Sectiunea Management

UNIVERSITATEA TEHNIC DE CONSTRUCII BUCURETI
FACULTATEA DE GEODEZIE
SIMPOZIONUL CU PARTICIPARE INTERNAIONAL GEOPREVI 2011
12-13 MAI 2011, BUCURETI

SECIUNEA
MANAGEMENT EDUCAIONAL N GEODEZIE

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DISEMINAREA INFORMAIEI PRIN SISTEMELE E-
LEARNING - ANALIZA SWOT
ef lucr. univ. dr. ing. Ana-Cornelia Badea, Facultatea de Geodezie,
Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti
Rezumat: Articolul de fa prezint o analiz SWOT
asupra metodelor de nvare moderne prin intermediul e-
learning. Sunt prezentate punctele tari, precum i
potenialele puncte critice, pentru care acest tip de
sisteme sunt utilizate cu suscces ca alternativ la
metodele tradiionale de nvare.
Cuvinte cheie: e-learning, analiza SWOT, metode de
nvare
1. INTRODUCERE
Noile modaliti de nvare prin e-learning constituie n
prezent o preocupare a FIG, prin intermediul Comisiei 2
(Professional Education), care a elaborat n acest sens n luna
ianuarie 2010, un document n care sunt descrise posibilitile
pentru mbuntirea procesului educaional n domeniul geodeziei.
Mai multe evenimente FIG din ultimii ani au fost dedicate
e-learning sau legate de subiecte, cum ar fi proiectarea curriculum-
ului, managementul cunotinelor i gestionarea procesului
educaional.3Raportul tehnic amintit sintetizeaz rezultatele
atelierelor de lucru ale Comisiei, simpozioanelor i grupurilor de
lucru. Scopul este de a evidenia experienele i punctele de vedere
din cadrul FIG cu privire la rolul e-learning n domeniul geodeziei.
Astfel, evoluia n domeniul TIC a avut un efect imens
asupra profesiei de inginer geodez. Schimbrile rapide din profesie
au creat o nevoie tot mai mare de schimbri continue n educaie i
o cretere a cererii pentru dezvoltarea profesional continu
[Markus, 2008].
Enemark (2007) sintetizeaz tendinele majore
internaionale cheie n domeniu, dup cum urmeaz:
- aptitudini de management sporite, comparativ cu competenele
de specialitate;
- creterea procentului modalitilor de educaie virtual, fa de
cursurile organizate n sala de curs;
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- importana nvrii pe tot parcursul vieii.
Se disting dou schimbri majore care au loc n Australia
i UE: internaionalizarea i interoperabilitatea.
Datorit faptului c tehnologiile care vizeaz topografia i
cartografia au aplicaii importante i n alte sectoare, nvarea pe tot
parcursul vieii a devenit un concept bine stabilit pentru o dezvoltare
profesional continu a personalului angajat n instituiile din
domeniu [Ossk, 2008].
Au fost introduse metode i instrumente e-learning care
joac acum un rol tot mai important n educaia profesional.
2. CE ESTE E-LEARNING?
E-learning este un proces de nvare creat prin
interaciunea cu coninutul digital livrat, prin servicii de reea i
bazate pe tutoriale de sprijin [Markus, 2008].
Aceast definiie se concentreaz pe impactul
revoluionar al tehnologiei prin intermediul reelelor.
E-learning este orice modalitate de nvare prin
intermediul tehnologiei, care presupune utilizarea calculatoarelor
(nvare de la distan sau n sala de clas, fa n fa). Este o
trecere important de la educaia sau formarea tradiional, la
nvarea bazat pe TIC personalizat, flexibil, educaia
individual, prin colaborare bazat pe o comunitate de cursani,
profesori, instructori, experi.
Cele dou aspecte principale ale e-learning care se
desprind din aceast definiie sunt:
- e-learning presupune nvarea asistat de calculator;
- e-learning reprezint o pedagogie pentru nvarea centrat pe
student (figura 1) i colaborare.
Aceste aspecte rezum, de fapt, dezvoltarea e-learning
n timp. Evoluia iniial n e-learning se concentreaz pe nvarea
asistat de calculator, n cazul n care coninutul de nvare este
livrat digital.
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Figura 1. Trecerea de la metodele de predare clasice la e-learning
[adaptare dup The Positive Impact of eLearning, Intel White Paper, 2009]
Mai recent, a aprut dimensiunea pedagogic de
nvare a e-learning care a devenit foarte important.
Instruirea prin e-learning a devenit popular datorit
potenialului su pentru asigurarea unui acces mai flexibil la coninut
i instruire n orice moment, din orice loc.
3. ROLUL E-LEARNING N MSURTORILE TERESTRE
DISEMINAREA INFORMAIEI
Pornind de la noile tehnologii care au aprut, i care
acum 20 de ani nu erau cunoscute de majoritatea specialitilor
geodezi i a altor profesioniti implicai n preluarea datelor spaiale,
precum GNSS, laser scanning, fotogrametrie digital sau tehnologii
web se constat necesitatea unor cunotine tehnice suplimentare
(tabelul 1).
Din perspectiv global, rolul specialistului n msurtori
terestre va fi mai complex, ceea ce va implica schimbri n
mijloacele de educaie i de instruire din domeniu.
Prin urmare, este necesar o schimbare major de
abordare n nvmntul universitar:
- Trecerea de la predare la nvare: Educaia trebuie s se
concentreze asupra studenilor, a proceselor de nvare i a
rezultatelor nvrii. Metodele tradiionale de predare, cu
anumite rezerve, trebuie s fie nlocuite de ctre mijloacele
personalizate de nvare, orientate pe proiecte. Profesorii trebuie
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s se orienteze spre schimbarea rolului lor de prezentatori n cel
de mentori, tutori, instructori i consultani.
- Transferul de la prelegerile clasice, limitate la un anumit timp,
ctre o educaie planificat n mod independent: metodele
educaionale moderne permit o activitate de nvare flexibil, n
ritm propriu i auto-dirijat. Deci, materiale de nvare i
metodele de instruire trebuie s fie disponibile 24 de ore/7 zile.
- Conceptul existent de studiu trebuie s fie nlocuit cu conceptul
de dezvoltare profesional continu.
Tabelul 1. Tendinele tehnologice i modificrile n msurtorile terestre i
n procesul educaional din domeniu, ca urmare a utilizrii computerelor
[adaptare dup FIG Publication 46]
Nr.
crt.
Trecut Prezent
Msurtori
terestre
Educaie
1 Analog > Digital hri fiiere, nregistrri video
2 Manual > Automat staii totale Instruire bazat pe calculator
3 Discret > Continuu laser scanner www text book
4 Local > Global EULIS biblioteci digitale, instruire virtual
5 Produse > Servicii one-stop-shop
suport de instruire la distan pentru
studeni
6 Date > Informaii e-Cadastru asisten pentru nvare
7 General > Personalizat
date cu plus-
valoare
ci i metode de nvare, exact
pentru o persoan, la timpul potrivit,
exact ct i cum este necesar
8 2D > 3D cadastru 3D aplicaii, simulri
9 Static > Dinamic monitorizare portal educaional
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De sus n
jos
> De jos n sus feedback
sisteme de management al
cunoaterii
Metodele e-learning sunt adecvate pentru a gestiona
aceast schimbare a orientrii n nvmntul superior, conferind
urmtoarele avantaje:
- Abordarea centrat pe student;
- Posibilitatea accelerrii sau a ncetinirii ritmului de nvare dup
cum este necesar;
- Instruirea flexibil n funcie de timpul avut la dispoziie;
- Promovarea implicrii studentului prin metode interactive de
nvare;
- Stimularea gndirii prin simulri i exemple interesante;
Este important ca cei care susin aceast metod s
aib n vedere urmtoarele:
- e-learning rmne totui un instrument de instruire, iar obiectivul
este, n continuare, nvarea n sine;
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- metodele e-learning nu reprezint o modalitate de micorare a
timpului alocat de ctre profesori pentru procesul de instruire, ci
mbuntirea transferului de cunotine;
- comunicarea virtual nu poate nlocui complet comunicarea
personal;
- introducerea e-learning necesit msuri auxiliare, de exemplu,
profesorii trebuie s obin noi competene, ca tehnologia
informaiei i comunicrii (TIC), precum i cunotine de e-
pedagogie. Din acest punct de vedere, specialitii din domeniul
geodeziei sunt favorizai, pentru faptul c sunt familiarizai i
calificai n lucrul cu TIC, datorit progresului din domeniu;
- instituiile de nvmnt care doresc implementarea metodelor
de e-learning trebuie s aib n vedere reproiectarea curriculum-
ului, subiectele, coninutul i metodele de nvare trebuie s fie
adaptate pentru e-learning, dar i pentru a satisface nivelul de
competen cerut la angajare.
- trebuie acordat o prioritate introducerii unui sistem de asigurare
a calitii pentru a garanta un nivel ridicat n educaia academic
din domeniu. Urgena acestei cerine este mrit, deoarece au
luat amploare programele de mobilitate internaional i
disponibilitatea de noi instrumente didactice electronice.
4. ANALIZA SWOT
Un profesor online ntmpin aceleai provocri ca i
profesorii obinuii, precum i unele n plus. Sarcinilor la care face
fa mai mult sau mai puin contient ntr-o clas prin comunicarea
fa n fa, trebuie s le fac fa contient i n mod deliberat
online. O resurs principal de nvare sunt colegii, iar profesorii
trebuie s asigure oportuniti pentru interactivitate i participare la
lucrul n echip. Acest lucru nseamn proiectarea i desfurarea
activitilor de nvare care au ca rezultat cooperarea, inclusiv cu
colegii.
n plus, profesorii au nevoie de nelegere i de formare
n scopul de a se putea ocupa de problemele i provocrile din clasa
virtual, ca de exemplu:
1. Studenii online sunt indisciplinai. Chiar dac studenii s-au
angajat s acceseze des platforma, realitatea poate fi destul de
diferit. Profesorul nu poate avea contact vizual direct i va trebui
s comunice n scris. Studenilor online tind s le displac
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instruciunile de studiu, iar ghidurile de studiu nu sunt ntotdeauna
citite cu atenie. Provocarea const n a realiza progrese ntr-un
ritm adecvat pentru majoritatea dintre ei, evitnd n acelai timp
a-i pierde pe cei mai puin dornici s participe.
2. Nu se pot utiliza limbajul corpului i tonalitile vocii. Provocarea
const n gsirea posibilitilor pentru a compensa lipsa
avantajelor care decurg din comunicarea fa n fa.
3. Colaborarea online i lucrul virtual n echip nu sunt intuitive.
Online, acestea trebuie fcute n mod deliberat i planificat.
Provocarea este de a transforma experiena de nvare on-line
ntr-o experien social i plcut. Colaborarea online trebuie s
fie nvat.
4. Studenii vor s le fie predat materia. n mod tradiional, acetia
se ateapt s le fie predate elementele necesare. Provocarea
const n faptul ca profesorul s se ndeprteze de la modurile
tradiionale explicative de lucru n scopul de a sublinia alte
metode pentru facilitarea asimilrii informaiei.
5. Distana - studenii tind s se simt izolai, i pot ajunge
nemotivai, disprnd contactul uman n mediul tehnologic. Unii
pot simi c nvarea on-line este dezumanizat, pentru c,
pentru nvare, colaborarea depinde i de deschidere, cldur i
empatie. O provocare pentru mediul e-learning este, prin urmare,
de a construi prezena social, ceea ce nseamn c profesorul
trebuie perceput ca o persoan real, cu un interes real n
nevoile studentului la distan, de interes i de progres.
6. Studentul ar trebui s devin un cursant independent i de sine-
stttor, dar trebuie s poat colabora i cu alii n procesul de
nvare.
Provocarea este de a dezvolta o comunitate online de bune
practici.
Trebuie, totodat s se aib n vedere c:
1. TIC (tehnologia informaiei i comunicrii) este perceput ca fiind
dificil i inutil de ctre muli profesori. Acetia pot vedea
calculatoarele ca inumane i nedorite ntr-un mediu academic.
Provocarea este de formare n domeniul TIC.
2. Exist puine stimulente n scopul inovrii la universiti.
Provocarea este de a convinge conducerea c stimulentele sunt
necesare pentru inovare n rndul personalului, i punerea n
aplicare a unor stimulente adecvate.
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3. Planificarea unui curs bine structurat n detaliu, de multe ori n
cooperare cu alii, este un proces n conflict cu personalitatea
unui profesor puternic, individual i spontan, obinuit a fi capabil
s-i planifice prelegerea sa cu o sear nainte. Unii profesori tind
s fie extrem de individualiti, i au o mare dorin de a pune
amprenta personal asupra subiectului prezentat. O provocare
pentru profesorii care dezvolt cursuri este de a echilibra
coninutul subiectului cu dezvoltarea de abiliti, armonizarea
rezultatelor nvrii, metodele de evaluare i de nvare,
metodele i generarea adecvat a feedback-ului.
Tabelul 2. Analiza SWOT pentru e-learning
STRENGHTS WEAKNESSES
Independen fa de or i de loc;
Suport procese individuale de
nvare;
Procesul de nvare devine vizibil;
Metod de nvare reciproc = toat
lumea poate nva lucruri noi;
Documentaie bun referitoare la orice
tem;
Economisirea costurilor aferente
spaiilor de nvare;
Metod uoar i flexibil din punct de
vedere tehnic pentru a face fa la
problemele actuale;
Ofer un sentiment de comunitate,
neexistnd free riders, toat lumea
trebuie s participe;
Confer egalitate i diversitate;
Acoper nevoia de formare de baz;
Se elimin concediile medicale este
un curriculum flexibil, individual i de
sprijin;
Ofer feedback pentru studeni, dar i
pentru profesori.
Dezvoltarea continu a competenelor
de predare, prin asimilarea competene
legate de sistemele de instruire on-line
i de curs de dezvoltare on-line;
Profesorii pot, la rndul lor, s
promoveze i s integreze experiena
lor on-line cu alte proiecte i echipe n
cazul n care acestea sunt implicate;
Eficacitate i eficien mai mare a
procesului de nvmnt;
Ctigarea experienei specifice n ceea
ce privete metodele de on-line de
evaluare: chestionar, test gril, proiect
student;
Mijloace non-verbale de comunicare care
implic i anumite informaii pierdute;
Exist ntrzieri de a reaciona la platform,
feedback-ul nu este ntotdeauna imediat;
Lipsa rspunsului emotional;
Economisirea de costuri nu este
ntotdeauna real;
Rezistena unor profesori mpotriva
tehnologiei moderne de nvare;
Implicarea slab a unor profesori din cauza
modului relaxat de utilizare;
Implicarea slab a unor elevi din cauza
lipsei de auto-motivare;
Erori, posibile probleme de software sau
utilizare, neexistnd nici un asistent umane
pe care s se bazeze n timp real,
descurajnd utilizatorii;
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5. IMPORTANA FIEI DISCIPLINEI
Fia disciplinei se prezint ca un document care conine
un rezumat al subiectelor care trebuie acoperite ntr-un curs i
constituie un factor cheie pentru succesul oricrui curs e-learning.
ntr-unul dintre proiectele UE (denumit eduGI) se pot gsi exemple
la: http://edugi.uni-muenster.de/eduGI/e-learning_courses.php.
n general, n program ar trebui menionate
urmtoarele:
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Datele de contact: fotografie, numele complet, e-mail i alte date.
-
Scopul: aceast seciune prezint obiectivele, rezultatele
nvrii, abiliti, competene, principalele subiecte, metode i
principii de predare a cursului.
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Descriere: se utilizeaz structura pe module, capitole, paragrafe.
Prin aceast abordare se ofer studenilor o imagine clar cu
privire la coninutul cursului, astfel nct s i poat planifica
activitile n perioade mai mici, ceea ce este foarte util dac
avem n vedere c un student tipic de e-learning are un timp mai
scurt i, prin urmare, el/ea prefer s achiziioneze materiale de
nvare n porii mici.
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
Standardizarea preliminar a informaiei
transmise de tip ECTS;
Este alocat un timp mai ndelungat de a
reaciona la platform (participare mai
profund);
Presupune mai mult democraie;
Confer competene noi n paralel cu
coninutul;
Utilizarea oportunitilor multimedia:
video, voce.
Exist oportunitti sporite pentru a
organiza traininguri europene, existnd
mai puine obstacole de tipul timpului
sau spaiului;
Mai multe posibiliti de a obine fonduri
de finanare.
Organizaiile de e-learning pot reuni cu
uurin o diversitate mare de proiecte
europene axate pe e-incluziune i
sisteme mai eficiente de nvare;
E-learning este n sine o ocazie de a
reuni specialiti din diferite domenii care
s defineasc noi metodologii i
aplicaii;
Calitatea nu este destul de mare;
Nu exist suficieni instructori profesioniti
(coninut, tehnici), iar programa nu este
urmat;
Exist dependena de platform din punct
de vedere tehnic;
Nu este suficient de mult dialog ntre
studeni sau participani;
Lucrul n echip este mai dificil dect fa n
fa;
Se poate ajunge la dezavantajarea unor
grupuri int;
Curriculum-ul rspunde numai nevoilor
globale;
Lipsa de bani pentru resurse (tehnic,
persoane, timp), e-learning-ul fiind vzut
adesea ca fiind lipsit de costuri.
E-learning-ul pare a fi legat de o abordare
mai superficial de la studenii care sunt
obisnuiti cu modul de nvare tradiional i
au probleme cu definirea mecanismelor de
auto-motivare;
E-learning-ul este supus uzurii morale fiind
necesar mult dinamism n management;
Exist nevoia de sisteme automatizate de
evaluare a studenilor.
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Metode: lista aspectelor cheie necesare pentru finalizarea cu
succes a cursului. De obicei, aici se menioneaz metodele de
comunicare i de examen, volumul de lucru ateptat, etc.
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Participanii: grupul int primar sunt studeni, ale cror
cunotine necesare preliminare pentru nelegerea cursului
trebuie descrise exact.
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Organizarea: aceast parte este, n principal referitoare la orarul,
indicnd durata, data de sesiuni sincrone i data examenului
final. De asemenea, aici se menioneaz numrul planificat de
participani.
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Condiii de promovare: sunt date reglementri clare pentru
finalizarea cu succes a cursului. Pot fi enumerate aici chiar i
lista de sarcini, mpreun cu termenele limit.
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Cursuri de pregtire: aici sunt listate toate elementele care sunt
necesare pentru a ncepe cursul. De obicei aceasta nseamn c
ar trebui organizat un test de sesiuni sincrone i ncrcare a
materialului de nvare pentru platforma de e-learning, sau ca o
opiune putem furniza unele materiale off-line (cri).
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Bibliografie: aceast seciune conine lista privind literatura de
specialitate necesar recomandat i alte materiale utile
opionale de nvare.
Coninutul cursului
Dac vrem s se reutilizeze i s se disemineze
materialul didactic ntr-un mediu e-learning, trebuie s investim mult
efort n conversia i actualizarea bazat pe materialele noastre
existente. Putem ntlni urmtoarele sarcini:
- Adaptarea la alt limb (de exemplu, romn - englez);
- Conversie de texte simple n animaie;
- Dezvoltarea de software pentru ndeplinirea sarcinilor practice
prin internet (de exemplu, un program de transformare de
coordonate ntre sisteme diferite).
- Pentru autoevaluare este nevoie de exemple, exerciii, aplicaii.
Cnd se iau n considerare lucrrile necesare, se ajunge la
evaluarea cantitii de timp planificat pentru modulul dat, altfel
studenii nu vor fi n stare s finalizeze fiecare sarcin.
- Trebuie s se planifice sesiunile sincrone i pentru aceasta este
necesar s fie pregtite mijloace speciale interactive (de
exemplu, video, software-ul interactiv, de utilizare tutorial, etc.)
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6. CONCLUZII
Structura, metodele didactice i instrumentele utilizate
ntr-un sistem e-learning depind desigur de obiectivele cursului i
participanii int, ns stimularea studenilor, necesit un curs
atractiv, mpiedicndu-i s renune.
Din exemplele de bune practici se pot desprinde o serie
de recomandri [Blok, 2007b; Blok, 2007a], precum:
- n caz de schimburi inter-instituionale de cursuri, trebuie s
existe o bun integrare a cursurilor externe n programul de
studiu n acest sens, fiind necesare acorduri pe termen lung, iar
programarea de cursuri trebuie s se fac n avans. Mai mult, se
recomand armonizarea abordrilor didactice i materialelor de
curs.
- La proiectarea obiectivelor cursului, a competenelor furnizate
este recomandat s aplice principiile importante de nvare i
exist opiuni pentru diferite stiluri de nvare.
- n majoritatea cazurilor, se recomand stimularea colaborrii
active ntre participanii la curs. Acest lucru ofer anse bune de
pstrare a interesului studenilor, creeaz un sentiment de grup,
sprijin nvarea i cursanii se pot ajuta reciproc ntr-o anumit
msur.
- Trebuie alocat o grij special referitoare la realizarea
materialelor didactice interoperabile/portabile, n special n cazul
n care se prevede i utilizarea acestora pe diferite platforme de
nvmnt sau n cursuri diferite.
- Studenii trebuie pregtii, pentru mediile i stilul nou de predare
nainte de nceperea cursului, mai ales utilizatorii care folosesc
prima dat platforma. Trebuie totodat oferit sprijin n planificarea
activitilor de curs.
- Utilizarea mijloacelor audio n sesiunile sincrone poate fi
problematic pentru studenii internaionali. Deseori, acetia pot
sau nu pot nelege engleza vorbit. Cea mai bun soluie n
astfel de cazuri este de a evita utilizarea de sunet sau de a
pregti soluii de back-up.
- Dezvoltarea i implementarea unui curs e-learning este
consumatoare de timp i costisitoare. n general, proiectarea i
punerea n aplicare necesit o mulime de resurse umane, dar de
ndat ce cursul a fost realizat, evaluat i adaptat/actualizat,
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reluarea sa poate fi mai eficient i ofer o mai mare flexibilitate
pentru personalul didactic dect ofer un curs clasic, fa n fa.
- Orientarea efectiv i eficient a studenilor, la distan, deoarece
diferenele culturale, un decalaj de tehnologie i diferena de stil
pot mpiedica buna practic e-learning i aplicaiile ntr-un mediu
internaional. E-profesorul are nevoie de bune abiliti de
comunicare.
- Dificultile care ar putea aprea cu studenii internaionali sunt
diferenele culturale, lipsurile tehnologice i diferenele de stiluri
de nvare. Acest lucru necesit o bun capacitate de
comunicare a cadrelor didactice/moderatori, flexibilitate, i,
probabil, moduri diferite de a oferi coninutul acelai curs. Se
poate limita, de asemenea, utilizarea de instrumente i software
n curs.
- O mare importan o are asigurarea calitii, de exemplu atenia
acordat evalurilor externe.
-
Ar trebui s se aib n vedere obinerea drepturilor de autor
pentru materialele realizate.

Modelele de bune practici pentru cooperare inter-
instituional n scopul dezvoltrii e-cursurilor pot fi transferate n
toate domeniile tiinifice din nvmntul superior, deci i n
domeniul geodeziei.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Badea, G., Badea, A. C., 2007, E-Learning, alternativ de asimilare i perfecionare
i n domeniul msurtorilor terestre?, RevCAD nr. 7/2007, ISSN 1583 - 2279, pag.
49-58;
2. Bax, G., 2007, Evaluation report: EduGI e-learning course Virtual Excursions in
Earth Science, 2 p., Uppsala University, Sweden.
3. Bloor, R., 2009, E-learning SWOT analysis, Organisation: Sheffield Teaching
Hospitals, E-minisummit on Youth Information and Counselling work training 15-
18.10.09 in Finland
4. Bjorke, S. ., 2008, Challenges and training needs of E-supporters Sharing Good
Practices: E-learning in Surveying, Geo-information Sciences and Land
Administration, FIG International Workshop 2008, Enschede, The Netherlands, 11-
13 June 2008
5. Blok, C.A. (ed.), 2007b, Report e-learning lessons: experiences and prospects, E-
learning day on May 23rd, 2007, ITC, Enschede, the Netherlands, 56 p.
6. Blok, C., 2008, Sharing e-courses in GI Science with partners: business model,
experiences and lessons learnt Sharing Good Practices: E-learning in Surveying,
Geo-information Sciences and Land Administration FIG International Workshop
2008 Enschede, The Netherlands, 11-13 June 2008.
14
7. Garcia, P., Amandi, A., Schiaffino, S., et al., 2008, eTeacher: Providing personalized
assistance to e-learning students, Computers & Education no 51 (2008) 17441754
8. Markus, B., 2008, Thinking about e-learning. Proceedings FIG International
Workshop. Sharing Good Practices: E-learning in Surveying, Geo-information
Sciences and Land, Administration, 1113 June 2008, ITC, Enschede, the
Netherlands.
9. Mocean, L., Buchmann, R., A., Ciaca, M., 2008, Learning Intelligent Collaborative
Systems, Economy Informatics, vol. 10, no. 1/2010.
10. Tamas, Jancso, 2008, Development of E-learning Packages in the Blackboard
Learning System Sharing Good Practices: E-learning in Surveying, Geo-information
Sciences and Land Administration FIG Workshop E-Learning 2008, Enschede, The
Netherlands, 11-13 June 2008
11. *** 2010 - Enhancing Surveying Education through e-Learning,
INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF SURVEYORS (FIG), A publication of FIG
Commission 2 Professional Education FIG Publication No 46, FIG REPORT, ISBN
978-87-90907-76-1
12. *** 2008 - European Commission, Education Audiovisual and Culture Executive
Agency, 2008, E-Learning Evaluation of final report.
13. *** 2009 The Positive Impact of eLearning, Intel White Paper, Printed in USA
0809/GO/HBD/PDF
DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION THROUGH E-LEARNING
SYSTEMS - SWOT ANALYSIS
Abstract: The paper presents a SWOT analysis on modern methods of
learning through e-learning. There are studied the reasons for this type of
systems is successful, as well potentially critical points to be matched by
traditional methods of learning.

15
IMPORTANA ALEGERII ECHIPAMENTELOR
HARDWARE I A UNEI PLATFORME SOFTWARE
ADECVATE PRIVIND IMPLEMENTAREA UNUI SISTEM
E-LEARNING SPECIFIC MSURTORILOR TERESTRE -
CONDIII ESENIALE
ef lucr. univ. dr. ing. Ana-Cornelia Badea, Facultatea de Geodezie,
Conf. univ. dr. ing. Gheorghe Badea, Facultatea de Geodezie,
Rezumat: Lucrarea prezint principalele caracteristici ale
echipamentelor hardware necesare implementrii i
funcionrii corespunztoare a sistemelor e-learning
specifice domeniului msurtorilor terestre.
Sunt prezentate, de asemenea, caracteristicile de baz pe
care platforma software, pe care funcioneaz un astfel de
sistem trebuie s le ndeplineasc.
Cuvinte cheie: e-learning, hardware, msurtori terestre,
tehnici de nvare
1. ASPECTE GENERALE
Pentru realizarea unui sistem e-learning de calitate se
pot identifica cinci categorii largi i distincte de elemente:
- infrastructur
- standarde tehnice
- coninut digital
- modaliti pedagogice
- dezvoltare instituional
Acestea se mpart n continuare n 17 subcategorii, dup
cum se arat n figura 1.
16

Figura 1. Elemente de baz pentru crearea unui sistem e-learning de
calitate
2. OBSERVAII PRINCIPALE
Platforma e-learning ar trebui s fie aleas cu grij. n
principal, exist dou opiuni. Platformele pot fi dezvoltate utiliznd
instrumentele disponibile open-source (de exemplu, MOODLE) sau
o licen (Blackboard, de exemplu).
Fiecare alegere are propriile avantaje i dezavantaje.
Dac se alege prima variant sunt necesare resurse umane bine
instruite, programatori, sau cel puin profesioniti care pot utiliza
toate aspectele unui mediu open source, care este de obicei bazat
pe logica Linux. Ca avantaj, un astfel de sistem poate fi creat i
adaptat pentru nevoile complexe ale utilizatorului.
Dac este aleas varianta cu licen, instituia va avea
nevoie doar de administratori care pot opera sistemul i, n acest
caz, pot fi utilizate doar funcii built-in. Pe de alt parte, trebuie
menionat c aceste sisteme sunt foarte bine testate, au o
funcionare stabil pe baza funciilor create.
17
n acest sistem, profesorii acceseaz un server pentru a
ncrca materialele, inclusiv slide-urile de curs, tutorialele cu
ntrebri i rspunsuri, etc, conform curriculei i fiei disciplinei.
Pentru lectori/instructori este foarte facil s ncarce coninutul de
predare.
Studenii/cursanii, de asemenea, acceseaz acel server
pentru a obine materialele digitale i pentru a se implica n forumul
de discuii on-line cu instructorii lor i colegii.
Personalul administrativ trebuie s acioneze pe roluri
pentru administrarea problemelor online. Experii tehnici trebuie s
furnizeze sprijin pentru lectori/instructori, studeni, personal de
administrare.
Astfel, rezid faptul c este foarte important pentru
experii tehnici de proiectare s aib o platform mai bun bazat pe
e-learning i mediul Internet, astfel nct procedurile s poat fi uor
realizate i puse n aplicare.
Din punct de vedere al infrastructurii hardware, n tabelul
1 se pot observa dotrile necesare pentru a crea un sistem e-
learning funcional n parteneriat, ntre 4 universiti. Dup cum se
vede, universitatea care ntreine serverul beneficiaz de dotrile
hardware aferente.
3. TEHNOLOGIA I INFRASTRUCTURA
Baza e-learning este tehnologia digital calculatoarele
i reelele de calculatoare. Internetul permite comunicarea n
ntreaga lume pentru a oferi cursuri e-learning. Reelele de band
larg permit transferul unor volume mari de date ntre computere.
Progresele n software i hardware permit abordri noi i inovatoare
de predare i nvare.
Atunci cnd se discut despre tehnologia e-learning,
Internetul este primul lucru la care ne gndim. Chiar exist o
tendin n rndul comunitii de Internet de a restructura sistemul
de Internet n ansamblu pentru a crea un sistem e-learning gigantic.
n majoritatea cazurilor, Internetul ofer cea mai eficient metod i
cele mai eficiente costuri pentru a introduce un sistem e-learning.
Dincolo de capacitatea de a interconecta calculatoare, este nevoie
de legturi n aa fel nct modulele e-learning s poat fi gestionate
efectiv i eficient.
18

Tabelul 1. Infrastructura hardware minim pentru realizarea unui system
e-learning funcional ntre 4 universiti partenere
Denumire echipament
Total
Buci
Univ
1
Univ
2
Univ
3
Univ
4
HARDWARE: Server - Portal 1 1
HARDWARE: Server - Platforma
elearning (LMS + LCMS)
1 1
HARDWARE: Server - Colaborare 1 1
HARDWARE: Server - Baza de date si
mail
1 1
HARDWARE: Server - Active Directory si
CAS
1 1
HARDWARE: Switch 1 1
HARDWARE: Router rackabil 1 1
LICENTE: Licenta Server 2 2
LICENTE: Licenta baza de date 1 1
HARDWARE: UPS APC - montabil in
Rack de 19''
1 1
HARDWARE: Rack - carcasa 1 1
HARDWARE: Rack - console switch
(KVM)
1 1
HARDWARE: Rack - tastatura, mouse,
monitor
1 1
HARDWARE: Laptop ech. Mangement 12 12
LICENTE: Pachet aplicatii office 12 12
LICENTE: solutie antivirus 12 12
HARDWARE: Laptop experti 36 9 9 9 9
LICENTE: Pachet aplicatii office 36 9 9 9 9
LICENTE: Solutie antivirus 36 9 9 9 9
HARDWARE: Desktop Laboratoare
Studiu
100 25 25 25 25
LICENTE: Solutie antivirus 100 25 25 25 25
AP. BIROTICA: videoproiectoare
Laboratoare Studiu
4 1 1 1 1
AP. BIROTICA: ecrane de proiectie
Laboratoare Studiu
4 1 1 1 1
AP. BIROTICA: copiatoare Laboratoare
Studiu
4 1 1 1 1

19

Figura 2. Fluxul operaional ntr-un sistem e-learning
[adaptare dup Gillieron, 2010]
Accesul la Internet n band larg este necesar s se
foloseasc pentru cele mai multe obiecte e-learning. Un sistem e-
learning se realizeaz cel mai simplu prin utilizarea Learning
Management Systems (LMS), prin care se pot crea portaluri pe
Internet, prin intermediul crora studenii pot obine cu uurin
accesul la obiecte de nvare. Aceste sisteme, numite platforme e-
learning, sunt amplasate ca portaluri, pentru a permite instructorilor
i a administratorilor s organizeze i s ofere cursuri de
nvmnt.
Learning Management Systems (LMS) - Platformele e-
learning sunt produse software care organizeaz i automatizeaz
multe dintre activitile asociate cu e-learning. Aceste platforme pot
fi organizate ntr-o varietate de moduri. E-platformele de nvare pot
oferi utilizatorilor o structur care poate fi uor adaptat pentru
utilizri multiple.
Exist mii de aplicaii software disponibile pentru
construirea i gestionarea e-learning. Au aprut o serie de aplicaii
software noi, viznd n mod direct crearea de cursuri e-learning i
materiale digitale.
Companii precum Adobe, IMC AG, Lectora, RapideL i
SoftChalk, dezvolt software-ul specific care vizeaz dezvoltarea de
aplicaii e-learning. Majoritatea software-ului pare s se sprijine pe
standardele din domeniu. Tendina este open source i nvarea
web-based. Aplicaiile online, cum ar fi Google Earth, care se
20
concentreaz pe informaii geospaiale, sunt proiectate pentru e-
learning i sunt ncorporate n exerciiile e-learning.
Pot fi accesate arhive de informaii digitale (bibliotecile
virtuale) pentru a sprijini orice sistem e-learning. Acestea conin
nregistrri electronice, specifice pentru una sau mai multe subiecte
conexe. De exemplu, FIG gestioneaz o bibliotec virtual cu lucrri
prezentate la atelierele de lucru FIG, sptmnile de lucru anuale i
conferine. Bibliotecile virtuale sunt indexate n bazele de date
electronice de materiale educaionale. Acestea sunt locurile unde
instructorii, cercettorii i studenii pot cuta pentru a gsi publicaii
electronice n domeniul cercetrii, referitor la o anumite tem. Cele
mai multe academii i biblioteci naionale i-au dezvoltat capacitile
virtuale ca unele copii electronice ale resurselor bibliotecii s poat fi
descrcate.
Este permis accesul la obiecte de nvare i la
metadatele obiectelor. Aceste biblioteci constau din obiecte e-
learning care pot fi accesate i reasamblate pentru a modifica
cursurile existente sau pentru a dezvolta cursuri noi. Accesul la
biblioteci virtuale poate fi gratuit pentru toi, gratuit pentru cei abonai
sau pe baz de abonament. Bunele practici ndrum ca bibliotecile
virtuale s conin metadate ale materialelor de nvare disponibile,
astfel nct elevii i instructorii s poat evalua utilitatea acestor
materiale pentru o anumit necesitate.
Rolul bibliotecii virtuale nu poate fi subestimat n e-
learning n mediul academic. Studenii pot accesa biblioteca virtual
de oriunde i ori de cte ori doresc, acesta fiind un avantaj fa de
cursurile tradiionale.
Se pot accesa obiectele de nvare prin intermediul unui
software platform care se afl pe server la universitatea gazd (a
se vedea exemplul din figura 3).
3. O SOLUIE VIABIL DIN PUNCT DE VEDERE SOFTWARE
PENTRU IMPLEMENTAREA E-LEARNING PENTRU
INSTRUIREA N SPECIALIZAREA MSURTORI TERESTRE I
CADASTRU
Platforma software AEL, dezvoltat de SIVECO
Romnia a fost creat pentru sprijinirea procesului de nvare prin
mijloace informatice moderne. Aceasta reprezint un mod de
instruire inteligent n concordan cu principiile psiho-pedagogiei
21
actuale, punnd la dispoziia profesorilor un instrument suplimentar
de lucru, caracterizat prin eficien i capacitate de adaptare.

Figura 3. Exemplu de urmat: interfa pentru e-learning n msurtorile
terestre la Universitatea Nottingham [link dup Roberts, 2010, accesat
mai 2011]
Utilizarea platformei AEL se refer n principal la faptul
c ofer:
- un sistem de operare care este periodic upgradat;
- module de lecii care trateaz interactiv diverse subiecte din
programa colar sau testeaz i evalueaz studenii, realiznd
o monitorizare inteligent n funcie de nivelul de pregtire al
fiecruia;
- accesul nelimitat la informaie prin Internet sau baze de date
proprii (cum ar fi dicionarele, care afieaz definiii la o simpl
selectare a unui cuvnt);
- o administrare a resurselor universitii, contribuind punctual i
global la organizarea eficient a programului de instruire.
22

Figura 4. Exemple de portaluri e-learning [accesat mai 2011]
(http://www.checkpoint-elearning.com/links/)
Ce este AEL?
- un sistem integrat de predare/nvare i management al
coninutului, menit s sprijine profesorii/tutorii, studenii,
dezvoltatorii de coninut, precum i pe ceilali participani la actul
educaional n procesul de nvare.
- o platform software modern, construit pe baza tehnologiilor
actuale, fiind construit n sistem multistrat, folosind un client
care nu consum resurse, de tip browser web conectat la un
server web i de aplicaii scris n Java. Sunt utilizate tehnologii
moderne ca Enterprise Java Beans, jdbc, Java servlets, jsp-s,
Java applets i XML.
- un suport pentru predare/nvare, evaluare i notare,
administrarea, proiectarea i monitorizarea coninutului. Totodat
permite vizualizarea i administrarea unor tipuri complexe de
coninut educaional, precum: materiale interactive, tutoriale,
exerciii, simulri, jocuri educative.
Se folosete un concept de reutilizare a coninutului care
este bazat pe formate de descriere a mpachetrilor n XML i n
care au fost implementate elementele necesare pentru a putea
importa i exporta elementele necesare conform standardelor
MathMl, SCORM i IMS.
Biblioteca de materiale educaionale acioneaz ca un
gestionar de materiale: este adaptabil, configurabil, indexabil i
23
permite o cutare facil. Drepturile de acces pentru fiecare
utilizator/grup de utilizatori pot fi adaptate i aplicate oricrui
segment al bibliotecii de materiale educaionale. Baza de date
digitale ofer funcii de cutare ierarhic, filtrat, sau dup cuvinte
cheie.
Chiar i utilizatorii nceptori pot:
- crea coninut (editor HTML ncorporat, editor de formule
matematice, editoare de teste i de dicionare); Coninutul poate
fi structurat i adaptat n funcie de nevoile profesorilor i
mbogit cu informaii legate de curricul, cuvinte cheie,
versiune, autor, etc.
- importa/exporta coninut din fiiere, arhive de resurse utiliznd
standarde de mpachetare precum SCORM i IMS;
- adapta sau edita coninut;
- construi propriile cursuri din componente deja existente.
AEL este optimizat pentru nvare sincron, profesorul
controlnd n ntregime lecia, crend, coordonnd i monitoriznd
procesul educaional.
AEL ofer, de asemenea, faciliti pentru nvarea
asincron (n ritmul fiecrui cursant), proiecte n colaborare i
nvare la distan.
Testele sunt integrate cu fiele de studiu ale studenilor,
sistemul pstrnd evidena evoluiei fiecruia.
Trsturi generale:
- Interfa prietenoas, uor adaptabil, difereniat pe roluri,
grupuri, drepturi de acces.
- Rolurile, grupurile, utilizatorii i privilegiile de acces asociate
acestora sunt foarte uor de administrat.
- Bazat pe standarde: AEL este compatibil cu MathML, SCORM i
IMS;
- Uor de instalat i de administrat;
- Suport multi-lingvistic i regional.
- AEL este optimizat pentru:
nvare sincron, profesorul controlnd n ntregime lecia,
crend, coordonnd i monitoriznd mediul educaional;
nvmnt asincron - studiu n ritmul personal al studentului,
proiecte de colaborare; nvmnt la distan.
Platforma AEL este uor de adaptat pentru orice tip de
instruire sau pentru orice domeniu de management al educaiei, n
24
acest moment platforma este folosit n universiti, dar i n
societi care i asigura instruirea angajailor.
Toate aceste aspecte vin n sprijinul ideii c platforma
AEL poate face fa cu succes pentru crearea unui sistem e-learning
performant i de calitate pentru specializarea Msurtori terestre i
cadastru.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Anderson, J., 2005, A Common Framework for E-learning Quality, Observatory for
New Technologies and Education,
http://www.xplora.org/ww/en/pub/insight/thematic_dossiers/articles/quality_criteria/e
quality1.htm
2. Aguirre, S., Salvacha, J., Quemada,J., Fumero, A., Tapiador, A., 2006, Joint
Degrees in E-Learning Systems: A Web Services Approach, Department of
Telematics Engineering, Universidad Politcnica de Madrid (UPM), Madrid, Spain,
1-4244-0429-0/06
3. Badea, G., Badea, A. C., 2007, E-Learning, alternativ de asimilare i perfecionare
i n domeniul msurtorilor terestre?, RevCAD nr. 7/2007, ISSN 1583 - 2279, pag.
49-58;
4. Gillieron, P.Y., 2010, Professional Education e-Learning - content development
methods, tools, student support, Enhancement of Geomatics Education by Using
Internet Based Techniques, FIG Congress 2010, Facing the Challenges Building
the Capacity, Sydney, Australia, 11-16 April 2010
5. Roberts, G. W., Gray, J., 2010, NEST A New Web Based Teaching Tool for
Engineering Surveying (4451), FIG Congress 2010, Facing the Challenges
Building the Capacity, Sydney, Australia, 11-16 April 2010
6. *** 2010 - Enhancing Surveying Education through e-Learning, International
Federation of Surveyors (FIG), A publication of FIG Commission 2 Professional
Education FIG Publication No 46, FIG REPORT, ISBN 978-87-90907-76-1
8. http://www.elearning-forum.ro/sisteme/AeL.html
9. http://portal.edu.ro/index.php
10. http://www.immromania.ro/index.php
11. http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/toolkits/play_1193
12. http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/toolkits/play_1240
13. http://www.checkpoint-elearning.com/links/
THE IMPORTANCE OF CHOOSING HARDWARE AND
SOFTWARE PLATFORM SUITABLE FOR IMPLEMENTING AN E-
LEARNING SPECIFIC LAND MEASUREMENTS - CORE
CONDITIONS
Abstract: The article presents the main features on the hardware required for
the proper implementation and functioning of an improved e-learning system in
the domain of land measurement. It is also presented the basic features that
should meet the software platform which may functioning such a system.
25
ASPECTE CHEIE PRIVIND IMPLEMENTAREA
TEHNICILOR MODERNE DE NVARE N DOMENIUL
GEODEZIEI
Conf. univ. dr. ing. Gheorghe Badea, Facultatea de Geodezie,
Rezumat: Articolul prezint termenii cheie cu privire la
resursele necesare implementrii unui sistem de nvare
eficient. Pentru un sistem operaional sunt necesari
parametri tehnici specifici, respectiv resurse umane
instruite corespunztor, care pot dezvolta o curricul
modern i competitiv i o platform software adecvat
pentru piaa muncii.
Punctele cheie sunt descrise ca o condiie preliminar la
implementare.
Cuvinte cheie: e-learning, geodezie, tehnici de nvare
1. ASPECTE GENERALE
Metodele e-learning pot fi instrumente foarte eficiente
pentru organizaiile care doresc s dezvolte sau s asigure formarea
personalului pentru lucrul cu tehnologii i tehnici noi.
Metodele e-learning pot fi, ns, un eec dac nu sunt
gestionate corect. Acestea nu reprezint un panaceu, trebuie vzute
numai ca mijloace pentru atingerea unui scop. Pentru a avea
succes, sistemul e-learning trebuie s fie creat special pentru o
instituie anume.
Alegerea acestei metode de instruire nu ar trebui s fie
fcut pentru c este la mod, ci ar trebui s fie aleas pentru c s-
a ajuns la concluzia c, implementat n mod corect, poate constitui
cel mai eficient i eficace mijloc de nvare.
Ca cele mai multe implementri ce impun o schimbare n
cadrul unei instituii, succesul vine de la o planificare i o execuie
atent.
Prin urmare, sunt valabile n implementare principiile
clasice ale managementului de proiect.
n perioada de implementare a e-learning, credibilitatea
echipei proiectului este fundamental i constituie un punct critic.
26
Introducerea de noi metode i tehnologii poate crea ezitare att la
nivelul conducerii, ct i la nivelul angajailor. Aceast ezitare poate
fi depit n cazul n care oamenii au ncredere n cei care
gestioneaz schimbarea.
2. IDENTIFICAREA NECESITII IMPLEMENTRII INSTRUIRII
PRIN METODE E-LEARNING
Punctul de plecare pentru un proiect e-learning
presupune luarea n considerare a ambelor aspecte, att
individuale, ct i organizaionale.
La nivel individual, trebuie apreciat reacia posibil n
faa implementrii sistemului e-learning a celor implicai. Au avut
acces la e-learning n perioada anterioar? Sunt familiarizai cu
utilizarea calculatoarelor? Care este reacia general la schimbare?
Acestea sunt doar cteva din ntrebrile care ar trebui s fie luate n
considerare la nivel individual.
La nivel de instituie trebuie s se rspund la
urmtoarele ntrebri: Ct de urgent este nevoia de mijloace noi de
nvare? Cum vor fi acoperite costurile? Cum se vor vedea
rezultatele investiiei? Se pot alege anumite elemente msurabile?
n cazul n care nevoile indivizilor sunt satisfcute, atunci exist o
probabilitate mai mare ca i partea de implementare s fie o reuit.
Rezistena la schimbare va fi minimizat n cazul n care
e-learning are un scop clar, bine determinat, care rezid din
necesitile reale ale instituiei.
n cadrul Facultii de Geodezie din UTCB, au fost
parcuri aceti pai n perioada n care s-a nscut ideea
implementrii unui astfel de sistem. O echip de lucru restrns,
avndu-l ca leader pe Decanul Facultii de Geodezie, s-a implicat
n identificarea nevoii implementrii unor mijloace moderne de
instruire n nvmntul geodezic romnesc.
Unele implementri e-learning sunt de baz, altele sunt
foarte complexe i detaliate. n cazul n care metodele existente de
nvare sunt de baz, punerea n aplicare iniial a e-learning ar
trebui s fie tot de baz. Acest lucru nu nseamn ns c ar trebui
s fie vizat numai nivelul de baz un sistem e-learning este o
oportunitate deosebit prin introducerea unor noi metode i abordri
care s profite de tehnologie complex i care s presupun
27
familiarizarea studenilor cu cele mai noi instrumente i metode de
culegere i prelucrare a datelor.
Tehnologia este mbuntit mereu, iar creterea
diversitii dispozitivelor mobile (telefoane mobile) i PDA-uri
(Portable Digital Assistant) face ca instruirea JIT(Just-in-Time), s
fie o posibilitate real de nvare i informare. Acest lucru este
exact ceea ce este necesar n meseria de geodez - eficiena
nvrii atunci cnd este necesar, ntr-o form uor de accesat.
Schimbrile rapide n aceste noi tehnologii reprezint
una dintre problemele care trebuie luate n considerare atunci cnd
se analizeaz ateptrile privind managementul. Oamenii vorbesc
despre posibiliti materiale destul de uor, fr ns a studia destul
de profund posibilitile financiare reale.
Avnd n vedere aceste aspecte, n cadrul facultii
noastre s-a identificat ca unic posibilitate de finanare a unui astfel
de proiect accesarea fondurilor europene. Studiind totodat bunele
practici i abordrile internaionale (tabelul 1), s-a reliefat ideea unui
parteneriat ntre cteva universiti i o instituie furnizoare de
software care s asigure implementarea din punct de vedere tehnic
a platformei de e-learning.
Tabelul 1. Privire de ansamblu asupra programelor majore de e-learning
oferite n domeniul msurtorilor terestre [dup FIG Publication 46, 2010]
Programul Descrierea Specificaii e-learning
CCRS
Tutorials
Instruire n teledetecie oferit de Centrul
Canadian de Teledetecie
Module de instruire interactive
eduGI
Cursuri online variate n domeniul
geoinformaiei, prin care universitile
europene pun la dispoziie e-cursuri
Platform educaional, auto-
testri, sesiuni de instruire n
clasa virtual
ESRI
Cursuri de instruire conduse de tutore i n
ritm propriu, web-seminarii ntr-un
domeniu larg de GIS i
subiecte conexe
Clas virtual i Campus virtual;
instruire online
pentru formarea resurselor

E-tutor
GIS pentru planificarea dezvoltrii locale
Institutul Indian de Tehnologie/ UNDP
Materiale multi-media de instruire
EuroSDR-
Euro-Serv
Cursuri GIS avansate
Organizaia European de cercetare
pentru date spaiale
Cursuri scurte pe teme avansate;
inclusiv atelier de lucru de 2 zile
la nceput;
au loc n diferite locuri din Europa
Gimolus
Cursuri de GIS i modelare la
Universitatea din Stuttgart
WebGIS
GIS
Self Learning
Tool
Noiuni introductive i avansate n GIS,
Universitatea din Melbourne
Module multimedia interactive
GITTA
Module GIS, Campus Virtual Elveian,
Consoriu de universiti din Elvetia
Campus virtual multilingv,
abordare pedagogic e-class
28
ICRSEdu
Resurse online n teledetecie, Centrul
Internaional de Teledetecie SUA
Curriculum de baz structurat
web pentru teledetecie
LEAP
GIS, GPS, cartografie, topografie,
Universitatea de tiine Curtin, Australia
Instruire virtual online, aplicaii n
teren virtuale, module variate,
instruire deschis
UNIGIS
Reea internaional fomat din institutii
din ntreaga lume pentru instruirea n GIS
Website, clas virtual, conferine
web, multilingvism
S-a hotrt deci crearea unui parteneriat ntre UTCB
Facultatea de Geodezie, Universitatea Politehnica din Timioara,
Universitatea Gheorghe Asachi din Iai, Universitatea 1
Decembrie 1918 din Alba-Iulia i SIVECO Romania SA.
S-a conceput i scris proiectul, s-a depus cererea de
finanare, iar n septembrie 2010 s-a semnat contractul. Proiectul a
demarat la 1 octombrie 2010.
Este adevrat c din exemplele de bune practici s-a
desprins ideea c multe proiecte de e-learning au condus la
economii semnificative, datorit faptului c e-learning poate acoperi
instruirea unui numr mare de persoane ntr-o perioad scurt de
timp, eliminarea cheltuielilor de cltorie pentru participani i
formatori. Prin urmare, un proiect bun e-learning poate salva o
mulime de bani. Totui trebuie fcute estimri prudente i economii
financiare, astfel nct rezultatul final s aduc la buget economii
chiar mai mari dect cele anticipate.
Meninerea la nivelul ateptrilor pe tot parcursul
proiectului este o alt problem cheie. Declaraiile i afirmaiile
fcute trebuie s fie realizabile. n conversaii, nenelegerile trebuie
s fie clarificate imediat. Comunicarea trebuie s fie continu i s
existe mecanisme de feedback.
Dac ateptrile sunt prea mari sau nerealiste, vor
aprea probleme atunci cnd sunt prezentate situaia i realizrile
efective.
n mod similar, trebuie s fie informate de evoluia
proiectului i alte pri interesate. Rapoartele trebuie s fie exacte i
actuale.
3. CARACTERISTICI CHEIE ALE SISTEMULUI E-LEARNING I
IMPORTANA ACESTUIA N PROCESUL CUNOATERII
Pentru a proiecta i implementa sistemul de e-learning, a
fost necesar o documentare i o nelegere profund a metodelor i
29
a modului n care un astfel de sistem influeneaz procesul de
nvare.
Potrivit punctelor de vedere diferite asupra nvrii i
teoriilor metodelor de nvare, mijloacele de nvare sunt
complexe, fiind constituite din combinaii de e-learning, cursuri la
clas, nvarea la locul de munc i forme de nvare formal,
non-formal sau informal i educaie.
nvarea electronic se bazeaz pe utilizarea
tehnologiilor informaionale i de computer pentru a facilita i
mbunti experienele de nvare sub form de curs stand-alone,
cu sau fr interaciune din partea instructorului sau cu colegii de
clas, sal de clas virtual bazat pe Web, simulri pe calculator i
mijloace mobile de nvare cu calculatorul, PDA-uri sau folosind
telefoanele inteligente, sau printr-o combinaie a unora dintre
tehnologiile menionate mai sus.
Prin urmare, aa cum se arat n figura 1, strategiile de
instruire pentru mediile educaionale de e-learning ar trebui s
includ: (a) clase virtuale interactive; (b) metode de cercetare
bazate pe nvare; (c) nvarea experimental (de exemplu,
experien, din lumea real pentru cei care nva n parteneriat cu
profesioniti, e-mentori, e-moderatori i comunitate); (d) nvarea
colaborativ de lucru n echip i pe proiecte; (e) metode autentice
i reale de evaluare; (e) integrarea TIC n predare i nvare.
Ca rezultat, studenii traverseaz urmtoarele patru
etape (figura 2):
- Socializarea - transformarea din cunotinele tacite n cunotine
operaionale n cadrul unor team building-uri.
- Externalizarea - transformarea din cunotinele tacite n
cunotine conceptuale, adic n cunotine explicite, de
exemplu, dialoguri semnificative ntre studeni.
- Combinarea - transformarea de la cunoaterea explicit
conceptual n cunotine sistematice explicite, de exemplu, de
prelucrare a informaiilor.
- Internalizarea - transformarea de la cunoatere explicit
sistematic operaional n cunotine tacite, de exemplu,
nvarea organizaional.
30

Figura 1. Modelul e-colaborativ centrat pe student actorii principali
[adaptare dup Lam, 2008]

Figura 2. Conversia cunoaterii n e-mediul de nvare
rolul i locul e-learning [adaptare dup Lam, 2008]
31
n timpul etapelor de mai sus a procesului de gestionare
a cunotinelor, se pot crea cunotine noi i noi metode de
nelegere. Astfel, e-learning este o strategie educaional mai
degrab, dect un obiect de studiu de la sine. Avantajele
economice, sociale i beneficiile academice de adoptare a
sistemelor de e-learning sunt prezentate n tabelul 2.
Studiile privind nvmntul superior arat c studenii
au nvat mai mult prin intermediul unui sistem e-learning din
cauza:
- complexitii pedagogice,
- accesului sporit la cunotine,
- interaciunii mbuntite ntre studeni,
- nvrii i reuitelor individuale,
- creterii raportului cost-eficacitate,
- uurinei de reluare a noiunilor.
Tabelul 2 - Avantajele economice, sociale i beneficiile academice de
adoptare a sistemelor de e-learning [adaptare dup Lam, 2008]
Avantaje economice Avantaje sociale Beneficii academice
1. e-learning poate reduce
costurile de
educaie, inclusiv costurile
cu profesorii, unele taxe
de colarizare i cheltuieli
de deplasare.
2. e-universitile permit ca
studeni
din ntreaga lume s poat
audia i participa la
anumite cursuri;
3. e-learning sporete
receptivitatea i
comunicarea cu un numr
mare de studeni simultan;
4. e-learning ofer solutii
scalabile, de exemplu,
referitor la numrul de
participani i la adaptarea
personalizat a acestora la
mediul de lucru;
6. e-learning ofer prghii
importante referitoare la
cunotine
de management
bazate pe Web.
1. Web permite
persoanelor modaliti
de nvare n
comuniti virtuale,
motiveaz
social i organizaional
nvarea, i
mbuntete
coeziunea social.
2. Cunotinele sunt
uor de accesat
de ctre studeni, este
accelerat
perfecionarea,
se deschid noi
perspective n carier.
3. Studenii pot accesa
e-learning oriunde i
n orice moment n
facultate, la locul de
munc sau la domiciliu.
4. Universalitatea e-
learning, deoarece prin
intermediul Web poate
fi folosit oriunde, n
ntreaga lume.
1. e-learning dezvolt capacitatea auto-
dirijat de nvare i abiliti interactive
ale studenilor.
2. Coninutul curriculum-urilor este
standardizat i personalizat, n funcie
de nevoile de nvare.
3. Coninutul curriculum-ului este actual
i de ncredere, deoarece
informaiile permit o actualizare
instantanee.
4. e-sistemul de evaluare faciliteaz
mbuntirea metodelor de auto-
nvare, atestrile online, auto-
evaluarea, feedback imediat, actualizri
publice, analize de date, forumuri.
5. e-sistemul de portofoliu faciliteaz
rapid regsirea studenilor performani
din punct de vedere academic (de
exemplu, n funcie de rezultatele
testelor), ca i pe cei performani non-
academic (cu caliti morale,
intelectuale, fizice, sociale, estetice).
6. e-learning promoveaz
managementul cunoaterii n creterea
nivelului de cunoatere a persoanelor,
captarea cunotinelor ntr-o form
reutilizabil, rafinarea cunotinelor,
schimbul de cunotine i aplicarea lor
pentru a rezolva diverse probleme.
32
4. OBSERVAII PRIVIND PROIECTAREA SISTEMULUI E-
LEARNING
n faza de proiectare, ntrebrile la care trebuie s se
rspund sunt:
- se nva ce este necesar?
- cum ar trebui studenii s nvee, care sunt metodele lor de
nvare?
- cum s se nvee i s se evalueze?
Componentele proiectrii curriculum-ului includ:
- stabilirea scopurilor i a obiectivelor de analiz a caracteristicilor
i nevoilor studenilor;
- analiza critic i selecia coninutului curriculum-ului;
- stabilirea criteriilor de evaluare cu referire la evaluarea studenilor,
nivelurile de cunotine, aptitudinile intelectuale, abilitile motorii;
- selecia sau producia de manuale, pagini web, clipuri video i alte
prezentri multimedia;
- stabilirea software-ului de predare;
- proiectarea structurilor organizatorice, a mecanismelor
administrative, punerea n aplicare a programului, modelul de
evaluare de ansamblu.
Abordarea consensului academic este recomandat
(Lam, 2008), pentru proiectarea de curriculum, prin care disciplinele
studiate i practica sunt convenite de ctre toate prile interesate
care sunt implicate n procesul de dezvoltare a curriculum-ului.
Prin urmare, avnd n vedere toate caracteristicile
menionate, n cadrul proiectului care exist n implementare, s-a
agreat ideea de a stabili un consens universitar ntre instituiile
participante, cu referire la aceste aspecte.
Obiectivele principale pentru implementarea acestui
sistem n domeniul geodeziei sunt n principal pentru a satisface
nevoile existente din mediul de afaceri din bran, pentru a crete
ocuparea forei de munc, pentru a crea oportuniti i a consolida
coeziunea social.
n acest sens s-a desfurat o activitate intens de
edine consultative cu mediul de afaceri din domeniu din toate
cele patru regiuni reprezentate de reeaua universitar creat prin
proiect n cadrul crora s-au relevat problemele cu care se
33
confrunt absolvenii pe piaa muncii i s-au identificat cerinele
specifice crora ar trebui s le fac fa la finalizarea studiilor.
S-a realizat sinteza acestor observaii i s-au realizat
rapoarte cu concluziile principale.
n domeniul geodeziei, aptitudinile de munc n echip
trebuie promovate prin experiena de colaborare-nvare n cadrul
unor proiecte de grup. Este indicat integrarea e-learning cu
sistemul de predare convenional, deci un sistem mixt de nvare.
Toate etapele care trebuie parcurse n faza de stabilire a
curriculum-ului i de extragere a coninutului pentru realizarea
materialelor didactice digitale necesit un efort susinut din partea
echipei, de calitatea leciilor proiectate depinznd practic succesul
proiectului.
Trebuie s se acorde o atenie deosebit feed-back-ului
studenilor i specialitilor privind modulele de lecii proiectate iniial,
pentru c se dorete o mbuntire permanent i real a acestora.
Evaluarea global ar trebui s se bazeze pe performana
dovedit i ar trebui s includ urmtoarele niveluri:
1. prin rspunsuri: Studenii apreciaz experiena avut? Care a fost
rata de participare i rezultatele evalurii?
2. referitoare la nvare: Ce abiliti i cunotine au dobndit
studenii?
3. referitoare la performan: Ct de mult s-au mbuntit
performanele n urma cursului? Ce locuri de munc pot ocupa
studenii dup absolvire?
4. prin rezultate: Ct de bine i-a ndeplinit universitatea scopul? A
fost rezultatul profitabil?
5. CONCLUZII
De obicei, n instruirea prin expuneri, tehnologia ofer
numai coninut. n nvarea activ, tehnologia permite studenilor s
controleze mijloacele digitale pentru a explora probleme, a accesa
informaii sau a adresa ntrebri. n procesul de nvare interactiv
sau de nvare colaborativ, tehnologia mediaz interaciunea
uman, fie sincron sau asincron; nvarea se realizeaz prin
interaciuni cu ali studeni i prin intermediul tehnologiei
[Departamentul american al Educaiei, 2009].
Ambele abordri active i interactive de nvare sunt
centrate pe student i utilizeaz modele de nvare online susinut
34
de tehnologii Web 2.0. nvarea mixt combin e-learning cu
nvarea fa-n-fa i alte mecanisme de nvare. Se poate
include utilizarea de audio-video, documente, software, i orice alte
aplicaii.
nvarea mixt recunoate c unele experiene de
nvare nu sunt adecvate pentru e-learning i trebuie s fie predate
n alt mod. De exemplu, modul de nvare pentru a msura unghiuri
cu un teodolit se poate realiza i asimila numai practic.
De aceea, n cadrul proiectului care a fost iniiat ntre
universitile noastre,

s-a considerat c cel mai adecvat este modul
de nvare mixt, ale crui caracteristici au fost descrise n acest
articol.
Bibliografie
1. Anderson, J., 2005, A Common Framework for E-learning Quality, Observatory for
New Technologies and Education,
http://www.xplora.org/ww/en/pub/insight/thematic_dossiers/articles/quality_criteria/e
quality1.htm
2. Badea, G., Badea, A. C., 2007, E-Learning, alternativ de asimilare i
perfecionare i n domeniul msurtorilor terestre?, RevCAD nr. 7/2007, ISSN
1583 - 2279, pag. 49-58;
3. Lam, Steve, Y. W., 2008, Blended E-learning Model for Geomatics Curriculum:
Design, implementation and Evaluation, Sharing Good Practices: E-learning in
Surveying, Geo-information Sciences and Land Administration, FIG International
Workshop 2008, Enschede, The Netherlands, 11-13 June 2008
4. Stockley, Derek, 2011, Implementing e-learning successfully, EI Magazin,
http://derekstockley.com.au/articles/elearning-implementation.html
5. *** 2010 - Enhancing Surveying Education through e-Learning, INTERNATIONAL
FEDERATION OF SURVEYORS (FIG), A publication of FIG Commission 2
Professional Education FIG Publication No 46, FIG REPORT, ISBN 978-87-90907-
76-1
7. http://portal.edu.ro/index.php
KEY ISSUES REGARDING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MODERN
TEACHING TECHNIQUES IN GEODESY
Abstract: The article presents the key terms relating to the resources needed
to implement an efficient system for learning.
There is a need for specific technical parameters required for an operational
system, properly trained human resources who can develop modern and
competitive curricula for the labor market and a suitable software platform.
The key points are outlined in the implementation of the prerequisite.
35
ACHIEVING QUALITY IN THE EDUCATION OF
SURVEYORS IN ROMANIA
Lect. Phd. eng. Caius Didulescu, Faculty of Geodesy, Technical
University of Civil Engineering Bucharest
Lect. Phd. eng. Adrian Savu, Faculty of Geodesy, Technical

Abstract: This article reviews the main steps taken in
Romania in achieving quality in the education of
surveyors. Changes in the evolving nature of surveying
practices, the fact that technology is changing the
profession of surveyor were reflected in the activity of
universities in this field in Romania. Quality assurance in
higher education in Romania is provided by the Romanian
Agency for Q
uality Assurance in Higher Education (ARACIS), who
elaborated a series of quality indicators and standards
underlying the specific curriculum program of surveyors
studies in Romania and who have taken to ensure optimal
conditions for conducting the educational process in all the
country universities that provide this type of study
programs.
Keywords: quality in education, standards, educational
management
1. INTRODUCTION
Surveying, as a profession, has developed in different
ways and encompassed different surveying activities in different
countries, in order to reflect the national needs, which have
developed over time. The universal definition of "surveyor" (FIG
1991) is capable of being up-dated to reflect changes in the evolving
nature of our professional practices and skills. While a similar range
of surveying activities may be undertaken in different countries,
there may be differences between the ways these activities are
grouped as a recognised "profession".
In general, the professional activities are diverse and
some activities, which are performed by surveyors in some
countries, are denied to surveyors in other countries. Also, some
36
surveying activities are regulated in some countries while not
regulated in other countries. Furthermore, there may be a greater
need for particular kinds of surveying skills in some countries
compared to others. This is proved e.g. in the report on "Enhancing
Professional Competencies of the European Surveyors" where
major differences where demonstrated in the content and structure
of the surveying programmes as well as the professions throughout
Europe (Enemark and Prendergast 2001).
Despite the fact that professional competence of the
surveyor is fundamental to the ability to practice freely across
national boundaries, it is interesting to consider certain
characteristics of the surveyor as an individual. It should also be
noted that the definition of a surveyor (FIG, 1991) starts by
identifying the surveyors as A professional person with the
academic qualifications and technical expertise to practise the
science of measurement; to assemble and assess land and
geographic related information; to use that information ...".
"Professional competence" is, however, extremely hard
to define, although it is something with which all surveyors are
familiar. It is suggested (Kennie et. al., 2000) that for newly-qualified
surveyors "professional competence" combines knowledge
competence, cognitive competence and business competence with
a central core of ethical and/or personal behaviour competence:
Knowledge competence: defined as "the possession of
appropriate technical and/or business knowledge and the ability to
apply this in practice";
Cognitive competence: defined as "the abilities to solve using high
level thinking skills technical and/or business related problems
effectively to produce specific outcomes;
Business competence: defined as "the abilities to understand the
wider business context within which the candidate is practising
and to manage client expectations in a proactive manner"; and
Ethical and/or personal behavioural competence: which is the
core to the other three parts; defined as "the possession of
appropriate personal and professional values and behaviours and
the ability to make sound judgements when confronted with
ethical dilemmas in a professional context."
37
In the future the land surveyor will play the role of
locating all legal land objects. Surveyors will not have to deal only
with private property parcels.
Land surveyors must understand the processes involved
in the determination and definition of legal land objects. They must
know the adjudication processes and must understand the principles
of land valuation. They must be able to manage the land
administration system documenting land with all its physical and
legal aspects and to provide land information for citizens,
enterprises, authorities, and political decision-makers. The role of
the land surveyor within society becomes much more important.
The most important action surveyors can and must take
is to understand that technology is changing the surveying
profession. The two basic aspects of the profession - the ability to
locate objects in the physical and legal worlds and the ability to
represent these objects on a map - are influenced to a considerable
extent by developments in the fields of electronics and information
technology.
Measuring, which means determining the position of
objects in a reference system, becomes a fully automated process
with the use of GPS, photogrammetry, and remote sensing and
robot theodolites. Surveyors can know less about the measuring
process itself, but they must be knowledgeable enough to judge the
plausibility of any results.
In the field of representation of the results, the production
of maps is replaced by the ability to create graphs and diagrams out
of digital data models. Creating graphs is quite different from
drawing maps because in this process it is necessary to understand
the data model and to be able to generalize the representation of the
information in a manner that serves the interested user in the best
way. Mapping standards are no longer the only way to represent
information. Producing individual maps with specialized content and
representations or simply delivering spatial related data to interested
people will be an important part of the surveyor's work.
After having understood these changes, the surveyor
must take into consideration the phenomenon of the public-law land
objects. Where once the surveyor had to have knowledge about all
aspects of private property, today he/she must understand society's
needs for all types of land objects, the legal basis and the legal
38
procedures for the definition and alteration of land objects, the
technical methods for the creation of land objects, and the
economical and ecological consequences of the existence of land
objects.
Surveyors must concentrate on these aspects, improve
their skills in this domain through education and continuing
professional development programs, and begin to play the role of
specialists for all aspects of land matters.
2. THE CURRENT SITUATION IN ROMANIA
Reorganization of higher education, from the academic
year 2005-2006, on three successive cycles of study recommended
by the Bologna Process, the liberalization of access to education in
the first cycle of university studies and turns it into mass higher
education and openness to internationalize academic preparation of
young people is the characteristics of higher education in Romania.
The establishment in 1993 of the Council for Academic
Assessment and Accreditation of Romania (CNEAA) was a pressing
need in Romania, because the fund's legal vacuum of that time has
enabled many companies to declare that deals with the provision of
higher education curricula.
CNEAA managed to impose its own criteria and
standards and to conduct a responsible sort of offers study
programs in higher education. The activity of CNEAA was also
supported by the Education Law no. 84/1995, which stipulates
clearly that education in Romania is a non-profit activity, public
interest, and "entry" of new suppliers is controlled by the relevant
national authority (CNEAA) by checking the criteria and standards of
each new program of study and of each new provider of university
education.
Many providers were not motivated or unable to meet all
the criteria and standards, as mentioned above, CNEAA gained a
reputation of an institution of the most severe, even appreciated,
both by state and private universities. Romanian academic
community retains about CNEAA an image of a court of review,
responsible for quality.
Provisions of Government Emergency Ordinance on
Quality Assurance in Education no. 75/2005 - approved with
modifications by Law no. 87/2006 - offered a new approach to the
39
relationship between the authority of accreditation and education
providers and introduced the term of partnership between the two
parties involved in quality assurance, a common public responsibility
for learning outcomes achieved by graduates who have successfully
completed a program of study, quality being addressed from a
dynamic perspective of continuous improvement.
If during the operation of CNEAA, quality assurance is
the responsibility CNEAA, new regulatory framework passes the
responsibility for quality on educational providers and external
evaluation agency acts as a guarantor of quality established by each
university.
At the same time, temporary authorization and
accreditation have become steps in a continuous process of quality
assurance and now are preliminary phases of periodic external
evaluation of quality assurance on accredited programs of study and
their institutional suppliers. The new law has introduced a radical
change in approach to quality assurance (quality culture in the
education provider) and promotes a new relationship with the
institutions that require external assessment, whether the application
relates to interim operating authorization, accreditation or external
periodic evaluation of institutions already accredited.
Romanian Agency for Quality Assurance in Higher
Education (ARACIS) as an official specialized institution has the
mission to convince that is a modern European institution, which
promotes a spirit of collegiality, transparency, fairness, pragmatism
and professional ethics.
Recognition by ARACIS of reference standards of the
universities (higher than national standards promoted by ARACIS) is
a proof of the new conduct of the Agency, compared with the rigid
approach of the old accreditation authority.
Due to the difficulties and challenges indebted to
changes in the legal, institutional and personal conduct line, style,
procedures and tools, it was stipulated by law for the newly created
agency to develop a new methodology for external evaluation to be
in line with the ENQA Standards and recommendations.
Meanwhile, ARACIS was recognized as an agency that
respects the "ENQA standards and recommendations" and was
inscribed in autumn 2009 in the European Register for Quality
Assurance (EQAR).
40
3. SPECIFIC QUALITY STANDARDS FOR PROGRAM OF
STUDIES "LAND MEASUREMENTS AND CADASTRE" IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THE ARACIS METHODOLOGY.
The methodology was developed by ARACIS taken to
ensure optimal conditions for conducting the educational process
and results in a series of standards and indicators of which some
are listed below.
1. Duration of schooling and volume of teaching activities for the day
education is:
duration of studies - 8 semesters;
duration of a semester (min.) - 14 weeks;
the number of hours per week - 26-28;
cumulative duration of practice periods - 4-6 weeks;
duration of practical activities to develop the diploma - 2-3
weeks (the last year of study).
Note: cumulative duration of practice periods and the practice for
diploma development must be at least 8 weeks.
2. Total hours of activity organized under the curriculum should be
included, usually between 3152 and 3376, including the minimum
amount of practice accounted for 240 hours.
3. The curriculum must be specified as the amount of hours of
educational activities carried directly with students, and the amount
of hours for student's individual training and the number of credits for
each discipline, separated for course, projects and possibly for other
applications.
4. (1) The curriculum must include the following categories of
subjects:
fundamental disciplines - minimum 17%;
disciplines in the field - minimum 38%;
specialized disciplines - minimum 25%;
complementary disciplines up to 8%.
(2) The volume of hours corresponding maximum difference of
12% of the total number of hours will be distributed the first three
categories of disciplines, as selected by the university.
(3) Total number of hours includes all teaching activities
(courses, seminars, workshops, annual projects, practicing for
graduation and the practice periods considered the minimum level
specified). Permissible deviation from the previous scale is from 0.5
41
to 1.0% (relative to total hours), which corresponds to 1-2 hours per
week during one semester (14-28 hours).
5. Report lectures/teaching applications (seminars, workshops,
annual and graduation projects, practice) should be 1/1 with a
deviation within 20%.
6. Number of courses provided with annual project will be a
minimum of four.
7. (1) After the options, the disciplines of the curriculum are divided
into:
compulsory disciplines;
optional disciplines;
facultative disciplines.
(2) The weight of optional disciplines must be at least 10% of the
total number of hours in the curriculum.
(3) The list of facultative disciplines can be changed annually,
with the agreement of the faculty Council. The volume of hours and
number of credits are supplementary (extra) of the compulsory and
optional disciplines. The total number of hours of facultative
disciplines must be at least 10% of the total, but not upper limited.
Psycho-pedagogical training module falls into this category of
disciplines. He is managed by the specialized department at the
university.
8. Content of disciplines in the curriculum, must match the domain
and graduate specialization, to ensure general and special
competencies established by law and declared by the mission of
education.
9. Analytical programs for practical training have to exist, which
clearly states the practice mission, themes and objectives and
student tasks. Similarly, a curriculum must be presented by stating
the general theme of the graduation thesis (diploma project), its
structure and minimal content. The university sign agreements or
contracts with specialized companies to ensure a proper framework
to carry out practical periods.
10. Fundamental disciplines are:
Mathematical Analysis,
Linear algebra, analytic and differential geometry
Special Mathematics and/or differential equations,
Probability Theory and Mathematical Statistics (or similar
names)
42
Equations of mathematical physics,
Numerical methods (numerical analysis or similar names)
Descriptive Geometry,
Technical drawing and infographics
Computer programming and programming languages / Applied
Informatics
Physics
Chemistry (or similar names).
11. Training in the field is ensured by the basic engineering
disciplines. Nomenclature reference (guidance) of these disciplines
is:
Surveying (or similar names)
Mathematical Geodesy
Physical Geodesy
Waves geodetic measurements (or similar names)
Geodetic instruments and methods of measurement
Cadastre
Photogrammetry and photo interpretation (or similar names)
Surveying Engineering in Construction and Industry (or similar
names)
Geodetic Astronomy
Mathematical cartography (or similar names)
Geodetic Information Systems
Territory planning and ecology
Cadastral land Legislation
Measurement compensation and statistics
Techniques of measurement and data processing
Underground measurements
General course of constructions, roads, bridges and artworks,
hydraulic engineering and technical utility networks
Land use planning and urbanism
Management
Practice
12. Additional disciplines covered in the curriculum are those
disciplines indispensable formation of future engineers, who are not
directly related to other categories of disciplines. The minimal
nomenclature of these disciplines is:
43
Modern Languages (or equivalent name), at least one of the
languages: English, French, German, Spanish, Italian, and
Russian.
Socio-humanistic courses
Economics and General Economics
Communication (optional)
Physical Education and Sport (the amount of hours of these
activities may be included or not in the amount of hours as
university options).
13. In a certain domain, a study program is independently if the
curriculum contains disciplines that differ by more than 20% of the
curricula of other programs of study in the domain.
14. Faculties that conduct bachelor studies have to hold annually
scientific sessions for students and the students being guided by
teachers.
15. Within the university there should be internal rules on quality
assurance and management of the education and scientific
research.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Inclusion in the list of criteria, standards and
performance indicators the most appropriate wording on the quality
of teaching and learning, on how each university seeks to meet the
needs and expectations of the labour market is one of the priorities
for every university.
Quality assurance in higher education is an international
problem. In the last decade, has become an important tool for the
exchange of students between institutions of higher education, in
order to enhance the student learning experience. Therefore, quality
improvement became a major problem for many universities. In
addition, several interested parties such as professional institutes
are drawn into the debate and trying to exercise influence.
REFERENCES
1. Enemark, S. (ed.) (1993): Facing the Educational Challenges of the Future,
Proceedings of FIG Commission 2 Workshop, Aalborg University, Aalborg,
Denmark, June 1993.
2. European Ministers of Education, [1999]: Joint Declaration of the European
Ministers of Education, Bologna, June 1999, p 1 3
44
3. Kennie, T. [1996]: CPD Continuing Professional Development and is future
promotion within FIG, FIG London, UK, 1996
4. Clark, N. Bologna: Curriculum Reform and other Considerations, World Education
News and Reviews, World Education Services, New York, 2007
5. European Commission, Education and Culture: "The European Higher Education
Area - Achieving the Goals", Conference of European Higher Education Ministers,
Contribution of the European Commission, Bergen, 19-20 May. 2005.
6. ***http://www.fonduri-structurale-europene.ro/posdru/calitatea-invatamantul-
superior.html
7. ***http://edu-gate.ro/2007/12/01/standarde-pentru-evaluarea-calitatii-in-invatamant/
8. ***http://www.see-educoop.net/education_in/pdf/it-technologies_rmn.pdf
9. ***http://www.aracis.ro/fileadmin/ARACIS/Proceduri/Metodologie_de_evaluare_exter
na.pdf
10. ***http://www.aracis.ro/fileadmin/ARACIS/Legislatie_Proceduri/2010/Codul_de_
etica_profesionala.pdf
11. ***http://www.aracis.ro/fileadmin/ARACIS/Proceduri/partea_I_-
acredidare_programe__licenta_si_master__Aprilie_2010.pdf
12. *** http://www.edu.ro
45
STUDIU PRIVIND ARMONIZAREA PROGRAMULUI DE
STUDII DE LA SPECIALIZAREA MSURTORI
TERESTRE I CADASTRU DIN FACULTATEA DE
GEODEZIE, UNIVERSITATEA TEHNIC DE
CONSTRUCII DIN BUCURETI, CU NEVOILE
MEDIULUI DE AFACERI DIN DOMENIU
Asist. univ. drd. ing. Aurel Negril, Facultatea de Geodezie,
ef lucr. univ. dr. ing. Caius Didulescu, Facultatea de Geodezie,
Rezumat: Pentru a ndeplini misiunea de baz a Facultii
de Geodezie, din Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii
Bucureti, obiectivele generale i specifice ale programului
de licen, i pentru o integrare uoar i cu succes a
absolvenilor pe piaa muncii, a fost pregtit un chestionar
distribuit reprezentanilor zonei de afaceri. Chestionarul a
fost distribuit instituiilor de stat i companiilor private
reprezentative din domeniul de geodezie. Pe baza
rspunsurilor la chestionare se dorete s obinem o
imagine de ansamblu a competenelor, abilitilor i
cunotinelor pe care absolvenii trebuie s le aib la
finalizarea ciclului de licen pentru integrarea uoar la
primul loc de munc.
Cuvinte cheie: companii, armonizare, program de studii
1. ASPECTE GENERALE
Misiunea de baz a facultii de Geodezie este
dezvoltarea nvmntului universitar n domeniul ingineriei
geodezice, precum i extinderea la cote ridicate a activitilor de
cercetare, proiectare, dezvoltarea tehnologic i managerial.
Obiectivele specifice ale programului de licen sunt:
- Familiarizarea studentului cu cele mai noi i avansate dezvoltri
ale cunoaterii n domeniul geodeziei;
- nsuirea i aplicarea creativ a tehnicilor de proiectare i
cercetare moderne;
- Capacitatea de a aciona independent i creativ n abordarea i
soluionarea problemelor de inginerie geodezic;
46
- Capacitatea de a conduce grupuri i de a comunica n cele mai
diverse situaii.
- Gsirea de soluii pentru eficientizarea proceselor tehnologice;
- Elaborarea de modificri i completri la reglementrile tehnice
din domeniul ingineriei geodezice;
- Conducerea activitilor de management de proiect pe faze de
lucrri;
- Elaborarea i susinerea de comunicri tiinifice, rapoarte tehnice
de specialitate;
- Participarea la lucrrile de introducere a cadastrului general la
nivelul ntregii ri, obiectiv prioritar al acordului de aderare la UE;
- Automatizarea lucrrilor de cadastru;
- ntocmirea bncilor de date cadastrale;
- Realizarea i implementarea de Sisteme Informatice Geografice
(GIS);
- Implementarea tehnologiilor satelitare de msurare (GPS);
Competenele absolvenilor de la programul de studii
Msurtori Terestre i Cadastru - licen:
- Efectuarea msurtorilor unghiulare, de distane, de diferene de
nivel i gravitate n scopuri geodezice i reducerea acestora la
suprafa aleas ca referin;
- Utilizarea tehnicilor moderne (Sisteme Globale de Poziionare) de
msurare i determinare a poziiei spaiale pentru puncte
geodezice;
- Determinarea formei i dimensiunilor Pmntului utiliznd tehnici
de msurare;
- Utilizarea astronomiei geodezice n poziionare;
- Proiectarea, optimizarea, materializarea, semnalizarea i
realizarea reelelor geodezice desfurate n planul cu una, dou
sau trei dimensiuni;
- Analiza statistic a observaiilor geodezice, prelucrarea acestora
i interpretarea rezultatelor obinute;
- Reprezentarea suprafeei terestre pe planuri i hri (analogice i
digitale), realizarea modelului digital al terenului prin diferite
tehnici;
- Proiectarea i executarea lucrrilor de fotogrammetrie analogic,
analitic, digital i inginereasc, foto-interpretarea imaginilor
fotogrammetrice i de teledetecie;
47
- Realizarea Sistemelor de Informaii Geografice n scopuri
geodezice;
- Proiectarea i realizarea de reele de sprijin pentru ridicri
topografice, ridicri cadastrale i aplicarea pe teren a proiectelor
de construcii civile i industriale, ci de comunicaie, construcii
hidrotehnice, poduri, construcii de mbuntiri funciare;
- Efectuarea de ridicri topografice specifice necesare elaborrii de
planuri topografice, planuri de situaie, planurilor de execuie i
planuri cadastrale;
- Ridicarea reelelor tehnico-edilitare;
- Aplicarea pe teren a proiectelor de construcii civile i industriale,
ci de comunicaie, construcii hidrotehnice, poduri, construcii de
mbuntiri funciare;
- Calcularea volumelor de terasamente;
- Determinarea deplasrilor i deformaiilor construciilor i
terenurilor;
- Culegerea i prelucrarea datelor cadastrale spaiale i textuale
necesare realizrii sistemului informaional al cadastrului i
sistemelor informaionale specifice domeniilor de specialitate;
- Utilizarea principalelor metode i tehnici de evaluare a
proprietilor imobiliare;
- Realizarea rapoartelor de evaluare a proprietilor imobiliare.
Pe baza obiectivelor prezentate mai sus, a misiunii de
baz a Facultii de Geodezie, a obiectivelor generale i specifice
ale programului de licen, a competenelor absolvenilor de la
programul de studii Msurtori Terestre i Cadastru i pentru
mbuntirea acestora i integrarea uoar, facil i cu succes a
absolvenilor n cmpul muncii, s-a ntocmit un chestionar gril care
conine un numr de 13 ntrebri, la care partenerii din mediul de
afaceri au rspuns.
Chestionarul distribuit este structurat astfel nct
partenerii din mediul de afaceri s i exprime punctul de vedere
privind competenele pe care trebuie s le aib absolvenii
programului de studii de licen a specializrii Msurtori Terestre i
Cadastru cu durata de 4 ani, pentru a-i putea desfura activitatea
n domeniul ingineriei geodezice cu condiia acoperirii domeniilor:
concepie, execuie, cercetare, etc.
Au fost distribuite un numr de 34 de chestionare ctre
instituii de stat i societi private reprezentative din domeniul
48
geodeziei. S-au primit un numr de 18 rspunsuri la aceste
chestionare. Chestionarele au fost discutate i dezbtute cu 10
dintre reprezentanii instituiilor i societilor contactate.
2. ANALIZA INFORMAIILOR
Chestionarul a fost distribuit n mediului de afaceri ct
mai variat i ct mai relevant pentru domeniul Msurtori Terestre i
Cadastru pentru a obine o imagine de ansamblu a competenelor,
aptitudinilor i cunotinelor pe care absolvenii trebuie s le aib la
finalizarea ciclului de licen pentru o integrare uoar la primul loc
de munc.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
O.C.P.I. Primarii Societati
private
P.F.A.
Tipul de societati intervievate

La ntrebarea, Ce posturi (funcii) poate oferi compania
absolvenilor programului de studii Msurtori Terestre i
Cadastru?, rspunsurile primite menioneaz n marea majoritate
postul de inginer geodez i inginer de cadastru pentru msurtori de
teren. Se remarc un interes crescut pentru realizarea, ntreinerea
i actualizarea bncilor de date urbane, sens n care absolventul ar
trebui s stpneasc foarte bine noiuni de informatic, necesare
gestionrii SIG (Sisteme Informatice Geografice) i SIC (Sisteme
Informatice Cadastrale). De asemenea, funcie de specificul
activitii instituiei (societii) cerinele se ndreapt spre: operator
fotogrametrie, consilier cadastru sau coordonator de proiecte.
La ntrebarea, Precizai ce numr de posturi avei
disponibile pentru absolvenii programului de studii Msurtori
Terestre i Cadastru n urmtorii 5 ani. rspunsurile variaz ntre 1
i 5 absolveni, desprinzndu-se ideea c una din consecinele
situaiei economice actuale se reflect n micorarea cererii pe piaa
49
muncii a numrului de absolveni posibili ce pot fi integrai la locul de
munc.
0
2
4
Numar de posturi disponibile
Nr. Societati

La ntrebarea, Care sunt competenele pe care trebuie
s le aib absolventul pentru buna desfurare a activitilor
specifice domeniului n care funcionai? rspunsurile sunt
diversificate. n esen angajatorii solicit ca absolvenii s
dobndeasc cunotine de baz la nivel teoretic, aceste cunotine
ulterior s fie aplicate corect i n funcie de necesiti n domeniul
de activitate al societii.
Din analiza rspunsurilor la aceast ntrebare rezult o
cerere crescut de competene privind cunoaterea instrumentelor
i tehnologiilor de ultim or (staii totale, tehnologii GNSS, laser
scaner, etc.). Totodat se solicit competene sporite privind
softurile de prelucrare i analiz a datelor colectate prin tehnologii
moderne.
Datorit modificrilor aprute la legislaia n domeniu
(Legea 7/1991, Ordinul 634/2006, Ordinul 134/2009 i Ordinul
108/2010) se solicit o corelare a programei curriculare care s
rspund prompt cerinelor acestor modificri legislative i se
sugereaz aprofundarea cunotinelor studenilor pe partea de drept
funciar i publicitate imobiliar.
Datorit complexitii proiectelor derulate n domeniul
geodeziei exist solicitarea ca absolvenii s aib un minim bagaj de
cunotine privind managementul proiectelor, al resurselor umane i
materiale, aceasta implicnd printre altele o bun capacitate
organizatoric, rigurozitate i gndire de ansamblu logic n vederea
realizrii dezideratelor instituiei pentru care lucreaz.
50
n urma analizrii rspunsurilor la ntrebarea, Specificai
competenele pe care le considerai utile la absolvenii programului
de studii Msurtori Terestre i Cadastru. se desprind urmtoarele
competene utile, pe care absolvenii programului Msurtori
Terestre i Cadastru trebuie s le dobndeasc: cunoaterea
tehnologiilor de ultim generaie (GNSS, scanare laser), legislaie de
drept funciar, noiuni privind sistemele informatice, tehnici i metode
de msurare, viziune multidisciplinar care va ajuta absolventul att
la nelegerea fundamentelor teoretice i practice privind datele
rezultate n urma msurtorilor, ct i n privina prelucrrii acestor
date, capaciti de comunicare dublate de interesul pentru
perfecionare i autoinstruire.
De asemenea se consider util utilizarea mediilor de
lucru CAD, acestea facilitnd crearea de hri, planuri, etc. Se
solicit ca activitatea cadrelor didactice s urmreasc crearea la
viitorii absolveni a viziunii de ansamblu necesare ntocmirii i
finalizrii lucrrilor din punct de vedere logic i din punct de vedere a
administrrii judiciare a datelor i informaiilor tehnice aferente unui
proiect.
La ntrebarea, Apreciai cu un calificativ evoluia
absolvenilor programului de studii Msurtori Terestre i Cadastru
n cadrul companiei., rspunsurile pornesc de la satisfctor n
proporie de 20%, la bine n proporie de 50% i foarte bine n
proporie de 30%. n dou dintre rspunsuri se apreciaz calitatea
de buni practicieni a tinerilor absolveni, ceea ce denot faptul c
pregtirea practic efectuat pe parcursul perioadei de studii este
bine organizat, oferind absolvenilor capacitatea ca nc din
primele zile de munc s efectueze lucrri practice aferente
domeniului de activitate al societii cu rezultate remarcabile.
51
20%
50%
30%
Modul de integrare a absolventilor
la locul de munca
Satisfacator Bine Foarte bine

ntrebarea, Exprimai punctul de vedere, privind modul
n care curricula universitar corespunde cerinelor domeniului n
care v desfurai activitatea. Rspunsurile sunt variate i n unele
cazuri contradictorii cu rspunsurile anterioare. Ca exemplu se
solicit un accent pe partea aplicativ, dei la ntrebarea numrul 5
a fost apreciat calitatea de practicieni a absolvenilor. Se apreciaz
cunotinele teoretice primite de absolveni n timpul perioadei de
pregtire. Se solicit continua adaptare a cursurilor la tehnologiile
actuale i un accent suplimentar pe analiza unor proiecte practice ce
fac frecvent obiectul licitaiilor (selecii de oferte) n aceast
perioad.
0
2
4
6
8
Aplicatii
practice
Legislatie in
domeniu
Sisteme
informatice
Tehnologii
moderne
Curicula
adaptata
cerintelor
Cerinte privind curicula
universitara

Se remarc de asemenea preocuparea angajatorilor n
ceea ce privete partea de legislaie funciar, solicitarea acestora
fiind n sensul mbuntirii pregtirii absolvenilor n aceast
direcie.
52
Exist i rspunsuri care consider actuala curricul
universitar pe deplin adaptat cerinelor pieii forei de munc n
domeniul geodezic.
La ntrebarea, Propunei aspecte pe care le considerai
utile a fi incluse n curricula universitar. rspunsurile vin ca o
completare a rspunsurilor la ntrebarea anterioar, angajatorii care
consider curricula universitar corect i bine structurat nu propun
aspecte suplimentare de avut n vedere la perfecionarea curriculei
universitare.
Pe de alt parte din analiza rspunsurilor rezult o serie
de sugestii i propuneri precum:
- includerea n programa de nvmnt a colocviilor cu participarea
unor invitai (practicieni) care au realizat punerea n oper a
proiectelor importante din acest domeniu, considernd c astfel
viitorului absolvent i se poate insufla percepia realului n meseria
pe care urmeaz s o practice;
- aprofundarea noiunilor care s dezvolte domenii complementare
cum ar fi: GIS, IMS, a cror pondere n lucrrile actuale este foarte
mare i de perspectiv;
- prelegerile susinute n faa studenilor s urmreasc dezvoltarea
capacitii de gndire logic, viziune, abiliti de realizare a
conexiunilor ntre cunotinele dobndite, aceste aspecte conducnd
la structurarea gndirii n sensul administrrii i ordonrii datelor;
- aprofundarea noiunilor de legislaie funciar;
- un mai mare accent pus pe noiuni de evaluare a bunurilor
imobiliare, bunuri mobile, active financiare i evaluarea
intreprinderilor;
- extinderea sistemului de predare n format multimedia.
Pentru ntrebarea, Menionai modalitile prin care
nelegei colaborarea cu instituiile de nvmnt superior, n
scopul atragerii absolvenilor ctre societatea dumneavoastr.,
rspunsurile primite au ca idee principal, colaborarea mediului de
afaceri cu mediul universitar pe urmtoarele direcii:
- furnizarea de locuri disponibile pentru efectuarea de viitorii
absolveni a activitii de practic aferente anilor de studii
(topografie, geodezie, topografie inginereasc, fotogrametrie,
teledetecie, cadastru);
- susinerea stagiului de pregtire a viitorilor absolveni n regim de
colaborare reciproc;
53
- implicarea viitorilor absolveni n desfurarea proiectelor
companiei, n paralel cu furnizarea ctre acetia a temelor de studiu
pentru ntocmirea proiectelor de licen;
- participarea companiilor la sesiunile tiinifice organizate de
instituiile de nvmnt superior, la care viitorii absolveni au
posibilitatea de a se familiariza cu ultimele descoperiri n domeniu i
de a cunoate obiectul de activitate al diferitelor companii;
- sponsorizri ale studenilor pe durata perioadei de pregtire;
- propuneri de participare comun la realizarea lucrrilor de
specialitate.
La ntrebarea, Considerai util participarea viitorilor
absolveni la efectuarea practicilor de specialitate, eventual la
elaborarea proiectului de licen n cadrul societii? De ce?,
rspunsurile sunt n totalitate afirmative, fiecare angajator artndu-
se interesat de o colaborare cu viitorii absolveni pe perioada
practicilor de specialitate, considernd c beneficiile ar fi de ambele
pri, astfel:
- contactul nemijlocit al viitorului absolvent cu problemele i
activitile ce urmeaz a le efectua, acest contact l ajut s-i
formeze o imagine de ansamblu asupra activitii, ct i una
punctual asupra segmentului pe care urmeaz s-i desfoare
propria activitate;
- asigur debutul absolventului n meserie realizndu-se legtura
dintre domeniul teoretic i cel practic, cunotinele teoretice nvate
sunt fixate, nelese i aplicate n raport cu necesitile proiectului.
Se desprinde ideea realizrii unui program la nivel
naional cu sprijinul autoritilor de stat din domeniu, astfel nct
stagiul de practic de specialitate realizat de absolveni n cadrul
companiilor s fie benefic pentru ambele pri i pe ct posibil
legiferat.
3. CONCLUZII
Din perspectiva companiilor intervievate rezult c
trebuie avute n vedere pentru dezvoltarea competenelor
superioare n domeniul geodeziei urmtoarele problematici:
- o susinut activitate de cercetare care s dezvolte n sine
aptitudinea de a face conexiuni ntre cunotine, ceea ce ajut i la
dobndirea altor cunotine (studenii s fie implicai n proiecte de
cercetare);
54
- comunicarea periodic dinspre mediul universitar spre companiile
din domeniu a noutilor privind cercetarea tiinific la nivelul
mondial pe domeniul msurtorilor terestre;
- creterea numrului de ore aferent materiilor de specialitate i
corelarea acestora cu mai multe aplicaii practice;
- prezentarea periodic a noutilor aprute n domeniul
msurtorilor topogeodezice, att din punct de vedere al aparaturii,
ct i a softurilor de specialitate;
- iniierea unui parteneriat pe baze solide pentru efectuarea practicii
topografice de ctre studeni n cadrul companiilor din domeniu;
- analiza curriculei universitare pe baza unui sondaj n rndul
cursanilor de e-learning care s reliefeze gradul de utilitate al
materiilor predate precum i eventual aspecte asupra crora s se
insiste sau nu;
BIBLIOGRAFIE
Raport A.6.1 - Consultri cu reprezentanii mediului de afaceri la nivelul fiecrei regiuni,
Proiect POSDRU 86/1.2/S/63140 Reea de colaborare universitar online n scopul
dezvoltrii capacitii de a furniza competene superioare n domeniul geodeziei,
Bucureti, octombrie 2010
STUDY CONCERNING THE HARMONIZATION OF STUDY
PROGRAMS FROM LAND MEASURMENTS AND CADASTRE
SPECIALIZATION WITH BUSINESS NEEDS IN THIS DOMAIN
Abstract: To fulfill the basic mission of the Faculty of Geodesy, part of
Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, the general and specific
objectives of license program, and for an easy and successful integration of
graduates in the workforce, has prepared a questionnaire distributed to
representatives of area businesses. The questionnaire was distributed to state
institutions and private companies representative in the field of geodesy. Based
on responses to questionnaires it wants to get an overview of competencies,
skills and knowledge that graduates must have the undergraduate completion
for easy integration in the first job.
55
PROPUNERI DE ARMONIZARE A PROGRAMULUI DE
STUDII DE LA SPECIALIZAREA MSURTORI
TERESTRE I CADASTRU DIN FACULTATEA DE
GEODEZIE, UNIVERSITATEA TEHNIC DE
CONSTRUCII BUCURETI, CU STANDARDELE
INTERNAIONALE DE CALITATE
ef lucr. univ. dr. ing. Adrian Savu, Facultatea de Geodezie,
Prof. univ. dr. ing. Petre Iuliu Dragomir, Facultatea de Geodezie,
Prof. univ. dr. ing. Dumitru Onose, Facultatea de Geodezie,
Asist. univ. drd. ing. Aurel Negril, Facultatea de Geodezie,
Rezumat: Articolul prezint principii de armonizare a
programului de studii Msurtori Terestre i Cadastru cu
standardele internaionale de calitate; se analizeaz
detaliat circumstanele specifice domeniului, n aa fel
nct direcionarea resurselor limitate existente s aib ca
finalitate o cretere a calitii. Scopul care trebuie urmrit
este ca nvmntul superior s asigure procese de
calitate care se potrivesc nevoilor consumatorilor i pieei.
Cuvinte cheie: armonizare, standarde de calitate,
asigurarea calitii
1. COMPETEN PROFESIONAL
"Competena profesional" este extrem de greu de
definit, dei reprezint ceva cu care toi specialitii n msurtori
terestre sunt familiarizai. Se sugereaz [Kennie et al, 2000], c
pentru geodezii nou-calificai "competena profesional" combin
competene de cunotine, competene cognitive i competene de
afaceri cu un nucleu central de competen etic i/sau de
comportament personal:
competena de cunotine: este definit ca "posesia de tehnici
adecvate i/sau de cunotine de afaceri i capacitatea de a le
aplica n practic";
56
competena cognitiv: este definit ca "abilitile de a rezolva
folosind aptitudini de gndire la nivel nalt probleme tehnice i/sau
probleme de afaceri legate efectiv de producerea unor rezultate
specifice;
competena de afaceri: este definit ca "abilitile de a nelege
contextul mai larg de afaceri n care geodezul i desfoar
activitatea i de a gestiona ateptrile clientului ntr-un mod pro-
activ;
competena etic i/sau competene personale de comportament:
este nucleul pentru celelalte trei pri; este definit ca "deinerea de
valori personale i profesionale adecvate i de comportament,
precum i capacitatea de a nu fi indiferent i a se face auzit atunci
cnd se confrunt cu dileme etice ntr-un context profesional."
ndeplinirea n bune condiii a obiectivelor care stau n
faa inginerului geodez, impune o pregtire temeinic a acestuia n
domeniul msurtorilor terestre, asigurat att prin discipline
fundamentale (matematic, fizic, tehnic de calcul, etc.), ct i prin
discipline de profil (topografie, geodezie, cartografie, fotogrametrie,
cadastru etc.). Planurile de nvmnt trebuie s fie adaptate
sistemului de nvmnt deschis, programele analitice fiind necesar
a fi corelate cu programe similare din ar i strintate pentru
recunoatere pe baza sistemului de credite transferabile.
Cel mai important aspect care trebuie avut n vedere la
dezvoltarea planurilor de nvmnt este faptul c tehnologia
schimb profesia de specialist n msurtori terestre. Cele dou
aspecte de baz ale profesiei - abilitatea de a localiza obiecte att n
lumea fizic ct i n cea juridic i capacitatea de a reprezenta
aceste obiecte pe o hart - sunt influenate ntr-o msur
considerabil de evoluiile n domeniul electronicii i tehnologiei
informaiei.
Msurarea, ceea ce nseamn determinarea poziiei
obiectelor ntr-un sistem de referin, devine un proces complet
automatizat, prin utilizarea tehnologiei GPS, a fotogrammetriei,
teledeteciei i a teodolitelor robotizate. Geodezii pot ti mai puin
despre procesul de msurare n sine, dar trebuie s fie informai
suficient pentru a judeca plauzibilitatea oricrui rezultat.
n domeniul reprezentrii rezultatelor, realizarea de hri
este nlocuit de abilitatea de a crea grafice i diagrame din modele
digitale de date. Crearea de grafice este destul de diferit de
57
realizarea de hri, deoarece n acest proces este necesar
nelegerea modelului de date i capacitatea de a putea generaliza
reprezentarea informaiilor ntr-o manier care s serveasc n cel
mai bun mod utilizatorul interesat.
Standardele de cartografiere nu mai sunt singura
modalitate de a reprezenta informaii. Producerea de hri tematice
cu coninut i reprezentri de specialitate, sau pur i simplu
furnizarea de date spaiale persoanelor interesate va fi o parte
important din munca unui topograf.
Un alt aspect care trebuie luat n considerare este
fenomenul proprietilor n regim de drept public. Dac nainte
specialistul n msurtori terestre trebuia s aib cunotine despre
toate aspectele legate de proprietatea privat, astzi acesta trebuie
s neleag nevoile societii pentru toate tipurile de proprieti,
temeiul juridic i procedurile legale pentru definirea i modificarea
corpurilor de proprietate, metodele tehnice pentru crearea de
imobile, precum i consecinele economice i ecologice ale
existenei parcelelor de teren.
Geodezii trebuie s se concentreze pe aceste aspecte,
pentru a-i mbunti abilitile lor n acest domeniu prin educaie i
programe de dezvoltarea profesional continu i s nceap s
joace rolul de specialiti pentru toate aspectele avnd legtur cu
terenul.
2. PRINCIPII PRIVIND ARMONIZAREA CU STANDARDELE
INTERNAIONALE DE CALITATE LA NIVELUL REELEI
Modelul de asigurare a calitii trebuie s fie conceput n
concordan cu cadrul general elaborat de ctre Asociaia
European pentru Educaie Internaional (EAIE). Prin acesta este
necesar s creeze posibilitatea identificrii domeniilor i metodelor
care s reprezinte o baz comun pentru asigurarea creterii calitii
n instituiile partenere. Trebuie urmrit mbinarea scopurilor i
obiectivelor unui program de nvmnt cu programa analitic,
forma de evaluare a studenilor i cunotinele ateptate, aptitudinile
i atitudinile dobndite de student la sfritul cursului de studiu.
Crearea unui mediu de nvare adecvat pentru studeni
presupune concentrarea n ase categorii, a aspectelor care
definesc modelul de asigurare a calitii: Proiectarea programei
analitice; Predare, nvare i evaluare; Sprijinul i orientarea
58
studentului; Evoluia studentului; Resurse de nvare; Creterea
calitii, evaluarea randamentului i a rezultatelor.
n definirea caracteristicilor de nvare de nalt calitate,
se recomand utilizarea modelului bazat pe urmtoarele apte
principii:
- Condiiile necesare care s faciliteze acumularea de cunotine de
ctre studeni,
- Reinerea pe termen lung a cunotinelor,
- Dezvoltarea capacitii de a crea noi cunotine,
- Crearea unui climat care stimuleaz studenii de a percepe i
nelege legturile dintre cunotine vechi i noi,
- Condiii favorabile care cresc capacitatea studentului de a aplica
cunotinele dobndite pentru rezolvarea problemelor,
- Situaii care permit studenilor s i demonstreze capacitatea de
a comunica altora cunotinele,
- Stimul pentru studenii care doresc s afle mai multe informaii.
nsumarea experienelor obinute de studeni reprezint
totalul activitilor de nvare care au influenat nelegerea lor,
dobndite n urma unui program de studiu.
Stilurile de predare i nvare, rezultatele nvrii
continue, strategiile de evaluare, contribuie fiecare la furnizarea unei
experiene de nvare de calitate.
Scopul modelului este de a oferi un cadru care ncearc
s simuleze caracteristicile cheie despre care se consider c ar
putea avea un impact semnificativ asupra dezvoltrii de programe
de calitate pentru domeniul msurtorilor. Modelul trebuie s fie o
reprezentare dinamic a realitii, care poate fi folosit pentru a
demonstra i a explora interaciuni de calitate.
3. ASPECTE CONCRETE DE AVUT N VEDERE LA APLICAREA
MODELULUI DE ASIGURARE A CALITII
Modul de ndeplinire a standardelor i indicatorilor de
calitate este sintetizat n tabelele de mai jos:
Situaie centralizatoare privind realizarea calitii n Universitatea Tehnic
de Construcii din Bucureti pentru programul de studii Msurtori
terestre i cadastru
Coeficieni de calitate /indicatori de performan
Raportul nr. posturi didactice/nr. studeni 1/8
59
Numrul de cadre didactice cu norm ntreag 41
Ponderea disciplinelor fundamentale din planul de nvtmnt (n %) 20,2%
Ponderea disciplinelor n domeniu din planul de nvtmnt (n %) 49.0%
Ponderea disciplinelor de specialitate din planul de nvtmnt (n %) 23,1%
Ponderea disciplinelor complementere din planul de nvtmnt (n %) 7.7%
Ponderea disciplinelor opionale din planul de nvtmnt (in %) 5.7%
Ponderea disciplinelor facultative din planul de nvtmnt (in %) 18.58
Exist mecanisme pentru analiza i evaluarea periodic a cunotinelor transmise i
asimilate de ctre studeni? (Da/Nu)
Da
Cunotinele, competenele, i abilitile dobndite de studeni sunt suficiente pentru a
le permite la absolvire: continuarea studiilor n ciclul urmtor (Da/Nu)
Da
Angajarea pe piaa muncii (Da/Nu) Da
Dezvoltarea unei afaceri proprii (Da/Nu) Da
Facultatea are un regulament privind examinarea i notarea studenilor, care este
aplicat n mod riguros i consecvent? (Da/Nu)
Da
La examinare particip, pe lng titularul cursului, cel puin nc un alt cadru didactic
de specialitate.? (Da/Nu)
Da
Procedeele de examinare i evaluare a studenilor sunt centrate pe rezultatele nvrii
i anunate studenilor din timp i n detaliu? (Da/Nu)
Da
Exist evaluare periodic n vederea creterii calitii programelor de studii prin
activitatea de audit? (Da/Nu)
Da

20%
49%
23%
8%
Discipline fundamentale
Discipline n domeniu
Discipline de specialitate
Discipline complementare
75%
6%
19%
Discipline obligatorii
Discipline opionale
Discipline facultative
60

Raportul ntre orele de curs i orele de activiti practice Universitatea
Tehnic de Construcii din Bucureti
Anul de studii
Ore pe sptmn
Raport
curs/aplicaii
Valoare admis
curs aplicaii
I 15.00 15.00 1.00
II 15.50 14.50 1.07
III 15.50 12.50 1.24 1 : 1 +/-20%
IV 14.50 13.00 1.12
Medie 15.13 13.75 1.11
Fia centralizatoare de calcul pentru activitile cuprinse n planul de
nvmnt - Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii din Bucureti -
programul de studii Msurtori terestre i cadastru

SEMESTRUL i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
Ponderi/
Rapoarte
NR. SAPT. / SEM. ns
i
14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 112
ORE CURS nc
i
21 17 19 22 15 18 17 16 1966
1.25
ORE APLICATII na
i
14 13 13 16 21 18 11 9 1574
ORE PRACTICA np
i
- 90 - 90 - 90 - 120 390 9.92
TOTAL ORE/SAPT. n
i
35 30 32 38 36 36 28 25 3540 90.08
DIN CARE
OPTIONALE
no
i
- - - - - 5 6 7 224 5.70
ORE DISC.
FACULTATIVE
nf
i
9 4 8 11 9 7 2 3 730 18.58
TOTAL ORE: 3930
EXAMENE nE
i
6 6 6 6 5 8 4 3 44
1.02
COLOCVII SI ALTE
FORME DE
VERIFICARE
n(C+V)
i
5 6 3 7 6 6 4 6 43
CREDITE C
i
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 240
CREDITE discipline
facultative
9 5 5 9 9 13 2 2 54
CREDITE PT.
PROIECTUL DE
DIPLOMA
- - - - - - - - 10 10
Strategia de consolidare a specializrii msurtori
terestre i cadastru n facultile partenere din proiect trebuie s
vizeze i n continuare urmtoarele obiective:
- perfecionarea continu a planului i a programelor de
nvmnt, n concordan cu evoluia tehnicii de specialitate din
61
domeniul Geodeziei, i raportndu-se n permanen la instituiile
similare din ar i din Uniunea European;
- perfecionarea prin doctorat a cadrelor didactice i prin cursuri de
specializare a personalului din producie care activeaz n
domeniul Cadastrului, cu statut de cadre didactice asociate.
- dezvoltarea unor domenii de cercetare de mare actualitate n
cadastru cum sunt: informatizarea cadastrului, sisteme
informaionale ale teritoriului, GIS, tehnologii satelitare.

4. RECOMANDRI PENTRU ARMONIZAREA CU
STANDARDELE INTERNAIONALE
n ceea ce privete perfecionarea planurilor i
programelor de nvmnt trebuie avute n vedere:
- Regndirea structurii disciplinelor de specialitate n sensul
ngustrii specializrilor;
- Asigurarea unor pachete de discipline obligatorii cu caracter
opional cu predare exclusiv ntr-o limb de circulaie
internaional;
- Asigurarea pentru anii 1 i 2 a unei pregtiri comune (trunchi
comun) i diferenierea pe specialiti n ultima parte a
programului de studiu;
- Asigurarea unor pachete de discipline obligatorii cu caracter
opional care s asigure competene transversale;
- nvmntul s fie bazat pe mult studiu individual i pe nvare
continu;
- S existe flexibilitate n alegerea locului de stagiu de practic n
sensul asigurrii desfurrii n condiii optime a practicii de
specialitate;
- Adaptarea procesului educaional la cerinele pieei muncii prin
creterea timpului alocat activitilor aplicative;
- S existe legturi strnse ntre universitate i firmele din
domeniu;
- Un numr mai mic de discipline impuse;
- Un numr mai mare de discipline opionale;
- Mai multe condiionri pentru disciplinele de specialitate ceea ce
confer un grad mai mare de implicare a studentului;
- ntocmirea planurilor de nvmnt astfel nct s se asigure
continuitatea pentru ciclurile de studii de masterat i doctorat.
62
- Asigurarea cadrului adecvat pentru perfecionarea continu a
cadrelor didactice de la programul de studii;
Analiza gradului de ncrcare a studenilor a evideniat
c:
- Numrul de discipline pe semestru este mai mare cu circa 3-4
discipline;
- Numrul total de ore/semestru este mai mare: 28-30
ore/sptmn fa de 24 ore pe sptmn;
Ca urmare a analizrii modului de organizare a structurii
facultilor n multe din universitile analizate precum i n urma
integrrii propunerilor de recomandri pentru armonizarea cu
standardele internaionale de calitate la nivelul reelei transmise
facultile partenere implicate n proiect a rezultat necesitatea
analizrii/regndirii structurii specializrilor aferente domeniului
msurtori terestre i cadastru, prin prisma solicitrii pieei din
Romnia, definirea competenelor necesare pentru fiecare
specializare i elaborarea de planuri de nvmnt noi.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Raport A.5. Evaluarea programelor de studiu existente, corespunztoare specializrii
msurtori terestre i cadastru, Proiect POSDRU 86/1.2/S/63140 Reea de colaborare
universitar online n scopul dezvoltrii capacitii de a furniza competene superioare n
domeniul geodeziei, Bucureti, octombrie 2010
2. Raport A.5.1. Consultarea standardelor internaionale n domeniu, Proiect POSDRU
86/1.2/S/63140 Reea de colaborare universitar online n scopul dezvoltrii capacitii de
a furniza competene superioare n domeniul geodeziei, Bucureti, octombrie 2010
3. Raport A.5.2. Redactarea unui raport diagnostic pentru programele de studiu derulate,
Proiect POSDRU 86/1.2/S/63140 Reea de colaborare universitar online n scopul
dezvoltrii capacitii de a furniza competene superioare n domeniul geodeziei, Bucureti,
noiembrie 2010
PROPOSALS TO HARMONIZE THE STUDY PROGRAM, AT
LAND MEASURMENTS AND CADASTRE SPECIALIZATION, IN
GEODESY FACULTY AT TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING BUCHAREST, WITH INTERNATIONAL QUALITY
STANDARDS
Abstract: The article presents the principles of harmonization of the study
program " Land Measurements and Cadastre" with international quality
standards; is analyzed in detail the industry-specific circumstances, so that the
targeting of limited resources to have as a final increase quality. The goal
pursued is that the higher education to ensure the quality processes to suit
customer needs and busines market.

SECIUNEA
GEODEZIE I GRAVIMETRIE

65
PRECISE POINT POSITIONING APPLICABILITY FOR
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF A CADASTRAL SYSTEM IN
IASI MUNICIPALITY
Dr. Constantin-Octavian Andrei, Department of Surveying, Aalto
University, Finland, octavian.andrei@aalto.fi
Abstract: This paper describes an analysis of a new
positioning technique, named Precise Point Positioning
(PPP) and its applicability for the implementation of a
cadastral system in Iasi municipality. The satellite
observations collected by geodetic class receivers placed
in a few points of the new spatial, tri-dimensional geodetic
network are analyzed using a PPP approach. The
accuracy of the PPP positioning solutions is assessed and
evaluated with respect to other positioning methods and
services. The results demonstrate the applicability and
usefulness of the new positioning technique.
Keywords: GNSS, PPP, precise ephemerides, precise
clocks, absolute positioning
1. INTRODUCTION
The dynamic evolution of satellite measurement
technologies in the last decade, such as the Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS) technology, allows a new perspective in
the establishing of a modern, spatial, tri-dimensional geodetic
network. The establishing process of such network requires the
existence of a reference network and is based, most of the time, on
the relative positioning technique.
In relative positioning, the user determines the
coordinates of an unknown point with respect to a known point by
determining the vector between the two points. This vector is often
called the baseline vector or simply baseline (Figure 1). As a result,
relative positioning requires two GNSS receivers. One receiver is
located at the known point, named also reference point or base
station. The other (user) receiver is located at the unknown point
and can be either fixed or roving. The time-tagged measurements
from the fixed receiver are transmitted to the user receiver. At here,
the received measurements are differenced with the user receiver
66
measurements. In the end, the user receiver estimates its own
position relative to the reference receiver. Relative positioning can
be performed with code or carrier phases. However, only carrier
phase-based approach is considered by the geodetic and surveying
applications because the solutions based on the carrier phase
observations are far more accurate than the ones obtained using
code observations. Currently, there are different ways how relative
positioning is implemented or used.

Figure 1. Relative positioning
1.1. Static relative positioning
Static surveying is the most widely used technique by
geodetic applications. With this method, the two receivers must
remain stationary and track simultaneously a common set of
satellites (at least four) during the entire observation session. The
observation session time varies from about 20 minutes to a few
hours, or even days, depending on the baseline length, the number
of visible satellites, the satellite geometry, the atmospheric
conditions, as well as the precision requirements. This time is
required to resolve the integer ambiguity parameters between the
satellite and the receiver. Static surveying with carrier phase
measurements is the most accurate positioning technique. Although
both the single and dual-frequency receivers can be used for static
positioning, the later is often used, especially for baselines
exceeding 20 km. The expected accuracy from a geodetic quality
receiver is typically 5 mm 1 ppm (parts per million).
67
1.2. Real Time Kinematic (RTK)
Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) positioning is the most
common method used by the kinematic applications. In RTK, the
reference receiver remains stationary over the known point and
transmits its raw measurements to a rover receiver via data
communication links (e.g., radio channels, cellular phone) at a data
rate of 1 Hz. The data processing at the rover receiver includes
differenced carrier phase ambiguity resolution and rover coordinate
estimation. The initial ambiguity parameters are determined almost
instantaneously using a technique called on-the-fly (OTF) ambiguity
resolution. The ambiguity resolution is achieved by starting with
approximations for the position and improving the ambiguities by
least-squares adjustments or search techniques (Hofmann-
Wellenhof et al., 2008). Once the ambiguity parameters are fixed to
integer values, the expected positioning accuracy for dual-frequency
receiver is 1 cm 2 ppm (horizontal) and 2 cm 2 ppm (vertical).
The main limitation of a single base RTK is that the
baselines must not exceed 10 to 20 km in order to be able to resolve
the ambiguities in a rapid and reliable way. This limitation is due to
the distance-dependent errors such as orbit errors, and ionosphere
and troposphere refraction. However, these errors can be modelled
using measurements of a network of GNSS reference stations
surrounding the rover site, so that residual differenced carrier phase
observation errors can be ignored in the context of rapid ambiguity
resolution. Therefore, RTK positioning is extended from a single
base to a multi-base technique.
1.3. Network RTK
Because of the success and performance of RTK
positioning, RTK positioning services have been established in the
recent years. These services supply reference data to registered
users on charged basis. In order to provide such a service to a
larger region or a whole country, many reference stations have to be
set up and maintained. Here, the development of Network RTK
resulted in a tremendous reduction of the investment costs
necessary to start an RTK positioning service, since the number of
reference stations can be reduced from about 30 reference stations
per 10000 km
2
for single base RTK to 5 to 10 reference stations per
10000 km
2
for Network RTK (Wanninger, 2004).
68
The aim of the reference network is to model and
estimate the error sources, caused by ionosphere and troposphere,
and satellite orbit errors, based on dual-frequency carrier phase
measurements of a local or regional network of reference stations.
The reference network provides the correction information through
RTCM 3.0 (RTCM, 2004) format to rover users to derive positions
with high accuracy similar to conventional RTK.
1.4. Precise Point Positioning
Although, relative positioning offers high accurate
positioning solutions, the technique also presents some
disadvantages or inconveniences, such as the equipment
requirement (at least a pair of receivers), the need for simultaneous
observations at the both receivers, the baseline length constraint,
and reference frame inconsistency. All these inconveniences make
relative positioning costly and logistically hard to operate, for
example in remote areas, where there is no such infrastructure.
Therefore, from the practical point of view, it would be important to
have a technique that has the logistic and flexibility in operation
similar to absolute positioning, but in the same time to provide
accurate position solutions at centimetre to decimetre level.
In the last decade, the continuously improved accuracy
of precise satellite ephemerides (~ 2 cm) and clock products (~ 0.1
ns) has attracted interest from the GNSS community to develop a
new absolute positioning technique, known as Precise Point
Positioning (PPP). By definition, PPP is based on code and carrier
phase measurements from a single, dual-frequency GNSS receiver.
In addition, PPP requires accurate satellite position information as
well as accurate satellite clock corrections. As PPP positioning
solutions are at centimetre to decimetre level accuracy on global
scale (Kouba and Hroux, 2001; Gao and Shen, 2002; Andrei et al.,
2010), PPP technique can be considered as an effective alternative
to the conventional positioning methods used in the expanding or
modernization of geodetic networks.
2. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF PPP
Currently, there are two mathematical models for dual-
frequency precise point positioning. One model, developed by
Kouba and Hroux (2001), uses the ionosphere-free linear
69
combinations of code and carrier phase observations. However, this
model cannot deliver integer-ambiguity-fixed solutions (i.e., it only
delivers float solutions). Gao and Shen (2002) proposed another
model that uses a different observation model based on the
ionosphere-free code and phase combination (i.e., the average of
code and phase measurement). Although this model reduces code
measurement noise by half, similar to first model, it delivers only
float-ambiguity solutions. The resolution of ambiguity parameters is
not performed on point-positioned results from a single receiver
because of the receiver and satellite initial not known, non-zero
phase biases, although recent works are exploring this possibility
(Ge et al., 2008; Laurichesse et al., 2009).
As mentioned, PPP is based on both code and carrier
phase observations from a single GNSS receiver. These
observations have the following mathematical expressions (Andrei,
2010):

(1)

(2)
where identifies the frequency dependent terms, identifies the
satellite emitting signal, identifies the receiver used for tracking,
is the code measurement (pseudorange) on frequency (m); is
the carrier phase measurement on frequency (m); is the
geometrical range between satellite and receiver (m); is the
vacuum speed of light (m/s); is the receiver clock (s); is the
satellite clock (s); is the satellite orbit error (m); is the
relativistic delay (m); is the tropospheric delay (m); are
the receiver and satellite code biases (m); is the corresponding
wavelength for the frequency (m); is the integer ambiguity of the
carrier phase observation (cycle); are the receiver and
satellite initial phase biases (cycle); is the solid Earth tide (m);
is the ocean loading effect (m); is the polar tide (m);
is the phase wind-up effect (m); is the range delay due to the
70
satellite and receiver antenna phase centre offsets and variations
(m); is the multipath effect in the measurement (m) and is the
measurement noise (m).
The receiver and satellite positions, satellite clock errors
as well as the tropospheric delay effect are independent of the
signal frequency. All other terms will in general be different for
different signal frequencies.
A number of additional modelling considerations must be
taken into account with PPP approach. The orbit error ( ) and
clock error ( ) are removed when precise satellite orbit and clock
products are applied. The most common way to reduce the
ionosphere influence ( ) is to form specific linear combinations
between the satellite observations or to apply various ionospheric
correction models (Andrei et. al., 2009). The tropospheric delay
( ) can be corrected at centimetre level, using existing empirical
models and meteorological parameters (Andrei and Chen, 2009).
While the hydrostatic component of the delay can be determined
with an accuracy of 1.5-3 mm if pressure measurements are
available, the wet component of the delay is less predictable. Thus,
it is considered as unknown parameter by the standard PPP
algorithm in the estimation process. Other errors, such as , ,
, , , , , can be reduced by applying specific
correction models, while the receiver clock error ( ) can be reduced
by estimation.
Taking into account all the above-mentioned
considerations, one can form the following ionosphere-free (IF) data
combination when dual-frequency observations are available:

(3)

(4)
where is the corrected pseudorange between the phase centre of
the satellite and receiver antenna, is the wet tropospheric
mapping factor, is the wet component of the tropospheric delay,
identifies the non-integer ambiguity of the ionosphere-free
carrier phase combination
71

(5)
with the corresponding wavelength given by:

(6)
The unknown vector in the PPP processing includes four
types of parameters: the receiver position ( ), the receiver
clock ( ), the tropospheric zenith wet delay ( ), and the float
carrier phase ambiguity ( ) terms (equal to the number of satellites
observed). The unknown parameters can be estimated sequentially
for every epoch using a Kalman filter approach (Kalman, 1960). As
the Kalman filter settings depend on the dynamic conditions, one
should choose carefully the most appropriate stochastic models to
describe the evolvement of the state vector over time. From the PPP
perspective, the coordinates and receiver clock states are usually
modelled as Random Walk or first order Gauss Markov (Axelrad and
Brown, 1996; Brown and Hwang, 1997). The long established way
for modelling the troposphere is to assign a Random Walk process
(Zumberge et. al, 1997; Kouba and Hroux, 2001). The ambiguity
states are assumed to be constant if no cycle slips over time. The
selection of the suitable stochastic model and its settings depends
mainly on the application under consideration.
3. DATA TESTING AND ANALYSIS
3.1. Modern geodetic network in Iasi municipality
After 2000, the local authorities of Iasi municipality had
decided implementation of a new cadastral system and real-estate
database due to the new regulations and strategies adopted by the
National Agency for Cadastre and Land Registration (NACLR) in
Romania. Among others, one project requirement was to design and
implement a new modern, spatial, geodetic network in Iasi
municipality. As a result, the new network included a number of five
new points that formed the control network and 84 ground points
distributed uniformly throughout the municipality, which formed the
local network. The control network was linked to the national
geodetic network via four points belonging to order A of accuracy
(Figure 2).
72

Figure 2. Modern geodetic network in Iasi municipality

The field measuring campaign was carried out during
May 25-28, 2005 (DoY 145-148). Eleven GPS dual-frequency
receivers collected measurements in 60-minute sessions at the rate
interval of 10 seconds. The link between sessions was done by
three common receivers.
In the first step of post-processing, one point (I076) was
linked to permanent station BUCU (Bucharest) using measurements
collected on DoY 145 and 147. After that, all baselines were
computed automatically and the WGS coordinates were obtained for
all measured points. In the next step, having coordinates expressed
in both global WGS84 and national STERE0-70 system, the four
national class A accuracy points were used to determined the
transformation parameters between the two reference systems
following a Bursa-Wolf similarity transformation with 7 parameters
(Table 1). In the final step these transformation parameters were
applied to obtain the coordinates in the national STEREO-70 system
for all measured (control and ground) points.

73
Table 1. Transformation parameters between WGS84 and STEREO-70
datum (Geotop, 2005)
Transformation parameter Notation Value
Translation
(meter)
dx -141.179200
dy 120.972700
dz 225.522200
Rotation angle
(arcsecond)
Rx 1.312510
Ry -5.784977
Rz 0.962513
Scale factor (ppm) s -6.451000
3.2. PPP determination of the control geodetic network
The observations collected by the deployed receivers at
the control points were processed using the PPP algorithm. The
observation session times together with the duration of the sessions
are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Observation sessions at the control geodetic network
Point
id
Time and duration of the observation session
DoY145 DoY146 DoY147 DoY148 DoY350
I003 09:32:10 10:19:40 09:59:10 08:14:40 -
I009 - - - 01:04:40 -
I069 08:47:20 - - - -
I076 08:57:30 09:06:30 09:02:10 09:04:10 -
Unic - - - - 03:41:00
The precise ephemerides tabulated and distributed at
15-minute intervals by IGS ACs (Dow et al., 2005) were used to
eliminate the satellite orbit errors. In addition, in the PPP algorithm
were used precise clock corrections in separate independent
RINEX-like files with a sampling rate of 5 minutes to remove the
satellite clock errors. As a result, the PPP positioning solutions were
estimated only for those epochs for which satellite clock corrections
exist, although the measurement sample rate was 10 seconds. By
following this approach, we removed the interpolation errors due to
the satellite clock irregularities (Andrei, 2010). This constrain was
due to the lack of corrections at a higher sample rate at the time
when the observations were collected. Nevertheless, using 5-minute
clock corrections reduces the convergence time by 50% comparing
with 15-minute corrections (Andrei et al., 2010).
As some receivers reported C/A measurements instead
of P1, monthly P1C1 DCB (Differential Code Bias) values were used
74
to reconstruct the P1 code measurements. In addition, the receiver
antenna phase center offset and variations were applied using the
latest absolute IGS antenna corrections. Furthermore, ocean loading
displacements were calculated using GOT00.2 ocean tide model,
while the rotational deformation due to the polar motion was
computed based on IGS earth rotation parameters for the
corresponding GPS week (G1324). The PPP processing results are
presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Precise Point Positioning estimated precision
DoY Point Estimated precision [m]

145 I003 0.003 0.007 0.015
I069 0.003 0.007 0.015
I076 0.003 0.008 0.015
146 I003 0.003 0.007 0.015
I076 0.004 0.008 0.015
147 I003 0.004 0.007 0.015
I076 0.004 0.007 0.015
148 I003 0.006 0.007 0.015
I009 0.052 0.178 0.107
I076 0.004 0.008 0.016
350 Unic 0.009 0.017 0.028
The PPP processing results indicate subcentimetre
precision for most of the control points on all the observation days.
However, for I009, the estimated precision is larger than all other
points. This result was expected because of the short observation
session. Moreover, the PPP solutions were estimated at 5-minute
intervals in order to match with satellite clock corrections. As a
result, the 1-hour observation session collected at I009 allowed
estimation for only 20 epochs that was insufficient for the solutions
to converge and reach similar precision as the other points. Thus, it
is recommended longer observation session times (at least two
hours) if only 15-minute clock corrections are available.
3.3. PPS vs. cadastral database coordinates
In order to have an inside regarding the accuracy of
these results, the PPP coordinates were compared with the
coordinates reported in the cadastral database of Iasi municipality,
the later ones are considered as reference. Please notice that in
case of PPP algorithm, the reference frame is hidden in satellite
75
coordinates. Satellite ephemerides and clock corrections refer to a
particular realization of ITRF, which in this case is ITRF00. On the
other hand, the reference coordinates are given in WGS84.
Therefore, for a correct comparison both coordinate sets have to be
expressed in the same reference system. However, as there are
none official transformation parameters and the fact that the last
realization of WGS84 (G1150) coincides with ITRF at about 10 cm
level, one can consider that ITRF coordinates are also expressed in
WGS84 at 10 cm level
1
.
Table 4. PPP estimated coordinate accuracy with respect to the
coordinates reported in the cadastral database of Iasi municipality
DoY Point Positioning error components [m]
Nord East 2D
145 I003 0.071 0.159 0.174
I069 0.061 0.175 0.185
I076 0.038 0.182 0.186
146 I003 0.081 0.171 0.189
I076 0.044 0.158 0.164
147 I003 0.078 0.161 0.179
I076 0.048 0.151 0.159
148 I003 0.067 0.158 0.172
I009 0.116 0.490 0.504
I076 0.039 0.145 0.150
350 Unic 0.063 0.150 0.163
The errors with respect to the reference coordinates
corresponding to this comparison indicated a horizontal accuracy of
20 cm, with less than 10 cm along the north component and 20
cm along the east component (Table 4). The larger errors along the
east direction could be explained by the non-integer value of the
carrier-phase ambiguities. As expected, I009 showed errors larger
than the above mentioned values.
3.4. PPP vs ROMPOS
An alternative way to investigate the accuracy of the
obtained results, it to compare PPP coordinates with the coordinates
obtained using ROMPOS (ANCPI, 2008) service, which implements
relative positioning method. Table 5 illustrates the positioning errors

1
ftp://itrf.ensg.ign.fr/pub/itrf/WGS84.TXT
76
for all control points along the local topocentric directions. Here, the
ROMPOS coordinates were considered as reference values.
Table 5. PPP estimated coordinate accuracy with respect to the ROMPOS
coordinates
DoY Point Error components [m]
Nord East Vertical
145 I003 -0.071 0.005 0.379
I069 - - -
I076 -0.045 0.031 0.296
146 I003 -0.030 0.008 0.373
I076 0.035 0.023 0.314
147 I003 -0.047 0.006 0.388
I076 -0.035 0.000 0.311
148 I003 -0.049 0.011 0.374
I009 -0.029 0.329 0.596
I076 -0.058 -0.006 0.340
350 Unic -0.027 0.021 0.355
Here, we have to mention that ROMPOS coordinates are
expressed in RO_ETRS89 coordinate system. Therefore, PPP
coordinates expressed in ITRF 00 had to be transformed first in
ITRF89 and then in ETRS89 (Boucher and Altamimi, 2008). The
comparison demonstrated that error components are less than 10
cm along both horizontal components, while the vertical component
is affected by about 30 cm systematic errors. In addition, I069
misses from Table X because the point was not identified on the
field at the moment when ROMPOS measurements were collected.
4. CONCLUSIONS
This paper describes an analysis of PPP applicability for
the implementation of a new cadastral system in Iasi municipality.
The satellite observations collected by geodetic class receivers
placed in a few points of the new spatial, tri-dimensional geodetic
network are calculated using a PPP approach. The accuracy of the
PPP positioning solutions was assessed and evaluated with respect
to other positioning methods and services.
The conducted analyses recommend the duration of a
observation session to be minimum of two hours when applying 15-
minute precise satellite ephemerides and clock corrections.
Nevertheless, the observation session time can be reduced if one
applies high-rate precise satellite clocks.
77
The results demonstrate the applicability and usefulness
of the new positioning technique.
REFERENCES

1. ANCPI (2008). ROMPOS - Sistemul Romnesc de Determinare a Poziiei (on-
line). Available at: http://www.rompos.ro/
2. Andrei, C-O., R. Chen (2009). Assessment of time-series of troposphere zenith
delays derived from the Global Data Assimilation System numerical weather
model. GPS Solutions 13(2):109-117.
3. Andrei, C-O., R. Chen, H. Kuusniemi, M. Hernandez-Pajares, J.M. Juan, D.
Salazar (2009). Ionosphere Effect Mitigation for Single-frequency Precise Point
Positioning. In Proceedings of 22
nd
International Technical Meeting of the Satellite
Division (ION GNSS-2009), pages 2508-2517 , Savannah, GA
4. Andrei, C-O., D. Salazar, R. Chen (2010). Performance analysis of the Precise
Point Positioning technique at BUCU IGS station. RevCAD Journal of Geodesy
and Cadastre, 10:9-20.
5. Andrei, C-O. (2010). Tehnica satelitar: Pozitionare Punctual Precis.
Tehnopress, Iasi, Romania, p. xxiv+218.
6. Axelrad, P. and Brown, R. G. (1996). GPS Navigation Algorithms. In Parkinson,
B. W. and Spilker, J. J., editors, Global Positioning System: Theory and
Applications Volume I, volume 163 of Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics,
chapter 9, pages 409433. American Institute of Astronautics and Aeronautics,
Washington, DC.
7. Boucher, C., Altamimi, Z. (2008). Specifications for reference frame fixing in the
analysis of a EUREF GPS campaign (on-line). Available at:
http://etrs89.ensg.ign.fr/memo-V7.pdf
8. Brown, R. G. and Hwang, P. Y. (1997). Introduction to Random Signals and
Applied Kalman Filtering. John Wiley & Sons, 3rd edition.
9. Dow, J.M., R.E. Neilan, and G. Gendt (2005). The International GPS Service:
Celebrating the 10th anniversary and looking to the next decade. Advances in
Space Research, 36(3), 320-326.
10. Gao Y., Shen X. (2002). A new method for carrier-phase-based precise point
positioning. NAVIGATION: Journal of Institute of Navigation 49(2):109-116
11. Ge., M., Gendt., G., Rothacher, M., Shi, C., and Liu, J. (2008). Resolution of GPS
carrier-phase ambiguities in Precise Point Positioning (PPP) with daily
observations. Journal of Geodesy 82(7):389-399.
12. Geotop 2001 (2005). Reeaua Geodezic a Municipiului Iasi.
13. Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., Lichtenegger, H., Wasle, E. (2008). Global Navigation
Satellite Systems: GPS, GLONASS, Galileo & more. Springer-Verlag, Wien,
Austria.
14. Kalman, R. E. (1960). A New Approach to Linear Filtering and Prediction
Problems. Transactions of the ASME Journal of Basic Engineering, Series
D(82):3345.
15. Kouba J., Heroux P (2001). Precise point positioning using IGS orbit and clock
products. GPS Solutions 5(2):12-28.
16. Laurichesse, D., Mercier, F., Berthias, J.P., Broca, P., and Cerri, L. (2009).
Integer Ambiguity Resolution on Undifferenced GPS Phase Measurements and
78
Its Application to PPP and Satellite Precise Orbit Determination, NAVIGATION:
Journal of Institute of Navigation 56(2):135-149.
17. RTCM (2004). RTCM Recommended Standards for Differential GNSS (Global
Navigation Satellite Systems) Service. Version 3.0, RTCM Paper 30-
2004/SC104-STD.
18. Wanninger, L. (2004). Introduction to Network RTK (on-line). Available at:
http://www.wasoft.de/e/iagwg451/.
19. Zumberge J.F., Heflin M.B., Jefferson D.C., Watkins M.M., Webb F.H. (1997).
Precise point positioning for the efficient and robust analysis of GPS data from
large networks. Journal of Geophysical Research 102(B3):5005-5017.
79
O NOU INFRASTRUCTUR GEODEZIC PENTRU REPUBLICA
MOLDOVA
Conf. univ. dr. ing. Vasile Chiriac, Facultatea de Cadastru, Geodezie
i Construcii, Universitatea Tehnic a Moldovei
Lect. univ. dr. ing. Livia Nistor-Lopatenco, Facultatea de Cadastru,
Geodezie i Construcii, Universitatea Tehnic a Moldovei
Rezumat: ncepnd cu anul 1999 n Republica Moldova a
fost stabilit sistemul de referin naional MOLDREF99
bazat pe sistemele de referin ITRF97 i ETRS89,
realizat prin crearea reelei geodezice naionale. n
prezent se execut lucrri privind crearea reelei de staii
permanente GNSS i a sistemului naional de poziionare
MOLDPOS. n scopul generrii i distribuirii n timp real a
anomaliilor altitudinilor pentru determinarea altitudinilor
normale din msurtori GNSS, Universitatea Tehnic a
Moldovei n comun cu Universitatea tiine Aplicate,
Karlsruhe, Germania a modelat suprafaa de referin a
altitudinilor HRS cu precizia 3-4 cm din msurtori de
precizie GNSS/nivelment.
Cuvinte cheie: reea geodezic, sisteme de referin,
nivelment, cvasigeoid.
1. INTRODUCERE
n anul 1999 n Republica Moldova a fost introdus
Sistemul Terestru European de Referin ETRS (European
Terestrial Reference System 1989) ca suport de baz pentru
sistemul de referin naional MOLDREF99. Introducerea noului
sistem de referin a generat necesitatea transformrilor unui volum
enorm de date geodezice i integrarea lor n baza de date spaiale a
Sistemului Informaional Geografic Naional (SIGN). n scopul
asigurrii transformrilor de precizie uniform pentru ntreg teritoriu
rii necesit crearea unei noi infrastructuri geodezice avnd n
vedere lucrrile geodezice executate anterior: crearea reelei
geodezice naionale utiliznd tehnologii GPS (Global Positioning
System), reconstruirea reelei naionale de nivelment, crearea reelei
gravimetrice naionale.

80

Figura 1. Reeaua de staii permanente GNSS pentru
serviciul de poziionare MOLDPOS
Totodat accelerarea proceselor de implementare a
tehnologiilor informaionale i comunicaii n ar prevede creterea
necesitilor de utilizare a sistemelor globale de navigaie cu satelii
GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems). ncepnd cu anii 2006
- 2007 n Moldova au fost executate lucrri privind instalarea i
operarea n continuu a dou staii permanente GNSS n municipiul
Chiinu: staia permanent IGEO, ca rezultat a cooperrii Ageniei
Relaii Funciare i Cadastru cu Departamentul Federal de
Cartografie i Geodezie al Germaniei BKG i staia permanent
CTIG-1 la UTM, realizat n cadrul proiectului TEMPUS. n prezent
se execut lucrri cu privire la crearea reelei de staii permanente
GNSS i a sistemului naional de poziionare MOLDPOS (Fig. 1).
Punerea n funciune a sistemului de poziionare naional
MOLDPOS necesit crearea bazelor de date pentru transformarea
coordonatelor n sistemul de referin MOLDPOS99 i a altitudinilor
elipsoidale obinute prin msurtori GNSS n sistemul de altitudini
81
Marea Baltic 1977 sau Marea Baltic utilizat n municipiile
Chiinu, Bli i alte orae.
Dezvoltarea serviciului MOLDPOS, n timp real, prevede
configurarea arhitecturii de comunicaii, implementarea algoritmului
i a structurii de date conform standardului RTCM (Radio Technical
Commission for Maritime Services), care va fi accesibil pentru toi
utilizatorii receptoarelor GNSS din ar.
n cadrul proiectului Dezvoltarea serviciului de
poziionare GNSS n timp real de mare capacitate pentru Moldova
(MOLDPOS) realizat de Universitatea Tehnic a Moldovei n comun
cu Universitatea tiine Aplicate, Karlsruhe, Germania, a fost creat
baza de date geodezic pentru transformarea coordonatelor
obinute prin observaii GNSS n diferite sisteme de coordonate i
altitudini. Aceste realizri vor asigura sistemul de poziionare
MOLDPOS cu o baz de date geodezic unic pentru ntreg teritoriu
rii. n final, baza de date geodezic, software i sistemul de
transmitere a mesajului de transformare RTCM au fost testate prin
msurtori de teren pentru o zon test.
Ca urmare, rezultatele obinute pot fi utilizate pentru
dezvoltarea reelei de staii permanente GNSS pe ntreg teritoriul
rii, care n ansamblu cu baza de date geodezic vor fi integrate n
Sistemului Informaional Geografic Naional (SIGN), ceea ce va
servi o contribuie esenial n cadrul programelor de integrare
european pentru infrastructura informaiei spaiale INSPIRE
(Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe) i subcomisiei
Asociaiei Internaionale a Geodezilor pentru Reelele de Referin
n Europa EUREF (Reference Frame Sub commission for Europe).
2. OBIECTIVE PRINCIPALE
n vederea crerii infrastructurii datelor geodezice pentru
asigurarea determinrii altitudinilor normale n timp real din
msurtori GNSS n cadrul sistemului MOLDPOS au fost stabilite
urmtoarele obiective:
- proiectarea i dezvoltarea bazei de date geodezice pentru
teritoriul Republicii Moldova n conformitate cu specificrile
programului de Infrastructur a datelor spaiale n Europa INSPIRE;
- modelarea suprafeei de referin a altitudinilor HRS (Height
Reference Surface) i a procedurilor numerice de conversie a
altitudinilor elipsoidale determinate din msurtori GNSS n altitudini
82
normale prin metoda digital a elementelor finite DFHRS (Digital
Finite Element Height Reference Surface);
- configurarea arhitecturii de comunicaii pentru asigurarea
transmiterii utilizatorului a mesajului de transformare RTCM (Radio
Technical Commission for Maritime Services);
- testarea final a bazelor de date DFHRS create n baza modelelor
matematice elaborate de Universitatea tiine Aplicate, Karlsruhe,
Germania.
3. METODE UTILIZATE
Pentru modelarea suprafeei de referin a altitudinilor
HRS (Height Reference Surface) din msurtori GNSS/nivelment a
fost utilizat metoda elementelor finite FEM (Finite Element Metod)
i softul DFHRS (Digital Finite Element Height Reference Surface),
cu proprii instrumente avansate de modelare. DFHRS a fost utilizat
la crearea bazei de date pentru conversia altitudinilor elipsoidale n
sistemului naional de altitudini (Fig. 2).

Figura 2. Msurtori GNSS/nivelment i zonificarea lor pentru modelarea
HRS

83
La realizarea obiectivelor propuse au fost utilizate
modelul gravimetric satelitar EIGEN-GL04C, modelul clasic al
geoidului bazat pe formula lui Stokes, modelul gravitaional global
EGM2008 i modelul geoidului gravimetric european EGG97.

Figura 3. Modelul suprafeei de referin al altitudinilor HRS
4. REZULTATELE TESTRII BAZELOR DE DATE GEODEZICE
Analiza statistic a diferenelor altitudinilor normale i a
valorilor calculate din modelul HRS (Fig. 3) pentru punctele
caracteristice de control a artat c diferenele obinute nu depesc
6 cm pentru ntreg teritoriul rii n sistemul de altitudini Marea
Baltic1977 (Fig.4) i 4 cm pentru municipiile Chiinu Bli, i alte
orae n sistemul de altitudini Marea Baltic.
84

Figura 4. Modelul diferenelor de altitudini obinute
Bazele de date au fost instalate pe serverul staiei de
referin GNSS a Universitii Tehnice din Moldova pentru
generarea i transmiterea mesajului RTCM 3.0 la receptorul GNSS
mobil din teren prin intermediul GPRS.
Testarea bazelor de date a fost executat prin
msurtori GNSS de control n punctele reelei geodezice naionale
(RGN) i n reperele reelei de nivelment, care nu au fost incluse n
model. Diferinele de altitudini normale obinute prin msurtori
GNSS i modelul HRS nu au depit 1-2 cm n zona de centru a
rii.
5. CONCLUZII
Crearea sistemului de poziionare n timp real
MOPDPOS va permite nlocuirea reelelor geodezice clasice cu
85
reele GNSS bazate pe Reeaua de Referin Terestr
Internaional ITRF (International Terrestrial Reference Frame).
Bazele de date geodezice DFHRS pot fi utilizate de
serviciul de poziionare MOLDPOS pentru asigurarea conversiei
altitudinilor elipsoidale n sistemul naional de altitudini, ceea ce va
permite nlocuirea lucrrilor de nivelment de ordin inferior, cu
msurtori GNSS i integrarea datelor n Sistemul Informaional
Geografic Naional.
Ca urmare, rezultatele proiectului pot fi utilizate la
extinderea reelei de staii permanente GNSS pe ntreg teritoriu i
dezvoltarea serviciului MOLDPOS, care n ansamblu cu bazele de
date DFHRS, vor servi o contribuie esenial n cadrul programelor
de integrare european pentru infrastructura informaiei spaiale
INSPIRE.
Ridicarea preciziei modelului cvasigeoidului pn la 1-2
cm pentru ntreg teritoriu rii poate fi realizat prin introducerea n
model a msurtorilor gravimetrice terestre.
n scopul mbuntirii preciziei de-a lungul frontierei de
stat, unde datele gravimetrice de precizie nu sunt accesibile, se
propune utilizarea componentelor deviaiei verticalei obinute din
msurtori astronomo-geodezice.
Totodat, modelului cvasigeoidului de precizie, integrat
n sistemul MOLDPOS va fi util pentru aplicaii tiinifice n scopuri
de cercetare, precum i la monitorizarea alunecrilor de teren,
cercetri ale mediului nconjurtor, predicia hazardelor geologice,
urmrirea comportrii construciilor etc.
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positioning services inclduing a scalable hazard monitoring by the Karlsruhe
approach (MONIKA). Proceedings of the International Symposium on Global
Navigation Satellite Systems, Space-Based and Ground-Based Augmentation
Systems and Applications. Berlin, 11-14 November 2008. Berlin Senate Department
for Urban Development. Berlin. ISBN 978-3-938373-99-6. p 106-107.
12. Jger, R. and R. Klber (2008): The New RTCM Transformation Messages. RTCM
Paper No. 110-2008-SC104-508, www.rtcm.info/scdgnss/110-2008-SC104-508.pdf.
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gravimetrice. Curs de prelegeri, UTM, Chiinu 2006.
A NEW GEODETIC INFRASTUCTURE FOR MOLDOVA
REPUBLIC
Abstract: Since 1999 in the Republic of Moldova was established the national
reference system - MOLDREF99 based on ITRF97 and ETRS89 reference
systems, achieved through the establishment of national geodetic network.
Currently works are the creation of permanent GNSS station network and the
national system of positioning MOLDPOS. In order to generate and distribute
real-time anomalies for determining altitudes altitudes normal GNSS
measurements, Technical University of Moldova jointly with the University of
Applied Sciences, Karlsruhe, Germany has shaped reference surface altitudes
to within 3-4 cm of HRS measurements precision GNSS / leveling.
87
ELEMENTE DE CONTROL AL PRECIZIEI N
COMPENSAREA DRUMUIRILOR POLIGONOMETRICE
SPRIJINITE PE PUNCTELE REELEI DE NDESIRE GPS
ef lucr. dr. ing. Constantin Chiril, Facultatea de Hidrotehnic,
Universitatea Tehnic Gheorghe Asachi din Iai
ing. Ciprian Svescu, S.C. GEOSILVA S.R.L.
Rezumat: Studiul asupra preciziei de determinare a
poziiei punctelor de staie ale drumuirii se va orienta att
asupra influenei erorilor de poziionare ale bazelor GPS,
ct i a metodei de prelucrare a datelor i de compensare
riguroas, prin metoda celor mai mici ptrate. Pentru
dezvoltarea drumuirilor poligonomerice necesare ridicrilor
topografice ulterioare, n zona de studiu s-a proiectat o
reea geodezic spaial, astfel nct punctele de ndesire
GPS s serveasc drept baze de sprijin pentru viitoarea
reea poligonometric.
Cuvinte cheie: drumuire, compensare, transformare,
precizie, GPS
1. INTRODUCERE
Reeaua geodezic spaial de baz realizat la nivelul
zonei metropolitane Iai, descris n cadrul lucrrii anterioare [1], a
fost ndesit n vederea obinerii unor baze de sprijin pentru
dezvoltarea reelelor poligonometrice de precizie.
Pentru exemplu (figura 1), se consider drumuirea
planimetric desfurat ntre punctele de staie 500 i I.167, cu un
numr de 11 puncte noi (501, 502, ... , 511).
Avnd n vedere faptul c bazele de sprijin ale drumuirii
au fost determinate prin tehnologie GPS, n cadrul lucrrii se va
efectua i un studiu privind influena erorii de poziionare a
punctelor de orientare iniiale ale drumuirii (puncte de ndesire
GPS), asupra preciziei de nchidere pe orientri i coordonate a
drumuirii planimetrice.
88

Figura 1. Schia drumuirii planimetrice desfurate
n acest scop se consider n statia de plecare (500) un
numr de 8 puncte dispuse radial pe trei direcii, ce formeaz
unghiuri aproximativ drepte i la distane progresive de aproximativ
200 m (101, 201, 301), 400 m (102, 202, 302) i 600 m (103, 203).
La distana de 600 m s-au considerat numai dou puncte, datorit
condiiilor practice din teren, care nu au permis amplasarea celui de
al treilea punct.
2. ELEMENTE MSURATE N TEREN I PRELUCRAREA LOR
PRELIMINAR
n cadrul operaiunilor din teren, n fiecare staie s-au
efectuat msurtori unghiulare n cte dou serii de observaii
azimutale, cu o staie total Leica TCRP 1203 cu precizie de 3.
Msurtorile au fost compensate conform modelului matematic al
celor mai mici ptrate metoda msurtorilor indirecte. Eroarea
medie ptratic a unei direcii azimutale compensate n staie nu a
depit 8
cc
, fiind n medie de 3,8
cc
.
Coreciile de reducere la coard ale direciilor nu s-au
mai aplicat, avnd n vedere valoarea lor mic, de pn la 0,5
cc
,
ceea ce conduce la erori de poziionare pentru punctele de staie
sub-milimetrice.
89
Distanele nclinate ale laturilor drumuirii au fost
msurate cu staia total, cu precizia de 2 mm + 2ppm i calculate
apoi ca medii aritmetice ale tuturor determinrilor, nainte i napoi.
n exprimare relativ, erorile de determinare ale
lungimilor laturilor din cadrul drumuirii nu depesc valoarea de
1:78224, fiind n medie de 1:268424.
Pe baza distanei nclinate, s-au calculat n continuare:
- distana redus la coard:
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
A
=
A
e
A
e
e o
R
H
R
H
H D
D
2 1
2
12
2
1 1
) ( ) (
'

unde:
D
o
- distana nclinat, din msurarea direct a laturii drumuirii;
H
1
e
,H
2
e
- altitudinile elipsoidale ale extremitilor laturii
drumuirii;
R
A

raza sferei medii Gauss, calculat n acest caz pentru
latitudinea medie B
m
a punctelor de capt ale drumuirii (500 i
I.167).
- distana redus la elipsoidul de referin:
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
A
R
D
R s
2
'
arcsin 2

- distana redus la planul proieciei cartografice Stereo-70:

D = s [0,99975+0,614538792 (10
-14
) (X
m
2
+ Y
m
2
)+
+0,51211 (10
-15
)(AX
2
+ AY
2
) +0,37775 (10
-28
)(X
m
2
+ Y
m
2
)
2
]
unde:
X
m
, Y
m
coordonatele medii ale punctului de mijloc al laturii
drumuirii, exprimate n sistemul de coordonate netranslat;
AX, AY

diferenele de coordonate ntre punctele de capt ale
laturii drumuirii, exprimate n sistemul de coordonate
netranslat.
3. CALCULUL I COMPENSAREA RIGUROAS A DRUMUIRII
Ca element de studiu iniial, s-a avut n vedere calculul
unghiului de orientare al staiei 500, n funcie de dispunerea
punctelor GPS de orientare, situate pe cele trei intervale de distan
90
(200 m, 400 m i 600 m). Urmare a msurtorilor executate, au
rezultat trei valori diferite pentru unghiul de orientare al staiei
aferente fiecrui interval de distan analizat. Concluzia desprins
este c precizia crete pe msura deprtrii punctelor de orientare,
cu mrimea intervalului de 200 m (36,2
cc
; 17,3
cc
; 12,4
cc
).
n ceea ce privete msurarea distanelor, n cazul n
care se folosesc distanele reduse la orizont, fr alte corecii, se
ajunge la o eroare total de nenchidere pe coordonate de 20 cm,
dup care prin aplicarea coreciei de reducere la planul de proiecie
se ajunge la valoarea de 10 cm.
Dac se are n vedere modelul complet de prelucrare i
se pleac de la distanele nclinate care se reduc la coard, apoi la
suprafaa elipsoidului de referin i n final la planul de proiecie, se
constat o reducere a erorii de nenchidere pe coordonate de pn
la 3,5 cm.
Avnd n vedere dezvoltarea i implementarea oficial a
aplicaiei TRANSDAT, s-a procedat i la efectuarea unui studiu
asupra preciziei de nenchidere n drumuire, n situaia n care
coordonatele punctelor de sprijin sunt determinate prin acest
procedeu. Eroarea total de nenchidere pe coordonate n drumuire
a fost de 6,3 cm, aceast valoare fiind aproape dubl fa de
valoarea nregistrat n cazul n care se aleg coordonatele punctelor
din transformarea Helmert cu 7 parametri a reelei de baz (3,6 cm).
n ipoteza, n care se consider coordonatele punctelor
de sprijin ale drumuirii ca puncte GPS determinate prin
transformarea liniar 2D (aplicaia TransDatum figura 2), se
evideniaz o eroare total de nenchidere pe coordonate de 4,6 cm.
Dup determinarea coordonatelor provizorii ale punctelor
de staie, printr-o metod de calcul empiric, s-a trecut la aplicarea
modelului matematic de compensare riguroas prin teoria celor mai
mici ptrate, metoda msurtorilor indirecte.
n acest sens, s-a avut n vedere elementele de
omogenizare a ponderilor i uniformizarea termenilor liberi, astfel
nct elementele unghiulare i de distane s participe n mod unitar
n cadrul modelului de compensare.
Rezultatele finale ale coordonatelor rectangulare plane
(X,Y) obinute prin compensare, pe baza coreciilor reprezentate de
necunoscutele sistemului normal (dx,dy) sunt nscrise n tabelul 1.

91
Figura 2. Calculul transformrii liniare 2D n programul Transdatum
92
Tabelul 1. Coordonatele compensate ale punctelor de staie ale drumuirii

Nr.pct.
Coordonate provizorii Corecii Coordonate compensate

X
0
(m)

Y
0
(m)

dx(m)

dy(m)

X(m)

Y(m)
501 630437.9949 691585.1153 0.0037 0.0005 630437.9986 691585.1157
502 630545.5158 692025.4944 0.0047 0.0007 630545.5205 692025.4951
503 630293.9022 692573.4195 0.0030 -0.0007 630293.9052 692573.4188
504 630395.4229 692662.2798 0.0032 -0.0003 630395.4261 692662.2795
505 630396.6923 692840.4741 0.0025 -0.0008 630396.6948 692840.4734
506 630420.8500 693186.6745 0.0011 -0.0010 630420.8511 693186.6735
507 630568.9171 693684.6911 -0.0005 0.0004 630568.9166 693684.6916
508 630668.1888 694089.3332 -0.0016 0.0010 630668.1872 694089.3342
509 630830.0656 694180.9861 -0.0010 0.0018 630830.0646 694180.9879
510 630839.7742 694263.5246 -0.0010 0.0015 630839.7732 694263.5262
511 630737.3278 694420.8107 -0.0005 0.0005 630737.3273 694420.8112
Verificarea compensrii s-a realizat att pe orientri, ct
i pe distane, iar n final evaluarea preciziei a evideniat pentru o
apreciere global a preciziei, eroarea medie ptratic a unitii de
pondere (s
0
= 2,30
cc
), iar pentru caracterizarea domeniului de situare
a fiecrui punct de staie a drumuirii s-au construit elipsele erorilor
(figura 3), pe baza mrimilor calculate n tabelul 2.
Tabelul 2. Evaluarea preciziei de determinare a punctelor noi

Nr.
pct.

Abaterea
standard
s
o

(
cc
)

Erorile medii ale
abscisei i ordonatei
Eroarea
total
s
t
(mm)

Orientarea
elipsei
(
g c cc
)
Semiaxele elipsei erorilor
s
X
(mm) s
Y
(mm) A (mm) B (mm)
501
2,43
3,4 1,6 3,8 178,9378
3,58
2,71
502
502
3,5 1,3 3,7 2,0187
3,50
4,85
503 6,7 6,1 9,1 154,1342
8,46
8,42
504 10,2 6,9 12,3 167,4379
11,43
7,54
505 8,2 2,6 8,6 198,3430
8,18
3,69
506 4,5 1,6 4,8 190,3326
4,56
3,03
507 4,0 1,6 4,3 183,3566
4,10
3,79
508 5,1 5,6 7,6 145,7150
7,12
11,25
509 14,9 7,9 16,9 178,0573
15,65
12,70
510
506
16,1 6,0 17,2 3,6961
16,16
10,59
511

13,7 11,2 17,7 41,9587
16,86
7,91
Erorile obinute n poziionarea punctelor noi ale drumuirii
sunt evideniate prin domeniul de ncredere a elipsei erorilor, care
prezint erori maxime de pn la 1,7 cm.
93
Figura 3. Schia drumuirii i elipsele erorilor n punctele noi
Configuraiile elipselor erorilor arat c acestea se
alungesc n lungul laturilor drumuirii pe direciile crora se obin
erorile maxime, iar ariile lor variaz n sensul creterii dinspre
capetele drumuirii spe mijlocul acesteia, valorile cele mai mari
nregistrndu-se in staia 509.
5. CONCLUZII
n cadrul operaiunilor de teren efectuate pentru
determinarea drumuirilor din cadrul reelelor poligonometrice de
ndesire, este necesar s se acorde o atenie deosebit prelucrrii
preliminare a distanelor, crora trebuie s li se aplice toate
coreciile necesare pentru reducerea acestora la planul proieciei
cartografice adoptate.
n cazul prelucrrii provizorii a drumuirii se constat o
influen semnificativ a erorii de poziionare a punctelor de sprijin,
funcie de metoda de determinare aplicat (transformare 3D, 2D,
TRANSDAT), cu observaia c preciziile se ncadreaz n toleranele
admise pentru toate situaiile prezentate mai sus.
Compensarea riguroas a drumuirii prin metoda
msurtorilor indirecte este n msur s ofere o imagine complet
94
asupra preciziei de determinare a punctelor noi, concretizat sub
forma elipselor sau mai precis, a podarelor elipselor erorilor.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Svescu C., Chiril C., 2011 - Elemente de studiu n proiectarea i realizarea unei
reele geodezice spaiale n zona metropolitan Iai, Simpozionul tiinific GeoPreVi,
12-13 mai 2011, Bucureti.
2. Bofu C., Chiril C., 2007 Sisteme Informaionale Geografice. Cartografierea i
editarea hrilor, Editura Tehnopress, Iai
3. Chiril C., Mnu A., 2006 - The realization of the GPS geodesic network
necessary for the implementation of the real - urban building cadastre and the
database formation on the administrative territory of the Iasi municipality,
Simpozionul tiinific internaional GeoCad06 - RevCAD nr. 6, Alba Iulia.
4. Chiril C., Dumitracu A., 2006 - Transformri de datum n Sistemele Informaionale
Geografice, Simpozionul internaional Sisteme Informaionale Geografice, a XIV -a
ediie, Cluj Napoca.
5. Munteanu C., 2003 - Cartografie matematic, Editura Matrix Rom, Bucureti.
6. http://www.ancpi.ro
ELEMENTS OF ACCURACY CONTROL FOR
POLYGONOMETRIC TRAVERSE ADJ USTMENT SUPPORTED
BY THE GPS CONTROL POINTS
Abstract: The study on the accuracy of positioning of station points will focus
both on the influence of GPS control points accuracy and on the method of data
processing and adjustement by the means of the least squares method. In order
to develop the subsequent necessary topographic survey for the
polygonometric traverse, was designed in the area of study a three dimensional
geodetic network, so that densification of GPS points could serve as support
bases for the future polygonometric network.
95
MODELLING LOCAL GNSS/LEVELLING QUASIGEOID
FOR ROMANIA BASED ON EGG97 MODEL
Prof. Phd. Eng. Petre-Iuliu Dragomir, Faculty of Geodesy, Technical
Phd. Eng. Neculai Avramiuc, S.C. BLOM ROMANIA S.R.L.
Phd. Stud. Eng. Vlad Sorta, National Agency for Cadastre and Land
Registration
Abstract: According to wide spread use of satellite based
positioning techniques, especially GNSS (Global
Navigation Sattelite System), a greater attention has
started to be paid to precise determination of geoid or
quasigeoid models with an aim to replace the geometric
levelling measurements with GNSS measurements during
geodetic and surveying works.
To achieve this goal, National Agency for Cadastre and
Land Registration computed for Romania a quasigeoid
based on EGG97 quasigeoid model and national
GNSS/levelling data set. The discrepancies between the
GNSS, the leveling and the EGG97 data are modeled by a
trend and a signal component.
Keywords: EGG97 quasigeoid model, GPS/leveling.
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays the Global Navigation Satellite Systems
(GNSS) provide very precisely ellipsoidal heights, with accuracy
around of to a few centimeters and on the other side GNSS
techniques ensure efficiency and lower costs. However, many
geodetic, geophisic and different engineering applications require
physically defined heights (which are related to the Earths gravity
field): orthometric or normal heights. To obtain such kind of heights
with the same accuracy of ellipsoidal heights (which are geometric
heights), we need a precise geoid/quasigeoid model from the
interest area.
To achieve this goal, the International Association of
Geodesy, in 1990 estabilished a subcomission for Europe, The
Institut fr Erdmessung (IfE) is serving as the computing center in
this project. IfE produced several geoid/quasigeoid models,
96
combining terrain data and high resolution gravity data. One of the
best quasigeoid for Europe is EGG97, based on the global
geopotential model EGM96 (developed by NASA/NIMA).
On the other hand, National Agency for Cadastre and
Land Registration computed for Romania a quasigeoid based on
EGG97 quasigeoid model and national GNSS/levelling data set. The
discrepancies between the GNSS, the leveling and the EGG97 data
are modeled by a trend and a signal component.
2. GENERAL INFORMATIONS ABOUT EGG97 GEOID/
QUASIGEOID MODEL
The main purpose for IfE was to compute the height
anomalies (quasigeoid undulations), . The advantage of this
method is that no assumptions about the gravity field in the Earths
interior are needed. On the other side, to transform the height
anomalies, in geoid undulations we need to introduce a density
model (Denker, 1998).
To combine the NASA/NIMA geopotential model EGM96
with high resolution digital terrain and gravity data was used the
remove-restore technique. In a regional scale, the remove-restore is
realized by summation of the three terms, like in the bellows formula
(Lyszkowicz, 2010):

where is computed from geopotential model, is computed
from residual Fayes gravity anomalies and express the influence
of topography.
The residual gravity anomalies are computed from
relation:

where is Faye gravity anomaly and is gravity anomaly
computed from geopotential model.
Another important aspect is that from using the Stokes
formula to compute the geoid undulations may result long
wavelength distortions. To reduce these distortions was used the
least squares spectral combinations technique (Denker, 1998).
About 700 million topographical height data and about
2.7 million gravity data were included in the European Geoid Project
97
data base. The high resolution gravity data (at least 10 km) are
available for the European countries but the marine data coverage is
still insufficient in some regions.
The geoid/quasigeoid was computed in the area
delimited by and in a grid
covering this area. Totally the area was covered by 12779520 grid
points. The spherical harmonic model EGM96 with values between
and and a standard deviation of had a
capital contribution to the final quasigeoid EGG97. The maximum
Digital Terrain Model (DTM) effects are about , for the gravity
data about and for the final EGG97 model was applied a zero-
degree undulation correction of and a tidal correction. Also,
a correction to the geoid is possible by introducing a Bouguer plate
model with constant density.
The next figure (figure 1) shows the square root of the
height anomaly error degree variances based only on gravity data,
the global model EGM96 and the combined European quasigeoid
EGG97 (Denker and Torge, 1997).

Figure 1. Square root of height anomaly error degree variances, based on
the global model EGM96, gravity data, combined European quasigeoid
EGG97 and the Tscherning and Rapp model (1974)
From the above figure we can easily observe that the
long wavelength gravity field information from EGM96 is better than
terrestrial gravity data. Also, standard deviations for the height
98
anomalies from the EGG97 model and height anomaly differences
were computed from the corresponding error degree variances
(Denker, 1998) (see the Table 1).The height anomalies standard
deviations are around of , for the height anomaly differences
the standard deviations are over a distance of and
over a distance of .
If we implie a good precision for the terrestrial gravity
data (error about ), then the standard deviations for the
height anomalies are while for the height anomaly
differences for a distance over and for a
distance over .
Table 1 EGG 97 height anomalies ( ) and height anomaly
differences ( ) standard deviations (Denker, 1998)

The standard deviations are provided for the complete
spectrum as well as for some selected spectral bands. The standard
deviations of the height anomalies are 8.9 cm, while the standard
deviations for height anomaly differences are 7.6 cm over 100 km
and 12.7 cm over 1000 km distance, respectively. In case of a
more optimistic error estimate for the terrestrial gravity data of 1
mgal we obtain standard deviations for the height anomalies of 6.4
cm, while for height anomaly differences we get values of 3.9 cm
over 100 km and 7.6 cm over 1000 km distance. Table 1 also
shows that the major error contribution is coming from the spectral
band below degree l=360. This suggests that the error in high
resolution geoid/quasigeoid models is predominantly long-
wavelength. (Denker, 1998).
99
3. EGG97 QUASIGEOID IMPROVEMENT USING GNSS AND
LEVELLING DATA
3.1 Introduction
Generally, intercomparisons between GNSS-levelling
technique and high resolution geoid or quasigeoid models have
shown long to medium wavelength discrepancies (Milbert, 1995).
This situation create the possibility to develop an empirical corrector
surface which relates a given gravimetric geoid/quasigeoid model to
the reference system of GNSS and leveling heights (Milbert, 1995).
This kind of corrector surface will be influence by systematic errors
from different sources like: ellipsoidal, leveling and geoidal sources.
The basic idea is that the corrector surface will lead to a
corresponding improvement of the geoidal surface and on the other
side the error contributions from the ellipsoidal GNSS heights and
the leveling data are of minor importance. For practical applications
this is a very important thing because such a corrected
geoid/quasigeoid surface has an important property: that it directly
relates the ellipsoidal GNSS heights to the national system of
leveling heights.
Basic relation for modeling of the corrector surface is:

where is the GNSS/leveling quasigeoid undulation, computed
as the difference of the ellipsoidal height from GNSS, , and the
normal height from leveling, , is the quasigeoid undulation
from the gravimetric model EGG97 and are the raw residuals,
which are considered as a trend ( ), signal ( ) and noise ( )
component in a least squares collocation model. The trend
component is obtained by modeling with a 3 parameter datum
shift:

where and are the ellipsoidal latitude and longitude and ,
and are the datum shift constants.
After computing the trend parameters, an empirical
covariance function of the detrended residuals (observations), l-t,
100
can be computed and modeled by a simple mathematical function.
In the following we use a second order Markov covariance model in
the form (Denker, 1998):

where s is the distance, C0 is the signal variance, and a is a
parameter that describes the characteristic length of the covariance
function.
For an arbitrary station point P the signal component can
be computed using formula (after fixing the signal and error
covariance modells):

In the aboves equation is the predicted signal in
station P, C is a matrix containing the signal covariances between
the observations, D is the noise covariance matrix and the vector
contains the signal covariances between the predicted signal and
the observations.
Finally the improved geoidal/quasigeoidal surface is
obtained by adding the predicted signal and the trend component to
the original gravimetric geoid/quasigeoid:

The above described technique to combine a gravimetric
geoid/quasigeoid with GNSS/leveling can be regarded as a stepwise
solution, similar to stepwise collocation, where in the first step the
gravity and terrain data are combined with the global model, while in
the second step the GNSS/leveling data are added. The major
difference between the above procedure and stepwise collocation is
that in the above procedure the covariance modeling is only done
empirically as compared to the rigorous covariance propagation in
stepwise collocation (Denker, 1998).
3.2 Romanian quasigeoid based on EGG97 quasigeoid, GNSS
and levelling data
For realizing the Romanian quasigeoid model, National
Agency for Cadastre and Land Registration (NACLR) made some
GNSS determinations in the national geodetic (class A-D) points.
101
After data processing, the ETRS89 coordinates and the Black Sea
1975 (MN75) heights for these points were computed. As a result,
was obtained a set of common points in both systems. The
differences d among geometric anomaly
GPS
=h
ETRS89
-H
N
) and
gravimetric anomalies (EGG97) are presented in the below table:
Table 2 Statistical situation for common points before modeling
Grid Step= 0.11111
Nodes Number=4324
Statistic d
Mean: 0.0888
Std Dev: 0.1500
Max: 0.5730
Min: -0.4228
# Data: 251
# Data over +/-3*(Std Dev): 4
% Data within +/-3*(Std Dev): 98.41

In the next diagram the anomalies are represented by
red vectors. We may observe an unhomogeneous point distribution
over the whole country, there are few points which has a
consequence that the quasigeoid is less precise.

Figure 2. Residuals (
GPS
-
EGG97
) of the data set
This quasigeoid was obtained by respecting the
methodology presented at point 1 and following this way, in
according to collocation method we obtained signals for anomalies
interpolation. As a difference between obtained geometric anomalies

102
and signals we have the residuals after modeling. These results are
shown in the table no. 3.
Table 3. Statistical situation for common points after modeling
Grid Step= 0.11111
Nodes Number=4324
Statistic d
Mean: 0.0012
Std Dev: 0.0362
Max: 0.1391
Min: -0.1188
# Data: 251
# Data over +/-3*(Std Dev): 3
% Data within +/-3*(Std Dev): 98.80
Standard deviation for the common points is around of
4 cm and for the new points, assuming a confidence level of 95% is
about three times bigger (about 12 cm), in the situation when the
number of common points is sufficient.
In the next figure we may observe the residuals after
modeling (figure no. 3):

Figure 3. Residual errors after modelig
In the above figure may be observed that in the areas
marked by red circles the residuals after modeling are bigger
because of the small number of points that helps the realization of
regional signals trend.

103
Based on obtained signals in the grid nodes that defines
the Romanian quasigeoid, was realized the signals field represented
by equal anomalies curves. This diagram is shown in the next figure
(figure no.4):

Figure 4. Signal component (contour interval is 1 m)
4. CONCLUSIONS
EGG97 is a high resolution quasigeoid model computed
by combining gravity and terrain data with the global geopotential
model EGM96 from NASA/NIMA. The mathematical model EGG97
is based on the spectral combination technique together with a
remove-restore procedure.
This quasigeoid had a definite contricution for modeling
the Romanias quasigeoid which is included in transformation
software TransDATRO. For the improvement of obtained quasigeoid
the supplementary GNSS determinations are requested and, also,
are requested new leveling measurements. These new GNSS and
leveling determinations must be included in the transformation grid
to improve it.
In the nearby future will be possible to determine a
quasigeoid model using gravimeters on the planes platforms and, in
this way, will be obtained a more precise quasigeoid than the actual
one.

104
REFERENCES
1. Denker, H. Evaluation and Improvement of the EGG97 Quasigeoid Model for
Europe by GPS and Leveling Data, Institut fr Erdmessung, Universitt Hannover,
1998;
2. Denker, H., W. Torge (1997) - The European gravimetric quasigeoid EGG97 - An
IAG supported continental enterprise. In: IAG Symp. Proceed. IAG Scient. Ass. Rio de
Janeiro, 1997, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York;
3. yszkowicz, A - QUASIGEOID FOR THE AREA OF POLAND COMPUTED BY
LEAST SQUARES COLLOCATION, 2010

105
ANALIZA DEFORMAIILOR UNOR PROIECII
CARTOGRAFICE, N CAZUL LOCALITILOR DIN
ZONELE GEOGRAFICE EXTREME ALE ROMNIEI
Prof. univ. dr. ing. Valeriu Moca, Universitatea de tiine Agricole i
Medicin Veterinar Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Iai, e-mail:
valmoca@uaiasi.ro
Drd. ing. Valeria Ersilia Oniga, Universitatea Tehnic Gh Asachi
Iai, e-mail: ersylya83@yahoo.com

Rezumat: Poziia geografic a teritoriului Romniei este
situat ntre urmtoarele puncte extreme (localiti): satul
Horoditea, judeul Botoani, la Nord; oraul Zimnicea,
judeul Teleorman, la Sud; comuna Beba Veche, judeul
Timi, la Vest i oraul Sulina, judeul Tulcea, la Est.
Suprafaa administrativ-teritorial a Romniei se
desfoar pe o diferen de latitudine nordic de 4
0
37
59

i, respectiv, pe o diferen de longitudine

estic de
9
0
2540, dup meridianul Greenwich. Pe baza
coordonatelor geografice i rectangulare ale celor patru
puncte extreme au fost determinate deformaiile liniare i
areolare, n proieciile: Stereografic-1970, Gauss-
Krger i UTM. Deformaiile liniare relative din proiecia
Stereografic-1970 s-au situat ntre valorile de la +24
cm/km (Horoditea) i pn la +63 cm/km (Sulina). n
proiecia Gauss-Krger, deformaiile maxime s-au produs
n funcie de diferena de longitudine fa de meridianul
axial al fusului de 6
0
, fiind ncadrate ntre 0,6 cm/km
(Horoditea) i 55 cm/km (Sulina). n proiecia UTM,
deformaiile regionale au nregistrat valori maxime
negative de pn la -39 cm/km (Horoditea) i pozitive de
+15 cm/km (Sulina), n funcie de poziia acestora fa de
liniile de deformaie nul ale fusului de 6.

Cuvinte cheie: proiecie cartografic, deformaie liniar,
deformaie nul, fus geografic, meridian axial.
1. INTRODUCERE
Teritoriul Romniei, cu punctul central situat la
intersecia paralelei de 45 latitudine nordic, cu meridianul de 25
longitudine estic Greenwich cuprinde o zon geografic, care se
106
desfoar pe o diferen de latitudine de 4
0
37
59
i, respectiv, pe
o diferen de longitudine de 9
0
2540. Suprafaa total a fondului
funciar de 238 391 km
2
este cuprins att n interiorul, ct i n
exteriorul arcului munilor Carpai, pe cursul inferior al Dunrii i cu
ieire la Marea Neagr. Poziia geografic a Romniei a fost
ncadrat, n raport cu delimitarea administrativ - teritorial, prin
urmtoarele puncte extreme (localiti) ale frontierelor de stat: satul
Horoditea -judeul Botoani la Nord, oraul Zimnicea - judeul
Teleorman la Sud, comuna Beba Veche -judeul Timi, la Vest i
oraul Sulina judeul Tulcea la Est [8].
n intervalul de timp al ultimilor 60 ani (1951-2011) au
fost adoptate i utilizate n Romnia, diferite proiecii cartografice, n
scopul ntocmirii planurilor i hrilor topografice [3, 6]. ntr-o prim
etap (1951-1973) s-a folosit proiecia cilindric transversal
conform Gauss - Krger, cu elipsoidul de referin Krasovski
1940 i cu punctul fundamental la Pulkovo (Sistemul de coordonate
1942). ncepnd cu anul 1973, s-a trecut la folosirea proieciei
azimutale, perspective, stereografice, oblice, conforme, pe
planul secant unic - 1970, avnd la baz elipsoidul Krasovski -
1940 i planul de referin pentru cote Marea Neagr. Dup anul
1990, s-a folosit i proiecia Universal Transversal Mercator
(UTM) pe fuse geografice de 6 longitudine, cu folosirea parametrilor
geometrici ai elipsoidului de referin WGS-84 [1, 7]. Pentru o serie
de zone geografice ale Romniei, unde deformaiile lungimilor au
depit cerinele de precizie ale reprezentrilor cartografice pentru
ntocmirea planurilor la scrile 1:2 000, 1:5 000 i 1:10 000 au fost
adoptate i sisteme locale de proiecii stereografice, derivate din
proiecia stereografic pe planul secant unic - 1970 [4, 5, 7].
Prin implementarea tehnologiilor actuale de poziionare
satelitare au fost realizate o serie de obiective majore ale Reelei
Geodezice Naionale [2]. ncepnd cu anul 2009 s-a adoptat pentru
teritoriul Romniei, Sistemul de Referin Terestru European
1989 (ETRS 89), bazat pe elipsoidul de referin GRS 80 (Geodetic
Reference System 1980) i, respectiv, pe sistemul de coordonate
geodezice elipsoidale [9].

107
2. NCADRAREA ZONELOR GEOGRAFICE EXTREME PE
TRAPEZELE GEODEZICE, LA SCARA 1: 5 000
Introducerea cadastrului general i constituirea bncilor
de date la nivelul unitilor administrativ teritoriale, pentru cele
dou componente de baz (intravilane i extravilane) se realizeaz
n prezent, n sistemul oficial al proieciei Stereografice-1970, cu
nomenclatura trapezelor, corespunztoare scrilor de reprezentare.
Pentru studiul deformaiilor, n cazul folosirii diferitelor
proiecii cartografice s-a efectuat, ntr-o prim etap, ncadrarea
cartografic a punctelor extreme (localiti) ale teritoriului Romniei,
pornindu-se de la nomenclatura trapezelor, la scara 1:50 000, cu
dimensiunile laturilor n valori unghiulare de 1000 pe latitudine i
de 1500 pe longitudine. n continuare, s-a mprit trapezul de la
scara 1: 50 000, n patru foi, la scara 1:25 000; 32 foi, la scara
1:10 000 i 64 foi, la scara 1:5 000.
Din schema dispunerii i modul de numerotare al foilor
de hart i de plan, n cadrul trapezului la scara 1:50 000 s-a obinut
ncadrarea cartografic a celor patru puncte extreme (localiti), la
scara 1:5 000, dup cum urmeaz:
- trapezul M-35-138-A-b-4-III -satul Horoditea (figura 1);
- trapezul K-35-15-B-b-3-I oraul Zimnicea (figura 2);
- trapezul L-34-65-D-a-3-I comuna Beba Veche (figura 3);
- trapezul L-35-108-C-b-2-I oraul Sulina (figura 4).
HORODISTEA
A
1
a
c
d
b
U
C
R
A
I
N
A
138
2
6
3
0
'
0
0
"
2
3 4
4817'30"
1 2
3 4
1 2
3 4
1 2
3 4
4820'00"
4815'00"
4812'30"
4810'00"
I II
III
IV
4816'15"
2
6
4
5
'
0
0
"
2
6
3
7
'
3
0
"
2
6
3
3
'
4
5
"
2
6
4
1
'
1
5
"
2
6
4
3
'
0
7
"
.
5

ZIMNICEA
B
a
c
d
1 2
3 4
1 2
3 4
1 2
3 4
1 2
3 4
2
5
1
5
'
0
0
"
2
5
3
0
'
0
0
"
2
5
2
2
'
3
0
"
2
5
1
8
'
4
5
"
2
5
2
6
'
1
5
"
15
b
4340'00"
4337'30"
4335'00"
4332'30"
4330'00"
I II
IV III
4336'15"
2
5
2
4
'
2
2
"
.
5
B
U
L
G A
R
I
A

Figura 1. Satul Horoditea Figura 2. Oraul Zimnicea
(M-35-138-A-b-4-III) (K-35-15-B-b-3-I)
108
BEBA VECHE
D
a
c
d
1 2
3 4
1 2
3 4
1 2
3 4
1 2
3 4
b
65
2
0
1
5
'
0
0
"
2
0
3
0
'
0
0
"
2
0
2
2
'
3
0
"
2
0
1
8
'
4
5
"
2
0
2
6
'
1
5
"
2
0
1
6
'
5
2
"
.
5
4610'00"
4607'30"
4605'00"
4602'30"
4600'00"
4606'15"
I II
IV III
S
E
R
B
I
A

C
a
b
c
d
1 2
3 4
2
9
3
0
'
0
0
"
2
9
4
5
'
0
0
"
2
9
3
7
'
3
0
"
2
9
3
3
'
4
5
"
2
9
4
1
'
1
5
"
2
9
4
3
'
0
7
"
.
5
1 2
3 4
1 2
3 4
1 2
3 4
SULINA
4510'00"
4508'45"
4507'30"
4505'00"
4502'30"
4500'00"
108
I II
IV III
M
A
R
E
A

N
E
A
G
R
A

Figura 3. Comuna Beba Veche Figura 4. Oraul Sulina
(L-34-65-D-a-3-I) (L-35-108-C-b-2-I)
3. CALCULUL COORDONATELOR RECTANGULARE PLANE, N
FUNCIE DE COORDONATELE GEOGRAFICE
3.1. Calculul coordonatelor Stereografice - 1970
Conversia coordonatelor geografice de pe elipsoidul de
referin Krasovski - 1940, n coordonate Stereografice 1970 s-a
efectuat cu ajutorul formulelor cu coeficieni constani, n funcie de
diferena de latitudine i de longitudine, dintre polul proieciei Q
0
(
0
,
0
) i fiecare punct dat P
i
(
i
,
i
).
ntr-o prim etap, au fost calculate coordonatele
stereografice din planul tangent (X
tg
, Y
tg
), paralel cu planul secant,
n funcie de diferena de latitudine (f) i, respectiv, de longitudine
(l), sub urmtoarea form:
X
tg
= (a
00
+ a
10
f + a
20
f
2
+ a
30
f
3
+ a
40
f
4
+ a
50
f
5
+ a
60
f
6
) 1,000 +
+ (a
02
+ a
12
f + a
22
f
2
+ a
32
f
3
+ a
42
f
4
) l
2
+
+ (a
04
+ a
14
f + a
24
f
2
) l
4
+
+ (a
06
+ ) l
6
[m]
Y
tg
= (b
01
+ b
11
f + b
21
f
2
+ b
31
f
3
+ b
41
f
4
+ b
51
f
5
) l +
+ (b
03
+ b
13
f + b
23
f
2
+ b
33
f
3
) l
3
+
+ (b
05
+ b
15
f + )l
5
[m]
Coordonatele stereografice din planul tangent au fost
transformate n planul secant, cu ajutorul coeficientului de
reducere la scar, C = 0,999 750 000, pe baza relaiilor:
109

X
sec
= X
tg
C i Y
sec
= Y
tg
C
Coordonatele stereografice din planul secant, au fost
exprimate n sistemul oficial, cu originea translat:
X < 70 > = X
sec
+ 500 000,000 m;
Y < 70 > = Y
sec
+ 500 000,000 m.
Coordonatele geografice i stereografice ale colurilor
celor patru trapeze i ale punctelor extreme (localiti) ale teritoriului
Romniei (figurile 1, 2, 3 i 4) sunt prezentate n tabelul 1.
Tabelul 1.Coordonatele geografice i stereografice ale colurilor trapezelor
i ale punctelor din localitile extreme ale teritoriului Romniei
Nr. i denumirea
punctului
Coordonate geografice Coordonate stereografice (m)
( ) ( ) X < 70 > Y < 70 >
Trapezul: M-35-138-A-b-4-III
1 - Nord Vest 48 16 15 26 41 15 753 783, 230 625 284, 038
2 - Nord Est 48 16 15 26 43 07,5 751 466, 607 625 334, 063
3 - Sud Vest 48 15 00 26 41 15 753 833, 790 627 603, 902
4 - Sud Est 48 15 00 26 43 07,5 751 517, 182 627 654, 853
Horoditea 48 15 06 26 42 05 751 674, 291 626 361, 492

1 - Nord Vest
2 - Nord Est
3 - Sud Vest
4 - Sud Est
Trapezul: K-35-15-B-b-3-I
43 37 30
43 37 30
48 36 15
48 36 15
25 22 30
25 24 22,5
25 22 30
25 24 22,5
236 164, 358
236 176, 482
233 849, 228
233 861, 354
530 271, 954
532 794, 607
530 282, 634
532 806, 177
Zimnicea 43 37 07 25 23 32 235 460, 937 531 665, 642

1 - Nord Vest
2 - Nord Est
3 - Sud Vest
4 - Sud Est
Trapezul: L-34-65-D-a-3-I
46 07 30
46 07 30
46 06 15
46 06 15
20 15 00
20 16 52,5
20 15 00
20 16 52,5
524 849, 404
524 705, 650
522 536, 449
522 392, 666
133 080, 612
135 493, 034
132 942, 341
135 355, 674
Beba Veche 46 07 27 20 15 44 524 700, 549 134 018, 612

1 - Nord Vest
2 - Nord Est
3 - Sud Vest
4 - Sud Est
Trapezul: L-35-108-C-b-2-I
45 10 00
45 10 00
45 08 45
45 08 45
29 41 15
29 43 07,5
29 41 15
29 43 07,5
418 169, 295
418 313, 395
415 856, 452
416 000, 579
868 346, 097
870 800, 270
868 481, 434
870 936, 511
Sulina 45 09 36 29 41 24 417 440, 673 868 585, 768
3.2. Calculul coordonatelor rectangulare plane Gauss

Coordonatele plane Gauss, n funcie de coordonatele
geografice de pe elipsoidul de referin Krasovski-1940, au fost
determinate pentru aceleai coluri ale trapezelor, la scara 1:5000 i,
respectiv, ale punctelor extreme redate n figurile 1, 2, 3 i 4.
110
n proiecia Gauss s-a folosit i longitudinea (
0
) a
meridianului axial al fusului de 6, n care au fost ncadrate punctele
extreme (localiti), dup cum urmeaz:
- trapezul L-34-65-D-a-3-I, (
0
= 210000);
- trapezul M-35-138-A-b-4-III, (
0
= 270000);
- trapezul K-35-15-B-b-3-I, (
0
= 270000);
- trapezul L-35-108-C-b-2-I, (
0
= 270000).
Pentru calculul coordonatelor plane Gauss s-au folosit
formulele cu coeficieni variabili, redate mai jos sub forma restrns:

X
Gauss
= + A
2
l
2
+ A
4
l
4
+ A
6
l
6
[m]
Y
Gauss
= Y
0
+ B
1
l + B
3
l
3
+ B
5
l
5
[m]

unde: lungimea arcului de meridian pe elipsoidul de referin,
de la Ecuator i pn la paralelul considerat;
l = (
i
-
0
) 10
-4
, longitudinea punctului dat fa de
meridianul axial al fusului de 6;
A
2
, A
4
, A
6
coeficieni variabili din relaia abscisei X;
B
1
, B
3
, B
5
- coeficieni variabili din relaia ordonatei Y;
Y
0
= 500 000, 000 m, originea convenional sau fals.
Coordonatele plane Gauss ale colurilor trapezelor, la
scara 1:5000 i ale celor patru puncte extreme (localiti) ale
Romniei (figurile 1, 2, 3 i 4) sunt nregistrate n tabelul 2.
3.3. Calculul coordonatelor plane U.T.M.
Proiecia Universal Transversal Mercator (U.T.M.)
constituie o variant a proieciei Gauss-Krger, care n Romnia a
nceput s fie folosit din anul 1990. Sistemul axelor de coordonate
pentru fusele de 6 poart denumirea punctelor cardinale:
- axa ON este imaginea meridianului axial al fusului de 6, cu sensul
pozitiv spre Nord, fiind echivalent cu axa OX din proiecia Gauss;
- axa OE, este imaginea Ecuatorului i are sensul pozitiv spre Est,
fiind echivalent cu axa OY din proiecia Gauss.
n proiecia UTM se utilizeaz sistemul coordonatelor
false, cu originea: N =10 000 000 m +N i E =500 000 m +E.
Scara reprezentrii de pe lungimea meridianului axial al
fusului de 6 are valoarea K
o
= 0, 999 600, care difer fa de
proiecia Gauss, unde K
o
= 0,000 000.
Pentru trecerea de la coordonatele plane Gauss (X, Y) la
coordonatele plane UTM (N, E) i invers, sunt folosite relaiile:
111
N = K
0
X
Gauss
i E = K
0

Y
Gauss
[m]
Coordonatele plane Gauss (X
Gauss
, Y
Gauss
) au fost
calculate cu ajutorul formulelor cu coeficieni variabili i cu utilizarea
parametrilor geometrici ai elipsoidului WGS-84.
Inventarul de coordonate plane UTM al colurilor
trapezelor i ale punctelor extreme (figurile 1, 2, 3 i 4) este
prezentat mai jos (tabelul 2).
Tabelul 2. Coordonatele rectangulare plane Gauss i U.T.M. ale colurilor
trapezelor i ale punctelor din localitile extreme ale teritoriului Romniei
Nr. i denumirea
punctului
Coordonate plane GAUSS Coordonate plane U.T.M.
X (m) Y (m) N (m) E (m)
Trapezul: M-35-138-A-b-4-III
1 - Nord Vest 5348683,712 476801,525 5346450,130 476811,191
2 - Nord Est 5348674,741 479121,370 5346441,163 479130,069
3 - Sud Vest 5346367,105 476792,096 5344134,490 476801,766
4 - Sud Est 5346358,134 479112,880 5344125,522 479121,588
Horoditea 5346548,330 477824,278 5344315,638 477833,518

1 - Nord Vest
2 - Nord Est
3 - Sud Vest
4 - Sud Est
Trapezul: K-35-15-B-b-3-I
4833525,326
4833476,432
4831210,558
4831161,666
368843,777
371366,040
368798,478
371321,610
4831506,640
4831457,767
4829143,966
4829192,838
368898,430
371419,647
371375,239
368853,151
Zimnicea 4832788,400 370220,080 4830770,021 370274,161

1 - Nord Vest
2 - Nord Est
3 - Sud Vest
4 - Sud Est
Trapezul: L-34-65-D-a-3-I
5110343,549
5110321,232
5108027,818
5108005,500
442032,587
444447,891
442010,739
444426,953
5108209,384
5108187,076
5105894,619
5105872,310
442056,741
444471,038
442034,901
444450,109
Beba Veche 5110242,078 442976,380 5108197,981 442799,189

1 - Nord Vest
2 - Nord Est
3 - Sud Vest
4 - Sud Est
Trapezul: L-35-108-C-b-2-I
5007070,259
5007152,519
5004754,922
5004837,182
711288,822
713745,660
711365,882
713823,617
5004979,176
5005061,402
5002664,805
5002747,031
711200,781
713656,596
711277,809
713734,520
Sulina 5006335,897 711510,054 5004333,363 711225,450
4. ANALIZA DEFORMAIILOR REGIONALE, N PROIECIILE
STEREO - 1970 I GAUSS / U.T.M.
Adoptarea i utilizarea pe diferite perioade de timp a
proieciilor cartografice din Romnia a avut n vedere producerea
unor deformaii ct mai mici pentru distane, suprafee i unghiuri, n
urma trecerii de la suprafaa curb, la o suprafa plan.
112
4.1. Modulii i deformaiile lungimilor i ale suprafeelor n proiecia
Stereografic - 1970
Prin caracterul reprezentrii, proiecia Stereografic pe
planul secant -1970 este o proiecie conform perspectiv, care
pstreaz nedeformate unghiurile, dar deformeaz lungimile i
suprafeele. Analiza deformaiilor regionale s-a efectuat pentru cele
patru puncte extreme (localiti), care ncadreaz teritoriul Romniei
Horoditea, Zimnicea, Beba Veche i Sulina, (figura 5).
Q0
o=25
=46
VASLUI
BISTRITA-NASAUD
ARGES
TIMIS
HUNEDOARA
MEHEDINTI
CARAS-SEVERIN
DOLJ
OLT
GORJ
VALCEA
SATU MARE
ARAD
BIHOR
ALBA
CLUJ
SIBIU
MURES
MARAMURES
SALAJ
GALATI
VRANCEA
TULCEA
CALARASI
BUZAU
TELEORMAN
GIURGIU
DAMBOVITA
PRAHOVA
BRASOV
ILFOV
CONSTANTA
BRAILA
IALOMITA
BOTOSANI
BACAU
COVASNA
HARGHITA
NEAMT
SUCEAVA
IASI
20
47
45
44
48
2
8
1
.
6
1
5

k
m
HORODISTEA
2
6
6
.
4
2
8

k
m
ZIMNICEA
377.719 km
SULINA
366.814 km
BEBA
VECHE
o
Punctul central al
proiectiei STEREO-70
21 22 23 24 26 27 28 29 30
2
0
1
.
7
1
8

k
m
M
A
R
E
A

N
E
A
G
R
A
LEGENDA
Frontiera de stat
Limita de judet
S
E
R
B
I
A
B
U
L
G A R
I
A
R
E
P
U
B
L
I
C
A

M
O
L
D
O
V
A
U
N
G
A
R
I
A
U
C R A I
N
A

Figura 5. Poziia punctelor din zonele geografice extreme fa de polul
proieciei Stereografice 1970
Calculul modulilor de deformaie liniar din planul
secant -1970 () i deformaiile liniare relative (D), s-a efectuat cu
ajutorul relaiilor de urmtoarea form:
| | | | km cm D si km km
R
L
D / 10 ) 1 ( /
4
5
2
0
2
0
= + =

unde: D
0
= -0,000 250 km/km, deformaia lungimilor din planul
secant, n punctul central al proieciei stereografice-1970;
) (
2 2 2
Y X L + = , distana dintre punctul central al proieciei
(X
0
=0,000 m,Y
0
=0,000 m) i punctul considerat (X, Y);
R
0
= 6 378, 956 681 km, raza medie de curbur a elipsoidului
pentru latitudinea
0
=46
0
0000 N.
113
n funcie de distana dintre polul proieciei i punctele
analizate, au fost obinute deformaii liniare pozitive, cu valori de
pn la 57,7 cm/km, n extremitatea vestic (Beba Veche) i,
respectiv, 62,7 cm/km n extremitatea estic (Sulina) (tabelul 4).
Deformaiile suprafeelor au prezentat aceeai variaie
spaial cu deformiile lungimilor, fiind relevate de valorile modulului
de deformaie areolar (p =
2
). Totodat, au fost exprimate i
deformaiile areolare totale (S) pe trapezele, la scara 1:5 000, n
funcie de ariile trapezelor din planul proieciei (S) i cele
nedeformate de pe elipsoidul de referin Krasovski 1940 (T), care
sunt prezentate n tabelul 4.
Tabelul 4. Deformaiile regionale n proiecia stereografic 1970 din
punctele extreme (localiti) i trapezele, la scara 1:5000 ale teritoriului
Romniei
Denumirea punctului
i a trapezului
Deformaii liniare Deformaii areolare
D p =
2
S = (S-T)
- cm/km - ha
Horoditea
M-35-138-A-b-4-III
1,000237251 23,7 1,000474558 0,2584
Zimnicea
K-35-15-B-b-3-I
1,000186113 18,6 1,000372261 0,2191
Beba Veche
L-34-65-D-a-3-I
1,000576671 57,7 1,001153675 0,6441
Sulina
L-35-108-C-b-2-I
1,000626553 62,7 1,001253499 0,7195
4.2. Modulii i deformaiile lungimilor i suprafeelor, n proieciile
Gauss i U.T.M.
n proiecia Gauss, unde reprezentarea plan este
realizat pe fuse de 6 i pe fuse de 3, cu ntindere de la Polul Nord
la Polul Sud, deformaiile maxime ale lungimilor i suprafeelor se
produc de-a lungul meridianelor marginale. Suprafaa Romniei este
cuprins n fusul 34 de 6, cu meridianul axial de 21 Est Greenwich
i n fusul 35, cu meridianul axial de 27 Est Greenwich (figura 6).
Deformaiile lungimilor i ale suprafeelor sunt nule, n
orice punct situat pe meridianul axial ( = 1; D = 0). n celelalte
puncte se determin numai deformaii pozitive, care cresc ctre
meridianele marginale, n mod aproximativ, direct proporional cu
ptratul distanei dintre punctul dat i meridianul axial.
Distanele determinate n planul proieciei Gauss dintre
cele patru puncte extreme (localiti) i meridianul axial al fusului
114
considerat de 6 s-au situat ntre valorile de 22,175 km (Horoditea)
i pn la 211,510 km (Sulina).
34
VASLUI
BISTRITA-
NASAUD
ARGES
TIMIS
HUNEDOARA
MEHEDINTI
CARAS-SEVERIN
DOLJ
OLT
GORJ
VALCEA
SATU MARE
ARAD
BIHOR
ALBA
CLUJ
SIBIU
MURES
MARAMURES
SALAJ
GALATI
VRANCEA
TULCEA
CALARASI
BUZAU
TELEORMAN GIURGIU
DAMBOVITA
PRAHOVA
BRASOV
ILFOV
CONSTANTA
BRAILA
IALOMITA
BOTOSANI
BACAU
COVASNA
HARGHITA
NEAMT
SUCEAVA
IASI
HORODISTEA
ZIMNICEA
SULINA
BEBA
VECHE
22.166 km
211.425 km
129.728 km
57.001 km
20
35
LEGENDA
Frontiera de stat
Limita de judet
Fus geografic
de 6 longitudine
21
22
23
24 25
26
27 28 29 30
47
45
44
48
46
M
E
R
I
D
I
A
N

A
X
I
A
L
M
E
R
I
D
I
A
N

A
X
I
A
L
M
E
R
I
D
I
A
N

M
A
R
G
I
N
A
L
M
A
R
E
A

N
E
A
G
R
A
S
E
R
B
I
A
U
C
R A I
N
A
B
U
L
G
A R I
A
R
E
P
U
B
L
I
C
A

M
O
L
D
O
V
A
U
N
G
A
R
I
A
35
M
E
R
I
D
I
A
N

D
E

D
E
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
E

N
U
L
A
M
E
R
I
D
I
A
N

D
E

D
E
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
E

N
U
L
A
M
E
R
I
D
I
A
N

D
E

D
E
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
E

N
U
L
A
M
E
R
I
D
I
A
N

M
A
R
G
I
N
A
L
22.175 km
211.510 km
129.780 km
57.024 km

Figura 6. Poziia punctelor din zonele geografice extreme fa de
meridianul axial al fuselor de 6,n proieciile Gauss i U.T.M.
Modulii de deformaie liniar () i deformaiile liniare
relative (D), n planul proieciei Gauss, s-au calculat n funcie de
coordonatele geografice (, ) ale punctelor considerate.

( ) ( )
(
' '
' '
+ +
' '
' '
+ =
4 2
4
4
2 2
2
2
cos 4 5
24
cos 1
2
1 t
l l
GAUSS

D
GAUSS
= ( - 1) 10
5
[cm/km]
n care: l=(
i

0
), diferena de longitudine a punctului dat;

2
= e
2
cos
2
; t = sin / cos.
Modulii de deformaie liniar () i deformaiile liniare
relative (D), n planul proieciei UTM s-au determinat, n funcie de
scara reprezentrii, cu urmtoarele relaii:
UTM
= K
0

Gauss
, unde: K
0
= 0,999 600;
D
UTM
= (
UTM
-1) 10
5
[cm/km].
Reducerea scrii de reprezentare din proiecia UTM, fa
de proiecia Gauss a contribuit la modificarea valorilor deformaiilor,
i la distribuia regional a acestora. Deformaiile liniare relative, n
proiecia Gauss (tabelul 5), variaz ntre +0,6 cm/km (Horoditea) i
+55 cm/km (Sulina), funcie de deprtarea de meridianul axial.
115
Valorile deformaiilor din proiecia UTM (tabelul 5), au
fost att negative, fiind situate ntre -19,3 cm/km (Zimnicea) i
-39,4 cm/km (Horoditea), ct i pozitive, +15 cm/km (Sulina),.
Deformaiile areolare totale (S) au prezentat numai
valori pozitive n proiecia Gauss cu o valoare maxim de 0,6319 ha
(Sulina), iar n proiecia UTM, prin valori pozitive i negative.
Tabelul 5. Deformaiile regionale n proieciile Gauss i U.T.M. din
punctele extreme/trapeze ale teritoriului Romniei
Denumirea punctului i
a trapezului
Deformaii liniare Deformaii areolare
Gauss/UTM Gauss/UTM
D p =
2
S = (S-T)
- cm/km - ha
Horoditea
M-35-138-A-b-4-III
1,000006039
0,999606037
+0,6
-39,4
1,000012078
0,999212228
0,0059
-0,4235
Zimnicea
K-35-15-B-b-3-I
1,000207072
0,999806989
+20,7
-19,3
1,000414187
0,999614016
0,2409
-0,2249
Beba Veche
L-34-65-D-a-3-I
1,000039955
0,999639939
+4,0
-36,0
1,000079912
0,999280008
0,0442
-0,4031
Sulina
L-35-108-C-b-2-I
1,000549819
1,000149599
+55,0
+15,0
1,00109994
1,000299221
0,6319
+0,1765
5. CONCLUZII
Teritoriul Romniei se desfoar de la Sud la Nord, pe
o diferen de latitudine de 43759 i de la Vest la Est, pe o
diferen de longitudine de 92540.
Poziia geografic a Romniei este ncadrat pe direcia
punctelor cardinale de urmtoarele puncte extreme (localiti): satul
Horoditea, la Nord; oraul Zimnicea, la Sud; comuna Beba Veche,
la Vest i oraul Sulina la Est.
Evaluarea deformaiilor regionale ale distanelor din cele
patru puncte extreme (localiti), din planul secant al proieciei
Stereografice-1970 s-a evideniat prin urmtoarea variaie a
deformaiilor relative: Zimnicea (19 cm/km), Horoditea (24 cm/km),
Beba Veche (58 cm/km) i Sulina (63 cm/km).
Deformaiile liniare relative din planul proieciei Gauss au
prezentat numai valori pozitive, n funcie de poziia punctelor
analizate fa de meridianul axial al fusului de 6, care s-au situat
ntre 0,6 cm/km (Horoditea) i valoarea maxim de 55 cm/km.
Reducerea scrii de reprezentare pe direcia
meridianului axial al fuselor de 6, n proiecia UTM a condus la
modificarea distribuiei regionale a deformaiilor, care s-au difereniat
116
prin valori negative de -39 cm/km (Horoditea) i, valori pozitive, n
punctul Sulina, de +15 cm/km.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Dima N., Herbei O., Vere I., Bendea H., (2004) Consideraii cu privire la utilizarea
i aplicarea proieciei Mercator. Rev. Cad., nr. 4, p. 37-44, Alba Iulia.
2. Dragomir P. I., Rus T., Dumitru D., (2005) Reeaua naional de staii GPS
permanente ale Romniei. Revista de Cadastru, nr. 5, p. 9-18, Alba Iulia.
3. Moca V., Chiril C., (2002) Cartografie matematic, ntocmire i redactare hri.
Tipografia Universitatea Tehnic Gh. Asachi, Iai.
4. Moca V., Popia A. C., Slceanu Gh., (2006) Studies of the linear and surface
deformations of cartographical projections used in introduction works of general
survey in Iai city. Journal of Geodesy and Cadastre, no. 6, p. 19-28, Alba Iulia.
5. Moca V., Oniga Valeria-Ersilia, (2010) Studies on deformations in 1970
stereographical projection and calculation of a local stereographic projection for the
Rdui Prut territory, Botoani county. Buletinul Institutului Politehnic din Iai,
Universitatea Tehnic Gh. Asachi, Iai, Tomul LVI (LX), Fascicola nr. 2, secia
Hidrotehnic, p. 25-36, Editura Politehnium, Iai.
6. Munteanu C., (2003) Cartografie matematic. Editura Matrix Rom, Bucureti.
7. Svulescu C., Moldoveanu C., (1997) Puncte de vedere privind harta digital a
Romniei. Rev. de Geodezie, Cartografie i Cadastru, vol. 6, nr. 2, p. 20-28,
Bucureti.
8. *** (2009) Anuarul Statistic al Romniei, Institutul de Statistic, Bucureti
9. *** (2009) Ordin nr. 212 din 4 mai 2009 privind adoptarea n Romnia a Sistemului
de Referin Terestru European 1989. M. O. nr. 361 din 29 mai 2009, Bucureti.
THE DEFORMATIONS ANALYSIS OF SOME CARTOGRAPHIC
PROJ ECTIONS, IN THE CASE OF THE LOCALITIES FROM
ROMANIAN GEOGRAPHICAL EXTREME ZONES
Abstract: The geographical position of the Romanian territory is situated between the
following extreme points (localities): Horodistea village, Botosani County, in the North;
Zimnicea city, Teleorman county, in the South; Beba Veche commune, Timis county,
in the West and Sulina city, Tulcea County, in the East. Romania's administrative-
territorial area is run, on a north latitude difference of 4
0
37'59'', and, respectively, on a
east longitude difference of 9
0
25'40''. Based on rectangulare and geographical
coordinates of thes four extreme points, was perfomed the calculation of the areolar
and linear deformations, in the following projections: Stereographical-1970, Gauss-
Krger and UTM. The relative linear deformations of the Stereographical 1970
projection ranged between values from +24 cm/km (Horoditea) and up to +63 cm/km
(Sulina). In the Gauss projection, the maximum deformations occurred depending on
the longitude difference to the axial meridian
zone
of 6
0
longitudes, being placed between
0.6 cm/km (Horoditea) and 55.0 cm/km (Sulina). In the UTM projection, regional
deformations have negative maximum values up to -39 cm / km (Horodistea) and
positive of +15 cm/km (Sulina), depending on their position to the null deformation lines
of the 6 zone.
117
DETERMINING THE ACCUMALATION OF POTENTIAL
ENERGY IN THE EARTHS CRUST BY GEODETIC
MEASUREMENTS
dr. ing. Vasile Nacu, National Centre of Geodesy, Cartography,
Fotogrammetry and Teledetection, cngcft@ancpi.ro
drd. ing. Ioan Stoian, National Centre of Geodesy, Cartography,
Fotogrammetry and Teledetection, cngcft@ancpi.ro
Abstract:The study of the recent crustal movements could
be integrated in the ensemble of the scientific research
with a fundamental character at which competes all the
geosciences that study the Earth dynamism,
understanding the description of all the complex
phenomena which are permanently taking place in the
Earths crust and also much deeper. The results obtained
by the correlation of the efforts made separately or in the
frame of complete interdisciplinar research programs,
realised by the geology, geophysics, oceanographyc
sciences, with the results from the geodesy
determinations, competes to the elucidation of a multitude
of issues regarding the evolution of the changes from the
internal structure and from the upper side of the Earth
crust, at the cognition of actual processes and to the
prediction of their future evolution. In this way the
mentioned fundamental studies bring very important
explanations for the application researches, such as for
example, those from the massive constructions area, from
the exploitations of the mines, especially regarding their
behaviour and stability.
Keywords: recent crustal movements
1. INTRODUCTION
The participation of geodesy at the studying programs of
the crustal movements was determined and simultaneously
developed with the agreement of the global tectonic concept. These
studies are realized for the determination of a very important
precursor of the earthquakes prediction, especially of the crustal
deformations establishment (such as compressions, extensions).
118
The geodesy provides, more exactly and promptly to the other
geosciences, information about the movements of the Earth crust
deformations of which it could have been calculated the quantity of
the potential accumulated energy between the series of measures
made into the determined limits by the hypothesis accepted by the
statistical nature.
By involving the geodesy in such studies, deep changes
were realized in preparing and activity of the geodesy specialists.
Thus, according with the theory of tectonic plates, which confirms
the fact that nothing is unflexible in the whole nature, in time or
space, it has been enforced as very necessary the introduction of
the fourth dimension (time) in processing of repeated geodetic
measurements.
In order to be able to respond with the needed capability
by the requirements of the other geosciences, the specialists in
geodesy must have acknowledges from the areas they are
collaborating to (geophysics, geology, constructions) especially in
the area of the solid corpse mechanism which could deformate, so
as from the repeated geodetic measurements could be determined
those physical quantities (movements, deformations, tensions,
potential energy) which can be used as precursors of a prospective
seismic event.
In the last few decades, new procedures had been
developing for the processing of repeated geodetic measurements
in order to establish the already mentioned parameters, of which the
finite elements method has found numerous adepts. The main
theoretical concept used in the finite elements method, is based on
the use of variation principle in which intervenes first the solution of
diferential equation systems in a particular area which must respect
some certain conditions at the limit, by using minimal conditions
imposed to functional sizes from that area. The specific of the finite
elements method is the fact that these conditions are applied on
subareas of the studied object, named finite elements. These are
tied between them in some certain points named knots which in the
case of geodesy webs are represented by the points of which the
web is made up. Therefore, it could be assessed the researchs
actuality and the utility of the outcomes, regarding the studies of
seismic risk and earthquakes prediction.

119
2. THE CONTRIBUTION OF GEODESY IN THE
INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES REGARDING THE
EARTHQUAKES PREDICTION
Throughout the years, the earthquakes prediction
together with the prediction of historical events or extraordinary
natural phenomena such as wars, diseases, starvation, floods have
constituted remarkable concerns of several politicians, scientists,
fortune-tellers or even of so-called prophets. The skepticism that
surrounded this kind of preoccupations is on the agenda even
nowadays, though the efforts and the meanings are continuously
developing.
If we limit ourselves only to the object of this
presentation, we can mention that in worldwide acknowledged works
(Lyell, 1968) it is analyzed the evolution in time at the capable
methods to emphasize the phenomena that appear before the
earthquakes in the legitimate attempt to warn the population as fast
as possible about an imminent earthquake. Among such as
traditional precursors we can mention: the special changes of the
climate conditions, the earth movements up and down and also the
unnatural behaviours of some animals concluding that the popularity
of folkloric myths have often a scientific background. Many scientists
have also released the hypothesis of the appearance of such
opinions and theories, as psychological reaction of the population,
affected by the mentioned disasters and less by scientific proved
analysis.
Simultaneously with the appearance and the
development of adequate instruments and technologies which have
been used in numerous seismic areas on the whole globe, in our
country also, this has been followed by filling out the list of
earthquakes precursor phenomena with new components of whose
inducements gets an emphasized scientific character and to whom it
is given more and more the necessary credibility.
3. THE MAIN PRECURSORS OF EARTHQUAKES
One of the research directions in the last years, which
maintained the hope for the reduction of the losses and faults
produced by earthquakes, is represented by the revealing of new
technologies capable to realize their prediction, by the study of
physical measured precursors which happen before the earthquake
120
in general. In the specialized literature (Rikitake, Vogel, Scholtz)
they are presented several classifications of earthquakes
precursors.
Among more than 20 precursors (Rikitake) taken into
consideration at the production of Japanese earthquakes prediction
Japanese program, an important position is granted to the recently
crust movements study.
The vertical movements, as the horizontal or
tridimensional movements also, as specific measurable
deformations could be considered real disciplines in this area.
3.1. Geodetic technics and gravitation measurements
In the same time with the appearance of tectonic plates,
a new dimension was attached to geodetic measurements time. The
geodesy was requested together with the other geosciences:
geophysics, geology, geomorphology, oceanography to bring their
contribution into confirm or fulfillment of the hypothesis which were
found at the basement of this theory. In this context, the modern
geodesy is characterized by a systematic approach of the dynamic
phenomena which modifies the shape and the gravitational field of
the Earth as a whole or only in limited areas. Being a continuously
developing science, the geodesy brings important contributions at
the mentioned agenda, while other more developed technologies
appear and especially with enlargement areas bigger and bigger,
getting close to the covering of the whole globe.
- Vertical geodesic webs,
- Horizontal geodesic webs,
- Repeated measurement of gravity,
- Space-related geodesic technics.
3.1.1 The classification of geodetic determinations of the Earths
crust recent movements
The geodesy has an important role in earthquakes
prediction studies, which have a strong interdisciplinary character,
being the only geoscience which can offer geometrical information
more and more precise, regarding the Earths crust deformations.
The results obtained by correlation of the observation and studies
realized by geology, geophysics, geomorphology, oceanography
with those obtained by geodesic findings , competes to the solving
attempt of issues regarding the evolution of Earth surface and
121
profound structure, to the acknowledgement of present processes
which integrate in crust dynamic and the attempt of predicting their
future manifestation way.
The spotting of the movements (including the
deformations) of the upper side of Earths crust which are happening
before, during or after the earthquakes, by geodetic methods, give
them a fundamental research character, and also a practical one
competing to the determination of stability degree of the ground in
the populated areas or in the areas where big industrial or edilitar
objectives are about to be placed.
1. Classification regarding the reference system taken into
consideration
- the absolute determinations
- the relative determinations of vertical, horizontal, and
tridimensional movements.
2. Classification regarding the amplitude of the recent movements
determinations of the Earths crust
- global determinations
- regional determinations
- local determinations.
3. Classification regarding the geodetic determination precision
4. Classification regarding the results obtained by processing
5. Classification regarding the final product realized upon the
process of repeated geodetic measurements
- the vertical movements map
- the horizontal gradients of vertical movements
6. Classification regarding the processing methods of repeated
geodetic measurements
- processing models in a status concept
- processing models in quasi-status, quasi-cinematic concept
- the determination of movements and of mobile entirely
deformations.
4. THE GEODESY CONTRIBUTION IN EARTHQUAKES
PREDICTION
The earthquakes prediction has as a final goal the
reduction of huge damages produced by then, as well as human
loss. Approximately 3 decades ago, they use to consider that the
prediction of the earthquake couldnt have been considered a real
122
scientific research. However, in the 60s, research programs of
earthquakes prediction have appeared in Japan and USA, which
have denied the previous hypothesis. The strongest earthquakes
which brought human losses and also material losses, which can be
considered catastrophic and which took place in the last years in
several areas (for example the one that occurred in our country at
March 4
th
, 1977) prove the necessity of the approach and step by
step solving of the extremely complex issue which is the
earthquakes forecasts.
In the earthquakes prediction we can underline the
following basic aspects (Dambara, 1980)
- the areas prone to have strong earth earthquakes with bigger
probability
- observing the measurable changes in sight of this areas amongst
the precursors of earthquakes, for the calculation of the moment
when the earthquake will strike
- the development of display patterns of the earthquakes source in
order to realize a proper interpretation of the phenomena evolution
and the research outcomes.
The main principle of earthquakes prediction is rather
simple but not always easy to accomplish and can be presented in
this way: any parameter which can be taken into consideration as a
earthquake precursor, which shows big changes reporting to the
normal data can be used for the earthquake prediction, if the
possibility of its measurements in time exists.
In what concerns the geodetic determinations, the main
recently mentioned could be in such way applied: the big and
sudden changes in geodetic points position could often be
associated with a future earthquake. These changes can be without
any doubts strongly influenced by the marking system of the named
points.
This has to be in such way accomplished lest should the
moments of the superficial stratum influence the conclusions
regarding the position of the signs.
The conducted studies have to underline those
movements of the geodetic signs which come as a consequence of
the sudden released of tensions who have been accumulated, to the
break up limit of the active tectonic forces.
123
Also, a real proficiency can be achieved only with a high
rate of the repeated geodetic measurements and as well with an
adequate coverage with geodetic points of the researched area. An
earthquakes prediction must provide the following main elements:
the rupture zone, the magnitude and the moment of the phenomena
happening.
4.1. The rupture zone prediction or the epicenter area represents
one of the compulsory elements of a complete telluric prediction
After the earthquake stroke, the rupture zone could be
identified by the area that includes the epicenter of the pre-shocks or
the size of the surface with crust deformations pre-seismic and co-
seismic.
For the crust deformation finding out of an unidentified
seismic region must be conducted repeated geodetic
measurements, researches which could be considerated having a
fundamental character.
Because the interval between the fundamental
successive researches cannot be extremely a brief one, due to the
expenses and the extremely wide human effort, their frequency
could be rather important just in few areas, where the probability of
an earthquake strike in the immediate future is obvious, regarding
the seism precursors and the previous seismic activity. Therefore, in
such regions, geodynamic polygons are created, in which not only
geodetic measurements are executed but also other kind of
measurements which are repeating at proper time intervals.
4.2. The magnitude prediction
The tensions that could accumulate in a volume unit of
Earths crust are more or less uniform depending generally on the
areas geology and the internal structure of lytosphera. Thus, it is
accepted that powerful seismic phenomenon involves large areas
with crustal deformations associated with the earthquake.
Such a relation between the earthquakes magnitude
and the crustal deformations area was obtained by Danbara in 1966
and subsequently corrected in 1981:
M = 1.91 lgr+4.43
where M is the earthquakes magnitude and r is the medium rate of
the crustal deformations area expressed in km. The relation
between lgr and M is graphucally presented in fig. 2 for a 34 set of
124
earthquakes that toke place in Japan. The crustal deformations have
been detected by geodetic measurements.
The standard deviation for a M value, inferred with the
relation (1) is 3 . 0 . Even if the relation (1) is obtained from crustal
deformations data wich have accompanied an earthquake, the same
relation is presumed to remain valid also for the precursor
movements.
The respective equation can deliver a limit for the
estimation of the observation stations density (respectively of
geodetic guide marks), for the earthquakes prediction with different
magnitudes. For example the rays of crustal deformations anomalies
for different magnitudes can be formulated like this:
M 8 7 6
r 65km 20km 6km
In order to mak a difference between an abnormal area
and a normal one it is necessary that there appear abnormal
movements in more points (grouped). Therefore, if there is persued
the achievement of a prediction of a M=7 magnitude earthquake, it
is indiquated to use a triangulation net with maximum 10 km sides. If
the next expected earthquake, wich can be predicted, would have
the minimum magnitude situated among M=6 value, the distance
between geodetic guide marks must be shorter, under 3 km, else,
the anomaly can not be detected at the necessay precision, even if
this one would take place.
4.3. The prediction of the earthquakes generation moment
The establishment of some dependence relations
between the magnitude of the M earthquake and T period of time
where it take place crustal movements has preoccupied several
authors (Tsubokawa, 1969, 1973, Scholz a.o.; 1973 resulting
different readingsd, whence the more customary is:
lg T = 0.65 M 1.2
where T is the time forerunner measured in years.
Rikitake (1979, 1994), who analysed the available
forerunner data, which are of a larger class than the former study,
has obtained the next equation:
lg T = 0.60 M 1.01

125
5. THE PRINCIPLE OF THE FINITE ELEMENTS METHOD
In order to retrospectively analyse the development of
the finite elements method wich we will name MELFIN (in the anglo
saxon specialized literature, this method was known under the
name of the Finite Element Methods FEM), it has been
ascertained that the first trials of using this method has been made
about 50 years ago (olariu & Bratianu, 1986). Thus, hrenikoff
proposed in 1941 the frames method used in elasticity, whereby the
analysed body is replaced by a bar ensemble, thus giving the
possibility to represent a continuous elastic environment, with an
endless freedom degrees, through a bar ensemble with a finite
number of elements and freedom degrees.
In 1943, Courant developed the method introducing for
the first time estimation functions similar to the one used in the
present to define triangular finite elements.
The basic principle wich stands for the formulation of
finite elements method, is the correlation between a part and the
whole. (Zienkiewicz, 1977, Schearz, 1980 Pascariu, 1985, Serediuc,
1996). According to the dialect conception, the whole is expressed
as an unitary totality, being instituted of an ensemble of constitutive
parts wich are organically integrated and subordinated.
Unlike the mechanical conception, wich considers the
whole as a sum of the parts, each one maintaining its individuale
properties, the dialect conception admits the existence of some
interdependence relations between the part and the whole. The
finite element considered apart, out of the body, as a result of its
relative independence manifestation, has individual properties
entirely different from the interaction properties that it has when is
being correlated with the other finite elements, components of the
body and integrated in it, as a structure element.
Mutually, the whole body expresses its relative
interdependence according to the fact that at the action of the
external forces the quality of the given answer does not depend on
the number of finite elements in wich the body is underdivided nor
these one, separately taken, qualitative specific character.
The state changes of the finite elements inside the whole
as well as the modification of the correlation interactions type
between the finite elements changes the qualitative behaviour of the
considered body.
126
The method of finite elements presents, by comparison
with other numerical methods, certain possibilities more particular,
whence we mention the most important ones:
- the modelation of some irregular shapes, using finite elements
with different sizes and shapes, adequate for the geometrical
configuration of the studied body;
- the treatement, with no major difficulties, of some problems in
wich vary the bodys physical properties;
- the adaptation of finite elements dimensions at the main
characteristics of the tackled problem, as for instance the size of the
studied functions gradient.
6. THE GEOMETRY OF BIDIMENSIONAL DEFORMATIONS
In some publications, for the deformation concept, are
introduced (for a complete clearing up) other clearing up possibilities
such as: unitary deformation and respectively un-unitary
deformation.
In the unitary deformation, all parallel lines in an
undeformed stage stay parallel in a deformed stage. In exchange, in
the undeformed stage it is accepted that at least certain initial
straight lines of a body become some curves in the final shape.
Such unitary deformations as well as the un-unitary ones
arise in the dynamics study and rely on the division of the crustal
layer in vertical prism with triangular section. Knowing the g gravity,
the crusts density in the study area, the S section area, the width
of the H prism and the modification of its H widht, the modification
of the potential energy is calculated using the relation: (Fujii, 1991):
2 / H SH g A = A |
where the specific deformation in the relation is presumed to be:
33
=-H/H
This means that the modification of the prism widht is
uniform in the lenght of every finite elements vertical axis. In
addition, as we often act in the theory of elasticity, it is presumed
that both the specific deformations, of the two axis that involve
horizontal slate deformations, are null (13= 23=0), and the equality
of the two Lam canstants (also named slate modulus, = ). It is
necessary to underline the difference between Lam constants, wich
will be applied to the tensions deduction and the ones applied to the
slate energys deduction. In the first situation, Lam constants had
127
specific values of the used finite element and of the measurements
type involved in the deformations calculus. Thus, in a triangle finite
elements case, with equal and correlated weight observations
(isotrophic geodetic net), Lam constants are (Grafarend, 1977):
- for the directions observations:
4 / 3 = 4 / 3 =
- for distances observations
4 / 3 = 4 / 3 =
for the angular observations:
4 / 9 = 4 / 9 =
- for the distance differences observations
4 / 9 = 4 / 9 =
In the second case, the one of the deformation energys
calculus, these constants represent the Earths rigidity inferred by
geophisics works.
By totaling the two energies (the potential one and the
slate one), it results the E total energy (measured in ergi*), inferred
by crustal deformations, wich, introduced in Gutenberg Richter
formula:
log (erg) = 11.8 + 1.5M,
allows the deduction of M magnitude according to the accumulated
energy.
7. CONCLUSIONS
The results of the repeated geodetic measurements,
sensibly enclosed in the scientific activities that are effected in the
domain of interdiscipplinary activity, known as the Theory of the
tectonic plates, represent the best accurate data, offered to the other
geosciences for the final purpose of the determination of
tridimensional shifting vectors of plates and microplates composing
the whole earthly Globe, or on limited parts, very interesting.
Geodetic methods are more and more frequently used in the
investigation of the earthly crusts dynamics in the studies of a
continuous pursuit of this phenomenon in very important areas for
the national economies and, of course, for the population, or in
certain periods of time, in larger dimensions areas and with a
reduced instalment of these shiftings.
One of the directions of scientific research particulary
present, lies in the determination of some technologies capable to
realize earthquakes prediction, in general, and the ones marked
128
especially through the study of measurable physic forerunners.
Within this framework, an important part is given to the study of
recent crustal movements. The geodesy, through the earthly
technologies, as well as the spatial ones, offers data concerning the
modifications of unitary efforts and specific deformations in the
earthly crust.
The method of finite elements, apllied in the remarkings
of repeated geodetic measurements results, represents a new
element introduced in such remarkings, as a result obtaining
geodinamic parameters useful to the geophysic interpretations of
recent crustal movements.
The basic principle of this method is suited very well to
the geodetic nets, meaning that these ones respect the conditions
imposed by this method: the correlation between the whole and the
part, the division of the analysis domain, the the constitution of the
finite elements equation as well as the assembling of these
equations. The estimated functions, their properties, the dimensions
and the number of finite elements, the typical configurations of finite
elements are adapted to the geodetic nets, so that this method can
be efficiently and easily applied to the repeated geodetic
measurements results.
These studies and conclusions, that derive from
repeated geodetic measurements, are particularly useful for the
geophysic specialists in general, for seismologists specialists in
particular, because through the interpretation and the correlation
with the conclusions in ones own studies, there can be made
estimations or even predictions concerning the main characteristics
of a possible seismic event, (the position of the epicentre, the
moment of the production and the dimensions of the magnitude).
REFERENCES
1. Atanasiu, I. (1961): Cutremurele din Romania. EA.
2. Bleahu, M. (1983): Tectonica globala. ESE.
3. Fotescu, N. & Savulescu, C. (1988): Teoria Erorilor. Litografie, ICB.
4. Garbea, D. (1977) : Analiza cu elemente finite. ET.
5. Grafarend, E. (1986): Three dimensional deformation analysis: global vector
spherical harmonic and local finite element representation, T. Nr.130, pp. 337 - 359.
6. Livieratos, E. (1980): Crustal strains using geodetic methods. QG.
7. Nacu, V., Radulescu, F., Mateciuc, D., & Stiopol, D. (1992): Study of the
deformation parameters in Gruiu-Caldarusani geodynamic polygon. XXIII General
Assembly of European Seismological Commission, Activity Raport 1990-1992, pp. 345-
348, Proceedings, vol II, Prague, Checkoslovakia
129
EGNOS EXTENSION TO EASTERN EUROPE
drd. ing. Vlad Olteanu, Romanian Space Agency
drd. ing. Alina Rduu, Romanian Space Agency
dr. ing. Alexandru Badea, Romanian Space Agency
cercet. Ion Nedelcu, Romanian Space Agency
Abstract: EGNOS is available as an open service (OS)
since 2009 and was certified for Safety of Life (SoL)
applications earlier this year (March 2011). This will have
a big impact, especially on the aviation sector. Currently,
the EGNOS SBAS Services are well covering Central
Europe, but not Eastern Europe. For example, Poland is
only partially covered while Romania, Moldova and
Ukraine are not covered at all by the current EGNOS
services. This paper aims to present the importance of
extending EGNOS to Eastern Europe, a series of
improvements which may be applied to the system in
order to achieve this goal and the efforts undertaken in
this domain by the Romanian Space Agency together with
other European companies and institutions in a FP7
project called EEGS.
Keywords: EGNOS, SBAS, GPS, GNSS, EEGS
1. INTRODUCTION
EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation Overlay
Service) is a Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS)
developed by the European Space Agency under a tripartite
agreement with the European Commission and the European
Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (Eurocontrol) [1]. The
ownership of EGNOS was transferred to the European Commission
in 2009 and since then, it has become operational as an open
service. Since March 2011 the system is certified for Safety of Life
applications, such as aircraft or maritime navigation or land
transportation.
For this type of applications, using only GPS
measurements to estimate position is not accurate enough and
neither reliable as there is no information about problems which may
occur in the system. Therefore, stand alone GPS cannot be used in
safety critical applications.
130
Basically, EGNOS improves the performance of stand
alone GPS with respect to the accuracy, by providing differential
corrections and similar GPS signals, bringing the accuracy from
about 10 m to about 2 m [2]. Besides the accuracy improvements,
EGNOS offers another important benefit, which is the integrity
information, as EGNOS transmits to the users an integrity signal,
giving them the possibility to evaluate a level of confidence about
the positioning provided by GPS. In addition, EGNOS provides an
information message regarding the continuity and availability of the
GPS signal and may alert the user within six seconds if a satellite
signal disruption occurs.
The EGNOS architecture is comprised of three
geostationary satellites which transmit the signal to the users, a set
of 40 ground stations (Ranging and Integrity Monitoring Stations
RIMS), four master control centres and six up-link stations.
At the moment, the EGNOS coverage area for APV-I
99% performance is limited in the eastern part of Europe, as it may
be seen in the figure below. Countries from Central Europe are
permanently covered (like Germany, France, etc), while Eastern
European countries are only partially covered (like Poland) or not
covered at all (like Moldova, Ukraine). Regarding our country, the
coverage area for APV-I 99% performance only covers a small
eastern part of Romania.

Figure 3. EGNOS APV-I Availability for December 1
st
2009 (Nominal Case)
2. THE EEGS PROJECT
Following the above idea, the Romanian Space Agency
is currently involved as a partner in a project co-founded by the EC
131
under the FP7 2
nd
call. The projects aim is to prove, through
demonstrations, that its possible and easy to extend the EGNOS
services to Eastern Europe. Therefore, we want to demonstrate that
APV-I 99% coverage area could be easily extended to cover all
Eastern Europe as well.
2.1. Consortium
The consortium of the EEGS project is composed of 8
partners and it is led by GMV (Spain), a privately owned
technological business group, involved in the last 25 years in many
GNSS related activities and projects. GMV is responsible of the
CPFPS the EGNOS core application which computes the EGNOS
integrity and correction messages. The other partners involved in
the project, besides GMV and ROSA, are:
- Russian Space Systems (RSS Russia) - is one of the first
national enterprises dealing exclusively with missiles and
space. One of the institutes main activity is the creation,
development and purposeful use of GLONASS
- Space Research Centre (SRC) which is the only institute in
Poland fully devoted to space research
- Main Astronomical Observatory (MAO Ukraine) which is the
coordinator of the permanent GNSS network in Ukraine
- GMV Systemas (GSY) a subsidiary of GMV involved in
design, development, manufacturing and commercialisation of
GNSS-based applications
- AENA (Spain) a public business entity involved in EGNOS
and Galileo programmes since their beginning
- AENI (AENA International Spain) is a subsidiary of AENA
established to promote business development for AENA
outside Spain.
2.2. Objectives and Methodology
The first and most important objective of the project is to
demonstrate that EGNOS can be easily extended to Eastern
Europe and provide the straight-forward actions to be undertaken in
order to accomplish this [3]. Besides this objective, EEGS also
wants to assess the level of interoperability between EGNOS and
SDCM (Russian SBAS) and prove through demonstrations that
these two systems, or improved versions of them, can be
132
interoperable. Another one of the projects objectives is to promote
EDAS (EGNOS SBAS messages and raw GPS, GLONASS
observations over the internet) on the GNSS market in Russia in
order to provide a high precision positioning service (PPP). EEGS
will also study the impact of Galileo in scenarios implying extending
EGNOS in Eastern Europe and making EGNOS and SDCM
interoperable.
In order to achieve the first objective, the project
proposed to develop two main activities:
- A technical one, which implies assessing two methods of
improvements: extending coverage of EGNOS services by
data processing improvements and by infrastructure
improvements (additional RIMS to be considered)
- A management activity involving the necessary studies done
by the Eastern European partners (MAO, ROSA, SRC) and
supervised by AENA, which will analyse the RIMS
implementation possibilities and the EGNOS service provision
schemes.
To meet the second and third objective, an
interoperability study and an EGNOS/SDCM PPP study will be
realised by GMV and RSS. A set of demonstrations will be
conducted with the aim of showing the results of the two studies.
In order to fulfil the fourth and last objective, AENI will
study the impact of Galileo in the presented scenarios.
2.3. Activities and Rationale
The Romanian Space Agency is involved in EEGS in the
framework of the first objective. In order to achieve it, at first, ROSA
provided RINEX data from the BUCU reference station (by the
courtesy of the Technical University of Civil Engineering in
Bucharest the Faculty of Geodesy). The RINEX data contained
three days of observations covering three types of situations: the
nominal case (nominal EGNOS behaviour), degraded EGNOS
behaviour with RIMS working correctly and a degraded EGNOS
behaviour with RIMS problem. GMV first assessed the EGNOS
performance using analysis tools such as eclayr. Afterwards, using
the same tool, they assessed the performance of magicSBAS for
the same cases. magicSBAS is an application developed by GMV
which computes corrections, confidence levels and all other
133
information required by SBAS systems.
A comparison between the obtained results, indicated,
on one hand, that CPFPS is the main driver of current EGNOS
performances and, on the other hand, that magicSBAS can be used
later to test potential improvements in the EGNOS system.
On the management side, ROSA, supervised by AENA,
provided a study regarding the GNSS context in Romania. This
study includes a GNSS market development analysis and two site
proposals for RIMS implementation in Romania (the Faculty of Land
Reclamation and Environmental Engineering Bucharest and a
building situated in the campus of the Al. I. Cuza University in Iasi).
The performance of improved EGNOS service according
to the EEGS proposal was assessed and the results showed that
Eastern Europe could be covered by these algorithm modification.
Moreover, if at least one additional RIMS will be installed in Eastern
Ukraine, full Eastern European coverage will be available under
nominal conditions. The results are presented in Figure 2. The
coverage of Eastern Europe will not change drastically for the EEGS
proposed release in the case of degraded EGNOS behaviour, with
or without RIMS working correctly.
2.4. Demonstrations and results
In order to have a validation of the results obtained in the
previous phase, a set of demonstrations are foreseen at each
eastern partners level.

Figure 4. a) APV-I coverage in the case of EEGS proposed release (without
additional RIMS) b) APV-I coverage in the case of EEGS proposed release
(with one additional RIMS in Eastern Ukraine)
134
In Romania, two types of demonstrations were
scheduled: a static trial and a dynamic trial. The trials were held in
March 2011 and consisted of applications with the aim to determine
the position improvements by using an EGNOS-like signal. During
the static trials, one I-10 OBU, placed at ROSAs premises, collected
a large amount of data which was later analyzed, in order to assess
the level of availability, accuracy, integrity and continuity. The
position of the I10 antenna was previously determined and it was
used later as reference in the analysis.
Before presenting the results of the demonstrations, we
should first explain the characteristics which we want to assess:
- Accuracy is the degree of conformance between the
estimated or measured position of a platform at a given time
and its true position.
- Integrity measure of the trust which can be placed in the
correctness of the information supplied by the system; this
includes the ability of the system to provide timely warnings to
the user
- Availability the portion of time during which the system may
be used for navigation
- Continuity the capability of the system to perform its role
without interruptions [2]
During the static trials, which lasted for 197.194 epochs,
197.101 timely SBAS messages were received, meaning that we
had valid SBAS signals for 99.95% of the epochs. The missing
corrections arrived at the beginning of the trial, so they do not impact
the final figures of merit. Regarding the accuracy, the absolute
horizontal error of the solution was below 2 meters for 55.54% of the
time, while the absolute vertical error was below 3 meters for
60.78% of the trial; this is in compliance with the I10s datasheet
specification. Although the mean absolute errors do not exceed the
thresholds, the variance of the absolute errors is large. This may
occur as a consequence of the multipath environment. The problem
was also noticed in terms of integrity, as both the horizontal and
vertical computed errors exceeded the corresponding
horizontal/vertical protection level (0.44% of the cases for horizontal
protection level and 1.08% of the cases for the vertical level). As it
may be seen in the figure below, the violations are taking place
more or less during the same period of the day, which emphasizes
135
the idea of multipath presence. In order to have a better
understanding of this problem, another test is scheduled in May, in a
more open sky environment.

Figure 3. Horizontal and Vertical Integrity Plot for the Static Trial
In terms of availability, there were only four violations of
the APV-I horizontal protection level (40 m) and also four violations
of the APV-I vertical protection level (50 m), but all of them occurred
at the beginning of the trials so its possible to say that the solution
had a horizontal/vertical availability of 100%.
In order to assess the continuity we must first check if
the solution was reliable (integrity) and if the protection level of the
computed solution is below the threshold (availability). In our case,
as we mentioned before, the availability may be considered 100%
and therefore the continuity is given only by the solutions integrity
(99.55% for horizontal integrity and 98.92% for vertical integrity).
Another similar trial, with the same objectives, was
carried out by using the I-10 OBU installed in a road vehicle, which
collected the data in a dynamic way. In order to have optimum
results, the test area had to be an open-sky environment. For this
purpose, the vehicles route was represented by the highway which
connects Bucharest with Cernavoda. This trial was carried out
during two days (28
th
of February and 1
st
of March). Another GPS
receiver was used during this demonstration and the two antennas
136
were mounted on the roof of the car, separated at about 80 cm in
the vehicles marching axis, as one may see in the Fig. 4. The
second receiver was connected to ROMPOS and collected data in a
dynamic way. GPRS gaps occurred in this case as well, but,
generally, the solutions were fixed for about 80% of the time (HRMS
and VRMS < 0.03 m). Another 14% of the data had values for the
estimated HRMS and VRMS lower than 25 cm and therefore we
used this data as reference for the trajectory.

Figure 4. Installation of the two antennas on the roof
of the car

The first session lasted for 11.545 epochs (3.2 hours),
during which we received 11.160 timely SBAS messages (97%),
while the second session lasted for 10.500 epochs (2.9 hours),
during which we received 10.214 timely SBAS messages from the
magicSBAS server (97%). The gaps in the data were caused
mainly by the quality of the GPRS communications which had to be
used in this trial, compared with the quality of the LAN connection
used in the static trial.
The accuracy results were far better than in the static
case, as we obtained a mean horizontal error of 1.34 meters and a
variance of 0.95 m. This is due to the open sky route on one hand
and to the I10 algorithm which is designed for dynamic applications
on the other hand. The mean vertical error is 1.60 m but with a
larger value for the variance (about 2.5 m). Regarding the integrity
issue, there have been seven integrity violations, when the
protection level was exceeded by the computed solution error.
137
Mainly, these out of bounds values are a result of multipath effects
in certain regions of the highway, as they happen at the same time
in both sessions (near the Cernavoda Bridge, at the roundabout at
Cernavoda, at the highway tax collector, etc.).

Figure 5. Horizontal and Vertical Integrity Plot for the Car Trial

The availability of a valid computed horizontal and
vertical protection level (HPL<40m and VPL<50m) was about
99.94%. If we ignore the integrity violations caused by multipath we
can say that we had a continuity of 99.94%.
Another dynamic trial proposed by the project is a
waterway demonstration with the aim of testing the DGNSS service
of EGNOS, on one hand, and to test the EGNOS services in a
rougher environment, on the other hand. In order to accomplish this,
we used a small motorboat to navigate through the water channels
in the Danube Delta. For reference we used another receiver, which
collected data simultaneously using ROMPOS RTK service. Due to
weather issues, the trial was delayed until April. The trial lasted for
5.5 hours and was carried out on some water channels near Sfantu
138
Gheorghe using a boat which was provided by the courtesy of the
University of Bucharest - Faculty of Geography.

Figure 6. Boat trial

During this test, the environment was rough, especially
regarding the GPRS connection which caused frequent gaps in the
data. For the available data, the mean horizontal error was below
one meter and having a good variance of 0.3 m, which underlines
again the importance of the I10s enhanced algorithms for dynamic
applications. The mean vertical error was 1.57 meters, having a
variance of 3.11 m. In accordance with the I10 datasheet which
stated that the vertical error should be below 3 meters for at least
50% of the time, in the case of this trial, the error was below 3
meters for 89% of the time.
In the figure below, one can observe the difference
between the computed HPL/VPL and the computed solutions
horizontal/vertical error. As it may be seen, there were only three
vertical integrity violations and these were probably caused by
multipath effects in different parts of the channels. Regarding the
availability, by comparing the HPL and VPL to APV-I HAL (40m) and
APV-I VAL (50m) we can see that there were fifteen violations in the
case of HAL and seven violations in the case of VAL, which implies
139
having a horizontal availability of 99.7% and a vertical availability of
99.86% (better than APV-I standard 99%). Neglecting the multipath
effects in the integrity analysis, we can say that the values above
are available for the continuity as well.

Figure 7.Horizontal and Vertical Integrity Plot for the Boat Trial
3. Conclusions
The EEGS project addresses the extension of EGNOS to
Eastern Europe. This will bring major benefits for the eastern
countries, especially for the aviation sector, bearing in mind that
EGNOS is now certified for Safety of Life applications.
As a conclusion, the improved magicSBAS service,
could offer good results in a nominal environment (signal available
and open sky), but its degrading as the environment gets rougher.
Another important observation regards the accuracy improvements
in the case of dynamic trials, due to some internal algorithm in the
I10 optimised for this type of trials. These theoretical
conclusions/opinions of the project belong to the Consortium and
are not necessarily endorsed by EC.
140
REFERENCES
1. ESA SP-1303 book, "EGNOS - A cornerstone of Galileo", ESA Publications Division,
The Netherlands, 2006.
2. http://www.egnos-portal.eu/
3. http://www.eegs-project.eu/joomla/

141
DETERMINRI GNSS N REEAUA DE TRIANGULAIE A
ROMNIEI PENTRU MBUNTIREA GRIDULUI DE
TRANSFORMARE UTILIZAT DE PROGRAMUL TANSDATRO
Ing. Istvan Orosz, Dr. ing. Neculai Avramiuc, Ing. Corneliu Staver,
Ing. Ana - Maria Lendvai, Ing. Georgian Coman,
S.C. BLOM ROMNIA S.R.L.
Abstract: To make coordinate transformation from
national system Stereographic 1970 to European system
ETRS89, the National Agency for Cadastre and Land
Registration has made available for the users in our
country the TransDatRO program that uses a distortion
grid.
For completing the set of common points in order to
improve the transformation grid, S.C. BLOM ROMNIA
S.R.L. and S.C. GEODIS ROMNIA S.R.L. achieved in
2010 a project for GNSS measurements in the
triangulation network of Romania.
In the article is discussed about main stages of work
performed within the project, the quality of results and how
these results help to improve the accuracy of the
coordinate transformation.
Keywords: GNSS measurements, transformation Grid
1. INTRODUCERE
Prin adoptarea n Romnia a Sistemului de Referin
Terestru European 1989 prin Ordinul nr. 212/4.05. 2009 al
Directorului General al Ageniei Naionale de Cadastru i Publictate
Imobiliar (ANCPI), s-a impus cu stringen realizarea unei aplicaii
software standard la nivel naional care s efectueze transformrile
de coordonate de la vechiul sistem de referin S-42, bazat pe
elipsoidul Krasovski 1940, la noul Sistem de Referin Terestru
European 1989 (ETRS89) n vederea realizrii produselor pan-
europene, conform prevederilor directivei INSPIRE a Parlamentului
European i a Consiliului din data de 14.03.2007.
Pentru a asigura geo-referenierea precis a datelor
spaiale n sistemul ETRS89, ANCPI a adoptat un algoritm de
transformare care utilizeaz un grid de transformare care
modeleaz distorsiunile din interiorul reelelor de triangulaie pe
142
baza unui set de puncte cu coordonate comune n vechiul i noul
sistem de referin i coordonate. Pentru a completa acest set de
puncte comune, S.C. BLOM ROMNIA S.R.L. - o companie a
Grupului Blom cu sediul n Norvegia, mpreun cu S.C. GEODIS
ROMNIA S.R.L. - o filial a companiei GEODIS BRNO ltd., Cehia,
membr a GEODIS GROUP, au realizat n cursul anului 2010
proiectul "Determinri GNSS n reeaua de triangulaie pentru
mbuntirea gridului de transformare".
2. PREZENTAREA ETAPELOR DE LUCRU
Proiectul pentru determinri GNSS n reeaua de
triangulaie s-a desfurat pe 5 loturi dispuse pe teritoriul Romniei
conform figurii urmtoare:
Figura 1. Loturile n care s-au efectuat determinri GNSS
Cele 5 loturi cuprind fiecare un numr de 4 sau 5 judee
care au reprezentat unitile teritoriale pe care s-au desfurat
determinrile GNSS i prelucrarea datelor. Pentru fiecare jude s-au
staionat i puncte comune din judeele vecine pentru se putea
143
realiza de ctre ANCPI o compensare n bloc a reelei cuprins n
cele 5 loturi.
1.1. Proiectarea i efectuarea observaiilor satelitare
Pentru proiectarea i efectuarea observaiilor satelitare
s-a respectat urmtoarele condiii:
- toate receptoarele cu care s-au efectuat determinrile au avut 2
frecvene (GPS/GNSS);
- numrul de receptoare utilizate simultan n fiecare sesiune de
observaii a fost de minim 5;
- vectorii determinai ntr-o sesiune de observaii nu au avut lungimi
mai mari de 50 km;
- metoda de msurare a fost metoda static;
- durata sesiunilor de observaii a fost de minim 2 ore;
- intervalul (rata) de nregistrare a fost de 10 secunde;
- unghiul de elevaie la recepie a fost de 10
o
;
- s-a asigurat ntre sesiunile consecutive de observaii un numr de
2 puncte de legtur (staionate n cele dou sesiuni de observaii);
- s-a asigurat cel puin cte un punct de legtur ntre determinrile
din judee vecine (incluse n lotul respectiv), astfel nct acest vector
(vectorii) de legtur s aib o lungime de sub 50 km.
1.2. Efectuarea msurtorilor
La baza lucrrilor a stat proiectul sesiunilor de observaii
aprobat de ANCPI. Conform proiectul sesiunilor, s-au constituit 11
grupuri de lucru (pentru fiecare grup numrul receptoarelor GNSS
variind ntre 6 i 12) repartizate astfel: cte dou grupuri pentru
loturile 1,2,3 i 5; trei grupuri pentru lotul 4.
Pe parcursul efecturii msurtorilor s-au ntmpinat
unele dificulti privind gsirea punctelor de triangulaie proiectate a
fi msurate cu tehnologia GNSS din cauza dispariiei lor din teren.
Din acest motiv, cu aprobarea ANCPI, aceste puncte au fost
nlocuite cu alte puncte din apropiere. Situaia cu numrul de puncte
nlocuite se prezint n tabelul urmtor.
Tabelul 1. Situaia cu punctele negsite i nlocuite n cadrul
proiectului sesiunilor de observaii
Lot Judet Numr de puncte nlocuite
1 Iasi 4
Neamt 1
Vrancea 3
144
Lot Judet Numr de puncte nlocuite
Galati 1
2 Ialomita -
Constanta -
Tulcea -
Buzau -
3 Brasov -
Sibiu -
Harghita -
Covasna 2
Prahova -
4 Alba -
Bistrita Nasaud -
Mures 1
Cluj -
Salaj -
5 Arges 6
Giurgiu -
Olt 1
Dolj 2
Mehedinti 1
1.3. Prelucrarea datelor
Pentru prelucrarea datelor s-au defurat urmtoarele
aciuni:
- Msurtorile de la toate receptoarele au fost transformate n format
RINEX i nlimile nclinate au fost corectate la baza antenei;
- S-a utilizat softul de prelucrare Topcon Tools iar pentru
compensarea reelei s-a utilizat softul Caplan;
- S-au exclus din prelucrare vectorii cu lungimi peste 50 km,
considernd c i staiile permanente sunt parte integrant a reelei
determinate;
- Au fost acceptai pentru prelucrrile ulterioare numai vectorii cu
soluii de tip fixed (cu ambiguitile determinate ca numere ntregi);
- Dup prelucrarea preliminar s-a verificat existena unor
msurtori greite prin calculul nenchiderilor pe coordonate relative
n poligoane sau aplicarea unor teste statistice specifice;
- Reelele din toate judetele au fost compensate ca reele libere i ca
reele minim constrnse. Indicatorii de precizie, obinui pe jude, n
cazul primei variante de compensare au avut valori mai mici de
30mm (
3D
).
Un exemplu de reea minim constrns compensat pe
teritoriul unui jude este ilustrat n figura urmtoare.

145

Figura 2. Schi cu reeaua minim constrns a judeului Giurgiu
Dup compensarea msurtorilor, coordonatele
elipsoidale din sistemul ETRS89 au fost transformate n planul de
proiecie Stereografic 1970 cu ajutorul programului TransDatRO
versiunea 3.03 disponibil pe site-ul ANCPI, rezultnd diferene pe
coordonate ca n tabelul urmtor.
Tabelul 2. Diferenele dX i dY pe coordonatele planimetrice dintre
coordonatele cunoscute i cele transformate
Lot Judet Nr.crt. Denumire punct dX[m] dY[m]
Lotul 1

Iasi

1 DEALUL HILITA 12.42 -118.67
2 HABASESTI -0.57 -0.31
Neamt

1 DEALUL BUGA -0.971 0.951
2 DL.DUMBRAVITA 40.529 73.566
Vrancea

1
DEALUL CAPUL
PISCULUI
13.479 -0.198
2 DEALUL DUMBRAVA 5.463 -1.054

146
Aceste puncte care au diferenele pe coordonate mai
mari de tolerana maxim admis (1.40 m) au fost excluse din din
setul de puncte comune.
2. PREZENTARE GENERAL A REZULTATELOR OBINUTE
N CADRUL PROIECTULUI
Situaia statistic cu punctele determinate, ntocmit
conform caietului de sarcini, se prezint n tabelul urmtor.
Tabelul 3. Statistica punctelor determinate
Nr.
crt.
Nume jude
S*

[kmp]
NPP

[puncte]
NPD

[puncte]
DP =
NPP-NPD
[puncte]
PT
[mm]
NPS
[puncte]
dx, dy>=50 cm
Lotul 1
1
IAI
5472.7 26 26 0 8.50 2
2
NEAM
5898.9 23 23 0 9.25 2
3
VRANCEA
4855.4 20 20 0 5.76 2
4
GALAI
4466.4 15 15 0 6.52 0
Lotul 2
1 TULCEA 8479.3 25 25 0 13.9 1
2 CONSTANTA 7072.2 21 21 0 10.2 5
3 IALOMITA 4455.0 15 15 0 8.3 1
4 BUZAU 6100.8 23 23 0 7.7 0
Lotul 3
1 BRASOV 5361.6 13 13 0 7.5 2
2 COVASNA 3707.4 17 17 0 6.2 2
3 HARGHITA 6635.8 22 22 0 9.3 2
4 SIBIU 5429.9 17 17 0 5.7 2
5 PRAHOVA 4714.5 14 14 0 9.1 0
Lotul 4
1 ALBA 6241.6 22 22 0 10.0 2
2 MURES 6710.8 25 25 0 7.6 2
3
BISTRITA
NASAUD
5352.6 16 16 0 7.7 1
4 CLUJ 6671.3 21 21 0 8.5 2
5 SALAJ 3864.1 18 18 0 5.2 5
Lotul 5
1
GIURGIU
3544.70 17 17 0 5.5
0
2
ARGES
6822.59 21 21 0 8.81 1
3
OLT
5503.40 13 13 0 13.0 3
4
DOLJ
7411.75 19 19 0 5.5
6
5
MEHEDINTI
4951.73 15 15 0 4.7
3
Notaii:
NPP Numr puncte proiectate PT precizia total (dup compensare ca reea liber)
NPD numr puncte determinate NPS numr puncte suspecte
DP diferena de puncte
Din tabel se observ pe ultima coloan numrul de
puncte cu diferene ntre coordonatele transformate i cele din
147
catalog mai mari de 50 cm, o valoare medie estimat aprioric a
distorsiunilor din reeaua noastr de triangulaie. S-a constatat c
pentru unele puncte aceste diferene se ncadreaz n categoria
erorilor grosolane, datorit valorilor din catalog nscrise n mod greit
sau mutrii acestor puncte fr ca noile coordonate s fie
actualizate n catalog. Consecina a fost c numrul punctelor
incluse n gridul de transformare a fost mai mic dect numrul
punctelor proiectate a fi msurate cu tehnologia GNSS.
Indicatorii de precizie, obinui peentru fiecare lot,
respectiv jude, n cazul celor dou variante de compensare au
valorile (
3D
) prezentate n tabelul urmtor.
Tabelul 4. Precizia (
3D
).n dou variante de compesare
a reelelor GNSS
Lotul Jude
3D
(mm) pentru
reea liber
3D
(mm) pentru reea
minim constrns
1
Iai 8.5 23
Neam 9.25 10.31
Vrancea 5.76 6.68
Galai 6.52 8.32
2
Tulcea 13.9 32.3
Constanta 10.2 23.8
Ialomita 8.3 21.4
Buzau 7.7 20.9
3
Braov 7.5 15.9
Covasna 6.2 14.8
Harghita 9.1 20.9
Prahova 9.3 20.3
Sibiu 5.7 14.9
4
Alba 10 12
Mures 7.6 8.7
Bistrita Nasaud 7.7 9.2
Cluj 8.5 10.6
Salaj 5.2 6
5
Giurgiu 5.5 9.1
Arges 8.81 9.95
Olt 13 25.4
Dolj 5.5 7
Mehedinti 4.7 5.9
Se observ c erorile medii ptratice ale coordonatelor
obinute n ambele variante de compensare au valori mai mici de
30mm (
3D
), conform cerinelor caietului de sarcini.
148
3. INTEGRAREA PUNCTELOR NOI COMUNE N GRIDUL DE
TRANSFORMARE. MBUNTIREA PRECIZIEI DE
TRANSFORMARE
nainte de integrarea punctelor comune noi determinate,
situaia punctelor cu coordonate n sistemul naional i european se
prezenta ca n figura urmtoare:

Figura 3. Situaia setului de puncte comune n sistemele
ETRS89 i S-42 nainte de integrarea punctelor
noi determinate
Dup prelucrarea final a determinrilor GNSS la
Direcia de Geodezie i Cartografie din cadrul ANCPI i introducerea
coordonatelor obinute n gridul de transformare, s-a efectuat o
transformare, cu ajutorul programului TransDatRO, a coordonatelor
care fac parte din noul set de puncte comune. Transformarea s-a
efectuat n doi pai: o transformare Helmert 2 D i o interpolare a
semnalelor din gridul de transformare.
Dup transformarea Helmert 2 D s-a obinut urmtoarea
situaie statistic:

149
Tabelul 5 Statuaia statistic pentru punctele comune
nainte de modelare
Grid Step= 0.11111
Nodes Number=4324
Statistica Est Nord
Media: 0.0000 0.0000
Abaterea standard : 0.2468 0.3382
Maxim: 0.9793 1.4075
Minim: -0.8959 -1.1845
Nr. de puncte: 1461 1461
Nr. puncte peste +/-3*(Ab. std): 14 13
% Nr. puncte in intervalul
+/-3*(Std Dev):
99.04 99.11
Numrul de puncte comune s-a mrit de la 894, cte au
fost nainte de campania de msurare, la 1461 puncte i se poate
spune c s-a obinut un progres evident i privind repartiia punctelor
reflectat n figura urmtoare.

Figura 4. Situaia setului de puncte comune dup efectuarea
campaniei de determinri GNSS

150
Dup interpolarea semnalelor din gridul de transformare
i corectarea noilor coordonate transformate a rezultat urmtoarea
situaie statistic a erorilor reziduale:
Tabelul 6. Statuaia statistic pentru punctele comune
dup modelare
Grid Step= 0.11111
Nodes Number=4324
Statistica Est Nord
Media: 0.0004 -0.0008
Abaterea standard : 0.0561 0.0620
Maxim: 0.1933 0.2080
Minim: -0.1895 -0.2145
Nr. de puncte: 1461 1461
Nr. puncte peste +/-3*(Ab. std): 14 19
% Nr. puncte in intervalul
+/-3*(Std Dev):
99.04 98.70
n figura urmtoare se prezint distorsiunile i erorile
reziduale n fiecare punct comun intrat in transformare.

Figura 5. Situaia distorsiunilor dintre sistemele ETRS89 si S-42

Din figur se poate deduce c repartiia distorsiunilor ca
urmare a completrii setului de puncte comune este uniform pe
toat suprafaa rii, crend premizele efecturii unei transformri
mai precise utiliznd un model de distorsiune al datelor.

151
4. CONCLUZII
Existena punctelor comune ntr-un numr mare i bine
distribuite pe suprafaa rii a fcut posibil o transformare cu o mai
mare acuratee a coordonatelor cu ajutorul softului TransDatRO,
asigurnd erori medii ptratice de transformare n jur de 10-15 cm,
similare cu preciziile obinute de alte ri care au distorsiuni de
aceeai amplitudine ca cele existente n reeaua de triangulaie a
rii noastre.
n urma analizei setului de puncte comune obinut n urma
ultimei campanii de msurare, se desprind i alte concluzii de ordin
practic, cum ar fi:
- numrul de puncte comune proiectate a fi msurate n
vederea integrrii lor n transformare trebuie s fie mai mare
cu cel puin o treime dect strictul necesar, innd cont c o
parte dintre aceste puncte vor fi eliminate n procesul de
filtrare, iar alt parte ar trebui s rmn pentru testarea
transformrii (testarea se face cu puncte de ncredere cu
coordonate comune care nu au participat la transformare);
- distribuia spaial a punctelor este esenial pentru modelarea
trendului regional al distorsiunilor, asigurnd o interpolare cu
mai mult acuratee a semnalelor din gridul de transformare.
Dup cum rezult din tabelul 2, n reeaua de triangulaie
exist un numr de puncte, deloc de neglijat, care au distorsiuni
foarte mari, peste limita acceptat de 1.4 m, ceea ce ngreuneaz
efectuarea n teren a determinrilor utiliznd tehnologia clasic. Din
acest motiv, autorii recomand ca, naintea utilizrii punctelor de
triangulaie n determinrile clasice, s fie verificate coordonatele
acestor puncte cu softul TransDatRO.
Procedeele i metodele utilizate pentru determinrile GNSS n
reeaua de triangulaie pentru completarea setului de puncte
comune, precum i calitatea determinrilor GNSS efectuate de ctre
firma S.C. BLOM ROMNIA S.R.L. i S.C. GEODIS ROMNIA
S.R.L. n cadrul acestui proiect a fcut posibil realizarea unui grid
de transformare destul de precis pentru uzul tuturor specialitilor din
ara noastr n cadrul lucrrilor de specialitate.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Dragomir Petre Iuliu, Srcin Aurel (2002): Msurtori Terestre Fundamente.
Topografie Inginereasc, vol. 2, MATRIX ROM, Bucureti
152
2. Neuner Johan (2000): Sisteme de poziionare global, MATRIX ROM, Bucureti
3. Moldoveanu C. (2004): Retele geodezice de sprijin modul. Sisteme de referin i
de coordonate, CONSPRESS, BUCURESTI
4. Turdeanu L., Noaje I. (2002): Msurtori Terestre Fundamente. Fotogrametrie, vol.
3, MATRIX ROM, Bucureti
5. Svulescu C. (2002): Msurtori Terestre Fundamente. Bazele prelucrrii
msurtorilor geodezice, vol. 2, MATRIX ROM, Bucureti
6. Ghiu D. (1983): Geodezie si gravimetrie geodezica, Editura Didactic i
Pedagogic, Bucureti
7. Avramiuc N. (2006): Contribuii privind transformrile de coordonate n sisteme
geodezice eterogene, tez de doctorat, UTCB, Bucureti
8. Hofmann-Wellenhof B., Lichtenegger H. and Collins J. (1992): Global Positioning
System, Springer-Verlag Wien New York
9. Blais J.A.R. (1990): Optimal Modelling for the Revision of Positional Data in Spatial
Information Systems, CISM Journal ACSGC, 44(2):113-121
10. Map Projections for Europe, Edited by: A. Annoni, C. Luzet, E. Gubler and J. Ihde,
Joint Research Centre of European Commission, EuroGeographics, Italy, 2001
11. ISO 19111 Spatial referencing by coordinates, International Organization for
Standardization, 2003
153
ASPECTE PRIVIND TRANSFORMAREA LINIARA
CONFORMA A COORDONATELOR RECTANGULARE
DIN SISTEME LOCALE N SISTEMUL NATIONAL
Mircea Ortelecan, Ana Ciotlu, Diana Ficior,
Elena Popa, Jutka Deak, Nicolae Pop
Universitatea de Stiinte Agricole i Medicin Veterinar
Cluj-Napoca, ortelecanm@yahoo.fr
Rezumat:Lucrarea se refer la cteva aspecte privind
modul de calcul al parametrilor liniari de transformare a
coordonatelor rectangulare dintr-un sistem particular n
sistemul naional de coordonate: translaia pe direcia
axelor, rotaia celor dou sisteme i modulul de scar.
In lucrare se face o paralel ntre rezolvarea geometric
i metoda celor mai mici ptrate la calculul parametrilor
de transformare. Lucrarea mai cuprinde o aplicaie de
transformare a coordonatelor dintr-un sistem local n
sistemul naional Stereo 1970, aplicaie realizat cu
ocazia delimitrii unui imobil n condiiile absentei totale
a punctelor din reeaua de stat.
Cuvinte cheie: transformari de coordonate, conversii
de coordonate, transcalcul de coordonate.
1.INTRODUCERE
In zonele de interes, unde nu exist o densitate
corespunztoare a punctelor reelei de triangulaie de stat, dar
exist puncte ntr-o proiecie local sau n alte sisteme de
proiecie, se pune problema transformrii coordonatelor acestor
sisteme n sistemul naional Stereo 1970.
Prin transformarea coordonatelor se nelege operaia
matematic prin care coordonatele, cunoscute ntr-un anumit
sistem, se calculeaz n alt sistem.
Dac transformrile de coordonate se realizeaz ntre
dou sisteme care au acelai datum, transformarea este ntlnit
sub denumirea de conversie.
In cazul cnd cele dou sisteme au datumuri diferite
transformarea de coordonate se ntlneste sub denumirea de
transcalcul.
154
In funcie de precizia impus i de distana dintre
puncte, la rezolvarea problemei, se alege o soluie topografic
sau una geodezic.
Soluia topografic se alege n cazul distanelor mici,
caz n care se neglijeaz efectul de curbur i variaia
deformaiilor liniare.
Metoda geodezic se alege n cazul distanelor mari
dintre puncte, a reelelor geodezice de ordinul II, III i IV, caz n
care se va ine seama de efectul de curbur i variaia
deformaiilor liniare.
2.CONSIDERAII TEORETICE
Formulele generale de transformare a coordonatelor se
aseamn cu cele din geometria analitic i pot fi scrise uor,
urmrind figura 1.

Figura 1 Transformarea coordonatelor
a) rotatie spre stnga; b)rotaie spre dreapta
Considernd coordonatele punctului i(X
i
, Y
i
) n sistemul
de axe de coordonate naional XOY i respectiv i(x
i
, y
i
) n sistemul
de coordonate local
' ' ' x o y
, pentru o transformare rectangular
plan din sistemul local n sistemul naional se aplic relaiile:
' '
'
' '
'
cos sin
sin cos
i o i i
i o i i
X X x y
Y Y x y
o o
o o
= +
= +
(1)
unde: X
o
,Y
o
coordonatele plane ale originii sistemului local
exprimate n sistemul naional. Aceste coordonate, n generel
necunoscute, reprezint translaia sistemului local fa de sistemul
naional;
X
Y
x'
y'
O
o'
Xi
Yo Yi
yi
i
o
o
X
Y
x'
y'
O
o'
Xi
Xo
Yo Yi
xi
i
o
o
a)
b)
xi
yi
Xo
155
o
- unghiul de rotaie format de axele celor dou sisteme de
coordinate.
Observaie: In relaia (1) semnele superioare se
utilizeaz la rotaia spre stnga a sistemului local (Fig. 1. a) ), fr a
se ine seama de semnul unghiului de rotaie. Semnele inferioare se
utilizeaz la rotaia spre dreapta (Fig. 1. b)
Dac se consider c unghiul de rotaie dintre cele dou
sisteme se calculeaz cu relaia:
' o u u =
(3)
n care :
u - orientarea axei OX a sistemului naional;
' u - orientarea axei
' ' o x
a sistemului local.
atunci, la rotaia spre stnga a sistemului local, valoarea
unghiului de rotaie este negativ.
Considernd unghiul
( ) o
in cadranul IV i unghiul
o
n
cadranul I i innd seama de transformarea funciilor trigonometrice
ntre cele dou cadrane, matricea de rotaie se prezint sub forma:
cos( ) sin( ) cos sin
sin( ) cos( ) sin cos
R
o o o o
o o o o
| | | |
= =
| |

\ . \ .
(4)
Relaia (1), scris matriceal devine:
'
'
'
'
cos sin
sin cos
i i
o
i
o
i
X x
X
Y
Y
y
o o
o o
| |
| | | | | |
| = +
|
| |
|
|
\ . \ .
\ .
\ .
(5)
Efectund calculele obinem:
' '
'
' '
1 '
cos sin
sin cos
i o i i
o i i
X X x y
Y Y x y
o o
o o
= +
= + +
(6)
Observaie: n relaia (6) se ine seama c unghiul
o

este negativ, pentru care cos( ) cos , sin( ) sin o o o o = = i astfel relaia
(6) devine identic cu relaia (1) stabilit geometric.
La transformarea coordonatelor dintr-un sistem local n
sistemul naional este necesar s se in seama, n afar de unghiul
de rotaie a celor dou sisteme, i de modulul de deformaie liniar
k.
[ ]
[ ]
ij
ij
D
k
d
=
(7)
unde:
156
[D
ij
] suma distanelor n sistemul naional (n care se
transform coordonaele);
[d
ij
] - suma distanelor n sistemul local (din care se transform
coordonatele).
Tinnd seama de modulul de deformaie relaia (5)
devine:
'
'
'
'
cos sin
sin cos
i i
o
i
o
i
X x
X
k
Y
Y
y
o o
o o
| |
| | | | | |
| = +
|
| |
|
|
\ . \ .
\ .
\ .
(8)
Efectund calculele obinem:
' '
'
' '
'
cos sin
sin cos
i o i i
i o i i
X X x k y k
Y Y x k y k
o o
o o
= +
= + +
(9)
Se remarc faptul c n relaia (9) sunt patru
necunoscute: coordonatele geodezice ale originii sistemului
particular
' ' o o
X Y , unghiul de rotaie o i modulul de scar k ce apar
sub forma funciilor neliniare

cos , sin k k o o
.
Ca atare pentru a transforma coordonatele rectangulare
dintr-un sistem local ntr-un sistem naional, trebuie cunoscute
minim dou puncte cu coordonate n ambele sisteme .
Calculul parametrilor de transformare poate fi realizat
prin metode topografice sau prin metota micilor ptrate.
In lucrare calculul parametrilor de transformare s-a
realizat prin metoda celor mai mici ptrate.
Metoda se aplic n cazul cnd numrul puncte ce au
coordonatele cunoscute n ambele sisteme este mai mare de doi.
In relaia (9), se consider c valorile cele mai probabile
ale coordonatelor punctelor n sistemul naional sunt egale cu
valorile provizorii (X
i
, Y
i
) plus coreciile acestora (V
Xi
, V
Yi
), astfel
pentru n puncte, modelul funcional stochastic se prezint sub
forma:
' '
'
' '
'
cos sin
cos sin 1, 2...
i Xi o i i
i Yi o i i
X V X x k y k
Y V Y y k x k i n
o o
o o
+ = +
+ = + + =
(10)
De unde rezult:
' '
'
' '
'
cos sin
cos sin 1, 2...
Xi o i i i
Yi o i i i
V X x k y k X
V Y y k x k Y i n
o o
o o
= +
= + + =
(11)
157
Pentru liniarizarea ecuaiilor (11) se fac urmtoarele
schimbri de variabile:
' 0
2 2
' 0
cos , ,
sin , ,
cos sin
o
o
b
k a X a din care arctg
a
a b
k b Y b k a b
o o
o
o o
| |
= = =
|
\ .
= = = = = +
(12)
i atunci sistemul de 2n ecuaii cu patru necunoscute se
poate scrie sub forma:
0
0
, 1, 2, ...
= +
= + + =
Xi i i i
Yi i i i
V a x a y b X
V b y a x b Y unde i n
(13)
Sub form matriceal sistemul (13) poate fi scris:
AX l V =
(14)
Unde:
A - matricea coeficienilor;
X - matricea necunoscutelor (parametrilor de transalcul),
l matricea termenilor liberi;
V matricea matricea coreciilor
' '
1 1
' '
1 1
' '
2 2
(2 ,4)
' '
2 2
' '
0 1
0 1
0 1
0 1
... ... ... ...
0 1
n
n n
x y
y x
x y
A
y x
y x
| |
|
|
|
|
=
|
|
|
|
|
\ .
,
0
0
(4,1)
a
b
X
a
b
| |
|
|
=
|
|
\ .
,
(2 ,1)
1
1
2
2
...
n
X
Y
X
l
Y
Yn
| |
|
|
= |
|
|
|
|
\ .
,
1
1
2
(2 ,1)
2
...
X
Y
X
n
Y
Yn
V
V
V
V
V
V
| |
|
|
|
= |
|
|
|
|
\ .
(15
In condiia de minim:
[ ] [ ] minim
X Y
VV VV + (16)
se ajunge la sistemul normal de ecuaii care se prezint sub
forma:
( ) 0
T T
A A X A l = (17)
unde:
A
T
- matricea transpus a coeficienilor
Din relaia (17) rezult matricea necunoscutelor:
1
(4,1) (4,2 ) (2 ,4) (4,2 ) (2 ,1)
( )
T T
n n n n
X A A A l
=
(18)
Eroarea medie ptratic a unei observaii (abaterea
standard) se calculeaz cu relaia:
158

0
2 4
T T
V V V V
m
n k n
= =

(19)

In care
n numrul msurtorilor asimilat cu numrul coordonatelor
punctelor comune;
k numrul necunoscutelor
V
T
V = l
T
(E-A
T
A)l (20)
Unde :
E matricea unitate.
Corecia V i apoi V
T
V se poate calcula, de asemenea,
prin introducerea necunoscutelor calculate prin relaia (18) n relaia
(13).
Eroarea medie ptratic ale necunoscutelor se
calculeaz cu relaiile:

0 X ii
i
m m Q =
(21)
Unde:
Q
ii
coeficieni de pondere, care se regsesc pe diagonala
principal a matricei inverse
1
( )
T
xx
Q A A

=
Cu parametri de transformare determinai, se vor calcula
coordonatele n sistem naional a celorlalte puncte cunoscute numai
n sistemul local. Se va utiliza n acest sens relaia (22)
0
0
i i
i i
X a x a b
Y b y b a
| | | | | | | |
= +
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
(22)
In cazul cnd numrul punctelor cu coordonate
cunoscute n cele dou sisteme este mai mare, pentru o mai bun
corelare a coeficienilor parametrilor de transformare, se poate
utiliza metoda transformrilor multiple, care const n:
Calculul coordonatelor centrului de greutate, al punctelor
comune, n ambele sisteme:
| | | |
| | | |
n
y
G
y ;
n
x
G
x = =
= =
n
Y
G
Y ;
n
X
G
X
(23)
159
unde:
[X]; [Y] - suma coordonatelor punctelor comune n
sistemul geodezic;
[ x ]; [ y ] - suma coordonatelor punctelor comune n
sistemul local;
n - numrul punctelor comune.
Determinarea ecartului dintre centrul de greutate i punctele
comune n ambele sisteme de cordonate:
G
y
i
y
i
y
G
x
i
x
i
x = =
= =
;
G
Y
i
Y
i
Y ;
G
X
i
X
i
(24)
Calculul parametrilor de transformare cu relaia (18), cu
precizarea c n matricele coeficienilor (15) se vor utiliza valorile
din relaia (23)
Transformarea punctelor din sistemul local n sistemul naional n
funcie de coordonatele centrului de greutate din sistemul
geodezic, parametri de transformare i de relativele punctelor din
sistemul local. Relaiile se prezint sub forma:
i G i i
i G i i
X X a x b y
Y Y b x a y
' = + A A
' = + A + A
(25)
3. STUDIU DE CAZ
In vederea nscrierii n CF a unui imobil din Cartierul
Grigorescu, municipiul Cluj-Napoca, s-a realizat o reea de ridicare,
ntr-un sistem local (101, 102, 103), cu ajutorul unei staii totale
Leica TCR 805.Din punctele de ridicare s-au determinat punctele de
detaliu, de asemenea, n sistemul local. S-a utilizat un sistem local
de coordonate datorit lipsei punctelor din sistemul naional i al
vizibilitii spre aceste puncte. Pentru incadrarea n sistemul naional
al ridicrilor topografice, cu ajutorul unui receptor de poziionare
global RTK s-au determinat coordonatele reelei de ridicare n
sistem naional Stereo1970 (Tabelul1), Fig1.
Tabelul 1
Pctunct
Stereo 1970 Sistem local
X Y x y
101 586271,272 389118,402 580000,000 385000,000
102 586312,844 389079,549 580056,915 385000,000
103 586445,942 389290,121 580010,361 385244,724
44 580058,092 385001,89
45
580057,717 385023,383
160
46
580051,107 385023,578
47
580050,760 385017,649
33
580003,360 385012,648
35 579995,105 385022,055
36 579988,166 384995,577
41
580015,039 385001,580
31
580003,141 385001,450
37 579994,170 384990,203
38 580000,1324 385012,839
Efectund calculele din relaia (18) se obine:
1 0 580000,000 -385000,000 586271,272
0 1 385000,000 580000,000 389118,402
1 0 580056,915 -385000,000 586312,844
;
0 1 385000,000 580056,915 389079,549
1 0 580010,361 -385244,724 586445
0 1 385244,724 580010,361
| |
|
|
|
|
|
\ .
= = A l
,942
389290,121
| |
|
|
|
|
|
\ .

11605893,92 -0,008292301 -13,88794395 9,22031821
1
0,04566512 11605893,86 -9,22031821 -13,88794385
-13,88794399 -9,220318146 2,39438E-05 -9,42105E-14
9,220318146 -13,88794389 1,71076E-14 2,39438E-05
( )
| |
|
|
|
\ .
=
T
A A
a 1759030,058 -100345,4965
o
1
1167488,072 b 503886,3339
o
; ( )
1,46986E+12 0,730569135 a
-200829618,5 -0,682822485 b
| | | | | |
| | |
= = | | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
= =
T T T
A A A l A l X

Aplicnd relaiile (12) s-a determinat unghiul de rotaie
ntre cele dou sisteme i apoi coeficientul de scar rezultnd
47,8502 0999989 k o = =

101
102
103
44
35
36 37
38
42
32
31
46
47
45
33
105
389080 389130 389180 389230 389280
586260
586310
586360
586410
N

Figura 1. Schita punctelor transformare si a punctelor cunoscute n
ambele sisteme
puncte cu coordonate comune n cele dou sisteme;
puncte de conversie.
161
Cu relaia (22) se recalculeaz coordonatele din sistemul
naional a punctelor comune i a punctelor de transformare.
Tabelul 2
Punct
Cordonate cunoscute Coordonate calculate Diferene
X Y X Y dX dY
101 586271,272 389118,402 586271,259 389118,409 -0,013 0,007
102 586312,844 389079,549 586312,839 389079,547 -0,005 -0,002
103 586445,942 389290,121 586445,931 389290,122 -0,011 0,001
Diferenele dintre coordonate sunt identice cu coreciile
calculate prin relaia (13).Eroarea medie ptratic a unei msurtori
(abaterea standard) conform relaiei (19) este de m
0
=0.014 m iar
erorile parametrilor de transformare calculate conform releiei (21)
este m
a
= m
b
=0.00007 m
Tabelul 3
Pctunct
Stereo 1970 Corecii
X Y VX VY
44 586314,990 389080,124 -0,0051 -0,0024
45 586329,391 389096,082 -0,0049 -0,0030
46 586324,696 389100,738 -0,2895 0,2220
47 586320,394 389096,643 -0,3172 0,2875
33 586274,543 389117,324 -0,0135 0,0074
35 586273,411 389119,431 -0,0135 0,0074
36 586282,350 389125,355 -0,0134 0,0071
41 586282,742 389137,864 -0,0131 0,0069
31 586259,593 389123,259 -0,0132 0,0077
37 586260,309 389115,233 -0,0134 0,0078
38 586280,122 389127,699 -0,0133 0,0071
Abaterea standard de transformare a coordonatelor este
de m
0
=0.0103 m.
4. CONCLUZII
Transformarea coordonatelor rectangulare, se impune n
cazul cnd acestea au fost determinate n alte sisteme fa de
sistemul naional.
In vederea transformrii coordonatelor, cu rezultate
bune, se impune ca cele dou sisteme de coordonate s
ndeplineasc cteva condiii:
ambele sisteme de coordonate s aparin aceluiai tip de
proiecii (conforme);
162
unghiul dintre axele de coordonate s nu depeasc 100
g
,
pentru a pstra relaiile de calcul prezentate;
Punctele cunoscute n ambele sisteme s subntind zona de
interes;
Punctele supuse conversiei de coordonate s se gseasc n
interiorul zonei determinat de punctele cunoscute.
Datorit numrului mic de puncte, cunoscut n ambele
sisteme de coordonate, n lucrare s-a aplicat metoda simpl de
transformare a coordonatelor.
Datorit instrumentelor performante, a metodei de lucru
utilizat i a distanelor mici, acurateea transformrii a fost bun.
Precizia mic a punctelor 26 i 27 din tabelul 3, se
datoreaz unor erori de msurare. Variaii mici n stabilirea
parametrilor de transformare se obin i la schimbarea poziiei
coeficienilor i a parametrilor din matricele sistemului.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Gagea L.,.a. - Cartografie, E.D.P. Bucureti,1993.
2. Moldoveanu C. - Geodezie, Martix. ROM Bucureti,2002
3. Ortelecan M. - Geodezie, AcademicPRES Cluj-Napoca, 2006
4. Danciu V - Teoria prelucrrii masuratorilor geodezice, Conspress Bucuresti 2002
5. Ortelecan M., Ficior D.- Considerations on linear conformal transformation, Revista
de tiin i practic agricol nr. 3-4 /2010, Editura AcademinPres, Cluj-Napoca.
LINEAR TRANSFORMATION ISSUE UNDER RECTANGULAR
COORDINATES IN THE LOCAL NATIONAL SYSTEM
Abstract: This paper refers at some issues relating to calculation of linear
transformation parameters of the particular system of rectangular coordinates in
the national system of coordinates: the translation axis direction, rotation of the
two systems and module scale. The paper draws a parallel between geometry
method and solving the least squares method to calculate the transformation
parameters. The paper also includes an application for conversion of
coordinates from a local system in the national Stereo 1970, application made
at a property boundary points under the total absence of state networking. The
property was defined in a local system, using a Leica Total Station 805, and
then, after a period of time, the station points were placed in the national
system, using GPS technology. Compared to common coordinates in both
systems has been made the transformation of coordinate and analysis of
precision indices of parameters depending on the position parameters in the
matrix coefficients.
163
STUDIU COMPARATIV PRIVIND OBINEREA
COORDONATELOR N SISTEM STEREOGRAFIC 1970
DIN DETERMINRI GPS
Prof. dr. ing. Cornel Punescu, Universitatea din Bucureti,
ing. Drago tefan Necula, SC Cornel & Cornel TOPOEXIM srl,
ing. Vlad Punescu, SC Cornel & Cornel TOPOEXIM srl
ing. Madalina Ioana Smadu, SC THEOTOP srl
Rezumat: Agenia Naional de Cadastru i Publicitate
Imobiliar a lansat programul TRANSDAT prin care
coordonatele determinate cu tehnologia GPS n sistem
tridimensional pe elipsoidul WGS 84 sunt duse n plan,
sistem stereografic 1970 avnd la baz elipsoidul
Krasovski. Este un pas important, dar este metoda cea
mai bun de obinere a coordonatelor finale plane?
ncercm s demonstrm prin acest articol c soluia
optim este compensarea n plan, metoda celor mai mici
ptrate, msurtori indirecte.
Cuvinte cheie: reea geodezic, GPS, TRNSDAT,
compensare
1. CONDIII GENERALE
Realizarea unei reele geodezice n prezent trebuie s
in cont de mai muli factori: scop, beneficiar, utilizare ulterioar,
etc. Municipiul Baia Mare a cerut ca n cadrul ralizrii PUG-ului s
se materializeze i s se determine o reea geodezic a municipiului
din care s fie determinate limitele intravilanului.
2. REALIZAREA REELEI GEODEZICE
2.1 Proiectarea reelei s-a realizat cu ajutorul OCPI Maramure, al
Primriei i cu concursul persoanelor fizice autorizate pe plan local,
viitorii beneficiari ai acestei reele pentru lucrrile curente de
cadastru. Astfel, au fost amplasate 26 puncte, materializate prin
borne din beton armat conform standardelor n vigoare. Schia
reelei se regsete n figurile 1 i 2.
164
2.2 Msurtorile s-au efectuat cu receptoare GPS i cu staii totale.
Receptoarele GPS au fost de tip TOPCON HIPER PRO. La
msurtori s-au utilizat n total 4 receptoare GPS i o staie total.
Receptoarele GPS au fost amplasate simultan pe puncte
noi ale reelei, astfel nct s-au creat suficieni vectori i ntre
punctele noi. De asemenea s-a inut cont de faptul c n zon se
afl staii permanente: Baia Mare, Satu Mare, Dej, Vieu i Zalu.
Timpul de staionare a fost suficient pentru a face legtura ntre
receptoarele GPS amplasate pe puncele noi i staiile permanente
menionate. Vectorii s-au creat att ntre punctele noi i staiile
permanente ct i doar ntre punctele noi, numrul de msurtori
fiind foarte mare, respectiv 224 vectori, din care 205 au rspuns ca
precizie. Schia msurtorilor GPS se regsete n figura 1.
Dup efectuarea msurtorilor cu tehnologie GPS s-au
efectuat msurtori clasice cu staia total. Astfel au fost msurate
direcii ctre puncte ale reelei geodezice din ora, respectiv biserici,
couri de fabric, antene, puncte geodezice, etc., dar i ctre
punctele noi ale reelei geodezice noi create. De asmenea au fost
msurate distane ntre punctele noi ale reelei geodezice. Schia
msurtorilor cu staia total se regsete n figura 2.
2.3 Calcule pentru obinerea coordonatelor punctelor noi n sistemul
plan stereografic 1970, elipsoid Krasovski.
2.3.1 Primul pas a fost determinarea coordonatelor punctelor noi n
sistem tridimensional pe elipsoidul WGS 84, avnd n vedere
determinrile cu tehnologie GPS. Au fost utilizate ca puncte cu
coordonate cunoscute staiile permanente din apropiere, respectiv
Baia Mare, Satu Mare, Dej, Vieu i Zalu. n compensare s-au
introdus toi vectorii msurai, att ntre puncte vechi i noi ct i
ntre punctele noi. Numrul total de vectori intrai n compensare,
menionat i la punctul anterior a fost de 205. Compensarea s-a
efectuat cu ajutorul programului TOPCON TOOLS versiunea 7.5
furnizat de TOPCON. Rezultatele i preciziile obinute se regsesc
n Tabelul 1, coordonate compensate n sistem tridiemnsional pe
elipsoidul WGS 84.
2.3.2 Obinerea coordonatelor n sistem plan stereografic 1970.
Pentru aceast operaie am avut n vedere 4 variante de calcul.
165
Varianta 1. Transcalculul coordonatelor obinute din compensarea
pe WGS cu programul TRANSDAT i considerarea lor ca i
coordonate finale. Rezultatele sunt prezentate n Tabelul 2.
Varianta 2. Transcalculul coordonatelor obinute din compensarea
pe WGS cu parametri calculai de SC CORNEL & CORNEL
TOPOEXIM SRL n anul 1996 i considerarea lor ca i coordonate
finale. Rezultatele sunt prezentate n Tabelul 2. Parametri au fost
calculai utiliznd algoritmul Helmert cu 7 parametri. Punctele care
au intrat n compensare au fost calculate la nivelul anului 1996 prin
legarea tuturor aeroporturilor din Romania la reeaua WGS 84,
ETRS 89. Punctele determinate pe fiecare aeroport au fost
transmise din reeaua WGS 84 exitent la acel moment, respectiv
reeaua msurat i calculat cu ajutorul NGS n 1995 i reeaua
CERGOP care a avut ca scop determinarea micrii plcilor
tectonice. Trebuie menionat c au fost determinate puncte pe 17
aeroporturi rspndite n toat ara, parametrii calculai rspunznd
destul de bine pentru toat ara.
Varianta 3. Coordonatele obinute n varianta 1 nu au mai fost
considerate coordonate finale ci coordonate provizorii. Cu aceste
coordonate provizorii pentru cele 26 de puncte noi ale reelei
municipiului Baia Mare s-a realizat o compensare n plan, sistem
stereografic 1970 avnd ca msurtori direciile, distanele i vectorii
GPS doar ntre punctele noi. Msurtorile sunt prezentate n figura
2. Astfel, n compensare au intrat 35 direcii, 17 distane i 70 vectori
GPS (70x i 70y). Compensarea s-a realizat utiliznd metoda
celor mai mici ptrate, msurtori indirecte. n tabelul 2 sunt
prezentate datele compensrii, inclusiv coordonatele finale pentru
cele 26 de puncte noi.
Varianta 4. Este identic cu varianta 3, cu deosebirea c n
compensare au intrat ca i coordonate provizorii coordonatele
obinute n varianta 2, respectiv transcalculul utiliznd cei 7
parametri Helmert. Rezultatele sunt prezentate n Tabelul 2. Este
uor de observat c rezultatele sunt identice cu varianta 3.
3. CONCLUZII
Din tabelul 3, al diferenelor de coordonate rezultate n
cele 4 variante se observ c datele obinute n variantele 3 i 4
sunt identice. Cele mai mari diferene ntre variante se obin cele n
166
care intervine varianta 2, respectiv transcalcul cu parametri obinui
de SC CORNEL & CORNEL TOPOEXIM SRL i coordonatele sunt
considerate finale. Este motivul pentru care niciodat n practic nu
am luat coordonatele obinute din transcalcul ca i coordonate finale
ci doar ca i coordonate provizorii. Varianta 1, respectiv
transcalculul coordonatelor cu programul TRNSDAT i considerarea
lor ca i coordonate finale este mai aproape de variantele 3 i 4,
compensate, dar sunt totui diferene de 1 centimetru pe axa x i 25
de centimetri pe axa y.
Din tabelele comparative se observ faptul c dei
coordonatele provizorii intrate n compensare n variantele 3 i 4
sunt diferite (n varianta 3 coordonatele provizorii sunt din
transcalculul coordonatelor cu TRANSDAT varianta 1 iar n
varianta 4 din transcalculul coordonatelor cu parametrii obinui de
SC CORNEL & CORNEL TOPOEXIM SRL varianta 2),
coordonatele finale sunt identice.
Pe de alt parte, compensarea din variantele 3 i 4 in
cont de coordonatele plane n sistem stereografic 1970 din cadrul
municipiului Baia Mare i constrnge coordonatele noi pe acestea.
Coordoantele pe care s-a constrns reeaua fac parte din sistemul
naional i sunt introduse n fondul naional geodezic.

Figura 1. Schia reelei GPS, legtura cu staiile permanente i legtura
ntre punctele noi
167

Figura 2. Schia reelei geodezice realizat prin msurtori de direcii,
distane i tehnologie GNSS
Tabelul 1. Coordonate finale, compensate n sistem WGS89, ETRS 89
Denumire
Coordonate carteziene ETRS 89 Precizia de determinare
X (m) Y (m) Z (m)
Std Dev n
(m)
Std Dev e
(m)
Std Dev Hz
(m)
Std Dev u
(m)
BAIA 3945840.095 1720428.036 4691082.484 0 0 0 0
DEJ1 3974141.977 1759134.740 4652964.737 0 0 0 0
SATU 3955661.408 1668437.198 4701385.623 0 0 0 0
VISE 3915084.422 1778571.334 4695502.173 0 0 0 0
ZALU 3996327.649 1701429.613 4655459.196 0 0 0 0

Puncte Determinate
Denumire
Coordonate carteziene ETRS 89 Precizia de determinare
X (m) Y (m) Z (m)
Std Dev n
(m)
Std Dev e
(m)
Std Dev Hz
(m)
Std Dev u
(m)
B01 3945928.693 1721568.978 4690584.608 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B02 3945579.418 1722005.123 4690719.710 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B03 3945387.545 1721992.985 4690886.126 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B04 3945044.854 1721955.954 4691184.251 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B05 3944815.784 1721937.868 4691381.478 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B06 3944784.561 1722098.827 4691349.983 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B07 3943547.922 1723377.464 4691937.524 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B08 3943869.398 1722791.758 4691872.424 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.003
B09 3944205.143 1722232.249 4691788.656 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B10 3943962.381 1722144.315 4692023.347 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.005
B11 3944183.048 1721856.138 4691938.169 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.003
168
B12 3944405.129 1721603.260 4691843.132 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B13 3944413.720 1721488.418 4691877.398 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.003
B14 3945045.423 1720020.789 4691868.974 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B15 3946155.677 1718592.205 4691443.082 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B16 3946139.653 1718189.838 4691606.761 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B17 3946195.822 1717179.641 4691926.337 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.003
B18 3946280.067 1718669.616 4691309.232 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B19 3945462.922 1720143.781 4691471.696 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B20 3945164.124 1720794.885 4691492.477 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B21 3945375.512 1721098.927 4691207.398 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B22 3945616.406 1721424.648 4690893.608 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B23 3945698.013 1721102.672 4690936.120 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.003
B24 3945843.407 1720673.756 4690966.012 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.003
B25 3946055.875 1720945.791 4690694.018 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
B26 3946017.128 1721192.100 4690639.649 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
Tabelul 2. Coordonate n sistem stereografic 1970 obinute n cele 4
variante
Varianta 1 Varianta 2 Varianta 3 Varianta 4
Den x(m) y(m) x(m) y(m) x(m) y(m) x(m) y(m)
B01 683867.34 392771.65 683866.70 392771.66 683867.32 392771.42 683867.32 392771.42
B02 684056.20 393314.60 684055.56 393314.61 684056.18 393314.36 684056.18 393314.36
B03 684300.62 393384.66 684299.99 393384.67 684300.61 393384.42 684300.61 393384.42
B04 684742.58 393495.81 684741.94 393495.82 684742.57 393495.57 684742.57 393495.57
B05 685034.53 393576.17 685033.90 393576.17 685034.53 393575.92 685034.53 393575.92
B06 684983.99 393735.29 684983.36 393735.29 684983.99 393735.04 684983.99 393735.04
B07 685809.10 395417.05 685808.48 395417.02 685809.12 395416.78 685809.12 395416.78
B08 685732.71 394750.16 685732.09 394750.14 685732.72 394749.91 685732.72 394749.91
B09 685626.00 394101.02 685625.38 394101.02 685626.01 394100.78 685626.01 394100.78
B10 685974.17 394123.85 685973.55 394123.84 685974.18 394123.60 685974.18 394123.60
B11 685858.91 393769.31 685858.29 393769.31 685858.92 393769.07 685858.92 393769.07
B12 685725.05 393446.24 685724.43 393446.24 685725.05 393446.00 685725.05 393446.00
B13 685778.22 393338.49 685777.60 393338.49 685778.23 393338.25 685778.23 393338.25
B14 685807.45 391740.97 685806.82 391740.98 685807.45 391740.74 685807.45 391740.74
B15 685222.68 389976.66 685222.04 389976.69 685222.67 389976.45 685222.67 389976.45
B16 685469.26 389618.70 685468.62 389618.73 685469.25 389618.48 685469.25 389618.48
B17 685962.21 388679.13 685961.57 388679.17 685962.20 388678.92 685962.20 388678.92
B18 685025.02 389994.28 685024.38 389994.31 685025.01 389994.06 685025.01 389994.06
B19 685221.76 391676.08 685221.13 391676.10 685221.76 391675.85 685221.75 391675.85
B20 685232.70 392392.66 685232.07 392392.68 685232.70 392392.43 685232.70 392392.43
B21 684804.16 392579.04 684803.52 392579.05 684804.15 392578.81 684804.15 392578.81
169
B22 684329.74 392772.65 684329.10 392772.67 684329.73 392772.42 684329.73 392772.42
B23 684404.20 392446.21 684403.56 392446.22 684404.19 392445.98 684404.19 392445.98
B24 684460.81 391995.89 684460.17 391995.91 684460.80 391995.67 684460.80 391995.67
B25 684050.34 392152.83 684049.71 392152.85 684050.33 392152.60 684050.33 392152.60
B26 683962.80 392392.53 683962.16 392392.54 683962.79 392392.30 683962.79 392392.30
Tabelul 3 diferenele de coordonate n valori absolute, n cele 4 variante
Den pct Var 1-Var 2 Var 3-Var 1 Var 3-Var 2 Var 2-Var 4 Var 3-Var 4
dx(m) dy(m) dx(m) dy(m) dx(m) dy(m) dx(m) dy(m) dx(m) dy(m)
B01 0.639 -0.016 -0.012 -0.230 0.627 -0.246 -0.627 0.246 0.000 0.000
B02 0.637 -0.010 -0.012 -0.237 0.625 -0.247 -0.625 0.247 0.000 0.000
B03 0.636 -0.008 -0.007 -0.237 0.629 -0.245 -0.628 0.245 0.000 0.000
B04 0.633 -0.005 -0.004 -0.240 0.629 -0.245 -0.629 0.245 0.000 0.000
B05 0.629 -0.003 0.001 -0.242 0.630 -0.245 -0.630 0.245 0.000 0.000
B06 0.630 -0.001 0.000 -0.243 0.630 -0.244 -0.630 0.244 0.000 0.000
B07 0.619 0.031 0.015 -0.271 0.634 -0.240 -0.634 0.239 0.000 0.000
B08 0.621 0.018 0.013 -0.254 0.634 -0.236 -0.634 0.236 0.000 0.000
B09 0.624 0.008 0.008 -0.248 0.632 -0.240 -0.632 0.239 0.000 0.000
B10 0.620 0.011 0.010 -0.250 0.630 -0.239 -0.630 0.238 0.000 0.000
B11 0.622 0.005 0.003 -0.244 0.625 -0.239 -0.625 0.239 0.000 0.000
B12 0.623 0.000 0.004 -0.242 0.627 -0.242 -0.627 0.242 0.000 0.000
B13 0.623 -0.001 0.005 -0.242 0.628 -0.243 -0.628 0.243 0.000 0.000
B14 0.626 -0.017 0.002 -0.229 0.628 -0.246 -0.627 0.246 0.000 0.000
B15 0.635 -0.032 -0.011 -0.215 0.624 -0.247 -0.624 0.246 0.000 0.000
B16 0.635 -0.034 -0.009 -0.213 0.626 -0.247 -0.626 0.247 0.000 0.000
B17 0.635 -0.036 -0.009 -0.210 0.626 -0.246 -0.626 0.245 0.000 0.000
B18 0.637 -0.031 -0.012 -0.215 0.625 -0.246 -0.625 0.246 0.000 0.000
B19 0.632 -0.021 -0.004 -0.225 0.628 -0.246 -0.628 0.245 0.000 0.000
B20 0.630 -0.015 -0.001 -0.231 0.629 -0.246 -0.629 0.245 0.000 0.000
B21 0.633 -0.014 -0.004 -0.231 0.629 -0.245 -0.628 0.245 0.000 0.000
B22 0.636 -0.015 -0.007 -0.230 0.629 -0.245 -0.629 0.245 0.000 0.000
B23 0.636 -0.017 -0.009 -0.227 0.627 -0.244 -0.627 0.244 0.000 0.000
B24 0.637 -0.020 -0.010 -0.226 0.627 -0.246 -0.627 0.246 0.000 0.000
B25 0.638 -0.020 -0.014 -0.227 0.624 -0.247 -0.624 0.246 0.000 0.000
B26 0.640 -0.019 -0.014 -0.229 0.626 -0.248 -0.625 0.247 0.000 0.000

170
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
1. Ghiu, Dumitru Geodezie i Gravimetrie geodezic, Editura didactic i
pedagogic, Bucureti 1983
2. Moldoveanu, Constantin Geodezie. Noiuni de geodezie fizic i elipsoidal,
poziionare, Editura MATRIXRom 2002
171
ELEMENTE DE STUDIU N PROIECTAREA I
REALIZAREA UNEI REELE GEODEZICE SPAIALE N
ZONA METROPOLITAN IAI
ing. Ciprian Svescu, S.C. GEOSILVA S.R.L.
ef lucr. dr. ing. Chiril Constantin, Universitatea Tehnic
Gheorghe Asachi din Iai
Abstract: n cadrul lucrrii se prezint un studiu al
determinrii poziiei pentru punctele unei reele geodezice
spaiale, proiectat i realizat la nivelul unui areal extins,
definit de limitele zonei metropolitane Iai. Elementele de
studiu cuprind modul de proiectare al punctelor reelei,
prelucrarea de baz, determinarea parametrilor de
transformare n datumul naional i a coordonatelor
spaiale ale punctelor de ndesire, n diferite ipoteze de
lucru.
Cuvinte cheie: reea, geodezic, spaial, transformare,
precizie
1. PROIECTAREA REELEI GEODEZICE SPAIALE N ZONA DE
STUDIU
n vederea studiului privind determinarea poziiei pentru
punctele unei reele geodezice spaiale, proiectat i realizat la
nivelul unui areal extins, definit de limitele zonei metropolitane Iai,
s-au identificat un numr de cinci puncte cu coordonate n sistemul
naional Stereografic - 1970, care vor servi la calculul elementelor
transformrii spaiale 3D ntre datumul geodezic european
(ETRS89) i datumul geodezic naional (S-42):
- P.G. Srca ordinul I U.A.T. Erbiceni, referit la reeaua
EUREF`89, fiind punct GPS de ordinul A.
- P.G. Crpii ordinul I U.A.T. Victoria
- P.G. Pun ordinul I U.A.T. Brnova
- P.G. Moreni ordinul II U.A.T. Priscani
- P.G. Grajduri ordinul II U.A.T. Grajduri
Punctele geodezice mai sus menionate formeaz un
poligon cu suprafaa de aproximativ 885,3 kmp, ncadrnd teritoriul
172
municipiului Iai i a comunelor limitrofe Miroslava, Ciurea, Brnova,
Aroneanu, etc. (figura 1).

Figura 1. ncadrarea n zon a reelei geodezice spaiale de baz
Inventarul de coordonate al punctelor din reeaua
geodezic naional este prezentat n tabelul 1.
Tabelul 1. Inventarul de coordonate al punctelor reelei de baz
Punct
Coordonate rectangulare plane STEREO 70
X(m) Y(m) Z(m)
SRCA 640476.895 666954.677 189.700
CRPII 645541.442 697354.731 196.700
PUN 625051.495 703388.468 408.199
MORENI 625695.689 716479.598 33.100
GRAJDURI 611557.680 691426.879 399.492
Reeaua geodezic spaial astfel creat va constitui
cadrul n care se vor dezvolta reelele de ndesire pentru fiecare
U.A.T., care urmeaz a fi completate ulterior prin drumuiri
poligonometrice de precizie.
173
n etapa operaiunilor de teren s-a folosit aparatur GPS
din aceeai clas de fabricaie i precizie model Leica Smart Rover
ATX-1230, cu dou lungimi de und. Au fost folosite dou
echipamente GPS, care au staionat simultan pe cte dou puncte
i staia de referin permanent IAI a A.N.C.P.I., integrat n
sistemul ROMPOS. Observaiile din teren s-au desfurat pe o
perioad de dou zile (13.04.2010 i 23.04.2010), n cte dou
sesiuni de 60 minute fiecare, separate de un interval de 60 de
minute, datele fiind nregistrate la interval de 1 secund.
2. PRELUCRAREA MSURTORILOR GPS N REEAUA
GEODEZIC DE BAZ
Prelucrarea observaiilor rezultate s-a efectuat prin
postprocesarea datelor GPS nregistrate simultan de cele dou
receptoare i statia de referin IAI, astfel nct fiecare punct din
reeaua de baz a fost determinat din minim doi vectori diferii.
Operaiunea de post-procesare a datelor s-a efectuat cu
aplicaia software Leica Geo Office 7.0. folosindu-se procedura de
ncrcare n aplicaie a fiierelor cu observaiile brute provenite de la
cele dou receptoare GPS i fiierele tip RINEX cu nregistrrile
furnizate de ctre sistemul ROMPOS prin staia de referin IAI,
definirea punctului geodezic IAI din reeaua GPS de clasa A ca
fiind punct de control cu coordonatele fixe ale staiei de referin i
definirea parametrilor de postprocesare ale nregistrrilor brute.
Au rezultat n acest fel un numr de cinci baze GPS n
dou sesiuni de observaii, deci un numr total de 10 valori distincte
(figura 2).
S-au ataat pentru fiecare punct coordonatele geodezice
spaiale n sistem ETRS-89 rezultate din post-procesare i s-a iniiat
procedura de prelucrare a bazelor GPS dintre punctele staionate,
dup cum urmeaz: Pun - Grajduri, Pun - Crpii, Srca - Moreni,
rezultnd un numr de 3 baze diferite cu cte 2 sesiuni de
observaii, deci 6 valori distincte.
174

Figura 2. Prelucrarea reelei geodezice spaiale de baz
Coordonatele geodezice spaiale provizorii n datumul
ETRS-89, obinute pentru fiecare punct n parte, s-au centralizat i
prezentat n tabelul 2.
Tabelul 2. Coordonate provizorii din post-procesarea vectorilor GPS
Nr.
crt.
Denumire punct Coordonate geodezice spaiale ETRS-89
Latitudine ( ' ") Longitudine ( ' ") H
E
(m)
1 Srca 47 14' 33,71293" 27 12' 14,46088" 222,795
2 Crpii 47 16' 47,57623" 27 36' 27,03200" 222,135
3 Pun 47 05' 37,97708" 27 40' 40,83267" 440,816
4 Moreni 47 05' 43,98480" 27 51' 02,19676" 64,971
5 Grajduri 46 58' 34,01458" 27 30' 53,61241" 432,189
Pentru pstrarea calitii preciziei de msurare,
compensarea reelei s-a efectuat sub condiia de reea liber, n
care structura geometric este determinat numai de elementele
msurate n teren. Poziia, mrimea i orientarea reelei sunt
stabilite de ctre un numr minim de constrngeri, prin staii de
baz. Astfel, staiile de baz nu impun constrngeri suplimentare cu
privire la soluia de compensare. Selectarea unei alte staii pentru
stabilirea poziiei, dimensiunii i a orientrii va schimba coordonatele
punctelor finale, dar nu i testele statistice puse n aplicare n etapa
de compensare.
Elementele de intrare ale operaiunii de compensare
sunt coordonatele provizorii ale punctelor (tabelul 2) i lungimea
vectorilor DX, DY, DZ (raportul de analiz preliminar) considerai
175
individual pentru fiecare baz GPS luat n calcul. Punctul IAI este
definit ca punct de control si nu va fi afectat de operatia de
compensare. n urma operaiunii de compensare au rezultat
coordonatele definitive ale punctelor, prezentate n tabelul 3.
Pentru prezentarea preciziei de determinare a punctelor
sunt folosite cel mai adesea elipsele standard, cele absolute (tabelul
4) reprezintnd propagarea erorilor aleatoare prin modelul
matematic n coordonate, iar cele standard relative (tabelul 5)
reprezintnd erorile ntre perechile de puncte.
Tabelul 3. Coordonate definitive rezultate n urma compensrii
Denumire
punct
Coordonate geodezice spaiale ETRS-89 Corecii
Abaterea
standard
Crpii
Latitudine 47 16' 47.57622" N -0.0006 m 0.0022 m
Longitudine 27 36' 27.03198" E -0.0004 m 0.0015 m
Altitudine (H
E
) 229.135 m -0.0002 m 0.0044 m
Grajduri
Latitudine 46 58' 34.01457" N -0.0005 m 0.0027 m
Longitudine 27 30' 53.61241" E +0.0000 m 0.0019 m
Altitudine (H
E
) 432.185 m -0.0040 m 0.0052 m
Moreni
Latitudine 47 05' 43.98479" N -0.0002 m 0.0024 m
Longitudine 27 51' 02.19673" E -0.0006 m 0.0017 m
Altitudine (H
E
) 64.974 m +0.0032 m 0.0045 m
Pun
Latitudine 47 05' 37.97709" N +0.0001 m 0.0013 m
Longitudine 27 40' 40.83264" E -0.0007 m 0.0009 m
Altitudine (H
E
) 440.816 m -0.0003 m 0.0026 m
Srca
Latitudine 47 14' 33.71292" N -0.0003 m 0.0026 m
Longitudine 27 12' 14.46087" E -0.0002 m 0.0018 m
Altitudine (H
E
) 222.800 m +0.0051 m 0.0046 m
Iai
Latitudine 47 09' 43.38747" N +0.0000 m - fix
Longitudine 27 35' 14.54490" E +0.0000 m - fix
Altitudine (H
E
) 108.348 m +0.0000 m - fix
O dificultate n interpretarea elipselor standard, este
faptul c acestea depind de alegerea staiilor de baz.

176

Tabelul 4. Elipsele erorilor absolute (2D - 39.4% 1D - 68.3%)
Punct
Semiaxa
A [m]
Semiaxa
B [m]
Raportul
A/B
Unghiul
+
s
H
e
[m]
CRPII 0.0022 0.0015 1.5 -10 0.004
GRAJDURI 0.0027 0.0019 1.4 -6 0.005
MORENI 0.0024 0.0017 1.4 -4 0.004
PUN 0.0013 0.0009 1.5 -9 0.003
SRCA 0.0026 0.0018 1.5 -2 0.005
IAI 0 0 1 90 0
Tabelul 5. Elipsele erorilor relative (2D - 39.4%)
Punct Punct
Semiaxa
A [m]
Semiaxa
B [m]
Raportul
A/B
Unghiul
+
s
H
e
[m]
IAI SRCA 0.0026 0.0018 1.5 71 0.005
IAI MORENI 0.0024 0.0017 1.4 66 0.004
IAI CRPII 0.0022 0.0015 1.5 -17 0.004
PUN CRPII 0.0025 0.0017 1.5 4 0.005
SRCA MORENI 0.0022 0.0015 1.4 62 0.004
IAI GRAJDURI 0.0027 0.0019 1.4 -21 0.005
PUN GRAJDURI 0.0027 0.0019 1.4 -50 0.005
IAI PUN 0.0013 0.0009 1.5 34 0.003
3. CALCULUL PARAMETRILOR DE TRANSFORMARE 3D A
COORDONATELOR N DATUMUL GEODEZIC NAIONAL
n vederea determinrii parametrilor de transformare a
coordonatelor punctelor din sistemul ETRS89 n sistemul S-42, s-a
folosit modelul Bursa - Wolf cu apte parametri, din cadrul aplicaiei
Leica Geo Office, acetia fiind determinai pe baza punctelor
comune cu coordonate carteziene elipsoidale cunoscute n cele
dou datum-uri geodezice. Urmare a aplicrii modelului matematic
au rezultat cele trei constante de translaie (AX, AY, AZ), cele trei
elemente de rotaie (R
X
, R
Y
, R
Z
) i factorul de scar (AL) tabelul 6.
n tabelul nr. 7 se prezint coordonatele rectangulare
plane STEREO 70, obinute prin transformare pentru punctele
comune, rezultnd diferene maxime de 10 cm pentru poziia
planimetric i de 23 cm pentru poziia altimetric.

177

Tabelul 6. Parametrii de transformare 3D ai modelului Bursa-Wolf
Parametru Valoare parametru Abaterea standard
Translaia AX 251,2290 m 26.2787 m
Translaia AY 299,1223 m 19.3092 m
Translaia AZ 427,8011 m 23.2133 m
Rotaia R
X -13,45542 `` 0.60837 ``
Rotaia R
Y -6.82025 `` 0.96104 ``
Rotaia R
Z -14.07388 `` 0.62302 ``
Coeficientul de scar AL -75.7587 ppm 2.5888 ppm
Tabelul 7. Coordonate transformate STEREO-70 i precizii obinute
Nr
pct.
Denumire
punct
Coordonate rectangulare plane
STEREO 70 transformate
Diferenele de coordonate
(erori reziduale)
X(m) Y(m) Z(m) AX (m) AY (m) AZ (m)
1 Srca 640476,843 666954,660 189,646 0.052 0.017 0.054
2 Crpii 645541,509 697354,823 196,723 -0.067 -0.092 -0.023
3 Pun 625051,451 703388,460 408,434 0.044 0.007 -0.235
4 Moreni 625695,712 716479,540 32,930 -0.023 0.058 0.170
5 Grajduri 611557,685 691426,869 399,458 -0.005 0.010 0.034

4. NDESIREA REELEI GEODEZICE SPAIALE N ZONA DE
STUDIU
n vederea dezvoltrii unei reele poligonometrice de
ndesire n zona de studiu se impune determinarea unor baze
geodezice pe care se vor sprijini drumuirile de precizie ce urmeaz
a fi executate pe traseul dintre punctele GPS, folosind aparatura
staiei totale.
n acest sens, pentru exemplificare, s-a determinat prin
msurtori GPS, pentru o baz geodezic de sprijin n extravilanul
comunei Miroslava, punctul de staie 500 i un numr de 8 puncte
de orientare, dispuse radial fa de punctul 500, pe trei direcii ce
178
formeaz unghiuri de aproximativ 100 grade i la distane ce cresc
progresiv de la 200 m (punctele 101, 201, 301), la 400 m (punctele
102, 202, 302) i respectiv 600 m (punctele 103, 203). Amplasarea
punctului de staie i a celor de orientare se prezint n figura 3.
Numrul, dispunerea i amplasamentul specific al
punctelor de orientare s-a fcut n scopul studierii influenei preciziei
de poziionare prin tehnologie G.P.S. asupra preciziei de nchidere
pe orientri i pe coordonate n cadrul drumuirii planimetrice.
n municipiul Iai s-a determinat o baz geodezic de
sprijin pe punctele I.167 i I.166 dispuse la o distant de cca. 400 m
unul fa de cellalt. Punctele I.167 i I.166 fac parte din reeaua de
ndesire G.P.S. a municipiului Iai determinat n anul 2005 cu
ocazia nceperii lucrrilor de introducere a cadastrului general n
municipiul Iai.

Figura 3. Punctele GPS de ndesire pentru crearea bazei geodezice a
drumuirii poligonometrice
Pentru determinarea coordonatelor n sistemul ETRS-89
ale punctelor din reeaua de ndesire s-au aplicat dou procedee:
- determinarea riguroas a coordonatelor prin efectuarea de
msurtori n modul STATIC i post-procesarea datelor nregistrate
de receptorul GPS (rover) i staia de referin IAI (baz) integrat
n sistemul ROMPOS;
179
- determinarea expeditiv a coordonatelor folosind corecii n timp
real (RTK) soluia SINGLE STATION prin sistemul ROMPOS,
staia de referinta IAI.
Msurtorile s-au efectuat ntr-o sesiune cu durata de 20
minute, avnd n vedere distana relativ redus fa de staia de
referin IAI (aprox. 6 km), de la care s-au solicitat nregistrri n
vederea post-procesrii sau de la care s-au obinut corecii
difereniale n timp real. Poziionarea sistemului GPS pe punctele de
staie i orientare s-a efectuat folosind un trepied i o ambaz cu
centrare.
Coordonatele elipsoidale obinute prin cele dou metode,
static respectiv RTK, precum i preciziile de determinare sunt
prezentate n tabelul 8, respectiv tabelul 9.
Tabelul 8. Determinarea bazelor de sprijin prin post-procesare
Nr.
pct
Coordonate spaiale geodezice ETRS-89
Precizii
(abaterea standard) (m)
Latitudine Longitudine H
E
(m) s
LAT
s
LONG
s
H
e
500 4708'36.16191" 2731'02.40745" 189.914 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002
I.167 4708'49.84513" 2733'47.58560" 141.755 0.0001 0.0001 0.0004
I.166 4708'41.63912" 2734'02.72899" 128.274 0.0003 0.0001 0.0004
101 4708'29.87412" 2731'04.70460" 185.417 0.0001 0.0001 0.0003
102 4708'23.93019" 2731'08.61827" 182.891 0.0001 0.0001 0.0003
103 4708'17.81012" 2731'11.81073" 178.764 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002
201 4708'31.88162" 2730'55.27648" 184.884 0.0003 0.0001 0.0007
202 4708'27.46287" 2730'48.17539" 181.714 0.0002 0.0001 0.0002
203 4708'24.00691" 2730'42.99543" 177.901 0.0001 0.0001 0.0003
301 4708'42.18634" 2730'58.89940" 191.501 0.0002 0.0002 0.0005
302 4708'47.55201" 2730'56.09727" 190.631 0.0002 0.0002 0.0004
Tabelul 9. Determinarea bazelor de sprijin prin soluia RTK
Nr.
pct
Coordonate spaiale geodezice ETRS-89
Precizii
(abaterea standard) (m)
Latitudine Longitudine H
E
(m) s
LAT
s
LONG
s
H
e

500 478'36.16209" 2731'02.40818" 190.070 0.0037 0.0019 0.005
I.167 478'49.84551" 2733'47.58651" 141.906 0.0026 0.0023 0.006
I.166 478'41.63938" 2734'02.72972" 128.430 0.0069 0.0032 0.009
101 478'29.87436" 2731'04.70531" 185.572 0.0039 0.0029 0.008
102 478'23.93051" 2731'08.61897" 183.043 0.0042 0.0036 0.010
103 478'17.81031" 27 31'11.81145" 178.921 0.0027 0.0023 0.005
201 478'31.88204" 2730'55.27735" 185.064 0.0052 0.0028 0.012
202 478'27.46309" 2730'48.17614" 181.870 0.0048 0.0023 0.007
203 478'24.00712" 2730'42.99617" 178.057 0.0046 0.0024 0.008
301 478'42.18664" 2730'58.90025" 191.630 0.0068 0.0057 0.018
302 478'47.55227" 2730'56.09793" 190.784 0.0050 0.0040 0.007
180
Prin comparaie ntre irul de valori ale coordonatelor
rectangulare plane obinute prin transformarea 3D Helmert, folosind
datele din post-procesare, respectiv prin RTK, se constat diferene
ntre 16-22 mm pentru poziia planimetric i ntre 13 25 cm pentru
poziia altimetric (tabelul 10).
Tabelul 10. Coordonatele rectangulare plane Stereo 70 ale punctelor de
ndesire GPS, prin transformarea Helmert 3D
Nr.
pct
Coordonate rectangulare plane Stereo 70 Diferene de
coordonate
(mm)
Calculate prin post-procesare
Calculate cu corecii
difereniale RTK
X (m) Y (m) H(m) X (m) Y (m) H(m)
AX AY AH
500 630150.199 691019.797 157,286 630150.205 691019.812 157,441 6 15 156
I167 630684.627 694484.861 109,214 630684.639 694484.880 109.365 12 19 151
I166 630441.698 694812.016 95,741 630441.707 694812.031 95.987 8 15 246
101 629957.651 691074.374 152,789 629957.658 691074.389 152,944 8 15 155
102 629776.805 691162.663 150,264 629776.815 691162.678 150,416 10 14 152
103 629590.038 691235.940 146,139 629590.045 691235.955 146,296 6 15 157
201 630013.282 690873.826 152,252 630013.295 690873.844 152,432 13 18 180
202 629872.115 690728.614 149,078 629872.122 690728.630 149,234 7 16 157
203 629761.959 690622.912 145,262 629761.966 690622.928 145,418 7 15 156
301 630333.804 690939.980 158,871 630333.814 690939.998 159,000 10 18 130
302 630497.550 690875.683 158,001 630497.559 690875.697 158,153 8 14 153
Avnd in vedere implementarea oficial a aplicaiei
TRANSDAT s-a procedat la analiza comparativ ntre rezultatele
obinute prin metoda post-procesare, aplicnd n primul caz,
parametrii de transformare 3D Helmert i apoi prin aplicarea grilei de
distorsiune a aplicaiei TRANSDAT. n acest caz, se constat faptul
c diferenele n poziia planimetric se ncadreaz n intervalul 7
9 cm, iar pentru poziia altimetric ntre 15 16 cm (tabelul 11).
Tabelul 11. Analiza comparativ a coordonatelor determinate prin post-
procesare folosind transformarea Helmert 3D i aplicaia TRANSDAT 4.1
Nr.
pct
Coordonate rectangulare plane STEREO - 70 determinate prin post-
procesare
Diferene
de
coordonate
(mm)
Calculate prin transformarea
Helmert 3D
Calculate cu aplicaia
TRANSDAT 4.1
X (m) Y (m) H(m) X (m) Y (m) H(m)

500 630150.199 691019.797 157,286 630150.180 691019.725 157.446 -19 -72 160
I167 630684.627 694484.861 109,214 630684.592 694484.777 109.360 -35 -84 146
I166 630441.698 694812.016 95,741 630441.666 694811.932 95.887 -32 -84 146
101 629957.651 691074.374 152,789 629957.632 691074.304 152.950 -19 -70 161
102 629776.805 691162.663 150,264 629776.786 691162.594 150.426 -19 -69 162
103 629590.038 691235.940 146,139 629590.019 691235.872 146.301 -20 -68 162
181
201 630013.282 690873.826 152,252 630013.265 690873.756 152.413 -17 -70 161
202 629872.115 690728.614 149,077 629872.100 690728.545 149.239 -15 -69 161
203 629761.959 690622.912 145,262 629761.947 690622.844 145.424 -12 -68 162
301 630333.804 690939.980 158,871 630333.785 690939.907 159.030 -19 -73 159
302 630497.550 690875.683 158,001 630497.531 690875.608 158.159 -19 -75 158
5. CONCLUZII
Reeaua geodezic spaial proiectat cuprinde ntreaga
zon metropolitan Iai, avnd o extindere mai vast dect reeaua
GPS a municipiului Iai, fiind determinat cu acealai ordin de
mrime n ce privete precizia de poziionare a punctelor de baz.
Determinrile ca reea liber au condus la rezultate
precise pentru coordonatele punctelor de baz de pn la 4 mm
pentru poziia planimetric i de pn la 5 mm pentru poziia
altimetric.
Prin aplicarea parametrilor de transformare n sistemul
proieciei naionale stereografice 1970, s-au obinut diferene de
maxim 6 cm pe axa X, 9 cm pe axa Y i 23 cm pe altitudine.
n cazul punctelor de ndesire GPS, preciziile de
determinare a coordonatelor se ncadreaz n domeniul
submilimetric, n cazul prelucrrii prin post-procesare i
subcentimetric, n cazul soluiei RTK. n specificaia Servicului
ROMPOS al A.N.C.P.I. se menioneaz faptul c prin folosirea de
corecii RTK se obin precizii de 2 - 50 cm, iar prin folosirea
serviciului GEO (cu date pentru postprocesare) precizia se
ncadreaz pna n 2 cm. Diferenele rezultate ntre cele dou
metode la trecerea coorodonatelor n proiecie sunt n medie de 2
cm n expresie 2D i de 16 cm n dimensiunea altitudinii 1D.
Prin aplicarea programului oficial de transformare a
coordonatelor TRANSDAT (A.N.C.P.I.) diferenele fa de calculul
aplicat pe reeaua spaial proiectat ajung n medie pn la 8 cm
(2D) i la 16 cm (1D).
Etapa de ndesire a reelei geodezice spaiale este
necesar pentru obinerea unor baze de sprijin pentru dezvoltarea
reelelor poligonometrice de precizie i la studiul ulterior al preciziei
rezultate n urma compensrii drumuirilor prin metode riguroase.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Bofu C., Chiril C., 2007 Sisteme Informaionale Geografice. Cartografierea i
editarea hrilor, Editura Tehnopress, Iai
182
2. Chiril C., Mnu A., 2006 - The realization of the GPS geodesic network necessary
for the implementation of the real - urban building cadastre and the database formation
on the administrative territory of the Iasi municipality, Simpozionul tiinific internaional
GeoCad06 - RevCAD nr. 6, Alba Iulia.
3. Avramiuc N., 2006 Contribuii privind transformrile de coordonate n sisteme
geodezice eterogene, Tez de doctorat, Bucureti.
4. http://www.leica-geosystems.com
5. http://www.ancpi.ro
ELEMENTS OF STUDY FOR THE DESIGN AND
IMPLEMENTATION OF A THREE-DIMENSIONAL GEODETIC
NETWORK IN IASI METROPOLITAN AREA
Abstract: This paper presents a study to determine the position of points of a
three-dimensional geodetic network, designed and built on an extended
surface, defined by the boundaries of Iasi metropolitan area. The elements of
study include the design of network points, basic processing, and the
determination of national datum transformation parameters and of three-
dimensional coordinates for the densification points, by different hypotheses.

SECIUNEA
FOTOGRAMETRIE I TELEDETECIE

185
EMERGENCY RESPONSE SERVICES TRIGGERED
FOR FLOOD EVENTS IN ROMANIA
Iulia Dana, Romanian Space Agency
Alexandru Badea, Romanian Space Agency
Cristian Moise, Romanian Space Agency
Abstract: Floods represent the most frequent natural
disasters in Romania, events that caused loss of lives and
important property damages in the past. Flood disaster
extent was executed based on satellite imagery or satellite
based products offered by the following emergency
services: International Charter "Space and Major
Disasters" and Global Monitoring for Environment and
Space Emergency Response Service. The paper
presents the satellite imagery processing steps, the
derived products, the strengths and weaknesses of the
emergency services, and the user requirements, based on
the experience gathered within the crisis situations.
Keywords: emergency response service, satellite
imagery, disaster management
1. INTRODUCTION
Presently, floods represent 60% of the world's natural
disasters. Europe is also facing severe floods almost every year. In
order to reduce the catastrophic effects of the floods, the European
Commission (EC) decided to establish the European Flood Alert
System (EFAS) that is developed by the Joint Research Center
(JRC) together with national flood forecasting centers in the member
states and several meteorological services. EFAS provides not only
flood warning information but it also offers useful information for
disaster management during the ongoing flood events (EFAS,
2005). Another initiative intended to diminish flood effects is the
Directive 2007/60/EC on the assessment and management of flood
risks. The main objective of the Directive is to reduce the risks that
floods represent to humans, environment, cultural heritage and
economic activity (Directive, 2007).
In Romania, according to the published statistics, there
are over one million hectares of floodplain and more than 900,000
186
people living in areas with high risk of flooding, while more than
88,000 households could be flooded at any time. In average, 8
people lose their lives annually and damages are considerable. The
Romanian National Strategy for Flood Risk Management deals with
flood prevention, protection, preparedness, emergency situations
management, assistance, and reconstruction. Preliminary flood risk
assessment will be finalized at the end of 2011, the flood hazard
maps and flood risk maps by 2013, and flood risk management
plans by 2015 (Strategy, 2010). The most consistent floods are
taking place in the Siret and Prut basins or in the lower plain of
Danube (including the Danube Delta too). In 2005, floods affected
the Siret basin, and according to the official reports at least 15
people have been killed. The Home Secretary has reported that
more than 12,000 people have been evacuated from their homes
due to the floods which have been affecting the country as a result
of torrential rain. The 2006, snowmelt and long lasting rainfalls led
to a dramatic increase of water levels at the Danube River to values
which were never measured before. More than 4,700 people had to
be evacuated from the flooded regions, 3,000 of them only in the
Rast village in the southwest of the country. After a dam could no
longer withstand the pressure by the water, 600 buildings were
flooded, from which 115 collapsed. 40,000 hectares of land were
covered by the flooding. Also, the Danube Delta was severely
affected. In 2008, the floods occurred again in the Siret basin and
along the Prut River. Thousands of people were evacuated in
northeastern Romania after heavy rains caused massive flooding
that swept away homes, cut off electricity and damaged roads. At
least 4 people died. In 2010, heavy rainfalls led to floods in northern
and eastern Romania. Floods took place mainly along the Siret and
Danube rivers. Numerous people were reported dead and hundreds
had to be evacuated from their homes. Several roads and hundreds
of hectares of farmland were flooded, houses destroyed and several
bridges damaged. The above-mentioned floods were monitored
using space technologies, with the support of the International
Charter Space and Major Disasters or the help of Global Monitoring
for Environment and Security Emergency Response Service (GMES
ERS).

187
2. EMERGENCY RESPONSE SERVICES
2.1. International Charter "Space and Major Disasters"
The International Charter aims at providing a unified
system of space data acquisition and delivery to those affected by
natural or man-made disasters. Presently, the International Charter
has more than 10 years of activity and more than 300 activations in
case of different emergency situations (earthquakes, fires, floods,
landslides, oil spill, tsunamis, etc.) that occurred in nearly 100
countries. The members of the International Charter are space
agencies and space system operators (Charter, 2000). In case of a
disaster situation, the authorized user contacts the on-duty operator
informing him about the event. Further on, the on-duty operator
contacts the emergency on-call officer that submits request for new
or archive satellite images and assigns a project manager for this
call. The members of the Charter provide the remote sensing
satellite data and send it to the designed value-added reseller that
has as responsibility to process the data and deliver the satellite
images and space-based products to the end user.
The International Charter was triggered several times for
Romania during flood events. In 2005 and 2008 the project manager
was Centre National dEtudes Spatiales (CNES), while Service
Rgional de Traitement d'Image et de Tldtection (SERTIT) was
the value-added reseller. In 2006, the management of the project
was provided by the Deutsche Zentrum fr Luft und Raumfahrt
(DLR) in cooperation with Center for Satellite Based Crisis
Information (ZKI/DLR) as value-added reseller.
2.2. Global Monitoring for Environment and Security Emergency
Response Service
Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES)
is the European Earth monitoring programme, which is coordinated
and managed by EC. GMES services cover the following areas:
land, marine and atmosphere monitoring, security, climate change,
and emergency management (GMES, 2008). The European
Response Service (ERS) aims at developing a European
information service based on Earth Observation and in-situ data.
The space segment will be covered in the future by the Sentinel
missions. The European Space Agency (ESA) is in charge of the
188
space component while the in-situ component is managed by the
European Environment Agency (EEA).
ERS disaster risk management is a cyclic activity with
three major phases: preparedness/prevention, emergency response
and recovery. Presently, just two of the three major ERS phases are
operational, namely preparedness/prevention and emergency
response. The pre-operational phase of ERS is funded by the
European Union in the framework of the Services and Applications
for Emergency Response (SAFER) project that is in charge of
developing space based geo-information products in order to
strengthen European capacities in response to emergency
situations. ERS will be fully operational in 2014. Similar to the
International Charter, GMES ERS can be activated in case of crisis
situations that occur in any part of the world (GMES ERS, 2010).
Also, the triggering of the service can be performed only through
national focal points and using the GMES ERS SAFER toolbox. The
role of a national focal point is to correctly identifying the needs and
requirements of the national user community.
At national level, GMES ERS was triggered in the
framework of the SAFER project, during the floods that occurred in
2010 on the Siret, Danube and Prut rivers. The service was
activated by the local focal point, represented by the Romanian
Space Agency (ROSA). The space-based maps were executed in
close collaboration with ZKI/DLR.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Data Flow
The International Charter "Space and Major Disasters"
provides both raw satellite imagery and space-based products. In
the case of Romania, the satellite images have to be reprojected
into the national reference grid, namely Stereographic 1970. The
water mask can be extracted from satellite imagery either manually
(using visual photointerpretation) or semi-automatically (by applying
different image classification algorithms, followed by the visual
check of the results). In order to obtain a more accurate result, the
water mask is further processed by integrating elevation data. The
elevation data is generated based on the contour lines of the
available topographic maps or preferably using an accurate and
updated digital elevation model (DEM), characterised by an
189
adequate spatial resolution. The DEM may be derived from optical
or synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellite data, using stereo-
photogrammetric or interferometric techniques (Dana et al., 2008a;
Dana et al., 2010). Also, the digital geomorphological map can be
used as ancillary data (Badea et al., 2008a; Moise et. al, 2009).
Next, the flood thematic maps are created in a Geographic
Information System (GIS). Different GIS thematic information layers
are added to the flood map: the boundaries of the administrative
units, places, geographical names (Romanian diacritics), land
use/land cover, roads, etc. Evidently, the compliance of the topology
rules is checked. The land cover information is essential for the
evaluation of the areas affected by floods (Badea, 2005; Badea et
al., 2008b). A clear overview of the disaster extent per each land
use/land cover class is given. The land cover information is
extracted from the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United
Nations - Land Cover Classification System ( FAO - LCCS)
database ( ROSA, CRUTA) for damage assessments (Mamulea
and Dana, 2008; Olteanu et al., 2009). In some cases, for a more
comprehensive analysis of the affected areas, the GIS layers,
including the water mask with the delineated land cover classes, are
overlaid on other raster layers, such as topographic maps (
National Institute of Research and Development for Land
Reclamation "INCDIF-ISPIF" Bucharest), aerial orthophotos (
National Agency for Cadastre and Land Registration - ANCPI) or
higher spatial resolution satellite imagery.
GMES ERS provides space-based products. Raw
satellite images can be obtained only through special requests. In
this case, the projection of the water mask into the national grid is
added to the processing chain and is realised by the value-added
responsible. Next, the reprojected water mask is thoroughly edited in
order to eliminate its artefacts inherent to the automatic extraction.
These artefacts are caused by the lack of information regarding the
geographical characteristics of the affected territory. Thus, the
shadowed areas may be interpreted as flooding or areas covered by
permanent water bodies which does not represent the effect of the
disaster. For this reason the local processing team has to correct the
errors of the water mask provided by the emergency response
service, by comparison with the national raster and vector thematic
geodatabase. Further on, the data flow remains mainly the same.
190
Over time (2005-2010), the processing steps were adapted for a
wide range of optical and radar satellite imagery.
3.2. Space-based Maps
All the space-based maps that are produced locally
using the satellite data or the water masks provided by the
emergency response services are published on the website of the
Romanian Space Agency.
Figure 1 illustrates the extent of the flooding that
occurred in the Siret basin, in 2005 (RO Floods, 2005; Badea,
2006). The map is covering the river section between Nanesti and
Independenta. The background of the map is represented by a
SPOT 5 natural colours image, while the water extent is extracted
based on a SPOT 5 image ( CNES 2005, distribution Spot Image).
This overview map was created by SERTIT ( SERTIT 2005), on
the 19
th
July 2005. Figure 2 represents a more detailed map,
showing the flooding of the Piscu village. The very high resolution of
the image allows the assessment of the damages at the level of the
households. The map is very useful for intervention and rescue
actions.

Figure 1. Flood map Nanesti, 2005 Fig. 2 Flood map Piscu, 2005
CNES 2005, SERTIT 2005; Charter call ID 98

Figure 3 shows the extent of the floods that affected the
Rast village, located near the Danube River (Badea et al., 2004; RO
Floods, 2006; Badea et al., 2007). The reference image that was the
source of the water mask was acquired by the ERS satellite ( ESA
2006), on the 19
th
April 2006. The derived water mask was overlaid
on an archive Landsat image. The map was created by ROSA and
191
ANM. In Figure 4, a SPOT-derived water mask ( SPOT Image
2006) was overlaid on a topographic map ( Military Topographic
Department - DTM).

Figure 3. Flood map Rast, 2006 Figure 4. Flood map Rast, 2006
ESA 2006, SPOT Image, ROSA, ANM; Charter call ID 121

The 2008 floods affected the areas along the Prut River
(Dana et al., 2008b; RO Floods, 2008). In Figure 5, the flooded
areas can be easily observed in the TerraSAR-X StripMap EEC
image ( DLR/Infoterra 2008), acquired on the 27
th
July 2008. The
water mask extracted from the TerraSAR-X image was edited based
on the contour lines of the corresponding topographic map at scale
1:5,000 ( "INCDIF-ISPIF"). Then, the edited water mask was
intersected with the LCCS thematic layer ( ROSA, CRUTA). This
process led to the evaluation of the areas affected by floods in the
Radauti-Prut village, for each/land cover class (agricultural fields,
permanent pasture, forest, bare area, built-up area), in hectares.
Next, the water mask was overlaid over a mosaic of orthophotos (
ANCPI), with 0.5 m spatial resolution (Figure 6). The assessment of
the flooded areas is very accurate because the water mask was
edited using elevation data. The map was created by ROSA in close
collaboration with CRUTA and ANCPI.

192

Fig. 5 Flood map Radauti-Prut Fig. 6 Flood map Radauti-Prut
DLR/Infoterra 2008, ROSA; Charter call ID 212
Figure 7 shows a section of the flooded areas along the
Siret River (Irimescu et al., 2010, RO Floods, 2010). The water
mask was derived by ZKI/DLR based on a Radarsat-2 image
acquired on the 3
rd
July 2010. The edited and corrected water mask
was overlaid on a 2.5 m resolution, natural colour SPOT 5 image (
SPOT Image). In this case, the land cover information was extracted
both from the LCCS ( ROSA, CRUTA) database, thus the
evaluation of the disaster extent and damage assessment was
achieved with higher accuracy. The map illustrated in Figure 8 was
created using the same procedure. The affected area is Piscu
village. The flood maps were elaborated by ROSA.

Figure 7. Flood map Nanesti, 2010 Figure 8. Flood map Piscu, 2010
ZKI/DLR, SPOT Image, ROSA; GMES ERS

193
4. CONCLUSIONS
Satellite remote sensing data and its derived products
(space-based maps) are essential components in the management
of emergency situations.
The integration of ancillary data improves the quality and
content of the disaster crisis maps offering the guarantee of the in
situ collected basic information. The water mask derived by
automatic means should be checked. For example, the geometric
effects (especially shadow) of the radar images may be
misinterpreted as flooded areas.
The knowledge of the studied area, from the
geographical point of view, is vital. The generated products are more
accurate if 3D information is integrated in the processing chain, for
mask editing. Also, accurate and updated land cover databases are
important for the assessment of the flooded areas.

The International Charter has the advantage that it offers
raw satellite data on which reference data can be added. Usually,
the reference data is owned by the national authorities. Raw data is
extremely important for the elaboration of useful maps. Satellite
images can thus be reprojected into the national grid. In addition, the
text information contained by the maps can be written in the mother
tongue, therefore the legend is more comprehensible and the maps
are easier to use by the end user that is usually represented by the
local authorities. Moreover, the toponyms can be written using the
diacritics specific to the national language.
The strengths of GMES ERS are given by the wider
range of products (pre-disaster, disaster, post-disaster) comparing
to the International Charter that can be activated only during a crisis
situation. The main advantage of GMES ERS is represented by the
possibility to activate the service in the preparedness/ prevention
phase. Elaborating in advance the pre-disaster situation maps and
the geographic reference maps saves time. The disadvantage of the
service is represented by the raw data, which is not one of the
priorities of the GMES ERS. A balance between the GMES ERS and
the national level activities is desired in order to avoid the
elaboration of heterogeneous products, and the multiplication of
efforts and results. It is advisable that the service should deliver
194
validated products at local level. In fact, the GEO principles are not
different.
From the user's point of view, satellite data should be
received as fast as possible. But, satellite data depend upon pre-
computed orbits and acquisitions plans. It would be better if the next
satellite missions will have a shorter revisiting time, considering that
the temporal resolution is more important than the spatial resolution,
in the first phases of the crisis situation.
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70-4, ISSN 1726-9679, Published by DAAAM International, Vienna, Austria.
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Romanian Space Agency. http://web.rosa.ro/ Inundatii_ Moldova_
2005/inundatii2005.htm (accessed 2011).
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Romanian Space Agency. http://web.rosa.ro/ Inundatii_ Aprilie
_2006/inundatii_apr_2006.htm (accessed 2011).
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inundatii/2008_07/inundatii_2008_Iulie.htm (accessed 2011).
196
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space-technology.html (accessed 2011).
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.ro/vechi/pdf/legislatie/ape/STRATEGIA.rar (accessed 2011).

197
THE APPLICABILITY OF FUZZY THEORY IN SPATIAL
DATA ANALYSES
Gabriela Droj University of Oradea

Abstract: In the recent years, the usage of Geographic
Information Systems has been rapidly increasing and it
became the main tool for analyzing spatial data in
unprecedented number of fields of activities. The evolution
of GIS led to the necessity of faster and better results. The
processing time was reduced by using more advanced
applied mathematical and computer science knowledge.
One of these mathematical theories is fuzzy logic. The
fuzzy logic gives the possibility of enhancing spatial data
management with the modeling of uncertainty. This paper
will present the applicability of fuzzy set theory in spatial
analyses.
Keywords: GIS, spatial analysis, fuzzy logic,
1. INTRODUCTION
In the recent years, the usage of Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) has been rapidly increasing and it became the main
tool for analyzing spatial data in unprecedented number of fields of
activities. Nowadays geographical informational systems are used
as a decision support tool especially for planning (urban planning,
investment planning, infrastructure planning, economic
development, taxation, SWOT analysis, etc.), resource management
and impact studies and also in critical systems like civil protection for
which is needed high performance.
The evolution of GIS led to the necessity of faster and
better results. The processing time was reduced by using more
advanced and applied mathematical and computer science
knowledge. Nowadays are frequently the usages of the spatial
databases or complex algorithms from computational geometry,
artificial intelligence and fuzzy logic.
The fuzzy logic allows the assignation of fuzzy function
over geospatial data or layers and to their neighborhoods. This
procedure is called fuzzification. After the fuzzification the data are
198
analyzed based on the principles of fuzzy logic and mathematical
algorithms. This type of analyzes are suitable for qualitative
information and not for quantitative ones. In this way the fuzzy logic
theory gives the possibility of enhancing spatial data management
with the modeling of uncertainty. Fuzzy logic was implemented
successfully in various GIS processes like:
- Data collection analysis and processing remote sensing data for
classification algorithms and object recognition; |Ste99|.
- Spatial analysis - processing qualitative data, defining
relationships between uncertain geospatial objects;
- Complex operations based on genetic algorithms or artificial
intelligence; in this category we can include also the object
recognition from airborne images [Dro07]
This paper will present the applicability of fuzzy set
theory in spatial analysis. Within the paper will also be presented a
urban analysis case study.
2. THE FUZZY SET THEORY
The fuzzy set theory gives the possibility to use
computers in representing and processing uncertain data and
incomplete rules, described in common language and for whom the
certainty degree cannot be determined precisely. Many times only
fuzzy concepts exist for different land cover or land use, because
there is no exact threshold between densely and sparsely populated
areas, or between low and high vegetation. In order to define
boundaries between such areas, clear polygon-like boundaries are
inappropriate. In such cases a widely used procedure is to allocate
all grid cells to classes based on fuzzy membership rather than
binary or 0/1 membership. Membership functions are mathematical
function which defines the degree of an element's membership in a
fuzzy set.
- The sigmoidal (s - shaped) membership function is perhaps
the most commonly used function in fuzzy set theory it is
produced by a combination of linear and cos2() functions.
- J-shaped functions, which are rather like the sigmoidal
membership function but with the rounded top sliced off flat over
some distance.
199
- Linear functions, which are like the J-shaped function but with
linear sides, like the slope of a pitched roof, and are thus simple
to calculate and have a fixed and well-defined extent, and
- User-defined functions, which are self-explanatory.
In most applications membership functions are
symmetric, although monotonic increasing or decreasing options are
provided in Idrisi [Eas01]

Figure 1. Sigmoidal Membership Functions

Figure 2. J-shaped Membership Functions

Figure 3. Linear Membership Functions
Fuzzy set membership is used in order to obtain the
standardization of criteria. Exactly which function should be used will
depend on the understanding of the relationship between the
criterion and the decision set, and on the availability of information to
infer fuzzy membership. In most cases, either the sigmoidal of linear
functions will be sufficient.
3. FUZZY OPERATIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS
The relationships between vague or uncertain data or
operations over this type of information and qualitative operations
can be defined using fuzzy set theory.
The main characteristics of fuzzy relationships are that
they are context dependent or their accuracy can be determined just
200
through approximation like large, between, high, in front of, so on.
The operations based on fuzzy theory can be classified as:
- Extension of set operations as union, intersection,
complement for fuzzified data,
- Operations used for spatial analyses of uncertain
data like buffer, spatial join, spatial aggregation,
- Operations based on the relations large, between,
high, in front of.
Other taxonomy for fuzzy operations, as for the classical
GIS operations is based on the area involved [Ste99]
- Fuzzy local operations - include those that
compute new fuzzy values for each individual location on
a layer as a fuzzy function of existing data explicitly
associated with that location, like the spatial join,
- Fuzzy focal operations -compute new fuzzy values
for every individual location as a fuzzy function of its
neighborhood, like between,
- Fuzzy zonal operations - include those that
compute new fuzzy values for each individual location as
a fuzzy function of existing fuzzy values associated with
a fuzzy zone containing that location, like buffer.

4. SUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION
The results of classification can be optimized if there are
known information about the image to be clustered. In this case the
method used is called supervised classification. The supervised
classification is made in two steps. The first step is to create
signature files (training sites) and the second step is the
classification itself. The fuzzy logic can be used in the creation of the
signatures files and also in the process of the classification itself, but
is not necessary to be used in both stages. [Ben03, Eas01, Ste99]
The signatures files based on this training site can be
created using unsupervised classification methods (like ISODATA),
classical methods (like Maximum Likehood or Minim Distance) or by
computing a fuzzy matrix filled with the values indicated by the
membership grade of each training site [Eas01]. The membership
degree is computed by using fuzzy membership functions like:
sigmoidal, linear or j-shaped presented before. The evaluation on
the training can be done using statistical methods: minimum,
201
maximum, mean, and standard deviation for each band independent
and covariance matrix for all the three bands. The most relevant
signature file evaluation is creating an error matrix as a matrix of
percentages based on pixel counts that allows us to see how many
pixels in each training sample were assigned to each class.
The second step of the supervised classification can also
be processed with traditional methods (Minimum distance,
Mahalanobis distance or Maximum Likehood) or by using fuzzy
membership functions or genetic algorithm. This stage cannot be
evaluated alone, it can be evaluated just the final result of the
supervised classification.
5.EXPERIMENTS WITH REAL-WORLD DATA
5.1. Input data. For the procedures of image classification was used
an orthorectified airborne image from the upper hills of Oradea
municipality. This image contains three channels recorded in three
bands: the first band for green, the second for red and the third for
blue. In the figure 4, we present this image.
5.2. Standardization criteria. In order to analyses the standardization
criteria for the build area the minimum distortion of the border of it
was studied the possibility of using different membership functions,
which function should be used depend relationship between the
criteria of classification.

Figure 4. Input image
202
In the first experiment we used a sigmoidal monotonic
decreasing membership function.
The result is represented in the image presented in
Figure 5a).
The test was repeated for linear monotonic decreasing
membership function but the result was identical.
In the second case we used a j-shaped monotonic
increasing membership function.
The result is represented in the image presented in
Figure 5b).

a) b)
Figure 5. Membership function
5.3. Supervised classification
Training is the first stage of a supervised classification. In
this step the user must define training areas for each class
interactively on the displayed image.
The areas may be specified both on polygon and on
pixel basis.
The three classes of information defined are: green
areas, houses and streets.
The signature files were created using a fuzzy
membership function based on the j-shaped membership function
presented before.
The classification of the input images, with the signature
files defined before, was done by using a classifying method which
203
combined the Maximum Likehood method with a fuzzy membership
function (linear). The output images are represented in the figure 5,
each image represent a cluster in the following order houses, green
areas, streets.

Figure 6. Supervised classification
6. CONCLUSION
The classical set theory used in conventional GIS
software imposes artificial precision on inherently imprecise
information about the real world, fuzzy logic offers a way to
represent and handle uncertainty present in the continuous real
world.
Fuzzy procedures are by no means the only methods for
detecting and mapping boundaries. Many other techniques and
options exist. For example, the allocation of cells to one of k-classes
can be undertaken using purely deterministic (spatially constrained)
clustering procedures or probabilistic methods, including Bayesian
and belief-based systems.
REFERENCES
1. [Ben03] Benz, U.; Hofmann, P.; Willhauck, G.; Lingenfelder, I.; Heynen, M. - Multi-
resolution, object-oriented fuzzy analysis of remote sensing data for GIS-ready
information, Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing, 2004
2. [Dro07] Droj, G - The Applicability Of Fuzzy Theory In Remote Sensing Image
Classification, STUDIA University Babes -Bolyai, INFORMATICA, Volume LII,
Number 1, 2007
3. [Eas01] Eastman, R - Idrisi 32 Release 2, Guide to GIS and Image Processing,
Volume I- II, Clark University, May 2001
4. [Gue03] Guesgen, H.;Hertzberg, J.; Lobb, R.;Mantler, A. Buffering Fuzzy Maps in
GIS, Spatial Cognition and Computation, 2003
204
5. [Liu03] Liu, H., Li. J., Chapman, M. A.;- Automated Road Extraction from Satellite
Imagery Using Hybrid Genetic Algorithms and Cluster Analysis, Journal of
Environmental Informatics 1 (2) 40-47 (2003)
6. [Ste99] Stefanakis, E.; Sellis, T.- Enhancing a Database Management System for
GIS with Fuzzy Set Methodologies, Proceedings of the 19th International
Cartographic Conference, Ottawa, Canada, August 1999
205
METODOLOGIA DE CREARE A MODELULUI 3D PE
BAZA DATELOR LiDAR I A DATELOR
FOTOGRAMMETRICE - REZULTATE PARIALE
Valeria Ersilia Oniga, Universitatea Tehnic Gh Asachi, Iai
Rezumat: Articolul prezint metodologia de creare a unui
model 3D ntr-o zon urban, pe baza datelor
fotogrammetrice, a datelor LiDAR, folosind drept date
ajuttoare planurile topografice 2D i msurtorile
topografice de teren, n scopul inserrii acestuia ntr-un
SIT urban 3D, pentru a permite utilizatorilor s efectueze o
serie de operaiuni, cum ar fi vizualizarea, msurarea,
interogarea i altele. Dup ce sunt evideniate situaia
actual pe plan naional i internaional, se trec n revist
principalele metodologii i sursele de date necesare
crerii modelului 3D pentru zona experimental definit n
complexul universitar GH. ASACHI IAI. Este prezentat
zona de studiu precum i rezultatele pariale (crearea
reelei de sprijin, ridicrile topografice de teren) pentru
realizarea bazei de date necesar ntocmirii modelului 3D.
Cuvinte cheie: modelare 3D, LiDAR, date
fotogrammetrice
1.INTRODUCERE
Infrastructura urban i aspectul oraului sunt subiecte
de mare interes n ultimii ani, n timp ce studiile demografice arat
c numrul de oameni care triesc n zonele urbane este n
continu cretere. Dup un studiu recent efectuat n Statele Unite, n
anul 2030 vor fi cu 60% mai muli oameni n spaiul urban. n faa
acestei explozii demografice, sunt necesare metode precise de
vizualizare i analiz a informaiilor spaiale pentru a ajuta la
gestionarea i planificarea reconstruciei, extinderii i sistematizarii
zonei urbane. n aceste condiii, modelarea tridimensional a
oraelor, tinde s devin din ce n ce mai important n numeroase
sectoare cum sunt cele publice, industriale sau militare [Florent
Lafarge, 2007].

206
2. SITUAIA ACTUAL PE PLAN NAIONAL I
INTERNATIONAL
2.1 Situatia actual pe plan naional
Pe plan naional, modelul 3D al cldirilor poate fi utilizat
pentru realizarea hrilor acustice 3D, conform directivei 2002/49/EC
de evaluare i administrare a zgomotului n mediu ce prevede
crearea de hri acustice la fiecare 5 ani; pentru aplicaiile de
planificare urban de ctre Administraia Public; pentru
evidenierea proprietilor de ctre Agenia Naional de Cadastru i
Publicitate Imobiliar; pentru stabilirea regimului de construire,
nlimi limit, zone protejate de ctre primrii; pentru proiectarea i
integrarea unei cldiri noi ntr-o arie deja construit de ctre
proiectani i arhiteci.
Firma Geodis din Romnia a finalizat n 2003 pentru
Autoritatea pentru Dezvoltare Urban - Praga modelul digital al
zonelor construite, inclusiv spaiile verzi din Praga, ntregul proiect
fiind procesat n software-ul MicroStation 2004. La solicitarea
Primriei Braov, SC BlomInfo-Geonet SRL realizeaz modelul 3D
a 50 de cldiri amplasate n centrul vechi al Braovului, folosind
softul Autodesk VIZ.
2.2 Situaia actual pe plan internaional
Pe plan internaional, comunitatea tiinific i sectorul
comercial sunt preocupate de crearea modelelor digitale 3D ale
zonelor urbane care s ndeplineasc cteva cerine de baz
precum: s fie disponibile pentru ntreaga zon studiat, s aib o
precizie suficient i un cost rezonabil. De regul, modelele digitale
ale zonelor urbane care au o precizie ridicat sunt foarte
costisitoare. Majoritatea modelelor 3D ale cldirilor care sunt
disponibile gratuit prin intermediul Internetului sunt realizate cu
ajutorul softului Google SketchUp i pot fi vizualizate prin intermediul
softului Google Earth.
Numeroase metode au fost dezvoltate n diferite
contexte ce pot fi clasificate n funcie de cinci criterii principale i
anume:
- Tipul de date folosite date preluate cu senzori optici (prelucrate
monoscopic, stereoscopic, sau prin multiscopie), date LASER,
LiDAR, culese prin msurtori topografice, iar pentru texturarea
207
cladirilor sunt utilizate imaginile digitale preluate cu camere digitale
non-metrice sau cu camere fotogrammetrice terestre.
- Nivelul de automatizare al sistemului ntocmirea modelului 3D n
mod automat, automat cu date cadastrale sau semiautomat.
- Complexitatea zonelor urbane reconstruite deosebim: zone
urbane dense, peri-urbane, zone de activitate i locuine colective.
- Gradul de generalizare al modelrii 3D metoda prismatic,
parametric, structural sau poliedric.
- Metodologia folosit ntocmirea modelului 3D n sistemul Top
Down, Bottom-Up sau Hypothesize-And-Verify.
2.2.1 Generarea modelului 3D prin metode fotogrammetrice
n cercetrile anterioare, numeroi autori au folosit
imagini pentru generarea modelului 3D, ce pot clasificate n imagini
exploatate n mod monocular sau prin metode stereoscopice
folosind dou sau mai multe imagini. Principalele metode pentru
identificarea i extragerea cldirilor din imaginile monoculare, au
fost un subiect de cercetare pentru ultimii douzeci de ani [Shufelt,
1999, Nevatia 1997]. Tehnicile comune utilizate pentru generarea
modelului 3D din imagini exploatate monocular presupun
reprezentarea cldirilor sub form de paralelipipede dreptunghice a
cror nlime este estimat n funcie de proiectarea umbrei n
imagine sau de alte date ajuttoare.
Metodele stereoscopice, furnizeaz informaii 3D fiabile
i au fost folosite n numeroase lucrri. n cazul zonelor cu
acoperire, unii cercettori opteaz pentru o modelare 3D
simplificat. Este cazul n special al lui [Paparoditis i alii, 1998]
care propune numai acoperiuri plate sau [Dang, 1994], care
reconstruiete cldiri sub form de paralelipipede. Ali autori precum
[Gomen 1998; Gomen i Wang 1998] dezvolt metodologii specifice
unui context semiautomat, adic permind unui operator s
intervin i s rectifice erorile de construcie [Fuchs 2001], n timp ce
autori precum [Jibrini 2002] au propus algoritmi ce permit construcii
relativ complexe.
Exploatarea prin multiscopie a imaginilor
fotogrammetrice este n prezent cea mai eficace metod de
extragere a informaiilor 3D, fiind foarte util pentru detectarea i
texturarea faadelor datorit numeroaselor centre de proiecie pentru
preluarea imaginilor. Majoritatea lucrrilor realizate propun modelri
208
3D relativ detaliate, cu forme de cldiri generice [Willuhn i Hde
1996, Henricsson 1998, Baillard i Zisserman 1999, Henel i altii
2000, Scholze i alii 2002, Taillandier 2004, Durupt i Taillandier
2006]. Pe de alt parte, o serie important a metodelor studiate
introduc cunotine a priori despre structurile urbane pentru a
reduce timpii de calcul i pentru a propune modelri 3D mai simple,
ca de exemplu [Jaynes i alii,1997; Collins i alii 1998, Fischer i
alii 1998, Voronta i Nevatia 2001].
2.2.2 Generarea modelului 3D utiliznd date LiDAR.
Numeroi cercettori au propus algoritmi pentru
modelarea 3D a cldirilor, prin combinarea datelor LiDAR cu
imaginile aeriene: [Rottensteiner si Jansa, 2002], [Seo, 2003], [Ma,
2004], [Chen,2006] i alii. Ca i metodele fotogrammetrice, pe baza
acestor date se genereaz modelul digital al suprafeei de
reflectan (MDSR) care prin filtrare genereaz modelul digital al
terenului (MDA). Pe suprafaa acestui model se genereaz modelul
3D al cldirilor sau a altor construcii inginereti.
2.2.3 Nivelul de automatizare al sistemului
Un prim criteriu n clasificarea metodelor este nivelul de
automatizare. Se prezent trei grade de automatizare a proceselor
de generare a modelului 3D i anume: n mod semiautomat, n mod
automat cu date de cadastru i n mod automat fr date de
cadastru.
Metode semi-automate
Metodele semiautomate sunt, la ora actual, singurele
capabile s realizeze la scar mare modelri 3D urbane cu o eroare
foarte mic. Softuri precum CC-modeler, dezvoltat de [Gruen i
Wang 1998] i BATI 3D propus de [Flamane i Maillet 2005], sunt
softuri interactive ce permit introducerea datelor cadastrale, sau
chiar modificarea lor, de ctre un operator. [Li i alii 1999, Nevatia
i Price 2002], propun un soft relativ complet unde operatorul este
puin solicitat comparativ cu cele precedente.
Metode automate cu date cadastrale
Reconstrucia 3D a unei zone urbane fr intervenia
unui operator este o problem complex. Cadastrul furnizeaz
datele referitoare la amprentele la sol ale structurilor urbane, ceea
ce permite eliminarea etapei de identificare n imagine a cldirilor.
Algoritmul propus de [Brenner i alii 2001] este ntemeiat pe o
209
clasificare a diferitelor intersecii de planuri. [Jibrini 2002] propune o
metod care genereaz ipoteze de planuri prin transformri de tip
Hough 3D. Exist de asemenea multe alte procese, de exemplu
[Suveg i Vosselman, 2001; Flamane i alii 2003].
Metode automate
Aceast categorie ridic numeroase dificulti n procesul
de realizare a modelului 3D, deoarece trebuie efectuate trei etape i
anume: etapa de identificare a cldirilor, cea de extrage a
amprentelor la sol i etapa de reconstrucie n 3D. Avnd un numr
mic de erori, procesele automatizate constituie unul dintre
principalele obiective ale cercetrilor viitoare n domeniu i permit
producerea la scar mare a modelelor 3D urbane fr cost operator
[Lafarge, 2007].
2.2.4 Modelrile 3D
Exist diferite tipuri de modelri 3D, mai mult sau mai
puin complexe i detaliate. Alegerea metodei pentru modelarea 3D
depinde cel mai frecvent de datele folosite i de caracteristicile lor.
Modelrile sunt n general asociaii de faete sau plane conectate
ntre ele.
Abordarea prismatic
n cazul reconstruciilor prismatice, cldirile au forme
poligonale oarecare i o descriere altimetric foarte simplificat
(form plat) (figura 1a). Se pot cita metodele puse n oper de
[Collins i alii 1998, Lin i Nevatia 1998, Vinson i Cohen 2002].

Figura 1. Diferitele tipuri de modelri 3D (a) prismatic,
(b) parametric, (c) structural, (d) poliedric [Florent Lafarge, 2007]
Abordarea parametric
O reconstrucie parametric red forme de cldiri destul
de simple, i n consecin, o descriere relativ general a zonelor
urbane. Aceast metod, este totui, mult mai precis dect
modelrile prismatice, deoarece red forma acoperiurilor bipante,
cu trei sau patru pante i n V. Unele procese constau n alegerea
210
dintr-o serie de ipoteze, forme simple de acoperiuri cum ar fi
[Weidner i Forstener 1995, Garcin si alii 2001, Suveg i
Vosselman 2001, Flemane i Maillet 2005], alii folosesc algoritmi de
creare a scheletului pentru a modela crestele, olanele, etc. [Gruen i
Wang 1998].
Abordarea structural
Modelrile structurale descriu o cldire ca un asamblu de
module elementare simple ce se unesc ca un joc de LEGO. Acest
tip de modelare este utilizat n special cnd se dispune de date cu o
rezoluie mic. [Fischer i alii 1998] propun o reconstrucie
structural relativ simpl, folosind un singur fel de module (coluri)
pentru a genera cldiri. [Frichs 2001] prezint un proces mai reuit,
cu o structur de modele mai complet. Complexitatea algoritmic
este totui destul de important.
Abordarea poliedric
Modelrile poliedrice sunt cele mai folosite deoarece
sunt foarte generice i permit reconstrucia unei game largi de
structuri urbane sub form de faete plane conexe. Multe dintre
metode [Henricsson 1998, Ameri 2000, Henel i alii 2000,
Taillandier 2004] nu limiteaz a priori formele de reconstruit, acest
lucru genernd totui o complexitate algoritmic foarte important.
n lucrrile lui [Baillard i Zisserman 1999], modelarea 3D este
obinut prin intersecii de semiplane ce sunt generate plecnd de la
segmente 3D. Cea propus de [Scholze i alii 2002] este relativ
similar: segmente 3D sunt extrase, apoi sunt grupate n faete
printr-o interpretare semantic. Modelarea lui [Henel i alii 2000]
este ntemeiat pe identificarea de coluri 3D (cu 3 creste)
constituind baza structurii tipologice. [Ameri 2000] extrage planuri
3D ce sunt intersectate dup o diagram Voronoi modelnd
interaciunile dintre planele vecine. Aceste metode furnizeaz, n
general, rezultate convingtoare. Totui, cnd cldirile au forme
relativ simple, acest tip de proces nu este adaptat n funcie de timpii
de calcul necesari pentru a explora domeniul soluiilor.
2.1.5 Metodologii de creare a modelului 3D
Ultimul criteriu de clasificare al metodelor de
reconstrucie este metodologia folosit. Exist trei mari categorii de
metodologii: bottom-up, top-down i hipothesize-and-verify.
Modelarea Bottom-up
211
Modelrile ,,bottom-up pleac de la primitive ale
principalelor forme geometrice pentru reconstrucia final, fr a lua
n considerare eventualele cunotine a priori despre cldirile ce se
doresc a fi reconstruite. Modelrile ,,bottom-up sunt deci generice i
necesit date de bun calitate. n majoritatea proceselor ,,buttom-
up, primitivele extrase sunt segmente 3D sau/i planuri 3D. Exist
i primitive de natur diferit ca, de exemplu, ipoteze de faete
[Taillandier 2004] sau coluri 3D [Henel i alii 2000].
Modelarea Top-down
n modelrile ,,top-down, sunt introduse cunotine a
priori despre cldiri. Se pleac astfel de la un ansamblu de modele
cunoscute dinainte pentru a-l alege pe cel ce prezint cea mai bun
concordan cu datele. Aceste modelri sunt n general mai
detaliate dect cele ,,bottom-up dar sunt limitate de librria de
modele definit a priori. Printre procesele ,,top-down se gsesc de
exemplu [Fuchs,2001, Gorcin i alii 2001 Suveg i Vosselman
2001, Vinson i Cohen 2002, Flamanc i al. 2003].
Modelarea Hypothesize-And-Verify
Modelrile ,,hypothesize-and-verify sunt modelri
hibride ntre cele ,,bottom-up i ,,top-down. Ele constau, ntr-o
prim etap, n formularea de ipoteze plecnd de la primitive printr-o
modelare ,,bottom-up, apoi n etapa a doua, n verificarea acestor
ipoteze printr-o modelare ,,top-down. Aceste modelri sunt folosite
n special n [Willuhn i Ade 1996, Fische i al 1998, Noranha i
Nevatia 2001, Scholze i alii 2002].
3. STUDIU DE CAZ - COMPLEXUL UNIVERSITAR GH. ASACHI
IAI REZULTATE PARIALE
3.1. Prezentarea zonei de studiu
Zona de studiu este o suprafa de aproximativ 12 ha,
din cadrul complexului universitar Gheorghe Asachi Iai i
cuprinde un numr total de 12 cldiri i un castel de ap (figura 2).
Pentru aceast zon s-a creat o reea de sprijin folosind sisteme
GNSS, care a fost ndesit prin metode topografice. Pentru zona de
studiu s-a fcut o ridicare topografic i s-a ntocmit un plan
topografic la scara 1:500. Msurtorile pentru determinarea
coordonatelor punctelor din reeaua de ridicare, ct i a punctelor de
detaliu, s-au efectuat cu staia total Leica TC(R) 405. Punctele de
detaliu au fost alese conform temei de cercetare i anume: puncte
212
caracteristice ale cldirilor (puncte pe faadele cldirilor, coluri de
ui, ferestre, puncte pe acoperi, etc.) precum i puncte
caracteristice ale spaiului nconjurtor (canale, copaci, hidrani,
stlpi de electricitate, etc.).

Figura 2. Zona de studiu, complexul universitar Gh. Asachi, Municipiul
Iai Imagine color (benzile R/G/B) preluat cu senzorul digital ADS40, la o
nlime de 1500m (grundel 15cm), n 2006
Prelucrarea msurtorilor efectuate pentru punctele de
detaliu s-a efectuat cu programul TopoSys, obinndu-se
coordonatele (X, Y, H) ale acestora, n Sistemul Naional de
Proiecie Stereografic pe plan secant unic-1970 i n sistemul de
referin pentru cote Marea Neagr 1975. Punctele obinute n
urma prelucrrilor msurtorilor (definite prin coordonatele (X, Y,
H)), au fost raportate cu ajutorul softului AutoCad Land Desktop
2009, rezultnd un nor de aproximativ 3500 de puncte (figura 3).

Figura 3. Vedere n perspectiv a punctelor msurate aferente zonei de
studiu
3.2 Crearea modelului digital altimetric (MDA)
Zona de studiu

213
Modelarea suprafeei topografice este un o etap foarte
important n procesul de modelare 3D al zonei urbane i poate fi
fcut: grafic sau matematic urmrindu-se o reprezentare global
sau local prin utilizarea unor funcii determinate pe baza unei grile
ordonate sau nu de puncte de cot cunoscut.
Pentru crearea modelului digital altimetric al zonei de
studiu, s-au folosit punctele de detaliu de cote cunoscute,
exceptndu-le pe cele caracteristice cldirilor i anume: coluri de
ferestre, de ui i puncte de detaliu ale acoperiurilor. Acest lucru a
fost realizat folosind softul AutoCad Land Desktop 2009 care
creeaz, pentru reprezentarea suprafeei terestre, o reea de
triunghiuri de suprafa mai mare ca zero, care au n comun un vrf
sau o latur, conform algoritmului propus de Delauney (figura 4).
3.3 Generarea curbelor de nivel
Modelul TIN poate fi folosit i la generarea curbelor de
nivel, utilizatorul avnd posibilitatea s specifice echidistana,
numrul de curbe secundare, precum i amplasarea valorii curbei
de nivel.
3.4 Modelarea 3D a cldirilor
Pentru modelarea cldirilor s-a folosit metoda prismatic
care const n reconstrucia cldirilor cu o foarte bun descriere
planimetric, printr-o simpl estimare a nlimilor acestora. Pentru
studiul de caz, att forma planimetric ct i nlimea cldirilor, au
fost determinate prin msurtori cu staia total.

Figura 4. Reea de triunghiuri (TIN- Triangulated Irregulare Network)
pentru reprezentarea suprafeei topografice
214
3.5 Vizualizarea
Pentru vizualizarea ct mai realist a zonei de studiu s-
au utilizat ortofotoplanurile la scara 1:500 i fotografiile digitale ale
faadelor, preluate cu camera digital Cannon i georefereniate cu
ajutorul softului TopoLT, aa cum se observ n figurile de mai jos
(figurile 5 i 6).

Figura 5. Modelul 3D al zonei de studiu (cldiri construite prin metoda
prismatic, far textur)
3.6. Insertia acoperiurilor preluate din datele fotogrammetrice.
n modelul 3D descris mai sus, acoperiurile au fost
considerate plane pentru toate cldirile. Acoperiurile cldirilor aa
cum sunt reprezentate pe fotogramele aeriene, vor fi preluate ntr-o
etap urmtoare din modelul stereoscopic format pe baza imaginilor
aeriene georefereniate, operaie n curs de rezolvare. Modelul 3D
rezultat va fi comparat cu cel obinut prin prelucrarea datelor LiDAR
ntr-o etap viitoare.

a) b)
Figura 6. Vizualizare foto-realist a Facultii de Mecanic din
cadrul Universitii Tehnice Gh. Asachi Iai-a) vedere Nord-Vest,
b) vedere Sud-Vest
215
4. CONCLUZII
Hrile digitale 3D urbane au nceput treptat s le
nlocuiasc pe cele clasice 2D, datorit dezvoltrii rapide a surselor
de date digitale, a metodelor de cartografie digital privind
reprezentarea 3D a spaiului obiect, dar i a cererii tot mai crescute
a utilizatorilor pentru aceste modele. Hrile 2D existente conin
informaii cu privire la amprentele la sol ale cldirilor, dar nu i
despre fatadele (forma i nlimea) i acoperiurile acestora.
Fotogrammetria i datele LiDAR ofer aceste informaii dar la un
pre ridicat. O alternativ o reprezint folosirea msurtorilor
topografice i a planurilor topografice actuale i istorice. Lucrarea de
fa face parte dintr-un studiu mai vast privind analiza comparativ a
modelelor 3D generate prin folosirea datelor multisurs si
multisenzor n scopul definirii unei metodologii de cartografie digital
3D. Generarea modelelor 3D ale cldirilor pe baza msurtorilor
topografice, reprezint crearea unui nivel de baz, de informaie
geometric precis, n cadrul unui SIT 3D urban, n care generarea
complet a modelului 3D se face prin exploatarea datelor LiDAR
care au o precizie altimetric foarte bun, (mbuntite prin inserie
n datele fotogrammetrice), cu precizia planimetric bun a datelor
fotogrammetrice. Viitorul aparine cartografiei 3D precum i
sistemelor SIT 3D. Preocuprile viitoare privind cercetarea de fa
vor fi orientate spre folosirea inseriei datelor LiDAR si
fotogrammetrice folosind drept date ajuttoare msuratorilor
topografice, datele laser-scaner terestru, fotogramele terestre
preluate cu camere metrice, n scopul crerii unui model 3D n
cadrul unui SIT 3D urban, necesar administraiei locale, seviciilor de
pompieri, financiare, de turism, de salvare, arhitecturale etc., privind
construcia, reconstrucia, extinderea, sistematizarea i exploatarea
optim a zonei urbane.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Brenner, C., Haala, N., Fritsch, D., (2001). Towards Fully Automated 3D City Model
Generation. Dans : Proc. of the Workshop on Automatic Extraction of Man-Made
Objects from Aerial and Space Images. Ascona, Suisse.
2. Cheng, L., Gong, J., Chen, X., Han, P. (2008). Building Boundary Extraction from
High Resolution Imagery and LIDAR Data, The international Archives of the
Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Vol. XXXVII, Part
B5b, Beijing, China.
216
3. Collins, R., Jaynes, C., Cheng, Y.-Q., Wang, X., Stolle, F., Riseman, E., Hanson, A.,
(1998).The Ascender System : Automated Site Modeling from Multiple Aerial Images.
Computer Vision and Image Understanding 72 (2), 143.162.
4. Durupt, M., Taillandier, F., (2006). Automatic Building Reconstruction from a Digital
Elevation Model and Cadastral Data : an Operational Approach. Dans : Proc. of the
ISPRS Commission III Symposium on Photogrammetric and Computer Vision. ISPRS,
Bonn, Allemagne.
5. Jarvis, A. M. Y. (2008). Integration of Photogrammetric and LIDAR Data for
Accurate Reconstruction and Visualization of Urban Environments, tez de doctorat.
6. Lafarge, F. (2007). Modeles Stochastiques Pour la Reconstruction
Tridimensionnelle dEnvironnements Urbains, Thse de doctorat, Ecole des Mines de
Paris.
7. Suveg, I., Vosselman, G., (2001). 3D Building Reconstruction by Map Based
Generation and Evaluation of Hypotheses. Dans : British Machine Vision Conference.
Manchester, Angleterre

THE METHODOLOGY FOR 3D MODEL CREATION BASED ON
LiDAR AND PHOTOGRAMMETRIC DATA PARTIAL RESULTS
Abstract: The article presents the methodology for creating a 3D model in an
urban area, based on photogrammetric and LIDAR data, using 2D topographic
plans and surveying measurements as a supporting data, in order to incorporate
it into a 3D urban SIT, to enable users to perform a series of operation such as
visualization, measure, query and so on. After being shown the current
situation nationally and internationally, are reviewed the main methodologies
and data sources required to create the 3D model for the experimental area
defined in the academic complex GH. ASACHI of IASI. It presents the study
area and the partial results (creating the fixed points network, the survey
measurements) for the database compilation necessary to create a 3D model.
217
DYNAMIC MONITORING OF VEGETATION COVERAGE
CHANGE IN OCNELE MARI MINING AREA USING
SATELLITE IMAGERY
Violeta Poenaru, Romanian Space Agency
Elena Savin, National Meteorological Administration
Alexandru Badea, Romanian Space Agency & University of
Agronomical Science and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest, Faculty
of Land Reclamation and Environmental Engineering
Denis Mihailescu, National Meteorological Administration
Sorin Cimpeanu, University of Agronomical Science and Veterinary
Medicine of Bucharest, Faculty of Land Reclamation and
Environmental Engineering
Abstract. Mining is an important activity and contributes
greatly to economic development with devastating and
long lasting environmental impacts. A major disaster taken
place in 2001 in the Ocnele Mari salt mining area when
the artificial lake brine was poured in rural areas,
devastating homes and polluting the River Olt. Science the
green vegetation is one of the most important factors
which determine the structure and strength of ecological
environment in mining areas, the paper describe the
mining activities impacts on the vegetation effects. The
optical data gathered by different sensors were used for
extracting the normalized difference vegetation index
(NDVI), while from radar data the mining subsidence were
estimated. In order to study the climate change impact on
vegetation the potential evapotranspiration was computed
for the stations Dragasani and Ramnicu Valcea.

Keywords: remote sensing, NDVI, potential
evapotransiration, radar interferometry
1. INTRODUCTION
Ocnele Mari is a town located in Valcea County, the
central-southern part of Romania, in the Valcea Sub-Carpathians
area, which are affected by uplift neotectonic movements at a rate of
2-4 mm/year (Zugravescu et al. 1998; Mihaela Dinu 1999), along the
218
valley of Paraul Sarat (Fig.1). It has a population of 3563
inhabitants. It is considered one of the oldest human settlements in
the Oltenia region, also due to the important salt deposits. The
settlement lies in a basin at an altitude of about 320 m, surrounded
by hills with an altitude between 400 and 600 m. The climate is
temperate continental with an average precipitation of 700 mm/year,
up to 1.225 mm and 1.295 mm registered in rainy years which
favours soil erosion and gullying. Under these hills there is a
massive salt deposit about 600 m thick (9 billion tones). Storage
ponds for mining tailings are located close to active or inactive
mines.

Figure 1. Ocnele Mari mining area
A major disaster took place in september 2001 in the
Ocnele Mari salt mining area when the artificial lake brine was
poured in rural areas, devastating homes and polluting the River Olt.
The Romanian Government decided to elaborate a stategic plan
concerning the safe salt deposit exploatation and the greening and
rehabilitation of this area. Other colapses took place in 2007 and
2009.
Remote sensing offers an useful tool for the monitoring
of vegetation over large areas that could benefit a wide range of
219
applications might. This is the case for mining activities, where
increasing emphasis is put on the landslide and subsidence
processes while the vegetation coverage provide indicators for the
land degradation.
The paper is focused on vegetation coverage monitoring
in the Ocnele Mari mining area, combining optical data with radar
data by interferometry techniques and with measured meteorological
data.
2. VEGETATION MAPPING
Vegetation mapping is based on knowledge of the
reflectance differences between vegetation types in different
intervals of the electromagnetic spectrum, particular on differential
absorption, transmittance and reflectance by vegetation in the red
and near infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The spectral behaviour of plant is influenced by many
factors such as: vegetation type, inner and outer structure of
vegetation, health condition of plants, water content, spatial
distributions of vegetated and non-vegetated areas, leaf area index
(Asner, 1998) which can modify the reflectance signature of the
healthy vegetation.
The vegetation mapping method is based on
vegetation indices calculated from multispectral and hyperspectral
data. The most widespread index used for monitoring vegetation
conditions and land cover changes is normalized difference
vegetation index (NDVI) defined as the difference between the
spectral reflectance in near-infrared (NIR)
NIR
and visible (red)
R

bands over their sum (Tucker, 1979; Reed, 1994).
NDVI = ] 1 , 1 [ , e
+
NDVI
R NIR
R NIR

(1)
The NDVI properties are:
Within the same leaf-on (leaf-off) season, NDVI is affected by the
time of acquisition;
NDVI is useful for extracting vegetation region even where they
are in shadow;
NDVI is unable to highlight subtle differences in canopy density,
the NDVI > 0.35 condition being necessary but not sufficient to
indicate the presence of the vegetated areas.
220
NDVI reduce multispectral measurements to a single
value for predicting and assessing vegetation characteristics such
as species, leaf area index, stress and biomass.
In this paper we used Landsat 5 multitemporal images
acquired during 2007 and 2010 years. Landsat TM imagery which
can be downloaded from archive on the USGS website
(http://edcsns17.cr.usgs.gov) supplies high spatial resolution visible
and infrared imagery (30 m) with thermal imagery (60 m) and a
panchromatic image (15 m).
Two sets of the Landsat 5 MMS images acquired in July
2007 and August 2010 have been processed in ENVI 4.5 and
integrated in a GIS environment for cartographic mapping. The
results are shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. The NDVI values are scalled
between 0.1 to 0.7, heigher index value being associated with
heigher levels of vegetation coverage and vegetation density
whereas snow and clouds will cause index value near zero, making
it appear that the vegetation is less green.
Other important parameter is evapotranspiration which
describe the transport of water into the atmosphere from surfaces,
including soil (soil evaporation), and from vegetation (tranpiration).
Figures 4 shows potential evapotranspiration computed at
Dragasani and Ramnicu Valcea Stations during 1961-2009 period
with maximum values in 2001 and 2007 corresponds to Ocnele Mari
collaps.
3. SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR APPLICATIONS FOR LAND
DEGRADATION
Instead to optical sensor, the active radar observations
can be collected at night time, over areas with limited contrast and
through cloud cover. Synthetic aperture radars are available in many
different configurations, combining the characteristics of large scale
imaging and quantitative observations of distances and angles. Most
important, to enable SAR processing, the radar needs to be
coherent, at least the time span between sending and receiving one
pulse. In coherent radar the phase of the transmitted signal is
retained and used as a reference against which the returned signal
can be compared.

221

Figure 2. NDVI from Landsat 5, July 2007

Figure 3. NDVI from Landsat 5, August 2010
222

Figure 4. Evapotranspiration potential
Thus the radar sensors can be used in interferometric
applications. SAR interferometry works only under coherent
conditions, where the received reflections are correlated between
the two SAR images. Loss of coherence can be due to a number of
driving mechanism. The effect of some sources of decorrelation,
e.g., as introduced by the alignment and interpolation of the images,
can be reduced by using well-designed filtering procedures. Other
sources of decorrelation are more significant and non-reversible.
The two most important conditions are related to the phase gradient
and the temporal variation in the physical distribution of the
elementary scatterers.
In a single pass interferometric configuration two
physical antenna are used to collect the radar echoes, obtaining an
accuracies for elevation observation of 6 m for spaceborne sensors
(Bamler and Hartl, 1998; Jordan et all, 1996) which is comparable to
the optical techniques (SPOT Image Company, 2005). In a repeat-
pass configuration two radar images are acquired by a single
antenna, revisiting the area after a specific time interval, allowing the
observation of dynamic processes. Coherent deformation of the
earths surface within the radar swath can be observed as a fraction
of the radar wavelength, resulting in sub-cm ranging accuracy in the
radar line-of-sight. The most stringent requirement for this
application is that the archive of radar data contains acquisitions
prior to the deformation event.
One of the main geodetic applications of space borne
repeat-pass SAR interferometry is deformation mapping with mm-
cm accuracy. Land subsidence caused by mining activities belongs
to deformation measurements application.
223
Many areas from Romania are affected by subsidence
(or uplift) due to extraction on water, gas, oil, salt or other mineral
resources. The feasibility of radar interferometry for these
applications depends on the subsidence rates i.e deformation
gradient, in combination with the influence of decorrelation due to
land use or vegetation and of atmospheric signal in the
interferograms. Recent advances using stacks of coregistrated SAR
images show that many permanent (coherent) scatterers can be
identified, especially over urbanized areas (Feretti et all, 2000).
Since conventional coherence estimators use estimation windows
that are often too wide to identify a single scatterer, the systematic
analysis of many images is inevitable for a robust identification
procedure.
Differential interferometry
Differential interferometry aims at the measurement of
ground deformation using repeat pass interferometry. Since line of
sight displacements enter directly into the interferogram,
independent of the baseline, it can be measured as a fraction of the
wavelength.
There are several ways to construct a differential interferogram.
(1) The two pass method uses an external elevation model that is
converted into radar coordinates, scaled using the baseline and
subtracted from the interferogram (Massonet et all, 1993).
(2) A second method is the three pass method (Zebker et all, 1994)
in which an extra SAR acquisition is used and combined with a
suitable partner acquisition to create so-called topographic pair.
This pair is assumed to have no deformation, a suitable baseline
providing sensitivity to topography and sufficient coherence. This
pair is unwrapped, scale to the baseline characteristics of the
deformation pair, and subtracted from it, yielding the differential
interferogram. In order to perform the three pass method using a
topographic pair derived from SAR image A and B and a
deformation pair from image A and C, the effect of the baseline
difference between the two pairs should be taken into account.
The baseline can be scaled after the reference phase is
subtracted from the both interferograms.
Interferometric processing overview
The proposed overall InSAR processing stages are:
224
1. data search,
2. data processing, and
3. data validation on in-tu measurements
1. Data search
The data search stage consists of searching for
appropriate data that will ensure adequate data quality and capable
of yielding optimal result for the InSAR processing. The search is
usually made to agencies responsible for SAR data provision.
Currently there are three agencies operating SAR satellites in the
civilian sector, the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), the European
Space Agency (ESA) and the German Aerospace Center (DLR).
The criteria depend on the specific application of the
study. Main decisions regard the type of sensor, the availability of
the data, the temporal and spatial distribution of the baselines, and
the characteristics of the terrain and atmosphere during the image
acquisitions. The sensor and platform characteristics include
important parameters such as wavelength, bandwidth, SNR, orbit
inclination, and repeat period.
High Resolution Spotlight TerraSar-X synthetic aperture
radar (SAR) data acquired from August to December 2010 within
TerraSAR-X proposal LAN0778 are used to analyze terrain
deformation in the Ocnele Mari mining area. The TerraSAR-X
sensor characteristics are shown in table 1.
Sensor Mode High Resolution Spotlight (1m)
Polarization mode Single Polarization - VV
Looking direction Right Looking
Incidence Angle 35.89
0

Maximum Bandwidth [MHz] 300 (reduced range extent)
Tabel 1. TerraSAR-X sensor configuration
2. Data processing
Data processing consists of five processing steps: data
pre-processing, coregistration and resampling, computation of
interferogram, phase un-wrapping and geocoding.
Data pre-processing. If data processing starts from raw
data they need to be checked for inconsistencies, such as missing
lines or sampling window start time (SWST) changes, before
focusing the images. If the number of missing lines is limited, the
225
good lines heading or trailing the inconsistencies can be copied to fill
the gaps. This will only slightly deteriorate image focusing. SWST
changes within the image can be accounted for by aligning both
sides.
Coregistration and resampling. Since cross-correlation
techniques for optimal alignment tend to be slow for very large
search windows, the procedure is usually separated in two steps:
coarse and fine coregistration. In the coarse coregistration, the
offsets are approximated either by defining common points in the
image by visual inspection or by using the satellite orbits and timing
as a reference. The subsequent fine coregistration usually applies
automatic correlation techniques to obtain sub-pixel alignment
accuracy. Finally using the estimated polynomial, the slave image is
resampled to the master grid.
Computation of the interferometric products . In this stept
the complex interferogram and coherence image are generated. The
interferometric phase is corrected for the phase of a reference body.
Phase unwrapping. This is the reconstruction of the
original phase from the wrapped phase representation.
Geocoding. In this step the unwrapped phase is
converted to a height, and the pixel co-ordinates are georeferenced.
The output of this step is the height for a large number of pixels at
an irregular grid of (longitude, latitude) pair.
Results
The data processing steps are performed using Delft
Object-oriented Interferometric Software (Doris), (Kampes, 2005a;
Kampes et al., 2003; Kampes and Usai, 1999). Doris is chosen
because it is fully functional interferometric processing software in
the public domain and has a modular structure conecting a sieries of
simple tools into a pipeline.
The resulting interferogram and coherence map
generated from this data are presented in Fig. 5. and Fig. 6. The
phase unwrapping is one of the main difficulties in radar
interferometry due to its inherent non-uniques and non-linearity for
general reference. Variable phase noise, the vegetation coverage,
as well as geometric problems such as foreshortening and layover
are the main causes why many proposed techniquess do not
226
perform as disered. This is our case when unwrap processing
cannot perform on entire image due to lower coherence.

Figure 5. Mixed interferogram with a perpendicular baseline of -51,2 m

Figure 6. Coherence map of Ocnele Mari mining area
227
4. CONCLUSIONS
A streight correlation between vegetation cover and land
deformation can be observed. During the collaps from 2007from the
Ocnele Mari mining area, the vegetation coverage presents small
value for NDVI indicating the presence of drought or floods
fenomena. The meteorological data (temperature, wind speed,
humidity and solar radiation) were used to compute the
evapotranspiration potential whose values show a maximumm in
2007. There are no radar acquisition available from that period.
The TerraSAR X proposal LAN 0778 coordinated by
Romanian Space Agency has the main objective to evaluate and
validate the TerraSAR-X data in the Ocnele Mari mining area for
land deformation estimations. The interferogram shows occurrence
of the slow subsidence in the mining area and landslides on the
surrounded hills.
Future works will be focused on InSAR (for DEM
generation), DInSAR, stacking and PSI techniques that can be used
to extract the various types of teren deformation in the Ocnele Mari
region. A methodology based on deformation maps will be designed
for monitoring of the elastic deformation, early warning stage and
detection of the collapse occurence.
REFERENCES
1. Asner, G., P. 1998. Biophysical and Biochemical Sources of ariability in Canopy
Reflectance. Remote Sensing of Environment, 64: 234-253;
2. Bamler, R. and Hartl, P. (1998), Synthetic aperture radar interferometry, Inverse
Problems, 14:R1R54;
2. Mihaela Dinu (1999), Subcarpatii dintre Topolog si Bistrita Valcii. Studiul proceselor
actuale de modelare a versantilor. Editura Academiei Bucuresti;
3. A. Ferretti, A. Monti-Guarnieri, C. Prati, F. Rocca (Dipartimento di electronica de
Informazione Politecnico di Milano, Italy) & D. Massonnet (CNES, Toulouse, France),
(2007): InSAR Principles: Guidelines for SAR Interferometry Processing and
Interpretation, ESA Publications, The Netherlands, pp. A-7, A-8, A-17 A-29, B-3, B-7
B-30, B-31 B-38, B-42 B-49, C-56 C-59, C-111
4. Jordan, R. L., Caro, E. R., Kim, Y., Kobrick, M., Shen, Y., Stuhr, F. V. and Werner,
M. U. (1996), Shuttle radar topography mapper (SRTM), in: Franceschetti et al. (1996),
pp. 412422.
5. Kampes, B.M., 2005a. Delft Object-oriented Interferometric Software (DORIS), Bert
Kampes, TU, Delft, http:enterprise.lr.tudelft.nl/doris Kampes, B.M., Hanssen, R.F. and
Perski, Z., 2003. Radar Interferometry With Public Domain Tools, FRINGE 2003
Workshop. ESA/ESRIN, Frascati, Italy.
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6. Kampes, B.M. and Usai, S., 1999. Doris: the Delft Object-oriented Radar
Interferometric Software, 2nd International Symposium on Operationalization of
Remote Sensing, Enschede, The Netherlands
7. Massonnet, D. and Adragna, F. (1993), A full-scale validation of Radar
Interferometry with ERS-1: the Landers earthquake, Earth Observation Quarterly, 41.
8. Tucker, C., J. 1979. Red and photographic infrared linear combinations for
monitoring vegetation. Remote Sensing of the Environment,.8: 127-150
9. Zebker, H. A., Farr, T. G., Salazar, R. P. and Dixon, T. H. (1994a), Mapping the
Worlds Topography Using Radar Interferometry: The TOPSAT Mission, Proceedings
of the IEEE, 82(12):17741786
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movements map of Romania. Rev. Roum. Geoph. 10, 21-27
229
PERSONAL AERIAL MAPPING SYSTEM FAST AND
ACCURATE
Dr. ing. Ralf Schroth, ing. Adrian Ionescu
Blom Romania SRL
Abstract: Unmanned airborne systems (UAS) with a low
weight are a new sensor platform. They offer a variety of
applications as measuring systems and do not suffer
administrative restrictions like other UAS. Different remote
sensors can be integrated. The paper presents a concept
of an autonomous airborne system. Data processing is
part of the concept and can be done in the field or remote
for detailed analysis and higher accuracies. Accuracy
magnitudes known and used to in professional airborne
systems are achievable. The paper describes the hard-
and software system components. Applications in
engineering surveys, monitoring of terrain changes and
fast true ortho photo production are demonstrated.
Keywords: unmanned airborne systems, aerial survey,
site documentation, surface modeling, disaster
management
1. INTRODUCTION
Unmanned or robotic systems are in wide use for safety,
economic and fast response reasons (see e.g.
SCHROTH/MACIEJEWSKA 2008). Even at the 48
th
International
Paris Air Show 2009 the unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) took over
a major role at the exhibition (see e.g. WILLIAMSON 2009).
Unmanned aerial systems (UAS), also called automated drones,
date back to the early 20
th
century. They are used as fixed wing
planes or helicopters with weights between less than 1 kg and
several hundreds of kilograms.
The paper will restrict itself to a specific category of UAV,
the light weight UAV with less than 1.1kg weight, which are allowed
to operate in the designated UAV corridor in civil airspace. The
presented UAV is a flying wing, i.e. a fixed wing airplane without tail.
This flying wing UAV is designed for outdoor operations covering up
230
to 1km
2
per flight mission. With its extreme low weight it can be
operated with minimum restrictions.
But not only the fascinating technology of the UAV will
presented, the total concept for operating the system, achieving and
processing the remote sensing data will be introduced. Automation
procedures assist the flight management and the data processing on
ground in a fast and precise manner. Empirical tests and their
results prove the functionality and the professional capacity of the
concept. A demonstration of the wide range of possible applications
will complete the paper.
2. THE CONCEPT PAMS
Unmanned aerial systems not only fly unmanned but
also register, store or transmit data. They are either operated
remotely or operate autonomously. Thus, all UAS consist of a flying
vehicle, often called an unmanned aerial vehicle, and some sort of
data collection device. In this respect, UAS are one kind of remote
sensing devices. UAV are in known use in the defense and
intelligence domain since late 1940ies. Recently, their use in
commercial projects becomes applicable and a multitude of
manufacturers offer systems (EVERAERTS 2006; PETRIE 2008).
From the remote sensing point of view, all UAS are platforms
carrying some sort of sensor or sensors which in the aviation
industry is generically called a payload. UAS might be categorized
according to flying properties, i.e. Fixed Wing, Rotary Wing, Airships
or Paraglide, according to weight and according to their application.
Various instances of research and applications are known.
In commercial use, a tendency or concentration on lower
weight UAS with less than 10kg is visible (PETRIE 2008). Such
systems are on one hand easier to transport and less restrictive to
operate. On the other hand they are more limited in operational
distance and endurance. Many UAS are applied for the generation
of aerial images or airborne videos. Separate stitching software
allows the composition of an image mosaic. This, however, usually
lacks photogrammetric precision and geo-reference.
So a search for an UAS was necessary which is able to
produce aerial images and to process them into orthomosaics in the
photogrammetric sense, i.e. with high accuracy, known geometry
and geo-reference. Such a system consists of hardware, the UAV,
231
and software for photogrammetric data processing. Additional
constraints were that the UAS shall be used for areas of up to 1km
2

per one flight mission, shall be operated by one person only, shall
be easy to maintain and easy to transport in a regular car or as carry
on luggage for air travel, shall be quickly to learn, shall be robust in
flying and landing, shall be in operation as little dependent on
regulations as possible and it shall be affordable, too.
Initially, known manufacturers were evaluated, see
EVERAERTS 2006. However, this business area is highly dynamic
and a 2006 published table is not any longer complete for evaluation
in 2008/2009. Since the main goal was to fly photogrammetric
blocks over smaller areas, rotary wing, airship, and paraglide types
of UAV were excluded. Their properties fulfill other constraints
respectively applications. The investigation pointed to a UAS named
PAMS. Its manufacturer is SmartPlanes AB, Sweden, see
www.smartplanes.se. PAMS ideally fits the requested needs, see
Figure 1 and MAYR/SCHROTH 2010.
PAMS is the acronym for personal aerial mapping
system. It uses the SmartOne B and C series UAV of SmartPlanes
as payload carrier for a calibrated 10 Mpixel camera and comes with
a software package including ground station control and first level
photogrammetric data processing. It further offers second level
results via Internet services for higher demand data processing.
The concept of PAMS is intriguing. One person, the
pilot, can operate the system. The pilot defines in the ground
station the size of the area which connects automatically to the
SmartOne UAV sitting on ground. From there the ground station
obtains its initial GPS-signal defining the mission home-point.
Finally, one sets the desired ground sampling distance (GSD) of the
aerial images. Following, the pilot hand-starts the UAV in auto-
mode. This brings it automatically up to operational height. When
appropriate, the pilot commands in the ground station the start of the
flight mission. This initiates the sequence climb to block height, fly to
start of first strip, fly all strips while location-triggered exposing aerial
images, come back home and park above mission home-point.
Aforementioned sequence of actions is executed fully autonomously
by PAMS. The pilot sees at all the time the track of the flight path
and all footprints of exposed images in the graphics window of the
ground station . For landing, the pilot initiates this phase of the flight
232
mission and brings down the UAV in semi-auto mode, which
automatically levels the UAV, but the pilot steers the UAV to avoid
obstacles. Basically, the UAV glides down by its own and
automatically leveled. Once landed, the pilot takes the SD-memory
card off the camera and places it into the ground station notebook.
There, first level data processing can take place immediately. The
software produces two types of first level image-results, a so-called
QuickMosaic and a so-called AirMosaic. Digital Surface Models
(DSM) and OrthoMosaics are second level results and are
accessible via an Internet service. With this concept every non-
surveying related person can generate local geo-spatial image
information and even derive high quality orthomosaics and DSMs.

Figure 1. PAMS SmartOneB UAV with ground station hardware and
transport case
2.1 System Components
The SmartOne UAV of PAMS is a Flying Wing. With its
GPS/INS-connected autopilot it is capable of fully autonomous flight
according to preprogrammed mission plans. Its battery power allows
for flights up to ca. 35 min. SmartOne carries a calibrated 10 Mpixel
camera. The autopilot triggers image exposures location controlled,
i.e. image-exposure is speed-independent. Further, the autopilot
transmits GPS data and other data such as voltage level of battery
via the built-in bi-directional radio modem down to the ground station
which in turn can send up control commands. The total weight of the
UAV is little less than 1.1 kg. The wings are detachable which
makes the UAV fit into a rugged yet compact transportation case
233
measuring 85 x 40 x 15 cm
3
, see Figure 1. The ground station
consists of the aforementioned bi-directional telemetry hardware, a
remote control device for manual flight mode and a powerful
notebook with software for mission planning, mission control and
automated image processing. The PAMS-software generates fully
automatically geo-referenced imagery and mosaics. The image data
of a flight mission can be second level processed using the PAMS
Internet service to derive a high resolution OrthoMosaic and/or a
high density Digital Surface Model per flown block. PAMS is
commercially available and distributed e.g. by GERMATICS, see
www.germatics.com, Germany, a Blom Group Subsidiary.
2.2. System Operations
With a typical mission altitude of flying in a plane 320 m
above ground level (AGL) and with a 10 Mpixel calibrated camera
the resulting GSD in the derived AirMosaic or OrthoMosaic, also
called ground sampling distance (GSD), is about 10 cm and from
160 m AGL the corresponding GSD is about 5 cm. The internal
precision of the OrthoMosaic in planimetry, X and Y, is typically in
sub-pixel size of GSD. The precision of computed heights is better
than 2 pixels GSD (see chapter 3). With the addition of accurate
ground control, sub-decimeter accuracy can be achieved in both
position and altitude.
A flight mission consists of four phases: pre-flight
planning and preparation, take-off, survey and landing. Although
PAMS' SmartOne UAV can execute the entire flight in full
autonomous mode the pilot often takes over for take-off and
precision landing.
For pre-flight planning one can load a background, geo-
referenced image or map, which helps identifying the location of
flight. Basically only flight area and GSD need to be set. One can
scale, shift and rotate the rectangular flight mission area. The
desired GSD determines the according flying height. Photo-overlap
is per default set to be bigger than 60% in both directions, along and
across flight direction. The ground station then flushes the set
parameters onto the autopilot at its power-up using the wireless data
link. After completion of pre-flight check-out and camera setup the
UAV is ready for launch.
234
At hand-launch, see Figure 2, the on-board sensors
detect the take-off situation, and the aircraft commences in auto
mode a rapid climb to parking altitude, where it is then parking, i.e.
flies circles. During parking the pilot checks out air space and UAV
flight performance. An active command in the ground station starts
the actual survey phase.
There it climbs in shape of a vertical spiral up to mission
height and proceeds to the start of the first strip. Systematically and
in fully autonomous manner SmartOne UAV flies all parallel photo
strips, see Figure 4. PAMS automatically senses and compensates
for current wind conditions. This guarantees correct spacing
between flight strips and imaging locations and the autopilot
executes the exposures GPS/INS-driven.

Figure 2. Hand-launch sequence of a PAMS SmartOne UAV
During all the time of a flight mission the pilot monitors
the progress visually either by line-of-sight or on the real-time
ground station display. One can temporarily suspend the mission or
abort it at any time. There is also a direct manual control mode, e.g.
for precision landing and take-off.
After completion of the survey-phase the UAV
automatically returns, sinks down to parking height and circles
above the take-off point until the pilot either commands an automatic
landing or takes over to perform a precision landing, see Figure 3.
Figure 4 depicts the flight tracks of two overlapping
blocks used to form one bigger orthomosaic consisting of ca. 360
aerial images. In this example a river in the Bavarian Alps,
Germany, had to be monitored for example. For this, two
overlapping blocks with each 8 strips and ca. 180 images had to be
235
flown. The mission height was 150 m AGL using 8 parallel strips and
two cross-strips. The total flight time per block was about 12
minutes.

Figure 3: PAMS SmartOneB UAV in landing phase
After landing aerial image data are transferred to the
ground station computer. Quickly an overview mosaic, QuickMosaic,
is compiled in order to verify that full image coverage was achieved.
At this stage the individual images are available for direct analysis
and field work. In a second step the image data is processed using
advanced image processing and photogrammetric techniques to
produce a geo-referenced AirMosaic ready for use in geographic
information systems (GIS). In an advanced application mode one
flies several adjacent blocks and combines them into one large
orthomosaic.

Figure 4. Flight tracks of two overlapping blocks (yellow and red) with
parking circles

236
2.3 Data Processing
Data processing with PAMS is truly easy. Everyone can
execute it, either by himself or by uploading and using an Internet
service. First level data processing generates QuickMosaics and
AirMosaics. Both can be computed on site. Second level data
processing delivers DSM and OrthoMosaic and is accessible as
PAMSInternetService.
2.3.1 QuickMosaic
For QuickMosaic the software uses the recorded GPS
data and some additional sensor data for direct geo-referencing and
combines all aerial images into sort of an image-mosaic. This takes
less than 20sec for about 250 images covering an area on ground of
about 700m x 700m extent. The QuickMosaic (see Figure 5) is
intended to quickly visualize, if the areas is fully covered or not. Due
to the high image overlap of more than 60% in along and across
flight direction, full coverage never was a problem. The QuickMosaic
can be stored and thus gives first evidence of job-completion.
2.3.2 AirMosaic
The AirMosaic is based on the evaluation of the GPS-
recording of the autopilot. A specialized automated aerial
triangulation ties the aerial images together, derives attitude values
and refines the input GPS data. This process performs without
human interaction. Its results are used to form a composite overall
image of the area covered. Since it applies no digital terrain
information, the resulting composite image, called an AirMosaic (see
Figure 6), is on one hand a rectified and geo-referenced image, but
on the other hand not a perfect orthomosaic. In many instances and
due to the fact that the covered areas are small and thus mostly flat
to moderately undulating, the resulting AirMosaic turns out to be
very close to a rigid orthomosaic. Important, however, is that due to
its fully automatic process this operation can be conducted by
everyone and it does not require any specific surveying pre-
knowledge.
2.3.3 Digital Surface Model
For higher level applications one can extract from the
aerial images a digital surface model (DSM). This requires specific
237
photogrammetric knowledge paired with particular modeling know-
how of the UAS technology. Since this is beyond the expertise of a
standard PAMS user, the PAMSInternetService offers this
capability. One uploads the aerial images and some more
information to a website and receives download information after
completion of the DSM computation. For some visualized DSMs see
Figure 7. Usually, the DSM raster spacing of an e.g. 10cm GSD
OrthoMosaic is at 20cm, i.e. 2 orthopixels. This produces lots of
modeled details in the surface model which is subsequently
advantageous for draping orthomosaics or computing volumes.
2.3.4 True OrthoImage
In the same manner like the DSM one obtains an
OrthoMosaic of the flown area. Due to the facts that the PAMS
InternetService possesses technology for generating a DSM and
due to the high overlap, often 80% / 80% along and across flight
direction, one even can produce a True OrthoImage (TOI, see
MAYR 2002), see Figure 8.

Figure 5. QuickMosaic, one clearly can see the full coverage but geometric
displacements

Figure 6: AirMosaic, one clearly can see that it is not yet a perfect
orthomosaic
238

Figure 7. Perspective view of the DSM resulting from flight mission of
Figure 6

Figure 8. OrthoMosaic of flight mission depicted in Figures 4 and 9
3. ACCURACIES
The PAMS UAS is now used for more than a year. It
seems to be appropriate to differentiate between internal and
external, or better: relative and absolute accuracies. Which one to
apply and to consider is completely application driven. For pure
volume data, relative accuracy mostly is sufficient to consider. For
cadastral GIS overlays absolute accuracy is vital to be high.
PAMS is operated in direct and indirect geo-referencing
modes. Its experienced an inner planimetric accuracy is of less than
half the GSD of the orthomosaic. In height, determined in derived
DSM, an inner accuracy between 1 to 2 pixels GSD of the related
orthomosaic was found.
239
For determination of absolute accuracy two modes were
used. In mode A a priori signalized ground control points were
available. In mode B a posteriori some common natural ground
control points were measured. A block with GSD 7cm was available
for mode A consideration and a block with GSD 10cm for mode B
consideration. Table 1 summarizes the results.
Table 1: Absolute accuracies of orthomosaics and DSM derived from
PAMS imagery
Mode GSD [cm] Planimetry [cm] Height [cm] Planimetry [pixel] Height [pixel]
A 7 3 5 0,5 0,7
B 10 7 12 0,7 1,2
Further accuracy checks have been done on several test
blocks in Hong Kong (see MAYR 2011). The blocks were indirectly
geo-referenced by ground control points via aerial triangulation. The
results can be seen in Tables 2 and 3. Table 2 describes the 6
different block parameters. In Table 3 see we can see the achieved
accuracies for the adjusted points, the sigma naught values and the
inner accuracies for the derived Digital Surface Models. The
accuracies are in the expected range.
Table 2. 6 blocks flown with SmartOneC in Hong Kong 2011
Site ID Block Size [m x m] Altitude AGL [m] Images Ortho GSD [cm] DSM Spacing [cm]
1 350 x 200 100 181 4 25
2 400 x 300 140 88 5 40
3 480 x460 160 223 5 40
4 400 x 300 140 183 4 30
5 370 x 230 180 45 7 40
6 400 x 290 120 113 4 25

Table 3. Results of Hong Kong 2011 test blocks for point and DSM
accuracies
Site
ID RMS GCP [m]
RMS Adjusted
Points [m]
Sigma0
[pixel]
DSM Inner
Accuracy [pixel]
DSM Inner
Accuracy [cm]
x y z x y z
1 0,01 0,01 0,02 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,4 0,62 2,5
2 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,3 1,80 7,2
3 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,02 0,5 1,00 5,0
4 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,4 1,25 5,0
5 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,02 0,6 1,32 6,6
6 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,4 1,67 6,7
240
4. APPLICATIONS
The PAMS UAS successfully executed about 90
projects, all in non-urban areas. By far not all were flown by the
authors. Overall, the SmartOne UAV completed about 110 h of flying
time in missions and test flights without causing operational
problems. Application opportunities are manifold. They can be found
in e.g. monitoring agriculture, forest, construction places,
environmental sites, golf courses or wind mill location planning.
In below example an orthomosaic of a river bed in a
natural preserve had to be produced, see Figure 8, where the
environmental agency injects 6.000m
3
of new gravel into the river for
purposes of re-naturalization. The agency wants to monitor
periodically the appearance of the gravel pile and measure its take-
away and distribution volume at a given time. For this area one
needed to fly two slightly overlapping blocks. Challenging in this
application were the steep hills to the left and right of the river bed
which is depicted in Figure 9. Both flights including setup and
dismantling the equipment took place in about 2 hours.
In another project a golf course in northern Sweden was
UAV-mapped in 7 blocks. A total number of 1.939 aerial images was
collected and transformed into one single OrthoMosaic with a GSD
of 7.5cm , see Figure 10, and an according DSM with a raster
spacing of 20cm. The execution of all 7 flight missions took 1 day.
Processing all images to aforementioned deliverables took several
days. This is a standard photogrammetric product with its typical ins
and outs. Processing many images takes some time, even if they
are small. Most difficulties arise in pure forest areas. The lesson
learned is: dense forest is hard to triangulate, with large format
images as well as with tiny format images.
In another application a stone quarry was flown (see
Figure 6). Here the quarry operator wanted to know various
volumes. The quarry extends over 1.3km and is about 400m wide.
The area were flown in 2 blocks, each 700m long and about 450m
wide in a total time of about 3 hours. Data processing to DSM and
OrthoMosaic took about 4 hours. Volume determination is executed
using standard software packages able to handle 3D-data (see
Figure 7).
One can imagine numerous other applications, specially
in disaster management (e.g. land slides evaluation) and also in the
241
security sector. The PAMS UAS opens a new market segment,
which could be named local geo-spatial-image awareness.

Figure 9. Flight paths of 2 blocks in a narrow Alpine valley

Figure 10. PAMS OrthoMosaic composed of 7 PAMS flight missions,
1.939 aerial images
5. CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK
Autonomous aerial sensing as implemented in the PAMS
UAS is a quantum step in geo-spatial technology as it migrates
highly specialized procedures to simple and reliable personal aerial
mapping actions for everyone. It creates a new discipline which can
be called UAV-Mapping. The UAV is the sensor platform and aerial
242
imaging is the first sensor implementation into a UAS. Other sensors
such as LIDAR or thermal sensors, are expected to emerge for use
in ultra light weight UAV.
UAV-Mapping is a new system solution for the capture of
geo-referenced aerial images and generates on-site, with
AirMosaics geo-spatial imagery, solutions ready for delivery and use
in e.g. geographic information systems (GIS). The Internet-Service
approach for more complex, photogrammetric tasks, opens access
for non-specialists to easily generate high-quality OrthoMosaics and
highly accurate Digital Surface Models. This in turn might give UAV-
Mapping the right commercial push. It opens new possibilities for
manifold applications and helps satisfy public or private geospatial
awareness needs. Early adapters with affiliation to geospatial
demands will offer new services in areas up to now hidden, and, due
to their small extents, too small to be covered economically by
manned survey aircraft operations. So far, PAMS complements the
existing aerial surveying activities of the respective mapping
industry. Moreover, it widens the geospatial airborne sensing
domain, and it appears that PAMS' technology will naturally give an
additional lift to the geospatial industry.
REFERENCES
1. Everaerts, J., 2006: New Platforms Unconventional Platforms for Remote Sensing.
EuroSDR Project Presentations
2. Mayr, W., 2002: Bemerkungen zum Thema True-orthoimage. PFG 4, pp. 237-244
3. Mayr, W. and Schroth, R., 2010: Autonomous Aerial Sensing Fast Response and
Personalized. Proceedings of the FIG Congress Sydney 2010
4. Mayr, W., 2011: Internal Report Hong Kong Authorities for PAMS Test Flights,
unpublished
5. Petrie, G., 2008: Bookmarks. http://web.ges.gla.ac.uk/~gpetrie/links.html (last
accessed October 31, 2008)
6. Schroth, R.W. and Maciejewska, I., 2008: Disaster Response in Maritime Zones of
Harbour Cities by Robotic Systems. Proceedings of the FIG Commission 3 and
UNECE Joint Workshop, Valencia, Spain
7. Williamson, M., 2009: Paris Air Show Report. The IET Magazine, issue 0912
8. www.germatics.com
9. www.smartplanes.se
243
TEHNICI LiDAR FOLOSITE LA PRELUAREA DATELOR
I REALIZAREA PRODUSELOR FOTOGRAMMETRICE
3D
Florica Voiculescu, Ana Roxana Banciu
S.C.GEOTOP2001 SRL
Rezumat: n aceast lucrare se prezint tehnica de
msurare LiDAR, o tehnic nou, modern, nsemnnd un
sistem laser aeropurtat care permite culegerea de date
referitoare la poziia i altitudinea punctelor care definesc
suprafaa terenului i nlimea diferitelor structuri aflate
deasupra solului. Cu datele LiDAR pot fi obinute modele
3D ale oraelor. Vom detalia modul de prelucrare a datelor
necesare obinerii foilor de ortofotoplan i a modelulul
digital al terenului n zona judeului Constana.
1. INTRODUCERE
n cadrul evoluiei sale, fotogrammetria a parcurs, n a
doua jumtate a secolului trecut, mai multe etape tehnologice i
metodologice, i anume: analogic, analitic i, n prezent, digital.
O etap important n evoluia fotogrammetriei o
reprezint fotogrammetria digital, care ncepe s-i fac apariia la
nceputul anilor 80. Caracteristica principal a acestui nou tip de
exploatare fotogrammetric o constituie operarea cu imagini
nregistrate prin mijloace electronice i informatice. Prelucrarea se
face cu ajutorul calculatoarelor, care simuleaz vederea uman i
realizeaz analiza imaginii i recunoaterea formelor. O importan
deosebit n prelucrarea imaginilor digitale o au pachetele de
programe, care trebuie s ndeplineasc mai multe funcii: stocarea
imaginii, prelucrri de coordonate, funcii fotogrammetrice de
orientare interioar i exterioar, module de generare a valorilor
aproximative, de compensare, module grafice pentru culegerea,
verificarea, vizualizarea i editarea datelor.
O tehnologie extrem de viabil este tehnologia LiDAR,
un senzor ce transmite pulsuri laser spre pmnt pe care le
reprimete cu ajutorul unui receptor, care determin intervalul de
timp n care pulsul prsete aeronava, atinge solul i se
ntoarce, corelnd poziia precis a avionului, altitudinea, viteza de
244
deplasare cu calculul, n final, al poziiilor 3D ale punctelor de la
sol (x, y, z), obinnduse un nor de puncte alctuit din sute de
mii sau chiar milioane de puncte.
Avantaje i dezavantaje ale tehnologiei LiDAR:
1- Distana dintre puncte i densitatea acestora sunt considerente
de importan deosebit pentru oricare proiect cu cartografiere
LiDAR.
2- LiDAR-ul nu poate vedea printre frunze, dei unele puncte
LiDAR ating suprafaa terenului prin ferestrele din coronamentul
arborilor. Cu ct densitatea punctelor LiDAR este mai mare cu att
ar crete i probabilitatea de recepionare a mai multor semnale
reflectate.
3- LiDAR-ul constituie o tehnologie complementar i de nlocuire a
celor tradiionale de cartografiere aerian.
2. CARACTERISTICI ALE TEHNOLOGIEI LiDAR
Sistemul integreaz o camer foto digital de 39
megapixeli de format mediu care permite achiziionarea simultan a
imaginilor captate.

Figura 1

Tehnologia LiDAR are n compone 3 sisteme de
baz:
- laser scaner (pentru msurarea distanelor),
- sistemul de poziionare global (GPS),
- Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) pentru nregistrarea orientrii.

245

Figura 2
Sistemul GPS (Global Position System) este reprezentat
dintr-un receptor GPS situat n cadrul avionului ce realizeaz zborul
pentru a nregistra poziia continu a acestuia i o staie GPS
(diferenial GPS) amplasat n teren pentru a corecta diferenele,
astfel nct s se obin o traiectorie ct mai bun a aparatului de
zbor.
Sistemul IMU const ntr-un set de giroscoape i
accelerometre care genereaz continu poziii relative de orientare
la 200 Hz.
Cu ajutorul scanrii laser sunt nregistrate diferenele de
timp dintre impulsurile laser trimise din avionul ce efectueaz zborul
i cele reflectate de suprafaa topografic.
Raza laser se comport diferit n funcie de obiectele
ntlnite :
1. Pe o suprafat solid (cldiri, terenuri, etc), fascicolul este
reflectat napoi fr nici o problem.
2. Pe o suprafat acoperit de ap, raza laser trece printr-o
reflexie i nu ntoarce n avion nici o informaie.
3. Pe o suprafa acoperit cu vegetaie fascicolul va ntlni n
primul moment vegetaia i apoi solul, ceea ce nseamn c se vor
transmite dou informaii, sistemul salvnd coordonatele i nlimile
de la primul i ultimul impuls, ceea ce este un avantaj c permite
msurarea nlimii terenurilor acoperite complet cu vegetaie.

246

Figura 3
3. PRELUCRARE DATE LiDAR
3.1Pregtire proiect
n cadrul proiectului care va fi prezentat am considerat
c din punct de vedere fotogrammetric tehnologia Lidar este o
tehnologie rapid, rentabil, capabil s ndeplineasc prelucrarea,
editarea i gestionarea datelor la standardul i precizia dorit de
beneficiar. Ea reuete s reduc costurile i timpii de livrare
obinnd o densitate mai mare de msurtori.
Pregtirea unui proiect folosind tehnologia LiDAR implic
un studiu i o planificare foarte exact a zonei de interes, a
zborului, a datelor existente.
Se va examina toat documentaia existent n zon
(hri, planuri, foi de orthofotoplan) pentru a culege informaiile
necesare planificrii zborului.
Se va analiza reeaua geodezic existent n zona de
lucru, staiile permanente GPS, pentru a putea face legtura cu
sistemul GPS/IMU din timpul zborului, n aa fel nct distana
maxim dintre staiile permanente GPS i zona de lucru s nu fie
mai mare de 40 km.
Se va face un studiu din punct de vedere al dificultilor
de zbor care ar putea apare n zona respectiv.
3.2. Planificarea i efectuarea zborului
Planificarea zborului va ine cont de respectarea tuturor
caracteristicilor necesare asigurrii calitii produsului final
(nltimea de zbor, limea unei benzi, acoperirea ntre benzi,
247
lungimea benzii de zbor, unghiul de mturare direcia de zbor,
stabilirea timpilor de zbor n funcie de unghiul solar).
Dup efectuarea proiectului, liniile planificate de zbor
sunt proiectate pe un model de elevaie digital, rezultnd o baz de
date cu informaii alfanumerice i grafice CAD care permite o
analiz vizual.
Odat ce proiectul de zbor a fost executat se vor exporta
diferite fiiere cu informaii asupra zborului care vor fi date ctre
echipajul de zbor pentru a fi ntegrate n sistemul de navigare al
aeronavei.

Figura 5

Figura 4

Se va asigura densitatea de
puncte indicat pe metru
ptrat, acurateea altimetric i
planimetric de puncte msurate
conform caietului de sarcini
stabilit de beneficiar.
La finalizarea zborului, se vor
ntocmi rapoartele de zbor, n
care se va specifica calitatea
zborului referitoare la acoperirea
total a zonei de lucru,
densitatea de puncte, existent
sau non-existent de linii de
zbor greite .

248

3.3. Procesarea datelor
Procesul de obinere a datelor cuprinde mai multe faze
de execuie, referitoare la datele brute obinute n urma zborului.
Se vor prelucra punctele obinute cu scanerul laser,
obinnd fiiere de puncte de tip *.las, i imaginile digitale rezultate
n urma zborului, imagini de tip *.tiff, conform schemei .

Figura 6

Date de prelucrare LIDAR

Procesarea datelor GPS/IMU
Date brute LAS Imagini digitale

Creearea fisierului LAS

Date descarcate

Filtrarea datelor LIDAR
Ajustarea datelor LIDAR

Rezultatul
controlului
calitatii
Invalid
Fisiere LAS ajustate

Valid
Elemente de orientare ale
imaginilor
Determinarea
coordonatelor x,y,z, ale
punctelor de control
Aerotriangulatia
Generarea DTM
Generarea orthofotoplanului
Date descarcate

249

3.3.1. Procesarea datelor GPS/IMU

3.3.2. Prelucrarea datelor Lidar
Se analizeaz datele pentru a fi conforme cu caietul de
sarcini al proiectului. Vor rezulta fiiere care conin informaii despre
poziie, rotaie, nlime, unghiul de corectare a scanerului precum i
parametrii referitori la presiune i temperatur. Acestea vor fi stocate
secvenial n directoare organizate pentru fiecare linie de zbor.
Vor rezulta fiiere de tip .*pos ( traiectoriile originale din
fiecare sesiune de zbor), de tip *.pof (traiectoriile procesate), de tip
.*ori (elementele de orientare preliminar, nlimea de zbor i
coordonatele centrilor imaginilor), de tip .*sdw.log (poziia liniilor de
zbor), de tip .* las (coordonatele norului de puncte).

Figura 8

Figura 7
La calculul traiectoriei
obinute se va ine cont de
planul de zbor, de calculul
traiectoriei aeronavei n retur,
de numrul de satelii captai
pe parcursul ntregului zbor,
de numrul de satelii n
comun ntre staia de baz i
aeronav, de componentele
vectorului x,y,z, dintre staia de
baz i aeronav.

250
Fiierele de tip *.las conin informaii referitoare la
coordonatele planimetrice i altimetrice ale norului de puncte.
Acestea reflect intensitatea, numrul de ntoarceri (feedbackul),
unghiul de scanare i timpul de preluare a datelor de ctre senzor.
Se verific acurateea, densitatea, acoperirea acestora n
conformitate cu toleranele specificate in proiect.

Figura 9

Dup filtrare, n cadrul programului TerraScan se
urmrete clasificarea punctelor dup altimetrie, dup ultima
ntoarcere. Vom avea o clasificare a lor dup morfologia terenului,
cldiri, copaci, etc. Aceast clasificare se va face automat ncepand
cu puncte cu valori mici de nalime, ncepe s se contureze n
acelai timp o reea de triunghiuri (TIN) care reflect suprafaa de
teren scanat. Fiecare punct filtrat i adugat poate ajusta rednd
cu precizie morfologia terenului.

Figura 10

Pentru zonele de schimbri brute de
pant (dealuri, ruri, drumuri, etc), locuri
cu mult vegetaie, poduri, clasificarea
automat de puncte va fi revizuit
manual de ctre un operator cu ajutorul
software-ului TerraSol LAS sub
MicroStation. Este o etap foarte
important, deoarece trebuiesc
eliminate toate erorile sistematice
reziduale aprute n timpul prelurii de
ctre sistemul laser scaner.

251
3.3.3 Generarea modelului digital
Dup filtrare aceste puncte se georefereniaz (se
aduc n sistemul de coordonate cerut) se verific calitatea lor i se
genereaz MDT. Produsele derivate din datele Lidar includ modele
de contur i elevatie.

Figura 11
Cu ajutorul datelor procesate i cu ajutorul unor algoritmi
de clasificare a acestora, se poate obine modelul digital dorit: MDT
( Digital Terrain Model) - modelare a terenului ignornd
infrastructura i nlimile de vegetaie. MDS ( Digital SurfaCE
Model ) modelare a terenului lund n considerare infrastructura a
caror dimensiune nu este la sol, cu excepia cldirilor.

252

Figura 12
3.3.4. Prelucrarea imaginilor digitale
Aerotiangulaia determin parametrii de orientare pentru
un bloc de imagini stereo, analiznd erorile, paralaxele din cadrul
stereomodelelor i face posibil legtura dintre coordonatele
imagine i sistemul de coordonate al spaiului obiect cu ajutorul
punctelor de control (grund control points).
Imaginile sunt nregistrate pe benzi, dispuse n jurul
axelor de zbor ( N-S, E-V) cu o acoperire longitudinala de 60-65% i
transversal de 30-35%.
S-a folosit metoda bloc, cu puncte de aerotriangulaie
(APM) generate automat. Punctele de control au fost plasate n
locuri plane, fr obstrucii, uor de identificat fiind determinate cu o
nalt precizie.

253

Figura 13

3.3.4. Generarea foilor de orthofotoplan
Cu ajutorul modelului digital al terenului care a fost
generat pe baza norului de puncte clasificate i cu ajutorul
imaginilor transformate n suport de lucru prin aerotriangulaie, se
vor genera foile de orthofotoplan la scara dorit.

Figura 14

254
Toate informaiile obinute se integreaz intr-o platform
GIS, care permite obinerea informaiilor grafice i textuale la un
nivel ridicat de calitate care poate fi adaptat oricrui proiect de
dezvoltare urban, rural ct i pentru monitorizarea mediului
nconjurtor. Necesitile economice de dezvoltare urban impun
realizarea de produse adecvate proiectrii i sistematizrii care s
in cont de mediul ambiant.
Folosind tehnologia LiDAR ne putem gndi la
posibilitatea de a avea oraele trii modelate 3D, de a evalua
riscurile alunecrilor de teren i a inundaiilor, proiectarea liniilor de
nalt tensiune, a autostrazilor.
Nevoia modelelor tridimensionale (3D) crete i se
extinde rapid n numeroase domenii. n mod constant pe piaa de
date spaiale producia de modele 3D integrate n sisteme de tip GIS
a devenit mult mai mare fa de modelele tradiionale 2D-GIS, mai
ales pentru modelele 3D ale oraelor pentru care se cere o
producie ntr-un timp ct mai scurt.
Metodele de obinere a datelor necesare modelrii 3D se
vor perfeciona, dar ele vor rmne practic aceleai. Datele iniiale
vor fi mereu informaii legate de modelul numeric al terenului, de
date laser, de imagini aeriene.
n concluzie, tehnologia LiDAR se va impune din ce n ce
n mai multe domenii.

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