MINISTERUL EDUCAŢIEI CERCETĂRII TINERETULUI ŞI SPORTULUI

Str. N. Iorga nr. 1, Tîrgu Mureş - 540088, ROMÂNIA

©Universitatea “Petru Maior” din Tîrgu Mureş 2010

Reproducerea conţinutului acestei publicaţii, integrală sau parţială, în forma originală sau
modificată, precum şi stocarea într-un sistem de regăsire sau transmitere sub orice formă şi prin
orice mijloace sunt interzise fără autorizarea scrisă a autorului şi a Universităţii „Petru Maior” din
Tîrgu Mureş.
Utilizarea conţinutului acestei publicaţii, cu titlu explicativ sau justificativ, în articole, studii, cărţi
este autorizată numai cu indicarea clară şi precisă a sursei.
 Preface

Owing to the emphasis in recent years on functional and communicative

approaches to language learning, many other important areas of the language
have been neglected. One such area is vocabulary. Lexicology is that branch
of linguistics that studies the history and meaning of words.

The course addresses to students studying English at university, as well as to

all those who are interested in enriching their knowledge of English
vocabulary. The first part includes theoretical issues such as sources and
structure of the English vocabulary, word building, meaning and change of
meaning, figures of speech, etc. The second part comprises practical
exercises, based on building vocabulary, which are mostly structured around
words, phrases and structures often confused, where the student’s native
language interferes with English, structures in the student’s language that
interfere with English structures, or particular words and structures which
are a well-known source of error. Seminar tasks are enlisted after the
theoretical part. The course also includes lexicology exercises, key to
exercises and some language terminology meant to help students in their
study.

1
 Prefaţă

Accentul pus în ultima vreme pe latura funcţional şi comunicativă în

învăţarea limbilor străine a dus la neglijarea unor importante domenii
lingvistice. Un asemenea exemplu de abordare superficială îl reprezintă
vocabularul. Lexicologia, ca disciplină lingvistică care studiază cuvintele
unei limbi sub toate aspectele lor, se adresează atât studenţilor secţiilor de
engleză din universităi, cât şi tuturor celor interesaţi în îmbogăţirea lexicului
în limba engleză.

Prima parte abordează aspecte teoretice legate de sursele şi structura

lexicului englez, formarea cuvintelor, conotaţii şi denotaţii, sematică, figuri
de stil etc. Partea a doua îşi propune studierea vocabularului limbii engleze
prin exerciţii practice, punându-se accent pe acele structuri lexicale
englezeşti care constituie o sursă de eroare datorată interferenţelor cu limba
română. “Cheia” exerciţiilor permite autoevaluarea de către studenţi a
progresului realizat în îmbogăţirea vocabularului. Cursul cuprinde de
asemenea o listă a temelor propuse spre dezbatere la seminarii precum şi un
dicţionar de termeni folosiţi în lexicologie menit să ajute studentul în
aprofundarea cunosţinţelor în a acest domeniu.

2
 CONTENTS

 Introduction
 Language units
 Wordbuilding
 Affixation
 Compound words
 Conversion
 Substantivization
 «Stone wall» combinations
 Abbreviations
 Seconadary ways of wordbuilding
 Semantic changes
 Specialization
 Generalization
 Metaphor and metonymy

3
 Phraseology
 Ways of forming phraseological units
 Semantic classification of phraseological units
 Structural classification of phraseological units
 Syntactical classification of phraseological units
 Borrowings
 Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect
 Classification of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation
 Classification of borrowings according to the language from which
they were borrowed
 Romanic borrowings/ Latin, French, Italian, Spanish/
 Germanic borrowings /Scandinavian, German, Holland/ Russian
borrowings
 Etymological doublets
 Semaciology
 Word - meaning
 Lexical meaning - notion
 Polysemy
 Homonyms
 Synonyms
 Antonyms
 Language Varieties
A. Dialects
B. Social varieties of language
 Local varieties of English
 British and American English

4
 Archaisms
 Neologisms
 Figures of Speech
 Lexicography
 Seminars
 Exercises
 Key to exercises
 Language Terminology
 Sources

5
Lexicology

The term lexicology is of Greek origin / from lexis = word and logos =
science/. Lexicology is the part of linguistics which deals with the
vocabulary and characteristic features of words and word-groups.
The term vocabulary is used to denote the system of words and word-groups
that the language possesses.
The term word denotes the main lexical unit of a language resulting from the
association of a group of sounds with a meaning. This unit is used in
grammatical functions characteristic of it. It is the smallest unit of a
language which can stand alone as a complete utterance.
The term word-group denotes a group of words which exists in the language
as a ready-made unit, has the unity of meaning, the unity of syntactical
function, e.g. the word-group as loose as a goose means clumsy and is used
in a sentence as a predicative (He is as loose as a goose.
Lexical units in context are called denotation and connotation. Denotation
is the basic meaning of a word: the most specific or literal meaning of a
word, as opposed to its figurative senses or connotations.
For example, the denotation of the English word bird is a two-legged,
winged, egg-laying, warm-blooded creature with a beak. In a meaning
system, denotative meaning may be regarded as the “central” meaning or
“core” meaning of a lexical item. It is the explicit and direct meaning or set
of meanings of a word or expression, as distinguished from the idea or
meanings associated with or suggested by it.
Another example, the word home has the denotation a house, apartment, or
other shelter that is the usual residence of a person, family, or household.

6
Many words, however, are not denotations of objects, phenomena, etc.; they
also stand for the feelings that, as a result of social and personal experience,
have been attached to them. The subjective, personal, and emotive extra -
meaning of a word is often called its connotation, e.g. John is a rat.

Connotation is the additional meanings that a word or phrase has beyond its
central meaning. These meanings show people’s emotions and attitudes
towards what the word or phrase refers to. For example, the word home
often has the connotation of a place of warmth and affection.
The word child could be defined as a young human being but there are many
other characteristics which different people associate with child, e.g.
affectionate, amusing, loveable, sweet, mischievous, noisy, irritating,
grubby.
Some connotations may be shared by a group of people of the same cultural
or social background, sex or age; others may be restricted to one or several
individuals and depend on their personal experience.
In a meaning system, that part of the meaning which is covered by
connotation is sometimes referred to as affective meaning, connotative
meaning, or emotive meaning.
Connotations are not necessarily only emotive. Most of these meanings can
be found in dictionaries, but few of them are relevant without context.
Similarly to sounds, the lexical value of words is a problem of context. All
the words of the English vocabulary must necessarily be placed within a
context in order to be identified as to their exact meaning, e.g.: The house is
full (auditorium: sală de spectacole); the house starts at eight (show:
spectacol); The house is on the hill (dwelling: casă). All the above sentences

7
are strictly contextual. Without a context, a word is a lexical unit with
relative and incomplete lexical value.
Lexicology can study the development of the vocabulary, the origin of
words and word-groups, their semantic relations and the development of
their sound form and meaning. In this case it is called historical lexicology.

Another branch of lexicology is called descriptive and studies the

vocabulary at a definite stage of its development.

Language units

The main unit of the lexical system of a language resulting from the
association of a group of sounds with a meaning is a word. This unit is used
in grammatical functions characteristic of it. It is the smallest language unit
which can stand alone as a complete utterance.
A word, however, can be divided into smaller sense units – morphemes. The
morpheme is the smallest meaningful language unit. The morpheme consists
of a class of variants, allomorphs, which are either phonologically or
morphologically conditioned, e.g. please, pleasant, pleasure.
Morphemes are divided into two large groups: lexical morphemes and
grammatical (functional) morphemes. Both lexical and grammatical
morphemes can be free and bound. Free lexical morphemes are roots of
words which express the lexical meaning of the word; they coincide with the
stem of simple words. Free grammatical morphemes are function words:
articles, conjunctions, and prepositions (the, with, and).
Bound lexical morphemes are affixes: prefixes (dis-), suffixes (-ish), and
also blocked (unique) root morphemes (e.g. Fri-day, cran-berry). Bound

8
grammatical morphemes are inflexions (endings), e.g. –s for the Plural of
nouns, -ed for the Past Indefinite of regular verbs, -ing for the Present
Participle, -er for the Comparative degree of adjectives.
In the second half of the 20th century the English word-building system was
enriched by creating so called splinters which scientists include in the
affixations stock of the Modern English word-building system. Splinters are
the result of clipping the end (e.g. doctor =>doc) or the beginning (e.g.
airplane => plane) of a word and producing a number of new words on the
analogy with the primary word-group. For example, there are many words
formed with the help of splinter mini- (apocopy produced by clipping the
word miniature), such as miniplane, minijet, minicycle, minicar, miniradio,
minicab and many others. All of these words denote normal objects of
smaller than normal dimensions.
On the analogy with mini- there appeared the splinter maxi- (apocopy
produced by clipping the word maximum); such words as maxi-series, maxi-
sculpture, maxi-taxi, and many others appeared in the language.
When European Economic Community was organized quite a number of
neologisms with the splinter Euro- (apocopy produced by clipping the word
European) were coined, such as: Eurocrat, European Economic Community,
Euratom, Eurocard, Euromarket, Europlug, Eurotunnel and many others.
These splinters are treated sometimes as prefixes in Modern English.
There are also splinters which are formed by means of apheresis, i.e.
clipping the beginning of a word. The origin of such splinters can be
variable, e.g. the splinter burger appeared in English as the result of clipping
the German borrowing Hamburger where the morphological structure was
the stem Hamburg and the suffix –er. However, in English, the beginning of
the word Hamburger was associated with the English word ham and the end

9
of the word burger got the meaning a bun cut into two parts. On the analogy
with the word hamburger quite a number of new words were coined, such
as: baconburger, beefburger, cheeseburger, fishburger, etc.
The splinter -cade developed by clipping the beginning of the word
cavalcade which is of Latin origin. In Latin the verb with the meaning to
ride a horse is cabalicare and by means of the inflexion –ata the
corresponding Participle is formed. So the element -cade is a combination of
the final letter of the stem and the inflexion. The splinter -cade serves to
form nouns with the meaning connected with the procession of vehicles
denoted by the first component, e.g. aircade-a group of airplanes
accompanying the plane of a VIP, autocade-a group of automobiles
escorting the automobile of a VIP, musicade-an orchestra participating in a
procession.
In the 70s of the 20th century there was a political scandal in the hotel
Watergate where the Democratic Party of the USA had its pre-election
headquarters. Republicans managed to install bugs there and when they were
discovered there was a scandal and the ruling American government had to
resign. The name Watergate acquired the meaning ‘a public political
scandal’, ‘corruption’. On the analogy with this word quite a number of
other words were formed by using the splinter -gate (apheresis of the word
Watergate), such as: Irangate, Westlandgate, shuttlegate, milliongate, etc.
The splinter -gate is added mainly to Proper names: names of people with
whom the scandal is connected or a geographical name denoting the place
where the scandal occurred.
The splinter -mobile was formed by clipping the beginning of the word
automobile and is used to denote special types of automobiles, such as
artmobile, airmobile, automobile, bookmobile, snowmobile, tourmobile, etc.

10
The splinter -napper was formed by clipping the beginning of the word
kidnapper and is used to denote different types of crimesters, such as
busnapper, babynapper, dognapper, etc. From such nouns the corresponding
verbs are formed by means of backformation, e.g. to busnap, to babynap, to
dognap.
The splinter -omat was formed by clipping the beginning of the word
automat (a café in which meals are provided in slot-machines). The meaning
self-service is used in such words as Laundromat, cashmat, etc.
Another splinter -eteria with the meaning self-service was formed by
clipping the beginning of the word cafeteria (self-service restaurant). By
means of the splinter -eteria the following words were formed: bacteria,
groceteria, booketeria, booteria and many others.
The splinter -quake is used to form new words with the meaning of shaking,
agitation. This splinter was formed by clipping the beginning of the word
earthquake. The following words were formed with the help of this splinter:
Marsquake (Mars quake), Moonquake, youthquake (youth quake), etc.
The splinter -rama(ama) is a clipping of the word panorama of Greek origin
where pan means all and horama means view. In Modern English the
meaning view was lost and the splinter -rama is used in advertisements to
denote objects of supreme quality, e.g. autorama means exhibition-sale of
expensive cars, trouserama means sale of trousers of supreme quality, etc.
The splinter -scape is a clipping of the word landscape and is used to form
words denoting different types of landscapes, such as: moonscape,
streetscape, townscape, seascape, etc.
Another case of splinters is -tel which is the result of clipping the beginning
of the word hotel. It serves to form words denoting different types of hotels,

11
such as: motel, (motor-car hotel), boatel (boat hotel), floatel (a hotel on
water, floating), airtel (airport hotel), etc.
The splinter -theque is the result of clipping the beginning of the word
apotheque of Greek origin which means in Greek a store house. In
Romanian words such as farmacotecă, vinacotecă, pinacotecă, discotecă,
etc., the element acotecă corresponding to the English apotheque preserves
the meaning of storing something which is expressed by the first component
of the word. In English the splinter -theque is used to denote a place for
dancing, such as discotheque, jazztheque.
The splinter -thon is the result of clipping the beginning of the word
marathon. Marathon primarily was the name of a battle-field in Greece,
forty miles from Athens, where there was a battle between the Greeks and
the Persians. When the Greeks won a victory, a Greek runner was sent to
Athens to tell people about the victory. Later on the word Marathon was
used to denote long-distance competitions in running. The splinter -thon
(athon) denotes something continuing for a long time, competition in
endurance, e.g. dansathon, telethon, speakathon, readathon, walkathon,
moviethon, swimathon, talkathon, etc.

Splinters can be the result of clipping adjectives or substantivized adjectives.

The splinter -aholic (holic) was formed by clipping the beginning of the
word alcoholic of Arabian origin where al denoted the koh’l – powder for
staining lids. The splinter (a)holic means infatuated by the object expressed
by the stem of the word, e.g. workaholic, bookaholic, computerholic,
coffeeholic, cheesaholic, and many others.
The splinter -genic formed by clipping the beginning of the word photogenic
denotes the notion suitable for something denoted by the stem, e.g.

12
mutagenic, carcinogenic, radiogenic, allergenic, cardiogenic, mediagenic,
telegenic, etc.
As far as verbs are concerned it is not typical of them to be clipped, that is
why there is only one splinter to be used for forming new verbs in this way.
It is the splinter cast formed by clipping the beginning of the verb broadcast.
This splinter was used to form the verbs telecast and abroadcast.
Splinters can be called pseudo-morphemes because they are neither roots
nor affixes; they are more or less artificial. In English there are words which
consist of two splinters, e.g. telethon; therefore it is more logical to call
words with splinters in their structure compound-shortened words consisting
of two clippings of words.
Splinters have only one function in English: they serve to change the lexical
meaning of the same part of speech, whereas prefixes and suffixes can also
change the part-of-speech meaning, e.g. the prefix en- and its allomorph em
can form verbs from noun and adjective stems (embody, enable, endanger),
be- can form verbs from noun and adjective stems (becloud, benumb), post-
and pre- can form adjectives from noun stems (pre-election campaign, post-
war events). The main function of suffixes is to form one part of speech
from another part of speech, e.g. –er, -ing, -ment form nouns from verbal
stems (teacher, dancing, movement), -ness, -ity are used to form nouns from
adjective stems (clannishness-keeping within group, marginality).
According to the nature and the number of morphemes constituting a word
there are different structural types of words in English: simple, derived,
compound, compound-derived.

Simple words consist of one root morpheme and an inflexion (in many cases
the inflexion is zero), e.g. seldom, chairs, longer, asked.

13
Derived words consist of one root morpheme, one or several affixes and an
inflexion, e.g. derestricted, unemployed, unprepared.

Compound words consist of two or more root morphemes and an inflexion,

e.g. baby-moons, baby-blue, wait-and-see (policy)

Compound-derived words consist of two or more root morphemes, one or

more affixes and an inflexion, e.g. middle-of-the-roaders, seat-of-the-pants,
job-hopper.

When speaking about the structure of words stems also should be

mentioned. The stem is the part of the word which remains unchanged
throughout the paradigm of the word, e.g. the stem hop can be found in the
words: hop, hops, hopped, hopping. The stem hippie can be found in the
words: hippie, hippies, hippie’s, hippies’. The stem job-hop can be found in
the words: job-hop, job-hops, job-hopped, job-hopping.
So stems, the same as words, can be simple, derived, compound and
compound-derived. Stems have not only the lexical meaning but also
grammatical (part-of-speech) meaning, they can be noun stems (girl in the
adjective girlish), adjective stems (girlish in the noun girlishness), verb
stems (expel in the noun expellee), etc. They differ from words by the
absence of inflexions in their structure; they can be used only in the structure
of words.
Sometimes it is rather difficult to distinguish between simple and derived
words, especially in the case of phonetic borrowings from other languages

14
and of native words with blocked (unique) root morphemes, e.g. perestroika,
cranberry, absence, etc.
As far as words with splinters are concerned, it is difficult to distinguish
between derived words and compound-shortened words. If a splinter is
treated as an affix (or a semi-affix) the word can be called derived, e.g.
telescreen, silkscreen, maxi-taxi, shuttlegate, cheeseburger. But if the
splinter is treated as a lexical shortening of one of the stems, the word can be
called compound-shortened word formed from a word combination where
one of the components was shortened, e.g. busnapper was formed from bus
kidnapper, minijet from miniature jet.
In the English language of the second half of the 20th century there
developed so called block compounds, i.e. compound words which have a
uniting stress but a split spelling, such as chat show, penguin suit, black bird
(mierlă), etc. Such compound words can be easily mixed up with word-
groups of the type stone wall, so called nominative binomials. Such
linguistic units serve to denote a notion which is more specific than the
notion expressed by the second component and consists of two nouns, the
first of which is an attribute to the second one. If we compare a nominative
binomial with a compound noun with the structure N+N we shall see that a
nominative binomial has no unity of stress. The change of the order of its
components will change its lexical meaning, e.g. vid kid is a kid who is a
video fan while kid vid means a video-film for kids or else lamp oil means oil
for lamps and oil lamp means a lamp which uses oil for burning.
Among language units we can also point out word combinations of different
structural types of idiomatic and non-idiomatic character, such as the first
fiddle, old salt (experienced sailor), and round table, high road (most ethical

15
course of action). There are also sentences which are studied by
grammarians.

Thus, we can draw the conclusion that in Modern English the following
language units can be mentioned: morphemes, splinters, words, nominative
binomials, non-idiomatic and idiomatic word-combinations, sentences.

Word-building

Word-building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. There are

four main ways of word-building in modern English: affixation,
composition, conversion, abbreviation. There are also secondary ways of
word-building: sound interchange, stress interchange, sound imitation,
blends, back formation.

Affixation

Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout

the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite
part of speech.

Affixation is used as main process in advertising, a new language thus

being created, e.g.
a) New Hypersmooth from MaxFactor. The first foundation that smoothes
out from within. (MaxFactor)
b) Saturated colour. Hypershine (Estèe Lauder)
c) Wraps around lashes: longer, thicker, superseparated (Maybelline)

16
d) Very Ryvitable (Ryvita crackers)
e) Dayvi’s. Dayvilishly good! (Dayvi’s peanuts)
f) Volvic. Filled with volcanicity (Volvic mineral water)

g) We have discovered a serious condition. We call it footbalitis. Its

symptoms are difficult to understand. We are conducting a series of
experiments. There is no cure, but we are working on ointments. (Nike)
h) Off limits to brunettes! Push the limits of blondeness. (feria L’Oreal)
Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation, i.e. it can be done by
means of prefixes and suffixes and the roots or the stems of words.

English has more than a hundred common prefixes and suffixes (-able, -
ness, -ment, pre-, dis-, anti-, etc.) and with these it can form and reform
words with a facility that sets it apart from other languages.
Sometimes words are formed by adding an Anglo-Saxon prefix or suffix to a
Greek or Latin root (plainness, sympathizer) and sometimes vice versa
(readable, disbelieve). This inclination to use affixes and infixes provides
flexibility in creating or modifying words to new uses, as strikingly
demonstrated in the word incomprehensibility, which consists of the root –
hen and eight affixes and infixes: in-, -com, -pre, -s, -ib, -il, -it-, and –y.

As well as showing flexibility it also promotes confusion. There are six ways
of making labyrinth into an adjective: labyrinthian, labyrinthean,
labyrinthal, labyrinthine, labyrinthic, labyrinthical. There are at least six
ways of expressing negation with prefixes: a-, anti-, in-, il-, im-, ir, un-, and
non-. If a word contains a negative suffix or prefix it’s not necessarily a
negative word: e.g. invaluable, priceless.

17
Some word endings are surprisingly rare. If we think of angry and hungry
we might conclude that -gry is a common ending, but in fact it occurs in no
other common words in English. Similarly –dous appears only in
stupendous, horrendous, tremendous, hazardous, and jeopardous, while –
lock survives only in wedlock and warlock, and –red only in hatred and
kindred. Forgiveness is the only example of a verb +ness form. Equally
some common-seeming prefixes are actually rarer that superficial thought
might lead us to conclude. If we think of forgive, forget, forgo, forbid,
forbear, forlorn, forsake and forswear, we might think that for- is a common
prefix but in fact it appears in no other common words. Certain forms like –
ish, -ness, -ful, and –some continue to thrive while others like -lock and -gry
that were once equally popular fell into disuse.

The suffix –dom was long in danger of disappearing, except in a few

established words like kingdom, but it underwent a resurgence in the last
century giving such useful phrases as officialdom and boredom and later
more contrived forms like best-seller Dom. The ending –en is today one of
the most versatile ways of forming verbs from adjectives (harden, sweeten,
loosen, whiten, blacken, etc.) and yet almost all such words are less than 300
years old.

Prefixes do not change the part of speech of the words they are attached to,
e.g. to place-to misplace, to impose-to superimpose, but the meaning of the
words is quite different.

18
A prefix at the beginning of a word has a meaning of its own that changes
the meaning of the word it is joined to.

With the exception of –a, be-, for-, mis- and un- all living English prefixes
are of non-Germanic origin; apart from negative a-, auto-, hyper-, and –mal,
however, they can be combined with Germanic as well as non-Germanic
words. Many of them are international.

We can use prefixes in front of nouns, adjectives, verbs.

Many prefixes can have more than one meaning. Before adjectives, un-
means ‘not’, e.g. unaware, before nouns un- can indicate ‘without’, e.g.
unkindness, before verbs un- means ‘to do the opposite’, e.g. unplug.

We use prefixes in front of many words where the base from does not exist
by itself. For example, incessant means ‘without stopping’, but there is no
word such as ‘cessant’.

Some prefixes of the Romanian language are very old and they have been
inherited from Latin (e.g. in-, des-, or stra-, which we can find in străbun,
strămoş, străbate, străluci, etc.). Other prefixes have been borrowed from
Slavonic (e.g. ne- or ras-) and most of them come from the western
languages and especially from French which gave a great number of
neologisms to the Romanian language. From the neological prefixes we can
mention a- (e.g. apoetic), ante- (e.g. antebelic), anti- (e.g. antiinfecţios),
con- (e.g. consfătui), then contra-, extra-, hiper-, inter-, super-, trans-and
others, which, at their far-off origins (Latin or Greek) are actually words.

19
The Romanian language contains: a) derivatives inherited from Latin:
închide, deschide, rămâne, etc.; b) borrowed from other languages: deserve,
nonsense, prefabricat, etc.; c) loan translations or imitations after foreign
models: demers, concetaţean, întrevedea, subestimat, etc.; d) internal
creations of the Romanian language: dezrobi, înţărca, nefericit, etc.

An important difference between prefixes and suffixes (apart from their

position) is that whereas the former, though not used as separate words,
mostly have a distinct meaning of their own, the latter rarely have, but as a
rule only serve to modify the meaning of the main element (red-reddish), or
to convert it into another part of speech (kind-kindness).

The proportion of Germanic elements is larger among the suffixes than

among the prefixes.

Suffixes like –ation/ition, -ance, -cy, -er, -ment, -ness, -ity, -ist from nouns,
e.g. inform (verb) becomes information, dance (verb) becomes dancer, sweet
(adjective) becomes sweetness, tour (verb) tourist.

Suffixes like –ous, -able, -ful, -ing, -ical, -less, -y, form adjectives, e.g.
danger (noun) becomes dangerous, forget (verb) becomes forgetful.

Suffixes like –ise, -ify, -en form verbs, e.g. intense (adjective) becomes
intensify, flat (adjective) becomes flatten.

20
A few suffixes, particularly at the end of adjectives have meaning, e.g. –less
always indicates ‘without’: meaningless, useless, homeless, hopelessly. Here
are some more examples: -like, -proof, -tight, -ful, -worthy, -able as in
childlike, childproof, watertight, respectful, trustworthy, understandable.

Here are some noun - forming suffixes: -er, -ist, -or, -ling, -ism, -ing, -ness.
Other less productive suffixes are: -ship, -ese, -hood, -dom, -dom, -ment, -
ance (ence), -tion (sion, ion), -age. Adjective-forming suffixes are: -y, -ish,-
ly, -ed, -less, -able. Verb-forming suffixes are: -ise, -en, -fy, -ify, -ate, -ish, -
by, -fy. Some adverb-forming suffixes are: -ly, -ward.

In the Romanian language derivation with suffixes is much more widespread

than derivation with prefixes. The Romanian language has more than 600
suffixes. Most of the times suffixes grant the newly-created words a certain
semantic or morphological value which permit the classification of the
derivatives in more categories: a) agent name (which name the author of an
action, the one that is in charge of something or practices a profession, etc.),
e.g.: muncitor, croitor, lăptar, cizmar, fotbalist; b) names of instruments:
tocător, ascuţitoare, etc; c) derivatives with collective meaning:
muncitorime, tufiş, brădet, porumbişte, etc; d) abstract derivatives (which
name qualities, characteristics, actions, etc.): exactitate, omenie,
îndrăzneala, etc.; e) derivatives which show the origin: oltean, clujean,
olandez, albanez, franţuzesc, etc.; f) augmentative derivatives: băieţoi,
puştan, beţivan almost all with derogatory value; g) diminutive derivatives:
căluţ, frăţior, scăunel, băieţaş, linguriţă.

21
All these categories have suitable suffixes. Thus –ar, -tor, -giu are suffixes
for agent names, -ime, -et, -iş are collective suffixes, -el, -aş, uţ are
diminutive suffixes, -(a)tate, -ie, -enie, -eală, are abstract suffixes; –ism can
be considered international suffix because it appears in very many
languages. In Romanian it appears in borrowed words (realism, socialism,
etc.) as well as in specific Romanian words, such as: junism, ţărănism,
paşoptism, etc. Some other productive neological suffixes are: -ist
(bonjurist, şahist, şantajist), -ian (eminescian, sadovenian), -itate
(sticlozitate, spectaculozitate), -iza (nominaliza, pauperiza).
In the Romanian language there also exist suffixes which transform
masculine words into feminine ones and vice versa. From this category we
mention first of all –ă (prietenia), -că (românca), -easa (croitoreasa), -oaica
(lupoaica). Suffixes which help the formation of masculine words from
feminine ones are rarer (e.g. răţoi = raţă + suf. –oi, curcan = curcă + suf. –
an). Suffixes can be classified in: a) noun-forming suffixes: -tor, -an, -ime, -
eală, etc.; b) adjective-forming suffixes: -ic, -os, -al; c) verb-forming
suffixes: -iza, -ona; d) adverb-forming suffixes: -este, -is, -mente.

Suffixation
The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of
speech from another; the secondary function is to change the lexical
meaning of the same part of speech (e.g. educate is a verb, educate is a
noun; music is a noun, music Dom is also a noun).

There are different classifications of suffixes:

22
1. Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of
speech are given here:
a) noun-forming suffixes, such as: -er (criticizer), - dom (officialdom), -ism
(ageism).
b) adjective-forming suffixes, such as: -able (breathable), -less
(symptomless), -ous (prestigious).
c) verb-forming suffixes, such as: -ize (computerize), -ify (nitrify).
d) adverb-forming suffixes, such as: -ly (singly), -ward (tableward).
e) numeral-forming suffixes, such as: -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy)

2. Semantic classification. Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the

stem can be subdivided into groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes can denote:
a) The agent of the action, e.g. –er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent
(student).
b) Nationality, e.g. –ian (Romanian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English).
c) Collectivity, e.g. –dom (moviedom), -ry (peasantry), -ship
(readership), -ati (literati).
d) Diminutiveness, e.g. ie (horsier), -let (booklet), -ling (gosling), -ette
(kitchenette).
e) Quality, e.g. –ness (hopelessness), -ity (answerability).

3. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be

added to certain groups of stems are subdivided into:

a) suffixes added to verbal stems, such as: -er (commuter), -ing

(suffering), -able (flyable), -ment (involvement), -ation (computerization).

23
b) Suffixes added to noun stems, such as: -less (smogless), -ful
(roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster (pollster), -nik (filmic), -ish (childish).
c) Suffixes added to adjective stems, such as: -en (weaken), -ly (pinkly),
-ish (longish), -ness (clannishness).

4. Origin of suffixes. Here we can point out the following groups:

Native (Germanic), such as –er, -ful, -less,-ly.

a) Romanic, such as: -tion, -ment, -able, -eer.

b) Greek, such as: -ist, -ism, -ize.
c) Russian, such as –nik

5. Productivity. Here we can point out the following groups:

a) Productive, such as: -er (learner), -ize, (poetize) -ly, (unify) –ness
(chilliness).
b) Semi-productive, such as: -eer (volunteer), -ette (vignette), -ward
(westward).
c) Non-productive, such as: -ard (drunkard), -th (length).
Suffixes can be polysemantic, such as: -er can form nouns with the
following meanings: agent, doer of the action expressed by the stem
(speaker), profession, occupation (teacher), a device, a tool (transmitter).
While speaking about suffixes we should also mention compound suffixes
which are added to the stem at the same time, such as: -ably, -ibly, (terribly,
reasonably), -ation (adaptation from adapt).

24
There are also disputable cases whether we have a suffix or a root morpheme
in the structure of a word; in such cases we call such morphemes semi-
suffixes, and words with such suffixes can be classified either as derived
words or as compound words, e.g. –gate (Irangate), -burger (cheeseburger),
-aholic (workaholic), etc.

Prefixation

Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the

stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes are more
independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature
of words in which they are used: prefixes used in notional words and
prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper
prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy). Prefixes used in
functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the
language as words, e.g. –over (overhead) (cf over the table).
The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of
the same part of speech. But the recent research showed that about twenty-
five prefixes in Modern English form one part of speech from another (re-
button, inter-family, post-college, etc.)

Prefixes can be classified according to different principles:

1. Semantic classification:

a) prefixes of negative meaning, such as: in- (inaccurate, invaluable), non-

(non-treaty, non-status, nonformula), un- (untrue, untapped, untie), etc.

25
b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: de- (decolonize,
debug), re- (reprocess, regeneration), dis- (disconnect, discharge).
c) Prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as: inter (interplay,
interplanetary), hyper (hypochondria, hypertension), ex- (ex-wife, ex-
student), pre- (premeditated, pre-election), over- (over-arm, over-
drugging), etc.

2. Origin of prefixes:

a) native (Germanic), such as: un-(unbound), over- (overrate), under

(undercarry)-, etc.
b) Romanic, such as: in- (insolvent), de- (devolve), ex- (exfoliate), re-
(review), etc.
c) Greek, such as: sym- (symmetrical), hyper (hypercritical)-, etc.
When we analyze such words as: adverb, accompany, where we can find the
root of the word (verb, company), we may treat ad-, ac-, as prefixes though
they were never used as prefixes to form new words in English and were
borrowed from Romanic languages together with words. In such cases we
can treat them as derived words. But some scientists treat them as simple
words. Another group of words with a disputable structure are as such:
contain, retain, detain and conceive, receive, deceive, where we can see that
re-, de-, con-, act as prefixes and tain-, -ceive can be understood as roots.
But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning and
are called pseudo-morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple
words, others as derived ones.

26
There are some prefixes which can be treated as root morphemes by some
scientists, e.g. after- in the word afternoon. American lexicographers
working on Webster dictionaries treat such words as compound words.
British lexicographers treat such words as derived ones.

Composition

Composition is the way of word-building when a word is formed by joining

two or more stems to form one word: e.g. still life (natură moartă), face-to-
face (frontal), first-class (de prim rang), pale-face (faţă palidă), hand-made
(manual), short-term loans, Anglo-Saxon, wind-mill (moară), pickpocket (hoţ
de buzunare), downfall (ruinare, decădere, ploaie torenţială), open-minded,
sunset (apus), make-believe (credibil), blackbird (mierlă), storm-beaten, to
hen peck (a ţine sub papuc), to whitewash (a muşamaliza, a vărui),
somebody, one another, broadcast, commander-in-chief, to April-fool, good-
for-nothing, tip-top (first rate), tittle-tattle (gossip), Ping-Pong, drawing
room (salon), candy-floss (vată pe băţ), color-blind (daltonist), long-legged,
all-the-year-round program, round-the-clock shift (24 ore), to blackmail
(şantaja), to break loose (elibera), to fall back (withdraw), to bring up
(educate), to call off (cancel), throughout, into, a short-cut (scurtătură), a
sit-down (strike), to scutter (hurry: Everyone scurred for over cover when
the police started firing), over here (adv), to take the trouble of, to give a
piece of one’s mind (a spune cuiva ce gândeşti). The structural unity of a
compound word depends upon: a) the unity of stress, b) solid or hyphenated
spelling, c) semantic unity and d) unity of morphological and syntactical
functioning. These are characteristic features of compound words in all
languages. For English compounds some of these factors are not very

27
reliable. As a rule English compounds have one uniting stress (usually on the
first component), e.g. ‘hard-cover, ‘best-seller. We can also have a double
stress in an English compound, with the main stress on the first component
and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.g. ‘blood-,vessel.
The third pattern of stresses is two level stresses, e.g. ‘snow-‘white, ‘sky-
‘blue. The third pattern is easily mixed up with word-groups unless they
have solid or hyphenated spelling.

Spelling in English compounds is not very reliable as well because they can
have different spelling even in the same text, e.g. exercise-book, war-ship,
blood-vessel can be spelt through a hyphen and also with a break; underfoot
can be spelt solidly or with a break. All the more so that there has appeared
in Modern English a special type of compound words which are called block
compounds; they have one uniting stress but are spelt with a break, e.g. exit
strategy, ex officio, air piracy, cargo module, coin change, penguin suit, etc.
The semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such cases
we have idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum
of meanings of its components, e.g. face-saving, to ghost-write, skinhead,
brain-drain, etc. In non-idiomatic compounds semantic unity is not strong,
e.g. airbus, to blood transfuse, astro-dynamics, etc.

English compounds have the unity of morphological and syntactical

functioning. They are used in a sentence as one part of it and only one
component changes grammatically, e.g. These girls are chatter-boxes.
Chatter-boxes is a predicative in the sentence and only the second
component changes grammatically.

28
There are two characteristic features of English compounds:

a) Both components in an English compound are free stems, i.e. they can be
used as words with a distinctive meaning of their own. The sound pattern
will be the same except for the stresses, e.g. a black-bird and a black bird; a
green-house and a green house; whereas, for example, in Romanian
compounds, the stems are bound morphemes, as a rule.
b) English compounds have a two-stem pattern, with the exception of
compound words which have form-word stems in their structure, e.g.
middle-of-the-road, off-the-road, up-and-doing, down-at-heel, down-to-
earth, etc. The two-stem pattern distinguishes English compounds from
German ones.
Ways of forming compound words

Compound words in English can be formed not only by means of

composition but also by means of:

a) Reduplication, e.g. too-too, and also by means of reduplication

combined with sound interchange, e.g. ding-dong, rope-ripe, tilly-tally.
b) Conversion from word-groups, e.g. to mickey-mouse, can-do, makeup,
etc.
c) Back formation from compound nouns or word-groups, e.g. to blood
transfuse, to fingerprint, etc.
d) Analogy, e.g. lie-in (on the analogy with sit-in) and also phone-in,
brawn-drain (on the analogy with brain-drain), etc.

Classification of English compounds

29
1. According to the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into:

a) nouns, such as: baby-moon, globe-trotter

b) adjectives, such as: good-for-nothing, free-for-all (disorganized argument
or fight), power-happy, pre-washed
c) verbs, such as: to honey-moon, to baby-sit, to henpeck
d) adverbs, such as: downdeep, headfirst, foremost
e) prepositions, such as: into, within, therefore
f) numerals, such as: fifty-five, eighty-one

2. According to the way components are joined together compounds are

divided into:

a) Neutral, which are formed by joining together two stems without any
joining morpheme, e.g. ball-point, to window-shop
b) Morphological where components are joined by a linking element:
vowels o or i or the consonant s, e.g. astrospace, handicraft, sportsman.
c) Syntactical where the components are joined by means of form-word
stems, e.g. here-and-now, free-for-all, do-or-die

3. According to their structure compounds are subdivided into:

30
a) Compound words proper which consist of two stems, e.g. to job-hunt,
train-sick, go-go, tip-top
b) Derivational compounds, where besides the stems we have affixes,
e.g. ear-minded, hydro-skimmer
c) Compound words consisting of three or more stems, e.g. cornflower-
blue, eggshell-thin, singer-songwriter
d) Compound-shortened words, e.g. boatel, tour mobile, VI-day;
Motocross, intermission, Eurodollar, Stamford.

4. According to the relations between the components compound words are

subdivided into:

a) Subordinative compounds where one of the components is the semantic

and the structural centre and the second component is subordinate; these
subordinative relations can be different:
- with comparative relations, e.g. honey-sweet, eggshell-thin
- with limiting relations, e.g. breast-high, knee-deep
- with emphatic relations, e.g. gold-rich
- with cause relations, e.g. love-sick
- with space relations, e.g. top-heavy
- with time relations, e.g. spring-fresh
- with subjective relations, e.g. foot-sore

b) Coordinative compounds where both components are semantically

independent. Here belong such compounds when one person (object) has
two functions, e.g. secretary-stenographer, woman-doctor, Oxbridge, etc.
Such compounds are called additive. This group includes also compounds

31
formed by means of reduplication, e.g. fifty-fifty, no-no, and also compounds
formed with the help of rhythmic stems (reduplication combined with sound
interchange), e.g. criss-cross, walkie-talkie.
5. According to the order of the components compounds are divided into
compounds with direct order, e.g. kill-joy, and compounds with indirect
order, e.g. nuclear-free, rope-ripe.

Conversion

Conversion (i.e. change) is a characteristic feature of the English word-

building system. It is also called affixless derivation or zero-suffixation.
The term conversion first appeared in the book by Henry Sweet, New
English Grammar in 1891. Conversion is treated differently by different
scientists, e.g. prof. A.I. Smirntisky treats conversion as a morphological
way of forming words when one part of speech is formed from another part
of speech by changing its paradigm, e.g. to form verbs from nouns, i.e. to
head (Their care headed the funeral procession), to elbow, to eye, to face, to
finger, to hand, to nose (He was nosing his way in the darkness of the
corridor), to thumb, to toe, to second, to engineer, to minister, to father, to
mother, to doctor, to baby, to nurse, to baby, to dog, to flower, to pig, to
wolf; to form the verb to dial from the noun dial we change the paradigm of
the noun (a dial, dials) with the paradigm of a regular verb (I dial, he dials,
dialled, dialling). A. Marchand in his book The Categories and Types of
Present-Day English treats conversion as a morphological syntactical word-
building because we have not only the change of the paradigm, but also the
change of the syntactic function, e.g. I need some good paper for my room.
(The noun paper is an object in the sentence). I paper my room every year.

32
(the verb paper is part of the predicate in the sentence). Other examples of
conversion from nouns into verbs are: to nail, to screw, to saw, to can, to
garden, to pocket, to cradle, to school, to holiday, to weekend, to winter, to
snow, to dust, to skin, to butter, to flood, to bicycle, to crowd, to better
oneself, to bitter, to wet, to tense, etc. There are also cases of conversion
from verbs into nouns, i.e. a spy, laugh, look, ride, cry, try, upset, cut, sigh,
wash, etc., usually in phrases: to give a laugh, to have a look, to give a sigh,
to have a wash, to have a try.

We also have examples of conversion from adjectives into nouns, such as:
the absurd, the good, the red, the true, the typical, the blind, the feeble, the
heathen, the needy (nevoiaşi), the unwanted, the worthy, the healthy, the
Dutch, etc.

Conversion is also present in phrases, i.e. through thick and thin (la bine si
la rău), or in connotations, i.e. to bridge the gulf between two persons (a
umple golul), to room together (a sta împreună), to shepherd a flock of
people (a păstori)

Conversion is the main way of forming verbs in Modern English.

e.g. (from advertisements):

a) You can canon (Canon), i.e. print

b) A stroke of genius to multi-light your hair colour. (Garnier Multi-lights
Kit)
c) Lead a Műler life (Műler)

33
d) That’s so Suzuki (Suzuki)
e) That’s so tomorrow (Siemens)
f) Want look-at-me lashes? Wrap’em 360o ! New Lash Expension Mascara.
(Maybelline)
g) Discover the sensation of a cream-to-powder transformation (Chanel)
h) The art of facelighting from Dior. (Dior)
i) It’s a moisturizer. It’s a self-tanner. It’s a first. (Clarins Auto-Bronzant)
j) How’s the Ben Stiller?
The Ben Stiller is very popular.
OK. I’ll have a Ben Stiller. I’ll have it with Bacon. (The New York
Miracle).

Verbs can be formed from nouns of different semantic groups and have
different meanings because of that, e.g.

a) verbs have instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns

denoting parts of a human body, e.g. to face, to eye, to finger, to elbow, to
shoulder, etc. They have instrumental meaning if they are formed from
nouns denoting tools, machines, instruments, weapons, e.g. to hammer, to
machine-gun, to rifle, to nail.
b) Verbs can denote an action characteristic of the living being denoted
by the noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to crowd, to wolf, to
ape, to man.
c) Verbs can denote acquisition, addition or deprivation if they are
formed from nouns denoting an object, e.g. to fish, to dust, to peel, to paper,
to garden.

34
d) Verbs can denote an action performed at the place denoted by the
noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to park, to garage, to bottle,
to corner, to pocket, to shoulder.
e) Verbs can denote an action performed at the time denoted by the
noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to winter, to week-end, to
holiday.

Verbs can be also converted from adjectives; in such cases they denote the
change of the state, e.g. to tame (to become or to make tame), to clean, to
slim, to slender, etc.

Nouns can also be formed by means of conversion from verbs. Converted

nouns can denote:

a) instant of an action, e.g. a jump, a move, a dance

b) process or state, e.g. sleep, walk, state
c) agent of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has
been converted, e.g. a help, a flirt, a scold, a link
d) object or result of the action expressed by the verb from which the
noun has been converted, e.g. a burn, a find, a purchase, a fight
e) place of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has
been converted, e.g. a drive, a stop, a walk, an end

Many nouns converted from verbs can be used only in the Singular form and
denote momentary actions. In such cases we have partial conversion. Such
deverbal nouns are often used with such verbs as: to have, to get, to take,
etc., e.g. to have a try, to give a push, to take a swim, to have a sleep.

35
Criteria of semantic derivation

In cases of conversion the problem of criteria of semantic derivation arises:

which of the converted pairs is primary and which is converted from it. The
problem was first analyzed by prof. A I. Smirnitsky. Later on P.A.Soboleva
developed his idea and worked out the following criteria:

1. if the lexical meaning of the root morpheme and the lexico-grammatical

meaning of the stem coincide the word is primary, e.g. in the case of pen-to
pen, father-to father the nouns are names of an object and a living being.
Therefore in the nouns pen and father the lexical meaning of the root and the
lexico-grammatical meaning of the stem coincide. The verbs to pen and to
father denote an action, a process; therefore the lexico-grammatical
meanings of the stems do not coincide with the lexical meanings of the
roots. The verbs have a complex semantic structure and they were converted
from nouns.

2. If we compare a converted pair with a synonymic word pair which was

formed by means of suffixation we can find out which of the pairs is
primary. This criterion can be applied only to nouns converted from verbs,
e.g. chat –noun and chat-verb can be compared with conversation-converse.

3. The criterion based on derivational relations is of more universal

character. In this case we must take a word-cluster of relative words to

36
which the converted pair belongs. If the root stem of the word-cluster has
suffixes added to a noun stem the noun is primary in the converted pair and
vice versa, e.g. in the word-cluster: hand n., hand v., handy, handful the
derived words have suffixes added to a noun stem, that is why the noun is
primary and the verb is converted from it. In the word- cluster: dance, n.,
dance v., dancer, dancing we see that the primary word is a verb and the
noun is converted from it.

Substantivization of Adjectives

Sometimes adjectives become substantivized. In this case they have the

functions of nouns in the sentence and are always preceded by the definite
article. Substantivized adjectives may have two meanings:

1) They may indicate a class of persons in a general sense (e.g. the poor =
poor people, the dead = dead people, etc.) Such adjectives are plural in
meaning and take a plural verb.
e.g. The old receive pensions.
The young are always romantic, aren’t they?
The blind are taught trades in special schools.

If we wish to denote a single person we must add a noun.

e.g. The old man receives a pension.

If we wish to refer to a particular group of persons (not the whole class), it is

also necessary to add a noun.
e.g. The young are usually intolerant.

37
 The young men are fishing.

Some adjectives denoting nationalities (e.g. English, French, Dutch) are used
in the same way.
e.g. The English are great lovers of tea.
There were a few English people among the tourists.

2) Substantivized adjectives may also indicate an abstract notion. Then they

are singular in meaning and take a singular verb.
e.g. The good in him overweighs the bad.
My mother never lost her taste for extravagant.

‘Stone-wall’ combinations

The problem whether adjectives can be formed by means of conversion from

nouns is the subject of many discussions. In Modern English there are a lot
of word combinations of the type, e.g. price rise, wage freeze, steel helmet,
sand castle, etc.

If the first component of such units is an adjective converted from a noun,

combinations of this type are free word-groups typical of English
(adjective+noun). This point of view is proved by O. Yespersen by the
following facts:

1. Stone denotes some quality of the noun wall.

38
2. Stone stands before the word it modifies, as adjectives in the function of
an attribute do in English.

3. Stone is used in the Singular though its meaning in most cases is plural,
and adjectives in English have no plural form.

4. There are some cases when the first component is used in the
Comparative or the Superlative degree, e.g. the bottomest end of the scale

5. The first component can have an adverb which characterises it, and
adjectives are characterised by adverbs, e.g. a purely family gathering.

6. The first component can be used in the same syntactical function with a
proper adjective to characterize the same noun, e.g. lonely bare stone
houses.

7. After the first component the pronoun one can be used instead of a noun,
e.g. I shall not put on a silk dress; I shall put on a cotton one.

However Henry Sweet and some other scientists say that these criteria are
not characteristic of the majority of such units. They consider the first
component of such units to be a noun in the function of an attribute because
in Modern English almost all parts of speech and even word-groups and
sentences can be used in the function of an attribute, e.g. the then president
(an adverb), out-of-the-way villages (a word-group), a devil-may-care speed
(a sentence).

39
There are different semantic relations between the components of stone wall
combinations. E.I.Chapnik classified them into the following groups:

1. Time relations, e.g. evening paper

2. Space relations, e.g. top floor

3. Relations between the object and the material of which it is made, e.g.
steel helmet

4. Cause relations, e.g. war orphan

5. Relations between a part and the whole, e.g. a crew member

6. Relations between the object and an action, e.g. arms production

7. Relations between the agent and an action, e.g. government threat, price
rise

8. Relations between the object and its designation, e.g. reception hall

9. The first component denotes the head, organizer of the characterized

object, e.g. Clinton government, Forsyte family

10. The first component denotes the field of activity of the second
component, e.g. language teacher, psychiatry doctor

40
11. Comparative relations, e.g. moon face

12. Qualitative relations, e.g. winter apples.

Abbreviation

In the process of communication words and word-groups can be shortened.

The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By extra-
linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. In Modern English
many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the
tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more
information in the shortest possible time.
There are also linguistic causes of abbreviating words and word-groups,
such as the demand of rhythm, which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic
words. When borrowings from other languages are assimilated in English
they are shortened. Here we have modification of form on the basis of
analogy, e.g. the Latin borrowing fanaticus is shortened to fan on the
analogy with native words: man, pan, tan, etc.

There are two main types of shortenings: graphical and lexical.

Graphical abbreviations

Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening words and word-groups

in written speech while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They
are used for the economy of space and effort in writing.

41
The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In
Romanian this type of abbreviation is not typical. In these abbreviations in
the spelling Latin words are shortened, while orally the corresponding
English equivalents are pronounced in the full form, e.g. for example (Latin
example gratia), a.m. – in the morning (ante meridiem), no-number
(numero), p.a. – a year (per annum), d – penny (dinarius), lb – pound
(libra), i.e.- that is (id est), etc.

Some graphical abbreviations of Latin origin have different English

equivalents in different contexts, e.g. p.m. can be pronounced in the
afternoon (post meridiem) and after death (post mortem).

There are also graphical abbreviations of native origin where in the spelling
we have abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding
English equivalents in the full form. We have several semantic groups of
them:

a) Days of the week, e.g. Mon-Monday, Tue-Tuesday, etc.

b) Names of months, e.g. Apr-April, Aug- August, etc.
c) Names of counties in UK, e.g. Yorks-Yorkshire, Berks- Berkshire,
etc.
d) Names of states in USA, e.g. Ala-Alabama, Alas-Alaska, etc.
e) Names of address, e.g. Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., etc.
f) Military ranks, e.g. capt. – captain, col.-colonel, sgt.- sergeant, etc.
g) Scientific degrees, e.g. B.A.-Bachelor of Arts, D.M.- Doctor of
Medicine (Sometimes in scientific degrees we have abbreviations of
Latin origin, e.g. M.B.-Medicinae Baccalaurus).

42
h) Units of time, length, weight, e.g. f./ft-foot/feet, sec.- second, in-
inch, mg.-milligram, etc.

The reading of some graphical abbreviations depends on the context, e.g. m.

can be read as: male, married, masculine, meter, mile, million, minute; l.p.
can be read as long-playing or low pressure.

Initial abbreviations

Initialisms are the bordering case between graphical and lexical

abbreviations. When they appear in the language, as a rule, to denote some
new offices they are closer to graphical abbreviations because orally full
forms are used, e.g. J.V.-joint venture. When they are used for some duration
of time they acquire the shortened form of pronouncing and become closer
to lexical abbreviations, e.g. B.B.C. is as a rule pronounced in the shortened
form.

In some cases the translation of initialisms is next to impossible without

using special dictionaries. Initialisms are denoted in different ways. Very
often they are expressed in the way they are pronounced in the language of
their origin, e.g. ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, United States) is given in
Romania as defence treaty of 1951: a defence treaty negotiated between
Australia, New Zealand, and the United States in 1951, SALT (Abbreviation
for Strategic Arms Limitation Talks: a series of discussions between the US
and the USSR that took place from 1969 to 1979 and aimed to limit the
number of nuclear weapons) was for a long time used in Romanian as
Tratative in vederea reducerii armamentului strategic, now a translation

43
variant is used (Tratative privind reducerea armelor strategice). This type of
initialisms borrowed into other languages is preferable, e.g. UFO –
undefined flying object, JV – Junior varsity/university.
There are three types of initialisms in English:

a) Initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK, CND (Campaign

for Nuclear Disarmament), CNAA (Council for National Academic Awards),
CNN (Cable News Network), CMC (Certified Management Consultant) etc.
In this list we can include abbreviations such as: w. (week, width, wife,
with), w.c.(without charge), W.P.B. (wastepaper basket), wpm (words per
minute), w. (with), w/o (without), etc.
b) Initialisms which are read as if they are words, e.g. UNESCO, UNO,
NATO, etc.
c) Initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form; such
initialisms are called acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory
for Automated School System.), CAD (Computer-aided Design).

Some scientists unite groups b) and c) into one group which they call
acronyms, (words formed from the initials or other parts of several words),
e.g. NATO (“North Atlantic Treaty Organization”).

Some initialisms can form new words in which they act as root morphemes
by different ways of word-building:

a) Affixation, e.g. AWALism, ex-rafer (R.A.F. – Royal Air Force), ex-

POW (prisoner of war), to waafize, AIDSophobia, etc.
b) Conversion, e.g. to raff, to fly IFR (Instrument Flight Rules)

44
c) Composition, e.g. STOLport (flying system), USARman (United
States Army Reserve), etc.
There are also compound-shortened words where the first component is an
initial abbreviation with the alphabetical reading and the second one is a
complete word, e.g. A-bomb, U-pronunciation, V-E day (day marking Allied
victory in Europe: the day after the German surrender, designated by the
Allies to mark their victory in Europe in World War II. May 8, 1945), u-turn
(turn made to face opposite direction; reversal of actions or policy), A-teams
(best people).
d) In some cases the first component is a complete word and the second
component is an initial abbreviation with the alphabetical pronunciation, e.g.
Three-Ds (three dimensions)- tridimensional.

Abbreviations of Words

Abbreviation of words consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we

get a new lexical unit where either the lexical meaning or the style is
different from the full form of the word. In such cases as fantasy and fancy,
fence and defence we have different lexical meanings. In such cases as
laboratory and lab, we have different styles.

Abbreviation does not change the part-of-speech meaning, as we have it in

the case of conversion or affixation; it produces words belonging to the same
part of speech as the primary word, e.g. prof. is a noun and professor is also
a noun; cmdr or cmd. and commander are both nouns. Mostly nouns
undergo abbreviation, but we can also meet abbreviation of verbs, such as to
rev from to revolve, to tab from to tabulate, etc. But mostly abbreviated

45
forms of verbs are formed by means of conversion from abbreviated nouns,
e.g. to taxi, to vac, etc. Adjectives can be abbreviated but they are mostly
used in school slang and are combined with suffixation, e.g. comfy
(comfortable), dilly (remarkable), muzzy (indistinct, vague, confused), etc.
As a rule, pronouns, numerals, interjections, conjunctions are not
abbreviated. The exceptions are: fif (fifteen), teen-ager, in one’s teens
(aphaeresis from numerals from 13 to 19).

Lexical abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which
is clipped. Mostly the end of the word is clipped, because the beginning of
the word in most cases is the root and expresses the lexical meaning of the
word. This type of abbreviation is called apocope. Here we can mention a
group of words ending in o, such as disco (discotheque), expo (exposition),
intro (introduction), and many others. On the analogy with these words there
developed in Modern English a number of words where o is added as a kind
of a suffix to the shortened form of the word, e.g. combo (combination), Afro
(African), etc. In other cases the beginning of the word is clipped. In such
cases we have aphaeresis, e.g. chute (parachute), varsity (university), copter
(helicopter), thuse (enthuse), etc. Sometimes the middle of the word is
clipped, e.g. mart (market), fanzine (fan magazine), maths (mathematics).

Such abbreviations are called syncope. Sometimes we have a combination of

apocope and aphaeresis, when the beginning and the end of the word are
clipped, e.g. tec (detective), van (avanguard), etc.

Sometimes shortening influences the spelling of the word, e.g. c can be

substituted by k before e to preserve pronunciation, e.g. mike (microphone),

46
Coke (coca-cola), etc. The same rule is observed in the following cases: fax
(facsimile), teck (technical college), trank (tranquilizer), etc.

The final consonants in the shortened forms are substituted by letters

characteristic of native English words.

Secondary Ways of Word-Building

Sound interchange is the way of word-building when some sounds are

changed to form a new word. It is non-productive in Modern English; it was
productive in Old English and can be met in other Indo-European languages.

The causes of sound interchange can be different. It can be the result of

Ancient Ablaut which cannot be explained by the phonetic laws during the
period of the language development known to scientists, e.g. to strike-stroke,
to sing-song, etc. It can be also the result of Ancient Umlaut or vowel
mutation which is the result of palatalizing the root vowel because of the
front vowel in the syllable coming after the root (regressive assimilation),
e.g. hot-to heat (hot Ian), blood-to bleed (bloodian), etc.

In many cases we have vowel and consonant interchange. In nouns we have

voiceless consonants and in verbs we have corresponding voiced consonants
because in old English these consonants in nouns were at the end of the
word and in verbs in the intervocal position, e.g. bath-to bathe, life-to live,
breath-to breathe, etc.
Stress Interchange

47
Stress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin:
nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs on the last syllable, e.g.
‘accent-to ac’cent, ‘present-to pre’sent, ‘import-to im’port, etc. This
phenomenon is explained in the following way: French verbs and nouns had
different structure; when they were borrowed into English, verbs had one
syllable more than the corresponding nouns. When these borrowings were
assimilated in English the stress in them was shifted to the previous syllable
(the second from the end). Later on the last unstressed syllable in verbs
borrowed from French was dropped (the same as in native verbs) and after
that the stress in verbs was on the last syllable while in nouns it was on the
first syllable. As a result of it we have such pairs in English as: to af’fix-
‘affix, to con’flict-‘conflict, to ex’port-‘export, to ex’tract-‘extract, etc. As a
result of stress interchange we have also vowel interchange in such words
because vowels are pronounced differently in stressed and unstressed
positions.

Sound imitation

It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by imitating different

sounds. There are some semantic groups of words formed by means of
sound imitation.

a) Sounds produced by human beings, such as: to whisper, to giggle, to

mumble, to sneeze, to whistle, etc.
b) Sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, such as: to hiss, to buzz, to
bark, to moo, to twitter (to chirp), etc.

48
c) Sounds produced by nature and objects, such as: to splash, to rustle, to
clatter, to bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle, etc.

Blends

Blends are words formed from a word-group or two synonyms. In blends

two ways of word-building are combined: abbreviation and composition. To
form a blend we clip the end of the first component (apocope) and the
beginning of the second component (aphaeresis). As a result we have a
compound-shortened word. One of the first blends in English was the word
smog from two synonyms: smoke and fog which means ‘smoke mixed with
fog’. From the first component the beginning is taken, from the second one
the end; o is common for both of them.

Blends formed from two synonyms are: slanguage, to hustle, gasohol, etc.
Mostly blends are formed from a word-group, such as: acromania (acronym
mania), cinemadict (cinema addict), Chunnel (channel, canal), dramedy
(drama comedy), detectfiction (detective fiction), faction (fact fiction),
(fiction based on real facts), informecial (information commercial),
Medicare (medical care), magalog (magazine catalogue), slimnastics
(slimming gymnastics), socialite (social elite), slanguist (slang linguist), etc.

Back formation

It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by dropping the final

morpheme to form a new word. It is opposite to suffixation; that is why it is
called back formation. At first it appeared in the language as a result of

49
misunderstanding the structure of a borrowed word. Prof. Yartseva explains
this mistake by the influence of the whole system of the language on
separate words. For example, it is typical in English to form nouns denoting
the agent of the action by adding the suffix –er to a verb stem (speak-
speaker). So when the French word beggar was borrowed into English the
final syllable -ar was pronounced in the same way as the English –er and
Englishmen formed the verb to beg by dropping the end of the noun. Other
examples of back formation are: to accreditate (from accreditation), to bach
(from bachelor), to collocate (from collocation), to enthuse (from
enthusiasm), to compute (from computer), to emote (from emotion), to
reminisce (from reminiscence), to televise (from television), etc.

As we can notice in cases of back formation the part-of-speech meaning of

the primary word is changed; verbs are formed from nouns.

Semantic changes

The meaning of a word can change in the course of time. Changes of lexical
meanings can be proved by comparing contexts of different times. Transfer
of meaning is called lexico-semantic word-building. In such cases the outer
aspect of a word does not change.

The causes of semantic changes can be extra-linguistic and linguistic, e.g.

the change of the lexical meaning of the noun pen was due to extra-linguistic
causes. Primarily pen comes back to the Latin word penna (a feather of a
bird). As people wrote with goose pens the name was transferred to steel

50
pens which were later on used for writing. Still later any instrument for
writing was called a pen.

On the other hand causes can be linguistic, e.g. the conflict of synonyms;
when a perfect synonym of a native word is borrowed from some other
language, one of them may specialize in its meaning, e.g. the noun tide in
Old English was polysemantic and denoted time, season, hour. When the
French words time, season, and hour were borrowed into English they
ousted the word tide in these meanings. It was specialized and now means
‘regular rise and fall of the sea caused by attraction of the moon’. The
meaning of a word can also change due to ellipsis, e.g. the word-group a
train of carriages had the meaning of a row of carriages, later on of
carriages was dropped and the noun train changed its meaning; it is used
now in the function and with the meaning of the whole word-group.

Semantic changes have been classified by different scientists. The most

complete classification was suggested by a German scientist Herman Paul in
his work Prinzipien des Sprachgeschichte. It is based on the logical
principle. He distinguishes two main ways where the semantic change is
gradual (specialization and generalization), two momentary conscious
semantic changes (metaphor and metonymy) and also secondary ways:
gradual (elevation and degradation), momentary (hyperbole and litotes).

Specialization

It is a gradual process when a word passes from a general sphere to some

special sphere of communication, e.g. case has a general meaning

51
‘circumstances in which a person or a thing is’. It is specialized in its
meaning when used in law (a law suit), in grammar (a form in the paradigm
of a noun), in medicine (a patient, an illness). The difference between these
meanings is revealed in the context.

The meaning of a word can specialize when it remains in the general usage.
It happens in the case of the conflict between two absolute synonyms when
one of them must specialize in its meaning to remain in the language, e.g.
the native word meat had the meaning ‘food’; this meaning is preserved in
the compound sweetness. The meaning ‘edible fish’ was formed when the
word food, its absolute synonym, won in the conflict of absolute synonyms
(both words are native). The English verb starve was specialized in its
meaning after the Scandinavian verb die was borrowed into English. Die
became the general verb with this meaning because in English there were the
noun death and the adjective dead. Starve got the meaning ‘to die of
hunger’.

The third way of specialization is the formation of proper names from

common nouns; it is often used in toponymy, e.g. The City – ‘the business
part of London’, Oxford- ‘university town in England’, the Tower-‘originally
a fortress and palace, later a prison, now a museum’.

The fourth way of specialization is ellipsis. In such cases primarily we have

a word-group of the type attribute+noun, which is used constantly in a
definite situation. Due to it, the attribute can be dropped and the noun can
get the meaning of the whole word-group, e.g. room originally meant
‘space’; this meaning is retained in the adjective roomy, and word

52
combinations: no room for, to take room, to take up room, to leave room for.
The meaning of the word room was specialized because it was often used in
the combinations: dining room, sleeping room, which meant ‘space for
dining, space for sleeping’.

Generalization

It is a process contrary to specialization; in such cases the meaning of a word

becomes more general in the course of time.

The transfer from a concrete meaning to an abstract one is most frequent,

e.g. ready (a derivative from the verb ridan – ride) meant ‘prepared for a
ride’, now its meaning is ‘prepared for anything’. Journey was borrowed
from French with the meaning ‘one day trip’; now it means ‘a trip of any
duration’.

All auxiliary verbs are cases of generalization of their lexical meaning

because they developed a grammatical meaning: have, be, do, shall, will
when used as auxiliary verbs are devoid of their lexical meaning which they
have when used as notional verbs or modal verbs, e.g. cf. I have several
books by this writer and I have read some books by this author. In the first
sentence the verb have has the meaning possess; in the second sentence it
has no lexical meaning; its grammatical meaning is to form Present Perfect.

Metaphor

53
It is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of comparison. Herman Paul
points out that metaphor can be based on different types of similarity.

a) Similarity of shape, e.g. head (of a cabbage), bottleneck, teeth (of a saw,
a comb);
b) Similarity of position, e.g. foot (of a page, of a mountain), head (of a
procession);
c) Similarity of function, behaviour, e.g. a whip (an official in the British
Parliament whose duty is to seek that members were present at the voting;
d) Similarity of colour, e.g. orange, hazel, chestnut, etc.

In some cases we have a complex similarity, e.g. The leg of a table has
similarity to a human leg in its shape, position and function.

Many metaphors are based on parts of a human body, e.g. an eye of a needle,
arms and mouth of a river, head of an army.

A special type of metaphor is when proper names become common nouns,

e.g. philistine-a mercenary person, vandals-destructive people, a Don Juan-
a lover of many women, etc.

Metonymy

It is a transfer of meaning on the basis of contiguity (close contact). There

are different types of metonymy:

54
a) The material of which an object is made may become the name of the
object, e.g. a glass, boards, iron, etc;
b) The name of the place may become the name of the people or of an
object placed there, e.g. the House-members of the Parliament, Fleet Street-
bourgeois press, the White House-the Administration of the USA, etc.
c) Names of musical instruments may become names of musicians, e.g. the
violin, the saxophone;
d) The name of some person may become a common noun, e.g. boycott was
originally the name of an Irish family who were so much disliked by their
neighbours that they did not mix with them, sandwich was named after Lord
Sandwich who was a gambler. He did not want to interrupt his game and had
his food brought to him while he was playing cards between two slices of
bread not to soil his fingers.
e) Names of inventors very often become terms to denote things they
invented, e.g. watt, ohm, roentgen, etc.
f) Some geographical names can also become common nouns through
metonymy, e.g. Holland (linen fabrics), Brussels (a special kind of carpets),
china (porcelain), astrakhan (a sheep fur), etc.

Elevation

It is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes better in the course of time,

e.g. knight, originally meant ‘a boy’, then ‘a young servant’, then ‘a military
servant’, then ‘a noble man’. Now it is a title of nobility given to outstanding
people; marshal originally meant ‘a horseman’ now it is the highest military
rank, etc.

55
Degradation

It is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes worse in the course of time.

It is usually connected with nouns denoting common people, e.g. villain
originally meant ‘working on a villa’, now it means ‘a scoundrel’.

Hyperbole

It is a deliberate and obvious exaggeration used for effect, e.g. I could eat a
million of these.

Hyperbole is often used to form phraseological units, e.g. to make a

mountain out of a molehill, to split hairs, etc.

Litotes

It is a transfer of meaning when the speaker expresses affirmative with the

negative or vice versa, e.g. not bad, no coward, etc.

Phraseology

The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words but also by

phraseological units.

56
Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of
speech; they exist in the language as readymade units. They are compiled in
special dictionaries. The same as words phraseological units express a single
notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. American and British
lexicographers call such units idioms. We can mention such dictionaries as:
L. Smith-Words and Idioms, V. Collins- A Book of English Idioms, etc. In
these dictionaries we can find words, peculiar in their semantics (idiomatic),
side by side with word-groups and sentences. In these dictionaries they are
arranged, as a rule, into different semantic groups.

Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed,
according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to
their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning.

Ways of Forming

A.V. Koonin classified phraseological units according to the way they are
formed. He pointed out primary and secondary ways of forming
phraseological units.

Primary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a unit is

formed on the basis of a free word-group:

a) Most productive in Modern English is the formation of phraseological

units by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups,
e.g. in cosmic technique we can point out the following phrases: launching
pad in its terminological meaning, transferred meaning and transformed

57
meaning means: 1. platform for launching rockets: a platform, usually in a
launch complex, from which a rocket, missile, or spacecraft is launched.; 2.
starting point for success: a starting point from which great or successful
progress is made, e.g. in somebody’s career.

A large group of phraseological units was formed from free word groups by
transforming their meaning, e.g. Trojan horse: 1. hollow horse concealing
Greeks: in Greek mythology, a hollow wooden horse that hid Greek soldiers,
left at the gates of Troy. The Trojans were convinced it was a gift to Athena
and dragged it inside; 2. concealed stratagem: somebody or something that is
meant to disrupt, undermine, subvert, or destroy an enemy or rival,
especially somebody or something that operates while concealed within an
organization; 3. COMPUT destructive computer program: a computer
program containing a hidden function that causes damage to other programs
while appearing to perform a valid function.
b) Phraseological units can be formed by means of alliteration, e.g. a sad
sack: inept person: somebody, especially a soldier, who means well but is
hopelessly inept (informal); culture vulture: devotee of arts: somebody who
has a strong or obsessive interest in the arts (informal);
c) They can be formed by means of expressiveness, especially it is
characteristic for forming interjections, e.g. My aunt!, Hear, hear!, etc.
d) They can be formed by means of distorting a word group, e.g. odds and
ends was formed from odd ends.
e) They can be formed by using archaisms, e.g. in brown study means ‘in
gloomy meditation’ where both components preserve their archaic
meanings.

58
f) They can be formed by using a sentence in a different sphere of life, e.g.
that cock won’t fight can be used as a free word-group when it is used in
sports (cock fighting); it becomes a phraseological unit when it is used in
everyday life, because it is used metaphorically.
g) They can be formed when we use some unreal image, e.g. to have
butterflies in the stomach- a avea emoţii, to have green fingers –a avea mâini
de aur, etc.
h) They can be formed by using expressions of writers or politicians in
everyday life, e.g. corridors of power (Snow), American dream (Alby),
Locust years (Churchill), the winds of change (Mc Millan).

Secondary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a

phraseological unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit;
they are:

a) conversion, e.g. to vote with one’s feet was converted into vote with
one’s feet;
b) changing the grammar form, e.g. Make hay while the sun shines is
transferred into a verbal phrase – to make hay while the sun shines;
c) analogy, e.g. Curiosity killed the cat was transferred into Care killed the
cat;
d) contrast, e.g. cold surgery – ‘a planned before operation’ was formed by
contrasting it with acute surgery; thin cat – ‘a poor person’- was formed by
contrasting it with fat cat;
e) shortening of proverbs or sayings, e.g. from the proverb You can’t make
a silk purse out of a sow’s ear by means of clipping the middle of it the

59
phraseological unit to make a sow’s ear was formed with the meaning ‘to try
to improve a person or object that cannot be changed’.
f) borrowing phraseological units from other languages, either as
translation loans, e.g. living space (German), to take the bull by the horns
(Latin) or by means of phonetic borrowings meche blanche (French), corpse
d’elite (French), sotto voce (Italian), erebeta – elevator, nekutai – necktie,
bata – butter, bekon – bacon, sarada – salad, remon – lemon, chiizu – cheese,
bifuteki – beefsteak, hamu – ham, shyanpu setto – shampoo and set
(Japanese), etc.

Phonetic borrowings among phraseological units refer to the bookish style

and are not used very often.

Semantic Classification of Phraseological Units

Phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation

of their meaning.
a) Fusions where the degree of motivation is very low; we cannot guess
the meaning of the whole from the meaning of its components; they are
highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other
languages, e.g. on Shank’s mare – (on foot), at sixes and sevens (in a mess),
etc;
b) Unities where the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the
meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or
metonymical), e.g. to play the first fiddle (to be a leader in something), old
salt (experienced sailor), etc.

60
c) Collocations where words are combined in their original meaning but
their combinations are different in different languages, e.g. cash and carry –
(self-service shop), in a big way (in great degree), etc. Collocations are very
important in English, e.g. in the following phrases/ sentences only the
bolded words collocate with the bolded nouns:
- Time speeds/ goes by/ travels/rides/flies/wears on/moves/passes.
- Weather permitting/allowing
- An academic year/a studying year (an de studiu)
- Discussions can be productive/fruitful/prolific
- agree unconditionally/ unconditionally agree
- a fragile/an uneasy/tender/unsteady/weak peace
- The police arrived with perfect/immaculate/exquisite/ best/timing just as
the gang were leaving the bank.
- There’s a marked/noted/wide/perceptible/vast/strong/
clear difference
- This is one of the biggest/greatest days in our life.
- What a big/great/ idea/gesture/privilege/honour

Structural Classification of Phraseological Units

Phraseology, an established concept in central and eastern Europe, has in

recent years received increasing attention in the English-speaking world. It
has long been clear to language learners and teachers that a native speaker's

61
competence in a language goes well beyond a lexico-semantic knowledge of
the individual words and the grammatical rules for combining them into
sentences; linguistic competence also includes a familiarity with restricted
collocations (like break the rules), idioms (like spill the beans in a non-
literal sense) and proverbs (like Revenge is sweet), as well as the ability to
produce or understand metaphorical interpretations.

Among one-top units we point out three structural types:

a) units of the type to give up (verb+postposition type), e.g. to art back, to

back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to sandwich in, etc.
b) units of the type to be tired. Some of these units remind the Passive
Voice in their structure but they have different prepositions with them, while
in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions by or with, e.g. to be
tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at, etc. There are also units in
this type which remind free word-groups of the type to be young, e.g. to be
akin to, to be aware of, etc. The difference between them is that the adjective
young can be used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while
the nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative. In these
units the verb is the grammar centre and the second component is the
semantic centre;
c) prepositional-nominal phraseological units. These units are equivalents
of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, that is why they
have no grammar centre, their semantic centre is the nominal part, e.g. on
the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course of, on the
stroke of, in time, on the point of, etc. In the course of time such units can
become words, e.g. tomorrow, instead, etc.

62
Among two top units we point out the following structural types:

a) attributive-nominal such as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a

millstone round one’s neck and many others. Units of this type are noun
equivalents and can be partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units
(phrasisms) sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.g. high road; in
other cases the second component is idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many cases
both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind alley, bed of nail, shot in
the arm and many others.
b) Verb-nominal phraseological units, e.g. to read between the lines, to
speak BBC, to sweep under the carpet, etc. The grammar centre of such
units is the verb, the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal
component, e.g. to fall in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar
and the semantic centre, e.g. not to know the ropes. These units can be
perfectly idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one’s boats, to vote with one’s feet,
to take to the cleaners’, etc.
Very close to such units are word-groups of the type to have a glance, to
have a smoke. These units are not idiomatic and are treated in grammar as a
special syntactical combination, a kind of aspect.
c) phraseological repetitions, such as now or never, part and parcel, country
and western, etc. Such units can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs,
back and forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.g. cakes
and ale, as busy as a bee. Components in repetitions are joined by means of
conjunctions. These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives and have
no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly idiomatic, e.g. cool
as a cucumber, (partly), bread and butter (perfectly).

63
Phraseological units the same as compound words can have more than two
tops (stems in compound words), e.g. to take a back seat, a peg to hang a
thing on, lock, stock, and barrel, to be a shadow of one’s own self, at one’s
own sweet will.

Syntactical Classification of Phraseological Units

Phraseological units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification

was suggested by I.V.Arnold. Here we have the following groups:

a) noun phraseologisms denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g.

bullet train, latchkey child, redbrick university, Green Barrettes.
b) Verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break
the log-jam, to get on somebody’s coattails, to be on the beam, to nose out,
to make headlines.
c) Adjective phraseologisms denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, dull
as lead.
d) Adverb phraseological units, such as: with a bump, in the soup, like a
dream, like a dog with two tails.
e) Preposition phraseological units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of.
f) Interjection phraseological units, e.g. catch me, Well, I never, etc.
In I.V.Arnold’s classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs,
sayings and quotations, e.g. The sky is the limit, What makes him tick, I am
easy. Proverbs are usually metaphorical, e.g. Too many cooks spoil the
broth, while sayings are as a rule non-metaphorical, e.g. Where there is a
will there is a way.

64
Borrowings

Borrowing words from other languages is characteristic of English

throughout its history. More than two thirds of the English vocabulary are
borrowings. Mostly they are words of Romanic origin (Latin, French,
Italian, Spanish). Borrowed words are different from native ones by their
phonetic structure, by their morphological structure and also by their
grammatical forms. It is also characteristic of borrowings to be non-
motivated semantically.

English history is very rich in different types of contacts with other

countries, that is why it is very rich in borrowings. The Roman invasion, the
adoption of Christianity, Scandinavian and Norman conquests of the British
Isles, the development of British colonialism and trade and cultural relations
served to increase immensely the English vocabulary. The majority of these
borrowings are fully assimilated in English in their pronunciation, grammar,
and spelling and can be hardly distinguished from native words.

One noticeable tendency is to keep the Anglo-Saxon noun while not

adopting the foreign form for its adjectival form. Thus fingers are not
fingerish, they are digital; Eyes are not eyeish, they are ocular. English is
unique in this tendency to marry a native noun to an adopted adjective.
Among other such pairs are mouth/oral, book/literary, water/aquatic,

65
house/domestic, son/filial, town/urban. Sometimes a Latin adjective was
adopted but the native one was kept as well, e.g. earthly/terrestrial,
motherly/maternal, timely/temporal.

Another curiosity is the fact that although English is a Germanic language

and the Germans clearly were one of the main founding groups of America,
English is among the languages with fewest German borrowings. Among the
very few are kindergarten, sauerkraut, and hinterland. English has borrowed
far more words from any other European language, and probably as many
from several smaller and obscure languages such as Inuit. Some such
examples are: shampoo (India), ketchup (China), potato (Haiti); sofa
(Arabia); slogan (Gaelic); rodeo, buffalo, avocado, fiesta, coyote, canyon
(Spain), Sioux, Prairie, frappe, cuisine, tete-e-tete (France).

English continues to take in foreign words, but now the quantity of

borrowings is not so abundant as it was before. All the more so, English now
has become a giving language; it has become a Lingua Franca of the twenty-
first century.

Borrowings can be classified according to different criteria:

a) according to the aspect which is borrowed

b) according to the degree of assimilation
c) according to the language from which the word was borrowed.

66
(In this classification only the main languages from which words were
borrowed into English are described, such as Latin, French, Italian, Spanish,
German and Russian.)

Classification of Borrowings according to the Borrowed Aspect

There are the following groups: phonetic borrowings, translation loans,

semantic borrowings, morphemic borrowings.

Phonetic borrowings are most characteristic in all languages; they are

called loan words proper. Words are borrowed with their spelling,
pronunciation and meaning. Then they undergo assimilation, each sound in
the borrowed word is substituted by the corresponding sound of the
borrowing language. In some cases the spelling is changed. The structure of
the word can also be changed. The position of the stress is very often
influenced by the phonetic system of the borrowing language.

The paradigm of the word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed
word are also changed. Such words as: labour, travel, table, chair, people
are phonetic borrowings from French; apparatchik, nomenklatura
(nomenclature), sputnik are phonetic borrowings from Russian; bank,
soprano, duet are phonetic borrowings from Italian, etc.
Translation loans are word-for-word (or morpheme-for-morpheme)
translations of some foreign words or expressions. In such cases the notion is
borrowed from a foreign language but it is expressed by native lexical units,
to take the bull by the horns (Latin), fair sex (French), living space
(German) etc. Some translation loans appeared in English from Latin

67
already in the Old English period, e.g. Sunday (solis dies). There are
translation loans from the languages of Indians, such as: pipe of peace, pale-
faced, from German masterpiece, homesickness, superman.

Semantic borrowings are such units when a new meaning of the unit
existing in the language is borrowed. It can happen when we have two
relative languages which have common words with different meanings, e.g.
there are semantic borrowings between Scandinavian and English, such as
the meaning ‘to live’ for the word to dwell, which in Old English had the
meaning ‘to wander, to lead astray’.

Semantic borrowings can appear when an English word was borrowed into
some other language, developed there a new meaning and this new meaning
was borrowed back into English e.g. brigade (in O.E. it was of Italian origin
and it meant ‘military brigade, contend, brawl’), was borrowed into Italian
and Romanian and formed the meaning ‘a working collective, brigadă’. This
meaning was borrowed back into English. The same is true of the English
word pioneer (soldier who builds things: a foot soldier whose duties include
going ahead of the main company to construct things to pave the way for
them), which in Medieval Latin meant ‘foot soldier’.

Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the

language when many words with identical affixes are borrowed from one
language into another so that the morphemic structure of borrowed words
becomes familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language, e.g. we
can find a lot of Romanic affixes in the English word-building system, that

68
is why there are a lot of word-hybrids in English where different morphemes
have different origin, e.g. goddess, beautiful, etc/.

Classification of Borrowings according to the Degree of Assimilation

The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following factors:

a) from what group of languages the word was borrowed, if the word
belongs to the same group of languages to which the borrowing language
belongs it is assimilated easier, b) in what way the word is borrowed: orally
or in the written form; words borrowed orally are assimilated quicker, c)
how often the borrowing is used in the language, the greater the frequency of
its usage, the quicker it is assimilated, d) how long the word lives in the
language, the longer it lives, the more assimilated it is.

Accordingly borrowings are subdivided into: completely assimilated, partly

assimilated and non-assimilated (barbarisms).

Completely assimilated borrowings are not felt as foreign words in the

language, cf. the French word sport and the native word start. Completely
assimilated verbs belong to regular verbs, e.g. correct-corrected. Completely
assimilated nouns form their plural by means of s-inflexion, e.g. gate-gates.
In completely assimilated French words the stress has been shifted from the
last syllable to the last but one.

Semantic assimilation of borrowed words depends on the words existing in

the borrowing language; as a rule, a borrowed word does not bring all its

69
meanings into the borrowing languages; if it is polysemantic, e.g. the
Russian borrowing sputnik is used in English only in one of its meanings.

Partly assimilated borrowings are subdivided into the following groups:

a) borrowings non-assimilated semantically, because they denote objects

and notions peculiar to the country from the language of which they were
borrowed, e.g. sari, sombrero, taiga, kvass, etc.
b) borrowings non assimilated grammatically, e.g. nouns borrowed from
Latin and Greek retain their plural forms (bacillus-bacilli, phenomenon-
phenomena, datum-data, genius, genii), etc.
c) borrowings non-assimilated phonetically. Here belong words with the
initial sounds /v/ and /z/, e.g. voice, zero. In native words these voiced
consonants are used only in the intervocal position as allophones of sounds
/f/ and /s/ (loss-lose, life-live). Some Scandinavian borrowings have
consonants and combinations of consonants which were not palatalized, e.g.
/sk/ in the words: sky, skate, ski, etc. (in native words we have the
palatalized sounds denoted by the diagraph /sh/, e.g. shirt; sounds like /k/
and /g/ before front vowels are not palatalized, e.g. girl, get, give, kid, kill,
kettle. In native words we have palatalization (raising the tongue to or
towards the hard palate).

Some French borrowings have retained their stress on the last syllable, e.g.
police, cartoon. Some French borrowings retain special combinations of
sounds, e.g. /a:3/ in the words: camouflage, bourgeois; some of them retain
the combination of sounds /wa:/ in the words: memoir, boulevard.

70
d) borrowings can be partly assimilated graphically, e.g. in Greek
borrowings /y/ can be spelled in the middle of the word (symbol, synonym),
/ph/ denotes the sound /f/ (phoneme, morpheme), /ch/ denotes the sound /k/
(chemistry, chaos), /ps/ denotes the sound /s/ (psychology).

Latin borrowings retain their polysyllabic structure, have double consonants;

as a rule, the final consonant of the prefix is assimilated with the initial
consonant of the stem (accompany, affirmative).

French borrowings which came into English after 1650 retain their spelling,
e.g. consonants /p/, /t/, /s/ are not pronounced at the end of the word (buffet,
coup, debris). Specifically French combination of letters eau /ou/ can be
found in the borrowings: beau, chateau, trousseau. Some of digraphs retain
their French pronunciation: ch is pronounced as /sh/, e.g. chic, parachute, qu
is pronounced as /k/, e.g. bouquet, ou is pronounced as /u:/, e.g. rouge; some
letters retain their French pronunciation, e.g. i is pronounced as /i:/, e.g. chic,
machine; g is pronounced as /3/, e.g. rouge.

Modern German borrowings also have some peculiarities in their spelling:

common nouns are spelled with a capital letter, e.g. Autobahn (‘automobile
track’), Lebensraum (‘living space’); some vowels and digraphs retain their
German pronunciation, e.g. a is pronounced as /a:/ (Dictat), u is pronounced
as /u:/ (Kuchen), au is pronounced as /au/ (Hausfrau), ei is pronounced as
/ai/ (Reich); some consonants are also pronounced in the German way, e.g. s
before a vowel is pronounced as /z/ (Sitskrieg), v is pronounced as /f/
(Volkswagen), w is pronounced as /v/, ch is pronounced as /h/ (Kuchen).

71
Non-assimilated borrowings (barbarisms) are borrowings which are used
by Englishmen rather seldom and are non-assimilated, e.g. addio (Italian),
tete-a-tete (French), dolce vita (Italian), duende (Spanish), an homme, a
femme (French), gonzo (Italian), etc.

Classification of Borrowings according to the Language from which they

Were Borrowed

Romanic Borrowings

Latin Borrowings

Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during the period
when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire, there are such
words as: street, port, wall, etc. Many Latin and Greek words came into
English during the Adoption of Christianity in the 6th century. At this time
the Latin alphabet was borrowed which ousted the runic alphabet. These
borrowings are usually called classical borrowings: alter, cross, dean, and
Greek words: church, angel, devil, anthem.

Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the Middle English
period due to the Greek Revival of Learning. These are mostly scientific
words because Latin was the language of science at the time. These words
were not used as frequently as the words of the Old English period, therefore
some of them were partly assimilated grammatically, e.g. formula-formulae.
Here also belong such words as: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto,
etc.

72
Classical borrowings continue to appear in Modern English as well. Mostly
they are words formed with the help of Latin and Greek morphemes. There
are quite a lot of them in medicine (appendicitis, aspirin), in chemistry
(acid, valence, alkali), in technique (engine, antenna, biplane, airdrome), in
politics (socialism, militarism), names of sciences (zoology, physics). In
philology most of terms are not of Greek origin (homonym, archaism,
lexicography).

French Borrowings. The Influence of French on the English Spelling.

The largest group of borrowings are French borrowings. Most of them came
into English during the Norman Conquest. French influenced not only the
vocabulary of English but also its spelling, because documents were written
by French scribes as the local population was mainly illiterate, and the ruling
class was French. Runic letters remaining in English after the Latin alphabet
was borrowed were substituted by Latin letters and combinations of letters,
e.g. v was introduced for the voiced consonant /v/ instead of f in the
intervocal position /lufian-love/, the digraph ch was introduced to denote the
sound /ch/ instead of the letter c /chest/ before front vowels where it had
been palatalized, the diagraph sh was introduced instead of the combination
sc to denote the sound /sh/ /ship/, the digraph th was introduced instead of
the Runic letters /this, thing/; the letter y was introduced instead of the Runic
letter 3 to denote the sound /j/ /yet/, the digraph qu substituted the
combination cw to denote the combination of sounds /kw/ /queen/, the
digraph ou was introduced to denote the sound /u:/ /house/ (the sound /u:/
was later diphthongized and is pronounced /au/ in native words and fully
assimilated borrowings). As it was difficult for French scribes to copy

73
English texts they substituted the letter u before v, m, n and the digraph th by
the letter o to escape the combination of many vertical lines /sunu – son,
luvu-love/.

Borrowing of French Words

There are the following semantic groups of French borrowings:

a) words relating to government: administer, empire, state, government.

b) words relating to jury: advocate, petition, inquest, sentence, barrister.
c) Words relating to fashion: luxury, coat, collar, lace, pleat, embroidery.
d) Words relating to jewellery: topaz, emerald, ruby, pearl
e) Words relating to food and cooking: lunch, dinner, appetite, to roast, to
stew.

Words were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mainly through
French literature, but they were not as numerous and many of them are not
completely assimilated. There are the following semantic groups of these
borrowings:

a) Words relating to literature and music: belle-lettres, conservatoire,

brochure, nuance, pirouette, vaudeville.
b) Words relating to military affairs: corps, echelon, fuselage, manoeuvre.
c) Words relating to buildings and furniture: entresol (between level),
chateau, bureau.
d) Words relating to food and cooking: ragout, cuisine.

74
Italian Borrowings

Cultural and trade relations between Italy and England brought many Italian
words into English. The earliest Italian borrowing came into English in the
14th century; it was the word bank / from the Italian banko – bench/. Italian
money-lenders and money-changers sat in the streets on benches. When they
suffered losses they turned over their benches; it was called banco rotta
from which the English word bankrupt originated. In the 17th century some
geological terms were borrowed: volcano, granite, bronze, lava. At the same
time, some political terms were borrowed: manifesto, bulletin.

But mostly Italian is famous by its influence in music and in all Indo-
European languages musical terms were borrowed from Italian: alto,
baritone, basso, tenor, falsetto, solo, duet, trio, quartet, quintet, opera,
operetta, libretto, piano, violin.

Among the 2oth century Italian borrowings we can mention: gazette,

incognito, altostrati, fiasco, fascist, dilettante, grotesque, graffito, etc.

Spanish Borrowings

Spanish borrowings came into English mainly through its American variant.
There are the following semantic groups of them:

a) trade terms: cargo, embargo

b) names of dances and musical instruments: tango, rumba, habanera,
guitar

75
c) names of vegetables and fruit: tomato, potato, tobacco, cocoa, banana,
ananas, apricot, etc.

Germanic Borrowings

English belongs to the Germanic group of languages and there are

borrowings from Scandinavian, German, and Holland languages, though
their number is much lower than borrowings from Romanic languages.

Scandinavian Borrowings

By the end of the Old English period English underwent a strong influence
of Scandinavian due to the Scandinavian conquest of the British Isles.
Scandinavians belonged to the same group of peoples as Englishmen and
their language had much in common. As the result of this conquest there are
about 700 borrowings from Scandinavian into English.

Scandinavians and Englishmen had the same way of life, their cultural level
was the same, they had much in common in their literature; therefore there
were many words in these languages which were almost identical, e.g.
ON (Old Norse-Scandinavian)/OE (Old English)/Modern English
Syster, sweoster, sister
Fiscr, fisc, fish
Felagi, felawe, fellow

However there were also many words in the two languages which were
different and some of them were borrowed into English, such nouns as: bull,

76
cake, egg, kid, knife, skirt, window, etc.; such adjectives as: flat, ill, happy,
low, odd, ugly, wrong; such verbs as: call, die, guess, get, give, scream and
many others.
Even some pronouns and connective words were borrowed which happens
very seldom, such as: same, both, till, fro, though, and pronominal forms
with th: they, them, their.

Scandinavian influenced the development of phrasal verbs which did not

exist in Old English; at the same time some prefixed verbs came out of
usage, e.g. ofniman, beniman. Phrasal verbs are now highly productive in
English /take off, give in/, etc.

German Borrowings

There are some 800 words borrowed from German into English. Some of
them have classical roots, e.g. in some geological terms, such as: cobalt,
bismuth, zinc, quarts, gneiss, wolfram. There were also words denoting
objects used in everyday life which were borrowed from German: iceberg,
rucksack, Kindergarten, etc.

In the period of the Second World War the following words were borrowed:
Wolkssturm, Luftwaffe, SS-man, Bundeswehr, Gestapo, gas chamber and
many others. After the Second World War the following words were
borrowed: Berufsyerbot, Volkswagen, etc.

Holland (Dutch) Borrowings

77
Holland and England have constant interrelations for many centuries and
more than 2000 Holland borrowings were borrowed into English. Most of
them are nautical terms and were mainly borrowed in the 14th century, such
as: freight, skipper, pump, keel, dock, reef, deck, leak, and many others.

Besides two main groups of borrowings (Romanic and Germanic) there are
also borrowings from a lot of other languages.

Russian Borrowings

Russian belongs to Slavonic languages. There were constant contacts

between England and Russia and they borrowed words from one language
into the other. Among early Russian borrowings there are mainly words
connected with trade relations, such as: rouble, kopeck, starlet, vodka, sable,
and also words relating to nature, such as: taiga, tundra, steppe, etc.
There is also a large group of Russian borrowings which came into English
through Russian literature of the 19th century, such as: Narodnik, moujik,
duma, semstvo, volost, ukase, etc and also words which were formed in
Russian with Latin roots, such as: nihilist, intelligenzia, Decembrist, etc.
After the Great October Revolution many new words appeared in Russian
connected with the new political system, new culture, and many of them
were borrowed into English, such as: collectivization, udarnik, Komsomol,
etc. and also translation loans, such as: shock worker, collective farms, five-
year plan, etc.

One more group of Russian borrowings is connected with perestroika, such

as: glasnost, nomenklatura (nomenclature), apparatchik, etc.

78
Etymological Doublets

Sometimes a word is borrowed twice from the same language. As a result,

we have two different words with different spellings and meanings but
historically they come back to one and the same word. Such words are called
etymological doublets. In English there are some groups of them:

Latino-French Doublets

Latin English from Latin, English from French

Uncial inch ounce

Moneta mint money
Camera camera chamber

Franco-French Doublets

Doublets borrowed from different dialects of French

Norman Paris
Canal channel
Captain chieftain
Catch chaise

Scandinavian-English Doublets

Scandinavian English

79
Skirt shirt
Scabby shabby

There are also etymological doublets which were borrowed from the same
language during different historical periods, such as French doublets: gentil -
etymological doublets are:

a) gentle [Pre-12th century. Via French gentil "well-born" < Latin gentilis
"of the same clan" < gens "race, clan"]: 1. kind: having a mild and kind
nature or manner; 2. mild: being moderate in force or degree so that the
effects are not severe, e.g. a gentle reprimand; 3. using little force: using
little force or violence, e.g. a gentle tap on the shoulder; 4. not steep: not
rising very steeply; 5. upper-class: relating or having a high social status or
class; 6. chivalrous: having a gracious and honourable manner (archaic).
b) genteel [Late 16th century. < French gentil (see gentle)]: 1. having or
displaying refinement and good manners, especially manners that suggest an
upper-class background; 2. pretentious: overdoing the refinement, delicacy
of behaviour, or snobbishness thought characteristic of the upper classes in
order to create an impression of higher social status; 3. relating to upper
classes: relating to the upper classes (dated).

From the French word gallant [14th century. < Old French, present
participle of galer "make merry"] etymological doublets are: gallant and
ga’llant: noun [gə lánt, gə lnt, gállənt] ( plural gal·lants): 1. man
courteous to women: a man who is courteous and thoughtful in his
behaviour toward women (dated); 2. male lover: a man who is a woman's
lover (archaic); 3. dandy: a fashionable young man (archaic)

80
- transitive and intransitive verb [gə lánt, gə lnt] (past and past participle
gal·lant·ed, present participle gal·lant·ing, 3rd person present singular
gal·lants)
- woo: to court a woman (archaic)

Sometimes etymological doublets are the result of borrowing different

grammatical forms of the same word, e.g. the Comparative degree of Latin
super was superior which was borrowed into English with the meaning
‘high in some quality or rank’. The Superlative degree (Latin supremus) in
English supreme with the meaning ‘outstanding, prominent’. So superior
and supreme are etymological doublets.

Semasiology

The branch of lexicology which deals with meaning is called semasiology.

Word-Meaning

Every word has two aspects: the outer aspect (its sound form) and the inner
aspect (its meaning). Sound and meaning do not always constitute a constant
unit even in the same language. E.g. the word temple may denote ‘a part of a
human head’ and ‘a large church’. In such cases we have homonyms. One
and the same word in different syntactical relations can develop different
meanings, e.g. the verb treat in sentences:

81
a) He treated my words as a joke.
b) The book treats of poetry.
c) They treated me to sweets.
d) He treats his son cruelly.

In all these sentences the verb treat has different meanings and, as such, we
can speak about polysemy.

On the other hand, one and the same meaning can be expressed by different
sound forms, e.g. pilot and airman, horror and terror. In such cases we have
synonyms.

Both the meaning and the sound can develop in the course of time
independently, e.g. the Old English /luvian/ is pronounced /l^v / in Modern
English. On the other hand, board primarily meant ‘a piece of wood sawn
thin’ [Old English bord < Germanic, "board, plank" and "border, ship's
side"]. It has developed the meanings: ‘flat piece of wood, for showing
information, a group that manages something, meals, examinations’, etc.

Lexical Meaning-Notion

The lexical meaning of a word is the realization of a notion by means of a

definite language system. A word is a language unit, while a notion is a unit
of thinking. A notion cannot exist without a word expressing it in the
language, but there are words which do not express any notion but have a

82
lexical meaning. Interjections express emotions but no notions, but they
have lexical meaning, e.g. Alas! /disappointment/; oh, my buttons! /surprise/,
etc. There are also words which express both notions and emotions, e.g.
girlie, a pig / when used metaphorically/.

The term notion was introduced into lexicology from logics. A notion
denotes the reflection in the mind of real objects and phenomena in their
relations. Notions, as a rule, are international, especially with the nations of
the same cultural level; while meanings can be nationally limited. Grouping
of meanings in the semantic structure of a word is determined by the whole
system of every language, e.g. the English verb go and its Romanian
equivalent a merge have some meanings which coincide: to move from place
to place, to extend/ the road goes to London/, to work / Is your watch going?
/, to match /Those trousers simply don’t go/, etc. On the other hand, they
have different meanings: in Romanian we say: vino, in English we use the
verb come in this case. In English we use the verb go in the combinations: to
go by bus, to go by train, etc. In Romanian in these cases we usually (formal
English) use the verb a călători. Other differences are: Please don’t go (Te
rog nu pleca); They go for a jog every morning (fac jogging in fiecare
dimineaţă); The year went pleasantly (Anul a trecut fără prea multe
probleme); Thousands of jobs will have to go (Multe meserii vor dispărea)

The number of meanings does not correspond to the number of words;

neither does the number of notions. Their distribution in relation to words is
peculiar in every language. Romanians have several words for the English
man: bărbat, om, soţ, ibovnic, adult, etc. In English, however, man cannot

83
be applied to a female person. We say in Romanian: Ea este un om bun. In
English we use the word person / She is a good person/.

Development of lexical meanings in any language is influenced by the whole

network of ties and relations between words and other aspects of the
language.

Polysemy

The word polysemy means ‘plurality of meanings’; it exists only in the

language, not in speech. A word which has more than one meaning is called
polysemantic.

Different meanings of a polysemantic word come together due to the

proximity of notions which they express. E.g. the word blanket [14th
century. < Old N French blanquet , Old French blanchet < blanc "white"]
has the following meanings: ‘a woollen covering used on beds, a covering
for keeping a horse warm, a covering of any kind/a blanket of snow/,
covering all or most cases’/used attributively/ e.g. we can say a blanket
insurance policy.

The word book is polysemantic as well: a forthcoming book, a hardback

book, a paperback book, a children’s book, a cookery book, a log book
(jurnal), to be deep/engrossed/immersed in a book, to flick/skim through a
book, to proofread a book, to ban a book, to return/take back a book, to
renew a library book, to be/go out of print, a book of walks in London

84
She does the books for us (record necessary information in them = bilanţ); I
chose a book from the bookcase; I would like a block booking (large number
of seats booked together); he always tried to do everything by the book; I’m
afraid accountancy is a closed book to be (too difficult to understand); I’m
trying to get back in her good/bad books; He was booked to speak at the
conference (arrange to speak); I’d just arrived and hadn’t had time to book
in (to check in); ‘Someone who fastens the pages of a book together and puts
a cover on it’ is a bookbinder; You can make a booking by phone with a
credit card; A booking clerk sells tickets at a railway station/theatre. The
office is a booking office; A shop that sells books is a bookshop; A shelf that
you put books on is a bookshelf; Someone whose job is to take bets from
people on the result of a race or competition and to pay them if they win is a
bookmaker; Something you put inside a book so that you can find the page
you want is a bookmark.

There are some words in the language which are monosemantic, such as
most terms, /synonym, molecule, bronchitis/ some pronouns / this, my, both/,
numerals.

There are two processes of the semantic development of a word: radiation

(develop or spread from centre) and concatenation (process or state of being
linked; linking of units). In cases of radiation the primary meaning stands in
the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it like rays. Each
secondary meaning can be traced to the primary meaning, e.g. in the word
face [The Latin word facies "appearance, face" from which face is derived is
also the source of English facade, facet, superficial, and surface] the primary
meaning denotes ‘the front part of the human head’. Connected with the

85
front position the meanings: the front part of a watch, the front part of a
building, the front part of a playing card, side of coin, one flat side of object,
were formed. Connected with the word face itself the meanings: expression
of the face, outward appearance, lose face, are formed.

In cases of concatination secondary meanings of a word develop like a

chain. In such cases it is difficult to trace some meanings to the primary one,
e.g. in the word crust [14th century. Via Old French crouste < Latin crusta
"rind, shell"] the primary meaning ‘hard outer part of bread’ developed a
secondary meaning ‘hard part of anything/ a pie, a cake/’, then the meaning
‘harder layer over soft snow’ was developed, then ‘a sullen gloomy person’,
then ‘impudence’ were developed. Here the last meanings have nothing to
do with the primary ones. In such cases homonyms appear in the language.
It is called the split of polysemy.

In most cases in the semantic development of a word both ways of semantic

development are combined.

Homonyms

Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound or

spelling, or both in sound and spelling.

Homonyms can appear in the language not only as a result of the split of
polysemy, but also as the result of levelling of grammar inflexions, when
different parts of speech become identical in their outer aspect, e.g. care

86
from caru and care from carian. They can also be formed by means of
conversion, e.g. to slim from slim, to water from water.

They can be formed with the help of the same suffix from the same stem,
e.g. reader / a person who reads a book and a book for reading/.

Homonyms can also appear in the language accidentally, when two words
coincide in their development, e.g. two native words can coincide in their
outer aspect: to bear from beran /to carry/ and bear from bera/ an animal. A
native word and a borrowing can coincide in their outer aspects, e.g. fair
from Latin feria and fair from native fager /blond/.

Two borrowings can coincide, e.g. base from the French base/Latin basis/
and base/low/ from the Latin bas/Italian basso/.

Homonyms can develop through shortening of different words, e.g. cab from
cabriolet, cabbage, cabin.

Classification of homonyms

Walter Skeat classified homonyms according to their spelling and sound

forms and he pointed out three groups: perfect homonyms that is words
identical in sound and spelling, such as: school - şcoală and banc de peşte;
homographs, that is words with the same spelling but pronounced
differently, e.g. bow / bau/ - plecăciune and /b∂u/ - papion, fundă;
homophones that is words pronounced identically but spelled differently,
e.g. night – noapte, and knight – cavaler.

87
Another classification was suggested by A.I.Smirnitsky. He added to Skeat’s
classification one more criterion: grammatical meaning. He subdivided the
group of perfect homonyms in Skeat’s classification into two types of
homonyms: perfect, which are identical in their spelling, pronunciation and
their grammar form, such as: spring in the meanings: ‘the season of the year,
a leap, a source’, and homoforms which coincide in their spelling and
pronunciation but have different grammatical meaning, e.g. reading –
Present Participle, Gerund, Verbal noun, to lobby- lobby.

A more detailed classification was given by I.V.Arnold. She classified only

perfect homonyms and suggested four criteria of their classification: lexical
meaning, grammatical meaning, basic forms and paradigms.

According to these criteria I.V.Arnold pointed out the following groups: a)

homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings, basic forms and
paradigms and different in their lexical meanings, e.g. board in the meanings
‘a council’ and ‘a piece of wood sawn thin’; b) homonyms identical in their
grammatical meanings and basic forms, different in their lexical meanings
and paradigms, e.g. to lie-lied-lied, and to lie-lay-lain; c) homonyms
different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, paradigms, but
coinciding in their basic forms, e.g. light/lights/light/lighter/lightest; d)
homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, in
their basic forms and paradigms, but coinciding in one of the forms of their
paradigms, e.g. a bit and bit (from to bite).

In I.V.Arnold’s classification there are also patterned homonyms, which,

differing from other homonyms, have a common component in their lexical

88
meanings. These are homonyms formed either by means of conversion, or
by levelling of grammar inflexions. These homonyms are different in their
grammar meanings, in their paradigms, identical in their basic forms, e.g.
warm – to warm. Here we can also have unchangeable patterned homonyms
which have identical basic forms, different grammatical meanings, a
common component in their lexical meanings, e.g. before an adverb, a
conjunction, a preposition. There are also homonyms among unchangeable
words which are different in their lexical and grammatical meanings, but
identical in their basic forms, e.g. hard and hardly.

Synonyms

Synonyms are words different in their outer aspects, but identical or similar
in their inner aspects. In English there are a lot of synonyms, because there
are many borrowings, e.g. hearty/native – cordial/borrowing. After a word is
borrowed it undergoes desynonymization, because absolute synonyms are
unnecessary for a language. However, there are some absolute synonyms in
the language, which have exactly the same meaning and belong to the same
style, e.g. to moan, to groan; homeland, motherland, etc. In cases of
desynonymization, one of the absolute synonyms can specialize in its
meaning and we get semantic synonyms, e.g. city/borrowed, town/native.
The French borrowing city is specialized. In other cases native words can be
specialized in their meanings, e.g. stool/native, chair/French/.

89
Sometimes one of the absolute synonyms is specialized in its usage and we
get stylistic synonyms, e.g. to begin/native, to commerce/borrowing. Here
the French word is specialized. In some cases the native word is specialized,
e.g. welkin/bookish, sky/neutral.

Stylistic synonyms can also appear by means of abbreviation. In most cases

the abbreviated form belongs to the colloquial style, and the full form to the
neutral style, e.g. examination, exam.

Among stylistic synonyms we can point out a special group of words which
are called euphemisms. These are words used to substitute some unpleasant
or offensive words, e.g. the late instead of dead, to perspire instead of to
sweat [Late 16th century. < Greek euphēmismos < euphēmizein "speak with
pleasing words" < phēmē "speech"]
Euphemisms make the unpalatable more palatable. People use euphemisms
chiefly to conceal feared things, for example, death; to conceal the reality of
unthinkable crimes; to conceal references to sex, body parts and fluids, and
excrement; and to elevate otherwise lowly sounding or derogatory
occupational titles and institutional names. For instance, there are hundreds
of euphemisms used daily for to die, a few of which are pass on/away, go to
one's final rest, and depart/depart this life. Similarly, water landing is often
used by airlines instead of the terrifying on-water ditching. Two of the most
notorious euphemisms for genocide are, of course, the Final Solution and
ethnic cleansing. Euphemistic references to sex and physiology are usually
related: sleep with for have sex with and break wind for fart are typical, as is
social disease for sexually transmitted disease. Euphemisms that elevate the
language of occupational titles include, for example, sanitation engineer for

90
garbage collector, and those that elevate rather harsh-sounding institutional
names include correctional facility for prison. The capacity of a euphemism
to conceal tends to diminish over the years, as it becomes more and more
closely associated with its referent, and if the taboo against talking about the
referent remains in force, a fresh euphemism needs to be found for it. For
instance, toilet was once a euphemism (it had previously referred to a
dressing room with washing facilities), but it has long since become a
plainly understood term for "a place of urination and defecation," a term
now needing its own euphemism: rest room and powder room for the room
itself, and commode for the plumbing fixture.

There are also phraseological synonyms; these words are identical in their
meanings and styles but different in their combining with other words in the
sentence, e.g. to be late for a lecture but to miss the train, to visit museums,
but to attend lectures, etc.

In each group of synonyms there is a word with the most general meaning,
which can substitute any word in the group, e.g. piece is the synonymic
dominant in the group slice, lump, morsel. The verb to look at is the
synonymic dominant in the group to stare, to glance, to peep. The adjective
red is the synonymic dominant in the group purple, scarlet, crimson.

When speaking about the sources of synonyms, besides desynonymization

and abbreviation, we can also mention the formation of phrasal verbs, e.g. to
give up –to abandon, to cut down-to diminish.

91
Antonyms

Antonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style,
expressing contrary or contradictory notions.

V.N.Comissarov in his dictionary of antonyms classified them into two

groups: absolute or root antonyms /late-early/ and derivational antonyms
/to please – to displease/. Absolute antonyms have different roots and
derivational antonyms have the same roots but different affixes. In most
cases negative prefixes form antonyms / un-, dis-, non-/. Sometimes they are
formed by means of suffixes –ful and –less.

The number of antonyms with the suffixes ful- and –less is not very large,
and sometimes even if we have a word with one of these suffixes its
antonym is formed not by substituting –ful by –less, e.g. successful-
unsuccessful, selfless-selfish. The same is true about antonyms with negative
prefixes, e.g. to man is not an antonym of the word to unman, to disappoint
is not an antonym of the word to appoint.

The difference between derivational and root antonyms is not in their

structure, but in semantics as well. Derivational antonyms express
contradictory notions; one of them excludes the other, e.g. active-inactive,
polite-impolite.

Absolute antonyms express contrary notions. If some notions can be

arranged in a group of more than two members, the most distant members of

92
the group will be absolute antonyms, e.g. ugly, plain, good-looking, pretty,
beautiful. The antonyms are ugly and beautiful.

Leonard Lipka in the book Outline of English Lexicology describes different

types of oppositeness, and subdivides them into three types:

a) complementary, e.g. male-female, married-single.

b) antonyms, e.g. good-bad.
c) converseness, e.g. to buy-to sell.

In his classification he describes complementarity in the following way: the

denial of the one implies the assertion of the other, and vice versa. John is
not married implies that John is single. The type of oppositeness is based on
yes/no decision. Incompatibility only concerns pairs of lexical units.

Antonymy is the second class of oppositeness. It is distinguished from

complementarity by being based on different logical relationships. For pairs
of antonyms like good/bad, big/small, only the second one of the above
mentioned relations of implication holds. The assertion containing one
member implies the negation of the other, but not vice versa. John is good
implies that John is not bad, but John is not good does not imply that John is
bad. The negation of one term does not necessarily imply the assertion of the
other.

An important linguistic difference from complementarities is that antonyms

are always fully gradable, e.g. hot, warm, tepid, cool, cold.

93
Converseness is mirror-image relations or functions, e.g. husband/wife,
pupil/teacher, precede/follow, above/below, before/after.

John bought the car from Bill implies that Bill sold the car to John. Mirror-
image sentences are in many ways similar to the relations between active
and passive sentences. Also in the comparative form: Y is smaller than X,
then X is larger than Y.

L Lipka also gives the type which he calls directional opposition

learn/know, antipodal opposition North/South, East/West. (it is based on
contrary motion, in opposite directions). The pairs come/go, arrive/depart
involve motion in different directions. In the case up/down we have
movement from a point P. In the case come/go we have movement from or
to the speaker.

L. Lipka also points out non-binary contrast or many-member lexical sets.

Here he points out serially ordered sets, such as: scales/hot, warm, tepid,
cool, cold/; colour words/black, grey, white/; ranks /marshal, general,
colonel, major, captain, etc/. There are gradable examination marks
/excellent, good, average, fair, poor/. In such sets of words we can have
outer and inner pairs of antonyms. He also points out cycles, such as units
of time /spring, summer, autumn, winter/. In this case there are no outermost
members.

Not every word in a language can have antonyms. This type of opposition
can be met in qualitative adjectives and their derivatives, e.g. beautiful-ugly,
to beautify-to uglify, beauty-ugliness. It can be also met in words denoting

94
feelings and states, e.g. respect-scorn, to respect-to scorn, respectful-
scornful, to live-to die, alive-dead, life-death. It can also be met in words
denoting direction in space and time, e.g. here-there, up-down, now-never,
before-after, day-night, early-late, etc.

If a word is polysemantic it can have several antonyms, e.g. the word bright
has the antonyms dim, dull, sad.

LANGUAGE VARIETIES

Languages constantly undergo changes, resulting in the development of

different varieties of the languages.

A. Dialects

A dialect is a variety of a language spoken by an identifiable subgroup of

people. Traditionally, linguists have applied the term dialect to
geographically distinct language varieties, but in current usage the term can
include speech varieties characteristic of other socially definable groups.
Determining whether two speech varieties are dialects of the same language,
or whether they have changed enough to be considered distinct languages,
has often proved a difficult and controversial decision. Linguists usually cite
mutual intelligibility as the major criterion in making this decision. If two
speech varieties are not mutually intelligible, then the speech varieties are
different languages; if they are mutually intelligible but differ systematically
from one another, then they are dialects of the same language. For instance,
the way people speak in Texas can be considered a separated dialect. There

95
are problems with this definition, however, because many levels of mutual
intelligibility exist, and linguists must decide at what level speech varieties
should no longer be considered mutually intelligible. This is difficult to
establish in practice. Intelligibility has a large psychological component: If a
speaker of one speech variety wants to understand a speaker of another
speech variety, understanding is more likely than if this were not the case. In
addition, chains of speech varieties exist in which adjacent speech varieties
are mutually intelligible, but speech varieties farther apart in the chain are
not. Furthermore, socio-political factors almost inevitably intervene in the
process of distinguishing between dialects and languages. Such factors, for
example, led to the traditional characterization of Chinese as a single
language with a number of mutually unintelligible dialects.

Dialects develop primarily as a result of limited communication between

different parts of a community that share one language. Under such
circumstances, changes that take place in the language of one part of the
community do not spread elsewhere. As a result, the speech varieties
become more distinct from one another. If contact continues to be limited
for a long enough period, sufficient changes will accumulate to make the
speech varieties mutually unintelligible. When this occurs, and especially if
it is accompanied by the socio-political separation of a group of speakers
from the larger community, it usually leads to the recognition of separate
languages. The different changes that took place in spoken Latin in different
parts of the Roman Empire, for example, eventually gave rise to the distinct
modern Romance languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian,
and Romanian.

96
In ordinary usage, the term dialect can also signify a variety of a language
that is distinct from what is considered the standard form of that language.
Linguists, however, consider the standard language to be simply one dialect
of a language. For example, the dialect of French spoken in Paris became
the standard language of France not because of any linguistic features of this
dialect but because Paris was the political and cultural centre of the country.

B. Social Varieties of Language

Sociolects are dialects determined by social factors rather than by

geography. Sociolects often develop due to social divisions within a society,
such as those of socioeconomic class and religion. In New York City, for
example, the probability that someone will pronounce the letter r when it
occurs at the end of a syllable, as in the word fourth, varies with
socioeconomic class. The pronunciation of a final r in general is associated
with members of higher socioeconomic classes. The same is true in England
of the pronunciation of h, as in hat. Members of certain social groups often
adopt a particular pronunciation as a way of distinguishing themselves from
other social groups. The inhabitants of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts,
for example, have adopted particular vowel pronunciations to distinguish
themselves from people vacationing on the island.

Slang, argot, and jargon are more specialized terms for certain social
language varieties usually defined by their specialized vocabularies. Slang
refers to informal vocabulary, especially short-lived coinages, that do not
belong to a language's standard vocabulary. Argot refers to a non-standard
vocabulary used by secret groups, particularly criminal organizations,

97
usually intended to render communications incomprehensible to outsiders. A
jargon comprises the specialized vocabulary of a particular trade or
profession, especially when it is incomprehensible to outsiders, as with legal
jargon.

In addition to language varieties defined in terms of social groups, there are

language varieties called registers that are defined by social situation. In a
formal situation, for example, a person might say, “You are requested to
leave,” whereas in an informal situation the same person might say, “Get
out!” Register differences can affect pronunciation, grammar, and
vocabulary.
Slang

= very casual speech or writing: words, expressions, and usages that are
casual, vivid, racy (mildly indecent), or playful (said in fun) replacements
for standard ones, are often short-lived, and are usually considered
unsuitable for formal contexts.

= language of an exclusive group: a form of language used by a particular

group of people, often deliberately created and used to exclude people
outside the group.
Some simple and at the same time amusing definitions of slang are
given by Ştefan Balaban in his Dicţionar de argou, eufemisme si expresii
familiare englez român de argou:

 "Slang is the plain man's poetry" (Slang-ul este poezia omului simplu)

98
 "Slang is language that rolls up its sleeves, spits on its hands and goes to
work" (Slang-ul este limbajul care-si sufleca manecile, scuipa in palme si se
apuca de treaba)
 "Slang isillegitimate colloquial speech" (Slang-ul este limba vorbita care
sfideaza conventiile)

I. Introduction

Slang = informal, non-standard words and phrases, generally shorter lived

than the expressions of ordinary colloquial speech, and typically formed by
creative, often witty juxtapositions of words or images. Slang can be
contrasted with jargon (technical language of occupational or other groups)
and with argot or cant (secret vocabulary of underworld groups), but the
borderlines separating these categories from slang are greatly blurred, and
some writers use the terms cant, argot, and jargon in a general way to
include all the foregoing (previously mentioned) meanings.

II. ORIGINS

Slang tends to originate in subcultures within a society. Occupational groups

(for example, loggers /tree cutters/, police, medical professionals, and
computer specialists) are prominent originators of both jargon and slang;
other groups creating slang include the armed forces, teenagers, racial
minorities, ghetto residents, labour unions, citizens-band radio broadcasters,
sports groups, drug addicts, criminals, and even religious denominations
(Episcopalians, for example, produced spike, a High Church Anglican).
Slang expressions often embody attitudes and values of group members.

99
They may thus contribute to a sense of group identity and may convey to the
listener information about the speaker's background. Before an apt
expression becomes slang, however, it must be widely adopted by members
of the subculture. At this point slang and jargon overlap greatly. If the
subculture has enough contact with the mainstream (reflecting the norm)
culture, its figures of speech, become slang expressions known to the whole
society. For example, cat (a sport), cool (aloof, stylish), Mr. Charley (a
white man), The Man (the law), and Uncle Tom (meek /mild, submissive/
black) all originated in the predominantly black Harlem district of New York
City and have travelled far since their inception (beginning). Slang is thus
generally not tied to any geographic region within a country.

A slang expression may suddenly become widely used and as quickly dated
(23-skiddoo). It may become accepted as standard speech, either in its
original slang meaning (bus, from omnibus) or with an altered, possibly
tamed meaning (jazz, which originally had sexual connotations). Some
expressions have persisted for centuries as slang (booze for alcoholic
beverage). In the 20th century, mass media and rapid travel have speeded up
both the circulation and the demise (death) of slang terms. Television and
novels have turned criminal cant into slang (five grand for $5,000).
Changing social circumstances may stimulate the spread of slang. Drug-
related expressions (such as pot for marijuana) were virtually a secret jargon
in the 1940s; in the 1960s they were adopted by rebellious youth; and in the
1970s and '80s they were widely known.

III. USES

100
In some cases slang may provide a needed name for an object or action
(walkie-talkie, a portable two-way radio; tailgating, driving too close behind
another vehicle), or it may offer an emotional outlet (buzz off! for ‘go
away’!) or a satirical or patronizing reference (smokey, state highway
trooper). It may provide euphemisms (john, head, can, and in Britain, loo,
all for toilet, itself originally a euphemism), and it may allow its user to
create a shock effect by using a spicy slang expression in an unexpected
context. Slang has provided myriad synonyms for parts of the body (bean,
head; schnozzle, nose), for money (moola, bread, scratch), for food (grub,
slop, garbage), and for drunkenness (soused, stewed, plastered).

IV. FORMATION

Slang expressions are created by the same processes that affect ordinary
speech. Expressions may take form as metaphors, similes, and other figures
of speech (dead as a doornail). Words may acquire new meanings (cool,
cat). A narrow meaning may become generalized (fink, originally a strike-
breaker, later a betrayer or disappointer) or vice-versa (heap, a run-down
car). Words may be clipped, or abbreviated (mike, microphone), and
acronyms may gain currency (VIP, AWOL, snafu). A foreign suffix may be
added (the Yiddish and Russian -nik in beatnik) and foreign words adopted
(baloney-nonsense, from Bologna). A change in meaning may make a vulgar
word acceptable (jazz) or an acceptable word vulgar (raspberry, a sound
imitating flatus; from raspberry tart in the rhyming slang of Australia and
Cockney London; (see Jargon). Sometimes words are newly coined (oomph,
sex appeal, and later, energy or impact).

101
V. POSITION IN THE LANGUAGE

Slang is one of the vehicles through which languages change and become
renewed, and its vigour and colour enrich daily speech. Although it has
gained respectability in the 20th century, in the past it was often loudly
condemned as vulgar. Nevertheless, Shakespeare brought into acceptable
usage such slang terms as hubbub, to bump, and to dwindle, and 20th-
century writers have used slang brilliantly to convey character and
ambience. Slang appears at all times and in all languages. A person's head
was kapala (dish) in Sanskrit, testa (pot) in Latin; testa later became the
standard Latin word for head. Among Western languages, English, French,
Spanish, Italian, German, Yiddish, Romanian, and Romani (Gypsy) are
particularly rich in slang.

JARGON

= specialist language: language that is used by a particular group,

profession, or culture, especially when the words and phrases are not
understood or used by other people.

Jargon (language), vocabulary used by a special group or occupational class

(academic, computer, legal, scientific, technical), usually only partially
understood by outsiders. The special vocabularies of medicine, law, banking,
science and technology, education, military affairs, sports, and the
entertainment world all fall under the heading of jargon. Examples of
occupational jargon include such formal technical expressions as perorbital
hematoma (black eye, to the layperson), in medicine, and escrow and

102
discount rate, in finance, and informal terms such as licorice stick (clarinet,
among jazz musicians). Cant, sometimes defined as false or insincere
language, also (like argot) refers to the jargon and slang used by thieves and
beggars and the underworld. Colourful terms and phrases such as mug
(either a police photograph or to attack a victim), payola (graft or
blackmail), hooker (prostitute), and to rub out or to blow away (to kill) are
examples of cant that eventually became commonly known to, and adopted
as slang by society in general.

Some writers reserve the term jargon for technical language. Applied to
colourful occupational expressions such as licorice stick, the concepts of
jargon and slang overlap greatly. In general, however, slang is more casual
and acceptable to outsiders than jargon. Slang and cant are more vivid than
jargon, with a greater turnover in vocabulary. The special in-group speech of
young people and of members of distinct ethnic groups is generally called
slang, especially when it is understood by outsiders. Some writers use the
term argot in a generalized way that covers cant, in-group slang, and
occupational jargon—no uniform terminology has been adopted for these
common ways of using language. The term jargon, however, also pertains in
general to gibberish (nonsense) and unintelligible language and to
overinflated, needlessly technical language. In addition, it can refer to
specific dialects resulting from a mix of several languages (as in Chinook
Jargon, used by Native American traders).

Local Varieties of English on the British Isles

103
No place in the English-speaking world is fuller of dialects than Great
Britain. According to Robert Clairbone there are no less than thirteen quite
distinct dialects in Britain. Romanian language has four distinct dialects: the
Daco-Romanian dialect – spoken on the actual territory of Romania (this
dialect became the national language), the Aromanian dialect spoken in the
south-eastern part of the Balkans, the Istro-Romanian dialect spoken in the
Peninsula of Istria and the last one is the Megleno-Romanian dialect spoken
in the territory of the Meglen plains strongly influenced by the Greek
language. Also the Daco-Romanian dialect is divided into different regional
speeches according to the different regions of the country.

Hence we have in Romania the Moldavian speech, the Oltenesc speech, the
Transylvanian speech and the Banăţean speech. Mario Pei puts the number
of dialects at forty-two in Scotland, three in Ireland and thirty in England
and Wales. If we define a dialect as a way of speaking that fixes a person
geographically, then is hardly an exaggeration to say that in Britain there are
as many dialects as there are hills and valleys. In the six northernmost
counties of England alone, seventeen separate pronunciations just for the
word house have been recorded. Professor Higgins boasted in Pygmalion
that he could place any man in London within two miles, sometimes within
two streets, but others claim even more specificity than that. “I live in a dale
in Yorkshire that is just five miles long, but locals insist they can tell
whether a person comes from up the dale or down the dale by how he
speaks. In a nearby village that lies half in Lancashire and half in Yorkshire,
people claim to be able to tell which side of the high street a person was
born on.” The different speeches of the Daco-Romanian dialect can be easily

104
understood by all the Romanians but the people speaking different dialects
cannot communicate.

The systematic study of dialects is a recent phenomenon so no one can just

say how many rich and varied forms of speech died before anyone got round
to recording them. No less mysterious is the way the terms “twenty-one” and
“one-and-twenty” move up the country in alternating band. In London
people say “twenty-one” but if you move forty miles to the north they say
“one-and-twenty”. The same happens in Romania where people say in
Transylvania” ora doi” whereas in the South they say “orele două” even if
this syntagm is grammatically speaking incorrect. British dialect words have
been carried overseas, where they have unexpectedly prospered. The
American word for stealing a look, peer, was originally a dialect word in
England.

In Romania the major differences between speeches come from the different
names given to ordinary things, depending on the area. We have the corn
called păpuşoi, cucuruz, and porumb; or the potato: cartof, barabulă, and
crumpene. Many people, mostly in Transylvania, would say “ie” instead of
“da” and would use the shortened forms for many verbs such as: “căzd”
instead of “căzut”, “văzd” instead of “văzut”, “mânci” instead of “mănânci”.
The variations of vocabulary taken together form our dialect. Dialects are
not only matters of localities and regions; there are also occupational
dialects, ethnic dialects, and class dialects. An example of ethnic dialect is
the “csango” (ceangău) dialect which is the result of the fact that the
Romanians and Hungarians have lived together in an isolated area. The
speakers of this dialect mix the Romanian and Hungarian words in their

105
everyday speech, e.g. Megyek la piaţă hogy vegyek varză” (I go to the
market to buy cabbage). A Czech who lived in America for forty years
speaks like this: “You see, me goose-fedder pillows, an’ de thin stuff don’t
hold in dem little down-fedders.” (Willa Cather: Neighbor Rosicky).

It is a fact that dialects vary from house to house as people from different
regions mix and, as such, do not keep the original form of the dialect; so, we
can say there are as many dialects in a language as there are speakers.

National dialects can develop with remarkable speed and also keep their
form through the years. So it happened in the areas where today we have the
Moldavian Republic and Ukraine where even now after so many years of
separation from Romania and being almost fifty years under the Russians
they speak a genuine Romanian language but with strong forms of the
Moldavian regional speech. Within only a generation after its colonization
visitors to Australia noticed a different accent and so it appeared a
distinctive form of English spoken only in Australia. The Australian English
has formed from the combination of different dialects of British English and
so they use avro for the afternoon, tucker for food, jumbuck for sheep.

Australia and America are striking through their uniformity of speaking as

opposed to England where people from a common heritage have been living
together in a small area for thousands of years and there is still a huge
variety of accents and dialects. In America people coming from different
parts of the world and living together for a short period on a vast area still
speak with just a few voices. Australia has been receptive not only to the
British influences but also to American ones. In Romania dialects

106
developed, to a certain point, together as one, but after a long period of
separation from the national one (Daco-Romanian) the others developed
under the influences of the languages spoken in those areas. So if the Daco-
Romanian formed as a language through the influences of Languages as
French and English, the others did not have any influences coming from
these languages so they have become more and more difficult for us to
understand.

Dialects can sometimes become separate languages because of their

deviations from the standard vocabulary. So it happened with the Scots who
speak a variety of English used in the lowlands of Scotland.

Each and every language develops and transforms as dialects and regional
speeches forms under the influence of other languages or through the
separation from the mother tongue for a period of time, this being the normal
and ordinary way a language has to follow.

One of the best known dialects of British English is the dialect of London-
Cockney. Some peculiarities of this dialect can be seen in the first act of
Pygmalion by B.Shaw, such as: interchange of /v/ and /w/ e.g. very well;
interchange of /f/ and, / θ /, and /v/ and /ð/, e.g. fing/thing, and fa:ve / father/;
interchange of /h/ and /-/, e.g. ‘eart for heart and hart for art; substituting
/ai/ by /ei/ e.g. day is pronounced /dai/; substituting /au/ by /a:/, e.g. house is
pronounced /ha:s/; substituting /ou/ by /o:/ e.g. don’t is pronounced /do:nt/
or substituting it by /∂/ in unstressed positions, e.g. window is pronounced
/wind/.

107
Another feature of Cockney is rhyming slang: hat is tit for tat, wife is
trouble and strife, head is loaf of bread, etc. There are also such words as
tanner /sixpence/, peckish / hungry/.

Peter Wain in the Education Guardian writes about accents spoken by

University teachers: It is a variety of Southern English RP which is different
from Daniel Jones’ description. The English that public school leavers speak
is called marked RP; it has some characteristic features: the vowels are more
central than in English taught abroad, e.g. /bleck het/ for /black hat/; some
diphthongs are also different, e.g. house is pronounced /hais/. There is less
aspiration in/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/.

The American English is practically uniform all over the country, because of
the constant transfer of people from one part of the country to the other.
However, some peculiarities in New York dialect can be pointed out, such
as: there is no distinction between /æ/ and /a:/ in words like: ask, dance,
sand, bad, both phonemes are possible. The combination ir in the words:
bird, girl, ear in the word learn is pronounced as /oi/ e.g. /boid/ /goil/, /loin/.
In the words duty, tune /j/ is not pronounced /du:ti/, /tu:n/.

British and American English

British and American English are two main varieties of English. Besides
them there are: Canadian, Australian, Indian, New Zealand, and other
variants. They have some peculiarities in pronunciation, grammar and
vocabulary, but they are easily used for communication between people
living in these countries. As far as the American English is concerned, some

108
scientists, H.N. Menken for example, tried to prove that there is a separate
American language. In 1919 H.N.Menken published a book called The
American Language. But most scientists, American ones including,
criticized his point of view because differences between the two variants are
not systematic.

American English begins its history at the beginning of the 17th century
when first English-speaking settlers began to settle on the Atlantic coast of
the American continent. The language which they brought from England
was the language spoken in England during the reign of Elizabeth the First.

In the earliest period the task of the Englishmen was to find names for
places, animals, plants, customs, which they came across on the American
continent. They took some of the names from the languages spoken by the
local population – Indians, such as: chipmunk /an American squirrel/, igloo
/Eskimo dome-shaped hut/, skunk /a black white striped animal with a bushy
tail/, squaw /an Indian woman/, wigwam /an American Indian tent made of
skins and bark/, etc.

Besides Englishmen, settlers from other countries came to America, and

English-speaking settlers mixed with them and borrowed some words from
their languages, e.g. from French the words bureau /a writing desk/, cache /a
hiding place for treasure, provision/, depot /a tore-house/, pumpkin /a plant
bearing large edible fruits/. From Spanish such words as: adobe /sunburnt,
sun-dried brick/, bonanza /prosperity/, cockroach /a beetle-like insect/, lasso
/a noosed rope for catching cattle/ were borrowed.

109
Present-day New York stems from the Dutch colony New Amsterdam and
Dutch also influenced English. Such words as: boss, dope, sleigh were
borrowed.

The second period of American English history begins in the 19th century.
Immigrants continued to come from Europe to America. When large groups
of immigrants from the same country came to America some of their words
were borrowed into English. Italians brought with them a style of cooking
which became widely spread and such words as: pizza, spaghetti came into
English. From the great number of German-speaking settlers the following
words were borrowed into English: delicatessen, lager, hamburger, noodle,
schnitzel, and many others.

During the second period of American English history there appeared quite a
number of words and word-groups which were formed in the language due
to the new political system, liberation of America from the British
colonialism, its independence. The following lexical units appeared due to
these events: the United States of America, assembly, caucus, congress,
Senate, congressman, President, senator, precinct, Vice-President, and
many others. Besides these political terms many other words were coined in
American English in the 19th century: to antagonize, to demoralize,
influential, department store, telegram, telephone and many others.

There are some differences between British and American English in the
usage of prepositions, such as prepositions with dates, dates of the week; BE
requires on / I start my holiday on Friday/; in American English there is no
preposition /I start my vacation Friday/. In BE we use by day, by night, at

110
night; in AE the corresponding forms are days and nights. In BE we say at
home, in AE home is used. In BE we say a quarter to five, in AE a quarter
of five. In BE we say in the street, in AE, on the street. In BE we say to chat
to somebody, in AE to chat with somebody. In BE we say different to
something, in AE – different from something.

There are also units of vocabulary which are different while denoting the
same notions, e.g. BE trousers, AE pants; in BE pants are indispensabili
which in AE is shorts; while in BE shorts are outwear (pantaloni scurţi).
This can lead to misunderstanding.

Further on, there are presented some differences between American and
British English from the vocabulary point of view:

American English British English

Apartment flat
Attorney lawyer
Auto car
Baby carriage pram (cărucior)
Baggage luggage
Ballpoint biro
Bar pub
Basement cellar
Bill banknote (bancnotă)
Book reserve
Can tin

111
Candy sweet
Caravan convoy
Check bill (notă)
Chips crisps
Class form
Cookie biscuit
Cop bobby (poliţist)
Corn maize
Corporation company
Crackers dry biscuits
Pedestrian crossing zebra (crossing)
Diaper nappy
District Attorney public prosecutor
Doctor’s office surgery
Downtown town centre
Drapes curtains
Driver’s license driving licence
Drugstore chemist’s
Eggplant aubergine
Elevator lift
Eraser rubber
Eyeglasses spectacles
Fall autumn
Faucet tap
First floor ground floor
Flashlight torch
French pies chips

112
Highway/expressway motorway
Gas petrol (benzină)
Garbage litter
Garbage can dustbin
Grade form
Graduate postgraduate
Ground earth
Ground meat minced meat
Guy chap/fellow (tip)
Hood boot (capotă)
Intersection crossroads, junction
Janitor caretaker (îngrijitor)
Jelly jam
Kindergarten nursery
Lawyer barrister
Last name surname
Mail post
Mail box pillar box
Mall shopping centre
Movie film
Nail polish nail varnish
One-room apartment/studio bed-sitter
Overpass flyover (pasarelă)
Package parcel
Pants trousers
Panty hoses tights
Parking lot car park

113
Principal headmaster
Public school state school
Sweater pullover
Railroad railway
Raincoat mackintosh
Rent hire
Restroom toilet
Rock stone
Salesperson, clerk shop assistant
Schedule timetable
Sick ill
Sidewalk pavement, footpath
Silverware cutlery
Sneakers trainers
Soccer football
Stand in line queue
Store shop
Stove cooker
Streetcar tram
Stroller pushchair
Subway underground / tube
Suspenders braces
Ticket office booking office (ghişeu)
Train station railway station
Truck lorry
Trunk boot
Tuxedo dinner-jacket

114
Two weeks fortnight
Vacation holiday
Vest waistcoat (vestă)
Yield give way
Zip code post code

 Differences in the organization of education lead to different terms.

BE public school is in fact a private school. It is a fee-paying school not
controlled by the local education authorities. AE public school is a free local
authority school. BE elementary school is AE grade school; BE secondary
school is AE high school. In BE a pupil leaves a secondary school, in AE a
student graduates from a high school. In BE you can graduate from a
university or college of education, graduating entails getting a degree.

A British university student takes three years known as the first, the second
and the third years. An American student takes four years, known as
freshman, sophomore, junior and senior years. While studying a British
student takes a main subject and some subsidiary subjects. An American
student majors in a subject and also takes electives. A British student
specializes in one main subject, with one subsidiary to get his honours
degree. An American student earns credits for successfully completing a
number of courses in studies, and has to reach the total of 36 credits to
receive a degree.

Differences of spelling

115
The reform in the English spelling for American English was introduced by
the famous American lexicographer Noah Webster who published his first
dictionary in 1806. Those of his proposals which were adopted in the
English spelling are as follows:

a) The deletion of the letter u in words ending in our, e.g. honor, favour,
neighbor;
b) The deletion of the second consonant in words with double consonants,
e.g. traveler, wagon, woollen.
c) The replacement of re by er in words of French origin, e.g. theater,
center.
d) The deletion of unpronounced endings in words of Romanic origin, e.g.
catalog, program, dialogue.
e) The replacement of ce by se in words of Romanic origin, e.g. defense,
offense
f) Deletion of unpronounced endings in native words, e.g. tho, thro
g) The replacement of s by z in AE, e.g. civilization, dramatize, analyze
h) Some other different spellings, such as: inquiry (BE enquiry), gayety
(BE gaiety), dryly (BE drily), tire (BE tyre).

Differences in pronunciation

In American English we have r-coloured fully articulated vowels, in the

combinations: ar, er, ir, or, ur, our, etc. In BE before fricatives and
combinations with fricatives /a/ is pronounced as /a:/, in AE it is pronounced
/ æ /, e.g. class, dance, answer, fast, etc.

116
 There are some differences in the position of stress:

BE AE BE AE

Add’ress – ‘address; la’boratory-‘laboratory

Re’cess-‘recess; re’search-‘research
In’quiry-‘inquiry; ex’cess-‘excess

 Some words in BE and AE have different pronunciation, e.g.

BE AE BE AE

/`fju:tail/ /`fju:t∂l/ /`dousail / /dos∂l/

/kla:k/ /kl∂rk/ /`fig / /figyer/
/ `le3 / / li:3 r/ /lef`ten nt/ /lu:tenant/
/ nai / /ni: r/ /shedju:l/ /skedyu:l/

But these differences in pronunciation do not prevent Englishmen and

American from communicating with each other easily and cannot serve as a
proof that British and American are different languages.

Differences in grammar

a) the article
BE – I saw him at the cinema the day before yesterday.
AE – She was out of town day before yesterday.
BE – He spent all the summer learning.
AE – He spent all summer learning.

117
BE – She was born on November the 11th.
AE – He arrived on October 25th.
BE – I’ll be there in half an hour.
AE – I’ll be there in a half hour.

b) The pronoun
BE – This is the book I wanted.
AE – This book is the one I wanted.
BE – I get up at 7 o’clock every morning.
AE – I get up at 7 o’clock each morning.
c) The numeral
BE – A hundred and forty-two
AE – A hundred forty-two

d) The verb
BE – Have you read the article?
AE – Did you read this article?
BE – I think I’ve broken my leg.
AE – I think I broke my leg.
BE – I have not this book (I don’t possess it)
AE – I don’t have this book.
BE – Go and play with your sister
AE – Go play with your sister.
BE – He helped to bring in the box.
AE – He helped bring the box in.
BE – Have you got any brothers?
AE – Do you have any brothers?

118
BE – She sings beautifully.
AE – She sings beautiful.

d) The preposition
BE – They came into the classroom.
AE – They came in the classroom.
BE – The boy is in the street.
AE – The boy is on the street.
BE – Come to see me on Monday afternoon.
AE – Come to see me Monday afternoon.
BE – It’s twenty to six. It’s five past nine.
AE – It’s twenty of six. It’s five after nine.\
Other examples of BE vs. AE usage of prepositions are: on/at auction; they
came over/in the house; in/on the corner; in/on hand; to feel pleasure
for/over something.

Words can be classified according to the period of their life in the language.
The number of new words in a language is always larger than the number of
words which come out of active usage. Accordingly we can have archaisms,
that is words which have come out of active usage, and neologisms, that is
words which have recently appeared in the language.

Archaisms

Archaisms are words which are no longer used in everyday speech, which
have been ousted by their synonyms. Archaisms remain in the language, but
they are used as stylistic devices to express solemnity.

119
Most of these words are lexical archaisms and they are stylistic synonyms of
words which ousted them from the neutral style. Some of them are:
steed/horse, slay/kill, behold/see, perchance/perhaps, woe/sorrow/, etc.

Sometimes a lexical archaism begins a new life, getting a new meaning, then
the old meaning becomes a semantic archaism, e.g. fair in the meaning
beautiful is a semantic archaism, but in the meaning blond it belongs to the
neutral style.
Sometimes the root of the word remains and the affix is changed, then the
old affix is considered to be a morphemic archaism, e.g. beauteous / ous was
substituted by ful/bepaint be was dropped/, darksome/some was dropped/, oft
/en was added/, etc.

Neologisms

At the present moment English is developing very swiftly and there is a so

called neology blow up. R. Berchfield who worked at compiling a four-
volume supplement to NED (the New/Oxford English Dictionary) says that
averagely 800 neologisms appear every year in Modern English. It has also
become a language-giver recently, especially with the development of
computerization.

New words, as a rule, appear in the speech of an individual person who

wants to express his idea in some original way. This person is called

120
originator. New lexical units are primarily used by university teachers,
newspaper reporters, by those who are connected with mass media.

Neologisms can develop in three main ways: a lexical unit existing in the
language can change its meaning to denote a new object or phenomenon. In
such cases we have semantic neologisms, e.g. the word umbrella [Early
17th century. Via Italian ombrella < late Latin umbrella, alteration of Latin
umbella "parasol" (see umbel) after umbra "shadow"] developed the
meanings: umbrella aerial (telev antenă-umbrelă); umbrella barrage (s mil
baraj de protecţie); umbrella duty (s av, nav sl zbor de escortă/însoţire-
pentru avioane de vânătoare), etc.
A new lexical unit can develop in the language to denote an object or
phenomenon which already has some lexical unit to denote it. In such cases
we have transnomination, e.g. the word slum was first substituted by the
word ghetto then the word-group inner town. A new lexical unit can be
introduced to denote a new object or phenomenon. In this case we have a
proper neologism; many of them are cases of new terminology.

Here we can point out several semantic groups when we analyze the group
of neologisms connected with computerization, and here we can mention
words used:

a) to denote different types of computers, e.g. PC, super-computer, multi-

user, neurocomputer/ analogue of a human brain/;
b) to denote parts of computers, e.g. hardware, software, monitor, screen,
data, vapourware/experimental samples of computers for exhibition, not for
production/;

121
c) to denote computer languages, e.g. BASIC, ALGOL, FORTRAN, etc.;
d) to denote notions connected with work on computers, e.g.
computerman, computerization, computerize, to troubleshoot, to blitz out/to
ruin data in a computer’s memory/.

There are also different types of activities performed with the help of
computers; many of them are formed with the help of the morpheme tele,
e.g. to telework, to telecommute/to work at home having a computer which is
connected with the enterprise for which one works/. There are also such
words as telebanking, telemarketing, teleshopping/when you can perform
different operations with the help of your computer without leaving your
home, all operations are registered by the computer at your
bank/videobank/computerized telephone which registers all information
which is received in your absence/.

In the sphere of linguistics we have such neologisms as: machine

translation, Interlingua/an artificial language for machine translation into
several languages/ and many others.

In the sphere of biometrics we have computerized machines which can

recognize characteristic features of people seeking entrance: finger-print
scanner/finger prints/biometric eye-scanner/blood-vessel arrangements in
eyes/, voice verification/voice patterns/. There are types of biometric locks.
Here we can also mention computerized cards with the help of which we can
open the door without a key.

122
In the sphere of medicine computers are also used and we have the
following neologisms: telemonitory unit/a telemonitory system for treating
patients at a distance/.

With the development of social activities neologisms appeared as well, e.g.

pussy-footer: 1.somebody who behaves hesitantly or speaks vaguely, or
avoids speaking frankly or openly; 2. somebody who moves quietly and
usually secretly.

Others are: Euromarket, Eurodollar, Europarliament, Europol, Euro line,

Euro-ad, Euro-note, Eurobeach, Eurobond, etc.

In the modern English society there is a tendency to social stratification, as a

result there are neologisms in this sphere as well, e.g. belonger - a black
native-born Caribbean: somebody of African descent who was born and
lives on a Caribbean island.

To this group we can refer abbreviations of the type yuppie/young urban

professional people/, such as: muppie, gruppie, rumpie, bluppie, etc. People
belonging to the lowest layer of the society are called survivors, a little more
prosperous are called sustainers, and those who try to prosper in life and
imitate those they want to belong to are called emulators. Those who have
prospered but are not belongers are called achievers. All those layers of
society are called VAL/Value and Lifestyles/.

123
The rich belong also to jet set that is those who can afford to travel by jet
planes all over the world enjoying their life. Sometimes they are called jet
plane travellers.

During Margaret Thatcher’s rule the abbreviation PLU appeared which

means People like us by which snobbish circles of society call themselves.
Nowadays / since 1989/ PLU was substituted by one of us.

There are a lot of immigrants now in UK in connection with which

neologisms, partial and non-partial, were formed.

The word-group welfare mother was formed to denote a non-working single

mother living on benefit.

In connection with criminalization of towns in UK voluntary groups of

assisting the police were formed where dwellers of the neighbourhood are
joined. These groups are called neighbourhood watch, home watch.
Criminals wear stocking masks not to be recognized.

The higher society has neologisms in their speech, such as: dial-a-meal,
dial-a-taxi, dial-a-ride (bus service summoned by telephone).

In the language of teen-agers there are such words as: Drugs!/OK/, sweat/
task/home composition/, brunch, etc.

124
With the development of professional jargons a lot of words ending in
speak appeared in English, e.g. artspeak, sportspeak, medspeak, education-
speak, video-speak, cable-speak, etc.
There are different semantic groups of neologisms belonging to everyday
life:

a) food, e.g. starter/instead of hors d’oeuvre/ macrobiotics / raw

vegetables, crude rice/, longlife milk, clingfilm, microwave stove, consumer
electronics, fridge-freezer, hamburgers/beef-, cheese-, fish-, veg-/.
b) Clothing, e.g. catsuit/one-piece clinging suit/, slimster, string/miniscule
bikini/, hipster/trousers or skirt with the belt on hips/, completenik/a long
sweater for trousers/, sweatnik/ a long jacket/, pants-skirt, bloomers/lady’s
sports trousers/.
c) Footwear, e.g winklepickers/shoes with long pointed tows/, thongs /
open sandals/, backsters/beech sandals with thick soles/.
d) Bags, e.g. bumbag/a small bag worn on the waist/, sling bag/a bag with
a long belt/, maitre/ a small beg for cosmetics/.
e) There are also such words as: dangledolly/ a dolly-talisman dangling in
the car before the windscreen/, boot-sale/selling from the boot of the car/,
touch-tone/ a telephone with press-button/.

Neologisms can be also classified according to the ways they are formed.
They are subdivided into: phonological neologisms, borrowings, semantic
neologisms and syntactical neologisms. Syntactical neologisms are divided
into morphological/word-building and phraseological/forming word-
groups/.

125
Phonological neologisms are formed by combining unique combinations of
sounds; they are called artificial, e.g. rah-rah/ a short skirt which is worn by
girls during parades/, yak-yuck which are interjections to express repulsion
produced the adjective yucky. These are strong neologisms.

Strong neologisms include also phonetic borrowings, such as

perestroika/Russian/; solidarnosc/Polish/; Berufsverbot/German/ dolce vita/
Italian/, etc.
Morphological and syntactical neologisms are usually built on patterns
existing in the language; therefore they do not belong to the group of strong
neologisms.

Among morphological neologisms there are compound words of different

types, such as free-fall (cădere liberă): 1. drop suddenly: to undergo a
sudden sharp uncontrollable drop in something such as value, popularity, or
credibility; 2. descent with unopened parachute: to descent through the air
with an unopened parachute during the first part of a parachute jump -
appeared in 1987 with the stock market crash in October 1987 / on the
analogy with free-fall of parachutists, which is the period between jumping
and opening the chute/. Here also belong: bioastronomy = search for life on
other planets, rat-out=betrayal in danger, zero-zero (double zero) = ban of
longer and shorter range weapon, X-rated/about films terribly vulgar and
cruel/, Ameringlish/ American English/, tycoonography=a biography of a
business tycoon.

126
There are also abbreviations of different types, such as teen/teenager,
dinky/dual income no kids yet/, ARC/AIDS-related condition, infection with
AIDS/. HIV/human immuno-deficiency virus/.

Quite a number of neologisms appear on the analogy with lexical units

existing in the language, e.g. snowmobile/automobile/,
danceaholic/alcoholic/, airtel/hotel/, cheeseburger/hamburger/,
autocade/cavalcade/.

There are many neologisms formed by means of affixation, such as:

decompress, to disprove, overhoused, educationalist, slimster, folknik, etc.
Phraseological neologisms can be subdivided into phraseological units with
transferred meanings, e.g. to buy into/to become involved/, fudge and dodge/
avoidance of definite decisions/, and set non-idiomatic expressions, e.g.
electronic virus, Rubik’s cube, retail park, acid rain, boot trade, etc.

Changes in pronunciation

In Modern English there is a tendency to change pronunciation of some

sounds and combinations of sounds due to the influence of American
English and some other factors. These changes are most noticeable in the
speech of teachers and students of the universities in the Southern part of
England /Oxford, Cambridge, London.

There are the following changes in pronouncing vowels:

127
a) Shortening of long vowels, especially at the end of the word and before
voiceless consonants, e.g. see, keep;
b) Lengthening of short vowels before voiced consonants, e.g. big, good,
come, jam, etc. In such adjectives which end in/d/ lengthening of the vowel
is observed all over England, e.g. bad, sad, mad, etc.
c) Drawling of stressed syllables and clipping of unstressed syllables.
d) In unstressed syllables ∂/
/ is pronounced instead of /i/, e.g. b∂‘ko:s/,
/’evid∂ns/, etc.
e) In the words consisting of three or more syllables there is a tendency to
have main stresses, e.g. ’int ‘restin.
f) The diphthong /u/ is pronounced /o:/, e.g. sure /sho:/.
Vowels can also change under the influence of consonants:

- After fricatives and consonants /n/ and /m/ is pronounced as /u:/, e.g.
resume, music, news, enthusiasm.
- Before fricatives and combinations of fricatives with consonants a is
pronounced as /æ/, e.g. dance, answer, class, fast.

g) The pronunciation of some consonants is also changed:

- after a vowel /r/ is pronounced, e.g. /ka:r/, /ha:rt/.

- There appears an intrusive /r/ in the combinations where after the final
vowel /∂/ there is a vowel at the beginning of the next word, e.g. the idea of,
Asia and Europe/on the analogy with word combinations there is, there are/.

- /p/ and /t/ are glotalized in the middle of the word, e.g. matter is
pronounced as /mat·ter [‘mættə]/, happy as /’hæpi/.

128
h) /s/ is used instead of /sh/ before/i/ in the structure of suffixes, e.g.
social/’s∂usi∂l/, negotiate/ni’ g∂usi,eit/;

i) /l/ is vocalized at the end of the word, e.g. full/ful/ (close to /v/ in sound).

j) /sh/ is voiced in the intervocal position in some geographical names, e.g.

Asia, Persia; combinations of sounds /dj/, /tj/, /sj/ in such words as duke,
tube, issue have two variants of pronunciation: /d3u:k/ and /dju:k/, /chu:b/
and /tju:b/, /`ishu:/ and /`isju:/;

k) pronunciation approaching spelling is being developed, e.g. often /`oftn/,

forehead / fo:`hed/ etc;

l) /t/ and/d/ at the end of words are not pronounced, e.g. «half past five’
/`ha:f `pa:s`faiv/, «old man» /`oul `mæn/.

FIGURES OF SPEECH

1. Syndecdoche = figure of speech: a figure of speech in which the word for

part of something is used to mean the whole, for example, “sail” for “boat,”
or vice versa.

2. Onomatopoeia = imitation of sound in words: the formation or use of

words that imitate the sound associated with the thing or action in question,
for example, “hiss” and “buzz”.

129
3. Allusion = indirect reference: a reference that is made indirectly, subtly
suggested, or implied
e.g. a poem typical of its period in its use of classical allusions

4. Antithesis = figure of speech: a use of words or phrases that contrast

with each other to create a balanced effect

5. Mixed metaphor = awkward combination of ideas: a combination of two

or more metaphors that together evoke a strange or incongruous image, for
example, “This thorn in my side has finally bitten the dust”

6. Litotes = understatement for effect: a deliberate understatement, such as

an affirmative statement formed by a negation of the contrary, as in the
sentence “I am not unmindful of your devotion.” Also called meiosis

7. Sarcasm = cutting language: remarks that mean the opposite of what

they seem to say and are intended to mock or deride

8. Metonymy = figure of speech: a figure of speech in which an attribute of

something is used to stand for the thing itself, such as “laurels” when it
stands for “glory” or “brass” when it stands for “military officers”

9. Hyperbole = exaggeration: deliberate and obvious exaggeration used for

effect, for example, “I could eat a million of these”

10. Alliteration = use of similar consonants: a poetic or literary effect

achieved by using several words that begin with the same or similar

130
consonants, as in “Whither wilt thou wander, wayfarer?” Also called head
rhyme
See also assonance

11. Assonance = sound similarity: the similarity of two or more vowel

sounds or the repetition of two or more consonant sounds, especially in
words that are close together in a poem.
See also alliteration

12. Tongue twister = word or phrase difficult to say: a word, phrase, or

sentence that is difficult to say because of its unusual sequence of sounds,
especially an invented sentence such as “She sells seashells by the seashore”

13. Oxymoron = expression with contradictory words: a phrase in which

two words of contradictory meaning are used together for special effect, for
example, “wise fool” or “legal murder”

14. Simile = figurative language drawing comparison: a figure of speech

that draws a comparison between two different things, especially a phrase
containing the word “like” or “as,” for example, “as white as a sheet”

15. Metaphor = implicit comparison: the application of a word or phrase to

somebody or something that is not meant literally but to make a comparison,
for example, saying that somebody is a snake

16. Personification = representation of an abstract quality as human: a

representation of an abstract quality or notion as a human being, especially

131
in art or literature; attribution of human qualities to abstracts: the
attribution of human qualities to objects or abstract notions. Also called
prosopopeia

17. Collocation = co-occurrence of words: the association between two

words that are typically or frequently used together

18. Apostrophe = punctuation symbol (’): the punctuation mark (’) used to
show where letters are omitted from a word, to mark the possessive, and
sometimes to form the plural of numbers, letters, and symbols

19. Euphemism = less offensive synonym: a word or phrase used in place of

a term that might be considered too direct, harsh, unpleasant, or offensive.
A wide range of euphemisms is used in connection with death, sex, and
excretion.
 The phrase “collateral damage” is a euphemism for injury to civilians
during a military operation.
inoffensive words: the use of a word or phrase that is more neutral, vague, or
indirect to replace a direct, harsh, unpleasant, or offensive term

20. Hyperbole = exaggeration: deliberate and obvious exaggeration used for

effect, for example, “I could eat a million of these”

21. Contradiction = something illogical: something that contains parts or

elements that are illogical or inconsistent with each other
 a contradiction in terms

132
opposing statement: a statement or the making of a statement that opposes
or disagrees with somebody or something
 I can say without fear of contradiction that she is our best worker.

22. Antonomasia = using title instead of name: the use of a title or formal
description such as “Your Highness” or “His Excellency” in place of
somebody’s proper name; using proper name for general idea: the use of a
proper name as a common noun to refer to somebody or something with
associated characteristics, for example, when a strong young man is called
“a Hercules”

23. Pun = play on words: a humorous use of words that involves a word or
phrase that has more than one possible meaning

24. Paradox = something absurd or contradictory: a statement, proposition,

or situation that seems to be absurd or contradictory, but in fact is or may be
true; self-contradictory statement: a statement or proposition that
contradicts itself; person of opposites: somebody who has qualities that
seem to contradict each other; something contrary to popular beliefs:
something that is contrary to or conflicts with conventional or common
opinion (archaic)
e.g.
I do not love you except because I love you
I go from loving to not loving you,
From waiting to not waiting for you
My heart moves from cold to fire (Pablo Neruda)

133
25. Anachronism = chronological mistake: something from a different
period of time, for example, a modern idea or invention wrongly placed in a
historical setting in fiction or drama; something out of time: a person, thing,
idea, or custom that seems to belong to a different time in history; making of
chronological mistake: the representation of somebody or something out of
chronological order or in the wrong historical setting.

26. Irony = humour based on opposites: a type of humour based on using

words to suggest the opposite of their literal meaning; something humorous
based on contradiction: something said or written that uses sardonic
humour; incongruity: incongruity between what actually happens and what
might be expected to happen, especially when this disparity seems absurd or
laughable; incongruous thing: something that happens that is incongruous
with what might be expected to happen, especially when this seems absurd
or laughable.

27. Dramatic irony = situation where a character is unaware of something

the audience knows: a situation, or the irony arising from a situation, in
which the audience has a fuller knowledge of what is happening in a drama
than a character does

28. Allegory = symbolic work: a work in which the characters and events are
to be understood as representing other things and symbolically expressing a
deeper, often spiritual, moral, or political meaning; expression of meaning
in story: the symbolic expression of a deeper meaning through a story or
scene acted out by human, animal, or mythical characters , e.g.  the poet’s

134
use of allegory; genre: allegories considered as a literary or artistic genre;
symbolic representation: a symbolic representation of something

29. Prosopopeia = rhetorical figure of speech: a figure of speech in which

an imaginary, dead, or absent person speaks. See Personification

Lexicography

The theory and practice of compiling dictionaries is called lexicography.

The history of compiling dictionaries for English comes as far back as the
Old English period, where we can find glosses of religious books/interlinear
translations from Latin into English/. Regular bilingual dictionaries began to
appear in the 15th century/Anglo-Latin, Anglo-French, Anglo-German/.

Dictionaries are more than a dull collection of words, they reflect old and
new ways in which we share our experiences and speak or write to one
another. Noah Webster, the author of what is probably today's most famous
American dictionary, has expressed this idea better than anybody else:
"Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary
makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys,
affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad
and low, close to the ground."

The first unilingual dictionary explaining difficult words appeared in 1604;

the author was Robert Cawdry, a schoolmaster. He compiled his dictionary
for schoolchildren. In 1721 an English scientist and writer Nathan Bailey
published the first etymological dictionary which explained the origin of

135
English words. It was the first scientific dictionary, it was compiled for
philologists.

In 1775 an English scientist compiled a famous explanatory dictionary. Its

author was Samuel Johnson. Every word in his dictionary was illustrated by
examples from English literature; the meanings of words were clear from the
contexts in which they were used. The dictionary was a great success and it
influenced the development of lexicography in all countries. The dictionary
influenced normalization of the English vocabulary. But at the same time it
helped to preserve the English language in its conservative form.

In 1858 one of the members of the English philological society Dr. Trench
raised the question of compiling a dictionary including all the words existing
in the language. The philological society adopted the decision to compile the
dictionary and the work started. More than a thousand people took part in
collecting examples, and 26 years later in 1884 the first volume was
published. It contained words beginning with A and B. The last volume was
published in 1928 that is 70 years after the decision to compile it was
adopted. The dictionary was called NED (New English Dictionary) and
contained 12 volumes.

In 1933 the dictionary was republished under the title The Oxford English
Dictionary, because the work on the dictionary was conducted in Oxford.
This dictionary contained 13 volumes. As the dictionary was very large and
terribly expensive scientists continued their work and compiled shorter
editions of the dictionary: A Shorter Oxford Dictionary consisting of two
volumes. It had the same number of entries, but far fewer examples from

136
literature. They also compiled A Concise Oxford Dictionary consisting of
one volume and including only modern words and no examples from
literature.

The American lexicography began to develop much later, at the end of the
18th century. The most famous American English dictionary was compiled
by Noah Webster. He was an active statesman and public man and he
published his first dictionary in 1806. He went on with his work on the
dictionary and in 1828 he published a two-volume dictionary. He tried to
simplify the English spelling and transcription. He introduced the
alphabetical system of transcription where he used letters and combinations
of letters instead of transcription signs. He denoted vowels in closed
syllables by the corresponding vowels, e.g. /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/. He denoted
vowels in the open syllable by the same letters, but with a dash above them,
e.g. /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/,/u/. He denoted vowels in the position before /r/ as the
same; letters with two dots above them, e.g. /a/, /o/, and by the letter e with
two dots above it for the combinations er, ir, ur, because they are
pronounced identically. The same tendency is preserved for other sounds:
/u:/ is denoted by /oo/, /y/ is used for the sound /j/.

Classification of dictionaries

All dictionaries are divided into linguistic and encyclopaedic dictionaries.

Encyclopaedic dictionaries describe different objects, phenomena, people
and give some data about them. Linguistic dictionaries describe vocabulary
units, their semantic structure, their origin, their usage. Words are usually
given in the alphabetical order.

137
Linguistic dictionaries are divided into general and specialized. To general
dictionaries two most widely used dictionaries belong: explanatory and
translation dictionaries. Specialized dictionaries include dictionaries of
synonyms, antonyms, collocations, word-frequency, neologisms, slang,
pronouncing, etymological, phraseological, and others.

All types of dictionaries can be unilingual (exception translation ones) if the

explanation is given in the same language, bilingual is the explanation
which is given in another language and also can be polilingual (e.g.
Dictionar poliglot: romana, franceza, germana, italiana, spaniola; The
Internet Picture Dictionary; Little Explorers Picture Dictionary, etc.

There are a lot of explanatory dictionaries (NED, SOD, COD, NID, N.G.
Wyld’s Universal Dictionary, and others). In explanatory dictionaries the
entry consists of spelling, transcription, grammatical forms, meanings,
examples, phraseology. Pronunciation is given either by means of the
International Transcription System or in British Phonetic Notation which is
different in each large language, e.g. /o:/ can be indicated as /aw/, /or/, /oh/,
/o/, etc.

Translation dictionaries give words and their equivalents in the other

language. There are English-Romanian dictionaries by Leon Leviţchi,
Adrian Bantaş and others.

Among general dictionaries we can also mention Learner’s dictionaries.

They began to appear in the second half of the 2oth century. The most
famous is The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary by A.S.Hornby. It is a

138
unilingual dictionary based on COD, for advanced foreign learners and
language teachers. It gives data about grammatical and lexical valence of
words. Other famous general dictionaries are: The American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language, Cambridge Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary, Cambridge Dictionary of American English, McMillan
Dictionary for Students, etc.

Specialized dictionaries of synonyms are also widely used; one of them is A

Dictionary of English Synonyms and Synonymous Expressions by R.Soule.
Another famous one is Webster’s Dictionary of Synonyms. These are
unilingual dictionaries. Another one is the Merriam-Webster Dictionary of
Synonyms and Antonyms. The best known bilingual dictionary of synonyms
is A Dictionary of Synonyms compiled by Alina Slapac.

In 1981 The Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English was compiled,

where words are given in 14 semantic groups of everyday nature. Each word
is defined in detail, its usage is explained and illustrated, synonyms, and
antonyms are presented also. It describes 15000 items, and can be referred to
dictionaries of synonyms and to explanatory dictionaries.

Phraseological dictionaries describe idioms and colloquial phrases,

proverbs. Some of them have examples from literature. Some lexicographers
include not only word-groups but also anomalies among words. In The
Oxford Dictionary of English Proverbs each proverb is illustrated by a lot of
examples, there are stylistic references as well. The most famous bilingual
dictionary of phraseology (Dictionar frazeologic Roman-Englez, respectiv
Dictionar frazeologic Englez-Roman) was compiled by A. Bantas, L.

139
Levitchi and A. Gheorghiu, si respective I. Preda, A. Nicolae. They are two
of the best phraseological dictionaries. Other such dictionaries compiled in
Romania are: English-Romanian Dictionary of Equivalent Proverbs,
Dictionar de argou, eufemisme si expresii familare E-R de argou, Dictionar
de proverbe E-R si R-E,

Other specialized dictionaries are: Cambridge Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs,

Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms, Oxford Collocations
Dictionary for Learners of English, Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms,
Oxford Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs.

Etymological dictionaries trace present-day words to the oldest forms of

these words and forms of these words in other languages. Such etymological
dictionary is The Etymological Dictionary of Classical Mythology.

Pronunciation dictionaries record only pronunciation. The most famous is

D.Jones’ Pronouncing Dictionary. The Longman Pronunciation Dictionary
is the most up-to-date, comprehensive and authoritative pronunciation
dictionary available.

Dictionaries of neologisms are: a four-volume Supplement to NED by

Burchfield, The Longman Register of New Words / 1990/, Bloomsbury
Dictionary of New Words / 1996/. A Dictionary of Neologisms 1941-1991
and An International Dictionary of Neologisms are ranked among the best
today.

140
ESP Dictionaries are very widespread today. Among them, we can mention:
Oxford Business English Dictionary for Learners of English, Oxford
Dictionary of Computing for Learners of English. In Romania we have
many bilingual dictionaries, among which we can mention: Dictionar de
abrevieri si informatii comerciale E-R, Dictionar juridic, Dictionar poliglot,
Dictionar ethnic, Dictionar de abrevieri si simboluri, Dictionar de ecologie
si mediu inconjurator, etc.

There are also cultural, literary dictionaries, such as: Oxford Guide to
British and American Culture, Dictionary of Critical Terms, Oxford Photo
Dictionary, Dictionary of Literary Terms, etc.

Usually dictionary definitions often fail to convey the nuances of English.

Very often the primary dictionary meaning of words is often far adrift from
the sense in which they are actually used in everyday language. As well,
there are words in both English and Romanian that cannot be translated from
one language into another, e.g. dor (when you miss somebody), doină (a
kind of ballad), haiduc (a kind of outlaw or bandit), plai (pasture table land),
etc. As language is changing very rapidly, all dictionaries are limited and
out of date from the very date of their publication. Samuel Johnson
recognized: “No dictionary of a living tongue can ever be perfect, since
while…. while some words are budding others are fading away.”

Seminars

141
Seminar 1
• Language Units
• The smallest language unit
• The function of a root morpheme
• The main function of suffixes
• The secondary function of suffixes
• The main function of prefixes
• The secondary function of prefixes
• Splinters and their formation in English
• The difference between affixes and splinters
• Structural types of words in English
• The stem of a word and the difference between a simple word, a stem
and a root.
• The difference between a block compound and a nominal binomial.
• The difference between a word and a phraseological unit
• The similarity between a word and a phraseological unit.
• Analyze the following lexical units according to their structure. Point
out the function of morphemes. Speak about bound morphemes
and free morphemes. Point out allomorphs in analyzed words:
o Accompany/unsystematic/forget-me-not
o Computerise/expressionless/reservation
o De-restrict/super-privileged/moisture
o Lengthen/clannish/pleasure
o Beautify/ workaholic/reconstruction
o Beflower/inwardly/counterculture
o Specialise/moneywise/three-cornered

142
o Round table/Green Berets/to sandwich in

Seminar 2
• Affixation
• Classification of suffixes according to the part of speech they form
• Classification of suffixes according to the stem they are added to.
• Classification of suffixes according to their meaning.
• Classification of suffixes according to their origin
• Classification of prefixes according to their meaning.
• Classification of prefixes according to their origin.
• Classification of prefixes according to their productivity.
• Analyze the following derived words, point out suffixes and
prefixes and classify them from different points of view:
o To embed/nourishment/unsystematic
o To encourage/inwardly/to accompany
o Translatorese/dispensable/clannishness
o To de-restrict/workaholic/jet-wise
o Reconstruction/to overreach/ thoroughly
o Afterthought/foundation/childishness
o Transgressor/to re-write/completenik
o Gangsterdom/pleasure/concentration
o Refusenik/counter-culture/brinkmanship
o Allusion/self-criticism/to computerise
o Slimster/reservation/translation
Seminar 3
• Compound words

143
• Characteristic features of compound words in different languages.
• Characteristic features of English compounds.
• Classification of compound words according to their structure.
• Classification of compound words according to the joining
element.
• Classification of compound words according to the parts of speech.
• Classification of compound words according to the semantic
relations between the components.
• Ways of forming compound words.
• Analyse the following compound words:
o Note-book/speedometer/son-in-law
o To job/brain-gain/video-corder
o Fair-haired/forget-me-not/Anglo-Russian
o Teach-in/back-grounder/biblio-klept
o Theatre-goer/well-dressed/bio-engineer
o To book-hunt/mini-term/to baby-sit
o Blood-thirsty/good-for-nothing/throw-away
o Do-gooder/skin-head/kleptomania
o Sportsman/para-trooper/airbus
o Bus-napper/cease-fire/three-cornered
o Tip-top/brain-drain/bread-and-butter
• Compare the structure of the following words:
o Demagoguery/tablewards/heliport
o Tobaccoless/money-wise/non-formal
o Booketeria/go-go/motel
o Counter-clockwise to/ front-page/productivity

144
o Giver-away/newly-created/nobody

Seminar 4
• Conversion
• Conversion as a way of word building.
• Different points of view on the nature of conversion.
• Semantic groups of verbs which can be converted from nouns.
• The meanings of verbs converted from adjectives.
• Semantic groups of nouns which can be converted from verbs.
• Substantivised adjectives
• Characteristic features of combinations of the type stone wall.
• Semantic groups of combinations of this type.
• Analyse the following lexical units:
o To eye/a find/to slim
o A grown-up/to airmail/ steel helmet
o London season/reset/sleep
o A flirt/a read/handout
o To weekend/a build-up/ supersonics
o A non-formal/ to wireless/ to submarine
o To blue-pencil/to blind-the blind-blinds
o Distrust/a jerk/to radio
o News/have-nots/the English
o To co-author/to water/to winter
o A sit-down/mother-in law/morning star

145
o Undesirables/a walk/a find
o Dislike/log cabin/finals

Seminar 5
• Shortenings and abbreviations.
• Lexical and graphical abbreviations; the main difference between
them.
• Types of initials; peculiarities of their pronunciation.
• Lexical shortenings of words, their reference to styles.
• Compound-shortened words; their structural types.
• Analyse the following lexical units:
o Aggro/aggression/Algal
o Algorithmic/language
o Apex/eipeks/-advanced purchased excursion/payment for an excursion
ninety days before the time of excursion/
o A-day/announcement Day-day of announcing war/
o AID/artificial insemination by a donor/
o AIDS/acquired immunity deficiency syndrome/
o Ala/Alabama/a.s.a.p./as soon as possible
o Bar-B-Q, barb/barbecue/to baby-sit/baby-sitter.
o A-level/advanced level/ BC/birth certificate
o Burger/hamburger/Camford, Oxbridge
o CALL/computer-assisted language learning/
o CAT/computer-assisted training

146
o Cauli/cauliflower/COD/cash on delivery/
o COBOL/ kobold/common business-oriented language/
o Co-ed comp/kemp, k mp/accompaniment/
o DINKY/double income, no kids yet/
o E-Day/entrance day/Common Market/expo/exposition/
o Edbiz/educational businesses/el-hi/elementary and high
o Schools/, ex lib/ex libris/ from the library of/
o Etc Euratom fax/facsimile/
o G-7/group of seven: GB, Germany, Japan, France, Canada, Italy,
Spain/. FORTRAN/formula transition/.

Seminar 6
• Phraseological units.
• Ways of forming phraseological units.
• Semantic classification of phraseological units.
• Structural classification of phraseological units.
• Syntactical classification of phraseological units.
• Analyze the following phraseological units according to their
meaning, structure, syntactical function and the way they are formed:
o When pigs fly/never/. To leap into marriage
o To be a whipping boy. To be behind scenes
o Girl Friday/a man’s assistant/Fire in the belly
o Man Friday/a true friend/. A dear John
o To be on the beam. Game, set, and match
o Country and western/ to jump out of one’s skin.
o As smart as paint. It’s my cup of tea.

147
o Robin Crusoe and Friday/seats at a theatre divided by a passage/.
Fortune favours fools. To be in the dog house.
o The green power/ Green Berets.
o Culture vulture/ To get off one’s back.
o To make headlines/ On the nose.
o With a bump/ To have a short fuse
o To vote with one’s feet/nuts and bolts
o Blackboard jungle/the sky is the limit
o Cash and carry/to nose out
o To sandwich in. Berlin wall.
o A close mouth catches no flies/ to speak BBB
o To sound like a computer/as dull as lead
o Last but not least/on the stroke of.

Seminar 7
• Phraseological units
o Students choose ten phraseological units from Koonin’s dictionary of
phraseological units and a unilingual dictionary of idioms and analyse
them in written form. During the seminar they analyse their
phraseological units chosen from dictionaries at the blackboard.

Seminar 8
• Classification of borrowings according to the language from which
they were borrowed:
o Latin borrowings
o French borrowings
o Italian borrowings

148
o Scandinavian borrowings
o German borrowings
o Russian borrowings
• Classification of borrowings according to the degree ofassimilation:
fully assimilated borrowings, partly assimilated borrowings,
barbarisms.
• Borrowings partly assimilated semantically, grammatically,
phonetically, and graphically.
• Analyse the following borrowings:
o School/represent/sky-blue
o Degree/rhythm/immobility
o Chandelier/the zoo/vase
o Mot/moa/hybrid bouffant
o Illuminate/keenly/communicative
o Possessiveness/to reproach/command
o Moustache/gifted/boutique
o Skipper/cache-pot/well-scrubbed
o Nouveau/riche/emphatic/mysteriously
o Dactyl/Nicholas/ group
o To possess/chenille/psychological
o Garage/guarantee/contempt
o Trait/trey/triumph/stomach
o Sympathy/cynical/Philippe
o Schoolboy/Christianity/paralyzed
o System/hotel/cyclic
o Diphtheria/kerchief/dark-skinned

149
Seminar 9
• Semaciology
• Word and notion
• Lexical meaning and notion.
• Polysemy.
• Homonyms.
• Synonyms.
• Antonyms.
• Classification of homonyms when applied to analysis.
• Analyse the following lexical units applying the above mentioned
classifications of homonyms and antonyms:
o Present-absent/present-to present
o Like, to like/to dislike-dislike
o Sympathy/antipathy
o Progress-to progress/regress-to regress
o Success-failure/successful-unsuccessful
o Left-left/to leave/, right adj.-right n
o Inflexible-flexible
o Unsafe-safe adj.-safe n
o Fair n-fair adj., unfair, foul
o Piece-peace
o Dark-haired-fair-haired
o A row-a row /rou/ - /rau/
o A fan-a fan
o Superiority-inferiority
o Different-similar, indifferent, alike, difference-similarity

150
o Meaningful-meaningless
o After prep.-before-before-adv., before conj.
o To gossip=a gossip
o Shadowless-shady
o Air-to air-air
o Fearless=fearful
o Bright-dim, dull, sad
o To fasten-to unfasten
o Something-nothing
o Eldest-oldest-youngest
o To husband=husband
o Obscure-to obscure
o Unaccustomed=accustomed
o To exclude-to include
o To conceal-to reveal
o Too-to –two
o Somewhere-nowhere
o A drawer-a drawer
o With-without
Seminar 10
• Neology
• Neology blow up and the work of R. Berchfield
• Semantic neologisms, transnomination and proper neologisms.
• Semantic groups of neologisms connected with computerization.
• Social stratification and neologisms.
• Semantic groups of neologisms referring to everyday life.

151
• Phonological neologisms and borrowings as strong neologisms.
• Morphological and syntactical neologisms.
• Changes in pronunciation.
• Analyse the following neologisms from the point of view of
neology theory and also from the point of view of their morphemic
structure and the way they are formed:
o To clip-clip AIDS coup
o Sound barrier to/Vice-Preside/boutique
o To re-familiarize/tourmobile/sevenish
o To de-dramatize/non-formals/to baby-sit
o To scrimp and save/fireside chat/hide-away
o Coin-in-the-slot/ cashless/society/memo
o We shall overcome/ to dish/ old wine in new bottles
o To –ing and fro-ing / multinational/the Commons
o Hyperacidity/religiosity/D-Day
o Face-to-face/tuition/femme-fatale/ to the wingtips
o To river singer-songwriter/ beatnik
o Communication gap/ laundered money/cheeseburger
o Don’t change horses/to put a freeze on/micro-surgical
o SA out-doorsy Medicare
o Cold War/ self-exile/ public-school
o Brain-drainer/movers and shakers/Euroyuppie

Seminar 11
• Control work on the analysis of language units. Each students gets
six language units of different types/simple words, derived words,

152
 compound words, phraseological units, combinations of the type
stone wall, borrowings, abbreviations, antonyms, homonyms,
neologisms, abbreviations/and is to analyse them from all points of
view which were studied during the seminars.

Seminar 12
• Lexicography
• Analysis of the control paper.
• Historical development of British lexicography.
• Historical development of American lexicography.
• Classification of dictionaries.
• Student reports on dictionaries they use in their work.

153
SOURCES
• Adams, V. Introduction into English Word Formation. Lnd., 1983 .
• Alexander, L.G. Right Word. Wrong Word, 1995.
• Akhmanova, O.S. Lexicology: Theory and Method. M. 1972
• Arnold, I.V. The English Word. M. 1986.
• Broughton, G. The Penguin English Grammar A-Z for Advanced
Students, 1990.
• Burchfield, R.W. The English Language, 1985.
• Canon, G. Historical Changes and English Word Formation: New
Vocabulary Items, 1986.
• Carpenter, E. English Guides 4: Confusable Words, 1996.
• Carthy, M.Mc. English Vocabulary in Use, 1995.
• Chiţoran, D. Lexicologia limbii engleze, 1972.
• Collins Cobuild English Guides 2: Word Formation, 1991.
• Collins Cobuild English Guides 6: Homophones, 1995.
• Deignan, A. English Guides 7: Metaphor, 1995.
• Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, 1992.
• Ginzburg, R.S. et al. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. M.,
1979.
• Hulban, H. Syntheses in English Lexicology and Semantics, 2001.
• Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language.
Oxford, 1982.
• Halliday, M.A.K. Language as Social Semiotics. Social
Interpretation of Language and Meaning, 1979.
• Howard, Ph. New words for Old, 1980.

154
• Labov, W. The Social Stratification of English in New York City,
1966.
• Maurer, D.W., High F.C. New Words - Where do They Come from
and where do They Go. American Speech, 1982.
• Misztal, M. Test your Vocabulary, 1994.
• Patridge, E. Slang To-day and Yesterday, 1979.
• Potter, S. Modern Linguistics, 1957.
• Quirk, R. Style and Communication in the English Language, 1980.
• Schlauch, Margaret. The English Language in Modern Times, 1965.
• Sheard, John. The Words We Use, 1954.
• Stan, R. & Stefanovici, S. Test Yourself on English Idioms, 1996.
• Stefanovici, S. & Stan, R. Let’s Play with Words, 1996.
• Stefanovici, S. The Preposition, 1998.
• Sawn, M. Practical English Usage, 1996.
• Watcyn, J.P. Test your Vocabulary, 1985.
• Wellman, G. The Heinemann English Wordbuilder, 1992.

Dictionaries.
• Bloomsbury Dictionary of New Words, 1996.
• The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, 1964.
• Dicţionar de abrevieri şi informaţii comerciale, 2002.
• Dicţionar Englez – Român, 2006.
• Dicţionar Român – Englez, 2006.
• Hornby The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English,
1974.
• Longman Dictionary of English Idioms, 1991.

155
• Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, 1986.
• Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English, 1981.
• The Longman Register of New Words, 1990.
• MacMillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, 2002.
• Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English. Oxford.
2002.
• 21st century Dictionary of Slang. N.Y. 1994.
• Webster’s New World Dictionary of American English. N.Y. 1978.

156
EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1 – Replace the informal bolded words/phrases with their

corresponding formal ones:

1. I need some dough before I can go Christmas shopping. (e.g.

money)
2. I have decided to hang up my teaching job.
3. I want you to give me a straight answer.
4. Break it up, or I will call the police.
5. I hear that it’s a dirty movie.
6. This is a pretty glitzy hotel to be staying in.
7. I am going to try to move on Sarah next Saturday.
8. He kept his cool when his house burned down.
9. Shut up or I will pop you.
10. The circus was really rinky – dink.
11. Don’t’ get so bent out of shape.
12. I almost fell asleep during the test after an all – nighter.
13. I have good vibes about our new secretary.
14. Picking your nose is really a gross habit.
15. I have been taking care of business.
16. Can you show me some I.D. please?
17. This food tastes yukky.
18. He is such a dope.
19. It’s no sweat to have the report in to you by Monday.
20. My roommate is a jock for the basketball team.
21. There sure was a lot of racket outside last night.

157
22. My sister has three rug rats.
23. If you make another boo – boo like that, you won’t have a job.
24. The citizens made a big stink about the new nuclear power station.
25. Calm down. Don’t blow your cool.
26. You don’t want to carry a wad like that with you in the big city.
27. If you are not hungry, you won’t get ahead in the business.
28. When did you hit the sack last night?
29. He blew all his money gambling.
30. That was a neat idea that you had.
31. I was really bummed after I heard the news.
32. Do you want rice or spuds for dinner?
33. Would you like your whiskey on the rocks?
34. I hear there is a kegger at John’s house tonight.
35. He put the cuffs on the killer.
36. The police were surprised by all the hardware the gang members
had.
37. I got into gardening in high school.
38. The teenagers look high to me.
39. I think I am going bonkers.
40. I really goofed up when I painted my room green.
41. This computer program has a glitch.
42. Sam is a junkie.
43. We need to party – hearty because we just got a raise in salary.
44. If you don’t hustle, we will be late again.
45. The raw office workers were not getting much done.
46. Watch out for the narks in the airport.

158
47. Since he hadn’t eaten in a week, he scarfed down everything on
his plate.
48. Try not tot get smashed at the beer party.
49. The gun was useless after the killer ran out of ammo.
50. John is a loser.
51. If you screw around all day at this work, you will have to come
back again.
52. She is a foxy lady.
53. He is a couch potato.
54. I am glad you got yourself out of that jam.
55. I promised to bring two bottles of booze to the party.
56. Everyone shot down my idea at first, but later agreed that it was a
good idea.
57. Shut up or I’ll give you a knuckle sandwich.
58. The homework the teacher gave us was Mickey Mouse.
59. I was blown away by his donation of a million dollars.
60. When you are going to be able to move out of that rat hole?
61. Do you know where the action is in this town?
62. My office is filled with paper – pushers.
63. It’s OK. Don’t get so bent.
64. That driver is a road hog.
65. Shut up or I will pop you.
66. I am going to rack out for two hours.
67. He is a pig at parties.
68. The party was a gross – out.
69. I am not going to work for peanuts.
70. We need to hang tough on our decision.

159
71. What an awesome sunset.
72. Shut up! You really have a big mouth!
73. What is going down?
74. He drinks too much and is always plastered on the weekend.
75. It takes a lot of guts to give the boss your true opinion.
76. He has a really cushy job.
77. Don’t get hyper about what she told you. You know it isn’t true.
78. She is a psycho. She should be in a hospital.
79. He has to come up for air or he will die from exhaustion.
80. I need to find a place to chow down.
81. If you don’t get with it, we will never finish this work.
82. Everything is in the bag. There is nothing to worry about.
83. The comedy program was a real riot.
84. Working on a computer for me is a piece of cake.

EXERCISE 2
Join a word in column A with one in column B.

A B
STINKING A. NUMBING
1. BLIND B. BLACK
2. STARK C. WET
3. STEAMING D. BAKED
4. PITCH E. RICH
5. HALF F. PACKED

160
6. GLOWING G. NAKED
7. JAM H. BOGGLING
8. BRILLIANT I. DRUNK
9. PLUG J. MAD
10. SOAKING K. WHITE
11. RAVING L. HIGH
12. MIND M. RED
13. PLAIN N. UGLY
14. SKY O. STIFF
15. FLAT P. BROKE
16. SCARED Q. STUPID

EXERCISE 3
Match each of the adjectives on the left with a suitable noun from
the facing column. Look at the entries for the bold nouns for help.

1. a bewildering ambition
2. a biting array of goods
3. a burning chance
4. a convincing chasm
5. driving rain
6.a fighting sum of money
7. a gaping win
8. a staggering wind
9. a blazing defeat
10. a crushing inflation
11. a haunting pain

161
 12. a nagging row of money
13. a piercing scream
14. raging statement
15. a sprawling suburb
16. a sweeping melody

EXERCISE 4
Quantifiers are words used to talk about the amount of something,
such as “a drop of water” or “a piece of information”. Complete each
sentence with a suitable quantifier. Look at the bold noun entries for help.

a) There were just a few ……wisps…………….. of cloud in the sky.

b) The recent s…………………………. of attacks has made residents
afraid to leave their homes.
c) He is on medication to ease his frequent b…………………….of
depression.
d) I just caught a brief s…………………………. of their conversation
as I walked by their table.
e) The constant s…………………………….. of traffic past our house
makes it difficult to cross the road.
f) A p………………………………… of stray dogs was wandering
around the abandoned plant.
g) He’s been off school all week with a bad d……………………..of flu.
h) A couple of c………………….. of garlic will improve the flavour of
the soup.
i) The manager terrified the younger staff with his
o……………………….of temper.
j) The burglars stole several p……………………….. of jewellery.

162
EXERCISE 5
Choose a suitable word from the box on the bottom to complete
each sentence. Look at the bold noun entry for help.

a) We had to queue for ages at the taxi……rank……….

b) In economy class you don’t get enough leg …………………
c) The traffic was held up by a massive protest ……………….
d) He was seriously injured in a horrific traffic ……………….
e) They’re collecting money for famine ………………………
f) I stopped to buy a magazine at the newspaper ……………..
g) It’s a small office with very little shelf ……………………..
h) School leavers with no qualifications have limited job ……………

Chances Room
Accident Space
Kiosk Gathering
Prospects Relief
Stall Rank
Aid Crash
Rally

163
EXERCISE 6
Look at the phrases section in the entries for the bold nouns below
to help you complete and match the heads and tails of the sentences.

a) Could I …have…… a word in your bone in his body

b) I remember clearly the first time I …….. ear?
c) If this report …………….. into the wrong. eyes on her.
d) I vowed never to …………………… foot in the place
again.
e) The force of the impact ……………every hands, we’re in
trouble.

EXERCISE 7
In each of the following sentences one of the adverbs in italics is
not a common collocate of the verb in bold. Decide which it is and cross
it out. Use the entry for the bold verb to help you.

a) She argued fiercely / heatedly / hotly about her right to compensation.

b) They will fiercely / heatedly / hotly defend their rights.
c) He grinned owlishly / sheepishly / wolfishly at her.
d) I ruefully / sheepishly / woefully confessed to having forgotten the
map.
e) His frugal lifestyle contrasted brutally / markedly / starkly with his
wife’s extravagance.
f) Her tragic story brutally / markedly / starkly illustrates how
vulnerable children can be.

164
 EXERCISE 8
Complete each of these sentences with a verb phrase from the box.
You may need to change the form of the verb. Use the entries for the
bold verbs to help you.

be determined to be happy to can afford to fail to hasten to offer to serve to take steps to

a) I …was happy to… accept the invitation to become patron of the

charity.
b) The company was fined when it …………………………….. comply
with the regulations.
c) These unanswered questions …………………………… highlight the
potential problems.
d) I ………………………… add that my knowledge of computers is
pretty basic.
e) We must …………………………… ensure that such a disaster can
never happen again.
f) The minister ……………………….. resign when the affair became
public.
g) She ……………………….. fight for her rights.
h) Few patients ……………………… pay the full cost of the treatment.

165
EXERCISE 9
Match the two halves of these verb phrases. Then use the phrases
to complete the sentences below. You may need to change the forms of
the verbs. Use the entries for the bold verbs to help you.

a) The message to drivers is simple: don’t …drink and drive……

b) There’s no point in ……………..…; we can’t change the situation.
c) I spent all night ……………………, unable to sleep.
d) You can ……………………………………colours to create your own
design.
e) ……………………………………., we heaved the wardrobe upstairs.

drink and pant

mix and drive
moan and turn
toss and match
puff and groan

f) The car ……………….outside the station.

g) You need a holiday before you ………………..
h) The next morning ……………………………..
i) Katy was clearly pleased about the something; she was ……….
j) Jack went on arguing, scarcely …………………

166
 crack for breath
grin to a halt
dawn from ear to ear
pause bright and cold
brake under the strain

EXERCISE 10
Complete the following story with words and phrases from the boxes.
For each gap you will need to decide whether the missing word / phrase is an
adverb, a verb or a preposition. You may need to change the forms of the
verbs. Use the phrasal verbs sections of the bold verb entries to help you.

Adverbs Verbs Prepositions

I had …had been left to… fend for myself in completely be left to for
the desert. The sun beat down ………………… desperately have to to
The water holes had dried up …………………... entirely try to
I ……………………..rely ……………………on mercilessly
cacti……………………..water. I ………………..
hang on ……………………...my sanity, clinging
………………………..to the hope that I would
find my way out alive.

167
EXERCISE 11
Match each of the bold adjectives with a verb that can go before it,
then match the combination with a suitable subject. Use the adjective
entries to help you.

His mistake emerged asleep …..I nearly fell asleep……….

His mistake fell costly …………………………...........
I nearly grew damp …………………………………
The crowd passed empty …………………………………
The driver proved impatient ………………………………..
The house run parallel …………………………………
The house smells unnoticed …………………………………
The roads stood unscathed ....................................................

EXERCISE 12
Complete each sentence with a suitable verb. Look at the entry for
the bold adjective for help.

a) He d …rove……… me crazy with his constant talking.

b) She was h………………. captive by rebels for six months.
c) Several cars were s ……………….. ablaze by the rioters.
d) The unions were r …………………… powerless by the new laws.
e) These programs are d……………… unsuitable for screening before
10 p.m.
f) The robbers b ………………… the shopkeeper senseless.

168
g) His classmates mostly r …………………… him as eccentric.
h) The sound of a door banging j ………………….. me awake.

EXERCISE 13
Match each bold adjective with a suitable adverb. Then use each
combination to complete one of the sentences below.

blissfully absent
conspicuously composed
eerily concerned
justly familiar
notoriously fickle
oddly proud
outwardly silent
unduly unaware

a) I’m not ……unduly concerned….. by the latest figures.

b) She is ……………………………………………of her achievements.
c) He seems ………………………………..……of the trouble he’s
caused.
d) The former chairman was ………………………………….. from the
guest list.
e) Her voice sounded ………………………………………………. to
me.
f) She seemed ………………………………………….., despite the
pressure.

169
g) The street was …………………………………………….. after the
explosion.
h) The world of fashion is …………………………………………….

EXERCISE 14
Complete each of the following sentences with a suitable word or
phrase. Look in the “phrases” section of the bold adjective entries for help.

a) The missing climbers have been found alive and……well………

b) I was so relieved when they got home safe and ………………….
c) I’ll show you a dish that’s really quick and ………………………
d) If you need any help, I’m ready and …………………………….
e) His hair is always so neat and ……………………………………
f) By midnight I was worried ………………………………………
g) I forgot my umbrella and I got wet ………………………………
h) When he told me the news I was thrilled ……………………….
i) If a dog comes anywhere near me I’m scared …………………..
j) The speaker went on and on until we were bored ………………

EXERCISE 15
Complete each sentence with a verb from the left and a noun from
the right. You may need to change the form of the verb. You can check
your answers in the dictionary by looking up the entries for the nouns.

170
 a) The opposition has accused the government of campaign
fight
…rigging…. the ……….election ……….
b) A week before the election, the Christian election
lead
Democrats ……………….. …the ……………
….by 12 per cent. office
rig
c) Which party ……………………… the most
effective election ………………………..? opinion-
stand
d) Castorri …………………………… for -polls
…………………………. Five times, but was
never elected.

e) The Minister of Education insists that she will

fulfil …………… her ……………………….. to cut ban
class sizes.
f) The government is under pressure to
impose …………………… a ………………………… plans
on tobacco advertising.
g) The Home Secretary yesterday ………………..
unveil ………………………………… to reform the pledge
prison system.
h) The Prime Minister has ………………………….
commission ………………………any……………………… possibility
…..of an early election.
i) The President confirmed that he intends to ………
hold ………………….a……………………………… referendum
….on the main clauses of the new constitution.
j) The Higher Education Minister is to ……………..
rule out ………a………………………………………… report
…...on the state of our universities.

171
 k) The opposition leader …………………… a scathing
face attack
…………………..on government policy.
l) Animal rights campaigners have ……………….
launch their……………………..… for a referendum on backlash
hunting.
m) The government is ………………….. a ………
renew call
……over its decision to raise the basic rate of tax.

call n) An international delegation urged the government to ceasefire

………………………………….. its …………………..
on human rights.
deploy o) The UN will decide today whether to forces
…………………… peacekeeping ……………………
in the area.
honour p) The government …………………… an promise
………………… to the rebels for all arms to be handed
over by the 15th.
issue q) The warring factions have agreed to ………………a ultimatum
…………………………. while negotiations take place.

172
EXERCISE 16
Complete each of these sentences with an adjective from the box. Use
the entries for the words in bold to help you.

team flexible proven short-term skeleton in-service

repetitive heavy high – powered competitive

a) He didn’t want the stress of a …………high – powered…… job.

b) He couldn’t stand the ……………………….. work of the production
line.
c) The company offers a …………………………………. salary.
d) Does your job allow you to work ……………………………….
hours?
e) She’s hired an assistant to help with her …………………………..
workload.
f) She joined the company on a …………………………………….
contract.
g) We gathered in my boss’s office for a …………………………..
meeting.
h) Applicants should have a ……………………… track record in
project management.
i) All staff receive ……………………………… training in IT skills.
j) They only have a …………………………….. staff on duty during
the holidays.

173
EXERCISE 17
Choose an adjective from the left – hand box and a noun from the
right – hand box and match them up with the definitions below. You
can look up the entries for the nouns to help you.

small healthy false pay fortune change

small take – home bank balance economy

a) coins of low value …small change…

b) a lot of money ……………………
c) a fair amount of money in the bank ……………………
d) the amount of money that you have left ……………………
after you have paid tax on your salary
e) an attempt to save money by buying something ……………………
cheap that does not really save money at all
because the goods are of poor quality and do not
last very long

174
EXERCISE 18
ENTERTAINMENT
Choose from the five words or phrases given after the following
sentences the one which most appropriately completes that sentence:

1. ‘I can’t think why you watch that terrible series on the box – it’s a load of
….’
A kidneys B sour grapes C onions D tripe E mustard
2. Licence … is the major source of finance for the BBC.
A revenue B tax C budget D pay E turnover
3. BBC 2 is the … which caters most for minority tastes.
A track B channel C lane D station E canal
4. Since the … of the motor car, road accidents have increased dramatically.
A advent B approach C inception D inauguration E initiation
5. Full frontal … is allowed live in the British theatre, but might be censored
in a film.
A naturalness B revelation C bareness D nudity E exposure
6. D.H.Lawrence’s notorious novel, Lady Chatterley’s Lover, was
considered pornographic by some critics because of its use of … .
A oaths B slang C abuse D curses E swear words
7. My hopes of getting the part were … when I discovered there were over
sixty actors auditioning.
A felled B dashed C scattered D fallen E smashed
8. Theatre censorship has been … in Britain.
A done down B done away with C made up for D made off with E done in

175
9. Since the downward swing in the 50s and 60s there has been … towards
greater cinema-going in the last decade.
A a trend B a bent C a fashion D a stream E an inclination
10. Her litle movements, green eyes and independent manner gave her a …
appeal.
A catty B feline C canine D bovine E dogged
11. I have no … about speaking the language when I’m in Greece, it’s
driving on the other side of the road which bothers me.
A panic B quakes C nervousness D dismay E qualms
12. Jogging – running in the streets to keep fit – is all the … in the States,
and will probably become popular in Europe too.
A craze B fad C rage D cult E trend
13. The murderer has been put … for 30 years.
A in B out C down D up E away
14. He was … $100 for drinking and driving.
A penalised B punished C fined D paid E given
15. The teacher said ‘Well done’ and patted me on the head. I can’t stand
people who treat me so …
A pompously B maternally C snobbishly D patronisingly E correctly

176
EXERCISE 19
HOUSING
Choose from the five words or phrases given after the following
sentences the one that most appropriately completes that sentence:

1. Good restaurants serving traditional English food are very hard to … .

A come into B get in C come by D go through E take up
2. Because of the petrol … some garages are introducing rationing.
A shortage B deficit C scarce D lack E gap
3. Expenditure in the public … has been severely cut by the Government.
A section B segment C sector D division E sphere
4. Population increase … with control of resources by a minority means the
real standard of living for much of the world’s population will drop.
A assembled B in proximity C married D teamed up E coupled
5. The landlord … them because they hadn’t paid their rent for six months.
A threw out B evicted C discarded D demolished E dismissed
6. Homeless families … in the empty houses and started to renovate and
redecorate.
A occupied B moved C squatted D tenanted E homed
7. A week after the operation she was … from hospital.
A discharged B released C let out D liberated E freed
8. Shelter is a … organisation run by means of private donations, good will
and a lot of unpaid labour.
A self-sacrificing B willing C voluntary D benevolent E gratuitous
9. Shakespeare’s plays fall into three … categories: tragedies, comedies and
histories, and there is considerable over-lap between them.
A thick B expansive C ample D sweeping E broad

177
10. After years of procrastination the problem has now become …
A supreme B violent C impelling D momentous E urgent
11. Now that the strike has lasted for over two months many of the strikers’
families are … with their rent and hire purchase agreements.
A on tick B in decline C at loggerheads D in the thick E in arrears
12. When the landlord died all the sitting tenants were given notice to … .
A quit B get out C disappear D depart E leave
13. Some of the people living on the Council’s new estate decided to set up
… association.
A a football B an occupants’ C a dwellers’ D a tenants E an inhabitants’
14. Babies are … as children if they occupy a seat, and are charged 50% of
the adult fare.
A dubbed B encountered C classed D graded E scored
15. The situation of various minority groups has been … in other reports,
and will not be discussed here.
A admitted B proved C refuted D documented E told

EXERCISE 20
EDUCATION
Choose from the five words or phrases given after the following
sentences the one which most appropriately completes that sentence:

1. In some countries, like Australia, voting at General Elections is …; in

Britain, voting is not a statutory requirement.
A compulsive B optional C comprehensive D voluntary E compulsory
2. In some areas, children are selected … to their current level of academic
attainment.

178
A due B owing C according D proportionate E relating
3. Comprehensive schools … for all levels of ability.
A cook B cope C look D watch E cater
4. Secondary schools offer a wide … of subjects.
A field B range C scope D list E type
5. I work part-time and am a mother the rest of the time, so I get … .
A a whale of a time B my cake and eat it C my hands full
D the best of both worlds E a busman’s holiday
6. If you want to save money, you must … the entertaining you do.
A run out of B get rid of C cut down on D put up with E go down with
7. In these days of inflation, administration costs are … .
A swooping B soaring C drifting D climbing E raising
8. Ugh! That bottle of milk smells … .
A rancid B acid C bitter D sour E sharp
9. Waiting outside the examination room, I trembled with … .
A comprehension B apprehension C tension D butterflies E expectations
10. Education is usually … on an adult’s view of what a child should learn.
A grounded B founded C based D built E moulded
11. As he got older, his belief in these principles didn’t … .
A dither B waver C wobble D wither E shake
12. If you want to learn you will, no … how you are taught.
A wonder B consideration C way D question E matter.
13. People often … shy of saying what they really think.
A act B fight C sound D play E fly
14. The two schoolboys were so angry with each other that they had a …
fight.
A sit-down B sit-up C knock-down D stand-up E fists up

179
15. You will never find a … child at Summerhill.
A down at hee B downtrodden C trodden on D downbeat E done down

EXERCISE 21
FOOD AND DRINK
The clues in A have answers in B. Find and match them. Here’s the first
one:
A 0 an apparatus for cooking food, especially meat, over an open fire
B 0 barbecue

A
0 an apparatus for cooking food, especially meat, over an open fire
1. strong wine from Jerez, Spain
2. sweet spiced mixture of raisins and candied fruit
3. potatoes that have been boiled then crushed to make them soft
4. fruit boiled with sugar
5. sardines come in one of these
6. a cake with fresh cream filling
7. any type of macaroni
8. you’d put this on a salad
9. the word in British English for thin fried slices of potato in packets
10. these are often roasted in winter
11. a substance added to food to prevent it from going bad
12. a general word for birds reared for food
13. the hard outside of a nut
14. large dried grapes
15. a dried plum

180
16. pieces of meat grilled on a skewer
17. a general word for butter, margarine, seed oil, etc.
18. caviar would be considered to be this
19. you would use the juice from roast meat to make this
20. Christmas … is a sweet dish
21. If you crushed fruit to feed to a baby you would turn it into this
22. You might do this to a tin before using it to bake cakes or biscuits in the
oven
23. A metal shelf on which food, especially meat, is cooked from above or
below
24. Distilled drinks like gin or whisky can be called this

B.
0 barbecue 14. Delicacy 28. Hen
1. Alcohol 15. Delicatessen 29. Juice
2. Biscuit 16. Desert 30. Kebab
3. Cherry 17. Dessert 31. Kernel
4. Chestnuts 18. Dressing 32. Maroon
5. Chicken 19. Fat 33. Mash
6. Chips 20. Flan 34. Mincemeat
7. Compost 21. Fowl 35. Minced beef
8. Conserve 22. French fries 36. Pasta
9. Cream cake 23. Gateaux 37. Pastry
10. Crisps 24. Grapes 38. Peel
11. Currants 25. Gravy 39. Pip
12. Damask 26. Grease 40. Poultry
13. Damson 27. Grill 41. Preservative

181
42. Preserve 47. Sauce 52. Spirit
43. Prune 48. Shell 53. Spirits
44. Pudding 49. Sherry 54. Spit
45. Puree 50. Skewer 55. Sponge cake
46. Raisins 51. Skin 56. Stewed fruit
57. Stone 59. Tart
58. Sultanas 60. Tin

EXERCISE 22
RELIGION
Choose the right answer; write the letter, not the word:

1. The vicar conducted the … in the church.

A. class B lecture C meeting D service
2. The lighted candles on the altar … in the draught from the open window.
A flickered B shivered C trembled D wavered
3. Some people have their … told because they want to know the future.
A chance B destiny C fortune D fate
4. They say that the ghost of a nun … the convent at night.
A displaces B haunts C parades D displaces
5. The … listened attentively to every word of the preacher.
A audience B congregation C sightseers D spectators
6. The approach to the temple was … with marble.
A coated B faced C paved D plated
7. Early man used to … the sun, moon, trees and stones as his gods.
A admire B consider C serve D worship

182
8. An old … on the gravestone gave the names of the deceased.
A inscription B label C plaque D sign
9. The Hindus are forbidden by their … to kill cows and eat beef.
A belief B confession C doctrine D religion
10. In Britain, members of the … usually wear a special white collar that
fastens at the back of the neck.
A church B clergy C priests D vicarage
11. The chapel was built as a … to those who died in the war.
A memorial B memory C remembrance D souvenir
12. Although he never claimed to be … he attended church every Sunday.
A holy B moral C religious D spiritual
13. The service was held to … the sacrifice of those who had died in the
uprising of 1864.
A commemorate B memorise C remember D remind
14. Do you really believe in the … of the evil eye?
A being B existence C occurrence D realism
15. The yearly procession to the temple in honour of the local deity was an
important religious … in that city.
A activity B festival C feast D habit
16. There are some interesting old … on the tombstones in St Mary’s
churchyard.
A epigrams B epilogues C epitaphs D epitomes
17. They say that his house is …, but I have lived here for a few years and I
have never seen a ghost.
A cursed B dangerous C enchanted D haunted
18. I’m afraid I’m rather … about the existence of ghosts.
A adaptable B incapable C partial D sceptical

183
19. They are so concerned with … day-to-day problems that they never stop
to think about God.
A agnostic B devilish C mundane D sceptical
20. At the memorial service, the priest paid … to the actor’s outstanding
contribution to the Romanian theatre.
A acknowledgement B homage C recognition D tribute
21. On religious feast days a(n) … of the local saint is carried in procession
through the streets of the town.
A copy B design C effigy D reproduction
22. In the Middle Ages many people made a pilgrimage to … at the shrine
of their favourite saint.
A devote B revere C sanctify D worship
23. Priests like to remind us that life is … .
A passing B short-term C temporary D transient
24. After the church service, several people … outside to chat.
A lagged B lapsed C lingered D loitered
25. The temple was … furnished with golden and jewelled statues.
A decorously B economically C lavishly D wealthily

EXERCISE 23
SPORTS AND GAMES
Match the clothes and accessories (List A) with the sportsmen /
women who you would expect to find wearing them (List B). An
example is given:
A helmet, thigh and shoulder pads, boots =
B speedway rider / American footballer

184
List A
0. helmet, thigh and shoulder pads, boots
1. cap, goggles, trunks
2. shorts, vest, spikes
3. shorts, gloves, gum shield
4. mask, breastplate, gym shoes

List B
0. speedway rider / American footballer
1. boxer
2. fencer
3. sprinter
4. swimmer

EXERCISE 24
Complete the blanks with the corrected form of the base word
given (1 – 6). The first is given as an example: (0) Understand; (1)
Impress; (2) Relevant; (3) Consult; (4) Consider; (5) Value; (6) Worth.

The Crusades
The medieval crusades, when Western European knights and
adventurers attempted to seize Jerusalem from the hands of the Seljuk Turks,
are widely UNDERSTOOD (0) by most people in the West, who think of
them as glamorous and heroic. True, the level of heroism was occasionally
… (1), but in fact the crusaders were ignorant and misguided. For example,
they viewed the Byzantine Emperor, through whose lands they had to travel,
as an annoying … (2), denying him even so much as a … (3) role in the

185
proceedings. In reality, his long experience of the Saracens had given him a
not … (4) knowledge of their fighting methods and politics. His advice, had
the crusaders chosen to follow it, would have been absolutely … (5).
Instead, they repeatedly dismissed it as … (6) with the result that, despite
initial success, the crusades eventually dwindled to ignominious failure.

EXERCISE 25
Choose from the list of possibilities the part that is missing from
the compound noun: work, hand, hold, clear, write, lie, turn, press.

1. Their car was a … -off after the accident.

2. The lecturer distributed … -outs before she started speaking.
3. Jack does a daily … -out at the gym, starting with 20 … ups.
4. There is an interesting … -up of the match in today’s paper.
5. I’m giving my office a major … -out this week.
6. Did you read about the … -up at our bank?
7. There was a surprisingly large … -out at the concert.
8. I love having a … -in on Sundays.

EXERCISE 26
Fill the gaps with one of the onomatopoeic words from the list
given: trickling, click, crash, splashing, clinked, whirred, groaned,
sizzling.

1. She heard his key … as it turned in the lock.

2. The blades of the propeller … noisily.
3. I love to hear sausages … in the pan!

186
4. They … glasses and drank to each other’s health.
5. There was a terrible car … on the motorway today.
6. Everyone … with disappointment at the news.
7. The baby loves … in its bath.
8. I can feel raindrops … down the back of my neck.

EXERCISE 27
Can you guess the meanings of the underlined words from their
sounds? Try and translate them into Romanian.

- The child splashed through the puddles.

- If you have a sore throat, try gargling with some salt water.
- I couldn’t concentrate on the play because of the rustle of sweet papers
behind me.
- Speak up. Don’t mumble.
- That step always creaks.
- He whacked the ball into the air.

EXERCISE 28
Choose the word or phrase which best completes each sentence.
Write the letter A, B, C, or D for each sentence (1-25). Give one answer
only to each question.

1. I couldn’t … to live the way they do.

A take B stand C bear D tolerate
2. Changing the departure time would have … getting up two hours earlier.
A resulted B led C caused D entailed

187
3. I never … to be informed of their every movement.
A asked B insisted C told D suggested
4. He knew … well what he was doing when he went there.
A absolutely B totally C perfectly D rather
5. I’m not sure how we can get the main thrust of our message … to a few
million people.
A in B across C through D off
6. We are in two minds as to how to … with these latest problems.
A settle B tackle C deal D handle
7. I am … the opinion that nothing we say will change anything at all.
A in B after C with D of
8. We should have foreseen the consequences from the … .
A outset B outcast C onset D offcut
9. It’s obvious that most of the trainees are still at … when it comes to
procedures.
A sea B odds C trouble D probation
10. As far as costs …, there’s little difference between the two options.
A concern B matter C go D make
11. We were facing the … competition imaginable.
A stiffest B strictest C fullest D hardest
12. He was prepared to announce the news to all and … .
A remainders B odds C sundry D select
13. I’m beginning to realise that Alan is just … lazy.
A glaringly B conspicuously C crass D downright
14. He seems … of any humour whatsoever.
A lacking B devoid C light D low
15. It’s not in my nature to … over the price of something.

188
A haggle B discuss C challenge D transact
16. We all wish you luck as you … on a new career.
A move B alight C embark D board
17. I don’t think anything would … me to leave this house.
A induce B prevail C entail D instigate
18.Contributions to the charity are beginning to … up.
A end B finish C peter D dry
19. What if the committee take … with you on the expenses calculations?
A odds B exception C issue D umbrage
20. The idea that she might win a medal is … fantasy.
A crass B sheer C eminent D rank
21. He … one last look at the house and then turned on his kneels.
A made B did C took D gave
22. There’s no point burying our heads in the … , is there?
A sand B ground C snow D earth
23. It’s … that he forgot three consecutive appointments.
A unintelligible B inscrutable C incompatible D inconceivable

24. It may have … your notice, but it’s Mrs Hodges’ birthday today.
A slipped B skipped C missed D escaped
25. ….. regards the future, I think we’ll just have to wait and see.
A With B As C In D What

189
EXERCISE 29
Fill each of the numbered gaps with one of the nouns listed. Each
noun can be used only once: stroke, stream, amount, shock, drop, trace,
stack, torrent, bout, dash.

Danny had a … (1) of red hair at the time and was at an age when a …
(2) of questions was the order of the day. I was tired of the … (3) of answers
I had been required to give all day and had anyway been suffering from a …
(4) of ‘flu. I decided that a … (5) of brandy with a … (6) of soda might just
help my mental and physical condition. I worked my way through the … (7)
of empty bottles left in the kitchen after last night’s party and by a … (8) of
luck found one with a tiny … (9) of the contents still remaining. I took a sip
and felt much better. As I was tucking Danny into bed, he asked, naturally
without a … (10) of irony: “why are you wearing Daddy’s perfume,
Mummy?”

EXERCISE 30
Fill each of the blanks with one of the words from the list: cheese,
similarities, common, against, totally, opposed, unlike, whereas, differ,
contrast.

- The twins are as different as chalk and … .

- They really haven’t got a lot in … at all.
- They are … different.
- There are very few … between the two of them.
- They … in just about every way.

190
- You’ve got Paul’s general pleasant acquiescence as … Peter’s open
rebelliousness.
- There’s Paul, the model son, as…. To Peter, the black sheep.
- You have Peter’s darkened brow in … to Paul’s open smile.
- … Paul beams, Peter glows.
- But … Paul, Peter is successful.

EXERCISE 31
These words will fit into the spaces below. Choose the right word
for each sentence: art, artistic, classic, classical, dramatic, electric,
electrical, electronic, historic, historical, magic, magical, tragic.

1. ‘Between you and I’ is a … mistake in grammar.

2. …. Accidents occur daily on our motorways.
3. Sally can paint, but I have no … talents at all.
4. Many people believe the fire was caused by an … fault.
5. This photograph of Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin captures a …
moment.
6. …. music is appreciated by a very wide audience.
7. You can control the whole system with this … button.
8. The … records of that pre-war period are now available to the public.
9. You can’t keep warm with a small … fire.
10. Many of the … treasures stolen during the war have never been
recovered.
11. They use lights to create … effects on the stage.
12. It was a … win in the last two minutes’ of the play.
13. You can play amazing music on an … keyboard.

191
EXERCISE 32
Supply the best words in Parts A and B. Write the number and the
corresponding letter:

Part A
1. We’d like … bills please. A) separate B) separate
2. When were you … ? A) borne B) born
3. Open the window. I can’t…! A) breathe B) breath
4. Have you ever visited the British …? A) Council B) Counsel
5. The greatest problems are poverty and … .A) disease B) decease
6. Which ones have you … ? A) choosen B) chosen
7. We’re not … on anybody. A) dependant B) dependent
8. Wipe up the mess with this … . A) cloth B) clothe
9. There are very strong … in the Pacific. A) currents B) currants
10. She looks rather … in her new outfit. A) chick B) chic
11. I seem to have … a cough. A) developped B) developed
12. I might have … a company director by now. A) being B) been
13. We’ve got some nice … cakes. A) housemade B) homemade
14. How can we improve the … condition? A) human B) humane
15. It’s a question of … . A) principle B) principal
16. I … up early every morning. A) get B) use to get
17. She certainly has plenty of … . A) stile B) style
18. Those who agree, please … their hands. A) raise B) rise
19. What a small … you have. A) waist B) waste
20. I … what the time is. A) wonder B) wander

192
Part B
1. What would you … ? A) advise B) advice
2. You can be banned from driving for being … .A) drunken B) drunk
3. Pay no attention if he … at all. A) gets mad B) maddens
4. Goodnight. I’m going upstairs to … . A) bed B) sleep
5. Sh! … now. A) Go to sleep B) Go asleep
6. I’ve had a lovely … and I feel quite fresh. A) relax B) rest
7. Tell me the … ! A) true B) truth
8. It was only a mild … . A) flirtation B) flirt
9. This is our new recreation centre for the … . A) young B) youngs
10. Don’t be so … with your money! A) miser B) mean
11. Men often get bald in their middle … . A) ages B) years
12. I was … fright. A) sick with B) sick of
13. Joan … when she was quite young. A) greyed B) went grey
14. Don’t be so … ! A) foolish B) fool
15. …. your belt. A) Get tight B) Tighten
16. I was overcome by a sense of … . A) loneliness B) lonely
17. What can prevent the … of the rain forests? A) destruction B) destroy
18. English is different … German. A) than B) from
19. Are you afraid … the dark? A) - B) of
20. He published a magazine called ‘The … ’ A) Selfish B) Egoist

193
EXERCISE 33
Choose the word or phrase which best completes each sentence; write
the number and the chosen letter:

1. Several passengers received minor injuries when the train unexpectedly

came to a … .
A delay B stand C brake D halt
2. John refused to put his career in … by opposing his boss.
A jeopardy B hazard C risk D stake
3. Angela’s work was praised for its … attention to detail.
A meticulous B significant C subtle D concentrated
4. Motorists should … well in advance of changing lanes.
A sign B signal C flare D flicker
5. The student had no money left and took out a loan to … him over until
the end of term
A last B tend C keep D tide
6. The climbers sought … from the storm.
A escape B refuge C solace D defence
7. The tour guide had a brightly-coloured company badge pinned to the …
of her jacket.
A lapel B border C edge D hem
8. It was her first conference as party leader, and she was determined to …
her authority on the proceedings.
A press B thrust C stamp D mark
9. It was … of a surprise to Andrew that he got the job.
A rather B something C quite D much

194
10. The last bus had gone so we were … with the problem of how to get
home that night.
A affronted B caught C trapped D faced
11. I don’t want to go into all the details about why I left: … it to say that I
had a better offer from another company.
A take B grant C give D suffice
12. Finish your meal with a cup of our delicious freshly … coffee.
A grated B ground C shredded D minced
13. At the most important stage of the season, the footballer was troubled by
the .. of an old injury.
A recurrence B renewal C restart D resumption
14. The pianist played beautifully, showing a real … for the music.
A sense B understanding C sentiment D feeling
15. Rachel painted a gloomy … of life as a student.
A image B picture C drawing D illustration
16. With its engine disabled, the fishing vessel was at the … of the storm.
A whim B mercy C control D grip
17. The more expensive carpet is a good choice .. .it will last longer.
A by means of B due to C in that D in view of
18. Money was short and people survived by … and saving.
A scrimping B scavenging C scouring D scrounging
19. The company had severe problems and the board decided to … it up.
A fold B close C wind D put
20. It is with … regret that we have to inform you that your scholarship has
been withdrawn.
A heavy B sombre C deep D high

195
21. Nobody … him winning the award, so it came as a big surprise.
A foresaw B dreamt C predicted D forecast
22. Marianne seemed to take … at my comments on her work.
A annoyance B insult C offence D indignation
23. The candidate still expects to be re-elected … the results of the latest
opinion poll.
A without B apart C nevertheless D notwithstanding
24. The actor never … the potential he showed in his early career.
A fulfilled B assumed C gained D accomplished
25. I didn’t set … to start an argument, it just happened.
A off B out C about D up

EXERCISE 34
Use the words under each text to form one word that fits in the
same numbered space in the text. The exercise begins with an example:

Annual General Meeting

With this letter you will find your (0) INVITATION to attend the
Annual General Meeting of the Society. Please note that it will take place on
10 September (the last newsletter (1) … stated that the meeting would be on
9 September). The meeting will begin at 8pm but (2) … will be available
from 7pm. You will therefore have time to chat (3) … with committee
members and (4) … of the Society before the meeting commences. At 8 pm,
the Chairman will make a brief (5) … speech and then put forward some
proposals for your (6) ... . There will also be elections to fill the two (7) …
on the committee. The enclosed agenda gives a full description of the
business to be conducted at the meeting.

196
0. INVITE
1. CORRECT
2. REFRESH
3. FORMAL
4. OFFICE
5. INTRODUCE
6. APPROVE
7. VACANT

Dreaming
The first study of what goes on in our heads during dreaming has been
completed, casting light on an activity that humans have already found (8)
… . The research, reported in the journal Nature, opens up a (9) … new
chapter in efforts to understand what we do with a (10) … of our lives. It
supports the (11) … that dreams are formed by calling up images from a
store of emotional memories. Scientists find dreaming an enormous puzzle.
The reason for their (12) … lies in the (13) … complicated design of the
brain which contains as many nerve cells as there are stars in the universe.
Each of the nerve cells communicates with thousands of its neighbours,
producing an (14) … amount of chatter. Now, however, it seems scientists
are beginning to make sense of the brain’s (15) … activity.
8. MYSTERY
9. SIGNIFY
10. THREE
11. SUPPOSE
12. IGNORE
13. ASTONISH

197
14. BELIEVE
15. NIGHT

EXERCISE 35
Supply the text with a new word formed from the one given in
brackets:

In an emergency the first responsibility of all the members of staff is to

prevent injury or (1 lose) of life.
(2 Evacuate) Procedures
When the alarm sounds: don’t panic, switch off all machines, evacuate
physically (3 able) staff. Walk at slow pace, don’t run towards the fire exits.
Do not stop to collect (4 belong). Once out, do not (5 enter) the building.
The (6 effect) of this procedure has been fully proved. If you abide by these
rules you have a (7 reasonable) good chance to escape (8 injury).

EXERCISE 36
Supply the text with a new word formed from the one given in
brackets:

Fully updated and revised for the twenty-first century our travel
guidebooks contain everything you need to know about the (1 culture) and
artistic treasures of Europe’s capital cities. You will be impressed by the (2
deep) of information they contain and by the simply stunning photographs.
These books are truly (3 stand) and are absolutely (4 dispense) for the well
informed traveller. As a special offer prior to (5 publish) in March you can
purchase all twenty books at the (6 except) low price of 180 dollars which

198
you can pay in twelve monthly (7 install) of 80 dollars if you wish. Taking
one of our guidebooks with you (8 sure) that you are fully informed about
each city that you visit.

EXERCISE 37
Match the new words in English with their definitions:

1. collectomania - a specially bred miniaturised form of vegetable

2. bio-house - a hypothetical miniaturised device capable of
making its way through bodily passages and
performing various tasks
3. bimbo - an irresistible urge to collect things
4. mini-vegetable - an indoor version of American football
5. arenaball - a house constructed solely from natural materials
6. microbot - a female of limited intelligence but high sex
appeal

EXERCISE 38
Match these abbreviations with their meanings:

1. BSc compact disc

2. FBI for example
3. Fr Federal Bureau of Investigation
4. ext. personal identification number (usually on a bank card)
5. CD United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation
6. asap Bachelor of Science

199
7. PIN extension
8. e.g. Father (title for a priest)
9. Unesco as soon as possible

EXERCISE 39
CLIPPINGS: Give the whole name of the following abbreviated
forms:

1. lab 7. rep
2. phone 8. case
3. fridge 9. ad/advert
4. TV / telly 10. fax
5. exam 11. board
6. plane

EXERCISE 40
Read the following ABBREVIATIONS:

1. WHO
2. PLO 7. PM
3. BBC 8. MP
4. ANC 9. NATO
5. IRA 10. OPEC
6. UN 11. AIDS

200
EXERCISE 41
Read the following abbreviations used in the organisation of
language:

a) etc. e) RSVP
b) i.e. f) E.g.
c) PTO
d) NB

EXERCISE 42
Read the following abbreviations you might see on a letter/fax/e-
mail/envelope:

1. c/o 6. Wb
2. enc. 7. Btw
3. PS 8. Fyi
4. Asap 9. Ttfn
5. Brb 10. Ttyl

EXERCISE 43
Choose the words (a or b) that collocate in these sentences; write
the number of the sentence and the chosen letter:

1.There a time … for completing this task.

A barrier B limit

201
2. Wine growers in Bordeaux recorded a … harvest this year.
A bumper B boom
3.I’d better … you on the latest developments.
A update B acquaint
4.I recall learning about such things in the … and distant past.
A dark B dim
5.1989 was a … year for Europe.
A monumental B momentous
6.They all … watches before setting off in different directions.
A standardised B synchronised
7.I … agree with everything you said.
A whole-heartedly B unconditionally
8.I’m satisfied … your progress so far.
A for B with
9.I think her performance was … affected by the behaviour of the crowd.
A adversely B wrongly
10. I’m … committed to the idea of equality of opportunity.
A lovingly B passionately

EXERCISE 44
Put one of the following words in each of the sentences below:
next, time-consuming, matter, surely, twinkling, nick, immemorial, kill,
long-standing, time.

1. Let’s leave it at that for the … being and continue tomorrow.

2. Slowly but … the band is becoming more and more popular.
3. In the … of an eye the swindler had vanished, never to return.

202
4. In … to no time they had become the best of friends.
5. The Whittington family have lived there since time .. .
6. I arrived in the … of time to prevent a potential disaster.
7. I wandered around the city centre to .... time before my appointment.
8. Cooking good French food can be a very … job.
9. They had a … agreement to keep each other fully informed of
developments.
10. In a … of minutes the whole building had been razed to the ground.

EXERCISE 45
In the following text, choose the underlined word that collocates
with those around it.

For the past eight years or so, Lecturer in Zoology Tim Guilford and
his colleagues have spent / used (1) a lot of time anxiously scrutinising /
scanning (2) the horizon, stopwatch in hand, waiting for the return of a
pigeon to the loft at the University Field Station in Wytham. The research is
devoted / allocated (3) to understanding the clues that pigeons use to enable
them to navigate around their home land / territory (4). The experiments
involve releasing / discharging (5) pigeons from a variety of sites up to 35
kilometres away, and measuring how long it takes them to get home / go
home (6) under different conditions. They are not studying the pigeon for
what it’s traditionally famed in / for (7), which is its navigation abilities
from unfamiliar areas. Rather, it seems there is a huge space / gap (8)
between what we know about birds and other large vertebrates migrating
over very long distances, and what we know about how rats and birds get
their bearings / positions (9) in small areas. It seems we do not know much

203
about what most animals fill / pack (10) their time with – that is, finding
their direction / way (11) around their familiar area in relation to each other
and to home.

EXERCISE 46
Choose the word or phrase that best completes each sentence;
write the number of the sentence and the chosen letter:

1. The team won the championship four years … .

A running B passing C following D rotating
2. I still see my old classmates now and … .
A occasionally B then C sometimes D here
3. My watch seems to be … several minutes a day.
A forwarding B gaining C progressing D moving on
4. I’m afraid I’m really … for time at the moment.
A hurried B short C pulled D pressed
5. This iniquitous system of taxation is unlikely to change in the … future.
A far B close C predictable D foreseeable
6. The music increases in … towards the end of the movement.
A tempo B time C rhythm D beat
7. He was wounded in the … stages of the battle.
A closing B middle C intermediate D end
8. The performance will start … on six.
A exactly B punctually C dead D just

204
EXERCISE 47
Choose the word which fills the gap; write the number of the
sentence and the chosen letter:

1. People were … moved by the photographs in the newspapers.

A genuinely B totally C earnestly D lovingly
2. Nothing you say will make a … of difference to my decision.
A fragment B scrap C gram D grain
3. Paul is a real introvert in contrast … his brother Andrew.
A with B by C to D against

EXERCISE 48
Fill the gap in the phrases below with one of these words: class,
streets, peas, head, spots, cheese.

1. Mozart and Wagner are as different as chalk and …

2. The twins are alike as two … in a pod.
3. United would knock … off us.
4. Theodorakis is in a … of his own.
5. I don’t agree that Americans are … ahead of us.
6. Armenian basketball players are … and shoulders above the rest.

205
EXERCISE 49
Choose the option (A-D) that best completes each sentence:

1. The celebrations were somewhat … by the announcement of her

resignation.
A outshone B overshadowed C overcast D outweighed
2. What would be the … qualification in your own country?
A equivalent B same C similar D correspondent
3. I feel a(n) … better after a night’s sleep.
A shade B degree C iota D note
4. Many would argue that modern pop compares … with that of ten years
ago.
A closely B nearly C unfavourably D accurately
5. There is unfortunately a .. between the petty cash slips and the actual
money in the tin.
A difference B variance C discrepancy D differentiation
6. Don’t you think she bears an … resemblance to his first wife?
A identical B uneasy C uncanny D indifferent
7. At 45, the ex-heavyweight champion is a(n) … of his former self.
A reflection B image C shadow D miniature
8. Unfortunately they … us in the auction to the tune of $500.
A outbid B outweighed C overdid D underwrote

206
EXERCISE 50
Fill each of the numbered blanks with an appropriate form of a
verb from the list. The first (0) has been given as an example:
discriminate, differ, vary, differentiate, diverge, liken, contrast, (compare)

Millions of words have been written in an attempt to compare (0) the

two languages, pointing out how they … (1) but are still recognisably the
‘same’ language. Clearly no one should … (2) against the American species
just because it is the younger partner. Some people have … (3) the
difference to that between a horse and a mule, but that does not go very far
towards … (4) between the two languages. They are rather two breeds of
horse that have … (5) very slightly over the years. Some points of British
English grammar … (6) quite sharply with American English, but the fact
remains that accent … (7) as much within each country as between the two.

EXERCISE 51
THE METAPHOR:
Find out any of the following combinations in which the two words
are given in the wrong order:

flesh … blood back … white

hell … heaven shoulders … head
downs … ups lows … highs
ins … outs dance … song

207
EXERCISE 52
Write down the theme that the metaphors in each set of sentences
share; Translate the metaphors into Romanian:

1. A A wave of emotion spread throughout the country on the news of her

death.
B We were met by a sea of faces.
C Perhaps the tide has turned for our economy.
e.g. the sea
2. A He’s now at a crossroads in his life.
B Successful businesswoman and company owner, she’s in the fast lane
now.
C I wish he would stop going from one dead-end job to the next.
3. A I think this attitude stems from the 1980s.
B But juvenile rebellion has its seeds in the 60s.
C I reckon our present-day youth culture has its roots in the 50s.
4. A Alternative medicine is a flourishing business.
B My young nephew is a budding pianist.
C Our next-door neighbour’s daughter is really blossoming at secondary
school.
5. A It would be easier if the boss didn’t always want to be at the hub of
things.
B We need to get to the heart of the matter.
C It’s time we reduced the size of our core-staff.
6. A If only he’d see the light and get a haircut!
B The tragic news cast a shadow over the evening’s events.
C After years of recession, there’s light at the end of the tunnel.

208
7. A She’s been floating on air since her engagement.
B I’d be over the moon if I scored one goal, let alone three.
C She’ll be in seventh heaven is she’s passed.
8. A if you play your cards right, you could end up Area Manager.
B I’d rather we didn’t show our hand yet; let’s keep them guessing.
C We’ve got one last ace up our sleeve.
9. A He’s rarely out of the spotlight nowadays.
B Keep scoring goals; there are some good young players waiting in the
wings.
C You never know what’s happened behind the scenes in politics.

EXERCISE 53
Choose the word or phrase that best completes each sentence;
write the number of the sentence and the chosen letter:

1. What happened in 1989 was a … in European political history.

A watershed B borderline C waterfall
2. That ghastly concrete block of flats is a real … .
A eye-sore B eye-strain C eye-catcher
3. The bottom end of our garden is a real … .
A sunshade B sun-trap C sunseeker
4. There was a(n) … moment when the lorry suddenly veered towards us.
A ear-splitting B earth-shattering C heart-stopping
5. To succeed in this job you have to be utterly … .
A hot-blooded B single-minded C kind-hearted
6. The poor boy was absolutely … when she left.
A level-headed B short-sighted C broken-hearted

209
7. Having to rewrite a report that you thought was pretty good can be rather
… ………….
A back-breaking B soul-destroying C mind-blowing
8. If you want a half-way decent standard of living, there’s no escape from
… ………………..
A rat-race B brat-pack C jet-set
9. The authorities had been accused of conducting a … against non-
conformists.
A. manhunt B witch-hunt C treasure-hunt
10. We’ll have to wait and see if there’s a … after this temporary peace
agreement.
A backhand B backlash C backdrop

EXERCISE 54
Choose the word or phrase that best completes each sentence;
write the number of the sentence and the chosen letter:

1. The bride suddenly turned on her heels and … out of the church.
A soared B accelerated C flew
2. Don’t you think the British sometimes have a rather … sense of humour?
A creased B warped C chipped
3. There would be a … of protest if they showed the victims on TV.
A sea B stream C storm
4. There’s been a … of public sympathy since her death.
A wave B sea C river
5. I could have been one of the … of the game of golf.
A monsters B mountains C giants

210
6. Mum’s so good to us; she’s an absolute … .
A fairy B angel C nurse
7. My brother’s been a … of strength through all the problems I’ve had.
A tower B heap C mountain
8. I wish you would be absolutely … with me.
A bent B crooked C straight
9. I wish the Chancellor is trying to put the …. On the economy.
A accelerator B brakes C gears
10.The boy in the flat above ours is becoming a real … for his parents.
A backache B toothache C headache

EXERCISE 55
Choose the word or phrase which best completes each sentence:

1. You’ll have to be on your … if you want to beat her.

A fingers B feet C toes
2. These girl pop groups are heading for a … .
A drop B fall C trip
3. A rise in interest rates at the time would have thrown our plans out of … .
A place B half C gear
4. With all these scandals, she’s never off the … .
A front pages B headlines C tabloids
5. Why do you always walk at a … pace?
A snail’s B tortoise’s C snake’s
6. I wouldn’t marry him – not in a … years!
A hundred B million C billion

211
7. He’d have been over the … if he’s been selected for that management
course.
A world B moon C sun
8. Aim for the … and you’re bound to be a success.
A planets B moon C stars
9. If you set your sights too high, you may fall flat on your … .
A back B nose C face
10. Sacked from one job, offered a better one; it looks as if he’d landed on
his … again.
A feet B back C face

EXERCISE 56
Match the verbs (numbers) with their nouns (letters); write the number
and the corresponding letter:

1. meet a. an opinion
2. skip b. a compromise
3. submit c. an experiment
4. fulfill d. a draft
5. reach e. a skill
6. take f. a deadline
7. hold g. an examination
8. revise h. an assignment
9. carry out i. an ambition
10. develop j. classes
11. express k. a tutorial
12. disseminate l. a project

212
13. pose m. knowledge
14. formulate n. an opinion
15. cultivate o. a question
16. review p. research
17. deliver r. the literature
18. schedule s. a proposal
19. conduct t. an interest
20. collaborate on u. a presentation

EXERCISE 57
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate formal / informal words.

Formal Informal
1. …………….. seem
2. …………………. climb
3. …………………. help
4. cease ………………..
5. commence …………………
6. ………………….. use
7. decrease …………………
8. demonstrate …………………
9. depart …………………
10. …………………. want
11. enquire ………………….
12. …………………. end
13. ………………….. tell
14. obtain …………………..

213
15. preserve …………………..
16. reject …………………..
17. ……………………. free
18. ……………………. mend
19. require …………………..
20. ……………………. live
21. retain …………………..

EXERCISE 58
Put the appropriate formal verb form the box below in the space
provided:

1. concluded 6. address
2. review 7. express
3. find 8. propose
4. abolish 9. raise
5. accumulate 10. support

Informal Verbs Formal Verbs NP

1. came across 1.an old document
2. do away with 2. a law
3. build up 3. a large sum of money
4. bring up 4. a concern
5. finish off 5. a presentation
6. go over 6. the main points

214
7. back up 7. an argument
8. put forward 8. a plan
9. put across 9. ideas
10. deal with 10. a problem

EXERCISE 59
Match the following adjectives with their nouns; write the number
and the appropriate letter:

1. empirical A. paper
2. independent B. argument
3. electronic C. proposal
4. key D. thinking
5. extensive E. example
6. concrete F. evidence
7. term G. database
8. balanced H. issue
9. thorough I. reading
10. research J. investigation

EXERCISE 60
Fill each blank with an appropriate collocation from the list
below; translate then:

of a whip of a drum of coins of burning twigs

of heavy traffic of wind in the chimney of fairy bells

215
1. The chiming of ………………………..
2. The rumble of ……………………………..
3. The jingle of ……………………………
4. The beating of………………………………….
5. The moaning of ………………………………..
6. The crackling of ………………………………….
7. The crack of …………………………………..

EXERCISE 61
Fill each blank with an appropriate collocation from the list below;
translate then:

dogs sheep cattle pigs

horses men foxes birds

1. Stables for…...........................
2. Folds for …………………………..
3. Sheds for ……………………..
4. Styles for …………………………….
5. Kennels for ………………………..
6. Nests for …………………………….
7. Holes for ……………………………
8. Houses for …………………………..

216
EXERCISE 62
Fill each blank with an appropriate collocation from the list below;
translate then:

cattle monkeys wolves sheep

fish horses bees people

1. Flocks of ……………………………..
2. Packs of ………………………………
3. Herds of ……………………………….
4. Teams of ………………………………….
5. Swarms of ………………………………..
6. Shoals of ……………………………..
7. Troops of ………………………………..
8. Crowds of …………………………………………

EXERCISE 63
Fill each blank with an appropriate collocation from the list below;
translate then:

a bell an arrow a lion a poker

a well a snail a whale thunder

217
1. as swift as …………………………..
2. as slow as ………………………………..
3. as loud as ……………………………………
4. as large as ………………………………
5. as stiff as ……………………………………
6. as sound ……………………………………
7. as strong as ………………………………
8. as deep as ………………………………..

EXERCISE 64
Fill each blank with an appropriate collocation from the list below;
translate then:
on the grasses on the hill in the tree
on the river in the meadow on the sea
In the orchard in the mill

1. boats ……………………… 5. fruit ………………………

2. ships ……………………… 6. corn……………………….
3. cows………………………. 7. dew………………………..
4. birds ………………………. 8. wind ………………………

EXERCISE 65
Fill each blank with an appropriate collocation from the list below;
translate then:

sheep corn bees hay hens

trees clay cows

218
1. wool from ………………… 5. milk from …………………
2. timber from ……………… 6. fodder from ………………
3. eggs from ………………… 7. bread from ………………..
4. honey from ……………… 8. bricks from ……………

EXERCISE 66
Fill each blank with an appropriate collocation from the list below;
translate then:

howls bleats roars quacks

brays growls

1. the lamb …………………..

2. the wolf …………………..
3. the lion ………………………
4. the bear ……………….
5. the duck ……………………
6. the donkey …………………..

EXERCISE 67
Fill each blank with an appropriate collocation from the list below;
translate then:

ladies silver bones stones

needles ties stockings

219
1. lords and ……………….. 5. pins and …………….
2. rags and ………………. 6. shoes and ……………
3. gold and ……………… 7. collars and ……………….
4. sticks and …………………

EXERCISE 68
Fill each blank with an appropriate collocation from the list below;
translate then:

the floor the curtains your hands hair

each chair windows the door each table

1. draw …………………….. 5. clear …………………….

2. close ……………………. 6. dust ……………………
3. open the ………………… 7. wash ………………….
4. sweep the. ………………… 8. brush your …………….......

EXERCISE 69
Fill each blank with an appropriate collocation from the list below;
translate then:
to ride to fly to pick to read

to build to climb so spend buy

220
1. flowers ……………………
2. trees ……………………….
3. ponies ……………………
4. books …………………….

5. castles ……………………
6. and kites ………………….
7. money …………………….
8. and toys to ………………..

221
EXERCISE 70
Fill each blank with an appropriate collocation from the list below;
translate then:

in a pond the sky in a hive a pod

a nest the sea a sty home for me

1. bees ……………………..
2. pigs ………………………
3. eggs …………………….
4. birds …………………..
5. frogs ………………………
6. fish ………………………
7. peas …………………….
8. and………………………

EXERCISE 71
Similes: Choose the correct answer from the two given:

1. as black as ice / coal

2. as brave as a bat / lion
3. as cold as stone / rock
4. as dry as a bone / sheet

222
5. as green as grass / wool
6. as hot as vinegar / pepper
7. as pale as a fish / ghost
8. as slippery as an eel / oil
9. as fresh as a rose / lamb
10. as proud as a scarecrow / peacock
11. as quick as lightning / wind
12. as ripe as a honey / cherry
13. as weak as a baby / monkey
14. as white as snow / water
15. as sweet as blackberries / sugar
16. as silent as the dead / weather
17. as soft as velvet / wax
18. as agile as a tortoise / monkey
19. as busy as a bee / gorilla
20. as graceful as a wolf / swan
21. as hungry as a lion / hunter
22. as gentle as a lamb / rat
23. as fat as a pig / shepherd
24. as wise as a fox / an owl
25. as strong as a snail / horse
26. as quiet as a mouse / a peacock

223
KEY TO EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1
1. money 25. become angry
2. quit 26. bundle of money
3. honest 27. eager to make money
4. stop 28. go to bed
5. an obscene 29. lost
6. fashionable 30. good
7. pick up and seduce 31. depressed
8. remained calm 32. potatoes
9. hit 33. with ice
10. inferior 34. beer party
11. become upset 35. handcuffs
12. after studying all night 36. weapons
13. feel good about 37. became seriously interested in
14. disgusting 38. intoxicated on drugs or alcohol
15. doing what I have to do 39. crazy
16. identification 40. made a serous mistake
17. bad 41. defect
18. stupid person 42. drug addict
19. no problem 43. celebrate
20. an athlete 44. hurry up
21. noise 45. new
22. children 46. drug police
23. mistake 47. ate quickly
24. big issue 48. intoxicated

224
49. ammunition 67. disgusting time
50. annoying and useless 68. practically no money
51. waste time 69. stick with
52. sexy 70. great
53. lazy person 71. talk too much
54. trouble 72. waste time
55. alcohol 73. happening
56. disagreed with 74. intoxicated
57. punch in the mouth 75. courage
58. nonsense and a waste of 76. easy
time 77. bad
59. greatly impressed 78. mentally ill
60. run down place 79. take a break
61. excitement 80. eat a lot
62. bureaucratic office workers 81. hurry up
63. takes up too much of the 82. settled
road 83. funny
64. hit 84. easy to do
65. sleep
66. eats too much

EXERCISE 2

1. E (PUTRED DE BOGAT)
2. I (BEAT CRITA/TURTA)
3. G (GOL PUSCA)
4. J (FOC SI PARA)

225
5. B (NEGRU CA SMOALA/TACIUNELE)
6. D (NECOPT)
7. M (ROSU APRINS)
8. F (PLIN OCHI)
9. K (SCLIPITOR DE ALB/ALB CA LACRIMA)
10.N ( URAT CA DRACUL)
11.C (UD LEOARCA)
12.A (A-TI IESI DIN PEPENI)
13.H (AERIAN, INCALCIT)
14.R (CAP SEC, PROST DE-NPUGNE, PROST DE DA IN GROPI)
15.L (PRAJINA)
16.P (FALIT, SARAC LIPIT PAMANTULUI)
17.O (SPERIAT DE MOARTE)

EXERCISE 3

1. a bewildering array of goods a blazing row over money

2. a biting wind a crushing defeat
3. a burning ambition a haunting melody
4. a convincing win a nagging pain
5. driving rain a piercing scream
6. a fighting chance raging inflation
7. a gaping chasm a sprawling suburb
8. a staggering sum of money a sweeping statement

226
EXERCISE 4

a) wisps of cloud f) pack of stray dogs

b) spate of attacks g) dose of flu
c) bouts of depression h) cloves of garlic
d) snatch of their conversation i) outbursts of temper
e) stream of traffic j) pieces of jewellery

EXERCISE 5

a) taxi rank e) famine relief

b) leg room f) newspaper kiosk
c) protest rally g) shelf space
d) traffic accident h) job prospects

EXERCISE 6

a) Could I have a word in your ear?

b) I remember clearly the first time I set eyes on her.
c) If this report falls into the wrong hands, we’re in trouble.
d) I vowed never to set foot in the place again.
e) The force of the impact broke / jarred every bone in his body.

227
EXERCISE 7

a) argued fiercely / heatedly

b) fiercely / hotly defend
c) grinned sheepishly / wolfishly
d) ruefully / sheepishly confessed
e) contrasted markedly / starkly
f) brutally / starkly illustrates

EXERCISE 8

a) was happy to accept

b) failed to comply
c) serve to highlight
d) hasten to add
e) take steps to ensure
f) offered to resign
g) was determined to fight
h) can afford to pay

EXERCISE 9

a) drink and drive f) braked to a halt

b) moaning and groaning g) crack under the strain
c) tossing and turning h) dawned bright and cold
d) mix and match i) grinning from ear to ear
e) puffing and painting j) pausing for breath

228
EXERCISE 10

I had been left to fend for myself in the desert. The sun beat down
mercilessly. The water holes had dried up completely. I had to rely entirely
on cacti for water. I tried to hang my sanity, clinging desperately to the hope
that I would find my way out alive.

EXERCISE 11

1. nearly fell asleep. 5. The crowd grew impatient.

2. His mistake proved costly. 6. The roads run parallel.
3. The house smells damp. 7. His mistake passed unnoticed.
4. The house stood empty. 8. The driver emerged unscathed.

EXERCISE 12

a) drove me crazy e) deemed unsuitable

b) held captive f) beat the shopkeeper senseless
c) set ablaze g) regarded him as eccentric
d) rendered powerless h) jerked me awake

229
EXERCISE 13

a) unduly concerned e) oddly familiar

b) justly proud f) outwardly composed
c) blissfully unaware g) eerily silent
d) conspicuously absent h) notoriously fickle

EXERCISE 14

a) alive and well

b) safe and sound
c) quick and easy
d) ready and willing
e) neat and tidy
f) worried sick
g) wet through
h) thrilled to bits
i) scared out of my wits/stiff/to death
j) bored out of our minds/rigid/silly/stiff/to death/to distraction/to
tears

EXERCISE 15

a) rigging, election e) fulfil, pledge

b) led, opinion polls f) impose, ban
c) fought, campaign g) unveiled, plans
d) stood, office h) ruled out, possibility

230
i) hold, referendum n) honour, promise
j) commission, report o) deploy, forces
k) launched, attack p) issued, ultimatum
l) renewed, call q) call, ceasefire
m) facing, backlash

EXERCISE 16

a) a high – powered job f) a short – term contract

b) repetitive work g) a team meeting
c) a competitive salary h) a proven track record
d) flexible hours i) in – service training
e) her heavy workload j) a skeleton staff

EXERCISE 17

a) small change d) take – home pay

b) small fortune e) false economy
c) healthy bank balance

EXERCISE 18

1D 5D
2A 6E
3B 7B
4A

231
8B 12 C
9A 13 E
10 B 14 C
11 E 15 D

EXERCISE 19

1C 9E
2A 10 E
3C 11 E
4E 12 A
5B 13 D
6C 14 C
7A 15 D
8C

EXERCISE 20

1E 9B
2C 10 C
3E 11 B
4B 12 E
5D 13 B
6C 14 D
7B 15 B
8D

232
EXERCISE 21

1 A1/B49 13 A13/B48
2 A2/B34 14 A14/B46 OR 58
3 A3/B33 15 A15/B43
4 A4/B56 16 A16/B30
5 A 5/B60 17 A17/B19
6 A6/B9 18 A18/B14
7 A7/B36 19 A19/B25
8 A8/B18 20 A20/B44
9 A9/B10 21 A21/B45
10 A10/B4 22 A22/B26
11 A11/B41 23 A23/B27
12 A12/B40 24 A24/B53

EXERCISE 22

1D 11 A
2A 12 C
3C 13 A
4B 14 B
5B 15 B
6C 16 C
7D 17 D
8A 18 D
9D 19 C
10 B 20 D

233
21 C 24 C
22 D 25 C
23 D

EXERCISE 23

1 A1 / B4 3 A3 / B1
2 A 2 / B3 4 A4/ B2

EXERCISE 24

1. impressive 4. inconsiderable
2. irrelevance 5. invaluable
3. consultative 6. worthless

EXERCISE 25

1 write 5 clear
2 Hand 6 hold
3 work; press 7 turn
4 write 8 lie

EXERCISE 26

1 click 5 crash
2 whirred 6 groaned
3 sizzling 7 splashing
4 clinked 8 trickling

234
EXERCISE 27

1 splosh – colloquial form of splash (a împroşca)

2 gargle – wash the throat with liquid kept moving by a stream of breath (a
face gargară)
3 hustle – make a gentle light sound like dry leaves in the wind or silk
clothes moving (a foşni)
4 mumble – speak softly and indistinctly (a mormăi)
5 creaks – make a sound like that of an unoiled door hinge (a scârţăi)
6 whacked – hit hard (a bate, a lovi cu putere)

EXERCISE 28

1C 14 B
2D 15 A
3A 16. C
4C 17. A
5B 18 D
6C 19 C
7D 20 B
8A 21 C
9A 22 A
10 C 23 D
11 A 24 D
12 C 25 B
13 D

235
EXERCISE 29

(1) shock (6) dash

(2) torrent (7) stack
(3) stream (8) stroke
(4) bout (9) amount
(5) drop (10) trace

EXERCISE 30

a) cheese f) against
b) common g) opposed
c) totally h) contrast
d) similarities i) Whereas
e) differ j) Unlike

EXERCISE 31

1. classic 8. Historical
2. Tragic 9. Electric
3. Artistic 10. Art
4. Electrical 11. Magical
5. Historic 12. Dramatic
6. Classical 13. Electronic
7. Magic

236
EXERCISE 32

Part A 11. B
1. B 12. A
2. B 13. B
3. A 14.A
4. A 15. B
5. A 16. A
6. B 17. A
7. B 18. B
8. A 19. B
9. A 20. B
10. B

Part B
1. A 11. B
2. B 12. B
3. A 13. B
4. A 14. A
5. A 15. A
6. B 16. A
7. B 17. B
8. A 18. A
9. A 19. A
10. B 20. A

237
EXERCISE 33

1. D 14. D
2. A 15. B
3. A 16. B
4. B 17. C
5. D 18. A
6. B 19. C
7. A 20. C
8. C 21. A
9. B 22. C
10. D 23. D
11. D 24. A
12. B 25. B
13. A

EXERCISE 34

1. INCORRECTLY 9. SIGNIFICANT
2. REFRESHMENTS 10. THIRD
3. INFORMALLY 11. SUPPOSITION
4. OFFICERS/OFFICIALS 12. IGNORANCE
5. INTRODUCTORY 13. ASTONISHINGLY
6. APPROVAL 14. UNBELIEVABLE
7. VACANCIES 15. NIGHTLY/NIGHT-TIME
8. MYSTERIOUS

238
EXERCISE 35

1. LOSS 5. RE-ENTER
2. EVALUATION 6. EFFECTIVENESS
3. DISABLED 7. REASONABLY
4. BELONGINGS 8. INJURIES

EXERCISE 36

1. CULTURAL 5. PUBLICATION
2. DEPTH 6. EXCEPTIONALLY
3. OUTSTANDING 7. INSTALLMENTS
4. INDISPENSABLE 8. ENSURES

EXERCISE 37

1. an irresistible urge to collect things

2. a house constructed solely from natural materials
3. a female of limited intelligence but high sex appeal
4. a specially bred miniaturised form of vegetable
5. an indoor version of American football
6. a hypothetical miniaturised device capable of making its way through
bodily passages and performing various tasks

239
EXERCISE 38

1. Bachelor of Science
2. Federal Bureau of Investigation
3. Father (could also be ‘French’ or ‘Franc’)
4. Extension (telephone)
5. Compact disc
6. As soon as possible
7. Personal identification number
8. For example
9. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

EXERCISE 39

1. laboratory 7. business representative

2. telephone 8. suitcase
3. fridge 9. advertisement
4. television 10. telefax
5. examination 11. blackboard
6. aeroplane

EXERCISE 40

1. World Health Organisation

2. Palestine Liberation Organisation
3. British Broadcasting Corporation
4. African National Congress

240
5. Irish Republican Army
6. United Nations
7. Prime Minister
8. Member of Parliament
9. North Atlantic treaty Organisation
10. Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
11. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

EXERCISE 41

1. and so on (Latin: et cetera)

2. that is to say (Latin: id est)
3. please turn over
4. please note (Latin: nota bene)
5. please reply (French: repondez s’il vous plait)
6. for example (Latin: exempli gratia)

EXERCISE 42

1. care of (e.g. T. Smith, c/o J. Brown; the letter goes to J. Brown’s address)
2. enclosed (e.g. enc. application form)
3. postscript (extra message after the letter has been ended)
4. as soon as possible (e.g. ring me ASAP)
5. (I’ll) be tight back
6. welcome back
7. by the way
8. for your information

241
9. ta-ta for now (good-bye, informal)
10.talk to you later

EXERCISE 43

1. B 6. B
2. A 7. A
3. A 8. B
4. B 9. A
5. B 10.B

EXERCISE 44

1. time 6. nick
2. surely 7. kill
3. twinkling 8. time-consuming
4. next 9. long-standing
5. immemorial 10. matter

EXERCISE 45

1. spent 7. for
2. scanning 8. gap
3. devoted 9. bearings
4. territory 10. fill
5. releasing 11. way
6. get home

242
EXERCISE 46

1. A 5. D
2. B 6. A
3. B 7. A
4. D 8. C

EXERCISE 47

1. A 3. C
2. B

EXERCISE 48

1. cheese 4. class
2. peas 5. streets
3. spots 6. head

EXERCISE 49

1. B 5. C
2. A 6. C
3. A 7. C
4. C 8. A

243
EXERCISE 50

1. differ 5. diverged
2. discriminate 6. contrast
3. likened 7. varies
4. differentiating

EXERCISE 51

1. low … highs 4. down … ups

2. hell … heaven 5. shoulders … head
3. dance … song

EXERCISE 52

1. the sea 6. light

2. roads 7. up in the air (for happiness)
3. plants 8. playing cards
4. flowers 9. the theatre
5. the centre

EXERCISE 53

1. A 6. C
2. A 7. B
3. B 8. A
4. C 9. B
5. B 10.B

244
EXERCISE 54

1. C 6. B
2. B 7. A
3. C 8. C
4. A 9. B
5. C 10.C

EXERCISE 55

1. C 6. B
2. B 7. B
3. C 8. C
4. A 9. C
5. A 10. A

EXERCISE 56

1. f ( a deadline) 10. e (a skill)

2. j (classes) 11. n (an opinion)
3. h (an assignment) 12. m ( knowledge)
4. i ( an ambition) 13. o ( a question)
5. b (a compromise) 14. s (a proposal)
6. g (an examination) 15. t (an interest)
7. a (an opinion) 16. r (the literature)
8. d (a draft) 17. u (a presentation)
9. c (an experiment) 18. k (a tutorial)

245
19. p (research)
20. l (a project)

EXERCISE 57

1. appear 12. finish

2. ascend 13. inform
3. assist 14. get
4. stop 15. keep
5. begin 16. say no
6. consume 17. release
7. shorten 18. repair
8. show 19. need
9. go 20. reside
10. desire 21. keep
11. ask

EXERCISE 58

1. find 6. review
2. abolish 7. support
3. accumulate 8. propose
4. raise 9. express
5. concluded 10. address

246
EXERCISE 59

1. F (empirical evidence) 6. E (concrete example)

2. D (independent thinking) 7. A (term paper)
3. G (electronic database) 8. B (balanced argument)
4. H (key issue) 9. J (thorough investigation)
5. I (extensive reading) 10. C (research proposal

EXERCISE 60

1. of fairy bells 5. wind in the chimney

2. of heavy traffic 6. burning twigs
3. of coins 7. of a whip
4. a drum

EXERCISE 61

1. horses 5. dogs (cusca)

2. sheep 6. birds (cuib)
3. cattle (poiata) 7. foxes
4. pigs (cotet) 8. men

247
EXERCISE 62

1. sheep 5. bees
2. wolves / horses 6. fish
3. cattle / sheep 7. horses
4. people 8. people

EXERCISE 63

1. an arrow 5. a poker
2. a snail 6. a bell
3. thunder 7. a lion
4. a whale 8. a well

EXERCISE 64

1. on the river
2. on the sea 6. the mill
3. the hill 7. the grass
4. the tree 8. the meadow
5. the orchard

EXERCISE 65

1. sheep 3. hens
2. trees 4. bees

248
5. cows 7. corn
6. hay 8. clay

EXERCISE 66

1. bleats 4. growls
2. howls 5. quacks
3. roars 6. brays

EXERCISE 67

1. ladies 5. needles
2. bones 6. stockings
3. silver 7. ties
4. stones

EXERCISE 68

1. the curtains 5. each table

2. the door 6. each chair
3. windows 7. your hands
4. the floor 8. hair

249
EXERCISE 69

1. to pick
2. to climb 6. to fly
3. to ride 7. to spend
4. to read 8. to buy
5. to build

EXERCISE 70

1. in a hive
2. a sty
3. a nest
4. he sky
5. in a pond
6. the sea
7. in a pod
8. home for me

EXERCISE 71

1. coal 4. bone
2. lion 5. grass
3. stone 6. pepper
7. ghost 10.peacock
8. eel 11.lightning
9. rose 12.cherry

250
13.baby
14.snow
15.sugar
16.the dead
17.velvet
18.monkey
19.bee
20.swan
21.lion
22.lamb
23.pig
24.an own
25.horse
26.mouse

251
 LANGUAGE TERMINOLOGY

[1] AFFIX = a letter or sound, or group of letters or sounds (=a morpheme)

which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the
word.
Affixes are bound forms that can be added:
a. to the beginning of a word ( = a prefix), e.g. English un- which
usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite: kind – unkind.
b. to the end of a word (= a suffix), e.g. English –ness which usually
changes an adjective into a noun: kind-kindness.

[2] BACK FORMATION = When a new word is made by the removal of an

affix from an existing word, this is called back formation.
For example, the verb televise was formed from the noun television, and
the verb peddle was formed from the noun peddler.
New words are usually formed by adding affixes to existing words.

[3] BOUNDARIES = divisions between linguistic units. There are different

types of boundaries.
For example, boundaries may be:
a. between words, e.g. the ## child
b. between the parts of a word such as stem and affix, e.g. kind ## ness
c. between syllables, e.g. /bei ## bi/ baby

[4] BOUND FORM (also BOUND MORPHEME) = a linguistic form (a

morpheme) which is never used with another morpheme, e.g. as an affix or

252
combining form.. For example, the English suffix –ing must be used with a
verb stem, e.g. writing, loving, driving.
A form which can be used on its own is called a FREE FORM, e.g.
Betty, horse, red, write, love, drive.

[5] COLLOCATION = the way in which words are used together regularly.,
e.g. torrential rain, auburn hair, light cigarettes, weak coffee. To collocate
means “to put aside”.
Collocation refers to the restrictions on how words can be used together,
for example which prepositions are used with particular verbs, or which verbs
and nouns are used together.
For example, in English the verb perform is used with operation, but not
with discussion:
The doctor performed the operation.
* The committee performed a discussion.
Instead, we say:
The committee held/had a discussion.
Perform is used with (collocates with) operation, and have collocate with
discussion.
High collocates with probability, but not with chance:
a high probability but a good chance
Do collocates with damage, duty, and wrong, but not with trouble, noise, and
excuse:
do a lot of damage do one’s duty do wrong
make trouble make a lot of noise make an excuse

[6] COLLOQUIALISM = a word or phrase that is more commonly used in

informal speech and writing. For example, boss is a colloquialism for employer.

253
[7] COLLOQUIAL SPEECH = the type of speech used in everyday, informal
situations when the speaker is not paying particular attention to pronunciation,
choice of words, or sentence structure. Colloquial speech is not necessarily non-
prestige speech and should not be considered as substandard.. Educated native
speakers of a language normally use colloquial speech in informal situations
with friends, fellow workers, and members of the family.
For example, they might say:
Why don`t you come around this evening
rather than the more formal
We should be delighted if you would pay us a visit this evening.
It is often difficult for language learners to realize that in certain situations
colloquial speech is more appropriate than extremely formal speech.

[8] COMBINING FORMS = a bound form that can form a new word by
combining with another combining form, a word, or sometimes an affix. For
example, the combining form astr(o)-, ‘star’, can form the word astrology with
the combining form –(o)logy, the word astrophysics with the word physics, and
the word astral with the suffix –al. Groups of morphemes like the –blooded or
warm-blooded or the –making of trouble-making are also sometimes regarded as
combining forms.

[9] COMPOUND WORD = a combination of two or more words which

functions as a single word. For example self-made (a compound adjective) as
in He was a self-made man and flower shop (a compound noun) as in They
went to the flower shop. Compound words are written either as a single word
(e.g. headache), as hyphenated words (e.g. self-government), or as two words
(e.g. police station).

254
[10] CONNOTATION = is the additional meanings that a word or phrase has
beyond its central meaning. These meanings show people’s emotions and
attitudes towards what the word or phrase refers to. For example, the word home
often has the connotation a place of warmth and affection.
The word child could be defined as a young human being but there are
many other characteristics which different people associate with child, e.g.
affectionate, amusing, lovable, sweet, mischievous, noisy, irritating, grubby.
Some connotations may be shared by a group of people of the same
cultural or social background, sex or age; others may be restricted to one or
several individuals and depend on their personal experience.
In a meaning system, that part of the meaning which is covered by
connotation is sometimes referred to as affective meaning, connotative
meaning, or emotive meaning.

[11] DENOTATION = is that part of the meaning of a word or phrase that

relates it to phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible world.
For example, the denotation of the English word bird is a two-legged,
winged, egg-laying, warm-blooded creature with a beak. In a meaning system,
denotative meaning may be regarded as the “central” meaning or “core”
meaning of a lexical item.

[12] DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR = a grammar which describes how a

language is actually spoken and/or written, and does not state or prescribe how it
ought to be spoken or written.
If a descriptive grammar of a non-prestige variety of English were written,
it might show, for example, that speakers of this variety sometimes said:
I seen ‘im. instead of I saw him.
‘im ‘n me done it. instead of He and I did it.

255
[13] DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS = an approach to linguistics which
studies how a language changes over a period of time, for example the change in
the sound system of English from Early English to Modern British English.
Diachronic linguistics has been contrasted with synchronic linguistics,
which is the study of a language system at one particular point in time, for
example the sound system of Modern British English.

[14] ETYMOLOGY = the study of the origin of words, and of their history and
changes in their meaning.
For example, the etymology of the Modern English noun fish can be
traced back to Old English fisc.
In some cases, there is a change in meaning. For example the word meat,
which now normally means “animal flesh used as food”, is from the Old English
mete which meant “food in general”.

[15] EUPHEMISM = the use of a word which is thought to be less offensive or

unpleasant than another word. For example, indisposed instead of sick, or to
pass away, instead of to die.

[16] FIGURE OF SPEECH = a word or phrase which is used for special effect,
and which does not have its usual or literal meaning. The two most common
figures of speech are the simile and the metaphor but there are many other less
common ones.
A simile is an expression in which something is compared to something
else by the use of a function word such as like or as. In Tom eats like a horse,
Tom’s appetite is compared to that of a horse. My hands are as cold as ice
means that my hands are very cold.
In a metaphor, no function words are used. Something is described by
stating another thing with which it can be compared. In Her words stabbed at

256
his heart, the words did not actually stab, but their effect is compared to the
stabbing of a knife.

[17] FORMAL SPEECH = the type of speech used in situations when the
speaker is very careful about pronunciation and choice of words and sentence
structure. This type of speech may be used, for example, at official functions,
and in debates and ceremonies. The English sentence: Ladies and gentlemen, it
gives me great pleasure to be present here tonight is an example of formal
speech.

[18] HOMOPHONES = words which sound alike but are written differently
and often have different meanings.
For example, the English words no and know are both pronounced /n ∂ u/
in some varieties of British English.
Homophones are sometimes called homonyms.

[19] IDIOM = an expression which functions as a single unit and whose

meaning cannot be worked out from its separate parts.
For example:
She washed her hands of the matter.
means
“She refused to have anything more to do with the matter”.

[20] JARGON = a speech or writing used by a group of people who belong to a

particular trade, profession, or any other group bound together by mutual
interest, e.g. the jargon of law, medical jargon.
A jargon has its own set of words and expressions, which may be
incomprehensible to an outsider. The term jargon is typically not used by the

257
group itself but by those unfamiliar with that particular type of language, and/or
by those who dislike it.
Jargon is sometimes also used for the first (developmental) stage of a
pidgin language, where there is a great deal of individual

[21] LEXEME (also lexical item) = is the smallest unit in the meaning system
of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units. A lexeme is an
abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written
sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. For
example, in English, all inflected forms such as give, gives, given, giving, gave
would belong to the one lexeme give.
Similarly, such expressions as bury the hatchet, hammer and tongs, give
up, and white paper would each be considered a single lexeme. In a dictionary,
each lexeme merits a separate entry or sub-entry.

[22] LEXICAL CATEGORY = the four lexical categories are n (noun), a

(adjective) and p (preposition). Entries in a lexicon or dictionary usually show,
among other information, the lexical category of a particular word, e.g. lexical
a; lexicon n.

[23] LEXICAL FIELD (also SEMANTIC FIELD) = the organisation of

related words and expressions into a system which shows their relationship to
one another. For example, kinship terms such as father, mother, brother, sister,
uncle, aunt, belong to a lexical field whose relevant features include generation,
sex, membership of the father’s or mother’s side of the family, etc.
The absence of a word in a particular place in a lexical field of a language
is called a LEXICAL GAP. For example, in English there is no singular noun
that covers both cow and bull as horse covers stallion and mare.

258
[24] LINGUISTIC UNITS = parts of a language system. Linguistic units can
be distinctive sounds of a language (phonemes), words, phrases, or sentences, or
they can be larger units such as the utterances in a conversation.

[25] LEXICOGRAPHY = the compiling of dictionaries

[26] LEXICOLOGY = a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary items

(lexemes) of a language, including their meanings and relations (see lexical
field), and changes in their form and meaning through time. The discoveries of
lexicologists may be of use to lexicographers.

[27] LEXICON = the set of all the words and idioms of any language.

[28] LEXIS = the vocabulary of a language in contrast to its grammar (Syntax)

[29] LINGUISTIC UNITS = parts of a language system. Linguistic units can

be the distinctive sounds of a language (phonemes), words, phrases, or
sentences, or they can be larger units such as the utterances in a conversation.

[30] MORPHEME = the smallest meaningful unit in a language. A morpheme

cannot be divided without altering or destroying its meaning. For example, the
English word kind is a morpheme. If the d is removed, it changes to kin, which
has a different meaning. Some words consist of one morpheme, e.g. kind, others
of more than one. For example, the English word unkindness consists of three
morphemes: the stem kind, the negative prefix –un, and the noun-forming suffix
–ness. Morphemes can have grammatical functions. For example, in English the
–s in she talks is a grammatical morpheme which shows that the verb is the
third-person singular present-tense form.

259
[31] ONOMATOPOEIA = imitation of natural sounds by means of words or
groups of words, as in English moo, baa, cuckoo. There are other words which
are examples of “semi-onomatopoeia”, such as the English words swish, growl,
splash. Languages differ in their choice of onomatopoeic words. An English
cock goes cock-a-doodle-do; a Japanese one goes kokekokko.

[32] PIDGIN = a language which develops as a contact language when groups

of people who speak different languages try to communicate with one another
on a regular basis. For example, this might occur where foreign traders have to
communicate with the local population or groups of workers from different
language backgrounds on plantations or in factories.

[33] PREFIX = a letter or sound or group of letters or sounds which are added
to the beginning of a word, and which change the meaning or function of the
word.
Some combining forms can be used like prefixes. For example, the word
–pr-French uses the prefix –pro “in favour of”, and the word Anglo-French uses
the combining form Anglo- “English”.

[34] ROOT (also base form) = a morpheme which is the basic part of a word
and which may, in many languages, occur on its own (e.g. English man, hold,
cold, rhythm). Roots may be joined to other roots (e.g. English house + hold 
household) and/or take affixes (e.g. manly, coldness) or combining forms (e.g.
biorhythm).

[35] SLANG = slang is a casual, very informal speech, using expressive but
informal words and expressions (slang words/expressions). For some people,
slang is equivalent to colloquial speech but for others, it means `undesirable
speech`. Usually, `colloquial speech` refers to a speech variety used in informal

260
situations with colleagues, friends or relatives, and `slang` is used for a very
informal speech variety which often serves as an `in-group` language for a
particular set of people such as teenagers, army recruits, pop-groups, etc. Most
slang is rather unstable as its words and expressions can change quite rapidly,
for example:
Beat it! Scram! Rack off! (for ‘leave’)

[36] STEM (also base form) = that part of a word to which an inflectional affix
is or can be added. For example, in English the inflectional affix –s can be added
to the stem work to form the plural works in the works of Shakespeare.
The stem of a word may be:
a. a simple stem consisting of only one morpheme (root), e.g. work
b. a root plus a derivational affix, e.g. work + -er  worker
c. two or more roots, e.g. work + shop  workshop
Thus we can have work + -s  works, (work + -er) + -s  workers, or
(work + shop) + -s  workshops.

[37] SUFFIX = a letter or sound or group of letters or sounds which are added
to the end of a word, and which change the meaning or function of the word.

[38] VOCABULARY = a set of lexemes, including single words, compound

words, and idioms.

[39] WORD = the smallest of the Linguistic Units which can occur on its own
in speech or writing.

[40] WORD FORMATION = the creation of new words. There are several
ways of doing this, including:
a. the addition of an affix in derivation

261
b. the removal of an affix: Back Formation.
c. the addition of a Combining Form
d. the construction of a Compound Word.
e. the shortening of an old word, as when influenza becomes flu.
f. the repetition of a word or part of a word; Reduplication.
g. the invention of a completely new word, such as the mathematical
term googal.
In addition, other processes are sometimes regarded as part of word formation.
These include:
h. the addition of an affix in Inflection.
i. the use of words as different Parts of Speech, as when the noun cap is
used as the verb to cap.

262
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Alexander, L.G. Right Word. Wrong Word.. Essex: Longman, 1995.
[2] Broughton, G. The Penguin English Grammar A-Z for Advanced Students.
Middlesex: Penguin English, 1990.
[3] Carpenter, E. English Guides 4: Confusable Words. London: Collins
Cobuild, 1996.
[4] Carthy, M. Mc. English Vocabulary in Use. Cambridge: CUP, 1995.
[5] Chiţoran, D. Lexicologia limbii engleze. Exerciţii. Bucureşti: Editura
didactică şi pedagogică, 1972.
[6] Collins-Cobuild English Usage. The University of Birmingham: Harper
Collins Publishers, 1992.
[7] Collins Cobuild English Guides 2: Word Formation. London: Harper Collins
Publishers Ltd., 1991.
[8] Collins Cobuild English Guides 6: Homophones. London: Harper Collins
Publishers Ltd., 1995.
[9] Concise Oxford Dictionary. Tenth Edition. Oxford: OUP, 1999.
[10] Deignan, A. English Guides 7: Metaphor. London: Harper Collins
Publishers, Ltd., 1995.
[11] Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, Harlow:
Longman Group UK Limited, 1992.
[12] Hulban, H. Syntheses in English Lexicology and Semantics, Iaşi: editura
Spanda, 2001.
[13] Iarovici, E. & L. Mareş. Lecţii de limba engleză. Bucureşti: Teora, 1993.
[14] Lougheed, Lin. The Great Preposition Mystery.
[15] Misztal, M. Test Your Vocabulary. Bucureşti: Teora, 1994.
[16] Stan, R. & Ştefanovici, S. Test Yourself on English Idioms. Cluj: Editura
Argonaut, 1996.
[17] Ştefanovici, S. & Stan R. Let’s Play with Words. Cluj: Editura Argonaut,
1996.

263
[18] Ştefanovici, S. The Preposition. Tg. Mureş: Editura Universităţii “Petru
Maior”, 1998.
[19] Swan, M. Practical English Usage. London: OUP, 1996.
[20] Watcyn, J.P. Test Your Vocabulary, Aylesbury, Bucks: B PCC Hazel
Limited, England, 1985.
[21] Wellman, G. The Heinemann English Wordbuilder. Oxford: Heinemann,
1992.

Bibliography - RESOURCE ROOM-

1. Adaptation of the English Element in Romanian / Georgeta Ciobanu

811.111 / C 51
2. Advanced Language Practice with Key / Michael Vince 811.111'243 / V
62
3. Advanced Vocabulary & Idiom / B.J.Thomas 811.111'243 / T 57
4. Elementary Vocabulary / B.J. Thomas 811.111'243 / T 57
5. English Vocabulary in Use: 100 units of vocabulary reference and
practice upper-intermediate and advanced: self-study and classroom use /
Michael McCarthy 811.111'243 / M 53
6. English with a Choice: retroversiune, traducere, teste cu cheie,
gramatica, vocabular /Lidia Vianu 811.111'243 / V 54
7. Grammar and Vocabulary for Cambridge Advanced and Proficiency:
Fully Updated for the Revised CPE / 811.111 / S 53
8. Intermediate Vocabulary / B.J. Thomas 811.111'243 / T 57
9. Let's Play with Words / Smaranda Stefanovici 811.111'243 / S 82
10. Mac Millan : English Dictionary for Advanced Learners; / 811.111/ M
12
11. Roget's Thesaurus of Synonyms and Antonyms / Mark Peter Roget
811.111 / R 66

264
12. Romanian Words of English Origin / Georgeta Ciobanu 811.111 / C 51
13. Usage and Abusage: A Guide to Good English / Eric Partridge 811.111 /
P 36
14. The Web of Words: Exploring Literature through Language: Teacher's
Book Cambridge 821.111.09 / C 27
15. Words and their Stories / 811.111 / W 83
16. Working with Words: A Guide to Teaching and Learning Vocabulary /
37.026 / G 14

265
Lista dictionare:

RR

1. Cambridge Dictionary of American English. New York: Cambridge

University Press, 2000.
2. Cambridge Dictionary of American Idioms. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2003.
3. Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2005.
4. Cambridge International Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 2004.
5. Mac Millan: English Dictionary for Advanced Learners: International
Student Edition. London: Macmillan and Co. Limited, 2002.
6. Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English, Vol. 1: Verb with
Prepositions & Particles. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978.
7. Oxford-Duden Pictorial English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1995.

UPM

1. Chambers Concise Usage Dictionary. W & R Chambers Limited, Cambridge,

1991.
2. Chambers English Dictionary. Chambers Cambridge, Cambridge, 1989.
3. Chambers Pocket Dictionary. W & R Chambers Ltd and Cambridge,
Cambridge, 1988.
4. A Dictionary of American Idioms and Idiomatic Usage. Universitatea "Babes-
Bolyai" din Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, 1981.
5. Dictionary of Art. Geddes and Grosset, New Lanark, 1999.

266
6. Dictionary of Art and Archaeology. J.W. Mollett Bracken Books, London,
1996.
7. Dictionary of Business English. Longman York Press, Harlow, 1991.
8. A Dictionary of Computing. Oxford University Press Oxford University Press,
New York, 1996.
9. Dictionary of Difficult Words. Bounty Books, London, 2003.

10. Dictionary of Economics, Financing, and Banking in three Languages.

Dictionnaire de therms économiques, financiers et de bourse. Dictionar de
termeni economici, financiar-bancari si de bursa. Alexandria, 1993.
11. A Dictionary of Law. Oxford University Press, New York, 1997.
12. Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary. J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd.,
London, 1957.
13. Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary. J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd.,
London, 1958.
14. Food for Thought: An Annotated English-Romanian Dictionary of American
Figurative Language. Universitatea "Babes-Bolyai" Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca,
1979.
15. How Not to Say What You Mean: A Dictionary of Euphemisms. Oxford
University Press, New York, 2002.
16. Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. MacMillan
Publishers, London, 2002.
17. Oxford Advanced Learner's Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Oxford University
Press, New York, 1992.
18. The Oxford-Duden: Pictorial English Dictionary. Oxford University Press,
New York, 1995.
19. The Oxford Dictionary of Allusions. Oxford University Press, New York,
2003.

267
20. The Oxford Dictionary of Modern Slang. Oxford University Press, New
York, 1992.
21. Romanian-English, English-Romanian Dictionary. Editura Ştiintifica si
Enciclopedică, Bucuresti, 1982.
22. Romanian-English, English-Romanian Dictionary. Editura Ştiinţifică si
Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1988.
23. Typing and Word Processing Dictionary. W & R Chambers Ltd., Edinburgh,
1989.

268