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COMPORTAMENT ALIMENTAR
Relaia dintre oameni i alimente este complex i are multiple valene. n decursul vieii o
persoan consum aproximativ 60 tone de mncare, ia, n medie, 70 000 mese i dedic 13 ani
din perioadele de veghe consumului de alimente [1].
1. Termeni i definiii:
FOAMEA este definit ca fiind necesittea fiziologic de a ingera alimente fr
discriminare [2];
APETITUL reprezint necesittea psihologic, dorina de a ingera un anumit aliment [3];
SAIETATEA este senzaia de plenitudine dat de ingestia alimentelor i de absena
foamei [4]
3
OBICEIURILE ALIMENTARE
STIL DE VIA
GOSPODRIE INDIVIDUAL
(COMPOZIIE-STRUCTUR-TRADIII)
4
- Alimente ca simbol al unui pattern social contestat - produsele de fast food, ca elemente de
contestare a globalizrii;
- Alimentul ca simbol religios - vaca sacr indian;
- Alimentul ca metafor tieii chinezeti, simbol de via lung;
- Alimente care semnific anumite valori, norme culturale supa de pui aliment reconfortant;
- Alimente simbolice pentru reuita social fois gras, caviar.
Ingestia alimentelor se gsete, cel puin teoretic, n relaie cu necesitile nutriionale ale
individului, dei teoria self-seleciei alimentare nu mai este de actualitate. De asemenea,
prezena unui set weight al individului, dovedit experimental la animale, nu se regsete la
om.
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1.3 REGLAREA APORTULUI ALIMENTAR
Reglarea aportului alimentar se realizeaza pe termen scurt i/sau pe termen lung [8].
1. Reglarea pe termen scurt (zile/ore). n acest caz, iniierea, durata i frecvena meselor
sunt fenomene care prezint variaii importante, determinate de [9]:
Factori neuronali;
Factori metabolici;
Factori gastrointestinali;
Factori emoionali/cognitive.
1.3 Factori gastrici i intestinali determinani n aportul alimentar sunt reprezentai de distensia
gastric i saietatea intestinal[12].
2. Reglarea pe termen lung (sptmni-luni). Este cea care determin greutatea corporal [15,
16].
De asemenea, limiteaz variaiile de moment ale aportului energetic, regleaz dezechilibrele
induse pe termen scurt i se afl n relaie cu rezervele adipoase i capitalul energetic consumat
pe durate lungi de timp.
Reglarea pe termen lung necesita apariia unor bucle de feed back, in care sunt implicate:
6
semnale care anun rezervele energetice disponibile (leptina, insulina - long acting
adiposity hormones, gain setters)
centrii nervoi coordonatori (n hipotalamus)
sistemele efectoare:
Reglarea pe termen lung controleaz aportul i cheltuielile energetice ale organismului si
moduleaz rspunsul central la mesajele pe termen scurt cu ajutorul neurotransmitorilor
(monoamine/neuropeptide - NPY, orexine, opioide, GABA, MSH, CRF, TRH, neurotensina)
care acioneaz asupra sistemului neuro-vegetativ, determinnd creterea sau scderea
activitilor parasimpatic/simpatic (efecte anabolice/catabolice) [8].
Exist un mare numr de entiti care pot fi incluse sub aceast titulatur, unele de mic
amploare, putnd fi lesne trecute cu vedere i influennd puin sau deloc statusul nutriional al
individului i altele de o amploare deosebit, putnd pune n pericol nsi supravieuirea [21].
7
[25,26,27].
Pierderea dinilor
Scderea masei osoase
8
2.2.1 Criterii de diagnostic n cazul bulimiei sunt [32, 33]:
Episoade recurente de binge eating consum rapid, n timp scurt, al unor cantiti
crescute de alimente (depind chiar i 20 000 Kcal)!!!
Pacientul simte c nu are control asupra propriei persoane n timpul episodului de
binge
2.2.2 Repercusiunile asupra strii de sntate (cele mai multe sunt consecina vomelor) n
cazul bulimiei sunt:
Demineralizarea dinilor;
Carii;
Pierderea dinilor;
Hipopotasemie probleme cardiace;
Inflamaia glandelor salivare;
Ulcere gastrice;
Hemoragii, rupturi esofagiene, etc.
Bibliografie selectiva:
1. Gordon M. Wardlaw, Anne M. Smith Contemporary Nutrition: Issues and Insights, St.Louis: McGraw-Hill College,
2004: 7,21, 404-409
2. Holben D: The Concept and Definition of Hunger and Its Relationship to Food Insecurity;disp. La.
http://www7.nationalacademies.org/cnstat/Concept_and_Definition_of_Hunger_Paper.pdf
3. Appetite,disp.la http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/ appetite
4. Satiety, disp. La http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/satiety
5. Jacotot B, LeParco JC. Nutrition et alimentation, Paris: Masson, 2000 : 150-157
6. Jean-Pierre Poulain Manger aujourd'hui : attitudes, normes et pratiques, Paris:Privat, 2001 : 10-65
7. Poppit SD, Prentice AM Energy density and its control on food intake: evidence from metavolic and communities
studies, Appetite, 1996: 26, 153-174
9
8. Graur M: Obezitatea, Iasi: Junimea,2004: 149-150, 98-99, 153-54
9. Scwartz MW, Baskin DG, Kaiyala KJ, Woods, SC Model for the regulation of energy balance and adipositu by the
central nervous syste, Am J Clin Nutr, 1999, 69: 584-596
10. Morton, G.J., Cummings, D.E., Baskin, D.G., Barsh, G.S., Schwartz, M.W. Central nervous system control of food
intake and body weight. Nature, 2006, 443:289-295.
11. Macbeth H. Food Preferences and Taste: Coninuity and Change,Berghahn Books, 1997; 55-83
12. Cummings D, Overduin R. Gastrointestinal regulation of food
J. Clin. Invest., 2007, 117(1): 13-23
13. Powley, T.L., Phillips, R.J. Gastric satiation is volumetric, intestinal satiation is nutritive. Physiol. Behav., 2004,
82:69-74.
14. Strader, A.D., Woods, S.C. Gastrointestinal hormones and food intake. Gastroenterology, 2005, 128:175-191
15. Havel PJ Peripherial signals conveying metrabolic information to the brain: short term and long term regulation
of food intake and energy ho,eostasis, Exp Biol Med 2001, 226(11); 963-977
16. Wilding JPH Neuropeptides and appetite control, Diabet Med 2002, 19: 619-627
17. Leptin- http://www.3dchem.com/molecules.asp?ID=154
18. Rexford S. Ahima Revisiting leptins role in obesity and weight loss
J. Clin. Invest., 2008, 118(7): 2380-2383
19. Ghigo E, Benso A, Broglio F. Ghrelin, Springer, 2004: 61-73, 91-113
20. Azdin S. Ghrelin May Be a Universal Peptide in all Living Organisms Turk J Med Sci.2007; 37 (2): 123-124
21. National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE). Core interventions in the treatment and management of anorexia
nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder, London: British Psychological Society. 2004
22. Binge eating, disp. La: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003265.htm
23. Allison K, Stunkard A, Thier S. Overcoming Night Eating Syndrome: A Step-by-Step Guide to Breaking the
Cycle,New Harbingr Publications, Oakland, Ca, 2004: 9-51
24. Birch LL .Development of food preferences, Annu Rev Nutr 1999; 19:41-62
25. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-
IV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1994.
26. American Psychiatric Association (APA). Let's Talk Facts About Eating Disorders. 2005.
(http://www.healthyminds.org/factsheets/LTF-EatingDisorders.pdf)
27. American Psychiatric Association Work Group on Eating Disorders. Practice guideline for the treatment of
patients with eating disorders (revision). American Journal of Psychiatry, 2000; 157(1 Suppl): 1-39.
28. Birmingham CL, Su J, Hlynsky JA, Goldner EM, Gao M. The mortality rate of anorexia nervosa. International
Journal of Eating Disorders. 2005 ; 38(2):143-146.
29. Becker AE, Grinspoon SK, Klibanski A, Herzog DB. Eating Disorders. New England Journal of Medicine, 1999;
340(14): 1092-1098.
30. Halmi CA, Agras WS, Crow S, Mitchell J, Wilson GT, Bryson S, Kraemer HC. Predictors of treatment acceptance
and completion in anorexia nervosa: implications for future study designs. Archives of General Psychiatry; 2005;
62: 776-781.
31. Lock J, Le Grange D, Agras WS, Dare C. Treatment Manual for Anorexia Nervosa: A Family-based Approach.
New York: Guilford Press, 2001.
32. Streigel-Moore RH, Franko DL. Epidemiology of Binge Eating Disorder. International Journal of Eating
Disorders, 2003; 21: 11-27.
33. Taylor CB, Bryson S, Luce KH, Cunning D, Doyle AC, Abascal LB, Rockwell R, Dev P, Winzelberg AJ, Wilfley DE.
Prevention of Eating Disorders in At-risk College-age Women. Arch Gen Psy; 2006; 63(8):881-888.
34. Wilson GT, Shafran R. Eating disorders guidelines from NICE. Lancet, 2005; 365: 79-81
35. Eating disorders.disp. la :
www3.uakron.edu/chima/Nutrition%20Fundamentals/eating%20disorders%20adapted%20from%20ch%2012.ppt
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2. NECESITILE ENERGETICE
1Kcal 4,165KJ
11
Formulele des utilizate pentru calculul metabolismului bazal sunt reprezentate de ecuaiile
simplificate Mifflin St. Jeor (1990), pentru vrsta cuprins ntre 19-78 ani [1]:
f MB 10 G 6,25 I 5 v 161 i
bMB 10 G 6,25 I 5 v 5 ii
Unde: G = greutatea exprimat n kilograme
I = nlimea exprimat n cm
v = vrst exprimata n ani
Not. Masa esuturilor slabe = Masa muscular + Masa viscerelor (creier, ficat, rinichi,
cord)
Valoarea metabolismului bazal este direct proporional cu masa slab i cu suprafaa
corporal.
Contribuia unui esut la valoarea metabolismului bazal este proporional cu fluxul
sanguin. Din acest punct de vedere, cele mai active sunt creierul, ficatul, rinichii, cordul, care,
dei reprezint numai 5-6% din greutatea corporal, sunt rspunztoare de 60% din
cheltuielile metabolismului bazal. Rata metabolic a acestor esuturi este de 15-40 ori mai
mare dect o mas echivalent de muchi n repaos i de 50-100 ori mai mare dect a esutului
adipos [1].
2. Vrsta.
Metabolismului bazal scade cu 2-3 % la fiecare decad de via (6). Valoarea MB este
mare la vrste mici cnd 12-15% din aportul energetic alimentar este utilizat pentru cretere
(5Kcal/g esut sintetizat).
Metabolismul bazal are un vrf la pubertate, dupa care scade n timp.
3. Sexul (7) Metabolismul bazal este mai mic la femei, comparativ cu cel al brbailor, n
special datorit diferenelor de mas i de compoziie corporal (5-10% mai puin la o femeie,
fa de un brbat de aceeai greutate)
4. Statusul hormonal
Rolul central n valoarea metabolismului bazal l are tiroida [8], astfel n caz de:
hipertiroidie metabolismul bazal are o cretere cu 60 -100% a valorii,
absena complet a tiroidei - metabolismul bazal va scdea la 50-60% din
valoarea normal;
Stressul pozitiv sau negativ determin o stimulare a sistemului nervos simpatic, deci
a secreiei de adrenalin/noradrenalin, ceea ce la adult amplific valoarea
metabolismului bazal cu aproximativ 15%;
Ali hormoni cu aciune de stimulare a metabolismului bazal sunt STH i insulina;
Hormonii sexuali au i ei o mare influen. Se constat o variaie a valorii
metabolismului bazal n decursul ciclului menstrual, creterea cea mai important
avnd loc n a doua jumtate a ciclului (+150 Kcal/zi).
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5. Ali factori [1]. Cei mai reprezentativi sunt:
2.2 TERMOGENEZA
Sinonime: aciunea dinamic specific (ADS), efectul termic al alimentelor (Thermic effect of
foods)
Definiie = cantitatea de energie consumata pentru digestia, absorbtia, transportul,
metabolizarea alimentelor ingerate [9]
Valoarea termogenezei este diferit n funcie de principiul nutritiv i reprezint 10% din
consumul energetic zilnic. De asemenea, valoarea acesteia este 7-10 % din energia coninut
de alimente [10].
2. Gastrotehnia
Condimentele cresc i prelungesc peste 3 ore ADS;
13
ADS este amplificat de cafea, nicotina, alimente calde [16];
Palatabilitatea cu ct gustul este mai bun, cu att se inger mai multe alimente, deci
evident ADS este mai mare.
4. Nictemer [13]:
ADS scade n timpul nopii;
Termogeneza maxim este dimineaa;
Scade pe masur ce ziua avanseaz.
Termenul de activitate fizic include o gam foarte variat de micri ale corpului.
Pentru evaluarea mai corect a impactului acestora asupra metabolismului energetic, s-a
introdus termenul de cost metabolic, care se masoar n echivaleni metabolici. Un alt
termen util este cel de physical activity level (nivel de activitate fizic).
14
1. Activitate cotidian. n cazul activitii cotidiene este greu de cuantificat energia cheltuit,
totui aceast energie reprezint principalul component al consumului energetic datorat
activitilor fizice.
n acest context, se definete activitatea spontan (NEAT = non exercise activity
thermogenesis), care reprezint totalitatea micrilor curente, de mic amploare, efectuate n
cursul zilei (nelinite, nervozitate, tremurturi = 100-800 Kcal/zi)
NEAT principalele caracteristici ale acestui tip de cheltuiala energetica sunt: [19]
Variabilitatea individual;
Depindenta de tipul de personalitate & statusul vegetativ (simpatic = NEAT);
Influentarea majora a balantei energetice.
Tabel 2.1 Valoarea echivalenilor metabolici MET n funcie de tipul de activitate fizic
15
- crete capacitatea organismului de a metaboliza orice substrat energetic (mai ales a
acizilor grai)
O persoan neantrenat i poate amplifica de 2-3 ori consumul caloric/ora, pe cnd un
individ antrenat i-l poate crete de 8-9 ori.
Dac se dorete scderea sau meninerea greutii corporale, sunt indicate exerciiile
de intensitate mic/moderat pe durate mari (>40 min) [22].
16
2.4 CONSUMUL ENERGETIC SECUNDAR
SARCINII I ALPTRII [23]
Totalul cheltuielilor pe 9 luni de sarcin este de 80.000 Kcal, din care 36.000 Kcal = 4 kg
depozite lipidice necesare n perioada de alptare.
Aportul suplimentar n sarcin trebuie sa fie de 150 kcal/zi n trimestrul 1, 350 Kcal/zi in
trimestrele 2-3 de sarcin vezi tabelul 2.3.
FAO consider c pe durata alptarii (de dorit: minim 6 luni) consumul energetic
suplimentar trebuie sa acopere secretia a 850 ml de lapte pe zi. Energia echivalenta se
situeaza la nivelul de 750 Kcal/zi = 150Kcal (efort secretor) + 600Kcal (lapte) --- surplusul
necesar din alimentaia cotidian de 550 Kcal (restul din depozite).
Numeroi pacieni sunt hipermetabolici, cu rata metabolic variind foarte mult. Dintre
acetia, o rat metabolic ridicat au ndeosebi:
Pacienii din terapia intensiv postoperatorie;
Pacienii cu traume severe;
Pacienii ari;
Pacienii septici;
Pacienii cu rspuns inflamator intens (boli autoimune grave).
Tabel 2.3 Valorile necesarului nivelurilor energetice, exprimate n Kcal, funcie de vrst,
greutate, sarcin i alptare [1]
Greutate Nevoi energetice
Vrsta
(kg) (Kcal)
Copii < 1 an 7.3 820
1-3 ani 13,4 1360
4-6 ani 20,2 1830
7-9 ani 28 2190
Adolescenti 10-12 ani 36,9 2600
13-15 ani 51,3 2900
16-19 ani 62 3070
Adolescente 10-12 ani 38 2350
13-15 ani 50 2490
16-19 ani 54,4 2310
Adult moderat activ B 65 3000
Adult moderat activ - F 55 2200
Sarcin - +350
Lactaie - +550
17
Dezechilibrele n plus de aport energetic sunt cunoscute sub numele generic de
supraalimentaie caloric (supraponderalitate, obezitate).
La copil se vede pregnant ndeosebi la vrste de sub 2 ani, cnd copilul a fost
alimentat foarte puin sau deloc la sn, iar formulele sunt inexistente sau pregtite
necorespunztor;
Reprezint o infometare pn la deces;
Se caracterizeaz printr-o greutate foarte sczut, fr edeme i cu absena depozitelor
adipoase (sub 5%, nedetectabile clinic);
18
Masele musculare scheletice sunt atrofiate (scad sub 30% n formele grave);
Se pstreaz pn trziu integritatea i funcionalitatea scheletului, creierului,
rinichilor;
Sunt afectate precoce : ficatul, inima, pancreasul, tractul digestiv.
Bibliografie selectiva:
19
18. Basdevant A, Le Barzic M, Guy-Grand B .Maladies et Nutrition, 1990, 429-450
19. Levine J. Non-exercise activity thermogenesis, disponibil la
http://mayoresearch.mayo.edu/mayo/research/levine_lab/about.cfm
20. Mougios V. Exercise Biochemistry, Thsalloniki, 2006:16-49
21. Berning JR. Nutrition for exercise and sport performance. In: Mahan K, Escott Stump S, editors, Krause`s Food
Nutrition and Diet Therapy, Philadelphia, W B Saunders Company, 2000, 534-557
22. Johnson RK Energy. In: Mahan K., Escott-Stump S, editors. Krause`s food Nutrition and Diet Therapy,
Philadelphia:WB Saunders Company, 2000, 19-30
23. Butte N, Wong W, Treuth M, Elli Ks, 0 'Brian Smith. Energy requirements during pregnancy based on total
energy expenditure and energy deposition, Am J Clin Nut, 2004,r 79: 1078 -1087
24. Nutrition support for the critically ill patient; a guide to practice. Gail Cresci, editor, Taylor & Francis, Boca
Raton, Fl. 2005 , 543-567
25. Understanding hunger , accesibil la http://www.actionagainsthunger.org/understanding-hunger
26. Mario Gehri Marasmus disponibil la http://www.emedicine.com/ped/TOPIC164.HTM
27. Pillitteri A. Maternal & Child Health Nursing: Care of the Childbearing & Childrearing Family, Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins, 2006: 1438, 1481
20
3. NECESARUL DE PROTEINE
Proteinele alctuiesc aproximativ 16% din greutatea noastr corporal. Ele sunt formate
din aminoacizi, iar din punct de vedere al compoziiei, conin N, C, H, O. Azotul este
elementul care marcheaz prezena proteinelor, el permind chiar evaluarea cantitii acestora
(1g de azot se regsete n 6,25 g de proteine).
Fenilalanina Metionin
Izoleucina Treonin
Leucin Triptofan
Lisin Valin
Drumul aminoacizilor dup ingestie se poate prezenta schematic, dup cum urmeaz [3]:
1. n tubul digestiv proteinele sufer transformri succesive, astfel:
proteine peptide (di-, tri-) aa
Transformarea proteinelor n peptide are loc sub aciunea enzimelor: pepsina, tripsina,
chemotripsina, carboxipeptidaza, peptidaze.
Aa rezultai sunt supui procesului de absorbie (excesul unui aminoacid, datorat, de exemplu,
suplimentelor, poate competiiona la absorbie un alt aminoacid, determinnd n acest fel o
deficien relativ).
21
2. Cantiti mici de aa neabsorbii sufer reacii de dezaminare, decarboxilare, desulfurare i
sunt eliminai n materiile fecale.
Este de menionat c Aa din intestin provin pe de o parte din grupa aa din alimente i pe
de alt parte din a aa din celule descuamate i din secreii digestive.
De asemenea, Aa din celule provin pe de o parte din aportul zilnic si pe de alta parte din
reutilizarea aa endogeni.
3.2 PROTEINE
Heteroproteinele sunt proteine complexe care sunt constituite din o parte proteic i o
parte prostetic. n funcie de gruparea prostetic, heteroproteinele se pot clasifica astfel:
Glicoproteine
Lipoproteine
Nucleoproteine
n ceea ce privete aminoacizii i sinteza proteinelor, este valabil legea toi sau
niciunul pentru sinteza endogen de proteine sunt necesari toi aa, dac unul singur
lipsete, sinteza de proteine nu mai are loc (limitat).
22
3.2.2 Evaluarea calitii proteinelor - indicatori
Valoarea biologic (VB) [6] Este msura eficienei transformrii acesteia n esuturi proprii,
dup absorbie i depinde de similaritatea modelulului iniial de aa cu cel al corpului nostru.
Se poate concluziona c:
BV
Nretinut
iii
Nabsorbit
Azotul neabsorbit se pierde ca uree, iar scheletul de C se transform n glucide sau grsimi.
n ou se afl proteinele cu valoare biologic maxim.
Utilizarea net a proteinelor (UNP) [7] Valoarea biologic a alimentelor poate fi ajustat n
funcie de digestibilitate, astfel UNP se definete ca fiind raportul dintre aa convertii n
proteine i aa ingerai:
NPU
aa convertiti in proteine
iv
aa ingerati
ns exist factori de distorsiune i anume aa reciclai i/sau aa limitani.
Eficiena proteic (PER) [8,9] Msoar sporul de greutate al unui obolan (ca model
experimental) dup cel puin10 zile de consum al unei cantiti date de protein (factor de
distorsiune: obolanul are nevoie de mai mult metionin dect omul, din cauza existenei
blnii).
Noiunea de eficien proteic este folosit de FDA (Food and Drug Aministration, USA)
pentru etichetarea alimentelor
Scorul chimic al poteinelor [9,10] este un indicator similar conceptului de valoare biologic
i raporteaz cantitatea existent n aliment a unui aa, fa de cantitatea ideal a aa.
Astfel este luat n considerare compoziia n aa. Spre exemplu: ntr-un aliment sunt 24 mg
lizin/g de protein. Idealul este de 55 mg.
Scorul chimic al alimentului:
24
x100 44 v
55
Pete 71 76 - 3.55
Vit 69 74 67 2,3
23
Orez integral 67 86 59 -
Alune 65 55 55 1,65
Faina alb 53 65 49 1,53
Porumb 49 72 36 -
Soia 47 73 61 2,32
Proteinele au rol multiplu n organism i anume: rol structural, rol funcional, rol
energetic si de rezerv.
Rol structural. Proteinele formeaz baza pentru muchi, viscere, matrice osoas, esut
conjunctiv.
Roluri funcionale. Rolurile funcionale ale proteinelor sunt multiple i diverse. Menionm
selectiv rolul proteinelor ca:
Factori de coagulare
Elemente transportoare
Lipoproteine
Enzime
Anticorpi
Pigmeni vizuali
Hormoni
Meninerea echilibrului acido-bazic(sisteme tampon)
Meninerea presiunii coloid-osmotice
Rol energetic Proteinele prezint un rol energetic indirect, prin gluconeogenez. Rolul
energetic direct este nerentabil pentru organism, proteinele ca surs de energie fiind scumpe
[3]. Produii finali de catabolism trebuie detoxifiai i necesit alt consum de energie.
24
Proteinele nu elibereaz toat energia coninut n molecul, astfel ureea, acidul uric mai
conin energie).
Rezerve de proteine ?! Organismul uman nu posed rezerve proteice bine individualizate (ca
n cazul glicogenul sau al esutului adipos)
Se evalueaz la 2 kg proteinele celulare de care organismul s-ar putea dispensa fr
modificri serioase funcionale.
25
Insuficiena de proteine provoac malnutriia protein-caloric (MPC) [12]
n forma medie (cea uzual) este greu de specificat dac o persoan mnnc prea puine
calorii sau prea puine proteine (sau ambele).
Insuficiena de proteine este frecvent n zonele subdezvoltate. In practica medicala o
intalnim des i la copiii spitalizai cu afeciuni cronice
Dac domin deficiena proteic , adaugandu-se si alte afeciuni (infecii) = kwashiorkor
(context n care probabil aportul caloric este adecvat). Se asociaz alte deficiene: Fe, I, Zn,
vit.A, D, acid folic, etc. [9].
Kwashiorkor se caracterizeaz prin apariia edemelor i prin prezena de rezerve
moderate de grsime. Este nsoit de un deficit ponderal moderat. Eventual simultan exist o
stare hipermetabolic (spre ex. infecie intercurent: rujeola).
Apare, de regul, la venirea pe lume a unui frate, cnd copilul nu mai poate fi alimentat la
sn.
Simptomele kwashiorkor ului sunt:
apatie, rupere de mediu, letargie;
eec n ceea ce priveste creterea (n G i H);
modificri cutanate i de fanere [15] ;
steatoz hepatic (hepatomegalie);
edeme masive;
receptivitate la infecii [16].
Cauzele frecvente de MPC sunt:
prematuritate;
expunere in utero la toxice (alcool);
fibroz chistic;
insuficien renal cronic;
neoplazii;
boli cardiace congenitale;
boli neuromusculare;
afeciuni inflamatorii intestinale cornice;
!!!alergii (regimuri de eliminare nejudicioase) [17].
Consecinele MPC asupra dezvoltrii fizice i neuro-psihice sunt cu att mai importante
cu ct deficitul apare la o vrsta mai mic (defecte cognitive, comportamentale permanente)
[18, 19].
Excesul de proteine [20]. Excesul de proteine la adultul sntos nu pare s aib efecte
negative. Eventualele efecte nedorite s-ar datora altor nutrieni din alimentele bogate n
proteine (ex. lipide saturate, colesterol). Efectele excesului proteic sunt controversate,
posibilele probleme fiind nefundamentate stiinific foarte clar.
Deocamdata se considera ca printre consecinele excesului de proteine se pot enumera
disbacteriemiile intestinale i interferarea metabolismului calciului (pierderi exagerate n
urin) unele studii au indicat un oarecare rol in accelerarea inducerii osteoporozei [21].
Bibliografie selectiva:
26
4. Ophart C. Virtual Chembook, Quaternary Protein, disp. la :
http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/567quatprotein.html
5. Otten J , Pitzi Hellwig J, Meyers D . Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements,
National Academies Press, 2006, 23-150
6. Srikantia S.G. The use of biological value of a protein in evaluating its quality for human requirements, Item
3.2.3 of the Provisional Agenda, Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation on
Energy and Protein Requirements,Rome, 5 to 17 October 1981
7. Net protein utilisation, disp. La http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Net-protein-utilization
8. Mitchell G, Young JenkinsM, Grundel E . Protein efficiency ratios and net protein ratios of selected protein
foods, Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (Formerly Qualitas Plantarum),1989, vol. 39, 1:53-58
9. Wardlaw G, Smith A. Contemporary Nutrition: Issues and Insights, St.Louis. McGraw-Hill College, 2004, 236-
237, A99-A100
10. Seligson F, Mackey L. Variable Predictions of Protein Quality by Chemical Score Due to Amino Acid Analysis
and Reference Pattern Journal of Nutrition, 1984, Vol. 114 No. 4 : 682-691
11. Barbosa-Silva MC. Subjective and objective nutritional assessment methods: what do they really assess?. Curr
Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care, 2008, 11 (3): 24854
12. Latham M. Human nutrition in the developing world Food and Nutrition Series , 1997, No. 29, cap.9, 12
13. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, disp. la
http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.htm?modecode=12354500
14. WHO Protein and Amino Acid Requirements in Human Nutrition, Report of a Joint WHO/FAO/UNU Expert
Consultation, 2007, Technical Report Series, No 935
15. Kuhl J, Davis MD, Kalaaji AN, et al. Skin signs as the presenting manifestation of severe nutritional
deficiency: report of 2 cases. Arch Dermatol. 2004;140:521524.
16. CunninghamRundles S, McNeeley DF, Moon A. Mechanisms of nutrient modulation of the immune response. J
Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005;115:11191128
17. Vandenplas Y, Heymans H. Primary and Secondary Prevention of Atopic Diseases in Children. Wthrich B
(ed): The Atopy Syndrome in the Third Millennium.Curr Probl Dermatol. Basel, Karger, 1999, vol 28: 173-193
18. Underwood B.A. Health and Nutrition in Women, Infants, and Children: Overview of the Global Situation and
the Asian Enigma, Nutrition Reviews, 2002, Volume 60, Supplement 1: 7-13(7)
19. Yehuda S, Rabinovit S, Mostofsky DI. Nutritional Deficiencies in Learning and Cognition, J Ped Gastro &
Nutr., 2006, 43 Suppl 3:S22-S25
20. St. Jeor S, Howard B, Prewit E, Bovee V, Bazzarre T, Eckel R. Dietary Protein and Weight Reduction, A
Statement for Healthcare Professionals From the Nutrition Committee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical
Activity, and Metabolism of the American Heart Association, Circulation. 2001;104:1869-1874
21. Rapuri P, Gallagher J, Haynatzka V Protein intake: effects on bone mineral density and the rate of bone loss in
elderly women , Am J Clinical Nutrition,2003, Vol. 77, No. 6: 1517-1525
27
4. NECESARUL DE GLUCIDE
28
4.2. TERMENI. DEFINIII
Densitatea energetic [4] reprezint coninutul de kcal (energie) la 100 g aliment. Cantitatea
de glucide din alimente permite, n general, definirea densitii lor energetice.
Indexul glicemic (IG) a se vedea tabelul 4.3. IG-ul msoar puterea hiperglicemiant a unui
aliment, n raport cu un glucid de referin [6]. Este considerat indexul care apreciaz
utilizarea metabolic a glucidelor. Nu are legatur direct cu valoarea caloric.
n sens larg, prima etapa de digestie a glucidelor este tratamentul termic (amidonul se
umfl i fibrele se nmoaie).
Sub aciunea amilazei salivare amidonul se transform n maltoza (ceea ce explic gustul
dulce al unui biscuit srat).
Amilaza pancreatic (probleme n fibroza chistic) transform oligozaharidele, iar
dizaharidaze intestinale (din marginea n perie- maltaza, zaharaza, lactaza), dizaharidele.
Urmtoare etap a digestiei glucidelor este absorbtia, care poate fi: activ/pasiv pentru
glucoz i galactoz; i pasiv pentru fructoz.
Metabolismul intermediar
Sursele glucozei circulante.
glucidele alimentare digerate i absorbite;
glicogenoliza glicogenului hepatic;
gluconeogeneza din aminoacizi glucoformatori i glicerol;
n mic msur: reconversia acizilor lactic i piruvic rezultai din cile glicolitice.
Destinaiile glucozei circulante
! asigurarea metabolismului energetic celular - 1 g glucoza = 4,1 Kcal
glicogenogeneza hepatic = formare de glicogen
sinteza de lipide (lipogenez)
sinteze de derivai glucidici(vezi rolurile funcionale)
glicoliza din hematii
eliminare prin urin cnd este depit pragul renal
29
4.4 ROLURILE GLUCIDELOR
4.4.1 Rolurile glucidelor digerabile (8)
Fructoza 1,7
Zaharoza 1
Glucoza 0,7
Maltoza 0,4
Lactoza 0,2
Organismul are o form de stocaj constituita din glicogen (sintetizat din glucoz i/sau
fructoz) ntr-o cantitate de 100 g n ficat, 150-500 g n muchi.
Sinteza glicogenului este:
30
direct (prin glicogenogeneza),
indirect (prin neoglucogeneza)
Avantajele glicogenului ca form de depozitare:
poate fi hidrolizat mai rapid ca lipidele
poate fi utilizat ca surs de energie anaerob
lipidele nu pot fi transformate rapid n glucoz, pentru a putea menine
glicemia sanguin necesar susinerii metabolismului cerebral
stocarea glucozei sub forma de glicogen evit ncrcarea osmotic excesiv a
ficatului
Glucidele cru proteinele acestea nu se disip n gluconeogeneza. Lipidele ard n
foculglucidelor n absena acestora, arderea lipidelor determin formarea cetozei. Cetoza
este rspunsul metabolic normal la foamete, care cru proteinele. Pentru evitarea aparitiei
cetozei consumul de glucide trebuie s fie de minimum 50-100 g/zi.
Roluri funcionale/plastice [9] Glucide se gsesc n esuturi conjunctive sub form de acid
glucuronic, acid hialuronic, condroitin i mucoitin sulfai. Glucidele contribuie si la :
alctuirea membranelor celulare;
formarea heparinei (MPZ);
formarea galactolipidelor cerebrozidelor (n SN);
formarea imunopolizaharide;
formarea factorului intrinsec (antipernicios);
formarea acizilor nucleici (riboza, dezoxiriboza).
Tabelul 4.2 Coninutul de fibre pentru unele alimente i aportul caloric al acestora [13]
31
Soia verde fiart, cup 3.8 127
Prune fierte, cup 3.8 133
Smochine uscate, cup 3.7 93
Curmale, cup 3.6 126
Dovleac copt, cup 3.6 42
Spanac fiert cup 3.5 30
Mr crud cu coaj, 1bucata, mediu 3.3 72
Varz de Bruxelles, fiart, cup 3.2 33
Spaghete din gru integral, fierte, cup 3.1 87
Banan, 1 bucat, medie 3.1 105
Portocal, 1 bucat, medie 3.1 62
Past de rosii, cup 2.9 54
Broccoli, fiert cup 2.8 26
Prin capacitatea de a reine apa i prin volumul propriu, glucidele nedigerabile cresc
volumul bolului fecal.
Accentueaz peristaltismul pe dou ci: mecanic (volum mare) i chimic (se produce
iritaia pereilor intestinali datorit faptului ca apar produi de digestie bacterian intestinal
de tipul acizilor grai cu lan scurt).
Combat constipaia i complicaiile acesteia (diverticuloz, hemoroizi).
Au rol n profilaxia cancerului rectal prin favorizarea proliferrii florei de fermentaie i
prin scurtarea timpului de staionare a bolului fecal n intestinul terminal.
Au rol n profilaxia obezitii , dilueaz alimente scad densitatea caloric, prin:
accelerarea tranzitului;
scderea coeficientului de utilizare digestiv a tuturor principiilor nutritive, datorit
formrii de bariere fa de enzimele digestive.
Fibrele solubile rein mult ap (de 20-30 ori mai mult ca propria greutate), formeaz un
gel, cu rol antiseptic i antiinflamator care absoarbe toxine. Sunt utile n inflamaiile
intestinale specifice i nespecifice(!!sindromul de colon iritabil) [11].
Pot funciona ca schimbtoare de cationi, legnd calciu, fier, magneziu, etc.
Alte roluri:
reduc indexul glicemic al alimentelor (prin ncetinirea tranzitului i micorarea
impactului glicemic);
induc saietate;
diminueaz absorbia colesterolului alimentar i a celui recirculat (din bil i celulele
descuamate) n mod special fibrele solubile (guma guar) [12].
Not. Excesul de fibre:
cheleaz cationi utili (Ca, Fe, Mg), put\nd provoca la copil anemii, rahitism;
devine iritant pentru mucoasele digestive (colite), desi in timp tubul digestiv are
capacitatea de a se adapta.
32
Este indicat s se consume alimente cu un indice glicemic (IG) ct mai mic [14], astfel
valorile IG-ului sunt:
IG mare 70
IG mediu = 5669
IG mic 55
Avantajele alimentelor cu IG mic, sunt:
- ajut la scderea ponderal i la controlul greutii [15,16,17];
- cresc sensibilitatea la insulin [18,19];
- amelioreaz controlul diabetului [20];
- reduc riscul de boal cardiovascular [21];
- reduc nivelul colesterolului plasmatic (cresc HDL, scad LDL) [22, 23, 24, 25, 26];
- reduc apetitul i induc saietate [27];
- amelioreaz efortul fizic de anduran [28];
Reducerea consumului alimentelor cu IG mare se face prin (29):
utilizarea de cereale integrale (inclusiv ca cereale pentru micul dejun);
reducerea raiei de cartofi;
creterea raiei de legume si fructe cu IG mic (consumate ndeosebi sub form de
salate);
utilizarea de orez puin rafinat (basmanti);
IG este influenat i de tratamentul termic : tratamentul prelungit IG crete, deci
alimentele amidonoase nu trebuie tratate termic exagerat;
consumul de paste din cereale mai puin rafinate (pastele din gru bogat n amiloz au
IG mai mic);
(Atenie! cu ct coninutul de amilopectin al unei cereale este mai mare, cu att i IG va
fi mai mare).
n tabelul 4.3 este prezentat procentual indexul glicemic al unor alimente [14].
138 glucoza
126 mierea
100% glucoz 100% pine alb
60-69% pine alb, banane, muesli, biscuii, patiserie 60-69% paste, suc de portocale
n tabelul 4.4 este prezentat necesarul de fibre n funcie de grupa de vrst i sex [30].
Copii
1-3 1,404 19
ani
4-8 1,789 25
33
Baiei i brbai
9-13 2,265 31
14-18 2,840 38
19-30 2,818 38
ani
31-50 2,554 38
51-70 2,162 30
70+ 1,821 30
Fete i femei
9-13 1,910 26
14-18 1,901 26
19-30 1,791 25
ani
31-50 1,694 25
51-70 1,536 21
70+ 1,381 21
Bibliografie selectiva
1. Neniescu, C., D., Chimie organic. Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1980, Vol II, p. 209-262
2. Ophart C. Virtual Chembook, Carbohydrates, disp. la :
http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/540carbohydrates.html
3. Asp NG. Resistant starch. Proceedings from the second plenary meeting of EURESTA: European FLAIR
Concerted Action No. 11 on physiological implications of the consumption of resistant starch in man.
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1992;46 (Suppl 2):S1 .
4. Poppitt SD, Prentice AM Energy density ant its role in the control of food intake:evidence from metabolic ant
comunnity studies, Appetite, 1996; 26:153-174
5. Graur M. Obezitatea, Iasi, Junimea,2004: 23,151
6. Wolever et al. Measuring the glycemic index of foods: interlaboratory study
Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008;87:247S-257S
7. Marshall W,. Bangert S. K .Clinical Chemistry, Elsevier Health Sciences, 2004,p. 151-180
8. Trends in Dietary Carbohydrates Research , M. V. Landow (Editor) Nova Science Publishers Inc, 2006,
p.150-232
9. Wardlaw G, Smith A. Contemporary Nutrition: Issues and Insights, St.Louis. McGraw-Hill College, 2004, p.
150-182
10. Spiller G. CRC Handbook of Dietary Fiber in Human Nutrition CRC Press, 2001: 133-321
11. Barclay L , Lie D Irritable Bowel Syndrome May Respond to Fiber, Peppermint Oil, Antispasmodics disp. La
http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/583595
12. Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Axelsen M, Augustin LS, Vuksan V. Viscous and nonviscous fibres, nonabsorbable and
low glycaemic index carbohydrates, blood lipids and coronary heart disease. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2000;11:49-
56
13. http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.htm?modecode=12354500
14. Glycemic Index and GI database , disp la http://www.glycemicindex.com/
15. Simin Liu Lowering Dietary Glycemic Load for Weight Control and Cardiovascular Health: A Matter of
Quality.Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(14):1438-1439.
16. Brand-Miller JC, Holt SH, Pawlak DB, McMillan J. Glycemic index and obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76:281S-
285S
17. McMillan-Price J et al. Comparison of 4 Diets of Varying Glycemic Load on Weight Loss and Cardiovascular
Risk Reduction in Overweight and Obese Young Adults A Randomized Controlled Trial Arch Intern
Med. 2006;166:1466-1475.
18. Cornier MA, Donahoo WT, Pereira R, et al. Insulin sensitivity determines the effectiveness of dietary
macronutrient composition on weight loss in obese women. Obes Res. 2005;13:703-709.
19. McKeown NM, Meigs JB, Liu S, Saltzman E, Wilson PW, Jacques PF. Carbohydrate nutrition, insulin resistance,
and the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in the Framingham offspring cohort. Diabetes Care. 2004:34-
45
20. Riccardi et al.Role of glycemic index and glycemic load in the healthy state, in prediabetes, and in diabetes, Am. J.
Clin. Nutr. 2008;87:269S-274S
21. Clifton P . Glycemic Load and Cardiovascular Risk, Arch Intern Med. 2007;167(2):206.
22. Sloth B, Krog-Mikkelsen I, Flint A, et al. No difference in body weight decrease between a low-glycemic-index and
a high-glycemic-index diet but reduced LDL cholesterol after 10-wk ad libitum intake of the low-glycemic-
index diet. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80:337-347.
34
23. Ebbeling CB, Leidig MM, Sinclair KB, Seger-Shippee LG, Feldman HA, Ludwig DS. Effects of an ad libitum
reduced glycemic load diet on cardiovascular disease risk factors in obese young adults. Am J Clin Nutr.
2005;81:976-982.
24. Hu F. Protein, body weight and cardiovascular health. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82(suppl):242S-247S.
25. Ford ES, Liu S. Glycemic index and serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration among us adults.
Arch Intern Med. 2001;161(4):572-576.
26. Liu S, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, et al. Dietary glycemic load assessed by food-frequency questionnaire in relation
to plasma high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol and fasting plasma triacylglycerols in postmenopausal women.
Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;73(3):560-566.
27. Ebbeling et al.Effects of a Low-Glycemic Load vs Low-Fat Diet in Obese Young Adults: A Randomized Trial.JAMA
2007;297:2092-2102.
28. McArdle W, Katch F, Katch V. Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition, and Human Performance Published by
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007, p.104
29. Brand-Miller J, Foster-Powell K, Sandall P Low GI Eating - Made Easy, Marlowe & Company; 2005, p.35-43
30. Institute of Medicine, W DC Dietary Refererence Intake for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty
Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine of the
Medicine of The National Academies, The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., 2005
5. NECESARUL DE LIPIDE
Lipide simple. Lipidele simple reprezint 98% din lipidele alimentare. Constituie mai mult
de 90% din grsimea corporal total.
Sunt reprezentate de esteri ai acizilor grai cu glicerolul, denumii trigliceride (grsimi
neutre). Acestea pot fi:
simple = cei 3 acizi grasi sunt asemntori
compuse = cel puin 2 din acizi grasi sunt diferii
Lipide complexe sunt lipide care, alturi de acizi grai i glicerol (sau un alt alcool, de ex.,
sfingozina), conin i ali componeni (N, acid fosforic, etc)
Exemple de lipide complexe:
lecitina- conine glicolipide, trigliceride i fosfolipide;
cefalina (fosfatidiletanolamina);
sfingomielina (din clasa sfingolipidelor);
35
cerebrozide i gangliozidele din clasa glicosfingolipide, i anume:
cerebrozidele (ex. mielina) conin alturi de ceramid o molecul de glucoz
sau galactoz; denumite glucocerebrozide, respectiv galactocerebrozide;
gangliozidele conin ceramid + acid sialic (acid acetil-neuraminic).
Derivaii lipidici sunt reprezentai de:
a) acizii grai (rar ntlnii ca atare, de regul se gsesc sub form de di-, tri- sau
monogliceride)
b) sterolii/steride (colesteroli/fitosteroli)
c) carotenoizii
d) vitaminele liposolubile
Din categoria sterolilor (steroid alcooli) fac parte: zoosteroli colesterol i fitosteroli.
Cteva caracteristici ale colesterolului:
are o molecul foarte rigid, stabil, foarte hidrofob;
surs exogen: din alimente
surs endogen: practic se poate sintetiza (din acetil CoA) n toate celulele, maximum
n ficat, epiteliu intestinal, cortex suprarenalian, esuturi de reproducere. Intensitatea
sintezei endogene este invers proporional cu aportul exogen.
Tabelul 5.1 Denumirile, structura i proprietile fizice ale unor acizi grai saturai
(SAFA)ce intr n componena lipidelor.
36
n tabelul 5.2 sunt prezentate denumirile, structura i proprietile fizice ale unor acizi
grai nesaturai ce intr n componena lipidelor. indica prezenta primei duble legaturi in
catena acidului gras, in raport cu prima grupare metil din catena.
Tabelul 5.2 Denumirile, structura i proprietile fizice ale unor acizi grai mono/poli
(MUFA, PUFA) nesaturai ce intr n componena lipidelor
Nume Structura chimic Abreviere
Palmitoleic CH3(CH2)5CH=CH-(CH2)7COOH -7 C16:1
Oleic CH3(CH2)7CH=CH-(CH2)7COOH -9 C18:1
Linoleic CH3(CH2)4CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH(CH2)7COOH -6 C18:2
Alfa- CH3CH2CH=CH-CH2 CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH(CH2)7COOH -3 C18:3
linolenic
Arachidonic CH3(CH2)4CH= CH-CH2-CH = CH-CH2-CH =CH-CH2- -6 C20:4
CH=CH(CH2)3COOH
Eicosapenta CH3CH2CH= CH-CH2-CH = CH-CH2-CH = CH-CH2-CH = CH-CH2- -3 C20:5
enoic (EPA) CH =CH(CH2)3COOH
Docosahexa CH3CH2CH= CH-CH2-CH = CH-CH2-CH = CH-CH2-CH = CH-CH2- -3 C22:6
enoic CH = CH-CH2-CH =CH(CH2)2COOH
(DHA)
Cu ct gradul de nesaturare al acizilor grai este mai mare, cu att molecula este mai
flexibil, mai puin hidrofob, ocup mai mult loc n spatiu i are punctul de topire mai sczut.
la catene scurte, saturarea nu mai conteaz i punctul de topire e sczut
digestibilitatea acizilor grai este legat de punctul de topire
Digestia lipidelor este un proces complex, care necesit aciunea diferitelor enzime, dup
cum urmeaz [4]:
37
Chilomicronii conin 90%TG, 5% PL, 3% CE i 1-2 % apoproteine. Au rol n transportul
AG ctre esuturi. Sunt catabolizati dupa fixarea de pereii vaselor, cnd sunt degradai sub
aciunea LPL tisulare astfel rezula:
AGL un procent de 80% sunt stocai n esutul adipos, iar 20% sunt oxidai n
muchi, miocard;
glicerol ajunge n ficat
PL, C, Proteine folositi pentru formarea de Pre-HDL
Remnanii(resturile) : sunt epurai de ficat.
2. Circuitul hepatopet
returul C excedentar de la esuturi (sau din celulele moarte), la ficat prin HDL ;
sinteza hepatic de pre-HDL (coaja de apoproteine i PL, coninut gol);
captare de C din esuturi i din peretele vascular HDL3;
HDL3- HDL2 prin pierderea CE n favoarea VLDL, IDL, LDL;
HDL2 la ficat hidrolizat C eliminat pe cale biliar direct sau dup transformarea n
acizi biliari.
Principale funcii ale lipidelor sunt: energetice, structurale i funcionale. n acest paragraf
sunt prezentate rolurile n organism ale acizilor grai eseniali i ale trigliceridelor.
38
sunt precursorii ai eicosanoizilor - prostaglandine, tromboxani, leucotriene - funcii n
[7,8,9]: - reglarea TA,
contracia muscular,
coagulare,
rspuns imun
inflamaie
secreii digestive, etc;
diferene minore n structura eicosanoizilor (spre ex. poziia primei duble legturi fa
de prima grupare CH2) pot avea consecine funcionale majore - Produii omega 3
scad coagulabilitatea, n timp ce produii omega 6 o cresc [10].
39
intr n structura membranelor , intervenind in semnalizarea celular
st la baza sintezei hormonilor steroizi (suprarenale, gonade), bilei i vitaminei D.
Necesarul cantitativ al lipidelor este de 20-35% din caloriile zilnice (0,7 1 mg/kg
corp/zi), iar cel calitativ este SAFA: MUFA: PUFA = 1:1:1.
n cazul acizilor grasi eseniali necesarul calitativ este omega 6: omega 3 = 5:1(3:1) [15].
Aportul recomandat pentru colesterol este de max 300 mg.
Sursele pentru grsimile ascunse sunt [11, 16]:
carnea gras, mezelurile (SAFA la mamifere, PUFA la pete): 25-40% grsimi
lactatele integrale (SAFA): 20-30% grsimi
galbenuul de ou (SAFA): 30-35% grsimi
fructele oleaginoase, semine (de floarea soarelui, dovleac, in, etc) (MUFA i PUFA) 40-
60% grsimi
dulciuriile
produse grase (semipreparate cu paste sau carne, mncruri gata de consum, snacksuri,
floricele, etc)
Sursele pentru grsimile comerciale, animale (au un mare procent de SAFA i colesterol)
sunt: - unt: 82% grsimi
- smntn: 20-30 %
- untur: 99%
- osnza
Sursele pentru grsimile comerciale, vegetale sunt:
uleiuri: floarea soarelui, soia, msline, ulei de rapi, ulei de in, ulei de smbure de
strugure: (MUFA i PUFA) - 99% grsimi,
ulei de palmier (SAFA) 99% grsimi,
grsime de cocos (SAFA) 99% grsimi,
margarina are un nivel de grsimi variabil.
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13. Simopoulos AP, Leaf A, Salem N. Workshop statement on the essentiality of and recommended dietary intakes for
Omega-6 and Omega-3 fatty acids. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2000;63(3):119-121
14. World Health Organization, Food And Agriculture Organization. Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation on Diet,
Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases. 2002. disp.la.
http://www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/who_fao_expert_report.pdf
15. Simopoulos A P. The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomed Pharmacother.,
2002; 56(8):365-79.
16. Zamora A. Fatty acid composition of some common edible fats and oils, disp. La:
http://www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/fattyacids1.html
6. NECESARUL DE VITAMINE
Vitaminele sunt compui organici necesari n cantitati reduse pentru buna desfurare a
activitilor n organism.
De regul acionez sub form de coenzime (legai de enzime, catalizeaz activitatea
acestora) sau ca transportori de grupri organice.
n ultimele decenii, alturi de vitaminele din diet, oamenii au avut posibilitatea s apeleze
i la suplimente.
Istoria vitaminelor este extrem de interesant. Dei izolate i descrise trziu, prezena i
efectele lor au fost intuite de foarte mult vreme, astfel [1]:
1900 uleiul de cod se folosea n rahitism, fiind activ datorit substanei antirahitice
A ?!
1934 Minot, Whipple, Murphy primesc premiul Nobel pentru izolarea B12 din ficat;
41
6.1 CLASIFICARE I CARACTERISTICI GENERALE
6.2 VITAMINA A
Vitamina A a fost descris pentru prima dat n anul 1913. Se gasete sub mai multe
forme, i anume [2]:
- sub form de retinoizi: retinol (alcool), retinal (aldehida) i acid retinoic;
- sub form de carotenoizi. Exist aproximativ 600 carotenoizi, dar numai 50 sunt
provitamine A, beta carotenul fiind cel mai puternic
Organismul stocheaz vitamina A n ficat.
a) au rol n meninerea vederii [3]. Aceast proprietate este cunoscut din antichitate.
Retinoizii au un rol central n ciclul vizual (adaptarea vederii la lumina slab). Carena se
numete hemeralopie.
42
b) au rol n diferenierea celular, n sinteza unor proteine (prin reglarea expresiei unor
gene) [4, 5]. Aceste roluri sunt dovedite de existena unor receptori nucleari, RAR i RXR, de
care se pot lega retinoizii.Prin activarea receptorilor:
se declaneaz efectuarea majoritii sarcinilor specifice vitaminei A n organism;
se influeneaz specializarea celulelor pentru roluri fiziologice foarte specifice;
se determin i implicarea retinoizilor n formarea i dezvoltarea unui produs de
concepie normal [6].
d) au rol n sntatea celulelor epiteliale [8, 9]. Retinoizii sunt responsabili de integritatea i
funcionalitatea acestor celule n caz de caren sunt afectate tegumentele, mucoasele
interne (de la nivelul aparatului respirator, digestiv, genito-urinar) i externe, corneea,
conjunctiv i se pot observa urmtoarele fenomene:
afectarea secretiei de mucus i lacrimi;
la nivel ocular: xeroftalmie, keratit, keratomalacie, plcile lui Bitot pe cornee, chiar
orbire (numai n carenele marcate, aa cum se pot semnala n unele ri subdezvoltate
unde aportul de vitamina A este problematic);
la nivel tegumentar: piele uscat, scuamoas, fisurat (piele de broasc rioas),
datorit excesului de keratina, a sebumului deficitar, fisurile reprezentnd pori de
intrare pentru germeni (infecii frecvente) [10];
la nivelul mucoaselor mucoase uscate, cu metaplazie keratinoas, ele devenind o
barier ineficient pentru agenii patogeni (apar des infecii multiloculare).
e) au rol n imunitate [11, 12]. Vitamina A este necesar n funcionarea sistemului imun
(vitamina antiinfecioas). Acest rol are mai multe explicaii:
pstrarea, sub aciunea vitaminei, a funciilor tegumentelor i mucoaselor de bariere
mpotriva germenilor;
rolul central al vitaminei n formarea i diferenierea seriei albe;
rolul n activarea limfocitelor T.
f) au rol n formarea hematiilor prin diferenierea celulelor stem n hematii [13] i prin
mobilizarea fierului din depozite i includerea sa n hemoglobin [14, 15].
43
unele leucemii (nc n studiu) i n prevenirea cancerului [20, 21, 22, 23].
Doza recomandat pentru brbai este 900 mcg (3000 UI), iar pentru femei 700 mcg (2300
UI).
Pe perioada sarcinii este recomandat un aport de vitamina A de 2500 UI, iar pe perioada
alptrii 4500 UI
Limita superioar tolerabil (pentru vrste mai mari de 19 ani) este de 3000 mcg (10 000
UI).
44
caise (96 g ) broccoli (31 g )
papaya (55 g 6%) mazre (38 g )
mango (38 g 4%) sfecl
6.2.3 Carotenoizi.
Carotenoizii sunt pigmeni oranj, galbeni, roii cu rol n fotosintez (terpene) i au aciune
antioxidanta. Provitaminele A sunt numai anumii carotenoizi (-caroten, -caroten i -
cryptoxantina),nu toate substanele din respectiva clas [28].
Carotenoizii necesit lipide ca vehicul iar absorbia lor este variabil. n intestin i ficat se
transform n retinal (procent invers proporional cu depozite din organism daca organismul
are suficienta vitamina A, rata de activare a carotenilor este redus) [29].
Excesul de carotenoizi nu determin intoxicaie pentru c [29]:
- rata de conversie n retinal este lent i regulat,
- dac aportul crete mult, absorbia intestinal de caroteni scade.
Efectul excesului consumului de caroteniozi este, eventual, carotenodermia (palmo-
plantar mai ales).
Din punct de vedere al activitii :
2 mcg caroten administrate n soluie uleioas = 1 mcg retinol = 2:1 raport de
activitate ca retinol (deci se observ activitate de dou ori mai slab a carotenului)
carotenii din alimente dau raporturi de activitate i mai slabe = 12:1 pentru beta
caroten, 24:1 pentru ali carotenoizi [27]
Nu exist doz recomandat de caroteni, dar ei asigur aproximativ 50% din raia zilnic
de vitamina A. Vegetarienii se pot baza pe caroteni pentru a evita carena.
45
6.3 VITAMINA D
46
- modularea imunitii - o stimuleaz [39] i inhib fenomenele de autoimunitate [40].
Alte roluri: rmn de fundamentat (protecie fa de cancer, hipertensiune arterial, diabet,
sindrom metabolic, dislipemii, cardiopatie ischemic, boli autoimune, afeciuni psihiatrice).
47
pete gras: pete pisic, somon (360 UI), macrou (345 UI), sardine (conserve ulei 250
UI), ton (conserve ulei 200 UI), ipar (200 UI),
icre de sturion: 232 UI,
crevete 172 UI,
ficat de pasre sau mamifere 12 UI,
ciuperci expuse 5 min la UV vit D2 2700 UI,
ou - 24 UI (la un galbenu - 148/100g),
brnzeturi grase,
unt (56 UI), smntn, margarin,
alimente fortificate
Cantitatea de vitamina D s-a exprimat per 100 g aliment.
n tabelul 6.1 sunt prezentate valorile dozelor recomandate (aport adecvat) de vitamin D
n funcie de sex i vrst. Se consider 1mcg = 40 UI [55].
Tabel 6.1 Dozele recomandate (aport adecvat) de vitamin D n funcie de sex i vrst
M F
Etapa Vrst
mcg/zi (UI/zi) mcg/zi(UI/zi)
sugar 0-6 luni 5 mcg (200 UI) 5 mcg (200 UI)
sugar 7-12 luni 5 mcg (200 UI) 5 mcg (200 UI)
copil 1-3 ani 5 mcg (200 UI) 5 mcg (200 UI)
copil 4-8 ani 5 mcg (200 UI) 5 mcg (200 UI)
copil 9-13 ani 5 mcg (200 UI) 5 mcg (200 UI)
Adolesceni 14-18 ani 5 mcg (200 UI) 5 mcg (200 UI)
Aduli 19-50 ani 5 mcg (200 UI) 5 mcg (200 UI)
Aduli 51-70 ani 10 mcg (400 UI) 10 mcg (400 UI)
Aduli 71 ani 15 mcg (600 UI) 15 mcg (600 UI)
Sarcin Indiferent - 5 mcg (200 UI)
Alptare Indiferent - 5 mcg (200 UI)
Intoxicaia cu vitamin D apare la doze de 100 ori mai mare dect doza recomandat/zi,
administrate pe perioade de cteva luni (sensibilitate crescut la persoanele cu
hiperparatiroidism primar, sarcoidoz, tuberculoz, limfoame) [49, 50, 51].
48
Nu este determinat niciodat prin hiperexpunere la soare sau prin consum de alimente
bogate n vitmin D.
Simptome intoxicaiei cu vitamin D sunt:
hipercalcemie (prin creterea absorbiei intestinale i a resorbiei osoase),
deshidratare,
vome,
anorexie,
iritabilitate,
astenie,
constipaie,
depunere ectopic de calciu n esuturile moi, n rinichi (litiaz),
leziuni arteriale i cardiace,
depuneri i lezri pulmonare, n tendoane, ligamente (impoten funcional).
6.4 VITAMINA E
49
- degenerescen macular [69],
- stimularea imunitii (mai ales la btrni) [70],
- diabet zaharat [71],
- demen [72].
Vitamina E se folosete i ca aditiv alimentar E 307(datorit aciunii antioxidante).
Tabelul 6.2. Valorile dozelor zilnice recomandate de vitamin E n funcie de sex i vrst
50
interferena metabolismului vitaminei K,
interaciune cu anticoagulantele
6.5 VITAMINA K
51
coagulare (intervin n sinteza protrombinei (factor II), factorilor VII, IX, X, proteinei C,
proteinei S i proteinei Z) [81];
metabolismul osului (osteocalcina i matrix-Gla proteina (MGP)) [82, 83];
biologia celulei: Gas6 = reglarea creterii celulare [84];
alte roluri de confirmat prin cercetri ulterioare vitamina K este protectoare fa de :
ateroscleroz [85, 86, 87],
osteoporoz [88-93].
Raia de vitamin K pentru brbai este de 120mcg, iar pentru femei 90mcg [94, 95].
Sursele alimentare pentru vitamina K1 (filochinon) sunt reprezentate de:
legume verzi: spanac, salat, brasicacee (varz, conopid, broccoli),
tr de gru, cereale,
fructe (banane, avocado, kiwi),
carne i organe (ficat),
ou,
unele brnzeturi,
produse de soia.
Carena vitaminei K nu apare la adultul normal pentru c pe de o parte vitamina este larg
rspndit n alimente, iar pe de alt parte este produs de bacteriile intestinale. De asemenea
ciclul su n organism este conservator.
Circumstanele favorizante carenei apar:
la nou nscut,
n administrarea de antibotice pe termen lung,
n malabsorbia lipidic sever.
Carena vitaminei K n organism determin hemoragii.
Intoxicaia cu vitamin K este exceptional i se manifest prin: anemie i icter.
Include urmtoarele vitamine: B1, B2, B6, B12, acid folic (B9), acid pantotenic (B5), biotina
(B7, H) i niacina (PP, B3).
6.6.1 Vitamina B1
(tiamina sau aneurina)
52
Se distruge la pH neutru sau alcalin i la iradiere.
2. Forme. Organismul uman nu poate sintetiza tiamin, dar poate transforma tiamina n
fosfaii i pirofosfaii ei.
Formele fosforilate ale tiaminei n organism sunt:
tiamin monofosfat,
tiamin difosfat (tiaminpirofosfat TPP),
tiamin trifosfat,
adenozin tiamin trifosfat (recent).
3. Funciile vitaminei B1. Vitamina B1 este o coenzim pentru numeroase enzime, astfel:
TPP este coenzim pentru cteva enzime mitocondriale foarte importante [97]:
- piruvat dehidrogenaza,
- ketoglutarat dehidrogenaza,
- cetoacid dehidrogenaza, (BCKA);
Acioneaz prin decarboxilri determinnd producerea de energie din alimente
aceste enzime necesit i NAD, FAD, acid lipoic.
TPP este coenzim i pentru transcetolaza. Astfel, intervine n calea pentozelor,
rezultnd intermediari necesari n sinteza ATP, GTP, ADN, ARN, NADPH [98];
Deci vitamina B1 are rol n:
eliberarea energiei din glucide i lipide;
cretere i dezvoltare;
funcionarea corect a sistemelor: digestiv, nervos i cardiovascular.
Se pare c intervine n profilaxia i tratamentul unor afeciuni (aceste afirmaii ramn de
fundamentat prin studii ulterioare):
- cataracta [99],
- boala Alzheimer [100],
- cancer [101]
- insuficiena cardiac congestiv [102, 103].
4. Carena vitaminei B1 este o maladie cunoscut sub denumirea beri-beri [104]. A fost
descris nc din 2600 i.e.n. n China. Maladia afecteaz sistemele: cardio-vascular, nervos,
digestiv i muscular.
Exist 3 forme de manifestare a carenei:
4.1. B. Beri-beri nervos (uscat), care urmeaz unei carene instalate cronic. Se manifest
n principal prin:
- neuropatie periferic;
- arsuri n extremiti ("burning feet syndrome) (apar precoce);
- reflexe exagerate;
- hiposensibilitate i slbiciune la nivelul membrelor;
- mialgii, sensibilitate muscular crescut;
- grav: atrofii musculare, pareze, paralizii;
- convulsii.
4.2. B. Beri-beri cardiac (umed - edeme), care urmeaz unei carene instalate acut. Se
manifest n principal prin insuficien cardiac congestiv;
53
4.3. B. Beri-beri cerebral [105], pare a fi cauza unor forme de:
- encefalopatie Wernicke;
- psihoz Korsakoff;
- cauza probabil: stresul oxidativ crescut n absena vitaminei B1, n anumite arii
cerebrale;
- la pacienii alcoolici sau cu afectiuni grave care determina malnutriie (cancer
gastric, SIDA).
5. Raia vitaminei B1 este de 1,2 mg/zi pentru brbai, iar pentru femei 1,1 mg/zi [113].
6.6.2 Vitamina B2
(Riboflavin culoare galben)
1. Sensibilitatea. Vitamina B2 are o hidrosolubilitate mai redus dect a vitaminei B1. Este
fotosensibil (1 or la lumin 50% distrus).
54
3. Funciile vitaminei B2 sunt:
5. Raia vitaminei B2 este de 1,3 mg/zi pentru brbai, iar pentru femei 1,1 mg/zi [122].
55
6.6.3 Vitamina B6
(piridoxina)
Se poate utiliza pentru tratamentul i profilaxia unor afeciuni (aceste aspecte rmn de
confirmat prin studii ulterioare):
boli cardio-vasculare (metabolismul homocisteinei) [127];
ameliorarea funciilor cognitive [128];
profilxia efectelor colaterale ale contraceptivelor orale [129, 130];
sindromul pre-menstrual [131];
depresie [132];
disgravidie de prim trimestru [133].
3. Carena izolat a vitaminei B6 este excepional. Apare cnd vitamina este complexat de:
izoniazida, antiparkinsoniene, penicilamina.
Factorii favorizani ai apariiei carenei sunt:
alcoolismul,
alimentaia greit la sugari (carena poate determina convulsii,modificri EEG).
Se manifest prin: iritabilitate i modificri cutanate.
56
6. Toxicitatea vitaminei B6 apare numai datorit suplimentrii. Determin neuropatie
senzorial.
Doza maxim care evit efectele toxice(doza maxim tolerabil): 100 mg/zi [134].
1. Sensibilitatea vitaminei. Vitamina PP este cea mai rezistent vitamin din grupul B.
2. Forme [9]
Niacina nicotinamida utilizat n sinteza celor 2 coenzime niacinice:
NAD
NADP
NAD se sintetizeaz n ficat i din triptofan (cu ajutorul B2, B6, Fe). Abilitatea de
sintez este diferit n funcie de specie. La om, din 60 mg triptofan se sintetizeaz 1
mg niacin.
reacii non-redox [135]. NAD este substrat pentru diferite enzime (are rol n
prevenirea cancerului?!) care intervin n :
semnalizarea intercelular [136],
repararea ADN,
reglarea apoptozei,
diferenierea celular.
Se poate utiliza pentru tratamentul i profilaxia unor afeciuni (aceste aspecte rmn de
confirmat prin studii ulterioare):
cancer [137],
diabet insulinodependent [138],
boli cardiovasculare, hipercolesterolemie [139, 140, 141],
SIDA [142,143].
4. Carena vitaminei PP este cunoscut sub denumirea de pelagr (boala celor 3D). Este o
malnutriie complex, care nu se refer exclusiv la carena de niacina, ci i la lipsa proteinelor
de calitate superioar i a altor vitamine din grupul B [144, 145, 146].
Factorii favorizani apariiei carenei sunt:
consumul de porumb, sorg,
srcia,
alcoolismul,
malabsorbiile,
administrarea unor medicamente (izoniazida).
57
Manifestrile pelagrei sunt: dermatologice (modificri tegumentare pe zonele expuse la
soare, glosita), digestive i neuro-psihice.
Pelagra subclinic prezint manifestri discrete.
5. Raia vitaminei PP este de 16 mg/zi pentru brbai, iar pentru femei 14 mg/zi [122].
1. Structura [147]. Vitamina B12 este cea mai complex vitamin. Conine n structura sa
ionul de cobalt, motiv pentru care compui cu activitate de B12.sunt numii cobalamine .
n corpul uman sunt folosite: metilcobalamina & 5-deoxiadenosil-cobalamina
Cianocobalamina (din suplimente) este convertit n cei 2 compui n organismul uman.
2. Absorbia vitaminei B12 este un proces complex [148]. Necesit funcionarea normal a
stomacului, pancreasului i intestinului subire.
Sub aciunea aciditii i a enzimelor gastrice, B12 este eliberat din alimente.
Vitamina se leaga de proteinele R. n mediul alcalin al intestinului subire, proteinele R
sunt degradate de enzimele pancreatice.
Apoi B12 se leag de Factorul Intrinsec secretat de mucoasa gastric.
n prezena Ca-ului asigurat de pancreas, complexul FI-vitamin este legat de receptorii
din intestinul subtire i are loc absorbia.
Un procent de 1% este absorbit prin difuzie.
3. Funciile vitaminei B12 [149]. La mamifere, cobalamina este cofactor pentru doar 2
enzime: methionin-sintetaza i L-methylmalonyl-CoA mutaza.
Se poate utiliza pentru tratamentul i profilaxia unor afeciuni (aceste aspecte rmn de
confirmat prin studii ulterioare):
- boli cardiovasculare [150],
- cancer (n special cancer mamar) [151, 152, 153],
58
- defecte de tub neural [154],
- demen [155, 156, 157],
- depresie [158].
4. Deficiena vitaminei B12 se ntlnete la 10-15% din persoanele cu vrsta de peste 60 ani
[159].
Factorii favorizani apariiei carenei sunt [160]:
1) anemia pernicioas afeciune autoimun;
2) malabsorbia vitaminei alimentare datorat:
gastritei atrofice, frecvent la btrni,
rezeciilor,
sindroamelor malabsorbtive,
insuficienei pancreatice,
alcoolismului,
SIDA
3) aportul insuficient: vegetarianismul.
6. Sursele alimentare pentru vitamina B12 sunt reprezentate NUMAI de alimentele de origine
animal sau de produsele fortificare.
Vegetarienii au nevoie de suplimente sau produse fortificate.
1. Forme. Acidul folic este o form stabil i se gsete rar ca atare n organism sau alimente.
Forma natural a acidului este reprezentat de folai. Doar n alimentele fortificate i
suplimente se gsete sub forma de acid folic.
Se poate utiliza pentru tratamentul i profilaxia unor afeciuni (aceste aspecte rmn de
confirmat prin studii ulterioare):
- complicaii n graviditate: defecte de tub neural (spina bifid, anencefalie),
preeclampsie, etc [164, 165, 166],
- boli cardio-vasculare [167, 168, 169],
- cancer (n special cel colo-rectal i cel de sn) [170-177],
- demen [178].
59
Factorii favorizani apariiei carenei sunt:
insuficiena alimentar,
alcoolismul,
necesarul crescut (prin creterea ratei diviziunilor celulare i a metabolismului) n
caz de: sarcin, cancer,
administrarea unor medicamente (antifolice).
Manifestrile carenei sunt sunt consecina suferinei esuturilor cu turnover rapid (maduva
hematoformatoare, epiteliul digestiv).
4. Raia acidului folic este de 400 mcg/zi, iar pe parioada sarcinii la femei 600 mcg/zi [180].
6.7 VITAMINA C
(L-ascorbat)
Descoperirea i separarea vitaminei C a fost realizat pentru prima oar n 1933 de echipa
de cercettori compus din Joseph L. Svirbely i Albert Szent-Gyorgyi (ultimul lund premiul
Nobel pentru fiziologie i medicin) i, independent, de americanul Charles Glen King;
n perioada 1933 1934, chimitii britanici Sir Walter Norman Haworth (a primit premiul
Nobel pentru chimie n 1937) i Sir Edmund Hirst i, independent, polonezul Tadeus
Reichstein, au reuit s sintetizeze vitamina, ea fiind prima substan de acest gen creat
articifial;
Forma sintetic a vitaminei C este identic cu cea natural (se obtine tot din glucoz).
60
este termolabil (190oC). Se distruge prin prjire, coacere, etc;
este oxidabila (proces catalizat de ionii metalici) n prezena O2, UV, ascorbic-
oxidaza;
este inactivat n mediu alcalin (rezist n mediu acid).
n figura 6.1 sunt prezentate structural cele dou forme, redus i oxidat, ale vitaminei C.
Figura 6.1 Structura formei reduse (acidul ascorbic) i oxidate (acidul dehidroascorbic) ale
vitaminei C
61
5. Carena vitaminei C se numeste hipoascorbinemie(faza preclinica), scorbut(forma clinic
manifesta).
Datele studiului NHANES III au scos n eviden c n SUA un numr de 15.769 persoane
(copiii i aduli de 12-74 de ani: 14% din brbai i 10% din femei) au prezentat deficit de
vitamina C. n Europa 12% din brbai i 5% din femei au prezentat deficit de vitamina C in
cadrul unui studiu recent.
Cele mai multe persoane deficitare sunt cele de peste 65 de ani (15% din femei i 20% din
brbai).
De asemenea, trebuie menionat c vrsta la care apare deficitul de vitamina C are dou
maxime [185, 186]:
- copiii de 6-12 luni cu o diet carentat n legume i fructe,
i
- vrsta a treia, cnd se consum frecvent o diet de tip "ceai i pine prjit".
62
persoane cu tulburri de comportament alimentar (bulimie, anorexie nervoas),
pacieni neoplazici sau cu SIDA,
persoane cu afeciuni febrile cronice (TBC),
pacieni cu diabet de tip 1,
cei supui la hemodializ sau dializ peritoneal,
persoane cu afeciuni enterale unde absorbia normal a vitaminei este interferat
(boala Crohn, Whipple, celiachie) etc.
- la nivelul toracelui. La copii apar matanii costale. n cazurile grave de scorbut - insuficiena
cardiac i hemopericard.
- la nivelul extremitilor. Apar fracturi, luxaii i, mai ales la copii, sensibilitate osoas.
Pot fi prezente hemartroze i hematoame n masele musculare. Tardiv pot aprea edeme.
Tabel 6.3 Recomandrile United States' National Academy of Sciences pentru necesarul de
vitamin C
Aduli - brbai 90 mg/zi
63
Nivel max tolerabil (adult femei) 2,000 mg/zi
9. Sursele alimentare pentru vitamina C sunt reprezentate n tabelul 6.4 [54]. Este de reinut
c 5 porii de legume/fructe/zi aduc un aport mediu de aproximativ 200 mg vitamin C.
Bibliografie selectiva
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2. Groff JL. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism. 2nd ed. St Paul: West Publishing; 1995.
3. Ross AC. Vitamin A and retinoids. In: Shils M, ed. Nutrition in Health and Disease. 9th ed. Baltimore: Williams &
Wilkins; 1999:305-327.
64
4. Semba RD. The role of vitamin A and related retinoids in immune funcion. Nutr Rev. 1998;56(1 Pt 2):S38-48.
5. Valcrcel, R et al. Retinoid-dependent in vitro transcription mediated by the RXR/RAR heterodimer. Genes &
Dev. 1994. 8: 3068-3079
6. Semba RD. Impact of vitamin A on immunity and infection in developing countries. In: Bendich A, Decklebaum RJ,
eds. Preventive Nutrition: The Comprehensive Guide for Health Professionals. 2nd ed. Totowa: Humana Press Inc;
2001:329-346.
7. Solomons NW. Vitamin A and carotenoids. In: Bowman BA, Russell RM, eds. Present Knowledge in Nutrition. 8th
ed. Washington D.C.: ILSI Press; 2001:127-145.
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7. ELEMENTELE MINERALE.
Acidul fitic din cereale i acidul oxalic din legume leag mineralele.
Dac aportul fibrelor este mare (peste 20-35g/zi), acestea diminueaz biodisponibilitatea
mineralelor. ns gastrotehnia joac un rol important n ameliorarea acestor aspecte [1].
Spre ex.: n aluatul preparat cu drojdie legtur mineral/acid fitic este desfacut. In
consecinta, carentele minerale apar la populaiile care nu folosesc aluaturi dospite (ex. Zn) si
nu apar la cele care dospesc aluaturile.
71
7.1.2 Interaciunea mineral - mineral
7.3 MACROELEMENTE
7.3.1 Sodiul
72
afeciunile renale.
Semnele deficienei sunt date de semnele de deshidratare, care evolueaz rapid n formele
grave ctre coma i exit [10].
Raia de sodiu este de 1, 5g/zi (respectiv 3, 8 g /zi de sare de buctrie) [10]. Alimentaia
mixt, divers, aduce suficient sodiu, datorit coninutului natural al alimentelor n acest
nutrient.
Excesul de sodiu crete riscul de HTA [12-17].
7.3.2 Potasiul
7.3.3 Calciul
73
aciune simpaticomimetic - excesul oprete cordul n sistol,
contracia fibrei musculare,
permeabilitatea membranelor,
activarea factorului intrinsec;
7.3.4 Fosforul
74
alimentele de origine animal i sczut n cele de origine vegetal, unde se gsete mai ales
sub form de fitat (acid inozitolhexafosforic) [33].
Necesarul de fosfor este de 700 mg/zi [33].
7.3.5 Magneziul
Diabetul. Legtura dintre diabet i deficiena de magneziu este bine documentat [45, 46, 47].
Consumat n cantiti adecvate, magneziu pare s poate amna instalarea diabetului de tip
2 i a complicaiilor sale importante (boala cardiovascular, retinopatie, nefropatie).
Sensibilitatea la insulin ca i secreia acesteia sunt ameliorate de suplimentele de Mg.
Hipomagneziemia poate agrava rezistena la insulin.
De asemenea rinichii i diminueaz capacitatea de a reine magneziul n decursul
periodelor de hiperglicemie sever, ceea ce crete automat nivelul eliminrilor acestuia n
urin.
Carena de magneziu [36]. Multe studii indic la populaiile din rile dezvoltate un aport
diminuat de magneziu (NU insa carene serioase).
Circumstanele carenei sunt:
consumul de medicamente care induc o depleie de magneziu, cum ar fi:
diureticele (Lasix, Edecrin, etc), gentamicina, amfoterecina, cisplatin;
75
diabetul necontrolat care induce pierderi de magneziu n urin, consecutiv
hiperglicemiei;
alcoolismul;
malabsorbiile diverse, cnd se poate pierde magneziu datorit diareii i a
steatoreii (boala Crohn, enteropatie glutenic, enterit regional, intestin operat);
hipopotasemia i hipocalcemia cronice (pot fi conectate cu deficiena de
magneziu). Suplimentele de magneziu pot corecta i problemele legate de K i Ca;
La adulii vrstnici (au un risc crescut de deficien de magneziu) apare aportul
alimentar mai redus, absorbia este diminuat i excreia renal crescut. n plus,
la vrstnici exist mai frecvent conditii de administrare a medicamentelor care
interacioneaz cu metabolismul normal al magneziului.
Simptomele deficitului de magneziu se pot clasifica n 3 categorii:
1. precoce - iritabilitatea, anorexia, astenia, insomnia, spasmele musculare, memoria
deficitar, apatia, confuzia i scderea capacitii de a nva;
2. deficitului moderat - tahicardie i alte modificri cardio-vasculare;
3. deficitul grav - tremurturi, ameeal i confuzie, convulsii, halucinaii i delir.
7.4 FIERUL
Aa cum s-a menionat n introducerea acestui capitol, fierul face trecerea ntre
macroelemente i microelemente.
Fierul este un component important a sute de proteine i enzime [49, 50].
ndeplinete n organism diverse funcii, i anume:
transportul i depozitarea pe termen scurt a oxigenului (fer heminic n mio-i
hemoglobina),
transportul de electroni (la nivelul mitocondriei) i metabolismul energetic (compui
cu hemcitocromii, compui non-heminici - NADH dehodrogenaza,
succinildehidrogenaza),
antioxidant (catalaza, peroxidaza enzime heminice),
reacii pro-oxidative cu efect pozitiv (mieloperoxidaza enzima heminic
producerea de specii reactive de oxigen n neutrofile, n scopul distrugerii germenilor
patogeni),
rspunsul fiziologic la hipoxie [51, 52],
sinteza ADN (prin intermediul ribonucleotid-reductazei), are rol n cretere,
reproducie, procese reparatorii, imunitate [49, 50].
76
femei n perioada fertil,
btrni,
persoane cu parazitoze,
persoane cu diferite sindroame de malabsorbie (celiachia),
persoane cu resurse materiale insuficiente,
vegetarieni [55].
Necesarul de fier este de 8 mg/zi pentru brbai i 18 mg/zi pentru femei [2].
Surse alimentare pentru fier sunt n special: carnea, galbenusul de ou, legumele i
produsele fortificate. n trele cerealelor exist cantiti mici de fier care se pierd prin
rafinare.
7.5 MICROELEMENTE
7.5.1 Cuprul
Cuprul primete i doneaz cu uurin electroni de aceea este implicat n reacii redox i
n eliminarea radicalilor liberi.
Are diverse roluri:
intervine n metabolismul Fe, crescndu-i absorbia i implicarea n sinteza hemoglobinei
(prin intermediul feroxidazelor I i II) [55, 56],
este cofactor pentru multe enzime cuproenzime, implicndu-se astfel n foarte multe
procese fiziologice, i anume:
producerea de energie (citocrom-c-oxidaza) [57],
formarea esutului conjunctiv [58],
sinteza i metabolismul unor neurotransmitori (prin intermediul MAO i al
dopamin- b-monooxigenazei) norepinefrina, epinefrina i dopamina [59, 60],
sinteza i ntreinerea mielinei [58],
funcii antioxidante prin intermediul unor forme de SOD [60] i a ceruloplasminei
[61],
77
reglarea expresiei unor gene prin intermediul unor factori de transcripie
dependeni de cupru,
influenarea sintezei unor proteine (SOD, CAT, proteine legate de depozitarea
cuprului) [57].
Carena de cupru induce anemie, leucopenie, ncetinirea creterii [57]. Grupele supuse la
risc sunt: persoanele malnutrite, cei care au un aport exagerat de zinc, cei cu malabsorbii
[62].
Necesarul de cupru este de 900 mcg/zi [62].
Sursele alimentare de cupru sunt reprezentate de: ficat, cacao, leguminoase, cereale
integrale, fructe uscate i nuci [48].
Excesul de cupru induce manifestari toxice: vome (toxicitate acuta), afectare nervoas,
afectare hepatic [62,63].
7.5.2 Zincul
rol catalitic.Este cofactor al peste 100 enzime implicate n [3, 64]: cretere, imunitate,
funcionarea sistemului nervos, dezvoltarea sexual i reproducere;
rol structural. Intr n structura proteinelor (ex. n strucutra Cu/Zn SOD) [3, 65] i a
membranelor celulare [66];
rol reglator
o prin intermediul proteinelor ce conin zinc - reglarea expresiei genelor,
acionnd ca factori de transcripie,
o prin semnalizarea intercelular (eliberare de hormoni i transmiterea
influxului nervos),
o prin influenarea apoptozei celulare [67].
78
Dospirea cerealelor presupune activarea fitazelor, de aceea consumul de produse obinute
din cereale integrale tratate n acest fel ofer mai mult zinc dect dac ar fi consumate produse
din cereale integrale nedospite.
Sursele alimentare de zinc sunt n special: carnea, fructele de mare i legumele-frunze.
Necesarul de zinc este de 13 mg/zi pentru brbai i 9 mg/zi pentru femei necesar [3].
Toxicitatea zincului se manifest prin: scderea absorbiei Fe, Cu, a imunitii, crampe,
diaree [65].
7.5.3 Seleniul
79
Grupele expuse la risc sunt reprezentate de persoanele cu solicitri metabolice mari
(sportivi, convalesceni, sarcin, copilrie).
Sursele alimentare sunt: sarea iodat [93] , petii de ap srat i lactatele.
Excesul de iod conduce la inhibarea funciei de sintez a hormonilor tiroidieni.
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83
CUPRINS
2. NECESITILE ENERGETICE.....................................................................................11
(Corina Zugravu)
2.1 METABOLISMUL BAZAL.11
2.2 TERMOGENEZA.13
2.2.1 Termogeneza indus de alimente.13
2.2.2 Termogeneza termoreglatorie .14
2.3 ACTIVITATEA FIZIC..............................................................................................14
2.4 CONSUMUL ENERGETIC SECUNDAR
SARCINII I ALPTRII .....17
2.5 METABOLISMUL ORGANISMULUI BOLNAV ....................................................17
2.6 DEZECHILIBRE DE APORT ENERGETIC..17
2.6.1 Subalimentaia caloric ...18
2.6.2 Supraalimentaia caloric supraponderalitate, obezitate ..19
Bibliografie selectiva............................................................................................................... 19
3. NECESARUL DE PROTEINE..........................................................................................21
(Corina Zugravu)
3.1 AMINOACIZII (aa) ....21
3.2 PROTEINE..22
3.2.1 Clasificarea proteinelor..22
3.2.2 Evaluarea calitii proteinelor indicatori.23
3.2.3 Balana proteinelor (azotat) n organism ..24
3.2.4 Rolul proteinelor n organism ............................................................................24
3.2.5 Surse de proteine ...25
3.2.6 Necesarul de proteine.25
Bibliografie selectiva.... 26
4. NECESARUL DE GLUCIDE....28
(Corina Zugravu)
4.1. CLASIFICAREA GLUCIDELOR..............................................................................28
4.2. TERMENI. DEFINIII29
4.3 DIGESTIA GLUCIDELOR .29
4.4 ROLURILE GLUCIDELOR........................................................................................30
4.4.1 Rolurile glucidelor digerabile ..............................................................................30
4.4.2 Rolurile glucidelor nedigerabile...........................................................................31
84
4.5 NECESARUL DE GLUCIDE......................................................................................32
Bibliografie selectiva..........................................................................................................34
5. NECESARUL DE LIPIDE.....35
(Corina Zugravu)
5.1 CLASIFICAREA LIPIDELOR ...................................................................................35
5.2 DIGESTIA LIPIDELOR...............................................................................................37
5.3 FUNCIILE LIPIDELOR N ORGANISM.....38
5.3.1 Funciile aciziilor grai eseniali..........................................................................38
5.3.2 Funciile trigliceridelor ....39
5.3.3. Funciile ale altor lipide.. 39
5.4 NECESARUL DE
LIPIDE..39
Bibliografie selectiva................................................................................................................40
6. NECESARUL DE VITAMINE..........................................................................................41
(Corina Zugravu)
6.1 CLASIFICARE I CARACTERISTICI GENERALE..42
6.2 VITAMINA A 42
6.2.1. Rolurile retinoizilor. Doze recomandate.............................................................42
6.2.2 Surse alimentare de vitamina A...........................................................................44
6.2.3 Carotenoizi. .....................................................................................45
6.2.4 Carena de vitamina A..........................................................................................45
6.3 VITAMINA D.46
6.3.1 Sinteza vitaminei D..46
6.3.2 Rolurile Vitaminei D............................................................................................47
6.3.3 Carena vitaminei D.............................................................................................47
6.3.4 Surse alimentare de vitaminei D .....47
6.3.5 Dozele recomandate de vitamin D..48
6.4 VITAMINA E49
6.4.1 Rolurile vitaminei E49
6.4.2 Carena vitaminei E.50
6.4.3 Dozele recomandate de vitamin E.....................................................................50
6.4.4 Surse alimentare de vitamin E...51
6.5 VITAMINA K..51
6.5.1 Rolurile vitaminei K.51
6.5.2. Raia i sursele alimentare ale vitaminei K.52
6.5.3 Carena i intoxicaia cu vitamin K.52
6.6. COMPLEXUL VITAMINIC B..52
6.6.1 Vitamina B1 (tiamina sau aneurina)...52
6.6.2 Vitamina B2 (Riboflavin culoare galben).54
6.6.3 Vitamina B6 (piridoxina).56
6.6.4 Vitamina PP (B3) (niacina).................................................................................57
6.6.5 Vitamina B12 (Ciancobalamina)..58
6.6.6 Acidul folic...59
6.7 VITAMINA C (L-ascorbat).60
Bibliografie selectiva.64
7. ELEMENTELE MINERALE...........................................................................................71
(Gabriela Cilinc)
85
7.1. BIODISPONIBILITATEA MINERALELOR ...71
7.1.1 Interaciunea fibre-minerale ....71
7.1.2 Interaciunea mineral - mineral ......72
7.1.3 Interactiunea mineral-vitamina ...72
7.2. TOXICITATEA MINERALELOR72
7.3 MACROELEMENTE..72
7.3.1 Sodiul......72
7.3.2 Potasiul .......73
7.3.3 Calciul.....73
7.3.4 Fosforul...74
7.3.5 Magneziul...75
7.4 FIERUL...76
7.5 MICROELEMENTE..77
7.5.1 Cuprul.77
7.5.2 Zincul..78
7.5.3 Seleniul ..79
7.5.4 Iodul ...79
7.5.5 Alte microelemente.80
Bibliografie selectiv....80
Cuprins84
86