Ingineria 16

SE DISTRIBUIE GRATUIT CA SUPLIMENT AL REVISTEI AUTOTEST
NR. 16 / SEPTEMBRIE 2010

SIAR ESTE AFILIAT LA
INTERNATIONAL
FEDERATION OF
AUTOMOTIVE
ENGINEERING
SOCIETIES
EUROPEAN
AUTOMOBILE
ENGINEERS
COOPERATION
Ingineria
Automobilului
Societatea
Inginerilor
de Automobile
din Romnia
Registrul
Auto
Romn
Sisteme inteligente
de transport
ANTROPOMETRIA COPILULUI
PENTRU MBUNTIREA SIGURNEI
OCUPANTULUI AUTOVEHICULULUI
Autori: Kathleen DeSantis, Mathew Reed
Cartea realizeaz o analiz detaliat a taliei, conformaiei i comportrii copi-
ilor, necesare pentru a crea un sistem efcient de protejare a acestora n cazul
impactului cu vehicule. Conceput i editat de experi din domenii variate,
cum ar f antropometria, ergonomia i sigurana copilului, cartea include 14
articole importante care asigur o viziune de ansamblu asupra metodelor de
colectare, analizare i aplicare a datelor privind antropometria copilului, n
scopul mbuntirii siguranei n momentul impactului.
Sunt analizate subiecte precum: 1. Stabilirea antropometriei copilului pentru
dezvoltarea manechinelor utilizate la simularea accidentelor (dispozitive de testare antropometrice); 2.
Metode tradiionale de antropometrie, inclusiv cele mai importante studii realizate n Statele Unite n
domeniul antropometriei copilului de ctre Institutul de Cercetare de la Universitatea de Transport din
Michigan; 3. Cercetri privind forma corpului uman, att din punct de vedere intern, ct i extern; 4.
Studii funcionale.
ISBN: 978-0-7680-2172-1
Editat de SAE International n anul 2010, numr de pagini: 424.
DINAMICA AUTOVEHICULELOR PE ROI, VOL. 1
Autor: prof. dr. ing. Cristian Andreescu
Progresele recente nregistrate n domeniul ingineriei autovehiculelor au nece-
sitat studii de fnee ntr-o gam larg de domenii, ntre care dinamica autove-
hiculelor ocup un rol important. Aceasta continu s aib contribuii majore
la rezolvarea problemelor de optimizare a proceselor de propulsie i de frnare,
a conlucrrii dintre motor i transmisie dup criterii economice i ecologice, a
controlului automat al stabilitii autovehiculului prin coordonarea n timp real
a funcionrii motorului i sistemului de frnare, prin asistarea inteligent a
sistemului de direcie sau prin adaptarea caracteristicilor suspensiei la condiiile
de drum i la stilul de conducere.
Lucrarea prezint fenomenele care guverneaz comportamentul dinamic al unui autovehicul, pentru a n-
elege principiile de funcionare ale sistemelor nerezolvate ale domeniului. De asemenea, se evideniaz
interaciunile dintre pneu i calea de rulare, rezistenele la naintare, procesele i performanele de propulsie
i frnare.
Lucrarea este destinat ndeosebi pregtirii studenilor care urmeaz specializarea Autovehicule Rutiere,
dar poate f utilizat i de studenii programelor de masterat specifce acestui domeniu, precum i de ingi-
neri specialiti care au preocupri legate de dinamica autovehiculelor.
ISBN: 978-606-515-106-2, Editura POLITEHNICA Press, Bucureti, 2010, 230 pagini.
A
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3
Ingineria Automobilului
W
e are successfully represented in the
world by the Dacia Logan car, but
mainly on the European streets and
roads. According to the statistic of the European
Association of Automotive Manufacturers,
during the frst three months of this year, the
EU produced almost four million cars, 80,500 of
which were DACIA. Tat means, from 50 cars produced in Europe one
is made in Mioveni, Romania. With a growth rate of nearly 33% of the
overall European Union, Romania has produced, in the frst quarter, more
cars than Sweden, Slovenia, Netherlands, Portugal or Hungary. Even in
Russia, Logan car sales rose 15% during the frst seven months of the year.
According to the data of the Automotive Manufacturers Commitee of the
Association of European Companies, in the Russian Federation, in July,
Logan sales advanced 11% over same period in 2009. Tis momentum
may be due to the fact that in Russia, in March this year, began renewal car
feet programme by providing a scrapping premium of about 1.200 EUR.
It is to mention that the Romanian Of ce for Science and Technology
in Brussels has one Dacia Logan, from 2006, and it meets all the
requirements, from passenger to materials exhibition transport. In the
frame of a European project dedicated to the collaboration with Western
Balkan Countries, for two weeks, the Logan passed through the Balkans
and in Kosovo, being lost, the delegates found guidance to the Dacia
centre representation. And yet ... the European Union launched the Green
Cars programme, which calls for proposals are opened until December,
totalling 55 million EUR.
On our turn we will track the green future of Dacia!
Prof. dr. eng. Mircea OPREAN
A
utoturismul Dacia-Logan ne reprezint cu succes n lume i, mai
ales, pe strzile i oselele europene. Potrivit datelor Asociaiei
Europene a Constructorilor de Automobile afm c Uniunea
European a produs n primele trei luni ale acestui an aproape patru
milioane de autoturisme, din care 80.500 au fost Dacii. Adic, o main
din 50 produse n Europa este fabricat la Mioveni-Romnia. Cu un ritm
de cretere de aproape 33% fa de cel al Uniunii Europene n ansamblu,
Romnia a produs, n primul trimestru, mai multe autoturisme dect
Suedia, Slovenia, Olanda, Portugalia sau Ungaria. Chiar i n Rusia
vnzrile de automobile Logan au crescut cu 15% n primele apte luni
ale anului. Potrivit datelor Comisiei Constructorilor Auto din cadrul
Asociaiei Companiilor Europene, n Federaia Rus, n iulie, vnzrile
Logan au avansat cu 11% fata de intervalul similar din 2009. Acest elan
poate f datorat i faptului c, n Rusia, din luna martie a.c., a nceput un
program de nnoire a parcului auto prin acordarea de prime de casare n
valoare de aproximativ 1.200 EUR.
De remarcat faptul c i Ofciul Romn pentru tiin i Tehnologie de la
Bruxelles are la dispoziie o Dacie Logan care, din 2006, face fa tuturor
cerinelor, de la transportul de pasageri pn la transportul de materiale
expoziionale. n cadrul unui proiect european dedicat colaborrii cu
statele din Balcanii de Vest, timp de dou sptmni, aceast Dacie
Logan a strbtut Balcanii, iar n Kosovo, rtcii find, delegaii au gsit
ndrumare la reprezentana Dacia din centrul oraului. i totui la nivel
european a fost lansat programul Green Cars, care are apeluri pentru
propuneri de proiecte deschise pn n luna decembrie, n valoare total
de 55 milioane EUR.
La rndul nostru vom urmri viitorul verde al Daciei!
Prof. dr. ing. Mircea OPREAN
Sumar Ingineria Automobilului Nr. 16
DACIA-LOGAN,
a Possible Brand for Romania
DACIA-LOGAN,
un posibil brand al Romniei
5 Discuie cu preedinii Grupului de Automobile Schaef er / Talking to the
Presidents of Schaef er Group Automotive
7 Structural Integration of the Planar Bateries for Electric Vehicles /
Integrarea structural a bateriilor planare n flme subiri pentru vehiculele
electrice
10 Vergleich des energieverbrauchs eines motorrades mit elektroantrieb
mit dem verbrauch eines gleichstarken motorrades mit verbrennungsmotor /
Compararea consumului de energie al unei motociclete cu propulsie elec tric
cu consumul uneia cu aceeai putere cu motor cu ardere intern
12 Optimization of the Glow Plug-Spray Interaction for Robust
Low-Temperature Stability in Low Compression Ratio Diesel Engines by
Means of Combined 3D-CFD and Design for Six Sigma / Optimizarea
interaciunii dintre bujia incandescent i jetul de combustibil pentru un
control robust al capacitii de pornire la temperaturi sczute la motoarele die-
sel cu raport de comprimare sczut utiliznd o combinaie 3D-CFD i design
Six Sigma
16 Tehnologii informatice i de comunicaii (TIC) cu aplicabilitate la siste-
mele de transport durabil / Information and Communication Technologies
(ICT) applied to sustainable transport systems
20 Modaliti de predicie a polurii chimice n raport cu trafcul rutier /
Chemical Pollution Prediction Models in Function of Traf c Flows
23 Laboratoare universitare de cercetare / University Research Laboratores
24 Cercetri universitare / University Reasearch
25 Actualiti din presa societilor membre ale FISITA / News from FISITA
member society magazines
26 Realizri studeneti / Student Achievments
4
REGISTRUL AUTO
ROMN
Director General
Daniel PATENTAU
Director Tehnic
Claudiu MIJA
AUTO TEST
Redactor ef
Lorena BUHNICI
Redactori
Radu BUHNI
Emilia VELCU
Contact:
Calea Griviei 391 A,
sector 1, cod potal 010719,
Bucureti, Romnia
Tel/Fax: 021/202.70.17
E-mail: autotest@rarom.ro
SIAR
Contact
Facultatea de Transporturi
Universitatea Politehnica
Bucureti
Splaiul Independenei 313
Sala JC 005
Cod potal 060032, sector 6
Bucureti, Romnia
Tel/Fax: 021/316.96.08
E-mail: siar@siar.ro
Tipar
Reproducerea integral sau
parial a textelor i imaginilor se
face numai cu acordul
Revistei Auto Test,
a Registrului Auto Romn i
al Societii pentru Ingineria
Automobilului din Romnia
SOCIETY OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERS OF ROMANIA
President: Prof. Eugen Mihai Negru
Vice-president: Prof. Cristian Andreescu
Vice-president: Prof. Anghel Chiru
Vice-president: Prof. Ioan Tabacu
Vice-president: Prof. Victor Ot
General Secretary: Dr. Cornel Armand Vladu
Redactor ef
Prof. Mircea OPREAN Universitatea Politehnica Bucureti
Redactori-ef adjunci
Prof. Gheorghe-Alexandru RDU Universitatea Transilvania Braov
Conf. tefan TABACU Universitatea din Piteti
Redactori
Conf. Adrian SACHELARIE Universitatea Gh. Asachi Iai
Conf. Dr. Ing. Ilie DUMITRU Universitatea din Craiova
Lector Cristian COLDEA Universitatea Cluj-Napoca
ef de lucrri Marius BU Universitatea Politehnica Bucureti
COLEGIUL DE REDACIE
SCIENTIFIC AND ADVISORY EDITORIAL BOARD
Prof. Dennis Assanis
University of Michigan,
Michigan,
United States of America
Prof. Rodica A. Brnescu
University of IIlinois at Chicago
College of Engineering
Prof. Nicolae Burnete
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
Romania
Dr. Felice E. Corcione
Engines Institute,
Naples, Italy
Prof. Georges Descombes
Conservatoire National
des Arts et Metiers de Paris,
France
Prof. Cedomir Duboka
University of Belgrade
Serbia
Prof. Pedro Esteban
Institute for Applied
Automotive Research
Tarragona, Spain
Prof. Radu Gaiginschi
Technical University
Gh. Asachiof Iai, Romania
Prof. Berthold Grnwald
Technical University
of Darmstadt, Germany
Prof. Alexandre Herlea
Universit de Technologie de
Belfort-Montbeliard,
France
Prof. Peter Kuchar
University for Applied Sciences,
Konstanz,
Germany
Prof. Mircea Oprean
Politehnica University of Bucharest,
Romania

Prof. Nicolae V. Orlandea
Retired Professor, University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, M.I., USA
Prof. Pierre Podevin
Conservatoire National
des Arts et Metiers de Paris,
France
Prof. Andreas Seeliger
Institute of Mining and Metallurgical
Machine, Engineering,
Aachen, Germany
Prof. Ulrich Spicher
Kalrsuhe University, Karlsruhe,
Germany
Prof. Cornel Stan
West Saxon University of
Zwickau, Germany
Prof. Dinu Taraza
Wayne State University,
Serie nou a Revistei Inginerilor de Automobile din Romnia (RIA), 1992-2000
Cod ISSN 1842 - 4074
5
Talking to the Presidents
of Schaefer Group Automotive
Preceding the CONAT we had an interview in April with the presidents of the
Schaef er Group Automotive: Norbert Indlekofer und Dr. Pleus, the later
will be atending the CONAT in October in Braov. Here are their answers:
Ingineria Automobilului: With a view to current plans and industry
forecasts, what are you expecting for 2010?
Dr. Peter Pleus: Sales in 2010 will be way higher than last year, both on
the world market and in Germany. However, thats nothing really to write
home about. Were expecting growth in North America, South America and
Asia. In Asia this applies to China in particular, and to India on a somewhat
lower level, as well as to Korea that has managed to overcome the crisis. In
Western Europe there is a lateral trend due to the termination of scrappage
incentives. Altogether this means that the Automotive Division is expecting
an overall increase of about 8% compared to 2009. But we should bear in
mind that the level we will achieve will be far below the one seen in 2007 or
at the beginning of 2008.
Ingineria Automobilului: What does that mean for the employees in the
Automotive Division? Do they have to expect short time working?
The Schaefer Group, one of the leading suppliers of the
rolling bearings industry worldwide and a recognized
partner of nearly all automotive manufacturers, has
a longstanding association with Romanian university
centers. Furthermore, the Group has a strong connection
to the Transilvania University through Mrs Maria-Elisabeth
Schaefer, associate with the Schaefer Group, who was
awarded a honorary membership by the Senate of the named
university. One of the most
important projects with
the Romanian academia is
the Schaefer participation
as main sponsor at the
International Congress on
Automotive and Transport
Engineering (CONAT)
2004. This tradition continues and the Schaefer Group
will participate at the 11th edition of the CONAT, also in
this year, which takes place at the Transilvania University
in Braov in October. The Schaefer involvement in this
years CONAT is a team participation of the German and
Romanian Schaefer advanced development engineers,
organized with the help of the Brasov (Schaefer Romania)
management.
Dr. Peter Pleus
President Automotive Division
Schaef er Technologies GmbH & Co. KG
Norbert Indlekofer
President Automotive Division
Schaef er Technologies GmbH & Co. KG
6
Dr. Peter Pleus: Well, even as we speak there are many factories where short-
time work has been terminated because our capacity utilization is good
possibly even too good, as I explained before. Tere are also factories,
of course, where we beneft from special economic efects. For instance,
growth in camshaf phasing units is strong due to downsizing. Ten we have
the volume production start-up of the MultiAir unit. Tese are examples of
such special efects. But to repeat myself, I am expecting a slight downturn
in the second or third quarter. Of course we hope that this will not happen.
But we have to be prepared for it and therefore our employees still need to
display a high degree of fexibility.
Ingineria Automobilului: Mr. Indlekofer, where do you see growth
opportunities in the sectors of transmission and engine systems?
Norbert Indlekofer: In principle, Dr. Pleuss assessment applies to the overall
economic situation. Te transmission and chassis sectors are no exceptions.
We have our own special projects too. For example the ball screw drive in
the chassis segment. In addition, we have the new wheel bearing with axial
splines that is very successful on the market. As for transmissions, we have
the double clutch projects that are doing excellently, especially the Q200
at VW. We are also involved in volume production start-ups this year,
both with LuK and INA/FAG products that are well represented in these
transmissions. Tese are indeed special economic efects. However, they
have already been taken into account in the growth forecast given by Dr.
Pleus. So these are not additional efects, but rather we are relying on them
to reach our planned goals.
Ingineria Automobilului: Will we soon have a special focus on electric
drives?
Norbert Indlekofer: Not in the short term, I would think. We will have to be
a bit more patient when we discuss such far-reaching technological changes.
Te entire electric vehicle discussion is of course extremely complex and
probably goes far beyond the scope of this interview. But of course, were
working on this subject. Tis is an absolute must because if such a paradigm
shif really takes places, then it will afect us massively. Tis applies especially
to the sector of Dr. Pleus and the transmission sector. As I said before, we are
accompanying the development projects of our customers. We have initial
volume production starts, for example the hybrid module at Porsche. But
it will take at least another fve to ten years before all this will bring major
capacity utilization in our factories.
Ingineria Automobilului: What is our situation when it comes to alternative
drives?
Dr. Peter Pleus: I can only reiterate what my colleague Norbert Indlekofer
has said. In the next, lets say 20 years, a great focus will be placed on making
the conventional internal combustion engine even more ef cient than it
is today. All the major automobile companies are agreed on this. Tere are
enormous potentials in this feld and we are demonstrating that we have
the technologies to exploit them. Whether this is MultiAir, or the various
types of camshaf phasers or switchable systems. You see, there are a lot of
diferent approaches and we have them all in our portfolio.
Ingineria Automobilului: When it comes to alternative drive concepts, is
the cooperation with Continental playing a role in this context?
Dr. Peter Pleus: Yes indeed. We are dependent on integrating intelligence
in individual system modules. Tat is to say we need to integrate sensors
and this is an issue where we are collaborating closely with our colleagues
from Conti. Intelligence also means that we must intervene with the engine
control. Take for example the MultiAir solution that we are currently
promoting together with Fiat Chrysler in North America. Tat is a
corresponding approach to get Conti on board. Due to the integration of
Conti technology with ours we can, of course, ofer an overall package that
is more optimizable than this was possible when we were two independent
companies.
Ingineria Automobilului: Let us once again look forward to the year 2010
with our employees in mind. What should we concentrate and focus on?
What message would you like to give them?
Norbert Indlekofer: We have already mentioned some of our main objectives.
Now, as before, it is our goal to minimize the working capital. Tis is the
demand on all of us throughout the company, whether in production, in
purchasing or in sales. It must remain our goal to ofer our customers
outstanding service, whilst reducing our capital expenditure at the same
time. Tis is a crucial requirement. It goes without saying that our customer
performance must not sufer, of course. Te second requirement actually
results from the sales issue: We have explained that we will remain below the
2007/08 level despite the expected growth. Tis means our overheads are
still too high, objectively. Terefore we need unconditional cost discipline
and the continuation of last years successful eforts l. At this point, I would
like to thank our employees and congratulate them on their achievements.
Tat was really a good joint efort. We saved money wherever possible
without leting our customers down. Tis is precisely the balancing act
we must undertake: on the one hand to maintain our performance for the
customer and, if possible, even win market shares from our competitors,
- and to display great cost discipline on the other. I would like to ask our
employees to continue what they started last year.
Ingineria Automobilului: Is there something you would like to add, Dr.
Pleus?
Dr. Peter Pleus: I can only second these words. Tey are exactly the relevant
points. Last year we were facing a very dif cult situation. Our Industrial
Division and all its employees have done a remarkable job considering
these circumstances. And the challenge for 2010 remains exactly what Mr.
Indlekofer has just said: Keeping up the cost discipline and being able to
supply I know that this is easier said than done at the moment. Here, too,
I can only repeat myself: It will be vital for us to maintain our fexibility, this
is my frm conviction.
Ingineria Automobilului: Tank you very much for this interview.
REZUMAT
Sub presiunea cererii n cretere de electricitate la
bord, mbuntirii efcienei energiei i reducerii
impactului asupra mediului nconjurtor, pro-
ductorii de automobile caut noi oportuniti
pentru a dezvolta structuri multifuncionale de
integrare a resurselor de energie.
Lucrarea prezint concepte care au fost defnite
prin cooperarea dintre Universitatea Ovidius
din Constana i Universitatea din New Orleans,
SUA pentru dezvoltarea unei noi clase de structuri
bazate pe metoda optimizrii termodinamice.
ABSTRCT
Under the pressure of increased demand of elec-
tricity on board, improved energy ef ciency and
reduced environmental impact, the car manu-
facturers are searching for new opportunities to
develop multifunctional structures integrating
energy sources.
Te paper presents the concepts that have been
defned for the cooperation between Ovidius
University of Constana and University of New
Orleans, USA for the development of a new class
of structures based on thermodynamic optimiza-
tion method.
1. BACKGROUND
Te evolution of cars from the initial achieve-
ment of Cugnot and Brezin (1769) to
nowadays is integrating one of the
most beautiful histories of the
mankind genius.
And today, we have one of
the fundamental symbols
of our civilization mean-
ing freedom, safety and
pride on every corner of
the planet and which be-
comes accessible for larger
and larger number of people.
But, each step ahead, opens new
challenges: at present, the world-
wide feet of vehicles is the major consumer of
the fossil fuels and major contributor to the GHG
emissions. In 2007 there were estimated 806 mil-
lions of cars and light duty trucks running on the
worldwide roads that consumed 1 billion m
3
of
petrol/gasoline and diesel fuel [1].
A generic car propelled
by internal com-
bustion en-
gine is
using at most 30 to 40 % of fuel energy for me-
chanical work which should assure the dynamic
performances of the vehicle. Te higher the weight
of the vehicle, the higher the fuel consumption
and, implicitly, the polluting emissions of the ve-
hicle both
7
Load
Max Power
(kW)
Load
Max Power
(kW)
Electrical AC compressor 3.8 to 4.0
Electrically actuated valve
train
3.0 to 3.2
Preheated catalyst 3.0 Windshield heating 2.5
Brake-by-wire 2.0 Steer-by-wire 1.8
Mobile AC power outlet 1.5 Electric power steering 1.0
Electrohydraulic brakes 0.9 Lights 0.6
ABS pump 0.6 Power windows (front) 0.5 to 0.7
Power windows (rear) 0.5 to 0.7
Heated front seats
(lef & right)
0.5
Heated rear seats (lef & right) 0.5 High-power stereo 0.3
Front wiper motor 0.2 to 0.3 Sun roof motor 0.2
Total: 23 - 24 kW
Structural Integration of the Planar Batteries for Electric Vehicles
Integrarea structural a bateriilor planare n lme subiri pentru vehiculele electrice
Table 1. Automotive Electrical Loads [2]
Eden MAMUT
BSUN - Center for Advanced
Engineering Sciences
Ovidius University of Constana
124 Mamaia Avenue 900527 Constana,
Romania
emamut@univ-ovidius.ro
David HUI
Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of New
Orleans, New Orleans, LA 70148, USA
dhui@uno.edu
Fig. 1. Less that 250 years of automotive engineering
Fig. 2. Toyota 1/X Concept Car
8
for operation and for manufacturing of the com-
ponents and car parts.
Tis is the reason why the reduction of the vehi-
cle weight was a constant concern of automotive
engineering. At present, there are new challenges
that are induced by the evolution of the techno-
logy and consumers behavior. If one summarizes
the electric loads on a vehicle the result shall be
astonishing as in table 1.
So, we are facing an increasing demand of elec-
tricity on board and a higher pressure on the need
to improve the ef ciency. Te pathways that that
are followed by the car manufacturers combines
lightweight chassis with hybrid powertrains, in-
tegrating fuel fexible engines, fuel cells and new
generation bateries and supercapacitors. At pre-
sent, the automotive engineering is changing the
paradigm towards a holistic approach of the car.
As an example, the concept car dedicated to
the evaluation of the future evolution of Prius
(fgure 2) has been conceived taking into account
the weight reduction with 33%, fuel reduction
with 50%, based on carbon fber composite struc-
tures, fexible engine of 500cm
3
and Li-ion bater-
ies with fast recharging. In this respect, one of
the research areas is the development of complex
multifunctional structures that might integrate in
the chassis of the vehicle the bateries and other
sources of energy supply.
Te proposed paper summarizes the results of
the initial phase of a cooperation project between
Ovidius University of Constana and University
of New Orleans under project MODIS
Monitoring, Diagnosis and Repair of Complex
Structures from Advanced Materials, which has
been supported by the Romanian Ministry of
Education, Science and Innovation.
2. THE CONCEPT
A multifunctional material is typically a compos-
ite or hybrid of several distinct material phases, in
which each phase performs a diferent but neces-
sary function, such as structure, transport, logic,
or energy storage. Because each phase of the ma-
terial performs an essential function, and because
there is litle or no parasitic weight or volume,
multifunctional materials promise more weight-
ef cient, volume-ef cient performance fexibility
and potentially less maintenance than traditional
multicomponent brass-board systems. Te fner
and more distributed the integration scale in the
material, the faster and more autonomous the re-
action times.
Multifunctionality in a material can be integrated
on several dimensional scales with increasing in-
terconnectivity between phases and engineering
dif culty as the scale decreases. In this respect, it
has been proposed the following classifcation of
multifunctional materials:
Type I material is comprised of phases in which
one function is simply mounted, coated, or lami-
nated to another, usually a structural component.
Type II materials are comprised of distinct
phases in which one function is embedded in an-
other, usually a structural component.
Type III materials are truly integrated; the phas-
es are intermeshed, blurring the physical distinc-
tions between them.
Te concept that was developed for the present
project consists on three types multifunctional
materials [3]:
Type I integration of thin layer bateries (TLB)
in a textile composite.
Type II structural integration of the conduc-
tive fbers and bateries or supecapacitors.
Type III advanced fabric integrating, conduc-
tive fbers, PV fbers, bateries or supercapacitors,
sensing and self regulating electronic circuits.
Structural bateries that reduce weight and com-
plexity by integrating energy storage directly into
the load-bearing structure have been reported by
several teams using fbers, laminate, and nanotube
integration concepts. Te energy density of the
storage medium, such as a batery or supercapaci-
tor, is reduced as the result of the incorporation of
less conductive structural materials. However, the
decrease in parasitic structure results in an overall
weight savings and, therefore, improved energy
density for the system as a whole.
A structural batery can bear mechanical load
while simultaneously performing electrochemi-
cal energy conversion. As it might be followed on
fgure 3 the structural integration of bateries con-
sists on the development of composite structures
integrating the elements of bateries.
3. MATERIALS
Carbon is a commonly used material for elec-
trodes in modern energy-storage and power-gen-
erating technologies. Graphitic carbon, consist-
ing of stacked graphene planes that accommodate
ion intercalation, has been a predominant choice
for anodic materials in lithium-ion bateries [4].
High-surface-area carbon materials optimize the
double-layer efect and are desirable for use in su-
percapacitors. High-surface-area carbon particles
are also used to help disperse the electrocatalyst
in fuel cell electrodes.
Te need for energy-storage devices of smaller
size, lower weight, and more ef cient form fac-
tors has driven research into a wide variety of new
electrode materials.
Considerable efort has been particularly directed
toward surpassing graphites theoretical electro-
chemical capacity of 372 mAh/g. Some of this ef-
fort has been directed toward noncarbonaceous
materials such as metal oxides and tin alloys.
Other groups have focused on the electrochemi-
cal properties of alternative forms of carbon such
Fiber type
Ultimate Tensile
Strength (GPa)
Modulus (GPa) Toughness (J/g)
Carbon fber 2.27 483 12
E glass 3.44 72 15-30
S glass 2.60 80 15-30
Kevlar 29 2.70 42 33
Kevlar 49 2.70 90 27
UDT-spun SWCNT
fbers
3.90 85 600
Fig. 3. Structural integration of bateries:
1 current collectors, 2 cathode, 3 glass fbers, 4 polymeric electrolyte, 5 anode.
Table 2. Comparison of Carbon Nanotube Fibers [5]
as fbers, nanotubes, and foams.
An important consideration with multifunctional
devices is that individual functionalities, such as
energy storage and load-bearing capability, do
not need to achieve state-of-the-art performance.
Te synergy of having a single material or device
perform multiple tasks simultaneously allows for
some compromise in the individual properties.
Many nongranular carbon-based materials are
particularly atractive for multifunctional devices
due to their continuous structure and inherent
electrical conductivity.
Tese properties obviate the need for a polymer
binder and metal substrate that add parasitic
mass in more traditional granular carbon anodes.
Ofen, nongranular carbon-based materials also
have signifcant mechanical properties. Carbon
fbers in particular are critical components in
high-performance traditional structural compos-
ites. Te mechanical properties of carbon nano-
tube fbers are presented in table 2.
Both the properties of carbonaceous materials
and their usefulness in electrochemical applica-
tions are complex and dependent on the process-
ing conditions and source material. While lithium
intercalation in graphite has been studied exten-
sively, intercalation is not as well understood in
other forms of carbon. Materials with multiple
phase interfaces present an even more complex
challenge.
Carbon fbers used by the composites industry
typically have a disordered core surrounded
by a graphitic sheath. Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)
- based fbers have moderate graphite content
and, under proper conditions, provide superior
failure strength, tensile strength, and compressive
strength.
Pitch-based fbers are more graphitized and have
higher cost, density, thermal conductivity, and
electrical conductivity. Typically, a sizing com-
posed of uncured epoxy resin is applied to the
surface of PAN and pitch-based fbers to facilitate
handling and to allow greater fber-matrix interac-
tion to occur.
Commercial graphitic fbers are ofen not avail-
able without the sizing. Nongraphitic fbers and
fabrics are also commercially available. Activated
carbon fbers consist entirely of amorphous
carbon that has been treated by oxidation or
chemicals to achieve a high surface area and good
microporosity. Tese materials are not typically
considered without chemical modifcation for
use in bateries due to the low graphite content.
Carbon nanofoams are carbonized products of
polymer aerogels combined with chopped car-
bon fbers. Tey have demonstrated favorable
anodic properties and have been developed for
commercial electrode use.
Carbon nanotubes can yield capacities beyond
that of pure graphite, either by themselves or
as additives to other intercalative materials.
Activated carbon, carbon nanofoams, and carbon
nanotubes all possess high surface areas that are
ideal for high capacitance applications
4. EXPERIMENT
In order to prove the concepts it has been con-
ceived an experimental setup consisting of car-
bon fber anode, LiFePO
4
cathode, separated by
glass fbers.
Te measurements have been done at the Fuel
Cell Lab of Ovidius University of Constana
on a PAR VSP multi-channel potentiostat/galva-
nostat. Te results that have been obtained have
demonstrated that the concept is working but,
there should be developed consistent research in
order to obtain reasonable outputs.
5. CONCLUSION & PLANS
Te integration of bateries in textile composites
is a complex process and requires a multi disci-
plinary approach but with a great potential for
future applications.
At present, the join research team is in the phase
of selecting materials suitable for the application
and the development of modeling of compos-
ite structures following a multiscale and multi-
physics approach using ANSYS platform.
9
REFERENCES:
[1] htp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile
[2] www.DesignNews.com
[3] E. Mamut, Integrating Tin Planar Bateries in
Textile Composites, NATO Advanced Research
Workshop on: Use of Textile Composites
Technology for Safer Vehicles, May 18 - 21, 2009,
Kiev, Ukraine
[4] J.F.Snyder et all, Evaluation of Commercially
Available Carbon Fibers, Fabrics, and Papers for
Potential Use in Multifunctional Energy Storage
Applications, Journal of Te Electrochemical Society,
156 (3) A215-A224, 2009
[5] L. Christodoulou, J. D. Venables, Multifunctional
Material Systems: Te First Generation, JOM,
December, 2003
Fig. 4. Te experimental setup
10
REZUMAT
Propulsia electric prezint
pentru circulaia pe segmente
scurte o alternativ interesant
n raport cu cea cu MAI, avnd
n vedere ntreinerea uoar i
ncrcarea bateriei simpl, de la
o priz electric. S-a comparat
consumul de energie a dou motociclete cu pu-
tere de 8,5 kw, una cu propulsie electric, echi-
pat cu o baterie Lithium- Polimer iar cealalt cu
un motor Oto n patru timpi, cu patru supape.
ncercrile s-au fcut pe un stand cu role conform
Noului Ciclu European NEFZ, cu o motocicle-
t Quantya Model Strada 2009, ciclul urban efec-
tundu-se normal, la 50 km/h, iar cel interurban
la 70/km/h, n loc de 120 km/h.
ncercrile au artat c, motocicleta electric, cu
grad de poluare zero, a avut un consum compa-
rabil de energie cu mult mai mic i o dinamic
superioara n raport cu motocicleta echipat cu
motorul cu ardere intern.
1. EINFHRUNG
Elektroantriebe stellen im Kurzstreckenverkehr
eine interessante Alternative zu Verbrennung-
smotoren dar. Vorteile sind dabei die einfache
Wartung der Elektroantriebe und das einfache
Laden der Baterie ber eine Steckdose. In die-
sem Aufsatz soll der Energieverbrauch zwei-
er Motorrder mit einer Leistung von 8,5 kW
untersucht werden. Das eine Motorrad besitzt
einen Elektroantrieb, der von einer modernen
Lithium-Polymer-Baterie versorgt wird. Das
zweite Motorrad hat einen modernen Viertakt-
Otomotor mit Vierventiltechnik. Die Versuche
wurden auf einem Scheitelrollen-Prfstand durch-
gefhrt, der einen Lastzyklus in Anlehnung an
den NEFZ erlaubt (NEFZ: Neuer Europischer
Fahrzyklus). Ziel der Versuche ist die Angabe
des Verbrauchs in Liter Krafstof je 100 km mit
am Prfstand verifzierten Werten fr beide
Motorrder. Beim Elektromotorrad wird der
Energieverbrauch ab Steckdose ermitelt und
in das energetisch quivalente Volumen Benzin
um ge rechnet. Die Spannungen und Strme an
der Baterie und am Motor werden erfasst, um
die Ef zienz der einzelnen Komponenten zu
unter su chen. Die Energiekete vom Krafwerk
bis zur Steckdose bzw. von der Erdlquelle
ber die Raf nerie bis zur Tankstelle wird nicht
betrachtet.
2. VERSUCHSAUSSTATUNG
2.1 Motorrder fr die Versuche
Quantya Elektromotorrad, Modell Strada 2009
Die Quantya wird in der Schweiz gefertigt und
hat die folgenden Daten [1]:
Nennleistung: 8,5 kW; Motormoment bei
2600 min
-1
: 31,5 Nm; Hchstgeschwindigkeit:
70 km/h; Reichweite ca. 40 km; Gleichstrommotor
mit Nennspannung 48V; Baterie: 40 Ah Lithium-
Polymer-Baterie; Gewicht: 95 kg
Die Quantya wird von einem Gleichstrommotor
mit Brsten angetrieben [2]. Er ist als
Scheibenlufermotor sehr Platz sparend aufge-
baut. Permanent erregte Synchronmotoren ohne
Brsten haben eine hnliche Energiedichte und
knnen wassergekhlt ausgefhrt werden, ben-
tigen jedoch eine aufwndigere Regelung.
Das Motorrad besitzt kein Schaltgetriebe. ber
eine Zahnriemenstufe und die Kete wird eine
feste Gesamtbersetzung von i = 5,1 realisiert.
Der Regler [3] sorgt fr die Stromversorgung
des Motors und ist im oberen Teil des Bildes
3 zu erkennen; unter dem Regler ist die
Baterie angeordnet. Der Regler ermglicht
keine Energierckspeisung whrend der
Abbremsphasen.
Das Ladegert [4] hat eine Ladespannung von
48V und eine Ladestrom von 20A. ber einen
Mikroprozessor wird der Ladevorgang gesteu-
ert. Es hat einen Wirkungsgrad, der grer als
85 % ist. Der Ladestrom, die Bateriespannung,
die Ladezeit und die aufgenommene Energie
werden angezeigt. Diese Daten werden zur
Verbrauchsermitlung mit verwendet.
Hyosung Karion mit Viertakt-Otomotor und
Vierventiltechnik
Nennleistung: 8,5 kW bei 10.000 min
-1
;
Maximales Motormoment: 9,4 Nm bei 6.500
min
-1
; Hchstgeschwindigkeit: 101 km/h;
Tankinhalt: 9 l; Gewicht: 135 kg
Bild 1 zeigt die Quantya mit Fahrer (Mitautor Herr
Halim) zur Ermitlung der Querschnitsfche,
die spter zur Einstellung des Lufwiderstandes
am Scheitelrollen-Prfstand bentigt wird.
Das Motorrad hat einen Hubraum von 125 cm
3
und ein 5-Gang-Schaltgetriebe. Die maximale
Gesamtbersetzung ist i = 10,2. Damit ist das
maximale Drehmoment am Rad ca. 95 Nm ohne
die Bercksichtigung des Wirkungsgrades.
2.3 Messtechnik
Scheitelrollen-Prfstand
Bild 2 zeigt den Scheitelrollenprfstand [5]
mit optischem Aufnehmer zur Ermitlung der
Raddrehzahl. Mit dem Prfstand wird der
Fahrbetrieb entsprechend dem NEFZ reali-
siert und die am Rad abgegebene mechanische
Leistung kann ermitelt werden. Fr den neu-
en europischen Fahrzyklus wird die Funktion
Road Test am Scheitel- Rollenprfstandes
gewhlt. Mit dieser Funktion kann der
Rollenprfstand die Fahrwiderstnde auto-
matisch simulieren. Die Kraf wird abhngig
von der Geschwindigkeit variiert. Es muss nur
das Produkt der Querschnitfche und des
Vergleich des Energieverbrauchs eines Motorrades mit Elektroantrieb mit
dem Verbrauch eines gleichstarken Motorrades mit Verbrennungsmotor
Compararea consumului de energie al unei motociclete cu propulsie electric
cu consumul uneia cu motor cu ardere intern de aceeai putere
Michael BUTSCH
A.M. HALIM
Julian ROTHFUSS
HTWG
KONSTANZ
Bild 1 Bild 2
Bild 3
11
Lufwiderstandbeiwertes eingegeben werden.
Das Produkt betrgt fr das Elektromotorrad
0,648 m
2
. Die Querschnitsfche wird
wie im Bild 1 gezeigt ermitelt und fr den
Lufwiderstandsbeiwert wird ein blicher Wert
fr Motorrad mit Fahrer der Literatur entnom-
men [6].
ber einen Krafaufnehmer wird das Last-
Drehmoment an der Scheitelrolle gemessen und
geregelt.
Strommessung
Die Strme werden mit Stromwandlern erfasst.
Im Bild 3 befndet sich am roten Kabel ein ent-
sprechender Aufnehmer. Das Magnetfeld eines
fieenden Stroms wird in eine Spannung ge-
wandelt. Der Stromwandler arbeitet mit dem
Hallefekt. Die Strke des Magnetfeldes ist ab-
hngig von der Strke des Stromes.
Spannungsmessung
Der Elektromotor wird mit einer Pulsweiten-
modulierten Spannung versorgt. Zur Spannung-
smessung muss ber einen Tiefpassflter ein ana-
loges Signal erzeugt werden. Beim Tiefpassflter
ist auf eine ausreichend niedere Grenzfrequenz
geachtet worden.
Datenlogger
Strom- und Spannungssignale werden ber einen
Datenlogger zeitabhngig erfasst und gespeichert.
Die Signale knnen zur weiteren Auswertung auf
einen PC ausgelesen werden.
3. VERSUCHSDURCHFHRUNG
Der NEFZ besteht aus einem so genannten
City-Zyklus mit Geschwindigkeiten bis 50
km/h, bei dem sich Beschleunigungs-, Fahr- und
Bremsphasen abwechseln. Weiter gibt es auch
Stillstandszeiten, die Ampelstopps simulieren
sollen. Der berland-Zyklus wird modifziert, da
beide Motorrder die beim NEFZ vorgesehene,
maximale Geschwindigkeit von v = 120 km / h
nicht erreichen. Der berland-Zyklus wird auf
eine Maximalgeschwindigkeit von 70 km / h
begrenzt. Damit der Fahrer entsprechend dem
NEFZ beschleunigen und verzgern kann, wur-
de eine Videosequenz programmiert, die am PC
jeweils zeitabhngig die Sollgeschwindigkeit an-
zeigt. Im Bild 4 wird Soll- und Lastgeschwindigkeit
vergleichend gezeigt. Die Sollgeschwindigkeit
wird vom Fahrer sehr gut erreicht.
Vor dem Beginn zweier Fahrzyklen wird die
Baterie voll aufgeladen. Nach Abschluss der
beiden Fahrzyklen wird die Baterie wieder voll
aufgeladen.
4. VERSUCHSERGEBNISSE
Im Folgenden werden die Versuchsergebnisse
fr den City-Zyklus des NEFZ dargestellt.
Entsprechende Ergebnisse fr den berland-
Zyklus des NEFZ wurden ebenfalls ermitelt.
Bild 5 zeigt den gemessenen Stromverlauf an
der Baterie und am Motor. Der Motorstrom
ist hher als der Strom der Baterie. Ursache ist
die niedrigere Spannung am Motor, die hhere
Strme als an der Baterie zur Folge hat.
Die elektrische Leistung an der Baterie ist um
den Reglerwirkungsgrad grer als die Leistung
am Elektromotor. Da der Regler sehr ef zient
arbeitet, sind die Verluste relativ gering (siehe
Erluterungen zu Bild 6, unten).
Mit der gemessenen Spannung und dem gemes-
senen Strom kann die elektrische Leistung be-
rechnet werden. Im Bild 6 wird die elektrische
Leistung mit der Leistung am Rad verglichen.
Die Radleistung wird direkt am Bediengert
des Rollenprfstandes ausgegeben. Sie ist
deutlich niedriger als die elektrische Leistung
am Motor bzw. an der Baterie. Die Ursache
sind die Energieverluste im Antriebstrang. Die
Radleistung weist auch negative Werte bei den
Verzgerungsphasen auf.
Bild 6 zeigt, dass die elektrische Motorleistung
nur etwas geringerer als die Leistung der Baterie
ist. Das bedeutet, dass der Regler einen hohen
Wirkungsgrad besitzt.
Die Flche unterhalb der Leistungskurve ent-
spricht dem Energieverbrauch. Nherungsweise
kann die Flche unterhalb der Leistungskurve er-
mitelt werden, in dem die elektrische Leistung zu
einem bestimmten Zeitpunkt mit der Abtastrate
multipliziert wird. Die Produkte werden dann ad-
diert und der Energieverbrauch kann mit hoher
Genauigkeit ermitelt werden, falls die Abtastrate
ausreichend hoch ist.
Whrend des City-Zyklus wird aus der Baterie
1.053,2 kJ Energie entnommen. Davon gehen
105,4 kJ am Regler verloren, und der Motor
nimmt 947,8 kJ elektrische Energie auf.
Zur Ermitlung des Energieverbrauches in Liter
auf 100 km mssen die am Ladegert gemessenen
Werte verwendet werden. Wie oben bereits er-
whnt wurde, werden mit voll geladener Baterie
zwei NEFZ-Zyklen gefahren, und es folgt dann
das Wiederaufaden der Baterie.
Wenn die chemische Energie des Benzins voll-
stndig in elektrische Energie umgewandelt wer-
den knnte, so hte das Elektromotorrad einen
Verbrauch im NEFZ von 1,1 l/100 km.
Das Vergleichsmotorrad gleicher Leistung
mit Verbrennungsmotor hat unter gleichen
Bedingungen im gleichen Zyklus einen deutlich
hheren Verbrauch von 4,3 l/100 km.
5. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Im vorliegenden Aufsatz werden zwei Motorrder
gleicher Leistung auf einem Scheitelrollen-
Prfstand verglichen.
Das erste Motorrad besitzt einen Elektroantrieb
mit Lithium-Polymer-Baterie. Das zweite
Motorrad hat einen 4-Takt-Verbrennungsmotor
mit Vierventiltechnik.
Bei den Versuchen zeigt sich, dass bei ei-
ner Betrachtung des Energieverbrauchs das
Elektromotorrad einen deutlich geringeren
Energieverbrauch als das vergleichbare Motorrad
mit Verbrennungsmotor hat.
Entsprechend Vogel [7] zeigt sich, dass
Elektromotorrder neben den Vorteilen einer
hohen Wartungsfreundlichkeit, eines einfachen
Ladens und einer hohen Dynamik auch noch im
Hinblick auf den Verbrauch wesentliche Vorteile
haben.
QUELLENANGABEN:
[1] www.quantya.com Elektromotorrad: Quantya
Strada 2009
[2] www.lmcltd.net Motor Typ: LEM-200
Variantennummer 127
[3] www.alltraxinc.com Regler Typ: Alltrax AXE
4844 R3
[4] www.speelet.it Ladegert Typ: CBHF Serie
[5] www.superfow.com Scheitelrollen-Prfstand
[6] Bertsche, Naunheimer, Lechner: Fahrzeuggetriebe.
Springer Verlag, Deutschland, 2007
[7] Vogel, Carl: Build Your Own Electric Motorcycle.
Te McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., United States,
2009
Bild 4 Bild 5 Bild 6
12
REZUMAT
Motoarele Diesel moderne pentru autovehicule
sunt supuse cerinelor de a obine emisii poluante
foarte reduse, cu un consum mic de combustibil
i performane de putere ridicate. Un parametru
important pentru optimizarea acestor dou obiec-
tive afate n opoziie este raportul de comprimare.
De fapt, de zece ani, raportul de comprimare la
motoarele Diesel moderat solicitate a fost redus
n permanen de la 20, la primele generaii de DI
cu sistem Common-Rail, pn la o valoare de 16
la motoarele moderne. Raportul de comprimare
sczut a diminuat ns capacitatea de aprindere a
combustibilului n motoare la temperaturi sczu-
te. Pentru a putea utiliza rapoarte de comprimare
sczute, trebuie asigurat un control robust al capa-
citii de pornire la rece, o rat sczut a ciclurilor
fr aprindere i o funcionare linitit la motorul
nenclzit. Drept urmare, importana sistemului
de aprindere cu bujii incandescente crete simi-
tor, dat find faptul c este cel mai important ele-
ment component din camera de ardere, capabil s
asigure o aprindere de calitate a combustibilului
n condiiile mai sus menionate. n acest context,
Divizia European de transmisii a frmei GM i
Universitatea West Saxon din Zwickau au dema-
rat un proiect de cercetare cu obiectivul clar de a
nelege impactul bujiei incandescente asupra ca-
pacitii de pornire a unui motor 2.0 litri cu 4 ci-
lindri n linie, echipat cu sistem Common-Rail, cu
un raport de comprimare de 15. Principalul scop
al investigaiilor este acela de a identifca cei mai
importani parametri n proiectarea sistemului cu
bujie incandescent, care este capabil s efcien-
tizeze capacitatea de aprindere a combustibilului
(de exemplul designul tijei, poziia i orientarea
acesteia), cu respectarea cerinelor legate de jetul
de combustibil i temperatura acestuia. Cerceta-
rea numeric conine o simulare 1-D asupra an-
samblului motor i o simulare 3D- CFD asupra ca-
merei de ardere, toate acestea abordate cu Design
for Six Sigma (DFSS). DFSS, datorit multitudinii
de parametri i condiiilor de operare implicate, a
permis o reducere semnifcativ a numrului de
simulri efectuate, ca i utilizarea unor discretizri
de o fnee superioar. Aceasta din urm s-a dove-
dit a avea o importan fundamental pentru mo-
del i monitorizarea corect a nucleului de com-
bustibil iniial aprins, cu urmrirea proprietilor
de evoluie a acestuia. Rezultatele obinute astfel
sunt analizate n lucrare. Rezultatele principale
indic faptul c diametrul bujiei incandescente i
proeminena zonei de aprindere, corelate cu tem-
peraturile de funcionare sunt cei mai importani
parametri care trebuie luai n considerare cnd se
are n vedere proiectarea sistemului.
Lucrarea conine dou pri; n acest numr al revis-
tei se public prima parte.
ABSTRCT
Modern Diesel engines for passenger car ap-
plication are required to achieve extremely low
pollutant emissions at low fuel consumption,
while featuring high specifc power. An efective
optimization parameter between these confict-
ing targets is the compression ratio. In fact, since
almost ten years, the compression ratio in light-
duty diesel engines has undergone a signifcant
decrease from about 20:1 of frst generation DI
common rail engines to about 16:1 of newest
engines. However, the low compression ratio has
signifcantly impaired the engine capability to ig-
nite fuel in cold conditions just relying on mixture
compression. Nevertheless, in order to successful-
ly develop low compression ratio Diesel engines
for production, robust cold startability, low misfr-
ing rates and smooth cold idling operation have to
be guaranteed. As a consequence, the importance
of the glowing system is growing quickly, since
it is the chief combustion chamber component
able to provide the required fuel ignition qual-
ity in the above-mentioned conditions. Within
this framework, GM Powertrain Europe and the
West Saxon University of Zwickau have started a
research project aimed at detailed understanding
of the impact that glow plug system has on the
startability of a 2.0L 4-cyl in-line last-generation
common rail engine featuring compression ratio
of 15.5. Te primary goal of the activity was to
identify the most important design parameters
of the glow plug system that are able to maxi-
mize fuel ignition capability, i.e. the glow plug rod
design, its position and orientation with respect to
the fuel spray, and its operating temperatures. Te
numerical investigation integrated 1-D simulation
of the overall engine and 3-D CFD of the combus-
tion chamber, and was coupled with Design for
Six Sigma approach (DFSS). DFSS, given the high
number of design parameters and operating con-
ditions involved, allowed a signifcant reduction
of the number of simulations as well as the possi-
bility to use a fner computational grid. Tis later
proved to be fundamental in order to model and
monitor properly the formation of the frst kernel
of ignited fuel and track the evolution of its prop-
erties. Results are extensively discussed in the pa-
per. Main outcomes show that glow plug diameter
and protrusion from freplate as well as operating
temperature are the most important parameters to
be considered in the design of the system.
KEYWORDS - diesel, combustion, cold startabi-
lity, glow plug, Design for Six Sigma
INTRODUCTION
Diesel engines for passenger car applications have
known a great success during the last decade, due
to dramatic progresses in several technologies,
such as injection system, turbocharging, EGR
system, as well as combustion system evolution in
accordance with previous optimizations. In par-
ticular, the key objective for combustion system in
warm stationary operation is to perform the best
trade of between ef ciency, raw emissions and
combustion noise levels at part load, and specifc
Optimization of the Glow Plug-Spray Interaction for Robust Low-Temperature
Stability in Low Compression Ratio Diesel Engines by Means
of Combined 3D-CFD and Design for Six Sigma (I)
Optimizarea interaciunii dintre bujia incandescent i jetul de combustibil pentru
un control robust al capacitii de pornire la temperaturi sczute la motoarele diesel
cu raport de comprimare sczut utiliznd o combinaie 3D-CFD i design Six Sigma (I)
General Motors Powertrain Europe, Italy
Cornel STAN
cornel.stan@f-zwickau.de
Soeren TAEUBERT
West Saxon University of Zwickau, Germany
Giovanni CIPOLLA Alberto VASSALLO
13
power and torque at full load.
Combustion system optimization is very complex,
and involves many diferent parameters, among
them: compression ratio (CR), bore-to-stroke
ratio, bowl shape and nozzle targeting, intake and
exhaust ports design, valve lif profle and timing.
In particular, CR selection is critical for reaching
low values of NOx / PM engine-out emissions,
at acceptable levels of combustion noise and
specifc fuel consumption, in partial load condi-
tions. On the other side, at full load higher specifc
power and torque may be obtained for a certain
maximum peak cylinder, thanks to optimized ef-
fciency and boosting levels stemming from the
correct CR. (1)
As a consequence of the abovementioned re-
quests, CR in passenger cars diesel engines has
undergone a signifcant variation in the last de-
cade, showing a monotone reduction in CR from
~19-20 of frst generation common rail engines to
~16-17 in the present one currently entering the
market as Euro5 certifed.
As it turns out, the main limitation for adopting
even slightly lower CR for mass production is cur-
rently cold operation, especially under extremely
low temperatures (below -15C). (2, 3) Signif-
cant eforts are therefore directed towards enhanc-
ing engine cold startability and operation, chiefy
by optimizing the ignition system, i.e. the glow
plug design, its arrangement
and operation. Te develop-
ment trend involves employing
ceramic high temperature glow-
ing systems capable of reaching
1200C at the tip, with quick
heat up rates of up to 600C/s
as well long operation up to
20% of engine time. However,
recent studies (2) and OEM
experiences have demonstrated
that the real weak element in the ignition process
is the mutual arrangement between the glow-plug
and the spray under cranking as well as low load.
IGNITION SYSTEM PARMETERS
SELECTION
Based on the outcomes of previous development
studies targeted to defne 2.0L diesel engine com-
bustion system requirements for Euro 6 time-
frame (1, 4), an optimized combustion chamber
geometry has been defned and will provide the
background for the cold startability study. In
particular, the recommended compression ratio
is comprised in the interval 15.5 -16.0, with the
upper boundary as the preferable value, providing
more robustness to production dispersion. As a
consequence, the system selected for the present
numerical cold startability study features an actual
CR of 15.5, which can be considered a likely pro-
duction worst case for a nominal CR of 16.0.
Te study of overall ignition system design pa-
rameters would represent a signifcant challenge
in terms of computational efort, since as Figure 1
highlights, they are several, and may even turn
practically unfeasible if detailed 3D-CFD is em-
ployed.
In fact, for a certain set of: intake ports design,
valve lif diagram and timing, bowl profle and
nozzle specifcation; glow plug (GP) design, ar-
rangement and operation need still to be opti-
mized within the constraints of the cylinder head.
In particular the following parameters can be
refned by engine design and development engi-
neers:
GP rod diameter; (A)
GP tip protrusion; (B)
GP vertical angle with respect to cylinder axis in
radial direction; (C)
GP vertical angle with respect to cylinder axis in
tangential direction - skewness; (D)
GP tip distance from injector tip; (E)
GP rod distance from spray (CAD-evaluated as
closest rod edge to spray edge distance, spray be-
ing represented by CAD as a cone departing from
injector tip with 15deg opening angle, center on
spray hole axis); (F)
GP operating temperature at steady-state; (G)
GP time needed to heat-up from environment
level up to 90% of steady-state operating tempera-
ture); (H)
Having been a full factorial investigation of previ-
ous 8 parameters ruled out since the beginning
of the investigation for resource constraints, the
authors turned to an appropriate DoE methodol-
ogy with the objective to signifcantly reduce the
simulation plan while still keeping the soundness
of the conclusions.
Te chosen technique was Design For Six Sigma
(DFSS), thanks to its capability to signifcantly re-
duce the computational/experimental efort (5).
Under DFSS approach:
orthogonal arrays are used as a way to select only
a subset of confgurations from a full factorial space
of simulations (or testing, in a general case);
specifc methodologies are then applied for data
post-processing, with the objective of identifying
the sensitivities of output parameters to input pa-
rameters, thus providing both ranking and opti-
mized values for the design parameters, which is
particularly useful for development engineers.
Te reduction of the number of input confgura-
tions to be simulated was dramatic, from 4374
(full factorial) to 18 (L18), and only 2 sets of
Fig. 1. Ignition system geometric parameters, mainly referring
to glow plug rod geometry and arrangement with respect to
spray - simplifed schematic not in scale.
Fig. 2. Ignition system control factors and le-
vels employed for the investigation and related
plan for the simulations, consisting of 18 run
14
boundary conditions (representing environment
at cold start) were used, for a total of 36 simula-
tion runs. As will be detailed later, this reduction
was instrumental in order to not only make the
project feasible, but also more accurate the simu-
lations, thanks to the fner computational grid
that could be employed in 3D-CFD. Tis later
feature proved to be fundamental for modelling
and monitoring properly the formation of the frst
kernel of ignited fuel and for tracking the evolu-
tion of its properties. In this specifc activity, the
involved ignition system design parameters were
selected as representativeof new generation 2.0L
diesel engine.
As can be seen from the reported values and the
schematic in fgure 1, the mutual arrangement
between the glow plug rod and the spray is side
tangential (STS, Side Tangential Spray), meaning
the spray is ignited tangentially to the rod body.
Tis is an arrangement typical of latest generation
diesel engines entering the marketplace as Euro5
certifed, and it is signifcantly enhancing start-
ability with respect to the previous generation of
glow plugs that ignited the fuel right below the tip
(UTS, Under Tangential Spray). As an outcome,
the main diference among the two concepts is
related to the ignition of a mixture kernel closer to
the core of the charge (typical depth: 3-5mm from
fredeck for STS, 1-2mm for UTS), and therefore
less prone to quenching on the cold fredeck sur-
face, which in turn makes the combustion onset
more robust as well as the engine cold idling more
stable. Terefore, only STS concept has been re-
tained within the investigation due to its proven
efectiveness. Another interesting parameter to in-
vestigate was the capability of ceramic glow plugs,
thanks to their heating temperature up to 1200C
and very stable over life, instead of 1000C for a
metallic one as new, and of 950C as aged.
Te simulated environment conditions of pres-
sure and temperature, as well as cranking speed
and pre-glow time (Noise Factors according
to DFSS nomenclature) were compounded into
two levels as recommended by DFSS, in order
to reduce the simulation efort (fgure 2). One
case is typical of a moderate cold start at sea level,
whereas the second one is particularly aggressive,
being cold start at very low temperature and high
altitude. Te two cases will be used to evaluate the
sensitivity of the glowing system to environmental
conditions (fgure 3).
Figure 4 represents a CAD view of the simulated
system, including the combustion chamber, the
spray departing from the nozzle tip and the glow
plug rod protruding into the chamber. On the
botom right, the various glow plug arrangements
corresponding to 18 runs have been compounded
in order to help understanding the geometry span
included into the simulation plan. It is important
to notice that such a spray visualization is purely
geometrical, and hence the real spray behavior
(with signifcant bending and air entrainment
starting from the break-up length) cannot be
grasped as 3D-CFD does.
COLD STARTABILITY SIMULATION
In order to understand how the CFD simulation
of cold startability has been performed, some ad-
ditional informations will be provided in the fol-
lowing section. Te three-dimensional simulation
of internal engine processes is in most cases based
and calibrated against results from a test bench
or calculated from a one-dimensional analysis.
Te reference quantities, for
example the in-cylinder pres-
sure, are then averaged over
a certain number of cycle
or a certain period of time
because each fred cycle is
diferent from another, and
CFD calculation provides
average values. Terefore,
concerning the simulation of
the glow plug heating, and its
efects on self-ignition dur-
ing the engine cranking, the
capture of detailed behavior is rather a challenge
(6-9). Te main dif culty is to predict the frst
cylinder where the frst self-ignition and hence
the combustion takes place. Based on a known
injected mass, the energy release calculated from
a measured pressure profle depends on the de-
sign of the combustion chamber as well as on
the ambient conditions. Another important pa-
rameter for the self ignition is the swirl motion of
the trapped air in the cylinder. He is efecting the
spray and its axial momentum towards the piston
bowl edge. Te spray is forced to reach the heated
charge nearside the glow plug where under cold
start conditions the frst self-ignition takes place.
Furthermore to increase the self-ignition perfor-
mance a pre-injection was used. By application of
this strategy a beter condition in the combustion
chamber for the main injection can be achieved.
So for these cranking simulations a set of general
simplifcations had to be made. Based on a numer-
ical single-cylinder model only the main infuenc-
ing values for the self-ignition were investigated
for deducing an improved starting response as
a result. Te numerical analysis concentrated on
the heat transport efects of the hot glow plug and
its impact on the mixture formation processes in
the surroundings of the spray and the subsequent
reaction rate f
i
. Te later can be expressed as a
function of fuel- and oxygen-concentrations as
follows:
eq.1.
being: A
f
the pre-exponential factor in the Arrhe-
nius form, E
f
the activation energy, R the
universal gas constant, T the absolute gas tem-
perature, [O
2
] the oxygen concentration, [RH]
the fuel concentration and R the universal gas
constant.
In addition the fuel and oxygen concentrations af-
fect the reaction propagation rate K
p:
eq.2.
where K
p1
, K
p2
and K
p3
are the rate-determining
propagation steps.
Te expressions K
p1
, K
p2
and K
p3
are the rate-de-
termining propagation steps (6). So an improved
reaction rate, which according to the Arrhenius
approach depends exponentially on the tempera-
ture, is infuenced by the geometrical properties,
the position towards the spray and the tempera-
ture of the glow plug. Te experimental investiga-
tions in (7) showed the infuence of several types
of glow plugs on the ignition in low temperature
conditions. In this numerical activities the efects
Noise Factors Level-1 Level-2
Cranking Speed 200 rpm 250 rpm
Ambient
Temperature
-30C -10C
Ambient Pressure 930
mbar
1000 mbar
Glowing Start Time 12.6 s 5s
Fig. 3. Noise factors and levels chosen for
the simulation plan. Each level has been
run for the entire 18 diferent input
parameter confgurations
Fig. 4.
Detailed 3-D
confguration
of system
under study
and of the
various glow
plug / spray
arrangements
(botom right)
corresponding
to entire the
test plan.
15
of the geometrical properties of the glow plug on
the mixture formation and ignition were analyzed
in the period of three selected cycles. It was as-
sumed, referencing to the typical experimental
fndings on cold startability tests, that during the
frst cycle no fuel injection was released by engine
controller, in the second cycle one injection with-
out combustion was realized and just in the third
cycle was considered with a regular injection and
combustion. Te simulation time domain was
chosen in order to mirror the real engine start
phase which means that the starter increases the
engine speed from zero up to a point where the
engine torque is higher than the cranking-torque.
Te engine start event, the input data and the in-
vestigated time domain including the three prese-
lected cycles are illustrated in fgure 5.
According to the design parameters presented in
fgures 1-2, 18 cases were created using diferent
models of glow plugs. Te input
values for the boundary and initial
conditions in the 3D-simulation
are taken from a calibrated GT-
Power engine model which for this
case was especially adapted to load-
mode simulation. In this type of
simulation GT-Power uses a given
load as foundation for calculating
the revolution speed. Te initial
wall temperatures of the combus-
tion chamber, cylinder head and
the piston were chosen to be equal
with ambient temperature. It is to mention that
the swirl motion respected by the swirl number
was kept constant as a initial parameter. Te physi-
cal treatment of the glow plug was modeled by us-
ing the special boundary selection for convective
heat transfer.
Te heat fux Q between the hot glow plug to the
cold compressed air in the combustion chamber is
evaluated according to fgure 6
Te crank-angle dependent heating function for
the diferent assumptions of the preheat were pro-
vided in tabular form for each cycle. Te calibra-
tion of the injection process was already described
in detail in previous investigation (4), where it was
developed as a support for combustion process in-
vestigations.
It is worth mentioning that the validation of the
spray evolution was carried out by suitable models
in a virtual cylinder considering the various stages
of spray formation during injection processes. Te
applied combustion model is the ECM-3Z model
which is based on the solution of the density trans-
port equation on the surface of the fame. An inte-
grated mixture model describes inhomogeneous
fuel-mixture distribution and difusive combus-
tion. Te approach underlying the model creation
is the division in three zones: fuel, air with exhaust
gas fractions and the mixture zone of unburned
gas and burnt gas as shown in fgure 7. Using this
classifcation of the working fuid allows a frag-
mentation in the processes of self-ignition, fame
spread and difusion fame. Te mass transport
processes taking place across the zone borders are
processed in the following sequence:
1. calculation of the mixed quantities;
2. calculation of the premixed combustion (ECFM
+ self-ignition + fame propagation);
3. reconstruction of the averaged masses.
As a consequence of modern diesel combustion
processes in which high levels of charge premix-
ing are achieved through multiple injections, cold
fames can emerge. Te included double stage self-
ignition model is mainly based on the temporal
and local thermodynamic changes of the air in the
working fuid. Due to the cold fames caused by
the pilot injections the minimal heat release of the
former has to be taken into consideration when
regarding the global ignition delay. For the calibra-
tion of the model the output data from the previ-
ous cycle were taken for the initialization of the
following cycle. It is crucial especially for the last
cycle to respect heating efects and a small amount
of unburned fuel due to missing combustion in
the second cycle, which is not expelled from the
combustion chamber during the exhaust stroke.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Te authors would like to thank GM Powertrain
Europe for the right to disclose and publish these
excerpts of the overall research activity.
(Continuarea n numrul urmtor)
BIBLIOGRFIE:
[1] Drangel, H., Poter, M., Vassallo, A., Larsson, P.,
and Boreto, G., Evolution of Two-Stage Charging Sys-
tems for Passenger Car Diesel Engines, 18
th
Aachener
Kolloquium Fahrzeug- und Motorentechnik, 2009;
[2] Pacaud, P., Perrin, H., and Laget, O., Cold Start
on Diesel Engine: Is Low Compression Ratio Compat-
ible with Cold Start Requirements?, SAE Paper 2008-
01 1310, 2008; [3] Naber, D., Dohle, U., Kruger, M.,
Schumacher, H., and Hondros, C., Cold Start and Cold
Run Investigations for Direct Injected Passenger Car Die-
sel Engines,15
th
Aachener Kolloquium Fahrzeug- und
Motorentechnik, 2006; [4] Cipolla, G., Vassallo, A.,
Catania, A.E., Spessa, E., Stan, C., and Drischmann,
L., Combined application of CFD modeling and pres-
sure-based combustion diagnostics for the development of
a low compression ratio high-performance diesel engine,
SAE Paper 2007-24-0034, 2007; [5] Yang, K. and
Haik, E., Design for Six Sigma, McGraw-Hill, 2003,
ISBN 0-07 141208-5; [6] Hamosfakidis, V.and Reitz,
R.D., Optimization of a hydrocarbon fuel ignition model
for two single component surrogates of diesel fuel, Com-
bustion and Flame paper 132, pp. 433 - 450, 2003;
[7] Pischinger, S., Grutering, U., Graf, M., Adomeit,
P., Schmid, L., Entfammung von Dieselkrafstof bei
tiefen Temperaturen, Motortechnische Zeitschrif
(MTZ), 01/2008, pp. 52 - 59, 2008; [8] Han, Z., He-
nein, N., Nitu, B., and Bryzik, W., Diesel Engine Cold
Start Combustion Instability and Control Strategy, SAE
paper 2001-01-1237, 2001; [9] Liu, H, Henein, A N,
and Bryzik, W., Simulation of Diesel Engines Cold Start,
SAE paper 2003-01-0080, 2003.
Fig. 6. Evaluation of heat fux from the glow-
plug to the combustion chamber
Q = A(Tf Tw); [W/m2K] - Heat transfer
coef cient; A[m2 ] - Surface of Glow-plug tip
Fig. 7.
Scheme
of conf-
guration
and
processes
in the
ECFM-3Z
model
Fig. 5. Engine start phase
16
ABSTRCT
Te transport sector dedicated both to freight
and passengers segments is at present under the
pressure generated by the requirements to im-
prove ef ciency and reduce the environmental
impact.
It is estimated that ICTs could contribute to re-
duction with 10% of the emissions of GHGs and
ofer signifcant potential of cost reduction and
energy ef ciency improvement. Te current pa-
per aims the evaluation of the potential of several
key technologies and presentation of some efec-
tive applications integrating GPS and RFID.
1. INTRODUCERE
Conceptul de dezvoltare durabil se poate
defni din diferite perspective dar n sens ge-
neral se enun ca find ansamblul de strategii
i politici avnd ca scop asigurarea necesitilor
de bunstare ale generaiei actuale fr a com-
promite capacitatea viitoarelor generaii de a-si
asigura propria bunstare. n urma numeroasel-
or studii efectuate ncepnd cu anii 70, exist n
prezent o ampl literatur cu privire la defnirea
conceptului de dezvoltare durabil care s se
poat aplica diferitelor domenii inclusiv secto-
rului de transport. Indicatorii ce pot f defnii
din perspectiva sustenabilitii sistemelor de
transport ar f [1]:
emisiile de gaze cu efect de ser;
intensitatea energetic a diferitelor sectoare
energetice;
raportul dintre volumul de transport i produsul
intern brut;
distribuia modal a activitilor de transport;
calitatea aerului din zonele urbane;
cantitatea de deeuri depozitate sau incinerate
n aglomerrile urbane.
Sintagma Tehnologii Informatice i de
Comunicaii (TIC) este folosit pentru defnirea
diferitelor tehnologii de telecomunicaii i infor-
matice care au fost folosite n domeniul transpor-
turilor nc din anii 80. Acestea includ un mare
numr de tehnologii i sisteme n diferite stadii de
dezvoltare, de la prototipuri de cercetare i chiar
concepte, pn la produse i aplicaii comerciale.
n ultimele dou decenii s-a observat o dezvoltare
viguroas a unor asemenea tehnologii i de siste-
me prototip, dar i aplicarea acestora n domeniul
transporturilor. Noiuni ca vehicule inteligente,
autostrzi inteligente sau sistem inteligent de
monitorizare a trafcului au fost introduse pentru
prima dat pentru a arta creterea inteligenei
i natura dinamic a sistemelor n care i-au gsit
aplicabilitatea.
Tehnologiile care au devenit comerciale n ul-
timele decenii i care au avut un impact major
asupra felului n care transportul este modelat n
prezent sunt urmtoarele [2]:
GSM (Sistemul European pentru Telefonie
i Transfer de Date) i alte tehnologii relevante
pentru comunicaii mobile i poziionare;
Comunicaii n band larg (broadband);
Servicii de internet de prima i a doua genera-
ie;
GPRS serviciu de transfer pe pachete de date;
O serie de mbuntiri continue n ceea ce pri-
veste viteza i capacitatea calculatoarelor i aplica-
iile n care sunt integrate.
La data de 8.07.2010, fliala SIAR Constana a
organizat un seminar avnd ca scop evaluarea
stadiului actual al tehnologiilor de tip TIC ce se
pot aplica la politicile de dezvoltare a sistemelor
de transport urbane i defnirea unor proiecte
care s fe implementate n perioada urmtoare.
n prezentul articol se sintetizeaz cteva aspecte
discutate la acest eveniment.
2. STADIUL PE PLAN EUROPEAN
I MONDIAL
Un efort major al Uniunii Europene a fost iniat
n anul 1988, avnd ca obiectiv principal asigura-
rea de asisten n aplicarea de noi tehnologii n
domeniul transporturilor, pentru obinerea unor
cote ridicate de siguran i efcien. Acesta a fost
programul DRIVE.
Aproape n acelai timp, programe de cerceta-
re similare au nceput n America i Japonia. n
anii 90, UE a fnanat cercetri n Telematica
Transporturilor, continuate n principal sub egi-
da DG INFSO (Directorate General Information
Society), iar n ultima parte a anilor 90 sub egida
DG TREN (Transport and Energy).
Este important de subliniat faptul c n paralel,
n ultimii 30 de ani, distribuia spaial a produc-
iei i consumului de produse i servicii numit
i globalizare s-a desfurat ntr-un ritm nengr-
dit. Funcionalitatea integrat mrit a acestor
activiti dispersate la nivel mondial s-au bazat
pe dezvoltrile revoluionare n domeniul trans-
porturilor, dar i a TIC. Acestea nu au funcionat
doar ca ageni ce au permis o dispersie global
mai accentuat a corporaiilor transnaionale,
dar au generat i un numr mare de servicii cu
valoare adugat. Din multele servicii dependen-
te de TIC, transportul containerelor pe distane
lungi a revoluionat structura i managementul
transporturilor maritime i a porturilor lumii n
aa fel nct fuxul de mrfuri dintre productorii
i consumatorii din regiuni fragmentate spaial
i temporal poate f articulat mult mai efcient.
Porturile nu mai sunt doar amenajri comune
pentru transbordare, depozitare i procesare de
materie prim, cele mai efciente orae-port la ni-
vel global devenind deja noduri tranzacionale i
logistice, captnd un segment mare al sistemului
mondial de producie.
Deoarece TIC stau la baza atragerii corporaiilor
transnaionale, multe guverne le promoveaz ca
factori de dezvoltare ntr-un mediu economic
global din ce n ce mai competitiv i volatil.
n 2007 [3], Comisia European a adoptat o se-
rie de initiative ce urmresc creterea efcienei
i a sustenabilitii transporturior de marf pe
teritoriul Uniunii Europene. Acest nou pachet de
msuri const n propuneri pentru sectorul de lo-
gistic, pentru o reea feroviar prioritar pentru
transportul de mrfuri, pentru porturile europe-
ne, dar i dou documente cu privire la ridicarea
barierelor pentru transportul maritim n regiunea
Uniunii Europene i costier, cunoscut i sub de-
numirea de Autostrzile Mrii (Motorways of the
Sea). Adoptarea simultan a tuturor acestor m-
suri demonstreaz legtura strns ntre logistic
i diferitele moduri de transport. Scopul comun
al acestor msuri este de a promova tehnologii i
Tehnologii informatice i de comunicaii (TIC)
cu aplicabilitate la sistemele de transport durabil
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
Applied to Sustainable Transport Systems
Universitatea Ovidius Constana,
Centrul pentru tiinte Inginereti Avansate
emamut@univ-ovidius.ro
Laureniu
OANCEA
Claudiu
FERCU
Eden
MAMUT
Dumitru COICIU
RTC Constana
of ce@ratc.ro
17
proceduri inovative, dezvoltarea de noi moduri
de transport, mbuntirea managementului
mrfurilor, facilitarea dezvoltrii de noi lanuri de
transport, simplifcarea procedurilor administra-
tive i mbuntirea calitii de-a lungul lanului
de transport.
La punctul 2.5 din Planul de Actiuni pentru
Logistic n Transportul de Marf sunt defnite
Coridoarele de Transport Verzi. Conceptul de
coridoare verzi de transport este defnit ca un
sistem integrat, n care transportul costier, fero-
viar, fuvial i rutier se completeaz reciproc pen-
tru a face fa creterii volumului de trafc i de a
promova sustenabilitatea i efciena energetic.
Conform viziunii Comisiei, aceste coridoare de
transport ar trebui s fe dotate cu faciliti de in-
termediere ntre diferitele moduri de transport,
n locaii strategice i cu puncte de alimentare,
iniial pentru bio-combustibili, iar mai trziu
pentru alte tipuri de combustibili ecologici cum
ar f hidrogenul.
3. TEHNOLOGII CHEIE: GPS, RFID
Tehnologia sistemelor de poziionare globa-
l (GPS) s-a dezvoltat n anii 70, n principal
pentru scopuri militare (cooperarea dintre
Departamentul de Transporturi i Marina
Militar a Statelor Unite ale Americii). Sistemul
este cunoscut i sub denumirea NAV STAR (na-
vigation satellite timing and ranging system). n
timp ce aceast tehnologie era dezvoltat, num-
rul de aplicaii a fost mrit pentru utilizatori mili-
tari i civili. Trebuie menionat faptul c pe data
de 1 mai 2000, disponibilitatea selectiv a GPS,
ce era activ nc din anul 1990, a fost anulat.
Disponibilitatea selectiv era o metod de a redu-
ce acurateea pentru utilizatorii civili.
n prezent, 24 de satelii sunt plasai pe orbit,
din care doar 20-21 sunt funcionali. Patru din-
tre aceti satelii sunt vizibili n orice moment
din orice punct de pe Pmnt. Poziia vertical
i orizontal pentru orice staie de pe suprafa
poate f obinut sub forma de cordonate X,Y,Z
(vector de poziie). Informaia cu privire la vitez
(dx/dt, dy/dt, dz/dt) a unui vehicul, avion, nav
etc. este disponibil oriunde n lume, n orice mo-
ment i n orice condiii meteo. Cei 24 de satelii
orbiteaz pe ase niveluri simetrice avnd form
eliptic. Pe fecare nivel sunt trei satelii pe orbite
la perioade de 12 ore, la nlimi de 20.000 km de
suprafaa pmntului i la distane de 120 ntre
ei. Unghiul cu ecuatorul este de 55. Orbitele
sunt n aa fel nct oricare doi satelii ce se af
pe orbite adiacente au o distan de 40 ntre ei.
Folosind aceast aranjare, exist cel puin 4 sate-
lii disponibili la nlimi de 15-75, pentru pozi-
ionarea orizontal i vertical a oricrei staii, n
orice moment.
Timpul de via a sateliilor este de ase ani i se
fac eforturi pentru a f mrit la 7.5-8 ani. Sateliii
folosesc baterii solare pentru sistemele lor avan-
sate. i pot chiar ajusta poziia pe orbit cu aju-
torul unor motoare speciale. n echipamentul
fecrui satelit sunt incluse patru cronometre de
nalt precizie. Un sistem de poziionare global
este format din trei pri distincte: satelitul pe
orbit, staiile de control de pe suprafa i uti-
lizatorii.
Trei tipuri de msurtori pot f efectuate cu ajuto-
rul GPS: msurarea pseudo-distanelor, msurri
de faz i msurri Doppler. n general, metodele
principale pentru determinarea unui vector de
poziie a unei staii fa de un sistem de referin
folosind tehnologia GPS sunt dou: metoda sta-
tic i metoda cinematic. Pentru prima metod,
receptorul din staia de observare este fx, obser-
varea se face de la cteva minute pn la cteva
ore, n timp ce procesarea datelor se face folosind
postprocesare i ajustare. Pentru a doua metod,
receptorul este pe un vehicul, avion sau nav, iar
procesarea datelor poate f fcut dup perioada
de observare sau n timp real.
Metodele de determinare a vectorului de poziie a
unei staii pot f caracterizate ca find metode abso-
lute sau relative. n primul caz, observaiile i cal-
culele se refer la un sistem de referin geocentric.
n al doilea caz, poziia receptorului se determin
n relaie cu alt receptor. Exist i alte metode, care
sunt de fapt modifcri ale celor clasice.
Un exemplu de astfel de tehnici este metoda di-
ferenial de poziionare i metoda de determi-
nare semi-cinematic. n prima metod, poziia
receptorului fx este cunoscut i diferena de co-
ordonate pentru orice alt receptor se calculeaz
fa de receptorul fx. n cea de-a doua metod,
msurrile receptorului mobil la fecare nou sta-
ie sunt mai mult de una i dureaz cteva minute
(10-20 minute). Elaborarea datelor se face dup
observaii, n stadiul de post procesare, folosind
aplicaii de calculator ce suport folosirea unui
receptor GPS.
Se poate meniona faptul c n procedura dife-
renial exist o extracomunicare ntre referin i
receptorul mobil cu ajutorul unui sistem VHF de
comunicare terestr pentru transmiterea diferite-
lor corecii, cum ar f cele meteorologice. Aceasta
rezult ntr-o nbuntire considerabil a acura-
teei vectorului de poziie. Procedura diferenial
este o unealt puternic pentru aplicaii asociate
cu combinarea procedurilor GPS, n special cu
sistemul informaional geografc (GIS). Mai
mult, acurateea cu ajutorul poziionrii absolute
este sub un metru, odat cu desfinarea disponi-
bilitii selective.
n zilele noastre, aplicaiile tehnologiei GPS aco-
per o gam larg de domenii tiinifce (topo-
grafe, geodezie, hidrografe, transporturi etc.).
Aplicaiile pentru transportul terestru, pot f divi-
zate n patru mari categorii [4]:
managementul i monitorizarea fotelor de ve-
hicule;
colectarea de date i cartograferea infrastructu-
rii de transport;
managementul i monitorizarea incidentelor;
sisteme de navigaie pentru vehicule.
Identifcarea prin Frecvena Radio (RFID -
Radio Frequency IDentifcation) este o tehno-
logie avansat de colectare automat a datelor,
ctignd o larg acceptare pe msur ce oamenii
neleg i utilizeaz aceast tehnologie.
Aceasta este o modalitate tehnologic de a iden-
tifca articolele individuale (de ex. produse,
persoane, animale) prin intermediul unui set
de tehnologii care utilizeaz unde radio pentru
Fig. 1. Descrierea sistemului RFID
Pas 1: Cititorul RFID transmite energie etichetei RFID prin cmpul electromagnetic generat
Pas 2: Eticheta RFID transmite informaiile de identifcare napoi ctre cititorul RFID
Pas 3: Cititorul RFID decodeaz i transmite informaiile de identifcare ctre sistemul gazd,
n vederea procesrii
transmiterea informaiilor.
RFID este un sistem de identifcare ce folosete
un cmp de radiofrecven de putere mic (vezi
fg. 1). Acest cmp de radiofrecven nu necesit
o poziionare precis a obiectului la citire, el pe-
netreaz orice material nemetalic nefind necesar
contactul direct cu echipamentul de citire.
Utilitatea tehnologiei RFID este evident.
Companiile caut valoarea adus de identifcarea
automat i fr contact n numeroase domenii
de activitate. Identifcarea diverselor obiecte ve-
hicule, produse sau persoane are loc din ce n ce
mai des folosind soluii automatizate. Provocrile
crora trebuie s le rspund aplicaiile pe baza
RFID este de a furniza soluii stabile i rapide care
pot funciona n cele mai variate domenii.
n prezent, exigenele privind securitatea i stabi-
litatea sistemelor utilizate n controlul accesului
vehiculelor, al transportului pe cile ferate i al
mrfurilor depozitate cresc.
Avantaje importante ale tehnologiei RFID sunt
distana de citire i rapiditatea nregistrrii infor-
maiei pentru a face posibil citirea etichetei afa-
te n micare i de la o anumit distan.
Sistemul RFID este ideal pentru toate tipurile de
identifcare a vehiculelor inclusiv accesul vehicu-
lelor ntr-un parc auto sau poziionarea trenurilor,
monitorizarea i identifcarea vehiculelor n mi-
care. Tehnologia RFID accelereaz achiziia date-
lor i elimin intervenia uman n procesele de
control i sortare. Culegerea automat a datelor
sporete viteza de lucru, elimin erorile i crete
efciena sistemului prin accesul la informaie n
timp real.
Tehnologia nu necesit condiii speciale de ope-
rare, putnd funciona i n medii cu praf sau umi-
ditate ridicat, are costuri reduse de ntreinere i
grad de securitate ridicat. Aceasta ofer o fexi-
bilitate sporit a soluiilor realizate n funcie de
structurile i aplicaiile companiilor.
4. APLICAII DEDICATE PENTRU
TRNSPORTUL DE CLTORI
n ultimii ani, n municipiul Constana se resimt
din ce n ce mai mult efectele negative ale creterii
continue a numrului de autovehicule personale
i al celor aparinnd diverselor instituii i socie-
ti comerciale, efecte care constau n ngreunarea
circulaiei rutiere, existnd unele artere din ora
unde se produc frecvent ambuteiaje la orele de
vrf, afectnd populaia att din cauza creterii
nivelului de poluare, ct i din cauza creterii du-
ratelor deplasrii zilnice .
Pentru combaterea acestor efecte, care tind s se
agraveze n viitor, este necesar adoptarea unor
strategii ce au ca obiectiv atragerea utilizatorilor
de autovehicule spre transportul public n co-
mun, prin mbuntirea calitii serviciilor de
transport public n sensul creterii punctualitii,
rapiditii i siguranei acestuia.
innd cont de toate acestea, conducerea R.A.T.C
Constana, sprijinit de Primaria Constana, a
convenit cu o societate specializat, realizarea n
prealabil a unui proiect pilot de dispecerizare tra-
fc al liniei 5 (Centru Gar Km5 Vrful cu
Dor i retur), precum i informarea publicului
cltor n timp real.
Dac proiectul pilot va rspunde noilor exigen-
e, precum i gsirea posibilitilor de fnanare,
R.A.T.C Constana va achiziiona un sistem
complet.
Acest proiect (fg.2) const n montarea :
pe 20 de autobuze care deservesc linia 5 a dis-
pozitivelor GPS, precum i a calculatorului de
bord, societatea specializat asigurnd i soful de
urmrire a trafcului pe un terminal P.C. care se
gsete la dispeceratul R.A.T.C. central.
a 2 panouri electronice montate n statiile:
Centru b-dul Ferdinand, sens ctre Gar;
Gar str. Burada, sens Km5.
Acest sistem poate furniza urmtoarele date:
1. Ctre OFER prin calculatorul de bord:
ncadrarea n grafc, dac este n ntrziere, n
grafc sau avans;
Vizualizarea sarcinilor pe care le are de ndeplinit,
transmise de dispecer;
Poate transmite i primi mesaje eveniment ctre
i de la dispecerat.
2. Ctre DISPECER prin aplicaia sofware:
planifcarea, monitorizarea i localizarea
mijloacelor de transport pe traseu, viteza de
deplasare a acestora, anomalii (ex.: nerespectarea
sarcinilor de serviciu);
ncadrarea n grafcul de circulaie, se pot
observa autobuzele care sunt n grafc, cele cu
ntrziere sau cele care sunt n avans;
transmiterea de mesaje eveniment de la
dispecerat ctre ofer i invers;
planifcarea i monitorizarea panourilor
electronice;
rapoarte cu privire la curse neefectuate,
activitatea zilnic a unui autovehicul, timpii ntre
staii, orele de munc lucrate de fecare ofer.
3. Ctre CLTORI, prin intermediul panourilor
electronice cu leduri 62 cm x 24 cm se furnizeaz
urmtoarele date: data, ora, linia, timpul de
staionare a cltorului n staie pn cnd vine
urmtorul mijloc de transport etc. Aceste date se
pot modifca n funcie de necesiti.
Sistemul de monitorizare permite montarea
unui sistem de ticketing direct la validatoarele
existente.
Pe durata implementrii acestui sistem de mana-
gement al trafcului s-a constatat c reprezint o
soluie fabil, datorit:
reducerii cheltuielilor cu personalul;
o efcientizare a utilizrii mijloacelor de transport
(planifcare i monitorizare n timp real);
mbuntirea calitii serviciilor oferite ctre
cltori;
accesul la informaii privind timpul de ateptare
18
Fig. 2. Informaiile oferite de
sistemul integrat de management
al trafcului
n staii a mijloacelor de transport;
n funcie de gradul de aglomerare a mijloacelor
de transport, se poate mbunti ritmicitatea
mijloacelor de transport.
5. APLICAII DEDICATE
TRNSPORTULUI DE MARF
n cadrul unui contract derulat pentru un
benefciar din Olanda, colectivul Centrului
pentru tiine Inginereti Avansate (CAES) de
la Universtatea Ovidius Constana a realizat o
aplicaie ce are la baz tehnologia RFID denumit
generic Tag Force.
Compania benefciar este productoare de
butoaie metalice, iar clienii acesteia le folosesc n
scopul distribuiei de mrfuri. ntregul proces se
deruleaz ntre trei actori: productor, client i un
ultim utilizator, mai precis, clientul clientului.
Pe tot parcursul circuitului de la productor la
ultimul client, butoaiele trebuie s corespund cu
cele de pe comand pentru a f ulterior mbarcate
i trimise mai departe. Odat ajunse la client
acestea trebuie ncrcate conform tipului de
butoi i a substanei cerute pe comand. Exist i
un al treilea loc unde acestea trebuie s ajung, de
aceast dat find clientul clientului. El trebuie s
aib posibilitatea de a verifca dac marfa primit
corespunde cu comanda trimis anterior, dar i s
poat vizualiza informaiile oricrui butoi la un
moment dat.
Aplicaia dezvoltat n cadrul CAES este dedicat
n acest scop dar este evident faptul c aceasta
se poate modifca n funcie de alte necesiti
defnite pentru ntregul proces.
Aplicaia este construit pentru a suprascrie/citi
codul ce se af pe tag pe tot parcursul drumu-
lui unui butoi: de la productor pn la ultimul
client.
Dup ce comenzile de la clieni sunt primite,
poate ncepe producia butoaielor. Butoaiele au
specifcaii diferite n funcie de capacitate, de
nlime, de grosimea pereilor etc. Odat ce sunt
fnalizate, acestea trebuie scrise cu codurile ce se
af pe comenzile de la productor.
Dup scriere, ele trebuie transportate ctre client.
Acestea sunt grupate pe cte un palet, care ulte-
rior va f citit. Pentru optimizarea aplicaiei, s-a
introdus parametrul timer care ne spune cte
secunde s lsam cititorul s citeasc toate butoa-
iele de pe un palet.
n cazul n care, de exemplu un butoi s-a rtcit
sau din alte motive se dorete s se citeasc codul
vreunuia din depozit, aceast operaie poate f f-
cut cu ajutorul unui meniu special al aplicaiei.
Aici, dup citirea codului de pe butoi, se afeaz
automat toate informaiile din baza de date des-
pre butoiul respectiv.
Odat plecat de la producator, marfa ajunge la
client. Acesta din urm trebuie la rndul su s ve-
rifce butoaiele primite, n momentul umplerii s
le suprascrie codurile cu noul serial number i s
le trimit apoi mai departe la clientul acestuia.
Ultimul client trece butoaiele prin procesul de ci-
tire, avnd ulterior facilitatea de a vizualiza diver-
se informaii despre butoaiele citite indvidual.
Echipamentele folosite sunt: un calculator, citi-
torul RFID, antena i un ntreruptor (sau, dup
caz, o und de semnal senzorial) ce declaneaz
procesul de citire/scriere.
Aplicaia pune la dispoziie o serie de operaii ce
pot f efectuate asupra tag-urilor. Acestea sunt
scrierea unui cod pe butoi, citirea unuia sau mai
multor tag-uri n acelai timp, aceasta fnalizn-
du-se cu afarea codurilor i/sau informaiilor
aferente pe ecran.
Dup selectarea comenzii dorite, declanarea
proceselor de citire/scriere se face prin activarea
ntreruptorului de pe starea of pe starea on sau
prin ntreruperea undei senzoriale din captul
benzii de transport.
Cu ajutorul modulului Parameters, se pot schim-
ba parametrii reader-ului n vederea funcionrii
optime. Aici se pot stabili aspecte legate de adresa
de conectare a cititorului, de frecvenele folosite,
de puterea antenelor sau de diverse sesiuni etc.
Parametrii cureni se pstreaz la deschiderea
aplicaiei pentru a putea f ulterior modifcai.
Pe lng faptul c baza de date asociat acestei
aplicaii s-a dovedit c este foarte bine proiecta-
t, CAES a reuit s ofere o interfa prietenoas
pentru utilizator i uor de urmrit.
CONCLUZII
Tehnologiile TIC sunt deja o realitate cotidian
dar n acelai timp ofer un potenial semnifca-
tiv de reducere a costurilor, cretere a efcienei
i reducere a impactului ecologic al sistemelor de
transport.
Se estimeaz c TIC pot contribui la reducerea cu
10% a emisiilor de gaze cu efect de ser la nivel
global.
Lund n considerare aspectele prezentate n
dezbateri, membrii Filialei SIAR Constana, n
colaborare cu Biroul Permanent al ANCS de
la Bruxelles, au iniiat organizarea unei mani-
festri de referin dedicat promovrii proiec-
telor romneti n programul FP7. Seminarul
Strengthening the Competitiveness in Transport
and Manufacturing for transition to Green
Economy by Enhanced Participation to EU FP7
RTD Programme se va desfura la Constana,
n zilele de 9 i 10 Septembrie 2010.
BIBLIOGRFIE:
[1] Lorenz M. Hilty, Peter Arnfalk, Lorenz Erdmann,
James Goodman, Martin Lehmann, Patrick A. Wger
- Te relevance of information and communication tech-
nologies for environmental sustainability e A prospec-
tive simulation study Environmental Modelling &
Sofware 21 (2006)
[2] G.A. Giannopoulos - Te application of infor-
mation and communication technologies in trans-
port Science Direct, 2004 European Journal of
Operational Research 152 (2004)
[3] Eden Mamut, Laureniu Oancea, Rita Avram -
Developing the Danube Green Corridor Green Port,
Mai/Iunie 2008
[4] G. Mintsis, S. Basbas, P. Papaioannou, C.
Taxiltaris, I.N. Tziavos - Applications of GPS tech-
nology in the land transportation system European
Journal of Operational Research 152 (2004)
Fig. 3. Aplicaia Tag Force
19
20
ABSTRCT
Urban air pollution from road transport is a
growing concern in a large number of developing
country cities and Braov is not an exception. Te
transit traf c in the historical center of this city
produces big concentrations of carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides, ozone and volatile organic com-
pounds. In order to realize a prediction model for
the main air pollutants, it is necessary to analyze
all the intersections from this area. In this study is
presented the methodology for a chemical pollut-
ants approximation model.
Dezvoltarea ampl a industriei n ultimii ani a dus
la extinderea i dezvoltarea reelelor de transport
din ntreaga lume. Centrele populate, urbane i
rurale, sunt direct afectate de creterea mobilitii
i de circulaia tot mai intens a mrfurilor i per-
soanelor. Circulaia rutier reprezint micarea
general de vehicule i persoane, concentrat pe
suprafee de teren destinate acestui scop (drumu-
rile). Fenomenul circulaiei rutiere sau a trafcului
rutier se manifest att n teritorii mari, ct i n
zone restrnse.
Cele mai severe efecte n ceea ce privete trafcul
rutier se regsesc n zonele urbane. Se cunoate c
densitatea trafcului rutier i concentraia de gaze
de evacuare este mult mai mare dect n zonele
rurale. Totui, zonele urbane nu pot f considerate
ca entiti omogene; cel mai mare nivel de polua-
re se ntlnete n zonele cu strzi tip canion unde
diluia gazelor de evacuare provenite de la vehicu-
le este ngreunat i limitat de prezena cldirilor
foarte aproape de calea de rulare. Astfel, estima-
rea emisiilor poluante reprezint o parte impor-
tant a studiilor privind infuena trafcului rutier
asupra polurii. Principalul obiectiv l reprezint
nelegerea proceselor i fenomenelor privind
formarea poluanilor, precum i modelarea ma-
tematic a dispersiei poluanilor. Aproximarea
concentraiilor diverilor poluani chimici se
poate face utiliznd regresii liniare, exponeniale
sau polinomiale (de gradul doi sau trei), mode-
le Gaussiene, Lagrangiane. Studiile realizate n
Romnia, Uniunea European, Statele Unite i
Asia relev faptul c poluanii pot f aproximai
n raport cu diveri parametri utiliznd modele
matematice.
Pentru realizarea acestui studiu s-au parcurs ur-
mtoarele etape:
1. Documentarea n vederea completrii
informaiilor cunoscute prin obinerea unei
baze de date ct mai vaste privind poluarea
chimic a mediului nconjurtor de ctre
trafcul rutier.
Studiul propus const n analiza polurii chimice
produse de trafcul rutier n Municipiul Braov
precum i analiza infuenei condiiilor de exploa-
tare asupra emisiilor poluante la autovehicule:
Infuena vitezei de deplasare a autovehiculului.
Infuena condiiilor meteorologice (tempera-
tur, presiune atmosferic, umiditate, direcia i
viteza vntului).
Infuena regimului de exploatare a motorului.
Cea mai obinuit i la ndemn dintre meto-
dele de culegere a datelor de trafc rutier este
cea cu ajutorul unei echipe de observatori, fe-
care dintre ei nregistrnd un element specifc
al trafcului. Pentru msurarea i monitorizarea
polurii chimice cauzate de trafcul rutier se
vor folosi analizoare portabile de gaze de ar-
dere. Se vor folosi detectoare de gaze portabile
MultiRE IR. Msurtorile privind condiiile
meteorologice se vor efectua simultan cu m-
surtorile de fux rutier i de poluare chimi-
c a aerului utiliznd anemometrul portabil
AIRFLOW TA460.
De asemenea este necesar un studiu n vederea
realizrii de modele matematice de predicie i
aproximare a polurii chimice produse de trafcul
rutier. Se vor folosi modele de aproximare nume-
ric a funciilor de o variabil. Alegerea modelului
de aproximare se va decide n funcie de parame-
tri geometrici i meteorologici ai zonei studiate.
Modelul matematic poate folosi pentru aproxi-
marea concentraiilor poluanilor regresii liniare,
exponeniale sau polinomiale (de gradul doi sau
trei), modele Gaussiene sau Lagrangiane.
2. Efectuarea msurtorilor n vederea de-
terminrii parametrilor geometrici ai zonei
studiate, valorilor de fux rutier, datelor mete-
orologice i valorilor concentraiilor
principalilor poluani chimici.
Msurarea dimensiunilor geometrice ale interseciilor.
Modaliti de predicie a polurii chimice n raport cu tracul rutier
Chemical Pollution Prediction Models in Function of Trafc Flows
ef lucr. Dr. Ing. Stelian RULESCU
Catedra de Autovehicule i Motoare
Facultatea de Inginerie Mecanic
Universitatea TRNSILVANIA Braov
Fig. 1 Metodologia de culegere a datelor de trafc rutier, anemometrul folosit
pentru determinarea condiiilor meteorologice i analizorul de gaze portabil.
Pentru msurarea unor suprafee sau lungimi
mari, cel mai potrivit instrument de msur este
roata metric. Se mai pot folosi i distometre. Cu
ajutorul roii se vor stabili parametrii geometrici
pentru fecare intersecie n vederea desenrii
schemelor acestora.
Culegerea datelor de trafc rutier. Pentru o anumit
intrare cu semnale variabile n timp, se stabilete
urmtoarea metod de culegere a datelor pentru
analiza interseciei:
Volumul de trafc reprezentnd numrul de ve-
hicule care trec linia de stop, pentru fecare mi-
care de trafc (nainte, stnga, dreapta), precum i
categoriile de vehicule pentru fecare intrare.
Numrul total al sosirilor sau, mai corect, sosirile
21
Fig. 2 Utilizarea regresiilor liniare, exponeniale i polinomiale de gradul 2 i 3
pentru aproximarea concentraiei de CO n funcie de valorile de fux rutier.
Fig. 3 Alegerea punctelor n care se vor face msurtorile
de poluare chimic a aerului pentru dou intersecii.
22
pe durata semnalului verde.
Msurarea polurii chimice a aerului. Pentru fe-
care intersecie a traseului analizat se stabilesc
punctele de msurare a substanelor poluante. Se
vor alege poluanii care trebuie msurai (poluan-
ii specifci autovehiculelor: monoxidul de azot,
dioxidul de azot, monoxidul de carbon, compuii
organici volatili, ozonul, dioxidul de sulf).
Se vor efectua msurtorile de poluare chimic
simultan cu cele de trafc rutier. Se vor folosi ce-
lule de msurare interschimbabile pentru fecare
poluant care va f monitorizat.
Determinarea condiiilor meteorologice pentru inter-
valele orare pentru care s-au efectuat msurtorile
de poluare chimic. n vederea stabilirii condiiilor
meteorologice se vor monitoriza civa parametri
eseniali:
Viteza vntului.
Temperatura atmosferic.
Presiunea atmosferic.
Umiditatea.
Datele stocate vor f descrcate prin intermediul
programelor anemometrului. Principalii parame-
tri msurai pot f prezentai n exemple de pagini
de lucru rezultate n urma msurtorilor.
3. Realizarea modelului matematic
de predicie a polurii chimice n funcie
de trafcul rutier
Realizarea unei baze de date pentru valorile msura-
te. Datele rezultate n urma msurtorilor de trafc
rutier i de poluare chimic vor f grupate pentru
fecare intersecie msurat i se vor realiza baze
de date n care acestea s fe introduse.
Se vor centraliza datele din bazele de date, dup
cum urmeaz:
Ordonarea interseciilor n funcie de numrul
de vehicule etalon / or nregistrate.
Stabilirea unui nivel de poluare mediu pentru
fecare intersecie.
Introducerea n formatul de lucru a valorilor
medii ale concentraiilor poluanilor pentru fe-
care intersecie.
Analiza poluanilor n vederea realizrii modelului
matematic. Pentru analiza polurii chimice se vor
ntocmi pagini de lucru care cuprind n format
tabelar valorile msurate i reprezentrile grafce
ale acestora pentru traseul analizat n funcie de
anotimp i interval orar.
Stabilirea metodei de aproximare a concentraiei
pentru fecare poluant analizat. Pentru a obine
curbele de variaie a concentraiei poluanilor i
pentru a determina formulele care caracterizeaz
formele curbelor, se poate utiliza programul de
analiz ORIGIN Pro.
ntocmirea modelului matematic de variaie a polu-
anilor n funcie de trafcul rutier. Pentru modelul
matematic fnal se vor combina datele determina-
te experimental cu cele rezultate n urma model-
rii matematice. Vor rezulta pagini de lucru pentru
analiza chimic. Pagina de lucru va f alctuit din
tabele care cuprind urmtoarele date:
Numrul interseciei.
Numrul de vehicule etalon.
Valorile determinate experimental pentru feca-
re poluant chimic.
Valorile rezultate n urma modelrii matematice.
Utilizarea modelului matematic pentru pre-
dicia polurii chimice n diferite zone i situaii
similare cu cele studiate. Introducnd un numr
de vehicule etalon pentru o intersecie se poate
estima nivelul de poluare pentru oricare dintre
poluani chimici analizai.
BIBLIOGRFIE:
[1] Cofaru, C. Legislaia i Ingineria Mediului n
Transportul Rutier, Editura Universitii Transilvania,
Braov 2002, ISBN 973-635-185-8.
[2] Florea, D., Cofaru, C., oica, A. Managementul
trafcului rutier, Editura Universitii Transilvania,
Braov 1998.
[3] Monitorizarea calitii aerului (msurtori indicative
de control n municipiul Braov) raport fnal, R.A.R.
Bucureti, 2003.
[4] Negrea, D. V., Sandu, V. Combaterea polurii
mediului n transporturile rutiere, Editura tehnica,
Bucureti 2000, ISBN 973-31-1455-3.
[5] PARLAMENTUL EUROPEAN I CONSILIUL
UNIUNII EUROPENE - Directiva 2002/49/EC a
Parlamentului European i a Consiliului, 25 iunie 2002.
[6] Pouliot, G. - Emission Processing for an Air Quality
Forecasting Model, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, 2002.
[7] Rducan, G., M. - Pollutant dispersion modelling
with ospm in a street canyon fom Bucharest, University
of Bucharest, Faculty of Physics, Dept. of Atmospheric
Physics, 2008.
[8] Sadullah, A. - Air pollution fom motor vehicles a
mathematical model analysis: Case study in ipoh city, pe-
rak, Malaysia, Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for
Transportation Studies, Vol.5, October, 2003.
[9] Uzuneanu, K. Monitorizarea i diagnoza calitii
mediului, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti,
2007, ISBN 978-973-30-1994-7.
Fig. 4 Nivelul concentraiilor poluanilor CO i VOC pentru o intersecie
23
Centrul universitar de Cercetare Ingineria
Automobilului, amplasat ntr-un sediu nou, in-
augurat la sfritul anului 2009, cu ocazia mpli-
nirii a 40 de ani de nvmnt superior tehnic la
Universitatea din Piteti, dispune de o infrastruc-
tura adecvat cercetrilor n domeniul concepiei,
fabricrii i ncercrii automobilelor n continu
dezvoltare. Nu ntmpltor cele patru decenii de
activitate academic coincid cu vrsta platfor-
mei Dacia, care constituie, mpreun cu Renault
Technologie Roumanie, principalii susintori ex-
terni ai centrului.
n domeniul proiectrii automobilului i a com-
ponentelor sale dispunem de laboratoare dedicate
modelrii, simulrii i prototiprii virtuale dotate
cu sofuri performante precum AutoCAD, CATIA,
LabVIEW, LS-DYNA, MATLAB SIMULINK.
Acestora li s-au adugat de curnd sofuri speciali-
zate precum FIRE, CRUISE, BOOST i EXCITE
oferite de AVL Austria.
Pentru planifcarea i optimizarea transporturilor,
laboratorul dedicat trafcului rutier este dotat cu
soful VISUM. Ca i sofurile enumerate anterior,
el este utilizat att n cadrul activitilor didactice
ct i n cercetare.
n vederea realizrii modelelor funcionale i a
prototipurilor au fost dezvoltate trei ateliere de
lucru: Machetare prototipuri auto-sisteme de propul-
sie-motoare, Prelucrri piese prototip i Asamblare
prototipuri i service auto. Dintre conceptele care
au fost construite amintim: NovaMatic CVT
autoturism cu transmisie automat tip CVT i
EcoVITA ViVL autoturism ecologic cu motor
cu distribuie variabil ce permite funcionarea n
absena clapetei obturatoare. Sunt n curs de fna-
lizare vehiculele cu propulsie alternativ: GRND
SANDERO Hybrid Utility Vehicle autotu-
rism utilitar cu propulsie hibrid GPL-Electrica,
HAMSTER Electricway 4WD autoturism de
agrement hibrid diesel-electric i ELECTR au-
toturism urban cu propulsie electric.
Cercetrile privind fabricarea componentelor
automobilelor se desfoar ntr-un laborator
multifuncional dotat pentru: Tehnologii de prelu-
crare prin achiere, clasice i cu comand numeric,
Tehnologii de prelucrare prin eroziune cu comand
numeric, Tehnologii de deformare la rece (tanare,
matriare ndoire, rulare etc.), Tehnologii de sudare.
Pentru autovehicul, n ansamblu, centrul dispune
de laboratorul Tehnologii avansate pentru automobi-
le i laboratorul Diagnosticare i Mentenana autove-
hiculelor.
Posibilitile de cercetare tiinifc experimental
s-au extins mulumit nfinrii unor noi labora-
toare gzduite de noua cldire a centrului: Caroserii
i structuri portante, Ergonomie i confortabilitate,
Prototipaj rapid, Electronica automobilului, Vibraii
i poluare acustic.
n domeniul motoarelor termice si combustibili-
lor, exist laboratorul Motoare termice pentru auto-
mobile ce dispune de trei celule de ncercare dotate
corespunztor pentru derularea de investigaii
experimentale complexe (echipament complet
AVL IndiModul pentru prelevarea i prelucrarea
diagramei indicate, echipament complet INCA
pentru calibrarea sistemelor de management elec-
tronic al aprinderii i injeciei, balane de combus-
tibil Schenck i Rotronics, analizoare de gaze AVL
diGaz etc.). Pentru studiul combustibililor, labora-
torul a fost de curnd dotat cu un motor CFR, cu
raport de comprimare variabil, necesar determin-
rii cifrei octanice a benzinelor.
Pentru studiul propulsiei alternative i utilizarea
energiilor alternative i regenerabile n domeniul
autovehiculelor, a fost nfinat laboratorul Sisteme
alternative de propulsie pentru automobile Energii
alternative i regenerabile. Acesta este dotat cu un
stand cu rulouri Schenck i un stand Hofmann
pentru ncercarea motoarelor electrice sau hibri-
de. Ele sunt aranjate ntr-o arhitectur original ce
permite determinarea performanelor de traciune
ale sistemelor de propulsie electrice i electrice hi-
bride, ale automobilelor dotate cu astfel de sisteme
precum i determinarea consumului de combusti-
bil de tip clasic sau alternativ (GPL, GNCV) i a
consumului de electricitate. Dotarea laboratoare-
lor Centrului de Cercetare Ingineria Automobilului
cu echipamente i aparatur de cercetare s-a rea-
lizat prin alocri bugetare de la Universitatea din
Piteti, achiziii n cadrul granturilor si contractelor
de cercetare precum i prin sponsorizri. O contri-
buie important la dotarea acestor laboratoare au
avut-o donaiile din partea Dacia Group Renault i
Renault Technologie Roumanie.
Laboratoare universitare
la Centrul de Cercetare Ingineria Automobilului,
Facultatea de Mecanic i Tehnologie, Universitatea din Piteti
University Research Laboratores
Conf. univ. dr. ing. Dnu Gabriel MARINESCU
Director executiv al Centrului de Cercetare
Optimizarea tehnologiilor de producere a biocombustibililor din alge
Process Optimization for Biofuels Production fom Algae
24
Cercetri universitare
Autor: doctorand ing. Ruxandra (DICA) STNESCU.
Proiect de cercetare, fnanat prin Programul Operaional Sectorial Dezvoltarea
Resurselor Umane 2007-2013, urmrete analiza impactului potenial al produ-
cerii de biocombustibili din alge, testarea i optimizarea procedeelor n vederea
implementrii acestei tehnologii n zona judeului Braov. Datorit structurii
celulare simple, algele sunt mult mai efciente n convertirea energiei solare. Ele
absorb forme irosite de CO
2
(energie zero) i o convertesc n forme lichide de
energie cu coninut energetic ridicat i pot produce de 30 de ori mai mult ulei
pe unitate de suprafa fa de culturile oleaginoase terestre. n cadrul proiectu-
lui se va realiza o estimare a potenialului de cultivare a algelor n Romnia sau/
i n judeul Braov i se vor identifca caracteristicile unor specii de alge (de ex.
Tetraselmis i Nannochloris) cum ar f: coninutul n carbohidrai, lipide, proteine,
specifcaii de cultivare i recoltare. n urma acestui studiu se va procesa o cantitate
de materie uscat din alge pentru a obine biocombustibil, se vor analiza proprie-
tile fzico-chimice ale acestuia n vederea optimizrii instalaiei de producere a
biocombustibilului.
Persoan de contact: Ing. Ruxandra (DICA) STNESCU, Universitatea
Transilvania din Braov, ruxandra.stanescu@unitbv.ro.
Author: Ph.D. student eng. Ruxandra (DICA) STNESCU.
Tis paper is supported by the Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resources
Development 2010-2013. Te main objective of the project is the analysis of the
potential impact of biofuel production fom algae, processes testing and optimizing for
further implementation of this technology in Braov county area. Due to their simple
cellular structure, algae are much more ef cient in converting solar energy. Tey ab-
sorb waste forms of CO
2
(zero energy) and convert it into liquid forms of energy with
high energy content, they can produce 30 times more oil per surface unit than terres-
trial oil crops. Tis project will do an estimation regarding algae cultivation potential in
Romania and/or in Braov County, and will identify the characteristics of some algae
species (eg. Tetraselmis and Nanochloris) such as: carbohydrates, lipids and protein
content, cultivation and harvest conditions. Afer this study, biofuel will be processed
fom algae dry mater and biofuel physical and chemical properties will be evaluated in
order to optimize the entire process.
Contact: Eng. Ruxandra (DICA) STNESCU, Transylvania University of Braov,
ruxandra.stanescu@unitbv.ro.
Platform inteligent i efcient pentru managementul cltoriei
n orae europene acronim In Time din cadrul programului
Information and Communication Technologies Policy Support
Programme ICT PSP
In Time (Intelligent and Ef cient Travel Management for European
Cities within the Framework of the Information and Communication
Technologies Policy Support Programme ICT PSP)
Contract la nivel european, durata de 3 ani (din 2009), 22 de instituii i compa-
nii din 10 ri europene, lider de proiect frma Austriatech din Austria, iar Centrul
de Cercetare, Service, Consulting n domeniul Telecomenzilor i Electronicii n
Transporturi este UPB-CEPETET.
Director de proiect UPB-CEPETET: conf. dr. ing. Marius MINEA.
Proiectul In Time are ca obiectiv crearea unei platforme multifuncionale pentru
asigurarea de servicii de informare n timp real pentru trafc i cltorie n zonele
urbane, n scopul reducerii consumului de energie i combustibil i emisiilor de
noxe prin schimbarea comportamentului conductorilor auto. Au fost defnite
servicii tip Business-to-business pentru a oferi sprijin Furnizorilor de Servicii de
Informaii de Trafc (FSIT) i s-a pus la punct interfaa comun pentru schimbul
de informaii dintre furnizorii acestora (centre de management al trafcului i trans-
portului public i distribuitorii informaiilor). Proiectul are ca scop defnirea unei
interfee comune standardizate pentru extinderea la nivelul UE a acestor servicii.
Acestea vor infuena comportamentul n deplasare, optimiznd cltoriile, lund
n considerare consumul de energie. Comunitatea va f reprezentat de utiliza-
torii de dispozitive de comunicare mobile sau de navigaie. Persoan de contact:
Conf. Dr. Ing. Marius MINEA; e-mail: marius.minea@upb.ro.
An EU-level research programme, lasting 3 years (since 2009); 22 companies
and research centers participating, the project leader is Austriatech fom Austria.
Research, Service and Consulting Centre for Telematics and Electronics in Transports
UPB-CEPETET.
Project manager UPB-CEPETET: Senior Lecturer Marius MINEA, Ph. D. Eng.
In-Time (Intelligent and Ef cient Travel management for European Cities) focuses
on Multimodal Real Time Traf c and Travel Information (RTI) services with the goal
to reduce drastically energy consumption in urban areas across the diferent modes of
transport by changing the mobility behavior (modal shif) of the single traveler.
Business-to-business services will enable European-wide Traf c Information Service
Providers (TISPs) to get access to regional traf c and travel data and services of the sin-
gle pilot cities via a harmonized standardized open interface. Tis will enable the TISP
to provide interoperable and multimodal RTI services (e-services) to their end-users.
Te services will infuence the on-trip travel behavior by optimizing journeys taking the
energy consumption into account. Te community will be the users of mobile devices or
navigational devices.
Contact: Ph. D. Eng. Marius MINEA; e-mail: marius.minea@upb.ro.
Cercetri cu privire la obinerea de etanol prin
prelucrarea biomasei lemnoase rezultate din cultura
clonelor de plopi cu ciclu rapid de cretere
Research Regarding Ethanol Deliver fom Processing Wood Biomass
fom Cultivating Rapis Cycle Growth Poplar Clones
Autori: Prof. Laureniu FAR (Fac. de tiine Aplicate UPB), Cristian Alexandru
RCOVI (Catedra Motoare UPB) Istrate BITIR, Centrala de Prelucrare a
Lemnului i Facultatea de Chimie Industrial UPB.
Cercetarea se refer la utilizarea biomasei lemnoase n scopul utilizrii
bioetanolului drept combustibil alternativ pentru motoarele cu aprindere prin
scnteie. S-au desfurat pn acum dou faze anuale 2008-2009 (Cercetri n
domeniul obinerii de biomas i bioetanol din deeuri lemnoase) i 2009-2010
(Testarea culturilor comparative i de laborator referitor la bioacumularea de
mas lemnoas, caracteristicile materialului lemnos i a calitii bioetanolului),
urmnd ca lucrarea s continue prin desfurarea de experimente de laborator
in vederea testrii proprietilor fzico-chimice ale bioetanolului i consacrarea sa
drept combustibil alternativ pentru MAS.
Persoan de contact: dr. ing. Alexandru RCOVI;
e-mail: alexandru_racovitza@yahoo.com.
Authors: Prof. Laureniu FAR (Faculty of Applied Sciences fom PUB), Cristian
Alexandru RCOVI (Engines Department PUB), Istrate BITIR (Woodworking
and Central School PUB Industrial Chemistry).
Research concerns the use of wood biomass for the purpose of using bioethanol as an
alternative fuel for spark ignition engines. Two annual phase took place, the frst between
2008-2009 (Research regarding obtaining biomass and bioethanol fom waste wood)
and the second between 2009-2010 (Testing of comparative and laboratory cultures
for the bioaccumulation of timber mass, the characteristics of timber and bioethanol).
Te paper will continue to work by running laboratory experiments towards testing the
physical and chemical properties of bioethanol and its capabilities as an alternative fuel
for spark ignition engines.
Contact: Ph. D. Eng. Alexandru RCOVI;
e-mail: alexandru_racovitza@yahoo.com.
25
Actualiti din presa societilor membre ale FISITA
Proiectarea suspensiei active i programul electronic de stabilitate pentru prevenirea rstur-
nrii autovehiculului, articol publicat n revista International Journal of Automotive Technology a KSAE, semnat de S. YIM, de la coala
de inginerie creativ pentru generaia urmtoare de sisteme mecanice i aerospaiale a Universitii Naionale din Seoul, Y. PARK, Departamentul de
Inginerie Mecanic, KIST, Daejeon, Coreea, i K.YI, de la coala de Inginerie Mecanic i Aerospaial, Universitatea Naional din Seoul.
Autorii prezint o metod original de proiectare a unui controler pentru prevenirea rsturnrii vehiculului folosind o combinaie dintre suspensia
activ i programul electronic de stabilitate ESP. Suspensia activ este proiectat folosind o metodologie de control cu un rspuns static linear ptratic
pentru atenuarea efectului acceleraiei laterale asupra unghiului de rsturnare, pentru controlul solicitrii suspensiei i deformrii pneurilor vehiculu-
lui. Deoarece aceasta metod afecteaz manevrabilitate vehiculului i induce o caracteristic tensionat a direciei s-a introdus programul electronic de
stabilitate (ESP). Se baza rezultatelor unor simulri se apreciaz c metoda propus poate preveni rsturnarea vehiculului.
Automotive Engineer public, n numrul su din iulie-august 2010, sub titlul Comisia mpinge securitatea pasiv n fruntea agendei,
comentarii privind planurile Comisiei pentru decada viitoare privind reducerea numrului de accidente i de decese datorate trafcului rutier. ntre
anii 2011 i 2020 Sistemul electronic de control al stabilitii (ESC) va deveni obligatoriu pentru autoturisme i vehicule comerciale. Centurile de
securitate pentru scaune la autoturisme i camioane, precum i limitrile de vitez vor deveni obligatorii pentru vehiculele autoutilitare uoare. Se pro-
pun prevederi, n cadrul Directivei privind sisteme de transport inteligente, care vor permite schimbul uor de date i informaii ntre vehicule i ntre
vehicule i infrastructur precum i cu privire la limitri de vitez, fuxurile din trafc, congestia trafcului, depistarea pietonilor. Obiectivul principal
este reducerea numrului de decese, care a ajuns n Europa, anul trecut, la 35.000 de persoane.
Aceeai revist descrie o noua tehnologie, dezvoltat de compania TRW, destinat evitrii sau diminurii efectelor accidentelor n trafcul urban. Ea
se bazeaz pe utilizarea radarului de frm de 24Ghz, care permite evitarea accidentelor la viteze relative de impact pn la 20 km/h sau diminuarea
efectelor accidentelor la viteze relative de peste 20 km/h.
Rubric redactat de dr. ing. Cornel Armand Vladu, Secretar general al SIAR
Euro 6, cine va juca pimul rol? Articol publicat n revista Ingenieurs de lautomobile a SIA Frana, numrul 806 din mai-iunie
2010, n care se analizeaz posibilitile de dezvoltare a motoarelor Diesel care, ncepnd cu 1 septembrie 2014, la omologarea de tip, vor trebui s
ndeplineasc normele de protecie a mediului care sunt mult mai severe dect normele Euro 5, ndeosebi n ceea ce privete coninutul de NO
x
(o
cdere de la 180g/ciclu NEDC la 80 g/ciclu, iar dispozitivul de control al noxelor va trebui s dureze 180.000 km).
Utilizarea sistemului cel mai efcient pentru tratarea NO
x
, cu ajutorul unui convertizor catalitic SCR - Selective Catalytic Rduction, utilizat de majo-
ritatea companiilor productoare, cu injectarea n catalizator a unui agent de reducere denumit AdBlue, pune probleme privind creterea consumului
de carburant i de costuri suplimentare.
Ingegneria dellAutoveicolo, vol 63 din mai - iunie 2010, editat de ATA (Italia), public la rubrica Cercetri universitare articolul
Comportarea termic a valvei pentru recircularea gazelor arse (EGR). Lucrarea analizeaz comportarea termic a valvei pentru recircularea gazelor arse
(EGR), instalat pe o serie de motoare Diesel, pentru a se identifca sarcinile termice efective la care ea este supus, n timpul operrii sale reale. S-au
utilizat att instrumente teoretice ct i proceduri experimentale pentru a se obine rezultate concludente.
Ambele abordri teoretice diferite au fost verifcate n diferite condiii de lucru, n regimuri staionare i nestaionare pentru a se lua n considerare
rezistenele termice ale sistemului, datorate diferitelor materiale utilizate i interaciunilor sarcinilor termice asupra componentelor, ineriei termice
diferite i funciilor caracteristice ale valvelor, fenomenelor de conducie i convecie. Anumite teste asupra unor tipuri de motoare au condus la ex-
cluderea sau validarea modelelor teoretice. S-a utilizat o valv EGR instrumentat, prevzut cu termocuple montate n anumite locuri, din interiorul
i exteriorul acesteia. S-a obinut o bun concordan ntre rezultatele teoretice i experimentale. Componentele critice au fost amplasate considernd
limitele termice i ipotezele de mbuntire propuse, defnindu-se o baz pentru reducerea cderii valvelor ca urmare a solicitrilor termice
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A
ceasta este deviza pe care i-au nsuit-o
echipele de studeni constneni ai sec-
iei AR ce s-au angajat n ultimii ani la
realizarea unor produse specifce domeniului n
care se pregtesc: hibrizi multifuncionali, mini
autovehicule. Munca n echip a indus studenilor
contiina fnalizrii temei asumate, a nsemnat
punerea n valoare a cunotinelor teoretice nsu-
ite, a imaginaiei, a spontaneitii i a abilitilor
practice, a nsemnat dobndirea experienei n ma-
nagementul proiectului, a optimizrii logisticii, n
armonizarea caracterelor.
i revenind la ideea iniial: poate c dac studenii
notri nu ar f fost att de hotri i plini de spe-
ran n reuitele lor nu am f discutat astzi des-
pre propunerile inedite Hy AR 2010 hibridul cu
propulsie electric i termic un veritabil 3 X 3
(un model funcional pe 3 roi, cuprinznd puntea
spate a unei motociclete inclusiv motorul termic i
o punte fa de Dacia dotat cu un motor electric),
MixTra vehiculul rutier ce tracteaz o ambarca-
iune ce-l poate traversa dincolo de cursurile de
ap ARiEL i Eco autoturismele electrice, Trio-
vehiculul policarburant destinat deplasrii prin
aglomerrile urbane, Nemo autoturismul ce a
plutit pe ap, SalvAR-prototipul ambulanei low-
cost, CAT Ice freza de zpad multifuncional i
multe alte raionalizri.
Ne apropiem de ceasul aniversar al celei de-a
zecea promoii AR ce i ncepe studenia n re-
numita Universitate Ovidius de la rmul mrii.
O facultate de inginerie mecanic tnr care-i
primete, la o specializare de elit, ex-liceenii n-
setai de cunoatere. Alturi de noi, cnd am por-
nit acest demers, au fost Societatea Inginerilor de
Automobile din Romnia SIAR i nu n ultimul
rnd agenii economici care ne-au sprijinit n mod
necondiionat pentru ca, astzi, zona Dobrogei s
benefcieze de ingineri bine pregtii n speciali-
zarea Autovehicule rutiere. Privind realizrile
lor i tiind din backgroud cte nopi de dispute,
cte discuii i lupte de idei, cte propuneri i argu-
mente (validate sau poate nc fr un real contur),
putem spune c EI, studenii de la AR Ovidius
Constana i-au construit visul cu propriile mini.
Lor le datorm multe din realizrile actuale i Lor
le dedicm i acest articol care nu poate individu-
aliza o personalitate dar poate valida o ECHIP al
crei spirit sperm s strbat vremurile tulburi ale
crizei... de idei. EI eu demonstrat c se pot descifra
tainele automobilului i la Constana i c aceasta
poate f nu o obligaie ci o recompens a meritului
de a aparine acestui colectiv deosebit al AR-ului
constnean.
Cu mulumiri i ncredere necondiionat,
Coordonatorii specializrii AR
ai Universitii Ovidius Constana
Prof. univ. dr. ing. Adriana MANEA i
Prof. univ. ec. dr. ing. Laureniu MANEA.
26
Realizri studeneti
Fii INGINER pentru TINE i MODEL pentru ECHIPA TA!
Student Achievments
Hy AR 2010 hibridul 3x3 cu traciune electric i termic i Nemo, hibridul acvatic
Trio City policarburantul constnean
TEHNICI DE SUSINERE I RIDICARE DE URGEN
HOLMATRO
Autor: Brendon Morris, Consultation & Training Manager
Holmatro Rescue Equipment
Traducere: Alexandra Ion i Teodor Munteanu
Lucrarea conine informaii despre echipamentele i tehnicile de salvare care
pot f folosite n diferite situaii de urgen. Aspectele prezentate poart titlu
de exemplu, avnd scopul de a-l ajuta pe cititor s neleag tehnicile funda-
mentale de susinere i ridicare de urgen i echipamentele disponibile.
Fiecare situaie de urgen este unic. Factori variabili cum ar f tipul i starea
de fapt a vehiculelor, structura prbuit, numrul de victime i starea n care
se af acestea precum i ali factori externi joac un rol important n stabilirea
celei mai potrivite aciuni i desfurarea ei. Este necesar s se aplice procedurile de operare standard i s
se respecte instruciunile autoritilor care se af la locul incidentului.
Scena descarcerrii este, prin natura sa, periculoas. Sigurana persoanelor implicate depinde de modul n
care se utilizeaz echipamentele de protecie adecvate i de buna ntreinere a echipamentelor de salvare
utilizate.
Lucrarea este editat de Magic View-Sense of Vision n anul 2010, are ISBN 978-90-812796-1-1 i cuprin-
de 100 de pagini.
Mai multe detalii privind construcia i utilizarea echipamentelor de descarcerare pot f gsite pe site-ul
www.holmatro.ro
LINII DIRECTOARE IRU N MATERIE DE SIGURN
PENTRU TRNSPORTUL DE PERSOANE
Lucrare elaborat de International Road Transport Union (Geneva), tradu-
s, tiprit i distribuit de Uniunea Naional a Transportatorilor Rutieri
din Romnia (UNTRR).
Cartea cuprinde o serie de recomandri, adresate conducerii i personalului
care activeaz n cadrul ntreprinderilor de transport de persoane, ndeosebi
cu autobuze i autocare, precum i cu taximetre, referitoare la sigurana pa-
sagerilor, autovehiculelor i bagajelor transportate. Ea conine recomandri
privind politica ntreprinderilor, selecionarea i recrutarea personalului,
msuri de prevenire a incidentelor, echiparea autovehiculelor cu dispozitive
de siguran pasiv, msuri pentru prevenirea furturilor i altor ameninri
legate de securitate, msuri de siguran pentru perioadele de oprire i parcare. Un capitol special este desti-
nat recomandrilor de securitate pentru liniile regulate, naionale i internaionale, de autobuze i autocare.
Un alt capitol este destinat recomandrilor generale pentru personalul care efectueaz transporturi colare.
Sunt inserate, de asemenea, o serie de formulare, liste cu msuri de verifcare n cazul unor ameninri, sfa-
turi pentru evitarea unor incidente sau agresiuni i date privind modalitile de comunicare cu frma sau cu
autoritile.
Lucrarea poate f procurat de la sediile locale ale UNTRR.
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auto test 3

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SE DISTRIBUIE GRATUIT CA SUPLIMENT AL REVISTEI AUTOTEST

NR. 16 / SEPTEMBRIE 2010

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