupresie nespecifica
- doze ↑ IV de metilprednisolon sunt initiate in ziua transplantului si reduse in
zilele 4-5 la doze de mentinere, apoi prednison OR
Steroizii de stres – din momentul in care primesc corticoterapie, pacientii
trebuie sa primeasca doze suplimentare in cazul interventiilor chirurgicale
majore HHC 100 mg/8ore in ziua op si urmatoarele 3 zile. In acestaperioada
mentinerea imnosupresiei se face cu prednison OR sau metilprednisolon IV .
TI transplant renal
Evolutia tardiva
- o crestere a nivelului Creatininei → nivel de imunosupresor nefrotoxic (↓
dozelor pt a ↓ nefrotoxicitatea) sau ↑ doze de imunosupresor pt a prevenii
rejectul
- trat empiric: - ↑ nivel seric creatinina in S1 posttransplant cu nivel seric N de
ciclosporina → tratat ca reject acut
- ↑ nivel seric creatinina + sm de toxicitate (HTA, HK, tremor) +
nivele seric de ciclosporina ↑ → ↓ doze
Preoperator
- maj afectiunilor ce au indic de transplant renal sunt factori de risc pt BCI
- pac depind de dializa – trebuie dializati inaintea op (minimalizare efecte HK
intraoperatorie)
- graft cadavru – pot fi tranplantati in cond de siguranta la 24 ore timp de
ichemie rece
Protocoale intraop
- in general anest gen cu inductie rapida (pac diabetici cu gastropareza)
- CVC , sonda urinara
- incizie – abd inf de – faciliteaza palsarea in fosa iliaca dr
- mentinere flux sanguin renal → TAS > 90 mmHg, TAM > 60 mmHg, PVC >
10 mmHg – de obicei fara vasopresoare , doar fluide izotone si ajustare doze
anestezice
- curara de obicei cisatracurium
- dupa prima anastomoza se initializeaza diureza (Manitol +Furosemid )
- la diabetici insulina pt a mentine glicemia ~ 80-110 mg/dl
- PCA pt analgezie postop, NSAID contraindicati
94.
Diabetul
zaharat
(forme
clinice,
comele
cetozice
si
noncetozice,
hipoglicemia)
Trat perioperator in DZ
607
Clasificare DZ
- tip 1 – nec insulina - imunologic
- idiopatic
- tip 2 – rezistent/secretie deficitara insulina
- alte tipuri: pancreatita, def genetic de cel β, endocrinopatii, indus medic
- gestational
Tratament DZ tip 1:
- conventional – inj mix scurt + intermediar insulina 1-3 /zi
- intensiv – 1-2 intermediar/lung + scurt pt mese
- pompa
Tratament DZ tip 2:
- inhibitori α glucuronidaza (acarboza)
- biguanide (metformin)
- sulfonilureea
- glitazone (rosiglitason)
- glinide (repaglinide)
Δt ½ insulina IV = 5 min
Influenta anesteziei:
- toate anestezicele influenteaza metab + nivelul glicemiei
- anestezia regionalan – risc ↑ de infectii datorita deficientei imune
- anest gen inhal inhiba secretia pancrasului de insulina → hiperglicemie in
DZ tip 2
- opioide – efect minim
regular insulin
u/h = glicemie/150
CRIZA HIPERGLICEMICA
Factori precipitanti:
- infectii (30-60% din cazuri)
- DZ nou descoperit
- lipsa complianta /trat inadecvat
- AVC, IMA
- pancreatita
- abuz alcool
- medicamente (steroizi, tiazide, simpatomiimetice)
- acces indecvat la lichide
Clinic:
- poliurie
609
- polidipsie
- pierdere ingreutate
- slabiciune
- greata, varsaturi
- durere abdominala
- letargie, confuzie, coma
- pliu cutanat persistent
- resp Kussmaul
Laborator
- ↑ anion GAP (DKA)
- ↑ osmolaritate
- ↑ Lc
- ↑ amilaze in absenta pancreatitei
- Na, K variabile (↓ cu 1 mEq/l pt fiecare 40-60 mg/dl crestere a glucozei)
Tratament
Laborator monitorizare
- glicemie fiecare 1-2 ore
- electroliti, fosfat, pH la 2-6 ore
Complicatii
- hipoglicemie – supradozaj insulina
- hiperglicemie rebound (intrerupere precoce insulina)
- hK sau hfosfatemie severa
- acidoza hipercloremica (fara anion GAP) urmate resuscitarii cu fluide
- EPA non cardiogen – hipervolemie
- edem cerebral – comn la prima prezentare DKA/HHS; in special daca
volumul si deficictul de Na sunt corectate prea repede (>3 mOsm/kg/h)
HIPOGLICEMIA
Mangement initial:
- monit TA la 5 min la pac instabili, la 1 h l a pac stabil
- monit AV
- sonda urinara
- HLG la 4-6 ore
1. 2 aborduri venoase largi
2. resuscitare volemica adecvata cu sol cristiloide – TAS >100, AV<100
3. transf MER → Ht >30%
4. transf PPC/MTr → PT <15 sec, Tr > 60.000
5. PVC <10 cmH2O la pac susp de varice esofagiene
6. cateter Swan-Ganz cu monit PCWP la pac instabil cardiac, ICC
7. se va intarzia endoscopia pana cand pac devine stabil hemodinamic
8. se adm vasopresina + NTG in caz de susp varice esof
611
9. consult chirurgical
10. pac > 60 ani se va monit ECG si nivel enzime (Ck → ischemie
mioc)
Localizarea hemoragiei
- HD superioara – hematemeza, zat de cafea, lavaj n-g cu sg proaspat/zat
cafea
- aspirat n-g clar – nu exclude HDS
- bila pe SNG → HDS improbabila sau sangerare intermitenta
Endoscopia
→ 90% din cazuri sunt diag cu endoscopie
→ esec: hemoragie masiva/cheag ce obstr vizibilitatea
→ pacientul trebuie sa fie
- stabil hemodinamic TAS >100, AV<100
- alterarea statusului mental, hematemeza continua, insuf resp → CI pt
EDS
- corectate coagulopatia, trombocitopenia
→ hemoragie activa → EDS de urgenta dupa reechil
→ hemoragie masiva cu soc → EDS in sala op
→ hemoragie limitata → EDS in primele 12 ore
Cauze HDS
- ulcer peptic
- varice gastro- esofagiene
- angiom
- sd Mallory-Weiss
- tumori
- eroziuni
- esofagite
- altele
Tratament medicamentos
- nu exista trat medic care sa ↓ tansf, ↓ rata resg, ↓ interv chir, ↑ suprav la pac
cu ulcer peptic hemoragic
AntiH2
Tratament endoscopic
- in fct de aspectul EDS se stabileste rata de resg:
- rata de resg ↑ - sg activa arterial
- vas vizibil nesangerand
- cheag aderent nesangerand
→ beneficiaza de hemostaza endoscopica
- rata de resg medie - sg fara vas vizibil
→ trat controversat
- rata de resg ↓ - ulcer cu baza curata
→ trat medic + dieta
- hemostaza endoscopica - coagularea sau trombozarea vasului sg → se
realizeaza prin proceduri termale sau inject de subst (epinefrina, alcool,
polidocanol)
- ulcerele sangerande de stres nu raspund la fel de bine la trat endiscopic
precum cele din mediu extraspitalicesc → prognostic prost este legat de
MSOF si intarzierea vindecarilor plagilor, in gen aceste leziuni sunt
613
Tratament chirurgical
- 4 indicatii majore
- ulcer ce nu poate fi trat medicamentos
- resangerare ce apare dupa > 2 sedinte de hemostaza endospica
- sangerare ce e apreciata de endoscopist ca fiind greu de abordat
- ulcer malign sangerand
Varice hemoragice
→ Varice esofagiene hemoragice = sm de HTP
- mortalitate acuta la fiecare episod de sg = 30%
- suprav la 1 an = 40%
- suprav la cei ce nu beneficiaza de transplant este mai ↑ in Child A si B decat
in Child C
→ Varice gastrice hemoragice
- nu raspund la majoritatea trat nonchir
- exc: varice gastrice fara varice esof care ridica susp de tromboza de v
splenica ce apare in: pancreatita acuta, cancer pancreas, trauma abd, status
hipercoagulant
- dg: eco doppler + angiografie
- trat: splenectomie → se opreste hemoragia
Trat medical
→ Vasopresina
- ↓ presiunea portala prin vasoconstrictia patului arteriolar splahnic,
- ↓ rata de resg,
- nu ↑ supravietuirea
- se insoteste de VC generalizata
- complicatii
- minore: dureri abd, greata, voma, HTA
- majore: aritmii cardiace, IC, EPA, IMA, AVC, ischemie mezenterica
- 20 u bolus apoi 0,4-0,6 u/min pt 24 ore si ↓ treptata in alte 24 ore
- se asoc cu nitrati la pac coronarieni/ b aterosclerotica
→ Somatostatina=Octreotid
- vasoconstrictor selectiv splahnic fara complic cardiaca
- octrotid → analog cu act lunga al somatostatinei
- pare medic de ales ca adjuvant al trat endoscopic
- somatostatin 250 µg bolus apoi 250 µg/h PEV cont 5 zile
- octreotid 50 µg bolus apoi 25-50 µg/h PEV cont 5 zile
→ β blocanti - nu se recomanda in episoadele acute de sangerare
Esofagite
- trat de electie medicamentos: anti H2 + omeprazol
- trat chir: ulcer esofagian sg
Sd Mallory- Weiss
- dilacerati ale muc + submuc la jonctiunea gastro-esof legate de efortul de
voma
- de obicei sg se opreste, daca nu → trat endoscopic
Ulcer Dieulafoy
- a mare, aberanta, submicoasa ce se rupe la niv TDS
- de obicei situat la 6 cm de jonct gastro-esof si este caract prin HDS recurent
- EDS: nu exista sursa de sangerare/sangerare activa/vas vizibil
- terapie EDS – succes ↑ daca este izolata leziunea
- daca apre resangerare – rezectie chir
Angiodisplazia
- vase ectatice, submucoase (pete rosi)
- etiologie – b Rendu Osler, IRC, stenoza Ao
- pac prezinta frecv anemie dat sg oculte
- hemoragie acuta → EDS
Tumori g-i
- hemostaza EDS pt oprire sg si apoi rezectie chir
Fistule Ao-entrice
- la pac ce au suferit chir reconstructiva de Ao abd
- de obicei graftul se situeaza la nivelul DII
- in patogenia fistulei → rol imp → inf graftului
- manif initial un epis hemoragic limitat urmat de exsanghinare
- dg: CT, angiografie
- interv. chir de urgenta cu bypass-area fistulei
616
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96.
Terapia
intensiva
in
ocluzia
intestinala
1. motilitatea intestinala
2. obstructia lumen intestinal
3. viabilitate intestin
4. afectare secretie si absorbtie intestinala
5. afectare sist mesageri → rec → efectori
1. Acumulari de gaze rezultate din aer inghitit, difuziune sg, fermentatii, metab
bact
2. Acumulari de lichide – secr gladulara, transudare plasmatica, ↓ abs
intestinale
3. Crsterea pres intraluminala de la 2-4 cm H2O la 20-40 cmH2O
Efecte locale:
- distensie intestinala
- pierderi – hidroelectrolitice, plasma, sg
- proliferarea bacteriana
- perforatii intestinale → peritonita
Efecte generale
- hipovolemie
- deshidratare celulara
- bacteriemie
- soc septic
- hipoventilatie – ascensionare diafragm
5. Tulb de permeabilitate
6. Lez ischemice intestinale prin hipoxie → metab anaerob + depletie depozite
ATP → lez de tip inflamator, atonie intestinala
- se opresc ssit enzimatice + pompe ionice + sinteza proteine → acumare de
metaboliti intermediari → acidoza metabolica + hipoosmolaritate celulara
7. Lez inflamatorii la distanta prin sinteza de mediatori ai inflamatiei
- complement C3a, C5a
- enzime lizozomale
- eicosanoizi
618
- PAF
- histamina, serotonina, kinina
- βendorfine
- catecolamine, angiotensina
- vasopresina
- FXII
8. Proliferarea bacterii in cavitatea peritoneala → circulatie generala → soc
septic
- E Colli
- Clostridium
- Streptococi nehemolitici
- Proteus
9. Pierderi hidroelectrolitice – varsaturi, sechestrari sp III, trasnudat (7-
8l/24ore) → deshidratare - Hipertona cu deshidratare celulara
- hipotona cu hiperhidratare celulara
→ hTA
- plasmoragii in lumen + cav peritoneala
- pierderi sg/24 ore = 30-40% din volemie
Tratament
1. Reanimare preoperatorie
A. Reducere distensie - aspiratie sonda gastrica/duodenala/jejunala
- inlatura distensia abd
- ↓ intensitatea tulb circulatorii
- apreciaza pierderile
619
-↓ tulb respiratorii
- ↓ pericol de aspiratie si varsaturi
- ↑ confort operator
E. Durata reanimarii
- 2-4 ore = compensare 50-60% din pierderi in deshidratarea moderata (>3%)
cu Dz = 30-40 ml/h, fara soc
- 3-6 ore = deshidratare severa cu oligurie si debut soc
2. Intraoperator
- rehidratare
- compensare pierderi sanguine
- reevaluare pierderi digestive
3. Reanimare postop
- mentinerea aspiratiei digestive pana la reluare tranzit
- nutritie (parenterala totala ?), aport caloric ↑, echilibrare precoce
- compensare pierderi digetive (fct ionograma)
- cantitativ → pierderi mari > 6% 4 g NaCl/l 48 mEq/l
1 g KCl/l 13 mEq/l
→ pierderi mici 3 g NaCl/l 36 mEq/l
2 g KCl/l 26 mEq/l
- modif ionograma urinara sunt sugestive:
620
Etiologie
- lez penetrante torace inf sau abdomen – intest subtire cel mai frecv lezat
- lez nepenetrante abd
- ingestie NSAID – la pac cu b diverticulara risc ↑ de perforatie colon
- ulcer peptic, apend acuta, diverticulita acuta, diverticul mekel inflamat
- EDS/ERCP/colonoscopie
- migrare/dislocare stenturi cai biliare
- punctie intestinala ca complicatie a laparoscopiei
- inf bacteriene – fb tifoida
- IBD, b crohn
- ischemie intestinala
- radioterapie
- tumori
- vasculita necrotica – granulomatoza Wegener
- ingestie subst caustice
- corpi straini
Fiziopatologie
- vezi peritonite
Clinic
- istoric trauma, ingestie medic, endoscopie...
- durere abdominala epigastrica, severa, ascutita → ulcer peptic perforat,
durere abd inf → apendicita, diverticulita
- voma – durerea o precede cu 3-4 ore in apendicita, invers gastroenterite
- sughit
- exam , palpare, percutie, ausc abd
- tahicardie, febra, hTA
- TR, TV
DD:
- boala ulceroasa
- gastrite
- pancreatita acuta
- colecistite, colica biliara
- endometrioze
- gastroenterite acute
621
- b inflam pelvina
- torsiune ovar
- fb tifoida
- colite
- b Crohn, IBD
- constipatie
CI inter chir:
- cintraindicatii anestezie si chirurgie majora – IC severa, Iresp, MSOF
- refuz pacient
- confirmare cu subst de contrast a inchiderii perforatiei
- nu exista sm de peritonita generalizata
Paraclinic:
- leucocitoza – abs la pac varstnici
- Ht ↑ prin hemoconcentrare
- teste functie hepatica si renala
- laparoscopie
Tratament
Risc ↑ mortalitate:
- varsta ↑
- prezenta unei b suplim
- malnutritia
- cauza primara a perforatiei
- aparitia complicatiilor
PERITONEU
Caracteristici anatomice si functionale
- peritoneu: mb celulara de tip mezotelial de cca 2 m2 supraf la niv careia
prezinta numeroase vilozitati
- parietal
- visceral
- acum lich patologice se face in z declive: fund de sac Douglas, jgheaburile
parieto-colice, spatii inalte subhepatice + subdiafragmatice
- in anum ocnd patol – saci herniari
Secretie peritoneu
- N peritoneu = 75-100 ml cu dens cel = 2000- 2500 elem/mm3 (in sp Mf)
623
Absorbtie peritoneu
- mb perritoneu e permeabila pt apa, electroliti, uree, toxine exog + endog,
microorg
- schimbul de ioni si molecule → cav peritoneala este folosita pt ralizare
dializa peritoneala
- peritoneu abs si gaze patrunse prin laparatomie, pneumoperitoneu – mai
repede O2, CO2, mai lent aer
Durerea peritoneala
Sensib tactila + dureroasa a peretelui parietal ant e f mare, in patura
submezoteliala exista term nervoase libere + incapsulate (Maissner, Paconi)
stimulii senzitivi fiind preluati de ultimii 6 nervi intercostali → infiltrarea
anestezica a sp subseros este oblig pt inter chir executate cu anest locala
Peritoneul parietal post + pelvian + diafragmatic au sensib mai ↑
Capacitatea peritoneului parietal ant de a rasp prin durere vie la inflaamtie
permite aprecierea sediului proc inflam. prin proiectia parietala coresp. Inflam
in centrul diafrg → durere in umar + reg subclaviculara
Iritatia perioteneala → contractura musc abd supraiacenta
Peritoneul visceral mai putin sensibil, rasp mai ales la stimuli de distensie +
tractiune.
Peritonite acute
→ aseptice – lich inflam fara germeni sau cu germeni f putini
→ microbiene – inflam se dat contmanarii masive microbiene
Cauze
→ externe: - trauma abd cu plagi penetrante, contuzii cu rupturi se org
cavitare, plagi perforante
- iatrogenice – manevre medicale, interventii chirurgicale cu
introd germeni din afara (mat nesteril) sau deschidere organ septic
→ interne – efractarea unui viscer infectat de ob cavitar: gangrena apendic,
ulcer g-d perforat, in f genitale femei, obstr cai biliare, TM perforate, diverticul
mekel perforat, necroze int, b Crohn, perf intestin/gg abcedati
Peritonita amicrobiana det iflam prin calitate lichid revarsat – aciditate suc
gastric, irit dat saruri biliare, act autodigestiva a enz pancreatice → se
infecteaza in cateva ore
Aerobi - E Colli
- Enterobacter
625
- Streptococ
- Klebsiella
- Pseudomonas
- Staf auriu
- Proteus
Ciuperci
Anaerobi - Bacterroides
- Streptococ anaerob
- Stafilococ anaerob
- Clostridii
Fiziopatologie
- paralizia mm netede → dilatare TD, ↓ peristaltica, acumulare lich plasmatic
- inflam peritoneu parietal diafragm cu alterare fiziol resp
- hipovolemie, deshidratare (pierderi intraabd si varsaturi) → oligurie → IRen
cu ↑ azotemiei
- exo so endotoxine absorbite de la niv peritoneu → afectare miocardica,
vasomotricitate, accent hipovolemia
Clinic
- debut brutal/ etapa finala a unei boli deorgan care s-a agravat progresiv
- durere brusca f violenta/ progresiva inital periomb si epigastric, apoi difuza in
tot abdomenul
- varsaturi – initial reflexe (continut gastric apos sau alimentar), apoi paralitice
(continut intestinal ce stagneaza in anse dilatate)
- febra
- ex fizic – palpare abd – durere provocata, aparare musculara, contractura
mm adiacenta
Sm blumberg = durere la decompresia brusca a abd = inflam perit localoz prin
proc inflamator
- percutie abd – dispare matitate hepatica , tartiv – timpanism dat de anse
dialtate
- ausc: abd paralitic, fara zg hidroaerice
- TR/TV
- tahicaride, muc uscate, hTA, anemie
Paraclinic:
Rx abd in ortostatism, decubit dorsal. decubit lat sup
- pneumoperitoneu
- nivele hidroaerice segmentare/ difuze
- lichid intraperit
Lab:
- leucocitoza (18000-20000)
- hemoconc
626
- uree↑
- amilaze serice si urinare ↑ → pancreatita
- modif electrolitice
- init alcaloza hipocloremica, ulterior acidoza mixta severa
- ECG – pt excludere IMA
Forme clinice
Peritonite hipertonica
- eval rapida
- sm generale de soc septic + hipovolemie
- intensitate redusa a sm abdominale
- febra lipseste
- nu are contractura abd, durere ↓
- leucocite ~ N
- insuf resp
F frusta
- un episod dureros abd, event tratat medical
- dg pus retrospectiv
Peritonita postop
- contaminare intraop - diseminarea unei colectii purulente preexistente
- raspindirea continut septic a unui org cavitar
- mai frecv postop - dehiscenta unei suturi sau anast viscer cavitar
- perforarea altui organ in afara celui operat
Evolutie – fara rezolvare cauza – continua, progresiva spre deces in 3-5 zile
de la debut prin soc septic
Tratament
Reanimare
1. Punere in repaus tub digestiv
- SNG - ↓ distensia gastrica, ajuta la mentinerea imobilit peristaltice intestin cu
evitare rasp gastric, stabilire bilant pierderi
- SNG supriimat la reluarea fct motorii + absortive a TD
2. Compensare hidrica, energetica –alim parenterala
3. Prevenire si combatere IResp acuta
- nursing – poz semisezanda, oxigenoterapie, tuse controlate, tapotaj toracic,
rotire poz lat pac pt evitare focare atelectazie
4. ATB-terapie
- init spectru larg, apoi fct culturi
- minim 1 S
5. Suport hemodinamic, fct renala
6. Modulare rasp inflamator
7. Trat chirurgical
Scop - suprimare sursa de contaminare – inchidere directa perforatie, drenaj
ext perforatie, rezectii
- curatare cav peritoneala –spalare cu ser, evacuare debozite
fibrionoase, exudat, rest cont intest + drenaje cav peritoneala (drenaj declv,
drenaj de vacinatate)/ abdomen deschis
- trat b de fond ce a det peritonita
Etiopatogenie
- aceiasi cu perit difuze
- cauze paticulare: abcese reziduale, postop, perit localizate prin transf
septica a unor colectii sg sau de alt anatura (pseudochist pancr infectat)
- limitarea proc inflamator e consecinta unei inoculari cantitativ ↓ ce da timp
mijl de aparare locala sa blocheze progresia septica
- localizari predilecte
- abcese pelvine – in micul bazin - prin org de proximitate perforat sau
colectare decliva in fund de sac douglas
- abcese fosa iliaca – frecv perf apendic
- abcese subfrenice – forg de vecinatate
628
1. Abces pelvin
- dureri pelvine precoce
- simpt de iritare a organelor vecine
- tenesme rectale (scaune false cu diaree apoasa + mult
mucus/connstipatie rebela la trat)
- tulb vezicale cu disurie, polakiurie
- TR: bombare sp Douglas initial consistenta apoi fluctuenta → pct douglas →
dg + evac colectie
2. Abcese subfrenice
- durere in umar, fosa supraclaviculara prin iritatie n frenic
- tuse iritative, seaca, dispnee
- in caz abcese de vecinatate g, dd → staza g cu greata, varsaturi,anorexie
- Rx: lichid pleural, ridicare cupola diafr, imag hidroaerice cu nivel,
- Rx bariu – deplasare/ compresie g, dd
- diag dif al abcesului intrahep cu abces interhepatic – scintigrama hepatica ce
arata depalsarea fc catre colectii
- punctie – cand aspectul Rx nu permite localizare clinica
3. Peritonite submezocolice
- colectii ce au contact cu peritoneul parietal det dur locale, aparare,
contractura gen
- apare edem cutanat si subcut, hiperemie teg, temp locala ↑
- tulb de tranzit
Paraclinic
- leucocitoza
- anemie
- hiprotenemie
- IRA cu ↑ moderata uree, creatinina
- hemoculturi
Evolutie
- Fistulizare interna – vindecare spontana prin deschidere colectie intr-unul din
segm TD (abces apendic → cec)
- fistulizare externa
Complicatii
- casexie
- ruptura abces in cavitate peritoneala → peritonita gen grava
- soc septic
Tratement
- stabilire moment chirurgical – se poate astepta pt maturare colectie si mai
buna organizare a aderentelor
629
Etiopatogenie
- incidenta mare - copii - nefrotici
- adulti – ciroza postnecrotica
- cai - genital ascendenta (vagin→uter→ trompe)
- hematogen
- limfatica transdiafr (dincav pleurala)
- trasnmurala
- urinara
- germeni - Staf auriu
- Enterococ
- Aerobacter
- E colli
Clinic
- debut frecv acut cu durere, fb, frison
- diaree de iritatie
- abd destins, dureros la palpare, fara zg hidroaerice
Paraclinic
- leucocitoza
- decomp hepatica
Trat
- principal medical ATB + masuri genra;e
- laparatomie – se recom apendicectomie + toaleta amanuntita peritoneu
Regiunea
Cauze
de
peritonite
secundare
Esofag
perforatie
tumora
trauma
(frecv
penetranta)
iatrogenic
Stomac
perforatie
ulcer
peptic
630
PERITONITA BACTERIANA SPONTANA
( PSB)
CLINICA PSB FACTORI DE AGRAVARE PSB
Ascita
100%
Bilirubina
>
8
mg/dl
Febra
50-‐80%
Creatinina
>
2.1
mg/dl
Dureri
abdominale
60%
Albumine
<
2.5
g/dl
Aparitia/inrautatirea
encefalopatiei
60%
Encefalopatie
hepatica
Absenta
manifestarilor
abdominale
50%
Sd.
hepato-‐renal
Sensibilitate
la
palpare
50%
HDS
Absenta
semnelor
clinice
10-‐33%
Hipotensiune
5-‐15%
Tipuri:
- pancreatita acuta usoara apare in 80% din cazuri si de obicei se rezolva cu
tratament suportiv in 3-5 z
- pancreatita acuta severa (PAS) = pancreatita acuta asociata cu disfunctie de
organ sau complicatii locale sau regionale
Anatomie si fiziologie
Obstructive
Coledococolilitiaze: macrolitiaze (calculi biliari) sau microlitiaze ('sludge' biliar)
Neoplasm: cap pancreas, peri-ampular, metastaze (renale, gastrice, san,
ovarian, plaman)
Alcoolism cronic (secretii pancreatice groase, proteinacee)
Fibroza cistica
Anomalii congenitale: pancreas divisum, choledochocoele
Parenchim local si regional
Trauma – leziuni abdominale penetrante sau nepenetrante
Operative (laparotomie)
Dupa ERCP, ES sau manometrie
Ischemia (emboli colesterol, vasculite)
B autoimuna (colangita sclerozanta)
Deficienta de α1-antitripsina
Global
Hypoxemie/ischemie: SIRS, chirurgie cardiaca
Toxine: alcool, medicamete (estrogeni, steroizi, furosemid, sulpfonamide,
azatioprina)
Hipotermia (varstnici)
Hiperalimentatia (nutritia parenterala)
Hipercalcemia / Hiperparatiroidism
Virusi (HIV, CMV, oreion, coxsackie B, hepatice)
Hiperlipoproteinemia (tip I si V)
Muscatura scorpion (Tityus trinitatis si Tityus serrulatus) si sarpe (vipera)
Idiopatica
Patogeneza
Clinic
636
Investigatii
Sange:
- amilaze - 3xN = pancreatita (300IU/l)
- creste rapid in primele 12 ore, val N in 3-5 zile
- nonspecifica, nu se coreleaza cu severitatea bolii sau cu
prognosticul
- creste si in perforatii intestinale, ocluzii, ischemie mezenterica,
cetoacidoza diabetica, pneumonie, neoplasm
- lipaze - de ales
- crescuta pana in Z14
- mai sensibila si mai specifica fata de amilaza
- valoare cut-off 600UI/l
- tripsinogen urinar – dg de confirmare + indicator de severitate
- acidemie
- uremie
- creatinina ↑
- hipocalcemie
- hipomagnezemie
- hiperglicemie
- enzime hepatice: transaminaze ↑, Br ↑
- hematologic: anemie, neutrofilie, CID
Imagistica
Prognostic
Criterii Ranson
Scor Balthazar
Scor CT Puncte
Balthazar
Grad A CT normal 0 puncte
Grad B Marire focal sau difuza a pancreasului 1 puncte
Grad C Glande pancreatice anormale si inflamare peripancreatica 2 puncte
Grad D Colectie lichidiana intr-o singura locatie 3 puncte
Grad E 2/mai multe colectii lichidiene sau bule gaz in/adiacent de pancreas 4 puncte
Scor necroza
Procent necroza Puncte
Fara necroza 0 puncte
0 - 30% necroza 2 puncte
30 - 50% necroza 4 puncte
> 50% necroza 6 puncte
Management ICU
Management chirurgical
Rolul chirugiei:
- inlaturarea obstructiei biliare
- minimalizarea leziunilor de organ regionale si de la distanta
- inlaturarea necrozei pancreatice
ERCP (retrograde cholangiopancreatography) ± ES (endoscopic
sphincterotomy) – indicata in primele 72 ore de la instalare icter obstructiv sau
colangita acuta
- alte indicatii – persistenta transaminazelor ↑, duct biliar dilatat
Clasificare
Anatomica
- fistule interne – comnicari anormale intre viscere vecina -de ob implica
intestinul si alt organ – vezica, uretra, vagin, alte reg ale TD, vase –
enteroenterice, enteerovezivale, nefroenterice, enterovaginale, enterouterine,
aortoenterice
- fistule externe (enterocutanate) – enterocutanate - comunicari anormale intre
TGI si tegument
Fiziologica
- debit scazut < 200ml/zi
- debit moderat 200-500 ml/zi
- debit mare > 500 ml/zi
Etiologie
- traumatice – postop, ingestie corp strain, trauma penetranta
- infectioase – diverticulite, apendicite, actinomicoza, TBC
- inflamatorii – b crohn
- maligna
- radice
Fiziopatologie:
- fistule gastrice sunt iatrogene in maj cazurilor, sau sunt consecinta Rx,
tumori, inflamatie, ischemie – ex dupa rezectie gastrica
- maj fistulelor de intestin subtire sunt complicatii ale chirurgiei
intraabdominale – desfacere sutura (flux sg inadecvat, anast inintestin bolnav,
abcese perianastomotice
- b Crohn (frecv fistule interne det de ulcerele atrofice), tumori, ulcer peptic,
pancreatite – det fistule intestin subtire
- fistulele colonice consecinta in principal a inflam intraabd (diverticuli, b
inflamatorie a intestinului, tumori,apendicita) si interv chir
- fistule AO-entrice – dupa chir AO cu graft
Fistule - gastrice
- NaCl 0.9% + 20 mEq/l KCl
- alcaloza metabolica, ↓ K
- duoden + jejun
- 3-5 l/zi
640
- acidoza metabolica
- Ringer + NaHCO3
- biliar + pancreatic
- 500 – 800 ml
- acidoza metabolica
- Ringer + NaHCO3
- ileal
- Na, Mg
- Ringer
- colon – inchide spontan
Lichide Na K Cl HCO3
Gastric 500-1500 60 10 130
Duoden 100-2000 140 5 80
Bila 350-500 145 5 100 35
Pancreas 200-800 140 5 75 115
Intestin 1000-3000 140 5 104 30
Colon 60 30 40 15
Clinic
- difera in functie de segm TD implicate – asimpt → durere abd, pierdere in G,
diaree, febra, sm malnutritie, dezechil hidroelectrolitice
- pierderi de mat fecale/lichide la niv pielii
- sangerari rectale
- hTA la pac cu fistule Ao-enterice
Cauze
1. interventii chirurgicale pt cancer, b inflam intestinala, ulcer peptic,
viscerolize
2. b inflam a intest (IBD), b Crohn, colite ulcerate
3. diverticulite
4. radiatii
5. cancere – in sp ginecologice si pancreatice
6. apendicita
7. perforatie ulcere duodenale
8. trauma abdominala – impuscaturi, injunghieri
9. anevrism Ao, graft Ao infectat, chir Ao anterioara fistulei
Diag diferential:
- abcese abdominale
- anevrism AO abd
- diverticulite
- ulcere duodenale
- trauma abd
- apendicita
- malabsorbtia
- b inflam a intest
- infectare plagi fara fistule
- obstr colon
- cancer colonic – ADK
- malformatii arterio-venoase
641
Laborator
- albumina , prealbumina
- uree, creatinina
- electroliti
- leucocitoza
- anemie
- endoscopie/colonoscopie
- fistuloscopie endoscopica – poate fi plasat undren terapeutic pe traiectul
fistulei/ adm de fibrinas pt inchidere
- cistoscopie
- injectare subxt de contrast – albastru metil
Tratament
Complicatii:
- pierderi de lichide si electroliti
- sepsis
- malnutritie
- hemoragii
- lez organe adiacente
- recurenta fistula
- sd de intestin scurt
Principii:
- glicemie 3-6 ore
- evitare sedative
- limitare lichide – bilant hidric optim
- mentinere TA, AV, PVC, Dz
- G 10-20 % + 3 mmol/kg KCl
- lactuloza 3-4 lg
- cimetidina
- vit K 1 mg/zi
644
Principale cauze:
- hepatite virale – A si B in principal, C rar, alti virusi: Cytomegalovirus,
Hemorrhagic fever viruses, Herpes simplex virus, Paramyxovirus, Epstein-
Barr virus
- acute fatty liver of pregnancy, sd HELLP
- toxicitate acetaminofen
- toxicitate alte medic:
- ATB (ampicillin-clavulanate, ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, erythromycin,
isoniazid, nitrofurantoin, tetracycline),
- Antivirals (fialuridine),
- Antidepressants (amitriptyline, nortriptyline),
- Antiepileptics (phenytoin, valproate),
- Antidiabetics (troglitazone),
- Anesthetic agents (halothane),
- Lipid-lowering medications (atorvastatin, lovastatin, simvastatin),
- Immunosuppressive agents (cyclophosphamide, methotrexate),
- Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents, Salicylates (Reye syndrome),
- Oral hypoglycemic agents (troglitazone),
- Others (disulfiram, flutamide, gold, propylthiouracil),
- Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine [MDMA]),
- Cocaine (may be the result of hepatic ischemia)
- alte toxine: Amanita phalloides mushroom toxin, Bacillus cereus toxin,
Cyanobacteria toxin, Organic solvents (eg, carbon tetrachloride), Yellow
phosphorus
- b metabolice: Alpha1 antitrypsin deficiency, Fructose intolerance,
Galactosemia, Lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase deficiency, Reye syndrome,
Tyrosinemia, Wilson disease
- Autoimmune disease (autoimmune hepatitis)
- cauze maligne: Primary liver tumor (usually hepatocellular carcinoma, rarely
cholangiocarcinoma), Secondary tumor (extensive hepatic metastases or
645
Clinic:
- istoric – timpul de la instalarea icterului/encefalopatiei, fact de risc, expunere,
ingestie subst toxice, det ap complicatii
- icter prezent/nu, durere hipocondrul drept, edem cerebral (edem papilar,
HTA, bradicardie), hematemeza, melena
- dezv ascitei
- tulb metabolice: hipoglicemie, hiponatremie, hipopotasemie, hipofosfatemie,
acidoza lactica, alcaloza respiratorie
Grade encefalopatie
Paraclinic
- trombocitopenie
- PT/INR ↑
- enzime hepatice TGO↑, TGP ↑, fosfataza alcalina paote fi N
- bilirubina ↑
- amonemie ↑↑
- hipoglicemii
- lactat seric ↑
- hipoxemie, hiperventilatie. hipercapnie
- creatinina ↑ → dezv sd hepatorenal
- hemoculturi – risc ↑ de sepsis in sp cu fungi
- cupremie – sd Wilson
- fosfat seric ↓
- serologie virala - ! fereastra serologica
- markeri autoimuni
- ecografie abd
- CT abd + cererbal
- EEG
- monit ICP
- biopsie hepatica – confirma etiologia + determina gradul necrozei
hepatocitare (necroza 70% → mortalitate 90% fara transplant)
646
Management general
- tratament specific pt IHA doar in intoxicatia cu paracetamol
- NACC - administrata si la 48-72 ore de la ingestie
- OR 140 mg/kg doza de incarcare + 70 mg/kg la 4 ore
- IV 150 mg/kg pt 15-60 min + pev cont 12,5 mg/kg/h pt 4 ore
apoi 6,25 mg/kg/h
- adm pana cand exista dovada imbunatatirii fct hepatice
(rezolutia encefalopatiei, INR<1,5, ↓ transaminaze
Management complicatii
Profilaxie infectii
- infectiile = principala cauza de deces la pac cu IHF
- cel mai frecv plaman, tract urinar, sg
- cel mai frecv germeni implicati:
- coci Gram + (Staphylococci, Streptococci)
- bacili Gram – enterici
- Candida
- ATB profilactica nu imbunatateste supravietuirea
- se adm empiric ATB:
- culturile de rutina arata prezenta unui germene
- progresia sau stadiu tardiv (III/IV) de encefalopatie
- hTA refractara
- SIRS (T>38oC sau<36oC, Lc > 12000 sau < 4000/mm3, AV > 90/min)
→ cefalosporine genIII
→ vancomicina pt sepsis legat de cateter iv si/sau fact risc de infectie
cu Stafilococ MRSA
→ antifungic daca nu ap imbunatatiri dupa introducere trat ATB
→aminoglicozidele nu sunt rec dat nefrotoxicitatii
Sedare si analgezie
- agitatia psihomotorie, durerea → ↑ HTIC la pac cu IHA
647
Criterii
critice:
1.
varsta
≥
18
ani
2.
durata
de
viata
fara
transplant
<
7
zile
648
3.
instalarea
encefalopatiei
hepatice
in
mai
putin
de
8
S
de
la
primele
simpt
de
b
hepatica
4.
necesitatea
trat
in
ICU
5.
absenta
unei
b
hepatic
epreexistente
6.
cel
putin
un
criteriu
din
urmatoarele:
dependenta
de
ventilator,
necesar
de
dializa
renala,
INR>2
Nutritie
-‐
IHA
=
status
catabolic
cu
balanta
de
N2
negativa
si
imunodeficienta
-‐
nutritie
enterala
de
cate
ori
este
posibil
cu
cont
↑
energetic
si
evitare
adm
exces
lichide
sau
subst
hiposmolare
(risc
exacerbare
edem
cerebral)
-‐
nutritie
parenterala
(35-‐40
kcal/kg/zi)
cand
exista
CI
la
nutritia
enterala
-‐
monitorizare
glicemie
(risc
↑
hipoglicemie
–
mentinere
glicemie
100-‐150
mg/dl)
+
adm
Glucoza
iv
1,5-‐2
g/kg/zi
-‐
folosire
aa
ramificati
-‐
lipide
iv
sunt
rec
ca
sursa
concnetrata
de
calorii
la
pac
incarcat
volemic
Profilaxie
convulsii
-‐
majoritatea
pac
cu
IHA
au
act
electrica
-‐
nu
exista
date
pt
adm
profilactica
de
fenitoin
-‐
infuzia
propofol
+
BZD
folosita
pt
sedare
are
si
proprietati
anticonv
-‐
efectuare
EEG
in
caz
de
-‐
encefalopatie
grad
3/4
-‐
deterirorare
brusca
a
starii
neurologice
fara
explicatie
-‐
aparitia
de
mioclonii
-‐
titrare
terapie
in
cazul
folosirii
comei
barbiturice
pt
trat
edemului
cerebral
Tratament
disfunctii
circulatorii
-‐
la
pac
cu
IHA
+
hTA
–
evaluare
volemie
si
corectare
hipovolemie
inainte
de
adm
vasopresoei
-‐
vasopresori
rec
pt
hTA
severa
(TAS<90mmHg,
TAM
<65
mmHg)
sau
pt
mentinerea
pres
de
perf
cerebrala
(PAM-‐ICP)
50-‐80
mmHg.
-‐
rec
NA
sau
dopamina,
preferat
NA
(↑
pres
de
perfuzie
cerebrala
mai
eficient
si
mai
predictibil
decat
dopamina)
-‐
nu
este
rec
dopamina
in
doza
renala
-‐
A
-‐
↓
fluxul
sg
mezenteric
si
poate
compromite
FSH
-‐
nu
este
rec
vasopresina
si
analogii
–
pot
det
VD
cerebrala
si
↑
HTIC
-‐
insuf
corticosuprarenala
relativa
apare
frecv
in
IHA
si
poate
contrinui
la
colaps
cv
–
HHC
200-‐300
mg/zi
la
pac
cu
sepsis
si
IHA
ce
nu
rasp
la
vasopresor
-‐
date
insuf
pt
rec
prostaciclinei
sau
NACC
Management
edem
cerebral
si
HTIC
-‐
CT
cerebral
rec
la
toti
pac
IHA
care
progreseaza
la
std
3/4
de
encefalopatie
si
prezinta
modif
acuta
de
status
mental
sau
inaite
de
palsare
monitor
ICP
649
-‐
plasarea
catetermonitor
ICP
–
nu
exista
date
pt
rec
palsarii
la
toti
pac
cu
IHA
–
considerat
la
pac
inrolati
pt
transplant
cu
encefalopatie
std
3/4.
Complicatii
hemoragice
apar
dupa
monitor
ICP
la
10-‐20%
din
pac
dar
de
ob
sunt
usoare
-‐
dat
risc
de
sangerare
monit
ICP
cu
cateter
nu
este
rec
la
pac
cu
encefalopatie
grd
1/2
sau
cu
evidenta
clinica
de
herniere
diencefal/HTIC
intratabila
-‐
minimalizare
stimuli
ext,
manevre
de
aspiratie
bronsica
blande
-‐
cap
300
-‐
hipocapnie
indusa
prin
hiperventilatie
–
pac
cu
IHA
in
gen
hiperventileaza
→
nu
se
trateaza
-‐
eutermie
(36.5-‐37.5°C),
trat
febra
–
nu
NSAID,
paracetamol
datorita
ef
pe
muc
gastrica,
renala
sau
hepatica.
-‐
hipotremie
la
pac
cu
ICP
refractara
la
manitol?
-‐
edemul
cerebral
din
IHA
este
in
principal
citotoxic
→
nu
rasp
la
corticoterapie
→
corticoizi
nu
sunt
indicati
pt
trat
edem
cerebral
-‐
rec
(ca
la
pac
cu
trauma)
ment
ICP
<
25
mmHg
si
PPC
intre
50-‐80
mmHg
-‐
HTIC
severa
(>
40
mm
Hg),
sustinuta,
refractare
la
terapor
sau
cu
PPC
;
40
mmHg
pt
2
ore
este
asociata
cu
recuperare
neurologica
proasta
dupa
trasnplant
-‐
manitol
–
cand
ICP
≥
25
mm
Hg
pt
>
10
min
-‐
0.25-‐1.0
g/kg
bolus
iv
cu
mentinere
osmolaritate
serica
<
320
mOsm/L
HTIC
refractoare
la
manitol:
-‐
ser
NaCl
hiperton
-‐
23.4%
NaCl
(30
mL)
si
7.5%
NaCl
(2.0
mL/kg)
bolus
repetat
la
fiecare
2-‐3
ore
cu
monit
ionograma
-‐
hipotermie
noderata
(32-‐33°C)
-‐
coma
barbiturica
-‐
pentobarbital
3-‐5
mg/kg
iv
bolus
+
1-‐3
mg/kg/h
pev
cont
-‐
thiopental
5-‐10
mg/kg
bolus
+
3-‐5
mg/kg/h
-‐
ef
adv:
hipotensiune,
hipotemie,
imunosupresie,
hipopotasemi
-‐
indometacin
25
mg
iv
in
1
min
Alte
proceduri
Ventilatie
mecanica
-‐
rec
pt
insuf
resp,
protectie
cai
aeriene
in
encefalopatia
gr
3-‐4
650
-‐
frecv
pac
cu
IHA
dezvolta
ARDS
→
limitare
Vt
+
Pmax
(6
ml/kg
si
respectiv
<30cmH2O)
-‐
mentinere
nivele
PCO2
Terapia
de
substitutie
renala
-‐
sumar
urina
–
Naurinar
<
10mEq/l
in
azotemie
preerenala
si
sd
hepatorenal
si
↑
NTA
-‐
proba
de
incarcare
pt
excludere
azotemie
prerenala
(cristaloid/coloid
1-‐1,5l)
-‐
pac
cu
IHA
tolereaza
dializa
prost
de
aceea
se
prefera
CRRT
chiar
si
la
pac
stabili
hemod
-‐
indic
de
CRRT
se
pune
in
funct
de
statusul
metabolic,
incarcarea
cu
lichide,
anom
electrolitice
-‐
risc
↑
de
sangerare
la
adm
de
heparina
in
circuit
→
se
rec
citrat
-‐
evitatre
hipoNa
deoarece
agraveaza
edemul
cererbral
-‐
metinere
euvolemie
Suport
artificial
hepatic
1.
Metode
conventional
de
epurare
renala
–
HD,
HF
=
eficienta
limitata
in
ameliorarea
encefalopatiei
si
prognosticului
-‐
HD
conventionala
poate
amliora
encefalopatia
din
IHF
prin
reducerea
amonemiei
(mb
semipermeabila)
si
prin
↓
edemului
cerebral
-‐
de
preferat
CRRT
(CVVHF)
pt
ca
in
IHA
fecv
IRA
→
suport
renal
artificial
de
preferat
continuu
dat
instab
hemodinamice
2.
ECLP
=
perfuzie
hepatica
extracorporala
–
mai
efic
pt
evolutia
pe
termen
lung
3.
Sistem
hibrid
bazat
pe
culturi
hepatocite
-‐
scopul
sist
este
de
suport
artificial-‐
elimianre
efic
a
toxinelor
circulante
-‐
sursa
toxine
intestin
(amonemia)
sau
chiar
ficat
necrotic
-‐
apreciere
eficienta
=
imbunatatirea
statusului
mental
4.
Hemoperfuzia
–
utilizate
in
coma
hepatica
dar
cu
rata
↑
a
complicatiilor
(leucopenie,
trombocitopenie,
hTA,
embolie
pulm)
5.
Bilogic
-‐
DT
=
Liver
dialysis
unit
6.
Biologic
–
DTPF
–
filtrarea
plasmei
cu
un
absorbant
care
inconjoara
mb
"push-‐pull
pheresis
system)
7.
MARS
–
sistem
de
reciclare
cu
absorbant
molecular
(ipoteza
legarii
de
albumina
a
produsilor
toxici
8.
PROMETEUS
–
dispozitiv
tip
"all-‐in-‐one"
combina
plasmafereza
cu
absorbtia
si
hemodializa
cu
flux
mare
in
scopul
eliminarii
tuturor
deseurilor
Transplantul
-‐
singura
metoda
efic
in
IHA
-‐
solutie
adaptata
–
transplant
de
lob
hepatic
de
la
pac
viu
inrudit
651
Homeostazia fluidelor
- ↑ minime ale p venoase hepatice → cantit ↑ de lichid transudeaza in limfa
→ purtate catre supra hepatocit → capsula → peritoneu
- ac fluid contine 80-90% din continutul plasmatic de proteine
Metabolism lipidic
1. rata f mare de βoxidare a AGL si cu formare de acid actoacetic
2. sinteza de lipoproteine
3. sinteza de colesterol si fosfolipide
652
Metabolism proteic
1. deaminarea aa
- este realizata inainte de
- utilizarea aa ca sursa de energie (ciclul Krebs)
- transportarea lor in CH/lipide
- un procent f mic → deaminare in rinichi, inrest ficat
2. formarea de uree pt inlaturarea amoniacului din org
- amoniac rezultar din deaminare si cel abs
3. formarea prot plasmatice
- marea majoritate a prot plasmatice
- albumina
- fact de coagulare fara FVIII si FvW
- fact II, VII, IX, X – necesita vit K pt formare
- PCE
- inhibitori proteaze (ATII, α2antitripsina, α2 antiplasmina)
- prot de transport (ceruloplasmina, haptoglobina, transferina)
- complement
- α1 acid GP
- PCR
- amiloid A
4. interconversia intre aa si alti compusi inportanti pt procesele metab ale org
CIROZA HEPATICA
Cauze de ciroza
- hepatita C, B
- b hepatica alcoolica
- hepatite autoimune
- ciroza biliara primara
- ciroza biliara secundara (asoc cu obstr cronica de duct hepatic)
- hemocromatoza
- b Wilson
- def α1 antitripsina
- b granulomatoase (sarcoidoza)
- b hepatica indusa de medic
- obstr venosa (sd BuddChiari)
- IC dreapta
- Insuf treicuapidiana
Hipoxemia in CH
1. depalsarea catre dr a curbei de disociere a Hb
2. tulburari V/Q (alterarea vasoconstrictie hipoxice)
3. hipoventilatie datorata ascitei
4. ↑ capacitatii de difuziune pulmonara dat ↑ ECF
5. sunturi intrapulmonare dr-stg
6. Alterarea mec vasoconstrictiei hipoxice dat subst vasoactive circulante
Ascita in CH 2 mecanisme:
1. Concenptul traditional
↓ volumului efectiv → ↑ reabs de Na la nivel tubular → ↑ volumul ECF →
ascita
2. Ipoteza overflow
654
Mecanisme ascita
- hipoalbuminemie
- HTP
- extravazare lichid bogat in proteine din limfa → peritoneu
- reabsorbtie ↑ Na + H2O la nivel renal
Child-Pugh Score 1 2 3
Bilirubina (totala) µmol/l <34 34-50 >50
(mg/dL) (<2) (2-3) (>3)
Albumina serica g/L >35 28-35 <28
INR <1.7 1.71-2.20 > 2.20
Ascita Nu Supresata cu medicatie Refractara
Encefalopatie hepatica Nu Grad I-II (Supresata cu Grade III-IV (Refractara)
medicatie )
Clase A = 5-6 Supravietuire15-20
B = 7-9 Candidat pt transplant
C = 9-15 Supravietuire 1-3 luni
655
Hemoragii variceale
Paracenteza
- in cazul ciroticilor cu ascita in tensiune evac lich de ascita ↓ presiunea la
nivelul varicelor
- ar putea fi utila in controlul episoadelor de sangerare la ac grup de pac
β blocanti
- reduc riscul aparitiei primului episod de hemoragie
656
Transectiunea esofagiana
- utilizata la pac la care scleroterapia a esuat in special cei ce sunt candidati la
transplant hepaic
- resg dupa 6 S
Calea de infectie
- sanguina
- limfatica
- migrare intestinala transmurala a bacteriei
- invadarea prin contiguitate de la infectie vecina
Surse de bacteriemie
- endoscopia
- proceduri rgf
- biopsia hepatica
- catetere iv
Germeni:
- cel mai frecvent bacili G- - E Colli
- Klebsiela
- Streptococi
Manif clinice
- febra
- leucocitoza
- dureri abdominale
- ↑ de volum a ascitei
- encefalopatie
- frecv debut insidios: alterarea fct renale, diaree, encefalopatieneexplicabila,
hipotermie
Diagnostic:
- analiza fluidului de ascita
- PMN > 250/mm3 = cel mai sensibil indicator
- pH < 7,35 cu dif pH(A-AoF) >0,1
- conc de lactat >25 mg/dl
- culturile din lichidul de ascita confirma dg, dar ele pot fi si negative
- culturile sg concomitente
- se va investiga posibilitatea unei infectii abdominale secudare (peritonita
secundara) daca:
- infectare polimicrobiana a lichidului de ascita
657
Tratament:
- daca PMN > 250/mm3
- frotiu gram
- debut empiric a trat ATB cu Cefotaxim 8g/zi + Aminoglicozid
- cultura negativa
- PMN > 500/mm3 → infectia este f probabila → trat empiric continuat
- PMN < 500/mm3 + suspiciune clinica ↓ → se opreste ATB → daca
statusul pac nu se impunatateste in 48 ore → repetare paracenteza
Prevenire
- la pac cu risc ↑ se poate face profilaxia PBS cu
- trimetoprim-sulfametaxozol 1 tb/zi 5 zile/S
- ciprofloxacin 750 mg 1/S
- norfloxacin 400 mgzi
- daca sub profilaxie apare totusi PBS, aceasta este rar cu germeni rezistenti
la quinolone
Sd hepato-renal
Fiziopatologie
- vasodilatatia arteriala periferica din CH → ↑ nivelul plasmatic de renina,
aldosteron, ADH si NE → vasoconstr renala intensa stimulata si de endotelina
(sint in catitate ↑ in CH) → retentie de apa si Na → agravare edeme, ascita
- PG vasodilatatoare renale sunt secretate tardiv in CH → pacineti cu CH sunt
f sensibili la adm de inhibitori de PG
Rol important
- sist renina- angitensina- aldosteron
- sist kalikrein kinina
- SNVS
- endotoxine
- PG – mentiin fct renala la pac cu boli hepatice → adm de NSAID la pac cu
CH → ↓ FSR → ↓ RFG → precipita IRA
Dg
- azotemie si oligurie
- lichid de ascita in tensiune
- presenta uneia din factorii precipitanti prezentati ant
658
Criterii de dg :
1. b hepatica conica sau acuta cu IH si hipertensiune protala
2. ↓ RFG, creatinina ↑, clearance < 40 ml/min
3. absenta sepsis, pierderi excesive fluide (HDS), soc, trat cu medic
nefrotoxice
4. lipsa de raspuns la proba de incarcare cu 1,5 l lichide
5. proteinurie <0,5g/zi fara date eco de suferinta tract urinar
6. criterii aditionale: Dz < 500 ml/zi, Na ur <10mEq/l, Osm ur > Osm pl,
eritrocite urinare < 50/camp, Naseric < 130 mEq/l
Trat
- rar pac pot raspunde
- spontan
- sunt porto-cav
- sunt peritoneo-venos
- dializa – trateaza uremia dar nu vindeca → punte la trasnplant renal
- diureticele + subst vasoactive – adesea ineficiente
- ornipresina
Encefalopatia hepatica
4 mecanisme:
1. interferarea metab energetic cerebral
2. alterarea neurotransm cerebrali
3. tezaurizarea Mm in encefal
4. ↑ susceptibiliate creier la noxe
Amoniu
- ↓ metab energetic prin mecanisme multiple:
659
NH 3 NH 3
ac α cetoglutaric ⎯⎯
⎯→ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯→ acglutamic ⎯+⎯
ATP ∩ ADP+ Pi
⎯→ gluta min a
Mercaptani
- proveniti in colon din scindare metionina
- inhiba metab energetic cerebral
AGLS/AGLM
- iau nastere in colon din polizaharide sub actiunea florei bacteriene
AGLS ac acetic (C2)
ac propionic (C3)
ac butiric (C4)
AGLM ac hexaenoic (C6)
ac heptaenoic (C7)
ac octanoic (C8)
- reduc metab energetic celular prin inhibarea ATP-azei Na-K si ↑ conc Na
intracelular
Clinic
Grad 0 - subclinic, status mental normal, dar modificari minime de memorie,
concentrare, functii intelectuale, coordonare
Grad 1 - Confuzie usoara, euforie sau depresie, ↓ atentie, ↓ abilitatea de a
efect teste mentale, tulb de patern somn
Grad 2 - letargie, modif evidente de personalitate, comportament inadecvat
Grad 3 - somnolent, incababil sa efect teate mentale, dezorientat in timp si
spatiu, amnezie, vorbire incompresibila
Grad 4 - coma cu sau fara rasp la stim durerosi
Paraclinic
- amonemie ↑
- modif EEG nespecifice
- CT /RMN cerebral pt dg diferential cu procese intracerebrale
Fact precipitanti
- terapia diuretica
- insuf renala
- sangerari gastrointestinale
- infectii
- constipatia
- dieta bog in proteine
- medic: opioide, BZD, antidepresive, antipsihotice
Diagnostic diferential
- lez intracraniene
- infectii (meningita, encefalita..)
- encefalopatie metabolica (hipoglicemia, modif electrolitice)
- encefalopatie toxica (intoxicatii, medicamente)
- encefalopatie postconvulsii
Tratament
- evitare medic ce deprima SNC
- corectare cauze ce au precipitat encefalopatia
- lactuloza - stim pasajul amoniului in lumenul int si inhiba producerea int de
amoniu - 30 ml OR x2/zi cu cresterea dozai pana cand pac prezinta 2-4
scaune/zi
- solutii lavaj colon
- neomicina/ metronidazol/vancomicina/quinolone OR - ↓ conc colonica de
bact amoniogene. Neomicina 250-1000 mg OR x2-4/zi
- rifampicina ↓ conc colonica de bact amoniogene - 200 mg OR x 3/zi
- L-ornithineL-aspartat - ↓ nivelul sg de amoniu
- sodium benzoat - ↓ nivelul sg de amoniu
- dieta ↓ in proteine - aa ↑ nivelul de falsi neurotrasm cerebrali tiramina si
octopamina
Hipoxemia in CH
661
HEPATECTOMII PARTIALE
103.
Defecte
acute
de
hemostaza
(Trombocitopenia,
CID,
Fibrinoliza
acuta)
Published:
05/04/2007
662
Abstract
Introduction
Heparin-‐induced
thrombocytopenia
(HIT)
is
one
of
the
most
important
adverse
drug
events
encountered
by
physicians.
It
is
a
life-‐
and
limb-‐threatening
immune-‐
mediated,
prothrombotic
complication
that
occurs
with
unfractionated
heparin
(UFH)
and
to
a
lesser
extent
with
low-‐molecular-‐weight
heparin
(LMWH).[1-‐6]
HIT
must
be
distinguished
from
other
causes
of
platelet
count
reduction
as
it
often
induces
new
thrombosis.
The
fundamental
paradox
of
HIT
results
from
a
platelet-‐
activating
immune
response
triggered
by
the
interaction
of
heparin
with
a
specific
platelet
protein,
platelet
factor
4
(PF4).
Venous
thrombotic
complications,
especially
deep-‐vein
thrombosis
(DVT)
and
pulmonary
embolism,
are
more
common
than
arterial
thrombotic
events,[1,4,7,8]
although
the
latter
are
more
frequent
in
patients
with
arteriopathy,
such
as
cardiovascular
surgery
patients.
663
In
the
intensive
care
unit
(ICU),
patients
with
HIT
can
present
in
three
situations.
The
first
is
a
patient
admitted
with
life-‐
or
limb-‐threatening
thrombosis
such
as
pulmonary
embolism,
limb
ischemia,
stroke,
myocardial
infarction,
or
cerebral
venous
(dural
sinus)
thrombosis.
Here,
the
primary
challenge
for
the
clinician
is
to
include
HIT
in
the
differential
diagnosis
at
patient
entry
into
the
ICU.
Inquiring
about
recent
heparin
exposure,
determining
whether
the
platelet
count
has
decreased
by
≥50%,
and,
most
important,
avoiding
heparin
in
favor
of
an
alternative
nonheparin
anticoagulant
are
crucial
events.
A
second
scenario
is
the
referral
to
the
ICU
of
a
patient
in
whom
the
diagnosis
of
HIT
has
already
been
made.
But
the
most
common
situation
is
when
a
critically
ill
patient
develops
thrombocytopenia
during
treatment
with
heparin
that
can
be
explained
either
by
the
underlying
illness
or
by
HIT.
We
will
give
special
consideration
to
the
last
group
of
patients.
Clinical
features
of
HIT
that
help
distinguish
it
from
other
forms
of
thrombocytopenia
include
the
timing
of
onset,
the
severity
of
the
thrombocytopenia,
and
the
presence
of
thrombosis
or
other
sequelae.[8,9]
A
decrease
in
platelet
count
associated
with
HIT
typically
begins
5-‐14
days
after
starting
heparin
(first
day
of
immunizing
heparin
exposure
=
day
0).
One
also
needs
to
consider
heparin
treatment
before
ICU
admission,
particularly
in
the
recent
past.
However,
in
postcardiac
surgery
patients,
major
perioperative
platelet
count
declines
are
universal
due
to
hemodilution/consumption.
Moreover,
many
cardiac
surgery
patients
have
a
recent
prior
heparin
exposure
during
angiography
or
for
treatment
of
acute
coronary
syndrome.
However,
in
our
experience,
this
is
an
infrequent
(<1%)
trigger
of
clinically
significant
HIT
antibodies.
Thus,
HIT
is
a
very
unlikely
cause
(<1%)
of
platelet
count
decrease
in
the
first
four
postoperative
days.[10,11]
In
contrast,
HIT
is
a
relatively
likely
explanation
(>50%)
for
a
platelet
count
decrease
of
≥50%
(from
the
postoperative
peak
platelet
count)
that
begins
between
postoperative
days
5-‐14,
a
time
period
in
which
the
postoperative
platelet
count
typically
is
rising.[10,11]
Another
problem
is
that
patients
admitted
to
the
ICU
may
have
been
exposed
to
heparin
within
the
previous
100
days.
In
these
patients,
clinically
significant
HIT
antibodies
may
still
circulate[12,13]
and
can
therefore
cause
an
abrupt
platelet
count
decrease
upon
restarting
of
heparin.
Some
of
these
patients
develop
acute
inflammatory
(e.g.,
fever,
chills)
or
cardiorespiratory
(e.g.,
hypertension,
tachycardia,
dyspnea,
chest
pain,
cardiorespiratory
arrest)
symptoms
and
signs
within
30
mins
following
an
intravenous
heparin
bolus.[14,15]
These
reactions
can
mimic
acute
pulmonary
embolism[16]
and
strongly
suggest
acute
in
vivo
platelet
activation
secondary
to
HIT.
The
platelet
count
should
be
promptly
measured,
as
an
abrupt
platelet
count
decrease
in
this
clinical
context
supports
the
diagnosis
of
HIT.
Furthermore,
the
platelet
count
decrease
is
frequently
transient,
and
thus
a
delay
in
determining
the
platelet
count,
especially
if
heparin
is
stopped,
may
lead
to
missing
the
diagnosis.
Upon
heparin
discontinuation,
platelet
counts
will
generally
start
to
recover
within
4
days
but
may
take
≥2
wks
in
patients
with
high-‐titer
HIT
antibodies.
The
severity
of
664
Recently,
an
easy-‐to-‐apply
scoring
system
using
clinical
criteria
for
HIT
has
been
introduced[22]
(
Table
1
).
The
evaluation
of
this
scoring
system
in
two
settings
in
Canada
and
in
Germany
(n
=
318;
44.6%
surgical
patients,
38.7%
nonsurgical
patients,
16.7%
ICU
patients)
showed
that
it
has
a
high
negative
predictive
value.
In
the
Greifswald
ICU
patient
population,
none
of
the
patients
with
a
score
<4
points
had
platelet-‐activating
HIT
antibodies,
making
HIT
very
unlikely.[23]
This
indicates
that
the
high
negative
predictive
value
of
the
scoring
system
may
also
apply
to
ICU
patients,
although
this
requires
further
evaluation.
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
Table
1.
Pretest
Scoring
System
for
Heparin-‐induced
Thrombocytopenia
(HIT):
The
4
T's
A
rare
but
important
manifestation
is
delayed-‐onset
HIT.
Affected
patients
typically
were
exposed
to
heparin
in
the
very
recent
past
(last
2
wks)
and
present
with
new
thrombosis
and
low
platelet
counts.
In
such
patients,
very
high
titer
anti-‐PF4/heparin
antibodies
are
usually
found,
which
activate
platelets
even
in
the
absence
of
heparin
(thus
mimicking
platelet-‐activating
autoantibodies).
Patients
usually
require
high-‐
665
Only
a
few
studies
have
assessed
the
frequency
of
HIT
in
ICU
patients.
Two
Canadian
reports
indicate
that
HIT
is
rarely
the
reason
for
a
decrease
of
platelet
counts
in
ICU.
In
one
study
in
which
40
of
267
medical-‐surgical
ICU
patients
were
clinically
suspected
of
having
HIT,
only
one
of
32
patients
tested
gave
a
serologic
profile
indicating
probable
HIT
(0.39%;
95%
confidence
interval,
0.01-‐2.1%).[26]
The
second
prospective
study
on
risk
factors
for
DVT
in
medical-‐surgical
ICU
patients
included
261
patients
of
whom
>85%
received
UFH
and
4.0%
received
LMWH.[27]
In
33
patients
in
whom
HIT
was
suspected
and
testing
for
antibodies
performed,
none
had
serologic
evidence
for
HIT.[17,27]
In
our
hospital
in
Greifswald,
Germany,
during
a
2-‐yr
period
(2003-‐2004)
with
3,559
medical-‐surgical
ICU
patients,
HIT
was
suspected
in
143
patients.
However,
in
only
17
of
those
patients
was
a
positive
result
obtained
in
any
of
the
assays
(functional
assay
and
PF4-‐heparin
immunoassay),
indicating
that
the
frequency
of
HIT
could
have
been
as
high
as
17
of
3,559,
or
0.48%
(95%
confidence
interval,
0.25-‐0.7%).
It
should
be
noted
that
this
figure
most
likely
still
represents
an
overestimate
of
the
true
frequency
of
HIT.
This
is
because
the
high
frequency
of
antibodies
generated
in
patients
receiving
heparin,
and
the
inability
of
the
tests
to
distinguish
clearly
between
pathogenic
and
nonpathogenic
antibodies,
mean
that
a
non-‐HIT
disorder
could
still
have
been
the
major
explanation
for
the
thrombocytopenia
or
any
other
clinical
event
that
prompted
diagnostic
testing
for
HIT
antibodies.
Within
the
ICU
population,
cardiac
surgery
patients
appear
to
be
at
a
relatively
high
risk
for
HIT.
Pouplard
and
coworkers,[10]
summarizing
an
8-‐yr
experience
of
thromboprophylaxis
postcardiac
surgery,
found
a
striking
difference
in
HIT
frequency
depending
on
which
type
of
heparin
received:
Of
437
patients
receiving
UFH
postcardiac
surgery,
11
(2.5%)
developed
HIT,
compared
with
only
8
of
1,874
(0.4%)
patients
who
received
LMWH
(p
<
.001).
However,
the
nonrandomized
methodology
makes
a
definitive
conclusion
on
reduced
risk
of
HIT
with
LMWH
tentative.
In
general,
a
platelet
count
decrease
before
day
5
after
cardiac
surgery
is
rarely
HIT,
whereas
a
platelet
count
decrease
after
day
5
usually
indicates
HIT.[10,28]
The
frequency
of
HIT
postcardiac
surgery
(if
UFH
thromboprophylaxis
is
given)
is
estimated
at
1-‐3%,
with
at
least
half
of
affected
patients
developing
symptomatic
thrombosis.[28,29]
In
patients
with
stroke,
HIT
occurred
more
frequently
in
those
treated
with
UFH
compared
with
LMWH
in
non-‐ICU
patients.[30,31]
These
studies
suggest
the
possibility
that
use
of
LMWH
instead
of
UFH
for
thromboprophylaxis
could
reduce
the
incidence
of
HIT
in
some
patient
populations,
although
the
nonrandomized
methodologies
of
these
studies
make
this
speculative.
There
is
evidence
that
in
(non-‐
ICU)
medical
patients,
UFH
and
LMWH
may
be
associated
with
a
similar
risk
for
HIT
(about
1%).[6,32]
Data
on
the
incidence
of
HIT
in
ICU
patients
receiving
LMWH
are
not
available.
666
Laboratory
assays
for
HIT
antibodies
are
helpful
to
refute
a
clinical
suspicion
of
HIT
(high
negative
predictive
value).
However,
not
all
anti-‐PF4/heparin
antibodies
are
pathogenic.
An
iceberg
model
illustrates
the
interrelationships
of
positive
laboratory
tests
with
clinical
features
of
HIT.[33]
The
model
indicates
that
only
a
subset
of
anti-‐
PF4/heparin
antibodies
(detected
by
an
immunoassay)
have
platelet-‐activating
properties
(hence,
detectable
in
a
platelet
activation
assay).
Furthermore,
only
a
subset
of
the
latter
group
of
patients
will
evince
thrombocytopenia
(the
part
of
the
iceberg
above
the
waterline)
and
even
fewer
will
develop
thrombosis.
Often,
anti-‐
PF4/heparin
antibodies
are
not
clinically
significant.[33]
Patients
should
therefore
not
be
screened
for
antibodies
unless
their
clinical
profile
suggests
HIT.
Both
the
functional
platelet
activation
assays
and
antigen
assays
are
very
sensitive
for
detecting
HIT
antibodies.
Particularly
given
the
common
occurrence
of
thrombocytopenia
among
heparin-‐treated
ICU
patients,
these
assays
have
limited
specificity
for
clinical
HIT
in
this
clinical
setting.
Platelet
activation
assays
that
use
washed
platelets,
such
as
the
serotonin-‐release
assay
and
the
heparin-‐induced
platelet
activation
assay,
exclusively
detect
platelet-‐
activating
antibodies
of
immunoglobulin
(Ig)G
class,
rather
than
the
non-‐platelet-‐
activating
IgM
and
IgA
class
antibodies
(only
IgG
antibodies
can
activate
platelets
via
their
FcγIIα
or
IgG-‐receptors).
Therefore,
they
have
a
much
higher
specificity
for
detecting
clinically
relevant
(pathogenic)
antibodies
than
the
commercially
available
antigen
assays.
However,
performance
of
these
functional
assays
requires
experienced
staff
and
is
restricted
to
a
few
reference
laboratories.[11,34]
The
antigen
assays
such
as
the
PF4-‐dependent
enzyme-‐linked
immunoassays
(ELISA)
are
very
sensitive
for
detecting
all
antibody
classes
(IgG,
IgA,
IgM)
to
the
PF4-‐heparin
complexes
but
are
much
less
specific
than
functional
assays
for
detecting
clinically
relevant
antibodies.
The
specificity
of
these
assays
for
clinical
HIT
increases
in
relation
to
the
magnitude
of
a
positive
test
result
(expressed
in
optical
density
units,
especially
>1.0
units).[35]
The
most
specific
laboratory
result
supporting
a
diagnosis
of
HIT
is
when
clear
positive
results
are
seen
in
both
functional
and
antigen
assays.[36,37]
Two
recent
studies
showed
that
anti-‐PF4/heparin
antibodies
of
the
IgM
and
IgA
class
did
not
predict
clinical
HIT[38,39]
and
that
laboratories
using
the
commercial
anti-‐
PF4/heparin
assays
for
diagnosing
HIT
most
likely
overdiagnose
HIT
by
100%;
that
is,
about
half
the
patients
with
positive
immunoassays
do
not
have
clinical
HIT.[39,40]
One
of
these
studies[38]
showed
that
including
detection
of
IgM
and
IgA
antibodies
worsened
test
operating
characteristics
(reduced
specificity
without
improved
sensitivity).
In
a
recent
study
of
>100
patients
on
cardiac
assist
devices,
we
provided
further
evidence
for
a
strong
correlation
between
a
positive
functional
test
and
high
risk
for
thrombosis,
whereas
the
thrombotic
risk
of
patients
who
were
positive
only
in
the
antigen
assay
did
not
differ
from
those
who
were
antibody-‐negative.[41]
HIT
is
a
clinicopathologic
syndrome;
that
is,
the
diagnosis
is
based
on
one
or
more
clinically
evident
features
(most
often,
thrombocytopenia
with
or
without
667
General Measures
If
there
is
high
clinical
suspicion
for
HIT
(e.g.,
score
≥6,
indicated
by
platelet
count
decrease
>50%
between
day
5
and
10
of
heparin
treatment,
associated
with
thrombosis,
and
for
no
other
obvious
reason)
(
Table
1
),
all
heparin
should
be
stopped,
including
heparin
used
to
flush
intravascular
catheters.
To
avoid
accidental
re-‐exposure
to
heparin,
we
suggest
indicating
a
heparin
allergy
in
the
patient
file
and
posting
a
sign
HIT-‐no
heparin
at
the
bedside.
Although
the
immediate
cessation
of
all
forms
of
heparin
in
patients
with
strongly
suspected
HIT
is
recommended,
stopping
heparin
alone
is
not
adequate.[8,42]
Indeed,
the
highest
risk
for
new,
progressive,
or
recurrent
thrombosis
is
during
the
first
few
days
after
stopping
heparin.
Accordingly,
alternative,
rapidly
acting,
nonheparin
anticoagulant
therapy
should
be
initiated
promptly
once
a
clinical
diagnosis
of
HIT
has
been
made.
When
treatment
was
delayed
pending
laboratory
confirmation
of
the
diagnosis
within
a
clinical
trial
setting,
the
incidence
of
new
thrombosis
was
approximately
ten-‐fold
higher
than
during
the
subsequent
period
of
treatment
with
a
direct
thrombin
inhibitor
(DTI).[43,44]
As
the
risk
of
venous
thrombosis
is
very
high
in
HIT,
and
DVT
is
often
asymptomatic
in
ICU
patients,
we
recommend
investigating
for
lower
limb
DVT
by
ultrasonography
in
all
patients
in
whom
HIT
is
considered
likely.
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
Table
1.
Pretest
Scoring
System
for
Heparin-‐induced
Thrombocytopenia
(HIT):
The
4
T's
Platelet
transfusions
are
not
recommended
in
nonbleeding
patients
with
HIT,
as
the
transfused
platelets
can
be
activated
by
HIT
antibodies,
further
provoking
thrombosis.[11]
668
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
Table
2.
Which
Drug
for
Which
Intensive
Care
Unit
(ICU)
Patient
in
Decreasing
Order
of
Preference
In
the
ICU,
where
HIT
is
much
more
frequently
suspected
than
confirmed,
it
is
more
likely
that
the
platelet
count
decrease
does
not
reflect
a
prothrombotic
process;
hence,
treatment
with
any
of
the
nonheparin
anticoagulants
in
therapeutic
doses
can
impart
high
risk
for
major
bleeding.
Our
practice
in
ICU
patients
with
low
or
intermediate
clinical
probability
for
HIT
(e.g.,
score
<6,
Table
1
)
is
to
use
danaparoid
in
prophylactic
doses
(750
units
twice
or
three
times
per
day)
pending
clarification
of
the
diagnosis
by
laboratory
testing
for
HIT
antibodies,
provided
there
is
no
other
reason
(such
as
acute
thrombosis)
that
mandates
therapeutic-‐dose
anticoagulation
(in
which
case
an
alternative
anticoagulant
would
be
chosen
according
to
patient
and
drug
characteristics,
(
Table
2
).
This
approach
bears
a
comparable
risk
of
bleeding
as
LMWH
in
prophylactic
dose,
has
a
minimal
risk
for
HIT
antibody
cross-‐
reactivity,[45]
and
may
also
reduce
medicolegal
risk
as
this
agent
is
approved
for
HIT
in
certain
non-‐U.S.
jurisdictions
(e.g.,
Canada,
European
Union,
Australia).
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
Table
1.
Pretest
Scoring
System
for
Heparin-‐induced
Thrombocytopenia
(HIT):
The
4
T's
[
CLOSE
WINDOW
]
Table
2.
Which
Drug
for
Which
Intensive
Care
Unit
(ICU)
Patient
in
Decreasing
Order
of
Preference
dosing
in
patients
with
suspected
or
proven
HIT,
and
minimal
experience
in
the
ICU
setting
are
important
considerations.
Whether
ICU
patients
with
a
low
or
intermediate
pretest
probability
benefit
from
the
use
of
DTIs
or
whether
bleeding
complications
outweigh
the
benefit
of
preventing
new
thromboembolic
complications
is
unresolved.
Based
on
considerations
of
HIT
pathogenesis,
we
outline
our
approach
for
managing
several
different
clinical
scenarios
in
the
ICU.
1. HIT
is
very
unlikely:
In
a
patient
without
thrombocytopenia
or
other
clinical
features
of
HIT,
a
positive
HIT
antigen
test
(ELISA)
is
reported.
Background:
Only
a
subset
of
patients
who
develop
anti-‐PF4/heparin
antibodies
develop
clinical
HIT.
Thus,
the
mere
presence
of
anti-‐PF4/heparin
antibodies
in
an
otherwise
nonthrombocytopenic
and
asymptomatic
patient
does
not
require
change
of
anticoagulation.
Action:
Maintain
heparin
and
watch
platelet
counts.
Avoid
testing
for
antibodies
in
low
pretest
probability
situations
in
the
future.
2. HIT
is
very
unlikely:
In
a
patient
who
presents
with
thrombocytopenia
and/or
new
thrombosis,
a
negative
ELISA
is
reported.
Background:
There
are
numerous
non-‐HIT
explanations
for
thrombocytopenia
or
thrombosis
in
ICU
patients.
Action:
Check
for
other
possible
reasons
for
platelet
count
decrease
(e.g.,
order
blood
cultures,
investigate
for
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation).
Ensure
sufficient
levels
of
anticoagulation
if
thrombosis
occurred
while
on
heparin
(e.g.,
anti-‐factor
Xa
levels).
Do
not
repeat
HIT
antibody
testing
unless
thrombocytopenia
worsens
or
recurs
or
new
thrombosis
occurs.
3. HIT
is
not
ruled
out:
Patient
presents
with
a
decrease
of
platelet
counts,
which
may
also
be
explained
by
comorbidity,
but
has
a
weak
positive
ELISA
(optical
density
<1.0
units),
and
a
negative
functional
assay
(or
functional
assay
is
not
available).
Background:
The
positive
predictive
value
of
a
weak
positive
ELISA
(optical
density
<1.0
units)
for
HIT
is
relatively
low,
especially
if
an
ELISA
is
used
that
also
detects
IgM
and
IgA
antibodies.
Although
HIT
is
not
ruled
out,
other
reasons
are
more
likely
the
cause
of
thrombocytopenia
and
the
patient
could
be
at
an
enhanced
bleeding
risk.
Action:
Switch
to
an
alternative
anticoagulant,
preferably
in
prophylactic
doses
(if
danaparoid
is
available,
refer
to
Figure
1);
if
DTIs
are
used,
start
with
a
low
dose
(25-‐50%
of
the
expected
maintenance
dose)
and
adjust
dose
according
to
the
activated
partial
thromboplastin
time
(aPTT).
Further
treatment
decisions
should
then
be
based
on
the
clinical
course
after
change
of
anticoagulation;
for
example,
prompt
increase
of
platelet
counts
argues
for
HIT.
Confirm
HIT
with
a
functional
test,
if
available
(usually
requires
referral
of
the
blood
specimen
to
a
reference
laboratory).
4. HIT
is
probable:
Patient
presents
with
a
decrease
of
platelet
counts
with
no
other
definite
explanation
and
a
strong
positive
ELISA
(>1.0
optical
density
units).
Background:
A
strong
positive
ELISA
is
more
often
associated
with
HIT
670
than
a
weak
positive
ELISA.
HIT
is
likely,
and
the
prothrombotic
risk
most
likely
outweighs
the
bleeding
risk.
Action:
Stop
heparin
and
start
alternative
anticoagulant
preferentially
in
therapeutic
dose;
in
case
of
high
bleeding
risk,
reduce
dose
accordingly.
Confirm
HIT
with
a
functional
test,
if
available
(usually
requires
referral
of
the
blood
specimen
to
a
reference
laboratory).
5. HIT
is
very
likely:
Patient
presents
with
new
thrombosis
and
thrombocytopenia
with
temporal
features
consistent
with
HIT,
without
other
obvious
explanation,
and
with
a
positive
ELISA.
Background:
These
patients
are
at
very
high
risk
for
further
life-‐
and
limb-‐threatening
thrombosis.
Action:
Stop
heparin
and
start
alternative
anticoagulant
in
therapeutic
dose.
Confirm
HIT
by
a
functional
test,
if
possible.
Figure
1.
Flow
chart
to
suggest
decisions
for
diagnosis
and
treatment
of
patients
in
whom
heparin-‐induced
thrombocytopenia
(HIT)
is
suspected.
In
countries
in
which
danaparoid
is
not
available
for
anticoagulation
in
prophylactic
dose,
fondaparinux
in
prophylactic
dose
might
become
an
option
for
anticoagulation
in
prophylactic
dose,
if
data
become
available.
AC,
anticoagulation;
t.i.d.,
three
times
per
day;
plt,
platelet.
Although
scenarios
1
and
2
do
not
require
alternative
anticoagulation,
in
scenario
3,
alternative
prophylactic-‐dose
anticoagulation
seems
appropriate,
whereas
in
scenarios
4
and
5,
therapeutic-‐dose
alternative
anticoagulation
is
indicated
(Figure
1).
Heparinoids
Figure
2.
Suggestions
for
dosing
and
monitoring
of
danaparoid
in
regard
to
renal
dysfunction
and
special
aspects
of
the
patient.
b.w.,
body
weight;
t.i.d.,
twice
per
day;
s.c.,
subcutaneous;
i.v.,
intravenous;
HIT,
heparin-‐induced
thrombocytopenia;
anti-‐FXa,
anti-‐factor
Xa.
671
In
vitro
cross-‐reactivity
of
HIT
antibodies
with
danaparoid
is
of
minor
clinical
relevance.[49]
Treatment
can
be
started
without
cross-‐reactivity
testing.
Clinical
signs
of
potential
cross-‐reactivity
(new
thrombosis,
persistent
thrombocytopenia
beyond
4
days)
should
prompt
investigation
for
in
vitro
cross-‐reactivity
and,
possibly,
a
switch
to
another
anticoagulant.
Three
DTIs
are
available,
of
which
two,
lepirudin
and
argatroban,
are
approved
for
the
treatment
of
HIT
and
associated
thromboembolic
disease.
No
antidote
reverses
DTI
action.
Comparing
the
prospective
studies
of
lepirudin
and
argatroban
in
HIT
patients
is
difficult,
as
there
are
considerable
differences
in
study
design.[11,34,50-‐53]
Argatroban
and
bivalirudin
are
both
approved
for
anticoagulation
during
a
percutaneous
coronary
intervention
(PCI),[54]
with
the
latter
agent
also
sometimes
used
for
off-‐label
treatment
of
HIT.[55]
Lepirudin.
Lepirudin
is
a
recombinant
bivalent
DTI.
Since
the
elimination
of
lepirudin
is
primarily
renal,
its
dosing
must
be
greatly
adjusted
downward
in
patients
with
compromised
renal
function,
particularly
the
elderly
and
in
ICU
patients.[56]
The
approved
dosing
regimen
of
lepirudin
for
HIT
is
a
bolus
of
0.4
mg/kg
of
body
weight,
followed
by
0.15
mg/kg/hr
continuous
infusion.[56]
However,
based
on
secondary
analysis
of
the
prospective
lepirudin
trials[43,53,57]
and
real-‐world
experience,[58]
this
approved
dosing
regimen
of
lepirudin
is
too
high
even
in
patients
with
compensated
renal
dysfunction.
We
therefore
recommend
major
dose
reduction
and
close
aPTT
monitoring
when
treating
ICU
patients
(Fig.
3).
We
usually
start
with
a
very
low
dose
of
0.005-‐0.01
mg/kg/hr,
if
there
is
evidence
for
renal
compromise,
and
0.05-‐0.10
mg/kg/hr
if
renal
function
is
normal,
in
both
situations
omitting
the
initial
lepirudin
bolus.
This
still
allows
for
upward
dose
titration,
if
necessary,
and
reduces
risk
of
overdosing.[56]
In
case
of
fulminant
thrombosis,
an
initial
bolus
may
still
be
appropriate.
Figure
3.
Suggestions
for
dosing
and
monitoring
of
lepirudin
in
regard
to
renal
dysfunction
and
special
aspects
of
the
patient's
clinical
conditions
such
as
bleeding
risk
and
prothrombin
deficiency.
ECA,
ecarin
chromogenic
assay;
aPTT,
activated
partial
thromboplastin
time;
DTI,
direct
thrombin
inhibitor.
§Consider
using
another
direct
thrombin
inhibitor;
*for
example,
liver
impairment,
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation,
previous
treatment
with
vitamin
K
antagonists;
**depending
on
laboratory
dose
response
curve.
Lepirudin
can
induce
antibodies
in
about
40%
of
patients
(70%
with
reexposure),[59]
which
may
reduce
elimination
of
lepirudin
by
prolonging
its
half-‐life,
thus
enhancing
its
pharmacologic
activity.
However,
in
most
cases,
no
adverse
effect
is
seen.
Rare
anaphylactic
reactions
to
lepirudin
have
been
reported,
which
likely
can
be
avoided
by
omitting
bolus
dosing.[60]
672
Bivalirudin.
Bivalirudin
provides
an
interesting
option
for
HIT
in
ICU
as
this
bivalent
DTI
is
cleaved
by
thrombin.
This
avoids
major
drug
accumulation
in
case
of
either
renal
and/or
hepatic
impairment.
It
is
approved
for
PCI
(including
PCI
in
patients
with
HIT)[54]
but
not
for
HIT
in
non-‐PCI
settings.
As
with
argatroban,
thrombin
inhibition
by
bivalirudin
is
reversible.
The
drug
has
a
short
half-‐life
of
approximately
30
mins;
20%
of
the
drug
is
eliminated
by
the
kidneys,
so
that
patients
with
moderate
(creatinine
clearance
30-‐60
mL/min)
and
severe
(creatinine
clearance
<30
mL/min)
renal
impairment
need
dose
adjustment.
The
half-‐life
in
dialysis-‐dependent
patients
is
prolonged
to
3.5
hrs.
No
dosing
guidelines
for
the
treatment
of
HIT
patients
are
established.
In
a
retrospective
cohort
study,
bivalirudin
was
evaluated
in
18
HIT
patients
with
multiple
organ
dysfunction.[61]
Bivalirudin
did
not
cause
severe
bleeding
complications,
if
started
in
ICU
patients
with
hepatic
dysfunction
with
a
continuous
infusion
of
0.14
mg/kg/hr.
In
patients
with
renal
or
combined
hepatic
and
renal
dysfunction,
including
patients
on
continuous
renal
replacement
therapy,
bivalirudin
was
successfully
used
at
a
dose
of
0.03-‐0.05
mg/kg/hr.[61]
Monitoring
by
aPTT
is
possible,
with
a
target
of
2.0
times
baseline.[55]
As
bivalirudin
is
degraded
by
thrombin,
based
on
theoretical
considerations
the
risk
of
accumulation
might
be
less
than
with
other
drugs
in
multiorgan
dysfunction
(although
lack
of
approval
for
HIT
is
a
drawback).
Figure
4.
Suggestions
for
dosing
and
monitoring
of
argatroban
in
regard
to
hepatic
dysfunction
and
special
aspects
of
the
patient's
clinical
conditions
such
as
bleeding
risk
and
prothrombin
deficiency.
ECA,
ecarin
chromogenic
assay;
aPTT,
activated
partial
thromboplastin
time.
#Hyperbilirubinemia,
if
hemolysis
is
excluded;
§to
recognize
overdosing
early,
steady
state
will
not
be
reached
before
4
hrs;
*for
example,
liver
impairment,
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation,
previous
treatment
with
vitamin
K
antagonists.
Danaparoid,
argatroban,
and
lepirudin
have
been
used
successfully
for
renal
replacement
therapy;
lepirudin
and
bivalirudin
have
been
used
for
cardiopulmonary
bypass
surgery.
Both
danaparoid
and
lepirudin
have
a
long
half-‐life
in
case
of
severe
renal
impairment.
Dose
adjustment
of
lepirudin
is
particularly
difficult
in
the
phase
of
deteriorating
or
recurring
renal
function
requiring
very
close
monitoring
(every
4
673
hrs).
Argatroban
has
been
used
at
doses
ranging
between
0.7
and
1.7
μg/kg/min
for
renal
replacement
therapy.[64-‐66]
Table
3
summarizes
current
dosing
protocols.
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
Table
3.
Dosing
and
Monitoring
Regimens
for
Extracorporeal
Circuits
in
Patients
With
Heparin-‐induced
Thrombocytopenia
DTI
effects
on
the
aPTT
are
dependent
on
the
reagent
and
the
clotting
device
used.[67]
For
lepirudin
and
argatroban,
at
higher
concentrations
the
dose-‐response
curve
flattens,
and
even
major
changes
in
plasma
levels
cause
only
a
minor
change
in
the
aPTT.
Therefore,
we
recommend
that
each
laboratory
should
generate
its
own
standard
DTI
dose-‐response
curve
for
its
PTT
reagent
using
spiked
plasma.
This
defines
the
range
over
which
the
aPTT
reliably
reflects
changes
in
the
DTI
plasma
concentration.[56]
At
concentrations
above
this
range,
the
ecarin
clotting
time
is
more
reliable
for
DTI
monitoring,
which
is
why
ecarin
clotting
time
monitoring
is
used
for
high-‐dose
therapy
(e.g.,
during
cardiopulmonary
bypass
surgery).
Low
prothrombin
levels,
as
can
occur
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation,
hepatic
dysfunction,
or
warfarin
therapy,
can
result
in
falsely
elevated
aPTTs
in
the
presence
of
DTIs,
prompting
inappropriate
dose
reductions.[68]
In
this
situation,
lepirudin
may
be
better
monitored
by
direct
measurement
of
lepirudin
levels
by
ELISA[69]
(therapeutic
range
0.5-‐1.0
μg/mL).
Recently,
the
ecarin
chromogenic
assay
has
been
introduced,
which
provides
a
linear
dose-‐response
curve
for
all
DTIs
independently
of
prothrombin
concentration.[70,71]
This
commercially
available,
automated
assay
seems
to
overcome
the
inherent
problems
associated
with
monitoring
of
DTIs
by
aPTT
and
ecarin
clotting
time.
The
DTIs
have
different
effects
on
the
INR.
Whereas
lepirudin
and
bivalirudin
have
minor
effects,
argatroban
causes
substantial
international
normalized
ratio
prolongation.[44,72,73]
This
can
cause
interpretative
confusion,
potentially
triggering
inappropriate
plasma
transfusions
and
complicating
transition
to
warfarin,
if
required.
The
explanation
for
argatroban's
disproportionate
prolongation
of
the
prothrombin
time/international
normalized
ratio
relates
to
its
much
higher
molar
concentrations
required
for
aPTT
prolongation
(about
15-‐
to
20-‐fold,
compared
with
lepirudin).
High
molar
DTI
concentrations
especially
prolong
the
PT
assay.[73]
Table 4 and Table 5 summarize measures aimed at reducing adverse effects of DTIs.
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
[
CLOSE
WINDOW
]
Conclusions
The
low
frequency
of
HIT
in
the
ICU
(about
0.3-‐0.5%)
and
the
high
frequency
of
non-‐
HIT
thrombocytopenia
(about
30-‐50%)
means
that
there
is
the
potential
for
overdiagnosis
of
HIT
and
inappropriate
use
of
nonheparin
anticoagulants,
with
potential
for
high
bleeding
risk.
Nonetheless,
some
clinical
scenarios,
such
as
a
>50%
decrease
in
platelet
count
that
begins
after
day
5
following
cardiac
surgery
and
in
the
absence
of
another
plausible
explanation,
are
sufficiently
specific
for
HIT
to
justify
initiation
of
an
alternative
nonheparin
anticoagulant.
The
initial
clinical
suspicion
of
HIT
can
be
confirmed
if
there
are
high-‐titer
anti-‐PF4/heparin
antibodies
of
the
IgG
class
and/or
a
positive
functional
assay.
In
patients
with
strong
clinical
suspicion
of
HIT,
alternative
therapeutic-‐dose
anticoagulation
is
indicated
before
obtaining
HIT
antibody
test
results.
Lepirudin,
argatroban,
and
danaparoid
are
approved
alternative
anticoagulants.
Bivalirudin
and
fondaparinux
might
become
useful
treatment
options.
In
patients
with
a
low
clinical
suspicion
for
HIT
and
no
acute
thromboembolic
complications,
maintenance
of
heparin
or
switching
to
alternative
prophylactic-‐dose
anticoagulants
is
appropriate.
Low-‐dose
danaparoid
is
the
preferred
option
for
this
situation
(where
available).
Theoretically,
fondaparinux
and
reduced-‐dose
DTIs
should
also
be
options,
although
experience
in
this
setting
is
minimal.
675
Introduction
Background
Disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
is
not
a
specific
diagnosis,
and
its
presence
always
indicates
another
underlying
disease.
There
are
many
diseases
that
may
lead
to
the
occurrence
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
(see
Causes).
Derangement
of
the
fibrinolytic
system
further
contributes
to
intravascular
clot
formation,
but
in
some
cases,
accelerated
fibrinolysis
(eg,
due
to
consumption
of
alpha2-‐antiplasmin)
may
cause
severe
bleeding.
Hence,
a
patient
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
can
present
with
a
simultaneously
occurring
thrombotic
and
bleeding
problem,
which
obviously
complicates
the
proper
treatment.
For
excellent
patient
education
resources,
visit
eMedicine's
Cuts,
Scrapes,
Bruises,
and
Blisters
Center.
Also,
see
eMedicine's
patient
education
articles
Bruises
and
Wilderness:
Bleeding.
Related
eMedicine
topics:
Consumption
Coagulopathy
Disseminated
Intravascular
Coagulation
[in
the
Emergency
Medicine
section]
676
Hemolytic
Anemia
Hemostatic
Disorders,
Nonplatelet
Pathophysiology
Several
simultaneously
occurring
mechanisms
play
a
role
in
the
pathogenesis
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC).
The
main
pathways
leading
to
fibrin
deposition
are
(1)
tissue
factor-‐mediated
thrombin
generation
and
(2)
dysfunctional
physiologic
anticoagulant
mechanisms,
such
as
the
antithrombin
system
and
the
protein
C
system,
which
insufficiently
balance
this
thrombin
generation.
A
third
pathway
in
addition
to
enhanced
fibrin
formation
is
impaired
fibrin
removal
due
to
depression
of
the
fibrinolytic
system.
This
impairment
of
endogenous
thrombolysis
is
mainly
caused
by
high
circulating
levels
of
the
fibrinolytic
inhibitor
PAI-‐1.
As
mentioned
earlier,
in
exceptional
forms
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC),
fibrinolytic
activity
may
be
increased
and
contribute
to
bleeding.
These
mechanisms
are
outlined
in
more
detailed
as
follows:
Thrombin
generation
is
detectable
at
3-‐5
hours
after
the
occurrence
of
bacteremia
or
endotoxemia.
Ample
evidence
exists
for
a
pivotal
role
of
the
tissue
factor/factor
VIIa
system
in
the
initiation
of
thrombin
generation.3
Abrogation
of
the
tissue
factor/factor
VII(a)
pathway
by
monoclonal
antibodies
specifically
directed
against
tissue
factor
or
factor
VIIa
activity
resulted
in
a
complete
inhibition
of
thrombin
generation
in
endotoxin-‐challenged
chimpanzees
and
prevented
the
occurrence
of
DIC
and
mortality
in
baboons
that
were
infused
with
Escherichia
coli.
Indeed,
in
most
patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC),
tissue
factor
antigen
is
detectable
in
plasma.
Hence,
activation
of
coagulation
in
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
is
tissue
factor–driven,
whereas
the
intrinsic
pathway
of
coagulation
was
shown
not
to
play
an
important
role.
An
unresolved
issue
concerns
the
actual
source
of
the
tissue
factor:
Tissue
factor
may
be
expressed
on
mononuclear
cells
in
vitro,
and
tissue
factor
expression
on
circulating
monocytes
of
patients
with
severe
infection
has
indeed
been
demonstrated.
In
addition,
tissue
factor
may
be
expressed
on
endothelial
cells,
677
although
the
importance
of
endothelial
cell
tissue
factor
expression
in
vivo
and
its
role
in
the
pathogenesis
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
is
disputed.
Another
source
of
tissue
factor
may
be
its
localization
on
polymorphonuclear
cells
and
other
cell
types,
although
it
is
unlikely
that
these
cells
actually
synthesize
tissue
factor
in
substantial
quantities.
Based
on
the
observation
of
transfer
of
tissue
factor
from
leukocytes
to
activated
platelets
on
a
collagen
surface
in
an
ex
vivo
perfusion
system,
it
is
hypothesized
that
this
"blood
borne"
tissue
factor
is
transferred
between
cells
through
microparticles
derived
from
activated
mononuclear
cells.
In
addition
to
the
decrease
in
antithrombin
III,
a
significant
depression
of
the
protein
C
system
may
occur.
This
impaired
function
of
the
protein
C
pathway
is
mainly
due
to
downregulation
of
thrombomodulin
expression
on
endothelial
cells
by
proinflammatory
cytokines,
like
tumor
necrosis
factor-‐alpha
(TNF-‐alpha)
and
interleukin
1b
(IL-‐1b).
The
downregulation
of
thrombomodulin
has
been
confirmed
in
studies
in
patients
with
meningococcal
sepsis.
This,
in
combination
with
low
levels
of
zymogen
protein
C
(due
to
similar
mechanisms
as
described
for
antithrombin),
results
in
diminished
protein
C
activation,
which
will
enhance
the
procoagulant
state.
The
third
significant
inhibitor
of
coagulation
is
tissue
factor
pathway
inhibitor
(TFPI).
The
role
of
TFPI
in
the
pathogenesis
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
is
not
completely
clear.
Experiments
that
show
administration
of
recombinant
TFPI
(and
thereby
achieving
higher
than
physiologic
plasma
concentrations
of
TFPI)
blocks
inflammation-‐induced
thrombin
generation
in
humans
and
the
observation
that
pharmacologic
doses
of
TFPI
are
capable
of
preventing
mortality
during
systemic
infection
and
inflammation
suggest
that
high
concentrations
of
TFPI
are
capable
of
modulating
tissue
factor–mediated
coagulation.
However,
the
endogenous
concentration
of
TFPI
is
presumably
insufficiently
capable
of
regulating
coagulation
activation
and
the
downstream
consequences
during
systemic
inflammation.
Defective fibrinolysis
Experimental
models
indicate
that
at
the
time
of
maximal
activation
of
coagulation,
the
fibrinolytic
system
is
largely
shut
off.
Experimental
bacteremia
and
endotoxemia
result
in
a
rapidly
occurring
increase
in
fibrinolytic
activity,
most
probably
due
to
the
release
of
plasminogen
activators
from
endothelial
cells.
However,
this
profibrinolytic
response
is
almost
immediately
followed
by
a
suppression
of
fibrinolytic
activity
due
to
a
sustained
increase
in
plasma
levels
of
plasminogen
activator
inhibitor,
type
1
(PAI-‐1).
Of
note,
strategies
that
are
able
to
completely
block
the
endotoxin-‐induced
thrombin
generation,
such
as
anti-‐tissue
factor
antibodies
or
recombinant
hirudin
(r-‐
hirudin),
were
without
any
effect
on
the
activation
and
subsequent
inhibition
of
fibrinolysis,
suggesting
an
independent
regulation
of
these
2
processes.
Rare
cases
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
are
characterized
by
a
severe
hyperfibrinolytic
state
on
top
of
an
activated
coagulation
system.
Examples
of
such
situations
are
the
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
that
occurs
as
a
complication
ofacute
myeloid
leukemiaM-‐3,
according
to
the
French-‐American-‐
British
[FAB]
classification)
or
the
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
that
may
occur
secondary
to
some
forms
of
adenocarcinoma
(eg,
prostatic
cancer).
Although
hyperfibrinolysis
predominates
in
this
situation,
disseminated
thrombosis
is
still
found
in
a
considerable
number
of
patients
at
autopsy.
Clinically,
however,
these
patients
suffer
from
severe
bleeding.
In
general,
patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
should
not
be
treated
with
antifibrinolytic
agents,
because
this
may
increase
the
fibrinolytic
deficit
and
may
result
in
increased
thrombosis.
Mortality/Morbidity
Obviously,
the
clinical
importance
of
a
severe
depletion
of
platelets
and
coagulation
factors
in
patients
with
diffuse,
widespread
bleeding
or
in
patients
who
need
to
undergo
an
invasive
procedure
is
clear.
In
addition,
the
intravascular
deposition
of
fibrin,
as
a
result
of
the
systemic
activation
of
coagulation,
contributes
to
organ
failure
and
mortality.
679
Histologic
studies
in
patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
show
the
presence
of
ischemia
and
necrosis
due
to
fibrin
deposition
in
small-‐
and
mid-‐size
vessels
of
various
organs.
The
presence
of
these
intravascular
thrombi
appears
to
be
clearly
and
specifically
related
to
the
clinical
dysfunction
of
the
organ.
Specific
thrombotic
complications
that
are
sometimes
seen
in
the
framework
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
are
acral
cyanosis,
hemorrhagic
skin
infarctions,
and
limb
ischemia.
Lastly,
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
has
been
shown
to
be
an
independent
predictor
of
mortality
in
patients
with
sepsis
and
severe
trauma.
The
presence
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
may
increase
the
risk
of
death
by
1.5
to
2.0
in
various
studies.
An
increasing
severity
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
is
directly
related
to
an
increased
mortality.
Race
Sex
Age
Clinical
History
The
symptoms
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
are
often
those
of
the
underlying
inciting
condition
(see
Causes).
In
addition,
symptoms
of
thrombosis,
embolism,
organ
dysfunction,
or
bleeding
may
be
present.
Physical
Causes
Several
disease
states
may
lead
to
the
development
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC).
In
general,
2
major
pathways
may
cause
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC):
(1)
a
systemic
inflammatory
response,
leading
to
activation
of
the
cytokine
network
and
subsequent
activation
of
coagulation
(eg,
in
sepsis
or
major
trauma);
and/or
(2)
release
or
exposure
of
procoagulant
material
into
the
bloodstream
(eg,
in
cancer
or
in
obstetric
cases).
In
some
situations,
both
pathways
may
be
present
(eg,
major
trauma
or
severe
necrotizing
pancreatitis).
Some
of
the
most
frequently
occurring
conditions
are
outlined
below.
Differential
Diagnoses
682
Hemolytic-‐Uremic
Syndrome
Hemostatic
Disorders,
Nonplatelet
Immune
Thrombocytopenic
Purpura
Thrombotic
Thrombocytopenic
Purpura
1. Hemostatic
disorders
2. Heparin-‐induced
thrombocytopenia
–
Heparin-‐induced
thrombocytopenia
is
not
associated
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC).
Although
the
platelet
count
is
decreased,
the
plasma
thromboplastin
time
(PT),
activated
partial
thromboplastin
time
(aPTT),
and
fibrinogen
are
within
the
reference
range.
Platelet
activation,
not
activation
of
the
plasma
coagulation
system,
causes
thrombosis
in
heparin-‐induced
thrombocytopenia.
3. Thrombotic
microangiopathy
(includes
thrombotic
thrombocytopenic
purpura
[TTP],
hemolytic-‐uremic
syndrome
[HUS],
but
also
chemotherapy-‐
induced
or
stem
cell
transplant–associated
microangiopathy,human
immunodeficiency
virus
(HIV)–induced
TTP)
Workup
Laboratory
Studies
1. No
single
routinely
available
laboratory
test
is
sufficiently
sensitive
or
specific
to
allow
a
diagnosis
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC).
2. Specialized
tests
1. In
a
specialized
setting,
molecular
markers
for
activation
of
coagulation
or
fibrin
formation
may
be
the
most
sensitive
assays
for
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC).
A
number
of
clinical
studies
show
that
the
presence
of
soluble
fibrin
in
plasma
has
a
90-‐
100%
sensitivity
for
the
diagnosis
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC),
but
unfortunately
the
specificity
is
low.
Another
problem
is
that
a
reliable
test
for
quantifying
soluble
fibrin
in
plasma
is
not
available,
and
one
study
showed
a
wide
discordance
among
various
assays.
2. The
dynamics
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
can
also
be
judged
by
measuring
activation
markers
that
are
released
upon
the
conversion
of
a
coagulation
factor
zymogen
to
an
active
protease,
such
as
prothrombin
activation
fragment
F1+2
(F1+2).
Indeed,
these
markers
are
markedly
elevated
in
patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC),
but,
again,
the
specificity
is
a
problem.
3. In
addition
to
these
shortcomings,
most
of
the
sensitive
and
sophisticated
tests
described
above
are
not
available
to
general
hematology
laboratories.
Although
these
tests
may
be
very
helpful
in
clinical
trials
or
other
research,
they
often
cannot
be
used
in
a
routine
setting.
3. Routine
tests
683
Imaging Studies
1. Imaging
studies
are
useful
only
to
detect
an
underlying
etiology;
the
diagnosis
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
is
made
by
combining
the
clinical
impression
and
laboratory
abnormalities.
Procedures
Histologic Findings
1. Grossly,
hemorrhage
into
all
tissues
(eg,
brain,
adrenal,
lung,
kidney)
can
develop
in
acute
hemorrhagic
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC).
A
review
of
pathologic
specimens
reveals
evidence
for
fibrin
deposition
in
vessels
and
thrombosis.
Treatment
Medical
Care
685
1. Underlying
disease
1. The
first
step
is
to
treat
the
underlying
disease.
For
example,
if
infection
is
the
underlying
etiology,
the
appropriate
administration
of
antibiotics
and
source
control
is
the
first
line
of
therapy.
2. In
case
of
an
obstetric
catastrophe,
the
primary
approach
is
to
deliver
appropriate
obstetric
care,
in
which
case
the
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
will
rapidly
subside.
2. Adjunctive
treatment
strategies
1. Platelet
and
plasma
(component)
transfusion
1. Low
levels
of
platelets
and
coagulation
factors
may
increase
the
risk
of
bleeding.
However,
plasma
or
platelet
substitution
therapy
should
not
be
instituted
on
the
basis
of
laboratory
results
alone;
it
is
only
indicated
in
patients
with
active
bleeding
and
in
those
requiring
an
invasive
procedure
or
who
are
otherwise
at
risk
for
bleeding
complications.The
suggestion
that
administration
of
blood
components
might
add
"fuel
to
the
fire"
has
in
fact
never
been
proven
in
clinical
or
experimental
studies.
The
presumed
efficacy
of
treatment
with
plasma
or
platelets
is
not
based
on
randomized
controlled
trials
but
appears
to
be
rational
therapy
in
bleeding
patients
or
in
patients
at
risk
for
bleeding
with
a
significant
depletion
of
these
elements.
2. Coagulation
factor
concentrates,
such
as
prothrombin
complex
concentrate,
will
overcome
this
obstacle,
but
these
compounds
lack
essential
factors,
such
as
factor
V.
Moreover,
in
older
literature,
caution
is
advocated
with
the
use
of
prothrombin
complex
concentrates
in
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC),
because
it
may
worsen
the
coagulopathy
due
to
small
traces
of
activated
factors
in
the
concentrate.
However,
whether
this
is
still
relevant
for
the
concentrates
that
are
currently
in
use
is
not
clear.
Specific
deficiencies
in
coagulation
factors,
such
as
fibrinogen,
can
be
corrected
by
administration
of
purified
coagulation
factor
concentrates.
3. Repeated
measurement
of
global
clotting
tests,
such
as
aPTT
and
PT,
might
be
useful
to
monitor
the
coagulation
defect.
In
case
of
a
(relative)
vitamin
K
deficiency,
administration
of
vitamin
K
is
required.
4. Platelet
transfusion
may
be
considered
in
patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
and
severe
thrombocytopenia,
in
particular,
in
patients
with
bleeding
or
in
patients
at
risk
for
bleeding
(eg,
in
the
early
postoperative
phase
or
if
an
invasive
procedure
is
planned).The
threshold
for
transfusing
platelets
depends
on
the
clinical
situation
of
the
patient.
In
general,
platelet
transfusions
are
administered
to
686
patients
who
bleed
and
who
have
a
platelet
count
of
<50
×
109/L.
In
nonbleeding
patients,
a
much
lower
threshold
for
platelet
transfusion
is
used
(usually
<10-‐20
×
109/L),
which
is
based
on
randomized
controlled
trials
in
patients
with
thrombocytopenia
following
chemotherapy.
3. Anticoagulant
therapy
1. Experimental
studies
have
shown
that
heparin
can
at
least
partly
inhibit
the
activation
of
coagulation
in
cases
of
sepsis
and
other
causes
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC).
Uncontrolled
case
series
in
patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
have
claimed
to
be
successful.
However,
a
beneficial
effect
of
heparin
on
clinically
important
outcome
events
in
patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
has
never
been
demonstrated
in
controlled
clinical
trials.
Also,
the
safety
of
heparin
treatment
is
debatable
in
patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
who
are
prone
to
bleeding.
Therapeutic
doses
of
heparin
are
indicated
in
patients
with
clinically
overt
thromboembolism
or
extensive
fibrin
deposition,
such
as
purpura
fulminans
or
acral
ischemia.
2. Patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
may
benefit
from
prophylaxis
to
prevent
venous
thromboembolism,
which
will
not
be
achieved
with
standard
low-‐dose
subcutaneous
heparin.
Theoretically,
the
most
logical
anticoagulant
agent
to
use
in
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
is
directed
against
tissue
factor
activity.
Potential
agents,
which
are
under
evaluation
in
clinical
trials,
include
recombinant
TFPI,
inactivated
factor
VIIa,
and
recombinant
nematode
anticoagulant
peptide
(NAPc2),
a
potent
and
specific
inhibitor
of
the
ternary
complex
between
tissue
factor/factor
VIIa
and
factor
Xa.
4. Restoration
of
anticoagulant
pathways
1. These
strategies
comprise
administration
of
recombinant
human
activated
protein
C
or
antithrombin
concentrate.
2. In
experimental
sepsis
studies,
activated
protein
C
was
shown
to
be
effective
in
reducing
mortality
and
organ
failure.
A
beneficial
effect
of
recombinant
human
activated
protein
C
was
demonstrated
in
2
randomized
controlled
trials.
Administration
of
recombinant
human
activated
protein
C
in
a
large
phase
III
randomized
controlled
clinical
trial
resulted
in
reduction
of
mortality
to
24.7%
compared
with
30.8%
in
the
placebo
group
(relative
risk
reduction
19.4%,
95%
confidence
interval,
6.6-‐30.5).
In
line
with
the
beneficial
effect
on
mortality,
coagulation,
and
inflammation,
organ
function
scores
were
significantly
lower
(ie,
less
organ
failure)
in
the
activated
protein
C
group
compared
with
the
placebo
group.
3. Another
study
showed
that
patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
in
particular
have
the
highest
benefit
of
activated
protein
C
treatment.
Importantly,
administration
of
activated
protein
C
was
effective
in
patients
with
a
protein
C
deficiency
at
study
entry
687
as
well
as
in
patients
who
had
normal
protein
C
levels.
This
finding
may
underline
the
importance
of
administering
activated
protein
C
rather
the
zymogen
protein
C
in
patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
.
4. A
nonrandomized
comparison
between
heparin
and
activated
protein
C
in
patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
showed
a
more
rapid
resolution
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC),
although
the
study
was
too
small
to
demonstrate
effects
on
organ
failure
and
mortality.
5. Because
antithrombin
is
one
of
the
most
important
physiologic
inhibitors
of
coagulation
and
based
on
successful
preclinical
results,
the
use
of
antithrombin
III
concentrates
in
patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
has
been
studied
relatively
intensively.
Most
of
the
randomized
controlled
trials
concern
patients
with
sepsis
and/or
septic
shock.In
the
more
recent
clinical
trials,
very
high
doses
of
antithrombin
concentrate
to
attain
supraphysiologic
plasma
levels
were
used.
A
series
of
relatively
small
trials
showed
a
modest
reduction
in
mortality
in
antithrombin-‐treated
patients.
However,
in
none
of
the
trials,
the
effect
reached
statistical
significance.
1. A
large-‐scale
multicenter,
randomized
controlled
trial
to
directly
address
this
issue
showed
no
significant
reduction
in
mortality
of
septic
patients
who
were
treated
with
antithrombin
concentrate.
In
this
trial,
2114
patients
with
severe
sepsis
and
associated
organ
failure
were
included.
Surprisingly,
subgroup
analyses
indicated
some
benefit
in
patients
who
did
not
receive
concomitant
heparin,
but
this
observation
needs
prospective
validation.
2. In
another
study
that
evaluated
the
effects
of
antithrombin
III
in
23
patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
diagnosed
by
the
based
on
the
Japanese
Association
for
Acute
Medicine
(JAAM)
criteria
(a
newly
developed
diagnostic
criteria
for
critical
illness),
patients
were
treated
with
either
high-‐dose
(60
IU/kg/d;
12
patients)
or
low-‐dose
(30
IU/kg/d;
11
patients)
antithrombin
concentrates
for
3
days.6
On
day
0,
the
patients'
backgrounds
and
antithrombin
activity
were
identical
in
both
groups.
However,
on
day
7,
the
JAAM
DIC
score
and
PT
ratio
were
significantly
improved
when
compared
with
those
on
day
0.
However,
mortality
at
28
days
and
interaction
within
the
administered
antithrombin
doses
showed
no
difference.6
There
were
also
no
differences
in
the
time
course
of
the
platelet
counts,
coagulation
and
fibrinolytic
markers,
and
DIC
scores
in
the
2
groups.
The
authors
concluded
that
the
effects
of
antithrombin
on
prognosis
and
coagulation
and
fibrinolytic
parameters
are
independent
of
the
doses
administered
in
patients
with
systemic
inflammatory
response
syndrome
(SIRS)/sepsis-‐associated
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC).6
688
Surgical Care
Surgical
treatment
is
limited
to
primary
treatment
for
certain
underlying
etiologies
in
cases
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC).
Medication
The
goals
of
pharmacotherapy
in
cases
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
are
to
reduce
morbidity
and
to
prevent
complications.
Anticoagulants
Heparin
is
the
only
currently
available
antithrombotic
drug
that
has
a
role
in
the
treatment
of
patients
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC).
Although
most
experience
is
with
standard
heparin,
low
molecular
weight
heparins
(LMWHs)
are
increasingly
used.
Moreover,
although
low
molecular
weight
heparin
usually
does
not
require
laboratory
monitoring,
it
may
be
advisable
to
check
anti-‐factor
Xa
levels
in
critically
ill
patients
with
serious
renal
failure.
Heparin
Augments
activity
of
antithrombin
III
and
prevents
conversion
of
fibrinogen
to
fibrin.
Does
not
actively
lyse
but
is
able
to
inhibit
further
thrombogenesis.
Prevents
reaccumulation
of
clot
after
spontaneous
fibrinolysis.
Dosing
Adult
Pediatric
Not established
Interactions
Digoxin,
nicotine,
tetracycline,
and
antihistamines
may
decrease
the
effects;
NSAIDs,
aspirin,
dextran,
dipyridamole,
and
hydroxychloroquine
may
increase
heparin
toxicity.
Contraindications
689
Precautions
Pregnancy
B
-‐
Fetal
risk
not
confirmed
in
studies
in
humans
but
has
been
shown
in
some
studies
in
animals
Precautions
Indicated
for
the
reduction
of
mortality
in
patients
with
severe
sepsis
associated
with
acute
organ
dysfunction
and
who
are
at
high
risk
of
death.
Recombinant
form
of
human
activated
protein
C
that
exerts
antithrombotic
effect
by
inhibiting
factors
Va
and
VIIIa.
Has
indirect
profibrinolytic
activity
by
inhibiting
plasminogen
activator
inhibitor-‐1
(PAI-‐1)
and
limiting
formation
of
activated
thrombin-‐activatable-‐
fibrinolysis-‐inhibitor.
May
exert
anti-‐inflammatory
effect
by
inhibiting
human
tumor
necrosis
factor
(TNF)
production
by
monocytes,
blocking
leukocyte
adhesion
to
selectins,
and
limiting
thrombin-‐induced
inflammatory
responses
within
the
microvascular
endothelium.
Dosing
Adult
24
mcg/kg/h
IV
continuous
infusion
for
96
h;
ideally,
initiate
within
48
h
of
sepsis
onset
Pediatric
Not established
Interactions
None
reported;
coadministration
with
drugs
that
affect
hemostasis
may
increase
the
risk
of
bleeding
(eg,
warfarin,
heparin,
thrombolytics,
glycoprotein
IIb/IIIa
inhibitors)
Contraindications
690
Precautions
Pregnancy
C
-‐
Fetal
risk
revealed
in
studies
in
animals
but
not
established
or
not
studied
in
humans;
may
use
if
benefits
outweigh
risk
to
fetus
Precautions
Bleeding
is
the
most
common
serious
adverse
effect;
caution
with
conditions
that
increase
the
risk
of
bleeding,
including
an
INR
>3,
concurrent
therapeutic
heparin
(>15
U/kg/h),
within
6
wk
of
GI
bleeding
episode,
within
3
d
of
thrombolytic
therapy,
within
7
d
of
platelet
inhibitors
administration,
within
3
mo
of
ischemic
stroke,
intracranial
arteriovenous
malformation
or
aneurysm,
known
bleeding
diathesis,
chronic
severe
hepatic
disease;
stop
the
infusion
if
clinically
significant
bleeding
occurs
Follow-‐up
Further
Inpatient
Care
1. If
unclear,
a
diagnostic
workup
in
search
of
the
underlying
condition
causing
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC)
should
be
initiated.
Complications
1. Death
is
the
most
serious
complication
in
cases
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC).
2. Organ
dysfunction
and
limb
ischemia
may
occur.
3. Bleeding,
which
can
be
excessive,
may
seriously
complicate
the
clinical
course
of
a
patient
with
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC).
Prognosis
Miscellaneous
Medicolegal
Pitfalls
691
The
following
can
lead
to
medicolegal
pitfalls
in
cases
of
disseminated
intravascular
coagulation
(DIC):
Inhibitori GPIIbIIIa
- aprobate numai pt utilizare iv
694
Terapia anticoagulanta
Fiziologie coagulare:
- prin injurie vasc + activvare Tr este initiat sistemul coagularii prin expunerea
proteinelor plasmatice la fact tisular subendotelial
- fact tisular formeaza un complex cu FVIIa in prezenta fosfolipidelor si
cliveaza FX si FIX la forme active
695
UFH
- raspunsul anticoagulant la UFH este variabil depinzand de calea si doza
adm (tipic adm iv si sc, absorbtia po redusa)
- proteinele care leaga heparina in plasma (fact 1 plachetar, glicoproteine
bogate in histidina, fvW) si rec celulari (endoteliu si Mf) reduc nivelul de medic
adm iv si trebuie depasite rpin adm initiala de bolus
696
Monitorizare
- efectul anticoagulant al UFH este monitorizat cu APTT ( activated partial
thromboplastin time) care este sensibil la inactivarea trombinei
- intervalul terapeutic pt heparina in gen 1.5-2.5 x APTT control
- APTT este influentat de multe variabile legate de lab si ac (reactiv
tromboplastina, echip monit, componente plasma pac)
- monit nivelului antiXa nu depinde de reactiv tromboplastina sau sensibilitate
prot din plasma
Complicatii
1. Hemoragiile – complic principala – sangerari fatal 0-3%
- corelate cu intensitatea anticoagularii, utilizarea concomitenta a inh
GPIIbIIIa, tromboliza, postop, alte afectiuni, def hemostatice concomitente
LMWH
- fragm depolimerizate de heparina care pastreaza activitatea antiXa
- sunt obtinute prin clivare chimica sau enzimatica
- greut molec 4000-6500 da
- au afinitate ↓ pt proteinele plasmatice (spre deosebire de UFH) LMWH
manif cresterea biovalabilitatii si clearence-ului care sunt independente de
doza
- calea principala de elim renala
- in gen nu necesita monitorizare terapie datorita nivellor predictibile obisnuite
cu adm sc
- monitorizarea este rec in sarcina, obezi, insuf renala – monit nivel antiXa asa
cum rec producatorul pt un nivel tinta antiXa 0,6-1 u/ml
- dozele de LMWH depind de formula si de indic clinica
Deltaparin = Fragmin
2500 uαXa/ml
Tinzaparin = Innohep
0.3 ml = 3500 uαXa
0.45 ml = 4500 uαXa
0.5 ml = 10000 uαXa
0.7 ml = 14000 uαXa
0.9 ml = 18000 uαXa
Clinic
- LMWH sunt superioare heparinei in preventia TVP dupa artroplastia de sold,
dar in cele mai multe alte situatii cu risc inalt (chir gen, AVC) LMWH par
echivalente cu UFH pt tromboprofilaxie
- LMWH sunt la fel de efic ca UFH pt trat TVP si TEP in ambulator
- alte situatii in care LMWH poate substituii UFH sunt: angina instabila, IMA
anterior cu unda Q, IVS, tromb mural, ICC, TVP la gravida
Complicatii
1. Hemoragia este complicatia majora, dar nu are incidenta mai mare fata de
UFH
- pt cele mai multe proceduri LMWH adm la doze profilactice pot fi continuate
in siguranta fara complic hemoragice excesive
- pt pac care primesc doze terapeutice de LMWH si sufera interv elective sau
anest reguinala se rec amanarea cu 24 h de la ultima doza de LMWH
- similar, LMWH doza terapeutica nu va fi inceputa 24 h dupa o procedura
majora sau anest enuroaxiala
- protamina este numai partial eficineta in reversarea efectului antiXa al
LMWH cu o neutralizare de 60-70%
- pt suspiciunea de supradoza sau hemoragie cu risc vital producatorii LMWH
rec Protamina in doza de 1 mg pt 100 antiXa ui LMWH, urmata de a 2-a doza
0,5 mg pt 100 antiXa ui daca APTT este prelungit
2. Trombocitopenia ap de 10x mai putin la LMWH dar este reactivitate
incrucisata
3. Osteoporoza – mai rar ca UFH
- Argatoban
- agenti care inactiveaza trombina circulanta sau legata de tromb
- alternative la promitatoare la heparina datorita duratei scurte de actiune,
raspunsului predictibil, monitorizare usoara utilizand APTT
Lepirudina
- forma recombinata de hirudina
- inh potent al trombinei prin formarea unui complex ireversibil
- Δt1/2 ~ 80 min
- eliminare renala
- sangerari majore frecvente
Bivarudin
- Δt1/2 ~ 25 min
- a fost aprobat pt pacienti care sufera interventii percutane in angina instabila
Argatoban
- component mic, se leaga necovalent de trombina
- Δt1/2 40-50 min
- elim hepatica
Anticoagulante orale
Farmacologie
- derivati cumarinici (wafarina) blocheaza lantul metabolic al vit K prin antag
reductazei vit K si limitarea formei reduse si active a vit K (vit KH2)
- fact de coagulare inclusiv FII, VII, IX, X precum si protienele anticoagulante
C si S necesita carboxilarea N terminal al aa glutaminici de catre o
γcarboxilaza care are ca cofactor vit K
- exita forme parenterale de wafarina, dar are absorbtie buuna digestiva
- se leaga ↑ de proteine cu o activitate reziduala datorata formei nelegate
- Δt1/2 36-42 h dar efectul anticoag este mai lung dat inactivarii unor fact de
coag cu Δt1/2 lung, in sp FX (36h) si F II (60-72h)
- metab hepatic, citocrom P450
- ef anticoag dependent de doza al wafarinei variza f mult de la indiv la altul
(fact genetici, dieta, medic concomitente, b asociate)
- necesita monit frecv la initierea terapiei pana cand se atinge un nivel
plasmatic constant in cateva S
- in ciuda limitelor PT este exprimat ca INR este utilizat pt monitorizare
INR = PT plasma pacient/PT plasma normal
- pt cei mai multi pac INR terapeutic = 2-3, exc pac care necesita INR = 2.5-
3.5 (in sp valva mecanica in poz aortica, Ac antifosfolipidici)
- indic in utilizarea pe termen lung a anticoagularii cu warfarina este benefica
in reducerea evenimentelor trombotice intr-o serie de boli incluzand
700
INR tratament
3.5-4.5 fara sangerare oprire 24 ore + ↓ doza
4.6-10 fara sangerare vit K 1 mg OR
10-20 fara sangerare vit K 5 mg OR
> 20 sangerare moderata 2-4 u PPC + vit K 10 mg SC
sangerare importanta PPC + FIX + vit K 10 mg SC
Terapia fibrinolitica
Farmacologie
- fibrinoliza terapeutica este atinsa prin utilizarea activatorilor plasminogenului
la doze farmacologice care sa promoveze conversia plasminogenului in
plasmina si sa creeze o stare de hiperplasminemie
- agentii fibrinolitici:
- activatori nespecific ai plasminogenului – Streptokinaza, urokinaza
- activatori specifici – t-PA recombinat si variantele sale reteplase,
tenecteplase
- toti se adm iv
Streptokinaza
701
Tromboliza terapeutica
- asoc cu o serie de anomalii de lab
- ↓ timp de liza euglobulina
- ↑ produsi de degradare fibrinogen
- ↓ niv virculant plasminogen si fibrinogen
- ↑ timp de sangerare
- ↑ timp de trombina
- alterarea acetor teste nu este predictiva pt riscul hemoragic si monitorizarea
de rutina a trombolizei nu se efectueaza
- screening pac pt CI
CI : Absolute: - AVC hemoragic sau ischemic instalat de timp necunoscut
- AVC ischemic in ultimele 6 luni
- leziune / neoplasm SNC
- trauma majora/chirurgie/TCC in ultimele 3 S
- sangerare digestiva in ultima luna
- diateza hemoragica cunoscuta
- disectie Ao
Relative: - AIT in ultimele 6 luni
- terapie anticoagulanta orala
- sarcina + 1 S postpartum
702
- punctie necompresibila
- resuscitare trumatica
- HTA refratara (TAS > 180 mmHg)
- b hepatica avansata
- endocardita infectioasa
- ulcer peptic activ
- indicatii
- beneficiu terapeutic IMA
- AVC - ↓ mortalitatea si imbunatateste perf in zonele de penumbra
- ocluzia arteriala periferica (<14z) – infuzie localizata intraarteriala este
mai efic decat adm sistemica
- TVP – beneficii pe termen scurt,
- TEP – imbun perfuzia, ↓ HTP , dar nu ↓ mortalitatea + risc ↑ de
AVC hemoragic
→ rec pt pac cu TEP masiv si soc sau pt pac cu tromboza ileo femurala
intinsa
Complicatii
1. Hemoragia majora + fatala
- hemoragiile intracraniene ap in 24h de la trat si au mortalitate 60%
- predictori pt hemor intracraniene sunt varsta > 65 ani si HTA (TAD mai mult
decat TAS)
- evitare proceduri si interv chir, inj im la pac trombolizati
- hemoragia cu risc vital sau in cazul interv vhir de urgenta
- intrerupere fibrinolitic
- CPP 100 u/5 kg greutate pac sau ppC 15-20 ml/kg
- infuzie MTr
- deoarece nivelul de plasminogen nu se reface pt 24-36 h de la intrerupere
fibrinolitic aceste masuri corectoare sunt rec daca interv are loc in 24 h de la
intrerupere
- infuzia de ac ε aminocaproic sau Aprotinina poatea fi utilizata daca activatorii
plasminogenului sunt inca prezenti in plasma
2. Alte efecte – dezv de Ac antistreptococ la SK si APSAC care pot prod r
alergice la ambele medic si neutralizare efecte
- pt a depasii efectul Ac trebuiesc adm doze mari de incarcare de SK + HHC
- UK si t-Pa sunt prot umane → r alergice rare
- la pac cu placa aterosclerotica moale a fost raportata embolizarea cu
colesterol dupa trat
Antifibrinoliticele
Ac aminocaproic, ac tranexamic
703
DDAVP
- creste nivelele de vWF + F VIII
- 0.3 γ/kg IV
Novoseven
- FVIIa recombinat
- 90 γ/kg la 2 ore
FVIII 1u/kg → ↑ 2%
F IX 1u/kg → ↑ 1%
XIGRIS
Antitrombina
Unitati necesare (la 8 ore) = (Nivel dorit – Nivel initial) x 0.6 x G (kg)
105.
Edemul
cerebral
(tipurile
de
edem
cerebral,
cauze,
mecanisme,
diagnostic,
monitorizare,
tratament)
Types
Four
types
of
cerebral
edema
have
been
distinguished[1]:
Due
to
a
breakdown
of
tight
endothelial
junctions
which
make
up
the
blood-‐brain
barrier
(BBB).
This
allows
normally
excluded
intravascular
proteins
and
fluid
to
penetrate
into
cerebral
parenchymal
extracellular
space.
Once
plasma
constituents
cross
the
BBB,
the
edema
spreads;
this
may
be
quite
fast
and
widespread.
As
water
enters
white
matter
it
moves
extracellularly
along
fiber
tracts
and
can
also
affect
the
gray
matter.
This
type
of
edema
is
seen
in
response
to
trauma,
tumors,
focal
inflammation,
late
stages
of
cerebral
ischemia
and
hypertensive
encephalopathy.
704
Some
of
the
mechanisms
contributing
to
BBB
dysfunction
are:
physical
disruption
by
arterial
hypertension
or
trauma,
tumor-‐facilitated
release
of
vasoactive
and
endothelial
destructive
compounds
(e.g.
arachidonic
acid,
excitatory
neurotransmitters,
eicosanoids,
bradykinin,
histamine
and
free
radicals).
Some
of
the
special
subcategories
of
vasogenic
edema
include:
This
form
of
cerebral
edema
is
seen
in
acute,
malignant
hypertension.
It
is
thought
to
result
from
direct
transmission
of
pressure
to
cerebral
capillary
with
transudation
of
fluid
into
the
ECF
from
the
capillaries.
Cancerous
glial
cells
(glioma)
of
the
brain
can
increase
secretion
of
vascular
endothelial
growth
factor
(VEGF)
which
weakens
the
junctions
of
the
blood-‐
brain
barrier.
Dexamethasone
can
be
of
benefit
in
reducing
VEGF
secretion[2].
High
altitude
cerebral
edema
(or
HACE)
is
a
severe
form
of
(sometimes
fatal)
altitude
sickness.
HACE
is
the
result
of
swelling
of
brain
tissue
from
leakage
of
fluids
from
the
capillaries
due
to
the
effects
of
hypoxia
on
the
mitochondria-‐
rich
endothelial
cells
of
the
blood-‐brain
barrier[3].
Symptoms
can
include
headache,
loss
of
coordination
(ataxia),
weakness,
and
decreasing
levels
of
consciousness
including
disorientation,
loss
of
memory,
hallucinations,
psychotic
behavior,
and
coma.
It
generally
occurs
after
a
week
or
more
at
high
altitude.
Severe
instances
can
lead
to
death
if
not
treated
quickly.
Immediate
descent
is
a
necessary
life-‐saving
measure
(2,000
-‐
4,000
feet).
There
are
some
medications
(e.g.
dexamethasone)
that
may
be
prescribed
for
treatment
in
the
field,
but
these
require
proper
medical
training
in
their
use.
Anyone
suffering
from
HACE
must
be
evacuated
to
a
medical
facility
for
proper
follow-‐up
treatment.
A
gamow
bag
can
sometimes
be
used
to
stabilize
the
sufferer
before
transport
or
descending.
Climbers
may
also
suffer
high
altitude
pulmonary
edema
(HAPE),
which
affects
the
lungs.
While
not
as
life
threatening
as
HACE
in
the
initial
stages,
failure
to
descend
to
lower
altitudes
or
receive
medical
treatment
can
also
lead
to
death.
In
this
type
of
edema
the
BBB
remains
intact.
This
edema
is
due
to
the
derangement
in
cellular
metabolism
resulting
in
inadequate
functioning
of
the
sodium
and
potassium
pump
in
the
glial
cell
membrane.
As
a
result
there
is
cellular
retention
of
sodium
and
water.
There
are
swollen
astrocytes
in
gray
and
white
matter.
Cytoxotic
edema
is
seen
with
various
intoxications
(dinitrophenol,
triethyltin,
hexachlorophene,
705
Normally
cerebral-‐spinal
fluid
(CSF)
and
extracellular
fluid
(ECF)
osmolality
of
the
brain
is
slightly
greater
than
that
of
plasma.
When
plasma
is
diluted
by
excessive
water
intake
(or
hyponatremia),
syndrome
of
inappropriate
antidiuretic
hormone
secretion
(SIADH),
hemodialysis,
or
rapid
reduction
of
blood
glucose
in
hyperosmolar
hyperglycemic
state
(HHS),
formerly
hyperosmolar
non-‐ketotic
acidosis
(HONK),
the
brain
osmolality
will
then
exceed
the
serum
osmolality
creating
an
abnormal
pressure
gradient
down
which
water
will
flow
into
the
brain
causing
edema.
Occurs
in
obstructive
hydrocephalus.
This
form
of
edema
is
due
to
rupture
of
CSF-‐
brain
barrier:
permits
CSF
to
penetrate
brain
and
spread
in
the
extracellular
space
of
white
matter.
Differentiated
from
vasogenic
edema
in
that
fluid
contains
almost
no
protein
[edit]
Treatment
Treatment
approaches
can
include
mannitol,
diuretics
and
corticosteroids
Published: 07/24/2007
Abstract
Cerebral
edema
is
frequently
encountered
in
clinical
practice
in
critically
ill
patients
with
acute
brain
injury
from
diverse
origins
and
is
a
major
cause
of
increased
morbidity
and
death
in
this
subset
of
patients.
The
consequences
of
cerebral
edema
can
be
lethal
and
include
cerebral
ischemia
from
compromised
regional
or
global
cerebral
blood
flow
(CBF)
and
intracranial
compartmental
shifts
due
to
intracranial
pressure
gradients
that
result
in
compression
of
vital
brain
structures.
The
overall
goal
of
medical
management
of
cerebral
edema
is
to
maintain
regional
and
global
CBF
to
meet
the
metabolic
requirements
of
the
brain
and
prevent
secondary
neuronal
injury
from
cerebral
ischemia.
Medical
management
of
cerebral
edema
involves
using
a
systematic
and
algorithmic
approach,
from
general
measures
(optimal
head
and
neck
positioning
for
facilitating
intracranial
venous
outflow,
avoidance
of
dehydration
and
systemic
hypotension,
and
maintenance
of
706
Introduction
Cerebral
edema,
simply
defined
as
an
increase
in
brain
water
content
(above
the
normal
brain
water
content
of
approximately
80%)
and
invariably
a
re
sponse
to
a
primary
brain
insult,
is
commonly
observed
in
a
variety
of
brain
injury
paradigms,
including
TBI,
SAH,
ischemic
stroke
and
ICH,
primary
and
metastatic
neoplasms,
inflammatory
diseases
(meningitis,
ventriculitis,
cerebral
abscess,
and
encephalitis),
and
severe
toxic–
metabolic
derangements
(hyponatremia
and
fulminant
hepatic
encephalopathy).
In
the
clinical
setting,
cerebral
edema
is
a
frequent
cause
of
morbidity
and
death
in
patients
with
neural
injuries.
Cerebral
edema
has
traditionally
been
classified
into
three
major
subtypes:
cytotoxic,
vasogenic,
and
interstitial
(hydrocephalic)[7,11,12,36,71]
(see
the
Underlying
Mechanisms
of
Edema
Formation
section
for
more
details).
This
classification
is
highly
simplistic,
given
that
it
pertains
to
complex
pathophysiological
and
molecular
mechanisms,
but
is
valuable
as
a
simple
therapeutic
guide
for
treatment
of
cerebral
edema.
Most
brain
insults
involve
a
combination
of
these
fundamental
subtypes
of
edema,
although
one
can
predominate
depending
on
the
type
and
duration
of
injury.
Cytotoxic
edema
results
from
swelling
of
the
cellular
elements
(neurons,
glia,
and
endothelial
cells)
because
of
substrate
and
energy
failure,
and
affects
both
gray
and
white
matter.
This
edema
subtype
is
conventionally
thought
to
be
resistant
to
any
known
medical
treatment.
Vasogenic
edema
that
results
from
breakdown
of
the
BBB
due
to
increased
vascular
permeability,
as
commonly
encountered
in
TBI,
neoplasms,
and
inflammatory
conditions,
predominantly
affects
white
matter.
This
edema
subtype
is
responsive
to
both
steroid
administration
(no
tably
edema
associated
with
neoplasms)
and
osmotherapy.
Other
causes
of
vasogenic
edema
include
tissue
hypoxia
and
water
intoxication
that
maybe
responsive
to
osmotherapy
but
resistant
to
steroid
administration.[7,11,12,35,71]
Interstitial
edema,
a
consequence
of
impaired
absorption
of
CSF,
leads
to
increases
in
transependymal
CSF
flow,
resulting
in
acute
hydrocephalus.
This
edema
subtype
is
also
not
responsive
to
steroid
administration,
and
its
response
to
osmotherapy
is
debatable.[12]
Most
cases
of
brain
injury
that
result
in
elevated
ICP
begin
as
focal
cerebral
edema.
Consistent
with
the
Monroe–Kellie
doctrine
as
it
applies
to
intracranial
vault
physiology,
the
consequences
of
focal
(with
or
without
ICP
elevation)
or
global
cerebral
edema
can
be
lethal
and
in
clude
cerebral
ischemia
from
compromised
regional
or
global
CBF
and
intracranial
compartmental
shifts
due
to
ICP
gradients,
resulting
in
compression
of
vital
brain
structures
('herniation'
syndromes;
Table
1
).
Prompt
re
cog
nition
of
these
clinical
syndromes
and
institution
of
targeted
therapies
constitutes
the
basis
of
cerebral
resuscitation.
It
is
imperative
to
emphasize
the
importance
of
a
pa
tient
displaying
cerebral
herniation
syndrome
without
707
increments
in
global
ICP;
in
these
cases,
elevations
in
ICP
may
or
may
not
accompany
cerebral
edema,
particularly
when
the
edema
is
focal
in
distribution.
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
Table 1. Summary of The Clinical Subtypes of Herniation Syndromes*
Determining
a
definitive
contribution
of
cerebral
edema
to
the
neurological
status
of
a
patient
can
be
challenging.
Serial
and
close
bedside
monitoring
with
a
focus
on
the
level
of
consciousness
and
new
or
worsening
focal
neurological
deficits
is
imperative
and
frequently
requires
ad
mission
of
the
patient
to
the
ICU.
Serial
neuroimaging
(CT
scans
and
magnetic
resonance
imaging)
can
be
particularly
useful
in
confirming
intracranial
compartmental
and
midline
shifts,
herniation
syndromes,
ischemic
brain
injury,
and
exacerbation
of
cerebral
edema
(sulcal
effacement
and
obliteration
of
basal
cisterns),
and
can
provide
valuable
insights
into
the
type
of
edema
present
(focal
or
global,
involvement
of
gray
or
white
matter).[70]
Monitoring
of
ICP
is
helpful
in
patients
in
whom
neurological
status
is
difficult
to
ascertain
serially,
particularly
in
the
setting
of
pharmacological
sedation
and
neuromuscular
paralysis.
The
Brain
Trauma
Foundation
guidelines
recommend
ICP
monitoring
in
patients
with
TBI,
a
GCS
score
of
less
than
9,
and
abnormal
CT
scans,
or
in
patients
with
a
GCS
score
less
than
9
and
normal
CT
scans
in
the
presence
of
two
or
more
of
the
following:
age
greater
than
40
years,
unilateral
or
bi
lat
eral
motor
posturing,
or
systolic
blood
pressure
greater
than
90
mmHg.[12]
No
such
guidelines
exist
for
ICP
monitoring
in
other
brain
injury
paradigms
(ischemic
stroke,
ICH,
cerebral
neoplasm),
and
decisions
made
for
ICP
mon
itoring
in
this
setting
are
frequently
based
on
the
clinical
neurological
status
of
the
patient
and
data
from
neuroimaging
studies.
The
reader
is
referred
to
the
Imaging
and
Monitoring
section
for
details
of
ICP
monitoring
techniques.
Medical
management
of
cerebral
edema
(with
or
without
ICP
elevation)
involves
a
graded
algorithmic
approach,
from
general
measures
(optimal
head
and
neck
positioning
for
facilitation
of
intracranial
venous
outflow,
avoidance
of
dehydration
and
systemic
hypotension,
and
maintenance
of
normothermia)
to
specific
therapeutic
interven-‐
itions
(controlled
hyperventilation,
administration
of
corticosteroids
or
diuretics,
osmotherapy,
and
pharmacological
ce
rebral
metabolic
suppression).
Several
general
measures
that
are
supported
by
principles
of
altered
cerebral
physiology
and
clinical
data
from
patients
with
brain
injury
should
be
applied
to
patients
with
cerebral
edema;
these
measures
are
focused
on
limiting
cerebral
edema
that
may
or
may
not
be
accompanied
by
ICP
elevations.
The
primary
goal
of
708
these
measures
is
to
optimize
cerebral
perfusion,
oxygenation,
and
venous
drainage;
minimize
cerebral
metabolic
demands;
and
avoid
interventions
that
may
disturb
the
ionic
or
osmolar
gradient
between
the
brain
and
the
vascular
compartment.
Finding
the
optimal
neutral
head
position
in
patients
with
cerebral
edema
is
essential
for
avoiding
jugular
compression
and
impedance
of
venous
outflow
from
the
cranium,
and
for
decreasing
CSF
hydrostatic
pressure.
In
nor
mal
uninjured
patients,[45]
as
well
as
in
patients
with
brain
injury,[22]
head
elevation
decreases
ICP.[58,75,77]
These
observations
have
led
most
clinicians
to
incorporate
a
30DE
elevation
of
the
head
in
patients
with
poor
intracranial
compliance.
Head
position
elevation
may
be
a
significant
concern
in
patients
with
ischemic
stroke,
however,
be
cause
it
may
compromise
perfusion
to
ischemic
tissue
at
risk.[74]
It
is
also
imperative
to
avoid
the
use
of
restricting
devices
and
garments
around
the
neck
(such
as
devices
used
to
secure
endotracheal
tubes),
as
these
may
lead
to
impaired
cerebral
venous
outflow
via
compression
of
the
in
ternal
jugular
veins.
Hypoxia
and
hypercapnia
are
potent
cerebral
vasodilators
and
should
be
avoided
in
patients
with
cerebral
edema.[20,71,85]
It
is
recommended
that
any
patients
with
GCS
scores
less
than
or
equal
to
8
and
those
with
poor
up
per
airway
reflexes
be
intubated
preemptively
for
airway
protection.[7,20]
This
strategy
is
also
applicable
to
patients
with
concomitant
pulmonary
disease,
such
as
aspiration
pneumonitis,
pulmonary
contusion,
and
acute
respiratory
distress
syndrome.
Levels
of
PaCO2
should
be
maintained
that
support
adequate
rCBF
or
CPP
to
the
injured
brain,
and
a
value
of
approximately
35
mmHg
is
a
generally
accepted
target
in
the
absence
of
ICP
elevations
or
clinical
herniation
syndromes.
Avoidance
of
hypoxemia
and
main
tenance
of
PaO2
at
approximately
100
mmHg
are
recommended.[20,71,86]
One
major
concern
is
the
deleterious
role
of
positive-‐pressure
ventilation
(which
may
be
required
to
maintain
adequate
oxygenation)
on
cerebral
edema
that
re
sults
from
elevations
in
central
venous
pressures
and
impedance
of
cerebral
venous
drainage.
Delivery
of
PEEP
greater
than
10
cm
H2O
in
patients
with
severe
TBI
has
resulted
in
elevated
ICP.[4]
In
patients
with
SAH,
slight
in
creases
in
ICP
have
been
documented
with
PEEP
greater
than
5
cm
H2O
without
clinical
deterioration.[48]
Therefore,
careful
monitoring
of
clinical
neurological
status,
ICP,
and
CPP
(mean
arterial
pressure
–
ICP)
is
recommended
in
mechanically
ventilated
patients
with
cerebral
edema
with
or
without
elevations
in
ICP.
Blunting
of
upper
airway
reflexes
(coughing)
with
endobronchial
lidocaine
before
suctioning,
sedation,
or,
rarely,
pharmacological
paralysis
may
be
necessary
for
avoiding
increases
in
ICP.[24,44]
Maintenance
of
CPP
using
adequate
fluid
management
in
combination
with
vasopressors
is
vital
in
patients
with
brain
injury,
irrespective
of
origin.
Systemic
dehydration
and
the
use
of
hypotonic
fluids
should
be
avoided
at
all
cost.
Euvolemia
709
or
mild
hypervolemia
with
the
use
of
isotonic
fluids
(0.9%
saline)
should
always
be
maintained
through
rigorous
attention
to
daily
fluid
balance,
body
weight,
and
serum
electrolyte
monitoring.
The
recommended
goal
of
a
CPP
level
greater
than
60
mmHg
should
be
adhered
to
in
patients
with
TBI,[9]
and,
simultaneously,
sharp
rises
in
systemic
blood
pressure
should
be
avoided.
The
maximum
blood
pressure
tolerated
in
different
clinical
situations
of
brain
injury
is
variable
and
controversial,
particularly
in
a
patient
with
early
large
ICH.[65]
Judicious
use
of
antihypertensives
(labetalol,
enalaprilat,
or
nicar
dipine)
is
recommended
for
treating
systemic
hypertension.
Potent
vasodilators
(nitroglycerine,
nitroprusside)
are
to
be
avoided,
as
they
may
exacerbate
cerebral
edema
via
accentuated
cerebral
hyperemia
and
CBV
due
to
their
direct
vasodilating
effects
on
cerebral
vasculature.[20,99]
Seizure Prophylaxis
Evidence
from
clinical
studies
in
patients
with
ischemic
stroke,[33,62]
SAH,[1,59]
and
TBI[78]
suggests
a
strong
correlation
between
hyperglycemia
and
worse
clinical
outcomes.
Hy
perglycemia
can
also
exacerbate
brain
injury
and
cerebral
edema.[11,31]
Significantly
improved
outcome
has
been
re
ported
in
general
ICU
patients
(including
20%
of
pa
tients
with
TBI
and
all
patients
undergoing
craniotomies
for
all
other
indications)
with
good
glycemic
control,[104]
although
larger
studies
focused
on
specific
brain
injury
par
adigms
are
forthcoming.
Nevertheless,
current
evidence
suggests
that
rigorous
glycemic
control
may
be
beneficial
in
all
patients
with
brain
injury.
710
Nutritional Support
Prompt
institution
and
maintenance
of
nutritional
support
is
imperative
in
all
patients
with
acute
brain
injury.
Unless
contraindicated,
the
enteral
route
of
nutrition
is
pre
ferred.
Special
attention
should
be
given
to
the
osmotic
content
of
formulations,
to
avoid
free
water
intake
that
may
result
in
a
hypoosmolar
state
and
worsen
cerebral
ede
ma.[7,20,74]
Controlled Hyperventilation
Based
on
principles
of
altered
cerebral
pathophysiology
associated
with
brain
injury,
controlled
hyperventilation
remains
the
most
efficacious
therapeutic
intervention
for
cerebral
edema,
particularly
when
the
edema
is
associated
with
elevations
in
ICP.
A
decrease
in
PaCO2
by
10
mmHg
produces
proportional
decreases
in
rCBF
(and
decreases
in
CBV
in
the
intracranial
vault),
resulting
in
rapid
and
prompt
ICP
reduction.[20,74]
The
vasoconstrictive
effect
of
respiratory
alkalosis
on
cerebral
arterioles
has
been
shown
to
last
for
10
to
20
hours,
beyond
which
vascular
dilation
may
result
in
exacerbation
of
cerebral
edema
and
rebound
elevations
in
ICP.[55]
Prolonged
hyperventilation
has
been
shown
to
result
in
worse
outcomes
in
patients
with
TBI,[54]
although
its
effect
in
other
brain
injury
paradigms
is
un
clear.
Overaggressive
hyperventilation
may
actually
result
in
cerebral
ischemia.[95]
Therefore,
the
common
clinical
practice
is
to
lower
and
maintain
PaCO2
by
10
mmHg
to
a
target
level
of
approximately
30–35
mmHg[24,44,74]
for
4
to
6
hours,
although
identifying
the
correct
strategy
for
achieving
this
goal
is
unclear
in
terms
of
adjusting
tidal
volumes
and
respiratory
rate.
It
should
be
noted
that
controlled
hy
perventilation
is
to
be
used
as
a
rescue
or
resuscitative
measure
for
a
short
duration
until
more
definitive
therapies
are
instituted
and
maintained
that
are
tailored
toward
the
particular
patient
(osmotherapy,
surgical
decompression,
and
others).
Caution
is
advised
when
reversing
hy
per
ventilation
judiciously
over
6
to
24
hours,[20,24,44,74]
to
avoid
cerebral
hyperemia
and
rebound
elevations
in
ICP
secondary
to
effects
of
reequilibration.
Osmotherapy Use
Historical Perspective
The
earliest
description
in
the
literature
of
the
use
of
osmotic
agents
dates
back
to
1919.[110]
While
studying
the
transport
of
salt
solutions
into
the
neuraxis,
Weed
and
McKibben
observed
that
intravenous
ad
ministration
of
a
concentrated
salt
solution
resulted
in
an
inability
to
withdraw
CSF
from
the
lumbar
cistern
due
to
a
collapse
of
the
thecal
sac.
This
serendipitous
observation
was
followed
by
an
elegant
set
of
experiments
in
an
animal
model
in
which
they
demonstrated
(under
direct
visualization
via
a
craniotomy)
egress
of
the
brain
away
from
the
cranial
vault
with
intravenous
infusion
of
hypertonic
saline
solutions
and
herniation
of
brain
tissue
with
administration
of
hypotonic
fluids.
This
set
of
observations
has
formed
the
basis
711
for
osmotherapy.
Concentrated
urea
was
the
first
agent
to
be
used
clinically
as
an
osmotic
agent.[7,8,25,35,60]
Its
use
was
short-‐lived
and
is
of
historic
interest
only
because
of
several
untoward
side
effects
(nau
sea,
vomiting,
diarrhea,
and
coagulopathy).[20,60]
The
in
terest
in
elevating
plasma
oncotic
pressure
as
a
strategy
to
ameliorate
cerebral
edema
with
the
use
of
concentrated
human
plasma
proteins,
which
appeared
briefly
in
1940,
was
short-‐lived
due
to
several
concerns,
including
cost,
short
half-‐life,
cardiopulmonary
effects,
and
allergic
reactions.[60]
Glycerol
was
possibly
the
second
osmotic
agent
to
be
used
clinically
and
is,
interestingly,
still
used
by
some
physicians
in
continental
Europe
because
of
tradition.[60]
Mannitol,
an
alcohol
derivative
of
simple
sugar
mannose,
was
introduced
in
1960
and
has
since
remained
the
major
osmotic
agent
of
choice
in
clinical
practice.[7,8,35,60]
Its
long
duration
of
action
(4–6
hours)
and
relative
stability
in
solution
have
enhanced
its
use
over
the
years.
The
extra
osmotic
properties
of
mannitol
have
been
studied
extensively
and
may
provide
additional
beneficial
effects
in
brain
injury,
including
decreases
in
blood
viscosity,
resulting
in
increases
in
rCBF
and
CPP,
and
a
resultant
cerebral
vasoconstriction
leading
to
decreased
CBV,[76,81]
free
radical
scavenging,[2]
and
inhibition
of
apoptosis.[42]
Renewed
interest
in
hypertonic
saline
solutions
reappeared
in
the
1980s,
when
they
were
used
in
small-‐volume
resuscitation
in
patients
experiencing
hemorrhagic
shock.[7,8,35,66,79,114]
These
studies
demonstrated
that
prehospital
restoration
of
intravascular
volume
improved
morbidity
and
mortality
rates
and
physiological
parameters
(such
as
systemic
blood
pressure,
cardiac
index,
and
tissue
perfusion)
in
this
subset
of
patients.[66,79,114]
In
subsequent
studies,
cerebral
effects
of
these
solutions
were
investigated
in
well-‐controlled
experimental
studies
in
animal
models
of
acute
brain
injury.
Like
mannitol,
hypertonic
saline
also
possesses
unique
extraosmotic
properties,
including
modulation
of
CSF
production
and
resorption
and
accentuation
of
tissue
oxygen
delivery.[7,8,35,60]
In
addition,
ongoing
ex
perimental
studies
suggest
that
hypertonic
saline
may
modulate
inflammatory
and
neurohumoral
responses
(arginine-‐vasopressin
and
atrial
natriuretic
peptide)[13]
following
brain
injury
that
may
act
together
to
ameliorate
cerebral
edema.
These
studies
continue
to
provide
evidence
for
the
potential
use
of
these
solutions
in
the
clinical
domains.
Put
simply,
the
fundamental
goal
of
osmotherapy
is
to
create
an
os
motic
gradient
to
cause
egress
of
water
from
the
brain
extracellular
(and
possibly
intracellular)
compartment
into
the
vasculature,
thereby
decreasing
intracranial
volume
(normal
brain
volume
80%,
normal
blood
volume
10%,
and
normal
CSF
volume
10%)
and
improving
intracranial
elastance
and
compliance.[7,8,35,60,74,79,114]
In
healthy
individuals,
serum
osmolality
(285–295
mOsm/L)
is
relatively
con
stant,
and
the
serum
Na+
concentration
is
an
estimate
of
body
water
osmolality.[7,8,35,60]
Under
ideal
circumstances,
serum
osmolality
is
dependent
on
the
major
cations
(Na+
and
K+),
plasma
glucose,
and
blood
urea
nitrogen.
Be
cause
urea
is
freely
diffusible
across
cell
membranes,
se
rum
Na+
and
plasma
glucose
are
the
major
molecules
in
volved
in
altering
serum
osmolality.[7,8,35,60]
712
The
goal
of
using
osmotherapy
for
cerebral
edema
associated
with
brain
injury
is
to
maintain
a
euvolemic
or
a
slightly
hypervolemic
state.[7,8,35,60,67
]As
a
fundamental
principle,
a
hypoosmolar
state
should
always
be
avoided
in
any
patient
who
has
an
acute
brain
injury.[7,8,35,60,74]
A
serum
osmolality
in
the
range
of
300
to
320
mOsm/L
has
traditionally
been
recommended
for
patients
with
acute
brain
injury
who
demonstrate
poor
intracranial
compliance;[7,8,35,60,74]
however,
values
greater
than
320
mOsm/L
can
be
attained
with
caution,
without
apparent
untoward
side
effects.[18]
An
ideal
osmotic
agent
is
one
that
produces
a
favorable
osmotic
gradient,
is
inert
and
nontoxic,
is
excluded
from
an
intact
BBB,
and
has
minimal
systemic
side
effects.[7,8,35,60,79,114]
The
ability
of
the
intact
BBB
to
exclude
a
given
compound
has
been
quantified
(reflection
coefficient
s)
by
biophysicists.[7,35,42,60,67,114]
Very
simplistically,
compounds
with
s
approaching
1
(completely
impermeable)
are
considered
to
be
better
osmotic
agents
because
they
are
completely
excluded
by
an
intact
BBB,
and
conversely
less
likely
to
exhibit
'rebound'
cerebral
edema
during
withdrawal
of
osmotherapy.[7,35,42,49,60,67,114]
With
mannitol
(σ
=
0.9)
use,
the
potential
for
rebound
cerebral
edema
exists
as
a
result
of
a
reversal
of
the
osmotic
gradient
between
the
brain
and
the
intravascular
compartment
in
areas
in
which
the
BBB
is
disrupted.[60]
This
observation
is
consistent
with
the
data
showing
that
mannitol
appears
in
the
CSF
with
levels
of
approximately
12%
of
the
corresponding
plasma
concentration
8
hours
following
its
intravenous
bolus
administration,[46]
and
rebound
increases
in
ICP
have
been
well
documented
with
its
use.
Similarly,
glycerol
(σ
=
0.48)
and
urea
(σ
=
0.59)
are
less
than
ideal
agents
for
osmotherapy
because
their
osmotic
effects
are
transient
and
they
are
only
partly
excluded
by
the
intact
BBB;
therefore,
equilibration
between
the
brain
and
in
travascular
compartment
can
occur
rapidly.[60,114]
Because
sodium
chloride
has
a
reflection
coefficient
of
1.0,
it
has
been
proposed
to
be
a
potentially
more
effective
osmotic
agent.[60,114]
Based
on
these
theoretical
concepts
and
observations,
a
number
of
experimental
studies
have
demonstrated
the
efficacy
of
osmotherapy
in
the
treatment
of
cerebral
ede
ma.
A
comprehensive
discussion
of
these
studies
is
beyond
the
scope
of
this
article.
Based
on
these
experimental
studies,
however,
several
prospective
clinical
studies,
particularly
in
the
TBI
paradigm,
have
demonstrated
the
beneficial
effects
of
mannitol
use
for
the
treatment
of
elevated
ICP.
It
should
be
noted
that
although
many
of
these
trials
focused
on
ICP
effects
and
changes
in
physiological
variables
in
the
acute
phase,
the
literature
contains
few
reports
regarding
their
effects
on
long-‐
term
outcomes.
In
an
uncontrolled
case
series,
treatment
with
an
intravenous
bolus
of
mannitol
attenuated
ICP
to
34%
of
pretreatment
values
in
patients
with
poor
intracranial
compliance.[51]
In
a
prospective
ser
ies
of
patients
with
elevated
ICP
and
diverse
intracranial
diseases,
bolus
mannitol
decreased
ICP,
with
a
mean
reduction
of
52%
of
pretreatment
values.[39]
In
an
uncontrolled
series
of
patients
with
TBI,
0.25
g/kg
of
an
intravenous
bolus
of
mannitol
was
sufficient
to
attenuate
elevated
ICP.[47]
In
studies
713
of
patients
with
severe
TBI
treated
with
mannitol,
ICP
was
significantly
reduced,
with
im
provement
in
rCBF
and
CPP.[50,53]
Although
the
immediate
response
to
mannitol
was
beneficial
(ICP
reduction)
in
a
prospective,
randomized
trial
in
80
patients
with
TBI,[94]
long-‐term
functional
outcome
was
not
affected
in
this
subset
of
patients.
A
recent
metaanalysis
of
all
studies
in
the
literature
to
date
suggests
that
high-‐dose
mannitol
treatment
may
be
preferable
to
conventional
doses
for
acute
TBI.[108]
The
use
of
hypertonic
saline
solution
in
the
treatment
of
cerebral
edema
and
elevated
ICP
in
the
clinical
setting
is
largely
based
on
an
extension
of
laboratory-‐
based
research,
a
few
prospective
studies
in
humans,
and
anecdotal
case
reports.
The
first
report
to
demonstrate
the
efficacy
of
hypertonic
saline
in
patients
with
TBI[113]
involved
two
patients
with
elevated
ICP
refractory
to
mannitol
who
were
treated
successfully
with
a
single
intravenous
bolus
of
30%
saline,
after
which
ICP
decreased
and
systemic
perfusion
improved.
Continuous
intravenous
infusion
of
2.5
714
and
5.4%
hypertonic
saline
enhanced
CPP
and
improved
somatosensory
evoked
potentials
after
brainstem
trauma.[29]
Likewise,
in
an
uncontrolled,
nonrandomized
study,[111]
reductions
in
ICP
were
noted
with
the
use
of
7.5%
hypertonic
saline
treatment
following
TBI.
In
a
double-‐blind
crossover
study,
in
which
3%
hypertonic
saline
for
TBI
was
used
in
a
pediatric
population,
ICP
was
re
duced
by
approximately
5
mmHg
for
2
hours
compared
with
ICP
in
patients
who
required
equal
volumes
of
isotonic
saline.[23]
In
an
uncontrolled,
nonrandomized,
retrospective
clinical
case
series,
the
beneficial
effects
(clinical
and
radiographic
evidence
of
improvement
in
midline
shift)
following
treatment
with
3%
hypertonic
saline
were
documented
in
patients
with
TBI
and
postoperative
cerebral
edema
but
not
in
patients
with
ICH
or
ischemic
stroke.[68]
In
a
prospective,
randomized
trial
in
34
patients
with
TBI,
both
hypertonic
saline
and
hypertonic
lactated
Ringer
solution
were
effective
therapies
in
controlling
ICP.[88]
In
a
prospective,
randomized,
controlled
study
in
children
with
severe
TBI,
hypertonic
saline
therapy
lowered
ICP
and
augmented
CPP
with
fewer
complications
than
lactated
Ringer
solution,
resulting
in
a
shorter
ICU
stay.[90]
In
a
retrospective
case
series,
30
ml
of
an
intravenous
bolus
administration
of
23.4%
hypertonic
saline
reduced
ICP
and
augmented
CPP
for
up
to
3
hours
in
patients
with
intractable
elevations
in
ICP
from
diverse
origins
that
were
refractory
to
all
conventional
therapeutic
modalities
(hyperventilation,
mannitol
therapy,
and
barbiturates).[96]
A
retrospective
review
of
13
patients
treated
with
a
23.4%
intravenous
bolus
of
hypertonic
saline
or
mannitol
documented
a
much
longer
duration
of
ICP
lowering
with
hypertonic
saline
than
with
mannitol
(96
hours
compared
with
59
minutes)
without
complications.[109]
Few
studies
have
made
direct
comparisons
between
man
nitol
and
hypertonic
saline.
In
a
prospective,
randomized
comparison
of
2.5
ml/kg
of
either
20%
mannitol
(1400
mOsm/kg)
or
7.5%
hypertonic
saline
(2560
mOsm/
kg)
in
patients
undergoing
elective
supratentorial
procedures,[30]
ICP
and
intraoperative
clinical
assessment
of
brain
swelling
were
similar
in
both
treatment
groups.
In
a
pro
spective,
randomized
trial
of
hypertonic
saline
with
hy
droxyethyl
starch
(for
more
prolonged
action),
hypertonic
saline
was
shown
to
be
more
effective
than
equiosmolar
doses
of
mannitol
in
lowering
elevated
ICP
and
augmenting
CPP
in
patients
with
ischemic
stroke.[87]
Like
wise,
intravenous
bolus
injection
of
10%
hypertonic
saline
was
shown
to
be
effective
in
lowering
ICP
in
patients
with
ischemic
stroke
who
failed
to
show
such
a
response
to
conventional
doses
of
mannitol.[86]
More
recently,
in
a
small
prospective
study,
isovolemic
intravenous
infusion
of
7.5%
hypertonic
saline
was
more
effective
in
the
control
of
ICP
following
TBI,
compared
with
mannitol
treatment.[107]
In
a
prospective,
randomized,
controlled,
cross
over
trial
in
20
patients
with
TBI,
treatment
with
7.5%
saline
and
6%
dextran
solution
was
more
effective
than
equiosmolar
doses
of
mannitol
in
controlling
ICP.[5]
In
summary,
the
literature
supports
the
use
of
hypertonic
saline
as
a
therapy
to
decrease
ICP
in
patients
following
TBI
and
stroke
and
to
optimize
intravascular
fluid
status
in
patients
with
SAH-‐induced
vasospasm.
The
conventional
osmotic
agent
mannitol,
when
administered
at
a
dose
of
0.25
to
1.5
g/kg
by
intravenous
bolus
injection,
usually
lowers
ICP,
with
maximal
effects
observed
20
to
40
minutes
following
its
administration.[60]
Repeated
dosing
of
mannitol
may
be
instituted
every
6
hours
and
should
be
guided
by
serum
osmolality
to
a
recommended
target
value
of
approximately
320
mOsm/L;
higher
values
result
in
renal
tubular
damage.
This
therapeutic
goal
is
based
on
limited
evidence,
however,
and
higher
values
can
be
targeted
provided
that
the
patient
is
not
volume
depleted.[18]
A
variety
of
formulations
of
hypertonic
saline
solutions
(2,
3,
7.5,
10,
and
23%)
are
used
in
clinical
practice
for
the
treatment
of
cerebral
edema
with
or
without
elevations
in
ICP.
Hypertonic
saline
solutions
of
2,
3,
or
7.5%
contain
equal
amounts
of
sodium
chloride
and
sodium
acetate
(50:50)
to
avoid
hyperchloremic
acidosis.[7,8,35,67,79,114]
Po
tassium
supplementation
(20–40
meq/L)
is
added
to
the
solution
as
needed.
Continuous
intravenous
infusions
are
begun
through
a
central
venous
catheter
at
a
variable
rate
to
achieve
euvolemia
or
slight
hypervolemia
(1–2
ml/
kg/hr).
A
250-‐ml
bolus
of
hypertonic
saline
can
be
ad
ministered
cautiously
in
select
patients
if
more
aggressive
and
rapid
resuscitation
is
warranted.
Normovolemic
fluid
status
is
maintained,
guided
by
central
venous
pressure
or
pulmonary
artery
wedge
pressure
(if
available).
The
goal
in
using
hypertonic
saline
is
to
increase
serum
sodium
con
centration
to
a
range
of
145
to
155
mEq/L
(serum
osmolality
approximately
300–320
mOsm/L),
but
higher
levels
can
be
targeted
cautiously.
This
level
of
serum
sodium
is
maintained
for
48
to
72
hours
until
patients
demonstrate
clinical
improvement
or
there
is
a
lack
of
response
despite
achieving
the
serum
sodium
target.
During
withdrawal
of
therapy,
special
caution
is
emphasized
due
to
the
possibility
of
rebound
hyponatremia
leading
to
exacerbation
of
cerebral
edema.
Serum
sodium
and
potassium
are
monitored
every
4
to
6
hours,
during
both
institution
and
withdrawal
of
therapy,[7,8,35]
and
other
serum
electro
lytes
are
monitored
daily
(particularly
calcium
and
magnesium).
Chest
radiographs
are
obtained
at
least
once
every
day
to
try
and
find
evidence
of
pulmonary
edema
from
congestive
heart
failure,
especially
in
elderly
patients
with
poor
cardiovascular
reserve.
Intravenous
bolus
injections
(30
ml)
of
23.4%
hypertonic
saline
have
been
used
in
cases
of
intracranial
hypertension
refractory
to
conventional
ICP-‐lowering
therapies;
repeated
injections
of
30
ml
boluses
of
23.4%
saline
may
be
given
if
needed
to
lower
ICP.
Administration
of
this
osmotic
load,
to
lower
ICP
and
maintain
CPP,
may
allow
extra
time
for
other
di
ag
nostic
or
therapeutic
interventions
(such
as
decompressive
surgery)
in
critically
ill
patients.[90,96]
Safety
concerns
with
mannitol
include
hypotension,
hemolysis,
hy
perkalemia,
renal
insufficiency,
and
pulmonary
ede
ma.[7,8,35,60,67,79,114]
Thus
far,
no
Phase
1
trials
have
been
con
ducted
to
investigate
the
safety
of
hypertonic
saline
solutions;
however,
clinical
experience
suggests
that
the
side-‐effect
profile
of
hypertonic
saline
is
superior
to
mannitol,
but
some
theoretical
complications
that
are
possible
with
hypertonic
saline
therapy
are
notable
(
Table
2
).
Myelinolysis,
the
most
serious
complication
of
hypertonic
saline
therapy,
typically
occurs
when
rapid
corrections
in
716
serum
sodium
arise
from
a
chronic
hyponatremic
state
to
a
normonatremic
or
hypernatremic
state.
Experimental
studies
suggest
that
for
myelin
injury
to
occur,
the
degree
of
rapid
change
in
serum
sodium
is
much
greater
from
a
normonatremic
to
a
hypernatremic
state
(change
of
ap
proximately
40
mEq/L),
but
further
study
with
neuro
imaging
techniques
is
required.[35]
[ CLOSE WINDOW ]
Table
2.
Summary
of
Theoretical
Potential
Complications
of
Using
Hypertonic
Saline
Solutions*
Loop Diuretics
The
use
of
loop
diuretics
(commonly
furosemide)
for
the
treatment
of
cerebral
edema,
particularly
when
used
alone,
remains
controversial.[20]
Combining
furosemide
with
mannitol
produces
a
profound
diuresis;
however,
the
efficacy
and
optimum
duration
of
this
treatment
remain
unknown.[20]
If
loop
diuretics
are
used,
rigorous
attention
to
systemic
hydration
status
is
advised,
as
the
risk
of
serious
volume
depletion
is
substantial[98]
and
cerebral
perfusion
may
be
compromised.
A
common
strategy
used
to
raise
serum
sodium
rapidly
is
to
administer
an
intravenous
bolus
of
furosemide
(10
to
20
mg)
to
enhance
free
water
excretion
and
to
replace
it
with
a
250-‐ml
intravenous
bolus
of
2
or
3%
hypertonic
saline.
Acetazo
la
mide,
a
carbonic
anhydrase
inhibitor
that
acts
as
a
weak
diuretic
and
modulates
CSF
production,
does
not
have
a
role
in
cerebral
edema
that
results
from
acute
brain
injuries;
however,
it
is
frequently
used
in
outpatient
practice,
particularly
for
the
treatment
of
cerebral
edema
associated
with
pseudotumor
cerebrii.[20]
Corticosteroid Administration
The
main
indication
for
the
use
of
steroids
is
for
the
treatment
of
vasogenic
edema
associated
with
brain
tu
mors
or
accompanying
brain
irradiation
and
surgical
manipulation.[71]
Although
the
precise
mechanisms
of
the
beneficial
effects
of
steroids
in
this
paradigm
are
un
known,
steroids
decrease
tight-‐junction
permeability
and,
in
turn,
stabilize
the
disrupted
BBB.[61,91]
Gluco
cor
ticoids,
especially
dexamethasone,
are
the
preferred
ster
oidal
agents,
due
to
their
low
mineralocorticoid
activity.
The
ther
apeutic
role
of
steroids
in
TBI
and
stroke
has
been
studied
extensively.
In
TBI,
steroids
failed
to
control
elevations
in
ICP
or
to
show
any
benefit
in
outcome,
and
they
may
even
be
harmful.[17,72]
In
stroke,
steroids
have
failed
to
show
any
substantial
benefit[64]
despite
some
success
in
animal
models.[93]
Given
the
deleterious
side
effects
of
steroid
use
(peptic
ulcers,
hyperglycemia,
impairment
of
wound
healing,
psychosis,
and
immunosuppression),
until
further
studies
are
published,
caution
is
advised
in
the
use
of
steroids
for
cerebral
edema
unless
absolutely
indicated.
The
role
of
steroids
in
the
treatment
of
bacterial
meningitis
and
postinfectious
encephalitis
is
beyond
the
scope
of
this
article.
717
Pharmacological Coma
Barbiturates.
Barbiturates
were
introduced
in
the
therapeutic
armamentarium
in
the
1960s,
and
have
gained
acceptance
for
the
treatment
of
cerebral
edema
associated
with
intractable
elevations
in
ICP
that
are
refractory
to
other
therapeutic
modalities.
Barbiturates
lower
ICP,
principally
via
a
reduction
in
cerebral
metabolic
activity,
resulting
in
a
coupled
reduction
in
rCBF
and
CBV.[74]
Yet
their
use
in
clinical
practice
is
not
without
controversy.
In
patients
with
TBI,
barbiturates
are
effective
in
reducing
ICP[21]
but
have
failed
to
show
evidence
of
improvement
in
clinical
outcome.[84]
Evidence
is
limited
for
the
utility
of
barbiturate
treatment
in
cerebral
diseases
that
include
space-‐occupying
lesions
(such
as
tumor
and
ICH)
and
ischemic
stroke.
When
used
in
the
acute
setting,
pentobar
bital,
a
barbiturate
with
an
intermediate
physiological
half-‐life
(approximately
20
hours)
is
the
preferred
agent
rather
than
phenobarbital,
which
has
a
much
longer
half-‐life
(approximately
96
hours)
or
thiopental,
which
has
a
much
shorter
half-‐life
(approximately
5
hours).[20,74]
The
recommended
regimen
entails
a
loading
intravenous
bolus
dose
of
pentobarbital
(3–
10
mg/kg),
followed
by
a
continuous
intravenous
infusion
(0.5–3.0
mg/Kg/hr,
serum
levels
of
3
mg/dL),
which
is
titrated
to
sustain
reduction
in
ICP
or
achieve
a
'burst-‐
suppression
pattern'
on
continuous
electroencephalographic
monitoring.[24]
It
is
recommended
that
a
barbiturate
coma
be
maintained
for
48
to
72
hours,
with
gradual
tapering
by
decreasing
the
hourly
infusion
by
50%
each
day.[44]
Longer
periods
of
induced
coma
may
be
necessary,
however,
to
reverse
the
underlying
disease
causing
cerebral
edema
and
ICP
elevation.
Several
adverse
effects
of
barbiturates
that
limit
their
clinical
use
are
to
be
noted,
including
sustained
vasodepressor
effect
(lowering
of
systemic
blood
pressure
and
CPP),
cardiodepression,
immunosuppression
leading
to
increased
risk
of
infection,
and
systemic
hypothermia.[63,83]
Vaso
pres
sor
support
and
ionotropic
agent
use
are
frequently
re
quired.
Perhaps
the
most
important
limitation
with
barbiturate
coma
treatment
is
the
inability
to
track
subtle
changes
in
a
patient's
clinical
neurological
status,
which
necessitates
frequent
serial
neuroimaging.
Propofol.
Because
of
the
potential
side
effects
of
barbiturates
and
their
long
half-‐life,
propofol
emerged
as
an
appealing
alternative,
especially
due
to
its
extremely
short
half-‐life.[71]
In
addition
to
propofol's
efficacy
in
controlling
ICP
in
patients
with
TBI,
it
also
has
antiseizure
properties
and
decreases
cerebral
metabolic
rate.[41]
Although
propofol
use
continues
to
become
more
popular
due
to
these
properties,
hypotension
can
be
the
limiting
factor
to
its
use
in
the
clinical
setting.
Other
adverse
effects
of
propofol
use
include
hypertriglyceridemia
and
increased
CO2
production
due
to
the
lipid
emulsification
vehicle;[3]
careful
monitoring
of
serum
triglycerides
is
recommended
with
its
use.
Cases
of
"propofol
infusion
syndrome"
that
can
be
fatal
have
been
reported,
particularly
in
children,
when
propofol
is
used
over
a
long
period
of
time
at
high
doses.[15]
Analgesia,
Sedation,
and
Paralysis.
Pain
and
agitation
can
worsen
cerebral
edema
and
raise
ICP
significantly,
and
should
always
be
controlled.
Judicious
intravenous
doses
of
bolus
morphine
(2–5
mg)
and
fentanyl
(25–
100
mcg)
or
a
continuous
intravenous
infusion
of
fentanyl
(25–200
mcg/hour)
can
be
used
for
analgesia.
A
718
neuromuscular
blockade
can
be
used
as
an
adjunct
to
other
measures
when
controlling
refractory
ICP.[40]
Nondepolarizing
agents
should
be
used,
because
a
depolarizing
agent
(such
as
succinylcholine)
can
cause
elevations
in
ICP
due
to
in
duction
of
muscle
contraction.[56]
Therapeutic Hypothermia
Whereas
robust
data
from
experimental
and
a
few
clinical
studies
clearly
support
the
fact
that
hyperthermia
is
deleterious
to
brain
injury,
achieving
normothermia
is
a
desirable
goal
in
clinical
practice.
The
beneficial
effects
of
therapeutic
hypothermia
observed
in
the
experimental
setting
have
not
translated
into
the
clinical
setting,
however,
and
have
not
resulted
in
improved
neurological
outcomes.
The
therapeutic
goal
of
instituting
and
maintaining
hypo
thermia
and
its
specific
effects
on
brain
edema
are
emerging.
Two
recent
trials
of
therapeutic
mild
hypothermia
(32°C)
following
out-‐of-‐hospital
cardiac
arrest,
accomplished
within
8
hours
and
maintained
for
12
to
24
hours,
improved
mortality
and
functional
outcomes.[37,38]
The
role
of
hypothermia
in
TBI
is
less
clear.
The
hypothermia
trial[14]
of
the
National
Brain
Injury
Study
did
not
improve
long-‐term
outcome
in
patients
with
TBI,
but
it
is
plausible
that
a
subset
of
patients
with
brain
edema
that
results
in
ICP
elevations
may
benefit
from
this
intervention.[89]
The
present
consensus
is
that
adverse
effects
of
therapeutic
hypothermia
outweigh
the
benefits
in
TBI.[28]
A
few
small
clinical
series
of
patients
with
hypothermia
in
ischemic
stroke
are
encouraging,[43,82]
but
definitive
results
from
larger
trials
are
awaited.
From
a
practical
standpoint,
external
cooling
devices
(such
as
air-‐circulating
cooling
blankets,
iced
gastric
lavage,
and
surface
ice
packs)
are
the
most
commonly
employed
for
hypothermia,
although
the
efficacy
of
endovascular
devices
is
currently
being
investigated.[16]
At
present,
no
consensus
exists
regarding
the
duration
of
hypothermia
to
use
in
patients
with
ischemic
stroke,
the
method
to
be
used
(active
versus
passive),
or
the
duration
over
which
rewarming
is
to
be
employed.[20]
The
adverse
side
effects
of
induced
hypothermia
are
substantial
and
require
close
monitoring;
these
include
an
in
creased
incidence
of
systemic
infection,
coagulopathy,
and
electrolyte
derangements.[20]
Shivering,
a
common
treat
ment
accompaniment,
can
be
controlled
with
pharmacological
neuromuscular
blockade
or
meperidine
in
combination
with
enteral
buspirone.[20]
Other
complementary
therapies
for
cerebral
edema
that
are
prevalent
in
continental
Europe
but
have
not
been
incorporated
into
clinical
practice
in
the
US
are
worthy
of
mention.
One
such
therapy
is
THAM,
a
buffer
(pKa
~
7.8)
introduced
in
the
1960s,
which
has
been
shown
to
ameliorate
secondary
neuronal
injury
and
cerebral
edema
in
experimental
animal
models,[57]
as
well
as
in
patients
with
TBI[27]
(presumably
by
ameliorating
tissue
acidosis).
A
randomized,
controlled
clinical
trial
of
THAM
in
TBI
demonstrated
its
beneficial
effects
on
lowering
ICP;
however,
it
did
not
demonstrate
an
improved
neurological
outcome.[112]
Nevertheless,
this
agent
holds
potential
as
an
adjunctive
therapy
for
treatment
of
cerebral
edema.
719
Further
investigation
is
warranted
of
the
use
of
hyperbaric
oxygen
for
the
treatment
of
cerebral
edema,
based
on
a
clinical
trial
(100%
oxygen
at
1.5
atmospheres
for
1
hour
every
8
hours)
that
demonstrated
enhanced
survival
in
patients
with
TBI.[73]
Although
the
mechanisms
are
poorly
understood,
indomethacin
treatment
has
been
shown
to
attenuate
increases
in
ICP
in
TBI;[20,92]
diminishing
rCBF
and
fever
prevention
have
been
postulated
as
plausible
mechanisms
for
this
beneficial
action.[92]
Although
numerous
pharmacological
neuroprotective
agents
have
shown
benefit
in
experimental
models,
their
translation
to
the
human
brain
injury
paradigm
has
yet
to
provide
clinical
benefit.
Nevertheless,
the
search
for
these
neuroprotective
agents
continues.
Cerebral
edema,
irrespective
of
the
underlying
origin
of
brain
injury,
is
a
significant
cause
of
morbidity
and
death.
The
treatment
of
cerebral
edema
involves
an
algorithmic
approach
(Fig.
1)
based
on
principles
of
altered
cerebral
physiology
in
brain
injury.
Application
of
general
principles
and
selective,
timely,
targeted
therapies
can
help
pa
tients
with
devastating
consequences
of
cerebral
edema
that
may
or
may
not
be
associated
with
elevations
in
ICP.
A
prospective
clinical
trial
of
mannitol
compared
with
hypertonic
saline
will
address
the
relative
efficacy
of
these
osmotic
agents.
Future
experimental
studies
that
investigate
the
optimal
timing,
duration
of
treatment,
and
serum
osmolality
in
a
variety
of
brain
injury
paradigms
will
aid
in
developing
a
therapeutic
protocol
for
osmotherapy.
In
vestigative
studies
of
novel
mechanisms,
such
as
the
role
of
aquaporins
and
neurohumoral
responses,
may
aid
in
developing
new
pharmacological
therapies
and
targets
for
the
treatment
of
cerebral
edema.
720
721
Pierderea de caldura
- prin gradient termic in mediu: radiere, conductie, convectie, evaporare
5. Ca, Na hipotalamic
6. CK inflamatorii (IL1, IL6, TNFα)
HIPOTERMIA NEINTENTIONATA
→ 32,2 – 35 oC = usoara
→ 28 – 32,2 oC = modeata
→ < 28 oC = severa
Cauze
- varsta – batrani
- expunerea la frig – apa < 24oC
- drugs: - alcool
- fenotiazine
- barbiturice
- curare
→ scad aferentele senzoriale
→ hipotalamus
→ raspuns efector
→ inhiba producerea frisonului
- penicilina
- eritromicina
- bromocriptina – afectare centru dopaminergic
- disfunctii endocrine
- cetoacidoza diabetica
- coma hiperosmolara
- hipoglicemia (glicemian< 60 mg → T<35oC)
→ scade concentratia de glucoza intracerebrala
→ fct hipotalamus
- hipotiroidism
- coma mixedematoasa (deficienta cerebrala de TSH)
- panhipopituarism + insuf adrenala
- B ale SNC
- AVC
- metastaze cerebrale
- sarcoidoza, glioza, lues
- intox CO
- def de tiamina
- Anorexia
- Sectiuni ale MS
- B de piele cu VD + pierdere de apa transpiele
- Trauma
Clearance medicamente
22. ↓ DC
23. deshidratare
725
24. ↓ GFR
25. filtrare tubulara anormala
26. alterare disociatie medic-proteine
27. flux biliar incetinit
Diagnostic:
- temp intrarectal
- istoric expunere
- coma
- unda J, QT/PR prelungit
- To oral/nazofaringe nu reflecta corect
- ↑LDH, CK, CKMB, TGO, uree, creatinina
Diagnostic diferential:
726
→ cauza hipotermiei
→ meningita, abdoment acut….
Tratament
- morbiditatea variaza in functie de bolile concomitente + To
- factori agraventi: → K > 10mEq/l
→ uree > 259 mmoli/l
→ fibrinogen < 50 mg/dl
Initial:
- CPR (!orice miscare poate produce FiV)
- resuscitare volemica – CVC + lichide hipotone cristloide incalzite la temp
camerei
- vasopresor
- Swan – Gantz (temp vase centrale)
- aritmia nu raspunde la soc/tratament, doar la incalzire
- lidocaina – ef ↓
- de ales: Bretilium
- SEE – improbabil sa fie eficient la To<30
- EAB cu pH mai ↓ si PaCO2 mai ↑decat in realitate
- pt 20oC un pH normal este 7,65
- PaO2 mai ↑ decat realitatea (7,2% pentru fiecare grad< 37oC)
- FiO2= 1
- IOT
Tratare cauze hipotermie
Prevenirea complicatiilor
- antibiotic controversat
- SNG + lipsa alim
- nu heparina SC (absorbtie proasta)
- degeraturi
Trat suportiv: rabdomioliza, sd de copartiment, ARDS, IRA, CID
Metode de incalzire:
1. Incalzire pasiva externa
- cea mai putin invaziva + lenta
2. Incalzire activa externa
- paturi incalzite, aer incalzit, imersie in apa calda
- controversata - control scazut asupra ratei ↑ To
- àcidoza
- VD periferica + soc
3. Incalzire activa centrala
- O2 umiificat si incalzit
- lavaj gastric cu ser cald, peritoneal, pleural
- hemodializa, CEC
4. Alte metode: fluide IV la T crescute (65oC), diatermia
HIPOTERMIA IATROGENA
- ↓ toxicitate sepsis
- previne alopecia din chimioterapie
- amputatii
- leziuni cerebrale posttraumatice
- chir cardiotoracica
- stopul cardiac
- IMA: limiteaza marimea si extinderea IMA – raciere in timpul
PCI si 3 ore dupa
- AVC – reduce leziunea
- encefalita ischemica-hipoxica a nn
Perioperator datorita:
- ↑ pierderii de caldura
- ↓ producerii de caldura
- termoreglare compromisa
- 0,3oC/ora pierdute la 21oC
- ↓ DC
- consum O2x5 nivel baza
- ↑RVS
- ↓SvO2
- frison + rigiditate mm
- status mental alterat
- chir abd/cardiaca
- interventii > 4 ore
- varsta > 60 ani
HEAT STROKE
2 cauze:
1. ↑ productiei de caldura
- exercitiu fizic
- febra
- tireotoxicoza
- amfetamine
- halucinatii
2. ↓ eliminarii de caldura
- T ambianta/umiditate ↑
- control voluntar ineficient
- lipsa de aclimatizare
- deshidratare
- b CV
- cond speciale: b piele, fibroza chistica, lez SNC, varstnici
- hipoK
728
Fiziopatologie:
- T> 42oC = maxim termic critic → deteriorarea functii celule
→ mm: - necroza + degenerare, rabdomioliza
→ CV: - CO ↑, RVP↓, hTA cu tahiaritmii
→ SNC – coma, edem cerebral, convulsii
→ renal – IRA (deshidratare, hTA, rabdomioliza)
→ TD – necroza hepatica, sangerari digestive
→ HLG – LC ↑, anemie, CID
→hipoglicemie
Tratament:
- racire lenta (evaporare, lavaj)
- ↓ termogenezei
- oxigenoterapie
- electroliti
- clorpromazina 10-20 mg IV pt frison in timpul racirii
- aritmiile supraventriculare raspund la racire, nu necesita tratament medical
- evitare digitala (dat hiperK)
- hTA: SF, Isoprotenerol,vdopamina de evitat dat VC periferice
- diazepam pt convulsii
- EAB – pacienti mai acidotic si mai putin hipoxemic decat valorile indicate
- pt fiecare 1oC > 37oC - ↑ PaO2 cu 7,2%
- ↓ PaCO2 cu 4,4%
- ↓ pH cu 0,015
- manitol
- NU steroizi + ATB profilactic
HIPERTERMIA MALIGNA
Incidenta HM
-‐
afectiune
mostenita
a
musculaturii
scheletice
-‐
incidenta
HM
intre
1:4500
(atunci
cand
este
administrata
succinilcolina)
si
1:60000
de
anestezii.
729
-‐
incidenta
variaza
in
functie
de
prevalenta
genei
(sau
genelor)
pentru
HM
in
toate
ariile
geografice
si
afecteaza
toate
rasele.
- HM este rara la sugari si copii mici, incidenta scade dupa 50 de ani;
majoritatea cazurilor apar la copiii si adultii tineri, iar sexul masculin este mai
frecvent afectat.
- HM este observata in asociatie cu anumite afectiuni miopatice cum ar fi
miopatia nucleara centrala, distrofia musculara Duchenne si sindromul King
Denborough. Asocierea cu alte defecte musculare, sindromul mortii subite al
sugarului, sindromul neuroleptic malign si moartea subita la adult sunt
controversate.
- mortalitatea este de aproximativ 80%, dar datorita utilizarii tratamentului cu
dantrolen, aceasta a scazut la aproximativ 10%.
- Aproximativ 50% din indivizii HM susceptibili (HMS) au suferit o anterioar
anestezie fara a dezvolta HM (temperatura mai scazuta din sala de operatii,
folosirea unor anestezice care intarzie instalarea HM (cum ar fi thiopentalul
sodic, opioidele sau relaxantele musculare non-depolarizante), intervetiile
chirurgicale scurte)
Genetica HM
- transmitere autozomal dominanta cu expresie variabila - mutatii au fost
demonstrate pe cromozomul 19, 3, 7, 17
Factori declansatori
- anestezicele inhalatorii (incluzand servofluran si desfluran) si succinilcolina.
Clinic
- raspuns hipermetabolic la administrarea de agenti anestezici.
- reactia poate fi variabila ca instalare si severitate, cresterea producerii de
CO2, cresterea consumului de O2, tulburari acido-bazice si disfunctie
musculara sunt prezente in grade variate.
- Instalarea poate fi acuta si fulminanta sau intarziata si mascata de alte
afectiuni.
- HM poate apare in timpul anesteziei in orice moment si poate apare cel mai
tarziu la 24 de ore postoperator.
- Trismus, sau rigiditatea muschiului maseter (RMM) este asociat cu HM la
50% din pacientii ce efectueaza testul de contractura.
- recoltarea CK serice seriate la fiecare 6 ore timp de 24 ore - corelare
importanta cu testul de contractura pozitiv cand varful concentratiei CK (care
apare de obicei la 12-18 ore) depaseste 20000 UI/l.
- Semnele clinice si simptomele de HM reflecta cresterea metabolismului:
- Cresterea CO2 end-tidal
- Tahipneea
- Rigiditate musculara
- Rabdomioliza
- Hipertermie - apare de multe ori tardiv
- Complicatii tardive:
edem muscular
edem cerebral
stop cardiac
insuficienta renala
730
Testele de laborator
- Analiza gazelor sanguine din sange venos mixt si arterial
- Creatininkinaza serica din 6 in 6 ore 24 ore
- Mioglobina - in ser si in urina
- K+, Ca2+, lactat seric
- PT, aPTT, FSP
- afectiuni ce pot mima HM: feocromocitomul, hipertiroidismul, intoxicatia cu
cocaina si sepsisul
Fiziopatologie:
- scaderea controlului intracelular al Ca2+ rezultat din eliberarea din depozite
de Ca2+ liber ionizat - receptorul ryanodine de la nivelul reticulului
sarcoplasmic
Tratament
- Factorii declansatori trebuiesc intrerupti
- hiperventilat cu O2 100%
- instituirea tratamentului simptomatic
Racire
Suprafete (gheta, paturi reci)
Central
Perfuzii cu ser rece
Lavaj nazogastric si rectal
Lavaj intraabdominal
Bypass cardiac
Bicarbonat de sodiu pentru acidoza metabolica
Antiaritmice
Tratamentul hiperkalemiei - insulina/glucoza
Diuretice - mannitol, furosemid
(dantrolen contine 3 g de mannitol per sticla)
Evaluarea susceptibilitatii
- CK seric este nu este specific si sensibil, totusi CK poate fi crescuta la 70%
din indivizii HMS si este frecvent inalnita in cadrul aceleiasi familii. Acest test
trebuie efectuat cat mai rapid si in absenta unei traume musculare.
- Testele de contractura cu halotan sau cafeina pe preparat muscular de la
nivelul muschiului vastus lateralis este singurul test descoperit pana acum
pentru diagnosticul HM. Sensibilitatea este mai mare de 95% si specificitatea
este de 80-85%. Muschiul de la individul HMS este mult mai sensibil la
cafeina si dezvolta contractura importanta la halotan si ryanodin fata de
indivizii normali.
- examinarea histologica a muschiului fara testul de contractura,
- elecromiografia,
- depletia plachetelor de ATP,
- preluarea de Ca de catre preparatele de muschi.
107.
Starile
de
coma
(metabolice,
traumatice,
infectioase,
tumori,
vasculare
-‐
anoxice
-‐
ischemice,
toxice
exogene)
Etiologie:
- primara: - ruptura spontana a unei arteriole mici
- lez arteriolara prin HTA cronica, angiopatie amiloida
- secundara: - trauma
- ruptura anevrism/malf arteriovenoasa
- coagulopatii
- conversie hemoragica a AVC ischemic
733
- tromboza sinusala
- neoplasm intracranian
- angiom cavernos
- fistula arterovenoasa in dura
- angiom venos
- cocaina, medic simpatomometica
- vasculita SNC
- frecv: barbati, varstnici
Fact de risc:
- HTA – 60-70% din cazuri, tipic: gg bazali, punte, cerebel, subst alba centrala
- angiopatia amiloida – depozit peptid β amiloid in vasele mici si mijlocii, tipic:
hemoragie spontana lobara la varstnic cu declin cognitiv
- consumul de alcool
- hipocolesterolemia
Clinic:
→ ½ ggl bazali (putamen, talamus, nc. caudat)
→ 1/3 emisf cerebrale
→ 1/6 tr cerebral/cerebel
28. 40% hemor intraventriculare → hidrocefalie cu ↑ ICP (prognostic prost)
29. instalare rapida a deficituli motor, tulbureri constienta, greata,coma
30. febra, hiperventilatie, tahi/bradicardie
Diagnostic:
- clinic
- confirmare CT – metoda estmare dimens ABC/2 (diam hemtom in 3
dimens/2)
- RMN
- Angiografia – pt cauze vasculare de ICH sec
Fiziopatologie:
Cresterea rapida a hematomului
- ↑ brusca a ICP → modif tesut local → intreruperea anatomiei normale →
sangerari multifocale
- ischemie tranzitorie
- ruperea BBB
- coagulopatie locala
Leziune cerebrala perihematom
-deteriorarea neurologica este maxima in ziua hemoragiei si ulterior scade
progresiv
- ↑ edemului pe CT dupa z1 nu infl major clinica neurologica
- penumbra ischemica in jurul ICH – leziune neuronala secundara + edem
citotoxiv (se pare ca rasp inflam perilezional indis de hematom este important
– activare mediatori – terapie antiinflamatorie impotriva lez cerebrale sec
Prognostic:
- mortalitate 50% in primul am – ½ in prima zi
Glasgow 3-4 2
5-12 1 5+ = 100%
13-15 0 4 = 97%
ICH volum (ml) >30 1 3 = 72%
<30 0 2 = 26%
Hemoragie DA 1 1 = 13%
intraventriculara NU 0 0 = 0%
Varsta >80 1
<80 0
Origine DA 1
infratentoriala NU 0
Management:
1. Cai aeriene
- IOT + VM
- complicatii: aspiratie, hipoxemie, hipercapnie → VD cerebrala → ↑ ICP
- propofol/etomidat + NDMR
- target pCO2 ≈ 35 mmHg
pCO2 < 28 mmHg → ischemie, vasoconstrictie
2. TA
- HTA corectata imediat pe a ↓ expansiunea hematomului + metine CPP
CPP = MAP – ICP
- MAP < 130 mmHg TAS > 90 mmHg
- craniotomie MAP < 100 mmHg CPP > 70 mmHg
4. Terapie hemostatica
→ Eptacog α = fact VII activat recombinat = rFVIIa = Novoseven
- trat pac cu hemofilie rezistenti la adm de FVII, dar se pare ca este efic si la
pac fara coagulopatii
- 20 - 40 – 80 – 160 µg/kg
→ Ac aminocaproic – nici un beneficiu
5. Reversia anticoagularii
- 15 % ICH – consum warfarina - rapid ↓ INR < 1,4
→ PPC
→ concentrat protrombina
→ vit K
→ rFVIIa 10-90 µg/kg
- LMWH/Heparina → protamina
- trombocitopenie/disfunctie trombocit → desmopresina (DDAVP), transfuzii Tr
Management TI:
- Pozitionare pacient cap 300
- Fluide
- izoton SF 0,9% 1 ml/kg/h
! SF 0,45% sau G 5% → hipotone → pot ↑ edemul cerebral
- G de evitat (daca nu exista hipoglicemie)
736
- Profilaxia TVP
- Management ICP
- monitor ICP
- drenaj ventricular extern – obiectiv ICP < 20, CPP > 60
- adm intraventr de urokinaza (5000-25000IU) si altepase (1-3 mg la 6-12 ore)
pt grabire reabsorbtie cheag, scade ocluzie cateter, dar ↑ riscul de sangerare
- sedare: propofol, fentanyl
- management hTA, HTA
- hiperventilatie
- NU corticosteroizi – det: hiperglicemie, imunosupresie, ↓ vindecare plagi,
catabolism proteic
Protectie cerebrala
2. Reflex oculocefal – ochii raman in urma cand capul e rotit brusc intr-o
parte
109.
Boala
coronariana
(forme
clinice,
diagnostic,
tratament
de
urgenta,
terapia
intensiva
a
complicatiilor)
AP = disconfort (rar duere) torace/brat asociat cu stres ce trece dupa 5-15 min
de repaus / adm de NTG
Clasificare Braunwald
Fiziopatologie
a. Ruptura placa aterom -
- poate fi precipitata de: - disfunctia endoteliala,
- cont in lipide al placii,
- gradul local de inflamatie,
- tonusul a coronare,
- disfct trombocit,
- status coagulare
b. Inflamatie / infectie
- Chlamydia pneumoniae
- Inflamatia joaca un rol cheie in ateroscleroza
c. Tromboza
TIMI = thrombolisis in myocardial infarction
Hemostaza primara → adeziune Tr prin rec GPIb si fvW → activare Tr cu
modificare conformationala Tr + degranulare cu eliberare TxA2 si serotonina +
expresie rec GPIIb/IIIa cu activare rec ce leaga fibrinogen → agregare Tr –
fibrinogen se leaga de GPIIb/IIa
→ Asp - ↓ formarea de TxA2
→ Clopidrogrel – inh calea ADP a activarii Tr
→ inhiba GPIIb/IIIa – inh agregarea Tr
Hemostaza secundare – activare sistem coagulare plasmatic → FX
→Trombina – comverteste fibrinogen la fibrina, stim agregare Tr, activeaza
FXII ce stabilizeaza cheagul de fibrina
Diagnostic + Clinic
1. Durere ischemica
→ disconfort/presiune (rar durere) presternala uneori in epigastru frecvent
iradiat in gat, brat, mana stanga
→ aparitia la efort sugereaza ischemia
- semne de ischemie: transpiratii, paloare, tahicardie sinusala, 4 zg cardiace,
raluri bazale
ECG - depresie ST
- crestere tranzitorie ST
- modif unda T
→ ST > 0.5 mm in 2 deriv ECG
→ T > 3 mm
UA/NSTEMI → b coronara
→ NSTEMI + markeri biologici (CKMB, TT/TI
→ Ecocord – modif de cinetica
→ coronarografie
Clase de risc
Risc crescut - durere prelungita la repaus
- depresie ST > 0.1 mm
- troponina +
- hTA/IC
Markeri cardiaci
- Troponina T/I ↑ → mortalitate ↑
PCR ↑ → ↑ mortalitatea
→ > 1.55 mg/dl – mortalitate 5,6% fata de 0.3% la pac cu PCR N
Scor TIMI:
- > 65 ani
- > 3 factori de risc pt b coronariana
- b coronariana documantata la angiografie
- ↑ segm ST > 0.5 mm sau m mare
- m mult de 2 episoade de angina/24 ore
- folosirea ant a asp
- markeri cardiaci ↑
→ stratifica riscul + identifica pac care ar beneficia mai curand de Enoxiparine
vs UFH (↑ riscul → beneficiu mai mare al Enoxiparine)
Tratament
Obiective pt UA/NSTEMI
→ stabilizarea lez coronare
→ trat ischemiei reziduale
→ preventia secundara pe termen lung
- Terapie antitrombotica
- previne formarea viitoarelor cheaguri
- permite fibrinolizei endogene sa dizolve trombul si sa ↓ gradul
stenozei coronariene
- continuata atat cat gradul trombozei este ↓ si progresia la ocluzei
completa a a coronare este prevenita
- Trat antiischemic (β blocant / nitrati / antagonisti Ca) - ↓ necesarul de O
miocardic
- Revascularizatia coronara – frecvent necesara
- Trat factorilor de risc pt ateroscleroza – hipercolesterolemie, hipertensiune,
intrerupre fumat → stabilizeaza placa de aterom si vindeca endoteliu
1. Asp
- beneficiu clar – scade mortalitatea cu 50%
- orice doza > 75 mg
- ef sec: sangerare gastrica ↑ cu cresterea dozei
- 75-80 mg – doza optima
741
2. Clopidrogrel
- derivat thienopiridin ce inhiba agregarea plachetara, ↑ timpul de sangerare, ↓
vascozitatea sangelui
- inh legarea ADP de placheta
- ticlopidina comparabila cu Asp in preventia evenimentelor secundare post
UA/NSTEMI + eficienta in combinatie cu ASP in prevenirea troombozei si a
ischemiei recurente la pac cu PCI
- clopidrogrelul beneficiu imediat + pana la 1 an
- clopidrogrel + ASp → ↑ riscul de sangerare
3. Heparina
- ↑ supravietuirea
- cel m ↑ beneficiu pe parcursul terapiei cu rebound dupa oprire
- heparina + Asp ↑ supravietuirea
Rezistenta la heparina
= variabilitate in ef anticoagulant al heparinei datorat heterogenitatii
moleculelor de heparina si neutralizarea heparinei de factori circulanti
plasmatici si de proteine eliberate de Tr activat
- monit aPTT dupa normograma standard
4. LMWH
- inh trombina IIa + FXa
- IIa/Xa = 1:2 dalteparine
= 1:3,8 enoxiparine
Studii
- FRISC – dalteparin + asp ↓ mortalitatea vs asp
- Fragminn in Unstable Coronary Disease – nici o diferenta intre UFH –
Dalteparina
- Fraxiparine in ischemia syndrome – nadoparine vs UFH nici un beneficiu
742
6. Anticoagulare orala
- warfarina + asp (INR 2-2.2)
7. Trombolitice in UA / NSTEMI
- poate det ef protrombotic
8. Inh GPIIb/IIIa
- previn etapa finala a agregarii plachetare mediata de fibrinogen prin legarea
plachetelor cu rec GIIb/IIIa
- aprobat pt PCI + UA/NSTEMI
- Abciximab
- Tirofiban
- Epifibatide
RA: - ↑ sangerare
- trombocitopenie
9. Nitrati
-managementul acut
- init Sl, dupa 3xSL + initiere β bloc daca durerea persista → NTG IV
10. β blocanti
- ↓ IMA + ischemia recurenta
→ ↓ dimensiunea IMA
→ ↓ reinfarctizarea
→ ↓ mortalitatea
12. IEC
- beneficiu la pac dupa IMA cu FEVS < 40 % sau cu ICC
- fara beneficiu la pac cu UA/NSTEMI
→ indic: - disfct vs
- ICC
- pac cu risc pt b coronara
2 abordari
PCI vs Bypass
- b a coronara stg semnificativa → chirugie precoce
- diabetici mai bine bypass
CABG - b a coronara str principala
- implicarea a mai multe vase, fct VS alterata
CABG – mai eficient in ↓ anginei
PCI – mortalitate init m ↓ dar cu rata ↑ de repetare a procedurii
Etiopatogenie
1. Ruptura plăcii de aterom – activare şi agregare plachetară cu
obstrucţia parţiala sau totală a vasului
744
Categorii
1. IMA cu supradenivelare ST (STEMI)
- > 0.1 mV in 2 derivatii adiacente mb
- > 0.2 mV in 2 deriv V
- BRS nou instalat
1. IMA fără supradenivelare ST (NSTEMI) – risc crescut pacienţii cu:
1. DZ,
2. instabilitate hemodinamică,
3. negativare segment ST
- ↑ troponina T/I
1. Angina instabilă (UA) – troponina negativa
Frecvenţa
1. În US:
1. Approximativ 1.3 million cazuri de IMA nonfatal/an
2. Incidenţa anuală de 600/100.000 persoane
3. a crescut progresia pacienţilor diagnosticaţi cu NSTEMI
comparativ cu STEMI
2. Internaţional:
1. 12 milioane de morţi anual datorită bolilor cardiovasculare
Mortalitate/Morbiditate
1. 500,000-700,000 decese în US datorită bolii cardiace ischemice
2. 1/3 din pacienţii cu IMA mor în primele 24 ore de la instalarea ischemiei
3. > 1/2 din pacientii mor în prespital
4. 10 % din pacienţi decedează în primul an de la IMA
5. Prevalenţa - sex masculin între 40-70 ani
6. Peste 70 ani nu mai există prevalenţă legată de sex
7. Risc crescut cocainomani, diabetici insulino-dependenti,
hipercolesterolemia, istoric familial de boală coronariană
745
Evaluare clinica
1. Istoric – 69% au durere
2. Anamneza
1. durere cu caracter de constricţie sau presiune retrosternal cu
iradiere în abd sup, umăr, braţ, gât, mandibula
2. Dispnee, greaţă, vărsături, palpitaţii , sincope
3. simp atipice: varstnici, femei, DZ
3. Factori de risc:
1. Vârsta (masculi>45 femei >55)
2. Hipertensiune
3. Diabet
4. Fumat
5. Istoric familial
6. Fracţie HDL scazuta
4. Examen fizic
1. Tahi/bradicardie
2. Hiper/hipotensiune
3. Insuf cardiacă stângă sau dreaptă
Paraclinic
ECG
1. Creştere ST semnificativă > 0.10 mV măsurat mai mult de 0.02
secunde în două derivaţii ale membrelor sau > 0.20 mV în derivaţii
precordiale:
1. II, III, aVF – IMA inferior
2. V1-V3 – IMA antero-septal
3. V1-V6 – IMA anterolateral
4. I, avVL, V4-V6 – IMA lateral
5. RV4, RV5 – IMA VD
1. Unda q apare la 8-12 – 24-48 ore după instalarea simptomatologiei
1. BRS recent instalt însoţit de durere precordială
Markeri laborator
- mai importante in IM fara ↑ ST
- pt IMA cu ↑ ST: comfirmare diagnostic, prognostic, succes terapie reperfuzie
- mioglobina + troponina ↑ inainte de terapia de reperfuzie - risc de deces mai ↑
1. CPK – creier, muşchi, inimă
2. CK-MB
1. aproape exclusiv în miocard
2. Subunităţi: MB, MM, BB
3. Troponina
1. Troponina T specific cardiacă – test calitativ
2. Troponina I cardiacă- test cantitativ
4. Mioglobina
1. prima care apare
2. cea mai puţin specifică
Alte investigaţii
1. Radiografie cord plaman
2. Ecocardiografie
3. Scintigrafie cu Tecneţiu-99 – identifică infarctul la pacienţii cu
prezentare atipică sau la pacienţii cu EKG neinterpretabil
4. Scintigrafie cu taliu – se acumulează în miocardul viabil
5. Scintigrafie de perfuzie – evaluarea riscului după IMA şi măsurarea
dimensiunii infarctului în vederea evaluării terapiei de reperfuzie
6. CT
7. RMN sau angioRMN
Diagnostic Diferential
1. Infarct miocardic
2. Angina instabilă
3. Stenoza aortică
4. Disecţia de aorta
5. Pericardita
6. Endocardita
7. Durere de perete toracic
8. B pulmonară
9. TEP
10. Sindrom psihogenic
11. Colica biliară
12. Pancreatita
13. B gastrointestinală
Tratament UTIC:
1. O2 pt minim 3 ore
2. 2 aborduri venoase mari
3. Tratamentul suportiv pentru durere - Morfina
4. Aspirina
1. simptomatologie clinică sau suspiciune de IMA
2. ↓ mortalitatea cu 25%, ↓ reocuzia cu 50%
3. ef aditiv la fibrinolitic
4. CI: alegie la aspirină sau sângerare gastrointestinală activă
5. Doza: 160-325 mg oral
5. Inhibitori de receptori adenozin-difosfat - clopidogrel 300mg, apoi
75 mg/zi timp de 12 luni
6. Inhibitori glicoproteine IIb-IIIa
1. Abciximab (ReoPro)
2. Eptifibatide – ajustare funcţie de clearance crestinină
3. Tirofiban – ajustare funcţie de clearance crestinină
4. la pacienti cu risc crescut, durere refractară, markeri cardiaci cu
nivele mari, modificări în dinamică ale segmentului ST, în caz de
PCI sau bypass.
5. RA: trombocitopenie severa
6. CI: AVC, intervenţie neurochirurgicală în ultimele 6 luni, tum
intracerebrală, sângerare chirurgicală sau gastrointestinală,
trombocite<100000
7. Dozare
748
0.5 mg/kg in
60 min (max
100mg)
Ajustare fct kg partial nu da nu
Heparina da da da da
Alergii nu nu nu da
Flux TIMI 2-3 80% 80% 80% 60%
la 90 min
Flux TIMI 3 la 55-60% 60% 55-60% 32%
90 min
Eficacitate vs NA Similar Echivalent 1% ↑
aTP mortalitate
Siguranta NA Similar Similar ICH ↓ ICH
↓ nonICH ↓ sang
bleeding
Cost +++ +++ +++ +
749
1. Heparina
1. administrare concomitent cu tromboliticul, optimal pt STK
2. preferat in ultima vreme LMWH
3. CI: sângerare activă sau AVC hemoragic
4. Recomandări: 60U/kg (max 4000 U) bolus, apoi 12 U/kg/h (max
1000 U/h) PEV continuu timp de 48 ore cu aPPT 50-70 sec
2. Enoxaparina – 1mg/kg IV urmat de 1 mg/kg SC x 2/zi
3. Warfarina – la fel de eficienta ca Asp in preventia IMA sec
- la pac cu FiA + disfct importanta de VS post IMA
- INR 1,5x
4. Nitraţi
1. toţi pacienţii cu durere tip ischemic
2. dilata a coronare mari + arteriolele, v periferice si mai putin
arteriolele periferice
3. VD ↓ presarcina → ↓ necesarul de O2 al miocardului si simp de
EPA
4. NTG in primele 24-48 ore la pacient cu: IMA + CHF, IMA +
ischemie recurenta, IMA + hipertensiune
5. CI: hipotensiune, atenţie în IMA VD
6. 0.4 mg NTG iniţial la 5 minute până la 3 doze sau aerosoli 1 puff
SL la 5 min
7. PEV continuu NTG 10-20 γ/min
5. β blocanţi
1. toţi pacienţii diagnosticaţi cu IMA în primele 12 ore
2. adm precoce ↓ dimensiunea si previne IMA recurent si
mortalitatea
3. ↓ riscul de ruptura cardiaca
4. CI: BPOC sever, hipotensiune, bradicardie, bloc AV, edem
pulmonar, şoc cardiogen
5. Recomandări:
1. Metoprolol 2.5 - 5 mg IV la 5 min maxim 3 doze, apoi 25
mg ORx2/zi
2. Atenolol 5 mg iv la 5 min 2 doye
3. Esmolol 50gama-kg-min initial apoi 200-300gama-kg-min
6. Statine – funcţia endoteliala, vasodilataţie, scade agregarea plachetară,
stabilizare placă aterom
7. Inhibitori de enzimă de conversie
1. toţi pacienţii cu IMA la 24 ore dupa IMA
2. previne remodelarea VS (proces prin care ventriculul ia forma
globulara si se dilata), episoadele ischemice recurente (inh m
neted, Mf, mononucleare, ↑ fibrinoliza endogena)
750
PCI
1. Este preferant terapiei trombolitice dacă este efectuată de centre
specializate în procedură – flux mai bun decât tromboliză, rate mai
scăzute de reocluzie şi ischemie postinfarct şi sângerare intracerebrală
decât terapia fibrinolitică
2. Pacienţii trimişi la centre speciale PCI sunt cei cu:
1. risc crescut de mortalitate,
2. disfuncţie severă de VS
3. vârsta > 75 şi semne de şoc cardiogen,
4. edem pulmonar,
5. TAS < 100 mmHg
3. Valabil în primele 90 min – recomandată pentru toţi pacienţii, mai ales
la cei cu risc crescut de sângerare determinat de tromboliză
4. PCI de rutină trebuie considerată ca parte a terapiei invazive după
fibrinoliză
5.
Terapie conservatoare faţă de terapie initială intervenţională
1. Terapie initială intervenţională are beneficiu la pacienţii cu factori de
risc intermediari sau crescuţi (nivele mari de troponină, modificări de
segment ST sau inversie de unda T, vârsta >75 ani, diabet, scor TIMI
crescut)
1. La pacienţii cu risc scăzut nu e recomandată decât dacă este durere
persistentă sau recurentă în ciuda tratamentului antiischemic cu nitraţi
si bblocanţi
1. Benefic pentru pacienţii cu nivele crescute ale markerilor cardiaci,
depresie semnificativă a segment ST, angină recurentă şi
simptomatologie de insuficienţă cardiacă, test de efort anormal,
intervenţie recentă PCI , CABG anterior
CABG
1. Eşecul PCI cu durere persistentă sau instabilitate hemodinamică la
pacient cu anatomie corespunzătoare intervenţiei
751
Alte măsuri
1. Controlul stict al glicemiei – pev cu insulină la pacienţi cu STEMI (nivel
de evidenţă B)
2. Deficienţa de magneziu documentată trebuie corectată (nivel de
evidenţă B)
3. Blocanţi de canale de calciu sunt indicaţi la pacienţii la care βblocanţii
sunt ineficienţi sau contraindicaţi
4. Tratarea anxietăţii şi depresiei
Complicaţii
1. Tahiaritmii
1. Tahicaria sinusală are prognostic prost - indicator de disfuncţie
ventriculară
2. Ritmul idioventricular este cea mai comună artimie de reperfuzie,
este bine tolerată şi de obicei nu necesită tratament
2. Bradicardii
1. BAV grad I – IMA inferior
2. BAV grad II IMA anterior
3. Bloc de ramura
3. Şoc cardiogen
1. 80% mortalitate
2. Tromboliza/PCI, balon intraaortic, CABG
4. Insuficienţa valvulară
5. Insuficienta caridaca congestiva
6. IMA VD
1. ST > 1 mm in V4R
2. mortalitate 30%,
3. beneficiază de reperfuzie, evitare nitrţi şi vasodilatatoare, tratare
hipotensiune cu fluide
7. Ruptura ventriculară
1. sept sau perete VS.
2. mortalitate > 90%.
3. frecvent la femei, hipertensivi, la cei care primesc NSAIDs sau
steroizi
8. Alte complicaţii: pericardite, anevrism ventricul, trombus mural
Prognostic
1. Depinde de un număr mare de factori legaţi de timpul şi de natura
intervenţiei, dimensiunea infarctului, managemetul post IMA
2. Prognostic bun este asociat cu :
1. Reperfuzie precoce de succes
2. Prezervarea funcţiei ventricului stang
3. Tratament pe termen lung cu beta-blocanţi, aspirină, IEC
3. Prognostic prost este asociat cu :
1. Întârzierea reperfuziei
Funcţia ventricului stâng este cel mai bun predictor pentru recuperarea
pacientului cu IMA
risc ↑: - DZ
- instabilitate hemodinamica
- ↓ ST
→ UAP = angina pectorala instabila – troponina --
Diagnostic:
- durere anginoasa tipica
- ECG – indicator de PCI
- markeri: troponina T + I, CK, CKMB, mioglobiona
- atipic - varsnici, femei, DZ
5. Reperfuzie
- aplicata in primele 12 ore reduce mortalitatea si morbiditatea
- preferabil in primele 3 ore de la debutul simptomelor
- reperfuzia pecoce limiteaza dimensiunea IM, imbunatateste disfct VS si
supravietuirea
- aceste beneficii apar partial si datorita restaurarii precoce a fluxului de sg in
arterele apropiate de IMA (infarct related artery – IRA)
754
6. Socul cardiogen
~ insuf VS severa
- complica ACS
- mortalitate > 50%
- nu contraindica fibrinoliza in STEMI, dar se prefera PCI
- revascularizatie rapida la cei cu soc in primele 36 ore dupa instalare simpt
7. Terapie adjuvanta
A. Heparina
UFH - ef enticoagulant nepredictibil
- adm IV
755
B. Inhibitori GPIIb/IIIa
→ Eptifibatide
→ Tirofiban
C. Clopidrogrel
- inh ADP plachetar ireversibil
- nu ↑ riscul de sangerare comparativ cu ASA
- imbunatateste supravietuirea in primele 4 ore de la prezentare in combinatie
cu ASA si Heparia
→ 300 mg OR doza de incarcare, ca standard, la pac cu ACS daca au ↑
markerii cardiaci sau modif ECG
→ 300 mg in loc de ASA la pac cu suspiciune de ACS care au intoleranta la
ASA sau sangerare digestiva
- bradicardie
- BAV grad II/III
- ICC moderata / severa
- b resp reactiva
- administrat indif de indic de reperfuzie
B. Antiaritmice
- nu exista dovezi pt profilaxie
- profilaxia cu Xilina ↓ incidenta VF dar ↑ mortalitatea
- Mg, mexiletin, verapamil
C. IEC
- ↓ mortalitatea indif de terapia de reperfuzie
- beneficiu cert: IMA anterior + EPA / FEVS < 40%
- nu la TA < 100 mmHg
- adm in primele 24 ore ORAL nu IV (↑ mortalitatea)
- intoleranta la IEC → blocant de rec ai angiotensinei (ARB)
D. Statine
- ↓ incidenta ef CV majore
- in primele 24 ore
- nu se intrerupe
110.
Terapia
intensiva
in
tulburarile
de
ritm
si
conducere
(forme
clinice,
diagnostic,
tratament)
ARITMIILE CARDIACE
FIBRILATIA ATRIALA
- cea mai frecventa aritmie intilnita intr-un seviciu de urgenta
- Poate apare fie sub forma paroxistica fie ca afectiune cronica
757
Antiaritmice
Pacienţii pot lua medicaţie antiaritmică pentru supresia cronica a
tulburarilor de ritm. Aceste medicamente au o influenta minima asupra
cursului anestezie si trebuie continuata administrarea pana la inductia
anesteziei. Surprinzator, tratamentul cronic al aritmiiilor ventriculare
simptomatice sau asimptomatice cu flecainide sau encaimide dupa IMA este
asociat cu o crestere substantiala a mortiisubite in studiul CAST.
Majoritatea aritmiilor cardiace care apar in timpul anesteziei nu
necesita terapie. Aritmiile cardiace, totusi, necesita tratament atunci cand:
1. nu pot fi corectate prin inlaturarea cauzei
2. functia hemodinamica este compromisa
3. tulburarea predispune la modificari serioase de ritm ulterioare
In timpul anesteziei antiaritmicile sunt admistrate IV.
Mecansimul disfunctiei cardiace poate fi diferit in cadrul si in afara
anesteziei. De exemplu aritmiile cardiace legate de anestezie au fost date de
activitati anormale de pace-maker caracterizate prin supresia nodului
sinoatrial, cu aparitia unui pace-maker latent la nivelul/sau sub nodul sinoatrial.
In plus, dezvoltarea circuitelor de reintrareeste probabil importanta pentru
mecanismul aritmiilor cardiace care apar in timpul anesteziei. Anumite
anestezice, in particular mediamentele inhalatorii au efect asupra sistemului
de conducere cardiac.
CLASIFICARE
759
STABILIZATORI DE MEMBRANA
Sunt impartiti in 3 categorii. Proprietatile electrofiziologice dominante
ale grupului IA (quinidine, procainamide, disopyramide) sunt legate de
proprietatea de a bloca rapid fluxul de ioni de Na in timpul fazei 0 de
depolarizare. Acest efect determina o scadere a nivelului responsivitatii
membranei si o conducere incetinita a impulsurilor. In plus la incetinirea
conducerii impulsurilor, aceste medicamente scad rata depolarizari spontane
din faza 4, determinand reducerea automaticitatii. Grupul IA induce un bloc
bidirectional si de aceea intrerupe reintrarea.
Grupul IB (lidocaine, tocainide, mexiletine, phenytoin) scade
automatismul prin reducerea ratei depolarizari spontane din faza 4. Spre
deosebire de eIa au un efect mic asupra resonsivitatii membranei. Ca rezultat,
conducerea anterograda poate avea loc si de aceea intrerupe reintrarea.
Grupul IC (flecainide, encainide, lorcainide) au un efect depresiv
selectiv asupra canalelor rapide de Na. De aceea ele scad Vmax si
potentialele de actiune in fibrele atriale si ventriculare si incetineste marcat
conducerea impulsurilor.
IA. Quinidine
Este eficienta in tratamentul aritmilor acute si cronice supraventriculare.
O indicatie frecventa este prevenirea recurentelor tahiaritmiilor
supraventridculare sau suprimarea contractiilor ventriculare premature. De
760
decat la chinidina. Simptome SNC pot apare dar mai putin probabil ca la
lidocaina.
Disopiramida
Este eficienta in controlull aritmiilor atriale si ventriculare. Doza orala
este de 100-200 mg OR. 90% din doza admnistrata oral este absorbita, cu
varful concentratiei plasmatice la 1-2 ore. Timpul de injumatatire este de 8-12
ore.
Disopiramida seamana cu chinidina cu exceptia efectului asupra
duratei potentialului de actiune cardiac si responsivitatii membranei.
Determina o mica modificare a ratei ventriculare, modificarii ale intervalului PR,
complexului QRS, intervalului QT mai m ici decat chinidina.
Aproximativ 50% din disopiramida este excretata renala nemodificata.
Ca rezultat timpul de injumatatire este mai prelungit in prezensa IR. Este
dealchilat la un metabolit cu activitate antiaritmica si atropin like mai scazute.
Disopiramid are actiune anticolinergica. Potentialul de depresie
miocardica directa, 2n special la pacientii cu disfuntie preexistenta miocardica,
pare sa fie mai mare decat la chinidina si procainamida.
IB. Lidocaina
Lidocaina este folosita in principal pentru supresia aritmiilor ventriculare,
avand un efect minim asupra aritmiilor supraventriculare. Acest medicament
este eficient in particular in aritmiile prin reintrare, cum ar fi contractiile
ventriculare premature si tahicardia ventriculara. Valoare profilactica pentru
fibrilatia ventriculara post IMA nu a fost documentata.
Administrarea rapida IV 1-1.5 mg/kg aduce efecte antiarimice ce
dureaza 15-60 minute. Aceasta durata scurta de actiune este legata de
redistribuirea tisulara rapida si metabolismul lidocainei. Mentinerea
concentratiei terapeutice de lidocaina la 1-5 mg/ml dupa o injectare unica IV
anterioara este mai frecvent obtinuta prin infuzie continua de 15-60 mg/kg/min.
Scaderea fluxului hepatic produsa de anestezice, soc, sau ICC poate scadea
cu 50% din necesarul de lidocaina IV pentru a mentine nivelele plasmatice.
Avantajele lidocainei comparate cu chinidina si procainamida includ un
onset mai rapid si disparitia prompta a efectelor atunci cand infuzia continua
este oprita. Aceasta permite o titrare buna. LIdocaina pt IV difera de cea de
locala prin faptul ca nu contine preservativ.
Lidocaina este absorbita dupa administrare orala dar este metabolizata
la prima trecere hepatica. Doar 1/3 din medicamente ajunge in circulatie,
determinand concentratii plasmatice scazute si frecvent nepredictibile.
Absorbtia intramusculara de lidocaina nu este completa. In situatii de urgenta
lidocaina 4-5 mg/kg IM va produce nivele plasmatice in aproximativ 15 minute
si acest nivel este mentinut pentru aproximativ 90 minute.
Mecanism de actiune. Lidocaina intarzie rata fazei de depolarizerev 4
spontane prin prevenirea sau diminuare scaderii gradate a permeabilitatii
pentur ionul de K care apare normal in aceasta faza. Doze mari de lidocaina
determina incetinirea fazei O de depolarizare. Acest efect esteprobabil
datorita inhibitiei curentului de Na spre interiorul membranei. Acesta este
similat cu efectul produs de blocarea conducerii in nervii periferici. Lidocaina
reduce diferenta in durata potentialului de actiune la celule miocardice
normale si ischemice si de aceea imbunatateste imprastierea uniforma a
764
Beta-Adrenergic Antagonists
Deprima automaticitatea si conducerea impulsurilor cu acest ultim efect
dependent de gradul de activitate al SNS. La doze foarte mari anumiti
antagonisti βadrenergici ca propranorolul, au actiuni depresive pe membrana.
766
Propranolol
Este folosit in principal pentru a incetinii raspunsul ventricular la
fibrilatie atriala sau TPSV. Contractiile ventriculare premature sunt suprimate
de propranorol. Este medicament folosit pentru supresia sd de interval OT
lung. Aboleste aritmia ventriculara indusa de digitala dar este asociat cu o
incidenta crescuta a efecteleor secundare decat fenitoin sau lidocaina.
Este administrat oral pentru tratamentul de lunga durata al aritmiilor. Pentru
urgente poate fi administrat IV cu monitorizarea TA si EKG. Doza este 5-15
mg/kg pana la o doza totala de 1-3 mg. Concentratia plasmatica terapeutica
de propranorol poate varia de la 10 la 30 ng/l. Timpul de injumatatire este de
2-4 ore desi durata efectului antiaritmic este de 6-8 ore.
Mecanism de actiune. Efectul antiaritmic al agonistilor βadrenergici reflecta
cel mai probabil blocarea raspunsurilor receptorilor β de la nivelul cordului prin
stimularea SNS si catecolamine circulante. Ca rezultat , rata fazei 4 spontane
este scazuta si rata descarcarilor sinoatriale este redusa. Pragul electric al
atriilor si ventriculilor este minim alterat de propranorol. Exista o crestere
substantiala a perioadei refractare efective a nodului atrioventricular datorata
blocatei βadrenergice. Aritmiile prin reintrare sunt prevenite prin cresterea
perioadei refractorii a nodului atrioventricular.
In plus blocadei βadrenergice, propranorol determina alterarea activitatii
electrice a celulelor miocardice. Acest efect asupra membranei celulareeste
probabil responsabil pentru unele efecte antiaritmice. Dextripropranorol care
are activitate agonista βadrenergica este un antiaritmic eficient.
Metabolism si excretie. Propranorol administrat oral este metabolizat extensiv
de ficat si primul pasaj hepatic este responsabil de variiatiile in concentratia
plasmatica a propranorol. Principalul metabolit al propranorol este 4
hydroxypropranolol care are activitate antagonista β adrenergica. Acest
metabolit activ contribuie probrabil la activitatea antiaritmica dupa
administrarea orala de propranorol.
Efecte adverse. Prelungeste frecvent intervalul PR, cu un efect minim asupra
complexului QRS si interval QT. La pacientii cu insuficienta cardiaca cronica
un nivel ridicat al activitatii sistemului nervos simpatic este esentiala pentru
suportul cardiac. Tratamentul aritmiilor cardiace la acesti pacienti cu
propranorol reduce mecanismele compensatorii vitale si poate determina
accentuare insuficientei cardiace. Folosirea propanorol in prezenta blocajului
atriventricular preexistent nu este recomandata.
Amiodarone
Este administrata pentru prevenirea
1. TPSV recurente cum ar fi FiA care apare cu WPW
2. recurentele deTV sau FiV
Doza folosita la adult este de 3-5 mg/kg. Instalarea dupa doza orala este lenta
si efecte antiaritmice complete pot sa nu apara cateva zile. Administrarea timp
de 2-5 minute a unei doze de 5 mg/kg IV produce un efect antiaritmic imediat
care dureaza pana la 4 ore.
La intreruperea trataemntului efeectele amiodaronei pot persita perioade
prelungite. Administrarea cronica determina un timp de eliminare de 29 de zile.
Efectul farmacologic dureaza mai mult de 45 de zile de la intrerupere. Datorita
efectelor adverse serioase este recomandata doar atunci cand celelalte
medicamente sunt contraindicate.
Este un derivat benzofluran cu o structura chimica asemanatoare toxinei. Ca
si bretiliu prelungeste curata potentialului de actiune la nivelul muschiuli
ventricular fara a altera potentialul membranar de repaus In depolarizarea
efectiva. Perioada refractara efectiva este crescuta. Amiodarona scade functia
nodului sinoatrial si atrioventricular si incetineste conducerea impulsurilor prin
nodul atrioventricular. La majoritatea pacientilor cu sd WPW creste perioada
refractorie a caii accesorii, cea ce detrmina eficacitatea in aceasta boala.
Produce blocarea canalelor de Na estimata de rata cresterii potentialului de
actiune. Acesta blocare a canaleolor de Na apare in rpincipal in timpul fazei a
768
Clinical Use
1
Agent Route Dosage Half- Angina Hypertension Cerebral Supraventricular
life Vasospasm Tachycardia
Verapamil PO 40–240 mg 5h + + +
IV 5–15 mg 5h + +
Nifedipine PO 30–180 mg 2h + +
SL 10 mg 2h + +
Diltiazem PO 30–60 mg 4h + + +
IV 0.25–0.35 4h + +
mg/kg
Nimodipine PO 240 mg 2h +
2
Bepridil PO 200–400 mg 24 h + +
Isradipine PO 2.5–5.0 mg 8h +
Felodipine PO 5–20 mg 9h +
Pacemaker Code
Pozitie I II III IV V
Categorie Camera Camera Raspund la Programabil Functie
paced sensed stimul moduleaza rata aritmie
Litera O = non O = non O = non O = non O=non
A = Atriu A = Atriu T= triggerd P=progem simplu P=pacing
V = ventricul V = ventricul I=inhibat M=multi prog S=shock
D = dual D = dual D = dual C=comunicant D=dual
(A + V) (A + V) (T + I) R=modularerata
Patogeneza
- staza faluxului sg
- lez perete vascular
- activare sist coagulare
- trombofilii dobandite
Fiziopatologie
- formare de microtrombi la niv stazei venoase / leziunii → impiedica fluxul +
determina lez ulterioare vasculare favorabile formarii de trombi → creste so se
propaga spre o vena proximala de unde embolizeaza circulatia pulmonara
- maj trombi picior sau pelvis, in ICU datorita plasarii de catetere
Schimburile gazoase
- obstructia AP → spatiu mort in segm deservite
- datorita ↑ MV ap ↓ PaCO2
771
Circulatie
- obstr vaselor pulmonare → ↑ postsarcina VD → tahicardie → ↑ consum de
O2 VD → VD se dilata, ↑ tensiunea in perete → ↓ perfuzia coronara →
insuficienta VD = cord pulmonar
TEP masiv
- postsarcina VD ↑ - VD se dilata
- DC ↓ cu ↑ presiunii AD + VD
- sunt dr-stg datorat ↑ Patriu drept prin foramen ovale patent → hipoxemie
refratara
- impingere sept interventricular spre stg → ↓ umplere diastolica VS → ↓ DC
suplimentar
Clinic
- dispnee
- durere toracica
- agitatie
- tuse
- hemoptizie
- palpitatii
- siuncopa
CO2 expirat
CKMB ↑
AVDSf = (PaCO2 – EndTCO2)/PaCO2 = fractia sp mort alveolar
Cateterizare AP
- ↑ PAD
- ↑ PVD
- ↑ PAP
- ↓ DC
→ N Penddiastolica in AP ~ PWCP
→ obstructie pat vascular → apare gradient de presiune
Ecografie – nespecifica
- VD dilatat
- VD cu contractie proasta
- regurgitare tricuspidiana
- HTP
- deplasare la stg a septului interventricular
- dilatare AP
- tromb in AD, VD sau AP
- pierderea variatiei cu respiratia a VCI
Factori de risc:
1. Epidemiologici: obezitate, TEP anterior, varsta ↑, malignitate (ADK),
chimioterapie (talidomida), estrogeni
2. Staza venoasa: imobilizare, paralizie, vene varicoase, ICC, calatorii
prelungite, relaxante musculare
3. Leziune: postchirurgical, trauma, postpartum
4. Status hipercoagulant:
- deficienta PC, PS, ATIII
- rezistenta la PC activata
- sd Ac antifosfolipidici
- policitemie
- macroglobulie
5. Linii venoase – CVC, Swan
Diagnostic
→ Gold standard = Angiografie AP
→ Angiografie CT spiral
→ RMN
Tratament
→ previne re-embolizare
→ rezolutie cheag
→ tratament suportiv
→ anticoagulare
Tratament suportiv
→ oxigenare, VM
→ imobilizare la pat
→ sedare
Tratament specific
1. Anticoagulare
UFH
- ↓ mortalitatea cu 25%
- aPTT minim 1,5 x control (maxim 2,5 x)
- bolus 80u/kg apoi 18 u/kg/h PEV cont
- complicatii: - hemoragie – transfuzie ineficienta
- trombocitopenie indusa de heparina
- osteoporoza
- hipersensibilitate
- hiperpotasemie
LMWH
Inh trombina:
→ hirudina, lepirudina, bivalirudin
774
2. Intrerupere VCI
Indic: - CI la anticoagulare
- hemoragie dupa anticoagulant
- esecul anticoagularii
- profilaxia pe termen lung la pacientii cu risc ↑
3. Tromboliza
- clinic la 7 zile similar cu cei cu UFH
4. Fluide
- doar la pac clar hipovolemic
5. Subst vasoactive
- Dobutamina 5 γ/kg/min
- NA 2 γ/min → 30 γ/min in fct de raspuns
-A
775
6. Embolectomie
- mortalitate 30-40 %
Sarcina + TEP
- scanare ventilatie – perfuzie → risc ↓ pt fat
- ! cumarinicele sunt teratorgene
- VCI deasupra v renale (v ovariana stg sursa din renala)
Factori de risc pentru tev la paciente cu operatie cezariana
- Varsta peste 35 ani
- Obezitate
- Paritate>3
- Varicozitati venoase severe
- Infectia
- Hipertensiunea indusa de sarcina
- Histerectomia
- Istoric de TEV personal sau familial
- Cezariana de urgenta
BPOC + TEP
- risc ↑ TEP
- dispnee, dur toracica, tuse anxietate, hemoptizii, edem mb inf
- PaCO2 ↓ → se i-a in considerare dg
B coagulare/trombocitopenie
- IRC → (exc. sd nefrotic) → risc ↓↓ de VP
- TEP ap si daca exista tendinta la sangerare
Profilaxie
- LMWH
- UFH
- Asp
- cumarinice
- dextran
- fitru VCI
- mas pneumatice
Embolia cu aer
Fiziopatologie
aer → vena → AD → plaman → ↑ PAP
Surse
- trauma
776
- incizii chirurgicale
- catetere IV
- CPR
- endoscopie
- barotrauma
- ventilatie cu presiuni pozitive
- scufundari
Consecinte circulatie
> 100 ml aer pt ap stop cardiac
- hTA
- HTP
Consecinte respiratorii
- embolizare capilare pulmonare → interfata aer-sg determina denaturarea
proteinelor plasmatice → activare Lc ce determina injurie capilare pulmonare
→ EPA noncardiogen
- bronhoconstrictie
- hipoxemie
- hipercapnie
Manifestari sistemice
AD→ foramen ovale→ AD→ manifestari cerebrale, cord, piele
Tratament
- prevenire embolizare
- asigurare suport resp + circ
→ ↓ PEEP
→ O2 100% (grabeste reabsorbtie aer)
→ trat standard al ARDS
→ corticosteroizi
→ trat hiperbaric
Embolia cu grasimi
Cauze:
- traumatic: fracturi oase lungi, chirurgie ortopedica, liposuctie, biopsie
maduva, trauma organe (hepatica)
- nontraumatic: pancreatite, DZ, infuzie lipide, arsuri, CEC, decompresie,
corticoterapie, ciclosporina, osteomielite, ficatul gras al gravidei + alcoolic
Fiziopatologie
777
Clinic:
- interval latent de 12-72 ore
- ARDS, dispnee, hipoxemie, leziune hepatica difuza
- obnubilare, coma → afectare cerebrala
- petesii torace, gat, fata
- trombocitopenie, anemie
Tratament:
- profilaxie: fixare precoce fracturi, tehnici chir ortop speciale,
- corticoterapia controversat
- trat ARDS
TVP
- 50-85 % asimptomatica
- frevent edeme mb inf, extindere proximala a simpt, redoare
- dg US color Bmode, venografie
Sindroame
1. Flegmatia Cerulea Dolens
- instalare acuta a edemuluio, cianozei, durerii in extremitatile inf
- obstr trombotica a v ilieofemurale, femurale, popliteotibiale
- fara tratament → gangrena in 7-8 zile
- trat: ridicare pic. fluide, heparina, trombolitice, filtru VCI
- daca nu se rezolva in 24-48 ore → chir – trombectomie
2. Calf Vein Trombosis
- frecv TEP
- anticoagulare 3 luni
3. Tromboza profunda extremitati sup
- primara sau secundara
- sd rezidual posttrombotic – durere cronica, redoare, edem, slabiciune, misc
limitate, modif culoare
- anticoag heparina apoi 3 luni ACO
4. Sd postflebitic
- varice superf, obstrcutie vv prof
- disconfort, greutate
- pigmentare → dermatita → ulceratii
STARILE DE HIPERCOAGULABILITATE
BOALA TROMBOTICA
Triada Virchow:
A . Anomalii ale fluxului de sange
B. Leziune endoteliala vasculara
C. Anomalii ale sangelui (hipercoagulabilitatea )
Clasificare
1. Trombofilii ereditare
- sindromul de rezistenta la proteina C activata
- Mutatia G20210A din structura protrombinei
- Disfibrinogenemia
- Hiperhomocisteinemia: cauze
2. Trombofilii ereditare si dobandite:
- Deficit de AT III
- Deficit de proteina C
- Deficit de proteina S
- Anomalii ale sistemului fibrinolitic
3. Trombofilii dobandite
- Anticorpii antifosfolipidici
- Sindroamele mieloproliferative
- Neoplazii
- Coagularea intravasculara diseminata
Disfibrinogenemia
- Boala foarte rara
- Genetic: leziuni structurale ale fibrinogenului - fibrina anormala, rezistenta la
fibrinoliza
Hiperhomocisteinemia
- Mutatii majore la nivelul genelor care codifica enzimele implicate in
metabolismul homocisteinei (defect de CBS )
- tromboze masive arteriale, venoase
- Mutatii minore in genele MTHFR / metionin sintetaza / CBS
- Deficit de cobalamina, B6, Folat,
- Fiziologic: nivel crescut la varstnici, barbati, femei postmenopauza, fumatul,
cafeina, insuficienta renala
- Induce leziune endoteliala vasculara si inhiba oxidul nitric ( vasodilatator si
inhibitor al functiei plachetare )
- Homocisteinilarea proteinelor (prin -SH) disfunctia acestora, inclusiv factorii
de coagulare si ai fibrinolizei.
Deficitul de AT III
Cauze:
- Scaderea sintezei:
- cauza ereditara
- cauza dobandita: boli hepatice, contraceptive orale
- Cresterea consumului(CID )
- Proteinurie ( sdr. Nefrotic)
- Stari hipercatabolice
- deficitul de AT III In populatia generala: 0,02 %, in populatia cu accidente
trombotice: 3-8%
- TEV la varste tinere 10-35 ani, rar tromboze arteriale( vv. membre inferioare,
iliofemurale, vv cave,mezenter., renale,retiniene)
- Apar la sub 75% activitatea AT
Deficit de proteina C
Incidenta: 0,2 – 0,4 % in populatia
generala
5 – 10 % din populatia cu
tromboze
TE pulmonar cu debut precoce
(<40 ani)
Forme dobandite: CID, Tromboza acuta, PTT, Boli hepatice
Deficit de proteina S
- Incidenta: necunoscuta in populatia generala, 3- 13 % in populatia cu
tromboze
- Homozigoti: - moarte in utero, purpura neonatala fulminanta
- TEV la varste tinere
- Tromboze arteriale(25%)
780
Anticorpii Antifosfolipidici
- Trombofilie autoimuna dobandita
- aPL=Familie de Ac cu specificitate pentru fosfolipidele incarcate negativ,
deci pentru complexele proteina-fosfolipide. aPL se leaga de celule si induc
activitate procoagulanta.
- Determina tromboze arteriale si venoase, avorturi spontane recurente
- Trat. cu antivit K ineficient, se adm. antiagregante pana la negativarea aPL
timp de 4-6 luni
PREVENTIE TROMEMBOLISM
781
-‐
functia
primara
a
VS
este
sa
genereza
presiune
suficienta
pt
a
depasii
rezistrenta
vasc
sistemica
crescuta.
VS
are
volum
mic
fata
de
supraf
pereti,
si
se
adpateaza
mai
repede
↑
postsarcinii
decat
↑
presarcinii.
-‐
unele
studii
arata
ca
VS
ramane
normal
la
pac
cu
COPD,
altele
arata
disfunctie
VS
datorata
in
principal
hipoxiei,
acidozei,
b
coronarian
concomitenta,
interdependenta
ventriculara
(sept
comun
VD-‐VS
→
VD
dilatat
→
↓
presenddiastolica
VS→
↓
intoarcerea
venoasa
→
↓
CO),
modificari
ale
pres
la
nivel
toracic
(pres
neg
↑
→
↑
PAP
si
↓
volum
bataie
VS
dat
interdependentei
ventric)
Etiologia
Cordului
pulm
cronic
sec
COPD
-‐
dezvoltarea
HTP
la
pers
cu
COPD
este
atribuita
mai
multor
factori
printre
care:
1.
Hipoxemia
si
hipercarbia
-‐
exista
o
corelatie
negativa
intre
PAP
si
SaO2
la
pers
cu
COPD
-‐
in
plus
fata
de
vasoconstrictia
hipoxica,
hipoxemia
arteriala
in
COPD
poate
det
mai
multe
modificari
ale
vasleor
pulmonare,
incluzand
↑
cel
mm
netede
de
la
nivelul
intimei,
ingrosarea
arterilelor
musculare,
necroza
fibrinoida
a
peretiilor
vaselor.
-‐
aceste
modif
structurale
ale
vaselor
pulmonare,
mai
degraba
decat
vasoconstrictia
hipoxica,
sunt
responsabile
pt
↑
sustinuta
a
PAP
in
COPD
-‐
vasocoantrictia
indusa
de
hipoxemie
e
amplificata
de
acidoza
-‐
hipercapnia
produce
o
↑
in
PAP
prin
imbunatatirea
rasp
vasoconstrictiei
hipoxice
sau
prin
hiperventilatie
2.
Distructia
patului
vascular
pulmonar
3.
Modificari
in
subst
pulmonare
vasodilatatoare
intrinseci
-‐
NO,
fact
relax
derivati
din
endoteliu,
endotelina1
-‐
hipoxemia
↓
prod
si
elib
de
NO
→
modif
de
tonus
vascular
pumonar
si
remodelare
vasculara
4.
↑
vascozitatii
sg
–
policitemie
det
de
hipoxie
cronica
5.
Alterare
mecanica
respiratorie
–
↑
rezistentei
in
caile
aeriene
det
↑
RVP
Evaluarea
fct
cardiaca
in
COPD
1.
Clinic
-‐
pletoris
facial
dat
policitemiie
-‐
v
jug
proeminente
-‐
palpare
VD
la
niv
epigastru
-‐
puls
paradoxal
-‐
modif
zg
cardiace
–
IPulm,
ITric
-‐
hepatomegalie,
ascita,
edem
periferice
2.
RxCP
-‐
↑
diam
AP
dr
>
16
mm
pe
incidenta
poste-‐ant
+
↑
diam
AP
stg
>
18
mm
pe
incidenta
lat-‐stg
-‐
hipertrofie
VD
-‐
nu
poate
estima
severitatea
HTP
3.
ECG
-‐
sensib
mai
↑
-‐
unde
T
inversate/bifazice/aplatizate
-‐
complex
QRS
la
dr
784
113.
Suport
circulator
mecanic
(balon
de
contrapulsie,
sisteme
de
asistare
ventriculara)
IABP
- Cateter flexibil plasat de pe femurala cu un balon alungit al carui vf distal se
afla inAo descendenta toracica.
- Balonul se umfla cu He – uzual 40 ml.
786
Contraindicatii
- Insuficienta Ao
- Anevrism Ao
- Ateroscleroza severa
- Stadiu terminal b cardiaca
Complicatii
- In timpul insertiei - disectie Ao
- injurie a ileo-femurale
- in timpul pomparii - trombembolism
- pierdere puls periferic
- ischemie mb
- complicatii infectioase
- ruptura bolon
- trombocitopenie
- sepsis
- embolizare
- in timpul scoaterii - dislocare placa ATS
- blocare
Sevrare:
- modificarea ratei de asistare 1:1 → 1:4 → 1:8 in cateva ore cu testare
tolerantei sau ↓ volumului de inflatie in balon
787
- cand rap este 1:8 sau volumul este ↓ cu > 20% → ↑ riscul de tromboza
Sm de intoleranta la sevrare
1. ↓ Dz
2. ↓ CO > 20%
3. aritmii noi
4. semne de hipoperfuzie sistemica
Tratament
1. Lavaj gastric (la 1-2 ore de la ingestie)
2. Alcool etilic:
788
3. Bicarbonat de sodiu
4. Hemodializa – nivel seric (toxic) > 50 mg/dl
1. acidoză metabolică refractară
2. alterare status mental
3. ingestie > 30 ml
4. leziuni organ ţintă
5. Diureză forţată
6. Calciu clorat
7. Leucovorin 1 mg/kg (max 50 mg) apoi
Acid folic 1 mg/kg (max 50 mg) la 4 ore – 6 doze.
THAM
Contine trishidroximetil aminometan 36,6 g/l (300 mEq/l) si NaCl 1,72 g/l (29
mEq/l). Spatiul de difuziune este 55-60% din greutatea corporala (spatiul lichidian) iar
alcalinizarea intracelulara este mai marcata decat la alte solutii.
Mecanismul de actiune se poate explica pe baza formulei reactiei: baza aminata +
CO2 = HCO3-. Hidroliza THAM depinde de pH-ul mediu si, deci, de capacitatea de
tamponare. 1.000 ml THAM 0,3 M la pH 6,9 formeaza 270 mEq HCO3+ pe cand la pH
7,4 formeaza 210 mEq de HCO3-. La molaritate egala puterea alcalinizanta a THAM
este ceva mai mica decat cea a HCO3-.
THAM este eliminat rapid renal (nu se reabsoarbe).
Efecte:
1. deprima respiratia prin scaderea concentratiei H+ in celulele care controleaza
respiratia, fapt pentru care este contraindicat la pacientii cu insuficienta
respiratorie
2. efectul osmotic al cationului THAMH+ (desi solutia contine putin Na+) conduce la
cresterea osmolaritatii mai ales intracelular unde disociaza mai bine si cresterea
osmolaritatii este mai accentuata la cei cu filtrat glomerular scazut. De aici
contraindicarea sa la pacienti cu insuficienta cardiaca, insuficienta renala si
hipertensiune.
3. poate produce necroza hepatica
4. lezeaza endovena
Doza recomandata este de 250-500 ml (75-150 mEq) intr-o perfuzie de 1-2 ore. 1 ml
THAM neutralizeaza 1 nM de CO2.
789
790
Clinical
pulmonary
0
1
2
infection
score
CPIS
Temperature
(ºC)
≥
36.5
and
≤
38.4
≥
38.5
and
≤
38.9
≥
39
and
≤
36
Blood
leukocyte,
≥
4000
and
≤
11000
<
4000
or
>
11000
<
4000
or
>
11000
+
mm3
band
forms
≥
50%
Tracheal
secretions
Absence
of
tracheal
Presence
of
non-‐ Presence
of
purulent
secretions
purulent
tracheal
tracheal
secretions
secretions
Oxygenation:
240
or
ARDS
≤240
and
no
ARDS
PaO2/FiO2,
mmHg
Pulmonary
No
infiltrate
Diffuse
(or
patchy)
Localised
infiltrate
radiography
infiltrate
Progression
of
No
radiographic
Radiographic
pulmonary
infiltrate
progression
progression
(after
CHF
and
ARDS
excluded)
Culture
of
tracheal
Pathogenic
bacteria
Pathogenic
bacteria
aspirate
cultured
in
rare
or
cultured
in
moderate
light
quantity
or
no
or
heavy
quantity
or
growth
Same
pathogenic
bacteria
seen
on
Gram
stain
A score > 6 at baseline or at 72 hours was considered suggestive of pneumonia
Lung
Injury
0
1
2
3
4
Score
1.
Chest
Xray
No
alveolar
Alveolar
Alveolar
Alveolar
Alveolar
Appearance
consolidation
consolidation
consolidation
consolidation
consolidation
confined
to
1
confined
to
2
confined
to
3
confined
to
4
quadrant
quadrants
quadrants
quadrants
2.
Hypoxemia
>300
225-‐299
175-‐224
100-‐174
<
100
score
PaO2/FIO2
(kPa
divided
by
fraction)
3.
PEEP
score
<5
cmH2O
6-‐8
cmH2O
9-‐11
cmH2O
12-‐14
>15
cmH2O
cmH2O
4.
Respiratory
>80
60
-‐
79
40
-‐
59
20
-‐
39
<20
system
ml/cmH2O
ml/cmH2O
ml/cmH2O
ml/cmH2O
ml/cmH2O
compliance
score
The
final
value
is
obtained
by
dividing
the
aggregate
sum
by
the
number
of
components
that
were
used
No
lung
injury
0
Mild
to
moderate
lung
injury
0.1
-‐
2.5
Severe
lung
injury
(ARDS)>2.5
791
.
INSULINA
50
u/50
ml
1
u/h
=
1
ml/h
HEPARINA
25.000
u/
50
ml
500
u/h
=
1
ml/h
NITROGLICERINA
15
mg/50
ml
5
γ/min
=
1
ml/h
30
mg/50
ml
10
γ/min
=
1
ml/h
ADRENALINA
10
mg/50
ml
10
γ/min
=
3
ml/h
NORADRENALINA
8
mg/50
ml
10
γ/min
=
3.8
ml/h
16
mg/50
ml
10
γ/min
=
1.9
ml/h
DOBUTAMINA
250
mg/50
ml
5
γ/min/70
kg
=
4
ml/h
10
γ/min/70
kg
=
8.2
ml/h
DOPAMINA
792
FORMULE
F
Aria valvei Ao =
44.3 ΔP
F
Aria valvei Mi =
37.7 ΔP
CO
Flow =
DFPorSEp
793
UNa PCr
FENa = × × 100
PNa UCr
Uk × Posm
TTKG =
Pk × Uosm
TBW = G x 0.6
⎛ Naseric ⎞
TBW exces in hNA = TBW × ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ 140 ⎠
⎛ Naseric ⎞
TBW deficit in HNA = TBW × ⎜ − 1⎟
⎝ 140 ⎠
Urinar AG = (Na + K) – Cl
GFR
FF = = 0.18-0.2
RPF
Clcreatinina =
(140 − var sta )× Greutate
72 × Crplasmatica
PaCO2
PAO2 = ( PB − PH 2O )× FiO2 −
RQ
PAO2 – PaO2 = gradient (A-a)O2 = 100-92= 8 mmHg
VT
Cstatica = = 60-100 ml/cmH2O
Pstatica − PEEP
794
frecventa
Index rapid shallow bresthing = = < 105
VT
Ecuatia harris benedict
M REE = 66.5 + 13.75xG + 5xH – 6.76xV
F REE = 66.5 + 9.56xG + 1.86xH – 4.68xV
VCO 2
RQ = = 0.7-1.2
VO 2
Aportproteic
Balanta N2 = − (N 2urinar + 2 − 4)
6.25
OxyHb
SpO2 =
OxyHb + Hb
OxyHb
Saturatie O2 fractionata = SaO2 =
OxyHb + Hb + [HbCO + HbMet + ....]
CO
CI = ≥ 2.8-3.6 l/min/m2
Suprafata
CO
SV= ×1000
AV
SV
SI = = 20-65 ml/batai/m2
Suprafata
MAP − PVC
SVR = × 80 = 770-1500 dynes/sec/cm2
CO
MPAP − PAWP
PVR = × 80 = 20-120 dynes/sec/cm2
CO
CaO 2 − CvO2
O2ER = = 24-28%
CaO 2
TLC = IC + FRC
= VC + RV
= IRV + VT + ERV + RV
IC = IRV + VT
VC = IRV + VT + ERV
FRC = ERV + RV
VT = volum alveolar + sp mort alveolar
V exp irat
Cst = = 70-100 ml/cmH2O
Pplatou − PEEP
Vt exp irat
Cdyn = = 50-80 ml/cmH2O
Pinspirvf − PEEP
Pvf − Pplatou
Raw = = 0.5-3 cmH2O/l
Flux
VD Paco2 − PE co 2
= = 0.25 − 0.4
VT Paco2
SpO2 − SvO2
O2EI =
SpO2
796
1 − SpO2
VQI =
1 − SvO2
TAS + 2TAD
MAP =
3
IOT
var sta
diam tub = 4 +
4
var sta
lungime tub = 12 +
2
PORFIRII
5. Porfiriile sunt boli moştenite sau dobândite datorate unor defecte ale
enzimelor specifice implicate în procesul de biosinteză a hemului. Sunt
clasificate ca hepatice sau eritropoetice, în funcţie de locul iniţial unde
are loc supraproducţia şi acumularea de porfirine sau precursori
porfirinici.
6. Fiziopat - In procesul biosintezei hemului intervin 8 enzime: prima şi
ultimele trei se găsesc în mitocondrii, iar celelalte patru în citosol.
Defecte ale acestora pot determina diverse forme de porfirie.
7. De obicei pacienţii sunt asimptomatici până când sunt expuşi la factori
care cresc producţia de porfirine (steroizii, drogurile porfirinogenice,
alcoolul, fumatul, dieta)
8. Apar mai frecvent la femei (65%) decât la bărbaţi (35%)
9. Debutul rapid cu simptome neurologice este caracteristic pentru
porfiriile hepatice acute; în timpul unui atac pacienţii au concentraţii
crescute de ALA şi PBG in plasmă şi urină.
10. Majoritatea dezvoltă dureri abdominale. Neurotoxicitatea apare prin
concentraţia crescută în plasmă şi ţesuturi a precursorilor porfirinici
(ALA şi PGB), care au structuri chimice asemănătoare
neurotransmiţătorului inhibitor GABA.
11. Diagnosticul porfiriei se face prin spectroscopie şi analize biochimice:
sânge , urină şi scaun. În general, determinarea urinară a
porfobilinogenului (PBG) este prima măsură în cazul suspiciunii de
porfirie acută.
12. Uneori este necesară repetarea testelor, deoarece acestea pot fi
normale intercritic. Screening-ul urinar poate da rezultate fals negative.
Probele trebuie recoltate în timpul crizei de porfirie şi trebuie protejate
de lumină.
14. Cea mai întâlnită formă de porfirie acută este porfiria acută intermitentă.
Prevalenţa este de 1 la 10000 in populaţia generală, poate fi de 1 la
500 la pacienţii cu probleme psihiatrice.
15. PAI este de 5 ori mai frecventa la femei decât la bărbaţi.
16. Manifestări clinice
1. Durere abdominală: de obicei primul semn al unei crize, precedă
neuropatia
2. Neuropatia: simetrică sau asimetrică
1. Motorie: poate fi severă – stop respirator
proximal > distal
2. Senzitivă: pierderea sensibilităţii moderat, distal,
simetric
durere difuză proximal şi distal; abdominală
3. Reducerea ROT
4. Autonomic: simpatic şi parasimpatic
- circulator: tahicardie, tensiune arterială
- retenţie urinară
- GI: constipaţie; greaţă, vomă; diaree
1. Nervi cranieni: facial; disfagie
3. Sistem nervos central
1. Psihoză, depresie, demenţă
2. Convulsii
1. În cazul suspiciunii de porfirie este necesar tratamentul empiric,
deoarece atacurile pot fi fatale.
1. dietă bogată în carbohidraţi
2. Hematin şi hem-arginate sunt medicamentele de elecţie în
porfiria acută. Acestea trebuie administrate foarte rapid pentru a
fi eficiente; pot reduce durata şi intensitatea crizelor. Aceste
substanţe inhibă ALA-sintetaza şi acumularea de precursori
toxici.