ORGANIZAIILE MODERNE
Psychology
in
Modern Organizations
EUGEN AVRAM
COORDONATOR
PSIHOLOGIA
N
ORGANIZAIILE
MODERNE
Psychology
in
Modern Organizations
&
-7
EDITURA UNIVERSITAR
Bucureti
3
Copyright 2008
Editura Universitar
Director: Vasile Muscalu
B-dul. N. Blcescu nr. 27-33,
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AUTORI
the Ministry of Internal Affairs. He was the manager of five projects during his activity
at the Institute of Research in Transportations (The Human Factor and Sociology in
Transportation Department). He has published a series of articles in Romanian journals
and book chapters.
Cornel Laureniu Mincu este lector dr. la Facultatea de Psihologie i tiintele
Educaiei, Universitatea din Bucureti/ Catedra de psihologie. Este autor, coautor,
co-editor al mai multor lucrri din domeniul psihologiei experimentale, metodologiei
cercetrii psihologice, psihodiagnosticului.
Puiu M. Mihai este Confereniar Dr. la Universitatea Hyperion, Bucureti;
psiholog principal psihologia muncii i organizaional. A publicat mai multe cri de
management.
Cristina Leovaridis - Cercettor tiinific gr. III dr., Institutul de Sociologie,
Academia Romn; Lector universitar dr. asociat n cadrul Facultii de Sociologie i
Asisten Social, Universitatea Bucureti i n cadrul Facultii de Comunicare i
Relaii Publice, SNSPA. Volume publicate: Industria publicitii o abordare
organizaional, Editura Universitar, Bucureti, 2007 (454 pag.); ntreprinderile mici
i mijlocii i comunitile rurale n procesele de dezvoltare durabil (n colaborare),
Editura Expert, Bucureti, 2007 (178 pag.); Paradoxul instituional. IMM i dezvoltarea
durabil (n colaborare), Editura Expert, Bucureti, 2006 (428 pag.); Managementul
resurselor umane (n colaborare), Editura comunicare.ro, Bucureti, 2003 (338 pag.);
Managementul resurselor umane. Teste i studii de caz (n colaborare), Editura Bren,
Bucureti, 2003 (175 pag.).
Gelu Moraru este justist i specialist resurse umane. Interesul su profesional
i activitatea publicistic includ: legislaia muncii, managementul resurselor umane,
dezvoltarea organizaionale, contractele formale i psihologice n i ntre organizaii.
Mihai Zota este psiholog (absolvent al Universitii Al. I. Cuza, Iai) i
consultant financiar. Interesul su tiinific s-a materializat n prezentri de studii n
cadrul unor evenimente tiinifice i lucrri publicate cu tematici din domeniul:
psihologiei sociale, psihologiei consumatorului, psihologiei sntii, metodologiei
cercetrii pshologice.
Clina Gavril este absolvent a Facultii de Economie i Administrarea
Afacerilor, specializarea Marketing/ Universitatea Al. I. Cuza, Iasi.
Ioan Dasclu - Profesor universitar doctor, Academia de Poliie Alexandru
Ioan Cuza- Facultatea de Drept, conductor de doctorat, autor sau coautor a numeroase
cursuri i monografii, dintre care cele mai reprezentative sunt: Percheziia judiciar,
Editura Sitech, Craiova, 2008; Organizaia criminal a drogurilor, Editura Sitech,
Craiova, 2008; Poliiile naionale i unificarea european, Editura Grafoanaytis,
Ploieti, 2007; Dreptul consumaiei, Editura Metamorphosis, Ploieti, 2007; Frauda
n domeniul financiar, bancar i pieei de capital, Editura TREI, Bucureti, 2002;
Criminalitatea digital, Editura Argument, Bucureti, 2002; Centrele financiare
offshore, paradisurile fiscale i secretul bancar, Editura Argument, Bucureti, 2001;
Managementul organizaional n domeniul ordinii publice, Editura M.A.I., Bucureti,
2001; Drept poliienesc, Editura FADROM, Bucureti, 1998.
8
CUVNT INTRODUCTIV
studiilor ctre domenii de interes actual pentru organizaiile de azi, iar pe de alt
parte, sugereaz referirea la organizaii care promoveaz politici moderne, dovada
concludent constnd n caracterul tiinific, argumentat, detaliat al analizelor efectuate
asupra activitii lor, dar i n faptul c au asimilat cercetarea organizaional, ca
parte a colaborrii cu specialiti din domeniul psihologiei.
Lucrarea reuete s aduc mpreun contribuiile unor autori importani ai
domeniului, cadre didactice universitare, cercettori tiinifici i practicieni din Europa,
S.U.A. i Asia.
Cititorii, experi, practicieni, specialiti aflai n stagii postdoctorale, doctoranzi,
masteranzi, studeni, au ocazia de a-i lrgi cmpul cunoaterii i de a utiliza structurile
informaionale i modelele de cercetare n realizarea unor proiecte academice i, mai
ales, a unor proiecte destinate ameliorrii climatului, randamentului i securitii n
organizaiile-client sau n cele n care activeaz.
Eugen Avram
12
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
14
CUPRINS
PARTEA I
ABORDRI TEORETICE I METODOLOGICE MODERNE
Capitolul 1
Vladimir Skorikov
Occupational identity and human lives in the 21st century ..............................
25
Capitolul 2
Ionu Crudu & Delia Vrg
Responsabilitatea social corporativ i comportamentele organizaionale
civic-participative ..............................................................................................
39
Capitolul 3
Irina Cozma
Models and Predictors of Voluntary Turnover ..................................................
59
Capitolul 4
Eugen Avram
Teorii ale ncrederii organizaionale .................................................................
81
Capitolul 5
Rzvan Zaharia
Autodezvluirea factor al succesului n relaiile interpersonale ................... 111
Capitolul 6
Radu I. Popa, Laureniu Maricuoiu, Liliana Negoescu & Simona Pleea
Personalitate i leadership transformaional: O meta-analiz ........................ 138
Capitolul 7
Noelia Flores & Cristina Jenaro
Quality of working life indicators in sheltered workshop workers: job demands,
resources and psychosocial risks ...................................................................... 153
15
Capitolul 8
Mahnaz Aliakbari & Fatemeh Hemmati
The Theory of Androgyny and Employed Women .............................................. 169
Capitolul 9
Valentin Dinu
Mecanisme ale stresului organizaional ............................................................ 196
Capitolul 10
Cornel L. Mincu
Aplicaii ale tehnicilor proiective n psihodiagnoza organizaional ............... 224
PARTEA a II-a
ABORDRI APLICATIVE
DEZVOLTAREA ORGANIZAIEI
Capitolul 11
Eugen Avram & Puiu M. Mihai
Small enterprises facing globalization .............................................................. 245
Capitolul 12
Cristina Leovaridis
Inovaia n organizaiile intensiv-cognitive din sectorul serviciilor ................. 257
Capitolul 13
Gelu Moraru
Schimbarea echipei manageriale i criza organizaional ............................... 271
Capitolul 14
Mihai Zota, Clina Gavril
Vnzarea expresiv vs. vnzarea agresiv n domeniul asigurrilor de via .. 282
APRARE
Capitolul 15
Ioan Dasclu & Cristian-Eduard tefan
Organizaiile criminale repere conceptuale i tipologii ................................. 314
Capitolul 16
Anghel Andreescu & Radu Nicolae
Organizaiile teroriste internaionale prevenirea i gestionarea consecinelor 347
Capitolul 17
16
Florian Gheorghe
Sntatea organizaional n penitenciarele moderne ...................................... 369
Capitolul 18
Ioan Dasclu & Laureniu Giurea
Negocierea n situaiile lurii de ostatici .......................................................... 385
EDUCAIE
Capitolul 19
Liliane Rioux
Lappropriation de lespace universitaire, un facteur de russite dans les
tudes ? Enqute auprs dtudiants en IUT ..................................................... 404
Capitolul 20
Emilie Boujut & Marilou Bruchon-Schweitzer
La mesure du stress chez les tudiants: une revue de la littrature .................. 424
Capitolul 21
Aurel Clinciu & Simona T. Clinciu
Profesiunea de bibliotecar colar - o perspectiv integrativ .......................... 434
Capitolul 22
Simona M. Glveanu
Managementul serviciilor de consiliere psihologic n educaie ...................... 452
17
18
SUMMARY
PART I
MODERN THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES
Chapter 1
Vladimir Skorikov
Occupational identity and human lives in the 21st century ...............................
25
Chapter 2
Ionu Crudu & Delia Vrg
Corporate social responsibility and organizational civic-participative
behaviour ...........................................................................................................
39
Chapter 3
Irina Cozma
Models and Predictors of Voluntary Turnover ..................................................
59
Chapter 4
Eugen Avram
Theories of Organizational Trust ......................................................................
81
Chapter 5
Rzvan Zaharia
Self-disclosure a factor of success in
the interpersonal relationships .......................................................................... 111
Capitolul 6
Radu I. Popa, Laureniu Maricuoiu, Liliana Negoescu & Simona Pleea
Personality and transformational leadership: A meta-analysis ........................ 138
Chapter 7
Noelia Flores & Cristina Jenaro
Quality of working life indicators in sheltered workshop workers: job demands,
resources and psychosocial risks ...................................................................... 153
19
Chapter 8
Mahnaz Aliakbari & Fatemeh Hemmati
The Theory of Androgyny and Employed Women .............................................. 169
Chapter 9
Valentin Dinu
Mechanisms of organizational stress ................................................................ 196
Chapter 10
Cornel L. Mincu
Applications of the projective techniques in organizational psycho-diagnosis
224
PART II
APPLICATIVE APPROACHES
ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 11
Eugen Avram & Puiu M. Mihai
Small exterprises facing globalization .............................................................. 245
Chapter 12
Cristina Leovaridis
Innovation in the intensive-cognitive organizations belonging to the service
sector ................................................................................................................. 257
Capitolul 13
Gelu Moraru
Changing management team and organizational crises ................................... 271
Chapter 14
Mihai Zota, Clina Gavril
Expressive selling vs. aggressive selling in the domain of life insurances ....... 282
DEFENSE
Chapter 15
Ioan Dascalu & Cristian-Eduard tefan
Criminal organizations conceptual reference points and typology ................ 314
Chapter 16
Anghel Andreescu & Radu Nicolae
International terrorist organizations preventing and dealing with
consequences ..................................................................................................... 347
20
Chapter 17
Florian Gheorghe
Organizational health in modern prisons .......................................................... 369
Chapter 18
Ioan Dasclu & Laureniu Giurea
Negotiation in the hostage-taking situations ..................................................... 385
EDUCATION
Chapter 19
Liliane Rioux
Academic self-appropriation space as a factor of achievement in education.
A study on a population of U.I.T. students ........................................................ 404
Chapter 20
Emilie Boujut & Marilou Bruchon-Schweitzer
Measuring stress on university students: a review of the qualified literature .. 424
Chapter 21
Aurel Clinciu & Simona T. Clinciu
The job of a school librarian an integrative perspective ............................... 434
Chapter 22
Simona M. Glveanu
The management psychological counselling services in education .................. 452
21
22
PARTEA I
ABORDRI TEORETICE I METODOLOGICE
MODERNE
23
24
CAPITOLUL 1
OCCUPATIONAL IDENTITY AND HUMAN LIVES
IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Vladimir Skorikov
Abstract
Identity in general can be viewed is a form of adaptation to the social context,
and, in turn, occupational identity represents a mechanism of adjustment to the
changing social and economic context of human lives. Occupational identity, also
referred to as vocational, career and work identity, has long been considered one of
the key concepts in theory and research on career development On the one hand,
occupational identity is a complex structure of meanings in which the individual
links his or her motivation and competencies with acceptable career roles. On the
other hand, occupational identity is seen as an internal representation of the vocational
self as an active agent in the process of career development. Finally, occupational
identity is the core, integrative element of identity in general, which serves not only
as a determinant of occupational attainment, but also as a major factor in the emergence
of meaning and structure in adult lives.
Keywords: identity, occupational identity, human lives.
1. Introduction
Occupational identity, also referred to as vocational, career and work
identity, has long been considered one of the key concepts in theory and research
on career development (Skorikov & Vondracek, 2007). On the one hand,
occupational identity is a complex structure of meanings in which the individual
links his or her motivation and competencies with acceptable career roles
(Meijers, 1998). On the other hand, occupational identity is seen as an internal
representation of the vocational self as an active agent in the process of career
development (Vondracek & Skorikov, 1997). Finally, occupational identity is
the core, integrative element of identity in general, which serves not only as a
determinant of occupational attainment, but also as a major factor in the
25
Occupational Self-Exploration
Commitment
Limited
Active
Completed
Not made
Occupational Identity
Diffusion
Occupational Identity
Foreclosure
Occupational Identity
Moratorium
Dynamic Occupational
Identity Achievement
Occupational Identity
Confusion
Static Occupational
Identity Achievement
Made
Work
Motivation
Stability
Growth
Extrinsic
Intrinsic
Work as a Job
Work as a Calling
Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977), and the
Beck Anxiety Inventory (Beck, Epstein, Brown & Steer, 1988). Educational
attainment and occupational status were assessed through standard educational
and occupational ranking scales, each based on a single question. The measures
of occupational identity included the Vocational Identity scale of My Vocational
Situation (Holland et al, 1980), a scale used to assess the clarity, strength, and
stability of occupational commitments, and a measure of work orientations,
including Work as a Job, Work as a Calling, Work as Social Ladder, and Work
as a Career. The latter were assessed through a prototype-identification method
(McKeague et al, 2002; Wrzeniewski et al, 1997). The study participants were
asked to assess their resemblance with four prototypical workers, each
representing a particular work orientation, on a Likert-type scale of 1 (not at
all like me) to 4 (exactly like me).
The strength of occupational identity (Vocational Identity scale) was
relatively strongly correlated with life satisfaction, self esteem and depressive
affect (r = 0.48, r = 0.40 and r = -0.48, respectively), and all correlation
coefficients were highly significant (p < 0.01). There was also a clear
relationship between the contents of occupational identity and various indicators
of adjustment. There were moderate, but highly significant associations between
the orientations toward work as a calling and career, on the one hand, and life
satisfaction, self-esteem and depression, on the other hand. In contrast, there
were no significant associations between any measure of adjustment and the
remaining two work orientations except a weak, negative correlation between
life satisfaction and orientation toward work as a social ladder.
As expected, both occupational identity and life satisfaction were
significantly correlated with age, salary/income from work and educational
and occupational status. Thus, we used Structural Equations Modeling (SEM)
to investigate the effects of strength (Vocational Identity scale) and contents
(Work Orientation scales) of occupational identity on life satisfaction while
controlling for demographic and occupational characteristics (age, education,
occupational status and salary/income) and general adjustment (depression,
anxiety and self-esteem).
Path analysis was utilized to assess the relative fit of alternative models
of the multivariate relationships between occupational identity, life satisfaction
and control variables. Whereas none of the models based on the assumption
that occupational identity is affected by life satisfaction fit the data, we were
able to demonstrate that a model consistent with our hypothesis about the effects
of occupational identity on life satisfaction shown in Figure 1 was characterized
by an excellent fit, as evidenced by the goodness of fit statistics: 2 = 15.27 (df
= 15, p = 0.43); RMSEA < 0.01 (p-value for the test of close fit = 0.89); CFI =
0.98; AGFI = 0.95.
32
.18
OCCUPATIONAL STATUS
EDUCATION
AGE
.20
SALARY
LIFE SATISFACTION
WORK AS
A JOB
-.17
.20
WORK AS
A LADDER
.19
.28
WORK AS
A CALLING
.33
.32
.29
WORK AS
A CAREER
SELF-ESTEEM
ANXIETY
-.37
.35
-.30
DEPRESSION
VOCATIONAL
IDENTITY
Of all control variables, only education and self-esteem had direct effects
on life satisfaction. Interestingly, salary/income from work did not have either
direct or indirect effects on life satisfaction or any other indicators of adjustment.
Controlling for the multivariate predictors of life satisfaction, perception of
work as ones calling and strength of ones occupational identity had a large
combined effect on life satisfaction, which accounted for most of the variance
in life satisfaction explained by the model (43%).
Whereas a correlational study cannot provide conclusive evidence
regarding causal relationships, the results of structural equations modeling
provided strong support for the hypothesized effect of occupational identity
on life satisfaction, but not for the reversed effect. Thus, our findings appear to
33
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36
CAPITOLUL 2
RESPONSABILITATEA SOCIAL CORPORATIV
I COMPORTAMENTELE ORGANIZAIONALE
CIVIC-PARTICIPATIVE
Ionu Crudu & Delia Vrg
Abstract
The social responsibility concept becomes very used within the late
interdisciplinary debates on the complex relation between society and the corporatist
environment. In the last years in Romania there are many corporate initiatives related
to social responsibility, but still this concept is not very often used in the academic
debates. This article propose to initiate a frame for debate and analysis of recent
developments of corporate social responsibility in Romania and to present a basic
research design oriented both to the patterns of corporate practices and to social
impact of such initiatives and on individual attitudes towards work context, social
solidarity and quality of life. This paper creates the basis for building a multidimensional model for diagnosing the way corporate social responsibility influence
the individual attitudes related to organizational processes, organizational
commitments, work satisfaction and the complex relation between trust, social
solidarity, well-being and civic-participative behavior.
Keywords: The social responsibility, corporatist environment, social solidarity
and quality of working life.
mai bine pltite din Occident. Guvernul are n acelai timp responsabilitatea
de a asigura, prin legislaia pe care o promoveaz, un mediu economic stabil i
competitiv, care s permit att dezvoltarea societilor corporatiste, dar i
mbuntirea nivelului de trai pentru angajaii acestora. De aceea, rspunderea
social-corporatist reprezint, din punctul nostru de vedere, un imperativ care
trebuie pus n practic unitar i ct mai curnd la nivelul tuturor companiilor
care doresc s-i consolideze activitatea pe termen lung.
Responsabilitatea social a corporaiilor ar trebui sa devin o obligaie,
pentru c, pe termen mediu i lung, companiile europene trebuie s fac fa
creterii de competitivitate a adversarilor din America i Asia.
4. Modele teoretice de studiu ale RSC
Economistul Milton Friedman, laureat al Premiului Nobel, a contribuit
iniial la conturarea unei idei generale asupra responsabilitii sociale a
corporaiilor. Cutnd un rspuns la interogaia dac ar trebui companiile s
i asume responsabiliti n privina problemelor sociale, Frideman afirma c
o unic responsabilitate social major a corporaiilor ar trebui s fie considerat
doar aceea de a-i urmri sporirea profiturilor strict pe ci legale. Desigur,
Friedman era un susintor al minimizrii interveniilor guvernelor n cadrul
pieelor libere. Treptat ns, ncepnd cu ultima parte a secolului XX, ideea de
responsabilitate social i-a extins consistent sfera iar arena responsabilitilor
conferite astzi companiilor este mult mai mare. De cele mai multe ori conceptul
de responsabilitate social a fost utilizat ncepnd cu anii 90 ca un concept
umbrel sub care au fost introduse un numr mare de idei, practici i tehnici.
Caracterul fluctuant i dinamic al RSC nu este ns problematic atta timp ct
aceasta se refer la nevoi sociale care sunt ele nsele variabile n timp i spaiu.
Din punct de vedere teoretic, fiind un concept controversat, este normal s fie
dependent de definiii operaionale i funcionale care vizeaz scopuri
pragmatice de conturare a unor practici pluridimensionale i cu obiective
variabile.
A. Carroll (1999) identific patru componente ale RSC-ului: componenta
economic, cea legal, cea etic i componenta discreionar sau filantropic.
Componenta economic este responsabilitatea companiei de a avea profit i a
crete; cea legal de a se supune legilor i a juca n conformitate cu regulile
jocului; componenta etic const n obligaia companiilor de a-i asuma
normele delimitate lor de ctre societate; iar cea discreionar implic
activitile filantropice de susinere a comunitilor. Dintr-o astfel de abordare
teoretic, RSC ar putea fi definit ca obligaia companiei de a-i folosi resursele
n moduri care pot aduce beneficii societii printr-o participare dedicat n
46
care reprezint afirmarea cea mai conform a esenei unui actor social. Astfel,
pentru Moore, aplicnd schema lui MacIntyre, o firm virtuoas este contient
de i promoveaz practici care ncurajeaz urmrirea excelenei n acea
practic, contient de faptul c urmrete scopuri morale, c urmrete un
bine extern att ct este necesar pentru a susine dezvoltarea excelenei n
practic(Moore, 2003, p.51).
Aadar, n afaceri, excelena pare a fi esena natural intrinsec i potenial
a firmelor i cea care poate fi actualizat prin practici. Tocmai concentrarea pe
excelen ar fi, pentru Moore, aplicarea virtuii n practic, ncorporarea virtuii
neleas ca element generator de progres la nivelul socialului ca ntreg. Virtutea
articulat sub forma practicilor de RSC este definitorie pentru procesul
instituionalizat al afacerilor ntruct istoria ne arat funcionalitatea sa:
societile au neutralizat de-a lungul timpului diversele categorii de vicii,
cutnd s promoveze generic virtutea i s o pun n serviciul lor. RSC este
astfel localizat n tocmai esena profund a instituiilor economice iar practica
RSC capt la Moore o semnificaie profund moral. Dup cum spune Ella
Joseph, etica nu mai este preocuparea exclusiv a filosofilor cutarea
adevrului i virtuii a devenit o afacere profitabil (Joseph, 2001, p. 121).
Sandra Waddock, unul dintre cei mai reputai specialiti ai RSC, insist
constant asupra nevoii de fundamentare consistent teoretic a responsabilitii
sociale. Waddock (2004) atenioneaz asupra lipsei de sincretism i schismelor
dintre interpretrile academice ale RSC i formele de implementare practic i
cheam insistent la ntrirea interesului academic pentru elaborarea unor
standarde de calitate ct mai precise. Ea propune tratarea companiilor ca ceteni
corporai cu responsabiliti directe asupra societii. Cetenia corporatist
presupune ideea c firmele au att drepturi, ct i ndatoriri. Statutul de ceteni
ai corporaiilor le expune unor rigori sociale i necesitii articulrii unor
standarde de auditare specifice, similare modului n care sunt evaluai n termeni
de responsabilitate toi cetenii. Waddock este astfel unul din promotorii ideii
integrrii standardelor de RSC n cerinele Organizaiei Internaionale de
Standardizare (ISO). Prin urmare, pentru Waddock, RSC trebuie neleas n
dimensiunea sa universalizabil iar discrepana dintre cerinele globale ale
practicilor corporate pe pia i specificul naional i/sau local poate fi atenuat
prin asumarea de ctre corporaii a unor standarde internaionale de tip ISO
care adaug valoare att firmelor, ct i societii ca ntreg.
Din punct de vedere teoretic, o sintez satisfctoare a RSC trebuie s
plaseze afacerile profitabile ntr-un cadru moral, orientat att societal, ct i
individual, ntr-o relaie realist cu practicile pieei configurate predominant
utilitarist i orientate ctre maximizarea profitului. Multe analize ale RSC vd
o antinomie principial ntre coninutul moral al practicilor de afaceri orien48
tate de beneficii i coninutul moral al elaborrilor etice care nu par nici ele
locuite de prea mult consens. n fundamentarea etic a RSC este greu i uneori
cu finaliti neprofitabile s alegi ntre Aristotel, Kant, W. James, Mill, Rawls,
Rorty sau muli alii care promoveaz energic criterii de valabilitate ale unor
standarde morale. Cu toate acestea, n absena unei sinteze teoretice
convingtoare sau a unei demonstraii de superioritate a vreuneia dintre abordri,
este acceptat n principiu c lunga tradiie a elaborrilor etice cu privire la
RSC este mai puin riscant dect abordrile pur economice. Acestea din urm
sunt vzute de muli ca apte s promoveze mbuntirea standardului de
bunstare material sau chiar a unor standarde mai nalte n afaceri ns sunt
deseori suspectate de camuflarea unei insensibiliti morale. Realismul n
abordarea RSC ar presupune ntr-o sintez funcional o a treia cale utiliznd
astzi celebra expresie a lui Anthony Giddens - : o cale apt s ia n calcul att
dimensiunea etic, altruist i caritabil n domeniul afacerilor, ct i pe cea
pragmatic-utilitarist dominat deseori de tendina autorealizrii egoiste a
corporatismului. Tocmai astzi preocuparea crescnd fa de RSC
demonstreaz validitatea simultan a principiilor morale i a pieei libere cernd
explicit criterii de depire neantagonic i social benefic a unei opoziii doar
aparente ntre cele dou.
5. Metode de cercetare al RSC
Din studiul articolelor din jurnalele internaionale a reieit c cele mai
utilizate strategii de cercetare a RSC sunt: anchetele pe baz de chestionare,
interviurile semi-structurate cu experi implicai n aciuni RSC sau cu ageni
ai schimbrii i studii de caz la nivel de organizaii sau de ri. Printre multiplele
metode de culegerea datelor se identific i analiza documentelor i observaia
participativ.
Printr-o evaluare longitudinal, realizat de Lockell i colaboratorii (2006),
asupra jurnalelor internaionale care abordeaz problematica RSC, din diferite
domenii, pe o perioad de 10 ani (1992-2002), s-a constat c balana dintre
lucrrile teoretice i empirice ce trateaz problematica RSC este de 53% pentru
studiile empirice i 47% pentru studiile teoretice. n ceea ce privete studii
empirice, se observ o frecven mai mare a cercetrilor empirice cantitative
dect cele calitative.
Analiza coninutului mai multor jurnale internaionale prestigioase au
relevat faptul c: a) editorii aloc spaii relativ egale cercetrilor teoretice i
practice; b) jurnalele public n mod evident mai puine studii calitative dect
cantitative; c) cercetrile teoretice sunt non-normative ca orientare.
49
Waddock, S., Bodwell, C., Graves, S. (2002). Responsibility: The new business
imperative. The Academy of Management Executive 16(2): 132147.
Zadek, S. (2001). The Civil Corporation: The New Economy of Corporate Citizenship.
Earthscan, London.
Referine electronice:
http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/soc-dial/csr/index.htm
http://www.consultanta-certificare.ro/stiri/iso-26000-responsabilitatea-sociala.html
http://www.responsabilitatesociala.ro/
http://www.csr-romania.ro/
http://www.ron-brown-award.org/index.cfm
http://www.unglobalcompact.org
58
CAPITOLUL 3
MODELS AND PREDICTORS OF
VOLUNTARY TURNOVER
Irina Cozma
Abstract
All the turnover definitions link this concept with the process of leaving from
an organization. Turnover is an individual movement across the membership boundary
of an organization. A frequently used distinction is between voluntary turnover
(employee initiated, e.g. quite) and involuntary turnover (organization initiated, e.g.
dismissal, death and retirement). Consequently turnover is quite an expensive process.
The chapter describes models and predictors of voluntary turnover.
Keywords: voluntary turnover, employee.
1. Argument
Because the quality of the people hired will impact the organization at all
levels, hiring is one of the most important steps in an organization life. The
companies invest a lot of resources (time and money) in this initial step and
their expectations are to bring in the most qualified people that will perform as
good as possible for as long time as possible. But very often the employees are
not staying around sufficient time for the companies to recover the investment
made in them, and both short and long service terminations have negative
impact on the organizational system. According to the Bureau of Labor
Statistics, the average cost to replace an employee is $13,996 (OConnell &
Kung, 2007). A computer programmer who quits might incur as much as
$20,080 to a company, and an exiting pharmaceutical salesperson can cost an
employer $62,708 in total expenses (Hom & Griffeth, 1995). Generally speaking
the cost of one turnover incident ranges from between 93% and 200% of a
leavers salary, depending on his or her skills and level or job responsibility
59
(Cascio, 2000, as cited in Griffeth & Hom, 2001). Another important aspect is
that usually companies do not experience just one turnover event. In this context,
Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates that both general turnover and voluntary
turnover rates are slightly increasing from year to year (U.S. total turnover
rates: 36.9% in 2004, 40.9% in 2005, 40.4 % in 2006, and overall U.S. voluntary
turnover 20.20% in 2004, 22.7% 2005, and 23.4% annually 2006).
Consequently turnover is quite an expensive process. According to
Roseman (1981) there are to categories of costs related with turnover: tangible
and intangible. The tangible costs include: recruitment (e.g. advertising,
employment agencies), selection (e.g. testing, interviewing, medical exam,
references check), orientation, training, production (e.g. substandard production,
overtime, wastage costs), separation (e.g. paperwork, exit interview), and
vacancy (e.g. overtime, temporary help, idle machine). The intangible costs
include: disruption on morale, stimulation of additional turnover, workload
demands, reputation, feeling of insecurity, etc. It is easily understandable the
frustration of the mangers when the people dont actually stay and the frustration
became higher when they leave very early. If in the case of a long term turnover
the company has the opportunity to use the employees abilities and
competences for a reasonable period of time, but in the case of early turnover
the investment is not recovered. And historically, beginning employees are
most likely to quit during their initial period of employment before they
accumulated much job tenure (Mobley, 1982; Griffeth & Hom, 2001).
The focus of this paper is especially on voluntary turnover, more exactly
on the models and predictors of voluntary turnover. Also, the recommendation
for the future investigation is to take a closer look to early turnover in order to
make a typology of the individuals who are leaving earlier, and to find out
what is the reasoning process behind this decision.
2. Conceptual delimitations
All the turnover definitions link this concept with the process of leaving
from an organization. Most companies will experience the departure of a
number of employees during the course of the years. Yet behind the raw figures
lies a variety of explanations: some individuals may have retired, others been
dismissed, some may have moved out of the area, others opted to change career,
some poor performers may have left, so too some good performers, some
departures may have been regretted, others not. So in defining which categories
of departures do you include and which ones do you leave out?
The general definition of employment turnover is the cessation of
membership in an organization by an individual who receive monetary
60
Turnover
14.6%
Voluntary
87%
Functional
42%
Involuntary
13%
Dysfunctional
58%
Unavoidable
72%
Avoidable
28%
Predictability of job
relationships
Job satisfaction
Size of
organization
Perceived possibility of
transfer
Perceived
desirability of
movement
Figure 2. March and Simon (1958): Major factors affecting perceived desirability
of movement.
The major factor that affects the perceived ease of movement from
organization is the number of organizational perceived as alternative for him,
that depends on level of business activity, personal characteristics (sex, age,
social status, tenure, and specialization), and the number of visible
organizations. The former one depends on organizational characteristics (the
state of the economy first, prestige of the company, growth, familiar products)
but also on individual characteristics: the propensity to search (habituation,
job satisfaction), and the visibility of individual (personal contacts, networks,
and uniqueness of the individual).
The March and Simon model brings in discussion the need to asses both
economical and behavioral variables in studying employee turnover process.
But the few tests of this model have not found strong support for the ease to
movement construct (Schwab & Dyer, 1979, as cited in Mobley, 1982).
63
Levels of business
activities
Number of
organizations visible
Personal
characteristics of
participants
Number of extra-organizational
alternatives perceived
Perceived ease
of movement
Figure 3. March and Simon (1958): Major factors affecting perceived ease of
movement.
Satisfaction
Turnover
Formal
communication
Centralization
Thinking of quitting
Evaluation of expected utility
of search and cost of quitting
Intention to search for
alternatives
Comparison of alternatives
Intention to quit / stay
Quit / stay
Satisfaction influences:
- job complexity
- role stress
- group cohesion
- compensation
- leader member relations
- met expectations
- negative affectivity
Commitment influences:
- procedural justice
- attraction of internal roles
- job security
- job investments
- extra organizational conflicts
- conditions of job entry
- commitment propensity
Job satisfaction
Organizational commitment
Labor market:
- unemployment
- knowledge of
other jobs
- relocation costs
Shocks
Decision to quit
Job search
Evaluate
alternatives
Resignation
4. Turnover predictors
There are economical, organizational, and individual antecedents that
leads to turnover. Below we analyze some of these.
a. Economical variables
Employment/unemployment levels have demonstrated to be one of the
most consistent variables. Price (1977) and meta-analytical results by Catton
and Tuttle (1986) supported employment-unemployment rates an accurate
predictors of turnover rates. Hom, Katerberg, and Hulin (1979) reported a
correlation of - .84 between unemployment rates and quits over a 31 years
period. Meta-analytical research has found that unemployment rates serve as a
moderator of the satisfaction-turnover relationship. A stronger satisfactionturnover relationship exists during times of low employment than during times
of high unemployment (Carsten & Spector, 1987).
b. Organizational variables
Organizational variables include structural and descriptive characteristics
of organizations. Prince (1977) found support for the generalizations that
68
the greater the likelihood of turnover (Cotton & Tutle, 1986; Muchinsky &
Tuttle, 1979; Prince, 1977). Similar findings result from the relation with
commitment (Mobley at all. 1979). But in the last years, the research on the
traditional models (Mobley, 1977) has explained only a small proportion of
variance in actual employee turnover. In a meta-analysis of the research on
these turnover models, Hom and his colleagues (1992) reported that the
corrected mean correlations between employee turnover and satisfaction (.18), thoughts of quitting (.27), search intentions (.26), intention to quit (.36),
and probability of alternatives (.14) were modest.
Judge (1993) brings in discussion another interesting concept. He argues
that employees positively disposed toward life are more likely to quite a
dissatisfactory job than are the negatively predisposed employees. Relatively
to other things in their lives, happy individuals feel more dissatisfied with a
bad job than do unhappy individuals, for whom job dissatisfaction is no more
exceptional than other dissatisfying events in their lives. Judge found correlation
higher between job satisfaction and voluntary quits for medical clinic personnel
with positive orientations than for negatively disposed employees.
e. Performance
Although turnover creates costs, both tangible and intangible, the
organizational consequences of turnover are dependent on who leaves and who
stays. Most of the studies on the performance turnover relation have focuses
on a negative linear relationship: the lower the performance, the higher the
likelihood of turnover (Wells & Muchinsky, 1985; Dreher, 1982; Keller, 1984).
At least two theoretical reasons can be advanced to account for the discovery
of a significant, negative overall relationship between performance and turnover.
First, receiving a low or below-average performance rating is likely to be a
stressful event, and recent research indicates that individuals under stress will
engage in more information search activities than other individuals (Keller,
1984). Thus, poor performers may engage in many job search activities.
On the other hand, a positive relationship between performance and
turnover (the higher the performance the greater the likelihood of turnover)
has been suggested by Price (1977). Other studies (March & Simon, 1958;
Jackofsky, Peters, & Breckenridge, 1986; Wagner, Pfeffer, & OReilly, 1984)
reported the presence of a curvilinear relationship. The U-shape relationship
between performance and turnover is explained as following: 1) low performers
will quit because of the threat of being fired, 2) high performers will leave due
to higher perceived ease of movement (they are more visible to external
organizations (Jackofsky, 1984).
70
High
Truck
Drivers
Probability
of Turnover
Accountants
Low
b3
b2
b1
a
Mean
Job Performance
a2
a3
Figure 7. Relation between job performance and turnover for accountants and
truck drivers.
To clarify this relationship, McEvoy and Cascio (1987) conducted a metaanalysis of 24 studies (n=7,717) correlating performance with turnover (both
voluntary and involuntary). Thirteen studies included only voluntary turnover,
4 included only involuntary turnover, and 7 included both types. They estimated
a correlation of -.22 (and -.28 after the correction for attenuation in the
performance measurement), indicating high turnover for poor performers and
low turnover for good performers. But the type of turnover is an important
moderator variable, and after grouping studies according to type of turnover,
71
they discovered that only the correlation between involuntary turnover and
performance significantly differed from zero. On the other hand, performance
was not significantly related to voluntary turnover. But the small sample size
(six studies which examine voluntary turnover) and the moderator role of
satisfaction can be considered weak points of this meta-analysis.
Spencer and Steers (1981) and Orpen (1986) examined performance as a
moderator of the job satisfaction turnover relationship. They indicated that
high levels of job satisfaction reduce the likelihood that low performers will
leave, whereas job satisfaction has little influence on the turnover rates among
high performers.
The idea of curvilinear relationship rests on the premise that high
performance leads to increased ease of movement. It appears that more research
on voluntary turnover is needed to resolve the curvilinearity issue. Such research
must be careful to measure voluntary turnover in such a way as to minimize
the possibility that the construct also captures some involuntary turnover.
Several authors have noted the difficulty of separating organizationally
encouraged voluntary turnover from truly volitional turnover (Jackofsky, 1984;
McEvoy & Cascio, 1985). Furthermore, Dalton et al. (1982) noted that high
performers may quit for different reasons than do low performers.
f. Realistic job preview (RJP)
Job previews represent comprehensive profiles of the job, describing both
its negative and positive feature to new hires during employment interview or
orientation. Previewing a job makes the employees expectations more accurate
and thereby lowers the chances that theirs expectations to be disconfirmed at
work. Realistic job preview (RJP) represents a proven technique for reducing
turnover among new employees (Griffeth & Hom, 2001). Anyway, RJP efficacy
is different across industries: for sewing machine operators the turnover rates
decrease form 40% to 11%, but for insurance agents the rates decrease from
27% to 19% (Hom & Griffeth, 1995). And on average, RJP used in private
industries boost job retention by 8% (Wanous, 1992).
Job previews may most help new entrants to the workforce, those
graduating from high school or college because the student role and the work
roles contrasts in several aspects: authority relationship (teachers vs. bosses),
performance feedback (frequent tests vs. annual performance reviews), and
time discretion (freedom to cut classes vs. rigid daily work hours) (Feldman,
1988). Moreover, certain types of people are more receptive to RJPs. In
particular, more intelligent newcomers benefit from RJP because intelligent
72
people can better attend to and understand the content of RJPs (Meglino et
al., 1988).
An important mention is that RJPs work best for jobs for which most
incumbents quit (Wanous, 1992). For example, if the typical job survival rate
(the percentage of newcomers who stay throughout the initial employment) is
80% for a job, RJP can improve it to 84.8%, that means only a 6% increase.
But if the typical survival rate is 20%, then RJPs can boost the survival rate to
24.8% (that means a 20% increase). Thus, it is important to consider the quit
rate in a position before investing time and effort to implement a preview for
this position.
In spite of the RJPs success, Buckley et al. (1998) demonstrated that
Expectations Lowering Procedure (ELP) is a better approach than RJP. During
this special orientation program, new hires learn a) how important is for their
expectations to be realistic when beginning a new job, b) how the typical
organizational socialization process often promotes the development of
unrealistic job expectations, and c) how entry expectations are violated, resulting
in dissatisfaction, turnover, and other negative outcomes. New hires are also
asked to think of situations in which their expectations were disconfirmed in
previous jobs and to share their experience whit others in the session. Buckley
et al. (1988) provide an ELP to a group of new assembly line workers and gave
a conventional RJP to another group. A third group received a traditional
orientation, and a fourth group represented the control group (receiving no
orientation program). After 6 months of employment the turnover rates were
as following: control group 22%, traditional orientation 20%, RJP 6%, and
ELP 3%. We can conclude that turnover among beginning employees can be
reduced without job specific RJPs. And one big advantage of ELP is that it is
more feasible, because it does not require expensive and time-consuming job
analysis.
Another field experiment was conducted by Buckley et al. (2002) to assess
the effects of pre-employment interventions on newly hired telemarketers. The
procedures used were a realistic job preview (RJP), an expectation-lowering
procedure (ELP), a combination (RJP & ELP), and the control condition
(minimal socialization). While we know these procedures enhance the
integration of newcomers to an organization, we do not know the optimal
combination of RJP and ELP in the employee socialization process. The three
procedures yielded relatively lower expectations than did the control group.
Participants in the experimental conditions (ELP, RJP, and ELP & RJP) reported
significantly lower expectations than did the control group. The lowered
expectations, however, did not result in higher retention rates in all of the
73
conditions. The RJP & ELP combination resulted in the largest number of
days worked, the major criterion of interest in this study. There was no
significant difference in number of days worked between the control group
and the RJP group. The current study indicates that a non-job-specific ELP in
combination with an RJP may exceed the benefits of an RJP or an ELP used
alone.
g. Individual antecedents
Two variables that are consistently related to turnover are age and tenure.
Researches have noted a consistent negative relationship between age and
turnover in that younger employees have higher probability of leaving (Cotton
& Tuttle, 1986; Mobley 1982; Prince, 1977). Tenure also demonstrated a
consistent negative relation whit turnover, turnover being much higher for low
tenure employees that for high tenure employees (Mangione, 1973).
h. Weighted application blank (WAB) and biodata
To date, the weighted application blank (WAB) has yielded the most
accurate predictors of turnover (Cotton & Turttle, 1986). WABs rely on the
broader field known as biodata, which is an attempt to use life experiences to
predict job performance, and it is based on the notion called the consistency
principle the best predictor of future behavior is past behavior (Wernimont
& Campbell, in Griffeth & Hom, 2001). Biodata questionnaire are much
different from WABs. First, they are broader and longer than WABs and may
contain 100 or more items, whereas WASs may have only 10 or 15 items.
Second, biodata questionnaire can cover a variety of topics, such as educational
experiences, hobbies, family relations, use of leisure time, personal health,
and early work experience. WABs, on the other hand focuses on limited, factual,
verifiable information (Gatewood & Field, 1998).
WABs are fairly detailed application forms converted into tests. An
overview of this conversion starts with an examination of current and former
employees past answers to items on an application blank completed during
their hiring. Then, the stayers and leavers responses are compared and seek
items that discriminate between them. Next, a key is assigned to the two groups
dissimilar answers Summing scores on these particular items generates a test
scores indicating quite propensity. After the WABs are developed, candidates
fill them out, and those whose computed WAB scores suggest job instability
would be screened out (Griffeth & Hom, 2001).
74
who stay, in terms of job satisfaction, expected utility of the present job, and
intention to leave; the expected utility of alternative jobs did not significantly
differentiate among the groups.
An interesting research was conducted by Parsons, Herold and
Leatherwood (1985) who used an attribution framework to explain a new
employees early decision to stay on the job or quit. An individual is seen as an
information processor who attempts to learn about cause-and-effect relations
that affect personal-achievement outcomes. Emotional and motivational
reactions depend on the resulting explanation for success and failure. This
approach corroborate with the opinion of Gardner (1986) that early experience
of some degree of performance success in the first job is apparently needed;
evidence of early achievement may be required to keep the employees uneasy
and uncertain effort alive in the probationary period (p.58). Weiner (1972)
has summarized the explanatory factors as: (a) ability, which is a function of
the degree of past successes and failures at the same or similar tasks, (b) task
difficulty, which is assumed to be inferred from the degree of success of others
on the task, (c) luck, which is assumed to be inferred from a prior pattern of
random or variable task outcomes, and (d) effort, which is assumed to be inferred
from muscular exertion or persistence on a task. These four factors can be
arranged on two dimensions; one being the locus of the causal factor (internal
or external to the person) and the other being the stability of the causal factor
(difficult or unlikely to change vs. likely to change). Ability is seen as a stable
internal factor, task difficulty is seen as a stable external factor, luck is seen as
an unstable external factor, and effort is seen as an unstable internal factor (see
Table 1). The most interesting outcome of this study was that an attribution of
luck for early performance is positively related to quitting after the first few
months of employment. Using luck as an explanation of ones early performance
may not provide enough achievement feelings for a new employee to persist
through the anxious first few months of work.
Table 1. Weiners attribution theory.
Stability of casual factors
Locus of the
casual factors
External
Internal
Ability
Effort
OConnell and Kung (2007) argue that certain applicants have a higher
propensity for turnover, and those characteristics can often be identified prior
to hire. Research has shown that the way candidates respond to some questions
76
6. Conclusion
Turnover is a process, not an event, and is related to a lot of organizational,
but also personal factors. For example, candidates may have joined under
mistaken assumptions, or simply were selected inappropriate. The future studies
should reveal if the long term turnover can be more related with the
organizational factors (e.g. lack of promotion alternatives), and the early
turnover could be related more with personal factors (e.g. poor decision
process). A high new hire turnover rate is usually related to issues with the
selection and orientation process, but simply improving the selection process
is not a cure-all for reducing turnover. A better analyze of the personal factors,
as decision process, and the construction of an early turnover model will
probably bring a little more light on this topic.
References
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employee separation and acquisitions. Journal of Applied Psychology
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Buckley, M. R., Fedor, D. B., Veres, J., Wise, D., & Carraher, S. M. (1998).
Investigating newcomer expectations and job-related outcomes. Journal of
applied Psychology, 83, 452-461.
Buckley, M. R., et al. (2002). Implementing Realistic Job Previews and ExpectationLowering Procedures: A Field Experiment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61
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Campion, M.A. (1991). Meaning and measurement of turnover: Comparison of
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Carsten, J. M., & Spector, P. E. (1987). Unemployment, job satisfaction, and employee
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whit implication for research. Academy of Management Review, 11, 55-70
Gardner, J. (1987). Stabilizing the workforce. Connecticut: Quarum Books.
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78
80
CAPITOLUL 4
TEORII ALE NCREDERII ORGANIZAIONALE
Eugen Avram
Abstract
Qualified literature has launched many explanatory theories on organizational
trust. Using their content and the generality criteria, one can present and classify the
following OT theories: theories of economic interactions (the demand-supply theory;
the theory of organizational economy; the theory of organizational domination; the
agency theory); the theories of social interactions (social exchange theory; theories
of trust inside dyads, the role theory ); personality theories (the dispositional theory;
the positive theory of trust); situational theories (personnel policies, control,
communication theories; risk theory), behavioral theories (based on principles of
organizational behaviour, and theories based on lists of behaviours); cognitive theories
(the attribution, expectancies, anticipation, game theoriy, heuristic theory of trust,
other cognitive theories of OT).
Keywords: theory, organizational trust.
1. Introducere
ncrederea este un fenomen prezent n toate ariile vieii umane, este un
capital organizaional i social din ce n ce mai mult valorizat. n anii 50-60
se descoper semnificaia ncrederii n relaiile interpersonale din cadrul
societii. Pe aceeai linie s-a continuat n anii 70. Ulterior fenomenul a suscitat
interesul cercettorilor din diverse domenii, anii 80, nceputul anilor 90
reprezentnd etapa n care apar numeroase studii organizaionale pe aceast
tem. n anii 2000 problematica dobndete un statut de preocupare tiinific
intens, subliniindu-se importana n toate contextele vieii social-economice
i chiar personale.
Cercetrile i aplicaiile s-au decantat la mai multe niveluri: nivelul intraorganizaional - ncrederea n organizaii i nivelul inter-organizaional ncrederea ntre organizaii. ncrederea n interiorul organizaiei se refer la
81
ntr-o cercetare din 2003, Zolin, Fruchter i Hinds au studiat relaia dintre
distribuia geografic a personalului i ncrederea. Autoarele susin: distribuia
geografic mare a personalului, reduce comunicarea, ceea ce are ca urmare
reducerea perceptiei calitilor care fac o persoan sa fie de ncredere, ceea ce
duce n cele din urm la scderea ncrederii; diadele cros-funcionale au avut
percepia calitilor care fac o persoan de ncredere mai bun dect diadele
unifuncionale. Autoarele explic aceasta prin teoria ncrederii rapide a lui
Meyerson (1996, apud. Zolin, et al., 2003) care afirm urmtoarele:
- ncrederea rapid implic folosirea rolului atunci cnd este nevoie de
cldirea ncrederii n echipe de lucru care lucreaz sub presiunea timpului;
- atunci cnd cineva interacioneaz cu o persoan avnd o alt
specializare, ncrederea n cadrul echipei se bazeaz mai mult pe rol, mai
degrab dect pe persoan;
- aceasta ar putea fi baza respectului profesional sau a politeii;
- interdependena n realizarea sarcinilor coreleaz pozitiv cu ncrederea:
cu ct interdependena este mai mare, cu att crete i ncrederea.
2.3. Teoriile personologice
Abordarea dispoziional a ncrederii organizaionale pune accent pe ideea
c oamenii au structuri de personalitate ce predispun, pe de o parte, (a) la
investirea ncrederii n alii, iar pe de alt parte, (b) exist factori de personalitate
ce predispun persoana la atragerea ncrederii altora, devenind demn de
ncredere. ntre cele dou aspecte (a i b) exist o strns relaie (c). n
abordrile clasice ale personalitii, trstura ncrederii este parte structural a
unor factori de personalitate, existnd trei orientri ale ncrederii: ncrederea
n sine, predispoziia de a acorda ncredere altora i abilitatea de a ctiga
ncrederea altora. De exemplu, n cadrul modelului elaborat de Harrison Gough
(CPI), ntlnim cele trei orientri: 1) ncrederea n sine este surprins de scala
Sociabilitate (Sy), ncrederea n propriile capaciti este redat de scorurile la
scala Realizare prin conformism (AC) sau la Acceptarea de sine (Sa), afirmarea
ncrederii n viitor este surprins de scala Strii de bine (Wb); 2) ncrederea
este prezent n structura factorului toleran (To), ca o conduit opus
suspiciunii i criticilor; 3) prezena social (Sp) presupune n plan
comportamental o ncredere bine afirmat; scala responsabilitate (Re)
caracterizeaz o persoan ca fiind de ncredere; factorul impresie bun (Gi)
presupune, printre altele, tendina persoanei de a se afia ca fiind de ncredere
(Minulescu, 2004; Pitariu, Iliescu, Tureanu i Pelea, 2006).
n modelul Big Five, ncrederea apare ca element n structura factorului
agreabilitate (prima faet se numete ncredere i relev existena unui
90
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110
CAPITOLUL 5
AUTODEZVLUIREA FACTOR AL SUCCESULUI
N RELAIILE INTERPERSONALE
Rzvan G. Zaharia
Abstract
By taking into account the fundamental traits which characterise an interpersonal
relationship, one can analyse self-disclosure from three perspectives. The first
perspective deals with the person who chooses to self-disclose. We can thus see/
interpret self-disclosure as a personal feature, as an inner capacity (as we have
previously analysed it from a larger point of view) of human personality. The second
perspective deals with the interaction process and makes us see self-disclosure as a
process of communicating information on ones person to others and as a process of
knowing each other (by personal self-disclosure, the partners get to know each other).
Finally, from the point of view of the one who receives the pieces of information, we
can interpret self-disclosure as a product made up of pieces of information (from the
quantity and quality perspective), a product which, when possessed by the one intended,
produces certain effects on the latter and on the relationship between him and the
source person. Therefore, we shall have to resort to highlighting some definitions
of self-disclosure, conceptual limitations, theories, the role of self-disclosure to social,
organizational disclosure, etc.
Keywords: self-disclosure, success, interpersonal relationships.
NECUNOSCUT
EULUI
CUNOSCUT
+
CELORLALI
DESCHIS
(Q1)
ORB
(Q2)
NECUNOSCUT
CELORLALI
ASCUNS
(Q3)
NECUNOSCUT
(Q4)
care este orientat autodezvluirea nu ar putea avea acces la ele printr-o alt
modalitate, ct i faptul c, dei accesul la acele informaii ar putea fi facil, el
nu este n posesia lor la momentul autodezvluirii. Contextul este cel care
constrnge comunicarea i, implicit, autodezvluirea ca tip de comunicare.
Contextul este cel care confer autodezvluirii caracter situaional. n fine, am
ajuns la caracterul intenionat al autodezvluirii. Trebuie s spunem c cei mai
muli autori definesc autodezvluirea ca act voluntar i intenionat, ns exist
i autori care, includ n sfera autodezvluirii elemente de comunicare care nu
se supun controluilui voluntar. Spre exemplu, DeVito, calific micrile
nonverbale incontiente i scprile din vorbire drept comunicri
autodezvluitoare (1986, p. 100).
O alt definiie a autodezvluirii este cea propus de Goodstein (n lucrarea
Encyclopedia of Psychology, editat de Raymond. J. Corsini). Goodstein
definete autodezvluirea ca fiind procesul prin care o persoan dezvluie n
mod voluntar i intenionat informaii autentice, importante, personale i pn
la momentul respectiv private altei persoane (1994, p. 367). Aproape toate
caracteristicile coninutului autodezvluirii cuprinse n aceast definiie se
regsesc ntr-o form sau alta n cele prezentate anterior, poate, mai puin msura
n care informaiile relevate sunt importante pentru persoana care le dezvluie
(ibidem). ns, ceea ce apare accentuat n definiia lui Goodstein este caracterul
voluntar (cel care dezvluie informaii depre sine face acest lucru n mod
deliberat, fiind contient de potenialele consecine ale acestui fapt) i
caracterul intenionat al actului autodezvluirii. Pe aceeai linie se nscriu i
Pearce i Sharp care, referindu-se la informaiile pe care o persoan le poate
comunica despre sine altei/altor persoane n procesul comunicrii, delimiteaz
trei tipuri de comunicare: comunicare voluntar de informaii despre propria
persoan; comunicare forat, de informaii despre propria persoan;
comunicare neintenionat de informaii despre propria persoan. Cei doi autori
consider c doar n primul dintre cele trei cazuri se poate vorbi de
autodezvluire. Spre deosebire de acetia Ctlin Mamali afirm c se
consider c exist autodezvluire spontan i forat (s.n.) (prin interogatoriu
sau mijloace de intimidare n cazul delictelor) (1997, p. 96).
Alt ipostaz a autodezvluirii (diferit de ipostaza de proces de
comunicare i intercunoatere.) este aceea de capacitate. Conform lui Paul
Popescu-Neveanu, capacitatea reprezint un sistem de nsuiri funcionale i
operaionale n uniune cu deprinderile, cunotinele i experiena necesar,
care duc la aciuni eficiente i de performan (1978, p. 98). Din aceast
perspectiv, autodezvluirea este un factor care contribuie la competena social
a individului. Conceptul de capacitate trebuie neles aici ntr-un sens (sperm
c nu n mod forat) lrgit ntruct capacitatea de autodezvluire nu const
117
foarte intime. Din cele spuse pn acum putem desprinde, alturi de tefan
Boncu, ideea c cele dou dimensiuni sunt relativ independente: o descrire
factual a unei ncercri de sinucidere poate sau nu s fie mbogit cu intimitate
evaluativ confesiuni despre tririle care au nsoit aceast tentativ (ibidem).
Acelai autor arat c n cercetrile asupra relaiilor interpersonale se
mai opereaz i o alt distincie, ntre alte dou dimensiuni ale autodezvluirii.
Se face deosebirea ntre autodezvluirea personal (dezvluiri despre propria
persoan) i autodezvluirea relaional (dezvluiri despre relaia cu o alt
persoan sau despre interaciunile individului cu alii) (ibidem, pp.12-13).
Iat un exemplu n care, chiar dac nu se face referire direct la autodezvluire,
putem recunoate cu uurin cele dou dimensiuni i, n acelai timp, cele
dou tipuri de autodezvluire. ntr-o clasificare ce are drept criteriu coninutul
(centrul) mesajelor emise de oameni n cursul diferitelor conversaii cotidiene,
Sherod Miller, Daniel Wackman, Elam Nunnaly i Phyllis Miller (1988, p. 3133) disting urmtoarele tipuri de mesaje:
1. mesaje centrate pe diferite subiecte lucruri, evenimente, idei, locuri
sau oameni care nu sunt n mod imediat prezente (topic messages) i care
includ toate exprimrile, declaraiile care nu fac referire direct persoana celui
care vorbete, la cealalt persoan prezent/celelalte persoane prezente sau la
relaia acestora totul n afar de eu, tu i noi;
2. mesaje centrate pe cealalt persoan prezent/celelalte persoane
prezente (other messages), care se adreseaz direct celeilalte/celorlalte persoane;
3. mesaje centrate pe propria persoan a comunicatorului (self messages),
legate de experiene, gnduri, sentimente;
4. mesaje centrate pe relaie (relationship messages), care exprim
contientizarea relaiei dintre cei doi parteneri.
Cele dou dimensiuni ale autodezvluirii menionate mai sus
autodezvluire personal, respectiv autodezvluire relaional se regsesc,
din punctul de vedere al coninutului, n n mesajele de tipul 3, respectiv de
tipul 4. Chiar i mesajele de tipul 2 pot fi considerate autodezvluire personal
dac ele exprim, de exemplu, opinii ale vorbitorului despre cealalt persoan,
opinii adresate n mod direct acesteia din urm.
Se impune o precizare menit s atrag atenia asupra prudenei cu care
trebuie utilizat sintagma autodezvluire personal. Autodezvluirea este
prin definiie personal. Personale sunt att informaiile care se refer strict la
propria persoan a celui ce se autodezvluie (informaii despre evenimente
trite de individ, exprimarea unor opinii, atitudini, credine, sentimente sau
alte fenomene interioare ale acestuia, fr a implica o relaie sau interaciune
cu alte persoane), ct i cele despre anumite relaii i interaciuni ale acestuia.
121
Strin
Adncimea
autodezvluirii
Zone
cu subiecte
neintime
Cunotin
Zone cu subiecte
intime
Prieten apropiat
123
iau primul contact. Aici pot fi incluse: nfiarea fizic, vestimentaia etc.
Straturile interioare includ fapte pe care oamenii nu le afl pur i simplu
privindu-se unii pe ceilali. Putem vorbi n acest caz de interese, opinii, atitudini,
credine, evenimente trite la care persoanele cu care intrm n contact nu au
luat parte i despre care acestea nu au cunotin etc. Oamenii se cunosc prin
intermediul schimbului informaional reciproc, al crui coninut este constituit
din material informativ cu caracter personal. n acest fel, oamenii descoper
rnd pe rnd straturi ale personalitii lor. Cu ct autodezvluirea se apropie de
stratele centrale cu att caracterul informaiilor dezvluite devine mai intim,
astfel nct oamenii ajung s se cunoasc mai bine, s capete mai mult ncredere
unul n cellalt, relaiile interpersonale devenind n acest fel mai stabile i mai
puternice.
Teoria reciprocitii
Reciprocitatea este o condiie important a autodezvluirii. Reciprocitatea,
numit de Sidney M. Jorard efect diadic, este unul dintre cele mai studiate
fenomene din cmpul teoretic al autodezvluirii (Boncu, 1999, p. 16).
Multitudinea studiilor asupra reciprocitii autodezvluirii poate fi considerat
o dovad a importanei fenomenului pentru formarea, meninerea i dezvoltarea
relaiilor interpersonale apropiate, pentru funcionarea satisfctoare a acestora.
Atkinson et al. apreciaz c autodezvluirea reciproc este cheia penetrrii
sociale, c partenerii trebuie s se autodezvluie unul celuilalt (1990, p.
716). Acesta poate fi un proces foarte dificil (ibidem), dar dezvluirea
reciproc este esenial pentru dezvoltarea unei relaii apropiate: dac nu exist
reciprocitate n stadiile de nceput, relaia nu va evolua (Boncu, 1999, p. 16).
La nceputul unei relaii acioneaz o puternic norm a reciprocitii; cnd
o persoan ncepe s dezvluie lucruri despre sine, cealalt persoan trebuie s
fie doritoare s fac acelai lucru (Atkinson et al., 1990, p. 716). Exemplu:
Sebastian R. se simte mult mai aproape de Lidia B. de la ultima lor
ntlnire. Lidia i-a vorbit, n sfrsit, despre problemele pe care le are cu
tatl su, iar Sebastian i-a rspuns mrturisindu-i gelozia pe care
ntotdeauna a ncercat-o fa de fratele lui mai mare. El are acum
convingerea c relaia cu Lidia a devenit mai solid. (apud Boncu, 1999,
p. 9)
Este necesar s precizm faptul c studiile asupra recipricitii se nscriu
pe dou direcii. Una dintre acestea are la baz ipoteza atraciei interpersoanle
(s.n.) ca mecanism subiacent, iar cealalt, ipoteza normei de reciprocitate
(s.n.) (Boncu, 1999, p. 16).
125
CUNOATERE MAXIMAL
OBIECT
DE
CUNOATERE
SUBIECT
CUNOSCTOR
CAPACITATE DE
EVALUARE
CAPACITATE DE
AUTODEZVLUIRE
CUNOATERE MINIMAL
(ERONAT)
130
Rn
Cn
(tn-1) Cn-1
Rn-1
(t3)
R3
C3
(t2)
C2
R2
(t1)
R1
C1
(t0)
C0
R0
P1
P2
(tn)
Rn
(tn-2/tn-1) Rn-2/Cn-1
(t3/t4)
R3/C4
(t1/t2)
R1/C2
(t0)
C0
P1
Rn-1/Cn
(tn-1/tn)
Rn-3/Cn-2 (tn-3/tn-2)
R4/C5
(t4/t5)
R2/C3
(t2/t3)
R0/C1
(t0/t1)
P2
despre propria persoan pot fi mai mult sau mai puin conforme cu adevrul.
Unii oameni, din dorina de a-i proteja imaginea, din teama c ar putea fi
respini de ctre ceilali sau din dorina de a fi acceptai mai uor de ctre
acetia ofer informaii false despre propria persoan. Nu este greu de acceptat
faptul c relaiile interpersonale cldite pe o asemenea baz sunt i ele false,
fiind expuse deteriorrii n momentul n care neadevrurile ies la iveal. i
cum minciuna are picioare scurte... De aceea, pentru dezvoltarea unor relaii
interpersonale sntoase Don E. Hamachek recomand practicarea sinceritii
i a autodezvluirii, exprimnd prerea c acestea merg mn n mn (1987,
p. 315). Septimiu Chelcea arat c, n anumite limite, prezentarea ntr-un mod
ct mai avantajos n faa celorlali (prin evidenierea calitilor i ascunderea
defectelor) faciliteaz intrarea n relaie cu acetia (1994, p. 75-76). ns,
dup cum remarc acelai autor, evoluia relaiei interpersonale, impune [...]
o dat cu trecerea timpului, mrirea transparenei: devin vizibile i defectele,
astfel nct relaia se deterioreaz iremediabil dac prima imagine oferit difer
mult de ceea ce se vede cnd opacitatea dispare (ibidem, p. 76). n concluzie,
autorul menionat atrage atenia: nu-i nfrumusea exagerat propria imagine
cnd te prezii celorlali, dac vrei ca relaia interpersonal s fie de durat!
(ibidem).
O relaie interpersonal cunoate n evoluia ei mai multe stadii. Altman
i Haithorn consider c dou persoane sunt la nceputul unei relaii strine,
pentru ca apoi s treac n stadiul de cunotine i, n cele din urm, dac
relaia evolueaz favorabil, s ajung la a fi prieteni apropiai (apud. Derlega
i Janda, 1981). Derlega i Janda exprim opinia potrivit creia ct de mult se
las oamenii cunoscui de ctre ceilali va influena ct de muli prieteni au i
ct de avansat va fi deveni o relaie, ns nu este important att de important
numrul prietenilor, ct este calitatea prieteniilor (1981, p. 142). La rndul
su, Emerson apreciaz c un prieten este persoana cu care pot s fiu sincer.
n prezena lui pot s gndesc cu voce tare (apud Derlega i Janda, 1981, p.
142).
5. Concluzii
n contextul societii actuale, a organizaiilor hiper-dinamice,
autodezvluirea are un rolul major n stabilirea i dezvoltarea relaiilor la locul
de munc. Din acest punct de vedere, foarte sugestiv este lucrarea Cinci minute
la o cafea: eseu despre intimitatea postmodern scris de Ion Cosmovici. n
acelai ton cu autorul, A vrea s transmit deci sentimentul c astzi cinci
minute e un interval de timp suficient pentru a lega o relaie care s dureze,
n condiiile n care n acele cinci minute se consuma uneori ani de zile de
via (Cosmovici, 2005, p. 10) (pentru alte analize ale fenomenului
autodezvluirii vezi Zaharia, 2008).
134
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137
CAPITOLUL 6
PERSONALITATE I LEADERSHIP
TRANSFORMAIONAL: O META-ANALIZ
Radu I. Popa, Laureniu Maricuoiu,
Liliana Negoescu & Simona Pleea
Abstract
This paper deals with a meta-analysis of the relationship between personality
and the transformational leadership style. By using the Big Five Personality
Dimensions as a frame (the 5-personality factors model), the authors have gathered
a number of 39 correlations from 10 independent studies. The Big Five Dimensions
have been connected to the transformational leadership style, the results showing
that the dimensions of agreeability and extroversion can be correlated, constantly but
weakly, in certain circumstances, to the transformational leadership style. These
moderate associations between the two dimensions of personality and transformational
leadership style, generate further research into specific personality traits, in a restrained
environment, and also into the dispositional and non-dispositional generators as far
as embracing or not a certain leadership style in an organizational field is concerned.
Key words: Personality, Big Five Factors, Transformational Leadership.
1. Introducere
1.1. Leadership-ul transformaional
Leadership-ul apare atunci cnd anumii indivizi exercit o influen
asupra atingerii obiectivelor de ctre alii ntr-un context organizaional. Un
lider eficient exercit influena astfel nct atinge obiectivele organizaionale
prin: creterea productivitii, inovaie, satisfacie, angajarea moral a
muncitorilor. ntre anii 1920 i 1930, studiile din domeniul conducerii s-au
focalizat asupra ncercrii de a identifica trsturile personale ce difereniaz
liderii de non-lideri. Nu oricine poate conduce, iar cel care e fcut pentru a
138
n analiz doar acele studii care utilizau strict proba MLQ a lui Bass i Avolio.
Un alt tip de segmentare a studiilor a constat n selectarea n analiz doar a
cercetrilor care au fost realizate pe eantioane provenind din culturile de tip
vestic-individualist (ex. U.S.A, Marea Britanie, Olanda, Australia etc.) i
formarea unui alt grup de cercetri aplicate n culturile estice tip colectivist
(ex. Singapore, Shanghai etc.)
2.3. Rezultate
n tabelele 17, am prezentat relaia dintre dimensiunile Big Five i
adoptarea unui stil de leadership transformaional.
n cazul primei relaii, extraversiune leadership transformaional,
rezultatele din tabelul 1 indic faptul c s-a obinut iniial o pondere a erorii de
eantionare de .42, n variana observat, i un coeficient r de 0,14. Acest rezultat
indic faptul c, nu exist un efect n ceea privete relaia extraversiune
leadership transformaional, i nici nu tim cum variaz acesta.
Tabelul 1. Meta-analiza relaiei dintre extraversiune i stilul de leadership transformaional.
Relaie
r (obs)
mediu
Abatere
standard
(obs.)
SD
% eroare
de
eantionare
E-TR
1259
10
0,14
0,08
42%
Interval de
ncredere
r (min) r (max)
-0,02
0,31
Tabelul 2. Rezultate ale gruprii studiilor n funcie de diferite criterii viznd relaia
extraversiune leadership transformaional.
Criteriu
Toate studiile
Doar cult. indiv.
(indif de prob)
Numrul
de studii
(k)
r
mediu
10
0,14
0,08
42%
-0,02
0,31
0,18
0,03
83%
0,11
0,24
r (obs)
mediu
Abatere
standard
(obs.)
SD
% eroare
de
eantionare
N-TR
1114
0,03
0,04
79%
Interval de
ncredere
r (min) r (max)
-0,05
0,11
r (obs)
mediu
Abatere
standard
(obs.)
SD
% eroare
de
eantionare
D-TR
1114
0,04
0,03
84%
Interval de
ncredere
r (min) r (max)
-0,02
0,11
r (obs)
mediu
Abatere
standard
(obs.)
SD
% eroare
de
eantionare
A-TR
1259
10
0,13
0,03
35%
Interval de
ncredere
r (min) r (max)
-0,06
0,34
Tabelul 6. Rezultate ale gruprii studiilor n funcie de diferite criterii viznd relaia
agreabilitate leadership transformaional.
Criteriu
Numrul
de studii
(k)
r
mediu
10
0,13
0,03
35%
-0,06
0,34
0,19
0,05
75%
0,02
0,27
Toate studiile
Doar MLQ i
Costa (indif de
cultur)
r (obs)
mediu
Abatere
standard
(obs.)
SD
% eroare
de
eantionare
C-TR
1114
0,03
0,02
94%
Interval de
ncredere
r (min) r (max)
-0,01
0,07
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*
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*
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*
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*
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Of Emotion Recognition And Personality on Transformational Leadership
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*
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152
CAPITOLUL 7
QUALITY OF WORKING LIFE INDICATORS IN
SHELTERED WORKSHOP WORKERS: JOB
DEMANDS, RESOURCES AND PSYCHOSOCIAL
RISKS
Noelia Flores & Cristina Jenaro
Abstract
This study looks to draw attention to the field of Quality of Working Life of
people with Intellectual Disabilities. The studies that have analysed this construct in
this population are scarce. Thus, this study tries to identify the principle sources of
stress and satisfaction of workers with intellectual disabilities in Sheltered Workshops
and Support Employment. Specifically, this study presents the results obtained from
the evaluation of 507 workers with intellectual disabilities who evaluated their job
demands, available resources, perceived work stress, work satisfaction, and the Quality
of Working Life with instruments that were adapted to for this population. The results
obtained show that workers with intellectual disabilities are also subject to psychosocial
factors in their workplace and their perceived Quality of Working Life depends on an
adequate balance between job demands and available resources.
Key Words: Job demands, Job resources, Quality of Working Life, Psychosocial
Risks, Intellectual Disabilities.
this sense, the nature of work, that is, the characteristics and conditions of the
work, will determine, in part, its consequences or effects on individuals and
organizations. According to this, we can say that work, depending on the
conditions, provides a greater or lesser quality of working life; people, according
to their own work experience, experience a greater or lesser quality of life
through their work (Peir, 1999).
The concept of Quality of Working Life has to do with satisfaction, health,
and well-being of the worker and also with everything related with the work
environment. It could be said that it is a concept that seeks to reconcile the
aspects of work that deal with the individuals experience of organizational
objectives. From this point of view, quality of working life (QWL) explains
the way that work is experienced both objectively (safety, hygiene, and salary,
etc.) and subjectively (the way it is lived by the worker). It is, therefore, a
multidimensional concept composed of objective and subjective indicators
that take into account the individual and the context in which they work (Elizur
& Shye, 1990; Goode, 1989; Martel & Dupuis, 2006).
In the field of intellectual disabilities, the concept of quality of working
life is relatively new and there are few studies (Flores, 2007; Jenaro & Flores,
2006). As with the concept of quality of life (Goode, 1990; Schalock & Verdugo,
2002), the quality of working life of people with intellectual disabilities is
composed of the same factors and indicators that are relevant for the general
population. Thus, in agreement with Goode (1989), QWL accentuates the
participation of employees in problem solving and decision-making that relate
to their work and these values also apply to workers with disabilities. Said
another way, if we want to increase the quality of working life of these people
we must begin to involve them in decision making related to their work and
their evaluation of their working conditions (Flores, 2007; Jenaro & Flores,
2006; Jenaro, Flores, Caballo, Arias & De Elena, 2006).
Many studies have shown that people with intellectual disabilities can
successfully perform a job and contribute to the community (Mank, Cioffi &
Yovanoff, 1997; Petrovski & Gleeson, 1997; Winer, 2000). It has also been
noted that work improves self-esteem of these people (Farris & Stancliffe,
2001; Jenaro, 2004; Matson & Rusch, 1986) and furthermore, employment is
a factor that improves the quality of life of this group (Eggleton, Robertson,
Ryan & Kober, 1999; Kober & Eggleton, 2005). Additionally, different studies
have shown that people with intellectual disabilities experience a greater quality
of life when they are in normalized or inclusive contexts than when they are in
segregated or otherwise reduced environments (Forrester-Jones, Heason & Di
Terlizzi, 2004: OBrien, Thesing & Tuck, 2001; Verdugo, Jordn de Urres,
Jenaro, Caballo & Crespo, 2006).
154
With respect to components that are part of the quality of working life of
people with intellectual disabilities, various indicators have been proposed
that relate to job satisfaction; greater satisfaction in the workplace, a decrease
in training, access to promotions and the adoption of a more participatory role
in decision-making (Goode, 1989). However, the indicator most analysed has
been work satisfaction. The majority of the studies are characterized by having
focused their attention on some aspects of satisfaction, such as obtaining a job
or access to more inclusive employment and living in the community. From
this point of view, therefore, it is assumed that the worker with intellectual
disabilities experiences job satisfaction simply by obtaining and maintaining a
job (Chioccio, 2001; Goode, 1989; Howard & Gould, 2000; Marineau, 1998;
Test, 1993) and not as a result of their well-being in respect to other dimensions
of work such as work conditions.
Despite this, studies by Farris and Stancliffe (2001) and Jenaro et al.
(2002) show that just acquiring a job is not sufficient to guarantee satisfaction
in workers with intellectual disabilities. In addition, it is necessary to have a
suitable balance between work normalization or similarity of work conditions
and work supports, that is, between the job demands and the available resources.
Therefore, job satisfaction of a worker with intellectual disabilities is a state
that goes beyond simply acquiring a job or the type of work. The work
environment experienced, the flexibility of that environment and a good balance
between the tasks performed and the abilities of the worker will also determine
job satisfaction (Flores, 2007; Jenaro et al., 2002). Hence, there is a need to
know what factors are involved in the QWL of these workers.
Another reason for studying the QWL in people with intellectual
disabilities is that workers with intellectual disabilities reply differently when
asked to rate their Quality of Life and their Quality of Working Life (Flores,
Jenaro & Arias, 2006; Jenaro et al., 2006) just as workers without disabilities
(Jenaro, Flores & Arias, 2007).
All these facts lead us to the next step in research in the quality of working
life in the field of intellectual disabilities; to extend the knowledge of the factors
involved. In addition, there is an obligation to consider job tasks and the
management and organization of work, as well as working conditions capable
of producing risks that may threaten the health and quality of life of the worker.
This requires developing models which integrate all the dimensions of the
QWL and determine what kind of variables exert a greater or lesser impact on
the quality of working life of these workers.
155
resources to deal with those demands. Jenaro and Flores (2006) postulated
that situations in which the worker has an imbalance between job demands
and available resources adversely affect the quality of working life through the
emergence of psychosocial occupational hazards (ie stress and burnout). On
the other hand, situations where the worker has an adequate balance between
demands and resources positively affect the quality of working life through
involvement and engagement experienced by the worker. This model also
proposes that the QWL can have a positive or negative effect in the individual
(in their physical and psychological health, their social, business and personal
relationships) and the organization (through engagement with the organization,
increase vs. decrease in productivity, etc.).
PSYCHOSOCIAL
RISKS
JOB
DEMANDS
CONSEQUENCES
-Physical
-Psychological
-Social
-Organizational
+
RESOURCES
(personal,
organizationals)
WORK
ENGAGEMENT
QUALITY OF WORKING
LIFE
Jenaro & Arias, 2006; Jenaro & Flores, 2006; Jenaro et al., 2006). These results
confirm the validity for the explanation of Quality of Working Life in this area
of research.
Thus, this study aims to publicize this new line of research and continue
to provide details identifying variables that are part of quality of working life
experienced by workers with intellectual disabilities. Various objectives guided
this study: 1) Identify the significant relationships between job demands and
available resources in the participants both globally and in the different work
alternatives; 2) Identify similarities and differences in the perception of demands
and resources and in QWL depending on the presence of psychosocial risks
(e.g. work stress); 3) Identify similarities and differences in the perception of
job demands and resources depending on the contextual and socio-demographic
variables; 4) Identify similarities and differences in job satisfaction, quality of
life and quality of working life depending on the different work alternatives.
We have four hypothesis: 1) There are significant differences in the perception
of job demands and resources depending on the work alternative type of the
worker (Sheltered Workshop vs. Support Employment); 2) Participants who
perceive their work as a source of stress will experience higher demands, less
social support and lower quality of working life than those who do not perceive
stress in their workplaces; 3) There will be no significant differences in the
perception of job demands and resources depending on the gender of the
participants, though other variables such as age, type of contract and seniority
at work will have affect; 4) The type of work alternative (Sheltered Workshop
vs. Support Employment) will significantly effect work satisfaction, with
workers in more inclusive alternatives (Support Employment) having a higher
QWL. However, workers will not differ significantly in their perception of
satisfaction with life in general.
3. Method
3.1. Participants
The participants in this study were a convenience sample of 507 workers
with intellectual disabilities that came from several Spanish Sheltered
Workshops (SW) and Supported Employment (SE) centers. All were volunteers
after informed consent and anonymity and confidentiality were guaranteed.
All of the participants had intellectual disability as their main diagnosis and
their level of disability varied between mild and borderline. Previous studies
with these types of workers have found that these levels of disability do not
158
present in any type of work. It has validity and reliability with internal
consistency coefficients Cronbachs alpha higher than .70 on all scales (Karasek,
1979). In this study the preliminary analysis indicated reliability coefficients
middle-high Cronbachs alpha for the different scales, ranging between .70
and .82 for the different factors, with the ratio of Cronbachs alpha for the total
scale of equals 74. These data support the adequacy of the instrument. Four
judges evaluated the equivalence of seven items that were simplified and experts
contributed to the final wording of the items, assuring the validity of construct.
The Encuesta sobre indicadores de Calidad de Vida Laboral [Survey of
Quality of Working Life Indicators], designed by Jenaro and Flores (2006) and
used en previous studies with workers with intellectual disabilities (Flores,
Jenaro & Arias, 2006; Flores, 2007; Jenaro et al., 2006), was also used. The
instrument includes questions related to the following factors quality of working
life: assessment of job stressors (consisting of 12 items answered on a 10 points
Likert type scale; a = .84), job satisfaction (comprising 4 items using a 4 point
Likert type scale; a =. 79). In addition, the survey contained two questions to
ascertain the subjective assessment of the worker on their Quality of Life (QoL)
and Quality of Working Life (QWL). The worker rates each item (QoL and
QWL) on a continuous 10-point scale, where 1 is the lowest score and 10 is
the highest score. Finally, the survey includes sections dealing with demographic
and other variables related to contextual features of work.
4. Results
Parametric properties were previously tested. Next, Anova analyses as
well as descriptive, and Correlational tests were utilized. The data were analyzed
with SPSS statistics software v. 11.5 (2002); an alpha level =.05 was adopted
for all the analyses.
Table 1 presents the results of hypothesis 1; the presence of significant
differences in the perception of demands and resources based on the type of
employment. There are significant differences in all the variables analyzed.
Workers in Sheltered Workshop (SW) perceive job demands with greater
intensity while workers in Supported Employment (SE) scored significantly
higher in resources related to both supervisor and coworker social support.
These results confirm hypothesis 1.
The results concerning hypothesis 2, significant differences in the
perception of demands and resources and in Quality of Working Life
experienced by workers depending on perceived work stress, are presented in
160
Type of Employment
SD
Sheltered Workshop
Support Employment
2.52
2.26
.54
.51
Sheltered Workshop
Support Employment
2.38
2.13
.74
.71
Sheltered Workshop
Support Employment
2.47
2.25
.55
.56
Sheltered Workshop
Support Employment
2.31
2.08
.67
.75
Sheltered Workshop
Support Employment
2.39
2.17
.49
.59
Sheltered Workshop
Support Employment
3.04
3.33
.65
.59
Sheltered Workshop
Support Employment
2.94
3.38
.63
.53
Sheltered Workshop
Support Employment
2.99
3.36
.54
.51
Work-overload
(Psychological Job
Demands)
Skill Discretion
Decision Authority
Decision Latitude
Social Support
12.763
.000
6.579
.011
8.677
.003
6.221
.013
10.775
.001
11.553
.001
29.291
.000
26.397
.000
Table 2. Workers that experience stress in their workplace perceive all work
demands with greater intensity and relate that they obtain less social support
in the workplace. In addition, they rate their Quality of Working Life
significantly lower compared to workers who do not receive work-related stress.
These results confirm the hypothesis 2.
To test hypothesis 3 analysis of variance (ANOVA) was made with each
dependent variables of interest. First and with respect to the socio-demographic
variables, the data show that gender affected the perception of job demands.
Specifically, in work overload (F (1,500) = 7.070, p <.05) women perceived
work demands with greater intensity. Concerning resources, there were
significant differences in decision authority (F (1,500) = 7.780, p<.05) and in
decision latitude (F(1,500)=8.341, p<.05), where, in this case, the males obtained
higher scores. The age of the participants significantly affected the physical (F
161
Table 2. Descriptive statistics and significance of differences (ANOVA) of work stress and
selected variables.
Variables
Work Stress
Perceived
Mean
SD
Yes
No
2.70
2.35
.50
.52
Yes
No
2.56
2.22
.70
.73
Yes
No
5.48
3.02
3.05
2.51
Yes
No
5.05
3.24
3.25
2.76
Yes
No
4.33
2.33
3.07
2.75
Yes
No
3.60
2.16
3.25
2.18
Yes
No
4.67
3.11
3,27
2.87
Yes
No
3.46
2.19
2.91
2.39
Yes
No
2.95
3.14
Yes
No
2.89
3.05
.66
.63
8.091
.64
.62
Yes
No
2.92
3.10
.55
.54
Yes
No
6.91
7.73
2.63
2.21
Work-overload
(Psychological Job
Demands)
Task Overload
Repetitive Tasks
Daily Production
Shift
Lack of feedback
Social Support
162
54.848
.000
26.692
.000
95.818
.000
42.923
.000
36.441
.000
34.838
.000
30.765
.000
25.308
.000
10.209
.001
.005
12.443
.000
13.877
.000
(4, 499) = 3.637, p <.05) and psychological (F (4, 499) = 4.036, p <.05) job demands.
Post-hoc analysis showed that older workers (> 51 years) scored significantly
lower in all job demands. Concerning analysed resources, there were only
significant differences in supervisor social support (F(4,499) =3.011, p<.05). In
this case, younger workers (16 to 21 years) rated this resource with less intensity
while older workers (51 years) had the highest ratings. Post-hoc analysis (Sheff)
indicated that it is precisely these two age groups which differ significantly
among themselves in their valuations. Secondly, the analysis of contextual
variables showed that workers type of contract significantly affected work
overload experienced (F (1,495) = 8.745, p <.05), skills discretions (F (1,495) =
6.090, p <.05), supervisor social support (F (1,495) = 5.867, p <.05), co-worker
social support (F (1,495) = 15.468, p <.05) and social support in general (F (1,495)
= 13.705, p <.05). In all cases, workers with a permanent contract perceived
higher work load and greater autonomy in employment skills in their work.
While those workers with temporary contracts scored higher on resources
related to social support. Results regarding the length of employment, showed
significant differences in physical job demands (F (5,491) = 2.793, p <.05),
perception of work overload (F (5,491) = 6.462, p <.05) and skill discretion (F
(5,491) = 2.697, p <.05). In all cases, workers with the least time working (1-2
years) had scores significantly lower than the rest of the workers. These results
partially support hypothesis 3.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics and significance of differences (Anova) of type of
employment and selected variables.
Variables
Type of Employment
Mean
SD
Sheltered Workshop
Support Employment
3.21
3.67
.82
.51
Sheltered Workshop
Support Employment
3.07
3.43
.87
.69
Sheltered Workshop
Support Employment
2.74
3.51
1.15
.76
Sheltered Workshop
Support Employment
2.13
3.05
.99
.89
Sheltered Workshop
Support Employment
7.30
8.34
2.46
1.74
Sheltered Workshop
Support Employment
7.93
8.23
2.32
1.78
Work Satisfaction
Salary Satisfaction
Quality of Life
15.733
.000
9.514
.002
26.600
.000
47.830
.000
10.272
.001
.922
.337
163
Finally, to test hypothesis 4 analysis of variance was used. The results are
presented in Table 3. There are significant differences in all the variables studied,
except in Quality of Life. In all cases, Supported Employment workers obtained
the highest ratings. These data confirm hypothesis 4.
5. Conclusions
This study has shown that the quality of working life of workers with
intellectual disabilities goes beyond obtaining and keeping a job. By building
on Jenaro et al. (2002) that showed that obtaining employment is not sufficient
to ensure satisfaction of disabled workers, we wanted to find the factors that
influence the subjective assessment of workers in respect to their life
experiences at work. Using the Model of Quality of Working Life, proposed
by Jenaro and Flores (2006), as a reference, the different factors that are part of
the QWL in these workers are reflected. In this sense, the study shows that the
quality of working life is the result of a correct balance between job demands
and resources available to the worker. The demands, in turn, may come from
specific characteristics of each job (e.g. hours, shifts, physical job demands,
work overload, repetitive tasks), the relational characteristics (e.g. dealing with
the boss or supervisor, with colleagues or customers), or aspects of
organizational culture and climate (e.g. autonomy). For its part, the resources
can come from oneself (e.g. technical or vocational training, social or
interpersonal skills, survival skills), others (co-workers, managers) or with
aspects of organizational culture (e.g. inservice training, participation in
decision-making).
So, given the results, we can say that the hypothesis have been received
widely support. Workers with intellectual disabilities perceived job demands
and resources in their workplaces and alternative labour influences their
appraisal. In this sense SW workers perceive greater work overload, and greater
decision authority and skill discretion, while workers of SE perceive greater
social support in their work context. A possible explanation for this result may
be due to the fact that most SW workers performed hand work. These tasks are
characterized by being routine which may explain their perceived control over
the tasks. Also, perhaps the typically urgent nature of contract work of these
companies may explain why these workers are more overworked. The fact
that SE workers perceive greater social support resources coincides with other
research that shows the importance of working environments together with
standardized support (Griffin, 1996; Kober & Eggleton, 2005).
Results evidenced that job demands impact on psychosocial risks (i.e.
work stress). In this regard, it shows the importance of having resources in the
164
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168
CAPITOLUL 8
THE THEORY OF ANDROGYNY
AND EMPLOYED WOMEN
Mahnaz Aliakbari & Fatemeh Hemmati
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate and compare the gender types
of employed Iranian women regarding their mental health, marital satisfaction and
emotional intelligence. To do this, 824 employed women from different organizations,
offices and governmental firms of Ahwaz (a city in the south-west of Iran) were
randomly chosen. The instruments were the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (short form),
The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) (Goldberg 1972), and the Family
Assessment Device (FAD), (Najarian 1994). The results showed that: 1) Androgyny
gender type in employed Iranian women is significantly more than masculine and
feminine gender types. 2) There is a significant difference among the three types of
women regarding their mental health. 3) There is a significant difference among the
three types of women regarding their marital satisfaction. The marital satisfaction of
masculine women is significantly higher than other types. 4) There is a significant
difference among the three types of women regarding their emotional intelligence.
The emotional intelligence of Androgynous women is higher.
Key words: androgyny, employed women.
1. Introduction
The word Androgyny dates back to ancient Greek literature and is made
up of two words andro meaning man and gyn meaning woman
(Heilbrun, 1972, cited in Guastello and Guastello, 2003). Historically, the word
androgyny was used to refer to a number of eastern religious gods that had
statues in the shape of both men and women (Warren, 1999; Hansen, 2001;
Harris, 1974). Androgyny and hermaphroditic were used interchangeably by
Plato in Greece and Herodotus in Rome (Harris, 1974). According to Stimpson
(1974), in the past, the term androgyny was used to refer to five types of people:
169
1. A person who has sexual relations with both men and women.
2. A man who uses many feminine ways of sexual relation.
3. A person who has both male and female traits, meaning, a physical
hermaphrodite.
4. A person who is stimulated with the mental images of both males and
females, meaning, a mental hermaphrodite.
5. Men or women who were either male or female but behaved like both
sexes, i.e., they were both strong and kind, meaning, they are psychological
hermaphrodites.
The theory of psychological androgyny or mental hermaphrodite was
founded by Sandra Bem in 1974. It is important to note that in this theory the
use of mental hermaphrodite is not only different from its past meanings and
uses but is also different from terms such as homosexuality, heterosexuality,
transsexualism, lesbianism and bisexuality (Gelpi, 1974; Heilbrun 1974). Bems
theory is a bi-dimensional theory which means that a person can be high both
in masculine and feminine traits (Woodhill & Samuels 2003).
Research shows that people with maximum masculinity and femininity
have the highest adaptability in life (i.e., Bem, 1975, 1977, 1981; Spence,
Helmreich and Stapp 1975). Followers of Bems theory (1974) believe that
psychological androgyny means mental health. According to Adler, ones style
of life determines the boundaries of his/her activities and social interest. Based
on Adlers theory, the healthiest life style is one in which people have a lot of
activity and social interests. Also, psychological androgyny in Bems theory
(1974, cited in Woodhill & Samuels 2004) is considered as balanced gender
identity with its special credits. This is adaptable to Maslows theory of selfactualization- one of the latest theories of psychology. This is because people
with psychological androgyny are like people who have gained selfactualization and they can be the best. That is, they are free from the limitations
of gender behavior and have both feminine and masculine behavior. They are
flexible and able to behave differently from one situation to another to do the
duties and behaviors of the opposite sex when necessary. For instance, they
can be sensitive and patient in one situation and a risk-taker and adventurous
in another (Ricciardeli and Williams, 1995, cited in Woodhill & Samuels, 2004).
Nowadays, although few decades have passed since the presentation of
psychological androgyny by Bem, different researches have been carried out
all over the world (i.e., Woodhill & Samuels, 2003; Auster & Ohm, 2002;
Ward, 2000; Shimonaka, Nakazato, Kawaai & Sato, 1997). This shows that
the theory can not only be used in different Grounds such as education health
and hygiene, but can be an invaluable theoretical base for other researches
throughout the world.
170
The second group was students who had graduated in 1964 and were 33
at the beginning of the study. The third group was 1954 graduate students who
were 43 at the beginning of the study. In 1975 all the subjects answered a
questionnaire which showed their beliefs in gender stereotypes and if they
agreed with the stereotypes or not. Five years later, in 1980 the subjects answered
the same questionnaire again. The results showed that generally men agreed
with stereotypes more than women and after five years there was no decline in
their agreement. In this general pattern, men who remained married during
these five years were exceptions and showed decline in stereotypes. In contrast,
in the three groups of women there was a significant decline which was even
more significant with women who married or became employed during the
five years.
Also, according to statistics, while the number of educated and employed
women is higher then men (22% compared to 7.9%), mens share in managerial
posts is far higher. 97% of these posts are devoted to men (Shamloo, 2004).
This shows that the stereotypic thinking that women are not able to be managers
still exists. This is verified by the point that although a large number of women
are working in production sections, only 5.5% of these women are working in
engineering sections.
Therefore, in spite of changes in expectations from men and women to
play a variety of roles in society, there are still a lot of traditional gender
stereotypes dominant in society. Boys are still pushed toward instrumental and
girls to expressional abilities (Damji and Lee, 1993). In a more recent study,
Auster & Ohm (2000) showed that there have been changes in traditional gender
stereotypes in American men and women; although these changes are seen
only in some of these beliefs. Also, Guastello & Guastello (2003) in a study on
576 students and their parents showed that androgyny in boys is higher than
their fathers.
Based on this study which included 88% American-European, 3.5% Asian
and 2.1% original American-Spanish subjects, they concluded that through
generations and the developing of societies, men show more behavior of
androgynous gender type whereas women have an increase in masculinity and
a decrease in femininity.
3. Statement and significance of the problem
Gender role is the most fundamental and the most determining factor of
identity (Woodhill & Samuels, 2003). According to Erickson, (1950, cited in
Woodhill & Samuels 2003), one of the main aspects of the development of a
person is the shaping and development of the gender role. As for the forming
172
of identity and gender role, sex and gender are the principles of this formation
(Pryzgoda and Chrisler, 2000). Lexically, sex refers to the biological aspects
of being a man or a woman and gender to the behavioral, mental and social
features of men and women which are referred to as being feminine or
masculine. The same meaning and understanding exist in the non-professional
and ordinary view as well. Studies on ordinary (non-professional) people
showed that the majority of participants used sex to describe biological traits
and gender to describe social and mental characteristics (Pryzgoda and
Chrisler, 2000). Also, the term gender differences is used for the difference
caused by learning and differences in the social roles of men and women.
Furthermore, the term sex differences is used to refer to the biological or
innate differences between men and women (Hyde, 1996). To the majority of
the authorities of gender theories the term sex-role equals gender role Bem
(1975) (cited in Guastello & Guastello, 2003; Chrisler, 2000), the behavior of
people in society is based on gender (the mental and social features) not sex
(biological features) and none of the behavioral features are innately masculine
or feminine. It is the society and the dominant culture that determines the
features of a gender (Boswell, 1997 cited in Woodhill & Samuels, 2003).
There are many models expressing identity and sex-roles which are based
on Korabik & Mc Creary (2000) that can be divided into three main groups:
1) Unidimensional models in which masculinity and femininity are
considered as two contradictory gender roles in two endpoints of the same
continuum and that high masculinity means lack of femininity and vice versa.
2) Bidimensional models such as those of Bem (1974) and Spence. Based
on these models, masculinity and femininity are two separate constructs;
therefore, one can be high in both of these constructs.
3) Multidimensional models which were suggested by researchers such
as Korabik & Mc Creary (2000) and Woodhill & Samuels (2003).
Based on these models, identity and sex role have more than two
constructs. For example, Woodhill & Samuels suggest positive femininity,
negative femininity, positive masculinity and negative masculinity.
A review of the studies carried out in different cultures and countries
shows that the bidimensional model which considers femininity and masculinity
as two separate constructs is more popular (i.e., Guastello & Guastello, 2003,
in Canada; Ward, 2000, in Singapore; Zhang, Norvilitis and Jin, 2001, in China;
Auster & Ohm, 2000, in America).
According to Bems bidimensional model (1974), from the point of view
of gender-role, any person may have three types of personality: 1) feminine, 2)
173
together 824 women in the above mentioned places were randomly selected.
The average age was 34.87 with a standard deviation of 8. The mean duration
of marriage was 12 (SD = 6). 36.45% (the highest percentage) of the participants
were employed in the ministry of education and 2.8% (the lowest percentage)
were employed in Banks.
4.2. Instruments
To collect data the following questionnaires and scales were used:
1) The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (short form) was used to determine the
gender type of the population. This form which is based on Bems long form is
a scale of 30 items which includes 10 items for femininity, 10 items for
masculinity and 10 items on social desirability. In order to calculate the short
form, Bem (1981) reassessed the items and found a 0.99 correlation between
the two forms. Regarding the Iranian validity of the scale, it should be mentioned
that the short form was taken from the internet and after translating and finding
equivalent terms by several psychologists was ready to use. As for the validity
of the scale in the validating phase of the research the correlation between the
short form and the long form of the scale and their components (separating the
sexes) was calculated using Pearson correlation coefficient. As a result, the
feminine correlation coefficient was 0.99 and the masculine was 0.75. All the
correlations were meaningful at p<0.001.
2) GoldBergs 1972 mental health questionnaire (GHQ) was used to
measure the mental health of the subjects. According to GoldBerg, the best
and the most suitable method to mark the items in the questionnaire is the
Likret model (with marks from 0 to 3). As for the validity, the result of 0.78
has been reported for the correlation between data gained from two
questionnaires (GHQ-28) and (SCL-90-R) on 244 subjects (cited in Sharghi,
2003). In Iran, Shargi (2003) in an attempt to customize the questionnaire
reported a correlation of 0.89. In the present study, in order to calculate the
validity of the GHQ questionnaire, it was performed with the scale of SCL-25
simultaneously (Najarian and Davoodi, 2000).
3) To measure marital satisfaction, Family Assessment Device-1 (FAD1) taken from FAD was used. FAD which was designed by Epstein, N.B.,
Bishop, D.S., & Levins, 1983, cited in Najarian, 1994 ) was designed with the
aim of describing the structural and organizational features of family. It is used
to differentiate between healthy and unhealthy families and to measure the
interactional patterns among family members. Najarian (1994) customized the
53 item FAD scale in Iran by factor analysis. The results of his research showed
0.99 correlation which is very desirable. In the present research, in order to
176
Frequency
Percentage frequency
Feminine
156
21.3
Masculine
160
21.9
Androgyny
224
30.6
Undifferentiated
191
26.1
Total
731
100
177
Chi-Square
df
Sig.
16.18
0.001
Employed women
Error
df
Hypothesis
df
Value
Test title
0.001
10.72
6.00
5.63
0.06
Pillais Trace
0.001
10.70
6.00
5.71
0.94
Wilks Lambda
0.001
10.68
6.00
5.78
0.07
Hotellings Trace
0.001
536.00
3.00
11.39
0.06
Type of
effect
Group
effect
Sum of squares
df
Mean Squares
Sig.
Mental health
1319.54
659.77
5.27
0.001
Marital satisfaction
1788.03
894.01
10.38
0.001
Emotional intelligence
8933.67
4466.83
15.78
0.001
Feminine
Feminine
Masculine
Androgyny
-2.55
1.19
Masculine
3.73**
**p<0.01
Feminine
Masculine
Androgyny
-3.78
0.32
4.11**
**p<0.01
Feminine
Feminine
Masculine
Androgyny
7.999*
-1.39
Masculine
-9.39**
Test name
Value
Hypothesis
df
Error
df
Sig.
0.034
2.30
1070
0.019
Wilks Lambada
0.966
2.31
1068
0.019
Hotellings Trace
0.035
2.32
1066
0.018
0.032
4.31
535
0.002
180
Sum of squares
df
Mean squares
Sig.
Somatic symptoms
31.422
15.74
1.08
0.34
Anxiety
130.92
65.46
4.02
0.018
Social dysfunction
58.45
29.23
3.56
0.029
Depression
143.56
72.9
0.001
Feminine
Masculine
-7.99
0.38
Androgyny
1.18*
* p< 0.05
Feminine
Feminine
Masculine
Androgyny
-0.37
0.42
Masculine
0.79*
Feminine
Masculine
Androgyny
-1*
0.21
1.2**
Table 13. The results of multivariable analyses of variance of the components of marital
satisfaction in women with different gender types
Effect
Test name
Value
Hypothesis
df
Error
df
Sig.
Pillais Trace
0.042
3.8
1072
0.001
0.96
3.8
1072
0.001
Hotellings Trace
0.04
3.9
1068
0.001
0.04
7.61
536
0.001
Square
Totals
df
Square
roots
Sig.
Patterns of
Social role
553.95
276.98
10.09
0.001
Problem solving
331.12
165.56
5.91
0.003
1.66
0.83
0.26
0.76
Emotional
Relationship
Feminine
Masculine
Androgyny
-2.03**
0.21
2.32**
** p< 0.01
183
Feminine
Masculine
Androgyny
-1.63*
0.14
Feminine
Masculine
1.77**
Test name
Value
Hypothesis
df
Error
df
Sig.
0.1
7.0
1070
0.001
Wilks Lambada
0.90
7.13
1068
0.001
Hotellings Trace
0.11
7.75
1066
0.001
0.10
13.46
535
0.001
184
Square
totals
df
Square
roots
Level of
significance
1057
528.52
16.89
0.001
1163.86
581.93
12.54
0.001
regulating and
appraisal of emotion
38.72
19.36
0.557
0.57
Social skills
555.56
277.78
10.23
0.001
optimism
understanding self
and others affection
Feminine
Masculine
Androgyny
-2.93**
0.29
3.23**
**=p<0.001
Feminine
Feminine
Masculine
Androgyny
2.6**
0.87
Masculine
-3.47**
Feminine
Feminine
Masculine
Masculine
Androgyny
1.95**
0.42
- 2.36**
**p<0.01
As seen in table 21, the difference in the social skills of women with
different gender types show that social skills in masculine women is
significantly less than feminine and androgynous women.
5. Discussion and conclusion
This research aimed at identifying and comparing gender types of the
Iranian employed women regarding mental health, marital satisfaction and
186
In the present study similar to previous studies and in line with related
theories, it has been shown that women with androgynous gender type at the
level of significance P<0.01 and women with feminine gender type at the level
of significance P<0.05 possess higher emotional intelligence than women with
masculine gender type. For the components of emotional intelligence (optimism,
understanding self and others emotions, regulating and appraisal of emotions)
women with androgynous and feminine gender types are significantly higher
than masculine women (P<0.01).
Regarding emotional intelligence the subordinate hypothesis 4.3 which
stated a meaningful difference between regulating and appraisal of emotions
of women with different gender types was not confirmed. This might be due to
the population characteristics, because the averages of regulating and appraisal
of emotions of women in gender types feminine (34.4), masculine (34.18)
and androgynous (34.8) show that all employed women have been more
successful in their component than the expected average and it is probably
because they are employed.
Finally, regarding the obtained results of this study and the previous studies
it is recommended to Iranian families and other authorities responsible for
education not to pay too much attention to the stereotypic beliefs and traditional
frames of gender types. They are recommended to help their children use all
their potentials regardless of being feminine or masculine.
Furthermore, based on the results of this study, after the androgynous
gender type which was the most frequent type, the undifferentiated type, defined
as weakness in both feminine and masculine gender types, was second. Based
on Bems (1975) theory and her followers, people with the undifferentiated
gender type will have more mental and social problems. Therefore, the
authorities and all people who are involved in the education of children and
even young people have to spend more time and money on the of psychologicalgender development of children, teenagers and young adults. Lack of attention
to the stereotypic frames and traditional gender types is not equal to leaving
them out entirely, but to flourish all the potentials related to masculine and
feminine traits.
References
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identity in fear of situation among the University Students of Tehran. MA thesis,
University of Teacher Training, Tehran, Iran
Alafar, S. (2004). Women Employment and its challenges. Woman Message. Special
Edition of woman in The Islamic Republic of Iran, Fourth Edition, No 13. P134.
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Greene, B.A. (1999). Goals, values, and belief as predictors of achievement and effort
in
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Guastello, D. D., & Guastello, S. J. (2003). Androgyny, gender role behavior, and
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Haghighatgoo, S. (2005). Girls Education, An Everlasting Document and A Credit to
Republic of Iran, Forth Edition, No 2.
Hansen, G.L. (2001). Androgyny, sex role orientation, and homosexism. The Journal
of Psychology, 112, 39-45.
Stimpson, C.R. (1974). The androgyny and the homosexual. Womens Studies, 2, 237248.
Sharghi, A. (2003). On the relationship between patterns of marital communication
and the mental health of primary school female teachers and their husbands in
Tehran. MA thesis, University of Teacher Training Tehran, Iran
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Message, Special Edition of Women in the Islamic Republic of Iran, No 13
Harris, D.A. (1974). Androgyny: The sexist myth in disguise. Womens Studies, 2,
171-184.
Heilbrun, A.B., & Pitman, D. (1979). Testing some basic assumptions about
psychological androgyny. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 135, 175-188.
Heilbrun, C.G. (1974). Father notes toward recognition of androgyny. Womens Studies,
2, 143-149.
Hyde, J.S. (1996). Half the human experience the psychology of women. D.C.Health
and Company, Lexington.
Hirokawa, K., & Dohi, I., & Yamada, F., & Miyata, Y. (2000). The effect of Sex, self
gender type, and partners gender type on interpersonal adjustment during a
first encounter: Androgynous and stereotypically sex- typed couples. Journal
Psychological Research, 42(2), 102-109.
Hui, P., & Ang, R., & Colleen, W. (1994). A cross-cultural perspective on models of
psychological androgyny. Journal of Social Psychology, 134, 91-93.
Juni. S. & Grimm, D.W. (1994). Marital satisfaction as a function of dynamic gender
role constellations. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 22 (2), 106-112
Korabik, K., & McCreary, D. (2000). Testing a model of socially desirable and
undesirable gender role attributes. Available in www. Look smart.
Livingston, M,. & Burley, K. (1996). The importance of being feminine: Gender, sex
role, occupational and marital role commitment, and their relationship to
anticipated work family conflict. Journal of Social Behavior &Personality, 11(5),
179-183.
Marani, M. (2003). Normalization of the Questionnaire of Emotional Intelligence
among Iranian Students of Isphahan. MA thesis, The Faculty of
EducationalSciences and Psychology of Isphahan University, Isphahan, Iran.
193
195
CAPITOLUL 9
MECANISME ALE STRESULUI ORGANIZAIONAL
Valentin Dinu
Abstract
From the vast issue of stress, the present chapter approaches the part related to
the professional life field. We resorted to presenting our own explanatory model of
the stress occurring in an organization, but also to creating and applying several
instruments to allow us to determine the diagnosis of the mechanisms/ components
contained by this model. At the same time, we are trying to validate the proposed
model. The dimensions which we consider to be involved in a stress episode case are
the following: the potentially stress-generating situation, the evaluation of the stress
generating feature of the situation, self awareness, the locus of control, the
discrepancy of the position, the level of stress (anxiety), the reactions to stress
(confrontation, avoidance, psychological defence). 65 subjects (31 women and 34
men) from the middle management of an important electrical appliances factory
participated in this research. The proposed model also has a practical value, because,
based on this model and the proposed instruments, we can determine the diagnosis of
each component involved in occurrence of stress, we can establish the vulnerable
points and intervene in order to improve the situation.
Keywords: organizational stress, model, evaluation of the stress-generating
feature of the situation, the discrepancy of the position.
1. Conceptul de stres
Cuvntul de provenien englez stres desemneaz o serie de substantive
nrudite ca neles, dar cu nuane ce pot diversifica sensul: ncordare,
presiune, povar, for, efort, solicitare, tensiune, constrngere.
Reacia la stres se instaleaz treptat atunci cnd individul este supus un timp
ndelungat unor condiii de tensiune psihic, cnd este atins imaginea de
sine, situaia marital, profesional, material. Chiar i dup nlturarea situaiei
stresante pot rmne reacii reziduale (atingeri ale imaginii de sine) sau o
vulnerabilitate crescut fa de un anumit gen de stresori (Holdevici, 1995).
196
209
Situaia
problem
(generatoare
de stres
Evaluarea
caracterului
stresogen al
situaiei
Discrepana
postului
anxietate,
stres
Reacie la stres
Locul
controlului
Imaginea de
sine
Confruntare
cu
Confrun
situaia
situ
Aprare
Apra
psihologic
psiholo
Evitarea
Evitar
situaiei
situa
3. imaginea de sine.
4. discrepana postului.
5. dificultatea adaptrii la stres.
B. variabila-criteriu:
6. nivelul de stres (anxietate)
Au participat 65 de subieci (31 de sex feminin i 34 de sex masculin) din
managementul mediu, din toate seciile: maitri, subingineri, ingineri, efi
de secie, n vrst de peste 30 de ani i cu o vechime de minimum 5 ani n
cadrul organizaiei.
Metodele folosite au fost: ancheta pe baz de interviu semistructurat,
ancheta pe baz de chestionar. Am apelat la mai multe instrumente de cercetare:
1. Chestionar L.C. pentru localizarea controlului. Scala de localizare
a controlului n munc a fost construit de Paul Spector (1988). Cu ct scorul
este mai mic, cu att subiectul este mai internist, vede ceea ce i se ntmpl
ca un rezultat al propriilor aciuni i al iniiativei personale. Cu ct scorul este
mai mare, cu att subiectul este mai externist, vede ceea ce i se ntmpl ca
un rezultat al ansei, norocului i relaiilor. Scorul general trebuie s fie cuprins
ntre 16 i 96 de puncte.
2. Chestionar I.S. pentru imaginea de sine - 34 itemi. Chestionarul a
fost construit cu ajutorul a 3 experi, iniial avnd 40 de itemi. Am obinut
urmtorii coeficieni: -half-split: r = 0,75; coeficientul Guttman Split-Half =
0,80; coeficientul de consisten intern al lui Cronbach = 0,75.
3. Chestionarele I.P.P. i I.I.P. Am construit dou chestionare I.P.P.
(imaginea perceput a postului) i I.I.P. (imaginea ideal a postului) (cu aceiai
itemi, care s exprime aceleai caracteristici ale unui post) pentru a putea vedea
discrepana postului (distana dintre caracteristicile postului actual, aa
cum sunt ele percepute de individul n cauz i caracteristicile postului pe
care le-au dorit sau i le doresc!). Se face punctajul separat pentru fiecare
chestionar n parte, iar discrepana postului (D.P.) se calculeaz fcnd
diferena dintre punctajul obinut la chestionarul I.I.P. i cel obinut la
chestionarul I.P.P. Un rezultat mare la discrepana postului (D.P.)
evideniaz faptul c este o distan mare ntre ceea ce i-a dorit individul de la
postul su i ceea ce consider c are.
4. Chestionar E.C.S.S. evaluarea caracterului stresogen al situaiei
de munc. Acest chestionar l-am construit pentru a msura stresul evaluat
contient de ctre individ n confruntarea cu diferitele situaii de la locul de
munc (Dinu, 2001) (35 de itemi). Instrumentul este structurat pe 5 dimensiuni:
trirea emoional negativ contientizat, frustrarea datorat condiiilor de
lucru, stresul datorat efului i colectivului, insatisfacia profesional,
incapacitatea perceput de rezolvare a sarcinilor de serviciu. Validitate
concurent: E.C.S.S. i Chestionarul C de anxietate. Coeficientul de corelaie
obinut ntre rezultatele la E.C.S.S. i la C (Cattel) este r=0,514 (semnificativ
la p<0,01).
211
Total E.C.S.S.
Trirea emoional
negativ contientizat
Frustrarea datorat
condiiilor de lucru
Stresul datorat efului i colectivului
Insatisfacie profesional
Incapacitatea
(contientizat) de
rezolvare a sarcinilor de serviciu
Total
E.C.S.S.
0,717**
0,705** 0,419**
0,808** 0,485**
0,386**
0,743** 0,379**
0,519**
0,487**
0,849** 0,647**
0,459**
0,623**
0,458**
*p< .05
**p< .01
213
Anxietate
Dificulti de adaptare la stres
0,525**
Discrepana postului
Evaluarea caracterului stresogen al
situaiei
0,514**
Locul controlului n
munc
Imaginea de sine
-0,307*
0,375**
0,260*
0,373**
-0,373**
-0,270*
*p< .05
**p< .01
stim de sine mai bun, cu att nivelul su de stres va fi mai sczut i invers!),
r=-0,307 (N=65, p<0,05). Indivizii cu nivelul sczut al acceptrii de sine i
subevalueaz propriile posibiliti de rezolvare a situaiilor, devin tensionai,
acioneaz nencreztori, iar eecul foarte probabil le va consolida aceast
imagine de sine proast. Indivizii cu un nalt nivel al stimei de sine sunt mai
ncreztori n forele proprii i vor fi mai puin tensionai, stresai.
Ip.3: Considerm c va exista o relaie direct ntre mrimea discrepanei
postului i nivelul de stres (cu ct discrepana postului este mai mare, cu
att indivizii vor fi mai stresai). Corelaia dintre aceste dou variabile nu este
semnificativ statistic, r=0,244 (N=65, p>0,05), ipoteza nu poate fi, deci,
acceptat. O explicaie posibil ar fi faptul c, de-a lungul timpului, indivizii
se pot obinui cu aceast discrepan ntre imaginea postului dorit i imaginea
perceput a postului actual, mai ales dac au o vechime mai mare pe acest
post! n acest caz, ei vor ignora aceast discrepan, tensiunea emoional
datorat acestui fapt va scdea.
Ip.4: Cu ct indivizii sunt mai externaliti cu att vor avea un nivel mai
ridicat de stres. Corelaia dintre aceste dou variabile nu este semnificativ
statistic, r=0,226 (N=65, p>0,05), ipoteza nu poate fi, deci, acceptat. Se observ
totui o corelaie pozitiv ntre aceste 2 variabile, dar care nu este suficient de
mare pentru a putea respinge ipoteza nul! (probabil ar trebui un numr mai
mare de subieci). O alt explicaie posibil ar putea-o constitui faptul c i
internalitii pot fi la fel de stresai sau poate mai stresai dect externalitii,
aceasta deoarece internalitii, considernd c reuita unei aciuni depinde
de capacitile proprii, n cazul unei probleme mai dificile care se poate solda
cu eec, i pot afecta imaginea de sine i diminua ncrederea n forele proprii!
Ip.5: Presupunem c exist o relaie direct ntre dificultile de adaptare
(scoruri la D.A.S.) i nivelul de stres (scorurile la chestionarul C). Respingem
ipoteza nul; cu ct individul va avea dificulti mai mari de adaptare (la
stres), cu att va avea un nivel mai ridicat de anxietate (i invers!) r=0,525
(N=65, p<0,01). Indivizii care nu prezint dificulti de adaptare la stres, anume
cei care se caracterizeaz prin urmtoarele trsturi principale (o bun
cunoatere a propriei persoane, o multitudine de interese, prezint o varietate
de reacii, i accept pe ceilali care au sisteme de valori diferite, sunt activi i
productivi) au o gam larg de elemente pe care se centreaz; ntruct nu se
mai canalizeaz doar pe o anumit situaie, n spe cea problematic tririle
afective negative aferente situaiei n cauz nu se vor mai amplifica, tensiunea
emoional va fi mai redus, deci stresul mai sczut. Invers, dificultile de
adaptare presupun focalizarea pe situaia anxiogen i creterea tensiunii,
stresului.
215
223
CAPITOLUL 10
APLICAII ALE TEHNICILOR PROIECTIVE
N PSIHODIAGNOZA ORGANIZAIONAL
Cornel L. Mincu
Abstract
This article is a pleading for the discovery of certain methodological solutions,
complementary to some of organisational psychologys problems, through the usage
of certain projective techniques applications in the psycho-diagnosis activity. Several
of the known projective techniques and their potential to grasp relevant aspects for
the organisational psychologists activity are presented. One at a time, important aspects
of the graphical spaces symbolistic and of the affective-sympathetic relationships in
the Thematic Configuration Test (C.L. Mincu, 2007), aspects of pulsional dynamics
(the Szondi Test) in the context of organisational activity, as well as a short introduction
in the Companies Verbal Association Technique (still in experimental phase) are
being specified. The results of the study confirm some of the classic interpretations
of space symbolistics and, at the same time, highlight new psycho-diagnostical
dimensions of the interpersonal personality.
Keywords: projective technique, organization.
1. Introducere
Dei atitudinea specialitilor fa de statutul tiinific al tehnicilor
proiective oscileaz ntre adoptarea unor poziii de contestare i aciuni de
dezvoltare i promovare, mai ales datorit avantajelor care decurg din utilizarea
acestui tip de instrumente, decizia utilizrii celui mai potrivit instrument
psihodiagnostic se impune ca cerin metodologic i trebuie s constituie o
sarcin constant a psihologului n activitatea specific de cunoatere a
comportamentului organizaional. Volumul relativ mare de cercetri i articole
de specialitate dedicate acestei probleme, atest faptul c tehnicile proiective
pot fi utilizate nu doar n investigarea personalitii aflat n dificultate, a
224
optimul de eficien a efortului n timp. Acestea sunt: verde (2), rou (3), galben
(4), iar grupul 2,3,4, sau orice combinaie a lor n juxtapoziie este numit grupul
de munc (Murean, 1987). Testul Rosenzweig este apabil s evidenieze
nivelul de frustrare acumulat n contexte organizaionale bine definite (conflicte,
negocieri, leasdership, etc.), precum i gradul de toleran individual la aceste
situaii-stimul, iar testul Rorschach poate fi utilizat n consiliere vocaional,
selecia de personal, consilierea managerilor, consilierea n organizaiile colare,
militare, n stabilirea unor tipologii profesionale i a unor stiluri de conducere,
etc.
n ultimii ani, cercetrile privind utilizarea tehnicilor proiective n
domeniul organizaional, au devenit din ce n ce mai nuanate. De exemplu, n
privina utilizrii testului Szondi, Rolf Kenmo, unul dintre autorii contemporani
care a propus i dezvoltat Conceptul de HumanGuide n mediul organizaional
(Louvain-la Neve, 1999), a elaborat cinci profile deosebit de utile pentru
activitatea psihologului: profilul persoanei, profilul postului, profilul
partenerului ideal i profilul cultural. Proiectul lui Rolf Kenmo The
HumanGuide concepts applied on measuring organisation culture (18th
Congress of the International Szondi Association, Lisabona, Portugalia, 10-12
iulie, 2008) demonstreaz faptul c metodologia de investigare psihologic
propus de el, se poate aplica cu succes n cercetarea culturii organizaionale.
Vom preciza n continuare, specificul unor aplicaii psihodiagnostice ale
tehnicilor proiective n cadrul mediul organizaional. Avem n vedere un test
de desen tematic, Testul Configuraiei Tematice (C.L.Mincu,2007), Tehnica
asociativ-verbal pentru organizaii (Mincu, 2008) i Testul pulsiunilor
(Szondi).
2. Aspecte psihodiagnostice ale Testului Configuraie Tematice (TCT)
Cunoscute mai ales ca metode expresive n familia testelor proiective,
testele bazate pe desen sunt capabile s reflecte, ntr-o form mediat,
dimensiuni i structuri importante ale modului n care se raporteaz omul n
cadrul diferitelor forme de organizare social. Att la nivel individual, ct i la
nivel interpersonal, codurile figural-simbolice n care este exprimat producia
grafic expresiv a individului, fac posibil developarea coninuturilor psihice
n produse susceptibile de a fi evaluate ca reflectare a organizrii dinamice a
sistemului de personalitate. n realizarea desenelor, ntr-o anumit msur,
eul se d la o parte pentru o scurt perioad pentru a permite micrilor i
imaginilor incontientului s emearg(Minulescu, 2001). Dup N.Dumitracu,
desenul, n diferitele sale forme mai mult sau mai puin artistice, a reprezentat
dintotdeauna o modalitate fundamental de expresie a tririlor, a atitudinilor
226
provenite pe de-o parte din analiza integral a desenului, iar pe de alt parte cu
cele provenite din administrarea altor probe (Bonchi, 2003). Suntem de acord
cu aceast opinie i vom ncerca s verificm cu mijloace statistice elementele
de interpretare tradiionale.
Pentru realizarea acestui demers, TCT a fost aplicat (2006) n varianta
standard pe un grup 49 de subieci, piloi (N=17) i parautiti militari (N=32),
la Spitalul Militar Central din Bucureti. Testarea acestei categorii de subieci
a fost posibil datorit ajutorului nepreuit primit din partea D-nei psiholog
Doina Trandafir, pentru recoltarea datelor i aplicarea ALAPS la subiecii mai
sus menionai. Chestionarul ALAPS (Armstrong Laboratory Aviation
Personality Survey) foarte utilizat n testarea personalului navigant i a
parautitilor din transporturile aeriene a fost aplicat n vederea validrii
simbolisticii pentru direcia orizontal a spaiului grafic. Chestionarul conine
240 de itemi grupai n 15 scale. Fiecare scal prezint att aspecte de
normalitate, ct i elemente de interpretare clinic. Subiecii au fost solicitai
s rspund la diferitele ntrebri cu adevrat sau fals. La rndul lor, scalele
sunt grupate n trei categorii: a) Personalitate; b) Psihopatologie i c) Interaciune
n echipaj
Ipoteza potrivit creia subiecii care deseneaz cercul n partea stng a
foii, au o tendin spre depresie mai mare dect cei care-l deseneaz spre partea
dreapt; cu ct cercul propriu este plasat mai aproape de partea stng a foii de
rspuns, cu att tendina subiecilor spre depresie este mai mare s-a confirmat.
Acest fapt prezint consecine n planul seleciei profesionale i al testrilor
periodice, mai ales n domenii care prezint risc crescut n activitatea de munc.
n urma testrii celui mai bun model de regresie care s permit explicarea
variaiei diametrului cercului pentru lotul de aviatori, am optat pentru modelul
quadratic de regresie, (fig.nr.1) deoarece acesta explic cel mai bine distribuia
empiric bivariat n privina tendinelor depresive asupra dimensiunii cercului
cu un coeficient de corelaie de r = -0.529 (p<0.01), coeficientul de determinare
de 0.28 i eroarea standard a estimrii de 2.59.
Se poate constata faptul c forma relaiei se apropie foarte mult de forma
corelaiei liniare. La aviatorii care deseneaz cercurile n partea stng a foii
de testare, exist o probabilitate crescut ca acetia s aib tendine depresive.
n opoziie cu tendinele depresive, deplasarea cercului spre centrul paginii
i spre partea dreapt a foii de testare se asociaz cu disponibilitatea spre aciuni
noi i creterea nivelului de organizare n activitate (tabelul nr.1). Creterea
disponibilitii pentru realizarea unor aciuni / activiti noi contrasteaz cu
reducerea iniiativei specifice depresiei (N=85, studeni anul I, psihologie). n
acest caz am folosit pentru validare, scale ale chestionarului NEO PI R.
Rezultatele au indicat o cretere semnificativ a scorurilor la scalele care vizeaz
activitatea, ordinea, independena, pentru plasarea desenului spre centrul i
dreapta paginii.
230
17.50
15.00
Distanta V
12.50
10.00
7.50
5.00
R Sq Linear = 0.28
2.50
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
Depresie
Organizare mai
puin eficient
Introversie
Dependene
Timiditate
Depresie
Exprimare controlat
a emoiilor
Nivelul organizrii
n activitate
Organizare eficient a
activitii
Nivelul
dinamico-energetic
Extraversie
Reglare la nivelul
afectivitii
Independen
Dezinvoltur
Nivelul reglrilor
pulsionale
Exprimarea relativ
uoar a afectelor
Activitate
231
Distan emoional
Distana grafic public
Neutralitate sau respingere
Distan grafic personal
C
Cercuri
tangente. Atracie emoional
selectiv
(de context) sau nedifereniat
se
Figura 2. Reprezentarea grafic a distanelor dintre cercuri i semnificaia lor n planul relaiilor
psihosociale: S = subiectul care deseneaz i A = Alter (persoana reprezentat de S n desen).
232
fie utilizate n societile orientale, africane, etc.? Pe de alt parte, ofer setul
de fotografii-stimul alegerea lor ntr-o manier echiprobabil? Cu alte cuvinte
are fiecare fotografie ansa de a fi aleas ca simpatic sau antipatic ? Ce se
ntmpl cu fotografiile pe care nu le alege nimeni, nici ca simpatice i nici ca
antipatice? Care este potenialul lor destinologic? Iat doar cteva ntrebri
care atrag atenia asupra importanei acordate stimulilor utilizai in testul Szondi.
Manifestrile tiinifice naionale i internaionale dovedesc interesul
constant al psihologilor pentru dezvoltarea potenialului psihodiagnostic al
testului Szondi. Astfel, putem enumera doar cteva dintre aspectele abordate:
o problema fiabilitii i validitii testului Szondi (Andrs Garcia Siso);
o dezvoltarea unui soft specializat (Brazilian software for the Szondi
Trieb test (STTB);
o studii comparative transculturale (Bruno Gonalves, Enik
Gyngysin Kiss Comparing test results from Hungarian and
Portuguese community samples);
o Lehrbuches der Experimentellen Triebdiagnostik a fost tradus n
limbile: englez (Experimental Diagnostic of Impulses,1952), francez
(Diagnostic experimental des Pulsions, 1975), italian (Introduzione
AllAnalisi del Destino,1975), japonez, spaniol (Tratado del
Diagnostico Experimental de los Instintos);
o Scientizarea interpretrii prin utilizarea unor Proceduri statistice
facilitate de programe specializate in statistica
o Apariia de articole n revista Szondiana cu apariia anual.
3.3. Relaia pulsiune trebuin n analiza pulsional
Aa cum artam n studiul Profilul pulsional al criminalului
(Dumitracu,N., C.L.Mincu, 2003), cele patru trebuine din sistemul pulsional,
implicate n deciziile pe care le lum, sunt:
pulsiunea sexual = este pulsiunea care declaneaz comportamentele
de reproducere i implic energia libidinal investit n aceste
comportamente; trebuina sexual se sub-mparte n dou sub-trebuine,
i anume h care este energia erotic propriu-zis sau latura feminin a
sexualitii, i trebuina s, adic energia activ, sau dimensiunea
masculin a sexualitii.
pulsiunea paroxismal = responsabil de reaciile afective n condiii
de pericol (fug sau lupt). Ea se mparte n dou sub-trebuine, i
anume trebuina epileptiform (e), care declaneaz reaciile afective
violente, i trebuina isteriform (hy), care este implicat n
comportamentele de camuflare sau ascundere.
236
Sistem de
trebuine
Activare i
orientare:
- pulsiune
- dorin
- valen
- tendin
- intenie
Orientare
Declanare
Susinere
energetic
Descrcare/
Reprimare /
Sublimare
Relaii de consonan
sau de disonan
Sistem
pulsional
Expresivitate
emoional
Procesri
psihofiziologice
- lobul frontal
- hipotalamus
- sistemul limbic
- sistemul endocrin
Influenele
culturii organizaionale
COMPORTAMENT
EXPRESIV-EMOIONAL
ex.comportament
organizaional pozitiv
Satisfacie /
insatisfacie
n munc
240
Cuvinte stimul
Organizare
Munc
Schimbare
Eficien
ngrijorare
Punctualitate
Conflict
mprumut
Participare
Opoziie
Urgen
Autoritate
Minciun
Abuz
Neglijen
Oboseal
Competen
Fraud
Responsabilitate
Respect
Amnare
Ordin
Concediu
Agresivitate
Bani
Eec
Satisfacie n munc
Nesiguran
Disciplin
Succes
Manipulare
Stres profesional
Decizie
Inloleran
Situaie de criz
Insisten
Impulsivitate
Dependen
Hruire
Promovare
Rspuns
echip
oameni
TR
(secunde)
3.9
1.8
stabilitate
1.7
datorii
colectiv
2.2
24.7
duritate
10.6
team
14.2
onest
9.4
mn
putere
neans
13.4
4.8
7.2
carier
voin
munc
3
4.7
8.9
duritate
3.7
Rspuns
Observaii
reproducere
Bibliografie
Anastasi, A., Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological testing, Paerson education, Singapore.
Berman Brown, R., Herring, R. (1998). The circles of time. An exploratory study in
measuring temporal perceptions within organizations, Journal of Managerial
Psychology. Vol. 13, p. 580.
Bonchi, E. (2003). Psihologia desenului copilului, Editura Universitii din Oradea.
Davido, R. (1998). Descoperii-v copilul prin desene, Editura IMAGE, Bucureti.
Deri, S. (2000). Introducere n testul Szondi, Editura Paideia, Bucureti .
Dumitracu, N. (2005). Tehnicile proiective n evaluarea personalitii, Editura Trei,
Bucureti.
Dumitracu, N., Mincu, C.L. (2003). Profilul pulsional al criminalului, http://
www.szondiforum.org/showdoc.php?id=492 (accesat la 20.07.2008).
241
Dumitracu, N., Mincu, C.L. (2005). The influence of the gender and educational
level on the drive reaction, http://www.szondiforum.org/index.php (accesat la
20.07.2008).
Holdevici, I. (2000). Gndirea pozitiv, Ghid practic de psihoterapie raional-emotiv
i cognitiv-comportamental, Dual Tech, Bucureti.
Mincu, C.L. (2007), Testul Configuraiei Tematice Aplicaii organizaionale, n E.
Avram, (coord). Psihologie organizaional-managerial- perspective aplicative,
Editura Universitar, Bucureti.
Mincu, C.L. (2007). Contribuii metodologice la studiul personalitii, tez de doctorat,
Bucureti.
Minulescu, M. (2001). Tehnici proiective, Editura Titu Maiorescu, Bucureti.
Murean, P. (1987). Culoarea n via noastr, Editura Ceres, Bucureti.
Rorschach, H. (2005). Manual de psihodiagnostic, Editura Trei, Bucureti.
Szondi, L. (1952). Diagnostic experimental des pulsions, Presses universitaires de
France, Paris.
242
PARTEA a II-a
ABORDRI APLICATIVE
DEZVOLTAREA ORGANIZAIEI
243
244
CAPITOLUL 11
SMALL ENTERPRISES FACING GLOBALIZATION
Eugen Avram & Puiu M. Mihai
Abstract
The organizations world is faced with constant change. In order to adapt to the
new competitive environments, the companies design strategies. In todays tough
context of globalization, some managers conceive globalization plans, others create
survival programs. The paper focuses on the small companies, by trying to find out
who shall survive the forth-coming change. Our presumption is that, provided small
firms are pro-active and start their assault for survival from the inside, they will
manage to follow through. They must be preoccupied with the staff development,
increase the level of autonomy, reduce the formalization and be interested in the
employees satisfaction and motivation. Moreover, the striving for innovation has to
be a continuous effort. Thus, we need a new type of management which is adapted to
the circumstances of the time. Management 21 is the new paradigm and signifies the
implementation of a style of management which brings innovation in the administration
procedures of XXIst century organizations.
Key words: globalization, small enterprises, assault for surviving.
the tough world competition, the degree of government interference, the crisis
of resource and the rapid development of the new technologies. The
organizational specialists initially focused on internal changes, yet leaving less
explored the external conditions and changes. As far as internal changes go, a
great importance was given to the manager. Managers face pressures in complex
and challenging situations, they have to ensure an efficient harnessing of the
resources and, at the same time, they have to find ways to guarantee the longterm efficiency of the company they work in, and identify whats appropriate
to do in the future (the appropriate products and services to offer, the harnessing
technology to be used, the best procedures to introduce, the recruiting of people
with proper skills and their retention) (Carnall, 1990, p. 1-2).
The practitioners and analysts focused later on especially on the exterior
conditions that create changes within the organizations, many times deep
changes. Today, the main pressure on organizational change comes form exterior
(ibidem.). Consequently, to help ensuring the survival of an organization and
its long-term success, the latter must be very easily adaptable to external
requests. Therefore, the organization must be respondent to change. In order
for it to function effectively, the organization must maintain relationships/
interaction with the external environment it belongs in. The condition of
adaptation is that the company always shows flexibility so that its structure
and functioning reflect the nature of the environment it operates in (Mullins,
1993, p. 664).
Changes within organizations are determined by certain processes
(mergers, reorganizations, lay-offs, strategy/processes/culture changes; they
are contextual (a new job, a new boss, a new role within the team, a new
policy) and may imply a series of perils: insubordiantion (once a change stars,
another begins), peoples work incapacity (caused by stress), law suits (more
than half of the law suits institued on dismissal are won by the employees
(Bridges, 2004, pp. 5-15). The major changes that affect the organizations
management are:
1. Innovations that lead to new products and production methods;
2. Changes in the market patterns as a result of innovation, of changes
regarding what the consumer wants and new selling methods;
3. The increased competition as a result of price diminishing;
4 Changes in regulations and governmental taxes;
5. New managerial technology, e.g. the computer;
6. Internal changes employees trainings and activities;
7. Changes in the social values and work aptitudes (Cowling et al., 1988,
p. 222).
Although the study of organizational changes has its history, there is no
unanimous opinion on its meaning: the concept of organizational change is
246
from one state to another; the change of power and the statess role within the
economic force; the perpetual conflict between what should and what should
not be done (ibidem., p. 578-579). Maybe the most important trend among
the recent ones, that will certainly be perpetuated is the increased
internationlaization of businesses.
The solutions to adapt to this context can be put together in strategies,
but a problem that stands is the one of the average employee. Like Drucker
(1989) shows, knowledge is the new capital. The employee that has knowledge
has a power that enables him to have a stronger influence within the organization
and a higher independence.
Globalization draws major changes in most fields: the workforce mobility,
the cultural deteritorialization and heterogeneity, organizational culture,
managers activity, a.s.o. To these we will refer ar follows.
The workforce mobility analyses were also a social concern, but not yet a
major feature of organizational culture literature. Globalization is one of the
main motivators of the increased workforce diversity in almost all industries,
rising challenges regarding the ways to coordinate people with different origins
to promote personal and organizational purposes (Jablin & Putnam, 2001, 310
317). For example, the United States organizations were faced in the past as
much as well as in the present with profound changes in the workforce; in the
new context, the place of the youngsters, women, elderly, minorities and
immigrants is changed; also, the workforce weight is changed in different sectors
for example, in the last years, a very high percentage of the workplaces in the
United States came from the economic services sector, along with a decreased
importance of the manufactures (Roberts and Hunt, 1991, p. 577-578).
Deteritorialization este is a phenomenon implicit to globalization. The
rapid migration of the third world nations to the more developped countries
was severly criticized by some analysts, that considered it to be a spectacular
example of social uprooting that assumes fractions and major cultural adapting.
In this case, deteritorialization is the consequence of a work market for
indesirable and humiliating tasks in the rich societies. The same case applied
for the African or Asian slave commerce in the North America, Brasil and
Caraibe in the colonial era a few centuries ago and it still applies today to
the case of immigrant workers in the (Lull, 2004, p. 165).
Globalization causes significant changes in multiple culture constructions,
inside as well as outside the organizations. The world market reality leads to
the homogenization of products and services at a worldwide level and to the
increased influence and presence of the corporations in the public and private
life (Deetz, 1992). A particular emphasis is set on : understanding the dominant
cultural practices of the organizations; examining the similar cultural constructs;
248
understanding the subcultures; explaining the tensions that arise from multiethnic at the workpace; investigating new relationships among the employees
as the organizational cultures intersect with different national cultures; studying
the implications for the work efficieny; elaborating training programs that deal
with diversity or multicultural differences, etc (Jablin and Putnam, 2001, pp.
310317). The most unsettling question is: What does culture mean in global
organizations? (ibidem.).
Some critics regard these transformations with distrust, considereing that
the domination of worldwide communication channels by the technologically
advanced nations represents a modern cultural and media (Lull, 2004).
The changes within the managers activity are the gravity center of the
new trends, the managers being the ones that will deal with a part of the
globalization processes. The increased competition, privatization and
disruptions in several areas of the industry, commerce and public sector brought
along the necessity to promote managers with an extended view that will
develop a commercial consciousness and a higher preoccupation for quality
among their employees, and that will determine them to be more interested in
more organizational life aspects: money value, developing, launching and
marketing the new products and services, a higher flexibility of the organization
and services design, the corporations image and identity, the displace of the
management focus from the internal interests towards balancing the internal
and external interests (Carnall, 1990, pp. 1-2).
Older managers now work for very different types of organizations from
the ones in which they first became managers. Even though the authority
hierarchies will continue to exist in large organizations, these will be shorter
and more tightly connected. There will be a small number of intermediary
managers, but with precise and more responsible roles. The managers tasks
are much less predictable, but they have higher chances for flourishing careers
(Mullins, 1993).
Starting with Second World War, the typical executive director portrait
of a corporation looked as follows: he started to work in finance after obtaining
an accounting degree. He followed all the steps in the companies, from the
control office in a department to leading that department and to the top. His
military history shows hes accustomed to giving orders that are executed. The
first time he traveled over ocean on business he was already an executive
director. Computers impressed him. And lets look at the 2000 executive director
portrait to see a completely different person. His degree is in French literature,
but also has one in Engineering. He started his career in research and was
rapidly designated a potential executive director. He went through research,
marketing and finance, in no specific order. He promoted himself in Brasil,
249
From here on, the dilemma is the following: will these organizations survive
in the new context? Not only the small firms, but all the organizations without
a strong culture, a solid structure, a management 21 are in danger.
The economic and legislative factor will be essential in this context, but
the psychoorganizational factor will offer an extra chance to the ones at the
limit of survival. We must consider the fact that the institutions, regardless of
their nature, manage values and promote ideological flashes, subordinating a
more and more organizational man. In this context, we launch and important
idea: in the new context not only the companies, but also the small and medium
firms will have to adopt a new type of management in the 21st century. This
management is called Management 21.
In our opinion, this management will have to bring more to the
organization through the organizational and managerial development programs,
and focus more on the psychological and psychosociological aspects of
organizational culture, on cognitive and emotional change, but most importantly,
on the intelectual-methodological reexamination of existing concepts in practice
and science, proposing the reoperationalization of fundamental concepts such
as communication, efficiency, innovation, offering a new paradigm. Namely,
the smart psychology paradigm, that emphasises on the importance of human
capital, looking at it from a new perspective that implies creating added value,
has the significance of reducing the turbulence and uncertainty the human
resources dynamics on the background of a high expectations environment
(social-political, cultural-economic, organizational, ecologic and why not,
organizational-virtual).
The new cultural values imposed by the informational, energetic, financial
globalization, support a management of organizational change in which the
dilemma separate organizations merged organizations is dissolved. Thus,
change becomes a complex, divers, dynamic process that must be approached
more and more seriously by the companies with a weak managerial culture,
but also by the ones with a strong managerial culture, taking into consideration
the sociocultural consequences and the manner in which the environment will
impose: designing new organizational structures; encouraging new attitudes,
values and normative systems; rethinking the negotiated semnifications.
Therefore, the organizations must produce and satisfy new needs culturally
elaborated through consciously building the identity, prestige, commitment,
expression, participation, communication, motivation, decision, relinquishing
the traditional way of reacting. In other words, Management 21 tells us that
the companies that will begin the struggle for survival will have to adopt a
smart psychology, which means, among other things, being proactive (see
Figure 1).
252
ORGANIZATION
INNOVATION
CHARACTERISTICS
1. Performant personnel
2. Power decentralization
3. Reduced formalization
4. Satisfaction, motivation
Governmental TECHNOLOGY
policies
laws, taxes, tariffs
IMPACT
COMPETITION
ADMINISTRATION
(favourable/unfavourable)
PROGRAMMED
NON-PROGRAMMED
(planned, research, development) (resource excess)
CRISIS
IMPOSED
INNOVATION
Scientific statute
Amortisation
Efficiency
Economic
COST
POWER
Risk
Uncertainty
Excellence
STRUGGLE for
Social
survival
conquest
- it must decentralize power, and leave larger authority edge to the middle
line managers and supervisors, and if this has some limits and can not be
extensively applied, than employ delegation;
- it must reduce the formalization degree, in tolerable limits, and if the
formalization isnt clear, establish the contexts of informal life (when the
communication is free, peoples behaviour during breaks, which are the ruls
that must be relaxed or changed, what is the meaning of good mood and
fulfillment in the organization)
- to be preoccupied with research and optimizing the satisfaction
satisfaction level within the company and establishing a motivating strategy.
All these characteristics are favourable if the organization wishes to
commence the assault not only for survival, but for expansion as well. For a
small firm, extension means conquesting a new partner, a new client that comes
back, a new product or service in the area. Moreover, the assault implies
INNOVATION. What is innovation to a small company? Is there such ting? Is
it any help? Does it make any sense? The innovation to these fighters means
the search for and promotion of those small artifices that draw the client: the
payment method, the interior decorations, the shop assitants smile, the door
bell, the shelves arrangement, the shops smell, the temperature, the free bag,
the free newspaper, on-house products, etc. These are innovations for the small
firms. Their managers, the store, fast-food, barbers shop, auto laundry managers
can promote new ideas that satisfy the hidden needs of the clients and makes it
pleasant for them to come back. A small detail in the product (a cherry in the
lemonade glass, a coloured bag or an odd-shaped spice jar in a fast food means
innovation, idea, struggle and assault.
Innovating and promoting positive characteristics will have an IMPACT:
they will enable an influence system of the company elite and will offer the
advantage of the possibility to create department or subsegments that have
local characteristics, namely that promote the organizational characteristics
and innovation in a particular manner.
Therefore, once the first step is made, the new pulse can be felt: the
small firsm start to move, they began the assault. That implies new
perspectives in matters of technology, new towers in the world of competition,
and even some administrative changes, all on the aggressive or sweet
background of governmental policies that impose new laws, taxes and tariffs.
Alcohol, tobacco and other vices are increasingly pricy, the commercial slots
also must be regulated, the hygene rules bother, the quality standards
discourage, and the small firms have no choice but to become pro-active. In
order to survive and to begin the assault, the small firms must start the
struggle, and throw themselves in the competition armed with ideas.
254
256
CAPITOLUL 12
INOVAIA N ORGANIZAIILE INTENSIV-COGNITIVE
DIN SECTORUL SERVICIILOR
Cristina Leovaridis
Abstract
The chapter presents the new types of knowledge-based organizations
(knowledge-intensive organizations), as an organizational innovation, appeared from
the necessity of organization being today as competitive as possible on the knowledge
markets; the criterions of this change are identified. The paper focuses only on the
service organizations and on the nature of innovation accomplished here, generally
and in Romania especially, being presented some statistical data. Knowledge-intensive
service organizations practice a particular type of management (a knowledge
management and a social interactions one), essential for their survival and
development.
Key words: innovation, services, knowledge-intensive organizations,
competition, knowledge management.
Criteriul schimbrii
organizaionale
Efectul
Organizaii non-manageriale,
n care managementul are rol
limitat (firme de servicii profesionale)
45
39
35
22
26
35
262
avea ca surs reelele internaionale din care ele fac parte, firma-mam (ce
dispune eventual i de departament de CD, n care investete) mprtind
tuturor filialelor sale acele practici care s-au dovedit a avea succes.
Pentru organizaiile ce ofer servicii intensiv-cognitive, relaiile clientfurnizor sunt foarte importante, deoarece produsele pe care le vnd sunt parial
produse n cadrul acestor relaii. Organizaiile intensiv-cognitive sunt parte
ale unor reele de inovare i importante noduri n cadrul acestora; ele nu sunt
att creatore de nou, ct importani ageni de transfer ai inovrii (Vuori, 2005).
Participarea n diferite reele de afaceri face ca organizaiile de servicii
intensiv-cognitive s fie parte a unor sisteme complexe. Deoarece relaiile i
interaciunile sunt foarte importante pentru aceste organizaii, ele trebuie s
fac fa co-opetiiei. Co-opetiia este un concept care indic faptul c exist
att competiie ct i cooperare n aceeai relative de afaceri (de exemplu,
ntre dou companii care concureaz pe o pia i coopereaz pe alta).
Organizaiile intensiv-cognitive sunt vzute ca pri ale unor ecosisteme de
afaceri (au relaii strnse cu parteneri, fac parte din largi reele de cooperare,
particip la co-opetiii).
Inovaia impune schimbri radicale n sistemul instituionalizat al
cercetrii tinifice i tehnologice, trecerea de la fragmentarizare la
multidisciplinaritate: inovarea este o problem de multidisciplinaritate, avnd
n vedere noi tehnologii, noi metode de producie, perfecionri ale serviciilor,
inovarea practicilor manageriale, marketing i proiectare, toate dipendente de
relaiile ntre oameni (Hoffman, Glodeanu, 2006, p. 127). E necesar astfel o
nou legtur instituional ntre toi factorii ce reprezint disciplinele
implicate n innovare, ceea ce presupune o deschidere ctre o cultur a cooperrii
ntre specialiti i echipe.
Interconectivitatea este o caracteristic central a organizaiilor intensivcognitive, iar aceste interconexiuni pot fi relativi de competiie, de cooperare,
de co-opetiie, de exploatare etc. Aceste organizaii manifest o tendin ridicat
de a intra n relaii i de a le menine, fa de alte organizaii de aceeai mrime
dar care nu sunt bazate pe cunoatere. Relaiile formate sunt foarte strnse,
bazate pe mprtirea cunoaterii i pe ncredere reciproc, n scopul crerii
de cunoatere nou n aceast relaie, care nu e competitiv, ci cooperativ
sau co-opetitiv. Un exemplu de relaie strns poate fi aceea dintre o firm de
consultan i clientul ei, relaie avantajoas pentru ambii deoarece au
posibilitatea de a nva fiecare de la cellalt i de a dezvolta cunoatere
eficient, mprtind informaie util.
Astfel, relaiile unei organizaii intensive-cognitive sunt numeroase i
unele presupun mprtirea (punerea n comun a) cunoaterii, nvrii i
inovaiei, ceea ce crete probabilitatea crerii a noi idei.
264
270
CAPITOLUL 13
SCHIMBAREA ECHIPEI MANAGERIALE
I CRIZA ORGANIZAIONAL
Gelu Moraru
Abstract
To manage change process effectively involves the ability to create new synthesis
of people, resources, ideas, opportunities, and demands. The manager needs special
skills like vision and creativity, and influence. People must be influenced, new ideas
accepted, new ways of working embraced and new standards of performance and
quality achieved. Continuity and tradition must be overturned, in part, as the old is
replaced by the new. The first step is to test reality faced by the organization and to
draw people into this testing process. Recognizing the problems and becoming involved
in processes aimed at developing solutions led to a more open approach to the idea of
change. Initially seen as unavoidable, employees began to recognize the possibility
that constructive, albeit not painless, action was feasible. In these ways management
and employees were facing the challenge of learning from changing. Significant change
involves learning. One result of management development is represented by the
managers capacity to handle with changes, and to learn form changes. After a
description of some theoretical issues about organizational change and organizational
crisis, we analyze a case study.
Keywords: change, crisis, managers.
1. Cadre
n zilele noastre tehnologia a atins niveluri de dezvoltare impresionante.
Muli manageri, n fascinaia pentru introducerea noilor cuceriri tehnologice
recurg la schimbri organizaionale mai mult sau mai puin calculate. Acestea
se asociaz cu noi angajri i, n unele cazuri, cu dez-angajri. Nu de puine
ori, schimbrile radicale conduc la apariia crizei organizaionale, mai ales
atunci cnd ele vizeaz echipa de management.
271
2. Criza organizaional
Din pcate, multe organizaii mari, complexe se focalizeaz exclusiv n
interior, asupra randamentului propriilor operaiuni, perturbnd astfel balana
dintre interior i planul extern. Din cauza presiunilor procedurilor i activitilor
zilnice, oamenii urmresc riguros operaiuni nalt formalizate i standardizate,
care ns ndeprteaz informaia nou, sancioneaz nonconformismul n
ndeplinirea sarcinilor de serviciu i nchid orizontul temporal la chestiunile
imediate (Clegg, Hardy, Nord, 1999).
Principliul de baz este c examinarea atent a evenimentelor care au
condus la o greeal poate ajuta managerii s prevad apariia unei/ unor greeli
similare. Din ce n ce mai mult, studiul eecului organizaional a ctigat teren.
Meritul revine acelor cercettori care i-au orientat studiile asupra fenomenelor
perturbatoare ale vieii organizaionale (vezi: Hall, 1980; Bignell, Peters i
Pym,1977; Child, 1984, Lorange i Nelson,1987, .a.). Neglijarea preveniei
este primul exemplu de comportament ineficient. Dup opinia lui Carnall (1990)
n viaa organizaiilor nvm mai multe din eecuri dect din succese.
n ceea ce privete problemele determinate de surse din interiorul
organizaiei, cauzele acestora pot fi profunde i importante. Bignell et al. (1977)
au artat c, n mod tipic, circumstanele eecurilor sunt urmtoarele: o situaie
sau un proiect n care sunt implicai membrii mai multor organizaii; existena
unor sarcini complexe, prelungite i slab definite care ridic dificulti
informationale; ambiguiti asociate cu modul de a gestiona situaii sau proiecte;
membrii organizaiei au atitudini stereotipe cu privire la comportamentul altor
persoane; tratarea plngerilor i nemulumirile clienilor/ publicului sau
membrilor altor organizaii ntr-o manier nepoliticoas, considernd c acestea
vin din partea unor profani care nu neleg suficient de bine parametrii implicai;
recunoaterea parial sau neglijarea semnelor unor situaii produse de
ntmplare; existena unei presiuni a muncii; investiii de prea multe resurse
pentru fi acceptate ca atare i pentru a le utiliza (este vorba de timp, bani i
energie); considerarea faptului c o situaie de criz nu se va mai repeta (Bignell
et al, 1977).
Child s-a preocupat de identificarea cauzelor acelor probleme care emerg
din structura organizaiei, n timp ce lista lui Bignell et al. cuprindea cauze ale
eecului n general. Child (1984) a identificat o serie de semne care anun o
problem legat de structur: volum prea mare de munc, slaba integrare ntre
departamente, capacitate sczut de inovaie i de control. Lorange i Nelson
au adus noi contribuii, preciznd i ali poteniali factori perturbatori ai
organizaiilor:
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3. Studiu de caz
Astzi, pe fondul evoluiei rapide a informaticii, tehnologiei, tiinei, muli
manageri ncearc s implementeze noi instrumente prin investirea n achiziii
materiale, informaionale i umane. S ncercm s ajungem in culisele
schimbrii i s scoatem n eviden ce ar trebui s tim despre schimbrile
inspirate i neispirate! n mod cert, o schimbare se impune la momentul n
care o organizaie are nevoie de o mai bun ajustare cu mediul extern. n general,
o schimbare de succes are la baz o filosofie, o strategie bine definit, o
direcie, un scop al tuturor proceselor schimbrii. n mod necesar, trebuie s
fie clarificat un aspect important: durata de timp n care se ateapt c vor
aprea rezultatele schimbrii. Realitatea arat c schimbrile din cadrul unei
organizaii nu au rezultate imediate i nu notdeauna pozitive.
Am s detaliez o situaie pe care am ntlnit-o la unul dintre colaboratorii
cu care lucrez i care mi-a solicitat sprijinul. Administratorul societii care
mi-a solicitat consilierea este o persoan cu viziuni largi, deschis la nou,
adaptabil la o economie de pia n continu micare, cu o firm/societate care
funciona bine. El a hotrt c este momentul unor schimbri, majore, drept
pentru care a trecut la fapte n sperana c i va mbunti afacerea.
Factorii determinani ai schimbrii. Sub impulsul discuiilor avute n
anturajul de prieteni i ghidat de considerente mai puin calculate, managerul
a declanat procesul schimbrii. Iniiativele au avut ca motiv viteza de schimbare
a tehnologiei, ncntarea fa de cei ce erau familiarizati cu utilizarea unor
proceduri noi.
Sistemul organizaional. Analiznd cifra de afaceri a societii, una de
invidiat, am constatat c pn la momentul schimbrii nu existaser evenimente
perturbatoare notabile sau semnale c se impune introducerea unui nou program
de management. Din punct de vedere al resurselor umane, firma deinea o
echip n care muli angajai aveau vechime de peste 10 ani. Relaiile dintre ei
erau bune, existnd prietenie i colaborare. Salariile erau situate sub nivelul la
care sunt pltite posturile respective n alte firme de acelai nivel i cu acelai
obiect de activitate. Motivarea salariailor consta n faciliti precum telefon,
autoturism. n mod constant din drepturile salariailor lipsea perioada de odihn,
ei nebeneficiind de concedii, ci doar de cte un week-end. Activitatea avea
un flux mobil i antrena misiuni de rezolvare a unor probleme urgente, astfel
nct joburile manageriale presupuneau mobilizare la orice or din zi sau
noapte.
Obiectul schimbrii. Managerul a decis nlocuirea rapid a pesonalului
de conducere, pentru obinerea unor rezultate mai mulumitoare.
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CAPITOLUL 14
VNZAREA EXPRESIV VS. AGRESIV
N DOMENIUL ASIGURRILOR DE VIA
Mihai Zota & Clina Gavril
Abstract
The previous study appeals on the application of the multivariate technique of
multidimensional scaling for identifying the structure of the field of perception. The
assessed stimuli: to gain recommendations, to gain the respect of my client, to be
honest, to be able to have my client as a center of influence, to show professionalism,
to gain the trust of the client, to fulfill my target, to become an agreeable person, to
have financial profit, to manage my time at the best, are projected on a perceptual
dimension having as a basis the decisional level of the participants on the study. The
technique has as purpose to identify some dimensions which should catch in detail
those latent concepts that influence the extern stimuli, to reflect as coherent as possible
their manner of organizing and to reduce the stimulis area which include the
participants mental representations.
Keywords: insurance, selling, influence.
1. Introducere
Specialitilor n vnzri le place s spun c nu se ntmpl nimic pn
cnd cineva nu vinde ceva. i asta pentru c numrul mai mare sau mai mic
al oamenilor de vnzri din cadrul unei economii dau msura calitii i
competitivitii acesteia. Procesul de vnzare este, de aceea, unul dintre cele
mai importante elemente comune ale tiinei economice i al psihologiei sociale.
Comportamentul consumatorului, dar i cel al vnztorului constituie doi piloni
ai economiei globale, motiv pentru care procesul de vnzare/cumprare se
bucur de un interes att de mare din partea cercettorilor.
Exist dou mari categorii ale modelelor de vnzare; una este cea a
vnzarilor agresive, n for, orientate ctre obinerea unui ctig imediat din
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investiie, economisire, rent, pensie. Piaa Statelor Unite ale Americii este
cea mai mare din lume, peste 65% din populaia acestei ri avnd ncheiat
cel puin o Asigurare de via. O alt pia dezvoltat este cea a Marii Britanii,
n care peste 61% din populaie i-a asigurat viaa. O pia a asigurrilor cu o
bun funcionare joac un rol important n dezvoltarea economic a unei ri.
n zilele noastre asigurrile nu sunt doar o caracteristic a creterii
economice, ci au cptat un caracter de necesitate.n ultimii ani, ponderea
firmelor cu capital majoritar strin pe piaa romneasc a crescut foarte mult.
Companiile cu capital majoritar strin dein 80% din piaa asigurrilor de via
i aproape c monopolizeaz clasamentele cu primii 10 asigurtori din Romnia
(8 companii). Beneficiind de soliditatea conferit de apartenena lor la unele
din cele mai mari grupuri financiare din lume (Allianz, AIG, AVIVA, ING,
GENERALI, Mercur Versicherung, TBI Holding, Wiener Stadtische etc.), aceste
companii au acionat ca un catalizator n procesul de transformare nregistrat
pe piaa romneasc a asigurrilor n ultimii ani prin: infuzie de capital; transfer
de know-how; implicare n investiii pe pieele financiare din Romnia (titluri
de stat, obligaiuni, piaa de capital).
Conform ultimelor studii fcute att de AIG Life, ct i de companii
specializate, ritmul mediu de cretere a pieei asigurrilor de via va fi de
30% pe an pn n 2010-2012 i va duce piaa la un miliard de euro1, a declarat
Theodor Alexandrescu, director general AIG Life. El crede c aceast evoluie
se va datora att condiiilor legislative, ct i diversificrii canalelor de
distribuie prin bank assurance, telemarketing, marketing direct, ct i prin
dezvoltarea reelei proprii a companiilor de asigurare i creterea activitii de
brokeraj.
Piaa romneasc a asigurrilor de via este n prezent o pia n dezvoltare
datorit nivelului sczut de penetrare a asigurrilor de via de 0,4% din PIB
fa de media european de 5% din PIB. De asemenea, acest tip de poli
reprezint sub 25% din piaa asigurrilor fa de 60% la nivel european.n
opinia celor de la ING, unul dintre factorii care i vor determina pe romni
s-i achiziioneze asigurri de via va fi presiunea asupra sistemului social
cauzat de exodul forei de munc: aceasta i va determina pe oameni s
devin mai responsabili n ceea ce privete planificarea financiar. De asemenea,
ei vor nva s nu se mai bazeze pe suportul financiar i moral al familiilor lor
i vor deveni mai individualiti. Oamenii i vor da seama c trebuie s aib
singuri grij de ei i nu copiii lor2, crede CEO-ul ING Asigurri de Via.
Dar ce este Asigurarea de via? Iat cteva rspunsuri:
- ofer oamenilor metoda cea mai eficient pentru a realiza securitatea
economic. Exist 3 ameninri majore la adresa securitii economice: decesul,
1
2
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sau a unui teren. Din aceast asigurare se vor acoperi sumele restante nepltite
de ctre debitor.
Asigurarea de rent - printr-o asigurare de rent, asigurtorul pltete o
indemnizaie periodic. n funcie de perioada de plat a acesteia se disting :
1. rent cu rata fix caz n care indemnizaia de asigurare se pltete
indiferent dac asiguratul mai traiete sau nu.
2. renta viager, caz n care, pentru primirea unei indemnizaii de rent
viager, asiguratul (sau, n cazul n care avem de-a face cu mai muli asigurai,
cel puin unul dintre acetia) trebuie s fie n via. Asigurarea este ncheiat
pe viaa asiguratului. O asigurare de rent viager poate fi ncheiat i n
favoarea mai multor persoane
Aceste forme se practic preponderent pentru alocaie temporar pentru
pensia de urma i pentru alocaie temporar a sistemului de pensii. Renta de
supravieuire pe toat durata vieii acord o indemnizaie pn n momentul
decesului coasiguratului (cu indemnizaie final), sau pna la data-limita
anterioar datei decesului coasiguratului (fr coasigurare cu indemnizaie
final).
3. Procesul de vnzare
John Tschohl, preedinte al Institutului Calitii Serviciilor Minneapolis
i autorul crii Cum s devii profesionist n relaiile cu clienii, ofer cteva
sfaturi despre cum s determine un agent clienii s cumpere ntotdeauna de la
el:
1. Agentul de asigurri trebuie s-i iubeasc clienii. Clienii i dau
seama din primele 10 secunde dac i pas de ei i dac i simpatizezi. Atunci
vor ti dac vor s fac afaceri cu tine, a explicat Tschohl. Cu toate c piaa
economic nstarit din zilele noastre e dominat de indiferen, consumatorii
i manifest nevoia de afeciune.
2. Consultantul financiar trebuie s le zic ntotdeauna pe nume clienilor.
E un sfat simplu, dar magic, considera Tschohl. Oamenilor le place s le fie
zis pe nume i vor s fac afaceri doar cu cei cunoscui. Dar agentul trebuie s
aib mare grija s le pronune corect numele i s nu-i confunde.
3. Omul de vnzri trebuie s vorbeasc repede. Clienii au pretenia s
li se raspund ct mai repede, susine Tschohl. Daca vrei ca aceti clienii s
rmn alturi de tine, vei nvaa s lucrezi ntr-un ritm mai alert. n acest
mod agentul i poate folosi att timpul su ct i al clienilor mult mai productiv.
4. Agentul de asigurri trebuie s-i respecte promisiunile. Nerespectarea
unei promisiuni este principalul motiv pentru care refuz clienii. Dac le
promii c rezolvi o problema pn a doua zi, asigur-te personal c problema
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se rezolv la timp sau chiar mai repede. Dac te oferi s faci un lucru, nseamn
c trebuie sa l faci!
5. Munca de vnzri, dei poate prea la o prim vedere c e fcut de
fiecare om n parte, ascunde n spate o ntreag echip de profesioniti, care
depind unul de cellalt. Astfel, consultantul financiar trebuie s se asigure ca
membrii echipei cu care lucrez au urmat un curs de pregatire. Nu e suficient
ca doar reprezentantul de vnzri s cunoasc regulile. Toi membrii echipei
sale trebuie s aib cel puin cunotine primare i puin experien (vezi
http://www.johntschohl.com/).
3.1. Miturile vnzrii
De ce colegul meu X are atta succes n vnzri?, Ce are n plus
echipa de vnzri a companiei Y nct a reuit s obin aa un numr mare de
contracte?.Acestea sunt numai dou dintre ntrebrile la care foarte multe
persoane dau rspunsuri bazate pe unul dintre cele patru mituri ale vnztorului
de succes. Domeniul vnzrilor, ca oricare altul probabil, are miturile sale.
Aa cum ne imaginm cercettorii de succes ca fiind persoane retrase, excentrice
i pasionate pn la autodistrugere de munca lor, la fel exist i o imagine-clieu
a vnztorului de succes. Iat patru dintre cele mai ntalnite mituri care fac
parte din aceasta imagine3:
Mitul 1 Vnztorul de succes este agresiv. Unul dintre clieeele cele
mai des ntalnite legate de succesul n vnzri este cel referitor la agresivitatea
necesar pentru reuit. Vnztorul care apare n birou cnd clientul se ateapt
mai puin. Consultantul care a luat numrul de telefon din baza de date i
insist pn exaspereaz clientul pentru a stabili o ntlnire cu el. Persoana
care ncheie vnzarea ntrebandu-te la ce adres sa fac livrarea, nainte ca tu
s-i spui dac vrei produsul sau nu. Acesta este, altfel spus, omul pe care l dai
afar pe u i intr pe fereastr. Ca i client fiecare dintre noi a ntlnit cel
puin o dat n via un vnztor agresiv. Cel mai adesea astfel de persoane
creeaz o stare de disconfort: clientul simte c i se foreaz mna. Este foarte
greu de crezut c exist vreo persoan care s i doreasc s aib de-a face cu
un vnztor de acest gen. n plus, aceste persoane, mult prea preocupate s
vnd uit cu desvrire motivul pentru care clientul cumpr: nevoia.
Vnztorii agresivi nu cerceteaz nevoile, nu le dezvolt i nu ajung niciodat
s poat prezenta oferta n termen de beneficii. Ei ncearc s impun produsul
fie este sau nu dorit. O astfel de abordare nu reuete dect s determine un
refuz din partea clientului. Nimeni nu cumpr bunuri sau servicii dac nu
nelege cum l-ar putea ajuta acestea.
3
Romana Baia, R&D Specialist, Trend Consult, articol preluat de pe sit-ul http:/
/www.markmedia.ro
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finalizeaz de dou ori mai repede atunci cnd are recomandri (pia cald),
dect atunci cnd nu are recomandri despre potenialii clieni (pia rece).
n asigurri, rata de succes a prospectrii este: 10 (numere de telefon) : 7
(ntlniri obinute) : 5 (ntlniri informative) : 3 (ntlniri de vnzare) : 1 (contract
ncheiat). Bineneles c acest raport se modific n funcie de fiecare vnztor,
el fiind real ca medie a rezultatelor obinute.
Exemplu: Abordarea unui client care nu va semna cererea de asigurare:
D-le Client, imi pare ru c nc nu putem colabora, dar v asigur c interesul
meu de a discuta cu oameni de succes ca dvs este real i de aceea m ntreb
dac putei s-mi recomandai cteva persoane cunoscute. n general, oamenii
cu care discut sunt n jur de 35 40 de ani, preferabil cstorii, responsabili.
mi putei da cteva nume?
2. Abordarea prospectului direct sau prin telefon, pentru a stabili o
ntlnire ulterioar. Aici ncepe relaia profesional. Scopul principal al acestui
pas este cel de fixare a ntlnirii, nu de discutare a produselor. Pentru muli
ageni realizarea primului contact cu potenialul client necesit mult curaj.
Cea mai bun soluie este ca persoana care d telefonul s aib o stuctur
mental a discursului; se poate apela i la varianta scris, dar exist riscul ca
agentul s citeasc acel text fr a mai asculta activ replicile date de client. De
cele mai multe ori este recomandat urmrirea pailor AIDA: A (atenia): salutul
de nceput, prezentarea agentului i a companiei, confirmarea identitii
persoanei apelate; I (interesul): cel mai frecvent prin folosirea recomandrii,
sau printr-o remarc la adresa sa (mult atenie!); D (dorina): scopul contactului
telefonic; A (aciune): fixarea ntlnirii, repetarea numelui i a detaliilor legate
de ntlnire, salutul de ncheiere.
Totodat, oamenii de vnzri trebuie sa aib n vedere urmtoarele aspecte:
vocea agentului este singurul lucru pe care respectivul client l vede; zmbetul
nu trebuie s lipseasc de pe chipul vnztorului; cuvintele trebuie rostite clar,
cu un ton politicos; trebuie evitate clieele; trebuie evitate detaliile legate de
produse sau ntalnire; poziia agentului este egal cu a interlocutorului; scopul
telefonului este obinerea ntlnirii; rezolvarea obieciilor sau promisiunea
sincer c va primi rspunsul la ntlnire pentru a nu-l reine prea mult la
telefon. n urma contactului telefonic este recomandat o nou prioritizare a
potenialilor clieni, n funcie de schema V.A.D.: V = Venituri; A = Abordare
(uor/ greu); D = Disponibilitate. Aceast nou filtrare are rolul de a ajuta
vnztorul s treac la aciune cu persoana care are cele mai mari anse de a
ncheia un contract.
3. Introducerea prima parte a ntlnirii cea n care consultantul se
prezint pe sine, compania i posibil agenia. De asemenea n aceast etap
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a clientului i unde ar dori s se afle de fapt. Dup acest fapt se decide care
sunt produsul i soluiile potrivite pentru eliminarea acestui decalaj. Nu toate
produsele acoper toate nevoile clienilor. Agentul trebuie s se comporte ca
un profesionist adevrat, iar dac nu are o soluie pentru necesitile lor, s le
spun acest lucru!
7. Recomandarea (vnzarea) consultantul trebuie s-i prezinte produsul
ca pe o soluie la nevoia pe care a descoperit-o i s o recomande clientului.
Totodat, acesta trebuie s se asigure c leag soluia direct de cuvintele pe
care le-a spus clientul n etapele de identificare a necesitilor i de stabilire a
obiectivelor. Acesta este momentul n care accentul se pune nu pe datele tehnice
ale produsului, ci se discut n termeni de avantaje i beneficii. Modelul de
urmat n aceast etap este S.A.B.: S = Soluia, A = Avantaje, B = Beneficii.
Totodat, prezentarea soluiei i a beneficiilor trebuie fcut ct mai simplu i
pe nelesul clientului (KISS = Keep It Short and Simple). O alt sugestie
const n nlocuirea cuvintelor de respingere cu o serie de cuvinte stimulative.
Exemple: Cost = Valoreaz/ Investiie total; Preul este = Valoarea este/
Noi v oferim acest lucru pentru; Avans = Investiie iniial (de nceput);
Contract = nelegere/ Tranzacie / Partea administrativ a prezentrii; A
vinde = Avei posibilitatea (ansa) de a obine (achiziiona) prin intermediul
meu; A cumpra = Cnd devine proprietarul unei asigurri; A semna = A
confirma/ A aproba formularele; Decedai (clientul) = Cnd se produce
(intervine) evenimentul asigurat.
n timpul prezentrii avantajelor i a beneficiilor agentul are
responsabilitatea de a urmri cu atenie reaciile clientului pentru a putea
identifica semnalele de cumprare ce vor duce la finalizarea vnzrii. De fiecare
dat dup ce adreseaz o ntrebare de finalizare (closing) consultantul trebuie
s pastreze tcerea! Dac va vorbi primul, va pierde! Exemple: Dle Client,
ceea ce v dorii Dvs. este o sum de bani care s permit familiei Dvs. s
triasc fr nici o constrngere financiar n cazul producerii riscului
asigurat, corect?. Bun, dac nu mai este nici o nelmurire, putem trece la
completarea actelor?
8. Trecerea la aciune (ncheierea contractului) agentul cere clientului
s cumpere i dac are succes, completeaz formularul, ntreprinde paii
necesari i ofer polia. Dac a fost stabilit corect nevoia i consultantul a
legat soluia oferit de nevoie, atunci nu se vor ntmpina mari dificulti. Un
prim semnal c vnzarea nu a fost fcut cum trebuie este amnarea i gsirea
scuzelor. Finalizarea discuiei trebuie ncrcat cu fraze puternice, a cror rol
psihologic, de impact, sugereaz c e vorba de un moment decizional care
cade n totalitate pe umerii clientului. Vnztorul arat doar cele dou fee ale
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i/sau dorinele sale reale din punctul de vedere al contractului? Care sunt
principalii si factori motivaionali la nivel personal i emoional?; Poziionare
- Este contient de nevoile i dorinele sale reale sau este nevoie s i le indice
consultantul financiar. A fost contactat de concuren sau agentul este singurul
care ncearc s-i vnd acest tip de produs n prezent?
Analiza fiecrei persoane de contact din aceste puncte de vedere asigur
consultanul n orice moment al ntlnirilor c folosete strategiile i tacticile
adecvate i c este pe drumul cel bun drumul spre ncheierea contractului de
asigurare.
Obinerea unei decizii favorabile, chiar i a uneia mici, poate reprezenta
o sarcin lung i dificil pentru oamenii de vnzri. Rareori o singur persoan
din compania-client ia decizia de a achizitiona un produs sau serviciu din gama
asigurrilor, fie ele individuale sau de grup. n peste 75% din cazuri, exista cel
puin trei persoane implicate n procesul de luare a deciziilor.
Este important de realizat c, i atunci cnd a convins persoana cu care a
tratat pn n acel moment, misiunea agentului de asigurri s-ar putea s nu se
fi ncheiat. Cine altcineva mai este implicat? Fiecare client cheie de care se va
ocupa va avea propriul su proces de luare a deciziilor. Nu doar numarul
persoanelor, dar i personalitile lor, relaiile lor reciproce de afaceri i influena
lor asupra deciziei vor fi diferite.n unele cazuri pot fi doar una sau dou
persoane, n alte cazuri pot fi zece sau mai multe. Agentul trebuie s afle cine
sunt aceste persoane.
Pentru a identifica procesul de luare a deciziilor responsabilul cu vnzarea
ar trebui s separe elementele care constituie decizia. Uneori o singur persoana
ndeplinete mai multe funcii; alteori fiecare functie este preluat de un comitet.
Adesea exist o reea de activiti. Personajul implicat in decizie poate fi:
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Tabelul 1. Paralel ntre caracteristicile vnzrii expresive i cele ale vnzrii agresive.
Vnzare expresiv
Vnzare agresiv
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AJUTOR
BANI
URGENA
imaginai i organizare uit de acest nou client i trec mai departe repetnd
procesul pentru a gsi un alt grup de prospeci, a-l aborda, pn cnd reuesc
s fac o nou vanzare. Pentru a evita aceast greeal este recomandat
abordarea vnzrii ce conine urmtorii pai:
- fiecare client trebuie privit ca un centru de profit. Fiecare client are
nevoia i de multe ori i capacitatea de a cumpra de mai multe ori.
- fiecare client trebuie privit ca un centru de referine. Dac agentul de
vnzri se comport n mod adecvat cu un client nou, i dac l va
aborda ntr-o manier profesionist, acesta l va prezenta i altora.
Cnd un client cumpr de la un agent de mai multe ori, nseamn c
acesta a reuit o vnzare ascendent (up-sell). Secretul const n faptul c este
mult mai uor de dezvoltat o relaie cu unul dintre clienii existeni, dect
abordarea unor noi prospeci.
4. Vnzarea ncruciat (Cross-selling) - este sismilar cu up-selling-ul
cu cteva execpii. Acum i este vndut clientului care a cumprat o asigurare
de via un alt produs al companiei, de ctre acelai consultant. Acest lucru nu
poate fi fcut dect dac agentul posed dou lucruri:
- o relaie de afaceri cu clienii. Acetia trebuie s aib ncredere n agent
i s vad ca acesta le ofer valoare.
- agentul trebuie s le neleag nevoile, modul n care i poate ajuta,
dac au bani s cumpere acele produse adiionale i dac au un sim al
urgenei.
Cutarea modalitilor de vnzare se poate face i prin utilizarea unui
formular standard de identificare a necesitilor i nevoilor clienilor, n aa fel
nct acestea s devin evidente att pentru agentul de vnzri, ct mai ales
pentru client. Exist patru nevoi la care agentul profesionist trebuie s caute
soluii mpreun cu clientul su. Acestea sunt: planul de pensionare, planul de
invaliditate, planul de investiii i planul de siguran a familiei n cazul
decesului.
5. Vnzarea cuib (Nest-selling). Acest tip de vnzare se axeaz n special
pe abordarea clientului i cererea de referine. Agentul trebuie s determine
valoarea fiecruia dintre clienii lui i s cear referine din cuibul acestuia
aele persoane cu care se afl n contact permanent n timpul vieii, familie i/
sau prieteni. Agentul trebuie s mpart clienii n trei grupuri:
- grupul de clieni A: au puterea de a cumpra de mai multe ori produse
i de a oferi referine despre agent n cadrul familiei sau ntre prieteni.
Totodat consultantul are o relaie strns cu acetia, cunoscndu-le
pe deplin situaia curent.
- grupul de clieni B: nu par dispui s mai cumpere nc o dat, dar care
au o reea bun familial sau ca cercuri de prieteni.
303
Ben Feldman (19121993) a fost un om de afaceri american i unul dintre cei mai
prolifici vnztori de asigurri de via din lume. El a vndut asigurri de via n valoare
de 1.800.000.000 $ pentru compania New York Life Insurance din 1942 pn n 1993.
Pn la aceast dat este deintorul recordului pentru vnztorul cu cele mai multe
produse vndute ca valoare n ntreaga carier, ntr-un an (100.000.000 $), i ntr-o
singur zi (20.000.000 $). Aproape de sfritul carierei, comisionul su anual depea
1.000.000 $.
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313
APRARE
CAPITOLUL 15
ORGANIZAIILE CRIMINALE
- REPERE CONCEPTUALE I TIPOLOGII
Ioan Dasclu & Cristian-Eduard tefan
Abstract
This study sheds light on a topic that is more and more in the attention of law
enforcement agencies, which is organized crime. There are presented some definitions
and traits of this phenomenon as well as the specific forms of manifestation in different
regions of the world (Italy, Turkey, Albania, Columbia, China, etc).
Keywords: criminal organizations, organized crime.
explicaiile ce sunt date existenei mafiei italiene sau altor grupri de crim
organizat, cum ar fi organizaiile tong, triadele, yakuza, gruprile columbiene,
ruseti, etc. (Miclea, 2001).
ntr-o teorie similar, denumit teoria transmisiunii culturale, Edwin
Sutherland (1949) argumenteaz comportamentul criminal ca fiind deprins,
nvat, iar acest fapt implic ceva mai mult dect simpla imitare. Cei ce devin
criminali cunosc o asemenea evoluie att datorit contactului lor permanent
cu cei care ncalc legea ct i datorit relativei lor izolri de cei care respect
legea.
Sociologii au considerat c anumite zone sau medii ncurajeaz
delincvena, devenind terenuri propice pentru structurile crimei organizate.
Succesul i prosperitatea traficanilor de droguri i a altor persoane implicate
n activiti infracionale constituie modele demne de urmat pentru unii tineri
n locurile i mediile n care nu exist alte alternative pentru progresul social
(Alder et al., 1995). Sursa crimei organizate i gsete astfel locul n
destrmarea i proasta funcionare a sistemului, ceea ce a fcut ca, dup
schimbrile survenite n fostele state totalitare, aceasta s se dezvolte cu mare
repeziciune, surclasnd structurile de drept, spulbernd circuitele bancare,
acaparnd clasa politic, reuind s intimideze ori s copleeasc sistemul
represiv.
Crima organizat este o creaie a ultimelor secole, aprnd n diverse
puncte de pe glob (SUA, China, Japonia, Italia, etc.) n anumite condiii i
avnd cauze specifice de ordin istoric i social, sub diverse denumiri (mafia,
yakuza, triade, etc.). Aceste organizaii criminale au abordat criminalitatea ca
modalitate de obinere a unor profituri ridicate prin svrirea unor infraciuni
specifice (trafic de droguri, trafic de persoane, trafic de armament, contraband,
splarea banilor, prostituie, jocuri de noroc, etc.) (Chipil, 2007).
n opinia lui F. Alder (1995), crima organizat s-a manifestat, totui, cu
mult naintea acestei perioade, chiar dac nu s-au folosit denumiri specifice.
n acest sens, sunt exemplificate existena traficului ilegal cu sclavi sau a uneia
din cele mai vechi infraciuni ce a dinuit de la nceputurile navigaiei i pn
n prezent, i anume pirateria.
De-a lungul timpului, s-a observat c o serie de fapte i grupri specifice
crimei organizate au fost nu numai tolerate de statele ce au obinut profituri
uriae n urma desfurrii acestor activiti, dar structurile sociale s-au implicat
i n comiterea i organizarea lor, fiind ulterior scpate de sub control. Spre
exemplu, politica economic desfurat timp de peste trei secole de Compania
englez a Indiilor occidentale a fcut din China o adevrat naiune de opiomani
i a dus la declanarea celor dou rzboaie ale opiului (Bell, 1991; Berchean,
Pletea, 1998, p. 103). Astfel, la sfritul secolului al XVIII-lea, o treime din
315
prin apariia i proliferarea unor noi tipuri de crime i delicte, ce presupun noi
forme de prevenire i combatere a violenei i criminalitii organizate att la
nivel naional ct i internaional.
n pofida intensificrii activitii i interveniilor organismelor cu atribuii
de prevenire i combatere a criminalitii n general, se constat o amplificare
a actelor infracionale ndreptate mpotriva persoanelor i patrimoniului public
sau privat, precum i o extensie a faptelor de corupie i fraud n diferite
sectoare ale vieii economico-sociale. n cadrul acestui climat infracional,
criminalitatea organizat constituie cea mai periculoas form, cu un impact
direct asupra strii de normalitate i siguran civic. Astfel, forma cea mai
periculoas i virulent a infracionalitii organizate o reprezint criminalitatea
organizat transfrontalier, un adevrat flagel ce amenin toate statele lumii,
deoarece toate pot fi exploatate n folosul capilor lumii interlope pentru care
frontierele sunt ca i inexistente (Chipil, 2006; Iacob, 2007).
Formele criminalitii organizate au cptat noi valene, extinzndu-i
aria de cuprindere i sfera de activitate la cote alarmante, n contextul
transformrilor geopolitice, economice i sociale cu care se confrunt n prezent
comunitatea internaional (Miclea, 2004).
Criminalitatea organizat constituie o problem social complex ale crei
modaliti de manifestare, repercusiuni i moduri de soluionare intereseaz
att factorii instituionalizai de control ct i opinia public, ea devenind un
fenomen deosebit de grav i periculos ce are consecine distinctive i
destabilizatoare asupra structurii instituiilor unui stat democrat, i un impact
devastator ce pune n pericol nu doar stabilitatea economico-social a statelor
ci chiar securitatea i pacea naiunilor.
Delimitarea conceptelor de criminalitate, crim organizat sau
mafie, de cel de organizaii criminale compatibile cu acestea prezint o
importan deosebit pentru legiuitor. Aceste concepte nu pot fi incriminate
prin lege, deoarece implic o diversitate de acte i fapte infracionale, sancionate
n mod individual de legiuitor i au o sfer de cuprindere greu de delimitat cu
exactitate.
Conceptul de criminalitate trimite cantitativ, la un ansamblu de crime
(comise, cunoscute i sancionate) ntr-un spaiu dat i calitativ, la procese de
confruntri sociale complexe ntre responsabilii controlului i reaciei sociale
i autorii infraciunilor.
n acest sens, considerm c termenul de criminalitate organizat este
mai just i mai potrivit dect cel de crim organizat, din moment ce avem
de-a face, n acest caz, cu un ansamblu de comportamente criminale de diverse
tipuri, care se nscriu ntr-o dinamic de confruntri i aliane colective, i nu
numai cu acte criminale individuale i izolate.
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327
c) omogenitatea
De obicei, ealoanele superioare de comand din cadrul organizaiilor
criminale se asociaz pe criterii etnice, de limb sau pe principii comune, dar
palierele inferioare (formate din executani) pot cuprinde i persoane de alt
naionalitate dect liderii.
d) conspirativitatea i pstarea secretului activitilor desfurate
Condiiile indispensabile pentru componenii organizaiilor criminale sunt
pstrarea discreiei activitilor desfurate i respectarea legii tcerii (omerta).
Aceste persoane risc s fie eliminai fizic n caz de trdare. Structurile puternice
ajung la principii organizaionale bine dezvoltate, marcate de o disciplin strict.
Regulile de conspirativitate pe care i le asum membrii unei reele asigur
supravieuirea grupului i fac dificil de anihilat ntregul sistem.
Regula conspirativitii poate limita legturile ntre membrii reelei ct
i circulaia de informaii n interior, rsfrngndu-se totodat i asupra
severitii seleciei de noi membri.
Organizaiile criminale i iau msuri de autoprotecie, ce vizeaz n primul
rnd, persoanele din conducere, liderii gruprilor. Infiltrarea investigatorilor
sub acoperire este posibil n rndul organizaiilor de la nivelul de jos, dar la
nivelul liderilor gruprii infiltrarea este dificil, din cauza faptului c acetia
sunt unii prin legturi puternice, relaia dintre ei bazndu-se pe ncredere
reciproc i loialitate.
Mecanismele de autoprotecie i de conspirativitate sunt mult mai eficiente
n cadrul organizaiilor fondate pe criterii etnice.
n ultimii ani, ca urmare a aciunilor organelor judiciare, lideri importani
ai organizaiilor criminale au fost prini i deferii justiiei. Unii dintre ei au
colaborat cu organele judiciare, demascnd activitatea infracional a ntregii
organizaii.
e) flexibilitatea i adaptabilitatea la mediile n care acioneaz
Pe parcursul activitii lor, organizaiile criminale dovedesc flexibilitate
i capacitatea de adaptare la noile oportuniti de pe pia sau fa de anumite
aciuni represive ale autoritilor. Menionm n acest sens exploatarea
oportunitii create de globalizarea economic, deschiderea frontierelor i
posibilitatea circulaiei facile din ultimii ani a persoanelor i capitalurilor.
Reelele crimei internaionale, sub toate aspectele ei, s-au adaptat la noile
condiii, mai repede dect restul societii, folosindu-se rapid de noile
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329
332
333
una dintre cele mai dinamice i periculoase grupri criminale din lume, aceasta
fiind avantajat i de existena urmtoarelor mprejurri (Tilea, 2006):
desfiinarea parial a controalelor de frontier ntre statele membre
ale Uniunii Europene, cu posibiliti de extindere a acestei msuri, creterea
valului migraionist, multiplicarea tensiunilor interetnice i a conflictelor
interstatale dup cderea cortinei de fier;
criza economic i instabilitatea social, soldate cu deteriorarea
nivelului de trai al majoritii populaiei i creterea numrului de omeri,
ndeosebi din rndul tineretului;
declinul moralitii i solidaritii publice, schimbarea concepiilor
ideologice, permisivitatea crescnd dup lunga perioad de ndoctrinare
comunist;
vidul legislativ creat n urma prbuirii sistemului comunist i
insuficiena mecanismelor de control privind modul de aplicare a noilor acte
normative;
inexistena unui sistem de coordonare a organelor cu atribuii pe linia
combaterii crimei organizate, dotarea necorespunztoare a acestora cu logistica
i personalul de specialitate;
generalizarea corupiei n mediile: politic, economic, social i militar;
slbirea considerabil a autoritii, prin erodarea statului ca instituie;
desfiinarea unor locuri de munc, n special n armat, poliie, serviciile
speciale de informaii i recrutarea de ctre mafia rus a unei mari pri din
persoanele disponibilizate din aceste organisme;
cooptarea n rndul gruprilor criminale a unor foste cadre ale KGB,
veterani ai rzboiului din Afganistan, membri ai aa-zisei organizaii Karate
(campioni ai artelor mariale din fostele republici unionale), ceea ce confer
mafiei ruse ofensivitate, ingeniozitate, flexibilitate, capacitate de a aciona
violent i eficace, precum i un posibil acces la baza de date, reelele aparinnd
actualelor organe de specialitate din statele membre ale CSI;
reduceri masive de personal la institutele de cercetri din domeniul
nuclear, nivelul redus de salarizare al fizicienilor atomiti, ceea ce i-a determinat
pe unii dintre acetia s-i ofere serviciile, prin intermediul mafiei ruse,
organizaiilor extremist-teroriste i chiar unor state din Orientul Mijlociu, care
nutresc ambiia de a deveni puteri nucleare i de a domina lumea;
creterea n intensitate a procesului de interconectare a afacerilor
legale cu tranzacii ilegale;
abundena pe piaa liber a armelor i muniiilor, a substanelor
radioactive i a unor componente nucleare sustrase din depozite i uniti
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341
342
Turkish gangs spark brutal heroin war, The Observer, 5 august 2001
343
perseveren i mai ales prin violena ieit din comun de care au dat dovad
n executarea activitilor infracionale, au ocupat poziii importante de lideri
n cadrul reelelor.
Respectarea legii tcerii n activitatea organizaiilor este obligatorie.
Printre avantajele de care au beneficiat organizaiile se numr: existena unui
regim politic nesigur, al unei diaspore foarte puternic ancorat n activiti
infracionale n Italia, Elveia sau Germania i poziionarea geografic la
ntreptrunderea celor mai importante rute ale traficului de droguri (Farcy,
1998). Organizaiile criminale albaneze controleaz peste 70% din piaa ilicit
a heroinei din Elveia, Austria, Germania i rile Scandinave12 .
Criminologul Xavier Raufer este de prere c provincia Kosovo a devenit
paradisul traficanilor de droguri. El acuz NATO c ar fi deschis o adevrat
cutie a Pandorei n cunotin de cauz, rzboiul din Kosovo producnd un
cataclism infracional enorm. Descrise de OIPC-Interpol ca fiind organizaii
hibride, gruprile albaneze au fost la nceputul rzboiului din Kosovo cruii
mafiei italiene pentru traficul de droguri din regiune (Boutin, 2003).
ntr-un raport NATO din anul 2000, sunt relevate legturile dintre mafia
albanezo-kosovar i micarea de gheril Armata de Eliberare a Provinciei
Kosovo (UCK) n privina exploziei traficului de heroin din Occident.
n cazul Italiei i Greciei, organizaiile criminale albaneze sunt considerate
ca fiind cele mai importante grupri non-comunitare care acioneaz pe teritoriul
lor13 .
n anii 2000, specialitii antimafie din Italia subliniau legturile financiare
existente ntre traficanii de droguri albanezi i cei sicilieni. Odat ajuns heroina
n Italia, mafia albanez, mpreun cu Cosa Nostra sicilian se ocup de
distribuirea acesteia pe pieele europene i americane.
n noiembrie 2001, un raport oficial al Europol aprecia faptul c 40% din
heroina aflat pe piaa ilicit din Europa este distribuit de ctre albanezi, iar
un alt procent de 40% este doar transportat de etnicii albanezi.
4. Concluzie
Cunoaterea caracteristicilor, tipologiei organizaiilor criminale reprezint
un demers esenial n elaborarea strategiilor de aprare. tiina aprrii opereaz
ntr-o manier sistematic, avnd obiect de cercetare, metode, teorii i legi.
Interveniile pentru aprare capt consisten i au ansa de a finaliza cu succes
12
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CAPITOLUL 16
ORGANIZAIILE TERORISTE INTERNAIONALE
PREVENIA I GESTIONAREA CONSECINELOR
Anghel Andreescu & Radu Nicolae
Abstract: during the past years, the whole world, but especially Europe has
been marked by major political shifts. These mutations, and notably the terrorist acts
of 9/11 2001, echoed especially in the security policy, having as effects for the European
States, but also for the USA the structuring of the major issues of the internal security
around the alarming evolutions of the organised crime, political extremism and
terrorism, with all the threats and negative implications deriving from these. The
analysis of the evolution of the extremist terrorist phenomenon on the international
stage reveals during the last years a tendency of increase, including the use of violence
as a means of promoting and enforcing political objectives and interests, but also
different approaches of the meanings of the Islam, in order to understand the Islamic
Jihad.
Keywords: terrorist organization, bringing justice, extremists core.
1. Conceptualizarea terorii
Necesitatea cunoaterii n detaliu a pregtirii psihice, fizice i de
specialitate a teroritilor, n contextul splrii creierelor viitorilor candidai la
gruprile teroriste, al ndoctrinrii religioase i, nu numai, al instruirii pe baza
unor modele desprinse din Marea Enciclopedie a Jihadului (Scrisoarea de la
un membru Al- Qaida, Cum s nfruni i s reziti n faa anchetatorilor
serviciilor speciale), impun, mai mult dect oricnd, o atenie aparte n
identificarea amprentei gruprilor teroriste.
Termenul terorism este definit n cadrul Dicionarului Explicativ al
Limbii Romne, 1996, drept totalitatea actelor de violen comise de un grup
sau de o organizaie pentru a creea un climat de insecuritate sau pentru a schimba
forma de guvernmnt a unui stat.
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Desemnat succesor al lui bin Laden, n cazul morii sau dispariiei acestuia,
Atef i-a pierdut viaa n timpul unui bombardament american asupra oraului
afgan Kandahar, la nceputul lunii noiembrie 2001, Abdullah Ahmed Abdullah
alias Saleh, veteran al rzboiului din Afganistan, expert n explozivi,
conductor al Comitetului pentru ideologie, Anas Al Liby alias Nazih Al
Raghie, cetean libian, conduce Comitetul de securitate i supraveghere, i
Saif Al Adel alias Saif, membru al Djihadului Islamic Egiptean, fondator al
Al-Qaida i component al Comitetului militar al acesteia.
Obiectivul principal al organizaiei este dat de rsturnarea guvernelor
unor state musulmane, considerate a fi corupte i eretice i nlocuirea lor cu
guverne islamice care s respecte SHARIA (legea islamic). Al-Qaida are o
atitudine profund anti-occidental, percepnd Statele Unite ca fiind cel mai
mare duman al Islamului. n acest sens, Osama Bin Laden a emis trei decrete
religioase Fatwa prin care ndeamn musulmanii s ridice armele mpotriva
Statelor Unite.
Organizaia ncearc s transforme gruprile islamice existente n
organizaii extremiste i s creeze astfel de grupri acolo unde acestea nu exist.
Susine ideea distrugerii Statelor Unite, vzute ca principalul obstacol n reforma
societilor musulmane. De asemenea, sprijin lupttorii musulmani din
Afganistan, Algeria, Bosnia, Cecenia, Eritreea, Kosovo, Pakistan, Somalia,
Tadjikistan i Yemen.
2.1.1. Baza virtual
Valenele Al-Qaida, respectiv schimbul de informaii i coordonare
organizaional i strategic ntre diferite reele teroriste, sunt preponderent
angajate i n mediul virtual, mesajele liderilor - Ossama bin Laden, Ayman
Al-Zawahiri i Abdullah Azzam oferind de nenumrate ori o surs de inspiraie
ideologic pentru adepii din ntreaga lume.
La 4 martie 2006, reeaua de televiziune din Qatar, Al-Jazeera, a prezentat
selecii dintr-un mesaj video aparinnd lui Ayman Al-Zawahiri. La scurt timp
de la difuzare, nregistrarea video de 20 minute a circulat pe Internet sub forma
unui mesaj audio. Mesajul lui Ayman Al-Zawahiri ctre familiile victimelor
tragediei feribotului egiptean (3 februarie 2006) viza creterea audienei AlQaida, prin prezentarea reelei ca pe o comunitate bazat pe solidaritate n
lumea islamic.
Pentru evidenierea schimbrilor survenite n coninut, mod de prezentare
i mesaje s-a realizat o analiz comparat a celor mai accesate reele de pe
forum, cu o abordare aproape identic, la patru ani diferen: 8 iulie 2002 i 12
iulie 2006. Cea mai accesat reea din 2002 a fost un mesaj ctre pakistanezi
351
din partea lui Ossama bin Laden (50.518 de vizitatori). Materialele despre
Ben Laden i atacurile din 11 septembrie 2001 fac subiectul unui numr de
alte reele importante care au fost accesate de muli vizitatori.
Internetul nu este folosit numai ca surs de inspiraie ideologic sau drept
catalizator n formarea reelei, ci servete i ca surs de informaii despre
tehnicile/metodele de lupt i armament, deschiznd drumul spre manifestarea
unui nou terorism.
Odat cu dispariia taberelor de antrenament din Afganistan i, mai ales,
din Pakistan i apariia, n statele occidentale, a recruilor locali neinstruii,
nevoia unei astfel de experiene i importana manualelor publicate pe Internet
au nregistrat o dezvoltare fr precedent.
Percheziiile i arestrile au condus, n multe cazuri, la descoperirea unor
materiale explozive confecionate artizanal, posibil asamblate pe baza
informaiilor obinute de pe Internet. Manuale despre metode de lupt i
pregtire, scrise de veterani ai rzboiului din Afganistan i instructori din tabere
de pregtire, au aprut pe Internet nc de la nceputurile Al-Qaida, oferind
numeroase detalii despre producerea de explozibili improvizai, aranjamentele
i facilitarea deplasrilor, precum i despre pregtirea clandestin a atacurilor
n strintate.
Tot pe Internet circul clipuri video ce conin demonstraii asupra modului
de fabricare a unor arme, precum centuri cu bombe i explozibili. Cele mai
vizitate au fost reelele care ilustrau perfidia care caracterizeaz familia regal
saudit, n special informaiile i imaginile cruciailor americani din cadrul
forelor ocupante desfurate n Arabia Saudit (15.522 de vizitatori) i o
reea care realiza o legtur ntre un general din cadrul Ministerului saudit de
Interne i o israelianc (15.620 vizitatori).
Dei fotografiile sunt mai numeroase dect imaginile filmate, o nregistrare
video cu uciderea jurnalistului american Daniel Pearl este n topul listei (4.488
de vizitatori). Materialele cu adevrat ideologice sunt rare, n afara unei reele
n care se solicita participanilor s fie cu sau mpotriva Al-Qaida (5.339 de
vizitatori, dintre care 150 au rspuns) i o discuie despre organizaia terorist
Hizb ut-Tahrir (7.685 vizitatori, dintre care 720 au rspuns).
Pn n 2006, imaginea s-a schimbat, nregistrrile video au fost mult
mai proeminente, dou dintre cele mai vizionate fiind uciderea unui ostatic
japonez, care a fost decapitat de gruparea condus de Zarqawi, n 2004 (14.961
de vizitatori), i o compilaie a 10 dintre cele mai importante nregistrri video
ale atacurilor asupra forelor americane din Irak (12.880 de vizitatori).
Evenimentele specifice, att de pe frontul apropiat ct i de pe cel
ndeprtat al Jihadului, au ieit mai mult n eviden, printre acestea numrnduse un anun despre moartea lui Zarqawi (8.439 de vizitatori) i o dezbatere
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11 septembrie 2001, i-au pierdut viaa peste 3.000 de oameni, din categorii
sociale, rase i naionaliti diferite.
O alt aciune reuit este atentatul de la Lockerbie. Cu patru zile nainte
de Crciunul anului 1988, la ora 18, zborul 103 al companiei Pan American se
pregtea s decoleze de pe Aeroportul Heathrow din Londra, cu destinaia
NewYork. Dup 38 de minute de la decolare, cei 243 de pasageri i cei 16
membri ai echipajului i-au pierdut viaa. 189 dintre pasageri erau americani.
Rmiele avionului au fost mprtiate de explozie pe o arie de 80 de kilometri
ptrai. 21 de case din Lockerbie au fost complet distruse, iar 11 locuitori au
murit la sol. Astfel, totalul victimelor a ajuns la 270 (259 n avion i 11 la sol).
Una dintre aripile avionului, care a ajuns n sudul oraului, a dislocat 1500 de
tone de pmnt. Craterul ce a rezultat era lung de 50 de metri i adnc de zece.
Cabina piloilor a fost gsit aproximativ intact, pe un cmp aflat la mai mult
de ase kilometri de ora.
La locul unde s-a prbuit aeronava de pasageri, au fost gsite urme ce
dovedeau certitudinea unei operaiuni teroriste. Investigatorii au anunat c
motivul prbuirii avionului a fost o bomb cu ceas ascuns ntr-un casetofon.
Acesta era plasat ntr-un geamantan care sosise pe aeroportul din Frankfurt cu
o curs Air Malta i fusese transferat la bordul avionului Pan Am. Cea mai
important prob fusese gsit ns ntr-o pdure de lng Lockerbie: un tricou
ce avea imprimate buci din cronometrul amplasat pe bomb. Urmrind acest
fir, detectivii i-au gsit pe libienii atentatori.
Spre deosebire de Lockerbie, atacul terorist de la Madrid, din 11
septembrie 2004, a fost mult mai complex din punct de vedere al organizrii.
Dac trenurile s-ar fi rsturnat, numrul victimelor ar fi fost mult mai mare
(Iordache, 2005). n acest context, pe lng susinerea financiar, nu se poate
nega faptul c Al-Qaida dispune i de o capacitate organizatoric redutabil.
Realitatea neconfortabil este c multe state inclusiv aliai ai Statelor Unite
au oferit adpost celulelor Al-Qaida, dar nu au fcut nimic pentru a le
neutraliza. Situaia este explicabil doar prin faptul c acestea nu au avut
cunotin despre prezena lor (sau despre pericolul pe care acestea l prezentau)
sau c, din motive politice sau de securitate, nu au vrut sa le mpiedice aciunile
(Smith, apud. Posner, 2002).
2.1.4. Emirul Osama bin Laden
Dup maleficul atentat terorist din 11 septembrie 2001, politologi,
sociologi, experi militari i analiti politici au scris tomuri ntregi despre Osama
bin Laden (Usamah bin Muhammad bin Awad bin Ladin, Usama bin Laden,
Emirul, Prinul, Abu Abdallah, Hajj, eicul) i Al-Qaida. Materialele aprute,
355
canadienii de origine francez din Quebec FLQ, sunt doar cteva dintre
motivele care au stat la baza manifestrilor teroriste din ultima vreme.
3.4. Pornirea unui rzboi
Actul terorist poate fi folosit de ctre puterea politic de stat ca pretext
pentru pornirea unor rzboaie. Cele mai cunoscute exemple sunt marcate de
ctre atentatul de la Sarajevo, folosit ca pretext pentru Primul Rzboi Mondial,
dar i de atentatele din 11 Septembrie 2001 care au fost folosite, potrivit massmediei, ca argument pentru construirea unui front internaional de lupt
mpotriva terorismului (http:// indexmedia.ro).
Toate acestea sunt posibile i ca urmare a faptului c: transportul aerian
modern asigur o mobilitate fr precedent la scar planetar; radioul,
televiziunea, comunicaiile digitale via satelit, magistralele informatice tip
internet permit un acces aproape instantaneu la informaii vitale pentru teroriti,
precum i la o audien mondial nemijlocit. Sistemele de arme moderne,
noile generaii de explozibili, de dispozitive de ghidare, de comand de la
distan devin tot mai accesibile pe pieele clandestine de arme, societatea
modern oferind noi vulnerabiliti, respectiv inte teroritilor (http:// sri.ro).
Analiznd terorismul din perspectiv psihologic (Andreescu, 2000), se
poate sintetiza c demersul cognitiv i acional, n scopul prevenirii i combaterii
terorismului, trebuie ndreptat, cu prioritate, spre:
- definirea conceptului de terorism, surprinderea elementelor ce-l
caracterizeaz i difereniaz de alte fenomene i forme ale violenei sociale,
reuindu-se astfel s se stabileasc cu claritate obiectivul activitii de lupt
mpotriva acestui flagel social;
- stabilirea cauzelor generatoare i factorilor favorizani ai apariiei i
proliferrii violenei sociale, a relaiilor de interdependen dintre cauzele i
efectele fenomenului terorist;
- identificarea i ptrunderea n intimitatea dimensiunilor psihologice pe
care le ridic factorul uman implicat, organizaiile i aciunile teroriste;
- desprinderea formelor de manifestare ale terorismului, metodele si
mijloacele prin care se realizeaz aciunea violent.
4. Concluzie
neles i ca un rzboi ascuns, nedeclarat sau conflict de mic
intensitate, cu obiectiv limitat (Andreescu, 2003), dar i ca o boal a secolului
al XXI-lea (Stoina, 2002), terorismul a evoluat att de mult, nct tiina trebuie
s-l investigheze coordonat, sincronizat, cu participarea tuturor domeniilor i
ramurilor sale ncepnd de la a i ajungnd pn la z (ibidem.). n acest
sens, nu lipsit de semnificaie este i desfurarea unor forme de rzboi
psihologic cu scopul distugerii moralului teroritilor (Iova, 2006).
366
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CAPITOLUL 17
SNTATEA ORGANIZAIONAL
N PENITENCIARELE MODERNE
Florian Gheorghe
Abstract
The paper approaches a current problem in all prison the organisational health.
It explores the factors that fundamentally contribute to the institutional balance and
to the maintaining of a constructive environment among prisoners and among staff. A
prison is considered to be healthy from the institutional point of view whenever its
organising corresponds to the constituent functions and the roles and the rules are
proper. Whenever there is an understanding of the objectives and of the formally
established means by the staff; whenever power distributing does not generate tension;
whenever there are proper mechanisms for solving internal conflicts and whenever
the psychological climate is based on sharing organisational values and on mutual
respect. Certainly the cultural factors can bring specific accents for one prison or
another. Nevertheless, some conclusions regarding the organisational health are
necessary. First of all, it involves a permanent organising and structuring of its
components, characteristic for each stage crossed by the institution (at the beginning
of its functioning or after, during the periods of quietness or of crisis, during the
periods of progress or of stagnation etc.). Secondly, the organisational health is an
effort of coping with the social moment and of keeping under control the inter-human
relations inside the prison. The moral quality of staff, the agreement regarding the
social functions of the institution, the acknowledgement of the performances the regular
assessment of their own programs, the opening to the large public, all of them will
have a great contribution. In the third place, the care for staffs health safety and
welfare will have a great echo upon the institutional functionality and work
environment. I think the sources of stability in prisons from anywhere are obvious:
good relations between staff and prisoners; care for the vulnerable; reasonable
authority; acknowledgement of prisoners as individuals, rules simplification; teaching
the prisoners how to help themselves, giving the prisoners opportunities to improve
their behaviours (offering children gifts, performing, winning contests, working for
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1. Introducere
Dup ce lucrezi mai muli ani ntr-un penitenciar, el nu mai este doar o
instituie ci devine o cauz n cel mai nobil neles al cuvntului. i asta
pentru c personalului din penitenciare, deinuii nu le trec prin mini, le trec
prin via!
Instituiile penitenciare de oriunde au o patologie organizaional aparte
care determin fundamental modul de realizare a funciilor sale sociale. n
penitenciarele romneti aceast patologie este generat de o serie de factori
care afecteaz durabil funcionalitatea i climatul de munc. Am n vedere
noua lege de executare a pedepselor, insuficient de adaptat actualelor realiti
sociale i exigenelor europene n materie; resursele financiare insuficiente (la
nivelul supravieuirii) asigurate de la buget pentru ntreinerea unitilor de
detenie; exagerarea funciei economice a penitenciarului n defavoarea funciei
sale educative; supraaglomerarea nchisorilor prin ntrzierea construirii de
penitenciare n judeele care nu asemenea instituii (14 judee).
Insatisfaciile personalului sunt amplificate de o serie de aspecte tipice n
orice sistem penitenciar: contactul epuizant cu deinuii, ambiguitatea rolurilor
jucate n activitatea cotidian, nevoia de sens i consideraie pentru munca
depus, existena mai multor centre de putere care genereaz confuzie pentru
personal dar i pentru deinui. La toate acestea se adaug atitudinile
contradictorii ale publicului: nencrederea desigur nejustificat n instituiile
de control social, simpatia pentru orice tip de victim (trim doar n epoca
victimizrii), lejeritatea moravurilor, tolerana fa de conduita uman Din
pcate, deseori marele public consider personalul din nchisori ca fiind
funcionari obinuii ntr-o instituie obinuit de stat, ceea ce nu este adevrat.
Publicul larg are o imagine cronic negativ asupra personalului i activitilor
de recuperare social a deinuilor.
Dincolo de acestea, mai gsim o serie de aspecte profunde a cror
importan pentru orice tip de penitenciar este evident. Am n vedere, n primul
rnd, amenajarea mediului de via astfel nct s asigure maximum de protecie
fiecrui deinut i fiecrui membru al personalului; acest lucru este condiionat
de echilibrul ntre siguran, control i spiritul de dreptate vizibil pentru ntreaga
populaie carceral. Aceluiai scop i servete i existena unor raporturi destinse
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motivaia care a mpins pe rudele lor s ncalce legea. Un procent mare al celor
care motiveaz comiterea infraciunilor prin lipsurile materiale consider c
recidiva poate fi stopat prin mai mult nelegere (acceptare) din partea opiniei
publice fa de cei liberai din nchisori i prin acordarea unor pedepse mai
scurte. Cei care consider alcoolul ca principal cauz a svririi infraciunilor
vd n munc, n educaie moral i religioas soluiile pentru reintegrarea
celor liberai din penitenciar.
Ultima ntrebare din chestionar a solicitat prerea rudelor privind
modalitile care i-ar putea ajuta pe deinui s nu recidiveze. n ordinea
frecvenei, rspunsurile au fost: mai mult nelegere din partea opiniei publice,
educaia moral i religioas, pedepse mai scurte, s munceasc tot timpul n
penitenciar, condiii mai bune de detenie, legturi mai strnse ntre penitenciar
i familiile deinuilor, calificarea ntr-o meserie i continuarea colarizrii.
n ce privete prerile despre munca personalului din unitile de detenie,
acestea sunt ferme: este o meserie grea i plin de pericole i doar 41 % din
rudele deinuilor ar accepta s lucreze cu deinuii.
Al doilea studiu pe care l prezentm se refer la istoria recent a celui
mai mediatizat penitenciar din Romnia, i anume, Penitenciarul de Maxim
Siguran Bucureti-Rahova. Pentru a nelege ntreaga desfurare a
evenimentelor care au impus investigaii de specialitate i msuri adecvate
mprejurrilor, voi prezenta la nceput cteva date privind contextul punerii n
funciune a acestui penitenciar, etapele populrii sale cu deinui.
Pn n 1988 capitala rii a avut dou penitenciare: Jilava, cu 2.000 de
locuri (inclusiv fortul) i Rahova, a crui capacitate era de 6.000 de locuri. n
1988 Ceauescu a ordonat distrugerea penitenciarului Rahova deoarece se afla
pe drumul ce ducea la viitorul Port Bucureti, fapt inacceptabil pentru dictator.
Deinuii care nu au ncput n Jilava au fost transferai la alte uniti apropiate
(Mrgineni, Codlea, Slobozia, Colibai).
n 1990 s-a luat hotrrea de a se reconstrui n acelai loc un penitenciar
de 2.000 de locuri. Cu ocazia inaugurrii sale 12 decembrie 1997 , massmedia a prezentat n mod exagerat condiiile de via din acest penitenciar,
fapt care i-a determinat pe muli deinui din alte uniti (n special Jilava) s
ncerce s ajung aici. La data inaugurrii nu erau terminate pavilionul
administrativ, cldirile pentru ateliere, clubul, biserica; de asemenea, lucru
demn de remarcat, penitenciarul nu fusese prevzut cu terenuri de sport i de
plimbare i nici cu sli de mese.
Angajrile de personal au fost masive - aproximativ 600 de persoane, din
care peste 80 % lucraser n alte domenii de activitate -, ceea ce a constituit un
factor de mare vulnerabilitate pentru noua unitate: personalul fr niciun fel
de experien penitenciar trebuia s desfoare activiti profesionale cu
deinui cu mare experien penitenciar !
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