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Vindecarea unei fracturi este unul dintre cele mai remarcabile procese de
reparare din toate procesele de acest tip din organism. Vindecarea osoas const
n reconstituirea efectiv a esutului lezat, foarte asemntor cu forma sa
original, spre deosebire de alte esuturi care i repar distruciile prin mecanisme
de cicatrizare, peticire cu esut fibros. Mecanismele care controleaz un astfel
de proces sunt deosebit de complexe i incomplet elucidate, implicnd probleme
fundamentale de biologie a esutului osos, n special de homeostazie celular.29
Transformarea osoas se produce prin dou procese fundamental diferite,
de modelare i remodelare. n modelare, formarea i resorbia osoas sunt spaial
i temporal independente una de alta, n timp ce remodelarea implic eliminarea i
nlocuirea secvenial a oaselor, n puncte mici, prin activitatea osteoclastelor i
osteoblastelor, care reprezint unitatea multicelular a osului.13, 61
Modelarea osoas este mecanismul primar prin care osul crete i atinge
geometria final. Creterea longitudinal se realizeaz prin procesul de osificare
endocondral. Creterea circumferenial se realizeaz prin formarea direct de
esut osos, prin intermediul procesului de osificare intramembranoas la suprafaa
periostal. Pe msur ce diametrul exterior al osului crete, esutul osos este n
acelai timp eliminat de pe suprafaa endostal, pentru a se menine raportul dintre
limea cortexului i diametrul canalului medular.138, 143
Remodelarea osoas se refer la un proces temporal i spaial limitat, n
care osul este ndeprtat treptat i apoi nlocuit cu esut osos nou. n cadrul acestui
proces, osul care este afectat de microfracturi este eliminat i nlocuit cu os nou
sntos. Dei dimensiunea i forma extern a osului nu sunt afectate de
remodelare, arhitectura sa intern (orientarea trabecular) se modific, pentru a
crete capacitatea scheletului de a rezista forelor la care este expus.143, 150
96, 209
n urma
Fig. 1-4 Stadiile vindecrii osoase (dup Hulse D.A., Johnson A.L. 199796)
63
Iniial sunt
afectate esuturile moi, adiacente focarului de fractur i periostul. Prile moi din
regiune, sufer modificrile obinuite ale inflamaiei acute, cu vasodilataie i
180
Inflamaia local din faza acut este dat n prim faz de proteine, care intervin
n reaciile de tip inflamator acut. Aceste proteine, cum sunt interleukina-1 (IL-1)
i interleukina-6 (IL-6), au rol de activator al enzimelor proteolitice rezultnd
iniial fenomenele de coagulare i mai apoi de inducere a proceselor de tip
inflamator. Trombocitele, factorii de cretere plachetar (PDGF platelet derived
growth factor), factorii de transformare a celulelor de cretere (TGF
transforming growth factor ) i factorii de cretere endoteliali (EGF endothelial
growth factor) sunt mediatorii moleculari fr de care vindecarea nu este posibil.
Hematomul este cel care asigur n focarul de fractur prima surs de celule:
granulocite,
macrofage,
pluripotente.6,
60, 80
limfocite,
mastocite
celule
mezenchimale
crede c ele provin din foia intern a periostului precum i din endost.181 Cert
este c n mare parte ele provin din esutul de granulaie care este foarte bine
vascularizat.38 Granulocitele sunt celule care nu intervin direct n vindecarea
fracturii. Rolul lor este de a asigura digerarea bacteriilor, respectiv de a asigura
sterilizarea local. Macrofagele i limfocitele pe lng capacitatea de a distruge
bacteriile, elibereaz i factori de cretere angiogenici i factori de cretere
celular.180 Osteoclastele provin din celule mezenchimale i se regsesc nc din
primele etape ale inflamaiei, avnd rol n procesele de resorbie i de ndeprtare
a esutului osos necrozat.79, 208
61
punct
de
vedere
biomecanic,
conform
teoriei
tensiunii
respectiv
presiunile
joase,
determin
diferenierea
celulelor
185
105, 223
Iniial sunt depozitai colageni de tip I, II i III, dar de-a lungul procesului de
vindecare predomin colagenul de tip I.120 Hidroxiapatita de calciu este depozitat
n matrice. Calusul cartilaginos se mineralizeaz i nvelete capetele osoase,
iniind totodat, creterea stabilitii ntre capetele fracturate.7 Cnd stabilitatea a
crescut,
circulaia
medular
refcut
va
asigura
irigarea
calusului
180
10
11
70
11
12
13
14
15
209
16
nceperea
producerii
mineralizrii
prin
depunerea
cristalelor
de
80
dar
217
n situaia unor
23, 41
Stadiul de
17
18
31, 196
109, 207
(bone morphogenic proteins), factorul de cretere fibroblastic acid sau bazic aFGF / bFGF (acidic and basic fibroblast growth factor)24, 30, 101, 196 i factorul de
cretere al endoteliului vascular - VEGF.116,
215
19
20
BMPs (Bone Morphogenetic Proteins) au fost studiate cel mai mult. S-au
descoperit apte forme ale acestei proteine (BMPs 1-7). Aceste glicoproteine
colagenazo-rezistente sunt considerate ca fiind cele care induc transformarea
celulelor
esutului
conectiv
perivascular
condroblaste
celule
osteoprogenitoare (osteogenine) osificare endocondral.39, 134, 178, 185, 192, 193, 194,
195, 197, 219
21
22
osteoclastice.45,
116
mod
contradictoriu,
s-a
artat
157
23
24
Fracturile intraarticulare sunt fracturi care pun probleme procesului de vindecare. Lichidul sinovial conine fibrolizine
care au capacitatea de a produce liza calusului primar, producnd o ncetinire a procesului de vindecare aflat n stadiu
primar36, 96.
96, 209
65, 222
145
25
223
26
conservator, fie
27
86
Forma i localizarea
28
29
30
combinaii ale acestora cu sau fr cerclaje, sau printr-un procedeu mixt. n cazul
fracturilor cominutive severe, n care integritatea osului nu poate fi reconstituit
anatomic, se prefer, n cele mai multe cazuri, utilizarea fixatorilor externi
(procedeu nchis), sau se recurge la mijloace de fixare intern cu plci i uruburi
(procedeu deschis),96 utiliznd tehnici invazive (mai puin indicate) sau minim
invazive MIPO.2, 93, 104, 174, 175
n ultimii ani s-au dezvoltat numeroase tipuri de implanturi pentru fixarea
intern a fracturilor la animalele mici. Plcile de compresiune dinamic, plcile
blocante, de compresiune dinamic cu contact limitat, plcile cu contact limitat i
mecanism mixt de fixare cu uruburi (de compresiune dinamic i/sau de blocaj),
fixatorii externi, tijele intramedulare lise, cele cu capat filetat i tijele zvorte
care permit grade diferite de stabilizare i implicit de calitate a vindecrii.2, 129, 155,
167, 178
31
condiiile prinderii acestora sub firul de cerclaj. Nu este afectat nici afluxul
sangvin extraosos pentru c orientarea arteriolelor de origine extraosoas este
perpendicular pe axul longitudinal al oaselor lungi, aceeai orientare, avnd i
cerclajele.
32
96
36, 209
33
34
57
Popularitatea
35
36
37
38
36, 96
186 200
39
40
74
rigid
cu
plci
blocante
favorizeaz
vindecarea
intramembranoas.171
ntr-un studiu realizat n medicina uman, s-a demonstrat fapul c
lungimea plcilor, densitatea aplicrii uruburilor, numrul de guri ale plcii i
numrul de uruburi folosite reprezint elemente importante pentru vindecarea
osoas.107 Plcile mai lungi sunt considerate a fi mai avantajoase din punct de
vedere mecanic pentru c asigur o mai bun disipare a forelor, asigur o bun
prghie peste capetele fracturate, fiind capabile s suporte tensiuni mai mari.178
Un alt obiectiv pentru pentru fixarea fracturii, n afar de uniunea osoas,
este mobilizarea regiunii fracturate ct mai rapid dup o intervenie chirurgical.
Tehnicile conservatoare n mod normal, nu permit portarea de sarcin i astfel se
va produce atrofia regiunii. Vindecarea unei fracturi va dura mai mult n condiii
41
117, 118
42
ntr-un studiu realizat pe cini din rasa Beagle, la care s-a reprodus o
fractur diafizar mijlocie prin osteotomie, iar ulterior fragmentele rezultate sau
realiniat cu ajutorul unei tije zvorte cu cte 2 broe filetate/fragment,
interconectate la exterior cu un fixator extern de tip Ia, iar dup patru sptmni sa recurs la dinamizare prin ndeprtarea interconectrii externe i a celor dou
broe filetate din fragmentul distal, s-a artat faptul c dinamizarea nu a afectat
biologia vindecrii dar a prevenit anchiloza articular, promovnd recuperarea
funcional rapid a membrului afectat.53
Tot ntr-un studiu realizat pe cini, respectiv pe 12 tibii i fibule care au
fost supuse dinamizrii cu o rat cuprins ntre 1-3 mm/zi, pn la o alungire cu 2
respectiv 1 cm (10%, respectiv 5%), s-a demonstrat o cretere a rezistenei
43
107
n cazul n care
coloana osoas nu este complet restaurat i mai rmn mici defecte osoase, la
nivelul focarului de fractur se produc tensiuni mari, rezultnd un proces mai lent
de formare a calusului, respectiv vindecarea osoas se va produce tardiv.5, 95, 166
Osteosinteza biologic presupune un acces chirurgical minim (open but
don't touch), fiind considerat o metod alternativ a reconstruciei anatomice i
a fixrii rigide.5, 25, 94, 95, 200 Acest tip de osteosintez presupune o deosebit atenie
n conservarea fragmentelor mici, a inseriilor esuturilor moi i a vascularizaiei.
Pentru realizarea acesteia se folosesc metode indirecte de reducere a
fracturii, iar implantul se plaseaz n aa fel nct leziunile esuturilor moi s fie
minim. Se consider c timpul de vindecare este acceptabil,76 incidena
infeciilor sczut, iar pierderea de snge este minim.103
Cele mai pretabile tehnici de imobilizare sunt: fixatorii externi, tije
centromedulare i folosirea sistemului tij centromedular-plac.47, 94, 95, 103, 122, 162
Vindecarea osoas se realizeaz prin formarea de esut de interconectare
fibros, urmat de formarea unui calus de tip cartilaginos, timpii de vindecare fiind
comparabili cu alte metode de fixare.46, 103, 124 Datorit faptului c nu se realizeaz
reducerea anatomic a fragmentelor, organismul suport mai bine fragmentele
44
Tabelul 1-4.
Timpii de vindecare ai fracturilor n raport cu vrsta i tipul de tratament
(dup Brinker W.O. - 199026)
Vrsta
Plci de osteosintez
sub 3 luni
2 - 3 sptmni
4 sptmni
3 - 6 luni
4 - 6 sptmni
2 - 3 luni
6 -12 luni
5 - 8 sptmni
3 - 5 luni
peste 1 an
7 - 12 sptmni
5 luni - 1 an
45
41
Irigaia
46
43
111
47
48
cartilaj i esut fibros interpus. n cadrul categoriei nonuniunilor viabile exist trei
subtipuri.
1. Nonuniunea hipertrofic (picior de elefant) caracterizat prin calus
abundent de legtur ntre fragmentele osoase i care nu s-a osificat din cauza
micrii existente ntre capetele osoase din focarul de fractur. Proliferarea
abundent osoas a capetelor osului fracturat reprezint o ncercare a
mecanismelor reparatorii de a elimina decalajul interfragmentar i de a anula
micarea exagerat a capetelor osoase din focar.16, 23
2. Moderat hipertrofic (copit de cal) - foarte asemntoare cu cea
hipertrofic, dar cu mai puin producie de calus (osificat i nonosificat).16, 23
3. Oligotrofic - este prezent foarte puin calus fibros. Capetele
fragmentelor osoase din focarul de fractur nu prezint un aspect proliferativ clar.
Nonuniunile oligotrofice se deosebesc de nonuniunile neviabile prin persistena
unui aspect tulbure sau neclar al capetelor fragmentelor osoase, aspect care
reprezint un indicator al prezenei vascularizrii osoase 16, 23, 41
Nonuniunile viabile sunt cele mai frecvente tipuri de nonuniuni observate
n medicina veterinar.Tratamentul lor vizeaz urmtoarele aspecte:
- reducerea i alinierea corespunztoare a focarului de fractur;
- stabilizarea rigid (de obicei cu compresiune interfragmentar);
- meninerea aportului de snge rmas;
- stimularea vindecrii (restaurarea cavitii medulare, contactul os-os,
grefe osoase spongioase).23, 178, 209
Atunci cnd aceste obiective sunt realizate i ngrijirile postoperatorii sunt
adecvate, este de ateptat ca la aceste fracturi s se realizeze o vindecare
complet.
Nonuniunile neviabile sunt cele la care aprovizionarea cu snge vascular
i/sau activitatea biologic celular sunt reduse sau lipsesc. Exist patru subtipuri
de nonuniuni neviabile:
49
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